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Do not deiace bookB by marks and writing. N7832 C77"^" ^"'"^'^'^^ ^^^'^"^ ++ ^^Sfit^mmffiLiRfi!^!^^^ panels of Catalonia .. 3 1924 030 661 353 °"" Overs V THE EARLIEST PAINTED PANELS OF CATALONIA (I) By Walter W. S. Cook iCD AMHx)S ADl^^^mw s Reprinted from THE ART BULLETIN, Vol. V, No. 4 B ^m Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030661353 i t /^^ uIm/^<^ l^iff-ftMu. THE EARLIEST PAINTED PANELS OF CATALONIA (I) By Walter W. S. Cook Reprinted from THE ART BULLETIN, Vol. V, No. 4 ( 1.1 ■ :• n Plate i i- 1-1 fe The Earliest Painted Panels of Catalonia (I) By Walter W. S. Cook' the study of Spanish painting we have an excellent illustration of the retro- gressive method of art criticism. The evolution during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is perfectly clear, fully documented, and exceedingly well published. Gothic painting of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is less well-known to students. Some schools of Spanish primitives, especially those of Aragon, Castell6n de la Plana, Valencia, Navarre, and Cordova, still await publication, and innumerable retables of great beauty and magnificence have never been photographed, while the documents in municipal and cathedral archives offer untold possibilities for fniitful investigation. Our knowledge of the Romanesque period is even more limited. The remarkable Romanesque panels of Catalonia have never been the subject of an adequate, scientific study. Yet these altar- frontals and altar-canopies, dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, constitute one of the most interesting early schools of painting in western Europe.^ The panels are preserved for the most part in the land that gave them birth. The first collection of importance was made by Sr. Dr. Morgades y Gih, bishop of the diocese •To Professor Charles R. Morey of Princeton University, I am more deeply indebted than to any one else in the preparation of the following pages, which have been subject to his constant criticism and advice; whatever con- tribution the work contains is largely due to his inspiring instruction. I am also indebted to Professor Chandler R. Post, of Harvard University, Professor Paul J. Sachs, Assistant Director of the Fogg Art Museum, Miss Belle da Costa Greene, Director of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan's Library, who has generously allowed me to consult the original manu- scripts in that important coUection, Professor and Mrs. A. Kingsley Porter of Cambridge, who have kindly placed at my disposal their large collection of photographs, and the Princeton Index of Iconography. Among my illustra- tions are photographs reproduced by courtesy of Messrs. Byne, Moreno, Porter, Catala frdres, Institut d'Estudis Catalans: clix6— Mas. The original material was first studied and gathered in Spain during the year 1919-1920, when I was Fellow in Mediaeval and Renaissance studies of the Archaeological Institute of America. ^The bibUography of this school of Romanesque painting is quickly exhausted. Catalan antependia first attracted notice at the Barcelona Exhibition of 1888, where a few panels from the Episcopal Museum at Vich were exhibited for the first time, and briefly mentioned in the Album de la seccion arqueolugica de la Exposiciim Universal de Barcelona, 1888, published by the Asociacion Artistica Barcelonesa, with an introduction by Jos6 Puiggari, one of the earliest Catalans to interest himself in the primitive art of his country. A summary review of the exhibition was con- tributed in the same year to the Bulletin Monumental (1888, pp. 558-581) by M. de FayoUe {Notes sur l' exposition retrospective de Barcelone). In 1893 the panels of the Episcopal Museum at Vich were catalogued in the handbook issued by Bishop D. Jos6 Morgades y Gih, Catdlogo del Museo Arqueologico-Artistico Episcopal de Vich. The descrip- tions in this catalogue are exceedingly brief and the dates are invariably too early. Other panels were exhibited in the Exposicion de Arte Antigua de Barcelona in 1902, and described in the Catdlogo General of this exhibition (p. 34). The earhest discussion of the panels as a group is due to the present director of the Vich Museum, Jose Gudiol y Cunill, one of the most thorough of Catalan scholars and unusually learned in ecclesiastical antiquities. This discussion appeared in Nocions de Arqueologia Sagrada Catalana (Vich, 1902, pp. 273 ff .), a work which is fundamental to inteUigent study of Catalan archaeology. The same author published in the foUowing year a more complete description of the panels in the museum at Vich {Las Pintures Romanicas del Museum de Vich) in Forma (Barcelona, 1904, I). Occasional articles on new panels which entered the Barcelona Museum were issued in 1907 by Jose Pijoan in the Ilustracid Catalana, a weekly review {Noves adquisicions del museu de Barcelona) . A general article which included other panels than those at Vich, especially those in the Museum of Fine Arts at Barcelona, was then published by Antonio Munoz {Pittura Romanica Catalana: I paliotti dipinti dei Musei di Vich e di Barcellona) in Anuari, Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Barcelona, 1907, I, pp. 89 ff.). Muiioz's article contributed Uttle more than to point out the dependence of the painted antependia on those in precious metals. In the same year one of the panels in the Episcopal Museum at Lerida was exhibited at the Exposicion retrospectiva de arte held at Saragossa (E. Bertaux, Exposicitm retrospectiva de arte,— 1908, Saragossa, Madrid, 1910, pp. 37-38). The panels were called to the attention of French scholars in 1910 by Marcel Dieulafoy in Comptes Rendus de V Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (Paris, 1910, p. 324). Brief additional mentions have appeared from time to time in Catalan newspapers and periodicals, such as La Veu de Catalunya, Veil i Nou {primera epoca), Buttleti del Centre Excursionista, Anuari, etc. General treatises on Spanish architecture and painting have also, in the past few years, paid brief attention to these panels, with occasional reproductions; viz. Marcel Dieulafoy, Art in Spain and Portugal (New York, 1913, pp. 116 ff.); Jos6 Puig y Cadafaloh, L'arquitectura romanica a Catalunya (Barcelona, 1909, vols. II, III); A. L. Mayer, Geschichte der Spanischen Malerei (Leipzig, 1922, pp. 17 ff.); Emile Bertaux, La peinture du Xle au XlVe sihcle en Espagne, in A. Michel's Histoire de I'art chrelien (II, pp. 412 ff.); Eckart von Sydow, Die Entwicklung desfiguralen Schmucks der Chriatlichen Altar-Antependia und -Retabula bis zum XIV Jakrhundert (Strassburg, 1912, pp. 25 ff.). 2 The College Art Association of America of Vich, who, during the seventies and eighties of the last century, gathered into the Episcopal Museum of that city the most interesting and valuable examples of ecclesiastical art then existing within his jurisdiction; further, since he had previously served as bishop of Solsona, this diocese also was included in his net. More than twenty Romanesque panels were thus saved from impending destruction, as well as thousands of other objects of varying archseological value. In recent years Dr. J. Serra y Vilaro has discovered a few additional frontals which had been overlooked by Bishop Morgades, and these are now deposited in the Episcopal Museum at Solsona, of which he is the present director. The Episcopal Museum at Lerida possesses five or six panels, and. one is in the recently created Episcopal Museum at Barcelona. But the second important group, after that of Vich, is preserved in the Museum of Fine Arts at Barcelona. Owing largely to the activity of Jos6 Pijoan, formerly a member of the Junta de Museos, and Sr. Joachim Folch i Torres, the present director of the mediaeval department, this cohection, which was begun only in 1901-2, has constantly grown in size and importance. A third large collection is in private possession, belonging to Sr. D. Lluis Plandiura, of Barcelona, who has brought together dur- ing the past ten years more than fifteen early and important examples. I have also found a few stray panels outside the peninsula, such as a stucco panel in the Barnard collection. New York City, the only example in this country, and a few in European collections, such as that in the possession of Mr. Roger Fry, another in the shop of the dealer Lionel Harris, London, etc. In general, however, the most valuable and precious examples are still preserved, and can only be studied, in Catalonia itself. Isolated antependia are still to be found in small parish churches in the foothills of the PjTenees, but so large a number have been gathered into pemianent collections that an intelligent study of them is now possible. In the following pages some of the earliest panels have been selected for discussion since they illustrate in characteristic fashion the problems of origins, iconography, and style, the solution of which must be antecedent to further study of the series. Numerous elements enter into the eclectic and yet oddly original Catalan stj'le and the difficulties of analyzing this eclecticism are countless; the evolution of primitive Italian painting is, in comparison, a simple subject. The complexitj^ of our problem is largely due to the geographical situation of Catalonia, which was subject to influences from various directions; from Mozarabic Spain on the one hand and Moslem Spain on the other, from southern and northern France, England, and central as well as Lombard Italy. The only parallel in the history of art is that found in southern Italy and Sicily, where the same historical reasons account for an unusual mixture of styles. (1) THE SAINT MARTIN ALTAR-FRONTAL FROM MONTGRONY The earliest panel of the entire series of Catalan altar-frontals comes from Mont- grony, in Bergada, in the western Pyrenees,' and is now preserved in the Episcopal Museum at Vich (Fig. !).■' Its chief interest lies in the fact that it is not only the earliest preserved example of panel painting in the Iberian peninsula but is one of the earliest known in western Europe. The work is divided into a large central compartment flanked on either side by four smaller scenes from the life of St. Martin. 'Montgrony is not far from RipoU. Its church is of the second half of the eleventh century and has been much restored (Jose Puig y Cadafalch, L'arquitedura romduica a Catalunya, Barcelona, 1911, II, pp. 279-280, figs. 198- 2Vicli Museum, no. 9; photograph by Thomas, no. 355; tempera on wood; 0.97 x 1.23m; the ornament on the lower edge of the frame is almost entirely effaced and the lower left compartment is dama2:ed, but the colors are sur- prisingly well preserved. The panel was acquired for the Museum at Vich by Bishop Morgades, the original founder and was exhibited at the Barcelona Exposition in 1888. ' Plate ii 'A, '.' P k ^a ?^ : 4 w o 3 J P2 ' o Z a a O B 'Jj O K ^^ ..a S H ECO t f- a « The Art Bulletin 3 The central compartment contains the figure of Clirist in Majesty, seated on a high wooden throne with a narrow cushion; a closed Book of the Gospels rests on His left knee and His right hand is raised in benediction. The right hand is abnormally large in relation to the size of the left, and the thumb is not bent over the finger in the Greek manner of blessing. Christ wears a crossed nimbus and a red, loose-fitting tunic, with scalloped edges and wave ornament, flaring outward slightly above the waist and falling in straight lines to the ankles. A green mantle, with outer edge indicated by a heavy yellow outline, covers the knees in stiff, cap-like folds. The bare feet, resting on a curving suppedaneum and turned outward in perfect symmetry directly on the central axis, are placed tightly together and are so appended to the lower edge of the tunic that all sense of logical structure is lost. The feet do not join the legs which the artist indicated by the folds of the tunic, and the distance between the knees and ankles is disproportionately long. The face is long and thin ; small black pupils are placed beneath highly arched eyebrows ; the upper eyelid is in- dicated by two curving lines and the lower lid by a straight line. The long nose, with nostrils shown by two lobes, the small mouth, turned down at the corners, and the diminutive ears, placed unusually high, are indicated by detached brush strokes with no shading. The figure is placed against a plain yellow background and a foliate heart 7notif with palmette filling decorates the red spandrels outside the mandorla. The first of the Saint Martin scenes is in the upper left-hand compartment. Saint Martin, seated astride a dapple-gray horse, shares his mantle with a beggar who holds up one end in outstretched hands. The saint is armed with a shield, sword, and lance with pennant attached, and wears a red tunic, hose, and slippers; the beggar is naked save for a tattered green tunic. The background is plain yellow. In the scene directly below, the saint is shown restoring to life the catechumen who had died without receiving the baptism and who here stands before him in a short red tunic, hose, and slippers. Saint Martin wears a yellow halo, long tunic, and red psenula, and grasps the hand of the catechumen, who is represented with eyes still closed. "Two hours had not elapsed when Martin saw the dead man recover by degrees the use of his members, and reopen his eyes. Then Martin uttered a great cry to the Lord, and gave Him thanks. The cry of the blessed man rang through the cell, and those who were waiting outside the door, on hearing it, burst in. Wonderful sight! They saw him alive whom they had left dead." Behind Saint Martin stands an ecclesiastic holding a book, possibly the disciple Sulpicius Severus, who saw and conversed with the man.' The death of the saint is seen in the corresponding compartment on the right, where he is depicted in bishop's robes lying on a bed of ashes. "And since he was suffering from fever, his disciples begged him to allow them to place a little straw on his bed, but he replied, 'No, my children, a Christian should die only on ashes! ' He lay on his back with hands and eyes lifted to Heaven, and when his priests begged him to alleviate the pain in his body by turning on his side, he replied, ' My brothers, let me gaze at Heaven rather than on the earth.' "" At the head and foot of the bed stand two nimbed ecclesiastics in antique costume; one of them swings a censer, the other holds a book and cross.' An angel occupies the middle of the scene. IS. Baring Gould, The Lives of the Saints, Edinburgh, 1914, XIII, p. 246. ^Jacques de Voragine, Legenda Aurea, CLXIII. ^The figures may represent the two disciples of Martin, Severus and GaUus. On the other hand, they may be an allusion to the visions of St. Severinus of Cologne and St. Ambrose of Milan, one of whom heard the angels chanting at the time of St. Martin's death, and the other dreamed that he was present at the obsequies of the saint. The latter vision is probably meant by the half-figure of a bishop who witnesses the translation of St. Martin's soul in the scene above. 4 The College Art Association of America The last section shows the translation of the soul of the saint. Two winged angels, dressed in tight-fitting tunics and robes, with bare feet and yellow halos, lift the soul of the deceased saint in a cloth. From the earth below appears the half figure of an eccles- iastic, dressed in tunic and psenula, who gazes upward with outstretched hands. In each of the scenes Saint Martin and the ecclesiastics are represented with the tonsure. A Leonine inscription, written between the upper and lower compartments, reads, DANS INOPEM TERRIS MARTINVS VIVET E CELIS, which can be translated, "Giving to the poor on earth, Martin shall live sustained by heaven."' The bevel of the frame is colored red and the upper surface is ornamented with an acanthus-palmette scroll bordered on either side by a broad red stripe. The branches bearing the palmettes produce first a single and then a double spray, each of which termi- nates in tightly curled leaves. The palmette itself consists of a central stem terminating more or less distinctly in a flos, on either side of which are two pairs of stems, of which the upper pair terminates in coiled leaves resembling the Arabic half palmette ; the two lower stems are filled with similar leaves, nestling beneath them, and the intermediate space between the upper and lower is filled with a flat tone which produces an effect of solidity. At the corners and center of the frame the branches surround the palmette and unite to form a medallion. The iconography of the panel, which is one of the earliest to represent the life of St. Martin, offers numerous details of interest. No scene moved more deeply the hearts of the poor or depicted more clearly the spirit of Christian charity than the scene in which the saint shares his mantle with the beggar. As early as the fifth century his miracles were depicted in the church of St. Martin at Tours, and this scene (sharing of the mantle) was painted in a sixth-century fresco in the cathedral of the same city. M. Emile Male, who says our panel may date in the eleventh century, is in error, however, in stating that "c'est Id que nous voyons pour la premiere fois le saint coupant en deux so7i manteau;"^ the scene occurs as early as the tenth century in the Sacramentary of Gottingen (Fig. 2), a Fulda manuscript, dated by Zimmerman about 975,' where the saint is depicted on foot. A capital at Moissac, at the end of the eleventh century (see the cover design of this maga- zine), offers interesting analogies with our panel, for the mantle is held by the saint and beggar in much the same fashion and the disposition of the figures is almost identical in both; on a capital at Tudela, Navarre (Fig. 3), of the early thirteenth century, the beggar stands behind the horse and the saint turns round in the saddle. The subject, in fact, was almost as conomon in Catalonia as in France,' and nothing shows better the cultural unity 'This free rendering of E CELIS explains the sense of the original much better than the literal translation, "Martin shall hve from heaven." DANS is construed with the accusative INOPEM on the analogy of DONANS. I am indebted for this observation to my kind friend Dr. E. K. Rand of Harvard. ^Emile M^le, L'art religieux du XII sihde en Frarice, Paris, 1922, p. 226. ''University Library, cod. theol. 