.!■•. ■/.^y The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023624491 Cornell University Library QE 289.P98 Geological researches in Cliipaj.MoXii'in 3 1924 023 624 491 ......i WASON 0mttf)0onian Contribittione to Inooilcbgc. 202 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES CHINA, MONGOLIA/AND JAPAN, DURING THE YEARS 1862 TO 1866. BY RAPHAEL PUMPELLY. WASHINGTON CITY: PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. OCTOBER, 1866. NEW YORK: B. WBSTERMANN & CO. / .. CORNELL SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLIIDGE. 202 ■- GEOLOGICAL EESEARCHES CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND. JAPAN, DUEING THE YEAES 1862 TO 1865. BY RAPHAEL PUMPELLY. [accepted foe publication, jandaey, 1866. J This memoir, having been approved by the National Academy of Sciences, has been accepted for publication by the Smithsonian Institution. Joseph Heney, Secretary S. I. COLLINS, PRISTEK, PHILADELrniA. PREFACE. The material for the following pages was collected since 1860, Leaving the Eastern States in that year, and crossing the plains to Arizona, I remained there nearly a year in charge of silver mines. Being forced by the Indian troubles to abandon that territory, I entered Mexico, and after a midsummer journey over the deserts of the Pacific coast, between Sonora and California, reached the latter State. Leaving California with one companion. Prof. William P. Blake, both of us engaged by the Japanese Government to explore the island of Yesso, we sailed for Japan via the Sandwich islands. The engagement with the Japanese Government lasted but little more than a year, when it was suddenly brought to an end by the fierce, political troubles of that time. It was during hasty journeys of reconnoissance that the notes relating to Yesso were jotted down, and at a time when I hoped to be able to make a much more thorough study of the geology of Japan. It was with true regret that I left the service of a government whose courtesy had made a lasting impression on my memory, and with whose struggles for progress as against exclusiveness I deeply sympathized. Crossing to China, after a short visit to Nagasaki, I ascended the Yangtse Kiang into Central Hunan, and to the frontier of Sz'chuen, a great part of the journey being made in a small Chinese boat, and occupying four months of the spring and summer of 1863. The autumn and winter of 1863 and spring of 1864 were spent in examining the Coal fields west of Peking, for the Chinese Government, and in journeys in Northern China and Southern Mongolia. I spent the summer of 1864 at Nagasaki. In the winter of 1864 and 1865, in company with Mr. T. Walsh, of Japan, and Mr. F. R. St. John, Secretary of the British Legation at Peking, I crossed into Siberia, and thence, alone, travelled overland to St. Petersburg and Paris. Thus the journeys which furnished the data for the following pages were as fol- lows : — I. In 1862 over the ground indicated in the sketch map of southern Yesso, PI. No. 8, and excursions in the neighborhood of Yokohama. II. In 1863 excursions in the vicinity of Nagasaki; a journey up the Yangtse Kiang to the boundary between Hupeh and Sz'chuen, and into southern Hunan ; and excursions from Peking into the mountains of northwestern Chihli. Ill In 1864 a journey in southern Mongolia, along the edge of the plateau to ( iii ) iy. PREFACE. near the great N. E. bend of the Hwang Ho, returning to Peking by a route south of the plateau and within the Great Wall; and finally, part of the journey homeward, from China across the plateau and the Gobi desert to Siberia. With the exception of the itinerary in Yesso, which was made while in the ser- vice of the Japanese Government, and the description of the coal basin west of Peking, which was examined at the request of the Chinese Government, all the material was collected on journeys made at my expense. Ignorance of the Chinese and Mongolian languages, the difficulty of making observations in western China, owing to the hostility of the people at the time, the intense cold of the winter journey across the plateau into Siberia, and the fact that the enterprise was a private one, will, it is hoped, serve as excuses for asking the indulgence of the reader in view of the incompleteness of the work. I have attempted throughout to keep the generalizations separate from the record of observations and other data on which- they rest. I have followed, generally, the orthography of Dr. S. W. Williams for Chinese proper names, and that of Klaproth for Mongolian names, where these could be found on his great map of Central Asia, but in many instances they are written from the pronunciation of the Tartar guides. In giving Japanese and Aino names I have followed very closely the Japanese spelling. For assistance in preparing the present work I am indebted to Dr. J. S. Newberry for undertaking the description of the fossil plants, and to Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards for the examination. of infusorial earths, etc., under the microscope, and to Prof. G, J. Brush and Mr. James A. Macdonald for analyses of coals. A considerable amount of valuable material consisting raainly of Paleozoic, Ter- tiary, and Post-tertiary shells, and of rocks, has not yet been worked up. I would return thanks to Prof J. D. Whitney both for many valuable hints, and for the use of his excellent library. I am deeply indebted to Dr. W. Lockhart, Mr. C. Murray, and Dr. S. W. Williams, and Rev. Mr. Edkins, of Peking, for valuable assistance in making re- searches in Chinese geographical literature. The diagrams in the text, and the plates, I. to VIII., at the» end, are executed in copper relief engraving by Messrs. E. R. Jewett & Co. of BuflFalo ; plate IX. is cut in wood by Mr. C. Murry, of New York. R. P. New York, Aug, 1, 1866. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE On the General Outlines of Eastern Asia ...... 1 CHAPTER II. Geological Observations in the Basin op the Yangtse Kiang . , , . 4 CHAPTER III. Observations in the Province op Chihli . ..... .10 CHAPTER ly. Structure op the Southern Edge op the Great Table-Land, and op Northern Shansi and Chihli . . . . . . , . . , ' 25 CHAPTER V. The Delta-Plain and the Historical Changes in the Course op the Yellow River . 46 CHAPTER VI. On the General Geology op China Proper ; A Generalization Based on Observa- tions, and on the Mineral Productions, and the Configuration op the Surface . 61 CHAPTER VII. The Sinian System op Elevation . . . . . ... .67 CHAPTER VIII. Geological Sketch op the Routb>prom the Great Wall to the Siberian Frontier . • 70 CHlPTER IX. Geological Itineraries op Journeys on the Island op Yesso in Northern Japan . 79 CHAPTER X. Mineral Productions op China . . . . . . . 109 APPENDIX. Appendix No. 1. — Description of Fossil Plants from the Chinese Coal-Bearing Rocks. By J. S. Newberry, M. D. . . . . . • . . .119 Appendix No. 2. — Analyses of Chinese and Japanese Coals. By James A. Mac- donald, M. A. ......... 123 Appendix No. 3. — Letter from Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards on the Results of an Examina- tion under the Microscope of some Japanese Infusorial Earths, and other Deposits o£ China and Mongolia . . . . • . . . .126 LIST OF DIAGRAMS. Figure Figures Figures Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figures Figure Figure Figure Figure 1. Section near Chaitang ..... 2 and 3. Illustrating the manner of working the Tatsau mine 4 and 5. Sections at Chingshui 6. Section near Fangshan (Hien) Section near Siuenhwa (Fu) Section near Kalgan Section near Hakodade . Japanese lead furnace . Section at Cape Wosatzube Sulphur furnace on Mt. Esan 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13 and 14 Illustrating the Japanese method of washing auriferous deposits 15. Concentrating trough of the Japanese miners .... 16. Section on Mt. Iwaounobori ..... IT. Illustrating progressive alteration of rock .under solfatara-action 18. Lava flow near Kumaishi ...... FAOE 14 16 11 20 23 23 80 81 85 8t 92 92 95 96 102 LIST OF PLATES. Plate 1. Section along the Tangtse Kiang, from the Pacific Ocean to Pingshan (Hien), in Westeri? Sz'chuen. Plate 2. Route map of the Yang Ho District. Plate 3. Geological sections in Northern Chihli and Southern Mongolia. Plates 4 and 5. Maps representing the historical changes in the course of the Yellow River or Hwang Ho. Plate 6. Hypothetical map of the geological structure of China. Plate T. Map of the Sinian (N. E., S. W.) system of elevation of Eastern Asia. Section across the table-land of Central Asia from the Plain of Peking to near Kiachta, in Eastern Siberia. Plate 8. Geological route-sketch. Southern Yesso, with sections. Plate 9. Fossil plants from the Chinese coal-bearing rocks. (vii) GEOLOGICAL EESEAECHES IN CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. CPIAPTEE I. ON THE GENERAL OUTLINES OP EASTERN ASIA. If we examine a Mercator Chart of Eastern Asia, we are instantly struck with the parallelism of many of its most important features. A straight line {A, B, PI. VII) drawn in the longer axis of the Gulf of Pechele, trending nearly northeast (N. 47° E.), if prolonged in both directions, will be found to coincide with the entire middle course of the Yangts^, between Sz'chuen and Yunnan, with the longer axis of the great delta-plain between the highlands of Shantung and western Chihli, with the mouth and lower course of the Liau river, with the vaUey of the lower Amur, and finally crossing the Sea of Ochotsk, it is parallel to, and nearly coincides with, the direction of the Gulf of Penjinsk, Using this line as a standard of reference, we find that the long straight western shores of the two greatest indentations, the Sea of Ochotsk and the Bay of Bengal, are nearly in a line with each other and parallel to our standard. The same may be said of a line connecting the islands of Formosa, Kiusiu, Nippon and the Kuriles. The trend of the southeastern coast of China, the upper course of the Yellow river, the Lake Baikal, and the courses of many of the principal rivers of Eastern Siberia; that of Kamtschatka and the coast of Manchuria are aU separate instances confirm- ing this rule. We are naturally led to look for the cause of this in a similar uniformity in the trend of the mountain ranges, and, indeed, although the directions of these are difiicxdt of determination, I hope to be able to show that such a parallelism really exists. The long, submerged chain represented by the Kurile and Japanese islands is an unmistakable instance, while, in the northern part of the continent, the Stanovoi and Yablonoi ranges, and all the ridges of Trans-Baikal, are examples of mountains nearly or quite parallel to our standard, and inclosing extensive longitudinal valleys. The same may be said of the Byrranga mountains, and of almost all the ridges east of the Lena river. Indeed, while the trends of nearly all the mountains of North- eastern Asia lie between N. N. E. and E. N. E., the majority of them approach very nearly the N. E. S. W. direction. Having seen that this regularity exists in the ranges of the better explored parts 1 April, 1866. f 1 ) 2 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN of Eastern Asia, let us look for it in China also, where we have to rely on a more limited number of data, partly geological and partly topographical in their character. Where the Yangtse river crosses the Sz'chuen-Hupeh frontier, it cuts through a broad mountain range whose principal axis crosses the river in long. 111° 15', near Ichang (fu). Here the axial granite rises 600 to 1000 feet above the river, and is flanked on both sides by an immense thickness of limestone and coal-bearing rocks, whose strata have here a mean trend to N. E. If, through this point, we draw a line ( C, D, PI. VII) having a similar trend, its prolongation will indicate the watershed between the Hwai river and the Han river, the watershed of Shan- tung, and following the line of islands that stretch across the entrance to the Gulf of Pechele, it wiU coincide with the range of mountains, which, beginning with the promontory of Liautung, divides the waters first of the Liau river and Yaluh river, and afterwards, of the Sungari river and Usuri river. If we prolong the line from the Yangtse to the S. "VV., it will nearly coincide with the mountains that part the rivers of Kweichau from those of Hunan. AU. these ridges I take to be members of a continuous line of elevation, extending from Southern China to the Amur .river, and which, from its influence on the character of the country, may be called the central anticlinal axis of China. A line drawn from near Canton and passing through the Chusan archipelago, wUl represent the mean trend of the coast range, and, if prolonged to the N. E., it v/ill cut the Corean peninsula near its southern end, in what appears to be its most mou.ntainous point.^ In the other direction, the island of Hainan, from its N. E. S..W. trend and lofty mountains, would seem to be a member of the same range. In Northwestern China, a great range crosses the Yellow river, in its course between Shansi and Shensi, and trending N. E. by E., connects the mountain knot of Northwestern Sz'chuen Avith that of the Ourang daban north of the Tushikau gate of the Great WaU. Nearly parallel to this is another range which, beginning west of Singan (fu), crosses the Yellow river, forming the Lungmun gorge, and traversing, obliquely, the centre of Shansi, gradually approaches the other range in northern Chihli. These are the three principal axes, and they seem to be made up of parallel anticlinal ridges. Minor parallel axes seem, to occupy the country between these larger ranges. If we examine the maps of the provinces that border on the eastern edge of the Tibetan highland, we find a system of ranges, which, branching off from the Kwenlun and following, at first, a southeasterly course, gradually merge into a N. S. trend. The easternmost of these, occupying western Sz'chuen, divide the principal northern tributaries of the Yangtse. Those farther west form the narrow watersheds between the upper courses of the Yangtse, the Cambodia and the Salween, and, in their southern prolongation, they form the Malayan peninsula and probably that occupied by Annam and Siam. The N. S. trend seems to be con- fined exclusively to the extreme west of China. ' According to tlie great map of Kanghi this peninsula seems to have its principal mountains in the south, forming a N. E. S. W. ridge. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. g On the other hand the E. W. system of trends, which is so important in Central Asia, exercises an influence which is apparent much farther eastward.^ A range of mountains, said to have several snow-covered peaks, originating in Southern Kansuh, runs due east, separating the waters that enter the Yellow river through the "Wei and the Loh, from those that flow to the Yangtse through the Kialing and the Han, and finally disappears in western Honan. Another range, with a mean E. by S. trend, is given by Klaproth as forming the boundary between Sz'chuenon the south and Shensi and Kansuh on the north. It is not improbable, that the country included between these two ranges in Shensi and Kansuh, is an elevated table-land. The courses of the Han and Kialing rivers and the communication between their waters, as indicated by Chinese authorities, seem to favor this idea. In the south, the Nanling mountains, a range said to have peaks that reach above the snow-line, rise in Yunnan, and, branching, form, in the northern member, the boundary between Kwangsi and Kweichau, while the southern member trends ofi" into Kwangsi. The influence of the northern branch of the Nanling, is apparent as far as Fuhkien, in the probably comparatively low watershed north of Kwangtung. The higher portion of this range seems to be along the southern boundary of Kweichau, where it has lofty peaks and fertile elevated table-lands,^ which, from difficulty of access, have been for ages the home of the aboriginal Miautsz, a race unconquered by the surrounding civilization. The two passes that cross this range in Hunan and Kiangsi, where it is called the Moiling, cannot be very high, as the portage between the head of boat navigation on the two flanks is only a few miles. According to Biot,' the members of Lord Amherst's embassy give the' height of the Kiangsi pass as 3000 feet. The great map of Kanghi gives an uninterrupted water communication between the headwaters of the Siang river of llunan and those of a tributary of the Si river, that flows through the city of Kweilin. I have here attempted to trace only those ridges which seem to be the most important, as exhibiting the general conflguration of China. To the E. W. ranges is due the fact, that the mean courses of the great rivers of the empire lie east and Avest. But the total length . of each river is made up of N. E. reaches, where it flows through broad and fertile longitudinal valleys, and of southeasterly or southerly reaches in which it traverses, by deep and narrow gorges, the N. E. S. W. ridges. * All that is known of these two systems, the N. S. and the E. W. is derived from the Jesuit maps and from Chinese writers, a Chinese Repository, I. 40. = Recherches sur la hauteur, etc., Journ. Asiat., 1840. GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CHAPTER II. GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN TH.E BASIN OF THE YANGTSE KIANG. A GLANCE at the section (PI. 1) across Central China wiU. show that the Devo- nian limestone and Chinese Coal measures seem to predominate, at least at the sur- face, over aU 'else. There is only one point in the whole length of the section, where rocks older than the great limestone deposit rise to th-e surface, so that if the former exist, they are buried deep below the level of the sea. I shall give, in a subsequent chapter, reasons for believing that, at least in the valley of the Yangtse, there are also no representatives of the Mesozoic formations of later date than the Chinese Coal measures, and few, if any, of the Cenozoic. Where the Yangtse breaks through the ridges of the central .anticlinal axis of elevation, in Eastern Sz'chuen and Western Hupeh, a section, nearly eighty miles long, is exposed in the succession of deep gorges through which the river passes this barrier. Here the Dcivonian limestone is seen to rest almost immediately on the granite, a comparatively small development of metamprphic schists intervening. This seems to be the only point between Western Sz'chuen and the Pacific, where the Yangtse has exposed these lower rocks, and even here they occur during only about eight mUes of the river's course, and with a maximum height of only a few hundred feet above the river. To their occurrence are due the rapids that render the navigation of this part of the " Great River" so dangerous. The granite immediately above the first rapids consists of a triclinic feldspar and orthoclase, the former predominating, a brilliant black mica and quartz with small crystals of sphene scattered through the mass. Above Shantowpien the granite becomes very fine-grained, and still further up the river it is succeeded by syenitic granite, composed of white triclinic feldspar, quartz, large laminae of brown mica, and crystals of hornblende, with minute octahedrons of magnetic iron. On its eastern and western declivities the granite supports the metamorphic strata. Those to the eastward, which could not be closely examined, seemed to be gneiss trending E. W. and dipping about 30° to S. West of the granite the strata con- sist, where examined, of hornblendic schist and chloritic schist, the former often containing lenticular masses and cross veins of quartz, feldspar, and chlorite. KoUed fragments of diorite, probably of metamorphic origin, indicate the presence of this usual companion of these rocks. Near their contact with the granite these strata trend N. N. E., dipping about 85° to E. S. E., while further up the river their trend changes to E. N. E., and the dip to N. N. W. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 5 Flanking this granite core on both sides and covering it, is the great Devonian limestone floor of the Chinese Coal measures. On the eastern flank of the granitic axis the limestone strata trend, almost uniformly, N. E. S. W., varying in dip from 25° to 8° towards the S. E. as we recede from the granite. On the western flank the strike is less regular, changing from nearly N. S., at the contact with the meta- morphic schists, to N. E. S. W. in the upper part of the limestone. In the imme- diate neighborhood of the river, over an area of forty or fifty square miles, the limestone has disappeared, but in the distance, on both sides of the Yangtse, its yellow cliffs are seen towerijag to a height of more than 2,000 feet above the water. I laiow of no limestone deposit that can rival this in thickness. Taking the length of the cross section from its contact with the younger conglomerates, near Ichang, to where it rests on the metamorphic schists, to be seven and one-half geographic miles, and the mean dip at 15°, viz., 10° for the eastern half and 20° for the western, we obtain the enormous thickness of 11,600 feet, more than two statute miles. I observed no faults in this gorge, and the great thickness observed in this same limestone in Northern China, leads me to think that the above estimate cannot be far from the truth. West of this ridge of limestone is another of about the same size, the interven- ing space being occupied by the Coal measures. Here, within a distance of eighty miles, are the principal rapids, whUe the river traverses the limestone through a series of five gorges unsurpassed in the grandeur of their scenery. The Yangtse, which, a few miles below the mouth of the Ichang gorge, has a width of 960 yards, is in this narrowed to 250, and in the Fungsiang gorge to 150 yards.^ In these narrow passages, whose walls are from 900 to 1200 feet high, cliffs of bare rock, often vertical or overhanging, alternate with steep declivities clothed in green from the water to the summit, and with deep, inaccessi- ble dells filled with the rich growth of a semi-tropical vegetation. Streams flowing from the mouths of caverns high above the river, cool the air in their descent, while the huge clusters of stalactite which they have formed — the work of ages — show well the chemical power of the smallest drop, side by side with the mechanical force of the rolling river. Through these gloomy chasms the skilful boatmen drag the heavy junks, now " tracking" them from paths and steps hewn in the solid rock, now puUing them by rusty and time-worn chains clamped along the vertical walls. The depth of the water must be very great,^ and the difference between high and low water is said to be as much as eighty feet in the Ichang gorge. The limestone is generally of a bluish-gray color and compact texture, though subordinate to this variety, layers occur having every shade of color and grain. A gray, compact variety, with frequent large crystals of calcite is not uncom- mon; and a very compact, almost black kind is quarried in the Ichang gorge. Indeed gray, pink, red, black, and blue varieties of this same limestone, with com- pact, porphyritic and crystalline textures, furnish in almost every province of China * Blackiston. Five months on the Upper Yangtse. " Blackiston's party found no bottom with eighteen fathoms. 6 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN useful and choice marbles. Every degree of tliiclmess occurs in the layers from laminae only one-quarter inch thick to beds of many feet. Nodules and thin layers of black chert occur throughout the limestone, but in the lower half they are remarkably frequent, becoming more common as we ap- proach the oldest beds, in which, indeed, the calcareous rock is often entirely excluded by massive layers of quartzite. At the eastern entrance to the Lucan gorge, where the limestone rests on the older rocks, the lowest beds of the former, containing lenticular masses and thin laye3;p of chert, are soon succeeded by a bed 40 to 50 feet thick, of massive quartzite. Wherever I have had occasion to examine this limestone in place, it has invaria- bly appeared to be entirely without fossils, but this has been only in the main ridges, where metamorphic action has probably played a more important part than in the minor ridges that rise between these lines of greater elevation, and it seems to me that there can be little doubt that the fossil Brochiopoda that occur in many provinces belong to this formation. Just before entering the eastern mouth of the Lucan gorge, a bed of fine-grained, micaceous, gray sandstone is observable, intervening between the metamorphic schists and the limestone. The trend of this intervening bed is JST. N. W. and the dip 25° to 30° to W. S. W,, the metamorphic schists striking to E. N. E. and dipping to N. N. W., while the trend of the overlying limestone strata, at the nearest point observed, was about N. by W. and the inclination about 30° to W. by S. At the western end of the Mitan gorge we enter the coal field of Kwei. Here the limestone disappears under strata, apparently conformable with it, of a fine- grained micaceous sandstone, which, below Kwei, is succeeded by a fine-grained, gray, calcareous sandstone. The trend of the beds which, near the gorge, was N. N. E. with a dip of about 40° to W. N. W., changes here to N. with a dip to E., and further up, opposite Kwei, it is N. by W. with an inclination of 70° to E. by N. Here is the beginning of a series of those angular plications so common to Coal measures in all countries. Small beds of limestone and red argillite alternate with the sandstones until, about two miles above Kwei, the first coal seams crop out, and with the appearance of these, the trend changes to N. W. by W., more than 90° from its normal direction of N. E. S. W. The seams of coal are of an inferior friable anthracite. Those I visited abOve Kwei were highly inclined between sandstone walls, and contained, according to the Chinamen, only six to eight inches of fuel. Capt. Blackiston, who took speci- mens of these rocks and noticed, with much accuracy, the general features of this region, remarks that the rocks of the coal regions of Sz'chuen, wherever he saw them, presented the same appearance as those of the Kwei field.^ It would seem probable that in Sz'chuen, which seems to be occupied by an immense coal basin, the Coal measures exist M'ith a much greater thickness than in the Kwei field, where only the lower members seem to have been preserved. Deposits of iron ore occur in intimate connection with coal and limestone in Sz'chuen,^ and, as we shall * Five Months on the Upper Yangtse. a jjjj^_ CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 7 see later, it is probable that the extensive salt deposits of that province are mem- bers of the same formation. Near the city of Icliang, at the eastern mouth of the gorge, the limestone strata, trending here N. E. and dipping about 8° to S. E., are covered by apparently conformable beds of fine-grained, gray sandstone, v^^hich, toward the top, soon merges into a coarse conglomerate. The change is very marked, the upper portion of the sandstone containing rounded fragments of chert near the contact, and the lower part of the conglomerate having lenticular deposits of the sandstone. This transition appears to mark some important change that took place during the form- ing of these deposits, and the fact that, in transverse section, they border the river for twelve miles and have a great thickness, would seem to indicg,te that this change was not confined to the immediate neighborhood. This conglomerate is followed by a red sandstone, which above Itu dips easterly, and below that place westerly. From here eastward the country on both sides of the river is flat, the rocks being covered for the most part by alluvial deposits ; but in the neighborhood of Yangchi limestone crops out in different places, with a very irregular strike between N. and W., and a corresponding dip to between N. and E. From this point to Hankau, the country, if we except a few isolated hills, is one almost unbroken plain, the ancient bed of the Tungting lake, in which the older rocks are covered by the lake deposits. At the town of Shishan (Hien) an isolated hill rises from the plain, its almost vertical strata trending about N. 65° E., and consisting of sandstone, arenaceous shale resembling a similar rock of the Kwei coal field, and a shaly quartzose conglomerate. The outcroppings of the older rocks that appear, at intervals, between the outlet of the Tungting lake and Hankau are sandstones and argillites, which, from their general character and the fact that in one place their trend is toward a locality a few miles distant where coal is worked, would seem to belong to the Coal measures. The hills immediately above Hankau are of clay slates and argillaceous sandstone, and through the cities of Wuchang and Hanyang, stretches a ridge of sandstone altered to an almost compact quartzite. The journey from Hankau to the sea was made in a steamer, stopping only at Kiukiang and Chinkiang, making the knowledge concerning this part of the river very imperfect. The only sources of information were constant observations, through a good glass, of the frequent natural sections made by the river, and the scanty remarks of a few travellers connected with Lord Amherst's embassy. Below Sankiangkau beds of sandstone and conglomerate, trending S. W. and dipping 40° — 45° to S. E., are exposed, and a few miles further down the river the city of Hwangchau fu is built on a low ridge of ferruginous sandstone, of which the raised beds strike due N., dipping about 30° W. About twenty miles S. E. from this city, hills of limestone, 800 to 900 feet high, form the southern bank of the river, the irregular trend of their strata varying from W. to S. W., and the dip, of about 40°, from S. to S. E. Twenty-five miles beloAv this point the river breaks through another ridge of limestone, the strata of which have a strike to S. E. by S. and incline about 40° to S. W. by W. The rocks on the outlet to the Poyang lake have all the appearance of limestone. 8 GEOLOGICAL ll'E SEARCHES IN and this is the case with all the exposed sections from the outlet to the Siauku shan or Little Orphan rock. Below Tungliu coarse red sandstone is exposed, its upturned edges, which are here capped with the younger terrace deposits, trending to N. E. with a dip of 15° to N. W. At Nanking there are extensive quarries of limestone, while directly opposite the city, on the left; bank of the Yangtse, strata of red sand- stone trend W. S. W., dipping about 40° to E. S. E. Coal mines are worked in the immediate Neighborhood of this city, especially on its eastern side. Soon after leaving the hills of Nanking the river enters the great delta plain through which it winds to the sea. In a rSsumS I shall try, by means of a combination of the data given above, with information derived chiefly from native sources, to throw more light on the structure of this region.' TERRACES OP THE YANGTSE VALLEY. At frequently recurring points along both the Upper and Lower Yangtse, we meet with deposits of gravel and clay, forming bluffs at the water's edge, or fringing the hills that form the walls of the valley. They are generally stratified in horizontal beds. Differing in height and in the character of their ingredients, there seems also to be a diversity of age. The extensive plain, once occupied by the Tungting lake, before it was reduced to its present size, is fringed by these terraces ; for they recur constantly from Hankau to Yochau on the right bank of the river, and from this city along the eastern border of the lake, and form a belt which extends many miles to the south, and occupies nearly all the space along the south- ern edge of the lake, between the Siang and Yuen rivers. Again, where the river enters the lake plain, the tongue of land included by the river bend between Pah- yang and Tung'sz, consists of the same deposit. At the last named locality the deposit is made up of rounded pebbles of quartz and limestone, cemented with a stiff clay, and this is its general character at the junction of the Siang river with the lake and along the eastern shore. But the most general form of occurrence is that of a stiff blue clay, with irregular white spots. Near Tung'sz the terraces appear to be from seventy to ninety feet high, but below the outlet of the lake they vary from thirty to sixty feet. Blackiston mentions similar terraces as occurring at various points along the Yangtse in Sz'chuen. The village of Tsingtan, at the eastern end of the Mitan gorge in Western Hupeh, is built on a terrace of conglomerate-breccia formed of fragments of limestone, chert, gneiss, and other metamorphic rocks, in form'of rubble and rounded and angTilar fragments of all sizes, the whole firmly cemented by a calcareous tufa. This formation originally filled the valley from side to side, and its bluffs rise forty to fifty feet above high-water mark. In the rapid current that must always have scoured these narrow portions of the Yangtse valley, nothing but the coarsest material could resist the onward movement ; and when an increase in the velocity of the stream took place, only those portions of the deposits were preserved which CniNA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 9 Were near enough to the limestone to be cemented into a hard mass by the waters flowing from it. The bed of the Yangtse must have been cut to about its present depth, when a diminution of its average fall took place, permitting the formation of these terrace deposits. Subsequently another change, by increasing the fall, caused the river to scour out, again, the greater part of the valley. As with the river so with the Tungting lake ; this large sheet of water, which then occupied all the plain of liupeh and Hunan, must have been tilled up with the terrace deposit, the remains of which now form its shores. With the returning increase of fall, the lake was scoured out by the rivers Yangtse, Han, Siang, and Yuen. Since this erosion, it would seem probable that the velocity of the current has slightly diminished, as the material brought down by these rivers has converted nearly nine-tenths of the former lake into dry land. A large part of this lake-plain is said, by ancient Chinese writers, to have been an immense marsh where it is now cultivated land. We have, at present, no observations to show whether the oscillations of Central China, which are thus recorded in the Yangtse Valley,' were contemporaneous with the raising of the western edge of the delta-plain ; but whether they were or not, the cause which was exerted across the whole breadth of China, must be looked for in a vertical movement, either in the Tibetan highland. or along the eastern coast. A remarkable instance of the formation of a deposit of fine material, in the swiftest part of the river, is observable in the first rapids, just above the Ichang gorge. Granite rocks rising to the surface, near the shore, form an obstruction to the current, which is here from fifteen to eighteen miles an hour, causing eddies in their lee, in which a constant precipitation of sand takes place. Banks of quick- sands are thus formed, their tops almost even with the surface of the river. Their sides, too steep to remain at rest, are constantly being washed away, and as con- stantly replaced by the freshly precipitated material. At low water these banks line the shores, and, during the high water season of 1863, 1 noticed one more than half a mile long, and twenty-five or thirty feet above the river; the result of some previous very high freshet. 2 April, 1866. 10 GEOLOGICAL RBSBAKCHES IN CHAPTEE III. OBSERVATIONS IN THE PROVINCE OP CHIHLI. Along the western boundary of the province of Chihli, the great delta-plain is bounded by the outliers of the northwestern belt of N. E. S. W. ridges. The foundation on which rest the limestone and volcanic rocks of Northern Chihli, Shansi, and Shensi, consists of granite and the metamorphic schists; and where this foundation forms the northwestern limit of the delta-plain, it forms also the southeastern edge of the skeleto'n of the great table-land of Central Asia. We have seen that, in Central China, the granitic and metamorphic rocks that support the limestone and Coal measures, rise to the level of the river, in, to say the least, only rare instances, and then as the axial cores of ridges; the great thickness of the overlying rocks making it highly probable that, from western Sz'chuen to the Pacific, this foundation lies far below the level of the sea. But if we cross the mountains from the delta-plain to the highlands of Mongolia, we find that the surface of the granitic substructure lies everywhere above the sea, and probably nowhere at a less height than 1000 feet. Were the limestone and younger rocks removed, the country would present the appearance of a table-land ribbed with high N. E. S. W. ridges, and very similar to southern Mongolia if we suppose that divested of its lava beds. Along the edge of the plain, the limestone floor of the Coal measures rises abruptly from under the delta-deposit, and forms, so to speak, the eastern facing of these mountains. At the entrance to the Nankau pass, the strata trend N. 60° E. and dip about 40° to S. E. Five or six miles farther west, it is followed by granite, and between these points, strilie and dip are very irregular. From the pass, the limestone stretches away to N. E. toward Jehol, and to S. W., facing the plain, toward Shansi. WhUe the Coal measures probably remain intact under the delta-plain, from the mountains of Shantung to those of Chihli, they exist in these latter only in scattered basins, where they have been partially preserved, by folds of the limestone, from denudation. The most important instances of this kind facing the plain, are the basins of Wangping (hien) and Fangshan (hien) west of Peking, and of Pingting (chau) in Shansi. The basins of Wangping (hien) and Fangshan (hien) lie in the mountains' west of Peking, where, rising from under the plain, they occupy synclinal folds of the limestone, and are probably only two arms of a larger basin concealed under the younger deposits to the eastward. The Wangping basin extends due west more than thirty miles, with a breadth of about twelve miles. Along a great part of its CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. H northern edge, a bed of porphyry conglomerate, of great thickness, intervenes between the limestone and the coal rocks, while the western portion of the basin is much broken up by porphyries, and the centre is crossed by a high ridge appa- rently of quartzose conglomerate and sandstones. Coal seams, varying in thickness and quality, occur in many parts of these basins, and are worked in the more accessible localities, as, for instance, at Muntakau, Maanshan, the hiU of Piyiinsz, Lingchi on the Wangping creek and at Chaitang in the west. In the following necessarily incomplete table, I have attempted to show the struc- ture of those parts of these basins that came under my observation : — H 5 i be Coal or anthracite alternating with beds of argillaceous shales, sandstones, J Hsingshun gray quartzose conglomerate-breccias and compact red and green > and argillites. ) Tatsau. Alternating beds of coal, argillaceous shales, and sandstones. Coal (Futau seam). Black under-clay. Micaceous quartzose sandstone. Quartzose conglomerate. Yellow argillaceous shales with impressions of plants. Outcroppings concealed for several hundred feet by terrace loam. Compact green argillite.. Coarse gray sandstone and conglomerate. Compact argillite, mottled green and red. Coarse gray sandstone. Friable and argillaceous gray sandstone. Red calcareous clay slate. Greenish sandstone (with specks of chlorite). Red calcareous clay slate. Gray sandstone. Red calcareous clay slate Gray sandstone. )( Green quartzose conglomerate. Anagenite (quartz, feldspar, and mica sandstone). Argillaceous shales and compact sandstones alternating with seams of an^ thracite. Ferruginous sandstone altered to quartzite. Quartzose conglomerate. Anthracite. Micaceous, and black argillaceous shales. Calcareo-argillaceous shale. ! Anthracite. ) Faugshan Micaceous, and black argillaceous shale. > at Calcareo-argillaceous shale. ; Yingwo mine, r Clay-slates (green, black and red). 1 ■\ Greenish sandstone passing into greenish quartzose conglomerate.. \- Niuchauling. |_ Argillaceous shale. J f Conglomerate of porphyry, limestone and quartz. | jjun Ho and ( Porphyry conglomerate. J Chaitang. ( ITpper limestone. \ Upper Yangtse j Black clay slate. >• and Province ( Lower limestone (cherty). V of Chihli. Muntakau. Maanshan. 12 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN The porphyry conglomei-ates, No. 2, which, in places along the northern edge of the basin, have a thickness of not less than 2000 feet, are wanting in the eastern part. The parts of the series marked No. 3, form the oldest beds, and they rest immediately on the limestone in their respective localities. Between Nos. 3 and 4 the character and extent of the intervening beds were not observed. The connection between Nos. 4 and 5 is made on lithological grounds, the same green sandstone and green quartzose conglomerate occurring above the coal seams of Muntakau, and low down in the series at Chaitang. Limestone. — Here, as on the Yangtse, a great development of limestone &rms the floor of the Coal measures. Although no good opportunity occurred, in this region, for estimating its thickness, this is undoubtedly several thousand feet. It is generally divided into two nearly equal parts by a bed of clay slates ; though independently of this, the upper and lower strata are characterized, the latter by an abundance of chert, and the former by comparative freedom from that mineral. The limestone is generally compact and blue, but in places it is white and sac- charoid ; and black, pink, and dark red varieties occur. The chert is black, and is abundant in the lower half, occurring in nodules, and in layers varying in thick- ness from less than one line to over forty feet, beds of this size generally forming the bottom of the limestone. In the basin of Siuenhwa (fu), near the Great Wall, the limestone is highly siliceous, but almost alwa'5'S retains a white appear- ance. This formation furnishes, here, as in almost every province of the empire, besides lime, the marble so much used in Chinese ornamental architecture, for bridges, tombstones, gateways, and the lions that guard the portals of all ofiicial buildings. The white saccharoid variety is very beautiful, but disintegrates so rapidly that, even in the dry climate of Peking, inscriptions on exposed monuments two hundred years old are barely legible.^ The black variety, which is very compact, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, retains a perfectly fresh surface after centuries of exposure. A quarry at the Maanshan has supplied lime for the capital during many centu- ries ; the continued excavation having widened and deepened the valley, removing small hills and leaving, over an area of perhaps one square mile, a deposit that might well perplex an observer, were the cause not stiU at work. Almost every point in this area seems to have been the site of a lime-kiln, which has left its cone of concentric layers, consisting of half burnt limestone, chert, fragments of coal and ashes. As new kilns were built over and between old ones, the result is a bed, the ingredients of -which have become cemented to a hard concrete, by the refuse lime. In this deposit, the stream of the valley has cut its channel, in places, forty to fifty feet deep, Avith vertical walls, without reaching the limestone bottom. Caves are abundant in this limestone, and many of them are said to be of great extent. One which I visited, near Fangshan (hien), consists of a series of large ' There is a white variety, used in mouuments near Peking, in which inscriptions of the Kin dynasty are perfectly fresh, as, for instance, that used in the grand marble arch of Kiyungkwan in the Nankau pass. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAl'AN. 13 chambers extending nearly in a straight line. The first two of these only were visible, the entrance to the third having been closed by an imperial order, owing to a party of visitors having lost their way and perished. These chambers are connected by passages, so small that they can be entered only by creeping on hands and knees. Their longest axis is at right angles to the strike of the strata, and forms a considerable angle with the dip. The floor is covered with stalagmite, which, in the centre of one chamber, seems to be at least forty feet thick, and is connected with the roof by immense columns of stalactite. Like many large caverns in China, this one is sacred to Buddha, of which deity there is a well executed high-relief sculptured in the wall of the entrance ; and the small passages have been worn and polished by the knees of pilgrims during centuries. I looked in vain at the face of the rock at the entrance, for some signs of a crack corresponding to the plane of these chambers. Some of the deep and narrow ravines of the surrounding hills, seem to have been formed by the caving in of similar caverns. "* In parts of the empire, these caves abound in fossil bones, which are excavated and used in medicine, under the name of " dragon's bones," " dragon's claws," etc. This limestone, forming, as it does, the floor of the Coal measures, appears, surrounding the different basins of these, in highly inclined beds, forming as it were a narrow frame, or, having a gentler dip, it occupies a broader space. Porphyry Conglomerate. — In the mountains that border the Wangping basin on the north and west, there are extensive masses and dykes of porphyry, which have raised and cut through the limestone in all directions. From the detritus of this intrusive rock, the beds of the lower Coal measures at Chaitang, which are equivalent to those marked No. 3 in the table, seem to have been formed. The reason for supposing this, is, that as we approach the northern edge of the Chaitang basin, we find the porphyry conglomerate underlying, in the form of a flat boss, the beds forming the lower half of No. 5 which are eminently characterized by two peculiar rocks, that marked as " compact green argiUite" and the stiU lower ones, " green quartzose conglomerate." Further on we find, that the porphyry conglomerate contains interstratified beds of sandstone. The fragments that forfli this extensive member of the Chaitang series, are, for the most part, derived from the masses of porphyry nearest at hand. Thus near Chingtai they are chiefly green felsitic porphyry, similar to-that forming dykes in the limestone at Hiamaling, a few miles distant, while, along the Hun river, red and green varieties predominate, intrusive masses of both kinds occurring in the neighborhood. Fragments of limestone and quartz are frequent in the porphyry conglomerate, and would seem to characterize its upper portion. Thus I have indicated in the table two distinct varieties, though perhaps on insufficient grounds. This conglomerate furnishes an important page in the history of the Coal measures in this region. It shows us that there had been an elevation of the limestone, perhaps caused or accompanied by the intrusion of the porphyries, before the overlying rocks were deposited. The presence of fragments of limestone, quartz. 14 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN and porphyry, shows that these older rocks had been subjected to an extensive denudation. In the narrow gorge, through which the creek finds its way from the Chaitang valley to the Hun river, the contact between the limestone and porphyry con- glomerate is visible (Fig. 1). The limestone strata are cut through at a right angle, and are seen to Fig. 1 '^ /iljUJII ^^P a-bout 80° to the S. "'Ij' I did not obtain an observation of the dip of the 11, conglomerate in this section to know whether it mm§ ■ conforms to that. of the limestone. The coal district of Chaitang forms an area of 7 low hnis, and is limited on the north by the por- a. Upper limestone. t i • i i j i, -n 6. Lower porphyry conglomerate. phyry conglomerates, whose high and rugged hills are overtopped in the background by the yellow cliffs of the limestone. To the south rises a high ridge consisting, apparently, of the rocks of the Coat measures and dykes of porphyry, and separating the coal district of Chaitang from that of the Wangping creek. To the west is a high and hilly country mainly of porphyry. About four miles W. N. W. of Chaitang, in the midst of this porphyry, lies the small coal district of Chingshui, and about five miles S. W. are the anthracite mines of the Tatsau district. The valley of Chaitang has been occupied by a lake, the alluvial deposits of which now form terraces and cap hills over one hundred feet high. The trend of the tilted strata in the centre of the district is very uniformly N. W., and the dip is to N. E. and to S. W., forming both synclinal and anticlinal ridges. But as we approach the western end the trend becomes irregular, though the dip is toward the porphyry. Indeed, the edge of these mountains of porphyry, seems to mark the line of a great fault, perhaps combined with an immense overflow of that rock. The following description of the more important coals is extracted from my Ileport to the Chinese Government, which is published in the "United States Diplo- matic Correspondence, 1864, Part III." For more perfect analyses of some of these and other coals by Mr. J, A. Mac- donald, the reader is referred to Appendix No. 2. Prlacipal Mines. — The Futau mine, which lies about five li (less than two miles) S. S. E. of Chaitang, and from one hundred and fifty to two . hundred feet above the level of the creek at that town, is remarkable as producing a " steam coal" that is equal if not superior to the best Welsh variety. The seam, in which several openings have been made, is irregular in thickness, this varying from six to twelve feet, though in the mean averaging, probably, not less than seven feet. Near the roof the coal has a tendency to crumble, near the floor it is slaty; aU the rest of the seam furnishes large blocks of firm and excellent fuel. The coal has a brilliant lustre, is made up of well-defined layers, and has a tendency to a cubical fracture. It ignites quickly, burning with a long flame and little smoke. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 15 Opening slightly, it burns without caking and without falling to pieces, and leaving a very little gray ash. I- found by dry assay, using the exceedingly imperfect means at my command in Peking, the following results :^ — Sp.gr. 1.31 Parts of lead reduced from oxide by one part of coal . . 31.50 Corresponding value in units of heat 1245.00' Percentage of ash 4.00 There are several seams parallel to this one both above and below it, one of which is six or seven feet thick, and only thirty feet above it. The dip of the beds is about 45°. So defective is the Chinese system of mining, that the proprietor of this mine could not undertake to furnish from it more than eight hundred and fifty tons yearly. The selling price, at the mouth of the mine, is $2 00 per ton of 2,000 pounds. In the Fushun mine, apparently on the same seam, the coal reaches a thickness of thirty-five feet, though it averages much less. Hsingshun Mine. — This is on one of a series of seams, that crop out in a valley about five li N. W. of Chaitang, and which I take to be younger than that of the Futau. The horizon of these seams is well characterized, in the Chaitang district, by the occurrence among them of beds of a peculiar quartzose conglomerate breccia, called by the natives horsetooth stone (from the appearance of pieces of chert it contains). This rock forms the floor of the seam in which lies the Hsingshun mine, while the roof is sandstone, and between these the seam dips at first 50°, changing gradually to 90°. Within a limited space the thickness of the coal varies from three to eight feet. The coal is without lustre, and has an irregular flaky structure. It ignites quickly, burning with a long flame, cakes readily and leaves a red ash. Sp.gr 1.28 Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal .... 31.40 Units of heat 1222.00 Percentage of ash . . . . . . . . 3.00 The miners burn it in small heaps to a very light and porous coke. Tatsau Mine. — About five miles S. W. of Chaitang is the Tatsau, or " great seam" of anthracite. It consists of two seams separated by about eight feet of sandstone, the upper one being from twenty-three to thirty-five feet thick, and the lower from seven to eighteen feet. The roof is formed by the same peculiar conglomerate breccia that characterizes the Hsingshun beds, the floor being sandstone, and dipping about 45° to N. W. About six-tenths of the produce is anthracite of a superior quality, coming out in * See Appendix No. 2. " Without the correction of + ^. 16 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN large, firm pieces formed of well-defined layers, with conchoidal fracture and bril- liant metallic lustre.'' Sp. gr. . . . . . Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal Units of heat ..... Percentage of asli (gray) L55 33.40 1682.00 4.00 Eight men produce about four tons daily, and the selling price at the mouth of the mine is $1 70 per ton. A short distance N. W. of the Tatsau is a high cliflf of porphyry, forming part of the edge of the porphyry hills that bound the Chaitang district on the west. This rock is said, by the Tatsau miners, to cut off the coal and its accompanying rocks. The annexed wood-cuts (Figs. 2 and 3) serve to give some idea of the Tatsau mine. The entrance is by the gallery a, at first horizontal, then rapidly descending to the inclined shaft h. These are in the smaller and lower seam. A drift leads to the level d. Fig. 3, in the larger seam. In working the coal the miners drive a level, as far below the surface as the amount of water will permit, and extending horizontally along the foot wall as far as the limits of the mine, with a breadth equal one-half of the seam when this is less than twenty feet. Beginning at the end h, they excavate the coal below the gallery, at /, to a depth of from ten to twenty feet. When this has advanced a short distance they break down from the * See Appendix No. 2. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 17 top e, and working back the coal is won from above and below the gallery at the same time, the refuse small coal, here about four-tenths of the whole, serving as a support g, in place of that extracted. The water is carried out by the inclined shaft h, fig. 2, the work being done by blind men, one of these standing in each of the hollowed out steps c, and bailing the water from his step to the one above him. The coal is drawn out on sleds, by men, through h and a, only one-half the breadth of h being cut into steps for drainage. Ghingshui Mines. — These mines are in a narrow valley, about five miles W. N. W. of Chaitang, in the midst of the porphyry mountains. There seem to be several seams, but the Confusion caused by the numerous dykes of porphyry is very great. In two of the seams the toof is formed by these dykes, at least for a considerable dis- tance, while others are cut through by them, and in places only fragmentary portions of a seam, and its accompanying beds are left. Fig. 4 gives a general idea of the relation between some of the seams, and the porphyry as seen in the side of a moun- tain valley. Fig. 5 is a section of a fragment of the coal series only a few square u.. Forptyry. 6. Coal series, v. Coal seams. a. Porphyry. 6. Goal series, c. Coal seam. d. Creek rubtle. rods in extent, cut oif on one side by the porphyry, and on the other by the creek. The coal of this locality is very bituminous, and I failed, during my short visit, to find any indications of the metamorphism, often observed in the action of dykes on coal, especially where basalt has broken through tertiary broWn coal forma- tions. The coal of the second seam from, the right. Fig. 4 c,^ is very brilliant, clean, and firm, breaking with a cubical fracture. It is very inflammable and melts and cakes, burning with a long flame, and leaving considerable ash. Spec, gr 1.38 Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal . . . . 29.00 TJnits of heat 66T0.00 Percentage of ash . . . . . . . . 12.00 The seam from which this coal was taken had been worked about 500 feet on an incline, until stopped by water, and averaged between 7 and 8 feet in thickness. The fuel was best in the middle of the seam, and improved with the increasing depth. The proprietor worked two shifts of thirty men each, viz., eight miners, six carriers, ten water raisers, four men at mouth of mine, and two overseers. One miner produced, per shift, 1500 catties (about 1900 lbs.), of which two-thirds was coarse coal, and one-third fine. 3 ^pril, 1866. * See Appendix No. 2. 