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Chinese Students in America: 
 Qualities Associated with Their Success 
 
 By 
 JENNINGS PINKWEI CHU 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the 
 
 Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of 
 
 Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy 
 
 Columbia University 
 
 C<j\/JCv«Aj . \S*-tI-*^^ ' 
 
 7 
 
 Published by 
 
 tCeacIietK College, Columbia tHniiier«ttp 
 
 New York City 
 1922 
 
Chinese Students in America: 
 Qualities Associated with Their Success 
 
 By 
 JENNINGS PINKWEI CHU 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the 
 
 Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of 
 
 Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy 
 
 Columbia University 
 
 Published by 
 
 
 %tut^txi CoUese, Columbia jiKnitiersitp 
 
 New York City 
 
 
 192a 
 
 To, 
 
 
 K© 
 
 
 
 ^;6U,NUI-l' 
 
 
 UNIVs, U$Cl Y 
 
 
 1 lUfca.Y 
 
Cobvrighl, 1022, by Jennings Pinkwei Chu 
 
 |\SXVv\<Y] 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 The author wishes to acknowledge his thanks to many Chinese 
 students in America for their willing co-operation in supplying a 
 large part of the necessary material for this study. To the authori- 
 ties of Tsing Hua College, Peking, and to the Directors of the Chi- 
 nese Educational Mission and of the Educational Bureau of the 
 Chinese Ministry of Education, Washington, D. C, he feels greatly 
 indebted for their permission to make use of many otherwise inacces- 
 sible records. He is grateful to Professor Edward L. Thorndike and 
 Professor Truman L. Kelley for much guidance in devising statistical 
 methods; to Dr. M. R. Trabue and Dr. I. L. Kandel for valuable 
 suggestions; and to Mr. J. S. Orleans and Miss Elva Wald, both of 
 the Institute of Educational Research of Teachers College, for tech- 
 nical assistance. But especially to Professor Edward L. Thorndike, 
 under whom the investigation was undertaken and whose stimu- 
 lating criticisms and -timely encouragement have been both a guid- 
 ance and an inspiration , the author wishes to express his deep grati- 
 tude and indebtedness. 
 
 Jennings P. Chu 
 
 New York City, 
 April, 1922 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Statement of the Problem i 
 
 II. Experimental Material 4 
 
 1 . The Subjects 
 
 2. The Data 
 
 The Judgment of Associates 
 Individual Records 
 Test Scores in English 
 High School Marks in China 
 College Marks in America 
 
 III. The Judgment of Associates 11 
 
 1 . Transmutation of Rankings into Sigma Positions 
 
 2 . Comparison of the Judgments in English with Test Scores in 
 English: the Validity of the Judgments in the Knowledge of 
 English 
 
 3. The Reliability of the Judgment: Self -correlation 
 
 4. Raw Correlations 
 
 5. Correlations Corrected for Attenuation 
 
 6. Final Composite Correlations 
 
 7. Interpretation of Results 
 
 IV. Comparison of the Judgments with High School 
 Marks 34 
 
 V. Comparison OF THE Judgments WITH College Marks 38 
 
 1. The Judgments in Scholarship and General Averages in 
 Colleges 
 
 2. High School General Averages Compared with College General 
 Averages 
 
 VI. Comparison of the Judgments with Individual 
 
 Records 40 
 
 1. A Scale for Judging the Activities of Chinese Students in 
 America 
 
 2. A Discussion on the Validity of the Judgment of Associates 
 
 VII. Years Spent in America as a Factor . . 47 
 
 VIII. Conclusions and Suggestions ... .... 51 
 
 Appendix .... .... 54 
 
Chinese Students in America: 
 Qualities Associated with Their Success 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 
 
 For the past fifty years, China has made a practice of sending 
 students to the United States to be educated in American colleges 
 and universities. Many psychological oroblerns have arisen in con- 
 nection with this practice, which, fundamental and important as 
 they are, have never been solved or even explicitly formulated. 
 A solution of them, however, would greatly aid in the improvement 
 of methods for the preparation and selection of these students. 
 
 With the steady growth of the number of Chinese students in 
 America and with the increasing emphasis placed upon the value of 
 their American education in recent years, these psychological prob- 
 lems have come more and more to the fore. The need of a logical 
 statement of some of them and of a scientific attempt towards their 
 solution is manifest and pressing. Fortunately, the science of 
 mental measurement, which has recently made great progress in 
 America, will directly lend itself to the solution of these problems 
 and indirectly open a new field in China for educational experimenta- 
 tion, of which the present investigation may be a beginning. 
 
 The problem in connection with the education of Chinese students 
 in America emanates from a consideration of their success as a result 
 of that education. Briefly stated, it comprises the following: 
 
 1 . What should be considered as success of a Chinese student in 
 America? 
 
 2. What are some of the qualities associated with it? 
 
 3. How are they related to it? 
 
 4. How are they related to one another? 
 
 5. How can the optimum amount of success be secured in the 
 light of our knowledge of its relationship to the qualities associated 
 with it? 
 
 6. What should be the proper method for the preparation and 
 selection of the prospective Chinese student in America? 
 
2 Chinese Students in America 
 
 Questions i and 2 will be answered in the following paragraphs. 
 It is in an attempt to answer questions 3, 4, 5, and 6 that the present 
 investigation is undertaken. 
 
 Before any attempt is made to find out the relationship between 
 success and the qualities associated with it, the first two questions 
 proposed in the statement of the problem need to be answered. 
 First, what should be consi dered asjuccess of a Chinese student in 
 America? Elusive and comprehensive as it may seem at first sight, 
 success of a student may be said to be of two kinds: acad^nic.and 
 non-academic . For this study, scholarshig_ has been chosen as 
 indicative of academic success and leadership as indicative of non- 
 academic success. This twofold classification is unavoidable, inas- 
 much as the career of a student is devoid of atiy professional special- 
 ization that will give a single indication of his total life success. 
 
 A complete answer to the second question — What are some of 
 the qualities associated with success? — -presents almost insuperable 
 difficulties. The total qualities associated with success, be it in the 
 form of scholarship or leadership , are perhaps so numerous and over- 
 lapping that any attempt to list them short of an exhaustive study 
 of all desirable human traits by means of regression equations would 
 seem to fail in its purpose. We can enumerate off-hand under schol- 
 arship, for instance, such qualities as intelligence, industry, ambi- 
 tion, language ability and concentration, and under leadership such 
 qualities as personality, character, initiative, decisiveness and force. 
 These qualities in each group, however, overlap a great deal and 
 our knowledge of them is at present so inadequate that it would 
 seem difficult, if not impossible, to measure them objectively. 
 
 On the other hand, knQwledgejiLEngliglj^and knosdedge.-afXhi- 
 nese have been chosen as qualities associated with both scholarship 
 and~leadership, and this for various reasons. In the first place, in 
 the judgment of the writer from the beginning of his investigation, 
 these two qualities might be uncorrelated or independent of each 
 other. This was found to be the case, as will be shown in the body 
 of the thesis. Second, these qualities can be objectively measured, 
 it being possible to get measures of them by means of tests and 
 school marks in these languages. Third, in actual practice, the 
 selection of a prospective Chinese student in America has been 
 largely determined by his achievement in the knowledge of English 
 and Chinese, as is so well exemplified by the competitive examina- 
 
Statement of the Problem 3 
 
 tion held in China for the purpose of selecting such students, in 
 which tests of a knowledge of these two languages constitute two- 
 thirds of the requirements. 
 This, then, brings out a more technical statement of the problem, 
 
 namely, a study of the inte rrnrr^latinn hpt^»rppn srhnlarsViip^JpaJpr- 
 
 ship. knowledge of Ene^lish and knowledee of Chinese among Chinese 
 students in American rolle^p s and nnivprsitips, based on such objec- 
 tive data as will be presently described . 
 
CHAPTER II 
 EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL 
 
 I. THE SUBJECTS 
 
 The subjects for this investigation were 664 Chinese students in 
 America distributed among the following college and university 
 centres: the number in parentheses after each college or group of 
 colleges is the number of subjects from that college or group of col- 
 leges studied in this investigation: Baldwin Wallace College (9); 
 University of Chicago (35); University of Cincinnati (6); Coe Col- 
 lege, Iowa (8); Cornell University (46) ; University of Detroit (11); 
 George Washington University (14); Grinnell College (4) ; Harvard 
 University (37) ; Johns Hopkins University and University of Mary- 
 land (10); Leland Stanford Jr. University (11); Lehigh University 
 (9); Marquette University, Milwaukee (14); Massachusetts Insti- 
 tute of Technology (26); Michigan University (45); University of 
 Minnesota (12); New York University (20); Northwestern Uni- 
 versity (7); Oberlin College (20); Ohio State University (17); 
 Oregon Agriculture College (7); University of Pennsylvania (22); 
 Pomona College (6); Purdue University (18); University of Roch- 
 ester (5); Schenectady Chinese Students' Club (3); Syracuse Uni- 
 versity (18); University of Washington, Seattle (14); University of 
 Wisconsin (6); Yale University (15) and a group of girl students 
 from Vassar College, Wellesley College, Bryn Mawr College and 
 Mount Holyoke College amounting to (9). In the accompanying 
 table is shown the distribution in these American colleges and uni- 
 versities of the Chinese students embodied in this study: 
 
 NUMBER OF STUDENTS 
 
 NUMBER OF COLLEGES 
 
 
 over 50 
 
 I 
 
 
 40-49 
 
 3 
 
 
 30-39 
 
 3 
 
 
 20-29 
 
 4 
 
 
 10-19 
 
 12 
 
 
 4- 9 
 
 14 
 
 37 
 
 
Experimental Material 5 
 
 It must be remembered that the numbers of students in the fore- 
 going table are the ones that were embodied in this study, while 
 the actual numbers in these colleges are in many cases a little larger 
 and in a few cases twice as large. 
 
 Among these students are included both the undergraduate and 
 graduate students. High school students and those engaged in full 
 time teaching are excluded from this study. They all represent 
 students from China, of whom two-fifths depend, for their mainte- 
 nance, upon either government or special scholarships and the other 
 three-fifths upon their parents or relatives or upon themselves. In 
 the analysis of facts, no distinction is made as to the course of study 
 they take, or age and sex, or maintenance. 
 
 2". THE DATA 
 
 In order to make a study of these subjects in respect to their 
 scholarship, leadership, knowledge of English and knowledge of 
 Chinese, it was found necessary to gather all the relevant data then 
 available. Inasmuch as the crux of the problem consists in the 
 finding of the proper relationships of these four qualities rather than 
 any objective measurement of them according to certain standard- 
 ized criteria, the effort was focused upon a procedure whereby such 
 relationships as should exist between them could be best secured. 
 Therefore, the judgment of associates in the form of rankings was 
 used, with all possible protection against certain defects inherent 
 in the method, and validated by such other possible measures then 
 available as high school marks, college marks, tests, and personal 
 records. These sources of data were secured in the following 
 manner. 
 
 The Judgment of Associates. The fact that the Chinese students 
 in America generally group themselves in different college centres 
 in small numbers, all associated closely with each other, and there- 
 fore thoroughly acquainted with one another, offers an opportunity 
 seldom found elsewhere for ranking. For this study, in the case of 
 those centres where the number of students exceeded twenty-four, 
 the total number was divided into several convenient groups on the 
 basis of mutual acquaintance or other affiliations. For the purpose 
 of ranking, a number larger than twenty- four would be too unwieldy 
 for any judge to make the ranking accurate, and a group smaller 
 than four could hardly make the ranking significant. Consequently, 
 
6 Chinese Stiidents in America 
 
 the size of groups in this study varies from four to twenty-four. The 
 accompanying table will show the distribution of the number of 
 groups of these 664 Chinese Students in America. 
 
 SIZE OF RANKING GROUP NO. OF GROUPS 
 
 (i.e. No of Students Rated) 
 
 20-24 8 
 
 15-19 12 
 
 10-14 H 
 
 5- 9 26 
 
 Less than 5 4 
 
 64 
 
 The form of the original directions for the ranking sheet is repro- 
 duced here. 
 
 Directions for the Ranking Sheet 
 
 On the next page you will find a list of names of Chinese students in your 
 locality or school, whom I presume you know well. Look the list through. If 
 there are persons whom you do not know well, omit their names by marking a 
 cross (X) after each. Omit also your own name by marking a cross (X) after it. 
 These marked names will not be considered. Having done so, please observe the 
 following procedure: 
 
 1. Look through the rest of the names. Decide which one in your judgment 
 would be the best in Scholarship (See Definitions below), and put a figure "i" 
 after his or her name in the Scholarship column. 
 
 2. Next decide which one would be the second best in Scholarship and put a 
 figure "2" after the name in the same column. Next decide which one would be 
 the third best in Scholarship and put a figure "3".' Continue the same process 
 until the Scholarship column has in it figures i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 
 so on, representing the ranks of these students from best to poorest in Scholarship. 
 
 3. Proceed likewise with each of the remaining columns, considering the rank 
 each person would have in Leadership, Knowledge of English, and Knowledge of 
 Chinese. (See Definitions below.) 
 
 Definitions 
 
 Scholarship: means ability in studies, as shown by school standing, degrees, 
 
 honors, and other signs or evidences. 
 Leadership: means ability to take initiative, willingness to assume responsibihty 
 
 and ability to inspire confidence in others. 
 Knowledge of English: means knowledge to understand printed and oral English 
 
 and to express well orally and in writing. 
 Knowledge of Chinese: means knowledge to understand printed Chinese and to 
 
 express well in writing. 
 
Experimental Material 7 
 
 RANKING SHEET 
 
 The ranking sheet is divided into five vertical columns, headed 
 with the following captions: Name, Scholarship, Leadership, 
 Knowledge of English, and Knowledge of Chinese, as shown on 
 page 14, in which it has been filled with rankings and their transmu- 
 tations. 
 
