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HANDBOOK 
 
 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING 
 
 BY 
 
 DERISTHE L. gOYT 
 
 Instructor in Massachusetts Normal Art School 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 
 
 1890 
 

 Copyright, i8go, 
 By D. L. HOYT. 
 
 Typography by J. S. Gushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 
 
 Presswork dv GiNN & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The aim of the author is to give in a more 
 simple and condensed form than has hitherto 
 been attempted some general knowledge of the 
 principal historic schools of painting, their char- 
 acteristics, chief artists, and some of the most 
 noted paintings executed by each. 
 
 This book is the outgrowth of lectures given to 
 classes of students, who, from lack of time and 
 opportunity, were unable to undertake the study 
 of the voluminous standard works which treat of 
 the subject, and it is hoped that it will meet the 
 want of many other such students. 
 
 AH dates and other facts regarding painters 
 and their pictures have been carefully studied 
 and are believed to be authentic. The author- 
 ities consulted have been chiefly Lubk6, Kugler, 
 Womum, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Mrs. Jameson. 
 The present condition of painting in the different 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 schools, together with our nineteenth-century paint- 
 ers, has been very briefly touched upon. 
 
 At the close of the book will be found a list of 
 the emblems by which different saints and other 
 characters in devotional paintings by the old 
 masters may be recognized, the significance of 
 colors as used by them, definitions of technical 
 terms used in jDainting, and a full index of artists' 
 names, together with their proper pronunciation. 
 
 Maluen, Mass., April, 1890. 
 
HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 Painting is the art of representing objects on 
 any surface by means of colors. We have no 
 record of the beginning of this art. Its earliest 
 remains are Egyptian, and of these, the very ear- 
 liest we know (those executed in the time of the 
 Pharaohs) are by far the best, showing that then 
 the art was already in its decline. 
 
 Haydon says in one of his lectures, and I think 
 all must be compelled to agree with him, that "the 
 very first man born after the creation with such an 
 intense susceptibility to the beauty of color as to 
 be impelled to attempt its imitation, that man orig- 
 inated painting." 
 
 There have been in the history of this art five 
 grand styles, or methods, of using color, viz. 
 Tempera, or Distemper, Encaustic, Fresco, Oil, 
 and Water-color. 
 
6 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 In Tempera or Distemper painting \}sxt. colors are 
 mixed with some adhesive substance, as ^%%, glue, 
 size, etc., which causes them to cling to the surface 
 to which they are applied. This is the earliest style 
 known. 
 
 In Encaustic painting the colors are mixed with 
 wax. The term encaustic is strictly applicable 
 only to painting executed or finished by the agency 
 of heat, but it is also applied to modern methods 
 in which wax-colors are dissolved in a volatile oil, 
 and then used in the ordinary way. The true en- 
 caustic painting was largely used by the Greeks 
 and Romans. These paintings occupy in color, and 
 in general effect, a place midway between oil and 
 fresco. 
 
 In Fresco painting the colors are mixed with 
 water and lime and are then applied to wet or dry 
 plaster. When colors are applied to wet plaster 
 the process is called true fresco. Many of the 
 grandest paintings in the world have been executed 
 in this style, as were most of the works of the 
 early Italian masters. When the colors are applied 
 to dry plaster the process is called fresco secco, or 
 dry fresco. 
 
 In Oil painting the colors are mixed with oils, 
 
DEFINITIONS. 7 
 
 together with some drying medium, and applied to 
 canvas, wood, or any prepared surface. 
 
 In Water-color painting the colors are mixed sim- 
 ply with water and applied to a surface, usually a 
 lirepared paper. 
 
 Painting is divided into six especial branches, 
 according to the subject of its representation, viz. 
 historical, imaginative, portrait, landscape, genre, 
 and still-life. 
 
 Historical painting is the representation of events 
 of history with regard to time, place, and acces- 
 sories ; at the same time allowing a proper exercise 
 of the imagination. 
 
 Imaginative painting is the representation of any 
 scene as it exists in the imagination of the artist, 
 including ideal figures, faces, etc. 
 
 Portrait painting is the representation of any 
 human face or figure as it exists in nature. 
 
 Lan^dscape painting is the representation of a 
 landscape, that is, of such a portion of territory as 
 the eye can comprehend in a single view, including 
 the objects it contains. 
 
 Genre is the branch of painting that takes for 
 its subjects scenes illustrating every-day life. Genre 
 
8 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINflNC). 
 
 takes the place in art that the novel occupies in 
 literature. 
 
 Still-life painting \^ the representation of objects 
 not possessing animal life, such as fruits, flowers, 
 dead game, etc. 
 
 The term " school of painting " has various sig- 
 nifications with writers on art. In its general and 
 widest sense it denotes all the painters of a given 
 country without reference to time or subdivision of 
 style ; as the Italian school. In a more restricted 
 sense it refers to the characteristic style which 
 may distinguish the painters of a particular locality 
 or period ; in this sense it is used in the following 
 pages in respect to modern schools. In its most 
 limited sense it signifies the distinctive style of a 
 particular master ; as the school of Raphael. 
 
 Schools of painting may be divided into two 
 great classes, viz. ancient and modern. 
 
 Among ancient schools of painting there are 
 only three worthy of particular note, — Egyptian, 
 Greek, and Roman. 
 
 Egyptian painting (beginning unknown ; end 
 about 400 A.D.). — There are few known historical 
 facts connected with painting in Egypt. Three 
 classes of paintings have been discovered there, — 
 
bEFlN'ITIONS. ^ 
 
 those on the walls, those on the cases and cloths 
 of mummies, and those on papyrus rolls. None of 
 these can be called imitative, and yet they are 
 sufficiently so as to be intelligible. Painting in 
 tliis country was practised under peculiar con- 
 ditions ; the profession was passed on from father 
 to son by law ; not love for the art but heredity 
 dictated who should be the painter or sculptor ; 
 and as artists were forbidden by a jealous priest- 
 hood to introduce any change whatever into the 
 practice of their art, it remained stationary from 
 generation to generation. The principal subjects 
 are burial ceremonials and various domestic occu- 
 pations. 
 
 Striking characteristics of the painting of the 
 Egyptians are the brightness and purity of the 
 color. Six pigments seem to have been used, — 
 white, black, red, blue, yellow, and green ; and 
 these appear to have been applied without mixture, 
 but sometimes to have been modified by chalk. 
 
 The style of painting is tempera. Different 
 colors are used to represent different objects : 
 men and women are painted red, the men being 
 redder than the women; prisoners are painted 
 yellow ; birds, blue and green ; and water, blue. 
 
lO HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 There is not the slightest indication of a knowl- 
 edge of perspective.^ All drawings are in profile 
 without any distinction of light and shade, with 
 the exception of a few small portraits on cedar or 
 sycamore wood, which have been found quite 
 recently in mummy-cases, and are probably por- 
 traits of the persons to whose mummies they were 
 attached. These are generally nearly full-faced, 
 and have a slight relief distinctly expressed by 
 light and shade. There is a good specimen of 
 this kind of painting in the Egyptian department 
 of the museum of the Louvre, in Paris ; also one in 
 the British Museum, in London. 
 
 Greek painting (700-300 b.c). — Although few 
 Greek paintings are in existence at the present 
 day, yet the works of ancient writers contain abun- 
 dant historical information on the subject. 
 
 Greek painting in its earliest stages was very 
 crude and simple. At first it consisted merely in 
 coloring statues and reliefs of wood and clay ; 
 next, in the decoration of vases ; but from about 
 600 B.C. to 400 B.C. was a period of wonderful 
 development of the art. During this time, Greek 
 artists mastered the subjects of foreshortening,^ 
 
 1 See " Technical Terms used in Painting," page 200. 
 
DEFINITIONS. I I 
 
 perspective, chiaroscuro, ^ and anatomy ; and pro- 
 duced pictures, some of which (if we credit the 
 descriptions of Pliny) must have been rivals of the 
 masterpieces of the modern schools. 
 
 Greek paintings were executed in tempera and 
 in encaustic. 
 
 1 See " Technical Terms used in Painting," page 200. 
 
13 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 CHIEF ARTISTS AMONG TIIIC GREEKS. 
 
 Cimon of Cleonce (600 b.c.) was the earliest 
 Greek painter worthy of the name of Artist. He 
 was the inventor of foreshortening ; and was the 
 first to make oblique views of the figure. He 
 also first denoted muscular articulations,^ indicated 
 the veins, and gave natural forms to draperies. 
 
 Polygnotus (about 480 B.C.) first raised painting 
 in Greece to the dignity of an independent art. 
 He brought to it such a degree of excellence that 
 it became the admiration of all Greece. De Pauw 
 .say.s, " As Homer was the founder of epic poetry, 
 so was Polygnotus the founder of historic paint- 
 ing." He painted the battles of the Greeks, the 
 taking of Troy, and the visit of Ulysses to Hades, 
 in pictures crowded with figures. These were 
 only colored outline sketches on a dark back- 
 ground, destitute of all roundnes.s, entirely without 
 perspective, and painted with four colors only. 
 
 ' The junctures ur joinings of muscles. 
 
CHIEF ARTISTS AJIONG THE GREEKS. 1 3 
 
 The composition ^ of these pictures would be con- 
 sidered barbarous at the present time ; the various 
 groups were not arranged according to any artistic 
 or dramatic design, but simply in rows, one above 
 another (there were three of these rows in each 
 picture), and yet the evident thought shown in the 
 whole, the beauty of the drawing and expression of 
 the figures aroused the admiration of all the critics 
 of that time, and even of those of a much later age. 
 
 The first portrait on record, by a known painter, 
 is that of Elpinice, the sister of a Greek named 
 Cimon, which Polygnotus painted in the picture of 
 the " Rape of Cassandra " in the Ceramicus at 
 Athens. That the works of Polygnotus were dis- 
 tinguished for character and expression is shown 
 by the surname of Ethographos (painter of charac- 
 ter), which was given to him by Aristotle. 
 
 Micon (about 475 b.c.) of Athens won a high 
 distinction for his painting of horses. He was one 
 of the painters employed to record the victories of 
 the Athenians in some of the principal temples of 
 Athens. In the temple of Theseus he painted the 
 battle of the Amajpns,^ with the Athenians under 
 
 1 See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 200. 
 * A fabulous race of female warriors who founded an empire 
 on the shore of the Euxine. 
 
14 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Theseus, and opposite this picture the battle of the 
 Centaurs 1 and the Lapithae.^ The horses in these 
 pictures are particularly praised by Pausanias. 
 An eminent judge of horses named Simon found 
 fault with Micon because he painted eyelashes 
 to their under eyelids, which horses do not have. 
 Wornum says, "It speaks rather in favor of the 
 painting than otherwise that so experienced a 
 critic could detect only so slight a fault." The 
 representation of these animals by Micon must 
 have been good, for they were produced at the 
 same time as those which were executed on the 
 frieze^ of the Parthenon under the direction of 
 Phidias,* and yet were distinguished for their excel- 
 lence. Micon's execution is spoken of by Varro, 
 as being crude and unfinished as compared with 
 the works of Apelles and other later artists. 
 
 Apollodorus (about 450 b.c.) of Athens (noted 
 also as a sculptor) was the first great master of 
 
 1 Fabulous beings, half man and half horse. 
 
 ' A people spoken of in fabulous Grecian history, descended 
 from Lapithes, son of Apollo. 
 
 ' The flat face above the columns of a building, which is often 
 decorated with sculptures. 
 
 * A very noted Greek sculptor, who executed the decorations 
 of the Parthenon at Athens. 
 
CHIEF ARTISTS AMONG THE GREEKS. 1 5 
 
 light and shade. A certain Dionysius of Colophon, 
 who lived and painted just before Apollodorus, had 
 studied chiaroscuro and had made a gradation of 
 light and shade in his works ; but Apollodorus was 
 the first to attain an imitation of the various effects 
 of light and shade upon color, that are always 
 seen in nature. He received from his contempo- 
 raries the name of "the shadower," or "the painter 
 of shadows." He also gave a more picturesque 
 arrangement to his figures than had been done 
 before. Plutarch writes that Apollodorus was in 
 the habit of writing upon his works : " It is easier 
 to find fault than to imitate." Pliny, says that he 
 was "the first artist whose pictures riveted the 
 eye." He also terms him the "first luminary in 
 art," but mentions only two of his pictures, — a 
 " Priest in the Act of Devotion," and " Ajax 
 Wrecked," the latter of which, in Pliny's time, was 
 at Perganum. 
 
 Zeuxis (about 400 B.C.) of Heraclea, combined a 
 fine representation of form with a high degree of 
 execution. He also must have excelled in gen- 
 eral effect, as Apollodorus complained that he 
 had robbed him of his art. He was distinguished 
 for his original choice of subjects. Other artists 
 
l6 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 had represented chiefly gods, heroes, and battles ; 
 Zeuxis selected things hitherto unattempted, and is 
 said to have succeeded admirably in giving expres- 
 sion to situations full of vivacity and meaning. 
 His most noted picture was " Helen of Croton," 
 which was painted from five ot the most noble and 
 beautiful maidens of that place. 
 
 Zeuxis is said to have been very proud of his 
 reputation and wealth, and to have worn a shawl 
 or mantle, into whose border was woven his name 
 in letters of gold. 
 
 Parrhasius (about 400 B.C.) of Ephesus was a 
 rival of Zeuxis and was remarkable both for inven- 
 tion and execution. He gave great beauty to the 
 contours ^ of his figures, and excelled in the drawing 
 of hands and feet. According to Pliny, he was 
 the first to apply the law of proportion to painting, 
 lending refinement of expression to the face, ele- 
 gance to the hair, a winning charm to the mouth, 
 and, as the artists themselves admitted, bearing off 
 the palm for his outline drawings. He was a very 
 vain man, terming himself on his pictures " the 
 elegant," and "the prince of painters." Pliny calls 
 him "the most insolent and arrogant of artists."' 
 
 1 The outlines of a figure. 
 
CHIEF ARTISTS AMONG THE GREEKS. 1 7 
 
 There are several stories told about illusive i pic- 
 tures painted by Zeuxis and Parrhasius, which are 
 a proof to us that the Greeks at this time possessed 
 perfect materials with which to work, and that they 
 must have displayed much finish of detail. One is 
 as follows: A contest had been fixed upon that 
 was to decide which of these two rival artists was 
 the greater. On the appointed day very many 
 friends of both Zeuxis and Parrhasius were gath- 
 ered together. Zeuxis brought a painting of fruit, 
 Parrhasius a picture covered by a veil. So per- 
 fectly was the fruit represented that, when the paint- 
 ing had been placed in a conspicuous position, birds 
 flew down and pecked at it. In proud triumph, 
 amid the acclamations of his friends, Zeuxis turned 
 to Parrhasius, bidding him now remove the veil 
 from his picture, that his work might be seen. 
 Whereupon Parrhasius claimed the award, saying 
 the veil was the picture, and surely he was the 
 greater artist, since Zeuxis had deceived the 
 birds only, while he had deceived Zeuxis himself. 
 One of Parrhasius' most excellent works was a 
 "Theseus," which was afterwards in the Capitol 
 at Rome. 
 
 ' Intended to deceive the eye. 
 
l8 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Timanthes (about 400 B.C.) of Cythnos was also 
 a contemporary and rival of Parrhasius, and was 
 distinguished for originality of invention and for 
 expression. Pliny says of him that though his 
 execution was always excellent, it was invariably 
 surpassed by his conception, and mentions, as an 
 instance, a picture of a sleeping Cyclops ^ which 
 was painted upon a small panel ; but the artist 
 had ingeniously conveyed an adequate idea of the 
 giant's huge form by painting a group of little 
 satyrs,^ measuring his thumb with a thyrsus.^ 
 Only four pictures by Timanthes are mentioned 
 by ancient writers ; but more, probably, has been 
 written upon one of these four pictures both by 
 ancient and modern writers than upon hardly any 
 other work of art. This picture is the " Sacriiice 
 of Iphigenia," in which is contained the figure of 
 Agamemnon, whose face is concealed within his 
 mantle. All ancient writers, including Cicero and 
 Quintilian, who have described this picture, have 
 
 ^ A fabulous race of giants inhabiting Sicily, who had but one 
 eye, and that in the middle of the forehead. 
 
 ^ A sylvan or rustic deity, half man and half goat. 
 
 ' A staff entwined with ivy or grape-vine, which was an emblem 
 of the satyrs. 
 
CHIEF ARTISTS AMONG THE (iKEEKS. I9 
 
 approved of this artifice of the painter for hinting 
 at an anguish so deep that it could not be por- 
 trayed ; but some modern critics, notably Fal- 
 conet and Sir Joshua Reynolds, have condemned 
 it, saying that it was simply a trick, and only 
 betrayed the artist's lack of power. Fuseli, on 
 the other hand, upholds Timanthes. 
 
 Apelles (350 B.C.) of Cos brought Greek art to its 
 highest perfection. In him, grace of conception 
 and refinement of taste went hand in hand with 
 almost perfect execution. Liibkd says that " He 
 seems, like an antique Raphael, to have lent to 
 his works a finished charm and that delicate spirit 
 of beauty which can only arise from a combination 
 of exquisitely yielding forms with a subtle fusion 
 of tints and a noble full-souled conception." The 
 majority of the works of Apelles seem to have been 
 portraits or of a portrait character, his subjects sel- 
 dom containing more than one or two figures. The 
 horses which he often introduced into his pictures 
 were very celebrated. 
 
 Several anecdotes are told of Apelles which are 
 of especial interest ; one is of the celebrated " con- 
 test of lines," which has been so variously explained 
 by artists for ages. The following is Pliny's ac- 
 
20 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 count : " Apelles, upon his arrival at Rhodes, 
 immediately sought out the studio of Protogenes, 
 who happened to be away from home, but an old 
 woman was in attendance taking charge of a large 
 panel, which was standing ready prepared upon an 
 easel. When the old woman inquired what name 
 she should give to her master upon his return, 
 Apelles answered by taking a pencil (or brush), 
 wet with color, and drawing a line {lined) on the 
 panel, saying simply, 'This.' When her master re- 
 turned, the old woman pointed out what had hap- 
 pened, and Protogenes, when he saw the panel, cried 
 out instantly, ' Apelles has been here, for that is the 
 work of no other hand ' ; and he took a pencil and 
 with another color drew upon the same line, or 
 panel {in ilia ipsa), a still finer line, and going away 
 gave orders to the old woman that when Apelles 
 returned she was to show him ' that,' and tell him 
 it was whom he sought. Apelles returned, and 
 blushing to see himself surpassed, drew a third 
 between or upon those two in a third color, and at- 
 tained the summit of subtilty, leaving no possibility 
 of being surpassed. When Protogenes returned a 
 second time, he acknowledged himself vanquished, 
 and immediately sought out Apelles." Pliny goes 
 
CHIEF ARTISTS AMONG THE GREEKS. 21 
 
 on to say that this panel was handed down to pos- 
 terity as a wonder. 
 
 The controversy regarding the story has been as 
 to the translation of the word linea ; whether it 
 means simply a line or a sketch. 
 
 The character of Apelles shows itself in a noble 
 light in his conduct towards Protogenes, who was 
 not appreciated by the Rhodians. Apelles, finding 
 that he had many pictures that he could not sell, 
 offered to purchase them at his own price, but Pro- 
 togenes fixed so low a sum that Apelles finally told 
 him that he would give fifty talents for the whole, 
 and allowed it to be reported at Rhodes that he 
 intended to sell them as his own. This caused 
 the Rhodians to see the great merit of their own 
 painter, and they made haste to secure the pictures 
 for themselves at the same great price that Apelles 
 had named. 
 
 The old proverb, " Let the cobbler keep to his 
 last," originated, it is said, with him. It was the 
 custom of the Greek artists to expose their pictures 
 to the public view in the front or porches of their 
 houses. A certain cobbler ventured to find fault 
 with the sandal on the foot of one of Apelles' 
 figures thus exposed. When he saw this fault cor- 
 
22 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 reeled on the following day, he was bold enough 
 to criticise the leg, when Apelles came out and 
 indignantly said "ne sutor supra crepidam" (let 
 the cobbler keep to his last). 
 
 Apelles was noted among his contemporaries 
 for his industry, his motto being " Nulla dies sine 
 Hnea" (no day without a line). His masterpiece 
 was considered to be "Venus rising from the 
 Waters." This picture was painted for the people 
 of Cos, and was placed in the temple of .^Esculapius 
 on that island, and remained there until it was 
 removed by Augustus, who took it in the place of 
 one hundred talents tribute and dedicated it in the 
 temple of Julius Caesar at Rome. 
 
 The beautiful goddess was represented as shak- 
 ing the water from her long hair, and the sparkling 
 shower was her only veil. The picture received 
 some injury on the voyage, and was in such a de- 
 cayed state in the time of the Emperor Nero that 
 he removed it, substituting a copy by Dorotheus ; 
 what then became of it is unknown. 
 
 Protogenes (about 350 B.C.) of Rhodes was the 
 most noted of the contemporaries of Apelles, from 
 whom he won most hearty admiration. Indeed, 
 Apelles said that Protogenes equalled him in all 
 
CHIEF ARTISTS AMONG THE GREEKS, 23 
 
 respects save in knowing when to leave off. Pro- 
 togenes was a famous animal painter. It is written 
 of him that, in a picture of a satyr reposing with 
 a flute in his hand, he introduced a quail so ex- 
 quisitely painted that it took the attention from 
 the rest of the picture, and therefore he effaced it. 
 
 His most celebrated picture was " Jalysus and 
 his Dog," on which he is said to have been occu- 
 pied seven years. Foam was represented at the 
 mouth of the dog, and it is said to have been ac- 
 complished by Protogenes throwing his sponge at 
 the dog's head in a fit of ill humor, having tried 
 over and over again in vain to produce the desired 
 effect. This picture was preserved in a certain 
 part of Rhodes and was the means of saving it ; for 
 Demetrius, when he besieged the city, 304 b.c, re- 
 spected that part lest the picture should be de- 
 stroyed .with it. Afterward the " Jalysus " was 
 taken to Rome and placed in the Temple of Peace, 
 and finally was burned in the fire that consumed 
 this temple. 
 
 Soon after this time great political revolutions 
 began to convulse Greece, and the agitation of 
 wars and politics retarded the exercise of the fine 
 arts. Her public buildings were already filled to 
 
24 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 overflowing with art works (if we may credit his- 
 torians), and, therefore, the public demand grew 
 less. Inferior classes of art began to arise, and 
 new styles were developed which characterized this 
 period of decline. Thus there were painters of 
 genre, — of barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, etc., — 
 as Pyreicus and Antiphilus. Painting began also 
 to be applied to the ordinary decoration of furni- 
 ture. A debasement of taste became general, and 
 the decline and death of Greek art was inevitable. 
 
ROMAN PAINTING. 2$ 
 
 ROMAN PAINTING. 
 
 All the fine arts were transmitted to the Romans 
 by the Greeks, but only in a debased form. 
 
 Rome was always more distinguished for its col- 
 lections of paintings than for its artists, these 
 collections having been supplied from the rich 
 treasures of Greece. Painting, however, in its 
 lower or decorative form, was cultivated by the 
 Romans as early as 300 b.c. Pliny tells us that 
 the head of the noble family of the Fabii acquired 
 his surname of Pictor from his skill in the art, and 
 that he decorated the temple of Salus. The poet 
 Pacuvius also was an artist. " Afterwards," says 
 Pliny, " the art was not practised by ' polite hands ' 
 (fionestis manibtis) among the Romans, except, per- 
 haps, in the case of Turpilius, an amateur of his 
 own time, who executed some good pictures at 
 Verona." 
 
 At the end of the Republic, Rome was said to 
 be full of artists ; but all or nearly all were merely 
 
26 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 inferior portrait-painters or decorators. At length, 
 from the common decorative character the art 
 assumed, it was left to be practised almost wholly 
 by slaves, and the painter ranked according to the 
 quantity of the work he could produce in a day. 
 Pliny, in the time of Vespasian, regarded painting 
 as a perishing art, used only to minister to luxury 
 or vanity. The remains of paintings at Pompeii 
 and Herculaneum enable the world now to judge 
 something of the character of the ordinary deco- 
 rative work of these Roman painters. 
 
 The chief characteristic of Roman painting is its 
 production of portraits. Before this we have no 
 record of portrait-painters as a distinct class. 
 
 All ancient art, as distinguished by any especial 
 characteristics, ceased about the close of the third 
 century. From the third to the thirteenth century 
 were the so-called "Dark Ages," during which 
 time nearly all the treasures of ancient art were 
 lost to the world. Some early Christian paintings, 
 executed during this period, which are of a very 
 conventional character, have been found in the 
 Catacombs. In the latter part of the thirteenth 
 
ROMAN PAINTING. 27 
 
 century began the great revival of art, in which 
 modern Italian painting took precedence. 
 
 Writers agree that the causes for this wonderful 
 revival are not very obvious. Probably it was due 
 to the combination of many influences. Certain it 
 is, that at about this time there came a series of 
 great events which awoke new life everywhere, 
 both in individual nations and gradually through- 
 out the world. The supreme authority of the 
 church was growing less ; men began to think 
 and to study for themselves. The Latin con- 
 quest of Constantinople .sent a stream of Grecian 
 culture toward Italy and the West, which men 
 were ready to seize upon. The discovery of gun- 
 powder, by rendering strongholds of tyrants 
 untenable, put an end to much warfare and 
 plunder, and promoted peace and industry, which 
 are foster-mothers to civilization and culture. 
 Lastly, the invention of printing bore from one 
 nation to another thought and knowledge, which 
 awakened emulation. 
 
MODERN SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 The chief Italian schools are the Florentine or 
 Tuscan, the Paduan, the Roman or Umbrian, the 
 Lombard, the Venetian, the Eclectic or Bolognese, 
 and the School of the Naturalists. 
 
 FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 
 This is the earliest modern school that distin- 
 
 guished itself. 
 Characteristics : Idealistic and severe ; gave 
 
 2rr 
 
 lisfi( 
 
 great attention to the drawing of the human figure, 
 in which it excelled ; drawing and composition more 
 important than color ; subjects mostly religious. 
 
 Cimabue (i 240-1 302), born in Florence, was the 
 first painter of great fame among the moderns, 
 although Niccola and Giunta of Pisa, also Guido 
 of Siena, were known as artists prior to him. 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 29 
 
 Vasari gives great prominence to the name of 
 Cimabue, who is supposed to have been a pupil of 
 Giunta. He painted in the Byzantine style ; that 
 is, using brown tints on a gold background. His 
 drawing is stiff and conventional, his figures emaci- 
 ated, and having elongated extremities. 
 
 One of his most remarkable pictures is the colos- 
 sal " Madonna and Child," still in the Rucellai 
 chapel in the Church of Santa Maria Novella in 
 Florence. Tradition says that this picture was 
 carried to its place with great rejoicings and in 
 formal procession by the people. 
 
 Duccio di Buoninsegna (painted between 1282- 
 1329) of Siena was one of the most distinguished 
 contemporaries of Cimabue, and their paintings 
 are very similar. He painted an altar-piece that 
 was also carried in public procession to its destina- 
 tion in the cathedral of Siena, where, together with 
 several other of his works, it is still preserved. On 
 the front of this altar-piece is painted a " Madonna 
 with Infant Christ surrounded by Angels," and on 
 the back a series of small pictures illustrating the 
 life of Christ in thirty-eight scenes. 
 
 Giotto di Bondone (1276-1336), born in Vespi- 
 gnano, was the greatest master of this time, and 
 
30 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 indeed must be ranked among the great masters 
 of the world. He was a pupil and protegd of 
 Cimabue. The story of their acquaintance runs 
 thus : Giotto was a shepherd boy, and one day 
 while tending his father's sheep, and amusing him- 
 self by drawing one of the animals on the ground, 
 he was surprised in the act by the great master 
 Cimabue, who, struck with astonishment by the 
 talent of the boy, asked him to go and live with 
 him ; and Giotto, having gained the consent of 
 his father, followed his patron to Florence with 
 delight. 
 
 In Giotto's pictures we first see figures endowed 
 with expression. He strove to put melancholy or 
 gladness into his faces, and to make the posture of 
 the figure express in some degree the story he 
 wished to tell, and, although he often failed in his 
 attempt, yet he sometimes succeeded, which was a 
 great advance beyond anything before produced. 
 Having only a slight knowledge of anatomy, he 
 simply indicated the effect he desired ; his tones 
 of color are very pale, with slight shadings, yet so 
 far as he went we can see that he has told the truth 
 and told it with effect. He made a great advance 
 in composition : heretofore the figures had been 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 3 1 
 
 arranged in rows, one above another ; he grouped 
 them. 
 
 The scholars and imitators of Giotto, known as 
 " Giotteschi," were very numerous, and his works 
 doubtless had much influence in the general art- 
 awakening throughout Italy. His principal follow- 
 ers were Stephano Fiorendino, Tommaso di Stefano, 
 called Giottino, and Taddeo Gaddi. The last of 
 these is especially famous, and, Vasari says, excelled 
 his master in color and light and shade. 
 
 According to Vasari, Giotto was the first of the 
 moderns who successfully- attempted portraiture. 
 In 1840 an interesting recovery was made of some 
 portraits painted by Giotto in the chapel of the 
 Palazzo del Podesti in Florence. Here he had 
 painted portraits of Dante, Brunetto Latini, Corso 
 Donati, and others. Some years after this, during 
 the banishment of Dant6 and friends, the walls 
 on which the portraits were painted were white- 
 washed by their political enemies. Unsuccessful 
 attempts to recover these interesting works had 
 often been made, but it was not until the late date 
 of 1840 that the plaster was finally removed and 
 the portraits discovered in a good state of preserva- 
 tion. One of Giotto's most noted pictures is " The 
 
32 HISTORIC SCHOOI-S OF PAINTING. 
 
 Last Judgment," in the church of Santa Maria 
 deir Arena, Padua. 
 
 Orcagna (Andrea di Cione; exact dates of life 
 unknown ; was painting probably from 1340- 
 1375) was painter, sculptor, and architect. He is 
 distinguished as having been one of the most noted 
 successors of Giotto. In composition,^ he advanced 
 beyond him. He painted wonderful frescoes, whose 
 coloring is still comparatively warm and rich. His 
 pictures are noted for their crowded action and the 
 degree of expression in the faces. There are quite 
 a number of works by this artist in the Strozzi 
 Chapel of the Santa Maria Novella, at Florence. 
 Here on one of the walls is a representation of 
 Paradise where, although the grouping is still stiff 
 and characteristic of this age of art, yet the treat- 
 ment of single figures, the drawing and expression 
 of the faces, and the arrangement of the draperies 
 show an advance on his predecessors, and even now 
 are very pleasing. 
 
 In the Campo Santo, at Pisa, may be seen 
 Orcagna's best works in the "Last Judgment" and 
 the "Triumph of Death." In the latter the artist 
 displays a rich imagination and sets forth the tran- 
 
 1 See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 200. 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 33 
 
 sitory character of all that is earthly in a very im- 
 pressive manner. On the right is a company of 
 knights and ladies sitting in luxurious ease amidst 
 orange trees, among whose branches are hovering 
 Cupids, while Death, in the character of a frightful 
 old woman, comes rushing through the air with a 
 sickle in her hand, ready to reap them down. 
 Below, lie ghastly heaps of the dead, their souls 
 being drawn from their mouths by devils and 
 angels ; while to the left a group of wretched beg- 
 gars stretch their hands vainly imploring to be 
 taken. Open graves show mouldering corpses to 
 lords and ladies passing by. In one corner an old 
 hermit points to those about him these terrible 
 reminders of death, while all the air above is filled 
 with good and bad spirits contending with each 
 other for the possession of the souls that are con- 
 tinually ascending — the good souls being carried 
 away into regions of blessedness on the right, while 
 the wicked are dropped into the open mouth of a 
 fiery chasm. After the sense of quaintness and of 
 repelling realism that first strikes the beholder of 
 this picture, there comes a deep recognition of its 
 strong and poetic power. 
 
 Simone Memmi (Simone di Martino, about 1276- 
 
34 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 1344) of Siena, a contemporary, and, according to 
 some writers, a rival of Giotto, has been immor- 
 talized by being the subject of two of Petrarch's 
 sonnets, as well as by the pictures he left the 
 world. Petrarch also says in one of his letters, " I 
 have known two distinguished and excellent paint- 
 ers, Giotto, a citizen of Florence, whose fame 
 among moderns is immense, and Simone of Siena." 
 Very few of Memmi's works are now in existence. 
 These do not show an equality of merit with Giotto. 
 They are, however, not destitute of feeling and of 
 a certain amount of spiritual beauty. He was the 
 painter of the reputed heads of Petrarch and Laura 
 in the Chapel degli Spagnuoli at Florence. 
 