18 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN The fuel, from this place, is almost all used in the tile-glazing establishments of Peking. Porphyries. — In the mountains north of the "Wangping coal basin, the limestone has been much disturbed by the intrusion of porphyry, which, in some places, traverses it in the form of large dykes, and in others rising under it in large dome- like masses, causes the overlying strata to dip from these in aU directions. As the porphyry conglomerates, at the bottom of the Coal series, are mostly derived from these rocks, their eruption took place before the Coal measures were deposited. Two varieties of felsitic porphyry were observed here, both younger than the limestone, and both represented in the conglomerate. One of these forms dykes on the ridge of Hiamaling and along the*Hun Ho, between this ridge and Chingpaikau. At the first-named place, it incloses immense fragments of the black clay slate that divides the upper and lower members of the limestone. This porphyry contains, in a compact, slightly greenish base, a little green mica and numerous crystals of a triclinic, milky-white and slightly opalescent feldspar, and is free from visible quartz. The feldspar weathers yeUowish-red, and the base dirty-white. The rock strikes fire with the steel, though not very readily. Near Yenchi, on the Hun Ho, a few miles below Hiamaling, is the second variety. It contains, in a Hght-pink base, crystals of feldspar, apparently orthoclase, and no visible quartz. The porphyry that cuts ofi' the coal rocks near the Tatsau, is proba- bly younger than the Coal measures, although it is uncertain whether it occurs in that locality as a dyke, or whether it is brought into the position it there occupies by a great fault. This rock has, in a compact gray base, tending to green, numerous prisms of hornblende and small crystals of white feldspar, some of which at least are triclinic. It contains no visible quartz, and. strikes fire with difficulty. Thus its character- istics are those of a hornblendic porphjry.- At Chingshui, two varieties of porphyry were observed, both traversing the coal rocks. In one of these, the base is black and fine-grained, containing numerous minute and small crystals of a transparent, colorless feldspar, certainly for the most part triclinic. There is no visible quartz, and the rock strikes fire with difficulty. About ten miles S. E. of the entrance to the Nankau pass, near the granite point that juts out into the plain at Yangfang, there is an extensive fault in the limestone, the strata of this rock dipping toward the fault. Between the Hue of this fault and the granite there is a broad dyke of quartziferous porphyry. In a fine-grained pink base, it contains crystals of pink orthoclase and abundant grains of quartz. It may not be out of place to mention here the coal districts of Muntakau and Fangshan. The former of these forms part of the Wangping basin where this dis- appears under the plain of Peking. The valley of Muntakau formj in itself a small bay, containing terraces of the plain deposit ; there are said to be thirteen seams of anthracite in the sides of the vaUey, most of which have been worked since during the Ming dynasty. Those seams which I visited alternate with sandstones and argillaceous shales, and underlie the peculiar green quartzose conglomerate that characterizes the lower part of the Chaitang series. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 19 The Tehyih mine seems to be the most important, and has been worked for a horizontal distance of 8,500 feet. The seam is very irregular in thickness, varying from a mere thread to six or seven feet, and as much so in strike and dip. The anthracite is duU and hard and made up of layers. It flies to pieces in burning.^ Spec. gr. ......... . 1.79 Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal . . . . 31.00 Units of heat 1130.00 Percentage of ash 7.00 In this mine one miner produces on an average only about 100 catties — 133 lbs. — daily, and the loss of time in bringing the coal to the surface is very great, the man who drags the sled being obliged, from the lowness of the gallery, to go on his knees the entire distance of more than a mile and a half. The men protect their knees and hands with cushions, a precaution of which I Avas able to appreciate the value after having gone in about 6,000 feet and back without any such protection. The galleries grow smaller as the mine grows older, for, in replacing the old timber it often happens that the miners dare not remove an old piece, but are obliged to place the new one under it, and in this way the lapse of time reduces the height of the only thoroughfare of the mine, I was surprised on seeing at the entrance a very large fan-blower, made much like the machines used for fanning rice (which, in turn, are the same as our own fanning machines), and which is used here for ventilation. In the district of Fangshan all the coal is said to be anthracite. Several seams are traversed by the galleries of the Yingwo mine, the lowest seam being only about 160 feet above the limestone, the intervening beds consisting of argillaceous shales, and the whole apparently conformably stratified with the limestone. The strike of these beds is E. W., and the dip about 30° to N. The lowest seam, which furnishes the most of the production of the mine, is very irregular, varying in thickness from one to thirty feet. The anthracite is very friable and flaky. ^ Spec, gr 1.86 Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal . . . . 27. 70 Units of heat 63tl.00 Percentage of ash ........ 15.00 At Changkauyii, about eight miles W. by N. from Fangshan, is the Tashhitang mine, which is interesting as shoAving the manner in which the Chinese work on a large scale. The inclination of the seam varies from 50° to 90°, and the thickness from one to thirty feet, the average being estimated at six feet. The coal is called Jiaime, i. e., black coal, and is a hard, lustreless anthracite, in layers with irregular fracture. Spec gr 1.80 Parts of lead reduced by one part of coal .... 31.50 Units of heat 7245.00 Percentage of ash ... 5.50 ' See Appendix No. 2 for better analyses. ° See Appendi.x No. 2. 20 GEOLOGICAL 11 ESEATv, CUES IN The workings extend to a horizontal distance of about 6,000 feet, the drainage being effected by a fault, and the ventilation by an opening through old workings to day-light. The mine is entered by an inclined gallery, descending in the seam, at an angle of about 30°, till near the water level. From the foot of this a horizontal or slightly rising level is driven in the coal to the extreme limit of the intended mine, in this instance over 6,000 feet. In extracting the coal only those portions of the seam are worked which are sufficiently thick to admit the miner without cutting into the walls. The "winning" is conducted on the following general plan: where the coal is sufficiently thick, rising galleries are driven at an angle of about 30°, from the tops of which a level extends in both directions as far as the seam retains the pro- per thickness. From this level other rising galleries and a second level are driven, and so on till the whole enlarged part of the seam is opened, forming pillars twenty- five or thirty feet high, with a length that seems to be very variable. The timbering is now removed from the upper gallery, and the coal broken ck)wn from the roof, the miner working from a scaffolding. In this manner working from the farthest and uppermost pillars toward the main level the coal is all taken out, unless the extent of the enlarged part of the seam is too great, in which case piUars are left standing. The coal is all carried on basket-sleds to the main level, and through this to the surface. A great deal of timbering is used, chiefly the wood of fruit trees, etc., and costing at the mine twenty-nine cents per 100 lbs. One miner produces on the average about 700 lbs. daily, his wages being thirty- nine cents. About four-fifths of the coal is a mixture of small pieces and powder. The owner of the mine considered himself able to produce between thirty and forty tons, of coarse and fine, daily. The price at the mine is $3.60 per ton (2000 lbs.) for the lump coal, and |2.00 for the fine, which is bought to make cakes simi- lar to our patent fuel. The better varieties of the Fangshan cgif^ls are taken to a depot at the head of boat navigation on the Liuli Ho,^ about twelve miles from Fangshan, where the selling price is about $5.50 per ton. The better varieties of the Chaitang and Muntakau districts are carried on mules and camels to Peking, where the selling price of the former is about two and a half times the price at the mines. So far as I could ascertain, all the coal worked in the district of Fangshan and in the eastern portion of the Wangping field is anthracite. The only instance of an intrusive rock that I observed in the Fangshan district, was west of the city, Granite, b. Fine-grained micaceous rock. c. Sandstone altered to qnartzite. d. Limestone, e. Black play- shale with four seams/of anthracite, g. Quartzose conglomerate, h. Creek alluvion. * A tributary of the Peiho. CHIXA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 21 where a low ridge of granite runs N. S. and is succeeded on its western side by the vertical coal rocks, also trending N. S., while almost everywhere else in the district the strike of these last is E. AV. The preceding section is simply intended to show the relation of the strata to the granite.^ The limestone d, is about 600 feet thick, and seems to be a member of the Coal measures proper. The black shale e, with its seams of anthracite /, is about 500 feet thick. From the Plain of Peldng to Kalgan. As we approach the Nankau pass, through which lies the great high-road from Peking to Central and Western Asia, we find the edge of the plain deposit rising with a more rapid slope toward the bordering mountains, while at the same time, the firm, fine loam gives place to rolled fragments and gravel of limestone and granite, from the neighboring hills. The pass is reached by the transverse valley of the Nankau creek. Leaving the plain, we pass between lofty cliffs of limestone for about six miles, before reaching the axial granite of the ridge. The trend of the strata, which is N. 60'^ E., with a dip of 40° to S. E. by S. ^ S. at the edge of the plain, becomes irregular as we approach the granite, the beds being in places almost horizontal, and in others vertical ,and striking E. W. The latter case occurs at about two and a half miles from the plain, where a side ravine discloses a dyke of a black erup- tive rock, inclosed between the strata to which its plane is parallel. This rock has, in a black compact base, thin transparent crystals of amber colored triclinic feldspar. The dyke is only a few feet thick, and is made up of transverse columns. Near the grand marble arch of the Kiiyungkwan, the limestone is cut through by red porphyry, which is itself traversed by a greenstone dyke. The porphyry contains a little quartz, green mica, and crystals of ortlioclase in a compact pink base. The greenstone is apparently a fine-grained diorite. The granite of the Nankau pass consists chiefly of large crystals of flesh-colored orthoclase, black mica, and comparatively little quartz, with crystals of white triclinic feldspar. Near the middle of the pass there is a diiferent and somewhat remarka- ble variety, almost free from mica, and consisting of pearly white orthoclase and. gray quartz in nearly equal proportions. It is slightly cellular, containing prismatic crystals of white and smoky quartz in the small cavities. The first of these varieties is traversed near Chatau by dykes of a pink rock, consisting of a fine-grained mixture of orthoclase and quartz with very little green- ish mica — one of those rocks that form the link between quartziferous porphyry and true granite. These dykes are in places crossed by others, probably of diorite, consisting of a fine-grained mass of hornblende and feldspar. The ridge we have just crossed extends to the S. W., forming, in Shansi near the Chihli boundary, a series of high peaks which, on the 26th of April, 1864, were » Unfortunately most of the specimens and notes from tliis interesting locality were lost. 22 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN covered with snow, rendering their great domes visible frona the valley of the Yang Ho, towering above the mountains that occupy the intervening space of sixty or eighty miles. From the low Nankau pass, we descend to the Kwei Ho, a small tributary of the Yang Ho, Avhich occupies a broad N. E. S. W. valley. High terraces of a recent lake-deposit occupy the greater part of the valley, con- cealing the rocks and resting at "Chatau on the granite. About a mile west of Chatau rise small hills of a porphyry conglomerate, in beds trendisig E. N. E. and dipping to N. N. W. about 40°. As we go toward Yiiliii the fragments and rub- ble on the surface consist of porphyry, granite, and some limestone. Descending frotn the lake terraces and crossing the flats of the Kwei Ho we reach Hweilai (hien), situated on the terrace that fringes the northern border of the valley. Within the walls of this city limestone is seen to crop out in beds trending nearly N. E., and dipping to N. W. Going N. W. from here, over the terrace, the only index to the structure of the neighboring hiUs is in the angular and rounded fragments on the surface, and these consist of hornblendic gneiss, granite, quartz, porphyries and limestone till Shachung. BetAveen this city and the town of Sinpaungan the hills consist of the Coal mea- sures, resting on the limestone, which here dips N. W. into the mountains called Papaushan. (See sect. PI. III.) Between the coal rocks of this mountain and the remarkable limestone hill Kimingshan, there is an anticlinal basin filled with gravels of the lake terrace deposit, and formed by the erosion of an anticlinal fold of the limestone. Ip the Kiming mountain the limestone beds are almost vertical, and so highly metamorphosed that in places the rock is almost flint, and their trend has changed to N. S. On the western side of the hill are the vertical strata of the Coal measures with seams of anthracite of poor quality, that have long been worked. The coal rocks of Kiming bend around the northern end of the hill, and extend away to the east, while on the other side of the Yang Ho they seem to extend up the valley of the Sankang Ho. Crossing this small field to the northwest along the Yang Ho, we reach a deep gorge, through which the river traverses the limestone ridge that forms the northern border of the coal basin. In this gorge the limestone trends N. 70° to 75° E., dip- ping 25° to S. by E. J E. Near the village of Hiangshui (pu), at the N. W. end of the gorge, the limestone suddenly ceases, and an open country of low hiUs of a peculiar rock, an amygdaloid, succeeds to the high ridge of limestone. Near the line of contact, the limestone trends as before, E. by N., dipping to S. by E., Avhile the beds of the amygdaloid have the same trend, but a northerly dip. Here we seem to be on the line of an immense fault, for, although the fault itself was not seen, everything seems to point to it. The amygdaloid contains fragments of lime- stone, and strongly resembles in every respect a similar rock, which we shall see further on, forming a member of the Kiming Coal measures. This slip must, have been extensive, as the limestone cliff's seem to be nearly 1000 feet high. The amygdaloid, corresponding apparently to the Schalstein of the Germans,, is, perhaps, a tufa of the greenstone-porphyry that occurs in it in fragments. We soon emerge from these hills upon the plains of SiuenhAva (fu) , which occupy CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 23 another enlargement of the Yang Ho valley, and are also lake terrace deposits. The road lies over this lake bed till about ten miles N. E. of the city of Siuenhwa (fu), where a spur extends westward from the mountains. This spur consists of a double ridge, with an intervening longitudinal depression, the southernmost portion being formed by beds, highly inclined to N. and trending E. W., of quartzite, red argil- laceous sandstone, and a compact white rock, apparently an-altered argillite. »rhese beds, which seem to be the equivalent of the great limestone formation, will be referred to again in discussing the Hwaingan strata. The northern part of the double ridge is a remarkable porphyry, which has either traversed or overlies the last mentioned beds. This rock may be called the Kalgan^ porphyry, as it is extensively developed around that city, although it occurs also in the hills of the Gobi desert. It belongs to the trachytic series. On the southern flank of this spur the lake deposit rises rapidly toward the hills, and the firm loam, of which it here consists, is cut into by deep gullies. In one of these places a section is exposed of horizontal beds, apparently the tufas of the TWiiWilft ^^g-^ a. Terrace loam. b. WUite tufa. t. Red tnfaceous sandstone. Kalgan porphyry. The effects of an erosion previous to the deposition of the lake loam are visible. We shall find similar tufaceous deposits intimately associated with the Kalgan porphyry near that town. From the s^ur we have been examining we follow the road over the lake deposit, to Kalgan, or Changkiakau. High and rugged hills of the trachytic porphyry inclose the valley on the east, while to the north lies a higher range of mountains, which, as it forms a geographical as well as political boundary, and represents approximately the line of the Great Wall, we may call the Barrier range. a. White and red tufas, b. Kalgan porphyry, c. Tower of the Great Wall. At Kalgan this range is traversed by a gorge, with vertical walls, through Avhich a small stream finds its way to the Yang Ho from the edge of the Mongolian plateau. » The Russian name for Changkiakau, an important market town and gate of the Great Wall. 2i GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Here is the most important gate of the Great Wall through which pass all the caravans to Russia, and nearly all those that trade with Western Asia. The mountains here consist of the tufaceous rocks of the Kalgan porphyry, which are traversed by dykes, and contain beds, of the parent rock. The portions of the range where this formation predominates are easily distinguished from those con- sisting of the usual granite and metamorphic schists, the latter forming pyramidal hUls, while the former have the castellated appearance that is given by cliffs and dykes. The white and red tufas form low hills west of Kalgan, and in the wall of the gorge, in the Barrier range, beds of these rocks trending E. W., and dipping about 45° to N., seem to extend under the porphyry, Fig. 8. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 25 CHAPTER lY} STRTCTURE OP THE SOUTHERN EDGE OF THE GREAT TABLE' LAND, AND OF NORTHERN SHANSI AND CHIIILI. Two roads, slightly divergent, lead from Kalgan to Urtai on the plateau. About a mile and a half from the town, on the east road, the trachytic porphyry forma- tion appears, under circumstances that would seem to show that much of it is of pluto-neptunian origin. This formation extends several miles further north Snd northeast till it is limited by the metamorphic schists of the range. On the west road the same formation exists tni near Tutinza, on the northern side of the range, and furnishes slabs of tufa and blocks of porphyry for building purposes. The country crossed by the road between the Barrier range and the edge of the plateau is a depression, here abput nine mUes broad. On either side of the road are flat-topped hills 80 to 100 feet high, of gravel made up in great part of rolled fragments of quartziferous porphyry. This gravel, which I take to be of the same age as the lake loam and terrace deposits, also forms the low hills traversed by the eastern roa,d, where it covers a brown-coal basin probably of tertiary origin, of which, unfortunately, I was able to see only specimens of the coal. About half way between Tutinza and Hanoor the road begins to rise to the plateau, and leaving China proper, with the edge of the table-land, we reach the steppes of Tartary. The height of the edge is here 5,400 feet above the sea, according to the measure- ment of Fuss and v. Bunge, and probably not less than from 3,000 to 3,600 feet above Changkiakau, and the edge itself forms a precipitous wall to the south, while the plateau slopes oiF gently to the north. From a tower of the Great Wall, which crowns a hill near Hanoor, we have, spread out before us, a grand panorama of the surrounding country. The natural wall formed by the abrupt termination of the table-land stretches away from the tower far off to the west and northeast, bounding the valley south of it as a precipitous coast bounds the sea. Between us and the Barrier range, the depression, occupied by low hiUs of the eroded gravels, lies like a neutral belt between two regions of the earth in almost every respect widely different each from the other. To the south only barren and rugged mountains meet the eye, and beyond these to the Southern Ocean, the mountainous character is redeemed only by the fertile valleys of a few * For this Chapter see Map, PL No. 2, and Sections, PI. No. 3. April, isee. 23 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN large rivers. To the north lie the endless plains of Tartary rarely crossed by other than low ridges. At the point where the road begins to rise to the table-land, we enter upon the volcanic formation of Southern Mongolia. From the Jbase of the plateau-wall to the summit, we may look in vain for other than the rocks of this formation, and as we travel westward we shall see little else while on the plateau. Our road now follows a general westerly course, keeping near the edge of the table-land. The surface of the plateau along this route is everywhere cut into by valleys varying in depth from one to several hundred feet. The tops of the hills thus formed are flat, and in the same plane — that of the original plateau surface — excepting where the erosion has isolated small hills, in which case they present knobs lower than the general plane. The sides of these hills form in places cliffs, but more generally they slope off to the valley bottoms. The width of the valleys varies from a few hundred feet to three or four miles, the smaller ones sometimes narrowing to a gorge, and again reopening to their usual size. They frequently form fertile meadows with brooks winding through them, and are then the camping grounds of the Mongols, and the pastures of their large herds of sheep, horses, cows, and camels. The pasture is not confined to the bottoms, the whole country, hill and valley, being clothed Avith excellent grass. Soon after leaving Hanoor we reach a small lake, or rather pond, without outlet, inclosed in the depression between several knobs. It is difiicult to understand how these small depressions are formed, unless we suppose them to represent former inequalities in the bottoms of valleys once occupied by running streams. Such small lakes are characteristic of Mongolia, and we shall have occasion to notice several. Continuing westward, the road passes the lama-monastery of Boroseiji, and ascends the grassy valley of a small tributary of the Narin Gol.^ This stream rises at the very edge of the plateau, flows N. E. by Urtai, and turning to the south de- scends from the plateau at Teutai, and passing through the gorge at Changkiakau, joins the Yang Ho. Leaving the system of this stream, we pass over a ridge, part of the original plateau, near which is a hill rising several hundred feet above us, consisting, to judge froin fragments on the surface near by, of chloritic gneiss. This is an isolated peak, rising through the volcanic formation which has buried the rest of the ridge. Descending to the west we enter another fine valley, apparently that of a tributary of Angouli Noor.^ Through this valley flows a creek which, near the Mongol village of Hanoortai, widens to a small lake, the abode in summer of thousands of wild ducks. From this valley the road passes over a low ridge and descends by a nar- row, rocky defile to the plain of Taulichuen, in which is the source of one of the tributaries of the Yang Ho. We have here left the plateau, and are among the cul- tivated fields of the Chinese,^ but we are stUl on the volcanic formation. * Go], Mong. for river. Wherever this word occurs in this itinerary it refers only to small brooks. ' Noor, Mong. for lake. • The Chinese are forbidden by law the cultivation of land on the plateau. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 27 Leaving tlus plain, we again rise to the table-land, and following, for six or seven miles, its abrupt edge we come again to a sudden descent by which we leave it and enter upon a rolling country. The plateau wall makes here a great bend, trending away to the northwest. * The ^country over which our road now lies is a rolling plateau formed by a broad swell, or ridge, of the granitic and schistose rocks, from which the volcanic plateau covering has been eroded. On it are the sources of another tributary of the Yang Ho. The rocks are granite, syenite, and crystalline metamorphic schists. This bay-shaped indentation of the southern edge of the plateau is about 15 or 20 miles broad; it is drained in part by a valley descending toward the southwest, and is surrounded on the east, Avest, and north ^j the wall of the higher plateau. The northern portion of this bay forms a depression that is only partially drained, and which at times is evidently a marshy region, while it contains at all seasons three small lakes — Gurban Noor. In April the country about these lakes was covered with scattered tufts of grass, between which the dry clayey surface was white with an efflorescence of soda, and the borders of the lakes also were incrusted with a dazzling layer of the same salt. About two miles west of the Mongolian camp of Gurban Nopr, the higher table- land again begins, but with a somewhat different character. Rising to the top of a granite ridge, we descend a little on the west into a plateau-valley. On either side and before us are everywhere the same flat-topped hills we. have seen forming the table-land, but they are only the remnants of a volcanic covering insignificant in thickness compared with that we have seen farther east. The valleys have every- where cut through this covering and into the granito-schistose foundation. Our road now lies through a succession of circular and oblong meadow-valleys, connected by narrow outlets, thus forming one valley-course, and containing a small brook, the Hoyurtoloho Gol, which flows S. E. The meadow enlargements are evi- dently the beds of small lakes filled with the detritus of the surrounding volcanic and granitic rocks. Following this valley in a general S. W. direction from the Mongol camp, Hoyur- toloho Gol, we descend through a narrow defile in chloritic granite, into another bay cut out of the plateau, and open to the S. E., where the drainage finds an exit through the valley of the Si Ho, another tributary of the Yang Ho. Soon after leaving the gorge, by which we have descended, the road crosses a lava stream one or two thousand feet broad, and from sixty to eighty feet thick, which crosses the valley, and is cut throiigh by the rivulet. In this section it shows columnar structure,- and is in places porous and amygdaloidal. A mountain form- ing apparently a detached portion of the neighboring plateau, and having the ap- pearance of a half-destroyed crater, seems to be the origin of the stream. The eruption causing this occurrence must have been subsequent to the erosion of this part of the plateau, and was probably subaerial. The locality is interesting as being the only one in which I noticed traces of true volcanic action more recent than that to which the volcanic formation of Southern Mongolia owes its origin. Crossing the valley of the Si Ho, which leaves this bay-shaped depression at the 28 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN S. E., we enter another valley opening in the S. "VV. Frequent fragijients of a cal- careous deposit strewed over the surface indicate the action of mineral springs. Gradually ascending this valley, which, as well as that of the Si Ho, is occupied by a deposit of loam, probably contemporanecms with the terrace loam of the Yang Ho, we reach a point where this loam deposit, by forming a bar across the valley, causes a low watershed, on one side of which any drainage there may be flows north to the Si Ho, and on the other south to the undrained lake Chaganoussu. We shall see that this remarkable occurrence of alluvial watersheds stretching across valleys is intimately connected with the formation of the undrained lakes of this portion of IMongolia, having its origin in a former system of great inland lakes, and its continuance in the dryness of thje climate. The grassy valley of Chaganoussu has two other openings through the plateau, one on the east connecting it with the Si Ho valley, and another on the west leading to the Kir Noor. Both of these are crossed by bars covered by the terrace loam, if not entirely formed by it. Our road, after skirting the shallow pond of Chaganoussu enters the valley leading to the southwest, and passing the dried up bed of the Ho- yur Noor descends through a narrow defile till it emerges into the great depression of the Kir Noor. From the Si Ho to this point the rocks, both of the adjoining plateau and of the exposed parts of the valley bottom, belong throughout to the volcanic formation. From the edge of the plateau, near where the road enters the Kir Noor valley, a view of the whole of this ancient lake-bed is spread out beneath us. It is a large plain about 15 miles broad, its longer axis trending about N. N. W. On both sides the lofty and bold plateau edge is seen stretching away to N. N. W. and S. S. E., as far as the eye can reach, without meeting to inclose the valley. Away to the southwest of us a distant portion of the plain covered with a dazzling Avhite efflorescence marks the position of the Kir Noor of a few years since. From this, the most depressed part of the plain, the surface rises toward every point of the compass. Far away to the north a bar of the lake deposit seems to stretch from wall to wall of the valley, while in the south this is certainly the case. Over this southern alluvial bar the peaks of the Barrier range are seen in the distance. To the N. N. W. a distant peak, capped with snow (April 18th), is visible rismg above the level line of the table-land. The edge of the plateau on both sides of the valley, wherever I visited it, consists of the volcanic formation, from the summit to under the lake deposits, but the pre- sence on the surface of the latter of granite detritus indicates the presence of the older rocks at no great distance. East of the Mongol village of Hoyurbaishin, a gully exposes a section of the plain deposit near where this abuts against the edge of the plateau. The deposit is stratified, and its beds have the same dip as the surface of the plain. It consists of coarse sandstones and fine conglomerates, formed from the detritus of the neigh- boring volcanic rocks and cemented by a calcareous mineral, the product, perhaps, of springs, which enveloping each grain or pebble with concentric layers produces a hard rock. The only trees seen in the valley of the Kirnoor were two old ones CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 29 growing in tins gully, nor did we meet witli any others either on the plateau or in its valleys. The lake is said to he drying up, and the Mongols say that its waters have flowed into the T^ Hai farther west, an apparently unfounded belief, as there is no surface communication between the two lakes, and the natives on the shores of the Te Hai were not aware of any increase in its volume. StiU it is evident that the waters of the Kir Noor are rapidly disappearing, and the cause, whether this be only tempo- rary or a constantly operating change in the climate, has been acting for at least several years. Among the lakes we have already noticed, the Chaganoussu is also disappearing, and the adjoining Hoyur Noor has for several years been represented only by its dry bed. The greater part of the plain of the Kir Noor valley is clothed with grass, and supports large herds of sheep, but as we approach the recent lake-bed the surface is eroded by dry, shallow water-^courses, and is covered with tufts only of grass, between which the ground is bare and cracked. This was apparently a marsh sur- rounding the lake of which, a little further west, the dry bed is visible covered with the white soda efilorescence, and stretching several miles west, north, and south.-^ The walls of this great valley, formed by the abrupt edge of the plateau, are marked by a series of lines at different heights, and extending apparently hori- zontally, and on the same level, along the faces of both sides of the valley. They are reproduced on an island-like hill that rises from the plain, and are visible at a distance of from ten to twelve miles to the naked eye. They are defined, where the slope is gentle, by a continuous mass of large and small fragments of rock, and on the steep declivities by slight variation in the angle of slope. I was able to examine these lines in only one locality, and there they appeared to be independent of the structure of the plateau, and I can account for them only on the supposition that they mark former water levels. Following the road from Hoyurbaishin to the Te Hai we cross, at about the middle of the valley, a small stream of fresh water flowing from the north, and which is seen to empty into the remnant of the lake a mile or two south of the road. StiU farther west the road lies through a marshy tract. Two or three miles west of this we reach a terrace of the lake-deposit, which descending rapidly from the western side of the valley, faces the plain with a bluff. As the road ascends a ravine in this terrace, the increasing proportion of fragments of granite and gneiss shows that we are in the neighborhood of a rise in the granite foundation, while a few miles to the north a ridge -rising several hundred feet above the level of the plateau, seems to be the source of the fragments in question. As we leave the terrace and the valley of Kir Noor, we pass a deep and gloomy gorge cut through the plateau to its very foundation. Where seen it is barely separated by a low ridge from a valley that leads into the Kir Noor. This chasm seems to lead to the Karaoussu, a tributary of the Tourgen Gol, which is an affluent of the Yellow river. The valley by which we leave the plain leads us in a S. S. W. > For the results of an examination of the dried mud of the recent lake-bed, see Nos. 1 and 12 in Mr. A. M. Edwards' Letter, Appendix No. 3. 30 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN direction gradually ascending, the* flat-topped hills of the table-land shutting us in on both sides, till we reach a watershed from which we look down on a large, deep, circular valley, covered with grazing herds, and ornamented with the gilded spires of a lama-temple. This valley is shut in on the north and west by the volcanic forma- tion of the plateau, but its southern wall is of granite and gametic gneiss, capped here and there by thin remnants of the plateau mantle. Still farther south, after passing the village of Yingmachuen the plateau formation predominates, and the long descent into the valley of the Te Hai^ is entirely over its rocks. The great depression of the Te Hai is about twelve miles broad, and so far as the plateau is concerned, appears to be open to the S. W. in the direction of its longer axis. The northwestern side is formed by a serrated range of mountains, which rises about 2,000 feet above the lake, between this and the plateau. The eastern waU is of gneiss capped with the volcanic plateau formation, and the same would seem to be the case with the southern wall, while, as we have seen, the northeastern side is volcanic in its entire height. Thus the thickness of fiie volcanic mantle varies, within a few mUes, several hundred feet. The northeastern end of "the valley contains an extensive deposit of the terrace - loam. This faces the lake with a bluff that stretches N. W. S. E. across the valley. From this line the terrace rises toward the N. E. at first gradually, and then rapidly, until in the long northeastern arm of the vaUey and in the side valleys, its surface is several himdred feet above the lake. Below this terrace Explain rises gently from the lake toward the mountains. The terrace deposit is a firm, stratified loam, containing, near the hills, numerous fragments of the neighboring rocks and layers of gravel. It is cut into by deep ravines, in the sides of one of which, about five miles east of the lake, I found several species of fresh-water univalves. The lake is apparently about eight miles long by four or five broad. Its water is salt, though far less so than seawater, and is not bitter. The flat surrounding it is covered with a thin coating of soda efflorescence.^ While the valley of the Kir Noor is occupied exclusively by the Mongols and their herds, that of the Te Hai is cultivated by Chinese, only one or two Mongol camps being seen. Ancient watch towers, that dominate these plains, and from which signals could be made to the long line of similar posts on the Great Wall, are silent monuments of a time when the shores of these lakes were the home of an aggres- sive race, ever threatening a descent into the fertile regions of China. Rising with the terrace, the road leads us to the hills that form the southeastern wall of the valley, and we pass through these by a deep and rocky ravine, in which the pass is situated. These hills are, as I have already " said, of gneiss, characterized by an abundance of garnets, and capped with the volcanic mantle. The stratification trends, in the main, N. E. and dips 75° to N. W. Garnetiferous granulite, from these ' Daikha Noor of the Mongols. " For negative results of a microscopical examination of the deposits, both of the terrace and the flats, see Nos. 2 and 3, in Mr. A. M. Edwards' Letter, Appendix No. 3. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 31 hills, occurs in the terrace deposits on their N. W. flank. From this hill we descend into a small valley which empties into that of the Te Ilai. In this valley the terrace loam is present to the height of probably not less .than 250 feet above the lake. From here the road descends to the deep channel cut through the plateau, which connects the great valley of the Te Hai with that of the Sankang Ho. This channel is cut to the bottom of the volcanic mantle, here apparently over 1,000 feet thick, and into the metamorphic rocks on which it lies. In this channel we meet with another of those remarkable wateiisheds of terrace deposit which stretching from wall to wall, slopes on the west toward the Te Hai, and on the east toward the vaUey of the Sankang Ho. The material formingthis bar is almost loose sand mixed with fragments from the volcanic and metamorphic rocks, and is but little, if at all, eroded on the western flank, while there are gullies on the eastern in which highly inclined beds of granulite, containing garnets, are exposed. At Maanmiau the vaUey opens to form the broad, swampy plain of Fungching, rising from which are frequent low hillocks of gneiss in strata trending between E. and N. E. Here the high plateau leaves the road; the part that has formed the southern side of the valley since leaving the Te Hai, now trends away to the S. S. ^V. till the steep face and level outline of its edge are lost in the far distance. On the other side, the part which has formed the northern wall of the valley, continues a few miles farther, and then, before reaching Fungching, bears away to E. N. E. Although Ave have here left the higher plateau, we have not yet reached the south- ern limit of the volcanic formation. At a level of perhaps 1,000 feet below the surface of the higher plateau begins the lower plateau, the flat surface of which is 200 or 300 feet above the valley, and extends southward from the very edge of the higher. It consists of the same volcanic formation as the higher table-land of which it was, I think, without doubt, once the continuation, the continuity having been broken by an immense fault — a supposition to which I shall recur further on. The marshy plain of Fungching is fringed in places with low, flat hills, which owe their form to the terrace deposit of loam, but under this, consist of a bright red, sometimes loose material, apparently a wacke or a product of the decomposition of the volcanic rocks. In this are fragments of a red calcareous mineral, a product of the action of waters on the adjoining rock before or during its alteration. We shall see a similar mineral filling crevices in the volcanic plateau formation. It is perhaps the result of the metamorphic action of mineral springs rising along the great fault-line. A few miles beyond Fungching our road rises to the surface of the lower plateau, and we obtain an open view from a ruined part of the Great Wall. To the north we can see the precipitous edge of the higher table-land stretching far aAvay to the northeast, the break in it formed by the valley of the Kir Noor, and its continuation beyond this toward the Si Ho.^ To the south and east we see the barren crest and peaks of the Barrier range. Between the higher table-land and this sierra is the lower plateau on the southernmost spur of which we are standing. The valley we In Mongol, Djookha Gol. 32 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN have followed from the Te Hai passes beneath us, and continues south to Tatung (fu) and the Sankang Ho ; it is well watered and fertile. Crossing this southern promontory of the lower plateau the road descends into the valley of Kwantung (pu), a depression occupied by another tributary of the San- kang Ho, and lying between the lower plateau and the Barrier range. This range and a spur from it, form the southern and eastern limits of the valley, and the lower plateau forms the northern side, while to the west it is open. A quarry about half way up the edge of the plateau presents a good though limited section in the volcanic formation. In this quarry two beds are visible — a lower one of crystalline lava, which, toward the top, becomes porous and passes into a true scoria, and an upper bed of more compact lava. Crevices extending through both these beds are filled with a calcareous segregation. The terrace deposit sweeps from the vaUey of Fungching around the southern spur of the lower plateau, into the valley of Kwantung, from the centre of which it rises rapidly up to the sides of the mountains, fiUing their ravines, to a height of several hundred feet above the middle of the valley. From the mountains forming the northeastern side a low spur juts out, narrowing the valley, and in the space between the point of this spur and the southern wall of the valley there is another of those remarkable watersheds to which I have seve- ral times alluded. The terrace deposit rises from the west to form this bar (though without reaching a height at all comparable to that to which it rises on the moun- tain sides) and falls off again toward the southeast. Crossing this bar, and descending toward the southeast, we traverse the Barrier range by a deep and narrow gorge about eight miles long, through which flows a small stream which, taking its rise in the northeastern part of the valley of Kwan tung, empties into the Yang Ho. tn this gorge the range is seen to consist of crystalline metamorphic schists, chiefly gneiss, hornblende gneiss, hornblende schist, and hypersthenite, in strata varying in trend between N. N. W. and N. N. E., the dip at the two ends of the defile being toward the centre. The terrace deposit occurs in this gorge and its side ravines, high above the stream, and on emerging into the great valley of Yangkau it is seen rising from the plain with an unbroken surface high up the sides of the Sierra north of the Yang- kau valley, while south of the mouth of the defile it exist only as terraces several hundred feet above the plain. The terrace deposit extends from here down the valley of the Yang Ho to form the plains and terraces of the enlargements of the valley at Siuenhwa (fu) and Shachung. But it is not confined to the present river systems, for east of Tienching (hien) it caps the lower part of the ridge between the valleys of Yangkau (hien) and Hwaingan (hien) forming a plateau of loam several hundred feet above the valleys. Following the road from Yangkau to Tienching, we have on the north the Barrier range, a rugged sierra of which the barren peaks must be from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high, above the valley. Along the line where the terrace deposit terminates on the steep flank of the sierra, extends the now ruined Great Wall of China, with its towers and parapets, till at a point opposite Tienching it crosses the mountains to CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 33 extend northward to the high plateau. The southern side of the valley is formed by a lower ridge, beyond which higher mountains are seen, and over these the dis- tant snow-capped^ peaks, or rather domes, of the range south of the Sankang Ho. Leaving the valley of the Yang Ho neat Tienching, we cross over the terrace- capped ridge before mentioned, into the valley of Hwaingan (^hien). To the north of the road in crossing, and north of the whole valley of Hwaingan, the hills are seen to consist of alternating strata of a bright red rock and of a harder rock, in anticlinal and synclinal folds. The fragments brought by streams from the hill forming the western part of the southern side of the valley, are gneiss and horn- blende schist. Following the Hwaingan creek to the northeast, the road approaches, near where it emerges into the valley of the Yang Ho, a' fine section in the strata of the northern hills. Resting on gneiss are strata of highly metamorphosed rocks, the continuation of those we saw in the hills between Siuenhwa (fu) and Kalgan, and which for the present may be called the Hwaingan beds. The valley of Hwaingan trends N. E. by E., and this seems to be about the strike of the strata. In the exit into the valley of the Yang Ho, the Hwaingan creek flows through a gorge formed by the erosion, parallel to its axis, of an anticlinal ridge of the Hwaingan beds. From this point our road crosses the valley of the Yang Ho, and brings us again to Kalgan. KALGAN TO SIWAN AND SINPAUNGAN. Leaving Kalgan the road runs in a northeasterly direction through a deep gorge, with vertical walls, in the Kalgan trachytic porphyry, and its pluto-neptunian deposits, as far as Ulanhada. At this village it leaves the valley of the main stream, and turning into a tributary valley, winds with this through the mountains, following an easterly course to the Roman mission of Siwan. For eight or ten miles we see only the rocks of the Kalgan porphyry, but before reaching the village of Siyin'sz, these are followed by the crystalline metamorphic schists, which in turn are suc- ceeded, before we reach Siwan, by syenitic granite. This last is eruptive, dykes of it traversing the metamorphic strata, and the main body often containing frag- inents of the schists. This rock forms the mountains around and beyond Siwan. From Kalgan to this point, and beyond, the terrace deposit occupies the sides of the mountains, and at Siwan its terraces form the sides of the valley to the height of from 200 to 300 feet above the creek, and its vertical cliffs show it to be a fine, compact loam. In it the Chinese excavate their dwellings in suites of apartments having doors, windows, and partition walls, all cut in the loa,m. The walls are simply plastered over to prevent the dust from falling, and in this condition they last as long, if not longer, than the ordinary houses built of sunburnt clay.^ In the » 26th April, 1864. ' These excavations are common wherever the terrace deposit occurs in Northern China. 5 May, 1866. 34: GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN course of these excavations, fossil remains of quadrupeds are obtained in consider- able numbers, especially horns of deer.^ Leaving Siwan the road lies first southeast, then south, crossing two ridges of chloritic gneiss and chloritic schist, and descending into the large oval valley of Chauchuen. This valley is occupied by the terrace deposit. Our road ascends the ridge forming the southern side of the valley. On the northern flank are the crys- talUne metamorphic schists covered by limestone, and over this beds of porphyry breccia vi^ith dykes of eurite. The terrace deposit rises almost to the summit of this ridge on both sides. Descending through the deep gullies in the terrace loam, the road enters the valley of a creek that empties into the Yang Ho, just north of the Kiming mountain. From this valley Ave cross the ridge, by a low pass east of the Kiming mountain, into the valley of the Yang Ho, and descend to Sinpaungan. The low pass is covered by the terrace deposit, and beneath this on the northern flank are the coal rocks of the Kiming field, among which I saw a greenstone por- phyry conglomerate similar to that at Hiangshui (pu), and probably its equivalent. The terrace deposit in the pass consists of loam with gravel and fragments of the neighboring rocks, and occupies a higher level than the terraces of the valley to the south. I will now attempt a general description of the principal rocks met with on the above journey. I am well aware that the following description can have but a very limited value, owing to the absence both of chemical determinations and of closer observations of the modes of occurrence. Granitic and Crystalline Metamorphic Series. Distribution. — These two classes of rocks form either collectively or individually the main body of every ridge we have traversed. Of them consist the ridges that rise through and above the volcanic mantle of the plateau, and they form the foundation on which this rests wherever the foundation was seen. Indeed, they are the skeleton of this region, supporting the limestone floor of the coal rocks. Granite predominates in the first range where we crossed it in the Nankau pass ; in the other localities, if it exist, it is covered by the crystalline schists. Unstratified Granitic Rochs. — The main body of the ridge between Nankau and Chatau consists of a granite containing two varieties of feldspar, about equally dis- tributed in crystals varying from an eighth of an inch to three-quartgrs in length. These are pink orthoclase and a white triclinic feldspar. The mica is a dark green almost black, probably magnesian variety, and quartz is present in comparatively small quantity. It is thus a granitite. Near the middle of the pass is another variety, of even grain, consisting of only white orthoclase and gray quartz, the latter often in sharply-defined, small prismatic crystals imbedded in the mass. It is somewhat remarkable from small cells in which ' As all the fossils of any value had been sent to Paris previous to my visit, I was unable to obtain any that were worth examining. It is to be desired that those now in Paris will be determined and described in order to fix the age of the terrace formation. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 35 ends and corners of small crystals of the constituent feldspar and quartz are sharply- developed. The hills immediately surrounding Siwan, in the Great Wall range, east of Kal- gan, consist of a reddish-gray syenite composed mainly of orthoclase, some gray triclinic feldspar, crystals of hornblende, and a little quartz. Large crystals of orthoclase render it porphyroid. Near the contact of this rock Avith the crystalline schists west of Siwan, dykes of it are seen in the latter, while fragments of the schists inclosed in the main body of the syenite are additional proof that it is eruptive, and younger than the metamorphic schist formation. Fragments of this syenite are inclosed in the pluto-neptunian rocks of the Kalgan porphyry. A syenite of medium grain, composed of slightly pink orthoclase and hornblende, occurs over a large part of the rolling land east of Murkwoching. Fragments of a fine red granitite occur in the bed of the Yang Ho near Kiming, and blocks of a red rock composed of fresh, bright-red orthoclase and grains of a soft, talcose or steatitic mineral, thus approaching a protogine, are common in the Hwaingan creek. At this latter locality there are many fragments of a rock, con- sisting entirely of a coarsely crystalline, triclinic, feldspar, apparently labradorite, of a grayish tinge tending to blue and weathering white. It contains scattered crys- tals of a mineral resembling sahlite. Crystalline MetamorpJiiG Rocks. — The tilted and folded strata of these rocks form for the most part all the ridges we have passed over after leaving Chatau. In the hills northeast of Shachung are beds belonging to the chloritic series — white triclinic feldspar, quartz, chlorite, and magnetic iron — a variety of chloritic gneiss. In the hills traversed by the road from Kalgan to Siwan, and south to Chauchuen, the predominating rocks are stiU those of the chloritic series. In the hills south of Siwan I observed chloritic gneiss — orthoclase, chlorite, and quartz — and schist of nearly pure chlorite. In the mountains between Kalgan and Siwan, another well- defined variety of chloritic gneiss occurs, in which the feldspar is, in great part, triclinic. Schists of the hornblendic series also play an important part in this region. They are composed of a greenish-white triclinic feldspar and hornblende, sometimes one of these minerals predominating, sometimes the other. The trend of the uplifts in this region, though irregular, seems to lie between N. and W. Under the Hwaingan beds near Kiu Hwaingan, the metamorphic schists here represented by gneiss, lie with a remarkable approximation to conformability with these younger strata. This gneiss consists of orthoclase and quartz, and is very poor in mica, excepting on the surface of the slabs into which it breaks. The Barrier range, where we cross it west of Yangkau, is formed mainly of schists of the hornblendic series. Among these are extensive strata of a rock com- posed of black hornblende, with strongly defined prismatic cleavage, abundant gar- nets, and a little white feldspar. Another rock occurs among these strata composed of a greenish-white triclinic feldspar associated with a little black mica, quartz, and hornblende. The substructure of the plateau, southeast of the Te Hai, is of granulite and gneiss. The former rock is in places fine grained and schistose with minute gar- nets, but occurs more generally with a coarser structure, in which it is seen to con- 36 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN sist of white ortlioclase and thin lenticular plates or bands of gray quartz, with abundant irregular grains of garnet of the size of a pea. The gneiss of this locality runs through several varieties, all alike rich in garnets. Gneiss with garnets is also exposed under the volcanic beds at Yingmachuen, north- east of the Te Hai. Thus where we cross the Barrier range west of Yangkau, we find the pre- dominating schists to be of the hornblendic series. In the echelon to the east, between the Yang Ho and Hwaingan creek, the schists, that underlie the Hwaingan beds, are mainly of the micaceous series, gneiss being most common. The schists that are exposed west of the Barrier range, between this and the Te Hai, and at Yingmachuen, belong, as we have seen, also mostly to the micaceous series, gneiss predominating and alternating with its congener — granulite. The general trend of the uplift of these latter schists, in the region between Kiu Hwaingan and the Te Hai, is northeasterly and parallel to the course of the Barrier range, while the mean strike of the schists of the hornblendic series, in the main body of tJie range, seems to be north-northwesterly. If we glance at the metamorphic region east of Kalgan, we find that its schists belong to the hornblendic and chloritic series, and here also the mean strike seems to lie between north and west. Have we here to do with the metamorphosed strata of two distinct periods t. It would be hasty to assume that such is the case in the absence of more data, but it does not seem improbable that the schists of the hornblendic and chloritic series represent deposits of an earlier age followed by N. W. S. E. foldings of the strata, while the gneiss and granulite series belong to a later epoch which was followed by the N. E. S. W. disturbance. Hwaingan Beds. — These strata, which have already been referred to as resting almost conformably on gneiss, cover the hills on both sides of the Hwaingan creek, and occur with an easterly trend and northerly dip at the edge of the hiUs, N. W. of Siuenhwa (fu). They are made up of layers of compact and hard, gray silicious limestone, with quartzose sandstones, red and gray argiUites, and quartzite. The predominating rock would seem to be the limestone. The aggregate thickness is several hundred feet. The lowest layers are, first, and resting on the gneiss, a fine grained sandstone, green from thin layers of a green mineral ; over this, sandstone altered to quartzite ; on this a red argillaceous shale ; finally, silicious limestone containing numerous thin layers of chert. The alternating beds at the bottom of the series vary in thickness from six inches to many feet, and in the clifi's seen from the road, I noticed that they frequently thin out and dovetail into each other, an occur- rence that seems to indicate frequently changing conditions of level and material. The Hwaingan beds appear to be the equivalent of the great limestone floor of the coal-bearing rocks, and their character and thinness would seem to indicate that they were formed on the borders of the sea in which that great formation originated. The limestone of the Kiming basin is highly silicified, and its thickness seems to be much less than that of the same formation where it rises from beneath the great plain. Ore^nstone-Porphi/ry Conglomerate. — The beds of this rock were noticed near CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 37 Hiangshui (pu), and also in the coal field of Kiming, where they occur apparently as members of the coal-bearing series, and at a higher level than the loAver coal seams. The fragments of porphyry that form the characteristic feature of this deposit, have a base that vtiries in texture, from compact to finely crystalline, in color from dark reddish-brov^n to black, and that effervesces slightly in dilute muriatic acid. It contains numerous thin, oblong crystals, of a white triclinic feldspar, from one- oighth to three-quarters of an inch long. Through the base are scattered grains of a A^hite mineral, apparently a zeolite, and scales of what seems to be ichthy- ophthalmite. In places, these fragments make up the greater part of the deposit, and it is then difiicult to distinguish the inclosed from the inclosing rock. In other places the blocks are scattered through a finely crystalline, dark reddish-brown rock, that is irregularly impregnated with a carbonate, and about as hard as compact limestone. It contains also pieces of an amygdaloidal rock, the cells of which are filled with calcite and a white zeolite ; blocks of limestone are also found in it. The general appearance and manner of occurrence of this deposit suggests the idea that it is of pluto-neptunian origin, and perhaps contemporaneous with the eruption of the greenstone-porphyry. I will add that I did not meet with dykes of this porphyry. Kalgan Trachytic Porphyry. — This rock, and its pluto-neptunian deposits form the hiRs around Kalgan, and those that, extending S. E. from that city, send out a spur to the west crossing the road from Siuenhwa. The porphyry in question is very variable in color, the most common variety being brown, but all shades occur from pitch-black to Avhite, red, and green. The texture of the rock is compact, often almost vitreous, but in structure it ranges from the solid rock of the Kalgan mountain to the cellular and often almost pumiceous variety of the spur between Kalgan and Siuenhwa. Crystals of white, transparent orthoclase, or glassy feldspar, are always present, and are generally so limpid as to take the color of the variety in which they are imbedded. Small grains "of pellucid quartz occur more rarely, but seem in places to belong to the primary ingredients, though they are generally secondary. Mica and hornblende are always absent. The cells are sometimes long-cylindrical, but more generally flattened, though lying in the same direction. They are filled with different varieties of quartz, as cornelian, chalcedony, and a black silex. More rarely they are filled with calcite. The base of this rock fuses easily before the blowpipe to a white vesicular glass on the edges. In intimate connection with this porphyry are strata of a deposit which, from their character and manner of occurrence, appear to be of pluto-neptunian origin, and were probably formed contemporaneously with the eruption of the porphyry. These consist chiefly of a tufa, varying in color from white and gray to purple, and in hardness between that of chalk and limestone. Its texture is rough and earthen in appearance. Through the mass are scattered crystals of glassy feldspar, grains of limpid quartz, and hexagonal scales of dark-brown mica. 38 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Beds of another rock occur, of brick-red and brown colors, and having an earthy base, with small, brilliant crystals of glassy feldspar and grains of pellucid quartz, and inclosing small fragments of other rocks. This deposit is visible on the southern flank of the spur between Kalgan and Siuenhwa, underlying the terrace loam in horizontal beds (Fig. 7). At the base of the high hill north of Kalgan the tufa beds are seen to dip under the porphyry at an angle of about 45° (Fig. 8), and trending west they form a series of detached hills. On the roads leading to Tutinza, Teutai, and Siwan, they are traversed by a perfect network of dykes of the porphyry, which rock also caps the summits of the hills, its vertical cliffs and outstanding dykes giving them a bold and castellated appearance. ,. Although no analyses of these rocks have been made, there is, I thinli, little doubt that we have here to do with a trachytic porphyry and its tufas. Volcanic Formation of the Plateau. — The southern elevated edge of the Great Plateau is formed, between the 112th and 115th meridians, of an immense lava bed. How much further it extends beyond the limits given above, or how large its breadth may be toward the north, is unknown ; I have only tried to indicate on the map the region which I observed it to occupy. Its breadth is, in places, not less than forty miles, and this may be only a fraction of the real width. The thickness of the formation is, necessarily, very variable as it fills the in- equalities of what was once a mountainous country. At Hanoor it seems to be not less than fifteen hundred feet thick, and the same may be said of it in other locali- ties visited, while we have seen it in places represented by only a thin sheet, covering the metamorphic schists, where these rise to near the surface. The rocks of this formation may be classed under two types — the one basaltic, the other trachytic. The basaltic rocks were observed more particularly near Hanoor and to the N. E. of that place. Both compact and finely crystalline varieties occur. They are generally, especially the latter variety, poor in olivine and contain here and there crystals of basaltic hornblende. At many places in the neighborhood of Hanoor, fragments of a cellular variety occur on the sides of the valleys, in a manner that would seem to indicate, that there is a horizontal bed of it, marking the plane of contact between two flows of lava. The rocks of the other type are throughout crystalline, though often the texture is very fine, and are generally porous. In color they vary from black to dark gray, while some varieties, especially when weathered, are light gray. In some instances hornblende, or augite, enter abundantly into the composition of the rock, but more generally it seems to consist almost exclusively of white or yellow, triclinic feld- spar with greasy lustre, partly in tabular crystals, partly massive. Scattered through this mass are minute specks or grains of a dark to light green mineral, Avith glassy lustre and conchoidal fracture, harder than the knife when fresh, soft and resinous in lustre when altered. The feldspar is probably oligoklas. A characteristic feature of the difi'erent varieties of this rock is the extreme rarity or total absence of magnetic iron. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 39 This lava seems to belong to the trachydoleritic series. Of its varieties consist nearly the whole of that portion of the volcanic formation that was traversed by my route. That it obtained its great development on the surface by successive flows, is evident from the stratiform structure of this part of the plateau. The only locality in which I observed an exposed section of comparatively fresh rock, was in a quarry at Kwantung (pu), on the lower plateau. Here a bed of lava, crystalline at the bottom of the section, becomes porous toward the top, and, finally, highly vesicular and highly scoriaceous, this structure marking the top of the flow. Above this is a bed of more compact lava than the lower. Crevices extending through both of these beds are filled with a calcareous segregation product. I am unable to account for the occurrence of this immense lava formation, except- ing by the supposition that the successive flows took place from an immense crack, the position of which is perhaps indicated by the great fault line along which the dislocation took place between the higher and lower plateau. Terrace Deposit} — The loam of this formation has been frequently mentioned in the previous pages. It occurs in the valley of every tributary of the Yang Ho and probab^ also of the Sankang Ho. It exists in the form of terraces between Chatau and Kiming, and these undoubtedly occur in the valley of the Sankang Ho from Paungan (chau) to Tatung (fu). Between the Kiming hill and the Papau moun- tain, a terrace of coarse detritus overlooks the valley of Hweilei (hien), its surface being several hundred feet above the Yang Ho. In the valley of Siuenhwa (fu) this deposit seems to have sufi'ered less from erosion, and rises, generally without terraces, at first gently then rapidly toward the bordering mountains, filling ravines high up their sides. Our road to the north lay over this deposit, as we skirted the hills between Siuenhwa and Kalgan, and we saw it fringing the Kalgan gorge with isolated terraces high above the river. Leaving this gorge, and ascending the vaUey of the Siwan creek, we found it in continuous terraces, which even at the Roman mission of Siwan, rise 200 or 300 feet above the creek. Going southwest from Kalgan, we find this deposit continuous from the vaUey of Siuenhwa irito that of Hwaingan, and we have already seen how it forms a plateau capping the ridge between this valley and the Yang Ho at Tienching. It is also undoubtedly represented along the Yang Ho from this place to Kalgan. "We have seen it, between Tienching and Yangkau, rising unbroken from the plain to high up the sides of the Barrier range, and continuous from here, in terraces, through the defile west of Yangkau into the valley of Kwantung (pu), and thence around the southern spur of the lower plateau through the valley of Fung- ching and the deep break in the higher plateau, west of Maanmiau, into the valley of the Te Hai, where its lofty terraces occupy the eastern part of this great depression. The plain of the Kir Noor is formed by this deposit, which also extends through the valley on the east to the Si Ho tributary of the Yang Ho. As this formation ' For results, mostly negative, of a microscopical examination of the loam of this deposit from dif- ferent localities, see Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, in Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards' Letter, Appendix 3. 40 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN is found at the head of the water system of this northern branch of the Yang Ho, it must be continuous, unless washed away, in all the valleys of this basin between ^ the plateau and the Barrier range. Thus the deposit in the valley of the Kir Noor probably continues, through the break in the plateau to the southeast, into the valley of the Si Ho, and through this to the Yang Ho. Indeed, judging from the appearance of the region lying between the plateau and the Barrier range, as seen from the tower at Ha Noor, this deposit seems to occupy here a large area. We can trace some of the more important islands that were isolated by the lake in which this deposit originated. One of these seems to have been that part of the plateau lying between the Si Ho and the Kir Noor. Another instance is the low ridge that separates the Yang Ho from the Hwaingan creek, while a much larger one is the hilly country between the Yang Ho and Sankang Ho. Thus the body of water in which this deposit was formed consisted of a series of lakes several hundred feet deep, occupying the valleys of the Sankang Ho, Yang Ho, and Si Ho, and standing at a level sufficiently high to cover the lower water- sheds between these streams. This deposit is everywhere a calcareous loam formed of an almost impalpable powder, easily crushed between the fingers, and yet so firm that vertical cliffs of it remain unbroken for many years, which is sufficiently proved by the fact, before stated, that the inhabitants of the country excavate entire villages in the base of perpendicular cliffs that rise more than 100 feet above their dwellings. When breaks occur, the loam falls in immense plates, or tabular masses, leaving a new vertical face. Near the mountain sides and in the narrow gorges the loam is more sandy, and contains the gravel and fragments of rocks coming from the immediate neighborhood, but everywhere else it consists uniformly of an almost impalpable powder. A characteristic feature of this loam deposit is its tendency to cleave according to two vertical planes at right angles to each other, causing it to assume the form of needles under certain conditions of erosion. The effects of erosion in this deposit are often very interesting, illustrating in a marked manner the retrograde formation of ravines. The country is often cut up by gullies 30 to 70 feet deep, and from 10 to 20 feet wide, with vertical walls. In these channels wagon roads run for many miles without rising to the plain. In the valley, between Kwantung (pu) and the Yangkau defile, I crossed a gully 40 or 60 feet deep, and not more than four feet wide, having the same breadth aU the way down, and which, with these dimensions, follows a tortuous course for more than a mile. In the same vaUey another ravine of this kind, only eight or nine feet wide, and not less than 100 feet deep, compelled us to make a detour of over a mile. Wherever a cliff of this deposit presents itself the beginning of this action is visible. The surface drainage of a small neighboring area of the plain being con- centrated toward one point on the edge of the cliff, cuts, in its fall, a channel from top to bottom, and this, with each succeeding rain, works its way backward toward the mountains. As the erosion progresses the sides of the gullies offer new starting points for tributary ravines. We have here, in the softest material that can support such action, a repetition CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 41 of the process which is causing the retrogression of Niagara falls, and which pro- bably plays an important part in aU valley erosion. In intimate connection with this lo3,m-deposit, Stands the formation of the numerous isolated lakes met with on the route through the region we are now considering. I have frequently alluded to bars, or low watersheds, formed of the terrace-deposit, and stretching across valleys, causing the drainage to flow in oppo- site directions. These form the barriers to which almost every lake or pond, that has been mentioned, owed its existence after the retreat of the main body of the great inland sheet of fresh water. We have seen that in those broad valleys where the lake-deposit has not been much subjected to erosion, its surface is not horizontal throughout, but rather, adapting itself to the generd surface of the ground, or ancient valley, on which it lies, it rises from the centre to high on the sides of the surrounding mountains. Now when the sides of a valley approach each other and form a gorge connecting two broad enlargements of the valley, the terrace-deposit rises from the centres of both these basins, till it fills the gorge to about the same height as that at which it stands on the mountain sides around the basins. The height attained by the lake deposit in these narrow places is, in almost every instance, due to the fact that the usual deposit of loam was augmented by the large amount of detritus from the bordering hills. As the large inland body of water disappeared and sank to the level of each of these bars, the sheet behind this remained isolated. In some instances the lakes thus formed have found outlets by cutting through their bars, but this was only where they received an important supply of water, derived from an extensive drainage area. In aU other cases the barriers have sufiered coniparatively little from erosion. Since their isolation these lakes have diminished in size, till they now possess but a small fraction of the volume necessary to fiU their separate basins to a level with the surface of the inclosing bar. I now propose to consider briefly the conclusions which the facts observed in this part of northern China seem to warrant. The oldest stratified rocks seen throughout this region are highly metamorphosed and appear to belong to two distinct epochs ; the hornblendic and chloritic series of schists representing the older, and the gneiss and granulite series, the younger. After the deposition of the older metamorphic strata there seems to have been a disturbance producing folds with a trend between N. and W. Disturbances had also occui'red by which the ridge between Nankau and Chatau was elevated and again depressed before the deposition of the great limestone formation, for the beds of this latter rest here immediately on the granite. Northwest of this ridge the limestone would seem to have been deposited in a shallower part of the sea, the character of the Hwaingan beds — which appear to represent the limestone — indi- cating the neighborhood of land. After the deposition of the limestone strata these were traversed by the eruptive porphyries of Hiamaling, the debris of which form the chief ingredient of the con- glomerate lying between the limestone and the coal-bearing series of Chaitang. The "next marked event was the forming of the coal-bearing rocks. 6 May, 1866. 42 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Although the disturbance, which was to produce the N. E. S. W. system of folds, appears to have been in operation before the deposition of the limestone, it was not until after the completion of the coal-bearing series, that this action cumulated in the great revolution by which the eastern portion of the continent received its out- line, and the coal-bearing strata and older rocks were folded and prepared for the almost universal metamorphism that has affected them.^ An immense hiatus now occurs, for filling which there are no observed facts. This extends over the whole time that passed between the deposition of the coal- bearing rocks and the period of volcanic action in Southern Mongolia. During this period occurred the eruption of the Kalgan trachytic porphyry and the deposition of its pluto-neptunian beds, and the outflowing on a gigantic scale, along the 41st parallel, of trachydoleritic and basaltic'lavas. The next phenomenon, of which the effects are visible, was the great dislocation by which at least the southern edge of the Mongolian plateau was raised. Near Fungching we have seen the high escarpment of the table-land, caused by this fault, trending away in a E. N. E. W. S. W. direction. If we produce this line toward the E, N. E. we shall find that it cuts the highest known point of the southern edge of the plateau — that near Ha Noor. The action of springs, that seem to rise along this fault line, is visible in the calcareous deposits seen near Maanmiau, and on the lower plateau near Fungching. This great zone of volcanic action seems, as such, to mark the coast line of an extensive sea or ocean lying to the north, and it is an interesting fact that it lies nearly in a line with the axis of the Tienshan, in which we have every reason to believe that volcanoes stiU exist, though perhaps only as solfataras. The dislocation by which the great escarpment of the plateau was formed, deter- mined the depression between the table-land and the mountains south of it, which was to be occupied by the lakes already mentioned. Before the deposition of the terrace deposit, the edge of the plateau had already been subjected to extensive erosion, by which great bays and channels were cut into it, and the valleys of the Te Hai and Kir Noor formed. We come now to an interesting question — the origin of the chain of lakes so often referred to in the preceding pages, and of the deposit of loam by which they have recorded their former existence.^ That this deposit was formed in fresh water is shown by the presence of the shells found in the terrace of the Te Hai. The uniform character of the loam in the different basins, and in all parts of the same basin, its great extent, and the fineness of the material of which it consists, are conditions which prove that it is not of local origin, or derived from the detritus of the neighboring shores, but that it was brought into the lakes by one or more large rivers which must have drained an area of great extent. Now throughout the region in question, the only rivers are those of the Yang Ho and Sankang Ho basin, and, independently of the fa.ct that these streams drain a very small area, the valley systems of these were almost entirely occupied by the lakes. See Chap. VII. » See Map XI, on PL 5. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 4,3 Indeed the only direction from which a river of any importance could have come, was from the west, in which case it could only have been the Hwang Ho (Yellow river). Let us examine into the possibility of the existence of a communication between the valley of the Yellow river and the lake basins. When I was in the valley of the Te Hai, I saw distinctly that the break in the plateau continued to the W. S. W. as far as the eye could reach. A low, hilly country, much below the level of the plateau, appeared to shut in the valley at the distance of about twenty miles from the lake. Now on Klaproth's large map of Central Asia, on which, so far as my experience goes, the streams of this region are laid down with a remark- i able approximation to accuracy, a branch of the Tourgen GoP is given as rising in the very region occupied by the low hiUs observed by me. A native map of the province of Shansi, not always correct in its details, represents this- stream as rising in the Te Hai. Thus, I think, there is little doubt that a communication exists between the val- ley of the Te Hai and that of the Tourgen Gol, sufficiently depressed to be below the surface level of the terrace deposits. The Tourgen Gol is a tributary of the Yellow river, and if the watershed between the. Te Hai and this river was below the level of the ancient lakes, these must have occupied part of the valley system of the north bend of the Yellow river, and must have left a corresponding deposit. Now, although we have no information concerning the occurrence of the terrace deposit in the valley of the Tourgen Gol, we have direct testimony with regard to its existence over a large area in the land of the Ortous — the desert region inclosed by the northern bend of the YeUow river. Abbe Hue passed through this country on his way to Tibet, and describes it as a flat, sandy desert, frequently cut up by deep ravines, in the sides of which he observed, in one place, dwellings excavated in the same manner as those at Siwan.^ Indeed, aU the information we possess concerning this region goes to show that it has been the basin of a great lake, which once extended from the northern bank of the YeUow river southwards to the mountains crowned by the Great Wall.^ Thus I think there can be little doubt that the terrace deposits, so common in the system of the Yang Ho, were precipitated in a chain of connected lakes, extend- ing from Yenkingchau, N. N. W. of Peking, to near Ninghia (fu) in Kansuh, a * Haishui of the Chinese. The valley of Tourgen Gol is probably also connected with the valley of the Kir Noor; see p. 29. " "When the Chinese establish themselves in Tartary, if they find mountains the earth of which is hard and solid, they excavate caverns in their sides. These habitations are cheaper than houses, and less exposed to the irregularities of the seasons. They are generally well laid out ; on each side of the door there are windows giving sufficient light to the interior ; the walls, the ceiling, the furnaces, the kaiig, everything inside is coated with plaster so firm and shining that it has the appearance of stucco. These caves have the advantage of being warm in winter and cool in summer These dwellings were no novelty to us, for they abound in our mission of Siwan. However, we had never seen any so well constructed as these of the Ortous." — Abbe Hue, Travels in Tartary, etc., Yol. I, p. 180. ' Compare Ritter's Erdknnde. Asien, especially Vol. I, p. 153 — 160 ; also Hue, -Vol. I, p. 2.S5 ; and Travels of Gerbillon, in Du Halde. 44 GEOLOGIC A LRESEARCHESIN distance of nearly 500 miles ; and that this sediment was brought by the Yellow river and the tributaries of its upper course. We have seen that the immediate cause of the formation of these lake basins is probably to be sought in the dislocation forming the plateau wall to the north of them, the descent of the land previous to that event having probably been toward the Gobi, in which direction also the Yellow river flowed, if it existed at that time. The waters of the Yellow river filled the chain of basins thus inclosed between the plateau and the mountains forming the southern wall. There are now two channels by which the drainage of all this area finds its way to the Yellow sea, the Yang Ho gorge in the far east which opens on to the great plain west of Peking, and the* deeply cut channel through which the Yellow river flows between Shansi and Shetisi; Whether both of these outlets existed during the lake periddj or only one of them, is a question of much interest in a physical-geographical point of view, for if all, or part, of the waters of the Yellow river flowed through the Yang Ho gorge, they found their way to the sea through the lower Pei Ho, a stream with which the Yellow river has united within historical times, after having flowed in an entirely different course, viz. its present one, in part, to the west and south of Shansi.^ The Yellow river flows, from Pauteh (chau) to the mouth of the Wei river, nearly 300 miles, almost due south, traversing, in deep gorges, two important mountain ranges which seem to be great anticlinal ridges of the limestone, and several minor ones. Considering these things, the regularity of its course is striking when com- pared with the winding courses common to rivers that cross parallel ranges, and the inclosed longitudinal valleys. The thought is suggested that the course of this channel may have been determmed by a great crack. In connection with this subject, I will add that it is certainly remarkable that the Chinese traditions of two great floods, often cited in the west, toward proving the universal belief in a general deluge, all point to this region. The earliest of these traditions is allegorical and goes back to a time, abbut 3100 B. C, when the yet barbarous founders of the nation were still living west of Shansi. "Kingkung fought with Chwanchio for the empire of the world ; in his rage he struck, with his horn, the mountain Puchiau, which supports the pillars of heaven, and the bands of the earth were torn asunder. The heavens fell to the northwest, and the earth received a great crack in the southeast."^ The other tradition, preserved in the Shuking of Confucius, refers to a later date, and partakes of a more historical character. According to this account,^ there was a great flood in the 61st year of the reign of Yao (2297 B. C); the waters of the Yellow river mingling with those of the Yangtse Kiang, and threatening to overflow the mountains. A skilful engineer, Pekuen, worked nine years, without success, * See Chap. V " Klaproth, Ritter's Asien, I, 158. Klaproth, in Asia Polyglotta, p. 28, comparing the dates of Hebrew, Brahminical, and Chinese traditions of deluges, obtains: Samaritan text, B. C. 3044, Brahminical date, B. C. 3101, Chinese, B. C. 3082. ' Ritter, Asien, I, p. 159. Compare Deguignes, Gesch. der Mongolen, Einleit. p. 4 ; and Mailla, Histoire generale de la Chine. OHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 4S to effect a drainage ; an object that was not accomplished until ten years afterward under the great Yu, by widening the channel of the river between Shansi and Shensi, especially in the gorges of Lungmun, Hukau, and Shanmun. Mailla, one of the Jesuit missionaries employed in preparing the map of the em- pire, visited these localities, and relates that he saw with astonishment the remains of this gigantic enterprise. However this may be, whether the works of Yu belong to the region of History or of Allegory, we have here two traditions, the first pointing to a convulsion caus- ing a great flood, and perhaps also forming the channel, between Shansi and Shensi ; while the second evidently refers to an immense overflow of waters coming from the upper covu-se of the Yellow river, and perhaps facilitated by obstructions in the narrow channel. A gentleman, well versed in Chinese literature, informed me that, according to native authorities, the valley of the Yang Ho, between Chatau and Kiming, the easternnlost of the ancient lake-basins, was once occupied by a lake which was drained, finally, by the Yang Ho gorge. Considering this, and the accounts of the Shuking, it is not, I think, impossible, that these traditions refer to the last events in the history of the lake period, and that within the memory of the Chinese people, a part at least of this great body of fresh water was stiU in existence, if, indeed, the formation of the channel between Shansi and Shensi, on which the retreat of the main body depended, does not also fall within this limit. 46 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CHAPTER V.^ THE DELTA-PLAIN, AND THE HISTORICAL CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF THE YELLOW RIVER. The extent of the great plain of Eastern China is pretty well known from native and Jesuit authorities. It lies in a semicircle around the mountainous peninsula of Shantung. Its outer limit, as approximately given on the Jesuit map, begins in the department of Yungping (fu), and, running west, keeps south of the Great Wall till Changping (chau) N. W. of Peking. Thence, remaining east of the southern branch of the Great Wall, it follows a general S. S. W. course, passing westward of Chingting (fu) and Kwangping (fu), till it reaches the upper waters of the Wei river. Here it turns westward iato Hwaiking (fu), and crosses the Yellow river in that department. From the right bank of this river it trends a little east of south, passing west of Jiining (fu) (Honan), and then turning eastward it continues south of Kwang (chau) and north of Luhngan (chau) in Luchau (fu). Here an arm of the plain, in which lies the Tsau lake, stretches southward from the Hwai river to the Yangtse, and continues eastward on the right side of this river, occupying the region between the river and Hangchau bay. A hilly region, in the centre of which is Nanking, rises, like a large island from the plain, to the north of this arm. The Shantung boundary of the plain begins at Laichau (fu), and after describing a great bow to the south it turns west at Shukwang (hien), and running thence to Changtsing (hien), in Tsinan (fu), it turns to the south and around to the southeast. Keeping this course it remains nearly parallel to the Imperial canal till the Kiangsu frontier, which it foUows to the sea. The greater part of the area included within these limits is a plain which seems to descend very gently toward the sea, and to be very generally below the high water level of the Hwang Ho. It is the delta of the Hwang Ho, and in part also of the Yangtse Kiang, and is remarkable for its semi-annular shape, half inclosing, as it does, the mountain-mass of Shantung. The city of Peking stands on a raised border of loam, sand, clay, and gravel, which forms the northwestern skirt of the delta-lowlands, and seems to extend southward fringing the mountains along its western side. The name of the Talo lake (Ta great, and lo plateau or raised plain) seems to refer to such a border, and * See Maps I— X, on Plates 4 and 5. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 47 in the article on Kichau in the Yukung it is said that " the Lo (plateau) was drained."^ The fact, also, that in historical times none of the arms of the Hwang Ho have approached the western mountain border of the plain, both north and south of Kaifung, within a less distance than from ten to fifty miles, seems to point to the existence of a recent sea margin, which would be perhaps due rather to the detritus brought down by local streams than to the delta deposit of the Hwang Ho. All the important changes in the lower course of the Hwang Ho have been re- corded from early times by Chinese historians, and their documents and maps form the most complete history we possess of the wanderings of any river. The Yukungchuchi (Peking, 1705), written by Chin HuWei, contains a series of maps in which these changes are laid down for a period of more than 3000 years. M. Biot has given the substance of that part of this work that relates to the Hwang Ho, in a carefully prepared paper.^ I have, however, thought the subject to be one of sufficient interest to warrant the reproduction of the maps of Chin Hu "Wei, with such explanations as will render them intelligible, without going beyond the limits of a work that is intended to give only my own contributions to the physio- graphy of Eastern Asia. For farther information I must refer the reader to M. Blot's paper, of which I shall make use in explaining the maps. ■«■ In the Yultung, a chapter of the Shuking classic of Confucius, it is said that the course of the Hwang Ho was regulated by the Great Yu. Whether the works of Yu are to be understood as the labor of a single man, or as the results of the enter- prise of a rising colony during several generations, there seems to be little doubt that more than 2000 years before the beginning of the Christian era the Chinese had brought this turbulent river under their control, by an immense system of dykes, and had begun to cultivate the extensive marshes of the delta plain. Map No. 1 of the series, on plate 4, represents the course of the Hwang Ho as it existed, in the main, from the time of Yu down to 602 B. C. Map No. 2 represents the course resulting from the first great change, that of the fifth year of the reign of Ting Wang (Chow dynasty), 602 B. C. Map No. 3 serves to illustrate a passage in the writings of the poet Sse Ma Tsien, recording a diversion to the east and southeast. The easterly course, forming the Pien river, seems to have been the earliest recorded tendency of the river to follow its recent course. The opening of the first channels in this direction is given as occurring in 361 and 340 B. C. The diversion, indicated on this map, through lake Yungtse to the southwest, happened, according to Sse Ma Tsien, towards the end of the Chow dynasty, during the third century before Christ. * Map No. 4 represents changes that occurred under Wutih (Han dynasty), about 132 B. C, when a great overflow toward the northeast took place, the river trending toward Kai (chau) in Chihli. At this time several arms were formed between » B. Biot, Sur le chapitre Yukung, Journ. Asiatique, 1842. " Sur les cliangements du cours inferieur du fleuve Jaune, Journ. Asiat. 1843. 4:8 .GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN. Taming (fu) and. the sea, which are also given. Pieviaus to this, tuider iWentih, about 160 B. C, there was a breach formed at Yentsin near Kaifung. ■ Map No. 5 gives the second great change in the, course of the "river of..Yu," which occurred about 11 B. C.,. and was caused apparently by the blocking up of the channels leading to the Pei Ho.' Map No. 6 shows the channels as they existed during the Tang, and five succeed- ing dynasties, till the beginning of the Sung dynasty. A note on the map of Chin Hu Wei says, " the course of the river remained the same from the time of Ming Ti (Tung Han dynasty) A. D. 70 till under Jin Tsung, A, D. 1034, when a break occurred at Hunglung, and another, fourteen years later, A. D. 1048, at Changwu, and the river of the Han and the Tang was entirely destroyed. The map covers a period of 977 years." Map No. 7 (PI. 5) represents the courses, under the Sung dynasty, from A. D. 1048 to A. D. 11,94, a period of 146 years. Map No. 8 records the course during the Kin dynasty. All the former channels appear blocked up, and the river, after entering Lake Lo, near the summit-level of the present Imperial canal, is seen to flow off to the N. E. through the Tatsing river, and to the S. E. through the Sz' river. Lake Lo appears from the observa- tion of Clarke Abel, and from Chinese measurements, to be about. 15(0 feet above the sea. Map No. 9 shows the condition of the river under the Yuen and Ming dynasties, together with the Grand canal, a condition which seems to have remained substan- tially the same tUl within the last ten or fifteen years. In early times the Yangtse entered the sea by three arms called the Sankiang, i. e., "Three Rivers;" and Chin Hu Wei has given a map of these, founded on the opinions of early authorities. I have indicated them on map No. 1 of the series. A glance at the nine maps of the delta courses wiU. show how widely separated have been the limits of divergence of the arms of the Hwang Ho, within the past 3D00 years, A mighty river, ever turbulent, subject yearly to an enormous increase in volume, an increase regulated rather by the amount of precipitation in the distant Kwenlun mountains*, than by the local climate, it has ever been the terror of the countless millions through whose midst it flows. From the earliest times an immense force has been at work to keep it from break- ing through its dykes, or, when this has happened, to guide and retain it between new embankments. The quantity of solid material carried by the river and deposited along its course, is so great that its bed is rapidly raised, and appears to have been, -before the last change, higher than the adjacent country. Biot says, "it is certain that the bed of the river, from Hwaiking to the sea, is higher than the adjoining country." Several times, during the great wars that have preceded the downfall of dynas- ties, this condition of the river has been turned to account as a weapon of offence. Breaking the embankments has been made to accomplish, almost instantaneously, by the destruction of hundreds of thousands of inhabitants, conquests that had been delayed by years of brave resistance. From the earliest time of colonization on the delta-plain, the task of keeping the CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. ^ 49 Hwang Ho witliin its bed has been the' constant care of the rulers of China, both when the country was united under one man, and when it has been subdivided into petty states. In the latter case in the treaties between states bordering on the Hwang Ho, the clauses regarding the regulation of that river appear to have been the most important and the most sacredly observed. One of the most striking results of the official corruption that becomes general during the decay of a dynasty is the breaking loose of this great stream, as soon as the means for maintaining its embankments are misapplied. The devastation caused by these overflows is awful beyond description. The loss of life is very great, and the destruction of the crops that form the means of support of millions, produces famine and the overrunning, by starving hordes, of the more fortunate districts of the adjacent country. The anarchy that rules in this struggle for life is almost beyond the conception of those who inhabit lands where the population is much below the capacity of the country, or which are easily reached by foreign supplies. Within the last fifteen years one of these great changes has taken place, apparently from the same cause and with the same effect as above indicated. Instead of empty- ing into the Hwang Hai, or Yellow Sea, the Hwang Ho now has its mouth in the Gulf of Pechele, which it enters through the Tatsing river. The old mouth of the river was found to be dry in 1858, According to information furnished to the Kev. Mr. Edkins, by officials of the Board of Foreign Affairs at Peking, the principal break occurred at Fungpeh (ting) in Siichau (fu), the waters flowing away to the N. E. In Tsinan (fu), the capital of Shantung, the waters of the Tatsing river are increased to six times their original volume by the contributions of the H'Cpang Ho. In 1863 the river had not yet determined a channel, but its waters were spread over large tracts of country, and the city of Wuting (fu), nearly sixty miles north of Tsinan (fu), was almost inaccessible. The present course of the Hwang Ho is indicated, so far as known, on Map No. 10. Owing to the great quantity of material brought down by this river, and to the absence of great oceanic currents, that might, if present, interfere with its deposi- tion, the delta is rapidly increasing in size, and the adjoining seas are becoming shallower.^ Probably nowhere can the rate of growth of deltas be better studied than in China. Cities that were built on the delta plain of the Hwang Ho several thousand years since are stiU in existence, together with the archives of their history. In the cases of those that were built near the sea, the distances from this are given ; and frequent mention is jnade of tovras, mounds, and natural hiUs, washed by the sea, within historical times, vi^ich are now far inland. Thus, in B, C, 220, the town Putai is said to have been 1 li west of the sea-shore, while in A,D. 1730 it was 140 Ji inland,^ a yearly increase of 100 feet, more or less. > Barrow estimated the hourly discharge of sediment at 2,000,000 cubic feet. " Fangyuchiyau ; Chihli. 7 May, 1866. 50 . GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN according to the length of the li. Hienshuikau (on the Pei Ho, in long. 117° 32' E.) is said to have been on the sea-shore in A. D. 500,^ and is at present about eighteen miles distant, an increase of about 81 feet per annum. Along the southern shore of the gulf of Pechele the yearly increase N, E. of Shuk- wang since B. C. 220, seems to have been not more than 30 feet. The sea-shore, according to local tradition, vras near the present location of Tientsin (fu) during the Han dynasty. It is also recorded that under the reign of the Han, the Hwang Ho entered the sea at Changwu, near the present Tsinghai.^ * Fangyuchiyau ; Chihli. " Ibid. CHINA, MONaOLIA, AND JAPAN. 51 CHAPTER VI.i ON THE GENERAL GEOLOGY OF CHINA PROPER; A GENERAL- IZATION BASED ON OBSERVATIONS, AND ON THE MINERAL PRODUCTIONS AND THE tJONFIGDRATION OF THE SURFACE. It is with much misgiving that I begin even an attempt at a general sketch of the geology of China, The great extent of the coimtry, the very limited area examined geologically, the, mostly, very general character of the observations made within that area, and our ignorance of the geological structure of the surrounding countries, render the attempt more than dangerous. The sketch, and the map accompanying it, make no claims to accuracy, but I hope to show by means of them the leading features of the structure of the country, as deduced from observations in parts of the coimtry and from mineral productions. The fact that hardly any two maps of China resemble each other in the geographi- cal names ; and that on most of them many of the names that I must use are not given, renders a sketch-map necessary, and this is to be regarded as a colored guide to the generalizations, and not as a geological map of the country. The data on which the generaKzations are founded consist in : — My own observations. The observations of other European travellers. And in the information obtained from Chinese authorities. The limits of my own observations have been already given ; they were confined to the valley of the Yangtse Kiang, from the sea to near the eastern boundary of Sz'chuen, and to the northern departments of the provinces of Chihli and Shansi. The results of this portion of the data have been given in the preceding pages. The observations of European travellers have furnished, so far as my knowledge of them goes, but very little information on the geology of the country, and even this is often vague and evidently ixicorrect. I have thought it worth while to give, in a condensed form, such information as I have been able to extract from this source, Nanking to Ca/nton? — Gray, compact limestone is quarried back of Nanking. Siaukushan [Little Orphan Island], near the mouth of Poyang lake, is pudding- « See Map, PI. 6. " Clarke Abel. Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from the Country, 1816— 181T, etc. Lend. 1818. 52 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN stone ("?). The high Liushan [west of Poyang lake and south of Kiukiang] are. of fine-grained granite and micaceous schist poor in quartz, in vertical strata trending N. E. S. W.^ On the left bank of the Kan river, above Kihngan (fu), there is sand- stone. Between Wanngan (hien) and Kanchau (fu) there is dark gray schist rest- ing on granite. Black slate occurs between Kanchau (fu) and Nanngan (fu*). The summit of the Meiling pass is of argillaceous sandstone, immediately south of which begins limestone. Between Nanhiung (fu) and Shauchau (fu) the limestone ceases and is followed by red sandstone with coal seams. Nearer to Shauchau (fu) there is limestone resting on a breccia of limestone, calcareous red sandstone, and quartz, the whole cemented by limestone. Near Yingtiug (hien) there is grayish-black limestone in which is the cavern of Kwangsin. HiUs of grayish-yellow, argillaceous sandstone, with veins of quartz, occur about half way between Yiugting (hien) and Hingyuen (hien) ; [on Abel's route map the wBole country between these two places is represented as sandstone.] The coal brought to Abel from the tovms on the Yangtse resembled cannel coal, that in Kiangsi "bovey" coal. At Fuhutang (on the Kan river), soon after leaving the Poyang lake, there are vertical coal pits. The fragments at the bottom of the hill where these are situated appeared to be pure slate.^ Canton to Eankau through Hunan? — The rocks noticed on the North river (Peh kiang) were red sandstone and limestone. Four mUes inland from Pangkwang there are coal mines, belonging to the government, 40 to 50 feet deep. Eed sand- stone occurs along the boundary between Kwangtung and Hunan on the Meiling pass. Red sandstone occurs near Shachulung, a coal village on the north slope of the Nanling near the end of the Meiling pass. A few miles below Laiyang (hien) there are Umestone quarries. At Pingtan, a few miles below Siangtan (hien), there are limekilns and quarries of limestone. Sandstone is quarried at Kingtsewan, about twelve miles below Changsha (fu). Chehhiang and Fuhlcien} — About ten to fifteen miles west of Yenchau (fu) (Cheh- kiang) are limestone mountaius, and a few miles farther west beautiful green granite. Near Hwuichau (fu) (Nganhwui) the hiUs consist of a red sandstone resting on slate. Near Kiichau (fu) (Chehkiang) there is red, calcareous sandstone. The road on the pass between the Shangyang river and the Chehkiang river is paved with granite. The road at the N. W. foot of the Bohea mountaius leading from Ho- kau, in Kwangsin (fu) (Kiangsi), into Fuhkien, is pave'd with granite. The rocks at Wuishan, on the east side of the Bohea mountains in Fuhkien " consist of clay slate, in which occur, embedded iu the form of beds or dykes, quartz rock, while granite of a deep black color, owing to the mica which is of a fine deep bluish black, cuts through them in all directions." "Resting on this clay slate are sandstone conglomerates formed principally of angular masses of quartz, held together by a calcareous basis, and alternating with these conglomerates there is a fine, calcareous. * Ritter, Asien, III, p. 675, citing Ellis' Journal, p. 342, and Clarke Abel, p. 16T. " Ellis' Journal, II, p. 101. ' Rev. Mr. Bonny. A Trip from Canton to Slianghai. Pamphlet. Shanghai, 1861. * Portune. Tea Districts, etc. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 53 granular sandstone in which beds of dolomitic limestone occur." "Granite forms the summits of most of the priacipal moimtains in this part of the country." Canton to tlie Sea} — A gray-wacke, containing much quartz, forms the hills near Canton. Underneath this rock is red sandstone, " varying from a bright red, fine- grained rock to a coarse conglomerate, full of large pebbles of quartz." These strata dip to westward. Granite occurs below the sandstone and crops out more and more, as the river approaches the sea. Near the coast the granite forms peaks 1,200 to 2,000 feet high, which continue as barren islets toward the island of Hainan. Kingyvsn (fu) in Kwangsi."^ — The marble mountains south of Kingyuen (fu) give rise to innumerable large springs, and even rivers disappear in them to come again to light after following long subterranean courses. The many colored varie- ties of marble of this region are celebrated, and the marble formation (Marmor Gebirge) seems to predominate. Salt Wells of Sz'^chuen.^ — M. Imbert has given a vivid description of these, and although it has often been quoted, it is sufficiently interesting to be inserted here.* These are at Wutung, in the department of Kiating (fu) , and near the city Kiating, "There are some ten thousand of these springs, or artificial brinepits, in a space about ten leagues long and four or five leagues broad. The Chinese effect the boring of these pits with time and extreme patience ; yet with less expense than with us. They have not the art of working rocks by mining (blasting 1) ; yet all the pits are constructed in the rock. These pits are commonly frorn 1,500 to 1,800 feet (French) deep, and are only five or at the most six inches in diameter. These little wells, or tubes, are perpendicular, and as polished as glass. Sometimes the entire depth is not continued in solid rock, but the workmen encounter beds of shale, coal, etc. ; then the operation becomes more difficult, and sometimes fruitless ; for as these substances do not offer a uniform resistance, it sometimes occurs that the shafts lose their perpendicularity ; but these are rare cases. When the rack is favorable, they advance at the rate of two feet in the twenty-four hours. It requires at least three years to sink one pit." A pit of this kind costs about 1,000 taels of silver.* " The mode of pumping is exceedingly simple, yet laborious ; being effected chiefly by manual labor. The water is very briny, giving, by evaporation, a fifth or more, and sometimes one-fourth, of salt." " The air, which escapes from these pits, is very inflammable. If a torch is pre- sented to the mouth of the shaft, the gas ignites, with a great column of fire, from twenty to thirty feet in height, exploding with the rapidity of powder." This gas is conducted through bamboo tubes to the saltpans under which it is burned to effect the evaporation. " Sometimes, in boring the salt pits, very thick beds of coal are passed through at a depth of several hundred feet." " In sinking these wells a bituminous oil [petroleum], which burns in water, is commonly found at a depth of about 1,000 feet. They collect daily four or five jars of 100 pounds each. This ' Chinese Repository, III, p. 81. " Ritter, Asian, III, '758. " Imbert, Annales de I'association pour la propagation de la foi. Vol. Ill, p. 369. * The extract given here is taken from R. C. Taylor, Statistics of Coal, Phil. 1848, p. 660, with some remarks from Chinese Repository, XIX, p. 325. * '1 Tael = $1.33. 54 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN oil has a very powerful odor, and is used to light the area where the pits and cop- pers of salt are concentrated," " The largest fire wells are those at Tselieoutsing, forty leagues from Wutung. Tselieoutsing, situated in the mountains, on the banks of a small river, also contains salt pits, bored in the same manner as at Wutung. In one valley are seen four pits which give a flame, to an amount truly frightful, but no water. These pits, for the most part, have previously afforded salt water; which water being drained, the proprietors, twelve years since, caused them to be sunk even to three thousand feet and more of depth, hoping to procure an abundant supply of water. AU this was in vain ; but there suddenly gushed forth an enormous column of air which brought with it large, dark particles. These did not resemble smoke, but the vapor of a glo^ving furnace. This air escaped with a roaring and frightful rumbling, which was heard at a great distance. The orifices of the pits are surmounted by a waU of stone six or seven feet high, for fear that, inadvertently, or through malice, some one might apply fire to the opening of the shaft. This misfortune happened in August last. As soon as the fire was applied to the surface of the well, it made a frightful explosion, and even something was felt approaching to an earthquake. The flame, which was about two feet high, leaped over the surface of the earth without burning anything. Four men devoted themselves and carried an enormous stone over the orifice of the pit. Immediately it was thrown up into the air ; three of the men were scorched, the fourth escaped; neither water nor dirt would extin- guish the fire. Finally, after fifteen days of stubborn work, a quantity of water was brought over the neighboring mountain, a lake or dam was formed, and the water was suddenly let loose, which extinguished the fire. This was at an expense of about thirty thousand francs."'^ Fossils from China? — Mr. Davidson, after examining a collection of shells sent by Dr. Lockhart to the British Museum, came to the conclusion, " that the specimens belonged to eight Devonian species, seven of which are common to several European localities, among which we may mention Ferques and N^hon (France), Belgium, and the Eifel, but they are not found all existing together in any one of these localities. In external aspect they most resemble those from Ferques, in which locality, however, neither the Gyrtia Murchisoniana nor the Rhynchonella Hanburii have been as yet discovered," If to these we add the other two described by M. de Koninck,-' the total number of Chinese Devonian types now known will amount to ten species : viz., 3 of Spirifer, 2 of EhynchoneUa, 1 Productus, 1 Crania, 1 Cornu- lites, I Spirorbis, and 1 Aulopora. The species determined by Mr. Davidson were as foUows : Spirifer disjunctus, Sowerhy ; Cyrtia Murchisoniana, De Koninch ; Rhyn- choneUa Hanburii, Davidson ; Productus subaculeatus, Murchison ; Crania obsoleta, Goldfuss ; Spirorbis omphalodes, Goldfuss (?) ; Cornulites epithonia, Goldfuss(?); * Compare Humboldt, Asie Centrale, II, p. 521, 525. » On some Fossil Brachiopodes, etc. T. Davidson. Quart. Journ. Geolog. See., IX, 1853, p. 353. ' "Notice sur deux espfeces Brachiopodes du Terrain Paleozoique de la Chine." Bulletin de I'Academie Roy. des Sciences, Lettres et Beaux Arts de Belgiqne. 1846. XIII, pt. 2, p. 415. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 65 Aulopora tubaeformis, Goldfuss ; Spirifer Chechiel, De Koninch; Ehynchonella Yuenamensis, De Koninch. Some fossil brachiopods from Gouchouc, twenty leagues W. S. W. from Patang on the Kinsha Kiang, and near the Tibet-Sz'chuen frontier, were determined by Mj Guyerdet^ as follows : Terebratula cuboides, Sow, carb. and Devon., figured in Descript. des Anim. foss. de la Belgique, DeKoninck, 1842—1844, p. 285. Tere- bratula reticularis, LinnS, Devonian ; figured in Russia and the Ural mountains : Murchison and v. Keyserling, II, 90. Terebratula pugnus, Martin; figured in Sowerby, Conchyl. pi, ccccxcvii. Mr. Woodward has described an Orthoceras from China.^ Hoshan {Fire Mountains). — These are without doubt burning seams of coal. One of these burning mountains, called' Hoyau, occurs 55 li N. W. of Kwangling in Tatung (fu), Shansi.* Sir E.. I. Murchison speaks of some Upper Devonian fossils, from Sz'chuen, given to him by Dr. W. Loekhart, as " identical in specific character with Spirifer Ver- neuUiij S. Archiaci, Productus subaculeatus, and other European forms."* I was told by the Eev. Mr. Edkins that the island of Situngting in the Taihu lake (west of Shanghai) contains fossHiferous limestone. In the following table are given a large number of localities of coal and alum (the latter is made in China, I believe, always from pyritiferous shales that accom- pany coal), to be used in locating the coal-bearing formation; and of indications of limestone, as limestone-marbles, limestone, caves, stalactites, fossil brachiopods, etc. These localities are in every instance, unless otherwise stated, taken from Chinese geographical works, especially from the Tatsingytungchi, and the geographies of the separate provinces. This is followed by a table of salt wells in Yunnan and Sz'chuen, which wiU be explained further on ; and by a table of gold-bearing localities to assist in locating the granito-metamorphic formation. * Comtes Rendus. Acad, des Sciences, Paris, 1864, LVIII, No. 19, p. 878. " Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1856, p. 319. * piot, in Joura. Asiat., 1840, October. ♦ Siluria, p. 425. Lond. 1859. 56 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Table of Localities of Coal, Alum, Limestone, Limestone-Makbles, Fossils, Caves, Stalactites, etc., in China.