QO 5F^/5^ Cornell lllniverstt^ OF THE 1Rew l^ork State Colleoe of Hsriculture A^..4:|l.i \UVU2> Cornell University Library SF 403.C3 1913 Fur-farming in Canada 3 1924 003 186 453 ^"^ Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924003186453 Commission of Conservation Constituted under "An Act to Establish a Commission for the Conservation of Natural Resources," 8-9 Edward VII, Chap. 27, 1909. Chairman : Hon. Clifford Sifton Members : Dr. Howard Mtjrrat, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. Mr. Frank Davison, Bridgewater, N.S. Dr. Cecil C. Jones, Chancellor, University of New Brunswick, Fred- ericton, N.B. Mr. William B. Snowball, Chatham, N.B. Hon. Henri S. Beland, M.D., M.P., St. Joseph-de-Beauce, Que. MoNSEiaNBUR Charles P. Choquette, St. Hyacinthe, Que., Superior, Seminary of St. Hyacinthe and Member of Faculty, Laval University Mb. Edward Gohier, St. Laurent, Que. Db. Jambs Wi Robertson, C.M.G., Chairman, Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education, Ottawa, Ont. Sir Sandford Fleming, K.C.M.G., Ottawa, Ont., Chancellor, Queen's University Hon. Senator William Cameron Edwards, Ottawa, Ont. Sir Edmund B. Osleh, M.P., Governor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. Mr. Charles A. McCool, Ottawa, Ont. Mb. J. F. Mack-ay, Business Manager, " The Globe," Toronto, Ont. Dr. B. E. Fernow. Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. Dr. George Brtcb, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man. Dr. W. J. Rutherford, Member of Faculty, University of Sas- katchewan, Saskatoon, Sask. Dr. H. M. Tort, President, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. Mr. John Hendry, Vancouver, B.C. Members, ex-officio : Hon. Martin Buhbell, Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa Hon. W. J. Roche, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa Hon. Louis Coderbe, Minister of Mines, Ottawa Hon. John A. Mathieson, K.C, President, Premier and Attorney- General, Prince Edward Island Hon. Orlando T. Daniels, Attorney-General, Nova Scotia Hon. James K. Flemming, Premier and Surveyor-General, New Bruns- wick Hon. Jules Allard, Minister of Lands and Forests, Que. Hon. William Hearst, Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines, Ontario Hon. Jambs H. Howden, Provincial Secretary, Manitoba Hon. James A. Calder, Minister of Education, Provincial Treasurer and Minister of Railways, Saskatchewan Hon. Arthur L. Sifton, Premier, Minister of Education, and Pro- vincial Treasurer, Alberta Hon. William R. Ross, Minister of Lands, British Columbia Secretary : James White Commission of Conservation CANADA COMMITTEE ON FISHERIES, GAME AND FUR-BEARING ANIMALS FUR-FARMING IN CANADA By J. WALTER JONES, B.S.A. Printed by GAZETTE PRINTING CO., LIMITED MONTREAL 1913 P\oi.4- I '.4- Committee on Fisheries, Game and Fur'Bearing Animals Chairman: Dr. Cecil C. Jones Members: Hon. O. T. Daniels Hon. J. K. FLEMMiNa Hon. W. H. Hearst Hon. W. J. Howdbn Hon. J. A. Mathieson Dr. Howard Murray Dr. J. W. Robertson Hon. W. R. Ross Ottawa, Jan. 33, 1913. Sir: I have the honour to transmit herewith a report on fur-farming in Canada. Your obedient servant, JAMES WHITE, Secretary. Hon. Cliffoed Sifton, Chairman, Commission of Conservation. To Field Maeshal His Eotal Highness Pbincb Aethue Williami Pateick Albeet, Duke of Connaught and of Steathbaen, K.G., K.T., K.P., &c., &c., Govebnoe-Geneeal of Canada. May it Please Your Royal Highness : The undersigned has the honour to lay before Your Eoyal Highness a report on fur-farming in Canada. Eespectfully submitted, CLIFFOED SIFTON, Chairman. Ottawa, Jan. 24, 1913. Contents PAGE i. introduction 1 ii. early attempts to domesticate the fox 13 iii. manual of fur-farming Common Red Fox: the science of breeding 16 ranching practice 25 financial aspects 48 Polar or Arctic Fox: blue fox farming 56 blue foxes of the pribilof islands 60 Raccoon 70 Weasel Family: MINK 71 MARTEN OR AMERICAN SABLE 78 FISHER, PEKAN OR PENNANT MARTEN 79 CANADIAN OTTER 80 SKUNK 85 Rodents : MUSKRAT 89 BEAVER 90 Reindeer and Moose: THE reindeer IN CANADA 92 MOOSE 95 iv. preparing skins for manufacture 95 v. the commerce in raw furs Centres of the Fur Trade 104 Prices of Silver Fox Skins 109 vi. appendices I. Value of Wild Animals 115 II. Experience in Raising Virginia Deer 117 III. Selected Articles from American Breeders' Asso- ciation Reports: objects of breeding wild mammals 1 19 exotic species for domestication 120 breeding of THE WAPITI 122 BREEDING THE VIRGINIA DEER 123 BREEDING FUR-BEARING ANIMALS 125 IV. Reindeer Progress in Alaska 131 V. Canadian Legislation Respecting Fur-Farming. . . 135 VI. Statistics of Fur Production 138 VII. Statistics of Fur Prices 146 Vn. INDEX 161 ILLUSTRATIONS I. Sitting on the Box in Which He Made a Railway Journey... Frontispiece II. Full-Furred Foxes 13 III. Range of Red Foxes in Canada (Map) 16 IV. Red, Cross and Silver Foxes 20 V. A Mated Pair of Silver Foxes 25 Fox Pen in the Maple Woods 25 VI. The Best Location For a Ranch is in a Woodlot 26 VII. Detail of Fence Construction with Sheet Iron 28 Detail of Fence Construction — An Alley Around Each Pen.. 28 VIII. Usual Type of Kennel and Pen ii Cheap Kennel Constructed from a Packing Box 33 IX. Floor Plan and Vertical Section of a Fox Kennel 34 X. Plan of Two Good Types of Fox Ranches 36 XI. Foxes of Various Ages and Attitudes 40 XII. Range of Raccoons in Canada (Map) 70 XIII. Range of Minks in Canada (Map) 71 XIV. Mink Ranch at Lac Chaud 72 Mink's Den, Artificial 72 XV. Range of the American Martens in Canada (Map) 78 XVI. Mink Sitting on His House 82 Otter 82 XVII. Range of Skunks in Canada (Map) 85 XVIII. Beaver 86 Live Skunks — Long Striped 86 XIX. Range of Muskrats in Canada (Map) 89 XX. Range of the American Beaver in Canada (Map) 90 XXI. Stretching Boards 98 XXII. A Collection of 34 Wild Silver Fox Skins, Worth Upwards of $21,000 110 XXIII. T. R. H. Duke of Connaught and Princess Patricia in Saint Patrick Ranch 126 Sitting on the Box in Which He Made a Railway Journey— September Fur Fur -Farming in Canada I. Introduction ^UE-FAEMING is a new industry in Canada, but its development has been rapid. An investigation conducted in the latter half of 1913 revealed numer- ous instances where animals of various species were being bred in captivity for their fur. Foxes of two species and of all colour varieties, skunk, mink, raccoon, fisher, beaver and muskrat were found upon fur-farms. The marten and otter are likewise being domesticated for their fur. In one instance even the wild cat was retained in captivity for breedii% purposes, and it is authentically reported that the common black hous3-cat is being bred for its fur on pioneer Ontario farms. Up to the present time the domestication of wild fur-bearing animals has been practised most extensively, and also most successfully, in the Mari- time Provinces; but the industry ig developing rapidly in Ontario and Quebec, while isolated fur-farms are also to be found throughout the Western Provinces. The great interest manifested in fur-farming is to be ascribed to the remarkable success attained in breeding silver and other colour phases of the fox common to Eastern Canada. The black and dark silver skins from foxes produced on Prince Edward Island ranches have rarely brought less than five hundred dollars each, and frequently bring over two ■ thousand dollars at London auction sales. The pioneer fox breeders have acquired wealth in the business and their success has inspired their neighbours to engage in a similar line of work. Katurally, the price of breeding stock, responding to the increased demand, has risen to many times the fur value, so that the ownership of even a pair of silver foxes is impossible to the average farmer. Corporations and partnerships with a total capitalization of several millions have been established for farming the silver fox. A large pro- portion of the inhabitants of Prince Edward Island and a smaller pro- portion of those of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia have invested their money, sometimes even mortgaging their property to buy stock in these enterprises. Others have attempted to breed fur-bearing animals which require less capital for foundation stock. Thus, in 1912, more than a thousand red and blue foxes were imported into the Maritime Provinces. Mink, skunk and raccoon are being experimented with. The faith eshi- 2 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION bited in the breeding of fur-bearers, particularly in Prince Edward Island, has advanced prices there above those obtained in any other part of the world. Canada and the United States are being searched for fur-bearers for shipment to Prince Edward Island ranches. Eox companies incorporated elsewhere esitablish their ranches there where the farmers have a thorough knowledge of the rather difficult art of breeding, and the consequence is that fully 85 per cent, of all foxes in captivity are to be found in the island province. The high prices for furs prevailing during recent years explain why fur-farming has made such rapid progress in such a short time. This is particularly true of the black fox industry. The fur-value of £ high-grade black fox ranges from about $500 to about $2,500, but the demand for breeders has been so great that the price has risen to $25,000 a pair for the best quality of breeding stock. Moreover, the promoter has entered the field and companies are being floated whose capitaliza- tions are based on these high prices and rosy expectations of profits. Although there is ample basis for a Eound industry in fox-farming, it is necessary that the general public should realize that the industry is becoming a highly speculative one, and that the individual who puts his money in companies loaded with a heavy burden of capitalization assumes a great risk. Since the fur-farming industry is so intimately connected with the present high prices of furs, it will be worth while to inquire into the causes of these high prices and endeavour to forecast to what extent they will continue to operate. Demand and Supply .. Stated in general terms, fur has become scarce because less Scarcity ° ' of Furs is produced and more is used than ever before. The remark- able increase in the demand for costly furs in the past twenty years is due to a combination of causes. The population is growing. The relative number of people in the wealthy classes is increasing. The habits of travelling extensively and of living in metropolitan centres are rapidly increasing. Commerce and more efficient salesmanship have introduced furs all over the world so that their admirers and users are multiplied. Dame Fashion, whose influence is predominant everywhere, is responsible for a very heavy demand for certain kinds, and only the best and scarcest are in high favour with her. Then, too, our growing cities, which multiply the opportunities for gatherings and concourses, especially of the well-to-do classes, engender competitive habits in choosing personal adornments. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA The growing use of the automobile and the more general habit of living out-of-doors have made furs almost a necessity. In America alone, the valuation of automobiles is now over 1,500 million dollars, and a proper c;4uipment for the luxurious vehicles and their occupants neces- sitates the use of many millions of dollars worth of furs and leather. Better roads, more extensive travel, and cheaper automobiles are im- portant factors in determining the growing demands for fur and pelts generally. Instruments Some kinds of animals must soon be exterminated of Destruction ^ the keenness of the hunt for them is maintained. When dead-falls, snares and the bow and arrow were used in hunting there was a chance for the game to escape, but with piodem guns, smokeless powder, improved traps, and the most alluring baits and scents that modern chemists can compound and trappers invent, there are fewer opportunities. Coupled with increased eiSciency of destructive gear is the general diffusion by railroads, steamship lines and hunting and trapping magazines, of knowledge respecting game resorts and the hunter's art. , . . Eailroads and steamship lines are tapping new Improvement of •"■ j. j. o Travelling Facilities territory, corps of guides are organized, canned food and better camping equipment make the hunter's life more enjoyable, and the result is that the uttermost sanc- tuaries of the fur-bearers are invaded. Their last retreats have been made and they must now slowly diminish in numbers year by year. The musk-ox, for instance, has figured in the London sales only for the past forty years because, before that time, Arctic hunters were unable to reach its habitat. Continued invasion of its territory may lead to its extinction. „. The usual methods employed to prevent the complete extinc- Seasons tion of a species is to establish a close season. Eecently, a close season of three years was declared for the Eussian sable to allow it to recuperate in numbers in Siberia. The chinchilla has similar protection in Bolivia, and the Canadian beaver is frequently protected in a similar way. A close season of five years is also provided for the Alaska seal. The general decrease in the numbers of fur-bearers during the padt twenty years indicates how ineflBcient are the preventive methods employed. „ ^ ^. The ever-expanding areas of human settlements have Destructjon ^ ° of Haunts Caused some kinds of fur-bearers to retreat farther into the woods. The clearing away of the forests and the grazing of the natural covers by domestic animals have destroyed their haunts and exposed them to their enemies. Draining swampy areas has 4 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION destroyed the homes of the muskrat or musquash, the mink, the otter and the beaver. The fisher and marten never seem to exist long near man's habitation. Even the fox, which appears to increase near settle- ments, will decrease if the forests are wholly removed or burned. INCREASING PRICES OF PELTS {Statement Based on the London Sales of C. M. Lampson &f Co., by Alfred Fraser, New York.) Percentage Increase in Prices Kind of Skin 1892-1901 over 1882-1891 1902-1911 over 1892-1901 1892-1911 over 1882-1891 155 10 85 20* 120 470 60 20 25 30* 110 55 100 85 145 100 15 430 150 110 230 130 170 65 300 " cross 125 •• red 245 " blue " white Marten pine 100 350 580 430 Mink 300 Skunk 150 Muskrat Lynx Otter, land " sea . 230 200 80 240 ♦Decrease. DECREASING NUMBER OF PELTS (Statement Based on the London Sales of C. M. Lampson & Co., by Alfred Fraser, New York.) KiNB OF Skin Fox, silver " cross " red " blue " white Marten, pine . . . Fisher or pekan Mink Skunk Muskrat Lynx Otter, land " sea Percentage Decrease in Numbers 1892-1901 over 1882-1891 10 5 53 34t 750 65 5 76 30 250t 3800-- 45- 65 1902-1911 1892-1911 over over 1892-1901 1882-1891 45 50 65 70 2 55 40 23 25 510t 55 20 95 95 55 20 55t not 10 215-- 80 700- 30 5- 50 85 flncrease. PUR-FARMING IN CANADA Notes on the Table. — 1. The increase in the price of pelts during the past twenty years has been general. 2. All pelts, except those of skunk, have decreased in numbers during the past ten years. 3. Pelts considered of little value twenty years ago are being hunted to the verge of extinction; e.g., fisher, lynx, marten, mink, cross fox, and ev^n muskrat, show signs of failing. 4. The increase in numbers of pelts fifteen years ago was caused by keener hunting. This was inspired by the rising values. The extent to which these influences have diminished the number of furs marketed is well put in the Fur News Magazine, for November, 1913, which says: " We present elsewhere in this issue a record of the collection of all fur skins centreing at London, and the majority are sent there, for the years 1911 and 1912, both secured under the terrific pres- sure of a strong demand and record-breaking prices which induced strenuous and persistent trapping to the limit — and past good business judgment. " The figures are remarkably interesting, and definitely serious, as showing the marked decrease in quantity straight down the column with rare and insignificant exceptions; in most instances the declines are very great and invite careful attention, particu- larly as it is perfectly true that every possible effort was made the country over to effect the opposite result, and which surely would have been noted if the fur-bearers were present in usual numbers in their customary haunts or new and unusual retreats. The few exceptions, where there is an increase instead of a decrease, include cross fox and fisher, both of which were so high in value that it paid better to catch one a week rather than waste time catching other animals twice a day every day; but the total increase for both is only thirty- two hundred for the entire year and country; wolf is the only other fur of moment showing an increase in catch over 1911, and the difference is due to a general impulse to effect extermination, and not to the fact that there were more wolves than in the preceding year. Not a few 1911 skins were held back and came forward in this year's sales. "A study of the figures further shows the same general de- crease in collections of Eussian, German, Japanese and Australian skins. Every fur skin caught anywhere this year will have a value, and not a skin aftould be sacrificed." 6 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Supplying the Demand Confronted with this condition of a decreasing supply and A Domestic g^ increasing demand, the fur trade has done its utmost to bridge the gap by encouraging the use of furs of domestic animals, by diverting a part of the demand to serviceable but less costly furs and by preparing imitations of the more costly varieties. About thirty years ago, Eussian furs came into vogue, when Persian lamb, broad - tail and astrachans began to be used extensively. This development is of great significance as the demand for the above-mentioned furs has in- creased enormously in recent years and the supply to-day is greater than ever, because they are produced by domestic animals, bred intelligently under a husbandman's care. If the marten, mink, fox and otter had been domesticated a score or more years ago, it is probable that the pro- duction of their fur would have served already as a counterpoise to the monopolies enjoyed by Eussia and Germany in the production and dressing of astrachans and Persian lambs. When the perennially fashionable sable, ermine, chin- Popuianzing cMUa and silver fox did not supply the demand, the Persians, broadtail and seal became more costly. Gradually, too, from its plebeian rank of coat lining at fifty cents a skin, mink was adopted into the select family of valuable furs, closely pre- ceded by marten and, latterly, followed by fisher and cross fox. To take the place of mink as a coat lining, muskrat or musquash was chosen, sharing this promotion with the less valuable marmot and hamster of Europe. To supply the demand for a medium-priced black fur of beauty, a common animal, the skunk, has been chosen. The black domestic cat, known to the trade as ' genet ', is also utilized to meet the demand for black furs, while northern hares are extensively manufactured into ' Baltic fox ' or ' white fox ' or ' black lynx.' When the fur dressers and dyers produced a clipped and Renaming dygd muskrat skin that resembled sealskin almost perfectly, it was found that it would not sell under its real name be- cause it was a common fur, used largely by the poorer classes. Con- sequently a name was invented for it and this popular and high-priced fur is now sold as ' Hudson Bay seal '. The fur of the coney, a verj' cheap and common animal in France, is the raw product in producing ' electric sealskin ', ' clipped seal ' and ' Baltic seal '. Eaccoon, when first introduced, was cheap and was in little demand, but when given the name ' Alaska bear ' and ' silver bear ' it immediately came into favour. Skunk, which is an excellent fur of a daik hue, though beauti- PUR-FARMING IN CANADA f ul and durable, could not be sold as skunk, but, as ' black marten ', and * Alaska sable ', it is in high favour and likely to remain in the class of the medium and higher priced furs. It is worth remarking that, since the prejudice against the muskrat, skunk and other cheap furs has been overcome, they can be sold under their real names. Muskrat backs are now sold as ' rat ' fur at as high figures as the dyed product. The pressure of increasing demand has brought into Imitations and common use the fur of animals with harsh brittle hair of any colour, which is sold under names which mislead the public. Thus, the pelts of animals from the warmer zones such as Chinese goat, Thibet lamb, Manchurian dog, hamster, marmot, Tartar pony, opossum, raccoon, weasel, jackal fox, monkey, antelope, otter and many others are now worked up by dressers and dyers into very respectable-looking furs. They are inferior, however, to the furs from colder climates in suppleness of leather, closeness of underwool, fullness of overhair and silkiness of hair, and, because they are dyed, they are less durable and less popular. The misnaming of furs has caused the London Chamber Misnaming and Qf Commerce to give notice that misleading terms are ecep ions ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^-^^^ offenders are liable to prosecu- tion under the Merchandise Marks Act, 1887. Even in the early days when misnaming was in its infancy, the manufactured furs were fre- quently misnamed as follows : Muskrat or muisquash, pulled and dyed Seal Nutria, pulled and dyed Seal Nutria, pulled and natural Beaver Rabbit, sheared and dyed Seal Otter, pulled and dyed Seal Marmot, dyed Mink or sable Fitch, dyed Sable Rabbit, dyed Sable or French sable Hare, dyed Sable, fox or lynx Muskrat, dyed Mink or sable Wallaby, dyed Skunk White rabbit Ermine White rabbit, dyed Chinchilla White hare, dyed or natural Fox, foxaline Goat, dyed Bear or leopard But, if laws were necessary twenty-five years ago to protect the public from frauds, what must be the necessity at the present time, when two hares brought up by the same mother may pose on the same coun- ter, as ' white fox ' and ' black lynx,' respectively ? 8 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The following is a list of common misdescriptions: Vabiety Sold as American sable Real Russian sable Fitch, dyed Sable Goat, dyed Bear Hare, dyed Sable or fox Kid Lamb or broadtail Marmot, dyed Mink, sable or skunk Mink, dyed Sable Musquash (muskrat), dyed Mink or sable Musquash, pulled and dyed Seal, electric seal. Red River seal or Hudson seal Nutria, pulled and dyed Seal, electric seal. Red River seal or Hudson seal Nutria, pulled, natural Beaver and otter Opossum, sheared and dyed Beaver Otter, pulled and dyed Seal Rabbit, dyed Sable or French sable Rabbit, sheared and dyed Seal, electric seal. Red River seal, Hudson seal and seal musquash Rabbit, white Ermine Rabbit, white, dyed Chinchilla Wallaby, dyed Skunk White hare Fox and other similar names Dyed furs of all kinds Natural White hairs inserted in foxes and sables Real or natural furs The following list has been published by the London Chamber of Commerce as permissible descriptions: Name of Fub Pebmissible Description American sable Canadian sable or real sable Fitch, dyed Sable fitch Goat, dyed Bear goat Hare, dyed Sablo hare or fox hare Kids Karakule kids Marmot, dyed Sable marmot, mink marmot or skunk marmot Mink, dyed Sable mink Musquash (muskrat), pulled and dyed Seal musquash Nutria, pulled and dyed Seal nutria Nutria, pulled, natural Beaver nutria or otter nutria Opossum, sheared and dyed Beaver opossum Otter, pulled and dyed Seal otter Rabbit, dyed Sable coney Rabbit, sheared and dyed Seal coney or musquash coney Rabbit, white .Mock ermine Rabbit, white, dyed Chinchilla coney Wallaby, sheared and dyed Skunk wallaby White hare .Imitation fox or mock fox White hairs inserted in foxes or sables Pointed fox or sable FUR-FARMING IN CANADA Reliable furriers, however, do not use the deceptive names Frauds in mentioned above. Many of the smaller furriers are, doubtless, ignorant of the real names of their stock but cheap advertisers are frequently guilty of misnaming. Many advertisers giving private addresses mislead the public ; vrhen a lady who is ' going South' offers her new $150 Eussian lynx set for $25, the conclusion may readily be reached that it is ' doctored ' rabbit. However, the enter- prise of furriers should not be wholly discouraged, as, otherwise, owing to the scarcity of really good fur, many ladies would have to appear in worsted scarfs and mitts for sii months of the year. The pride they take in their ' ermines ', ' foxes ', and ' chinchillas 'and in their bargain 'fishers' and black 'marten' would probably be diminished if they knew they were only ' doctored ' rabbit, opossum and wallaby. All these artifices of the fur dresser and the fur dealer Hunter-Trapper jj^ye failed, however, to compensate for the decreasing ge assing supply of fur of good quality. One fact stands out prominently: the hunting and trapping of wild fur-bearing animals must give place to their domestication if the demand for furs is to be satisfied. The hunter-trapper age has passed its zenith. With the demand exceeding the possible supply, more economical methods must be intro- duced and the supply must be increased. The tearing up of trapped animals by carnivorous mammals before the trapper can reach the traps is common and represents a great loss. The killing of animals whose pelts are not in prime condition represents a large annual loss of valuable fur. These and other wastes are eliminated when fur-bearers are domesticated. The first step towards raising animals for their fur was omM ic taken years ago when karakule sheep — a domestic animal from which the Persian lamb and broadtail are obtained — began to be bred for its pelt. Up to recent years this animal was the only example of a valuable fur-bearer in captivity. It is a domestic animal merely, but, because of the difficulties in travelling, in language, in knowledge of good stock, in quarantine laws and in remoteness of the district in which they flourish, it would be very difficult to secure specimens for breeding purposes. Latterly, exceedingly optimistic reports of successes in karakule ' crosses ' in Germany and the United States have been reported. If the Persian lamb can be produced in 10 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION America, millions of dollars will be saved annually, as the use of this lasting and handsome fur is increasing steadily. That the business is regarded in Eussia as an important one, is indicated by the calling of a convention of breeders at Moscow (October, 1912), at the Czar's special request. As a possible source of future fur supply, the karakule crossed with lustrous wooUed sheep like Lincolns and Cotswolds appears to be one of the most promising. Experiments made recently have produced lamb skins of magnificent gloss and curl. . . Despite the progress that has been made in breeding Fur-Bearers karalrule sheep, it must be acknowledged that domestica- tion of fur-bearing animals has, thus far, failed to supply the demand for pelts which are highly valued for fur. The increasing de- mand and the ever-decreasing supply of desirable fur pelts is producing a state of trade that would be alarming were it not for the possibilities of domesticating and breeding other fur-bearers. The time has come when, on account of the high range of prices, every effort should be made to domesticate all wild fur-bearing animals of considerable value. There is a broad field for activity in this direction. According to Lantz' estimate, there are about five thousand species of mammals at present inhabiting the earth. About twenty-three of these are in a state of domestication, serving man as beasts of burden or furnishing food, clothing, or companionship. The hoofed animals (ungulata) comprise: The Asiatic elephant, horse, ass, hog, camel, dromedary, rein- deer, goat, sheep, yak, buffalo (two species), ox (two species), and llama (possibly four species). The flesh-eating animals (carnivora) comprise: The cat, dog, ferret and cheetah or hunting leopard of India. The rodent animals (rodentia) comprise: The rabbit and the guinea pig. The Arctic fox {vulpes lagopus) and the common fox (vulpes vul- pes) may be classed as domestic, as for twenty years they have been nurtured under man's care, and the rising prices of fur will probably make the industry permanent. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 11 THREE ORDERS OF WILD CANADIAN MAMMALS AND THEIR ECONOMIC USES Order Family Species Parts of Economic Use Hoofed Animals Deer Elk Flesh, hide, trophies (hoofed; large) Deer tt tt tt Moose tt tt tt Caribou tt tt tt Cattle Bison or Buffalo It tt tt Rodents Squirrel Squirrel Pelt, flesh (no canine teeth; 4 Chipmunk Pelt incisors only, ex- Woodehuck tt cept in rabbit) Beaver Canadian Beaver Pelt, flesh, castors Mouse Mice Voles Lemiming Muskrat Pelt, flesh Hare Hare Flesh, pelt, hair Camivora Cat Lynx Pelt (12 incisors; 4 large (t Cat (1 canines; shear- (domestic) ing premolars) it Wild cat tt Dog Fox tt tt Wolf tt tt Coyote tt Weasel Otter tt (mustelidw) n Weasel It tt Mink tt tt Marten tt tt Fisher or Pekan " tt Wolverine tt tt Skunk Pelt, oil and galls tt Badger Pelt, hair Raccoon Raccoon Pelt, flesh Bear Bear Flesh, pelt Seal Fur-seal Pelt, oil, flesh Hair-seal Pelt, oil It is desirable to breed the species producing the most Fur-Bearers^ valuable fur rather than those whose fur does not bring such a high price. The sea-otter, the silver fox, the Eussian sable and the chmchiUa are the precious fur-bearers of modern 12 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION times. All of these except the silver fox are now off the market because of a restrictive close season established by law to allow them to recuper- ate in numbers. Kone, except the silver fox, is bred in captivity. The sea-otter, because of its aquatic habits, extreme scarcity and remoteness from populous neighbourhoods, has never been domesticated. The chinchilla, a rat-like animal, found principally in Bolivia, is also being exterminated and no attempt is being made to rear it in pens. The Eussian sable has been subjected to a few half-hearted experiments in domestic breeding, but without success. Mr. Vladimir Generosoff, an American agent of the Eussian Department of Agriculture, states that no serious attempts to breed the sable will be made by the pea- sant trappers who are so poverty-stricken that they cannot raise suffi- cient capital for ranch equipment. He hopes to secure the co-operation of his government in conducting breeding experiments with these valuable animals. The best sable are found in the forests of the Vitim and Olekma in the province of Yakutsk, one of the remotest; parts of Siberia. It is evident that only the Eussian authorities can secure a sufficient number of excellent wild specimens to conduct a practical experiment. In the meantime, in preparation for the time when the Eussian sable will be available for breeding in Canada, experiments should be conducted with the Canadian sable, which is very closely related to the Eussian and very similar in habits. Because of its ubiquitous character and its fondness for living near human habitations, the silver fox has been subjected to more domesti- cating experiments than any other valuable fur-bearer. When it be- came known that it was simply a pelage colour of the common red fox, experiments were multiplied with the cheaper red foxes to gain ex- perience in breeding the species. The breeding of the fox in captivity is proceeding on an increasingly large scale and no doubt exists now regarding the possibility of domesticating it. A Full-Furred Fox. December Fur A Full-Furred Black Fox, December Fur II. Early Attempts to Domesticate the Fox IT would be futile to record all the early attempts to rear foxes in captivity and note has, therefore, been made of the experiences of only a few breeders at widely separated points. The experimenters, in most cases, were wholly unacquainted with the experience of others. It has been customary for trapper-farmers to keep alive foxes caught in warm weather until the fur is prime. Thus, young foxes captured in July are kept until December before (being killed. The earliest authentic record obtained of rearing young from foxes kept in captivity comes from Tignish, P.E.I., where Benjamin Haywood reared several litters some thirty-five years ago, but they were destroyed by the parent foxes because they were not kept in seclusion and quiet. Doubtless there have been, in earlier years, numerous cases that were as successful as Mr. Haywood's, but it is interesiting to record this experiment because he was a near neighbour of the men who finally achieved the greatest success in the commercial fox -breeding industry. Several furriers in Quebec have been connected with breeding ex- periments. Messrs. Paquet Bros, had a small ranch once at St. Joseph- d'Alma near the head of the Saguenay, which they finally sold. Eevillon Freres were interested in a ranch on the North shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence a dozen years ago, but finally abandoned the experiment believing that fox raising was destined to fail. Holt, Eenfrew & Co. have a ranch near Quebec and have reared a litter of silver foxes from a pair of exhibition foxes in their menagerie at Montmorency Tails. In Ontario, Eev. George Clark, of St. Catharines, an experienced breeder of pheasants, bred a litter of reds from a pet pair of wild foxes in 1905. Two ranches were started about 1906, near North Sydney, and on the Lingan Eoad near Sydney, N.S., respectively, but, after several years, they failed to maintain the foxes in breeding condition. These were later sold to Bruce, Cummings, McConnell and others, who have proved to be successful ranchers. Excellent success in breeding the fox has been achieved by Breeders Mr. Johann Beetz, at Piastre Bale, North shore. Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Mr. T. L. Burrowman, of Wyoming, Ontario. The former is the scion of a wealthy Brussels family, and his roving spirit led him to Labrador and Alaska on hunting expedi- tions. He finally settled at Piastre Bale, about 1898, and attempted fox ranching with a pair of silver foxes brought from Alaska. There were trees at several points in the neighbourhood, and at some ten or twelve wooded spots, a hundred or more rods from his dwelling, he kept his pens, having two females and one male at each point. He adopted the 14 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION system of double mating. Large quantities of salmon, lobsters and game were caught for food for the foxes, while horse-meat was occasionally brought from Quebec city. He augmented his stock with native Quebec wild foxes and conducted feeding experiments with red foxes. Careful selection has improved his strain until they grade dark silver throughout. Authentic reports state that M. Menier, who owns Anticosti island, has attempted to breed foxes there, and has set at liberty silver and patched foxes to grade up the colour of the wild fox. . Mr. Burrowman is a fur-buyer who, at an early date, Experimenter recognized the possibilities in domesticating fur-bearers. He kept foxes in captivity twenty-two years, but did not successfully rear young to maturity until about ten years ago, because, prior to that time, he kept more than one pair in a single pen. He may be called the father of the Ontario fox-ranching business. The only assistance he obtained was from the late Dr. Eobertson of Fox- croft, Me. The placing of the fox-raising industry on a commercial and Oulton basis IS due to the efforts of Charles Dalton, of Tignish, P.B.I., and his former partner, Eobert T. Oulton, formerly of Alberton, P.E.I., but now of Little Shemogue, N.B. Dalton began experimenting about 1887, with red foxes, which he kept in a shed at Nail Pond. Later, he bought two pairs of silver foxes from neighbouring districts and from Anticosti island and continued his experiments with indifferent success for about ten years. During that time, Oulton was also experimenting with foxes, having bought a silver fox from Mr. Gibbs of Lot 5, and a pair of silvers from a Mr. Pope, of Anticosti island. All Anticosti foxes were subsequently slaughtered because they did not come up to the requisite standard of quality. One of their chief concerns was keeping off prying neighbours from their ranch premises. While Beetz had little difiBculty with neighbours, the obtaining of a sufficient food supply was a matter that gave no little trouble. Dalton and Oulton were more fortunate in their food supply as the thickly-settled farming country all about them sup- plied horse flesh and other cheap meat in abundance. Tallow, corn- meal, fish, oat-meal, flour and butchers' wasite were available in plenty and a very small outlay in cash procured a large supply. Oulton pursued his work on Savage island, of which he was the sole inhabitant. He managed to impress the public with the necessity of keeping away from hia ranch, and his pens, constructed within an outside enclosure a quarter acre in area, were the models for the present system of ranching. Dalton and Oulton joined interests in 1895 or thereabouts, and, together, worked out successfully the present FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 15 forms of wire enclosures. In 1897, Dalton built a ranch at Tig- nish, still retaining a half-interest in the Oulton ranch. He bought and sold skins and generally conducted the fur sales for the district. All Oulton's foxes were sold by Dalton, as well as those of his late part- ners, James Eayner and others. Dalton also conducted a general corre- spondence with the fur trade, and imported stock which proved of value for crossing. It was inevitable that enterprising neighbours who guessed Breeders " ' how Successfully the fox breeding was being carried on would chafe at not being able to participate in such a profitable enterprise. Others soon began to experiment. In 1891, James Tuplin and James Gordon purchased a pair of foxes for $340, and, to the surprise of Dalton and Oulton, succeeded in rearing young from them in the following season. Silas Eayner was also alive to the situa- tion, and though, at first, unable to secure stock of good quality, he learned how to keep foxes successfully and finally secured better stock from Dalton and from Gordon. Trank Tuplin, of Summerside, ob- taitaed the foundation stock for his large ranch by securing foxes from his uncle, Eobert Tuplin. It is probable that the pelt value of foxes owned by the above-mentioned individuals and their inheritors at the present time aggregates $300,000. The value of their stock as breeders is now in such demand, that possibly $2,000,000 could be obtained for it. Most of the early attempts to rear foxes failed because : 1. No good fencing material, such as the woven wire used at the present time, was available. 2. The monogamous nature of foxes wag not recognized and, being quartered in one pen in large numbers, the young were killed. 3. The price of fur was not high enough to induce breeders to risk large amounts of capital in experiments, and those who had the aptitude for the business usually possessed but little capital. The rising prices for silver fox in the ' nineties ', the availability of woven-wire fencing and the persistence of men like Oulton, Dalton, Beetz and Burrowman are responsible for the successful methods of ranching evolved. The fox-breeding methods of the pioneer breeders were kept from the public, and as late as 1910, not more than a dozen ranches were in existence. The last big sales of fur were made in that year, and selling for foundation breeding stock has been general since that time. So great is the demand that the prices of breeders have risen in two years, from $3,000 a pair to $15,000, and at the date of writing — December, 1913 — the best stock cannot be obtained at the last-named figure. III. Manual of Fur -Farming COMMON EED FOX THE fox ia found on every continent and comprises a number of species. The common red fox, which exists in the greatest num- bers, has a range which " extends across Europe and northern and central Asia to Japan, while, to the south, it embraces northern Africa and Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan and the northwesrtern districts of India, and the Himalayas." In North America its range extends south to Virginia and includes all Canada (except some northern regions), and the northeasternmost portion of the United States. Its wide geographical range accounts for many disitinct local phases or geographical varieties. These phases, or sub-species, diSer from one another in form, in size and, to some extent, in colouring, but the differences are often not apparent to the untrained observer. It is easy to distinguish the four species of foxes commonly seen in America, viz., the common red with its white-tipped tail, the arctic or polar fox with its short ears and blue or white pelt, the kit-fox with its black tail and small size, and the gray fox with its gray and red colour and erectile hairs down the tail; but it is more diiBcult to distinguish the sub-species of the common red fox. These are classi- fied as follows by Merriam : Common Red Pox (Vulpes) which, in some districts, is found in several colours, viz.: Red Fox — When red and v/hite with dark points; Silver Fox — No red, but dark all over with silver amphi- maculated hairs inter- mixed; white on tip of tail; Cross Fox — An intermediate form, similar to silver fox, but with red sides, neck and ears. V. fulvvs — Ontario, Quebec, East- ern United States. V. bangsi — Labrador and North shore of Gulf of St. Law- rence. y. deletrix — Newfoundland. 7. rxilricosa — Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Gaspe, Prince Edward Island.* y. regalis — Manitoba, Dakota, Mon- tana, Alberta. y. macrouris — Wyoming, Nevada. y. abietorum — British Columbia, Al- berta, North West Terri- tories. y. alasoensis — Alaska, Yukon. y. liarrimani — Kadiak islands. y. kenaiensis — Kenai peninsula. y. cascadensis — Washington, Ore- gon, California. y. mecafor— California. * As it has been segregated for ages, the Prince Edward Island fox is, possibly, a distinct variety. aa t t! 3 ^■3 "3 15- §«^ <5 ■SH D. nS| ll a-° ill III ■p '1 :^1 S ttjg H g '•^ C£ FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 17 . , Investigation of the debated question of the colour phases of Colou r Phases foxes has produced definite information regarding its occur- rence. The fact that the cross, silver, black and red colours are all colour phases of the common red fox is of too common knowledge to warrant the citing of the many cases examined for evidence. The colours all exist and why they exist may be left to the discussion of biologists, some of whom say that ages ago foxes were originally dark coloured and that the silver is atavistic. It will be more useful in this discussion to describe how the darker colour is produced from red parents. A summary of the facts may be given as follows: 1. Silver parents always produce silver pups — never red or cross pups. (See possible exception below.) 2. Red parents mostly produce red, but, occasionally, some cross pups and even a small proportion of silver pups is produced. 3. Usually cross (patched) parents produce cross pups. 4. When a silver and a pure red are bred, they produce red pups with blacker markings on the belly, neck and points than the red parent. The pups are about of the colour known as * bastard.' 5. When a bastard red fox and a silver are mated the litter is on the average 50 per cent silver and 50 per cent red. 6. Bastard red parents often produce a black or silver pup in a litter — the proportion of silver being about one out of four. 7. The exceptions to the above rules are that sometimes the colours do not segregate, but rather blend, as in roan cattle when red and white hairs are intermixed and not separated into distinct patches. Cross foxes are produced by mating a red and a silver and, sometimes, an intermediate colour is secured in the pups. Thus, in some districts, every combination of the red, white and black colours of foxes is found. There are foxes which are : Red. — Eed above and white below, with dark points. Eed Ceoss or Patch Bastard. — Eed above and dark below and on the neck, with darker points. Poor Cross. — Mostly red and dark as above with a silver patch down the back and over the shoulders and hips. Good Cross. — Eed on the sides, neck and ears, dark below and silvery over the back, shoulders and rump. SiLVEB 18 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Silver or Light Silver. — Silvery all over, except the neck; dark below and white only on the tip of the tail. Silver Black or Darh Silver. — Black all over, except the tip of the tail and the silvery hairs on the hips and forehead. Black. — Pure black all over, except the tip of the tail, with, perhaps, dark silvery hairs only discernible on close examination. No two foxes are exactly alike in colour. Three silver foxes exam- ined had no white tipa on their tails and others had only a half dozen white hairs — yet the white tip is one of the marks of identification for the species. Others had white patches on the legs or breast, while the rest of the colouring was almost pure black. A silver fox usually produces silver pups when mated with a pure red in two crosses. If the first cross produces all red pups, two plans may be adopted : (a) A male and a female pup may be crossbred, producing, on the average, one silver pup to three redg. (b) A red pup may be bred to the silver parent, producing, on the average, 50 per cent, red pups. It is a more unusual occurrence to secure a blend or intermediate colour from crossing a silver and a red. By breeding the pups for four generations to a silver, the red colour is eliminated from the pelage markings. The segregation of the red and silver colour appears to be very common in many localities, but, in others, the roan or intermediate form of colour is produced quite frequently, the parent characters blend- ing and the hybrid breeding true. In this connection it will be of interest to quote from a letter dated August 2, 1912, received from Professor "W". Bateson of Cambridge Uni- versity, England, a naturalist of high repute and an authority on hair pigmentation. In the early stages of the investigation the usual opinion of naturalists and breeders was accepted and it was thus stated to Pro- fessor Bateson that silver parent foxes would produce an occasional red pup. This popular opinion has since been found to be usually incorrect. Professor Bateson's opinion has, therefore, been proved correct in every detail by subsequent developments. Professor Bateson says : "At first sight I should suppose silver to be a recessive to red and that it would always breed true. This, however, you say, is not the case. If silvers, really, when mated together, throw reds, there must be some complication which we cannot yet represent. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 19 Provisionally, I should doubt the statement until incontrovertible evidence is produced. " I am not perfectly clear what a silver is, but I take it that a silver fox is to a red fox what a silver tabby is to a common tabby, viz., the same thing devoid of the red or yellow element. It may be difficult to disentangle the relations of the colour when there is a series of gradational forms* and, in the first instance, I should try to get a family in which the distinction between the reds and the silvers was sharp. Then I should breed the silvers together — ^brother and sister if need be. " From what you say, I infer that two silvers of opposite sexes cannot be gotten to start from. That being so, you must mate together the silvers produced which you will raise from the reds produced by mating red and silver — if only reds come. But, if silvers come, then mate them together or back with the silver parent. " Apart from the great practical difficulties which there are in breeding foxes in domestication, I think you vidll easily fix a strain of silvers." Professor Bateson outlined perfectly the fox-breeding experi- ences of ranchers. Those who have spent their time working with gradational forms like the cross or patched foxes do not know what they will get until mating tests are made. Those who have chosen two dis- tinct colour types are able to breed out to the pure recessive type in two generations. Dr. Eugene Davenport makes an explanation of the Do Not Blend action of Mendel's Law of Hybrids that will prove instructive to many breeders. He says: " When diverse characters are thus brought together two very different results may follow. They may blend into a single new character, in which case our figures show the proportions within the blood, or they may remain distinct as two independent characters within the same individual. Stature and size as well as many colours blend freely, but not all characters behave in that simple way. For example, white and black blend freely in the human race, and the offspring of white and negro are mulattoes of various shades, according to the respective infusions; but colours do not blend in pigs, which are either black, white, or spotted, never roan or mulatto. Some colours blend in horses (roan) ; some do not. Some breeds of cattle have blended colours (Shorthorns) ; in others, the colours remain distinct (Holstein-Friesian) . * Such as cross foxes 20 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION " And so with characters generally. Many will blend and many others will not. When they will not blend, then the appearance is still less a guide to the real hereditary qualities, and under these circumstances it is little or no index to what will happen when the mixture is bred. This fact was long a great stumbling-block to breeders, involving the business of improvement in unfortunate and, as we now know, unnecessary mystery." Silver Colour Suppose that a breeder has a silxer fox, which, being Recessive to recessive, always breeds true, and he chooses a pure type ^^° of red fox for a mate, being careful in order to secure pureness of type to obtain the red fox from a district where no melanism exists. Let the red fox be denoted by E. E. and the black or silver fox by B.B. (As to results, the sexes are equal in influence.) R.R. + B.B. R.B R.B R.B R.B (red) (red) (red) (red) All pups are red, but of the bastard type mentioned above, with blacker points, — legs, muzzles and earg. They are really half black, but the colour is hidden or recessive in the first generation, red being dominant. There are now two methods by which he can proceed to secure the black colour or pure B.B. First method: R.B. + R.B. R.R. R.B. R.B. B.B. (pure red) (red) (red) (pure silver or black) Results: One-quarter of the litter is pure red One-half of the litter is red of the bastard type One-quarter of the litter is black or silver Second method: R.B. + B.B. B.B. B.B (pure silver (pure silver or black) or black) R.B. R.B. (red) (red) Results: One-half of the litter is red of the bastard type One-half of the litter is pure black or silver 1 A Red Fox Two Months Old-Showing a Dark Line of Blood 2 A Cross Fox, Red on Sides, Neck, and Ears-September Fur 3. A Dark Silver Fox with a White Patch on His Breast 4. A Black Female in October PUR-FARMING IN CANADA 21 Thus, it may be concluded that, in a district where melanism occurs, or where black and cross foxes occur, or either, there are very few foxes bred pure as to colour. If the unit of union be regarded as of gametes which are produced by each parent in the proportion of its ancestors — red and silver — ^the results may be forecasted by a simple mathematical calculation, the Law of Probabilities governing the mating of the gametes. R.R. Red parent producing only red gamates + B.B. Black parent producing only black gametes R.B. R.B. (red, bastard (red, bastard type) type) R.B. Producing half red and half black gametes + R.B. R.B. (red, bastard (red, bastard type) type) R.B. Producing half red and half black gametes R.B. R.B. R.B. Producing half red and half black gametes + R.B. B.B. B.B. Producing only black gametes R.B. R.B. B.B. B.B. It will be noticed that when the black colour (B.B.) appears the animal is always pure, while E.E. is pure red and E.B. is also red with darker points. It is well to bring out clearly the average results to be expected; as considerable speculation is indulged in as to whether or not certain foxes when bred to a silver will produce some silver pups. As much as $500 each has been paid for red pups that have one silver parent be- cause it is expected that, if the pup is mated to a silver, the resulting litter will be composed of silver and red foxes in about equal numbers. The hopes are realized in most instances, but many chances of securing silver pups are lost because the breeder gets only red pups the first generation and becomes discouraged. 22 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION „ . e-i There is a wide-spread belief that the silver descend- Reanng Silver Foxes from Reds ants 01 red lozes are rusty black in colour and are not aa pure a type as those bred pure for generations in the fox ranches. Professor W. E. Castle, of Harvard University, eays that only experiment will prove what quality will be obtained in the silver young of a red parent.* The results noted in this investigation indicate that some of the best skins ever produced are those of silvers having a red parent. There was difficulty in obtaining information on this important point as breeders were extremely reticent in giving in- formation concerning their experiences in cross-breeding with reds, because of a great prejudice against such breeding on Prince Edward Island. The prejudice, no doubt, results from an ignorance of Mende- lian principles in segregating types. It is interesting to note that Eev. George Clark, of St. Catharines, Ont., has in his possession a black dog fox obtained from near York Factory, Hudson Bay, which, he asserts, has sired none but silver pups, when mated with any vixen. Of course, the five or six litters sired by one dog does not provide sufficient data from which to form a general conclusion. It may be that many of the thousand or more red foxes kept in captivity will yet be crossed so as to produce a proportion of silver stock. As the red foxes were generally purchased from districts which produce very ordinary pelts, it is quite probable that, in many cases, the resulting silver will not be of good quality. The climatic conditions of Canada, however, which are very favourable to the production of good pelts, may improve exotic sub-species. Breeders are generally better pleased if cross foxes are Cross Foxes o j i- as Breeders produced the first generation, but, as a rule, if cross foxes are bred out, the tendency to produce an occasional red pup will never be wholly eliminated. Having cross foxes in the ancestry of silver foxes means that a proportion of red gametes are thrown and * Professor Castle, replying to an inquiry, says: " The several facts stated in your letter of November 14th, which I assuma you have sufficiently verified, show clearly that black (or silver) coat character in foxes is a Mendelian recessive in relation to the common red coat and may be recovered in the second generation from a cross with red. Whether it would be improved or deteriorated as a consequence, ex- periment alone could show. I should think that the ' patch ' or ' cross ' foxes occasionally obtained in the Fi generation might be well worth experimenting with, as indicating in that particular strain a tendency for the dominance to be reversed. If this tendency could be strengthened by judicious selection, a more potent strain of silvers might result. If, by this means, a strain potent enough to dominate Fi could be secured, it is evident that silver foxes could be produced much more readily." PUR-FARMING IN CANADA 23 at any time a red fox may appear among the other silvers in a litter. Few cases of red or cross pups among litters of silver pups were re- corded, and no ahsolutely reliable evidence that any were found was submitted; but the general opinion seemed to favour the statement that an occasional red pup appeared. Any breeder of silvers who had such impure foxes in his pens would be likely to conceal the fact by killing or removing the red pups. Silver foxes can be produced of good silver colour by top-crossing cross foxes with silver for several generations, and, if the silver foxes used in the crossing had ancestors of cross foxes, the probability is that a proportion of red, bastard, and cross foxes would appear among their offspring. All evidence tends to show, how- ever, that very few, if any, with red colour on them are produced, and it is clearly demonstrated that the blackness of foxes can be made prac- tically permanent by top-crossing to silvers. After mixing up red, cross, and silver foxes for several generations it is practically impossible to estimate the kind of pups that will come. Litters were seen that had red pups, cross pups and silver pups in them. Beyond a doubt, the finest foxes in captivity are the Furred^Foxes descendants of foxes captured in Prince Edward Island. The best foxes, therefore, belong to the geographical species, vulpes ruhricosa; or, what is affirmed — and is not impossible — the Prince Edward Island fox, because it has been cut off from the mainland, is a distinct sub-species or geographical race. No cranial and other measurements have yet been secured. If scientists admit the fact of its difference from the mainland species, a new name, vulpes dbegweit, could be chosen — Abegweit being the Micmac Indian name for Prince Edward Island. As London sales show that silver and red foxes from Prince Ed- ward Island have been sold for the highest prices, the evidence seems to bear out the assumption of its superiority. Eed foxes have, in some cases, sold for 80 shillings. Twenty-three red fox skins from Prince Edward Island, marketed in London in 1910, by one man, were sold for £68 isterling, or an average of $14.39 each. Other vendors claimed to have received as much as 88 shillings each, but no documentary proof was produced. When black colour phases of such animals are captured, they are usually of excellent quality in fineness and colour of coat. The ancestors of the highest priced foxes were dug out of dens, as a general rule, situated in Prince Edward Island. One instance of the capturing of wild foxes may be quoted, as the silver blood procured on this occasion flows strong in the highest priced animals of the present time. Two residents of Bedeque, P.E.I. , had 24 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION seen a red vixen in that locality and it was reported one winter that a silver fox was seen running