 Fra Giovanni Angelico (Giovanni Guido, 1387- 
 1455), sometimes called da Fiesole, from the place 
 of his birth, remained true to the traditions of 
 the art of the Middle Ages, amidst the rapid de- 
 velopment which was taking place all about him; 
 but he infused into the old method of expression a 
 wonderful life and beauty from the richness of his 
 own nature. His name holds a very high rank 
 among the artists of his time, chiefly owing to the 
 high religious sentiment of his works. Lubkd says 
 of him, " Never, in the whole range of pictorial 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 35 
 
 art, have the inspired fervor of Christian feeling, 
 the angelic beauty and purity of which the soul is 
 capable, been so gloriously interpreted as in his 
 works." It was this that earned him the name of 
 Angelica. He began all his painting with prayer, 
 and then, believing that everything he did was the 
 direct result of the inspiration of God, refused to 
 make any alterations. His principal works are 
 frescoes in the churches of Florence, and especially 
 in the convent of San Marco, to whose brotherhood 
 he belonged. In loveliness of sentiment and ex- 
 pression, they never have been surpassed even by 
 Raphael. His most frequent themes are the low- 
 liness and humility of soul of those who have joy- 
 fully accepted the will of God, and have consecrated 
 themselves to his service. The truth of his sen- 
 timent and expression was so apparent that his 
 works became in a certain degree the type of 
 character for religious art to his own generation 
 and to that succeeding him. His execution is 
 elaborate, sometimes almost miniature-like in its 
 delicacy. Quite a large number of his smaller 
 works are in the Florentine Academy. The Clois- 
 ter of San Marco at Florence has been converted 
 into a museum for the works of this great master, 
 
36 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and here may be seen, among many others, what 
 is considered his noblest work, a small altar-piece 
 in three parts, representing the "Annunciation," 
 the "Adoration of the Three Kings," and the 
 " Coronation of the Blessed Virgin." 
 
 Masaccio (Tommaso Guidi, 1402-1428), born at 
 San Giovanni in the Valderno, wrought a great 
 change in the early art of Italy, completely freeing 
 it from its former conventionality. Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds gives him the following high tribute of 
 praise: "He appears to be the first who discov- 
 ered the path that leads to every excellence to 
 which the art afterwards arrived, and may, there- 
 fore, be justly considered as one of the great 
 fathers of modern art." In Masaccio's works, 
 real life, for the first time, becomes the serious 
 subject. In his hands, the incident illustrated is 
 simply a pretext for the portrayal of reality ; 
 therefore we find in his paintings the evidence 
 of a far more careful study of individuality than 
 in any earlier master. His drawing of the figure 
 (tested by several nude figures introduced into his 
 pictures) is masterly, and his draperies are more 
 simple and natural than had been executed by 
 any artist before him. He put such animation and 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 37 
 
 variety of expression into his figures, that it was 
 said of him that " He painted souls as well as 
 bodies." His most famous works are the frescoes, 
 which he painted in the Brancacci Chapel in Santa 
 Maria del Carmine at Florence, which influenced 
 all the art of the succeeding century ; for almost 
 every master, including Leonardo da Vinci, Michael 
 Angelo, and Raphael, studied and learned from 
 them. These frescoes are the "Expulsion from 
 Paradise " ; the " Tribute Money," into which, it 
 is said, the artist introduced his own portrait ; 
 " Peter baptizing the People," in which is the 
 celebrated naked boy trembling with cold ; the 
 "Blind and the Lame cured by the Shadow of 
 Peter " ; the " Death of Ananias " ; and " Peter 
 and Paul restoring a Young Man to Life." Masac- 
 cio's early death prevented his completion of the 
 paintings in this chapel, and the work was finished 
 by Filippino Lippi. 
 
 Antonello da Messina (1414-1493) is chiefly 
 noted for his introduction of oil-painting into 
 Italy in the year 1450. Vasari's story of this is 
 as follows : " Antonello degli Antoni, a young 
 painter of Messina, commonly called Antonello 
 da Messina, saw, in the possession of King 
 
38 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Alphonso I. of Naples, a picture of the Annuncia- 
 tion by John Van Eyck, and being struck with the 
 beauty of the impasto,'^ set out immediately for 
 Bruges in order to discover by what means it was 
 produced. He obtained the secret from John Van 
 Eyck, and remained several years in Flanders, 
 until he had mastered the process ; then returned 
 to Italy, where he gathered about himself a 
 numerous school, and spread a general knowledge 
 of his method." This was not really the painting 
 in oils, for this had been practised before ; but it 
 was a preparation of resin and oil, which secured 
 the rapid drying of a picture, and thus rendered 
 the use of this medium common. Before this, it 
 had been necessary to expose a picture painted in 
 oils for a long time to the sun or to other heat, in 
 order to secure its drying, and in doing this, the 
 wooden panel, on which it was painted, was often 
 cracked and ruined. The pictures painted by 
 Antonello show the influence of Flemish art 
 upon Italian, and thus possess no very distinct 
 character. The National Gallery in London 
 possesses one, a " Head of Christ," in brown 
 colors, and hard in treatment, but well drawn and 
 1 See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 201. 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 39 
 
 expressive. Still its chief interest is, that it is one 
 of the first oil-paintings executed in Italy. There 
 is also a " Crucifixion " in the Museum of Ant- 
 werp, painted by this artist. 
 
 Benozzi Gozzoli (1424- 1496), a pupil of Fra 
 Angelico, was much influenced by the works of 
 Masaccio, as is shown by his paintings, although he 
 falls far behind him in design. His pictures also 
 show something of the tender grace of Angelico. 
 His coloring is hard, but still rich and rather 
 pleasing. His principal works are twenty-two 
 large frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa. These 
 comprise a series of scenes from the Qld Testa- 
 ment, beginning with Noah and ending with 
 Joseph. Gozzoli thronged these with spirited 
 figures, using for backgrounds landscapes and 
 masses of architecture, and in the abounding life 
 of the scene, causes the beholder to almost forget 
 the Bible incident which is portrayed. 
 
 There are, also, other frescoes of great merit in 
 the Chapel of the Riccardi Palace in Florence. 
 A charming panel picture by this artist, a " Ma- 
 donna and Child," reminding one of Fra Angelico, 
 is in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Ltica Signorelli ( 144 1- 1524) of Cortona con- 
 
40 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 tributed much to the great epoch of art, which 
 immediately followed the close of the fifteenth 
 century. His works are full of unusual vigor and 
 boldness. His drawings of the naked figure with 
 their bold foreshortenings won the highest admi- 
 ration from his great successor, Michael Angelo. 
 His most celebrated works are the frescoes in a 
 Chapel of the Cathedral of Orvieto, whose decora- 
 tion was begun by Fra Angelico ; the subjects of 
 these are the " History of Antichrist," the " Res- 
 urrection of the Dead," " Hell and Paradise." It 
 is very interesting to note the difference between 
 the works of these two great artists. On the ceil- 
 ing are the purely devout figures of Angelico, 
 drawn and painted with rare delicacy, while spread 
 over the walls are the strong, vigorous figures, 
 boldly drawn and painted by Signorelli, which 
 Liibk^ so well describes as looking like a " race of 
 giants battling against universal destruction." 
 
 Signorelli also painted frescoes illustrating the 
 " Life of St. Benedict " in the Convent of Monte 
 Oliveto at Siena ; and many panel pictures, 
 showing the same grand style of work, two of 
 the most beautiful of which are in the Museum 
 in Berlin. 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 4I 
 
 Sandro Botticelli (1447-1515) enlarged the field 
 of art, hitherto limited almost wholly to scriptural 
 scenes, by introducing ancient myths and allegories 
 into his pictures ; but, although he showed by 
 some of his works that he was capable of express- 
 ing refined and beautiful sentiments, yet too many 
 are devoid of taste. Venus was a favorite subject 
 with him, yet his pictures represent the goddess 
 coarse and destitute of grace or beauty. 
 
 There is an allegorical picture of " Calumny " in 
 the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, which is a fine 
 example of Botticelli's work ; also another picture 
 in the same gallery representing " Venus floating 
 on the Sea in a Shell." He also painted three large 
 frescoes in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican 
 (afterward rendered so famous by the paintings of 
 Michael Angelo and Raphael). The subjects of 
 these are religious; but secular and local events 
 are interwoven with them. 
 
 Filippino Lippi (1460-1505), himself the son 
 of an artist, was born in Florence. After his 
 father's death, he became the pupil of Sandro Bot- 
 ticelli, his father's famous scholar. He became 
 one of the greatest painters of his time, and was 
 so much trusted that he was employed to finish 
 
42 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the frescoes left by Masaccio in the Brancacci 
 Chapel in the Church del Carmine in Florence. 
 
 His works in this chapel are the " Restoring the 
 Youth to Life by Peter and Paul" (begun by 
 Masaccio), the "Crucifixion of St. Peter," "St. 
 Peter and St. Paul before Nero," "St. Peter lib- 
 erated from Prison," also the celebrated picture 
 of "St. Paul visiting St. Peter in Prison," from 
 which Raphael borrowed the figure of St. Paul for 
 the cartoon^ of "Paul preaching at Athens." 
 
 In all save, perhaps, the management of the 
 draperies, these paintings are equal to those exe- 
 cuted by Masaccio. 
 
 The National Gallery in London possesses two 
 easel works in tempera by Filippino, a small 
 " Adoration of the Kings," with a crowd of exquis- 
 itely painted figures, and a " Madonna and Infant 
 Christ, with St. Jerome and St. Dominic adoring." 
 
 His last work, a " Descent from the Cross," in 
 the Academy at Florence, was left unfinished, and 
 was afterward completed by Perugino, the master 
 of Raphael. 
 
 Ghirlandajo (Domenico Bigordi, 1449- 1498) was 
 born in Florence, and was called Ghirlandajo 
 
 1 See " Technical Terms used in Painting," page 199. 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 43 
 
 from his father, who was a goldsmith and famous 
 for his manufacture of garlands. He was one of 
 the most eminent painters of his time, being noted 
 for great refinement as well as boldness of concep- 
 tion, uniting, as Wornum says, "the sentiment of 
 Fra Angelico with the manliness of Masaccio." 
 He was especially lavish in the portrayal of rich 
 costumes and architecture, and was fond of express- 
 ing detail. He is further noted as having been, 
 for three years, the master of Michael Angelo. 
 
 Ghirlandajo left many famous works in Flor- 
 ence, both ih tempera and fresco, which are still 
 in a good state of preservation ; among the most 
 noted of which are a series representing the life 
 of St. Francis, in the Sassetti Chapel in Santa 
 Trinita, Florence, of which that representing the 
 death of the saint is particularly fine ; and scenes 
 from the lives of the Virgin and John the Baptist, 
 in the Santa Maria Novella, of which the " Meet- 
 ing of Mary with Elisabeth " is especially admir- 
 able. He was also one of the painters chosen to 
 assist in. the decoration of the Sistine Chapel of 
 the Vatican in Rome. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was born at 
 Vinci in the Val d'Arno below Florence, and is 
 
44 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 one of the four greatest masters in painting whom 
 the world has ever known, the other three being 
 Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Titian. Leonardo 
 was a pupil of Andrea Verocchio, who is more 
 famous as a sculptor than painter. Tradition says 
 that Verocchio was at first very proud of his young 
 pupil ; but when Leonardo painted an angel in a 
 picture of the " Baptism of Christ " by Verocchio 
 so superior to the other figures that it made the 
 inferiority of Verocchio apparent to all, the master 
 renounced painting entirely and confined himself 
 to sculpture. This picture may now be seen in 
 the Academy at Florence, and whether the story 
 is true or not, it cannot be denied that there is in 
 it an angel which is incomparably more beautiful 
 than any other figure. 
 
 Leonardo was a universal genius, — painter, 
 sculptor, architect, and engineer ; he had a 
 thorough knowledge of anatom)', mathematics, 
 astronomy, and botany, and was also poet and 
 musician, but excelled in painting. He was a 
 great student. It is said that he always carried 
 his sketch-book with him to note down any obser- 
 vations ; that he invited peasants to his house and 
 told them laughable stories, that he might gather 
 
FLORENTINE OK TUSCAN SCHOOL. 45 
 
 from their faces the very essence of comic expres- 
 sion ; and that he even followed criminals to exe- 
 cution in order to witness their torture, despair, 
 and death, in the hope that this would minister to 
 his art. He was the greatest master of chiaros- 
 curo, his transparent shadows and brilliant lights 
 being perfect; but he was not a good colorist. 
 Liibk^ says : " The peculiarities of Leonardo's work 
 are extreme scrupulousness about the nicest de- 
 tails, a certain massiveness in designing and model- 
 ling ; and to this he added, as one fruit of his 
 study of aerial perspective, a delicate blending of 
 colors and an airy softness of outline. In expres- 
 sion he combines dignity and majesty with a 
 sweetness which, especially in his female heads, 
 takes on a character of the most attractive loveli- 
 ness." 
 
 His existing works are rare, both because he left 
 many of his pictures unfinished (owing to his con- 
 tinual feeling of dissatisfaction with his work), 
 and because he did not take care in the use of 
 pigments. ^ 
 
 In the year 1 503 Leonardo was commissioned to 
 paint one end of the Council Hall of the Palazzo 
 1 The prepared paints used by artists, 
 
46 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Vecchio. Michael Angelo, then a young painter 
 whose fame was just beginning, was commissioned 
 to paint the other end. Leonardo chose as his 
 subject "The Defeat of the Milanese by the Flor- 
 entines at Anghiari." He, however, did not even 
 finish the cartoon of this composition, it is said, 
 through jealousy of his young rival. Michael 
 Angelo's cartoon, well known as the " Cartoon of 
 Pisa," represents some Pisan soldiers suddenly 
 called to arms while bathing in the Arno ; and it 
 is remarkable for the hurry of the soldiers, the 
 strength and muscularity of their forms, and the 
 many attitudes in which it portrays the human 
 figure. Leonardo's composition represents a battle 
 in which horse and foot soldiers are wildly engaged. 
 The only portion preserved for us (in a drawing 
 made by Rubens) is a group of horsemen contend- 
 ing for a standard. Michael Angelo's was regarded 
 as the superior work. Neither picture was painted, 
 and both cartoons have been lost or destroyed, and 
 are known now only by engravings. • Benvenuto 
 Cellini terms these two cartoons " the school of the 
 world." It is true that from this period the develop- 
 ment of physical qualities became much more a 
 characteristic of the Florentine School. 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL, 47 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci's masterpiece is the very 
 famous " Lord's Supper," painted on the wall of 
 the monks' refectory in the convent of the Ma- 
 donna della Grazzia at Milan, with which every one 
 is familiar through engravings and photographs. 
 This picture was the greatest that had hitherto 
 appeared. It now shows but little of its former 
 beauty. Leonardo, with his usual recklessness, 
 persisted in painting it in oils, though the surface 
 was plaster and the situation damp ; therefore the 
 colors began to fade almost as soon as the picture 
 was completed, and now some portions of it are 
 crumbled into ruins. His best portrait, and that a 
 very famous one, is " Mona Lisa," also called " La 
 Joconde," the wife, of his Florentine friend Gio- 
 condo, on which he worked four years and then 
 regarded it as unfinished. It is now in the 
 Louvre, Paris, where is also another charming 
 and noted portrait by Leonardo, called " La Belle 
 Ferroni^re." 
 
 Fra Bartolommeo (Baccio della Porta, 1469-1517) 
 born at Savignano, near Florence, was a monk in 
 the convent of San Marco, the same to which 
 Fra Angelico belonged. He painted in a manner 
 somewhat similar to that of Da Vinci, also in some 
 
48 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 respects like Raphael, with both of which artists 
 he was contemporary. His peculiar sphere was 
 devotional painting, and in it he was a master. The 
 composition of his pictures and the grouping of 
 his figures are magnificent. By some writers he has 
 been termed the true master of Raphael, so much 
 better did that great master paint after his intimacy 
 with Bartolommeo. He is said to have been the 
 first artist who used a lay-figure.^ He had already 
 won much fame by his art under his real name of 
 Baccio, when the great shock caused by the burn- 
 ing at the stake of his friend Savonarola, caused 
 him to renounce his art, and enter the convent 
 under the name of Fra Bartolommeo. 
 
 A curious episode in the history of art occurred 
 in connection with Savonarola. Among other 
 strange acts of this fanatic was that of deprecating 
 all representations of the undraped human figure 
 either in sculpture or painting, and indeed any 
 female representation whatever. During the cel- 
 ebration of the carnival in 1497, instead of the 
 usual bonfire in the market-place, Savonarola had 
 a large scaffolding prepared, upon which he piled 
 many of the most excellent works of Florentine 
 
 1 See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 20i. 
 
FLORENTINE OK TUSCAN SCHOOL. 49 
 
 artists, paintings and sculptures, and they all were 
 consumed amidst public rejoicing. He repeated 
 the exhibition the following year on a much larger 
 scale. Fra Bartolommeo, and several other artists 
 of rank, were induced to contribute their own 
 precious works to the common destruction. Soon 
 after this Savonarola was executed. 
 
 After six years of utter seclusion and abandon- 
 ment of painting, Bartolommeo, at the urgent 
 entreaty of his friends, returned to his art. About 
 this time Raphael visited Florence, became much 
 attached to Bartolommeo, learned from him his 
 method of coloring, and in return gave him in- 
 struction in perspective. Both artists seem to have 
 profited by their intimacy. 
 
 Fra Bartolommeo's colossal figure of " St. Mark," 
 in the Pitti Palace at Florence, ranks as one of the 
 finest productions of Italian painting. This was 
 painted expressly to refute the accusation made 
 against him that he was unable to paint large fig- 
 ures. In the same gallery is a " Descent from the 
 Cross," of wonderful power, the body of the dead 
 Saviour being holden in the arms of the lamenting 
 John, Mary bowing over it, utterly weighed down 
 by her affliction, and Mary Magdalene clasping the 
 
so HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 feet, while giving free vent to her tearful grief. 
 Every figure is full of the deepest expression of 
 feeling. 
 
 A large number of Bartolommeo's paintings are 
 in the Italian galleries ; outside of Italy his works 
 are rarely met with. 
 
 Mariotto Albertinelli (1465-1520) is the most 
 distinguished of Bartolommeo's pupils, and was an 
 intimate friend of his master. They painted sev- 
 eral pictures together, and when Bartolommeo re- 
 tired to the convent, Albertinelli finished the 
 pictures that were left incomplete. 
 
 His finest work is the " Temptation " in the 
 Ufifizi Gallery, which is remarkable for its beautiful, 
 almost poetic, composition and the easy flow of its 
 draperies. In this is the " Meeting of Mary with 
 Elisabeth," that has been reproduced so often. 
 
 Michael Angela Buonarotti (1475-1564), born at 
 Castel' Caprese, near Arezzo, in Tuscany, is the 
 second of the great quartet of world-masters ; and 
 is distinguished as poet, painter, sculptor, and 
 architect. In his boyhood he was bound for three 
 years to Ghirlandajo, and contrary to the usual 
 practice, that master paid an annual sum for the 
 boy's assistance, instead of charging for his instruc- 
 
FLORENTINE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. $1 
 
 tion, from which we can judge of his early ability 
 and his worth to his instructor. Michael Angelo 
 also became a diligent student of Masaccio's great 
 frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel, and at the same 
 time studied industriously the remains of ancient 
 art. He soon distinguished himself from the 
 other pupils of Ghirlandajo, and attracted the 
 notice of that great patron of art, Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, who gave him a room in his own palace 
 and commissioned him to execute several pieces 
 of sculpture for him. 
 
 Until 1503 Michael Angelo is known (with the 
 exception of a few small pictures) exclusively as a 
 sculptor, but in this year he received the commis- 
 sion to enter the lists as a painter with Leonardo 
 da Vinci (see account given under "Da Vinci," 
 page 46). The cartoon, made at this time, gave 
 him so much fame, that, a few years after, he was 
 summoned by the order of Julius II. to execute 
 the grand series of frescoes on the vaulted ceiling 
 of the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican at Rome. 
 
 Even then he was so diffident of his own powers 
 as a painter, that he sent for some of his old 
 Florentine companions to paint the frescoes from 
 his cartoons. Not being satisfied with their work, 
 
52 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 however, he destroyed it all, and painted the whole 
 with his own hand. 
 
 This ceiling is the most complete expression of 
 the power of the great master, and is yet a wonder 
 and a delight to all artists. The subjects are the 
 "Creation of the World," the " Creation of Man," 
 his "Fall" and "Expulsion from Paradise," and 
 the " Deluge." 
 
 Michael Angelo's power and delight lay in the 
 mastery of form, and here was full opportunity for 
 him to display his power. No artist has equalled 
 him in the grandeur and dignity with which he has 
 invested the human figure. His knowledge of 
 anatomy and skill of foreshortening are shown in 
 these works to be almost perfect. Indeed, it seems 
 as if, proud of his superiority, in this respect, over 
 other artists, he has taken too much pains to show 
 it, and so we see in many of his figures an exag- 
 gerated muscular development. It is this that led , 
 Fuseli to write of him " his women are female 
 men and his children diminutive giants." He 
 regarded coloring as of secondary importance; 
 seldom, if ever, painted in oils, and declared that 
 all easel-work was fit only for women and idle men. 
 
 Aside from this series of frescoes, the greatest 
 
FLORENTmE OR TUSCAN SCHOOL. 53 
 
 picture painted by Michael Angelo is the " Last 
 Judgment," on one of the walls of this same 
 chapel. This he began when he was sixty years 
 of age, and he was eight years in painting it. He 
 chose as its subject the moment in which the 
 awful sentence, " Depart from me ye cursed," etc., 
 is being pronounced ; and the whole picture is 
 filled with the wildest movement of figures and 
 the most thrilling and appalling portrayal of feeling.k 
 
 Andrea del Sarto (Andrea, Vannucchi, 1488- ' 
 1530), called Del Sarto from the trade of his 
 father who was a tailor, was born in Florence. 
 He was a diligent student of Michael Angelo's 
 great cartoon of Pisa, and through this acquired 
 some of the peculiar characteristics of that great 
 master's style of design ; but with Del Sarto, the 
 subject always takes precedence of the forms of art. 
 
 He is noted especially for the wonderful color- 
 ing of his paintings. To a good composition, a 
 fine and sometimes a grand treatment of his single 
 figures, and a simple dignity of drapery he added 
 what Liibk^ styles an "incomparable blending of 
 colors, delicate flesh-tints, and golden chiaroscuro." 
 
 Like Fra Angelico and Fra Bartolommeo, he 
 restricted himself to the painting of religious 
 
54 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 pictures; but unlike them, he did not regard his 
 subjects from a religious point of view., but from 
 that of physical grace and beauty. 
 
 Although Del Sarto's life was comparatively 
 short, he gave to the world several large frescoes 
 and many panel-pictures. His finest fresco is in 
 the church Santa Annunziata in Florence, — the 
 celebrated " Madonna del Sacco " (so-called from 
 the sack on which Joseph is reposing). In the 
 Pitti Gallery are quite a number of " Madonnas " 
 and " Holy Families." In the Louvre, Paris, is 
 the charming " Charity," with two children on her 
 lap and a third sleeping at her feet. 
 
 Daniele da Volterra (Daniele Ricciarelli, ilfoo- 
 1566) was born at Volterra, and is noted .as one of 
 the greatest of Michael Angelo's followers. His 
 fresco of the " Taking down from the Gross," in 
 the church of the Trinity de Monti, is reckoned 
 among the finest pictures in the world, being 
 classed with the "Transfiguration" by Raphael, 
 and the " Communion of St. Jerome " by Domen- 
 ichino. This picture has often been engraved. It 
 was transferred from the wall to' canvas in the 
 year i8ii, being the first fresco that was so 
 transferred. 
 
PADUAN SCHOOL. 55 
 
 PADUAN SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : A severe study of form from 
 the antique ; scientific practice of perspective ; a 
 mythological tendency in subjects ; good color and 
 expression. 
 
 Founded by Francesco Squarcione. 
 
 Francesco Squarcione (1394- 1474) of Padua is 
 more noted as a teacher than as an artist. He had 
 one of the largest schools known in the history of 
 art, having had, it is said, one hundred and thirty- 
 seven scholars, and was called "the father of 
 painting." His scholars were proud of him, and 
 used often to add to their signatures, " the pupil of 
 Squarcione " (discipulus Squarcioni). 
 
 Through these many pupils Squarcione must 
 have had a wide influence throughout Italy. This 
 school arose from a study of ancient bas-relief. 
 Squarcione travelled over many parts of Greece, 
 and all over Italy for the express purpose of making 
 drawings from the most valuable pieces of ancient 
 
56 HISTORIC SCHOOLS Of pAiNtme. 
 
 art. His house was one of the chief attractions of 
 Padua; and his museum of drawings and casts 
 from the remains of ancient sculpture was the 
 largest and most celebrated of its time. 
 
 But one known picture by this artist remains at 
 Padua. This represents " San Girolamo and other 
 saints," and is conspicuous for good color, expres- 
 sion, and accurate perspective. 
 
 Andrea Mantegna (1430-1 506), born in the neigh- 
 borhood of Padua, is the greatest name in this 
 school. His story somewhat resembles that of 
 Giotto. According to Vasari he was a shepherd 
 boy ; but having very early in life shown great 
 aptitude for drawing, he attracted the notice of the 
 master, Squarcione, who received him as a pupil. 
 True to the characteristics of his master's school, 
 Mantegna's style of design is so closely drawn 
 from the antique that his compositions have some- 
 what the character of colored pieces of sculpture 
 in low relief. Still, they possess such a lively sense 
 of the dramatic that they are full of action ; the 
 coloring is clear and cool ; the backgrounds filled 
 with masses of architecture, all in accurate per- 
 spective. 
 
 One of Mantegna's most important works is a 
 
PADUAN SCHOOL. 57 
 
 series of nine pictures representing the " Triumph 
 of Caesar," originally painted for the hall of a 
 palace at Mantua, now a costly treasure of Hamp- 
 ton Court, in England, having been purchased by 
 Charles I. These pictures are painted in tempera 
 on paper stretched over canvas. 
 
 The frescoes with which Mantegna adorned the 
 ducal palace at Mantua are remarkable as being 
 the oldest example of ceiling-painting intended to 
 deceive the eye, after the manner of the old Greek 
 masters. This ceiling seems to open in the centre, 
 and the beholder seems to gaze through a circular 
 balustrade upon the blue sky. On the upper ledge 
 of the balustrade a peacock is strutting in the 
 sunshine ; lovely heads of women and children, 
 the latter full of fun and roguery, are looking 
 across to each other. All this is drawn in most 
 accurate perspective. 
 
 Mantegna takes a high rank among the first 
 Italian engravers on copper. 
 
 Melozzo da Forli (1433-1494), born at Forli, 
 another artist of this school, although evidently 
 influenced greatly by the teaching of Squarcione, 
 painted pictures that possess many of the lovely 
 and tender qualities of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
58 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 In the Quirinal Palace at Rome is a picture by 
 him containing a figure of Christ hovering in the 
 air surrounded by angels, which shows fine draw- 
 ing, a bold application of perspective, and delicate 
 and beautiful coloring. 
 
 Other noted names belonging to this school are 
 Francesco Bonsignori of Verona (145 5-1 5 19) and 
 Lorenzo Leonbruno of Mantua (1489-1537). 
 
ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. 59 
 
 ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : Sentiment, expression, and 
 moral teaching, with simpHcity and devoutness 
 of work ; brilliancy of color ; and a deep sense of 
 spiritual beauty. Founded by Perugino. 
 
 Perugino (Pietro Vanucci, 1446- 15 24), born at 
 Citti della Pieva, a little town in Umbria, was 
 called Perugino, because he at maturity settled 
 in Perugia, established an academy, and there 
 won his fame. Much of the excellence of his 
 work is d\ie to study of the Florentine masters. He 
 showed a charming taste for color in his early 
 tempera pictures, and when he adopted the new 
 method of oil-painting he added a force and effect 
 before unknown in the schools of Rome and 
 Florence; but his taste in form and design ^ was 
 generally mean and little, and his draperies are 
 stiff and formal. His figures, however, often show 
 a grace of motion and attitude, and a fine simplic- 
 
 1 See " Technical Terms used in Painting," page 200. 
 
6o HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ity of expression. A deep religious enthusiasm 
 pervades all his works, and" few artists have 
 equalled him in portraying devotion, resignation, 
 or rapture. He fell into the habit of repeating 
 himself, however, so that a painful mechanism is 
 often seen in his pictures. He was for seven years 
 the teacher of Raphael. It is said that no pupils 
 ever imitated their master so closely as did those 
 of Perugino. Raphael, before his visit to Florence 
 and acquaintance with Fra Bartolommeo, painted 
 completely in his style. 
 
 A curious story is told by Vasari regarding 
 Perugino and Michael Angelo. Perugino evidently 
 outlived the art of his own time. When he saw 
 the rival cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and Mi- 
 chael Angelo at Florence, he set himself against 
 them, and unreservedly expressed his disapproval 
 of the new style of design in the presence of 
 Michael Angelo himself, who so far from respect- 
 ing the prejudices of the older artist, called him a 
 " dunce in art " {gaffo neW arte). Perugino took him 
 before a magistrate for the affront ; but the dispute 
 ended, says the historian, with little credit to the 
 complainant. 
 
 There are several good examples of Perugino's 
 
ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. 6 1 
 
 painting in existence. An important one, a 
 "Descent from the Cross," is in the Pitti Palace 
 at Florence; a "Madonna enthroned with Four 
 Saints," is in the Vatican Gallery. In the National 
 Gallery in London is a lovely altar-piece of the 
 " Madonna adoring the Child." On the wings of 
 this picture are the figures of the archangels 
 Michael and Raphael, whose wonderful beauty 
 has been thought by some critics to indicate the 
 assistance of the youthful Raphael. 
 
 Piero della Francesca {14.20-1 Sog), born at Borgo 
 San Sepolcro, is very distinguished among the 
 early Umbrian painters. In his work are united 
 a delicate delineation of form and a rare knowledge 
 of scientific foreshortening with a wonderfully 
 tender and almost transparent coloring. His 
 pictures are characterized by the extreme purity 
 of feeling and devout sense of beauty found only in 
 Umbrian. art. He was one of the artists invited 
 to Rome oy^^U^Nicholas V., whose works in the 
 Vatican were destroyed to make room for the fres- 
 coes of Raphael. 
 
 Francesca's principal works are frescoes, illus- 
 trating the miraculous legend of the Holy Cross, 
 in the choir of St. Francesco at Arezzo. There 
 
62 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 is also a fine altar-piece, representing the " Bap- 
 tism of Christ," now in the National Gallery 
 in London; the figures possessing an exquisite 
 beauty, and bathed in golden light, are painted 
 against an effective landscape. 
 
 Francia (Francesco Raibolini, 1450-1517) was 
 born at Bologna, and working as a goldsmith in 
 his youth, did not take up painting until compar- 
 atively late in life; yet he won equal rank wy;h 
 Perugino, by whose works he was much influenced; 
 he gained much, also, by study of the works of the 
 Lombard and Venetian schools. 
 
 His pictures are full of deep religious feeling, 
 expressed with much tenderness which appeals 
 strongly to the human heart. The figures possess 
 the same quietness as those of Perugino, and are 
 finished with much exactness of detail; but one 
 feels that they are more alive; however, there is 
 still much in them, that suggests the appearance 
 of people standing or sitting for thrar portraits. 
 He was an excellent portrait-painter, and his 
 figures, individually, are almost always admirable. 
 There is a tradition, told by Vasari, that Fra;ncia 
 died from the shock produced by seeing Raphael's 
 wonderful "St. Cecilia," as he realized how far 
 below that consummate artist he was. 
 
ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. 63 
 
 Raphael had consigned to Francia the picture 
 of " St. Cecilia," designed for the church of San 
 Giovanni in Monte at Bologna, requesting him to 
 repair any damage that might have happened, and 
 to superintend the placing of it in the church. 
 Francia placed the picture, and shortly afterwards 
 died ; at least such is the story, and his death was 
 attributed to disappointment and dejection at dis- 
 covering his inferiority. 
 
 Many of Francia's works are still in Bologna; 
 among them his earliest known picture, a "Ma- 
 donna surrounded by Six Saints " ; also a series 
 of frescoes, illustrating the life of St. Cecilia, which 
 are very fine. 
 
 In the Munich Gallery is the famous " Madonna 
 in a Thicket of Roses, adoring the Infant Jesus." 
 The head of a meditative youth in the Louvre, 
 long ascribed to Raphael, is now attributed by 
 most critics to Francia. 
 