* F = fu ; C = chau ; H ^ hien. Province. Department. District. Place and' circumstances of occurrence. Chihli. Shuntien F. Fangshan H. Anthracite, S. W. 40 li at Hwanglung Mt., white marble. (( it Wangping H. Anthracite at Muntakau, Maanshan, and Tatsau. il 11 II II Bituminous at Chaitang and Chingshui. tl 11 Waitso H. White marble. Yungping F. Funing H. 10 li N. E. at Liulu Mt., coal. At Shiling, coal. Kwangping F. Tsz C. Coal. Siuenhwa F. Coal at Kingtingpu. (( li YuC. Anthracite (Shitan). it it Paungan C. Anth'racite (Shitan). Coal in hills north of Sin- paungan. It it II tt Anthracite at Kiming. li it Sining H. Anthracite (Shitan). it tl Wantsuen H. Anthracite (Shitan). 15 li S. brown coal at Wu- taiyau. It 11 Brown coal 60 li N. N. W. of Kalgan at Wushikia. ti li Coal at Siautungko 180 li W. of Kalgan. Pauting F. Y. C. Great cavern in Mt. Lungchi. (B.) Chingting F. .... Several large caverns. Shunteh F. Several large caverns. Shansi. Taiyuen F. Chauyang H. Large caverns near Chauyang H. 100 li E. of Taiyuen P. (B.) It It Large caverns near Tseubong. (B.) a it Coal 12 miles S. W. of Taiyuen on W. side of Pan R. (Bagl.) if «( Coal 35 miles S. W. of Taiyuen on W. side of Fan B. (Bagl.) It it Lime burnt, 30 miles S. W. of Taiyuen on W. side of Pan R. (Bagl.) Pingting C. Soyang H. Anthracite (Shitan). — Alum. li li Coal 12 W. of Pingting C. (Bagl.) Hin C. Tsingloh H. Anthracite (Shitan). .Tatung F. Bituminous coal " quarried " in large blocks (Ta- tan) near the city. * It tl Kwangling H. Coal. 11 It Lingkiu H. Stalactites in Mt. Peshan. Fanchau F. jk Coal and lime IT miles S. of city in the range east of Fan R. (Bagl.) 11 It Ling H. Coal TO li E. Pirgyang F. Yching H. Anthracite (Shitan). (( 11 Yoyang H. Anthracite (Shitan). H It Lingfung H. Anthracite (Shitan) near Pingyang. ti It Hungtung H. Anthracite (Shitan). u tl Fehshan H. Anthracite (Shitan). If 11 Taning H. Great caverns 20 li N. W. in Mt. Kung. li tt Kih C. Lime. — Alum. HohC. Lingshi H. Anthracite (Shitan). Tsehchau F. Yangching H. Anthracite (Shitan). Kiang C. Yuenchii H. Alum. Kiai C. Alum. tt tt Ngany H. " Cave of the "Winds" S Shensi! Yulin F. Yulin H. Anthracite (Shitan) 20 li S. E. at Mt. Tan. Tungchau P. Chingching H. Alum. It it Tungkwei H. Alum. Fungtsiang F. Kienyang H. Cavern, 30 li S. E. Ningkiang C. * Fossil Brachiopods (Shiyen). « B. = Biot; Bagl. = Rev. P. Bagley; Edk. = Rev. Mr. Edkins. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 61 Table op Localities op Coal, Alum, Limestone, Limestone-Marbles, &c. — Continued. Province. Department. District. Shensi. Hanchung F. Yenngan F. Yencbuen H. Tungchau F. Kansuh. Lanchau F. It ti Titau C. it it KinH. Kungchang F. Tnngwei H. Tsiii C. Tsinngan H. Ningbia F. Liangchau F. Yungchang H. Jehho. Chingteh F. (( tt i( It :.::: Shingking. tt i( Kaiping H. Chauyang H. Shantung. Tsingchau F. Taingan F. Yihte H. Ichau F. KiiC. Tsinan F. Kiangsuh. Kiangning F. tt tt Kiangpu H. ■ Chinkiang F. Kintang H. Suchau F. Siau H. Siichau F. Nganhwui. Ningkwoh F. In all the H. Taiping F. Fanchang H. Ho C. Heishan H. Luchau F. Tsau H. It tt Luhkiang H. Fungyang F. Honan. Honan F. Kung H. it tt Loyang H. tt tt Tungfung H. JuC. Lusan H. Hupeh. Ichang F. Kwei C. it it Patung H. Tunyang F. Fang H. Kingchau F. Changyang H. Sz'chuen. Suchau F. Kiating F. tt it Kienwei H. Chungking F. Chung C. Tungchuen F. Pungchi H. Chehkiang. Hangchau F. ^1 tt In all the H. it tt Changhwa H. Huchau F. Wanchau F. Pingyang H. 8 Maj r, 1866. Place and circumstances of occurrence. Fossil Brachiopods (Shiyen). — Many large caverns. (B.) Petroleum springs. Coal 15 miles above junction of Fan R. and Hwang Ho. (Bagl.) Many caverns in the Tsepe, Lungmun, Taney, and Seou moun- tains. (B.) Coal 40 li S. W. Coal 80 li distant. Coal 40 li N. W. Coal 60 li S. E. at Lieutnngping. Coal 10 li N. W. at Sulungpa. Coal N. E. on opposite bank of Hwang Ho (Hue). Anthracite (Shitan) 20 li S. E. at Mt. Tan. "Bad coal" 40 li S. E. at Mangninchuenkau. Anthracite, E. near Sankia, W. of Palisade. Anthracite and bituminous coal 40 li E. of Sankia. Much coal among the mountains along the Palisade. Anthracite. Coal on W. coast of Liautung promontory in lat. 39° 40'. Coal S. E. of mouth of Liau R. Coal at Latsz Mt. Coal and alum at Yehchintsung. Stalactites. Stalactites, 150 li N. at Yiinkungshan. Much coal in the range, 33 miles E. (Bagl.) Coal at Chunhvrachen half-vsray between Kin- yang H. and Nanking. (Edk.) Great cave ("Pit of Heaven") 30 li W: Stalactites 65 li W. at Mt. Mau. Anthracite and lime 30 li S. E. at Peitutsung on Mt. Peitu. Marble on islands of Taihu lake. Anthracite (Shitan). Brown coal ? (Kaufung.) Coal. Large cavern near town. Alum. Alum. Coal. Coal. Stalactites in Mt. Sansz. Coal. Coal on banks of Yangtsekiang. Coal on banks of Yangtsekiang. Stalactites. — Alum. Cavern in Mt. Fang. Coal on Yangtsekiang near the city. Coal at Lotu. Coal in the salt district. (Imbert.) 24 caves in a mountain near the salt wells. Coal. White marble 10 li N. W. at Mt. Peishi. Limestone 90 li S. E. Limestone in all the mountains of the department. Many caverns in Mt. Pelaifung. Fossil Brachiopods (Shiyen) in Shiyen cave at Mt. Yunko, Coal. — Stalactites in Wanglung cavern. Alum. 68 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Table op Localities of Coal, Alum, Limestone, Limestone-Maebles, &c. — Continued. Province. Chehkiang. Kiangsi. Hunan. Kweichau. Yunnan. Fuhkien. Kwangtung. Kwangsi. Department. Chuchau P. Shauhing F. Taichau F. Kinhwa F. Yenchau F. H II ti it Kiichau F. Nanchang F. Yuenchau F. Kwangsin F. It 11 Linkiang F. Changsha F. Hangchau F. Pauking P. Kweiyang C. it n Yungchau P. Changteh P. Chinyueu P. Shihtsien P. Wuting C. Yungchang P. Yanking? P. Tali P. Hinghwa P. Changchau P. Funing P. Tsiuenchau P. Shauchau P. Shauking P. Lienchau P. Kingyuen P. Kweilin F. Pingloh P. Wuchau P. Yulin C. Sinchau F. Nanning P. Taiping F. District. Lungtsiuen H. Kinhwa H. Lanki H. li II Tsenngan H. Tunglu H. Fanshui H. Singan H. Kiangshan H. Changshan H. Pungsin H. Pinghiang H. Fani H. Wantsui H. Tsienshan H. Sinyu H. Liuyang H. Hangshan H. Laiyang H. In all the H. Siying H. In all the H. Llngling H. Nganhiang H. Yuenmau H. Anko Juyuen H. Pingloh H. Kungchin^ H. Lipu H. Tsinki H. Hwaitsih H. Pohpeh H. ' Pingnan H. Suenhwa H. Shangsz C. Place and circumstances of occurrence. Caverns in many of the mountains. Fossil Brachiopods and a cavern on Mt. Wang- matsien. Caverns. White marble on Mt. Tsang. Cavern (Tsutsesantung). White stalactites at Peiyiin cave in Mt. Tungnien. Lime at Peikang Mt. Stalactites. Stalactites at Langsien cave. Cavern (Yangsantung). Coal. Coal (Chin. Rep. xix, 387). Coal (Chin. Rep. xix, 387). Anthracite at Lauhukau. Anthracite. Cavern and Fossil Brachiopods. Fossil Brachiopods. Coal (Chin. Rep. xix, 387). Alum. Stalactites. Alum. Coal. Fossil Brachiopods at Mt. Nesho. Coal. Alum. Coal. Fossil Brachiopods at Mt. Shiyen. Alum. Fossil Brachiopods. Fossil Brachiopods. White marble just east of the city. "Dragon pavern" 1 mile S. W. of city. Alum. Caves with bones. Fossil Brachiopods in the Kauhyin Mt. Caverns Caverns. (B ) Orthoceratites. Coal (Chin. Rep. xvi, p. 80). Anthracite (Chin. Rep. xvi, p. 80). Caverns. 'Caverns. Caverns. Coal. Stalactites. Stalactites and Fossil Brachiopods at Mt. Shi- yen. Dendritic marble. Stalactites. Ossiferous caverns in the Nanshan Mts. Fossil Brachiopods, — Stalactites. Stalactites 31 li B Stalactites 5 li E. at Mt. Kintsumi, and 28 li E. at Mt. Yintieh. Stalactites 1 li S. at Mt. Sung. White marble 10 li N. at Peish'i. Marble 80 li S. W. Stalactites 30 li S Fossil Brachiopods 1 2 li S. E. at Mt. Yenshi. Fossil Brachiopods 90 li E. at Mt. Shiyen. Stalactites and white marble 2 li E. at Mt. Peishi. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. Table of Localities PaoDticiNG Salt ruoM Artesian Wells. 69 Province. Department. District. Place and circumstances of occurrence. Sz'chuen. Chingtu F. Wells. tt It Kien C. Wells. Tsz C. 80 wells. Shanking P. Kailden H. Gold at Kintsung. it It Kwangning H. Gold at Kinkung. Hunan. Changsha P. Hangchau P. Yueuchau P. Changteh P. Chin 0. Tsing C. Yochau P. Gold. Gold. Gold. Gold. Gold. Gold. Gold. Kwangsi. Liuchau P. Yung H. Gold. It It Laiping H. Gold. Sz'ngan P. Pin 0. Gold. ii it Tsienkiang H. Gold. (( tt Shangling H. Gold. Pingloh P. Pingloh H. Gold. tt tt Yungngan C. Gold. Wuchau P. Hwaitsih H. Wash gold in river at Kinngohshan TO li W. Sinchau P. Kwei H. Gold. Nanning P. Hwang C. Gold mines. Kweichau. Tungjin P. Gold-sand washings 100 li W. in the Sungchi and 140 li W. in the Tichi R. R., Tsuni P. Tungtsz H. Gold. Yunnan. Tsuhhiung P. Yau C. Coarse gold in the upper Tayauho R. It tt Tsuhhiung H. Gold in the Yenshan. Likiang P. Gold washed in many places in the Kinshaki for a distance of 500 li. ang Yungchang P. Gold mines in the Changpangshan. tt It Gold washings in the Lantsan R. Tungchuen P. Gold washings in the Kinshakiang. Yungpeh (Ting) Gold. Before attempting to sketch the distribntion of the known formations of the Chinese empire, I will give the principal reasons for assuming a general simplicity in the geological structure of that country; for believing that the surface of the Eighteen Provinces is made up almost exclusively of the following formations : the Granito-metamorphic/ the Devonian limestone, the Triassic, Coal measures, and the younger Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits. Wherever the rocks beneath the Devonian limestone were seen, in central and in northern China, these were found to be either metamorphic schists, or granitoid rocks, with the one exception of a thin bed of sandstone, already mentioned as under- lying the limestone at the entrance to the Lukan gorge of the Yangtse. At the Meiling pass, on the northern boundary of Kwangtung, the limestone is said to rest on granite. An exception to this rule exists, perhaps, along the coast range in southeastern China, where the valley of the Canton river is said to expose an extensive forma- tion of " graywacke" resting on granite. ' By the Granito-metamorphic formation is here meant the stratified and non-stratified rocks of different ages, older than the Devonian limestone. 62 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN The Sinian, or N. E. S. W. system of elevation corresponds in many respects to our Appalachian system, and if the analogy holds good throughout, it seems pro- bable that the Sinian revolution terminated soon after the deposition of the Chinese Coal measures, a supposition that is corroborated by the absence, so far as my observation goes, of any younger formations elevated by this revolution. The apparently total absence, in the line of the Yangtse, of eruptive porphyries, greenstones,, trachytes, and basalts, seems to point to a corresponding absence of subsequent disturbance through a large area of the country. Again, were there fossiliferous strata of the Jurassic or Cretaceous ages, their petrifactions would be found in all parts of the empire, used as curiosities and as medicines, as is the case with the fossU. brachiopods and orthoceratites. This is important evidence in China, where art is based on the remarkable, or rather strange, in nature.^ In classifying the above tabulated data, I have assumed that the gold washings are indicative of the neighborhood of the granito-metamorphic formation, and have referred this to the adjacent ridges. I have also assumed that the limestone marble, lime, caves, stalactites, and fossil brachiopods, etc., all point to the presence in each locality of the same great bed of Devonian limestone. My own observations in the northern provinces and along the Yangtse, those of "Blackiston in Sz'chuen, and the remarks of casual travellers in the south, aU point to one, and only one, great limestone formation, which everywhere underlies the coal-bearing rocks, and to which, in aU probability, all the indications above given refer. That the brachiopods belong to this formation is merely an inference, for I never was able to find a fossil of any kind in the limestone. It is, however, an inference based on circumstantial evidence, as when they are frequently cited as occurring in caverns or in the same neighborhood with marble, or stalactites, etc., or in close proximity to coal localities. With regard to the coal-bearing rocks, I have supposed the coals to belong to the same age throughout the empire, excepting a few which seem, from their names, to be tertiary brown coals. The similar character of the fossils, from the north and from the Yangtse, and the position of given localities with reference to the lime- stone in many parts of the country, favor the assumption. Had we good topographical maps of China, the sketch I am about to attempt would be much facilitated ; but although the water-courses are laid down on the Jesuit map, with a general approximation to accuracy that is very remarkable, we have very little knowledge of the orography. In the first pages of this paper I pointed out the prevalence of the northeast, southwest direction in the prominent features of Eastern Asia, and went so far as to apply this rule to the establishing * Both the Chinese and Japanese have a strong taste for the bizarre in nature, as shown by their fondness for dwarfed or deformed trees. Waterworn and cavernous rocks are carried long distances to be used in ornamenting gardens, and quarries are worked for blocks of dendritic limestone to be made into articles of furniture or ornament. All kinds of fossils are esteemed as medicines, and sold as such in all apothecary shops, the brachiopods as Shiyen "stone swallows," and the fossil bones and teeth, from caverns and loam deposits, as "dragon's teeth," "dragon's scales," "dragon's bones," etc. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 63 of several principal anticlinal axes of elevation in China Proper. In this sketch I shall endeavor to give more reasons for the locating of these ridges, vphich, on the smaU, general sketch-map, are represented by the limestone and granite streaks. In describing the structure of the northern part of Chihli and Shansi, a range was often mentioned under the name of the Barrier range. Its trend is here west of S. W., and its prolongation woul^ cross the Hwang Ho in Pauteh (chau), and thence run S. W. through Shensi and Kansuh, coinciding with the watershed between the eastern and western reaches of the great bend of the Hwang Ho. We have already- seen that this range has elevated the Devonian limestone in its northeastern part. The Hwang Ho traverses it through an immense gorge, a fact which in China is alnlost proof of the presence of the limestone. West of this range are the coal localities of the Ninghia (Fu) and Lanchau (Fu). The next great axis, to the eastward, seems to originate, like the former, in the mountain-knot of the Ourangdaban, near the Tushi gate of the Great Wall, N. W. from Peking. Following a S. W. course it forms the range which we crossed at the Nankau pass, and crossing the Shansi boundary it is kni^pn as the sacred Wutaishan. Still further to the S. W. it crosses the Hwang Ho under the name of the Lungmun shan [mountains of the Dragon gate]. In northern Chihli we have seen that this is a granite range flanked with the Devonian limestone ; the latter formation is indicated to the S. W. in the lime works west of the Fan river, in the caverns of Taning H. aid the lime of Kih C, in the celebrated Lungmun gorge, through which the Hwang Ho passes this range and in the caverns of Fungtsiang F. I have supposed its continuation bordering on the highlands of western Sz'chuen, forming the watershed between the Sz'chuen and Tibetan sources of the Yangtse. Between these two apparently principal axes there seem to be minor ones, but I have colored the intervening space as Coal measures. In it lie the coal basins of Siuenhwa F. in Chihli ; of Tatung F. and Tsingloh H. in Shansi ; and of YuHn F. and Pingliang F. in Shensi. We come now to the central axis of elevation, to which attention was called in the beginning of this paper, and the establishing of which was there based on a study of the map. Where this range crosses the Yangtse, we have seen that it consists of two anticlinal ridges of limestone with an aggregate breadth of 80 miles, and containing between them a coal basin. In its continuation S. W. to the Nanling mountains it seems to occupy a large part of Kweichau. The only data for this portion of the range are, the numerous gold washings at the base of the watershed between Kweichau and Hunan, that I have taken as indications of the granito- metamorphic formation, and the caverns and marble localities of Shihtsien F. and Chinyuen F. In its continuation to the N. E. it is crossed by the river Han, and gives rise to the sources of the Hwai river. It disappears at the edge of the great delta plain to rise again as the watershed of Shantung. In this province the nume- rous gold localities that stretch through the centre from S. W. to N. E. indicate the presence of the older metamorphic rocks, which, indeed, according to my own observation, form the coast near Chifu. The stalactites of Taingan F, and Kii-C. are the only data for coloring in the limestone. The continuation of this range further to the N. E. is found in the limestone islands that stretch from Shantung to 64 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN the "Regent's Sword," and thence through Liautung, as the Changpeh shan, divid- ing the waters of the Yaluh and of the Usuri from those of the Liau and the Sun- gari. In passing close under the precipitous shores of Liautung, I observed that this promontory is made up of parallel N. E. S. "VV. ridges, and the rocks had all the appearance of limestone. Between this central axis and that previously (Jescribed, lies, perhaps, the most important fold of the Coal measures. Beginning in the extreme north, we find coal at several localities along the west coast of Liautung, and along the "Palisade" west of the Liau river. In northern Chihli are the coal basins of Yungping F., of Peking, and of Kwanping P.; in Shansi those of Pingting C, Taiyuen P., Fan- chau P., Hoh C, Pingyang P., Tsehchau P., and Kiang C; in Honan those of Honan P. This main fold, or zone of folds, seems to occupy a large part of the provinces of Sz'chuen and Yunnan. Many minor ridges bring the limestone to the surface in these provinces. In this region almost aU the indications of the Coal measures, exclusive of the information given by Capt. Blackiston, refer to the great salt deposits. Th^ following considerations have led me to look upon these deposits as members of the Chinese Coal measures. Some, at least, are in the neighborhood of abundant coal mines.^ Thick coal seams are sometimes bored through before reaching the salt. They occur at various points along the Yangtse as in Wushan H., Chingking P., and Siichau P., in all which places they must be very near ridges of limestone, but above that formation. In Shunking P. and in Kiating P., they are also near such ridges. If the weUs are in rocks younger than the limestone, their depth (500 to 2,600 feet) cannot penetrate to anything older than the lime- stone. This, and the fact that thick seams of coal are bored through in these wells, and the remark of Blackiston that all the coal rocks he saw in Sz'chuen resembled those of the Kwei coal field, the character of which we know, render it, I think, probable that both the coal and the .salt deposits belong to the Chinese Coal measures. The region in question, though containing many small parallel troughs, seems to be, as a whole, a major trough, if I may use the expression, between two principal anticlinal axes, and, as such, it seems to be traceable through Eastern Asia. To it the S. W. N. E. course of the Yangtse in Sz'chuen owes its direction, and the same may be said of the northern part of the delta plain, the Gulf of Pechele, the valley of the Liau river, and that of the lower Amur, and the depression in which lies the Gulf of Penjinsk. On the sketch map the two members of the central anticlinal axis, which we have seen to exist where it crosses the Yangtse, are represented as continuing separately in Honan and Kweichau. "Whether the course of the Wu river, in the latter province, is suificient indication of a continuation of the synclinal trough of Kwei toward the S. W. is doubtful, but to the N. E. the coal basins of Ju C. in Plonan, and of YihteH. (Tsingchau P.) in Shantung fall in that line. East of this central axis is another major trough or basin. In this are some of the coal basins of Hunan, the lake-plairi of the Tungting, and the valleys of the ' Imbert, in Annalcs de I'Assoc. pour la propag. de la Foi. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN, 65 rivers Yuen and Tsz, all in Hunan, and in Nganhmii the valley of the Hwai, and the coal basin of Siichau in Kiangsuh. This trough is limited on the east by what would seem to be a band of parallel ridges extending from the province of Kwangsi to Kiangsuh. We have seen the Yangtse crossing one of these between Hankau and Kiukiang, while another, broken through by the Poyang lake, shuts in the valley of the Yangtse on the east. The river flows between these two from the Poyang to beyond Nanking. Numerous indications of the limestone as stalactitic caves, fossil brachiopods, etc., extend in a southwest direction through Kiangsi and Hunan into Kwangsi, while in the same belt are many evidences of the Coal measures. . That the space between these ridges is occupied by coal basins in part of Kiangsi and Nganhwui is certain, and here belong also the coal basins of southeastern Hunan. I have, therefore, represented them as independent throughout. In the easternmost of these, east of the Poyang lake, are the granite hiUs of Kingteh, which furnish the celebrated kaolin' for fine porcelain, while Abel mentions granite and micaceous schists as occurring in the high hiUs west of the lake in the western ridge. The data for the next trough to the east are the existence of what seem to be shales and sandstones of the Coat measures on the Kan river from Nanchang F. to the Meiling pass, and the coal fields of Kwangsin F. (Kiangsi), of Kiichau F. and Chuchau F. (Chehkiang), of Ningkwo F. (Nganhwui), ia every Men of which there is coal, and of Huchau F. (Chehkiang). We come now to the coast axis of elevation marked by the range of mountains that separate Nganhwui and Kiangsi from Chehkiang and Fuhkien. We know that at the Meiling it, is of granite flanked with limestone; the fact that Mr. Fortune found the peaks near the headwaters of the Min river to be granitic, and in the northeast the granitic islands of Chusan, all indicate a granite range, whUe the table furnishes numerous evidences of the presence, on both sides, of the great limestone formation. There are even fewer data for understanding the structure of the eastern and southern provinces than for almost any other part of the empire. Scattered iadica- tions of limestone and coal, and the courses of sotne of the rivers have prompted . me to insert another axis of elevation, nearer the coast and stretching from Hong- kong to Wanchau F. in Chehkiang. Such an axis is apparent in the granite^ islands that stretch away toward Hainan, and to it this island seems to belong. The indications of the Coal measures along the coast are the coal fields of Hinghwa F. and Nganki H.^ (Tsiuenchau F.). The prolongation of the coast axis of elevation cuts the southern and most moun- tainous parts of Corea, and coincides nearly with the granite axis of Kamschatka. I have thus far in this sketch made no mention of any other system of elevation than the N. E. S.W. ; but, as we have seen in a former chapter, another system, the » This word is said to be derived fron kao, high, and ling, ridge. " Chin. Repository. ' This I take to be the Anko mentioned in the Chin. Rep. as producing anthracite. 9 May, 1866. 66 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN E. W., exists, and to its disturbing influence are due some of the most important and beneficial features in the structure of the country. Between the Wei river of Shensi and the Sz'chuen boundary, two ranges, parallel branches of the prolonged Kwenlun, with a general trend from west to east, pene- trate far into Central China. Some of the peaks of these chains are said by Klap- roth, on Chinese authority, to rise above the snowline. The numerous gold locali- ties in this region point to an extensive development of the older metamorphic rocks, while the presence of stalactitic caves and other indications of limestone seem to show that this formation flanks the ranges in question. The trends of the upper courses of the rivers Han and Kialmig, and the com- mimication said to exist between these streams at Ningkiang C. seem to indicate that the space between these ridges is an elevated table-land, divided by a low watershed that separates the sources of the Han from those of the Kialung. This watershed would be in the line of the limestone range represented as crossing Shansi, Shensi, and Western Sz'chuen. The disturbances caused by the northemnlost of these ridges ceases in Honan, but the southern member seems to continue farther east, apparently crossing Hupeh into Nganhwui. Of the mountains in Southern China thai belong to this system, we know as little as of those just mentioned. They are spoken of as containing snow-capped peaks and high table-lands in Kwangsi and Kweichau, and are supposed by Humboldt^ to be the continuation of the Himalaya mountains. The hydrography of Yunnan, as shown on the great map of Kanghi, would seem to indicate the existence of a more or less elevated plateau, which, beginning west of the Lantsan river, trends nearly east, entirely across Yunnan, occupying a region in which rise tributaries both of the Yangtse and the Si Ho, and of the rivers that flow to the Gulf of Ton- quin. The little that is known of the climate of the city of Yunnan F. (in about 25° N.) tends to confirm the supposition that it is on an elevated table-land.^ This plateau seems to extend to the western part, of the province, where it appears to terminate abruptly toward the plain of the Irawaddi river, for Marco Polo required two days and a half to descend from the city of Yungchang F. to the lowlands of Ava, and speaks of the descent as being very great (" grandissima diScesa.")^ Toward the east these highlands are represented by Klaproth as forming two diverging ranges of mountains, the northernmost of which is crowned with snowy peaks and glaciers till near the head waters of the Yuen river.* There seems to be little doubt that in the meridian of Kweilin F., and to the east of that point, this northern branch forms a comparatively low range, and is nearly lost in the N. E. S. W. system. '■ Asie Centrale. ' Ritter, Asien, III, 754. =■ Ritter, Asien, III, p. Y46. « Ritter, Asien, III, p. 660. Klaproth, Mag. Asiat., II, pp. 139, 156. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 67 CHAPTEE VII.i THE SINIAN^ SYSTEM OF ELEYATION. I HAVE taken the liberty of giving this name to that extensive N. E. S. W. sys- tem of upheaval which is traceable through nearly all Eastern Asia, and to which this portion of the continent owes its most salient features. We have seen how generally prevalent this trend is in China., whether we con- sider the hydrography, the courses of the mountains,^ or the strike of the strata. In crossing the plateau of Mongolia from the Great Wall to Siberia, I found the same trend predominating in the uplifted strata of old metamorphic rocks, and generally in the ridges' that cross the steppes of the Gobi. A glance at any recent map of Siberia wiU show that the same rule may be ap- plied to all of the eastern part of this vast region. The Yablonoi, Altan-kingan, and Stanovoi mountains, with aU their intermediate, parallel ridges, that together form the valley network of the upper Lena and Amur rivers, are instances of the develop- ment of this system on a grand scale. Although exceptions — that may or may not belong to this system — to the general N. E. trend seem to exist in the Great Kin- gan mountains — the eastern edge of the great plateau — and in the continuation of the Stanovoi in the far northeast, still to the configuration arising from the prevalence of this trend, are due the most marked features of Eastern Asia. The seas of Ochotsk and of Japan, the gulfs of Pechele and of Tonquin, are geoclinal valleys of this system of great geological age, which the disturbances of a long range of time have not been able to obliterate. And a similar valley is, I think, indicated for the land by the line of reference I have drawTi through the valleys of the Yangtse aind Amur. As throughout China and across Mongolia I was unable to find any- thing more recent than the Chinese Coal measures affected by this uplift, and as, to the extent of my knowledge, no younger rocks are affected by it in Siberia,* it seems proper for the present to refer all the N. E. ridges to one system, and their origin to one revolution. The, in many places, unconformable strikes and dips of the older metamorphic schists of China show the existence of disturbances that had ceased before the for- mation of the great bed of limestone. » See Map, PL 1. " From Sinfin, the name applied to China in the earliest mention made of that country. — Isaiah. ' That the general trend of their mountains is N. E. was known to the early native writers. * The explorations of M. Tchihatcheff, in the Altai, the eastern part of which belongs to the sys- tem in question, failed to discover any rocks more recent than the Permian, affected>by this uplift. 68 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN The Sinian revolution seems to have begun after the deposition, of the limestone, and before that of the Coal measures ; at least the difference in character that is visible between the beds that overlie the limestone on the two flanks of the anti- clinal ridge in Western Hupeh, and the presence, at the bottom of the Coal measures near Peking, of conglomerates, formed from porphyries that are younger than the limestone, are facts that seem to favor this idea. It is not improbable that these first movements determined the outlines of the principal areas of land and water, and of the future coal basins. The revolution does not seem to have reached its climax tUl after the Coal measures had been deposited, when the strata were plicated and prepared for metamorphism. Very striking analogies are apparent between the Sinians and our own Appala- chians. Both have the same trend ; both are the results of revolutions, which, though they may not have been coextensive in time, were contemporaneous through a long period ; and both have folded immense areas of coal-bearing strata. As the elevation of the Appalachians determined the outline of Eastern America, so the Sinian revolution fixed the eastern boundary of the great continent. We have, in this analogy, one more link in the chain of evidence toward proving the subordination to harmonious laws of the causes that have produced aU the varied features in the configuration of our planet. One of the most remarkable features in the configuration of the northern hemisphere, seems to me to be the number of geoclinal valleys having a nearly N. E. S. W. course, that characterize it. In the extreme east of the' great con- tinent we find one, occupied by the sea, between the Japanese Islands and the coast range of Manchuria ; between this and the Kingan mountains^ another, which I have several times alluded to as the principal line of reference in treating of the Sinian features ; the Gobi, including the region between the Kingan and the Altai, forms a third. These troughs have aU been referred to in the preceding pages, but, if I may be permitted to generalize beyond the closer limits of this paper, I think a much larger one exists in the vast extent of lowlands that stretch unbroken, excepting by the Ural mountains, from the Altai to the Scandinavian peninsula. ' The eastern edge of the plateau, unlike the southern, is formed by parallel ridges trending between N. E. and N. by E., the valleys between which form succeeding terraces from the plateau to the Sungari river. Prince Krapotkin, who travelled in disguise from the Argun river to Mergen, ascending the Gan river, and descending the Noumin river, gave me the following information : The ascent to the edge of the plateau from the west was hardly perceptible, the descent to the east rapid. In descending he crossed four parallel ranges trending N. N. E., all of which are traversed; by the tributaries of the Sungari. The specimens braught back by Prince Krapotkin, chiefly from the ranges, were mostly granite, porphyries, argillaceous and micaceous schists, and gneiss. Coal is abundant along the eastern slope. According to M. Radde the mean height of the Amur between the Kingan mountains and the Bureja mountains, is 800 feet above the sea; between Mochada and the Kur river, from 400 to 500 feet. — Badde, in Petermann's Mittheilungen, 1861, pp. 449 — 457. MM. Saurin and Murray, of the English Legation in Peking, informed me that in._ ascending to the plateau from the region west of Jehol, they followed a valley through a mountainous district, and reached the table-land without seeing any signs of an abrupt wall, such as it presents along its southern edge. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 69 Through this broad tract two minor valleys are indicated, one in the trough that contains the Aralo-Caspian depression and the lakes of the Barabinsky steppe, and the other containing the Kara sea, the White sea, the lakes of Finland and the Baltic, Beyond the mountains of Norway the great depression occupied by the Sea of Greenland and the North Atlantic, is one of the best defined in this series of valleys. Finally, in the vast extent of lowlands of British America we have a great geo- clinal depression lying between the Appalachians and the Rocky mountains, forming an elevated geoclinal valley between N. E. and N. W, systems of elevation ; just as in the North Pacific Ocean we have a depressed vaUey of the same kind between N. W. and N E, systems — the Rocky mountains and the Sinians. Both Prof. Guyot and Prof Dana have demonstrated the fact that the principal continental outlines are referable to N. E. and N. W. systems of trends. 70 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CHAPTEK VIII.' GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OP THE ROUTE FROM THE GREAT WALL TO THE SIBERIAN FRONTIER. The route, here described, after following for about 100 iftiles that along which the measurements of MM. Fuss and v. Bunge were made, leaves this and remains about 60 miles to the west of it for most of the distance, joining it again in about latitude 47° N. The journey was made in the months of November and December, the ther- mometer ranging from + 15° to — 28° F., with an almost incessant, strong, north- west wind. This, and the fact that we travelled seventeen hours a day, will, I think, be a sufficient excuse for the meagreness of the information. Nothing but the absence of all geological observations over this immense region, prompts the insertion of the following scanty notes. Nov. 21, 1864. Leaving Kalgan we ascended to the plateau by the Tutinza road.'^ For the first two or three days the intensely cold winds made it impossible to take notes. The great volcanic formation, which we have seen forming the southern edge of the table-land for a long distance to the westward, extends from thirty to fifty miles in this direction, as the only rock in place, and the conformation of the surface is similar to that with which we have become acquainted in describing the journey to the west, only the valleys are generally broader and mone shallow. During the next fifty miles our route crossed several low ridges, chiefly granitic, the intervening plains being covered with the detritus of quartz and metamorphic sandstone. This is succeeded by a rolling country with hills of red granite, diorite, and greenstone porphyry, which continues to beyond the low granite ridge of Mt. Ugundui.^ The fragments on the surface of the plains were mostly of granite and quartzitic sandstone, together with scattered pieces of lava and pebbles of chal- cedony, agate, etc. Nov. 26. After passing Mt. Ugundui the character of the country underwent a marked change. Our road lay, from the last-named mountain to the Mingan hills, through a depression. In the distance the flat outline of the plateau was seen on all sides, the intervening country being cut up into isolated knobs and ridges by numerous water-courses and lake beds. The structure of the knobs shows them to * See Section on PI. Y. " This portion of the road, as far as the summit of the plateau, was described in a previous chapter. ' Many of the names of places, etc , used in this sketch are given on Klaproth'^ large map of Cen- tral Asia. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN 71 be the remnants of a deposit the horizontal beds of which were continuous over the area in question. I examined one of these hUlocks, about 50 feet high, near lake BUika Noor, and found it made up of the following beds, from younger to older : — Compact, yellowish-gray limestone, with a tendency to oolitic structure. Thin bed of dark clay, or earth, with concretions of manganese. Bed of finely crystalline, white, saccharoid gypsum. Gypsum in massive, transparent crystals associated with more or less red clay. The stratification is horizontal throughout, and the same structure seemed to be continuous as far as the Mingan hills. What the character of the plateau is I could not determine ; as seen in the distance it limits the depression with a cliff and long talus. An alluvial deposit of Ted loam is present in many of the valleys, and is, perhaps, nearly contemporanebus Avith the erosion of the water-courses. Nov. 27. In the morning we found ourselves in the Mingan hills, apparently an isolated protuberance rising only a few hundred feet above the plateau. The rocks of these hills, where first observed near the southern edge, were chiefly quartzite, compact sandstone, and a talco-argillaceous schist, in highly inclined strata trending N. W. and dipping to N, E. Several miles further to the northwest we came to ridges of limestone, in 'beds also highly inclined, 'with a strike W. N. W. and dip to S. S. "W. This rock resembles the limestone of the hills west of Peking. It is tra- versed by dykes of greenstone. In the Mingan hills I found a few rolled fragments of basaltic lava similar to that of the southern edge of the plateau. To the west of these hills lies the broad deep valley of Olannoor, which seems to connect the depression south of these hiUs with the great plain of Tamchintala, to which we now descend. As we enter upon this steppe we see before us nothing but an unbroken sandy and gravelly plain with a little scattered grass. A con- siderable percentage of the pebbles on the surface consists of agate, cornelian, and chalcedony. 'Nov. 28. The morning found us stUl travelling on the. Tamchintala, but we soon descended into a large vaUey-like depression. The plateau is here cut into to the depth of perhaps 150 feet, the vertical wall giving an insight into its local structure. The whole exposed thickness consists of horizontal strata of white cal- careous sandstone with thin beds of arenaceous limestone interstratified. At the bottom of the section a bed of red arenaceous clay crops out. The sandstone varies in grain from a fine grit to a fine conglomerate, the ingredients of both being ap- parently identical with those of the gravel on the surface, between which and the underlying rock there is no line of demarcation. If the pebbles of agate, cornelian and chalcedony are derived from the amygdaloidal lava, so common farther south, their occurrence in this deposit throws light on the relative ages of the two forma- tions. After crossing this valley depression, which is several miles broad, we ascended to the plain at about the same level, apparently, as on the other side. Nov. 29. During the previous night we left the plain and entered a rough and very undulating country. Here a belt of older rocks, about seventy miles broad. 72 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN seems to rise a little above the general level of the plateau. Its position is marked on most maps by the boundary line between inner and outer Mongolia. As we entered these hills during the night I could not see the structure of their southern edge, but where first observed, several miles from that point, the outcrop- ping rock is a compact hard sandstone, in nearly vertical strata trending about E, W. Beyond this the next rock observed was granite in red and white varieties, traversed by numerous dykes of brown porphyry with bright red crystals of feldspar. The surface of this granite region forms numerous depressions, the bottoms of which seem to be occupied, in the wet season, by ponds without outlets. In the gravel of one of these depressions I found a slightly rounded fragment of sHicified wood.^ Nov. 30. The morning of this day found us stUl in the" hilly region. The rocks along the road were clay schist. We came, early in the morning, to a narrow gravelly plain, whif;h, descending between two granite cliffs, opened out on to the broad plain of the vaUey of Ulannoor. The hills on either side of the narrow plain just mentioned, which are of coarse granite traversed by a similar rock of finer grain, are bare, without either soil or vegetation, excepting two or three dwarf trees growing from crevices in. the rock. These trees were the only ones seSn on the plateau between Kalgan and the hills of Urga. Entering the valley of Ulannoor near Gashun we found ourselves in a country of high terraces, these consisting, where seen, mostly of beds of clay. This clay would seem to be the equivalent of the calcareous sandstone, and is covered, in the narrow vaUey mentioned above, by a deposit of loam. Crossing the valley of Ulannoor, we entered a valley in the hills of Ulandzabuk- daban. Here the ground was covered with angular fragments of clay-slate, and gneiss. EoUed fragments of porous lava were also found on the surface. Dec. 1. This day our road lay through the hills of Senji, which consist of al- ternating vertical strata of micaceous, argUlaceous, and talcose schists, and com- pact limestone in blue, black, and white varieties, aU having a very regular trend to about N. E. These strata are traversed in aU directions by dykes of greenstone. Large lenticular masses of quartz were also observed, and some broad veins of the same material, apparently interstratified, and discolored with the oxides of iron and manganese. The frequent repetition of the more easily recognizable rocks would seem to show a highly folded condition of the strata. The hmestone having better resisted the action of disintegration, forms ridges from 100 to 150 feet high above the bottoms of the troughs formed by the removal of the in- tervening softer rocks. Thus the general appearance of the surface is that of parallel valleys and ridges. But here too we find the same tendency to form depressions without outlets, that we have already seen in the granite region (Nov. 29th), and ^ Silicified wood was shown to me in Peking under the name of Hanhaishi. Hanhai is the Chinese name for the Gobi desert. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 73 >Rfhich is .mentioned in a previous chapter as occurring along tlie southern edge of the plateau, in the erosion of the lava region. In all these instances the depressions are entirely in the solid rock, and vary in size from a few yards to several thousand feet across. They have the appearance of being produced by erosion and not by sinking. In the instance before us this conform3,tion is often assisted by cross dykes of greenstone. But the occurrence generally would seem to arise from ine- qualities in the texture of the rock. Whatever the cause of these depressions may be, their manner of formation is probably closely connected with the origin of a large class of desert lake beds. For many miles the surface of the rock was entirely bare of soil, excepting in the bottoms of the depressions just mentioned, where ponds are probably formed in wet years. From this hilly region we came gradually into another of those broad plains, which form, in the aggregate, the true plateau. These plains, the steppes of the Russians, and tola of the Mongols, are like those of our own deserts in the Eocky mountains. They are great valleys, often from twenty to sixty miles broad, filled with marine deposits that have retained their horizontal position and remained often intact from erosion. Their surface is not, strictly speaking, horizontal, but slopes from both sides to the centre. The deposit forming the substructure of this plain, seems to be the same sand- stone and conglomerate that we have seen on the Tamchintala, judging from some blocks of these rocks seen near a Mongol dwelling. Crossing this plain we came, near its northern edge, to a line of basaltic cones from 100 to 150 feet high, isolated from the low flat hills to the north, and appa- rently resting on clay slate. They seemed thus to belong to a bed or stream rather than to a dyke. Whether the flat hills near by are a continuation of the same volcanic rock I could not determine. The rock is a brownish-black, minutely crystalline basalt. On the surface of the plain, near these hUls, I found large numbers of fragments of black and red cellular lava, and abundant angular pieces of chalcedony, and red and green jasper, etc. Dec. 2. During this day we crossed two broad valley depressions, the same cal- careous sandstone and conglomerate already mentioned, forming apparently the sub- structure both of the long valley slopes and of the higher land intervening between these. A few fragments of blue limestone and white quartz, derived probably from the formation we crossed yesterday, were found in the surface gravel ; but a large percentage of this gravel consisted^of chalcedony, cornelian, and agate. From the highest ground the flat outline of the plateau was visible in every direction, excepting to the south, where we could see the hills of the past two or three days rising to the height of perhaps 1000 feet above the neighboring plateau. D5c. 3. We travelled the past night and this day on the continuation of the steppes of the last two days. During the afternoon the plain descended gradually to the north till it ceased abruptly against a granite ridge from 50 to 100 feet high. Beyond this ridge, for a few miles, the country though somewhat lower than the plain of '-.he morning, is bare of the steppe deposit, and presents a rough, granite surface. Dec. 4. Detained one day by a houran or snow-storm of great violence. 10 May, 1866. 74 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Dec. 5. Travelled over a rolling country chiefly of granite and mica schist. Associated with the latter rock is a vv^hite dolomitic limestone in apparently inter- stratified beds, impregnated with specks and flakes of graphite. The general trend of these rocks appeared to be to the N. W. The granite had, in places, more the appearance of a metamorphosed conglome- rate breccia than of a true granite. In the afternoon we encamped among outcrops of trachytic porphyry identical in character with that of Kalgan. I found here all the kinds seen at Kalgan, includ- ing a striped variety, and specimens with primary quartz. This porphyry contains veins and concretions of chalcedony and cornelian. Dec. 6. Our road lay all day over a rolling country, granitic and syenitic rocks prevailing, till in the evening we reached the foot of a picturesque granite peak, the Bogdo oola,^ rising several hundred feet above the surrounding country. To the west of this we saw a large valley with water or, rather, ice. An accident detained us here tiU. the next afternoon. Dec. 7. Started in the afternoon, and after passing the Lamasery of Churin- chelu, and travelling a few miles along the foot of the Bogdo oola, encamped for the night. Dec. 8. Travelled about 20 miles over a rough country. As the ground was covered with snow, I saw but little of its character, the outcrops seen being all granitic. Dec. 9. This day we were again on the undulating country of the plateau and the great steppe deposit. Near our camping place were many fragments of volcanic scoriae and of chalcedony. Dec. 10. Our road was still on the st^pe of yesterday, the surface rising rapidly toward the north. The rolled detritus on the surface was mostly derived from mica- schist, and clay slates, and in a ravine I observed the former rock in place. Near this we entered the hills that limit the steppe, and found them to be of basalt, at least as far as the camping place. Dec. 11. This day found us in the range of hills that, trending S. W. from the Kentei mountains, forms the watershed between the steppes of the Gobi and the valleys of the Tula and Orkhon rivers, whose waters flow to the Arctic Ocean. The country is here made up of rounded, grassy hills, of about the same height, with valleys remarkable for the regularity of their long, unbroken, cross curves. The hills are of a black, metamorphosed clay schist, and a compact, greenish rock, chiefly feldspar and quartz, apparently a metam&rphic greenstone. The strike of the clay rock, where observed, was N. S., and the dip vertical. The valley bottoms, and the lower slopes of the hills, are covered with a rich, black earth, the deposit showing no signs of erosion. Our camp this night was in the Horteryndaban. Dec. 12. During at least the greater part of the past night we were descending, and daylight found us in a valley much like that which leads from Kalgan to the plateau, viz., a narrow, gravelly descending plain, inclosed between hiUs several * Bogdo, sacred, and oola, mountain. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 75 hundred feet high, and remarkable for their pyramidal forms. The fragments of rock, both angular and rolled, that cover the valley, were found to be of green clay schist, the same metamorphic greenstone seen yesterday, and a greenish sandstone. In the forenoon we reached Urga, also called Kufen, the residence of a living Buddha. Dec. 14. Left Urga for Kiachta, which place we reached on the 21st December. The country between these places was covered with snow, concealing its geological character. Our road lay through the hills to the eastward from the Orkhon river, crossing its tributaries, the Kara Gol and the Iro Gol. Through the first two-thirds of the distance the few outcrops seen were of rocks similar to those seen near Urga; at Iro Gol I found chloritic granite. A great steppe deposit, apparently of loose argillaceous sand, fills the vaUeys, and, extending over the lower parts of the crests of the ridges, leaves the higher peaks isolated like the islands of an archipelago. This is part of a very extensive deposit which, from its position here, must be continuous through all the lower course of the Orkhon. It would seem to be the same deposit that forms the broad steppe south of Kiachta, and is visible, I think, in the terraces of the Selenga as far as Lake Baikal, and in the tables on either side of the Angara at Irkutsk. The barometrical measurements of the Kussian Academicians, MM. Fuss and v. Bunge, have shown that that part of the continent which they crossed, between the Great Wall of China and the Siberian frontier, south of Lake Baikal, is an elevated plateau, bounded on the N. W. and S. E. by mountain ranges from, 5000 to 10,000 feet high, from the sides of which the table-land falls gently toward a broad level region in the centre, the mean height of which is not more than 2400 feet. The skeleton of the plateau is thus a great geoclinal valley, trending nearly N. E., the basis of which, so far as observed, is formed by granitic rocks, and metamorphic strata, probably of Paleozoic origin, and the inequalities of which have been nearly filled up with more recent formations. Of these latter we can, at present, recognize only three, viz: — 1. The great development of lava along the southern edge. 2. The steppe deposit including the Gobi sandstone. 3. The deposits of loam, mentioned in the preceding pages as covering in places the steppe deposit. The lava formation is apparently the oldest of the three. We have seen, in a former chapter, how a part, at least, of the southeastern edge of the table-land owes its level surface solely to the great thickness of the volcanic rocks, which have thus been able to fill up the hollows between the ridges of granite and metamorphic rocks. The profile, constructed from the measurements^ of MM. Fuss and v. Bunge, seems to indicate the existence of a terrace from 3000 to 4000 feet high and about 150 miles broad, that forms the S. E. border of the plateau. It is not improbable that this terrace is due, in great part, to extensive lava flows. The volcanic rocks of Lake Baikal and of the region to the east, the occurrence » Ritter. 76 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN of products of this class in place and as scattered fragments at many points on the route across the plateau, and finally the information derived from Chinese authorities concerning the existence within historical times of active volcanoes, among the mountains of Manchuria to the east, and in the Tienshan of the west, aU point to a development of volcanic activity, which was formerly coextensive with the area of the present tahle-land. The remains of this action still make themselves felt in the violent earthquakes that from time to time shake the districts of northern Chihli and the shores of Lake Baikal. The greater flows of lavas seem to have been predetermined by the fissures of dislocation, formed along the borders of the area that was subsequently to be ele- vated. Such a fissure we have seen marked by a great fault south of the Lakes Kirnoor and Tehai. In the present state of our knowledge of this vast region, it is, I believe, impos- sible to say whether, at the time of the eruption of these rocks, the present depres- sion of the Gobi was or was not under water. That a portion of the southern edge of the plateau was not submerged appears from the fact that where the bottom of the lava formation was visible it was found to rest immediately on the old granitic and metamorphic rocks. This, however, does not preclude the possibility of the existence of undisturbed deposits under the steppe sandstones of the Gobi. The sea in which the great steppe deposit was precipitated was studded with islands now represented by the ridges and peaks that rise above the plains. The surface of the plains rises everywhere toward these former islands, partly because the deposit in its formation adapted itself partially to the original surfaces of the valleys it fills, and partly from its thickness being increased by the tributary detritus of the islands. The effect of such a combination of circumstances upon the form of the surface, has been discussed in treating of the lake deposits of Northern China. It seems not improbable that the same causes may have operated here as there, in forming many of those lake valleys, the beds of which rest upon the steppe deposit. The age of this extensive deposit is a question of much interest. If it is con- temporaneous with the steppes and terraces of the valley system of the Orkhon and Angara, it seems probable that the sea which left this deposit over nearly all of what is now the plateau, was also contemporaneous, within certain limits, with that great body of water which, extending from the polar ocean to the Caspian, occupied all Western Siberia. The fact, to which Baron v. Humboldt^ has called attention, that seals, identical in species, inhabit the fresh waters of the lakes Baikal and Oron (lat. 55° N., long. 119° E.) and the- Caspian Sea, seems to refer to that period. The Oron lake is a tributary of the Vitim, and through this of the Lena, in which no seals occur. This circumstance points very clearly to a former water communication between these far separated localities, and the time at which the seals of the Oron became isolated from those of the Baikal and the Caspian falls, perhaps, in the same period with the emergence of the great plains of Northern and Western Siberia, the deposits of ' Humboldt, Kosmos, IV, p. 456. Stuttgart und Tiibingen, 1858. Pallas. Zoographia Rosso-Asiar tica, 1818, p. 115. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 77 which are characterized by abundant remains of the mammoth as well as of Bos urus and EMnoceros ticliorliinus. We have seen that although the effects of erosion are generally not very extensive in the steppe deposit, they exist in some places on a large scale. The deeply cut valley in the Tamchintala is an instance, and one that seemed to me could have been caused only by fluviatile action. The erosion in the neighborhood of Bilika Noor, and the presence in the eroded valleys of loam strongly resembling that deposited by great rivers is another instance. This loam was not often seen, indeed it is mentioned in my notes only as occurring in the Mingan hills, at BUika Noor, and ^ over the steppe deposit near Goshun. The closing event in the history of the great sea that in comparatively recent times covered so large a part of Asia, extending from the pole to the Caspian and Black sea, and from the Ural mountains to near the Great Wall of China, was the disappearance of its waters from the long trough that reaches from the shores of the Arctic sea, through the Barabinsky steppe to the Aralo-Caspian depression. It appears to me that the ancient physical geography of this vast region, and the effects of its elevation, present one of the most interesting and important fields of exploration. Whether we consider the meteorological changes that must have been brought about by the upheaval of so large an area, or the influence of this great* water communication and its currents on the distribution of existing genera, the geological phenomena that have affected this broad belt of the great continent have, beyond doubt, had an important influence on the recent history of our planet. In the following table I have recapitulated the few leading events in the geologi- cal history of China and Mongolia which seem to be recognizable. 78 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN A. Deposition and metamorpliism of the older meta- morphic strata of China. B. Deposition of the metamorpic strata of Mongolia. C. Deposition of the great Devonian limestone for- mation. D. Eruption of the older porphyries of the Sishan, west of Peking. E. Deposition of the Chinese Coal measures. F. Eruption of the younger porphyries of the Si- shan. {Disturbances. Uplifts apparently of various ages and directions, of which the surface effects are mostly obliterated. Sinian revolution forming the N.E. system of uplifts. Emergence of all China Proper. S.W. Submergence of Mongolia. W. Eruption of the trachytic porphyries of Kalgan and the Gobi Desert. X. Eruption of the volcanic rocks of S. Mongolia and the Baikal region. Y. Deposition of the steppe deposits of the Gobi Desert. Z. Deposition of the lake loam of the northern lakes. Beginning of the delta of the Hwang Ho. Commencement of the emergence of the plateau. Formation of the great dislo- cation along the southern edge of the plateau. Supposed change in the course of the Hwang Ho, and formation of the chain of northern lakes. Deepening of the channel of the Hwang Ho between Shansi and Shensi, and of the gorge of the Tang Ho, and conse- quent drainage of the northern lakes. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 79 CHAPTER IX. » GEOLOGICAL ITINERARIES OF JOURNEYS IN THE ISLAND OF YESSO, IN NORTHERN JAPAN. The following notes were taken during journeys made in the service of the Japanese Government, in the summer and autumn of 1862. As the very small population of this northern island is composed almost entirely of fishermen, it is confined to small villages scattered along the sea-shore. The only roads are those connecting these hamlets, with the exception of rare bridle-paths penetrating the interior. The mountains west and north of Volcano bay are covered with dense forests and a denser undergrowth of a kind of bamboo, so close-set that the country is impenetrable, excepting by wading in the beds of torrents. Thus the geologist is obliged to content himself chiefly with the sections exposed on the sea-shore. Hakodade, the seat of the Viceroyalty of Yesso and Krafto,^ is at the foot of a peak about 1,150 feet high, connected with the main island by a low, sandy neck. The rock that forms this island-like promontory is apparently a pluto-neptunian product resulting from the metamorphism of trachytic tufas and conglomerate- breccias. Where I examined it, it consisted of a fine-grained felspathic base, containing — 1st. Felspar in oblong crystals, from very small to one-third of an inch in length. These were white, highly fractured, and frequently showed triclinic cleavage. 2d. Quartz in pellucid grains, very irregularly distributed, in places absent, in others equalling the felspar. 3d. Hornblende in small prisms. 4th. Magnetic iron in grains. The rock in this locality has somewhat the appearance of having been broken up and partially refused, but more generally it shows signs of stratification, and I have referred it to the extensive marine deposit formed out of the debris of volcanic rocks.^ On the northern slope of the peak is a terrace of recent gravels raised 100 feet or more above the bay. Between the hUls of the main island and the sea there lies a plain the* surface of which slopes gently toward the water, where it terminates in places in high bluffs. ' See Map, PI. 8. " Sagalln of the Russians. = This is probably the rock described in Com. Perry's Japan Expedition, as granite with crystals of turmaline. 80 GEOLOGICAL RESBAllCIIES IN in others in low terrace steps. Near Kameta this terrace is covered with a few feet of clayey sand, underneath which is a bed of whitish clay used for fine tiles ; more generally these terraces are a bluish, sandy clay, rich in recent shells, and fringing the less precipitous shores of most of the Japanese islands. First Excursion. May 24th, 1862. — Leaving Hakodade we crossed to the main island by the low neck of land. This is formed by a bar of stiff clay, perhaps of . the same age as the terrace deposit, which lies a few feet above high-water, and is covered with drift sand. Along the eastern edge of the neck, the sand has been raised by the winds into hills, sixty to eighty feet high, the shapes of which change with every storm, excepting where protected by a sufficient growth of wild rose- bushes. Behind these hills the ground is swampy, the water finding a very slow drainage through the sand. Fig. 9 1. Loam. 2. Marsh. 3. Drift sand. 4. Stiff clay. Following the beach of the northern shore of the bay for several miles, we turned off at a small village, and, ascending a creek, entered the fertile valley of Ono, a broad marshy plain on which are some of the principal farms of the island. An inferior rice and silk are said to be among the chief produces. May 25th. — Branching off from the main road, a few miles beyond the village of Ono, and following a mountain brook, we reached the lead mines of Ichinowatari. These mines lie at the entrance to a small valley, on the sides of which the out- cropping rocks, containing the veins, are black and gray argUlites, slightly calcare- ous, and highly metamorphosed, in alternating beds; the gray rock being apparently the younger. These are associated with greenstone, whether eruptive or meta- morphic was not ascertained, which occupies most of the valley to its head. On the summit of the ridge the greenstone was found by Mr. Blake to be succeeded by a shale, from which he took a calamite, an-d this again by the black rock already mentioned. The veins occur in all of the above rocks ; the p'redominating veinstone being of magnesite bearing, in nodules, threads, and impregnations, black and yellow zinc-blende, iron pyrites, galena, and, in places, copper pyrites. The waU rocks are highly impregnated with small cubes of iron pyrites. In Japan, as in China, the want of pumping machinery prevents working to any considerable depth below the adit level. The galleries in this mine were tolerably weU timbered, but low and narrow. From ignorance of the use of powder in blasting, their means of attacking the rock were — till the application of powder in mining was introduced by us — confined to the use of pointed instruments, a miner's pick with one point, similar to our ovra, a hammer and gad with handle, like the German Msen, completing the outfit. The ore is roughly assorted by hand, and then passed under dry stamps. I was not a little surprised to find, in the moun- tains of Japan, stamps constructed on the same principle as our own, though the workmanship and efficiency are far inferior. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 81 Tig. 10 An overshot water-wheel turns a slender shaft, armed with long cams, by which the stamps are raised. These last are ten in number, of wood, about nine feet long and four inches square, and bear inserted in their lower ends, iron heads from one and a half to two inches square. Each stamp acts in a separate stone mortar, set into the ground, and powders thirty kaii,^ or two hundred and fifty pounds of ore per day of twelve hours. After being stamped the ore is sifted and sent to the wash-house, where it is concentrated to a very pure schlich by hand washing in wooden pans. This work is done mostly by women. The furnace in which the ore is smelted is a cavity in the ground, lined with charcoal powder kneaded with puddled clay, forming a hemispherical crucible (&) about 14 inches broad and 10 inches deep, with an underdrainage. In front is an earthen shield (c) to reflect the force of the blast, which en- ters through a clay nozzle (d) from the box- beUows (e). The greater part of the smoke, etc., passes off through a large chimney (a). The crucible is lined with charcoal, and when fully dried about 80 lbs. of ore is added and covered with charcoal. When half melted 30 per cent, of pig-iron in lumps of about an inch cube is added. As soon as about one-half of the galena is freed from its sulphur, the whole is stirred. After about two hours the coals are withdrawn, the blast stopped, and water is thrown on the bath to cool the first layer of matte. This is repeated six or seven times till the surface of the lead is free, when it is cast in bars, the matte being thrown away. We~ have in this operation the simplest form of the precipitation process, the Niederschlag Arbeit of the Germans. The greatest production at these mines was in 1860, when, during three months, it averaged about 600 lbs. daily; at the time of my visit it was about 80 lbs. The running daily expenses of production for this smaU result of 80 lbs. were nearly as follows .^ — 30 miners, averaging 30 coolies, at ? overseers, at 1 carpenter .... 26 ore dressers, averaging 3 cents 2 stamp tenders, at 4 " 1 smelter .... 2 smelter's assistants, at 4 cents 200 lbs. of charcoal . 30 lbs. of inferior pig-iron, 6 cents $1 8 " 2 5 " . • 80 40 35 8 18 8 8 3 n 16 $5 98 ' 1 Kan is equal to about 8 lbs. " Assuming the ichibu to be worth $0 33. 11 June, 1866. 82 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN The miners working in ore are paid according to the weight and quality of the ore extracted, receiving one cent for every 10 kans, or 80 lbs. of best rough ore, and one-half a cent for the same quantity of inferior. When not working in ore they are paid by the running foot on the gallery and the hardness of the rock, receiving per running shak,' or foot, 60 cents for the hardest rock, and 1 4 for the softest, the average at these mines being 30 cents. One man can advance a gallery one foot, in the hardest rock of these mines, in five days. The timbering of the levels costs 10 cents per running foot, the wood growing in the vicinity. May 28th. Leaving the mines, we returned to the main road, and crossed the watershed of the peninsula. The rock is concealed, but judging from numerous fragments on the surface the older rocks of the ridge are covered with volcanic conglomerate. About twelve miles to the N. N. E. we saw the half ruined cone of the volcano Komangadake, also called the Sawaradake. In the valley lying between us and the peak, lay a picturesque lake surrounded by forests and meadows, and its banks overhung with a rich vegetation. Beyond lay the beautiful Volcano bay. Descend- ing from the ridge we passed the lake, and stopped for the night at the small village of Skunope. May 29th. Leaving Skunope we started to ascend the volcano. As our way lay through the forest, coolies were sent ahead to clear a path in the underbrush. For several miles we were in a dense wood much like a New England forest ; the prevailing trees being grand specimens of magnolia, beech, birch, maple, and oak, with immense vines of grape, ivy, etc., clinging to their trunks and hanging from the boughs. We came out of the forest upon the gentle foot-slope of the mountain, here covered with a deposit of pumice that extended from where we stood to the sum- mit, in the shape of a stream several hundred yards broad. Leaving the horses, and keeping on the pumice, we soon reached the steeper ascent. The sides of the volcano have been covered with a growth of large trees, where now only dead, white trunks are left, some standing, but the greater number fallen. Many of these lay in our path, while some, standing in their original positions, were surrounded by the subaerial deposit of pumice which reached several feet above the roots. We reached the edge of the crater at a point below the highest peak. I was told that the Sawaradake was formerly a single cone, but that seven or eight years before our visit this fell in, the occurrence being accompanied or pre- ceded by a severe earthquake, and an eruption of hot water and pumice, the sand of which was carried by the winds as far as the Kurile Islands. The crater is now several hundred feet deep, with steep walls, and entirely open toward- the sea on the east. The bottom is formed by a convex mass of pumice which extends with an unbroken slope through the opening to the sea-shore. Great cracks traverse this plain in every direction, distinguishable, from our posi- tion on the summit, by their raised, yellow edges, forming long ridges, as though gigantic moles had undermined the plain, and by rows of steam jets » The shak is about one-fifteenth of an inch shorter than our foot. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 83 The view in the distance is grand. On our left the shore of the beautiful Vol- cano bay forms a long, sweeping curve, parallel to which the mountains in the background, covered with dense forests, appear in all the shades of green, blue, and purple, as they stretch away on the far horizon. Far over the bay, rising as it were from the sea, are several beautiful cones, long quiet, covered to the summits • with vegetation, Vs^hile nearer, though seemingly among them, is' the semi-active Usu, a ruined cone whose yellow, sulphur-coated cliffs glisten even at this distance. We descended into the crater by a talus of pumice, and crossing to the north side came to the edge of a secondary crater, or pit, in the plain. This was about 600 feet in diameter, with precipitous sides on which the stratification of the mass of pumice that fills the bottom of the great crater is distinctly visible. From the bottom and sides of this pit columns of steam were rising, incrusting the walls with crystals of sulphur and salts. This inner crater must have been formed after the falling in of the cone, and was, perhaps, the point of exit of the ashes that fell after the breaking in of the peak. On examining the long fissures that traverse the plain, their sides were found incrusted with delicate crystals of sulphur and sulphate salts, while the pumice walls were half turned to a bright red clay, impregnated with these crystals. Putting my thermometer, which was graduated only to 80° C, into the steam, the mercury instantly ran up to that point. The recent covering of pumice conceals, in most places, the true structure of the mountain, as it forms a deep mantle over every slope not too steep to retain it. This product is grayish-white, very irregular in its porous structure, and con- tains numerous crystals of felspar and grains of a translucent, greenish glass. It is undergoing rapid disintegration. Bombs of black scoria were found containing crystals of white felspar, and showing transition, in streaks, into pumice character- ized by the same contents as that just described. Blocks of a grayish trachytic lava, abounding in crystals of triclinic felspar and grains of the greenish glass, mentioned above, occur in the crater, and seem to be the rock of which the pumice and bombs are a variety. The western side of the crater wall is the highest, and owes its better preserva- ' tion to a broad dyke of rock consisting mainly of a dark paste with greenish-white crystals of triclinic felspar, hornblende, and magnetic iron. The dyke has a tabular structure, the plates being upright in the middle and horizontal on the sides, form- ing there a right angle -w^th the cooling surface, as is the case with columnar struc- ture. The rock traversed by this dyke was found very much disintegrated. Without visiting the top of the northern waU we could clearly distinguish the original outer mantle of the volcano, in the exposed edges of different colored strata, while just under the top of the western wall a stratified remnant of what was pro- bably the old cone remained. The greater part of at least the western and northern walls appear to be of trachytic rock. The general appearance of this mountain produced upon me the impression that it had, before this, been a ruined cone, but was rebuilt by an eruption of pumice to be again broken down and given over to the levelling solfatara-action. Descending by the same route we returned to Skunope. 84 aEOLOGICAL RESEAECHES IN May 31st. Leaving Skunope in the morning, we travelled northward, first through a thickly wooded, swampy district, with corduroy road, then over a soil of volcanic ashes, tUl we finally reached the .sea-shore, when turning eastward, we skirted the northern foot of the volcano, and crossing the outlet of the lake reached the fishing village of Shkabe. The northern slope of the mountain was formerly covered with timber reaching high up its side, and now represented by a forest of dead trunks extending over thousands of acres. The trees were probably killed by the shower of pumice which covered the surface to the depth of from six inches to two feet. On a large pro- portion of the trees the bark is intact, and they show no signs of the action of fire. A fresh undergrowth was springing up, at the time of our visit, and of this the climbing plants seem to have been the first to start into life. In the side of a gulley in the bluff, I observed the following series from younger to older: — 1. Layer of pumice, two feet thick. 2. Vegetable mould with roots of grass six inches. 3. Layer of pumice, three to five feet. 4. Thin layers of pumice and sand, apparently an ancient beach. 5. Volcanic conglomerate-breccia. This section is repeated in all the cuttings observed at the foot of the volcano. At Shkabe there are several hot springs used for bathing. One of these, rising on the beach and bubbling strongly, has a temperature of 75° C. ; and in another rising in a cold stream, but protected by wooden tubbing, I found 70°. The water of these springs has a slight odor of sulphuretted hydrogen. June 1st. Soon after leaving Shkabe we passed an outcrop of quartziferous por- phyry, showing columnar structure, and remarkable for its richness in double pyra- mid crystals of pellucid quartz associated with white felspar in a compact gray paste. The volcanic conglomerate-breccia was the prevailing rock, but in places the bluff was formed of an apparently younger deposit of sandy clay. The beach was in many places covered with a layer of magnetic iron sand, from the disintegrated volcanic rocks, well concentrated by the action of the surf. From Shkabe eastward many fragments of vein quartz were seen on the beach. At the mouth of the Kakumi creek we left the sea-shore, and following the wild vaUey rode a few miles inland to the mines of Kakumi. Here the hills are formed of greenish and gray argillaceous rocks in places brecciatedj'^n others metamorphosed to an euritic rock. These are traversed by dykes of a peculiar white porphyry. This porphyry has a compact paste, generally very white, sometimes gray or greenish, yielding fire with difiiculty with the steel. In this are scattered grains, and especially double pyramid crystals, of quartz, which form from a few per cent, to one-third the volume. In rare instances it contains crystals of a white triclinic felspar. Mica and hornblende are never present and rarely chlorite. It contains almost always small cubes of iron pyrites. In weathering it changes to a white kaolin-like substance often discolored by the oxidation of the pyrites. It occurs in dykes, and often shows columnar structure. ^ CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 85 Porphyry of a similar character occurs at several points on the island. Ascending the creek, greenstone was found to succeed to the argillaceous rock, and seems to be the only formation for at least several miles up the valley. In this are the copper bearing veins, six or eight inches thick, of quartz, containing iron and copper-pyrites, a little zincblcnde, and some calcspar in cavities. The mine had only been opened a short distance. Near the house there is a warm spring, with a temperature of 48° C, rising in the argillaceous rock. June 4th. Leaving Kakumi, in the afternoon, we rode about three miles to the fishing village of Wosatzube. Just east of the village is a promontory formed by an outcrop of beds of black hornstone. Hornstone Strata. Cape Wosatzube. This rock is stratified in well-defined layers from a few inches to several feet in thickness. It has a velvety-black color, more rarely with lighter shades, breaks with conchoidal fracture, and shows, when wetted, a lamellar structure the layers of which are thin as paper, of black and dark-gray shades. In places it is slightly brecciated, the interstices being fiUed with opalescent chalcedony in layers of infiltration. I may add that the Japanese mining oiScials who accompanied us, stated that a similar rock occurs in close connection with the coal beds on the eastern coast of Yesso. The trend of the strata at Wosatzube is N. 40 W., the general dip being northeasterly. Off" the point just described is a spring which bubbles up from the bottom, very strongly at low water, and quite visibly at high tide. June 5th. The country east of Wosatzube being impassible for horses, we em- barked in a boat propelleti by sixteen rowers, and after a voyage of between three and four hours reached the fishing vUlage of Totohoke. The scenery was very grand, as the coast is here formed by a wall several hundred feet high, and washed by the sea at its base. Innumerable waterfalls, some of them very high, and all beautiful, were seen at the heads of ravines, of falling like veils over the high coast bluffs. These cascades occur along the entire Japanese coast', and the early navi- gator Vriess mentions them at almost every step in his narrative. The rock forming this coast wall seems to be volcanic tufa-conglomerate, with lava dykes. On examining the rock of the bluff west of Totohoke, it was found to be indistinctly stratified and made up of round and angular fragments of trachytic lava inclosed in a gray matrix more or less hard, with earthy fracture, and contain- 86 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN ing perfect crystals of hornblende and altered felspar, with scattered grains of quartz. The rock often presented in the fresh fracture aU the appearance of an earthy lava, its detrital origin being most apparent on the weathered surface. The stratification dips northward toward the sea. Totohoke lies at the foot of the volcano Esan. June 6 th. We ascended on horseback to the crater of Esan volcano, which forms the eastern point of the peninsula. This, also, is a solfatara, its latest eruptions, of which there is no record, having been confined to flows of sulphurous mud. No pumice was seen, and the fragments of rock that formed the ejecta were of the same character as the walls of the crater, excepting some blocks that seemed to be pieces of the white quartz porphyry found at Kakumi, which had been torn from the interior of the mountain. The crater, which seemed to be larger than that of the Sawaradake, is divided unequally by a high ridge of detritus. The walls, where observed in our passing examination, were found to be so altered by the constant action of acid vapors, as to render the character of the original rock very obscure, but I thought myself able to trace a similarity, through a series of specimens, between this and the more com- mon ejected blocks. These latter consist of a dark gray cellular lava of porphy-* roidal texture. The crystals of felspar, which are numerous, are changed to a white earth, isolated specimens still retaining numerous crystals of hornblende ; but the most characteristic feature is the abundance of quartz. This last mineral is present in well-defined, double pyramid crystals and in grains one-eighth to one- third of an inch in diameter. The grains are both limpid and milky white, and opalescent. They are highly fractured, and often present the appearance of having contracted and cracked in passing from a gelatinous to a hardened condition. There is often a strong resemblance between these rocks and the fragments inclosed in the tufa-conglomerate of Totohoke. The walls of the crater are rapidly disintegrating and falling, to be converted into clay impregnated with sulphur, alum, and other salts. Everywhere the scene is one of ruin. Here is visible on a grand scale the decomposing action of sulphur- ous acid and steam, the effects of which we see in the altered trachytic rocks of Hungary, and still progressing on a small scale in the Neapolitan solfatara. No- where have I seen so well exhibited the levgUing power of nature when she brings into action her more active agents. Steam surrounds us, issuing in jets from fissures on the sides of the crater, and rising slowly, as smoke from a smouldering fire, out of the taluses of debris. But the main vents are small, mud craters or geysers. Those which we visited were in the centre of one of the divisions of the crater. They were springs or pits, each covered by a great vault of hardened mud, like an immense bubble or an inverted bowl, from ten to twenty-five feet high, the sides and roof from six inches to two feet thick. These quake with the constant reverberation of the struggling steam and mud, which last, judging from the sound, must rise to near the surface. The inner sur- faces of these vaults are lined with sulphur in massive layers, in crystals, and often in long stalactites, and the vapor is highly charged with sulphuretted hydrogen. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 87 While we were here drops of scalding mud were incessantly thrown out, but regular mud flows appear to be very rare. The superintendent of the sulphur works informed me that when new vents open, mud and large blocks of rock are thrown out with much violence. Such blocks cover the interior of the crater, and have been already mentioned ; they are frequently almost entirely decomposed by the action of the gases. From an extinct vent I traced a stream of mud, following the bed of a gully, for several hundred yards. It is hard, compact, and fiUed with small crystalline needles of sulphur, the longer direction of which was found to be invariably at right angles to the nearest surface, by which either the heat or moisture, or both, escaped. These crystals occur equally distributed throughout the mass the whole length of the stream, and produce, on a small scale, a tendency to columnar struc- ture. They cannot, considering their position, have been crystallized until the mud was quiescent and hardening, and as the solidification depended on the escape of the moisture that rendered it fluid, it forms, I think, a good illustration of the fact that columnar structure is not necessarily a result of cooling, but rather of the escape of the " vehicle of fluidity," whether this be heat or water, or, as here, both combined. The stream in question appears to be the result of a single flow fiUing the inequalities in the bottom of the gully, and is in places several feet deep. The government has large sulphur works on this mountain, with which the pro- duction of alum was formerly combined. The material used, from which the sul- phur is extracted, is the debris formed by the ever-faUing walls of the crater, and which is said to contain from 25 to 50, and even 60, per cent, of the mineral, in layers and impregnated through the mass. Without further preparation than being broken with the hammer, this raw material is put into three iron pots over a fire. Each of these vessels is composed of two parts, a cylinder and a hemispherical bottom or pot on which it stands, the whole being about two and a half feet deep and two feet in diameter. After melt- ing, the impurities seem to settle to the bottom, and the top is ladled out into shal- Fig. 12 Pots. 6 Fireplaces. c Shallow depressions. low depressions in the ground. When this is cooled, it is a hardened mud filled with crystals of sulphur in needles, their longer axes at a right angle to the surface of the cooled mass, and the whole product differs from the mud described above, as 88 GEOLOGICAL llESEArvCIIES IN having flowed from a vent, only in that the artificial product is richer in sulphur. In this instance the "vehicle of fluidity" was undoubtedly heat acting through melted sulphur. This first rough product is remelted in similar pots, and then filtered through sacks, at first allowing the liquid sulphur to pass, by its own weight, and finally squeezing it gently under a lever. From these filters it falls into tubs the shape of which it retains on cooling. The blocks thus obtained are broken, and the cooling surface, to the depth of two inches, being of a dark color, and, perhaps, less pure, is remelted to obtain yellow sulphur ; the interior of the blocks is yellow and highly crystalline. The produce at the time of our visit was about 5,600 lbs. daily. The ofl[icials stated in round numbers that, everything included, the cost of producing 32,000 lbs. was about 80 rios, or $103, the same quantity bringing about |385 at the Hako- dade market. The iron pots cost for the top pieces $2 66 each ; for the bottoms $6 60. The bottoms last from 30 to 60 days. Continuing our journey we descended the western slope of the mountain to Nitanai, on the sea-shore. June 7th. Leaving Nitanai, we rode along the sea-shore to Kobi. Near Nitanai we passed the outcrop of a bed of white infusorial earth raised several yards above the sea. The reader is referred to Mr. A. M. Edwards' Letter ( App. No. 3) for the highly interesting results of his examination of this material under the microscope. Mr. Edwards has discovered a close resemblance between the organisms contained in this deposit, and those of the stratum under Richmond and Petersburg, Va. ; and a still greater similarity to those of the extensive deposit along the California coast, the resemblance in the latter instance extending even to identity of species among the DiatomacecB. At Kobi an attempt had been made to smelt the magnetic iron sand from the beach in a blast furnace of the foreign pattern. One of our party, Mr. Takeda, a Japanese officer of rank, who has done much to advance, in his country, the knowledge of military engineering and navigation, was commanded by the Imperial Government to construct a large furnace for smelting iron ore after the foreign method. Such a thing had never been seen by a Japanese, but without further plans or specifica- tions than he found in a Dutch work on chemistry, Mr. Takeda built a furnace about thirty feet high, after a very fine model, with cylinder blast moved by an excellent water wheel. Unfortunately, owing to the absence of all details on the subject in the only book he had, the blast obtained was only a fraction of that required, and the bricks used in the construction were not sufficiently refractory. Thus the aff'air was a failure after smelting a few hundred weight of iron. The incident, however, is an illustration of Japanese enterprise. I will add that the experiment was repeated by order of the Prince of Nambu, in order to work an excellent ore of magnetic iron on his property, and furnace after furnace built, from 20 to 30 feet high, until successful campaigns of several months' duration were obtained. At Kobi, besides the iron sand of the beach, there is an elevated, ancient beach, now from 50 to 100 feet above the sea, containing a bed of iron ore of a similar origin, the lower half cemented by oxidation to a solid mass, and changing to CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 89 brown oxide, the upper portion less oxidized, and retaining more of the original character. How many deposits of iron ores may there not be that owe their formation to a similar cause, the destruction of ancient eruptive or metamorphic rocks, and the concentration of their grains of magnetic iron on the surf-washed beaches of former seas 1 A few miles further on we came to the outcropping clay slates, which continue, as the tide-washed rock, as far as ShiAvokubi (Cape Blunt). From this point on, as far as Oyasu, they are also exposed along the beach and form the hills inland, but are covered between the sea and the hills by the recent terrace deposit, which we have already seen bordering the Bay of Hakodade. This slate is black and fissile, and is covered, near Shiwokubi by conformable strata of compact sandstone with interstratified seams of slate, and at Oyasu by a sandstone conglomerate containing fragments of the same older rock. These beds are more or less contorted, all the observed strikes of the uplift lying between W. and N. 15° W., averaging nearly N. W. They are traversed by a great number of dykes of porphyry and greenstone, and by innumerable veins of quartz with pyrites of iron and, in places, of copper. The porphyry is of the same white quartziferous variety as that at Kakumi, and the same description will do for both. The dykes are very sharply defined, from 10 to 50 feet thick, cutting the slates at all angles. The porphyry is in turn tra- versed by dykes of greenstone. The quartz veins cut the slates at all angles, and vary in thickness from 2 to 12 feet. They abound in iron pyrites, one vein four feet thick being massive sulphuret. Some of them were traced between one and two miles inland, the pyrites changing to oxide away from the sea-shore. An outcropping vein at Saidoma showed some very fair ore of copper pyrites associated with iron pyrites, zincblende, and a little scattered galena. The strike of these veins is generally between N. and E., and one of the smaller ones traverses a dyke of porphyry. It was in one of these that we made the first blast ever fired in Japan. Between Shiwokubi and Hakodade, a broad mesa separates the hills from the sea, rising gently to near the mountain, and then rapidly, and cut into by all the streams descending from the hills. It is covered with a dense growth of weeds but no trees, the latter being confined, along this part of the straits of Tsungara, to the northern slopes of the hills. At Yunogawa there is an outcrop of black clay slate in which rises a warm spring with a temperature of 38° C. Entering Hakodade we finished the circuit of the peninsula. The region thus encircled by our route is a high ridge apparently consisting, in the main, of the metamorphic rocks which have been described as occurring along the sea-shore, having a general northwesterly trend, accompanied by intrusive masses of greenstone and quartziferous porphyries. It is fringed on its northern slope by volcanic tufa-conglomerates that rise, in places, to the lower summits of the crest, and on the southern edge by recent marine strata. I will add that coal is said to have been found in the hills near Mt. Esan. 12 June, 1866. 90 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Excursion to the West Coast. August 5, 1862. This day and the following one our route was about the same as on the preceding journey, as far as Volcano bay, where, branching oif, we stopped at Washinoki for the night, August 7th. Leaving Washinoki, we found, just west of the village, an outcrop, visible at low tide, of the tufa-conglomerate. It contained fragments of pumice and spines of an echinoderm. The beds are tilted up, the strike being N. 5° W. and the dip easterly. A little further on we came to an outcrop of nearly vertical beds of a gray argil- lite, containing a peculiar fossil, having the shape of flattened vermiform tubes and changed to calcite. This organism although indeterminable- is characteristic for this argillite, and served to distinguish the rock even when highly metamorphosed at many points on our journey. I wiU mention here that between the bay and the mountains west of it, a strip several miles broad is occupied by a recent deposit, similar to that bordering Hako- dade bay, and receding in terraces from the water Avhich it faces with a blufi" 30 to 80, or more, feet high. This deposit generally hides all the older rocks. Contkiuing our journey along the beach, we found the tufa-conglomerate again in place underlying the terrace deposit. Passing Otoshibetz,^ the beach is overhung by the terrace bluff, here from 60 to 80 feet high. This recent deposit is a horizontally stratified, sandy clay, abounding in marine shells, chiefly bivalves. Although most of the shells were too friable to be collected, many seemed to have retained a large part of their organic matter, and in several instances I found the dorsal ligament still elastic when wet. At Yamukshinai, just back from the beach, between this and the bluff, there is a marsh some acres in extent, in which tepid springs deposit a mineral oil of the con- sistency of tar, which is used by some priests, in the neighborhood, both for burning and in making ink of the kind used throughout China and Japan. Passing through a settlement of Ainos Ave reached Yurup. August 8th. The terrace bluff recedes from the sea at Yurup, forming a bight which is occupied by a broad plaiti, often marshy, covered with a dense growth of reeds and weeds, twelve to fourteen feet high. Through this plain winds the large creek Yurup. Crossing this stream we followed the beach to Shirarika. Here there is an out- crop on the beach of a black amygdaloid, containing small spherical cavities lined with a white, transparent, tabular zeolite, and veins and nodules of chalcedony. Continuing our journey over a plain, now sandy, now marshy, which, at the height of 10 or 20 feet above the sea, forms a narrow belt between the beach and the bluff, we reached Kunnui. The terraces seen during this day were covered with a fine forest growth of deciduous trees and scattered tall pines. Leaving the sea-shore at Kunnui, we ascended the creek of the same name to a low pass in the crest, which here forms the watershed between Volcano bay and the Japan sea. » The termination belz and nai are Aino words signifying river and creek or brook. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 91 The only formation seen was the terrace deposit, till near the divide, when an obscure green wacke was found in place, and near this a greenish-black amygdaloid. Large blocks of granite were also seen here, and this rock is probably in place near by. Descending to the west we entered the valley of the Toshibetz, a large creek, navigable with small, flat boats, and soon reached the gold washings of Kunnui. This part of the valley occupies a broad depression, perhaps*! 5 miles long by 7 broad, and raised several hundred feet above the sea. It has been filled with the recent terrace deposit, and subsequently eroded in part, after which an extensive deposit of auriferous gravels, etc., has taken place over at least a considerable part of the area. In one of the side valleys the older rocks are exposed, and here the gold bear- ing drift was found resting, in different places, on an argillite similar to that seen at Washinoki, and containing the same vermiform fossils, in strata striking N. 85° W., and dipping 50° northerly, and on an amygdaloid similar to that on the divide. Not far from here the terrace deposit overhangs the creek in a high blufi". Out of the base of this precipice I obtained a number of well-preserved fossil shells. In the same bed were found Ostreae, Pecten, Scalaria, Terebratula, Nuculinal Serpulal Corals, Bryozoa, and fragments of a thick shell with cross-fibrous structure. Some of the shells retained, at least in part, their organic matter and nacreous lustre, and one species of Pecten appeared to be identical with a species living in the adjacent seas. At one end of this blufi" is a large rock of the amygdaloid in place, which has been exposed by the erosion of the terrace deposit, and on it are incrustations of Serpulse. This amygdaloid contains masses of a green rock resembling jasper, in which are scattered flakes of native copper. Blocks of manganese (binoxide) in the immediate neighborhood seem also to have come from the amygdaloid. The auriferous gravel occurs along both sides of the river in the form of a plain, which descending gently from the hills faces the stream with a bluff. The whole district appears to have been worked in former times, though when appears to be unknown. Broad and deep canals of considerable length were dug to bring water from up the creek, and a well arranged system of " ditch diggings" seems to have been carried on. All these workings are covered with a dense growth of trees, apparently not differing from the surrounding forest; some seen in the ditches being as much as eighteen inches in diameter. The method of washing the gold does not seem to have differed from that now used by the Japanese. The principal rocks, that have contributed to form the auriferous drift, are varie- ties of granite, chloritic and micaceous schists, quartzites, and amygdaloid, with geodes of chalcedony from the last mentioned rock. RoUed fragments of binoxide of manganese are frequent also, perhaps derived from the amygdaloid. The con- centrated sand of the washing is principally magnetic iron associated with zircon sand. The manner of working the deposit is ingenious, and will be understood by referring to the annexed diagrams. 92 GEOLOGICAL HESEARCHES IN a. Reservoir. 6. Sluice-ditch, u. Rubble of the drift, d. Aurif. drift, e. Creek. /. Bedrock, g. Mats. At the place- where I saw this process, the surface of the bed rock, in this case the marine terrace deposit, was sufficiently high above the creek to give a rapid fall in the sluice-ditch. The bed of a rivulet is chosen for the work. A reservoir (a) is dug and dammed, and the bed of the rivulet (h) cleaned out and made regular. This done, the banks {d) are broken down into the stream where the force of the current con- centrates the gravel, carrying off the sand and clay. The workmen then place themselves in pairs up and down the stream near and below the broken-down bank. Each man is provided with a coarse mat, about two feet long by one foot broad, which he places lengthwise in the stream, keeping it down with one foot on the lower end, at the same time partially stemming the current. He then hoes the gravel on to the mat, much of the old gravel going off below as fresh arrives from up stream. At intervals the mat is carefully removed and washed out into a very shallow tray or batea (Fig. 15), a board about eighteen inches long by a foot broad, hollowed out, and having a circular depression near one end for the concentrated head. Of the black sand obtained on this board, the head contain- ing the gold is saved. In this manner the gravel is pretty well exhausted of its gold, very little being obtained by the men farthest down the stream. The working progresses sidcAvays, into the banks, and up stream, the current being kept near the banks as these recede from the centre of the stream. As the space between the banks widens, the coarser material that resists the force of the water is thrown up into a pile of loose masonry (c) which increases in length and breadth as the work advances. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAP AX. 93 Numerous remains of ancient workings, by this method, are found in the neigh- borhood. Throughout this region the forest is dense ; among the trees I noticed ehns and a wild mulberry with black fruit. Fierce, large flies, of two kinds not seen on the sea-shore, swarm in these woods, covering horse and rider, and leaving bleeding wounds wherever they strike. The creek abounds in mountain trout and salmon. August 14:th. Returning to Kunnui on the sea-shore, we followed the beach to the village of Woshimanbe. August 15th. At this village we left the bay to cross over to the west coast. For several miles the road lay over the terrace belt, here covered with drift. At the di\ide we found a broad, marshy tract through which a large creek winds on its way to the Japan sea. This stream we descended in a small flatboat. The prevailing rock across this low part of the ridge was, so far as I could judge, an argillaceous deposit, apparently the same that forms the terraces. The forest contained, chiefly, large beech, birch, and maple trees, with oaks and scattered firs, and the usual dense undergrowth of cane. The banks of the streams were lined with water willows. The creeks abound in trout, and the gravelly bot- tom is often nearly hidden by colonies of unio. As we approached the bay of Odaszu the country became more open, and leaving the creek we descended over two ter- races of drift to the village of Odaszu on the sea. The southern shore of this small bay is shallow and shelving, with a broad beach ; but the eastern and western sides are rocky, the rocky bluff's descending into the sea, a feature common to aU the west coast, so far as we followed it, and indeed to the shores of all the Japanese islands. August 16th. Leaving Odaszu we continued our journey northward along the coast. Here, also, high, terraces face the sea, but they are formed of the tufa-con- glomerate formation, the level surface being due to a recent deposit of gravel and sand. This conglomerate is traversed near Odaszu by dykes of a dark gray rock, much weathered, containing crystals of a triclinic felspar, and opalescent chalce- dony. The conglomerate at Isoya is traversed by dykes of an amorphous rock containing crystals of triclinic felspar. Near Isoya there is a deposit consisting of beds of sandstone, argillaceous mate- rial, and volcanic ashes,^ with fragments of pumice, and also of the argillite which has been mentioned as occurring at Washinoki and Kunnui with a vermiform' fossil. The pieces of pumice contain beautiful double-pyramid crystals of quartz. This deposit is younger than the neighboring tufa-conglomerate, which had suffered much from erosion before the deposition of the beds in question. It continues northward till it abuts against a mass of volcanic rock, that forms the headland south of the mouth of the Shiribetz river. This stream rises nearly north of Cape Edomo, and flows westward through a fine, broad valley. AU the gravel brought down by the river seemed to be trachytic detritus. ' For the interesting results of a microscopic examination of this material, see Mr. Edwards' Letter (spec. No. 11), Appendix 3. 94 GBOLOGICALRESEAROHESIN Crossing the valley of the Shiribetz we came to the foot of the Kaiden promon- tory, a bold headland presenting vertical cliffs toward the sea, and apparently made np of lava flows and tufa-conglomerate. In crossing this mountain we frequently found fragments of a black scoria with long-drawn cells. After a laborious journey of several hours we descended into a deep and gloomy gorge containing a warm spring. Here again we found the same variety of white quartziferous porphyry that we had seen at Kakumi and elsewhere. It is im- pregnated with iroji pyrites which in places is represented only by cubical cavities containing sulphur. The rock traversed by this porphyry is of a brecciated argil- laceous character, resembling that at Kakumi. It is from this rock that the springs flow, with a temperature varying, in different ones, from 46° to 50° C. These rocks are exposed only in the bottom of the ravine, on either side of which they are covered by the volcanic formation. August 17th. Rising from the ravine we continued our journey over the northern part of the Eaiden, the outcrops here, as yesterday, being of a gray trachytic lava with a tendency to tabular structure. This continued till we descended at the creek Nibitzunai to a terrace that reaches many miles northward and eastward, low near the sea, but rising rapidly toward the mountains. Skirting this for a few miles we reached Iwanai. August 18th. At Iwanai we left the sea and made an excursion to the volcano Iwaounobori^ about thirteen miles inland. The first five miles of the road lay over the terrace which, as we approached the mountains, rose very rapidly. During the first mile or two, after leaving the sea, the surface was covered with a dense growth of long-jointed grass, six or seven feet high, to which succeeded the usual forest of large maples, oaks, mountain and white- ash, beech, birch, fir, and scattered magnolias, filled in with an impenetrable under- growth of cane eight to twelve, and even fifteen feet high. The road through this region, being deep with mud which was full of sharp pointed stumps of the cane, was one of the wotst I have ever seen. Entering the mountains we passed through a crateriform vaUey, once the bed of a lake, and, ascending to a pass in the hills beyond, we saw, beneath us, a beautiful little lake. On the other side of this rose the volcano, or rather solfatara, with its yellow, sulphur-coated cliffs. Here again the regular slopes and symmetrical out- lines of an undisturbed cone are entirely wanting; the outer as well as the inner walls were rocky precipices, and the ruin seemed greater than at Esan. We reached the summit without much difficulty. The present mountain is evidently only part of the skeleton of a former cone of large size. The predominating formation, from the spurs at the base to the summit, is a dark gray volcanic rock, showing in places a tendency to stratiform structure, and apparently of the trachytic family, the chief ingredient being crystals of a white felspar.^ The former mantle seems to be still represented by fragmentary * Japanese. Iwaou, sulphur; and nobori, a term for mountain, from noboru, to climb. " With the exception of one specimen of rock, and a few minerals, the entire collection of rocks, fihells, etc. from north of Odaszu, was lost by the wreck of a junk on the way to Hakodade. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 95 remains of a stratified deposit seen liere and there, about the base, and fragments of scorise were found in the neighborhood. There are several small crateriform depressions at different points near the summit, filled to the level of the lip with sand and clay, and forming -small plains surrounded by rocky sides. In one of the walls a compact black rock, either a dyke or the remnant of a lava flow, was observed. The Iwaounobori is the central one of three volcanoes, which lie in a straight line running about N. N. W., S. S. E., and this is also the trend of a broad belt, within the limits of which the solfatara action is most developed, both across the summit and on the outer walls. Throughout this belt the rock, wherever not covered by the products of decom- position, is found to be traversed by countless fissures, more or less filled with sulphur. Wherever the filling is incomplete, small jets of steam and gases are still seen to issue forth. Several trials, made by inserting a long chemist's thermometer as far as possible into difiierent fissures, gave a constant temperature of 98° C. The steam has a strong odor of both sulphurous acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. It has an acid reaction on litmus paper, which is especially strong when the con- densed drops, that hang on the sulphur crystals in the cavities, are tested. Beau- tiful crystals of sulphur, a quarter of an inch long, were rapidly formed on the bulb of the thermometer. Excepting at the steam vents, which are not more than from one to five inches in diameter, the fissures are closed up with sulphur at the surface, but by breaking away a few inches deep, cavities are exposed lined with a bristling mass of most beautiful straw-colored crystals of this mineral, made up of brilliant steep pyramids connected in the line of the longer axis. Unfortunately, they were too delicate to bear transportation. On a precipitous part of the outer wall of the mountain, where a large mass of rock seemed recently to have fallen ofi", I saw an interesting exhibition of the action of the gases. The rock is seen to be traversed by a perfect network of sulphur veins (a) which seem to occupy the posi- tions of the cracks common to all rock. The trachytic rock (b) is tolerably weU preserved in the centre of the blocks, but toward the circumference it is more and more disintegrated, and has assumed the form of concentric layers, the outer shell being changed to a white earth. It seems not improbable that this condition may exist through a large part of the moun- tain, thus forming a great ^tockwerh of sulphur. ^ The only way in which I can account for this structure is, by supposing that the disintegration of the rock, which formerly occupied the spaces now filled with sulphur, took place when the water, which now appears only as steam, stood at a a. Sulphur. J. Book. DG GEOLOGICAL IlESEARCnES IN Kg. ir higher level in the mountain, making it a mud volcano, like Esan, and exuding the products of decomposition as fast as formed. On the vfithdrawal of the water to a lower level the abandoned network of fissures was filled by the decomposition of sulphuretted hydrogen. At another place, in the walls of one of the small craters near the summit, there is an instance that would seem to illustrate the action of the gases and steam without the presence of water as such. The black rock, already mentioned as occurring in the wall of one of the craters, is visible in different stages of alteration. In places it was observed to have the concentric structure assumed by many rocks during the first period of disintegration, and by which the polygonal form of the blocks, into which all bodies of rock are subdivided, is lost as each succeeding shell is removed. In this case the outer shell is white and earthy. Again the same rock was found altered to the centre of each block, the shape re- maining, to a soft, pasty, white clay, quite tasteless. Often in the centre of a snowy white mass of this clay would lie a core, equally soft, but black, the line of separation between the colors being well marked. In places, where the alteration was in the first stage, an alum salt was found forming an efflo- rescence on the surface of this black rock, possibly as one of the first products from the decomposing felspar. An emerald-green soft mineral occurs incrusting, to the depth -of a line or more, the walls of the gully where these phenomena were observed. On the west side of the peak, in the valley which drains the craters, there was formerly a spring of chalybeate water, which has left quite a deposit of oxide of iron filled with the leaves of a cane, apparently of the same species that covers the surrounding country. At present there is no cane on this part of the mountain, although it grows within a few hundred yards of the spot. This space, which is bare of cane, abounds in Winter-green (Gaultheria) with white berries. In close proximity to this deposit a white altered rock, filled with threads of sulphur, attests the former action of the gases in this spot which is now removed fiom the nearest field of activity. From the summit of the Iwaounobori I counted fifteen mountains, all of which seemed to be of volcanic origin. Among these I include Esan, Sawaradake, and Oussu, aU solfataras, which, from their ruined condition, I would not have recog- nized as volcanoes at this distance had I not known them to be such. A few miles away to the S. S. E., beyond the broad vaUey of the river Shiribetz, rose a magnificent cone also called the Shiribetz. This cone is the most symmetri- cal of any that I have seen, not excepting the beautiful Fuziyama, the pride of the Empire. Of^its height I had no means of judging, but I thought it could not be less than 6000 feet. It rises from a broad plain, at least the slopes visible to us merged gently into the sweeping cross curves of the valley of the Shiribetz river. The unbroken surface of its sides was covered from base to summit with vegetation, CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 97 either forest or cane, which appeared to us in the distance like a mantle of green velvet. Many other well-shaped cones were visible in the distance. Just N. N. W. of the Iwaounobori there is a cone somewhat lower than the peak of the solfatara, with a well preserved crater, so near that it seems to be partly within the circumference of the foot-slope of the Iwaou mountain. As I have said before, it is in a line with its neighbor and the Shiribetz, and this direction is repeated in the zone of the solfatara activity on the Iwaou mountain, a coincidence that would seem to point to a fissure connection between the three peaks. The government has sulphur works on this mountain, in which fourteen caldrons are kept at work. The production is about 64,000 pounds per month, costing for — Labor of all kinds and for fuel per month . . . $*r4 50 Rice for workmen . . . . Salt and miso for workmen Straw sandals for workmen Transportation by horse to Iwanai 41 00 4 00 6 50 5t 25 $183 25 Total for 64,000 pounds August 20th. We returned to Iwanai. August 21st. Continuing our journey northward, we rode along the beach to the mouth of the Shiribuka creek, where the coast line, turning oif to the northwest, marks the southern shore of the peninsula south of Strogonof bay. Following this shore we left the terrace plain of Iwanai bay. During the rest of the day we saw only the tufa-conglomerate formation, which, traversed by numerous dykes of volcanic rock, faces the sea in bold bluffs, to pass which we were at last compelled to take a boat to carry us to Ousubetz, a small fishing village. The volcanic conglomerate of this region extends some distance inland, and con- sists almost entirely of more or less rounded fragments of black lava filled with green-coated cells. August 22d. Leaving the sea we made a short excursion up the bed of a creek, the Kaiyanobetz. About onejnile from the shore a gray sandstone was found ex- posed for a short distance beneath the volcanic conglomerate, and about one mile and a half further we found in the bed of a rivulet the following strata, the order reading from younger to older.