with her. The following July (1900), Louis Holland and Louis Spence found the den and proceeded to dig the young foxes out. They found four blacks and three reds, which they sold to Charles Dalton for $300. Many other instances show that litters frequently occur in nature as described above — half of the litter silver and half of it red. One red female ranched in Nova Scotia and mated to a silver fox has produced fourteen pups in the years 1910, 1911 and 1912. Seven of the pups are red and seven silver. Most of the fox-breederg in other provinces have sold silver and dark silver stock to Prince Edward Island, where the demand has been greatest. Probably in all the dozen or more ranches in Ontario there are not two score silver foxes. The stock kept are bastard and cross foxea that produce litters with a proportion of silver pups. As their ex- perience in selling fur has not led them to believe the present high prices for breeders in the Maritime Provinces are warranted by the pelt value of the animals, the attitude of Ontario ranchers has, in general, been to sell out at the high prices offered. Because of continued importations of foreign stock into Prince Edward Island, probably thirty or forty per cent, of the silver foxes have been crossed with outside stock. In the majority of cases, the fur value has been lessened though, possibly, the crosses in some cases result in an improvement in size, fecundity, or other valuable quality. The appearance of many of the imported foxes examined would seem to warrant the conclusion that they are usually of a much lower fur value, especially those from Newfoundland (sub-species V. deletrix), whose pelts almost uniformly have a rusty-black appearance and are coarse and ''flaky.' The Quebec and Labrador foxes (sub-species V. hangsi) are much superior to those from Newfoundland. The Ontario foxes (sub-species F. fulvus) are secured from so many distant points that it is impossible to make a positive statement respecting their qual- ity. Some of them appear to be first class and vsdll prove to be excellent foundation stock for selective breeding for fur. Fur experts who have given special study to the fauna of Canada say that the red and silver foxes found on the Athabaska river and in the Yukon and Alaska are often of great value. These regions should produce a weighty pelt and, if good quality were secured in foundation stock, conditions for fox ranching should be ideal — especially if venison and fish could be easily secured for food. A Mated Pair, Very Dark Silver Male and Half Silver Female; October Fuh Pen in the Maple Woods— Sunny in Winter and Shaded in Summer FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 25 RANCHING PRACTICE While it is legal to keep fur-bearers in captivity in those provinces in Canada where there is no close season provided for them, it is unlaw- ful in most provinces to keep protected fur-bearers during thei close season. It is also unlawful to catch fur-bearers for ranching purposes in the close season in all provinces except Prince Edward Island. Apparently it is lawful in Saskatchewan and Quebec to hold the animals during the close season, provided they have been caught in the open season, or brought from a point outside the province. In all the other provinces, no ranching can be legally done without a permit from the provincial department charged with the care of game and fur-bearing animals. The various provincial authorities can encourage fur-farming by amending their game laws so as to allow the issue of permits to residents to catch fur-bearera and hold them in captivity for breeding purposes at any season. Eequiring annual returns of production would prevent any abuse of this privilege. , If foundation stock of excellent quality has been secured. Location of -i j i the Ranch the next most important question to be considered is the selection of a site for the ranch where the quality of the stock can be maintained from generation to generation. Climatic influ- ences are largely responsible for the value of the coat of fur. If an abun- dance of good food can be secured, an animal produces the heaviest coat where the climate is coldest. Humidity of atmosphere must also be considered. Poland says that open water, such as lakes and seas, renders the fur thicker, probably owing to the high percentage of humid- ity in the atmosphere. Exposed sea coasts and exposed prairies, he says, render fur coarse, while woods and forests cause it to be finer. For instance, the timber or forest wolves have finer fur than those living on the exposed prairie. Mr. Wesley Frost, United States consul at Charlottetown, in a report to his government in 1913, says : " The temperature and humidity on the Island [Prince Edward] are a happy mean between the intense cold and the moist, dull weather of New- foundland, Labrador and Alaska, and the warmer, drier weather of regions farther south. The far northern furs are saidlo be coarse and shaggy, while the furs produced in the northern states of our own coun- try are light and thin." It is also said that the absence of limestone in Prince Edward Island and Westmorland county, New Brunswick, gives a perfect soil for foxes to burrow in and is beneficial to the fur covering. As some excellent foxes never burrow at all, the ranchers carefully stopping up the holes whenever a start is made, there can- not be much ground for this assumption. 26 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The following is a summary of the best conditions for fox-ranch- ing operations: 1. Foxes should be ranched in woodland areas in a climate cold enough to produce a heavy fur and overhair. 2. The value of the pelt depends on good health as well as on climatic conditions. Wholesome varied food is a necessary con- dition for health and can be best secured in a thickly-settled rural district. 3. Foundation stock should be the best obtainable. The best foxes are those in captivity in ranches, and they have the addi- tional advantage of being half-domesticated. There are some advantages to be gained by conducting extensive ranching operations in one locality, particularly because breeding animals may be easily exchanged and the dangers of close, or in-breed- ing, prevented. Neighbours can also impart to one another more freely what their experience has taught them. These advantages, however, may be offset by the difficulties of securing food for the foxes. In every rural township there is enough cheap meat and oSal to supply flesh diet to scores of foxes, but not to hundreds. Several hundred foxes, therefore, in one neighbourhood, would necessitate the purchase of costly meat. An ordinary farm has enough waste meat scrap, dripping, bread, biscuits and game to support several animals. A wooded area, not subiect to flooding, and where the A Woodland , ' ., . , , .,, f' . ^ ■ , . Site snow does not pile up m deep drifts m winter, is best adapted for the site of the ranch. The subsoil should be a hardpan to prevent deep burrowing and escape under the fences. Areas which produce a growth of birch, spruce, fir and cedar, with heath plants and blueberries in the open areas, have usually a good turfy cover and a hardpan subsoil near the surface. In such a situa- tion, it is easy to erect pens as the fences have only to be extended down to hardpan to prevent the foxes from burrowing under and escaping. A sandy soil and subsoil, on the other hand, entails an additional ex pense, as they can burrow to depths of six feet or more. A family of foxes working one behind the other will relay earth out of a sandy hole in a veritable shower. In ordinary loam, the fence is not considered safe unless it extends down a depth of over three feet and is founded on a subsoil of considerable hardness. Proximity to the dwelling of the keeper is also an important con- sideration. This is usually accomplished by building the ranch in a woodland lot a few hundred yards distant from the house, or, if the ranch is a considerable distance from the owner's dwelling, by building I FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 27 a house for the keeper. It ia not advisable to keep fox pens nearer than twenty rods to a dwelling as, particularly at certain seasons, the peculiar and somewhat disagreeable 'foxy' smell is strong and unpleasant. The advantages of a large woodland ranch may be summed up as followa: 1. The outer fence and bush cover protect the foxes from curious sightseers, dogs, cattle and thieves, and gives them a sense of being hidden from enemies. 2. The buah cover is especially valuable for nervous foxes to hide in and to provide shade for the fur. They will also sleep contentedly all day under a bush, where it is more healthful than Jn a nest or a burrow. 3. The outer fence is an additional insurance against escape to the woods. If a fox escapes from the paddock, he can be easily caught in the outer enclosure, or, if the door is left open, he may, of his own accord, go back to his^pen at feeding time. 4. The snow does not pile in drifts, but lies level, on wooded areas. Huge drifts necessitate higher fences, or wiring over, to prevent escape. Fences do not need to be more than six or seven feet high if the snow never lies more than one or two feet deep. 5. A ranch in the woods has more equable climatic condi- tions. It is cooler in summer, less windy in winter, and is warmer for young foxes in the spring. There is less thawing and freezing up of snow to injure the fur. It also affords protection from rain and sleet. 6. The foxes can hide from thieves and could not be captured by a stranger unless the house were broken into when they were Bhut in their nest. So much noise, however, would be sure to rouse the dog and the watchman. 7. The outer enclosure permits of protective measures being taken. The keeper sleeps in a house there. Dogs are kept chained. Traps for thieves are laid, as, e.g., bear traps, burglar alarms, elec- tric shocking devices; and some ranches are lighted with lanterns or electric lights and equipped with telephones. 8. Large ranches seem to be more successful than smaller ones, because foxes in contiguous pens are company for each other. • 'If a woodlot is not available, the ranch may be built Chosen ' ** in cleared ground and quick growing trees planted. The Carolina poplar, soft maple, Manitoba maple {A. negundo), black locust and willow are among the fastest growers. One rancher living in a grape-growing district in an Ontario city has planted 28 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION grapes about the paddocks and will train them over his pens. The predi- lection of the fox for grapes is well known since the time of Aesop, but life in a vineyard may not be more beneficial to Eeynard's health than life elsewhere. The grapes provide a dense shade in summer, no shelter in winter, fresh fruit in season, and exercise in securing food. The whole ranch is surrounded by a concrete wall. Such a ranch is impossible in a district where there is a heavier snowfall, the lack of ventilation through the pens is objectionable and the cost is consider- able. It shows, however, what can be done by an experienced breeder to esitablish an industry on city lots in a populous neighbourhood. Sometimes an orchard serves as a suitable situation for a ranch. T. L. Burrowman, of "Wyoming, Ont., for instance, has placed his pens in a four-acre orchard, the foxes being kept out of the trees by trunk shields. Barnyards, open fields about the houses, hill-tops where snow drifts off and many other situations are frequently chosen, but the ranchmen, as a rule, regard such sites as temporary only. They usually contemplate larger ranching operations on better sites when sufficient capital can be raised. . , , . Sometimes a small island has been chosen as a site for An Island .^^ as a Site a ranch. When such is the case, visitors can be kept out of the vicinity more easily. Also a fox that has escaped is not apt to swim to the mainland away from the place where he has been fed. Prince Edward Island has an advantage over mainland areaa as a ranching centre because a fox that has escaped can usually be traced and captured, whereas on the mainland, he could roam £or hundreds of miles and get into uninhabited territory. When the site of the ranch is chosen, the bush surround- Feneing ing the selected area is cleared for a width of four feet and the ground levelled for the erection of an exterior fence. The trees are trimmed or cut so that foxes may not climb over the fence by means of them. Post-holes about three feet deep are dug from 10 to 16 feet apart, cedar posts being used if it is possible to secure them. If cedar, locust or other durable wood cannot be obtained, the ground end of the post niay be charred or treated with hot petro- leum or creosote to pander it more lasting. Posts from 10 to 15 feet long are used according to the usual snowfall of the locality and should be sharpened at the end to prevent heaving by the frosit. A post four inches in diameter at the small end and 12 feet long .will cost from 30 cents in some districts, up to 75 cents in others. Detail of Fence Construction with Sheet Iron Detail of Fence Construction. Many Breeders Prefer an Alley Surrounding each Pen FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 29 The corner posts need net be anchored when a purline is used. The purline is made with one-inch boards, four inches wide, or of straight poles. These are securely nailed to the posits to brace them and suppprt the meshed wire on the upper side. They also support the over- hang wire. The overhang wire is usually from 18 to 24 inches wide and is laid on brackets nailed at right angles to the posts and purline and then stapled to them. It is usually made of No. 16 galvanized wire having a two-inch mesh. The fence is composed of two-inch diamond meshed wire fas- tened to the purline with staples and hung on the outside of the post. If several rolls of wire are used the selvedges are laced with a soft No. 16 wire. No. 16 galvanized wire is strong enough for the upper part of the fence and No. 14 to No. 15 galvanized for the lower part. The wire is stretched at each corner with second class levers passed through the meshes, the post being used as a ful- crum. All corner posts must be perpendicular and care must be taken when the whole area is not perfectly level that the wire is pleated or gored when a change from one level to another is made; otherwise it 'buckles.' This occurs at corner posts on sloping land, and at changes of slope in the fence. The exterior fence is frequently built of boards 6 feet or even 10 feet high. The upper four feet are usually of wire with an overhang to prevent the foxes from climbing out. On the ground, inside, is a carpet vrire — three feet wide, and made of No. 15 wire having a two-inch mesh. It is laid on the ground and laced to the selvedge of the fence at the ground level, or stapled, if the fence is of boards. The other selvedge of the carpet wire is stapled to stakes driven in the ground. As he almost always begins to burrow close to the fence, the carpet wire will prevent the fox from burrowing under it. The most durable wire yet used has been imported from Great Used Britain. It is specially woven with an extra twist — and has a selvedge of three wires. In the smaller sizes a triple turn is made. The galvanizing, which is done after weaving, practically solders the joints. It comes in bales of 150 feet length and is of various widths. The best wire will last only from eight to twelve years underground. It is of interest to note that the aggregate sales of one of the largest hardware firms supplying this wire in Prince Edward Island have amounted to over 250 miles of wire, of an average width of four feet. The following list gives the prevailing prices of British-made dia- mond mesh ranch wire. They are from 10 to 20 per cent, lower than the prices of ranch wire of United States manufacture : 30 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Peice List of Eanch "Wire idth Mesh Gauge No." Price per 150 lineal feet 18 2 16 $2.65 24 2 16 3.50 30 2 16 4.25 36 2 16 4.85 48 2 16 6.40 60 2 16 8.00 72 2 16 9.65 36 2 15 6.10 48 2 15 8.15 60 2 15 10.15 24 2 14 5.20 30 2 14 6.20 36 2 14 7.25 48 2 14 9.40 60 2 14 11.85 36 17 8.50 48 17 11.00 72 17 16.50 24 16 7.25 36 16 10.25 The following table shows the comparatiTe cost of the various mephed wires manufactured. The Canadian price can be determined by discounting the list price for all sizes smaller than gauge No. 14 by about 15 per cent. On account of a lower rate of duty, the list price of gauge ISTo. 14 and larger gauges may be discounted by about 22 per cent. * Gauges Nos. 16 to 14 are used for fox ranches and Nos. 17 to 16 for mink ranches. ii ■q u Fl is ^ aJ » o ^3 <* N « ^ > o crl H bu W hJ -s rt M >. O in « Ph o O Made up to 96 inches wide Made up to 84 inches wide Made up to 120 inches wide ■jD "j3 >1 j3 "^ a 'si O O O CJ u o o .9s s .9s s .9s S .9s S S S .9s S S .9s S S .9s S S HM "*» mN rH -+f MiN "*o i ■ o NQOHNOOSOOiOOOOSOOt^cDCiOOt^COaiOOr^COOiOOt^CO NCQi-H(N(Mi-lCOOi-((NCDl>OCCOOO-*00<£)(NCDOt-(MiOOU20(N»^iOiCW5(Ni>C^Oii-iiOOI>-GOT-)iOiOt^OiOiOOOOO T— I T-l C^ T-1 f— ( N tH I— ( T— 1 1— 1 W 1—1 1—1 I— 1 »— I 48 inches wide OOOOCDlCOOO'-itDOiCOiOiOCqoOeOlOOOIr^OMC^ CNiOQOi(MtOI>OCCCOt>CSCNLOiOt^OSC^-^iCt^OO'^iCCDOO 1— It— ItNi— (1— (i— li— 1 1— It— 1 i— 1 42 inches wide g§g3SSSSS^S§SS5S3S^S§2g^KS§^ rHCOOOOOOTjH'iDoOi-liO'lOt-O-^iOcDOOr-HTpiOCDI^-COTlilOt* ,_l ,— 1 1— 1 T— ( T— i iH T— 1 I— I 1—1 36 inches wide OI>CO^O^OOTj4^CD§OOi-lCQ^CCOiO'^^I>-TtOS(NiOI>0"*»0005(M-^iOt>OSCOTPif3«DCOCOiCCO 1—1 1—1 1—1 1—1 »— I 30 inches wide 24 inches wide SS5§§i=5^?52&5gfc?§SSSS§g:2SS&§§g COCOO"^COCOTtCOCO-<*O00rt-lMi-lU5C0C0C0'-i-iONrHCDiOOt^OI>-Tt1005COOi'*-(Ni-liOCt^COIr^(MX(MiC^CO CO'*iOC^CO^CGGl>cDOiOOI>a3a)OOt^cDO>00^-0 CqCqi-lC^Cqi-( « ■^ 6(1 k4 O W TI H >5 [/J i-J o 1« M CJ HH M n PL. tH fr4 Q 0. N l-J 5 o H n. M Q S o Made up to 120 inches wide Made up to 96 inches wide Made up to 120 inches wide .5s :3 3 3 3 .^s 3 s 3 .5^ 3 s s :; .^is s s s C<> HW CO ■* 050ot^o>»T)^cnoot^ocnoo^^(N03^0w:)lO(NCnOOCD.-H 10tDOOOT)loo-*-*t^05-H-*-itlCDOOOJi-ITt.Oii-iiOC0'*J>O5CCiTt<»CCDt^OiC0TtHTj^CDt^ 48 inches wide t^iO^lNr^COCOOCqiOOOOiOiCiOiOOOiOOOO lOiOOOCO^COOOOOCOOOOOCCiMCOeCCOGOCMOli-HO cqTt^lC^-a5C^^l^:)|^:llJ:^cot^(NC0Ttllotot^c.No«Dou:iou:)(Mooou:)0^cooooco CO-^iOCOoOOC^COTfiOCDtNC^CO'^iOtOCNCqcO'^iO 36 inches wide 0'-t^Wi-HTtH(NOt^l>rH'^05000 CSC^TtiOt^OlCqCqcOTjHiLO'NMCO'^Tt^iOC^CslC^CO'^ 30 inches wide COCSCCOC^'-HOCOCO'-i.-iOOi-HCOiOi-HOOO^tOCOO C'<**C4iOGOCOOS'«tiC O a:i CQ CN "<*< O 05 '^^ iC O 00 Oi • ■lO'^O ' ■ O CO t- CO 00 t- OS .-H lO 00 CO 00 O CO CO • -oocoio • • 1-1 i-H i-H M N CO 1-H i-Hi-l * Usual Type of Kennel and Pen Cheap Kennel Constructed from a Packing Box FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 33 Construction '^^^ requirements of an ideal pen may be summarized of Pens as follows: 1. It should be large enough for foxes to run in at full speed when playing. 3. Part of it should be shaded overhead and it should pro- vide good hiding cover. 3. It should have warm, well-drained, sunny areas in which the young pupa may play. 4. Turfy or mossy ground cover is desirable. Leaves, or spruce or pine needles, make a good ground cover. Sand is good, but mud is objectionable. The smallest pens used by the best ranchers enclose an area of at least 900 square feet. One rancher has a highly-valued pair in an enclosure of over 4,000 square feet. The usoial size is a pen enclosed by one bale of wire, which is 150 feet long. Thus the area is 37 feet by 37 feet, or 30 feet by 42 feet, or 25 feet by 50 feet. In some cases the last-named dimensions are adopted and a cross fence used, 90 that the male is shut in one end and the female in the other during the latter part of the period of gestation and while the pups are young. Inasmuch as they must be extended into the ground to prevent the foxes from burrowing under them, the paddock fences are harder to build than the exterior. When a solid hardpan exists, the fence may be laid on it, even if it is only one foot from the surface. If the subsoil is light and open, paddocks are not fox-proof unless the fence is buried over four feet. In light soil additional precaution may be taken by digging the trench wide and by rough-concreting the base a couple of feet inwards from the fence. One rancher, on a sandy area, planned to concrete the whole floor area of his paddocks and cover it with a foot of sand. When it interferes with the drainage, this use of concrete is objectionable. The carpet wire should be used on the paddock fence as well as on the exterior. It prevents the fox from burrowing alongside the fence where digging out is always attempted. The following material is necessary for the construction of a paddock fence 9 feet high and extending three feet into the ground: 12 posts, each 13 feet long. 150 lineal feet of 1-inch board, 4 inches wide. 150 lineal feet of overhang wire, 24 inches wide, 2-inch mesh, gauge No. 16. 150 lineal feet of fence wire, 5 feet wide, 8-inch mesh, gauge No. 16. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION 150 lineal feet of fence wire, 4 feet wide, 'Much mesh, .traug'' No. 14. 150 lineal feet of ground wire, 3 feet wide, "i-iucli mesh, gauge No. 14. 150 lineal feet of carpet wire, 13 feet wide, 2-incli mesh, gauge No. 15. Nails, spikes, t^taplcs. hinges, locks for door and .\'u. 16 lacing wire. It is not customary to use a smaller meshed wire at the ground level, but casea are known of the death of fox pups caused by having their heads caught in the two-inch mesh. A smaller mesh, therefore, if it could be procured in No. 15 gauge, furnishes an additional pre- caution against the death of the valuable animals. A new type of paddock fence, which is evidently an improvement, is being put up in some of the newest ranches. Instead of the two-inch mesh No. 16 wire, a strip of galvanized sheet iron three feet wide is fastened at a height of four or five feet from the ground. Joist pieces 2 inches by 4 inches are placed from post to post to nail to. The ad- vantage of the sheet iron is that foxes cannot climb to the top of the fence and fall, breaking their legs or producing a rupture or an abor- tion. One pen was seen where the sheet iron was placed at the top of the posts and no overhang was required. Foxes climb fences only when badly frightened. Such a state of fear is to be avoided, but may be impossible to control with some animals. Sharp sticks and stumps near the fence should be taken out lest the falling fox be ruptured or otherwise hurt. The middle toe nails of the fox may be cut off every few months to prevent climbing, or the sheet iron used as described above. It should not be placed near the ground as it would interfere with the circulation of air in the paddock. The door into the paddock should be placed from eighteen Paddock ^ r o Door to twenty-four inches above the ground level and should be provided with good hinges and a good lock. If no exterior fence is used, make a double door entrance, so that one door is closed and locked before the other is opened. If foxes have the run of two pens, a door between the pens set up two feet high and with a sloping platform on each side from the sill to the ground, should be provided. Doors should be about 2 feet by 4 feet in dimensions. Many ranchers have a small passageway between pens, which foxes are obliged to crawl through, as when playing, they do this so often that the}- wear off the guard hair over the hips and shoulders. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION ivF.'^r hySUUT!OI^ GROUND PLAN Scale I inch = I Tooi Fox Entrance Foundation Post SECTION on AB Floor Plan and Vertical Section of a Fox Kennel FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 35 . In the earlier days, the houses were of logs, barrels, or of the Kennel boxes. Later, a small box was placed within a larger one and the intervening space packed with sawdust or chaS. An entrance was provided by a passageway constructed of boards. The roof was made water-tight by a piece of sheet iron. Such houses are still in use, but have the disadvantage of being easily robbed. Mr. Burrowman and some other Ontario ranchers attempt to imitate nature more closely by constructing solid one-pieoe cement dens built mostly underground and in well-drained spots. They can be made quite thief -proof, and, indeed, there is apparently no way for the keeper to get access to the nest. In the case of one den, at Bothwell, Ont., it was only possible to crawl in by shovelling out the small entrance used by the fox. The most generally approved houses are wooden constructions, placed in the centre of each paddock. The interior consists of an inner and an outer kennel, and the entrance for the foxes is through a passageway of rectangular cross-section constructed with four boards. The interior dimensions of this passageway should be about 7^ in. by 10 in., and it should slope from the building down to within 6 inches of the ground. The entrance for the keeper is through a door in the end, or else by means of a hinged roof. The door or hinged roof is, of course, always kept locked. The house is usually made with a floor area 3 feet by 4i/< feet, or slightly larger. The posts are about 3 feet high ; the walls are boarded, papered and shingled ; the floors are double boarded with paper between; the roof is boarded, papered and shingled and ventilation is provided by openings in both gables. All parts that the foxes rub against are smoothed and sand-papered so as not to injure the overhair. The building should be set on skids a foot off the ground so that the foxes cannot hide under it. The inner kennel or nest is to be the home of the young of the Nest f oxes and must be large enough to prevent crowding and small enough to be warmed by the body heat of the animals. The usual size of the nest is about 18 in. long by 18 in. wide by 20 in. in height, but some prefer to make them with floor dimensions 16 in. by 20 in. The entrance, 8 inches in diameter, is centred on one side ; the floor corners are filled up with a triangular piece of moulding ; three or four half-inch holes are bored in the roof to provide a slight ventilation and the roof or cover of the nest can be lifted off so that the manager can see into the nest when necessary. The nest is kept warm by being packed about on all sides with some material of low thermal conductivity. The best yet discovered are the ground cork in which the Spanish Malaga grapes are packed, dry seaweed, sawdust, chaff 36 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION and leaves. A space of four or five inches all about the six sides of the box packed with insulating, material will retain the heat sufficiently and will absorb dampness. In some cases, a light bedding of earth, leaves, seaweed or marshgrass is given in the winter. It is usfual to place pens side by side on both sides Pens and Kennels of an alley about six or eight feet wide,* the fences at the ends of the alley being an additional safeguard against escape. The dog (or male) pen, according to one plan, consists of one end of the common pen and the male is segregated by simply closing the door. According to another plan, the pen for the male iR several feet distant and segregation is effected by simply closing the slide door in the passageway. The kennel provided for the dog fox may be a box or barrel with a chute entrance. The dog pen is becom- ing less used year by year. It should be constructed near the other pen and arrangements should be made so that the pairs can be separated quietly. No confusion or excitement whatever in eflfecting a separation of the male and female at this critical period should be permitted. The food of foxes in the wild state does not consist wholly Feeding of flesh as many suppose; for, to a certain extent, the fox is omnivorous, and will eat grass and berries. If flesh only, were fed to a ranch fox, the probability is that, after a time, digestion would be greatly impaired and the whole intestinal tract would be- come infested with worms. The food varies so much in each locality that it is impossible to do more than state the principles which should govern the feeding of foxes. The very fact that success is achieved with so many kinds of dieting proves that the fox, like the dog, can live well on almost any kind of food. A prospectus of a ranch at Copper Eiver, Alaska, says that the pelts of their foxes have a magnificent sheen because the animals are fed on oily salmon. Ontario ranchers have many excuses to hunt rabbits and groundhogs, because they are ' natural ' food for the foxes. J. Beetz of Piastre Baie, Que., finds fish and lobster good, and his success in catching foxes is largely due to the fact that they come down from the interior each winter to seek just such food on •bhe shore of the St. Lawrence river. And who could tell an old Prince Edward Island rancher how to feed his foxes ? ' The best in the house is none too good,' he says, and he will feed them almost every- * See diagram facing this page. COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Q Q a> 4- /?.> ■■^- •5 .> :^^ f> a ' -^s^i^'^: '' '5 ,--, ' -^ ■-■'4 ' ■■'^'' ft.' I .4 7^ 3n '^) •'3 <.7 ,Q5 _.L ^ '-? Q a '^^ . fl. r^ Q c l3 '^ ^ □ — 1 n E Alley il) 4. o ^^ Keepers 3 — ^— c^ I "0\ Ootfr Oi3,'-^ ^ "^J3' ^^G*4I jC'iJ < "si-' ' "^'^ 'T^ '^ c/- ^■^' c^ <£^4/^'i^ O Q ^j^ Q^ ('d ' ^ ° 2 Q D u u □ Q n u u U Q LI u i THE BEST TYPE OF FOX RANCH Scale I inch » 50 feel — D D D— i* J — " o o a -C^ s) .'3. v? /;:^''<3 ^■i f;?k &- . -@ i:;|} X 'C,r^ 4 cvmp.irlrmnts fof ^ pi .'