CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN IS^l BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Cornell University Library PE 1137.J7609 Outline of English phonetics ... 3 1924 027 389 505 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027389505 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH PHONETICS DANIEL JOJNES. M. A. READKR IM PHONKflOS IN THE UNIVEWSITY OP LONDON WITH 131 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW-YORK G. E. STECHERT & Co. 19?;?, yi 1.U A.^¥U/4 p'ii-'^^-- -■' .y ■.' PIUNTED IN AUSTRIA * PREFACE OBJECT OF THE BOOK It is now generally recognized that no adult foreigner is likely to ac- quire a really good pronunciation of the English language unless he makes a scientific study of the English speech-sounds and their distribution in con- nected speech. The present book has been prepared -with a view to giving the foreigner all the information of this nature that he is likely to require for learning "educated Southern English" as described in § 24. The greater part of the book is devoted to a discussion of the mistakes which are commonly made by foreigners in the pronunciation of English, and methods are indicated for coiTCcting these errors. These methods are all based on personal experience; many of them are of my own devising, and none have been included without personal knowledge of their utility in practical teaching.* HOW TO USE THE BOOK It is not, of course, suggested that this or any other book can form a substitute for oral training. The idea that correct pronunciation can be learned by theory alone is even more absurd than the idea that it can be learned by imitation alone. Bare instances may be found of persons possessing extra- ordinary powers of imitation, who are able to learn the correct pronunciation of any foreign language simply by imitation. But it is certain that no for- eigner could ever hope to pronounce such sounds as the vowels in the English words up or bird from written descriptions only. Imitation is necessarily a most important part of training in the pronunciation of a foreign language, and it may be remarked in passing, that in this connexion the advantage of a naturally good ear cannot be overestimated. The importanie of phonetics lies in the fact that it helps the student to imitate better than he could withoot the aid of phonetics. In the words of H. E. Palmer*, "without a phonetic training the bad pronouncer will never become a good prononncer, and with a phonetic training he probably will"; to which we might add that with phonetic training the naturally good pronouncer will probably become a perfect pronouncer It is hoped then that by combining the study of this book with careful observation and imitation of the pronunciation of English speakers, foreigners may find the task of learning the pronunciation of the English language appreciably lightened. Practice of sounds by the methods indicated in this book should of ' Students must not be surprised to find that ftome of these methods are not quite what might be expected on theoretical grounds. Thus with most fo- reigner* it turns out in practice that the best way of teaching the diphthong ou is to make the student practise a diphthong of the type eeu (with the front vowel oe, althong o is defined as a back vowel, see §§ 463, 454). ' What is Phonetics?, p. 10 (published by the International Phonetic Asso- ciation). IV Prepack course be supplemented by ear-training exercises (such as those given in Appendix 0) and by continual reading of phonetic texts (such as thosei in my Phonetic Beadings in English or the other books mentioned in Appendix E (i) and (ii)). EXPERIMENTAL METHODS For the benefit of those who are accustomed to instrumental methods or who wish to study these methods, a certain amount of information regard- ing experimental phonetics has been in^uded. The part of the book dealing with this branch of the subject may be entirely omitted by students who do not desire to take up experimental work, or have no opportunity of doing so. All paragraphs which may be so omitted are marked with an asterisk *. Experimental phonetics is a highly interesting study in itself) but it must not be regarded as an indispensable study for those who wish to learn to pronoutice a foreign language correctly. Some experiments may be of use in this connection in the case of the students who have by nature a special difficulty in hearing the difierences between similar sounds. In most cases, however, the experiments should be regarded merely as corroborative of the results obtainable by the ordinary methods of practical phonetics — that is, by direct observations made by a trained ear — and as a means of helping to fix them in the student's memory. Experiments which go further than this can hardly b6 considered as of practical value to language students. INTONATION It is satisfactoiy to find that the subject of intonation, to which con- siderable space is devoted in this book, is receiving more and more atten- tion at the present time. Teachers are now beginning to realize that a study of intonation is often required to give the final touches to a good pronun- ciation, and that students who by nature have but little aptitude for learn- ing vowels and consonants may sometimes compensate to some extent for their defective sounds by acquiring a good intonation. It is however desirable to warn students against starting this subject too. soon. It should not be begun until considerable facility in the use of the vowels and consonants has been attained. Some teachers have cast doubt on the utility of intonation curves in practical teaching. I can assure them from experience that most learners find such curves a considerable help. I have even known a foreigner acquire a perfectly accurate intonation of a passage of English by this means, without ever having heard the words read aloud. The chapter on intonation in this book was unfortunately in prmt be- fore the appeai-ance of the excellent article on the subject by Coleman'; his discoveries have suggested to me various ways in which this chapter might be improved. I therefore strongly recommend all readers of this book to supplement their perusal of the chapter on intonation by a careful study of Coleman's article. ' H. 0. GotEMAN, Intonation and EmpkoAis, in Miscellanea Phonetica (pu- bhahed by the International Phonetic ABSOciation). Phkfack V STRESS It has for practical reasons been found convenient to treat stress in tbe conventional manner in this book. It is undoubtedly a fact, however, that much of the effect commonly described as stress is in reaUty a matter of intonation. It has been well observed by Colrmas (in the above-mentioned article) that stress is generally accompanied by a change in the direction of intonation, and that this change in the direction of intonation is of greater importance than any increase in the force of the breath. It will in fact be found that in innumerable cases the requisite change in the direction of in- tonation ivithout any increase of force whatever is sufficient to produce on the ear the effect commonly described as stress This fact will doubtless be demonstrated by experimental methods before long. At present, however, the relations between stress and intonation have not been fully investigated, and until this has been done, there is nothing fbr it but to treat stress in the conventional manner. SYLLABLE-DIVISION It is also possible to show that syllable -division is to some extent a matter of intonation. But here again the precise part played by intonation has yet to be investigated, and in the mean time syllable-division must be treated as is done in Chap. YII of thLs book. THE TRANSCRIPTION The system of transcription used in this book is that of the International Phoftetic Association which is in my opinion the best, besides being the most widely used, of the existing phonetic alphabets In this book English words are as a rule transcribed in the usual simplified ("broad") form of transcrip- tion, a more rigorously accurate (^'narrow") form being only resorted to where special accuracy is required. Some teachers have objected that the "broad" form of transcription is simplified to an unnecessary extent. Con- siderable personal experience in the teaching of foreigners has, however, con- vinced me that this is not so. For two years I tried the experiment of using in my foreigners' classes at University College a "narrower" form of tran- scription, but tbe results were not satisfactory; the students who had no great aptitude for learning pronunciation could never remember the symbols, while those to whom the subject came more easily had no need of the elabo- rate transcription, because they knew or learned readily the rules of pronun- ciation which make it possible to simplify the transcription.^ I do not wish to suggest, however, that a "narrow" form of transcrip- tion can never be used with advantage. It is sometimes useful for purposes of explanation, and it may sometimes be employed advantageously in indi- vidual cases. Thus, for a French student who has learned to pronounce the English vowel in sit, but who nevertheless in reading persistently pronounces sit like the French site — that is-, who does not put into practice the rule that the English short i is also lax — it may be found helpful to indicate the English sound by a special symbol (i) or to add a mark of laxness ^i). These rules are summarized in Appendix A. VI Preface Other divergences from the "broad" transcription to suit special circumstances will readily suggest themselves to teachers. Generally speaking, however, the usual broad form of 'transcription , taken in connexion with the rules given in Appendix A — rules which have to be learned , whatever form of transcription is used — will be found to answer all requirements. One detail of the transcription may he referred to here. The question whether to use the sign e or the sign £ to represent the vowel in get, red, etc., has been carefully considered. The matter is one of considerable difficulty (l) owing to the fact that several varieties of pronunciation exist, (2) owing to the fact that many speakers use different varieties in different words (e. g. a "closer" one in get and an "opener" one in %cdt), and (3) owing to the fact that the "average" sound is probably just about intermediate between "cardinal" e and "cardinal" £. After much hesitation the sign e has been adopted in this book, the chief reason in favour of this mode of represen- tation being that it helps better to counteract the common foreign mistake of using too open a variety. It should, however, be made clear that there is not much to choose between the two modes of representation ; in fact cases may easily arise in which it would be on the whole more helpful to tran- scribe with C (e. g. in refemng to English pronunciation during the teaching of French pronunciation to English pupils). STYLES OF PRONUNCIATION The pronunciation represented is essentially that of Southern Englishmen who have been educated at the great public boarding schools (see § 24). Where more than one form is admissible, that form is chosen which is shown by experience to give the best results with foreigners. Thus the word extra- ordmary admits of a number of pronunciations. The form generally aimed at by foreigners is ekstra'd.'dinari, but they usually give such undue em- phasis and incorrect values to the unstressed vowels that the wofd sounds utterly wrong. But when a foreigner is taught the form iks'traidnri, which is equally correct in ordinary speech , he soon succeeds in making the word sound English, for the simple reason that there is not so much opportunity for him to go wrong. The latter form is therefore given in this book. It is sometimes stated by English teachers that such forms as iks'tra: (Inri, not being generally used in the style of speaking adopted in recitation, etc., are not suitable forms for to teach to foreigners. I am unable to share this opinion for two reasons, in addition to that given above. Firstly, the vast majority of people who study the pronunciation of a foreign language do so not with a view to being able to recite in that language, but because they want to be able to talk like ordinary educated people. And secondly, those few who do wish to learn to recite cannot do better than start by learning to talk. The modifications of pronunciation necessary in the elocu- cutionary style of speaking require special study, and cannot be properly understood without a thorough knowledge of the conversational style of speech. I take this opportunity of reminding English-speaking readers that it is not the object of this book to set up this particular style of pronunciation as a standard. Its object is to record accurately one form of English pro- nunciation, and to give to foreigners methods of acquiring that form if they Pkbfaok VII wish to do so. Many other kinds of pronunciation exist \ and it is to be hoped that those who are able to give accurate descriptions of other forms will bring out books similar to this one. Foreigners will then be able to choose the pronanoiation they prefer, and English people will be better able to tackle the difficult problem of what is standard pronunciation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The indexes, at the end of this book were very kindly prepared by Mr. Henry Alexander, Lecturer in Phonetics at the Glasgow Provincial Training College, and I desire to express my sincere thanks to him for under- taking this troublesome piece of work. The photographs (figs. 46, 60, 51, etc.) are of the mouth of my brother, Mr. Arnold Jones, Head Master of Marlborough House School, Reading; I take this opportunity of acknowledging my indebtedness to him for his kindness in allowing me to have the photographs taken and published. I also wish to thank Mr. Stephen Jones Assistant for Expeiimental "Phonetics at University College, London, for much help in connection with the preparation, of the diagrams in Chapter XXII. Daniel Jones. TABLE OF ENGLISH SPEECH- SOUNDS Labial Dental Palatal Velar 1 3 Bi-labial Labio- dental OS < o ■ CO § .Plosive j> b t d le g Nasal m n g Lateral I (I) Rolled r Fricative /v 09,sz,/3,j Semi-vowel w J (w) A Front\ Mixed /Back 00 c > Close (n:) (11) i: \ i \ s\ V ' A — Half-close (0) Half-open Open (o:) (a) « \ a \' The sounds in Italic Letters in the table are breathed; all others are voiced. Sounds which appear twice in the table have a double articulation, the secondary articulation being shown by the symbol in brackets (). ' Two characteristic forms of pronunciation are those described by Li.oyi> and Gbant in the books by them mentioned in Appendix E (i). vm Pkefack LIST OF ENGLISH SPEECH-SOUNDS WITH KEY WORDS In order to ascertain the values of the phonetic symbols from the key word», these words must be said by a person who has the pronunciation described in § 24. Each symbol has the sound represented by the italic letter or group of letters in the word placed next to it. Phonetic ' i'anscription of Key word meik nou log no'vembe (see % 451) gou so: hot pel red (see §§256 —258) s&n Jou ti: ein fa:d gad vein wain Eill 'mega : indicates that the sound represented by the preceding symbol is long, means that the following syllable is stressed, placed under a consonant-symbol (as in n, I) means that the sound is syllabic. Italicized phonetic letters denote optional sounds. For the other symbols used in this book see Index of Sounds. ,„„^i,» Ordinary Phonetic Phonetic Symbol Ordinary loneti •* Spelling of Transcription Spelling of ymDO ' Key word of Key word Key word a father 'fa:&a m make a % flai n no 8P cab k»b g long A up Ap November b boat bout d day dei on SO 3 then &en a; saw e get get 9 hot ei da^ dei P P^J e iaii l^d r red a: hird 9 above.china o'bAv/tJaina 8 sun t foot fut X sAow U go gou t tea, h hard ha:d e thm t see si: n: food . it it n good « yes jes T wain c cold kould Sf wine le&f, fee? li:f, fi:l z eea] (see § 230ff.'> 5 measure CONTENTS page Preface lU Table of English Sounds VII List of English Sounds, with Key words Vni List of Illustrations X Chapter I. Phonetics and Phonetic Transcription t Styles of Phonetic Transcription 2 U. Standard Pronunciation 3 ni. The Organs of Speech S IV. Experimental Methods 7 V. Breath and Voice 9 VI. Classification of Sounds H Classification of Consonants 12 Classification of Vowels 16 Syllables .... 21 The EngUsh Plosive Consonants 84 Theory of Plosive Consonants ... 33 The English Liquid Consonants ... 10 Nasal Consonants. , 40 The 1 sounds 48 The r sounds 47 X. The Fricative Consonants .61 Initial and final Voiced Fricatives 6S XI. Semi-vowels 64 Xn. The Front Vowels 68 Xm. The Back Vowels 79 XIV. The Mixed Vowels 98 XV. Nasalization .... 99 XVLvCacuminaL Sounds 100 XVn. Assimilation 101 XVm. Length 104 Effect of Rhythm on Length . . 106 Length of Consonants 107 Mistakes in Length made by Foreigners 108 General Note on the Representation of Length in Phonetic Transcription 109 XIX. Stiess tlO Word-stress (simple words . Ill Words with Double Stress. . . 120 Influence of Rhythm 123 Word-stress (compound words) 125 Sentence-stress . 128 CO.M'BNT!:^ Chapter — XX. Breath-groups . . . ... XXI. Jntonatiou Incorrect Forma of Intonation heard from Foreigners Methods of Recording Intonation XXII. The Kymograph . . 136 13b 162 167 168 Appendix A. Ruleu for converting a "broad" Transcription of English into a "narrower" one 183 Appendix B. Lists of Words stressed according to Rules, in cases where the Exceptions are numerous 184 Appendix C. Ear-training Exercises 187 Appendix D. Script Forms of Phonetic Sign? 189 Appendix B. Lists of Books, etc., recommended for the Study of English Pronunciation 191 Appendix F. Examination Questions . . . . 194 Index of Sounds Index of Subjects Index of Words Transcribed . 196 . 200 . 203 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS page 1. The Organs of Speech ... 6 ■i. The Mouth .... 6 3. The Artificial Palate .... 8 4. The Larynx as seen through the laryngoscope. . -. . . 9 5. The Laryngoscope 9 6. Instrument to illustrate Breath and Voice 10 7. Zund-Burguet's Voice Indicator, ii 8. Instrument to show the effect of a resonance chamber in modi- fying quality of tone . . 9. The Vowel Triangle . . 10. Tongue positions of the vowels i, n. and n 11. The Classification of Vowels 12. Atkinson's Mouth Measurer IS. Atkinson's Mouth Measurer in position . 14. Ziind-Burguet's (Quadrant Indic- ator 15. Tongue position of English t 16. Tongue position of French t (var- iety with tip of tongue against upper teeth) 17. Tongue position of French t (var- iety with tip of tongue against lower teeth) 26 18. Palatogram of the English word tico 27 19. Palatogram of the French word tout 27 20. Palatogram ofthe English word tea 27 15 16 16 17 18 18 19 26 26 21. Palatogram of the French word page 22. Tongue position of k . . .30 23. Tongue position of C 30 24. Palatogram of the English word key ... 30 25. Tongue position of tj . . .39 26. Tongue position of English n . 40 27. Tongue position of g . . 42 28. Tongue position of l^rench ji. .42 29. Palatogram of the French ja in the group ajia .... . 42 30. Tongue position of [I'j . 44 31. Tongue position of [P] . . .44 32. Tongue position of [l®] . . .44 33. Palatogram of [!'] with the tip of the tongue placed as in English 45 34. Palatogram of [l"] with the tip of the tongue placed as in English 4a 35. Palatogram of [l°] with the tip of the tongue placed as in English 45 36. Palatogram of [l*] (1 with reso- nance of English short d) with the tip of the tongue placed as in English 46 37. Palatogi-am of [l"] with the tip of the tongue placed as in English 45 38. Palatogram of [l"] with the tip of the tongue placed as in Engli^ 15 39. Tongue positions of rolled r . . +8 Contents XI 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. pagea Tongue position of English Fri- cative [j] 48 Palatogram of Semi-rolled [f] . 49 Palatogratn of English Frioativ* [j] 49 Position of Tongue and Uvula for uvular [Kj Tongue position of Uvular Frica- tive [R] Tongue position of The consonant 6, as pronounced in normal speech Palatogram of 8 Tongue position of s pronounced with the tip of the tongue raised Tongue position of 8 pronouuc^a with the tip of the tongue low- ered The consonant s as pronounced in normal speech The consonant s pronounced with exaggerated distinctness. . . . Palatogram of s pronounced hy the author (tip of the tongue raised) . . Palatogram of s pronounced by a French lady (tip of tongue low- ered) Tongue jjosition of J pronounced with the tip of the tongue, raised Tongue position of J" pronounced with the tip of the tongue low- ered The consonant / as pronounced in normal speech ■ ° The consonant J" pronounced with exaggerated distinctness Palatogram of J" as pronounced by the author Palatogram of J pronounced by a French lady . . . ... • • o9 Comparison of tongue positions of various dental fricatives . . . Tongue position of C . . . Tongue position of one variety of X ; • The consonant TV pronounced with exaggerated distinctness . . Palatogram of French n in the group na Tongue positions of the front vowels 1, e, e, a The English long, tense i: as pronounced in normal speech The English long, tense 1: pro- nounced with exaggerated dis- tinctness ^^ Palatogram of the English long, tense i: The English short, lax i, as pro- nounc^ in normal speech. . . 49 71. 49 72. 49 78. 53 74. 53 63 76. 55 55 55 55 55 55 58 58 58 59 68 70 70 72 72 72 74 74 75 75 .76 76 70. The English short, lax i, pro- nounced with exaggerated dis- tinctness 70 Palatogram of the English short, lax i The English vowel e as pro- nounced in normal speech . . The English vowel e pronounced with exaggerated distinctness . Palatogram of the English e (as in jief) pronounced by the author The E in the English diphthong 88 as pronounced in normal speech 76. The B in the English diphthong £3' pronounced with exaggerated distinctness 77. The vowel se as pronounced in. normal speech . 78. The vowel se pronounced with exaggerated distincteess . . . 79. Palatogram of se (author's pro- nunciation) 76 80. The a in the English diphthong ai as pronounced in normal speech .... 81. The a in the English diphthong ai pronounced with exaggerated distinctness . . 82. The i in the English diphthong ai pronounced with exaggerated distinctness 76 Sa. 'I'he a in the English diphthong an as pronounced in normal speech 77 84. The a in the English diphthong au pronounced with exaggerated distinctness 77 85. The n in the English diphthong au pronounced with exaggerated distinctness . . .77 86. Approximate tongue positions of the sounds of the u type, sounds of the o type, English a, English short and English a ... 87. The English vowel a: as pro- nounced in normal speech . 88. The English vowel a: pronounced with exaggerated distinctness 89. The English short a (in not), as pronounced in normal speech . 90. The English short a (in not) pronounced with exaggerated distinctness 91. The English long a: (in saw), as pronounced in normal speech 92. The English long a: (in saw) pronounced with exaggerated distinctness ... . 93. The vowel A as pronounced in normal speech »0 80 80 81 81 81! 82 84 XII OONTHN'IS 94. The vowel A pronounced with exaggerated distinctness . . 84 y6. The o in the English diphthong on as pronounced in normal speech !^6 96. The u in the English diphthong ou as pronounced in normal speech 86 97. The O in the English diphthong on pronounced with exagger- ated distinctness 86 98. The 11 in the English diphthong oil pronounced with exagger- ated distinctness 86 99. Tongue position of u: . . . . 88 100. The English long, tense n: as pronounced in normal speech 88 101. The English long, tense n: pro- nounced with exaggerated dis- tinctness 88 102. The English short, lax n, as pronounced in normal speech 90 108. The English short, lax n, pronounced with exaggerated distinctness 90 104. The English long «: (in bird) as pronounced in normal speech 92 106. The English long a: (in bird) pronounced with exaggerated distinctneBs 92 106. The English "neutral" vowel o as pronounced in normal speech 94 107. The English "neutral" vowel 9 pronounced with exaggerated distinctness 94 108. Tongue position of cacuminal t 101 109. Tongue position of (I pro- nounced with cacuminal mo- diiication 101 110. Tongue positions of t, j and J tO,^ 111. A Tambour ICt) 112. A Kymograph I6ii 113. An Embouchure 17(i liA. A Nasal Olive . ' . 170 115. Exploratory Bulbs . J70 116. A Larynx Recorder . .171 117. Mouth-tracings of ph«i, p''ft, ptt, ha, ba 172 118. Mouth-tracings of perhaps . . 172 119. Mouth and Larynx tracings of bed-time, egg-cup 173 120. Mouth and Larynx tracings of fHe-day. hoot-jack, football . 173 121. Mouth aud Larynx tracings of coat-tail, booTc-case, Whitchurch 177 122. Mouth-tracing of play, pro- nounced by the author . . . 174 123. Mouth and Larynx tracings of play, pronounced by a Fle- mish-speaking Belgian ... 174 124. Mouth and Larynx tracings of eits, eite, eitj, eitj. . . 175 125. Month -tracings of dn:, djo:, dza:, (Ijo:, dra: 176 126. Mouth-tracings of tight, chmch, tsetse, traitress 177 127. Nose, Mouth and Larynx fra- cings of maiden 178 128. Nose, Mouth and Larynx tra- cings of mutton 178 129. Mouth -tracings of bee, bead, bean, beat, bid, bin, bit . . . 179 130. Nose, Mouth and Larynx tra- cings of Good morning . . IHO 131. Intonation-onrve of Good mor- ning . . .... 181 CHAPTER I PHONETICS AND PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION 1. When a person is learning to speak a foreign language, he is Confronted at the outset by difficulties of two kinds in regard to pro- nunciation. Firstly he has to learn to form aU the speech-sounds oc- curring in the language; and secondly, when he can produce the sounds correctly, he must learn to use the right sound in the right place in connected speech. 2. Experience shows that difficulties of the first kind are best overcome by a study of phonetic theory, while difficulties of the second kind are most easily surmounted by the use of phonetic teans- CRIPTION. 3. Phonetics is the science of pronunciation, the science which investigates the mode of formation of speech sounds and their distri- bution in connected speech. 4. The formation of speech sounds might be studied without hav- ing any letters to represent the sounds. The absence of such sym- bols would, however, render explanations very difficult. Furthermore, the distribution of sounds in connected speech could not possibly be studied at aU without some means of symbolizing the sounds under discussion. Symbols to represent sounds are therefore necessary for the language student. 5. Strange to say, there are stiU some who think that the ordin- ary letters of the alphabet are suitable for the purpose of symbolizing sounds, and that the student has only to learn the current spelling of a foreign language in order to learn how to use the right sound in the right place. It is easy to show, however, that such an idea is utterly erroneous in regard to most languages, and particularly in regard to English. 6. In the first place English assigns to many of the letters of the alphabet values quite different from those which foreigners are accustomed to associate with them: e. g. the a in gate, the i in find, the u in tune^. Doubtless these values may be learned without diffi- culty; but as soon as the foreign student has learned them, he finds innumerable words in which these letters have totally different values: ' These words are phonetically geit, faind, tjn:n. Jonea, EnglUh Phonetics 2 Cbaptek I. Phonetics and Phonetic Transcbiptiox compare the a's in father, fall, any, fat, watch^, the i's in wind (noun), machine, Urd\ the m's in rule, put, hut^; compare also the o's in stove, move, love*; the ea's in meat, head, great, hear'", etc. 7. He also finds that many English sounds may be spelt in a large number of different ways. Thus the words meet, meat, niece, piqm, key, quay, Leigh all have the same vowel sound;® so also have the words sauce, latvn, stalk, stork, board, w(wn, broth, thought, broad, floor'' . 8. Discrepancies between pronunciation and ordinary spelling are -not confined to the English language. In French -lie has different values in ville and fille^, o has different values in grosse and gosse^, portions is pronounced in two different ways according as it is a noun or a verb;'" on the other hand the sound is spelt • differently in the words mot, tot, "beau, chevaitx^^. In German ch has different values in rauchen and Frauchen^^, u has different values in Fufi. and Nufi^^ 9. The result of these inconsistencies is that the foreigner is in innumerable cases entirely at a loss to know what sounds should be used, and is continually mispronouncing words. Hence it is that pho- netic writing becomes, a necessity for anyone wishing to acquire a good pronunciation of these languages. 10. Phonetic writing is defined as a system of alphabetic writing in which each symbol represents one and only one distinct elementary speech sound. When distinguished from conventional spelling, phonetic writing is generally known as phonetic transcription. 11. The phonetic alphabet used here is that of the International Phonetic Association. A list of the symbols occurring in this book, with their values, is given in the introduction. STYLES OF PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION 12. The forms of the symbols necessary in phonetic transcription depend to some extent on the object in view. 18. If it degired to have separate symbols for aU the sounds oc- curlring in several languages and dialects, a very large number of sym- bols and diacritical marks wiU, be necessary, with the result that the transcription of any one of the languages becomes complicated and diffi- cult to read. Transcriptions of this kind are called narrow transcriptions. ' Phonetically 'fa: 89, fail, enl, f»et, wotj". , ' Phonetically wind, me 'Jim, baid. » Phonetically ru:!, put, hit. * Phonetically stonv, mu:v, Iav. ' Phonetically mi:t, hed, grelt, bsa. ' Phonetically mi:t, niiit, ni:s, pfek, ki:, ki:, li:. ' Phonetically sois, lo:n, sto:k, stork, bo:d, wo:n, bra: 6 {ynth some speaker" broB), 60: t, br8:d, flo:. » Phoneticully [vil, fi:jj. « Phonetically gro:B, gas. "' Phonetically par'sjo, por'tjo. " Phonetically mo, to, bo, Je'vo. "-Phonetically raiixan, 'fraufjan. " Phonetically fn:s, nus. Phonetics, akd Phonetic Tkansckipiion 3 14. When, however, the object is rather to deal chiefly with pne language and only incidentally with other languages — as is the case with the present book — it greatly facilitates the task of the student if the transcription of the one language is made as simple as possible, complicated signs and diacritical marks being reserved as far as pos- sible for sounds of the othei languages. The style of transcription requisite for the chief language wiU then be what is known as a BROAD transcription. 15. A BROAD transcription may be defined as a transcription ob-' tained by using the minimum number of symbols requisite for re- presenting without ambiguity the sounds of the language in question (without reference to other languages). 1«. Broad transcription of English is used throughout this book, narrow forms being occasionally added in cases where it might be helpful. Such narrow transcription is in every case enclosed in square brackets []. The rules which enable us to simplify the transcription of English in practical work, are given in Appendix I. By the appli- cation of these rules any broad transcription may be converted into a narrow one if desired. CHAPTEE II STANDARD PROl^UJ^CIATIOISr 17. The first question that confronts a person wishing to acquire a correct prociunciation of a foreign language is: — Which of the various forms of pronunciation ought he to liearn? 18. No two persons of the same nationality pronounce their own language exactly alike. The differences may arise from a variety of causes, such as locality, social surroundings, early influences, or in- dividual peculiarities. 19. Thus, the pronunciation current among people educated in Manchester differs from that of those educated in Exeter, and both differ from the pronunciation of those educated in Edinburgh or in London. The French of Paris is different from that of Marseilles or Lausanne; the prbnunciation of educated Germans from Berlin differs considerably from that used by Germans of the same social class coming from Dresden, Cologne or Hamburg. 20. An example of differences of English pronunciation due to locality may be found in the letter r in such words as part. In Scot- land the r in this word is pronounced as a slightly rolled r*, but ' Letters in thick type are phonetic symbols. The various sounds denoted by them are fully described, further on (chape. VIII-tXIV) and a list with key words is given in the in.tr'jduction. 1* 4 Chapter 11. Standard PRONnNciATioif in normal Southern English the pronunciation is pa:t (§ 250). In many parts of the North and the West of England on the other hand, the effect of the r appears as a modification known as "inversion" of the preceding Towel (see §515). In educated Parisian speech the vowel re- presented by an in saws is fi (viz. a nazalized a, §§ 96, 420), while in Lausanne it often tends towards a (a nazalized a, § 404). In North Ger- many initial w as in Wein is generally pronounced T, but Jn Middle and South Germany it is more often pronounced v> (a sound inter- mediate between V and w, § 351). j 21. The following are examples of differences between educated / and uneducated speech. Uneducated speakers in many parts of Eng- land omit the standard English sound h altogether; in Cockney, words like name are pronounced with the diphthong ai or aei instead ' of ei (naim or nseim instead of the normal neim). In popular I Parisian the French brun is often pronounced brs instead of the standard brOB (the vowel being a nazalized S, § 393). In Berlin it is 1 regarded by many as a vulgarism to pronounce der (which in stage pronunciation is de:r, Atv, or der according to circumstances) as dea. IMany Germans regard as a vulgarism je'jeibm, which may often be observed instead of the stage pronunciation ge'ge:b8n (gegebm). ! 23. The differences between the pronunciation of old and young I persons, and between that of women and men of the same locality and / social position, are sometimes very marked. Thus in English the word soft \ is more usually pronounced S3: ft by educated men in the South, but ladies more often say soft; of the two forms of which, liwitj" and witj", I the former is more frequent among ladies and the latter among men. ] 23. Individual peculiarities may be the result of habit, e. g. childish / mispronunciations which have never been corrected, or they may arise I from some physical defect. 24. The existence of all these differences renders it necessary to set up a standard of pronunciation. Many suitable standards of English pronunciation might be suggested, e. g. educated Northern English, educated Southern English, the pronunciation commonly used on the stage, etc. It is convenient for present purposes to choose as the standard of English pronunciation the form which appears to be most generally used by Southern English persons who have been educated at the great English public boarding schools.* Where such usage varies, that form will be chosen which is shown by experience to give the best results with foreigners (see preface). ' This pronunciation is also used by many from other parts of the country who have been educated at these schools. Those who are interested in the sub- ject of Standard English pronunciation are referred to the able articles by Wyld in Mod. Lang. Teaching Dec. 1913 and June 1914 and by Montgomery in Mod. Lang. Teaching Feb. 1914. Stanoakd Prondnciation. The ORaANS of Speech 5 25. It should be noticed here that all speakers use more than one style of pronunciation. A person may pronounce the same word or group of words quite differently under different circumstances; thus in ordinary conversation the word and is frequently pronounqed U, when unstressed (e. g. in bread and iutter 'bredn'bAte), but in serious recitation the word, even when unstressed, might often be pronounced send rhyming with hand haeud. 26. We may distinguish three principal styles of pronunciation which we may call Styles A, B, and C respectively. The first (Style A) is the pronunciation suitable for serious recitation; the second (Style B*) is the pronunciation used in conversation when speaking careAilly and not too rapidly; the third (Style C) is the pronunciation used in rapid familiar conversation. Style B is recommended for the use of foreigners and is the style indicated throughout this book, except where the contrary is stated. CHAPTER III THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 27. The first essential for the student of phonetics is to have a clear idea of the structure and functions of the organs of speech. Those who have not already done so should make a thorough examination of the inside of the mouth by means of a hand looking-glass. The best way of doing this is to stand with the back to the light and to hold the looking-glass in such a position that it reflects the light into the mouth and at the same time enables the observer to see in the glass the interior thus illuminated. It is not difficult to find the right position for the glass. 28. Models of the organs of speech will be found useful. Suitable models may be obtained from C. Ramme, Plastische Anstalt, Hamburg*. A convenient form of mouth model is that designed by Mr. Bertram Wilson, of Ruskin College, Oxford, in which the tongue is made of a substance which may be moulded into any desired shape. Wall charts of the organs of speech are also useful for class purposes. Such are the author's "Chart of the Organs of Speech", published by the Cam- bridge University Press, and that by Ztind-Burguet, published by Elwert of Marburg, Germany. 29. Figs. 1 and 2 show all that is essential for the present book. 30. A detailed description of the various parts of the organs of speech is not necessary; we would, however, call attention to the following points. > Larynx, ,« 10.80; Mouth, nose, etc., with removable tongue and larynx, JC 30.—. Chapter III. The Oboans of Speech SI. The roof of the mouth is divided, for the purposes of phonet- ics, into three parts called the teeth- ridge, the hard palate, and the soft palate. The teeth-ridge is defined as the i)art of the roof of the mouth just behind the teeth which is convex to the tongue, the division between the teeth-ridge and the palate being defined as the point where thd roof of the mouth ceases to be convex to the tongue and begins to be con- cave (see fig. Ij. The remainder of the roof of the mouth comprises the other two parts, the front part con- stituting the hard palate, and the back part the soft palate. These two parts should be examined carefully in the looking-glass; they may be felt with the tongue or with the finger. The spft palate can be moved upwards from the position shown in fig. 1, and when raised to its fullest extent it touches the back wall of the pharynx as in fig. 10 (see also § 97). 32. The pharynx is the cavity situated in the throat immediately behind the mouth. Below it is the larynx which forms the upper part of the windpipe (the passage leading to the lungs). The epiglottis is a sort of lid to the larynx. It is probably lowered so as to close the larynx during the action of swallowing, but it does not appear to enter into the formation of am' speech sounds. 33. For the purposes of phone- tics it is convenient to imagine the surface of the tongue divided into three parts (see- fig. 1). The part opposite the soft palate when the tongue is in the position of rest is called the lack; the part opposite the hard palate when the tongue is in the position of rest is called the front: and the part opposite Larynz. Fig. 1. The Organs, of Speech. B. Back of Tongue. Bl. Blade of Tongue. E. Epiglottis. F. Front of Tongue. FP. Food Passage. H. Hard Palate. ii.Lips. P. Pharyngal Cavity (Pharynx). B. Teeth-ridge! S. Soft Palate. IT. Teeth. K Uvula. F. Posi- tion of Vocal Chords. W. Wind-pipe. Fig. 2. The Mouth. AA. Pharyngal Arch. PP. Pharyngal Cavity (Pharynk). S. Soft Palate. T. Tongue. U. Uvula. The Organs of Speech. Experimental Methods 7 the teeth -ridge when the tongue is in the position of rest is caUed the llade. The extremity of. the tongue is called the Up, and is in- cluded in the blade. The definitions of "back" and "front" are partic- ularly important. 34. The vocal chords are situated in the larynx; they resemble two lips (see fig. 4). They lun in a horizontal direction from back to front. The space between them is called the glottis. The chords may be kept apart or they may be brought together so as to close the air passage. When they are brought close together and air is forced between them they vibrate, producing a musical sound- (see Chap. V). CHAPTEE IV EXPERIMENTAL METHODS *35. The analysis of sounds in general and the differences between English sounds and foreign sounds which resemble them, may, if desired, be investigated and demonstrated by means of specially designed appara- tus. Such demonstrations belong to the branch of phonetic science known as "instrumental" or "experimental" phonetics. *36. It is not suggested that experimental phonetics is a necessary study for all those who wish to pronounce a foreign language cor- rectly, but demonstrations by means of special apparatus are often found helpful by students as fixing in the memory that which they have previously learned by the ordinary methods of practical phone- tics. The parts of this book relating to experimental phonetics may be entirely omitted by those who have not time or opportunity to take up this branch of the subject. Paragraphs which may be so omitted are marked with an asterisk *. •87. The apparatus used in elementary instrumental phonetics includes the artificial palate, the kymograph, the laryngoscope, the mouth measurer, the gramophone and other talking machines, and a number of less important instruments. •38. The artificial palate being referred to jconstantly throughout this book, it is convenient to give here a description of it, and an explanation of the mode of using it. The kymograph and the experi- ments which may be done with it are dealt with in Chapter XXI. The other instruments are described under the experiments for which they are used (laryngoscope § 46, quadrant indicator § 85, mouth measurer § 84). *39. The artificial palate is used for recording the points of con- tact of the tongue with the palate in pronouncing sounds. Suitable artificial palates may be made of metal, vulcanite, or prepared paper. The material must be very thin, it must fit the observer's mouth 8 CnArTER IV. EXFERIMENTAI. MeTHODS exactly, and it must be so made that it will keep in position by itself; it should be provided with little pro- jecting pieces in the front so as to admit of its being removed ^ from the mouth easily {A A fig. 3). If the material is not black the under side should be blackened with varnish.^ •40. An artificial palate suffi ciently good for ordinary purposes may be made as follows. Soften some dentists' wax by putting it in water, warmed to a temperature of about 60" C. (^= 140" Fahr.). Spread it on a dentists mouth-ti-ay and introduce the tray into the mouth; then press it upwards so tbat the soft wax be- comes moulded into the shape of the palate. Remove from the mouth, and allow the wax to cool. When quite hard, oil the surface of the model thus obtained. Then cover the sur- face carefully with a piece of damp filter paper, taking care that no air- bubbles are left between it and the wax. On the- op of this place a thin layer, of seccotine or other strong gum well mixed with precipitated chalk. Apply a second piece of damp filter paper taking care as before not to leave any air-bubbles. When the whole is thoroughly dry, the paper may be removed from the wax and cut out along the line marking the edge of the teeth. The under side of the artificial palate thus obtained should be covered with black varnish. *41. The artificial palate is used as follows. The under side of the palate is first covered with a little finely powdered chalk and inserted into the mouth. A sound is then pronounced and the palate is with- ' Suitable palates may be made by any dentist. I'rioes vary considerably, the cheapest are tho. withotd moving the tongue. These exercises present extraordinary difficulty to some foreigners, and they should be practised until thoroughly mastered. Besides being useful in teaching voiced sounds, they are of great value for obtaining control over the soft palate. 63. Apart from the division into the two groups "breathed" and "voiced", consonants may be classified (i) according to the organs which articulate them, (ii) according to the manner in which the organs articulate them. 64. If we classify them according to the organs which articulate them, we distinguish six main classes. ' This sound exists in French in such words as peuple poep| when final; it is also the sound of Welsh U, e. g. Llangollen |an'galeii. 14 Chaptek VI. Classification of Sounds I. Labial or lip sounds, which may be sub-divided into a) ii-labial sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the two lips: examples p, m, w, and b) lahio-dental sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the lower lip against the upper teeth: example f. II. Dented sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the tip or blade (§ 33) of the tongue against the upper teeth or teeth-ridge (§ 31). It is often convenient to sub divide these into two classes a) pre-dental sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the tip or blade of the tongue agatnst the teeth: example 6, French t. b) post-dental, or alveolar, sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the tip or blade of the tongue against the teeth-ridge: examples z, J", the English t. III. Palatal sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the front of the tongue (§ 33) against the hard palate: example j. IV. Velar sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate: examples k, g. V. Uvula/r sounds, viz. sounds articulated by the back of the tongue and the extremity of the soft palate or the uvula: example » (§ 260). VI. Glottal or laryngal sounds, viz. scAmds articulated in the glottis: example ' (§ 160). 65. If we classify consonants Siccording to the manner in which the organs articulate them, we distinguish six main classes. I. Plosive consonants, formed by completely closing the air passage and suddenly removing the obstacle^j. so that the air escapes making an explosive sound: examples ppjj^^ir These sounds are caUed -sio^JS by many writers. II. Nasal consonants, formed by completely closing the mouth at some point, the soft palate remaining lowered so that the air is free to pass out through the nose: examples m, n. (The nasal consonants are the only English sounds in which the soft palate is lowered.) III. Lateral consonants, formed by an obstacle placed in the middle of the mouth, the air being free to escape at the sides (see, however, § 234): example 1. These sounds are sometimes called divided conson- ants of side consonants. IV., Rolled consonants, formed by a rapid succession of taps of some elastic organ: example rolled r. These sounds are often called trilled consonants. V. Fricative cons'onants, formed by narrowing the air passage at some point go that the air escapes making a kind of hissing sound: examples f, z. VI. Semivowels, or vowels used in the capacity of consonants (see § 58): example w. 66. It is sometimes convenient to group the nasal, lateral and roUed consonants together under the name of liqwids. Classification of Sodnds 15 67. The classification of consonants is made clear by arranging them in a table, horizontal rows containing sounds articulated in the same manner, and vertical columns containing sounds articulated by the same organs. The following is a table of the English consonants so arranged: Lai Bi- labial )ial liabio- denta] Dei Pie-dBntal tal Post-dental (alveolar) Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal Plosive. . ." pb td kg Nasal ... ni n g Lateral . . li (t) Rolled . . . r Fricative . fT 63 8z,J'3,j h Semi-vowel w J (w) These consonants are described in detail in Chapters VIII, IX, X and XI. CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS 68. The characteristic qualities of vowels depend on the shape of the air passage abov.e the larynx. This passage forms what is known as a resonance chamber, which modifies the quality of tone produced by the vibration of the vocal chords. Different shapes of the passage modify the quality of toiie in different ways, and consequently give rise to distinct vowel sounds. 