CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME 
 OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT 
 FUND GIVEN IN 189I BY 
 
 HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE 
 
^BHiiiiiPiiilSiJilS °* "'^ ancient Greeks. 
 
 ,. 3 1924 031 216 405 
 olin,anx 
 
m 
 
 THE HOME LIFE 
 
 ANCIENT aHEEKS 
 
 TllAXSLATED FROM THE GERMAX iiV 
 
 PROF. H. BLtJMNEll 
 
 ALICE ZIMMEEN 
 
 l.rilr Scl/nliir of (jirtOH College Co..mbi-iih]e 
 
 ESRitl) jSunui'oiis Ellustrations 
 
 THE CASSELL PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 104 4' '*' FOURTH AVENUE XEIU YoTtK 
 1893 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages do not claim to Le an absolutely- 
 literal translation of Dr. Bllirnner's text. Such slight 
 alterations have been made as the different and more 
 concise character of the English language seemed to 
 demand, assuming that, in a work of this character, 
 the most faithful translation is that which clearly 
 presents the author's meaning in the different dress 
 of another language. In one or two cases I have 
 ventured to correct slight inaccuracies on the part of 
 the author. The list of authorities consulted is printed 
 on pp. 583 — 53(j. The illustrations are taken from 
 the German work. 
 
 I take this opportunity to express my warm 
 thanks to those friends who have kindly helped me 
 with the proof-sheets, and in particular to Mrs. Henry 
 Unwin for her vorjr welcome assistance. 
 
 Alice ZuureiiN. 
 
 Tmihridqe Wdh, Octoler, 189.3. 
 
The original of tliis book is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031216405 
 
C O N T E N T S 
 
 Introduction ... ... ... ... ... ... ,. . ix 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CoSTl'MK ... ... ... ... ... _ 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Birth axd Inf.vncv ... ... ... ... ... ... , . '8 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Education ... ... ... ... ... ... , , . , 99 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 MaRUIAOK ami Wo.MlCN ... ... ... ... ... ... 133 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 D.\iLV Life Within .and AVithout thi; H(juse... ... ... 17.5 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Meats axd Soci.vl Entert.vinments ... ... ... ... 202 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 SicKNicss AM) Physicians, Death and Burial ... ... ... 233 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Gymnastics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 265 
 
... 306 
 
 viii ( '( ixi'EX'j's. 
 
 CHArTEli TX. 
 
 ]\Ir.-.I( AMI UvNilM. 
 
 C'HAI'TER X. 
 
 KfI.IMuI- \\'(iI:MIII' ■^-■^ 
 
 CHAPTEi; XI. 
 
 ]\ llI.Ti l''l>TI\ALs ... .. ... ... ■■■ ■■■ ■■■ '-^"^^ 
 
 CHAriEE XII, 
 illi: i IIKAIISK . . ... .. ... ... ... ■■• ■■• ■^■'■^ 
 
 C'lIAITEK XIII. 
 \Vau ami Skai\i;ini; 150 
 
 CHArrEK XIV. 
 
 Aia;i( 1 i.Tri;i:, Ti:m>i:, am> 1 rAMiiruAi-i- ... ... 489 
 
 CIIAITEI; XV. 
 Si..v\:;t;v . ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... 51il 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 If the account of Greek life and customs given in this 
 work does not present all sides of life in due pro- 
 portion, we must lajf the blame on the insufficiency of 
 the sources whence a description of this kind is 
 derived. These are of three kinds : literary, artistic, 
 and epigraphic. The literary sources su^Dply us with 
 a large aniount of detail for the work in hand, but 
 seldom give complete pictures or descriptions of 
 social conditions. Those writers of the Free Ag-e of 
 Greece whom we still possess entirely, or in consider- 
 able fragments, are not all ec|ually in a position to 
 touch on matters of private or domestic life. The 
 Homeric Epics give a good deal of insight into the 
 life of those early times ; but after Homer epic poetry 
 disappears from the ranks of available testimony, and 
 what remains to us of the Alexandrine Epic, which 
 was essentially a learned style of poetry, supplies no 
 useful material, if only because it seeks its subjects in 
 the mythological period, and describes them on essenti- 
 ally Homeric lines. The lyric poets, too, afford little 
 help ; now and then they enable us to add a few 
 details to our picture, but, as a rule, the results are 
 small, and not till we reach the Alexandrine period, 
 and there chiefly in bucolic and epigrammatic poetry, 
 do we obtain richer results in this domain. Here the 
 
