: " >>§^0M)^^ii^:' <:;; . V CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library arV14212 Analysis of the English language: gramma 3 1924 031 302 999 olin,anx Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031302999 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. LONDOK": PBINTED BY SPOTTIbWOODl! AND CO.. NllW-STBKET SQUARE AND PAELIAMEMT STUElif ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. PART I. GEAMMAB. PAET II. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. PART III. PRAXIS. Containing (1) A SYSTEMATIC COtmSB OF EXAMINATION-QUESTIONS ; (ii) ALL THE QITESTIONS ON GEAMMAE AND ETYMOLOGY PROPOSED AT THE -WOOLWICH COMPBTITIVB EXAMmATIONS EEOM 1864 TO 1869; fiii) THE PAPERS SET AT THE OXPOED AND CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATIONS FOR SEVEN YEARS. l!1PLANT FLEMING, M.A. B.C.L. NEW EDITION. LONDON : LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO, 1872. CORNE UNIVERSITY V 5 Q O A PREFACE. Thi8 ' Analysis of the English Language ' is intended as a brief, simple, and systematic introduction to the works of Angus, Latham, and Marsh. Perhaps, at the present time, no subject possesses more Educational importance than the study and practice of Method.* To meet, in this direction, a want extensively felt, no less than to counteract in the mind of the student imcertainty and confusion, special prominence has been given to Definition and Classification. Examples of Syntactical Rules might have been multi- plied to any extent, but the bulk of the work would have been seriously increased at a sacrifice o{ perspicuity . The Second Part embraces, in twenty chapters, those words most likely to occur in general reading. The Saxon element has been carefully referred to the authority of Bosworth and Eask; for, of late years, several Saxon words of dubious origin have crept into existence. «" To promote this desirable object, Logic might receive some encouragement in the Public Examinations as a collateral branch of English. Until this be the case, Grammar may in some degree be made to supply its place. VI PREFACE. Upon the subject of Derivation, tJie works of Wedgwood and Richardson have been principally consulted; and in cases of disputed etymology, two or three of the most plausible conjectures have been offered. In Pakt III., to a systematic course of Examination Questions two series have been appended, to illustrate the tone and requirements of the Public Competitive Examina- tions. One contains a complete list of all the questions on English Grammar and Etymology proposed at the Comper titive Examinations for admission to the Eoyal Military Academy, Woolwich, from their commencement (1854) to the present time. The other is a collection of the Papers set at the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations during a period of seven years. A comparison of these two styles of examination will suggest several reflections ; one especially, the notable absence from the former of Parsing and Analysis, which constitute so prominent a feature of the latter. ToNBEiDGE Castle : October 1, 1869. CONTENTS. Pakt L— GKAMMAR. CHAP. I. Definitions and Gloss art Note A on the Definitions p. 230) II. § 1. Ihtkoduotoet § 2. Word according to Form. Observations on the Letters § 3. Spelling § i. Accent (see also Appendix II. § 5. Word according to Meaning Table of the Parts of Speech in. The Noun : § 1. Definition and Classification § 2. Noun according to Meaning § 3. Noun according to Strticture § 4. Number .... § 5. Gender .... § 6. Case .... IV. The Adjective : § 1. Definition and Classification . § 2. Adjective according to Meaning (Articles) PAOK 1 9 10 13 14 16 17 18 19 20 20 23 29 33 37 vm CO^TTENTS. § 3. Adjective according to Formation and Meaning § i. Adjective according to Structure § 5. Comparison ...... V. The Pkonoun : § 1. Definition and Classification . § 2. Pronoun according to Meaning § 3. Pronoun according to Structure § 4. Accidents of the Pronoun Observations VI. The Veee : § 1. Definition and Classification. § 2. Explanation of the Classification § 3. Conjugation ...... § 4. Conjugation of the Verb in the Active Voice § 5. Conjugation of the Verb in the Passive Voice § 6. Auxiliary Verbs. .... Conjugation of the Verb ' To Be ' Analysis of the Auxiliary Verbs General Kemarks . VII. The Adveeb : § 1. Definition and Classification , § 2. Adverb according to Meaning § 3. Adverb according to Structure § 4. Comparison of Adverbs . VIII. The Preposition : § 1. Definition and Classification. § 2. Preposition according to Meaning and Structure IX. The Conjunction: § 1. Definition and Classification .... § 2. Conjunction according to Meaning . § 3. Conjunction according to Structure G-eneral Remarks ... ... PAGE 39 40 41 45 46 49 50 52 63 54 68 60 63 64 65 66 68 70 71 72 73 75 76 77 78 79 80 CONTENTS. IX SYNTAX. CHAP. PAGE I. PeOPOSITION AOCOEDINO to liOOIO . . .... 82 n. Sentences (Proposition according to Grammar) .... 86 III. Paesinq 89 Parsing Scheme 91 IV. Genbeal La-ws of Syntax 92 V. Special EtjI;Es: § 1. The Nominative 92 § 2. The Genitive 94 § 3. The Dative 95 § 4. The Accusative 95 § 8. The Adjective 97 § 6. The Articles 98 § 7. The Pronouns ....... 100 § 8. Relatives 100 § 9. The Verb ...... . 101 § 10. The Participle 103 §11. Succession of Tenses .... . . 103 § 12. General Remarks 104 § 13. Conjunctions, Prepositions, Adverbs .... 104 VI. Figures op Speech 106 VII. Cautions and Ceiticisms: § 1. Usage ... 109 §2. Grammatical Purity Ill §3. Cautions &n& Critioal Bemarks . . . . 112 (i). The Adverb 112 (ii). The Adjective 113 (iii). The Article 113 (iv). Pronouns 114 X CONTENTS, CHAP. PAGE (t). Eelative 115 (Ti). The Verb .116 (vii). Conjunctions, Prepositions 117 (viii). Collocation ofWords 117 § 4. Proper Usage of certain Words . . . . 118 § 5. Critical Eemarks . ,124 (i). "VYords 124 (ii). Phrases 128 Appendix I. List of Strong Verbs 132 Appendix n. Eedimdant Verbs. 135 paet II.— etymological deeivations. I. Inflexions : § 1. Nonns 136 1. Cases 136 2. Gender 136 3. Number 137 4. Diminutives 137 5. Augmentatives ..... 137 6. Patronymics 137 7. General Noun Terminations 138 8. Classical and Norman French Terminations . . 138 § 2. Adjectives 139 1. Terminations (Saxon) . . . . . .139 2. Chief Classical Terminations . . . . .139 3. Plurals . 140 4. Comparative and Superlative Affixes . . 140 5. Irregular Comparisons 140 6. Numerals 141 CONTENTS. XI § 3. Pronouns Pronominal Adverbs I 4. The Verb 1. Principal Prefixes, . 2. Inflexions 3. Diminutire Verbs . 4. Intensive Verbs 5. Causative Verbs 6. Frequentative Verbs 7 . Inceptive Verbs 8. The Verb ' To Be ' . 9. Auxiliary Verbs Pronunciation of Saxon II. Conjunctions .... III. Pebpositions . IV. Advebbs, &c V. Abstract deeived Nouns: 1. Nouns ending in ' d' or ' n ' 2. Nouns ending in ' th ' VI. SiXON EooTS Vn. SOUECES OF "WOBDS VIII. Geogkaphical Words: § 1. Eoman . § 2. Saxon . _ . , . § 3. Celtic § 4. Scandinavian .... § 5. Places showing Norman Occupation IX. Names of Colonies, Fobeion Places, &c, Geographical Equivalents X. Words derived from Names op Places XI. Words derived from Names of Persons Xll CONTENTS. CHAP. ^^^^ Xn. NiMES OF THE MoNTBB, Dats, &e. : § 1. Months and Days 181 § 2. The Winds 182 § 3. The Passions 182 § i. The Colours 183 Xin. Paets of the Body 183 Xrv. Names of Weights akb Measttees 184 XV. Titles 186 XVI. MrLiTAET Terms 188 XVII. Ecclesiastical Teems 192 XVni. Political Teems 195 XIX. Peculiae Woeds 206 XX. Words m common use with obscuee Deeitations . . 210 Appendix I. Latin and Greek Prefixes ...... 226 Appendix II. Words ■which change their Meaning with their Accent 230 Pakt III.— PEAXIS. General QtiESTiONS 232 Woolwich Competitivb Examinations. Dr. Dasent 251 Eev. W. Stehbing 261 EeT. E. C. Trench 272 Oxford Local Examinations: Junior Candidates 275 Senior Candidates _ 283 Cambeidge Local Examinations: JnnioT Candidates ... 292 Senior Candidates goi LANGUAGE IS THE I A Single Thought A WOED Expresses names of Objects or Qualities Ascribes Attributes Noun Pkonoun I According to Meaning According to Stnieture Substantive I Adjective Person. Eeflect. Indef. Poss. Demons. Eelat. Eeflect. Eecipr. Distrib. Indef. Inter. Proper Common Abstract I I I Primitive iKriTi^d Compound I 1 ' I Weak According to Meaning Strong Definitive Q,ualitative Quantitative Propriate Diminutives Augmentatives Patronymics Ojfire Slale Condition Profession . — *tr. ttc. According to Structure Simple Derived Compomd According to Formation and Meaning Proper Common Numeral Pronominal Participial Compovmd .•nnsi Sas * Verb Impersonal I Personal according to I Adverb I according to tRBBy^ JUQSf •I Quality Eelaiion Form Meaning Origin Conjunctive Simply Attributive till Time Place Degree Quality or Quantity Noun,s PronoMs AdjeL THE EXPRESSION OF [ To face page xiii. ibutes Adjectite and Inter. to 1 Compound ial Compound I Incomplete Thought A PHEASE Complete Thought A SENTENCE Grammatical I . Idiomatic Related Absolute Simple Complex Principal Clause Subordinate I Noun Sentence Adjective Sentence Adverb Sentence Compound (consists of Coordinate Clauses) o ^- TTi \ f Connective Disjunctive Adversative Illative (Alternative) Expresses Relations between Words Pebposition I according to Conjunction according to Expresses Peeling rather than Thought Inteejection Structure „ J. ^. I . .1 I I I ~l I Position Direction Time Cause Degree Simple Compound Verbal or Agency Coordinate Subordinate Simple Derived Compound I I Derived Compound ^ from Connective Disjunctive Alternative Adversative Illative Time PlL Degree or Manner oLse n 7\ . ^ ronotins Adjectives PARTS OF SPEECH. XIU TABLE I. pAKTS OF Speech. — After Morell. WORDS express I Notions Relations I I I Substantive Attributive Between Between Words Assertions. (Preposition) (Conjunction) Noun Pronoun With an Without an Secondary Assertion Assertion Attribute. (Verb) (Adjective) ■ (Adverb) Extra grammatical utterance — Interjection, TABLE U. Pabts of Speech. — From the Suggestions of Home Tooke, WORDS are Necessary Convenient I for abbreviation and despatch I II I . .1 . Noun Verb Adverb Preposition Conjunction. I Substantive Adjective Pronoun. XIV PARTS OF SPEECH. Ph P- Ph o ^ ID &) PM i-i o .^ •n oi g; ^ ti ^ la I 'Sb — ' H h^ P4 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER I. DEFINITIONS AND GLOSSABY. Abstract Nova— vide infra, Noun. Accent — is the stress laid on a syllable in a word. Accidence — that department of Etymology which treats of the Grammatical inflexions of words. Accident — the ' property ' of an individual, not of a class. Adjective — a word added to a noun to qualify it. (i) DEFiNrriVB — distinguishes a noun from its class. (ii) QuAriTATiTE — marks the peculiarities of a thing with reference to its Qualities, or supposed Qualities. (iii) QiTA^rriTAiryE — distinguishes things according to their number. (iv) Common — any ordinary epithet or adjectire denoting quality. (v) Phoper — an Adjective formed from a Froper Novn. (vi) Ntimbral — an Adjective that expresses a definite Number. (vii) Caebinal — shows the number of things taken. (Tiii) Oruinai, — shows the order in which they are taken. (ix) MuLTrpLicATrrE — shows how many times one thing exceeds another. (x) Pbonominai, — is one that may either accompany a noun or repre- sent it. (xi) Paeticipiai — a participle used as an Adjective, i.e. without the notion of Time. Adverb — a word joined to a verb or any Attribntire, to denote some modification, degree, or circumstance of the expre.ssed Attribute. L ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Antecedent — a word going before, to which a Relative refers. Art — an applied Science. AitTiCLE — a Definitive Adjective — (i) used generally with nouns to limit their signification, (ii) from Articulus, a joint, 'a small part or portion of the entire limb,' hence, metaphorically, a small, but critical part of the entire signification. Augmentative — a word formed by the addition of a suffix, which has the efi'ect of increasing or intensifying the signification. Barbarcsm — a ' slang term,' an offence against the vocabulary of a language. Case * — a grammatical form expressive of the relation of nouns and pronouns to other words — expressive of dependent relation. Nominative — or ' name case,' denotes the sovirce of the action. Genitive — possessive relation. Dative — receptive or locative relation. Accusative — objective relation. Ablattve — instrumental, modal or causal relation. Categorical — absolute, without a condition. Common Noun — vide Noun. Comparison — of Adjectives and Adverbs means a variation in them to express quality in different degrees. (i) Positive — is an Adjective in its simple state. (ii) CoMpAEATivE — An Adjective is said to be in the Comparative de- gree when on comparing two objects or classes it expresses rela- tively an increase or diminution of the quality. (iii) Superlative — An Adjective is said to be in the Superlative degree, when on comparing more than two objects or classes it expresses the limit of the increase or diminution of the quality. Composition — the process of word formiition by adding whole words to whole words. Compound — a word formed by adding words, each possessing a distinct signification. — a combination of two or more words, each retaining its own signification. * See note A, p. 8. DEFINITIOXS AND GLOSSARY. 3 Conjunction — a word connecting clauses. Conjugation — a connected view of the inflexions of a verb. Consonant — a letter that cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel. Copula — what connects, or expresses the agreement and disagree- ment of, subject and predicate. Coordinate — of equal rank or position ; applied to the members of a compound sentence, and to the conjunctions which connect them. Correlative — terms mutually related, which explain each other, and are not able to exist, but together. Diminutive — a word formed by adding to the primitive a suffix which signifies ' little,' and has the effect of diminishing or weakening the signification. Dipththong — two vowels sounded together. Distrip.utive — a word taken for all and for each of the things signified by it. Declension — the deviation of the oblique cases fi:om the nomina- tive or true noun. Definition — an explanatory sentence. Defective — wanting some of its parts. Derivation-— the process of word formation by modifying the letters of the root, or by adding thereto prefixes or suffixes. Derivative — a word formed from another by the modification of its letters, or by the addition of an affix. (i) Pbimakt — is a word formed direct from the root. (ii) Seconbabt — ^is a word formed from a ' primary derivative.' Emphasis — is the stress laid on a word in a sentence. Etymology — is that part of Grammar which treats of the true matter or meaning and form of words. Factitive Verb — see Verb. Figure of Speech — a peculiar form of expression. Gender "* — a grammatical form expressive of class or sex. Gerund — a verbal noun — ' a carrying on or performing' — ' the im- » See note A, p. 8. b2 4 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. perfect participle generalized, and denoting not an object being or doing, but the mere fact of being or doing.' Grammae — the Principles -which guide language form the Science of Gbammae. As an Art Grammar is concerned with the right use in speech or writing of Rules deduced from these principles. Government — is the power one word has to regulate another. Hypothetical — vide Peoposition. Idiom — an expression peculiar to a language. Impersonal Verb — vide Verb. Impropeiett — a grammatical error offending against Etymology. Inflexion — the variation of words in termination due to number, gender, case, degree, &c. Intention — the mode in which the mind views any outward object of thought. Interjection — a word expressing y'eeZzn^' and not thought. Irregular Verb — vide Verb. Lettee — the sj'mbol of a sound. (i) Mute — a letter that cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel, (ii) LiauiD — a letter that combines most easily with others. ■Metre — is the measured arrangement of words in a verse. is the combination of syllables similarly affected. Mood — a grammatical foi-m expressing the manner of an action. Noun— the name of any object of sense or subject of thought. (i) PfioPEE Noun — is the name of any individual person, place, or thing, (ii) Common Nottn — is a name common to all individuals of the same class — ' the name of a distributed conception.' (iii) Aesteact Noun — is the name of anything which we only conceive of in our minds as having a real independent existence, (iv) Collective Noun — is the name of a class in which the idea of Unity is prominent — ' of an undistributed conception.' (v) Noun of Multitude — is the name of a class in which the idea of dumber is prominent, (vi) Peopeute — expresses some special notion or character aifecting the meaning of the original word. DEFINITIONS AND GLOSSAEY. 5 Number * — is a grammatical form expressing one, or more than one, of the things indicated by the name. (i) SiNGULiE — expresses one. (ii) Plueal — expresses more than one. Obsolete — out of use. Orthoepy — the art of correct pronunciation. Orthography — the art of correct spelling. Particle — a small indeclinable word. Participle — a word partaking the functions of the Adjective and Verb — a ' verbal Adjective.' Paragraph — a section of discourse nearly related to preceding parts. . Passive — vide Voice. Person* — a, grammatical form expressive of distinctive relation: i.e. distinguishes the speaker, the hearer, and person or thing spoken of. Paraphrase — an amplified version of any discourse. Phrase — two or more related words not making a complete ex- pression of thought. Predicate — (^Logically) that which is asserted of the subject. {Grammatically) = copula + attribute. Preposition — a word connecting other words, and expressing a relation between them. Peonodn — a word used instead of a noun. (i) PeesonaI; — simple substitute for the name of a Person or Thing. (ii) EEFLExrvE — denotes the same person or thing as the person or thing spoJcen of. (iii) Indefinite — represents a noun without specifying any individual, (iv) Demonsteativb — points out the object to which it refers. (v) Possessive — is a substitute for the possessive. case of the Personal Pronoun. (vi) Eklativb — in addition to being a substitute for the name of. a per- son or thing refers to something gone before, and so connects the parts of the sentence together. (vii) Inteeeoqative — asks a question. * See note A, p. 8. b ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (viii) DiSTEiBTTTrrE — represents a noun, and at the same time tnore than one iTtdividual of the class, (ix.) Eeciphocai. — expresses mutual feeling and action. Peoposition — is an asserting sentence {Logically). — is the asserting part of a sentence {Grammatically). (i) Categoeicax — asserts absolutely, i.e. without a condition, (ii) Htpothbtioai. — asserts with a condition. Prosody — is that part of Grammar which treats of Ehyme, Ehythm, Metre, and Accent. Quantity — is the length or brevity of a vowel sound. Redundant — more than necessary. EffSME — the recurrence of similar final sounds. Ehythm — the harmonious arrangement of words. EooT — a word reduced to its simplest form. Sentence — a complete expression of thought. (i) Simple Sentence — has one Predicate. (ii) Complex Sentence — has two or rruire Predicates, one principal and the others dependent or subordinate. (iii) CoMPOxiND Sentence — consists of two or Tnore principal or coordi- nate assertions. Solecism — (jtoXoikiitjios) Soloi, a colony of Cilicia, corrupted the pure Attic Greek, hence — ' a grammatical error violating the laws of Syntax.' Subjunctive — a mood or word subjoined, or conditionally depen- dent on a preceding mood, word, or clause. Strong — a term applied to a tense, number, &o., retaining the same form as the primitive word, or derived from it by a radical change. Subordinate — of inferior or dependent position, applied to some members of a complex sentence and to the conjunctions which connect them. Syllable — a simple vowel sound, with or without one or more consonants. Syntax — that part of Grammar which treats of the right arrange- ment of words in a sentence. Tense — a grammatical form expressive of the time of an action. DEFINITIONS ANB GLOSSAET. 7 Tersi — really the extreme of a proposition; now, a ' word limited to a particular signification.'' Theory — the principle that accounts for a classification of facts. Verb — the principal word in a sentence. (v) Substantive Verb — asserts what things are. (ii) Impersonal Verb — ^has no clear source of action expressed, (iii) Unipersonal — has the source of the action represented hy It. (iv) Tbansitite — passes the action on to an object, (v) Intransitive — is one in which tlie action ceases with the verb, (vi) AuxiLiAET — assists other verbs in the formation of Voice, Mood, and Tense. (vii) Regular, or weaJc — forms its past tense by adding t, d, or ed, to the present. (viii) Irregular, or strong — forms its past tense from the present by a radical change, or retains the same form for both. (ix) Kedundant — has more than one form for the past tense, or perfect participle, or both. (x) Defective — is used only in some tenses and moods, (xi) Eeflectxvb — has the same person for object and subject, (xii) Causative — denotes the action or situation as being caused or effected in an object, (xiii) Intensive — strengthens the meaning, (xiv) Diminutive — lessens or weakens the meaning, (xv) Inceptive — expresses the commencement of an action, or a change of state. (xvi) FKBauENTATiVE — expresses the repetition of an action, (xvii) Factitive — signifies to make, to appoint, (xviii) Personal — one that has a subject in the first, second, or third person. Vowel— a letter that has a full open sound. Voice a grammatical form expressive of a state of doing or suffering. (i) Active — expresses a state of doing, (ii) Passive — expresses a state of suffering. (iii) Middle — expresses neither the act of an agent nor the suffering of an object. Weak — 2. term applied to a tense, number, &c., derived from thfi primitive word by the addition of a suffix. •^oRD — the sign or symbol of a thing or thought. consists of a syllable or combination of syllables possessing a distinct signification. AISTALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Note A. In his ' Grammar of Grammars,' Goold Brown defines 'Modifications' to mean ' inflections or changes in the terminations, forma, or senses of some kinds of words.' He then gives the following definitions : — ' Noims have modifications of four kinds, viz. Persons, Numters, Genders, and Cases.' ' Pronouns have the same modifications as Nouns.' ' Verts have modifications of four kinds, viz. Moods, Tenses, Persons, and Numbers.' ' Numbers in Grammar are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality;' ' Genders in Grammar are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex.' ' Cases in Grammar are modifications that distinguish the relations of Nouns and Pronouns to other words.' With respect to Gender, Latham writes : — ' as terms to be useful must be limited, it may be laid down as a sort of definition that there is no gender where there is no affection of the declension ; consequently, that, although we have ia English words corresponding to ' genitor' and ' genitrix,' we have no true gen- der until we find words corresponding to dominus anddomina.' — Vol. ii. p. 15i, English Language. Again, with reference to Case, he observes: — • In order to constitute a ease there must be not only a change of form, but also a change of meaning. There is no change of case unless there be a change of form.' — Vol. ii. p. 173. Of Numbers, he says : — ' They are restricted to Nouns and Pronouns.' Most Grammarians adopt these or similar definitions, which limit Number, Gender, Case to infiexions or variations in the forms of words. Such definitions do not suit our language. The following facts strongly op- pose them. 1. Many words, deer, sheep, trout, salmon, &c., have the same form for both singular and plural. 2. Adjectives have no inflections whatever for nimiber, gender, case; yet are said to agree with nouns in number, gender, and case. 3. Verbs have no inflexions to distinguish the first person singular, and the three persons plural, &c. 4. We can ascertain the gender of such words as parent, child, &c., only by their grammatical relation to other words. 5. A large class of nouns indicate gender by compounds ; such as ' he-goat,' ' she-goat.' 6. Another class distinguish sex by a totally different word ; as, bull, cow. 7. We have no infiexions to distinguish the nominative from the objective case, yet all admit we have an objective case. Grammatical Belation, and not any 'peoidiarity of form, enables us to dis- tinguish the one from the other. INTR0DT7CT0RY. 9 Thus, as has teen -well said, ' Gender, Number, and Case are very imperfectly shown in our language by inflexions' Logic teaches us that the first great requisite of a correct definition is, ' thai it should be adeguate ; ' and, as Whately remarks, ' it should admit no arbitrary exceptions' The question is simply to reconcile such facts with the requirements of Logic. If Logic and Grammar are at variance, Grammar must give way. This reconciliation will be easily effected by altering the ' genus ' of these definitions, and selecting one more suitable and more exact. Such a 'genus' is found in the expression grammatical form. It is sufficiently comprehensive to embrace the peculiarities above-mentioned, whether of number, or gender, or case, indicated as they may be by variation of termination, by change of form, by compounds, or by grammatical relation. It will enable us also with more propriety to make use of certain classical terms which we cannot altogether afford to dispense with. Dr. Angus has a very appropriate remark on this subject, he says : — ' Strictly speaking, therefore, Number, Case, Gender are, as applied to words, grammatical forms expressive of the number, the condition, or relation to some- thing else named in the sentence, and the sex of the things to which the words, whether nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or verbs, are applied.' — Handbook of the English Tongue, p. 148. CHAPTER II. § 1. INTEODUCTORT. 1. Language is the expression of Thought. 2. The Expression of a single Thought is called a Word ; of incomplete thought, a Phrase ; of complete thought, a Sentence. 3. The Principles by which Language is guided form the Science of Grammar. As an Art, Grammar is concerned with the right application (in speech and writing) of Btiles deduced iirom these Principles. 4. The difference between an Art and a Science is this : — A Science concerns itself with Principles alone. To an Art three things axe requisite, (i) Principles ; (ii) Rules deduced from these Principles ; (iii) Production. Hence an Art is defined to be an Applied Science. 10 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5. Grammar is divided into three parts, (i) Etymology, (ii) Syn- tax, (iii) Prosody. (i) Etymology is that part of Grammar which treats of the true matter or meaning and form of words. (ii) Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of the right arrangement of words in a sentence. (iii) Prosody is that part of Grammar which treats of Accent, Metre, Rhyme, and Rhythm. § 2. WOED ACCORDING TO FORM AND MEANING. Word according to Form. 1. A Word, according to its form, is either simple or compound. 2. A Simple Word possesses a distinct meaning, and consists of one or more syllables. A Compound Word is a combination of two or more simple words. 3. A Syllable consists of one or more letters possessing one vowel sound. A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable. A Dissyllable „ two syllables. A Trisyllable „ three syllables. A Polysyllable „ more than three syllables. 4. A Letter is the symbol of a sound. Letters are divided into 2 classes ; Vowels, and Consonants. (i) A Vowel is a full, open sound. The vowels are 5, a, e, i, 0, u. (ii) A Consonant is a letter which cannot be sounded with- out the aid of a vowel. (iii) The Consonants are divided into : (a) Liquids, so called because they most easily combine with other letters : I, m, n, r. (b) Mutes, because they cannot be sounded at all without a vowel. (iv) W, Y are called Semivowels ; X, J, double Consonants. (v) W and Y are called Consonants when they precede a vowel in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, yet, INTRODUCTORY. 11 — E o & fe i o §^ -1^ cu ■ H 5 s s s P4 - O 13 we 2 bo o ^ J3 I 12 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. youih : in all other cases these letters are vowels ; as in Ystadt, newly, dewy. (vi) Diphthongs consist of two vowels sounded together. Generally, the sound is that of a single vowel, but in some cases they have a sound of their own ; as House, new. These are called proper diphthongs. When only one of the vowels is sounded, the diphthong is called improper ; as, oa in loaf, eo in people. The diphthongs in English are 29 ; embracing all but 6 of the 35 possible combinations of two vowels. The six rejected are ii, iu, iw, iy, uu, uw. Ten of these diphthongs being variously sounded may be either proper or improper : to wit, ay, ie, oi, ou, , ua, ue, ui, uo, uy. The proper diphthongs appear to be 13 : ay, ia, ie, io, oi, ou, ow, oy, ua, ue, ui, uo, uy, of which combinations only 3, ia, io, and oy are invariably of this class. (vii) Tkiphthongs consist of 3 vowels sounded together, as buoyant. When all the vowels are sounded the triphthong is called proper ; as uoy in buoy. When only one or two of the vowels are sounded the triphthong is called improper; as eau in beauty. t The only proper triphthong in English is uoy, as in buoy, buoyant, unless uoi in quoit may be considered a parallel instance. The improper triphthongs are 16. 5. The whole system of Letters may be thus represented in tabular form : LETTERS I Vowels 1 1 CONSONAMTS 1 {a, e, i, 0, u) Semi 1 Mutes Liquids {I, m, n, r) LABLiXS Dentals {d,t,s) Gutturals H — is simply a breathing, possessing no articulate sound of its own. INTKODUCTOEY. 13 Observations on the Letters. 6. Labials axe those letters we pronounce with the ' lips ; ' Den- tals — with the ' teeth ' ; Gutturals — with the ' throat.' 7 (i) C is soft like s before c, j', y, as cell, civil, cymhal ; ex- cept in sceptic, Cymry (pronounced Cutnru). c is hard like k before a, o, u, r, I, t. It has the sound of sh in some words ; as, social. (ii) F is pronounced uniformly, except in of and its com- pounds, when it is pronounced like v. (iii) G is soft before e, i, y ; hard before a, o, u, n, I, r. {iv) s is sometimes sharp, as in sing ; flat, as in raisin ; zh, or sh, as in pleasure ; silent,- as in island. (v) TH has two sounds : sharp, as in thin — flat, as in these. These two sounds were represented by the symbols )> — th, and ^—dh, in Anglo-Saxon. (vi) X has the sound of ks, as in exercise, gs as in exertion, z as in Zenophon. (vii) z has the sound of flat s, as in zehra : of flat sh, as in azure. 8. There are 42 elementary sounds in the English Alphabet, and 26 letters. A perfect alphabet requires : — (i) A single sign for every simple sound. (ii) No sound should have more than one sign. (iii) No sign should represent more than one sound. (iv) Similar sounds should be represented by similar signs. 9. Viewed by these tests the English alphabet is uncertain, incon- sistent, erroneous, deficient, redundant. 10. These defects are remedied by various expedients, such as : (i) Lengthening a vowel by adding a final e, mute, as bit, bite. (ii) Shortening a voivel by doubling the next consonant, as carry. (iiit Adding h to mark the aspirates of p, t, s. ]4 AliTALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 3. Spelling. 1. Spelling is the arrangement of letters in a word. 2. Orthography is the art of correct spelling. 3. The anomalies of English spelling are influenced by : (i) The deficiencies and uncertain sounds of our alphabet, (ii) The variety and copiousness of our words taken from various sources, and necessarily connected by tneir spelling with their roots, (iii) The necessity of distinguishing words of like sound, but of different meaning. 4. Rules for Spelling : (i) Vowels. (a) Final E. Words ending in e mute generally — — retain it before additions that begin with a conso- nant ; as, paleness. Exc. : Awful, duly, truly, wholly. — omit it before additions that begin with a vowel ; as, curable. Exc. : After v, c, and G soft it is retained ; as, changeable. After dg it is generally omitted ; a.i, judgment. Before ous it becomes i ; as, gracious. (b) Diphthongal sounds of e are spelt ei in derivatives from capio ; as, receive : otherwise in ie ; as, believe. (c) Final Y — remains unchanged before additions : — in simple words preceded by a vowel, — in true compounds, except before ing and ish ; as, joyful, ladyship. — is changed into i before additions : — when preceded by a vowel. — when the compound word is made one ; as, handiwork, daily. The words laid, paid, said, staid are accounted for by the participial suffix ed. INTRODUCTORY. 15 (ii) Consonants. (a) Monosyllables ending in /, I, s, preceded by a short vowel, double the final letter; as, well, mill, pass, staff. Except As, gas, his, this, thus, us, yes, was, clef, if, of. (b) Monosyllables ending in ariy other letter than /, /, s, keep the _^naZ consonant single ; as, son, cup. Except : Add, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd. Fined * LL * is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds. (c) Final c and cJc. Monosyllables and English verba end in ck, other words in c, as public. Except : lac, soc, zinc, disc, talc. (iii) Double Letters : (a) Words endiijg with a double letter retain both before additions, if these do not begin with the same letter ; as, agreeable, successful. If the same letter follows, one is omitted ; as, hilly. (iv) Compound and Derived Words. Words ending with a double letter preserve it double in all derivatives formed by prefixes ; as, call, recall, fall, befall. Exc. : Enrol, fulfil, befel. (v) MONOSTLLABLES. Words ending in single I ; words accented on the final syllable when the vowel is short, double the final consonant before additions ; as, thinner, acquittal, grovelling. (b) If the accent is thrown back the final letter is not generally doubled ; as, refer, reference. (vi) IzE, ISE. Causative verbs end in ize : monosyllables (and where ise ia not a distinct part of the root) in ise ; as, in advise, rise, surprise. Dividing Syllables. As a general rule subordinate to etymological propriety, each separate syllable should, as far as possible, begin with a consonant : as, re-pre-hen-si-ble. 16 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLLSH LANGUAGE. § 4. Accent. 1. Orthoepy is the art of correct pronunciation. Emphasis is the stress laid on a word in a sentence. Accent is the stress laid on a syllable in a word. Quantity is the length or brevity of a vowel siound. 2. Accent in English is entirely distinct irom quantity. Thus, August, august have each one long syllable (aw), but we accent either syllable. 3. Accent as a rule is on the root, not on the prefix, nor on the suffix. 4. One great use of accent is to distinguish words alike in form, according to this general rule. The verb moves the accent to the right from, the adjective and noun ; the adjective moves it to the right from the noun.* Thus: — L IL Noun. verb. adj. verb. Desert desert frequent frequent A'ttribute attribnte absent absent A'ecent acc&t present prestot &e. &c. in. Twun. adj. compact compact minute minute Expert &c. 5. English ivords are accented on any of the last four syllables. The favourite place in words that admit of it is the antepenult ; and words imported into English have a tendency to shift their accent in accordance with this law ; as. Theatre has become Theatre Revenue „ Revenue Fandtic „ Fdnatic Ordtor „ O'rator Senator ,, Senator Academy has become Academy Samaria „ Samdria Sennacherib „ Sennacherib &c. &c. * There are some exceptions of course ; as Invalid (noun), Invalid (adj.) The question arises whether the former should not be 'invalid. INTRODUCTORY. 17 § 5. Word according to Meaning. 1. Etymology has a threefold province : — (i) /* treats of the classification of words. (ii) It treats of the composition and derivation of words. (iii) It treats of the inflexions of words. 2. AH words may be classified, or arranged under certain heads. 3. The classes into which all words may be divided are termed Parts of Speech. 4. The classification of words is exceedingly diverse. Four prin- cipal schemes are given : (1) according to J/oj-c/i ; (2) according to the suggestions of Home Tuoke ; (3) according to Latham ; and (^4) from Angus. 5. Preference is given to the views of Dr. Angus, because they appear to be most logical and m,ost universal in application. 6. Words are divided into those, 1. Which give names to persons and things — Appellative. 2. Which ascribe attributes to persons and tlmigs — Attei- butive. 3. Which express relations between other words — Kela- TIONAL. 4. Which express feeling rather than thought — Emotional. 7. 1. Appellative words are Nouns and Personal Pronouns. 2. Attributives are — (i) Adjectives which append a quality to a Noun with- out formally asserting it. (ii) Verbs which assert the qualities or acts ; or (iii) Adverbs which append qualities eithei- to Adjec- tives or Verbs. 3. Relational or Interrelating Words are — (i) Preposition, which expresses the relation between one word and another, (ii) Conjunctions, which express the relation between one assertion and another. 4. Emotional are called Interjections. c 18 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Table of Words. / I. Give names to persons or things J 1. Nodn. (Appeliative) 1 2. Peeson "WOBDS Peesonai. Pbonoto). '3. ABJECTrvE = Simple at- tribute. 4. Veeb = Attribute + As- sertion. 5. Adverb = Attribute of another attribute. 16. PEEPOsmoN, relates III. Express relations between words] notions. (Relational) ] 7. Conjdkction, relates II. Ascribe attributes to persons or things (Atteibbtive) IV. Express feeling rather than fg_ i^^,,j,,^ction. \ thought (Emotional) ( (tj- For the schemes of MoreU, Home Tooke, Latham, see Tables 2, 3, 4. 5. Thus we may enumerate the Parts of Speech as eight, ■which we proceed to discuss separately, exhibiting the classifi- cation, structure, and inflexions of each. This will render our analysis of Etymology complete. 53° Though the method pursued in this analysis is in exact aoeordanoe with the tabular division of the subject oi Language given at the commencement, it may be useful to state that it is applied uniformly thus: — (i) Definition ; (ii) Division, or Classification (according to the general principles. Meaning and Structure; (iii) Explanations and Belations of this Classification ; (iv) Accidents ; (v) General remarks. Subject-matter which cannot be well introduced without a sacrifice of perspicuity or method will be found in the Appendices. THE NOUN. 19 CHAPTER m. THE NOUN. § 1- 1. Definition. A Noun is the name of any object of sense or subject of thougbt. 2. CLASSIFICATION o 1^ Meaning — S Structure (i) Strictly so, aa (ii) In transition state Milton Csesar ' ,■■, n^ f Sensible, as knife (i) Class names .in,.- i ^' |_Kational ...conqueror ,.•> ri 11 1- r Singular, as mob (u) Collective names { ■., ° / u-. i i ^ ' I Noun of multitude... clergy (iii) Names of materials, as . . gold (iv) Names of quantity . . . yard (v) Names of agents .... sleeper (i) Names of states, as. . . . death (ii) Names of acts .... thinking (iii) Names of qualities . . . goodness (iv) Names of degree .... excess -Patronymics -Augmentatives -Bimmutives A — Vropriate I Office State \ Profession Condition =a c2 20 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 2. Nouns according to Meaning. 1. A Proper Noxjn is the name of any individual person, place, or thing ; as, London, Philip, Nero. 2. A Common Noun is a name common to all individuals of the same class ; as, tree, bird, flower, dog. Logically we may define a common novn to be the name of a distributive conception. A term is said to be ' distributed ' when it is taken for all and for eacE of the things signified by it. 3. A Collective Noun is the name of a collective conception, i.e. of a class viewed as a unit, and is of two kinds : (i.) The singular noun, in which the idea of unity is pro- minent ; as, mob, crowd. (ii.) The noun, of multitude, in which the idea of number is prominent; as, clergy, nobility. 4. An Abstract Noun is the name of anything which we only conceive of in our minds as having a real independent existence ; as, wisdom, prudence, sleep. § 3. Nouns according to Structure. 1. When a word can be reduced to no simpler form, it is called a root. 2. A word derived from a simple word or root by a radical change, is called a strong derivative ; as, bless, bliss ; sing, song ; feed, food ; choose, choice. 3. A word derived from another by the addition of a suffix is called a weak derivative ; as, lance, lancet ; stream, streamlet. 4. Derivatives formed direct from the root are called primary derivatives ; derivatives formed from other derivatives — secondary derivatives. 5. Words formed by the addition of two or more words, each re- taining its own signification, are called compounds. 6. Nouns are either — THE NOUN. 21 (i.) Original Ronts. (ii.) Strong or Weak Derivatives. (iii.) Compounds. (i.) Primitive Nouns are chiefly monosyllabic and Anglo- Saxon. They embrace the names of all the common objects of nature and human life around us, the winds, passions, &c. ; as, brother, sister, sun, earth, fear, wife, roof. (ii.) Strong Derivatives are also, with few exceptions, Anglo-Saxon. (iii.) Weak Derivatives may be divided into four classes. (a) Peopriate Nouns {propiium) which express some special notion or character (such as, state, condition, form, profession, office, ^c.) affecting the meaning of the ori- ginal woi'd ; as, childhood, musician, homage, kindred, ^c. For an explanation of such words, or their suffixes, vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. 7. (b) DiMiNii'TiVES are nouns formed by adding to the primitive words suffixes which signifj' ' little,' and have the effect of diminishing or weakening the meaning : as, lance, lancet ; stream, streamlet. (c) Diminutives, besides 'littleness,' sometimes ex- press endearment, pity, depreciation, or contempt ; as, darling, mannikin, lordling. For lAst and Explanation, vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. 4. (d) AuGMENT.iTiVES are nouns formed by adding to the primitive words suffixes, which have the effect of in- tensifying the meaning ; as, balloon, pollard. (e) AuGMENTATiVES also Sometimes express censure ; as, dotard, dullard, bvffoon. For List and E,vplanation, vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. 5. (f ) , Patronymics are nouns formed by adding a prefix or suffix to the name of the fkther to indicate the son ; as, Robin-son, Fitz-Uerhert, O'Connell, Mc'Ivor, ^c. Vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. 6. 22 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Compounds : — (iv) Compound Nouns are various. They are formed by combining — Noun + Noun Noun + Adjective Noun + Verb Noun + Gerund as, rosetree, moonlight. „ courtmartial, freeman. „ godsend, breakfast. „ cockcrowing, walking-stick. Pronoim + Noun . . hegoat, shehear. Adverb + Noun . . out-law, after-thought. Adverb + Verb and vice versa, welcome, runaway. Adverb + Participle . bygones. Adverb + Gerund . . uprising, outgoing. Verb + Verb . . . hearsay, makebelieve. (a) The logical force of a compound noun is this. The second word indicates the genus or class, and the first word the differ- ence or ' species.' Thus in manservant, servant is the ' genus ' ; but in servant-man, man is the ' genus.' Since a logical definition is formed by adding the difference to the genus, it follows, that many compound nouns are logical definitions of the person or thing to which we apply the term. (b) ' There are several nouns in which the composition is con- cealed by the apparent incompleteness of one of the elements or sometimes both. The compound hence appears as a derivative, or even as a root, when in truth it is neither : thus misdeed, king- dom, manhood, friendship, bishoprzc are all compounds, the italic syllables having originally a distinct meaning. To these may be added Atone = at -1- one. Daisy = day's eye. Verdict =: vere-dictum. Bachelor = bas chevalier Biscuit = bis coctus. Curfew := couvrefeu. Kerchief — couvrechef. THE NOUN. 23 Kickshaws = quelquea choses. Vinegar = vin aigre = vinum acer. Privilege = by private law.' &c. &c. &c. (c) ' On the other hand, many words which appear to be com- pounds are not really such. Such are Crayfish, for crevice, Pr. ^crivisse. Wiseacre, for weissager, Ger. a diviner. Sparrowgra.ss, for asparagus. Yeoman, for yemeane, A.-S. common. Beefeater, for bufettier. Bag-o-nails, for bacchanals.' &c. &c. &c. (d) ' Composition, it may be added, is later in a language than Derioation, and it forms a most important power in any tongue. In English, as in German and Greek, it is a great excellence, and goes far to compensate us for the loss of case-endings. Indeed it helps us to express our meaning with a brevity and clearness which case-endings alone would never have given.' — Angus, H. E. Tongue, p. 143. § 4. Number. 1. We speak oi ^e properties of a class, and the accidents of an individual. Hence we say the accidents of a noun are Number, Gen- der, Case. 2. Definition. Number is a grammatical form expressing one, or more than one, of the things indicated by the name. These num- bers are called singular and plural. 3. Nouns of Anglo-Saxon origin form their plurals in four ways : (i) By a radical change ; as, mouse, mice. These are called strong plurals, and imply collectiveness. (ii) By the suffix en ; A.-S. as, ox, oxen. These are rapidly becoming obsolete, and are estimated strong. (iii) By the suffix er; as childer (in A.-S. ru or ra), cor- 24 AiVALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Tupted now into ry ; as, yeomanry, also implying coUec- tiveness. (It) By the suffix es or s; as, book, books ; church, churches. 4. A favoui'ite termination of the plural of N.-Frenoh nouns was X, and of A.-Saxon nouns as. Hence the fourth method, which now prevails, would naturally be adopted when the languages blended. 5. Rules for forming the plurals in s and es, &c. (a) Nouns ending in ch soft, sh, ss, s, x, z, and generally in two consonants or a double consonant, also in o and y preceded by a consonant, form their plurals by adding es ; as, church, churches ; topaz, topazes ; hero, heroes : y changes into i before es; as, fly, flies. (b) Exceptions : Canto, grotto, palmetto, junto, portico, oc- tavo, quarto, duodecimo, solo, tyro, form their plurals in s. (c) Other nouns ending in ch hard, or in one consonant, or in o and y preceded by a vowel, form their plurals by adding s; as, book, books; valley, valleys; patriarch, patriarchs. (d) Nouns ending in fe form their plurals in ves ; as, wife, wives. Except _^e, strife, safe. (e) The following nouns ending in f do not change it in the plural : Brief, chief, dwarf, fief, grief, gulf, kerchief, hoof, mischief, proof, roof, reproof, scarf surf, turf, wharf; and nouns in ff, as muff. — N.B. Wharf and dwarf form their plurals both ways ; as, wharfs, wharves ; dwarfs, dwarves. (f) The following thirteen simple nouns have strong plu- rals : — Man — Men Goose — Geese Die — Dice Woman — Women Foot — Feet Penny — Pence Child— Children Tooth— Teeth Pea— Pease. Brother — Brethren Louse — Lice Ox — Oxen Mouse — Mice Other words, as sheep, grouse, &c., have strong plurals of un- changed form. 6. Some nouns have both a strong and a wealc plural : THE NOUN. 25 Sing. Weak Mural. Strong Plural. Penny Pennies Pence Pfia Peas Pease Since plurals in en are estimated strong, to these we may add Brother Brothers Brethren 7. Nouns which have two plurals with totally different meanings: ^^'"■g- Flu. 1. Flit. 2. Cloth Cloths Clothes Die Dies Dice Genius Geniuses Genii Index Indexes Indices 8. Nouns which have different meanings m the singular and plural : Iron Sing. : Metal Plu. : Manacles, &c. Content — Volume — Subject-matter of a book Domino — A mask — A game Good — An adjective — Property Salt — A condiment — A medicine Vesper — Evening — Evening prayers Spectacle — A sight — Glasses to see with ^ Under this class we may place the names of materials which in the plural indicate varieties ; as, wines, sugars, &c. 9. Nouns which have two meanings in the singular and one in the plural : Sing. Meaning. Plural. Meaning. Horse — Cavalry ; animal Horses — Animals Foot — Infantry ; part of the body Feet — Parts of the body Powder — For giins ; mixture Powders ■ — Mixtures Light — Of a lamp ; a lamp Lights — Lamps Compass — Circuit ; mariner's compass Compasses — • For measuring 10. Nouns which have two meanings in the plural and one in the singular : Sing. Meaning. Plural. Meaning. Pain — Suffering Pains — • Suffering, troubles Custom — Habit Customs — Habits, revenue duties 26 ANALYSIS OF THE EJfGLISH LANGUAGE. 11. The noun ' letter ' has two meanings in the singular, alphabet- letter, and epistle ; and three in the plural, viz. alphabet-letter, literature, epistle.s. 12. Nouns which have no singular. (a) Those which express dual conceptions ; as, Bellows Scissors Spectacles Trousers Pincers Shears Tongs Pliers Snuffers Tweezers (b) Those, which express things plural hy nature or art, or are plurals in the languages from which they are derived ; such as, Antipodes Bowels Hustings Nuptials Annals Calends Ides Oats Archives Credentials Lees Obsequies Assets Dregs Matins Odds Aborigines Entrails Measles Premises Banns Filings Nones Thanks Tidings Trappings Victuals Vitals 13. Nouns which have no plural: — ^Names of objects, &o., which from their nature cannot be counted, have no plurals ; such as, (a) Names of materials ; as, gold, pitch, &c. (b) Names of abstract and moral qualities ; as, hardness, pru- dence, pride. 14. Collectiveness is shown in three ways : — (a) By the collective noun ; as, mob, crowd. (b) By the strong plural; as, mouse, mice. (c) By the suffix ry ; as, Cavalry = a collection of ' caballi,' or steeds Yeomanry ^ „ yeomen Artillery = „ bows and arrows (arous, telvm) Eyrie = eggery . . eggs Jewry = .... Jews, i.e. Judsea &c. &c. THE NOUN. 27 15. Words imported from foreign languages form their plurals according to the law of the language whence they are derived ; as, Cherub Cherubim (Hebrew) Criterion Criteria (Greek) Formula Formulae (Latin) Beau Beaux (French) Bandit Banditti (Italian) &c. &c. &c. ' 16. Several of these foreign words have a tendency to form their plurals according to English rule ; as, Crocuses, formulas, frustums, memorandums, &c. When this takes place the word may be said to be naturalised. 17. We have now to discuss the following words : — (a) ( •'^*^^°® 1 Metaphysics (i) Means (k) Pains (b) Chickens (1) Amends (c) Children (m) Eiches (d) Ferns (n) Alms (e) Swine (o) Folk, folks (f) Kine (p) Wages (g) Pullen (q) Thanks (h) News (r) Welkin (a) Ethics, Metaphysics, Politics, Physics, &c. 'In Greek the science was denoted by a feminine adjective sin- gular (to agree with ri\vri, art) ; and the treatises upon it by the neuter adjective plural. The treatises of Aristotle are so named. To apply this. A science of Greek origin might have its name drawn from two sources, viz. from the name of the art or science, or from the name of the books wherein it was treated. In the first case it had a singular form, as physic, logic. In the second place a plural form, as meta- physics, mathematics, optics,' &c, — Latham, vol. ii. p. 167, English Language. Co) Chickens. Latham gives this as an instance of a double plural exhibiting the same formation as ferns ; but this is very questionable, because though en is a plural suffix, 28 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, it is also a diminutive ; as in garden ; in wMcH case chicTcen signifies a little chick, and this plural is formed quite regularly. (c) Childkek. This is an instance of a double plural from cMld-er-en; er and en being plural suffixes; so lambren. — Wickliff. (d) Ferns. According to Wallis (to quote Latham) this ia another instance of a double plural ( fer-en-es) fere being the singular. This is doubtful, as the A.