69. Now the shape of the passage can be varied very greatly, even when the organs are limited to vowel positions (§ 54). Conse- quently the number of possible vowels is very large. A good ear can distinguish well over fifty distinct vowels (exclusive of nasalized vowels, vowels pronounced with cacuminal modification {§ 515), etc.). In any one language, however, the number of distinct vowels is comparatively small. In English it is not necessary for ordinary purposes to distinguish more than fifteen (see table, p. 21). *70. The effect of a resonance chamber in modifying quality of tone may be illustrated experimentally by means of an instrument made by Messrs m— jrr 7\ ^ ^ Spindler and Hoyer, ^"'^ '' ofG6ttingen(fig.8)^ It consists of a cylin- drical resonator A, ( \// I Fig. 8. Instrmnent to show the effect of a resonance chamber in modifying quality of tone. open at one end, fitted with a piston B, the rod of which C passes out of the other end. The piston rod is hollow and the piston contains a reed D, so that by blowing down the piston through the ' Price J( 10 (= 10 s. = fr. 12.50). 16 Chapter VI. Classification or Sodnds opening E at tlie end of the rod, a musical sound of definite pitch is produced by the reed. The quality (timbre) of this sound depends oir the length of the part of the cylinder projecting beyond the piston, and by varying the position of the piston a large number of distinct qualities of tone are obtainable, some of the sounds having considerable resemblance to some of the well known vowels. 71. The shape of the air passage above the larynx is governed, and hence vowel quality is governed, chiefly by the position of the main part of the tongue (though also to a large extent by the posi- tion of the lips, § 88). It is therefore convenient to classify vowels according to the positio'> of the main part of the tongue. (Note that the posi- tion of the tip of the tongue has no great effect on vowel quality, except in the cases noted in Chapter XVI, which do not occur in normal English.) 72. A point which cannot fail to strike anyone comparing the qualities (timbres) of various vowels is that some vowels (e. g. the vowels in see, calm) have clear and well-defined quality, while others (e. g. the vowel in bird) have a more obscure sound. 73. The vowels of obscure quality ai'e chiefly those in which the tongue is in an intermediate vowel position, not raised markedly at the back or in the front, and not to) low down in the mouth. The vowels of weU-defined quality are chiefly those in which the tongue is remote from such aa intermediate position, that is to say those in which the tongue is markedly raised in the front or at the back or is quite low down in the mouth. 74. The chief vowels of weU-defined quality may be conveniently classed in five groups, known as vowels of the i type, vowels of the e type, vowels of the a type, vowels of the type and vowels of the u type. 75. If we examine the tongue positions of the typical sounds of these five classes we find that the highest points of the tongue lie roughly on the sides of a triangle as shown in figs. 9 and 10. This triangle is known as the "Vowel Fig. 10. Tongue posi- Triangle". tions of the vowels 76. Vowels which have the *' *' *°** "• highest point of the tongue approximately on the left-hand side of this triangle, i. e. which are intermediate between the sounds of the a type and sounds of the i type are called front vowels. Such are the vowels in it, get. Those in which the highest point of the tongue is approximately on the right-hand side of the triangle, i. e. which are intermediate between sounds of the a type and sounds of the u type, are called back vowels. Such are the vowels in pid, saw. Fig. 9. The Vowel Triangle. Classification of Vowels [ 7 77. It will be seen that in front vowels the "front" of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, while in back vowels the "back" of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate. 78. Vowels in which the highest point of the tongue is weU within the triangle, and intermediate in position between back and front, are called mixed vowels. An example of a mixed vowel is the vowel in iird. (It is not necessary to distinguish more than this one intermediate degree between back vowels and front vowels.) 79. In the above system of classification into the three divisions front, mixed and back, the vowels are classed according to the part of the tongue which is most raised. Vowels may also be classed according to the height to which the tongue is raised. 80. When we classify vowels according to the height to which the tongue is raised, we distinguish the following classes. (i) Close vowels, viz. those in which the tongue is as high as possible consistently with not producing audible friction: example the English i: (the vowel in see). (ii) Open vowels, viz. those in which the tongue is as low as possible: example the English (the vowel in not). 81. We distii^uish further two intermediate positions, which we caU (iii) Half-closei and (iv) Half-open vowels, in which the tongue is lowered from the close position to about one-third, and two-thirds of the total distance from the close position to the open position: an example of a half-close vowel is the English e (the first element of the diphthong in day)y 2kU example a half-open vowel is g (the first ele- ment of the diphthong in fair). 82. Fig. 11, which is a elaboration of the vowel triangle (fig, 9), wiU help to make clear the basis of the classi- Fr mi Mmi gn<* fication of vowels. \ \ | / /^'°* 88. The positions of the tongue in the for- '^""'•*"N mation of the different vowel sounds may, to Haif-op«Si a large extent, be felt, and in many cases ^ they may be seen by means of a looking- Frmi Bmi- glass. They may also be determined experi- ^^S- H- The Classification mentally in various ways. vowels. *84. Atkinson's Mouth Measwer^, fig. 12, is a convenient instru- ment for this purpose. AB is a narrow metal tube 16 cm. long, of the shape shown in fig. 12, furnished with a slot 4.5 cm. long extending from A to C. Within the tube is a wire having at the lower end a handle D which projects through the slot and enables the observer ' Obtainable from H.W.Atkinson Esq., West View, Eastbury Avenue, North- wood, Middlesex, England. The price of the set of two instruments with necessary- fittings is 68. 6d. post free. Jonei, Engllih Phonetics 2 18 Chapter VI. Classificatiok xjf Soukds to slide the wire along inside the tube. The wire is of such a length that when the handle D is at the end A of the slot, the upper end of the wire is just within B. Consequently when the handle D is pushed to the other end C of the slot, the wire projects from the end of the tube at JS to a distance of 4.5 cm. E is an attachment called the "tooth-stop". It is so rtiade that when the projection points downwards it can slide along the tube, but when the projection points upwards it is fixed. FGH is a wire handle. In taking measurements the tooth-stop is adjusted at any required point and the projection then turned upwards so as to fix it. The instru- ment is then held with the 3 middle fingers through the holes F, G, H, and the thumb on the handle D, and inserted into the centre of the mouth as shown in fig. 13. The handle D is then pushed along by the thumb until the end of the wire touches the tongue. The instrument is then removed from the mouth and the positidn of the end of the wire recorded by applying it to a previously prepared outline diagram of the section of the palate. By adjusting the tooth-stop at different points, the position of a number of points on the surface of the tongue may be recorded and diagrams showing the positionof the centre line of the tongue obtained. Further points may be recorded by using another tooth-stop without the two projecting pieces of metal; the instrument is than kept in position by holding it in such a way that the tube is supported at two points, viz: the edge of the teeth (at the tooth-stop), and either at the teeth-ridge or at a point of the hard palate.* *85. The relative heights of the tongue in pronouncing some vowels may be demonstrated roughly by means of a quadrant indicator (fig. 14).' The principle of the apparatus is as follows. A rubber tube T to which exploratory bulbs, .embouchures, etc. (Chap. XXI), may be attached, communicates with a small elastic bellows IB. To the bellows is fitted a pointer P, the further end of w'hich is made to move along along a quadrant Qq when the bellows is expanded. When the bellows Pig. 12. Atkin- son's Mouth Measurer. Fig. \i, Atkinson's Mouth Measurer in position. ' This latter arrangement really gives the best results ; it is better to reserve the tooth-stop shown in the figure for points of the tongue that cannot be reached without it. ^ A well-known model is that of Ziind-Burguet. It is contained in his "N^cessaire de Phon^tique Esp^rimentale", which is obtainable from Messrs .Elwert of Marburg a. L., Germany, price £i. 12 s. (= 65 fr.), post free. Classification op Vowet.s 19 Ziind-Burguet's Indicator. Quadrant is iu its natural state, that is, con- tracted, the pointer is at Q, but when the bellows is expanded by air pressure the pointer moves in the direction of q. By attaching a rubber bulb (see fig. 14) and placing it on the tongue, the relative heights of the tongue in pronouncing various vowels, e. g. i, e, S, may be demonstrated. *^6. Falatograms are also useful in this connection (see figs. 68, 7 1, etc.) It is desirable ru making palatograms of vowels to take care that the teeth are always kept at the same distance apart, because the diagram obtained depends not only on the height of the tongue but also on the height of the lower jaw. The height of the jaw may be kept constant by holding the end of a pencil firmly between the teeth. The pencil should not be more than 1 cm. in diameter.* When the teeth are kept at a constant distance apart the palatograms show the correct relative positions of the tongue, independently of the jaw. 87. Dr. E. A. Meyer of Stockholm has obtained excellent diagrams of the tongue positions of vowels by means of a row of fine leaden threads attached to an artificial palate along its centre line. He has also an-ived at valuable results with X-ray photographs. An account of his work will be found in Untersuchungen iiber Lautbildung by E. A. Meyer (published by Elwert, Marburg a. L., Germany), a work of the very highest interest and importance. 88. Vowel quality, though chiefly dependent on the position of the tongue, is also largely affected by the position of the lips. The lips may be held in a natural or neutral position, they may be spread out so as to leave a long narrow opening between them, or they may be drawn together so that the opening between them is more or less round. Vowels produced with the lips the latter position are called rounded vowels. Others are called unrounded. If the spreading of the lips is very marked, the vowels may be termed spread; it is, however, generally sufficient to distinguish vowels simply as rounded or un- rounded. Examples of rounded vowels are the sounds of the u type; examples of unrounded vowels are sounds of the i and a types. 89. Another element which is considered by many to he of im- portance in determining vowel quality is the state of the tongue and ' If the distance between the teeth is much greater than 1 cm., some of the vowels (e. g. the English i: and a:) cannot be pronounced quite correctly. Similarly if the distance is much less than 1 cm., there are other vowels (e. g. the English a:) which cannot be pronounced quite correctly. 2* 20 CttAPTER VI. ClASSIFICATIOU OP SoUNDS lips (more especially the former) as regards muscular tension. Vowels produced while the tongue is in a state of considerable inuscular ten- sion are called tense vowels. Those produced while the tongue is not in a state of muscular tension but is held loosely, are called lax vowels. 90. The two vowels, i:, i (in seat, sit) are commowfy described as corresponding tense and lax vowels, it being considered by many that the main part of the tongue is raised to much the same extent in each case and the difference between the vowels is mainly one of tenseness of the muscles of the tongue. 91. The author of the present book is not completely convinced of the correctness of this mode of describing the sounds. A description of lax i as a vowel in which the tongue is lowered and somewhat retracted from the normal close position would perhaps be nearer to the truth. At the same time it is convenient in practical work to have a single term to denote this "lowering and retracting", and "lax" may be used for this purpose in the absence of a better term 92. The term "lax" may also be used to describe the organic position of the English short u (in put put) as compared with the long "tense" u: (in boot bu:t). Here the characteristics of U as com- pared with u: might perhaps be more accurately described as a lowering of the tongue and a wider opening of the lips^ 98. The term "lax" is also commonly applied to the English short e and to the English (the first element of the diphthong OU, as in go flou). In the case of English short e the particular quality designated by the term "lax" might, in the opinion of the author, be equally well described as "having the tongue somewhat lower than the normal half-close position". In the case of English this charac- teristic known as laxness is practically equivalent to "having the tongue slightly lower than the normal half-close position and the lips less close together than is usually the case with half-close vowels". 94. The term tense and lax will only be applied m this book in the case of close and half-close vowels, and in the case of the English sound a:. In other cases it seems hardly advisable to make any distinc- tion between tense and lax vowels. It is extremely difficult to deter- mine in the case of the opener vowels whether the sensation of "tenseness" is present or not, and there is in regard to some vowels considerable difference of opinion on the subject* 95. The "tenseness" or "laxness" of a vowel may be observed mechanically in the case of some vowels by placing the finger on the ' In narrow transcription (§13) these corresponding tense and lax vowels may be distinguished by using the mark of laxness \ or the mark of tenseness '. Thus in narrow transcription the lax 1 and u sounds may be denoted by [i], [ii], and the corresponding tense sounds by [i], [A] or simply [IJ, [n). Those who prefer using separate symbols for lax i, u are recommended to use I, u. ' See for instance the remarks on w, p. 74, note 8. Classification of Vowels 21 throat between the larynx and the ohin. When pronouncing |<>r in- stance the English short and lax i, this part of the throat feels loose, but when pronouncing the corresponding tense vowel (the English long i;), the throat feels considerably tenser and is somewhat pushed forward. 96. The soft palate may affect vowel quality. In the ai-ttculation of normal vowels the soft palate is raised so that it touches the back of the pharynx as shown in fig. 10. The result is that no air can pass through the nose. It is, however, possible to lower the soft palate so that it takes up the position shown in tig. 1 and the air can then pass out through the nose as well as through the mouth. When vowels are pronounced with the soft palate lowered in this way, they are said to be nasalized. Nasalization is expressed in phonetic writing by the symbol ~ placed over the symbol of the sound which is nasalized. An example of a nasalized vowel is the French fl, as in cent, sang, sfi. Consonants, other than nasal consonants, may also be nasalized, but such nasalized consonants do not occur regularly in any important language. 97. The movements of the soft palate may be observed by means of a pencil about 6 inches long inserted into the mouth. If this is held between the finger and the upper teeth so that the end inside the mouth rests lightly against the middle of the soft palate, and groups of sounds such as ai|ag . . ., lizz . . . are pronounced, the outer end of the pencil is seen to rise for the sounds g, S and to fall for the sounds a, e. Again, if we breathe in through the nose and out through the mouth the end of the pencil rises and falls in a similar manner. 98. We now give a table of the vowels ordinarily used in Eng- lish (broad transcription, §§ 14, 15). Front \ Mixed / Back Close . . . Half-close Half-open Open . . . These vowels are described in detail in Chapters XU, XIII and XIV. CHAPTEE VII SYLLABLES 99. When two sounds of a group are separated by one or more sounds less sonorous than either of them, the two sounds are said to belong to different syllables. (For the relative sonority of sounds see §57.) Thus in the group 'lete (letter)- the e and the 9 are separated 22 Chaft^ii Vn, Syllables by t, a sound less sonorous than either e or »; the e and 9 there- fore belong to different syllables. Similarly in the group Undsn (London) the a and 9 belong to different syllables because they are separated by two consonants less sonorous than either of them. 100. Conversely, a group of sounds is said to form a single syl- lable when no two of the sounds are separated by a sound less sonorous than either of them. Thus in the group graund (ground) the most sonorous sound is the a, the r and u are both less sonor- ous than the a, the n is less sonorous than the u, the g is less sonorous than the r, and the d is less sonorous than the n (see § 57). Consequently no two of the sounds are separated by a sound less sonorous than either of them, and therefore the group forms a single syllable. 101. The most sonorous sound in a syllable is said to be syllabic;. The syllabic sound of a syllable is generally a vowel, but is occasionally one of the more sonorous consonants (as in the English people 'pi: pi, little 'litl, button 'bAtn^). Syllabic sounds are generally, though not always, separated by consonants. 102. In the comparatively rare cases when two consecutive vowels form two syllables, there must be either a slight decrease in the force of the breath between them or else an insertion of a trace of some consonant or consonantal vowel (§ 105).* The former may be observed especially when the two vowels in question are identical or very simi- lar, as in the word tee-eater 'bililte, or in the phrase we saw all wi:'S3:'o:l, or in the French word creer kree*. The latter is, however, the commoner case. Thus in the English create kri'eit a trace of the conso- nant j is generally inserted between the syllables. The same thing appears to be not unfrequently done in the French creer. In a case like lower 'l0H8 the presence of the u is sufficient to separate the syllables, u being a sound less sonorous than either the o or the 9 (§ 57). Germans are apt to mark the syllable division in such words as create kri'eit, cooperate kou'opareit by inserting the sound ' (§ 160ff.). This pronunciation is incorrect. In kou'opereit the presence of the n is sufficient to separate the syllables. 108. When two vowels are so placed and so pronounced that there is no diminution of sonority between them (i. e. that they do not form more than one syllable), they are said to form a diphthong. Examples of diphthongs in English are ai as in high hai, au as in how hau, ou as in go gou, sa as in fair fsa. Q\, tj> ou. ' Some foreigners are apt to replace the syllabic 1, u, in such words by groups such as »! or el, an, etc., thus, 'pi: pal, 'litel, 'bAtan. Soch pronunciations must be avoided, especially after t and d, as in little'mi, middk 'midl. See § 196. • It is also possible, or even probable, that a sudden change ot pitch (intonation) may sometimes give the effect of syllable-division. It must always be remembered that where there is a sudden change of pitch, it is often extremely difficult to ascer- tain, without special apparatus, whether there is any simultaneous variation in force. ' Narrow transcription [krd^]. STLLiiBLES 23 104. One of the vowels in a diphthong is generally less sonorous than the other. The less sonorous vowel of a diphthong may he indicated phonetically by the mark*" if desired. In the English diphthongs ai, au, ou, ea the less sonorous vowels are the i, u, u, 9 respectively. This may be indicated phonetically, if desired, by writing at, au, oil, 19. 105. When one of the vowels is very much less sonorous than the other it is often termed consonantal. Thus in the English diph- thongs ai, au (as in high hai, how hau) the i and u are very much less sonorous than the a (§ 57) and may therefore be called consonantal. 106. When a diphthong is formed by two vowels which are norm- ally of approximately equal sonority, one of the vowels is generally rendered less sonorous than the other by making a difference in the force of the breath. An example of this is found in the English diph- thong S3 (as in fair fsa). The sounds e and 9 when isolated and pronounced with equal force of the breath have approximately equal sonority, but in the English diphthong 69 the first element is pro- nounced with greater force and therefore has greater sonority than the second.* Again the English sound i is normally less sonorous than the sound 9; nevertheless in the English diphthong 19 (as in dear di9) the i is pronounced, in nornlal pronunciation, with so much more force than the 9 that its sonority becomes greater than that of the 9^ 107. When in a group of three consecutive vowels which are not separated by any diminution in the force of the breath, the second is more sonorous than either of the others, we have a true triph- thong. An example of a true triphthong is uoi in the Italian iuoi buai; oae a careless way of pronouncing the word why (properly wai or hwai) is also a true triphthong 108. The gi-oups ai9, au9 (as in fire faia, power paU9) are not true triphthongs, i and u are less sonorous than a and 9 (§ 57), and therefore the a and 9 belong in each case to different syllables (§ 99). The i and u of these groups are, however, often lowered towards S and 9 (§§ 414, 415). The groups then j approach nearer to true triph- thongs, but they never become time triphthongs. In their extreme forms they become diphthongs of the type a9 or the single long vowel a: (§§ 414, 416). It is, however, sometimes cjonvenient to call the groups ai9, au9 triphthongs for want of a better name and in view of the fact that the groups are often treated in poetry as forming only one syllable. ' A striking example of the eifeet of tte position of the greatest force of the breath in a diphthong is found in the pronunciation of ui in Italian. In some words, e. g. lui Ini ("he"), the first element has the greater force, and in other words, e. g. lui liii ("wren"), the second element has the greater force. » It is, however, not uncommon to meet with Southern English speakers who retain- the normal sonority of the two vowels in many words^ pronouncing for instance dear as dia: (which is practically identical with djo:). But this pronunciation can hardly be considered as standard. 24 Chapter VIII. The English Plosive Consosants CHAPTER VIII THE ENGLISH PLOSIVE CONSONANTS 109. Plosive consonants are formed by completely closing the air passage, then compressing the air and suddenly opening the passage, so that the air escapes making an explosive sound P 110. In pronouncing the sound p the air passage is completely blocked by closing the lips and raising the soft palate; the air is compressed by pressure from the lungs, and when the lips are opened the air suddenly escapes from the mouth, and in doing so makes an explosive sound; the vocal chords are not made to vibrate. The for- mation of the sound may be expressed shortly by defining it as the BREATHED BI-LABIAL PLOSIVE COnSOnaut. 111. p is the usual sound of the letter p; example pipe paip. P is silent in the initial groups pt, pn., generally also in initial ps: examples ptarmigan 'taimigdn, pneumatic nju'msetik, psalm sa;m'; also in the single words raspberry 'ra:zbri and cupboard 'kAbed. Note the exceptionally spelt word hiccough 'hikAp. 112. In English when p is followed by a stressed vowel as in pardon 'pa:dn, it is pronounced with considerable force, and a notice- able puff of breath or "aspiration", i. e. a slight h, is heard after the explosion of the p and before the beginning of the vowel. This aspiration is not so strong when the p is preceded by s (e. g. in Spartan 'spaitn) as when the syllable commences with the p. Also the aspiration is not so sti'ong when an extremely short vowel follows, as in picked pikt. It is not usually necessary to indicate the aspiration of p in practical phonetic transcription. When p is followed by an unstressed vowel, as in upper 'Apa, it is also slightiy aspirated, but the aspiration" is not nearly so strong as when the sound is followed by a stressed vowel. (Por further discussion- of aspirated plosives see Theory of Plosive Consonants, § 167 ff.) 118. Scandinavians and some Germans are apt to aspirate initial p far too strongly, pronouncing 'pocdn as 'phaidn or 'pba:dli. Other Germans, on the contrary, especially South Germans, replace p by a very feebly articulated sound not followed by any h, a consonant which sounds to an English ear rather likeb (phonetic symbol b'). Scan- dinavians also have a tendency to replace p by b when it occurs at the beginning of an unstressed syllable as in upper 'Ap9, apple 'aeplj and after 8 as in spend spend. They should practise aspirating the p in these cases. ' Some persons pronounce ps in words beginning with psych-\ thus psycho- logy is sai'koladsi or psai'kalad^i. " is the sign of devocalization, bo that b denotes "unvoiced b". Plosive Conbonants (p, b, t) 25 114. French people on the other hand pronounce the consonc^nt p strongly as in English, but they usually do not insert the aspira- tion properly (§ 112). They should rather aim at saying 'pha:dn, etc.: they are never likely to exaggerate the h Ufee the Scandinayians and Grermans. 115. Words for practice: peel pi:l, pill pil, pail peil, pencil 'penal, pair pse, patch psetj, pie pai, power 'pau9, pass pous, pockd 'pakit, paw po: (=pour, pore), public 'piblik, post poust, pool pn:l, j^ll pnl, purse p»:s; capable 'keipebl, happy Tisepi, p^per 'pepe, people 'pi: pi; lip lip, map maep, top tup, AeJp help; spin spin, spmd spend, spot spat, spor# sp3:t, spoon spu:n. 118. The sound b is formed exactly like p (§ 110) except that the vocal chords are made to vibrate (§§ 34, 43) so that "voice" is heard. The formation of the sound b may be expressed shortly by defining it as the voiced bi-labial plosive consonant. 117. b is the usual sound of the letter i; example baby 'beibi. JB is silent when final and preceded by m, as in lamb Isem, comb koum*; also before if in a few words such as debt det, douibt dant, subtle 'SAtl. 118. Many foreigners, especially Germans, do not voice this sound properly, but replace it by a sound resembling a very weak p, in fact the sound b mentioned in § 113. For exercises for acquiring a properly voiced b see § 62. 119. Spaniards and Portuguese people do not always make the fuR contact which is necessary for the proper pronunciation of the sound b. This is especially the case when the b comes between two vowels as in labour 'leiba. The result is that the b becomes a bi- labial fricative consonant (phonetic symbol 13, § 351). Sonie Germans have a similar tendency. 120. Words for practice: bee bi:, bid bid, bay bei, bed bed, bare b&9, bad baed, buy bai, bough ban, bark beck, box boks, bought b3:t, bud bAd, boat bout, boot bnit, bull bul, Imm bain; October ak'toube, roWw 'robin, buhbleliAbli we6 web, 6mZ6 bAlb, htibbub'hAhAh, tribe tr&ib. t 121. In pronouncing the English variety of the sound t, the air passage is completely blocked by raising the soft palate and raising the tip of the tongue to touch the teeth-ridge, as shown in fig. 15; the air is compressed by pressure from the lungs, and when the tongue is removed from the teeth-ridge the air suddenly escapes through the month, and in doing so makes an explosive sound. The vocal chords are not made to vibrate. The formation of the sound may be expressed ' Note that the name Combe ia pronounced ka:m (like Coombe). 26 Chaptee VIH. The English Plosive Consonants shortly by defining it as a breathed post-dental (or ALVEor.AR) J-LOSIVE consonant. Pig. 15. Tongue position of English t. Fig. 16. Tongue position of French t (variety with tip of tongue against upper teeth). Fig. 17. Tongue position of French t (variety with tip of tongue against lower teeth). 122. The sound t is the usual sound of the letter t; example tent tent. It is, however, represented by -ed in the past tenses and past parti- ciples of verbs ending in breathed consonants (other than t): examples paclced paekt, missed mist, rushed rAjt (but compare waited 'weitid).' Note also the exceptionally spelt words eighth eit6, thyme taim, Thames temz, Thomas 'tames,- Mathilda ma'tilde. t is silent in words ending in -stle, -sten: examples castle 'ka:sl, thisUe '6isl, fasten 'fa:sn, hasten 'heisn, listen 'lisn.^ 123. Many foreigners, e. g. the French, Italians, Hungarians, and some Germans, articulate the sound t with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth, as shown in iig. 16 (less commonly against the lower teeth, as shown in fig. 17). They pronounce a pre-dental consonant instead of a post-dental (alveolar) consonant. This articula- tion produces a very unnatural effect when used in English, . especially when the t is final, as in what Aiwat' (compare the French note [n5t]). 124. The difference between the articulation of t in French and English may be shown by palatograms. Figs. 18 and 19 show palato- grams of the English two tu: and the French tout [tii]. Figs. 20 and 21 show palatograms of the English tea ti: and the French type [tip].^ 125. In English when t is followed by a vowel in a stressed syllable, as in taken 'teitn, it is "aspirated" in the same way * ' This only applies to verbs, not to the termination -ei. generally. Thus wicked is.'wikid (see § 135, note). * The only exception of importance is pestle pestl (rarely 'pesl). " Italic letters in phonetic transcriptions denote optional sounds; thus /iwat means that the word may be pronounced either hwot or wot. * Incidentally these palatograms corroborate a curious observation previously made by the author, that while the English t is articulated further back when followed by sounds of the u type than when followed by sounds of the i type, yet in French the opposite is the case. Plosive Consonants (t, tj) 27 as p, that is to say a slight L is inserted between the explosion and the beginning of the following vowel. 126. Scandinavians and some Germans are apt to exaggerate this h and say 'theikn (or 'the:kn, § 390). There are, however, other Germans, especially South Germans, who pronounce the sound very feebly, and do not insert any h after it, the consonant then sounding to an English ear rather like a weak d (phonetic symbol d). These Fig. 18. Palatogram Fig. 19. Palato- Fig. 20. Palate- Fig. 21. Palato- of the English word gram, of the gram of the English grannoftheFrench two. French word tout. word tea. word type. latter must be careful to pronounce the English t with considerable force of the breath. Scandinavians have a tendency to replace t by d when it occurs at the beginning of an unstressed syllable, as in matter 'mseta, tattle 'batl; also after s, as in storm stoim. They should prac- tise aspirating the t in all such cases. 127. French people, on the other hand, pronounce the consonant t strongly as in English, but they usually do not insert the aspira- tion properly. The sound they produce is known as "unaspirated" t. Tliey should therefore rather aim at pronouncing 'theikn, etc. 128. Words for practice: tea ti:, tin tin, tear (of the eye) tio, take teik, tell tel, tear (to rend, a rent) tsa, attack e'taek, time taim, town taan, task tcusk, top tap, talk to:k, tumble 'tAmbl, toast toust, two tai, took tnk, turn ta:n; writing 'raitig, ivater 'wa:t», native 'neitiv, theatre 'Oieta, constitute 'kanstitjuit, potctto pe'teitou; print print, profit 'profit (= prophet), doubt dant, treat tri:t. 129. As regards the variety of t known as "inverted'^ t" (phonetic symbol t) see §§ 513, 514. y* 130. The sound t occurs frequently as the first element of the consonantal ^oup tJ (for J" see § 308). Examples church tja.'tj", match niffitj*, picture 'piktje,* question 'kwestjn, natural 'nst/ral. 131. The sound here represented by tJ" varies to some extent with ' Most words ending in unstressed -ture are pronounced with»-tj9 in Southern English. Examples furniture 'fainitja, natw/re 'neltja. Exceptions are aperture 'sDpatjiia, overture 'oiiratjua. 28 Chaptkb VIII. The Enolish Plosivb Consonants different speakers. With some (probably the majority) the lips are protruded, with others they are spread, with some (for instance in the pronunciation of the author) the two elements are distinct, with others they are more closely coimected. 182. tj is regarded by some as a single sound. For reasons men- tioned in § 207 it seems preferable, at any rate for the puiposfes of the practical teaching of English, to regard it as double. 188. Wofds for practice: cheap tjiip, Chin tfin, chain tjein, check tfek, chwp tfaep, chUd tj'aild, charm tj'aim, chop tfap, chalk tjb:k, chum tjAm, choke tj'ouk, choose tjii:z, church tfaitf; each iitf, ditch ditj", H eitf, sketch sketj*, maich maetf, couch kantj*, arch aitf, Scotch skatj, porch poitj", tmich mAtJ, hroach, brooch broutj'. 184. The English variety of the sound d is formed exactly like the English t (§ 121) except that the vocal chords are made to vibrate so that "voice" is heard. The formation of the English d may expressed shortly by defining it as a voiced post-dental (or alveolak) plo- sive consonant. 186. d is the regular sound of the letter d: example deed di:d. Note that final -ed is pronounced d in the past tenses and past parti- ciples of all verbs ending in vowels or in voiced consonants (other than d); examples played pleid, seieed slizd, begged begd.^ 136. Like t, the English sound d is articulated by the tip of the ■tongue against the teeth-ridge (fig. 15), but many foreigners, and especially those speaking Romance languages, articulate the sound with the tip or blade of the tongue against the teeth (figs. 16, 17). This produces a very unnatural effect in English, especially when the d is final as in good gud. 187. The palatograms for d are practically identical with thope for t (figs. 18—21). 188. Many foreigners, especially Germans, do not voice the sound d properly, but replace it by a sound resembling a very weak t, in fact the sound d mentioned in § 126. For exercises for acquiring q properly voiced d, see § 62. ' When the verb ends in d (or in t) the teimination is pronounced -id: examples added '«edid, fitted 'fltid. When the verb ends with a breathed consonant (other than t) the termination ig pronounced t (§ 122). Note that the termination -ed in adjectives is practically always -Id. Hence a difference in pronunciation is made between aged (participle) eidjd and aged (adjective) 'eldsld, blessed (participle) blest and blessed (adjective) 'blesld, etc. Similarly the adverbs formed from participles take the pronunciation -idli, whatever the participle may be; compare implied im 'plaid, impliedly im'plaiidll, unfeigned 'An'feind, unfeignedly An'feinidli, marked ma:kt, markedly 'maikidli, composed kem'ponzd, composedly kem'ponzidli. Plosive Consonants (d, dg, k) 29 189. Spaniards and Portuguese people are apt to reduce d to a weak form of the corresponding fricative B (§ 288), especially when intervocalic, as in ladder 'Isedo. Danes have a similar tendency when the sound is preceded by a long vowel or a diphthoi^, as in trader treida. 140. Words for practice: deal dill, did did, dear die, daie deit, dd)t det, dare d&a, dash dsej*, dine dain, dotim dann, dark da:k, dog day, door da:, dust dist, dome doom, doom dn:m; hiding 'httiiiQ, louder 'laude, garden goidn, middle 'midi^; lead (to conduct) li:d, lead (metal) led, hard haid, had loud, wood wnd. 141. As regards the variety of d known as "inverted" d (phonetic symbol d) see §§ 5l3, 514. d5 142. The sound d occurs frequently as the first element of the consonantal group dj (for 5 see § 318). dg is the usual sound of j, and the usual sound of g before e, i and y; examples jump d5A.mp, jaw dja:, jet djet, gem dgem, giant 'dgaiant, page peidj; pigeon 'pidgin, religion ri'lidgan; dg has this sound in edge edj, judgment 'djAdgmant, etc. Note also the miscellaneous words ^rant^ee^r'yrsendgaj soldier 'sould^a, Greenwich 'grinidj, Iforwich 'naridj, sandwich 's£enwid5*. 148. The sound dj is subject to rariations similar to those of tj (§ 131). 144. dj is regarded by some as a single sound. For reasons mentioned in § 207 it seems, however, preferable, at any rate for the- purpose of the practical teaching of English, to regard it as double. 145. Words for practice: gee dsil, jig dsig, jeer dgia, James d^elmz, gem dgem, Jack dsask, g^e dgaib, jar dgo:, job djab', Jaw d5a:, just dgASt, joke dgonk, June d5ii:n, journey 'd5a:ni; bridge bridj, cage keid;, edge eds, badge baeds, barge MA^, lodge ladj, forge faidj, trudge tridg, liuge hju:d5, surge sa:d5. k 146. In pronouncing the sound k the air passage is completely blocked by raising the back of the tongue to touch the soft palate, the soft palate being also raised so as to shut off the nose passage (see lig. 22); the air is compressed by pressure from the lungs, and when the contact of the tongue with the palate is released by lowering the tongue, the air suddenly escapes through the mouth and in doing ' See § 196. • But Ipsicieh 'Ipswit/, Broitwich 'draitwltj. Some say 'stenwit/ in the singular, but 'seenwldgiz seems to be universal for the plural. The place-name Sandwich is more usually 'stenwitj, but some say 'seenwid; and some 'sfenid;. ' The proper name Job is djoub. 30 Chapter VIII. T^E English Plosive Consomants 80 makes an explosive sound; the vocal chords are not. made to vibrate. The formation of the sound k may be expressed shortly, by defining it as the BREATHED VELAR PLOSIVE consonant. 147. The sound k is the regular sound of the letter k, and of the letter c when followed by one of the letters a, o or u: examples king kig, cat kaet, coai kout, cut kit. ck is pronounced k in some words, e. g, character 'kserikta^, chemist 'kimist or 'kemist, Christmas 'krismas', ache eik. Qu is generally pro- nounced kw (e. g. queen kwi:n, quarter 'kwaite), but there are a few words in which it is pro- nounced k (e. g. conquer 'kagka, Kg. 22. Tongue po- sition of k. Fig. 23. Tongue po- sition of c. liquor 'lika, antique aen'tiik). X is generally pronounced ks (e. g. box baks); for the exceptional cases in which it is pronounced gz, see § 155. 148. Normal k pronounced by itself gives no palatogram. A palato- gram is however obtained when a front vowel follows, as in "key ki:. A palatogram of this word is shown in fig. 24. 149. French persons speaking English are apt to make the point of contact of the tongue with the palate too far forward in pronouncing k, especially when a front vowel follows, as in case keis. With some French persons the contact is so far forward that the sound becomes a true palatal consonant (§ 64, III). Fig. 24. Palatogram (The phonetic symbol for the breathed palatal plosive of the Engiisli -word consonant is C.) The nature of this mistake will be fce2/kl:,asprono«nc- realized by comparing the diagram of the palatal ed by the author. , •' „ ^_„ ^= . ,, , , ° r i i: oo consonant c, fig. 23, with the diagram of k, fig. 22. 160. In English when k is followed by a stressed vowel, as in kingdom 'kiijdam, it is treated like p and t, and a slight h ("aspira- tion") is inserted betyveen the explosion of the k and the following vowel. 161. Scandinavians and some Germans are apt to exaggerate this h, and say 'khiijdam. Other Germans on the contrary, especially South Germans, are apt to pronounce the sound very feebly, and not to insert any h after it; the consonant then sounds to an Eng- lishman like a weak g (phonetic symbol fl). Those who have a tendency to pronounce in this way must therefore be careful to pro- nounce the initial k with considerable force of the breath. Scandina- vians are also apt to replace k by g when the sound occurs at the ' Less commonly 'ksprakta. ' Rarely 'kristuias. Plosive Consonants (k, g) 31 beginning of an unstressed syllable, as in speaker 'spi:k9, TtnucUe 'nikl; also when preceded by s as in school skuil. They should prac- tise aspirating the k in these cases. 152. French persons on the other hand, pronounce the consonant k strongly as in English, but they usually do not insert the aspira- tion properly. They should therefore rather aim at pronouncing 'khigdam, etc. 168. Words for practice: key ki:, kill kil, cave keiv, kettle 'ketl, care kea, cat kat, kind kaind, cow kau, cart ka:t, collar 'kola, cmrse kais, cut kit, cold konld, cool ku:l, cushion 'kujin, curl ka:l; acre 'eika, cooking 'kukig, rocky 'roki; leak li:k, cake keik, pack paek, duke djii:k. « 154. The sound g is formed exactly like k (§ 146) except that the vocal chords are made to vibrate, so that "voice" is heard. The forma- tion of the sound g may be expressed shortly by defining the sound as the VOICED velak plosive consonant. 165. g is the regular sound of the letter g when followed by one of the letters a, o or « or a consonant or when final (as in game geim, good gud, gum gAm, green gri:n, big big). The sound g is also used in some words spelt with ge and gi, for instance, get get, give giv, girl ga:l ^, finger 'figga^. The x in the prefix ex- is generally pronounced gz when immediately followed by a stressed or semi-stressed vowel, except in words beginning with exc-: examples ea;acf ig'zaekt, examine ig'zaemiu, examination igzsemi'neifa, exhaust ig'za:st, exhibit ig'zibit (but except ik'sept, excite ik'sait); compare exhibition eksi'bij"!!, exercise 'eksasaiz in which the vowel following the prefix is c^uite unstressed. 156, As in the case of k some French speakers are apt to articu- late g too far forward (and sometimes even to replace it by the voiced palatal plosive, phonetic symbol j) when a front vowel follows, as in gay gei. * Also pronounced geal, especially by ladies; gial and geal may also be haaid. * The principal words in which g before e or i is pronounced' g are gear gia, geese gi:8, get get, gibberish 'gibarlj, gibbous 'gibas, giddy 'gidi, gift gift, gig gig, giggle 'gigl, gUd gild, gill (of a fish) gil {gill, liquid measure, is djil), gimlet 'qimWt, gimp gimp, begin bi'gin, gird g»:d, girder 'gaida, girdle 'gaidl, girl ga:!, girih ga:0, give gir, gizzard 'gizad, anger 'tegga, conger 'kagga, eager 'l:ga, finger 'flgga, hunger 'hAgga, linger 'ligga , longer 'l9i)ga, longest laggist, (fishj-monger -mAgga, stronger 'stragga, strongest 'straggist, tiger 'taiga, younger 'JAgga, youngett 'JAggist; all words ending with -gger, -gging, o. g. dagger 'deega, digging 'digfg; also the names Gertrude 'ga:trii:d, Qibbon(s) 'gibaa(z), Gibbs gibz, Gibson 'gibsn, Gilbey 'gilbi, Gilchrist 'gilkrist, Gillespie gi'iespi, Gillow 'gllon, (rt7pm 'gilpin, 6rirto)s'ga:tn, Gissing 'gisig and a number of less common names. Gill in "Jack and Gill" is djU, otherwise the proper name Gill is gil; Gifford is 'gifad or 'djifad (the former being the more frequent), Gilson is 'dsilsu or 'gllsn (the former being the more frequent). 32 CuArTEU Vin. The English Plosive Consonants 157. Many foreigners, especially Germans, do not voice the sound g properly, but replace it by a sound resembling a very weak k, in fact the sound g mentioned in § 151. For exercises for acquiring a propeirly voiced g see § 62. 158. Spaniards and Portuguese people often reduce g to the corresponding fricative sound (phonetic symbol ^), especially when intervocalic as in' dagger 'dsegd. Danes and some Germans have a similar tendency, especially when the preceding vowel is long, as in cargo 'kaiflou. 159. Words for practice; geese gi:s, give giv, gear gie, gate geit, guess ges, gas gses, guide gaid, gown gann, giuxrd ga:d, got gat, gauee ga:z, gum gAiu, goat gout, goose gu:s, good gnd, girl ge:!; eager 'i:go, tiger 'taig9, organ "oigan, sugar Juga; hig Mg, egg eg, Jog log, wiM^r mAg. 160. In forming the sound ' the glottis is closed completely by bringing the vocal chords into contact, the air is compressed by pres- sure from the lungs, and then the glottis is opened (by separating the vocal chords), so that the air escapes suddenly. The formation of the sound ' may be expressed shortly by defining it as the glottal PLOSIVE consonant. 161. This sound is commonly known as the "glottal stop" or "glottal catch"; it has no letter to represent it in ordinary spelling.' 162. An exaggerated form of this consonant constitutes the ex- plosive sound heard in coughing. Coughs can be represented in phonetic transcription if desired. A common kind of cough is 'Aha'Ah. A weakened form of the consonant ' occurs in the pronunciation of many languages, but the sound is not much used in standard English.' It sometimes occurs in English when a word which normally begins with a stressed vowel is specially emphasized. Thus if the word abso- hitdy in it is absolutely false (normally its'aebseluitli'foils) is spoken with great emphasis, it would often become ''sebseluitli. The sound ' may also be observed in the pronunciation of persons who are hesitating. 168. Most foreigners, however, and especially Germans, have a tendency to insert the sound ' at the begiimitig of all words which ought to begin with vowels. Thus instead of pronouncing it was all our own fault as itwa'za:lau9'roun'fa:lt they are apt to say something like iti33S''3raU9R''o:n'f9lt. Sometimes they even insert the sound in the middle of a word, saying, for instance, W69''aBX (or more prp- ' t at the termination of a syllable is replaced by 'in many English dia- lects. Thus in London dialect mutton, fortnight, butter are commonly pronounced ma'^n, 'foi^nolt, 'ba'^a. Plosive Consonants (g, »). Theory op Plosive Consonants 33 bably i3e:R''as) instead of wsa'rsez, kri''eit (or more probably ]£Ri''e:t) instead of kri'eit.i 164. This fault must be avoided at all costs. It is a mistake ■which will effectually spoil what is otherwise a good pronunciation, and it is one which often necessitates a great deal of practice to correct. It must be remembered that there is no break whatever in English between consecutive words which are closely connected by the sense. The correct pronunciation may be arrived at by dividing up the sounds into syllables, thus: it W8 'za: lau9 'roun 'fa: It. 165. In phonetic transcriptions in which the division into words is retained the absence of the glottal plosive may be marked by ^r thusj it W9z_'a:l_auar_'ouil 'fa: It. When transcriptions are arranged in breath-groups (as in the examples in the next paragraph or in the texts on pp. 18 — 21 of Phonetic Readings in English) this is hardly necessary. 166. Further examples for practice: far away 'fa:r8'wei, anywhere else 'eiiiwsa'rels^, the ends of the earth 9i'endzav9i'o:0, to eat an apple tu'i:ta'na'pl, all over again 'a:'IouTara'geiii, not at all 'iiata'to:!, to live on an island ta'livana'nailand, put on an overcoat 'putana'nou- vakont. ^ THEORY OF PLOSIVE CONSONANTS 167. To pronounce a complete plosive consonanrt (§ 65, I) two things are essential: (i) contact must be made by the articulating organs, (ii) the articulating organs must subsequently be separated. Thus, in pronouncing p the lips must be first closed and then opened. 