]Hi01lls n\ TllciH-i-iliis :uv of Osjirrial vallir. rilfortu- 
 
 iiatolw WW iniicli of this pcrioil, wliicli would have 
 tlir(nvH must iiitrrcsl iii^' lights (Ut different aspects of 
 (!i-eel< lite, lias lieeu eiitiri'ly lust, i>r sur\'i\'es only in 
 small fi-a^-inents. Trai^e<ly au'aiii, \vliieh usually takes 
 its sulijccts from mytlioli>L;\', caiuKit be considered at 
 all. Aneiciit jmctrN" possesses no ■' middli.'-elass e[)ic " 
 like iimdeni piictr\', wliii-li will assuredly some day 
 su[)]i|\- \alnaMr matrrial for the social historian. IJut 
 ancient c(imi.'(l\- is nf tlie greatest value for our plU'- 
 ]iiise, and iiia\' iudul litahh" be regarded as the most 
 fertile siiMi-ce <if our kiKJwledee of privati.; life. The 
 comedies of Aristopliaiii's deal willi the immediate 
 jiresent, and, alllmneh full of extravaL;'ant notions and 
 tautastic iiiN'entious, \'er treat of actual circumstances, 
 and llms supply a mine of wealth ibr the student of 
 Attic life. We can oidy judi^c, from nmnerous frag- 
 ments of their comedies, how valuabh- would have 
 been till.' other poets of the so-called "(.Jlder (Joniedy" 
 of till' fifth I'eiilury i',.e., who are. unfortunately, hist 
 til us. Kven though we must c.xercise si.imc caution 
 in the use of tln'se authorities, distinguisliing comic 
 inventions a)iil jmetical exaggeration from actual fact, 
 yet ill the majority 'if cases it will not be very ditficult 
 '" i''iiiic to a decisioii on such qtiestiiins. No less 
 valuable, [ierha]is even more usehil, for our jiurpose 
 would lie the so-called "New Comedy" of Menander 
 and others, it we po.ssessed nioi'e than a few scattered 
 fragments of it. The imitations of I'lautus and 
 Terence i/onipeiisate to some extent for the lost 
 origmals, yet even here we must be on our i-uard, 
 since tlie Roman ]iiiers in their adaptation' often 
 introduced traits b'om lioman life. Still, as a. rule 
 they adhered to ( b'eek, or, rather, Attic manners, 
 upon wliicli the original comedies were based. 
 
IXTRODUOTIOX. XI 
 
 Among- prose writers -wo must cliietly consider 
 the historians and orators. The former are of 
 comparatively little use. They deal with great 
 political and military events ; the daily life going on 
 around them gave them no subjects for description; 
 apart from the fact that it probably never occurred to 
 them that anyone in later ages would ever care to 
 hear about the social conditions of that time. A writer 
 like Herodotus, who introduces not only political 
 history, but also geograjihical, ethnological, and social 
 information, directs his attention for this very reason 
 chiefly to foreign nations, and gives his countrymen 
 a great deal of information aliout the life and customs 
 of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and J^ersians ; concern- 
 ing the Greeks themselves he is absolutely silent. 
 It is quite natural that historians should only 
 mention by the -^vay facts which we coidd use with 
 advantage in a description of ( jreek life. The orators, 
 on the other hand, supply richer material, not so 
 much in political speeches as in private orations 
 dealing with law-suits, of which a considerable nmuber 
 have come down to us. Here side-lights fall on many 
 events of daily life, and we obtain an insight into 
 private affairs such as we seldom gain elsewhere. 
 Philosophical writings supply some material, though 
 comparative!)' little ; especially those that take actual life 
 as their basis and deal with philosophical problems in 
 connection with existing circumstances. Auiong these 
 may be included such writings as the " Characters " 
 of Theophrastus, and here Ave can but regret that we 
 possess only mutilated fragments of these admirable 
 descriptions of character, based on much accurate 
 observation, and taken direct from real life. 
 
 The ("ireek literature of the Roman period can only 
 be utilised in selections and with care, tn illustrate 
 
xii rXTKODUCTKiN. 
 
 the |irri(-.il with w-liich wi: have to deal. After 
 Greece eaine iimler lioinan (hniiinion, new manners 
 and enstonis took root there, nnknown durmg the 
 period of (inek freedom and the Hellenistic epoch. 
 This diminishes the value for our purpose of the 
 writings of riutarch, and even more of Lncian, that 
 excellent delineator of the customs of the second ccn- 
 tur\- .\.i>. r>iit even in this later literature there is 
 a i;o,id deal which we have a ri^-lit to use in onr 
 descri|iti<in, fir sonu! of its haliits and customs 
 ohtaiiied throu,L;-h the whole of antiipnty ; hesides 
 which, tlie later writei's often turned to past centuries 
 for dcscriptiotis, and songdit their material in older 
 si:iurces or old historians and other authors, on whose 
 accui'ac)' we cannot, however, always depend. The 
 same was the case with the luaterials wdiiidr we are 
 aide lo use in [ioman literaturi'. 
 
 From all this it is plain that the accomrt "'iven 
 heri' deals especially witli the real " classic " period of 
 Greek antiquity froiu about the sixth to the third 
 century ]'..<'. Tt is iiupossibk.' to ,e'ivc a connected 
 history of the devel(i|)meut of (ireek civilisation from 
 the liceinniuL;, if only on account of the natnre of 
 our authoi-ities and the iucomphsteness of tradition. 
 Between Homei-ic cidture and tliat wdiich we meet 
 with afterwards in thi' ]ioets and prose writers of the 
 ficst time, lies a jieriod of several centuries, about 
 whicli we know v(ji'y little, and that little chiefly 
 in a leL;(.-nilai'y firm. AVe can oidy determine 
 in a few cases how the conditions of the sixth 
 and tiftli centui-ies c;r-adu;dly developed, for instance 
 in tlie rise nf the constitution, wlule it is imjjossible 
 for us to trace the eeiiesis of manners and cixdlisation. 
 AVe shall, thei-ef.re, n<.t attC'Uipt to >/ivo a separate 
 acciiunt of Homi.ric civilisation, but content ourselves 
 
IXTItODUCTlOX. Xlll 
 
 with introducing a few of its details in appropriate 
 places ; nor shall wc go beyond the period of 
 Hellenism, since even here foreign, and especially 
 Oriental, influence produced many alterations, while 
 Roman influence afterwards made many essential 
 changes. 
 