 In April, 1920, these ranking sheets were sent with return enve- 
 lopes to 926 Chinese students grouped under 62 college or university 
 centres. Out of these, 465 or a little over 50 per cent returns were 
 received . This means that on the average each person is ranked or 
 judged by half of the people in the group in which he is one. This 
 is evidenced by the later finding that the largest number of judg- 
 ments given to a person is 12 which is one half of the total number of 
 24 on the list. 
 
 The individual who is judging may not know well enough all the 
 qualities in the individuals judged. This results in a different num- 
 ber of people within a group being ranked by the same judge for 
 the four qualities. Thus judge X in group Q judges 22 people of his 
 group for scholarship, 23 for leadership, 23 for knowledge of Eng- 
 lish, and 14 for knowledge of Chinese. 
 
 Thus in all we find there are 656 people ranked in scholarship; 
 631 in leadership; 664 in knowledge of English; and 590 in knowl- 
 edge of Chinese. This would mean that the Chinese students 
 know most about the knowledge of English of their associates and 
 least about their knowledge of Chinese. 
 
 Individual Records. In connection with the ranking sheet, a ques- 
 tionnaire was sent out for the purpose of gathering individual records 
 which would later on lend themselves to the validation of the rank- 
 ings. The original sheet is here reproduced. 
 
 Questionnaire 
 
 1 . Name and address.. 
 
 2. School attending. Major course 
 
 3. Degrees obtained (where and when) , 
 
 4. How many years of English did you have in China? 
 
 5. School in China where you got most of your English 
 
 6. When did you come to the U. S. A.? Month Year 
 
 7. Since coming here, if you have been president, vice-president, secretary, 
 general secretary, treasurer, or manager, please fill out the following: 
 
Chinese Students in America 
 Name of Organization Name of Office Held Year to Year 
 
 8. If you have been editor, contributor, or reporter of any magazines, Chinese 
 or English, please fill out the following: 
 
 Name of Magazine Name of Position Held Year to Year 
 
 9. If you have written books either in Chinese or in English, please fill out the 
 following: 
 
 Title of Book Pages Publishing Co. Date of Publication 
 
 10. If you have been awarded any scholarship, fellowship, assistantship, or 
 instructorship, please fill out the following: 
 
 Position School Subject Year to Year 
 
 II. If you belong to any honorary American fraternities, please fill out the 
 following (e. g., Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, etc.): 
 
 Name of For Excellence in 
 
 Fraternity School When Elected What Subject 
 
 12. Mention any other honors which have come to you (e. g., graduated with 
 honor, etc.) 
 
 A brief inspection of the questions will show that each one has its 
 specific purpose and most of them are related to the four qualities 
 in our study. The evaluation of these questions is found in Chap- 
 ter VI. 
 
 Test Scores in English. Knowledge of English was the only 
 quality, of which an objective measure could be secured by means of 
 tests. Four sets of English tests were given to 42 of the subjects 
 from eight different college centres, namely. Harvard, Yale, Colum- 
 bia, New York University, University of Pennsylvania, Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology, Johns Hopkins University, and Uni- 
 versity of Maryland. These four sets are (i) Thorndike Alpha 2, 
 Part II, (2) Reading Test P, (3) Reading Test IP, and (4) Thorndike 
 
 'Reading tests I and II are of the type used in parts II and III of the Thorndike Intelligence 
 Examination for High School graduates. Series 1919-1923. 
 
Experimental Material g 
 
 Vocabulary Test. Alpha 2, Part II , is known to all who are familiar 
 with tests. Reading Test I and II are each made of four parts. 
 The vocabulary test is made of five parts. In order to show the 
 degree of difficulty of the reading and vocabulary tests, a part of 
 each is shown below. 
 
 Sample of Reading Test 
 Continuous improvements have enabled engineers to reproduce machinery of 
 less and less weight for the same power, and at the same time to reduce the spaces 
 required for its accommodation, the vibrations due to the working of the engines, 
 and the consumption of fuel per horse power. For engines of high power, quadruple 
 expansion has sometimes been adopted, scientific methods of balancing have been 
 employed, improved qualities of steel and bronze have been introduced, the rate 
 of revolution has been increased, and forced lubricating fitted. In the boilers 
 higher steam pressures have been used, superheating in some cases being resorted 
 to; the rate of combustion has been accelerated by supplying air under pressure 
 in the stockhold or in the furnaces, and sometimes by placing fans in the exhaust 
 to draw the air and products of combustion more rapidly through the fires; the 
 former being known as forced draught and the latter as induced draught. In the 
 navy, with the view of saving weight, water-tube boilers have been adopted, but 
 boilers of this type have not yet been generally fitted in the mercantile marine. 
 Steam pressures now in common use vary from 100 to 180 lb. per sq. in. in cargo 
 ships; from 140 to 220 lb. in passenger ships, including the large Atlantic liners; 
 from 210 to 300 lb. in large warships where water tube boilers are used; while in 
 the destroyers and other classes of warships in which small water-tube boilers are 
 used it varies from 180 to 230 lb. per sq. in. 
 
 1 . Of the improvements noted, which do you think is the main cause of the reduc- 
 tion in vibration? 
 
 2. What do you think is superheated? 
 
 3. What feature of an ordinary stove would correspond to the exhaust? 
 
 4. Give two words which mean the same as "fitted" as used in line 7. 
 
 5. Name one product of combustion which would not be drawn through the fire 
 by an induced draught. 
 
 6. Which of the reductions noted do you attribute most particularly to the 
 increased rate of revolution? 
 
 Sample of Vocabulary Test 
 Ai 
 Write Ha before every word that means something done with hands. 
 Write F before every word that means something done with feet. 
 Write E before every word that means something done with eyes. 
 Write M before every word that means something done with mouth. 
 Write T before every word that means a tool. 
 Write B before every word that means a part of the body. 
 Write S before every word that means a part of the house. 
 Write H before every word that means about ships, the sea, and sailing. 
 
10 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 pulverize 
 
 jamb 
 
 regurgitate 
 
 ratchet 
 
 espy 
 
 scourge 
 
 scour 
 
 spinnaker 
 
 clamor 
 
 gape 
 
 slander 
 
 gimlet 
 
 adze 
 
 perambulate 
 
 glower 
 
 laud 
 
 quaver 
 
 polka 
 
 lugger 
 
 gable 
 
 mandrel 
 
 spokeshave 
 
 lathe 
 
 pancreas 
 
 converge 
 
 prate 
 
 newel 
 
 cajole 
 
 alcove 
 
 transcribe 
 
 wainscot 
 
 expostulate 
 
 fibula 
 
 pirouette 
 
 ulna 
 
 roam 
 
 brig 
 
 jettison 
 
 calipers 
 
 larynx 
 
 calumnate 
 
 upbraid 
 
 purses 
 
 wherry 
 
 cochlea 
 
 limn 
 
 dermis 
 
 dhow 
 
 ilium 
 
 swage 
 
 
 High School Marks in China. High school marks in China were 
 secured for 84 of the subjects. These marks, covering four years 
 in high school, comprise (i) general averages, (2) marks in English, 
 and (3) marks in Chinese. They were used to check up the va- 
 lidity of the judgment in the corresponding qualities and for the 
 prediction of academic success in America on the basis of that in 
 China. The detailed nature of these marks will be described in 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 College Marks in America. Since not many students take any 
 course in English and certainly none would take any in Chinese in 
 America, the college marks in America are confined only to general 
 averages as indications of scholarship. Marks of 122 students were 
 secured from the Chinese Educational Mission and the Educa- 
 tional Bureau of the Chinese Ministry of Education, Washington, 
 D. C. They were marks of different subjects and covered differ- 
 ent numbers of years according to individual cases. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE JUDGMENT OF ASSOCIATES 
 
 The judgment of associates in respect to a number of human 
 traits, to result in high vaHdity and reliability, must needs meet 
 several rigorous conditions. First, there must be a thorough 
 acquaintance among those who judge one another; second, the 
 judgments must be comparable; third, the final judgment of a per- 
 son in a particular trait must be the average of as many judgments 
 as can be secured ; fourth , there must be a common understanding of 
 the trait to be judged.- In this study, the first condition is well met 
 by the unique situation of the Chinese students, in which they culti- 
 vate their familiarity to a high degree through meetings, discussions, 
 conferences and all kinds of publications both in English and Chi- 
 nese. The second condition has to be met by adequate statistical 
 treatment as will be explained later. The third and fourth condi- 
 tions are both rigorously conformed with. 
 
 I. TRANSMUTATION OF RANKINGS INTO SIGMA POSITIONS 
 
 When the rankings were returned, it was found that they were 
 extremely unwieldy and irregular. For instance, in the same qual- 
 ity, say scholarship, a person might be ranked as one among 8 
 people by one associate, and then as one among ii people by 
 another. Supposing that he is ranked by both as the third, evi- 
 dently the third among 8 people is not as high as the third among 1 1 , 
 for there are more cases in the latter. Again, it was also found that, 
 on the same sheet ranked by any judge, under scholarship i8 people 
 might be ranked; then under leadership 15 people might be ranked; 
 under knowledge of English perhaps 19 people; under knowledge 
 of Chinese most likely only 14 people. The difficulties with the way 
 of obtaining correlations by means of Spearman's formula for rank- 
 ing, are apparent. In order to surmount these two difficulties 
 pointed out above, it was imperative to transmute these ranking 
 values of I, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., into some other terms so that the third 
 among 8 will have a different value from a third among 11 and that 
 correlations could be computed not from the data of every sheet by 
 
12 Chinese Students in America 
 
 Spearman formula but from the data of all sheets on the basis of the 
 number of judgments and by the Pearson product-moment formula. 
 
 The method for the transmutation of rankings into sigma posi- 
 tions can be found in Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements, 
 pages ii6 and 221 if. For the convenience of this study, which 
 involves more than 2,000 such transmutations, a special table was 
 made which shows the different comparable values of each number 
 according to its place in groups of different sizes. If we look at 
 number "i" in Table I, we will see that it has values, i.io, 1.27, 
 1.40, 1.49, 1.59, etc., asithappens to occur in groups of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 
 etc. On page 14 is shown the original ranking sheet filled out by the 
 judge with figures which, in turn, are transmuted into sigma posi- 
 tions according to Table I . The number to the left in each column 
 is the original rank. The signed number is the transmuted sigma 
 value. The value of this procedure can be seen when we begin to 
 add all the rankings of a person in a particular quality in terms of 
 the plus and minus sigmas, which, as we have just observed, are of 
 comparable values. Thus a person's final score in a quality is the 
 algebraic sum of the sigma values divided by the number of judg- 
 ments. To illustrate, if A's rankings in scholarship as given by five 
 judges are "5" among 10, "5" among 12, "6" among 10, "4" among 
 
 13 and "7" among 11 , then his average score in it in terms'of sigma 
 positions will be the sum of .13, .32, — .13, .61 , — .23 divided by 5, 
 or .14. 
 
 All the later correlations of judgments are made of these average 
 sigma values thus computed. 
 
Judgment of Associates 
 
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 00 
 
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 M 
 
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 OS 
 
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 H 
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 M 
 
 HI 
 
 
 
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 s 
 
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 w 
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 « ro-^ioOr-ooOiO M « 
 
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H 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 Ranking Sheet 
 Read Directions and Definitions very carefully before you proceed. Use pentil. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 KNOWLEDGE 
 
 KNOWLEDGE OF 
 
 NAME 
 
 SCHOLARSHIP 
 
 LEADERSHIP 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 CHINESE 
 
 A 
 
 X 
 
 
 9 
 
 + -35 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 B 
 
 X 
 
 
 10 
 
 + .23 
 
 12 
 
 - .06 
 
 X 
 
 
 C 
 
 X 
 
 
 22 
 
 -1-52 
 
 20 
 
 — 1.20 
 
 X 
 
 
 D 
 
 II 
 
 - -13 
 
 13 
 
 - -13 
 
 14 
 
 - 29 
 
 16 
 
 - .76 
 
 E 
 
 6 
 
 + -55 
 
 6 
 
 + -71 
 
 8 
 
 + 41 
 
 15 
 
 - .60 
 
 F 
 
 I 
 
 +2.10 
 
 4 
 
 + 1.04 
 
 3 
 
 + 1.20 
 
 14 
 
 - 45 
 
 G 
 
 X 
 
 
 16 
 
 - 47 
 
 13 
 
 - .18 
 
 I 
 
 +2,10 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 + -90 
 
 5 
 
 - .86 
 
 9 
 
 + .29 
 
 2 
 
 + 145 
 
 I 
 
 l6 
 
 - .90 
 
 20 
 
 — 1.04 
 
 21 
 
 -1.48 
 
 II 
 
 - .06 
 
 J 
 
 2 
 
 + 1.41 
 
 2 
 
 + I.S2 
 
 I 
 
 +2.21 
 
 8 
 
 + .32 
 
 K 
 
 3 
 
 + 1.11 
 
 15 
 
 - -35 
 
 15 
 
 - .41 
 
 12 
 
 - .19 
 
 L 
 
 15 
 
 - -71 
 
 14 
 
 - -23 
 
 17 
 
 - -67 
 
 6 
 
 + .60 
 
 M 
 
 8 
 
 + .27 
 
 18 
 
 - 71 
 
 7 
 
 + -54 
 
 20 
 
 —2.10 
 
 N 
 
 19 
 
 —2.10 
 
 21 
 
 -1.23 
 
 19 
 
 — 1. 00 
 
 19 
 
 -145 
 
 
 
 ID 
 
 0.00 
 
 7 
 
 + .58 
 
 10 
 
 + .18 
 
 9 
 
 + -19 
 
 P 
 
 i8 
 
 -1. 41 
 
 17 
 
 - -58 
 
 18 
 
 - .82 
 
 18 
 
 -1. 15 
 
 Q 
 
 9 
 
 + -13 
 
 19 
 
 - .86 
 
 16 
 
 - -54 
 
 17 
 
 - .94 
 
 R 
 
 13 
 
 - -41 
 
 II 
 
 + -13 
 
 5 
 
 + .82 
 
 3 
 
 + 1.15 
 
 S 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 T 
 
 7 
 
 + 41 
 
 I 
 
 +2.16 
 
 2 
 
 + 1.48 
 
 5 
 
 + .76 
 
 U 
 
 H 
 
 - -55 
 
 12 
 
 0.00 
 
 6 
 
 + .67 
 
 10 
 
 + .06 
 
 V 
 
 17 
 
 — I. II 
 
 23 
 
 -2.16 
 
 22 
 
 —2.10 
 
 13 
 
 - -32 
 
 W 
 
 5 
 
 + -71 
 
 3 
 
 + 1.23 
 
 4 
 
 + 1.00 
 
 4 
 
 + .96 
 
 X 
 
 2 
 
 + 1.41 
 
 8 
 
 + 47 
 
 II 
 
 + .06 
 
 7 
 
 + 45 
 
 No. ranked 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 Your name Date. 
 