168. While the organs articulating a plosive consonant are actually in contact they form what may be termed the stop. In the case of breathed consonants, e. g. p, nothing whatever is heard during the stop; in the case of voiced consonants, e. g. b, some voice (a greater or less amount according to circums'tances, § 178, ff.l is heard during the stop. 169. The explosion of a plosive consonant is formed by the air as it suddenly escapes at the instant when the stop is released. The rush of air, however, necessarily continues for an appreciable time after the contact is released. A plosive consonant therefore cannot be properly pronounced without being followed by another independent sound, namely this rush of air. This independent sound may be breathed or voiced. ' Germans sometimes have great difficulty in realizing that they do insert the sound ' in such cases. It is well seen by comparing the usual (Nortlierii) pronunciation of the German words herein liE'rain (or he 'rain' with Verein fer'^aiu (or far'^ain). ^ Or 'enihwsa'rels. Jo nee, £tigli!jU PiiuDGtir.-, 34 ClUPTBB VIII. Th£ E»G1.I8H PloSIVE CONSONANTS 170. When we proaounce a breathed plosive, e. g. p, by itself, it is generally followed by a short breathed sound which may be re- presented by ', thus p''. When we pronounce a voiced plosive, e. g. b by itself, it is generally followed by a short vowel, which may be represented by », thus b*. 171. When a voiced plosive consonant, e. g. b is followed by a vowel, as in the group ba;, the vowel itself constitutes the necessary independent sound. BREATHED PLOSIVES 172. It is possible to pronounce a breathed plosive consonant followed by a vowel, e. g. the group pa:, in such a way that the vowel constitutes the additional sound necessary for the full pronun- ciation of the consonant; the effect of this manner of pronouncing the group is that the vowel sound begins at the very instant of the explosion of the consonant: It is also possible to pronounce a breathed plosive consonant followed by a voiced consonant, e, g. the group pi, in such a way that the voice begins at the instant of the explosion. Breathed consonants pronounced in such a way that voice begins at the instant of the explosion are said to be unaspirated. 178. Unaspirated plosives fall into two classes, viz. those in which considerable force of the breath is used, and those in which the force of the breath is small.^ The former strike the English ear as belonging to the p, t, k class; the latter strike the English ear as belonging to the b, d, g class. Examples of the first kind are the French initial p, t, k, as in pere p&:R, tard taiR, cas ktt (see §§ 114, 127, 152); examples of the second are the sounds b, d, g, referred to in §§ 113, 126, 151, which are heard in many parts of Germany instead of the distinctly voiced b, d, fl, of standard German pronunciation. 174. In English, initial breathed plosives are not generally pro- nounced in this way, but breath is heard immediately after the ex- plosion. The sounds are then said to be aspirated. Thus part, pair are more accurately p'ait, p''t9; pradse is more accurately pFreiz. In Denmark and some parts of Germany aspiration of this kind is so strong that there is practically a full independent h inserted between p, t, k, and foUowing vowels (§§ 113, 126, 151). IMPLOSIVE SOUNDS 176. It is possible to pronounce consonants of plosive nature in which the necessary air pressure is produced by some other means than by the lungs. Such sounds are called implosivb sounds. 176. The most important implosive sounds are those formed by ' With voiced plosive consonants the amount of force does not appreciably influence the effect of the sound on the eax. Thbort of Plosive Consonants 95 a closure in the mouth (as for p, t, or k, for instance), raising the soft palate and closing the glottis. The air in the completely enclosed cavity thus formed is slightly compressed, chiefly through muscular action in the throat causing the larynx to rise slightly; when the closure in the mouth is released, the air therefore escapes with an explosive noise, although the glottis remains closed. When exaggerated these implosive sounds have a peculiar hollow quality resembling the sound made in drawing a cork out of a bottle. 177. We mention these sounds here because some French people are apt to use them instead of ordinary breathed plosives when final. Such a pronunciation may be corrected by pronouncing a clear h after the explosion-, e. g. practising the words up Ap, get get, look luk, as Aph, geth, lakh. VOICED PLOSIVES 178. In voiced plosive consonants the amount of voice heard during the stop may vary. In English and French when a voiced plosive, e. g. b, occurs between two vowels (as in aboitt e'baut), voice gener- ally sounds throughout the whole of the stop. Many French people also pronounce initial voiced plosives in this way, e. g. the b in bos ba, the d in doute [dut]. 179. In English when b, d, and g occur initially as in bee bi:, day dei, go gou, they are partially devocalized in the pronunciation of most people, that is to say, voice is not heard during the whole of the stop but only during part of it, generally the latter part. With some speakers . the voice disappears altogether, so that the sounds become b, d, g. 180. Note that in the cases mentioned in the two preceding sec- tions, the voice of the following vowel begins at the instant of the explosion. 181. Aaaiother variety of plosive consonant may be made, in which the stop is voiced but breath is heard when the contact is released. Final voiced plosives are often pronounced m this way in English. This is especially the case when another consonant precedes, as in btdb bAlb, more accurately bAlb''. 182. With some speakers the stop itself becomes partially or even completely devocalized under these circumstances. In the latter case the consonants become very weak breathed plosive consonants, or sometimes weak "implosive" sounds (§ 176). These weakened forms of final voiced consonants may be represented by 1^, d, ^, without inconvenience, being very similar in acoustic effect to the sounds l>j 4j flj previously described; Thus buU> is pronounced by some speakers bAl^. 188. In French, final vo.ced plosives are generally completed by 3* gg CHiPTEE VIII. The ENGttiSH Plosive Consonants the addition of a weak neutral vowel % Elbe, for instance, being pro- nounced slb". French people should be careful not to make this final » at all strong in speaking English. INCOMPLETE PLOSIVE CONSONANTS 184. Sometimes plosive consonants are not fully pronounced. This happens in English when a plosive consonant is immediately followed by another plosive consonant. Thus in the word act sekt, the tongue does not leave the roof of the mouth in passing from the k to the t. There is therefore no explosion of the k^ only the stop of it is pro- nounced. In Act II aekt'tu: there is in normal pronunciation no ex- plosion to the k or to the first t; the first t is in fact only indicated by a silence. In en^pty 'empti there is no explosion to the p; its presence is only indicated by a silence.^ Similarly in Pegged begd there is no explosion to the g; only the stop of the sound is pronounced. 185. In that time '5aet'taini, red deer 'red'dia, the first t and d are not exploded; in fact, the only difference between the tt, dd Tiere and the t, d in satire 'saetaio, red ear 'red'ia, readier 'redie, is that in the former case the stop is very much longer than in the latter. Further instances of the same kind are lamp-post 'Isemppoust, iodk- case 'bukkeis. 186. In apt sept, ebbed el)d the t, d are formed while the lips are still closed for the p, b. The result is that the p and b are not exploded, that is to say, no '' or " is heard when the lips are separated. 187. In ink-pot 'iijkpat, big boy 'bifl'bai, the lips are cldsed for th^ p and b during the stop of the k and g. The result is that no explosion of. the k or (j is heard. 188. The group td in that day 'Saet'dei only differs from the d in muddy 'niAdi in having a longer stop, the first part of which is breathed. In 'Sa't'dei, midday 'middei (or 'mid'dei) the stops are of the same length, but in the former the first part of the stop is breathed and the second part voiced, while in the latter the stop is voiced throughout. Further in.stances of the s&,me kind are scrap-boolt 'skraep- buk, black gown 'bla'k'gauii. 189. The group dt in bedtirne 'bedtaim, only differs from the t in better 'beta, in having a longer stop, the first part of which is voiced. In 'bedtaim, 'Oset'talm, the stops are of the same length, but in the former the first part of the stop is voiced and the second part breathed, while in the latter the stop is breathed throughout. A further instance of the same kind is egg-cup '^eyk.ip. 190. Many foreigners pronounce all the above groups of conson- ' The word is often reduced to 'eniti ; there is also a variant 'emmti. Theory op Plosive Consonants 37 ants incorrectly, ly inserting ■'or * between the consonants. The mistake is particularly objectionable in the groups kt, gd. Foreigners' usually pronounce act as 8ek''t, begged as beg'd. The foregoing ex- planations (§§ 184 — 189) should enable them to correct the fault without much difficulty. 191. Additional examples for practice: picked pikt, wrecked rekt, locked lakt, cooked kukt, worked wo'.kt, fogged fafld, tiigged tAgd, exacthi igzspktliS expectation ekspek'teijn, big dog 'big'dag. FA UCAL PLOSION 192. In groups cousisting of a plosive immediately followed by a nasal, e. g. the group tii in mutton 'm tn, the plosive is not pro- nounced in the normal way. The explosion heard in pronouncing such groups is not formed by the air escaping through the mouth, but the mouth ilosure is retained and the explosion is produced by the air suddenly escaping through the nose at tho instant when the soft palate is lowered for forming thb nasal consonant. Sounds formed in this way are often called FAUCAL. 193. Majiy foreigners are apt to pruaounce such groups as tn incorrectly. Thus they often pronounce mutton, topmost etc., as 'mAt**?! (or lUAtan or even raAton), 'tap^moUst, etc., instead of ''biAtn, 'tapmoust, etc. 194. Those who have difficulty may acquire the correct pronun- ciation by practising (i) pmpiu . . . and bmbm . . . without opening the lips, (ii) tntn . . . and dndn . . . without moving the tip of the tongue, (iii) kijkij . . , and gijgg . . . without moving the back of the tongue. 195. Additional examples for practicie: shopman 'Jbpmon, written ritii, certain 'Sditu, sudden 'sAdn, hidden 'hidn, bacon 'beikg (altern- ative form of 'beikan), oatmeal 'outmi:!, sharpness 'Jid^pnis. LATERAL PLOSION 196. In the groups tl, dl, as in little 'litl, middle 'midl, the ex- plosion of the t is lateral, that is to say the tip of the tongue does not leave the teeth-ridge in pronouncing the group. Many foreigners liave difficulty in doing this, and consequently replace tl by tal or something similar (thus 'lital, 'midal). The correct pronunciation of the tl in little may be acquired by practising the exercises titltl..., dldldl . . . with the tip of the tongue kept firmly pressed against the upper teeth, where it can be seen. In pronouncing these exercises the tip of the tongue should not move at aU. * Also often pronounced ig'zcekli. 38 Chapteb VIII. The Bn&lish Plosive Consokakts 1»7. Words for practice: Mtle 'ketl, rattle 'rsetl, Jo^fe'batl, aUas 'astles, rightly 'raitli, at iasr;9t'la:st, middle 'midl, saddle 'ssedl, muddle 'lUAdl, had luck 'baed'Uk. AFFRICATIVE CONSONANTS 198. Plosive consonants may be pronounced in two ways: (i) the articulating organs may be separated with extreme rapidity, (ii) the articulating organs may be separated more slowly. 199. In the first case the effect of the plosive consonant is what might be termed "clean-cut"; the explosion itself is, as far as the ear is concerned, instantaneous, and the ear cannot detect any intermediate sound between the explosion and a following vowel (or a following i). 200. In the second case, when the organs articulating the plosive are separated more slowly, the ear perceives distinctly the effect of the corresponding fricative consonant (through the position for which the organs are obliged to pass) between the explosion and a follow- ing vowel (or a following h). 201. Thus in English, French, and many other languages, the consonant b is pronounced in the first manner; the lips are separated smartly at the instant of the explosion when we pronounce such a syllable as ba. It is however possible to perform the separation of the lips more slowly; the effect is then almost that of bva (v is "bilabial v", § 351). Spaniards and Portuguese people attempting to pronounce the English b often articulate in this way. 202. Similarly if the syllable da is pronounced with a pre-dental (French) d and the tip of the tongue is withdrawn more slowly than in the case with d in most languages, the effect is almost that of d8a. 208. This method of articulating plosive consonants produces what, are known as affricative or assibilated consonakts. 204. An example of the change of a normal plosive into an assi- bilated consonant may be observed to be proceeding at the present day in Loudon. Many Londoners now pronounce t and d as affricative sounds.' In Cockney pronunciation tea (standard ti:) has an effect approaching that of tsel, and down (standard dann) sometimes has a marked resemblance to dzaeun.^ It is often difficult to teU whether a Londoner says cat kaet or cats ksets. 206. The English tf and d5, or at any rate some varieties of them, might be considered as affricative sounds. They might be de- scribed as plosive sounds corresponding to the fricatives J, 5, i. e. with ' This pronunciation is not recommended to foreigners. ' The transitional sound ("glide'") heard in London pronunciation is, however, •ot strictly a transitory s (or z) but a transitory sound intermediate iDetween s and 6 (or z and d). Thkosv of Plosive CoHaoiiAirTS \ 39 tongue position as in fig. 25 (compare fig. 55) and pronounced with not too rapid withdrawal of the tongue from the teeth-ridge, so that the transitory J" or 5 is distinctly audible. 206. As it is thus possible to regard certain forms of the Eng- lish tj and dj as single aflfricatiye sounds, some writers have urged the desirability of representing the sounds pho- netically by single symbols.* The experience of the author and numerous other teachers is, however, that for the purposes of the practical teaching of English it is more convenient to regard these English sounds as double, and accordingly to re- present them phonetically by the notation tf, d5. 207. The following are some reasons in support of this view. Fig. 25. Tongue posi. (i) With many speakers the two elements are tion of tj. quite sufficiently distinct to justify this notation. (ii) When the sound tj" occurs before other consonants, it is not treated as the other plosives would be under similar circumstances. Thus in which child 'ftwit/'tjaild the first tJ has its usual explosion, but in what time '^wat'taim, lilaek coat 'blsek'kout, stop playing 'stap'pleiig, the first of the doubled consonants has no explosion. Doubled p, t, or k are, in fact, in English identical with lengthened p, t or k; doubled tJ" is not identical with lengthened tJ'^ (iii) The sound tJ" has in many words, e. g. picture 'piktj*9 *, orchard 'aitfad, developed from earlier 1j, which cannot be regarded as other- wise than a group of two sounds. (iv) If tf is to be considered as single, there are other consonant groups which should also be considered single, e. g. ts (both final as in English and initial as in German), tr, kw, German pf. The ts in eats i:t8 seejns to be formed in a ^numner exactly analogous to the for- mation of the ^ in each iltj*. jL^in, the correct pronunciation of r in such a word as t'fap traep may be^acquired by Germans and other foreigners' by trying to pronounce chap tjaep with a very wide open mouth (see § 264). (v) The alternation in pronunciation in words like French (frentj" or frenj) is readily explained on the supposition that tJ" is double. This alternation is exactly parallel to the alternation between nts and 118 in words like sirtce sins (pronounced by many sints). ' There are even some who appear to consider that all varieties of the English tJ and dj are single sounds. The symbols , }«, 1% etc' 236. Figs. 30, 31 and. 32, show the approximate positions of the tongue in pronouncing 1', 1" and 1* with the tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge. Similar diagrams may be drawn to show the forma- tion of 1', 1", 1* pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth. 237. Figs. 33 to 38 are palatograms showing the differences between some of the chief varieties of 1 pronounced with the tip of the tongue placed as in English. A similar set of diagrams may be obta,ined showing the differences between the same varieties of 1 pronounced with the tip of the tongue placed further forward as in French. 288. The difference between "clear" varieties of 1 and "dark" ' It is often convenient in oral work to refer to these Bounds as "1 with I resonance", "1 with u leBonance", etc. I Sounds 45 Fig. 33. Palatogram of \V] with the tip of the tongue placed as in English. Fig. 34. Palatogiam of [l«] with the tip of the tongue placed as "in English. Fig. 35, Falatogram of [1"1 witt the tip of the tongue placed as in Eng- lish. The palatogram of [l''-] (1 with resonance of English long o:) is very similar to this. Fig. 36. Palatogram of [P] (1 with resonance of English short o) with the tip of the tongue placed as in English. Fig. 37. Palatogram of [1"] with the tip of the tongue placed as in English. Fig. 38. Palatogram of [V] with the tip of the tongue placed as in English. varieties of 1 is simply a difPerence of vowel resonance. In clear varieties of 1 the front of the tongne is raised in the direction of the hard palate, while in dark varieties of 1 the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate. In other words, clear 1-sounds have the resonance of front vowels, whereas dark 1-sounds have the resonance of back vowels.^ ' It has often been stated that the peculiar quality of the dark 1 as com- pared witn the clear 1 is due to the retraction of the tip of the tongue. This view is erroneous. As a matter of fact a dark 1 with n resonance pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the back part of the teeth-ridge is indistin- guishable as regards acoustic effect from a dark 1 with u resonance pronounced with the tip of the tongue right against the teeth. Similarly a clear 1 with i resonance pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the back part of the teeth-ridge is indistinguishable acoustically from a clear 1 with i resonance pro- nounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth. The same applies to all the other varieties. Note that the English dark 1 is articulated with the tip of the tongue against the teeth in such a word as lieal^ helO; note also that if a foreigner is unable to pronounce the English dark 1 with the tip of the tongue right againgt the teeth, he may be quite certain that he is forming the sound incorrectly (see § 240). 46 Chapteb IX. The Eholish Liquid Consonants 289. The English "dark" 1, which is used finally and before con- sonants, generally has the resonance of a back vowel approaching u. The English "clear" 1, which is used before vowels, generally has the resonance of a front vowel approaching i.^ 240. Most foreigners use a clear 1 in English in all cases, instead of using a dark 1 when final or followed by a consonant. It is often a matter of considerable difficulty to acquire the correct pronunciation. The best way of obtaining the English dark 1 [1"] is to place the tip of the tongue between the teeth^ in the lateral position, and, while the tip of the tongue is pressed firmly against the upper teeth, to try to pro- nounce the vowel u without rounding the lips. 241. Many foreigners find it easier to acquire [I"] first, by pressing the tip of the tongue firmly against the upper teeth and trying to pronounce simultaneously the vowel 9. When [l*] is obtained,, the quality of the sound has then to be gradually modified until the cor^ rect [1°] is arrived at. It should be remarked, however, that the sound [1"] should only be used as an exercise and should not be used instead of [1"] in speaking.* The Portuguese have a tendency to use [1'] in speakiag. 242. Other foreigners find it more helpful to press the tip of the tongue firmly against the upper teeth and try to pronounce a series of vowels, beginning with i, e. g. i, e, a, a, w. With a little practice they are generally able to produce readily the various varieties of 1^ viz: [V], [I*], [1"], [1*], [1"], and can therefore in particular pronounce the [!"] of standard English. 248. The easiest words for practising the dark 1 are those in which the sound is syllabic (§ 101) and not preceded by t or d (§ 196), e. g. people 'pi: pi, tahle 'teibl, knuckle 'uAkl, struggle 'strAgl; the most difficult words for most foreigners are those in which the pre- ceding vowel is a: or ou, e. g. all vA, old ould. 244. Words for practice: doMe'^xM., noble' novi\i\, ^Jossftfe 'posebl*, ' Both are subject, to slight variations depending on the nature of the ad- joining vowel. The only cases of note are when the adjoining vowel is a or a. When the dark 1 is preceded by a or a, its resonance tends towards these vowels; and when the clear 1 is followed by a or a, it tends towards a "neutral" 1 with the resonance of a. ' The reason for saying "between the teeth" is that many foreigners try to obtain the peculiar resonance of the English 1" by curling back or "inverting" (§ 513) the tip of the tongue. The sound so formed is quite incorrect. The ten- dency to invert the tongue is avoided if the tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth, and when once 1" can be correctly pronounced with the tip of the tongue between the teeth, there is no difficulty in retracting it to the more usual posi- tion just behind the upper teeth. See note on previous page. " [I'J is often heard in Cockney instead of [!"]. ■ ♦ Or paslbl. 1 SouHDs. r Sounds 47 struggle strAfll, eagle 'i:gl, angle 'aegfll, vessel 'vesl, partial 'paijl, little 'litl, se«fe 'setl, midrffe 'iiiidl, candle 'kaendl; feel fl;I, fill fil, /ai7 feil, /eZZ fel, shaU Jael (also pronounced /ol, /l, see § 497), fUe fail, /bw? faul, .swori sna:l, doll dol, /aii fa:!, dull dAl, /bai foul, /bo? fu:l, fuU ful, /mH fell; field fl:ld, wafc milk, >wat7s meilz, health heie, cMrf tfaild, owls anlz, smZd skoild, 6m?A; bAlk, cold kould, rMJerfru|ldj^j»MZp»V 'pulpit. 245. As regards the variety known as "inrerted" 1, phonetic sym- bol 1, see § 514. *24e. The differences betvreen the English [!»] as in coal koul and the foreign [1'] as in the German wohl [v6:l} may be demonstrated experimentally with the quadrant indicator (§ 85) by attaching a small rubber bulb and placing it between the front (§ S3) of the tongue and the hard palate. The bulb should be inserted at the side of the mouth in order that it may be affected by the motions of the "front" of the tongue only, and not by the motions of the tip. When the German [1*] is pronounced the pointer moves considerably, but when the Eng- lish [1"] is pronounced it practically does not move at all. 247. Breathed Z- sounds do not occur regularly in English (see however § 522). The French have a tendency to use a breathed 1- sound (phonetic symbol 1) in words like people, IrucTde, pronouncing them piipl, boekl, instead of 'pi:pl, 'bAkl. THE r SOUNDS 248. There are many varieties of r- sounds. Details as to their formation are given in §§ 254, 256, 258, 260, 261. As the most im- portant variety is a rolled sound it is convenient to treat all the r- sounds together in this (diaptfer. 249. In broad transcriptirai the symbol r may without inconvenience be used for all the varieties. In narrow transcription we distinguish five principal varieties, the symbols for which are [r], [.1], [r], [r] and [b]. 250. The letter r is pronounced as a coifsonant (in non-dialectal English) only when a vowel sound foUows, as in red red, arrive 3'raiv, very 'yeri, for instance fa'rinstens. Foreigners should note particularly that no r- sound is ever heard finally or before a consonant in non- dialectal English: thus, fear, fair, far., four, fir, err are pronounced fla, fS9, fcL', f»:, fa: (^fm), e: respectively. Similarly fierce, scarce, farm, cord, first, fours, erred, are pronounced, flas, sksas, farm, kaid, faist, fo:z, o:d respectively. Nearly 'nieli rhymes exactly with really 'riali. French students should observe that the English word mmsh is practically identical with the French mdche ma: J". 251. But when a word ending with the letter r is immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel, then the r- sound is 48 Chaptee IX. The English Liquid Consonakts generally inserted in the pronunciation. Thus, though pair by itseli is pronounced pee, yet a pair of hoots is usually pronounced d'pearar- 'bli:ts. Similarly your by itself is pronounced ja:*, your hook is pro- nounced 'jai'buk, but your own is pronounced jai'roun; similarly our by itself is au9, but our own is aue'roun^; fa/r by itself is fa:, but fa/r away is 'faire'wei; other by itself ia 'a9o, but the other end is 8i'A89'rend.* 252. There are, howeyer, special circumstances in which a final r has no consonantal value even when the following word begins with' a vowel. The principal cases are: fi) when the vowel of the final syllable is preceded by r, e.g. the emperor of Germany di'emparaav'dseimani, a roar of laughter 9'ra:3T'la:ft», nearer and nearer 'niaraan'niera, there are at least four of them de9r98t'li:st'fa:ravdam; (ii) when a pause is permissible between the two words (even though no pause is actually made), e. g. he opened the door and wdlied in hii'oupndda- 'da: end' wo: kt 'in. 253. Cases may also be found occasionally which do not seem to admit of any satisfactory explanation. Thus very many speakers say 'in9:9n'm3: for 'm9:r9ii'in9: (more and more), l)i'f9:itstu:'leit for bi'f9:rltstu:'leit (before it is too late). 254. The VOICED post-dental rolled consonant is denoted in narrow transcription by [r]. This sound is formed by a rapid suc- cession of taps of the tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge. This action is shown in fig. 39. (In pronouncing the sound, the soft palate is of course raised.) 255. This sound is regularly used in the North of England as the pronunciation of initial r, and ii is generally regarded by Eng- lish elocutionists as the most correct pronunciation of the let- ter r when followed by a vowel. 256. This form of r sound, however, is not generally used by Southern English speakers. In Southern English the sound is usually replaced by the corre- sponding fricative (narrow phone- Fig. 39. positions Tongue of rol- led r. Fig. 40. Tongue posi- tion of English frica- tive [j]. ' Less commonly ju8, jo8 or J33. ^ Or aa'roun or hi'roun (§ 416), ° Note the various possible pronunciations of for Jam in it's very good, for Mm, when the him is unstressed; they are I'oiliini, fahifn, fairiin, foriin, fsrlm, fa:im (of these forim is perhaps the beet for foreigners to use). Perhaps is pa'hseps or prseps; either form may be used in any position; pa'bseps is fairly common parenthetically (as in you Inoxr, perhaps,... jui'uoii-po'liscps.. .V and prseps is more usual in other cases (e g, perhaps we shall 'pr»pswi(:)'j8cl). Tilt l" Sounds 49 tic sjrmbol [Jl]), i. e. the fricatiTe sound made with the tongue in the position shown in fig. 40. The use of this fricative consonant is prac- tically uniyersal when the preceding consonant is a dental (e. g. in draw dra:, Henry 'henri), and extremely common in other cases. 267. Though the sound [a] is a fricatiTe consonant it is Qonvenient to deal with it here with the other r sounds. 258. A Tariety of r known as "semi-rolled", by which we mean rolled, hut formed by one single tap of the tongue (narrow phonetic symbol [r]) is used by many Southern English speakers between two vowels, as in arrive 3'raiv, period pieriad, but this pronunciation is not essential; the use of [a] is equally correct. 259. Figs. 41 and 42 are palatograms of the semi-rolled r [r] and the fricative r [j] as pronounced by the author. 260. Many foreigners, in- cluding most French people and most Germans, replace the Eng- lish r sound by a uvular rolled consonant (narrow phonetic sym- bol [r]). This sound is formed by vibration of the uvula against the back of the tongue, as shown in fig. 43. This vibration may be clearly seen in a looking-glass, when the sound is pronounced with the mouth wide open. 261. Some foreigners use the corresponding fricative (narrow phonetic symbol [k]), fig. 44. 262. The sounds [r] and [k] give no palatogram. 263. The use of [k] or [b] is one of the commonest and most objectionable mistakes made by foreigners in pro- nouncing English. It may be added that foreigners gener- ally make their pronunciation unnecessarily objectionable by Fig. 41. Semi-rolled r [r] as pronounced by the author in the group a:ru:. Fig. 42. The English fricative r [i], as pronounced by the author. Fig. 43. Position of Tongue and Uvula for uvular [E]. Fig. 44. Tongue po- sition of Uvnlar Fri- cative [b]. pronouncmg or givmg some indication of the sound where the letter r IS final or followed by a consonant — positions in which r sounds do not exist in non-dialectal English (§ 250); thus foreigners only too often pronounce 2mrt, bird as ptiRl. bOBRd, instead of pa:t, baid. 264. The method found by the present writer most efi"ective for acquiring the English fricative [.i] (for those who are unable to suc- ceed in pronouncing it by simple imitation) is as follows. Keep the .1 o n e s , English Phoiiolics 50 Chapter IX. The English Liqcis Consonants mouth very wide open by placing the bent knuckle of the thumb, or better still a cork about an inch in diameter, between the teeth, and try to pronounce the sound 5 with the tip of the tongue raised. The resulting sound is very nearly the EngHsh fricative [j]. Jaw d5o:, jug dsAfl pro- nounced with the coirk between the teeth become almost identical with draw dra:, drug drAg; similarly chain tjein pronounced in this way be- . comes practically train trein. Some foreigners obtain the sound more easily by trying the same exercise with z or '8 instead of 3. The sound may be improved by pushing back the tip of the tongue with the end of a pencil (the end of the pencil being placed underneath the tongue). 266. If it is still feund impossible to pronounce a satisfactory fricative [jj then the rolled r should be used. 266. Rolled r is best acquired by imitation. If simple imitation is not successful, the following weU-known method may be tried. Pronounce ta'da:. ..ta'do:.. .ta'da:... with very long ens and very short 9s, at first slowly and then with gradually increasing speed. By keeping the tongue loose, and pronouncing this exercise very fast, the d tends to become a kind of semi-rolled r (§ 258), thus ['tra:'tra:'tfa: . . .]. When the semi-rolled [f] has been thus acquired, after a little practice the action can generally be extended to the fally-roUed sound [r]. 267. If this exercise is not successful, the only thing to do is to practise all kinds of voiced dental fricative sounds (3, z, 0, and other similar sounds), using considerable force of the breath and trying to keep the tongue loose. It is useful to practise with sudden jerks of the breath. After a little practice students usually manage to hit on the position in which the tongue will begin to vibrate slightly. A perfect Sustained r: often requires considerable pmctice, say five or ten minutes a day for several weeks. 268. Words for practice: rcarf (present tense) rild, rid riA, race reis, read (past) red (= red), rare rso, rash raej", right rait, round raund, raft ra:ft, wrong rag, roar ra:^ (= raw), run rAn, rope rotip, rjtferuil, room rum*; rarity 'rt 61. Tongue posi- 826. The sound 5 is formed by raising the ''""^ °^ ^' front of the tongue in the direction of the hard palate leaving only a very narrow passage by which air can escape; the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth; the soft palate is raised and the glottis is left open. The formation of the sound may therefore be expressed shortly by defining it as the beeathed palatal fricative consonant. 827. q is the German "ich-Laut". The sound is used by many English persons in such words as huge qnid^, human '^iiiman. All such words have, however, an alternative pronunciation with hj; in fact this latter form is usually regarded as the normal. It is often advisable for foreigners to adopt the (g forms (see § 335). h 828. h is the sound of pure breath having a free passage through the mouth. It is the sound produced when the mouth takes up any vowel position and the air passes through the open glottis. It is custom- ary to define the sound h shortly as the breathed glottal frica- tive consonant, the friction of the air passing through the glottis being the feature common to aU the varieties of the sound. 329. It wiU be seen from the above description that there are as many possible varieties of h as there are possible vowels, h sounds are in fact devocalized vowels, and the different varieties might be repre- sented by the notation i, a, U etc., if extreme accuracy were required. 380. In- actual speech the precise variety of h used in any parti- cular case is that which corresponds to the vowel immediately following. Thus the h in hit hit is a devocalized i (i), the h in hard ha:d is a devocalized a (a), the h in hoolc huk is a devocalized u (u), etc. If an extremely accurate mode of transcription were required, we could write these words jit, qa: d, Buk. Such a mode of representation would, however, be practically inconvenient. The rule that the variety of h always corresponds to the vowel immediately following enables us to use the single symbol h without fear of coDfu ion. 331. h is the consonantal sound of the letter h; examples he hi:, 62 Chapter X. The Feicative Coksonants Fig. 62. Tongue po- sition of one variety of X. hard hold. It is also the sound oi wh in the words who hu:, whole houl and their derivatives. The letter h is silent in heir Z9, hour au9, honour 'ane, honest 'onist and their derivatives. 882. Speakers of French and other Romance languages usually have considerahle difficulty in pronouncing h. They generally leave it out altogether. Spaniards usually replace it by the breathed velar fricative (fig. 62) (phonetic symbol x), that is. the sound heard for instance in the Scotch hah lox, Spanish jdbon xa'von. Those who have this difficulty should bear in mind that the h sounds are simply vowels pronounced with breath instead of voice. A near approach to the h sounds in hard hoid, he hi:, hooh huk, etc., may be obtained by whispering the vowels a, i:, Ti, etc. 888. There is a peculiarity of French pronun- ciation which may be made use of for acquiring the English h sounds. In French, final vowels are often devocalized, e. g. tant pis is often pronounced 'tfi'p| with devocalized i, c'est tout is often '^ss'tn with devocalized u. In such cases the final sounds are simply varieties of h, i being the same as the h in hi:, u being the same as the h in hu:. 884. Words for practice: he hi:, Mhit, herelaJQ, hay hei, Ae^phelp, hair hea (= hare), hat haet, high hai, how hau, hard ha:d, hot hat, hall ha:!, hut hit, holdhouiA^ who hu:, hurt h9:t; perhaps pe'hseps, behind hi'haiud, hedgehog 'hedghag^, boyhood 'baihud, buttonhook 'bAtnhuk. 886. Most foreigners do not pronounce the h nearly strongly enough in words beginning with hj, e. g. huge hjii:d5, human 'hjn:in9n, hue hju: (= hew, Hugh). Those who have difficulty in acquiring the correct pronunciation should remember that the h in the group hj is very similar to the sound §, the sound of ch in the German ich (§ 326). Many English people, in fact, actually use the sound §, pro- nouncing ^u:d5, etc. It is, therefore, often advisable for foreigners to adopt the forms with § rather than those with hj. 886. In educated English h is often dropped in unimportant words such as him, her, have, when unstressed: thus, I should have thought so is generally pronounced aij9d9T'ea:tsou (often reduced to aiJtf'ea:tson, § 520). This omission of the h of unstressed words is especially frequent when stressed words beginning with h occur in the same sentence; thus in suiih a sentence as she had her hat in her hand J'i:'h8ed9:'h8etin9:haend it would sound pedantic to sound the h in the words her. ' Also pronounced 'hedjog. 3S7. n IS occasionaUy dropped in initial unstressed syllables of ;er words, such as horison, historical, hotel. Thus it would be quite il to pronounce on the horizon, from the historical point of vieiv as ie'vaizn, fremdiis'tariklpaintev'TJu:. Those who would sound h in hotel when pronounced by itself, would often drop it in a I hotel a'gudo'tel. S38. The so-called "voiced h" (phonetic symbol fi) is a vowel pro- aoed in such a way that the air produces considerable friction ptassing through the glottis besides causing the vocal chords to ate. 389. Many English speakers regularly replace the ordinary h by voiced sound, when the sound occurs between two vowels, as in aps pa haeps or po'fisepsV boyhood 'boihud or 'baifiud, the hedge leds or de'fiedj, two hundred 'ta:'iiA.niTiid or 'tui'fiAndrad. Others !0 occasionally, especially when the words are pronounced with intonation. It is, however, preferable for teaching purposes to )t the breathed h in all cases, INITIAL AND FINAL VOICED FRICATIVES 840. In English when a voiced fricative, e. g. z, is initial or final, oftei not fully voiced. When initial, as in zeal zi:l, it usually ns breathed and ends voiced, and when final, as in ease ill, it lly begins voiced and ends breathed. When final and preceded by her consonant, e. g. in heads hedz, sounds sanndz, it is often pletely devocalized, becoming a weak kind of 8 (phonetic sym- z), thus hedz, saiindz or even saundz or saunz. With some lish speakers all final voiced fricatives, whether preceded by cou- nts or not, are completely devo.calized; this pronunciation seems e spreading, but cannot yet be considered normal. 841. The French often pronounce initial and final voiced conson- , especially final voiced consonants, with too much voice, and effect is somewhat unnatural to English ears. The correct pronun- 3n may be acquired by pronouncing the sounds very gently. 842. It is generally advisable for foreigners (other than the French) to try to use these partially devocalized forms, but to aim at ing initial and final voiced consonants fully voiced. Germans have ; difficulty in pronouncing final voiced fricatives at all, and most gners (other than the French) are apt to make them too much the corresponding breathed sounds. ' In rapid speech this word is more usually pronounced preeps (p. 48, note 3), g4 Chapteb XI. Sbmi -Vowels CHAPTER XI SEMI-VOWELS 843. Semi- vowels are defined as vowels used in the capacity of consonants. They may also be defined as fricative consonants in which the friction is practically imperceptible (see §§ 58, 272). 844. It is not every vowel that can be used in the capacity of a consonant. The conditions under which a vowel may give to the ear the effect of a consonant are as follows: (i) it must be a vowel of comparatively small sonority (§ 57), (ii) it must be pronounced extremely short, and (iii) it must be immediately followed by a vowel of greater sonority. The consonantal character of a semi-vowel is due to. the sudden increase of sonority when passing from it to the following vowel.^ 846. The English sounds w and j are usually semi-vowels, being vowels of the u type and i type respectively, pronounced in such a way as to give to the ear the effect of consonants. Many English persons pronounce r as a semi-vowel, namely the vowel 9 (i. e. 9 pro- nounced with simultaneous "inversion" of the tip of the tongue) used in the capacity of a consouaut. TV 846. The sound w is formed by rounding and pushing forward the lips, leaving a very small opening between them, and at the same time raising the back of the tongue in the direction of the soft pa- late; the soft palate is raised, the vocal chords. are set in vibration, and the sound is produced with hardly any friction; the sound must be pronounced extremely short and must, be followed by a vowel. The formation of the sound may be expressed shortly by defining it as a VOICED BI-LABIAL SEMI-VOWEL with VELAE MODIFICATION. 347. TV is the consonantal sound of the letter w. It is used when w occurs at the beginning of a syllable (except in the group wr, in which the w is silent) or is preceded by a consonant, e. g. wait weit, away 9'wei, hvelve twelv. u is generally pronounced in this way when preceded by q, e. g. quite kwait*, and often when preceded by fl in unstressed syllables, e. g. language 'laeggwidj. Note the exceptional words one WAU, onee WAUS, choir 'kwaig, suite swiit (= sweet).^ ' From its nature a semi-vowel cannot be prolonged. It is therefore necessary in naming the sounds to call them wa, j», etc. As regards the diphthongs ij, uw in which j and w are written finally, see §§ 367, 463. * Not however in conquer 'kogka, etiquette eti'ket, exchequer iks'tjeka, liquor 'lika, and a few other words. ' Note also that will (verb) (strong form wil) is often ifeduced to 1 _in eouvorsation. Semi-Vowels (w, Al) g5 S4S. It will be seen from the above definition that the position of the mouth in pronouncing w is much the same as that of the English long n: (§ 459, fig. 99). w is in fact a, vowel of the type u used in the capacity of a consonant. Foi- this reason some phoneticians prefer to represent it by the symbol ii, and there is much to be said in favour of this mode of representation. 349. The amount of lip rounding in w is variable to some extent. In normal speech the lip rounding is generally about that of ii: or a little less (see figs. 100, 101). If the sound is pronounced very emphatically the lip round- ing may be greater than that of u: (see fig. 63). There is also one case in normal speech where the lip rounding is gi eater than that of u:, Fig. GZ. The consonant w namely in words such as woo wu:, in which P™"iounced with exaggerated the vowel u: immediately follows! distinctness. 350. The breathed consonant formed with the same position of the lips and tongue as w, is necessarily a fricative consonant, not a semi- vowel. It is, however, convenient to deal with it here. The symbol for the sound is m*. m is used by many English speakers in words spelt with wh thus what Aiat, which MitJ". This pronunciation, with a variant hw, is regular in Scotland and Ireland and the North of England. In the South the more usual pronunciation of these words is wot, wit J, etc., though Aiat or liwat, MitJ" or hwitj", etc., may also be heard, especially from ladies.^ Foreigners may use whichever pro- nunciation they prefer. The notation /tw is used in this book in transcribing these words; it is to be taken as meaning that either w, M, or hw may be used. 351. The sound w causes difficulty to many foreigners, especially to Germans. They generally replace it by a different kind of bi-labial fricative, namely one in which the lips are kept flat instead of being rounded and pushed forward, and in which the tongue is in a neutral position instead of being raised at the back. The phonetic symbol for this consonant is c It is a sound which is intermediate in acoustic effect between w and v; it is very frequently heard in German words like Quelle 'kisela or 'kvela^, ewei tsisai or tsvai. Sometimes for- eigners replace w by T. 352. The best way of acquiring w is to substitute the vowel n: for it, and gradually to shorten this u:. Germans should begin by prac- tising win Tvin, well wel, for instance, as ii:in, u:el, etc. It is also very useful to practise the exercise n:a:u:3:... with energetic motion ' The sound may also be written w (^ being the symbol of devocalization). * The editors of the Concise Oxford Dictionary are of opinion that the U8e of hw or ii. in the South.of England is chiefly confined to "pnriste in pronunciation". ' Narrow transcription ['kcfele] or ['tvfelg]. Jones, English Phonetics 5 gg Chapter XL Semi -Vowels of the lips. The motion of the lips in this exercise should be entirely horizontal (exactly as for ii:iiu:i: . . ;); most foreigners seem to have an almost irresistible tendency to pass from the u: to the 9: by a vertical motion of the lower lip; it will be found helpful to practise the exercise with the teeth kept tightly together. 363. The French are sometimes apt to replace the English w by the consonantal sound heard at the beginning of kuit. This is especi- ally the case when an i-sound foEows, as in whed wi:l or hwi:l. The first sound in the French huit is a bi-labial fricative in which the lips are in much the same position as for w, but in which the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. (The symbol for this consonant is q, huit being transcribed [ifit].) 364. The sound w gives no palatogram; the pa- latogram of q is shown in fig. 64. 365. Words for practice: t{)e yfil, with wi3, w{i^ weik, wet wet, wear WS9, wag waeg, wife waif, wound (past tense and past participle of the verb Itg^d) wannd, want want, warm waim, won wad ('= ojie^, won't wount, woimd (injure, injury) wn:it4, tood wul, (rram of French u ^'^^ weid; waver 'weive, equivalent i'kwivalant. in the group ns. The following sentence afi'ords good praiitice for Ger- mans: we would work if we were wise wi:'wud- 'W9: kifffi: W9 'waiz. J 366. In pronouncing the consonant j the air passage is narrowed by raising the front of the tongue so as nearly to totich the hard palate. The soft palate is raised; the sound is voiced and pronounced with little or no audible friction in normal English. The sound must be pronounced extremely short and must be followed by a vowel^ The formation of the sound may be expressed shortly by defining it as the VOICBD PALATAL SEMI-VOWEL. 367. The position of the mouth in pronouncing j is generally much the same as that of the English short i (§ 371, fig. 65), though the tongue is slightly higher than the i position in some cases', and particularly when the following vowel is i: or i (as in yeast jiist). j is in fact a vowel of the type i used in the capacity of a consonant. Some phoneticians prefer to represent it in consequence by the symbol 1, and there is much to be said in favour of this plan. 358. The palatogram of the j in the group jou is practically ide tical with the palatogram of lax i (fig. 71). 859. j is the consonantal sound of the letter 3/; examples yes jes, vineyard 'vinjed. / and e often have the value j when the following ' For the somewhat different j in Ij see § 367 and note. Skmi -Vowels (w, j) 67 sound is 9; examples onion 'Aiijen, familiar fe'^milja, simultaneous siniorteinjas^ 860. In words spelt with, ti, ue, ew and eu, representing long u:, j is sometimes inserted before the u: (as in uniform 'ju:iiifa:m, few tjm) and sometimes not (as in rule ru:l, chew tju:). The rules with regard to this are as follows, (i) The j is never inserted after J", 5 or r, or after 1 preceded in turn by a consonant; examples chew tju:, June djHin, rule ru:l, blv£ bin:, (ii) The j is regularly inserted after p, I), t, d, k, (H, m, n, f, v, h; examples pew pju:, due dju:, new nju:, few fju:, huge hjurd,^. (iii) The j is regularly inserted after 1 preceded by a vowel, when that preceding vowel is stressed (examples deluge 'deljuidj, valu£ 'vaelju:*), or half-stressed (example aluminium ,aelju(:)- 'minjam). (iv) Usage varies in words in which 1 is initial or preceded by an unstressed vowel; thus lute, absolute are pronounced lju:t, ajb- Sdljuit by some, and lii:t (like loot), 'sebsaluit by others; the forms with j are generally recommended by elocutionists, but the forms without j are, if anything, the more usual in ordinary speech, at any rate in the commoner words, (v) After s, z and 6 usage also varies, but the forms with j are preferred by the author; thus sju:t (suit), in'6ju:ziaezm (enthusiasm) appear preferable to su:t, iii'6u:zisezm. 361. The breathed consonant formed with the same position of the tongue as the voiced sound j, is necessarily a fricative consonant, not a semi-vowel. It is the sound 5 mentioned in § 326. 