231, fol. 113a; Zimmermann, Die Fuldaer Buchmalerei in karolingischer imd ottonischer Zeit, Vienna, 1910, pi. lb. ^For other XII century examples in France see Mdle, op. cit., pp. 224 ff. He appears as a single figure in earlier works of art, e. g., mosaic, right wall, S. ApoUinare Nuovo, Ravenna, inscr. (MAR)TINVS, VI century (Corrado Ricci, Ravenna, Bergamo, 1906, fig. 56) • ivory book-cover, school of Tours, IX centurv, Berlin, Kaiser Fried Mus as a bearded figure seated m the gate of a city wall, inscr. SCS MARTINVS EPS (Goldschmidt, Elfeiibeinskulpturen' I, pi. LXV-153B); illuminated vellum flabellum, middle IX century. Tours?, Carrand coll, Florence Natl Mus' {ibid., pi. LXVI-155A). Rehcs of St. Martin were kept in Mozarabic churches as early as the sixth century in a church near Loja (Granada), and at Medina Sidonia (Andalusia), 630 A. D. (Emile Hubner, Inscnptiones His'paiiice chris- tance, Suppl, no. 374, idem, I. H. C, p. 24, no. 85). In the old Mozarabic calendars the translation of St Martin is inscribed on July 4, as in the majority of the old calendars of the Latin church, the consecration as bishop on .-Vugust 11 and his death, November 11 (D. Marms F6rotm, Le Liber Ordinum, Paris, 1904, coll. 470-71, 474-75 486-7) At Cordova the feast of St. Martin took place in the country, at a place called Tarsil, three miles from the city a hamlet which Mozarabic writers have named Tercios (ibid., p. 486, n. 11). For the text of the masses in honor of this saint Ordination, Death, etc., see F^rotin, Le Liber Mozarabicvs, Paris, 1912, coll. 395-400, 464-69, 837-8. The Vita Sanct'i Martini by Sulpicius Severus occurs in a Mozarabic manuscript in the Ubrary of the Academy of History, Madrid no. 47 {Patrol, lat., XX, coll. 161-176). ' Plate hi 5 -^ ►J W fe a ^ p 2 o ^ f^ The Art Bulletin 5 of the county of Barcelona with southern and central France than the popularity of the holy St. Martin of Tours. His cult may well have been introduced at the time of the con- quest by Charlemagne, inasmuch as Benedictine monasteries in the diocese of Urgell were dedicated to the saint earlier than the tenth century.' No less than a dozen churches under this invocation can be cited in Catalonia earlier than the twelfth century, among them the famous monastery of S. Marti de Canig6. In the preserved altar-frontals he appears fre- quently : in a panel to be described later, of the twelfth century, now in the Barcelona Museum, in a thirteenth-century panel in the collection of Mr. Roger Fry, and in others of the fourteenth century at Solsona and in Aragon. The soul of St. Martin, as a naked bust lifted to Heaven in a napkin, follows a type sufficiently common in medigeval art.^ It is frequent in Spain, as shown by another antependium of the twelfth century at Vich (no. 3) and in a thirteenth-century tomb in the church of the Magdalene at Zamora (Fig. 4). The same motif appears at Ripoll, on the sepulchre of Berenguer III, the Great, who died in 1131 (Fig. 7), but here the napkin is held by descending angels, as in the tomb at Zamora, although the ends terminate in folds similar to those on our panel. The inscription on the Berenguer tomb reads, Marchio Raymundus moriens petit etera mundus.^ A mortuary scene on the succeeding relief of the same monument (Fig. 7) reproduces, even more closely than the motif of the translation of the soul, the composition of the death scene of St. Martin (figures at the foot and head of the couch and an angel in the middle) ; it has also the same type of crucifix, held in the same manner. A similar cross is held by St. Martin on another side of the Moissac capital, where he raises the catechmnen; the catechumen, however, does not stand, as in our panel, but lies prone on a couch." The Saviour, in the central panel, is much more advanced in style than the figiu-es in the lateral scenes. The impression of archaism produced by the work is due in large measure to the employment in the side panels of stylistic peculiarities which are common features of the earlier manuscript tradition of the tenth and eleventh centuries. The stiff tubular skirts, which are apparently attached to the thighs of the two puppet-like angels holding the soul of St. Martin, are reminiscent of the drapery treatment found in the Codex Vigilanus, dated 976 (Fig. 6), where the effect of a tube attached to the thigh again appears, a mannerism which may have been adopted from Coptic Egypt, since it appears in a tenth-century Coptic Synaxary in the Morgan collection (Fig. 5). The mannered pleat on the lower edge of the tunic worn by the outside angel in the same scene is again seen in Fig. 6, and its habitual use in Mozarabic drawing can be illustrated by numerous pages from the same Codex Vigilanus. Many of these drapery mannerisms persisted into the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, as shown by the mosaic at Cruas (Ardeche), dated 1098 (Fig. 8), where we find the same expressionless folds, the tubehke treatment of the drapery around the leg, and the conventional pleat I have mentioned above. The figure style, on the other hand, even in the side panels, shows a marked advance beyond the examples already mentioned. The Mozarabic source is still apparent in the childish elongated contours of the faces, but the waists are lengthened and the bodies are 'Puig y Cadafalch, op. cit., II, p. 85. ^Cf. Paliotto of Milan, N. Tarohiani, in Dedalo, II, 1921, pi. opposite p. 15; antiphonary of Salzburg, XI-XII century, Karl Lind, Ein Antiphonarium mit Bilderschmuck aus der Zeit des XI. und XII. JahrhunderLs im Stifle St. Peter zu Salzburg hefindlich, Vienna, 1870, pi. IV (death of St. John the Evangelist). ^Puig y Cadafalch, op. cit., Ill, fig. 767. In the will of Berenguer III, drawn in 1131, shortly before his death, by Udalgario, a monk of Ripoll, the ruler expressed the wish that he be buried in this monastery, and the tomb would hardly date earlier than this document (Jos6 Pelhcer y Pagfe, Santa Maria del Monasterio de Ripoll, Mataro, 1888, p. 116). ^Ernest Rupin, L'abbaye et les cloUres de Moissac, Paris, 1897, fig. 165. 6 The College Art Association op America more slender. The general impression of slimness is indicative of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. This is more than a superficial change; it is a change from a descriptive, two- dimensional treatment in line and flat tone to a mode of representation in three dimensions. The eyes are no longer the large staring orbs, drawn with two semicircular strokes around a central pupil, which, as Dieulafoy has remarked, "seem to eat up the faces," but an addi- tional stroke is inserted between the upper lid and the eyebrow, as seen in the Bible of Roda (Figs. 10, 11). The lines of the hair are clearly indicated, a great advance beyond the old Latin formula of the tenth-century manuscripts, where the hair is treated in large, ill-defined masses. The mouth is more developed and the curve of the under lip and the suggestion of the chin are better indicated or expressed. The nose is no longer a mere Z stroke — a pure degradation of the old Hellenistic drawing of the three-quarters face, first assuming this form in Coptic illumination — ' but an additional line is employed in the delineation of the nose which produces a more convincing effect of reality. The wings are not the large decorative appendages found in the middle of the eleventh century, as in the Facundus manuscript of the Commentary of Beatus on the Apocalypse (Fig. 9), but are smaller and more structural. In fact, the curious feature of representing one wing open and the other closed, as an irregular projection behind the back, shown on the figure of the angel in the scene of the death of St. Martin, is precisely the formula employed by the draughtsmen of the Bible of Roda (Fig. 11), which must be dated late in the eleventh if not early in the twelfth century, as will be shown later. ^ Another feature which heightens the feeling of archaism is the treatment of the sway-backed steed which appears to be sinking to the earth under the weight of St. Martin. The impression of unreahty produced by the bent foreleg and curving back is not wholly due to inability on the part of the artist to express anatomical truth but continues a traditional mode of representation of the eleventh centurJ^ The same features are found on an ivory relief from San Millan de la Cogolla," of the eleventh cen- tury, on the tomb of Dona Sancha, daughter of Ramiro I of Aragon,* now in the convent of Benitas, at Jaca (Huesca), and in the Old Testament scenes of the Bible of Roda (Fig. 19) .* This mannerism may well be archaistic, however, and is certainly not sufficient to warrant an early dating, since it recurs in examples of the first half of the twelfth century, as on a capital at Saint-Lazare, Autun, in the scene of Balaam on the ass halted by an angel." Less archaism, however, is shown by the central figure of the Saviour in our panel, which is less linear and more monumental and plastic, with a sobriety of style sjmiptomatic of the twelfth century. Comparison with the sculptured relief of the Saviour Enthroned in the choir ambulatory at Toulouse (Fig. 13), dated about the year 1100, reveals an identical treatment of hair, with the prominent parting over the forehead, the hair lines clearly deUneated, and the lateral cascading locks falling behind the shoulders in the same fashion. We see the same highly placed diminutive ears, the same loop in the 'Charles R Morey, Easl Christian Paintings in. the Freer CoUeclioii, New York, 1914, p. 79. ^This identity is not affected by the fact that the summary indication of the second wing of the angel occurs elsewhere in mediteval art, e. g., Gospels in the cathedral treasury at Treves, 61 (ohm 134), fol. 9a illustrated in Zimmermann, Vorkarolingisdie Minialuren, IV, pi. 269 (for a color reproduction of this manuscript see .J.' O. Westwood Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish ?na7iuscripts, London, 1868, pi, 19). The spiral termination is the essential feature; this spiral also appears as a Spanish peculiarity on the open wings of angels- c/. Fig. 9. 'Offered to San Mihiin del a CogoUa by Don Sancho III, el Mayor (1010-1038), according to Marcel Dieulafoy Art in Spam and Portugal, New York, 1913, p. 87, fig. 180; G6mez-Moreno, in Iglcsias mozdrabes Madrid 1919 n' 295, n. 4, correctly places this in the year 1076. i i f- ■^Antonio Ballesteros y Beretta, Historia de Espafia, Barcelona, 1920, II, fig. 156. 'C/. also Wilhekii Neuss, Die katalanische Bibelillustration um. die Wende des crsten Jahrtaiisends und die altsmn- ische Buchmalerei, Bonn, Leipzig, 1922, figs. 92, 117, 131. ^Victor Terret, La sculpture bourguignonne avx Xlle el XI lie siecles, Autun, Paris, 1914, pi. XVII. Plate iv fc K c" H CO H Eh ' Eh H W Eh re « o Plate v I'^iG. 10 — Paris, Bibl, Nat. : Bible of Uoda, Lat. (i, Fol. 103v. Apocalyptic Scene Fig. 11 — Pahis, Bibl. Nat.: Bible of Roda, Lat. 6, Fol. 10.5. Apocalyptic Scene Fig. 12 — Paris, Bibl. Nat.: Bible of Roda, Lat. 6, Fol. 10.5. Apocalyptic Scene The Art Bulletin 7 drapery which passes under the right arm, and the same drapery pleat at the bottom, which we have noted as so prominent a feature of the tenth-century manuscripts of Leon-Castile. The most interesting analogies to our Christ, however, are to be found in the last pages (Revelation) of the Bible of Roda, wherein we may also find the key to the curious contrast between our central panel and the archaistic Life of St. Martin. In the scene of the Last Judgment in this manuscript (Fig. 12) Christ is enthroned on a cushioned plain wooden throne within a pointed mandorla. The upper edge of the tunic is scalloped, and the wide sleeve curves under the right arm with much the same contour as in our panel; the outhne of the edge of the mantle, as it passes over the left shoulder, is the same, and the mantle falls in the same hood-like folds over the knee, an old manuscript tradition found as early as the Ada group of the Carolingian school. The hair is treated in two large, overlapping curls, the final portion falling behind the back, with parallel lines delineating the locks as in the St.-Sernin relief, typical features which are duplicated in other pages from the same Catalan Bible (Fig. 10). Another figure of Christ practically identical with that seen in the Roda Bible and in our panel with respect to the characteristic features cited above (throne, scalloped tunic, hair) is to be found in a Catalan manuscript dated by Beer in the twelfth century (Fig. 14).' The illogical drawing of the side folds in the waist of Christ's tunic — three vertical lines, from which emerges a segment of a circle — seems to be a misunderstanding of some such design as that shown in Fig. 15, an initial Q from a manuscript of the Moralia of Gregory the Great, dated by Gudiol in the twelfth century. It is evident, certainly, that the type of Christ used here belonged to the tradition in which the draughtsmen of the Bible of Roda were schooled. If we compare our panel with the Christ in Majesty used in the Roda Bible and shown in Figs. 10, 12, where the folds which fall from the knees accentuate the shape of the legs beneath the tunic, we note that our artist, misinterpreting the motif, has placed the feet together on the central axis so that they fail to function. The stiff, board-like treatment of the drapery which falls below the knees in rigid folds finds again a close parallel in the Gospels of Perpignan (Fig. 16), a Catalan manuscript from the monastery of Sant Miquel de Cuixa, dated by Boinet as not earlier than the last quarter of the twelfth century.- The curious rendering of the lower hem is difficult to understand, but it becomes intelligible as a perverted copy the moment we look at the lower edge of the angel's drapery in the illustration cited above from the Moralia of Gregory (Fig. 15). The scallops on the upper edge of the tunic are also with- out meaning, since thej^ are not the termination of folds as in the manuscript examples cited, and equally meaningless is the curve in the mantle on the left shoulder. From so many solecisms we can only conclude that our artist was imitating a style not his own and with consequent lack of logic. What is this style? Our comparisons show sufficiently clearlj^ that it is a stjde used in Catalonia through the twelfth century, and best illustrated in the Roda Bible, written in all probability in the Catalan monastery of Santa Maria at Ripoll. But it is also self- evident, if we compare the Roda style with the Mozarabic manuscripts shown in Figs. 6, 9, and the Cruas mosaic of 1098 (Fig. 8), that it has nothing in common with this "playing- card puppet manner" of inactive poses, conventional restraint, and two-dimensional 'Rudolf Beer, Die Handschriften des Klosters Santa Maria de Ripoll, Silzungsberichle d. Kais. Akad. der Wissensch. in Wien, Phil.-Hist. Klasse, 168, 2, Vienna, 1908, pi. 4, p. 41. ^Am^d^e Boinet, Notice sur un evangetiaire de la biblioth'eque de Perpignan, Congres archeologique dc France, LXXIII session tenue a Carcassonne el Perpignan, Paris, Caen, 1907, p. 547. 8 The College Art Association of America treatment, derived from late classic models of the Latin West. The illustrations of the Roda Bible, particularly those of the Old Testament (Fig. 19), are nervous and unre- strained; the spirited and calligraphic drawing is strikingly similar to that of eleventh- century England. It is, moreover, no longer a style whose vocabulary is color, as in the Mozarabic manuscripts, but line; and outline drawing is the most striking feature of English illumination. It is not our purpose here to explain how the style was transferred to Catalonia, but there are clear indications that its appearance here is a reflection of English influence in the manuscript style of southern France. The identity of the style of the miniatures of the Roda Bible with English work is apparent from a comparison with the illustrations of the Junius manuscript of Caedmon's poems (Figs. 17, 18).' In both manuscripts a circular crown is worn with three curving sprays rising from the brim, which is pushed far down over the forehead (Fig. 12; c/. also Caedmon, Kennedy-Morey, p. 240, and Roda, Neuss, figs. 91, 98, 99, 100), and in both we note the same characteristic pointed beard, tenninating in double strands (cf. Caedmon, Kennedy-Morey, pp. 197, 198, 224, 225, 236 and Roda, Neuss, figs. 95, 98, 101, and passim). Further comparison multiplies analogies. The figures wear the same short tunics, cut high above the knees with a roll around the waist, or long robes rendered in outline drawing with the same nervous pen strokes characteristic of all English illumination of the eleventh century. The gamients in both manuscripts are more subdued and formal when compared with the exuberant manuscript style of the early-eleventh-century school of Winchester, where the draperies swirl and flutter in violent folds. But the same animation lies behind both. The miniatures of Roda show the same restless motion; the elongated figures lean far forward, heads jut tiTiculently from the shoulders, the gestures are un- restrained and full of action; arms and spears are raised menacingly; horses, camels, and elephants engage in violent scenes of battle (Fig. 19) ; and the figures tread on the same billowy ground line which undulates across the pages of Caedmon (Fig. 17). Further analogies may be noted in the treatment of foliage with interlacing branches (Fig. 17; c/. Caedmon, Kennedy-Morey, passim, and Roda, Neuss, fig. 100). Occasionally the Catalan artist abandons the Mozarabic fomrs of architecture for the ultra-classical arcades with towers, turrets and housetops terminating in foliate roofs and pinnacles, seen in Caedmon (Caedmon, Kennedy-Morey, pp.207, 221, 223; Roda, Neuss, figs. 102, 106, 120). At times one finds a composition in the Catalan Bible closely resembling that of the English manuscript (Caedmon, Kennedy-Morey, p. 198; Roda, Neuss, fig. 90). The parallels shown must convince the most casual observer that the Anglo-Saxon element was predominant in this Bible rather than the old manuscript style of Mozarabic Spain. That this style continued in Catalonia well on through the twelfth century is shown by the Moralia of Gregory (Fig. 15), a Missal in Tortosa,= the Homilies of Bede in the church of San Feliu at Gerona,' and the Gospels of Perpignan (Fig. 16) ; that it con- tinued even into the thirteenth century is shown by a Lihro de los Fuedos in the Crown Archives of Barcelona. With this connection estabUshed, it is obvious that the Old Testa- ment miniatures of the Roda manuscript cannot be dated in the first half of the eleventh r.u , ''^^^^If ^^- I'^"«i"."