^ 1. Fine-grained argillaceous rock with fossil plants, 2. Coarse sandstone. 3. Clay shale with Equisetacece. 4. Coarse sandstone. 5. Three seams of bituminous coal alternating with thin beds of clay, the princi- pal seam having about four feet of good coal. The strike of these beds was N. 30° E., the dip being 50° to N. 60° W. In a neighboring ravine a white silicious rock was observed, apparently older than the coal, and made up of minute layers, the whole being hard, and having somewhat the appearance of a semi-opal. > Except a small specimen of coal which was brought away by one of the Japanese officers, all the collections from this region were lost in the wreck mentioned above. 13 July, 1866. 98 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Retracing our steps to Ousubetz we embarked in a boat propelled by eight oars- men, four scullers, and a large sail, and soon reached Iwanai. August 25th. Leaving Iwanai we went by boat to Isoya, passing close under the rocky cliffs of the Raiden. The northern part of this mountain is formed of the volcanic tufa-conglomerate covered by a great bed, or perhaps several flows, of lava, often exhibiting columnar structure. In places beds of lava seemed to be inter- stratified with the conglomerate. At about half the distance between the northern and southern sides of this high- land, a large amphitheatre or crateriform valley opens towards the sea. South of this the cliffs, less high, consist of the conglomerate, and in the perpendicular walls are visible many small but regular dykes with transverse columnar structure, and in places dislocated by faults. The conglomerate strata have a considerable south- westerly dip, and as we approach the southern flank of the Raiden, near the village of Hamajime, they disappear under the sea. Overlying this formation and forming the mountain above, is a gray volcanic rock, possessing a tabular structure, which gives it often a stratiform appearance near the bottom, but in the upper half of its thickness the plates curve irregularly upwards, presenting their edges towards the upper surface of the bed. This mountain is a high, flat ridge, running nearly east and west, between the valleys of the Shiribetz and the Shiribulia rivers, and on it is the Iwaou nobori, and at least one more volcano. August 27th. Leaving Isoya, we rode around the head of Odaszu bay to Sutzu. On this side of the bay we met again terraces of conglomerate, covered with loose sand and gravel, corresponding to those mentioned as occurring on the opposite side. Before reaching Sutzu the conglomerate formation was found to be succeeded, fot a short distance, by a gray eruptive rofck, apparently a trachytic porphyry. The conglomerate in this region consists, almost entirely, of rounded fragments of a com- pact black rock, almost a pitchstone, containing crystals of white triclinic felspar. August 28th. Leaving Sutzu we rode westward, over the lower of the two terraces that rise between the sea and the hills. The highlands are wooded with small trees, but on the terraces there is generally only a heavy growth of weeds and joint- grass, often from six to ten feet high. Leaving the sea-shore, we crossed the pro- montory to its western flank, travelling over the conglomerate, upon which was seen a loose deposit of sand and gravel closely resembling the auriferous deposit of Kunnui. In one place 1 observed an outcrop of the argillaceous rock, with the peculiar vermiform fossil, seen at Kunnui, Washinoki, etc. At Achase the tufa-conglomerate dips inland, and beneath it there is an appa- rently conformable bed of flne-grained, brown sandstone, easily scratched with the knife, and seemingly of the same origin as the conglomerate. A few miles further southward we reached Shimakomaki. Here the semi-vitreous character of the pebbles that compose the conglomerate is better developed than usual, although a black amorphous base was found to be generally prevalent, in these fragments, in the tufa-conglomerates of the west coast.- Here the base of the rock is jet black, opaque, with the lustre of pitch, and imperfect conchoidal CHINA, MO:n GO LI A, AND JAPAN. 99 fracture. Fragments break off with a very hackly surface. The structure varies from slightly cellular to scoriaceous, the cells being lined with a light greenish or bluish film. It contains thin crystals of white, glassy felspar, the number of which seems to be in an inverse ratio to that of the cells. The felspar is, at least in part, a triclinic variety. The Tomari creek, which enters the sea near Shimakomaki, brings down among its rubble, diorite, granular limestone containing nephrite, clay schist, and varieties of quartz and jasper. This stream rises in the hills that have furnished, in part at least, the aiuiferous gravels of Kunnui, and it is probable that similar deposits occur also in the valley of the Tomari. August 29th. Embarking in a .large boat we sailed close under the lofty cliffs of a grandly picturesque, but dangerous coast, as far as Setanai. The volcanic conglomerate exists as the principal formation of the coast, between Shimakomaki and Setanai. At Cape Shiraita the thickness of the conglomerate, above the sea, is between 100 and 200 feet; above this is a bed, perhaps 160 feet thick, apparently of a looser material, with many white fragments scattered through it ; and, finally, covering this, for a distance of one or two miles, is a bed of lava, 150 to 200 feet thick. From this point to Cape Moteta the cliffs are entirely of the volcanic conglomer- ate, of which a lower bed is sometimes visible, with white fragments, those of the upper beds being dark brown or black. At Cape Moteta the volcanic conglomerate, occupying the lower part of the cliffs to the height of between 100 and 200 feet above the sea, is covered by a thick bed of columnar lava. Near this point a broad dyke rises through the conglomerate to the overlying lava bed, but it was impossible to determine, at a distance, the relative ages of the latter and the dyke. Numerous dykes traverse the conglomerate between Cape Moteta and Setanai. At Abura the latter approaches sandstone in texture ; at one place it was seen to pass abruptly into a white deposit, probaby a pumiceous tufa. South of Abura the conglomerate is covered by a lava bed, and this by white, apparently tufaceous, strata. Several miles north of Setanai a thick bed of columnar lava is visible, high up the face of the cliff, lying between two members of the neptuno-volcani(f formation, and dipping gently toward the south. Before reaching Setanai a thick flow of lava, beautifully columnar and probably the continuation of the bed just mentioned, occupies the lower half or more of the cliff, while needles of the same rock rising- high out of the sea form picturesque islands. This rock is a dark brown, much weathered, cellular lava. The cells are coated with a soft, brittle mineral, dark green in the fracture, and light bluish-green on the surface ; and being flattened and parallel, with their planes at right angles to the axes of the columns, they give to the rock a slaty structure. Overlying' this lava bed there are strata of tufa-conglomerate, made up mostly of fragments of cellular and scoriaceous volcanic products. Just south of Setanai the Toshibetz — here several hundred feet broad — the river, on which lie the gold washings of Kunnui, empties into the sea — its valley, here ■* 100 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN several miles broad, being the first break,, of any size, in the uninterrupted line of cliffs south of the Bay of Odaszu. August 30th. Continuing our journey southward we followed the beach, sepa- rated here by high sand hills from the flats of the Toshibetz, tiU Futoro, Just before reaching this village we left the valley and came under a bluff of trachytic or phonolithic lava, with a tendency to slaty structure. It has a light gray base, with semi-vitreous lustre, and is cellular — the cavities being very irregular in shape and lined with a grayish-blue botryoidal mineral. It contains numerous crystals of a glassy triclinic felspar. At Futoro the volcanic conglomerate reappears as a red and brown tufa, with fragments of the lava just described and other varieties that show a regular transition from this lava into a black amorphous kind closely resembling that mentioned as form- ing dykes at Isoya. The strata of this neptuno-volcanic formation strike nearly N. and dip to E. about 20°, and the cleavage planes of the lava bed described above dip in the same direction. This lava flow seems to be at least 260 or 300 feet thick. Just south of Futoro the contact between the lava and conglomerate was observed. The former rock at a little distance from the contact was found to be fresh, generally free from cells, and had a light gray compact base, abounding in crystals of triclinic, glassy felspar, with here and there a crystal of hornblende. Its appearance re- minded me strongly of some non-quartziferous felsitic porphyries. Near the contact it became more earthy, and assumed the appearance of the base of the conglomerate, from which it was here distinguishable only by the crystals of felspar. The whole appearance of the contact seemed to indicate that the lava had flowed over the surface of the older deposit before this had become compacted. August 31st. From Futoro we went by boat to Oouta. Not far from Futoro the volcanic formations were seen to rest upon a granite or syenite, which, a little further south, abuts, with a vertical line of contact, against a compact black, aphanitic rock. This last was seen, in the face of a rock rising from the sea, to be traversed by veins of granite which, just south of this, was found to form the high cliffs till near Oouta. At Nichinbe, about three miles north of Oouta, the prevailing rock was found to be a very beautiful syenitic granite, composed of greenish-white triclinic felspar, brilliant hornblende, black mica, and quartz. It is traversed by a dyke of a green, micro-crystalline rock, containing felspar and hornblende. At Oouta there is an extensive development of metamorphic rocks, consisting of a fine-grained granulite of even texture, and a conglomerate-breccia of argillaceous rocks. The only traces of a trend observable was in the vertical plane of contact between these two rocks, and this lay N. and S. South of Oouta syenite reappears, and is shown to be younger than the granulite by the numerous fragments it incloses of the last-mentioned rock. The granulite is cut by dykes of an aphanitic rock similar to that observed south of Futoro, and which we have seen to be traversed by veins of granite. Finally, the conglomerate-breccia incloses frag-taents of amygdaloid resembling a variety found in the auriferous gravel of Kunnui, and containing nodules of chalce- dony surrounded by a soft green mineral resembling delessite. *f CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 101 The relative ages of the metamorphic and intrusive rocks of this region appear to be as follows, reading from younger to older: — 1. Greenstone of Nichinbe ; djdie in syenitic granite. 2. Syenitic granite. 3. Aphanitic rock. 4. Metamorphic conglomerate and granulite of Oouta. 6. Amygdaloid. September 1st. Continuing the journey by boat we reached Kudo — the syenitic granite forming high hills along the sea as far as Ouenkoto, near Kudo. At Kudo other metamorphic strata were observed, consisting of black and rose- colored quartz-schist, clay slate in thin beds, and a dark brown, micro-crystalline rock, apparently felspar and hornblende. These strata are folded and refolded, and the stratification being well preserved, they presented the finest example of plication I had ever seen. The general trend of the folding seemed to be about E., but there was too much irregularity in this respect to make sure of the direction ; further south the trend appeared more regularly N. W. and the dip N. E. The beds are traversed by a dyke of a porphyritic rock containing crystals of green and greenish-white triclinic felspar and of hornblende, in a grayish purple base. A cold spring of chalybeate and carbonated water rises on the beach from the quartzite. September 2d. Riding along the sea-shore, a few miles, we reached the penal establishment of Ousubetz, at the mouth of a creek of the same name. Ascending this stream, which is a wild mountain torrent contained, near the sea, between cliffs of the volcanic conglomerate, we came upon an amygdaloidal rock, and beyond this a chloritic granite containing, besides quartz and chlorite, white orthoclase and a light green triclinic felspar. In this granite there is a broad belt, apparently a dyke, of a claystone-porphyry, a yellowish rock with a rough, earthy base free from visible quartz, and from which the crystals of felspar have dis- appeared, leaving only their -cavities. From this porphyry issue several springs, which showed in different instances temperatures of 55°, 58°, and 58|° C. These springs have formed deposits, of carbonate of lime and brown oxide of iron, which are more or less cavernous, and are the abode of a great number of snakes, which, attracted by the perpetual warmth, and being respected by the natives as the deities of the place, live unharmed. The cast-off skins of these reptiles flutter, like streamers, from every hole and neighboring bush. Beyond the chloritic granite we found again the amygdaloid which, under various forms, extended as far inland as our excursion continued, about one mile beyond the chloritic granite. In one of the side ravines a bluish-white, highly silicious rock, with conchoidal fracture and impregnated with minute cubes of iron pyrites, was observed in con- tact with the amygdaloidal rock. This amygdaloid is very variable in character, in places brecciated, in others massive the base being generally dark reddish-brown, and containing nodules of calcite and a green, soft clayey mineral, with here and there one of quartz. Frag- 102 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN Fig. 18 i'-l-'-l-l.'-ti.lL, -L a "=> o a c a. Lava flow. b. Tufa-oonglomerate. ments of a green serpentinoidal rock, which seemed to be a variety of the amygdaloid, occur in the creek. September 4th. Descending to the sea we rode southward along the shore, under cliffs of the volcanic conglomerate, as far as the large village of Kumaishi. September 5th. Leaving Kumaishi we followed the beach southward. From the village south the shore bluff is formed by a vertical cliff of white pumice-tufa, sufficiently hard to permit the making of steps in it. It is in thick beds having a southerly dip. South of Hiratanai this pumice-tufa is covered by the usual tufa-conglomerate. A short distance east of Hiratanai a flow of amorphous lava, resembling that which occurs in fragments in the conglomerate of Isoya and Futoro, flows over the face of the bluff — the erosion of the conglomerate having progressed to nearly its present condition before the flow. A conical hill with a crateriform depression, lying several miles inland, was observed from the beach, and was possibly the source of the stream. Beyond this point, as far as To- marigawa, another bed of pumice- tufa, overlying the conglomerate, forms the bluff-rock and the skeleton of the terraces that extend several miles inland. At Tomarigawa we left the sea-shore and entered the mountains, and ascending to the watershed between the Japan sea and Volcano bay, we descended the eastern slope to the mines of Yurup. Our road, during this distance, lay, all the way, over the volcanic tufa-conglomer- ate formation, which extends entirely across this part of the island, and forms the ridge at a height of perhaps 2,000 feet. This deposit is cut up by deep valleys with steep sides. In these 1 noticed out- crops, beneath the conglomerate, of granite, two or three miles from the sea, and, further eastward, of the argillaceous rock with vermiform fossils already mentioned several times. T])-.e lead mines of Yurup are in the valley system of the river of the same name. Here a widely extended erosion has removed the volcanic conglomerate, for a considerable distance, exposing a very extensive development of a black meta- morphosed argillite, which was found to contain the vermiform fossils so often mentioned in the previous pages. The strata are tilted up, often almost vertical, and are frequently connected with broad bands, apparently dykes, of greenstone. The lead-bearing veins occur in both these rocks. The vein-mass consists of quartz, carbonate of manganese, calcite, and, in one vein, crystals of barytes. Besides these minerals the galena is associated with zincblende, and pyrites of iron and copper. The veins vary from two to eighteen inches in thickness, being more regular in CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 103 tlie greenstone where, also, the gangue is chiefly quartz, and often existing as a zone, several feet broad, of parallel threads, in the argillaceous rock. The mines have been worked several years and a considerable area explored, but like those at Ichinowatari they are very poor — the highest production ever attained being about four tons per month, and at the time of my visit it was only about one and three-quarter tons. The processes of separation and smelting are the same as at Ichinowatari. The laborers are furnished, at the expense of the mine, with rice and miso, .a vegetable substance used for soup. I have added a schedule of the daily expenses, more as a curiosity, and as illustrating the cost of labor, than for any other reason. Daily Expenses of the Yurup Lead Mines. Accountant clerk ...........$ 05 Head miner Ot Twenty-five miners, at 5 cts 1 25 Eighteen coolies, at 4 cts. ......... 72 Thirteen women ore dressers and washers, at 2 to" 6 cents. ... 45 Daily consumption of iron 12 " " steel 04 " " mats and ropes . 06 Total $2 t6 The working time is eight hours daily. The miners receive tasks, for all work over which they are paid extra. The task when working in the hardest rock, here a greenstone, is -^^ of one foot in five days, per man. In very soft rock five feet in five days, per man. The average is about one and one-half feet. The above measures refer to galleries five feet high and three broad. The miners are required to hew the walls as smoothly, and square the angles as accurately as was the custom in Germany before the use of gunpowder. A woman's daily task is to pulverize about 160 pounds of ore. One thousand pounds of roughly-sorted ore yields 67 pounds of schlicJi, from which 45 pounds of metallic lead are obtained. The charcoal for smelting is produced in vaulted furnaces, which receive daily 64 cubic feet of split wood. Both cold and warm chalybeate springs rise in the metamorphic argillite ; the warm one, having the temperature of 46° C, is used in winter for washing the ore. At this place we introduced the use of gunpowder in mining — its application to that purpose being entirely unknown throughout Eastern Asia. We met with the same objection here that was used, centuries ago, against its introduction into the German mines, the fear that the mountain would fall in. One blast, however, aUayed this fear, and the miners adopted it enthusiastically thenceforth. September 11th. Leaving Yurup we descended the valley to the sea. At the distance of about one mile from the mines we came again to the volcanic con- glomerate. This formation is here similar in character to that seen between the Japan sea and the mines, but differs from that generally met with along the sea- shore. It has undergone so much alteration that it is often difficult to draw the line between the inclosing mass and the fragments. Those latter are of a dark. 104 GEOLOGICAL UESEARCnES IN cellular rock with amorphous base, containing abundant crystals of nomblende and felspar. The cementing material is a more or less yellowish mineral, with the lustre of wax, and easily scratched with the knife. This mass also abounds in crystals of hornblende and felspar, and is cellular in the same manner as the inclosed fragments. Specimens show a transition from one to the other, and this is especially observable around the cells in the fragments. The general color of the rock is dirty yellow. If this be not a true palagonite tufa it must be closely related to it. The strata of this formation dip gently, on the western slope, towards the Japan sea, and on the eastern slope, towards Volcano bay. They consist of two principal members, the lower, a fine-grained, soft tufa with black mica and fragments of nearly decomposed pumice ; and the palagonite tufa, if I may call it such, as the upper member. At about half way between the mines and the sea we came again upon the argillaceous rock of the mines,, containing the same characteristic fossil, but un- metamorphosed, and presenting itself as a soft gray argillaceous shale. At the village of Yurup, on Volcano bay, we came into the road followed in going north, and completed the circuit of this itinerary. Without attempting, in the absence of necessary data, to determine more closely the ages of the rocks referred to in the preceding pages, they may be generally classed as follows : — I. Older metamorphic. II. Pluto-neptunian. III. Eecent, including the marine terrace deposits. IV. Eruptive, of all ages. The first of these divisions contains all the sedimentary rocks that were observed to be older than the volcanic tufa-conglomerate formation. They are rocks that vary widely in character, and perhaps as widely in age. Forming the skeleton, of at least the southern part of Yesso, they are almost everywhere concealed by the younger deposits. The most highly metamorphosed and perhaps the oldest strata observed are the granulite and conglomerate-breccia beds of* Oouta, on the west coast. These last are made up of older argillaceous and amygdaloidal rocks, but are also older than three varieties of eruptive rocks — aphanitic trap, syenitic granite, and a greenstone trap, apparently diorite. The greatest part of the southeast peninsula, lying between Volcano bay and the Straits of Tsungara, is formed of fissile clay slates with subordinated beds of sand- stone and conglomerates, the uplift trending nearly as the peninsula, about N. W. by W. These strata are traversed by frequent dykes of the characteristic white quartziferoUs porphyry, and varieties of greenstone, the latter being younger than the porphyry. At Wosatzube, on the northern side of the peninsula, there are beds of silicious schist, having also a northwesterly trend, and strata of a similar character occur at Kudo, on the west coast, associated with subordinated clay slate and beds of a CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 105 hornblende-felspar rock. Here also the mean trend of the highly contorted beds is between W. and N. The remaining older rocks of tlys part of the island belong to the Ichinowatari series, and the argillite beds containing the obscure vermiform fossil, so often men- tioned. The Ichinowatari series are black and gray metamorphosed argillaceous rocks, associated with older or younger shale containing calamites of unltnown age, and with greenstone ; and they are characterized by metalliferous veins occurring at least in both the argillaceous rocks and in the greenstone. The argiUite beds we find at many points, throughout the region included in the above itineraries, occurring in places either as a compact gray rock or as a shale, while at Yurup it is metamorphosed to a compact black rock, tilted almost to per- pendicularity. Between Tomarigawa, on the west coast, and Yurup, on Volcano bay, it is found, excepting in one locality, to be the predominating rock wherever the ravines have cut through to the bottom of the volcanic tufa-conglomerate strata. The rocks in question have, in common with the Ichinowatari series, their argilla- ceous character, their association with dykes and great masses of greenstone and an identity of character in the metalliferous veins of the two localities, both as regards the association of minerals in these and also as regards some peculiarities in the condition of the greenstone near these veins. Finally we have seen, beyond Iwanai, near Ousubetz (north), a coal-bearing series of more or less metamorphosed rocks, containing fossil Equiseta. We find, in the auriferous gravel of Kunnui, representatives of another class of metamorphic rocks in the chloritic and micaceous schists, etc., which are probably the source of the gold, and evidently exist in situ in the ridge between that place and the Japan sea. The enumerated strata form, so far as my observation extended, the skeleton of Southern Yesso. The local strike of the coal-bearing rocks of the Ousubetz (north) is N. 30° E., being nearly at right angles to the N. W. trend of the peninsula on which they occur. All the other beds of the older rocks seem to have been afiected chiefly by an uplift trending betwefe N. and W., and to which that portion of the island lying between Esan volcano and the mouth of the Toshibetz, on the west coast, appears to owe its direction. We come now to the pluto-neptunian beds, consisting of great masses, more or less stratified, of volcanic products in the form of tufas, sandstones, and coarser conglomerates and breccias. This, by far the predominating formation, forms almost everywhere sloping plains or terraces between the mountains and the sea-shore, and extends, at least in places, entirely over the watersheds between Volcano bay and the Japan sea, form- ing peaks, as the Obokodake, several thousand feet high. The petrographical character of these beds is very different, not only in their vertical, but also in their horizontal development. Along the west coast we find thick beds of a white pumice-tufa associated with conglomerates made up of frag- ments of a black compact rock, almost a pitchstone. Along the road from Tomari- gawa to Volcano bay the lowest beds observed were of a more clayey pumiceous tufa, and above these an immense development of a scoriaceous conglomerate- 14 July, 1866. 106 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN" breccia, altered in great part to a wacke and strongly resembling palagonite-tufa. Bordering the eastern end of the southeastern peninsula, we have seen the repre- sentative beds of this formation, but differing f^pva those of the west coast in that the inclosed fragments have more the character of quartziferous trachytic porphyry, thus approaching closely in character to the wall rock of the Esan crater and its recent ejecta, as also to the rock of Hakodade peak. The only traces of fossils observed in this formation, were some fragments of the spines of an Echinoderm found near Washinoki. The presence of these deposits over so large an area, and the fact that they always contain beds of coarse material, points to a corresponding range of volcanic activity. The same is indicated in the numerous lava flows and dykes that are intimately associated with these beds. They are probably of submarine origin, and since their formation the island has undergone many changes of level. A large part of Southern Yesso was under water during the deposition of these deposits ; it seems to have been gradually elevated and submitted to littoral erosion, forming the different terraces, and then to have been partially submerged to receive the recent terrace clay deposits. This recent terrace deposit exists as beds of clay, almost exclusively, along the southern slope of the southeastern peninsula, and bordering the western shore of Volcano bay, and in depressions inland from this, as in the valley of the Toshibetz. Along the west coast where the depth of water is great, and the coast precipitous, this deposit rarely exists as clay, and then only bordering deep indentations like the Bay of Odaszu ; but it is perhaps partially represented by the gravelly covering of the Volcanic conglomerate terraces. As has been already stated, this terrace- clay deposit abounds in the remains of recent MoUusks. After the elevation of these recent terraces, and after the action of an extensive erosion, there were formed the auriferous gravels of Kimnui, and finally, mcfre repent and still progressing, subaerial deposits, as the volcanic-ash beds around Comangadake. Very little is known of the physical character of the rest of Yesso. Volcanic cones, -.extinct and active, seem to exist throughout the island. Coal occurs at several points on the east coast, and several ammonites and a piece of obsidian were shown to me by the Governor of Yesso, as coming from the Monbetz creek, on the northern coast. The island receives an additional interest from being a point of intersection of three lines of upheaval, and evidently owes its remarkable shape to this fact. The first of these lines is represented by the northwesterly trend, of that portion of the island extending from Esan volcano to the mouth of the Toshibetz, and this is also the trend of the uplifted metamorphic strata; indeed the southeastern peninsula seems to be an anticlinal axis, the dip of the beds being on both sides, along the coast, toward the sea. This is also the trend of the peninsula south of Strogonoff bay, and of the northern coast line. The second line is that extending from the headland of Matzmai, northeast through the longer axis of the island and of the Kurile chain to Kamschatka. This determines also the northeasterly course of the eastern coast line. CHINA, MONGOLIA,, AND JAPAN. 107 The third line is that of the island of Sagalin (Krafto), which, trending due north and south, would seem to determine the N. S. course of the western coast line of Yesso, and the N. S. trend of Nippon from its northern point to the Bay of .Yedo. I have already referred the N. E.. line of uplift to the Sinian system of eleva- tion, in a previous chapter ; the N. W. trend affecting, as it does, the oldest meta- morphic rocks, is perhaps older, and the N. S. trend younger. Neighborhood of NagasaJd, on the West Coast of the Island of Kiusiu. This port is at the head of a long narrow inlet, or fiord, which has nearly a N. E., S. W. trend, and lies between long ridges, the peaks of which rise to between 1,000 and 2,000 feet above the sea. The skeleton rocks of these hills are meta- morphic strata. These were mica schist dipping vertically, in both the ridges where they were examined, northwest and southeast from the city, and argillaceous and talco-argillaceous schists, with some limestone, where the eastern ridge was seen near its southern end, opposite the island of Kabasima, On this island the trend of the strata is nearly N., S., and they are traversed by a broad belt of granite bearing fragments of the schists near the planes of contact. On the island Amaksa, a few miles further east, crystalline, white limestone, and a fine sandstone are quarried. The greater part of the country, in the neighborhood of Nagasaki, is covered, to the summits of the highest hiUs, with an extensive pluto-neptunian deposit, resem- bling in general character the volcanic tufa-conglomerate of Yesso. In places along the eastern side of the bay, and on the islands at its mouth, the rocks of a coal-bearing formation are exposed. Of these only a coarse, hard sand- stone, with threads of coal was seen, as it was not permitted to foreigners to land at any of these localities. The position of these beds, however, is such as to make it probable, that the rocks of this coal basin rest immediately, and nonconformably, on the metamorphic strata before mentioned. In the terraces which in places fringe this coast, we have again evidence of oscillations in level, since the beginning of the volcanic epoch. The terraces are very tufaceous, and seem to be of more recent deposition than the conglomerate that covers the higher hiUs. Bay of Yedo. Nearly aU the country included within the treaty limits, or radius of twenty-five miles from Yokohama, which area alone is accessible to foreigners, is of recent formation. A bluff, from 60 to 100 feet high, of bluish clay containing recent shells, and fragments of pumice, with^an upper stratum of more gravelly character, faces the bay. From the summit of this bluff a plain of the same deposit extends westward, about twenty miles, rising gently, till the mountains of Oyama. I was not permitted to ascend these mountains, but from the gravels of the streams descending from them I judged them to be metamorphic. The fragments seen were of diorite, gabbro, and serpentine. 108 GEOLOGICAL RBSEARCIIES IN South, of Yokohama the ridge of the peninsula of Sagami also furnishes frag- ments of serpentine. The western side of the peninsula, as well as the island of Enosima, are of a firm, fine-grained gray sandstone and conglomerate, in apparently horizontal strata. Previous to the elevation of the recent beds, the peninsula of Sagami, and probably also the highland east of the Bay of Yedo, were islands. The existence of these recent marine terraces along the Japanese coast, from Yesso to Kiusiu, and of similar deposits on the China coast, as at Chifu and along the western edge of the great delta plain, point to widely extended changes, in recent times, in the relative position of land and water. A careful study of their charac- ters, as regards the organisms they contain — a study that should include the recent deposits of the Amur system,^ and perhaps also those of the Manchurian rivers — would probably throw much light on the age of the Gobi desert deposits, and through this on some of the most important questions of quaternary and younger tertiary geology. * M. Schmidt observed, almost everywhere on the Amur, between Strelka and Blahowestschensk, terraces of fresh-water tertiary rising nearly 200 feet above the river. — Peterman's Mittheilungen, 1861, p. 315. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 109 CHAPTER X.. MINERAL PRODUCTIONS OP CHINA. The following list of minerals, and their localities, is compiled from Chinese geographical works, the Tatsingitungchi having furnished the greater part, though for the sake of completeness, the special geographies of the different provinces, and often those of departments, were searched. The compilation involved the examination, by the author's Chinese secretary, of over one thousand volumes. Only a portion of the list compiled can be made available for publication owing to our- inabihty to identify the Chinese names for a large proportion of the useful minerals. The orthography adopted by Dr. S. W. Williams, for Chinese geographical names, is followed in the list, where the subdivision of the country into provinces, departments (Fu), and districts (Chau, Hien, or Ting), is also observed. List of Localities of Useful Minerals in China} * IRON. PROVINCE OF CHIHLL Shuntien (Fu) or Peking. At Tsunh-wa (chau) Wangping (hien) at Chingshui near Chaitang. At Tiekung Mt. 30 li E. of MrruN (hien). Patjting (Fu). In Mwanching (hien). SiuENHWA (Fu). In LuNGMUN (Men) lodestone. YuNGPiNG (Fu). At Mang Mt. 15 li N. E. of Tsienngan (hien). At Mt. Tsz' 15 li W. of Lulung (hien), with gold and silver ores. Shunteh (Fu). At Mt. Hai 40 li W. of Shaho (hien.) KyANGPiNG (Fu). Lodestone at Tsz' (chau). PROVINCE OF SHANSL Taiyuen (Fu). In Taiyuen (hien) and Yxjtse (bien). PiNGTANG (Fu). In KiUHYU (hien). Yutstjng (hien). Yoyang (hien). KiH (chau). Hiang- NiNG (hien) PucHAU (Fu). Hien not indicated. KiAi (chau). In Ngani (hien). KiANQ (chau). At Mt Kiajig 20 W. of Kiang (hien). Ltjngan (Fu) Hien not indicated. Fanchau (Fu). At Siyen Mt, in Hiatini (Men). » Localities producing coal, lime, alum, salt, and gold, are tabulated on pages 56-61. 110 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN TsEHCHAU (Fu). Iq Yangching (hien). Tatung (Pu). In HwAiTSUNG (hien). PiNGTiNG (chau). Hien not indicated. PROVINCE OP SHENSL SiNGAN (Pu). Hien not indicated. Shang (chau). 180 li N. E. of the city at Mt. Tiling. Pin (chau). Hien not indicated. PuNGTSiANG (Pu). In LuNG (chau) and Mei (hien). Hanchcnq (Pu). In Tsxjngku (hien). At Lotsung Mt. N. W. of Siatang (hien). At Tie Mt. 5 li N. of Mien (hien). Pu (chau). In Chungpu (hien) and Ikiun (hien). PROVINCE OP KANSUH. PiNGLiANG (Fu). In PiNGLiANG (hien) and Hwating (hien). Kungchang (Pu). At Te'yang Mt. 120 S. of Ningyuen (hien). At Ningkwei Mt. 30 li S. of Ningyuen (hien), with silver and copper ores. TsiN (chau). In Tsingngan (hien) and Hwui (hien). Kingyang (Pu). At Mt. Hungling 18 li N. of Nganhwa (hien). Ninghia (Fu). Hien not indicated. PROVINCE OP SHANTUNG. Tsinan (Fu). In Chichuen (hien). At Mt, Chang 50 li S. E. of Sinching (hien). Taingan (Fu). lu Laiwu (hien) ; S. E. 13 li at Mt.' Tashi, and N. W. 3 li at Mt. Kung. Yenchau (Pu). In Yih (hien). IcHAU (Pu). At Mt. Chipau 100 11 N. of Ku (chau) in vicinity of gold, silver, copper, lead, and tin ores. Tsingchau (Pu). A Mt. Tie 90 li from Yihte (hien). In Kauyuen (hien) and Longan (hien). At Mt. Chang in Lingtse (hien). At Mt. Sung 60 li S.W. of Linkij (hien) in the vicinity of silver, lead, copper, tin, and cinnabar ores and gold washings. , TuNQCHAU (Pu). In PuNGLAi (hien). PROVINCE OP KIANGSUH. Kiangning (Fu) or Nanking. At Tsz Mt. in Kiuyung (hien), with copper ores. Lodestone at Mt. Yen in Luhhoh (hien). Chinkiang (Fu). 30 li S. W. of Liyang (hien). Hwaingan (Fu). In Yenching (hien). SiJOHAU (Fu). At Mt. Pema 90 li N. E. of Tungsan (hien). PROVINCE OP NGANHWUL • Ngankinq (Fu). Hien not indicated. Taiping (Fu). Steel works at Tekang in Fanchang (hien). PROVINCE OP HONAN. HoNAN (Pu), In the hiens, Kung, Niyang, Tungpung, Singan, and Sung Nanyang (Fu). In the hiens, Nanyang and Neyanq. Kaieung (Pu). In Yu (chau). Changteh (Fu). In Sheh (hien). Ju (chau). Hien not given. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. Ill PROVINCE OF HUPEH. WuCHANQ (Eu). In KiANGHiA (Men) and Wuchang (hien). At Mt. Hwuilu E. of Tay^ (hien). At Mt. Tsz'hu 50 li N. E of Taye (Men) lodestone. At Hwangko Mt. 2 li W. of Hing- KWOH (chau), in vicinity of silver ores. HwANGCHAU (Pu). At Mt. Kung 40 li W. of Maohing (hien). At Mt. Kung 15 li S. E. of Hwang- MEi (hien). PROVINCE OF SZ'CHUEN. CniNQTU (Fu). In Tsingtsing (hien). Tsz' (chau). Hien not indicated. Mien (chau). Hien not indicated. NiNGYUEN (Fu). In HwuiLi (chau), Mienning (hien), and Tenyuen (hien). Pauning (Fu). In Kwangytjen (hien). Shingkinq (Fu). Hien not indicated. Chungking (Fu). At Mt. Tie 80 li S. E. of YuNGTSANG*(hien). In Hon (chau). In Tungltang (hien). Chung (chau). In Fungtu (hien). Kweichau (Fu). In Wushan (hien) and Yunyang (hien). Suiting (Fu). In Ku (hien) and in Tatsoh (Men). LuNGNGAN (Fu). Hien not given. Tungchuen (Fu). In Tenting (hien) and Shihung (hien). KiATiNG (Fu). 40 li N. of Weiyuen (hien). 100 li N. of Yung (hien). KuNGCHAU (Fu). At Kusung Mt. 10 li S. of the city in vicinity of copper ore. PROVINCE OF KIANGSI. Nanchang (Fu). In Fungsin (hien) and Tsinhien (hien). KwANGSiN (Fu). In YoHYANG (hien), Ytjshan (hien), Kweichi (Men), and Shangtsao (hien). Kanchau (Fu). At Tishan in Weitsang (hien). Nannqan (Fu). In Tayu (hien). PROVINCE OF HUNAN. Changsha (Fu). Hien not given. Shinchau (Fu). Hien not given. Hangchau (Fu). Hien not given. Yungchau (Fu). Hien not given. Yungshun (Fu). Hien not given. Pauking (Fu). Hien not given Chanoteh (Fu). Hien not given. Chin (chau). Hien not given. Tsing (chau). Hien not given. Li (chau). Hien not given. KwEiYANG (chau). Hien not given. Yochau (Fu). Hien not given. PROVINCE OF KWEICHAU. Sz'CHAU (Fu). At Mt. Lungtang E. of the city, in vicinity of lead ores. TuNGJiN (Fu). 100 li W. on Sungchi river, in vicinity of gold washings. 140 li W. in the Tichi river, LiPiNG (Fu). Hien not indicated. Shihtsien (Fu). Hien not indicated. Tating (Fu). In Weining (chau). Sz'NAN (Fu). In Nganhwa (hien). 112 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN PROVINCE OF CHEHKIANG. KiAHiNQ (Fu) In Haiyen (hien). Taichau (Fu). At Lungsu Mt. in Ninghai (hien), in vicinity of copper ore. Yenchatj (Fu). At Mt. Tie in Kiente (hien). Wanchau (Fu). In Pingyanq (hien). In Tisung (hien). In Suingan (hien). Chuchau (Fu). In Sibnping (hien). PROVINCE OF FUHKIEN. FuHCHATJ (Fu). In the hien Fuhtsing and Ming. TsiENCHATJ (Fu). In the hien Tungngan and Nqanchi. KiENNiNG (Fu). In the hien Kienngan, Tsungho, Wuning, and Sungchi. Yenping (Fu). In the hien Nanping, Yuki, and Tsiangloh. TiNGCHATJ (Fu). In the hien Hianghang, Ninghwa, and Tsangting. Changchau (Fu). In Ltjngohi (hien), FuNiNG (Fu) In NiNGTEH (Men). YuNGCHUN (chau). In Tehhwa (hien). PROVINCE OF KWANGTUNG. Lien (chau). In Yangshan (hien). Shauchau (Fu). In TJngyuen (hign). Shaukinq (Fu) In hien Yangtsung, Yangkiang, and Siuhing. KiuNGCHATi (Fu). Lodestone, locality not given. Loting (chau). Excellent ore at Mt. Wutungtu in Tungngan (hien). PROVINCE OF KWANGSL LiTiCHAU (Fu). In YtJNG (hien). PiNGLOH (Fu), At Chingkang Mt. 120 li S. E. of Ho (hien). At Mt. Chaukang 45 li N, E. of Ho (hien). PROVINCE OF YUNNAN. Yunnan (Fu). In Kwungming (hien) and Yungmen (hien), LiNGAN (Fu). In SiNGO (hien) at Hungtonientsa, Sanhotsa, Liulungtsa, and Tsingtsa. In Shih- PiNG (chau). TsuHiuNG (Fu). At TsuYUTSUNG in TiNGYUEN (hien). 60 li W. of Tsungnan (chau). Chinkiang (Fu). In Singhiung (chau). KiUHTSiNG (Fu). At Tseh Mt in SiuENWEi'(chau) in vicinity of copper ore. In Nanying (hien), and in the chau Lohliang, Chenyih, Malung, and Nanying. WuTiNG (chau). Iron ore and iron works at Tameti (tsang), Tsetse (tsang), Ineh (tsang), Loti (tsang), and Sanpu (tsang). Also in Luhkiuen (hien) at Tsiehliu (tsang) and Tsutsu (tsang). YuNGOHANG (Fu). Iron works at Aying. TuNGCHUEN (Fu). At Mokwei and Tashuitang. , MuNGHWA (ting) In the mountains west of the city, YuNGPEH (ting). Locality not indicated. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN 113 ORES OF COPPER, SILVER, LEAD, TIN, QUICKSILVER. PROVINCE OP CHIHLI. Shtjntien (Pu) or Peking. Silver at Mt. Yinyen 15 li S. of Miyun (liien). Silver at Sz'ling 100 11 N. E. of Miyun (hien). YuNGPiNG (Fu). Silver 130 li N. W. of Tsiengan (hien). Silver at Mt. Tsu 15 li W. of Lulung (Men), in vicinity of gold and iron ores. Silver at Mt. Yuhwang 90 li N. E. of Ptjning (hien). Tin in Tsienngan (hien). Pauting (Fu). Copper. SiUENHWA (Fu). Silver in Yu (chau). PROVINCE OF SHANSI. Pingting (chau) Copper in Yu (hien). Tai (chau). Blue and green carbonates of copper. PiNGTANG (Fu). Copper at Mt. Kiang 20 li S. W. of Kiuhiu (hien). KiAi (chau). Copper in twelve localities. Silver in Ngani (hien). In Pingloh (hien) silver in several localities, copper in forty-eight localities, and tin at Mt. £i 60 li N. E. of the city. Kiang (chau). In Yuenchu (hien). Lead at Mt. Peh, and copper at Mt. Sanchuen 80 li N. of city. Copper in Wunghi (hien). LuNGAN (Fu). Copper in all the hien. TsiN (chau). Tin in Tsinyuen (hien). TsEH (chau). Copper and tin in Yangching (hien). Tatung (Fu). Copper. Malachite at Mt. Shilieu 5 li E. of the city. PROVINCE OF SHENSL SiNGAN (Fu). Silver. Copper at Mt. Tsungnan 50 li South of city, in vicinity of jadte and iron. Shang (chau). Cinnabar. In Lohnan (hien), malachite at Mt. Yih 60 li E. of city. Silver and tin at Mt. To 90 li S. W. ; copper 90 li S. E., and at Sihungnien 50 li S. E. of city. Hanchung (Fu). Quicksilver and cinnabar at Mt. Sz'ni N. W. of Liayang (hien). Hingngan (Fu). Blue and green carbonates of copper at Mt. Chinglieu 45 li E. of city. Cinna- bar and quicksilver at Mt. Shuiyin 140 li N. E. of Sinyang (hien). PROVINCE OP KANSUH. PiNGLiANG (Fu). Silver and copper in Pinliang (hien). Silver and copper in Hwating (hien). Kungchang (Fu). Silver and copper at Mt. Ningkwei 30 li S. of Ningyuen (hien). KiAi (chau). Quicksilver. Silver at Yinyu T3 li N. W. of Wan (hien). TsiN (chau). Silver at Mt. Tayang 50 li N. E. of Tsingngan (hien). Copper in Tsingnan (hien). Silver at Mt. Sungkia 90 li N. B. of Liangtang (hien). Silver in Tsingshui (hien). In Hwui (hien) lead, and at Mt. Chichi, S. of city, cinnabar. PROVINCE OF SHANTUNG. Taingan (Fu). Copper at Mt. Yingliang 30 li N. of Laiwu (hien). Yenchau (Fu). Tin in Yih (hien). Copper at Mt. Koyeh 15 li S. E. of Ym (hien). IcHAU (Fu). Lead in Ishui (hien). Silver in vicinity of gold ores, at Mt. Pau 90 li S. W. of Lanshan (hien). Silver, lead, copper, and tin, as well as gold and iron, at Mt. Chipau 100 li N. of Kii (chau). In Mungying (hien), quicksilver at Mt. Hung 30 li N. of city ; and silver at Mt. Leanghien 60 li N. W. of city. ■TsiNGCHAU (Fu). Silver, lead, copper, tin, quicksilver, as well as iron, and gold-sand, at Mt. Sung 60 li S, W. of Link5 (hien). 15 July, 1866. Hi GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN PROYINCE OP KIANGSTJH. KiANGNiNG (Fu). Copper at Lishui (hien). Copper in vicinity of iron at Mt. Tsz in Kiuyung (Men). SucHATJ (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung 80 li N. E. of Tungshan (hien). PROVINCE OF NGANHWUI Nganking (Fu). Cinnabar in Taihusz'. HwuiCHAu (Fu). Silver and lead. NiNGKWOH (Fu). Copper in all the hien. PROVINCE OF HONAN. HoNAN (Fu). Lead in Sung (hien), and tin at Mt. Lupan in the same hien. Nanyang (Fu). Copper at Mt. Chihli in Tsingping (hien). Tin in Yu (chau). Changteh (Fu). Native copper. Tin in Wungan (hien). Jtj (chau). Tin, Shen (chau). Tin in Ltrsm (hien) and in Lingpatj (hien). PROVINCE OF HUPEH. Wuchang (Fu). Silver at Mt. Hwangko 2 li W. of Hingkwoh (chau) in vicinity of iron. Copper in KiANGHiA (hien). Copper in Wuchang (hien). Copper at Mt. Peisuh 60 li N. of Taye (Men). Tin at Mt. Sieh 5 li S. of Fungtsung (hien). Nganloh (Fu). Malachite in Tienmun (hien). YuNYANG (Fu). Tin. PROVINCE OF SZ'CHUEN. Chingtu (Fu). Copper in Kien (chau), and in Kingtang (Men). Mien (chau,). Silver. Tin. NiNQYUEN (Fu). Silver at Mt. Miloh 200 li E. of Hwuili (chau). In Hwuili (chau) copper at Fenshuiling 100 li N. of city, and "white copper" (Petung), probably a complex ore, at Mt. Haichi 120 li S. of city. In the same chau green and blue carbonates of copper. "White copper in Mienninq (hien). Copper at Mt. Nan in Sichang (hien). Silver at Mt. Koh- sowa N. W. of Yenyuen (hien). Chungking (Fu). Copper. Cinnabar in Kikiang (hien). YuYANG (chau). Quicksilver and Cinnabar in Pangshui (hien). KwEiCHAU (Fu). Tin. LuNGNGAN (Fu). Tin and Quicksilver. TuNGCHUEN (Fu). Green and blue carbonates of copper. Copper at Mt. Komung 30 li N. W. Chunkiang (hien), also 24 li W. at Mt. Laiyung S., and at Mt, Tungkwei S. W. of the same hien. KiATiNG (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung 120 li S. W. of Hungya (hien). KuNG (chau). Copper, in vicinity of iron, at Mt. Kusung 10 li S. of city. Lu (chau). Blue and green carbonates of copper. Yachau (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung 30 li N. E. of Yungking (hien). Mau (chau). Cinnabar. PROVINCE OF KIANGSL Nanchang (Fu). Copper at Mt. Si. Jauchau (Fu). In FiiHiNG (hien), copper, and at Mt. Ying, silver. Kwangsin (Fu). Silver at Yoyang (hien) and Yushan (hien). Lead in Tsienshan (hien). KiENCHANG (Fu). Silver in Nantsung (hien). FucHAU (Fu). Copper in Lingtse (hien). In Kinki (hien) silver, and 120 li E. at Mt. Tung copper. LiNKiANG (Fu). Silver in Sankau (hien). Copper in Sinytj (hien) Kanchau (Fu). Copper in Changnin (hien). Nanngan (Fu). Lead and tin in Tsungni (Men). CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. 115 PROVINCE OF HUNAN. Chanqsha (Fu). Silver, copper, lead, tin, and quicksilver. Shinohau (Fu). Cinnabar. Quicksilver on Luki river. Hangchau (Fu). Silver, tin, quicksilver. YuNGCHAu (Fu). Silver, tin. YuENCHAU (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver in Tsz'kiang (hien), Funghwang (ting), Ytjngsui (ting), and Wukang (chau). Pauking (Fu). Silver. Cinnabar in Wukang (hien). Chin (chau). Copper, tin, lead, quicksilver, and cinnabar. KwErvANG (chau). Silver, copper, lead. Yochatj (Fu). Silver. PROYINCE OF KWEICHAtr. KwEiYANG (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver in Kai (chau). Sz'oHAtJ (Fu). Lead, in vicinity of iron, at Mt. Lungtang B. of the city. Cinnabar and quick- silver at the Sz'chi river. TuNGJiN (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver at Mt. Tawan 3 li S. of city. Shihtsien (Fu). Cinnabar and quicksilver. Taxing (Fu). Copper in Weining (chau). TstTNi (Fu). Quicksilver and Cinnabar. Sz'NAN (Fu). Cinnabar at Mt. Nitan 5 li S., at Mt. Ningtsing 30 li N. E., and 50 li N. E. of WtJCHUEN (hien). Quicksilver at Moyu, Pangtsang, and Nientau, in Wtjchuen (hien). HiNGi (Fu). Quicksilver in vicinity of realgar, at Mt. Peinien. Cinnabar at Lamotsang. TuYDN (Fu). Lead at Mt. Hianglu in Chingping (hien). PROVINCE OF CHEHKIANG. KiAHiNQ (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tsang in Haiyen (hien). HucSAU (Fu). Copper and tin in Anki (hien). Copper in Wukang (hien) and Changhinq (hien). NiNGPO (Fu). Tin, in vicinity of gold, on Mt. Kehyu. Copper in Punghwa (hien). Shauhing (Fu). Copper at Soyachi. Tin at Mt. Tsoking. Quicksilver at Mt. Lungkien in Yuyau (hien). Taichau (Fu). Silver and lead at Mt. Tientai and Mt. Tsz'nien in Tientai (hien). Copper, in vicinity of iron, at Mt. Lungsu in Ninghai (hien). KiJCHAU (Fu). Silver ore, yielding $300 to the ton, at Mt. Yinkung in Changshan (hien). Cop- per at Mt. Tung in Singan (hien). Silver at Mt. Yinkung in Suingan (hien). Yenchau (Fu). In Kiente (hien) copper in Mt. Tungkwei ; and silver in Mt. Yin. Wanchau (Pu). In PiNGYANG (hien) silver at Mt. Chauki, Mt. Tsz'ye, and Tientsingyang, Silver on the Chauchi river in Tisung (hien). Chuchau (Fu). Copper at Mt. Tung in Lunqtsiuen (hien). Tin and lead in Sungyang (hien). PROVINCE OF FUHKIEN. KiENNiNG (Fu). Silver in the hi^, Kienngan, Kienyang, Pusung, and Tsungho. Copper in KiENYANG (hien). Yenping (Fu). Copper in the hien, Nanping, Sha, and Yuki. YuNGCHUN (chau). Lead in Tating (hien). LuNGNGAN (chau). Lead in Santsingming and Tsiweitsz'kung. Tingohau (Fu). Silver at Lungmuntsang in Ninghwa (hien). Silver at Wangpeitsang and Ngan- fungtsang in Tsangting (hien). Tin at Hiangpau Mt. in Tsangting (hien). PROVINCE OF EWANGTUNG. KwANGOHAU (Fu) or Canton. Silver at Tashuikung in Nanhai (hien) and at Peyinkung in SiNHWUi (hien). LiBNCHAU (Fu). Silver. Tin at Sangpuhia and Singtanghia in Yangshan (hien) ; in the same hien lead and cinnabar. 116 GEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN HwxJiCHATj (Fu). Tin of excellent quality in Hoyuen (hien) and Ytjngngan (hien). KiATiNG (chau). Tin in Sanlo (hien) and Hingning (hien). Shauking (Fu). Silver at Yinkung in Kauming (hien). KiuNGOHAU (Fu). Blue carbonate of copper. Silver at Litien in Yai (chau). PROVINCE OF KWANGSL KwEiLiN (Fu). Silver and Cinnabar. LiucHATj (Fu). Silver in Siang (chau). KiNGTTJEN (Fu). Silver at Mt. Mongin 35 li N. W. of Hocm (chau). Tin at Kaufungkung 13 li W. and Singchaukung 2 li W. of Hochi (chau). Cinnabar at Mt. Hi N. of Ishan (hien), and at Mt. Kusih in Sz'ngan (hien). Sz'NGAN (Fu). Lead in Shangling (hien). PiNQiiOH (Fu). Silver in Pingloh (hien). Silver and tin in Puchuen (hien). Silver at Taiping- yintsang in Ho (hien). Copper at Mt. Kii 35 li N. E. of Ho (hien). Tin at Tungyuyen and at Lungtsungyen N. of Ho (hien). YuHLiN (chau). Cinnabar and quicksilver at Mt. Tungshi 15 li E. of Pehliu (hien). SiNCHAU (Fu). Silver and lead in Kwei (hien). PROYINCE OF YUNNAN. Yunnan (Fu). Copper in Kwungming (hien) and Yxingmen (hien). Malachite in Liutsz' (hien), WuTiNG (hien), and Lupung (hien). LiNGAN (Fu). Copper and Tin in Mtjngtsz' (hien). TsTJHHiuNG (Fu). Silver in Kwangtung (hien), and at Soyangtsang and Malungtsang in Ngan (chau), and with lead at Yuntsungtsang in TstfHHiUNG (hien). Chingkiang (Fu). Copper in Lunan (chau). KwANGSi (chau). Silver and lead at Mt. Peting. Copper at Mt. Chung. Tin at Mt. Shipau. KiuHTSiNG (Fu). Silver and lead at Mt. Yang W. of Siuenwei (chau). Copper in Pingi (hien). WuTiNG (chau). Silver in Sutsuweitsang. Copper at Pauhung and Olo. Lead at Mt. Kauyin. Pu'kh (Fu). Silver, lead, and copper at Pema, Kanku, and Mantau in Sihma (ting). Copper of best quality at Tsilitutsz'. Ytjngchang (Fu). Silver at Mingkwang and Aying. Copper and tin at Tangytjeh (chau). TuNGCHUEN (Fu). Silver in Weitsz' (hien). Mines of Petung ("white copper") at Tangtangtsang and Taliitsang. Chautung (Fu). Silver at Lutientsang and Lomatsang, at Tungputsang in Chinhiung (chau), and at Kiushatsang in Ytjnseh (hien). Copper at Changfapu in Chinhiung (chau), at Siaunienfang in Yunseh (hien), and at Ninglau Mt. and Tsietsz'tang in Takwan (ting). YuNGPEH (ting). Copper. KINGDOM OF COREA. Gold, silver, quicksilver, iron, coal, and sulphur. MISCELLANEOUS MINERALS. PROVINCE OF CHIHLL Taming (Fu). Nitre on the Siau Ho. SiuENHWA (Fu). Rock-crystal at Mt. Hwangtsie N. of city. Agates at Sz'kiautungtsing. PROVINCE OF SHANSL Tatung (Fu). Agates, sulphate of iron. Kianq (chau). Sulphate of iron. LuNGAN (Fu). Amber. Fanchau (Fu). Gypsum. Nitre. Rock-crystal in Yungning (chau). TsEHCHAU (Fu). Rock-crystal, Realgar. CHINA, MONGOLIA, AND JAPAN. , 117 PROYINCE OP SHENSI. SiNGAN (Pu). Jade, in vicinity of copper and iron, at Tsungnan 50 li S. of city, at Mt. Lantien 30 li B. of Lantien (hien), and at Mt. Li, in vicinity of gold 2 li W. of Linqtung (hien). Shanq (chau). Jade, in vicinity of gold, at Mt. Yangbwa N. E. of Lohngan (hien). KiA (chau). Agate in Fukuh (hien) and Shinmui-i (hien). Hanchung (Fu). Amber in many localities. Peitsui (jadeite) in Liayang (hien). Realgar at Mt. Putu 60 li S, of Peng (hien). HiNGNGAN (Pu). Jade at Jit. Ching 58 li W. of Sinyang (hien), and at Kantientsuhtung 60 W. of Pehho (hien). Pu (chan). Iron pyrites and sulphur. PROVINCE OP KANSUH. KuNGCHANG (Pu). Agatcs. Realgar at Mt. Leangkung S. W. of Min (chau). Nitre in Ningyuen (hien), and Hwtjining (hien). KiAi (chau). Realgar. Sulphate of iron. KiNGYANG (Pu). Nitre in every Hien. Inkstone slate in Ning (chau). PROVINCE OP SHANTUNG. Taingan (Pu). Amethyst. Yenchati (Pu). Amethyst. IcHAU (Pu). Amethyst. TuNGCHAU (Pu). G7psum. Nitre in all parts of the province. IcHANG (Pu). Agates. Nitre. PROVINCE OP HONAN. PROVINCE OP HFPEH. PROVINCE OP SZ'CHUEN. Chung (chau). Amber in Liangshan (hien). KwEiCHAU (Pu). Amber in Wushan (hien) and in Taning (hien). Suiting (Fu). Amber in Tatsoh (hien) or Ta (hien). Mei (chau). Nitre. PROVINCE OP KIANGSI. Kwangsin (Pu). Rock-crystal in Shangtsau (hien). ' "^ PROVINCE OF HTJNAN. YuNGSHUN (Pu). Nitre in Pautsing (hien). YuENOHAU (Fu). Rock-crystal in Yungsui (ting). PROVINCE OP KWEICHAU. Nganshun (Pu). Amethyst. Hinqi (Pu). Realgar at Mt. Peinien. TsuNi (Pu). Realgar 20 li E. of Tungtsz' (hien). Sz'nan (Pu). Jade in Yingkiang (hien). PROVINCE OP CHEHKIANG. Hangchau (Fu). Gypsum at Mt. Shikau in Sungho (hien). KtJCHAU (Pu). Lapis-lazuli at Mt. Nien in Changshan (hien). Yenchau (Fu). Rock-crystal in Suingan (hien). Wanchau (Fu). Lapis-lazuli on Kinchingshi river, in Lotsing (hien). 