362. Foreigners (especially Germans) often pronounce the English j with too much friction; in fact they use the pure fricative consonant instead of the semi-vowel. The fault may be cured by reducing the force of the breath, and by remembering that the normal English j is simply the vowel i used in the capacity of a consonant. Foreigners aie also met with occasionally who have a tendency to make a com- plete closure when the sound is initial, pronouncing yes as jes or jes instead of jes. (j is the voiced palatal plosive consonant, corresponding to the breathed C mentioned in § 149.) 363. Words for practice: ye ji:, yet jet, yard ja:d, yacht jot, your jo:', yolk jouk ("= yo1:e), you ju:, yearn J8:ii; beyond bi'jond*^ fami- liar fa'iiiilja. ' Note that i does not usually have the value j when followed by^ vowels other than ». Thus peculiarity, pronunciation are with most speakers pikjuiH- 'icriti, pranAiisi'eijM (notpikju:'Jj»rlti, pranAii'sjeiJn as sometimes pronounced by foreigners). * Also pronounced vjelju. ' Less commonly jua. '' Also pronounced bi'and. 68 Chapter XII. The Front VowEts CHAPTEE Xn THE FRONT V OWELS 364. There are six front vowels in standard English, the symbok for -which are i:, i, e, t, ae and a. For the definition of the term "vowel" see § 54; for the definition of the term "front" as applied to a vowel see § 76. The tongue posi- tions of the chief front vowels are shown in fig. 65. THE ENGLISH LONG i: (the VOWEL IN see si:) 865. In pronouncing the Eng- lish long i: the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate practically as high as possible consistently with, not producing audible friction when the force of the breath is moderate; the sound is generally considered to be pro- nounced with considerable muscular tension of tne tongue (see §§ 90, 91); the lips are neutral or spread (figs. 66, 67); the soft palate is raised, and in normal speech the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth. This formation may be expressed shortly by defining the sound as a CLOSE FRONT TENSE UNKOUNDED vowel (§§ 80, 76, 89, 88). The approximate tongue position is shown ill fig. 65, and fig. 68 is a pa- latogram of the sound as pronounced by the author. Fig. 65. Tongue positions of the front rowels 1, e, -e, a. Fig. 66. The English long, tense i: as pronounced in normal speech. Fig. 67. The English long, tense i: pronounced with exaggerated distinctness. Fig. 68. Palatogram of the English long tense i:. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. 866. i: is the "long" sound of the letter e; examples me mi:, see si:, complete kem'pli:t, even 'i:Tn. i: is also the sound of ea, k, ei and i in many words; examples sea si:, ectst i:st, fidd fl:ld, seize Fkost Vowels (I:, 1) go 8i:z, machine me'Jiin. Note the exceptional words key ki:, mmv ki- people 'pi: pi. jay., 867. The English long (and "tense") i: is very similar in quality to the sound of i in French, as in id isi (narrow transcription [fsfj), and the German long i:, as in mir mlia,, sie zi:. There are, however^ slight differences: (i) the English sound, though close, is not quite so close as the usual continental sound; (ii) the English Towel is often slightly diphthongized, especially when final. The diphthongic fonn begins with a not very close 1 (described by some as a half-teuse i) and the front of the tongue gradually rises higher in the direction of the hard palate, without however completely closing the air-passage. This diphthong may be represented phonetically by the notation ij: thus sea is pronounced si: or sij.^ 868. The average continental tense i does not, however, sound wrong (in quality), when used in English words like sea, etc.* But foreigners who habitually use a very close variety of the sound should endeavour to hold their tongue a little more loosely in pronouncing the English i:, 869. It is not necessary for foreigners to use the diphthongic pronunciation. Any exaggeration of the diphthong sounds vulgar. (In Cockney an exaggerated form of diphthong, approaching ei or ai, is used; thus the word sea, which is pronounced in standard speech si: or sij, becomes in Cockney almost sei or S9i.) 870. "Words for practice: peak pl:k, beak M:k, teem ti:m, deem di:in, keen ki:n, geese fli:8, meat, meet miit, need ni:d, leaf ]i:f, wreath ri:8, queen kwi:ii, fee fi:, veal Yi:l, these 9i:z, siege siiA^, zeal zi:l, heed hi:d. THE ENGLISH SHORT i (the vowel in it it) 871. In pronouncing the English short i, the general position of the tongue and lips is somewhat similar to that of the long i:, but the highest point of the tongue is somewhat lower and retracted. Many writers express the difference by saying that in the short i, the organs are lax or held loosely, instead of being tense as in the ' The symbol J is used here in a sense slightly different from that assigned to it in § 366. The two values ore, however, closely related. The similarity between them lies in the fact that the tongue position reached at the very end cf the diphthong which we write Ij, is identical with the tongue position assumed at the very beginning of the group ji:. Those who would prefer not to use the same symbol J in these two different senses, are recommended to use j iu the diphthong, thus iJ, ^he mark indicating that the sound is a consonantal vowel (§ 106) rather than a aemi-vowel. ' The vowel, as pronounced by foreigners, is often wrong in quantity; see §§ 669, 661. 70 Chapter XII. The Frost Vowels Fig. 69. The English short, lax i, as proiiounced in normal speech. Fig. 70. The English short, lax i, pronounced with exaggerated distinctness. Fig. 71. Palatogram of the English short, lax i. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Fig. 71. case of the long i:, (see § 89 ff.). The English short i may therefore be defined shortly as a CLOSE FRONT ,LAX unrounded vowel (see §§ 80, 76, 89, 88). 372. A palatogram of the English short (and "lax") i (as pro- nounced by the author) is shown in fig. 71. It will be observed that the air passage is considerably wider than in the case of the English long (and "tense") i: (fig. 68). 373. The lax i is the "short" sound of the vowel letters i and «/; examples it it, rich ritf, city 'siti (or 'site, § 376), system 'sistim^ It is also the sound of e and a in various prefixes and suffixes when unstressed; examples become Iti'kAm, descend di'send, remain ri'mein, engage in'geidg, except ik'sept, examine ig'zaemin*, horses 'haisiz, useless 'juislis, goodness 'gudnis, village 'vilids, private 'praivit'; it is also the sound of unstressed -ies, -ied, as in varieties va'raistiz, carried 'kaerfd*. Note also the miscellaneous words minute 'minit, threepence '6rip9ns, women 'wimin, Sunday 'si.ndi, etc., pretty 'priti, England 'iggland, English 'igglij*, lusy 'bizi, business 'biznis, lettuce 'letis. 874. Many foreigners, especially speakers of Romance languages, are apt io make this sound too tense, in fact to makp it similar in quality to the English long i:. Thus it is by no means uncommon to ■ Or 'sistam. * Note the difference between explain iks'plein and explanation ekspto'neijii, exhibit ig'zibit and exhibition eksi'bijn, etc. The prefix ia quite unstressed in explain, exhibit, but it has secondary stress in explanation, exhibition. ' Unstressed -ate is pronounced -it in most nouns and adjectives. In verbs on the other hand the terminajtion is prbnounoed -eit. Thus the nouns estimate, associate and the adjectives appropriate, intimate, separate, are pronounced 'estimlt, a'sonjiit, a'proapriit, 'intlmit, 'sep»rit, while the verbs estimaU, associate, appropriate, intimate, separate are pronounced 'estimeit, a'^onjieit, a'prouprieit, 'iutimeit, 'separeit. Intermediate is an exceptional word in which the vowel of the termination is a (lnta'mi:djat). The -it is often changed to -at- in the derived adverbs; thus though the adjective deliberate is normally dl'libarU, yet the adverb deliberately is pronounced di'libaratli by many. * Foreigners often use long tense i: in the terminations -les, -ied. Fbont -Vowels (ij e) 71 meet with foreigners who pronounce c%, which should he (in narrow transcription) [siti] or [eitfe], as [sitf|. The correct vowel may be acquired by trying to pronounce the sound in a slack sort of way, or by making it more like e. 875. The French sometimes replaqe final i (a,s in haby 'beibi) by the sound of e in ete. This is a sound of the e type, but distinctly closer than the English short e; the tongue position appears to be even higher than that of lax i; it is, however, a sound which strikes the ear as one of the e type rather than one of the i type. It is described as "tense" e by many writers, and we will adopt this term for con- venience. French persons should remember that the word baby should be pronounced [bfeibi] with lax English vowels and not like the French hehe [b6b6] which has tense vowels. 376. In English when i is unstressed (e. g. the second i in city "siti, waited 'weitid, ladies 'leidiz, goodness 'gudnis) it is usually slightly lowered from the normal close position, becoming in fact a vowel intermediate between i and e (§ 383).^ This is especially the case with final i, as in very 'veri, money '^mAni, really 'rieli. Many English speakers actually use e in such cases ('site, 'weited, 'leidez, 'gudiies, 'vere, 'mine, 'riele). Foreigners who are apt to use a tense 1 instead of lax i may with advantage practise using e in such cases. S77. Words for practice: pin pin, bill Ml, tip tip, dish dij", kitten 'kitn, give gir, milk milk, lenii nit, lip lip, risk risk, wind (noun) wind, fit fit, vUlage 'vilids. fhin 6in, this 5i8, sing sii|, sine zigk, hUl hil, 878. Lax i also occurs in English as the first element of the diphthong ia. 879. Examples of this diphthong are found in the words here, hear hie, beer bie, pierce piss. 880. Foreigners usually make the first element of this diphthong too tense, like the long fc, besides which they often repjace the 8 by some variety of r-sound, hie becoming hi:r or hi:R, etc. (§ 250). It is true that some English speakers especially those from the North, make the first element rather tense, but ie with lax i is the usual Southern protiunciation and is therefore a more desirable form for most foreigners. Care should be taken that the diphthong does not degenerate on the other hand into anything like ee or £9. 881. Words for practice: pier pie, beer bie, tear (of the eyes) tie*, idea ai'die, Keir kie, gear flie, mere mie, near nin, leer lie, real rial, weir, we're (conversational form of we are) wie, fear fie, » The phonetic symbol l (narrow transcription i) may be used for this intermediate sound. • Tear (verb) meaning "to rend in pieces, damage" is tS9; so also is the corresponding substantire. 72 Chapter XII. The Fboht Vowels veer \i9, theatre 'Bieto, seer sie, sheer Jia, jeer dgia, year jia*, here, hear hie*. 382. Lax i also occurs in Englisli as the second element of the diphthongs ei, ai, 91, oi and iii as in day dei, high hai, boy bai, going floig, ruin ruin. Foreigners should be careful not to make the i tense in these diphthongs. e (the vowel in get get) 383. In pronouncing the vowel e the front of the toAgue is raised considerably in the direction of the hard palate, but not quite so high as for the i sounds (fig. 65); the more usual English variety of the sound is not a very close onej it is described as lax by many writers, and this term will be retained here as denoting "a, variety with tongue somewhat lower than the normal half-close position"-;' the lips are neutral or somewhat spread (figs. 72, 73); the soft palate is raised, and in normal speech the tip of the tongue touches 'the lower teeth. The formation of the sound may be expressed shortly by defining it as the HALF-CLOSE FRONT LAX UNBOUNDED vowel (see §§ 81, 76, 89,88). The approximate tongue position is shown in fig 65, and a palato- gram of the sound is given in fig. 74. Fig. 72. The English vowel e as pronounced in normal speech. Fig. 73. The English vowel e pronounced with exaggerated distinctness. Fig. 74. Falatogram of the English e (as in get) pronounced by the author. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Fig. 74. 384. e is the "short" sound of the letter e; examples pen pen, red red, seven 'sevn. e is also the sound of ea in many words; examples head hed, hrea^ bre6. Note the exceptional words any 'eni, many meni, Thames temz, ate et. Pall Mall 'pel'mel.* 385. This English sound varies a good deal with different speakers. The sound as described above is recommended for teaching purposes. ' Also very commonly pronounoed ]»:. " Also pronounced hja:. ' The French [e] (§ 375) may be described as "tense'-', or "a variety of e having the tongue somewhat higher than the normal half-close position". * These are the only words in which the sound e is represented by the letter a. Fkont Vowels (e) 73 but many English people use an opener sound of the half-open type which might be represented by the symbol e. 886. Many foreigners, especially the French, replace the English e by a Tery open e (§ 393), opener even than the English variety mentioned in the preceding paragraph. This is especially the case when the sound is followed by r, as in the word very 'yeri. The fault may be avoided by remembering that the true English sound e is not identical with the sound e heard in French words like m^me me:m, pere p£:R, but is intermediate in quality between this sound and the sound of French e. 387. Words for practice: pen pen, led bed, tdl tel, deaf def, Tcept kept, get get, men men, ineck nek, red red, felt felt, very 'veri, then 8en, seven 'sevn, sest zest, shdl J*el, gem dsem, yes jes, head hed. 888. The sound e also occurs in English as the first element of the diphthong ei. In pronouncing this diphthong the mouth starts from the position described in § 383 and finishes in the position described in § 371 (see figs. 65, 72, 73, 74, 69, 70, 71). 889. The diphthong ei is the "long" sound of the letter a; examples fame feim, malce meik. ei is also the usual sound of ai and ay\ examples plain plein, daisy 'deizi, day dei, play plei.^ Ei and ea have the sound ei in a few words, e. g. veil veil, sltein skein, great flreit, break breik. Note the exceptional words hass beis, gauge geid5. 890. Foreigners generally pronounce such words incorrectly in two respects. Firstly, they pronounce a pure vowel instead of a diph- thong, and secondly, they make the vowel tense instead of keeping it lax. The result is that they pronounce the English day dei (narrow transcription [dfei]) with the same vowel sound as the German See ze: (narrow transcription [z&]). 391. The correct pronunciation may be acquired by bearing in mind the fact that the first element of the diphthong is identical with the vowel in get jiet and the second element is identical with the vowel in it it. At the same time foreigners must take care not to go to the other extreme and n^ake the first element of the diphthong into anything like s or ae (§ 398) or still less a (§ 404): thus, dei, daei, dai. The two latter pronunciations are characteristic of Cockney. 892. Words for practice: pay pei, lathe beiS, table 'teibl, day dei, scale skeil, game geim, maid, made meid, neighbour 'neib9, late leit, railway ^reilwei, waJce weik, face feis, veil, vale veil, tJiey 5el, same seim, shape Jeip, James djeimz, haste heist. ' The fact that the English vowel in day, etc. is diphthongized may be demonstrated by asking any Southern English person to pronounce it a number of times in rapid succession, thus ei-ei-el.... It will be observed that the lower jaw keeps moving up and down. 74 Chapter XII. The Front Vowels s (the vowel in fair fsa) 398. In pronouncing the sound e the front of the tongue is some- what raised in the direction of the hard palate, but not so high as for e (fig. 65); the lips are neutral or somewhat spread (figs. 75, 76); the soft palate is raised, and in normal speech the tip of the tongue is touching or almost touching the lower teeth. The sound t may be defined shortly as the half-open front unbounded vowel (see §§81, 76, 88). The approximate tongue position is shown in fig. 65. The sound s pronounced by the author gives no palatogram. S94. The sound & only occurs in nor- mal Southern Eng- lish as the first ele- ment of the diph- , Fig. 76. The e in the Eng- thong E9. This diph- li^h diphthong sa pro- thong is the regular -^^''^,^^^' Fig. 75. The E in the Eng- lish diphthong E3 as pio- nounced in normal speech. sound of the group of letters air-^ examples pair p£9, fair fe9. The groups -ear (when not followed by a consonant') and -are also have this sound' very frequently; examples pmr psa, hear bse, care ksa, rare rsa. Note also the exceptional words Giere and their, which are both pronounced 869^. 396. In many other languages the sound £ occurs independently of diphthongs; thus it is the sound of the French e as in mhne iQS:m, and it is a frequent sound of the German a as in Tkrane 'treins. Some English people, especially Northerners, use a sound of the e type in words like get (see § 385). 396. Many educated Southern English speakers replace the diph- thong £9 by the diphthong 889 (for SB see § 398). Thus it is quite common to hear pair, hear, there, etc., pronounced p8e9, bae^j daea, etc. 397. Many foreigners, especially Germans, make the first element of the EngKsh dipl\thong £9 too close, the word them often becoming almost identical with the German sehr [z4:h]. The first element of the diphthong should be the much opener sound £; in fact it is usu- ally better for foreigners to aim at the pronunciation ae9. It may be remarked that e:9 (with tense e) is used instead of £9 in Cockney. se (the vowel in glad glsed) 898. In pronouncing the vowel ae the toiigue is low dowir-in the mouth; the front of the tongue is not quite as low as possible but ' Compare heard biad, earth 9:6, etc. ' There has also a weak form <(», § 497; their before vowels has an occasional weak form Sar. Front Vowels (e, iXi) 75 Fig. 77. The vowel tc as pronounced in normal speech. Fig. 7is. The vowel x pronounced with exaggerated diatinct- aess. Fig. 79. Palatogram of te (author's pronunciation). Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 79. is very slightly raised in the direction of the hard palate, remaining, however, apparently lower than the half-open position (i. e. that of S, fitf. 65);* the lips are neutral or slightly spread (figs. 77, 78); the soft palate is raised, and in normal speech the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth. The vowel may be defined shortly as a front un- rounded vowel, OPEN BUT SLiGHTLTRAiSED* (§§ 76, 88, 80). The ton- gue position may he taken to be intermediate between those of t and a (fig. 65); a palatogi-am of se is given in fig. 79. S99. SB is the so-called "short" sound of the letter a*; examples glad fllsed or qlx'A, cat kaet, lamp Isemp. The sound is regularly represented by the letter a, the only exceptions being plait plset and plaid plsed. Note that have^ie hsev (strong form'); bade is bsed or beid. 400. Many foreigners, and especially the French, replace the vowel je by some variety of a (§ 404), which is the sound in the French patte pat, cave kaiY (besides being the first element of the English diphthongs ai and au). Germans on the other hand are apt to replace £e by some variety of £ or e, thus making practically no difference " This seems for practical purposes the most satisfactory way of regarding the tongue position of this vowel. It must be* admitted, however, that there is some (Jiflference of opinion as to the exact analysis of the sound. Some regard s as a tense vowel and se as the corresponding lax vowel. In passing from E to se there is (at any rate in the case of the author's pronunciation) a distinct raising of the sides of the tongue; this can be felt, or it can be seen in a looking-glass; it is also indicated by the fact that se gives a palatogram while B does not, though the middle of the tongue seems to be lower for se than for B. The author is also conscious of a contraction in the pharyngal region m the produc- tion of se. This contraction is too vague to define precisely, though it appears to be an inherent characteristic of the sound. The author has often been able to improve foreigners' pronunciation of se by telling them to tighten the throat. (The existence of this contraction in the throat is no doubt the reason why the sound se cannot be characteristically pronounced with good voice -production. Singers commonly substitute a for se.) ' The vowel is in reality often long; see § 542. » The weak forms of this word are hav, av and y, § 497. 76 Chapter XII. The Front Vowels between man maen and men men, pat paet and pet pet, and replacing cab kaeb by the Cockney form keb. 401. The correct sound of se can generally be obtained by remember- ing that ae must have a sound intermediate in quality between e and a. In practising the sound the mouth should be kept very wide open. 402. The sound may also be obtained by trying to imitate the baainc of a sheep, which is very like 'bae:'bae: (or 'bsei'bae:). Those who are unable to obtain the exact quality by practising such exer{?ises should note that it is better to err on the side of a rather than on the side of e. a is actually used for ae in some parts of the North of England. 403. Words for practice: pat paet, bad baed or baeid, tax tseks, damp daemp, cat kaet, gas gaes, man mseii or inae:n, nap naep, hmb laem or la':m, rash raej", wag waeg, fat faet, van ysen, thank Oaegk, that daet^, sand saend, exact ig'zsekt, shall JxV, jam dgaem or dgaeim, ha>g. a (THE FIKST ELEMENT OF THE DIPHTHONG IN high hai) 404. In pronouncing the vowel a the ton- gue is in the front position and as low down as possible (fig. 65); the lips are neutral or slightly spread (figs. 80, 81); the soft palate is raised; the tip of the tongue gener-aUy, though not necessarily, touches or almost toucliL'S the lower teeth; the lower jaw is very considerably lowered. The sound gives no palatogram. The vowel a may be defined shortly as the fully open front unrounded vowel (§§ 80, 76, 88). 405. In Southern English this vowel only occurs as the first element of the diph- thongs ai and an. The i and n in these- diphthongs are lax. Many English persons pronounce ae, ao. 406. ai is the so-called "long" sound of the letters i and y; examples time talm, idle 'aid], night nait, child tjaild, find faind, fly flai. 7e*has the value at when final, as in pie pai, also in the inflected forms tried traid, cries kraiz, etc. Ei is pronounced ai in the single words height hait, sleight slait. S'vg. 80. The a in the English diphthong ai as pronounced in normal speech. Fig. 81. The a in the English diphthong ai pronounced with exaggerated distinct- ness. Fig. 82. The i in the English diphthong ai pronounced with exaggerated distinct- ness. ' This wortt has also a weak form (jat, when a conjunction or relative pronoun, § 497. ' This word has also weak forms J9I, Jl, §^ 497. Fbont Vowels (iv) 77 teifp^ ei{her'aifi9^, neither naidd ^ eider 'aido. Note the exceptional words buy bai, eye ai, c/joir 'kwaio, aisle ail. au is the usual sound of ou; examples out aut, bough 'ban. It is also a very frequent sound of ow; examples cow kail, toivn tiuin, flower 'tiaua. Note the name Maeleod md'klaiid. 407. In some languages the sound a occurs independently, e. g. the French la patte la 'pal. Many Northern English speakers use a where Southern English has a^. 408. Some foreigners have a tendency to retract the vowel a in the English diphthong ai to a (§ 420). The form ai is frequent in London but cannot be regarded as standard pronunciation. The French should be careful not to m.ake the i of the diphthong ai too tense. 409. The English diphthong au is generally pronouncpH incor- rectly by foreigners, especially by Germans. Germans are apt to pro- nounce the first element with the tongue much too far back, retracted to the a position or even further. As regards the second element u. some Germans pronounce it too strongly and make it too tense, while others do not reach the u position at aU but make the diphthong rather ao. The true value of the second element lies between these two extremes. 410. Foreigners should not, however, in their anxiety to use the front a in the diph- thong au exaggerate the front quality of the sound by raising the tongue and making the diphthong sound like aeu. This again is a form frequently heard in London, but cannot be regarded as standard pronunciation. 411. Most French people make the a of au a shade too much like se. The true pro- nunciation which foreigner should aim at is intermediate between aeu and au. French people should also be careful not to make the u of au too tense. 412. The sounds represented by a in ai and au are in reality not absolutely identical; the a in au is with most speakers of standard English a shade further back than the a in ai', though not nearly so far back as a (§ 420); compare fig. 84 with fig. 81 and with fig. 88. The difference between the two as is, however, very slight and may be neglected by for- eigners without risk of mispronunciation. ' Also pronounced 'i:8a. ' Also pronounced 'ni:38. " With many Londoners, however, the a of au is further fnrivard than the a of ai. Fig. 83. The a in the English diphthong au as pronounced in normal speech. 'S!^'''^T'-'!^'J^%M Fig. 84. The a in the English diphthong au pronounced with exaggerated distinct- ness. Fig. 85. The u in the English diphthong an pronounced with exaggerated distinct- ness. 7g Chapter XII. The Fbokt Vowels 113. Words for practice: pile pail, bite bait, tie tai, dine daiu, kind kaind, guide gaid, mine main, nice nais, like laik, right, rite, tvright, write rait, while ftwail, five fair, vine vain, % dai, side said, re^gn ri'zain, chUd tjaild, height halt; pound pannd, bough, bow (bend the body) bau*, town taun, rfouJf daat, mw kan, ^(««n gann, mouth manO, «ow nan, Zowd land, row (noise) ran', wound (past of the verb wind waind) wannd', fowl, foul fanl, vow ran, thousand 'Oanznd, thou dan, sow (pig) san*, resound ri'zannd, shout Jant, %ow Lau. 414. ai sometimes forms a so-called triphthong (§§ 107. 108) with a following a, e. g. fire 'faia. In pronouncing this triphthong, the tongue does not really reach the full i position with most speakers; aea or a£9 would really be a more accurate representation of the pronuncia- tion usually heard. The assimilation is often carried so far that the triphthong is simplified into ao or even becomes simply a lengthened a (represented phonetically by a:); thus fire often becomes faa or sometimes even fa: (distinct from far fa;); empire is often pronounced 'empae or 'empa:. This levelling of the triphthong is esjjecially common when a consonant follows, e. g. fierif 'fa:ri, society so'sa:ti. entirely in'ta:li, violin Tfti'lin, higher up 'har'rAp, etc., instead of 'faiari etc. The English word wires, usually transcribed waidz, very often becomes practically identical with the French word Oise wa:z. 415. Similar remarks apply to the so-called triphthong au8. The tongue does not really reach the full n position the usual pronuncia- tion being rather aoo or even aoo. The levelling is often carried so far that the triphthong is simply reduced to a single long sound, namely a variety of a: tending towards a:. This retracted a: may be represented phonetically by a:, thus power, usually transcribed 'pano, often becomes pk:'. This levelling of the tiiphthong is especially frequent when a consonant follows, as in powerful pauafl, 'paoafl, 'pkafl or 'pii:fl, our own aus'rouii, aoe'ronn, aa'ronn or ai'roun. * Bat a bow for shooting, etc., is bou. " But a row of houses, etc, is rou, as also is the verb meaning to propel a boat with oais, and the cori'esponding substantive. ' But the verb to wound and the substantive- wound are wii:nd. * But the verb to sow is sou. " The fact that the long vowel arrived at by the levelling of ana is some- what further back than the true a: obtained by the levelling of ais, is no doubt due partly to the influence of the disappearing n and partly to the fact that the a of au is (in normal educated 'speech) a shade further back than the a of ai (§ 412). The fact that the contracted form of ana is a retracted variety of a is of importance, since the distinction between this retracted &: and the full front ai may affect the meaning of words. Thus 'ta: rig with the full front a: is the con- tracted form of tiWnj/ 'taiarig, and is distinct from tikirig the contracted form of towering 'tauarig; this again is quite distinct from larring 'ta:rig. Fbokt Vowbls (a). Back Vowels (a:) 79 416. Foreigners often make the i of aid and the u of aua much too strong, so that the triphthongs become almost aja, aw9, with two distinct syllables. Those who have this tendency should aim at making the triphthongs more like the single long vowel a: (except when followed by the "dark" 1, § 418). 417. Words for practice: piety 'paieti, 'paati or 'pa;ti (distinct from party 'parti), J?yron 'baioren, 'baaran or'bairen, tyrant'ta,i9T9nt, 'taarant or 'tarrent, eUaphragm 'daiafraem, 'daafraem or 'daifrsem, liable 'laiabl, 'laabl or 'la:bl, fery 'faiari, 'faari or 'fa:ri, violent 'Taialant, 'yaalent or Tailant^ scientific saian'tifik, saan'tifik or sain'tifik, desirable dl'zaiarabl, di'zaarabl or di'za:rabl5 poicerfid pauafl, 'paafl or 'p^:fl, towering 'tanarii|, 'tkarig or'tkrii), dowry 'danari, 'dkari or 'dkri (distinct from 'da:ri the redsced form of diary 'daiari), Gower Street ganastrfrt, ^gkastriit or 'g4:stri:t, now-a-days 'nanadeiz, 'nkadeiz or 'nkideiz, flmverpot 'flanapot, 'flaapat or 'flkpat, devouring di'vauarig, di'Tkarig or di'Tkrig. 418. There is one exceptional case in which the levelling of aia, ana does not take placie, namely when the triphthong is followed by the "dark" 1 (that is, the 1-sound which is used when final or followed by a consonant, §§ 238, 239, narrow phonetic symbol [1^), as in trial 'traial, towd 'tanal. The tendency here is rather to drop the 9; thus trial, towel are very commonly pronounced trail, taaK Note, however, that if such a word as trial is immediately followed by a word be- ginning with a vowel, the a must be inserted and the aia may be levelled to a:, the "dark" I not being used in that case. Thus in the tried, is over da'traiali'zouya, trial could not be reduced to trail, but might be reduced to traal or tra:l. CEAPTEE.Xm THE BACK VOWELS 419. There are seven back vowels in normal educated Southern English, the symbols for which are 01, 9, 91, A, 0, n: and u. For the definition of the term "vowel" see § 54; for the definition of the term "back" as applied to a vowel, see § 76. The tongue positions of the chief back v&wels are shown in fig. 86. a; (the vowel m calm kaim) 420. In pronouncing the vowel ei the tongue is low down in the mouth, what little raising there is being at the back though somewhat advanced from the full back position (fig. 86) ; the lips 80 Chapter XIII. The Back Vowkls Fig. 86. Approximate ton- ^ ^v^ guepositioDS of the sounds ^ VX of the u type, sounds of the o type, Eng- are in a neutral position (figs. 87 88); the soft palate is raised; theti] of the tongue is generallj, thong] not necessarily, slightly retractei from the lower teeth ; the lower jaw ii considerably lowered. The sounc gives no palatogram. The vowel a may be defined shortly as an opei BACK UNROirNDED VOWel, SLIGHTL1 ADVANCED (§§ 80, 76, 88). 421. a: is the usual sound of th( group of letters ar when at the eiit of a word or lyhen followed by i consonant; examples far fot:, pai' part. A has the sound a: in A»Z/'ha:f lish A, English short o, and English a. ^^^^ ^^,^ ^^ ^^^j^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ in which the I is silent (see § 232); also in numerous words whei followed by ff, ss, or by f, s, or n followed by another consonant e. g. staff staif, class klais, ppCSs pa:s, after '«:ft9, fast foist, ^oMl 'ka:sl, ash a:sk, command kd'maiud, grant gramt, can't kaint; alsc in most words ending in ill, e. g. hath 1)0:6; also in some wordi of foreign origin, e. g. moustache mas'toij", drama 'droima, tornaU. te'moiton, vase to:z. Note also the words ah o:, are iu:^, aunt oint draught dro:ft, laugh lo:f, clerh Mo:b, Berkeley 'boikli, Berkshin 'ba:kj"i9 or'boikja, Berby 'doibi, Hertford luaifaiysergeant'sa'A^d'ai example ig'zoimpi, heart ha:t, hearth ha: 6; father 'foiSa, rather 'roiSe and French words such as memoir "^memwo;, reservoir 'rezaTwa:^ 422. The English vowel a: is about the same as the normal sound of French a, as in^afepo:t 423. Most Germans and many othei foreigners (e. g. Scandinavians, Hungarians Portuguese) have a tendency to advance th< to gue too much in pronouncing o:, thi sound which they use being generally mori like the front vowel a (§404). By practisiuj a deep variety of d with the tongue as lov down and as far back as possible, they wil realize better the nature of the English o: It should also be noticed that the English is very similar in quality to the Englisl short 9, thus card ko:d is very much lik cod kod with the vowel lengthened. Fig. 87. The English vowel ft: as pronounced in nor- mal speech. Fig. 88. The English vowel a: pronounced with exag- gerated distinctness. ' Are has a weak form » (§ 497). * Also pronounced 'meinw*:, 'rezavwa: Back Vowels (a:, ») 81 424. The Portuguese may acquire the correct English a: by notic- ing that the sound is rather like the vowel they use in Portuguese in the group al (as in tal). 425. When a: is followed by a nasal consonant, the Portuguese are apt to replace it by a vowel resembling a: (§ 478), pronouncing, for instance, answer (standard English 'a:ns») almost 'e:ns»r (or '5:nS8r with a nasalized 5:). 426. All foreigners must be careful not to add a r sound of -any sort after the sound 01, unless a vowel follows. Thus the Engltsh word marsh ma:/ is practically identical with the French mdche; many Germans pronounce Bahn exactly like the English barn ll)a:ii; far is pronounced fa: (thorugh far away is 'fairo'wei, § 251). 427. Some English speakers diphthongize slightly the sound a: especially when final, saying, for instance, faa for fa:. This pronuncia- tion is not, however, the most usual in educated Southern English, and is not recommended to foreigners. 428. Words for practice: palm pti:!!!, bath ba:6, task ta:8k, dark da:k, carve, calve ka:T, gimrd floid, marsh ma:J*, nasty 'na:8ti, clerk kla:k, rather 'ra:d8, far fa:, vase Ta:z, psalm sa:in, hard ha:d. THE ENGLISH SHORT a (the vowel in not not) 429. In pronouncing the English short a the tongue is as low down and as far back as possible (fig. 86); the lips are slightly rounded (figs. 89, 90); the soft palate is raised; the tip of the tongue is generally, though not necessarily, somewhat retracted from the lower teeth; the low- er jaw is considerably lowered. The sound gives no palatogram. The vowel may be defined shortly as the fully OPEN BACK SOUNDED vowel (§§ 80, 76, 88). 430. 3 is the "short" sound of the letter o; examples not W3ii, pond pand, dog dag, sorry 'sari, soKd 'salid. Soften has this sound when preceded by w and not followed by k, g, or I); examples want want, whM ^wat, squash skwaj, quality 'kwaliti^ (but wax wseks, wag waeg, twang twseg). Many English speakers use a instead of a: before 1 or S followed by a consonant, e. g. false fa:ls or fals, fault fa: It or fait, halt ha: It or halt, Austria 'a: stria or 'astria. Note the exiceptional words gone^ gan (also ga:n), shone Jan, cauli- ^^^ g^ ,^^^ ^^^^^1^ ^^^^^ flower 'kaliflaua, laii/rd 'laral, (acjknowledge „ (j^ ^j) pronoimoed with (ak)'nalid5, Gloucester 'glasta, yadit jat. exaggerated distmctness. * Foreigners are apt to pronounce this word with o: instead of a. Jonea, English Phonetic*-. ^ Fig. 89. The English short (in not), as pronounced normal speech. 82 Chapter XIII. The Back Vowels 481. Foreigners generally do not make the sound open enough. They should remember that in pronouncing the English short the toM- gue is as low down and as far back as possible.^ Some French people use a vowel very similar to the English short 3 in such words as pas^- those who pronounce in this way may obtain the English short 9 by pronouncing this vowel with some lip-rounding added. Other foreigners are often able to obtain the correct English short a by remembering that it has considerable resemblance to a. 482. Cases in which the sound 9 occurs in unstressed syllables often seem particularly difficult to foreigners and require special prac- tice. Examples: cannot 'kaenat, a day on the river a'deionSa'riTa, what are you thinking of? '/iwataju'eigkigaT? 488. Words for practice: spot spat, bomb bam, top tap, doll dal, cotton 'katn, got gat,' moss mas, not nat, long lag, rock rak, squash skwaj", watch watj"*, foreign 'farin, involve in'valT*, methodical mi- 'eadikl, sorry 'sari, shop Jap, John dgan, yacht jat, hop hap. THE ENGLISH LONG a: (the vowel in saw sa:) 434. In pronouncing the English long a: the tongue is low down in the mouth and very slightly raised at the back, but not so high as the half-open position (i. e. that of A, fig. 86); the lips are rounded so as to leave only a small opening (figs. 91, 92); the soft palate is raised; the tip of the tongue is generally, though not necessarily, slightly retracted from the lower teeth; the lower jaw is lowered very considerably. The sound gives no palatogram. The formation of the sound may be expressed shortly by defining it as a back vowel (§ 76) open (§ 80) but SLIGHTLY RAISED and with CONSIDERABLE LIP-RODNDING. 435. a: is the regular sound of aw and au] examples saw sa:, lawn la:n, author 'aiOa^. It is also the regular sound of or when at the end of a word or followed by a consonant; examples nor na: (like gnaw), Fig. 91. The English long .k (in saw), as pronounced in normal speech. Fig. 92. The English long o: (in saw), pronounced with exaggerated distiuctness. ' The somewhat similar vowel heard in the French port po:B, German dort doBt is rather hal^open while the English vowel is fully open. ^ The normal French pronunciation is pit, with a vowel practically identical in quality (though not in quantity) with that' in the English palm. ' Often pronounced w»:tj by foreigners. * Often pronounced io'voilv by foreigners. ' In the groups aus -\- consonant and aul -{■ consonant many speakers sub- stitute the short a, see § 430. Back Vowels (a, d:) gg short Jb:t, form f»:m. The groups ore,~ oar are commonly pronounced o:, though a diphthong aa is also permissible in such words; exam- ples more ma: or moa, roar ra: (like raid) or roa, toarci baid or baad; a: with the variant oa is also heard in many words spelt with our; examples pour pa: or paa, course ka:s or koas. A frequently has the value a: when followed by I final or followed by a consonant; examples appal 9'pa:l, all a:l, halt ha:lt^ Ar frequently has the value a: when preceded by w and followed by a consonant, examples siOarm swa:m, quart kwa:t. is pronounced a: (with a variant a) in many words when followed by f, s or 0; examples off a:f (also af), often 'a:fii (also 'afa), loss la:s (also las), cosf ka:st (also kast), cloth kla:0 (also klaO). Ough has the value a: wiien followed by t, as in thought 6a: t, also in cough ka:f, trough tra:f (these two with variant a). Note the exceptional words hroad bra:d, door da: or daa, floor fla: or llaa, water '■wa:ta, ivrath ra:6. 436. Note that the amount of lip-rounding in the long a: is much greater than in the short a (figs. 90, 92). The long sound a: is best acquired by imitation, while observing carefully the position of the lips. A very near approach to the correct quality is obtained by trying to pronounce the short a with lips in the position for the continental tense (as in the French cote ko:t, German wohl vo:l). Most foreighers do not' use sufficient lip-rounding in pronouncing the English long a:, especially when there is no r in the spelling (as in all, saw, thought). When there is an r in the spelling (as in sore, soar, four, nor). Ger- mans have a tendency to replace the vowel by the half-close tense o: above referred to, and say so:r, etc. 437. Foreigners must be particularly careful not to add a r-sound of any sort (§§ 250, 263) after the sound a:, unless a vowel foUows (and then only of course when there is an r in the spelling). Nor said by itself, is pronounced exactly like gnatv na:, stork is identical with $talk stxli. Note, however, cases like more easily 'ina:'ri:zili where r is inserted on account of the following vowel. 438. Many foreigners (especially the French) have great difficulty in distinguishing the sound a: from the diphthong ou. Those who have this difficulty should study carefully the differences between the two sounds (§§ 434, 448). 439. Words for practising the sound a:: paw, pour, pore pa:^ bought ba:t, talk ta:k, door da: or daa, call ka:l, more ma: or maa, gnaw, nor na:, law la:, raw, roar ra:', drawer (of a table, etc.) dra:*, ' In the group al-\- consonant many speakers substitute D for o:, e.g. liolt for ho: It. ' Pour and pore have the variant pronunciation poa. ' Sbar has the variant pronunciation roa. • In the less common sense of "a person -who draws", the word is always 6* 84 Chapi'eb XIII. The Back Vowels war wo:, for, fowr, fore fo:^, vault va:lt, thought 60: t, sauce, soitrce sa:s^, short pit, George d'^xd^, your p:^, hall hail. 440. The first element of the diphthong 9i is with most Southerners, strictly speaking, a sound intermediate in quality between the English short 9 and the English long o:. 441. si is the regular sound of oi and oy; examples oil ail, boy l)»i, employer im'plaia*, royal 'raial or rail. 442. The Dutch are apt to pronounce this diphthong with a final y instead of i (y is the close front lax rounded vowel, heard in the German Hiitte 'h3rt9, etc.). Some Germans have a similar tendency Care must be taken that the second element of the diphthong shall have no lip-rounding. It is useful to practise the exercise aiaiai . . . with energetic motion of the lips. A (the vowel in up Ap) 443. In pronouncing the vowel A the tongue is slightly raised at the back (fig. 86)*; the lips are neutral or spread (figs. 93, 94); the tip of the tongue is generally, though not necessarily, touching or almost touching the lower teeth; the lower jaw is considerably lowered. The formation of the sound A may be ex- pressed shortly by defining it as the HALP- OPEN BACK UNROUNDED VOWel (§§ 81, 76, 88). 444. A is one of the two "short" sounds of the letter m; examples out kAt, mutton 'niAtn, hurry 'hAri. has the sound A in a good many words; the principal are: among 9'mAi), Brampton 'brAmptan', come kAm, comfort 'kAHifet, company 'kAinpani, compass 'kAinpas, conjure (to do things as if by magic) 'kAndga ', constable 'kAnstebl, done dAU, front frAnt, frontier 'frAuija*, honey 'hAui, London 'lAnddn, JfoMc^at/'mAndi, money 'mA.m,-mx)tig- er -lUAgga, mongrel 'mAijgral, monk nui|k, Fig. 93. The vowel a as pro- nounced in noimal speech, Fig. 94. The vowel a pro- nounced with exaggerated distinctness. pionounced dra:a. Drawers, the article of clothing, is draiz (identical in pro- nnnciation with draws). * For has also a weak-form fa, § 497. Four and fore have the variant pto- nunciatioa fas. * Source has the variant pronunciation soos. Less commonly jua. There are also variants jaa, joa. * Foreigpers should be careful to make the distinction between the bia in employer im'plaia and the o:J9 in lawyer''\9:i9. " With some the raising appears to be further forward than the back. ° Now pronounced 'branrptan by many Londoners. ' But conjure (to appeal solemnly to) is Jian'djna. ' Also 'fk-anlja. Back Vowkls (a) 85 monkey 'inAi|ki, monlh niAnO, none hau, one WAn (= v;on), (Mioc'WAns, onion Aigan, pommel 'pAjiil, some SAm^, Somerset 'SAni98it, sow SAn (^ sm), sponge spAii^5, stomach 'stAmak, ton tAU, Tonbridge 'tAnbridj, tongue tAj, won WAn, wonder 'wAiide; above a'bAV, cower 'kAve, covd 'kATit, covi^ 'kAvi, rfwe dAV, glove glAT, jrotem 'gATOn, love Iat, wen 'ath, shove Jay, shovel 'JavI, slovenly 'slArnli; hormgh 'bAre, /Aoroit^A 'SAre, worry 'wAriv other 'Ada, fcroi/ier 'brAda, wo/Aer 'niAda, smother 'smAda, nothing 'nAOig; rfo^ew 'dAzn; colour 'kAla; twopence 'tApans. Ou has the value A in a few words; the principal are: courage 'kAridg, country 'kAntri, cousin 'kAzn, couple 'kApl, dottble 'dAbl, enough i'uAf, flourish 'flAriJ", hiccough 'hikAp, nourish 'nAriJ, rough FAf, southern 'SAdaa, southerly 'sAdali, Souihwark (London borough) 'SAdak', touch tAtf, tough tAf, trouble 'ti*Abl, yoting JAg. Note also the exceptional words does dAZ*, blood blAd, flood flAd. 445. Foreignets generally replace this vowel by some variety of a (§ 404) or a (§ 420), or by some variety of front rounded vowel, for instance, the half-open front vowel (phonetic symbol (b) heard in the French ceuf cef, German ewolf tsBOelf or tsvcelf*. Thus they commonly pronounce up as ap, ap or oep. Those who replace A by some variety of a often have great difficulty in distinguishing the sound from SB, making much, struggle (which should be mAtf, 'strAgl) almost identical with matdi,, straggle (which should be msetf, 'straegl). 446. The correct pronunciation of A can be acquired without much difficulty by imitation, provided care is taken not to add the slightest trace of lip-rounding. Some foreigners are able to obtain the correct sound by unrounding the continental va,riety of heard in the French port paiR, Germap dort daRt, etc. (§ 431, note 1); it is also sometimes useful to start by unrounding the German o: in wohl T0:1, and then to lower the tongue. If all eflforts to obtain the precise sound A fail, the best substitute is a (§ 404), which bears a considerable resemblance to A, and is actually used as a substitute for it in some English dialects (including London). 447. Words for practising the sound a: sponge spABt^g, butter 'bAta, tug tAg, dull dAl, come kAm, gun gAU, money 'mAni, nothing 'nAOig, luck lAk, trouble 'trAbl, won, one wad, fuss fis, vulture 'TAltfa, thumb ©Am, thus 8as, such SAtf, result ri'zAltj shut jAt judge d^xd^, young JAg, hurry 'hAri. ' This word has also a weak form gam, § 497. ' Soitthwark Bridge Road appears to be, however, more visually 'sanOwak- 'brids'rond, Simthwark Bridge is 'sA^ak'brids or (less usually) 'Bau6w9k- 'brldj. ' This word has also a weak form dez, § *97. '' (e is obtained by adding lip-rounding to E. 86 Chaptbb XIII. The Back Vowels . (the first element of the diphthong in go gou) 448. In pronouncing this sound the back of the tongue is raised considerably in the direction of the soft palate (though not so high as for the u-sounds. Fig. 95. The o in the Eng- lish diphthong ou as pro- nounced in normal speech! Fig. 96. The u in lish diphthong on nounced in normal ;l)e Eng- as pro- speech. Fig. 97. The o in the Eng- lish diphthong on pro- nounced -with exaggerated distinctness. Fig. 98. The n in the Eng- lish diphthong on pro- nounced with exaggerated distinctness. §§459, 467), but the tongue position is somewhat advanced from the full back position (fig. 86); the tongue is also pro- bably slightly lower than the normal half- close position; thelips are slightly round- ed (figs. 95, 97); the tip of the tongue is generally, though not necessarily, touching or almost touching the lower teeth; the lower jaw is moderately low in normal speech but not so low ao in the case of 9, o: and A. The formation of the English may be expressed shortly by defining it as a half- close ]!ACK LAX BOUNDED VOWel, SLIGHTLY ADVANCED (§§ 81, 76, 89, 88). 