?d.V, The. Caedmon Poems, London, 1916, with a preface on the drawings of the Junius MS bv Charles R. Morey, whicli contains reduced copies of the ilhiminated pages taken from Archceolonia XXIV 183'^ Selections have also been reproduced m the Pala!ogra[,hical Society's Facsimiles of Manuscripts and Inscriptions II, 14, 1.5. Aljundant illustrations of the Bible of Roda are to he found in the recently published work of Neuss! ' ^Illustration in my article, The Stucco Altar-Frontak oj Catalonia, in Art Studies, Prinoeton,SEKNiN: Ile- LIEF IN THE AMBULATORY. C. 1100 Fic. 14 — Bahcelona, Ckown Archive.s : Theoria, Cod. 214, FoL. 6 v. Twelfth Century ^9%W .^ Fig. 15 — Vich, Episcopal Museum: Initial Q IN THE MoRALIA OF GREGORY THE GrEAT, CoD. I, FoL. 170. Twelfth Century Fig. 16 — Pbrpignan, Municipal Library: Catalan Gospels, Cod. I, Fol. 2. Late Twelfth Century Plate vii -i~? '11 l|('€fe /"(^"' Fig. 17 — Oxford, Bodleian Library: Caedmon, Junius XI, Fol. 24. Fall of Eve. Second Quarter Eleventh Century Fifi. 19— Paris, Bibl. Nat.; Bible OF RoDA, Lat. 6, Fol. 14.5. Battle OF Bethzacharias mm J. .jKfJ>^ ^%i if I ^^n^\m "wri he_R1E 'C^LD , V*v-r FiG;18-0xF0BD Bodleian Library: CAED.Mo^^ Junius Fig. 20- London, British Museum: Arundel Psilteb MS XL FoL. 3, Fall of the Angels. Second Quarter an t?^t ko ,r at„„. tvt„,,,„„„ nr " ,„„' XI, FoL. 3, Fall of the Angels. Second Quarter Eleventh Century' 60 , Fol. 52 v. Nev,' Minster, Winchester, c. 1060 The Art Bulletin 9 century, as concluded by Neuss/ who, in his enumeration of the elements of the Roda style (Mozarabic, Byzantine, Coptic, Moslem) entirely overlooked this dominant in- fluence in the Roda miniatures. The derivation from England shows that such a date is impossible for the miniatures since we have found their prototypes in the Caedmon, the illustrations of which have been dated by Professor Morey in the second quarter of the eleventh century.'' The style could hardly have reached Catalonia before the second half of the eleventh, and the last few pages of Roda, illustrating the Book of Revelation (Figs. 10, 11, 12), which are obviously by a later hand, must be placed as late as the early years of the twelfth century. It is in these last pages that we have found so many analogies with our panel, and their style, when compared with that of the Old Testament miniatures (Fig. 19), is seen to be distinctly later; the short figures, the bullet-like heads, and the drapery bound in at the ankles and flaring out at the sides are treated in a manner almost proto-Gothic, as shown by an angel on the west fagade of Chartres.' This dating would also explain the relative sobriety of the outline style in the Roda manuscript when compared with the freer manner of the artist who illustrated the Caedmon poems. The Christ of our panel is therefore a Catalan translation of a style that is English in origin. An English source is further indicated in the scroll ornament which surrounds the composition and the foliate heart motif which appears in the spandrels of the central panel. The latter is clearly derived from Franco-Saxon work of the ninth century, as shown by the Egerton manuscript 768 in the British Museum (initial IN of thiH article),* but the panel-painter renders it in a leaf-like Winchester style. The palmette which he uses on the frame, consisting of four leaves with a central flos, is Oriental in origin and is found in Saracenic examples of the tenth century, both in Egypt and Moslem Spain, as shown n a late tenth-century silver-gilt casket in the cathedral of Gerona (Fig. 22),=^ in Byzantine manuscripts and ivories," and in Rhenish sculpture and illumination from the ninth through 'Op. cit., p. 29. Professor Porter dates the Roda Bible in the X century (Romanesque Sculpture of the Pilgrimage Roads, Boston, 1923, p. 29), but he has apparently confused this manuscript with the early fohos of the Bible of Farfa, of which a page is reproduced by Jos6 Pijoan, Les miniatures de I'octateuch des bibles romaniques catalanes (Institut d'Estudis Catalans, IV, pp. 475 if.). There is no evidence to support Prof. Porter's .suggestion that "the draperies of Catalan manuscripts, such as, for example, the tenth-century Bible of Roda, are thoroughlj' German." ^Kennedy-Morey, op. cit., p. 191. ^P. F. Marcou, Albu7n du musee de sculpture comparee, Ire-Se serie, Paris, pi. 62. Neuss admits (p. 27) that the Bible of Roda and that of Farfa (on whose eleventh-century date he bases his dating of the Roda Bible) show wide divergencies, that while the Genesis scenes are somewhat alike in the two manuscripts, the illustrations of the Prophets are quite different in the Roda Bible. Neuss states that the text of Roda is earher but that its iUuminations are later than those of Farfa, evidently having in mind, in this statement, the Apocalypse miniatures referred to above. Even if the Bible of Roda is accepted as one of the three bibles mentioned in the catalogue of the RipoU library of 1047, no evidence has yet been offered to prove that the miniatures were already in the manuscript at that time. The diversity of hands in the text and illustrations make a unity of date improbable. ^Egerton MS. 768, George F. Warner, Illuminated Manuscripts in the British Museum, London, 1903, pi. 6; EvangeUary of Saint^Vaast d' Arras, Amedee Boinet, La miniature carolingienne, Paris, 1913, pi. XCIV; Evangehary of Francis II, Bibl. Nat., lat. 257, Boinet, op. cit., pi. XCVIII; Second Bible of Charles the Bald, Bibl. Nat., Paris, lat. 2, Boinet, op. cit., pi. C; Sacramentary of Saint-Thierry de Rheims, Municipal hbrary, Rheims, 213, Boinet, op. cit., pi. CIII; EvangeUary of Egmont, the Hague, Royal Ubrary, AA, 200, Boinet, op. cit., pi. CX, (IX-X century; ; Evangeliary, Paris, Bibl. de I'Arsenal, 592, X-XI century, Boinet, op. cit., pi. CXII. 'Enrique Claudio Girbel, Arquela-relicario del caledral de Gerona, in Museo espaiiol de anligiiedades, vol. S, pp. 331 ff.; 38 X 23 cm. Other Moslem examples of this palmette are found in the rose window in the Fatimite mosque of El-Akmar, Cairo, (Gaston Migeon, Marmel d'arl musuhnan, les arts plasliques el induslriels, Paris, 1907, fig. 52); a window frame of the minaret el-Hakim, and a frieze in the Arabic Museum, Cairo, (Strzygowski, Mschatla, figs. 100, 101); an Hispano-Moresque ivory casket, Musi^e des arts decoratifs, Paris, dated 965, (Alois Riegl, Stilfragen, Berlin 1893' fig. 174); a doorway arch, mosque of Cordova, (Constantin Uhde, Baudenkmaeler in Spanien und Portugal, Berlin, 1892, vol. I, fig. 103); a Moslem window frame at Tarragona, (Puig y Cadafalch, L'arquitectura ro?ndnica, vol. I, 'fig. 469). The adoption of the Oriental type is found in the twelfth-century stone capitals of the monastery of Santa Maria at Ripoll, (Puig y Cadafalch, op. cit., Ill, figs. 451, 455). ^Headpiece from the Gospel of St. Luke, dated 1128, Vatican Library, Rome, (Strzygowski, Mschatla, fig. 103) ; headpiece from the Gospel of St. John, {Svangiles avec peintures byzantines du Xle sihcle, vol. II, pi, 142); outside face of arch in the cathedral of Moureale, (Domenico B. Gravina, II duomo di Monreale, 1859, pi. 14 A) (c/. Riegl, op cit fig. 181) ■ ivory triptych, X century, Emile MoUnier, Catalogue des ivoires, Paris, 1896, no. 12. 10 The College Aet Association op America the eleventh and twelfth centuries.' On our panel, however, the treatment of the motif is neither Moslem nor Byzantine, but English. The absence of convention and foraial schematization, the occasional termination of the flos in a bud, and the general impression of a young plant about to unfold are peculiarly characteristic of eleventh-century ornament of the school of Canterbury. The tightly curled leaf, at the end of each of the small sprays, is reminiscent of the English bud-like leaf which curls over at the tip, as shown in the Arundel Psalter, dated about 1060, in the British Museum (Fig. 20).' The essential quality of the pattern in our panel, the extreme reduction of the foliate character and the consequent emphasis on the stems, is characteristic of ornament at the end of the eleventh and in the twelfth century, especially in North French, Flemish, and English examples, when the leaf disappears almost completely and the stems become hke tightly coiled springs.' The curious closing of the stem around the palmette, at the corners and at the middle of each side of the frame, to form a medallion, approximates the six or eight rosettes of an English border,* and is equally suggestive, in the disposition of the medallions, of the highly stylized rinceaux found in Moslem work, as that on the mosque of Ibn-Tulun at Cairo.' We may accordingly conclude that our artist is employing a Mozarabic motif, modified and treated in a western fashion under the influence of English illumination. More significant than the origin of this ornament, and important for the date of our panel, is the appearance of the identical 7notif — long-drawn-out wave, palmettes, and sprays — on the carved border of the lid of the sarcophagus of Berenguer III, the Great, at RipoU, who, as above stated, died in 1131 (Fig. 7). It is also to be noted, however, that Dieulafoy is entirely \\Tong in identifying our border with that on the lintel of Saint-Genis-des- Fontaines,' since in the latter we have a wave with half palmettes, a common ornament quite different from the peculiar design on our panel. Dieulafoy's date, the first half of the eleventh century, based on the Saint-Genis lintel (1020-1021), must therefore be rejected. The strong dependence of our artist on models derived from illumination is shown by certain mannerisms of draughtsmanship common to manuscripts, such as the rendering of the feet, where a single line is continued down over the foot and along the big toe, as on the angel who holds the soul of St. Martin {cf. Figs. 1, 6, 18). In the use of red, orange, yellow, and green, in full intensities, and the effective color contrast of red and yellow backgrounds the artist employs a time-honored formula which is native to the manuscript style of Spain, and is unUke that of any other country. Numerous analogies have been shown between the figure and drapery style of the Saviour in the central compartment and Catalan illumination, and specifically indicative of the artist's dependence on manuscript models are the foliate corner pieces with which he fills the spandrels of the central compartment. 'Ada group ivory IX century (Adolph Goldschmidt, Die Elfmbeinskulpluren ans rh-r Zeit ckr karolinmsdmi und sachstschm Kaiser, Berlin, 1914, vol. I fig. 174); ivory bucket, cathedral treasury, Aix-la-Ohanelle c 1014 Rhine .school; Rhenish book-coyer private collection Munich, middle XI century; portalile altar, Belgian, Xamur cathedral middle XI cenury (Goldschmidt op. «^ vol. II figs. 22, 37, 61); title-page of Gospel of St. Mark, E^^angelarv of Emperor Otto III XI cent_ury. Royal Library, Munich (Gcorg Leidinger, Miniaturen aus Handschnfien dcr kgl Z iSiJ^^llLl^ ^ti^pri, vt'^^^' ^" '''''"'-' '''-'"'' ""''- -' «-*■ v^BezJft,!?»;:t; illustrated in color by Westwood, Fac-simUes, pi. 49. Also see Warner, niumimkd Manuseripi, in the British vif vfiT Tp /■■ ' ?;■ , ' <-^,f "''' ««P™'^"^'""'« i^'!' Illuminated Manuscripts, Series II, London 910 pis VII, VIII; J. P. GiLson, ,SeAoo/s o/ /Hu/?w»ahcm,, Part I, London 1914 pi 16 -i, ^juhuou, uiu, pis. 1849 pT'lx' ^^^ '™^'"^'' """^ ^' ^^""''^"■'^'' ""'"^ O"^'^" J°"*^^' ^''« niuminated Books of the Middle Ages, London, Londo?l9(B 'pl^IX '^'' ^'^'^' ^^' ''^^' ^^^' ""'^^ ^^ '*'"*"'"^' '^^''™''' '^""'""''^'^'^ Manuscripts in the British Museum, 'J. -J. Marquet de Vasselot, in Michel's Hisloire de I'art, I, 2, fig. 468. 'Dieulafoy, op. cit., p. 117. Plate \'in Fig. 21 — London, British Museum; Beatus, Add. MS. 11, 695 ekom Sto. Domingo de Silos. Attack on Jerusalem, c. 1109 Fig. 22— Gehona, Cathedral: Silvee-Gilt Casket. Late Tenth Century The Art Bulletin 11 The date of this work has already been clearly indicated by the numerous stylistic comparisons with monuments of the first half of the twelfth century. No panel in the entire series has been so frequently pubUshed and so variously dated ; but previous writers (Puiggari, Gudiol, Munoz, Dieulafoy, Bertaux, Male, Mayer), misled by the archaistic scenes in the lateral compartments, have placed it either in the tenth or eleventh century.' Comparison with Mozarabic manuscripts (Figs. 6, 9) shows that our panel is much more advanced in style. Details such as St. Martin's shield, lance, pennant, saddle, and stirrup (Fig. 1) find close parallels in the St. Sever Beatus manuscript, executed between 1028 and 1072, the Bayeux tapestry, which Mr. Loomis has definitely proved to belong in the second half of the eleventh century, and the Old Testament pages of the Bible of Roda. But these features are by no m.eans limited to the eleventh century. The late Latin style reflected in the St. Martin scenes persists also in the floor mosaic of Cruas, dated 1098 (Fig. 8), and the Beatus manuscript completed in 1109 at the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos (Fig. 21). The banner carried by St. Martin is almost identical with that seen in Fig. 21, and the sway-backed steed and stumbling gait appear on the capital at Autun, as well as on earlier monuments. Close analogies with the late-eleventh- century capital in the cloister at Moissac have been noted, but these features also appear on the twelfth-century tomb of Berenguer the Great, at Ripoll (Fig. 7), where we have found such significant parallels to our panel in respect to iconography (translation of the soul, composition, and the cross held in the death scene) and ornament (identical borders on the panel and tomb) . Moreover, the treatment of the lower lid of the eye of the Saviour as a straight line is found as late as the middle of the twelfth century in the frescoes of the church of St.-Gille at Montotre,^ in the twelfth-century fresco of Sant Miquel de la Seo,^ and on a page of twelfth-century style in the Archaeological Museum at Madrid (Fig. 36). The palaeography is equally consistent with the late eleventh or early twelfth century. Although valuable as a terminus a quo, palaeography is frequently not an accurate basis for dating, and in this panel the decorative character of the letters is strong evidence that the artist was embellishing an old motif. Lastly, we find unmistakable twelfth-century style in the monumental and plastic quality of the figure of the Saviour in the central panel, which shows such close analogies to the St.-Sernin relief and to the last pages of the Roda Bible, and even approaches in its stiff drapery and uncompromising pose the figure of the Saviour in the late-twelfth-cen- tury Gospels of Perpignan (Fig. 16). A terminus ad quem is afforded by the dependence of the artist on models derived from illumination and since, in general, the dominance of manuscript illumination in Romanesque monumental painting and sculpture is less apparent after 1150, such a reminiscence would be evidence against too late a date. The panel should therefore be dated after the year 1100, in the first quarter of the twelfth century. 'Jose Puiggari, Album de la seccwn arqueolOgica, Exposicidn universal de Barcelona, 1888, (Asociacion arlislico- arqueologica barcelonesa) , p. 13, X century; Catdlogo del Museo Arqueoldgico-Artistico Episcopal de Vich, Vich, 189.3, p. 67, X century. JosiS Gudiol y CuniD, Nocions de Arqueologia Sagrada Catalana, Vich, 1902, p. 274, X centur}'; Les piniures romaniques del museo de Vich, in Forma, Barcelona, 1904, p. 70, X century. Antonio Munoz, Piltura Romanica Catalana: I paliolti dipinli dei Musei di Vich e di Barcellona, Institut d'Estudis Catalans, Anuari, I, p. 98, early XI century. Marcel Dieulafoy, op. cit.,p. 117, first half XI century. Puig y Cadafalch, op. cit., II, fig. 339, no date. Emile Bertaux, La peinture du Xle art XI Ve siecle en Espagne, in Michel, Hisloire de I'art, II, I, fig. 292, p. 415, about 1075. Emile MMe, op. cit., fig. 158, p. 226, possibly XI century. August L, Mayer, Geschichte der Spaniscken Malerei, Leipzig, 1922, p. 17, early XI century. ^P. G61is-Didot and H. LaffiU^e, La peinture decorative en France du Xle au XVIe siicle, Paris, pi. 5, 1. ^Pintures murals catalanes, fasc. II, pi. VII. 12 The College Art Association of America (2) THE ALTAR-CANOPY AT VICH A panel later in date than the precedmg but which belongs to the same early group is a fragment of an altar-canopy, also preserved in the Episcopal Museum at Vich (Fig. 23).' In its present condition it is little more than one quarter of its original size when placed over the altar, but enough remains to show that the original composition consisted of a large central mandorla containing the figure of Christ, flanked on either side by four attendant angels. The preserved upper portion shows the Saviour within a mandorla, seated on a cushioned wooden throne embelhshed with jewels. He has a crossed nimbus, and a green tunic open at the throat, embroidered with a rich border of roundels at the neck and a quatrefoil design at the wrist. A full red mantle falls over the arms in large sinuous folds. He blesses with His right hand and holds in His left an open Book of the Gospels, on which is inscribed PAX LEO. The facial type is similar to the preceding: long, thin features; heavy, dark red curls falling along the shoulders; diminutive ears; eyes with the lower lids rendered by straight strokes ; long nose ; small mouth ; pointed moustaches and beard. The mandorla is composed of three parallel bands of color in imitation of the rainbow." Each corner of the panel contained originally two angels. Those in the upper right corner are still preserved intact; the angel nearest the mandorla points toward the Saviour and holds a standard with trifid banner in the left hand, the other holds a staff and rotulus. The two angels who occupied a corresponding position directly beneath these figures, on the same side of the mandorla, are now missing. A nimbed head and the tips of the wings, however, can still be seen. In the upper left corner another angel points toward the Saviour. Each is represented with long wings, red tunic, and mantle. The fragment of an inscription in hexameters, written in mixed majuscules, around the edge of the mandorla, reads, AD ME SPEM VITE DVCE ME — -- — ^ ^ (VENITE?) _ _. ^ _ ^ ^ _ QVISQVIS SVPER ASTRA LEVATVR which can be translated literally, "To me, the hope of life, lead me . . . whosoever rises above the stars." Another Leonine fragment, written on the horizontal band which divided the panel, reads, _^^ ' - — (ERV?)M LVX ET FORMA DIERVM The phrase is evidently descriptive, "light and beauty of the days." iNot included in the catalogue of the Museum at Vich; photograph by Thomas, no. 352; tempera on panel. ^The use of the almond-shaped mandorla with concentric bands of colors, to represent the rainbow does not occur among the other Catalan antependia, and deserves a brief mention. It is first found as a common type in the ninth century, where broad bands of color radiate from the figure of the Saviour, as in the Gospels of Dufav the in the Sacramentary of Henry II (G. Swarzenski, Regensburger Malerei, pi. VIII, no. 19) ; in a Psalter in the Univers'itv Library at Leipzig {G.SwaTzonski^^alzburger Malerei, pi XXVIII, fig. 96); and it is met again in the twelfth-century Bible of Geljhard at Admont (Robert Bruck, Die Malereien in den Handschriften des Konigreichs Sachsen Dresden 1906, fig. 22) . From the illuminated manuscripts it passed into the repertoire of the fresco painters. In Italv'it atmears in the eleventh-century church of St, Vincent at GalUano (Pietro Toesca, LapiUaraet la mini'atura nella Lombardia Milan }^3 %^V- . t" ^„T""°" during the twelfth century in France: church of Samt-GiUe, Montoire, Loir-ct-Cher (G6h3-Didot et LaffiUfe op. cil., pi. 5, (1)), and m Catalonia: Sant Miquel d'Angulasters, Sant Chment de Tahull Santa Maria de Tahul {Pmtures murals catalanes, fasc. II, fig. 19, fasc. Ill, pis. XI, XIII), The use of an inscrintion on the outer edge of the mandorla is also derived from the Carohngian period and can be seen in the Codex Wens mentioned above, and m Romanesque frescoes and sculpture as at Saint-Savin and Cluny (Victor Terret, op.'cit. pis Plate ix o O o I K ■— -■' fe a The Art Bulletin 13 The entire composition was originally enclosed within a narrow border consisting of a zigzag ribbon ornament with leaf filling, of which a portion can still be seen on the right and along the upper edge. A fragment of one of the lateral beams which supported the canopy (not shown in Fig. 23) is embeUished with a series of medallions containing animals, and a scene of the Last Supper. The zigzag ribbon with triangular leaf filling is an old motif in medieval art, which can be seen in a crude form as early as the eighth century in Merovingian manuscripts.' Later it is particularly favored by the German illuminators and appears in eleventh and twelfth-century Ottonian manuscripts.