-S. form isfearn. (e) Swine (A.-S.) Swin, (Danish) Swyn. Swine is singular, also plural and collective. ' As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout.' — Prov. xi. 22. ' And there was an herd of many swine feeding.' — St. Luke viii. 32. (f ) KiNE. ' Kine is the plural we have adopted from Cowen. Analogy seems to point to sow-en, the plural of sow, as the origin of swine, by dropping the o in pronunciation.' — Dr. Richardson. Eeferring to what has just been said about swine, we may add that there is a word Kye, used in Scotland for cows, with which it may also be connected. (g) PuLLEN (poultry). ' The en is no more a sign of a plural than es in riches. The proper form is ain, or eyn, pullain.^ — Latham. (h) ' News is in respect to its original form plural : in re- spect to its meaning, either singular or plural, most frequently the foi-mer.' — Latham. The same remark applies to — (i) (k) (1) Means, Pains, Amends. All were plurals origin- ally, and now are used as singulars. (m) ElCHES is a true singular derived from the N.-French richesse. A plural, richesses, is however met with in Chaucer and Wickliff. (n) Alms is also a true singular, derived from the Greek tXfiijuoffui'r;, or A.-Saxon yElmesse, 0. English almesse and almes. A plural almesses is met with in Chaucer. (o) Folk and Folks used indiscriminately; but the plural termination is supei-fluous, as the word/oZ/c implies plurality. THE XOUK. 29 (p) Wages now singular but formerly plural; hence the ■word wage. Its singular use is exemplified in the verse, ' The wages of sin is death.' (q) Thanks. A singular to this did exist, as in the phrase, ' What thank have ye ? ' (r) Welkin is an adjective meaning rolling, used sub- stantively to denote the sky; hence singular, and never plural. 18. In forming the plurals of Proper names we retain the spell- ing unchanged ; as, the three Marys, unless they have become, through frequent usage. Class or Common names; as, the Ptolemies. 19. In Compound nouns the substantive part takes the plural suffix ; as, courts martial, Knights Templar, aides-de-camp. So also we say the Misses Thompson. 20. National names compounded with man make the plural in men; as. Frenchman, Frenchm-en. Exception, Norman. 21. The following words are not compounds of man, and there- fore form their plurals by adding s : German,* Mussulman, Brah- man, Ottoman, Turcoman, Talisman, Caiman, Firman. § 5. Gender. 1. Definition. Gender is a grammatical form expressive of class or sex. ' Though gender is more applied to class than to sex, in English the two are co-extensive ; and thus in Gender our language is more philosophic and effective than the classic languages.' 2. Gender is of three kinds, masculine, feminine, neuter. In English gender is determined by sex alone; the, name of every thing of the male sex is called masculine, the name of everything of the female sex is called feminine, and of neither sex, neuter. 3. In some grammars a fourfold division is given, viz. mascu- line, feminine, neuter, and common. Such words as parent, child, * The etymology of ' Grerman ' is mnch disputed. The most reasonable one .leems to he (Celtic) ' gairmean ' = ' one who cries out.' — Taylor, Words and Places, p. 65. At all events the word does not seem to be a compound of 'man.' 30 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. &c. are given as instances of the last. This division is an instance of a logical fault, called ' cross division.' It is evident ' parent, &c. must be either masculine or feminine, and therefore cannot represent another sort of gender. 4. Gender of nouns is shown in three ways : — (i) By a prefix ; as, he-goat, she-goat. (ii) By a suffix ; as, shepherd, shepherdess. (iii) By a total change of word ; as, bull, cow. 5. In A.-Saxon the syllable ere, now er, was a masc.-suffix. The male agent is shown by this termination or its variations, ar, or, yer ; as, beggar, sailor, lawyer. The feminine suffix was estre, or istre, now ster ; as, spinster. 6. In N. -French the feminine suffix was ess, derived from Lat. ix; as, empress. 7. ' All males are not of the masculine gender.' Gender in its general definition cannot be limited to sex. (i) In Latin the fern, termination a is found in many masculine words; as, nauta, poeta, &c, (ii) In French we have une sentinelle, a sentinel, fern. (iii) In English such words as tapster, maltster, &c. are masc, though ster is s, feminine suffix as above stated.' The cause of this was, that the operations indicated by the terms, tapster, maltster, &c., were formei-ly performed by women. 8. The termination ster is found in other combinations ; as, youngster, punster, Sic. Here this fern, suffix is employed as a diminutive of depreciation. On the other hand the augmentative suffix ard is used to denote the masc. gender in the words wizard and mallard. 9. As a rule the feminine is formed from the masc; but, in the words drake, widower, gander, bridegroom, the reverse is the case. (a) Drake is an example of a Scandinavian masc. ending. The word is Ant-rakko ; ant, meaning ' swimmer,^ has been lost. Duck, chiefly used as feminine, is really the generic term, and therefore is, according to circumstances, of either gender. IHE NOUN. 31 ' (b) Widower. The A.-S. was widuwa (roasc.) and widuwe (fem.). In O. E. widow was applied to both sexes, and er, the common A.-S. masc. sufEx was ultimately added to distin- guish them. i- (c) Gander, from gans = a goose, is a similar example. S (d) Bridegroom ought to be bridegoom; from A.-S. gyman, to attend. 10. To explain the following words: lord, lady, man, woman, Duphew, niece, heroine, vixen, sultana, girl, slut, seamstress. (a) Lord, either hlaf-ord, A.-S. = loaf-giver, or from hlaf= lofty, and ord = ortus, (Lat.) born; solord=lofty born. (b) Lady (hlaf-d-ig) ; ig means add; as if to say, 'add a raised condition.' l-f (c) Nephew. (Fr) neveu, (Lat.) nepos. (d) Niece. (Lat.) neptis. ■T (e) Man, a generic term, (A.-S.) magan, to be powerful. t (f) "Woman — wif-man, i.e. 'the man that weaves.' (g) Heroine is an example of a fem. suffix form in many languages, Lat., Gr., German. 7 (h) Vixen. A.-S. /cm. fixen; (fix=a fox.) (k) Sultana, a Turkish feminine. (1) Girl, an abbreviation from ceorlen, cirlen; (A.-S.), a little churl ; originally of either gender. It is now appropri- ated as a feminine. (m) Slut, etymologically the same as sloven, from slow. In Old English, of either gender, now u^d,,a)^ ^feminine. (n) Seamstress, Songstress. Compound feminines, seam- str-ess, or seam-sier-ess. The A^^^. suffix ster, and N.-French ess, are here both combinejijv, i 11. The following miras are feminine without any corresponding masculine form : — \ ' Amazon Milliner Termagant Brunette Seamstress Virago Dowager Shrew Virgin Jointress Siren 32 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 12. The third way of showing gender of nouns is by a total change of word. The following is a list of nouns that have a separate, word for male and female : — Masc. Fern. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Bachelor Maid Dog Bitch King Queen Earn Ewe Beau Belle Drake Duck Lad Lass Sire Dam Boy Girl Earl Countess Lord Lady Sir Madam Bride- Bride Father Mother Male Female Sloven Slut groom Gaffer Gammer Man Woman Son Daughter Brother Sister Gander Goose Master Mistress Stag Hind Buck Doe Gentle- Lady Milter Spawner Steer Heifer Boar Sow man Monk Nun Swain Nymph Bull Cow Hart Eoe Nephew Niece Uncle Aunt Cock Hen Horse Mare Papa Mama "Wizard Witch I Colt Filly Husband "Wife Eake Jilt ■ "youth /Damsel 1. Maiden 13. "We assign gender to the inanimate objects or qualities which nouns represent on three principles : (i) Ancient Mythology, or classic usage, (ii) A natural principle of Personification, which teaches us to group under the masculine things remarkable for strength, courage, majesty, dignity, permanence, &o., and generally those which would range under cause, whilst the feminine gender embraces those which specify gentleness, fruitfulness, beauty, weak- ness, change," volatility, inferiority, and those which would come under ' effect.' Thus^re in Lat. and French is masc, but the '■flame ' proceeding from it fem. ; ' water ' in both languages, fem. ; ' cedifi- cium,' Lat. (generic term) neuter; ' a3des'= temple for worship, masc. 'domus'=habitation (changeable) fem.; so door, window, chair, &c., in Lat. and French, fem., &c. &c. (iii) Cobbett notices a third principle. He tells us the country people speak of things closely identified with themselves as she ; of things that pass from hand to hand as he. The shovel and prong are mascu- line, the scythe and plough, feminine. THE NOUN. 33 § 6. Case. 1. Definition. Case is a grammatical fonn expressive of relation. In English we have three cases, Nominative, Possessive, Objective ; or, as the form for the nominative and objective is now always the same, it is sometimes said ' that we have two cases expressing three relations;^ as, king, king (nominative and objective), and king's (possessive). 2. In Latin, Gr., and A.-Saxon there were five or six cases : nomi- native, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative ; and these terms are frequently used in English. 3. The explanation of such case-endings as remain to us wiU be better understood after an inspection of the following table of A.-S. declensions ; the critical terminations, of which traces remain, being marked. Anglo-Saxon Inflexions. First Declension. Sina. Pltf. Mas. Fern. Neu. Nom. Steorra Tunge Eage Gen. Steorrara Ttmgara Eaga» 2>a«. # ^6;. Steorran Tungan Eagan Aoc. Steorian Tungan Eage Mas. Ftftn. Neu. Steorran Tungan Eagan Steorrewa Tungena 'Eagena Steomtm Tangum Eagwm Steorran Tungan Eagan Second Declension. 1st Class. ind Class. ird Class. 1st Glass. 2nd Class. St-d aass. Nom. Word Smith Sprsece Word Svaithas Sprseca Gen. Wordss Smithes Sprseces Worda Smitha Spraeca Sat. ^ Ml. 'Worde Smiths Sprsece Word»m Smitham Sprseoam Ace. Word Smith Spraece Word Smithas Spraeca Third Deck nsion. Sing. Plural. Nom. Treow Man Gifu Treowu Menu Gifa Gen. Treowas Manwes Gife Treowa Manna Gifena Bat. ^ Abl. Treowe Men Gife TreowMm ManmMTO Griiiim Ace. ' Treow Man Gife(-«) n Treowu Menu Gifa 34 ANALYSIS or THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 4. The G-enitive (or Possessive Relation). — It is evident that in A.-S. the commonest genitive suffix was es. In 0. English this appears as is, and later as 's ; as, ' the hirdis nest,' ' John's hooh.' The 's is also appended to plural nouns ; as, the children's bread. 5. Singulars that end in es, ss, x, us, ce, and all plurals that end in s, form the genitive by the apostrophe only without the s ; as, Jbr goodness' sake, for Jesus' saJce, for conscience' sake. 6. It was long supposed that the 's was an abbreviation cf his ; as, the king's horse = the king his horse, and many expressions coimtenance the idea. But this explanation was manifestly wrong, since 's was appended to feminine nouns and to plurals also. 7. ' His, however, may have been inserted in A.-S. or O. E. for a possessive in oases where the genitive of the noun did not end in s, as happened with many nouns of the first and third declensions.' — Angus's Handbook, E. Tongue. 8. This form of the genitive appears in many adverbs which ori- ginally were genitives; as, unawares, needs, eftsoons, once, twice, thrice, towards, backwards. So also the pronoun forms, hence, thence, whence. 9. Another genitive ending was in an, n, ena (pi.). Hence, words like mine, thine, wooden, oaken, and generally en, the adjective suffix which has the force made of. 10. The A.-S. form of the genitive or possessive was, as we have seen, in es, subsequently 's. The substitution of the preposition of for the case-ending arose from Norman-French. (i) The genitive in 's is Saxon and possessive, limited to animate and personified objects ; as, Ccesar's head. (ii) The genitive with of is" Norman-French, and is called the partitive genitive ; as, a quart of plums ; or signifies quality, as, a man of courage ; or signifies the material of which something is made, as, a table of wood. 11. The Dative (Receptive or Locative Relation). The com- mon A.-S. dative was in m, um (pi.), and in re for adjectives. Hence, forms like seldom, whilom, here, there, &c. THE NOUN. 35 12. Thk Accusative (Objective Relation) in A.-S often ended in n, whence such forms as twain, then. ^ The accusative is sometimes called the direct object, and the dative the indireet object. 13. The Ablative (Instrumental, Causal, or Modal Relation) in A.-S. sometimes ended in y or e ; hence why and the, which is an ablative in the phrase the more the merrier. 1^^ The dative and ablative forma in A.-S. were distinguished by the final e from other cases ; hence, the frequent addition of e in 0. English. Much of the old spelling is explained by this fact. — Angus's Handbook of the English Tongue, p. 152. 36 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTEE IV. THE ADJECTIVE. §1- 1. Definition. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify it. ADJECTIVE y, 2. CLASSIFICATION. 1 -Compound -Derived -Simple l-Common . ,Formation/-^^''P«'^ , • and /-J^nmeral . -Pronominal [-Participial Compound as seagreen „ beauteous „ ■white as good, bad „ American „ three, four „ all, each „ amusing „ four-footed -Definitive -Qualitative . -General -Particular Privative ■Diminutive . Augmentative Positive -Causative ■Potential as a, an „ the sleepless childish truthful learned terrific pleasurable i-Cardinal t-wo, i-Definite — -Ordinal first, l-Multipli- •Quantitative { _ cative double -Indefinite . as few, many l-Distributive . „ each, every THE ADJECTIVE. 37 § 2. Adjective according to Meaning. 1. Adjectives whicli distinguisli a class or a noun from its class are called definitive. These adjectives are of two kinds ; general and particular. 2. The general definitive or distinctive adjective is a or an, and the particular distinctive adjective is the. 3. These words, owing to the frequency of their use and strongly inseparable character, have been differently classed, and called Arti- cles, the former, indefinite ; the latter, definite. 4. Article from articulus a joint — ' a small part or portion of the entire limb ; ' hence metaphorically, a small, but critical part of the entire signification. Siooe these adjectives limit the significations of nouns, we shall not be wrong in defining them according to our classi- fication as ' definitive or distinctive adjectives.^ 5. Upon no subject has there been so much difference of opinion as the nature and classification of these two small words. By some grammarians they are regarded as adjectives ; by others as pronouns ; by others again as forming a distinct class of themselves. The question seems to be easily settled by reference to the definitions of an adjective and of a pronoun. (i) An adjective is a word added to a noun, ^c. (ii) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It is the characteristic of the latter that it can he used hy itself. Therefore, in the case of these words, a and the, it is evident that as they can never be used instead of others, but, on the contrary, must always be added to others ; they are adjectives and not pronouns. In this respect they differ completely from any, this, that, with which they are sometimes erroneously classed. 6. The logical force of these articles is this : A or An (=one) indicates a common noun. The reduces the ' common ' noun to a ' singular.^ 7. An is used before vowels and silent h ; as, an apple, an ugly tree, an heir. 38 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 8. The words in the following list, though beginning with vowels, require a before them : union unity usage usurious yeU uniform universe usual yacht yellow unicorn universal usurper yard yoke unison use usurping yawn youth unit useful usurer year youthful 9. The following words beginning with an h aspirate, but having the accent on the second syllable, require the article an before them. habitual herbiceoua hexdgonal hostility harangue hereditary historian hyp6crisy harm6nio heretical hist6rical hyp6thesis harm6nioua her6ic horizon hysterical heraldic hex&neter N.B. — It wUl he noticed that the substantives belonging to these adjectives take ' a ' before them. 10. The applies to either number; a, to the singular number only, except when it gives a collective meaning to an expression con- sisting of an adjective and plural noun ; as, a few days, a hundred pounds. Prefixed to adjectives, the marks a class; as, the righteous, the wicked. 11. In phrases like three times a year, 'a' = each, every, and ia distributive. 12. Sometimes o means any ; as, 'If a man keep my saying,' i.e. ' any man.' 13. Adjectives which mark the peculiarities of a thing by a re- ference to its qualities, or supposed qualities, are called quali- tative. 14. Qualitative adjectives are of sis kinds — positive and privative, which signify the possession of, or absence of, a quality ; diminutive and augmentative, which weaken or intensify the meaning ; causa- tive and potential, which impart or excite a quality. THE ADJECTIVE. 39 15. Adjectives ■which distingiiish things according to their num- ber are called quantitative. 16. Quantitative adjectives are of three kinds — definite, as ten ; indefinite, as few ; and distributive, as each, every. 17. Definite Nhmeral Adjectives are divided into three classes — (i) Cardinal, (ii) Ordinal, (iii) Multiplicative. (i) A CARDINAL numeral shows the number of things taken ; as, ten, twenty, &c. (ii) An ORDINAL numeral shows in what order they are taken ; as, first, fourth, &c. (iii) A multiplicative numeral shows how many times one thing exceeds another ; as, simple, double, treble, &c., twofold, threefold, &c. Por derivation and explanation of these numerals, vide Eti/m. Seriv. chap. I. § 2, 6. 18. The following nouns are employed as collective numerals : pair, brace, couple, gross, dozen, score, stone, &o. 19. The compounds of one are, only = one-like ; atone, i.e. to be at-one ; alone = all one ; none ^ no-one. 1^" Distinguish between ' one ' the noun (homo) and ' one ' the adjective (an). 20. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives are such as, all, few, many, certain, divers, several, &c. 21. Distributive Adjectives denote objects one, two, or more taken separately ; as, each, every, &c. § 3. Adjectives according to Formation and Meaning. 1. Possibly this classification is more grammatical, though less logical: according to it we divide adjectives into six classes, which are thus briefly explained. (i) A Common Adjective is any ordinary epithet or adjec- tive denoting quality or situation ; as, good, bad. 40 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (ii) A Proper Adjective is an adjective formed from a proper noun ; as, English, American. (iii) A Numeral Adjective is an Adjective that expresses a definite number ; as, one, two, three. (iv) A Pronominal Adjective is one that may either accom- pany its noun, or represent it understood ; as, all. (v) A Participial Adjective is a participle used as an adjec- tive, i.e. without the notion of time; as, amusing, dying. (vi) A CoMPOLTStD Adjective is one that consists of two or more words joined together ; as, surefooted. ^ This classification -will te found very useful in parsing. § 4. Adjectives according to Structure. 1. Like nouns, adjectives are either simple, derived, or compound. 2. Simple Adjectives are A.-Saxon. 3. Derived Adjectives may be divided into strong and wealc, or primary and secondary. 4. Primary derivatives are A.-Saxon. They are derived from verbs and nouns ; as, loit, wise ; pride, proud ; fill, full. 5. Secondary derivatives a.re derived from verbs, nouns, adjectives, either Saxon or Latin or Greek, by the addition of various prefixes and suffixes derived from these languages, for which see Etym. Deriv. chap. I. § 2. 6. Compound Adjectives are formed by combining — (i) Nouns with adjectives, imperfect participles, and perfect participles ; as, sea-green, heart-breaking, moth-eaten. (ii) Adverbs with participles, perfect and imperfect ; as, well- favoured, ill-looking. (iii) By adding a suffix as ' ecZ ' to some of these compounds ; as, grey-headed, long-legged. THE ADJECTIVE. 41 7. In compound ordinal numerals the last only assumes the ordinal form ; as, twenty-third, one-hundred, and ninety-fifth, &c. For derivation, composition, and explanation of the numerals, vide Mj/m. Deriv. chap. I. § 2, 6. § 5. Comparison. 1. The Accidents of an Adjective are Number, Gender, Case, and Comparison. 2. The English adjective does not exhibit, by inflexional changes, the accidents of Number, Gender, Case, which it has in common with the noun which it qualifies, and with which it is said to agree. 3. The only striking peculiarity of the English adjective, as com- pared with the same part of speech in other languages, is its invaria- bility, or its want of distinct forms for different cases, genders, and numbers. The irreconcilability of the Norman and Saxon modes of inflecting adjectives compelled the EngHshto discard them both; but the Saxon endings of number were not given up till the fifteenth century, and some of them held out longer. Hooker uses my deare for my dears, where a modern preacher would have said my dear hearers. — Marsh's Lectures on Eng. Lang. 4. Definition. Comparison of adjectives and adverbs means a variation in them to express quality in different degrees. 5. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, the com- parative, and the superlative. (i) The Positive Degeee. An adjective is said to be in the positive degree when it ia in its simple state; as, white, fierce, hard, &c. (ii) The Compaeative Degree. An adjective is said to be in the comparative degree when, on comparing two objects or classes, it expresses relatively an increase or diminution of the quality ; as, higher, fiercer, lower, more hard, less feeble. (iii) The Superlative Degree. An adjective is said to be in the superlative degree when, on comparing more than two objects or classes, it expresses relatively the limit 42 AlfALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. of the increase or diminution of the quality ; as, highest, fiercest, lowest, most wise, least plentiful. t^ These definitions of the comparative and superlative are not so short as those which obtain generally in grammars. There is a serious fault in some of these definitions. To defi-ne a comparative by a com- parative, or a superlative by a superlative, is simply illogical. 6. Adjectives of more than one syllable form their comparisons by the adverbs more, most, less, least; as, more virtuous, most virtuous, less joyous, least joyous. 7. Adjectives of one syllable and dissyllables in y form their comparisons by adding to the positive er for the comparative, and est for the superlative ; as, grand, grander, grandest. They may also form their comparisons by more, most, less, least. 8. In the variation of adjectives, final consonants are doubled, final e is omitted, and y is changed to i ; as, hot, hotter, hottest ; wide, wider, widest; happy, happier, happiest. 9. The following adjectives, though dissyllables, may form their comparatives and superlatives by adding er, est, to the positive : — pleasant tender able noble handsome clever humble idle bitter honest gentle simple slender proper nimble subtle 10. The comparative suffix er signifies duality. Superlatives have two forms ; one in ema, the other in est. The former is found only in such words fore-m-ost, hind-m-ost. The latter was in A.-S. est for adjectives, and est for adverbs. H. Comparatives and superlatives which are formed by less, least, are sometimes called comparatives and superlatives of dimi- nution or negation. 12. Adjectives indicating qualities which admit of no variation, admit of no comparison. Such adjectives are : — (i) Definitive adjectives ; as, a, the. (ii) Adjectives formed from names of figures, materials, time, person, place ; as, circular, wooden, Asiatic. THE ADJECTIVE. 43 (iii) Adjectives -which express an extreme limit ; as, eternal, supreme, &c. 13, The following are irregular, and some of them ohsolete : — Vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. § 2, 5. Pos. Com. Superl. Good Better Best Bad Worse Worst Little Less Least Much, Many- More Most Nigh, Near Nearer Nearest, Next Fore For-m-er Foremost, First Far Farther Farthest Forth Further Furthest Late Later, Latter Latest, Last Old [Eld-age] Older, Elder Oldest, Eldest Out Outer, Utter Outermost, Utmost. [Eathe] Bather [Eathest] Chief Chiefest 14. The comparative is folio-wed by than -which is called a sign of the comparative degree. By this test -we find that many -words, -which are comparatives in Latin, &c., such as senior, junior, superior, inferior, &o., are not comparatives in the same sense in English. Among such -words may be classed also the -words elder, former, latter, hinder, upper, under, inner, outer, &c. 15. Forms like inmost, uppermost, are doubly superlative. 16. With reference to the irregular forms given above -we tnay make the foUo-wing remarks : — (i) (Worse, Less.) The fact of these comparatives being the only t-wo ending in es or se has given us the double comparative form lesser. It is not unusual to meet -with the -word worser among the lower class, and -we find it occasionally in old authors ; as, ' Our worser thoughts Heaven mend.' — Shahspeare. (ii) . Little is a diminutive form. 44 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (iii) Farther, Further. Far means distant, and we use farther when speaking of the relative position of bodies ; as, ' The sun is farther from the earth than the moon.' Further is the comparative ot forth, from f oris, out of, or beyond. It is used when motion is implied ; as, ' He threw the ball iurther {i.e. more beyond) than you.' ^ The th in farther ia an instance of Epenthesis, -which inserts a letter or syllable in the middle of a word; in this instance, to pre- vent the collision of two r's, as, farrer, (iv) Much applies to quality, as well as to quantity. Many to quantity only. (v) Few, Many. Few is used with a plural noun, and yet admits before it the indefinite article. Few=hTxt few, if any. Afew^&OTD.Q, though not many. Many is said by some to be a substantive in its origin, from (N.-Fr.) mesnie, a multitude. Hence we say a great many,* i.e. a great multitude. So also many a man, q.d. many of men. Others take it from A.-S. manig, a diminutive joined to a plural noun, and (with a intervening), to a singular one, as above. Though the latter derivation seems more correct, it leaves us with- out any explanation of this singular use of the word.* (vi) Later, latest, refer to time. Latter, last, refer to place. (vii) Elder applies to persons ; older to objects, animate and inanimate. (viii) The word chief,, which denotes head or first, cannot strictly have a superlative ; we find chiefest, however, in St. Mark x. 44, in Milton, and elsewhere. For complete explanation, derivation, &c. of these words, vide Etym. Deriv. chap. I. § 2, 6. * See Syntax, chap. VII. § 5, Many, THE PBONOUK. 45 CHAPTER V. § 1. PEONOTTN. 1. Definition, A Peonoun is a word used instead of a noun. — Structure . PRONOUN ; 2. CLASSIFICATION, -Compound -Derived -Simple -Meaning . -Adjective -Possessive -Demonstrative -Eelative . , -Interrogatire . -Eefleetive . . -Eeeiprocal -Distributive . -Indefinite . . my, mine, thy, thine, his, hers, &c. this, that ■who, ■which, what, that, &o ■who, which, what, &c. self, o'wn each other, one another each, every, either, neither any, such, some -Substantive- -Personal -Reflective -Indefinite . . aught, naught, one . I, thou, he, she, it, &c. . self 46 AKALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 2. Pronoun according to Meaning. 1. Pronouns according to meaning are divided iato pronouns substantive and pronouns adjective. 2. Peonodns Substantive are used instead of nouns, and are of three kinds — (i) Personal, (ii) Reflective, (iii) Indefinite. (i) Personal pronouns are simple substitutes for the names oi persons and things. The PERSONAL pronouns are /, thou, he, she, it, and their plurals, (ii) When the thing or person spoken of is the same as the thing or person denoted by the noun or pronoun, the pronoun is called reflective. The reflective pronoun is self, originally an adjective, but used sometimes as a noun, meaning person, or indi- viduality. (iii) An indefinite pronoun represents a noun without spe- cifying any individual. The indefinite pronouns are one, aught, naught. 3. Pronouns Adjective are so called because, though all of them can be used without a noun, they yet have the qualifying force of adjectives. 4. Under Pronouns Adjective we enumerate eight classes — (i) Possessive, (ii) Demonstrative, (iii) Relative, (iv) Interrogative, (v) Reflective, (vi) Reciprocal, (vii) Distributive, (viii) Indefinite. (i) Possessive pronouns are substitutes for the possessive cases of the personal pronouns. The possessive pronouns are my, mine ; thy, thine ; his, hers, its ; our, ours ; your, yours ; their, theirs. (ii) Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out the object to which they refer. The demonstrative pronouns are this, that; plural, these, THE PRONOUK. 47 (iii) Relative pronouns are those which, in addition to being substitutes for the names of persons or things, refer to something which has gone before in the sentence, and so connect the parts of the sentence together. The word referred to is called the antecedent. The RELATIVE PEONOIINS are who, which, what, and thai. Besides these, the particles but and as are sometimes em- ployed as relatives. (iv) Interrogative pronouns are those used in asking ques- tions. They are who, which, what, and whether. 1^" The last is obsolete as an adjective, and nearly so as an interro- gative. (v) .Reflective pronouns adjective are self a,nd own. For an explanation of these pronouns see below. (vi) Reciprocal pronouns, which express mutual feeling and action are each other, one another. (vii) A Distributive pronoun represents a noun, and at the same time more than one individual of the class. Such pronouns are each, every, either, neither. (viii) The Indefinite pronouns adjective are any, other, some. 5. Having thus explained and defined these various classes we proceed to make some observations on those that especially call for it. (i) Eeflectives, ' self and 'own.' (ii) Relatives. (iii) Beciprocal pronouns. 1. Self, (a) The anomalies of the construction of self have given rise to much difference of opinion. According to some, self is a substantive, and means person, or individuality. In the nom. my- self means mea or mei persona, and the construction is that of an adjective or genitive preceding a noun. He himself, They them- selves, can only be accounted for by supposing m euphonic, to avoid the repetition of ss in hisself : a word sometimes met with in vulgar use. In the oblique cases, himself themselves, are instances of nouns him, them, in apposition with ' selves.' 48 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (b) This is Latham's explanation of the anomaly. It does not seem to be correct. In the first place in A.-S. sylf, or self, is an adjective and not a noun, like auroc in Greek and meme in French. In the next place, whilst it is usually added to the personal pronoun in the same case and gender ; as, ic sylf, ' I (my)self,' the dative of the personal pronoun is also sometimes prefixed ; as, ic com me sylf, ' I myself came ; ' himsylf Ipaer get&hte, ' himself there taught. ' (c) From this it appears that he himself is perfectly correct, and a construction bequeathed to us from A.-Saxon. It is far more reasonable to suppose with the evidence before us, that the true construction is meself, theeself, and not myself, thyself. We meet with an analogous construction in French — c'est moimeme. (d) The conclusion to which we must come is this : that as myself, thyself, &c. are established in the language, self must be regarded in such cases as a noun. In himself, &c. we have the true original construction, where self is an adjective and him a dative governed by it. 2. Own is an adjective, and is used with the genitive or possessive case, his, my, &c. Self is used with both the genitive and objective cases. (i) Eelatives. (a) Who is a definitive relative used when the antecedent is a rational being, or personified agent. (b) Which is an indefinite relative used for animate beings and inanimate objects ; as, ' Our Father, which art,' &c. The common supposition that which is the neuter of who (which is an error) has now caused its relation to be restricted to neuter objects. (c) What is the neuter of who, and refers to inanimate objects. It is sometimes called a compound relative, because it=that which. (d) That really a demonstrative is used as a general relative THE PRONOUN. 49 for any kind of antecedent, but especially when the antecedent is indefinite or a class ; as, the cities that escaped destruction ; the nations that were civilised. (e) But is used as a relative when it follows a negative. Its force is then ^ who + not ; as, there was no one but saw him, i.e. ' who did not see him.' (f) 'As' is used as a relative after such, so much, same. These words are sometimes called ' correlatives ' from the fact of their inseparability. (g) The compound relatives are whoever, whosoever, &c. (ii) Reciprocal Pronouns. E.\CH OTHER refers to two ; one another to more than two. In the sentence, ' They liked one another,' one is the nominative in apposition to the pronoun one — the other. In the sentences, ' They liked each other,' ' They were kind to each other,' we should interpret strictly in accordance with Grammar, ' They each liked the other,' ' They were kind each to the other.' § 3. Pronouns according to StmcttiTe. 1. Pronouns are divided according to structure into (i) Simple, (ii) Derived, (iii) Compound. 2. All are of Saxon origin except one, the derivative of on, homme, homo. 3. The primitive or simple pronouns are, /, me ; we, us ; thou ; ye, you ; he, she, it, they ; who ; self. 1^- He, she, it, they, were not originally personal pronouns, bat de- monstratives, like hie and UU in Latin. 4. The derived pronouns are, Thee objective form from Thou Him dative „ „ He Her fem. dative „ A.-S. Heo Them dative „ „ That My possessive case „ Me E 50 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. possessive case from possessive forms Thou My and thy We You They Her His, he Our, your, their It objective and possessive forms Who neuter form Who Thy Mine, thine Our, i. e. we-er Your Their Hers His Ours, yours, theirs Its (about 1640) Whom, whose What Which = who-like Such = so-like Each = one-like 5. Compound pronouns are formed by combinations of the personal, possessive, and relative pronouns with self, own, and ever. 6. The following adverbs are derived from the pronouns He, The, ]Vho: — Table of Pronominal Adverbs. Pron. Gen. Form Dat. Form Ace. Form AM. Form Comp. Form He The Who Hence Thence Whence Here There Where (Then IThan When How Thus Why Hither Thither Whither § 4. Accidents. 1. The Accidents of a pronoun are Number, Gender, Person, Case. Definition. Person is a grammatical form expressive of dis' tinctive relation, i. e. distinguishes the speaker, the hearer, and person or thing spoken of. These are called respectively Xh^ first, second, and third persons. 2. The pronoun of the third person has in the singular three genders, but in the plural we have only one set of forms for all genders. 3. The following is a complete declension of the personal pro- THE PEONOUN. 51 !zi P O iz; o o !Z5 O I— ( 03 |Zi .4 ^ -35 •J -a (a CQ 5 :a^ ■J I 5 = !3 S3 W r a a a 5 2* w S g = S S s-~ a (V ^ O CD ^^ 4m -t-i 4.J a a 5 a c o ^ "ol .? s g^ 1^ 4< a ■5> a O a a .?, Iz; !S o e2 52 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Observations. . X. 1, ME. Me has nothing to do with I. It has been regarded as an independent nom. form. Hence the phrase, It is me, is less unexceptionable than it is him; for while there may be doubt about me, there is none about Mm, which is an objective case. Compare however the French idiom c'est moi, which is similar, and seems to warrant the use of the dative. In the verbs methinks, me- seems, melists, me is a dative form. 2. Mt, mine, tht, thine. Mt, thy are used when the noun is ex- pressed and with it. Mine and thine are used as predicates, or when the noun is understood, or when it begins with a vowel or h mute ; as, ' This book is min§,' ' Hast thou found me, O mine enemy ? ' 3. Thou, Tou, TE. Thou is generally expressive of /amj'Zzaniy or contempt, except in addressing God. Tou was first used as a sin- gular in the 13th century. Old Enghsh writers treated ye as a nominative and you as an accusative ; as, ' I know you not, whence ye are.' 4. Theik, tour, are generally used as Possessive Pronouns. Some- times they express origin, the true meaning of the genitive ; as, their terror (1 Pet. iii. 16), your rejoicing (1 Cor. xv. 31). 5. Its is a word of recent introduction (about 1640) after the completion of the authorised version of the Scriptures, in which it is not found once,* and where his did duty for it ; as, 'If the salt have lost his savour ; ' ' the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind.' 6. One derived from Fr. on (Lat. homo), is an indefinite pro- noun corresponding to the German man, French on ; men, people, they, axe used in this general indefinite sense. 7. Ant (an-ig—a,dd one) means any single one, an indefinite pronoun. 8. Aught, naught. These indefinite pronouns are compounded of a-whit=a bit, and no-whit=:no bit. 9. Other, properly an A.-S. form for second, means ' one oftwo.^ * It does occur in Levit. xxv. 5, but this is said to be due to the correction 4 some modern printer. THE VERB. 53 CHAPTER VI. THE TEEB. §,1. 1. Definition. A Verb is tLe principal or asserting word in a sentence. 2. CLASSIFICATION. ^ VERB / Ph Impersonal, as 'Meseems' TJnipersonal, as ' It rains ' Quality j -Eelatioh • -FOEM -Meanino -Origin Substantive Adjective Transitive (i) Active (ii) Middle (iii) Passive (iv) Reflective Intransitive Auxiliary \ (ii) Active (ii) Neuter (i) of Voice (ii) of Mood (iii) of Tense (iv) of Emphasis Regular or Weak Irregular or Strong Redundant Defective Active, Passive, Middle Neuter Reflective Causative Intensive Diminutive Inceptive Erequentativa r Primitive ! ( from Verbs Derived -1 from Adjectives fcom Nouns 54 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 2. Explanation of the Classification. 1. Verbs are either Personal or Impersonal. 2. Impersonal Verbs are of two kinds, (i) Impersonal, which have no clear source of action expressed (the subject of which is, however, the sentence after the vei'b). (ii) Unipersonal ; as, ' It rains,' where It represents the source of the action. 3. Personai Verbs are divided variously : — (i) According to Quality. (ii) According to Relation. (iii) According to Form. (iv) According to Meaning. (v) According to Origin. The Impersonal Verbs are three : — Methinhs, Meseems, Melists. 4. The Quality of a verb is the nature of its assertion. If rerbs assert what things are, they are called verbs substantive ; if they assert their qualities — verbs adjective. 5. By Relation is meant the syntactical connection with other words. According to relation verbs are (i) Transitive, which pass the action on to an object; as, ' He struck the dog.' (ii) Intransitive, which do «oJ pass the action on to an ob- ject; as, 'He ran.' (iii) Auxiliary, which assist to form the voices, moods, and tenses of other verbs ; as, ' I have written.' 6. By Form is meant the mode by which the chief parts of the verb are derived. A regular verb is one that forms its past tense by adding d or ed to the present ; as, love, loved ; call, called. 7. An Irregular Verb is one that has the same form for both present and past tense, or forms the latter from the former by a radical change ; as, burst, burst ; smite, smote. 8. The former class are usually called Weak Verbs; the latter Strong Verbs. THE VEEB. 55 9. Weak Verbs fall into three classes : — (i) Those which form their preterites by the simple addition of — d, — t, or ed ; as, serve, served, expel, expelled. (ii) In the second class, besides the addition of — t or — d, the vowel is shortened ; as, leave, left ; dream, dreamt. To this class belong the greater part of the wea& verbs and all verbs of foreign origin. (iii) In the third class the vowel is changed ; as, tell, told ; sell, sold. To this class belong the remarkable preterites of the verbs seek, beseech, catch, teach, bring, think, and buy. 10. The Strong Verbs have been arranged in twelve classes, which may however be reduced to three. (i). Those which have one form to express the Present, Past tense and Perfect Participle ; as, burst, burst, burst. (ii) Those which have two forms to express these three parts ; as, abide, abode, abode. (iii) Those which have three forms to express these three parts ; as, arise, arose, arisen. For a Complete list of Strong Verbs, vide App. I. 11. Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one form for the past tense, or perfect participle, or both ; as, clothe, clad, or clothed. For a complete list of these Verbs, vide App. II. 12 Defective Verbs are used only in some tenses or moods. The defective verbs are Beware May Ought "Will Wit Can Must Shall Wis Quoth 13. According to Meaning verbs are (i) Active, and express a state of doing, (ii) Passive, „ „ suifering. (iii) Verbs which express neither the act of agent nor the suffering of an object, are said to be in the Middle voice ; as ' It tastes sweet.' 56 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ^ The middle voice is however restricted to those yerbs which have both an active and passive voice. (iv.) Neuter Veebs are those Tivliich are. neither active nor passive. Some divide them into intransitive verbs- inactive ; as, to sleep ; intransitive verbs-active ; as, tojii/, to run ; and inceptives, implying a change of state ; as, she wakes. The verb 'To be' is really the only neuter verb. (v) Eeflective Verbs are those which have the same person for subject and object ; as, ' He has shot himself.' This reflective meaning is shov^n by the use of the personal pronouns single, or combined with self; as, ' Sit thee down ; ' ' He turned himself.' The prefix 'be' is sometimes used to give reflective power ; as, ' Behave yourself.' (vi) Causative Verbs denote the action or situation as being caused or effected in an object. Causative verbs are : — (a) Those derived from corresponding strong verbs ; as, Fell = to make to fall, from . . Fall. Set = to make to sit „ . . Sit. Lay, i.e. make to lie „ . . Lie. &c. &c. &c. (b) Those derived frora nouns and adjectives by the prefix or sufEx en ; as- enslave, whiten. The verbs enlighten, enliven, enripen, enstrengthen, endarlcen, engladden, have both. (c) Some verbs that end in er, se, ish, y ; as, linger, cleanse, burnish, weary. (d) Verbs of classical origin which end in ate, fy, lie, and ize ; as, facilitate, terrify, expedite, tranquillize. (vii) Intensive Verbs strengthen the meaning. (a) They terminate in ster ; as, bluster. (b) They are derived from other verba by strong vowel or terminal changes ; as, chip, chop ; rest, roost ; dip, dive, &c. 1^ As a rule, in such cases, the /«&?• the sound the strongef the meaning. THE VERB. 57 (viii) Diminutive Vekbs lessen or weaken the signification ; as, glimmer, For these verbs, vide Etym. Derio. chap. I. § 4, 3. (ix) Feeqdentativb Verbs express the repetition of an action. Some such verbs end in er ; as, clamber and ate (classical) ; as, agitate. t^ Such idioms as to keep saying, are equivalent to these verba. (x) Inceptive Veebs express the commencement of an action, or a change of state. Those of classical origin end in esce ; as, effervesce. 13. According to origin, verbs are (i) Primitive. (ii) Derived. (i) Primitive Veeb3 are chiefly Sax6n, monosyllabic, and strong. (ii) Derived Verbs are all weak. They may be divided into four classes : (a) Verbs derived from strong verhs ; as, drench, from drink. (b) Verbs derived from nouns and adjectives, by prefix or suffix en ; as, enslave, soften, (c) Verbs derived from nouns and adjectives, by change of accent ; as, decent, accent; frequent, frequent ; or from (d) Nouns hy change of quantity ; as. Use, Use ; cloth, clothe. Classes (a) (b) have been shown above to be causative. 58 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 3. Conjugation. 1. Definition The Conjugation of a verb is a connected view of its inflexions. 2. In English we have two conjugations : — (i) Of the weak or regular verb, (ii) Of the strong or irregular verb. 3. The Accidents of a verb are Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, and Number. 4. In English we have no real form for the Passive Voice. ' Pas- sives have grown out of Reflectives ; and, as we have no special foi-m for reflectives, so we have no special form for passives.^ — Adams' Eng. Lang. Instead, we use tenses compounded of the perfect par- ticiple and the verb ' To be.' 5. Some compound tenses are formed by the various parts of the verb To have, others by the aid of the verb To he. The simple principle for this seems to be — Bave is used when the action concerns the object with which the participle ought to agree ; hence the verb must be transitive ; as, ' I have written the letter ' (' Habeo ejjistolam scripfam''). Be is used when the action concerns the subject ; hence it will be used to form the compound tenses of in- transitive, reflective, and passive verbs ; as, ' He is come,' ' He is an-ived.' 6. Nevertheless, convention has established the forms — 'He has come,' ' He has arrived.' Without inquiring how far these are right or wrong, we must discriminate between the expressions by saying that in the phrases — ' He is come,' ' He is arrived,' we refer to the subject of the verb; in the phrases — ' He has come,^ ^ He has ar- rived,' to the fact of his coming, or of his arrival. 7. The Moods, which grammatically express the manner of an action, are four : Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive. (i) The Indicative mood asserts absolutely, (ii) The Imperative mood commands, enjoins, exhorts, en- treats. THE VEEB. 59 (iii) The Subjunctive mood expresses contingenuy, futurity, and generally dependence upon some previous verb, (iv) The Infinitive mood (or Indefinite mood) expresses the act without reference to time or agent. 8. Definition, Tense is a grammatical form expressive of the time of an action. 9. The Tenses are three : Present, Past, and Future, with five modifications of each. 10. (i) Indefinite tenses refer strictly to a point of time, and to single acta or habits without regard to duration. (ii) Incomplete refer to the unfinishedness or imperfection of the act. (iii) Complete refer to the perfection of the act. (iv) Continuous describe relation to time. 11. (i) The present indefinite is used to express general truths, (ii) The present and past indefinite are used to express habit ; as, ' She writes well.' 12. The present indefinite is used for — (i) Description of past' events, to give animation to narra- tive ; as, ' CiEsar marches to the Khine,' this is called the ' historical present.' (ii) A future indefinite ; as, ' Duncan comes to night,' i.e. will come. * (iii) A complete future ; as, ' When he arrives he will tell you,' i.e. ' shall have arrived.' * This arises from the fact of the A.-S. verb possessing no form for the future. 60 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 4. Active Voice. 1. The following is a Complete Conjugation of a Verb Active. Tense Indefinite I send Present Tost Future I eent I shall send TO SEND. Indicative Mood. Incomplete Complete I am sending I was send- ing I shall be sending I have sent I had sent I shall have sent Continnons I have been sending I had been sending I shaU. be sending Emphatic I do send I did send I vrill send Present Fast Future I send . I sent I should send Subjunctive Mood. I be sending I vrere send- ing I should be sending I have sent I had sent I should have sent I have been sending I had been sending Ishouldhave been send- ing I do send I did send I would send Imperative Mood. Present I Send thou I send ye I I Future | Thou shalt send | he shall send | you shall send | they shall send Indefinite I To send Infinitive Mood. Incomplete Complete Continuous I to be sending I to have sent I to have been I I 1 I sending ' Participles. I sending I having sent I having been I I I I sending | Gerund. To send ; (for) to send : sending THE VERB. 61 2. The mode of conjugating the Indicative and Subjunctive moods differs in the following respects : — (i) The Subjunctive Mood has no inflexions ; as, Indicative, Subjunctive. I send (ijf) I send Thou sendest Thou send He sends He send We send We send You send You send They send They send t^ff ' Wert ' is not a subjunctive form. (ii) Am, art, is, are, are changed in the subjunctive to ' be ' Was is changed „ „ were Sliall „ „ „ should Will „ „ „ would Hast, hath, has, are changed „ „ have 3. In conjugating the future tenses it must be remembered that shall in the first person goes with will in the second and third : will in the first person goes with shall in the second and third ; thus — Future Indefinite. Future Emphatic. I bkall send I will send Thou wilt send Thou shalt send He -will send He shall send We shall send We will send You will send You shall send They -will send They shall send Interrogatively thus — Shall I? Shall we? Shalt thou? Shall you? WiU he ? Will they ? 4. Some grammarians have given additional forms, called Inten- tional, of the three tenses. This seems to be merely a notion borrowed from the Greek Paulopost future. ' I have been going to send,' is a very composite tense indeed ! 5. Participles. — A participle is a verbal adjective — verbal as go- verning an object, if derived from a transitive verb ; adjective as 62 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. agreeing with its substantive, and yet differing from an adjective in the following respects : — (i) It attributes action to a noun without any indication of time, therefore we speak of the participles as ' indefi- nite ' or ' imperfect, ' complete ' or ' perfect,' and ' con- tinuous,' not as is sometimes the case, as ' present,' ' past,' &c. (ii) It expresses the same modifications of the action as the infinitive. 6. Gerunds are verbal nouns capable of being the objects or sub- jects of sentences. The forms of the infinitive which are gerundial, are ' to hunt,' ' for to hunt,' ' hunting,' and ' a-hunting.' When these forma follow intransitive verbs, adjectives, or nouns, they express purpose ot fitness ; as, ' Fools who came to scoff remained to pray ; ' ' Apt to teach ; ' ' A house to let ; ' 'A time to build.' ^ For origin, explanation, &a. vide Etym. Derivations, chap. I. § i, 2. THE VERB. 63 § 5. Passive Voice. ] . Subject to the remarks made in § 3, 4, the following is a tabu- lar view of the conjugation of a Verb Passive. TO BE SENT. Indicative Mood. Tense Indefinite I am sent Present Past Future I was sent I shall be sent Incomplete I am being sent I was being sent Complete I hare been sent I had been sent I shall have been sent Continaons Emphatic Iwillbesent Present Past Future I be sent I were sent I should be sent Subjunctive Mood. (V) I am being sent I were being sent I have been sent I had been sent I should have been sent I would bo sent Impeeative Mood. Present Be sent „, fThoushalt ^*'"-' \HeBhaU I be sent Be Bent You shall They shall, > be sent Infinitive Mood. Indefinite Incomplete Complete Contlnuons I To be sent I I To have been 1 I I sent I Being sent PARTICIPLE8. — — I Having been I sent 64 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 6. Auxiliary Verbs. 1. Definition. An auxiliary verb is one that helps to form the voices, moods, or tenses of other verbs. 