 The artistic authorities are also chosen in accord- 
 ance with this scheme. The vase paintings, of which 
 so many have been preserved to us, supply a great 
 quantit}^ and variety of pictures of Greek life, and we 
 have drawn largely on this valuable source of inform- 
 ation, which supplies most of the pictures chosen as 
 illustrations. Compared with this there is little else 
 of importance. The statues to which we have access 
 are chiefly flgures of gods and heroes, or portraits. 
 These we can only use to illustrate Greek c(jstume. 
 But a few (janre pictures are preserved to us in the 
 artistic productions of the best (_Treek period, and some 
 of these we shall have occasion to discuss. For this 
 purpose the small terra-cotta figures are more useful, 
 which often represent with vigorous truth subjects 
 from real life. Here, too, as in the case of the statues, 
 we must always remember the diflerence between 
 Hellenic and Roman work, and it is just this consider- 
 ation which greatly limits our choice of sculptures ; 
 for the great majority of those which would be suit- 
 able for our purpose date from the Roman period, and 
 usually represent Roman life. For this reason mosaics 
 and frescoes can scarcely l;ie regarded, since none 
 have come down to us from the Greek period. Un- 
 doubtedly many of them imitate Greek models, or, 
 at any rate, those of the Alexandrine epoch, but it is 
 not always easy to decide in particular cases ; and, 
 moreover, the greater part are mythological pictures. 
 It is obvious that works of Etruscan art, such as 
 
xiv ixiKdin ( I'ldX. 
 
 sarr()])li;r4i, pictures on iiiirmrs, anil the like, raiinot be 
 reL^ank'd. Tims tlir woiks of art suitable tor supiile- 
 iiiontiiii;- our literary snuivcs are limited in iinniber. 
 Of tlicsc llic vase ])aiiitin^'S constitute tlie ,L;Teat 
 nui)ority. and this is entirely in aeenrdauec with the 
 chrduoliiuical limits whiidi we have set tu our descrip- 
 tion : for tliey almost all belonq' to the centuries 
 mentioni'd abo\-e, and only a few that would be suit- 
 able foi- onr pm-posc arc of 'greater a.ntii|uity. 
 
 'J'lic naturi' of oiu- autlioi'itics not oidy sels a limit 
 of timi', but also one of space. When we s])eiik <it (Ireek 
 life wc oul;1iI Io include in if not only life in actual 
 (ireece or Hellas, but also that in tlie inmierous 
 colonics on the Aec'can and black Seas, in Southern 
 Itah, Xoi-thern Africa, eti\ Hut we know very little 
 of the conditions in those (ircck settlements outside 
 Greeci', and even in (ireece itself, wdicre, in con- 
 se(|U(.'iice of the political and racial dih'erences, these 
 circumstauces are by no means everywliere identical, 
 our knowlede'c is linuted in many ways. Even though 
 the dirt'ereuce in manners and customs was greater in 
 early times than afterwards, when increase in trade 
 and gri.'uter facility of travel ]>rodiiced more; e<[ual 
 conditions, yet ci'rtain local and national pieculiarities 
 always prevailed, life at Sparta difiered in many 
 respi.'Cts from that at Athens. The other large towns 
 of (4reeiMj — (.'orinth, Sicyon, Thelies, not to speak of 
 the colonies of Miletus, Syracuse, and C'yrene — douljt- 
 less sho\v(.'(l many Lical iieculiarities which are entirely 
 hidden iVoiii our knr.wledge. Our literary sources are 
 foi- tlj(j gi-i_'ater part Athenian. The majority of our 
 monuments, too, are of Attic origin, rtr, at any rate, 
 influenced by it, though Soutliern Italj' supplies some 
 of the ^ iises, and in many cases the customs of ]tla."na 
 (b-aeciu are represented in these pictures. i\[ost of our 
 
iXTR(_)r)rcTi(ix. XV 
 
 knowledge of Greek life, then, refers to Athens, and ti.i 
 be qnite accurate we ought to call our description 
 "Life in Ancient Athens." Every now and then we 
 are enabled to enlarge our pictures by details from 
 other parts of (xreece. Still, we luust beg our readers 
 to remember that most of the traits here introduced 
 relate to Athens bet^veen the sixth and fourth 
 centuries b.c. We have scarcely the remotest con- 
 ception of the mode of life at that time in any small 
 Greek city or in the country. 
 
 Here the third class of our soiu'ces comes in to 
 help us, viz., the inscriptions. These not only give us 
 most of our material fr)r a kno^vledge of political con- 
 ditions, legal and religious antiquities, etc., but they 
 also supply interesting details of private life ; and as 
 they are found not only in Attica, bi.it all over Greece, 
 the islands, and the colonies, they supply nnich very 
 valuable information about matters which our literary 
 sources entire!}' ignore. As in most cases the period 
 of the inscription can be ascertained h\ the character 
 of the writing or by other peculiarities, we are not so 
 liable here to make chr(jnological mistakes and refer 
 customs of a later jjcriod to earlier tiuies. Compared 
 with our literary sources, the inscriptions are also far 
 safer material : for the accuracy of a "writer may 
 be sometimes called in question, especially when his 
 information is supplied at second-hand. 
 