 2. COMPARISON OP THE JUDGMENTS IN ENGLISH WITH TEST SCORES 
 
 IN ENGLISH: THE VALIDITY OF THE JUDGMENTS IN THE 
 
 KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH . 
 
 Before any correlations could be made with the average sigma 
 values given to each subject in the four qualities, it was first neces- 
 sary (i) to compare the rankings or judgments of these four qualities 
 with some other independent criteria of the same qualities, and (2) 
 to find out how well the judgments of each quality of a certain sub- 
 
Judgment of Associates 
 
 15 
 
 ject agree with one another. The former is called the validity of the 
 judgment and the latter the reliability. 
 
 We will take knowledge of English for our first consideration. 
 As described in the last section the four sets of Thorndike English 
 tests were given . The scores in these English tests were then corre- 
 lated with the judgments, and the coefficients are shown in Table II . 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Showing the Intercorrelations between the Judgments in English 
 AND THE Test Scores in English. N=42 
 
 
 
 
 THORNDIKE 
 
 THORNDIKE 
 
 
 READING I 
 
 READING II 
 
 ALPHA 2, 
 II 
 
 VOCABU- 
 LARY 
 
 Judgments in 
 English 
 
 Reading I 
 
 Reading II 
 
 Thorndike Alpha 
 2, II 
 
 .41 ±.084 
 
 .37 ± -088 
 
 .56 ±.069 
 
 .32 ±.091 
 .58 ±.067 
 .63 ±.063 
 
 .61 ±.064 
 .49 ±.078 
 .21 ±.094 
 
 .34 ±-089 
 
 Thorndike Vocabu- 
 lary. 
 
 
 
 A brief inspection of Table II will at once show that the correla- 
 tions between the judgments and different test scores are approxi- 
 mately as high as the correlations among test scores themselves. 
 
 The average coefficient of the correlations between the judgments 
 and test scores is .43, and that of the correlations among test scores 
 themselves is .47. This means that the judgments in the knowledge 
 of English are highly valid in so far as they are compared with the 
 test scores in English. This would warrant our relying on the judg- 
 ments in English so far as their validity is concerned. But since 
 the cases here considered are rather few, and since it would be better 
 if we could secure other independent criteria to check up the judg- 
 ments, high school marks, college marks, and individual records were 
 also employed for our purpose, in which more cases were involved, 
 as will be described in later chapters. 
 
 As regards the validity of judgments in scholarship, leadership, 
 and knowledge of Chinese, since no objective tests were available, 
 academic and individual records were secured as criteria. In regard 
 
i6 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 to leadership, it has so far remained such an elusive human trait 
 that at present the only good measure of its quantity and quality 
 that can still be resorted to is "a consensus of opinion" rendered by 
 the largest number of best qualified judges. 
 
 3. THE RELIABILITY OF THE JUDGMENT: SELF-CORRELATION 
 
 The validity of the judgments having been established, the next 
 step was to ascertain the reliability, or how well the different judg- 
 ments of a particular quality agreed among themselves. It is to be 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 Showing the Reliability Coefficients or Coefficients of Self-correlation 
 
 OF 2 WITH 2 Judgments, 3 with 3, 4 with 4, 5 with 5 
 
 IN the Four Qualities 
 
 
 scholarship 
 
 leadership 
 
 KNOWLEDGE OF 
 ENGLISH 
 
 KNOWLEDGE OF 
 CHINESE 
 
 
 NO. OF 
 
 
 NO. OF 
 
 
 NO. OF 
 
 
 NO. OF 
 
 
 
 cases 
 
 r 
 
 cases 
 
 r 
 
 CASES 
 
 r 
 
 CASES 
 
 r 
 
 2 with 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Judgments 
 3 with 3 
 
 118 
 
 .63 ±.037 
 
 121 
 
 .72 ±.029 
 
 1X0 
 
 .60 ±.042 
 
 118 
 
 .71 ±.032 
 
 Judgments 
 4 with 4 
 
 77 
 
 •73 ±-037 
 
 79 
 
 .66 ±.044 
 
 83 
 
 .88±.oi7 
 
 76 
 
 .79 ±.029 
 
 Judgments 
 5 with 5 
 
 53 
 
 .84 ±.027 
 
 44 
 
 .70 ±.044 
 
 52 
 
 .8o±.034 
 
 27 
 
 .83 ±.041 
 
 Judgments 
 
 IS 
 
 .85 ±.048 
 
 5 
 
 .82 ±.094 
 
 12 
 
 .92 ±.030 
 
 8 
 
 .85 ±.066 
 
 noted that the number of judgments on a certain quality varies 
 widely with different people; it ranges from 3 to 12 judgments. It 
 would be extremely laborious, if not impossible, to find out the corre- 
 lation of one judgment with every other for more than 600 people 
 in four qualities. As statistically justified, it was only necessary to 
 split the judgments into halves and correlate them. Thus all the 
 judgments on a quality of a subject were massed in a random fashion; 
 then the total judgments of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 in number were split 
 into 2 with 2, 3 with 3, 4 with 4, 5 with 5, 6 with 6; these halves 
 were added , due regard being given to the plus and minus signs and 
 correlations made out of these halves. To illustrate, suppose a cer- 
 
Judgment of Associates 17 
 
 tain subject receives the following judgments in scholarship: 1.32, 
 .23, 1.29, 1.32, 1.26, .68 as they come in random sampling. It is 
 only necessary to add the first three and next three and call the pair 
 2.84 and 3.26, the same procedure of thus pairing the judgments 
 being observed throughout. All the coefficients are contained in 
 Table III. 
 
 The significance of these coefficients can not escape our attention. 
 We notice two things: first, that the coefficients are substantially 
 high, showing the high reliability of judgments; and second, that 
 on the whole, as the number of judgments increases there is a tend- 
 ency of corresponding increase in the coefficients, which means a 
 corresponding increase in the reliability of judgments. 
 
 From the coefficients in Table III we may estimate the self-corre- 
 lations for an estimate from any given number of judges with 
 another estimate from that same number of different judges, the 
 two groups of judges being drawn at random. The formula to be 
 used is the usual Spearman prophecy formula or the formula for 
 self-correlation, as shown in the following: 
 
 q+{p-q)u 
 in which 
 gis the number of judgmentswhose correlation coefficient is known , 
 p is any number of judgments whose correlation coefficient is to 
 be found out, 
 
 7*8 is the correlation coefficient of g judgments with g judgments and 
 rv which is unknown, is the correlation coefficient of p judgments 
 with p judgments. 
 
 To illustrate, let us take the facts from Table III. We find there 
 that the self-correlation coefficient of 2 with 2 judgments in scholar- 
 ship is .63. Based upon this fact what should be the self-correlation 
 coefficients when we have 3 with 3 judgments, 4 with 4 judgments, 
 5 with 5, 6 with 6 and so on? If we substitute the formula we have 
 the following: 
 
 " 2 4- (3 -2) .63 -7^ 
 
 We can find out a series of values of rp as p becomes 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 
 9, 10, II, 12, etc., on the basis of g = 2 and rq= .63. This series of 
 values appears in Column II of Table WA . 
 
Chinese Students in America 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 A 
 
 Theoretical Self-Correlation for Scholarship According to the Number 
 OF Judgments, Estimated from Empirical r's for 2 with 2 (.63), 
 
 3 WITH 3 (.73), 4 WITH 4 (.84) AND 5 WITH 5 (.85). 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII (VI -^4) 
 
 VIII 
 
 number 
 OF judg- 
 ments 
 
 qi 
 
 93 
 
 S4 
 
 26 
 
 sum 
 
 OF 
 
 g's 
 
 general 
 theoreti- 
 cal VALUE 
 
 FITTED 
 THEORETI- 
 CAL VALUE 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 
 ■630 
 .720 
 
 •773 
 .810 
 -836 
 .856 
 .872 
 .884 
 -895 
 -903 
 .911 
 
 •643 
 .730 
 
 -783 
 .819 
 
 .844 
 .864 
 .878 
 .890 
 .899 
 .908 
 ■915 
 
 .724 
 .798 
 .840 
 
 .868 
 .887 
 .902 
 
 -913 
 .922 
 .929 
 
 -935 
 .940 
 
 •694 
 -773 
 .819 
 .850 
 
 .872 
 .888 
 .901 
 .911 
 .919 
 .926 
 -932 
 
 2.691 
 3.021 
 3-215 
 3-347 
 3-439 
 3-510 
 3-564 
 3-607 
 3-642 
 3-672 
 3-698 
 
 .673 
 
 ■755 
 .804 
 
 -837 
 .860 
 .878 
 .891 
 .902 
 .911 
 .918 
 -925 
 
 .668 
 •750 
 
 -799 
 
 .830 
 .856 
 .871 
 .885 
 .898 
 .909 
 
 -913 
 .918 
 
 TABLE IV 
 B 
 
 Theoretical Self-Correlation for Leadership Obtained as in 
 Table IV A 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII (VI -^ 4) 
 
 VIII 
 
 number 
 
 
 
 
 
 SUM 
 
 general 
 
 FITTED 
 
 of 
 
 gj 
 
 S3 
 
 5* 
 
 gs 
 
 OF 
 
 theoreti- 
 
 THEORETI- 
 
 Jl dgments 
 
 
 
 
 
 .2's 
 
 cal VALUE 
 
 CAL VALUE 
 
 2 
 
 -730 
 
 .566 
 
 .538 
 
 .642 
 
 2.480 
 
 .620 
 
 .623 
 
 3 
 
 .808 
 
 .600 
 
 .636 
 
 •732 
 
 2.836 
 
 .709 
 
 .714 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 •844 
 -877 
 
 .721 
 .764 
 
 .700 
 -744 
 
 -785 
 .820 
 
 3-050 
 3-205 
 
 .763 
 .801 
 
 .768 
 .803 
 
 6 
 
 .890 
 
 -795 
 
 -778 
 
 •845 
 
 3-308 
 
 .827 
 
 .828 
 
 7 
 
 .904 
 
 .820 
 
 •803 
 
 .864 
 
 3-391 
 
 .848 
 
 -849 
 
 8 
 
 -915 
 
 .838 
 
 .824 
 
 .879 
 
 3-456 
 
 .864 
 
 .864 
 
 9 
 
 .924 
 
 -858 
 
 .840 
 
 .891 
 
 3-513 
 
 .878 
 
 .876 
 
 10 
 
 -931 
 
 .866 
 
 -854 
 
 .901 
 
 3-552 
 
 .888 
 
 .889 
 
 II 
 
 -937 
 
 .877 
 
 ■865 
 
 .909 
 
 3-588 
 
 -897 
 
 .896 
 
 12 
 
 .942 
 
 .886 
 
 -875 
 
 .916 
 
 3-619 
 
 -905 
 
 .900 
 
Judgment of Associates 
 
 19 
 
 TABLE IV 
 C 
 
 Theoretical Self-Correlation for Knowledge of English, 
 Obtained as in Table IV A 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII (VI -i- 4) 
 
 VIII 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 
 
 
 
 SUM 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 FITTED 
 
 of 
 
 22 
 
 g> 
 
 Si 
 
 e» 
 
 of 
 
 THEORETI- 
 
 THEORETI- 
 
 lUDGMENTS 
 
 
 
 
 
 q's 
 
 VAL VALUE 
 
 CAL VALUE 
 
 2 
 
 .600 
 
 .831 
 
 .667 
 
 .821 
 
 2.919 
 
 •730 
 
 .720 
 
 3 
 
 ■693 
 
 .880 
 
 ■750 
 
 ■874 
 
 3-197 
 
 -799 
 
 -783 
 
 4 
 
 ■750 
 
 .907 
 
 .800 
 
 .902 
 
 3-359 
 
 .840 
 
 .830 
 
 5 
 
 .790 
 
 .924 
 
 •833 
 
 .920 
 
 3-467 
 
 .867 
 
 -859 
 
 6 
 
 .818 
 
 ■936 
 
 •857 
 
 ■932 
 
 3-543 
 
 .886 
 
 -879 
 
 7 
 
 .840 
 
 •945 
 
 •87s 
 
 .942 
 
 3.602 
 
 .go I 
 
 •893 
 
 8 
 
 .857 
 
 ■951 
 
 .889 
 
 •949 
 
 3-646 
 
 .912 
 
 .901 
 
 9 
 
 .871 
 
 •957 
 
 ■899 
 
 ■954 
 
 3.681 
 
 .920 
 
 .911 
 
 10 
 
 .882 
 
 .961 
 
 .909 
 
 •958 
 
 3.710 
 
 .927 
 
 .918 
 
 II 
 
 .892 
 
 .964 
 
 .917 
 
 .962 
 
 3-735 
 
 •934 
 
 .920 
 
 12 
 
 .899 
 
 .967 
 
 .924 
 
 •965 
 
 3-755 
 
 -939 
 
 -925 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 D 
 
 Theoretical Self-Correlation for Knowledge of Chinese, 
 
 Obtained as in Table IV A 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 V 
 
 VI 
 
 VII (VI -=-4) 
 
 VIII 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 
 
 
 