^ Lombardy shows the viotif in a manuscript of this period at Novara and in a twelfth-century ceiling fresco at Civate.' It is used on the west front of Chartres in the twelfth century on the border of the cap of a King of Judah,^ and it continues as late as the thirteenth century in French frescoes.' In Catalonia it is found in the twelfth-century fresco at Santa Maria de Tahull," but with a rosette filling, and in the thirteenth century, in a form similar to our panel, at Lieso and Ibieca in Aragon.' The identical motif noted in our panel, with the same trefoil filling, occupies a prominent place on the fagade of the monastery of Santa Maria at Ripoll (on the inner order of the archivolt, continued down the inner order of the door jamb and along the border of the attic.)' In the figures numerous details betray the all-powerful influence exerted by the school of Languedoc sculpture as exemplified by Moissac, Souillac, and Beaulieu. The unusually elongated angels, placed on either side of the Saviour, at once suggest the stature and appearance of the corresponding figures in the tympanum at Moissac, dated between 1115 and 1130 (Fig. 24). The stance of the two angels in our panel, on either side of the mandorla, with one leg straight and the other bent, standing on tiptoe with toes barely touching the ground, is similar to that of the St. Peter on the door jamb at Moissac (Fig. 25) and to that of the trumpeting angel on the left of the Saviour at Beaulifeu, dated before 1135 by Male.' Moreover, the wings of our angels do not show the early Spanish spiral joint at the angles but are clearly simplifications of the wings of the angels in the tympanum at Moissac. The analogy is even more apparent in the treatment of the drapery. The full mantle is draped over both arms in large sinuous folds, as on the figure of the Saviour in the Moissac tj'mpanum (Fig. 24). The use of concentric overlapping folds is again analogous to the treatment found at Moissac, Beaulieu, and Souillac. At Moissac (figure of the Saviour, angel, and symbol of Matthew on the left, elder in center below ; cf. also Isaiah of Souillac and Christ of Beaulieu) the outhne of the belly is marked by a small ^EvangeKary of Gudohinus, fol. 188a, MS. no. 3, municipal library, Autun, dated about 7.51-754 (Zimmermann, Vorkarolingische Miniaturen, I, pi. 84). Evangeliary of Cuthbert, about 770, written in southern England, where the triangular leaf filling is employed on either side of the zigzag, although not a ribbon {ibid., IV, pi, 30.5). ^Gospels of Emperor Otto III, on an arch of a canon table; the foliate filUng has five leaves with a central roundel (Leidinger, op. cit., I, pi. 1). Gospel book of Henry IV, late XI, early XII century; the ribbon is identical, but the leaf filling is different, being the same as that found in the perspective lozenge border on a panel in the Barcelona Museum, (Swarzenski, Die Regenshurger Buch?nalerei, Leipzig, 1901, pi. XXXIV, no. 94). Liutold Gospels, Hofbiblio- thek Vienna, cod. 1244, XII century (Swarzenski, Salzbiirger Malerei, pi. LXXX, fig. 266). Salzburger Graduate, Stiftsbibl., St. Peter, cod. A, IX, 11, XII century, (Swarzenski, ibid., pi. CXXXIV, fig. 4.52). 'Pietro Toesca, op. cit., figs. 54, 74. ^Et. Houvet, Caihedrale de Chartres, Portail occidental ou royal, pi. 16; also cf. stained glass window of Suger at St. Denis (Martin et Cahier, Monographie de la caihedrale de Bourges, Vitraux, pi. XI). *Tour Ferrande, at Pernes, Vaucluse (G^Ks-Didot et LaffiU^e, op. cit.). ''Pintures murals catalanes, fasc. Ill, fig. 29. 'Illustrated in Veil i Nou {primera epoca), July 1, 1919. sPuig y Cadafalch, op. cit. III, fig. 1203. 'Op. cit., p. 179, fig. 137. 14 The College Abt Association of America fillet. The illogical drapery of the Moissac Christ includes a complicated fold, crossing the waist. This feature has been conventionalized by our artist (Fig. 23) into a wide sash which begins and ends nowhere, and the belly contour has been lowered to a deep semicii'cle that belies anatomy, producing a long-waisted figure and increasing the effect of height. The Saviour's tunic, which has a deep slit at the throat, richly embroidered with roundels, is also similar to that worn by many of the twenty-four Elders of the Apocalypse at Moissac. A similar treatment of the garment is seen elsewhere: on the twelfth-century reliefs of the Doubting Thomas, and Christ with the disciples of Emmaus in the cloister of Santo Domingo de Silos, where the slit is smaller;' on several figures on the west fagade of Chartres;^ and in a twelfth-century missal at Tortosa (Fig. 33). The embroidered border on the neck of the tunic worn by the angels, which descends off center to the right, is paralleled by a similar ornament on the Christ in a fresco at Montoire and on the Apostles in the fresco of Sant Climent de Tahull,' both of the twelfth century. Even the contour of the drapery fold at the lower edge of the angels' tunics, and the corresponding folds of the Saviour's mantle, draped over the left arm, represent an attempt to approxi- mate similar folds in Languedoc sculpture. At Moissac, Beaulieu, and Souillac (Isaiah and tympanum bas-relief),* the drapery folds, with heavily jewelled border, are pressed down as if by a hot non, an unusual, mannered treatment which may be traced to English influence, inasmuch as the identical feature is to be found in the Arundel Psalter from New Minster, of about 1060 (Fig. 20).* In our panel, however, the folds are stiff and lack the crispness of the Languedoc and English examples, and the hand of the imitator has ignored or minimized the indentation of the upper edge. Even more suggestive of southern France is the use of the Languedoc "flying fold," of which the design discussed above is merely the termination. This is especially well shown on the figure of the angel in the upper right hand corner of our panel (Fig. 23), which shows a drapery treatment similar to that of the Saviour in the tympanum at Moissac (Fig. 24). This also appears on the figure of St. Peter on the jamb below (Fig. 25), and on the Mary of the Visitation in the porch reliefs (Fig. 26). It appears here as a single large fold, crossing the lower body and hfted at the outer edge as if by a gentle breeze. This is quite different from the Burgundian treatment, where the figures are draped in clinging folds which are tossed about tempestuously by fitful, violent gusts of wind, as seen on the sculptured portals of Autun and Vezelay,' and in illumination analogous to them, such as an eleventh-century manuscript of Prudentius at Lyons (Fig. 30).' The long curve before the outward sweep, and the extreme rigidity of the final effect, which makes the lifted fold on either side of our angel's mantle seem so petrified, are found again in the draperies of the angels at Beaulieu, and indeed the stone models from which our painter worked have thus preserved their hardness in the copy. But our panel lacks the crisp sparkle of the earlier Languedoc examples such as Moissac and shows the conventional hardness of outline which is especially characteristic of English illumination during the 'fimile Bertaux, La sculpture chreiicnne en Espagne des origincs au XIV sitcle, in A. Michel, Hisloire de I'art II 1, fig. 181. ' ' ' 'Queen of Judah, left bay, left side; Virgin of the A'isitatioii, tympanum of right bay; the twins voussoirs of right bay (Et. Houvet, op. cit., pis. 7, 53, 73). ' 3GeUs-Didot and Laffillee, op. cit., pi. 5. Pintures murals catalanes, fasc. Ill, pi. XIV. ■•Vitry and Briere, Documents de sculpture fran^aise du moijen age, Paris, 1904, ]il. VIII (2)- A Michel Histoire de I'art, I, 2, fig. 342. ' ' ' i-The evolution of the design can Ijc seen Ijy turning the pages of Warner's reproductions of Enghsh manu- scripts (Series II, 1910) of the tenth and eleventh centuries. "Male, op. cit., fig, 190, 'Several pages from the manuscript (Lyons, Bibl. de I'Academic de Lyon, no, 22) arc illustrated bv Richard Stettiner, Die illustrierien Prudentiushandschrijlcii, Berlin, 1905, pis, 109 ff. Plate x Fig. 24 — INIoissac, 8t.-Pierre: Tympanum Fiu. 25— MoissAc, St.-Pierke; St. Peter on Door Jamb Fig. 26 — Moissac, St.-Piehre: Porch Reliefs Plate xi P^iG. 27 — London, British Museum : Lansdowne Phalter, MS. 383, Fol. 15. c. 1170 Fio. 28— Paris, Bibl. Nat : St. Sever Beatus, Lat. 8878, Fol. 29 c. 1072 Fig. 30— Lyons, Bibl. de l'Ac.vd. : Psychom achy OE Prudentius, MS. 22, Fol. 1. Eleventh Century Fic. 29 — Cambridge, Pembroke College: Latin Cospels. Lly (?). Eleventh Century Q Fio. 31 — OxFOBD, Wadham Colleue: Latin Gospels. Eleventh Century Fium.>Cl'a-ccm!}TtuT'- Giprrn writ diui^unr i t In-it^ eC/infr-nfinifhriiDcte Fio. 8^ — Rome, V^atican Library: Page of M8. from Santa Maria de RiPOLL, Regina Lat. 123. Castor and Pollux. Middle XI Century .ITIIM rtia|Uiarr k.-iiru-ai ft-qVlif ^ ,i'...:;t cKi'i.. '.Ji ::...fi frr tmin.-' itbi^.-anf fflf '.1r^hl^■u■t"^*^l^^V^lT^^ airo.Viri.^ fi ^r;K-"^i' ii-;iV. ^ t:;.^-t-(ViniamWfo-Vfl(nfi-liL-.Mln."L.-.'Jiu'."i!^' ' {^ ^ ^ ^ '^^ ^ i.Lji.K;mft'ufi'riifi.-''rtiudt'lrt:iLijmni'-iV' fTMlniHi>,' |u-.a.M a^y iiuft liiL'iJ.oViinT .■ - v.Mu TU'lidnd; 1.1:1' ,M:-(l!f ^m:' lum itifi-fintvt/Tr ■ .; ■ •!:,LTMi-:L,.i:.;'.\',.ViN'n.:r!a u ..■<"■!. I ;;Vfif:(b.' "" 'j t'L'r:,u:ii?'j :if..-Ji^in(rii.i [■'•tuv/fi..;: )'•;: ,r ; ..ciirt'LiaTfiitui vr;ri.-:>q"(.->j fl'i-'^-i^-i -; riu uri;ii.'< .■(■ f: .■, ;:i.n;;- u.li,.un lJrri:"*Mi:rti'ffi' firrd'ffi'flriT^a .tli':,.>[>UtI'L|ii.i|[iiipif J..iiQ'(fu'ii<0.ir-ri.(iS lii^'imrlieribi.niLn-iiiUC flfiiiiffiitii.Wi.a.i.iuctiL' f fniiiiiin:>"uiui iiuii'iatii: (>iVini--f).i;ii.( .'ii i'iin1i::n: rt' uLtrfu. Itu" ixVf iif i^i! '.i,:!'; it i:r f .llI"!-.-1>ii:iM,-l1(ivn:l''"""f <^''lonf Fig. 9 — Leon, Colegiata de San Isidoro: Page from Bible of Leon. Dated 960 The Akt Bulletin6 11 dated by Wilpert in the seventh century.' Here the beardless Saviour, holding a large Book of the Gospels on His left knee, delivers the key to St. Peter, who stands beside Him at His right. An occasional variant appears in which the Saviour is not seated but stands on the sphere, as in a mosaic of the second half of the fourth century in the Baptistry of St. John at Naples.' In a seventh-century mosaic of San Teodoro at Rome' the globe is studded with stars; this may be regarded as evidence that in these early Hellenistic examples Christ is seated on the sphere of heaven and not on the globe of earth. The artists were obviously inspired by such references as "The heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool" (Isaiah, 66, 1; Acts, 7, 49), "the Lord's throne is in heaven" (Psalms, 11, 4), and "neither by heaven; for it is God's throne: nor by the earth; for it is his footstool" (Matthew, 5, 34-35). This globe type with the seated Saviour was common in ItaUan mosaics, frescoes, ivories, and manuscripts from the fourth to the eighth century, < and it is so restricted to Western monuments that it can be termed a distinct feature of the Latin style.' From Italy the type spread northward into France and was adopted, together with other late Classic motives, by the early artists of the Carolingian Renaissance. A page from the late eighth-century Apocalypse of Treves (Fig. 11) shows the Saviour seated as in Fig. 10 but accompanied by the twenty-four Elders of the Apocalypse." In the Stutt- gart Psalter, of the same date,' the feet of Christ are supported by a rectangular footstool, and, as Judge of the World, He holds a pair of scales in His right hand. The globe appears also in the first third of the ninth century in the Gospels of St. Victor of Xanten' and the Utrecht Psalter" and was an important element, as will be shown later, in the formation of a new type in the schools of Tours, Rheims, and St. Denis. It is significant, however, that the globe type (that is, the Hellenistic form, without a mandorla) does not occur in West Prankish illumination of the tenth and eleventh centuries. An occasional example is found in East Prankish schools, such as that shown by the title page of an eleventh- century Ottonian Book of the Gospels in the municipal hbrary at Treves (cod. lat. 23),'° which might easily have been inspired by such a model as that in the Treves Apocalypse (Fig. 11). In this Ottonian manuscript the Saviour is enthroned sUghtly below the rim of the sphere, as in Fig. 10, but the artist has added a smaller globe which serves as a footstool for the Saviour's feet. Professor Clemen's statement that " Der Salvator sitzt auf der Weltkugel"'^ misses the significance of the two globes; the Ottonian artist has merely rendered with greater fidelity the scripture already cited: "The heaven is my throne, and the earth [Weltkugel] is my footstool." 'Wilpert, op. cit., II, pp. 945-6. An excellent color plate of this fresco is found in vol. IV, pis. 148-9. Hbid., pi. 32, fig. 68. ^Garrucci, op. cit., IV, pi. 252, 3. ^Additional examples which show this type are as follows. Mosiacs: Rome, S. Agata in Subura, second half of V century (Garrucci, op. cit., IV, pi. 240, 2); Ravenna, S. Vitale, c. 530-547 {ibid., IV, pi. 258); Rome, S. Lorenzo, 578-590 (De Rossi, Musaici cristiani e saggi dei pavimmii delle chiese di Roma, anteriori al secolo XV, Rome, 1899, pi. 16); Parenzo, cathedral, VI century (Dalton, op. cit., p. 373). Ivories: Milan, cathedral, book-cover, c. 500 (Garrucci, op. cit., VI, pi. 455). Manuscripts: Lavanthal, Austria, archives of the Benedictine abbey of St. Paul, Latin Ms no 53, VI century (?), written in Italy (Robert Eisler, Die illuminierten Handschriften in Karnten, Leipzig, 1907, pi. VlII). 'See also E. Baldwin Smith, Early Christian Iconography and a School of Ivory Carvers in Provence, Princeton, 1918, p. 143. 'Another page from this manuscript has been illustrated by Clemen, op. cit., fig. 46. 'H. Ehl, Aelteste deutsche Malerei, Berhn, 1921, Orbis Pictus, vol. 10, p. 15. "Boinet, La miniature carolingienne, pi. LX. 'Boinet, op. cit., pi. LXIV. '"Clemen, Die romanischen Monumentalmalerei in den Rheinlanden, fig. 194. "/bid., p. 258. Cf. Wilpert, op. cit., pp. 591-2. 12 The College Art Association of America. The use of the globe as a seat for the Majestas Domini or for God the Father con- tinued in ItaUan mosaics and frescoes long after the eighth century. Frequently in the later examples the figure is not seated in the frontal position, shown in Fig. 10, but in profile. Thus, in some of the Genesis scenes in the Basilica of St. Paul at Rome, the originals of which may date 891-896, God the Father is seated in profile on the globe (Creation of Adam and Creation of Eve),' and in one of the scenes, the Discovery of Adam and Eve, He is not seated but stands beside the globe of heaven.^ The same profile position is followed on the walls of the tenth-century abbey church of St. Peter near Ferentillo (Creation of Adam),' in the late eleventh-century fresco of S. Angelo in Formis (Woman taken in Adultery),' in the Genesis scenes in the mosaics of the cathedral of Monreale,' in an unknown church in Rome,« and in the frescoes of the church of S. Giovanni a Porta Latina (1191-1198).' In other sections of Eiu-ope, such as Southern and Central France and Catalonia, the globe was still in use during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In the Catalan Bible of Farfa (Fig. 12) the Saviour is enthroned in the old Hellenistic manner. His feet resting on a segment of the earth-globe; and a page from the Gerona Homilies of Bede (Fig. 13) shows an example of the globe type as late as the twelfth century. Moreover, the type was not restricted in its use to the Saviour and God the Father, since we find the globe employed as a seat for saints and other personages in the vestibule frescoes of the chiu-ch of St. Savin' and for Pope Damasus in the Bible of St. Martial of Limoges (Fig. 14). Even in the Romanesque period, however, the Hellenistic globe remained essentially a purely Latin type. It is found only in those regions which came directly or indirectly under the influence of late Latin or Italian models, and its appearance in any monument of Western Europe after the eighth or ninth centmy is evidence of Italian tradition.' (B) The Oriental Mandoria The second important element in the formation of the globe-mandorla type, shown on our two Catalan panels, is the mandoria. An early example of the oval mandoria, or glory, sometimes termed a large nimbus, is found in a fourth-century Liberian mosaic in S. Maria Maggiore at Rome (352-366). It surrounds one of the three angels who visit 'Wilpert, op. cil., II, p. 576, figs. 229, 230. C/. also fig. 237. One of the earliest preserved examples which shows this profile position is found on the ivory book-cover in the cathedral of Milan (Garr. op. cit., VI. pi. 455). nUd., II, fig. 236. 