2. AuxiLiAET Veebs are divided variously. (i) Thet are divided into simple, as ' I shall ; ' compound, ' I shall have been.' (ii) They are divided into — (a) Auxiliaries of voice ; ' am,' ' be,' ' was.' (J) Auxiliaries of mood ; ' may,' ' can,' ' must.' (c) Auxiliaries of tense ; ' have,' ' will.' id) Auxiliaries of emphasis ; 'do,' 'will,' &c. (iii) Again, Auxiliaries may be divided into — (a) Those which possess inflexional power. (J) Those which do not ; as, ' do,' 'can,' ' must,' ' let.' (^ By this is meant that, in other languages, many of these auxiliaries are expressed by inflexions ; as, ' I shall write ' (' scribam'). Others are interpreted by idiomatic phrases ; as, 'Imwsi'walk' (' amimlan- dum est mihi; ' ' llfaut gueje me fromhne '). (iv) AuxiLlAEiES are again divided into — (a) Those which can be used as main or principal verbs. (b) Those which cannot be so used. In the former class are such verbs as do, have, &c. ; in the latter, must, can, may, &o. THE VERB. 65 Present Past Future Conjugation of the Verb ' To Be.' TO BE. Indicative Mood. Tense Indefinite Incomplete Complete Continuous Emphatic Present I am I have been Past I was I had been Future I shaU be I shall hare been I will be I be I were I lihould be Subjunctive Mood. m I have been I had been I should have been 1 would be Present Future Be thou Thou shalt be To be Impeeative Mood. You shall be | They shall be Be ye He shall be Infinitive. I To have been Being Been Participles. I Having been Gerdnd. To Be, Being. 6. The following is a list of Auxiliary and Defective verbs, with such parts as are in use. O" For their origin, &c, vide Ett/m. Derivations, chap. I. § 4, B, 9. F 66 AJ^ALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. I'aTts in use, &o. Hate Shaxl Wilt, Mat Can Must Do (Present) ' have,' (past and perfect participle) 'had.' (Past tense) ' should ; ' no partici- ples ; defective, means ' to owe.' (Past tense) ' would,' (present par- ticiple) ' willing,' used only as an adjectire. There is a past tense ' wiUed,' with a different meaning. (Past tense) ' might ; ' no participles ; means literally ' to be able ; ' it expresses ' liberty,' and 'per- mission,' also ' possibility.' When before its subject it ex- presses a wish. (Past tense) ' could,' (participle) ' cunning ; ' now used as an adjective. The verb literally means ' to know.' (Present) 'must,' (past) 'must;' no participles. This verb is a strong form of ' may.' (Present) ' do,' (past indicative) ' did,' (participles) ' doing,' ' done.' Conjugated after proper form in ail tenses. From participle 'haVd,' comes 'haft.' — Home Tooke. The present and past tenses only in use. The present and past tenses only in use. i^ The main difference between ' shall ' and ' wiU ' is this : — 'Shall' expresses 'the idea of the fiiture, depending upon what is external : ' 'Will' expresses ' the idea of the future depending upon what is internal, i.e. ' volition.' These tenses only in use. The present and past tenses only in use. The past tense ' could,' properly ' coud,' or ' couth,' is formed by a false analogy " like 'should,' 'would.' 1^" The difference between ' may' and ' can' is this : — • ' May ' expresses ' the idea of power, depending upon what is external : ' 'Can' expresses 'the idea of power, depending upon what is internal' i.e. ' resolve.' These parts only in use. Conjugated after proper form. There are two verbs ' do,' be- tween which it is necessary to distinguish : (i) Active, with the meaning ' to make.' (ii) Neuter, with the meaning ' to THE VERB. 67 Verbs Parte in use, &c. B^marks Daee Owe Make Go With WlLNE Quoth WoETH List (Present) 'dare,' (past indicative) 'durst,' (imperfect participle) ' daring,' used as an adjective, (perfect participle) ' durst.' (Present) ' owe,' (past) ' ought,' (imperfect participle) ' owing,' used as an adjective, (perfect participle) 'ought.' Originally means ' to have.' (Present indicative) 'make,' (past indicative) ' made,' (imperfect participle) ' making, (perfect participle) ' made.' (Present indicative) ' go,' (past indicative) 'went,' (imperfect participle) ' going,' (perfect) ' gone.' (Infinitive) ' to wit,' i.e. ' to know,' (second singular indicative present) ' wist,' (past) ' wot,' (participle) ' witting,' used as an adjective. Meaning 'to desire,' is a derivative from ' will.' Used only in the third person. Found only in the third person singular; means, 'to be,' 'to be- come.' Only used in third singular, per- sonal and impersonal ; as, ' me lists,' ' it listeth ; ' means, ' to please.' avail,' 'to thrive.' Both are found in the idiom, ' How do you do ? ' i.e. ' How make you yourself to thrive t ' The form ' did ' is said to be an instance of reduplication. Conjugated after proper form. Used only in these tenses, though it may be conjugated after proper form. It has the mean- ing also of ' to be due ; ' hence the impersonal ' him ought,' ' us ought.' The word ' own ' may be supposed originally a participle of this verb ; and the word ' odd ' a corruption of another participle, ' ow'd.' An irregular verb, after proper form. An instanc9 of a defective verb, borrowing its past tense from the verb 'to wend.' Conju- gated after proper form. Obsolete. Obsolete. Derived from 'quod.' Hence the verbs ' quote,' ' bequeath.' ' Quoth ' always precedes its nominative. Obsolete. An obsolete verb. From the same root comes ' lust.' f2 68 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 7. General Remarks. 1. Grammars differ very widely as to the structure of the English verb. Some foUowing a classical model present ua with a mere translation of the Latin or Greek verb. Others rush to the opposite extreme, and forgetting that English is not Anglo- Saxon, conjugate the verb as if the reverse were the case. The principle which ought to guide us lies between the two extremes. Our language is com- posite, and derived /rom Norman-French as well as from A.-Saxon. It seems only reasonable to consider both these elements in our calculation. Hence, in addition to the simple tenses, only those formed by the auxiliaries ' have' and ' be ' ought to be admitted. 2. At first sight an exception seems to meet us in the use of ' shall ' and ' wiU.' This is more apparent than real. The future tense in Latin, French, and EngKsh also, is not a simple tense, but one com- pounded of the verb to have and the infinitive mood. Thus (Lat.) amabo = amare habeo ^ French, j'aimerai, i.e. j'ai-aimer = I have to love, i.e. I shall love. Now shall originally means to owe, and owe (from Goth. ' aigan ') means to have or hold ; hence, ' I shall love ' is exactly like the corresponding tense in Lat. or French, and means I have to love. 3. Exception also may be taken to the emphatic forms, as intro- ducing another auxihary, ' do.^ The feet is, we have an emphatic future ' will,^ and thus we are led to ask. Why not an emphatic past and an emphatic present ? Rigidly, of course, they should be excluded, if the principle above laid down be adopted. Otherwise there will be no limit to the number of possible tenses ; and all our auxiliary verbs ought to be enhsted in the conjugation of a single verb. ' Paulopost future ' forms have been given by some grammarians,* and, besides the indicative and subjunctive moods which we certainly possess, we are sometimes favoured with a potential mood (where we * We might as reasonably expect to find in the conjugation of a French verb the ' tenses,' ' je vais teire,' ' je viens d'iorire ' ! THE VERB. 69 get it from ia a mystery). Why not an optative mood — a permissive mood — a compulsory mood ? 4. Strong verbs have a tendency to become weak. Where the strong and weak forms coexist, the verb is in a state of transition. As we have remarked, ' all derived verbs take the weak form ;' so also do new verbs, and verbs derived from classical origin. 5. The present tendency of the language is to reject the distinction of the subjunctive mood. Some grammarians assert, facts notwith- standing, that we have no subjunctive mood I 70 ANALYSIS OF THE ElfGLISH LAIiTGUAGE. CHAPTER Vn. THE AD7ESB. §1- 1. Defiuition. 'An Adveeb is a word joined to a verb, or any attributive, to denote some modification, degree, or circumstance of the expressed attribute.' 2. CLASSIFICATION. -Primitive -Origin -Derived -Compoimd -Time . . -Place [Quantity or Degree -Quality -Connection . -Periodal . (when ?) now, then, presently -Continuous (how long ?) always, ever, aye -Repetitive . (how often ?) once, twice, weekly, &e. -Eelative . (how soon?) then, meanwhile, afterwards -Positional . (where?) here, there, above, be- lo^, &c. -Amotional . (whence ?) hence, thence, away -Admotional (whither?) hither, thither, aloft, down —Ordinal . (whereabouts ?) firstly, lastly, &c. —Positive . how, ever so, &c. -Expletive . | f ^ h ^^'^^' too, very greatly, -Adequate . * § S ^ exactly, enough.eijually, -Defective . ||WM little, less, hardly, al- most -Modal . (how?) well, iU, thus, namely, &o. -Inferential . . therefore, wherefore, &c. -Categorical {n^^e^®} yes, no, verily, &c. --Contingent . perhaps, possibly, &c. Conjunctional Simply attributive r I -Si THE ADVERB. 71 § 2. Adverb according^ to Meaning. 1. Adverbs are classified according to (i) Meaning ; (ii) Connec- tion ; (iii.) Structure or Origin. 2. Adverbs according to meaning express (i) Time ; (ii) Place ; (iii) Degree or Quantitt ; (iv) Quality. 3. Adverbs of Time are those which answer the questions, (i) when ? (periodal), i. e. a fixed point of time, past, pre- sent, future, indefinite. (ii) how long 1 (continuous), the duration of time ; as, always, ever, never. (iii) how often 1 (repetitive), the repetition of time ; as, once, twice, often. (iv) how soon ? (relative), to some other event; as, then, mean- while, before, &c. 4. AD^rERBS of Place are those which answer to the questions, (i) where 1 (positional), rest in or at a place; as, here, there, above, &c. (ii) whence (amotional), motion from a place ; as hence, thence, away, (iii) whither ? (admotional), motion to a place ; as, hither, thither, down, &c. (iv) whereabouts ? (ordinal), in what order ; as firstly, lastly, &c. 5. Adverbs of Degree or Quantity are those which answer to the questions how much? how little? or to the idea of more or less. These adverbs express degree without comparison (positive) ; as, however so. or, „ abundance (expletive) ; as, much, too, very. „ „ sufficiency (adequate) ; as, enough, equally, exactly. ij „ deficiency (defective) ; as, less, hardly, &c. ■> 6. Adverbs of Quality answer the question how ? or express affirmation, negation, uncertainty. -72 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 7. Adveebs that relate to time, place, and manner are gene- rally connected with verhs or participles. Adverbs that relate^ to degree with adjectives or adverbs. § 3. Adverb according to Connectioii and Structure. 1. Adverbs according to their Connection are (i) simply attribu- tive, i. e. qnaliiy verbs ; adjectives, and other adverbs ; or, in addition to this, (ii) have a conjunctional force. The latter connect plauses; they are often adverbs of cause ; as, why, wherefore : relative forms, as, where, when : pronominal compound adverbs ; as, wherewith, hereafter, &o. than, so, as. 2. Adverbs according to Structure are simple, derived, compound. (i) Simple Adverbs are monosyllabic and Saxon ; such as, now, oft, aye, ill, well. (ii) Adverbs are derived, (a) Trom nouns : — old genitives; as, needs, unawares, eftsoons, once, twice, thrice, &c. old datives ; as, seldom, whilom. by suffix ling ; as, darkling, with diminutive fcrce. by four prefixes, a, al, be, to. a as aboard, al „ always, be „ besides, to „ to-day. (b) from adjectives and noims : — by four suffixes, ly, wise, ways, wards. ly as lively. wise „ likewise. ways „ sideways. wards „ homewards. (c) from the pronouns he, the, who. THE ADVERB. 73 GenitiTe Form Dative Form Accusative Form Ablative Form Comparative Form Prom He „ The „ Who hence ^ thence "■ ■whence here- there " ■where then> or than when hoy^ thus^ why hither ■ thither ■whither (iii) Many Adverbs are compound words and phrases ; as, peradventure, of course, nevertheless. § 4. Comparison of Adverbs, &c. 1. In Anglo-Saxon there ■were two forms for the comparati^ire and superlative degrees, one in re and este ; the other in or and ost respectively. Now the first of these ■was the form taken by ad- jectives; as, se scearpe sweord, se scearpeste sweord; the sharper sword, the sharpest sword. The second, on the other hand, ■was taken by adverbs ; as, se sweord scyr^ scearpor or scearpost, i. e. the sword cuts sharper or sharpest. — Latham, vol. ii. p. 184. 2. These adverbial comparative and superlative endings in or and ost have disappeared, except in such words as hind-m-ost up-m-ost, &c. 3. When the adverb ends in ly, the comparison is formed by more and most. 4. ^P° To explain certain phrases as, clean gone, to stick fast, loud and long, he rode hard, you did right, sore let and hindered, &c. In the Classic languages and in Anglo-Saxon the neuter adjective is used in the accusative adverbially. In Anglo-Saxon and Old English the adverb ■was often formed from the adjective by adding e; as, seft or soft (adjective), sefte or softe (adverb). The adjective -was reaUy the nominative or accu- sative case ; the adverb in e, the ablative. The two forms ■were easily confounded, especially ■when case endings ■were dropped. The words above, clean, fast, hard, right, loud, long, sore, &c., are in- stances of this confusion. 5. 'In many cases the adjective form is intended to express the 74 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. quality of the agent as seen in the act, rather than the quality of the act itself. After verbs of being or seeming, for instance, or their equivalents, the adjective is constantly used ;* as, it looks beautiful, it sounds grand, it feels hard, he arrived late, how sweet it sleeps, &c.' — Angus, Handbook E. Tongue, p. 231. * It win be seen hereafter that a rule has been laid down : ' Transitive verbs take the adverb ; Intransitive verbs, the adjective.' For explanation of the meaning and derivation of adverbs, vide Etym,. Beriv. chap. IV. THE PREPOSITION. 75 CHAPTER Vm. THE PREPOSITION. §1- 1. Sefiuition. A preposition is a word connecting other words, and expressing a relation between them. ' Prepositions relate notions to one another ; conjimctions sen- tences.' — Morell. 2. CLASSIFICATION. -Simple — Structure 6D a •-a I o m O I Ph Compound — Verbal -Meaning a H -Position -Time — Cause, Instrumentality, Agency -Degree -Direction 76 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH ' LANGUAGE. § 2. Preposition according to Meaning and Structure. 1. Prepositions are divided according to their meaning and according to their structure. 2. Prepositions according to their meaning. The relations which prepositions express are not easily classified. K we use the terms in a metaphorical as well as a natural sense, they may be possibly embraced by the division we have given ; viz. position, time, cause, degree, and direction. 3. Prepositions according to their structure are divided into — (i) Simple ; monosyllabic ; such as, in, with, from, hy, &c. (ii) Compound ; such as, between, among, beside, &c. (iii) Verbal ; such as, notwithstanding, pending, during, &o. 4. The first two classes are Anglo-Saxon, the third class is Classical : the prepositions in this class are really participles, and with the words they govern ought to be interpreted as absolute constructions to which in other languages they are equivalent. 5. The following is a list of the Prepositions : — (i) Simple. At, by, down, ere, for, from, in, midst, of, off, on, out, round, through, to, up, with, since, tiU. (ii) Compound. About, above, across, aboard, after, against, along, amidst, among, around, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between, betwixt, beyond, over, throughout, toward(s), under(neath), untU, unto, into, upon, within, without. (iii) Verbal. Concerning, during, except(ing), notwithstand- ing, pending, regarding, respecting, save, touching. ^ For explanation of the above, vide Et^m. Denu. chap. III. THE CONJUNCTION. 77 CHAPTER IX. THE CONJUNCTION. § 1- 1. Definition. A Conjunction is a word connecting clauses or sentences. Where conjunctions seem to connect ■words it is because of some ellipsis or abbreviation; thus, He is good and wise=:He is good and (he is) wise. 2. CLASSIFICATION. -Structuie o t— I o !2; o (-Simple, such as but, if, or -Derived „ -Compound „ nor, either, than although, howbeit -Copulative, as and, also -Meaning -Co-ordinate -Negative \ -Alternative , -Adversative , V -Illative , neither, noi either, or but, yet, still therefore, because rTime -Periodal, -Continuous -Repetitive -Eelational -Place •I -Positional -Admotional -A motional -Subordinate , (refer to) Manner -Modal , • -Positive -Comparative g> /-Condition 'S I -Purpose -Cause £ \ -Reason . as as, as soon as, now that „ as long as, as, whilst „ as oft as „ Tphenever, when where, there whither, thither whence, thence as, how, so as-as than, not, so as if, provided, except that, in order that inasmuch as, be- cause H V-Result . . „ although, and so 78 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 2. Conjnuctiou according to Meaning. 1. Conjunctions are divided according to meaning, and according to structure. 2. Accordiag to meaning, Conjunctions are cookbinate and sub- ordinate. (i) Coordinate Conjunctions unite coordinate (or eqtupol- lent) statements, or join in construction coordinate words, (ii) Subordinate Conjunctions unite statements in such a way that the one modifies the meaning or appUcation of the other. 3. Coordinate Conjunctions are divided into five classes : (i) Copulative ; (ii) Negative ; (iii) Alternative ; (iv) Adversative ; (v) Illative. 4. Subordinate Conjunctions are more numerous and complex, and, as will be perceived, mostly follow the division of adverbs into those which refer to time, place, manner or degree, cause. 5. This division is valuable on account of its harmony with the principles which regulate the analysis of sentfences. As it is com- plex, however, another and simpler scheme is annexed. — Simple — DeriTed CONJUNCTION— — Meaning -Compound (■Connective -Conjunctive Conce.^- I Inferential {Negative Alternative Adversative " — Correlative 6. Copulative Conjunctions are those which connect both clause and sense. THE CONJUNCTION. 79 7. Disjunctive Conjunctions are those which, while they connect the clause, disconnect the sense or meaning. 8. Correlative Conjunctions are those which are used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to the other. (i) The Copulative conjunctions are ; — and, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so, but. (ii) The Disjunctive conjunctions axe ; — or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless, save, provided, notwithstanding, whereas, (iii) The Correlative conjunctions are ; — As — as Neither — nor As — so So — as Both — and Though — yet Either — or Whether — or. 9. Of the above we have Connective or additive — And, also, but, both Concessive — Though, although, albeit, yet. Conditional — If, provided that, unless. Inferential (i) cause — For, that, because, since, whereas. (ii) consequence — Therefore, wherefore, then. Negative — Neither, nor. Alternative — Either, or. Adversative — But, however, notwithstanding, yet. § 3. Conjunction according to Structure. 1. Conjunctions according to structure axe divided into (i) Simple ; (ii) Derived ; (iii) Compound. (i) The Simple conjunctions are Saxon and monosyllabic ; such as and, if, so, hut, eke. (ii) The Derived conjunctions are such as nor, neither, than, whether, since, seeing, except, &c. 80 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (iii) Compound conjunctions are made up of two or more words ; as, howbeit, in as far as, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, nevertheless, whereas, although, &c. § 4. General Remarks. 1. Several words axe used as adverbs, conjunctions, and prepo- sitions according to circumstances. The word but, for instance, is used as a relative, a preposition, a conjunction, an adverb. (i) But, a relatives -who + not, and follows a negative; as, ' there was no one but saw him ' = ' who did not see him.' (ii) But, a conjunction — and ; as, ' we ran but he stopped,' i. e. we ran and he stopped : it has also an adversative force, (iii) But, a preposition := except ; as, ' all fled but John,' i. e. except John, (iv) But an adverb = only, and is placed next the verb ; as, ' If he could hut know,' i.e. onli/ know. 2. So after is an adjective ; as, ' The after-part of a ship.' „ an adverb ; as, ' They that come after.' „ a preposition ; as, ' After me the Deluge.' „ a conjunction ; as, ' He called two days after I saw you.' 3. Then, with its double form then and than, is both a conjunction and adverb. For, a conjunction and preposition. Except, a preposition and conjunction. 4. When these words, which are used as prepositions and con- junctions, are followed by that, they are best regarded Sisprepositions, otherwise as conjunctions ; as, 'Before that certain came from James,' &c. 'After that I was turned, I repented.' — Jer. xxxi. 19. ' Since that I have told you.' 5. The ADVERB may generally be known by the fact of its being movable to any part of the sentence ia which it occurs ; as, ' He THE CONJUNCTION. 81 then altered his intention.' ' Then he altered his intention.' ' He altered his intention then.'' When an adverb qualifies an adjec- tive, or other adverb, it is not movable ; but then its connection dis- covers it. t 6. Prepositions are always attached to a noun, and cannot be re- moved from one part of the sentence to another without the noun to which they belong. 7. We have said, if the word is movable to any other part of the sentence it is an adverb. If it cannot be moved from the beginnin;/ without destroying the sense, it must be a Con.iunction. I^p" 8. The Interjectionhas been defined to be a word expressing feeling and not thought. ' Almost all animals h.ave some peoulinr sound to express any sudden feeling they experience. The inter- jection is such a sound as employed by man.' — Morell. It is speech which distinguishes man. Speech is the expression of thought, and, as interjections are not the expressions of thought, they are not properly classed as a part of speech. Por explanation, derivation, &c. of the Conjunctions, vide Etym. Dcriv. chap. n. SYNTAX. CHAPTER I. PKOPOSITION ACCOEDING TO LOGIC. 1. There are two ambiguous terms in general use : Pkoposition and Peedicate. These terms are borrowed from logic, but in gram- mar they possess a different meaning. First, we shall explain the logical signification of these words, and then investigate their gram- matical import. 2. There are three mental operations, (i) Simple appkehension or CONCEPTION, the expression of which in language is called a Term ; (ii) Judgment, i. e. the comparison of two conceptions, and pronoun- cing upon their agreement or disagreement, the expression of which in language is called a Proposition ; (iii) Reasoning, i. e. the comparison of two judgments and pronouncing upon their agreement or disagree- ment by means of a third, the expression of which in language is called a Syllogism. 3. A Peoposition, then, is defined to be a judgment expressed in words ; or, an indicative sentence (oratio indicativa). 4r. Every Proposition is divided into three parts — subject, copula, predicate. (i) The subject is that of which something else is asserted, (ii) The predicate is that which is asserted of the subject, (iii) The copula expresses the agreement of subject and pre- dicate ; hence the copula is affirmative, or negative — is, or, is not, &c. Thus, in the proposition, Sub. I Cop. I Pred. ' The Romans | are | brave,' Romans = subj ect ; are = copula ; brave ^ predicate. SYNTAX. 83 Sub. I Cop. I Pred. ' He walks,' i. e. ' He ] is | walking.' ' This author contradicts your assertion.' Sub. I Cop. I Pred. ' This author | is | contradicting your assertion. ' 5. Terms are so called because they are subjects or predicates, i. e. ' termini propositionis,' or ' extremes of a proposition.' They are now generally used for words limited to a particular signification. 6. The subject may be (i) a noun, with or without adjuncts ; (ii) an infinitive mood ; (iii) a sentence. 7. The predicate may be an adjective ; (ii ) a noun ; (iii) an infinitive mood ; (iv) a sentence. 8. There are many ways of considering the relation of subject and predicate. The simplest method is, perhaps, to consider the predi- cate as a whole, and the subject as a part. Thus, in the proposition, ' All men are animals,' we imply that (the subject) 'men' is a part of the class ' animal ' (predicate). 9. Propositions are divided according to their substance, quality, and quantity. The Substance of a Proposition is the nature of its asser- tion. If we assert absolutely, i. e. without a condition, the proposition is called categorical; if, with a condition, hypo- thetical ; as, ' Books I are | instructive ' (categorical). ' If books are instructive, they are useful' (hypothetical). N.B. — All hypotheticals may be reduced to categoricals, by changing if, &o. into the case of, as in the latter example : — Subject I I Predicate ' The case of books-being-instruotive is a case-of-their-being nseful.' 10. The Quality of a proposition is the character of its asser- tion. This character is twofold ; (i) essential ; (ii) accidental. The g2 84 AXALTSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. essential character is its heing affirmative or negative. The acci- dental character is its being true or false. 11. A TEEM is said in logic to be distributed ' wlieii it is taken for all and 'each of the things signified by it; ' as, when we say, 'All men are mortal.^ Here vien is said to be distributed, for we predi- cate mortality of the whole class — man, and of everi/ individual com- posing it. 12. By the Quantity of a Peoposition we mean the extent of its distribution. According to this division propositions are either uni- versal, particular, singular, or indefinite. Of these four kinds of propositions, singulaes are regarded as UNiVEESALS, and INDEFINITES are either univeesals or paeticulaes, according to their matter, i. e. the nature of the connection of the extremes. This matter is of three kinds — necessary, impossible, con- tingent. If the matter be necessary or impossible, the proposition will be universal ; if contingent, particular ; as, ' Snow is white ' (necessary), i. e. ' All snow is white.' ' Apples are ripe ' (contingent), i. e. ' Some apples are ripe.' 13. Hence all propositions can be reduced to four kinds : — 1. All X is y, universal affirmative (A). 2. No X is y, universal negative (E). 3. Some X is y, particular affirmative (I). 4. Some X is not y, particular negative (O). 14. These four kinds of proposition are symbolised in logic by the letters A, E, I, 0. 15. A distributes its subject ; E distributes boti subject and pre- dicate ; I distributes neither ; distributes the predicate. This is easily remembered by the rule : — Universals distribute their subjects. Negatives „ „ predicates. 16. The following diagrams will simply illustrate the meaning of this with reference to what has been said about the relation between subject and predicate : — SYNTAX. 85, X T A. All men are animals, i. e. man is a part of the class animal. the whole class X T E. No men are winged, i. e. the whole class man is completely without the whole class ' winged.^ X fruit T wholesome, I. Some truit is wholesome, i. e. a part of the class fruit is also a part of the class wholesome. X T O. Some metals are not scarce, i. e. a part of the class ' metal ' is entirely without the whole class ' scarce.' 17. With the following scheme of division we conclude this brief sketch of ' Proposition ' treated logically. Categorical Hypothetical I AiExmatiTe — Substance S w a ■■B /■Essential , -Quality . O CO o PM O P4 -Quantity 1 Accidental ' Universal Particular Singular . Indefinite i Negative True False For complete information on this subject the student is referred to Whately's Logic. 86 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER n. SENTENCES. 1. Definition. Syntax is that part of Grammar whicli treats of the right arrangement of words in a sentence. 2. A Sentence is a complete expression of thought. 3. A Proposition is defined grammatically to be — ' the asserting part of a sentence.' Hence a sentence may contain several propositions. 4. Sentences are of three kinds — simple, complex, compound. (i) A SIMPLE SENTENCE has One predicate ; as, 1 ' The good woman prepared for me a simple meal.' (ii) A COMPLEX SENTENCE has two Or more predicates : one principal, and the others dependent or subordinate ; as, 1 2 ' We manure the fields, in order that they may become firuitful.' (iii) A COMPODND SENTENCE consists of two or more principal or coordinate assertions ; as, 1 2 ' The boat sank, and they were all drowned.' 5. The following is an analytical scheme of ' sentence : ' — SENTENCE II ^ I , Simple Complex Compound Principal Subordinate Conjunctive Disjunijpive Adversative Illative Noun sentence Adjective sentence Adverb sentence SYNTAX. 87 6. Simple Sentence. (a) The essential parts of a sentence are subject and predicate. These every sentence must possess, and, in addition, it may, according to circumstances, have complement of the predicate, and extension of the predicate. (b) The subject may be, (i) A noun, with or without modifieationg or adjuncts, (ii) An infinitive mood. (iii) A sentence itself. (c) By the predicate in grammar is meant the copula + attri- bute ; hence generally the verb, or its eqmvalent. (d) The complement of the predicate completes the sense con- cerning the action affirmed ; thus, ' ' The boy struck the dog.' The boy struck, what ? — the dog. Here ' the dog ' completes the predicate, and conveys perfect sense. The complement of the predicate after a transitive verb is called the object. (e) The extension of the predicate means its qualifications, which must be adverbs, adverbial phrases, or their equivalents. The extension of predicate answers the questions, when ? where ? why ? how ? &c. 7. Complex Sentences consist of one principal sentence, and one or more subordinate sentences, which are of three kinds : — (i) The noun sentence. (ii) The adjective sentence. (iii) The adverb sentence. (i) Noun sentences mostly begin with that or it, and may be either the object or subject of the principal sentence ; as, Nonn sentence. ' It is not known (where Moses was buried);' 88 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. It is evident that the noun sentence answers the ques- tion, what ? thus, in this instance, ^ Noun sentence. ' What is not known ? ' Ans.'' Where Moses was buried.' 1^" After negative verbs, hut that is sometimes used. (ii) The adjective sentence being equivalent to an adjective, may qualify any noun in the principal sentence. An adjective sentence is introduced by the relative pronouns, who, which, that, or by any equivalent to the relative, such as hoiu, why, when, wherefore, wherein, whither. (iii) Adverbial sentences are extensions or qualifications of the predicate, and answer the questions, when ? whither ? whence ? where ? why ? how ? what for ? owing to what ? what of? with what ? in what degree ? how often ? how long? 8. Compound Sentences consist of coordinate members or clauses, which are of four kinds, and are known by the conjunctions which connect them. And, also, likewise, as well (i) Conjunctive, or copulative, connected by • f' ,, *"«'«'«'•. further -^ ■' furthermore, both, and, also, not only, but. I Either, or ; \ iJeither, nor ; y Otherwise, else. iBut, on the other hand, only, nevertheless, how- ever, notwithstanding, on the one hand, on the other hand, yet, still. ' Therefore, thereupon, where- fore, accordingly, conse- quently, hence, whence, than, so far. (ii) Disjunctive or negative (iii) Adversative (iv) Illative SYNTAX. 89 CHAPTER III. PARSING. 1. Parsing a sentence, or a word, is an explanation of the sentence or word per se, and relatively. It consists of (i) An analysis of the sentence. (ii) An explanation of each word, per se ; and in its- relations to other words. 2. In analysing a simple sentence we select, (i) the subject ; (ii) the predicate ; (iii) the complement of the predicate, if any ; (iv) the extension of the predicate, if any; thus : ' Afflicted with many troubles he forgave him readily.' Subject Predicate Complement of Predicate Extension of Predicate He, Afflicted with many troubles forgave him readily 3. ' In analysing a complex sentence mark the principal subject and predicate, and arrange under each the subordinate sentences which modify or enlarge them.' Ex. 1. ' Rain fertilises those fields which spread their bounty to God's creatures.' Principal sentence. (a) Subject . . . Hain _ Adjective sentence to (c). (b) Principal Predicate /erft'Ks«s | (i) Subject . . which (a) Object . . . those fields- (ii) Stib.-Pbedicatb spread ( d ) Extension of Predicate [ (iii) Comp. oj? Peed, their bounty to God's creatures. Ex. 2. ' Can the husbandman look forward with confidence to 90 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. the increase, who has the promise of God that seed time and harvest shall not feil ? ' Frincipal sentence. Adjective sentence to (a). (a) Subject, The husband- { |^^ • f . ^"'^'^ sentence to (iii). ^ ' ' J (uj Pkedioate ftiK fl. Subject . ^Ihat) seed man .] (iii)C0MP. OPl ttcju-omtjc I Ume and harvest ( Pked. j o/Ood (2. PEEDIOiTB.sAaH no e P4 «<4 o CJ ., "el ^■* I O et- 'J3 o fl © S'S s Ph ?.2 'J3 to § tT -So; g SjS, CS C g ° S § !zi d o « §5§ =2 92 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER rV. GENERAL LAWS OF SYNTAX. 1. Definition. Concord is the agreement of one word with another in gender, number, case, or person. 2. Government is the power one word has to regulate another. 3. The fundamental laws of syntax are five. (a) ' The verb must agree with its subject in number and person.' (b) ' Active verbs and prepositions take nouns or their equi- valents after them as their object.^ (c) ' Every adjective, or word so used, qualifies a noun ex- pressed or understood.' (d) ^Adverbs modify the meaning of words which convey idea of action or attribute, but not existence.' (e) ' Copulative and disjunctive particles unite together no- tions and assertions which hold the same relation to any given sentence.' — Morell, CHAPTER V. SPECIAL RULES. § 1- 1. There are three Concords. 1. The concord of verb and its subject. 2. The concord of adjective and noun. 3. The concord of relative and antecedent. 2. The ve7'b agrees with its subject in number and person ; as, ' The man speaks ; ' ' They speak to him.' SYNTAX. 93 3. If tivo or more nominatives be connected conjunctively, the verb is put in the plural ; as, ' Andrew and he were schoolfellows.' ^ Except these nominatives refer to the same subject, when the verb is in the singular ; as, ' Flesh and blood hath not revealed to thee.' 4. If two or more singular nominatives be connected disjunc- tively, the verb is put in the singular ; as, ' Neither the man nor his wife was summoned.' 5. If one of the nominatives be in tlie plural, it must be placed next the verb, which must also be in the plural ; as, ' Neither the Emperor nor his generals were convinced.' 6. If the nominatives connected by or, or nor, be of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearest ; as, ' Neither you nor I am concerned.' ^' Since all nominatives that require different forms of the verb virtu- ally produce separate clauses or propositions, it is better to com- plete the concord by expressing the verb or its auxiliary in con- nection with each of them ; as, ' Either thou art to blame, or I am.' 7. When two nominatives are connected, the one affirmative, the other negative, they make two propositions, and the verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, ' Not a loud voice, but strong proofs, bring conviction.' 8. When two nominatives are connected by as well as, or but, they belong to different propositions ; as, ' Veracity, as well as justice, is to be our rule.' 9. * A collective noun (in which the idea of unity is prominent) takes the verb in the singular ; as, ' The mob was riotous.' * The reason for this seems very natural. Collective nouns have plurals : thus, we say mob, mobs ; crowd, crowds ; army, armies, &c. Therefore being singulars, as it were, they require the verb in the singular. Nouns of multitude, on the other hand, have no plural forms, because they 94 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 10. A noun of multitude (in which the idea of plurality is promi- nent) takes the verb in Xheplural ; as, ' The nobility were alarmed.' 11. Substantive verbs; passive verbs of calling, naming; the verbs to seem, to appear, to grow, to look, to become certain reflective verbs, and passive factitive verbs, take the same case after them as before them ; and these cases may be considered cases in apposition ; as, ' Wellington was a general.' ^ The verb in such cases may agree eitier ■with the nominative before it or behind it. 12. The absolute construction, which is ablative in Latin, genitive in Greek, was dative in Anglo-Saxon and Early English, and is now nominative : thus we say, ' He alone excepted,' where formerly we should have said, ' Him alone excepted.' § 2. The Genitive or Possessive Case. Vide chap. III. § 6, 10, p. 34. 1. The Possessive case ('s) precedes the noun on which it depends ; as, ' John's horse ; ' otherwise the noun refers to one of many ; as, ' The horse of John's,' i.e. ' Of John's horses.' 2. When two genitives are in apposition, the apostrophe is used with only one of them (the principal noun) ; as, ' A book of Virgil's, the Roman poet.' 3. Several genitive relations expressed by of are appended to adjectives, such as mindful, desirous, certain, guilty, conscious, inno- cent, fearful, &c., to complete the sense. In Anglo-Saxon these adjectives governed a genitive. (Compare the Lat. rules.) 4. Certain verbs, also expressing accusation, acquittal, shame, repentance, deprivation, emptying, &c., admit the same construc- tion. 5. Vide § 5 note, with reference to the adjectives, worth, old, high, long, broad, &o. involve the notion of plurality : thus, we do not talk of clergies, nobUities (where we do so, the word must be considered a collective noun). Hence they take the verb in the plural. SYNTAX. 95 § 3. The Dative. 1. The Dative case is sometimes called indirect object. 2. The constructions which may be best considered as dative con- structions are seven, (a) The dative follows the adjective like ; as, ' He is like Mm,' i.e. ' to him.' (b) Verbs of telling, bringing, giving, offering, lending, send- ing, showing, promising, which may be termed generally verbs of advantage or disadvantage, govern a dative of the person and an accusative of the thing ; as, ' Give sorrow words,' i.e. ' to sorrow.' (c) The absolute construction in 0. English ; as, ' Him alone excepted.' (d) Me in connection with seems, thinks, lists, in meseems, niethinks (mihi videtur), melists. (e) The dative follows certain interjections; as, ' Woe is me,' i.e. ' to me.' (f) Him in himself hs a dative governed by self Vide chap. V. § 2 (d), p. 48. (g) The verbs please and obey, also thank and resemble, govern a dative ; as. ' Please it, your honours,' i.e. ' to your honours.' ' Know ye not that to whom ye yield yourselves servants to obey, his servants ye are to whom ye obey.' — Romans vi. 16. § 4. The Accusative (Objective) Case. 1. Transitive verbs and prepositions take after them an accusa^^ tive ; as, ' God made the world.' 96 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 2. Intransitive verbs sometimes take after them an accusative of the same signification ; as, ' I dreamt a dream.' This construction is called the cognate accusative. 3. Intransitive verbs are sometimes made transitive by the ad- dition of a preposition : they are then called prepositional verbs, and these prepositional verbs govern objective cases ; as, ' I despair — of the result.' 4. Nouns of time, space, and measurement, follow certain in- transitive verbs and adjectives in the objective case. These objective cases, however, are really governed by some preposition under- stood ; as, ' He waited all night,' i. e. (during) ' all night.' ' He swam the river,' i.e. (across) ' the river.' See § 5, 2, note p. 97. 5. The verbs ash and teach take tivo accusatives after them — one of the person, the other of the thing. When the verb is in the passive voice, one of these accusatives becomes a nominative, and the other is said to be governed by the verb ; as, ' He asked me a question.' ' I was asked a question.' ' A question was asked me.' ' He taught me geography.' ' I was taught geography.' ' Geography was taught me.' (^ This rule is stated as it is usually given. Perhaps the best expla- nation of this anomalous construction is, that 07ie of these objective cases is a dative, or governed by some preposition understood ; as, Either, ' He asked (from) me a question.' ' A question was asked (from) me.' or, ' He asked me (concerning) a question.' ' I was asked (concerning) a question.' So, ' He taught me (concerning or in) geography.' ' I was taught (concerning or in) geography.' SYNTAX. 97 or, ' He taught (to) me geography.' ' Geography was taught (to) me.' 6. Factitive verbs, i.e. verbs signifying to create, to maJce, to ap- point, take after them (wo accusatives of the person, -which are in apposition ; as, ' They made him king.' 7. When the verbs are in the passive voice, these accusatives become nominatives. § 5. The Adjective. 1. The adjective agrees with the noun it qualifies in gender, mimber, and case ; as, ' Faithful friends are a treasure.' 2. The adjective like is the only adjective that governs a case (dative). — Latham.* 3. Other, rather, else, otherwise, used as comparatives, and all comparative forms are followed by the word than, which takes the same case (ejusdetn generis) after it as before it ; as, ' He loved him better than me.' ' I could do it better than he.' * This is not accurate. The adjectives worth, old, high, broad, long, aud some say nigh, take after them, as getierally stated, an objective case, governed really by a preposition understood ; as, * It is worth six shillings.' ' He is three years old.' ' The waE is fourteen feet long, high, broad.' Goold Brown explains the government of worth, by supposing it ■■• pre- position ! Such an explanation is unsatisfactory. An examination will prove that we are as much justified in asserting that these adjectives govern a geni- tive case, as that like governs a dative. In Anglo-Saxon, such adjectives as worth, old, high, &c., signifying measure, value, age, and the like, govern a genitive; and in French they are followed by the preposition de, which is equivalent to a genitive relation ; hence in English we can only conclude that the case governed by these adjectives is really a genitive and not an accusative, for the construction must have come to us from one of these sources, most probably the former. H 98 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ^ The word than means next, and there is always an ellipsis in its use ; thus, than (First) 'I could do it better {mxt) he ' [could do it well]. (First) ' He loved him better next (he loTod me well).' By this method the correct case to follow than is always ascer- tained. 4. ' The ' before the comparative is not the article, but an abla- tive case ; as, ' The more, the merrier.' i.e. ' By this the more, hy that the merrier.' Cf Latin eo, quo. 5. The first two refer to one class, the two first to two different classes. § 6. Articles. 1. The Article, ' a ' or ' an,' is merely ' one ' in its simple signifi- cation. There is a difference, however, between the two words. We use ' one ' when we speak numerically : we use ' a ' or ' an ' when we wish to emphasize not the number but the description of the thing spoken of. 2. A ov an always implies unity, and can therefore never be used but in speaking of one, or in speaking of many things collectively ; as, ' A thousand years in Thy sight are but as yesterday.' ^^ 3. The article a has several meanings : Sometimes it means each ; as, ' onoe a year,' i. e. ' each year.' Sometimes it means any ; as, ' If a man love me,' i. e. ' any man.' Sometimes it means every ; as, ' It is good that a man should both hope and fear,' i.e. 'every man.' 4. The definite article is prefixed to plural adjectives and singular nouns to represent a class, and to singular adjectives to form an abstract noun ; as, ' Men call the proatZ happy.' ' The dog is more sagacious than the cat.' ' Idolatry is the worship of the visible.'' SYNTAX. 99 5. If we make a comparison between two nouns with reference to a third, than is followed by an objective case without the article, by a nominative with the article ; as, Object. 1. 'He would make a better statesman than lawyer.' Kom. 2. ' He would make a better statesman than a lawyer.' In (i) lawyer is an objective case ; thus, ' He would make a better statesman than (he would make a) lawyer.' In (2) A lawyer is a nominative case ; thus, ' He would make a better statesman than a lawyer (would make).' 6. When two or more nouns are taken collectively, or describe one person, the article is used only before the first ; as, ' The treasurer and secretary (one person).' ^ If different persons and things are meant, the article is repeated before each ; as, ' The treasurer and the secretary (two persons).' ^ Sometimes, however, the article is repeated for the sake of em- phasis; as, ' I returned a sadder and a wiser man.* 7. The pronominal adjectives, ' all, both, many, such, what,' and other adjectives when preceded by ' too, so, how,' stand before the article ; as, ' Ye see how large a letter I have written to you.' — Gal. vi. 2. ^g" The expression man^ a time, &o. will he discussed in chapter Til. 8. ' The ' before the comparative is not an article, but an ablative case ; as, ' The more the merrier ; ' i. e. ' By this the more, by that the merrier.' h2 100 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, § 7. Pronouns. 1. Pronouns possess the same gender, number, and person as the nouns they represent. 2. The rules that regulate the use of a singular verb after two or more nouns, or after a collective noun, apply also to the use of plural or singular pronouns ; as, ' Everyone must judge of his own feelings.' 3. Mt/ and thy are used before a noun, mine and thine when the noun is understood, or begins with a vowel or h mute ; as, 'Mine eye also shall see my desire upon mine enemies, and mine ears shall hear my desire of the wicked that rise up against me.' — Ps. xcii. 11. 4. In such constructions as, ' He said that it was good,' that is usually termed a conjunction. It is really a dem,onstrative pronoun, and in apposition to the sentence it was good ; thus, ' He knew that (thing) ' — viz. ' it was good.' 5. The demonstrative pronoun 'this' when used with a plural noun and adjective, gives the expression a collective force, and hence the verb is in the singular ; as, ' This seven years has passed quickly.' 6. Each, every, either, neither, no, require the verb to be in the singular. 7. For the construction of self, vide chap. V. § 2, (d) p. 48. § 8. Relatives. 1. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. ^P° 2. Who, whose, whom are used now with reference to rational beings ; which, to irrational beings, inanimate objects, and collective nouns. That is a general relative used after any ante- cedent. 3. Collective nouns, which are followed by a singular verb, require SYNTAX. 101 which. Nouns of multitude, whicla are followed by a plural verb, require who ; as, ' The mob luhich followed the candidate was disper,sed.' ' The clergy who assembled were then addressed.' 4. If two or more nouns are capable of being antecedents to a relative, the relative agrees with the nearest ; as, ' Solomon, son of David, who slew Goliath' (correct). ' Solomon, son of David, who built the Temple ' (wrong). 5. When two or more relative clauses refer to the same antecedent, and are connected by a conjunction, the relative must be repeated: so also must possessive pronouns, when the nouns they qualify are distinguished; as, ' Thus saith He who is, and who was, and who is to come.' 6. K a nominative come between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the verb, otherwise the relative is nominative to the verb ; as, ' The man whom you saw.' ' The man who saw you.' § 9. The Verb. 1. When the truth of one proposition depends upon the truth of another, the sentence is said to be hypothetical ; as, ' If thou read this, O Csesar, thou mayest live.' — Shakspere. 1^ The clause which oontains the condition is called the conditwnal clause : ' If thou read this.' The clause which contains the conse- quence of the supposition is called the consequent clause : ' Thou mayest live.' 2, The consequent clause sometimes appears in the form of a question, or as an imperative ; sometimes it is introduced by were, or had, or would. Sometimes it is omitted ; as, ' Is any afflicted ? let him pray.' — St. James. ' Prove that, and I will consent.' 102 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 3. A preventing conditional clause is introduced by were it not for, were it not that, iutfor ; and is followed by the subjunctive in the principal clause. — Angus. 4. The subjunctive mood is used when uncertainty and futurity are implied ; — (i) After if and although, expressing contingency anifuturitt/. (ii) After if, although, unless, except, denoting a supposition expressed or understood ; as, ' Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him.' (iii) After an imperative with lest or that ; as, ' See that thou do it not.' (iv) After that, expressing a wish ; as, ' Would that I had died for thee.' 5. The infinitive mood is governed (i) by a verb ; (ii) by a prepo- sition ; as, ' I wUl write ; ' ' I wish to write.' 6. Besides the auxiliary verbs shall, will, may, can, let, &c., the verbs behold, bid, dare (neuter), feel, hear, make, need, observe, per- ceive, and see, govern an infinitive mood directly. 7. The gerundial infinitive in ing,oi with to, represents the A.-S. dative form. It generally implies purpose or fitness when found after nouns, adjectives, intransitive, and passive verbs ; as, ' Apt to teach.' ' Fools who came to scoff, remained to pray ! ' 8. The gerund also expresses purpose, when united to a noun in a compound word ; as, ' a walking-stick,' i. e. 'a stick for walking.' 9. The gerundial infinitive explains the following forms : — ' He went a hunting.' ' Hard to hear.' ' What went ye out /or to see.' ' Sad to say.' ' Fit for teaching.' ' They are for surrendering.' ' A house to let.' ' He is to start.' SYNTAX. 103 § 10. The Participle. 1. Participles being verbal adjectives, possess the concord of ad- jectives, and the government of the verbs to which they belong. 2. The participles of transitive verbs admit of degrees of com- parison ; aSj ' more loving,' ' most amusing.' ^" In this case they are treated as adjectives. 3. In tenses fornied by the auxiliary verb To Be, the participle agrees with the subject of the verb ; as, 'He is walking fast.' 4. In tenses of transitive verbs formed by the auxiliary Have, the participle agrees with the object of the verb ) as, ' He has written the letter.^ 5. Gerunds are verbal nouns, therefore they can be the subjects or objects of verbs, which participles cannot be ; as, Gerund. Participle. ' Writing is amusing.' § 11. Succession of Tenses. 1. ' Whenever the conjunction that expresses intention, and con- sequently connects two verbs, the second of which denotes an action which takes place after the action denoted by the first, the verb in question must be in the same tense ; as, " I do this that I may gain by it." " I did this that I might gain by it." ' — Latham. 2. Correlative subjunctive forms may be gathered from the fol- lowing : — (i) ' If he be here, he is in this room, or I ivill find him.' (ii) ' If he have paid the money it is at the bank, or loill be found there to-morrow.' (iii) ' If he were here, I would tell him.' (iv) ' If he had been here, I should have found him.' 104 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (v) ' If he were (or were to be, or should be) rewarded, others would be encouraged by his success.' (vi) ' If he should, or would, or were to try, he would succeed.' — Angus. § 12. General Remarks. The imperative, the infinitive, with ' to ' and in ' ing,' are some- times used absolutely ; as, ' Many boys, say twenty, were present.' ' To tell you the truth, I do not believe him.' ' Judging at random, there were over a hundred.' § 13. Conjvmctions, Prepositions, Adverbs. 