~^ ^11 i- .'. t ■^ ^^- vt^ ^>-',;;/'f^Q ' Door h i- I io^je Q 4 ^.:^ M :3 ;o '^. ^^ ^ti 1 >^ -;" '-n '^ ^ -a i".l ^^ c Lt^J- j^r^ yV- '■--'>? -I>- ^^ ^-, •:^ 4 ,n Q ^ fCl, (fJi A GOOD TYPE TF FOX RANCH FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 37 thing he would eat himself, and some grass, minnows, mice, crickets and berries besides. 1^ The flesh diet of foxes is horse meat, calves, butcher scraps Diet (livers, hearts, heads, etc.), fish (both cured and flresh), rabbits, groundhogs, mice, rats, birds, squirrels, lobster bodies, and old cattle and sheep. The flesh is usually fed raw, but some feeders parboil it. It is salted slightly when parboiled, only a small amount of salt being used. Frequently carcasses are salted down in casks, and, when required for food, a portion is freshened by placing it in running water for a day or two. Some of the finest foxes seen were fed with this kind of food and seemed to be in very thrifty condition, possibly because of being free from worms. Some ranches have cold storage plants, and keep the meat packed with ice. No storage houses similar to bait-freezers are used as yet, but the bait-freezer at Eustico, P.E.I., might serve aa a model for such a house. Neither has any mechanical refrigeration of any kind been attempted. Old cattle and horses are kept on the hoof and slaughtered from time to time as required. As foxes have been known to die of tuber- culosis, these should be subjected to the tuberculin test or, at least, examined for tubercles after killing. The amount of meat fed should be about one-fourth pound a day and this amount should be decreased if any of it is buried by the fox. The non-flesh food consists of biscuits, yeast bread, hoe Diet bread, vegetables, porridge, grass, berries, apples, milk and eggs. Patent dog biscuits are fed with good results, one ranch using only Spratt's biscuits, with milk and water, as food. The best ordinary biscuit is the plain hardtack. It is probable that hard- baked non-yeast bread is better than leavened bread. Bread is more relished if grease drippings are poured upon it. Tallow has been used with good success as a butter on hoe bread. Any rations are liable to fail unless the food is served properly. The dishes should be frequently scalded and scrubbed and kept scrupu- lously clean. The water vessel should be fastened to the fence with wire hooks so that the foxes cannot climb over it. The food must be withheld when foxes are observed to bury or hide it. In frosty wea- ther in April or May, frozen meat would kill the young foxes, so it is necessary to feed it warm or parboiled in such weather. If one fox dominates the other and Lakes too large a share of the food, a large quantity must be supplied at night and removed when both have had enough, e.g., a cow's head may be left in a pen for several days to furnish the flesh diet. 38 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION A perfect fox diet can be secured in tlie patent dog biscuits. Biscuits The:3e are made with various kind,? of food content, so that balanced rations can be provided. The biscu.it medicines have also been proved excellent, and are easy to administer. It is possible that the manufacture of biscuit with meat or fish fibre will be an industry that will develop contemporaneously with fur-farming. The meat can probably be best preserved in this way and feeding made easier and pleasanter. , . . Broken bone should not be fed lest some of it be General Directions for Feeding swallowed. Bone should be fed, especially to young foxes, to assist in building up bone and in removing the milk teeth. Some do not feed bony fish, e.g., perch, lest the bones rupture the delicate linings of the throat and intestines. Observation, however, leads to the belief that such injury is not likely to happen, as they are dainty feeders and, unlike d<^s, do not devour their food greedily. In addition to bones, growing foxes are fed a quantity of limewater — about one teaspoonful a day — with their milk. This food gives a substance to the bone and insures stronger limbs. The pregnant mother should also be fed bone broth and limy foods to insure strong limbs for her offspring. Neither of the foxes should be allowed to become too fat for breeding. AVhen the foxes are less than a year old, they can be fed almost as much as they will eat; after they are older, a full diet may make them too fat for good breeding condition. An average sized fox should weigh from eight to eleven pounds. Some feeders stint foxes in food in November and December and January, to get them into breeding condition; others endeavour to keep them normal always. In the mating season, foxes are very active, and fat pork is fed and a full supply of food is given to keep them in condition. Some roll the meat in sand and soil, claiming that soil is nature's medicine for worms. Some feeders throw food into the pen over the fence; others, in order to tame them, try to coax them to receive it from between the meshes of the wire. A skilful feeder can do more to tame his foxes through feeding them than in any other way. If the food is always delivered at the same place, the tendency will be for the animal to approach nearer and nearer at each feeding. The science of foods is of less importance than a knowledge of the art of feeding. The mother should be well fed on an attractive and strengthening diet for several weeks before the young are born. Milk, eggs and bone PUR-FARMING IN CANADA bi'oth are good for the purpose. When the yomng are expected, laxative food should be given. When the mother appears after the young are born, she should be fed well several times a day with meat, eggs, fresh new milk, meat broth, well-cooked oatmeal and other appetizing and varied foods, while a supply of clean, wholesome water in a clean trough should be constantly available. Live rabbits and poultry, squirrel and other game may be used to give variety to the mother's ration. . Despite the assertions of many experienced breeders that Management feeding is the most difficult of all operations in fox ranching, very little evidence was found to confirm this opinion. Few cases of failure due to bad dieting were noted. It is not difficult to keep foxes alive in captivity, and, usually, the cause of nearly every loss can be traced. Occasionally mature foxes die sud- denly and no satisfactory cause of death can be found, even though post-mortem examinations have been carefully performed by qualified operators. The proportion of deaths, however, is low, only four being reported in Prince Edward Island in 1912, though probably more took place. In most cases, lack of success may be attributed to an inex- perienced keeper. When men who have never fed even a horse or cow, attempt to rear foxes, they may keep them alive, and may rear a few young, but the probability of failure is great. The failures are usually made in feeding to maintain good breeding condition, and in the care and feeding at the critical period of whelping and rearing the young. The keeper's own character and disposition will have much to do with success with shy and nervous foxes at this period. A good manager is always studying his animals at the breeding season and he carefully notes the dates of mating and whelping. He treats each pair according to their dispositions. In some cases he separates the male and female before whelping, and, in other cases, he leaves them to- getlier. He must be observant, resourceful and faithful, for he is dealing with animals which have had only several generations of domestic breeding. The critical period of each year in breeding foxes is Gestation between the dates January 1 and June 30. At this time, as the wild nature of some of the foxes renders them exceedingly sensitive to strange sights, noises, and smells, all ranches are closed to everyone but the keepers. The keeper usually wears the same overcoat when about the pens. All domestic animals are kept at a distance from even the outer fence. Strangers are warned not to approach the ranch premises on pain of being fined for trespass. In 40 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION New Brunswick and Quebec, laws have been passed making it an offence punishable by a heavy fine to approach near a fur ranch.* The keeper should move cautiously and quietly about the pens when feeding. He should have a post of observation from which he can see the pens and yet not be seen. A dark chamber with a hidden approach and a small window to look through may serve. From this post an experienced breeder can ascertain when mating occurs. At the earliest, whelping will take place fifty days after mating, though it may be fifty-two days, or, in rare instances, fifty-three or fifty-four days, especially with the first litter. Fifty-one days is the usual period of gestation. If the keeper plans to remove the male, he should have the the Male pens built in such a manner that the male may be shut out (away from the female, though with only a fence or double wired fence intervening) without a suspicion on the part of the foxes of design in such a removal. The action of some breeders in entering the pen and catching the dog with tongs or catching box is universally condemned as very dangerous at this period. If the male is kept close by, he will watch and warn whenever he fears danger and, moreover, he takes an interest in the rearing of the young — frequently carrying his food along the fence, apparently with the intention of giving it to the female and the young. „ , . It is not usual for parent foxes to kill the young Excited Mothers intentionally, but, when they become nervous, they want to remove the pups to another place. A mother will frequently become greatly excited, and, dashing into her nest, will carry out the pups one by one and bury them in the snow or mud. This frequently occurs and is the great fear of ranchers in the spring months. It is difficult to tell what to do in such an emergency, except to see that the foregoing preventive measures are taken. The measures suggested in the following paragraph have been successfully carried out in more than one instance. A crate of chickens or rabbits should be kept near at hand so that if a mother carries her young about, a live chicken or rabbit may be put into the pen to attract her attention and turn her from her im- pulse of hiding the young elsewhere. One breeder says that he stopped one mother with an egg which he threw in front of her from outside the fence when she was carrying out her pups. Some ranchers, during the whelping season, always keep posted regarding the whereabouts of at least one cat with young kittens. If the * See Appendix V. Fox Kittens Two Weeks Old 2. A Three-Quarters Black Fox Badly Frightened; No Hiding Cover to Retreat Into 3. Keeping Watch on the Strangers 4. A North Shore (Que.) Fox in August FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 41 mother fox proves to be not capable of rearing her young for any reason, they are taken from her and reared on the cat until four or five weeks old, when the eat will usually desert them. They are then able to lap milk. Young foxes have been found stifE and cold, but by warming them in hot cotton wool and providing them with a feline wet-nurse, have finally grown to maturity. A nursing bottle and a medicine dropper also might be kept on hand to feed milk. The young are blind for about three weeks and do not leave Breeders the nest, but when they are about four weeks old, the mother carries them to a sunny place. They soon learn to lap milk and eat. When about three months old, the mother weans them and they may go to quarters of their own. Foxes have only one litter a year, each litter consisting of from one to nine pups. The earliest noted litter came on March 13; the latest, on June 4. No instances are yet recorded of two litters in one year, but it is believed that it may occur within a few years when the animals are more domestic in habit. According to the best authorities, foxes in the wild state are monogamous. In captivity, they are usually paired for life, and in many instances re-mating is said to be impossible. In some cases, however, foxes can be re-mated yearly. Some males will mate with several females during the same winter. Two systems of double mating are practised. Under one system, a male and two females of the same litter are given the run of three pens. After mating they are all separated into their respective pens. The other system also requires the use of three pens, the male spending alternate days with each of the two females. When mating is effected in these ways, success is not as certain as with single mating. The fox continues prolific until about ten or eleven years of age. If a pair fail to produce young after the eighth year, they are usually slaughtered. In the majority of cases foxes mate when ten months old. Some breeders endeavour to mate a young female with a male a year older. No serious diseases were observed in foxes on Canadian Diseases^" ranches. No sick fox was seen except one that had produced no overhair and appeared to be in very poor condition generally. It was probably the type known to hunters as the Samson fox. Evidence furnished by , E. E. Hamilton of G^and Valley, Ont., who once had one in similar condition in his possession, indicates that the lack of fur and the poor condition is caused by a tape- worm. Mr. Hamilton cured it by administering a violent vermifuge, using a biscuit vermifuge, puppy doses. 42 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Writers report that rabies and canker of the ear have been known, but no evidence of these diseases was found during the present investi- gation. Mange is also mentioned and probably exists. The usual remedies applied in the case of dogs seem to be effective wherever used and they are usually put up in a form easy to administer. The following quotation from a letter from Spratt's Patent, Ltd., who manufacture dog biscuits and medicines, contains a number of useful suggestions for the rancher : " In our pamphlet on dog culture, you will find chapters on all the diseases mentioned in your letter. If foxes, also, are subject to these diseases special precautions will have to be taken. Besides being wild animals, we presume they live in artificial or natural earths, and you can readily understand that, when an animal is suffering from ophthalmia, special precautions will have to be taken. " The same applies to mange ; otherwise, all the animals will soon contract the disease. " When the animals are from four to six weeks old, they start changing their milk for permanent teeth and bone is a useful article to give, as this helps the shedding of the milk teeth. Sometimes, of course, they are so firmly imbedded in the gum9 that forceps must be used, and should you find an animal's head swelling, we strongly advise you to examine the mouth and re- move the milk, especially the canine, or eye, teeth." Dr. Alexander Boss, of Charlottetown, formerly of Alberton, P.E.I., who has given much attention to fox diseases and their treat- ment and has acquired a rare experience in treating foxes on the numer- ous ranches situated within his practising territory at Alberton, has written the following article on fox diseases and surgery for this report : " Foxes bred in captivity are more liable to disease than those which roam the wilds. In confinement they are shut off from various foods they seek in the wild state, particularly when they are not well. They are also limited as to exercise, so their muscular tone is usually below par. They often show malformation in the bones of their limbs (rickets) which, I think, is due principally to their food being deficient in bone salts and to restricted exercise, On the whole, however, I have found, in an experience extending over fifteen years, that the colonies of foxes in Prince Edward Island are remarkably free from diseases. PUR-FARMING IN CANADA 43 " Quite a few show rickets which is due largely to the kind of food they get. In those ranches where proper care is taken, very few of them have this disease. Where they are hred simply for quality of fur with- out due regard to physique, where they are in-bred, and especially when they are not properly fed, they are liable to develop rickets. Ground bone, lime water or cod liver oil and hypophosphites of lime and soda administered with their food will help to arrest the disease at its begin- ning. Abundance of fresh air and sunshine should also be provided. " Foxes in confinement are prone to suffer especially from Digestion disorders of digestion due to lack of knowledge in feed- ing them. The following are a number of the more com- mon of the diseases of the digestive organs, together with directions for treating them: " Diarrhoea.— li severe, give a purge of castor oil with a few drops of spirits of turpentine, followed by 10 to 20 grains of bismuth every two hours till the animal is better. The castor oil dose may be repeated more than once in smaller doses if the diarrhoea persisits. At the same time, the food should also receive attention. Meats should be restricted, and milk, biscuits and eggs given. No food should be left in the feed- ing-pans more than a few hours and the pans should be scalded out frequently. " Constipation. — They do not suffer much from this disease. It can be overcome largely by means of dieting. A dose of eascara acts well, and, when needed, injections of soap suds may be given. " Worms. — Pups are especially liable to worms; Indeed, I have seen the whole intestinal tract full of worms. These often cause fits. Fast the pup for eight or ten hours and give a dose of castor oil with a few drops of turpentine. Also give santonine — one-third of a grain to a pup six weeks old. Eepeat every other day till the pup is well. "Indigestion. — In pups this is liable to cause fits. The young ones will not eat; their coats lose sleekness and they become listless. If not promptly treated, they die quickly. Give castor oil and turpen- tine and feed judiciously. This can only be done by separating the ill from the well. " I have met with no case of disease of the respiratory organs. " There have been no epidemics of any kind among the foxes of Prince Edward Island. Now and again, a grown fox has died suddenly. Usually the fox seemed to be quite lively, and in a few hours the keeper found him dead. I performed autopsies on three or four of these and could in no case be certain of the cause of death. In one case, I found some congestion of the lung, which I regarded as post mortem. In an- 44 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION other, the gall bladder was abnormally distended. Most of them showed some redness of the alimentary tract. I am of opinion that death was due to some food poisons — ptomaine. In one animal that died there was a jelly-like fluid between the pelt and the flesh of the hind legs. " When pups are shedding their milk teeth — usually at the age of three months — abscesses are liable to form at the roots of the tusks. The fox then swells around the snout. In such cases the tusks, which are quite loose, should be extracted. Give them large bones to gnaw so they can knock out these teeth. This will usually prevent the forma- tion of these abscesses. "Fleas and Moths. — Dip the fox in weak solution of creolin in order to rid him of these pests. " Fox Surgery. — I have had more to do with foxes in a surgical than in a medical way. They frequently break their limbs in fighting among themselves or in an effort to escape by climbing their enclosures. These fractures are usually compound and necessitate the amputation of the limb. The flesh is stripped back and the protruding bone is snipped off with bone forceps. The wound is dressed antiseptically and the flesh is sititched over the bone. The whole part is well dusted with iodoform, and wrapped in gauze bound on with surgeon's adhesive plaster. The fox will not touch the dressing when dusted with iodoform. The oper- ation is simple, no anjesthetic is needed and there is no danger from bleeding, because, as a rule, no arteries have to be tied. In fact, it is dangerous to give an ansesthetic. " When the fracture is not compound, the limb may be set in splints of any light wood; maple saplings make good splints. Bind the splint on with adhesive plaster and with rabbit wire; the fur makes sufficient padding for it. Dust with iodoform to keep the fox from tearing the splint off. In winter, care must be taken that the leg does not freeze. " Judicious feeding can only be learned by experience. Grass and other green food and fresh earth should be placed in the enclosures at frequent intervals, as the animals require something of that nature to keep them healthy. Their kennels should be kept as clean as possible and should be washed out once or twice a year with a hot solution of creolin, two drams to the pint. One breeder dips all his foxes, after the pups are weaned, in a weak solution of creolin to rid them of fleas and other vermin. " In general, it is far better to take good hygienic precautions before the foxes get sick, than to invite disease by having them live in filth in small enclosures." PUR-FARMING IN CANADA 45 In 1912, vague reports were circulated among the Diseases breeders of Prince Edward Island that a contagious parasitic disease was being introduced by blue foxes imported from Alaska. A definite warning was furnished the Commis- sion of Conservation by an eminent United States authority that such a dangerous disease exists and would prove fatal to the fox industry if introduced; but few details of the disease were presented. A letter of inquiry was 'sent to Mr. George M. Bowers, Commissioner of Fisheries, Department of Commerce and Labor, who has charge of the conserva- tion of foxes and seals at certain points in Alaska. The reply under date of November 25, 1912, is as follows: " The Bureau has not been informed of any particular para- sitic disease as existing among the foxes of Alaska. So far as known, fatal disease has been so rare as to be negligible in the con- sideration of fox raising. Improper feeding, accidental poisoning and tuberculosis have been known to cause the death of individual foxes, but nothing in the nature of an epidemic has been reported." As already stated, the capturing of escaped foxes presents Escaped little difficulty provided they do not get outside the exterior Foxes fence. They will often, of their own accord, return through the open door after a few hours. Or, in the cases where escape has been over snow banks, they will usually return when hungry. They may be driven into the alleys from the outer enclosure when a temporary fence of meshed wire is stretched across from the pen to the outer fence. They can also be caught in box traps, or in steel traps which have the jaws wrapped with muslin so that the limbs will not be injured. A live hen or rabbit makes excellent bait. The latter method will often prove effective when the fox has escaped to the woods, as they are likely, especially if ranch-bred, to remain in the vicinity of the ranch. The ownership of an escaped fox is a disputed point. Many people contend that a fox roaming at large is game for anyone, but, if the ranchman can identify the live fox or the skin, he can recover it as his personal property. Eanchmen have given serious study to the question of Identification marking for identification. A numbered aluminum tag, I which may be seen at a considerable distance, is often fastened into the ear. In some way, however, the fox manages to get it off. Marking the teeth by filing or tattooing them is also resorted to, and has, at least, proved practicable. But the disadvantage of not mark- ing the skin is obvious. A possible method, not yet attempted, is to tattoo the skin with the owner's number or brand, which could be 46 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION stamped into the hide where it is least valuable. The brand could be registered, and the skin or the live animals thus identified. If such a method be practical, it would have the additional advantage of being undiscoverable by thieves and of rendering it possible to identify the skin on the open market. The catching and handling of foxes in their pens pre- Handiing sents little difficulty. Expert ranchers will catch and handle them without gloves or instruments, but the ordinary rancher provides himself with a pair of tongs the jaws of which will close to a diameter of two and a half inches. The fox is shut into his nest, and, when the cover is lifted, is grasped about the neck with the tongs. The fox may then be carried away on the arm and the rancher be in no danger of getting bitten. A catching box is also useful. It is made just large enough to admit the fox and has a slide door at €ach end. When it is placed at the end of the entrance to a house with one slide door opened, the fox may be driven out of the nest into it. The slide door is closed and the fox is thus trapped in the box. If the catching box be made of stiff wire-mesh sides and top, the fur can be closely examined. In the case of the latter type of construction, how- ever, the fox might not readily enter it unless a blanket was placed over the box to darken it. When foxes are transported, they are put into a box which is lined with meshed wire so that they cannot escape by gnawing their way out. They can be kept without water or food for days, but are generally fed water biscuits or a hone and are watered, a can being nailed on the in- terior for that purpose. Express companies are obliged to feed them if food is provided. When foxes are brought to their pens for the first time, they should be liberated by making a small opening in the box and holding it up to the entrance of the kennel. They will then enter their nest and, after a minute's inspection, will come out into the pen. By this time, the keeper can be away out of sight, and none, or very few, will attempt to climb the wiie or rush against it. If pens are provided with cover and built in secluded woodland, the wildest foxes will not climb the wire if the keejxn- is competent and no strangers are admitted. No foxes except a few old ones and culls were killed in Slaughtering for Fur Prince Edward Island for their pelts in 1910, 1911 or 1912. The pelt of a fox becomes prime in November, but is not as heavy then as in December. They are killed on Prince Edward Island in the last week of December. An eight months old fox is said to have as full and large a skin as an older one. Some breeders, how- FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 47 ever, disagree with this common opinion and say that one year and eight months is the proper age at which to kill them. The fox, when young, has less silver than in later years and this is an advantage in the present market, silver skins being more common than pure black. It is hardly necessary to remark that no fox should be slaughtered without a careful examination of his coat, and, if it be light and thin and the fox only a pup, he should be spared for a year in order to improve his condition if possible. Considerable care should be token against injury to the coat dur- ing the months previous to killing. They should not be allowed to lie on damp places and thus have the guard hair frozen into the ground or snow and broken. Smooth, large passageways should be provided. Fleas or mange or other skin affections or parasites should be prevented as they would induce scratching and thus wear off the hair on the shoulders and hips. It ii? claimed that heavy feeding of nutritious laxative food like molasses, patent food preparations, boiled barley or oats, will fatten the fox and improve the gloss of its coat. Some of the costliest skins marketed were taken off foxes with one quarter of an inch of fat over their ribs. This is contrary to a popular, but incon-ect, impression that starving makes the hair longer and improves the coat. Foxes are killed by crushing the chest walls. They are placed on their sides, and the slaughterer places the sole of his foot immediately behind the foreleg and bears down with his full weight. They are also killed by forcing the head back until the neck breaks. There is a danger that the sheen of the overhair — especially the silver hairs — may be somewhat injured with blood and dirt so that clean quarters and methods of killing are essential. The information available indicates that the adoption of some more humane method of killing, such as the use of chloroform or ether, would not injure the fur and, at the same time, be far more merciful. A small padded box with a wad of cotton batting in one of the upper corners upon which chloroform could be dropped from a hole in the cover of the box would be all that would be required. As soon as it is dead, the ani- mal should be removed from the chamber. In the case of such a valuable animal as this, it is not too much to expect of ranchers that they pro- vide one of these inexpensive lethal chambers. Poisons that are available are: cyanide of potassium, prussic acid, strychnine and white arsenic. A very small quantity of cyanide or of prussic acid vnll kill the fox instantly, but, as these drugs are exces- sively poisonous, it is dangerous to have them in one's possession unless 48 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION securely locked up. Strychnine and white arsenic do not kill im- mediately, and, if another animal ate the flesh of an animal poisoned by them, it would be poisoned in turn. The cased method of skinning, described elsewhere, is used.