 SUM 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 FITTED 
 
 OF 
 JUDGMENTS 
 
 gj 
 
 25 
 
 g.> 
 
 85 
 
 OF 
 
 g's 
 
 THEORETI- 
 CAL VALUE 
 
 THEORETI- 
 CAL VALUE 
 
 2 
 
 .710 
 
 -714 
 
 .709 
 
 -694 
 
 2.827 
 
 .707 
 
 .710 
 
 3 
 
 .786 
 
 .700 
 
 -785 
 
 -773 
 
 3-134 
 
 .784 
 
 .786 
 
 4 
 
 .831 
 
 •834 
 
 .830 
 
 .819 
 
 3-314 
 
 .829 
 
 .831 
 
 5 
 
 .860 
 
 .862 
 
 -859 
 
 .850 
 
 3-431 
 
 -855 
 
 .860 
 
 6 
 
 .880 
 
 .882 
 
 -879 
 
 .872 
 
 3-513 
 
 .878 
 
 .880 
 
 7 
 
 .896 
 
 .898 
 
 -895 
 
 .888 
 
 3-577 
 
 .894 
 
 .896 
 
 8 
 
 .907 
 
 .909 
 
 .907 
 
 .900 
 
 3-625 
 
 .906 
 
 .907 
 
 9 
 
 .917 
 
 •915 
 
 .916 
 
 .911 
 
 3-659 
 
 -915 
 
 .917 
 
 10 
 
 •925 
 
 .926 
 
 -924 
 
 .919 
 
 3-694 
 
 .924 
 
 -925 
 
 II 
 
 •931 
 
 •932 
 
 -930 
 
 .926 
 
 3-719 
 
 -930 
 
 -931 
 
 12 
 
 -937 
 
 •938 
 
 -936 
 
 -931 
 
 3-742 
 
 -936 
 
 -937 
 
20 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 In a similar manner we find values of rv as p varies on the bases 
 of the obtained correlations (when g is 3, rs is 73; when g is 4, 
 U is .84; when q is 5, n is .85) in the case of scholarship. These 
 four sets of values are shown in Table IV^ , in which, for instance 
 Column II reads: If the observed coefficient of 92 is .63, then by 
 applying the Spearman prophecy formula the coefficients, r^, r^, ri, 
 etc., will be .720, .773, .810, etc., as p becomes 3, 4, 5. etc. 
 
 By using the data of Column I , Table IV^ as abscissa and the 
 data in the Columns II, III, IV, V as ordinates, four curves can be 
 plotted, each of which will show the theoretical rise in self-correla- 
 tion in the judgment of scholarship. The most probable curve will 
 be the one plotted by combining the four altogether and fitting to 
 the empirical .63, .73, .84, and .85. 
 
 In Figs. I, 2, 3 and 4, the solid lines show the newly fitted theo- 
 retical curves and the dotted lines the observed correlations. The 
 values for these newly fitted theoretical curves are called "fitted 
 theoretical values," as shown in Column VIII, Table IV. The 
 advantage of these fitted theoretical values' is that they give the 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .698 
 
 J^ 
 
 __J!i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .M 
 
 
 ^sT 
 
 sr- 
 
 .Ml 
 
 ssr- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;? 
 
 ^ 
 
 Sm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l ■" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 u 
 
 S •» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — — OBSCRVCD SELF CORRCLATION VALUES FOR 
 J-UOGHCNTS )N SCHOLARSHIP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 ! 
 
 < 
 
 - 
 
 { 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i. 1 
 
 3 I 
 
 NUKSeR OF 7UDGCS CORRELATED WITH AN EQUAL NUHSCR OF JUDGES 
 
 Fig. I . Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
 Values for Judgments in Scholarship. 
 
Jvdgment of Associates 
 
 21 
 
 coefficients from judgments of 2 in each half to 12 in each half, thus 
 aiding us greatly in computing correlations corrected for attenuation . 
 
 The data in Table IV and in Figs, i, 2, 3 and 4 show that the 
 obtained values in Chinese agree best with the "fitted theoretical 
 values" in it, while the obtained values in other three qualities do 
 not agree so well with their corresponding fitted theoretical values. 
 This would mean that the judgments agree best on the knowledge 
 of Chinese, the reason being most probably that Chinese, the 
 mother tongue, stands out as a prominent quality, in respect to 
 which Chinese students come to know one another most readily and 
 a competent judgment of which can be rendered in a most valid and 
 reliable way. 
 
 It may be contended that, as stated previously, there was in 
 total a less number of judgments in knowledge of Chinese, showing 
 that the quality was not so widely known to judges as others; but 
 this does not change the fact that the judges were better able to rate 
 knowledge of Chinese, so that when the quality is judged, it is 
 judged in a more thorough manner. The obtained values in scholar- 
 
 lee 
 
 - DTTCO TMEORCTICAL SCUF CORRCUATION 
 
 VALUES FOR TUOQMCNTS I N LEADERSHIP 
 
 ^ 3 ♦ 5 6 
 
 NUMBER OrjUDSCS COIIRELATED WITH AN ESUAU NUHBCR Or JUDGES 
 
 Fig. 2. Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
 Values for Judgments in Leadership. 
 
22 Chinese Students in America 
 
 ship stand second in conformity with the fitted theoretical values 
 therein. This would seem to indicate that scholarship, as easily 
 evidenced by school marks, degrees, and rewards, with which the 
 students are fully acquainted, does not seem to be vague to them. 
 The obtained and fitted theoretical values in English stand third 
 in agreement. We are inclined to believe that they should agree 
 even better, inasmuch as English is a daily spoken language for 
 these students. It is to be noted, however, that the correlation 
 coefficient of 5 with 5 judgments in the knowledge of English runs 
 as high as .92; it is a clear indication that when there are 10 judg- 
 ments in the knowledge of English the number is highly sufficient. 
 The obtained and fitted theoretical values in leadership agree 
 poorest, which, however, was not unexpected. We are all aware 
 of the vagueness of the meaning of leadership and the lack of stand- 
 ards to judge by. Still, however, there is a tendency of the obtained 
 values to rise as the number of judgments increases. 
 
 Taken as a whole, the reliability of judgments on these four quali- 
 ties, as described above, has led to two conclusions: first, the relia- 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 SI 
 
 
 .901 
 
 _^ 
 
 .918 
 
 .920 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^.^ 
 
 A 
 
 SS- 
 
 ss— 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 .no 
 
 / 
 
 ■Hk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VALUES 
 or ELNGL 
 — — - OBSCR 
 
 rOR TUDGMENTS IN KNOWLEDQC 
 
 I8H . 
 
 VCD seur corrcuation valucs por 
 
 T» IN KNOWLCOaC OF ENaUSH. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 & 1 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 NUMBER Of TUDQE3 CDRRCLATCD V/ITrt AN COUAU NUMBER Or TUOQCS 
 
 Fig. 3. Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
 Value for Judgments in Knowledge of English. 
 
Judgment of Associates 
 
 23 
 
 bility is very high, and second, on the average, it has accorded with 
 our general statistical principle that the increase in judgments is 
 accompanied by a corresponding increase in correlation coefficients. 
 That is, the judgments are both sufficiently valid and reliable to 
 justify our reliance upon them. 
 
 The validity and reliability having both been established, the 
 next step is to compute the raw correlations among these four 
 qualities. 
 
 4. RAW CORRELATIONS 
 
 When we come to compute the raw correlations among these four 
 qualities we are confronted with the fact that the judgments given 
 to different people in each quality vary as much as from 3 to 12. 
 An average of 3 judgments naturally cannot have as high a relia- 
 bility as that of 5 judgments; and that of 7 judgments likewise 
 cannot be compared with that of 9, etc. It would be statistically 
 erroneous to include under one study judgments by varying num- 
 bers of judges. It was found proper, consequently, to divide the 
 
 M 
 .M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .SOL 
 
 .917- 
 
 -JSS. 
 
 .931 
 
 431 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P' 
 
 -^ 
 
 .69 
 
 sr" 
 
 :i» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .71 
 
 'rtio 
 
 r7« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 3-1 
 
 hLUeS roR TUDQnENTa IN KNOWLEDQE OF 
 
 iiNEse . 
 
 OaSCRVCD SELF CORRCLATION VAUUCS FQR 
 JDCrlCNTa IN KNOWLEDQE OF CHINCSC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Z 3 4 9 e 7 S 9 10 II IZ 13 M 
 
 NUHBCI! or TUDGCS CORRELATED WITH AN COUAL NUMBER OP TUOSES 
 
 Fig. 4. Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
 Values for Judgments in Knowledge of Chinese. 
 
24 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 subjects, for purposes of correlation, into four large groups in each 
 of the four qualities. They are (i) those judged by either 3 or 4 
 judges; (2) those judged by either 5 or 6 judges; (3) those judged by 
 either 7 or 8 judges; and (4) those judged by 9, 10, 11 or 12 judges. 
 All correlations were computed by Pearson's product-moment 
 method. The coefficients are presented in Table V. 
 
 TABLE V 
 
 Showing the Raw Intercorrelations of Scholarship, Leadership, 
 
 Knowledge of English and Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 CORRELATION 
 
 3 OR 4 
 
 JUDGMENTS 
 
 S OR 6 
 JUDGMENTS 
 
 7 OR 8 
 JUDGMENTS 
 
 9, ID. II OR 12 
 JUDGMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 NO. OF 
 CASES 
 
 r 
 
 NO. OF 
 CASES 
 
 r 
 
 NO. OF 
 CASES 
 
 r 
 
 NO. OF 
 CASES 
 
 r 
 
 Scholarship with 
 Leadership 
 
 232 
 
 .S78±.030 
 
 18S 
 
 .S36±.036 
 
 130 
 
 .331 ±.053 
 
 62 
 
 .416 ±.073 
 
 Scholarship with 
 Knowledge of 
 
 260 
 
 .533 ±.031 
 
 180 
 
 .609 ±.032 
 
 129 
 
 .So6±.044 
 
 59 
 
 .69s ±.047 
 
 
 
 Scholarship with 
 Knowledge of 
 Chinese 
 
 212 
 
 .334±.043 
 
 180 
 
 .4S3±.0.'9 
 
 128 
 
 .307 ±.054 
 
 58 
 
 .I39±.o88 
 
 
 
 Leadership with 
 Knowledge of 
 
 242 
 
 .525 ±.041 
 
 197 
 
 .583 ±.033 
 
 129 
 
 .S26±.043 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 Leadership with 
 Knowledge of 
 Chinese 
 
 178 
 
 .229 ±.049 
 
 198 
 
 .347 ±.043 
 
 120 
 
 .ISO ±.060 
 
 SI 
 
 .3II±.08S 
 
 Knowledge of Eng- 
 lish with Knowl- 
 edge of Chinese.. 
 
 177 
 
 .027±.OSI 
 
 200 
 
 .014±.048 
 
 134 
 
 .078±.oS9 
 
 63 
 
 .0II±.08s 
 
 A discussion of the significance of these coefificients, as shown in 
 Table V, will be presented in Section 7 of this chapter. 
 
 5. CORRELATIONS CORRECTED FOR ATTENUATION 
 
 All correlation coefificients in Table V, it should be noticed, are 
 subject to errors due to paucity of measures. What we are con- 
 cerned with in this study is what would be the true correlations 
 among these four qualities, were it possible to secure all the possible 
 competent judgments in each quality. In practice, such correla- 
 
Judgment of Associates 25 
 
 tions cannot be secured. Mathematically, however, we can com- 
 pute such true relationships between these qualities by means of 
 Spearman's formula for the correction of the correlation coefficients: 
 
 Txy 
 
 Another form of this formula is: 
 
 Txy — 
 
 x\ and xi are the two independent series of measures of quality A; 
 y\ and 3^2 are the two independent series of measures of quality B . 
 To illustrate the application of this formula to our problem, it is 
 necessary to refer to Tables IV and V. Let us work out, for example, 
 the true correlation between scholarship and leadership of those sub- 
 jects uniformly judged by 3 or 4 judges. Then rx^x^ will be .775, the 
 average of .750 and .799, as contained in Column VIII, Table IV.4 
 the fitted theoretical values for 3 and 4 judgments in scholarship; 
 y»i», will be .741, the average of .714 and .768, as shown in Column 
 VIII , Table IV5, the fitted theoretical values for 3 and 4 judgments 
 in leadership. 
 
 In this particular case, the values rz^y^ and f»j», were not obtained 
 since they are by the nature of the case approximately the same and 
 equal to the raw correlation rxy. We therefore write 
 
 <ry,x,. rx,y,= V(. 578)' = -578 
 
 By substituting these values, the Spearman formula for the cor- 
 rection of correlation coefficients is greatly simplified, 
 
 '"^" = (.775X741)^ =-^'4 
 
 which is the correlation corrected for attenuation between scholar- 
 ship and leadership in the case of those judged by either 3 or 4 
 judges. The rest of the correlations are likewise corrected, as shown 
 in Table VI. 
 
26 Chinese Students in America 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 Showing the Correlations Corrected for Attenuation between 
 
 Scholarship, Leadership, Knowledge of English, and 
 
 Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 
 3 or 4 
 
 5 OR 6 
 
 7 or 8 
 
 9, 10, II OR 12 
 
 correlation of 
 
 judgments 
 
 judgments 
 
 judgments 
 
 judgments 
 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 Scholarship with Leader- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .764 
 
 .648 
 
 .382 
 
 .464 
 
 Scholarship with Knowl- 
 
 edge of English 
 
 Scholarship with Knowl- 
 
 .684 
 
 •713 
 
 ■572 
 
 .762 
 
 edge of Chinese 
 
 Leadership with Knowl- 
 
 •423 
 
 ■530 
 
 .338 
 
 •151 
 
 edge of English 
 
 Leadership with Knowl- 
 
 .679 
 
 •693 
 
 .600 
 
 .781 
 
 edge of Chinese 
 
 Knowledge of English 
 with Knowledge of Chi- 
 
 .296 
 
 •413 
 
 .171 
 
 •343 
 
 ese 
 
 -033 
 
 .016 
 
 -.087 
 
 .012 
 
 A brief inspection of these corrected correlations as compared 
 with the observed correlations (Table V) , shows that on the whole 
 the values of the former are only slightly higher than those of the 
 latter, which would indicate that the obtained measures attain a 
 high degree of approximity to the true measures. 
 