1. A conjunction is employed to connect clauses. 1^ In such expressions as ' two and two are four,' and has the force of with, and is prepositional. 2. If governs hoth the indicative and subjunctive. With the /oy- mer it means since ; with the latter, supposing that. To ascertain the proper mood of the verb, insert immediately after the conjunc- tion one of the two following phrases : — (i) ' As is the case ;' (ii) ' As may be the case.^ When (i) is required, the verb should be in the indicative mood ; wlien (ii) satisfies the expression, the verb must be in the subjunc- tive mood ; as, ' If (as is the case) he is gone, I must foUow him.' ' If (as may be the case) he be gone, I must follow him.' 3. Although, though, also govern the indicative and subjunctive. 4.* Conjunctions that are intended to express uncertainty, whether of condition {if, unless, as, though), of concession (though, however), oi purpose {in order that, lest) ; or of time, place, manner {wherever, whenever, until), govern the subjunctive ; as, ' Though He slay me, yet wiU I trust in Him.' — A. * See § 9, 4. SYNTAX. 105 5. Than is a conjunction, and takes the same case (ejusdem ge- neris) after it as before it. 6. When conjunctions are used to connect clauses, each clause must make complete grammatical sense ; as, ' He was more beloved (add, than), but not so much admired, as Cinthio.' 7. Generally, prepositions stand before the words they govern. They never stand before the relative ' that ' ; when the sentence is 'interrogative, or the relative is omitted, they are placed after the verb ; as, ' What did he do it for ? ' 8. The word or phrase which belongs to the governed word should always be so placed that the connection may be clear ; as, ' Errors are committed by the most distinguished writers [with respect to shall and will ']. This should be written thus : — ' Errors with respect to shall and will are committed,' &c. ^ For Prepositional Cuiistrmtiona, see Hiley's English Grammar. 9. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. When they stand alone, as, yes, no, certainly, they stand for a whole sen- tence. Sometimes they seem to qualify prepositions, nouns, or words belonging to other parts of speech ; as, ' I hear the /ar-off curfew bell ! ' — Milton. 10. In Anglo-Saxon, and in Greek and French, two negatives strengthen the negation. In English and Latin they destroy one another. 11. Ever and never are often confounded. Never is an adverb of time ; as, ' Seldom or never has such misfortune happened.' Ever is an aiveibhoth of time and degree; as, 'Ever with thee,^ 'Ever so good.' ' Charm he ever so wisely ' is better than ' never so wisely,' though this last is admissible. 106 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 12. When the word not comes between an indicative, imperative, or subjunctive mood, and an infinitive verb, it is almost always taken with the word it follows. 13. From the time of Wycliife to the time of Sir Thomas More, there was a minute distinction between yea, nay, and yes, no. Tea and nay answered affirmative questions ; as, ' WiU he come 7 ' Ans. ' Yea,^ or ' Nay. Yes and no answered negative questions; as, ' WiU he not come ? ' Answ. ' Fes,' or ' No.^ CHAPTEE VI. FIGUEES OF SPEECH. 1. Definition. Figtjees of Speech are peculiar forms of expres- sion — recognised derivations from the ordinary forms, grammatical constructions, and literal meanings oi words sjid phrases. 2. According to this definition we ought to divide Figures of Speech into Figures of Orthography, Figures of Syntax, and Figures of Rhetoric. For general purposes it wiU be better to consider the last two divisions as one, so as to have but two classes, (i) Gram- matical or Etymological Figures ; (ii) Figures of Speech. 3. Etymological Figures are modes whereby words tmdergo change, especially in process o{ formation or derivation. 4. These Figures are — (i) Syncope, whereby a word is abbreviated ; as, lord for hlaf-ord. (ii) Metathesis, whereby letters in the same word are inter- changed ; as, nostrils for nose-thirles ; brunt, for burnt ; brid for bird. SYNTAX. 107 Three are Additive : — (i) Prothesis, whereby a letter or syllable is added to the beginning of a word ; as, espy for spy. (ii) Epenthesis, whereby the insertion of a letter or letters, or a syllable, is made in the middle of a word ; as, far- th-er iot far-rer. (iii) Paragoge, whereby an addition of a letter or letters is made to the end of a word ; as, soun-d fcam son. Three are Subteactive : — 1. Aphwresis, whereby a letter or syllable is taken from the beginning of a word ; as, uncle, from av-uncle. 2. Elision, whereby a withdrawal is made from the middle of a word ; as, muster from mo-n-strare. 3. Apocope, whereby a letter or syllable is taken from the end of a word ; as, sue from suivre. Figures of Speech are peculiar forms of expression. (i) Pleonasm is redundancy of expression ; as, ' I know thee, stranger, who thou art.' (ii) Ellipsis is deficiency of expression ; as, ' She went to St. Paul's,' i. e. ' cathedral.' (iii) Personification is a figure of speech whereby we clothe qualities or inanimate objects with the attributes of life; as, ' Hope spread her wings, and flew away.' (iv) Simile is the comparison of two ideas, and corresponds to a ratio ; as, ' Youth is like the spring.' (v) Jf«^TAX. 129 ' His pavilion were dark waters.' — Ps. xviii. 11. ' The wages of sin is death.' In the last example, wages may be a singular. Dr. Richard- son's Study of Language. It is me. It is him, vide chap. V. § 4, 2. T^ ■ T J if command 1 It IS I, your master, who | ,o„„„„„rf, ) yo«- The question is whether the verb should be command or commands, i. e. what is the antecedent to ' who ' ? In the first place, there ought to be no ambiguity, and the construction should be altered. In the next place, according to rule, the relative agrees with the nearest antecedent, i. c. master, therefore, the verb should be commands. If it is said, your master is in apposition to /, put it in a parenthesis, and avoid all difficidty : thus, It is I (your master) who command you. Of this expression, Latham says : ' This brings us to the following question : With which of the two antecedents does the relative agree ? with /, or with master ? ' This may be answered by the two following rules : — Rule 1. When the two antecedents are in the same pro- position, the relative agrees with the _^rsi ; thus, 1. It is I, your master, 2. who command you. Eule 2. When the two antecedents are in different pro- positions, the relative agrees with the second ; thus, 1. It is I, 2. your master, who commands you. This position of the antecedent is determined by the con- nection or want of connection, between the substantive antece- dent and the verb governed by the relative. The words are { {. „ ' } Crombie, Morell, Allen, and others 160 AS^ALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. In the. expression, the word ' master ' is logically connected with the word ' command ; ' and this fact makes the expression, ' It is I, your master, who commands you,' the better of the two. — E. Language, vol ii. p. 376. Three times three I ' [ nine. ' Plurality being evidently implied, the plural verb seems more consonant with our natural con- ception of numbers, as well as the idiom of our language.' — Cr. Fare thee well. This familiar expression, which has the authority of Byron, is wrong. We should say, 'Fare thou well.' {as follow. \ as follows. J favour the form as follow, on the ground that as is a relative, and therefore the verb must be plural. Angus says the expres- sion as follows is preferable, for admitting that, if as follow is used, as is a relative, he observes it is not so used in English in any other case ; the expression is now adverbial, like as regards, or so far as concerns. Try and think. This common expression should evidently be, try to think. ' Satan than whom none higher sat.' This quotation from Milton has given occasion to some controversy. Latham observes with respect to it, ' The following is a practical rule for determining doubtful constructions : — (a) ' Eeduce the sentence to the several propositions (which are never less than two) which it contains. (b) ' Eeplace the relative by its equivalent personal or de- monstrative pronoun, or by its equivalent substantive. (c) ' The case of the demonstrative or substantive is the case of the relative also.' Thus we have : ' Satan spake ; none sat higher than he sat.' ' Satan spake ; none sat higher than Satan sat.' Hence the expression should be — ' Satan than who None higher sat.' .... SYNTAX. 131 This also coincides with the rule given respecting than after a comparative, q. v. In respect to, In respect of. Avoid the latter expression. Marsh says, ' Old writers sometimes say respectively to. This is now disused ; but relatively to is by no means unfrequent, and in respect of, used in this sense, is just as gross a violation of English grammar as to write relatively of, or in reference o/.' — Lectures on E. Lang. ' Thou canst not tell whence it cometh, < > whither it goeth.' ' We will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image' — ^Dan. iii. 1-8. There is a dispute among grammarians concemuig the adop- tion of or or nor, when any other negative than neither or nor occurs in the preceding clause or phrase, and Goold Brown cites a goodly array of axithors who advocate contradictory opinions. Dr. Angus says, ' During a considerable period in the history of our language, double negatives with a negative sense were common.' . . . ' If the two negatives helong to different clauses, we may use them both.' Or can be used in such casefe, and the negative will then extend over both clauses. The dispute seems to rest ultimately upon the definition of a conjunction. Those *ho define a conjunction as a ' word con- necting clauses,' must of course defend the use of nor. Those who assert that ' a conjunction connects words as well as clauses,' are justified in using or. k2 132 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. APPENDIX I. List of Strong Verbs. Steong Verbs may be divided into three classes. (i) Those which have one form to express the present, past tense, a,nd perfect participle. (ii) Those which have two forms to express these three parts. (iii) Those which have three forms to express these three parts. Class 1. Those which have the same form for present and past tenses and perfect participle. Present. Past. P.Particvple. Present. Past. P. Participle. Beset Beset Beset Bid Eid Eid Burst Burst Burst Set Set Set Bestead Bestead Bestead Shed Shed Shed Cast Cast Cast Shut Shut Shut Cost Cost Cost Shred Shread Shread Cut Cut Cut SUt Slit Slit Hit Hit Hit Spread Spread Spread Hurt Hurt Hurt Split Split Split Let Let Let Thrust Thrust Thrust Put Put Put Sweat Sweat Sweat Class 2. Those which have two different forms to express the present tense, past tense, and perfect participle. Present. Past. P. Participle. Present. Past. P. Participl Abide Abode Abode Bleed Bled Bled Awake Awaked or Awaked Breed Bred Bred awoke Cling Clung Clung Beat Beat Beaten Come Came Come Bend Bent Bent (O.-E. Curse Cursed or Cursed or bended curst curst Bind Bound Bound Dig Dug Dug LIST OF STROIS^G VERBS. 133 Present. Past. P. Participle. Present. Past. P. Participl Feed Fed Fed Meet Met Met Fight Fought Fought Bead Read Read Find Found Found Eun Ban Run Flee Fled Fled Shine Shone Shone Fling Flung Flung Shoot Shot Shot Get Got Got Sit Sat Sat Grind Ground Ground Slide Slid Slid Hang Hanged or Hanged or Sling Slung Slung or hung hung slang Hold Held Held Speed Sped Sped Keep Kept Kept Stand Stood Stood Knit Knitted or Knitted or Stick Stuck Stuck knit knit Sting Stung Stung Lead Led Led Swing Swung Swung Lend Lent Lent Wind Wound Wound Make Made Made "Wring Wrung Wrung Class 3. Those which have three different forms for the three principal parts of the verb. (With these verbs some are classed that have weak preterites.) Present. Past. P. Participle. Present. Va^t. P. Participle. Arise Arose Arisen Draw Drew Drawn Bear (to Bore or Borne Dress Dressed Drest carry) bare Drink Drank Drunk Bear (to Bore or Born Drive Drove Driven bring forth) bare Eat Ate Eaten Begin Began Begun FaU FeU FaUen Bid Bade Bidden Fly Flew Flown Bite Bit Bitten or Forsake Forsook Forsaken bit Freeze Froze Frozen Blow Blew Blown Freight Freighted Freighted or Break Broke Broken fraught Chide Chid Chidden Give Gave Given Choose Chose Chosen Grave Graved Graven Cleave (to Clave or Cleaved Grow Grew Grown cleave to) cleaved Hew Hewed Hewn Cleave (to Clove or Cloven or Know Knew Known split) cleft cleft Load Loaded Loaded, Crow Crew Crowed loaden or Dare (to Durst or Dared laden venture) dared Lie Lay Lain 134 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Present. Past. F. Farticipk. Present. Past. P. Participle Mow Mowed Mown Spin Span or spun Spun Eide Rode Ridden Spit Spat Spit Ring Rang Rung Spring Sprang Sprung Rise Rose Risen Steal Stole Stolen Rive Rived Riven Stink Stank or Stunk Seethe Seethed Sodden or stunk eeethed Stride Strode Stridden Sew Sewed Sewn Strive Strove Striven Shake Shook Shaken Strew, strow Strewed or Strewed or Shape Shaped Shapen Btrowed strown Shave Shaved Shaven Swear Swore or Sworn Shear Sheared Shorn or sware sheared Swell Swelled Swollen or Show Showed Shown swoln Shrink Shrank Shrunk or Swim Swam Swum shrunken Take Took Taken Sing Sang Sung Thrive Throve Thriven Sink Sank Sunk Throw Threw Thrown Slay Slew Slain Tread Trod Trodden Slink Slank Slunk Wax Waxed Waxen Smite Smote Smitten Wear Wore Worn Sow Sowed Sown or Weave Wove Woven Bowed Write Wrote Written REDUNDANT VERBS. 135 APPENDIX II. Redundant Verbs. Redundant Verbs are those wHch have more than one form for the past tense, or perfect participle, or both. Present. Fast. P. Participle. Present. Past. P. Participle Bear (to Bore or bare Borne Load Loaded Loaded, carry) loadeu or Bear (to Bore or bare Bom laden bring forth) Saw Sawed Sawed or Bite Bit Bitten orbit sawn Cleave (to Clave or Cleaved Seethe Seethed Sodden or cling to) cleaved seethed Cleave (to Cleft 0* Cleft or Shear Sheared Sheared or split) clove cloven shorn Dare (to Durst or Dared Spin Span or Spun venture) dared spun Freight Freighted Freighted or fraught Stink Stank or stunk Stvmk Hang Hanged or Hanged or StrSW Strewed or Strewed or hung hung strowed strewn Hide Hid Hidden or hid Strike Struck Struck or stricken Knit Knitted or knit Knitted or knit 136 PART II. ETYMOLOGICAL DEEIVATIONS. CHAPTER I. INFLEXIONS, § 1. Nouns. 1. Cases. Qen. IS or ES; as, hinges horse, i.e. king's horse (A.-S. es). Dat. OM, UM, M ; as, whilom, him, them, whom (A.-S. um). [The m in this suffix, according to Eichardson, is Hom-o"] 2. Gender. ER, AR, OR, signify male agent. (A.-S. wer, a man; or, jEr, the front, the prime person, or agent.) See below er of the com- parative. STER, female agent, denotes guidance, direction, (A.-S. steoran, to guide or steer) ; used also as a diminutive of depreciation and contempt ; as, youngster, punster. ESS (N.-F. fern, suffix from Lat. ix). ER, male agent (A.-S. corrupted from a or e); as, hunte', now hunter. STRESS =:ster + ess, double fern, termination (Sax. and Nor.); as seamstress, songstress. INE, Greek fem. ; as, heroine ; en, Germ. fem. ; as, vixen, from fuchsen. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 137 8. Number. EN (A.-S. an, pi. suffix) ; as, brethren ; reckoned strong. ER (A.-S. ru, now ry), a suffix implying coUectiveness ; as, yeo- manry. ES (A.-S. as, pi. suffix; also, N.-F. in x); whence the general modern pi. suffix e s, as suiting both languages. EL EM EN EK ET OCK OW ING „ ULE, CULE, » J» shovel. stream. chicken. splinter. lancet. hUlook. shadow. farthing. ^.vyJ cle icicle (Lat.) ICLE, iSK as asterisk (Gr.) 4. DiminntiTes. Other diminutive suffixes are formed by combinations of these elementary diminutives; as, KiN = ock + en, as mannikin. LET=el + et „ streamlet. REL =:= er + el „ pikerel. KLE=ock-l-el „ knuckle. EOCK=er + ock„ laverock^lark. HNG=el + ing „ duckling. 5. Angmentatives. ARD as drunkard "| ART CON ONE ION ING SON S FITZ 5IAC y of Goth, origin (O.-H. Germ.) hart. „ braggart / „ balloon "i „ trombone > of Italian origin. „ stanchion J 6. Patronymics. as Harding, ing (A.-S.) denotes descendant, or son of. „ Johnson 1 „ Richards J „ Fitzroy (N.-Fr.) „ Macdonald (Scotch Gaelic). O'Connor (Irish). (Eng.) AP or p „ Price =Ap-Eees=from Eees (Welsh). 138 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 7. General Noun Terminations. ADE (A.-S. a'd, a pile), continuity ; as, arcade, balustrade. HEAD, HOOD (A.-S. h4d), person, form, quality, condition; as, child- hood. DOM (A.-S. dom.), doom, judgment ; as, wisdom. EE (derived from French past. part, in e; as, assigne), implies office ; as, ti'ustee. iNG (A.-S. ung), denotes being; as, evening, morning. NESS (A.-S. nses), a nose, or promontory — prominent quality ; as, idleness. , EED (A.-S. rffid), counsel, advice, whence society ; as, kindred. Eic (A.-S. rice) ; kingdom; as, bishopric. SKIP 1 (A.-S. scyppan), to fashion, or form. SHIP \ „ „ „ „ as, friendship, SCAPE J „ ,, „ „ as, landscape. Y (A.-S. e) signifies place ; as, smithe', now smithy. WICK (A.-S. wic, or wye), a village; as, bailiwick. 8. Classical and N.-Frenoh. AGE (Lat. agere), act, state, or condition; as, bondage. ACY (Lat. acia, from adjective in ax, acis), has the meaning of ac, or ic (add), signifies office ; as, magistracy. ARY, OET (Lat. ar-is, arius, orius, urus, same force as er, q.v.), applied to person or place ; as, granary, lapidary. /•(Lat. tia), abstract quality; as, licence. TY (Lat. tas), abstract quality ; as, liberty. TUDE (Lat. tudo), abstract quahty ; as magnitude. IAN (Gr. Koe), relating to, or belonging to; signifies profession ; as, musician. ST (Gr. iaTr]<;), agent, or person; as, sophist. MEN ] (Lat. mens, mentum, moneo),sigmfiesmeaning,or intention; MENT ■ thus, testimony, testament, alimony, aliment, differ merely in monyJ their application. Anything mea»i to testify, to nourish. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 139 TURK, SURE (Lat. ura), abstract quality ; as tincture. OUR (N.-Fr. eur; Lat. or); as, ardour. ION (Lat. io), abstract idea ; as, action. § 2. Adjectives. 1. Termmations (Saxon). -EN (A.-S. an, en), means one, or united to; as, golden ring, gene- rally, made of. ED (A.-S. ad, od), means add, or join ; as, zooo(Zcrf=add wood. Y (A.-S. ig, from eacan, to add)=join; as, woody^iLdd wood. ' EBN (A.-S. £ern, a place) ; as, southern. ERLY, contracted from ernlT/ ; as, southernly ; li/=like. FOLD (A.-S. fealdan, to multiply, feald=:many) ; as, manifold. FULL (A.-S. fy 11 an, fo_^ZZ) ; as, faithful. ISH (A.-S. isc, or ics), denoting the external quality of a thing; as if from ic, «s=add it, Also a national appellative term ; as, coldish, Irish. LESS (A.-S. leosan, to loose, to dismiss), means without; as, sleep- less. LY (A.-S. lie or like) ; as, manly. SOME (A.-S. sum, from somnian, to collect); as, winsome. WARD (A.-S. wardian^io look at) ; as, homeward. 2. Chief Classical Terminations. AL, from Lat. adjectives in ' alls ; ' as, equalis. ANT, ENT „ ' ans,' ' ens ; ' as, elegans. ABLE, IBLE „ ' bilis ; ' as, visibilis. Fic, FEKODS „ ' ficus,' ' fsrus ; ' as, horrificus, pesti- ferus. *ous, OSE (ftdl of) „ ' osus ; ' as, verhosus. TORY, SORT „ ' torius,' ' sorius ; ' as, migratorius. * OTJS in righteous is Saxon not Latin ; the word being corrupted from rigkt- wis^riaht-mise. 140 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. IVE „ ' ivus ; ' as, captivus. AN „ ' anus ; ' as, humanus. ID „ ' idus ; ' as, timidus. PLE, BLE „ ' plex ; ' as triplex. QUE (Fr.) „ ' qutis ; ' as, obliquus. 3. Plurals. The plural suffix of adjectives was e in 0. E. as alle, pi. of all. Some assert that these, those, are such plural forms : these from this or thes. 4. Comparative and Superlative Affixes. ER (A.-S. £er=front), signifies duality and prominence, found in the word h-er-o. SE, as in worse, less, Goth, comparative suffix, fotmd only in these words. EST, superlative suffix; as if es-ed, which would mean add it. MORE-^ possibly derived from mow (A.-S. md), a heap ; as harley- I mow. MOST r mo?'e = ma- er, a ligger heap; and mosi r=ma-est, biggest J heap. 5. Irregular Comparisons. Pos. Com. Swperl. Good (A.-S. god). [Bet] (A.-S. betan), to improve, better, bettest, or best. Bad (A.S. badian), to seize in distress, to worsen. [Waur] (A.-S. weor=Jac?), worse, wor-est, worst. M UCH =mo-c-el, muckle = mow-like = heap-like. ,, r (A.-S. manig, N.-Fr. mesnie, 1 . / ■^ n ^^^ 1 a multitude) \ '^°''' °^°^ (^^'^- ^"P")" Little (A.-S. lit, small), | ^'*^^^^^-^-^^J^^^^^^*)' | least (A.-S. last). Late (A.-S. latian, to delay), later, latter, latest, last. FoRE=/roni, former=for-ema-er, for-m-ost, forest, first. Nigh (A.-S. neah), nearer (A.-S. nearra), nearest, next, {A.-S. [neahst). ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 141 FkR (A.-S. teoT, at a distance), far-tli-er, far-th-est Forth ( Lat. foiis^beyond), further, furthest. ^^° I CA -S eld=aoe\ [ °^^^^^ oldest. EldJ^ '" ■ ^ '^'l elder, (A.-S.ffildre), eldest, ealdest. Out (A.-S. ut), outer, utter, outermost, utmost. [Eathe] (A.-S. rath), swift, early, rather [rathest]. 6. Numerals. , Cipher (Arabic, safira, empty). One (A.-S. An). Two (A.-S. twA). Three (A.-S. thri). Four (A.-S. feower). Five (A.-S. fif). Six (Lat. sex). Seven (A.-S. seofon, Lat. septem). Eight (A.-S. eahta). Nine (A.-S. nigon). Ten (A.-S. tynan, to complete). Eleven (A.-S. endlufon=oree left). Twelve (A.-S. twalufon= ^__g_ ^^ ^^ ^j^^_ &c. J Both (A.-S. ba-twa or butu), ba=:JoiA, twa=two^=both the two, or by twos. 142 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Once (A.-S. an-es), now an adverb, formerly an old genitive. TwiCE=twies (A.-S. twi), now an adverb, formerly an old genitive. THEiCE = thries (A.-S. thri) „ „ Twain (A.-S. tw^gen). ONLT^onelike. Atone ^to be at one. ALONE=all one. One (adj.), A.-S. an; (noun), Fr. on, Lat. homo. § 3. Pronouns. I (A.-S. ic, Ger. ich). Thou (A.-S. thu), cormected with two. He (A.-S. He). She (A.-S. seo and heo): the former gives she, the latter hoo ; Lancash. dial, for she. It (A.-S. hy t), possibly from h(et:=the said, from hatan, to name. Mine (A.-S. min), gen. of ic, as if formed my-en, en being adject, suffix. Thine (A.-S. thin), gen. of thu, as if formed thy-en, en being adject, suffix. His (A.-S. his), gen. of he. Her (A.-S. hyre). Its, gen. of it. His formerly did duty for its, which was intro- duced after the completion of the authorised version of the Scriptures, circa 1640. Our (A.-S. ure), gen. oiwe ; as if, we-er. YoCR (A.-S. eower); as if, you-er. Their (A.-S. hyra) ; as if, they-er. Who (A.-S. hwa), connected possibly with he^wan, to hew. The relative represents the antecedent, as, an image does the original. Which (A.-S. who -|- like). "What (A.-S. hwajt), neuter oi who. The, this, possibly from thean,* to take. — Home Toohe. That. Tooke derives it from the p. part, of the same verb. Self (A.-S. sylf) = iAe same. * So written in Eichardson's Study of Lmigiiage : t>icgan, Mgan. — Boswdrih. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 143 Own (A.-S. Agen), from dgan, to have or hold. Ant (A.-S. an-ig = add one). Enodgh (A.-S. genogan), to satisfy. Some (A.-S. somnian), to collect. Divers (Lat. diversus), different. Each (A.-S. ea-ilk=o?je like); ilka means the same. Evert (A.-S. sefre), always; y=. ig^ add. Such (A.-S. swa = so + lihe). Aught (A.-S. a whit = a bit). Naught (A.-S. no whit or no bit). Either (A.-S. athor or auther ^ one of two). Pronominal Adverbs. Nominative G-enitiTe Porm Dative Form Accusative Foi-m Ablative Form Comparative Form He The Who Hence Thence Whence Here There Where /■Then \ 1 Than / When How Thua [for thi] Why Hither I Thither Whither A.-S. r, ra, e, aignity rest in; her— hei'e; ]>!BT=ihere; hwser: where. DER (motion to): hi-dieT = hither ; ]>i-Aet := thither; hwi-der: whither. — Vernon's Anglo-Saxon Guide. § 4. The Verb. 1. Principal Prefixes. A, before verbs gives a transitive force ; as, await = wait on. A, gerundial prefix ^ on ; as, a-hunting — on-hunting. Be = by, and gives a transitive or reflective force ; as, behave = be-have. For (Lat. foris, out of, or beyond) ; a.&, forget, forbid, get forth, &c. And or An = against ; as, answer = swear against. Fore = before ; as, foretell = tell beforehand. En, prefix or suffix, has the force of to make ; as, enrich, lighten ; the words enlighten, enliven, enripen, engladden, enstrengthen, endarken have both. 144 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. En or Em (Lat.) for in = in or on; as, embarh. Mis- (Goth.), to err, or stray from ; as, mislead = to lead wrong. "With (A.-S.) in composition against ; as, withstand, i.e. stand against. Ee (Lat. back) ; as, retrace. 2. Inflexions. -ST (A.-S. ast, O. Sax. is, Gr. eig, ag, e) ; Sanscrit si; may be a form of (TV, thou. -TH (A.-S. ath, O.-Sax. and Lat. t), may be a form of the, an old pronoun of the third person. -ING, participial suffix (A.-S. ende). -iNG, gerund (A.-S. anne) ; asj writing = wriianne = to write. ^ The infinitive to write (A.-S. an; as, writan) : the gerund to write (A.-S. anne; as, writanne). -ED ; as in delighted. The force of this suffix is did ; thus, / loved = / love-did. 3. Diminutive Verbs are or were those ending in -M as seem. -EN (n, on) ;) gladden, reckon. -EL, LE )) struggle, kneel. -ER )) glimmer. -ND ?) bind. -KG )j swing. -NK 5) drink. -NT )) stint. -UCK (CK, k) >I pluck -UTCH (OTCH, ATCh) J) clutch. -ush; (sh, ass) )> brush -ow )) hallow. -OT, T, D JT blot. -AG, UG, AUGH, T )J laugh. 4. Intensive. -STER as bluster. ETYMOLOGICAL DEBIVATIONS. 145 (Classical) 5. Causative. as, linger, whiten. cleanse. burnish. worry, facilitate. terrify. expedite. tranquillize. (Classical) -ate 6. Frequentative. as, batter, clamber. „ agitate 7. Inceptive. -ESCE (Lat.) as, effervesce. 8. The Verb To Be. The Anglo-Saxon verb substantive is composed of several verbs. We can trace in its different inflexions no fewer than five, of which three now remain — he, am, was. I am, com, eart, ys, synd, synd, synd, I was, w£es, wsere, wses, wseron, wa3ron, wseron, I be, beo, byst, byth, beoth, beoth, beoth. In these inflexions we may distinctly see five verbs whose conju- gations are intermixed : — 1. EoM, es, ys, are of one family, and resemble the Greek ti^i. 2. Ar, arth, am, are, proceed from another parent, like eram. 3. Sv, synd „ from another, and recall sum, sunt. 4. W^s, wsere, wseron „ from another source, seen in A -S. wesan. 5. Beon, bist, byth, beoth „ from another family, of which the infinitive heon was kept in use. L . (Lat. Eetas ^ life.) 146 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. , We now trace the derivation of such parts as are bequeathed to us : then compare the French, Latin substantive verbs, Am, cognate with Gr. Eifxl = cut fxot, life to me. Is „ „ tie = ael, aoi, life to thee. Are (Icelandic or Danish) er; were (Grer. war); cognate with Gr. 'kap=: spring ;" (Lat. ver, vireo). Was (Goth.) wuasgan, to grow. Be ") T, \ cognate with Gr. ftioe, life. Weet, said to be a remnant of A.-S. weorthan or wyrthan, to he, to become. , French. Etre Etant Etais Pus, (Lat. fui) ; (Gr. ^uu), to grow. Serai, (Span, ser, iu be) ; hence serai^'ai aer, / have to be, or / shall be. Latin. Sum, similar to dfu = f wtj f^oi, life to me. Fui, fuo, to spring, to grow. (Gr. ^ww.) EsTO, (from e-stare), to stand out. Hence we find the notions involved in the substantive verb to be, life, growth, standing, springing, existence, flourishing. 9. Auxiliary Verbs. Shall, (A.-S.) scealan, to owe. Will, (A.-S.) wyllan, to will or wish. May, (A.-S.) magan, to be able. Can, (A.-S.) cunnan, to know. Would, as if wol-did, wolde, would. Should, ,. shol-did, schold, should. Could, properly c out he, couth, coud. ^g° I inserted by false analogy. ETYMOLOGICAL DEEIVATIONS. 147 Owe, (A.-S.) Agan, to have, or hold. Wist, (A.-S.) witan, to know. "Worth, (A.-S.) weorthan, to be or become; (Ger. -werden). Quoth, (quothe, quoth, quod), whence quote and bequeath. Methinks, (A.-S.) thincan, to seem; thencan means to think. Melists, (A.-S.) lystan, to please, whence lust. Do (act.), (A.-S.) don, to make (facere). Do (intr.), (A.-S.) dugan, to thrive, to avail (valere). YcLAD, Yclept. The A.-S. participial prefix was ge, corrupted into y; so, geclad, geclept (clepan, to call, A.-S.), became yclad, yclept. Did, "I These verbs are said to be the only verbs we possess HiGHT, J which show traces of reduplication. Fronunciation of Saxon. 1. The student may find it difficult to trace the connection between the Saxon word and its English derivative, on account of a diiference in their forms. This difficulty will disappear if the Saxon pronunciation be rightly understood. 2. To assist him the following rules and explanation are sul^oined. Vowels. Each vowel in the Saxon has a double sound, viz. the ordinary sound and a long or broader one. The latter is distinguished by the marks ' or * super- scribed. A has the sound of a in ah, as in father.' A. or A pronounced longer and broader, something like o ; as, Ifir = lore, B&T= sore, ka^oak. M pronounced like a in glad. m'^ „ a in dare. E ,, 6 in send. E (before a consonant followed by a vowel) pronounced like ea in bear. B (before a or o) pronounced like y; as, eorl, yeorl. E at the end of a syllable is lightly sounded, like the French unac- cented ' e.' E pronounced like se'. I T pronounced like i in dim. I (before another vowel) pronounced like y. i Y pronounced like e e in deem, some say like i in wirK. o pronounced like o in not. 148 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6 pronounced like o in Tiote, ow „ in now. V „ u mfidl. li ,, ooinAoo^. t^ I before e and u has the sound of y ; as, ludeas, Jews ; iugo^, youth. EO seems to have had a sound of n, as sweord = snittri. CONSONAITTS. The consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following exceptions : c was pronounced like k until a comparatively late period, when it ap- pears to hare degenerated into ch, as in church ; ceorl, churl ; cild, child. p had probahly a sound approaching to v between two vowels, or at the end of a syllable, as appears from its being sometimes represented by u ; as, heauod for heafod, head, &c. G is never soft: when placed between two of the vowels se, e, i, or y, or at the beginning of a. syllable before e or i, followed by another vowel, it has the sound of y as lufige, liifiye ; gear, year ; faegen, fayne ; faeger, fayre, fair. G before e or i, and (like h) at the end of a syllable, was probably guttural, as often in German, and almost silent ; as, bys-ig, busy. H was a hard aspirate, and is used at the beginning of syllables before 1, u, r, w ; as, hlaf, loaf; hnutu, nut ; bring, ring. Before w it has become our wh ; as, hwettan, to whet; hwael, whale. At the end of a word, either by itself, or followed by a hard consonant, it has the sound of Gr. x, or Ger. ch guttural, and is represented in modern English by gh; as, purh, through; leoht, light. CO is usually written for gg ; as, secgan, for seggan, to say. p (tha) is our hard th, as in thing. IS (eth) is our soft th, as in other. p usually begins, % ends a syllable. A corrupted form of p, written in later MSS. not unlike y, has given rise to the use of ye in old books for ' the,' i. e. pe. The use of this letter was continued as late as the 16th century. t^ If the student will attend to these simple rules, he will be able to re- concile many apparent incongruities in etymology; for he will perceive that many words have been written after the pronunciation rather than the form of their originals. Thus ' own ' from d,gen, ; here, if a be pronounced as o, and g like y (as is often the case in German), we have oyen, which is not far from ' own.' ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 149 CHAPTER II. CONJUNCTIONS. An, (A.-S.) annan, unnan, to grant. And, from an-ad. An, I grant, from (A.-S.) annan: ad means pile or heap. — Home Toohe. As, (Ger.) es, it. Because := by cause, by reason of. Both, (A.-S.) butu, by twos. But, (A.-S.) botan, to boot. — Home Toohe; possiblyb6t, a correction. Except, (Lat.) excipere. Even, (A.-S.) sefen ; (Dan.) evenen, to smooth, to level. Either, (A.-S.) segther. Fob, (Goth.) fairina, a cause; (A.-S.) for, ore account of. Eke, (A.-S.) eacan, to add. Else, (A.-S.) alysan, to dismiss, or alias (Lat.) otherwise. If, (A.-S.) gifan, to give. This derivation of Tooke's is questioned. Lest, (A.-S.) leosan, to dismiss. Neither = not either; vide supra, not one of two. NoK, vide or, not other. Or, (A.-S.) o8er, oder, other. Since = seeing that, (A.-S.) seon, to see. So, (A.-S.) swa, from ssegan, to say. — Toohe. Still, (A.-S.) stellan, to put. — Toohe. Stillan, to quiet. Though, Although, (A.-S.) thafigan, to allow. That, (A.-S.) thicgan, to take. — Toohe. Unless, (A.-S.) onlys an, to dismiss. Whether, (A.-S.) hwaether, which of two. Yet, (A.-S.) getan, to get. Home Tooke's theory is that conjunctions, prepositions, and adverbs are originally parts of verbs, chiefly imperative moods : e. g. if means give. 150 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER III. PEEPOSITIONS. Above, a=on. (A.-S.) bufan=be-ufan ; from ufa, lofty. About, (A.-S.) abutan^on boda=ciroum ; h 0^3, = extremity. After, (A.-S.) asfter, comparative of seft; (Dan.) efter, behind. Against, (A.-S.) ongean, to meet. Among, (A.-S.) a = on, moengan, or mengian, to mingle. Athwaet, (A.-S.) thweorian (according to Home Tooke), to twist, to oppose. At, (A.-S.) set, at. Behind, (A.-S.) hindan. Below, (A.-S.) Kcjan, to lay or lie. Beneath, (A.-S.) neothan, beneath. Between, (A.-S.) be-twegen, by twos. Beyond, (A.-S.) bigeond=6«pass«cZ; geondfrom gangen, logo; whence, yond, yonder. BuT=6« out, (A -S.) biitan, to be out. Down, (A.-S.) dufan, to sink. Ere, Erst, (A.-S.) oer, er, before. Foe, (Goth.) fairina, cause. (A.-S.) for, on account of. Fore, (A.-S.) foran, before. From, (A.-S.) frum, the beginning. In, (A.-S.) in. Tooke says from inna=viscera? Midst, (A.-S.) mid. In composition=with (Lat.) medius. Of, (A.-S.) of; (Goth.) af-ara, posterity. Off, probably the same word as of, with a different application. On, (Goth, ana; A.-S. on), is of unsettled etymology. Out, (A.-S.) ut, utan. Tooke derives it from a word outa^skin ? Round, (A.-S.) rond= Jordcr; also (Lat.) rotundus. Over, (A.-S.)6fer; Gr. iirtp. Tooke supposes ufa means top or head. Through, (Goth.) dauro, a door or passage. (A.-S.) thurh. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 151, To, (Germ, thun), means to do ; hence Tooke considers to equiva- lent to the end. Towards, (A.-S.) wardian, to looh at ; as if, to look to the end. Till, Until. While =a time. Till is a corruption of to-while=?o a time. Until means on till. Under. Tooke, resolves this into on neder; neder=/?i/eriO)'. Up !• ' > (A.-S.) abufan. See above, upon. Without, (A.-S.) withutan, to be out of. With, (A.-S.) withan, to bind. CHAPTER IV. ADVEBBS, &c. 1. The four adverbial prefixes are a, al, be, to. The signification of these is a=^on, al=all, be = by, to = the or this. The four ad- verbial suffixes are ly, wise, ways, wards. These mean respectively, li/ = like, wise = manner, ways = direction, wards from ward =: looking at. 2^ Aboard, on board. Adrift, (A.-S.) drifan, to drive; on the drive. ^ghast, (A.-S.) gast, geist; -whence ghost, on the gaze. .Aloft, (A.-S.) luft^atV, on the air. Askew, (Dan.) skisever, to twist. Askant, (Dutch), schuins, wry, oblique. Astound, (Fr.) 6tonner, astonish. Asunder, (A.-S.) sundrian, to separate, whence ' sand.' Away, (A.-S.) on-wag, on the way. Awhile, (A.-S.), on a time. AwKY, (A.-S.) writhan, to writhe. Atwist, (A.-S.) twisan, from twa two, to twist. Athwart, (A.-S.) thweorian, to twist. AhUEAXiY^all-ready, (A.-S.) rsedian, to prepare. Alone =:a/i-o?ie. 152 Als^ALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. AN0N=2ra one, (instant). But, as an adverb, means only. Enough, (A.-S.) genogan, to satisfy. Ever, (A.-S.) xfre=always. 'EAi^=gladly, (A.-S.) fsegnian, to rejoice. Forthwith, forth + with =wzJAom< delay; ioT\&-=out of. Instantly, (Lat.) in stare, urgently. /Immediately, (Lat.) in=noi, medius=??ijWZ«, no middle thing intervening. Forsooth =tt the low partof the valley „ Gompton Craig Craigmillar Carrick ■ a craggy hill ))■ Carrichfergus Crick Crick Howell CUL the back or hind part Dun a hill or fort on a hill „ Dumbarton,Huntingdon Glen a narrow valley „ Glen-Tilt Cl= chapel (Gloseburn = Chapel of "1 Osborne Km Ken ■ a cape or comer „ Kent Chin ETTMOLOGICAL DEEIVATIONS. 169 Celtic. Inch Ennis Inver Aber Llan Lin Tre Ros Strath Meaning. > an island a mouth of a river (North of Grampians, In- ver ; south of ditto, Aber) a church a deep pool a town a promontory a broad valley as, Inchcape Hock „ Inverness > „ Aberwick, i.e. Berwick {Launceston= Church of St. Stephen „ LinlithgoWjKiny's Lynn i Oswestry = town of St. "t Oswald „ Rostrevor „ Strathfieldsaye. § 4. Scandinavian. ScandinaTian. Meaning. Auk a temple or altar as, Arkholm Argh )j n „ Grimsargh Beck a brook „ Caldbeck Beek a steep „ Norbrek Brik jj „ Killbricks BOL a dwelling „ Thorbol By a town „ Grimsby Dal a valley „ Dalby Dale >i „ Scarsdale Dan 1 Dane J a Dane „ Danby Ey Ay ■ an island „ Orkney J) „ Calvay AJ J? „ Grimsa Fell a rocky hill „ Scawfell Fisker fish „ Fiskerton Ford ' Firth an inlet (fiord) „ Seaforth Forth Frith , Force a waterfall „ Mickleforce 170 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ScandinaTian, Meaning. Garth "1 Guard J an enclosure as, Fishguard Gate a way „ Sandgate Gill a valley „ Ormesgill Hag high pasture land „ Hag-gate Haig Haugh Philip-haugh Hoc a hill „ Langenhoc Holm an island „ Langholm Kell a spring „ Kellby KiKK a church „ Ormskirh Orme a demigod or hero „ Orme's head a river „ Thurso A jj „ Skeba Scak a steep rock „ Scarborough SCAW a wood „ Scawby Skip"! Ship/ a ship „ Skipwith Ster a place „ Ulster Suther \ Suttee Souther south „ Sutherland SonoR ,, Sodor and Man Tarn a mountain lake „ Tarnsyke Thing Ting a place of meeting {meeting = mote-thing) „ Tingwall Ding 17 » ,, Dingwall Thorpe ' „ Milnthorpe Throp • a village Drop . „ Staindrop Toft a smaU field „ Lowes-toft Vat a lake „ Tanvats Wig I Wick J a creek or bay „ Wigtoft With a wood „ Langwith. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 171 § 5. Names of Places showing Norman Occupation. ASHBT DE LA. ZOUCH, Leicestershire. Beaulieu, Hampshire. Beaumaris, Anglesey. Beaumont, Oxford. Grace Dieu, Leicestershire. HURSTCOURTEAY, Sussex. HUESTMONCEAUX, Sussex. HURSTPIEEPOINT, Sussex. Malpas, guards the valley of the Dee. MoNTACuTE Hill, Somerset. MONTFORD, Shropshire. Montgomery, Welsh border. MiNSHULL Vernon, Cheshire. Pleshy, Essex. Richmond, Yorkshire. ElEVAUX, 1 JOEVEAUX, / Yorkshire. Stoke Mandeville, Bxicks. CHAPTER IX. NAMES OF COLONIES, FOREIGN PLACES, &c. § 1- Albemarle Sound, named after Monk, Duke of Albemarle, temp. Charles IL Albion, from either ' Alp ' or ' Alb ' (alhus), ' the snowy range.' Aristotle was the first to write of Britain under this name. Alleghany, derived from the name of an Indian tribe rapidly be- coming extinct. America, ftom Amerigo- Vespucci, a Florentine traveller, who is said to have inserted the words ' Tierra de Amerigo ' in a map published by him early in the 16th century. 172 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Ascension Island, named after Ascension Day, the day of dis- covery. Azores, ' the island of hawks ; ' acor=hawk ; es=island (Portu- guese). Bab-el-mandeb, ' the gate of hell.' Bermudas, discovered 1 522, by a Spaniard, Juan Bermudez, who happened to be wrecked on them. Baltimore, named after Lord Baltimore, the patentee of the colony of Maryland; founded 1745. Bombay CPort.). Bona Bahia=^ the good bay.' Brisbane, founded 1823, named after a governor of this Australian colony. Britain, possibly from ' Bri-etan-ia ; ' etan signifies country. — T. Canada (Indian). Kanata=' a cluster of wigwams.' Canary, from a peculiar race of large dogs found there; care/s = dog, and i!/=island. Carolina, dates from the Restoration (Charles II.). Charleston, „ „ Columbia, named after Christopher Columbus, ceded to United States Government by Maryland and Virginia, 1790. Connecticut (1665), derived from Indian. Dampier Archipelago ; from William Dampier, the navigator, who discovered it August 31, 1699. Davis Strait, discovered by Captain John Davis, August 11, 1585, during his first voyage in quest of the North-west Passage. Detroit, means ' narrow passage ' between Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie. Dominica, Isle of, discovered on a Sunday (dies Dominica), Nov. 2, 1493, by Christopher Columbus. Elizabeth County (America), so-called in honour of the mother of Prince Eupert. England, i.e. ' Angle-land :' land of the Angles. Faroe Isles (Norse), /aar:=sheep, oe=island. Formosa (Port.) = ' beautiful.' Fort Orange, formerly Dutch, now called Albany, so named after James II., Duke of York and Albany, when the Dutch were expelled. Fredericsburg, after Frederic, Prince of Wales, son of George 11. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 173 Geneva =cenn afon (Celtic), ' the head of the river.' Gibraltar, gebel-al-Tarick=^^ the mountain of Tarik.' Good Hope (Cape of), called, by Bartholomew Diaz, Capo Tormen- tosa, the Cape of Storms, changed into its present name by King John of Portugal. Hatti (Indian), ' a mountainous country.' Heligoland =' holy island land.' Himalaya (Sans.), ' perpetual abode of snow.' Jersey, ' Caesar's island.' Juan Fernandez, so called from the Spanish navigator who dis- covered it. Lancaster Sound, from Sir John Lancaster, who helped to fit out Baffin's expedition. Liberia=' land of freedom.' Louisiana, so called from Louis XIV. Malaga (Phcenician), malaca=' salt.' 'M.AhTA^MeUta=' a place of refuge.' Man (Isle of ) . Man (Celtic) = ' district. ' Marsala (Arabic), ' Port of God.' Maryland, so called after Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. Massachusetts (Indian), ' the blue hiUs.' Mississippi (Indian), ' the great river.' Missouri (Indian), ' the muddy river.' New York, so-called after James II., Duke of York and Albany, formerly called by the Dutch, New Amsterdam. Niagara (Indian), ' thunder of waters.' Pennsylvania, so called from ' Penn ' the Quaker, who colonised it. Pepj?(ambuco=' the mouth of Hell.' Rapidan, so called from Queen Anne. St. Domingo (Spanish) ; Hayti (Indian). St. Helier's, from ' St. Helerius,' who mortified the flesh and ' kept his body in subjection,' by standing on sharp stones with spikes pointed against his shoulders and breast to prevent him falling asleep. St. Malo, from St. Maclou, possibly St. M'Cleod, a wandering evangelist of the 6th century. Sandwich (Isles), discovered by Cook, 1769 ; so named after Lord Sandwich, the first Lord of the Admiralty. 174 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, Tarifa; Sept. 710, a.d. Tarif-Abn- Farah first landed here for the, conquest of Spain. Valetta, from John Parisot de la Valette, the heroic Grand Master , of the Knights of St. John (1566). Van Dieman's Land, so called by ' Tasman ' after Maria (daughter of the Batavian governor, Van Dieman), to whom he was attached. "Wight (Isle of), Lat. Insula vectis. t^ For additional information the reader is referred to Words and Places, ' by the Eev. Isaac Taylor. § 2. Geographical Eqtiivaleiits. Bat, or arm of the sea = Bend of a river : Bridge : Cape = City, Town, or Village: Eminence : Encampment = Forest, Hill, Wood : Fountain, Well ; Haven, &c. : Height, Mountain ; Island Lake Market Mineral Spring Place or Worship Mouth of Eiver Kiver, a stream Bahia, hai, loch, lough, bight. cambuB, wic. bridge, brucke, pont. ard, cabo, kin, ness, ros. ciudad, bal, gar, gorod, medina, burg, patam, polls, pore, vie, tre. auchter, berg, brae, cliff, col, cota, dun. fort, hill, gherrj, mont, ramah. caer (fort), caster, alcala. hurst, kil, wald. beer, brunn, en, font, well. hamn, hithe, pool, port. ben or pen, berg, brae, cairn, col, craig, carriok, crick, djebel, feld, horn, kopf, law, low, mont, sierra. ea, diva, ennis, holm. lago, loch, lough, zee, mere, meer, tarn. cheap, forum, haut, klobing. acqua, bad. baal, church, eccles, kirk, kil, llan, min- ster. aber, inver, monde, mouth, praag. ab, alt, bahar, bourn, brook, bee, ermat, ganga, ho, rio, fleet. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIOIS'S. 175 EocKY Height = oliff, craig, rock, stein. Valley ;= combe, dale, den, guad, glen, grund, strath. CHAPTER X. WOKDS DEBITED FBOM NAMES OF PLACES. Agate, ' precious stone,' from Achates, a river in Sicily. AliABASTER, Pliny tells us from Alabastrum, in Egypt. Ammonia, ' salt,' prepared by the priests of Jupiter Ammon. Arras, ' tapestry,' from Arras in France. Artesian, well sunk through the chalk basin of the province of Artois. Babbler, from the Tower of ' Babel.' Baudekin, gold, silver, silk tissue, from Baldacca, or New Bagdad, a suburb of Cairo. Bayonet, from Bayonne. Bernodse, from Fr. ' Berne,^ from Hi-bern-ia. Bezant (coin), from Byzantium. Bilboes, from Bilboa. Bonnet, from an Irish village of the same name. Calibre, possibly from Calabria. Cambkic, from Cambray. Canter, ' a Canterbury gaUop ; ' the easy ambling pace of pilgrims going to the shrine of Thomas h. Becket, at Canterbury. Carp, from Cyprus. Carpet, from Cairo, where made. Carraway, Pliny tells us from Caria. Chalybeate, from Chalubes, a tribe of Armenia. Charlatan, derived the Italian forms ciarlatano, cerretano, from the city of Cerreto. Cherry, from Cerasus in Pontus. Chestnut, from Castanasa in Thessaly. Copper, from Cyprus. CoRDWAiN, from Cordova. Ckavat, from Croatia. 176 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Currants, from Corinth. Candy, from Candia, Coach, from ' Kottsee,' a town in Hungary. Cocoa, from the Mexican province of Choco. Coffee, from the mountains of Caffa, south of Abyssinia. Damask, 1 ^^^^ Damascus. Damson, J Demijohn, a glass vessel from Damaghan, a town of Khorassan. Delft Ware, from Delft. Diaper, from d'Ypres, in Flanders. Dimity, from Damietta. Dittany, from Dicta, a mountain in Crete. Drugget, from Drogheda. Ermine, the skin of the Armenian rat. Flash, from the gipsy squatters on the eommons around ' Plash,' a village between Macclesfield and Buxton. FasTiAN, from Fostat, a suburb of Cairo. Galloway, horse, derived from horses wrecked there from Spanish Armada. Gamboge, from Cambodia. Gauntlet, or Gantlope (lope=racc) ; from Ghent, where the punish- ment originated. Gauze, from Gaza. Ginger (Sp. jengibre), possibly from Zanzibar. Guinea, gold from the Guinea coast. Harlequin (It. Arlecchino), possibly from Arlecamps, or Champ d'Arles. Humbug, a piece of ' Hamburg ' news, i.e. ' a canard,' or false report. Jalap, from Jalapa. Jet ffrom gagate, jaet). Gagates, a river in Lycia. Jennet, probably from Jaen, capital of one of the Moorish kingdoms in the peninsula. Latakia, from Laodicea. Loadstone = Z?/rfms lapis, from Lydia (?). Lumber, the Lombards were the first pawnbrokers ; hence a room full of miscellaneous effects was named a Lombard (lumber) room. Magnet, from Magnesia. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 177 Majolica, from Majorca. M^VLMSEY {wine), from Malvasia, a port of the Morea. MAV0UKES, cherries from Medoc in the Gironde. MiLLiNEE, from Milan. Muslin, from Moussul. Nitre, from Nitria, a province of Egypt. Pad, Padding, from Padua. Parchment, Charta Pergamena, used for library of Pergamus. Peach (persica), from Persia. Pheasant, from the banks of the Phasis. Pistol, from Pistoja, near Florence. Quince, the apple of Cydon, a town in Crete. Eoan {horse), Norman horse imported from liouen. Sable, fur, from Siberia. Sarcenet, silken fabric, from the Saracens. Sardine {the fish), from Sardinia. Sardine {the precious stone), from Sardes, in Asia Minor. Sardonic {smile), said to have been caused by eating the ' Herba Sardonica,' a species of ranunculus growing in Sardinia. Sedan, from the town of Sedan, in France. Seneh, from the slopes of Sinai. Shallot, from Ascalon. Shillelah, from parish of Shellelah, county Wicklow. Spaniel, from Spain. Spinach (Ar. Hispanach), Spain. Spruce, means Prussian. Squills, possibly from Squillace. Tapety, Tabby, silk fabrics woven in Atab, a street of Bagdad. Tariff. Moorish cruisers sallied forth from Tarifa to plunder vessels passing through the Straits of Gibraltar. Afterwards they levied their black mail on a fixed scale of payment. Tobacco, from island of Tobago. Topaz, from Topazos, an island in the Eed Sea. Tuck, Tucker, cloth worked at Toucques, in Normandy. Umber, earth brought from Umbria, in Italy. Varnish, from the city of Berenice, on the Red Sea. "Worsted, from the village of Worsted, near Norwich. 178 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Zouave, corrupted from ' shawi,' an Arab desert tribe. Vaudeville, from Vau-de-vire, in Normand)', where the enter- tainment was introduced at the end of the 14th century. CHAPTEK XL WORDS DEKIVED FROM THE NAMES OF PERSONS. Algebra (At.), from Geber, an Eastern writer on Alchemy, &c. Alexandrine (verse), invented by a French poet, Alexandre Paris. Blanket, first manufactured by Thomas Blacket, a citizen of Bristol. Brawn, said to be from a German cook named Braun ! ! * In the Psalms we have, ' Their heart is as fat as brawn.'- — Ps. cxix. 70. This disposes of such an idea. Burlesque (It. Burlesco, or Bemesco), from Francesco Berni, the inventor. Cereal, from goddess of corn, Geres. Chauvinism, from ' Chauvin,' a braggart character introduced into plays at the period of the Eestoration, in ridicule of the Bona- partist frre-eating officer. Czar, possibly from Csesar. Dahlia, from Dahl, a Swede, who introduced the flower. Darics, coins, so called from Darius. Debauch, from Bacchus, god of wine. Ducat, the coin of a Duke. Dunce, a disciple of Duns Scotus, the scholastic philosopher. DoYLET, called from one Doyley, a tradesman of the Strand. Fiacre, St. Fiacre, Fiachra. An Irish saint, whose shrine was twenty-five miles from Paris. The name was given to convey- ances which carried the pilgrims. Gibberish, from Geber, see above, 'Algebra.' Galvanism, fi-om Galvani, an Italian. Gobelin, from the brothers Gobelin, dyers of Paris, temp. Louis XV. Greengage, from Gage, a Sussex man, who introduced it. Grog. Admiral Vernon used to wear a Grogram coat, whence the * Taylor, Words and Places, p. 462. ETYMOLOGICAL DKRIVATIOXS. 179 sailors called him ' Old Grog,' and applied the name to the mix- ture of rum and water which he first introduced on board ship. Guillotine, from Guillotin, a French physician, who invented the instrument, a modern repetition of the old Scotch 'maiden.' Henchman, possibly from Hengist, the lieutenant of Horsa. •Hekculean, from the Greek mythological hero, Hercules. Hectoring, from the Trojan hero, Hector. Heemeticallt sealed, from Hermes Trismegistus, an Egyptian priest and philosopher. Horse, possibly from the Saxon warrior, Horsa. .Jacket (Pr. Jaque), from Jaque of Beauvais. Jacobin; (1793), held their meetings in the hall of the Dominican or Jacobin convent Jacobite, an adherent of James (Jacobus), the Stuart pretender (1715). Jovial, from Jove. Lazahe iTO, from Lazarus, the patron saint of lepers. Maktial, from Mars, god of war. Mercurial, from Mercury. Mackintosh, from the name of the inventor. Mansarde, from a French architect of the same name (1666). Martinet, from a strict disciplinarian in the army of Louis XIV. Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mausolus, king of Caria, built by Arte- misia, his wife. Negus, so called after one Francis Negus. Some leading Whigs and Tories (Geo. I.) having got to high words over their cups, Mr. Negus recommended them to dilute their wine with water as he did. Orrery, really invented by Mr. George Graham, 1700, and copied for the Earl of Orrery. Panic, fear possessing sheep, from Pan, the shepherd-god Pasquinade, from Pasquin, a Eoman cobbler, and a noted character. He had a very marked physiognomy, and the statue of an ancient gladiator having been exhumed, the Eoman wits detected a resemblance to the cobbler, and gave the statue his name. Afterwards it became a practice to post lampoons on the pedestal of the statue. Hence the name. N 2 180 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. PjEONY, from llaioiv, Apollo, who is said to have applied it to medicinal purposes. Pander, from Pandarus, who procured for Troilus the love of Chryseis. Phaeton, from Phaeton, son of Phoebus, who drove the chariot of the Sun unskilfully and was hurled by a thunderbolt from Jupiter ' into the river Po. Philippics, the orations of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. Rodomontade, from Eodomonte, a braggart, who figures in Orlando Furioso. Sandwich, from Lord Sandwich, an inveterate gamester, who be- grudged the time for a meal. Saturnine, from Saturn. Supposed to be under the influence of Saturn : dull, grave, phlegmatic. Samphire, corrupted from St. Pierre ; the name of a seaweed. Silhouette, a shadow portrait, in sarcastic allusion to M. de Sil- houette, finance minister, temp. Louis XV. Stentorian, from Stentor, a Greek herald in the Trojan war, whose voice, according to Homer, was louder than the united shout of fifty men. Spencer, from Lord Spencer, who, when Lord-Lieutenant of L-eland, once in hunting had one skirt of his coat torn off. He tore off the other himself, and some inventive genius made half coats and gave the name to them. Tantalise, from the punishment of Tantalus. Tontine, from an Italian, Lorenzo Tonti, who devised this method of insurance (1635). Tawdrt, from the fair of St. Etheldreda, or St. Awdrey, where gaudy finery was sold. Tram (way), from Outram, the inventor. Zany, Italian corruption of Giovanni = John. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIOXS. 181 CHAPTER XII, NAMES OF MONTHS, DATS, WINDS, COLOUES, &o. § 1. Montlis and Days. 1. Year, (^A.-S.) gear, from erian, to plough. Month, (A.-S.)=»ioonefS. 187 early period into ' tithings,' each of which comprised icii churches or parishes, placed under the government of a dean. Priest, (Lat.) presbyter, (Gr.) TrpsajSurfpoc, an elder. Curate, (Lat.) cura, one who hath the care or cure of souls. Deacon, (Lat.) diaconus, (Gr.) Iuikovoq, servant or minister. Parson, the persona, or chief individual, of a parish. Some take it from parochianus. Sexton, corrupted from sacristan, the officer who looks after the accessories of worship. Chancellor,* (Lat.) cancellarius, a cancellis. Constable, (Lat.) comes stabuli, count of the stable^master of the horse. Marshal, (Dutch) mareschalk, q.d. magister caballorum^miisU'r of the horse ; or mdhre, a horse, and schalk, a servant. Admiral, (Arabic or Turkish) emir-al-bahr=[oxdL of the sea. Knight, (Ger.) knecht. Esquire, i. e. scutiger, shield-bearer, (Lat.) scutum gerere, to carry the shield. Dauphin, from Dauphin^, a province sold or given by Humbert, earl thereof, to Philip of Valois, on condition that the king's eldest son should hold it during the lifetime of his father. Clerk, (Gr.) icXrjpoQ, a lot, because Matthias was chosen by lot ; hence ' clergy.' Seneschal, (Lat.) senescallus= senior servus ; scale (A.-S.), serous. Skeriff = shire-reeve; shire=co\xnty, reeve==officev. WoonREEVE = an officer who looks after the wood. Abbot, (Hebrew) .46 Ja — father. Nabob, (Hindoo) iV^aiua J = gentleman. Steward = sted-ward = keeper of the place. Hence the name ' Stewart ; ' as ' Howard,' from hold-ward, or keeper of the hold. Beadle, (A.-S.) bead, a prayer, from beodan, to pray, to cry : so beadle means ' crier.' * The cancdlarii were officers of a court of justice, who stood ad cancellos, at the railings, received the petitions of Suitors, and acted as intermediaries between them and the judge. To them naturally fell the office of keeping the seal of the court — the distinctive feature of charKellors of modern times. — Wedgewood. 188 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Bailiff, from vallum, a rampart : one who looks after the en- closure. Other titles will he found under the chapters relating to Military and Ecclesiastical Tekms. CHAPTER XVI. MILITAKT TEEMS. Arsenal, (It.) arce-navale, or naval citadel. Cadet, (Sp.) cadete, one who enlists without pay, expecting a com- mission. Commander, (Lat.) mandare, to entrust. Commodore, (Sp.) comendador, i. e. commander. Corps, (Lat.) corpus, the body. Comrade, (Fr.) camerade, (Lat.) camera, a chamber. General, (Lat.) genus ; one who attends to general and not particu- lar arrangement. Colonel, either from (Lat.) dux colonice; or columna, the column or pivot of the regiment ; some say (It.) colonello, formerly coronel or crown captain, from (Lat.) corona. Major, (Lat.) major, greater. Captain, (Lat.) caput, the head. Lieutenant, (Fr.) lieu tenant, (Lat.) locum tenens. Cornet, (Lat.) cornu, a horn. Ensign, (Lat.) insignia. Some say corrupted from ancient. Serjeant-at-law, (Lat.) serviens. Sergeant-at-arms, (Fr.) serriant, i.e. one who dresses or drills or masses men. So we speak of serried ranks. Corporal, (Lat.) corpus, a body. Pioneer, (Sp.) peon, a foot soldier. Private, (Lat.) privatus, an individual. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 189 SENTrNEL,* (Fr.) sentinelle, (Lat.) sentire. SoLDrER, (Lat.) solidus, pay. Sepoy, (Pers.) sipahi, a soldier. Artillery, (Lat.) arcus and telum^how and arrow; ry, suffix, implying colleotiveness. Cavalry, (Lat.) caballus, a steed. Infantry, the bodyguard of the Infanta of Spain. Grenadier, (Sp.) granada, a hollow globe of iron resembling a pome- granate. Dragoon, (Lat.) dracnnarii, standard-bearers of the dragon, at the period of the decline of the Roman empire. Some say from dragon, a species of carbine. Hussar, (Hungarian) ^Msz=twenty and ar=pay. Every twenty houses furnished one cavalry soldier. Accoutrements, (Fr.) accoutrer, formerly accoustrer, to equip with habiliments (ecclesiastical), (old Fr.) cousteur is the tjime as ciistos. Arms, (Lat.) arma. Bayonet, from Bayonne, the place of its first manufacture. Baudrick, Baldrick, also spelt bawdrich, a belt or girdle, (Fr.) baudrier, to dress or curry leather ; from (Low Lat.) baldringvs, which Du Cange thinks to be ' the belt or ring of a bold man.' Cannon, (Lat.) canna, a hollow reed. Carbine, (Sp.) caraba, a guarda costa, or revenue cutter, the guns of which were small. Carronade, a gun made at Loch Carron foundry, in Scotland. Claymore, (Gael) claideamh, a sword, and more, great. Cuirass, (Fr.) cuir, (Lat.) corium, leather. Cutlass, (Lat.) cultellus, a knife. Chevaux de frise, wooden horses of Friesland, first used at siege of Groningen, 1658, to check the Spanish cavalry. " The real origin of the designation is the conflnement of the soldier on guard to a short path or beat, (Old Fr.) senie, -^ path. Sentinelle is a secon- dary derivation from sentine, and the name has been transferred to the man himself. — Wedgewood. 190 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Dagger, (Pr.) dague, (Low Lat.) dagga. Some derive it a Dacis. Dirk, (Icelandic) daur, a sword, (Dan.) dorck, a short sword. ¥Ahcmos=^ensis falcatus, {luat.) falx, a scythe, or cutter. Fascines, (Lat.) fascis, a bundle of sticks. Grenade, (Sp.) granada, a hollow globe of iron, so called from its likeness to a ' pomegranate.' Gun, ( A.-S.) gynian, to yawn, or gape ; hence gin, a snare. Gabion, (It.) gabbia, (Lat.) cavea, a basket filled with earth. Halberd, (Swiss) /iaZ7re=handle of an axe; and (Ger.) barte, a broad axe : the word means ' a long-handled axe.' Hauberk, (A.-S.) hah, the neck, and beorgan, to protect. Helmet, (A.-S.) helan, to cover: the helm, or the helmet, is the highest point of the armour, so the helm is the highest point of the rudder. MoEiON, a Maurorum usu ; possibly from (A.-S.) myrran, to dissi- pate. Mortar, (Fr.) mortier, to bruise or pound. Musket,* (Lat.) musca, a gnat : the ball stings like the bite of a gnat. Partisan, (Pr.) periuiser; (Lat.) pertusum, pertundere, to beat through. Petaiid, (Sp.) petardo, (Fr.) peter, (Lat.) pedere. Pistol, (It.) Pisfoja, near Florence. Sabre, (Ar.) seif, a sword, (Hung.) szafni, to cut. Scimitar, (Turkish). Shield, (A.-S.^) scyldan, to protect. Squadron, (Lat.), acies quadrata. Spear, same as spar; (A.-S.) speare, a small dart. Sword, (A.-S.) loarian, to guard. Stiletto, (It.) dim. from (Lat.) stylus. Target, dim. from targe, (Lat.) u tergo, because made of hides. Trumpet, (Lat.) trwmpliare=io triumph. Tumbril, (Fr.) tombereau, (Low Lat.) tumberella, a cart or waggon. Troop, (Lat.) turba. Ambulance, (Lat.) ambulare, to walk. * (Mid. Lat.) muschetta, a bolt sped from a JaWsia ; muschetta, from (ProT.) mosguet, a sparrow-hawk ; (Dutch) miisch, a sparrow.t ETYMOLOGICAL DEEIVATIONS. 191 Bulwark, (Fr.) houlevart, (Dan.) hollverh ; holl, a globe or circular work. Camp, (Lat.) campus, a plain. Fort, {'La.t.) fortis, strong. Parapet, (Gr. Lat.) wapa. and pectus, i.e. ' as high as the breast.' Quarters, (Lai) quartus, quatuor, the Roman camp was divided into four parts. Tent, (Lat.) tendere, to stretch. Trench, (Lat.) trans, across, and scindere, to cut. Ambuscade, (It.) imboscare, bosco, (Fr.) bois, (Eng.) bush. Bivouac, (Ger.) bei-wachen, to watch. Escalade, (Pr.) eschelle, a ladder. Flank, either (Gr.) Xaywy, or (A.-S.) lengian; thence be-lank, p-lank, flank. Kear, (Fr.) arriere, (Lat.) retro. Van, (Fr.) avant, (Lat.) ante, before. March, (Fr.) marcher, i. e. monter-a-cheval, from (Bret.) marc'h, a horse. — Wedgewood. Retreat, (Lat.) re-trahere, to draw back. Siege, (Lat.) sedere, to sit. Challenge, (Lat.) calumniari, to calumniate. Calibre, either from Calabria, or (Fr.) qualibre = qua libra (Lat.) cequilibrium. Commissariat, (Lat.) commitfere, to entrust. Donjon, (Lat.) dominium, dominus, (A.-S.) deman, to subdue. Forage, (Lat.) fotis, abroad ; agere, to collect. Fodder, (Low Lai.) foderum, {A.-S.) fodre, fother=pabulum, fi-om fedan, to feed. Ledger, (A.-S.) lecgan, to lie. A book that lies open for immediate entries. Stores, (A.-S.) styrian, to move. Rum (Erse), a cant word for a poor country parson ; it means kill-devil, Gin, (Fr.) genievre, or juniper, or Geneva. Brandy, (A.-S.) brand or burned (wine). Whiskey, (C), corrupted from usquebaugh, or water of life. Biscuit, (Lat.) bis cactus, twice cooked. 192 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER XYII. ECCLESIASTICAL TEEMS. §1- Abbey, (Hebrew) a community governed by an abbot. Abba means father. Cathedral, (Gr.) Kaflt'Spa^from the bishop's chair or throne. Convent, (Lat.) convenire, to assemble. Chapter, (Lat.) caput, the head : an assembly of ' heads,' or chap- ter of the church. Church, (Gr.) Kvpiov oIkos = the House of the Lord, to KvpiaKov. Chapel, (Lat.) capella, a shrine. Cloister, (Lat.) claustrum, a barrier, from claudere, to shut. Minster, (Lat.) monasterium, an abode of monks. §2. Archbishop, (Gr.) apxi-tviaKovoe^^chiei overseer. Bishop, vide chap. XV. Dean, vide chap. XV. Canon, vide chap. XV. Priest, vide chap. XV. Parson, vide chap. XV. Clerk, vide chap. XV. Acolyte, an attendant, (Gr.) aKoXovSiw, to follow. Sexton, vide chap. XV. Verger, one that beareth a staff or rod ; (Lat.) virga. Monk, (Gr.) fiomg, alone, solitary. Nun, (A.-S.) nonne, (It.) nonna, a grandmother. The first nuns would naturally be elderly women ; possibly a Coptic word meaning ' chaste.' Friar, (Lat.) /rato*, brother. Deacon, vide chap. XV. Hermit, TGr.) iprijjos, the desert. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 193 Churchwauden, the guardian of the church. Sidesman, said to be a corruption of ' synod's man,' from the ancient custom of electing three laymen to represent the pariah in ' synod.' §3. Aisle, (Lat.) ala, the wing or side of a church. Belfry, (Fr.) heffroi, a watch-tower. Chancel, a cancellis, because cancelli, or bars, separated it from the area of the church. Choir, (Gr.) xop^s, (Lat.) chorus, a multitude of singers, or dancers. Nave, (A.-S.) nq/a, the concave centre or body of a church ; hence also navel; possibly from navis,^a. ship, the symbol of the church. Pew, (Dutch) puye, possibly (Lat.) podium, an elevated place or balcony. Pulpit, (¥x.) poulpitre, (liat.) pulpitum, a raised place. Steeple, (A.-S.) steopl, a tower, or steeple, perhaps from A.-S. stedp, precipitous. Vestry, the place where sacred robes were kept; (Lat.) vestis, a garment. Font, (Lat. )/ons, fountain. §4. Alb, (Lat.) albus, white. Chalice, (Lat.) calix. Chasuble, (Low Lat.) casula, dim. of casa, a house. Cope, (Low Lat.) capa, or cappa, a cloak. Cowl, (Lat.) cucullus. Gown, (Welsh) gwn. Surplice, (Lat.) super pelliceum ; super, over, pellis, skin. Paten, (Lat.) patina, a plate, or dish. EocHET, (Lat.) rochettum, (A.S.) roc, a shirt or short-sleeved alb. TuNiCLE, (Lat.) tunicella, a little tunic. §5. CHRiSTMAS=mas3 of Christ. MiCHAELMAS=mass of St. Michael. o 194 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Epiphany, (Gr.) eTrifaveia = manifestation ; the manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles. Septuagesima, (Gr.) 70th; really sixty-four days before Easter. Sexagesima, (Gr.) 60th ; really fifty-seven days before Easter. ■ QuiNQUAGESiMA, (Gr.) 50th ; really fifty days before Easter. Ash Wednesday. On this day anciently penitents presented them- selves in church with ashes sprinkled on their heads. Lent, (A.-S.) lencten = spring. Madnday Thursday, the day before Good Friday, from dies man- dati =■ the ' day of the commandment,' either because Christ commanded ' the washing of feet,' or because he commanded the observance of the Eucharist. Easter, (A.-S.) Eastre. ' Eoslur-monath,^ says Bede, ' which is now called the Paschal month, had its name from a goddess called Eostre, and to whom they at that time used to celebrate festivals.' This goddess is supposed to be the same as Ashtaroth, or Venus. Others take it immediately from East, q.v. : others from (A.-S.) arisan, to arise. Rogation Days. Days for special ' litanies,' or supplications ; (Lat. rogo, to ask. Litany, (Gr.) Xtraveia from XhTtadai, to pray. Liturgy, (Gr.)X£i7-oiipyia=a public work; Xeiroi', public, Epyo»',work. Ember Weeks, (A.-S.) ymbyme^^a, revolution, or circuit, e.g. yeares ymbyrne = a year's course. In the Anglo-Saxon we find for these fasts of the four seasons, ymbyrne dcegas, ymbren festen, ymbren wucan. Pentecost, (Gr.). Fifty days after Easter bring us to this festival, called in the Christian church — Whitsunday. This was a stated time for baptism in the ancient church, and the baptized put on white garments. §6. Apostle, a messenger ; (Gr.) anoariWu), to send. Heretic, one who chooses his own doctrines; (Gr.) alpsicrdai, to choose. Past, (Goth.) fastan ; (A.-S.) fmstan, to observe, or keep. Feast, (Lat.) festus, festal, or joyous. Mass, either from the concluding words of the service, ite, missa est, or from the Hebrew misach, almsgiving. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 195 Parish, (Gr.) irapa., olxog, i. e. a contiguous dwelling. Pagajj, (Lat.) paganus = a villager. ' When the Eoman empire was converted to Christianity, religion did first take place in the cities ; this word, signifying a country people, came to be used in common speech for the same that infidels and unbelievers were.' — Hooker. Heathen ^ dwellers on the heath, same as pagan. Pall, (Lat.) pallium, a cloak, whence palliate. Preach, (Lat.) prmdicare. Saint, (Lat.) sanctus, holy. Shrine, (Lat.) scrinium, a basket, or chest, in which books, writings, or other secret things were deposited. Sacrament, (Lat.) sacramentum, an oath. Synod, (Lat.) synodus; (Gr.) avvolot, a convention. (^ N. or M., in the baptismal service, in answer to the question, ' What is your name ? ' are said to be the initials of the patron saints NiSholas and Mary. Diocese, (Gr.) Sioik£(»', to dwell apart. CHAPTER XVIH. POLITICAL TEBMS. Cavalier, Eoundhead. The apprentices of London published a petition against Popery and Prelacy in 1641. Seditious cries having been raised, and the bishops assaulted on their way to Parhament. skirmishes between the malcontent apprentices and many gentlemen, vfho volunteered to be the king's body- guard, were of daily occurrence. ' And from these contests,' says Clarendon, ' the two terms of Roundhead and Cavalier grew to be received in discourse, and were afterwards continued for the most succinct distinction of affections throughout the quarrel ; the servants of the king being called Cavaliers, and the other of the rabble, contemned and despised under the name of Roundheads.^ o2 196 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGfUAGE. Cabinet. According to the original constitution of our monarchy, the king had his privy council, consisting of the great officers of state, and any others he should summon, bound by oaths of fidelity and secresy, by whom all afiairs, foreign or domestic, were debated and determined, subject to his good pleasure. It thence happened that some councillors more eminent than the rest formed juntos, or cabals, for more close and private manage- ment of affairs, or were selected as more confidential advisers of the sovereign. The very name of cabinet council, as distin- guished from the larger body, may be found as far back as Charles I. After the Restoration, by degrees the ministry, or cabinet, obtained the king's final approbation to their measures before they were laid before the council. During the reign of William III., this distinction of the cabinet firom the privy council, and the exclusion of the latter from all business of state, became fuUy established. Cabal, from Hebrew cabala, a secret. The word eahal had been employed earlier than 1667 to denote a secret council, what is now termed the cabinet. Its influence was principally directed to foreign afiairs. In 1670, aflier the fall of Clarendon, an administration was formed consisting of CKffbrd, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, and Lauderdale ; and as the initial let- ters formed the word C. A. B. A. L, this cabinet was hence- forward caUed the Cabal, par excellence. Chartist. There was held in the open air, at Birmingham, August 6, 1838, the first demonstration, on a large scale, of the poli- tical agitators called ' Chartists,' because they clamoured for what they called ' the people's charter,' which contained six points : — (i) Universal sufliage. (ii) Vote by ballot, (iii) Equal electoral -listricts. (iv) Paid representatives in parliament. (v) Abolition of property qiialification for members of par- liament, (vi) Annual parliaments. ETYMOLOGICAL DEBIVATIONS. 197 Covenanter. The national covenant, professing to be based upon a document whicli James VI. of Scotland had signed in 1680, was drawn up and published by the foiu" Tables : (i) Nobility, (ii) Gentry, (iii) Ministers, (iv) Burgesses; and in their hands the whole authority of the realm was vested. They elected a general assembly, which met at Glasgow, November 21, 1638, and abolished episcopacy, ordering that every one should sign the covenant under pain of excommunication. The Covenanters prepared for war, and they entered England August 20, 1640. An agreement was signed at Ripon, October 20, 1640 ; com- missioners were appointed, to whom the settlement of points in dispute were referred. This covenant, under the name of Solemn League and Covenant, was received by the Parliament or assembly of divines, September 25, 1643. It differed essentially from the covenant of 1638, according to Hallam, and consisted of an oath, to be subscribed by all sorts of persons in both king- doms : — (i) To preserve the reformed Eeligion in the Church of Scotland in doctrine, discipline, worship, and govern- ment, (ii) To endeavour to bring the chtirches of God in the three kingdoms into the nearest conjunction and uniformity in religion, confession of faith, form of church govern- ment, directory of worship, catechising, &c. (iii) To endeavour, without respect of persons, the extirpa- tion of Popery, prelacy, and whatsoever should be found contrary to sound doctrine and the power of godliness. (iv) To preserve the rights and privileges of the Parliaments and the liberties of the kingdoms, and the king's persoir and authority in the preservation and defence of the true religion and true liberty. (v) To endeavour the discovery of incendiaries and maUg- nants who hinder the reformation of reli^on, and divide the king from his people, that they may be brought to punishment, (vi) To assist and defend all such as should enter into this Covenant. ly8 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A large number of beneficed clergy who refused to subscribe were ejected. Charles II. signed it reluctantly at Spey (1650). In 1661 the House of Commons ordered it to be burnt by the common hangman, and in the same year Scotland renounced the Covenant, and declared the supremacy of the king. Exchequer, Couet of. This name was derived from ' the table at which the sittings of the court were held — a four-cornered board about 10 feet long and .5 feet broad, fitted in manner of a table to sit about, on every side whereof is a standing ledge or border four fingers broad. Upon this board is laid a cloth, bought in Easter term, of black colour, rowed with strakes distant about a foot and a span. On the squares of this " scaccarium," or chequered cloth, counters were placed to assist in making the needful computations.' Fenian. After the ludicrous attempt at insurrection in 1848, made by Smith O'Brien, Mitchell, Meagher, and others, a new secret society of conspirators was formed by Stephens, who seems to have derived his method and organisation from the revolu- tionary Polish committees. To this new society he gave the name of ' Phoenix,' as symbolical of ' resurrection ' (i. e. insur- rection). The difficulty experienced by an Irish peasant in pronoimcing the word led, no doubt, to its corruption ' into ' Fenian.' The laborious attempts made from time to time to derive the name from early Irish history, or the Phojnicians, remind one of the squabbles of the antiquarians about 'Bill Sykes his mark,' in the pages of Pickwick ! Fifth Monarchy Man. A sect of republicans who appeared in England in 1645, and taught that Christ was about to reappear on earth, and establish a new universal monarchy. In 1653 they held weekly meetings in London, at which they de- nounced CromweU as ' the man of sin,' ' the old dragon,' and ' the dissemblingest perjured villain in the world,' in conse- quence of which he put a stop to their proceedings. They reappeared, however, at the Restoration, and stirred up a riot in which several lives were lost (1661). GuELPH, Ghibbeline. On the death of Lothaire II., Emperor of ETYMOLOGICAL DEEIVATTOXS. 199 Germany, in 1137, Conrad, Duke "of I'ranconia, son of Frede- rick of Hohenstausen, Duke of Swabia and Lord of Wiblingen, corrupted into Ghibbeline, was elected his successor. His right to the throne was contested by Henry the Proud, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, nephew of Guelph II., Duke of Bavaria. He was declared an outlavf, and shortly after died. His adherents transferred their allegiance to his son Henry the Lion, and the empire was divided into two factions, — the adherents of Conrad, or Ghibbelines, and the adherents of Henry, called Guelphs. The titles were first used at the battle of Weinsberg, 1140. When the strife terminated in Germany, it continued in Italy. The supporters of the popes were called Guelphs ; those of the emperor, Ghibbelines. Charles of Anjou expelled the Ghibel- lines fi-om Italy. Girondist. A political party during the great French Revolution, , so called because its leaders were, deputies firom the Gironde. In principle they were really Moderate Republicans. Sometimes this party was called ' Brissotine,' sometimes the ' Plain,' be- cause they sat on the floor of the Convention. Their opponents were called ' Jacobins,' because the meetings of their clubs ' took place in a building formerly a convent of Dominicans or Jacobins. These men, headed by Robespierre, Danton, Marat, St. Just, and others, were called the ' Mountain,' because they sat on the highest seats ranged round the Hall of Convention. The leading difference between these two parties may be briefly stated thus : — The aim of the Girondists was to consti- tute France a federal republic. The aim of the Jacobins was manifested in their motto, ' A Republic, one and Indi- visible.' This great question between republicans of two shades has been repeated in the war between the Northern and Southern States of America, the motto of the Southern States being ' States' Rights,' i. e. a federal union ; and the principle of the Northern republicans, ' A Republic, one and Indivisible.' Huguenot. So called from (Ger.) eidgenossen, confederates; or from Hugues, a noted Calvinist of Geneva : a name given to French Protestants of the 16th century, first persecuted in 200 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1559, and so called in 1561. By the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685, they were deprived of toleration, and many took refuge in neighbouring countries. Jacobites. The party that supported the Stuart Pretenders in 1715 and 1745. In general, adherents of the Stuart dynasty. Levellers. A party, which desired that ' all degrees of men should be levelled, and an equality established both in titles and estates throughout the kingdom,' obtained the supremacy in the army of the Long Parhament in 1647. They denounced aU existing forms of government, and clamoured for the blood of Charles I. They raised an insurrection in 1649, and Cromwell took measures to suppress them. Vide ' Piilh Monarchy Man.' Lollards. A sect in Germany, who dissented from the Church before she renounced Popery. They sprang from William Lollard, who began to propagate his opinions in 1315, and was burned at Cologne 1351. The name was afterwards given to the disciples of Wickliffe. MuGGLETONiANS. A sect, foUowers of Lodowicke Muggleton, a journeyman tailor, who in 1651 commenced as a religious teacher, declaring that he and his companion, John Reeve, were the two witnesses mentioned in the ' Book of Revelation.' Muggleton was tried at the Old Bailey for blasphemy, and con- victed Jan. 17, 1676. He died March, 1677. The Muggle- tonians were in existence in the middle of the last century. ' It is also to be noticed that, during the civil troubles, several sects had sprung into existence, whose eccentricities surpassed anything that had before been seen in England. A mad tailor, named Lodowick Muggleton, wandered from pot-house to pot-house, tippling ale and denouncing eternal torments against those who refused to believe on his testimony, that the Supreme Being was only six feet high, and that the sun was just four miles from the earth.' — Macaulay's History of England, vol. i. p. 170. Mountain. Vide supra, ' Girondist.' Nonconformist. A name used generally to describe dissenters from the Church of England, was first given to those who re- fused to comply with the Act of Uniformity (2 & 3 Edward VI. ETTMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 201 c 1.) passed in 1549. On the passing of the Act of Uniformiiy of Charles 11., 2000 of the clergy voluntarily resigned their livings on St, Bartholomew's Day, 1662. The Nonconformists held a bicentenary commemoration of this event in 1862, though no prominence was given to the fact of how they had become possessed of livings which the Act compelled them to relinquish, Orangeman. This name was given by the Roman Catholics to the Protestants of Ireland, on account of their support to William III., Prince of Orange. It was first assumed in 1795, as the designation of a political party, by the Protestants who formed loyal associations in opposition to the Society of United Irish- men, organised in 1791. NoNJDBOR. Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishops of Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, and Peterborough refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III., and were deprived Feb. 1, 1691. The Bishops of Chichester and Wor- cester also refused, but died in the interim. To these men and their followers the term nonjurors was applied. They divided into two sections in 1720, in consequence of a dispute concerning the administration of the Communion. By 9 Geo. I. c. 18, 1723, they were subject to the same taxes as Papists, and conducted their worship in hired rooms or private houses. They became extinct in 1780. Peelite. a name given to that section of the Conservative party which, after the rupture caused by the repeal of the corn laws, stiU adhered to Sir Robert Peel. Most of them joined the Liberal party. Protestant. The second Diet of Spires, in 1529, decided that religious differences could only be decided by an ecclesiastical council, thus entirely disallowing the right of private judgment. A solemn protest was made against this decision by the Lutheran princes of Germany, April 19, 1529, in consequence of which the members of the Reformed Churches have since been known as Protestants. The protest was drawn up by Luther and Melanchthon. Parliament. ' At the close of the reign of Heniy III., the curia 202 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. regis was called the King's Parliament, a term then employed to express any assembly met for the piirpose of conference.' — Parry, Parliament and Councils of England. It did not then denote a legislative assembly, though the term began to be used in that sense at the commencement of the reign of Edward II. (1307-1317). The two branches of the legislature assembled in the same room as late as 1342. Their joint assent became necessary before any act could become law, in the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483). Puritan. According to Fuller, the name was first applied in 1564 (or, as others say, 1569) to persons who, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, refiised to adhere to the episcopal form of worship. In the reign of Charles I. it was chiefly applied to the Inde- pendents. EiBBONMEN. Owing to the secret nature of the constitution of this faction of Irish Roman Catholics, the date of origin is not known. Some authorities refer it to about the commencement of the present century : others fix the date twenty years after. Their outrages are mentioned in March, 1820, and they have ever since been intimately connected with the troubles of Ireland. Numerous murders were committed by them in 1858 and 1862. Eadical. The extreme democrats in England first received the name of Eadical about 1819. Derived from radix {root) because the politicians so called desire to upset or alter the constitution from the root or foundation. Tort and Whig.* The origin of these names is a subject of contro- versy. Macaulay says (vol. i. p. 267), ' Opponents of the court were called Birminghams, Petitioners, Exclusionists. Those who took the king's side were called anti-Birminghams, Abhorrers, Tantivies. These appellations soon became obsolete, * 1648. 'Argyle drew to arms in the Highlands, whilst the Western peasantry, assembling and headed by their divines, repaired to Edinburgh. This insurrection is called the Whigamore's Said, from the Trord whig whig, i.e. get on, get on, which is used by the Western peasantry in driving their horses ; a name destined to become the distinction of a powerfid party in British History.' — Sir W. Seott's Taks of a Grandfather. ■ - Etymological derivations. 203 I but at this time were first heard two nicknames still m daily use. It is a curious circumstance that one of these nicknames was of Scotch, the other of Irish origin. In Scotland some of the persecuted Covenanters, driven mad by oppression, had lately murdered the Primate, taken arms against the Government, obtained some advantages over the king's troops, and been finally routed at Both well Brig by Monmouth. These zealots were most numerous among the rustics of the ■Western Lowlands, who were vulgarly termed whigs (from' whey, sour milk). Thus the appellation was transferred to those English politicians who were disposed to treat Protestant Nonconformists with indulgence. The bogs of Ireland at the same time afforded refuge to Popish outlaws, much resembling those afterwards known by the name of Wliiteboys. These men were then called Tories (which means robbers). The name Tory was therefore given to those who refused to concur in excluding a Roman Catholic prince from the throne.' — Macaulay. For additional information the student is referred to Notes and Queries. Trimmer. A political party, of which Viscount Halifax (temp. Charles II.) was chief. ' He (Halifax) was the chief of those politicians whom the two great parties contemptuously called "Trimmers," i.e. between both, now siding with the one, now with the other. He assumed it as a title of honour, and vindicated the dignity of the appellation. " Everything good, he said, trims between two extremes." ' — Macaulay. Trimmers were analogous to Peelites. AD0LLAMITE. A name given by Mr. Bright to Mr. Lowe and other Liberals who difiered fi-om their party on the subject of Reform (1867). The name is taken from the Scripture narra- tive of David's resort to the cave of Adullam with ' all that were discontented.^ This epithet will probably be applied henceforth to a re- bellious faction of either political party. Hustings. ' The most noticeable traditions of ancient liberties are associated with the places where the Things — the judicial and 204 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. legislative assemblies of the Scandinavian nations were wont to meet. . . . The Northmen introduced their Things into Eng- land. The very name survives among us as an household word. A meeting is properly the mote-thing, an assembly of free- holders, and at the hustings or housething the duly qualified householders still assemble to delegate their legislative powers to their representatives in Parliament.' — Taylor's Words and Places. Star-Chamber. The derivation of this term is uncertain. Some say it arose from the starry decorations of the roof; others derive it from Sterra (Port.), a parchment, because it was used as a repository for contracts made with the Jews. Hallam considers this court originated in the consilium regis ordinarium — the subject of many statutes from temp. Edward III. Though not erected it was remodelled by 3 Henry "VTI. (1486). Its constitution and authority were defined more par- ticularly by 21 Henry VIII. (1529), by which the President of the Council was made one of the judges. It was abolished by 16 Charles I. (1640). An unsuccessful attempt was made to revive it in 1662. The Star Chamber took cognisance both of civil suits and of criminal offences throughout the time of the Tudors. The civil jurisdiction claimed and exerted by the Star Chamber was in general such as now belongs to the Court of Admiralty ; some testamentary matters, in order to prevent appeals to Rome; and suits between corporations. The offences principally cognisable in this court were forgery, perjury, riot, maintenance, fraud, libel, and conspiracy. But, besides these, every misdemeanour came within the proper scope of its inquiry. Corruption, breach of trust, and malfeasance in public affairs, or attempts to commit felony, seem to have been reckoned not indictable at common law, and came in consequence under the cognisance of. the Star Chamber. The mode of process was of a summary nature. The accused person was privately examined, and if he had confessed enough to deserve sentence it was immediately awarded. The more regular course of proceeding seems to have nearly resembled that of the Court of Chancery. It was ETYMOLOGICAL DEEITATIONS. 205 held competent for the court to adjudge any punishment short of death. Pine and imprisonment were of course the most usual. The pillory, whipping, branding, and cutting off the ears, grew into use by degrees. CHAPTER XIX. FECITLIAB WOBBS. Amucker, Run-a-Muck, (Malay) amuco, a madman. Assassin, (Pers.) Hashish, an intoxicating poison. The name of a tribe of fanatics, who lived in the mountains of Lebanon, similar to the Thugs in India. Bailiff, (Lat.) vallum, a rampart. Balderdash, possibly from the Scandinavian deity. Balder ; or Ice- landic, Balldur=balbuties stultorum ; or Welsh, baldorddus. Barbican, (Pers.) hdla-hhaneh, (Mid. Lat.) barba carta, an upper chamber ; whence also balcony. Barley SuGjVR, corrupted from (Fr.) sucre brule, i.e. burnt sugar. Bedlam, corrupted from the convent of St. Mary of Bethlehem, as- signed by the Reformers for the reception of lunatics. Beefeater, corrupted from Pr. buffetier, buffet=sideboard. Bigot, from bigote (Sp.), a moustache ; or from old N.-Fr. bigot, i.e. by God; or possibly corrupted from Visigoth^a. fierce per- secutor. Blackguard, a name given to the lowest servants who attended to the pots and kitchen utensils of the great on their travels. Blunderbuss, (Ger.) buchse, applied to a rifle, a box, hence ' arque- bus,' ' Brown Bess,' &c. Bog Latin, i. e. bok-ledene, or book-learning. Bogie, possibly from Bogu, the name of a Scandinavian deity. Bogus, corrupted from Borghese, an American worthy. BooBT, (Lat.) bubo, an owl ; (Gr.) /3oSc, an ox. Bosh, a pure gipsy word ior fiddle. — Blackley's Word Gossip. Brag, probably fi'om Bragi, the Norse god of mirth and song. 206 AXALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Briganti, (Fr.) brigand ; (Sp.) bregante, a footman armed ; or pos- sibly, (It.) brigare, to strive, to brawl. Buccaneer, (Pr.) boucan, a wooden gridiron, whereon cannibals .broil pieces of flesh ; a term applied to savage pirates. . Buffoon, (Fr.) buffon, the fool in the pantomime, who receives the buffs or blows for the amusement of the spectators; possibly' bufo, a toad. Bunkum, a name derived from some American worthy. Burlesque, (It.) burlesco, or Bernesco, from Francesco Bemi, who invented this species of composition. Cannibal, probably a corruption of Carib, or Caribal, a savage West Indian people. Canter, i. e. Canterbury gallop, taken from the ambling pace of pil- grims going to the shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury. Charles's Wain, corrupted from ceorVs-wain, or peasant's waggon. Cheek by Jowl. Sometimes written jig by jowl^' cheek by head.' Jowl means head or gullet. Chouse, (Turk.) chiaous, a messenger from the Grand Seignor, in 1609, defrauded the Turkish and Persian merchants in London of ifiOOl. Coax, from cogs-men, who, in the garb of sailors, practised on the credulity of those they met by tales of pretended shipwrecks. Country Dance, corrupted from (Fr.) contrsdanse, i. e. a dance in which the partners faced each other. Coxswain. Cog, a fishing-boat, from (A.-S.) cceggian, to confine, and swain, a servant, or attendant. Curmudgeon (Fr.) ccBur, the heart, and mechant, wicked ; or from corn-merchant, one subjected to penalties for hoarding grain. Deuce, possibly from the Scandinavian deity Tiw; or from (Celt.) diaus, a corruption of diabolus. Dodge, to go about like a dog. DoGCHEAP : dog = ' god ' or ' good ; ' ci«ap= market, or barter. Dudgeon, (A.-S.) dugan, to be strong, whence doughty. Fellow, possibly Fr. filou — a, rogue ; or (Low Lat.) felagus, i. e. Jide- ligatus. Felon, as above, (Fr.) filou ; or feah, beneficium, and (Ger.) Ion, pre- tium, i. e. ' crime punished by loss of fee : ' or (Gael.) feall, treason : feallan, a traitor. ETYllOLOaiCAL DERIVATIONS. 207 Fiacre. St. Fiachra had a shrine at Meaux, twenty-five miles from Paris. Carriages were Icept at an inn for infirm pilgrims. Fib, (It.) Jidbhare, to sing merry tunes and idle songs, as nurses do in rocking their children. Fiend, (A.-S.) fian, to hate ; or possibly from the Finns, whom tra- dition described as malignant imps. Flash, a wild district between Macclesfield and Buxton, the gipsy squatters on which used a barbarous slang. Flitch, same aafleisch, or flesh (Germ.). Franchise, from Frank, denotes the possession of full civil rights of the conquering race. Gab, (A.-S.) gabban, to scoiF. Gaffer, (Fr.) grand-pere, grandfather, some say godfather. Galloshes, i. e. Oallo shoes, or French shoes. Gammer, (Fr.) grand^mere, grandmother, or some say godmother. Gammon, (It.) gamba, (Fr.) jambe, possibly connected with gambol. Gauntlet, vide chap. X. Gawbt, perhaps a gap-y, i. e. a gaping fool, dunce, or blockhead. Gawky, (A.-S.) gcec, a cuckoo. Gewgaw, (A.-S.) gegaf, from gegifan, to give away. Gibberish, from Geber, an obscure Eastern writer on Alchemy. Girl, (A.-S.) ceorl, properly a peasant of either sex. GoosEBERRT-FOOL, (A.-S.) fulUan, to beat, to press down. Growl, (Ger.) grollen, as if ge-roUen, to murmur. GRUFr=rough, from ge, participle prefix, and (A.-S.) ruh, or rug, or rough ; p. part, of reffan, to rive. Haberdasher. Berdash was a sort of necktie. Haberdasher means berdasher ; perhaps from (Ger.) Habt ihr das hier ? Have you this here ? Hammercloth, i. e. hanaper or hamper cloth. In olden times it was usual to cover the hamper which contained provisions with a cloth. This hamper was placed in iront of the carriage, and served as a seat for the driver. HAREiDAN=one harried, or worn out, from (Fr.) hairier, to harry ; or (Wallon) harde-dain, gap-toothed, applied to an old woman. — Wedgewood. Hoax, from hocus-pocus. Hocus-pocus, corrvipted from Hoc est meum corpus ; the word was used in aversion to the Eomish doctrine 208 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. of transubstantiation. Others derive it from Ochus BocJius, a demon or magician of the North. Helter-skelter, from helter, to hang, and shelter, order, q. d. ' hang order.' — Richardson. Humble-bee, (Ger.) hummel, corrupted from humming-bee. Humble-pie, properly 'umble-pie.' The umbles were the viscera of the stag, the perquisite of the keeper or hunstman. Humbugs a piece of Hamburg news, i. e. a Stock Exchange canard. Isinglass, (Ger.) hausenhlase ; hausen, a sturgeon ; hlase, the bladder. Jargon, possibly from (It.) chierico, or lingua chiericona, i. e. lingua clericorum. Jealousy, (Fr.) jalousie, a lattice window, or grate = Venetian win- dow-blind ; or (Lat.) zelus, emulation. Jeopardy, (Fi.) fai perdu, ovjeu perdu, ovjeu parti. Jerked Beef (Peruvian) charJci. Jerusalem Artichoke, a corruption from girasole ; gyrare ad solem, to turn to the sun. Jigumbob, means a trinket ; derivation uncertain. Jobbernowl (Dan.) jobbe ^ stupid, and nowl = knoll = head, i. e. blockhead. Jollyboat, a corruption of yawl-boat. Junket, (It.) giuncata, (Fr.) jonchee, milk or cream cheese, written juncate. Kickshaws, (Fr.) quelques chases, trifles, applied to the light confec- tions of French cooks. Lumber, from Lombard. The Lombards were the first bankers and pawnbrokers. Marauder, said to be from Count Merodes, who commanded under Ferdinand H. It may be a metaphor from the prowling habits of a tom-cat. (Fr.) maraud, a tom-cat. Maudlin, at first the weeping of Mary Magdalen ; now the tears of the drunkard. Mountebank, (It.) montare banco, literally, who mounts a bench to puff off his nostrums. Nightmare, Mara, a Scandinavian demon, who tortures men with visions ; a Finland witch. Ogre. The Ogres, or Ugrians, were tribes north of the Ural, sup- posed to have some connection with Orcus. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVAl'IONS. 209 Old Nick, Nikr, the dangerous water-demon of Scandinavian legends. Old Scratch, from the demon Skratti, which still survives in the ■ superstitions of Northern Europe. Oyes, O yes, i. e. Oyez, Oyez, Hear ye, Hear ye. Pantaloon, (It.) pianta hone, ' the Planter of the Lion,' i. e. Standard-bearer of Venice; the Lion of St. Mark was the standard of Venice. PlCCAEOON=a plunderer ; (Fr.) piqueron,from picorer,i.e. pecorare, to steal pecora. PoLTKOON, (Lat.) pollice truncus, lame, or maimed in the thumb, to escape military service. PoTWALLOPER, from pot-wabbler, i.e. pot-boiler; (A.-S.) wappelian, to boil. One who boiled a pot within the precincts of the borough, within a certain time of the election, had the right of voting. Punch and Judv, supposed to be from Pontius cum Judceis, i. e. Pontius Pilate and the Jews ; possibly a mediaeval play, or mystery. Quandary, from (Fr.) Qu'en dirai-je ? ' What shall I say of it ? ' Rascal, (A.-S.) a lean deer. Eiffraff, (A.-S.) reafian, to take away : tattered, worn, or worthless people. Rigmarole, uncertain. The ragman's role occurs in Sir T. More, Fox, Shelton, &c. Robber, (Ger.) rauhen, (A.-S.) redjian, to rip, rob, take away. Scaramouch, (Fr.) escarmoueheur, a skirmisher. Scoundrel, (Lat.) abscondere, to hide. Scullion, (Fr.) escuelle, a platter ; escuUien, a washer of dishes, Shotover, or Shooter, from chdteau vert. Skipper, (Old Norse) sMpveri, a sailor. Skylarking : Latham says from (A.-S.) Idc, a game, or a sport. Slubber de GuLLiON=slubberiug glutton; (Fr.) goulu, gluttonous. Spick; and Span New, (Du.) spyker, a warehouse, and spange, shining. Steeling, vide chap. XIV. Tariff, tarifa. Cruisers plundered vessels passing the Straits of Gibraltar, and levied toll. See p. 177. Tatterdemallion, (It.) tattere, to tear, and mallion, of uncertain meaning and origin. 210: ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. TauNDEK, from Thunor, or Thor, a Scandinavian deity; whence Thursday. TiNTiMAREE, a noise, or clashing ; (Fr.) tinier, to ring, and marre, a mattock. URCHm, (Fr.) he'risson, (Lat.) erinaceus, a sea hedgehog. Walnut, means 'foreign' nut, from Walschland, or Italy, cf. Wales, Cornwall. CHAPTEE XX. ■WORDS IN COMMON USE WITH OBSCTJEE DEEIVATIONS. Abominable, (Lat.) abominor, from ab and omen, really applicable to what is detestable in a religious light — of evil omen. Absurd, (Lat.) ab and surdus, deaf; such an answer as one would expect to get from a 'deaf man. Academy, (Gr.) d/.-a2i)/iia, a grove near Athens, where Plato and other philosophers were, wont to lecture. Hence a name trans- ferred to places of instruction. Acorn, (A.-S.) m'c^oah and corn, oak-corn. Address, ("Lat. and It.) ad and dirigere. Adultery, (Lat.) ad and altei-um or alteram, to another. Ajar, i.e. a-char=-on the turn, (A.-S.) cyran, to turn. Algebra, (Ar.) from Geber, an obscure writer on Alchemy. Alligator, (Sp.) el lagarto, or (Lat.) lacerta, the lizard. Allow, (Fr.) allouer, (Lat.) adlaudare. Almanac, (Ar.) al, the, (Gr.) jxip', month. Answer, (A.-S.) andswarian, to answer, (Goth.) and, against, swaran, to swear. Anthem, (A.-S.) antefen, (Low Lat.) antiphona, (Gr.) avTiipiovov. Argosy, possibly from the Argos, which Jason commanded. Assault, (Lat.) assnltum, part, oi assilire, to leap against. Attorney, (Fr.) attourner, to take a turn, to transfer. Awkward, uncertain, possibly from (Dan.) aver-rechts ward, q. d. 'looking from the right.' See p. 161. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 211 Bacheloe, (Ft.) has chevalier, next to a banneret. Balance, (Lat.) bilanx, an instrument for weighing, composed of two dishes or scales. Ballad, (It.yballata, from hallare, to dance ; whence ballet. Balluster, (Lat.) ballista, (It.) balestra, a cross-bow; balestriera, a loophoile to' shoot from. Bankrupt, (It.) banco rotto, (Fr.) banqueroute, i.e. bench-broken. The Lombard merchants were wont to expose their wares for sale on benches in the market. When one could not pay his debts, the rest drove him away and broke his bench to ■ pieces. Banns, (Ger. and Dutch) iann-en, bann, (A.-S.) bannan, to publish, to proclaim. Hence ' banns ' of marriage, ' bandit,' an out- law, &c. Banquet, (Ger. and Dan.) banchet, from bank, a bench. Bareisteij, (Low Lat.) bairasterius, possibly from (Fr.) barreau, the bar of a court of justice. Belfry, (Fr.) beffroi, a watch-tower. Billiard, or Balliard, augm. from ball ; (Ger. and Dan.) bollen, to roll. Bullion, (Lat.) bulla, a seal ; properly the mint, or office. Burglar, (Lat.) burgi-latrocinium, the plundering of a house. Cabbage, (Fr.) caboche, (Lat.) capuccio, from caput. Caitiff, (Lat.) captivus, a captive. Cajole, from c&ge, (Lat.) cavea, to sing in a cage. Candidate, (Lat.) candidus, white : one seeking office went about in a white toga. Canopy,- (Mod. Gr.) Ktavioiruov, a mosquito curtain, fr. kwi'wi^, a gnat. Carat, (Ar.) haura, a bean ; the standard weight for diamonds. Cardinal, (Lat.) cardo, a hinge ; hence critical, principal. Carnival, (Lat.) camem vale. Carouse, (Ger.) gar, completely, entirely ; aus, out, i. e. to drink all out. Cash, (Lat.) capsa, from capio, to take. Chagrin, (Fr.) chagrin, care, grief; (Genoese) sagrind, to gnaw; (Pied.) sagri, shagreen, a shark's skin used as a rasp in polish- ing. p2 212 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Chair, (Gr.) KaOsSpa, (Lat.) cathedra, or (A.-S.) cyran, to turn. Chancel, a cancellis. Vide chap. XV. Charm, (Lat.) carmen, i. e. magician. Chattel, Cattle, (Lat.) capitalia, from caput, the head. Cheat, (Lat.) cadere, to fall. The word * escheats ' was first applied to lands which/eZZ to the crown by forfeiture. The ' escheators,' or king's officers, were guilty of so much fraud, that at last the word, corrupted into ' cheat,' was used in a bad sense. Cheer, (Gr.) ■j(aipEiv, or (Pr.) caeur, the heart. Chimney, (Gr.) Kafiivog, from icaieiv, to bum. CiTT, (Lat.) civitas, a state. Clever, commonly derived from deliver (?), allied to cleaver. Club, (A.-S.) cleofan, to divide, to apportion expenses. Clumsy, fi-om clumps, (Dan.) hlompe, a mass, (A.-S.) ge-Uman, to connect. Comedy, (Gr.) kw/ljtj, a village, and (Jcri, a song ; at first a sort of village festival or harvest-home. Companion, (Lat.) con, together, panis, bread ; one who has the fellowship of eating bread. Control, contra, against, and rotulus, a roll. Copse, (Gr.) kowtuv, to cut down. CosTEEMONGEE=:costardmonger, costard=kind of apple. Couch, (Lat.) coUocare. Counterpane, (Lat.) culcita puncta, a quilt arranged in patterns for ornament ; (Pr.) coulte-pointe, courte-pointe, contre-pointe ; whence the name. Court, (Lat.) cohors. Cousin, (Lat.) consanguineus (con sanguis), of the same blood. Coverlet, (Lat.) cooperire lectum, (Fr.) couvre-lit. CuPBOARD^cup horde, a cup or press for cups, or cup-bur, i.e. cup- bower, (Icel.) jMr=a receptacle. Curfew, (Lat.) cooperire focum, (Pr.) couvre-feu. Dainty, (Welsh) dantaeth:=a, choice morsel, (Lat.) a dente, Daisy, the day's eye. Damage, (Lat.) damnum, agere. Dandelion, (Pr.) dent de lion, lion's tooth. Danger, (Lat.) damnum gerere. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 213 Delight, (Lat.) delicice. Delirious, (Lat.) de, lira, a furrow or ridge ; a metaphor taken from a person deviating from the straight furrow or ridge in ploughing. Demur, (Lat.) demorari, to delay. Demure, (Lat.) de moribus, of good manners. Denizen, (Welsh) dinas, a city, and sydd, free. Diet, a council, or parliament, (Lat.) from dies, a day. Diet, a feast, (Gr.) liaira. Dirge, (Lat.) dirige, so called from Psalm v. 8 : ' Dirige, Domine Deus meus, in conspectu iuo viiam meam.' Disaster, a word borrowed from astrology, (Gr.) Sue and aarpov, DoFF=:do-oflf. DoN=do-on. Dole, (A.-S.) dcBlan, to divide, a share or portion. Doll, (Dan.) dol, senseless, stupid ; whence dolt. Dozen, (Lat.) duodecim, twelve. Drone, (A.-S.) drygan, to expel. Dropsy, (Lat.) hydrops, (Gr.) «Swp, water. Drug, (A.-S.) drygan, to dry. Easter, vide chap. XV. Eaves, (A.-S.) efese, the brink, ridge, or edge of anything. Egg-on, (A.-S.) eggian, to incite, or urge on. Elope, (Belg.) loopen, to run. Vide ' Gauntlet.' Engine, (Lat.) ingenium. Equip, (Lat.) ephippiare, or equum ephippio instruere. Errand, (Goth.) ara, to employ. Eyre, (Lat.) iter, a journey. EYRY=eggery, I.e. a collection of eggs; an eagle's nest. Eysell, (A.-S.) eisile, vinegar, from eggian. Vide supra. Pagot, (hat.) fagus, a beach-tree. Fain, (A.-S.) fmgenian, to rejoice. Fair, (A.-S.) fceger, joy or gladness. Fair, (Lat.) ferre, forum. Fallow, (A.-S.) fealo, pale yellow- coloured. Fare, (A.-S. )/ara«, to go. Faubourg, i.e. foras burgi, the outside of the town. '214 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGUSH LANGUAGE. Feurt, ( A.-S.) faran, to go. Filibeg, {Ga.6\.) filleadh — O. fold or cloth, and Jc^r^ little. FiLiGRANE, (Ital.) Jiligrana, (LaX.) f,lum and granum. Fiscal, {¥i.) Jisgue, a bag, (La.t.) fiscus. Foolscap, (It.) foglio capo, a chief or foil-sized sheet of paper ; foglio, from [LaX.'y'folium, a leaf. Fket, ( A.-S.) fretan, to fi'et, to gnaw, Feiar, (Lat.). frater, a brother. Furbish, (Fr.) fourbir, (It.) forbire ; possibly from Lat. purus. Furnish, (It.) fornace, (Lat.) fornax, (Gr.) Trip, fire. Gadfly =:goad-fl3', i. e. fly that goads, or pricks. Gambol, or Gambauld (Fr.) gamblller, to wag the legs, (Fr.) jambe. Garment, (Fr.) garnir, to adorn or garnish, i.e. the body, by raiment. Gazette, a Venetian coin, the price of a newspaper; thence the paper itself. Gooseberry, i.e. gorseberry. Gossip, (A.