GREEK LIEE AT HOME. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 COSTUME. 
 
 Costumes, Stitched and Draped — The Chiton — The Himation or 
 Chlaina — Drajiery — The Unilorm Male Dresses of Sparta — The 
 Chlamj-s — Similarity Between Male and Female Costumes— The 
 Difference Between Doric and Ionic Garments — The Fashion at 
 Athens in the Fifth Century b.c. — The Materials — Footgear — 
 Leggings — Head-Coverings — Mode of Dressing the Hair. 
 
 To obtain a complete insight into tlio life of former 
 ages we recjiiire primarily a knowledge of the historical 
 and geographical, political, and religious conditions 
 of the people in question, as well as of its intellectual 
 development in art and science. These, however, it is 
 not our purpose to consider here. The second requi- 
 site for a vivid picture is a clear notion of the sur- 
 roundings in which the people of that time lived : 
 their dwellings, furniture, utensils, etc. And lastly, 
 there is another point, the knowledge of which is no 
 less indispensable in order to obtain a clear image 
 of the past, and that is the costume. Our know- 
 ledge of the customs and habits of daily life appears 
 far more real, and stands out more vividly, if we 
 can also form in our minds a picture of the people of 
 that time. Thus no one can expect to form a clear 
 picture of mediaeval life without at least a general 
 
 B 
 
2 (IIIEKK l.ll'i; AT lliiME. 
 
 ndtiiiii tif tlic cMstuiiie of tliiit prvidd. Tliis is C({ually 
 tnir iif ryrvv I'pocli of civilisiitii >n, vwn of rt pci-iod 
 so little (listiiut fVoiii us ill time as tlio c'i.^-htcenth 
 (■entury. 
 
 >\\' tlici-rfoiv profare our (les(.Ti[)ti<in of (Jreck life 
 ^^-itll all ai'fount of the details (_if (Jreek eostuiiie, and 
 of its jiistoi'ieal dovclopuient ; and our reasons for 
 '_;niii^ into greater detail liere than in othm' domains 
 is that there are so many Avrony, or at any rate in- 
 eoin])lete, notions extant eoneerninL;' it. For when wo 
 speak to. (lay of ( ireek e(]stiinie we nia.y e-cnerally 
 assume ihat the UKijority of [leople, if female dress is 
 in (jiieslioii, tliinic of the flrapery of the niae-nitieent 
 female ti^'ures in the Parthenon marbles; while, as re- 
 e'ards mak' costume, their minds will at onee recur to 
 the elassie fieiin.' of Sophoeles in the Jjiiteraji or of the 
 Aesehines of Naples, and f)rm their noti()n of (ireek 
 male costume aecordinylv |t, is, however, a.liS(ilutely 
 wronn' to reeard these as ty}iieal of (jreck dress. 
 They represent neither the costume of all Hellas nor 
 that of the wh(ile ( d'eek ai;e. That "noble simplicity 
 and ipiiet ^'rcatness," wliich is as conspicuous in the 
 dress of tfie a.i^e of Tcricles as in its art, is, like the 
 latter, tlie jirodiict of slow development through 
 \-arious phases, conccrniiiL;' wliich, with the exception 
 of :i few literary allusions, the monuments give us all 
 the information we possess. 
 
 (Generally speaking, we may distinguish, both in 
 male and female (ireek co.stume, two kinds of 
 garments — those whieli are eut in a certain shape 
 and iiartly stilclicd, and mantles of various shajies 
 whieh are dra[M;d on the figur<j and only acquire their 
 form by means of this draiiing. Tliis distinction 
 holds good with few exceptions througliont the whole 
 
COSTC-ME. 3 
 
 history of (_lreek costume ; and, generally speaking, it 
 is the under garments which are stitched, while the 
 upper garments are draped. Yet we nnist observe 
 that, while male clothing is, as a rule, confined to two 
 garments, we ver}- often tind in female costume 
 a third, or even a fourth, belonging sometimes to 
 the tirst and sometimes to the second of the above- 
 mentioned classes. 
 
 The names which were used throughout almost 
 the whole of ( Ireek antiquity for the two chief articles 
 of dress are, for the under garment, cJdton ; for the 
 upper garment, liimation. These terms are used for 
 both male and female garments, but several other 
 designations are used, and the word himation is 
 not found in the Homeric period, but the cloak wliiclr 
 is worn over the chiton is called cldaina. 
 