3/fcirf., fig. 233. *Bertaux, L'arl dans I'ltalie miridionale, fig. 99. 'Gravina, Monreale, pis. 15 B-F. "Wilpert, op. cil., fig. 241, p. 597. ■•Ibid., pis. 252-255, fig. 234. 8G(5hs-Didot and Laffill^e, op. cit., pi. 1, figs. A, B. Cf. also Apocalyptic scene illustrated in M6rimi5e, Notice sur les peintures de I'^glise de Saint-Savin, Paris, 1845, pi. 3. ^An instance of the force of this inconographic habit is afforded by an Ascension on a Byzantine ivory plaque in the Carrand collection, Bargello, Florence (Jules Labarte, Histoire des arts industriels au moyen Age el a I'ipoque de la Renaissance, Paris, 1864, I, pi. IX; Hans Graeven, Friihchristliche und millelalterliche Eljenbeinwerke in photographischer Nachbildung. Serie II. Aus Sammlungen in Italien, Gottingen, 1898, pi. 34). The Ascension follows the usual Eastern type (see E. T. Dewald, The Iconography of the Ascension, in A. J. A., XIX, 1915, pp. 282 ff.) and the inscription is written in Greek. However, Christ is not seated in an Eastern mandoria but on a star-covered globe supported by two angels. The two angels show Oriental influence, but the globe is a Hellenistic motif. Accordingly, we must conclude that the ivory was executed by a Byzantine artist resident in Italy who substituted the Italian globe for the traditional Eastern mandoria. Two northern ivories that show interesting versions of the globe type have been published by Goldschmidt. On an ivory book-cover made in the early X century in Belgium, now in Darmstadt (Grossherzogl. Museum, no. 509), Christ is seated on a circular wreath and His feet rest on the arc of the earth. On the book of the Gospels appears the inscription, "data est mihi omnis potestas in celo el in t[er]ra" (Gold- schmidt, Elfenbeinskulplmen, I, pi. LXXIV, fig. 162). The same use of a wreath instead of a globe appears also on an ivory at Seitenstetten, Lower Austria, Stiftssammlung, which Goldschmidt dates 962-973 and assigns tentatively to the school of Milan or Reichenau {ibid., II, pi. VI, fig. 16). Plate vi Fig. 10 — Rome, Catacmjmus OF C^dmmodilla: Fresco. The Tradiiio Clavium. G68-685 Fi(i. 11 — Tkeves, Municipal Library: Page FRom the Apocalypse of Treves, no. 31. Late VIII Century Fig 12— Rome, Vatican Library: Page from the Bible of Farfa. Cod. Vat. Lat. 5729. XI Century The Art Bulletin. 13 Abraham, and in the same series of mosaics, in the scene of the stoning of Moses and his companions, these three figures are enclosed within an elHptical mandorla, or cloud.' St. Paulinus of Nola (fifth century) describes the large ckcular nimbus which surrounds the triumphal cross as a "lucidus globus," and his Greek contemporary, Palladius, refers to a similar glory as a "trochds purinos."^ In none of these examples, however, does the mandorla surround the figure of Christi. The earliest monuments which show the oval or elliptical mandorla in that use are found in the East, occurring in sixth-century scenes of the Ascension, the Transfiguration, and the Majestas Domini. All the elements of the Majestas type are found in a miniature of the Rabula Gospel, written by the monk Rabula in the years 586-7 at Zagba, Mesopotamia.^ In the upper half of the scene of the Ascension a bearded and mmbed Christ stands within an oval mandorla; He holds a long scroll in His left hand and makes the gesture of benediction with His right. The mandorla is supported at the top by two angels, and two others, one on either side of the mandorla, offer crowns of glory on veiled hands. Beneath the mandorla are four wings filled with eyes, the heads of the Evangehstic symbols, and two pahs of whirling wheels covered with fire; a hand emerging from the wings points downward to the orant Virgin and the group of Apostles. In Palestine' the formula is simplified. In scenes of the Ascension on the sixth- centxu-y encolpia, or oil flasks, preserved in the cathedral treasury at Monza the nimbed and bearded Saviour does not stand but is seated on a throne, and He holds a square Book of the Gospels instead of a scroll. On one encolpium the mandorla is held by two angels,' as in the Rabula Gospel, but on the other preserved examples four angels are employed,' an iconographic feature which in later centuries became especially common in Western Europe.' The Majestas Domini type with throne and mandorla was inspired by passages from the visions of Isaiah (6), Ezekiel (1; 10), Daniel (7), and Revelation (4). The glory, or mandorla, is described as "a rainbow round about the throne, in sight like unto an emerald" (Rev., 4, 3) and "as the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud in the day of rain" (Ezekiel, 1, 28). The Rabula Gospel version shows the Eastern conception of Ezekiel's vision of God, each detail of which was the Subject of mystical interpretation and exegesis by the early church fathers.* 'Wilpert, op. cii., Ill, pis. 10, 21. According to Wilpert (op. cii., p. 97) the earliest appearance of a mandorla or cloud in Early Christian art is found in the second half of the II century in a catacomb fresco (Sacramentary chapel A 2). The mandorla, or nimbus, is round, and Wilpert states that this is the only extant example in the early catacomb frescoes. nUd., I, pp. 99-100. ^Garrucci, op. cii., Ill, pi. 139, 2. ^There is reason to believe that the Ascension type used in the Rabula Gospel originated in Asia Minor. HUd., pi. 433, 8. Hhid., pis. 433, 10; 434, 2, 3; 435, 1. 'A list of monuments showing the mandorla supported by four angels has been compiled by Wilhelm Voge (Eine deutsche Malerschule um die Wende des ersten Jahrtausends, Trier, 1891, p. 269, n. 3). 'Origen interprets the vision in his Homilies on the Book of Ezekiel as a picture of the power of God over the world of the spirit (Migne, Pair. Gr., 13, coU. 665-767, Horn. I, 13). ApoUinaris, the younger, of Laodicea, also considers the vision as an expression of the might of God (Wilhelm Neuss, Das Buck Ezekiel in Theologie und Kunsl bis zuni Ende des XII. Jakrhunderis, Mtinster in Westf., 1912, pp. 48-49). And Theodoret, the last of the great Fathers of Antioch, whose Commentary was composed before the year 436, states that "the brightness of the Saviour shows that He is near, the fire shows that He cannot be approached. He Himself is hght. . . . He stands in the middle of the rainbow" {ibid., pp. 51 ff.). According to Ephraim the Syrian, who hved in Mesopotamia during the first quarter of the fourth century, the form of the person on the throne is a symbol of Emmanuel, who became a human being, who revealed Himself in His godlike majesty. The throne and the firmament are a symbol of the power of the angels, and the throne is a symbol of thrones, of seraphim and cherubim (ibid., p. 61). Jacob of Sarug, S5Trian theologian and poet (451-521) states in his HomiUes that the four wheels which bear the Son of God run with great power to the four corners of the earth and the Gospels are borne throughout the entire universe. The four cherubim who bear Him in triumph are the Apostles, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. They have several faces, signifying the different peoples to whom they preach. The hand which appears beneath the wings is the right hand of God, which He gave to the Apostles, a hand which washes all sin from the world [ibid., pp. 80-81). According to St. John 14 The College Art Association op America. Due chiefly to the close ecclesiastical and doctrinal connections between the religious establishments of Upper Egypt and Syria during the sixth and seventh centuries, the art of Coptic Egypt was at this time less subject to influences from Alexandria and more closely approximated the Asiatic art of Syria and Palestine in style, ornament, and iconography. It is not surprising, then, that the Oriental type of throne and mandorla that we have studied in the Asiatic examples is abundantly illustrated in Coptic frescoes and sculptm-e. An Ascension at Bawlt (chapel XVII)' shows a mandorla which forms an almost perfect circle, enclosing a beardless Christ seated on a large, richly ornamented throne with bolster and footstool. The mandorla is not supported by angels, but an angel on either side of the Saviour offers a votive crown of glory as in the Rabula Gospel. The presence of the wings filled with eyes, the Evangelistic symbols, and the whirling wheels shows that the composition was inspired by the vision of Ezekiel. A similar mandorla is employed for the Ezekiel vision in chapel XXVI at Bawlt^ and for two representations of the Majestas Domini at Saqqara.= The throne on which the Saviour is seated in Coptic art usually has a large bolster and footstool and is richly decorated with jewels, similarly to the thrones in the early mosaics of Rome and Ravenna.* By this device the enthroned figure is invested with a regal dignity. A typical Eastern mandorla is illustrated in a Bawit fresco (Fig. 15) by an early example of the Madonna type known later in Byzantine art as the Blacherniotissa. Within an oval mandorla held by the enthroned Virgin a diminutive figure of Christ is seated, holding the Book of the Gospels and making the gesture of benediction. This icono- graphic type, which is seen also in the monastery of Apa Jeremias at Saqqara (niche 1723),' on a page of the Etschmiadzin Gospel,' on a fragment of a Monza phial,' and on a seventh-century lead medallion of Constantine II,' appears in Italy during the eighth and ninth centuries." Chrysostom, whose Commentaries on Ezekiel were composed before the year 436, the highest spirits cannot see God, since the cherubim cover Him with their wings; the cherubim are even higher for they are the throne of God, and the throne of God rests on the cherubim (Migne, Pair. Gr., 48, coll. 725 ff.). St. Jerome, like Origen, interprets the vision as a symbol of the power and knowledge of God, a revelation of His foresight and world dominion. The Son rules in the Father, and the Father and Son rule from the same throne. The firmament is of ice, frozen from the clearest water, a symbol of God's purity. The blue sapphire throne above the firmament contains the secrets of God's being, and the rainbow about the throne is a symbol of His mercy and His covenant with man (Migne, Pair. Lai., 25, coll, 15-32). St. Jerome emphasizes the person of Christ and the Four EvangeUsts. In this respect He was followed by St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and Sedulius in the Carmen Paschale. St. Gregory explains the brightness round about the throne as the light which the Apostles carried into the world. The glowing metal and the appearance of fire is Christ, who is made of the gold of God and the silver of man, and who is surrounded by the fire of perse- cution. The four wings signify the four parts of the world into which the word of God is carried, and the rainbow round about the vision of God is the power of the Holy Ghost after the Incarnation (Migne, Pair. Lat., 76, coll. 785-1072). •Jean Cl^dat, Le monastbre et la n^cropole de Baouil, in Mimoires de I'lnstitut fran^ais d' arch&ologie orientate du Caire, XII, Cairo, 1904, pis. XL-XLIV. nUd., pis. XC, XCI. 'J. E. QuibeU, Excavations at Saqqara (1907-1908), Service des antiquity de I'Egypte, III, Cairo, 1909, frontis- piece; pis. VIII, X (4). ^Italian examples are found in the following churches: Rome — S. Prudenziana (402-417) (Wilpert, op. cit., Ill, pis. 42-44); S. Maria Maggiore (432-440), throne of Herod {ibid., Ill, pis. 61, 62, 69), arch (De Rossi, op. cit, pi. IV); SS. Cosmas and Damian, apse (ibid., pi. XV); Ravenna — Orthodox Baptistery (449-458) (Wilpert, op. cit., Ill, pi. 81); Baptistery of the Arians (c. 520) {ibid.. Ill, pi. 101). S. Frisco— S. Matrona (first half of V century) (ibid., Ill, pi. 77). 'J. E. QuibeU, Excavations at Saqqara (1908-9, 1909-10), The Monastery of Apa Jeremias, Service des antiquity de I'Egypte, IV, Cairo, 1912, pi. XXV. 'Josef Strzygowski, Byzanlinische Denkmdler, I, Das Etschmiadzin-Evangeliar , Vienna, 1891, pi. VI, 1. 'Garrucci, op. cit., VI, pi. 479, 4. 'Cabrol, Dictionnaire, II, 2, fig. 2151, col. 2303. The lead madalUon, or seal, decorated with the figures of Constantine II, Pogonatus, Heraclius, and Tiberius, is dated between the years 658 and 668. "In the Italian examples (frescoes) the Virgin is invariably seated, e. g.: Volturno, church of S. Vincenzo (Grilneisen, op. cit., p. 267); Rome, S. Maria Antiqua, fresco on the right wall, in which the Virgin is accompanied by Sts. Anne and Elizabeth (ibid., fig. 84; Wilpert, op. cil., IV, pi. 194, p. 100), assigned by Griineisen to the IX century (p. 267), by Wilpert to the VIII; Subiaco, church of Sagro Speco, lower chapel, dated by Grilneisen in the IX century (op. cit., fig. 220, p. 267). In the Bawtt example shown in Fig. 15 the mandorla and Child are held slightly to one side, whereas in the other examples mentioned the Child is held directly on the vertical axis. Plate vii fjl^ytaa-^taun .i. f. A- 1 d Fig. 13 — Gerona, Church of San Feliu: Page from the Homilies of Bbde. Second HALF XII Century f r FiG. 14 — Limoges: Page from the Bible of St. Martial of Limoges. St. Jerome and Pope Damasus The Art Bulletin. 15 A bracelet amulet in the Fouquet collection at Cairo shows a mandorla of the Ascension which is not oval but pointed at top and bottom.^ This is unusual, however, since the oval and circular types are prevalent in Coptic art.^ The art of Byzantium drew from all East-Christian sources, and iconographic features were derived from AnatoUa, Syria, Palestine, and Alexandria. Two common types of the Majestas persisted throughout the entire history of Byzantine art. The distinguishing feature in each case is the seat on which the Saviour is enthroned within the oval or circular mandorla.' In the first of the two types He is seated on a richly ornamented throne, with bolster and footstool, similar to the throne that we have noted in Coptic Egypt. Illustrations of this type are found in the pages of the Cosmas Indicopleustes, a ninth-century manuscript copied probably in Constantinople after a sixth-century Alexandrian model. In the scene of the Resurrection of the Dead (Book V, Concordia testamentorum, fol. 89)* Christ is seated in the firmament on a wide throne, with bolster and footstool, surrounded by a mandorla similar in shape to that in the Rabula Gospel and on the Monza phials. As Judge of the World, Christ holds the Book of the Gospels on His left knee and raises His right hand in benediction. Below appear groups of angels, men, and busts of the dead who are coming to life. This first type of throne is seen again in the vision of Ezekiel in the same manuscript (fol. 74)," where the Saviour is surrounded by a circular mandorla composed of three bands of color, the outer band, fiery red, the intermediate, green, and the inner, sapphire blue. In the vision of Isaiah (fol. 72v) Christ is seated on an elaborate throne without the mandorla.' A similar, but even richer, type of throne appears in the vision of Isaiah on a page from the Sermons of St. Gregory of Nazianzus (Paris, Bibl. Nat., gr. 510, fol. 67v),' a manuscript written at Constantinople between the years 880 and 886. In this case the throne has a high back as well as a footstool. It is unnecessary, however, to multiply illustrations of this type; they may be found abundantly in Byzantine ivories, mosaics, and manuscripts.* 'Jean Maspero, Bracelets-amulettes, in Annales du service des aniiquites de I'Egypte, Cairo, 1908, IX, fig. 1, pp. 246 ff. 'Cairo, wooden lintel over the entrance of the church of al-Mu-allaka, dated by Strzygowski in the VIII century (Rom. Quartalschr., XII, 1898, pi. II, pp. 14-22); Deir-es-Suriani, X-century fresco of the Ascension (J. Strzygowski, Der Schmuck der dlteren el-Hadrakirche im syrischen Klosler der skelischen Wuste, Oriens Christ, I, pp. 360-361); mutilated fresco of the Majestas in the east apse of the White Convent, near Sohag (W. de Bock, Materiaux pour servir a I'archiohgie de I'Egypte chrUienne, Petrograd, 1901, pi. XXI); mandorla containing a large triumphal cross with a pallium contabulatum folded over the arms of the cross, painted by the monk Theodore in the south apse of the same church (ibid., pi. XXII); mutilated fresco of a Majestas in the monastery of the Martyrs, near Esneh, sanctuary XIV (ibid., pi. XXX, pp. 76, 77). 'The oval mandorla without the arc was employed also, to surround the standing figure of the Saviour, not only in the Ascension, but also in the scenes of the Transfiguration and the Harrowing of Hell. For examples of its use in the Transfiguration see Gabriel Millet, Recherches sur I'iconographie de I'evangile aux XlVe, XVe, el XVIe sikcles, Paris, 1916, figs. 181-200; Dalton, op. cit., figs. 225, 410; Rom. QuarlaUchr., 1914, fig. 18. Its use in the Harrowing of Hell is well illustrated by the South Italian Exultet Rolls (Venturi, op. cit., Ill, figs. 669, 677-680) . See also Charles R. Morey, East Christian Paintings in the Freer Collection, New York, 1914, pp. 45 ff., and the list published by Voge (Eine deutsche Malerschule, p. 267, n. 1). Its use in Italy in the X century is shown by a fresco in S. Clemente, Rome (Wilpert, op. cit., IV, pi. 229, 2). C}. also the Chludoff Psalter, fol. 63v (J. J. Tikkanen, Die Psallerillustration im Mittelalter, I, Die Psallerilliistration in der Kunstgeschichte, Helsingfors, 1895, fig. 76). *Cosimo Stomajolo, Le miniature della iopografia cristiana di Cosima Indicopleuste, codice vaticano greco 699, Codices e vaticanis selecti,lX, Milan, 1908, pi. 49, pp. 45-46. Hbid., pi. 39, p. 41. 'Ibid., pi. 37. 'H Omont, Fac-simiUs des miniatures des plus anciens manuscrits grec^ de la BiMiothkque Nationale, Paris, 1902, pi. XXV. 