44». The sound o constit'-tes the first element of the English diphthong on. ■ 460. The diphthong ouis the "long" sound of the letter o^; examples $0 sou, doe don, home houm, noble 'noubl, roll rouP, lolt boult, ■post poust, both bouB, only 'ounli, don't dount. ou is the regular sound of oa when not followed by r; examples road roud, toast toust (exception broad. bra:d). Ow is pronoiinced ou in many words; examples Imoiv nou, sow (verb) sou', growth grOuO. Ou is pronounced ou in the following words: dotigh dou, moxdd mould, moult movM, poultice poultis, poultry, 'poultri, shoulder 'Joulda, smoulder 'smoiilde, soul soul, though dou. Note the exceptional words oh ou, brooch broutj", sew sou, and French words such as bureau bjue'rou. 461. The English vowel occasionally appears without a follow- ' The fact! that the English "long" o-sound is diphthongized may be de- monstrated by asking any Southern English person to say Oh! Oh! Oh! . . . rapidly. It will be observed that the lips do not remain in one position but keep closing and opening. ' on- is used in all words ending in -oil except doll dal, loll lol and Poll (parrot) poI. ' Sow (pig) is sau.. Back Vowels (o) 87 ing u, but only in unstressed syllables or before another vowel. Such cases are comparatively rare, and there are always alternative forms with ou or a or ». Thus Novembh; obey, molest, scholastic, are often pronounced no'veniba, o'bei, mo'lest, sko'lsestik, but the forms iiou'vemba, ne'veniba, ou'bei, e'bei, mou'lest, me'les^, skalaestik, skd'liestik are also heard. Again going 'gonii), lower (comparative of loiv) 'loua may be pronounced goig, loa. 452. Foreigners generally replace the English diphthong ou by the pure vowel o: heard in the French cote ko:t, German wohl vo:l. This is another sound of the half-close type, but it has the tongue further back and somewhat higher than the English 0, and the lips are very much more rounded than for the English sound. The differ- ences between it and the English o are summed up by many writers by describing the foreign sound as "tense" 458. It is of the greatest importance that foreigners, and parti- cularly Germans, should remember that in the English O'the tongue is not strictly in the standard back position, but is advanced towards the mixed position. This gives to the English a trace of oe- quality (§ 445). Many foreigners who recognize the diphthongal character of the English ou, fail to advance the tongue sufficiently and so to make the first element enough like ce; the result is that the diph- thong which they produce sounds too much like au.^ 454. In such cases it is well to start by practising the diphthong oeu (taking care that the second element is a clear u and does not become anything like y, § 442). When this diphthong oeu is mastered, students usually do not have much difficulty in modifying its quality until the true sound of the English ou is arrived at. French persons ,may obtain a near approximation to the English diphthong ou by pronouncing their so-called "e mute" (the usual vowel in Ze.la^) followed by the English "short" u in put put. Most foreigners find it helpful to keep the tip of the tongue firmly pressed against the lower teeth when practising this diphthong. 456. The diphthong OU is particularly difficult for foreigners when followed by the "dark" 1 (§§ 238, 239) as in old ould, whole houl, rolls roulz. In practising such words a break should at first be made, thus OU-Id, hon-l, rou-lz, and then the sounds should be gradually joined together. 456. Foreigners should avoid replacing OU by forms like 9U, aa, au, AU aU of which may be heard in London. It is better to use ' A diphthong of the type an la used for on in some forms of Cockney and in other dialectal varieties of English, but it cannot be recommended fdr foreigners. ' Narrow transcription [1/BfJ. 88 Chapteb Xni. The Back Vowels the Continental o: than any of these forms. OJ is actually used in standard Scottish pronunciation. 457. Many foreigners have extreme difficulty in distinguishing ou from o:. Those who have this difficulty should stady carefully th« differences between the two sounds (§§ 434, 448). 458. Words for practising the diphthong ou: post poust, both boue, tone toun, don't dount, cold koiild, go goii, motion 'moujn, no, hnow nou, loaf louf, roU roiil, won't wount, foe fou, vote vout, though don, sole, soul soul, gone zoun, show Jou, joJce dgOuk, yoM, yolk jouk, hope houp. THE ENGLISH LONG «: (the vowel in rule ru:l) 469. In pronouncing the English long u: the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate as high as possible con- sistently with not producing audible friction when the force, of the breath is moderate (fig. 99); the tongue is generally considered to be held in a state of considerable muscular tension; the lips are very much rounded and somewhat pushed forward (figs. 100, 101}; the tip of the tongue is generally, though not necessarily, slightly retracted from the lower teeth; the lower jaw is only slightly lowered. The sound gives no palatogram. The formation of the English long u: may be expressed shortly by defining the sound as a close back TENSE ROUNDED vowel (§§ 80, 76, 89, 88). 460. ui is the "long" sound of the letter u (the sound j being inserted before it in many cases, see rules in § 360); examples nde ru:l, June dguin, blue blu:, music 'mjuizik, tube tju:)). Oo has the sound UI in most words in which the oo is not followed by r or h, examples too tu:, food fa:d, spoon spurn (for exceptions see § 468). has the sound u: in ado o'du:, do du:^, to tu:^, two tu:, who hu:, Fig. 100. The English Jong, Fig. 101. The English long, Fig. 99. Tongue posi- tenae u: as pronouticed in tense n: pronounced with tion of n;. normal speech. exaggerated distinctness. ' This word has weak forms da and d, § 497. Before vowels the word do (whether stressed or not) is generally pronounced du. * This word has a weak form ta, § 497. Before vowels the word to (whether stressed or not) is generally pronounced tu. Back Vowels (u:) go whom hu;m, lose 1h:z, move mniY, prove pruiT, tomh tunii. Ou has the sound u: in some words, the principal being Brougham bru:mS rouHne ru:'ti:n, soup su:p, croup kru:p, rfowcAe du:/, ^rowp flru:p, rouge ruig, roM^c ru:t«, ^Aroujrft Oru:, mmcomI!/* ^n'ku:e, twMnd (injury, injure) wu:nd», yow ju:, yow^A ju:». u: (with or without a preceding j, see rules in § 360) is also the usual sountl of m, ew and ui; examples feud Quid, new njn:, crew kru:, suit sjuit*, fruit fru:t. Note the exceptional words beauty 'bjuiti (and its derivatives)* and shoe Ju:, canoe kd'nii:, manoeuvre 0i9'nu:v9. 461. The English long u: has about the same quality as the normal French yowel in rouge ruij (see, however, § 463). It differs slightly from the corresponding German sound heard in gut gu:t, by being a little advanced towards the mixed position. The German sound is in what may be termed the standard back position. The result is that the u: of Germans speaking English generally soimds somewhat too deep in quality. This deep quality of n: is often very noticeable when Germans pronounce the phrase how do you do? The correct pronunciation is 'h«a^n'du: with the English variety of u: ; Germans generally say bau'dii:ju:'du; with the deeper German variety of u:. 462. This deep variety of u: is particularly objectionable in words spelt with u, ew, eu, ui, etc., e. g. in music 'iiiju:zik, produce (verb) pra'4]u:s, few tju:, crew kru:. The matter is not so important in the case of words spelt with oo, o, ou, e. g. in food fu:d, lose lu:z, soup suip.* 468. Many English people diphthongize slightly the sound u:, especially when final. This diphthongization may be represented pho- netically by uw: thus, shoe, few are pronounced Ju:, Qui, or Juw, iQuw*. 464. It is better for foreigners not to attempt to diphthongize the English u:, because any exaggeration of the diphthong is apt to sound incorrect. * The noun brougham is bru: m or bruam. ' Also ra'ut in ronte-niarch. ' Wound from the verb tcind, is wauud. * Some English people pronounce this word su:t, but sjnit is preferred by the author. ' Kote that beautifuUy is usually 'bju:tafli. * The reason for this distinction is that many English people make a dii- ference in pronunciation between n: represented by u, ew, eu, ui, etc., and n: represented by oo, o, ou, using in the former case a more advanced vowel than in the latter case. It is by no means uncommon to hear good English speakers use a full mixed vowel (phonetic symbol ii:) in words spelt with u, ew, etc. The use of a full mixed vowel in such words as food, on the- other hand, is distinctly objectionable; it may often be observed in the speech of Londoners. ' The symbol w is used here in a sense slightly different from that assigned to it in § 846. Tbe two values are related in the same way as the two values of j, see note to § 367. 90 Chaptek XIII. The Back Vowels 465. Some foreigners, and notftbly the Portuguese, are apt to make the English u: too lax. , 466. Words for practising the sound u:: pool pu.'l, hoot bu:t, tomb tu:ni, doom duim, cool ku:l, goose flu:s, move muiT, noon uuin, loose lu:s, lose lu:z, root ru:t, woo wu:, food fu'd, soup su:p, Zoo zu:, shoe S^:, you, yew jni, wJio hu:; chew tjii:, June dguiii, ntZe ru:l, rude vuid, feZtte blu:; pew pju:, ftectM^y 'bju:ti, ^wwe tju:n, dew djii:, CTr before els) vow- *9o (dar before vowels) time(s) taim(z) *tain(z)3 to tu: ta (before consonants only)* upon a'p.iu apan lias woz waz uere war* (wa:r before wa (war before vowels) vowels) would ■wfid wad (also ad, d) your ja:® (ja:r before vow- *ja (or jo) (jar or jor els) before vowels). 498. There are further many words which take weak forms when they occur as the second element of a compound word. Such are Strong form Weah form Example ierry beri -bari or -bri gooseberry 'guzberi or 'gnzbri land Isend -land Scotland 'skatland man inaen •man gentleman 'dgentlman xnen men -man gentlmten I 'dgentlman most monst *-mast topmost ' mast tapmoust or 'tap- ' Used in titles, e. g. Sir John Moore sa'djon'mus, Sir Edward Clarke sa'redwad'klcuk. ' Before vowels 81. ' As in the first time I went there Sa'fais^aimai'weutdes or Sa'fais- tainal'wentdEa, three times four are fM;efee '6rl:taiiiiz'f,i:ra'twelv or '6ri: tamz- 'fa-.ra'twelv. * Note however, that tu is regularly used before an optional h; tnns tu would be osed in from horizon to horizon fraiiiAa'raizntufta'raizn even bj those who pronounce the h. tu may also be used before consonants in other cases for the sake of clearness. ' wea is also heard and is the form, generally aimed at by foreigners; wa: is, however, preferred by the author. " Less commonly jn9 or joa (juar or joar before vowels), Jones, English Phonetics 7 98 Chaptee XIV. The Mixed Vowels Strong form Weah form Example pence pens -pens twopence 'tApens fivepmce 'faifpans penny peni -pdni or -pni halfpenny 'heiponi or'heipni shire Jaie (Xai8r -J-e (or -Jie) Devonshire 'devnje or 'devn- before Tow- (-Jar or -Jior J"i9. els) before vow- els) 499. Note also the weak forms of board, pan, sense, where in cupboard 'kibed, samepan 'so: span, nonsense 'nons.?ns, anywhere else 'eniftwse'rels or eniTiwa'rels. 500. The following comparisons are instructive: company 'kimpani but companion kam'paenjan yard ja:d but vineyard 'vinjed board baid but cupboard 'kibad present (verb) pri'zent but present (noun, adj.) 'prezaut aitgiist (adj.) o:'gASt but August (month) 'aigast chase tjeis but purchase 'paitfas. chronology kra'naladji but chronological krana'ladsikl 501. The proper use of the weak vowel e is essential for a good pronunciation of English. Foreigners rarely succeed in using the sound correctly; they generally have an almost irresistible tendency to re- place it by strong vowels. The usual pronunciation of foreigners gives to an Englishman the impression that all the unimportant words and syllables are receiving undue prominence. 602. Many foreigners have such difficulty in using the sound a correctly in such sentences as a'weiframSa'siti, aiJadaT'Ooitsou, that it is often advisable to practise leaving out the vowels of the unimpor- tant syllables altogether wherever possible: thus a'weifrmd'siti, aijdv- 'Oartsou. This pronunciation will strike an English person as far better than the usual foreign form with strong vowels in the weak syllables; the long successions of consonants arising in such exercises are not really difficult to pronounce. 508. There are, however, two exceptional cases in which the sound e may not be omitted, viz. when followed by a nasal consonant and (i) preceded by another nasal consonant, as in woman 'wuman, German 'd58:nian or (ii) preceded by the group mb or nd, as in London 'lAndan. Germans are apt to drop out the a in these cases and to pronounce the words wnmn (or isumn), 'dja: mil (or 'djoeRinn), 'lAndn (or 'loendn or even loenn with double nasal consonant). 504. In the exceptional cases of the words not, on, when and then the vowel is never reduced to a in normal English, however little UixED "Vowels (9). Nasai,ization 99 stress there may be on the word.* Thus the seoond syllable in cannot 'kaenat is generally quite unstressed, and yet the Towel remains a clear English 3. It is necessary to call special attention to this because this is a case in which most foreigners seem to have a tendency to reduce the vowel to some kind of 9. (For the English a see §§ 4 ''9— 433.) 505. The use of a strong vowel is particularly objectionable in terminations like -able -abl, -ence -ans. Foreigners who have a ten- dency to make miserable "mlzarobl into anything like 'mizarabl should aim rather at saying 'mizrbl. Similarly consequence should be 'k»n- sikwans (almost 'konskwns) and not 'konsekweus; afterwards, suc- cessful, preferable itiay be pronounced 'eaftwdz, sk'sesll, 'prefrbl. 506. The correct use of the "neutral" vowel e is best acquired by continual reading of phonetic transcriptions. 607. Foreigners should practise particularly sentences containing a considerable number of as, e. g. Phonetic Readings in English p. 20, lines 11, 12, 15. 608. This completes the discussion of the vowels commonly used in normal Southern English. A few others are occasionally heard in very formal styles of speaking, as in reciting in public, but these additional vowels are of no importance for foreigners. Information with regard to these and with regard to dialectal varieties of English sounds may be found in the author's "Pronunciaiion of English" (Cambridge University Press). CHAPTER XV NASALIZATION 509. When sounds (other than plosive and nasal consonants) are pronounced with simultaneous lowering of the soft palate, so that the air passes through the nose as well as through the mouth, they are said to be nasalised. Nasalized sounds are represented in phonetic transcription by the mark " placed above the symbol of the normal sound. The best known cases of nasalized sounds are the French vowels I, OB, fi, (or 5) (which are approximately the nasalized forms of the normal z, oe, a, or a) heard in vin yl, sans sfi, bon bo (or ba), un OB. Such sounds do not occur in standard English. 610. Some foreigners are apt to nasalize vowels whenever a nasal consonant follows: thus French persons often pronounce djsem, hsend, wout, instead of A^xm, haend, wount; the Portuguese regularly pro- nounce the English word tense (which should be tens) as tens or even ts8. The Dutch and many South Germans have a similar ten- ' Not is, howeyer, reduced to nt in don't dount, could'nt 'kndnt, must'nt 'niABnt, etc. 7* 100 Chapter XVI. CACUMUfAL SouifDS dency; with these the nasalization is especially noticeable in the diph- thongs, e. g. wain or isain instead of wain (wine). Some foreigners nasalize all vowels or at any rate all the more open vowels indepen- dently of any nasal consonant. Such nasalization is very objectionable to English ears. 511. Those who habitually nasalize their vowels* often have diffi- culty in getting rid of the fault. It can only be cured by constant practice of isolated vowel sounds. It is better to start practising with close vowels, such as i:, m, there being always less tendency to nasal- ize these. It is also a good plan to pronounce z before each vowel because z is a sound which cannot be nasalized without losing most of its characteristic quality. When by means of exercises such as zi:zi: . . ., zu:zu: . . . the student is enabled to pronounce a pure i: and u:, which should not require much practice, the opener vowels may be rendered pure by exercises such as ieie . . ., uono . . ., iaia . . ., 113U3 . . . pronounced without a break of any kind between the i and e, u and etc. When all the isolated vowels can be pronounced without nasalization, easy words should be practised. The greatest difficulty win probably be found in words in which the vowel is followed by a nasal consonant, e. g. wine wain; such words should therefore be reserved till the last. In practising a word such as wain a complete break should at first be made between the i and the n, thus, wai-n; this interval may afterwards be gradually reduced until the normal pronunciation is reached. 612. Words for practice: stem stem, jam dssBm, calm ka:m, come IcAm, home houm, time taim; then 9en, ran raen, man msen, on an, lawn lam, one WAn, alone a'loun, wine wain, totm taun, coin kain; end end, hand hseud, pond pand, warned wa:nd, under Ande, owned ound, find faind, found faund, joined dgaind. CHAPTER XVI CACUMmAL SOUNDS 513. Cacuminal sounds (also called "inverted" sounds or "cerebral" sounds) are defined as sounds in which the tip of the tongue is "inverted" or curled upwards towards the hard palate. They are re- presented" in phonetic transcription by placed below the symbol of the normal sound. Varieties of all the dental consonants may be formed with the tongue inverted. Fig. 108 shows the approximate tongue position in pronouncing the cacuminal t and d. 51*. S uch sounds do not exist in standard English. Many » We are here speaking of nasalization which is merely the result of habit and not due to any physical defect. CacumimjlL Sounds. Assimilation 101 Fig. 108. Tongne poei- tion of cacuminal t. Fig. 109. Tongue position of a pro- nounced with cacu- minal modification. foreigners and especially Nor- wegians and Swedes haye a tendency to use consonants of this kind instead of the normal alveolar consonants, when the spelling contains a final r or r followed by a consonant letter. Thus, they are apt to pronounce hard (normal English houd) as ha:d or lia:rd, do&r (normal English da:) as dorr, pearl (normal English p9:l) as )M:i or psirl. 515. Vowels may have cacuminal modification, that is, they may be pronounced with a simultaneous curling back of the tip of the tongue in the direction of the hard palate.^ The approximate tongue position of the Towel a pronounced with cacuminal modification is shown in fig. 109. Such modification is not unfrequently heard from foreigners under circumstances similar to those mentioned in § 514, thus, hold, da:, pa:l. This pronunciation may be observed in English dialectal speech (it is common in the North and South -West of Eng- land, and in America), but it is not recommended to foreigners. 516. This modification of vowels may be avoided by keeping the tongue firmly pressed against the lower teeth. The pronunciation t, d, etc., for t, d, etc., may be corrected by articulating the consonants with the tip of the tongue actually touching the teeth. 617. Words for practice: fear fie, fair fsa, far fa:, f(ywr fa:, poor pu9, fur, fir fa:; fierce flas, scarce skeas, part pa:t, hoard ba:d, cures kjuaz, learnt la:nt. CHAPTEE XVII ASSIMILATION 518. When a sound is influenced by another sound near it, it is said to undergo an assimilation. 619. Assimilations are of various kinds. The most important are (i) assimilations from voice to breath and breath to voice, (ii) assimil- ations affecting the position of the tongue in pronouncing palatal and dental consonants. 520. An example of the first kind of assimilation is the reduction ' Vowels with cacuminal modification have the acoustic effect of the vowel and a variety of r pronounced simultaneously. For this reason some writers use the notation a, 3, etc., for representing them. 102 Chapteh XVII. Assimilation of has, is (which are hsez, iz, when isolated) to S when a breathed consonant precedes; e. g. Jack has been here 'dgaeksbinhia, that is all right 'dsetsail'rait. Other examples are used in the expression used to ('jii;sttn or 'ju:stu), fivepence 'Mfpans (cp. five faiv), the forms wit9, bretB which are common variants of wid6, bredO (icidth^ breadth), aijtf 6»:tsou a rapid colloquial form of aiJadaT'Ooitsou (I should have thought so). 621. Another example is found in the English inflectional termina- tion -s of the genitive and plural of nouns, and 3'* person singular of verbs. When a breathed consonant precedes, the s is pronounced s (as in cuffs ixfs, sits sits), but when a voiced consonant or a vowel precedes, the s is pronounced z, as in dogs, dog's dagz (often pro- nounced by Germans almost tsks), trees tri:z, plays pleiz, rushes 'rifiz. It can therefore usually be inferred fr-om the spelling whether the termination -s represents the breathed or the voiced sound. In the case of final -ths, however, there is no indication; The general rule with regard to this case is given in § 284. 622. Partial assimilation of voice to breath regularly occurs where a liquid or semi-vowel is preceded by a breathed consonant in the same syllable; thus, in small smoil, snuff snif, place pleis, sweet swi:t, try trai, pew pju:, the consonants m, n, 1, w, r, j, are partially devocalized, the sounds beginning breathed and ending voiced. With some speakers the assimilation is complete, the words becoming sma:!, snif, pleis, swi:t, trai, p§u:. 528. An assimilatiou of a similar kind occurs when tj, sj become tj, J" (§§ 525, 526). A simple assimilation of tongue position would have changed the j to 3. There has been in addition a devocalization under the influence of the preceding breathed consonant. 624. French people speaking English often make assimilations of voice to breath and breath to voice where they are not required. When there are two consecutive consonants, one of which is breathed and the other voiced (neither, however, being a liquid), they have a tendency to assimilate the first to the second as regards presence or absence of voice: thus, they are apt to pronounce medicine (normal English 'medsin) as 'metsin, anecdote (normal English 'senikdout) rather like aneg'dat, absurd (normal English ab'seid) as ap's(BRd (compane the French absurde ap'syRd), absolute (normal English 'sebsaluit or 'sebsaljuit) as ap'salyt, plenty of time (normal English 'plentiav'tuim) as plen- tiaf'taim, this book (normal English 'dis'buk) as diz'buk, like that (normal English laik'dset) as laig'dat. Assimilation 103 They should also note the English word observe 11 ab'zeiT which they generally pronounce ap'sSRV viq>— — - _t^ ^| as in French. The Dutch have a similar tendency. cV^^^^M W6. The second kind of assimilation (§ 519) rM^ ^ ^ is the cause of the change of j into J" or 5 when ^ "1 1 preceded by t or d (as in picture 'piktj*9, grandeur \ m I 'graendja, which are derived from older forms like "N. I A 'piktjna, 'grsendjua, which in their turn come from W \^ still earlier forms 'piktiur, 'grandiur), and the ^ig- ^lO- Tongue coalition of sj, zj (or si, zi) into J, 5 (as in naUm P"='*'o°s "* *' J 'neijn, vision 'Tign, which can be shown to have ^" j ■.' been pronounced 'nseision, 'vizion in Shakespeare's time). Fig. 110 shows how t (or d) has caused the following j to become J" (or 5). 526. When 8 (or z) and j coalesce (as in natiovt, vision), a sound intermediate between s (or z) and j haturaiUy results, namely J' (or 5). Compare the tongue positions of S (z) (figs. 48, 49), j (which in this case is. much the same as that of §, fig. 61) and J" (3) (figs. 54, 55). 527. Foreigners often have difficulty in determining in what cases assimilations from j to J" (5) are made and in what cases they should be avoided. The rule is that they are generally made in syllables which are quite unstressed (i. e. which do not receive a primary or secondary stress, § 574ff.) but not otherwise. Thus, assimilation is made in the examples given in § 525, also in ocean 'oujn, azure 'SB58, soldier "^souldga, pension 'penj*n, pressure 'prejia, conscience 'kanjiis, partial 'poujl, vitiate vijieit, anxious 'segfcj'as, usual 'juigual, right- eous 'raitjes, natural 'naetjral, question 'kwestjn. On the other hand the assimilation is not made in mature ma'tjua, endurance in'djuarans (in which the syllables in question are stressed), or in aperture 'sepotjua (the third syllable of which has a secondary stress). 528. There are exceptions to each case: thus, there is a teudency^. for less common words to be pronounced without assimilation; thus celestiai is si'lestjal not si'lestj"], plenteous is 'plentjas not plentj'as (in fact -I3- is used in all words in -teous except righteous). Sure Jua and sugar 'Juga are exceptional words in whi«h the assimilation is made in stressed syllables. 529. Other examples of assimilations affecting tongue position are horseshoe which is generally pronounced 'haijju; not 'hdisjui, does „sjk. which is generally 'di5|i(:) not 'dAzJiO)? of course she does which is generally aT'ka:J3"idAZ not av'kaisfidiz. Just shut the door is often pronounced colloquially 'dsAj'/^taa'da: . In tortoise-shell 'taitajel the final consonant of tortoise 'ta:tas has completely disappeared (the •modem pronunciation having no douM been preceded by an inter- mediate fonn 'ta:t9^el). 104 Chapteb XVllI. Length 630. A striking case of assimilation in which the lips are affected is al'doump'bli:Tit, a common coUoquial form of ai'dountbi'liiTit (I don't believe it). CHAPTER XVIII LENGTH 631. All sounds may be pronounced continuously during a shorter or longer period. The length of time during which a sound is held on continuously is called its length or quantity. It is easy to distinguish many degrees of length, say five or six, but for practical purposes it is not necessary to distinguish more than two or occasion- ally three degrees. The two degrees are called long and short. In the rare cases in which an intermediate degree is required, this interme- diate degree is termed half-long. 532. The mark of length is : placed immediately after the sym- bol for the sound which is long; half-length is marked when necessary by '; short sounds are left unmarked. 688. The rules of length of English vowels are as follows. 684. Rule I. The vowels i:, a:, a:, u:, ei, are as a rule longer than the other English vowels under similar circumstances, i. e. when surrounded by the same sounds, and pronounced witli the same degree of stress. Thus the vowels in heedhili, hard ha:d, hoard hD:d, food fnid, heard haid are longer than the vowels in hid hid, headhei^, lad laed', rod rod, bud bid, hood hud; similarly the vowels in heat hl:t, heart halt, short Ja:t, hurt hait are longer than the vowels in hit hit, get get, hat hset, hot hat, hut hit, put put. In consequence of this rule it is customary to designate the vowels i:, a:, 91, u:, 9: as the "long" vowels, and the remaining English vowels as the "short" vowels. 636. The diphthongs are of the same length as the "long" vowels. 686. The actual lengths of the English "long" vowels and diph- thongs are very variable and depend on their situations in words and sentences (see following rules). The short vowels are subject to similar variations, but in this case (with the exception of the words mentioned in §§ 542 — 545), the variations are not sufficiently great to be of pract- ical importance. 687. Rule II. The long vowels (and diphthongs) are shorter when followed by a breathed consonant than when final or followed by a voiced consonant. Thus, the vowel I: is shorter in seat si:t than it is in sea si: or in seed si:d; the vowels and diphthongs in staff stccf, sought, sort salt, i^e (subst.) ju:s, scarce skses, height hait, house ^ See however § 643. ' See however § 542. Length J 05 (subst.) haus, are shorter than those in star sto:, sow, sore 89:, yew, you jiK, scare sksa, high hai, how hau, starve sta:v, sawed, sword said, «*se (verb) juiz, scares sksaz, fej(j!e haid, house (verb) hauz. 588. Rule III. Shortening of the "long" vowel (or diphthong) also takes place before a liquid consonant followed in tutn by a breathed consonant. Thus the o: in fault fo:lt i& shorter than that in fall fail or that in faUs fo:lz; the e: in learnt leint is shorter than that in learn loin or that in learns l9:nz. 589. Rule IV. The "long" vowels (and diphthongs) are also shortened when immediately followed by another vowel. Thus the i: in seeing 'sfclg is shorter than the i: in see Si: or that in seen si:ii, the o: in drawing 'dra:ig is shorter than the a: in 'draw dro: or that in draws dro:z'. 640. u: is often reduced to the lax u under these circumstances; thus ruin may be pronounced either 'man (the tense ii: being some- what shortened) or ruin with short lax u. The diphthongs ei, on are frequently reduced to e and when followed by vowels; thus, ^player is pronounced 'pleia (with a shortened ei) or plea (not plee)', poetry, lower (adj ) are pronounced 'ponitri, 'lou9 (with shortened on) or 'poitri', lea. 541. Rule V. The "long" vowels (and diphthongs) are shorter in unstressed syllables than in stressed syllables. Thus the ais in audacvMS a:'deij"»s, cardboard 'koc dbo: d are not quite so long as the ais in audible 'a.'dabl^, board hxd.; the a: in carnation ka:'neij*n is not quite so long as the o: in scarlet 'ska: lit; the ai in idea ai'dia', the on in fellow 'felon*, the no in duration djno'reijn, are shorter than the same diphthongs in idle, idol 'aidl, bdow bi'lon, endure in'^'na. 542. Certain of the so-caUed "short" vowels are occasionally long. The most notable case is that of the vowel ae. This sound is com- monly long in the monosyllabic adjectives bad bseid, sad S8e:d, etc., though short in the substantives lad Ised, pad paed, etc. Long ae: may also be observed with many speakers in a number of other words e. g. man maen or mae:n, jam (subst.) dgaem or d5ae:ili, bag (subst.) baeg or baB:g (more usually the latter). Long ae: is most frequently ' In drawing-room (salon) the first vowel has become quite short and forms a diphthong with the i, thus 'draigruni. JDrawing-room meaning a room for drawing is pronounced according to the rule 'drorigriiin with a somewhat shortened a:. » Note that prayer (supplication) is pronounced prsa, while prayer (one who prays) is 'prela or pre9. ' Borne say 'poitri, but this form is not recommended. * Also pronounced 'oidibl. ' Foreigners generally pronounce this word incorrectly with the stress on the first syllable. * Also pronounced felo. jQg Chapter XVIII. Lbnoth found before voiced consonants and particularly before d, but is not confined to these cases; the words hack, that (demonstrative pronoun) are pronounced with long ae: by some speakers. 543. The so-caUed "short" vowel e is also sometimes long, though not so frequently as ae. In yes the vowel seems more often long than short. In hed, dead the vowel is often long (though in fed, tread it is always short). 544. Similar lengthening may occasionally be observed with other "short" vowels. Thus some speakers pronounce Ing, good with longer vowels \h&npig, hood. His and is when final often have lengthened vowels. 545. The length of the lengthened "short" vowels referred to in the three preceding paragraphs is particularly noticeable when the words are pronounced with the compound rising intonation (§ 728), e. g. in it isn't had i'tiznt'bseid pronounced ia such a way as to imply "but at the same time it is not very good"J EFFECT OF RHYTHM ON LENGTH 646. Vowel length also depends very largely on the rhythm of the sentence. There is a strong tendehcy in connected speech to make stressed syllables follow each other as far as possible at equal distances. The result is that when a syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is followed by unstressed syllables, that vowel or diphthong is shorter than if the syllable were final or followed by a stressed syllable. Thus in pronouncing the series of numbers eighteen, nineteen, twenty 'eitfcn'naintiin'twenti the diphthong ai in nineteen is not so long as the ai in nine in the series eight, nine, ten 'eit'nain'ten. The ou in there is nobody there de9Z'nonlt)edi'de9 is not nearly so long as that in there is no time 9&ez'nou'taim. 547. The differences of length caused in this way may be made very evident by representing the rhythm by means of musical notes. Thus if we take a quaver J** to represent the length of time between two consecutive stresses in eight, nine, ten the first two of the above groups will appear thus: /=a j=^ ^ .r ^ i^ 'eiti: n'nainti: n'twenti 'eit'nain'ten 548. It is clear from this that the diphthongs ei, ai are something like twice as long in the second group as ^hey are in the first. In like manner the other two groups appear thus: j^ ^ / ^, n 9eez'noiibadi'de9 deez'non'taini Length \Q'J The nou in the second case takes up practically as much time as the entire word 'iioubadi in the first. The ou is therefore far longer in the second case than it is in the first. 549. A glance at the length values of the musical notes in numerous examples occurring in Chapter XX will show how largely length is determined by rhythm. Thus in the example tve will start immediately if you are ready (§ 726) it will be observed that the two syllables 'starti take up as much time as the five syllables 'mildjet- liiQue; the syllable 'stcut accordingly occupies a much longer space than the syllable 'mi:d. It is easy to hear that the i: in the syllable 'niild is extremely short and that the lengthening of the syllable 'stCL't is distributed over the sounds a: and t. In the sentence you can come with ME if you are ready jn:ksn'kAmwi8'ini:iQua'Tedi, the length of the word 'mi: is not much leas than the total length of the three syllables 'mildjatli in the preceding case. 550. If in this sentence the word start were replaced by. a longer word containing long vowels or diphthongs these sounds would be shortened. For instance if we were to substitute the word arbitrate 'etbitreit, we should find that the whole of this word would be com- pressed into almost the same space as the monosyllable 'start. 551. It will be seen therefore that the "long" vowels and diph- thongs in words like immediately, beautifid, are always very much shortened. LENGTH OF CONSONANTS 552. The length of consonants also varies, but not to the same extent as that of vowels. The following are the only rules of impor- tance for foreigners. 55.^. Rule VI. Final consonants are longer when preceded by one of tlie "short" vowels than when preceded by one of the "long' vowels or by a diphthong. Thus the n in sin sin is longer than the ns in seen, scene stn and sign sain. 564. Rule VII. Liquids are longer when followed by voiced con- sonants than when followed by breathed consonants. Thus the n in wind wind is. longer than that in hint hint, the 1 in bald baild is longer than that in fault failt, the m in number iivmbo is longer than that in jumper 'd5Ampe. 555. Plosive consonants preceded by a stressed vowel and followed by another consonant are rather long, e. g. the k in act aekt, actor 'sekta (compare the k in jacket 'dgBekit), the p in description dis'kripjn. .556. Liquid consonants are usually very long when immediately followed by an unstressed syllable beginning with j or w, as in million 'miljan, somewhere 'sAmwsa (compare siUier 'silia, summer 'SAma), 1QQ Chapteb !]SVin. Length 657. ConBonants following stressed short vowels are sometimes very much lengthened for the sake of emphasis, e. g. splendid 'splenrdid, a Utile more Q'liilVmx, I never heard such a thing ai'ner^heid- SAtJaOii), numbers and numbers of things 'nAiii:b9zn'nAm:lt)8Z3v6iflz. Similar lengthening occasionally occurs after "long" vowels, e. g. it was awfully good itw9z'o:f:ligud. MISTAKES IN LENGTH MADE BY FOEEIGNEKS 658. The most important mistakes of length heard from foreigners are as follows. 559. Many foreigners make the "long" vowels and diphthongs fully long when followed by breathed consonants, instead of shortening them in accordance with the rule in § 537. This is one of the most characteristic mistakes made by Germans speaking English. They almost invariably niake the vowels and diphthongs far too long in such words as park -pai'k, use (subst.) jiiis, fruit fru:t, nation 'neijn, rnouth lasmQ, right rait', roast beef 'roust'bilf. French people also occasionally fall into this error. 560. Again, Germans generally fail to lengthen properly final consonants preceded by short vowels. Thus, they are apt to pronounce thin 6in, tell tel, come kAm with very short final consonants, instead" of lengthening them in accordance with the rule in § 553. 561. The EVench are inclined to shorten long vowels when final, pronouncing, for instance, sea, too, with short vowels (like the French si, tout) instead of with long ones (si:, tu:). 662. On the other hand, when there is a final r in the spelling they regularly lengthen the vowel, even when it ought to be short (besides inserting some kind of r-sound). Thus, they generally pro- nounce paper pe'poeiR instead of 'peip9. 56S. The French also have a tendency to shorten the long vowels i: and u: when followed by 1), d, g, ni, n and 1, as in tube tju:b, food furd, league li:g, tomb tiiim, fifteen 'fif'tim, fed fi:l. 564. Words for practice: (for rule I) seen si:n, sin sin, harm haim, ham hsem, short pit, shot Jot, call ko:l, doll dal, wall itvA, quality 'kwoliti, pool puil, pull pul, root ru:t, foot fut; (for rule II) see si:, say sei, sigh sai, sow (pig) sau, far fa:, saw, sore, soar »9'., sow (verb) sou, too, two tu:, lead (conduct) li:d, laid leid, lied laid, loud laud, lard loud, laud, lord la:d, load loud, lose lu:z; geese gi:s, ' The usual German pronunciation of all right (normal EDglish 'oilrait) may be represented in narrow transcription thus ['alKa-i't]. It may also be remarked that foreigners generally pronounce this phrase with a falling intonation on oil and low tone on right; the normal English intonation is a falling intonation on all and a rise on right (or sometimes a high tone on att and a fall on right). Lknoth ]^Q9 lace leis, nice nais, house haus, pass pais, horse bars, fcas^ toust, Zoose lu:s; (for rule III) paint peint, aunt, aren't ouiit, jpm< paint, ounce auns, toun^ taint, don't donnt. 565. French persons usually fail to reproduce correctly tte Eng- lish rhythm. The point which they should notice specially is that the Towels of unstressed words such as the, of, to are generally extremely short; they are apt to make these syllables just as long as other syllables. The correct lengths of the syllables in ring the hell, first of all, what 2S the time, he wrote to the secretary are shown by the notation i^J J i^ J J J^J 'rigSaljel 'faista'To:! '/iwatsda'taim il il il d d J J Mi'routtddd'sekratri 566. However well the sounds may be pronounced the , usual French rhythm f»:8taT3:l 'Awotsddtaim etc., will never sound correct, GENERAL NOTE ON THE EEPRESENTATION OF LENGTH IN PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION 667. It will be observed from what has been said in the present chapter that the custom of regarding certain vowels as long and certain others as short is, to say the least of it, unsatisfactory. The length of the long vowels is very variable, and depends on a variety of circumstances; the so-called "short" vowels on the other hand are sometimes quite long, and no definite rules can be laid down for the use of the long forms. 568. In the system of transcription used in this book the con- ventional distinction between "long" and "short" vowels has been adhered to for the sake of uniformity with other books. In the opinion of the author uniformity of method and transcription is so desirable for encouraging the spread of phonetics, that such uniformity should be maintained for the present even at some sacrifice of scientific accuracy. 569. Accordingly the only indication of length here given is the indication that the vowels i:, a;, or, u:, and ©: are as a rule longer than the other vowels under similar circumstances. 570. In narrow transcription the length might be indicated more minutely if desired by using the half-length mark in the cases where jj^Q Chapter XIX. Steess the length of the "long" vowels is reduced (§§ 537 — 541), and denoting ftiUy long diphthongs by placing ' after the symbol for each element. Thus, seat 8i:t, faMU fa: It, seeing 'sfcig, audacious ai'deijas might be written in narrow transcription [si'tj [fo'it], ['si'ig], [l9''dfeif38]; hide haid, scare(s) ske9(z) might be written in narrow transcription [ha'i'd], [sk£'9'(z)] as distinguished from height halt (narrow [halt]), scarce sksas. 671 Even this narrower notation would only bo the very roughest indication of the real facts regarding length. It is not difficult to distinguish five or six degrees of length, if we wish. Thus, it is not difficult to hear that the lengthening effect of voiced liquids on preceding vowels is not so great as that of voiced plosives and fricatives, and two or three degrees of length may be observed in the vowels h6re regarded as short; again, the shortenings due to the presence of following unstressed syllables (§§ 546 — 551) are very variable in amount, since they depend on the number and character of these unstressed syllables.^ 673. In practice it is found undesirable to adopt a complicated system of length-marks to represent the numerous degrees of length. The best way for foreigners to acquire correct pronunciation iii the matter of length is to learn carefully such of the above rules as cause l^hem difficulty and then to practise words and phrases illustrating these rules. 573. Though adhering in this book to the conventional distinction between long and short vowels for the reason mentioned in § 568, the author desires to call the attention of phoneticians to the un- satisfactory nature of the current system of transcription in view of the actual facts in regard to the length of English sounds. It is much to be desired that all writers on English phonetics should come to an agreement to adopt a system of transcription for English inde- pendent of length-marks. CHAPTER XIX STRESS 574. The force of the breath with which a sound or a syllable is pronounced is called its stress'^ In connected speech the stress varies from syllable to syllable. Syllables which are pronounced with greater ' Those who wish to make a detailed study of the length, of English sounds are referred to Meyer's Englisehe Lautdauer (Leipzig, Harrassowitz). ' It is certain that much of the effect commonly attributed to force is in reality a matter of intonation. It has, however, been found necessary to treat stress in the conventional manner here: see remarks on stress in the preface. Stbess 111 stress than the neighbouring syllables are said to be stressed^ It is possible to distinguish many degrees of stress. Thus, if we use the figure 1 to denote the strongest stress, 2 to denote the second strongest and so on, the stress of the English word opportunity might be marked thus: ap9tju:iiiti. 575. Such accuracy is not necessary for practical purposes; it is generally sufficient to distinguish two degrees only, stressed and un- dressed.* Stressed syllables are marked in this book by placing ' im- mediately before them, thus, father 'fa: 09, arrive a'raiy, opportunity apo'tjuiniti, where are you going? '/twearojni'gouifl. 576. If for any reason it is found necessary to distinguish three degrees of stress, the sign may be used to denote the secondary stress. Thus in examination the secondary stress is on the second syllable, so that the word may be written if desired ig,zseiui'neiXn. 577. It is useful to mark the secondary stress in the word examina- tion, because foreigners usually put the secondary stress or even the primary stress on the first syllable (pronouncing the word ,eksami'ne:Xn). The same thing applies to peculiarity pi^kjuili'seriti, administration ad minls'treijii, familiarity f 9 vaiWiRriii, antagonistic sen.tsege'nistik, superiority sju^piari'ariti, tuberculosis tju,1l)e:kja'loasis (compare aris/o- cratic ^aeristo'krsetik, modification ^madifi'keijn). 578. Marking secondary stress is thus useful in all cases in which there are three or more syllables preceding the principal stress and in which the secondary stress is not on the first syllable.* EULES OF STEESS A. WORD -STRESS (simple words) 579. The rules regarding the position of the stress in English words of more than one syllable are very complicated, and most of those which can be formulated at all are subject to numerous exceptions. Many students find the best way of learning the stress of English words is simply to learn the stress of each individual word as they come across it; others prefer to study the rules. We give here the principal rules for the benefit of those who adopt the latter method.* Cases of special importance are given in capital letters. ' Called by some writers strong. ' Unstressed syllables are called weah by many writers. '■' The author has only been able to discover one word in which a difference in the position of the secondary stress is significant for the sense, viz: certifica- tion. Pronounced ,S8:tili'keiJ'n it means the "act of certifying" or "fact of being certified"; pronounced S9:,tifl'kei/n (or S8,tif-) it means the "act of certificating" or "fact of being certificated". * As most of those who wish to learn to speak English are not philologists, the rules formulated here are made as far as possible independent of historical con- 112 Chaptee XIX. Stress 580. Rule I. Two syllable words of which the first syllable is a prefix^ not having a distinct meaning of its own are gienerally stressed on the second syllable. Examples: away a'wei, ahswrd 8b's3:d, address (subst. and verb) a'dres, aUow a'lau^ appeal (s. and v.) a'pi:.l, arrive a'raiv, ascent a'sent or se'seat, become bl'kAm, confuse kan'fjniz, coerce kon'ais, collapse (s. and v.) ka'lteps, compose kam'ponz, correct (adj. and v.) ka'rekt, defence di'fens, disclose dls- 'klonz, diverge dai'vaidj, diffuse (v.) di'fjn:z, diffuse (adj.) di'fju:s, emerge i'maidj, excuse (a.) iks'kjnis, excuse (v.) iks'kjn-.z, effect (a. and v.) i'fekt, forgive fa'giv, forego foi'gou, inflame in'fleiin, immense i'mens, employ iiii'plai, endure iu'djna, obtain ab'tein, omit on'mit (also pronounced o'mit, a'mit), occur a'ka:, offend a'fend (also pronounced o'fend), oppress a'pres (also pro- nounced o'pres), perform pa'form, precise pri'sais^ pronounce pra'nauns, receive ri'si:v, select (adj. and v.) si'lekt, sublime sa'blaim, success sak'ses, supply (s. and V.) sa'plai, sustain sas'tein, surprise (s. and v.")sa'praiz, traducetr9'i}W.B, translate tra:ns'leit or trsens'leit, uphold Ap'hould, within wi'9in. 681. There are a great many exceptions, of which the following are the principal: I. Substantives:' abscess 'xhaiSf absence 'eehsjis, accent 'seisnt, access 'eekses, adjunct 'sedjAgt, advent 'sedvant or 'advent, adverb 'advaib, affiance 'eefluans, aspect 'sespekt, cohort 'kovho'.t, collect 'kalekt, college 'kalidj, comment 'kament, commerce 'kamais, commune 'kamjn:ii, compact 'kampsekt, compass 'kAmpas, compost 'torn f oust, conyMund 'kompnimA, compress 'kampres, con- clave 'kankleiv or 'kagkleiv, concord 'kagka:d, concourse 'kagkais, concrete 'kag- kri:t or 'kankri:t, conduct 'kandakt, con/^nes 'kanfainz, conflict 'kbnllikt, con- gress 'kaggres, conquest 'kagkwest, conscience 'kanjns, conscript 'kanskript, con- sole 'kansonl, cowsort 'kansa: t, cowsmZ 'kansl, cortioct 'kantoekt, contest 'kontest, context 'kantekst, contour 'kantna, contract 'kantrsekt, contrast 'kantrsest or kantra:st, convent 'koay^nt, cowuerse 'kanva: s, cow«ert'kanva:t, concict 'kanvikt, convoy 'ianyai, decrease 'di:kri:s', deluge 'deljnidj, desert 'dezat, detail 'dl:teil*, discard 'diska: a (also pronounced dis'kaid), discord 'diska:d, dtscoitn* 'diskannt, distance 'distans, district 'distrikt, effort 'efat, egress 'i:gres, ensign 'engain, entrance 'entrans, envoy 'envoi, escort 'eskait, essay 'esel, excerpt 'eksaipt, exHe 'eksail or 'egzall, exit 'eksit, exeunt 'eksiADt, expert 'ekspait, export 'ekspait, all BubstantiveB beginning with fore- (e. g. foresight 'fa:8alt), forfeit 'fa:flt, im- pact 'linpsekt, import 'impait, impost 'imponst, impress 'impres, imprint 'im- siderationa. Those who wish to study the subject from the historical point of view are referred to the excellent chapter on the subject in Jespersen's Modem English Grammar, Vol. I (Winter, Heidelberg). ' The chief one-syllable prefixes are a-, ab-, ad- (aU, ap-, ar-, as-), he-, eon- Ceo-, col-, com-, cor-), de-, dis- (di-, dif-), e-, ex- (ef), for-, fore-, in' (il-, im-, ir-. em-, en-), ob- (oc-, of-, op-), per-, pre-, pro-, re-, se-, sub- (sue-, sup-, SUS-), sur-, tra-, trans-, up-, with-. For the special cases of dis- ecLuivalent to un- or implying separation, ex- meaning "former", in- (im-, ir-) meaning "not", pre- meaning "beforehand", re- denoting repetition, sub- denoting "subordinate", and un- see § 613. Note that a- is a prefix in. awry a'rai. ' It will be observed that many of these words have corresponding Terbs which are stressed on the last syllable according to the rule. A list of the principal substantives which have the stress on the second syllable according to the rule is given in Appendix B. ' Also pronounced di:'kri:s, di'kriis. * Pronounced by some di'tell. Wobd-Stress (Simple (^ords) Jig print, impulse 'impAls, ineeme insens, incotne 'iukem ', index 'indeks, infemt 'Infant, influence 'iaamns, influx inflAks, ingress 'inqr as, inmate 'inmeit, in- road 'inroud, insect 'insekt, insight 'insait, instance 'instans, instant 'Instant, twstep 'instep, instinct 'instigt, insult 'insAlt, invoice 'iiirais, object 'abdjikt, oblong 'al^lag, obverse 'abrais, perfume 'pa:fju:m, pei-mit 'pa:mit, pervert 'pa: va:t, yrecqj* 'prhsept, precinct 'priisigt, preface 'preils or 'prefas, prefer! pri:fekt, ;>re^/pri:flks, prelude 'preljuid, premise(s) 'preniis(iz), presage 'presidj, pre- sence 'prezns, pnesent^ 'preznt, pretext 'pri:tekst, probate proiibit or 'proubeit, proftlem 'prablam or 'prablem, proceeds 'pronsi:dz, process 'prouses', produce 'pradju:s, product 'pradakt, profile 'proufl:!, profit praflt, progress 'proitgres', project 'prodjekt, prologue 'proulag, promise 'pramis, pronoun 'proniiaun, prospect 'praspekt, protest proiitest, ^o»er6 'provab or 'proTa:b, province 'proving, provost Jprarast, recm-d 'reka:d, r«/u(7e 'refju: dj, refuse 'ro^'nis, regress 'ri:gres, rescript rhskript, respite 'respit or 'resp^it, subject 'sxhAiikt, subsoil 'sAbsail, substance 'sAbstans, suburb 'sAbab or 'sAba.b, subway 'sAbwei, succour 'sAka, suffrage 'sAirid^, SMrnome'sarneiui, surplice 'saiplas or'sa:plis, surplus 'saiplas, survey 'sairei*, transcript 'tra?nskript % transept 'ti;8ensept ', transfer 'trsens- fa(:)', transit 'trseusit, transpoi-t 'triieuspait', upland 'Apland, uproar 'Apro:, upshot 'Ap/at, upside 'Apsaid, upstart 'Apstait. n. Adjectives: abject 'tebdjekt, absent 'sebsnt, adverse 'sedva:s, complcsc 'kampleks, corwrete 'kankrkt, conscious 'kanjas, constant 'kanstant, contrite 'kaptrait, conv^se 'kanva:g, convex 'kanveks (also pronounced 'kan'reks and kan'veks), deseii 'dezat, distant 'distant, extant 'ekstant (also pronounced eks'teent), foremost 'fa:monst or 'fa: mast, impious 'iinpjas, inland 'inland or 'inland, inmost 'inuiousf, instant 'instant, oblong 'ablaij, perfect 'pa:flkt, present 'preznt, previous 'pri: Tjas, prdlate 'prouleit, prolix 'pronliks, prostrate 'prastreit or 'prastrit, reflex 'riifleks, retail 'ri:teil, subject 'sAbdjikt. III. Verbs: commune 'kamjiKn'', conjure (in the sense of to "do things as if by magic") 'kAndja', conquer 'kagka, construe 'hDnstru:% diffei- 'difa, dis count 'diskannt, distance 'distaus, offer 'afa, perjure 'pa:dja, proffer 'prafa. rescMe 'reskjn:, suffer 'sAfa, traverse 'tra!Fa(:)8. (For cases in which tlie prefix has a distinct meaning of its own see § 613.) o82. Rule II. Most two-syllable words without prefixes are stressed on the first syllable, and in particular those with the following endings: -aee, -ad, -age, -ain, -al, -am, -an, -ance, -and, -ant, -ar, -ard, -art, -ast, -ate, -ed, -edge, -ege, -el, -en, -ence, -ent, -er, -est, -ey, -ice, -id, -idge, -il, -ile, -in, -ine, •ing, -ip, -ise, -ish,.