 6. FINAL COMPOSITE CORRELATIONS 
 
 All the correlation coefficients in Table VI , though they have been 
 corrected for attenuation, represent various values of single true 
 correlations, due to the difference in measures. It is desirable to 
 give one single expression of the correlation in each case. This 
 single expression — the final composite correlation — ^we compute 
 as the average of the four separate correlations of Table VI each as 
 the square root of the number of cases. 
 
 The final composite correlations thus obtained are shown in 
 Table VII. 
 
Judgment of Associates 
 
 27 
 
 TABLE VII 
 Showing the Final Composite Correlations between Scholarship, Lead- 
 ership, Knowledge of English, and Knowledge of Chinese. 
 
 correlation of 
 
 NO. of cases 
 
 r 
 
 Scholarship with Leadership 
 
 609 
 628 
 578 
 
 ei6 
 547 
 574 
 
 .W2±.0TO 
 
 
 .7iq±'.027 
 
 Scholarship with Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 .•?8q±.04.7 
 
 
 .679 ±.022 
 
 Leadership with Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 .WQzt.OW 
 
 Knowledge of English with Knowledge of Chinese. . 
 
 — .024±.OI4 
 
 The deviation of each correlation coefficient in Table VI from the 
 corresponding final composite correlation in Table VII was obtained. 
 The sigma of these deviations was computed. The probable error is 
 therefore this sigma divided by Vw (in this case 4) and multi- 
 plied by .6745. Thus, for the correlation between scholarship and 
 leadership, the calculation is as shown in the accompanying table: 
 
 Corrected 
 
 Correlation 
 
 Coefficients 
 
 Deviations of 
 Column (i) from 
 .592 of Table VII 
 
 
 d? 
 
 .764 
 .648 
 
 + .172 
 + .056 
 
 
 .029584 
 .003136 
 
 .382 
 •464 
 
 — .210 
 -.128 
 
 Sum (P = 
 5 
 
 .044100 
 .016384 
 
 
 .093204 
 
 
 ^ V .093204 _ ^ 
 4 
 
 
 P. E. = .67454^ = 674 ^ = -050 
 
 7. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 
 
 The correlation coefficients, as shown in Table VII , are significant 
 and certain interpretations of them with respect to each one may be 
 made here. 
 
 a. The correlation between scholarship and leadership is rather 
 high {r= .592 ±.05). This high correlation coefficient clearly indi- 
 
28 Chinese Students in America 
 
 cates that academic work has a significant bearing upon non-aca- 
 demic work. But it has an even more significant meaning: 
 it indicates that the non-academic work of Chinese students in 
 America is of a highly academic type instead of a social, recrea- 
 tional, and athletic type, as is the case with American students. The 
 non-academic activities in which Chinese students in America 
 generally participate and develop their capacities for leadership 
 include, almost exclusively, academic discussions, speeches, debates, 
 writings, etc., to which scholarship evidently contributes a large 
 part. On the other hand, non-academic activities such as athletics, 
 social affairs in various forms, in which leadership would require 
 qualities different from those essential to scholarship, are rarely 
 participated in by Chinese students in America. 
 
 The writer is not aware of any experiment that has been conducted 
 to show the relationship between scholarship and school leader- 
 ship. Studies have been made between scholarship and leadership 
 after the individuals have graduated from college through Phi Beta 
 Kappa and Who's Who records; they, however, are somewhat dif- 
 ferent from our study in that the leadership element considered 
 in them is of the after-school period. 
 
 Another significant fact that this rather high correlation brings 
 out is a confirmation of the traditional practice in China of predict- 
 ing non-academic leadership almost exclusively upon the basis of 
 academic attainment. For centuries past, the selection of adminis- 
 trative officers in China had been purely determined by accomplish- 
 ments along academic lines. The old examination system was 
 typical. In the Western countries, leadership in all walks of life is 
 recognized irrespective of academic attainment though the latter 
 has its important part to play. In China, or in the minds of the 
 Chinese, it is hardly conceivable except in rare cases that recognition 
 be given to non-academic leadership without first ascertaining the 
 academic background . Just as the Greeks believed that the philoso- 
 phers should rule, so do the Chinese hold that the intellectuals or 
 literati should lead. It is within the limit of reason to expect that 
 if a scientific determination is to be made in China among Chinese 
 students there to find out the relationship between scholarship and 
 leadership, the correlation coefficient will be still higher than .592. 
 
 b. The correlation between scholarship and knowledge of English 
 is high (?■= .7i9±.027) and the correlation between scholarship and 
 
Judgment of Associates 29 
 
 knowledge of Chinese is low {r= .389 ±.047), the former being the 
 highest of all the correlations obtained. These two correlation 
 coeflficients tend to settle the long-standing dispute between two 
 theories: one maintains that knowledge of Chinese which carries 
 with it knowledge of Chinese history, Chinese philosophy, Chinese 
 attitudes, interests, habits, forms a valuable asset in the acquisition 
 of Western knowledge, and that knowledge of English is not essen- 
 tial; the other maintains just the opposite, that is, knowledge of 
 English is essential. These two correlations found in this study are 
 undoubtedly in support of the second theory. Their significance lies 
 in the fact that while knowledge of English is more causal to the 
 degree of scholarship, knowledge of Chinese is not a good measure of 
 the scholarship of a Chinese student in America, since in all 
 probability the correlation found (.389) is due in large part to 
 the influence of intelligence, which is undoubtedly highly correlated 
 with both scholarship and knowledge of Chinese. Thus, if it were 
 possible to "partial out" the influence of intelligence, the correlation 
 between scholarship in America and knowledge of Chinese would be 
 much nearer zero. The explanation for the existence of the high 
 correlation between scholarship and knowledge of English is simple. 
 Scholastic attainment in America presupposes, other things being 
 equal, an efficient instrument to work with and a good method to 
 work by. The former consists of a knowledge of English as a lan- 
 guage and the latter consists of proper attitude, interests, habits, 
 and ideals acquired through a knowledge of English. The extent 
 to which a Chinese student acquires this method and instrument 
 conditions the extent to which he will succeed in understanding, 
 appreciating, and mastering readings and lectures in English and in 
 approaching and solving problems that are Western in nature. It is 
 to be noted that while these two correlations obtain among Chinese 
 students in America they may not hold true among Chinese students 
 in China. While no scientific determination has been made, it is 
 very likely that among students in China knowledge of Chinese is 
 more closely associated with scholarship than knowledge of English . 
 c. The correlation between leadership and knowledge of English 
 is high (?•= .679±.022) and the correlation between leadership and 
 knowledge of Chinese is low {r = .309± .030) . The situation here is 
 somewhat similar to that described in the preceding paragraph. 
 Other things being equal, leadership in America demands an instru- 
 
30 Chinese Students in America 
 
 ment and a method , or a language and an attitude . The language is , 
 of course, English which Chinese students in America generally 
 speak, and the attitude implies all those modes of behaviour, con- 
 duct, and bearing that are Western . This statement is evidenced by 
 the use of English in most, if not all, of the discussions, writings and 
 speeches among Chinese students here and by the adoption of ways 
 of appealing, convincing, and influencing people, which the students 
 have to acquire anew in this country. 
 
 A correlation of .309 between leadership and knowledge of Chinese 
 shows that if intelligence, which is decidedly correlated highly with 
 both leadership and knowledge of Chinese, is "partialed out," 
 knowledge of Chinese will be correlated extremely low with leader- 
 ship in America. On the other hand, if a scientific determination is 
 to be made among Chinese students in China on the relationship of 
 leadership with knowledge of English and with knowledge of 
 Chinese, the coefificients may be just the reverse; that is, leadership 
 is correlated very low with knowledge of English and rather high 
 with knowledge of Chinese. This statement, however, still awaits 
 further verification. 
 
 d. The correlation between knowledge of English and knowledge 
 of Chinese is virtually zero (?■= — .024±.oi4). The existence of 
 this slightly negative or substantially zero correlation raises two 
 fundamental questions in respect to the teaching of English and of 
 Chinese: First, is there any fundamental difference between the 
 English language and the Chinese language? Second, is there any 
 great divergence of emphasis upon and time in teaching these two 
 languages? 
 
 In the attempt to answer the first question , it may be said on the 
 positive side that English and Chinese are two totally different 
 languages. In writing, English goes horizontally from left to right, 
 while Chinese goes vertically from right to left. English is pho- 
 netic, while Chinese is ideographic. English grammar has been quite 
 fully developed; Chinese grammar has not had concise formation 
 and has not been taught as such. In English, the written and spoken 
 languages are almost, if not perfectly, identical; in Chinese the 
 gulf between the two has been as wide as that between the language 
 of Paradise Lost and modern American journalistic language. 
 The English words are mostly polysyllabic, but without exception the 
 Chinese characters are monosyllabic. By virtue of these differences, 
 
Judgment of Associates 31 
 
 it may be inferred that neither identity of procedure nor identity 
 of elements would or could exist in the process of learning these two 
 languages. Thus the lack of transfer tends to reduce the correla- 
 tion between these two languages to zero. 
 
 The second interpretation of the lack of correlation between 
 English and Chinese is found in the existing fact that the emphasis 
 upon and the time in teaching these two languages in different 
 schools in China have been so varied. Essentially, there are three 
 types of schools in China which, for the sake of argument, let us call 
 types "A," "B," and "C." A short description as to how English 
 and Chinese are taught in these schools may be of service here. In 
 type "A" school, the students commence to learn Chinese very 
 early in their school life and master it thoroughly. It is not until 
 very late, just prior to their coming to America, that they begin to 
 learn English. The preponderance of emphasis upon and time 
 devoted to the study of Chinese produces the type of Chinese stu- 
 dents in America that generally excels in the knowledge of Chinese 
 and is handicapped in the knowledge of English. To type "A" 
 belong the old-fashioned Chinese schools, most of which are gov- 
 ernment schools. In type "B" school, students generally have 
 acquired a good knowledge of Chinese, but they also begin to learn 
 English fairly early with due emphasis upon it. As a result, these 
 students possibly possess a corresponding attainment in their knowl- 
 edge of English and of Chinese. To type "B" belong most of the 
 modern schools in China, both government and private. In type 
 "C" school, knowledge of English stands out as a paramount feature 
 in the curriculum, overshadowing and crowding out the rest of 
 school studies, among which is included the study of Chinese. 
 The product of this type of school is a group of students well versed 
 in English, especially in spoken English, but poorly prepared in the 
 knowledge of Chinese. To type "C" belong most of the missionary 
 schools in China. Now, if we make a study of the correlation be- 
 tween Chinese and English among students from the type "A" 
 schools, it will be highly negative; the same relationship will exist 
 among students from the type "C" schools. But if the correlation 
 between English and Chinese is to be worked out among students 
 from the type "B" schools, it will in all probability be highly posi- 
 tive. The question now is how the students from the three types of 
 schools are distributed in America. It is recalled that question 5 
 
32 Chinese Stttdents in America 
 
 in the questionnaire (page 7) attempts to find out the school in 
 China where each student acquired most of his knowledge of Eng- 
 lish, which will also indirectly indicate the particular type of student 
 he is. A distribution of these three types of students in America 
 according to the types of schools they come from in China is made 
 as shown below: 
 
 1 . Students from type "A" schools in China — 20 per cent 
 
 2. Students from type "B" schools in China — 52 per cent 
 
 3. Students from type "C" schools in China — 28 per cent 
 
 The number of Chinese students who were born and brought up 
 in America are so few that they are negligible for our purpose . Now , 
 if we add the students from schools of types "A" and "C," they 
 comprise 48 per cent of the total number of students included in this 
 study or practically one half; the students from schools of type "B" 
 are roughly another half of the total. The correlation between 
 English and Chinese among "A" and "C" students will be negative 
 while that among "B" students will be positive. A correlation of 
 something around zero is therefore highly probable when these three 
 types of students are assembled in one study. 
 
 These two interpretations evidently represent two theories: one 
 attributing the zero correlation between knowledge of English and 
 knowledge of Chinese to the intrinsic and fundamental differences 
 between these two languages; the other to external and artificial 
 causes. If the former is true, then the correlation, as it exists 
 now, will persist permanently so long as English and Chinese 
 remain fundamentally different. If the latter is true, the zero 
 correlation can be increased from a low positive value to a high 
 positive value in proportion as human effort is brought to change 
 the environmental influences. The writer is inclined to believe 
 that the latter interpretation is more likely to be true, though the 
 former is not to be ignored. The correlation probably can be 
 raised considerably higher on the positive side, but it is unlikely 
 that it could be raised as high as that between, say, English and 
 French or even between Russian and Spanish. 
 
 e. One of the interesting points of this general problem is the 
 correlation of leadership in student days in America with leader- 
 ship in future years in China. This particular phase of the 
 problem cannot be solved now, for the records of the older gen- 
 
Judgment of Associates 33 
 
 erations of Chinese students in America both for the student 
 period and for the period after their return to China are incom- 
 plete. The writer hopes, however, to take up this question by 
 preserving the records of the six hundred and sixty-four subjects 
 of this study and by following their careers upon their return to 
 China. In the meantime, it may be said that in all probability 
 the dependence of leadership upon general intelligence will make 
 this correlation high and that the dependence of leadership upon 
 the formation of habitual responses to enviromental factors will 
 will tend to make the correlation low. The latter part of the 
 statement will become clearer when it is remembered that the 
 American environment is at many points different from the Chinese 
 environment, and that consequently responses which are effective 
 in either one of the two environments may be ineffective or even 
 handicapping in the other. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE JUDGMENTS WITH 
 HIGH SCHOOL MARKS 
 
 In Chapter III we showed the validity of the judgments of asso- 
 ciates in English by comparing them with test scores in English. 
 The purpose of this and the following chapters is to prove the valid- 
 ity of the judgments of associates in the other three qualities, 
 namely: scholarship, leadership, and knowledge of Chinese. 
 