'E. g., Berlin Museum, ivory book-cover, X century (Wilhelm Voge, KdnigKche Museen zu Berlin, Beschreibung der Bildwerke der christlichen Epochen, Die Elfenbeinbildwerke, BerUn, 1900, no. 8, pi. 5) ; Ravenna Museum, carved ivory panel, XII century (Dalton, Byzantine Art and Archaeology, fig. 12); Palermo, La Martorana, mosaic, XII century (ibid., fig. 240); Capua cathedral, enamel reliquary (Venturi, Storia . . . ,11, fig. 488); Paris Bibl. Nat., miniatures of the Last Judgment in Gr. MS. 74 (H. Omont, Svangiks avec peintures Byzantines du XI sikcle, Paris, pis. 41, 81); Salerno cathedral, miniature of Exultet Roll (Venturi, op. cit., Ill, fig. 671). A typical Italian example of the XIII century is shown in the frescoes of the Last Judgment by Pietro Cavallini in S. Cecilia in Traste- vere, Rome, e. 1293 (Wilpert, op. cit., IV, pis. 279-281). The elaborate throne is also frequently employed without the mandorla. 16 The College Art Association of America. The type of Byzantine Majestas which is even more familiar to students of Western art shows the Saviour seated, not on a throne, as in the preceding examples, but on an arc, or "rainbow arch," as it is often called. An early monument showing this type is an Ascension in the dome of the church of Hagia Sophia at Salonika. ^ The Saviour is seated on an arc which passes slightly below the center of the circular mandorla, and His feet rest on a smaller concentric arc. This use of an arc as a seat introduces into Eastern iconography a new element, the origin of which is obscure. The rainbow arch does not appear in any of the extant proto- Byzantine monuments from Anatolia, and we have already noted that in the Palestinian and Coptic examples Christ is seated on a throne. Nevertheless, evidence for a Syro- Palestinian origin is furnished by a drawing in the Pozzo collection at Windsor Castle (Fig. 16) copied from a lost encolpium of about the year 600. ^ In the scene of the Ascen- sion the Saviour is not seated on a throne, as in the extant Monza phials, which we have already studied, but on an arc, as in the Salonika mosaic. The oval mandorla in the drawing is supported by four angels, and the similarity of the general composition to those on the extant ampullae is striking. The Pozzo drawing shows slight iconographic inconsistencies, such as the omission of the nimbi and the substitution of an Apostle for the usual figure of the Virgin, but in other respects it reproduces the Syro-Palestinian Ascension so faithfully that it is less probable that the copyist substituted the arc for a throne. Additional evidence in favor of a Palestinian origin for the arc is furnished by an Ascension, with the Saviour seated on an arc, painted on the wooden reliquary in the Sancta Sanctorum at Rome.^ The panel is dated as late as the tenth century, but all five scenes represented on it are iconographically derived from early Syro-Palestinian prototypes. Having observed the various compositions used with the Oriental mandorla, we may investigate their penetration into Western art. The popular Byzantine type of Christ seated on the arc, which is found in Byzantine manuscripts, ^ mosaics,' and ivories," appears in Italy as early as the ninth century,' and in the eleventh century it is found not only in Ottoman illumination, which was especially subject to Byzantine 'Dalton, op. cit., fig. 222. ^E. B. Smith, A lost Encolpium and some notes on Early Christian Iconography, in Byz. Zeiischr., XXIII, 1914, pp. 217-225. 'P. Lauer, Le trSsor du Sancta Sanctorum, in Found-ation Piot, Monuments et Memoires, XV, 1907, pi. XIV, 2, pp. 97-99. It should be noted that the Saviour in the Ascension shown on the oiborium columns in the church of St. Mark's, Venice, appears to be seated on an arc within a small mandorla supported by two angels (Garrucci, op. cit., pi. 498, 2). ^Rome, Vatican Library, Gr. MS. no. 1927, fol. 202v, Ascension (Tikkanen, op. cit., fig. 91); Greek Psalter, fol. 63, Ascension (ibid., fig. 81); Paris, Bibl. Nat., Syriac Evangeliarv, XII-XIII century, Ascension {Foundation Piot, Monuments et Memoires, XIX, pi. XVIII, pp. 208-209). 'Florence, cathedral works, mosaic (G. Millet, L'art Byzanlin, in Michel's Histoire de I'art chreticn, I, fig. 112); TorceUo, cathedral, mosaic, XI century, Last Judgment (Dalton, op. cit., fig. 427). "London, Br. Mus., ivory panel, Ezekiel and the dry bones (Dalton, op. cit., fig, 135); Berlin Museum, ivory book-cover, XII century, Ascension (Voge, op. cit., no. 27, pl. XI); Rome, Barberini collection, ivory panel, Ascension (Graeven, Elfenbeinwerke, Series II, Aus Sammlungen in Italien, Gottingen, 1898, pl. 55); Paris, Cluny IMuseum, ivory plaque, XII century, no. 1051 (Goldschmidt, op. cit., Ill, pl. XXVI, fig. 75a); ivory formerly in London Loan Exhibition, Last Judgment (Nuov. hull. arch, crist., VIII, illustration on p. 173; Venturi, op. cit., if, fig. 422); Stutt- gart, Kunstkammer, ivory plaque. Ascension (Venturi, op. cit., II, fig. 44i); Copenhagen, Royal Museum, bone cross, XI century (?) (Goldschmidt., op. cit.. Ill, pl. XLIV, fig. 124b). For others in ivory see Goldsclimidt, vol. III. passim. A late example is found in Rome, sacristy of St. Peter's, on an embroidered dalmatic, XIV century (Dalton, op. cit., fig. 380). 'Rome, Basilica of S. Clemente, fresco (847-855), Ascension on face of arch (Wilpert, op. cit., IV, pl. 210); Rome, Basilica of S. Maria in Domnica, mosaic, Majestas (De Rossi, Mu^aici, pl. XXIII); frontispiece of a manu- script of the Rule of St. Benedict, copied at Capua between 914 and 933 (Bertaux, op. cit., fig. 80); Beneventum, cathedral, bronze door (Venturi, III, op. cit., Ill, fig. 651). A lat« Xll-century example in Italy is illustrated in fresco in the Last Judgment on the walls of S. Giovanni a Porta Latina (1191-1198) (Wilpert, op. cit., IV, pl. 256). For a brief discussion of the type in Italy see ibid., II, pp. 1134, n. 1; 1194). Plate viii Fig. 15 — ^Bawit, Chapel XXVIII: Coptic Fresco. Blacherniotissa Fig. 16 — Windsor, Royal Library: Drawing of an Encolpium ■ i ' • ■ ■ Fig. 17 — Autun, Library: Gxjdohinus Gospels, MS. no. 3, Fol. 12b. VIII Century Fig. 18 — Rome, Vatican Library: Page from the Bible of Farfa. Cod. Vat. Lat. 5729. XI Century The Art Bulletin. 17 influence, but also in England (c/. Fig. 26), Northern France, and Catalonia. The influence of Byzantine or Italo-Byzantine iconography in Catalan art is strikingly demon- strated by the Gospel pages of the Bible of Farfa. In the scene of the Ascension shown in Fig. 18 the Saviour is enthroned on the arc within a mandorla borne by two flying angels, while the Virgin, Apostles, and angels appear below. The composition of this scene is almost identical with that which we have found in the Syro-Palestinian examples, such as the Rabula Gospel and the Monza phials. The arc points to Byzantine or Italo-Byzantine models (c/. mosaic in Hagia Sophia at Salonica) ; the agitated movement and lively gesture betray the local inspiration of the Catalan painter. The close ties which bound Rome to the East from the fifth to the eighth century resulted in a gradual infiltration of Oriental thought and artistic traditions into the Hellen- istic West. The secular clergy became more Greek in character, Greek artists and monks were imported into Southern Italy and the Eternal City, and Greek members of the Roman clergy became occupants of the Holy See itself. A good example of the mixture of Hellenistic and Oriental elements in art is furnished by the fifth-century wooden doors of S. Sabina at Rome. In the scene of the Ascension' Christ stands as in the Rabula Gospel, accompanied by the symbols of the four Evangelists. The mandorla is not elliptical, like those we have found in Syria and Palestine, but it forms a perfect circle, such as some we have discussed in Coptic and Byzantine art. This feature, the circular mandorla, persists in all the OrientaUzed Western versions during the seventh and eighth centuries.2 The seated Majestas type, which is even more common than that in which Christ stands, is illustrated by a page from the Codex Amiatinus, now in the Laurentian Library. 3 The enthroned Saviour, accompanied by two angels, is enclosed within a circular mandorla composed of concentric bands of color. Outside are the four Evange- lists and their symbols. This manuscript, which was probably written about the year 700 at Jarrow or Wearmouth in England, may have been copied after a model imported from th? scripiorium of Cassiodorus' abbey in Southern Italy. During the sixth and seventh centuries this monastery, near Squillace, was a center of culture where not only the scriptures and their commentators but also the masterpieces of pagan antiquity were studied and copied.'' From such an artistic center as this, which served as a clearing house for the East and West, the earliest copies of the written Word were carried into the the newly evangelized regions of Northern France and the British Isles. This Orientalized version of the Majestas is illustrated in Fig. 17, a page from the Merovingian Gospels of Autun, written by the scribe Gudohinus between 751 and 754. Two angels accompany the Saviour as in the Codex Amiatinus, but the mandorla is much simplified, the Evangelists are omitted, and their symbols are shown in small tangent medallions. « The composition and iconography are modelled after such a manu- script as the Aimiatinus, but the drapery and figures reflect the late Latin style whose 'Venturi, op. cil., I, fig. 322. ^According to Wilpert the oldest example in Rome of the circular mandorla is found on the triumphal arch of S. Maria Maggiore (432-440) (op. cil., I, p. 56; III, pis. 70-72). For a discussion of the firmament of heaven see Griineisen, op. cit., pp. 231 ff. 'Zimmermann, Vorkarolingische Miniaturen, III, pi. 222 b, pp. 262-4. 'Thomas Hodgkin, The Letters of Cassiodorus, London, 1886, pp. 54-55. ^The use of Evangelistio symbols within medaEions is found in other monuments of Southern or Central France : viz., ivory book-covers, Milan cathedral (E. B. Smith, op. cit., figs. 155, 156); wooden pulpit of Ste.-Radegonde, VI century (Cabrol, Dictionnaire, "Agneau," col. 887); Codex Purpureus, Munich (Boinet, op. cit., pi. II); Poitiers, Municipal library, MS. no. 174, Gospels from the Abbey of Ste.-Croix, early IX century (Cahier, Nouveaux melanges d'archeologie, Ivoires, p. 112) ; Apocalypse, Valenciennes, Municipal Library, MS no. 99, (Boinet., op. cit., pi. CLVII) ; Treves, Municipal Library, MS. no. 23. A similar use of medallions is found later in the school of Tours, where the bust of the four Major Prophets appear in the corners of the page, as shown by the Bamberg Bible (ihid., \>\. XXIX). 18 The College Art Association of America. most familiar example is the illustration of the second Vatican Virgil. This type was employed not only in manuscripts but in stone sculpture as well. On one side of the altar of Pemmone, in the church of S. Martino at Cividale, which Venturi attributes to the eighth century,! the Saviour is enthroned within a mandorla supported by four flying angels, similar to those found in Syria and Palestine. The cherubim that stand inside the mandorla on either side of the throne, as the angels in the Codex Amiatinus and in Fig. 17, have outstretched hands, and wings filled with eyes. Eastern features derived from the vision of Ezekiel. The adoption of new inconographic types during the Carohngian Renaissance did not entirely destroy this Merovingian version common during the seventh and eighth centuries. It continued during the ninth century, and even later in the more conservative regions of Western Europe, as did the Hellenistic globe type. In the Gospels of Lorsch, an Ada manuscript of the first quarter of the ninth century,' the four symbols of the EvangeUsts are placed within small medalhons on the richly ornamented mandorla. The two angels are omitted from within the mandorla. This Ada version seems to have served as a model for later Ottoman artists of the school of Reichenau, inasmuch as it appears in the late-tenth-century Gospels of Darmstadt^ and in the Heidelberg Sacramentary." In such outlying regions as Northern Spain we find as late as the tenth century a style and iconography that revert to pre-CaroHngian models. In the Commentary of Beatus on the Apocalypse, a manuscript executed in the school of the Asturias about the year 900, now in Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan's library at New York, several pages illustrate this type. In Fig. 19, which depicts the opening of the sixth seal (Rev., 6, 12-17), the star-covered mandorla is supported by two angels, a cherub and a seraph, and two Elders on either side gaze at the beardless Hellenistic Saviour.^ In Southern Italy also the type persists late, as shown by an Exultet Roll in the John Rylands Library at Manchester, which is dated in the late tenth or the eleventh century." Summary of Pre-Carolingian Types. At this point a brief recapitulation of the chief Majestas types which appear prior to the ninth century will not be out of place. We have noted two general divisions, or groups, of monuments, the Hellenistic, or Western, and the Oriental. In the Hellenistic the Saviour, as Emmanuel or Logos, is enthroned on the globe of heaven, a type restricted to Italy and regions subject to Italian influence in the Latin West. In the East, on the other hand, the seated or standing Christ, usuallj^ appearing in the scene of the Ascension, is surrounded by an oval mandorla supported by two angels and is accompanied by the symbols of the Evangelists, wings filled with eyes, cherubim, seraphim, fiery whirling wheels, and the downward pointing hand. Evolved under the influence of Eastern liturgy and the mystical interpretations of the Ezekiel vision by Origen, Ephraim the Syrian, Jacob of Sahrug, and other patristic writers 'Op. cit., II, fig. 107, p. 180. 2Boinet, op. cit., pi. XVI, B. 'Adolf von Oechelhaeuser, Die Miniaturen der Universitdts-Bihliothek zu Heidelberg, 1887, pi. 9. ^Ibid., pi. I; The Art Bulletin, II, fig. 8. 'The same type of Enthroned Saviour and mandorla appears on other folios of this manuscript.' fol. 83, mandorla is unsupported; fol. 87, mandorla is labelled troymm and supported liy a cherub and a seraph; fol. 219b, the same; fol. 223, mandorla is elliptical and is flanked on either side by the twenty-four Elders; fol. 231b, it is supported by two angels. The type is found in other Beatus MSS., such as the Gerona MS., fol. 219b (Neuss, Katalanische Bihelilluslration, fig. 37). 'Montague Rhodes James, A Descriptive Catalogue of the Latin Manuscripts in the .John Rylands Library at Manchester, London, 1921, II, pi. 3, no. 2. Nothing illustrates better the manner in which the late Latin style continued in Italy than the retardalaire illustration of this Exultet Roll. The Enthroned Christ and Angels might have been copied directly from the Codex Amiatintis and they furnish an excellent illustration of the identity of the sources from which schools of Northumbria and of Southern Italy drew. I'l-ATB IX Fi(i. 19 — New York, Morgan Library: Pace from the Comwentaey of Beatds ok the Apocalypse. Opening of the Sixth Seal. C. 900 Fig. 20 — Parls, Bibl. Nat.: Cujspel of Le Mans, Fol. IS. C. S75-S80 Fig. 21 — Paris, Bibl. Nat.: First Bible of Charles the Bald (^'IVIEN Bible '), Fol. 329b. Middle IX Century The Art Bulletin. 10 of the schools of Alexandria and Antioch, this type penetrated Coptic Egypt and Byzantium. In the art of Byzantium two common f ormute have been noted : one in which Christ is seated on an elaborate throne and another in which He sits on the rainbow arch. The Byzantine rainbow arch may have been derived from some lost Syro-Palestinian prototype, but, whatever its origin, it appears in Italy in the ninth century and was later freely em- ployed by Western artists. We have also found in Rome as early as the fifth century a simplified version of the Oriental type (door of S. Sabina), which during the seventh and eighth centuries was disseminated throughout Western Europe as far north as North- umbria (Codex Amiatinus). This was employed not only in manuscripts but also in relief sculpture. In these Western adaptations of an Oriental model the Saviour is enthroned in a circular instead of an eUiptical mandorla, the Majestas Domini does not necessarily appear as part of the Ascension, and many mystical elements of the Ezekiel vision, such as the whirling wheels, the wings filled with eyes, and the downward pointing hand are often omitted; attention is focussed upon the enthroned Christ and the four EvangeUsts. (C) The Carolingian Globe-Mandorla The artistic, intellectual, and religious revival fostered during the ninth century under the personal encouragement of Charlemagne and his sons was essentially derivative and composite in character. Late Classical and Western manuscripts from Northumbria and Rome, as well as Eastern manuscripts from Byzantium and Syria, were imported as models to be copied and multiplied by French artists. Eastern and Western elements were freely combined in the new illuminated manuscripts produced in the monastic scriptoria, and one aspect of this mingling of East and West is shown in the treatment of the Majestas Domini, wherein the Carolingian artist combines the Latin globe with the Eastern mandorla to form a new iconographic type. This new type of globe-mandorla in its fully developed form is best illustrated in the school of St. Denis. But in order to understand the St. Denis globe-mandorla we must first trace the early stages of its evolution in other Carolingian schools, especially those of Tours and Rheims. Tours, Type A. In examples from the school of Tours the Saviour is seated on the Hellenistic globe, and in the group which we clasify as type A He is surrounded by an oval or a pointed mandorla. The enclosing elliptical mandorla does not touch the globe at its base in the Bible of Moutier-Grandval (known as the Alcuin Bible; fol. 352v),' in the Gospels of Priim,'^ nor in the Gospels of Le Mans (Fig. 20).