-ist, -it, -ite, -ix, -le preceded by a consonant, -od, -ol, -on, -or, -ot, -our, -ous, -ow, -re preceded by a consonant, -ue, -ule, -ur, -ure, -y (in- clading -ey, -ly, etc.), also words coming under rules XVI and XVII. Examples: furnace 'fa:nig> ballad 'bielad, luggage 'lAgidj, mountain 'nianntin, metal 'nietl, madam 'msedani, organ 'a:gan, substance 'sAbstans, errand 'erand, vacant 'veikant, cellar 'sela, mustard 'niAstad, rampart 'rseiiipat, ballast 'bselast, palate 'pselit (or 'paslat), wicked 'wikid, knowledge 'nalid^, college 'kalidj, tunnel 'tAnl, garden 'ga:du, silence 'sailans, talent 'tselant, prosper 'praspa, bonnet 'banit, money 'mAni, practice 'prsektis, stupid ' Pronounced by some 'inkAm; also 'igk-. ' Less usually 'prases. ' Less usually pragres. ' Less usually sa:'vei. ' Or 'tra:n8-. ° Also pronounced ka'niju:n. ' Conjure in the sense of to "charge solemnly" is kdii'djua. ' Pronounced by some kans'tru:. Jonea, EnglUh Phonetics 8 2^4 CbAFIEB XIX- SiBESS 'Blja:pld, partridge 'paitridj, pen'M 'pengl, reptile 'reptni], robin 'rabin, famine 'ftemin, farthing 'fa:3ig, tulip 'ijjn:llp, franchise 'frtent/alz, publish 'pAbllJ, florist 'florist, pulpit 'pulpit, finite 'fainait, phoenix 'fl:iiik»> to&Ze 'teibi, method 'nieSad, symbol 'Bimbl, pardon 'pa: dn, minor 'maiiid, enrrot 'keerat, vigour 'viga, jealous 'djelos, hollow 'haloli, acre 'eika, value 'Tseljn:, schedule 'Jedju:!, sulpihur 'sJJta, future 'Qiiit/a, babj/ 'beibi, fancy ttensi, lonelg 'lonnli. 688. The chief exceptions are (i) words coming under Rule XV, §607; (ii) the follpwing miscellaneous words: grimace gri'meis, domain da'uieln 01 do'mein^ Cifbod ka'btel, ca/ncil ks'nsel, Sedan si'dteD, Japan dja'peen, trepan trl'pteii, divan dl'rsen, romance ro'msens or ra'msens, finance fl'neens or fai- 'ntens', »nd t.) si'kjua. 684. Rule III. Three syllable words beginning with a monosyllabic prefix (§ 580, note), are generally stressed on the second syllable. Examples: accomplish a'komplij, adjacent a'djeisnt, apparel a'peeral, appendage a'pendidg, apprentice a'prentig, assemble a'sembl, consider kau'slda, diminish di'minij, disfigure dis'flge, dishearten dig'hci:tn, disturbance dig 't3: bans, divergence dai'T9:djaus, enamour i'neRia^, indignant in Aiqn^nt, infernal in' tiivl, t'wBmow -im'prizn, insipid in'sipid, precedence pri'si:dns*, precentor pri'senla, prohibit pro'hibit or pra'iiibit. 585. The chief efxceptions are • (i) words coming under rule V, § 588; (ii) the miscellaneous words: arrogance 'ieragans, arrogant 'sera- gant, assonance 'sesanans, assonant 'aesanant, cognisance 'kanizus, cognisant 'koniznt, eombaiant 'kambatant, consonance 'kansanans, consonant 'kansaiiant, conversant 'kanvasnt, covenant 'kATinant, c2mionance 'disanans, dissonant 'ils^mni, disputant 'dispjatant, elegance 'eligans, elegant 'eligaut, i»itef;rarintlgral, interval 'intavl; ignorance ignarans, »gFnora«t 'ignarant, miscreowt 'miskriant, obstacle 'abstakl, occupant 'okjupant,jp>-ematt(re prenie'tjua, Protestawt 'pratistant,refli'eo«{ 'rekriaut, relevance 'reliraus, relevant 'relivant, resonance 'rezanans or'reznans, resonant 'rezanant or 'rez^ant, sufferance 'sAfaraus, supplicant 'sAplikant, jttstenance 'sAstinang, and the following words ending in -ence, -ent^: ahstineruie ' • Some say 'fainseus. ' The a(yeotive saline is also pronounced 'seilain. ' Also pronounced '8a:'di:n and 'ga:di:n. ' Pronounced by 'some 'presidns. ' Complete lists of the words endings in -ence, -snt which are stressed according to the rule will be found in appendix B. Word-Strees (Simple Words) 115 'tebstinans, accidence 'leksiddns, affluence 'tefluans, competence 'kompit^nS; con- ference 'konforans, confidence 'kanfldi>n5, confluence 'konfliians, congiuence 'kog- gru8DS, consequence 'konsikwaiis, continence 'kautiuaus, deference 'defarans, difference 'difi^rans % diffidence 'difldi»ns, eloquence 'elakwans, eminence 'ominans, evidence 'evid»ns, excellence 'cksaloiis, exigence 'eksidjans, imminence 'iminans, impotence 'impatans, impudence 'impjiid^ns, incidence 'iusidans, indigence 'in- did^aiis, indolence 'indalaiis, inference 'infarans, influence 'iniliians, innocence 'inasus^ insolence 'insalang, per'manence 'pa:manans, pertinence 'pa:tinans, prefer- ence 'prefarans*, prevalence 'prevalaiis, prominence 'pramiiians, providence 'pro- vidaiis, re/erence 'reforans'', residence 'rezidans, reverence 'reyarans*, abstinent 'tcbstiuant, accident 'teksid^nt^ affluent 'scfliiaat, attrahent 'fetriant, competent 'kampitaiit, compliment (s.) 'kamplimant, compliment (v.) 'kampliment, confident 'kanfidant, confluent 'kanfluant, congruent 'kaggraant, consequent 'kausikwaiit, contiwewi 'kantinant, detriment 'Aetrim^nt, different 'Aifar^nt^, diffident 'ii&Aant, eloquent 'elakwant, eminent 'eminant, evident 'eTldant, excellent 'dliSslant, exigent 'eksidjant, imminent 'Iminant, implement 'implimant, impudent 'impjudaut, inMent 'iusidant, increment 'iukrimant, indolent 'indalaut, innocent 'iiiasnt, insolent 'insalant, instrument 'instrumanl or 'instramant, permanent 'paimanant or 'paiiainant, pertinent 'paitinant, precedent (s. and adj.) 'president, president 'prezidant, prevalent 'prevalant, prominent 'praminant, provident 'prDTidant, redolent 'redolant or 'redalant, resident 'rezidant, subsequent 'sAbsikwant, suc- eulent 'sAkjnlant. 586. Rul« IV. In three syllable words not beginning with a pre- fix the stress generally is on the first syllable, and in particular when the word has one of the following endings: -ace, -age, -ain, -al^, -an^, -ance^, -ant^, -or, -ege, -el, -en, -ence% -mt^, -er (excluding words formed from other words by the addition of the suffix -er, for wTiich see § 609), -et, -ice, -id, -il, -ish, -it, -le preceded by a consonant, -on% -or^, -oiv, -re preceded by a consonant, -wre. Examples: populace 'papjnlas or 'papjulis, average 'fETaridg, chamberlain tjeimbalin, cannibal 'kfenibl, pelican pelikan, vigilance 'vidsilaus, dominant 'daminant, vinegar 'viniga, privilege 'privilidj, sentinel 'seutlnl, specimen 'spe- simiu, citizen 'gitizn, negligence 'aeglidjans, ornament 'ainamant, character 'kterikta or 'karakta, parapet 'pserapit or -pet, cowardice 'kaiiadis, pyramid 'piramid, daffodil' ABnt^Ail, /^wm/i'flivarij, benefit 'beniflt, carbuncle 'kaibigkl, imcon 'ieksikan, orator 'arata, bungalmo' hi^^itlow, massacre 'maesaka, signature 'signitja or 'signat/a. 587. The chief exceptional words with the above endings are: words ending in -erwai, -oidal, -wrnal {n. g. maternal ma'tainl, cycloidal sai'klaidl, nocturnal nak'tainl'); also the following: monarchal ma'na:kl or ma ma:kl, (nwmp/ioJtrai'Amfl, 6a^«is»iaZbsep'tizjiil, autumnal 9:' Umvl, tribunaltti bju:nl, -cathedral ka'ei:dral, sepulchral se'pilkral or si'p-, espousal is'pauzl, carousal ' 'difrans is the more usual form. * 'prefran sis the more usual form. ' 'refrans is the more usual form. * 'reyrans is the more usual form. * 'difrant is the more usual form. « Excluding -ial, -ian, -iance, -iant, -ience, -ient, -ion, -ior, for which see ' InUmal and external may be pronounced in'tainl, eks'ta:iil but they are more often pronounced with double stress ('lii'ta:nl, eks ta:ul). owing to the contrast (expressed or implied). 8 WQ ChAPTEB XIX. SiBBSS ka'ranzl, perusal pa'ru: zl or pi'r-, primteval prai'mi: vl, cestival i: s'tairl, ancentral sen'sestral, caravan kjera'ysen, courtesan kaiti'zjen, triumphant trai'Amfsiit, lieu- tewont lef tenant or laf-, ^ersonneZ pa: s» 'nel, acMmew a 'kj u: meu, aawmm «!' bjn:. men, bitumen bi'tjuimen, eleven i'lern, December Ai'semb9, November no' v«mb», October ok'touba, September sap'temba, meander mi'senda, piaster pi'aista or pi'sesta, pilaster pi'lsesta, utensil jni'tensil, solicit sa'lisit, epistle i'piel, apostle a'pasl, bamboozle b«m'bn:zl, curmudgeon kai'mAdgan, escutcheon is'kitjan, curator kjua'reita, spectator spek'teita, testator tes'teita, equator i'kweita. B88. Rule V. Three syllable words ending in -able, -ade, -ibk, -icle, -He, -ine, -ise, -ite, -^le, -ule, -vte, -yde, -yte are stressed on the first syllable whether they begin with a prefix or not (with the ex- ception of the "separable" prefixes, § 613). Examples: parable 'pserabl, obstacle 'abstakl, possible 'pasabl or pasibl, article 'a:tikl, mercantile 'ma:kantail, projectile 'pradjektail or 'pradjiktail, discipline' Aisiyilin, eolumbine"kf>l9mhaia, SM6OTon'we'sAbinari:n, ea;emse 'eksasaiz, paradise 'pseradais, appetite 'sepitait, definite 'deflnit, voluble 'valjnbl, ridicule 'ridikjn:!, persecute 'p3:8ikju:t, bicycle 'baisikl, proselyte 'prasilait. 689. The chief exceptions are: bissextile bi'sekstail, Byzantine bai- 'zmntain, clandestine klsen'destain, crinoline krina'li:n, determine di'ta:n|iiii, examine ig'zsemin, gelatine d5ela'ti:n', glycerine gli8a'ri:n', illumine i'ljn:iiiiii, imagine! maeil'yn,intestineia'testm,magazinemx:q9'xi:n,tambourinetsemb9'ri:u, enfranchise in traentjaix, supervise ajni'p^'raiz'', marguerite ma:ga'ri:t, attribute (t.)* a'tribju:t, cowtri&Mte kan'tribjn:t, distribute Ais'tribjn:t, parachute fXT9- 7u:t. 590. Rnle VI. Words of three or more "syllables ending in -ey, -gy, -my, -ny (excluding words of four or more syllables ending in -mony), -phy, -py, -try, -sy, -ty, and -om^ are stressed on the last syllable but two. Examples: aristocracy seris'iakrasi, lethargy 'leSadji, genealogy dji:!!!-. 'seladjl, astronomy ^s'transmi, cahtmny 'liselQmni, mahogany nia'hagani, atrophy 'setrafi, photography fa'tagrafi, philanthropy fi'lanSrapi, occupy 'akjupai, geo- metry dji'omitri, hypocrisy hi'pakrasi or hi'pakrisi, perpetuity pa:pi'tju(:)ltl, infamous 'infamas, ridiculous ri'dikjnlas. (A list of the chief words ending in -cy which are stressed accord- ing to the rule is giyen in Appendix B.) 591. The principal exceptions are: accuracy 'seijur^si, advocacy 'xA\9' kasi, celibacy 'sellbasi, competency 'kampitansi, confederacy kan'fedarasi, continenci/ kantinansi, cowiMwacj/'koutjiimasi, degeneracy di'djenarasi, delicacy 'delikasi, e/f ewmaw/ i 'feminasi, efficacy 'eiikasi, episcopacy i'piskapasi, excellency 'eksalansi, exorbitancy ig'za:bitansi, hesitaiicy 'liezitansi, innocency 'inasnsi, intimacy 'intimasi, intricacy 'intrikasi, legitimacy li'djitimasi, magistracy 'mjedjlstrasi, all words ending in -ma^icy (e. g. neoromamcy 'nekremsensi), ob- duracy 'abdjnrasi, obstinacy 'abstinasi, occupancy 'akjupansi, pertinency 'pa;ti- nansi, presidency 'prezidsnsi, turbulency 'taibjulansi; metallurgy 'metala:d3i, pedagogy 'pedagagi"; amorphy a'ma:fi; j^woOTmy 'ignamini, miscellany 'misilani, ' Also pronounced 'djelatLn. ' Also pronounced 'glisari:n. ' Also pronounced 's^u:paTaiz. * The substantive is '8etribju:t. " Excluding -ious, see § 611. ' Also pronounced pedagadgi and -goudji. Wobd-Stress (Simple Words) 117 pyrotecHny 'palarotekni; casuistry 'tse^uistri; catalepsy 'kretalepsi, epilepsy epUepsi, corUroversy 'kontrareisi, admiralty 'sedmaralti, casualty 'ktesnalti, commonalty 'kcvmanlti, difficulty 'diilklti, sovereignty 'sovranti or 'sayrintij amhidextrovs mmM'A«ikstr9H, dmVows di'zaiaras, disastrous di'zaistras, enonnous i'uoimas^ momentous mo'mentas, portentous pai'tentas, stupendous stjuf:)- 'pendas, tremendous trl'mendas. 592. Rule VII. Words of three or more syllables ending in -ate, -form, -FT, -ist, -ize (-ise), -ague, -ude, are stressed on the last syllable but two ^xapiples: de®as«a«e 'deTasteit, certificate (a.) sa'tiflkit; cer«i/?cote (v.) sa(:)- 'tiflkeit, uniform 'ja:iilfo:in, personify pai'sanlfai, physiologist flzi'oladjlst, monopolize^ ma'napalaiz, catalogue 'keetalag, solicitude ga'ligi1jii:d. 698. The principal exceptions are: alternate (adj.) o:l'ta:nit*, appel- late a'pelit, apostate a'pastit, consummate (adj.) kan's-AHiit', defalcate di'telkeit, incarnate in'ka:nit, intestate in'testit, peregrinate 'perigrlneit, remonstrate ri- 'manstreit*, sequestrate si'kwestreit, poly0ieist'T^oUQi(:)ist,imp&-ialistim'pi0r'i9- list, materialist ma'tiarialist, raiioncilist 'rsejnalist, nationalist 'nsejitalist, naturalist 'nsetjralist, sensualist 'senjnalist, ritualist 'ritjnalist, (nonjconformist ('nan)kaii'fa:ini8t, naturalize'- 'naetjralaii!, sensualize'^ 'sensjualaiz or 'senjn-, secularize} 'sekjolaraiz, characterize^ 'kseriktaraiz', allegorize^ 'eeligaraiz, anath&natize^ a'nseBimatalz, systematize^ 'sistimataiz. 591. Rule VIII. Words of four or more syllables ending in -once, -ant, -ence, -ent^ (these terminations not being preceded by i, see § 611) are stressed on the last syllable but one when the termination is preceded by two or more consecutive consonant letters, but on the last syllable but two in other cases. Examples: extravagance iks'trseyigans', equidistant 'i:kwi'distant, itiner- ant ai'tinarant% convalescence kanva'lesms, circumference s^'lsAmtsrsmSf corres- pondent karis'pandant, benevolent bi'neTalant. 595. The chief exceptions are: (1) words coming under rule XVIII, e. g. incoherent 'inkon'hiarant; (2) the following miscellaneous words: antecedent seiiti'si:d9iit or '8entisi:d9nt, perseverance paisi'viarans, interference vai/i'fi?aYfensiv. ^ Or o'fensiV". Woed-Steess (Simple Words, Compound Wokds) 125 SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES OF FOREIGNER:: 682. Most foreigners have a tendency to stress the last syllable of words ending in -tOe, -ude, -ise, -ise contrary to the rules in §§ 588, 592. They also generally stress the last syllable of reconcile, which should be 'rekensaiP. Examples for practice: prosecute 'prasikjuit, substitute 'SAbsti1jn:t, gratitude 'graetitjuid, multitude 'mAltitju.d, criticize 'kritisaiz*, exercise 'eksosaiz, recognize 'rekegnaiz^ Foreigners are particularly apt to stress the syllables -ju:t, -juid, -aiz, in the in- flected forms such as prosecuted 'prasikjuitid, criticizes 'kritisaiziz. 638. The French are apt to stress the final syllable wrongly in many other words. Examples for practice: language 'laeggwidj, paper 'peipe, collar 'kola, distance 'distons, circumstance 'saikemstdiis, universe 'juiniTdlS, ridicule 'ridikjuilj goodness 'gadnis, vexation Tek'seijn, disgraceful dis'greisful. 684. The French should pay special attention to the stress of English words of more than two syllables. They often hare a tendency to stress the first syllable of aiH long words beginning with conson- ants, and the second syllable of all long words beginning with vowels. They should thus be careful to stress the second syllable in such words as remarkahle ri'moikabl, sufficient so'fl/nt, irenumdaus tri'mendss, rehictance rilAktans^ successful sok'sesfui, and to stress the first syllable in such words as absolutely '^9elt)S9lu:tli, execute 'eksikjnit, excdlmt '^eksalont. B. WORD -STRESS (compound words) 685. By a, compound word we mean a word made up of two words written in conventional spelling as one, with or without a hyphen. 636. Some compound words have single stress on the first element, others have double stress.* 687. Single- stressed compounds are by far the most common. Examples are: appletree 'iepltri:, hooKtrinding 'bnkbaindig, bystander 'bai-stsenda, BuekinghamsMre 'bAkigamJia ', daybreak 'deibreik, dining-room 'dainigmm, fweplaet 'faispleis, flowerpot 'flaudpot, footpassenger 'fntpiesindja, ilMte-player 'fln:tplel3^ grasshopper 'graishapa, hairbrush 'hsabrAj, housekeeper 'hanskiipa, jellyfish 'djeliflj, kettle-holdei 'ketlbonlda, key-hole 'ki:houl, light- ' Tn the North of England and in Scotland the words reconcile, criticize, recognize are often stressed on the last syllable. Foreigners axe however recom- mended te adopt the Southern forms. * A few isolated compounds have single stress on the second element. The chief are: compounds with -ever (e. g. whenever fcwe'neva), -self (e. g. himself him'self, theTiiselves Jam'selvz), and the words hereafter hia'ra:ft8, thereafter dEa'ra:fta, throughout Ora'ant, wherein Awsa'rln, cdready 9:rredi, look-out Ink'aat, uphold Ap'bonld, shortcomings Ja:t'kAmigK. * Or ^Aklg<»mf9. 126 Chaptre XIX. Stress «m3f-cowd«cu), go and get ready 'goiwiiget'redis (cp. get ready at once! 'get'rediat- 'WAUS), we did not see anything ut all wi:'didutsi:'eiiieig9't9:l (no stress on si:) (cp. ive did not see the exhihiiioii wi:'didnt'si:dieksi 1)1X11), the disaster claimed many victims dedi'zaistaklciind'meni'yiktimK (no stress on kleimd), London and North Western 'lAndonemiaie- 'westen' (no sti-ess on 113:6), there was nothing going on 9eawez- 'uAdiggonig'on (no stress on goiiig), no one went near it 'nouwAnwent- 'niarit (no stress on went), it seems so funny it'si:inzsou'fAiii (no stress on SOu). 660. It should be remarked, however, that this loss of stress through the effect of rhythm is not always essential for coiTect pro- nunciation. Thus it would not be incorrect to say 'hat'rousfbiif, 'lAlld9nau'ii3:6'westen. When in doubt as to whether a stress should be suppressed on account of rhythm or not, it is safer to keep the stress. 661. 3'^ exceptional case. When two siibstantives forming a group are felt as being very closely connected by the sense, so that they form practically one word, the second is generally unstressed. (These grotips are in reality compound words, and many of them may be written in ordinary spelling with hyphens.) Examples door handle 'da:h8endl, gooseherry hush 'guzbrilraj, camping ground 'kseinpii|grannd, tennis haU 'tenihba:!, golf club 'galfklAb (also 'gafkUb), cricket bat 'krikit- baet, diamond merchant 'daiomaumortfant (even when no contrast between dealers in diamonds and dealers in other goods is intended), vidin string vaia'linstrig, the Law Courts 8a'la:ka:ts. (It is sometimes difficult to distinguish this case fi-om that mentioned in § 658.) 662. There are some exceptions, namely cases in which the second element expresses or implies a contrast, e. g. gooseberry tart 'guzbri- tcnt ("tart" being instinctively contrasted with "pie", "pudding", etc.). Saucepan lid would usually be 'sa: span'lid, no doubt owing to an implied contrast between the lid and the saucepan itself (cf. church-yard, § 641). 663. 4"» exceptional case. In phrases of a parenthetical nature the (vords are often unstressed. Examples: has he gone to town this morning? h{ezi:gaiita'tauii9isma:Dig, how do you do, Mr,. Smith? haucyu'dii:- nistasmiO, "Tes", he said 'jesM:sed, where the phrases this morning. Mr. Smith, he said, are of a parenthetical nature. ' In lapid conversation often tvi:'ka:gA;get'iiut. ' In rapid conversation often 'gou^gget'rcdi. ' In rapid conversation often 'Undaii^narO'westaii. 132 Chapter XIX. Stress 664. The question of stress in such cases is, however, less im- portant than that of intonation (Chap. XXI). There is no harm in putting a certain amount of stress on the words ma: nig, sniiO, sed, in the ahoye examples, provided the word taun has the lowest pitch in the first sentence, and that the whole of the phrases mistosmiO, hi: sed are pronounced with low pitch. Thus: 'h8L>zl:g3nto'tanndis'in»:nii). t=i=i \^ ^ud'in9:nigmist9'siiii6j 'jesMi'sed. 665. b*^ exceptional case. The verb be is generally unstressed even when it is a principal verb, except when it is final. Examples: the train was late de'treinwez'leit (compare the train arrived late 8&- 'tveino'raivd'leit, in which the verb is stressed), yoa are never ready jua'neve'redi, what is the time? 7tw»ts9»'taini. (But it is stressed finally in I don't Icnow where it is ai'dountnou'/fWfeari'tiz, herB we are 'hiawl'o:, the chances are . . . da'tjoinsi'zo: . . ., the fact is Ja- 'fsekt'iz, the reason being . . . de'riizn'biiig . . ..) 666. The verb be is also unstressed when final and immediately preceded by its subject, if that subject is stressed. Example: he asked what the time was hi:'Q:s/d;/iW3td9'taimwoz. 667. 6^ exceptional case. The word street in names of streets is never stressed, e. g. Oxford Street 'aksfedstrl't, Downing Street 'dauniij- stri:t (ep. York Bead, etc., § 651). 668. 7"' exceptional case. When the subject follows the verb, the verb is generally not sti-essed. Examples: "Yes", said his father 'jes- Sediz 'fordo (where fatJm- may be stressed, but said should not be), after a storm comes a calm 'a:ftr8'sto:nikAmza'k«:in (no stress on k.iinz). 669. Conjunctions are often stressed at the beginning of a breath- group (§ 685) if the following syllable is unstressed. Examples: when he comes, I wiU introduce him to you 'i^wenii'kAmz ailintro'djuisim- iu:ju, as I was saying . . . 'sczaiwaz'seiig . . ., nor do I 'naidn'ai.* ff the order of the clauses in the first example were reversed, the hyfen would not be stressed, because the whole sentence would be pronounced in one breath-group, and the /iwen would no longer be initial. 670. The conjunctions and and but are, however, not so subject to stress of this kind as other conjunctions. These words are some- times stressed when immediately followed by two or three consecutive ' Nor introdacing a gentence is almost alwuys stressed (unless combined with another word, as in nor yet no:jet). SeXTKNCE- StbeSS 1 QJJ uastressed syllables. Thus and at the same time . . . mixy be prououjiced aendotde'seim'taim . . . or sendotDo'seim'taiiu... or aiidatda'selm- 'taim .... Even in hut it is of the greatest importance it would be more usual not to stress tlie but, pronouncing batitsoySa'greitistiiu- 'paitiis. Foreigners are recommended to use the weak forms oiid and liet in all such cases. B71. Monosyllabic prepositions and the disyllabic prepositions into 'intu or 'inta^ and upon a'pan or apaii are usually unstressed. In- numerable examples may be found in any book of phonetic texts. These prepositions may, however, occasionally be stressed when they occur at the beginning of a sentence^ examples on his way he had an adventure 'an/iiz'wei lii:'hajdnad'ventj"a. 672. Monosyllabic prepositions may also be stressed when followed by a pronoun at the end of a sentence (see § 675). 678. Prepositions of two or more syllables (with the exception of into and upon. § 671), such as after 'a:fta, between bi'twiin, during 'djuaiig, besides M'saidz, nlotig a'ljg, concerning kan'sainig, are often stressed (except when final, § 674); such stress is, however, not essential, especially if the syllable immediately following is stressed. 674. The final prepositions in sentences like inhat are you looking at? 'ftwatajn(:)'liikiBSBt, who are you talking to? 'hiiaju(:)'ta:kigtu''', what is aJl that fuss about? Viwatsailda't'fAsabaut, we asked tvhere theij came from wi:'a:sA!tfe>V£adei'keinitroiii, put your {kings on 'putja;- 'Oigzan, are noi stressed though they take their strong vowels. Foreigners arc apt to stress them. 675. In sentences ending with a preposition and a pronoun the liual pronouns are not stressed unless special emphasis is required-'; e. g. it is very good for you its'veri'gudfagu (less usually its'veri- 'gad£»jn), what shall ice do with it? 7iwatXlwi(:)'du:widit, look at tliem 'Ink{etd»m (less usually 'lakatdaiu). Foreigners should note that in these cases the preposition more usually has its strong form and has noticeably stronger stress than the pronoun. In fact it is not incorrect to pronounce the preposition with full strong stress ('giid- 'fsKJU, etc.); the disyllabic prepositions would in fact usually be stressed ander these circumstances. 676. In some cases stressing the preposition would be required to bring out a contrast, e. g. the bills were not large, but there were a 'ireatmanyofthemM\i\Uyi9'\ui'\fi:i\:^ batdeawara'greit'iiioni'avgani. 677. Auxiliary verbs are normally not stressed. ' 'intn is used before vowels and finally, 'iiita before consonants. ' Note that iu expressions ef this kind the theoretically correct whom hii:iu s not used in conversation. ' The pronoun it would not be stressed in any case. If emphasis were re- [uired, it Would be replaced by this or that. J^34 CuAriER XIX. Stress (i78. They are, however, stressed in the following particular cases: (i) In affirmative statements, for the sake of emphasis, «. g. it i;an he done it'kaenMdAn., it has been done it'liaBzli)i(:)_gdAn*, / may have said so ai'meiay'sedsou. The auxiliary do is always emphasized in such cases, e. g. I do want to ai'dui'wanttn;. similarly in imperative sentences, e. g. do come 'diil'kAiu. (ii) When immediately followed hy not pronounced lit, e. g, / should not Jiave thought so ai'Jndntav'6a:tsou, we have not been able to wi: h8eviitM{:)ii'eilt)ltu.^ (iii) When introducing a question, e. g. Have you seen thm? 'hae^;ju:'si:ndoni, did you Tike it? 'didjui'laikit? (In this case, however, the stress is not essential.) (iv) Ift other questions when the desire for information is very strong and the auxiliary is immediately preceded by the interrogative word, e. g. what are yon doing? /twat'a:jii(:)'duii|, what is to he done? TiTvot'iztabi'dAii, how did they manage it? haii'did5ei'inaenid5it' (but in however did they manage it? hau'evedidSei'msenidsit the did would not be stressed because it does not immediately follow the hau). (v) When the principal verb is suppressed, e. g. yes, I have 'jesai- 'hwv, yes, he does 'jesMi'dAZ. 679. The word going in the expression to be going to... being of au auxiliary nature is often not stressed. Example what are you going, to do? '/iwatajugotfigta'dn:. (It would also be possible to stress going) 680. The pronoun one ia a good one e'gudwAn, everyone 'e^vilf LA, etc., is always unstressed. Foreigners are apt to stress it,. So also with other words that refer to something which has just gone before, e. g. things in those things 'donzOigz, matters in I toill explain mailers 'ailiks'pleinmeetdz, affair in that is my affair Sjets'maiafsa. 681. The pronoun eadi in the expression ea!c7^ other i:tJ"A38 is not stressed. 682. The adverb on ia the expression and so on an'souan is not stressed. The adverb again in baclc again 'bsekefleiii (or -gen) is not stressed. ' 688. The conjunctions now and then introducing the continuation of an ai-gument are not stressed, e. g. now when he was gone . . . nau- 7tweni:w9z'gaii . . ., then you dont bdieve it? 8en.ju:dountbi'li:Tit. The adverbs now and tluen are, however, normally stressed, e. g. ^w ' Under ordinary circumstances these sentences would be pronounced itkan- bi'dAn, it3zbi(:)ii'dAn or UgM(:)n'dAii. ' These expressions might also be pronounced aiJad'aotav'Oaitsou, wiiv- 'ii»tl)i(:)ii'eibltn. " Under ordinarv circumstances these sentences would be pronounced '/»wolojn(:)'diiii), 7*wotstabi'dAn, 'handidSei'iuiienidgit. StUBSS. Di(KATB''6rOIIP3. iKiONiVrlOX 135 are ym now^ 'hau9Ju(:)'nau? The expression now then is pronounced nauden with stress on nan. 684. The conjunction so introducing the continuation of a narra- tive is not stressed, e. g. so he tvenf mto iJtc garden sou^ir'wentintddo- j|a:dn. The adverb so in do so 'dirson, thinlc so 'eigksou, etc., is not stressed. CHAPTER XX BREATH- GROUPS 085. Pauses are continually being made in speaking. They are made (1) for the purpose of taking breath, (2) for the purpose of making the meaning of the words clearer. (586. Groups of sounds which are pronounced without pause are called breath-groups. Examples of breath-groups will be found in the texts on p 18 — 21 of the author's Phonetic Tteadhigs in English^ and in other books of phonetic texts. 687. Pauses for breath sKould always be made at points where pauses are necessary or allowable from the point of view of meaning. 688. The divisions between breath-groups are generally made clear in Writing by the punctuation marks. In phonetic transcriptions in which the words are separated, it is sometimes useful to mark the divisions of. breath-groups by the sign j|; and the sign may be used to mark points where a slight pause may be made, but is not essen- tial. A more accurate method is not to leave any spaces between con- secutive words in, a breath-group. CHAPTER XXI ll^TONATION 689. Intonation (also called inflection) may be defined as the- yariations in the pitch of the voice, i. e. the variations m the pitch of the musical note produced by vibration of the vocal chords. 690. Intonation is thus quite independent of stress (§ 574), with which it is sometimes confused by beginners. 691. Prom the above definition it will be seen that there can be no intonation when breathed sounds are pronounced. The number of breathed sounds occurring in connected spfeech is, however, small in comparison with the voiced sounds ^ so that the intonation in any ordinary breath-group may be regarded as practically continuous. 692. In ordinary speech the pitch of the voice is continually changing. When the pitch of the voice rises we have a rising intona- ' Published by Winter, Heidelberg. ' About 20 per cent of the sounds used in speaking a connected passage pf English are breathed. 136 Chapter XXI. Intonation Hon; when it falls we have a falling intonation] yrhea. it remains on one note for an appreciable time, we have level intonation. Level inton- ation is comparatively rare in ordinary speaking, but is not uncom- mon in reciting pieces of a serious character. It may often be noticed, for instance, in the speech of good actors reciting Shakespeare. 698. The range of intonation is very extensive. It is a notewortljiy fact that most people in speaking reach notes much higher and much lower than they can sing. 694. The extent of the range in any given case depends on circum- stances. It is as a general rule greater in the declamatory style of speech than in conversational style, and in each case it is greater when the speaker is excited than when he is grave. In reciting a passage of a light or humorous character it is by no means unusual for a man with an average fe voice to have a range of intonation of over two octaves, rising to F ^'^1 or even higher and going down so low that the voice degenerates iiito a kind of growl which can hardly be regarded as a musical sound at all. In ordinary conversation the intonation (in men's voices) does not often rise above J) '_)'• 695. In the case of ladiei quite so extensive " and G range of intonation is not ^^ and G p voices the The averagfe limits are in declamatory style about and «| ^ and in conversation about B 696. The most satisfactory way of representing intonation for prac- tical purposes is by means of a curved line, which rises as the pitch rises, and falls as the pitch falls, placed immediately above the line of phonetic transcription. It is also useful sometimes to have an approximate musical ' The author has, however, frequently heard P t and even E from ladies whose voices did not sound abnormally low. With ladies whose voices -e- sound distinctly lower than the average, notes as low as Dj t §^ and may. often be recognized, incredible as it may seem. Spe«king generally, liowever, notes cannot be clearly recognized below G ffr, , ■ ■ the voice then degenerating. f into a kind of growl without recognizable pitch. h' TONATION 137 notation. Accordingly in the present chapter the two systems are used con- currently throughout. Male voice intonation is indicated in the musical notation. The female voice intonation may be taken to be an Octave above for notes below E -f^—^ and somewhat less than an octave above in the oases of higher notes. ^ 697. Intonation is most important for indicating shades of meaning. Compare the following: high pitch low pitch jes ^ JOS yes h.p. l.p_ X (meaning "That is so".) jes jes yes (meaning "Of course it is so".) (meaning "yes, I understand that; please continue." This form is very frequently used when speaking on the "telephone. The same intonation would be used in answering a question if a fui'ther question were expected; for instance a shopman would use it in answering the question "Do you keep so-and-so?") ( h.p. l.p. •\/ je§ (meaning "Is it really so"?) ^ j-es yen (meaning "That may be so".) ^ 7*watajii:'diiig. P=P ^ 'ftwat9ju:'duiij. What are you doing? (ex- pres- sing curio- sity.) sni m /iwatejni'dnii). ftwataiju'duig, Whai are you doing? (ex«- pres- sing grea- ter curio- sity.) ' It IB to be understood of course that in the musical notation the notes merely show the salient points of the true intonation. 138 Chapter XKI. Intonation ^W3fa:jn:'daig 9^ Aw9t'a:ju:'dnig. What are you doing? \ (ex- pres- sing still grea- ter curio- sity.) h.p. l.p. ZL 7tw»^tajii:'dnig. 'ftwat9ju:'dnig. What are you doing? ^ /iw3t9'ja:dnig. 'Iiw9t9'ja:diiig. What are you doing? l.p. _J {you b.p. being in con- trast ^ with ^^ some- one else.) JOi Aw9t9'ja:dQig. /iw9t9'ja:dnig. What are you doing? (ex- pres- sing anger.) (the same, but with gild'm9:nig. j^ — ln^ ^— 13 h.p. l.p. meet- ing.) m gnd'm9:nig It ter curio- sity.) (on se- parat- ing.)' gnd'm9:nig. gacl'm9:nli| Good morning.' Good morni/ngf 698. The most important rules of intonation in normal Southern English are as follows. 699. i°* RULE. Statements take a falling intonation at the end (sub- ject to the exceptions mentioned in §§ 700 — 705). Examples: h. p I - I ^ ^ — I — I r- l.p. wi:'didfeW9twi!W9'tould. £ £ wi: 'didfew9twi : wa 'to • uld Wc did what we were told. • Compare also the TariouB intonations of the word "No" in Sir Herbert Tree a rendering of Falstars speech on Honour (Gramophone record no. 1316), the intonation curves of which will be found at the end of the author's Phonetic Transcriptions of English Pivse (Oxford). Intonation 139 h.p. l.p. -=^ ix ^^fcFB ^ S 'wi: didwotwi: wa'tonld. 3 w-i: - did/iwotwi:wB'to-uld. We did tnhat we ivere told. Lp. ("We" in contrast with someone else.) its'djASffoira'klak. ^^^i rr^ its'dgAst'fi) : ro'kloh. It is just four o'clock: itwoz'kwaitim'pasaM. } ^ ^ itwaz'kwaitim'pasaSl. Jt was quite impossible. 700. V* exceptional case. WJien statements are equivalent to questions they often take a rising intonation at the end. Examples: h.p. ais'poiizja : 'fsemilie'ra : I'wel . '7- J lU'j ^ ^^- h. p. l.p. ais'ponzja : 'faemilia'ro: I'wel. I suppose ymvr family are all well. h.p. (=Are all your family well?) m jaa'kAmig. jua'kAmiij. You are coming? 'jnakimig. ^^ 'judkAmig. You are coming? ("you" empha- sized) h.p. Lp. m ai'begja;'pa:dii. ^ ai'begj3:'pa:dn. / heg yofwr /pardm. (=«What did you say?" For a diflferent intonation of the same phrase see § 702.) 140 Chapieu XXI. Intonation 701. 2"'' exceptional case. Statements which are complete ,u themselves but which nevertheless suggest a eontinuation or reijoinder of some kind take a rising intonation. Statements expressing doubt the part of the speaker come into this category. in on Examples • ai'6iT|ksoii. ^ ai'Oigkson. 7 ihinlc so. (imply- ing "but I am not h.p. l.p. B3 m jurd'bete. ju:d'lieta. I Off had hetter. imply- ing a clause begin- ning with "or else...") h.p. P- »rho(ipdeilbrelb1tn. ^^ Fi: aijhonp^^libiteibljtu. I'hqpe they will be able to. (suggesting "but I rather doubt if they will".) af houpdeilbi'eibltii . ^^^-b/T i ^ ai'honpdeilbi'eibltu -. I ho2}e they tvill be able to. . (meaning *'it has just struck me that perhaps they will not be able".) h.p. l.p. ^r- U JA aiiks'pektde»k.iiii ig. ^ g ai iks'pektdeo'k.iinig. / expect they are coming. (implying "but I cannot say for certain".) 702. 3'* exceptional case. Statements expressing regrd generally have a ri.sing intonation at the end. Intokation 141 Examples: wi:wo'sou's9ri'nott9bi'eil>lt9'kAiu. wiiw^'sou'sari'nattabi'eiWte'kAin. We were so sorry not to he able to come, afbegjoi'paidn. >■ iv j Jw l (After acddent- ally getting in a ai'begj»:'pa:dii I beg your pardon. ) h.p. l.p. PHUJ m aim'oiflisari. ■V person s way, etc.) ' aim'9:flis9Tl. I am awfully sorry. . 203. 4''' exceptional case. Statemeiits often take a rising intonation at the end, when there is an antithesis, provided that the statement (ex pressed or implied) with which the contrast is made ends with a falling intonation. ("Other things" contrasted with something previ- ously mentioned.) jn(:)'donntsi:mta'keerabaut'A9a6igz 9: J J- j^^j^ T] ^^^^ ju(:)doiintsi:inta'k£ar8baut'A8oei|)z. You don't seem to care about other things. ^1 ju:'sedsoii 'iionai'didnt. ^ jui'sedsoii 'nonai'didnt. You said so. No, I didn't , (Contradiction.) ' Note the difference between this intonation and the intonation of the same words with a different meaning given in § 700. 142 ChAI'TBB XXI. iNTONATIOiN compare: li.p. l.p. 9^=^ ju:'sedso« 'jesafdid. ^ jn:'sedsou 'jesai'did. Fou said so. Yes, T did. (Assent.) 'did,ju:'sei8oii 'nonai'didnt '^^- U J'T ^•■i ^ 'didjiK'seisou 'nonai'didnt, Bid you say so? No, I didn't. (Simple question and answer.) 704. 5"' exceptional case. When in a statement a word r6ferring to the spealcer or to the person addressed or to sotneone or something pre- viously mentioned is emphasised, a rising intonation is used at the end; This case might be regarded as a particular case of the 4*" exception § 703. Examples: k.p. l.p. rrvTZf^ ^ 6act'dAzii^'ni£et9. 'dset'dAznf'nieeta. Iliat does not matter. 2 h. p , — ,- 1.V.3L ("That" 'aididnt'aislqutu. em- pha- siz- ed.) ^ ^ 3 J ■ il p 'aididnt'aisbjutn. / did not ask you to. ("I" em- pha- ' siz- ed.) ^ ai'didnta: sk'j - nitn: . i ^m ai'didnta: sk'j-ii:tu: ■ . / did not ash you to. ("You" emphasized.) Ihtomatiok 143 Compare: it'dAznf'mseto. ^ ^-#- ^ it'ixznt'mxtQ. It does not matter. (This might also be pronounced with a rising intonation ut the end, but it would in that case imply a following clause expressing the reason why it does not matter, § 701.) ai'didnt'a: s&jutu. 1/ ^ ai'didnt'u:s]ijutu. 1 did not ask you to. 705. Q^ exceptional case. When a word or phrase expressing a reservation is added at the end of a statement it often takes a rising intonation. This case might be regarded as a particular ease of the 4*^ exception § 703. Examples: h.p. l.p. 2 it'tcibsabaut'tni'auoz'd^enrall. ^ =15= ^^ it 'teiksaltaut'ta: "anaz'dgeni-dli . It takes about two hours generally. h.p. l.p. ^ ail'lukfawAiiiQil'Iaik. =^ ■ j d w # m ail'IukfawAniiJn'laili. I will look for one if you lilce. (If the reservations "generally", "if you like" had not been added, falling intonations would have been, used.) 706. ii"* EULE. Imperative sentences generally take a falling in- tonation at the end. 144 CuAPrjin X3iJ. L\T F ■ IE ^ 'diiiftwatai'telju. Do tvhat 1 iell you.' h.p. l.p. "1 — r 'dii:/?w3tarteljii. 'dir/iivotai'teljii. Do what I tell you! (Pronounc- ed veryim- Ijatiently.) 'Icts'getsa'mo:. ^^S 'lots'getsa'ma:. T^et ns (jet some more. 'k.imen'daimvides. ^ 'kAmou'dainwidas. Come and dine with us. 707. 1 '' exceptional case. Where an imperative sentence expresses a request or entreaty on the part of the speaker, rather than a command or invitation, a rising intonation is used at the end. Examples : (Spoken to a person.) 'kAni'an. Come on! 'dnikAin'an. Do come on! IxTOSATION 145 II. p. l.p. 'giTmai'kaiiidrrgai ^ '' i J*j 'JJKlwi'fletsam'seplz. ShaM we get some apples? S or Jselwigetsdin'seplz. Jiaelwigetsona'aeplz. Shall we get some apples? (As con- trasted with "pears".) 712. 2'"' exceptional case; When such a question expresses sn invitation it often takes a falling intonation at the end. Examples: hp 'wilju'kAman'dainwiSas- ■ 7 ?J W ^J .R wilju'kAinaii'daiiiwidss. WiU you come and dine with tts? (A rising intonation would also be possible here.) ^ 'dsBtsdodi'rekJn'izntit ? ^ 'daets89di'r©kj"ii'izntii. I%at is the direction, isn't it? (Where "isn't it" is an invitation to assent, and does not express a desii*e for information on the speaker's part.) IQ" 148 ClIAPTElt XXI. Intobation 713. 3"' exceptional case. When a question is equivalent to a statement it takes the intonation of a statement. Examples: (= The statement "I wonder whether it will be fine do-day".) 'izit'goigtabi'faiiit&dei. ^^ , h fe 5=i= 'izit'goigtabi'fjiintadei. Is it going to he fine to-day? ■::zH 'diddeiseisou. i ^ diddeiseison. Did they say so? (='*I don't believe they did say so".) Compare: 'izit'floigtabi'faintadei. m & f r 'lzit'(|oii)t9]t)i'faiiitedei. Is it going to he fine to day? (= "Do you think it wiU be fine to-day?") 'diddei'soisoir. ' ■ y-' ^ j^.. ^ didSei'seisoii. Did 'tJiey say so?- (= "Do you know whether they said so?") 714. iv"' KULE. Direct questions not capable of heing amsivered ^ "yes" or "no"^ generfilly haye a falling intonation at the end. Iktonation 149 ll.p. l.p. Examples: ' handjn'mafnidgit. T 'hand|jii''niaenid3lt. How do you manage it? ^ liiiucyu'inaenidjit. 'handjn'nifBnidsit. How do you manage il? 'haudjtt'msDiiidsitden. 'hau^ju'msenidsitden. How do you manage it then? (With, great- er curio- sity.) liau 'du: jii 'ma^nidjit. bail dii: ju inaenidsit. How do you manage it?. (A very em- phatic form.) haua'ua: Odju'msenidsit. m ^^ haua'no: Odjn'inseuitfgit. How on earth do you manage it?^ hano'ns: Odja'mseiiidsit. liana 'no: Odjn 'maenidsit. How on earth do you manage it? 715. A rising intonatiou is, however, used when the speaker desires the person to whom he is speaking to repeat what he said hefore. ' Thus the normal pronunciation of How many? is h.p._ l.p. 'han'nieni. ^ 'han'meni. but if the speaker desired the person to ^yhom he is speaking to repeat the number he had already mentioned, he would say ' What did you nayi' is an excellent example .of this principle given by Coleman (Miscellanea Phonetica, 1914, p. 30). 150 Chaptkr XXI. Intoxatiov h.p. l.p. S 'haameni. ^m 'Iianmeni. How many? or 'hanmenididjusei m hnunieiiidi^jiisei. Hoiv many did yoii say? 716. The case of the last of two or more alternative questions jb worthy of special mention. It is a particular case of the rule given in § 714, and a falling intonation is accordingly used. (The preceding alternatives take a rising intonation, showing that there is a continuation.) Examples: h.p. m 'Xaelwi'draivoijlwi'floubai'trein. Jaelwi'draiToiJlwi'flOubsii'trein. Shall we drive or shall we go hy train? (Kising intonation on "drive" but falling on "train".) djn:Iaik'ti: si'kofiofkoukon. 3izs:fe,gl ^ 1^ (Rising intonations on "tea". . "coffee", but falling on "cocoa".) djn: laik 'ti: ai'kafia: 'koiikon. Do you like tea or coffee or cocoa? 717. v*** RULE. Interjections and exclamaiory phrases take the in- tonation of the complete sentences to which they are equivalent. Examples: h.p. l.p. gud. gad. Oood! l.p. (="Iam glad of it") gnd. gud. Good? (= "Do you consider that good?") Intonatios 151 Aw3tfiks'tr3:dnri'6ig. 7iW3tniks'ti'3:tlnri'6ig. Wkaf an esctraordinaiy thing.' h.p. l.p.. h.p. "That is ex- traor- din- ary».) hauliaiitlaks. ^ IiHu'hailt'luks How higJi it holes! ■ (="It does look high".) 'riali. ^ 'riali. ReaUy! or (= "Is that so?") h.p. l.p.. wel. ^ wel. (Implying "what ^ happened next?") 'j- ff | a'sekondtaini. ^ 'esekondtaim. A second time? (= "Has it reallyoceur- red a second time?") h.p. I p. XT 9'zifwi:'/iid. a'zifwii'Jud. As if we shmdd.' (= "The suggestion that we should is absurd.") h.p. l.p. ^ 'fewat'nekst. ^# '/twat'nekbt. WJKit next? (="Thatis impudent".) gnd'mainig. ^ S i gud'iti»:nii). Good morning! (On meeting) (= "I salute yon" or "I am glad to see yoU".) 152 Chapter XXI. Intonahon (On separating) (implying non-finality, or some r such continuation as "I shall hope to see you again soon".) gud'mariiig. Good morning' Compare also the various forms of yes given in § 697. 718. Thank you is sometimes pronounced with a rising intonation and sometimes with a falling intonation. When a person performs a customary service, the acknowledgment seems to take more usually a rising intonation, thus. h. p. Lp. esegkjii. ^M^ i^ Thank yow. But in acknowledging an unexpected favour a falling intonation seems more usual, thus: h.p. Lp. 'rtaegkjii. m Ojpgkju, Thxuhk ynu. 719. Thank you with rising intonation is often reduced to g1yu or kjii thus: h.p. l.p. nitjM- ^ Blijn- H.p. Lp. IH. or m kju. (Thankyoii with a falling intonation is not generally reduced in this way.) Intonation 153 720. Note that all right generally takes a rising intonation, thus: h.p. l.p. ail'rait. i m # '3:l'iai<. An right. The use of a falling intonation would have the effect of a threat. 721. vi"" RULE. Expressions of a parenthetical nature, when not inal, have a low level intonation. AVhen final, they take either a low evel intonation or a rising intonation, according as the sentence without hem would have had a falling or a rising intonation Examples: ^ 'welJTi: si: i twaziii 'diswei f V-frr 'weljii: si: itwaziii 'diswei. Well, yott see, it was in this way. 1. p gud'm.): nli)iuist8ll)rau]i. ("You see" having low leA^el intonation.) S ynd'ma: nigmistabrann. Good mQrrdvff, Mr. Brown. ("Mr. Brown' having low level intonation.) I. p. I. p. fjud'haionl'tfaep. ^ ^ - j — -^ _S -f 'gnd'baionrtfsep. Good-bye, old chap.^ (Same intonation as 'good-bye".) ' A familiar expression often used by men when taking leave of an I itimate friend. ChAI'TEU XXI. IsTONATION itwazdo'sekoudaiOiiik. It tvas thn second, T thinlc. ("1 think" having low level intonation.) 722, Yn*" ituLE. A dependent clause preceding a principal clause ending tcith a falling intonation gener^ly takes a rising intonation. Examples: ^ h.p. l.p 'ftwenwi: get'houmairjbujn: a'piktjarovit. 'ftweiiwi: get'houmairj'oiiju: a'piktjararit. Wheti we get home, I unll sJiow you a picture of it. (rising intonation on 'honm.) 'ifits9k'si:dzaijl'ineika'fa:tfn, )•■ .