 Pinturicchio (Bernardino di Betto, 1454-15 13), 
 a pupil of Perugino, was born at Perugia. Pmtu- 
 ricchio, the name by which he is known, is a cor- 
 ruption of Pentorichio, "the little painter." He 
 was more inclined to historical subjects than 
 Perugino, whose general style of painting he 
 
64 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 followed. His composition is good, color delicate 
 and somewhat cooler than that of Perugino, and 
 the feeling throughout his pictures is not so deep 
 as that of his master. He was an intelligent and 
 original observer of nature, many of his incidents, 
 in both subject and treatment, bordering on nat- 
 uralism. He also had a great taste for landscape, 
 and was a famous decorator. The vault of the choir 
 of Santa Maria del Popolo, at Rome, decorated 
 by Pinturicchio, is, perhaps, the most magnificent 
 pictorial decoration that had been, at that time, 
 produced in Rome. 
 
 Among his finest works are the decorations of 
 the library of the Cathedral of Siena, which are 
 in fresco, — the subject being incidents from the 
 life of Pope Pius H. These consist of ten large 
 paintings, in which work, it is said, that Pinturic- 
 chio employed Raphael (then a mere youth) as one 
 of his assistants. 
 
 Raphael Santi (1483-1520) was born in Urbino, 
 and is third and greatest in the quartet of acknowl- 
 edged world-masters of painting. His first instruc- 
 tor was his father, Giovanni Santi, who was a fairly 
 good painter, though far inferior to Perugino. 
 After his father's death, which took place when 
 
ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. 65 
 
 Raphael was about twelve years of age, he was 
 placed by his uncles under the instruction of 
 Perugino, where he remained until 1 504. In that 
 year he visited Florence, and there cultivated the 
 acquaintance of contemporary Florentine masters, 
 and formed that intimacy with Fra Bartolommeo 
 that was so beneficial to both artists. In 1 508 he 
 settled in Rome, having been invited thither by 
 the art-loving Julius II., and lived and painted 
 there until his death, at the early age of thirty- 
 seven years. 
 
 In studying, even in the slightest degree, the 
 life and work of Raphael, we cannot lose sight of 
 the man as he was, of his high moral and intel- 
 lectual character. He seems to have been from 
 his childhood a seeker of that which is highest. 
 All the individual traits of intellectual and moral 
 life appear to have been admirably balanced in 
 him. Although he may well be called an " apostle 
 of beauty," yet the beauty he portrays seldom 
 approaches the sensuous ; it is a noble, intellec- 
 tual, moral, and spiritual beauty, which must have 
 had its counterpart in the soul of the artist. 
 
 From those great masters whose works were all 
 about him, he assimilated that which was best, and 
 
66 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 thus formed. a style peculiar to himself. Whether 
 in grand historical compositions, in lofty ideal con- 
 ceptions, in the treatment of religious subjects, or 
 in the highest type of portraiture, he was always 
 the great master. 
 
 We often hear the art of Raphael compared with 
 that of Michael Angelo, but there can be no 
 true comparison between them, because they are 
 essentially opposed one to the other. In Michael 
 Angelo's works, the intellect dominates ; in Ra- 
 phael's, the affections. 
 
 Raphael devoted himself entirely to painting, 
 and gave to the world the loveliest Madonnas and 
 child-Christs, the most exquisite saints, and some 
 of the finest portraits ever known. Wornum says : 
 "He has scarcely been approached in invention, 
 composition, and expression, is unrivalled for moral 
 force, is unsurpassed for fidelity in portraiture, 
 and in sublimity and grandeur is inferior only to 
 Michael Angelo." 
 
 In all of his work the treatment is subordinate 
 to the conception, for he was often careless in 
 execution. Color was to him always a means, 
 never the end, as with some artists. 
 
 No other artist has ever approached him in the 
 
ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. 6/ 
 
 number of noble pictures painted in so few years 
 of time. Nothing was slighted. In all, it seems 
 as if the great artist was ever struggling to reach 
 his high ideal — and that, perfection of beauty. 
 
 Raphael lost his life, probably, owing to the 
 overwhelming amount of his work. So subtile and 
 so delicate an organization as his must have been 
 sadly harassed and exhausted by incessant applica- 
 tion. It is thought that he made an extraordinary 
 effort in his last picture, "The Transfiguration," 
 owing to the rivalry of Sebastian del Piombo, 
 whom Michael Angelo has the credit of having 
 pitted against Raphael as an oil-painter. He died 
 of fever on his thirty-seventh birthday, his great- 
 est picture being left unfinished. 
 
 Among his best-known works are the "Car- 
 toons," which are now in the South Kensington 
 Museum in London. These are colored drawings 
 upon paper, representing scenes in the history of 
 the Apostles, made for designs to be woven into 
 tapestries intended to cover the walls of the Sis- 
 tine Chapel of the Vatican in Rome. There were 
 ten originally, but three have been lost. The tap- 
 estries are at present in the Vatican in a gallery 
 expressly devoted to them. 
 
68 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Among his oil-pictures some of the most noted 
 are: the "St. Cecilia," in the Pinakothek at Bo- 
 logna, where the saint, a being of great beauty, is 
 represented standing with various musical instru- 
 ments at her feet, surrounded by Paul, John, Peter, 
 and Mary Magdalene, and listening with a rapt 
 expression to an angelic choir, while she suffers the 
 organ in her hand to fall unnoticed ; the " Madonna 
 di Foligno," in the Vatican Gallery, where the 
 Madonna is represented as floating on the clouds, 
 while beneath, St. Francis and John the Baptist 
 are adoring her, and St. Jerome is commending 
 the kneeling donor of the picture to the heavenly 
 group; and, above all Madonnas, the world-re- 
 nowned "Sistine Madonna," painted for the church 
 of San Sisto in Piacenza, and now in the Dresden 
 Gallery, its most prized possession, where it stands 
 in a gallery formed for it alone. In this picture the 
 Madonna is borne upon clouds, the child enthroned 
 in her motherly arms, against a background of 
 angel faces ; Pope Sixtus is reverently kneeling 
 and looking upward, while opposite him stands the 
 graceful figure of St. Barbara, with bowed head 
 and downcast eyes; below all are the two angel- 
 boys, so well known through reproduction. 
 
ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. 69 
 
 Of Raphael's portraits, perhaps the most noted 
 are that of " Pope Julius II. " in the Pitti Gallery, 
 Florence, and "La Fornarina" in the Barberini 
 Palace, Rome. 
 
 Last and greatest of all his oil-pictures is the 
 " Transfiguration " (left unfinished), which is the 
 most precious jewel of the Vatican collection. In 
 the upper part of this picture is the glorious form 
 of Christ, with Moses on one side and Elias on the 
 other, floating in mid-air and shining with celes- 
 tial brightness, while just below are the three 
 bewildered disciples, Peter, James, and John. In 
 the lower half of the picture is the father who, 
 accompanied by friends, has brought his poor boy, 
 tormented by devils, to the disciples, that he may 
 be cured. The contrast is wonderful between the 
 two parts of the picture, and yet they are bound 
 together by the thought that must have inspired 
 Raphael thus to join them, — that the blessed 
 Divine Christ can bring comfort and help into 
 the greatest troubles, pains, and woes of earthly 
 life. 
 
 Of his frescoes, there is a noble series in " Ra- 
 phael's Stanze " in the Vatican which contains repre- 
 sentations of "Theology," "Poetry," "Philosophy," 
 
70 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and "Jurisprudence," "The School of- Athens," 
 "The Parnassus," etc.; also several in the corri- 
 dors and galleries by which the Stanze^ is ap- 
 proached. 
 
 Lo Spagna (Giovanni di Pietro, living from 
 1 507-1 530) was among the best of Perugino's pupils 
 after Raphael. Few circumstances of his life are 
 known. His first paintings were in close imita- 
 tion of Perugino, but later he endeavored to follow 
 the style of Raphael. Some of the works now 
 proved to be Lo Spagna' s have been considered 
 for many years to be among the youthful efforts 
 of Raphael. There is in them the same spiritual 
 elevation and delicacy of beauty. Unfortunately, 
 many of his frescoes are in a bad state of preser- 
 vation. 
 
 The "Madonna Enthroned," in the Chapel of 
 San Stefano in the Church of San Francesco, at 
 Assisi, is considered Lo Spagna' s masterpiece. 
 There is also, in the Museum. at Berlin an "Ad- 
 oration of the Magi," which, from the Raphael- 
 esque beauty of its figures, was for many years 
 attributed to the great master. 
 
 1 (Sl&n'-za.) A suite of rooms. 
 
ROMAN OR UMBRIAN SCHOOL. /I 
 
 Jiilio .Romano (Giulio Pippi, 1492-1546), born 
 at Rome, was the most eminent of Raphael's 
 scholars, and his ablest assistant. He is distin- 
 guished especially for his design, but in no other 
 respect did he approach Raphael ; for his paintings 
 want sentiment, and sometimes are heavy and dull 
 in coloring. 
 
 The latter defect has been accounted for, by 
 some writers, from the fact that he was much 
 employed by Raphael, in the dead-coloring^ of his 
 pictures. After Raphael's death, he fell into care- 
 less extravagance of work, and Liibk6 says, that 
 by the license he permitted himself, he contributed 
 more than any other artist of his time to the dese- 
 cration of art. 
 
 One of Romano's most celebrated oil-pictures 
 is a " Holy Family " in the gallery at Dresden. 
 The Virgin is represented bathing the holy Child, 
 who is standing in a large metal basin, while the 
 little John the Baptist is playfully pouring water 
 over him ; Elisabeth is standing on one side hold- 
 ing a towel, and Joseph is looking on, at the 
 opposite side. 
 
 1 See " Technical Terms used in Painting," page 200. 
 
72 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 His best work in fresco-painting may be seen 
 in the Ducal Palace in Mantua, which illustrates 
 scenes from the story of Diana and from the 
 Trojan War. He also distinguished himself as 
 an architect and ornamental decorator at Mantua, 
 and, through his numerous scholars, established 
 there an important school of painting. 
 
LOMBARD SCHOOL. 73 
 
 LOMBARD SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : Perfect treatment of light 
 and shade ; color important ; full of sentiment and 
 expression, but without the moral teaching or the 
 spirituality of the Roman school. 
 
 Founded by Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 Bernardino Liiini (about 1460-15 30), born at 
 Luino on the Lago Maggiore, was the greatest of 
 the pupils of Leonardo da Vinci. He was one of 
 the ablest of the old Italian fresco-painters, — 
 his frescoes being executed with more freedom 
 than his oil-pictures. His coloring is warm and 
 transparent, the lights of his draperies being 
 merely glazed ^ with color, mixed with a little white, 
 while the shadows are the pure colors laid on 
 thickly, the outlines being often strongly indicated 
 by a dark, warm color. 
 
 His best oil-pictures are finished with great 
 elaboration, beautifully colored, and forciby shaded, 
 I See " Technical Terms used in Painting," page 200. 
 
74 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 yet they lack the fullness of tone and the dignity 
 of character of the works of his master. Yet 
 many of Luini's pictures have often passed for 
 those of Da Vinci. 
 
 Among the finest frecoes by this artist are 
 those in the church at Saronno, representing the 
 life of the Madonna. A most beautiful oil-paint- 
 ing is " Vanity and Modesty " in the Sciarra 
 Gallery, Rome, until recently attributed to Da 
 Vinci ; also " Herodias with the Head of St. John 
 the Baptist " in the Ufifizi Gallery, Florence. 
 Many fine works, also, are preserved at Milan. 
 
 // Soddoma (Giovantonio Bazzi, about 1477- 
 1549) was born in Vercelli, and came early under, 
 the influence of Leonardo; later, he learned 
 much from the Florentine school, and studied for 
 a long time the works of Raphael. He was an 
 artist of ability, who endowed his pictures with a 
 strong feeling of action. His color is very soft 
 and beautiful, and his composition and expression 
 good. He was, however, unequal in his work., 
 Lanzi pays him the very doubtful compliment,, 
 that, "though unwilling to paint well, he did not 
 know how to paint badly." He was called to 
 Rome by Pope Julius H. to paint frescoes in the 
 
LOMBARD SCHOOL. 75 
 
 apartments of the Vatican, but of these, little now 
 remains. His works are rare in galleries. 
 
 In the Villa Farnesina, at Rome, there are two 
 beautiful frescoes painted by II Soddoma, — the 
 " Marriage of Alexander with Roxana " and the 
 " Wife of Darius entreating Pity of the Victorious 
 Alexander." 
 
 His most finished works are in Siena, where 
 are the frescoes executed in the Oratory of St. 
 Bernardino, also in a chapel of St. Domenico, 
 where he represented the " Ecstasy of St. Cath- 
 erine " with very much feeling. 
 
 Gaudenzio Ferrari (1484-1549), born in Valdugia, 
 was a pupil of Luini. Lomazzo, a writer on art and 
 a contemporary with Ferrari, calls him one of the 
 seven pictorial wonders of the modern world ; but 
 modem criticism has awarded him a far lower place. - 
 Wornum says, that although correct in design, 
 laborious and careful in execution, and brilliant in 
 coloring, he was deficient in that special excellence 
 of the Lombard school, tone} and in the essential 
 quality of all best work, harmony. He used very 
 positive and crude colors, which are wholly untrue 
 to nature. Liibkd speaks highly of his work. 
 
 * See " Technical Terms used in Painting," page 202. 
 
^6 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Ferrari devoted himself mostly to the painting 
 of large frescoes, several of which are in the 
 various churches of Vercelli. Some excellent 
 ones are in the Minorite Church of Varallo in 
 Piedmont, portraying the life of Christ. One of 
 his best easel-pictures is a " Lamentation over the 
 Dead Christ," in the Turin Gallery. 
 
 Correggio (Antonio AUegri, 1493-1534) was 
 born at Correggio. Little is known of his early 
 life. He is supposed to have been the pupil of 
 one Tonino Bartolotto of Correggio, but probably 
 acquired much from the works of Leonardo ' da 
 Vinci, as his earlier pictures resemble those of 
 this master. Correggio's chief power lies in the 
 general beauty and softness of effect, seen in his 
 paintings, as well as in the masterly treatment 
 of light and shade. His shadows are wonderfully 
 transparent, so that one seems really to look through 
 them and to see the texture of the flesh. In 
 grace of motion and softness of outline, he sur- 
 passed all rivals, including Raphael, and this 
 quality (luscious refinement, Mr. Ruskin calls it) 
 has caused his best paintings to be as prized and 
 costly as the easel-pictures of Raphael. In one 
 respect, however, he fell far below that great 
 
LOMBARD SCHOOL. JJ 
 
 master ; all his thoughts seem to have been 
 given to the picturing of human beauty, while 
 Raphael strove to picture a divine beauty, speaking 
 through the human. To Correggio's honor, be it 
 said, however, that though his Madonnas and 
 angels, as well as his heathen goddesses, are por- 
 trayed with a human beauty, which seems to be 
 their all, yet it is a sweet and innocent beauty, 
 and never partakes, in the slightest degree, of 
 coarseness. It is said, that when Titian first saw 
 the works of this artist, he exclaimed, "Were I 
 not Titian, I would. wish to be Correggio." 
 
 Though the style of Correggio had much influ- 
 ence upon the art of Lombardy, and indeed of 
 all northern Italy, yet he does not seem to have 
 had any very distinguished scholars. They all fell 
 into a disagreeable mannerism, striving to paint 
 like their master, without being enkindled by his 
 genius. 
 
 Correggio left some fine frescoes in Parma, but 
 his most important and beautiful works are easel- 
 pictures. Among these is the celebrated " Nativ- 
 ity "or "Nottfe" (night) in the Dresden Gallery. 
 Here the Divine Babe, lying in the manger, is 
 receiving the adoration of the shepherds and 
 
J^ HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 angels. All the light in the picture proceeds from 
 the Child ; it bathes with wonderful radiance the 
 face of the happy, beautiful mother, who is bend- 
 ing over her babe, and dazzles the eyes of the 
 wondering shepherds. 
 
 In the same gallery is the well-known " Reclin- 
 ing Magdalen reading"; the Magdalen, lying at 
 the mouth of a cave, reading from a book that 
 lies open before her. In the Louvre are the 
 famous "Marriage of St. Catherine" and "Jupiter 
 and Antiope." 
 
 There are, also, a long list of paintings by Cor- 
 reggio, that picture scenes from ancient mythology, 
 and it is easily seen that there is more harmony 
 between these and the artist's style than is the 
 case with religious subjects. 
 
 In the National Gallery, London, is the "Edu- 
 cation of Cupid by Venus and Mercury" and 
 "Ecce Homo"; in the Belvedere at Vienna the 
 " Ganymede borne through the Air by an Eagle," 
 while there are many others in the Berlin Museum. 
 
 Parmigiano (Francesco Maria Mazzuola, 1504- 
 1540), born in Parma, and named from his birth- 
 place, as are so many Italian masters, is a dis- 
 tinguished name in this school. Although his 
 
LOMBARD SCHOOL. 79 
 
 religious pictures and frescoes are inferior to those 
 of the greatest masters, yet they are great enough 
 to have gained the praise of critics. His work is 
 at its best where he was able to follow nature. 
 He imitated Correggio very closely, too closely, 
 indeed ; for in Parmigiano's work the peculiarities 
 of Correggio became at times so exaggerated and 
 prominent as to become real defects. The fore- 
 shortening and softly graded roundness of form, 
 which are only accessories with Correggio, seem 
 too much to be paramount ends with Parmigiano. 
 He was quite a successful imitator of the grand 
 style of design seen in Michael Angelo's works; 
 but when he endeavored to combine the forms of 
 that great master with his own peculiarities of man- 
 ner, it became impossible, on account of the long 
 necks and limbs that he always gave his figures. 
 
 In the Pitti Palace, Florence, is a "Madonna" 
 called " Madonna del Collo Longo " (with long 
 neck). 
 
 In the National Gallery in London is a large pic- 
 ture of the "Vision of St. Jerome" ; not one of his 
 best, however, for the panel is too narrow to admit 
 of giving due proportion to the figures of the two 
 saints. The Madonna and Child are grand figures. 
 
8o HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 The story is told that Parmigiano was in the act 
 of giving the last touches to this picture in Rome, 
 when the city was stormed by the soldiers of Bour- 
 bon, and the young painter was so absorbed by his 
 work that the first intimation he had of the event 
 was the rushing of some soldiers into his studio, 
 while exploring houses for plunder ; but luckily, it 
 happened that the captain of the band was a lover 
 of the art, and compelled his men to respect both 
 painter and picture, contenting himself with the 
 present of some sketches. One very celebrated 
 picture is a " St. Margaret " in the Academy of 
 Bologna. When Guido was asked which he pre- 
 ferred, this picture or the " St. Cecilia " of Raphael, 
 he exclaimed, "That, the St. Margaret of Parmi- 
 giano ! " In the choir of Santa Maria della Steccata 
 in Parma is the celebrated figure of " Moses break- 
 ing the Tables of the Law." Of this figure Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds says : " We are at a loss which 
 to admire most, the correctness of the drawing or 
 the grandeur of the conception." Parmigiano 
 began these frescoes, but never completed the 
 work ; he was imprisoned because of his breach of 
 contract, and died soon after, 
 
VENETIAN' SCHOOL, 8 1 
 
 VENETIAN SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics: Richness and brilliancy of 
 coloring the end sought; sentiment and moral 
 force inferior; landscape painting a prominent 
 feature. 
 
 Founded by Giovanni Bellini. 
 
 Giovanni Bellini (1426-1516), born in Venice, 
 was the founder of the Venetian school. Kugler 
 says, "The brightest glories of Venetian art rose 
 from his atelier." His subjects are mostly relig- 
 ious, and oftentimes have backgrounds of land- 
 scape, for which he seems to have had great love. 
 His figures possess dignity and serenity, and are 
 painted with rich and lustrous color. Great atten- 
 tion is paid to the detail of costume, even to its 
 elaboration. His best works are painted in oil. It 
 was during the lifetime of Bellini that Antonello 
 da Messina introduced the improved style of oil- 
 painting into Italy. There is an old story told by 
 Ridolfi, that Bellini discovered the secret by dis- 
 
82 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 guising himself as a Venetian cavalier, sitting 
 to Antonello for his portrait, and then watching 
 his process of work. He was the teacher of 
 Titian. 
 
 One of Giovanni Bellini's finest pictures is a 
 "St, Jerome" in a side-chapel of St. Giovanni 
 Crisostomo at Venice. St. Jerome is represented 
 sitting with a book, surrounded by a superb rocky 
 landscape ; in the foreground stand St. Augustine, 
 to the right, and St. Christopher bearing the 
 Christ-child, to the left. This picture was painted 
 in the artist's eighty-seventh year. 
 
 Another picture of great merit is the " Supper 
 at Emmaus " in San Salvatore, Venice. 
 
 Gentile Bellini (1421-1507), born in Venice, 
 painted at the same time with his brother Gio- 
 vanni, but possessed less power. His existing 
 works are rare. There are, however, several large 
 pictures representing Venetian history that are in 
 the Academy at Venice. Liibkd says that in the 
 treatment of these pictures, even though they deal 
 with sacred subjects, as a religious procession, a 
 miracle, etc., the first dawn of something like 
 genre painting, which was then unknown to Italian 
 art, may be seen. 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 83 
 
 There is a fine picture of a similar character in 
 the Louvre, the " Reception of a Venetian Ambas- 
 sador at Constantinople," in which the artist has 
 introduced his own portrait. Here, also, is an in- 
 teresting portrait or double portrait of the two 
 heads of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini, painted by 
 the former. 
 
 Carlo Crivelli ( about 1 500), born in Venice, 
 
 was an artist of strong individuality, and perhaps 
 the best of the Venetian tempera painters. His 
 pictures are hard but are full of vigor, have much 
 force of expression, often a lustrous color, and are 
 always very carefully executed ; yet they are almost 
 always destitute of beauty. He often introduced 
 into them embossed ornaments and festoons of 
 flowers, together with the gold backgrounds of 
 the early Paduan masters. His method of paint- 
 ing was a delicate hatching.^ 
 
 The best works of Crivelli are in the Brera 
 Gallery, Milan ; here is a " Christ on the Cross, 
 mourned by Mary and John," of the early date of 
 1482, which is harsh in outline, and shows that it 
 was beyond the power of the artist to portray the 
 expression of bitter anguish ; also an " Enthroned 
 
 1 See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 201. 
 
84 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTIXG. 
 
 Madonna," surrounded by festoons of fruit, with 
 splendid coloring and much depth of feeling. 
 
 In the National Gallery iri London is a picture 
 in tempera, that well illustrates this artist's method 
 of painting, the " Madonna della Rondine." Wor- 
 num says that the St. Sebastian in this picture 
 conveys a magnificent idea of the Italian gentl'e- 
 man of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Giorgione (Giorgio Barbarelli, 1 477-1 511), born 
 in the neighborhood of Castelfranco, was the first 
 painter who seemed to give up the sentiment of 
 art for its exclusive sensuous development. The 
 motive in all his works appears to have been 
 beauty of form, color, and effect. Only the brevity 
 of his life prevented him from becoming an estab- 
 lished rival of Titian, who was his fellow-pupil 
 in the atelier of Giovanni Bellini, and who doubt- 
 less owed much to the brilliant example of Gior- 
 gione. He was the first artist in whose works 
 landscape became prominent and of worth, on 
 account of its being treated with a genuine poetic 
 feeling. He was a great master of portrait, and 
 his representation of single figures is sometimes 
 superb. His color possesses the glowing intensity 
 which is so characteristic of the Venetian school. 
 
I 
 VENETIAN SCHOOL. 85 
 
 The work of Giorgione and that of Titian bear 
 a close resemblance to each other — indeed, at 
 this day it is impossible for connoisseurs to decide 
 to which of the two certain pictures belong. 
 
 Giorgione was the first artist to imitate the 
 textures of draperies. He painted from the stuffs 
 themselves, and imitated as nearly as possible their 
 various materials. Before his time these were 
 represented as differing only in color or pattern. 
 
 He executed several historical pictures and some 
 large frescoes. In the church of his native place, 
 Castelfranco, is an altar-piece representing the 
 " Enthroned Madonna worshipped by Saints," and 
 in the Monte di Pieta at Treviso there is a "Dead 
 Christ supported on the Edge of the Tomb by 
 Angels," which is full of expression and fine in 
 drawing and color. One of his most characteristic 
 paintings, however, is the " Concert " in the Pitti 
 Gallery at Florence. In this a priest is playing 
 upon the harpsichord ; at one side is a youth with 
 flowing hair wearing a hat with feathers, and on 
 the other an older priest with hand on the mu- 
 sician's shoulder, towards whom the latter has 
 turned his face as if to speak. 
 
 The picture seems so much to have been painted 
 
86 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 from life that a second picture of the same subject 
 in the Doria Palace in Rome has been called the 
 "Portraits of Luther, Melancthon, and Katharine 
 of Bora." 
 
 Titian (Titiano Vecellio, 1477-1576), born in 
 Capo del Cadore, is the fourth name in the so-called 
 quartet of world-masters in painting. He studied 
 with both the Bellini brothers, though but a short 
 time with Gentile. He is the greatest of Venetian 
 masters. Kugler says that in the multifariousness 
 of his powers Titian takes precedence of all other 
 painters of his school. His life was long and in it 
 he seems to have enriched every form of his art. 
 
 The art of Venice, however, is not that of 
 Florence, and we do not find the greatness of 
 Titian reaching such sublime heights as that of 
 Michael Angelo and Raphael or even Leonardo 
 da Vinci. It is in color that Titian stands pre- 
 eminent. Whatever he painted, whether figure, 
 drapery, or landscape, the color is impressive by its 
 magnificence. There is a tradition that, "while 
 other painters made their first essays in art with 
 charcoal, the boy Titian, who grew to be so glorious 
 a colorist, made his earliest efforts in painting with 
 the juice of flowers." 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 8/ 
 
 Titian is the world's greatest portrait painter : 
 lie excelled especially in paintjng women and chil- 
 dren. His wonderful Venuses are well known by- 
 all art lovers and art seekers. In composition he 
 is simple, but often grand and always pleasing. 
 His works are often historical, or simple pic- 
 tures of recorded facts, and he is said to have 
 painted always from nature. His figures are full 
 of a gorgeous life, yet are entirely free from sensu- 
 ality or vulgarity ; they are grand, calm, beautiful 
 beings, representing, as it were, the glorification 
 of earthly existence, whose wonderful coloring 
 charms every beholder. 
 
 Titian excelled in landscape painting. He often 
 introduced this branch of art as backgrounds to 
 his figures, and occasionally painted a purely land- 
 scape picture (which was a new thing at this time) ; 
 also he painted many "gorgeous church-pictures,'' 
 as Kiigler calls them. 
 
 It is said that Michael Angelo and Vasari, the 
 great art historian and critic, visited Titian to- 
 gether, while he was engaged in painting a picture 
 in the Belvedere. Michael Angelo praised the 
 picture very much, so Vasari says, but remarked 
 afterwards that it was a pity the Venetian painters 
 
88 ttlsToRtC SCHOOLS OP PAIMTING. 
 
 were not early disciplined in drawing, adding that 
 if Titian had been as much assisted by art as he 
 was by nature nothing could have surpassed him. 
 
 Titian retained his powers to the end of his 
 long life : he died of the plague when ninety-nine 
 years old. 
 
 Of his many works few can be mentioned here. 
 One of the earliest, and a very celebrated picture, 
 is the "Tribute Money" in the Dresden Gallery. 
 The expressions on the faces of Christ and the 
 crafty Pharisee are admirably in keeping with the 
 sentiment of the occasion, and the color is Titian's 
 own. The handling of this picture shows it to 
 belong to his earliest work. The details are dwelt 
 upon lovingly. Wornum says that, in its finish, he 
 rivals the best of the Dutch painters. In his later 
 works Titian's handling was much bolder, and he 
 wrought with broad masses of color. 
 
 One of his most remarkable pictures, remarkable 
 in the passionate excitement portrayed, is the 
 "Murder of Peter Martyr," formerly in the Church 
 of St. John and St. Paul in Venice. It has become 
 familiar to the art student by reproduction. This 
 picture, together with Giovanni Bellini's finest 
 Madonna, was lost in 1867 in a fire that destroyed 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 89 
 
 a chapel of this church, in which both famous 
 pictures had been placed temporarily while the 
 church altars over which they had hung were 
 being repaired. 
 
 Another masterpiece, executed when in the full 
 maturity of his powers, is the "Assumption of the 
 Virgin " in the Academy of Vetiice. This is one 
 of the finest pictures in the world. In it the Virgin, 
 surrounded by angels, ascends into the presence of 
 God, who, attended by an angelic band, is seen in 
 the upper part of the picture, while below is the 
 group of the Apostles, their various attitudes 
 signifying their amazement and admiration. 
 
 The Belvedere Gallery at Vienna possesses quite 
 a number of portraits and small pictures by Titian. 
 Among these is his own portrait and that of his 
 physician, II Parma. A "Marriage of St. Cather- 
 ine" is in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 
 
 Among the most beautiful of his Venuses is that 
 in the Dresden Gallery, where the goddess is re- 
 clining on a couch, Cupid crowning her with a 
 garland, while a young man playing the lute sits 
 beside her. 
 
 Among his famous portraits of beautiful women 
 are that called "Titian's Daughter" in the Museum 
 
go HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 in Berlin, where a young and lovely girl is repre- 
 sented holding a tray of fruit above her head, and 
 the charming "La Donna Bella" in the Sciarra 
 Gallery in Rome. Some critics in late years have 
 attributed this last picture to Palma Vecchio. 
 
 Sebastian del Piombo (1486-1547), born in Ven- 
 ice, was a pupil of Giorgione and entered upon the 
 practice of his art in Venice ; afterward, going to 
 Florence, he fell under the powerful influence of 
 Michael Angelo. His coloring is Venetian, his 
 design that of the Florentine school, and his rank 
 as an artist is high among those of both schools. 
 
 In the Doria Palace in Rome is the half-length 
 figure of Andrea Doria by this master. Wornum 
 says that probably no portrait in the world sur- 
 passes this. 
 
 Sebastian's greatest picture is the " Raising of 
 Lazarus" in the National Gallery, London. It is 
 said that Michael Angelo designed this picture 
 and induced Sebastian to paint it with his glow- 
 ing color in competition with Raphael's "Transfig- 
 uration." Whether this is true or not, it is true 
 that the " Lazarus " and the " Transfiguration " 
 were both painted at the same time for the Bishop 
 of Narbonne, afterward Pope Clement VII., and 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 9 1 
 
 that they were publicly exhibited together in 
 Rome; also that Michael Angelo is known to have 
 made several sketches of a figure in the same 
 position as the Lazarus in this picture, so that it is 
 reasonable to think that he may have given this to 
 Sebastian. We will trust that the great Florentine 
 gave no more aid with the unworthy motive of 
 fraudulently excelling the peerless Raphael. 
 
 // Vecchio (Jacopo Palma the Elder, 1475-1523), 
 born at Serinalta, is another very celebrated Vene- 
 tian painter. He was a follower of Giorgione and 
 Titian. Most of his works are still the pride of 
 Venice. These are remarkable for the harmony 
 of their warm, tender hues. His favorite subjects 
 were Madonnas, saints, and exquisite female heads, 
 for which his daughters are said to have often been 
 the models. One daughter especially, Violante, 
 was a favorite model with him as well as with 
 Titian. 
 
 It is generally conceded that the masterpiece of 
 this artist is a " St. Barbara with other Saints " 
 in the Church of Santa Maria Formosa in Venice. 
 This picture is painted in seven divisions, in the 
 middle one of which is the magnificent figure of 
 the saint ; beside her are other smaller figures. 
 
92 -HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTINfl. 
 
 while above is the Virgin with the body of Christ. 
 Violante was the model for St. Barbara. 
 
 In the Dresden Gallery is the well-known picture 
 of the "Three Graces" — three lovely Venetian 
 girls, supposed to be portraits of the artist's three 
 daughters. 
 
 Pordenone (Giovanni Antonio Licinio, 1484- 
 1539), born in Pordenone, and named from his 
 birthplace, is conspicuous among the Venetian 
 artists of this time. His pictures are similar to 
 those of Giorgione, but possess more force of 
 light and shade, and even vie with those of Titian 
 in their softness and warmth of coloring, especially 
 in the flesh-tints. He is, also, one of the most 
 distinguished of the Venetian fresco-painters ; 
 his works in this medium being remarkable for 
 their composition, purity of treatment, and dignity 
 of expression. 
 
 The interior of the Cathedral at Cremona, which 
 is covered with frescoes by this artist, is very 
 celebrated. 
 