 We may treat first of male costume. As re- 
 gards the chiton of the oldest ])eriod, we infer, 
 from allusions in epic poetrj-, with which the oldest 
 monuments agree (for the discoveries at Mycenae 
 give us no distinct notion of pre-Homeric costume), 
 that both the short and the long kinds veve in use. 
 The short chiton seems to be the usual dress of daily 
 life ; it was especially worn when free movement was re- 
 quired, and Avas therefore the stiitable garment for war 
 or hunting, for gymnastic exercises or manual labour. 
 The long chiton, which was afterwards regarded as espe- 
 cially Ionic, and certainly maintained itself longer in 
 Ionia and in Attica than in the rest of Greece, was 
 not, however, unknown to the Doric races. It was the 
 usual dress for men of advanced age and good position : 
 it was also worn by young people on festive occa- 
 sions. We therefore find on the monuments of the 
 oldest style that not only the older gods wear a long 
 chiton, but also that young men are clothed in it on 
 B 2 " • 
 
4 cliEEK ],1KE AT IIOJIE. 
 
 fcsti\-c (iccasicins, cn' if tl)cv arc in aii}- way (■omicctod 
 with ix'li^iiius fiiiictituis, as, Inr instance, jiriosts, liai'p- 
 plajcrs, tliito-iilaycrs, (•hariotccrs, etc. This nse of the 
 long chituu remains up to the classic ])criod. Thns, 
 iur instan<-c, we see the ti,L;'nre known as the Arc/uni. 
 Biisili'iis in the ccnti'al group of the Eastern Par- 
 thenon h-ieze in this dress ; and tragic ax-tors, if they 
 represented men <if good positiun and in peaceful 
 circumstances, also continued to wear the long chiton. 
 K]iic jiDctry itself gives us no direct inloriiiation 
 about the shape of the chiton in the Homeric 
 ]>eriod. Hidbig maintains, basing his assertions on 
 some casual indications, and chiefly on the oldest 
 monuments, that it difl'ereil from the dress of the 
 classic ]ieriii(l in Ijcirig cluse-titting and free from 
 folds. It is true' that the old vase paintings show us 
 the sljort chitDii fitting closely round the body and 
 drawn (|uite tii'iidy round the legs. It is girt fast 
 ri)Tmd the hips, and as a rule dees neit go below the 
 knee. However, it is not safe to draw cijnclusions of 
 this kind from ancient pictures, for much which 
 might be regarded as characteristic of ancient costume 
 may fie due only to the incompleteness of art, which 
 was not yet eajialile of representing full garjiants 
 with lolds. Thus, in ancient W'Orks of art, the lono- 
 chiton also appears quite narrow in the upper part, 
 but then falls perpendicularly irom the waist, some- 
 times gradually, but more often straight without any 
 folds to tlje fi'ct. (Compare the hgnre of Apollo iii 
 Fig. 1 and of I'riam in Fi.g. 2.) Both the long and 
 short chitons as a ride have no .sleeves, but only an 
 arrnhole ; W(; s<.imeti]ues find short sleeves not (piite 
 covering the upper arm. I'nfortunately, we cannc^t 
 form a clear notion from the pictures of the mode in 
 which it w;ks put on. It is, however, probable that the 
 
(; (lltEEK lAVK AT lloMi;. 
 
 sluM-t rliifiu was sewn t<>,^■ethel• all round and thrown 
 (.\cr tlie lirad, whero there may liavc been an addi- 
 tinnal sHt conncrted with this opening, and fastened 
 witli a iiin. There are, however, no traces ot 
 this on tlio nionnnieiits, nor are tibnlae or lirooches 
 
 mentioned in the 
 Homeric (k'scrip- 
 tions in connec- 
 tion with thcmale 
 cliiton. Probably 
 the lon,^' chiton 
 was cut in the 
 manner ot a 
 chemisG. Hclbi^g's 
 hypothesis that 
 there was a slit 
 down tli(,^ middle 
 of the front is just 
 as uncertain as 
 his similar as- 
 sumption with re- 
 i^ard to Homeric 
 female dress. 
 
 JJesides the 
 chiton, the older 
 malecostume also 
 had a sort of bib 
 (onrXoiBwi'^. It is l.)y no means injpossilile that at 'me 
 period the (ireeks wore only the bib and the cl(.)ak, 
 and no chiton. When the latter Ijccame imiversally 
 fashionable (wliii/li, according' to recent surmises, was 
 due to Scnjiiii- influence) the bib disappeared, or 
 continued only as part of military dress. 
 
 The himai ion, or chlaina, appears on ancient monu- 
 ments stiff and free from folds, like the chiton. This is 
 
COSTUME. 7 
 
 a garment resembling a luantle which appears in many 
 archaic vase pictures in two distinct forms : either as 
 a wide cloak covering the greater part of the body, or 
 as a nan-ow covering lightly draped. The first form, 
 corresponding to the later male hirnation, is most 
 commonly combined with the long chiton. .The cut 
 of this cloak is four-cornered, probably olilong, and it 
 is worn in such a way that the greater part of it falls 
 behind and covers the back and part of the legs, 
 while in front it is thrown over the shoulders and 
 arms, and falls down over the body, two of its points 
 falling Avithin the arms and the other two without. 
 The other form, which may be in general compared 
 with the later cldumy-^, is found with both the long 
 and the short chiton, and is also sometimes worn as 
 the only covering, without any under garment. This 
 niay, however, be regarded as the ideal clothing, 
 which does not correspond to real life, just as in later 
 monuments we find the chlamys alone without the 
 chiton. It is put on in such a way that the lower 
 arm is left uncovered, and the two pomts fall down in 
 front over the shoulder and upper arm, while behind 
 it either covers only the upper part of the back, or 
 else the cloak falls down so far that its edge is almost 
 as low as the points in front. (Compare Fig. 3, repre- 
 senting a dance from the Francois vase.) We cannot 
 pronounce with certainty on the shape of this cloak. 
 It appears, however, to have been oval or elliptical, 
 and to have ended in two points ; it was folded in 
 such a way that the folded part Avas worn inside, 
 while the edges, Avhich were ornamented with wide 
 borders, fell outside. In Fig. 2, where the shape 
 of the cloak is that of an ellipse cut through the 
 lono- axis, the folding is also evident. I should there- 
 fore differ from Helbig in regarding this narrower 
 
8 
 
 (iREEK LIFE AT iloME. 
 