* The only difficulty will be with the forelegs and tail. The forelegs become' stiff and hard in a short time and should be turned fur side out after a day or two. If the tail bone is not wholly removed in the first attempt, the tail may be slit down the under side. The skins are marketed fur side out and are sewed up in muslin and packed flat in a box. • The condition of the pelt in respect to primeness, proper Silver Fox Skin killing, skinning, drying and shipping is important. Skina may be blue or unprime; springy, when the hips and shoulders are worn and the hair loose; dirty, shot, chewed, heated, or greasy. In such cases their value is largely decreased. The skin value of the live animal may be judged from the follow- ing standards: Colour. — Glossy black on neck, and wherever no silver hairs are found. The black must be of a bluish cast all over the body rather than a reddish. The underfur must also be dark- coloured. The fur of silver and black foxes is a dark slate next the skin. Silver hairs. — Pure silver bands — not white nor very prominent. In the costliest skins there are only a few silver hairs, which are well scattered over the pelt. The neck and head should be clear black. Plakiness, which is the appearance of whitish silver hairs placed close together in patches, is objectionable. Gloss. — The sheen must be evident. It is caused by the perfect health of the animal and the fineness of the hair, as well as by hereditary influences. Woods and humid atmosphere also favour thig important quality. Weight. — A good fox skin will weigh at least one pound, the weight usually varying from ten to nineteen ounces. The thick, long fur makes the weight. This is a very important point, as heavy fur is more durable and handsome. Size. — The value of silver fox pelts increases vdth the size. FINANCIAL ASPECTS The amount of capital required to finance a ranch containing even three or four pairs of foxes, involves the organization of companies or ex- *See page 97. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 49 tensive partnerships among people whose experience and location are suitable for fox ranching. In the autumn of 1913, at least $50,000 was required to build, equip, and stock a ranch in Prince Edward Island with five pairs of first-class stock. Many ranches have been equipped for less money, but either cheaper wild or unselected stock from Newfoundland or elsewhere was purchased, or options had been taken at an earlier date on pups for delivery at that time. Because of the keen demand for breeding stock, it has been on Stock customary to sell options for future delivery. Usually the options are taken on the unborn pups, and 10 per cent, of the price agreed upon is paid when the options are taken. Time of delivery is made the essence of the contract, and, if the rancher has not ae many pups as he has sold options for, the orders axe filled consecu- tively; i.e., the earliest orders are filled first. In ease delivery cannot be made, the agreement provides that the deposit must be returned with 6 per cent, interest per annum. In 1912, options were sold on more pups ihan could be delivered because of the unusually small number of pups. At the present time (December, 1912), many options on 1913 stock at an average price of about $10,000 per pair have been sold. As large ranchers carefully number the options, the holder of the first option has the best chance of securing the choice of pups when the deliveries are made. All over North America wherever the common red fox is found, agreements are being constantly made with lumbermen, miners, mis- sionaries, fur traders, trappers, government officials and others for future delivery of wild animals captured in their respective districts. The supply of fur, however, will not be appreciably diminished by the capture of wild fur-bearers alive. In 1911 and 1912 all available foxes were sold for Breeding Stock breeders. The first general sales were made in 1910, at prices not far above the fur-value, viz. about $3,000 to $4,000 a pair. In 1911 the price rose to $5,000 a pair, and, about littering time in 1912, one pair was sold for $20,000. This, however, was for a pair of excellent proved breeders, which, a few weeks later, produced five whelps which were sold for $20,000. in August, 1912. By September 1, when the deliveries of stock began, the price was $8,000 a pair for pups and a month later, $11,000. By December, 1912, $12,000 and $13,000 was the ruling price, with few sales. Old proved breeders of good quality were valued during the last months of 1912 at from $1 8,000 to $35,000 a pair. 5e COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION It can thus be readily understood how highly speculative fox trad- ing is at the present time. The tendency towards inflation is encour- aged and fostered by many of the older breeders. Their optimism is accounted for by the fact that they have become wealthy in the last three years, whereas six or eight years ago, some of them possessed only mortgaged farms and a few foxes. All but three or four have made their fortunes by selling breeding stock, and, with the exception of, possibly, $200,000, obtained for pelts, all of the million or more dollars received by ranchers has been made in this way. The present system of buying for future delivery is another Futures indication of the optimism of investors. In December, 1912, • many of the unborn pupa of 1913 were purchased and partly paid for, delivery to be made in the first week of September, 1913. The difference between purchasing futures in foxes and gambling in futures in May wheat or October cotton is more apparent than real. Xaturally, the rapid rise of such an industry has unsettled Ownership the peaceful rural conditions in a country like Prince Ed- ward Island. Farmers are using the credit of their farms to purcliasc shares in silver foxes, or to buy outright cross foxes, red foxes, blue foxes, minks and any other fur-bearer likely to prove profit- able. The banks report a serious withdrawal of deposits and realization upon outside investments, while the lawyers of the little town of Sum- merside, P.E.I., are reported to have recorded about $300,000 in farm mortgages in 1913. A goodly share of the savings banks deposits made by these prosperous islanders has also been withdrawn. Bemarking on the great craze for shares of stock in fox ranches and for fox ownership, Wesley Frost, the United States consul at Char- lottetown, wrote to his government in December, 1913 : " In adjudging the soundness of the present position of the io\. industry on Prince Edward Island it should be borne in mind that the community is an intensely conservative one, composed of Scot- tish and English farmers, intelligent and fairly educated, and with a per capita savings deposit figure to compare with almost any portion of the civilized world " It is true that a large number of the foremost citizens of the Island refuse to participate in the fox boom to any degree whatso- ever. Every large sale by one of the big ranches is hailed as an effort to unload before the tide turns. Investment at the present time is regarded as an attractive speculation — but with the specula- tive element too conspicuous. Granting nearly all that the fox men say, the sceptics fear that, in the readjustments involved in PUR-FARMING INCANADA 51 getting back to the pelt basis, the industry will injure many of its followers." It is maintained by eome that the present craze is similar to Con tlie Belgian hare craze in America and the tulip craze in Europe, both of which collapsed with a heavy slump. It is contended that fox fur is only of poor quality; that silver fox has never been bought in large quantities and that, if production is increased, it will become as cheap as rabbit; that wild foxes do not decrease in num- bers when a country is settled ; that investments usually yield from 2 to 10 per cent per annum, and that, therefore, the large profits made by fox ranchers during the season of 1913 were abnormal. A smaller propor- tion state that the fox boom was promoted by exaggerated statements respecting the prices received for pelts and by other misrepresentations. They assert that many of the skins marketed have not brought over $50 or $100 each and that a large proportion of the foxes now in captivity is of little more value than red foxes. They also state that the demand for silver fox has been supplied and that the Eussian nobility and some other Europeans are the only ones who will pay a high figure. It is also maintained that skins of ranch-bred foxes have not the gloss and quality of the product of the wilds. On the other hand, it is stated that the supply of valuable wild silver fox captured is decreasing, that the demand for costly natural furs is rapidly increasing; that only a few hundred silver foxes are in captivity and that there is ample time for readjustment of values before enough are reared to warrant marketing for fur. The fact is also pointed to that the domestication of fur-bearers has been predicted aud attempted for centuries and that those who achieved the work are entitled to reward. Furthermore, it is claimed that when fur is so valuable no animals will be sold unless enormous prices are paid ; that it is proved that the fur is better in all respects than the wild product and that the best foxes have not been yet sold and will bring higher price? than the present high record, viz. £580. In addition, the best customers are millionaires and not the nobility. A general comment is all that can be made on the arguments ad- vanced. Some of the points are discussed elsewhere in this report, nota- bly those respecting the prices obtained for ranch-produced furs as com- pared with the wild, the decline in numbers of the natural wild supply, and the general excellent quality of ranch-bred stock as compared with the wild stock. The increased demand and its causes have already been discussed and little remains to be said on that subject. It is possible that silver 52 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION fox will become even more fashionable than at present and that the demand will thus be increased, but no one can forecast definitely what fashion will do. It should also be noted that the Eussian sable, chin- chilla, sea-otter and seal will be off the market for several years, and, on this account, an increased demand for the fur of the silver fox may be created. The imitation of silver fox is also impossible because of the colours of the silver-banded black overhairs. The nearest imitation is the German-dyed pointed fox, made from a common red fox dyed black, which has white hairs from the badger or other animals sewed into it or fastened in by adhesives. It is easily distinguished from the silver fox fur and is not favoured except as a medium-priced article. It is not nearly as beautiful as silver fox. The silver band in a genuine skin is not white, but silvery, and the whole skin possesses a gloss not equalled by a dyed product. The dyeing process, also, has the dis- advantage of rendering the fvir less durable. With regard to the statement that much of the stock is of pjor quality and low-priced, it must be admitted that this is true. While statistics of the low prices obtained for pelts obviously could not be secured, it is quite probable that at least 30 per cent, of the silver foxes would bring a price of from $50 to $500. At the present quo- tations, probably another 30 per cent, would be priced between $500 and $1,000 and the other 40 per cent, would bring from $1,000 to $4,000 each. The ability to recognize a cheap grade of fur instantly is essential in the present state of the business as traders represent a silver fox as such regardless of quality; and, usually, only a short and distant examination of the animal is possible. Besides, the sales are made at a season when the fur is not m prime condition to pass judg- ment on. If wild foxes do not decrease Avhen a country is settled, it is not recorded that they increase. The number in unsettled regions, how- ever, is diminishing. Profits in the industry so far have been large, but, except from the point of view of the individual, the dividend on the money invested is not the main consideration. From the social and economic viewpoint, the discovery of how to breed high-grade foxes is what is important. It is akin to an invention; but, as it cannot be patented, the neighbours of the inventors have become the promoters of a new method of pro- ducing a marketable commodity. No huge factories can be built in a few months to manufacture the article to the limit of demand; onlv the natural law of increase of foxes which is not much over 100 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 53 per- cent, per annum can be utilized. Thus, it will be several years before the supply will meet the demand, as it is sure to do eventually. If the investing public can be made to believe that future profits are assured, it is human nature to ask as large a premium on the shares of fox-ranching companies as can be obtained. The stories of the predilection of the nobility of Russia and of other countries for expensive furs like silver fox, sea-otter and sable are mostly drawn from the imagination. The current story that gold is tipped on silver fox overhair was unknown to any of the furriers interviewed, some of whom have been purchasing furs in Europe and America for many years. The story of the Eoyal Eussian furs is doubtless derived from the fact that certain sable and other costly furs were formerly given as tribute to royalty. Ermine happens to be a royal fur and is demanded at coronations and great court ceremonies, yet it is stated that much of the so-called ermine at the coronation of King George V was really rabbit. The best customers of silver fox will be fashionable ladies who will use it in trimmings, stoles and muffs. Because of the removal of foxes to new ranches in Number of Foxes „ , ^ , , -i t^t , i -i ii • . In Captivity September, October and November while this inves- tigation was proceeding, no very exact data could be procui-ed regarding the number of silver foxes. The following is an estimate of the number in captivity in each province in October, 1912: Foxes in Captivity in Canada in 1912 Bastard No- of Silver Cross and Red Ranches P. E. Island 650 150 1,000 200 Nova Scotia 32 30 150 13 New Brunswick 30 10 50 8 Quebec 40 10 50 6 Ontario 30 40 150 14 Other provinces and territories 18 10 50 Total 800 250 1,450 241 The silver fox industry is centred about the following points : i Al- berton, Summerside, Charlottetown and Montague in Prince Edward Island; Port Elgin in New Brunswick; Piastre Bay on the north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Quebec 'ty in Quebec, and Wyoming in On- tario. The number of silver foxes within driving distance of each point is approximately as follows : Alberton, 300 ; Summerside, 300 ; Char- lottetown, 100; Montague, 25; Port Elgin, N.B., 25; Quebec city, 20; Piastre Bay, 20; Wyoming, Ont., 12; Carcross, Yukon, 18. In the 54 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION United States there is a silver fox ranch at Dover, Me., and another in New Hampshire. One was reported from Copper Kiver, Alaska. In Eussia there are none. Since, under present ranching conditions, silver foxes The Increase ^ . ° In Numbers increase m numh^rs approximately 100 per cent, each year, it seems evident that the present prices for founda- tion stock must decline to near the pelt value before many years. The price of the scrub stock and of specimens with the poorer grade of skins will decline first. It is likely that this inferior stock will be used for mating with red and cross foxes which, by the year 1916, should be producing a large number of silvers, mostly of poor quality, however. „. .,, , With regard to statements frequently made tliat silver Final Value of , .„ ,* , ,n. .„ , ^ Silver Fox fox Will be as cheap as rabbit if produced as numerously, the point is not worth discussing since production will not increase beyond the point where a profit can be made. The Lon- don importation of rabbits is now over 80,000,000 skins annually and Australia uses thousands more weekly in her great felting industries. An attempt was made to secure expert opinions from qualified furriers as to the final value of silver fox pelts when they are produced in as large numbers as those of red foxes are now. The consensus of opinion was that because of it^ greater beauty and more favoured colour, silver fox fur would be three times as valuable as red fox, natural black furs not occurring commonly in nature. In this connection it must be remem- bered that all ranch silver foxes are killed when the fur is prime and no injury whatever is done to the pelt, so that their pelts would be worth from $40 to $80 each for No. 1 skins at the present valuation of the pelts of red foxes from Northeast Canada. But it will be a long time before the production of silver foxes will approach to the number of even high-grade red foxes marketed yearly. The total number of skins, according to the estimates of E. Brass is 1,337,000 yearly for the common fox. Even if the pelts fell to $30, foxes could be raised profit- ably by a farmer who maintained other live stock. In many districts the annual cash outlay per fox for food need not exceed $5, and attending to twenty foxes would not involve as much labour as attending to ten cattle. If fox ranch fences cost more, the land and houses cost much less. The fox, moreover, reproduces rapidly and comes to maturity in eight months. Because the silver fox has never been produced in considerable numbers, it has been impossible for furriers to carry a stock large enough to warrant advertising it and featuring its sale. It has been difficult to obtain even two matched skins at one sale. Under the new FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 55 conditions, when thousands of skins may come on the market season after season, matching will be easy, and the best fur stores can carry in stock enough silver fox to warrant the featuring of the stock. ^ . . An opportunity is now presented to the ranchmen to Organizations -. . , , ... Among Producers unite into a strong eo-operative association to pro- tect and promote the industry. Frauds could be ex- posed, breeding records kept, thieves arrested and prosecuted, legis- lation secured, the product advertised and the whole market situation studied. The publication of inexact and fanciful statements by pro- moters of stock companies is also injurious to the industry's future. The better protection of the stock from thieves can be achieved in two ways. First, the provincial trespass laws could be amended to increase the fine for trespassing near fox ranch property.* Second, the criminal code could possibly be revised so as to cause the exte- rior fence of a fur-farming ra-^ch to be regarded in law similarly to the walls of a bam or dwelling, and anyone found inside the fence wo aid be guilty of burglary and might be trapped or otherwise captured. These amendments, or others of as effective a nature, might be secured if representations were properly made to legislative bodies by a strong organization. Because of the mixing of various strains of foxes, it is difficult to secure reliable " performance " records of stock. The only " perform- ances '"' worth noting in foxes are the prices of the pelts of the an- cestors, and such features as fecundity, beauty and weight of the pelt, and size. Well-organized provincial associations could keep perform- ance records, and the various provincial organizations could co-oper- ate with the Federal Department of Agriculture for registration. Quarantine is a question that may, at any time, become of prime importance. Thus, if disease breaks out in any district, the Fed- eral Department of Agriculture, if requested by a strong association of breeders, might be induced to undertake a qviarantine. The whole problem of the protection of wild animals and the pos- sibility of propagating them in captivity are broad questions that re- quire more, attention than has been given them in the past. A Dominion Furriers and Fur-Farming Association organized along similar lines to the Canadian Forestry Association, and like the latter, publishing its own journal, could do much to promote a healthy interest in protecting and propagating wild life. The organization of provincial associations would be the first logical step in such a movement. To establish a per- ' See Appendix V. 56 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION manent, national oi'ganization, representatives of the fur trade, the fur farms, the game wardens and commissioners, and the government experts could be called together. POLAE OK AECTIC POX {Vulpes lag opus) The polar fox is found in the high latitudes. It is of two colour phases — white, and the so-called blue, which is really a slate- coloured gray. The white fox is brown in summer with the under parts lighter or drab. The white winter coat has a pure white long over- fur with an underwool of a darker colour. The blue phase is of a gray- slate colour all the year round and is found more abundantly in the southern portion of the range of these foxes. It is said to exist in Greenland and Iceland. The number of blue fox pelts sold annually is about one-tenth of the number of white fox, and they sell for sev- eral times as much, bringing, at present market prices, from $30 to $75 each, and even higher for choice pelts. A considerable number of blue foxes were imported into C'anada during the season of 1913. Possibly a hundred or more were brought into the Maritime Provinces from Alaska, where feeding is now dif- ficult because the killing of seals is not permitted. One consignment numbered thirty- two and arrived in very fair condition. They were sold to ranchers at about $800 a pair. No information was obtained to show whether the experiments in breeding these animals in their new environment had been successful or not. The following account of blue fox farming is taken from Blue Fox ° , ° Farming " Fur Farming for Profit," published by the Fur News Publishing Co., of New York : '■ i'or some years past the blue fox has been successfully raised in rather large numbers on several small islands off the coast of Alaska, and for a shorter period on the mainland. The blue fox thrives and multiplies in captivity, and can be raised with rather more satisfaction than the other members of the fox family, as it is more tractable and easily managed. An island makes an excellent blue fox farm for var- ious reasons; there is no large outlay in cash for fencing; as the is- lands are surrounded by the sea, the water does not freeze over in winter and the foxes cannot leave the faiTn ; no danger is to be appre- hended from the intrusion of other animals; a considerable supply of food may be obtained from the sea, which is to a considerable extent self-supplied; crabs are found along the shore, fish are washed up on FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 57 the beach from time to time, and other food is found on the islands. While a number of the islands are now occupied by blue fox farmers, there are many more that are available for the purpose, and which can be leased from the United States Government on reasonable terms. Farms on the mainland may be enclosed with wire fencing, and need not be larger than 50 feet by 50 feet. For raising the foxes on a larger scale than would be possible in an enclosure of the above-mentioned area, several little farms, adjoining each other, may be fenced o£E. "Blue foxes breed once a year, mating about February 1, and the young are born near the end of May, the litter comprising from three to seven. Artificial dens or hiding places in which the foxes may re- main secluded at will are provided. " Food for the blue fox includes fresh, dried and cured fish, crabs, fresh meats obtainable in the vicinity of the farms, cooked corn-meal cakes made of a mixture of com-meal and choppd dried fish, and meal, tallow and fish preserved in oil. " Food should be supplied to the animals most abundantly from the first of July to August, as at that period the care of the young foxes makes it necessary for the old foxes to be better fed than at other times. " The price of blue fox skins is about $30 each, and even more is paid for well-coloured, full-furred and properly handled pelts. " Stock for beginning may be procured from persons raising blue foxes on the islands at a cost of somewhere near $300 per pair. " The Secretary of Commerce and Labor has authority to lease for the purpose of propagating foxes, such islands in the waters of Alaska, excepting the Pribilof group, as have been so leased by the Secretary of the Treasury prior to May, 1898. The rental in the past has been one hundred dollars per annum for each island." The blue fox is a better climber than the red and an overhang wire of 36 inches is required. Otherwise, the pens are built similarly to those of the common fox. The rate of increase of blue foxes is said by Ernest Thompson Increase Seton to be a good index to the increase of red foxes. He says : " St. George island, about 36 square miles, has about 370 pairs of foxes, and although they are fed and protected and the species has 5 to 13 in a litter, not more than 400 to 500 can be marketed each year without reducing the stock." The figures are about cor- rect for the annual increase of the silver fox, despite the claims of some ranchers of an average annual increase of from 200 to 300 per cent. 58 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION Maj. Gen. A. W. Greely, in his Handbook of Alaska, published in 1909, writes: " Ui^'^^i^ exploitation has very greatly reduced the fur- Details bearing productivity of the land animals of the Aleutian islands, as well as of the interior of Alaska. With the early extermination of foxes in prospect, there was organized about 1894 the Semidi Propagation Company, to domesticate and raise foxes on un- inhabited islands. The original fox farm was stocked from the Pribi- lof group and was situated on North Semidi island, whence the in- dustry has extended to thirty or more islands to the eastward, far the greater number being situated in Prince William sound, though there are seven in the Kadiak g^oup. Most of the islands are occupied under lease from the United States, and the law excepts from homesteading the fox islets. The companies and several individuals have followed this industry, which has been only moderately successful from the- financial standpoint. Considerable investment is necessaiy, it takes at least four years before any revenue is obtained, the life is most isolated, and skins are not very productive, usually varying in value from $10 to $20, according to quality and demand. In some instances natives have become fox breeders, and, where private parties are so engaged, they have supplemented their fox breeding by fishing, farm- ing, or lumbering. " The largest fox farm is at Long island, near Kadiak, where- there are nearly 1,000 blue foxes. The largest number of skins comes, however, from the Pribilof group, where about 700 foxes are annually taken by the natives, supplementary to the fur-seal catch. These foxes are not domesticated. " The very valuable silver-gray fox is too thoroughly savage to- accept conditions necessary for profitable fox breeding and, in conse- quence, fox farming is confined almost entirely to the blue fox. The fox is monogamous, and an average of four foxes come to maturity from each litter. It is necessary to feed the foxes the greater part of the year, and careful supervision is essential to their successful raising. '■' The blue fox thrives wild on the extreme easterly isle of Attn,, and from that point several of the Shumagin islands, Chernabura, Simeonof, etc., have been stocked with moderate success. The ex- tension and development of this industry is desirable as one of the much needed means to enable the Aleuts successfully to meet changed con- ditions of Alaskan life." FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 59 Blue Pox Beeedees in Alaska * Island Locality Name of Breeder Post-office Address Little Naked Pr. William sound. (1 u u u a u u « « u u u il a u u ti Resurrection bay . . Kachemak bay. . . . Walter Story. C/o Alaska Packers Assoc, San Fran- cisco, Cal. u u Louis Carlson u Big Naked Fred Lilyogren James McPherson. . . Edward Elk Ellamar, Alaska. u a tl u Fairmount Bligh Goose William Byers Pres. Cloudman William Busby George Donaldson — Louis Thorstensen — Peterson & Brower . George Flemiag. . . George Fleming A. W. Lind James Bettles John L. Johnson Kendall &Stering.... Christ Christensen . . . Peter Jackson a it U tl u a U tl it u Long Gage Pond Smiths Squirrel . . . Perry. u u it u a u (I u Orca, Alaska. Ellamar, Alaska. Small, near Perry Glacier An island (no name) Yukon. u u a ft a tt A. R. Ritchie M. F.Wright Semidi Propagating Co Homer, Alaska. Cape Elizabeth Seattle, Wash. Yukawak Southwest of u a Near Unga u Kadiak, Alaska. North Semidi. . South Semidi . . Chemobour. . . U U u u W. L. Washburn (Administrator) Semidi Propagating Co a « u u 11 (I tl u Simeonof ;;;;;■;;; u u u u Whale. Adronica Near Kadiak Near XJnffa. u a San Francisco, Cal. Long Near Kadiak Near Cape Eliz .... Near Kadiak West of Unalaska . . Pr. William sound. . Kadiak, Alaska. Pearl . . . Alaska Fox Co Semidi Propagating Co u u Dry il , u Samalga Peak Not occupied. McPherson & Elk.... Ellamar, Alaska. *From Report of U.S. Department of the Interior, Public Lands Section, House Documents, 58th Congress, 2nd Session. There are also two small islands near Prince of Wales sound not now occupied. The following islands, also, are no longer occupied: DemidofE, Eastern Chugatz, HoUiday and Near islands. Additional light is thrown on the breeding of blue foxes by the 60 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION following article on " The Blue Foxes of the Pribilof Islands," by J ames Judge : The Blue Foxes of the Pkibilgf Islands " The Pribilof islands have many natural advantages as a home for foxes. The innumerable caves and subterranean passages afford the best protection possible against the elements or natural enemies, while the bird, seal, and sea-lion life, with what may be picked up on the beach, have in the past afforded a supply of food rarely found else- where. At the present time foxes are about extinct on St. Paul and Otter islands and have been preserved on St. George only through a system of artificial feeding adopted several years ago. This paper deals with St. George foxes only. " In former times the annual quota of seals killed on St. Food Supply Greorge island varied between 20,000 and 35,000. Hun- dreds of sea-lions also were killed annually. With the exception of what the natives took for food, these vast quantities of meat were left on the ground where the animals were killed, and during the long period from September to May, these seal and sea-lion fields furnished the foxes with food, when other and more palatable food was not obtainable. Frequently dead whales, walruses, sea-lions, or fish were washed ashore, and, when this occurred, the killing fields were aban- doned by the foxes, and only resorted to again when this temporary food supply was exhausted. These were practically the conditions under which the St. George foxes lived from the time of Eussian occupancy of the island down to 1890. During this long interval, no attention was paid to the animals, except that trapping was indulged in by the native residents, from one to two months each winter when the skins were prime. " During the summer of 1896 I had the natives salt 500 Food Supply seal carcasses, the meat being preserved in an old silo formerly used by the sealing company. During the fol- lowing winter, these carcasses were taken out, a few at a time, freshened, and thrown out for fox food. The rapidity with which the foxes learned that food would be set out daily at a certain place and time, and the numbers in which they came for it, surprised everyone on the island. They not only ate the meat but nearly all the bones as well. For an hour before feeding time they could be seen coming from all directions to participate in the feast. While waiting, they prowled around the village picking up everything of an edible nature and many things not edible. They came in greatest numbers when the weather was clear and cold. FUR -FARMING INCANADA 61 " Since that time all seal meat on St. George, not used by the natives, has been salted within two or three days of the killing, and fed to the foxes during the succeeding winter. When taken from the silo it is half rotten, most of the brine having escaped, but the foxes prefer it to fresh beef, mutton, or fish of any kind, as has been learned by experiment. With the exception of three seasons, the catch of seals has been under 2,500, and, as fully half the meat is required by the natives, it has been necessary to supplement the amount allowed the foxes with other food. " In the spring and summer thousands of sea birds make the islands their home. This is the time the foxes enjoy life to the utmost. The birds are very numerous, and, in the early part of the season, many meet death or injury accidentally, and, of course, fall a ready prey to the foxes. During the month of May, hundreds of small auklets or ' chooch- kies ' in flying to and from the sea, strike the telephone wire and are killed or injured. No sooner do they reach the ground, however, than the foxes are there to pick them up. Tor the first few days, reynard will eat the entire bird, but later on as he becomes surfeited, he eats only the head and leaves the body untouched. The eggs of birds are a deli- cacy enjoyed by the foxes. The ' arrie ' or murre and other large birds lay their eggs on shelving rocks on the cliffs ; and it is astonishing to see a fox climb around an almost inaccessible place, secure an egg and carry it away for its young, to return shortly and repeat the operation. "By September 1, the birds, their breeding season being over, have mostly left the island, the deaths among seals on the rookeries are few, and marine food is not abundant, so it behooves the foxes to seek food in other quarters. " One season a mush of either corn-meal or middlings was used, but while readily eaten by the foxes, it was not good for them. Dried fish was tried and found excellent food, and during the last two years salt fish has been in use. Salt itself is deadly to the foxes, so that in feeding salted food, care must be taken to thoroughly freshen it. " Seal killing begins in June, and, as the carcasses are left on the ground, a good supply of food becomes available. It appears, however, that at that season, the eggs and meat of birds are preferred to seal meat, as the latter is seldom touched, while bird feathers and egg shells are to be found along the trails and at the mouth of every fox warren. With the departure of the birds in the fall the foxes follow the shore line in search of food thrown up by the sea, and pay particular attention to seal rookeries, on the lookout for dead pups, which seem to be re- lished, and are dragged off for the young. 62 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION " While the animals eat a great deal of grass and other land and marine vegetation, it is evident that they cannot long survive on a diet that does not include animal food. " The year 1890 may he considered the turning point in Conditions fox life on the Pribilof islands, which, of course, include , , St. George. At that time, or soon after, a scarcity of foxes was everywhere apparent, and the government agents in charge, wrongly attributing the diminution to over-trapping, forbade all trap- ping for three different winters in the early nineties, with the result that the total catch for the seven years ending with 1897 was only 3,198. The real trouble was a shortage of substantial food, such as the foxes had always been accustomed to, but this was not then under- stood, or at least no steps were taken to supply the deficiency. " The slaughter of seals upon the ocean by pelagic hunters had so decimated the seal herd, that in 1890 only 6,139 were secured on St. George island, instead of the regular quota of 35,000. In 1891, 1893 and 1893, owing to the modus vivendi, the number of seals killed on this island was further reduced to 3,500. The sea-lion herd of the island had likewise been greatly depleted, so that but few^ of those animals were killed, and consequently there was little or none of that meat for the foxes. " With the departure of the birds in the fall, the foxes as usual scoured the beach for food and that source proving insufficient, recourse to the seal fields, where formerly they were sure of something when driven to extremities, proved unavailing. The limited amount of seal meat was soon cleaned up. After that, there was nothing for them but starvation, and those that succumbed were quickly devoured by the survivors. ^ . '' Coincident with the regular feeding of foxes, the exj)eri- Trapping ment of catching them in small box traps was made. This was successful from the beginning, as the foxes did not hesitate to enter for the bait, and sometimes two would get in before the trap was sprung, although it was intended only for one. The foxes came in such numbers that at least 50 box traps would be needed to accommodate them. This suggested the erection of a house trap, and accordingly a rough corral or house trap 8 by 14 feet was con- structed beside the coal house. Three or four seal carcasses were placed in the trap for bait. The foxes entered with little hesitation and soon 40 or more would be inside. The man operating the trap stood inside the coal house, and by pulling a rope, caused the door to drop, and the foxes were prisoners. Subsequently a wire-mesh trap or cage 14 by 10 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 68 by 8 feet was procured and placed at one end of a house especially for the fox business. This house is divided into three rooms, in the larger of which is a vat for freshening salt meat or fish. The other rooms are designated as trapping and examination rooms, respectively. The cage adjoins the trapping room. All food set out for foxes is placed in the cage, the door being always open. Week after week before trapping begins the foxes feed in this trap, and of course have no fear of it. " When trapping time arrives, food is placed in the trap as usual and 8 or 10 men repair to the fox house. The door of the wire cage is adjusted and the man who operates it is stationed in the trapping room, in a position to observe what is going on in the cage; and when a suffi- cient number of foxes have entered, he closes the door by pulling a small rope. He then goes into the cage and drives the animals into the trapping room, where two men with large leather mittens pick the foxes up and pass them, one at a time, into the hands of others waiting in the examination room. " When foxes are numerous in the trapping room, they run between the legs of the men attempting to catch them, climb up their bodies and jump from their shoulders, but very seldom bite except when they are taken hold of. If they get a good hold of a man's hand they hang on with bull-dog tenacity until their jaws are pried apart. They seem to realize their inability to bite through the mittens, and with few ex- ceptions are easily handled. Major Clark reports one last year as lying inert in the native's arms, making no struggle whatever, and apparently enjoying the sanoothing it received. " The Government Agent is stationed in the examination the*Bre^ers room, and when a fox is passed in he decides whether it shall be killed, or branded and dismissed as a breeder. The elements on which hisi decision is based are the colour and quality of the fur, the age, length of brush, and live weight of the animal. All white foxes, runts, those off colour, crippled, bob-tailed, in poor con- dition physically, suffering from mange, or otherwise unfit to be left as breeders, are dispatched at once. All animals left as breeders must be in good physical condition, of good colour, and either young or in the prime of life; males must weigh at least 10 pounds, and females at least 71/^ pounds. " The age is determined by a dental examination which is made by opening the animal's mouth with a soft gag, and inspecting the teeth. " In taking the live weight, a strap two inches wide is looped around the animal's tail and the other end of the strap attached to a spring 64 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION balance suspended from the ceiling of the room. When the animal becomes quiet the weight is ascertained and entered. " If the beast is to be left aa a breeder, a ring one inch wide is cut in the fur of the tail with a pair of scissors after which it is dropped into a hopper and finds itself out of doors. Males are branded near the end of the tail, females near the rump. About four-fifths of those dis- missed as breeders are caught the second time, and some of them are re- caught ten times or more in the course of the season. Recently, Mr. Chichester installed several automatic traps, auxiliary to the regular traps, which have done good work. " When the animal is to be killed, the man who has it in hand bends the head backwards until the neck is broken. The dead animal is then thrown into the adjoining room, where other men remove the pelt. This is done by running a sharp knife up the inside of the legs, and down the length of the tail, and drawing the pelt ofE, leaving the fur side in. After the breeding quota is secured, all unbranded foxes enter- ing the trap are killed. All trapping is done at night with light from lanterns. The next day the skins are cleansed and stretched on frames to dry. Later on they are whipped and combed, and, the following summer, barrelled and shipped to London. " The skins are prime from November 15 to January 15, approxi- mately. About the latter date the fur begins changing colour, and the skin shows signs of ' staginess.' " As indicated, the animals' ages are ascertained by a dental exami- nation. In this work no pretense to absolute accuracy is made. Dental examination of a hundred or more dead foxes of both sexes showed a division of the animals into three classes, which classification has since been followed in making the annual census. These are first, yearling or approximately one year old; second, middle-aged or approximately two years or three years old; third, over three years old. The young and the advanced in life are easily distinguished, but the intervening ages are more difiicult to determine. It is doubtful if the life of St. George foxes ordinarily exceeds five years. " On examination of 334 stomachs, seal meat formed the stomachs entire contents of 64, and the partial contents of 100 others. This meat of course was gotten in traps, and was what the animals came for. The contents of 17 full stomachs varied in weight between 14 and 20 ounces. These animals were still feeding when trapped and how much more they would have eaten if unmolested, can- not be determined. The stomach, when empty, weighs from IJ^ to 2 ounces, but its capacity of distention for the reception of food is aston- FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 65 ishing. It is doubtful if an animal after gorging with so much meat would feed the next day, but it is known that certain foxes living in the vicinity of the village do come for food daily. " Grass was found in 88 sitomachs, feathers in 57, wild parsnip in 12, fish bones in 8, bird or seal bones in 28, dirt or sand in 22, tunicates in 66, sea eggs in 4, and fox fur in 8. Seven stomachs contained only water, and 14 were empty. , "The intestines varied in length from 6^ to 10 feet, no Contents of . . Intestines difference being found in this particular between the sexes. On examination of the intestines of 240 foxes killed in trapping, grass was found in 62, feathers in 20, wild parsnip in 16, tunicates in 5. Neither of these things undergo any apparent chemical change in the stomach or intestines, and can be identified upon evacua- tion in the excrement. Those small circular tunicates are swallowed without mastication and passed without digestion. Dirt was found in 24 intestines, gravel in 11, bones in 12, fox fur in 10. Two varieties of intestinal worms were found in the intestines of 26. Specimens sent to Dr. Stiles were identified as species that affect domestic animals, and not particularly harmful. The distribution of the worms was general, all ages and sexes containing them. Excepting lice in the fur, these worms were the only parasites discovered. " The live weights of 198 males left for breeders varied Physical Characteristics between 10 and 20 pounds each. Of this number 180 weighed between 10 and 13J^ pounds. " The live weights of 225 females varied between 7J4 and 11 J4 pounds. Of this number, 18 weighed less than 8 pounds and 13 over 10% pounds. Of 180 males killed, 101 weighed 10 pounds and under, while 17 weighed over 13 pounds, the heaviest weighing 19J/^ pounds. " Of 86 females killed, 55 weighed 8 pounds and under, and 9 weighed 11 pounds, and over. The heaviest female killed weighed 13^ pounds, the lightest 4^^. " The average length of 180 male skins, after being dried and ready for shipment, was 30 inches plus; average breadth, 11 inches plus; average length of tail, 15 inches plus. "When the skins of male and female are placed side by side and compared, the fur of the former is generally found to be superior to that of the latter. As a rule, the fur of the two and three year old males is the choice of all. "Assuming that the sexes are equal in number at birth, the evid- ence at my command tends to the conclusion that the males are more 66 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION vigorous and better able to survive adverse climatic or other conditions than the females. "Except for a few cases, mating, according to my observa- Breeding tion, is confined to the month of March and the first half of April. The earliest birth of pups noted by me was May 17, the latest June 6. Altogether I have seen 22 litters of new-born foxes. The largest of these consisted of 11, the smallest of 5 members. Three litters contained 1 white each, three, 2 dead each, and six, 1 dead each. These discoveries were made shortly after the young were born and before some of them were dry. In all these cases the mother made no preparation, but gave birth in slight depressions on the surface of the ground. In every case the mother was much concerned by my presence, and immediately transferred her young to some subterranean spot in the neighbourhood. She removed the dead as well as the living. The male consort was not present at any of these births. I am inclined to think the mother always gives birth on the surface of the ground, and within a day or so transfers the young underground for protection and security. " As a general thing the young are not observed until about the middle of June. They are then of pretty good size and play or feed about the mouths of their burrows, on food brought by their parents. When the young are thus playing or feeding, one and occasionally two old foxes are in the vicinity. These are supposed to be parents when two are present; but generally only one, presumably the mother, is about, and the approach of a person causes the emission of a shrill note from her which sends the young scampering under the ground. "The number of young seen at the mouths of their burrows varies between 1 and 4, according to my observation. Major Clark saw 12 at the mouth of one warren, but he was under the impression that more than one family was represented. During the summer of 1906, Mr. Chichester observed daily for many weeks a family of eleven, all of which were eventually brought up by the mother. I am inclined to consider this litter a very exceptional one. If it were not, we would have a great many more foxes at trapping time. " The infant mortality, which is very great, takes place shortly after birth and is probably attributable to want of nourishment, cold, and inclement weather. As soon as the young can eat meat, they thrive rapidly and under ordinary conditions reach maturity. " On one occasion a native found a family of 12 young that had just been born. One he thought was dead and brought it to me, but after being in the house ten minutes the little thing showed signs of FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 67 life. It was placed on a hot water bottle, where it soon revived and began to squeal. Mrs. Judge administered milk with a medicine drop- per and it soon settled down and went into a healthy sleep. When it awoke, the medicine dropper was again brought into use; and, later on, it learned to nurse one end of a bunch of cotton, the other end of which was immersed in milk. It improved steadily on a milk diet until it was three weeks old. It then grew less ravenous, probably as a result of overfeeding, and, at times, refused to nurse. At the age of four weeks it died. Its eyes opened on the 15th day. When brought in, it weighed 2 1-4 ounces; when three weeks old it weighed six ounces. „ , , „ , " White foxes are occasionally found in litters of blue. Reduced Number . » i » i ■ » of White Foxes There is no record of a litter of white foxes. As the white skins are of comparatively little value, continued effort to exterminate white foxes has been pursued since 1897. Every white fox entering the trap since that time has been killed at once, and, in addition, the natives are permitted to shoot them any time dur- ing the winter. The total number killed in 1897 was 40, in 1898 it was 18, and since that time the number killed per year has varied be- tween 6 and 13, with the exception of the winter of 1903-1904, when 15 were killed. Last vrinter 8 white skins were secured, but Major Clark, who was then in charge of St. George, says that only three of these were pure white, the others being either marred or mottled with faint blue spots. During the summer of 1906 Mr. Chichester observed a number of foxes that were part blue and part white. After Septem- ber, he saw but one of these and therefore concluded that as winter approached the parti-coloured coats became white. " Evidence of disease among foxes on the island is scanty. Diseases Foxes found dead at any season are always autopsied, the local phy&ician assisting, but it is seldom that the cause of death can be definitely ascertained. Dr. Mills and I found a fox in spasms, which on post mortem was found to have been suffering from uremic poisoning. One death was due to hemorrhage of the kidney, and another to tuberculosis. This latter case was found by us on May 28, 1905. The animal was a female, 3 years old, carrying one brand. She was void of fat and weighed not more than 4 pounds. The loss of flesh had occurred since the time of trapping, a few month previous. Tubercular nodules were found in both lungs. Death, on one occa- sion, resulted from a sack of pus which had formed on the intestine. Another dead fox showed all the organs normal except one of the kidneys, which was atrophied. " Mr. Chichester reports three dying of kidney disease and one of COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION tuberculosis in 1906, and one of perforation of the stomach caused by an ulcer in 1907. In that year he killed four that were suffering from mange, and in 1908, Major Clark killed nine that he found afflicted with the same disease. "An unusual number of dead on St. Paul island the winter of 1902-03, taken in connection with symptoms of mania noticed by Mr. Lembkey, led him to believe that an epidemic of some sort afEected the foxes that year. "When foxes starve to death a dark discharge issues from the anus. Yield of " Statistics of the catches prior to 1840 are not available. FoxSkins For the 19 years ending with 1860 the average annual catch for St. George island was 1,278. " I'or the 19 years ending with 1889, according to figures kindly furnished me by the Alaska Commercial Company, the former lessees of the sealing privileges, the average annual yield was 1,074. " The following table shows concisely the entire trapping since steel traps were abandoned, which is coincident with the inauguration of regular feeding. Blub Foxes Teapped Number of trappings Killed, Released AS Breeders *Total inc. white trapped Fox house Elsewhere Male Female 1897-98.... 11 1 346 102 324 772 1898-99.... 7 386 110 389 885 1899-00... 9 418 65 498 981 1900-01... 24 7 441 204 690 1,335 1901-02... 24 9 246 202 650 1,098 1902-03.... 28 21 511 250 250 1,011 1903-04.... 28 21 491 284 286 1,061 1904-05.... 38 37 272 244 250 766 1905-06.... 43 22 481 279 302 1,062 1906-07.... 36 31 380 232 270 882 1907-08.... 446 267 272 1,005 ♦Occasionally the column, " total trapped ", includes skins of animals found dead. " During the first three years shown in the above table, the work was under the supervision of the government agents, the next five un- der that of the company agents, and, since 1906, again under the gov- ernment agents. The ebb and flow in fox life as shown by the trapping is capable of explanation, but the details cannot here be considered. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 69 " Females were immune from killing during the first six Summary years; since then approximately an equal number of males and females have been released for breeding purposes, and the remainder killed, regardless of sex. It was thought, in the first in- stance, that, by saving all females and a small number of males, poly- gamy would become general among the foxes as is the case with domestic animals. Results not meeting with expectations, the scheme of leaving a number of pairs and saving them for breeders was adopted. "Evidence of promiscuous sexual intercourse among the foxes is confined to a very few cases, none of which appear in the printed re- ports of the agents of the Department of Commerce and Labor. Only one case has come under my observation. The different method of branding males and females is reported by Mr. Chichester as showing that pairs of foxes often seen playing together in the spring are not always male and female. He also observed a female fox briag up a litter of young alone and unaided. Later on, however, the same gen- tleman found the first authentic case of paired foxes jointly engaged in feeding and guarding the same litter of young. " It is possible that some of the females do not mate or become impregnated, and there is evidence that others abort; so, on the whole, it would seem wise to leave a surplus of healthy vigorous females, in- stead of adhering rigidly to the rules now in vogue. "At present the business is carried on under a contract, by which the North American Commercial Co. gets all the skins taken, com- pensates the natives for their labour, and furnishes a certain mount of fox food, but the feeding, trapping and entire conduct of fox aSairs is in the hands of the government agents. " While the regular annual catch of fox skins on St. George island since the present methods were adopted is less than half what it was from ISYO to 1890, as herein shown, it is evident that the herd, and with it the annual catch of skins, can be indefinitely increased. The fact that on St. Paul island, where nothing was done to perpetuate fox life, the species is about extinct, justifies the opinion that the measures taken on St. George island have preserved the foxes thereon. Summing it up, it may be stated that the preservation and increase of the foxes on St. George island depend, primarily, upon the bountiful feeding of proper food for about eight months every year; and, second- arily, upon the careful and methodical selection of the animals reserved for breeding purposes." EACCOON (Procyon loior) THE raccoon beongs to the Carnivora and is closely related to the bears. It weighs from 10 to 25 pounds, is of a brownish-gray colour with black tipped hairs over the back and dark rings on the tail, and, when captured as a cub, is easily tamed. It does not appear to have the fighting characteristics peculiar to the mustelidae and ,there- fore, might possibly be easily kept in a wooded area where numerous dens and hollow trees are found. Its habits are somewhat similar to those of the bear. It hibernates in winter, so that probably mating takes place in the fall, and the young are born about May 1. It will eat meat of all kinds, frogs, corn and vegetables. One breeder said that he had fed his pair almost wholly on wheat shorts supple- mented with table scraps. A heavily-wooded area, several acres in extent, with a creek run- DiDg through, afEords a favourable site for a raccoon ranch. The fence enclosing it should be of No. 14 galvanized woven wire, 3-inch mesh, with a substantially constructed overhang. A sheet of iron around the top of the fence would also help to prevent escape. Brass estimates the yearly production of pelts at 600,000 — all from America. The northern pelts are best and No. 1 large northern are now quoted at $4.50 each, with prices advancing sharply. Near large cities the flesh may also be sold for fifty cents or more. If the rich mahogany-coloured raccoons could be secured and bred true to colour, and if present prices were maintained, a profitable in- dustry could probably be built up in northern districts after the neces- sary experience had been acquired. The fact that raccoons are found in only a few portions of Canada does not mean that they cannot be successfully raised in more northern regions if food is provided. In general, it is safer to move a fur-bearer from a warmer to a colder home than to reverse the process. \ J^^% ,-^ c a. = o t " a fe rt -s IS E W 1> Ph «^ 3g P E Ti O IS o 2; 3 - ■^ffi .2 a WEASEL FAMILY (Mustelidae) np HE weasel family includes the mink, marten, otter, weasel, fisher, •*■ wolverine, sea-otter, skunk and badger, all of which are very valuable for their fur. The Eussian sable, sea-otter, Hudson Bay sable, ermine, black marten, fisher, Alaska sable, otter and mink, are derived from the animals mentioned above and are among the most expensive furs. Eussian sable skins are frequently sold at $500 or more. Area for area, they cost more than silver fox, as some sable skins are only about eight inches long, exclusive of the five-inch tail. The pelt of the wild sea-otter brings a higher price, on the average, than the wild silver fox. The Hudson Bay, or American marten sometimes has almost as beautiful fur as the Siberian, but the finest pelts sell for less than $100. The Canadian weasel, or ermine, is usu- ally inferior to the Eussian, often having a yellowish white or gray colour. The most expensive mink pelts are those from the Laurentian plateau. The price of fisher skins has recently advanced greatly and prime skins sell for as much as $75 each. The price of skunk pelts has also advanced and black skins from northern districts now bring from $4 to $8 for the finest specimens. If the domestication of the marten, fisher, otter, mink and skunk, or, in other words, the family of the mustelidae, were accom- plished, there is no doubt that a market for more than ten million dol- lars worth of raw fur annually could be found. The annual production of all American pelts is between twenty-five and fifty million dollars, and the above-mentioned family, with the Siberian marten included, would supply a large proportion of the demand for high-priced furs — probably well over fifty per cent. It is worth noting in this connec- tion that the recently established fur-farming experiment stations in the United States will experiment first with this family of animals. They will probably keep the marten and the mink, these two being con- sidered by experts among the most desirable for domestication. MINK (Putorius Yison) There are two well-knovra. species which resemble each other closely, the European mink or marsh otter of Europe (P. lutreola) and the American mink (P- vison). The latter is found over a large portion of North America, the finest and darkest being the small minks of 72 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION Quebec and the Ungava peninsula. While it lives on the water a large part of its time and makes its home near streams, it can live on the land away from the water and has even been found in trees. The fur is dense and soft and the overhair is of stiff lustrous water hairs. The darkest colour extends down the back and tail. The dyers usually accentuate the dark colour by brush dying or tipping the fur. Brass estimates the world's yearly supply as follows: America, 600,000 skins; Europe, 20,000; and Asia, 20,000. They do not seem to be decreasing rapidly but the price is advancing and, owing to the excellent quality and durability of the fur, is likely to remain high. Some fancy ranch skins have been sold for $13 and good skins will bring about $10 each. Some conception of the extra value of north- eastern mink can be formed when it is known that Quebec furriers sold their mink to New York in 1911 at $9 each, and purchased mink of tlie same quality mixed with best eastern United States skins at $8 each. Mink-Parming The farming of the mink is still in the experimental stage, and no ranches examined, except perhaps two, would justify detailed de- scriptions as models to copy from. It has been demonstrated that mink can be kept in captivity and its young reared successfully. As for the quality of pelt, only a few statements could be secured. All attempts to rear this animal in Canada are too recent, or else were made over thirty years ago when mink was high-priced, and accurate records were not kept. The statements of sales of skins received were highly satisfac- tory, and indicate that pelts from stock bred in ranches is, under cer- tain conditions, better than the wild stock. It was also demonstrated that rapid improvement in the stock is possible because of the oppor- tunity for selection of sires — an opportunity not possible in fox rear- ing at the present time because of the latter animal's monogamous habits. Thus, one male out of every four or five can be chosen for his size, beauty of colour or quiet disposition, and a rapid improvement towards a good stock made. There have been hundreds of mink ranches in America and there are probably about fifty in Canada at the present time. None of them are very pretentious except, possibly, that of La Compagnie Zootechnique de Labelle, Ltd., the head office of which is in Montreal and the ranch at Lac Chaud, in the Laurentian highlands of Quebec. The capital of the company is $49,000. As soon as the success of mink-ranching is assured, it is proposed to proceed with the breeding of the otter along similar lines. -'•■ - **t3s CI*'~r' ' > -»«*» '**'«»• ~^^mm Mink Ranch at Lac Chaud. One Quarter of an Acre in Area ^ <^- .