118 GEOLOGICAL RESEAKCHES, ETC PROVINCE or FUHKIEK Changchatj (Fu). Rock-crystal in Changpu (Lien). Taiwan (Fu). Sulphur in Changhwa (Men). PROVINCE OP KWANGTUNG. KwANGCHATJ (Fu). Amber. Amethyst at Mt. Pan in Tungwei (hien). Shatjchatj (Fu). Sulphate of iron. KiuNGOHAU (Fu). Flint at Mt. Li. Whetstone at Mt. Shi. Large rqck-crystals at Mt. Wutsz'. PROVINCE OF KWANGSI Sz'CHiNG (Fu). Realgar. WucHATJ (Fu). Rock-crystal W. of Tsanqhoh (hien). PROVINCE OF YUNNAN. Yunnan (Fu). Nitre in Ytjngmen (hien). "WxiTiNG (chau). Blue jade in Tungsan. Touchstone in the Kinshakiang river. Nitre, from wells, in Yuenmau (hien). LiKiANG (Fu). Green and black jade in Mt. Mohpeh. Ytjngchang (Fu). Amber in Tangyueh (chau). Agates at Mt. Manau in Patjshan (hien). Topaz and rock-crystal at Mungmitosz' in Paushan (hien). Feitsui, and white and black jade at Maumotosz', and blue jade at Tungytjeh (ting). • The mountains of Southern Yunnan seem to abound in precious stones. The working of beautiful stones into objects of ornament, forms an important branch of industry in several of the large cities. Jade of various colors, serpentine, steatite,^ and dendritic marbles, are made into an endless variety of household orna- ments. Topaz, aqua-marine, pink turmaline, opaque sapphires, jadeite'' (Feitsui), lapis-lazuli, sungurshi, a mineral similar to turquois, rock-crystal, garnets, and many other precious and semi-precious stones, are carved, with great labor and patience, in very intricate forms. Several snuff bottles carved out of blue corundum were seen, the caviOy being very small at the neck, and enlarged symmetrically and polished in the interior. No diamonds were seen in any of the lapidaries' shops, although the Chinese have a name for that stoner Emeralds are very rare, and although the Chinese name is lieupaushi (green precious stone), they are known among lapidaries as Sz'mulu, the name of Sumatra, whence they are probably "obtained. Rubies are more common, although often confounded with spinelles and hya- cinths. SapJ)hires are frequent, and often of fine water and respectable size. * Much of the stone known as pagodite has been shown by Prof. G. J. Brush to be a compact pyrophyllite. " Feitsui is, perhaps, the most prized of all stones among the Chinese. The chalchihuitl, a pre- cious stone of the ancient Mexicans, as I have seen it in a mask preserved in the museum of Pract. Geol. in London, and in several ornaments in the collection pf Mr. Squiers in iJew York, is, appa- rently, the same mineral. This fact is the more remarkable, as there is no known occurrence of this mineral in America. APPENDIX. APPENDIX No. 1. Description of Fossil Plants from the Chinese Coal-Bearing Modes. By J. S. Newberry, M. D. Cleveland, Ohio, September 25th,' 1865. Raphael Pumpelly, Esq. Bear Sir : The fossil plants yon were kind enough to submit to me for examination, though few in number and somewhat fragmentary, have proved to be of very special interest, since they supply the necessary data for determining, approximately, the age of the strata from which they were taken ; and rather unexpectedly prove a large part of the great coal fields of China to be of Mesozoic age. This conclusion is based on the entire absence of Carboniferous plants from the collection ; and the presence of well-marked Cycads — species of Podozamites and Pterozamites, closely allied to, if not identical with, some heretofore found in Europe and America. I give below, such descriptions of the several species contained in the collection, as could be framed from the somewhat meagre material submitted to me. Future observations, made upon a larger number of more perfect specimens, will be necessary before questions of specific identity or difference can be definitively settled — but it is scarcely probable that any facts, or specimens hereafter to be obtained, will require, modification of the view — that the coal basins which you visited are all Meso- zoic and not Carboniferous: We have, of course, no right to assume from the interesting facts your explorations have brought to light, that no Carboniferous coal exists in China, for it may very well happen, that as in our own country, coal seams of economical value, but of different ages, will be found there, at points not greatly removed from each other. But geologists will not fail to be deeply interested in the fact that sa large portions of the coal basins of China, including beds of both anthracite and bituminous coal — worked for hundreds of years, probably the oldest coal mines in the world — are wholly excluded from the Carboniferous formation. So large is this coal-bearing area, indeed, that when joined to the Triassie, Cretaceous, and Tertiary coals of North America, they quite overshadow the Carboniferous coals of Europe and the Mississippi valley, and suggest the question, whether the name given to the formation which includes the most important European strata, has not been somewhat hastily chosen. Another interesting feature in the fossil plants under consideration is the reappearance, at the far distant points from whence they come, of genera so well known in European and American geology — and the entire absence of the species of Phylotheca, Glossopteris, etc. — which have made the Indian and Australian coal floras so puzzling to the palaeontologist. There are fragments of a new generic form — probably a Cyead — in the collection, and some obscure specimen^ that may represent other plants new to science, but the Pecopteris, Sphenopteris, Podozamites, Pterozamites, &c., have a very familiar look ; and in their resemblance to well known forms, give fresh evidence of the monotony of the vegetation of the globe,, previous to the introduction of the angiospermous forests of the Creta- ceous epoch. Whether the strata which have furnished these plants should be considered Triassie or Jurassic, remains to be determined by future observations, as the fossils as yet obtained can hardly be considered sufficient for the solution of that question. Prom the "Kwei basin" we have numerous pinnee of a species of Podozamites, undistinguishable from one found by Prof. Emmons in North Carolina, in strata now generally regarded as Triassie ; (119) 120 APPENDIX. but associated with these are a few pinfiee of different form — much more elongated and acute — scarcely- differing from those of a European Jurassic species (P. lancolotus, Lind.), still the evidence of identity is much stronger in regard to the former species than the latter. From Pyiinsz' we have a fine Pecopteris, with the falcate pinnules — so characteristic of the Meso- zoic species, and indeed very accurately copying the form of F. Whitbiensis, a European Jurassic species — but unfortunately the strata which contain this fossil have been much metamorphosed, the coal converted to anthracite, and the nervation of the fern has been entirely obliterated, while the outline remains distinct. Probably it will be found as difficult, or rather as impossible, in China, as it has been in this country, to identify all the subdivisions of the Mesozoic strata discernible in Europe ; yet we shall doubtless gather there new proofs of the constancy of the order of sequence in geological history, and new evidence of the stability of the foundations on which geology, as a science, rests. I have under my eye, as I write this letter, four collections of fossil plants which, though from very widely separated localities, are curiously linked together. They are : — 1st. Fossil plants, Cycads and Conifers, collected by myself from the gypsum formation (Triassic) at Abiquiu, New Mexico. Of this collection the most conspicuous and interesting plant is Otozamites, Macombii, N. 2d. A collection of fossil plants — Cycads and Ferns, received through Prof Whitney from Sonora, Mexico, where they occur with coal strata and Triassic Mollusks. In this collection Otozamites, Macombii is associated with Strangerites magnifolia, Rogers, Pecopteris falcatus, Emm, and other plants occurring abundantly in North Carolina. 3d. A collection of fossil plants — Cycads, Conifers, and iferns, from N. Carolina and Virginia, in- cluding beside the last two mentioned, and many others which are new, several species, apparently identical with European Triassic plants — of the genera Haidingera ,Gutbiera, Laccopteris, &c., and among other Cycads, Podozamites Emmonsii, N. 4. The collection made by yourself in China — Cycads and Ferns — in which one of the most distinctly marked plants is P. Ummonsii. In regard to the American localities cited above, there is, perhaps, no good reason for our with- holding assent to the conclusion that the rocks furnishing the fossil plants are Triassic, but, when we remember how much difference of opinion there has been, and indeed still is, upon this subject, even in the light of large collections of fossils, we can hardly with propriety offer even a conjecture as to the precise age of the Chinese coal strata. To recapitulate — one species of Podozamites, contained in the collection is apparently identical with an American Triassic species ; the other more resembles a European Jurassic plant. The Pterozamites resembles both Triassic and Jurassic species, but is identical with neither. The Pecopteris has certainly a remarkable likeness to P. Whitbiensis, which occurs both in the Liassic and Oolitic floras ; and it is not yet certain that it is not also found in the Carolina and Richmond coal basins. The Sphenopteris and Hymenophyllites are altogether new, and suggest no afiSnities of value in this connection, while the Taxites, Equisetites, &c., are too obscure to afford us any help. Yours respectfully, J. S. NEWBERRY Pterozamites Sinensis, Newh. Plate IX, Fig. 3. Pt. fronde pinnata, parva, pinnis linearibus patentissimis integris, sub-approximatis vel remotis, sspe curvatis, basi integris, apice rotundatis, nervis distinetis sequalibus simplioibus, rachi longitudinaliter striata. This is a very neat and well-marked, though miniature species of Pterozamites, having the general aspect of Pt. Oeynhausianus, Goepp., but being less than half the size of ^that species, and the pinnae are not at all decurrent on the rachis. Perhaps of all known species Pt. linearis, of Emmons (Manual of Geol. fig. 194), from the Trias of North Carolina, most resembles this plant ; but in that the pinnas are much more crowded. APPENDIX. 121 In the specimens obtained by Mr. Pumpelly, fragments of a number of different fronds arc shown, all of about the same size, so we may conclude that the figure now given is a fair representation of the plant. Locality. — In brown sandstone, with Sphenopteris orientalis, from Sanyii, west of Poking. PODOZAMITES LANCEOLATUS, lAncIl. Sp. Plate IX, Fig. 7. Zamia lanceolata, Lind. & HnTT. Foss. Flor. Vol. Ill, fig. 4. Zamites lanceolatus, MoBEis, An. Nat. Hist. 1841. I have provisionally, and with doubt, referred a few pinnse of Podozamiles, found in the collection, to this species. These pinnae have almost precisely the form of those figured by Lindley, and are longer and narrower than those of F. JEmmonsii — being linear-lanceolate, with an acute long drawn point, and an attenuated base. In one character they differ from both the species to which I have referred ; they seem to have been thicker and more coriaceous than either — the nerves being so deeply buried in the parenchyma as to be scarcely visible. The distinctnegs of the nerves depends, however, on the surface of the leaflet exposed, and on the manner of fossilization — coarse micaceous shales, like that which contains the impression before us, rarely showing the nervation with distinctness. The small number of the pinnas, of the character I have described, in the collection, renders it difficult to determine, with accuracy, their specific relations. Their value, therefore, in a great degree, consists in the evidence they give us of the presence of the genus to which they belong in the rocks from which they were taken. Locality. — Kwei basin on the Yangtse river. Province of Hupeh, China. PoDOZAMiTES Emmonsii, Newb. ■"late IX, Fig. 2. P. fronde pinnata, pinnis distautibus integris alternis oppositisve, lanoeolatis, apioe attenuatls acutis, basi cuneatis, nervis orebris. This is, apparently, the same plant as that described and figured by Prof Emmons (Geol. N. Car. p. 331, pi. iii, fig. t), under the name of P. lanceolatus ; but that name having been appropriated for another species from the Oolite of Europe, it becomes necessary to give it another. The specimens which are contained in the collection brought by Mr. Pumpelly, consist mostly of 'letached pinnse, scattered in confusion over the surface of pieces of blue shale. These pinnae agree perfectly in form and nervation with those of the Carolina plant. They are lanceolate in outline, and rather abruptly narrowed to an acute termination at either end. The nerves are fine and numerous, but distinctly visible, converging to a common point at the remote extremity. The rachis to which all were, and a few are still attached, was slender, and striated longitudinally. The specimen figured by Prof. Emmons is the basal portion of the frond where the rachis is strongest. Higher up this character, to which he attaches some importance, would be lost. The Carolina plant is abundant in the upper plant beds, where it is associated with several species supposed to be identical with some from the Trias (Kenper) of Europe, such as Fecopteris Sttdgardtensis, Laccopteris germinans, &e. ; it is, however, not quite certain that there are not also found there some species which are found in the Jurassic of Europe. More careful study of this flora will be necessary before that question can be settled ; but the beds which contain F. Emmonsii are now generally supposed to represent the Keuper of Europe, and the evidence which this gives, as to the age of the Chinese rocks containing it, so far as it goes, points to the same date for them. Locality. — Kwei basin on the Yangtse river, Province of Hupeh, China. 16 July, 1868. 122 APPENDIX. Sphenopteris orientalis, Newh. Plate IX, Figs. 1 and 1 a. S. fronde tripinnata, racWde longitudinater sulcata, pirniis lanceolatis vel linearjbus, aoutis, pinnulis sessilibns summis lobatis, inferioribus laoiniatis, laciniis rotundatis, apioe ssepe emarginatis nervis tenuis, in lobis dichotomis. This species is more largely represented in the collection than any other, and yet all the specimens consist of comparatively small fragments of a frond of considerable size. In nearly all of these specimens a remarkable inequality is observable between the pinnules of the upper and under side of the rachis of each pinna — the upper ones being shorter, broader, and more upright ; the lower ones elongated, narrow, and more oblique to the rachis. Probably this is a constant character in the plant, as examples of similar diversity of form are not wanting among living ferns ; but I have seen instances of distortion not unlike this in ferns imbedded in rocks which had been much disturbed. In general aspect this species is not dissimilar to some Carboniferous ferns, such as Sph. Schlo- theimi, Sph. tridactylites, &c., but it still more regembles the Oolitic species Sph. denticulata and Bph. hymenophylloides, and the Triassic species Sph. dichotoma, Alth. It is also considerably like a Triassic species not yet described, found near Baltimore, Md. From all these, h«wever, it is appa- rently distinguished by the dissimilarity of form in the pinnules of the upper and lower side of the pinnae, and by the shape of the lobes of the pinnules. In the upper pinnules the lobes are spatulate ; in the lower, fan-shaped. Some of the lobes are straightly emarginate at the summit, but generally they have the appearance of being rounded and entire. Locality. — Sanyii Chaitang basin, west of Peking, China. Pecopteeis Whitbiensis 1 Brong. Plate IX, Fig. 6. From " Piyiinsz', west of Peking," in a coarse shale charged with the bitumen driven off from the associated coal seam — now anthracite — is a fragment including several pinuaa of the frond of a large fern, which bears a marked resemblance to P. Whiibiensis ; so much so, that if the nervation, which is obliterated in the specimen before us, were found to be similar, I should have no hesitation in referring it to that species, as no Carboniferous ferns exhibit that peculiar falcate outline of the pinnules, so marked in P. Whitbiensis, P. dentata, Lind. (P. denticulata, Brong.), etc. P. Whitbiensis is in Europe found both in the Lias and Oolite, according to Brongniart, but is regarded as distinctly a Jurassic species." It has been supposed to occur in the Richmond coal basin in this country ; but some of the specimens thought to represent the plant, have been found by Prof. Ileer to have a reticulated nervation, and therefore to be, both specifically and generically, distinct from P. Whitbiensis. A careful examination of all the specimens collected in this country, supposed to belong to P. Whiibiensis, will be necessary before we can decide whether it has indeed been found in the so-called Triassic strata of America; and unfortunately we must wait till other specimens, and such as are in a better state of preservation, shall be brought from China before we can positively affirm that it occurs in the coal strata of that country. Locality. — Shale over anthracite coal, at Piyiinsz', west of Peking, China. Hymenophtllites tenellus, Newh. Plate IX, Fig. 6. H. fronde bipinnata, parva, delioatula ; pinnis lineari-lanceolatis, pinnulis laoiniatis ; laciniis filiformis vel epatu- latis acutis ; soi'i subrotundi laciniarnm apicibus insidentes. In the plumbaginous schist brought from " Piyiinsz', west of Peking," are numerous fragments of a frond of a species of Hymenophyllites, which seems to be undescribed. These fragments are so small that no clear idea can be gained from them of the magnitude or form of the frond ; but it was APPENDIX. 123 doubtless a- delicate fern of small size, the pinnules deeply cut into linear or spatulato lobes, those of the fertile portions of the frond being specially slender, aud bearing the sori at the extremijty of each lobe. A fruit-bearing fragment visible in one of the specimens before us calls to mind Lindley's Tymfanophora racemosa, which is now regarded as the fertile portion of the frond of Ooniopteris Murrayana. This fossil also occurs at Sanyii, near Chaitang, with Sphen. orierdalis, thus linking together, geologically, these two localities. Taxites spatulatus, Newb. Plate IX, Fig. 4. T. foliis coriaceis lineari-lauceolatis vel spatulatis, curvatis, apice rotundatis, basi cuneatis, nervo medio valde distincto. In a yellow sandy schist, from near the Futau mine at Chaitang, with pinnte of Podozamitps, are numerous linear or spatulate one-nerved leaves, evidently derived from some coniferous tree, appa- rently of the family of Taxineae, though larger than the leaves of any of the known Yews. By their size, curved outline, cuneate base, and their variable width, these leaves bear some resem- blance to some of those which have been referred to the genus Podocarpus, but with one exception all the described fossil species have been found in Tertiary rocks. The exception referred to is Podocarpiles acicularis, Andrse, from the Lias of Steierdorf, in which the leaves are very long and narrow, having more the form of those of a pine. Podocarpus Taxites, TJnger (Flor. Foss. v. Sotzka), has almost precisely the form of some of the leaves before us ; but it is very doubtful whether that was really a Podocarpus. Brongniart has enumerated in his Prodromus a Taxites podocarpoides, from the Oolite of Stones- field, but no figure or description of it has yet been given Possibly that species may have relations with the one under consideration, which would give the latter a value in determining the precise age of the rocks which contain it. APPENDIX NO. 2. Analyses of Chinese and Japanese Coals. Made for R. Pumpelly by Mr. James A. Macdontald, M. A., of the Sheffield Laboratory, Tale College. In the following analyses each determination is the mean of two closely agreeing ones. For the water determination the coal was pulverized and heated in an air-bath at 110° C. until it gave a constant weight. A portion was then ignited in fragments, in a closed crucible, to determine the "volatile matter." The ash was estimated in the usual manner by incineration. I. Tatsatj mine (43 f©et seam) near Chaitang. Hard anthracite. Decrepitates very slightly, and yields a little HO in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.5 T. Carbon 89.81 Volatile matter .3.08 Water 2.67 Ash 4.44 100.00 II. FtiTAU.mine. Chaitang (west of Peking). Bright, bituminous, coking coal, yielding a little HO in the closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.30. Carbon 85.77 Volatile matter 11.94 Water 0.35 Ash 1.94 100.00 124 APPENDIX. III. Chingshui (near Chaitang W. of Peking). Soft, biturninous coal, coking in a tube and giving some HO. Spec. grav. 1.37. Carbon 81.32 Volatile matter 5.62 Water 0.36 Ash 12.70 100.00 IV. Teyih mine (near Muntakau W. of Peking). Soft, crumbling anthracite. Gives some HO in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.74. Carbon 80.75 Volatile matter 6.43 Water 2.42 Ash 11.40 100.00 V. Tashitung mine (Pangshan S. W. of Peking). Hard anthracite, coated with some carbonate. Decrepitates and gives off some HO in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.84. Carbon ........'. 86.62 Volatile matter 4.64 Water 2.64 Ash 6.10 100.00 VI. KwEi (first mine above Kwei on the upper Yangtse in Hupeh). Rather a soft coal. When heated in a closed tube gives off HO, and a slightly bituminous odor, without decrepitating. Spec. grav. 1.44. Carbon 85.63 Volatile matter 4.10 Water 0.38 Ash 9.89 100.00 VII. Mine of Siangtung (in Hunan). Hard, fine-grained anthracite. Gives off HO, and decrepitates violently in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.65. Carbon 96.21 Volatile matter 0.65 Water 1.45 Ash . . 1.69 100.00 VIII. Another coal from Siangtung. Hard anthracite. Gives HO in a closed tube, and decrepitates but slightly. Spec. grav. 1.61. Carbon 94.59 Volatile matter 1.18 Water 1.65 Ash 2.58 100.00 IX. Laicha Ho (Southern Hunan). Hard anthracite. Yields HO and considerable sulphur on heating in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.47. Carbon 88.27 Volatile matter 2.92 Water 0.80 Ash 8.01 100.00 APPENDIX. 125 X. Hangchau (Southern Hunan). Rather soft, bituminous coal, coking in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.G8. Carbon 71.80 Volatile matter 15.89 Water 0.65 Ash 11.66 100.00 XI. Mine near Fangshan (S. W. of Peking). Hard anthracite. Yields HO, and decrepitates in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.83. Carbon 90 02 ^ Volatile matter 2.68 Water 2.20 Ash 5.10 100.00 XII. Coal from Tatting in Shansi. Clear black, moderately hard bituminous coking coal. Decrepitates slightly. Spec. grav. 1.30. Carbon 65.30 Volatile matter 28.69 Water 1.47 Ash 4.54 100.00 XIII. Coal from Dotjt (island of Sagalien). Clear black, bituminous coking coal. Spec. grav. 1.31. Carbon 67.51 Volatile matter 22.98 Water 3.51 Ash 6.00 100.00 XIV. Coal from Iwanai (island of Tesso). Clear, smooth, black or brownish coal. Gives off HO, and cokes in a closed tube. Spec. grav. 1.26. Carbon 60.26 Volatile matter 29.72 Water 2.30 Ash ... * 7.72 100.00 XV. Yingwo mine (Fangshan S. W. of Peking). Soft crumbling anthracite. Yields considerable HO in a closed tube. Spec. grav. ? Carbon 77.58 Volatile matter . . 3.63 Water . . 2.50 Ash 16.29 100.00 126 APPENDIX. APPENDIX No. 3. Letter from Mr. Arthur Mead Edwards on the Results of an Examination, under the Microscope, of some Japanese Infusorial Earths and other. Deposits of China and Mongolia. New York, January 14, 1866. Raphael Pumpelly, Esq. Dear Sir : ■ I have, agreeably to your request, made a microscopical examination of the specimens of earths you submitted to me some time since, and have to report thereon as follows : — They were thirteen in number, and the results of examining each one separately and carefully is recorded below. With regard to the two specimens numbered 6 and 9, in which J have found the siliceous loricae of Diatomacese, I have to regret that the time at my disposal lately has been so short that I have been unable to identify the various species detected therein, much less have I been able to do as I would have wished, that is to say, transmit to you at this time a complete list with descrip- tions and figures of the supposed new forms. '* No. 1. " Efflorescence from the plains of the Kirnoor, Mongolia." This specimen contains some straight sponge spiculse and broken crystalline particles of -a deep olive-green color ; otherwise it consists mostly of fine particles of sand. From the presence of the sponge-spieulEB I judge this deposit to be decidedly of aquatic origin and probably marine ; although the form of the spiculte, as well as I can tell from their generally broken condition, is such that they may have belonged to a fresh-water species of sponge. No. 2. " Terrace deposit (loam of lower terrace) T6 Hai, Mongolia." Under the microscope this is very similar to the above, that is to say, it contains many of the green crystalline particles found in No. 1, but no sponge-spiculae that I have been able to detect. No. 3. Efflorescence (with sand), from the fiat at the Te Hai Mongolia." This is also very like the first in appearance, in containing green crystals, but, like the second specimen it contains no sponge-spicute, so that in neither of these two last numbers have I found any- thing that would assist in determining their origin. No. 4. " Gobi limestone (steppe deposit in part), Nov. 28, 1864." Consists almost entirely of fine white particles of calcareous matter, but shows nothing to indicate the circumstances or conditions under which it was deposited. This was to be expected as the micro- scope rarely reveals anything peculiar in limestones, their origin being best denoted by the character of the large fossils when these are present. No. 5. "Lake loam, Siwan, N. Chihli," is mostly sand, and contains a few of the before men- tioned green crystals, but no traces of the remains of organized beings. No. 6. " Forming bluff near Nietanai, Yesso." No. 9. " From bluff near Nietanai, Yesso." These both evidently belong to the same deposit, taken at different depths most likely, as is evident from the remains of organized forms which they contain. They are plainly from a marine tertiary stratum similar in character to that discovered by Prof. Rogers underlying the cities of Richmond and Petersburg in Virginia, and also like that found by Prof W. P. Blake at Monterey in California. The last mentioned deposit I have at present under examination for the State survey of California, and it has been found by Prof Whitney, and his coadjutors of the survey, at different points extending some hundreds of miles down the Pacific coast, varying slightly in appearance, color, hardness, or the grouping of the forms contained in it, as it was collected at various localities, but plainly showing APPENDIX. 127 that there is one extended deposit covering a great extent of country. In fact the Japan specimens resemble those from California in a very marked degree, and much more so than the Virginian ones, containing almost identically the same species of Diatomacete that I have found therein. I am not, at present, prepared to give a list of those species, but the following genera have been identified, all of which, with the exception of the last, are exclusively marine, but the species of that last genus Gocco- neis, found ia this deposit, are decidedly of marine origin also. Arachnoidiscus. Creswellia. Auliscus. Dictyocha. Asterolavipra. Isthmia. Aotinoptychus. Gephyria. Aulaoodiscus. Orammaiophora, Stictodiscus. Bhabdonema. Goscinodiscus. Biddulphia. Triceratium. Gocconeis. Doubtless species belonging to other genera will be detected hereafter, when I study these speci- mens more attentively, when it is my intention to make out a full list of the species I may find and publish it, with descriptions and figures of such as I consider new or undescribed, through the medium of some one of our scientific societies. Meantime I send you herewith a couple of slides of this material, mounted in such a manner that you can judge for yourself of its richness in microscopic forms and their beauty, and in many cases, identity with those found in the Californian stratum, a slide of which accompanies them. No. *l. " Terrace deposit (loam) from the valley north of the mountains of Sinpaungan." Contains little but sand with a very few of the green colored crystals above mentioned interspersed through it. No. 8. "Terrace deposit (loam) from Siwan, N. Ghihli, Ghina." ' This contains nothing of interest or by means ot which its origin can be traced. No. 10. "Gobi Sandstone, steppe deposit, Dec. 2, 1864." Consists entirely of clean coarse sandy particles, semi-crystalline in character, and with, or in which the microscope reveals, no traces of organic remains. No. 11. " From the beds of volcanic ashes at Isoya, west coast of Yesso, Japan." This specimen was. examined in a superficial manner at first, but^ besides consisting for the most part of pinkish particles of minute size whose origin could hardly be guessed at, was deemed of very little interest. A closer and more thorough examination, however, with higher power glasses revealed decided traces of organic remains and those of an entirely unlocked for character, that is to say, there were found in it, although only in extremely small number^, straight sponge spicules as well as globular, so-called, " gemmules" from sponges, and at the same time dotted ducts from the woody portion of some exogenous plant. Besides these, strange to say, I found fragments of the siliceous epidermis of three or perhaps four species of Diatomacese, decidedly aquatic plants and, in this case, all marine •in their habit. The genera represented in these very rare and minute fragments were Arachnoidiscus, Gyclotella, Isthmia, and probably Goscinodiscus. Besides these the green colored crystals mentioned above, as having been detected in several of the earths examined, were seen in this specimen showing that there exists some connection between these various specimens in their origin. No. 12. "Alkaline sand from the shore of Lake Kirnoor, Mongolia." No. 13. "Sand deposited in the valleys around Lake Bilikanoor, Gobi desert." In neither of these specimens could I find the slightest traces of the remains of organized beings or anything else by means of which I could judge of their origin. Thus, although the results of my examination, conducted in the most careful manner, are in most cases but negative, yet, even there- fore they are of interest, and you will be better able to judge than I am of their value. Th'e dis- 128 APPENDIX. covery of anotlier marine stratum consisting of the siliceous epidermis of Diatomacese in such an un- locked for locality, is of the greatest interest, and will, it is to be hoped, assist somewhat in deciding the true position of such commonly called "infusorial earths." Its similarity to that found on the Pacific coast of North America, would seem to point to its identity in time with that widely extended stratum, and doubtless the results which we have a right to expect from the very complete survey of the State of California, now being carried on, will shed much light on this point. Prof Toumey placed the stratum of "Virginia much lower than had been done by Prof. Rogers, and the correctness or incorrectness of his views in this respect and as bearing on the Californian and Japan deposits, can only be demonstrated after a careful examination and comparison of the adjacent strata. It is desirable that the layer extending from Petersburg in Virginia almost to Baltimore in Maryland, should be examined by a competent observer, and its characters be carefully determined and noted so that they can be compared with those of the Pacific. I hope, ere long, to be able to contribute something towards that end, but extended suites of specimens will have to be collected before we can hope to arrive at any very definite results. Meantime the discovery of such a stratum in Japan will lead to searches for similar deposits in other parts of the world, and I trust and fully expect with success. Respectfully yours, ARTHUR MEAD EDWARDS. INDEX. F = f", departmental city ; C = Chau, sometimes departmental-, but generally district-city ; H = nien, district town ; T = Ting, and Ts =: Tsang, smaller towns. Abel, Clarke, 51, 52, 65 on height of Lake Lo, 48 Abura, tufa-sandstone at, 99 Achase, tufa-conglumerate near, 98 aclcularis, Podooarpites, 123 Actinoptychus, 127 Agates, 116, 117, 118 Agate pebbles on plains of Mongolia, 70 Ainos, settlement of, 90 Alacodiscus, 127 Alluvial watersheds, 28 deposits near Itu, 7 loam deposit near Bili- ka Noor, 71 Altai mountains, 67, 68 rooks of Eastern, 74 Altan Kingan mountains, 67 Alteration of rook by vol- canic gases, 96 Alum produced by altera- tion of felspar, 96 and sulphur on Esan, 86 in China, 56, 57, 58 Amaksa, limestone and sandstone on, 107 Amber, 116, 117, 118 Amethyst, 117, 118 Amherst's embassy, ob- servations of Lord, 7 Ammonites from N. Tesso, 106 Amur river, 2, 67 recent terraces along, lOS Amygdaloid, 22 in conglomerate of Oou- ta, 100, 104 of W. Yesso, age of, 101 of the Ousubetz creek, 101 in Kunnui gravel, 91 at Kunnui, 91 near Kunnui, 91 Analyses of Chinese and Japanese coals, 123 of Chinese coals : Futau (bitum.), 15, 123 Hsingshun i(bitum.), 15 Tatsau (anthr.), 16, 123 17 August, 1866. Analyses of Chingshui (bitum.), 17, 124 Tehyih, 19, 124 Yingwo, 19, 125 Tashhitang, 19, 124 Ancient lake area, present drainage of, 44 gold washings, remains of, at Kunnui, 93 method of gold wash- ing, 91 lake system of northern China, 40 lakes of northern China, islands in, 40 lake deposit independ- , ent of present water- courses, 32 lake loam a river-silt, 42 lakes, extent of, 44 watch-towers near the T6Hai, 30 Angara river, tables along, 75,76 Angouli Noor, 26 Anki (H.), 115 Anko, 58 anthracite at, 65 Anthracite, 11, 122 inChina^ll9 localities of, 56, 57, 58 and coalSj analyses of, 123, 124, 125 of Tatsau mine, 15, 123 assay, production, and cost of, 16, 123 of Kiming, 22 from Tashhitang, mine, analyses of, 19, 124 of Yingwo mine, analy- ses of, 19, 125 of Kwei basin, 6, 124 Anticlinal axis of south- eastern peninsula of Yesso, 106 ridges, 44 central axis of China, 2, 63 AphanitS at Oouta, 100, 101 of western Yesso, rela- tive age of, 104 near Futoro, 100 Appalachians, 69 analogous to the Sini- ans, 62, 68 Appendix No. 1, 119 Appendix No. 2, 123 No. 3, 126 Aracbnoidiscus, 127 Aralo-Caspian depression, 69,77 Arch of marble at Kiyung- kwau, 12 Arctic Ocean, 74, 77 Arenaceous limestone of the steppe deposit, 71 Argillaceous and talco- argillaceous rooks near Nagasaki, 107 rock with fossil plants, on Kaiyanobetz, 97 schist in Kingan moun- tains, 68 Argillite with vermiform fossil,' 102, 104, 105 at Kunnui, 91 at Isoya, 93 , near Achase, 98 near Washinoki, 90 metamorphic, at Yu- rup, 102 Argillites of lohinowatari, 80 Argun river, 68 Art based on the curious in nature in China and Japan, 62 Artificial deposit in a lime quarry, 12 Ascent to the plateau north of Kalgan, 25 Asterolampra, 127 Auliscns, 127 Aulopora tubseformis, 55 Auriferous gravel of Kun- nui, 91, 105, 106 Australian coal flora, 119 Ava, 66 Axial granite, 2 Axis, central anticlinal, of China, 2, 63 east of coast range, 65 coast, of elevation, 65 Aying, 112, 116 Bagley, Rev. P., 56, 57 Baikal, lake, 75 volcanic rooks of lake, 75 N. E., S. W. trend of, 1 Baltic, 69 Baltimore, 122, 128 Bamboo, species of, on Yesso, 79 Barabinski steppe, 69, 77 Barkoul, 60 Barrier range, 23, 31, 32, 63 gorge traversing, 32 metamorphic schists of, 32 hornblendio rocks of, 35, 36 Barrow's estimate of silt discharged by Yellow river, 49 Bars isolating lakes, 41 Barytes in Yurup veins, 102 Basalt hills, 74 Basaltic lavas of the pla- teau, 38 cones on the Gobi desert, 73 Bay of Odaszu, 106 of Yeddo, 107 Beds of chert in limestone, 12 Beech trees on Yesso, 93 Belgium, 54 Betz (creek), 90 Biddulphia, 127 Bilika Noor, beds of lime- stone, gypsum, etc., near, 71 erosion near, 77 earth from, under mi- croscope, 127 Eiot, E., 48, 66, 57 memoir of, on the Yellow river, 47 on the Yukung, 47 Birch trees on Yesso, 93 Bituminous coal at Ching- shui, 17, 124 Blackiston, Capt., 5, 6, 8, 64 observations of, in Sz'- chuen, 62 Black slate near Kanchau, 52 Black sea, 77 Blake, Prof. W. P., 80, 126 Blast, first, made in Japan, 89 furnaces on European model smelting iron ore in Nam- bu, 88 European, at Kobi, & (129) 130 INDEX. Board of Foreign Affairs at Peking, 49 Bogdo oola, Mt., 74 Bohea mountains, 52 Bombs, lava, ou Komanga- ■laki, 83 Bonny, Rev. Mr., 52 Boroseiji, lama-monastery of, 26 Boa urus, 17 Bouran (snow-storm), 73 Brachiopods, fossil, 56, 57, 58, 62, 65 from Eastern Tibet, 55 piobaWy from lime- stone, 6 Breccias, volcanic, of Yes- so, 105 British America, 69 Brongniart, 123 Brcwu-coal basin near Kalgan, 25 tertiary, 62 Bryozoa in terrace-clay of Kunnui, 91 Buddha, figure of, sculp- tured in a cavern, 13 the living, of Urga, 75 V. Bunge, 70 Bureja mountains, 68 Byrranga mountains, N.E., S. W. trend of, 1 Calamite, a, from Ichino- watari, 80 Calcareous deposit of former springs, 28 loam of ancient lake (terrace) deposit, 40 sandstone of the steppe deposit, 71 tufa at Tsingtan on Yangtse, 8 Calcsinter deposit, 101 Calcite io Yurup veins, 102 California, infusorial earth of, 88, 126, 127, 128 Camels used to transport coal, 20 Canton, 2, 115 graywacke and red sandstone near, 53 granite near, 53 to the sea, 53 to Hankau, 52 Cane undergrowth on Yes- so, 93 Cape Blnnt (Shiwokubi), 89 Carboniferous plants in China, absence of, 119 Caspian, 76, 77 Caverns in China, 66, 57, 58, 62, 65 in Shihtsien (F) and Chingnen (F), 63 in limestone, 12 of Fangshan, 12 of Kwangyin, 52 ossiferous, 13 sacred to Buddha, 13 "Cave of the Winds," 56 Cellular granite in Nankau pass, 21, 34 Central Asia, importance of studying its past and present physical geography, 77 Central China, snowy peaks in, 66 anticlinal axis of China, 2 Chaganoussu, undrained lake of, 28 Chaitang, 56, 109, 122, 123 floal at, 11 description of coal dis trict of, 14 former lake at, 14 Chalcedony, 74, 93 pebbles on plains of Mongolia, 70 on the Gobi desert, 73 in amygdaloid at Shi- rarika, 90 in Kunnui gravel, 91 amygdules at Oouta, 100 Chalybeate spring, deposit of iron-oxide from, 96 Chang mountain, 110 Changohau (F), 58, 112, 118 Changfapu, 116 Changhing (H), 115 Changhwa (H), 57, 118 Changkiakau, 23 Changkauyii, anthracite mines at, 19 Changnin (H), 114 Changpang shan, 61 Changpeh shan, 64 Changping (C), 46 Changpu (H), 118 Changsha (F), 52, 68, 61, 111, 115 Changshaa (H), 58, 115, 117 Changteh (F), 58, 61, 110, 111, 114 Changtsing (H), 46 Chang-wu, 48 mouth of Yellow river at, under Han dyn, 50 Changyang (H), 57 Charcoal furnaces at Yu- rup, 103 Chatau, granite at, 22 and Eiming, recent lake between, 45 Chauchi river, 115 Chauchuen, metamorphic schists, limestone, porphyry-breccia, and eurite near, 34 terrace deposit in valley of, 34 Chaukang mountain, 112 Chauki mountain, 115 Chautung (P), 116 Chauyang (H), 56, 57 chechiel, Spirifer, 55 Chehkiang, province of, 57, 58, 60, 112, 115, 117 and Fuhkien, 52 river, 52 Chenyih (C), 112 Chert in lower limestone, 6, 12 Chichi mountain, 113 Chichuen (H), 110 Chifu, metamorphic rocks at, 63 Chihli province, 5, 56, 60, 63, 109, 113, 116 Cbihll, earthquakes in the province of, 76 granite and metamor- phic schists in, 10 height of granite mass in, 10 limestone in, 10 observations in, 10 volcanic rocks in, 10 mountain, 114 Chin (C), 61, 111, 115 China, fossils from, 64, 66, 57,58 fossil plants from, 119 Chinese Coal measures, 4, 5,67 histories of the Yellow river, 47 li, 50 mining, defective, 15 records of volcanic ac- tion in the Tienshan, 76 Repository, 53, 65 traditions of deluges, 144 Ching mountain, 117 Chingching (H), 56 Chingkang mountain, 112 Chingshui, 56, 109 porphyries at, 17 analysis of coal from, 124 coal mines, 17 ChingUeu mountain, 113 Chingping (H), 116 Chingteh (F), 57 Chingting (P), 46, 56 Chingtu (F), 59, 60, 111, 114 Chinhlung (C), 116 Chin Hu Wei, comment- ary of, on the Yukung, 47, 48 Chinkiang (F), 7, 57, 110, 112, 116 Chinsi, 60 Chinyuen (P), 58 marble and caverns in, 63 Chipaushan, 60, 110, 113 Chlorite in the Eakumi porphyry, 84 Chloritic and micaceous schists in Kunnui gravel, 91, 106 gneiss, 35 and chloritic schist near Siwan, 34 on the plateau, 26 granite, 27, 75 ou the Ousubetz creek, 101 rocks near Shachung, 35 series of metamorphic rocks, 41 schist on the Yangtse, 4 Chuchau (F), 58, 60, 112, 115 coal field of, 65 Chung (C), 57, 59, 60, 111, 117 Chung mountain, 116 Chungking (F), 67, 59, 60, 111, 114 Chungpu (H), 110 Chunhwachen, 57 Chunklang (H), 114 Churin chelu. Lamasery of, 74 Chusan archipelago, 2 islands, granite on, 65 Chwanchio and Kingkung, battle between, 44 Cinnabar, 110, 113, 114, 116, 116, 117 Clarke, Abel, 48, 51 Clay schist, 72, 76 inhillsof Senji,72 in Tomari gravel, 99 shale with Equisetaoeae, on Kaiyanobetz creek, 97 slates, 74 of YesBO, 104 under basalt, 73 and quartz-schist at Kudo, 101 warm spring in, at Yunogawa, 89 near Shiwokubi, 89 Claystone porphyry on Ousubetz creek, 101 Cleavage, rectangular, in loam of terrace deposit, 40 Climate of Mongolia in winter, 70 1^ Yunnan, 66 Co^T table of all known localities in China, 56, 57, 68 near Kwei, 7 near Nagasaki, 107 near Pangkwang, 62 near the " Palisade," 64 of Chingshui mines, analyses of, 17, 124 of Fushun mine, 15 of the Futau mine, analyses of, 15, 123 of Hsingshun mine, de- scription and assay of, 15 of Tehyih mine, analy- ses of, 19, 124 on Kaiyanobetz creek, 97 price of, at the Tashhi- tang mine, 20, 124 production of, in a mine at Chingshui, 17 and anthracites, analy- ses of, 16, 16, 17, 19, 123, 124, 125 at Chaitang, 11-16', 56 at Fuhutang, 52 at Lingchi, 11 at Maanshan, 11 at Muntakau, 11, 18 at Piyfiusz, 11 at various points on Yesso, 106 basins of Pingyang (F), 64 of Tsechau (F), 64 of Kiang (C), 64 of Honan (F), 64 of Ju (C),64 of Yihte (H), 64 of Liautung, 64 ofYungping(P),64 of Peking, 64 of Kwangping (F), 64 INDEX. 131 Coal basins of Pingting (C),64 of Taiyuen (F), 64 of Fanchau(F),64 of Hoh (C), 64 of Ninghia (F) ami Lanchau (P), 63 in porphyry at Chingshui, 14 of Wangping, Fang- shan, Pingting,10 in folds of lime- stone, 10 Coal-bearing rooks, fold- ing of, 42 of China assumed to be everywhere of the same age, 62 Coal, bituminous, in China, 119 at Chaitang, 56 at Chingshui, 17, 56 brown, near Kalgan, 25 cost of, at Futau mine, 15 Coal district of Muntakau, 18 of Chaitang, de- scription of, 14 of Fangshan, 19 field of Kwei, 6 floras of Australia and India, 119 in China, localities of, 56, 57, 58 in Kiangsi, Chehkiang, Nganhwui, 65 in the Kingan moun- taiiis, 68 Mesozoic, in China, 119 Coal-measures, 63, 68 indioatioLs of, along the coast, 65 of Kiangsi, 65 in Kiangsi, Hunan, etc., 65 most important fold oL the, 64 ^ Chinese, 4, 5, 62 resting on limestone, 22 limestone floor of, in Chihli, 10 Coal mines near Nanking, 8 of Chaitang, 14 of Chingshui, 17 Coal-rocks of Sz'chuen, 6 with Kquiseta near Iwa- nai, 105 Coals, tertiary brown, 62 said to exist near Esan, 89 seams of Eastern Yesso, 85 series of Kaiyanobetz, 97 table of, near Pe- king, 11 strata of China, a'ge of, 120 Triassio, Cretaceous, and Tertiary, of Ame- rica, 119 Coast axis of elevation, 65 Cocconeis, 127 Coke made at the Hsing- sliuu mine, 15 Columnar lava bed near Setanai, 99 lava on mount Raiden, 98 porphyry, 84 structure in mud- stream produced by sulphur crystals, 87 structure of Kakumi porphyry, 85 Communication between the upper waters of the Han river and Kialing river, 3, 66 Comangadake, subaerial deposits around, 106 Confucius records a de- luge, 44 Conglomerate-breccia at Oouta, 100, 104 Conglomerate at Oyasu, 89 at Sankiangkan, 7 green quartzose, 12 greenstone - porphyry, 36 near Kiming, 34 of lehang, 7 of southern Yesso, 104 of the steppe deposit, 73 porphyry, 11 quartzose, 11 sandstone, in Wuishan, 52 tufa-, near Sutzu, 98 volcanic, of Yesso, 105 volcanic tufa-, 105 Conifers, fossil, from New Mexico, 120 Coniopteris Murrayana, 123 Contact phenomena be- tween lava and tufa-con- glomerate, 100 Copper, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117 Copper pyrites in lead veins, 80 in veins east of Hakodade, 89 in Yurup veins, 102 vein at Saidoma, 89 vein at Kakumi, 85 Corals in terrace-clay of Kunnui, 91 Corea, 2, 65, 116 Cornulites epithonia, 54 Coscinodiscus, 127 Cost of coal at Futau mine, 15 Crania obsoleta, 54 Crater of Komangadake, 82, 83 Crateriform hill in valley of Sitto, 27 Grater ? near Hiratanai, 102 Creswellla, 127 Cretaceous coal, 119 strata, apparent ab- sence of, in China, 62 Crystalline metamorphic rocks northwest of Peking, 35 schists near Chau- clmen, 34 cuboides, Terebratula, 55 Cyclotella, 127 Cyrtia Muichisouisna, 54 Dana, Prof. J. D., 69 Davidson, T., on fossils from China, 54 Decrease in volume of lakes, 41 1 Deep gorges of the Upper Yangtse, 4 Deguignes, 44 Delessite in amygdaloid at Oouta, 100 Delta-deposit in Chihli, 10 Delta, facilities for calcu- lating the rate of growth of, 49 Delta-plain, 8, 10, 63 N. E., S. W. trend of, 1 extent of, 46 generally below level of Hwang Ho, 46 rapid increase of, 49 rate of growth of, at Putai, 49 at Hienshuikau, 50 yearly growth of, at Shukwang, 50 Deluges, Chinese tradi- tions of, 44 dentata, Peoopteris, 122 deuticulata, Peoopteris, 122 Sphenopteris, 122 Deposit, terrace, descrip- tion of, -39 Depression between Bar- rier range and pla- teau, 25 in surface of the desert, -- 73 Devonian fossils from China, 54 limestone, 62 elevated by the Barrier range, 63 on the Yangtse, 4 upper, fossils from Sz'- chuen, 55 DiatomaceEB, 88, 125,126, 127, 12« dichotoma, Sphenopteris, 122 Dictyocha, 127 Diorite in southern Mon- golia, 70 in Tomari gravel, 99 near Yokohama, 107 of western Yesso, 104 on the Yangtse, 4 disjunctus, Productus, 54 Dislocation along south- ern edge of plateau, 39, 42 great, cause of differ- ence in level of higher and lower plateau, 31 Distribution of lake ter- race deposit in northern China, 39 Disturbances previous to Cevonian limestone, 41 Dolomltic limestone in the Wuishan, 63 Douy, analysis of coal from 125 "Dragon's teeth," "dra- gon's scales," "dragon's bones," 62 Drainage of Chinese mines, 17 Du Halde, 43 D-wellings excavated in terrace deposit, 40 in the terrace de- posit at Siwan, 33 in the terrace loam in land of the Ortons, 43 Dykes of the Yellow river, 47 in walls of Komanga- dake crater, 83 of trachytic porphyry, 38 of syenitic granite near Siwan, 33 in tufa - conglomerate near Odaszu, 93 in tufa - conglomerate on Iwanai bay, 97 of columnar lava on the Eaiden mountain, 98 of porphyritic rock in quartz schist at Kudo, 101 Earthquake and destruc- tion of cone of Komanga- dake, 82 Earthquakes in Siberia and northern China, 76 Eastern America, outline of, determined by > Appalachian revolu- tion, 68 Asia, great geoclinal trough traceable through, 64 main line of eleva- tion in, 2 N.E.,S.W. system of mountains in, 67 prevalence of N. E. S. W. direction in, 62 Echinoderm, spines of fos- sil, in tufa-conglomerate, 90, 106 Edkins, Rev. Mr., 49, 56, 57 Edomo, Cape, 93 Edwards, Mr. A. M., 88, 93 examination of infuso- rial earths by A. M., 126 Eifel, the, 54 Elevation, main line of, in Eastern Asia, 2 Ellis, Mr., 52 Emerald - green mineral! on Iwaounobori, 96 Emmons, Prof., 119, 121 Emtnonsii, Podozamites, 120, 121 Enosima, sandstone of, 108 epithonia, Cornulites, 54 Equisetites, 120 Equisetacese, fossil, 97 Erosion of the plateau,"42 in the steppe deposit, 77 132 INDEX. Erosion of terrace deposit, 40 Eruptive rock iu Nankau pass, 21 rocks of Yesso, 104 Esan, coal near, 89 crater, 106 sulphur works on, 87 volcano, 86, 94, 96, 105 wall rooks of crater of, 86 EUrite near Chauohuen, 34 ki. W. range of mountains between Yellow river and Yangtse river, 3 range of mountains along northern boun- dary of Sz'chuen, 3 system of trends, 3 mountain system in southern China, 66 Excursion to west coast of Yesso, 90 Extent of ancient lakes, 44 falcatus, Pecopteris, 120, Fan river, 56, 67 lime works on, 63 Fanchang (H), 57, 110 Fanchau (F), 56, 109, 116 Fang (H), 57 Fang mountain, 57 Faugshan (H), 56 cave of, 12 coal district, 19 analyses of anthracites from, 124, 125 Fangyiichiyau, 49, 50 Fani (H), 58 Fansliui (H), 58 Fan ventilators in • coal mine, 19 Fault, great, line, at edge of plateau, 31, 39 near Hiangshui (pu), 22 Fehlng (H), 114 Fehshan (H), 56 Feitsul, 117, 118 Felspar of the Eakumi porphyry, 84 of syenitic granite at Nichinbe, 100 crystals in pumice of Eomangadake, 83 in trachytic rook of Hakodade, 79 Felsitic porphyry, 18 trachytic rook re- sembling, 100 Fenshuiling, 114 Ferques, 54 Fihklashui river, 60 Finland, lakes of, 69 Fire wells of Sz'chuen, 54 First excursion on Yesso, 80 Fissures of dislocation, 7i3 Flies in the forests of Yesso, 93 Flint, 118 Forest trees of Yesso, 93, 94 Formations about the Te Hai, 30 Formation of sulphur veins on Iwaoano- bori, 96 Formation of iron ore from sea-washed magnetic sand, 88 of sulphur and alum in the debris of Esan, 86 Former sea of northern Asia, 77 Formosa, Japan, and Ku- riles, N. E., S. W. trend of line connecting, 1 Forms of trach. porph. hills, 24 Fortune, Robert, 52, 65 Fossil brachiopods, 62 remains In terrace de- posit, 34 plants from China, 119 on Kaiyanobetz creek, 97 from New Mexico, 120 from Virginia, 120 from Sonora, 120 Fossils, poverty of lime- stone in, 6 used as medicines in China, 13, 62 from China, 54 in China, 56, 57, 58 France, 54 Fresh--water shells in ter- race deposit near the TS Hai, 30 Fu (C), 110, 117 Fuchau (V), 60, 112, 114 Fuchuen (H), 116 Fuh (C), 60 Fuhklen province, 58, 60, 112, 115, 118 and Chehkiang, 52 mountain, axis in, 65 Puhtslng (H), 112 J, Fukuh (H), 117 Fung (H), 117 Fungching, swampy plain of, 31 near the great fault, 42 Funghwa (H), 115 Funghwang (T), 115 Fungpeh (T), crevasse of Yellow river at, 49 Fungshan (H), 60 Fungsiang gorge, 5 Fungsin (H), 58, 60, 111 Pungtsi (H), 59 Fungtsiang (F), 56, 110 caverns, 63 Fungtsung (H), 114 Fnngtu (H), 111 Fungyang (F), 57 Funing (P), 58, 112 (H), 56, 113 Fushun (H), 59 coal mine, 15 Fuss and v. Bunge, baro- metrical measurements of, 70, 75 Futau mine, 14, 123 analysis of coal from, 123 Futoro, rooks near, 100 relation between lavas and tufa-conglomer- ate at, 100 volcanic rocks on gran- ite near, 100 Futu mountain, 117 Fuziyama volcano, 96 Gabbro near Yokohama, 107 Galena in Yurup veins, 102 in copper vein at Sai- doma, 89 in lead veins, 80 Gan river, 68 Gametic gneiss and granu- lite near TS Hai, 30, 35 Garnets in granulite, 36 in gneiss, 36 Gashun, 72 loam deposit at, 77 Gases of the Solfatara, ac- tion of, on rock, 96 Gaultheria on Iwaouno- bori, 96 General geology of China, 51 outlines of eastern Asia, 1 Geoclinal valley of west- ern Asia and eastern Europe, 68 valleys of northern hemisphere, 68 of Europe and the Atlantic, 69 valley, the skeleton of great plateau, 75 Geographical works, na- tive Chinese, 109 Geological observations in the basin of the Yangtse, 4 itineraries in Yesso, 79 Geology, general, of China, 51 of Yesso, rgsumg of, 104 of route from the Great Wall to Siberia, 70 Gephyrla, 127 Gerbillon, 43 germinans, Laccopteris, 121 Glaciers iu Nanling moun- tains, 66 Glassy felspar in lava at Futoro, 100 Glossopteris, 119 Gneiss, 72 gametic, 36 and granite near Kir Noor, 29 with garnets near Te Hai, 30 near Maanmiau, 31 and hornblende schist near Hwaingan, 33 in the Eingan moun- tains, 68 chloritic, 35 and chloritic schist near Siwan, 34 in Barrier range, 32 at Yingmaohuen, 36 and granulite series of metamorphlo rocks 41 and granulite near T6 Hai, 35 under limestone near Hwaingan, 35 Gobi, former sea of, 76 depression, submerg- ence of, 76 geoclinal valleyof the,68 limestone under micro- scope, 126 Gobi, sandstone under microscope, 127 desert, 44, 72, 74 deposits in, 108 Gold, 109, 110, 111, 117 table of, localities in China, 60, 61 in Shantung, 63 in central China, 66 deposits of Kunnui re worked in form times, 91 probable existence of, on the Tomar- creek, 99 Gold washings in Kwei- chau, 63 indicative of neighi borhood of meta- morphic rocks,62 of Kunnui, 91 method of, at Kun- nui, 92 Gorge, Ichang, 5 the Lucan, 6 Fungsiang, 5 of Lungmun on the Hwang Ho, 63 in trachytic porphyry, 33 of the Hwang Ho in Barrier range, 63 in limestone, 22 traversing the Barrier range, 32 connecting the Te Hai and Sankang valleys, 31 connecting the Kir Noor valley and the Yellow river valley, 29 Gorges of Yellow river through limestone mountains, 44 forming transversal reaches of the Yangtse valley, 3 of the Yangtse, great depth of water in the, 5 of the Yangtse, differ- ence between high and low water-mark in, 5 of Lungmun, Hukau, and Sanmun, 45 Gouchouc, fossil brachio- pods from, 55 Grammatophora, 127 Granite, 63 axis, 2 red and white, 72 in Nankau pass, 34 of coast range, 53 in Kunnui gravel, 91 on the Gobi, 73 in the Liushan, 52 in mountains west of Yurup mines, 102 in southern Mongolia, 70 under the plateau, 27 near Futoro, 100 on the Yangtsi, 4 at the head of the Miu river, and on Chusan islauds, 65 «. INDEX. 133 Granite, near Canton, 53 of Kingteh, 65 iu Great Kingan moun- • tains, 68 and mica-schist, 74 and gneiss near Kir Noor, 29 and olayslate in the Wuishan, 52 and limestone in the Coast range, 65 at the Meiling pass, 65 detritus of the Kir Noor 28 green, near Yenohau (F) 52 cellular, in Nankau pass, 21 intrusive, in the coal measures, 21 axial, in Nankau pass, 21 blocks of, near Kunnui, 91 peaks of Fuhkien, 53 pavements in Cheh- kiang, 52 mass, height of, in Chihli, 10 syenitio, near Siwan, 33 chloritio, 27, 75 on the Ousubetz creek, 101 Granitic ridges in Mon- golia, 70 and schistoid rocks under plateau, 27 Granitite in Nankau pass, 34 in bed of Yang Ho, 35 Granito - metamorphic formations, 62 Granulite of Oouta, 100 age of, 101 of Yesso, relative age of, 104 and gneiss near T6 Hai, 85 gametic, near the T6 Hai, 30 Graphite in limestone on the Gobi, 74 Gravel of quartziferous porphyry, 25 similar to the Kunnui deposit, 98 Graywacke near Canton, 53 Great Kingan mountains, 67 Wall of China, 23, 32, 43, 46, 67, 75, 77 view from, at Ha- noor, 25 Green qnartzose conglom- erate, 12 Greenstone of southern Yesso, 89 of lohinowatari, 105 at Kakumi, 85 metamorphic, 75 of western Yesso, rela- tive age of, 104 veins in, at Ynrup, 103 of Nichinbe, age of, 101 at Yurup, veins in, 102 Greenstone of Tchinown- tari, lead veins in, 80 dykes in Nankau pass, 21 in Kakumi por- phyry near Oya- su, 89 in clay-slates at Oyasu, 89 in hills of Senji, 72 in limestone, 71 Greenstone - porphyry conglomerate, 36 near Kiming, 34, 36 tufa of, 22 iu southern Mongolia, 70 Gullies in terrace deposit, 40« Gulf of Peohele, 49 limestone islands at mouth of, 63 growth of delta on southern shore of, 50 of Tonquin, 66 Gunpo'wder, introduction of, into Japanese mining, 103 Gurban Noor, undrained lakes and marshes of, 27 Gutbiera, 120 Guyerdet, M., on fossils from Gouohouc, 55 Guyot, Prof. A., 69 Gypsum, 116, 117 beds near lake Bilika- Noor, 71 Hai mountain, 109 Haichi mountain, 114 Hcudingera, 120 Hainan island, 2, 53, 65 Haishui, 43 Haiyen (H), 112, 115 Hakodade, bay of, 89 mesa between, and Shi- wokubi, 89 neck of, 80 peak, rock of, 106 return to, 89 topography of, 79 Hamajitne, tufa-conglome- rate near, 98 Hanchung (F), 57, 60, 110, 113, 117 Han dynasty, mouth of Yel- low river, at Changwu under, 50 Han river, 60, 63, 66 Hanburii, Ehynchonella, 54 Hangohau (F), 57, 58, 61, 111, 115, 117 (Hunan), analysis of coal from, 125 bay, 46 Hangshan (H), 58 Hanhaishi, 72 Hankau, 7, 65 hills of, 7 Canton to, 52 Hanoortai, Mongol village of, 25, 26 Ha Noor on line of the Great fault, 42 thickness of volcanic formation near, 38 Hanying (T), 60 Heishan (H), 57 Height of granite mass iu Chihli, 10 of Barrier range, 32 HI mountain, 116 Hiamaling porphyries, 41 Hianghang (H), 112 Hianglu mountain, 115 Hiangning (H), 109 Hiangpau mountain, 115 Hiauni (H), 109 Hingi(P), 115, 117 Hiangshui (pu), 22 Hienshuikau, rate of growth of delta at, 50 Higher plateau, southern limit of, 31 Hills of quartzif. porphyry gravel near Tutinza, 25 Himalaya, 66 Hin (C), 56, 59 Hinghwa (F), 58 coal field of, 65 Hingkwoh (C), 111, 114 Hingnan (F), 117 Hingngan (F), 113 Hingning (H), 116 Hinngan (F), 60 Hingyuen (H), 52 Hiratanai, lava flow over tufa-conglomerate, 102 Ho (C), 57, 112, 116 Hochi (C), 116 Hoh (C), 56, 59, 60, 111 Hokau, 52 Hokinhoshan, 60 Honan (F), 57, 110, 114 Honan, Prov., 57, 66, 110, 114, 117 Hongkong, 65 Horns of deer iu terrace deposit at Siwan, 34 Hornblende, basaltic, 38 of syenitio granite at Nichinbe, 100 in lava of Futoro, 100 in trachytic rocks of Totohoke, 86 in trachytic rocks of Hakodade, 79 felspar rook, 105 Hornblendic and chloritic rocks east of Kalgan, 36 porphyry, 18 schist on the Yangtse, 4 series, rooks of, in the Barrier range, 32, 35, 36 series of metamorphic rocks, 41 Hornstone beds at Wo- satzube, 85 at Kudo, 101 near coal seams of East- ern Yesso, 85 Horteryndaban, 74 Hoshan (fire mountains), 55 Hoyau near Tatung (F), 65 Hoyuen (H), 61,116 Hoyurbaishin, village of, 28 to the T6 Hai, 29 Hoyur Noor, dry bed of lake of, 28 Hoyurtoloho Gol, valley of, 27 Hsingshun coal mine, 15 Hue, Abbe, 57 description of deserts of the Ortous, 43 Huohau (F), 57, 115 coal field of, 65 H'ftkau, gorge of, 45 Humboldt, Baron, 54, 66, 76 Hunan province, 52, 58, 61, 63,111,115, 117 analyses of anthracites from, 124, 125 coal basins of, 64 synclinal axis in, 65 Hung mountain, 113 Hungary, trachytic rocks of, 86 Hungling mountain, 110 Hunglung, 48 Hungtonientsa, 112 Hungtung (H), 56 Hungya (H), 114 Hupeh province, 57, 60, 66, 111, 114, 117, 121 analysis of coal from, 124 Hwai river, 46, 63, 65 Hwaiking (F), 46, 48 Hwaingan (P) 110 Hwaingan (H), 32 valley of, 33 beds, 33, 36 beds deposited near the shore, 41 Hwaitsih (H), 58, 61 Hwaitsung (H), 110 Hwang (C), 61 Hwangan (H), 60 Hwangchau (F), 60, 111 built on ferruginous sandstone, 7 Hi^ang Hai (or Yellow Sea), 49 Hvirang Ho, 57, 63 control of a constant source of care, 49 political importance of, 49 present course of, 49 recent change in the lower course of, 49 the source of ancient lake deposit, 43 Hwangkang (H), 60 Hwangkingtseh, 60 Hivangko mountain, 111, 114 Hwanglung (C), 56, 60 Hwangmei (H), 111 Hwangtsie mountain, 116 Hwanyuen (C), 59 Hwating (H), 110, 113 Hweilai (H), 22 Hwui (H), 110, 113 Hwuichau (F), 61, 114, 116 sandstone and slate near, 52 Hwuili (G), 59, 111, 114 Hvruilu inouiilain. 