 The validity of the judgments in the qualities of scholarship, 
 knowledge of English and knowledge of Chinese will be proved by 
 comparing them with the high school marks from China of 78 of 
 the subjects who studied in the same school. The students from 
 this school are fairly representative of the Chinese students in 
 America. These marks cover a period of four years in the high 
 school, comprising the following: (i) general average in High School 
 I, II, III, IV; (2) marks in English in High School I, II, III, IV; 
 and (3) marks in Chinese in High School I , II , III , IV. The average 
 mark of any student in any subject, say, English, is the average of 
 the marks of English for four years and this average is taken as an 
 index of the knowledge of English of that student. The following 
 tables show the averages, standard deviations, and corrections for 
 (A) general average, (B) English, and (C) Chinese. 
 
 A brief inspection of the foregoing tables will show that in each 
 case the averages are approximately the same; so are the standard 
 deviations. The correction in each case is computed by comparing 
 the average of each year with the general average of the four years 
 and finding the deviations therefrom with either a plus or minus 
 sign, as the case may be. In order to make the work less laborious 
 and much simpler, these corrections can be used for computing the 
 final average in each subject for each person. Thus, if A has in four 
 years in the high school the following marks in English: 88.5, 86.3, 
 80, 79-5, then these values, when corrected according to the cor- 
 rections in Table VII I-B, will become 88.5, 70, 84.3, 83, 80.5, which 
 are averaged again to be 85 as a single index of A's mark in English 
 in the four years in the high school. 
 
Comparison with High School Marks 
 
 35 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 Showing the Averages, Standard Deviations, and Corrections of High 
 
 School Marks for Four Years in (A) General Average, 
 
 (B) English, and (C) Chinese 
 
 A 
 
 general average 
 
 
 H. S. I 
 
 H. S. II 
 
 H. S. Ill 
 
 H. S. IV 
 
 No. of Cases. . . 
 
 130 
 
 146 
 
 109 
 
 102 
 
 Average 
 
 81.83 
 
 83-53 
 
 79.48 
 
 82.68 
 
 Standard 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deviation . . . 
 
 44 
 
 4-5 
 
 51 
 
 4-3 
 
 Correction 
 
 
 
 —2 
 
 +2 
 
 — I 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 
 
 
 H. S. I 
 
 H. S. II 
 
 H. S. Ill 
 
 H. S. IV 
 
 No. of Cases. . . 
 
 131 
 
 189 
 
 154 
 
 149 
 
 Average 
 
 80.85 
 
 82.74 
 
 77.88 
 
 79-85 
 
 Standard 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deviation . . . 
 
 5-1 
 
 6.2 
 
 6.2 
 
 5-0 
 
 Correction 
 
 
 
 — 2 
 
 +3 
 
 + 1 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 
 
 CHINESE 
 
 
 
 
 H. S. I 
 
 H. S. II 
 
 H. S. Ill 
 
 H. S. IV 
 
 No. of Cases. . . 
 
 119 
 
 179 
 
 172 
 
 137 
 
 Average 
 
 80.46 
 
 81.41 
 
 82.01 
 
 78.45 
 
 Standard 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deviation . . . 
 
 7-4 
 
 71 
 
 7.2 
 
 7-1 
 
 Correction 
 
 + 1 
 
 
 
 — I 
 
 +3 
 
 The marks for the general average and for Chinese are computed 
 in a similar manner. 
 
 It must be noted here that in comparing the high school marks 
 with the judgment, in order to find out the validity of the latter, 
 the general average mark in the high school is taken to be indicative 
 
36 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 of scholarship, the mark in English to be indicative of knowledge 
 of English, and the mark in Chinese to be indicative of knowledge 
 of Chinese. The correlations thus computed are shown in Table IX. 
 
 TABLE IX 
 
 Showing the Correlation Between the High School Marks and the 
 
 Judgment of Associates in Scholarship, Knowledge of 
 
 English, and Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 correlation of 
 
 NO. of cases 
 
 r 
 
 H. S. General Averages with the Judgment in 
 Scholarship 
 
 68 
 
 76 
 68 
 
 .421 ±.068 
 
 H. S. Marks in English with the Judgment in 
 Knowledge of English 
 
 .307 ±.070 
 
 H. S. Marks in Chinese with the Judgment in 
 Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 .374±-07i 
 
 
 The coefficient of .307 in Table IX shows that the judgment in 
 English does not correlate so highly with high school marks in Eng- 
 lish as it does with test scores in English, for, if we refer back to 
 Table I, the average correlation coefficient of the judgment with 
 the four English test scores is .43. But still the difference is not so 
 great as to make us doubt the validity of the judgment as com- 
 pared with high school marks. 
 
 The three correlation coefficients of .421, .307, and .374 are 
 enough to warrant us to rely upon the judgment in scholarship and 
 knowledge of Chinese. 
 
 By using the high school marks, inter-correlations between the 
 general averages, marks in English, and marks in Chinese were also 
 computed, as shown in Table X. 
 
 TABLE X 
 
 Showing the Correlations Between the High School General Averages, 
 
 Marks in English and Marks in Chinese 
 
 correlation of 
 
 no. of cases 
 
 r 
 
 H. S. General Averages with Marks in English. . . . 
 H. S. General Averages with Marks in Chinese .... 
 H. S. Marks in English with Marks in Chinese. . . 
 
 84 
 72 
 
 77 
 
 .683 ±.039 
 .190 ±.077 
 .191 ±.074 
 
Comparison with High School Marks 37 
 
 The rather high correlation coefficient of .683 between general 
 averages and marks in English as compared with that of .719 as 
 secured on the basis of the judgment is interesting. It shows very 
 conclusively that the judgment of associates and high school marks 
 agree very well in their estimation of scholarship and knowledge of 
 English. And this agreement adds, of course, more weight to the 
 validity of the judgment. 
 
 The low correlation coefficient {r= .190) between general averages 
 and marks in Chinese gives weight to the fact that Chinese has a 
 very small part to play in the estimation of scholarship, or better 
 still, in determining the general averages in that particular high 
 school. And such is the actual case. For, to the knowledge of the 
 writer, in that high school, the department of Chinese is a separate 
 and distinct unit which has nothing to do with the Western depart- 
 ment, so called, which includes all modern subjects, taught in Eng- 
 lish, 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE JUDGMENTS WITH COLLEGE 
 
 MARKS 
 
 I. THE JUDGMENTS IN SCHOLARSHIP AND GENERAL 
 AVERAGES IN COLLEGES 
 
 If it is desirable to compare the judgment of associates with high 
 school marks in China, it will be still more desirable to compare it 
 with college marks in America. This was done in a crude way, for 
 any fine statistical manipulation did not seem possible, though 
 profitable , due to the erratic nature of the material in hand . College 
 marks of 122 of the students in our study were secured. Since some 
 had more marks and others less, due to the difference of the number 
 of years which had been spent here arfd to other causes, such as that 
 some colleges made reports of marks while others did not, it was 
 decided to include only those students who had a total of at least 
 7 marks in different subjects. The method for weighting these 
 marks from different colleges was a simple one. Either by corre- 
 spondence or by studying the catalogues, the different marking sys- 
 tems of more than 50 colleges were collected and compared. It was 
 found that, numerous as they were, these systems did not differ 
 very much. Inasmuch as many systems preferred letters or abbre- 
 viations to designate marks such as "A" standing for "excellent" 
 which is equal to "90-100" and "B" for "very good" which is equal 
 to "80-90," it was imperative, for the purpose of transmutation of 
 capital letters into numbers, to devise a definite method by means 
 of which to transmute. This was done by taking the mid-value of 
 a range of values that was given to a certain designation. To illus- 
 trate: the marking system of a certain college is somewhat like the 
 following: H.H.C. = 95-100; H.C. = 90-94; C. = 85-89; etc. If 
 we want to assign nuirierical values to H.H.C, H.C, and C, etc., 
 we simply take the mid -values of their corresponding numbers, 
 which are 97, 92, 87, etc. Thus, if a student receives a mark of 
 H.H.C. in a certain subject, the most convenient way to express it 
 numerically is to call it 97, which would probably be the average of 
 all the H.H.C. marks received. 
 
Comparison with College Marks 39 
 
 After all the transmutations were made, the marks of every stu- 
 dent were averaged as an index of his scholarship. The average 
 of these 122 marks was found to be 81.2 with a standard deviation 
 of 7.1. These two values, however, are not as significant as they 
 might appear to be, since they were computed from marks from 
 different systems. 
 
 The correlation of college marks with judgments in scholarship 
 was worked out and the coefficient was .4i4± .052. This coefficient 
 warrants us again to trust the judgment in scholarship as reasonably 
 valid. 
 
 2. HIGH SCHOOL GENERAL AVERAGES COMPARED WITH COLLEGE 
 GENERAL AVERAGES 
 
 Another correlation that is of interest and might be mentioned 
 here is that between high school averages and college averages. 
 The correlation coefficient was found to be .41 2 ±.074. This must 
 be taken to mean the correlation between the entire high school 
 work in China and the entire college work in America. Here again 
 the coefficient is not as significant as it might be, due to the difference 
 in the marking systems. Still it indicates how accomplishment in 
 high school in China will predict accomplishment in college work in 
 America, and to that extent it is significant and of practical use. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE JUDGMENTS WITH INDIVIDUAL 
 
 RECORDS 
 
 I. A SCALE FOR JUDGING THE ACTIVITIES OF CJIINESE 
 STUDENTS IN AMERICA 
 
 When the ranking sheets were sent out, it is to be noted that the 
 judges were not asked to rank themselves among those whom they 
 ranked, the reasons being that, first, the extreme modesty which is 
 characteristic of Chinese might result in ranking oneself too low, 
 thus rendering the rankings inaccurate and , second , the embarrass- 
 ment put to the judge might even hinder his otherwise willing coop- 
 eration in this work. Consequently, a questionnaire was sent with 
 the ranking sheet to each one, asking him or her to fill it out for 
 himself or herself as the case may be, concerning the four qualities 
 in our study. This questionnaire is shown on page 7. The facts 
 stated in these questionnaire sheets, however, were found to be so 
 unwieldy as to make a direct statistical treatment of them seem 
 impossible. To evaluate these facts by a number of judges without 
 at first some objective criteria to fall back upon would be to expose 
 oneself to gross error. Consequently, a method was devised 
 whereby all the facts were classified under four headings: scholar- 
 ship, leadership, knowledge of English, and knowledge of Chinese. 
 Then the procedure was greatly simplified by evaluating each posi- 
 tion or achievement once and for all by twelve judges. This saved 
 the judges the trouble of going over all the original papers, which 
 would mean a tremendous amount of time and labor. To illustrate: 
 If ten students happened to have Phi Beta Kappa keys from ten 
 different colleges, it was only necessary to take this particular fra- 
 ternity key as an evidence of scholarship common to all, and ask 
 the judge to give a numerical value to it. It might be contended 
 that Phi Beta Kappa keys from different colleges might carry differ- 
 ent values and they again might differ with different individuals. 
 True, but for our purpose it was not essential; in fact, not desirable 
 to make too fine a distinction. It was sufficient to mark off a man 
 
Comparison with Individual Records 
 
 41 
 
 with such an honor key from one who had a different one or from 
 one who did not have any. 
 
 This being the general principle, all those common activities in 
 terms of positions held, degrees gained, articles written, or other 
 works accomplished, with the exception of a few activities peculiar 
 to certain individuals, were listed under the four headings to which 
 they belonged and submitted to twelve judges who. were asked to 
 give them numerical values. The judgments were made on a scale 
 of 10, i. e., the judgments varied from o to 10. "o" is assigned to 
 those activities that deserve no credit; "i" to those that deserve 
 the least amount of credit; "10" to those that deserve the highest 
 amount of credit. The rest of credits, 2, 3, 4, etc., are assigned to 
 positions that fall in between. The reason for selecting just twelve 
 judges instead of more or less is that given in Chapter III, where it 
 was pointed out that this seems to be the optimum number because 
 of its high self-correlation coefiScient. These twelve judges were 
 fully acquainted with the activities of Chinese students in America, 
 mature in scholarship, and sound in judgment. Thus each activity 
 received twelve values or judgments. These judgments were split 
 into halves and correlations were computed to show their reliability, 
 as shown in Table XI . 
 
 TABLE XI 
 Showing the Reliability of 12 Judgments on Individual Records 
 
 CORRELATION OF 
 
 NO. OF CASES 
 
 r 
 
 6 with 6 Judgments in Scholarship 
 
 17 
 78 
 40 
 42 
 
 .636±.096 
 .855 ±.020 
 .892 ±.023 
 .865 ±.026 
 
 6 with 6 Judgments in Leadership 
 
 5 with 6 Judgments in Knowledge of English 
 
 6 with 6 Judgments in Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 These high self-correlation coefficients warrant us to make use 
 of the judgments of these twelve judges for the treatment of indi- 
 vidual records. The next step is to give a single score to each activ- 
 ity by averaging the twelve judgments. 
 
 With the omission of a few individual activities which partake of 
 personal character, the scale thus made out is produced in Table 
 XII. These omitted activities were such as to reveal the identity 
 of the individuals holding the positions involved. 
 