 // Bassano (Jacopo da Ponte, 1510-1592), so- 
 called from his native city, is distinguished as 
 having been one of the earlist Italian genre 
 painters. He formed his style at first upon the 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 
 
 \i^ 
 
 model of Titian's works, but afterwards developed 
 for himself an altogether original method of rep- 
 resentation. He treated all subjects as familiar 
 scenes of his own times, and especially delighted 
 in the delineation of rustic life, going down into 
 barn-)'ards and peasants' cabins, and picturing their 
 occupants and utensils. He loved to introduce 
 animals, and did it either with or without propri- 
 ety. His color is pure and good, and his light and 
 shade excellent, but his execution is often careless. 
 Both he and his followers had the habit of con- 
 cealing hands and feet, a habit, Wornum says, 
 " equally to be deprecated, whether arising from 
 incapacity, indifference, or idleness." 
 
 His four sons were assistants in his labors, and 
 these five artists produced a great number of 
 paintings, all of which bear a strong family like- 
 ness to each other, and which opened the door to 
 a new period of art. 
 
 In the National Gallery, London, is the " Good 
 Samaritan," an excellent example of II Bassano's 
 style of painting. 
 
 Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti, 1512-1594), born in 
 Venice, and so-called from the trade of his father, 
 who was a dyer, is said to have been placed as a 
 
94 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 pupil with Titian, who sent him home at the end 
 of three days, saying that he "never would be 
 anything but a dauber." Some writers have 
 attributed this action to Titian's jealousy, but it is 
 hard to believe this to have been the case. Tin- 
 toretto, who evidently was not too modest, opened 
 a school of his own and inscribed over the door- 
 way, "The drawing of Michael Angelo and the 
 coloring of Titian." He is reckoned among the 
 boldest and most assured painters known in the 
 history of art. He was so rapid a painter that 
 he was called // Furioso by his contemporaries. 
 His paintings are astonishing, both as to number 
 and extent. The Venetians did not like frescoes, 
 preferring to cover the walls and ceilings of their 
 immense halls of state with very large oil-paintings, 
 and Tintoretto painted a great number of works 
 of this sort. He was a very careless painter, some 
 of his largest pictures being merely dead-colored 
 and apparently painted without much thought. 
 
 The Venetians used to say that Tintoretto had 
 three pencils, one of gold, one of silver, and one 
 of lead. Wornum says, it is a pity he did not use 
 his gold pencil oftener. He had a large capacity 
 for invention, great dramatic vigor, and loved a 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 95 
 
 gorgeous glare of color ; but his handling was apt 
 to be very careless. 
 
 His picture of " Paradise " in the Ducal Palace 
 at Venice is the largest oil-painting in the world, 
 being seventy-four feet wide and thirty-four feet 
 high. It is a pity that its size is its chief distinc- 
 tion. 
 
 Tintoretto's masterpiece is the " Miracle of the 
 Slave " in the Academy at Venice. This has been 
 much admired, although the coloring is heavy and 
 cold. In this picture, St. Mark delivers a Venetian 
 who has become a Turkish slave from the punish- 
 ment ordered by his master, by rendering him 
 invulnerable, so that the various instruments of 
 torture are broken on his body without hurting 
 him. 
 
 Paul Veronese (Paolo Cagliari, 1528-1588), born 
 in Verona, followed the principles of coloring 
 established by Titian, but originated a certain 
 magnificence of style peculiar to himself. His 
 pictures are distinguished by crowds of people, 
 arrayed with all the pomp and splendor that imag- 
 ination can conceive, or color accomplish ; while 
 in his backgrounds are piles of architecture of a 
 vastness and richness without a parallel in reality. 
 
96 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 He sets before us the old magnificent Venetian 
 life, in all its glory and intoxicating pleasures, and 
 in this kind of picture he seems most to delight ; 
 for, even when he treats more serious subjects, 
 and attempts to portray deep feeling, although he 
 has a nice perception of character and well ex- 
 presses it, yet he violates taste by painting every 
 scene, lofty or humble, sacred or profane, with the 
 pomp of splendor and the richness of ornament, 
 which were the fashion of his time. He was 
 much more careful in drawing than was Tinto- 
 retto ; he was not esteemed as a portrait painter. 
 
 Veronese's most celebrated picture is the " Mar- 
 riage of Cana " in the Louvre, Paris. This picture 
 covers six hundred square feet and contains one 
 hundred and thirty life-size figures, many of them 
 being portraits of some of the most distinguished 
 people of the time, not omitting Veronese's fellow- 
 artists, all arrayed in gorgeous costumes. In this 
 the principal figures, Christ and his Mother, are 
 represented as quite in the background. 
 
 A series of Veronese's best pictures are in the 
 Church of San Sebastiano in Venice, where the 
 master was buried. 
 
 Alessandro Bonvicino, known as // Moretto (dates 
 
VENETIAN SCHOOL. 97 
 
 of life unknown; was painting from 1524-1556), 
 born in Brescia, is one of the greatest masters of 
 this School outside of Venice. He was a pupil 
 of Titian, but afterward became an imitator of 
 Raphael's style. There is much of beauty and 
 a striking spirit of gentleness in his pictures. 
 He painted large frescoes and altar-pieces, with 
 many smaller religious works and portraits. Fine 
 examples of his work are still preserved at Brescia, 
 among which is a "Coronation of the Virgin," 
 which contains the figure of St. Michael, which 
 Mrs. Jameson calls one of the most beautiful ever 
 painted. 
 
 The Berlin Museum has two of his best works, 
 an " Adoration of the Shepherds " and a " Madonna 
 and Child." His masterpiece is generally con- 
 sidered to be the " St. Justina " in the gallery of 
 Vienna. This was for many years attributed to 
 Pordenone. 
 
98 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ECLECTIC OR BOLOGNESE SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : The aim of this school was to 
 select and to collect into one all the excellencies 
 of other schools. It was founded by the Carracci, 
 Ludovico and his cousins, Agostino and Annibale. 
 Ludovico was the greatest artist and Agostino the 
 best teacher. They conducted a school of art that 
 was very celebrated. Their greatest pupils were 
 Domenichino, Guido Reni, Albani, and Lanfranco. 
 
 Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri, 1581-1641), 
 born at Bologna, was the greatest pupil of the 
 Carracci, and holds the first rank in this school. 
 He surpassed most of his contemporaries in his 
 genial feeling for nature, striving in all his works 
 to give to the sacred events which he portrayed a 
 new attraction by means of the animated figures 
 which he introduced, studied from the people of 
 his time. His pictures are noted for harmonious 
 coloring, effective light and shade, great technical 
 skill, and a charming simplicity of style. 
 
ECLECTIC OR BOLOGNESE SCHOOL. 99 
 
 The story is told of a competition between 
 Domenichino and Guido Reni, each painting a pic- 
 ture in the Church of San Gregorio in Rome. At 
 first there seems to have been considerable doubt as 
 to which of the two works was superior, but at last 
 it was decided to give the palm to Domenichino. 
 The opinion of Annibale Carracci (who was one of 
 the judges) was formed by his observation, of an 
 old woman, who was explaining the pictures to her 
 child. Domenichino had chosen for his subject 
 the "Flagellation of St. Andrew"; Guido, "St. 
 Andrew going to Martyrdom " ; and the pictures 
 were painted in fresco on opposite sides of the 
 chapel. That of Guido represents a somewhat 
 confused crowd and possesses the character of a 
 decorative work, while that of Domenichino is 
 more dramatic. When the old woman stood be- 
 fore the latter, she said to the child, " Look, how 
 furiously that man raises the scourge to strike ; 
 and look at that other, how savagely he threatens 
 the saint with his finger ; and that one, how tight 
 he is pulling the cords round his feet ; and look at 
 the saint himself, with what faith he looks upwards 
 to heaven ! " Having said these words, she sighed, 
 and then turned to the picture of Guido, and 
 
lOO HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 standing a moment before it, left the church 
 without speaking another word. From this scene 
 Annibale was satisfied that Domenichino's was the 
 greater picture. Neither of these works, however, 
 are reckoned among the greatest of these two 
 celebrated artists. Domenichino is said to have 
 suffered much from the jealousy of his rivals ; and 
 to have died under the suspicion of having been 
 poisoned. "Certainly worried to death if not 
 poisoned," says Wornum. 
 
 His most noted painting and one of the finest 
 in the world is the "Communion of St. Jerome in 
 the Church at Bethlehem," now in an apartment of 
 the Vatican and placed opposite Raphael's " Trans- 
 figuration." In this picture the saint, an emaciated 
 old man, evidently about to die, is supported on 
 his knees before the altar, receiving the sacrament 
 from the hands of the priest. Several attendants 
 are present, and above is a group of angels. The 
 composition is very simple but beautiful ; the color- 
 ing, rich ; the light and shade, effective ; while the 
 execution possesses all the characteristic excel- 
 lence of this school. 
 
 Guido (Guido Reni, 1575-1642), born in Calven- 
 zano, near Bologna, excelled in painting women, 
 
ECLECTIC OK 150L0GNE.SE SCHOOL. lOl 
 
 old men, and children. He painted frescoes, also 
 panel-pictures containing several figures, but usu- 
 ally his individual figures are more attractive than 
 his compositions. At first he seems to have been 
 imbued with a spirit of realism ; but later he 
 became fond of ideal forms, and a general expres- 
 sion of sameness crept into his works. Wornum 
 says that " He painted in three manners : his first 
 being distinguished for a broad and powerful effect 
 of light and shade ; his second, for a rich and 
 warm tone of coloring ; and his third, for a pale, 
 green, silvery tone of color, combined with great 
 affectation of attitude and a striking inanity of 
 expression." 
 
 Guido's beautiful heads, however, have always 
 been, and always will be, much admired. The 
 following story is told of him : A Bolognese noble- 
 man was induced by the artist Guercino to try to 
 learn from Guido what woman was the model of 
 whom he made use for painting his beautiful 
 heads. "I will show you," said Guido, who readily 
 understood the plot ; so he called his color-grinder, 
 a great greasy fellow with a brutal look, bade him 
 sit down, turn his head up, and look at the sky ; 
 then taking his chalk, the artist drew a Magdalen 
 
I02 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 exactly in the same position, and with the same 
 lights and shadows, but beautiful as an angel. It 
 is said that he declared himself to be able to paint 
 a face with upturned eyes in two hundred different 
 ways. One of Guide's most noted portraits is 
 that of "Beatrice Cenci,"^ said to have been 
 painted in prison just before her execution. It is 
 now in the Barberini Palace in Rome. His 
 "Ecce Homo" in the Dresden Gallery is also 
 famous. 
 
 Guide's masterpiece is generally allowed to be 
 "Aurora, preceding the Chariot of the Sun, sur- 
 rounded by the Hours," which is painted in. fresco 
 on the ceiling of one of the apartments of the 
 garden-house of the Rospigliosi Palace at Rome. 
 This is called one of the finest decorative pictures 
 in the world. It is very well known by copies, 
 prints, and photographs. 
 
 Francesco Albani (1578-1660), born in Bologna, 
 was a fellow-pupil with Domenichino and Guido in 
 the school of the Carracci. He owes his reputa- 
 
 1 (Ba-a-tre'-cha Chen'-che) a Roman lady of noble birth, 
 famous for her beauty and tragical fate. Her father was an in- 
 famous person, who treated his family with such cruelty that 
 several of them conspired and caused him to be assassinated. 
 She was executed for that crime at Rome in 1599. 
 
ECLECTIC OR BOLOGNESE SCHOOL. IO3 
 
 tion to his oil-pictures, which generally have fanci- 
 ful and mythological subjects. These are usually 
 represented as being in the open air, and the 
 scenery is painted so well that the artist attained 
 quite a high reputation among landscape painters. 
 He is said to have been led into this particular 
 style of painting through having a large family of 
 most lovely children ; his wife and children were 
 the models for his numerous Venuses, Dianas, 
 nymphs, and Cupids. 
 
 While the sentimental and the picturesque char- 
 acterize the works of Guido, the fanciful, the 
 romantic, and the pretty characterize those of 
 Albani. This artist was one of the earliest of the 
 Italian painters who produced small easel-pictures 
 for mere beauty's sake. His religious pictures 
 are large, but he painted a great number of very 
 small pictures finished with extreme delicacy of 
 technique.^ 
 
 Among Albani's most celebrated pictures of this 
 style are the "Toilet of Venus" in the Louvre, 
 and the " Landing of Venus " in the Chigi Palace 
 in Rome. 
 
 Giovanni Lanfranco (1581-1647), born in Parma, 
 
 ^ See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 202. 
 
104 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 and the least of the four greatest scholars of the 
 Carracci, is chiefly distinguished for the ease of 
 his execution and the boldness of his manner. 
 He is rather shallow and superficial in his artistic 
 conceptions, and may be called an ornamental 
 painter. He endeavored to imitate Correggio in 
 style and subject. 
 
 He was a relentless persecutor of his fellow- 
 pupil, Domenichino, whose work in the Cathedral 
 of Naples he destroyed after the death of that 
 great and unfortunate artist, in order to substitute 
 his own. 
 
 Lanfranco's most noted work is a fresco paint- 
 ing, the "Assumption of the Virgin," in the cupola 
 of the Sant' Andrea della Valle in Rome. In this 
 picture the figures are colossal and the foreshort- 
 enings remarkable. 
 
 Guercino (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri, 1592- 
 1666), born at Cento near Bologna, was one of the 
 few able, self-taught painters of whom we have 
 record. His pictures display very great animation, 
 with a strong, bright coloring. Sometimes this 
 color is too heavy in the flesh-shadows. His earlier 
 works are stronger than his later ones ; his style 
 is strongly realistic, owing to the influence o£ 
 
ECLECTIC OR BOLOGNKSK SCHOOL. tO$ 
 
 Caravaggio of the Naturalist school, under which 
 he fell in early life, and his works are marked 
 by the broad masses of shadow and the small, 
 clear lights that are so characteristic of that 
 master. Later he imitated Guido Reni. 
 
 The greatest work of Guercino is the large 
 picture of the " Body of St. Petronilla raised from 
 the Tomb to be shown to her Betrothed Husband, 
 Flaccus," now in the Capitol at Rome. 
 
 In the National Gallery in London is a small 
 "Dead Christ," which is a fine example of his best 
 style ; and in the Brera Gallery in Milan is an " Ex- 
 pulsion of Hagar," which is full of poetic feeling. 
 
 Car/o Dolci (1616-1686) is chiefly distinguished 
 for the charming feeling and exquisite finish of his 
 pictures. These are generally mere heads or single 
 figures. His female figures are finer than his male, 
 for his style is rather effeminate. Sometimes there 
 is an affected sentimentality in his pictures that 
 is not pleasing, but this is not very common. His 
 color has an exquisitely soft bloom which lends a 
 great charm to his work. 
 
 His "Magdalene," " Angel of the Annunciation," 
 and " Mater Dolorosa," in the Uffizi Gallery, Flor- 
 ence, are all very well known through reproductions. 
 
I06- HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 SCHOOL OF THE NATURALISTS. 
 
 Characteristics : This school aimed at a literal 
 imitation of nature as opposed to the ideal view 
 which is founded on selection. It is one of the 
 least important of the schools of Italy. Founded 
 by Caravaggio. 
 
 Caravaggio (Michael Angelo Merigi, 1 569-1609), 
 born in -Caravaggio, was a wild, passionate man, 
 who reproduced much of his own character in the 
 subjects he chose, and also in his manner of 
 painting. At first he painted simply portraits in 
 Milan ; afterward, going to Venice, he studied the 
 works of Giorgione, and gained much from that 
 artist. Still, true to himself, he could paint nothing 
 noble. Whenever he chose, as he sometimes did, 
 events of a sacred character, he always placed the 
 scene on a low plane of life. He gave to the 
 world savage, ugly, and even brutal figures, abound- 
 ing in vitality and force, and very true to life. His 
 most successful pictures are those in which are 
 
SCHOOL OF THF. NATURALISTS. 10/ 
 
 portrayed the vagabonds and banditti of the times 
 in which he lived, and are especially characterized 
 by strong, bold coloring, sharp, glaring contrasts 
 of light and shade, and a high, small light. 
 
 Though his taste was vulgar and his design poor, 
 yet he exerted a great influence on many of his con- 
 temporaries. Nicholas Poussin, a follower of the 
 principles of this school, is reported to have said 
 that " Caravaggio came into the world to destroy 
 painting." 
 
 Caravaggio's first important picture, that which 
 established his reputation, is his oft-repeated 
 " Cheating Card-players," of which there is one 
 example in the Dresden Gallery, and another in 
 the Sciarra Gallery at Rome. 
 
 His best sacred work is the "Pieta" in the 
 Gallery of the Vatican. 
 
 Spagnoletto (Guiseppe Ribera, 1588-1647), born 
 at Xativa, near Valencia in Spain, is called by 
 many the most able of the Naturalist painters. 
 His forms are generally correct and strongly drawn, 
 and his pictures are very rich in color. His early 
 paintings are simple and unpretending, though 
 displaying much power ; but in the later ones he 
 presents scenes full of passion and terror, descend- 
 
I08 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 ing even to the portrayal of hideous executions 
 and martyrdoms, to which his wonderfully strong 
 chiaroscuro sometimes gives an almost demoniac 
 character. He had many imitators, his influence 
 being felt throughout Italy and Spain, especially 
 in Naples, where he lived and worked. 
 
 Spagnoletto was one of three painters of this 
 school, living in Naples, who are said to have 
 banded themselves together with the object of 
 excluding from that city the works of all masters 
 in other parts of Italy. They resolved to expel 
 or poison every painter of talent who should come 
 to Naples to practise his art there. Domenichino, 
 the great master of the Bolognese school, is re- 
 ported to have been one of their victims. Annibale 
 Carracci and Guido Reni were forced by them to 
 leave Naples. 
 
 One of Spagnoletto's best paintings is a " De- 
 scent from the Cross " in the sacristy of San 
 Martino in Naples. 
 
 Salvator Rosa{i6i^-l6y'i), born in Renella near 
 Naples, is conspicuous as a genre, portrait, and 
 landscape painter of this school. He studied in 
 early life with Spagnoletto, and afterwards went 
 to Rome, where he spent the most of his life. He 
 
SCHOOL 01- THE NATURALISTS. IO9 
 
 is especially remarkable for his landscape painting, 
 but in all his works there is a bold, emotional 
 conception, together with a masterly vigor, which 
 distinguishes him from other artists. 
 
 Fuseli has described thus beautifully the land- 
 scapes of Salvator : " He delighted in ideas of 
 desolation, solitude, and danger ; impenetrable for- 
 ests, rocky or storm-lashed shores ; in lonely dells 
 leading to dens and caverns of banditti ; Alpine 
 ridges, trees blasted by lightning or sapped by 
 time, or stretching their extravagant arms athwart 
 a murky sky ; lowering or thundering clouds, and 
 suns shorn of their beams. His figures are wan- 
 dering shepherds, forlorn travellers, wrecked mari- 
 ners, banditti lurking for their prey, or dividing 
 their spoils." 
 
 One of Salvator's best works is the " Conspiracy 
 of Catiline " in the Pitti Gallery at Florence. Fine 
 pictures painted by him may be seen also at the 
 Louvre, Berlin Museum, National Gallery, Lon- 
 don, and in the Colonna Gallery, Rome. 
 
 Nicholas Poiissin (1594-1665) was born in Nor- 
 mandy, and though French by birth, is reckoned 
 among the Italian masters of this school. His 
 style is peculiar, and had little influence among 
 
no HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 his contemporaries. He was a great admirer of 
 Domenichino, in whose academy he studied, but 
 he formed his style chiefly from Raphael and the 
 antique. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds says : " No works of any 
 modern have so much of the air of antique paint- 
 ing as those of Poussin. His best performances 
 have a remarkable dryness of manner, which, 
 though by no means to be recommended for imita^ 
 tion, yet seems perfectly correspondent to that 
 ancient simplicity which distinguished his style. 
 Like Polidoro, he studied the ancients so much 
 that he acquired a habit of thinking in their way." 
 Besides his historical pictures, Nicholas Poussin 
 gave to the world some of the very best interpreta- 
 tions of Italian landscape. Lubkd calls him the 
 "creator of heroic landscape." He gave little 
 attention to atmospheric effect or color, but 
 depicted mighty masses of foliage and rich antique 
 architectural grouping, which give great impres- 
 siveness to his pictures. 
 
 One of Poussin's masterpieces is a " Baccha- 
 nalian Dance" in the National Gallery, London. 
 In Belvoir Castle, Rutlandshire, England, is a 
 very fine series of compositions known as the 
 " Seven Sacraments." 
 
SCHOOL OF THE NATURALISTS. Ill 
 
 Gitspar Poiissin (Gaspard Dughet, 1613-1675), a 
 son-in-law of Nicholas Poussin, who took the name 
 of his famous relative, was born in Rome, and is 
 greatly distinguished as a landscape-painter. His 
 style and success were doubtless due very much to 
 the example and instruction of his father-in-law. 
 With a like talent for grand and noble composi- 
 tions, he combined a better atmospheric effect. 
 He was in the habit of painting on very dark 
 grounds, to which is due the gloomy, melancholy 
 effect seen in his pictures. 
 
 Fine examples of this master's works may be 
 seen in the Doria Gallery, Rome, and in the Na- 
 tional Galler)^ London. 
 
 Claude Lorraine (Claude Gillee, 1600-1682), born 
 in Lorraine, has won a lasting reputation as land- 
 scape painter. His early history is romantic The 
 cooks of Lorraine were famous at this time, and to 
 one of these his parents apprenticed the youthful 
 Claude. According to his intimate friend, Sand- 
 rart, the future painter travelled to Rome in the 
 company of some of these cooks, to seek em- 
 ployment there. He found it with a landscape 
 painter, Agostini Tassi, to whom he engaged him- 
 self as an ordinary domestic servant. He prepared 
 
112 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 his master's meals, and ground his colors for 
 him, and here formed the wish to make himself a 
 painter. 
 
 The chief excellence of his landscapes is in his 
 management of aerial perspective and light. The 
 atmospheres of his pictures possess a wonderful 
 melting softness, and his painting of light is 
 almost magical. His work was a constant incen- 
 tive to the great English Turner, who requested, 
 as an honor, that one of his works might be 
 hung beside that of Lorraine in the National 
 Gallery. 
 
 Lorraine's pictures are found in all the principal 
 art-galleries of Europe. 
 
FLEMISH SCHOOL. II3 
 
 FLEMISH SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : Abounding in color, also in 
 simplicity and truthfulness ; very realistic, and 
 scrupulous in its attention to details. In its begin- 
 nings, full of sentiment ; but later, wanting this 
 quality ; also wanting the supreme love for beauty 
 so characteristic in most of the Italian schools. 
 
 Founded by the Van Eycks. 
 
 Htibert Van Eyck (about 1366-1426), born in 
 Bruges in Flanders, was the founder of modern 
 painting in the North, and Liibk^ says that he 
 went a step in advance of the Italian masters of 
 his time. His style is elevated, uniting the ancient, 
 lofty ideal with a quickened feeling for nature. 
 He broke from the invariable (at this time) habit 
 of using gold backgrounds and placed his figures 
 in the midst of natural surroundings, and he did 
 this with- a power and vigor unattained by his 
 Italian contemporaries. He made marvellous prog- 
 ress in the use of oil as a medium ; so great, 
 
114 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 indeed, that he is termed the inventor of oil- 
 painting. This invention, however, consisted sim- 
 ply in the addition of an excellent varnish, which 
 gave to the oil-colors freshness and brilliancy, 
 and caused them to dry Quickly, thus greatly facili- 
 tating their use. 
 
 The greatest existing work by Hubert Van Eyck, 
 the fame of which is shared by his brother John, 
 is the "Adoration of the Lamb," begun by Hubert, 
 and completed after his death by John. This is a 
 large altar-piece, a part of which is still in the 
 Church of St. Bavon at Ghent, for which it was 
 painted ; another part is in the allery at Brussels, 
 and still a third in the Museum at Berlin. 
 
 John Van Eyck (about 1390-1440), born in 
 Bruges, was a brother of Hubert and his most 
 eminent pupil. The works of both the Van Eycks 
 have (with all their grand conception) a certain 
 stiffness of design and the cutting outlines that 
 characterize the pictures of their times. They 
 lack the effect which is procured by a general 
 massing of form and color, but each part taken 
 singly must be allowed to be almost perfect. 
 John Van Eyck developed the style of his brother 
 into more daintiness of finish. He imitated nature 
 
FLEMISH SCHOOL. II5 
 
 even to the minutest details. Wornum says that 
 unless an early Flemish painting be perfect in 
 all its parts, it cannot have been painted by 
 John Van Eyck. But we miss in his work the 
 intense earnestness and greatness of thought of 
 his brother. His figures are of a smaller size 
 and lack freedom. 
 
 Quite a large number of works by this artist 
 have been preserved. Many of them have the 
 scene lying in the interior of a church, usually of 
 the rounded-arch style of architecture — a favorite 
 style adopted by John Van Eyck and followed by 
 many of his successors in this school. A fine 
 example of this style is found in the Academy 
 at Bruges, where is an "Enthroned Madonna," 
 wrought with all the artist's skill in portraying 
 richness of costumes and surroundings. In this 
 picture is a portrait of the donor, Canon Van der 
 Pad. In the Louvre is another magnificent 
 " Madonna," represented in an open colonnade, 
 with Chancellor Rollin as donor. 
 
 Rogier Van der Weyden (about 1400-1464), 
 bom in Tournay, was the greatest follower of the 
 Van Eyck brothers. He surpassed even John 
 Van Eyck in faithful representation of smallest 
 
I l6 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 details. His works show that he was a great 
 master of expression ; his heads are softer in feel- 
 ing than those of the Van Eycks, although his 
 general outline is even more cutting and his fig- 
 ures are apt to be hard and angular ; his coloring 
 is not so rich as that of his masters. He was the 
 first to paint on canvases for the decoration of 
 apartments. 
 
 The reputed masterpiece of this artist is a " Last 
 Judgment " in the hospital at Beaune, in Bur- 
 gundy. There is also an admirable triptych in 
 the Pinakothek^ at Munich, representing the "Ad- 
 oration of the Magi," the "Annunciation," and 
 " Christ in the Temple." Among the worshipping 
 kings are the portraits of Philip of Burgundy and 
 Charles the Bold. Other pictures by Van der 
 Weyden are found at the Stadel Institute at 
 Frankfort, and in the Museums in Berlin and 
 Madrid. 
 
 Hans Memling (about 1425 to about 1495) is 
 another distinguished name in this school. It is 
 not known where he was born, but he lived and 
 painted in Bruges, and is supposed to have been 
 a pupil of Rogier Van der Weyden. He was a 
 
 ' A gallery of paintings in Munich. 
 
FLEMISH SCHOOL, II7 
 
 charming and gifted artist, and won a reputation 
 almost rivalling that of his master. Although his 
 execution is not quite so good, there is a greater 
 degree of lifelikeness and more poetic sentiment. 
 His coloring is good and his compositions quite 
 dramatic. 
 
 One characteristic of his pictures is the exten- 
 sion of background or landscape, in which are 
 included various scenes clustering about and ex- 
 plaining the subject or principal scene. 
 
 Several admirable works by Memling are in the 
 Hospital of St. John at Bruges, and among them 
 the only two pictures on which is inscribed the 
 artist's name. Here is the famous "Chest of St. 
 Ursula," of Gothic design, on every side of which 
 are painted in oil, scenes illustrating the history 
 of St. Ursula and her attendant martyr virgins — 
 their arrival in Cologne, in Basle, and in Rome ; 
 then the journey home, return to Cologne, and 
 finally the martyrdom of the saint. 
 
 Very remarkable pictures by this artist are two 
 tablets, representing the " Seven Joys " and the 
 " Seven Sorrows of the Virgin Mary," the first of 
 which is in the Pinakothek at Munich, and the 
 second in the Gallery at Turin. These are crowded 
 
Il8 HISTORIC SCHOOtS OF PAINTING. 
 
 with figures and painted on a rich background of 
 landscape, where towns and palaces, elaborately 
 rendered, are indicated in the extreme distance. 
 All is exquisitely painted. 
 
 Quintin Matsys (1450-1529), born in Louvain, 
 was brought up as a blacksmith and became dis- 
 tinguished for his skill in ornamental iron-work. 
 Falling in Jove with the daughter of an artist, he 
 forsook the anvil for the easel, in order to please 
 the father and win the daughter; and in time 
 became one of the most noted artists of this 
 period. 
 
 At this time Flemish art had become consider- 
 ably changed by the influence of the work of the 
 Italian masters. More and more the Northern 
 artists felt their lack of study direct from nature, 
 and their want of power in painting the human 
 figure, and hence began to bend all their strength 
 in this direction — striving hard to compete with 
 their fellow-laborers in Italy. Matsys evinced an 
 independence and a breadth of thought beyond 
 those who had painted before him. His works are 
 remarkable for great power and intense dramatic 
 expression, his execution is very careful, but his 
 color is wanting in brilliancy and fullness of depth, 
 
FLEMISH SCHOOL. I IQ 
 
 SO that it seems as if the principal thought of the 
 artist had been to paint energy and expression. 
 
 Wornum calls his masterpiece in the Museum 
 at Antwerp one of the wonders of its age. This 
 is a "Descent from the Cross," an altar-piece con- 
 sisting of a centre and two folding wings or doors. 
 In the centre is the taking down from the cross, 
 while on the two wings are represented the mar- 
 tyrdoms of St. John the Baptist and St. John the 
 Evangelist, which display an intensity of expres- 
 sion bordering on the horrible. 
 
 Matsys painted genre pictures, in which individ- 
 ual characteristics are brought out with great dis- 
 tinctness. One of these, the " Money-changer and 
 his Wife," is in the Louvre. Another, the "Two 
 Misers," is in Windsor Castle, England. 
 
 Mabuse (Johann Gossaert, 1499-1562), named 
 from his birthplace, now Maubeuge, within the 
 French frontier, is an inferior artist of this school, 
 though he gave to the world many pictures pos- 
 sessing a certain degree of merit. His early works 
 are better than his later ones, which seem to suffer 
 from the influence of an Italian mannerism. 
 
 One of his best works is a large altar-piece in 
 the States Gallery in Prague. This represents St. 
 
120 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Luke painting the portrait of the Madonna; the 
 scene is laid amidst rich architecture of the re- 
 naissance^ style. 
 
 At Hampton Court, England, are several pic- 
 tures supposed to be wholly, or in part, the work 
 of Mabuse. The Pinakothek in Munich also con- 
 tains several of his later works. 
 
 Peter Paul Rubens (i 577-1640), bom at Siegen 
 in Westphalia, is the first great name in Flemish 
 art, after it was modified by the fine arts of Italy. 
 
 Rubens represents magnificence arising from 
 color. Fuseli says : " What has been said of 
 Michael Angelo yi form, may be said of Rubens 
 in color. They had but one. As the one came to 
 nature and moulded her to his generic form, the 
 other came to nature and tinged her with his color 
 — ^the color of gay magnificence. He levelled his 
 subject to his style, but seldom, if ever, his style 
 to his subject. 
 
 "Whatever be the subject of Rubens — legend, 
 martyrdom, fable, epic, dramatic, lyric, grave, or 
 gay — the lines that embody, the air that tinges 
 
 ' A term applied to a peculiar style of architecture and orna- 
 mentation, founded on the antique, which originated in Italy 
 about the commencement of the fifteenth century. The name 
 signifies a renewal or new birth. 
 
FLEMISH SCHOOL. 121 
 
 them, is an indiscriminate expanse of gay magnifi- 
 cence. If the economy of his colors be that of an 
 immense nosegay, he has not always connected 
 the ingredients with a prismatic eye — the balance 
 of the iris is not arbitrary ; the balance of his 
 color often is." 
 
 Rubens has great fame as a landscape painter; 
 also as a painter of animals, but most of all for 
 pictures into which the human figure is wrought. 
 He painted many Bacchanalian scenes. His pic- 
 tures are full of passionate movement ; his men, 
 women, and children are always lusty, seeming to 
 be overflowing with animal life. They have not 
 the nobility of form found in the later Italian 
 schools, but seem much more capable of action. 
 In brilliant, fresh color, he transcends all other 
 artists, but lacks the richness of Titian. 
 
 Rubens' works are very numerous, nearly four 
 thousand pictures and sketches being attributed 
 to him, aided by his scholars. He may be seen to 
 advantage in the Gallery at Brussels, in the Bel- 
 vedere Gallery at Vienna, in the Louvre at Paris, 
 and in the National Gallery at London ; but it is 
 only at Antwerp and at Munich that his powers as 
 an artist can be fully and justly seen. 
 