-S.), properly a sponsor, or one related to God. Grimace, (Lat.j gryma, a, mask. Grocer, (Fr.) gros, one who sells or buys things by the gross. Gross, (Fr. ) gros, (Lat.) crassus. Grouse, (Fr.) gros, (Lat.) crassus ; or possibly from gorse. Guerdon, (A.-S.) wardian, to look at, to guard, cf. reward. Guitar, (Lat.) cithara. Haggard, (A.-S.) Ticsgesse, a witch. Hammock, (Caribbean). Harangue, (A.-S.) hringan, to sound. Harbinger, (Dan. and Ger.) herberger:=one who looks out for a harbour, or lodging for another. Harbour, (A.-S.) here, an army, beorgan, to protect. Harpoon, (Lat.) harpago, Gr. apTra^iiv. Harvest, (Goth.) ar = year, and vest=food. Hawk, (A.-S.) ha/oc, whence havoc. HEATHEN=dwellers on the heath. After the towns were Christian- ised, many of the rural districts were pagan. Heifer, (A.-S.) heah-fore ; hedh —high, and/ore=step, or fodder. Heirloom, (A.-S.) geloma, household stuff, furniture, stock, store ; (Lat.) Aeres,' an heir. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 215 Herald, '(A.-S.) here-healt—cha,mj)ion of the army. IlERsriT, (Lat.) eremita, (Gr.) tprifiirriq, from 'ipriixog, a desert. Herring, (A.-S.) here, an army, to express their numbers. Host, (Lat.) hostis, an enemy. Host, (Lat.) hospes, an entertainer. Host, (Lat.) hostia, a pacrifice. Hurdle = a little hoard of building. Hurricane, (Sp; W. Indian) ouracjan—a, storm. HuERY, (A.-S.) here, an army ; whence herian, to ravage, to plunder. Hence also ' harry,' ' hurry,' 'harrow,' &c. Husband, (A.-S.) house-bond. IjfnECiLE, (Lat.) in haculum, one who leans on a stick. Impair, (Lat.) pejor, worse. Individual, derived from Logic. Dividing genus into species, and 60 on, we come at last to fie milt, which we cannot divide, except physically; hence ' individuum,' i.e. ' nondivisible.' Inoot, (Pr.) lingot, from lingua, q. d. tongue- shaped, or (Du.) in- gieten, to inftise. Intrigue, (Lat. and GrJ) tricce, rplxee, hairs, entanglements. Inveigle, (It.) invogliare, to make one willing or desirous. Invoice, (Lat.) in viam, on the way. Ivory, (Lat.) ebur, (Gr.) /3apuc=heavy. Jaded, (A.-S.) yede or ?/ode = goed or gone, one tired with going. _ Janissary, (Turk.) yengi cheri, or new soldier. Jargon, vide chap. XIX. Jaw, (A.-S.) chaw, from ceoiuan, to chaw. Jenneting, corrupted from ' Juneting.' Apples which ripen in June. Jig, conjectured to be from (Fr.) gigue, (It.) giga, a fiddle. Joeden, (A.-S.) g'or=:filth, and rfe/i= receptacle. JowLE, written also choule (Lat.) gula, the gullet. Juice, (Lat.) succus, sugere, to suck. Julep, (Low Latin) _/«Zep«s=water sweetened with sugar. Kennel, (Lat.) canis, a dog. Kerchief, (Fr.) couvre-chef. Kidnap, q.d. to nab or steal children: ^!n(Z=child. Knave, (A.S.) cnafa, a boy, a youth. Knife, (A.-S.) cnif. Some derive it from (Gr.) Kviireiv, to scrape. 216 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Lackft, (Sw.) laquere, or lahere, a nmner; whence 'leg.' Lad, (A.-S.) Icedan, to lead, q. d. one led. Lampoon, (Pr.) lamponier, an idle companion, firom old Fr. lamper, to drink. • Laeum, (It.) aW armi=to arms ! Lass, i. e. laddess, fem. of lad. League, a confederacy ; (Lat.) Ugare, to bind. League, a distance ; (Pr.) lieu, (Low Lat.) leuca, (A.-S.) leag, leak, lah, a law ; a district in which a particular law was in force. Leather, (A.-S.) lether, from (A.-S.) hlidan, to cover up. Lecherous, (A.-S.) liccian, to lick. Lees, (A.-S.) Kcjan, to lie, what remains at the bottom of the bottle. Leman, (Fr.) le mignon, or Vaimant. Lettuce, (Lat.) lactuca, from lac, milk. Lewd, (Lat.) laicus, (Gr.) \a6e, same as layman ; possibly from (A.-S.) Icewede, p. part, of IcBwian, to mislead. Liquorice, corrupted from (Gr.) glyci/rrhiza=sweet root. Lizard, (Lat.) lacerta. Lobby, (Low Lat.) lobium, (Ger.) laube^a. leaf. Lobster, (A.-S.) loppestre, loppe=a. flea. Luncheon, corrupted from noonshun, i. e. meal taken at noon. Mace, (It.) mazza, (Lat.) massa, a club ; whence ' massacre.' JIackerel, (Dan.) makrel, some say a maculis, from its spots. Madrigal, anciently Madriale, (It., Sp., Lat.) mandra, a sheep- fold, q. d. a shepherd's song. Maggot, (Goth.) maijan, (A.S.) metian, to eat; whence moth, &c. Malady, (Lat.) male aptus. Malkin, i. e. little Mary. Man, (A.-S.) magan^posse; whence may, might, &c. Massacre, see above, ' Mace.' Mastiff, from maison-tenant, or ' mase the thefe,' because he guards the bouse from the thief. Meal, (A.-S.) m^l, a part, or portion. Meal, (Dan.) ineel, (Goth.) malan, (Ger.) malen, (Lat.) molere, to grind. Measles, (Du.) maese, (Ger.) maser, a spot. Meat, (A,-S.) metian, to eat. ETYMOLOGICAL DEEIYATIOXS. 217 MeetWg, i.e. moi-i/unjr (Sc). Mote=council ; thing =judicial as- sembly, an assembly of freemen. Megrim, (Lat.) hemicranium, (Gr.) q/jtKpay4a=pain round themiddle of the head. Menial, (Old Fr.) mesnie, a household. Mess, (Lat.) missus, from mittere, to send. Minaret, (Ar.) menarah, a lantern. Mince, (Lat.) minutus, small. Miniature, (Lat.) mimum=Ted lead : mxniare, to paint with ver- milion. Minion, (Fr.) mignon, (A.-S.) mdenan, velle, cupere. MoB=moJj7e vulgus. Came into use temp. Charles IL Dryden uses ' mobile,' and mentions ' mob ' as a novelty. Mole, (Lat.) moles, a heap, a mess. Monkey, from mannikin, a little man. Morass, (Dan.) morads, another mode of writing marsh; (A.-S.) wiersc. Morganatic, (A.-S.) m^rgen-gife,(J)a,'a.)morgaiigaue^=\h.Qvaorii.mg gift; a kind of dowry paid on the morning before or after marriage. Morose, (Lat.) mos and osus, a man full of his own ways. Mortise, (Lat.) mordere, to bite. Mosque, (Ar.) mesgid, a place of adoration. Muggy, (Welsh) mwglio, to warm. Mummy, (Ar.) mum, signifies wax. Munch, (Fr.) manger, to eat. Mustard, (Lat.) mustus, pungent, and ardeo, to burn. Muster, (Lat.) monstrare, to show. Mustache, (Gr.) ^vajal, an upper lip. Nap, (A.-S.) hnappian, to sleep. Nap, (A.-S.) hnoppa, the same word as knap, knop, or knoh=any~ thing rising. Neat, (A.-S.) hmtan=to butt; means properly horned cattle. Neat, (Lat.) nitidus, clean, nice. Neighbour, (A.-S.) neah, near, and gelure, a country man, or bower, a dwelling. Nephew, (Lat.) nepos. Niece, (Lat.) neptis. 218 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LAIfGfUAGE. Nettle, (A.-S.) netle, possibly the same origin for needle, i. e. that which pricketh. Fever, (A.-S.) naefre, TOa=not, and a;fre-=ever. Niggard (augmentative), from nigh, or (A.-S.) nyrwan, to constrain Nightingale, (Ger.) nacht-i-gdll : nacht, night, and gallen, to resound Noon, (A.-S.) non, (Lat.) {hora nana), the ninth hour. Nostril, (A.-S.) nose-tliirle, i. e. nose-hole : thirlian, to pierce ; whence ' drill.' Nuisance, (Lat) noceo, to hurt. Oar, (A.-S.) erian, to plough, to ply. Offal, i. e. that which ' falls off.' OsiELiiT, (Fr.) omelette, q. d. osufs-molette, i. e. mixture of eggs. Onion, (Lat.) unus, i.e. a root with 07ie bulb. Ooze, (A.-S.) Ms«=water; whence Ouse, Usk, Esk, and other rivers. Orchard, corrupted from hortyard, (Lat.) /iortMs=garden, (A.-S.) yard, an enclosure. Ordeal, (A.-S.) orddel ; or=great, and dcel=judgment. Ordure, (Lat.) either horridus, or sordidus. Ore, (A.-S.) ora, (Pr.) or, (Lat.) aurvm. Orgies, (Lat.) orgia, airo rfje dpyijc, i.e. afvrore bacchantium. OsPRAT, i.e. ossifrage, (Lat.) os, a bone, scad^fravgere, to break. Ostler, (A.-S.) hosteler, vide ' Host : ' some say, oat-stealer ! Ostrich, (Lat.) Qvis strutliio, (Gr.) <7rpoi/Hoc=:a sparrow. Otter, (A.-S.) oter, (Lat.) Intra, (Gr.) viup. Owl, (Lat.) %dulare, (A.-S.) ule. Paddock, (A.-S.) pad, a toad. Paddock, corrupted from (A.-S.) jjarnict, a park. Pagan, (Lat.) paganus, a villager. Vide ' Heathen.' Palette, (Fr.) paille, (Lat.) palea, straw. Palfret, (Fr.) par le frein, by the bridle. A horse led by the bridle. Palliate, (Lat.) pallium, a cloak. Palsy, (Gr.) TraiiuXvmQ, i. e. paralysis. Pamper, (Fr.) parnpre, (Lat.) pampinus, a vine-leaf. Pamphlet = papers stitched together ^arMre_^/ei. Paradise, (Ancient Persian) ; whence wapaStlaos, a park. Paeamoue, (Fr.) par amour. BTVAIOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 219 Parcel, (It.) particella, a little pari ; hence ' particle.' Parlour, (Fr.) parloir, the room in a nunnery where the nuns are allowed to speak with a visitor. Parrot, (Pr.) perroquet, from Perrot, dim. «{ Pierre (Peter). Parsley, (Fr.) persil, (Lat.) peiroselinum. Paksnep, (Lat.) pastinaca ; the nep is the same in turnip, q. v. Partridge, (Lat.) perdrix. Peacock, (A.-S.) pawa, (Fr ) paon, (Lat.) pavo. Peasant, (Fr.) paysan, (Lat.) paganus, a rustic. Pebble, (A.-S.) pabol. Peculiar, (Lat.) peculutm, stock (peciis) or money acquired by son or slave with parental sanction ; hence 'private property.' Pedlar. A pad, ped, in Norfolk, is a pannier, or wicker basket ; a pedlar, or peddar, a man who carries such. Pell-mell, (Pr.) pe'sle-mesle, confusedly ; melee, or medley. Pennant, (Lat.) ^i)^a, a feather, or flap; possibly iioTnpendant (Fr.). Person. The Eoman theatres were so large that the actors wore masks containing a contrivance to render the voice louder. Such a mask was called persona (per, sonare, to sound through) ; afterwards persona came to signify an actor, or a character of a play. Pilgrim, (Fr.) pelerin, (liat.). peregrinus, from per ager. Pillory, (Fr.) pilier, the pillar, or post, or (Lat.) piliorium, the iron ring by which the neck was confined. Pirate, (It., Sp., Lat.) pirata ; (Gr.) Treipar^e, because he rishs many dangers. Pitcher, (Fr.) pichier, (It.) bicchiere, a beaker, or beaked cup. Placard, (Fr.) plaquard ; plaqner, to, stick, daub, or paste on. Plagiarism, (Lat.) plagium, meant man- stealing; now it means a literary theft. Plunder, (Low Ger.) ^fcrarfejt^rags, trumpery; (JiaXch) plonderen. This word, it is said, was introduced after the Thirty Years' War. Pocket, (diminutive), a little poke, or wallet. Poll-tax. PoU, or boll, means 'head.'. Pommel, (It.) pomolo, dim. oi porno, an apple; so any round head- Porcupine, (It.) porco spinoso, q. d. parens spinatus. Porpoise, (Lat.) parous piscis=:pig-&sh.. 220 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Porridge, (Lat.) porrutn, a leek ; also said to be a corruption of pottage. Posset, (Lat.) potto, a, draught. Preach, (Lat.) predicare. Prowl, (Pr.) proie, prey, q. d. to seek for prey. Podding, (Fr.) boudin, (Low Lat.) hodinus, a sleeve, large and loose. Punch, (Hindoo) pounch, five, because made of five ingredients. Punt, (Fr.) puis-tie, (Lat.) post-natum^since bom; hence sickly, inferior, diminutive. From the same source, pony, puisne judge. Purchase, (Pr.) pour-chasser. Puzzle, q.i.. paste, irora pose, i.e. postulate. Pyramid, (Lat.) pyramis, (Gr.) irOp. Quack, (Du.) to make the noise of frogs, ducks. Quagmire, (Lat.) quatio, to shake. Quaint, (Lat.) comptus, comere, to dress, or deck. Qualm, (A.-S.) cwealm, from cwellan, to quell. QuARREfL, (Lati) querela, a complaint. Queer, quier—h&A. — Wedgwood. Quinsy, (Pr.) esquinancie, (Gr.) rrvvayxv- Quire, (Fr.) carreau, or quarreau, a square, or bundle of square papers. Quiver, (Fr.) couvrir, (Lat.) cooperire. Quoit, possibly corrupted from cut, from Lat. co-ire. Kabbit, (Lat.) rapidus, swift. Eabbit, {Welsh)=T3X(ihit, or morsel. Packet, (Lat.) rete, a net. Eadish, (Lat.) radix, a root. Kaffle, (Dan.) rafler, (Lat.) rapere. Eallt, (Lat.) re-alligare. Ramble, (Lat.) re-ambulare. Kancour, (Fr.) ranccmr, (Lat.) rancor. Kandom, (A.-S.) rennan, to flow, and dun, down. Ransack, (A.-S.) ran, to plunder, and secan, to seek. Ransom, (Lat.) redemptio (?). Religion, (Lat.) religare. Rent, (Lat.) reditus. Eepautee, a return thrust in fencing. ETYMOLOGICAL DERIVATIONS. 221 Ee\t;rie, (Fr.) resver, to rave. Reward, (Lat.) re, back, and (A.-S.) wardian, to look. Ehubaeb, (Lat.) Rha-harharum. So called because brought from the banks of the Rha, now the Volga. EiBALD, (Fr.) ribaud, possibly re and baldo (It.), q.d. very bold. Rival, (Lat.) rivus, a stream, a source of contention to neighbouring proprietors. RonND, (A.-S.) ronde, a border, (Lat.) rotundus. Rudder, (A.-S.) rother, (Dm.) roeder, the broader part of an oar. Ruffian, (Fr.) ruffien, from ruff, to raise a tumult. RossET, (Lat.) russus, somewhat rosy or red. Saffron, (Sp. and Ar.) azafran. Salad, (Lat.) sal, salt. Salamander, (Gr.) aaXafiavZpa. Salary, (Lat.) sal, because salt formed part of every payment. Salmon, (Lat.) a saliendo, from the leaps it makes. Saloon, (Goth.) saljan, to dwell, to lodge. Samphire = herb of St. Peter (St. Pierre). Sarcasm, (Gr.) aapKa^iiv, to tear the flesh. Savage, (Lat.) i. e. silvage, from st7«a=a wood. Sauce, (Lat.) sal, salt. SAUNTERER^a Vagrant begging on pretence of going a pilgrimage to la sainte terre ; some say fi'om aanier^adventure, i. e. one idhng in quest of adventures. Scarf, (Fr.) escharpe ; derivation uncertain. Scarlet, (Low Lat.) scarletum ; possibly connected with car, in caro, Scavenger, (A.-S.) sceafan, to scrape. Scourge, (Lat.) corrigia, a strap. Scrawl, corrupted from scrabble, or scribble, (Lat.) scribo. Scupper, (Ger.) schopfen, to draw off. Secure, (Lat.) sine cura, i.e. free from care. Shagreen, (Pers.) sdghre, or sdgMr=lesLtheT prepared from skin. Silly, (Ger.) selig, pious. Sincere, (Lat.) sine cerd, without wax, i.e. jewelry solid, not hol- lowed and filled with wax. Skirmish, (Fr.) escarmoucher. 222' ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Sluice, from (Lat.) clausus (?), (It.) sclusa. Sofa, (Pers.) sofat. Solecism, (G-r.) troKoiKLafioo,, from Soli, a town of Cilicia, the people of which corrupted pure Greek. Somersault, i.e. sopra salto, or supra Salire. Sorcerer, (Lat.) sors, a lot. Sparrow, (Goth.) spai-va. Spider, or Spinner (A.-S.) spinnan, to spin. Spouse, (Lat.) spondere, to pledge, (Gr.) nfiivrvfti, to pour out. In making contracts it was customary to pour out libations to the Gods. Squirrel, (Gr.) iTo'a, ohpa. oKia, a shade; oupa, a tail. Stallion, (It.) Stallone, i.e. equus ad stallum^a, horse kept in the stable. Stannary, (Lat.) stannum, tin.' Stark, (A.-S.) stare, ste'rc, strcmg, hard. Starve, (Dan.) sterven, (Ger.) sterben, (A.-S.) steorfan, to die, or cause to die. Mr. Dundas, afterwards Lord Melville, first used the word starvation in one of his speeches on the American War, 1775. Steward, i.e. stede ware? = keeper of the place. Stimulate, (Lat.) stimulus, a goad. Stipend, (Lat.) stipendium, from stips, pay, and pendere, to pay. Stipulate, (Lat.) stipula, a straw, used to ratify a covenant. Sturdy, (Fr.) etourdi, (It.) stordire, to make dizzy. Sturgeon, (Ger.), sfor, (A.-S.) styrian, to stir, to move. Subtle, (Lat.) subtilis=sub tela, a web consisting of fine threads. Sulky, (A.-S.) solcen, (Lat.) solus. Surgeon, (Lat.) chirurgus, (Gr.) ^stpovpyoc (x^ip and spyov). Swain, (A.-S.) swincan=to labour. Swine, some say, corrupted from sowen, plural of sow. Sycophant, a ' fig-shew er' =an informer. The export of figs from Attica was forbidden, Tabbard, (Fr.) tabarre, a long riding-cloak. Tadpole = toad poll, i.e. 'toad-head.' Tallow, (Du.) talgh, (A.-S.) telgan, to smear. Tantivy, (Lat.) tanta vi. ETYMOLOGICAL DEEIVATIONS. '125 Task, (Lat.) taxarc, same as tax. Tattoo, (Polynesian), or possibly from tapoter tous='beat all. Teach, (A.-S.) tc^can, to instruct, direct Teem, Team, (A.-S.) tyman, to pour forth. Temper, (Lat.) temperare. Tennis, derived from (Fr.) tenez, take; a word used in playing the game. Testy, (Fr.) teste, or tete, the head. Tether, possibly from the verb to tie. Theriac, Treacle, (Gr.) dripiaiai ; the word means viper's blood. Thimble =i, about, on both sides aj/(£, up avrl, against, instead of 4»(!, from ap 6 s, chief aiirSsj self Karii, do^wn ScKa, ten Sid, through Sis,m as semi-cireU „ sub-scribe „ siie-ceed „ suf-fer „ sug-gest „ sur-remder „ suB-pect „ suspicion „ subier-fuge „ super-vene trans-act tra-dition tri-dent ultra-montane uni-form un-animous vice-roy a-patJiy an-archy am-brosia am-i amphi-bious ana-tomy anti-christ ant-agonist apostate aph-orism arch-angel archi-tect auto-graph aut-opsy cata-logwe oath-edral cat-egory deca-logue dia-meter dis-aster dys-entery GBEEK PKEFIXES. 229 BO- BX- EN- BM- EL- KPI- EP- EXO- EU- HEMI HETEBO- HEPT- HEXA- HTPEE- HYPO- HTPH- META.- METH- MET- JIONO- MON- OETHO- PANTO- PAN- PAEA- PAR- PENTA- PEKI- PHILO- PHTL- POLY- PEO- PEOS- PSBOT)0- PSBUD- SYN- SYM- SYL- SY- TEI- ix, out from ly, in ^irl, upon IJa, without e5, well Vfu-, half erepos, different ?7rTa, seven ef, six inip, over, above inr6, under nerd, change (or after) ■ ii.6vos, single ipB6s, right ■ TTos, all vapi, beside, beyond TTc'i/Te, five irept, around ipiXos, a friend ■noXis, many TrpiJ, before TrptJs, to t|/€i3Sos, false aiv, together with TpcTs, T/)io, three as ecstasy „ ex-odua „ en-ergy „ em-blem „ d-lipsis „ epi-taph ex-otic eu-phony hemisphere hete-rodox hept-archy hex-agon hyper-critical hypo-crite hyph-en mcfa-physics mcth-od met-onomy mono-syllable mon-arch ortho-dox panto-mime pan-orama paragraph par-ody penta-teuch peri-phery philosophy phil-anthropy poly-syllable pro-gramme pros-elyte pseudo-prophet pseud-onym syn-tax sym-pathy syl-lable system tripod 230 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. APPENDIX n. List of Words whicli vary their Meaning with their Accent. See page 16. (Taken from Adams' English Language.) 1. Noun and Adjective. Compact, compact TtiiTiute, minute Expert, expert precedent. prec&lent instinct, instinct STipine, supine. 2. Noun and Verb. A'ccent, acctot Export, expert iffix, . affix toract, extract attribute attribute ferment, ferment augment, augment import. import colleague. coll&gue impress. impress collect. colUct incense. incense compress, compress increase. increase concert. concert insult. ins^t conduct. conduct object. object contest. contest p&fume. perffime confine, confine permit, permit conflict. conflict pervert. pervert c6nserTe, conserve prefix. prefix consort, consort prMude, prelude contrast. contrast premise. premise converse. converse presage, presage convert, convert produce. produce c6nTict, convict project, project decrease, decrease pritest, protest descant. descant record. record detail. detail survey. survey digest. digest torment, torment ksaa.j. essay transfer, transfer ixile. exile transport. transport. APPENDIX II. 231 A'bsent, 3. Adjective and Verb. absent { &^quent, frequent. 4. Noun and Adjective and Verb. ATistract, abstract r^bel, reb^l compound, compound refuse, refuse contract, contract retail, retail present, present subject, subject The accent remains unchanged in the following words :— Concrete, patent, consent, respect, herald. PART III. PEAXIS. GENERAL QUESTIONS. I. 1 . What is meant by DEFmiTioN ? 2. Define and divide Language and Word. 3. Explain the difference between a science and an art. Define Grammar ao a science — as an art. 4. How is Grammar divided ? Explain the meaning of Etymology, Syntax, Prosody. 5. Define Word, Syllable, Letter, Vowel, Consonant. How are Vowels and Consonants divided ? 6. Explain what is meant by Labials, Dentals, and Gutturals. 7. Exhibit the division of Letter in a tabular form. 8. When are w and y to be regarded as vowels f When as consonants ? 9. What are Diphthongs and Triphthongs ? Mention those that are proper. 1 0. When are e and g soft and hard? 11. What are the defects of the English Alphabet? 1 2. What are the requisites of a perfect Alphabet ? 1 3. What letters are superfluous ? 1 4. What is meant by Orthography, Orthoepy ? ] 5. Give a tabular scheme showing an analysis of ' word according to form.' 16. How are the anomalies of English spelling to be accounted for? 1 7. Examine the spelling of the following words : Deferred, differed, foretels or foretells, unraveled, gaUopped, ponies, instiU, uncontrolable judgement, Henrys, marshaU (the verb), ascendency, brimfull, traveling, fatigueing, moveable or movable, judgeship, lodgable, alledgeable, alledgement, abridgment, lodgment, infringement, enlargement, acknowledgement, combatting, recalls, marvelously. 1 8. State the general rule for dividing words into syllables. 19. Divide the following words into syllables: Benefit, cabinet, covetous, diminutive, education, nicety, civil, colour, ascribe, massy, chanter, blanket, vestry, evening, folio, genius, officiate, fable, scholar, separate, polysyllable, geographical, Helen, Philip, wealthy. PRAXIS. n. 233 1. Define AccEKT, Emphasis, Quantity. 2. Show that accent differs from quantity. 3. Wliat is the use of accent? i. What general rule regulates the position of accent in words which are identical in form ? * 6. On what part of a 'derived form' is the accent generally found in English? C. "Which seems to be the favourite place for accent in words of more than three t syllables ? Give instances of words that have shifted their accent in obedience to this principle. III. 1 . "What is the threefold province of Etymology? 2. Define Part of Speech. 3. G-ive a fourfold classification of words. 4 Exhibit in tabidar form MorelVs scheme for classifying words. 5. What are Latham's views ? 6. Show by a tabular scheme how, according to Home Tooke, the parts of speech may be reduced to two. 7. Enumerate the parts of speech and explain each. 8. Define Accident, Accidence. rv. 1. Classify Noun according to meaning. 2. What is meant by Proper, Common, and Abstract Nouns? 3. Into what two classes are 'Singular' or 'Collective' Nouns divided? 4. Classify 'Common' Nouns. 5. Classify 'Abstract' Nouns. 6. Divide Noun according to ' Structure.' 7. Explain the meaning of 'Primary Derivative,' 'Secondary Derivative.' 8. What is the meaning of 'strong' and 'weak' as usedin English Grammar? 9. From what language do we take our primitive nouns ? 10. Explain the meaning of 'Diminutive,' 'Augmentative,' and 'Patronymic' 11. What are the 'Simple Diminutive Suffixes'? 12. Give instances of words which have compound 'Diminutive Suffixes.' 13. What are the 'Augmentative Suffixes'? Give instances of 'Patronymics. 14. Explain the meaning of the following affixes : 'Hood,' 'ness,' 'ty,' 'rie,' 'ry,' 'ship,' 'dom,' 'ment,' 'mony,' 'cy,' 'tude,' and illustrate by examples. 16. Explain the force of the affixes in the following words : Balustrade, forage, morning, farthing, firkin, stanchion, poUard, tajrt;let, garden, pocket. * For a list of these words, see Appendix II. p. 230. 234 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 16. Wiat is meant by Derivation and Composition? 17. How are compound nouns formed ? 18. What is the logical force of a ' eompound ? ' Which term limits and defines the other? 19. Mention words which are incomplete 'compounds,' one element teing concealed. 20. Give instances of words which are erroneously supposed to he ' compounds.' 21. Which is earlier in a language, 'composition' or 'derivation'? 1 . Define Tekm, NtraiBER, Gendee, Case, Peeson.' 2. How do nouns of A.-Saxon origin form their ' plurals ' ? 3. How do nouns imported from foreign languages form their ' plurals ? ' Give instances and exceptions. 4. How is the prevalence of the plural form in s and es to he accounted for ? 5. State the general rule for forming the plural in s and es. State exceptions. 6. What is meant by a strong plural ? Give a list of those nouns that have strong plurals. 7. What do strong plurals imply ? 8. Give the plurals of the following : Sister, brother, ox, tooth, penny, hero, cargo, lady, palmetto, fife, knife, scarf, proof, ruflf, phenomenon, axis, formula, crocus, loaf, genus, analysis, appendix, bandit, cherub, judge, beau, focus, omnibus, beauty, liey, valley, lily, animalculum, mouse, country, leaf, woman, pea, kiss, beach, self, fox, wharf, chief, eye, donkey, medium, sheep. 9. Nouns that end in fe form their plurals in ves. State exceptions to th? rule. 10. Give a list of nouns ending in/, which do not change it in the plural. 11. Mention nouns that have both a strong and a weak plural. 12. Give a list of nouns that have two plurals with different meanings. 13. What nouns have different meanings in the singular and plural? 14. What nouns have two meanings in the singular, and one in the plural? What have two meanings in the plural and one in the singular ? 15. What nouns have no singular? What have no plural? 16. How is collectiveness shown in Englisli? 17. Discuss with reference to number the following nouns : Alms, means, news, pains, amends, riches. 18. Ethics, children, wages, chickens, swine, kine, welkin, ferns, folk — explain these words, with reference to number. 19. Explain the origin of the plural affixes es, en, and ry in yeomanry. 20. Give the plural of ' courtmartial,' ' aidecamp,' ' lord mayor.' How do com- pound nouns form their plural? PRAXIS. 235 21. Give the plvuals of firman, Brahman, talisman, caiman, Mussulman, Norman, Frenchman, German, Dutchman. VI. 1. Define Gbkdee. What is meant ty Common Gender ? 2. Why is the English language more philosophic in regard to gender than other languages ? 8. In what three ways is gender indicated? 4. What are the A.-Saxon and N.-French affixes to show the male or female agent ? 5. Explain the words Songstress, tapster, maltster, wizard, punster. 6. What peculiarity is there in the words Drake, gander, bridegroom, widower ? 7. Explain the following words: Lord, lady, man, woman, nephew, niece, heroine, vixen, sultana, girl, slut. 8. Give the feminine forms of Bachelor, beau, buck, colt, gaffer, hart, milter, monk, rake, sloven, steer, wizard. 9. Mention feminine nouns that have no corresponding masculine. 10, What is the meaning of the affixes er and s/er? 11. On what principle or principles do we attribute gender to inanimate objects ? vn. 1 . Define Casb. How many cases have we ? Explain the statement ' that we have two cases expressing three relations.' 2. Explain the words Declension, Case, Oblique, in connection with one another. 3. Explain the meaning of genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative case. i. What is the difference between subject and nominative ; object and accusa- tive? 5. What is the origin of the possessive ease in 's t How is the ' written when the word ends with « ? 6. Whence did we obtain the genitive with of? 7. What is the ordinary difference between the genitive with of, and the genitive with *s ? 8. What adverbs show traces of genitive and dative forms ? 9. Give words that are respectively instances of genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative forms. 10. Enumerate all the traces which survive of A. Saxon noun inflexions. 11. Write down the genitive cases singular and plural of the following: Mother, man, girl, John, righteousness, woman, Xerxes, sheep, cat, Moses, rose, people, bees, caterpillar, children, tree. 12. Explain the affixes in the following words : Liar, sailor, duckling, hillock, knuckle, streamlet, brooklet, freedom, landscape, bailiwick, horseman- 236 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ship, blackness, slavery, smithy, manhood, pocket, shovel, girdle, kin- dred, arcade, musician, trustee, Perkin, -wisdom, bishopric, asterisk. 13. Explain the meaning of the following affixes and give instances: Ard, one, kin, sor, try, trix, ee, eer, ian, ist, ling, lock, tude, ence, ary, el, ness, ment, isk. vin. 1. Define Adjkctite. 2. Classify adjective according to Meaning. 3. Classify adjective according to Meaning and Formation. i. Explain with examples Common, Proper, Numeral, Pronominal, Partici- pial, and Compound Adjectives. 5. How are Definitive Adjectives divided ? 6. Divide Qualitative Adjectives. 7. Divide Quantitative Adjectives. 8. Classify Adjectives according to Structure. 9. What are the A.-Saxon adjectival suflSxes ? 10. What are the principal classical adjectival soffixeE ? 11. In what ways can we form adjectives to express the absence of a quaoity, the presence of a quality ; the presence of it in a small degree ; in a larger degree ; the power of anything to impart a quality ; the fitness of anything to exercise it ? 1 2. AVhat is meant by Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals ? 1 3. What is meant by Distributive and Multiplicative Numerals ? 1 i. Explain the so-called Article. What is the meaning of the word ? 15. On what grounds are these articles classed as adjectives and not as pro- nouns ? 16. Give general rules for the use of a and an. ' 17. What is the rule for u or an, before words beginning with h? Give examples. 18. Explain the phrase 'three times a year.' 19. What are the Indefinite Quantitative Adjectives? 20. Give a list of nouns employed as collective numerals. 21. What are the compounds of OTie? What is the difference between one the noun, and one the adjective ? 22. How are Compound Adjectives formed ? 23. What are Simple Adjectives in origin? How are adjectives Derived? 2i. What is the great peculiarity of the English adjective ? In what respects has it an advantage over the adjective in highly inflected languages? 25. Define Comparison, Positive, Comparative, Superlative. 26. Give rules for the comparison of adjectives. 27. What dissyllable adjectives form their comparison by er and est? 28. Explain the meaning of these suffixes er and est. 29. AVhat is the meaning assigned by Tooke to Tiwre and most? PRAXIS. 237 30. What adjectives admit no degrees of comparison ? 31. Give a list of irregular comparisons. 32. Explain the forms, Better, worse, less, much, many, next, first, last, farthest, rather. 33. Explain the forms lesser, uppermost. 34. What is the difference between fern and a few, further and farther, elder and older, latter and later ? 35. What is the test of a true EngUsh comparative? Mention classical ad- jectives, as well as others of Saxon origin, which, though comparatives in form, do not conform to this test. 36. Give the derivation of the 'first ten' numerals. 37. Explain eleven, twelve, thirteen, twenty, hundred, thousand. 38. Explain farthing, firkin, riding (of Yorkshire), first, both, once, twice, only, cipher. 39. Give the force of the affixes in the following words : Sleepless, learned, talented, gifted, brazen, western, easterly, truthful, shady, blithesome, homeward, lovely, odious, righteous, verbose. 40. Mention adjectives that have more than one superlative form. 41. What adjectives have no positive — no comparative form? 42. What is the difference between the ' two first' and ' the first two' ? 43. What are comparatives and superlatives of eminence and diminution ? IX. 1. Define Peonotin'. 2. Classify Pronouns. 3. Define the classes into which pronouns are divided, 4. What are the Personal Pronouns ? 5. What are the Possessive Pronouns ? 6. Specify the Indefinite Pronouns — Substantive and Adjective. 7. What are the Eelative Pronouns ? State the difference in the use of the words so employed. 8. Explain the anomalies in the use of the pronoun ' sell' 9. Give a complete declension of the Personal Pronouns. 10. What are the Eeciprocal Pronouns ? What is the difference between them in their use ? 11. Explain Mine, thine, our, your, their. What is the difference between ' my and mine,' — ' thy and thine' ? 12. What are the Compound Pronouns ? 13. What are the uses of ' self' and ' own ' ? 14. Why is 'it is me' less unexceptionable than 'it is him'? 16. Give the derivations of He, she, it, the, that, who, which, such, each, every, thither. 238 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 16. When was the word ' its' introduced? What forni did it supplant? 17. Distinguish between 'each' and 'every.' 18. Explain etymologically Any, enough, some, divers, aught, naught, either. 19. What are the Pronominal Adverbs ? 20. Explain the words 'why' and 'the' in the phrase, 'the more the merrier.' 21. When are ' but' and ' as' used as relatives ? 22. What are the Demonstrative Pronouns ? How are 'this' and 'that' used when they express contrasts ? 23. Explain the word ' to' in ' to-day.' 24. Divide pronoun according to structure. 26. Define Kelative, Antecedent, and Reflective pronouns. 26. Distinguish between ' each other,' ' one another.' 27. What are Distributive Pronouns ? X. 1. Define Veeb. 2. Exhibit in tabular form a general classification of Verb. 3. Define Personal, Impersonal, and Unipersonal Verbs. 4. What are the three Impersonal Verbs ? 5. How are Personal Verbs divided according to Quality ? 6. Explain the meaning of Verb Substantive. 7. Classify verbs according to Eelation. What is meant by ' Eolation' ? 8. Explain what is meant by Transitive, Intransitive, and Neuter Verb. How many kinds of Intransitive Verbs are there ? 9. Define ' Auxiliary Verb.' 10. How are verbs divided according to ' form' ? 11. What is the difference between 'strong' and 'weak' verbs? 12. Into how many classes may 'weak' and 'strong' verbs be respectively divided ? Specify them. 13. What is meant by a Eedundant Verb ? 14. What are Defective Verbs ? Enumerate them. 1.5. Classify verbs according to Meaning. 16. Define a Eefiective Verb. Have we any special form for reflective verbs in English ? 17. What is a Causative Verb ? In what ways are causative verbs formed? 1 8. What are Intensive and Diminutive Verbs ? By what aflSxes may they be known ? 19. What are Inceptive Verbs ? Have they any special terminations ? 20. What is meant by a Prequentative Verb ? Mention the suffixes, classical or otherwise, which characterise them. 21. Give a division of Verbs according to Origin. 22. Into what three or four classes may derived verbs be divided ? 23. What is meant by Conjugation ? How many conjugations have we ? PRAXIS. 239 24. What are the Accidents of the rerb ? Define them. 25. Have we a true Passive voice in English ? 26. What is meant hy the Middle voice in English ? What verbs are said to have a middle voice ? 27. How many Moods have we ? Explain them. 28. What is meant by Tense ? How many tenses have we in English ? How many modifications of each ? 29. Explain the meaning of Indefinite, Incomplete, Complete, Continuous, as applied to tenses. 30. What are the various uses of the Present Indefinite ? 31. How are Compound tenses formed? 32. What kind of verbs form their compound tenses with the verb ' to have ' ? With the verb ' to be' ? 33. What effect have these auxiliary verbs on the concord of the participle ? 34. Which is correct, ' He is come,' or ' He has come' ? If both are allowable, what is the distinction between them ? 36. Conjugate the verbs ' to be,' ' to have,' ' to bring,' ' to run,' ' to smite,' ' to drown.' 36. Write out the Future tenses in full of the verbs 'to bring,' ' to remove. ' 37. Conjugate the Passive voice of the verbs • to strike,' ' to invite.' 38. In what four ways may Auxiliary verbs be divided ? 39. Give a list of auxiliary verbs. 40. State what you know about the verba ' shall' and ' will,' ' may' and ' can.' 41. There are two verbs 'do' ; two verbs 'become'; two verbs 'think'; and two verbs ' let ' * in the language, explain them. 42. What is a Participle ? How does it differ from an ordinary adjective ? 43. When are participles capable of comparison ? 44. Write down the active and passive participles of the verb ' to strike.' 46. What is meant by Gerunds ? How may they be distinguished from th« indefinite infinitive or imperfect participle ? 46. Explain the formation of ' could.' 47. What is the tendency of the present usage with reference to the Subjunctive mood and strong verb t 48. On what grounds is the Potential mood not admissible ? 49. What two forms have we of the Infinitive mood? How did they arise? 60. What are Gerundial Infinitives ? How are they distinguished from common infinitives ? 51. Explain the verbs ' did' and ' hight.' 52. What remnants have we in English verbs of terminations expressing dis- tinctions of persons ? Explain the terminations st, th. • Let (auxiliaiy) used in first and third persons Imperative mood, from (A.-S.) Ice'tan, bo Buffer, to permit. Lbt, to retard, to delay, from (A,-S.) latian, to delay ; as, • we are sore Ut and hindered.' 240 ANALYSIS OF THE ElfGLISH LANGUAGE. 63. What is the origin of the participial and gerundial endings in ing^ 54. What is the force of the suffix ed in ' delighted'? 5.5. Give the meaning: »f the verbal prefixes a, be, for, and an ; en, mis, with, and re. 56. Conjugate and analyse the verb 'to be.' Show of how many verbs it originally consisted. Compare it with the substantive verb in Latin and French, and give the supposed meanings of Am, was, were, are, be, is, wert. 67. What is there peculiar about ' are' and 'were' ? 68. Give the original meanings of Shall, will, can, may, worth, quoth, ana yclept. 69. Explain the participial prefix f/ in yclept. 60. Explain the phrase, ' woe worth the day.' XI. 1. Define Advbeb. 2. Classify adverbs according to Meaning. 3. Classify adverbs according to Structure. 4. From what parts of speech are adverbs derived ? 6. Mention adverbs derived from old genitives and datives. 6. Explain the word ' darkling.' 7. What are the four adverbial prefixes with their meanings ? Give the four adverbial suffixes and their meanings. 8. What adverbs qualify verbs or paiticiplea ? What qualify adjectives, or other adverbs ? 9. Mention adverbs that have conjunctional power. 10. Tabulate the Pronominal Adverbs. 11. How are adverbs compared? What difference formerly existed between the comparison of adjectives and adverbs ? 12. Explain the phrases, ' clean gone,' ' to stick fast,' ' to ride hard,' ' you did right.' 13. How are Compound Adverbs formed? xn. 1. Define Pheposition, and explain its use. How do Prepositions differ from Conjunctions ? 2. What relations do prepositions chiefiy express? 3. Classify prepositions according to meaning and simcttire. 4. How do Simple and Compound Prepositions differ in origin from Verbal prepositions ? 5. What are verbal prepositions in reality ? PKAXIS. 241 6. Give a list of simple prepositions, and explain them etymologically. 7. Give a list of compound prepositions, and explain them etymologically. 8. Give a list of verbal prepositions, and explain them etymologically. 9. Why are prepositions more frequently used in modem than in ancient languages ? 10. When prepositions are affixed to verbs what change do they often produce in the verb ? xni. 1. Define Conjunction. 2. Classify conjunctions according to meaning. 3. Classify conjunctions according to structure. 4. Explain the meaning of ' coordinate ' and ' subordinate.' 5. How are Coordinate Conjunctions divided ? 6. How are Subordinate Conjunctions divided? 7. Give another classification of conjunctions, and illustrate it by examples. 8. Define ' correlative.' What are the Correlative Conjunctions ? 9. Give a list of simple conjunctions and explain them etymologically. 10. Give six examples of derived conjunctions. 11. Give six examples of compound conjunctions. 12. How may Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions be distinguished ? 13. Give examples of 'but' as a relative, d preposition, a conjunction, an adverb. 14. Give examples of 'after' as an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, a conjunction. 15. Give instances of other wordti which are adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions according as we use them. 1 6. Show that ' that ' the conjunction is one and the same as ' that ' the demon ■ strative pronoun. 17. What are Interjections ? 18. Give the five senses of en as a suffix. 19. Give the five senses of cr as a .yffix. 20. Give the five senses of ing as a suffix. 21. Give the etymology of the monosyllabic conjunctions and prepositions. 22. What is Home Tooke's theory respecting the particles ? 23. What is the supposed origin of all nouns ending in tht 24. What is the supposed origin of aU nouns ending in ed or its equivalent, and in en ? 25. Give the etymology of Smith, eaith, girth, truth, health, bacon, heaven, bread, brawn, field, flood, month, mouth, moth, dawn, churn, haft, head, fiend, friend. 26. Give the etymology of Yes, no, perhaps, yesterday, to-morrow, morning, quickly, lo ! lief, fain, about. 27. How does ' between' difl^er from ' among' ? K 242 ANALYSIS Oe THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 28. What is the meaning of either' and 'whether'? 29. What is the true meaning of ' soon' ? What is the positive of ' sooner' and ' soonest ' ? XIV. 1. What are the three mental operations? Define them. How afe they expressed in language? 2. Define Proposition logically. 3. What is the meaning of Term ? 4. Define Subject, Predicate, and Copula. 5. How is a 'judgment' determined? 6. In the following propositions show the Subject, Copula, and Predicate. i. The thirst for fame is an infirmity of noble minds. ii. PensiyeneBS without mind is dulness. iii. It is excellent to have a giant's strength. iv. To advise Her Majesty is the duty of the Cabinet. V. Few inventors have reaped the benefit of their own inventions, yi. The pressure of population causes people to emigrate, vii. The Somans were the greatest nation of antiquity. 7. What is the relation between Subject and Predicate? 8. What is meant by the Substance, Quality, and Quantity of a proposition ? 9. When is a term said to be ' distributed ' ? 10. What are the rules for the distribution of terms ? 11. Give examples of the four kinds of propositions. 12. Explain the terms ' Categorical,' 'Hypothetical.' 13. How may ' Hypotheticals ' be divided? 14. How are Hypotheticals reduced to Categoricals? 15. How is the quantity of Indefinite Propositions determined? 16. What is meant by the 'matter' of a proposition ? 17. Examine the following propositions and state their Substance, Quantity, and Quality. i. All virtuous men are rewarded. ii. No one can believe all that historians say, iii. Some books are instructive. iv. Not in outward charms should men build their pretensions to pUase. V. Some political evils are not to be avoided, vi. Veni, vidi, vici. vii. Iron is heavy. IS. Exhibit the Division of Proposition in tubular forni. PRAXIS. 243 XV. 1. How are Proposition, Predicate, and Subject defined grammatically? 2. Define Sentence. How many kinds of sentences are there ? 3. Define Simple Sentence, Complex Sentence, Compound Sentence. 4. Exhibit in tabular form a division of sentence. 5. What are the ' essential ' parts of every sentence ? 6. What is meant by Complement of predicate and Extension of predicate ? 7. Explain with examples the meaning of Noun sentence, A^ective sentence. and Adverb sentence. 8. Of what parts does a Complex sentence consist ? Explain them fully. 9. What are the components of a Compound sentence ? Explain them fully. 10. Analyse the following Simple Sentences: — i. The two men climbed the steep mountain in silence. ii. In summer he took his frugal meal in the open air. iii. Long ere noon all sounds in the village were silenced. iv. In Brussels there was a sound of revelry by night. V. Expense ought to be limited by a man's means. vi. The Ancient Clirietians were animated by a noble love to each other, and a strong hope of immortality, vii. Overwhelmed by the sight, yet speechless, the priest and the maiden gazed upon the scene. viii. The death of Caesar threw all Kome into cousternatior. ix. Your father returned home yesterday. X. ' Canst thou draw out leviathan with a hook ? ' xi. The perception of the ridiculous does not necessarily imply bitter- ness. xii. They returned to their own country foil of the discoveries they had made. xiii. Convinced of the necessity, he resigned himself to his fate. xiv. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. XV. Him the almighty power, Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky With hideous ruin and combustion down To bottomless perdition. xvi. How oft the sight of means to do ill deeds Makes ill deeds done. e2 244 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. xvii. . . a rich throne, as bright as suiiny day, On which there sat most brave, embellished With royal robes and gorgeous array, A maiden queen.' xviii. To cheek this plague, the skilful farmer chafiF And blazing straw before his orchard burns. xix. .... who pierce, With vision pure, into those secret stores Of health, and life, and joy. XX. In ancient times, the sacred plough employed The kings and awful fathers of mankind. 1 1 . Analyse the following Complex Sentences : — i. It was so cold in the year 1830, that the Thames was frozen over. ii. Many learned men write so badly that they cannot be understood. iii. Rain fertilises these fields which spread their bounty to God's creatures. iv. Many books cost more than they are worth. V'. When the king heard the news he was frightened, vi. ' Thou shalt honour thy father and thy mother that thy days be long.' vii. When Jesus was twelve years old he went up to the temple with his brethren, viii. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread, ix. ' AVhere the carcase is there will the eagles be gathered together.' X. He cannot write because he has injured his hand, xi. As a man lives so will he die. xii. Whene'er I walk abroad how much I learn from the beauties of nature ^.round me. 1 2, Analyse the following Compound Sentences : — i. The clergy were much displeased at the fashion, and one clergyman is said to have preached a sermon against it. ii. He looked at her sorrowfully, but without manifesting either vexa- tion or surprise. iii. He was a bad man, therefore he was not respected by his subjects. iv. War is attended with desolating eifects, for it is confessedly the scourge of our angry passions. V. He arrived at the right moment, or I should have been lost. PRAXIS. 245 vi. The life of the queen tee seems to be all enjoyment, yet It is only an idle life. vii. With a slow and noiseless footstep, Comes that messenger divine, Takes the vacant chair beside me, ' Lays her gentle hand on mine. viii. Birds seek their nests ; the ox, horse, and other domestic animals sleep around us. ix. Flowers form one of the delights of early age, and they have proved a source of recreation to the most profound philosophers. X. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, But at every gust the dead leaves fall. xi. Take the instant way, For honour travels in a strait so narrow. Where one but goes abreast. xii. The Jews would not tread upon the smallest piece of paper in their way, but took it up ; for possibly, say they, the name of God may be on it. ^' For additional examples, consult Morell's Analysis of Sentences. 1 3. What is meant by Parsing ? 14. Parse the following: i. Good sense, clear ideas, perspicuity of language, and proper arrange- ment of words and thoughts will always command attention. — Blair's Shetoric. li. Money, like other things, is more or less valuable, as it is less or more plentiful. iii. ' And who is he that will harm you if ye be followers of that which is good.' — 1 JPeter iii. 13. iv. He has desires after the kingdom, and makes no question but it shall be his ; he wills, runs, strives, believes, hopes, prays, reads scripture, observes duties, and regards ordinances. V. ' Giving no offence in anything, but in all things approving ourselves as the ministers of God ; as unknown, and yet well known ; as dying, and behold we live ; as chastened, and not killed ; as sor- rowful, yet always rejoicing ; as poor, yet making many rich ; as having nothing, and yet possessing all things.' — 2 Cor. vi. vi. A true friend unbosoms freely, advises justly, assists readily, ad- 246 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ventures toldly, takes all patiently, defends courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably. vii. No man is so foolish, but that he may give good counsel at a time ; no man so wise, but he may err, if he take no counsel but his own. yiii. It is surprising to see the images of the mind stamped upon the aspect ; to see the cheeks take the dye of the passions, and appear in all the colours of thought. — Collier. ix. Oh ! sooner shall the earth and stars faU into chaos. X. I know that that that that that writer uses is wrong. 1^" Each example wiU be found to give special prominence to some particular part of speech. XVI. (a) 1. Define Syntax. 2. What are the five fundamental laws of syntax, according to Morell ? 3. Explain what is meant by Concord, Government, Apposition. i. If two or more nominatives are connected conjunctively, in what number must the verb be put? 5. What exception is there to this rule ? 6. State the rules bearing upon the concord of verb and nominative when the nominatives are connected disjunctively. 7. In what number is the verb put when the subject is a noun of multitude ? 8. In what number is the verb put when the subject is a collective noun ? 9. If two nominatives are connected, the one affirmative, the other negative, with which does the verb agree ? 10. What is the absolute construction in EngUshf What was it formerly? (*) 1. What is the diflference between Cicero's bust and a bust of Cicero's ? 2. How is the genitive of nouns in apposition expressed ? Which has the apostrophe ? 3. What verbs are followed by genitive relations? 4. What case do the adjectives 'worth,' 'old,' 'high,' 'broad,' 'long,'&c. {i.e. adjectives of value, age, and measurement), really govern ? What are they said to govern ? How have such adjectives been interpreted by Goold Brown, and other grammarians ? PRAXIS. 247 5. What kind of yerbs take after them a dative as well as an accusative ? fi. What is the construction of the adjective ' like' ? 7. Explain the construction of ' himself.' 8. Explain the construction of 'methinks,' 'me seems,' ' me lists,' ' him ought.' 9. What case do the verbs ' please ' and ' obey ' govern ? 10. Enumerate the constructions which are best regarded as dative con- structions. 1 1 . What is the general rule for the government of the Objective Case ? 1 2. What is meant by the Cognate Accusative ? 1 3. Explain the constructions ' he waited all night ; ' ' he walked a mile ; ' ' he swam the river.' 1 4. Give the constructions of the verbs ' ask ' and ' teach.' Explain them. 1 5. What is meant by the Factitive Accusative ? («) 1. According to Latham 'like' is the only adjective that governs a case. Examine this statement. 2. What is the construction of ' than ' after the comparative ? 3. Explain the word ' the ' in such phrases as ' the more the merrier.' 4. What is the difference between the article ' an ' and ■ one ' ? 5. Give general rules for the use of ' a,' ' an.' 6. Give examples of the different meanings belonging to ' a ' before a noun. 7. What is the effect of prefixing the definite article to plural adjectives, singular nouns, and singular adjectives ? 8. Explain the following: He would make a better soldier than poet. He would make a better soldier than a poet. 9. What is the effect of ufing the article once with several nouns, and repeating it before each of them ? 10. Explain the phrase 'many a time.' 11. Explain the phrases ' a thousand men,' ' a few horses.' 12. State the difference between ' my and mine,' ' thy and thine.' 13. What is the effect of prefixing ' this ' to a plural noun ? 14. In what number must the verb be put to agree with each, every, either, neither, no ? 15. Give general rules for the concord of the relative and antecedent. 16. How do ' who,' ' which,' ' what ' and ' that ' differ in their use ? 1 7. With what relatives are collective nouns and nouns of multitude respectively used? 18. By what pronouns are 'each' and 'every' followed. 19. What pronominal adjectives stand before the article ? 248 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. XVIL 1. What is meant by a 'hypothetical' sentence? 2. What is the diflference between a ' conditional clause ' and a ' consequent clause ? ' 3. How is a ' preventing conditional clause ' shown ? 4. Give general rules for the use of the subjunctive mood. 5. What is the twofold government of the infinitive mood? 6. By what verbs is the infinitive governed directly? 7. Explain the 'gerundial infinitive.' What does it express after nouns, adjectives, and intransitive verbs ? 8. Mention some expressions which are explained by the gerundial infinitive. 9. What is the difference between a participle and a gerund ? 10. When are participles compared ? 11. What effect have the auxiliaries 'be' and 'have' on the concord of the participle ? 12. Give a simple rule for the succession of tenses. 13. Give examples of correlative subjunctive forms. 14. What parts of the verb are sometimes used absolutely? XVIII. 1. Explain the plirase 'two and two are four.' 2. When does 'if govern the indicative and subjimctive mood? 3. What is the force of two negatives in Greek, French, Anglo-Saxon, and English ? 4. What difference formerly existed between 'yea,' 'nay,' 'yes,' and 'no'? 5. What conjunctions govern the subjunctive mood ? 6. What rule determines the position of prepositions ? 