42 Chinese Students in America 
 
 TABLE XII 
 A Scale for Judging the Activities of Chinese Students in America 
 
 Position 
 
 President 
 Vice President 
 Secretary 
 Treasurer 
 Councilman 
 Representative 
 Auditor 
 Election Officer 
 
 Leadership 
 
 Organization 
 Chinese Students' Alliance in America 
 
 Points 
 
 9.2 
 
 5-7 
 6.8 
 
 6-3 
 
 S-8 
 4.8 
 
 4-4 
 4.4 
 
 Chairman 
 Vice Chairman 
 Secretary 
 Treasurer 
 
 Section of Chinese Students' Alliance in America 
 
 8.0 
 50 
 5-8 
 5-4 
 
 President 
 
 Vice President 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Treasurer 
 
 Manager 
 
 Auditor 
 
 Committeeman 
 
 Local Chinese Students' Club in America 
 
 6.7 
 
 4-3 
 4.8 
 
 4-5 
 4-3 
 3-1 
 3-8 
 
 General Manager Chinese Students' Monthly 
 Advertising Manager " " " 
 
 Circulation Manager " " " 
 
 Associate Manager " " " 
 
 General Manager Chinese Students' Quarterly 
 Advertising Manager " " « 
 
 Circulation Manager " " " 
 
 Associate Manager " " " 
 
 7-3 
 6.0 
 
 5-5 
 4.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 5-1 
 4.8 
 
 3-9 
 
 Chairman 
 Secretary 
 Treasurer 
 Committeeman 
 
 Annual Students' Conference 
 
 7-9 
 6.1 
 
 5-7 
 5-7 
 
Position 
 
 President 
 
 Manager 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Treasurer 
 
 Chairman 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Treasurer 
 
 Comparison with Individual Records 
 Organization 
 College Cosmopolitan Club 
 
 a u u 
 
 u u u 
 
 u II a 
 
 Chinese Prohibition League 
 
 43 
 Points 
 
 6-3 
 4-9 
 4-5 
 4-3 
 5-3 
 4-4 
 4-3 
 
 President 
 
 Vice President 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Treasurer 
 
 Committeeman 
 
 Auditor 
 
 Chinese Students' Professional Societies or Clubs, 
 Such as Banking Club, Educational Club, Engi- 
 neering Club, etc. 
 
 6.2 
 
 4-3 
 4-7 
 4-3 
 3-5 
 
 2.8 
 
 President 
 
 Vice President 
 
 Secretary 
 
 Treasurer 
 
 Committeeman 
 
 Auditor 
 
 Alumni Association, Such as Nankai Alumni Asso- 
 ciation, Soochow Alumni Association, Tsing Hua 
 Alumni Associiation, etc. 
 
 6.3 
 4-3 
 4.8 
 
 4-1 
 3-6 
 
 2.8 
 
 President 
 Secretary 
 Treasurer 
 
 Chinese Patriotic Committee 
 
 6.9 
 5.6 
 5-1 
 
 President 
 Vice President 
 General Secretary 
 
 Chinese Students' Christian Association 
 
 7-3 
 4.8 
 
 7-3 
 
 Chairman 
 Secretary 
 Treasurer 
 
 Local College Y. M. C. A. 
 
 4.6 
 3-6 
 3-1 
 
 Cabinet Member Local College Y. M. C. A. 
 
 Member Volunteer Band « " « 
 
 Chairman College Students' Bible Class 
 
 Leader College Students' Discussion Group 
 
 2.7 
 1.8 
 3-0 
 3-3 
 
44 
 
 Position or Achievement 
 
 Fellowship 
 
 Scholarship 
 
 Graduation with Honor 
 
 Ph.D. 
 
 Instructor 
 
 Lecturer 
 
 Assistant 
 
 Member 
 
 Member 
 
 A.B. with 
 
 A.B. with 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 Scholarship 
 
 Institution 
 
 College or University 
 
 Phi Beta Kappa Society 
 Sigma Xi " 
 
 Magna Cum Laude 
 Summa Cum Laude 
 
 Points 
 
 7-7 
 5-8 
 7.0 
 8.9 
 7.0 
 6.8 
 5.8 
 74 
 7-5 
 6-5 
 6.4 
 
 Posiition or Achievement 
 
 Editor-in-Chief 
 
 Associate Editor 
 
 Contributor 
 
 Reporter 
 
 Editor-in-Chief 
 
 Associate Editor 
 
 Contributor 
 
 Reporter 
 
 Editor-in-Chief 
 
 Associate Editor 
 
 Contributor 
 
 Reporter 
 
 First Prize Essay 
 
 Second Prize Essay 
 
 First Prize 
 
 Second Pri^e 
 
 Member 
 
 Knowledge of English 
 Organization 
 Chinese Students' Monthly 
 
 "Christian China" 
 
 u u 
 
 U It 
 
 u u 
 
 American College Paper 
 
 u u u 
 
 u u u 
 
 U It u 
 
 Chinese Students' Monthly 
 
 u a a 
 
 College English Oratorical Contest 
 
 U U U U 
 
 College English Debating Team 
 
 Points 
 
 8.9 
 6.0 
 
 4-9 
 34 
 7.6 
 
 5-3 
 4-3 
 34 
 8.9 
 6.5 
 51 
 3-7 
 6.9 
 5-6 
 6.9 
 5.6 
 6.6 
 
 Position 
 
 Editor-in-Chief 
 Associate Editor 
 Contributor 
 Reporter 
 
 Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 Organization 
 
 Chinese Students' Quarterly 
 
 Points 
 
 8.3 
 6.1 
 
 4-9 
 
 3.8 
 
Comparison with Individual Records 
 
 45 
 
 Posttion 
 Editor 
 
 Organization 
 "Science" in Chinese 
 
 
 Poin 
 7.8 
 
 Contributor 
 
 a tt u 
 
 
 S.8 
 
 Editor-in-Chief 
 
 "Political Science Review" 
 
 or "Cheng Hsueh 
 
 
 
 Ts'ung K'an" 
 
 
 7-1 
 
 Editor 
 
 u u u 
 
 a a 
 
 ■i.Q 
 
 Contributor 
 
 11 (( (1 
 
 U (1 
 
 S.I 
 
 Contributor 
 
 Shanghai Shun Pao 
 
 
 .■i-o 
 
 Contributor 
 
 "The Renaissance" 
 
 
 5-Q 
 
 Contributor 
 
 "Eastern Miscellanies" 
 
 
 5-7 
 
 With the help of this scale, the individual records were turned 
 into numerical values. If a student had several records in any one 
 quality, then all the transmuted values were combined representing 
 his total credit therein. These individual records, then, in terms of 
 numerical values were correlated with the judgments of associates 
 and the coefificients were represented in Table XIII. 
 
 TABLE XIII 
 
 Showing the Correlations of Judgments with Individual Records 
 
 CORRELATION OF 
 
 NO. OF cases 
 
 r 
 
 The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
 
 58 
 
 1 
 
 145 
 44 
 47 
 
 .706 ±.044 
 
 The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
 ords in Leadership 
 
 .623 ±.034 
 
 The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
 
 .793 ±.038 
 .543 ±.070 
 
 The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
 
 
 From these correlation coefificients, it is evident that the judgment 
 of associates agrees better with individual records than with other 
 data heretofore given. This would indicate that the judgment was 
 largely based upon a knowledge of the accomplishments of the person 
 judged, and further that the acquaintance among any group of 
 Chinese students in this study had reached the stage where thorough 
 knowledge of one another's accomplishment was hardly to be 
 doubted. 
 
 2. A DISCUSSION ON THE VALIDITY OF THE JUDGMENT OF ASSOCIATES 
 
 In order to find out which source of data agrees best with the judg- 
 
46 
 
 Chinese Students in America 
 
 ment, a resume of all the correlation coefficients showing the validity 
 of the judgment from the previous chapters is shown in Table XIV. 
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 Showing the Correlation of the Judgment with Test Scores, High School 
 AND College Marks, and Individual Records 
 
 correlation of 
 
 SCHOLAR- 
 SHIP 
 
 LEADER- 
 SHIP 
 
 KNOWLEDGE 
 OF ENGLISH 
 
 KNOWLEDGE 
 OF CHINESE 
 
 The Judgment with Test 
 Scores 
 
 .421 
 .414 
 
 .706 
 
 .623 
 
 •430 
 •307 
 
 •793 
 
 • 
 
 The Judgment with High 
 
 •374 
 
 The Judgment with College 
 
 
 The Judgment with Indi- 
 
 •543 
 
 
 
 This table shows that the judgment in scholarship is checked up 
 three times; in English three times; in Chinese twice; and in 
 leadership only once. It is also seen that judgments agree best 
 with individual records and practically equally well with test scores, 
 high school marks, and college marks. As has been hinted, this 
 substantial correlation between the judgment and individual records 
 shows conclusively the reliance of the former upon the latter. This 
 reliance rids the judgment of personal prejudices and whims and 
 adds a greater weight to it. 
 
 The fact that the judgment in leadership is only checked up once 
 raises the question as to whether its validity has been sufficiently 
 proved. The answer is that any human trait like leadership par- 
 takes of such elusive character that, for the present at least, the 
 only way to judge or measure it is to resort to subjective opinions, 
 directly or indirectly, of the largest possible number of competent 
 judges. The procedure, in the light of the present investigation, 
 must needs meet the following few requirements: (i) a thorough 
 acquaintance of the judge with his subjects; (2) a sufficient number of 
 judges (this investigation shows that a total of twelve judges will 
 yield a self-correlation coefficient of about .90) ; (3) a fairly common 
 understanding of the qualities to be judged; and (4) the use of 
 rankings. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 YEARS SPENT IN AMERICA AS A FACTOR 
 
 In the preceding chapters it has been shown that knowledge of 
 English rather than knowledge of Chinese is more closely associated 
 with success in America, academic and non-academic. The next 
 question that comes consequent upon this conclusion is: How can 
 knowledge of English be better secured? To put it differently, is it 
 more profitable to spend more initial years studying English in 
 China, or is it more profitable to spend more additional years in 
 America? How is the number of years spent in America associated 
 with scholarship, leadership, knowledge of English, and knowledge 
 of Chinese? Questions 4 and 6 in the questionnaire sheet tell us the 
 number of years a student spent in China in studying English and 
 the time of his arrival in America. With the data supplied there- 
 from, it is possible to work out the correlation coefficients as shown 
 in Table XV. 
 
 TABLE XV 
 
 Showing the Correlation of the Number of Years Spent in America with 
 Scholarship, Leadership, Knowledge of English, and Knowledge 
 
 OF Chinese 
 
 correlation of 
 
 NO. OF CASES 
 
 f 
 
 Years Spent in America with Scholarship 
 
 276 
 279 
 282 
 263 
 
 .ii9±.040 
 
 .2 1 8 ±.038 
 
 .205 ±.038 
 
 — .090 ±.042 
 
 
 Years Spent in America with Knowledge of English 
 Years Spent in America with Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 It must also be stated here for later comparisons that the correla- 
 tion between the initial number of years spent in studying English 
 in China and the knowledge of English in America is .212 with 277 
 cases, while the correlation between the additional number of years 
 spent in America and the knowledge of English is .205 with 282 
 cases, as shown in Table XV. The correlation between the initial 
 number of years spent in China in studying English and the years 
 
48 Chinese Students in America 
 
 spent in America is —.522 with 287 cases. If we designate the 
 knowledge of English in America as i , the initial years in China in 
 studying English as 2, and the years spent in America as 3, then 
 by using the usual partial correlation formula, 
 
 r\i—ri3 'r-n 
 Tn .3 = 
 
 V(i-r%3)(i-;-%3) 
 the following two partial correlation coefficients are yielded: 
 
 ?'12.3=.382 (i) 
 
 ?'i3.2=.378 (2) 
 
 Equation (i) reads that the correlation between the knowledge of 
 English in America and the initial years spent in China in studying 
 English, with the influence of the disturbing factor of years spent 
 in America eliminated or equalized, is .382. Equation (2) reads that 
 the correlation between the knowledge of English and the additional 
 years spent in America, with the influence of the disturbing factor 
 of the initial years spent in China in studying English eliminated or 
 equalized, is .378. 
 
 Interpretation of the correlation is important. In the first place, 
 it should be noticed that neither the initial years spent in studying 
 English in China nor the additional years spent in America (it must 
 be noted that these additional years are not spent primarily in 
 studying the English langauge, but in acquiring it as a matter of 
 course) has any very high correlation with the knowledge of English. 
 This would point to the fact that knowledge of English does not 
 depend, to any great extent, upon the number of years spent in 
 studying it before coming to this country, other factors such as 
 individual difference and environmental effect being, perhaps, of 
 much greater influence. This is what we expect. 
 
 In the second place, but in a more striking manner, it should be 
 noticed that the two partial correlation coefficients of .382 and .378 
 would show that the initial years spent in studying English in China 
 and the additional years spent in America have practically an equal 
 influence upon one's knowledge of English. This does not argue, 
 however, that the initial years spent in America in studying English 
 would have the same effect upon one's knowledge of English as the 
 initial years spent in China in studying it. In all probability, the 
 former would exert a much greater influence. The significance of 
 
Years Spent in America as a Factor 49 
 
 these two coefficients lies in the fact that after one has spent a 
 reasonable number of years in studying EngHsh in China, so as to 
 acquire a knowledge of speaking and reading, then if he comes to 
 America the number of years he stays here will not mean more to 
 his further acquisition of English than his initial years in China 
 would mean to his initial improvement in it. 
 
 The low correlation between the number of years spent in America 
 with both scholarship and leadership (/•=.ii9; r=.2i8) bring us to 
 a discussion of the problem of preparing students in China that are 
 to be sent to America. We have seen that scholarship and leadership 
 in America depend largely upon knowledge of EngHsh; that knowl- 
 edge of English does not depend so much (as we presumed) upon 
 the years of stay in America provided a reasonable number of years 
 is spent in China in studying it. Thus, scholarship, leadership, 
 and knowledge of English, which are more or less substantially 
 correlated with one another, all have an equally very low correlation 
 with the years of stay in America. Substantially, the years spent 
 in America as a factor have very little significance in respect to the 
 qualities in our study. 
 
 The correlation of — .552 between the years spent in China in 
 studying English and the number of years spent in this country is 
 merely a result of chance. It can be explained by the fact that when 
 the study was made more than one-third of the students in this study 
 had been in this country for a short time, about 6 months, and had, 
 nevertheless, spent about five or six years in China in studying Eng- 
 lish; at the same time there were those older students who had been 
 in America long and who had spent generally fewer years in China 
 in studying English. This phenomenon indicates clearly that stu- 
 dents of more recent years had a more thorough preparation in 
 English in China than those of the older days. 
 