122 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, 
 
 Antwerp possesses his greatest works : the 
 " Descent from the Cross " in the Cathedral, the 
 "Crucifixion" and the "Adoration of the Kings" 
 in the Museum, besides many other very excellent 
 ones in the several churches of the city. The 
 " Descent from the Cross " is conceded to be his 
 masterpiece. A peculiarity of this picture, and a 
 bit of daring on the part of the artist, is the op- 
 posing to the body of the crucified Saviour a sheet 
 of white linen as a background, something that 
 none but a great colorist would dare to do. 
 
 In the Pinakothek at Munich are ninety-four 
 pictures by Rubens, among them the famous 
 "Battle of the Amazons" and the "Fall of the 
 Angels," the latter of which is exceedingly fine 
 in its composition, wonderful in its aerial per- 
 spective,^ and striking in its breadth of light and 
 shade, but which always impresses the beholder as 
 being too crowded with coarse, sensuous figures. 
 
 In the Louvre are some brilliant genre pictures, 
 among them the "Peasants' Dance." Here, also, 
 are a series of twenty-one paintings, representing 
 the history of Marie de' Medici. 
 
 In the National Gallery, London, is the famous 
 
 1 See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 199. 
 
FLEMISH SCHOOL. 123 
 
 " Straw Hat," accounted one of the most beautiful 
 portraits in the world. 
 
 Antony Van Dyck or Vandyck (i 599-1641), born 
 at Antwerp, is the most noted name among the 
 pupils of Rubens. He is chiefly distinguished as 
 a portrait painter, although he executed many 
 historical pictures. Wornum says : " As a portrait 
 painter Vandyck is generally allowed to dispute 
 the palm with Titian. His portraits are inferior to 
 Titian's in color, and in solidity of effect. In all 
 other respects Vandyck was fully equal if not 
 superior to the great Venetian painter. In indi- 
 viduality, in attitude, and in costume he leaves 
 nothing to be desired. In drawing and in the man- 
 agement of light and shade he is equally excellent. 
 Many of his portraits, however, are deficient in 
 coloring, and consequently tame and flat in effect." 
 
 England is rich in the possession of many of his 
 most valuable works ; for he lived there quite a 
 number of years, being chief painter to Charles I. 
 The Vandyck Gallery in Windsor Castle alone 
 contains twenty-three pictures, and others are 
 scattered throughout the country. 
 
 Among the most famous of his portraits on the 
 continent are that of "Charles I. of England" in 
 
124 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the Louvre ; of the " Children of Charles I." in 
 the Gallery at Dresden, and of the " Infanta 
 Eugenia " in the Berlin Museum. 
 
 Vandyck's best historical picture is a " Cruci- 
 fixion with the Two Thieves " in the Cathedral of 
 Mechlin, which Sir Joshua Reynolds considered to 
 be one of the finest pictures in the world. He says : 
 " This is perhaps the most capital of all Vandyck's 
 works in respect to the variety and extensiveness 
 of the design, and the judicious disposition of the 
 whole. In the efforts which the thieves make to 
 disengage themselves ■ from the cross, he has suc- 
 cessfully encountered the difficulty of the art, and 
 the expression of grief and resignation in the 
 Virgin is admirable. This picture, on the whole, 
 may be considered as one of the finest pictures in 
 the world, and gives the highest idea of Vandyck's 
 powers. It shows that he had truly a genius for 
 history painting if it had not been taken off by 
 portraits." 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL. 125 
 
 GERMAN SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : In its beginnings every- 
 thing was distinguished by a hard, Gothic style ; 
 much attention was given to the elaboration of 
 details. Sentiment was wanting. After Diirer the 
 art became full of expression and sentiment, and 
 good in color. The forms are more full of charac- 
 ter than of beauty. Many artists of this school 
 are noted for the versatility of their powers. 
 
 The beginnings of German art are very closely 
 allied with those of the Flemish school, and have 
 left few traces behind them. Most of the works 
 left by its early painters are to be seen at Cologne 
 and Munich. These are generally painted on gold 
 backgrounds, upon panels, and are remarkable for 
 their still brilliant coloring, and the careful detail 
 of their execution. Though painted in tempera, 
 they have the effect of oil-paintings, so perfect is 
 the impasto. The drawing is weak, especially that 
 of the extremities of figures ; the heads have 
 
126 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 sometimes a noble expression ; the subjects are 
 exclusively religious. 
 
 Meister Wilhelm von Coeln or William of Col- 
 ogne is the earliest name to which existing pictures 
 of worth are attributed. He lived in the middle 
 and latter part of the fourteenth century. 
 
 A large altar-piece in a chapel in the Cathedral 
 at Cologne is supposed to be the work of Meister 
 Wilhelm ; also several fine old pictures in the 
 Pinakothek at Munich, especially two groups of 
 saints and a " Sancta Veronica." 
 
 Meister Stephan is supposed to have been a pupil 
 of Meister Wilhelm, and painted the "Madonna 
 with the Violet" in the Museum of Cologne. This 
 is a standing figure of the Madonna, holding in 
 her right arm the infant Christ, and in her left 
 hand a violet. Some critics attribute to this artist 
 some of the works above mentioned as having 
 been painted by Meister Wilhelm. 
 
 Meister Stephan was also the painter of the 
 famous "Dom-bild" (Cathedral picture) in the 
 Cathedral at Cologne, spoken of by Albert Diirer 
 in his Diary. 
 
 There are several old pictures supposed to have 
 been painted at this time, whose authors are not 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL. \2^ 
 
 known, — such as the " Lyversberg Passion," so 
 called from its belonging to the Lyversberg family 
 at Cologne (this is a series of eight compositions 
 from the life of our Lord, painted on gold grounds), 
 and the W'erden pictures in the Abbey of Werden, 
 near Diisseldorf. 
 
 Michael Wolgemiitli (1434-1519) was the master 
 of Albert Diirer, and had quite a large school of 
 pupils in Nuremberg. Wornum says he appears 
 to have kept up a complete manufactory of pictures 
 by means of his scholars, while Liibke says, " Being 
 at the head of a large company of journeymen, he 
 executed with the readiness of a job-workman a 
 number of altar-pieces in which wood-carving and 
 panel-painting are combined." 
 
 The pictures attributed to Wolgemuth are very 
 ugly. . The figures are distorted both in limb and 
 feature. When he strove to portray passion, its 
 degree is shown only by the degree of distortion. 
 
 In the Pinakothek at Munich there are five large 
 pictures of the life of Christ by this painter, all 
 of them showing in a conspicuous manner his 
 characteristics. 
 
 A Ibreckt Diirer {it^.yi-i^zi), born in Nuremberg, 
 is almost equally renowned as painter, sculptor, and 
 
128 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 engraver, and is the most celebrated master of 
 his times north of the Alps. As a painter, his 
 reputation is great, his inborn artistic ability, ac- 
 cording to Liibke, ranking equal to the greatest 
 Italian masters, but his means of expression seem 
 to have been limited. He appears to have copied 
 his model with all its individual imperfections. 
 His sacred characters are the Nuremberg burghers, 
 surrounded by the details of their daily life, and 
 even in these he does not seem to have sought 
 after the most beautiful forms and faces, but often 
 uses those that are coarse or that seem so in his 
 hard, literal representation of them. Yet, in spite 
 of all this, Diirer's art won the admiration of 
 Raphael and his great artist contemporaries. Ven- 
 ice offered him two hundred ducats yearly if he 
 would live there, and Antwerp strove to keep him 
 by similar offers. 
 
 His pictures are strong and positive in color, 
 and his wonderful powers of invention are well 
 seen in his many designs for wood-cuts. As an 
 engraver en copper he is very noted, and is the 
 reputed inventor of the art of etching and of 
 printed wood-cuts in two colors. 
 
 Among Durer's finest pictures is the painting of 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL. 1 29 
 
 the " Trinity " in the Belvedere Gallery, Vienna. 
 In this, God the Father is represented as en- 
 throned, surrounded by angels and adoring be- 
 lievers ; above him is the Dove (the Holy Spirit), 
 while in his arms he holds the body of his Son, 
 stretched on the crucifix, before the worshipping 
 multitude. Into this painting the artist has intro- 
 duced a full-length portrait of himself. 
 
 In this same gallery is a very beautiful "Ma- 
 donna," one of DUrer's best works in composition, 
 expression, and color. 
 
 In the Pinakothek at Munich is one of his last 
 works, called the " Four Pillars of the Church." 
 On two panels John and Peter, Paul and Mark 
 were painted, and each figure is full of such indi- 
 vidual character that the picture is sometimes 
 called the "Four Temperaments." 
 
 Among many fine portraits painted by Diirer 
 perhaps the finest is one of himself in the same 
 gallery. 
 
 Ltuas Cranach (1472-1553), born at Cranach in 
 Bavaria, was a contemporary of Diirer, and has a 
 widespread reputation, more from the number of 
 his works than for their intrinsic merit. His pic- 
 tures possess a cheerful air without showing much 
 
130 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 sentiment. His Madonnas, with their light hair, 
 round, fresh faces, and smiling eyes, are true Ger- 
 man matrons. He painted many religious pictures, 
 was a good portrait painter, and excelled in paint- 
 ing animals. He was an intimate friend of Martin 
 Luther, whose portrait he painted several times. 
 
 The chief among his religious pictures is a 
 " Crucifixion at Weimar," in which are portraits 
 of Luther and Cranach himself, the latter being 
 struck by a stream of blood flowing out of the side 
 of the Saviour. 
 
 Hans Holbein, the younger (1495-1543), born in 
 Augsburg, whose father was a considerable artist, 
 is one of the noblest names in German art. His 
 paintings show the softening influence of Italian 
 art and its greater ideality, yet everything is 
 treated in a wholly independent manner peculiar 
 to the artist himself. His composition is usually 
 simple and striking, and in some pictures dramatic. 
 His religious pieces are behind those of Diirer in 
 deep and reverential feeling, but the drawing and 
 color are far better. His colors are rather thinly 
 used, and through them a careful outline is some- 
 times seen. In his later years, several of which 
 were spent in England, he gave himself up almost 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL. I3I 
 
 wholly to the painting of portraits, and his numer- 
 ous productions in this branch of painting rank 
 among the best. 
 
 From the following anecdote, told by Sir Horace 
 Walpole, however, exactness in portraiture was not 
 always characteristic of Holbein. In 1539 he was 
 sent by Lord Cromwell, minister to King Henry 
 the Eighth, to paint a portrait of Lady Anne of 
 Cleves ; and by practising the common flattery of 
 the profession, was the immediate cause of the 
 destruction of that great subject (Cromwell), and 
 of the disgrace that fell on the princess herself. 
 He made so favorable a likeness that Henry was 
 content to wed her ; but when he found her so 
 inferior to the portrait, the storm of anger which 
 should have fallen upon the painter, burst on 
 the minister, and Cromwell lost his head because 
 Anne was not the Venus which Holbein had repre- 
 sented her to be. 
 
 Holbein painted in oils, tempera, and water-color, 
 practising the last medium only after he went to 
 England. His miniatures have all the strength of 
 oil-colors joined to the most finished delicacy. His 
 portraits are usually on a green ground ; in his 
 smaller pictures often on a deep blue. He is fa- 
 
132 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 mous for the inimitable bloom which he gave to his 
 pictures, which he touched and retouched until not 
 a stroke of the brush was discernible. 
 
 A very noted picture by this artist is the " Meyer 
 Madonna," painted by order of Burgomaster Meyer 
 as an offering of thanksgiving for the recovery of 
 a sick child. In it the whole family of the burgo- 
 master is represented kneeling at the feet of the 
 Madonna. 
 
 There has been for years a singular controversy 
 regarding which is the true work of Holbein, the 
 picture which is in the possession of the royal fam- 
 ily of Hesse at Darmstadt, or its counterpart which 
 hangs in the Dresden Gallery. The greater number 
 of competent critics unite in believing that at 
 Darmstadt to be the true one. 
 
 One of Holbein's best portraits is that of Morett, 
 the jeweller of Henry VHI., a half-length on wood, 
 now in the Dresden Gallery. 
 
 Adam Elzheimer (i 574-1620), known as Adam of 
 Frankfort, from his birthplace, has a reputation for 
 his small landscapes, into which he introduced well- 
 painted figures both from Bible history and from 
 ancient mythology. He is also distinguished for 
 the painting of night-pieces, with moonlight or 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL. I 33 
 
 artificial-light effects. In all of these the figures 
 are subordinate to the rich landscape setting, so 
 that he takes high rank among the earliest land- 
 scape painters. Sandrart tells us of his enthusi- 
 astic love for nature : how he would lie for a whole 
 day studying a cluster of trees or any other natural 
 object without making any attempt to sketch it, 
 then go home and render it faithfully upon his 
 canvas. Pictures by Elzheimer are very rare. 
 A few may be seen in the Stadel Museum at 
 Frankfort, in the Pinakothek at Munich, in the 
 Louvre, and in the Belvedere Gallery at Vienna. 
 
 Balthasar Denner (1685-1749), born in Hamburg, 
 was a somewhat gifted, but very eccentric artist, 
 whose works have attained quite a reputation 
 among the countries of northern Europe. His 
 pictures are mostly portraits, and present an ex- 
 traordinary realism, even the peculiarities of the 
 skin being often represented ; the heads have an 
 artificial appearance, though to a certain degree 
 they are pleasing. He also painted flower and 
 fruit-pieces, distinguished for excessive finish. He 
 lived several years in England, and there are speci- 
 mens of his work at Hampton Court. 
 
 Raphael Mengs (1728-1772) is distinguished 
 
134 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 among later artists of the German School as hav- 
 ing, in some degree, prepared the way for the re- 
 turn to a more ideal style of art. He was greatly 
 influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, the 
 great art-historian, who directed the attention of 
 the world to the study and right understanding of 
 the masterpieces of classic antiquity, but he was 
 too blindly devoted to the antique to produce work 
 of the highest class. All individualism seems to 
 have been suppressed, and his works are rather 
 insipid and monotonous. 
 
 German Painting in the Present Century. 
 
 In the present century there are important Ger- 
 man schools of painting at Diisseldorf, at Munich, 
 at Berlin, and at Vienna, (which, although not Ger- 
 man geographically, is so in her painting). The 
 Diisseldorf School is characterized by great reiine- 
 ment and sentiment, together with a careful study 
 of nature and a somewhat delicate coloring. 
 
 Peter Cornelius (1783-1867), born in Diisseldorf, 
 studied for many years in Rome, and when called 
 back to his native city, to become director of the 
 Academy of Painting there, brought an influence 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL. 1 35 
 
 that revolutionized modern German art. He had 
 thoroughly imbibed the grand idealism which 
 marked the zenith of Italian art. Later he was 
 called by King Louis to decorate the national 
 buildings of Munich. His extensive frescoes may 
 be seen in the Glyptothek,^ where he pictured the 
 ancient world of gods and heroes, and in the Log- 
 gia^ of the Pinakothek, where he painted the his- 
 tory of Christian art. He was invited by Frederic 
 William IV. to Berlin, to decorate the royal mauso- 
 leum, and there executed a series of wonderful 
 compositions full of elevated beauty, representing 
 the whole story of the world as seen in the light of 
 revelation. After the name of Cornelius, come 
 those of William Schadow ; Karl Lessing, famous 
 for his paintings of Luther and the Reformation ; 
 Jacob Becker, known for his scenes from village-life ; 
 Henry Ritter and Rudolph Jordan, painters of fish- 
 ermen ; Hoffmann, who painted the well-known 
 " Christ in the Temple" ; Ludwig Knaus, the genre 
 painter ; Emanuel Leutze, who painted " Washing- 
 ton crossing the Delaware " ; Weber, known for his 
 forest-scenes ; and Oswald Achenbach, for his land- 
 scapes and marines. 
 
 1 A famous sculpture-gallery in Munich. 
 
 ^ (Lod'-jii.) A vestibule ornamented with paintings. 
 
136 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 The Munich School, similar to the Diisseldorf at 
 first, soon displayed a more realistic tendency, and 
 chose to picture striking and forceful scenes; 
 afterward it inclined to the romantic ^ style, with a 
 fondness for rich coloring and skilful technique. 
 Among its strongest names are Wilhelm Kanlbach 
 (1804-1874), who painted "The Battle of the 
 Huns " in the Museum at Berlin, and who has 
 given to the world so many conceptions of Shake- 
 speare's and Goethe's heroines ; Peter Hess, the 
 battle painter ; Voltz, the painter of cattle ; Gabriel 
 Max, known for his " Head of Christ," his Madon- 
 nas, and his "Virgin Martyr in the Arena" ; Hans 
 Makart, whose pictures are marvels of color ; and 
 Christian Morgenstein and Heinlein, landscape 
 painters. 
 
 The Berlin School has been marked by tenden- 
 cies similar to those of the Diisseldorf School, 
 although it has not been quite its equal in results 
 or influence. Among the noted names of this 
 school are Friedrich Kilger, painter of horses, also 
 known as a portrait painter ; Adolph Memel, cele- 
 
 1 Appropriate to the style of the popular literature of the middle 
 ages as opposed to the classic antique : hence fictitious, extrava- 
 gant, fanciful. 
 
GERMAN SCHOOL. 137 
 
 brated for his pictures representing scenes in the 
 life of Frederick the Great ; Carl Schom diXid Julius 
 Schroder, historical painters ; Edward and Patil 
 Meyerheim and Carl Becker, genre painters ; Hen- 
 neberg, who painted "The Wild Huntsman," and 
 Hildebrandt, landscape painter. 
 
 Among the noted names of the Vienna School 
 are Peter Krafft and Carl Rahl, historical painters ; 
 Waldmuller, with his pictures of peasant life, and 
 Michael Munkdcsy (1846- ), the Hungarian, 
 who painted "Milton dictating to his Daughters," 
 and "Christ before Pilate." 
 
138 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 DUTCH SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : Distinguished by the elabo- 
 ration of the single element of tone, or the general 
 effect of light and shade ; also devoted to the genre 
 style, so that the terms "Dutch" and "genre" 
 have grown in later years to be almost synonymous 
 when applied to painting. 
 
 Founded by Rembrandt. 
 
 Rembrandt van Rijn (1607-1669), born in Ley- 
 den, the son of a miller, has the distinction of 
 being the head of this school. He seems to have 
 possessed a deep, passionate temperament, which 
 impelled him to adopt a new style of art with a 
 wonderful development of chiaroscuro. Wornum 
 says that, judging from Rembrandt's works, the 
 mill of the father was doubtless the school of the 
 son ; the strong and soUtary light with the sur- 
 rounding gloom, which is the characteristic of so 
 many of Rembrandt's best works, is just such an ef- 
 fect as would be produced by the one ray admitted 
 
DUTCH SCHOOL. 1 39 
 
 into the lofty chamber of a mill by its small 
 window. If a few bright flowers be thrown into 
 the pathway of a single ray of- light in such a dark 
 chamber, we have exemplified in nature Rem- 
 brandt's method of coloring. Da Vinci and Cor- 
 reggio showed tone and roundness of objects by 
 their careful and patient management of light and 
 shade ; but Rembrandt's style is one of effects and 
 contrasts, not gradually developed, but created 
 instantaneously as it were, sudden and brilliant, an 
 illuminated object in a dark space. This makes 
 the chief attraction of his paintings ; for they lack 
 the noble, pure expression of sentiment which 
 creates the highest art. 
 
 His greatest power is in portrait. His composi- 
 tion and drawing are very often defective. He 
 had no thought for propriety of costume, and used 
 the same attire for all ranks and persons, as suited 
 his whim. In his religious pictures Christ may be 
 seen teaching in the temple, with a Turkish mer- 
 chant on one side and a Dutch peasant on the 
 other, or he would fill a barn with Dutch beggars 
 and call it "Christ healing the Sick." 
 
 However, notwithstanding all these things, his 
 pictures, which are in all the principal galleries in 
 
140 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Europe, take possession of and enthrall the be- 
 holder by their weird, irresistible charm and their 
 poetic power. 
 
 One of Rembrandt's masterpieces is the famous 
 " Night-Guard " or " Night Watch " in the Museum 
 at Amsterdam. This represents the armed bur- 
 gesses or national guard of Amsterdam in a pro- 
 cession almost enveloped in darkness ; the only 
 light in the picture being caused by the discharge 
 of fire-arms by some member of the company, 
 which evidently has caused alarm. 
 
 In the National Gallery in London are striking 
 pictures — the "Woman bathing," the "Jew Mer- 
 chant," and the "Jew Rabbi." In the gallery at 
 Cassel are several fine and characteristic portraits, 
 among them that of the artist's beautiful first 
 wife, Saskia. 
 
 David Tenters, the younger (1610-1694), born in 
 Antwerp, was so called to distinguish him from 
 his father, who was also an artist. He was the 
 pioneer in the lower genre style of painting, which 
 is so distinctive of the Dutch School. By this is 
 meant that which takes for its subject the deline- 
 ation of common peasant life. Teniers was not 
 only the pioneer, but is also one of the most noted 
 
DUTCH SCHOOL. I4I 
 
 of all this class of artists. He never failed to pro- 
 duce a picturesque effect, used color powerfully, 
 and added to this a very skilful disposition of light 
 and shade. 
 
 His pictures are distinguished by a humorous 
 element, which sometimes becomes comical, as 
 may be seen in the Museum in Berlin and in the 
 Pinakothek in Munich. Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 speaking of his manipulation, says : " His manner 
 of touching, or what we call 'handling,' has per- 
 haps never been equalled. There is in his pictures 
 that exact mixture of softness and sharpness which 
 is difficult to execute." Lubkd says: "Teniers' 
 pictures may easily be recognized by their clear, 
 fresh coloring, their bold and spirited touch, and 
 the perfect and masterly reproduction of even 
 subordinate objects, such as household utensils, 
 vessels, etc." He used color thinly, so thinly that 
 in some of his most characteristic pictures much 
 of the ground may be plainly seen through it. 
 Almost every large gallery of paintings possesses 
 some specimens of this artist's work. An impor- 
 tant picture is " A Village Fete" in Buckingham 
 Palace, London ; there are also two or three good 
 examples of his work in the National Gallery, 
 London. 
 
142 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 In the gallery at Brussels is the " Interior of the 
 Archduke Leopold's Picture Gallery," in which 
 Teniers is showing an engraving by himself of one 
 of the pictures to the Archduke. Here he has 
 introduced many pictures of various schools, and 
 in all these small copies has adhered to the styles 
 of the originals. 
 
 Gerhard Terburg (1618^1681), born in Zwolle, 
 excelled in painting the higher genre of his day ; 
 that is, he chose for his subjects events occurring 
 among the high social circles, depicting them with 
 all their dainty elegance and dignity of manner. 
 He is especially known for what are called his 
 conversation-pieces, in which he frequently repre- 
 sented a lady in a white satin dress, which is 
 painted with peculiar skill. He was very success- 
 ful in the rendering of all costly costumes, silk and 
 satin, and precious stones. In painting an interior, 
 he managed with great delicacy the light and 
 shade which adds a special charm to such pictures. 
 He also painted many portraits. One of Terburg's 
 noted pictures is the " Ofificer reading a Letter to 
 a Lady " in the Museum of The Hague. In the 
 same gallery is the artist's own portrait, a full- 
 length, as burgomaster. 
 
DUTCH SCHOOL. I43 
 
 In the gallery at Cassel is a charming picture, 
 "The Lute-player," in which is represented, within ' 
 a dainty interior, a beautiful woman in a white 
 satin gown playing the lute. 
 
 Adrian van <9j/a</? (1610-1685), born in Liibeck, 
 painted pictures very similar in size and subject 
 to those of Teniers ; these are almost exclusively 
 interiors, within which are scenes from peasant 
 life. There is not so much life and humor in his 
 works as in those of Teniers, and there is less 
 freedom in their execution. 
 
 Van Ostade also painted very solidly, whereas 
 Teniers used very thin color. Yet, there is much 
 more carefulness and precision of modelling in 
 the figures of the latter than in those of the 
 former. There are, however, in the works of 
 Van Ostade, a warm, strong coloring and an ad- 
 mirable treatment of light and shade, which 
 render them valuable. Works by this artist may 
 be seen in the- Gallery of The Hague, and in 
 other collections of paintings. 
 
 Gerhard Dow (161 3-1680), born in Leyden, was 
 one of the most celebrated pupils of Rembrandt, 
 and gained from him a fine mastery of chiaroscuro. 
 He painted pictures similar in subject to those 
 
144 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of Terburg ; that is, they represent the higher 
 social life of the day and country ; but Dow's 
 pictures are not quite so spirited as those of the 
 former master. There is not so much of romantic 
 interest in them. He liked to portray the domes- 
 tic life of citizens, to picture home-life with all 
 its coziness and comfort. 
 
 His execution is delicate, yet marked with a 
 certain freedom of touch, and his pictures are 
 distinguished for a very soft, but still vigorous, 
 chiaroscuro. 
 
 In the National Gallery, London, is a portrait 
 of this artist, with a pipe in his hand, painted by 
 himself. Also, a fine genre-subject in the Belve- 
 dere Gallery, Vienna. His work may also be 
 seen in the Louvre. 
 
 Gabriel Metzu (1615-1661 .'), born in Leyden, 
 was a pupil of Gerhard Dow, and has a consider- 
 able reputation among the genre painters of Hol- 
 land. His early work is worthy of being ranked 
 with that of Terburg and Dow ; but his later 
 pictures are heavy and leaden in color. He occa- 
 sionally painted large figures, boldly but rather 
 coarsely executed, with strong effects of light and 
 shad?, 
 
DUTCH SCHOOL. 145 
 
 One of Dow's characteristic paintings, "The 
 Market Woman," may be seen in the Dresden 
 Gallery, and another, " The Sportsman," in The 
 Hague. 
 
 Philip Woiiverman (1620-1668) was born in 
 Haarlem, and although a painter of great merit, 
 was not appreciated in his lifetime ; he lived and 
 died poor. He is noted as a painter of landscape, 
 figures, and animals, in the latter of which depart- 
 ments he especially excelled. Wouverman's 
 horses in particular are worthy of admiration. 
 Popular tradition says that he never painted a 
 picture without introducing into it a white horse ; 
 but certainly many pictures are attributed to him 
 which do not contain one ; although, from the 
 frequency of its occurrence, this animal was evi- 
 dently a great favorite with the artist. 
 
 His subjects are generally travelling, hunting, 
 and battle-scenes, in which landscape and figures 
 are both well drawn and painted with rich, trans- 
 parent color. 
 
 In the Gallery of Dresden there are sixty-three 
 works attributed to Wouverman, and in the 
 Dulwich Gallery, England, nine. It is probable, 
 however, that not all of these are his. 
 
146 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Paul Potter (1625-1654), born in Enkhuizen, 
 painted very simple, unpretentious pictures, repre- 
 senting quiet landscapes and shepherd life. This 
 he did, however, in so true and faithful a manner, 
 that his pictures are masterpieces of this class of 
 painting. His reputation rests greatly upon a 
 single work, "The Young Bull," now in the State 
 Gallery at The Hague. 
 
 It is, indeed, a masterpiece in drawing and vigor, 
 yet it is very simply, even coarsely, executed. 
 " The Boar Hunt," in the Museum at Amsterdam, 
 is another notable picture by this artist. 
 
 Jacob Ruisdael (about 1625-1682), born in 
 Haarlem, is distinguished as being one of the 
 most celebrated of the Dutch landscape painters. 
 Lubk6 says, that the highest poetic expression 
 ever attained by the landscape school in the Neth- 
 erlands is embodied in the works of this master. 
 He did not idealize his subjects, but clung to the 
 exact delineation of them, while he studied so 
 deeply that he seems to have caught the very 
 spirit of Nature herself ; and so spirited is his 
 light and shade, so full of movement his clouds, 
 and such an intense feeling of the life of nature, 
 throughout all, that there is an irresistible charm 
 in his works. 
 
DUTCH SCHOOL. I47 
 
 Several of his pictures are in the Dresden Gal- 
 lery, "The Hunt" and "The Cloister" being 
 among them ; several in galleries of The Hague, 
 at Berlin, and in the National Gallery, London, 
 
 One of his masterpieces is the " Westphalian 
 Scene " in the Gallery at Brussels. 
 
 Minderhout Hobbema (1638-1689 i"), born in 
 Amsterdam, has almost equal rank with Ruisdael 
 in Dutch landscape painting. He is especially 
 noted for his treatment of foliage, each variety 
 possessing its peculiar character. His pictures 
 are all bright and sunny, and represent peaceful 
 scenes. 
 
 Admirable specimens of the work of this artist 
 may be seen in the galleries of England, in the 
 Rotterdam Gallery, at Vienna and at Berlin. 
 
 Nicolas Berchem (1624-1683), born at Haarlem, 
 painted genre, battles, landscapes, and cattle, and 
 he was a worthy artist in all that he painted. 
 His works are well composed, carefully finished, 
 and yet handled with a pleasing freedom. His 
 color is least good, being often too cold in the 
 middle distances, while in the foregrounds it is 
 usually very positive and brilliant. 
 
 There are several of Berchem's works in the 
 
148 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Dulwich Gallery, England, and one in the National 
 Gallery, London. Many others are in the gal- 
 leries of northern Europe. 
 
 Albert Cuyp (1605 to about 1683) was born in 
 Dort. He was one of the ablest of the Dutch 
 landscape painters, was a good portrait painter, 
 and an excellent cattle painter, yet, like Claude 
 Lorraine, his most remarkable power was that of 
 painting atmospheres: whether that of the misty 
 morning, the glowing noonday, or the golden sun- 
 set. His pictures show less force and individuality 
 of representation in the details than Ruisdael's and 
 Hobbema's, but his color is superior. There is 
 a small example of his work in the Museum of 
 Fine Arts, in Boston. 
 
 A noted work is a beautiful " Evening Scene " 
 in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Willem van de Velde the younger (1633-1707), 
 born in Amsterdam, is noted as a marine painter. 
 He painted several pictures of merit representing 
 the naval encounters of his countrymen with the 
 English, and they are equally admirable whether 
 the sea is pictured as. calm or tempestuous. 
 
 Examples may be seen in the galleries of Hol- 
 land and of England. 
 
DUTCH SCHOOL. I49 
 
 The Dutch have always excelled in flower and 
 fruit painting. Some of the most noted artists in 
 this branch of work are JoJiann David de Hceni 
 (1600-1674), Rachel Rtiysch {\66^-i'ji,o), Johanii 
 van Huysiim (1682-1749), and JoJtann van Os 
 (1744- 1 808). 
 
 Breakfast pictures, as the Dutch call them, or 
 still-life pieces, have been painted nowhere so well 
 as by the artists of this country. Wilhelm van Aelst 
 and Peter Nason excelled in pictures of this kind. 
 
 Dutch Artists in the Present Century. 
 
 Among Dutch artists of this century are the 
 names of Mauve, Gabriel and B. C. Koekkoek, land- 
 scape painters ; De Haas, noted for his animal 
 pictures, which are strikingly true to life ; Israels 
 (1824- ), for his genre pictures, full of sen- 
 timent and color ; and above all, Laurens Alma- 
 Tadetna, who was born in the Netherlands in 1836, 
 but has been a resident of London for many years. 
 His pictures are mostly reproductions of classic life, 
 and are filled with Oriental luxury and antiquity. 
 
 Some of the most noted are " Phidias and the 
 Elgin Marbles," "The Death of the First-born," 
 " Sappho," and " Cleopatra." 
 
150 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 SPANISH SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : Like the School of the Nat- 
 uralists in character ; its paintings are chiefly por- 
 trait and historical, the latter exhibiting a dismal 
 vein of superstition. 
 
 Divided into two lesser schools, that of Madrid 
 and that of Seville. 
 
 Juan de las Ro^las (about 1558-1625) was born 
 in Seville, and through study in Venice became 
 imbued with the spirit of Italian art. He has been 
 compared with Tintoretto and the Carracci in his 
 general style and execution. His coloring is equal 
 to that of the Venetians, his composition good, and 
 he sometimes displays a real greatness of form and 
 majesty of character in his subjects. There are 
 quite a number of his works at Seville. 
 
 His masterpiece is considered to be the " Tran- 
 sito of San Isidore" in the church of that saint in 
 Seville ; in the lower part of the picture is seen 
 the dying saint, surrounded by his clergy, while 
 
SPANISH SCHOOL. 15 I 
 
 above are the Saviour and the Virgin surrounded 
 by angels. 
 
 Francisco Ribalta (1551-1628) is another noted 
 name among the early masters of this school. 
 Like that of Quintin Matsys, Ribalta' s history 
 begins with a romantic love story. He went, when 
 a young man, to Rome in order to advance himself 
 in painting as rapidly as possible, that he might gain 
 courage to claim the hand of his master's daughter 
 in Valencia, to whom he had engaged himself. 
 Returning after three or four years' absence, he at 
 once sought the home of his faithful betrothed. 
 Her father was out, but on the easel stood one of 
 his unfinished pictures, and the lover boldly com- 
 pleted it in the presence of the artist's daughter. 
 When the father returned he was astonished at the 
 work he saw, and exclaimed, " If this man were 
 your lover you should marry him and welcome, but 
 not the poor Ribalta." 
 