111 Hwuining (H), 117 Hydrography of Yunnan, 66 Hymenophyllites, 120 teuellus, 122 134 INDEX. bymenophylloldes, Sphenopteria, 122 Hypersthenite in the Bar- rier range, 32. Ichau(F), 57, 60, 110,113, 117 lohang (F), 57, 117 gorge, 5 ** rooks near city of, 7 Ichibu, value of, 81 Ichiuo-watari, lead mines of, 80, 103 series of rocks, 105 argillites at, 80 greenstone of, 80 Calamite at, 80 Ikiun (H), 110 Imbert, 67, 64 on the salt wells of Sz'chuen, 53 Imperial canal, 46 summit level of, 48 Indian coal-flora, 119 Ineh (Ts), 112 Infusorial earths, 126 beds of Japan, Vir- ginia and California, resemblance of, 88 earth, raised bed of near Nitanai, 88 Inkstone, 117 Irawaddi river, 66 Irkutsk, 75 Iro Gol river, 75 Iron, localities of in Chihli 109 in Shansi, 109 j in Shensi, 110 in Kansuh, 110 in Shantung, 110 in Kiangsuh, 110 in Nganhwui, 110 in Honan, 110 in Hupeh, 111 in Sz'chuen, 111 in Kiangsi, 111 in Hunan, 111 in Kweichau, 111 in Chehkiang, 112 in Fnhkien, 112 in Kwangtung, 112 in Yunnan, 112 ore with coal and lime- stone in Sz'chuen, 6 sulphate of, 116, 117, 118 works, 112 oxider deposited from springs in Iwaoun- bori, 96 pyrites in the Kakumi porphyry, 84 pyrites, 117 vein near Saidoma, 89 in Yurup vein, 102 in lead veins, 80 Ishan (H), 116 iBhiU (H), 113 Islands, hills near Yedo recently, 108 in ancient lakes of North China, 40 Isolated lakes of Southern Mongolia, 26 Isolation of lakes, cause of in Mongolia, 41 Isoya, beds of sandstone and volcanic ashes near, 93 to Sutza, 98 dykes of rook at, 100 Isthmia, 127 Itu, red sandstone of, 7 Iwanal, 94, 97 coal rocks of, 105 analysis of coal from, 125 to Isoya, 98 Iwaou (sulphur), 94 I-waounobori, 98 volcano, excursion to, 94 summit of, 95 solfatara action on, 95 sulphur works on, 97 Jade, 117, 118 Jadeite (feitsui), 117,118 Japan sea, 67, 104, 105 Formosa and Kuriles, N. E., S. W. trend of line connecting, 1 Japanese taste for the bi- zarre in nature, 62 mining, 80 Jasper in Tomari gravel, 99 with copper at Kunnui, 91 on the Gobi desert, 73 Jesuit map of China, accu- racy of, 62 Jinshan (H), 59 Jin Tsung, 48 Jauohau (F), 60, 114 Ju (C), 57, 110, 114 Juning (F), 46 Jurassic strata, apparent absence of in China, 62 Juyuen (H), 58 Jehol, 10, 57, 68 Kabasima, granite intru- sive on, 107 Kai (H), 59 Kaifung (F), 47, 110 Kaikien (H), 61 Kaiping (H), 57 Kaiyanobetz coal series, 97 Kakumi porphyry, 84 out by greenstone, 89 on the Raiden mountain, 94 product of weather- ing of, 85 warm spring of, 85 porphyry among ejecta of Esan, 86 copper mine of, 84 Kalgan (Changkiakau), 56, 70, 72, 74 to Siwan and Sinpaun- gan, 33 road froro to Urtai, 25 metamorphic region east of, 36 trachytio porphyry, 23, 74 description of, 37 Kameta, terrace deposit at, 80 Kamsohatka, 106 N. E., S. W. trend of, 1 granite axis of, 65 Kan, value of, 81 Kan river, coal measures on, 65 sandstone on, 52 Kanchau (P), 52, 60, 111, 114 Kanghi, map of the Em- peror, 66 Kanku, 116 Kansuh province, 43, 57, 60, 110, 113, 117 Barrier range in, 63 Kantientsuhtung, 117 Kaolin, of Kingteh, 65 Kara sea, 69 Kara Gol river, 75 * Karaoussu, communica- tion between, and valley of Kir Noor, 29 Kaufung, 57 Kaufungkung, 116 Kauhyen mountain, 58 Kauming (H), 116 Kauyin mountain, 116 Kauyuen (H) 110 Kehyu mountain, 60, 115 Kentei mountains, 74 Keyserling, 55 Ki mountain, 113 Kia (C), 59, 117 Kiachta, Urga to, 75 Kiahing (F) 112, 115 Kiai (C), 56, 59, 60, 109, 113, 117 Kialung river, 66 Kiang (H) 109 Kiang mountain, 109, 113 Kiang (C), 56, 109, 113, 116 Kiangsi province, 58, 60, 111, 114, 117 indications of limestone in, 66 Kiangsuh province, 46, 57, 110, 113, 114 synclinal axis in, 65 Kianghia (H), 111, 114 Kiangnan (H), 69 Klangning (F) (Nanking), 57, 110, 114 Kiangpu (H), 57 Kiangshan (H), 58 Kiating (F), salt deposits of, 57, 69, 64, 111, 114 Kiaying (C), 116 Kiohau, 47 Kien (C), 59, 60, 114 Kienohang (F), 114 Kienchi (H), 60 Kienngan (H), 112, 115 Kienning (F), 112, 115 Kientang (H), 116 Kiente (H), 112, 115 Kienwei (H), 67 Kienyang (H), 66, 115 Kih (C), lime of, 56, 63, 109 Kihngan (F), 52 Kikiang (H), 114 Klming, 45, 56 mountain^ 22 terrace deposit near, 34 Kingchau (F), 57, 60 Kiiigcblngshi river, 117 Kingtang (H), 114 Kingyang (F), 110, 117 Kin (H), 57 Kingan mountains, coal in, 68 rocks of the, 68 made up of parallel ridges, 68 Kiugkung and Chwanchio, battle between, 44 Kingteli, granite and Eao- lin of, 65 Kingtsewan, sandstone quarries near, 62 Kingtingpu, 56 Kingtung (T), 59 Kingyuen (P), 58, 116 iu Kwangsi, marble mountains of, 53 Kinhwa (F), 58 Kinhwa (H), 58 Kinki (H), 114 Kinkung, 61 Kinngohshan, 61 Klnsha Kiang, 65, 61, 118 Kinshan, 60 Kinsha (Ts), 116 Kintsung, 61 Kintsumi mountain, 58 Kintang (H), 57 Kiuhtsing (F), 112, 116 Kiuhyu (H), 109, 113 Kiukiang (F), 7, 52, 65 Kiusiu, 108 neighborhood of Naga- saki on, 107 Kir Noor, 76, 126 valley of, 28 disappearance of waters of, 28, 29 character of plain of, 29 old water-level lines around, 29 earth frotn, under mi- croscope, 127 road to, from Chagan- oussu, 28 Kiungchau (F), 112, 116, 118 Kiuyung (H), 114 Kiyungk'wan, marble arch of, 12 Klaproth, 70 on Min mountains,, 66 comparing dates of He- brew, Brahmin, and Chinese deluges, 44 map of Central Asia by, 43 ^' Kobi, magnetic iron sand at, 88 European iron furnace at, 88 Kohso-wa, 114 Komangadake (Sawara- dake) volcano, £2 crater of, 82 pumice eruption of, 82 destruction of cone of, 82 gases from, 83 Komung mountain, il4 de Koninck, on fossils from China, 54, 55 Koyeh mountain, 113 Krafto (Sagaliu),79 Krapotkin, Prince, 68 Kii (C), 57, 60, 110, 113 Kii (H), 111 Kii mountain, 116 INDEX. 135 Kiichau (F), 58,115,117 coal field of, 65 calcareous sandstone near, 52 Kudo, silicious schist of, 104 metamorphio rocks near, 101 Kumalshi, pumic-tufa at, 102 Kung (C), 59, 114 Kung (H), 57, 110 Kung mountain, 56, 110, 111 Kungchang (F), 67, 60, 110, 113, 117 Kungchau (F), 111 Kungching (H)', 58 Kunnui, 99 deposition of auriferous gravel of, 106 auriferous gravel of, 105 gold-washings at, 91 terraces near, 90 amygdaloid at, 100 Kur river, 68 Kuren (Urga), 75 Kurile islands, axis of, 106 ashes of Komangadake carried to, 82 Japan and Formosa, N. E., S. W. trend of line connecting, 1 Kusih mountain, 116 Eusung mountain. 111, 114 Kwaihoohuen river, 60 Kwang (C), 46 Kwangchau (P), 115,118 Kwangling (H), 50 "fire mountain" near, 55 Kwangnlng (H), 61 Kwangping (F), 46, 56, 109 K-wangsi province, 58, 61, 65, 66, 112, 116, 118 marbles of, 53 Kwangsi (C), 116 Kwangsin (F), 52, 58, 111, 114, 117 coal field of, 65 K-wangyin, sacred cavern of, 52 KTivangtung province, 58, 61, 112, 115, 116, 118 Kwangyuen (H), 60, 111 Kwantung (H), 59 K'wantung (pu), quarry of lava at, 32 Kwei (C), 57 Kwei (H), 61, 116 Kwei coal field, 6, 64, 121 basin, plants from, 119 analysis of coal from, 124 Kweichau province, 58, 61, 63, 66, 111, 115, 117 Kweichau(F), 59, 60,111, 114, 117 Kweichi (H), 111 Kweilin (F), 58, 66, 116 Kweiyang (F), 115 Kweiyang (C), 58, 111, 115 Kwenlun mountains, ranges branching off from, 2 represented in China, 66 Kwungming (H), 112, 116 Labor and material, cost of, at Yurup mines, 103 cost of, on Yesso, 81 Laccopteris, 120 germinans, 121 Laicha Ho, analysis of an- thracite from, 124 Laichau (F), 46 Laiping (H), 61 Laiyang (H), 58 limestone quarries near, 52 Laiyung mountain, 114 Laiwu (H), 110, 113 Lake Baikal, 75 earthquakes at, 76 Lake Lo, 48 Yungtse, 47 basins of northern China, origin of, 42 loam deposit of north- ern China, origin of, 42 loam of Siwan under microscope, 126 in a crateriform valley, near Iwanai, 94 Lake-terrace deposits, 23 deposit, description of 39 Lakeb of northern China, islands in ancient, 40 isolated, 41 extent of ancient, 44 diminution in volume of, 41 isolated, in southern Mongolia, 26 origin of the ancient, of northern China, 42 time of disappearance of, 45 Lamasery near Yingma- chuen, 30 of Boroseiji, 26 of Churin chelu, 74 Lamotsang, 115 lanceolata, Zamia, 121 lauceolatus, Fodozamites, 120, 121 Zamites, 121 Lanchau (F), coal-basin of 57, 60, 63 Langsien cave, 58 Langtsung (H), 59 Lanki (H), 58 Lanklung (H), 59 Lanshan (H), 60, 113 Lantien (H), 117 mountain, 117 Lantienta, 61 Lantsan river, 61, 66 Lapis-lazuli, 117 Latsz, mountain, 57 Lauhukau, 58 Lavas of Mongolia, 42 Lava of the plateau, 75 resting on granitic and metamorphic rocks, 75 fragments of, 72 of plateau, character of, at Kwantung (pu), 32 Lava-quarry at Kwantung (pu), 32 I Lava-Quarry, stream in valley of Si Ho, 27 dykes on Yesso, 106 flows on Yesso, 106 on the Raiden mountain, 94 bed at cape Shiraita, 99 amorphous, at Hira- tanai, 102 of Setanai, description of, 99 Lead, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115,116 mines of Ichinowatari, 80 production of, and cost of working, 81 smelting process at Ichinowatari, 81 veins, minerals of, at Ichinowatari, 80 mines of Yurup, 102 amount and cost of pro- duction at Yurup, 103 Leang mountain, 113 Leangjjien mountain, 113 Leangkung mountain, 117 Lena river, 67, 76 Letter from A. M. Edwards ^ on infusorial earths, 126 Liangchau.(F), 57 Liangshan (H), 117 Liangtang (H), 113 Liau river, 57, 64 N. E., S. W. trend in lower course of, 1 Llautung, 57, 64 promontory, N.E.,S.W. trend of, 2 Liayang (H), 113 Liaying (H), 117 Li, Chinese, 50 mountain, 60, 117, 118 (C), 111 Lien (C), 112 Lienchau (P), 58, 115 Lieutungping, 57 Likiang (P), 59, 61, 118 Lime, 62 Limekilns near Peking, 12 Limestone, 13, 44, 6j, 65 in China, localities of, 56, 57, 58 near Nagasaki, 107 of Nankau pass, 21 silicious, 22 Devonian, 62 in the coal-measures, 21 islands in gulf of Pe- chele, 63 fragments of, in green- stone-porphyry con- glomerate, 37 oaves in, 12 silicious, of Kiming, 36 at Siuenhwa (F), 12 fragments in porphyry conglomerate, 13 of Chihii, 10 anticlinal ridges of, on the Yangtse, 63 description and mode of occurrence of, in Chihii, 12 Limestone and granite in the coast range, 68 near Chauchuen, 34 broken through by por- phyry, 13 poverty of, in fossils, 6 in amygdaloid, 22 on Moiling pass, 52 near Yingting (H), 52 in Liautung, 64 on the North river, 52 near Laiyang (H), 52 near Yenchau (P), 52 silicious, of Hwaingan beds, 36 in Tomari gravel, 99 of the Gobi under mi- croscope, 126 indications of, in Min mountains, 66 resting on gneiss near Hwaingan, 35 varieties of, in Senji hills, 72 in Mingan hills, 71 with graphite, 74 great thickness of, '5 overlying metamojphic schists, 5 near lake Bilika Noor, 71 on the Yangtse, 4 ridges below Hwang- chau (P), 7 Devonian, flanking the granite axis, 5 quarried at Nanking, 8, 51 chert in , 6 on the Yangtse, char- acter of, 5 breccia near Shauchan, 52 Lindley, 121, 123 linearis, Fterozamites, 120 Ling (H), 56 Ungan (P), 112, 116 Lingcbi, coal at, 11 Lingfung (H), 56 Lingling (H), 58 Lingpau (H), 114 Lingshi (H), 56 Lingtse (H), 60, 110, 114 Lingtung (H), 117 Linkiang (F), 58, 114 Linkiu (H), 56 Linkii (H), 60,110, 113 Liping (P), 111 Lipu (H), 58 Lishui (H), 114 List of minerals of China, 109 Lithology of region north- west of Peking, 34 Litlen, 116 Liuchau (P), 61, 112, 116 Liulu mountain, 56 Liulungtsa, 112 Liushan, rocks of, 52 Liutung (H), 60 Liuyang (H), 58 Liyang (H), 110 Loam of terrace deposit, erosion of, 40 terrace, in valley of the Si Ho, 28 origin of the lake, of northern China, 42 136 INDEX. Iioam, calcareous, of an- cient lake (terrace) deposit, 40 deposits ou the plateau, 75,77 Lockhart, Dr. W., 54 Lodestone, 109, 110, 111 Lohliang (C),112 Lohnan (H), 113 Lohngan (H), 113, 117 Loma (Ts), 116 Longan (H), 110 Longitudinal valleys in Eastern Asia, 1 Loshan (H), 59 Loti (F), 112 Loting (C), 112 Iiotslng (H), 117 Iiotsung mountain, 110 Lotu, 57 Lower plateau, 31 Yangtse, observation along, 7 Loyang (H), 57 Lucan gorge, 6 sandstone at the, 6 Luohau (F), 46, 57 Lu (C), 59, 60, 114 Lufung (H), 116 Luhkiang (H), 57 Luhkiuen (H), 112 Luhngan (C), 46 Luitsz (H), 116 Luki river, 115 Lulung (H), 60, 109, 113 Lunan (C), 116 Lung (C), 110 Lungan (F), 69, 109, 113, lit) Lungchi (H), 112 Lungchi mountain, 56 Lungkien mountain, 115 Lungmun mountains, 67 gorge, 2, 45, 63 Lungmun (H), 109 Lungmun (Ts), 115 Lungnan (B"), 114 Lungngan (F), 60, 111, 116 Lungsu mountain, 112, 115 Lungtang mountain, 111, 115 Lungtaiuen (H), 58, 60, 115 Lungtsungyen, 116 Lupan (H), 114 Lusan (H), 67 Lushi (H), 114 Lutientsang, 116 Maanmiau, 31 action of spring near, 42 Maanshan, 66 coal at, 11 Macdonaia, J. A., 14, 123 Maohing (H), 111 Maoombii, Otozamites,120 Magnesite in lead veins, 80 Magnetic iron in trachytic rock at Hako- dade, 79 in Kunnui gravel, 91 sand at Kobi, 88 magnifolia, Strangerites, 120 MaiUa, 44, 46 Malachite, 113 Malayan peninsula formed by mountains of the N. S. system, 2 Malung (C), 112 Malung (Ts), 116 Mammoth, remains of, in Siberia, 77 Manau mountain, 118 Manchuria, 68 volcanic action in the mountains of, 76 Manchurian rivers, ter- races of, 108 Manganese at Kunnui, 91 carbonate of, in Yurup veins, 102 Mang mountain, 109 Maugninchueukau, 57 Mantau, 116 Maples on Yesso, 93 Map of Qhina, 45 general sketch, of Ge- ology of China, 63 Maps of changes in the course of the Hwang Ho, 47 Marble in China, 6 a" localities of limestone, in China, 56, 67, 68 arch of Kiyungkwan, 12 ornamental, 12 mountains of Kingyuen (F), 53 in Shihtsien (F), and Chinyuen (F), 63 Marco Polo, 66 Marine terraces of Japa- nese coast, 108 Marshes of the delta-plain, 47 Mats used in gold-washing at Kunuui, 92 Matzmai, 106 Mau (C), 60, 114 Mau mountain, 67 Maumotosz', 118 Mei (C), 59, 60, 117 Mei (H), 110 Meiling pass, 65 argillaceous sand- stone and lime- stone on, 62 probably a low range, 3 Mergen, 68 Mesozoic plants, 119 Metamorphic argillite, 105 at Yurup, veins in, 102 argellites of Kakumi, 84 region east of Kalgan, 3, 36 rocl£S on the Yangtse, 4 of northern China, of diii'erent ages, 41 in Central China, 66 nearSiuenhwa (F), 23 at Chifa, 63 of the Gobi desert, 67 at Mt. Oyama, 107 of southeastern peninsula of Yesso, 89 older, of western Yesso, 104 Metamorphic rooks of Kudo, 101 of Oouta, 100 schists at the Lucan gorge, 6 of Barrier range, 25,32 under lava of pla- teau, 27 near the Te Hai, 30 strata on Kiusiu, 107 coal-bearing rocks of Ousubetz, 105 Method of washing gold at Knnnui, 92 Miautsz' an aboriginal people in the Nanling, 3 Mica of syenitio granite at Nichinbe, 100 Micaceous schist near Poyang lake, 65 series, schists of, on either side of Barrier range, 36 schist in the Liushan, 52 in the Kingan mountains, 68 in hills of Senji, 72 on the Gobi, 74 and chloritio schists in Kunnui gravel, 106 Microscope, examination of earths under, 126 Mien (H), 110 Mien (C), 60,111, 114 Mienning (H), 111, 114 Milob mountain, 114 Min (C), 60, 117 Miu river, granite on, 66 Mineral Productions of China, 109 Minerals of China, list of, 109 miscellaneous, in Chihli, 116 in Shansi, 116 in Fuhkien, 118 in Kwangtung, 118 in Kwangsi, 118 in Yunnan, 118 in Hunan, 117 in Kweichau, 117 in Chehkiang, 117 in Shensi, 117 in Kansuh, 117 in Shantung, 117 in Honan, 117 in Hupeh, 117 in Sz'chuen, 117 in Kiangsi, 117 Mines of coal near Nan- king, 8 in Japan and China, 80 of Yurup, 102 Ming (H), 112 Mingan hills, 70, 71 loam deposit in, 77 Mingkinrang, 116 Ming Ti (Tung Han dvn.), 48 Mining, Chinese method of, 20 method of, in Tatsau anthracite seam, 16 at Yurup, 103 Miscellaneous minerals, 116 Mitan gorge, 66 Miyun (H), 60, 109, 113 Mochada, height of the Amur river at, 68 Mohpeh mountain, 118 Mokwei, 112 MoUusks, recent, in ter- race-clay of Yesso, 106 Monbetz, ammonites and obsidian from, 106 Mongin mountain, 116 Mongolia, topography, etc., of southern, 70 volcanic formation of southern, 70 earths from, under mi- croscope, 126 winter climate of, 70 Mongolian Table-land, 67 southern edge of, 25 character of eastern edge of, 68 character of north- ern edge of the, 74 Monterey, infusorial earth of, 126 Moteta, tufa-conglomerate at cape, 99 Moyu, 115 Mud and steam vents on Esan, 86 flows of Esan, 86 Mulberry at Kunnui, 93 Munghwa (T), 112 Mungmitosz, 118 Mungtsz (H), 116 Mungying (H), 113 Muntakau, 66 analysis of anthracite from, 124 anthracite at, 11 anthracite district of, 18 Murray, Mr., 68 Murrayana, Coniopteris, 123 Murchison, R. I., 55 Murchisoniana, Cyrtia, 64 Murkivoching, syenite near, 35 Mwanohing (H), 109 ■"Nagasaki, neighborhood of, 107 coal near, 107 argillaceous schists and limestone near, 107 pluto-neptunian de- posit near, 107 Nai (creek), 90 Nambu, Prince of, 88 Nan mountain, 114 Nanohang (Fu), 68, 60, 111, 114 Nanhai (H), 115 Nanhiung (F) and Shan- chau (P), limestone and sandstone with coal be- between, 52 Nankau pass, 21 rooks of, 10 mountain range of, 63 granite in, 34 Nanking, 46, 65, 110 limestone quarried at, 8, 51 INDEX. 137 Nanking, coal mines near, 8 red sandstone opposite, 8 to Canton, geology of the route from, 61 Nanling mountains, 3, 63 branches of, 3 Nanngan (F), 52,111,114 Nanning (P), 58, 61 Nanping (H), 112, 115 Nanpu (H), 59 Nanshan mountains, 58 Nantsung (H), 114 Nanyang (F), 110, 114 Wanyang (H), 110 Nanying (C), 112 Nanying (H), 112 Narin Gol, 26 Native copper In jasper, 91 N. E., S. 'W. system of up- heaval, 42, 67 uplift on Yesso, 105 ridges in Nprthern China, 10 trend in S. E. coast of China, upper Yellow river, lake Baikal, Kamschatka, coast of Manchuria, 1 trend in rivers of East Siberia, 1 trend in E. Asia, gulf of Pechele, middle Yangtse, delta-plain, Liau river, Lower Amur, gulf of Pen- jinsk. In the shores of sea of Ochotsk and bay of Bengal. In islands of Formosa, Japan, and Kuriles, 1 trend in Stanovoi and Yablonoi ranges, in mountains of Trans- Baikal, in Byrranga mountains, 1 system of elevation, 65 Neapolitan solfatara, 86 Nehon, 54 Nekiang (H), 59 Nephrite in Tomari gravel, 99 in limestone, 99 Nesho mountain, 58 Newberry, J. S., 119 New Me^co, fossil plants from, 120 Neyang (H), 110 Ngan (C), 116 Ngan (H), 60 NganoM (H), 112 Ngani (H), 56,59,109, 113 Nganfung (Ts), 115 Nganhiang (H), 58 Nganhwa (H), 110, 111 Ngauwhui province, 52, 57, 66, 110, 114 synclinal axis in, 65 NgankI (H), coal at, 65 Nganking (F), 110 114 Nganloh (F), 114 Nganning (C), 59 Nganshun (F), 117 Nibitzuuai, terrace deposit at, 94 Nichinbe, greenstone of, 101 I 18 August, 1866. Nichinbe, syenitio granite near, 100 Nien mountain, 117 Nientau, 115 Ning (C), 117 Ninghai mountain, 112, 115 Ninghia (F), 57 coal basin of, 63 western limit of ancient lakes, 43 Ninghwa (H), 112, 115 Ningkiang (C), 66 Ningkwei mountain, 110, 113 Ningkwoh (F), 57, 114 coal field of, 65 Nlnglau mountain, 116 Ningpo (F), 60, 115 Ningteh (H), 112 Ningtsing mountain, 115 Ningurh (H), 59 Ningyuen (F), 59, 60, 111, 114 Ningyuen (H), 110, 113, 117 Nippon, N. S. trend of northern, 107 Nitan mountain, 115 Nitanai, bed of infusorial earth near, 88 infusorial earth from, under microscope, 126 Nitre, 116, 117, 118 Niyang.^H), 110 Noborl (to climb), 94 North and south system of upheaval on Yesso, 106 North Atlantic, 69 North Carolina, fossil plants of, 119, 120 Nort&east system of up- heaval on Yesso, 106 North river, sandstone and limestone on, 52 Northwest system of up- heaval on Yesso, 106 Norway, 69 Noumln river, 68 N. S. system of mountains, 2 trend of Sagalin, 107 trend apparently con- fined to Western China, 2 system of elevation affeotiug younger strata, 107 Nuculina ? in the terrace- clay of Kunnui, 91 N. W. uplift on Yesso, 105 system of elevation af- fecting oldest metam roeks, 107 Oaks on Yesso, 93 Obokodake mountain, 105 Observations in the pro- vince of Chihli, 10 Obsidian from North Yesso, 106 obsoleta, Crania, 54 Ochotsk, sea of, 67 Odaszu bay, 93, 98, 100, 106 Oeynhausianus, Fteroza- mites, 120 Olivine, 38 Olannoor, valley of, 71 Old water-level lines around the Kir Noor valley, 29 Olo, 116 omphalodes, Spirorbis, 54 Ono, plain of, 80 Outline of East Asia caused by N. E., S. W. disturb- ance, 42 Ores of copper, silver, lead, tin, quicksilver, in Chihli, 113 in Sliansi, 113 in Shensi, 113 in Kansuh, 113 in Shantung, 113 in Kiangsnh, 114 in Nganhwui, 114 in Honan, 114 in Hupeh, 114 in Sz'oliuen, 114 in Kiangsl, 114 in Hunan, 115 in Kweichau, 115 in Chehkiang, 115 in Fuhkien, 115 in Kwangtung, 115 in Kwaugsi, 116 in Yunnan, 116 in Corea, 116 Origin of the ancient lakes of Northern China, 42 orientalis, Sphenopteris, 121, 122, 123 Orkhon river, 74, 75 steppes of, 76 Oron lake, seals in, 76 Orthoceras from China, 55 Orthography of Chinese names, 109 Ortous, terrace deposit in the land of the, 43 Oscillations, recent, of the surface of China, 9 in the valley of the Yangtse, 9 Ossiferous caverns, 13, 56 Ostreae, fossil at Kunnui, 91 Otoshibetz, terrace clay with shells near, 90 Otozamites Macombii, 120 Ouenkoto, 101 Ourang daban mountains, 2, 63 Oussu, 96 Ousubetz, 97 penal establishment of, 101 coal series near, 105 to Iwanai, 98 Oouta rooks, relative age of, 104 metamorphic rooks at, 100 Oxide of iron deposited from springs, 96, 101 Oyama mountains near Yo- kohama, 107 Oyasu, rocks at, 89 Pa (C), 60 Pah (H), 59 Pacific Ocean, north, 69 Pacific coast, infusorial beds on, 126, 127, 128 Palagonite tufa near Yu- rnp, 104 on Yesso, 105 Paleozoic, skeleton of the plateau probably, 75 Palisade, 57 coal near, 64 Pallas, 76 Pang (H), 60 Pangkwang, coal mine near, 52 Pangshan (H), 59 Pangshui (H), 60, 114 Pang (Ts), 115 Parallelism in Siberian mountains, 67 line of reference for, 1 in Eitstern Asia, 1 Pass of Nankau, 21 Passes of the Meiling, 3 Patang, 55 Patung (H), 57 Pau mountain, 113, 118 Pauhung, 116 ranking (F), 58, 111, 115 Panning (F), 59, 60, 111 Faungan (C), 56 Paushan (H), 118 Paushan, 60 Pauteh (C), 44 Pauting (F), 56, 109, 113 Pautsing (H), 117 Pechele, gulf of, 49, 67 N. E., S. W. trend in gulf of, 1 Pecopteris, 119 dentata, 122 dentioulata. 122 faloatus, 120 Stutgardtensis, 121 Whitbiensls, 120, 122 Pecten in terrace clay of Kunnui, 91 Peh mountain, 113 Pehho (H), 117 Pehliu (H), 116 Pei Ho, 44, 48 Feikang mountain, 58 Peimenmountain,115,117 Peita mountain, 57 Peishi mountain, 58 Peisuh mountain, 114 Peitutsung, 57 Peiyun cave, 58 Peking, 46, 63, 68, 113, 121, 122, 124 plain of, 44 on border of delta plain, 46 table of the coal series near, 11 Pekuen, the engineer, 44 Pelaifung mountain, 57 Pema, 110, 116 Penjinsk, N. E., S. W. trend in gulf of, 1 Permian, 67 Perry, Japan expedition, 79 Peshan mountain, 56 Petersburg, Va., infuso- rial earth, 88, 126, 127, 128 Feting mountain, 116 Petroleum at Yamukshi- nai, 90 in Chinese salt walls, 53 Petung (white copper), 114, 116 Peyinkung, 115 * 138 IISTDEX. Phonolithic lava at Futoro Phylotheca, 119 Physical geography of Cen- tral Asia, 77 Pihshan (H), 59 Pin (C), 61, 110 Pinghiang (H), 58 Pingl (H), 116 Pingliang (F), 110, 113 coal basin of, 63 Pingliang (H), 110, 113 Pingloh (F), 68, 61, 112, 116 Pingloh (H), 58, 61, 113, 116 Pingnan (H), 58 Pingtan, limekilns at, 52 Pingting (C),56, 110, 113 Pingwu (H), 60 Pingyang (F), 56,109,113 Pingyang (H), 57, 112, 115 "Pit of Heaven," 57 Pitchstone, 98, 105 Plain of Peking, 44 of Siuenhwa (F), 22 of Kir Noor, character of, 29 of the Tungting lake, 7,8 of Hupeh and Hunan, a swampy region in early historical times, 9 Plains of South Mongolia, 70 of Mongolian plateau, 73 Plants, fossil, from China, 119 Plateau of Mongolia, con- formation and height of, 75 ascent to, 25, 70 plains of the Mongolian, 73 rock of the skeleton of the, 75 valleys on the, 26 profile of, 75 former volcanic activity on, 76 formerly covered by a sea from the Caspian to the Arctic, and to mountains of North China, 76 volcanic formation of, 26 the lower, 31 volcanic rooks of the, 38 lower and higher, due to dislocation, 39 of terrace-loam, 32 Flateau-edge near Hanoor, height of, 25 Plicated strata of quartz schist at Kudo, 101 Plications of the strata in the Kwei coal field, 6 Pluto -neptunian rocks of Yesso, 104, 105 deposit about Nagasaki, 107 deposits of trachytic porphyry, 25 Fodocaipites acicularis, 123 podocarpoldes, Taxites', 123 Podocarpus, Taxites, 123 Podozamites, 119, 123 Emmonsii, 120, 121 lanceolatns, 121 lancolotns, 120 Population of Tesso, 79 Porphyry, 11 at Gliaitang, 14 in Tatsau coal basin, 16 in Kingau mountains, 68 in limestone, 18 felsitic, 18 hornblendic, 18 Porphyries at Chingshui, 17 of South Yesso, 89 of the Wangping basin, 18 of Hiamaling, 41 Porphyry dykes in gra- nite, 72 in clay slates near Oyasu, 89 in Nankau pass, 21 at Hiamaling, 13 Porphyry, claystone, on the Ousubetz creek, 101 trachytic, 25 trachytic, on the Gobi, 74 trachytic, of Kalgan, 23 greenstone, conglome- rate, 36 Porphyry conglomerate, origin of, 13 of Chaitang, 41 thickness of, 12 in Wangping coal basin, 11 Porphyry-breccia near Chauchuen, 34 Porphyry, quartzose, 18 quartziferons, gravel, 25 quartziferous, near Shkahe, 84 quartziferous, of the Raiden, 94 white quartziferous, of Yesso, 104 white, in dykes at Ka- kumi, 84 younger than lime- stone, 14 younger than coal mea- sures, 18 Poyang (H), 60 Poyang lake, 52, 65 rocks at outlet of, 7 Precipitation smelting of lead ore in Japan, 81 Preparation of ore at Ichi- nowatari, 80 Present course of Hwang Ho, 49 Price of coal at Tashihtang mine, 20 Prince Krapotkin, 68 Principal coal mines of Chaitang district, 14 t Productus subaouleatus, 54 Protogine in gravel of the Yang Ho, 35 Fterozamites, 119 Pterozamites, linearis, 120 Oeynhausianus, 120 Sinensis, 120 Puchau (F), 109 Pucbiau, mountains of, 44 pugnus, Terebratula, 55 Puhkiang (H), 59 Pumice of Komangadake, 83 mantle of Komangadake volcano, 82 subaerial deposits of, 84 with quartz crvstals at Isoya, 93 Pumice-tufa of Yesso, 105 near Tomarigawa, 102 at Kumaishi, 102 Pumiceous tufa at Abura, 99 Pumpelly, H., report to Chinese Government on coal, 14 Pungchi (H), 57 Punglai (H), 110 Pu'rh (P), 59, 116 Pusung (H), 115 Putai, rate of growth of delta at, 49 Pyiinsz, 120 coal at, 10 Quartz in trachytic rook of Hakodade, 79 in trachytic . rook of Totohoke, 86 in trachytic porphyry, 74 crystals in porphyry, 84 crystals in pumice at Isoya, 93 double pyramid crys- tals of, in Kakumi porphyry, 84 condition of, in rocks of Esan volcano, 86 varieties of, in trachytic porphyry, 37 veins and masses in metamorphic schists on the Yarigtse, 4 veins of Yurup, 102 veins with iron and copper pyrites near Oyasu, 89 Quartziferous porphyry, 18 near Shkabe, 84 trachytic porphyry, 105 Quartzite, ridge of in cities of Hanyang (P) and Wuchang (P), 7 in limestone, 6 in the Mingan hills, 71 in Kunnui gravel, 91 Quartz-schist at Kudo, 101 Quicksilver, 113, 114, 115, IIG racemosa, Tymfanophora, 123 Radde, M., 68 Raiden promontory, lava and tnfa-conglomer- ate of, 94 mountain, as seen from the sea, 98 Rapids of the Yangtse, 5 caused by granite, 4 silt deposits in, 9 Realgar, 116, 117, 118 Recent lake deposits of valley of Yang Ho, 22 •formation at Tsingtan, 8 deposits of gravel and clay in valley of Yangtse, 8 change in the lower course of the Hwang Ho, 49 sandstone and con- glomerate in valley of Kir Noor, 28 terrace deposits on Yes- so, 106 deposits of Yesso, 104 marine strata of south- ern Yesso, 89 Red sandstone on the Mei- ling, 52 of Itu, 7 "Regent's Sword," 64 Relative ages of some older rooks in western Yesso, 101 Resume of geology of Yes- so, 104 Retrograde formation of valleys in terrace deposit, 40 reticularis, Terebratula, 55 Rhabdonema, 127 Rhinoceros tichorhinus, 77 Rhynchonella from China, 54 Hanburii, 54 Yuenamensis, 55 Rice and silk cultivation on Yesso, 80 Richmond, Ya., infusorial earth of, 88, 126 coal basin, 122 Ritter, Carl, 43, 44, 52, 53, 66, 75 Rocks of the Kwei coal field, 6 coal, of Sz'chiien,. 6 at outlet of the Poyang lake, 7 of hornblendic series older than micaceous series ? 41 of granitic and crystal- line metamorphic series, distribution of, 34 of Ichinowatari series, 105 of eastern Altai moun- tains, 74 of western Yesso, 104 of the auriferous gravel of Kunnui, 91 Rock-crystal, 116, 117, 118 Rooky mountains, 69 Rogers, Prof., 126 Roman mission of Slwan, 33 "Russia and the Ural Mountains," 55 INDEX. 139 Sagalin (Krafto), 79 aualysis of coal fi'om, 125 N. S. trend of axis of, 107 Saidotaa, veins near, 89 Sagami, serpentine on, 108 Salmon in the Tosliibetz, 93 Salt wells, 57, 64 table of, in China, 59 of Sz'chuen, de- scription of; deptliof ; cost of ; inflammable gas from ; evapora- tion of salt from; oil in, 53 deposits of Sz'chuen, 7 of western China, 64 at Wushan (H), 64 at Chiugking (F), 64 at Suohau (F), 64 in Shunking (P), andKiating (F), 64 age of the, 64 Sanchuen mountain, 113 Sandstone, 72 greenish, 75 calcareous, near Kii- chau ((•'), 62 and slate near Hwui- chau (F), 52 at Kingtsewan, 52 red, opposite Nanking, 8 below Tungliu, 8 ferruginous, at Hwang- chau (F), 7 at Sankiangkau, 7 of the Luoan gorge, 6 cal careous, of Kwei coal field, 6 micaceous, of Kwei coal field, 6 Gobi, under microscope, 127 of the steppe deposit, 73 in Mingan hills, 71 and oonglonierate beds of southern Yesso, 104 near Aohase, 98 of coal series of Kaiya- nobetz, 97 in slate at Shiwokubi, 89 volcanic, of Yessp, 105 Sangpuhia, 115 Sanbotsa, 112 Sankau (H), 114 Sankang Ho, 42 valley of the, 32 Sankia, 57 Sankiang (ancient mouths; of Yangtse river), 48 i Sankiangkau, sa,ndstone' and conglomerate of, 7 Sanlo (H), 116 Sanmun, gorge of, 45 Sanpu (F), 112 Sansz' mountain, 57 SantBingming, 115 Saurin, Mr., 68 Savraradake volcano; see Cowangadake, 82, 86, 96 Sanyii, 121, 122, 123 Scalaria in terrace clay of Kuunui, 91 Scandinavian peninsula, 68 Schalstein, 22 Schists, metamorphio, of Barrier range, 25 of micaceous series on either side of Barrier range, 36 resting on granite near Kanchau (F), 52 Schlotheimii, Sphenopte- ris, 122 Schmidt on terraces of Amur river, 108 Scoria, volcanic, of Koman- gadake, 83 Scoriae in lava-quarry at Kwantuug (pu), 32, 39 Sea of Greenland, 69 former, of northern Asia, 77 Seals in the Caspian, 76 in the Baikal and Oron lakes, 76 Sea-margin around the delta-plain, 47 Selenga, terraces of the, 75 Semi - opal - like rock on Kaiyanobetz creek, 97 Senji, hills of, 72 Seou mountain, 57 Setanai, cUffs of, 99 Serpentine near Yokoha- ma, 107 on peninsula of Sagami, 108 Serpentinoidal rock on the Ousubetz creek, 102 Serpula in terrace clay of Kunnui, 91 Sha (H), 115 Shachulnng, sandstone and coal near, 52 Shachung, chloritic gneiss near, 35 Shaho (H),Z09 Shak, value of, 82 Shales and sandstone, coal, in Kiangsi, 65 Shang(C),60,110,l]3,117 Shangling (H), 61, 116 Shangsz' (C), 58 Shangtsau (H), 111, 117 Shangyang river and Cheh- kiang river, granite be- tween, 52 Shansi province, 43, 44, 45, 51, 66, 66, 69, 63, 66, 109, 113, 116 analysis of coal from, 125 native map of, 43 Shantung, 57, 60, 110,3113, 117 gold in, 63 watershed of, 63 boundary of the delta- plain, 46 mountains half inclosed by the delta, 46 Shauchau (F), 52, 58, 61, 112, 118 Shanking (F), 58, 61, 112, 115 Sheh (H), 110 Shells, fresh-water, in ter- race of Te Hai, 42 in terrace deposit, 30 in terrace clay near Otoshibetz, 90 Shen (C), 114 Shensi province, 45, 56, 57, 59, 60, 66, 110, 113, 117 Barrier range in, 63 Shi mountain, 118 Shihping (C), 112 Shihtsien (F), 58, 111, 115 marble and caverns in, 63 Shihung (H), 111 Shijoushan, 60 Shikau mountain, 117 Shilieu mountain, 113 Shiling, 56 Shimakomakl, 99 tufa-conglomerate at, 98 Shinan (F), 60 Shinchau (F), 111, 115 Shingking (P), 67, 111 Shinmuh (H), 117 Shipau mountain, 116 Shiraita, tufa-conglomerate at cape, 99 Shirarika, amygdaloid at, 90 Shiribetz river, 93, 94, 96, 98 extinct volcano of, 96 Shiribuka creek, 97, 98 Shishan, hills of, 7 Shitan, 56, 57 Shiwokubi (cape Blunt), 89 Shiyen, 56, 62 mountain, 58 Shkabe, hot springs of, 84 Shuking classic, 45, 47 of Confucius, record in, of a deluge, 44 Shukwang (H), 48 yearly growth of delta at, 60 Shuikin (H), 60 Shuiyin mountain, 113 Shunking (F),, 59 salt deposits of, 64 Shunteh (F), 56, 109 Shuntien (F), 66, 60, 109, 113 Si Ho, 27, 66 mountain, 114 Slang (C), 116 Siangtan (H), 52 Siangtung, analyses of anthracite from, 124 Siau Ho, 116 Siau (H), 67 Siauku shan, 7, 51 Siaunienfang, 116 Siautungko, 56 Siayang (H), 110 Siberia, 67 N. E., S. W. trend of rivers in eastern, 1 Sichang (H), 114 Sieh mountain, 69, 114 Sienping (H), 112 Sitiiang (H), 60 Sihma (T), 116 Sihungnien (H), 113 Siliceous schist of Wosat- zube, 104 Sliceous-limestone, 22 at Kimiug, 36 of Hwaingan beds, 36 at Siuenhwa (P), 12 Silicified wood, 72 Silk culture on Yesso, 80 Silt deposits in the rapids of the Yangtse, 9 Silver, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116 Sinchau (P), 58, 61, 116 Sinching (H), 110 Sinensis, Pterozamites, 120 Singan (H), 68, 110, 115 Singan (F), 60, 110, 113, 117 Singchaukung, 116 Singhiung (C), 112 Singho (H), 112 Singtanghia, 115 Singyang (H), 117 Sinhwui (H), 116 Sinians, 69 analogous to the Appa- lachians, 62 Sinian system of elevation, 67 revolution begun after deposition of Devo- nian limestone, 68 revolution, determina- tion of eastern continental out- line by, 68 termination of, 62 system on Yesso, 107 Sinim, 67 Sining (F), 60 Sining (H), 56, 60 Sinpaungan, 66 loam from, under micro- scope, 127 Sinyang (H), 113 Sinyii (H), 58, 114 Sipeh mountain, 69 Siuenhwa (F), plains of, 22,56, 109, 113, 116 coal-basin of, 63 Sluenwei (C), 112, 116 Siuhing (H), 112 Siwan, Roman mission of, 33 loam from, under micro- scope, 128, 127 terrace deposit at, 33 houses in loam at, 43 syenite of, 35 Siyen mountain, 109 Siying (H), 58 Siyin'sz, metamorphio schists near, 33 Skunope, 82, 84 Slate and red sandstone near Hwuichau (F), 52 Snakes on the Ousubetz creek, 101 Snow - capped peaks in Central China, 63, 66 south of the San- kang Ho, 33 in Southern China, 66 in the Nanling mountains, 3 in Shansi, 21 Soda - efflorescence at Gurban Noor, 27 140 INDEX. Soda-eHIorescenoe in valley f the Kir Noor, 28 Solfatara Komangadake, 82 of Esan, mud flows of, 86 Solfataras, destructive ac- tion of, 84 Sonora, fossil plants from, 120 Sources of data for general sketch of geology of China, 51 Southern limit of the higher plateau, 31 Mongolia, volcanic for- mation of, 26 the limit of a former ocean, 42 Soyachi, 115 Soyang (H), 56 Soyang (Ts), 116 spatulatus, Taxites, 123 Spbene in granit?, 4 Sphenopteris, 119, 120 denticulata, 122 dichotoma, 122 hymenophylloides, 122 orientalis, 121, 122, 123 Schlotheimii, 122 tridactylites, 122 Spirifer from China, 54 disjunctus from China, 54 Cheohiel, 55 Verneuillii, 55 Spirorbis from China, 54 omphalodes, 54 Sponge spiculse, 126 Springs of chalybeate water at Kudo, 101 calcareous deposit of former, 28 action of, in valley of Kir Noor, 28 of, near Fungohing, 31 Sse Ma Tien on history of Yellow river, 47 Stalactites, 56, 57, 58 in the Ichang gorge, 5 in Taingan (F) and Kii (C), 63 Stamping machinery at Ichinowatari, 81 Standard line of reference for parallelism, 1 Stanovoi mountains, 67 N. E., S. W. trend of, 1 Steam coal at Futau mine, 14 in crater of Esan, 86 temperature of, on Mt. Iwaounohori, 95 Steppe deposit, 74, 75 of plateau, 75 structure of, 71 erosion in the, 77 of the plateau, age of, 76 Steppes of Mongolian pla- teau, 73 Sticto discus, 127 " Stone swallows," 62 Strangerites magnifolia, 120 Stratiform structure of vol- canic formation of the pla^ teau, 39 Strogonoff hay, 97, 106 Stutgardtensis, Fecopte- ris, 121 subaculeatus, Productus, 54 Snbaerial deposits on Yes- so, 106 of volcanic ashes, 84 Subjugation of the Yellow river in early times, 47 Subterranean river courses in Kwangsi, 53 Suchau (F), 57, 114 Siichau (P), 57, 59 Siichau (F), coal-basin of, 65 crevasse of Yellow river in, 49 Suenhwa (H), 58 Suh (C), 60 Suingan (H), 112, 115, 117 Suiting (F), 59, 60, 111, 117 Sulphate of iron, 116, 117, 118 Sulphur, 117, 118 process of working, on Esan, 87 mode of occurrence of, on Esan, 87 furnaces on Esan, 87 production of, on Esan, 88 cost of production of, on Esan, 88 formation of, on Koman- gadake, 83 occurrence of, on Iwaou- nohori, 95 net-work of, veins in Mt. Iwaounobori, 95 amount and cost of pro- duction of, at works of Iwaounobori, 97 columnar structure in mud stream produced by crystals of, 87 and alum on Esan, 86 Sulphur-inrorks on Esan, 87 on Iwaounobori, 97 Sulphuretted hydrogen in spring of Shkabi, 84 in gases of Iwaou- nobori, 95 Sulphurous acid and steam, action of, on rocks, 86 in gases of Iwaou- nobori, 95 Sulungpu, 57 Summit-level of the Im- perial canal, 48 Sung mountain, 58, 110, 113 Sung (H), 110, 114 Sungari river, 64, 68 Sungchi (II), 112 Sungchl river, 61, 111 Sungho (H), 117 Sungkia mountain, 113 Sungshan, 60 Sungyang (H), 60, 115 Sutsuwei (Ts) 116 Sutzu, rocks near, 98 Syenite of Siwan, 35 dykes of, in'schists near Siwan, 35 Syenite under lava of pla- teau, 27 near Murkwoching, 35 fragments of, in the tra- chytic porphyry tufas of Kalgan, 85 near Futoro, 100 at Oouta, 100 Syeuitlc granite on the Yangtse, 4 near Siwan, 33 at Nichinbe, 100 age of, on western Yesso, 101 of Yesso, relative age of, 104 rocks on the Gobi, 74 Synclinal ridges at Chai- tang, 14 Sz'chau (F), 111, 115 Sz'chl river, 115 Sz'ching (F), 118 Sz'chuen province, 51, 57, 59,60,64,66,111,114, 117 coal rocks of, 6 salt deposits of, 7 Blaokiston's observa- tions in, 62 highlands of western, 63 salt wells of, 53 upper Devonian fossils from, 55 Sz'kiautungtsing, 116 Szling, 113 Sz'nan (F), 111, 115, 117 Sz'ngan (H), 116 Sz'ngan (F), 61, 116 Sz'ni mountain, 113 Table of recognizable events in geology of China and Mongolia, 77, 78 of the coal series near Peking, 11 of coal, alum, limestone, fossils, caves, stalaC' tites, etc., in China, 56, 57, 58 of the mineral produc- tions of China, 109 Table-land of Shensi, 66 in Kwangsi and Kwei- chau, 66 in Yunnan, 66 in Shensi and Kansuh, 3 of Central Asia, 10 Tael, value of, 53 Tah (H), 117 Tai (C), 113 Taichau (F), 58, 112, 115 Taihu lake, 57 Taihusz', 114 Taingan (P), 57, 110, 113, 117 Taiping (F), 57, 58, 110 Taipingyin (Ts), 116 Taiting (F), 115 Taiwan (F), 60, 118 Taiyuen (H), 59, 109 Taiyuen (P), 66, 59, 109 Takeda, Mr., 88 Takwan (F), 116 Tala (plain), 73 Talco-argillaceous schist in the Mingan hills, 71 Talcose schist in hills of Senjl, 72 Tali (F), 58, 59 Talo lake, 46 plateau west of delta- plain, 46 Talu (Ts), 116 Tamchintala plain, 71, 73 erosion in, 77 Tametl (Ts), 112 Taming (P), 48, 116 Taming (H), caverns of, 63 Tan mountain, 56, 57 Taney mountains, 57 Taning (H), 56, 117 Tankingshan, 60 Tangtang (Ts), 116 Tangyueh (C), 116, 118 Tashi mountain 110 Tashitung mine, analyses of anthracite from, 19, 124 Tashuikung, 115 Tashuitang, 112 Tatan, 56 Tating (P), 111, 115 Tatsau anthracite mine, 15 56 assay, production and cost of an- thracite of, 16 analysis of anthra- cite of, 123 Tatsing river, 48 present outlet of Hwang Ho, 49 Tatsingitungchi, 109 Tatso (H), 111 Tataoh (H), 59, 60, 117 Tatung (F), 56, 59, 110, 113 116 coal basin of, 63 fire mountain near, 65 analysis of coal from, 125 Tatung (H), 59 Tanlichuen, 26 TaTvan mountain, 115 Taxlneas, 123 Taxites, 120 podocarpoides, 123 Podocarpus, 123 spatulatus, 123 Tayang mountain, 113 Tayau river, 61 Taye (H), 111, 114 Taylor, R. C, 53 Tayii (H), 111 Tchihatche0, 67 Te Hai, 76 valley of, 30 water of, salt, 30 terrace deposit in val- ley of, 30 earths from, under mi- croscope, 126 fresh-water shells in ter- race of, 42 connection of the val- ley of with Hwang Ho valley, 43 gametic gneiss and gra- nnlite near, 35 and Kir Noor valleys, origin of, 42 Tehhwa (H), 112 Tehyih mine, analyses of anthracite from, 19, 124 Tekang, 110 INDEX. 141 tenellus, Hymenophyllites, 122 Terebratula cuboides, 65 pugmis, 55 reticularis, 55 in terrace olay of Kun- nui, 91 Terrace-bluff near Yurup, 90 Terrace-clay deposits on Yesso, 106 deposit, recent at Kunnui, and shells in, 91 with shells near Otoshibetz, 90 Terrace-deposit, 23 between the Siang river and Yuen rirer, 8 between Payang and Tung'sz, 8 below Tungliu, 8 distribution of, in Northern China, 39 description of, 39 valley of Yangkau. 32 in valley of Kwan- tung (pu), 32 in valley of Kir Noor, 29 in valley of the TS Hai, 30, 126 in tributary of the T^ Hai, 31 in valley of the Si Ho, 40 in system of Yang Ho and Sankanc Ho, 39 between Chatau and Kiming, 39 between Paungaii and Tatung, 39 on Kiming moun- tain, 39 arouud Siuenhwa (F), 39 in Kalgan gorge, 39 in valley of the Siwan, 39 on pass between Yang Ho and Hwaiugaucreelt, 39 in gorge of Yang- kau, 39 at the Tg Hai, 39 at the Kir Noor, 39 in valley of Chaa- chuen, 34 near Kiming, 34 at Siwan, 33 deep gullies in, 40 fossil remainsin, 34 remains of deer and other quadru- peds in, at Siwan 34 in valley of the Yel- low river, 43 dwellings excavat- ed in, 33, 40 at Yokohama, 107 recent on Volcano bay, 90 Terrace loatn in valley of the Si Ho, 28 Terraces of the Yangtse valley, 8 of the Yangtse, height of the, 8 in Sz'ohuen, 8 on Qliiua coast, 108 of recent deposits at Chaitang, 14 of recent lake deposit in the valley of Yang Ho, 22 near Gashun, 72 of Hakodade, 79 near Sutzu, 98 of Japanese coast, 108 Terrace-formation at Na- gasaki, 107 Tertiary coal, 62, 119 Teutal, 26 Te'yang mountain, 110 Tibetan highland, 9 and Sz'chueu sources of the Yangtse, watei'- shed between, 63 Tlchi river, 61, 111 tichorinus, Rhinocerus, 77 Tie mountain, 110, 111,112 Tiekung mountain, 109 Tienching, 32 Tienmun (H), 114 Tienshan mountains, 42 volcanic action in, 76 Tiental (H), 115 Tientai mountain, 11 5 Tientsin, formerly on the sea-shore, 50 Tientsingyang, 115 Tiewei (H), 59 Tiling mountain, 110 Timbering, cost of at mines of Ichinowatari, 82 of coal mines in China, 19 Tin, 110, 113, 114, 115, 116 Tingchau (P), 112, 115 Tingpun (H), 59 Tingsiang (H), 59 Ting Wang (Chow dy- nasty) Yellow river in reign of, 47 Tingyuen (H), 59, 112 Tishan (H), 111 Tishan mountain, 111 Tisung (H), 112, 115 To mountain (H), 113 Tomari gawa, 105 creek, material trans- ported by, 99 pumice tufa near, 102 Topaz, 318 Toshibetz river, 105 mouth of, 99 flats of the, 100 terrace deposit in val- ley of the, 106 gold-washings of Kun- nui on, 91 Totohoke, rocks of, 86 traohytic rocks of, 85 Touchstone, 118 Tourney, Prof., 128 Tourgen Gol, 29, 43 Trachydolerite, 39 Traohytic rocks of the plateau, 38 Trachytic rocks of Hoko- dade, 79 of Iwaounobori, 94 with veins of sul- phur on Iwaoun- obori, 95 with tubular struc- ture, 98 on Raiden moun- tain, 9 i of Komangadake, 83 Trachytic porphyry, 42 of Kalgan, 23 of Kalgan, descrip- tion of, 37 dykes of, 38 gorge in, near Kal- gan, 33 on the Gobi, 74 tufa of, 23, 37 near Sutzu, 98 Trans-Baikal, N. E.,S.W. trend in mountains of, 1 Trees in valley of Kir Noor, 28 absence of on the table- land of Mongolia, 72 Trend, E. W. system of, in China, 2 N. E., S. W. system of in Eastern Asia, 1, 2 N. S., apparently con- fined to Western China, 2 Triassic coal, 119 Triceratium, 127 tridactylites, Sphenopte- ris, 122 Trout in the Toshibetz, 93 Taang mountain, 58, 115 Tsanghoh (H), 118 Tsangkia shan, 60 Tsangting (H), 112, 115 Tsau (H), 57 Tsau lake, 46 Tsauchitsing, 59 Tse mountain, 112 Tseh (C), 113 Tsehchau (P), 56, 110,116 Tsenngan (H), 58 Tsepe mountains, 57 Tsetse (Ts), 112 Tseuhong, 56 Tsianglo (H),112 Tsiehlui (Ts), 112 Tsienchau (F), 112 Tsienkiang (H), 61 Tsienngan(H), 60,109, 113 Tsienshan (H), 58, 114 Tsietsz'tang, 116 Tsilitutsz', 116 Tsin (C), 57, 110, 113 Tsinan (F),46, 57, 110 increase of Tatsing river at, 49 Tsing (C), 61, 111 Tsingchau (F), 57, 60, 110, 113 Tsinghai, 50 Tsingloh (H), 56 Tsingloh (H), coal basin of, 63 Tsingnan (H), 110, 113 Tsingnien (H), 59 Tsingging (H), 114 Tsingshui (H),113 Tsingtan built on conglo- merate terrace, 8 Tsingtsa, 112 Tsingtsing (H) ,111 Tsingyuen (H), 59 Tsinhien (H),lll Tsinki (H;, 58 Tsinngan (H), 57 Tsinyuen (H), 113 Tsiuenchau (F),58 coal in, 65 Tsi-weitsz'kung, 115 Tsoking mountain, 115 Tau mountain, 60, 113 Tsuhlung (F), 59, 61, 116 Tsuhhiung (H), 61, 116 Tsuhtung (F),112 Tsukintsing, 59 Tsungara, rooks on straits of, 104 straits of, 89 Tsungho (H), 112, 115 Tsungking (H), 60 Tsungku (H), 110 Tsungnan, 117 Tsungnan (C), 112 Tsungnan mountain, 113 Tsungni (H),114 Tsunhwa (C), 109 Tsuni (F), 61, 115,117 Tsunkiang river, 60 Tsutsesantung, 58 Tsutsu (Ts), 112 Tsuyutsung, 112 Tsz' (C), 56, 59, 109, 111 Tsz' mountain, 109, 110, 114 Tsz' river, 65 Tsz'hu mountain. 111 Tsz'kiang (H), 115 Tsz'nien mountain, 115 Tsz'yang (H), 59 Tsz'ye mountain, 115 tubasformis, Aulopora, 55 Tufa of Yurup mountains, 104 palagonite, on Yesso, 104, 105 of trachytic porphyry at Kalgan, 37 of, greenstone porphyry, 22 of trachytic porphyry, fragments of syenite in, 35 red and brown at Fu- toro, 100 volcanic, of Yesso, 105 pumiceous,at Abura, 99 of trachytic porphyry, 23 Tufa-conglomerate, vol- canic, 105 of South Yesso, 89 ou the Raiden mountain, 94, 98 between Yurup and Volcano bay, 103 at Cape Moteta, 99 near Yurup mines, 102 near Kumaishi, 102 at Futoro, 100 on the Ousubetz creek, 101 covered by lava- bed near Abura, 99 142 INDEX. Tufa -conglomerate, at tietanai, 99 at Cape Shiraita, 99 at Shimakomaki, 98 at Achase, 98 Dear Odaszu, 93 west of Volcano bay, 90 - near Totohoke, 85 at Isoya, 93 on Iwauai bay, 97 with spines of an Ecbinoderm near Washinoki, 90 relative age of the 104 Tufa-sandstone at Abura 99 Tula river, 74 Tung mountain, 114, 115 Tungchau (F), 56, 57, 60, 110, 117 Tungohuen (F), 57, 59, 61, 111, 112, 114, 116 Tungfung (H), 57, 110 Tungjin (F), 61, 111, 115 Tungkwei (H), 56 Tungkwei mountain, 114, 116 TungUang (H),lll Tungliu, red sandstone near, 8 Tunglu (H), 58 Tungnan (H), 112 Tungnien mountain, 58 Tungpu (Ts), 116 Timgsan, 118 Tungsan (H), 110 Tungshan (H), 114 Tungshl mountain, 116 Tungting lake, ancient bed of, 7 effect on, of changes in the fall of the Tangtse, 9 plain of the, 64 Tungting shan, 60 Tungtsz' (H), 61, 117 Tungwei (H), 57, 118 Tungyueh (T), 118 Tungyuyen, 116 Tushikau gate of the Great Wall, 2, 63 Tutlnza, 70 quarries near, of tufa and porphyry, 25 Tuyun (F), 115 Tymfanophora racemosa, 123 TTgundui mountain, 70 TTlandzabukdaban, clay, slate, and gneiss in, 72 TTlanhada, 83 tXlannoor, valley of, 72 Ungyuen (H), 112 Upheaval of the Mongolian plateau, 44 of South Mongolia, 42 Yesso a point of inter- section of three lines of, 106 TTnlo in creeks of Yesso, Unstratified granitic rocks, 34 TJral mountains, 68, 77 XXrga (Kuren), 72, 75 tJrtal, road from Kalgan to, 25 TTrus, Bos, 77 Usu, volcano of, 83 TJsurl river, 64 Valley of the Te Hai, 30 of the Yang Ho, 22 Valleys, longitudinal, in eastern Asia, 1 on the plateau, 26 of southern Mongolia, 70 retrograde erosion of, in terrace deposit, 40 geoclinal, of northern hemisphere, 68 Vegetation near Iwanal, 94 "Vehicle of fluidity," 87, 88 Vein-quartz near Shkabe, 84 Veins of quartz east of Ha-, kodade, 89 lead, at Yurup, 102 mannerof occurrence of, at Ichinowatari, 105 Ventilation of coal mines by fan^lowers, 19 Vermiform fossil in argil- lite, 90, 102, 104 at Isoya, 93 in argillite at Kun- nui, 91 in argillite near Achase, 98__ VerneuilUi, Spirifer,'55 Virginia, fossil plants of, 120 infusorial earths of, 125, 126, 127, 128 Vitim river, 76 Volcanic-ash beds of Yes- so, 106 Volcanic ashes at Isoya, 93 from Isoya under microscope, 127 infusoria in, from Isoya, 127 Volcanic cones visible from Iwaouno- bori, 96 abundant on Yesso, 106 Volcanic plateau,eharaoter of surface of, 26 region of southern Mon- golia, in prolonged axis of the Tienshan, 42 crocks of Mongolia, 42 of Chihli, 10 on the Gobi desert, 73 sconce, 74 zone of southern Mon- golia, 42 tufa-conglomerate, 105 fossil in, 106 near Ichinowatari, 82 breccia near Shkabe, 84 formation of the plateau of Mongolia, 26, 38, 70 around the Kir Noor, 28 around lake Baikal, 75 Volcano of Esan, 86, 105 of Iwaounobori, 94 ascent of, 94 of Komangadake, 82 ascent of, and vege- tation on, 82 Volcano bay in Yesso, 79, 83, 90, 104, 105 terrace deposits on, 106 view of, from Ko- mangadake, 83 Vrless, 85 AATaoke, 31 near Kunnui, 91 Waitso (H), 56 V/an (H), 59, 60, 113 ■Wanchau (F), 57, 65, 115, 117 ■Wangkiang (H), 60 Wanglung cavern, 57 Wangmatsien mountain, 58 V/angpei (Ts), 115 Wangping (H), 56, 109 coal basin of, 10 ■Wanngan (H), 52 ■Wantsuen (H), 66 Vrantsui (H), 58 ■Warm springs on the Oussubetz creek, 101 on the Eaiden mountain, 94 at Yunogawa, 89 ' of Kakumi, 86 of Shkabe, 84 and cold, at Yurup, 103 ■Water communication, navigable between sources of Siang river and a tributary of the Si river, 3 ■Waterfalls on the coast of Yesso, 85 ■Waahinoki, 91, 106 tufa-conglomerate near, 90 ■Watersheds, alluvial, 28 of the Upper Yangtse, Cambodia and Sal- ween rivers, 2 between the Te Hai and Hwang Ho, 43 ■Watershed, remarkable, in valley of Kwan- tung (pu), 32 in valley east of T6 Hai, 31 between the Gobi basin and Arctic ocean, 74 between Japan sea and ■Volcano bay, 102 ■Water-'willo'ws on Yesso, 93 ■Western Hupeh, 68 Siberia, former sea of, 76 coast of Yesso, excur- sion to, 90 ■Wei river, 44, 46, 66 •Weining (C), 111, 115 ■Weitsang (H), 111 ■Weitsz' (H), 116 ■Weiyuen (H), 59, 111 ■Whetstone, 118 Whitbiensis, Peoopteris, 120, 122 White porphyry, blocks of on Esan, 86 quartziferous porphyry on the Raiden moun- tain, 94 ■White sea, 69 Whitney, Prof. J. D., 120, 126 ■Wild roses at Hakodade, 80 Williams, S. W., 109 ■Winning of coal in Chinese mines, 20 ■Winter climate of Mon- golia, 70 "Wood, silicified, 72 ■Wood'wara, Mr., 55 ■Wosatzube, silicious schist of, 104 black hornstone at, 85 warm spring in the sea at, 85 ■Woshimanbe, terrace near, 93 ' ■Wuchang (P), 111, 114 ■Wuchang (H), 111, 114 ■Wuchau (F), 58, 61, 118 ■Wuchuen (H), 116 ■Wuishan, clay-slate and granite in, 52 ■Wukang (G), 116 ■Wukang (H), 116 V/ungan (H), 114 Wunghi (H),]13 "Wuning (H), 112 ■Wushan (H), 59, 111, 117 ■Wushikia, 56 ■Wutai shan, 63 ■Wutaiyau, 56^ ■Wutih (Han dyn), changes of Yellow river in reign of, 132 B.C., 47 ■Wuting (C), 58, 59, 112, 116, 118 ■Wuting (H), 116 ■Wutsz' mountain, 118 ■Wutungtu mountain, 112 ■y (C), 56 Ya (C), 60 Yablonoi mountains, 67 N. E., S. W. trend of, 1 Yachau (P), 114 Yai (C), 116 Yaluh river, 64 Yamukshinai, mineral oil springs at, 90 Yang mountain, 116 Yangchi, limestone near town of, 7 Yangching (H), 56, 110, 113 Yang Ho, 42 • valley of, 22 terrace deposits of the upper, 32 gorges of the, 44 recent lake in val- ley of, 45 Yanghochiao, 59 Yangh-wa, 117 Yanghwashan, 60 Yangkiang (H), 112 Yangsantung, 58 Yangshan (11), 112, 115 Yangtse, Kiang, 44, 46, 51, 66, 67, 121, 124 rapids of the, 5 INDEX. 143 Yangtse, N. E., S. W. trend of middle course of, 1 flows alternately in longitudinal and transversal valleys, 3 from Hankau to the sea, 7 ridges crossing the, 65 formerly entered sea through three arms, 48 changes in the fall of, 9 recent terraces in val- ley of, 8 absence of eruptive rooks on, 62 Yangtsung (H), 112 Yao, great flood in the reign of, 44 Yau (C), 59, 61 Yauking (P), 58 Yching (H), 56 Yedo Bay, 107 country around bay of, 107 Yehchintsung, 57 Yellow river, or Hwang Ho, 2, 43, 44 N.E., S.W. trend of upper, 1 explanation of maps of lower course of, 47 historical changes in the course of, 46 in the time of Yu, before 602 B. C, 47 in time of Ting Wang (Chow dyn.), 47 changes in, under Wentih, 160 B. C, 48 changes in, 11 B.C., 48 under the Tang and five suc- ceeding dynas- ties, 48 from A. D. 70 till 1040, 48 under Sung dy- nasty, A. D. 1048-1194, 48 under Kin dyn., 48 under Yuen and Ming dyn., 48 great divergence of lower arms of, during 3,000 years, 48 YellOTW river rises in Kwenlun moun- tains, 48 an object of con- stant terror, 48 recent shifting of mouth of, from Yellow sea to gulf of Pechele, 49 channel of the, be- tween Shansi and Shensi, 44 great floods referred to overflow of, 45 Chinese histories of, 47 Biot on changes in course of, 47 dykes of the, 47 subjugation of the, in early times, 47 great overflow of, to northeast, 47 great difficulty in controlling, 48 the bed of, higher than adjoining plains, 48 Barrow's estimate of silt discharged by, 49 importance of, in time of war, 48 Yellow sea (or Hwang Hai), 44, 49 Yen mountain, 110 Yenchau (F), 58, 60, 110, 112, 113, 115, 117 limestone mountains near, 52 Yenching (H), 110 Yenchu (H), 56 Yenchuen (H), 57 Yenking (C) the eastern limit of ancient lakes, 43 Yenngan (F), 57 Yenplng (P), 112, 115 Yenshan mountain, 61 Yenshi mountain, 68 Yenting (H), 111 Yentsang (pu), 59 Yenyuen (H), 59, 60, 111, 114 Yentsin, 48 Yesso, Japanese island of, 79, 107, 108 geological itineraries in, 79 a point of intersection of three systems of elevation, 106 ammonites from, 106 analysis of coal from, 125 Yesso, coal at various points on, 106 infusoria in volcanic ashes from, 127 infusorial earth from, under microscope, 126 rock skeleton of south- ern, 105 submerged during de- position of volcanic conglomerate, 106 volcanic cones numer- ous on, 106 forests of, 79 population of, 79 rice and silk culture on, 80 roads in, 79 Yew, 123 Yih (H), 110, 113 Yih mountain, 113 Yihte (H), 57, 110 Yin mountain, 115 Ying (C), 60 Ying mountain, 114 Yingkiang (H), 117 Yingliang mountain, 113 Yingmachuen, gametic gneiss at, 36 Yingte (H), 61 Yingting (H), limestone and cavern near, 52 Yingwo mine, analyses of anthracite from, 19, 125 Yinkung, 116 mountain, 115 Yintau (C), 67 Yintie mountain, 58 Yinyen, 113 Yinyu, 113 Yochau (P), 61, 111, 115 Yohyang (H), 111 Yokohama, neighborhood of, 107 country south of, 108 diorite, gabbro, and serpentine near, 107 Yoyang (H), 66, 109, 114 Yu (0), 110, 113 Yu (H), 113 Yii (C), 56, 114 Yu drains the Empire, 45 Yellow river in time of, 47 Yuen river, 65, 66 Yiihwang mountain, 113 Yiihopu, 59 Yuenamensis, Ehynoho- nella, 66 Yuenchau (F), 61, 115, 117 Yuenohu (H), 113 Yuenmau (H), 58, 118 Yuenmo (H), 59 Yuhlin (C), 116 Yuki (H), 112, 115 Yukung, 47 YukungchuchI, 47 Yulin (F), 56, 59 coal-basin of, 63 Yulin (C), 58 Yulln(H), 56, 59 Yung (Hj, 59, 61, 111, 112 Yungchang (P), 57, 58, 61, 66, 112, 116, 118 Yungohau (F), 58, 111, 115 Yungchun (C), 112, 115 Yungking (H), 114 Yunglung (C), 59 Yungmen (H), 112, 116, 118 Yungngan (H), 116 Yungngan (C), 61 Yungning (C), 116 Yungpeh (T), 59, 61, 112, 116 Yungping (F), 46, 56, 60, 109, 113 Yungshun (F), 111, 117 Yungsul (T), 115, 117 Yungtsang (H), 60, 111 Yungtse, lake, 47 Yungyang (F), 114 Yungyang (H), 59, 111 Yunko mountain, 57 Yiinkung shan, 57 Yunnan province, 58, 59, 61, 64, 112, 116, 118 hydrography of, 66 Yunnan (F), 112, 116, 118 Yunogawa, warm spring at, 89 Yiinseh (H), 116 Yuntsung (Ts), 116 Yunyang (F), 57 Yurup, 105 creek, 90 lead mines of, 102 amount and cost of lead production at, 103 village of, 104 Aino village near, 90 Yushan (H), 114 Yiishan (H), 111 Yutse (H), 109 Yuyang (C), 60, 114 Yutsung (H), 109 Yuyau (H), 115 Zamia lanceolata, 121 Zamites lanceolatus, 121 Zeolite in amygdaloid of Shirarika, 90 Zinc blende in copper vein at Saidoma, 89 in Kakumi veins, 85 in lead veins, 80 iu Yurup veins, 102 Zircon-sand in Kunnui gravel, 91 PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON CITY, AUGUST, 1866. PLATE 1. See Chapter II. Section along the Yangtse Kiang from the Pacific Coast to Pingshan (hien) in Western Sz'chuen. The portion of the section lying between the coast and the coal-field of Kvvei is based on the observations of the author ; the remainder is deduced from the observations of Capt. Blacki- ston, and from the study of the mineral productions of the province of Sz'chuen. The horizontal distances are taken from the Admiralty charts of the river between the coast and the Tungting lake ; thence to Pingshan (hien), from Blackiston's chart of the Upper Yangtse. The vertical distances east of the Tungting lake are from the Admiralty surveys ; west of the Tungting lake they are merely estimated. 19 August, 1866. (145) Pingahan (Long. 104°25"e. Lai. 2S°4o"n. Plate! Coal Series. Xiimestoue Coal Series Coal Series Limestone Coal Series Limestone Coal Series Limestone Coal Series ^mmmmmmmmm Coal Series x^ Limestone ^:^??:>^j:^$^c;e^y^^^^;^^< Coal Field of Kwei Coal Series lAican Gorge _ .^ ^^___^_^~~^^ ^ /r->^_.<^~^ Ichang Ur^e^i^r^^W^^^^^ ^ " «-«-<^-«'— t'' C:s.Sandst. Field of Kwei ■^^'^ ,J^7j7T- r'n^TTrr^ A* .^•* C. S. Sandstone C. S. Sandstone 'yy/'^^t^ Tunting Lake Limeston liecent Terrace C. S. Arg. Schist C. S. Arg. Schist C. S. Sandstone Rec. Terrace C. S. Sandstone Limestone Limeston( Kiukiang C. S. Sandstone? Limestone? .Limestone? s.^?:tX Limestone? Tungliu C. S. Sandstone Sandstone? Pt. Morton ^ Limestone? Limestone? C. S. Sandstone Nanking e?i^-rr^^ £S^7^ ,gSgB37^ CMnkiang C. S. Sandstone C. S. Sandstone Recent Sandstone Clay Svhist Conglomerate Coal Series generally Limestone fe^ti-C.f Chinese Coal Measures Y Devonian Metamorphic Gran: Pacific Coast to Pingshan in Sz'chuen. Horiz. Scale 6.28 miles to 1 dec. inch. Heights 4500 feet to 1 dec. inch. Plate! . Limestone Coal Series Coal Series Limestone Coal Series Limestone Coal Series Limestone C. IS. Sandstone I/ankau -A- S. Arg. Schist 0. S. Arg, Schist C. S. Arg. Schist ^ C. S. Arg. Sch. C. S. Quartzite C. S. Sandstone Limestone Limestone itone ? .Limestone? SSv.££5wdi>c Limestone? Tungliu C. S. Sandstone Sandstone? Ft. Morton I^L Limestone? C. S. Sandstone Sandstone? C. S. Sandstone jgS^g^ CMnkiang Flats of the Pacific Coast. Sandstone Clay Schist Conglomerate Coal Series generally Limestone •4^-^ Chinese Coal Measures Devonian Metamorphic Granitic Pacific Coast to Pingshan ia Sz'chuen. Horiz. Scale 6.28 miles to 1 dec. inch. Heights 4500 feet to 1 dec. inch. PLATE 2. See Chapter IV. Moute Map of the Tang Ho District. This map is intended to show roughly the geological and topographical features of a portion of the boundary between the Great Plateau of Central Asia and the mountains of China. The survey was made by the author from observations -(jith a dioptric compass, the distances being measured by timing a horse whose gait was well known. The work was plotted in the field on a Mercator basis. The route followed in the mountains, immediately west of Peking, is not indicated ; on the rest of the map, from Changkiakau (Kalgan) westward, it is marked by the, generally zigzag, line running through most of the villages. Going westward from. Changkiakau (Kalgan) by the northern, and returning by the southern route, the plotting overlapped at Changkiakau by five and a half miles, an excess which represents the final, uncompensated, error of the work. The positions of Siuenhwa, Tatung, and Tungching, are from the Jesuit astronomical observations ; that of Peking is from those of the Russian astroDomers. The section lines of Plate 3 are represented on this map. (147) Plato -! f^ q ^ G OJ 'CJ o t: hJ OJ H _J PLATE 3. Ske Chapter IV. Geological Sections in Northern Chihli and Southern Mongolia. Siuenhwa to Daikha Noor. Nankau to Daikha Noor. The heights are merely estimated, excepting that of the edge of the plateau, near Ilanoor, which is from the measurements of Messrs. Fuss and v. Bunge. ITnfortunately the capital letters indicating breaks in the course of the section lines wore omitted on the map, Plate 2. Plate 3 Valley of tJie Tehai I^P^ M Hoyurnoor ITTTTKiTnTinv\ ^^ ' 1 -■ , -^li- - . >S'>^~-. « Wif^' '*-\''-[^ , ■.'^>' '•v~<^.r "M^ A ^ <"