 The very slightly negative correlation (?•»=— .090) between the 
 years spent in America and knowledge of Chinese simply means 
 that knowledge of Chinese, once acquired, whatever its amount 
 may be, does not decrease with the lack of practice resulting from 
 staying a few years longer in America. The correlation —.090 is 
 so small that it amounts practically to zero. Its significance should 
 rid us of the current fear that a few years' stay in America tends to 
 result in the retrogression of knowledge of Chinese. What actually 
 happens is in all probability that, through lack of practice, the 
 
50 Chinese Sttidents in America 
 
 ability of reading and writing Chinese temporarily lies in a state of 
 dormancy which to some people may seem to be in the state of 
 retrogression but which, upon a renewal of study and practice in 
 China, will regain its normal condition. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 Some of the larger conclusions of the study may be restated as 
 follows: 
 
 1 . Scholarship is correlated rather high with leadership (r = .592) . 
 
 2. Knowledge of English is correlated rather high with both 
 scholarship (r = .719) and leadership (?•= .679). 
 
 3. Knowledge of Chinese is correlated low with both scholarship 
 (r = .389) and leadership (;•= .309). 
 
 4. Knowledge of English and knowledge of Chinese have a very 
 slightly negative correlation or are practically uncorrelated, or 
 independent of each other (r= — .024) . 
 
 Other findings that are of import are (i) scholarship, leadership, 
 and knowledge of English are all correlated low with the length of 
 time spent in America (r=.iig; .r=.2i8; r=.205 respectively); 
 (2) knowledge of Chinese is practically uncorrelated with the length 
 of time spent in America (r= — .090); and (3) the initial years spent 
 in studying English in China and the additional years spent in 
 America both have equally low correlations with knowledge of 
 English (r = .382 and r = .378 respectively) . 
 
 In the light of the foregoing conclusions, a few suggestions may 
 be here presented which may be of use to a consideration of the 
 policies governing the process of preparation and selection of Chinese 
 students to be sent to America. 
 
 In the first place, since knowledge of English is correlated rather 
 high with both scholarship and leadership and since knowledge of 
 Chinese is correlated rather low with both of them, it is evident 
 that in the preparation of Chinese students to be sent to America 
 more emphasis should be placed upon knowledge of English and 
 less upon the knowledge of Chinese if these students are expected 
 to do well in scholarship and leadership in America. It is to be 
 regretted that it has not been possible to find out the intelligence 
 of these students in this study, but it is very likely and safe to say 
 that intelligence has a high correlation with both knowledge of 
 English and of Chinese and that if intelligence is "partialed out," 
 
52 Chinese Students in America 
 
 there will still be a fair correlation of knowledge of English with 
 both scholarship and leadership; but there will be perhaps a zero 
 correlation of knowledge of Chinese with both scholarship and 
 leadership. Thus the scholarship and leadership of a Chinese stu- 
 dent in America is determined by intelligence and knowledge of 
 English, while knowledge of Chinese is almost indifferent to the 
 attainment of both. While this is true, it by no means proposes to 
 neglect the study of Chinese. Knowledge of Chinese, while it is 
 impotent in the career of a Chinese student in America, will certainly 
 be important upon his return to China. For this reason, it is suggested 
 that in the preparation of Chinese students to be sent to America 
 attention should be directed to an equal attainment of knowledge 
 of both English and Chinese so that these students not only will 
 best succeed during their period of education in America by means 
 of their knowledge of English but also will do well during their entire 
 life of service in China by means of their knowledge of Chinese. 
 
 In the second place, since knowledge of English and knowledge of 
 Chinese are uncorrected or independent of each other, it will be 
 in the future worth our greatest effort to teach these two languages 
 in such wise that improvement in one will be associated, and if pos- 
 sible, closely associated with, improvement in the other. Besides 
 the schools giving equal emphasis upon both English and Chinese, 
 there are many other schools in China that are unfortunately divided 
 into two extremes: one places the emphasis on the study of Chinese 
 at the expense of the study of English and the other does just the 
 reverse. The suggestion is to build up a reasonably secure founda- 
 tion in Chinese at an early period in a student's school life and then , 
 but not until then, to take up the study of English in a rather sys- 
 tematic fashion until a good speaking and reading knowledge of 
 English is adequately attained. When such is the case, it is highly 
 probable that the correlation between knowledge of both English 
 and Chinese will be positive. 
 
 In the third place, since scholarship, leadership, and knowledge 
 of English all have low correlations with the length of time spent 
 in America, it is evident that these traits are affected only to a small 
 extent by a longer stay in Ariierica, and that they are more or less 
 constant, just as intelligence with which they must be highly asso- 
 ciated . One of the unsolved problems in connection with the sending 
 of Chinese students to America is the number of years they should 
 
Conclusions and Suggestions 53 
 
 stay here. Approximately it varies from one to ten years. Inas- 
 much as a longer stay will bring with it only slight improvement in 
 scholarship, leadership, and knowledge of English, and inasmuch as 
 it will involve greater financial expenses as well as prolong the 
 detachment of these students from their own country, it is here 
 suggested that it would be desirable to shorten the period of their 
 sojourn in America. But the shortening of the period necessitates 
 maturity of both knowledge and age . If a student is sent to America 
 to begin with the Freshman year in a college, it will require on the 
 average seven years to finish the graduate work, which is entirely 
 too long. It is therefore suggested that in order to acquire advanced 
 knowledge in a short period, say, three or four years, it is almost 
 imperative to send out only those students who have received the 
 A.B. degree in China or who have had a training which will qualify 
 them to enter the graduate schools in America. This plan of send- 
 ing out advanced and mature students for a short period of three 
 or four years of stay, in America will bring with it at once many 
 advantages: (i) it will save the educational cost; (2) it will avoid 
 the danger of many students becoming unfamiliar with their own 
 country, less appreciative of their own culture and civilization, and 
 therefore less ready to render their service to it; (3) it will take in 
 only students who will better judge Western civilization and 
 can thus make a better selection of what is desirable; and (4) it will 
 include only those students who, because of their maturity, have 
 already, before their coming to America, gained a considerable 
 respect of their own people and who, therefore, upon their return, 
 will make their influence more readily felt and their work more 
 productive. While this suggestion is borne out by the results of 
 this study, it happily meets with the rising consciousness among 
 educators in China which is gradually expressing itself in the process 
 of reshaping educational policies respecting the education of Chinese 
 students in America. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 The following are samples of tables containing the original data 
 used in this study, which are now kept in the Library of Teachers 
 College, Columbia University. 
 
 TABLE I A 
 
 The Judgment in Sigma Values and the Number of Judges in Each Case 
 FOR 664 Chinese Students in America in the Qualities of (I) 
 Scholarship, (II) Leadership, (III) Knowledge of English, and 
 (IV) Knowledge of Chinese 
 
 The first column under each quality is the number of judges; the second column 
 under each quality is the average value of their judgments transmuted in terms of 
 sigma. The table should read "Individual i was rated by 3 judges in Scholarship, 
 the average of the judgments being .18 sigma; he was not judged at all in 
 Leadership; he was judged by 3 judges in Knowledge of English, the average of 
 the judgments being .73 sigma; he was not rated at all in Knowledge of Chinese." 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 
 No. I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 No. I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 I 3 .18 
 
 
 3 -73 
 
 
 34 8 .39 
 
 8 1. 10 
 
 7 48 
 
 7 -.34 
 
 2 4 -25 
 
 3 -.62 
 
 4 49 
 
 4 -32 
 
 35 8 -.20 
 
 7 -.09 
 
 7 --33 
 
 8 1.46 
 
 3 3-49 
 
 3 -20 
 
 3-44 
 
 4 -36 
 
 36 8 .17 
 
 7 .28 
 
 7 -15 
 
 .6 .34 
 
 4 3 --61 
 
 4 .70 
 
 3 --51 
 
 3-44 
 
 37 6 -.07 
 
 5 --25 
 
 6 .01 
 
 5-1-22 
 
 5 
 
 3 --89 
 
 4--75 
 
 
 38 7 -.14 
 
 7 .05 
 
 7 1-85 
 
 5-1.02 
 
 6 3--85 
 
 3-125 
 
 3 -.68 
 
 3-1. 12 
 
 39 8 -.07 
 
 8 .49 
 
 8 .55 
 
 7 .06 
 
 7 3--38 
 
 3 43 
 
 
 3 -21 
 
 40 7 .28 
 
 5-42 
 
 6 -.55 
 
 6-.13 
 
 8 
 
 3 47 
 
 3 I -51 
 
 3-74 
 
 41 7 -.78 
 
 7 -27 
 
 7 .08 
 
 6 — .41 
 
 9 3 1-35 
 
 3 -37 
 
 3 -.05 
 
 3 1-37 
 
 42 7 -.20 
 
 6 -.69 
 
 7 -72 
 
 7 -.24 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE II A 
 
 
 
 
 The Scores in English Tests for 42 Chinese Students in America 
 
 I. Thorndike Alpha 2 
 
 Part II. III. Reading Test II. 
 
 
 II. Reading Test I. 
 
 IV. Thorndike Vocabulary 
 
 
 
 
 Test 
 
 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 
 No. I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 No. I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 16 8.6 
 
 70 
 
 37-5 
 
 50 
 
 301 8.6 
 
 74 
 
 12 
 
 128 
 
 17 7-7 
 
 80.5 
 
 50 
 
 163 
 
 305 7-9 
 
 67-5 
 
 34-5 
 
 125 
 
 18 7.1 
 
 45 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 306 8.6 
 
 78 
 
 64-5 
 
 41 
 
 106 7.0 
 
 51-5 
 
 15 
 
 65 
 
 312 8.4 
 
 66.5 
 
 23 
 
 104 
 
 no 8.1 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 158 
 
 385 7-7 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 133 
 
 60 
 
Appendix 
 
 55 
 
 TABLE III A 
 Marks in High School in China for 78 Chinese Students in America 
 
 I. 
 
 III. 
 
 Ind 
 
 No. 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 General Average for Four Years. 
 Marks in Chinese for Four Years. 
 Ind. 
 
 I 
 
 84 
 75 
 76 
 85 
 82 
 
 II 
 
 79 
 75 
 81 
 
 87 
 84 
 
 III 
 
 84 
 86 
 84 
 
 75 
 81 
 
 No. 
 169 
 170 
 
 174 
 177 
 188 
 
 I 
 
 83 
 84 
 83 
 74 
 82 
 
 II 
 
 82 
 89 
 81 
 89 
 79 
 
 II. Marks in English for 
 Four Years. 
 Ind. 
 
 I 
 
 85 
 86 
 78 
 
 87 
 
 III 
 
 87 
 82 
 
 84 
 
 82 
 
 No. 
 390 
 403 
 406 
 414 
 416 
 
 II 
 
 83 
 86 
 
 77 
 82 
 
 93 
 
 III 
 
 89 
 94 
 78 
 76 
 
 94 
 
 TABLE IV A 
 College Marks in American Colleges for 122 Chinese Students in America 
 
 Ind. 
 
 General 
 
 No. 
 
 Average 
 
 12 
 
 88 
 
 16 
 
 70 
 
 18 
 
 75 
 
 19 
 
 77 
 
 46 
 
 68 
 
 Ind. 
 No. 
 133 
 134 
 137 
 154 
 165 
 
 General 
 Average 
 
 85 
 82 
 
 79 
 86 
 
 85 
 
 Ind. 
 
 General 
 
 No. 
 
 Average 
 
 284 
 
 89 
 
 289 
 
 91 
 
 296 
 
 89 
 
 299 
 
 92 
 
 301 
 
 79 
 
 TABLE V A 
 
 Individual Records of 156 Chinese Students in America on a Point Scale 
 
 for the Qualities of (I) Scholarship; (II) Leadership; 
 
 (III) Knowledge of English; and (IV) Knowledge 
 
 OF Chinese 
 
 Ind. 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 5-2 
 
 20.4 
 
 7 
 
 7.0 
 
 19.0 
 
 8 
 
 5-2 
 
 17.8 
 
 9 
 
 
 4.8 
 
 10 
 
 
 14.8 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 No. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 IV 
 
 133 
 
 11.6 
 
 10.5 
 
 
 24.0 
 
 134 
 
 
 19.0 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 
 13-5 
 
 
 18.3 
 
 159 
 
 
 9-5 
 
 
 
 160 
 
 
 22.5 
 
 
 
 TABLE VI A 
 
 Length of Time in Terms of Months that 286 Chinese Students in America 
 
 (I) Studied English before Coming to America and (II) Have 
 
 Been in America 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 Ind. 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 No. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 No. 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 84 
 
 19 
 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 44 
 
 179 
 
 96 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 36 
 
 59 
 
 183 
 
 94 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 120 
 
 19 
 
 93 
 
 84 
 
 8 
 
 184 
 
 72 
 
 43 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 19 
 
 94 
 
 36 
 
 125 
 
 186 
 
 24 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 48 
 
 55 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 187 
 
 84 
 
 19 
 
VITA 
 
 Jennings Pinkwei Chu was born at Kiangsun, Chekiang, 
 China, December 2, 1895. He received his early education in the 
 modern elementary and middle schools of Chekiang. He went to 
 Tsing Hua College, Peking, in 1911, graduating from that college 
 in 1916. In the same year, he was sent out by Tsing Hua College 
 to the United States, and studied at Johns Hopkins University 
 from 1916-1919, where he received his A.B. degree in 1918 and was 
 a graduate student for the year 1918-1919. He was also a student 
 at the Cornell University Summer School in 1917 and at the Chicago 
 University Summer School in 1919. He studied at Teachers College, 
 Columbia University, from 1919-1922; received his A.M. degree 
 from Teachers College in 1920, and was Research Scholar in Teach- 
 ers College during the year 1921-1922. He was Lecturer in Chinese 
 Language at New York University, 1 920-1 922. 
 
Si^AM