 "It was Ribalta, himself, who did it," cried the 
 delighted daughter, and therefore the little ro- 
 mance terminated happily. 
 
 Ribalta's pictures display a correct knowledge of 
 anatomy, and in some of them is seen a fine com- 
 position approaching the grand. His style seems 
 
152 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 to have been founded on Sebastian del Piombo's 
 works. 
 
 Valencia is rich in his productions, especially 
 the Corpus Christi College, the church of which 
 contains some of his greatest works, as the 
 " Last Supper," into which he introduced the por- 
 trait of a troublesome shoemaker, his neighbor, 
 as Judas. 
 
 Diego Velasquez de Silva (i 599-1660) commonly 
 called "Velasquez," was bom at Seville, and was 
 the head of the Madrid School. He has often been 
 called the "prince of Spanish painters," and is 
 much better known and appreciated out of Spain 
 than any of the preceding artists. He is great in 
 portrait, landscape, and genre, also takes high rank 
 for his religious paintings, though he more seldom 
 painted these. He was appointed court painter to 
 Philip IV., and has given to the world many royal 
 portraits unrivalled in freshness and life, with 
 free, dignified attitudes, beauty of composition, and 
 a fine treatment of color, which cause them to 
 rank with the works of Titian and Vandyke. He 
 seems to have belonged to the School of the Natu- 
 ralists in his feeling and style, but had none of 
 its commonness and vulgarity. 
 
SPANISH SCHOOL. I 53 
 
 Among Velasquez' finest portraits is " Philip IV. 
 on Horseback " in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, 
 which is a work of magnificent coloring. 
 
 Other celebrated pictures are " Water Carrier of 
 Seville " in the Apsley House, London, and " The 
 Spinsters " in the gallery at Madrid. 
 
 Francisco de Zurburan (1598-1662), born at Fu- 
 ente de Cantos, and a pupil of Juan de Rodas, has 
 been called the Spanish Caravaggio, but was far 
 more refined than his Italian model. His works 
 display a deep religious feeling, and by his real- 
 istic treatment and fine coloring are rendered 
 very effective. He made a special study of drap- 
 eries, and in his pictures these are invariably 
 well managed. 
 
 Noted work, " St. Thomas Aquinas " in the 
 gallery at Seville. 
 
 Bartolom^ Est^ban Murillo (161 8-1682), born at 
 Seville, was a pupil of Velasquez, and became 
 head of the Seville School. His works show the 
 same naturalistic tendency as those of his master, 
 although, unlike him, he frequently represented 
 the most exalted subjects. 
 
 This is especially the case with his earlier works, 
 but in them real life is handled with such un- 
 
154 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 equalled and characteristic force, tenderness of 
 feeling, fine color, and soft chiaroscuro, that they 
 are wonderfully attractive. The subjects of these 
 are flower-girls, ragged street-boys, peasants, etc. 
 His noblest pictures were painted after he became 
 fifty years of age. These are of a religious charac- 
 ter, and are remarkable for an enthusiastic, almost 
 passionate, fervor of feeling, also for a beauty of 
 composition and a richness and transparency of 
 color far exceeding those of any other Spanish 
 painter. 
 
 The Museum at Seville contains twenty-four of 
 Murillo's paintings, and it is here that he can be 
 studied best. Here is one of his noted " Immac- 
 ulate Conceptions," sometimes called the " Pearl 
 of Conceptions." Another, and very popular one, 
 is in the Louvre, Paris. Two well-known pictures 
 are "The Flower Girl" in the Dulwich Gallery, 
 England, and the "St. John with the Lamb" in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
 One noted work, the " Melon-Eaters," is in 
 Munich; another, "La Vierge Coupde" (Virgin and 
 Child in Glory), is in the possession of Lord Over- 
 stone, England. The history of this picture is very 
 interesting. The Virgin and Child had been cut out 
 
SPANISH SCHOOL. I 55 
 
 of the canvas to save them from the French, and 
 so Marshal Soult was forced to carry away a 
 mutilated picture, containing everything but the 
 two principal figures. These were supplied after 
 a fashion in Paris by a French artist, ^yhile the 
 beautiful originals found their way to England, 
 and eventually into the possession of Lord Over- 
 stone, who finally succeeded in purchasing the 
 larger portion of the canvas from the Soult family, 
 and now the two parts are perfectly united again, 
 after a separation and wanderings of half a cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Francisco de H err era the Younger (i 622-1685), 
 born in Seville, has been called a rival of Murillo ; 
 still no one of his existing works can bear com- 
 parison with those of his great contemporary. 
 He studied in Rome, and there, because of his love 
 for painting fish, was known as // Spagnolo de 
 gli Pisci. The great reputation of Murillo made 
 Seville disagreeable to Herrera, and he went to 
 Madrid and established himself there. Philip IV. 
 appointed him royal painter, and he painted at his 
 request the "Assumption of the Virgin" in fresco 
 in the chapel of "Our Lady of Atocha," in Mad- 
 rid. This is one of his best pictures. During 
 
IS6 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the eighteenth century painting declined in Spain, 
 hardly anything being produced save poor imita- 
 tions of the earlier masters. In the present century 
 there are several Spanish artists of note, among 
 whom are Rosalez, Cano, and Gisbert, historical 
 painters ; Escostira, Ruiperez, and best known of 
 all, Fortuny, genre painters ; while Palmaroli and 
 Gonzalva are noted for architectural interiors. 
 
FRENCH SCHOOL. I 57 
 
 FRENCH SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics : This school shows in a very 
 marked degree the influence of the antique. Until 
 the latter part of the eighteenth century it was in 
 all respects simply a branch of the schools of 
 Italy. 
 
 The earliest French painters of distinction, and 
 the only able masters who did not belong to this 
 Italianized school were Jean Fottcquet, the three 
 Clouets, and Jean Cousin, all of the sixteenth 
 century. These artists painted more after the 
 manner of the Van Eycks, though with far less 
 knowledge and ability. 
 
 The Gallery of Antwerp possesses a "Virgin 
 and Child " attributed to Foucquet. Portraits 
 painted by the Clouets (two Jehans, father and 
 son, and Fran5ois) are at Versailles, also in the 
 Louvre, and in the Luxembourg in Paris. 
 
 Jean Cousin's most celebrated picture is "The 
 Last Judgment " in the Louvre. 
 
IS8 }USTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Eustache Le Sueur (1617-1655), born in Paris, 
 was the ablest French painter of the seventeenth 
 century, though he seems to have had little influ- 
 ence on the art of his times. He has been called 
 the French Raphael, and his works show that he 
 must have been an attentive student of the paint- 
 ings of that master. His great series of twenty- 
 two pictures representing the " Life and Death of 
 St. Bruno," in spite of a monotonous dulness of 
 color, have received much admiration ; but his 
 grace of touch and composition is perhaps seen 
 to best advantage in a series of pictures painted 
 on the walls of Le Salon des Muses in Hotel 
 Lambert in Paris. 
 
 Charles Le Brim (1619-1690), born in Paris, 
 was court painter to Louis XIV., and was elected 
 first Director of the Academy of Painting estab- 
 lished by that king in 1648. His paintings are 
 marked by great vigor of drawing, color, and 
 composition. 
 
 He painted a grand series of pictures now at 
 Versailles, illustrating the military exploits of the 
 king in a half-classical, half-allegorical style, 
 
 His finest work, a series entitled "Battles of 
 Alexander," is in the Louvre. One of his pictures. 
 
FRENCH SCHOOL. I 59 
 
 "Mary Magdalen washing the Feet of the Sav- 
 iour," was so highly esteemed that in 1815 the 
 Czar of Russia received it in exchange for the 
 celebrated " Marriage at Cana " by Paul Veronese, 
 now in the Louvre. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Monnoyer (1634- 1699), born in 
 Lille, usually called Baptiste, attained a great 
 reputation by his beautiful compositions of pop- 
 pies, peonies, tulips, and roses, usually grouped 
 in marble vases. 
 
 The work of this artist may be seen in the 
 decoration of the palaces of Versailles and Marly. 
 In Hampton Court, England, are several of his 
 flower pictures which are quite masterly in execu- 
 tion. 
 
 Franqois Lemoine (1688-1737), born in Paris, is 
 noted for his decorative, historical work. During 
 a visit to Italy he became fascinated by the gor- 
 geous decorative paintings there seen, and on his 
 return to Paris, painted an "Apotheosis of Her- 
 cules " in oil on canvas, which was fixed to the ceil- 
 ing of the Salon d' Hercule at Versailles. This is 
 considered one of the most magnificent decorative 
 paintings in France. It contains one hundred and 
 forty-two figures. 
 
l60 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Claude Joseph F'^m^^ (1714-1789), born in Avi- 
 gnon, is one of the most distinguished of the French 
 landscape painters of the old school, where origi- 
 nality of genius was a higher claim for admiration 
 than representation of nature. He was laborious 
 in execution and careful in drawing, but his color 
 is monotonous, and his groups of figures .are prim 
 and conventional. His storm-scenes are among 
 his most successful works. 
 
 He received a commission from Louis XV. to 
 paint views of the seaports of France, fifteen of 
 which are now in the Louvre. 
 
 Jean Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805), born in Bur- 
 gundy, began his career as a portrait painter ; 
 failing in this, he devoted himself chiefly to genre 
 painting, in which he generally treated ethical sub- 
 jects. He was ambitious to become a historical 
 painter, and on his admission to the Academy, 
 painted a historical piece, "Severus reproaching 
 his Son Caracalla," which was refused, the Academy 
 declaring that his admission was due wholly to his 
 genre pictures. These are highly prized by col- 
 lectors, and command good prices. Among the 
 most celebrated are "The Broken Pitcher," "The 
 Blind Man cheated," "The Village Bride," and 
 
FRENCH SCHOOL. l6l 
 
 "The Little Girl and Dog," all of which have been 
 often engraved. Greuze has sometimes been called 
 the "French Hogarth." 
 
 Jacques Louis David (1748-1825), born in Paris, 
 inaugurated a new era of painting in France. 
 Having studied for several years in Rome, he came 
 back to Paris, filled with a love for classical art, 
 which, though it gave too severe a cast to his own 
 works, wrought a reform that afterward bore rich 
 fruit for the art of France. He was a painter of 
 great power, despite the rigidity of his figures, 
 some of which seem hard as marble and more like 
 statues than living, breathing flesh. In his later 
 pictures, however, there is more sentiment and a 
 much softer expression. He was court painter to 
 the great Napoleon, and after the downfall of the 
 Emperor was exiled from France. 
 
 One of David's best paintings is now in the 
 Berlin Museum. It represents Napoleon upon a 
 spirited horse on Mount St. Bernard, pointing out 
 to his soldiers the path to victory and glory. 
 
 Other paintings are scattered throughout the 
 galleries of Paris. 
 
 Jean Dominique Augusta Ingres (1781-1861), 
 born in Montauban, was a pupil of David, and 
 
l62 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 after having left the studio of that master, spent 
 nearly twenty years in Italy. Ingres seems to 
 hold a middle place between the classic and later 
 romantic schools of France. Although he applied 
 himself especially to the thorough delineation of 
 form, he also strove to portray lofty expressions of 
 feeling. He was especially happy in the repre- 
 sentation of ideal single figures, and was successful 
 as a portrait painter. His religious works are 
 effective, being full of devotion and earnestness. 
 
 His paintings are very numerous, many being 
 in the Louvre, on the ceiling of one of the apart- 
 ments of which is his "Apotheosis of Homer." 
 In the Museum, of Montauban is " Christ in the 
 Temple " ; and in the Luxembourg in Paris is 
 "Christ giving the Keys to Peter." 
 
 Jean Louis Gericault (1791-1824), born in Rouen, 
 gave the first powerful impulse toward a turn- 
 ing from classic to romantic art. He attained a 
 great reputation through the painting of a single 
 picture, the "Wreck of the Medusa," a French 
 frigate that had just been lost off the coast of 
 Africa. 
 
 This picture is an immense canvas, representing 
 in the most powerful manner, full of stirring move- 
 
FRENCH SCHOOL, 163 
 
 ment, the wretched survivors at the very moment 
 when, after having been on the raft exposed to the 
 sufferings of shipwreck for thirteen days, they first 
 caught sight of anothter vessel. The composition 
 of this picture is full of dramatic power, and its 
 execution is free and effective, but the color is 
 inferior. It is now in the Louvre. 
 
 Emile Jean Horace Pir^j^^ (1789- 1863), born in 
 Paris, is noted especially as a painter of the inci- 
 dents of war, although he also painted many good 
 portraits and genre pictures. Wornum calls him 
 the most masterly modern French painter, and 
 Lubk6 also accords him first rank among the 
 artists of his time. His sphere of art, however, 
 cannot be called so high as that of Ingres, Dela- 
 roche, or especially Ary Scheffer, who portrayed 
 the sentiments and spiritual life of man. Vernet's 
 powers of observation were very great, and also his 
 facility of execution. He was far above being a 
 simple military chronicler, as were some of his 
 contemporaries. There is an artistic unity in his 
 work, combined with its reality, that is seldom 
 , seen. He commonly painted alia prima, as the 
 Italians express it ; that is, without any retouch- 
 ing. 
 
164 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 The work of Vernet is seen to great advantage 
 at the Palace of Versailles, in the Hall of Con- 
 stantina. Several of his paintings are also in the 
 Louvre and in the Luxembourg in Paris. In the 
 latter gallery is, perhaps, his most admired work, 
 painted in Rome, " Raphael encountering Michael 
 Angelo on the Steps of the Vatican." Into this 
 picture he introduced, as a Roman peasant, his 
 only daughter, Louise, who afterward became the 
 wife of the artist Delaroche. 
 
 Paid Delaroche (1797-1856), born in Paris, did 
 not possess the facility and power of Vernet, but 
 the character of his works is higher. His paint- 
 ings are mostly historical, but he wove a great 
 deal of imagination into them. His color is very 
 fine, ranking with that of the best colorists of 
 Europe ; and although his design seems sometimes 
 conventional and monotonous, especially in his 
 larger pictures, yet very many of his works are 
 utterly free from this fault, and may truly be 
 called dramatic. He painted quite a number of 
 religious pictures which are full of feeling. Many 
 of his principal works have been engraved. Among 
 the most noted are " The Assassination of the 
 Duke of Guise " and " Napoleon at Fontainebleau," 
 
FRENCH SCHOOL. I65 
 
 also the "Death of Queen Elizabeth" in the Lux- 
 embourg. The work on which he was longest 
 engaged, and on which he rested his reputation, is 
 the fresco painting of the " Hemicycle" of the 
 theatre of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, in 
 which are represented the illustrious masters of 
 art of all ages. 
 
 Ary Scheffer (1795-1858), born in Dort, was 
 essentially the poet painter of France. The chief 
 quality of all his pictures is sentiment. He repre- 
 sented the feelings of human nature rather than 
 the incidents of life so well painted by Paul Dela- 
 roche. Scheffer' s works have a uniform melan- 
 choly tendency that is very striking. His most 
 noted pictures, "Francisca di Rimini," "Dant6 
 and Beatrice," "Christus Consolator," "Mater 
 Dolorosa," and his illustrations of Faust are well 
 known through engravings and photographs. 
 
 French Painting in the Present Century. 
 
 In the present century a new era in French Art 
 has .been ushered in by the famous " Men of 
 1830," as they are called: Delacroix (1799-1863), 
 
1 66 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Rousseau (1812-1867), Diaz (1808- 1876), Corot 
 (1796-187S), Millet (1814-1875), Daubigny (1817- 
 1878), Fromentin ( 1 820-1 876), Troyon (1810-1865), 
 Decamps (1803-1860), Duprd (1812- ), and that 
 prince of genre painting, Meissonier (181 5- ). 
 This is an era of brilliant color and technique, and 
 intense realism. 
 
 Delacroix, whose pictures are living dramas ; 
 Rousseau, Corot, Daubigny, Diaz, and Dupr^, who 
 have brought modern French landscape art from 
 almost nothing up to the magnificent level of 
 Claude Lorraine and Ruisdael ; Fromentin and 
 Decamps, painters of the glowing Orient ; Troyon, 
 a worthy successor of Paul Potter, the famous 
 Dutch animal painter; and Millet, unrivalled in 
 the pathetic portrayal of peasant life ; all these 
 wrought together in the greatest harmony to usher 
 in the new school of Modern French Painting. 
 
 Some of the masterpieces of these famous men, 
 most of them familiar through reproductions, are 
 as follows : — 
 
 Eugene Delacroix. — " The Bark of Dant6," 
 "Hamlet and the Gravediggers," "The Death of 
 Sardanapalus," "Christ upon the Cross." 
 
 Theodore Rousseau. — " Le Givre." 
 
FRENCH SCHOOL. 1 67 
 
 Jean Baptiste CV)n>/. — "The Willows," "Old 
 Bridge of Mantes," "Garda Lake." 
 
 Charles Francois Daubigny. — "Chateau Gaill- 
 ard," "The Field of Poppies," "The Grand Moon- 
 rise." 
 Juks Dupr^.— "Tht Pasture," "LaVanne." 
 
 Eugene Fromentin. — "The Fantasia," "Arab 
 Falconer," "Arab Family on a Journey." 
 
 A. G. Decamps. — " The Coming Out of School," 
 "The Good Samaritan," "Battle of the Cimbri." 
 
 Constant Troyon. — " The Cow at the Drinking 
 Place," "The Ferry." 
 
 Jean Franqois Millet. — "The Gleaners," " Sheep- 
 fold by Moonlight," "The Sower," "The Ange- 
 lus." 
 
 J. L. E. Meissonier. — " The Etcher," " The Man 
 at the Window," " 1814." 
 
 Other noted names among modern French 
 artists are : Thomas Couture (1815-1879), a painter 
 of historical pictures marked by an intense feeling 
 of realism; Jean Leon Gerome (1824- ), who 
 paints Oriental scenes full of charm and color ; Gus- 
 tave Boulanger, Alexander Cabanel ( 1 823- ), and 
 J. J. Benjamin Constant (1845- ), eminent for 
 classic historical paintings; Gustave Dor^ (1832- 
 
l68 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING, 
 
 1883), often faulty in drawing and color, but who 
 produced a vast number of striking and imagina- 
 tive pictures representing a great variety of sub- 
 jects ; Edonard Detaille and Alphonse de Neuville, 
 known for their pictures treating of incidents of 
 war ; Rosa Bonheur, famous for her animal paint- 
 ing ; Emile Breton, the landscape painter ; and 
 Jules Bastien Lepage (1848-1884), famous for his 
 "Jeanne d'Arc." 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. 1 69 
 
 ENGLISH SCHOOL. 
 
 Characteristics: Distinctly characterized by 
 the influence of Titian and Rembrandt through 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds ; color and effect the aim, 
 together with a close imitation of nature. 
 
 Sir Peter Lely (i6i 8-1680), born in Westphalia 
 of a Dutch family, came to England in 1641, and 
 is classed among the early English painters. He 
 was especially a painter of the portraits of women, 
 and is said to have been a great flatterer with his 
 brush. Although his work is far inferior to that 
 of Vandyck, yet he rivalled him in position and 
 patronage, having been made, after the death of 
 the latter, court painter to Charles II. Lely's 
 portraits are wanting in color, and in light and 
 shade, and have a sameness, owing to a manner- 
 ism^ in painting the eyes. His draperies are 
 painted with skill and possess elegance and free- 
 dom. 
 
 ' See "Technical Terms used in Painting," page 201. 
 
I/O HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Lely is said to be the artist to whom Cromwell, 
 when about to sit for his portrait, said : " I desire 
 you will use all your skill to paint my picture truly 
 like me, and not flatter me at all ; but remark all 
 these roughnesses, pimples, warts, and everything 
 as you see me, otherwise I never will pay a farthing 
 for it." 
 
 His style is well illustrated by the " Beauties of 
 Charles II.," a series of portraits now at Hampton 
 Court. 
 
 Sir Godfrey Kneller {i6^6-ij2T)),horn in Lubeck, 
 was Lely's rival and successor in the court patron- 
 age of England. He painted no less than eight 
 crowned heads. His portraits are marked by 
 somewhat of a theatrical mannerism. Among 
 the most popular works of this artist is the series 
 of forty-three portraits, known as the "Kit-Cat 
 Club," which has been engraved. Some examples, 
 also, are in the National Gallery, London. 
 
 Sir James Thornhill (1676-1734), born in Wey- 
 mouth, was the first painter of native talent em- 
 ployed in England, but his works cannot be said 
 to hold any important rank as examples of fine 
 art. Several of them may be seen at Hampton 
 Court, St. Paul's, and at Greenwich. It was while 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. I /I 
 
 painting the ceiling of the Greenwich Hospital that 
 Sir James is said to have been saved from falling 
 to the floor, while walking backward to survey his 
 work, by a person who, with great presence of 
 mind, threw something upon the freshly painted 
 surface, thus causing the painter to dart forward 
 to save his picture from defacement. 
 
 William Hogarth (1697- 1764), born in London, 
 and son-in-law of Sir James Thornhill, is the first 
 great name in English art. He belongs to the 
 province of the higher genre, was author as well 
 as painter, and had the same aim in both his 
 painting and writing. "In his art," says Walpole, 
 "he used colors instead of language. His place 
 is between the Italians, whom we may consider as 
 epic poets and tragedians, and the Flemish paint- 
 ers, who are writers of farce and editors of bur- 
 lesque nature. . . . Hogarth resembles Butler, 
 but his subjects are more universal, and amidst all 
 his pleasantry he observes the true end of comedy, 
 reformation. There is always a moral in his pic- 
 tures." Charles Lamb says, "Hogarth's pictures 
 mJst be read as well as looked at." 
 
 His aim was to make paintings similar in their 
 effect to stage representations, and he succeeded 
 
172 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 eminently. His coloring is, as a general thing, 
 poor, but his best pictures are thoroughly and 
 exquisitely dramatic without being theatrical. He 
 has been styled "the painter of comedy." 
 
 Of his paintings, which are numerous, and which 
 have often been engraved, the three following series 
 are the most celebrated : " The Harlot's Prog- 
 ress," "The Rake's Progress," and the "Mar- 
 riage k la Mode," all of which are in the National 
 Gallery, London. They are full of satire. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1 792), born in Plymp- 
 ton, in Devonshire, has been styled the "founder 
 of the English school of painting." He was a great 
 master of portrait painting, and excelled in giving 
 depth of expression to his faces. He was also a re- 
 markable colorist. His principle was that likeness 
 and individual character depend more upon the 
 general effect than upon the exact modelling and 
 likeness of the features. Titian was his model in 
 color, and Rembrandt in effect, but he was much 
 less natural than Titian and much less vigorous 
 than Rembrandt. He, however, wrought a won- 
 derful reformation in the painting of England. 
 His compositions are graceful, his light and shade 
 broad, and his color rich, mellow, and fascinating. 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. 1/3 
 
 He painted historical pictures, but these are in- 
 ferior to his portraits. He was first president of 
 the Royal Academy in London, and his popular 
 "Discourses" consists of lectures given there to 
 the students. 
 
 Among his finest productions are, "Nelly 
 O'Brien " at Manchester House, '' Lord Heath- 
 field " in the National Gallery, and the magnificent 
 "Allegorical Portrait of Mrs. Siddons," in the Gros- 
 venor Gallery ; the latter of which is called by 
 many his masterpiece. Well-known pictures often 
 engraved are "Innocence" and "Angels' Heads." 
 
 George Romney (1734-1802), born in Dalton, in 
 Lancashire, though chiefly distinguished for his 
 poetical compositions, was for many years a rival 
 of Sir Joshua Reynolds in portrait ' painting. 
 Northcote says in his " Life of Reynolds " : " Cer- . 
 tain it is that Sir Joshua was not much employed 
 in portraits after Romney grew into fashion." Lord 
 Thurlow also is reported to have said : " Reynolds 
 and Romney divide the town." Romney's style of 
 painting, however, is very different from that of Rey- 
 nolds, it being characterized chiefly by a vigorous ex- 
 pression of form. His paintings are also remarkable 
 for their freedom of touch and accurate drawing ; 
 
174 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 in both of these respects they are superior to those 
 of Reynolds, but they seldom approach the rich 
 transparency of color that belongs to the latter 
 artist. 
 
 Flaxman gives high praise to Romney's poetical 
 conceptions. He says, " Few artists have left so 
 many examples in their works of the tender and 
 delicate affections," and "many of his pictures 
 breathe a kindred spirit with those of Correggio." 
 Many of Romney's works are to be seen in the 
 Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, and in the 
 Royal Institution at Liverpool. 
 
 Benjamin 1^^^^(1738-1820), born in Springfield, 
 Penn., U. S. A., and settled in London in 1763, is 
 noted as being the principal historical painter of 
 the English school. Wornum calls him " truly a 
 royal painter." His composition is very fine and 
 powerful, his drawing good, but his color dull and 
 monotonous. He inaugurated a new era in histor- 
 ical painting by delineating his characters without 
 the conventional Greek or Roman costumes, which 
 had invariably been used before his time ; and by 
 this he conferred a great service upon the art, 
 though he was much opposed at the time by the 
 artists, including Sir Joshua Reynolds. West, 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. 1/5 
 
 himself, thus gives an interesting account of his 
 painting the " Death of General Wolfe " : " When 
 it was understood that I intended to paint the 
 characters as they had actually appeared on the 
 scene, the Archbishop of York called on Reynolds 
 and asked his opinion. They both came to my 
 house to dissuade me from running so great a risk. 
 Reynolds began a very ingenious and elegant dis- 
 sertation on the state of the public taste in this 
 country, and the danger which every innovation in- 
 curred of contempt and ridicule, and concluded by 
 urging me earnestly to adopt the costume of an- 
 tiquity, as more becoming the greatness of my 
 subject than the modern garb of European warriors. 
 I answered that ' the event to be commemorated hap- 
 pened in the year 1758, in a region of the world un- 
 known to Greeks and Romans, and at a period of 
 time when no warriors who wore such costume ex- 
 isted. The subject I have to represent is a great 
 battle fought and won ; and the same truth which 
 gives law to the historian should rule the painter. 
 If, instead of the facts of the action, I introduce 
 fictions, how shall I be understood by posterity .' I 
 want to mark the place, the time, the people, and 
 to do this I must abide by the truth.' 
 
176 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF I'AtNTING. 
 
 "They went g,way then, and returned when I had 
 the painting finished. Reynolds seated himself 
 before the picture, examined it with deep and mi- 
 nute attention for half an hour ; then, rising, said 
 to Drummond, ' West has conquered ; he has 
 treated the subject as it ought to be treated ; I re- 
 tract my objections ; I foresee that this picture will 
 not only become one of the most popular, but will 
 occasion a revolution in art.' " 
 
 West was patronized by George III., from whom 
 he received a salary for thirty-three years. He 
 was second president of the Royal Academy. 
 
 His " Death of General Wolfe " is in the Gros- 
 venor Gallery, London. 
 
 Richard Wilson (17 13- 1782), born in Montgom- 
 eryshire, is noted as being the pioneer of the 
 English school of landscape painters. He was 
 not fortunate enough to paint pictures that were 
 very popular in his lifetime, yet they are accounted 
 worthy of admiration by critics of to-day. These 
 are largely classical scenes, in which there is more 
 or less of conventionality. His pictures are 
 marked by good composition, somewhat cold color, 
 bold and massive foregrounds, verdant foliage, and 
 great effects of distance. The figures were gen- 
 erally painted by some other artist. 
 
ENULISU SCHOOL. 1 77 
 
 Many of Wilson's pictures have been engraved, 
 as "Cicero in his Villa," " Meleager and Atalanta," 
 "Apollo and the Seasons," and the " Niobe," 
 which is in the National Gallery. 
 
 Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1798), born in Sud- 
 bury, in Suffolk, has been called the rival of Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds in portrait, and of Wilson in 
 landscape, and is an honor to the English School. 
 He has been called by one writer a " child of 
 Nature," and there are a certain sparkle, freshness, 
 and originality in his works that justify the name. 
 
 The story is told that neither he nor his neigh- 
 bors were aware of his talent until one day, seeing 
 a country fellow looking over his garden-wall at 
 some pears, he caught up a bit of board and made 
 so life-like a portrait of him that, by its means, the 
 fellow, who proved to be a most troublesome fruit 
 thief, was identified and brought to punishment. 
 This incident led him to devote himself to paint- 
 ing. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds says of him, " Whether 
 he most excelled in portraits, landscapes, or fancy 
 pictures, it is difficult to determine"; and, also, 
 speaks thus of the peculiar method of handling, 
 called hatching, which Gainsborough used: "All 
 
178 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 these odd scratches and marks which, on a closer 
 examination, are so observable in Gainsborough's 
 pictures, and which, even to experienced painters, 
 appear rather the effect of accident than design, 
 — this chaos, this uncouth and shapeless appear- 
 ance, — by a kind of magic, at a certain distance, 
 assumes form, and all the parts seem to drop into 
 their proper places ; so that we can hardly refuse 
 acknowledging the full effect of diligence, under 
 the appearance of chance and hasty negligence." 
 
 Among this artist's most able portraits are 
 " Mrs. Siddons " and " Dr. Schomberg " in the 
 National Gallery, and "The Blue Boy" in the 
 Grosvenor. 
 
 The last, representing a youth in blue satin, is 
 said to have been painted to disprove the opinion 
 of Sir Joshua Reynolds, that the predominance 
 of blue in a picture is incompatible with a good 
 effect of color. 
 
 Noted genre pictures are " The Shepherd Boy 
 in the Shower " and " Woodman and his Dog in 
 the Storm." 
 
 Several fine examples of his landscapes are in 
 the South Kensington Museum Gallery and in 
 the National Gallery, London. 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. 1 79 
 
 James Barry (i 741-1806), a native of Ireland, 
 Henry Fuseli (1741-1825), born in Zurich, and 
 John Opie (1761-1807), born in Cornwall, were 
 successively professors of painting in the Royal 
 Academy, and were writers and excellent critics 
 on art, as well as artists. Wornum says that 
 the imagination of both Barry and Fuseli was 
 too active for their judgment, that their hands 
 lacked the power to express what their minds con- 
 ceived. Striving to follow in the footsteps of 
 Michael Angelo, their work sometimes seems so 
 inadequate as to almost sink to the burlesque. 
 
 Examples of Barry's work may be seen in his 
 " Adam and Eve " in the South Kensington Gal- 
 lery, London, and the series of six large pictures 
 at the Adelphi, London, which are intended to 
 represent the history of the civilization of man. 
 
 Fuseli's best works are his eight compositions 
 for Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery. 
 
 Opie painted many portraits and some good 
 historical pictures. 
 
 Sir Thomas Lawretuc (1769-1830), born in 
 Bristol, is noted as a portrait painter, excelling 
 chiefly in his portraits of women and children. 
 He was a fine colorist, but was not very correct in 
 
l80 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 his drawing, some of his figures being noticeably 
 out of proportion to their heads. He also had the 
 fault of sometimes losing the value of his heads 
 in the splendor of the accessories. 
 
 Several portraits by Lawrence are in the Water- 
 loo Gallery at Windsor, also in the National Gal- 
 lery, London. 
 
 William Etty (1787-1847), born in York, has 
 been styled the greatest of English colorists. He 
 was, for a short time only, a pupil of Sir Thomas 
 Lawrence, and mastered many and great difficul- 
 ties before he gained any reputation in his chosen 
 profession. 
 
 Finally, he was able to go to Venice, and it is 
 to his study there that his final great success must 
 be attributed. After his return to England, he 
 produced a long list of works magnificent in color. 
 There is a pure sentiment in Etty's pictures 
 that renders them worthy to take a high place 
 among English works of art. 
 
 Noted pictures are " Imprudence of Candaules " 
 in the Vernon Collection of the South Kensington 
 Gallery and " Youth on the Prow and Pleasure at 
 the Helm " in the National Gallery. 
 
 James Mallard William Turner (i 775-1 851), 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. l8l 
 
 born in London, stands unrivalled among the 
 world's landscape painters. Claude Lorraine was 
 his model, whom finally he surpassed. He was 
 an indefatigable worker, and gave to the world an 
 immense number of paintings. For more than 
 sixty years, with scarcely an intermission, the 
 pictures of Turner were hung on the walls of 
 the Royal Academy. 
 
 His life was remarkable by reason of the con- 
 trast between its humble origin and the weakness 
 and pitifulness of its private aims, and its splen- 
 did results for the nation and the world of art. 
 