= On the other hand, in the Gospels of Lothaire,^ of the second quarter of the ninth century, and in the Gospels of Dufay,' a quarter of a century later, the mandorla is pointed at top and bottom and is tangent to the globe. Christ is bearded, in the Eastern fashion, in the Gospels of Lothaire, but all the other examples mentioned show the beardless Hellenistic type. In all these manuscripts Christ is seated on the rim of the globe, as in Early Christian mosaics and frescoes (c/. Fig. 10); in His left hand He holds the Book of the Gospels, which rests on his knee, and with His right hand He either makes the gesture of benediction or holds aloft a small disc or "ball of the world." In most cases the feet of the Saviour rest on the globe 'Boinet, op. cit., pi. XLV. mid., pi XXXVl. ^ ,. r ^ . J , u-m ^ 3S. Berger, Histoire du Vulgate, pp. 402, 252; Beissel, Geschichle der Evangehenhucher m der er.stcn Halfie des Miltelallers, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906, pp. 191-2. ■•Boinet, op. cit., pi. XXXI. Hbid., pi. LVI. 20 The College Art Association of America. as shown in Fig 20, but in the Bible of Moutier-Grandval the earth is suggested by an irregular patch of earth painted on the globe, and in the Gospels of Priim the artist employs a curving arc, which intersects the base of the globe. In this last example stars appear on the globe and mandorla, and on the background are sun and moon as well as stars. Stars are seen inside the mandorla in Fig. 20, and in both these manuscripts appears the inscription " Hac sedet arce deus, ynundi rex, gloria caeli."' The Tours artists follow the simplified Western version of the Majestas in that Christ is accompanied only by the four symbols of the Evangelists; Eastern features such as the cherubim and seraphim are omitted. Tours, Type B. In our second division of the Tours examples we find a radical innovation in the shape of the enclosing mandorla. In all the preceding examples the mandorla was either oval or pointed, but in the chief manuscript of the school, the First Bible of Charles the Bald, known as the Vivjen Bible (Fig. 21), ^ the mandorla assumes the outline of a figure 8. This change may have been the result of the artist's desire to produce a more symmetrical and harmonious page, but it is more likely due to the exigencies of space inasmuch as the artist has included the figures of the inspired Evange- lists as well as their symbols. In the Bible of Moutier-Grandval the four Major Prophets appear in the corners of the page, but in the Vivien Bible this space is occupied by the seated figures of the Evangelists, and busts of the Prophets are placed at the corners of the enclosing lozenge. The artist could not omit the sjTnbols of the Evangelists, and in order to include them within this enclosing lozenge, as in the Bible of Moutier-Grandval,' he found it necessary to alter the traditional shape of the mandorla to that of a figure 8. Accordingly, we find a composition which shows the final development of the Northumbrian page as illustrated by the Codex Amiatinus. In other respects, however, the Majestas Domini of the Vivien Bible conforms to the traditional Toiu-s type. The Saviour's feet rest on a patch of earth, distinctly shown on the star-covered globe, similar to that of the Bible of Moutier-Grandval; Christ is bearded, as in the Gospels of Lothaire, and the ball or disc held in the blessing right hand is inscribed with the Constantinian monogram. Rheims. A different phase of this evolution appears earlier in the school of Rheims. In fact, nearly all the transitional stages of the globe-mandorla are seen in the Utrecht Psalter, the most important manuscript of this school and written, like the Ebbo Gospels, during the first third of the ninth century after East Christian models. The Logos appears on nearly every page of this manuscript, but of the many types in which He is conceived the only one important for our discussion is that in which the globe and mandorla are used. On some pages the oval mandorla completely surrounds the globe, as in type A of Tours ; on others the mandorla appears to intersect the globe slightly at the base ; and on still others the mandorla not only intersects the globe but is placed behind, rather than around, the enthroned figure, as in Psalm LI (Fig. 22). This last feature is even more 'Beissel, op. cil., pp. 192-3. A very similar inscription was used in the abbey-church of Gorze, dedicated by Chrodegang of Metz on the 11th of July, 765 A. D. The lilulm, as given by Alcuin, read: "Hac sedet arce deus iudex, genitoris imago Hie seraphim fulgent, domini sub amore calentes Hoc inter cherubun vohtant arcana tonantis Hie pariter fulgent sapientes quinque puellae Aeterna in manibus portantes luce lucernas." This liluliis undoubtedly labelled a Majestas Domini and a representation of the Five Wise Virgins (Schlosser Schriftquellen, no. 900). ' '^Beissel, op. cit., p. 188; Berger, op. cit., pp. 215-220. 'Earlier examples of the use of the enclosing lozenge in the school of Tours are shown in the Gospel of Saint- Gauzehn, second quarter of the IX century (Bomet, op. cil., pi. XXVII) and the Bamberg Bible (ibid., pi. XXIX). Fig. 22 — Utrecht, University Library: Utrecht Psalter, Fol. 30. Psalm LI. Fir.st Third IX Century Fig. 23 — Rome, Com-ENT op St. Paul's p. L. M.: Bible of St. Paul's f. l. m., Fol. 256b. A. 869 Fig. 24 — London, Coll. of Mrs. Stuart Mackenzie: Franco-Flemish Painting Reproducing the High Altar of St. Denis, SnowiNii IX-Century C!old Antependium The Art Bulletin. 21 clearly seen in a later Rheims manuscript, the Psalter of Henri le Liberal/ dated about the middle of the ninth century. Here the mandorla is relatively smaller than in any of the Utrecht Psalter versions and is flanked by two angels. St. Denis. The final stage in the evolution of the globe-mandorla was attained in the royal abbey of St. Denis, a school Mr. Albert M. Friend has recently identified with what was formerly knoWn as the "school of Corbie."^ The early art of this school, until the death of the abbot Louis in the year 867, was dominated, as Mr. Friend has shown, by the Franco-Saxon style. After that date, however, Charles the Bald himself became secular abbot, and for the next ten years, until his death in 877, the style reflected in manuscripts, goldsmith's work, ivories, and carved crystal gems was predominantly eclectic, combining elements derived from all the great Carolingian schools, Franco- Saxon, Ada, Tours, and Rheims. This eclecticism was undoubtedly due in large measure to the fact that the library of Charles the Bald, which included manuscripts of the various CaroUngian schools, was deposited at the royal abbey, to which one third of the library was eventually bequeathed. ' In the works of this eclectic school we natually find all three variants of the Majestas which have appeared earher at Tours and Rheims. Type A of Tours, showing the Hellen- istic globe apd the surrounding mandorla, is found in three of the most important St. Denis manuscripts, viz., the Bible of St. Paul's f. 1. m. (before 869) (Fig. 23), the Metz Sacramentary (869)," and the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeran (870).' Each of these manuscripts shows the bearded Saviour, as in the Vivien Bible, and a second page from the Metz Sacramentary shows the beardless type." As in the Tours examples, Christ is seated on a globe which is tangent to the enclosing pointed or oval mandorla and holds the ball of the world in His right hand; but in the Bible of St. Paul's f. 1. m. His feet rest on an Eastern scabellum, an innovation not found at Tours. The iconographic arrangement of the Majestas page in the Bible of St. Paul's f . 1. m. and in the Gospels of St. Emmeran was obviously copied directly from type B of Tours, such as appears in the Bible of Vivien (Fig. 21) . The latter manuscript, which, as we have noted, was the chef d'oeuwe of the school of Tours and belonged to the Ubrary of Charles the Bald, may have been deposited at the abbey of St. Denis between 867 and 869. The Evangelists, Prophets, and enclosing lozenge in Fig. 23 are arranged as in the page from the Vivien Bible, but it is significant that the St. Denis artist has placed the symbols of the Evangelists outside the lozenge and has not copied the figure 8 mandorla. In the Metz Sacramentary the usual Evangehstic symbols are omitted, and we find, instead. Terra, Oceanus, and angels, common iconographic features of St. Denis, which may possibly reflect the influence of the celestial hierarchy of the Pseudo-Dionysus. , The influence of Tours appears again in the gold antependium of the abbey of St. Denis, a monument which was converted by Suger during the twelfth century into a retable for the high altar. Although the retable perished during the French Revolution, its design is preserved by a Franco-Flemish painting now in London (Fig. 24).' In the central compartment the Saviour is seated within a mandorla, which has the figure 8 outline of the Vivien Bible. But the artist has obviously misunderstood the significance ^Ibid., pi. LXXVII. „ T^ . • , . o, J- T cT -re 2A. M. Friend, Carolingian Art in the Abbey of Samt-Dems, in Art Studies, 1, pp. b7-/5. Hbid., p. 72. ^Boinet, op. cit.;ph. CXXXII,'CXXXIII. ^Ibid., pi. CXVI. 'a 'f!i/mgf?e?roduction of this XV-eentury panel painting, which represents The Mass of S. Giles has been publLhed'^bfskCtin Conway, Some Treasures of the t^me of Charles the Bald, in Burhngton Maganne, XXVI, 1914-1915, pp. 236 ff. 22 The College Akt Association of Ameeica. of the 7notif since he has used an Eastern throne instead of a globe as a seat for Christ. The upper half of the mandorla is much larger than the lower, an indication that the artist may have felt some influence from Rheims. A good example of Rheims influence upon the school of St. Denis appears in the Noailles ivory book-cover (c. 869), now in the Bibhoth^que Nationale at Paris. i Here the mandorla is much larger than the globe and intersects it as in the Utrecht Psalter (Fig. 22). But the Saviour's feet rest on an Eastern scabellum, a feature which may have been derived from an earher St. Denis ivoty now in the Metropohtan Museum, New York, an ivory showing not only the Eastern footstool but also an Eastern bolster and other Oriental features.' The presence of Rheims iconography, as well as drapery and figure style, in the school of St. Denis is explained by the close relationship existing be- tween Charles the Bald and Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, who was educated at the abbey of St. Denis.' The final development of the globe-mandorla appears on the masterpiece of the school of St. Denis, the gold book-cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeran (870), now in the State Library at Munich. In the central compartment (Fig. 25) the beardless Saviour is seated on the globe of heaven, as in the previous CaroUngian examples; but the oval mandorla, placed behind the figure, has so diminished in size that the Christ appears to be enthroned at the intersection of the globe and mandorla, the outhne of globe and mandorla forming a figure 8. Further innovations which appear on the gold book-cover of St. Emmeran are the use of a small ball of the earth as a footstool, the introduction of an Eastern bolster, and the four stars in the corners. It is this new iconographic type, appearing in the school of St. Denis in 870, which served as a prototype for all the later variants of the globe-mandorla, with its intersecting circles and ellipses. The abbey of St. Denis was a powerful artistic center not only during the second half of the ninth century, but its influence can be traced during the tenth and eleventh centuries in Northern France, Belgium, Germany, England, Southern France, and Spain. The extent of this influence is clearly demonstrated by the further history of our iconographic type. We shall first examine the diffusion of Tours types A and B, which are also common to St. Denis, and then show the wide expansion of the globe- mandorla type as we have found it perfected on the cover of the Gospels of St. Emmeran. Diffusion of Tours Type A . We have already noted that type A of Tours, in which the mandorla encloses the globe or is tangent to it, appears in manuscripts of St. Denis in the ninth century. During the tenth and eleventh centuries it is found also on ivories and manuscripts in Germany, Belgium, and England. We have it on the St. Nicaise ivory panel from Li^ge (c. 900), now at Tournai,* but the Saviour's feet rest on a rec- tangular footstool or scabellum, an Eastern feature, shown on the Noailles book-cover but not appearing at Tours. The same description applies to an eleventh-century Belgian 'Goldsohmidt, Elfenhemskulpturen, I, pi. XXVIII, fig. 71a. "Illustrated by Joseph Breck, Tivo CaroUngian Ivories, in A. J. A., 1919, XXIII, pp. 394ff., fig. 1. Mr. Breek suggests the Rhenish provinces as the probable place of origin of the Majestas and Virgin and Child ivories in the Metropolitan Museum (p. 397), but Mr. Albert M. Friend has shown that these two ivories are early examples of the school of St. Denis (Two Ivory Book Covers from St. Denis, unpubUshed manuscript; cf. also Manuscripts, Ivories, and Goldwork in the Abbey of St. Denis under the Patronage of Charles II, in A. J. A., 1920, XXIV, pp. 81-82. 'A. M. Friend, Art Studies, I, p. 73. 2fi/- S Fig. 33 — -Zuhich, Municipal Library: M.S. no. C. SO, PL. 83. First Half X Cen- tury Fig. 34 — IIildesheim. Cathedral Li- brary': Gospel I'ook op St. Behn- WARD, FoL. 171. ]Cari,y XI Century Fid. 35 — I-Seussels, Library: Page from MS. of Gregory ofNazianzus. XI Century Fig. 3G Fig- ^7 MoNToiRE, Church of St.-Gilles: Frkscoes in Chapel of St.-Cilles. XII Century The Art Bulletin. 27 oval mandorla is larger than the globe, approximating the transitional version found in the ninth century at Rheims (Fig. 22) and on the Noailles ivory book-cover. This type is less common in the twelfth century than that in which globe and mandorla are nearly equal in size. The mandorla is no wider than the globe in a fresco in the chapel of St.- Gilles at Montoire (Fig. 37) which shows God the Father, with plain nimbus, seated on the upper rim of the globe, without a cushion.' T^e outer band of the globe and man- dorla is covered with stars and surrounded by clouds. An even closer copy of the original St. Denis model is found in an adjacent apse of this chapel at Montoire (Fig. .36). Christ the Son, with a crossed nimbus, is seated on a bolster and His feet rest on a small globe of the earth. This fresco copies almost exactly the central panel on the gold book-cover of St. Enameran (Fig. 25). This rnotif was not restricted during the twelfth century to the Majestas Domini. It was also employed for the Virgin and Child, as shown by the En- throned Virgin above the cloister arch from the church of St. Aubin at Angers.- From Central and Southern France the St. Denis type penetrated into Spain. It is found late in Leon-Castile, where Visigothic script and the Mozarabic style continued in use well into the eleventh century. French influence became dominant especially during the last years of the reign of Alfonso VI of Leon (1065-1109), who substituted the GaUican for the old Mozarabic ritual. The consequent importation of French liturgical manu- scripts brought in the new iconographic themes, which were freely copied by the native Spanish artist-monks. A Castilian version of the French Majestas type is illustrated by a twelfth-century manuscript page now in the Archaeological Museum at Madrid.' The globe-mandorla is similar to that found in the second of the Montoire frescoes mentioned above; the Saviour's feet rest on a patch of earth, indicated by foliate ornament, and the drapery style is based on South French models. The facial type and striped backgrounds are local features peculiar to Spain. French influence was much more powerful in Catalonia, a province which had maintained close relations with Southern and Central France since the ninth century. Accordingly, French iconographic motives appeared much earlier and were more wide- spread in the Marca Hispanica than in the opposite end of the peninsula. This influence is clearly evident in the Catalan manuscript style. In the Apocalyptic Vision of St. John in the Gospel scenes of the Bible of Roda' Christ is shown with the two-edged swords proceeding from the mouth, the seven stars, the seven candelabra, and the double keys (Rev., 1, 16-17; 4, 4). The Saviour is here enthroned sUghtly below the rim of the globe of heaven and He lays His right hand on the head of St. John, who stands at His right. Globe and mandorla form perfect circles of equal size. A similar representation of the Saviour and St. John is found on a twelfth-century page of the Gospels from Sant Miquel de Cuixa, better known as the Perpignan Gospels (Fig. 32). Here St. John stands on the opposite side and offers his Gospel to the Saviour, who is seated on a cushion at the inter- section of globe and mandorla. In another twelfth-century Catalan manuscript (Ripoll B, fol. 299) (cover design of this magazine) a large bolster is employed and the feet rest on a scabellum. On either side is a mitred ecclesiastic, seated under an arch, holding a book in the left hand and pointing with the right toward the enthroned Saviour. Misunderstandings of the St. Denis Type. The foregoing monuments in Spain and Southern and Central France show a fairly faithful adherence to the original ninth-century lAbel Fabre, L'Iconographie de la Penlecdte, Gaz. B. A., 1923, 5e periode, t. VII, pp. 33 ff. ^Porter, Romanesque Sculpture, pi. 1070. ^Illustrated in The Art Bulletin, V, 4, fig. 36. ^Illustrated ibid., fig. 10. 28 The College Art Association of America. St. Denis prototype. However, examples are frequently found in these regions during the eleventh and twelfth centuries which show that the original significance of the globe of heaven was either misunderstood or completely lost. Such a misunderstanding is found on an ivory cover at Berlin (Fig. 41), tentatively assigned by Goldschmidt to the eleventh century and the school of Echternach,' but which may possibly belong to a later school of ivory carvers in Burgundy or Central France. The Saviour does not sit on the upper rim of the globe, but on a wide Eastern throne, with footstool, which the artist has inserted within the circular outUne of the globe. A further innovation is shown in that the globe is supported by two angels. The circular mandorla is borne by inverted angels, a motif which we have already noted in the Psalter of Boulogne (Fig. 27). A similar misuse of throne and globe occurs in a twelfth-century fresco in the vestibule of the abbey church of St.-Savin (Vienne);^ here a frontal Virgin is seated on a large throne, which almost obscures the globe placed behind the figure. Such misunderstood versions in Southern France were readily imitated by the ivory carvers and goldsmiths of Spain. On a twelfth-century Spanish ivory in the Louvre (Fig. 38) a large Eastern throne is employed in the same manner as in the St.