 I'hlniiia ;is the L;aniient railed in e])ic poetry il'ijihix. 
 Xeither kind uf (doak is fastened, and they both 
 differ from tliat of Liter jieriuds in lieing worn open 
 in front. In Homeric ])iietr3' another kind of (diLiina 
 is a]s(i mi/ntii>ncd, ^^■hiell cdrresponds more rdosely to 
 
 the later one; since it is 
 stated that the folded 
 chlaina is fastened on the 
 shoulder with a brooch. 
 No proof of this, however, 
 has as yet been found in 
 the older nj<jnunients. 
 
 As a remnant of the 
 liiiist primitive dress, 
 clotlies ]iiafle i.if skins, 
 such as were afterwards 
 worn only by country 
 pe(jple,liuntsnjen and the 
 like, still existed in the 
 Hoiiierir, age. Homer 
 several times i]ientions 
 skins as the dress of 
 Sdldicrs : (in the older 
 monuments we see them 
 drawn over a short chiton, 
 and sometimes even fas- 
 teneil witli a girdle. 
 
 How long this ancient 
 dress continued in use wo 
 i-aimot determine with 
 any certaint}-; liut the majority e\-en of vase pictures 
 with Ijlack figures show a different dress. It is true, 
 as we mentioned just now, that the long chiton still 
 confiuued in use liesides the short one, but the cut 
 and the loude of wearhi'j- it cliani'-ed. 
 
cosTU.Mi:. 9 
 
 The monuments of the next period ahnost always 
 show signs ofdrapeiy, and, indeed, this is of an artificial, 
 exaggerated, and pedantic kind. It must have been 
 the fashion at that time, that is, from the sixth till 
 nearly the middle of the fifth century, to lay the 
 folds of men's dress, as well as of women's, in sym- 
 metrically parallel lines. In pictures the lower edges 
 of dresses and cloaks show various regularly cut-out 
 points, while on the inner side there are manj' small 
 zigzag folds arranged with laborious symmetry. 
 (Compare Fig. 4, " The Eape of Helen," after a vase 
 picture by the vase painter Hiero.) This may be 
 partly due to the artistic style, which at that period 
 inclined to over-elaboration ; yet it is impossible to 
 doubt that we find here not only an exiDression of 
 archaic art, but also the representation of a dress 
 laboriously and artificially folded, stitfened, and ironed, 
 in which the folds were produced by external aids, 
 such as ironing, starching, pressing, even stitching 
 of the stuff laid in folds, or sewing such folds 
 on to the material. We cannot determine when 
 this custom began in Greece. In jjictures we only 
 find it comparatively late in the sixth century B.C. ; yet, 
 as Helbig; remarks, it is by no means impossible that 
 this fashion existed at a far more ancient period, since 
 the custom of laying material in artificial folds by means 
 of stiffening or ironing was already known in Egypt 
 in 4000 B.C. ; and it therefore seems extremely 
 probable that the Phoenicians adopted the practice 
 at a very early period, and introduced it into Greece. 
 It is a very natural assumption that this mode of 
 draping would in the first instance be adopted for 
 linen material, and that it would therefore be intro- 
 duced among the Greeks with the linen chiton, which 
 took the place of the woollen one formerly worn. 
 
COSTUME. 11 
 
 On the other hand, however, it is proljaljle that, as 
 wooUen clothing was afterwards ^^-o^n as well as 
 hnen, they attempted to ornament this in similar 
 fashion by artificial folds ; the works of art, however, 
 show that these folds were far less in quantity 
 and less sharply defined in woollen clothing than in 
 linen, which is naturally much Letter adapted for 
 the piurpose. 
 
 Apart from the folds, the clothes now became 
 wider and more comfortable, and were less closely 
 girt round the hips. The chiton is still a garment 
 made by sewing, and the long differs from the short 
 only in length, not in shape. Both are, as a rule, 
 so cut as to be sewn together regularly below the 
 girdle ; above the girdle they are sometimes provided 
 with a slit on one side to facilitate putting on They 
 usually have sleeves, sometimes short, sometimes long; 
 these are either fastened all round, or, as is also the 
 case in female dress, open at the top and fastened by 
 pins or buttons. In this case the chiton is sewn in 
 such a manner as to be all in one aboYe the girdle as 
 far as the sleeve, and open at the top, so that the slits 
 for the arms and neck are connected ; the wearer puts 
 the chiton over his head, draws up the sleeve on the 
 upper arm, and thus supplies the opening for the 
 neck. Besides this, there is often an ornamental 
 arrangement such as we find in the female dress of 
 the same period, a regadar double-girding (kolpos), 
 formed by drawing up the dress over the girdle and 
 letting the piece drawn up all round fall again over 
 the girdle ; and, secondly, a scarf falling over the 
 breast in zigzag folds, which appears, as a rule, to 
 be a separate piece sewn on the dress at the opening 
 of the neck. In Fig. 4 we observe the kolpos and 
 scarf on the short chiton of Hermes in the centre, the 
 
12 CREEK I.IEE AT H(.)ME. 
 
 scarf also on tho lnnc( cliitmi of Taris (on tlie left), 
 anil uf Tvndarens (on the riglitj. 
 