^ ' ^ ■ ■ 0^'W! ■^"' ■ 1 ..,;ll, ,.■■ ^' '^l^Hk ii^^ i'^^^^,^^- ;*;^^P,;j nnp^^p^">'' jiP^PSM|| ^^HSH^^^HII^^^m^^^^ '^'hRI^&bRJ .iiii^^^ 1^P*5^^^ MiNK'S Den, Artificial FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 73 The whole question of mink-ranching is one that needs more thorough investigation and probably the establishment of experimental farms under experienced ranchmen. A somewhat vague classification into three types of farming can be made from the information gathered : 1. The Natural Plan. — The minks are given an extensive range and the conditions under which they live differ from the natural conditions only in that the animals are fed and occasional nests provided. All catching is by trapping. 2. The Colony Method. — The families are kept in colony houses with a runway to a creek. 3. The Pen System. — Bach mink is kept in a separate pen. _ The Compagnie Zootechnique de Labelle was the only The Natural , „ f,y , . -T xi ,. _l Plan ranch of this type examined, though a vague report was obtained of another of the same type at Port Medway, N.S. In 1911, some two dozen mink were placed in the area shown in the illustration, comprising about one-quarter acre. They increased about 100 per cent, in number in 1912. The manager explained the small increase as being due to the limited quarters with which they were provided. Another possible explanation is that 1912 appeared to be a poor year for both mink and fox. It is also possible that the old wild animals captured did not take kindly to their new location or to the artificial nests. The last cause will disappear, particularly as soon as ranch-bred mink are available. As stated, the total area enclosed in the ranch in 1911 was about one-quarter acre. In 1913, work was under way to enclose an area 3,000 feet long and 1,500 feet wide at the widest point. The larger range will probably insure considerable success. The situation of the ranch is on an island in Lac Chaud iu an uninhabited section of country in the Laurentians. It is high and rocky and covered with birch and spruce. The ranch is enclosed with one continuous fence about 12 feet high, set on solid rock on land, and on sunken piers in the water. The chief difSculty is' in the construction of the water fence as ice breaks the wire in spring. It is proposed to prevent this by dropping a plank fence three feet wide into the piers to protect the wire during the icy season. In spring the planks will be removed. Not more than a dozen feet of the margin of Lac Chaud are included within the fence. To prevent the escape of the mink under the fence, a wide carpet wire is turned in on the lake bottom. To pre- vent high climbing, a strip of sheet iron a foot wide is fastened half way up the fence. There is also an overhang of iron. 74 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION The nesits are made about 20 inches by 20 inches and 6 Female inches high, and are pushed into a large box (similarly to a drawer in a chest of drawers), which is placed in a bank of earth and covered up. Thus, if it is necessary to examine the nest, it may be drawn out. A piece of meshed wire over the inner box will permit a view of the whole interior. The entrances should be a foot or more long and from three to four inches in diameter. Mr. Desormeau, the manager at Lac Chaud, reported that, once a female took possession of a nest, no other mink was allowed to enter, always being met at the entrance to the passageway and beaten back. The food is always carried to the entrance and is taken from the hand as quickly as offered. As many nests as there are females in the ranch, and probably a few more, are required to prevent fighting for pos- session or the making of nests in burrows. The males are provided vrith large caves roofed over with Home of the Male planks Or concrete. Food is thrown in through a hatch in the roof. In summer the mink obtains a considerable quan- tity of food in the water, as small fish can get through the meshed fence. Because of the free range, only flesh food is fed. It could not be ascertained how the mother and young are cared for during the several months when the latter are dependent on their mother for food and protection. It is the intention of Mr. Desormeau to separate the young from the old each year and place them in one end of his fenced area, having a fence crossing the island to divide them. It is likely that when they are about two months old, or about July 1, the separation of the young from the mother could be easily effected by simply carrying them away m their box. They would be old enough at that time to live on solid food and would be tamer and gentler than if left with their mother. The food is almost wholly fish, supplied from the lake. Permis- sion has been received from the Quebec authorities to capture the fish by any method. It is proposed to restock the lake with fry. It is estimated that six men can manage the ranch and that about two thousand females and one quarter as many males can be accom- modated as breeding stock. _ No ranches of this type were examined, but proof that such The Colony , Plan exist was furnished by owners who did not wish to reveal to the public the methods they used. The promoters of this method claim to be highly successful and have given considerable study to the habits of the mink, a fact which is proved by their intel- ligent discussions of mink-ranching problems. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 75 They say that the chief difQculties are in securing the first litter from the wild animals and in getting suitable food. The wild mink is usually wholly unsusceptible to domestication or even semi-domes- tication. They frequently kill themselves by hanging, cutting their throats, or beating their heads against a wall. Most of them will commit suicide or die of fear on the near approach of a dog. These facts have been corroborated in the experience of 1912, a large pro- portion of wild mink having died while being shipped and a large number of those caught for ranching purposes being found dead, some- times badly cut or lacerated. If the young are taken from the mother as early as possible — say six weeks or seven weeks old, in Eastern Canada about June 15 — they become very tame and, according to the advocates of this new method of ranching, can be reared in family colonies afterwards. A colony house, or large box, can be provided and a considerable runway or paddock may extend in front to include a portion of a stream. The food is English sparrows, frogs, meat, fish, bread and milk. The young are fed new milk. An English sparrow each day is the proper amount of food. As they are promiscuous in mating, the majority of the males may be slaughtered and only the finest kept. _, „. , The method of ranching mink which has been used almost The Single ° Pen System exclusively in America is one which employs a small pen for each animal and supplies the water in troughs to each pen. The two largest establishments visited consisted of an ordinary bam about 20 feet wide and 30 feet long. The walls were open under the eaves to make the interior as airy as possible. On either side of a central alley were pens about 4 feet wide and 8 feet long, provided with a nest box on a slight elevation, and having a crooked passage for entrance. Water ran through troughs at the ends of the ptn, or was pumped in daily. The partitions were of wire above and boards near the floor. If wire is used for the walls, an overhang is necessary to prevent climbing out, or the wire might be made to extend over the pens completely. Very little light is required, as the mink usually sleeps during the day. Mink can be reared in such pens but there are grave doubts of the permaneiicy of the good health of the animals. In a Nova Scotia ranch there was no diflBculty in rearing an average of three and a half to a litter. The young minks had litters of from two to four and the older breeders sometimes had six. "With such satisfactory results, when every pair raised could be sold for $40 and food could be procured freely, it is inconceivable why development of the business did not proceed. The managers were continually selling off their stock 76 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION and capturing more wild ones. They also admitted that they would not again use board floors for mink, but would have pens enclosing a larger area of ground. Prom these facts, it may readily be concluded that there were considerable difficulties of some kind. The mink appears to thrive on any kind of food that a cat would thrive on. At the Centreville ranch, fish and fish oflial were the prin- cipal diet, and were fed in large quantities, though, as stated below, no more than they will eat should be fed to them. Milk, eggs, bread, fish and meat are staples. The English sparrow is a great favourite for mink food and frogs and live eels are also fed. A mink will frequently eat food with avidity when it is thrown into the water, whereas it might refuse to eat it if placed in its feeding trough. A study of the literature available leads to the conclusion for Pens that it will be possible to rear mink in secluded wooded areas on the banks of a stream or pond. The method adopted at Lac Chaud is sure to be, at least, partially successful and may prove to be profitable. The cost of building a mink-proof fence in the water is high, compared with the cost of building on land. For this reason a site on an island is not considered as good as a site on a pond; for the whole pond or lake can be enclosed with a land fence. Thus a small lake, a dam, or a stream can be utilized for a ranch of any of the above-mentioned types. A shed could be built on the banks of a stream and the pens extended outside the walls of the building across the stream. The pens need not be wider than 3 or 4 feet nor longer than 5 or 6 feet inside the building, but should be twice as long outside. To prevent burrowing the outside walls should be sunk in the ground about 18 inches, except where in the water. If the natural method of ranching is used, two water areas would be neces- sary to provide two fenced areas. It is advisable to double fence a mink ranch, similarly to a fox ranch, in order to prevent their escape and to keep ofE intruders, es- pecially dogs and other wild animals, the smell or sight of which seems to inspire the mink with great fear. In the natural method of ranching, the sexes seek each other out, but, when one animal is placed in each pen, the keeper has to be very watchful during the latter part of February and up to the middle of March. The male mink can be admitted through chutes and has to be withdrawn at once if the two begin to quarrel. If no quarreling occurs, the male is not withdrawn for two days. Mating usually takes place within two weeks, and constant watcMulness has to be exer- cised to prevent fights when the male is admitted at the wrong time. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 77 In one case the canine teeth of a vicious male were cut off and he became quite docile. Mink may be safely handled if two pairs of woolen mitts are worn. The period of gestation is about six weeks. The tiny young, which are blind for about iive weeks, should not be handled. Before they are six weeks old, the mother leads them out and they begin eating solid food. At sis or seven weeks of age they should be taken from the mother, unless she is of a very quiet and gentle temperament. Most of them will become quite tame. P f I w t '^^^ following practical hints on mink-farming have on Mink-Farming been recently published in circular form by the Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture : (1) Minks should be kept in the proportion of one male to five or sis females. (2) Each breeding female should have a separate pen. The male should be kept by himself except at mating time. The females begin to rut about the middle of February. The male should be admitted to the female for about one day. The young are born about the middle of April, (3) The females must be kept alone or they will be likely to kill each other's young. The male would also kill them if he had an oppor- tunity. (4) Food: The best steady food for minks is bread and sweei milk, corn-mush and milk, or corn-mush cooked with bits of meat in it. The animals should have meat or fish about twice a week. The meat may be of a very cheap kind. Keep pans clean and feed only as much as the mink will eat up clean at each feeding. Peed once a day, except females that are suckling young. These should be fed twice. Provide fresh water regularly. Do not salt the food. (5) Pens: Pens should be 5 or 6 feet square, the sides of smooth wide boards cut 4 feet long and set up with the lower end resting on a footing of stone or concrete 18 inches in the ground. The floor of the pen should be the bare ground. The pens can be built economically in groups of four or more. The sides can be of heavy wire netting instead of boards, but in that case the top would need to be netted or the ani- mals would climb out. (6) Boxes: Boies about 2 feet by 1^ feet by lyi feet in size should be provided for nests. They should have hinged lids so as to allow their being opeilfed and examined. Pine straw or hay should be 78 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION provided. The boxes may be outside the pens, bolted to the fence; a hole in the fence and box admits the animals, the box to be 3 or 4 inches above the ground. The boxes should be as dark as possible, with a hole 4 inches in diameter for the entrance of the minks. MARTEN OR AMERICAN SABLE (Mustela Americana) No marten farms were found in the course of this investigation, although ranchmen were attempting to secure specimens. In the au- tumn of 1912, one Nova Scotia farm obtained six pairs from Labrador and probably a few more farms in Ontario are stocked. The experience of only one person in breeding marten was obtain- able, that of A. H. Cocks, of Henley-on-Thames, England.* Mr. Cocks, who has raised five litters of marten in captivity, states that the prin- cipal difficulty is to ascertain when the female is in season. If a pair are put together when the female is not in season, it is very apt to end in the death of the female from a sudden snap through her brain by the male. The marten is one of the most blood-thirsty of animals, Habits of . J J the Marten being inferior only to the weasel, and, possibly the fisher, in this respect. It mates promiscuously like the rest of the weasel family, and, because of its savage nature, two cannot be put into one pen. The pens should be similar to the mink pens, of No. 17 or No. 18 one-inch mesh wire, but higher and wired all over. The ground may be covered with wire to prevent burrowing or the fence may be sunk into the ground a foot deep. Trees and brush may be placed in the pen, or the pen placed in the woods. They are accustomed to an exceedingly active life in the trees aijd must have an opportunity pro- vided for exercise or they will not remain long in breeding condition. The nest should be about the size of that advised for the mink, or, possibly, slightly larger. The difficulty with the marten, as with the mink, comes at Mating mating time; only it is much harder to control the difficulties in the marten's case, as mating takes place at night, whereas minks mate at any time. The placing of crossed straws about the pens by the female gives the keeper his clue to the time for the admittance of the male. He should be left in several days. For safety's sake, in *An account of his experiences has been published in The Zoologist for 1883, p. 203; and in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1900, p. 836. Further notes on the young of thgfcBecies are to be found in The Zoologist, 1881, 1897, etc. ; "^ o . .X. QpJ H(4 « d mw foo '■^C: a^ ^ M (cpq ffl ■m -Q g-o" ^ o 3 ^ td ■So «a »i^ •o 2 ^ o o y aW "J . ao 73 a Xi C or-, m O m G .t; c; o s - (L; 2 = "32 a s ^ a I- 53 O ^ "So *^' ti b « 3 § C ^ ^ ;'' lo\.! 7K =\, / ^P ?F J' O -^-ii'^lvS-^U 1 ;et^^^^- tf »• vJ I _,^*>2! ...._._ /^ < I 2 lO cqO S a ij ^'* € 5 a ,= d ^ FM '^ o o **" ^ J^ It !r RODENTS THE order of mammals known as rodents are nearly all small-sized and are generally not valuable for their fur. They are distin- guished by their chisel-edged teeth, of which they possess two in each jaw. There are no canine teeth and a wide vacant space divides the in- cisors from the grinders. The rabbit is an exception, having four in- cisors in the upper jaw. For furs, the most useful animals of this order are the beaver of the beaver family, the muskrat of the mouse family and the rabbit of the hare family. None, except the rabbit, can be domesticated, but they can be kept under control to a certain extent, especially the muskrat. MUSKRAT (Fiber Zibethicus) While muskrat is one of the lowest priced pelts, it has risen rapidly in value in recent years. In 1911, the best northern muskrat cost the furrier about 80 or 85 cents each and, in 1912, the price of the best skins was approaching $1.25 each. The price for the trapper is, of course, considerably less, being about 55 cents at the present time. The demand has been increased by the new uses found for this fur. The handsome and popular ' Hudson Bay seal,' which is made from the muskrat, even in our own dressing and dyeing establishments, has given the fur much of its present value. About ten millions of pelts are used annually and the high prices are sure to spur trappers and hunt- ers to greater eJGEorts and, if the fur continues fashionable, may re- sult in the depletion of the species in some sections. Because of the ease of stocking a marsh and feeding the rat, it is feasible for owners to take charge of their marshes, control the number killed, improve the housing and nesting conditions and supply food by planting suitable crops and feeding vegetables and fruits. In the salt marshes around Delaware and Chesapeake bays, on the Atlantic coast of the United States, a good quality of rat is produced and the marshes are ^protected by the owners. The 'ratting' privileges are rented, usually for one half of the catch. Use is made of the fur, the flesh and the musk bags. The flesh, known as marsh hare or marsh rabbit, is sold in large quantities on the Baltimore, Philadelphia, Nor- folk and Washington markets and is said to be very agreeable in the fall and early winter, but to be unfit for food in the spring because of the musky flavour. The Indians consider it a splendid dish. In the proper season, canning companies will purchase as much as can be put up. 90 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION It is said that the best salt marshes will furnish 50 rats a year per acre. They may be fenced with lJ/2-inch mesh wire, 5 feet wide, by burying it a foot on dry land and deeper near water area. Not more than 50 rat houses, or pairs, should be kept on an acre. It is necessary to have an area of water which does not freeze to the bottom. This, in many cases, could be secured by dredging and the mud thrown up would be used by the rats for making homes. Wild rice, water lilies, cat-tails, and various roots, are their natural food. Carrots, beets, turnips, apples, pumpkins and other cheap vegetables and fruits may be grown in nearby fields for summer food, or stored in pits for winter. A small quantity of meat may also be fed. The muskrat probably has only two litters a year in the colder parts of Canada, but farther south, three litters are bom, and the first litters bear young in the autumn. The first are born about the middle of May and each litter numbers from four to nine, although as many as twelve have been reported. BEAVER (Castor Canadensis) The beaver formerly existed over nearly all the continent of North America. It was also found in Europe and the greater part of Asia and Northern Africa, but, in most of these, became extinct centuries ago. There are only a few colonies in Europe at the present time and these are preserved carefully by government authorities. It is rapidly becom- ing extinct in America. The homes of the greatest numbers, at the pre- sent time, are in the country between the Great lakes and the St. Lawrence river northward to Hudson bay, and in northern British Columbia. No animal did more than the beaver to effect the colonization of America. It lured men into the most remote wildernesses, furnished him food and clothing, and was one of the chief articles of commerce with Europe. So universal an article of trade did it become that, in northern Canada, beaver skin became the unit of currency. Brass estimates the world's production as follows : America, 80,000 skins; Asia, 1,000; Europe, a few. Besides the skins, the castonim, or dry beaver castor, is traded in, bringing from $13 to $15 a pound at the present time. Because of its interesting habits, every schoolboy is well the Beaver acquainted with most phases of the life of the beaver. Its flesh, skins and castors are valuable, the latter being used as a base in perfume manufacture. The flesh is excellent and the tail is considered a delicacy. The skin was formerly used in the manu- FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 91 facture of beaver hats, but, later, this use declined owing to the advent of the silk hat. At the present time, the fur is mostly plucked in dress- ing and sold for use in coats, stoles and muffs. The largest and finest skins are not worth more than $15 to $20, large No. 1 skins being quoted at $12. The beaver cannot be farmed because of the wide extent of terri- tory required to furnish food and also because it usually makes trouble for all neighbours in the same water area, whose lands have aspen, poplar, willow or other trees that furnish food. The only possible method is to enclose a large tract for both the forest and beavers that could be produced on it. Patrolling would be necessary and a certain number of beaver would have to be taken each year to maintain the proper supply. Possibly the range of the animals might be limited by fencing across the valleys. Trappers have said that the beaver will eat cultivated crops (e.g., turnips), but no proof of this statement could be found. If it eats such crops, ranching the beaver is feasible. The logical method to perpetuate the beaver is to create Game Preserves national game preserves under constant patrol. This plan has proved successful in the Algonquin National Park, Ontario, where a considerable revenue is now derived from the sale of their skins. A system of national parks where the beaver and musk- rat would be eflBciently protected and where other wild life would be propagated as well as protected is advisable. Protective laws, particu- larly in the case of the beaver, do not protect. During the years when the beaver was contraband in Ontario and Quebec, bales of furs fre- quently contained a number of beaver skins. The bale was sold as it was packed, or another customer was sought. Thus, many Montreal furriers testified that they purchased beaver skins continually and could not avoid it, if they wished to continue to buy raw pelts. For the information of those who desire to keep a few pairs of these interesting animals, it may be stated that when two years old, the beaver mates for life, mating taking place in February. The period of gestation is aFout three months. The litter usually consists of two or three, but may be larger. The young are weaned before they are two months old and taught to eat tender shoots of the raspberry and other plants. They accompany their mother the whole season. Foundation stock may be obtained from the Department of Lands, For- ests and Mines, Toronto, Ont., at about $50 a pair. Success is easily achieved where water and the proper food are available. EEINDEER AND MOOSE THE United States Congress, in 1892, at the instance of Dr. Sheldon Jackson, appropriated $340,500 to establish herds of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in Alaska. Twelve hundred and eighty reindeer were imported before 1902, when the Eussian government with- drew its permission to make shipments from its territory. More lately Dr. Grenfell has established herds in Labrador. Both herds are entirely successf-ul in providing labour, transportaition, skins and food for the more primitive people of Canada and Alaska. The native reindeer of Canada, comprising the woodland caribou {Rangifer caribou) and the barren-ground caribou {Rangifer arcticus) might produce a domestic animal of a type superior to its European cousin. In any event, the European reindeer might possibly be improved by crossing with the woodland caribou, which is stronger and larger. The following interesting account of the introduction of reindeer to Canada was contributed by E. H. Campbell, Director of the Forestry Branch, Department of the Interior. The Eeindeee in Canada " The earliest recorded attempt to domesticate reindeer on this con- tinent is that of the United States government which, about 1893, imported a herd of Siberian deer to Alaska for that purpose. Several small herds have since been imported and, as the result of careful and intelligent handling, there are now some 15,000 domesticated reindeer in Alaska. The deer are used for practically all the purposes for which domestic cattle may be used and are, in addition, very useful for trans- portation purposes. " The problem of transportation is, aside from the Transportation ., , ,, ,, ,, , ■ , i • i in the Arctic seventy 