^ 3 j^^^ I JTT3 ^>^- 'ifits»k'si:dzai.frmeika'f9:tXu. If it succeeds, J shall make a fortune. (vising intonation on 'si:dz.) 723. If it were desired to emphasize the words home and su/ccmk in the above examples, the intonation would be as follows: — h.p. l.j. ("eompoundiise" Qn'li6um,§728.) Tiwenwiiget'houmiail'Xonjuie'piktfaroTit. -.m %■■ #:ff¥: 7*T?ciiwi:flct.'liouiii:flirj'ouju:»'piktX9rovit. When wc get home, J will show ymi a picture of U. JXTOSATION 1. p. Lp. HvLiU^4JI-aH I . ifitsek'siidz - aiXrmeike'foitfn. 155 ("compouad rise" on 'si'.dz.) ifitsek'siidz ■ aiJTmeika'faitJn. If if succeeds I shall make a fortune. )ther examples wiU be foiuirl in the texts with intonation curTes in he author's Phonetic Readings in English, Prommci-ation of English md Intonation Curves. 724. viu"' RULE. A dependent clause preceding a principal clause nding with a rising intanatimi generally takes a falling intonation, hough a rising intonation would often be permissible also. Examples: ifSa'skiim'feilzit'wounta'fekt'jn:. * =^ 5=1 if!l9'ski:ni'feilzit'w0unta'fekt'jii:. If the sclieme fails, it icon't affect you. ("You" emphasized and taking therefore a compoundrisingin- tonation § 728; con sequently a falling intonation on'fcilz.) 'fewenJni'gattalAndan'didjuigou'streittaSaliou'tel. e^ ^^ 1 ->^-^^ * ftwenjii:'fl9tta'lAudaTi'didjtcgou'streitta9olion'tel. When you got to London, did you go straight to the hotel? V rising intonation might also be used on Ijondon, but the falling itonation is preferable.) 725. ix"' RULE. When a dependent clause (other than a clause :pressing a reservation, § 726) follotvs the princip.il clause it generally ids with the intonation which the principal clause would have had standing by itself 156 Ciui'XKii XXI. Intonation h.p. l.p. Examples: jn(:)most'weit'hietili:'kAniz. ^ jn(:)mast'weit'lii»tili:'kAmz. Ydii must wait here till he comes. (Same intonation as "joa. must wait here".) wl:'keini'honiiibik9zltwaz'reinig. '>' jp JP J'ffl ^ wi:'keim'hounil»ikozitw9z'roiiiiij. We came home, because it was raining. (Falliug intonation at the end because "we came home" by itself would have had a fall- ing intonation.) ^ hi:'speii<1ziz'iiiAni8z'ifi:w9roiiiiljo'iie8. hi. spendziz'mAiiiaz'ifiiwaramilja'Bed. He spends his money as if he were a millionaire. iii'a:sktimwati:'03:tabaiitit. 0' > > ^ ai'a:skt1iniv»t{:'63:t3baiitit. I asked him what he thought about it. 'didjii(:)a:skiinwoti:'e9 : tobautit. ''^ r -.r[j y.^ 'didjn(:)a:skimTratl:'03:tebautit. Did you ask him what he thought about it? Intoxahox 157 'cyn:'laik'8is'bnkftwltJ^l'b5:t8iA89'dei.. ^ 'dju:'laik'8is'link/iwitXai'bo:t9iA99'de Do you like this hook which I bought the other day? h.p, 'hanfllju(:)'laikSis'bnk^vi1Xaib»:t8iA6ddei. 'haud|ja(:)'laikdis'bu1{/mitraib3:t9iAaddei How do you like this hook which Ihought the odier day? h.p, l.p. wi:jrsi:j«:bi'f3:ju:'gou. a 'y y D.R jj' I ("Shan't we?" understood.) wi:jrsi:ju: bi'fa: jiii'goii. We shall see you, hefore you go. 726. But wheu a final clause expresses a reservation it generally ends with a rising intonation, as mentioned in § 705. See example in § 705. Further examples are the following: h.p. 1. P- ^ wi:l'sta:trini:dJ8tliifJBa'redi m ^ wi: r sta: ti mi: dj atliif jnd redi We will start immediately., if you are ready. airjomttjn(:)fewenwiget'hoii»ii. ^ airj"onittju(:)/twenwigetTioum. / tciU show it to you, when we get fwme. 158 CnAPTEE XXI. Ihtonatiow V27. In enumerations of things a rising intonation is used for each item except the last. Examples : h.p. dsewa'rtvplzou'peazen'plAiiiz. -J^ tl-^ deawa 'i-jeplzeu'peazen'plAmz. There were apples and pears and plums. (A rising intonation on "plums" would imply that there were also other kinds of fruit.) 'wAn'tii:'eri:fo:'faiT. (A rising intonation on "five" would g ] ^ ^ J > I (..a. rismg intonation on "nve would. ^- ~ ^^ ^Er^^ ^=: imply the continuation "six", etc.) 'wAii'tii:'eiirf9:'faiT. One, two, three, four, five. 728. A special kind of intonation, commonly known as the "com- pound rising intonation", is very frequent in English. It is an inton- ation of the type 'N-/ It is used when in a sentence ending with a rising intonation (§§ 70(»— 705) the final word is emphasized for contrast. Examples : h, p. l.p. n^ii^ ^ i'tiznt'lbseid. P^-.^^gf'^ i'tisHitlbaBid. It isn't iad. (implying "but at the same time it is not very good".) wii'ko: nt'duitte 'dei. '^^^^^m >vi:'ka:nt'duitta'dei. We can't do it to-day. (implying though we might perhaps be able to to-morrow".) Intohatiok 159 h.p. l.p. 'd.set8ftwoti:'sed. ^ ^ (implying ^'though I don't know whether that is what he meanf.) 'Sactsftwatii'sed. That is what he said. ai'wiliflai'kien. 5 ai'wilifai'ka'ii. / will if I can. (implying "but I doubt whether 1 shall be able to") h.p. l.p. ± it'waznf'Sinaz. • j^ T^-ym i'tizntig 'zasktli'vog. =F^ ^ ^ ifwaznifauaz. It wasn't ours. (implying "but at the same, time it isn't quite right".) i'tizntig 'zajktli'r- a- g. It isn't exacdy wrong. 729. When a single syllable receiving a compound rising intonation ends with lu, n, g or 1, the lowest note is reached at the beginning of this consonant, and the whole of the rise takes place during the pronunciation of this consonant. Thus in the example I will if I can given in the preceding paragraph, the wliole of the Tise y* r^ - takes place during the ii of kseii. 730. When a single syllable, receiving a compound rising in- tonation contains a short vowel followed by b, d or g the whole of the rise takes place during the "stop" of this consonant. Thus in the third example in § 728, the whole of the rise *)■ i f il = takes place during the "stop" of the d of sed. 731. In other cases where a single syllable receives a- compound xising intonation, the rise begins about the middle of the vowel or diphthong. The first and second examples in § 728 are illustrations of this. 160 ClIAPTEB XXI. InTOKATIOK 782, It should be observed that when the initial consonant of such a final syllable is voiced, that consonant must have a low tone (represented in the musical notation by J^). If the word begins with a vowel a glottal stop (§ 160) is usually inserted, and a practised ear may observe an extremely short and rapid rise of tone. 788. A compound rising intonation, like any other form of in- tonation may be spread over two or more syllables. This occurs when the syllable to be emphasized is not the final syllable. . When the in- tonation is spread over two syllables, the stressed syllable of the emphasized word takes the first high tone, the syllable immediately following takes the whole of the final rise. When the intonation is spread over three or more syllables, the stressed syllable of the emphasized word takes the first high tone, the syllable immediately following takes the lowest tone, and the rise is spread over the remaining syllable or syllables. 734, Examples of a compound rising intgnatioh spread over two syllahles are: (implying some such .sentiment as "but I don't see how I can help it"; compare the simple intonation of the same phrase given in § 702, where no "but"- clause is implied.) aim'aifli'sai'i. tiim'aifli'sori. / aw aivfullji somj. iii'njuri.kept'Iia.'siz, ^^^ (implying "but I didn't know that he kept any other animals".) Hi'njii:i:l{ept haisix. I Jcnew he Icept horses. 735, An example of a compound rising intonation spread over three syllables is h.p. l.p. ils'dsvst'pasebl. 3 ^^ S its'(l3.\st'pasobl. It is jttsf possible. (implying "though not at all likely".) Intonation 161 786. An example of a compound rising intonation spread over a large numljer of syllajjles is i liziit dtp tai 'wantidto 'si: j u(:) »b ant. (,'that' in contrast ' with something else) i'tiznt'daetai'wantidt3'si:ju(:)9lbaut. Ji isn't TtfAT I wanted to see you about 737. The compound rising intonation usually occurs finally, but it may occasionally be heard in other positions. An example is the word we in WE did what we were told ('we in contrast with some- one else) § 699, example 2. 788. x**" RULE. When in a sentence having a falling mtonation there are a number of stressed syllables, the first important stressed syllable generally has the highest tone and the other important syl- lables form a descending series of notes. 739. Thus in the sentence he was about the only intelligent man in the country, the words only,^ intelligent, man, country are the important words and take the stress. The syllables own, tel, msen^ kAn are therefore pronounced on a descending sequence of notes, thus: 1. hi: W9zabantdi'onnliin 'telidsant'maeninda'kAntri. ' J- j- jy-- j^ } c-==r "L* r. ^ r ^ ^ }ii:wazabaiitdi'onnliin'telid5ant'ni$Pnind8'h.vntri. 740. Several examples of this principle may be observed in the passage from "Dodo" transcribed with intonation curves in the author's Pronunciation of English, e. g. p. 87, 1"' line of text, a'Jrirv»is'ka:ld- dondoTiframde'drai^gnini, p. 87, bottom line, 'tn:'tepid'pontJt'eflz, p. 90, line 2, a'brsendien'soiidaanda'yrild'bom, p. 90, line 5. a'Ianddrta:inind'\%)i8, p. 93, line 1, itiiiteikS'a:lda'dififanstamai'w8:k ', p. 95, line 3, a'dialitl'sa:Tiiiiiiida'}iaus, p. 96, line 4. ,>iir/wi:lha;v5d- sa: visa t a 'kwa: ta 'pa: st. ' In the first edition of ttie Prmtuvciation of English the curve beloDgii)t> to this sentence is placed a little too tar to the right. The highest part of the curve should be over d:1. Jones, English Phooeties 11 162 Chai>tei! XXI. Intonation 741. It should be observed further with regard tovthe rule fbr- molated in § 738, that the unstressed syllables following any one of those stressed syllables (except the last) are maintained at the same pitch or Tery nearly the same pitch as the stressed syllable, and that there is a sudden lowering of the pitch for the following stressed syllable. If the pitch of thede unstressed syllables were lowered to thalt of the fdlomng stressed syllable, the effect would be either to emphasize unduly the preceding stressed syllable or to deprive the following stressed syllable of its proper emphasis. This point is well illustrated by the common mistake of intonation heard from Germans mentioned in § 748. INCORRECT FORMS OF INTONATION HEARD FROM FOREIGNERS. 742. We give here the most important mistakes of intonation commonly heard from foreigners. 748. French people usually employ an intonation of the type h. p. - where an intonation of the type -"y l.p. V should be used. This occurs when the last two or three syllables of a sentence or clause requiring a falling intonation are unstressed. The word absolutely pronounced by itself with falling intonation is an example of this. It should be I. p. — DL 'aelt)83ln:tli. lt=JJ ^ ^% AhsQlutdy. but French peo]j]e generally pronounce it more like ap'salytli. a ^^ ap'soljrtli. 744. Single stressed compounds (§§ 637, 648) afford a good example of the same point. Example: Intonation 163 S aiTgat'tu:'teni8ba:lz. h.p. l.p. aiTflat'tu:'tenisb3:lz. / have got two tennis halls. French people often employ one of the tollo wing incorrect intonations : aiTgot'tui'tenis'bailz. ^ ^^= ^ i«- aiTgot'tu:'tenis'b»:lz. h.p. sr aivg3t'tu:'tenis'ba:iz. or ^S t m^ 3S: aivgat'tu: 'tenis'barlz. 745. Further examples illustrating the same principle are: Type of incorrect intonation commoniy Correct pronunciation. beard from French people h.p. (Plain state- i ment of fact, compare the form given in §701 aieigkson. where douht ItJiink so. J'« implied.) ai'Oigkson. 3n-it:g:=3: ai'Oigk'son. h.p l.p. r>L 'Awatejn: 'lukigaet. -*— # 'Avatejni'Inkigfet. Whut are you looking at? b.p. aiv'neve'bimJJea. Aw5t9JiL''Inkig 'set. fe W^^ Awatogn: lukjg'aet. ^ ^^¥ aiT'neTO'bL'nded. / have never been there. h.p, l.p. aiv'neTO'biin'dEa. -^ "w^: f^m m aiv'neva'bL'n'dea. 11' Ig4 Chapter XXI. Jstohatios 746. A mistake of a similar kind is often made by French people in sentences ending with a rising intonation. Where there should be ^^^ , they are apt to use one of an intonation of the type the type h.p h.p. I. p. l.p. -^=^ Examples: Correct pronunciation. h.p. l.p. 'dountjn'Oigkson. ^ ' dountja'Oigksou. Dm't you tMtik so? Type of incorrect intonation commonly- heard from French people, h.p. l.p. >m 1 " 1 '"^ .^^ 'doun^iu'Oigk'son. 'donntju'eigk'sou. ^ ■J'selwi'gouBnd.lukSetit. 'Jlaelwi 'gouandlukaetit. Shall we go and look at it? P 'Japilwi'flouand'lukaet'it. ? =?=F f 'J'aclwi'aoiiand'luka't'it. 'wAn^moumoiit. ^ ^ ^ (Meaning Tiease wait a moment'.) 'WAii'monmont. P ^ wA.n'monment. WAn'moumaiit. One moirient! 747. The above incorrect foi'ms of intonation used by French people give the effeut of emphasis to the final words so, if and the syllable -Yiient. 748. The chief faults in the intonation of Grermans are exactly the eontrar}' of those of the French mentioned in §§ 743—746. Germans lifivt' a tendency to uwe an intonation of the type ^^ where they hIiohUI use an intonation of the- type and to use an in Intonation 165 tonation of the type of the type -where they should use an intonation These mistakes are commonly attributed to incorrect stress, but it will be found that as long as the intonation is right, the amount of stress is not of much consequence. Example of the first case: Correct pronunciation. h.p. l.p. wia'aoigta'sii'iitj'mand'park. ^ ^t=^^ ^ wia'goigt»'si:'ritJ"mand'pa: k. We are going to see Richmond Park. Incoi-rect intonation commonly heard from Germans h.p wi«»'fl|oigt9'si:'ritJ"insiidpa:k. ^ ^ ^ ^^ #!C wia'golgta' si:' ritj'maiidpaik. Example of the second case: Correct pronunciation. h.p. l.p. 'faelwi'd outo 'ritfmand'po: k. 9^ -r-r-f f 'Ja'lwi'youta'ritfiMond'paik. Shall we go to 'Richmond Parh? Incorrect intonation commonly heard from Germans, hp. ].p. 'Jselwi'gouta'ritl'meudpo: k. ^ I d r^^ d^. ^^ 'JJEelwi'oouto ritj'nidndpa: k. Shall we go to Richmond Park? 166 CitAPXBK XXI. iNTOMATIOtI 74:9. The author has on more than one occasion observed three instances of this type of mistake in the foUowing sentence (occurring in Phonetic Headings in English, p. 8): ondda saidgaiit'ineidsewaz- 'haidte'sei 9»tit'kept'bet9'taim8aii8a'steiJn'flAii, the mistakes being h.p. l.p. I instead of 'saidjant'meidsa. ^ 'saidgantmeidsa. 'sa:d5»iit'meid39. Sergeant major. 'betetuim. 'b/etataim. h.p. l.p.. instead of 'beta'taim. 'beta'taim. Better time. h.p. l.p. 'sleiJn'flAn. 'steiJ"n'gAii. instead of 'steiJn'gAn. ^ 'steiXngAn. Station gun. 750. Most Germans also have gi-eat difficulty in pronouncing syllables on a high level tone, as is necessary in such cases as the syllables oun, tel, mseil, in the example given in § 739. They have a strong tendency to use a strong rising tone in such cases. The incorrect German intonation of the example in § 739 might be repre- sented thus: ^ hiiwazabautSi'ounliin'telidsant'mseninda'kAiitri. t d d hi:w9zabantdi'ounIiin'telid5ant'inaetnin5a'kAntri. Intonation 167 751. Similarly Germans generally use a strong rising tone on all thf. stressed syllables occurring in the examples in § 740. 752. Swedes often use a tone of the type '*«w^>iv where a , h. p. tone of the type — >^ should be employed. Examples: Correct pronunciation. Type of incorrect intonation often heard from Swedes. ^ 'w&3rejn'(|oigtn. =^ ^ wseraju'goigtu. Where arc you going to? 'wearejn'goigtar. 'wearajn'goigtni. aim'fioigto 'lindsn. aim'goii|ta'lAnd9n. / am going to London. aim'goigto'Undan. ^ =te ^ tiim'goigtn'l iiidan. 752». Most foreigners have great difficulty in learning the compound rising intonation (§ 728), especially when it occurs on a single syllable. The correct form may be acquired by practising at first very slowly and then gradually increasing the speed, being careful to observe the rules mentioned in § 729—732. Thus the can in the example I will if I can given in § 728, should be practised thus ^ then^ ^ tben^ then kse-n-n kae-n-n ka?-n liflen. METHODS OF RECORDING INTONATION 768. There are various methods of recording intonation. 768». A rough musical notation may be determined or approxi- mate curves may be drawn free-hand by anyone with a really good musical ear. This method is generally sufficiently accurate for practical linguistic purposes. The musical notation and curves in the examples given throughout this chapter have been obtained entirely by ear. leg CHA^fSK XXI. InTONATIOK. — CHAPrKU XXII. Thk KvMOiauiH 754. A more accurate method of obtaining curves is the-followiij<. K while a gramophone, phonograph, or other similar instrument, is in operation, the needle is lifted from the revolving record, the car will retain the impression of the sound heard at the instant when, the needle is lifted. If the record is of the speaking yoice and tht- needle is removed in the middle of a voiced sound, the ear retain in particular the pitch of the musical note which the voice is pro- ducing at that in&tant; this may be marked on. some kind of musical stave, and. by taking similar observations at a large niuiiber of points in any sentence and joining the points by lines, a noinplete intonation curve of the sentence results. In order to ensure ac(-uracy it is of course necessary to take a- number of observations at every choseu point; the chosen points should likewise not be too far apart: thus it is necessary to record the [litch of every vowel aud a considerable number of the voiced consonants, and where sounds are long or where the intonation is rising or falling rapidly it may be necessary to re- cord the pitch of two or three portions of one sound. This method is the one followed in preparing the author's book of Intnnatmu Curves^, to which readers are referred for further information. 755. Certain small inaccuracies are unavoidable with this method^ but the method has the great advantage that while a considerable degree of scientific accuracy is attained yet the resulting curves are such as can be used without difficulty in practical language teaching. The phonetic text is continuous (not irregularly spaced as in the case of the most accurate curves, e. g. in fig. 131), and the ordinary mu- sical stave being used, the values of the curves are clearly apparent to anyone who has an elementary knowledge of music. 756. The most accurate methods of obtaining intonation-curves are described ia §§ 777—786. •CHAPTER XXII. THE KYMOGRAPH •757. The kymograph is an instrument for recording graphically the variations in the pressure of the air as it issues from the nose or mouth, and the motions of various parts of the organs of speech ' Published by B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. Due e. g. to the fact that the letters of a printed phonetic transcription are npt all of the same width and are not placed at distances exactly proportional .to the lengths of the sounds, also to the fact that the distances between the lines of an ordinary musical stave are not exactly proportional to the musical intervals (being sometimes 3 semitones and sometimes 4)y The latter source of error may be avoided by the use of the specially prepared music-paper referred to in § 783. The ((.YlIOGKAPH 169 By means of a piece of mechauism known as a tanibour^ (fig. Ill) variations of air pressure are communicated to a small drum and thence to a very light style; if, when the style ia thus set in vibr- ation, the point is adjusted so as to touch a revolving cylinder, a eaj^^T^" «te Kiii'. 111. X Tambour. curved line will be traced on thi- cylinder. Tlie cylinder is covered with white paper blackened with smoke, so that the tracing appears in white on a black gr<.>nnd. Wlien a ti-acing has been made, it i.s lixed by vaiiiishiug it. *758. Tambour-drums may bo of various sizes from about 15 cm. to about 4 cm. in diamet ; various kinds of membrane may be used. With tambours of l-o cm diameter new rubber membi-ane does very well; with medium sized tambours (2-5 to 3 cm. diameter) perished rubber seems to give the best results. All the mouth tracings shown in this chapter were made with a tambour of 3 cm. diameter with perished rubber membrane. The nose-tracings were made with a tam- ' Miirev's model 170 Chapter XXII. The KvMooBArw bour of 1-5 cm. diameter with very thin perii-hed rubber membran The larynx-tracings were made with a tambour of 2-5 cm. with ne' rubber membrane. •759. Fig. 112 is a photograph of a smaU portable kymograpl T, T, T, are the tambours, C is the cylinder, which is made to revoh uniformly by clockwork enclosed in the box B. The rate of the rt volution of the cylinder can be regulated by twisting the planes { the governor G. The tambours are brought into communication wit the various parts of the organs of speech by means of rubber tubes i furnished with suitable appliances at their extremities. Thus, for rt Fig; 118. An Embouchure. Fig. 115. Exploratory Bulbe Fig. 114. A Nasal Olive. cording the variations in the pressure of the air as it issues froii the moilth an embouchure is used (fig. 113): for recording the varia tions in the pressure of the air a it issues from the nose a nasal oliv is used (fig. 114); for recording varia tions in the height of the tongue, th pressure of the lips, etc., hollow rub ber bulbs generally called exploratory bulbs are employed (fig. 115). *760. The kymograph illustrations in this chapter were mad on the large kymograph in the Phonetics Laboratory at Universit; College, London. The cylinder of this kymograph has a circumferenc of 95 cm. and a maximum surface speed of 70 cm. per second. It i driven by an electric motor. •761. When a kymograph is used for recording the force of th breath issuing from the nose or mouth and a suitable tambour i employed, voice vibrations appear as little wave.s on the curve. Thes may be observed in figs. 117, etc. It will be seen that vibration appear clearly in the mouth record in the case of all voiced sound in which the air passes out between the lips, and that wellmarkei vibrations likewise appear on the nose-records in the case of sound in which the soft palate is lowered so that the air passes out throug the nose. •762. Voice vibrations sometimes have a slight effect on raout The Kymooraph i^i or nose-tracings even when air is not escaping. Thus the voice vibra- '1 tions which take place during the stop of the sound h are visible in the mouth-tracings in lig. 129; similarly the voice- vibrations which ? take place during the d and during the non-nasalized part of ei in ' meidn are visible in the nose-tracing of this word (fig. 127).i « *768. Voice vibrations may also be comrauni- • cated directly to the kymograph from the exterior I' of the larynx by using a kind of small embouchure « across the end of which is stretched a rubber » membrane (fig. 116). To obtain tracings, this "larynx-recorder" is pressed firmly against the outside of the larynx. ,-..„. ^ ♦ -OJ c! jj ■ » . "&■ 116. A Larynx y kymographic tracings. Fig. 12!) shows mouth-tracings of the Englisl* words bee, bead, lean, heat, hid, bin, bit pronounced by themselves. Jones, English Phonetics 178 CuAPTEB XXII. The Kymogr>1>h The differences of length referred to in §§534, 537, 553, 571 are clearly seen I I ^ ^lere. Students should note specially (i) E J the shortening effect of t on preceding vowels (see § 537), (ii) the fact , that the vowels in beat and bid are practically of equal length, and (iii) that the final consonants preceded by the short i are as a rule longer than those preceded by long i: (see § 553). Kymograph 179 Fig. 129. Mouth-tracings of bee, bead, bean, beat, bid, bin, hit, showing lengths of vowels and final consonants. (7^, original size.) '776. The regular wavy line immediately below the tracing of bit is a record of a tuning-fork giving 100 complete vibrations per second. By means of it the actual length of any sound may be accu- rately measured. We find from it that the lengths of the vowels in the above words are approximately as follows: bee -47 sec, bead •S25 sec, bean -304 sec, beat 147 sec, bid -15 sec, bin 11 sec, bit •068 seel ^ ANALYSIS OP INTONATION *777. Intonation may be minutely analysed by calculating the frequency of vibration-waves on kymographic tracings. *778, One method of calculating the frequency consists in taking a record of a tuliing-fork of known pitch simultaneously with the voice record, drawing cross lines to mark equal short intervals and estimating to the nearest tenth of a vibration the number of vibra- tions in each of these intervals. The average pitch during each interval may be calculated from this, and the results plotted in terms of ' An exhaustive analysis of length in English, based ou accurate measu- rements of this nature, vrill be found in E. A. Meyer, Englische Lautdatcer (Har- rassowitz, Leipzig). i-2 18(.i Chaptek XXII. Thf Kymoguarh 1 ' 1 — 1 — - 5 ^ ■^ i l_ « i J^^ 's 'T .? — -~~ --- -- ) > . - . i — - - - _ .] 1 p 1- + V— -4 h ! ■ ^ i^--] 1 ^ * < S" ^ •; t i h- ■■r- --^^ -h ) 1 ^ ^ 2 i < t I :; ■ V I ^ ^v- — 1 — ^^ •^ « -^ -. ■ "" ^,-^4=4 ^n:^-^ ^ _:_ —1- ^K 1 . . \ " 1 — — -^U-^ _- - V V 1 i 1 1 ■ : musical intervals. Intonation curves may also be obtained by plotting directly from the number of vibrations per unit time on paper ruled logarithmically in the direction perpendicular to the line along which the time is marked.' *77J). Another method is to draw perpendicular hnes at the end of every two, three or four vibrations, and thus measure their lengths in terms of nnit time. Fig. 130 illustrates this method of calculating intonation. The record is of the expression Good morning as said on parting (^pronounced by the author); the four lines of tracing show records oj; the nose, mouth, larynx and tuning-fork respectively, taken simultaneously by means of the apparatus described above. |> The tuning-fork vibrated at the rate of £ 100 complete vibrations per second, so 5 that each wave in the bottom line has f a length corresponding to -01 sec. The !i! cross lines have been drawn at the end "c of every second vibration, but the accom- S) panying calculation was made by mea- suring the length of groups of 4 vibra- +3 tions.- ^ *780. The larynx-tracing of itselt 5 would have been sufficient to determine ~ the intonation, but the nose and mouth 1 tracings have been added in order to ■a fix with accuracy the points where the o ^ * The pitch in terms of musical tones £ on the equal -temperament scale being de- 2i termined by the equation N = n ( ('j ) or to p = log - , where p is the number of semi- be tones above a fixed note having n vibrations ^ per second, and N is the observed number ef vibrations per second. ' The lines on the original tracing are a good deal thinner than those in the printed reproduction (fig. 130). To ensure accuracy, measurements should of course always be made on original tracings or enlargements of them. P. o -a 5 0£ci The EYuoOBAPit 181 various sounds begin and end. These points are marked by the short vertical lines in fig. 130. •781. The lengths of the various groups of four vibrations are found to have approximatdy the values shown in the 2nd row of the table on p. 182 (measured in terms of the lengths of the tuning-fork vibrations). The 3rd and 4th rows of the table show the calculation by which the pitches in the 5th row are ar- rived at. •782. The calculation is worked out ^ thus. The length of the first 4 vibrations is measured in terms of the scale bf hund- redths of a second shown in the bottom line of tracing The length proves to be — 2 7 units. The average duration of each vibration in the group is therefore one - quarter of this, viz. 00675 sec. Therefore at that rate of vibration 1 sec. would contain ->^„., or 148 vibrations. This corresponds UUoTo to a note between D and D| in the bass clef. The other pitches are calculated similarly. •783. When the pitches at the various — points have been ascertained in terms of musical tones, an intonation-curve may be plotted on specially prepared music paper in which the 3-semitone spaces are made | — the width of the 4- semitone spaces. This is done for the above series of pitches in fig. 131. Id this diagram the beginnings and ends x)f the sounds are marked by ^ — long vertical lines. *784. A curve similar to this may be obtained by plotting the numbers 148, 148, 133, etc. (4th row of appended table), on logarithmic paper. •785. The pitch may also be calculated very accu- tely by measuring the length of every vibration by means of a transparent millimetre scale, and comparing with the length of the tuning-fork waves. •786. Accurate intonation curves are also obtainable by using Meyer's Intonation- ^ , ii. a^ in quantity ("under similar circumstances", § 534) as well as in quality, (2) the rule that the English .r. and .) both have lower tongue-position than what may be termed the "cardinal" (continental) o, (3) the rule that the normal English short c has a lower tongue-position than the "cardinal" (continental) close e, (4) the rule that the normal English o has a lower and more advanced tongue- position than the "cardinal" (continental) close o, (5) the rule that the lowered variety of short lax i (§ 376) only occurs in un- stressed syllables, '6) the rule that i: and ii: are, in the pronunciation of many if not most speakers, slightly diphthongic (§§ 367, 463), (7) the rule that "dark" 1 is only used finally and before consonants, (8) the rule that voiced liquid consonants and semivowels are partially devoca- lized when preceded by breathed consonants in the same syllable (§ 522), (9) the rule that the length-mark : is not to be taken to have such a long value in unstressed syllables as in stressed syllables (S 541), (10) the rule that vowels are longer when final or followed by voiced consonants than they are when followed by breathed consonants or by other vowels (§§ 637, 539). A "narrower" form of transcription may be arrived at by indicating in the transcription the facts that are set forth in the above rules, and by distin gnishing three degrees of length. Sa«h a narrower fonn of transcription involves therefore: (1) having separate signs, e. g. i, ii, ii, i, for the "short" i, 3, ii, a (those who object to diacritical marks might use x, u. for i, ii, and use o for the "long" o:, leaving a for the "short" .sound), (2) having new signs, such as o and id, for the sounds ,y. and .>. (3) using e, or possibly s or i, instead of e (the use of s would involve using !C in the diphthong sa), (4) using o, or some new sign such as «. for o. (5) nsing i for unstressed short i, (6) if desired, to indicate the diphthongic pronunciation of i: and ii:, using- M, iin, or li, iin, (7) using I finally and before consonants, and 1 elsewTiere, (8) marking partial devoealization of liquids by , fOI nsing the half-length mark ■ instead of : (a) in unstressed syUables, (b) bo- fore breathed consonants, (c) before another vowel, (10) indicating long diphthongs by placing ' after the symbol of each element. (11) using . or : to show the lengthening of the so-called short vowels (see §§ 536, 542-545). APPENDIX B LISTS OF WORDS STRESSED ACCORDINQ TO RULES, IN CASBS WHERE THE EXCEPTIONS ARE NUMEROUS 1. List of the principal disyllabic BubstantiTes of which the first syllable is a prefix, which are stressed on the second syllable according to rule (see SI 580, 581): defeat di'fiit defect di'fekt (also 'di:- fekt) defence di'fcns defde di'fail account s'kaunt address a'dres adept 8'dept (also 'sedept) advance 9d'va:ns advice ad'vais affair a'fea affray a'frei affright, a'frait affront s'frAnt alloy 9'loi ally e'lai, (also 'eelai) amends a'mendz applause a'ploiz arrest 9 'rest ascent a'seut or le'gent assent a'sent or se'^sent assign ai'sain assize 9'sai% attack a't«ek attempt a 'tempt attire a'tais collapse ka'lseps command ka'maind compare kam'psa. compeer kom'pis complaint kain'pleint conceit kan'siit concern kan'89:ii cmisent ksn'sent contempt kan'teinpt content(s) k9n'tent(g) (also 'kantent(s)) control kau'troul debate di'beit debauch di'baitj" decay di'kel decease di'si:s deceit di'si:t decline di'klaiii decoy di'kai depree di'kri: default di'fo:lv degree di'flri: delight di'lait demand di'ina:nd demise di'maiz demu/r di'ina: descent di'seiit desert (that which is de- served) di'za:t desire di'zais despair dis'pea despatch dls'paetj despond dis'pond discharge dis'tjoidj discourse dis'kais (also dlskors) disdain dis'dein disease di'ziiz disgrace dis'greis disguise dis'gaiz disgust dis'gASt dismay dis'mei display dig^'plei dispute dis'pjnit dissent di'sent distress dis'tres divorce dl'vais effect i'fefct effeU e'fl:t ellipse i'llps embrace im'breis employ im'ploi entail in'teil or en'teil escape is 'kelp estate is'teit esteem is'tiim event i'vent exam ig'zsem excerpt ek'saipt (also excess Ik'ses ['eksaipt) exchange iks'tjeind; exise ek'saiz (also 'eksaiz) expanse tkB'pa ena expense iWpens express iks'preg extent iks'tent incline in'klain intent iu'lent offence 8 'fens or o'fens preserve pri'z9:v pretence pri'tens rebate ri'beit (ajso 'ri:- belt) rebound rii'banniotri- 'banud rebuff ri'bAf rebuke ri'bju:k recall ri'koil receipt ri'si:t recess ri'ses recluse ri'kln:B recoil ri'fea!} recourse ?i'ka:s 7-ecruit ri'krmt redoubt ri'daut reform ri'taim refrain ri'frein regard Ti'qa: A regret ri'gret relapse ri'lseps relay ri' lei or ri:'lei (ordinary ri'li:s' relief ri'Ujf remand ri'mdind remark ri'mdik remise ri'matz- remorse ri'mst^s remote ri'mftut. renovm ri'nauu ' In the lef^al sense of a or sometimes 'rl:ll:s. 'second lease" the word is pronounced 'ri:'li:s Appendix B 185 rqiair iri'pEa repast ri pa-.st repeal ri^pi'.l repeat rl'ijiit repiy rl'piai repmi ri'poit ■ repose ri'pouz reprieve ri'priiT reproach rl'prout/ rqjroo/" ri'pru:f repute rl'pjnit request ri'kwest research ri'so'.tj reserve ri'zaiT resolve ri'zolr resort ri'zo:t resource~xi' i9\i respect ris'pekt response rla'poHS result ri'zAlt retort ri'to:t retreat ri'triit return ri'tain revenge ri'ven d9ut (also 'presidant) recumbent ri'kAinbant . refulgent ri'fAldjant repellent ri'pelant resolvent ri'zalvant resplendent ris'plendaiit respondent ris'pandant restringent ris'trindja'ut transcefident tree n' sen - dant or tram- translucent tr«nz'ln:s?it or trains- transparent IreBus'psa- raiit or traius- wnfrequent Ati fri'.kwant. 8. List of words of three or more syllables ending in -ey which are stressed on the last pliable but two according to nile (§ 590): (a) all words of three syllables (e. g. legacy legasi, decency 'diisusi) and words formed from, these by addition of the prefix in-; a;ris'ta- coMseroawcy kan'sa: vansi consistency kan'sittansi conspiracy kans'pirasi delinquency di'ligkwausi democracy di'makrasi dependency di'pendansi desptmdencj/ dis'pandansi emergency i'maidjansi (c) all words ending in -fieieney (e. g. sufficiency sa'fijusi) (b) aristocracy krasi ascendency se'seni^nBi or a's- astringency9B'iTiB.d^9iisi autocracy ai'takrasi complacency kam 'plei- snsi expeciatiey iks'pektansi lieutenancy leCtenansi nmlignancy ma'lignansi supremacy sjn'premasi theocracy ei'okrasi transparency trsens'psa- rausi or trams-; 186 Appendix B 4. List of the principal words of four or more syllables ending in are stressed on the last syllable but three according to rule (§ 603): (a) words ending in -wry: ■ry which actuary 'wktjuari adversary 'eedvasarl antiquary 'tentikwari arbitrary 'aibitrari aviary 'eiTiarl or 'eivjail cassowary 'ksesawseri or 'ksesow- commentary 'komantsri ' constabulary kans'tieb- jnlari culinary 'kjnilinari customary 'kAStamari dignitary 'dignitari eleemosynary eliii'mazi- nari emissary 'emisari epistolary i'plstalari or e'p- estjiiari extraordinary iks'tra:d»'- nari or -dnri February 'februari fragmentary 'frsegiiian- teri hereditary M'reditari honorary 'anarari imaginary i'miedjinari itinerary ai'tinarari or I't- January 'djsenjuari literary 'literari luminary 'In'.minari mercenary 'ma:sinari military 'inilitari momentary 'monmaut^ri necessary 'nesigari numerary 'njurmarari ordinary' a: Ainari or -dnri -ery: millinery 'milinsri monastery 'monastari planetary 'plicnitari preliminary pri 'limlnari proprietary pra 'praiatari pulmonary 'pAlmanari residuary ri'zidjnari salutary 'steljntari sanguinary 'sa;ggwinari secretary 'seki-atari sedentary 'sedantsri seminary 'seminarl solitary 'soliteri statuary 'stsetjnai-i supernumerary s.;'n:p4- 'nju: marari temporary 'tcmp»rari tributary 'tribjntari vocabulary Ta'kfebjulari voluntary 'ralantari: (b) words ending in dysentery 'disntsri imagery 'imidgari (c) all four syllable words ending in -tory. (d) the following other words ending in -cry: allegory 'seligari category 'koetigari, and the following words of five or more syllable admonitory ad'manitari declamatory Ai'k\aem9t9Ti commendatory ka'menda- tori coneiliatory kan'^iliatori or kan'silieitari confirmatory kan'fa:ma- tari conservatory kan'sa: Ta- tar! consolatory kan'solatari contributory kan'trihju- tari declaratory di'klairatari defamatory di'fsematari depository di'pazitari derogatory di'rog atari exclamatory iks kla;ma- tari or eks- exploratory eks'plo:ra- tari expurgatm-y eks'paiga- tari [tari inflammatory in'flwmo- presbytery 'prezbitari savagery 'sa'vidjari. ending in tory. interlocutory inta'lokju- tari interrogatory iata'raga- tari laboratory la'barutari (.also 'l.-ebaratarl) objurgatory ab'dja: gatari observatory ab'za:vat*ri premonitory pri'manitari preparatory pri'pffiratari repository ri 'pazitari. APPENDIX C EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES When a person learns a foreign language, it is necessary for him not onlj to learn to pronounce the sounds of the language, but also to learn to recognige the various souuds when pronounced by others. If he cannot do this, he will never be able to understand properly what natives are saying to him. For cultivating the capacity to recognize instantaneously and accurately the sounds of the foreign language, ear-training exercises are required. The only satisfactory type of exercise for this purpose is for the student to write down phonetically isolated .sounds and nonsense words dictatsd by the teacher. A short exercise of this nature should form part of every pronunciation lesson.' When the student's difficulty is mainly w'ith the vowels, a saving of time may sometimes be effected by numbering the vowels and diphthongs and asking the student to name the numbers of the vowels and diphthongs dictated. For ear-training in English sounds the following system of numbering is recommended (the student should have a copy of this table always ready at hand for reference) ; i: i e iic a: .» »: u n: a a: a 12345 67 8 9 10 11 12 ei on ai au oi 13 14 15 16 17 ia Z9 uo 18 19 20 Ear-training exercises should in the first instance only include the sounds of the language studied. As the student advances, other sounds may with ad- vantage be introduced; he should pay special attention to the sounds of his own language. The following are some specimen exercises (graduated): I. ISOLATED ENGLISH SOl^NDS AND DIPHTHONGS u: , se, d, i: , u, e, a: , i, d: , a; , a, e, i:, a, se, u: , a: , i, a, u: , a: , u, 0, a, ei, oi, an, on, ai, a:, sa, a:, e, a?, «:, a, ia, na, a, o:, «u, a:, a, a, a:, e, ei, sa, n:, p, n, i, g, a:, «, J, », ai, t, s, x, k, a, r, a:, d, i, on, 5, ei, V, oi, w, a:, e, 6, m, a:, n, on, a, 1, au, f, ?,, a:, 5, a, 0, n, h, a, q, ua, n, i:, 6, ia, j, ea, s, a:, e, li. *, z, a:, 9. «"? h, ia, ij. U. EASY MONOSYLLABLES CONTAINING ONLY ENGLISK .SOUNDS bei, Ise, ra:. ga, fa:, ssa, na:, pA, ta, we, mai, ion, /i, Jia, ku:, jan, eu, ra:, dna, ga:, hsa, le, f(c, ba:, dja:, niua, 8a, tei, wci:, za, kou, na, via, rse, wa:, n»:, hon, (Jai, 5a:, me, vei, lea, Jai, ban, Ocl. wa:g, ndj viz, song, Jci^, fuas, baz.l, ijeil, laij, ru:<>, Oaag, wffist, bA5, zi:nd, fa:d, Unj, pagk, i|elt, vair, ri:rt3, hAlm, Jaunt, Oa:dz, la:mb, flav, WAnd, pnal, ji:U, tjAij, ga:zd, hang, ssap, Saidj, falst, belT, meij, wsev, fAmz, zweid, briezg, vluf, kfev. ' A test of this kind is always included in the examinations in English Plionetics and Spoken Ean:'ish for Foreigners at University College, London. 188 Ari'ENDix C JII. MORE DIFFICULT MONOSYLLABLES CONTAINING ONLY ENGLISH SODNDS tna9, skra:ndjd, tjr3:ld, q^aliz, gelpstj, zweildS, mUh, jdriilg, zmaeauj, t/uaJB, ddaimg, zoalmj, djviab, Jkeggz, ggABJt, ftrindss, tsnicrk^ Xnjnptj pmdsk. IV. DISYLLABLES CONTAINING ONLY ENGLISH SOUNDS nJArvaij, zisttelh, dzwaiuili|zg, bmsnfsea, Iiedjsends, spreedsOg, tjAgkt- juaf, mwaismiksB, lamdaigk/, jaimpSi:;, aeskla:ndz, JakpufO, inoutgaiutjt, streazneig, gaptjaig, jdneir, girieli, tnzelp, psAcfglaib, sksejfcrsa, mjonjdon, gOmsak, bmuktn, kroud^J, mlgg, sklaidjket/, sha:ff3, d5nii:gTi9. V. WORDS OF THREE OR MORE SYLLABLES CONTAINING ONLY ENGLISH SOUNDS vlsepeisez, faijwiisleid, rizdfnajia, goiimraijreil, zinju: d: skej, sijgrav- meaj, gwiiijtongl, OsazmAktail, sadaigme, tneixdJaitrAnst, siavzaiflaui, mAgdJaaufhai, fsounlgreh, zleivalikda, daisibadkeil, su'jitnak, zazaitstanaij, dalkgi:u:t, na: ^iklinien, stirtseiOnja:!, uigidnerar, galanijdarm, nakeivzda:- laeg, tnwa:aa:dj3da6, zwaunhraizuA, eaSpAkgilei, gga:gei9gikgaiik, priig- -vre'gBdl, blsedniplaji, zsaseiOlaida: , liib/krangej, irpluawoiiinba, ti:u:n!egi- nsem, snisgalaveBifa , zliivtsiteigaS, ui:bvazAkiddug, nadzaipdibateiliata. sjoiniidjailatfi, absAnvig/l, zusarapt'rala: Sakous, ka:iuanjii:tmck, gliwa-.pne- vikainifat, siazansegiskViou, JenibmaiglnfaJ'tsoiiini, tjuarasiinidalses, hiiaibJA- lefAgton, ntla:gktssabjaildn, »!ua:iiiidreklaia:nl, LaihuiOabjidjeganpliSjlidre- fazaStAdj, MaBsiakget, oubeiii9idzaul, liakni:sv£azna:d, tsifaibt!elzini:b^ inAtabda: gintailga: t, hkrbiudlgz, VI. WORDS CONTAINING NON-ENGLISH SOUNDS prLxsfsua*, dlistyintj', fsandjAgzeF ', gfefnd0:tailpf % Oonxta:gyx, 1jia(;la:tnisX% kgsed^yskrApt, baxyggnryn, pimjaQnanS, goeheixagksaO V djuatjdx, sentyggwedjidz, atlu:BsgAvi:\ lu.the following exercise i, u are to be taken to have "tense" values in all cases, when short as well as wlien long; e, o, a are to be taken. to have their "cardinal" values (as ^n French the, tot, German Gott); T is to be rolled. pma:Be:v£% tiii^ondgoel^ giq-uiait'", AggajlaarynsB ", iia:kge", pintgadnj0: Bdirp ", gzi'aklnnoesf '% sxoldl^iu, ^ii}0^k", duzge:jhwj, nzcyrta: wAca ", nijaikklaeiROii, eing^y'ar, Bive:znisu, ^iiyxole", 1na:3ESPUQ, tmeyzggglQ, sgiirRi:gui, jefy^waeghug, thataipefrwsx", zbljorvjisj '». Any student who can write the whole of the above exercises to dictation without mistake may be satisfied that hia ear has been very well trained. ' For X see § 332. ^ y is obtained by adding lip-rounding to i. ■• For r see § 275. ' For see § 480. '* For q see §§ 326, 327. " For ce see § 480. ' For v see § 351. » For b see ■§ 260. " For ^ see § 15,8. '" lU has tongue-position of u bat lips spread as for i. " For J see § 256. " " denotes nasalization (see Chap. XV), ^' For '' see § 160 ff. '* For J see § 166. " For c see § 149. '" For 1 see § 61. " For in see § 61. '» For ji see § 225. Appkndix D 189 ax ua)o»-!^s> = o C^a N U >t \ ^ b '^^ '^ -i ^ a- 3 O o o o 3 33 3 O 2 H o S a o ft! M O- Z I- 190 Appesdix D APPENDIX E LIST OF BOOKS, ETC., RECOMMENDED FOR THE STUDY OF ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION » In the book! marked " the pronunciatioii taken as normal is subatantiaUy the same as that des- cribed in this book. In the books marked § the pronunciation is represented by means of the alphabet of the Inter- national Phonetic Association. 1. BOOKS ON PHONETIC THEORY *§ W. RippHANN, The Sounds of Spoken English, with Specimens, new edition, 1914 (Dent, London, 3 s.). Contains phonetic texts. *§ — , English Sounds (Dent, London, 1911, 1 s.). Designed specially for children. *§ H. E. Palmeh, a. First Course in English Phonetics (Heft'er, Cambridge). *§ D. Jones, An Outline of English Iftonetics (Teubner, Leipzig). *§ — , Ihe- Pronunciation of English (Cambridge University Press, 2°* edition, 1914, 2s. 6d.). Contains phonetic texts. * H. Sweet, The Sounds of English (Oxford University Press, 2 s. 6 d.). * — , Primer of Spohen English (Oxford University Press , 3 s. 6 d.). Contains phonetic texts. * — , Ekmentarbuch des gesproehenen Engliseh (Oxford University Press, 1904, 2 8. ti d.). Contains phonetic texts. *§ L. H. Althaus, The Sotmds of the Mother Tongue (London University Press, revised edition, 1915, 2 s.). Designed specially for children. * H. C. Wyld, The Teaching of Beading (Murray, London, 1909, 2 s.). Contains phonetic texts. *§ B. DuMviLLE, The Science of Speech (University Tutorial Press, London, 1909 2 s. d.). *§ L. SoAsiKs. Introduction to Phonetics (new edition, Macmillan, London, 1913, 6 s.). * E. Krulslvga, Handbook of Present Bay English, Vol. 1 (Utrecht 1914,^4 s. 6d.). •§ W. ViKtok, Elemente der Phonetik (Reisland, Leipzig, 8 s.). *§ A. Wkstekn', Englisclie Lautldire (Reisland, Leipzig, 1902, 3 s.). *§ P. Wagsek, Die Sprachlaute des Englischen (NeflF, Stuttgart, 2°* edition 1899, 2 s. 10 d.). * 0, Jf.shkhsf.n, Engelsk Fmietik (Gyldendal, Copenhagen, 1912). § R. J, Li-OYD, Northern English (Teubner, Leipzig, 2"'' edition, 1908, 3 s.). Con- tains phonetic texts. I. Williams, Phonetics for Scottish Students (Maclehose, Glasgow, 1909). Con- tains phonetic texts. § W. Grant, The Pronunciation of English in Scotland (Cambridge University Press, revised edition, 1914, 3 s. 6 d.). Contains phonetic texts. H. 0, Coleman, Intonation and Emphasis, in Miscellanea Phonetica, 1914 (In- ternational Phonetic Association). ' This list is not intended to be a complete bibliography. Treatises on General Phonetics which are not directly useful to the foreigner who wishes to acquire a good pronunciation of English are not included. Likewise there are included only very few of the numerous books for teaching the English language (grammars, etc.) in which phonetic methods are adopted; the names of a number of others will be found in the Principles of the International Phonetic Associa- tion, 1912, pp. 36, 36. 192 Appendix K 2. PHONETIC READERS '•§ D. Jones, Phonetic Readings in English (Winter, Heidelberg, i"' edition, 1914, 1 8. 8 d.). •§ — , Phonetic Transeripiions of English Prose (Oxford Univeraity Press, 2"'' edi tion, 1914, 2 s.). * § — , Intonation Curves (Teubner, Leipzig, 1909, 2 s. 8 d.). *g Gr. E. FuBRKEN, Phonetic Transcriptioii of Jespersen- Bodhe Engelsk Ldsebok (Fritze, Stockholm, 1907, 2 s. 9 d.). *§ B, B.. Edwards, Phonetic Transcription of Victor-Dorr Englisehes Lesebuch (Teubner, Leipzig, 1901, 2 s. 3 d.). ^'§ H. Smith, Phonetic Transcription of Shindler's Echo of Spoken English (Elwert, Marburg, 1908, 1 s. 6 d.). ' M. MosTGOMEEY, Types of Standard Spoken English (Triibner, Strafiburg, 1910) *§ 6. NoEr,-AnMFiEi.p, English Humour in Phonetic Transcript (Heffer, Cambridge, 1914, 10 d.). *§ — , 100 Poems for Children (Teubner, Leipzig, 1909, 2 b.). C. M. Rice, ShoH English Poems for Bepetition (Heffer, Cambridge, 1915, 10 d). * 0. Jespebsen, Engelske Lydskriftstykker (Gyldendal, CopeDhagen, 1910). ' E. T. Trite and 0. Jespersen, Spoken English (Reislarid, Leipzig, 7"' edition, 1008). § P. Passt, Les Elements d' Anglais Patie (Firmin-Didot, Paris, S'* edition, 10 d.). § Le Maitre Phonetique, the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, edited by P. Passy and D. Jones (2 a. 10 d. per annum). See also the books in the preceding section which are noted as. containing phonetic texts. 3. PRONOUNCING DICTIONARIES *§ D, Jones, An English Pronouncing Dictionary (Dent, London, 1916, 6 a.), *§ H. MicHAELis and D. Jones, A Phonetic Dictionary of the English Language (Meyer, Hannover, 1913, 6 s.). - J. Brybildsen, English and Danish Dictionary (Gyldendal, Copenhagen). J. A. ApzELins, Concise English Pronouncing Dictionary (Norstedt, Stockholm, 1909, 6 s. 6 d.). H. W. Fowler, Concise Oxford Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 1911, 3 s. 6 d.). Pronunciation only indicated occasionally, but such indications as there are are useful. J. Murray, New English Dictondry (Oxford University Press). I R. M. Pierce, A Dictionary of Hard Words (Dodd, Mead & Co., New York). New Standard Dictionary (Funk & Wagnalls, New York, new edition 1913). . A. Scuroer, NeuenglisehesAussprachworterbuch (Winter, Heidelberg, 1913, 4s. 6d.). § Ziegler and Seiz, Englisehes Schuhuorterbuch (Elwert, Marbui-g, 4 s. 6 d.). 4. PHONETIC CHARTS g W. RiBPMAHN, The Sounds of English (Dent, London, paper 1 8 , mounted with rollers 2 s. 6 d.). § D. Jones, English Speech Sounds (Cambridge University Press, paper 1 s. 6 d., mounted with rollers 3 s. 6 d.). § —. ^ Small Chart of English Speech Sounds, with key words and notes (Ox- ford University Press, 2"* edition, 1909, 4 d ). — , The Organs of Speech (C'ambridge University Press, paper 1 s. 6 d., mounted with rollers 3-b. 6 d.). f W. ViETOR, Englische Lauttafel (Elwert, Marburg, paper 2 s., mounted with rollers 4 s.). Appendix £ 193 A. ZoND-BuEGUET, T/w Ofgom of Speech (Elwert, Marburg, 5 s.)