 In tliis (li-ess wo alreafly tind the elements of the 
 male costume cnnuiLonthri 11 i,n-linut classic Greece in the 
 fifth ceuturv. It is modelled on the ancient elahorate 
 style, anil the sewiic^' is reduced as much as possible, 
 while the n'arinent falls in rr,L;-idar fi'ce folds, and fits 
 cliisely til the ti^ure. AccnnliiiL;- tn Thucydides, it 
 
 was at Sparta that it first becai 'ustomary to adopt 
 
 a uniform ibvss fur the wlmle male population, and 
 thus to dii away with a distinction which had hitherto 
 prevailrd between the dress of ]HMir and rich. This 
 distinction, at any rate, held in sn far that at Athens 
 the ricliia- penple, as 'fliucydides states, wure the long 
 linen cliitun, the poorer peii}ile the short woollen one. 
 At Athens and in Ionia the long linen chiton remained 
 as the dress of older peojile tillsliortly before tho time 
 of Thucvdides ; Imt then it was universally discarded, 
 or rather reserved for the classes mentioned above, and 
 for festive, occasions ; while the sliiirt woollen chiton 
 from that period liecame the imivcTsal dres.s. This is 
 usually found in the fVirni of a widisli garment sewn 
 together fielow the girdle, and alio\-u it divided into 
 two parts, a front and back piece, put on in such a 
 manner as to lie fastened together by pins or fibulae 
 on the shoulder. If the chiton was allowed to fall 
 quite free it usually fell down afmut as far as the 
 knees; but it was customary, i.'speeially when unim- 
 peded and free movement was necessary, to draw up a 
 part above the girdle and let it fall in folds below it. 
 (f'oni[iari' Fig. .5.) \\ orkmen. eountrymen, sailors, and 
 others whose oi;cupation re([ui]'ed free movement of 
 tlie right arm, use-d only to fasten the two pieces of the 
 cliiton on tin.' left shouldei-, tdien the ]ioints of the 
 other side hung down in front and behind, and left the 
 
COSTUME. IH 
 
 right brenst, shoulder, 
 of wliich the rehef 
 
 ana arm 
 
 exposed. This costume, 
 G gives a representation. 
 
 was called e.vomAs. Strictly speaking, it is no actual 
 garment, but only a particular way of wearing the 
 chiton ; but special tunics for labourers were made in 
 

 Fig. iJ. 
 
COSTUME. 15 
 
 tliis fashion. Besides this, chitons were afterwards 
 made with the upper part also sewn together, and 
 with armholes or short sleeves, wdiich, however, never 
 covered more than a part of the upper arm. Long 
 sleeves falling to the hand belong exclusively to 
 barbarian costume. Yet the bib, which as late as the 
 first half of the fifth century was worn with the male 
 chiton also, is not a part of later costume. 
 -^ From this time onward the name " himation " was 
 used for the cloak w^orn with the chiton, wdrile '■ chlaina" 
 was only retained for a special kind, distinct rather 
 by its material than by its shape. The himation was 
 often worn in the oldest period in the way described 
 above, that is, with two points falling on the two sides 
 in front. (Compare the Hermes in Fig. 4.) But it 
 became more and more conmion, and from the classic 
 period onwards Cjuite universal, to fold the cloak 
 tightly round, and this was done as follows. One 
 point was drawn from the back over the left shoulder 
 and held fast here betw^een the chest and arm, then 
 the cloak was drawn round over the back in wide 
 folds reaching to the shins, and from there back awain 
 to the front on the right side. This was done in two 
 ways. If the right arm was to be kept free the hima- 
 tion was drawm through under the right shoulder and 
 in front folded across the body and chest, while the 
 last piece was thrown back across the left shoulder 
 (compare the Paris in Fig. 4 on the left), or else over 
 the left arm (compare the man on the right in Fig. 
 4). The other mode, and the one connnon in the 
 dress of an ordmary citizen, was to draAv the cloak 
 over the right arm and shoulder, so that at most the 
 right hand was exposed, and then to throw it back 
 again over the left shoulder. This arrangement was 
 facilitated by small weights of clay or lead sewn on 
 
l-iG. 7. 
 