01 the weather, the most serious with which dwellers in the Arctic regions have to deal. The cost of grain and hay, neither of which is grown in any considerable quan- tity, precludes the use of horses or cattle for transportation purposes and, prior to the introduction of reindeer, dogs were used almost entirely. While Eskimo, or husky, dogs make excellent beasts of burden, their usefulness is seriously impaired by the necessity of hauling with them srufEcient fish or other food for their own subsistence. As on long trips they can haul little, if any, load beyond their own food supply, this seriously limits the sphere of a dog's usefulness. Eein- deer, on the other hand, while quite as hardy as the best train dogs and FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 93 able to haul somewhat larger loads, find their own subsistence in the mose which covers practically all of the sub-arctic region. No matter how cold the weather, or how deep the snow, the deer can paw their way down to the moss and thus keep themselves in good condition on the longest and roughest trips. Another point in favour of deer is that, should misfortune overtake a party of Arctic travellers and it become necessary to Idll the transport animals for food, the flesh of the deer is palatable and nourishing, while only dire necessity would impel anyone to use dogs for food. " It seems to have been the idea of the United States government that the establishment of large herds of domesticated reindeer in Alaska would be a long step in the direction of solving the transportation problem of that district and, in addition, would, to a considerable extent, provide a food supply for the natives who otherwise would, from time to time, become charges upon the public treasury. "This experiment by the United States government was followed with great interest by many Canadians who were interested in the de- velopment of our northern territories, and particularly by Sir Wilfred Grenfell, who, in connection with his medical missionary work on the Labrador coast, found himself confronted by practically the same con- ditions that obtained in Alaska, viz. : severe climate, absence of means of winter transportation other than dogs, and scarcity of food supply for natives and fishermen during periods of unusually severe weather. " At Sir Wilfred's request, the Dominion Government, in in Labrador 1907, purchased a herd of some 300 Norwegian reindeer. These were handed over to Sir Wilfred to be used by him in connection with his work. It was originally intended that the herd should be established on the North shore of the gulf of St. Lawrence, but he finally decided that his mission station at St. Anthony, on the northeast coast of Newfoundland, was a more suitable place for the experiment. There is an abundance of reindeer moss at, or near, St. Anthony, the climate is in all respects suitable and, should occasion require it, the deer can readily be shipped from there to any desired point on the Labrador coast as conveniently as from the point first selected. " Sir Wilfred's experiment proved successful from the start and his herd of reindeer now numbers over 1,200. A considerable num- ber of stags and barren does have been killed for food and there have been the usual unavoidable losses by death and accident. He reported in May, 1911, that the meat is excellent and the skins valuable and that, in his opinion, reindeer will, in the future, be as valuable in Labrador as in Alaska and will afiord an export industry of meat from a district 94 COMMISSION OP CONSERVATION where it is not probable that wlieat, corn or other cereals can ever be profitably produced. . " During the summer of 1910, His Excellency the Gov- the Northwest emor-Gcncral, J]arl Gre}', visited Dr. Grenf ell's mission station on liis return journey from Hudson bay. His P]xcellencY was greatly interested in the reindeer experiment, and having just seen a c-onsiderable part of sub-arctic Canada, was impressed with the desirability of further extending the experiment by the establishment of herds in portions of the Northwest Territories. He subsequently dis- cussed the question with Hon. Mr. Oliver, then Minister of the Interior, with the result that an arrangement was made with Dr. Grenfell to supply fifty reindet^r to the Dominion government at what the animals had actually cost him. It was decided that the reindeer should be sent to a suitable place near Fort Smith, on the Slave river, at the extreme northern boundary of Alberta. In addition to the reindeer. Dr. Grenfell was to supply two herders and one apprentice to look after the herd, three trained dogs and a supply of moss sufficient for the journey from Newfoundland to our Northwest. " There was no choice as to the time of year when the reindeer were to be shipped. They could not be taken across the continent in summer weather as they could not stand the heat. They could not be taken across in winter unless provision was made for a supply of reindeer moss near Edmonton, as the rivei-s are frozen and they could not be transported beyond that point. They could not be moved in the spring as that is the fawning season. There was, therefore, only the short season left between the closf of summer and the ' freeze-up ' of the northern rivo^^l. " It was arranged with the Department of Marine and Fisheries that one of their steamers should call at St. Anthony for the reindeer early in September, 1911, and take them to Quebec, from which point they would be sent by train to Edmonton. If the boat had proceeded direct to Quebec, it is probable that there would have been very small loss of deer, but the steamer had to stop on the way to take on board a cargo of powdered gypsum, and the effect on the reindeer was serious. Four deer died before the steamer reached Quebec and five more on the train after leaving Quebec ; and, from the symptoms, it is practically certain that death \va^ caused by inhalation of gypsum dust. "It was a somewhat difficult matter to transfer the reindeer from the boat to the cars awaiting them at Quebec, but this was finally ac- complished and the trip to Edmonton and from there, sixty miles further on to the end of the steel, was made expeditiously, most of the reindeer rtaching this point in good condition. FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 95 " Prom the end of the steel to Athabaska Landing, something over fifty miles, the deer were conveyed in waggons and were then loaded on scows for the trip down to Fort Smith. This turned out to be the most diflScult part of the trip. The scows were hard to manage and a great deal of ice was encountered which hindered progress. In the end it was found imposeible to get as far as Fort Smith, and it was decided to remain at a point seventy miles from the fort, where reindeer moss was plentiful, until such time as the deer could be driven t® their destination, or until the spring, when they could be conveyed down the river. The herd was kept here very comfortably until the spring, and on the 20th May, 1913, reached Fort Smith, the total loss of deer en route being nineteen. " The herd wintered satisfactorily and were in good condition in the spring. The chief herder had selected a suitable place for them west of Fort Smith on a point jutting out into a lake lying south of Great Slave lake. There is plenty of reindeer moss in this locality and it seemed in every way suitable for the keeping of the herd. However, the flies became so troublesome to the herd in the summer that they stam- peded and, at last reports, had not all been gathered together again. " A new range for the deer has been selected on a large island in Great Slave lake and it is the intention to move the remainder of the herd there in the spring. " Considering the difficulties of transportation, the shipment was taken through with comparatively small loss, but the success of the herd is not fully assured until it is certain that they can be controlled and prevented from stampeding at the time when the flies are most active. If matters go satisfactorily with them for another year, it may be advis- able to consider increaeing the number by a further shipment." MOOSE The European moose was formerly under domestication and proved valuable for transportation purposes in the cold northern countries. It is on record that it once hauled a sleigh 234 miles in one day. For divers reasons — the chief one being that esxiles in Siberia used it to effeot their escape — it became unlawful to maintain the moose in cap- tivity in Eussia. Probably it would have developed into a valuable domestic animal for northern latitudes had this prohibition not been imposed. It is possible, also, that the Canadian moose, which is of greater size and strength, could be developed into a domestic animal of value. Several cases are recorded of its being suc- cessfully used for draught purposes, in the first generation from the wild state. It is but jusit to add, however, that the moose has not yet been bred in captivity. IV. Preparing Skins for Manufacture MAMMALS which, have a short, fine, soft coat of fur through which grows hair, usually of greater length, variously called overfur, water-fur, guard-hair, are knovm as fur-bearers. To provide more warmth for the animal, the coat of fur and over^hair is usually thicker and longer in the winter; hence, furs taken in winter, or when prime, are more valuable than those taken in warmer weather. When the skin is unprime, it has a bluish appearance on Fur-bearer the flesh side down the back and sides; when prime, it is of a whitish or creamy colour. An experienced furrier can, by the appearance of the skin and of the overhair, determine the season at which it was taken. It is desirable to capture fur-bearers when prime, because the fur and overhair are fuller and heavier and will not fall out easily, as commonly occurs in ' springy ' pelts. It is also desirable to take skins shortly after becoming prime, which is usually about the first of December, immediately after the first winter weather. When taken then, the pelt is better coloured and less worn. In a climate like that of Prince Edward Island, where winter sets in about Christmas, the last week of the year is chosen for killing the fox. The pelts of the majority of animals become prime late in Novem- ber. The fur, or, as it is called in relation to the hair, the underfur, consists of soft, silky, downy, curly filaments. It is usually short and thick, and towards the skin it grows lighter in colour. It is barbed lengthwise and hence is capable of felting — a quality not possessed to so great a degree by wool or silk, which is best handled by spinning and weaving. In a prime pelt the underfur is hardly discernible unless the overhair is blown apart. Then the light colour of the underfur appears. If it were generally known that the undyed skin is whitish and that the underfur close to the skin is a light drab, or pale blue colour, it would not be so easy to sell dyed skins as ' natural '. The overhair is straight, smooth, and, usually, comparatively rigid. It is scattered throughout the fur and, on the living animal, prevents the fur from felting. It serves as a protection against cold and storm as well as against injury. In the case of the fox, which lies out in the open, exposed to the coldest northern weather, the dense overhair, sometimes over six inches in length, protects the body, while the toes and face are protected by the immense tail, which covers them when the fox lies down. The beauty of a pelt is due largely to the overhair. It is the glossy black or the amphimaculated silver-back overhair that makes the silver fox one hundred times more valuable than his red FUR-FARMING IN CANADA 97 full-brother. Some kinds of animals, as, for example, the beaver and the otter, hp.ve overhair which ia not always considered as beautiful as the underfur alone. Thus, they are put through a process of pulling and the manufactured skins are usually plucked. Usually animals intended for slaughter are fed well and are Killing carefully housed so that no injury can be done the overhair, such as from rubbing, the attachment of burrs or from lying in dirt. The killing presents no difficulty except that it must be done so as not to alarm the breeding animals. Therefore, in most cases, the animals to be slaughtered should be removed to the finishing pens in the autumn. The fox is usually killed by crushing the chest with the foot, a man's weight applied just back of the foreleg being sufficient, or the head may be forced back until the neck is broken.* Skunk, on account of its liability to scent, presents the greatest problem. It can be removed from its regular pen, however, by a wire snare placed on the end of a long pole. It is then dispatched outside its pen by the usual method of clubbing. If scenting is feared, it may be drowned in a tub of water. „. . . There are two distinct methods of removing the skin. Some Skinning . ^ and Curing animals are opened down the belly, as in skinning a sheep, and the skins are stretched flat or ' open '. Others are slit up the hind legs to the vent and the skin is stripped oS the rest of the body. These are stretched by a board wedged inside and are said to be ' cased '. The methods of skinning in use for common Cana- dian fur-bearers are as follows: Cased — Fox, marten, fisher, weasel, otter, skunk, lynx, cat, muskrat. Either Cased or Open — Raccoon, wildcat. Open — ^Wolverene, badger, beaver, wolf, bear. The process of removing a eased skin is well described by the Fur News Magazine as follows: " Slit skin on both hind legs on the under side of animal from the heel to the vent; skin out the legs to the feet, and in the ease of mink, skin out the toes and leave them and the claws on the skin. Skin around the tail, leaving the tail on the back of the skin, and after loosening the tail bone at the base, take hold of it with your forefinger and pull it out of the tail. If the tail bone is hard to remove, split a stock, insert the tail bone in split, and with this to grip the bone, you should have no trouble to pull it out. See page 47. 98 COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION " Now turn the skin back and carefully pull it ofE the body. Use a knife to start the skin if it does not come off easily, but be careful not to cut the pelt. Skin so that as little flesh and fat adhere to the skin as possible. When the front legs are reached, skin around them near the body and then push them backward out of the skin — turn them inside out, as we might say. Skin out the legs to the paws in the case of mink, keeping them on the skin ; for the other animals cut off the legs at the first joint. Skin care- fully around the head, pushing the skull back through the skin until the ears are reached; these should be cut off as near the skull as possible, so that they remain attached to the skin. Then care- fully skin around the eyes, not cutting the eyelids, and when the mouth and nose are reached use care also. Do not pull the skin off the head, but remove carefully, for the heads of some animals are used in manufacturing the furs, and all skins have a better ap- pearance if the head is skinned out with care." Skimks and raccoons present some special problems. They fatten in the fall and go to their dens in cold weather. Therefore, those de- signed for slaughter must be segregated from the breeders before cold weather sets in or they cannot be captured without disturbing the nest. After skinning, also, a large quantity of fat adheres to the skin. This must be scraped off or it may heat and decompose the skin. Skunk fat should be kept and rendered into oil. In baled shipments, also, the grease of these skins is liable to injure other skins in the same pack. They should be specially wrapped in burlap and, because of their odour, it may be advisable to box the skunk skins separately. The flesh and fat are removed from skins by a dull knife or hatchet. The skin is slipped on a fleshing board with dulled corners, having one end in a grease pan and the other against the skinner's chest. The fat is pushed off the skin towards the tail. Much scraping of the skin is injurious, it being necessary to remove only the fat and loose flesh. The tail may give trouble if it is not split and scraped. Sometimes salt is dropped into it to prevent decomposition, but in no case is salt, nor any other preservative, applied to any other part of the skin. Often the tip of the tail is cut off to allow circulation of air inside and to drain out the fat. Open skinning presents no difficulty. The legs are cut off at the first joint and split up the inside to the slit which is cut along the belly from the lower jaw to the vent. The tail is cut open to extract the bone. The cased skins are stretched on a wedge-shaped board, fur Stretching side inwards. The edges of the stretching board are along the sides of the pelt, the dorsal surface of the pelt being COMMISSION OF CONSERVATION BEAVER (stretched in tioop) A I -Weasel 16 inches --' I [ Mmk 30 inches i St-l(MIN00IN Cv 1^ U5 CD 00 IN 00 CD COIOWO»000»OCD -;l lO ■* cq t^ l> T (N >> t^CQlOCOiOCOCCCOOOCOT-Ht^CD IN ^ ^.-HrHINCOTtlCOCTicD co" o" 00 lo" ■^*' »o T-T co" ]^ i-T JJ^ co" ^ " §5" 2 « ^ t-" M ■* 2 ^" ^ ^.^ CD ira cn 10 10 C^t CDOl-*(tDI^f^i-l03 O t> n 02 CO CD T o C300000OiO00«Oi .-H O lO -di CO 00 00 CO c '^ co" ::;^ >o d. IN ^ co" ^ eg ^ CD U3 "-1 10 t^OOCOt^OCOlO(NOO "^f- lO l> iO CO CI .-H 00 CO C<1 CO t~C^r-lTilO302.- -^ ~ CO .-H CO .- 00 ^ ■^ 1— 1 ^-. g > OOIOOSOOCO"*<:DO^ ^ O -~-~ rH --^ 1-1 CO ^ CO ^ , 10 Tl CO CO ^-2^--^-co CD ^~^ -^ 1-H i-H ^ Tl IN tH CO o t-H T-H 0:T-o" lO co" CO oo" t>-" o" 2? 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Blue fox 56 American Breeders' Assoc, on. . 127 breeders in Alaska 59 breeding of 57, 66 farming 56 food for 57 Blue fox {cont'd) page of Pribilof islands 60 rate of increase of 57 selecting breeders 63 skins, value of 57 Bowers, Geo. M., on parasitic fox disease 45 Brass, E., estimate of number of beaver skins by 90 estimate of production of fox skins 54,109,110 fur production by continents . . . 138 importation of furs to London 143, 145 estimate of number of mink skins by 72 estimate of raccoon pelts by . . . . 70 statistics of fur prices 146 Breeding of foxes — See Fox breeding Broadtail 6, 9 Bruce, Cummings, McConnell, fox breeders 13 Burrowman, T. L., fox breeder. . . 13,14 cement fox kennels of 35 orchard ranch of 28 price for fox skins received by . . 1 14 C Campbell, R. H., on reindeer in Canada 92 Canadian furs sold by Nesbitt's, 1905-12 142 legislation on fur-farming 135 mammals, three orders of 11 Carcross, Y. T., foxes near S3 Carnivora 10 Cased method of skinning 97 Castle, W. E., Prof., on fox breed- ing 22 Cat, domestic 1 , 6 Caton, J. S., on breeding wapiti. . 122 Cement fox kennel 35 Centreville, mink ranch at 76 Charlottetown, P.E.I., foxes near 53 Chaud, lac, mink ranch at 72 161 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA PAGE Chinchilla 12 Chinese \Yatcr deer 120 Clark, Rev. Geo., fox breeding by 13, 22 Classification, geographical, of furs 110 Close seasons 3 Cocks, A. H., marten farmer 78 Colony plan of mink-ranching .... 74 Colour phases of red fox 17 Colours, natural, of furs 100 Constipation in foxes 43 Commerce in raw furs 104 Coney 6 Corporations for fox- farming. ... 1 Cross foxes, breeding of 22 D Dalton, Chas., pioneer P. E. I. fox breeder 14, 24 sales of fox skins by, in 1910. 112 Davenport, Dr. Eugene, on Men- del's Law 19 Deer, fallow 120 Virginia, experiments with 117 Diarrhoea in foxes 43 Digestion, disorders of, in foxes . . 43 Diseases of foxes: constipation 43 diarrhoea 43 indigestion 43 mange 41 parasitic epidemic ■. 45 rickets 42 worms 43 Diseases of blue foxes 67 Domestication of fur-bearers 10 Domestic fur-bearers 6, 9 Dressing furs 100 Durability of furs 103 Dyeing of furs 100 of mink skins 72 Eland, domestication of 121 Elk, American — See Wapiti. Ermine 71 Eskimo dog 92 owners of reindeer 132 PAGE Exotic species, breeding of.. 6, 10, 120 F Fairs, European 104 Fences for ranches 28 Financial aspects of fox-farming . . 48 Fisher 79 popularizing the 6 Fleas on foxes 44 Food for foxes 36 Forests, destruction of 3 Fort Smith, reindeer near 95 Fox, attempts to domesticate .... 13 black, domesticating experiments with 12 black, how to identify 18 black, prices of pelts of 1 red, colour phases of 17 red, range of 16 red, sub-species of 16 silver — See Fox, black and Black fox. Fox-breeding, Prof. W. Bateson on 19 results of various matings 17 to secure dark-coloured pelts . . 20 Foxes in captivity, percentage of, in P.E.I 2 in Canada 53 Fox fur, when prime 46 Fox-ranch : of Holt, Renfrew & Co 13 location for 25 of Paquet Bros 13 of Revillon FrSres 13 Fox-ranches, fencing of 28 number of, in existence in 1909 15 in United States 54 Foj^-ranchers, organizations among 55 Fox-ranching : life of the boom in 51 catching and handling of foxes. 46 centres of the industry 53 construction of kennel 35 construction of nest 35 construction of pens 33 disease and hygiene 41, 42 failure of early attempts at . . .. 15 financial aspects 48 162 Index Fox ranching (cont'd) page food and feeding 36, 38 necessity of experienced keeper 39 in Ontario 13 practice 25 in Quebec 13 woodland site for ranch 26 Fox skins, final value of silver .... 54 how to judge 48 production of 54, 109, 110 quality of 52 red, prices of 23 Foxes, best furred 23 black, prices of 15 breeding of, to secure dark colour 18 diseases of 41 rate of increase 52, 54 mating and gestation 39 results of various matings 17 sales of, for breeding 49 speculation in 49, 50 Frauds in selling furs 9 Fraser, Alfred, decreasing fur supply 4 increasing fur prices 4 French fur buyers 107 Frost, Wesley, on climate of P.E.I. 25 on fox-farming 50 Fur-bearers, defined 96 domestication of 10 the precious 11 Fur-bearing animals, breeding of. 125 Fur buyers, French 107 Fur-farming, animals used in, in Canada 1 Canadian legislation re 135 common red fox 16 experiments by United States . 71 laws re 40 Fur market at London 105 Fur News Magazine, on diminish- ing fur supply 5 on skinning 97 Fur News Publishing Co 56 Fur prices, statistics of 146 Fur produced, annual value of . . . 138 Fur production, statistics of. 138, 139 Fur sales, London 105 of Hudson's Bay Co., 1850-1911 148 Fur-seals, importations of, to London 145 PAGE Fur trade, centres of 104 English 107 Furs, geographical classification of 110 deceptions in 7 dyeing of 100 frauds in selling 9 imitations of 7 list of misdescriptions 8 list of permissible descriptions . 8 popularizing 6 produced yearly 139 raw, commerce in 104 re-naming 6 scarcity of 2 weight and warmth of 103 world's sales of 104 G Generosoff, Vladimir, on sable breeding in Russia 12 German fur dyeing 100 Gestation, period of, for foxes .... 39 Gordon, James, early P. E. L fox breeder 15 Gordon, J. S., sales of fox skins by, in 1910 113 Great Slave lake, reindeer at 95 Greely, A. W., on blue foxes 58 Grenfell, Sir Wilfred, introduction of reindeer by 93 H Handling fur animals 129 Harmony Co 104 Harriman Alaska Expedition 127 Haywood, Benj., rearing of foxes by 13 Henley-on-Thames, marten farm at 78 Holt, Renfrew & Co., fox ranch of 13, 114 Hoofed animals 10 Hudson's Bay Co 104 auctions, fur prices at 147 fur sales, 1850-1911 148-159 Hudson Bay seal 6 Hunter-trapper age, passing of . . . 9 Hunting of fur-bearers, keenness of 3 Huth,F.,&Co 105 163 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA I PAGE Identification marks on foxes ... 45 Imitations of furs 7 of silver fox skins 52 Importations of blue foxes to Can- ada 56 of furs to London, 1855 and 1875 ' 143, 144 Increase of foxes, rate of 52, 54 Indigestion in foxes 43 Island site for fox ranch 28 J Jackson, Dr. S., introduction of reindeer through 92 Judge, James, on blue foxes 60 E Karakule 9 Keeper, experienced, necessary in fox ranching 39 Kennel, fox, construction of 35 Killing foxes — See Slaughtering Killing of fur-bearers 97 Kiver, H., & Co 105 L Labelle, Compagnie Zootechnique de 72 Labrador, reindeer in 93 foxes 24 Lampson, C. M., & Co 105 sales of 108 Lantz, species of mammals on the earth 10 Laurentian plateau, expensive pelts from 71 Legislation, Canadian, re fur- farming 135 Lethal chamber 47 London, importation of furs to, 1855 and 1875 143, 144 Chamber of Commerce, permis- sible fur descriptions 8 fur auction, typical prices 147 fur market 105 Zoological Society 121 PAGE Lopp, W. T., reindeer travel by. . 134 ' Lynx, black ' 6 M Mammals, wild, objects of breed- ing of 119 in Canada, three orders of ... . 11 Mange in foxes 42 Manufacture of furs 96, 102 Maritime Provinces, foxes import- ed into 1 Marten 78, 128 habits of 78 popularizing the 6 skins, production of 79 Mating of foxes 17,39 Meat fox diet 37 Mendel's law 19 Menier, M., fox breeder 14 Mink 71, 128 Mink-farming 72 practical hints on 77 Mink, food of 75 pens 76 popularizing of 6 Mink-ranching, methods of 73 Misnaming furs 7 Montague, P. E. I., foxes near. . . 53 Montmorency Falls, fox ranch at . 13 Moose 95 Moravian mission reindeer 132 Moths on foxes 44 Muntjac 120 Musk-ox, in London fur sales. ... 3 Muskrat 89 Muskrat-ranching 90 Muskrat, rise of, in popularity. . . 6 Muskrat skins, prices of 89 N Natural plan of mink-ranching. . . 73 Nesbitt, A. and W 105 furs sold by, 1905-12 142 Nests for foxes 35 New Brunswick, fur-farming legis- lation of 135 Newfoundland foxes 24 North American Commercial Co. 69 Northwest, reindeer in 94 164 Index o PAGE Oliver, Hon. F., introduction of reindeer by 94 Ontario, beaver supplied by Gov- ernment of 91 fox-ranching in 13, 24 Open method of skinning 97 Options on foxes 49 Otter 127 Canadian 80 general characteristics of 81 habits of 82 numbers not decreasing 81 Otter-ranching 84 Otter skins, prices of 80, 82 Otter, the, as a fur-bearer 80 Oulton, Robert, pioneer P.E.I, fox breeder 14 Over-fur 96 Over-hair 96 Ownership of escaped fox 45 P Paddock for fox ranches 34 Paquet Bros., fox ranch of 13 Parasitic fox disease 45 Parks, national, value of 116 Pekan 79 Pelts — See Skins. Pelts, decreasing numbers of . . . . 4 increasing prices of 4 Pennant marten 79 Pens, fox, arrangement of 36 fox, construction of 33 Persian lamb 6, 9 Piastre Baie, fox ranch at 13 foxes near S3 Plucked skins 97 Poisons for killing foxes 47 Polar fox — See Blue fox. Polar fox 56 Popularizing furs 6 Port Elgin, N.B., foxes near 53 Pribilof islands 57, 58, 60 Price of black fox skins 2, 114 of black fox skins, average Ill of black fox skins, highest. ...51, 111 of black fox skins, lowest 52 Price of black fox skins (cont'd) page of black fox skins, ultimate 54 of beaver skins 91 of foxes, rise in 49 of furs, statistics of 146 of mink skins 72 of muskrat skins 89 of otter skins 82 of red fox skins 23 of skunk skins 85 Prices received by C. Dalton for fox skins 112 by J. S. Gordon for fox skins. . 113 Prime skins, how to detect 96 Prince Edward Island, climate of . 25 early fox breeders in IS importation of foxes into 24 price of fox skins from Ill, 114 Ptomaine poisoning of foxes 44 Q Quarantine of foxes 55 Quebec, fox-ranching in 13 fur-farming legislation 135 city, foxes near 53 R Raccoon 70 Ranches, fox, in Canada S3 Ranching, fox, practice 25 Rayner, James, P.E.I, fox breeder 15 Rayner, Silas, early P.E.I, fox breeder 15 Registration of foxes 55 Reindeer 92 in Alaska 131 for draught purposes 134 introduced into Labrador 93 loaning of, to natives 132 in the Northwest 94 skins, uses of 133 Re-naming furs 6 Revillon Fr&res 104 fox ranch of 13 Richardson, C. D., on value of wild animals 115 Rickets in foxes 43 165 FUR-FARMING IN CANADA PAGE Robertson, Dr., an early fox breeder 14 Rodents 10, 89 Roseberry, C. H., on Virginia deer. 117 Ross, Dr. Alex., on fox diseases. . 42 Russia, demand for black fox skins in 53 S Sable, American 78 Russian 12 Sales, Lampson 108 Sampson fox 41 Savage island, Oulton fox ranch on 14 Sea-otter 12 importation of, to London .... 145 Sheep, possibility of crossing kara- kules with 10 Silver fox — See Black fox and Fox Single-pen system of mink-ranch- ing 75 Skinning, methods of 97 Skins — See Pelts. Skins, colours of, esteemed natural. 100 methods of curing 98 dressing of 101 manufacture of 96 marketing of 99 sales, annual, of 104 Skunk 85 habits of 88 pelts, classification of 85 ranching 86 skins, prices of 85 use of, increasing 6 Slaughtering foxes 46, 47 Speculation in foxes 49, 50 Springy pelts 48 St. George island, blue foxes on. . 57 St. Joseph-d'Alma, fox ranch at . . 13 Statistics of fur prices 146 of fur production 138 Stevenson, Chas. H., on manufac- ture of furs 102 Stretching of skins 98 boards 99 Summerside, P.E.I., foxes near. . 53 Surgery for foxes 44 Swamps, drainage of 3 T PAGE Thompson, E. S., on blue foxes. . . 57 Transportation in the Arctic 92 Tuplin, Frank, early P.E.I, fox breeder 15 Tuplin, James, early P.E.I, fox breeder IS U United States, introduction of reindeer into 92 Gov't fur-farming experiments. 71 V Vegetable fox diet 37 Virginia deer, breeding of 124 experiments with 118 W Wapiti, domestication of 121, 122 Water-fur 96 Weasel family 71 Weight of furs 103 Westmorland county, N.B., ab- sence of limestone in 25 Whelpley, J. D., on London fur sales 106 White foxes 67 Wire, ranch 29 price list of 30, 31 Woodland ranches, advantages of. 27 Worms in foxes 43 Wyoming, Ont., fox ranch at. . . . 13 foxes near 53 Y Yakutsk, sables in 12 Yukon foxes 24 Z Zebra, domestication of 120 Zeh, L. E., on reindeer in Alaska . . 131 Zoological parks, demand for game for 116 Zoological Society, London 121 166