 Turner painted both in water-colors and in oils ; 
 many critics giving a superior rank to his water- 
 colors. He always idealized his subject, paint- 
 ing, not the place itself, but after having grasped 
 all the principal: features of a region, gathering 
 these into one impression, which he placed upon 
 paper or canvas. His pictures are characterized 
 by luminous coloring, with wonderful aerial per- 
 spective, atmosphere, and skies ; he seems to have 
 been ever striving to represent light with all its 
 prismatic changes. 
 
 Mr. Ruskin, the great English art-critic, made 
 it a chief object in the writing of his " Modern 
 
1 82 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Painters " to hold the works of Turner up for the 
 admiration of the world, believing, as he did, that 
 he had painted the noblest skies, mountains, trees, 
 seas, etc., ever represented by artist's brush. 
 
 During the latter years of his life his painting 
 grew to be fantastic and almost incomprehensible 
 at times. All sense of form seems to have been 
 lost in weird and brilliant color. 
 
 Two rooms in the National Gallery are devoted 
 solely to Turner's oil pictures, which also are 
 scattered among all other English Galleries and 
 private collections. 
 
 " The Slave Ship," one of his most noted later 
 works, is in a private collection in Boston. 
 
 "The Old Temeraire" and "Wilkie's Burial" 
 are among the most noted in the National Gallery. 
 
 There is also a Turner Water-color Gallery, 
 attached to the National Gallery, which contains 
 about three hundred of his water-color paintings, 
 including the original illustrations of Roger's 
 " Italy." 
 
 John Constable (i 776-1 837) and Sir Augustus 
 Wall Callcott {i'jy(^-iS44) are both noted as land- 
 scape artists. The works of Constable are con- 
 spicuous for the simplicity of their subjects, the 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. I83 
 
 freshness of their color, and many of them for 
 the fondness he had for giving the effect of dew, 
 which became almost a mannerism. 
 
 Callcott's landscapes are distinguished for a 
 beautiful repose. Some of them resemble the 
 early work of Turner. 
 
 Paintings by both Constable and Callcott are in 
 all large English galleries. 
 
 Sir David Wilkie (i 785-1 841), Charles Robert 
 Leslie (i 794-1 859), born of American parents, and 
 William Mulready (1786-1863), are all noted for 
 their genre painting. 
 
 Several of the finest works of Wilkie, who 
 received the name, " prince of British genre 
 painters," are in the National Gallery ; prominent 
 among which are "The Village Festival," "The 
 Blind Fiddler," and "Peep-o'-day Boy's Cabin." 
 
 Here also are Leslie s " Uncle Toby and the 
 Widow " and " Sancho Panza," and Mulready s 
 " Choosing the Wedding Gown." Many of the 
 latter artist's works are in the South Kensington 
 Gallery. 
 
 Edwin Landseer (1802-1873) has gained great 
 distinction as an animal painter. His pictures are 
 full of sentiment, and show such a deep sympathy 
 
l84 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 with the dumb creation that they appeal to the 
 heart of the spectator and must possess lasting 
 worth. Deer and dogs were his favorite subjects, 
 and his paintings of these creatures have been so 
 admirably reproduced that they are familiar to all. 
 
 Many of Landseer's paintings are in the South 
 Kensington and National Galleries, London ; among 
 which are "The Hunted Stag," "Alexander and 
 Diogenes," " High Life and Low Life," and " The 
 Shepherd's Chief Mourner." 
 
 Charles Landseer, the brother of Sir Edwin, was 
 also a painter of animals. 
 
 English Painting in the Present Century. 
 
 English painting in the present century has been 
 much influenced by the spirit of pre-Raphaelitism 
 induced by Holman Hunt (1^27- ), Dant^ Gabriel 
 Rossetti (i 828-1 882), and John Everett Millais 
 (1829- ), who have been its most earnest advo- 
 cates. 
 
 Holman Hunt is well known by his " Light of 
 the World," which has been so often reproduced, 
 where the Saviour is represented with a lantern 
 hanging from his hand, knocking at a vine-clad 
 gate in the darkness of the night ; " Christ in the 
 
ENGLISH SCHOOL. 1 8$ 
 
 Temple," " Shadow of the Cross," and " Triumph 
 of the Innocents." 
 
 Millais works are very numerous and exceed- 
 ingly popular. Among them are " First Sermon " 
 and "Second Sermon," "Yes or No.!*" and most 
 popular of all, " The Huguenot Lovers." 
 
 Rossetti's paintings are full of romantic feeling 
 and of mystic sentiment. They need to be truly 
 studied to be appreciated, for they have many faults 
 of drawing and crudities of form. Examples are 
 "Dantd's Vision," "Beata Beatrix" and "Girl- 
 hood of the Virgin." 
 
 Other noted artists are Bume-Jones, whose pic- 
 tures, half classic, half romantic, are full of the 
 sentiment of beauty ; Sir Frederick Leighton ( 1 830- 
 
 ), who has painted so many Italian and East- 
 ern pictures, pure in feeling and rich in color ; 
 George IV. Boughton, known by his pictures of 
 Holland life ; Elisabeth Thompson Butler, so suc- 
 cessful in her " Roll-call," " Balaklava," and other 
 military pictures ; George F. Watts, famous for his 
 historical and higher genre pictures and portraits ; 
 Hubert Herkomer, portrait painter ; and Birket Fos- 
 ter, whose charming water-colors and many studies 
 of rural life are well known. 
 
1 86 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 EMINENT AMERICAN ARTISTS. 
 
 Gilbert Charles Stuart (1755-1828), distinguished 
 in portraiture, was bom in Narragansett, R.I., 
 was a pupil of Benjamin West in London, and 
 finally settled in Philadelphia, and later in Boston, 
 where he died. He painted portraits of several of 
 the Presidents, as well as of most of the distin- 
 guished characters of the Revolution. Washington 
 Allston writes that " Stuart was superior to almost 
 every other painter in the faculty of distinguishing 
 between the conventional expression that belongs 
 to manners and the more subtle indication of the 
 individual mind." 
 
 Stuart's portraits of Washington and of Martha 
 Washington are in the Museum of Fine Arts, 
 Boston. 
 
 John Singleton Copley (1737-1815), born in Bos- 
 ton, painted portraits which have won much 
 admiration. In 1774 he visited Italy, where he 
 studied especially the works of Titian and Cor- 
 
EMINENT AMERICAN ARTISTS. 1 8/ 
 
 reggio. A few years later he established himself 
 in London, where he painted many historical 
 pictures. 
 
 Many of Copley's portraits are in the vicinity of 
 Boston. One of the most interesting, named 
 " Portrait of the Artist and his Family," is in the 
 Museum of Fine Arts. A noted historical picture 
 is " Death of Lord Chatham " in the National 
 Gallery, London. 
 
 Washington Allston (1779-1843) was born in 
 South Carolina. In 1801 he went to London 
 and studied in the Royal Academy under the 
 presidency of Benjamin West. Later he spent 
 several years of study in Rome, where he was 
 known by the name of the American Titian. He 
 returned to America in 181 8, and lived for the 
 rest of his life in Boston and Cambridge. Allston 
 painted with great feeling and simplicity. There 
 is a rich, mellow coloring in his pictures, unrivalled 
 since the days of the old masters. He painted 
 historical and religious pictures, also some fine 
 ideal heads. 
 
 Several of AUston's finest works are in private 
 galleries in and near Boston. One, " Belshazzar's 
 Feast " (left incomplete), is in the Museum of Fine 
 Arts, Boston. 
 
1 88 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTINO. 
 
 Other names of note in American painting are 
 Rembrandt Peak (1787-1860), the portrait painter ; 
 Edward Malbone (1777- 1807), celebrated for his 
 beautiful miniature painting ; John Trumbull, noted 
 for his pictures of the Revolution ; Thomas Sully, 
 William Page, Hetiry Gray, and George Healy, 
 portrait painters, and George Fuller, known for his 
 ideal figures and portraits. 
 
 William Morris Hunt (i 824-1 879), born in 
 Brattleborough/Vt., became a pupil of Couture in 
 Paris in 1848. Returning to Boston, he exerted 
 quite an influence in painting. His works are his- 
 torical, genre, and portrait. The allegorical decora- 
 tions of the State Capitol in Albany, N.Y., were 
 painted by him. 
 
 Well-known paintings are " The Bugle Call," 
 "The Drummer Boy," and "The Bathers." 
 
 Thomas Cole (1801-1848), born in England, came 
 to America when a child, and was the pioneer 
 landscape painter of this country. He won his 
 first fame by painting autumnal scenes on the Hud- 
 son ; he also painted allegorical pictures, one of 
 which, " The Voyage of Life," has been engraved. 
 Following Cole, as landscapists, are the names of 
 Frederic Edzvin Church, famous for his pictures 
 
EMINENT AMERICAN ARTISTS. 1 89 
 
 "South America" and "Niagara Falls"; Albert 
 Bierstadt, for his " Rocky Mountains " and " Yo- 
 semite Valley " ; William Bradford, for his ice- 
 bergs ; George L. Brown, for his Italian pictures, 
 full of wonderful aerial effects and color ; Samuel 
 Colman, Imiess, Hart, and many others. At 
 present the French School is having a strong 
 influence upon American painting. 
 
IQO HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 VERY FAMOUS PICTURES, 
 
 BY WHOM PADJTED, AND WHERE THEY ARE TO BE FOUND, 
 ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF ARTISTS' LIVES. 
 
 The " Last Supper," Leonardo da Vinci, Milan. 
 
 The "Last Judgment," Michael Angelo, Sis- 
 tine Chapel, Rome. 
 
 "Taking Down from the Cross," Volterra, 
 Trinita de' Monti, Rome. 
 
 The "Transfiguration," Raphael, Vatican, Rome. 
 
 The "Madonna di San Sisto," Raphael, Dres- 
 den Gallery. 
 
 The "Santa Notte," or " Nativity," Correggio, 
 Dresden Gallery. 
 
 The " Communion of St. Jerome," Domen- 
 ichirio, Vatican, Rome;' 
 
 The "Assumption of the Virgin," Titian, 
 Academy, Venice. "^ 
 
 The "Aurora," Guido Reni, Rospigliosi Palace, 
 Rome. 
 
 The " Descent from the Cross," Rubens, Cathe- 
 dral, Antwerp. 
 
VERY FAMOUS PICTURES. igi 
 
 The "Night Guard," Rembrandt, Museum, 
 Amsterdam. 
 
 The " Immaculate Conception," Murillo, Louvre, 
 Paris. 
 
 Very Famous PoRTRAn's. 
 
 "Mona Lisa," Leonarda da Vinci, Louvre, 
 Paris. 
 
 '' La Fornarina," Raphael, Barberini Palace, 
 Rome. 
 
 "Donna Bella," Titian, Sciarra Gallery, Rome. 
 
 "Titian's Daughter," Titian, Museum, Berlin. 
 
 "Beatrice Cenci," Guido Reni, Barberini Palace, 
 Rome. 
 
 "The Straw Hat/' Rubens, National Gallery, 
 London. 
 
192 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 EMBLEMS 
 
 BY WHICH THE DIFFERENT CHARACTERS REPRESENTED IN A 
 DEVOTIONAL PAINTING MAY BE KNOWN. 
 
 There are some very interesting facts regarding 
 the manner in which Christian art has pictured the 
 three persons of the Holy Trinity, the apostles and 
 other saints and martyrs, a knowledge of which 
 seems to be necessary to the student of historical 
 painting in order to enable him to understand the 
 thought of the artist, who painted any devotional 
 picture. Especially is this the case since there is 
 no class of pictures produced by the old masters so 
 numerous as this. A list of the most important 
 emblems, which enable us to know the characters 
 denoted in a painting of this kind, is given below. 
 
 The Glory, Nimbus, or Aureole is an emblem 
 of divinity, and is used only in the portrayal of 
 some holy being; the oblong glory surrounding 
 the whole person is confined to figures denoting 
 one of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin or saints, 
 when in the act of ascending into heaven. When 
 used to distinguish one of the three persons of 
 the Trinity, the glory is often cruciform or trian- 
 
EMBLEMS. 193 
 
 gular. When used simply around the head, it is 
 properly the nimbus or aureole. When this is 
 square, it designates some one living at the time 
 the picture was painted. From the fifth to the 
 twelfth century, this nimbus was pictured as a 
 disc or plate over the head ; from the twelfth to 
 the fifteenth, it was a broad golden band around or 
 behind the head ; from the fifteenth it was a bright 
 fillet over the head ; and since the seventeenth it 
 has been seldom used. 
 
 The Lamb is the peculiar symbol of the Re- 
 deemer, as the sacrifice without blemish. It is 
 also sometimes given to John the Baptist in the 
 same sense of sacrifice. As a general emblem of 
 innocence, meekness, and modesty it is given to 
 St. Agnes. 
 
 The Lion, in its significance of solitude, is 
 placed near St. Jerome and other saints, who 
 lived as hermits. As denoting a martyrdom in 
 the amphitheatre, it is found with martyr saints as 
 St. Ignatius and St. Euphemia. 
 
 The Sword also "signifies martyrdom, and thus 
 is given to St. Paul, to St. Catherine and others, 
 who died by it. As a general symbol of martyr- 
 dom, it is occasionally given to martyrs who did 
 not suffer this particular death, 
 
ig4 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Arrows are given to St. Sebastian, St. Ursula, and 
 St. Christina, who were tortured or died by them. 
 
 The Caldron, signifying torture, is given to St. 
 John the Evangelist and to St. Cecilia. 
 
 The Wheel or Wheels, symbols of torture, are 
 given to St. Catherine. 
 
 The Skull signifies penance, and is often placed 
 beside Mary Magdalene. 
 
 The Palm is the universal symbol of victory 
 and triumph. 
 
 The Olive is the emblem of peace and reconcili- 
 ation, and as such is borne frequently by the 
 Angel Gabriel. 
 
 The Dove is the emblem of the Holy Ghost, 
 also of simplicity and purity, as in many pictures 
 of the Madonna and Child. 
 
 The Lily is another symbol of purity, and is 
 often seen in pictures of the Virgin, especially 
 in pictures of the Annunciation. 
 
 The Chalice, or sacramental cup, signifies faith, 
 and as such is often given to St. Barbara. 
 
 The Cup with the Serpent is sometimes given 
 to St. John. This is from the tradition that 
 poison was once offered him in a cup from which 
 he expelled the venom in the form of a serpent, 
 by making the sign of the cross. 
 
EMBLEMS. 195 
 
 After the sixth century it became usual to dis- 
 tinguish each of the apostles by some particular 
 emblem, borrowed from some circumstance of his 
 life or death, thus : — 
 
 St. Peter bears the keys or a fish. 
 
 St. Paul, the sword ; sometimes two swords. 
 
 St. Andrew, the transverse cross. 
 
 St. James Major, the pilgrim's staff. 
 
 St. John, the cup with the serpent ; sometimes 
 in his character of Evangelist, the eagle. 
 
 St. Thomas, a builder's rule; also, but more 
 seldom, a spear. 
 
 St. James Minor, a club. 
 
 St. Philip, the staff or crosier, surmounted by a 
 cross ; or a small cross in his hand. 
 
 St. Bartholomew, a large knife. 
 
 St. Matthew, a purse. 
 
 St. Simon, a saw. 
 
 St. Thaddeus (or Jude), a halberd or lance. 
 
 St. Matthias, a lance — or an axe. 
 
 Judas Iscariot is always portrayed as being hid- 
 eous, often deformed. 
 
 The four great Latin fathers who enter most 
 frequently into devotional pictures, are St. Jerome, 
 St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and St. Gregory. 
 
 Si. Jerome is the most important of these, and is 
 
196 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 almost always represented in one of three ways : 
 as patron saint in Cardinal's robes, or with the 
 Cardinal's hat at his feet ; as a translator of the 
 Scriptures with an open book in his hand ; or, as a 
 penitent, half naked and emaciated ; a lion is 
 almost always near him. His forehead is very 
 lofty and his beard reaches to his girdle. 
 
 Si. Ambrose is often represented with a bee-hive 
 or bees near him ; but most often with a knotted 
 scourge of three thongs in his hand. 
 
 St. Augustine may be known by a flaming 
 heart, or a heart pierced to express the ardor of 
 his piety, or the poignancy of his repentance, but 
 these are not often used when he is grouped with 
 other figures. Mrs. Jameson says that when St. 
 Jerome is accompanied by another bishop with a 
 book in his hand, and no particular attribute, we 
 may suppose him to be St. Augustine. 
 
 St. Gregory is usually accompanied by the dove, 
 which in' old pictures is always close to his ear. 
 
 St. Mary Magdalene is usually represented as a 
 most beautiful young woman, with rich golden 
 hair, clad in crimson, violet, or dark-blue drapery, 
 and almost always having in her hand, or near her, 
 the alabaster box or vase. 
 
SIGNIFICANCE OF COLORS. I97 
 
 SIGNIFICANCE OF COLORS. 
 
 Colors were used by these old masters in a 
 symbolic sense, thus : — 
 
 Wkite was the emblem of light, religious purity, 
 and innocence. Our Saviour was dressed in white 
 after the resurrection, and the Virgin in Annuncia- 
 tion pictures, and those of the Assumption. 
 
 Red signified divine love, heat, or the creative 
 power, and royalty. White and red roses, as in 
 St. Cecilia's garland, expressed innocence and love. 
 In a bad sense, red signified blood, war, hatred, and 
 punishment. Red and black combined were the 
 colors of Purgatory and of Satan. 
 
 Blue expressed truth and constancy. Christ and 
 the Virgin Mother wore the red tunie and the blue 
 mantle, as signifying heavenly love and heavenly 
 truth. The same colors were usually given to St. 
 John, with this difference, that he wore the blue 
 tunic and the red mantle.* In some later pictures 
 the colors are red and green. 
 
198 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Yellow was the Symbol of the sun ; of the good- 
 ness of God ; of marriage, of faith, and fruitfulness. 
 St. Joseph, the husband of the Virgin, wears yel- 
 low. In pictures of the apostles, St. Peter wears 
 a yellow mantle over a blue tunic. In a bad sense, 
 yellow signified inconstancy, jealousy, deceit. In 
 this sense it is given to the traitor, Judas Iscariot, 
 who is generally clad in dirty yellow. 
 
 Green expressed hope, particularly hope in im- 
 mortality; also victory, as the color of the palm 
 and the laurel. 
 
 Violet signified love and truth ; or, passion and 
 suffering. Hence it is the color often worn by the 
 martyrs. Mary Magdalene, as patron saint, wears 
 the red robe, as a penitent wears violet or blue. 
 
 These colors, however, were not arbitrary, and 
 exceptions may be found in the use of all of them, 
 although that here given was general. 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN PAINTING. I99 
 
 TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN PAINTING. 
 
 Accessories. Any objects not belonging to the main subject 
 of a picture. 
 
 Accident. A special condition or aspect of an object or 
 collection of objects, as distinguished from a general con- 
 dition or aspect of the same. 
 
 Aerial Perspective. The art of giving due diminution to the 
 strength of light, shade, and colors of objects, according to 
 their distances and the mediums through which they are 
 seen. 
 
 Antique. A term applied to the remains of the works of 
 ancient Greek and Roman artists. 
 
 Aquarelle. Transparent water-color painting without the use 
 of any body-color. 
 
 Body-color. Opaque color, often produced by the mixture 
 of Chinese white with transparent colors. It hides the 
 texture of the paper. A term used in water-color painting. 
 
 Breadth. Eifect, resulting from the general treatment of a 
 subject, in which details, light, shade, and harmonious 
 colors are subordinated by grouping them in masses, thus 
 producing simplicity. 
 
 Cartoon. A design upon papfir, prepared by an artist, from 
 which his work is to be executed. 
 
200 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Cast Shadow. The shadow thrown on a surfece by some 
 
 object that is interposed between it and the light. 
 Chiaro-oscuro (ki-a'ro-os-cu'-ro) or Chiaroscura. The art of 
 
 distributing the lights and shades of a picture with respect 
 
 to producing the best effect. 
 Composition. The arrangement of the various elements of a 
 
 picture. The term also includes the invention or the 
 
 original thought of a picture. 
 Dead-coloring. The preparatory painting, cold and pale, 
 
 on which are placed the finishing colors which give life 
 
 and beauty to the picture. 
 Design. The outline, or main features : — the plan of a 
 
 picture. 
 Dragging. The process of drawing a brush charged or 
 
 filled with thick, opaque color heavily and quickly over the 
 
 painting. 
 Effect. The result of the composition of a picture. 
 Finish. Perfect expression of detail without sacrificing 
 
 breadth. 
 Foreshortening. The apparent diminution of the length 
 
 of an object in proportion as the direction of its length 
 
 coincides with the direction of the visual ray. 
 Glazing. Putting a transparent color over other colors, 
 
 either to increase or decrease their brilliancy, without 
 
 changing the effect of light and shade. 
 Handling. The method of using the materials employed in 
 
 painting. It refers to manipulation. 
 Harmony. The effect of the proper arrangement of forms, 
 
 lights, and colors in a picture. 
 
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN PAINTING. 20I 
 
 Hatching, or Cross-Hatching. The use of the brush or 
 pencU so as to make lines that cross each other at regular 
 intervals, and cover only a part of the ground. 
 
 Impaste. The thickness of the layer or body of pigment 
 applied to the canvas. 
 
 In keeping. The proper subserviency of tone and color in 
 every part of a picture. 
 
 Lay-figure. A jointed wooden image on which the artist may 
 put his costumes or draperies so as to study their effect. 
 
 Light. The illuminated portion of an object which gives 
 direct reflection. High light is that small portion of the 
 light surface which receives the illuminating rays at right 
 angles, or which when moistened, glitters. Reflected light 
 is the partial illumination of shade caused by reflection 
 from some lighter object near it. 
 
 Local Color. The true color of an object, unaffected by light, 
 shade, distance, or reflection. 
 
 Mannerism. Any peculiar method of work carried to excess. 
 
 Medium. The material in which an artist executes his work. 
 
 Monochrome. Of one color. 
 
 Motive. That which inspires the conception and creation of 
 a picture. 
 
 Perspective. The art of making such a representation of an 
 object on a plane surface as shall present the same appear- 
 ance that the object itself would present to the eye when 
 seen from a particular point ; or, it is drawing things as 
 they appear, not as they are. 
 
 Relief. The apparent projection of an object or objects from 
 the plane surface. 
 
202 HISTORIC SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Romantic. Pertaining to the popular style of thought of • 
 the Middle Ages, as opposed to the classical antique. 
 
 Scumbling. The process of passing a thin film of opaque 
 color in a nearly dry condition, over other color, so as not 
 to cover it completely. 
 
 Shade. The opposite of light. 
 
 Stippling. The process of making a series of small touches, 
 strokes, or dots, so as to obtain evenness of surface, grada- 
 tion of shade, or intensity of shadow. It is a method of 
 handling much used by some English water-colorists. 
 
 Style. The treatment of the subject of a composition, also 
 its handling. 
 
 Technique. Method of execution. 
 
 Texture. Imitation of the surface of the object. 
 
 Tone. The agreement of lights and. darks and of color- 
 quantities. 
 
 Values. The relationships of lights and darks and of color- 
 intensities throughout a picture. 
 
 Vehicle. Any liquid used to dilute colors so as to render 
 them of a proper consistency for use. 
 
INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS, 
 
 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF ARTISTS' NAMES. 
 
 PACE 
 
 Achenbach, Oswald (a'ken-bak) 135 
 
 Aelst, Wilhelm van (van alst) 149 
 
 Albani, Francesco (al-ba'nee) 102 
 
 Albertinelli, Mariotto (al-ber-tee-nel'lee) 50 
 
 Allston, Washington (ols'ton) 187 
 
 Alma-Tadema, Laurens (al'ma-ta-da'ma) 149 
 
 American Artists 186 
 
 Angelico, Fra (an-ja'Ie-ko, fra) 34 
 
 Angelo, Michael (an'ja-lo) 50 
 
 Antiphilus (an-tiPe-lus) 24 
 
 Antonello da Messina (an-to-nel'lo da mes-see'na) 37 
 
 Apelles (a-pel'eez) 19 
 
 Apollodorus (a-pol-lo-do'rus) 14 
 
 Baptiste (bap'teest') 159 
 
 Barry, James 1 79 
 
 Bartolommeo, Fra (bar-to-lom-ma'o, fra) 47 
 
 Bassano, II (eel bas-sa'no) 92 
 
 Becker, Carl 137 
 
 Becker, Jacob ■ 13S 
 
 Bellini, Gentile (bel-lee'nee, jen-teela) ' 82 
 
 Bellini, Giovanni (jo-van'nee) 8i 
 
 Berchem, Nicolas (bairk'hem) 147 
 
 Bierstadt, Albert (beer'stat) 189 
 
204 INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bolognese School 98 
 
 Bonheur, Rosa (bo-nur') 168 
 
 Bonsignori, Francesco (bon-seen-yo'ree) 58 
 
 Botticelli, Sandro (bot-e-chel'ee) 41 
 
 Boughton, George W. (bo'ton) 185 
 
 Boulanger, Gustave (boo'lang'zha') 167 
 
 Bradford, William , 189 
 
 Breton, Emile (bra'tong', a'meel') 168 
 
 Brown, George L 189 
 
 Brun, Charles le (leh broon', sharl) 158 
 
 Buonarotti, Michael Angelo (boo-o-na-rot'ee) 50 
 
 Burne- Jones, Edward 185 
 
 Butler, Elizabeth Thompson 185 
 
 Cabanel, Alexandre (ka'ba'nel') 167 
 
 Callcott, Sir Augustus (kol'cot) 182 
 
 Cano (ka'no) 156 
 
 Caravaggio (ka-ra-vad'jo) 106 
 
 Cimabue (chee-ma-boo'a) 28 
 
 Cimon (si'mon) 12 
 
 Church, Frederic Edwin 188 
 
 Qouet (kloo'a') 157 
 
 Cole. Thomas 188 
 
 Colman Samuel 189 
 
 Constable, John 182 
 
 Constant, Benjamin (kbn'ston') 167 
 
 Copley, John Singleton 186 
 
 Cornelius, Peter (kor-neel'yus) 134 
 
 Corot, Jean Baptiste (ko'ro', zhan bap'teest') 166, 167 
 
 Correggio (kor-red'jo) 76 
 
 Cousin, Jean fkoo'zang', zhan) 157 
 
 Couture, Thomas (koo'tiir') 167 
 
 Cranach, Lucas (kran'ak) 129 
 
 Crivelli, Carlo (kree-vel'lee) 83 
 
 Cuyp, Albert (koip) 148 
 
 Daubigny, Charles Francois (do'been'yee) 166, 167 
 
 David, Jacques Louis f da'veed , zhak loo'e) i6l 
 
INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS. 205 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Decamps, Alexandre G. (deh-kong') 1G6, 167 
 
 De Haas (deh-has') 149 
 
 Delacroix, Eugene (deh-la'krwa', u'zhan') 166 
 
 Delaroche, Paul (deh-la'rosh', pol) 1 64 
 
 Denner, Balthasar 1 33 
 
 Detaille, Edouard (deh-tal', ad' war') 168 
 
 Diaz (dee'ath) 166 
 
 Dolci, Carlo (dol'chee) 105 
 
 Domenichino (do-men-ee-kee'no) 98 
 
 Dor£, Gustave (do'ra', gus'tav') 167 
 
 Dow, Gerhard 143 
 
 Duccio (doot/cho) 29 
 
 Dupre, Jules (dii'pra', zhiil) 166, 167 
 
 Durer, Albrecht (du'rer) 127 
 
 Dutch School 138 
 
 Eclectic School 98 
 
 Egyptian Painting, Ancient 8 
 
 Elzheimer, Adam (elts'hi-mer) 1 32 
 
 English School 169 
 
 Escosura, Leon (es-ko-soo'ra) 156 
 
 Etty, William 180 
 
 Eyck, Hubert van (van ik) 113 
 
 Eyck, John van 114 
 
 Ferrari, Gaudenzio (fer-ra'ee) 75 
 
 Fiorendino, Stephano (fee-o-ren-dee'no) 31 
 
 Flemish School 113 
 
 Florentine School 28 
 
 Forli, Melozzi da (da for'lee, mee-lot'zee) 57 
 
 Fortuny, Mariano (for-too'nee) 156 
 
 Foster, Birket 185 
 
 Foucquet, Jean (foo'ka') 157 
 
 Francesca, Piero della (fran-ses'-ka) 6i 
 
 Francia (fran'cha) 62 
 
 French School 157 
 
 Fromentin, Eugene (fro'mong'tang') 166, 167 
 
 Fuller, George 188 
 
206 INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS. 
 
 PACE 
 
 Fuseli, Henry (f u'ze-le) 1 79 
 
 Gaddi, Taddeo (gad'dee) 31 
 
 Gainsborough, Thomas (ganz'bur-eh) • . . 177 
 
 Gericault, Jean Louis (zha're-ko') ; 162 
 
 German School 125 
 
 Gerome, Jean Leon (zha'rom') 167 
 
 Ghirlandajo (ger-lan-da'yo) 42 
 
 Giorgione (jor-jo'na) 84 
 
 Giottino (jot-tee'no) 31 
 
 Giotto (jot'to) 29 
 
 Gisbert (zheez'bair) 156 
 
 Giunta da Pisa (joon'ta da pee'za) 28 
 
 Gonzalva (gon-zal'va) 156 
 
 Gozzoli, Benozzi (got'so-lee ba-not'see) 39 
 
 Gray, Henry 188 
 
 Greek Painting, Ancient... 10 
 
 Greuze, Jean Baptiste (griirz) I60 
 
 Guercino (gwer-chee'no) 104 
 
 Guido Reni (gwee'do ra'nee) 100 
 
 Guido da Siena (gwee'do da se-a'na) 28 
 
 Hart, William 189 
 
 Healy, George 188 
 
 Heem, David de 149 
 
 Heinlein (hin'lin') 136 
 
 Henneberg (hen'e-berg) 137 
 
 Herkomer, Hubert (herk'o-mer) 185 
 
 Herrera, Francisco de (er-ra'ra) 155 
 
 Hess, Peter 136 
 
 Hildebrandt (hil'de-brant') 137 
 
 Hobbema, Minderhout (hob'be-ma) 147 
 
 Hoffmann, H. Johann (hof'man) 135 
 
 Hogarth, William ill 
 
 Holbein, Hans (hol'bin) 130 
 
 Hunt, William Holman 184 
 
 Hunt, William Morris 188 
 
 Huysum, Johann van (hoi'sum) 149 
 
INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS. 20/ 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ingres, Jean Auguste (angr zhan o'gust) i6i 
 
 Inness, George 189 
 
 Israels, Josef (iz'ra-els) 149 
 
 Jordan, Rudolf (yor'dan) 135 
 
 Kaulbach, Wilhelm (kowl'bak) 136 
 
 Koekkoek, Barent C. (kook'kook) 149 
 
 Koekkoek, Gabriel 149 
 
 Knaus, Ludwig (nows, lood'vig) 135 
 
 Kneller, Sir Godfrey (nel'er) 170 
 
 Krafft, Peter 137 
 
 Kuger, Friedrich (koo'ger, frid'rik) 136 
 
 Landseer, Charles 184 
 
 Landseer, Edwin 183 
 
 Lanfranco, Giovanni (lan-fran'ko) 103 
 
 Eawrence, Sir Thomas 1 79 
 
 Leighton, Sir Frederick (la'ton) 185 
 
 Lely, Sir Peter 169 
 
 Lemoine, Francois (leh-mwan') 159 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci (la-o-nard'o da vin'chee) 43 
 