- § F Rausch and D. Jokes, Sound Charts (Dent, London). A set of 9 charts showing the positions of the organs of speech in prononncing of some of the more important vowels; 12 b. 6 d. the set. 5. MODELS OF THE ORGANS OF SPKECil C. Ramme (Plastische Anstalt, Hamburg). Larynx, 11 s. ; Mouth, nose, etc.. with removable tongue and laryiix, 30 s. 6. GRAMOPHONE llECOKDS (TO GO WITH PHONETICS TEXTS) I{ecords of the 40 anecdotes in Jones, Phonetic Beadiiigs in English, spoken by D. Jones. Published ia the Collection Driesen by the Deutsche Gi-ammo- phon Gesellschaft, Ritterstr. 35, Berlin. Record numbers 201378—201391. Price (in Germany) 3 s. 6 d. per disc (double-sided). Records of phonetic texts on pp. 85—97 of Jones, Pronunciation of English, spoken by D. Jones. Published in the Collection Driesen by the Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft, Ritterstr. 36, Berlin. Record numbers 201392. 2U1S93. Price (in Germany) 3 s. 6 d. (double-sided disc). Records of phonetically transcribed texts mSaberlands Unterrichtsbriefe (English) spoken by D. L. Savory. Published by Uaberland, Leipzig. Particulars of the Gramophpne records from which the phonetic ^tanscriptions in JosES, Intonation Curves, are taken will be found in the introduction to that book. 7. TKEATISE ON VEKSIFICATION (ON PHONETIC BASIS) § P Veheieb, Prindpes de la Metriqtie Anglwise, ii vols. (Welter, Paris, 1909. 38 s. complete.) 8. BOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH I'KOXUNCIATION * (a) THEOEV § 0. Jespeesbk, Modern English Grramtnar, Vol. 1 (Winter, Heidelberg, 1909). H. C. Wyld, a Short History of English (Murray, London, 1914, 6 s.). — , Historical Study of the Mother I'ongue (Murray, London, 1906, 7 s. 6 d.). A. J. Ellis, Early English Pronunciation, Vols. 1—4 (Early English Text Society), H. Sweet, History of English Sounds (Oxford University Press, 1888, 14 s.). § W. ViETOB, Shakespeare's Pronunciation, Vol. 1 (Elwert, Marburg, 1906, 6 s.). M. £aldza, Historisclie Grammatil; der oigUschen Sprache, 2 vols. (Felber. Berlin -SchSneberg) . K LtJicK, Historische Grammatik der Englischen Sprache (Tauchnitz, Tieipzig). In course of publication. W. HoEN, Historische neuenglische Grammatik, Vol.1 (Triibner, StraBburg, 1908, 6 s.). (b) PHONETIC TBAJJSCBIPTIONS OF UAEIiY KNGLISH § W ViiiTOB, Shakespeare's Pronunciation, Vol. 2 (Elwert, Marburg, 1906). I D. Jones, Scenes from Sliakespeare in thf Original Pronunciation (International Phonetic Association, 10 d.). Phonetic Transcription of the first 200 lines of Chaucer's Prologue to the Canterbury Tales in H. Sweet, Second Middle English Primer (Oxford University. Press, 2 b. 6 d.). ' For a full bibliography of this vast subject see Wvtn, Short History of English, pp. 11—21. Jones, £iigljsli Phocetics APPENDIX F EXAMINATION QUESTIONS I. Paper set in tbe examination in English Phonetics for foreign stadeuts at University College, London, on March 26"', 1911. Time allowed 1'/, hours. 1. What is the "glottal stop" and how is it formed? Why is this somid of importance from the point of yiew of foreigners learning English? Give exam- ples to illustrate your answer. 2. Explain fully the mistakes commonly made by foreigners in pronouncing the English word old. What methods would you suggest for correcting these errors? Illustrate your remarks on the I sound by means of diagrams. 3. When is ng between two vowels pronounced simply g without any fol- lowing g or dg ? When is ew pronounced u: and when is it pronounced ju: ? 4. Give the principal rules regarding the length of English vowels in stressed syllables. 5. Transcribe the following passage phonetically, adding stress marks: — No sooner was its voice heard on the present occasian, than the whole line was in motion. A wild cry of joy from the advancing battalions rent the air, and was then lost in the shrill notes of the bagpipes, the sound of these, in their turn, being partially ' drowned by the heavy tread of so many men put at once into motion. The banners glittered and shook as they moved forward, and the horse hastened to occupy their station as the advanced guaxd, and to push on reconnoitring parties to ascertain and report the motions of the enemy. II. Paper set in the examination in English Phonetics for foreign students at University College, London, on March li*"*, I9l3. Time allowed 1'/, hours. 1. Describe the actions performed by the organs of speech in pronouncing the second syllable of the word muttmi. AVhat mistake is frequently made by foreigners in pronouncing this syllable? What exercise would you suggest for curing the -defect ? 2. Explain shortly the principles according to which vowels are claseifled. Explain the meaning of the various technical terms used in describing the for- mation of vowels. The vowel in Jwme is often said to be "advanced towards the mixed J)Osi- tion". What does this mean? Explain how a knowledge of this fact may help many foreigners to improve their pronunciation of this English vowel. IHnstrate your answer by a diagram. 3. In what cases does the letter »■ have a consonantal valuei in Southern English, and in what cases is it silent? Give four examples of each case (in phonetic ti-anscription). 4. Mention some cases in which a sentence which is in the form of a state- ment may take a rising intonation at the end. Give examples, drawing in each case a curved line to show the rise and fall of the voice. 6. Transcribe phonetically the following passage, adding stress marks: — The inhabitants of both cottages barely had time to escape, and only a few of the most valued pieces of furniture could be removed. The wind increased in force, and soon other cott.ages and buildings were ignited. Villagersi hunied Appendix P 196 in from the fields to eftdeaTOnr to cope with the fiie. The small fire engine proved of little use, for the cottages for the most part were very old and fell a ready prey to the flames. III. Paper set in the examination in Englisli Phonetics for foreign students at Oniversity College, London, on March 24«', 1914. Time allowed 1% hours. 1. For the purpose of phonetics, it is convenient to imagine the surface of the tfingue divided into certain parts. Give the names of these parts, and ex- plain precisely what is meant by each. 2. Explain fully the mistakes of pronunciation commonly made by foreigners in pronouncing the English word worthy. What exercises would you suggest for correcting these errors? 3. Draw diagrams showing the positions of the organs of speech in pro- nouncing the English sounds k, s, g. 4. In what words does th have the value 5 initially? Give six examples of initial 3 and six examples of initial 6. 5. Describe the intonation of the sentence I can't go to Germany this yem, said in such a way as to imply "but I may be able to go there next year". (You should state exactly where each rise and fall begins and ends.) Dr«w an intonation-curve to illustrate your answer. 6. Transcribe the following passage phonetically, adding stress-marks: — On approaching the red villa by its short entrance drive of yellow gravel they perceived Mr. Wade slowly walking in his garden. The garden of "The' Brambles" was exactly the sort ot garden one would expect to find attached to a house of that name. It was chiefly conspicuous for its lack of brambles, or indeed of any vegetable of such disorderly habit. Yellow gravel walks inter- sected smooth lawns. April having drawn almost to its close, there were thin red lines of tulips standing at attention all along the flowery borders. Not a stalk was out of place. The sight of an honest weed would have been a relief to the eye. The curse of too muAi gardener^ and too little nature lay over the land. IV. Paper .set in the examination in EiTgUsh Phonetics for- foreign students at University College, London; on March 26"', 19.15. Time allowed 2 hours. 1. How is the soft palajie fised in spieech? Mention some combinations oi sounds in which the soft palate moves but the positions of all other parts of the organs of speech remain unaltered. 2. How would you teach the voweJs in note, nought, and not to a foreigner who had difficulty in distingnishing between them? 3. Mention any rules you know regarding the stressing of auxiliary verbs in English, giving three examples of each rule. 4. (i) In what ways is the diphthong »u represented in ordinary spelling? (ii) What different pronunciations are there of the letter a ? Give exanfples of each case. 6. Draw diagrams showing the approximate positions of the organs of speech in pronouncing each sound of the' word nest. 6. Transcribe the following passage phonetically, adding stress-marks: — The boys are Frank and Lionel. Frank is the only one that is married, and he lives in a tiny house in Barton, Street with his wife and his twins He is at present a journalist, but all kinds of books are to coine froni him. Lionel is at the Bar, but he has not yet pleaded a cause, largely, I fancy, on account 196 Apfznois F of the British solicitor's uawilliagaess to believe iu the zeal or capicity of a Middlesex fast scorer (for Lionel plays for that county), and partly because his grandmother's generosity has made it so absurdly possible for Lionel to neglect his duties. Frank I like immensely, for he is quiet and kind aad humorous, but Lionel is more caustic and impatient than one wants, and he is also a shade too toI- nble upon games. V. Paper set in the usamination in Spoken English for foreigq sbudents at University College, London, on June G"", 1918. Time allowed ly, hours. 1. What kind of sound is represented by the a in ladyl What actions do the organs of speech perform in making it? What mistake of pronunciation is genwally made by foreigners when they attempt to pronounce such words as day, pay, toay? 2. In what respects does the use of a phonetic transcription help a forei^er to improve his i^ronnnciation? Give examples. 3. Which are the English vowels commonly known as "long" vowels? Why are they so called? Is it true to say that they are always longer than the other vowels? If not, why not? 4. Transcribe the following phonetically, adding stress-macks : — "I wonder what sort of man that is?" "I should think he was a greengrocer from the look of him." "Do yon really think so? Why, I «aw him the other night in the pit of Dxury Lane theatre. I shouldn't have thought greengrocers would care much about Shakespeare plays." "Oh, I don't see why he shouldn't like to go there, just as much as any- body else. Everyone is educated now-a-days; and- with all the modem cheap editions of the plays there is not the slightest reason why anyone who has the taste for reading should not learn to appreciate them. ' VI. Pa])er set in the examination in Spoken' English for foreign students at University College, London, on Jane 19*, 1914. Time •allowed I'/j hours."' 1. Describe all the sounds occurring in the word count. What mistakes of pronunciation are commonly made by foreigners iu regard to the diphthong in this word? Mention any methods you knotv for correcting such mispronunciation. 2. What are the functions of the vocal chords in speech? Give examples. 8. In the English written language there are numerous words which have two pronunciations known as "strong" and "weak" forms. Mention six such words (other than those occurring in the passage in questiou 4), and construct sentences to illustrate the use of the strong and weak forms of each. (The sentences should be written phonetically.) 4. Transcribe phonetically the following passage, adding stress-marks, (strictlv colloquial style of pronunciation should be indicated): — "What have you been doing with yourself all this time.'" "Oh! I have been for a week at the sea-side." "Have you? Why I thought you had got a specially important piece of work on at your office." "Yes, I had rather a difficult job, but I am glad to say it is finished nowi I have been taking a week off to re- cruit." "Where did you go?" "Oh I went to Eastbourne; I always go there; there is always plenty to do there, and it is not too far off." "Well, you are looking very fit now. I feel very much inclined to follow your example." INDEXES ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE INDEXES ai^., adjective adr., adverb Ap^., Appendix coiy-i conjunction demoDstr., demonBtrative Fr., French Oer., German Ital., Italian p., page pron., pronoun rel., rolativr sb., substantive Span., Spanisli vb., verb Numbers (other than those preceded by "App.") refer to paragrapbB of the main pait of the book. A number following an Appendix referenco indicates a jub-section of that Appendix. The following is the alphabetical order of phonetic symbols in the index of gonnds: o, a, a, a, a, ai, au, a, «e, aea, sei, 1», 1^, c, ^, A, A, .1, dj, d, e, e;, [6], ee, e:9, el, s, I, sa, a:, a, e:, a, ai, f, f, g, jj, (^, h, fi,' i:, fij, i, [i], i, l9> U> j> J> k, 1, i, 1, 1, in, in, II, n, n, ji, ij, o;, , t, k (aspiration", 112, 125, 150. fi, 338, 339, 767. 1: , formation, 365; rejjrcsentation in spel- ling, 366 ; relation to continental sounds, 367, 368; Cockney varieties ei, ai, 369; words for practising 370; length, 534 ff. [i], narrow phonetic svmbol for tense i, 92 note 1. i, formation, 371 ; rppiesentatiou in spel- i ling, 373; iuco'rrect tense pronuncia- tion, 374 ; incorrect substitution of [i\ 376; lowered variety in English, 376; words for practising, 377; in diphthong ia, 378—381 ; in other diphthongs, 382; incorrect substitution of j in aia, 416- lengthening of, 544. [i], narrow phonetic symbol for lax i, 92 note 1. f, 610. ia, 378, 379; incorrect foreign pronuncia- tion, 360; words for practising, 381 See also i, a. ij, 367. j, formation, 356; relation to i, 357; re- presentation in spelling, 359, 360; for- eign mispronunciations, 362; words for practising, 363; change to ^, /, after d, t, 523, 525, 627, 528; ooale'sces with 8, 7., to form J, x, 526, 627. , 166, 362. , formation, 146; representation in spel- ling, 147; incorrect substitution of «, 149; aspiration in English, 160; ex- cessive aspiration by foreigners, 151; absence of aspiration with other for- eigners, 161, 162; words for practising, 153; pronounced without explosion, 184, 185, 187, 188; faucal plosion be- fore g, 194, 196. 1-sounds in general, 230 flF.; formation of English 1, 230; representation in spelling, 232; "clear" 1, "dark" i, 231, 238 ff. ; mode of acquiring English dark I, 240 — 242; words for practising Eng- lish dark 1, 243, 244; pre-dental var- iety, 233; uni-lateral formation, 234; with different vowel resonances, 235, 237; experimental demonstration of difference between "clear" 1 and "dark" 1, 246; effect on preceding ala, ana, il6; inverted 1, 514, 615; lengthening t, -231. [of. 654, 556. 1, 61, 247, 522. I, 514, 515. m, formation, 210; representation in spel- ling, 211; length 554, 556, 557. m, 61, 212, 622. i», formation 213, 216; representation in spelling, 214; pre-deutal variety, 215; in combination nj, 218; German palat- alized variety, 220; words for practis- ing, 221; length 653, 554, 557. n, syllabic u, 626. II, 217, 522. jl, 218, 219, 225, 227. i|, formation, 222; representation in spel- ling, 223, 224; incorrect substitution of .)l, 226, 227; of gk, 228; words for practising, 229. o:, 8, 452, 456. Index of Soudds 199 0, formation, 448 ; occurrence in Bhiglish, 419, 461. See ako on. 5, 509. W, 451, 640. oi, 8S3, 461, 640. ou, foimation, 448, 449, 476; represen- tation in apelling, 460; substitntiou of o:, 468, 466; incotrect diphthongic piononciations, 463, 456; methods of correction, 464, 466 ; words for practis- ing, 458; length, 536 ff., 640, 641; re- duction to o, 640, 541. Sec also o, a. a: , formation, 434; representation in spel- ling, 436; amount of lip-ioonding, 436; incorrect foreign pronunciation, 437, 4,38 ; -words for practising, 439 ; length, 534, 537, 639, 641. a:, 516. 3,' formation, 429 ; representation in spel- ling, 430; inconeot foreign varieties, 431, 432; woi;d8 for practising, 433. [5], narrow phonetic symbol for French 5, 609. [o, 123. ai, foimation, 382, 440; representation in spelling, 441 ; incorrect substitution of 9f, 442. See also 9, a:, i. a, 480. CB, 445, 4*0. ffi, 21, 609. p, formation, 110; representation in spel- ling, 111; aspiration in English, 112, 174; excessive aspiration by foreigners, 113; absence of Ittpiration with other foreigners, 113, 114; words for prac- tising, 116; with closed glottis, 17.6, 177; pronounced without explosion, 184—186, 188; faucal explosion be- fore m, 194; i^mographic tracings, 766. T-sonnds, S48ff., 346; representation ia spelling, 250—253. r (rolled r), 249; foimation 264; use in English, 256; method of acquiring, 266, 267. f, 522. r [a] (iuTeited fricative r), 269, 514, J (fricative r), 249; formation 323; use in English, 256 ; method of acquiring, 264; words foi practising, 268. t (semi-iolled r), 249; formation 258; use in English, 268. R (uvular rolled r), 249, 260, 262, 263. B (uvular fricative r), 249, 261—263. 8, forAiation, 294, 296; representation in spelling, 297—800; incorrect substit- ution of «, «, 802; words for practis- ing, 803. j", formation, 308,309; compiMiwith 8, 310, 812; representation in spelling, »18; in group ij, 180—138; incorrect 1 substitution of 5, 5, 315; palatalifsed variety, 316; words for practising, 317; derived from earlier ^, 523, 526—638. t, formation, 121; representation in spel- ling, 122; words for practising, 128; pre-dental (French) variety, 123 ; aspira- tion in English, 126 ; excessive aspira- tion by foreigners, 126; absence of aspiration with other foreigners, 127; inverted t, 613, 514; absence of explos- ion, 184, 186, 188; faucal explosion before u, 192; lateral explosion before 1, 196; Cockney af fricative variety, 204; lengthening of, 567. t, 513—516. tj, formation, 131, 207 if.; words for practising, 133; derived form earlier tj, 207 (iii), 523, 626, 527, 528; fcymo- graphic tracings, 772. 6, formation, 282 ; representation in spel- ling, 283 ; incorrect substitution of f, s, 286; words for practising, 287, 293. n: , formation, 459 ; representation jn spel- ling, 460; French and Geimitn varie- ties, 461, 462; diphthongization in Eng- lish, 463, 464; advanced variety, 462 note 6; words for practising, 466; length, 634 ff.; reduction to n, 540; relation to w, 348, 349, 352. [A], narrow phonetic symbol for tense n, 92 note 1. n, formation, 467; representation in spel- ling, 468; incorrect tense pronuncia- tion by foreigners, 469; words for practising, 470; in diphthong nw, 471 —475; in diphthongs an, on, 405 ff., 450 ff.; incorrect substitution of w in ana, 416. [p], narrow phonetic symbol for lax u, 92 note 1. ua, formation, 471; representation in spelling, 472; foreign mispronuncia- tions, 473; substitution of 03, 09, o:, eea, oe:, in English, 474; words for practising, 476. See also a, 9. ii, 462 note 6. Ui, 382, 540. nw, 463. T, formation, 278, 279; incorrect snbsti- tution of V, 279, 260; words for prac- tising, 281; lengthening of, 557*. V, 20, 119, 201, 275, 279, 351. w, formatioA, 345, 346, 848, 349; repre- sentation in spelling; 347; amount of lip-rounding, 849; incorrect substitu- tion of T, V, 351; of q, 368; mode of acquiring, 852; words for practising, i4, 860. [866. w, 522. See also m. X, 332. y, 442. 200 IsDES OF Subject.* l|. 36&, 354. X, formatioB, 304; leprpsentalion in spel- ling, 300; incorrect snbstitntion of t., 806; words for praetieing, 307; devoc- alization -whtn initial or final, 340. ;, 303, 340. 5, formati(», 818; representation in spel- ling, 819; in gionp dj, 142—146; in- correct substitntion of J, 321; incor- rect palatalized varietj, 322; used bj foreigners for J, 316; derived fiom earlier xj, o2.'i— 527. 5, 316, 321. ' ("glottal stop"), formation 160; occur- rence in English, 161, 162; incorrect use by foreigners. 102, 1S3; metiiod of correcting, 164. INDEX OF SUBJECTS a, pronnnciation of letter, .<)80, 394, '399, 421, 480, 435. AffHefttlTO eunsonants, 198 ff., 77S. Alpkabets, nnpbonetic nature of, 6 — 9. AlTeoI&r coii>oiiaiit8, 64. See also t, d n, 1, r, s, 8, /, 3, J, in index of sotlnds. Artificial palate, 38 fF. Aspirate, see h in index of sounds. ABplration ef pIoslTe eonsonants, 112ff., 186 ff., 160 ff., 174; kTmographic teat for, 766. Assibilated consonants, sec AlTricatiTe cODMonants. Assimilation, 518 ff.; affecting vocal chorda, 619— 524, 771; affecting posi- tion of tongue,. 625— 529; affecting pos- ition of lips, 530 ; incorrect, 524, 628. -ate, pronunciation of, 378 note 3. 6, pronnnciation of letter, 117, Baaing of slieep, 402. Back of tongne, 33. Back Towels, definition, 76; detailed description, 419 ff. Bi-labial consonants, 64. See-also p, b, m, F, V, w, it, q in index of sounds. Blade of tongne, 33. Breatli, explanation of, 43, 47; methods of detecting, 49 — 52; exercises for dis- tinguishing from voice, 61,62; kymo- graph) c tests for, 766 ff. Breatiied plosives, difibreucefromToiced plosives, 62; with voice when contact released, 172; nnaspirated French ini- tial, 173; aspirated English initial, 174. See also p, t, t/, c. k, in index of sounds. Breathed sonuds, 48 tf., 59 tf. Breatli-gronps, 685 — 688. Broad transcription, 14—16, App. A. c, pronunciation of letter, 147. Cacuminal sounds, 518 ff ; use by for- eigners. 514, 515; method of correct- ing, 516. Cerebral KOnnds, see Cacuminal sounds. Classification of consonants, 59 ff. Classification of vowels, fis ff. Close vowels, definition, 80. See also i:, i, u:, n, in index of sounds. Cockney pmnnnciatioa, oft, 161 notel, 204; of d, 204; of i:, 369; of el, 391, of ra, 397; of ou, 453 note 1 Compound words, stress of, 685—648. con-, pronnnciation of, 224. Consonant, definition, 64; sounds fall- ing under category of, 55; difference from vowel, 56; breathed and voiced, 59 ff.; detailed classification 63 ff.; length, 562 — 657. Consonantal vowel, 105. Cough, explanation of, 162. d, pronunciation of letter, 135. Dental sounds, definition, 64. See also t, d, n, 1, r, e, d, s, «, J, 5, J, in in- dex of sounds. Devocallzation, of vowels, 329,330,333: of voiced consonants, 522. See also b, d, ^, m, 11, r, «, 3, w, in index of sounds. Diphthongs, naturt^ of, 103-^-106; in English, 378—382, 388—392, S'J3— 397, 404— 41S, 449—458, 463, 471— 476. See also ei, on, ai, an, ai, id. £3, U3, o;), .19, oi, ui, in ind(-i of sounds. e, pronunciation of letter, 369, 366 384. e«, pronnnciation of gronp of letters. 122, 135 and note 1. cur, pronnnciation of group of letters, 470. Embouchure, 759. Epiglnttis, 32. e>: prouuDciatiou ot gronp of letters, 421, 479. e.e-, pronnnciation of, 373 note S. Experimental phonetics, 35 ff.: appar atus for, 37 ff., 757 ff. Exploratory bulb, 759 f, prouQuciation of letter. 274. Fancal plosion, 192 ff. Frirative consonants, definition 65; detailed description, 271 ff.; partial derocalizntion when final, .H40— 342. InpKX of SllB.TEOTS 201 See also f, v, 6, 8, n is, /, j, .t, ^., s, h, in index of sounds. Front of Tongue, 33. Front Tovels, definition, 76; detailed description, 364 ff. Sec also 1:, i, e, £, *i »i Ji ffy *! in index of sounds. g, pronunciation of letter, 14S, 166 and note 2. gh, pronunciation of group of letters, 274. Glottal consonants, definition, 64. See also f, li, in index of sounds. Cflotlal stop, see ', in index of sounds. eiottls, 34. A, pronunciation of letter, 331, 336, 337. Half-close vowels, definition, 81. See also e, 0, in index of sounds. Half-open Towels, definition, 81. See also e, 9, in index of sounds. Hurd palate, 31. «, pronunciation of letter, 369, 366, 373, 406. Implosive sonnds, definition, 175; with closed glottis, 176, 177, 182. Incomplete plosive consonants, 184 If. [nflection, sec Intonation. Inslrnmental phonetics, sec Fxperi- menial phon<>ties. Intonation, 689 S. ; definition, 689 ; range, 693—690; rules, 099—741; incorrect intonation of foreigners, 742 — 753; methods of analysing, 752 £F., 777 ff. Inverted sounds, seeCacnminal sounds. fV, pronunciation of group of letters, 479. j, pronunciation of letter, 142. k, pronunciation of letter, 147. Kymograph, 37, 757 ff. I, pronunciation of letter, 232. Labii|l consonants, definition, 64. See also p, b, m, f, v, ^s, .», F, v, in in- dex of sounds. Labio-dental consonants, definition, 64. See also f, v, in index of sounds. Laryiigttl consonants, sec Glottal con- sonants. Laryngoscope, 37, 46. Larynx, 32, 45. See also Breath, Voice, Whisper. See also ', h, in index of 8ounds. Larynx recorder, 763. Lateral consonants, definition, 65. See aXio l-sounds in index of sounds. Lateral plosion, 196 ff. Lax vowels. 89—95. See also i, e, o, n, in index of sounds. Length, Wlff.; of vowels 533—561; of consonants, 662—557; lengthening of so-called "short" vowels, 542 — 546; mistakes in length made by foreigners, 558 — 566; rhythm and length, 546— 661, 566, 566; phonetic representation of, 567 — 57ri; kymographic analyaia of, 775, 77C. Lip-ronnding, i^8. Liquid consonants, definition 00: de- tailed description, 208 ff. See also ni,. n, _p, i|, 1, r, in index of sounds. ?- sounds, see index of sounds. w, pronunciation of letter, 811. Mixed vowels, definition, 78; detailed description, 477 ff. See also a:, 3, in index of sounds. Month measurer, 84. /(, pronunciation of letter, 214; mouille 218, 227. >'arrow transcription, 13, App. A. Aasal consonants, definition, 65; de- tailed description, 209 ft'. See also ni, n, ji, ij, in index of sounds. Kasnllzatlon, 509 ff ; in speech of for- eigners, 510; methods of correcting, 511; kymographic tests for, 773. 774. Nasalized vowels, 96, 509 ff. Kasal olivo, 759. Neutral vowel, ecoo in index of sounds. ng, pronunciation of when medial. 224. 0, pronunciation of letter, 430. 436, 444, 459, 460, 408, 47i). 00, pronunciation of^ 460, 468. Open vowels t definition, 80. See also a", a, ft, 3, a:, in index of sounds. Organs of speech, 27 ff.; models of, 2t<. OM, oxv, pronunciation of groups of let- ters, -106, 450. p. pronunciation of letter. 111. Palatal consonants, definition, 04. See also c, J, 11, Q, j, in index of sounds. Palate, hard, 31 ; soft, 81 ; artificial, 38ff, ; movements of soft palate, 96, 97; effect on vowel quality, 96. Palatograms, 42, 80. Past participle, formation of, 122, 135. ph, pronunciation of gro" p of letters, 274 Pharynx, 32. Phonetic theory, use of, 2. Phonetic transcription, 2, 10—10. Phonetics, definition, 3. Plosive consonants, definition, 65, 109; voiced and breathed, 62; theory of, 167 ff.; nature of explosion, 169; ad- dition of short h or vowel, 170; aspir- ated, 174; unaspirated, 172, 173; ab- sence of explosion before another plo- sive, 184 ff.; faucal plosion, 192 ff.; lateral plosion. 196 ff.; with slow" se- 202 Ibdbx of Subjects paiatiou of aiticttlating organs, 198 ff,; detailed description, 110 ff. See also p, b, t, d, tj, dj, 0, J, k, g, », in in- dex of sonndi Plural, rules for formation of, 284. Post-dcotal consonants see Alreolar cousonauts. Pre-dentol consonants, 64. See also 6, 8, French t, French d, in index of sounds. Fronnnciation, divergencies of, 19^ edu- cated and uneducated, 21; of men' and women, 22; individual peculiarities, 23; different styles, 25, 26. Public school proniftaclatiou , 24 and note 1 q, pronunciation of letter, 14T. Quadrant Indicator, 85. Qhantitj, see Lengtb. r, when sdiinded and when not, 250— 253; different pronunciations of, see r-sounds in index of sounds. Keduetion of vowels to o, 495 ff. Resonance chamber, 68, 70. Rhythm, effect on len.gth, 546 ff.; effect on stress, 624 ff. Rolled consonauts, definition, 65; de- tailed description, 248 ff. See also r, b, in index of sounds. Rounded vowels, definition, 88. See also a, a:-, o, n, u:, y, 0, as, in index of sounds. r-sounds, see index of sounds. s, pronunciation of letter, 297—300, 302, 305, 313, 319, 521; silent letter,- 301. Scmi-Yowels, nature of, 68,66, 272; de- tailed description, 343 ff. See also v/, j, in index of sounds. Sentcneerstress, 649 ff. ah, pronunciation of group of letters, 313. Shortening of vowels, 537 ff. Soft palate, 31; moyements of, 96, 97; effect on venrel quality, 9<'i. Sonority, 66—58. Spelling, unphonetic nature of, 5— ti, Spreading of Ups, 88. Standard pronnnoiatiou, 17—26. Stop, definition, 168. Stress, 674 ff.; in simple words, 579— 634; in compound words, 635 — 648; in the sentence, 649 — 684; double < stress, 613 — 628, 639, 641, 644; in- fiuence of rhythm, 624—626, 645; dif- ficulties of foreigne'B, 632—634, 647, 648; lists of words stressed according to rules in cases where exceptions are numerous, App. B. Styles of nrouuuciation, 26, 26. Syllabic sounds, 101. SyUable, 99 ff. t, pronunciation of letter, 122. Tambour, 757, 768. Teeth-ridge, 31. Tense vowels, 89—95. iih pronunciation of group of letters, 283, 284, 289. Tip of tongue, 33. Tongue, divisioiis of, 33; ba(^ of, 33; front of, 33; blade of, 33. TrUled consonants, see Rolled con- sonants. Triphthiiug, 107, 108. -tm-6f pronuneiation of, 130 note 1. u, pronunciation of letter, 347, 360, 444, 460, 468. Unaspirated plosive consonants, 172, 173. Unrounded vowels, definition, 88. ur, pronunciation of group of letters, 479. Uvular consonants, definition, 64. See also B, K, iu inde^ of sonnda. Varieties of pronunciation, 19 ff. Yelar consonants, definition, 64. See also k, g, g, x, ^, iu index of sounds. Vocal chords, .S4,"43, 45. Voice, explanation of, 43, 47; ordinary methods of detecting, 49 — 52; exer- cises for distinguishing from breath, 61, 62; kymographic tests for, 766 if. Voiced plosives, difference from brea- thed plosives, 178 ff.; amount of voice during stop, 178, 768; initial, 179; followed by breath when contact re- leased, 181 ; final, 1R3. See also b, d, dx, I, g, in index of sounds. Voiced sounds, 48 ff., 69 ff. Voicetce App. B, 2 advertise(ment) 610 adrice App. B, 1 advocacy 691 resttcaJ 587 a#otV 680; App. B, 1 ajfect 724 affiance 611 note 2 affluence, -ent 586 offray App. B, 1 affright App. B, 1 ajfront App. B, 1 O/ttT 421, 668, 673 afterwards 489, 605 a(7ai/t 166, 682 «(/erf (two words) 136 note 1 agyrtindisement 610 aggrandise 610 Agnes 305 note 2 a/t 421 atsfc 301 albescent App. B, 2 albumen 587 a2i»teittary 604 all 436 allegiance 611 aXUgorise 593 allegory App. B, 4 (d) alliance 611 note 2 aJ/oic 580 a!/o^ App. B, 1 nK i'»y7tt 559 note 1, 651, 720 aHy App. U, 1 a2o)ic 612 a?OH(/CsMfe; 644, 678 already 636 note 2 aZtcciMife (adj. aad vb.) 593 and note 2 aZumtmunt 360 am 497 amntetw 479 and note 6 ambidextrous 691 d/nc)? 620 and note 2 Amen Comer 620 note 2 amends App. B, 1 amen'canmn 697 amicable 698 ammoniac 611 among 444 amorphy 591 amour 683 jiwiStereJawi 623 an 497, 071, 717 anathematine 693 ancestca/ 587 ancfeor 223 , ancient 313 anel 25, 497, 649, 659 and notes 2 and 3, 670 anecdote 524 anger 156 note 2 an^2e 244 ammaltVm 597 anise 299 annieersacy 604 annum 497 note 6 an*icer 425 antagonistic 677 antececJent 595 anticlimax 613 ontig^uari/ App. B, 4 (a) antique 147 a^moi^s 527 any 3S4 anything 659 a"nj/io7iere else 499 aperture 527 apogee 608 apostate 693 apostle 587 appal 435 apparel 584 apparent App. B, J appeal 580 appellate 593 appendage 584 a^pettte 588 applause App. B, 1 a/jplef*; 166, 709 apple-tree 637 appliance 611 note 2 applicable 606 appreciate 313 note 2 appreciation 313 note 2 apprent»ce 584 204 Index of Wobds Tbanscbibed appropriate (vb. and adj.) 378 note 3 apt 186 Arabic 612 arbitrary App. B, 4 (a) arbitrate 660 arch 133 archangel, Ardi- 619 archbishop 613 arclMshoprie 612 archdeaconry, -s%tp 610 are 296, 496, 497 and note 1 p. 96, 657, 666, 678 (iv), 700 aren't 664 aristocracy 590; App. B, 3(b) aristocratic 677 aritAmeMc (sb. and adj.) 612 and note 3 armchair 641, 648 army 626 arrest App. B, 1 arriVeflti) 676, 665 arrogance, -ant 586 article 688 artt^i'aJ 626 artillery 604 as 497, 669, 717 ascendancy App. B, 3 (b) ascending 630 and note 1 ascent 580; App. B, 1 ash 317 ask(ed) 421, 666 aspect 581 I assemble 684 assent App. B, 1 assign App. B, 1 assjae App. B, 1 associate (sb. and vb.) 313, 373 note 3 association 313 note 2 assonance, -ant 585 assure SIS astringency App. B, 3 (b) ostriMjient App. B, 2 astronomy 590 at 495, 670, 674, 676 «t all 659 ate 384 at^as 298 atrpphy 690 attacft 128; App. B, "l attainable 606 ~ attempt App. B, 1 attire App. B, 1 attorney 479 attrcHient 685 attribute (vb.) 589. i,sb.) 589 note 4 a!(rfocto«« 54 1 audible 541 and note 4 .ilujTUSt (sb.) 500 aujfttst (adj.) 600 aune (Fr.) 216 aunt 421 ^ttstn'a 430 autAo}- 436 OMtoeracy App. B, 8 (b) autumnal 687 average 586 aviary App. B, 4 (a) avotrditpot's 298 awajf 4P5 awfully 567, 602 awrj/ 580 note 1 aa;e« (two worde) 306 note 2 azure 319, 627 B 6ao (of a sheep) 402 baby 375 back 524, 682 backbite 620 and note 3 bacon 196 &a(2 403, 642, 728 bade 399 bacJ^e 146 bad-tempered 639 6a<7 542 JSa/i« (Ger.) 426 bald 564 &aU(s; 625, 744 ballad 682 ba/Jast 588 balloon 607 6aZm 232 bamboozle 587 6a»yo 621 JBojitM 622 baptismal 587 baptise 583 6nre 120 barqie 146 5orft 130 barn 426 6as (Fr.) 178 base 299 ftasis 298 bass 389 bat 661 6at7i(s) 284 and note 1, 421 bathe 289, 392 bay 120 be 678 bead 775 6eafc 370 bean 775 tear 394, 396 beard 394 note 1 fceat 775 beau (Fr.) 8 note 11 beautifully 460 note 5, 561 beauty 460 ftefte (Fr.) 376 because 726 fcecoj^e 373 bed 387, 643 betfttme 189, 768 bee 120, 776 bee-eater 102 6ee/' 569 fee«» 678 beer 379 fte/bre 268 bej 700 begged 136 begm 155 note 2 &e7eal/[ 232 behamour 611 behind 334 &em<; 666 believe 680 beZ; 665 bellicose 299 (eZow 641 bene/it 686 betievolent 594 JB«n^a2 622 bequeath 289 Berkeley 421 Berkshire 421 SerZm 622 fterry, -fterry 498 besides 673 &estia2 313 note 1 better 189 bettoeen 673 Beschill 622 bej/ond 363 and note i bicycle 588 bid 120, 775 big 155, 544 bill(s) 377, 676 bi»» 776 bird 479 birejHe 608 birt/iC«J 284 (ii), 287 birthday 638 (ii) bishopric 612 bissextile 589 bit 776 bite 413 bitter 489, 493 and note 1 bitumen 887 black 207 BtackheatJi 622 blacksmith 688 (ii) bZcssei 135 note 1 &2ood 444 blue 360 bluebottle 838 (ii) board! 436 Index oe Wobds Tuanscbibed 205 ■■„at 180 boU 4Sb bomb 43S bombard 58» bon (Fr.) 609 bone 740 teiin«( 682 book(s) 468, 646 bookbinding 637 book-case 18&, 769 ftootfa; 251, 466 booth 389 ^(?a](;aeft 768 borough 441 iKUom 468 feoffi 460 botOe 126 Aou^A 406 bought 439 6(mj[uet 468 doio (bend the body) 413 &aw(forBhootiiig)413notel boto-mndmi} 641 box 120 Joyry, -'«, 382, 661 boyhood 339 brandy 740 6raster 608 BroiJa 683 6rea<{ antJ butter 25 breadth 520 6mtfe 389 frreatftC*; 284 (ii), 287 bridge 146 brittg 229 ftrooc^ 133 ifocui 460, brochure 583 Bromptmi 444 and note 6 firoocfe 450 broom (Wo words) 468 ftrotfeCs; 7 note 7, 284 brother 444 brotherhood 609 brougham 460 note 1 Brougham 460 ireiew 65£i Brown 721 6n«»s (Fr.) -.'l 6wi6fe 120 Buckingham Palace 661 Buckinghamshire 637 and note 3 im^e 247 6w2 634 buffoonery 604 6u26 120 M;b 244 &2<22 120 bmaoJow 686 bum (Ital.) 107 bui'eaic 450 bwlesqiu 607 6i«n» 120 &!<$/( 468 business 373 &2(Sj/ 873 but 497 b^^tcher 470 butter 447, 493 note 1 6i«ttow 101 buttonhook 334 buy 120 by 497 'and note 2 Byron 417 bystander 637 Byzantine 689 cab 400 cabaJ! 583 cachet 583 ca^e 145 cajolery 604 crefcc 153 cai;/" 232 caU(ed) 439, 740 caZm 232 calumny 590 ca{2;e 428 cff»«e 674 camping ground 661 Cfui 197, 678 (D and note 1, 728, 729 canal 583 candle 244 cannibal 586 cam«ot 432, 504. 658 and note 1 canoe 460 can't 421, 659 and note 1 canton 621 Canton (two names 622 and note 5 capable 115 capillary 604 cajpot 683 caprice 583 carovaw 587 carbttncZe 586 card 423 cardboard 541 core 394, 703 career 607 caress 583 cor^o 158 caa-icatii/re 629 Carlisle 622 and note 6 OaWyZe 622 carnation 541 caroMSoZ 687 carried S73 carrot 582 cart 163 carthorse 638 (ii) cari-e 428 crt« (Fr.) 17o cascade 607 case 299 cashier (sb. and vb.) 607 cassowary App. B, 4 (a) cosfic 122 casualty 591 casuistry 591 catfs; 298, 399; (Cockney) 204 catalepsy 591 catalogue 592 category App. B, 4 (d) cathedral 587 Catholic 612 Catholicism 696 cattle-show 638 (ii) cauliflorcer 430 c(tKf 153 eayc (Fr.) 400 Cayenne 626 cease(s) 297, 303 ceaseless 302 celestial 528 celibacy 691 ce7i 300 ceWar 582 censure 313 cent 497 note 6 p. 96 ccjit (Fr.) 96 centenary 604 and note 3 centigrade 608 centre 489 centurion 611 ceremony 601 certain 195 certiftcate (sb. and vb.) 592 certification (two words' 578 note 3 c'esi tOMt (Fr.) 333 CeyZon 583 chagrin 583 c/iam 264 cZiair 651 c/iate 133 chamberlain 586 cliamois 301 and note 11 champagne 313 Clianccry Lane 661 chances 665 chandelier 313 c/taos 298 c/tap 133 character 147 characteristic 629 characterization 629 characterize li98 and note 6 206 InD«X of WoKDS TjJANSCniBED diarm 133 chase 299, 500 ehastise 583 cheutisement 610 chauffeur 497 cheap 133 Gheapside 622 cheek 133 chemise 583 chemist 147 Chersonese 299 chevaux (Fr.) 8 note 11 cAew 360 chicanery 604 cAt7<2 406 cfe-t 133 c7itma 489 Chinese 622 cftotr '!47 c%oA;e 133 choose 183 chop 133 chough 273 Christendom 609 Cltriatmas 147 chronological 50O chronology 500 cftry«ant%«imtms 293 cAwnt 133 cfttwcft 130, 772 cftiwcAyarrf 641 ct^or S83 ctnder 300 circumference 694 eircumstomee 633 ctr&iM 626 citizen SSC ciYj/ 376 cZaimei! 659 clandestine 689 CTorte 497 note 1 p. 97 class 421 eZerft 421 clever 493 note 1 c2ose (sb.) 299 close (adj.) 297, 299 close (Tb.) 297 cZotA^s; 284 note 1, 486 club 661 coal t246 coat 147 coattail 769 cocoa 716 cod 423 coerce 580 co/fw 608 cognisance, -ant 586 coherence, -ent App. B, 2 cohort 681 I coiffure 688 cotVt 518 cold 153 collapse C80; App. B, 1 coJJar 489 coZZect (ab.) 681 I college 581 I collier 608 coZoneJ 479, 487 note 1 colour 444 coJumbtine 588 comb 117 combatant 585 Combe 117 note 1 comefs) 444, 669 comfort 444 coT^iinp 700 command 42l ; App. B, 1 commandment 609 commendatory App. B, 4 (d) comment (sb.) 681 I commentary App B, 4 (d) commerce 681 commtsjton 630 committee (two words) 6Q8 and note 4 com«nona2tjr 691 co»»nor(2j/< 667 commune (sb.) 681 I commune (yb.) 681 III compact (ab.) 681 I compamion 600 rpmpany 444 compara&Je 606 compare App. B, 1 compass 444 compatible 600 compeer App. B, 1 competence, -ent 585 compttency 591 comp2aeence, -ent App. B, 2 compfeicency App. B, 3 (b) complaint App. B, 1 complete 366 compJeteness 609 OOmplex 681 11 compliance, -axtt 611 note 2 compZ»ment(sb.andYb.)685 component App. B, 2 cofltposeCd) 136;potel, 580 composedly 135 note 1 compost 681 I coinpoMnd 581 I comprehensiveness 609 compress (sb.) 681 I compuZeory 604 comrade 608 conceit App. B, 1 concern App. B, 1 concerning 678 conciliatory App. B, 4 (d) concise 299 conclave 581 I conclusive 298 concord 581 I concourse 681' I concrete (sb. and ad'i.l 681 I and n concMr 224 con<;itrrence, -ent App. B, g condtecf (sb) 681 I confederacy 691 conference 586 confidence, -ent 586 confines (sb.) 681 I confirmatory App. B, 4 (d> con/Z«ct (sb.) 681 I con/?we)ice, -ent 585 confuse 680 conger 155 note 2 conpratuJation 224 congregation 224 congress 224, 681 I conrjirMence, -ent 585 eonjtwe (two words) 444 and note 7, 581 III connoisseur 479 conquer 147, 581 HI conquest 681 I conscience 627, 581 I conscious 313, 581 II con«cnj>t 681 I consent App. B, 1 consequence, -ent 506 con«er®onc2/ App. B, 8(b) conservatory App. B, 4 (d) consider 489, 584 considerable 605 consistence, -ewf App. B, 2 consistency App. B, 3 (b) co*m'story 604 consolatori/ App. B, 4 (d) console (sb.) 681 I consols 621 consonance, r^'Ht 68^ consort (sb.) 681 I cowspMYJcy App. B, 3 (b) constable 444 constabulary App. B, 4 (a) constant 581 II ConstanfinopZe 62S constitute 128 OonsfitMtion iftW 626 construe 581 lU and notes conm2 681 I consummate (adj. and vb.) 593 and note 3 contact 681 I contempt App. B, 1 content(s) App. B, 1 contest 631 I context 581 I continence 986 continency 691 ^ \ ^* Index op Words TiiANscRinED continent 5Q5 cousin 444 contingence, -eni App. B, 2 covenant 444, 686 contour 581 I cooer 444 contra 497 note r> cdvet 444 co»i«ract (sb.) 581 I co«cy 444 contradictory 604 coil) 406 contrast (sb.) 581 I cowardice 686 cowtrtftute 589 crease 299 contribiUion 611 create. 583 contrRiutory App. B, 4 (d) cre'er (Fr.) 102 coMfn'te 581 II ercM) 460 control App. B, 1 cricket bat 661 controversy 591 cries 406 coiitMwacy 591 crinoline 589 convalescence 594 criticize(s) 632 convenient 611 crosier 608 corteewt 581 I croup 460 conversant 585 CMctoo 608 converse (sb. and adj.) 581 cite 466 I and II CM/fs £21 conversely 620 culinary App. B, 4 (a) convert (sb.) 581 I cupboard 489 convex 581 II CMrator 587 coMwct (sb.) 581 I ci«r6 487 convoy (sb.) 581 I CMrefs^ 475, 517 cooked 191 curiosity 298 cooking 153 curious 472 coo2 153 cmW 163 Coom6e 117 note 1 curmudgeon 587 cooperate 102 curue 269 copier 607 C2<«M'on 408 cord 260 customary App. B, 4 (a) cor» 221 cut 444 Cbmfeiit 622 cycloidal 587 corollary 604 D cofjw (sing.) 301, (plur.) 301 note 10 da/^bdiZ 586 correct 580 dagger 155 note 2 cm-respondent 594 daisy 389 corrigible 599 and note 2 damp 403 coiier 319 note 1 dare 140 cost 435 (daresay 620 cote (Fr.) 462 dar* 428 coffow 433 darning-needle 638 (ii) couch 133 dasA 140 couchee 608 date 140 co«jifc 274, 435 dawned 221 could 497 day 382; (Cockney) 391 couldn't 604 note 1 daybreak 637 country 444 dead-beat 639 couple 444 dca/" 387 courage 444 dea2 140 courageous 611 dear 140 courant 583 deart/t 487 courier 468 debate App. B, 1 coMTse 299, 436 debauch App. B, 1 courteous 479 debauchery 604 murtesy 497 debris 801 courtezan 687 debt 140 Cowrtter 608 decoy App. B, f cotwts 661 decA; 661 decease 299? App. I!, 1 deceit App. B, 1 December 687 decency App. B, 3 (a) declamatory App. B, 4 (d) declaratory App. B, 4 (d) decline App. B, 1 decoy App. B, 1 decrease (sb.) 581 I and note 3 decrease (vb.) 299 decj-ee App. B, 1 deducible 600 deed 135 dcew 370 dfcj- 185 defalcate 593 defamatory App. B, 4 (d) default App. B, 1 defeasible 600 de/eot App. B, 1 de/ecf App. B, i defence 580; App. B, 1 defensive 630 and note 1 deference 585 defiance, -ant 611 note 2 deficiency Oil de/i?e App. B, 1 definite 688 degeneracy 591 degree App. B. 1 deliberate (adj.) 373 note 3 deliberately 373 note 3 delicacy 591 delight App. B, 1 delinquency App. B, 3 (b) deMnjwent App. B, 2 delivery 604 deJitgie 360 dewawd (sb.) App. B, 1 demes ne 301 SewiiseAppTB, 1 democracy App. B, 3 (b) demoniacal 611 demonstrate 593 dcwwr App. B, 1 demwre 683 dense 299 deparfwre 609 dependancy App. B, 3 (b) dependence, ent App. B, 2- dependency App*. B, 3 (b> depends 649 deponent A.pp. B, 2 depository App. B, 4 (d) depreciatory 604 der (Ger.) 21 Derby 421 derogatory 603 ; App. B,^ 4(d) descend 373 208 Index uv Wobos Tbanscbibeu descetident App. B^ 2 descending 630 and note 1 descent App. B, 1 description 656 d^ert (wilderness) (sb. and adj.) 581 and II desert (that which is de- served) App. B, 1 deserve 487 desirable 417 desire App. B, 1 desirous 591 despair App. B, 1 despatch App. B, 1 despicable 6U6 despond App. B, 1 despondency App. B, 3 (b) dessert 306 detail 681 I and note 4 determine(d) 589, 740 detriment 685 devastdble 592 Devonshire 498 devouring 417 (2e!(; 466 diamerul merchant 661 diaphragm ill diary 417 rfidCM't; 678, 703 rftffe/- 581 III difference, -ent 685 difficuity 691 diffidence, -ent 686 diffuse (adj. and vb.) 680 digging 165 note 2 dignitary App. B, 4 (a) diminish 584 'imt 413 dining-room 637 dt'nwej- to&Ze 638 (ii), 048 diplomatic 626 rfjreciw« 709 directory 604 ffeappeomnce 627 rfjsasiej- 659 disastrous 691 discard (sb.) 681 I discharge App. B, 1 disciplinary 604 discipline 588 disclose 580 disconnect 613 discontented 6^3 discord 581 I (discount (sb. and vb.) 581 I and III discourage 616 discourse App. B, 1 discovery 604 disdain App. B, 1 <{t«ease('8^ 307; App. B, l. disembark 6 IS disfigure 6^4 disgrace(ful) 633 ; App.B, 1 disguise App. B, 1 disgust App. B, 1 (2t«% 377 dishearten 584 dt'sJo^a} 613 and note 2 dismay App. B, 1 display App. B, 1 disputable 606 disputant 685 -dispute App. B, 1 dissent App. B, 1 dissolbe 306 (JifigoZvent App. B, 2 rJtmowawce, -ant 685 (2i«taKce (sb. and vb.) 581 I and m distant 581 II distinguishes 609 distress App; B, 1 distribute 589 distribiUion 627 district 581 I (2ts^i(r2)ance 584 (2itoA 133 deva/i 583 diverge 680 divergence, -ent 684: App. B, 2 divine 583 divorce App. B, 1 (2o 460^ 490 note 5 , 497, 678 (i), 714 JJoio 740 (Joe 450 t 444 (^rama 421 draught 274, 421 draw(s) 639, 772 drawer (two words) 4a ii and note 4 drainers 439 note 4 drawing 639 drawing-room (two worili-'i 639 note 1 (Zwe 716 Droitwich 142 note 2 (2rM^ %64 (2ue 360 (luet 583 duke 153 (22(;; 244 Dundee 622, 625 duration 472, 641 during 474, 673 dtest 140 dysentery App. B, 4 ^b) E eac/( 133- ea^er 155 note 2 eajr7e 244 ear 186 earn 479 eori/i 39 4. note 1 ease SiO £08% 437 east 366 easy 305 eatfs) 166, 207 ebbed 186 economic 611 ci^e 142 Edward 497 note 1 p. 97 e/fect 580; App. B, 1 effeminacy 591 effervesce 607 e^eie App. B, 1 efficacy 691 e/fort 581 I effrontery 604 effulgence, -ent App. B, 2 cjfjCs; 159, 740 egg-cup 189, 768 egress 581 I eiifer 406 eijrAi 546 eighteen 546, 620 ei^AtA 122, 773 eights 772 eitfter 406 and note 1 Elbe (Fr.) 188 eleemosynary App.B, 4 (a) Ikdsx of Words Transchibkd degance, -ant 586 degiac 6 is ekmentnry 604 eleveti 687 c2t9i);t« 699 EUes 305 note 3 «{Iipse App. B, 1 eloquence, -ent 585 else S99 dsetohere 644 elusory 604 ewbroce A.pp. B, 1 embroidery 604 emerge 63U emergence App. B, 2 emergency App. B, 3 (b) eminence, -ent 685 eminmry App. B, 4 (a) emperor S6S empire 414 emploii 530; App. B, 1 employer 441 aad note 4 empty 184 enamotM' 584 encase 2ii3 end^s; 166, 221 en^Mrartee 527 endure 475 enfranchise 689 enfranchisement 609 engage 373 England 373 i^'i^/wA 373 enormous 591 enottjrA 274, 444 eTtst^n 681 I entail App. B, 1 enter 652 note 2 enOiusiasm 360, 59(i entirely 414 entra?ice 581 I envoy 581 I epilepsy 591 episcopacy 691 epistle 687 epistolary App. B, 4 (b) equator 587 equidintant 694 eguip 683 equiealent 280 ejiMVOca^ 611 erase 299 errfed; 250 errand 582 escape App. B, 1 escort (sb,) 581 I escMtcAeon 687 espalier 608 espousal 687 rasay (sb.) 681 I estate App. B, 1 Joii«i, Sngllah Pho&eUc* esteem App B, 1 estimate (,8b. and Tb.) 373 note 3 eetuary App. B, 4 (a) etiquette 347 note 2 even 366 evening 651 ece/it App. B, 1 e»er 109 everyone 680 everything 657 evidence, -cnf 585 eract(ly) 191, 408, 728 ea;am App. B, 1 examinutioH 676 ea:amine 156, 373, 589 example 421 excellence, -ent 585 excellency 591 ea;cept 155, 373 excerpt 681 I; App. B. 1 excess App. B, I exchange App. B, 1 exchequer 347 note 2 excise App. B, 1 cj;cite 166 exclamatory App. B, 4 (d) eajcttse (sb. anivb.) 580 execute 610 executor 610 exempt try 604 exercise(s) 688, 30;) exeunt 581 I exhaust 155 exhibit(ion) 166, 373note2 exigence, -ent 586 exi/e 681 I existence, -ent App. B, '2 exit 581 I exorbitancy 591 expanse A^pp. B, 1 expect 701 expectancy App. B, 3 (b) expectation 191 expense App. R, 1 expert (sb.) 581 I expiatory 604 explain 373 note 2 explanation '61% note 2 explanatory App. B, 4 (d) explicable 6U6 exploratory App. B, 4 (d) exponent App. B, 2 export (sb.) 681 I expastulatory 604 ex:president 613 express App. B, 1 expurgatory App. B, 4 (d) extent 681 II ext«nt App. B, 1 extei-nal 687 note 7, 630 J 209 extraordinarftJ^y 609, 617; App. B, 4 (ai exfravayanee 594 et/e 406 ej/e-witness 641 /ace 300 /act 665 /at^Cs; 244, 724 /a/r 394 faithful 274 /a/tAs 284 (iv) /olifs; 538 falM 430 /ante 389 familiar 359 familiarity 677 /amiiy 700 famine 682 famous 48 J /aricy 682 /ar 414, 427 /ore 277 /arm 260 fnrthing 682 fashionable 618 /ost 421 /osten 123 /at 403 /ofAer 289 Fa(u)lkner 232 /auJt 4. 306, 377 giszard 166 note 2 glacier 608 jltod 399 glaeier 608 Gloucester 430 Gloucester Teffaee ^61 (^{ove 444 glycerine 689 pnat 221 $^aw 437 , jro 103 poat 159 .90tnj? 461 golf chtb 661 i/one 430 good 136, 644 good-bye 721 good-looking 639 good morning 691, 717, 77. goodness 373 poose 999 gooseberry 498 gooseberry bush 661 (/0SS6 (Fr.) 8 note 9 pot 433 pourd 472 govern 444 (rojoer 6frtC«; 284 (iv), 460 guard 169 (jfu««8 169 guide 418 (;u^tar 688 gum 166 .9un 221 jMt (6er.) 461 H H 138, 772 habitual 611 Aad 336. 497, 701 Hades 805 Aai'r 334 hairintsh 63 T ?iaJ/" 421 half- finished 613 halfpenny 498 Aaj; 834 Aa2t 430 toiee 232 ham 564 'Mind 221 handkerchief 223 7»a»die 661 Aatif/ 403 hanging 224 Aoppy 116 Aarbour 498 hard 880, 614, 516 hare 884 Aarft 269 Aarm 664 harmoniimi 611 AcM 306, 497, 663, 678 (i) haste 392 hasten 122 Afit 334 h(we(n't) 399, 497, 649 'note 1, 678 Aay 334 ^e 331, 683, 726 head(s) 840, 884 AeaftA^«; 244, 284 (11) hear 881 Aeorti 479 Aeart 421 hearthCs) 281 (ii) 421 heat 634 Index of Wobds Tbansokibed heath(s) 284 (iv), 287 hedge 839 hedgehog 834 and note 1 /teea 370 hegemony 602 A«tsf/^t 406 A««r 881 help 334 ^