7. Which is correct ? ' Charm ha ever so wisely ; ' ' Charm he never so wisely.' 8. What is the syntax of the negative ? XIX. 1. Define ' Figure of Speech.' How may figures of speech be conveniently divided ? 2. What are the Etymological figures ? 3. Give instances of Syncope and Metathesis. 4. Explain what is meant by Prothesis, Epenthesis, Paragoge. Give, examples ' 5. Explain what is meant by Aphaeresis, Elision, and Apocope. Give examples 6. Enumerate the principal Figures of Speech. PEAxis. 249 7. What is the diiference betwen a Simile and a Metaphor ? 8. Explain with examples Synecdoche, Metonomy. 9. What does Latham mean by Convertibility and Zeugma ? 1 0. Explain the following figures of speech : i. 'According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay, fury to his adversaries, recompense to his enemies.' — Is. lix. IS. ii. He too is witness, noblest of the train That wait on man, the flight-performing horse. — Cowper. hi. Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; The strength he gains is from th' embrace he gives. — Pope. iv. • The Lord is my rock and my fortress.' His eye was morning's brightest ray. The clouds of sorrow gathered round his head. The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling head. V. Thy nod is as the earthquake that shakes the mountains. And thy emile as the dawn of the vernal day. — Dr. Johnson. vi. Swifter than a whirlwind flies the leaden death, His arm is conquest and his frown is fate. — Bay. vii. ' Twas then his tlireshold first received a guest Parnell. viii. I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore like a cloud of mibt on the hill. — Ossian. ix. Oh sacred Truth ! thy triumph ceased awhile, And Hope, thy sister, ceased with thee to smile. — Campbell. Hope for a season bade the world farewell. And Freedom shrieked as Kosciusko fell. — Campbell. X. Wellington was the shield of England. XX. Give the etymology of all the words, with their prefixes and suffixes, in the following examples : 1. Sweet Auburn ! loveliest village of the plain. Where health and plenty cheered the labouring swain ; Where smiling Spring its earliest visit paid. And parting Summer's lingering blooms delayed.— Goldsmith. 2. Noble lord and lady bright, I have brought ye new delight ; 250 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Here behold so goodly grown Three fair branches of your own. Heaven hath timely tried their youth, Their faith, their patience, and their truth. And sent them here, through hard assays, With a crown of deathless praise. To triumph in victorious dance. O'er sensual folly and intemperance. — Milton's Comus, a. Oh, sacred Truth, thy triumph ceased awhile. And Hope, thy sister, ceased with thee to smile ; When leagued Oppression poured to northern wars Her whiskered Pandours and her fierce Hussars. — Campbell. 4. With them rose A forest huge of spears ; and thronging helms Appeared, and serried shields in thick array, Of depth immeasurable. Anon they move In perfect phalanx. — Milton's Paradise Lost. 5. A numerous brigad hastened; as when bands Of pioneers with spade and pickaxe armed Poremn the royal camp, to trench a field Or cast a rampart. — Milton's Paradise Lost. 6. The daisy, primrose, violet darkly blue And polyanthus of unnumbered dyes. And yellow wallflowers stained with iron brown. 7. Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled. 8. The blazing straw before his orchard burns. 9. Great Spring before. Greened all the year, and fruits and blossoms blushed. 1 0. Palling into a trance, but having his eyes open. 1 1 . Give the etymologies of the following : That, through, asunder, strawberry, scarcely, coward, brawn, tooth, neighbour, cunning, elbow, gooseberry, lass, stirrup, snail. 12. Give the etymologies of the following: Judge, gown, wicket, wall, jerked beef, paradise, Coventry, Chepstow, Albion, Britain, Azores, Paroe, Canada, Canary, Gibraltar, Babel- mandeb, Valetta. 13. Give the etymologies of the following: Copper, cravat, lumber, spruce, varnish, nitre, drugget, demijohn, humbug, loadstone, tariff, negus, pasquinade, gibberish, debauch, tawdry, tramway. WOOLWICH COMPETITIVK EXAMINATION. 25 1 14. Give the etymologies of the following: Bissextile, thimble, calf {of the leg), jealousy, vermilion, crimson, peck, furlong, moio- dore, penny, firkin, sterling. 15. Give the etymologies of the following: Dean, parson, parish, chancellor, sexton, beadle, sheriff, seneschal, nabob, admiral, dauphin. 1 6. Give the derivations of the following ; Sergeant, soldier, pioneer* hussar, dragoon, colonel, sentinel, artillery, claymore, carbine, halberd, parapet, ambuscade, blunderbuss, calibre, bivouac, trench. 17. Give the etymologies of the following: Biscuit, mm, brandy, whiskey, bulwark, troop, cohort. IB. Explain the following: Abbot, nun, monk, minster, hermit, friar, pew, pulpit, steeple, chancel, gown, Easter, Lent, liturgy, heathen, pagan, diocese, shrine. 1 9- Explain the following words : Booby, brag, bosh, chonse, balderdash, canter, fiacre, fiaeh, isinglass, jeopardy, jollyboat, ogre, poltroon, lumber. 20. Explain the following words : Cheer, danger, denizen, gazette, grouse, haggard, host, imbecile, inveigle, kerchief, lobster, malady, meeting, minaret, muggy, mustard, nostril, palfrey, pamphlet, porpoise, pony, ransack, rhubarb, savage, samphire, saloon, surgeon, usher, vignette, yacht, voyage, zodiac. WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION, DK. DASENT. The following questions were set by Dr. Dasent at the competitive examina- tions for admission to the R. M. A., Woolwich, 1857-1869. The questions are not given in papers as they were proposed, because many of them have been very often repeated. 1. The English is a composite language : mention the languages from which its chief components are derived. 2. How many languages are now spoken in the United Kingdom, and in what district ? 3. Mention any words or terminations in the names of places in the TJnited 252 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Kingdom, ■which indicate the occupation of the country at a former period by foreign races. 4. In what way are the cases of substantives expressed in English ? Give examples of English cases, and compare their formation with that in use in any other language. 5. Explain accurately the use of the verb, adjective, substantive, and adverb in a sentence. 6. In how many ways are diminutives formed in English ? 7. Define gender, number, and case in English nouns. 8. Give the plurals of the following words: Cow, sow, knife, wife, dwarf, staff, ox, die, house, wealth, and phenomenon. 9. Is there anything etymologieally remarkable in the following words : Its, chickens, what, seamstress, brethren, pence, shepherdess, which, vixen, am, welkin, seldom, whilom, cavalry, spinster f 10. What is the ordinary way in which the plurals of nouns substantive are formed in English ? Give as many exceptions to that mode of forma- tion as you may remember. 11. Explain the meaning of the terms positive, comparative, and superlative as applied to adjectives. 1 2. Give a list of the irregular comparatives and superlatives in English. 13. Distinguish between derivation and composition in English, and state which is earlier in any language. 14. Examine the verb substantive in English, and show out of how many verbs it was originally composed. 15. Compare this method of formation in English with that pursued in any other language with which you may be acquainted. 16. 'They may talk as they will of the dead languages: our auxiliary verbs give us a power to which the ancients with all their variety of mood and inflexion of tense never could attain.' Examine the truth of this statement, and give examples of the use and force of the aiixiliary verbs in English. 17. What is the difference between regular, irregular, and defective verbs ? 18. Explain the use of pronouns in a sentence. How many kinds are there in English ? Give one or two examples of their use. 19. Is it an invariable rule that a singular noun should be followed by a sin- gular verb ? If it is not, give instances of variation, and explain them. 20. What is the use of the subjunctive mood in English ? Give examples of its use. WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 253 21. Explain the meaning and construction of tlie following passages, and give the derivations of the underlined words : — The man lay a < Eor John his sake. I have broke with her father, and his good wiU obtained I pray you have him presently discharged. For he is bouiid to sea, and stays but for it. He doth bestride the world like a Colossus. You may come to-morrow, in the morning. There was a blazing fire. 22. Give as complete a list as you can of foreign words which have been natural- ised in English during the last two centuries. 23. What do you understand by a figure of speech ? 24 Explain accurately the terms Word, language, dialect, idiom, provincialism, vulgarism, plagiarism. 25. What dp you understand by Syntax, Concord, and Regimen in English Grammar ? 26. Of how many parts does every grammatical sentence consist? Name those parts and analyse three such sentences. 27. What is meant by Etymology, Orthography, Orthoepy, and Prosody? 28. Explain the use of adverbs in a sentence. Show how they are formed in English, and give a list of adverbial terminations. 29. Is it possible to write a sentence which shall not contain a Saxon word ? Write one or two Saxon sentences. 30. Give a few plain rules for writing good English. 31. Explain the meaning of the first syllable in the following words : a-dying, a-bed, aboard, abroad, ashore, agape, aghast, aloft, aloof, alone. 32. Explain the follovring terms as applied to language : Accent, orthoepy, orthography, and etymology. 33. To what extent can English Substantives be said to possess gender, number, ajid case ? Zi. Explain the following passages : Woe worth the day. And every thing that pretty bin. Many a youth and many a maid. Those eyes They have not wept a many tears. 254 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. They hung me up by the heels, and heat me with hard sticks .... that the whole kingdom took notice of me for a haffled whipped fellow. All winds blow fair that did the world embroil ; Your vipers treacle yield, and scorpions oil. The rising sun o'er Galston muirs Wi' glorious light was glinting, The hares were hirplin down the furs, The laverocks they were chanting. 36. Give the derivations of the following words, and explain how they acquired their present signification : Pagan, companion, savage, villain, infantry, pioneer, cavalry, artillery, gun, engineer, cannon, musket, soldier, cor- poral, Serjeant, ensign, lieutenant, captain, colonel, general, marshal. 36. What do you understand by a Figure of Speech ? Writ« a series of short sentences, each containing an example of a figure of speech. 37- State in prose the sense of the following passage; mention the kind of verse in which it is written ; and explain the derivations of the words and the allusions contained in the sentences printed in italics : Captain, or colonel, or Jcnight in arms. Whose chance on these defenceless doors may seize, If deed of honour did thee ever please. Guard them, and him within protect from harms. He can requite thee, for he knows the charms That call fame on such gentle acts as these ; And he can spread thy name o'er lands or seas, Whatever clime the sun's bright circle warms. Lift not thy spear against the Muses' bower: The great Mrnxdhmn conqueror bid spare The house of Pindarus, when temple and tower Went to the ground ; and the repeated air Of sad Mecira^s poet had the power . To save the Athenian walls from, ruin hare. 38. Distinguish the following pairs of words by accentuation : An attribute To attribute. The mouth of August An august person. A compact Compact (close). To conjure (magically) Conjure (enjoin). Desert (wilderness) Desert (merit). Invalid (not valid) Invalid (a weakly person). Minute (60 seconds) Minute (small). Supine (part of speech) Supine (easy). WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION". 255 39. Is tliere any etymological connection between the words in italics in the following expressions ? If there be, explain it. (a) He is a puny child. He is a, puisne jaAge. (6) The ship is outward bound. The ship is wind-bound. The man is bound in chains. (c) I have a deal to say. The table is made of deal. We played at cards, and it was my deed, I deal with that tradesman. (d) The nightingale's thrilling note. The horse's nostril. The carpenter's drill. The lassie thirled at the pin. The pikeman trailed his pike. The soldiers are at drill. 40. Prove the existence of several successive races of conquerors in the British Isles by the traces of their languages which remain at the present day in the names of persons and places. 41. Explain the derivation and original and present meaning of the following words: Alderman, mayor, sheriff, hustings, parliament, assize, lords, commons, exchequer, county, hundred, parish, church, and chapel. 42. Explain the origin and derivation of Protestant, Puritan, Roundhead, Quaker, Cavalier, Trimmer, Orangeman, Whig, Tory, Non Juror, Jaco- bin, and Eadical, when used as party names. 43. Examine critically the English and versification of the following passage, and explain the historical allusions contained in it: Edward and Henry, now the boast of Fame, And virtuous Alfred, a more aacred name. After a life of generous toils endured, The Gaul subdued, or property secured. Ambition humbled, mighty cities stormed. Or laws established, and the world reformed ; Closed their long glories with a sigh, to find The unwilling gratitude of base mankind. All human virtue, to its latest breath, Finds Envy never conquered, save by Death. The great Alcides, every labour past. Had still this monster to subdue at last. 256 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Sure fate of all, beneath whose rising ray Each star of meaner merit fades away ! Oppressed we feel the beam directly beat, These sons of glory please not till they set. 44. Are the following statements consistent with facts? All males are of the masculine gender. We have in English six cases of nouns. John is the nominative case to the verb. Men are in the plural niunber, because they mean many. The s cannot be a contraction for his, for it is put to female nouns. — Johnson. 45. Correct the errors, if any occur to you, in the following passages : Who should I meet the other day but my old friend. — Addison. I cannot tell who to compare them to. — Bunyan, We are still at a loss who civil power belongs to. — Locke. My son is to be married to I know not who. — Goldsmith. My desire has been for some years past to retire myself to some of our American plantations. — Cowley. Any word that will conjugate is a verb. Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign ! — Burns. 46. Explain the difference between irregular and defective verbs in English. Is it possible to classify as regular a large proportion of the so-called irregxilar verbs ? i'. How do you account for the forms am, be, and was in the verb substantive? Illustrate your explanation by similar forms of the verb substantive in other languages. 48. How do you account for the fact that the earlier stages of a language are richer in forms and inflexions than the later ? 49. Mention any forms and inflexions which are gradually dying out in Eng- lish, and thus show that the process of simplification is still continuing in the language. 50. Examine the English of the following passage, referring each word to the language from which it is derived : At the death of the king, his chief wife and several of his followers are immSlated, that they may attend him in the next world. When a monarch succeeds to the throne, he sacrifices at least one wife and many followers, merely to show that he can exercise his prerogative. WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 257 61. Gire example of words adopted into English from other languages than those alluded to in (1). 52. What is meant hy a noun of multitude ? Give examples of such nouns, and write a series of sentences showing their peculiarities of construc- tion. 03. How do you explain the substitution of Ms for its in the following, and many other passages of the Bible ? — The fruit tree bearing fruit after his kind. bi. Write a series of short sentences showing the right and the wrong use of as &ndi thaw, of or, 'iior, and neither; of each, either, and hoih; oihcre&^^L there) of hither, whither^ and thither; and of hence, whence, and thence. 55. Explain accurately the meaning of the term passive voice. How is the passive formed in English? Can it be called a true passive so far as formation is concerned ? Give examples of true passive formations from other tongues. 56. Examine the English of the following sentences and explain the allusions : ] . This was the most unkindest cut of all, V. Earthlier happy is the rose distilled. 3. And Nicanor lay dead in his harness. 4. But mice and rats and such small deer Have been Tom's food for many a year. 4. For 'tis the sport to have the engineer Hoist with his own petard. 6. The fattest hog in Epicurus' sty. 7 . Lay not that flattering unction to your soul. 5. I have thee on the hip. 9. And mistress of herself, though China fall. 1 0. Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus. 67. Explain the meaning and give the derivation of the following words : Apocryphal, alphabet, didactic, sardonic, sarcastic, tautological, enthu- siastic, orgy, organ, mystery, epitaph, pyramid, hieroglyphic, and night- ingale. 68. Is it possible for a language to remain stationary ? What are the causes which have given rise to the greatest changes in EngUsh, and what are the causes which tended most to fix and settle the language ? 89. Write a grammatical sentence and then analyse it, showing the parts out of which it is made. 60. Explain accurately the meaning and use of conjugation and i^fleBou in grammar. 61. Distinguish between auxiliary, irregular, and defeetiye verbg in grammar. S 258 ANALYSIS OP THE ES^GLISH LANGUAGE. Write a few sentences containing examples of eacli of those kinds of verbs. 62. Compare the English language as a means of expressing thought with any other language with which you may he acquainted. 63. Enumerate the parts of speech, and show the use of each in a sentence. 64. What do you understand by cardinal and ordinal numerals ? Compare the English numerals with those of any other language. 65. Explain the names of the months, and of the days in the week. What is the deriration of bissextile, and what is its English equivalent ? 66. Give a list of words in common use derived directly from the Celti"., Latin, and Scandinavian elements in the English language. 67. Explain the construction of the words printed in italics in the foUowine: (a) That same year the Queen died in Lindsay, At Westminster I ween his body they did lay. (b) Let bring a cartwheel here into this hall. But look that it have his spokes all. 68. Explain the original and secondary meanings of the words printed initalics in the following passages : (a) For this believe, that impudence is now A cardinal virtue. (6) Skilled in no other arts was she But dressing, patching, repartee ; And just as humour rose or fell. By turns a slattern or a belle. (c) True faith, like gold into the furnace cast, Maintains its sterling puieness to the last. (£?) Thus, utmost lands are ransacked to afford The far-fetched dainties and the costly board. (e) The ordeal was an established method of trial among the Anglo- Saxons. (/) And Jonathan gave his artillery unto his lad, and said unto him • Go, carry them to the city. {g) The fierce Prmtorians threw their swords into the scale. (A) There is no need to be scrupulously critical in distinguishing between them. {i) They must not think that all about them are such to spy out the prevarication. (k) And mistress of herself, though China fall. (I) Hypocrisy, detest her as we may. WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 259 69. Explain the meaning of the following grammatical terms : Letter, -word, sentence, voice, mood, tense, person, number, and gender. 70. Are there any true cases in English? Explain the use of prepositions in the formation of cases. 7 1 . Wliat is the use of the subjunctive mood in grammar ? Give examples of its use in English. 72. Give the derivations of the following words : Aught, many, nostril, threshold, pigmy, cubit, ell, ironmonger, wharfinger, harbinger, arbour, haven, and heaven. 73. Explain the meaning of the word verb. How many conjugations of the verb are there in English ? 74. What is meant by the infinitive, imperative, subjunctive, and indicative moods in English ? 75. Explain the meaning of the term Syntax, and show its use in grammar. 76. Give as complete a list as you can of words which change their meaning with their accent. 77. Out of how many elements is the English language' formed? Is it pos- sible to write a sentence composed entirely of one of these elements ? If it is, write such a sentence. 78. Mention the languages from which the English language is derived. In what proportions are those languages represented in modern English ? 79. Give a list of foreign words which have been naturalised in English since the year 1600. 80. Explain such expressions as ' John his book,' and ' the gate which opened of his own accord.' Explain the formation and use of its. 81. Explain the use of person, number, gender, mood, tense, and voice in grammar. 82. Quote several English proverbs and explain them. 83. Define what is meant by a verb in grammar. Explain the diflference between the active and passive voices of a verb. 84. Define what is meant by a noun substantive. How many cases has the noun substantive in English ? 85. In what way do nouns substantive usually form their plurals ? Give some examples of irregular plurals in English. 86. Explain what is meant by an adverb. What part do adverbs play in grammar ? 87. Give a list of English prepositions, and explain the meaning and force of each. 88. What do you understand by simple and compound sentences ? Give some examples of each kind of sentence. s2 ^p. ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 89. "Wh; t is the meaning of grammar, and what are its uses ? 90. How many participles are there in English ? Explain the use of participles in English, and compare it with the use of participles in other languages. 91. Explain why some verbs are irregular or defective, and mention some of each kind in English. 92. Conjugate the verb substantive in English, and show that it is made up of several verbs. 93. Give a list of words imported into English during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, mentioning in each case the country from which the word came. 94. Show the effect of the Norman Conquest on the English language, by in- stances of words still in use. 95. Explain accurately, and illustrate by examples, the difference between shall and willj should and would, and am and be. 96. Explain the derivation and formation of gull in the sense of dupe, Bezonian, goblin, gazette; buck in the sense of wash, host, tournament, trade, spinster, gossip, and bridegroom. 97. Mention any parts of the verb which have a tendency to become obsolete. Show that this tendency is common to other languages. 98. Explain the derivations of the following words : Candidate, sycophant, cur- few, history, algebra, almanack, hypocrite, seraph, assassin, and gazette. 99. Give a list of English words which, with the same spelling, have different meanings. 100. Explain the derivation of the following words: Ambition, attention, Bible, cannon, companion, gospel, gossip, panic, and paradise. 101. Explain the derivation of Cardinal, club, curfew, dunce, guillotine, pagan, sacrament, tribulation, tunic, and tyrant. 102. Explain the derivation of Biggin, calico, cicerone, dragonnade, essay, Hugonot, husband, kickshaws, miscreant, neophyte, noyade, Tory, and AVhig. 103. Explain the terms, Demonstrative, superlative, cardinal, ordinal, diminu- tive, and patronymic, as used in English grammar, and give instances of each. 104. Take any regular English verb, and run it through its numbers, moods, and tenses, in the active voice. JOS. Do the same with the verb substantive. WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 261 WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. REV. W. STEBBING. July 1869 — January 1869. 1. Explain the following terms : Imperfect tense, indirect question, proper name, analogy, subjective, objective. 2. ' It is necessary that he who desires fame, act in a way to deserve it.' Is this construction correct? Explain the meaning of subjunctive mood. Wlien is the subjunctive mood used in English ? 3. Is the English language capable of receiving accessions readily ? In what ways does it borrow or invent new terms ? Compare it in these points with any other language with which you may be acquainted. 4. Distinguish between the following: Paraphrase, gloss, commentary, illus- tration, version, translation, analysis, manual, abstract. 5. How many parts of speech are there in English ? Explain the names they bear ; and show how those names express their real character. 6. In how many different ways are the feminine gender and the plural num- ber of substantives formed in English ? Account for the variety of formation. 7. Point out and correct errors or defects, if any, in the following sentences : They wear a garment like that of the Scythians, but a language pecu- liar to themselves. — Sir John MandeviUe. They were planned by a clever servant, who to say all that can be said in his praise, is, that he is worthy of such a master as he has. — Cobbett's Bural Rides. Let us hear Dr. Lingard, to prevent his society from presenting whose work to me the sincere and pious Samuel Butler was ready to go down upon his knees. — Ibid. Sixteen have been sentenced to suffer death, but two only were left for execution. — Ibid, 8. Explain the following terms : Auxiliary, impersonal, intransitive, and reflective verbs, and verb substantive. Give examples. 262 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 9. To what languages, and for wliat classes of words respectively is English most indebted ? To which respectively can you trace the words in the following passage ? A vast metropolis with glistening spires, "With theatres, basilicas adorned ; A scene of light and glory, a dominion That has endured the longest among men. iO. Compose a short passage to illustrate the use of ellipse, pleonasm, and antithesis. 11. Explain the word ' synonyme.' Give examples of words which are properly, and of words which are improperly used as synonymous. Account for the erroneous use. i2. What is signiiied in grammar by the expressions : * Governed 6y,' agreeing with, depending on, in apposition to, used absolutely. Give examples. 13. Explain the expressions in italics: 'What is it o^docJcV 'It wants fifteen minutes to one by railway time, not but that this is no reason why you should hurry away.' 14. Distinguish between composition and derivation of words. Are bishopric, kivgly, friendship, compounds or derivatives ? 15. State the rule for the formation of comparatives and superlatives. In- stance and account for any five exceptions. 16. Distinguish between the use of the full stop, colon, semicolon, and comma. Give examples. 17. Why have vheat, pitch, gold, deer, sheep, no plural; and bellows, scissors, mathematics, no singular form? Instance other substantives which have only one number. 18. Instance words which are not pronounced as they are written ; and account for the inconsistency. 19. Point out and defend anything unusual in the construction of the words in italics : Him ought not to be a tyrant. The rule is also general but that it admits of his exceptions. The cities who aspired to liberty. For not to have been dipped in Lethe's lake Could save the son of Thetis from, to die. 20. Point out and correct the errors or inaccuracies in the following : Fveri/ constable amounting to 240 had his cresset. The town consists of three distinct quarters, of which the western one is by far the larger. Every sort of legislature resolve themselves into this. '21. Instance words, which, being borrowed by English from other languages, WOOLWICH OOIIPETITIVE EXAMIXATIOK. 263 nave had their meaning or spelling altered. Account, where it is pos- sible,, for the changes. 22, Compose one or two sentences to illustrate the use of adjectives, participles, and infinitives as substantives. 2,1 Give examples of the formation of the past tense from the present by a change of vowel and change of termination, and with no change. Account, whore it is possible, for the particular form. 2-1. Explain the term idiom; and give several examples of idiomatic expres- sions in English. 25. In what mood or case are the words in italics in the following passages? — » He was let depart. No one save this man played the hero. He was given a book. Please it your honours To call me to your senate, I'll deliver Myself your loyal servant. 26. How do you explain the construction of the following passages ? Eewi'ite them in a fuller form : Wit, whither wilt. — ShaJcspeare. iSven share hath he that keeps his tent and he to field ' doth go.' — Chapman. He's heir in double trust, First as I am his kinsman and his subject. Strong both against the deed. — Shakspeare. 27- What is meant by an exception? Give five or six instances of exceptions to rules of grammar. 28. What is meant by obsolete? Give five or six instances. 29. Compose two or more sentences, containing specimens of the different past tenses of the indicative mood active. 30. In what respect is English defective as compared with any other language or languages ? How does it supply its deficiencies ? 31 Point out and explain any peculiarity in the construction of the following : What with pain, and what with fear, he was unable to proceed. He is gone a-hunting. Him who disobeys me disoteys. — Milton. This lodging likes me better. — Shakspeare. 264 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Good name in man or woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls. — 8haksj>sare, Thou most awful form ! Eisest from forth thy silent sea of pines. — Coleridge. 32. By what conjunctions are clauses expressing a purpose, consequence, oppo- sition, condition, cause, introduced ? 33. Enumerate several defective verbs and nouns, naming the parts that are wanting in them, and accounting, when you cau, for the want. 34. Name the moods used in English ; and state briefly their uses. Give examples. 35. Explain the terms transitive and intransitive. When and why do they sometimes seem to change characters ? Give examplee. 36. State, with examples, the various causes of differences between the spelling and the pronunciation of words in English. 37. "Write out a list of the terminations of adjectives in English ; and say from what language each has been borrowed. 38. What peculiarity is there in the use of the words in italics ? Woe is me. This said, they departed. It contains the same information as the Lady Eich her letter. Dark with excessive bright thy skirts appear. 39. Is there any difference in the meaning of the following words : Ye and you ; all, each, and every ; farther and further ; between and among ; severally and respectively. 40. Explain the formation of the following words : Children, twain, brethren, pease, alms, swine. 41. Point out any peculiarity in the formation of Inmost, could, quoth, tapster, methinks. 42. Why are some letters in the following words retained in the spelling, though not pronounced ? — Viscount, medicine, debt, would, hymn, sove- reign, chronicle, hour. 43. Explain the use of the tenses and moods in the following sentences : Darius at once retreats. Scott, Byron, and Wordsworth have flourished in this century. Byron flourished thirty years ago. He is come. Would it were so. 44. Do the literal meanings of the terms, indicative, subjunctive, infinitive, explain the uses of the moods so named ? WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 265 45. Explain the old forms : He went a-hunting. He went for to do it. Some wiU burn a house an it were but to roast their eggs. 46. In what respects is the English alphabet defective or redundant? 47. What circumstances most commonly lead to the introduction of new words in a language ? Instance words so imported into English. 48. Explain the terms oblique, transitive, root, part of speech, as used in Eng- lisii grammar. 49. Distinguish between clause, sentence, phrase, paragraph, proposition. 60. What is meant in grammar by concord? Give examples of the several kinds of grammatical concord. 51. Explain the form of the possessive case singular, e.g. Father's. Will the same explanation sufSce for the plural possessive, Fathers' ? 62. Why is the past tense killed said to be regular and struck irregular in form- ation ? What is meant by the terms regular aud irregular as applied ia English grammar ? 63. To what extent is a correct use of words facilitated by an acquaintance with their etymology ? 64. Compare English and any other language with which you may be ac- quainted with reference to the order of words in a sentence. 56. Of what inflexions are English adjectives, substantives, and verbs capable ? 06. In what sense can it be said that or and nor are conjunctions, the lettir y sometimes a consonant, and w sometimes, or always, a vowel, and that the past tense is formed regularly by the addition of d or ed to the present ? 57. Does a participle, used as an adjective, dilFer from an ordinary adjectivf, an intransitive verb used transitively from an ordinary transitive, and a noun of multitude from a noun in the plural number ? 58. Do the literal significations of proper name, common noun, and perfect and pluperfect express the ways in which the forms so named are used in English ? 59. On what groitnds have the following expressions been sometimes defended ? Than whom. It is me. You was. The Duie vrith his sons are here. I walked a hundred mile. 60. State several of the most general rules for forming the phiral in English ; and mention exceptions to them. 61. Distinguish between accent and quantity/ in English. Give examples. 62. What were the usual ways of forming the plural and genitive in old English ? Do any words still so form them ? 266 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6 3. The noun and the verb have been said to "be the two original parts of speech , ' all the others being substitutes, abbreriations, or contractions, for the purpose of facility and despatch.' What is meant by this statement ? 64. State, with examples, reasons for the diversity in the pronunciation, in English, of syllables or parts of syllables spelt in the same way. 65. Explain the construction in the following expressions, and give examples of similar constructions : He is about to die ; The wine tastes sour ; Ah me ! Four o'clock. 66. Explain the term infinitive ; and mention the various uses and forms of that mood. 67. To what languages may the terminations of the following words respectively be traced ? — Nation, awful, double, sympathy, gracious, valour, pathetic, astonish. 68. Explain etymologically the following forms : Innermost, whence, methinks, widower, eyry, farthing. 69. What are the essential parts of every English sentence? Give examples of simple, compound, and complex sentences. 70. Mention, with examples, the various forms and uses of the present tense in English. 71. State the rules for the formation of the comparative and superlative degrees in English. Can you mention any exceptions ? 72. Are the following expressions good English ? Give reasons for your opinion : ' Mutual friends,' ' talented,' ' unreliable,' * a man of talent.' 73. In how many different ways may compound nouns be formed ? 74. Explain the following statements : ' The imperfect participle is often used as a gerund.' ' The present tendency of the English language is to con- vert strong verbs into weak.' 75. What internal evidence does English contain of its derivation from several different languages ? 76. Can you account for the spelling of the terminations of ' deferred,' ' em- ployed,' ■ the Henrys,' ' infallible,' ■ saddest,' as compared respectively with * differed,' ' defied,' ' miseries,' ' incurable,' * longest.* 77. Mention grammatical terms which are used in English grammar in senses differing from their original meanings. 78. Can you justify or explain the following old expressions? — 'It am I;' ' His pavilion were dark waters ; ' ' It liketh thee ; ' ' I never was nor never will be false.' 79. Are the following expressions grammatically correct or not? Give reasons for your opinion : WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIOX. 267 He is a better philosopher than a statesman. The tenth and the eleventh boys in the class. The words are as follow. This is one of the most successful works that ever was executed. Death has come to all greater, better, wiser than I. 80. Explain the force of the verb in the following expressions: It strikes four ; The eai-th moves ; The fish weighs five pounds ; A house to let. 81. Give examples of the following rules: ' When the subject, though having a plural form, is still regarded as one thing, the v^rb is singular.' A collective noun takes a singular verb when the idea of unity is promi- nent, but a plural verb when the idea of plurality is prominent. 82. What is the force of the genitive case in English ? Give examples of differ- ent meanings it may be used to express. 83. Show, by examples, the meanings of in, re, and /or, in composition. 84. Point out and explain any peculiarity in the spelling of — wherever, freer, schism, could. 85. Take any four words which have undergone important changes in meaning since their original introduction into English ; and account for the changes. 86. Show the uses in English of the infinitive and the several participles. 87. Point out the redundancies and deficiencies in our alphabet. 88. Enumerate the most commonly used conjunctions. How may conjunctions be classified? 89. State, with examples, the rules for the sequence, i.e. succession, of tenses in English. 90. Which mode of spelling do you prefer, and why ? — Honor or honour, afostacy or apostasy, travelled or traveled, nalhe or realise, dependent qt dependant, jewelry or jewellery. 91. Explain, with examples, the terms irregular, defective, and exception, as used in English Grammar. 92. Explain the uses of ' by' in the following expressions : By-and-by ; day by day ; ten feet by twenty ; he was by himself ; by him the man looked short ; he stood by ; he swore by his gods. 93. Point out and explain anything unusual in the words or construction of the following sentences : I do you to wit of this fact. They left off beating of Paul. He was let and hindered in running the race. This is expedient for you not only to do, but also to be forward a yeai ago. 268 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 94. What is the usual order of words in an English sentence? Quote or compose sentences in which this order is departed from. 95. Account for the existence of synonyms in a language. Instance words whicli are, and words which appear to he, but in fact are not, synonyms. 96. What functions do the articles perform in English ? lEustrate the use of them by examples. 97. By what forms of the verb can you express habit, command, the act of the verb without reference to an agent, and an action at once future, perfect, and continuous ? 98. Explain the following assertions : Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate. Enghsh is not so well adapted to rhyming versification as French, Spanish, or Italian. The present tendency of the English language is to reject foreign plurals. 99. Explain any peculiarities in the construction of the following sentences : He received double as much again. I cannot but think you are in the wrong. He will not succeed in this, be he ever so wise. All of us have given to us a task to perform. 100. Mention differences between the language of the present day and Old English in the mode of declining and conjugating words. 101. What is the use of prepositions? Distinguish between prepositions and conjunctions; and mention prepositions which may be employed as con- junctions. 102. State, with examples, the signification in composition of the particles, con, dis, ward, and ther. 103. What is meant by a relative pronoun ? Enumerate, with an example of the use of each, the several words employed in English as relatives. 104. When are c and g hard, and when soft ? State the rule, with any excep- tions to it. 105. Mention, with examples, various ways of forming the feminine gender in English. 106. Point out, and correct, any grammatical errors or obscurities in the follow- ing sentf ,nces : She stood back in the room — more backward a good deal than she was accustomed to do on such occasions. I am disposed to think that to persons in trade the difficulty of answering these questions would not be so great if they will undertake to discuss them. WOOLWICH COMrETITIVE EXAMINATION. 269 107. State the peculiarities, in relation both to accidence and to syntax, of the verb To be. 108. Give examples of defective substantives, with any reasons that occur to you for their defectiveness. 109. How are adverbs formed? Are they capable of being composed, and, if so, in "what ways? 110. Explain, with examples, the following assertions : Generally a noun takes after it the same preposition as the verb allied to it. The present indefinite has three distinct significations. Composition and derivation are different processes. 111. Is there any peculiarity in the meaning expressed by the verb in the following sentences ? The violet smells sweet. The wine tastes sour. He is doing well. 112. Explain, with examples, the terms reflective, impersonal, defective, and intransitive, as applied to verbs. II. Corrrect or justify the following. Rewrite the sentences when incorrect or obscure : I. ' His sport supplied his table, except Friday, when he had the best sea fish he could get, and was the day that his neighbours chiefly visited him.' J. ' I do not think he was the thorough villain which biographers have allowed themselves to represent him.' !. ' The oath taken by the Lacedsamonians, that they would not make any alteration till the return of Lycurgus, is the reason why so little change has been made in the laws of Sparta.' I. ' I have not shrunk in his presence, and when at the height of his power, from censuring parts of his conduct.' 5. ■ ' 'Twas Love's mistake who fancied what it feared.' i. ' What did they go for to do ? ' 1. ' They heard this from their grandfather, who with his father tefore him had been tradesmen in Liverpool during the last century.' i. ' Thou never didst them wrong, nor no man wrong.' 270 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 9. ' The assembly consists of forty-seven members, two being elected by nineteen districts, and three by each of three other districts.' 10. ' Su- Theodore was one of the few South Sea directors, who (though he lost considerably) did not lose his character.' 11. 'If this be him we mean, let him beware.' 12. ' In every minutiae they manifested great interest.' 1 3. ' Prospered beyond his utmost expectations, he returned home.' 14. 'It contained sundry memorandas of money paid by the archdeacon.' 15. ' By a telegram received this morning the prince had arrived, and is in the castle.' 16. ' I do not believe they ever did any real harm to any one ; or, if they did, were unfeignedly sorry for it.' 17. ' They would allow Dr. Priestley or Channing to be clergy of the Church of England, only not Woolston or Hume.' 18. 'If this gentleman would make himself practically acquainted with the subject, he would not find it so simple as he is inclined to believe it, and is desirous to lead the public into the same error.' 19. ' The king advises that between those officials, by whom business can be carried on by word of mouth, the writing of letters should not be allowed, as having a tendency to hinder controversies on uuimpoitant matters.' 20. 'Many a Frenchman, German, and American are to be found in London.' 21. 'As you write to say how glad you would be to be informed of where I intend going, I now do so in compliance with your request.' 22. ' His evident compassion was not the least painful, though touching, part of the spectacle.' 23. ' There are very few who know how to be idle and innocent : every diversion they take is at the expense of some virtue.' •24. ' He taught them what human nature was, and which knowledge was unquestionably necessary to enable a man to do his duty in the world.' 25. ' Never wiU the cardinals agree among one another to elect as pope the secretary of the last pontiff.' 26. ' Every one of us talks worse English every hour of our lives.' 27. ' It is said that the prince will limit his stay in the Highlands till about the 10th of September.' 28. ' Against these appointments a very few of extreme views had only ventured to feebly remonstrate.' 29. ' All the Stuart sovereigns had very few good qualities.' WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 271 30. ' King John and King Edward I. were severally men of the greatest inca- pacity, and of the greatest capacity for government.' 31. ' Their want of merit is the real reason that none of them have attained much reputation, and are all of them declining in favour day by day.' 32. 'I have formerly read the answer to such an application to the prince.' 33. ' No one regretted more than myself that the matter was brought before the public until all other modes of redress had been tried.' 34. 'I would have given little consideration to the news if an Englishman's opinion did not confirm it.' 35. ' This gentleman may be a good churchman, but his whole sympathies are evidently with her enemies.' 36. ' Tourists may break the journey at any of the stations betwen Carnforth and Coniston Lalse, to enable passengers to visit Furness Abbey.' 37. ' Some persons will have perceived with surprise, that an Englishman should have consented to take service in a foreign court.' 38. ' This event will hereafter take rank among the annals of the empire.' 39. ' His brave heart and love of adventure made him an agreeable companion, and many friends.' 40. ' Tire practice is increasing, since the French treaty, of adulterating wines.' 41. ' The Senate had decreed a separate triumph to both of them.' 42. ' A Scotchman will not marry on a Saturday. Except when the last day of the year falls on a Saturday, it is the favourite marrjnng day in Scotland.' 43. ' Messrs W.'s covered case for valuable plans and maps will be found as useful as a tin case, at one-fourth the price.' .44. ' Than governs both the nominative and the accusative cases.' 46. ' The reigning sovereign of the United Kingdom shall be suceessively the sovereign of the order.' 46. ' The House of Commons has, with becoming dignity, supported their own privileges.' 47. ' 1 will, for my conscience sake, spend all my lives, if I had a thousand, against all the world that shall draw sword against our religion.' 48. ' It was in the monastery of St. John that these MSS. were discovered, and are now deposited in the Bodleian Library.' 49. ■ The Empress Catherine sent for the ambassador last week, and desired he will order for her a bust of Charles Fox.' 272 AI^ALTSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 60. ' The new Italian banknote is adorned in the two lower corners with por- traits of Cavour and of Christopher Columbns.' 51. ' The English commissioners intend to bring over their own fire engines, all of which are exactly equal in water-throwing force to eight of the ordinary Paris engines.' 62. ' The Crystal Palace is almost the first place ever visited by a foreigner in England.' 63. 'I have been always accustomed to believe that your professionsof friendship to myself and late lamented husband were sincere.' S4. ' I desire that the coronation gift of 50,000 ducats, presented to me by the country, shall be dedicated to the purpose I have indicated.' 65. ' The trade of Marseilles vastly increased since the French have had Algiers.' 66. ' From the judgment of this court he appeals not, to which as provided by the letters patent the appeal lies ; viz. the archbishop, but to the crown.' 67. ' Messrs. S. request us to state, that neither they nor any relation of theirs are in any way concerned in this suit.' 68. ' This publication being somewhat of an official character, I think the profession are entitled to its being accurate.' 59. ' I have no reason to think other than well of you, nor do I think other, believe me.' 60. ' If your correspondent has any real object in view, he will furnish me with the names of the persons to whom he alludes ; and I have no means of making this known to him except through the medium of your columns, and on receiving which he may be sure that the fullest investigation will be proceeded with.' EET. K. C. TEENCH. 1855-1856. 1. The plural is usually formed in English by adding s to the singular. Ex- plain the following plurals which are otherwise formed; Oxen, swine, kine, brethren, feet, mice, phenomena, banditti. 2. In what' two ways do we form comparatives and superlatives in English ? — Explain the comparatives : Elder, better, rather, farther, further ; and the superlatives: first, most: stating the positives on which they are formed. WOOLWICH COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION. 273 3. Write a sentence of four or five lines on any subject you please, -which shall consist exclusively of words drawn from the Anglo-Saxon portion of our 4. To which branch of the language, the Latin or the Anglo-Saxon, do adjec- tives ending in ful, able, ible, ly, like, some, al, ous, less, severally be- long ? Give examples of each, and explain the force of the termination. 5. To which branch of the language, the Latin or the Anglo-Saxon, do sub- stantives ending in ness, hood, head, ment, ion, dom, ty, cy, severally belong ? Give examples of each, and explain the force of the termi- nation. 6. Give the force of the prefixes, dis, mis, fore, pre, pro, de, un, in, and con ; and state whether they belong to the Anglo-Saxon or Latin portions of the langiiage. 7. Distinguish between the following words : Each and every; common and mutual ; feminine and effeminate ; childlike and childish ; to oblige and to compel ; to pardon and to forgive. 8. State from what quarters, whether from Anglo-Saxon, the Latin, or else- where, we have derived the following words ; Sword, candidate, salary, sycophant, curfew, history, algebra, almanack, daughter, sister, hypo- crite, book, bride, seraph, assassin, coffee, sarcasm, gazette. 9. Give the derivation of Candidate, salary, engine, soldier, bayonet, curfew, ensign, infantry, radical, England, intoxicate, feudal, heresy, homage, gossip. 10. From what languages have we derived the following words : Eclipse, mob, arsenal, zenith, tornado, anodyne, parish, parochial, halcyon, priest, war, dwarf, duke, candle, bazaar, regatta, minster ? 11. Give the derivations of the following words: Auspice, arsenic, carnival. Stoic, pagan, alms, leopard, renown, solecism, gentle, satire. 1 2. Write out the following passage, underlining with a single line the Anglo- Saxon words occurring in it, with two lines the words derived directly from the Latin, and with three the Latin derived directly through the French ; also if there are any words derived from any other quarter. Gives not the hawthorn-bush a sweeter shade To shepherds, looking on their silly sheep. Than doth a rich embroidered canopy To kings that fear their subjects' treachery? yes, it doth ; a thousand-fold it doth. And to conclude, — the shepherd's homely curds. His thin cold drink out of his leather bottle, His wonted sleep under a fresh tree's shade, T 274 ANALYSIS OP THE EXGLISH LANGUAGE. All which secure and sweetly he enjoys, Is far beyond a prince's delicates, His viands sparkling in a golden cup, His body couched in a curious bed, "When care, mistrust, and treason wait on him. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste Brought death into the world and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Eestore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed In the beginning how the heavens and earth Eose out of Chaos. In the above passage (i) either distribute the words according to the languages, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, and Anglo-Sason, from which they are drawn ; (ii) or else distribute them according to the several parts of speech to which they belong. 13. Give the derivation of the following words : Eremite, quaint, heaven, earth, smith, champion, exotic, engine, ecstasy, diamond, citadel, cabal, antidote, anthem, cathedral, romance, remorse, crucible, caitiff. 275 I. EXAMINATION PAPERS SET AT THE OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATIONS, 1862-1868. JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1862. 1. Analysis, Parsings, &c. [N.B. EvEET candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should he paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct- ness of expression. Four questions should be answered, of which the first and second must be two. 1. Analyse the following passage : lie this, or auglit Than this more secret, now designed, I haste To know ; and, this once known, shall soon return And bring ye to the place where thou and Death Shall dwell at ease, and up and down unseen Wing silently the buxom air imbalmed With odours. 2. Parse the words in the above lines printed in italics. 3. Explain the following words as used by Milton : Essential, Impotence, O'erwatched, Uncouth, Scope, Buxom, Reluctance, Intend, Belike, Converse, Original, Welkin. 4. Explain the allusions in the following expressions : The justling rocks. Atlantean shoulders. Serbonian bog. The Pythian fields. Ophiuchus huge. Vexed Scylla. Ambrosial odours. Cerberean mouths. The trading flood. 5. What is the general rule for the formation of the plural number in substantives ? What are the exceptions to this rule ? t2 276 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6. Explain the terms relative and antecedent, and the grammatical con- nection existing between them. Illustrate this connection hy parsing the relative in the following passages : But who here Will envy whom the highest place exposes ? None whose portion is so small Of present pain, that with ambitious mind Will covet more. The prison of his tyranny who rules. JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1863. 2. Analysis, Parsing, &c. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct- ness of expression. Four questions should be answered, of which the first and second must be two.] 1. Analyse the following passage, distinguishing in each clause the subject, predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between the principal anf* subordinate clauses. [N.B. A verbal analysis is not required.] 'Tis silence all. And pleasing expectation. Herds and flocks Drop the dry sprig, and, mute-imploring, eye The falhng verdure. Hush'd in short suspense, The plumy people streak their wings with oil, To throw the lucid moisture trickling off ; And wait th' approaching sign, to strike at once Into the general choir. Ev'n mountains, vales, And forests seem, impatient, to demand The promised sweetness. 2. Parse the words to which nimibers are prefixed in the following sentences, taking care to explain the construction as well as the parts of speech, &c. [N.B. The numbers may be substituted for the words in the answers to this and the following questions. Abbreviations may be used. Eules of Syntax need not be quoted.] OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 277 (i) Sudden he (2) starts, (3) Shook from (4) his tender (5) trance, (e) and (7) restless runs To (s) glimmering shades, and (9) sympathetic glooms (10) Where the dun (11) umbrage (12) o'er the faLUng stream (13) Romantic (14) hangs. (15) Should I my (16) steps (17) turn to the rural seat, (18) Whose lofty (1^) ehus Invite the rook, (20) who high (ai) amid the boughs In early spring his airy (22) city (23) builds, I (24) might the various (25) polity (26) survey Of the mix'd (27) household kind. Give the past tense and past participle of the verbs (1) Swell, (2) fight, (3) ride, (4) slay, (5) get, (6) burst, (7) bless, (s) write, (9) eat, (10) clothe. Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs ; between personal and relative pronouns ; and between the possessive and objective cases. Give examples of each. State the subjects in connection with which the following expressions occur in Thomson's Spring, and explain the expressions themselves : 1. Livid torrents. 2. The bright BuU receives him, 3. Winds the whole work. 4. UnHesh'd in blood. 5. All is off the poise within. 6. The numbers of the Samian sage. 7. The Mantuan swain. 8. As flies the father-dust. 9. Utmost Kilda's shore. 10. British Tempe. JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1864. 3. Analysis, Parsing, &c. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisiy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct- ness of expression. Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question, BO as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.] 278 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1. Analyse the following sentences, distingnisMng in each clause the subject, predicate, &c., and pointing out the connecting links between the principal and subordinate clauses. [N.B. A verbal or detailed analysis is not required.] Low the woods Bow their hoar head ; and, ere the languid sun Faint from the west emits his evening ray. Earth's universal face, deep hid, and chill, Is one wild dazzling waste, that buries wide The works of man The fowls of heaven, Tamed by the cruel season, crowd around The winnowing store, and claim the little boon Which Providence assigns them. 2. Enumerate the 'parts of speech,' and classify each word in the above passage under its proper denomination in this respect. 3. What are the ordinary inflexions of nouns, pronouns, and verbs ? Cite instances of such inflexions in the above passage. 4. How many cases are there ? State the case and grammatical construction of the following words as they occur in the above passage : ' Their,' 'his,' 'ray,' 'waste,' 'that,' 'man', 'season,' 'boon,' 'which,' 'them.' 5. Parse each word in these lines : Father of light and life, thou Good supreme ! teach me what is good ! teach me Thyself ! 6. Explain the following allusions, and either quote the context or state the topics with which they are connected in Thomson's Winter. 1. Ethereal nitre. •2. Sacred to the household gods. 3. Loose-revolving iields. 4. The noblest name of Just. 5. The two Achaian heroes. 6. Awfol from the plough. 7. Attic point. 8. Unwearied plying the mechanic tool. 9. His tardy wain. 1 0. The frantic Alexander of the North. OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEKS. 279 JTINIOE CAKDIDATES, I860. Analysis, Parsing, &c. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct- ness of expression. Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question, BO as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.] 1. Parse each word printed in Italics in the following passage, showing its connection with other words in the sentence to which it belongs : Yet still, even here, content can spread a charm, Redress the clime, and all its rage disarm. Though poor the peasant's hut, his feast though email, He sees his little lot the lot of all ; Sees no contiguous palace rear its head To shaww the meanness of his humble shed ; No costly lord the sumptuous banquet deal, To make him loathe his vegetable meal ; But calm, and bred in ignorance and toil. Each wish contracting, fits him to the soil. 2. Give the past tense indicative and the perfect participle of each of these verbs : Fall, Seethe, Set, Cleave, Chide, Go, Swell, Bid, Thrive, Sit, Lie, Lay. 3. What is an intransitive verb 1 What is a verb in the passive voice ? 4. What is a pronoun ? Into what classes are pronouns divided ? .5. Analyse the following passage : Cheerful at morn he wakes from short repose, Breasts the keen air, and carols as he goes ; With patient angle trolls the finny deep. Or drives his vent'rous ploughshare to the steep ; Or seeks the den where snow-tracks mark the way. And drags the struggling savage into day. 280 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6. Explain the meaning of these expressions : a. The lazy Scheld. d. Wild Oswego. b. The wandering Po. e. Famed Hydaspes. t. Campania's plain. /. Damien's bed of steel. 7. Briefly express in your own words the substance of the reflexions con- tained in the passage which begins : Vain, very vain, my weary search to find That bliss which only centres in the mind, &c. JUNIOR CAOT)IDATES, 1866. Analysis, Parsing, &c. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct- ness of expression. Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question, so as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.] 1. Analyse the following passage : Unskilful he to fawn, or seek for power, By doctrines fashion'd to the varying hour ; Far other aims his heart had learned to prize, More bent to raise the wretched than to rise. His house was known to all the vagrant train ; He chid their wanderings, but relieVd their pain. 2. Paxse each word in the first three lines of the above passage, taking care to show the grammatical construction, as well as the part of speech, &c. 3. "What is a noun ? Enumerate the various kinds of nouns, and instance objects to which they may severally be applied. i. How is the past participle formed ? Illustrate your explanation by refer- ence to the following forms: Received, cloven, fied, brought, fiung, laden, shorn, put. 5. What do you mean by gender? How should you describe 'child' and 'fowl' in reference to gender? and what are the feminine forms of ' actor,' ' executor,' ' hero,' and ' lad ' ? OXFORD LOCAL KXAMINATIOJf PAPERS. 281 6. Give a brief account of the eutject of Goldsmith's Deserted Village, and explain the following expressions, quoting (if you can) the context : a. Lahour'd mole. e. Ba/d the whispering wind. b. Mantling bliss. /. Wild Altama. c. Unprofitably gay. g. Matted woods. d. Impotence of dress. h. Life's taper. JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1867. 6. Analysis, Parsing, &c. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correct- ness of expression. Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question, so as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.] 1 . Analyse the following passage : From his native hills He wandered far ; much did he see of men, Their manners, their enjoyments, and pursuits, Their passions and their feelings ; chiefly those Essential and eternal in the heart. That, 'mid the simpler forms of rural life, Exist more simple in their elements, And speak a plainer language. 2. Parse each word in the following passages : ct. His calling laid aside, he lived at ease. b. The youth resigned A task he was unable to perform c. We parted, nothing willingly. d. He could afford to suffer With those whom he saw suffer. 3. Of the following verbs give (a) the past tense and (6) the perfect parti- ciple ; and arrange the verbs in two classes according to the former (a) : Ask, Choose, Go, Make, Strive, Wander, Bend, Come, Lay, Quit, Take, Win, Blend, Drink, Lie, Eead, Tell, Yearn. 282 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 4. Give the sense in simple words of the following passage : In dreams, in study, and in ardent thought, Thus was he reared ; much wanting to assist The growth of intellect, yet gaining more. And every moral feeling of his soul Strengthened and hraced, by hreathing in content The keen, the wholesome air of poverty. And drinking from the well of homely life. 5. Explain and illustrate from the foregoing passages the following gram- matical terms : Antecedent — auxiliary — case — conjunction — inflexion — mood — preposition — relative — syntax. 6. Explain the following words and phrases, and (where you can) supply the etymology of those marked by italics : Enthusiast — itinerant — rustic — sequestration — equipoise — garrulous — mighty orb of song — unutterable love — preternatural — lineaments — superstitions — nervous gait — spon- taneously. JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1868. 7. Analysis, Parsing, &c. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, pimctuation, and correctness of expression. Candidates are recommended not to dwell too long over any single question, so as (if possible) to answer all on the paper.] 1. Analyse the following passage : And by yon gate. That bars the traveller's road, she often stood. And when a stranger horseman came, the latch Would lift, and in his face look wistfully : Most happy, if, from aught discovered there Of tender feeling, she might dare repeat The same sad question. 2. Parse carefully each word in the following passages : a. The cottage-clock struck eight. h. Yes, it wold have grieved Your very soul to see her. c. I wist not what to do. OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 283 3. Give in simple words the general sense of the following passage : It were a wantonness, and would demand Severe reproof, if we were men whose hearts Oonld hold vain dalliance with the misery Even of the dead ; contented thence to draw A momentary pleasure, never marked By reason, barren of all future good. 4. Give (a) the past tense and (J) the past participle of the following verbs: Steal, Espy, Build, Bespeak, Shoot, Sit, Hold, Tell, Receive, Gird, Stick, Leave, Creep, Wear, Catch, Review, Strike, Decline. SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1862. English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness of expression. The first four questions should be attempted before any of the others.] This vesper-service closed, without delay. From that exalted station to the plain Descending, we pursued our hoTneward course. In mute composure, o'er the shadowy lake. Under a fated sky. [No trace remained Of those celestial splendours ; grey the vault — Pure, cloudless, ether ; and the star of eve Was wanting ; but inferioi> lights appeared. Faintly, too faint almost for sight; and some Above the darkened hills stood boldly forth In twinkling lustre, erre the boat attained Her mooring-place ;] where to the sheltering tree. Our youthful voyagers bound /asi her prow. With prompt, yet careful hands. This done, we paced The dewy fields. 1. Paraphrase the portion of the above passage placed in brackets. 2. Analyse the first sentence ending with 'faded sky.' 284 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 3. Parse the words and expressions in italics. 4. Correct the following sentences if faulty ; if not faulty, vindicate their correctness : The council have no intention to adhere to its former decision. The land grows excellent wheat, forty bushels the acre. Sleep flies the wretch. The family was well conducted and regular attendants at church. A ten inch board. More than ten mile. The best as I ever met with. Who do you think it was ? He had two sisters, the one a wealthy spinster, the other a married sister is the wife of a farmer. 5. Explain the origin and meaning of the prefixes circum-, sub-, ac-, de-, con-, be-, sym-, and of the affixes -gram, -graph, -graphy, -logy. Illustrate by instances of words in which they occur. 6. How is the comparative degree formed in adjectives and adverbs ? By what construction is it followed ? Is the following correct : 'He is more worthy of blame than me ? ' 7- Define the terms pronoun, conjunction, and verb, giving the etymology of each. How many kinds of pronouns are there ? Give examples of each kind. 8. Give the past tenses and participial forms of the verbs : Break, Lie, Swim, Hold, Slide, Spread, Climb, Forsake, Drink, Strew, Sing, Fly. SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1863. 9. English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness of expression. The first four questions shoul(J be attempted before any of the others.] 1, Analyse the following passage, distinguishing in each clause the subject, predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between the several clauses. [N.B. A verbal analysis is not required.] OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEES. 285 I never did repent for doing good, Nor shall not now : for in companions That do converse and waste the time together, Whose souls do bear an equal yoke of love. There must be needs a like proportion Of lineaments, of manners, and of spirit ; Which makes me think, that this Antonio, Being the bosom lover of my lord. Must needs be like my lord. 2. Parse fully the words to which numbers are prefixed in the following sentences, stating the construction, as well as the parts of speech, &c. [N.B. The numbers may be substituted for the words in the answers to this and the following questions. Abbreviations may be used. Bules of syntax need not be quoted.] (l) I, (2) who (3) weep (4) little, (5) did, I will (6) confess , The (7) moment I was (») seated here (9) alone, (10) Honour (11) my little (12) cell (13) with (14) some few tears, (15) Which anger (16) and resentment (17) could not (is) dry. AH (19) night the storm (20) endured; and, (21) soon as (22) help ' (23) Had been collected from the (24) neighbouring vale, With morning we (25) renewed (26) our quest. 3. Explain the terms (1) auxiliary verb ; (2) case absolute; (3) objective case; (4) noun of multitude; (5) disjunctive conjunction; (6) apposition; (7) abstract noun ; (8) neuter verb; (9) relative pronoun ; (10) strong perfect. Illustrate by examples. 4. Distinguish between lie and lay ; sdrvey and survey ; shall and will ; horse's legs and horses' legs ; subject and subject ; depository and de- positary; farther and further; owed and ought; was and were; this and that ; my and mine. 5. Words really or apparently the same frequently express different gram- matical relations. Explain the differences in the following instances : (1) Seeing a person coming &c. (2) Seeing is believing. (3) That is the man (4) that told you (5) that you were not to go to (6) that place. (7) What say you? He did (s) »Aa< I told him. (9) Bat so it was. None (10) hit the brave deserve &c. He was all (11) but gone. It rains (12) hard. A (13) hard stone. (14) Whence B,Te you? The place ( 1 5) io&«ce I came &c. (16) For he told me &c. Send {\'i)for him. 286 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 6. Give the feminine forms of (l) tiger and (2) abbot; the diminntives of (3) goose and (4) lamb ; the plurals of (5) penny and (6) loaf; the pos- sessive cases of (7) he, and (s) us; the perfect tenses and perfect participles of (9) thrive, (10) slay, (11) tear, and (12) tread; the compa- ratives and superlatives of (i3) lovely, (u) sly, and (15) humble. SENIOE CANDIDATES, 1864. 10. English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness of expression.] 1. Parse each word printed in italics in the following passage, showing its construction in the sentence to which it belongs : purblind race of miserable men, How many among us at this very hour Do forge a life-long trouble for ourselves. By taking trite tor false, or false for true ; Here, through the feeble twilight of this world Groping, how many, until we pass and reach That other, where we see as we are seen. 2. Express the sense of the above passage in simple prose as briefly as you can. 3. 'The parts of speech are not the names of classes of words taken by themselves, but of words as they are constructed in sentences.' Explain this statement, giving examples to show that the following words become different parts of speech according to the connection in which they occur : but, that, taking, trouble, false, forge, contract. i. When the same word, being of more than one syllable, may be used either as a verb or a noun, what distinction is usually made in the place of the accent ? "What exceptions of common occurrence are there to this rule? 5. What is an auxiliary verb ? Explain the use and meaning of each of the English auxiliary verbs. 6. What is the distinction between conjimctions and prepositions ? 7. Analyse the following passage, distinguishing in each clause the subject, predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between the several clauses : OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEES. 287 What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted 't Thrice is he armed, that hath his quarrel just ; And he but naked, though locked up in steel. Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. 8. Distinguish between these expressions and words : He is come, and He has come. I alone can do it, and I can do it alone. A picture of the Queen's and A picture of the Queen. Fall, and fell. Eise, and raise. Lie, and lay. Stop, afid stay. Sit, seat, and set. 9. Give the Saxon words in common use which most nearly answer to the following : Extend, expand, penetrate, pervade, denote, depart, spiritual, multitude, intrusion, invasion, incursion, elevation, altitude, division. SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1865. 11. English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness of expression.] Bless'd are those Whose blood and judgment are so well comingled. That they are not a pipe tov fortune' s finger To sound what stop she please : Give me that man That is not passion's slave, and I will wear him In my heart's core, ay, in my heart of heart, As I do thee.— Something too mtich of this. 1. Analyse the above passage, distinguishing in each clause the subject, predicate, &c., and pointing out the connection between the several clauses. 2. Parse fully the words in italics, stating in each case the construction or relation of the word parsed to the other parts of the sentence. 3. How do you distinguish- between the participle and the verbal substantive in -ing? Illustrate your answer by the following examples: 'lam 288 ANALYSIS OF THE EJfGLISH LANaUAGE. 'I saw a toy throwing a stone,' 'Day dawning, we started,' 'Hiding is healthy.' Explain the a in the first of these. 4. What is the exact force of the prefix in the following words ? — Problem, procure, proceed, prologue : subtract, subacid, subside, subsidize, surrepti- tious : innate, intact, incident; disqualify, dispense, dissect, dissuade; re- peat, reluctant, remit, remote ; withdraw, withhold, withstand. 5. The term pronoun etymologically means a 'word used instead of «■ noun.' Would such a definition comprehend all the words classed as pronouns, or all the cases to which pronouns apply ? 6. Enumerate the inflexions (proper) of verbs, and the auxiliaries employed where inflexions are wanting. Distinguish the shades of meaning in the following forms ; I wrote, I have written, and I have been writing ; I write and I am writing; You shall write and You will write. 7. Which do you consider correct in point of orthography? — Honor, or honour; recognize, or recognise ; center, or centre ; traveler, or traveller ; moveable, or movable ; wilful, or willful. Give reasons for your preference. SENIOE CANDIDATES, 1866. 12. English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness of expression.] His years hut young, hut his experience old ; His head unmellotoed, but his judgment ripe; And, in a word {for far behind his worth Come aU the praises that I now bestow) He is complete in feature and in mind. With all good grace to grace a gentleman. 1. Parse each word printed in italics in the above passage, explaining its grammatical connection with other words in the sentence. 2. Classify the English auxiliary verbs, and explain the uses of each of them. 3. What are the uses of the adverb ? How many kinds of adverbs are there ? 4. What is the distinction between strong verbs and weak verbs ? OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 289 5. What is meant by the objective case? Explain its use in each of the following expressions : It was told him. He walked ten miles. Give him the book. He Hved many years after tftat. 9. Explain the words, root, affix, prefix, inflexion, according to their use in grammar. Illustrate your answer by examples taken from the passage quoted above from Shakspeare. 7. How do you explain the following constructions ? The church-going bell. There is some ill a brewing. While grace is saying. A walking stick. I go a fishing. He was an hungered. 8. Analyse Then she for her good deeds and her pure lite, And for the power of ministration in her, And likewise for the high rank she had borne, Was chosen abbess, there, an abbess, lived For three brief years, and there, an abbess, past To where beyond these voices there is peace. SENIOR CAITDIDATES lb67. 13. English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness of expression.] 1. Parse each word printed in Italics in the following passage, showing its grammatical connection with other words in the sentence to which it belongs : Give thy thoughts no tongue. Nor any unproportioned thought his act. Be thou familiar but by no m^ans vulgar. U 290 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried. Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel ; But do not dull thy palm ■with entertainment Of each new hatched, unfledged comrade. Beware Of entrance to a quarrel ; but, being in. Bear it, that the opposed may beware of thee. 2. Express the purport of the passage in prose as briefly and as simply as you can. 3. Wliat is a pronoun ? Into what classes are pronouns divided ? Explain the distinction between my, mine, and my own. i. How many kinds of verbs are there ? Define each of them. 5. Give the past tense and the perfect participle of each of these verbs : Lay, Seek, Plee, Set, Thrive, Tear, Sit, Dare, Ely, Catch, Lie, Cleave. 6. What are the meanings of the following prefixes, and &om what languages do they come ? With- Dia- Sub- Syn- Contra- Ee- Arch- Ab- Dis- Hyper- Per- Un- 7. What difference in signification or usage is there in the following eiipres- sions ? Older and elder. Bold and brave. Drwnk and drunken. Weighty and heavy. Stay and stop. He is gone and he has gone. He loves him Tnore than m£ and he loves him, more than I. He has died and he is dead. 8. Analyse He that has light within his own clear breast, May sit in the centre, and enjoy bright day : But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, Benighted walks under the mid-day sun ; Himself is his own dungeon. OXFORD LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 291 SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1868. 14. English Grammar, including Analysis of Sentences. [N.B. Every candidate is required to satisfy the examiners in this paper. Attention should be paid to spelling, handwriting, punctuation, and correctness of expression.] 1. Parse each -word printed in italics in the following passage, explaining its grammatical connection with other words in the sentence : Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness ! This is the state of man : to-day he puts forth The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms, And bears his blushing honours thick upon him: The third day comes a frost, a killing frost ; And — when he thinks, good easy man, full surely His greatness is a ripening — nips his root. And then he falls as I do. 2. Give examples of the different ways in which these words may be used in reference to the parts of speech — as, but, that, siiu-e. 3. 'A pronoun is a word used to prevent the awkward repetition of a Noun in a sentence.' Is this a good definition of a pronoun 1 Give a reason for your answer. 4. What is an auxiliary verb 1 Classify the English auxiliary verbs. 5. What is the passive voice ? When may a verb in the passive voice be followed by the objective case ? 6. Give the past tenses and perfect participles of these verbs : Bereave, Expel, Freeze, Thrive, Dig, Grow, Climb, Slide, Spring, Lie, Plee, Lay. 7. Explain the prefixes in the following words : Innate, Withhold, Intact, Subtract, Uncomfortable, Return, Disorderly, Hyperbole, Hypothesis, Annul. u2 292 ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 8. Analyse Heaven doth with us, as we with torches do, Not light them for themselyes : for if our Tirtues Did not go forth of us, 'twere all alike As if we had them not. EXAMINATION PAPEKS SET AT THE CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATIONS. JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1859. Rudiments of English Grammar. [N.B. Ereiy candidate must satisfy the examiners in this paper. Three questions at least should be attempted.] 1. Give the plurals of the following nouns : Wolf, Fife, Canto, Soliloquy, Flagstaff, Negro, Lily, Donkey. Life, Gire instances of nouns having two forms of the plural of different meanings. 2. Give the past tense indicative and past participle of each of the following verbs : Abide, Blow, Cleave, Draw, Sing, Beseech, Drink, Hurt, Lie (to rest), Eun. 3. Point out and correct what is amiss in the following expressions : Was you there ? or was it him ? James and him didn't ought to have said so. Who did you expect to have seen here ? I was neither considering James nor John when I did it. Either James or John have great cause for complaint. He don't mind what I say ; but I will be sorry to punish him. CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 293 4. What is a sentence ? Define the terms 'subject' and 'predicate.' Point out the subject and piedicate in the following sentences: He always acts with considerable judgment. To be angry is unwise. In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England. 5. Parse fully the following passage : Dare to be true. Nothing can need a lie. A fault which needs it most grows two thereby. JUNIOR CANDIDATES. 2. Trench on the Study of Words. 1. In what sense is language man's inyention, and in what sense God's gift? 2. Words sometimes preserre the record of exploded errors. Show in what way the following words, Leopard, sardonic, humour, saturnine, joiiial, mercurial, amethyst, do this. 3. Give the derivation of Tinsel, desultory, dunce, gipsy, curfew. 4. AUusiou to what ancient customs is bound up in the words, Thraldom, cal- culation, expense, stipulation ? 5. What information about the following things, namely. Bayonet, calico, guinea, cordwain, cherry, peach, currants, dimity, damask, sherry, er- mine, may be obtained from the names they bear ? 6. Define synonyms. How do synonyms find place in a language? What advantages in respect of style may we hope to gain by the study of them? 7. Give some examples of the morality, and some of the immorality, which find place in the use of words. 294 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. JUNIOR CANDIDATES, 1860. 3. Endiments of English Grammar. (PEELIMINABT.) 1. What is the meaning of an ' abstract,' ' common,' and ' proper' noun ; an ' auxiliary ' and 'impersonal ' verb ; a ' cardinal ' and an ' ordinal ' num- ber ? Give examples of each. 2. What is the general rule for forming the possessive case, singular and plural, of nouns ; and what are the exceptions to this rule ? a. How do nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant,/, and/« respectively, form their plurals ? Give the plurals of the following words : Key, berry, calf, grief, knife, penny, ox, fly, brother. 4. Write out the present and past tenses of the following verbs : Forget, speak, think, stand ; and give the past tense and past participle of the verbs Lose, knit, ride, wear, run, sit. 5. Parse the words in italics in the following passage : Fidl many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark unfathom'd eaves of ocean bear; Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray's . JUNIOE CANDIDATES. Trench on the Study of Words. 1 . What objection is there to regarding language simply as an invention ? 2. To which of the races which have inhabited England do we mainly owe our language ? Mention any words which are derived (1) from ancient Greek or Eoman philosophers, (2) from the Schoolmen. Whence do we derive the words ' earl ' and 'countess ' ? 3. Show from etymology what influence the planets Mercury, Jupiter, and Saturn were supposed by astrologers respectively to have upon those born under them. What three articles of food may be shown by ety- mology to have come to us originally from the coast of the Black Sea. CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEES. 295 4. Horace says, ' Many words will he reviyed which have now gone out, and many will pass out of use which are now in vogue.' Show by examples that this has been the case in English. 5 . It has been questioned whether we ought to write ' honour ' or ' honor,' ' favour' or 'favor.' State the case on both sides, and point out precisely what is meant when the latter spelling is called wrong. 6. Define and trace to a common root the words Sense, sensual, sensitive, sensuous, sensible, sentimental, resentment, assentation ; also Gentle, genteel, gentile, generous, general. 7. Distinguish between Deist and Theist, difBdence and distrust, effective and effectual, conscience and consciousness, invention and discovery, vir- tuous and virtual. 8. What change has taken place in the meaning of the words Nephew, novel- ist, neologist, plantation, favour, naturalist ? JUNIOE CANDIDATES. 6. Englisli Grammar. Paet I. — Pebliminaet. [N.B. All students are required to satisfy the examiners in the first piirt of this Paper, which is the English Grammar of the Preliminary Examination. Four questions at least should be attempted.] 1 . Give the names of the parts of speech. What is a pronoun ? What is the particular use of a relative pronomi ? 2. When is a noun in the nominative case absolute ? Give a sentence con- taining an example of one. 3. Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. Give two simple sentences, a transitive verb occurring in one, an intransitive one in the other. 4. Write down the past tense, present and past participles of the following verbs : Scatter, swear, ride, mow, gallop, spin, trouble, profit, lose, toss, fly. 5. Parse the following sentence : Your voiceless lips, flowers, are living preachers. 296 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Part II. 6. Why are some consonants termed liquids and some mutes ? Give instances of each. What is a diphthong ? 7. State the different parts of speech to which each of the following words may belong : Sleep, long, tear, close, shade, telow, last, pluck, shed, bear, underneath. 8. Give the rules, with examples to each, for the use of s and the apostrophe in the following cases : a. Nouns in the possessiye case in apposition. b. Several possessives used together. I,-. When of is used with the possessive form. 9. Specify what class of transitive verbs may take two objects after them. In what cases may neuter verbs take an object after them ? Give examples. 10. Name the moods of a verb, and explain their use. Take a verb, and give an example of each. 1 1. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences : Mind who you are speaking to. Since you were here last, I rode out on horseback regularly every aay. On notice of this been given to the committee, a resolution was at once come to to forbid it. The ten first chapters of the book were interesting very, the remaining was dull. 12. Analyse the following sentence : The lively Grecian, in a land of hiUa, Kivers and fertile plains, and sounding shores. Under a cope of sky more variable. Could find commodious place for every god, Promptly received, as prodigally brought. From the surrounding countries, at tte choice Of all adventurers. CAMBEIDQE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEES. 297 JTJNIOE CANDIDATES. 6. English Grammar. PaetL [N.B. AU students are required to satisfy the examiners in the first part of this paper. Four questions at least should be attempted.] 1. Write down the feminine forms of Abbot, duke, hero, ram, traitor, widower. 2. Write down the plural forms of Cargo, child, church, knife, monkey, penny, portfolio, roof, tooth, tree, woman. 3. Place the indefinite article before each of the following nouns : Box, ewe, heir, historian, house, union. 4. Mention the parts of speech to which the following words respectively belong : Arrow, beside, besides, boy, grow, often, seldom, since, though, through, vain, vein, yellow, your. 6. Write down the past tense of each of the following verbs : Beseech, drive, forsake, fly, bear, lay, lend, lie, shear, shoot. 6. State the rules for forming the degrees of comparison of adjectives. PaetII. 7. Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. What is meant by (1) a verbal preposition, (2) a verbal substantive ? 8. Into what classes are pronouns divided? Form a sentence including a personal pronoun in the objective case, and a relative pronoun in the possessive case. 9. Write down a part of the verb ' to love,' differing in voice, mood, tense, number, and person, from ' I was loved.' 10. Distinguish between the meanings of the sentences within the following brackets : r You have helped me oftener than he. I You have helped me oftener than him. 298 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 1 . State the rules for the concord of i. A relative with its antecedent. ■2. A coUectiTe substantive with its verb. 12. Correct the mistakes in the folio-wing sentences : — 1. As neither John or Thomas are going, let you and I go. 2. Observing the house actually on fire, it was evident the engines were required. 3. I can't go unless John comes home. 4. I don't know whether he goes now, but he didn't use to. 13. Explain the terms subject, object, and predicate. Give an example of an indirect object. li. Analyse Those who reason in this manner do not observe that they are setting up a general rule, of all the least to be endured ; namely, that secrecy, whenever secrecy is practicable, will justify any action. JUNIOE CANDIDATES. 7. English Grammar. [N.B. All students must satisfy the examiners in this paper, lour questions at least must be attempted.] 1. Define a noun; and distinguish between proper, common, and abstract nouns ; giving examples of each. 2. What does the possessive case denote? State the rule for its formation. Write down the possessive case plural of Man, lady. 3. Give the comparative and superlative degrees of Good, bad, little, old, nu- merous. 4. Name the number, gender, person, and case of She, its, ours, them, us, ye, thee. 5. What is an adverb? Into how many classes are adverbs divisible? State the classes to which the following adverbs respectively belong : Again, almost, enough, fully, hither, peradventure, well, yesterday, yonder. 6. Distinguish between the properties of prepositions and conjunctions. State the difference between copulative and disjunctive conjunctions. In the sentence ' Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy,' what part of speech is for 1 CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 299 JUNIOE CANDIDATES. English Grammar. 1. Explain briefly the meanings of Etymology, syntax, concord, declension, mood, tense. 2. Define a noun and an adjective. Distribute adjectives into three classes according to their meanings. 3. Write down six words which are used as adverbs and prepositions. How do you detect a preposition in a sentence ? 4. Assign to its proper part of speech each word in the following sentences : a. I will conduct myself so as to gain respect. b. Pending the trial all but a few perished. c. He is fond of pleasing everybody. 5. Write three short sentences, one containing a substantive clause, one an adjective clause, and one an adverbial clause. 6. What do you mean by a contracted sentence? 7. Correct mistakes in the following sentences: a. Riches does not belong everybody. b. These sort of arguments ought to be more inculcate. c. If the Sun goes about the Earth, astronomy's results are misleading us. d Speak thou then which trespass here. 6. I saw a black and white man walking together. 8. Analyse the following sentences : a. Why are you so late ? b. He will succeed or die. c. Whatever the consequences may be, I shall go my way. d. You ask me why, though ill at ease. Within these regions I subsist, Whose spirits falter in the mist, And languish for the purple seas. 9. Can you show that the number of the parts of speech is complete and suf- ficient for expressing our thoughts ? 300 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. JUNIOE CANDIDATES. 9. Englisli Grammar [Every student must satisfy the examiners in tliis paper. Four questions at least must be attempted.] 1. Name the parts of speech, giving one example of each. 2. Define a preposition. Show hy examples that the same word may be used sometimes as a preposition and sometimes as a conjuntion. 3. Give the masculine nouns corresponding to Duchess, ewe, heifer, witch ; and the feminine corresponding to Beau, host, lord, master, executor. Write down six nouns of common gender. 4. Write down the past tense and the perfect participle of the following verbs : Arrive, begin, dare, freeze, go, spread, strike, tell. 5. What is an auxiliary verb ? What tenses and moods require the use of auxiliaries ? 6. Distinguish between the meanings of the following pairs of words and phrases : Any, some ; alone, only ; stay, stop ; decrease, diminish ; sanitary, sanatory ; prevail upon, prevail with. 7. Analyse the following sentences, and parse the words printed in italics: ] . Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. ^i. Being angry with one who controverts an opinion which you value, is a necessary consequence of the uneasiness which you feeL 8. How are adverbs usually formed ? What adverbs are derived from the following words : All, beside, ground, heaven ? Write down the principal adverbs which can be derived from words contained in the sentences of question 7. CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPEBS. 301 SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1859. 10. Rudiments of English Orammar. [N.B. Every candidate must satisfy the examiners in this paper. Three questions at least should be attempted.] 1. Give the past tense indicative and past participle of each of the following verbs : Awake, Break, Hy, Hit, Sit, Swell, Forbid, Eat, Flee, Ring, Strive, Tear. 2. Write down the following passage without changing the order of the words, but spelling them according to the present usage ; and point out any differences between this passage and modern English, other than those of spelling : And Jhesus, seynge the puple, wente up into an hil ; and whanne he was set, hise disciplis camen to hym. And he openyde his mouth, and taughte hem, and seide, Blessid be the pore in spirit, for the kyngdom of hevenes is heme. Blessid be mylde men, for thei schulen welde the erthe. Blessid be thei that mournen, for thei schulen be comfortid. Blessid be thei that hungren and thirsten rightwisnesse, for thei schulen be fulfiUid. Blessid be mercyful men, for thei schulen gete merci. Blessid be thei that be of cleno herte, for thei schulen se God. Blessid be pesible men, for thei schulen be clepid Goddis children. Blessid be thei that suffreu persecusioun for rightfulnesse, for the kingdom of hevenes is heme. —St. Matt. V. 1-10. (Wtclip). 3. What is a pronoun ? Write a short sentence containing the words This, that, who, and whom. 4. Parse fully the following passage : — Stone walls do not a prison make, Nor iron bars a cage ; A free and quiet mind can take These for a hermitage. 6. Define the terms ' subject ' and ' predicate.' When is a sentence said to to be ' simple,' and when ' complex ' ? Write a simple sentence in which the subject shall be qualified by a par- ticipial phrase, and the predicate extended by an adverbial phrase. 302 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. SENIOE CANDIDATES, 1860. 11. Rudiments of English Grammar. (pEEtlMINAET.) [N.B. AH candidates are required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.] 1. Entjmeeate the different kinds of pronouns. Decline such pronouns as admit of declension. 2. Gire a list of nouns (a) that have no singular, (b) that have no plural, (c) that have the singular and plural alike. 3. Point out the errors in the following sentences : How will we know whether is the greatest of the two ? Neither John or Thomas considered that morning or evening are the best time for study. Either in the four first of that class were clever boys. If I had not broke your stick, you would never have ran home, nor began to teE those kind of lies, which nobody but foolish men believe. Every member of our families have been introduced to each other. 4. Write down an example of (1) a simple, (2) a compound, and (3) a complex sentence. 6. Eewrite the following in modem English : — Lo lo (quod Dame Prudence) howe lightly is every man enclyned to his owne desyre and his owne pleasaunce. Certes (quod she) the wordes of the phisiciens ne shulden not ben understonden in that wise, for certes wickednesse is not contrarie to wickednesse, ne vengeaunce is not contrarie to vengeaunce, ne wronge to wronge, but everich of hem encreaseth and engendreth other. But certes the wordes of the phisiciens shuld be understonde in this wise, for good and wick- ednesse ben two contraries : and peace and werre, vengeaunce and suffraunce, discord and acord, and many other thinges : But certes wickednesse shalbe warished with goodnes, discorde by acorde, werre by peace, and so forthe in other thinges — Chaucer, Canter- Iwry Tales. CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 303 SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1865. 12. Preliminary English Grammar. [N.B, All candidates are required to satisfy the examiners in this paper.] 1. Explain the word vowel. Show by rules and exceptions, with the aid of examples, the various sounds indicated by the vowels, both singly and in combination, 2. What means have we for expressing relation between nouns substantive ? Explain such a phrase as ' Wills Act Amendment Act.' 3. What is a defective verb ? Give examples, and show how they are sup- plemented. 4. Explain what is meant by a conditional sentence ; and point out the dis- tinction in meaning between ' If you go at once you may be in time,' and ' If you went at once you might be in time.' 5. Examine the construction of the following sentences : 'Tis sixty years since. Much ado about nothing. They must fight it out. He came himself. 6. Analyse the following passage, and parse the words printed in italics : I cannot tell if to deipart in silence. Or bitterly to speak in your reproof, Bestfitteth my degree or your condition. SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1866. 13. English Grammar. 1. Which letter is the aspirate, and why is it so called ? In what words is it rightly dropped when it stands as their first letter ? Under what cir- cumstances are the forms a or an used, of the indefinite article ? 304 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 2. Explain how you distinguish hetweeu proper, common, and abstract nouns. Classify the following : Inconsistency, confession, governor, squadron, day, education, knowledge, youth, time, contest, Wellington, talent, Robert. 3. Define the term ' case ' as employed in grammar. How many cases are there in English ? How are they used ? Decline Child, rubbish, he, who, another. 4. Point out the difference of meaning in the forms of expression, ' A states- man and orator walking up Constitution Hill,' and ' A statesman and an orator walking up Constitution Hill.' When is the article repeated or not in such cases ? 6. What parts of a verb must be known in order to conjugate it ? In what particulars does a regular differ from an irregular verb ? Give the past tense and past participle of Demean, mean, heave, upheave, cost, accost. 6. Parse Uprouse ye then, my merry, merry men, For 'tis our opening day. Analyse That time of year thou mayst in me behold When yellow leaves, or none, or few do hang Upon those boughs which shake against the cold, Bare ruin'd choirs, where,late the sweet birds sang. SENIOB CANDIDATES, 1867. 14. Englisli Grammar. Define the following terms : Vowel, consonant, diphthong, syllable. Into what are diphthongs divided? Point out the vowels in the words wayward and yearly. Give the general rule for the formation of the plural number of nouns • and enumerate the principal exceptions to this rule. Give the plural forms of Church, stomach, baby, day, knife, handkerchief, ox, folio, grotto. What is meant by a relative pronoun? When the relative is preceded by two antecedents of diiFerent persons, with which of them do the relative and the verb agree ? Correct the errors in the following sentence : ' Thou art the person which were supposed to have written the letter.' CAMBRIDGE LOCAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 305 4. Distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs. Explain the terms mood and tense. Point out the difference between the potential and subjunctire mood, 5. Point out the difference of meaning in the following sentences : I was disappointed of the letter which I have so long wished for. I was disappointed in the letter which I have so long wished for. Distinguish between 'a taste o/a thing,' and 'a taste /of a thing.' 6. Parse I know him as myself: for from our infancy We have conversed, and spent our hours together. Analyse Then burst his mighty heart ; And, in his mantle muffling up his face, Even at the base of Pompey's statue. Which all the while ran blood, great Caesar fell. SENIOR CANDIDATES, 1868. 15. English Grammar, 1. Define the following terms: Plirase, clause, sentence. Write a short sentence containing substantival, adjectival, and adverbial clauses. 2. Give some of the rules for the use of commas. 3. Give the rules for forming the imperfect participles of verbs; and form those of Call, love, singe, tie, strip, suit, defer, recover, frolic. 4. Explain carefully the meaning of the terms, person and mood. Correct the following sentence so as first to state the supposed case as a. fact, secondly as a supposition : If thou is honest, I love you. 5. AVIiat are the different shades of meaning between the sentences : I think, I am thinking, I do think ? 6. Parse Such holy rite, Methinks, if audibly repeated now Prom hill or valley, could not move Sublimer transport. 506 ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Analyse Brutus, I do observe you now of late. I have not from your eyes that gentleness, And show of love, as I was wont to have : You hear too stubborn and too strange a hand Over your friend that loves you. LONDON: MINTED BY BP0TTI8W00DE AND CO.. NEW-STEEET SQtrABB AND fAblIAUENT aiBBBI JOHNSON'S DICTIONARY BY DR. R. G. LATHAM. Complete in Fous Volumes Qi/ahto, price £7 cloth; to be had in Two Sections, Vols. I. and II. price 70s. Vols. III. and IV. price 70s. A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. EGBERT GOEDON LATHAM, M.A. M.D. F.E.S. &c. Late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge ; late Professor of English, University College, Lon clou ; Author of ' The English Language ' &c. Founded on that of Br, Samuel Johnson, as Edited by the Eev. H. J. Todd, M.A. With NUMEROUS EMENDATIONS and ADDITIONS. * Dr. Latham's work is not only an English Dictionary in the strict meaning of the term, but in many important respects a very valuable addition to our national lexicography. Though nominally based on Johnson's dictionary, so much of the original text is discarded as imperfect or erroneous, and the additions in every depart- ment are so numerous and extensive, that it may be regarded virtually as a new book. StiU, while thus amplifying and improving the original work until its form can no longer be recognised, Dr. Latham remains faithful in the main to its general spirit and plan, and his new dictionary may fairly be said to possess many of the characteristic excellencies and defects of the old The Dictionary deserves to be studied by every one interested in the language, and as a book of reference is admirably fitted for general usefulness.' Edinburgh Eeview. * This Dictionary maintains its character as the moat complete and able work of the kind published in this country. As an ordinary book of reference it fu^ls all the requisite functions'of a lexicon; but to the student and the scholar its great value lies in the philosophical dissertations on the logical value of words, and the vast amount of care and learning with which the deriva- tions are exemplified. 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