 Leonbruno, Lorenzo (la-on-broo'no) 58 
 
 Lepage, Jules Bastien (leh-pazh') 168 
 
 Leslie, Charles Robert 183 
 
 Lessing, Karl 135 
 
 Le Sueur, Eustache (sii'ur, us'tash) 158 
 
 Leutze, Emanuel (loit'seh) 135 
 
 Lippi, Filippino (lip'pee) 41 
 
 Lombard School ^ 73 
 
 Lorraine, Claude (lor-ran') Ill 
 
 Luini, Bernardino (loo-ee'nee) 73 
 
 Mabuse (ma'buz') 119 
 
 Makart, Hans 136 
 
 Malbone, Edward 18S 
 
 Mantegna, Andrea (man-tan'ya) ^6 
 
 Masaccio (ma-sat'cho) 36 
 
 Matsys, Quintin (mat'sis') 118 
 
 Mauve, V. (mov'e) 149 
 
208 INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Max, Gabriel 136 
 
 Meissonier, J. L. E. (ma'so'ne-a') 166, 167 
 
 Memling, Hans I16 
 
 Memmi, Simone (raem'mee, see-mo'na) 38 
 
 Mengs, Raphael 133 
 
 Menzel, Adolph (ment'sel) 136 
 
 Metzu, Gabriel 144 
 
 Meyerheim, Edward (mi'er-him') .137 
 
 Meyerheim, Paul 137 
 
 Micon (mi'con) 13 
 
 Millais, John Everett (mil'la') 184, 185 
 
 Millet, Jean Franjois (mee'ya') 166, 167 
 
 Monnoyer, Jean Baptiste (mon'wa'ya') 159 
 
 Moretto, II (mo-ret'o) 96 
 
 Morgenstein, Christian (mor'gen-stin') 136 
 
 Mulready, William (mul'red-e) 183 
 
 Munkacsy, Michael (moon'ka-chee) , 137 
 
 Murillo, Bartolom^ Esteban (moo-reel'yo) 153 
 
 Nason, Peter 149 
 
 Naturalists, School of 106 
 
 Neuville, Alphonse de (ner'veel') 168 
 
 Niccola da Pisa (neek'-o-la da pee'za) 28 
 
 Opie, John (6'pe) 179 
 
 Orcagna (or-kan'ya) 32 
 
 Os, Johann van 149 
 
 Ostade, Adrian van (van os'ta'deh) 143 
 
 Pacuvius (pa-koo've-us) 25 
 
 Paduan School 55 
 
 Page, William l88 
 
 Palmaroli (pal-mS-ro'lee) 156 
 
 Parmigiano (par-mee-ja'no) 78 
 
 Farrhasius (par-ra'she-us) 16 
 
 Peale, Rembrandt 188 
 
 Perugino (pa-roo-jee'no) 59 
 
 Finturicchio (peen-too-reek'e-o) 63 
 
 Piombo, Sebastian del (pee-om'bo) 90 
 
 Polygnotus (pol-ig-no'tus) la 
 
INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ARTISTS. 2O9 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pordenone (por-da-no'na) 92 
 
 Potter, Paul 146 
 
 Poussin, Caspar (poo'sang') i u 
 
 Poussin, Nicholas log 
 
 Protogenes (pro-toj'e-neez) 22 
 
 Pyreicus (pe-ri'kus) 24 
 
 Rahl, Carl (riU) 137 
 
 Raphael Santi (raf'a-el san'tee) 64 
 
 Rembrandt van Ryn (rem'brant van viii) 138 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua 172 
 
 Ribalta, Francisco (ree-bal'ta) 151 
 
 Ribera, Josef de (ree-ba'ra) 107 
 
 Ritter, Henry 1 35 
 
 Roelas, Juan de las (ro-a'las, hoo-an') 150 
 
 Roman School 59 
 
 Romano, Julio (ro-mii'no) 71 
 
 Romney, George 1 73 
 
 Rosalez (ro'za-leth) 156 
 
 Rosa, Salvator (ro'za, sal-va'tor) 108 
 
 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel (ros-set'ee) 184, 185 
 
 Rousseau, Theodore (roo'so') 166 
 
 Rubens, Peter Paul (roo'benz) 1 20 
 
 Ruiperez (roo-eep'e-reth) 156 
 
 Ruisdael, Jacob (rois'dal) 146 
 
 Ruysch, Rachel (roisk) ' 149 
 
 Sarto, Andrea del c^ 
 
 Schadow, Wilhelm (sha'do) 13c 
 
 Scheffer, Ary (shef'er) 1 65 
 
 Schom, Carl (shorn) 137 
 
 Schrader, Julius (shra'der) 137 
 
 Signorelli, Luca (seen-yo-rel'ee) 39 
 
 Soddoma, II (sod-do'ma) 74 
 
 Spagna, Lo (span'ya) 70 
 
 Spagnoletto, Lo (span-yo-let'o) 107 
 
 Spanish School 1 50 
 
 Squarcione, Francesco (squar-cho'na) 55 
 
 Stephan, Meister (stef'an, mis'ter) 1 26 
 
2IO INDEX OF SCHOOLS AND ' ARTISTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stuart, Gilbert Charles 1 86 
 
 Sully, Thomas i88 
 
 Teniers, David (ten'yers) I40 
 
 Terburg, Gerhard 142 
 
 Thornhill, Sir James 1 70 
 
 Timanthes (ti-man'theez) i8 
 
 Tintoretto (tin-to-ret'to) 93 
 
 Titian (tish'e-an) '. . . 86 
 
 Troyon, Constant (trwa'yiiii'; 166, 167 
 
 Trumbull, John 1 88 
 
 Tuscan School 28 
 
 Turner, James M. AV 180 
 
 Turpilius (tur-pil'i-us) 25 
 
 Umbrian School .' 59 
 
 Vandyck, Antony (van-diU') .' 123 
 
 Vecchio, II (vet'cho) 91 
 
 Velasquez, Diego (va-las'l<eth) 152 
 
 Velde, Willem van de (van de vel'deh) 148 
 
 Venetian School 81 
 
 Vernet, Claude Joseph (ver'na') 160 
 
 Vernet, Horace 163 
 
 Veronese, Paul (va-ru-na'za) 95 
 
 Volterra, Danielc da (vol-tcr'raj 54 
 
 Voltz 136 
 
 Waldmiiller (valt'miil-er) 137 
 
 Watts, George F 185 
 
 Weber (va'ber) 135 
 
 West, Benjamin.. , 1 74 
 
 Weyden, Rogier van de (viMen) , 115 
 
 Wilkie, Sir David 183 
 
 William of Cologne , 1 26 
 
 Wilson, Richard . . . . ' 176 
 
 Wolgemuth (vol'ge-moot') 127 
 
 Wouverman, Philip (wow'ver-mSn ) 145 
 
 Zeuxis (zuks-is) 15 
 
 Zurburan, Francisco de (thoor-ba-ran'j 153 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
HIGHER BNGLISH. 
 
 17 
 
 Hudson's Expurgated Shakespeare. 
 
 For Schools, Clubs, and Families. Revised and enlarged Editions ot 
 twenty-three Plays. Carefully expurgated, with Explanatory Notes at 
 the bottom ot the pase, and Critical Notes at the end of each volume. 
 By H. N. Hudson, LLJD., Editor of The Harvard Shakespeare. One 
 play in each volume. Square 16mo. Varying in size from 128-252 
 
 Sages. Mailing Price of each : Cloth, 50 cents; Paper, 35 cents. Intro- 
 uction Price; Cloth, 45 cent^; Paper, 30 cents. Per set (in box), 
 $12.00. (To Teaohera, $10.00.) For list see next page. 
 
 DOME of the special features of this edition are the convenient 
 size and shape of the volumes ; the clear tj^e, superior press- 
 work, and attractive binding; the ample introductions: the ex- 
 planatory notes, easily found at the foot of the page ; the critical 
 notes for special study ; the judicious expurgation, never mangling 
 eitlier style or story ; the acute and sympathetic criticism that has 
 come to be associated with Dr. Hudson's name ; and, finally, the 
 reasonableness of the price. 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes : An edi- 
 tion of any play of Shakespeare's to 
 which Mr. Hudson's name is affixed 
 does not need a line from anybody to 
 commend it. 
 
 Cyms Northrop, Prof, of English 
 Literattire, Yale Collei/e : They are 
 convenient in form and edited by 
 Hudson, — two good things which I 
 3au see at a glance. 
 
 Hiram Corson, Prof, of Shet. and 
 Eng. Lit., Cornell University : I con- 
 sider them altogether excellent. The 
 aotes give all the aid needed for an 
 understanding of the text, without 
 waste and distraction of the student's 
 mind. The introductory matter to 
 the several plays is especially worthy 
 of approbation. {Jan. 28, 1887.) 
 
 C. F. P. Bancroft. Prin. of Phil- 
 lips Academy, Andover, Mass.: Mr. 
 Hudson's appreciation of Shake- 
 speare amounted to genius. His 
 editing accordingly exhibits more 
 than learning and industry, — it re- 
 veals insight, sympathy, and convic- 
 tion. He leads the pupil into the 
 
 very mind and heart of "the thou- 
 sand-souled Shakespeare." 
 
 Byron Oroce, Master in Public 
 Latin School, Boston: The amended 
 text is satisfactory; the typography 
 is excellent; the notes are brief, al- 
 ways helpful, not too numerous, and 
 put where they will do the most good ; 
 the introductions are vigorous, in- 
 spiriting, keenly and soundly critical, 
 and very attractive to boys, especially 
 on account of their directness and 
 warmth, for all boys like enthusi< 
 asm. {Jan. 22, 1887.) 
 
 C. T. Winchester, Prof, of English, 
 Wesleyan University : The notes and 
 comments in the school edition are 
 admirably fitted to the need of the 
 student, removing his difiiculties by 
 stimulating his interest and quicken- 
 ing his perception. {Feb. 10, 1887.) 
 
 A. C. FerkinB, Prin. of Adelpln 
 Academy, Brooklyn : In the prepa- 
 ration of tlie School Shakespeare, 
 Mr. Hudson met fully the capacities 
 and needs of students in our schooU 
 andooUegea. {Feb.i,im.) 
 
18 HIGHER ENGLISH. 
 
 The list is as follows : 
 
 *A Midsummer-Night's Dream.' *Henry the Eighth.' 
 
 *The Merchant of Venice.^ *Romeo and Juliet.' 
 
 *Much Ado About Nothing.' *Julius Cxsar.^ 
 
 *As You Like It.i Twelfth Night.i *Hamlet.i 
 *The Tempest.2 The Winter's Tale." '►King Lear.^ 
 
 King John. Richard Second. *Macbeth.^ 
 
 Richard Third.^ Antony and Cleopatra. - 
 
 ■^Henry Fourth, Part First.i '^Othello.' 
 
 Henry Fourth, Part Second.^ Cymbeline.' 
 
 ♦Henry the Fifth." *Coriolanus.' 
 
 Old Edition, paper, plays starred above. By Mail, 20 cts. ; Introd., 15 cts. 
 
 Hudson's Three-Voluwe Shakespeare. 
 
 For Schools, Families, and Clubs. With Introductions and Notes on 
 each Play. 12mo. Cloth. 636-C78 pages per volume. Mailing Price, 
 per volume, $1.40; Introduction, $1.25. The plays included in the three 
 volumes respectively are indicated by figures in the above list. 
 
 Shakespeare 's Complete Works. Harvard Edition. 
 
 By Henry N. Hudson, H.D. In Twenty Volumes, 12mo, two plays in 
 each volume. Retail Price : Cloth, $25.00; half calf, $55.00. Also in 
 Ten Volumes, of four plays each. Retail Price : Cloth, $20.00 ; half 
 calf, $40.00. 
 
 fTlHlS is pre-eminently the edition for libraries, students, and 
 general readers. The type, paper, and binding are attractive 
 and superior, and the notes represent the editor's ripest thought. 
 
 One obvious merit is, that each volume has two sets of notes ; 
 one mainly devoted to explaining the text, and placed at the foot 
 of the page ; the other mostly occupied with matters of textual 
 comment and criticism, and printed at the end of each play. 
 
 E. P. Whipple, The Noted Critic : 
 Hudson's is the most thoughtful and 
 intelligent interpretative criticism 
 
 which has, during the present cen- 
 tury, been written, either in English 
 or German. 
 
 Life, Art, and Characters of Shakespeare. 
 
 By Hbney N. Hudson, LL.D., Editor of The Harvard Shakespeare, etc. 
 lu 2 vols. 12mo. 1003 pages. Uniform in size and binding with The 
 Harvard Shakespeare. Retail Price : Cloth, $4.00 ; half calf, $8.00. 
 
 Dr. A. P. Peabody, flareard College : 
 1 regard the edition as unequalled in 
 Shakespearian scholarship, and iu its 
 
 worth in the library and for current 
 use ; and I yield to no one in the high- 
 est regard for tbq- editor. 
 
20 HIGHER ENGLISH. 
 
 Hudson's Selections of Prose and Poetry. 
 
 Annotated. 12mo. Paper. Mailing Price of each, 20 cents ; Introdae 
 tion Price, 15 cents. 
 
 Edmund Burke. Section 1. Five Speeches and ten Papers. Sec- 
 tion 2. A Sketch of his Life. A Letter to a Noble Lord, and eleven 
 extracts, 
 
 Daniel Webster. Section 1. The Reply to Hayne, and six extracts 
 Section 2. A Sketch of his Life, and extracts from twenty-fiv. 
 Speeches. 
 
 Lord Baton. A Sketch of his Life, and extracts from thirty Essays. 
 
 Wordsworth . Section I. Life of Wordsworth, the Prelude, and thirty- 
 three Poems. Section II. Sixty Poems and Sonnets, accompanied 
 by foot-notes, historical and explanatory. 
 
 Coleridge and Burns. Biographies of the Poets, and forty-flve Poems. 
 
 Addison and Goldsmith. A Life of each, fifteen Papers from Addison, 
 and eleven Prose Selections from Goldsmith, with The Deserted Village, 
 
 Craik's English of Shakespeare. 
 
 Illustrated in a Philological Commentary on Julius Csesar. By Gborob 
 L. Cbaik, Queen's College, Belfast. Edited, from the third revised 
 London edition, by W. J. Rolfe, Cambridge, Mass. 12mo. Cloth. 400 
 pages. Mailing Price, $1.00 ; Introduction, 90 cents. 
 
 A N exposition in regard both to the language or style of Shake- 
 speare, and to the English language generally. 
 
 Shahspere's Versification. 
 
 Notes on Shakspere's Versification, with Appendix on the Verse Tests 
 and a short Descriptive Bibliography. By George H. Bbownb, A.M. 
 12mo. Paper. 31 pages. Price, interleaved, 2S cents. 
 
 Shakespeare and Chaucer Examinations. 
 
 Edited, with some'remarks on the " Class-Room Study of Shakespeare,' 
 by William Taylor Thom, M.A., Professor of English in Rollins In- 
 stitute, Va. Square 16mo. Cloth. 346 pages. Mailing Price, $1.10; 
 for introduction, $1.00. 
 
 rpHIS is a revised and enlarged edition of the Two Shakespeare 
 
 Examination!:, published several years and very much liked by 
 
 teachers of English Literature. That book contained two exam» 
 
HIGHER ENGLISH. 21 
 
 nations held at HoUins Institute in 1881, on Hamlet; in 1882, on 
 Macbeth, for the annual prize by the New Shakespeare Society of 
 England. Besides these, there are in the new edition the Exami- 
 nations on King Lear (1883), on Othello (1884), on The Merchant 
 of Venice (1886) ; a Chaucer Examination (1886), set chiefly by 
 Professor Child, of Hai-vard University, and based upon the " Pro- 
 logue," " The Knight's Tale," and the " Nun's Priest's Tale " of 
 the Canterbury Tales; with some additional remarks on the Study 
 of Shakespeare and references to the Tempest. 
 
 W. M. BaBkenrill, Prof, in Yan- 
 derbilt University : We heartily rec- 
 ommend these examinations to teach- 
 
 ers. They are lull of suggestive 
 information. They will serve as 
 admirable models. 
 
 Introduction to the Poetry of Robert Browning. 
 
 By William John Albxandeb, Ph.D., Munro Professor of the English 
 Language and Literature, Dalhousie College and University, Halifax, 
 N.S., and formerly Fellow of Johns Hopkins University. 12mo. Cloth. 
 v + 212 pages. Mailing Price, $1.10; for introduction, 11,00. 
 
 rpHE book opens with an account of Browning's most striking 
 peculiarities in method and style, and attempts to find an 
 explanation of these in the conditions amidst which the Poet has 
 worked, and in the nature of the themes which he treats. In the 
 next place, an exposition is given of those general ideas pervading 
 his work, which can only be gathered from the study of many of 
 his poems, and yet are needful for the full understanding of almost 
 any one of them. This exposition is contained in a series of chap- 
 ters treating of "Browning's Philosophy," "Christianity as Pre- 
 sented in Browning's Works,'' and " Browning's Theory of Art." 
 These chapters are followed by a brief chronological review of his 
 writings, and characterization of his development. The various 
 points treated throughout the Introduction are illustrated by 
 a series of selected poems, furnished with careful analyses and 
 copious critical comments. Attention is especially directed to the 
 Analysis of Sordello, much fuller and more exact, it is believed, 
 than any heretofore published. The author's aim is to prepare for 
 further unassisted study of the poet. 
 
 P. J. FurniTall, Founder of the 
 original Browning Society : I think 
 your estimate of Browning and your 
 
 analysis of his limitations and their 
 causes are the best and truest yet 
 made. {From a letter to the author.) 
 
MUSIC. 
 
 109 
 
 A Choral Book. 
 
 By Frikdrich Zuchtmann, Principal of the Conservatory of Music, 
 Springfield, Mass., and I^win L. Kirtlai.'d, Superintendent of Schools, 
 miyoke, Mass. 8to. vi + 92 pages. Boards. Mailing Price, 70 cents ; 
 for Introduction, (iO cents. 
 
 fpHIS book consists of ninety choice choral pieces, which have 
 proved their quality by centuries of use in the homes, schools, 
 and churches of Germany. The tunes are unchanged in a single 
 note ; while the hymns have been translated with religious fidelity 
 to both sentiment and music, the rugged force of the former hav- 
 ing been maintained without hai-shness, and the peculiar rhythmi- 
 cal, dynamic, or phonic effects of the latter having been rendered 
 by a laborioos choice and arrangement of vowels, syllables, words, 
 and phi-ases. 
 
 The aim of the work is : First, to afiord for use in the hqme cir- 
 cle music easily mastered, and containing means for the best musi- 
 cal culture. Second, to introduce into the schoolroom suitable 
 music for sight-reading and for the usual exercises at the opening 
 and closing of the sessions. Third, to restore to the churches the 
 ideal music for congregational singing, ajid ultimately to displace 
 the light morceaux of the opera, which are obviously unsuited to 
 convey religious sentiment, and which cannot be well rendered by 
 imtrained masses. Fourth, to establish and maintain among peo- 
 ple and musicians the elevated musical ideal which was possessed 
 by the masters who composed and the people who have loved these 
 matchless harmonies. 
 
 Earl Merz, Prin. of Conservatory 
 of ifufic, Univ. of Wooster, Ohio: 
 At last light is dawning. For years 
 1 have through lectures as well as 
 through the press fought against the 
 tendency of our modem church and 
 Sunday-school music. The Choral 
 Book by Zuchtmann and Rirtland is 
 an ideal one, and I cannot recom- 
 mend it too highly to schools, Chris- 
 tian homes, and churches. May it 
 meet with that success which it so 
 richly deserves. {May 6, 18S9.) 
 
 J. E. Bailey, Supt. of Music, Nash- 
 ville, Term. : I find it a treasure in 
 
 rich old chorals. The harmonies 
 have got religion. It is not dance 
 music either in melody or harmony. 
 Success to the book. {May 17, 1889.) 
 F. 1. Bristow, Teacher of Music 
 in the Public Schools, Covington, 
 Ky. : I consider it a perfect gem in 
 every respect. I shall cheerfully 
 and unhesitatingly recommend it to 
 my friends and music patrons as 
 being the very best choral book that 
 they could possibly desire. I fee! 
 truly gratef al to you for having pub 
 lished such a choice work. 
 {April 30, 1889.) 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 Outlines of Mediceual and Modern History. 
 
 By P. V. N. Mykrs, A.M., President of Belmont College, Ohio; Authoi 
 of Outlines of Ancient History, and Remains of Lost Empires. 12mo, 
 Half Morocco, xii + 740 pages. With colored maps, reproduced, by 
 permission, from Freeman's Historical Atlas. Mailing Price, $1.66; 
 for introduction, $1.50. Allowance for a book in exchange, 40 cents. 
 
 rpHIS work aims to blend in a single narrative accounts of the 
 social, political, literary, intellectual, and religious 
 developments of the peoples of mediaeval and modern 
 times, — to give in simple outline the story of civilization since 
 the meeting, in the fifth century of our era, of Latin and Teuton 
 upon the soil of the Roman Empire in the AVest. The author's 
 conception of History, based on the definitions of Ueberweg, that 
 it is the unfolding of the essence of spirit, affords the key-note to 
 the work. Its aim is to deal with the essential elements, not the 
 accidental features, of the life of the race. 
 
 Unity and cohesion are secured by grouping facts according to 
 the principles of historic development, and while the analysis 
 is rigid and scientific, the narrative will be found clear, continuous. 
 interesting, and suggestive. 
 
 W. P. Allen, Prof, of History, 
 University of Wisconsin : Mr. Myers' 
 book seems to me to be a work of 
 high excellence, and to give a re- 
 markably clear and vivid picture of 
 mediseval history. 
 
 E. B. Andrews, Prof, of History 
 and Political Economy, Brown Uni- 
 versity, Providence, RJ. : It seems 
 certain to take its place as one of the 
 most serviceable books of its kind 
 before the school and college public. 
 'Jan. 6, 1887.) 
 
 Geo. W. Knight, Prof, of History, 
 Ohio State University; The author 
 seems to have gotten hold of the 
 active principle, the leading motives 
 and tendencies of each age; to have 
 taken a comprehensive view of the 
 development of man's ideas, of na- 
 tions, and of governments. Then he 
 has grouped the various events in 
 such a way as will bring clearly to 
 view these different phases of the 
 world-development without ignoring 
 what may be called the collateral 
 events. 
 
114 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 The Eastern Nations and Greece. 
 
 (Part I. of Myers and Allen's Ancient History.) 
 
 By P. V. N. Myers, President of Belmont College, Ohio. Author ot 
 Mediseval and Modem History, etc. 12mo. Cloth, ix + 369 pages. 
 Mailing Price, $1.10; for Introduction, $1.00; Allowance for an old 
 book in exchange, 25 cents. 
 
 rpHIS is a revision and expansion of the corresponding part of 
 the author's Outlines of Ancient History. It embraces the his- 
 tory of the Egyptians, Assyrio-Babylonians, Hebrews, Phoenicians, 
 Lydians, Medes and Persians, and Greeks. 
 
 The chapters relating to the Eastern nations have been vrritten 
 in the light of the most recent revelations of the monuments of 
 Egypt and Babylonia. The influence of Oriental civilization upon 
 the later development of the Western peoples has been fully indi- 
 cated. It is shown that before the East gave a religion to the 
 West it had imparted many primary elements of art and general 
 culture. This lends a sort of epic unity to series of events and 
 historic developments too often regarded as fragmentary and un- 
 related, and invests the history of the old civilizations of the 
 Orient with fresh interest and instruction. 
 
 In tracing the growth of Greek civilization, while the value of 
 the germs of cultui-e which the Greeks received from the older 
 nations of the East is strongly insisted upon, still it is admitted 
 that the determining factor in the wonderful Greek development 
 was the peculiar genius of the Greek race itself. 
 
 The work is furnished with chronological summaries, colored 
 maps, and numerous illustrations drawn from the most authentic 
 sources. 
 
 Arthur Latham Perry, Prof, of 
 History, Williams College, Williams- 
 town, Mass. : I have read every word 
 of Myers' Eastern Nations and 
 Greece, and wish to express my sense 
 of the great skill and elegance with 
 which has been condensed into a 
 single small volume aU that is really 
 most important to he known of the 
 early nations, in such a way that the 
 memory can easily bold it, and that 
 the mind is satisfied at once with the 
 
 facts selected and the taste exhibited 
 in handling them. {Oct. 24, 1889.) 
 
 I. T. Beckwith, Prof, of Greek, 
 Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.: 
 The book seems to me remarkable in 
 its comprehensiveness, and likewise 
 in the clearness and life with which 
 it presents the leading facts in each 
 great movement. I think it far more 
 interesting and useful than any other 
 epitome of the kind which I have 
 seen. {Oct. 19, 1889.) 
 
HISTORY. 115 
 
 A Short History of the Roman People. 
 
 (Part II. of Myers and Allen 's Ancient History.) 
 
 By William F. Allbn, late Professor of History in the University of 
 Wisconsin. 12mo. Cloth, xv + 370 pages. Furnished with numerous 
 Illustrations and 12 black and colored Maps. Mailing Price, $1.10 ; for 
 Introduction, $1.00; Allowance for an old book in exchange, 25 cents. 
 
 TN" this book Professor Allen desired briefly to relate the history 
 of the Roman people. To him Roman society presented itself 
 as an entirety, so that the political, economic, literary, and religious 
 elements in the life of the Roman people could not be understood 
 in isolation, but only in relation with each other. While thus he 
 considered society as a whole, he found in Roman history two 
 fundamentally important series of events, each of which influenced 
 the other : first, the policy and process by which the Roman Do- 
 minion' was secured and organized during the Republic, its reor- 
 ganization under the Empire, and final disruption at the time of 
 the Grerman migrations; and secondly, the social and economic 
 causes of the failure of self-government among the Romans, and 
 the working of the same forces under the Empire. In connection 
 with these fundamental considerations, the land question is treated, 
 and the history of literature and religion is carefully traced. 
 
 Teachers will notice that the more important dates are incorpo- 
 rated in the text, while the free use of dates in the margin serves 
 to give more detailed guidance to the reader. 
 
 Particular care was taken in the selection of maps and illustra- 
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 panying Professor Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe. 
 The cuts are from Prang's Illustrations of the History of Art, 
 Jaeger's Weltgeschichte, and other equally good authorities. 
 
 As the work was published while this catalogue was printing, it 
 was not possible to present testimonials. The author's name is, 
 however, a sufficient recommendation. 
 
 Ancient History for Colleges and High Schools. 
 
 By P. V. N. Myers and William F. Allen. Being Part I. Myers' 
 Eastern Nations and Breece. Part n. Allen's Short History of the 
 Boman People. Bound together in one volume. 12mo. Half-morocco. 
 763 pages. Mailing Price, f 1.65; for Introduction, $1.50; Allowance for 
 an old book in exchange, 10 cents. 
 
116 HISTORY. 
 
 /4 General History 
 
 For High Schools and Colleges. 
 
 By P. V. N. Mtbbs, President of Belmont C!oI1ege, Ohio ; Author of 
 Ancient History and Mediteval and Modem History. 12mo. Half 
 leather, x + 759 pages. Mailing Price, S1.65 ; Introduction, $1.60 ; 
 Alloirance for an old book in exchange, 40 cents. 
 
 rPHIS volume is based upon the author's Ancient History and 
 Medicevcd and Modem History. In some instances the perspec- 
 tive and the proportions of the narrative have been changed to suit 
 a briefer course and students of less maturity ; but in the main, 
 the book is constructed upon the same lines as the earlier works. 
 
 In a word, this history is believed to combine all the qualities 
 that such a work should possess, — a philosophic eye for the great 
 line of development of the life of the race, not diverted by mere 
 incidents; candor in the treatment of all questions; a due sense 
 of proportion ; accuracy of scholarship ; a style transparent though 
 at the same time full of color; and the quality of teachableness. 
 
 One feature of the greatest interest and practical value is this, — 
 the author not only brings out and keeps distinct the interrela- 
 tions of things, but he notes and sets clearly before the reader what 
 each nation has contributed to the life and advancement of the 
 race, — and so to our present civilization. Among the methods 
 which will specially recommend themselves to teachers is the plan 
 of cross-references which bind the branches of the learner's acquisi- 
 tions compactly and vitally. 
 
 It is only necessary to add that the book has been found to be 
 just about full enough, and that the text is f uUy supplemented by 
 the best of maps, by illustrations, indexes, and tables. 
 
 Its adoption in many leading cities and institutions after ex- 
 tended comparison with other works and most thorough discussion, 
 appears to indicate that this work is destined to rank as the best 
 general history. 
 
 J. W. Steams, Prof, of Pedagogy, 
 University of Wisconsin, Madison, 
 Wis. : Its selection of topics for 
 treatment, its conception of the rela- 
 tions of parts to the whole, its grasp 
 of what is most vital in the history 
 of the civilized world, together with 
 the vividness and vitality of the nar- 
 
 rative make it the best text-book in 
 universal history for beginners that 
 we are acquainted with. It is well 
 equipped with good maps, and the 
 numerous illustrations have been se- 
 lected with a view to their value as 
 elucidations and expansions of the 
 text. (Nov. 1889.) 
 
118 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages. 
 
 From the Battle of Adrianople to the death of Charlemagne (a.d. 
 378-814). By Ephraim Emerton, Professor of History in Harvard Uni- 
 versity. 12mo. Cloth, xviii + 268 pages. Mailing Price, $1.26 ; for 
 introduction, $1.12. 
 
 rPHIS work aims to give, in simple narrative form, an account of 
 the settlement of the Germanic peoples on Roman soil, the 
 gradual rise of the Frankish supremacy, the growth of the Chris- 
 tian Church and its expression in the monastic life and in the 
 Roman Papacy, and finally the culmination of aU in the Empire of 
 Charlemagne. The text is supplemented with maps, lists of works 
 for reference, accounts of the contemporaneous material on which 
 the narrative is based, and suggestions to teachers upon topics and 
 methods of special study. 
 
 CoNTBNTS : Chapter I. The Romans to a.d. 375. II. The Two Races. 
 ni. The Breaking of the Frontier by the Visigoths. IV. Vandals and 
 Burgundians. \. Invasion of the Huns. VI. The Germans in Italy. 
 VII. The Franks to 638. VIII. Germanic Ideas of Law. IX. Rise of the 
 Christian Church. X. Franks and Mohammedans. Dagobert to Charles 
 Martel. XI. The Monks of the West. XII, The Franks from Charles 
 Martel to Charlemagne. XIII. Charlemagne King of the Franks. 
 XIV. Foundation of the Mediseval Empire. XV. The Beginnings of the 
 Feudal System. 
 
 and Political Economy, Amherst 
 College : It is excellent, and I shall 
 recommend it to my classes. 
 
 P. V. N. Myers, President Belmont 
 College, Ohio : I have read the book 
 with great interest. It is a work 
 of rare historical insight. , . . The 
 book is indispensable to any student 
 of the history of the Mediseval Ages. 
 
 George P. Fisher, Prof, of Eccle- 
 siastical History, Yale College: It is 
 an admirable guide to both teachers 
 and pupils in the tangled period of 
 which it treats. The work is the 
 fruit of diligent investigation; it is 
 concise, but, at the same time, lucid 
 and interesting. 
 
 Asson D. Morse, Prof, of History 
 
 Historia do Brazil. 
 
 Resumo da Historia do Brazil, para uso das escolas primarias Brazileiras. 
 Pela Professora Mabia G. L. de Andbade. 12mo. Cloth, x + 231 
 pages. Illustrated. Mailing Price, 85 cents; for Introduction, 75 cents. 
 
 fT^HIS is a history of Brazil from the earliest times to the year 
 1848, written in the Portuguese language. It is believed to be 
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 lent reading-book for students of Fortu«:uese. 
 
HISTORY: 126 
 
 The American Journal of Archceology and of the 
 
 History of the Fine Arts. 
 
 Edited by Professor Charles Eliot Norton, of Harvard University, 
 Mr. Arthur L. Frothingham, of Baltimore, and Professor Arthur L. 
 Frothingham, Jr., of Princeton College. Royal 8vo. Published quar- 
 terly, forming a yearly volume of about 500 pages. With colored, helio- 
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 Vol. I., unbound or bound in cloth, $4.00. Vol. II., bound, $5.00; un- 
 bound, $4.60. Vols. III., IV., and V., each, bound, .$6.50; unbound, $5.00. 
 Agents : Paris, E. Leroux ; Turin, Florence, and Rome, E. Loescher ; 
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 rPHE JOURNAL is the organ of the Archieological Institute of 
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 london Atheuseum : We have no 
 hesitation in saying that no other 
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 so well fitted to keep the student who 
 
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 archsBOlogy. 
 
 A Guide to the Study of the History and the 
 
 Constitution of the United States. 
 
 By William W. Rupert, Superintendent of Schools, Pottstown, Pa. 
 12mo. Cloth. 130 pages. Mailing Price, 75 cts.; for Introduction, 70 cts. 
 
 rpHE first part of this work contains a carefuUy arranged list 
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 The last half of the work is devoted to simple, attractive, yet accu- 
 rate explanations of all the important provisions of the Constitu- 
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 United States History. 
 
 C. r. P. Bancroft, Prin. of Phillips 
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150 
 
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 A Handbook to Dante. 
 
 By Giovanni A. Scabtazzini. Translated from the Italian with Notes 
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 rpHE Handbook is divided into two parts, the first treating of, 
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 a valuable Bibliography. 
 
 L. Clark Seelye, Pres. of Smith 
 College : It seems to me to meet a 
 real need of both teachers and stu- 
 
 dents of Dante. The notes by Mr. 
 Davidson add much to the value of 
 the book. (March 28, 1887.) 
 
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