-Savin fresco. On a silver book-cover in the Camera Santa at Oviedo (Fig. 39) Christ is not seated on a bolster, placed at the intersection of globe and mandorla, but on a Dagobert throne. Two lamps, symbolic of the Apocalyptic "lamps of fire," are suspended from the mandorla, and Christ's feet rest on a curiously shaped scabellum. The extent to which the original significance of the type could be misunderstood in the twelfth century is shown by a page from a North French or Belgian manuscript (Fig. 42), where the globe-mandorla, sur- rounded by a wide band of fohate ornament, is placed behind the standing figure of a bishop saint. Such misunderstandings as these may possibly revert to ninth-century Carolingian models, since we have already noted that in the Bible of Vivien (Fig. 21) Christ is seated on a globe, surrounded by a figure 8 mandorla,' and that a globe-mandorla encloses an Eastern throne on the central panel of the lost antependium of St. Denis (Fig. 24). _ The most common misunderstanding of the globe-mandorla, which in this case cannot be traced to the Carolingian period, shows the Saviour seated, not on the upper rim of the globe, but on the lower arc of the mandorla. This confusion may have originated in the manuscript schools of Northern France, where we have already noted a tendency to mix iconographic types. On a page in the Gospels from St. Vaast d'Arras (c. 1000), now in Boulogne,'' the Saviour is seated on the lower arc of a pointed mandorla, placed in the center of an arch, and a small globe containing a scabellum is placed below His knees. Whatever the origin of this perverted formula may have been, it was copied so frequently by artists of the tenth and eleventh centuries that it constitutes an almost new iconographic type. One of the earUest preserved examples in sculpture is found on the 'Goldschmidt, op. cit., II, no. .34, p. 24. ^Reproduced in G61is-Didot and LaffiUee, op. cit., pi. 32. The throne on which the Virgin is seated, which curves outward at the back, is apparently a late .survival of a local feature peculiar to this region of Southern France. The same curving back appears on a late Merovingian manuscript of the early IX century from the abbey of Ste.- Croix at Poitiers (Cahier, Nonveaux mManges d'arcMologie, Ivoires, Paris, 1874, p. 112; Beissel, op. cit., pp. 150-151), where the mandorla behind the Majestas produces an effect similar to that shown in the St.-Savin fresco. Greek letters appear on this manuscript and the ultimate source of this feature of curving arms is Eastern. The same type of throne with high back and curving arms is found in Gr. MS. 510 (fol. 67b, Vision of Isaiah), (Omont, Facsimiles des marmscrits grecs, pi. XXV). ^On an Old Testament page in the Bible of Roda (fol. 45), Christ is shown standing in a pointed figure 8 man- dorla (Neuss, Katalanische Bibelillu^tration, fig. 95). "Boulogne, Municiijal Library, MS. no. 9, fol. I {Frieiul Photograph). K y. jX I CO CO f^ The Art Bulletin. 29 lintel of St.-Genis-des-Fontaines, a Catalan relief dated by an inscription 1020-21 (Fig. 40). The Redeemer is seated on the lower edge of the mandorla, and the globe below has diminished to a mere segment of a circle. This segment, or crescent shaped arc, which is only large enough to contain a footstool, breaks out into foliate ornament at the point of intersection with the mandorla. An angel on either side supports both the arc and the mandorla, whereas in earlier monuments the mandorla alone was supported. This clearly shows that the artist considered the whole motif, which approximates a figure 8 in outhne, as a mandorla, and that he has lost all conception of the globe of heaven as a seat. A typical French example is illustrated in Fig. 43, a page from the Bible of St.- Aubin at Angers, not earlier than the end of the eleventh century. The Saviour is en- throned on the lower arc of a broad circular mandorla, which is larger than the globe. Although the artist has confused the iconographic type, the original meaning of the globe has not been lost, as on the St.-Genis lintel. This is again shown on a page of the Catalan Bible of Farfa (Fig. 44), a manuscript which has furnished an example of every type of Majestas Domini that we have thus far studied. In this instance the artist has inserted a bolster at the intersection of the double circles. The persistence of the version through- out the Romanesque period is demonstrated by a late-twelfth-century Limoges enamelled casket in the British Museum (Fig. 45)' where a frontal Virgin with the Child is seated on the mandorla. For our purposes this distorted version of the original St. Denis prototype is especially important, since it explains the motif shown on the two painted antependia in the Barcelona Museum (Figs. 1, 2). In both panels the Saviour sits on the mandorla and not on the upper rim of the globe. In Fig. 1 the globe-mandorla is elliptical, and in Fig. 2 perfect circles are shown. The Saviour's feet rest on a curving arc of the earth, with growing ferns underneath, and His right hand, in Fig. 2, holds the circular disc or ball of the world. The usual symbols of the Evangelists are omitted, but the rosettes in the corners are an obvious reminiscence of the stars found on the gold book-cover of St. Emmeran. The globe-mandorla, however, is identical with that found in such monuments as the Bible of St.-Aubin, the Bible of Farfa, and the Limoges casket. (D) The Ball of the World Bjefore closing our discussion it would be well to call attention to the ball of the world, held in the right hand of Christ in Fig. 2. The presence of this feature on our altar-frontal is further proof of CaroUngian tradition in the Romanesque art of Catalonia, since it is first found in the school of Tours, where it assumes the form of a small sphere or disc, held between the thumb and fourth finger.^ That this object is to be understood as the ball of the world, a symbol of God's power over the universe, controlled and gov- erned by His hand, is supported by a verse of Alcuin, which describes the right hand of God as "Dextera qua'} patris mundum ditione gubernat.^ This interpretation of the 'Acquired in 1851 at the sale of the Sharpe collection, Edinborough, J.-J. Marquet de Vasselot, Les emaux limousins a fond vermicule, Rev. Arch., VI, 1906, reprint, p. 15. 20/ Lothaire Gospels (Boinet, op. cit., pi. XXXI), Gospels of Dufay (ibid., pi. LVI), and the Gospels of Le Mans (fig. 20). ^Alcuini carm. 70 (J. von Schlosser, Schrifiquellen zur Geschichle der karolingischen Kunst, no. 1057, 4, p. 399). The entire sentence reads: Dextera quae patris mundum ditione gubernat, Et natum caehs proprium transvexit in altos. This verse does not refer specifically to the world as a ball or sphere, held in the hand, and may ha,ve been employed to describe merely a blessing hand. In the Gospels of St. Emmeran of Charles the Bald (870) a blessing hand, without the circular object, is surrounded by an inscription almost identical with that quoted above— "dextera haec Patris, mundum dictione gubernans" (Swarzenski, Regensburger Makrei, pi. V, fig. 13, p. 71). However, the absence of the circular object does not affect the significance of the inscription. 30 The College Art Association of America. motif as a ball of the 'world is further strengthened by the Majestas page of the Gerona Beatus (Fig. 31) where the ball is plainly labelled as a world (MUNDUS). Moreover, in the ivory shown in Fig. 41 the object held in the blessing hand is carved as a sphere and not as a disc.i The circular object has also been interpreted as the Host or Eucharistic wafer,^ introduced during the CaroUngian period as a result of the Eucharistic controversy. In 831-833 Radbertus Paschasius, Abbot of Corbie, pubhshed a monograph, De corpore et Sanguine Domini, an exposition and defence of the theory of transubstantiation.' The widespread adoption of the conclusions of Radbertus, that the Eucharistic wafer was the palpable symbol of the flesh and blood of Christ, may have influenced the artist-monks of the school of Tours. Such an interpretation of the sphere or disc is strengthened by the fact that in the Bible of Vivien (Fig. 21) it is inscribed with the Constantinian monogram. In the St. Gall manuscript shown in Fig. 33 a cross appears on the disc,* and on the Majestas page of the Gospel Book of St. Bernward (Fig. 34) Christ holds in His right hand a large circle which contains the Lamb of God. It is not at all improbable that both interpretations were current in the ninth and tenth centuries. The presence of the Constantinian monogram, the cross, and the Lamb would strongly favor the theory of the Eucharistic wafer; the Gerona Beatus, on the other hand, shows clearly that the tenth-century Spanish artist conceived the motif as a ball of the world. For our purposes it is sufficient to note that this typical Tours feature was freely adopted by Spanish artists. It is found not only in the tenth century, as in the Codex Vigilanus and the Codex Aemilianensis (Figs. 29, 30), but also on a Gospel page in the Farfa Bible (Fig. 12),' on the Catalan standard of Sant Od (1095-1122), from La Seo d'UrgeV and on our Barcelona panel. (E) The Globe of the Earth The arc or segment of the earth-globe, filled with growing leaves, which serves as a footstool in both Barcelona panels (Figs. 1, 2), is another feature which is ultimately derived from Carolingian models. An early example of its use is found about the middle of the ninth century in the school of Tours. In the Gospels of Prtim' the arc intersects the globe of heaven, on which the Saviour is seated, and underneath appear stars, clouds, and a large rosette. The presence of the arc in this manuscript may be explained as a late 'Goldsohmidt (op. cit., II, p. 24) describes the sphere as a "Weltkugel." *I owe this suggestion to Mr. A. M. Friend. Leprieur proposes the same explanation (Michel, Hisloire de I'arl, I, p. 364). 'Migne, Pair, lat., 120, coll. 1267-1350; Henry O. Taylor, The Medimval Mind, London, 1914, I, pp. 225ff; Max Manitius, Oeschichte der lateinischen Literalur des Mittelalters, Munich, 1911, pp. 403-404. *The cross appears also on the circular disc held in the blessing hand of the Saviour on the South French manu- script in the cathedral of Auxerre {Gaz. arch., 1887, pi. 20; Mdle, op. cit., fig. 3). The Virgin holds a large baU in her left hand, inscribed with a cross, on a page from an Xl-XII-century manuscript at Cologne, which Beissel terms a " Reichsapfel" (St. Beissel, Oeschichte der Verehrung Marias in Deutschland, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1909, fig. 64, p. 158). In later Ottonian manuscripts the Emperor holds a large ball inscribed with the cross, symbolical of his power and dominion over the world. In this case the ball with the cross cannot but be interpreted as the ball of the world. 'According to Prof. Wilhehn Neuss the circular object (Weltsoheibe) does not signify the wafer but the ball of the world; he quotes an interesting example of its use in the Bible of Roda, where the ball is held in the hand of Noah (Neuss, Katalanische Bibelillustration, p. 42). ''For a reproduction of this standard see Animri, Institut d'Estudis Catalans, VI, frontispiece, pp. 755 ff. Literary notices prove that such standards were employed in the XI century in Catalonia. They were carried before ecclesiastics in church assembUes, were hung behind the altar in parish churches, and were used as a rallying point for citizens in time of war. 'Boinet, op. cit., pi. XXXVI. ■.^'n.iS * - "^ '^.?J''^. Plate xvi 5^ ' J ' j ' l-! ' W m: "m ^^m im m ::sr ^ ^.^.^- ^i-c Fll_i. 40 — bT.-OENlS-DEW-i'OMTAINEK: JjINTEL NMTH CATALAN HeLIEF. UaTEL lOiU-il Fig. 41 — Berlin, Kaiser Fried- rich Museum: Ivory^Re- liquary Cover. XI Century Fig. 42 — New York, Demotte C'oll. : Page from a North French OR BELtiiAN MS. XII Century The Art Bulletin. 31 Hellenistic survival or an Eastern importation.' In the majority of Tours manuscripts, however, the feet rest on a small patch of earth, painted on the lower part of the globe (c/. Fig. 21),2 and in the school of St. Denis a square Eastern scabellum is much more popular. The globe of the earth as a complete circle appears on the gold book-cover of St. Emmeran (Fig. 25), and this version, as we have already noted, spread to other schools subject to French influence.'' The arc as a footstool was employed less frequently in the West Frankish regions of Europe than the complete circle. During the twelfth century, however, the arc is common in Catalonia, as shown by the St. Martin panel from Montgrony," the Gospels of Perpignan,' and a page of the Crucifixion on a Missal in the cathedral of Tortosa." In the last example, a manuscript which shows many Carolingian features, St. John and the Virgin stand on small earth segments, and the arc also appears at the foot of the cross. The use of growing leaves, which in our panels curl slightly at the tips, is similar to that found in the early -eleventh-century Gospel Book of St. Bernward (Fig. 34), where small sprigs cover the segment of the earth. On a page from a twelfth-century manuscript in the Archaeological Museum at Madrid' the arc is not employed, but fohate ornament appears under the feet of the Saviour. (F) Summary Our study of the evolution of the globe-mandorla in the Middle Ages has shown that this motif, which originated during the ninth century, was derived from pre-Carolingian elements. From the Latin globe type, the Eastern mandorla, and the Orientalized Western version of the seventh and eighth centuries the Carohngian artists of Tours and Rheims invented a new formula for the Majestas Domini. Three distinct Carolingian variants appear almost simultaneously, and from these, about the year 870, a new iconographic type evolved in the eclectic school of the royal abbey of St. Denis. The St. Denis globe-mandorla, in which the Saviour is seated at the intersection of globe and mandorla, was not only imitated in Northern France and Belgium, but spread to England, Germany, Southern and Central France, and Spain. During the tenth and eleventh centuries it was chiefly confined to the West Frankish kingdom. In fact, it is especially significant that this version does not appear in Italy,* in the art of Byzantium, or in the fully developed schools of Ottonian illumination which shoW a strong Byzantine strain. As the early Latin globe type was restricted to Italy and to regions which came under Italian influence, so the St. Denis globe-mandorla was confined to Capetian France and to those schools which came directly or indirectly under French influence. 'An arc or segment of a circle is found on Early Christian sarcophagi, as shown by the Junius Bassus sar- cophagus, where a Caelus holds a semicircular veil above his head as a footstool for the enthroned Christ (De Waal, Sarcophag des Junius Bassus, Rome, 1900, frontispiece). The use of a curving arc as a footstool has already been noted in the Byzantine mosaic of the Ascension in the church of Hagia Sophia at Salonika, a feature frequently repeated in later Byzantine versions of the Majestas Domini. ^Cf. also Gospels of Lothaire (Boinet, op. cit., pi. XXXI); Bible of Moutier-Grandval (ibid., pi. XLV). 'The complete circle as a footstool is found in the school of St. Gall (fig. 33), Cologne, Belgium (fig. 35), England and Northern France (fig. 26), in French frescoes of the XII century (fig. 36), and in Catalonia (Theoria Ms., Barcelona, Crown Archives, The Art Bulletin, V, 4, fig. 14). An early and unusual example of the complete circle appears on a IX-century I5oulogne manuscript where the circular globe is filled with human heads (Boulogne, Municipal Library, MS. no. 106, fol. lb.). *The Art Bulletin, V, 4, fig. I. ^Ibid., fig. 16. 6/6irf., fig. 33. Ubid., fig. 36. 'During the Xll-century, however, French inconographic types occasionally penetrated into Italy. The Saviour is seated within a figure 8 mandorla, of the Vivien Bible type, on a stone altar-frontal at Bardone (Venturi, Storia, III, fig. 116). 32 The College Art Association of America. The extent and power of French influence in Western Europe from the ninth through the twelfth century is clearly shown by the number of Carolingian globe-mandorla variants found in Spain. Confused and misunderstood versions of the Tours types have been noted in the Mozarabic manuscripts of the second half of the tenth century (Codex Vigil- anus, Aemilianensis, Gerona Beatus). The St. Denis version, on the other hand, does not appear in Leon-Castile until the twelfth century, when its use becomes widespread in manuscripts, ivories, and goldsmith's work. It is thus a relatively late importation into the Old Kingdom, whereas it was found at least a century earlier in Catalonia. The frequency with which the St. Denis version was employed, although often in a misunder- stood form, on Catalan monuments of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (lintel of St.- Genis-des-Fontaines, Bible of Farfa, RipoU manuscript. Gospels of Perpignan, Barcelona antependia) is a striking proof of the powerful influence of French iconography on the art of the Marca Hispanica. Yet Spain was not dominated solely by the art of Carolingian France. Itahan influence is clearly evident in the use of the Hellenistic globe type (Bible of Farfa, Gerona Homilies of Bede) ; Eastern influence is shown in the use of the Byzantine rainbow arch (Ascension, Bible of Farfa); and the Orientahzed Western version, common elsewhere during the seventh and eighth centuries, appears as late as the year 900 in the school of the Asturias (Morgan Beatus). Thus, nearly every mediaeval formula for the Majestas Domini is found in the Iberian peninsula. In fact, three of these, the Latin globe, the Byzantine rainbow arch, and the St. Denis globe-mandorla, each derived from a different source, appear simultaneously on the pages of the same Catalan manuscript, the Bible of Farfa. Our study of these mediaeval versions of the Majestas Domini therefore serves a two-fold purpose. It not only explains the globe-mandorla in our Barcelona panels (a misunderstood variant of the St. Denis prototype); it also shows the source of other Majestas types which appear jn the art of Catalonia and Leon-Castile. The frequent use of such a variety of iconographic types demonstrates the eclectic and derivative character of mediaeval Spanish painting. Plate xmi Fig. 43 — A.ngeh,'^, Bihl. dk la ^'^,LE: Bihle of St.-Auhi.\ d'Angeks, P^uls. 207 AND 20S. XI C'ENTrnv FiC4. 44 — Rome, \ atkws Li- buary: Page from the Biule of Farfa. Cod. Vat. Lat. ."jT^G. XI Century Fig. 45 — London, British Museum: Limoges Enamelled Casket. Late XII Century