COSTUME. 17 
 
 the points, which helped to keep the cloak firm in its 
 place. It was, however, a special art, which recpiired 
 practice, and probably also assistance, to produce a 
 beautifal and harmonious 
 drapery in this kind of 
 dress; and the position of 
 the wearer showed itself 
 in the way in which he 
 wore his himation, -wdiich 
 ought neither to Ije drawn 
 up too far, nor fall too low. 
 It was also regarded as in- 
 elegant to wear the cloak 
 from right to left. There is 
 no nobler or more perfect 
 example of this costume, 
 in which the chiton is com- 
 bined with the himation, 
 than the portrait statue of 
 Sophocles in the Latcran 
 given in Fig. 7. Here the 
 wide cloak with its many 
 folds covers the form in 
 such a way as not to hide 
 the shape of the body, and 
 the various folds caused by 
 the position of the arm 
 and the mode of draping 
 the cloak are combined Iig s 
 
 together in the most har- 
 monious manner. A hmnorous counterpart of this 
 ideal figure is Fig. fS in terra-cotta, representing a 
 vulgar citizen in chiton and himation. \ 
 
 The " chlaniys " was a special Ivind of cloak which 
 originated in Thessaly, but from the fifth century 
 C 
 
IS (;lii:i;K IJIl^ AT HOMK. 
 
 oitwarils lircaiiH'i-dimiKiii in I iroeeo. Originally it was 
 a soMicr's (ir I'idcr's <livss, ajid is, thcivton', mily seen 
 cm statues wnni ..vcr aniKinr. It is a sliort rloak ot 
 li^hl iiiat(;i-ial and nval sliape, laslemMl liy means of a 
 bi-docli cithi'i- in front at llie neck, or ni-ire eoiniiionly 
 on the riL;lil slionldrr, tlins revering the loft arm and 
 leaving tlio riglit frci'. (('ompare iMgs. I) and 10, of 
 
 I''l<;. 0. 
 
 wliii-li Fig. f) shows the former mode of weai-ing the 
 cloak, while in Fig. 10 the yonth with the spear has 
 his whole left side co\-cred hy the cldamy.s.) The 
 chlaniys was the common dress of ^-onths as soon 
 as they attained their majority (tt^r/ZDe/rt) and entered 
 tlie <;avalry ; till I hat agc> tliey woi'e no upper gar- 
 ment over tile cjiiton in the ancient period, btit in 
 later times a wid(.' himation, in ^vhieh they usually en- 
 velo[ied thems(dvc> c-ntirel}\ It was regarded as 
 Correct for njode-st ftoys not to have their arms ex- 
 posed. Hei'mes aNo, the divine re})resentative of 
 }-outh, usually appi.-ars in the chlamys, hut this is 
 
COSTUME. 19 
 
 generally lightly folded and thrown over the left arm. 
 Apollo too, exeept where he wears the long cliiton as 
 harp-player, is usually represented on works of art 
 with the chlamys. It is, however, unusual in male 
 dress, with the exception of military costume, and is 
 never found in combination with the long chiton. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 At home, as a rule, only the chiton was worn. It 
 was, however, not considered correct to be seen thus 
 in the street : only artisans or eccentric people went 
 out without a cloak ; but it was just as incorrect to 
 appear without the chiton, only in the himation 
 or chlamys. It is true this is very common in 
 works of art : Zeus, Po_sei^don, and some other 
 gods are represented without the chiton, and only 
 in the himation, and Hermes and Apollo only in the 
 chlamys ; and even m representations of daily life we 
 very often see in statues, reliefs, vase pictures, etc., 
 c 2 
 
20 (il!KEK LTFE AT HOME. 
 
 inrn witlioiit under t^'iU'uients, clad only in tho cloak 
 (compaiv the y.-nth in Fig. !>), and also in portrait 
 tignrrs. This is, however, a liberty taken by artists ni 
 order to avoid e.)ncealing the body eirtircly by tho> 
 dress, lint by no means corresponding to reality. Only 
 those wlio 'specially desired to liardi'ii their bodies, 
 and also poor penple and <'ertain philosophers who 
 wished to proclaim their cynic ])rinciples by excced- 
 inglv scantv dre,-s, went out, even in winter, in a 
 cloak without an under garment. Shirt and trousers 
 were unknown in (Jreek male dress; the latter are 
 Oriental, and therefore only ap[iear on monuments 
 repres(.'nting barbarous persons. 
 
 As regards female dress, it maybe stated at once 
 that till' strong contrast fouml in modern tunes 
 fietwecu the dress of men and women is foreign to 
 Greek antiipiity : both liaA'c essentially the same 
 elements, .sometimes even the s:uuc shape; and this 
 siniilarit\' liecomes greati.'r the nearer we get 
 to antiipiity. This was not carried so far that a 
 woman could sim]il\- liavt' put on a man's under 
 garment; in fai't, even the Homeric epics distinguish 
 the woman's pi-plns i'rom the man's chiton. IJn- 
 fortunatelw both tin.' shape and tlie mode of wearing 
 the Homeric jieplos are matters of dispute wdiich 
 (■amiot be satisfactorily settled Viy the words of the 
 epic. According to Helbig, it was not essentially 
 different from the long male chiton ; like this, it 
 descended to the feet, fitting closelv and without fijlds 
 to the ligurc, and w.as pro\'ided with an opening for 
 head and arms. Tln' girdle was w'orn rather low 
 down, not immediateb' under the breast or round the 
 waist, but round the hips, and fell down somewhat in 
 front. The peplos was ])ut on by means of a slit 
 l.ietween the breasts, wdiich often descended as far as 
 
COSTUME. 21 
 
 the feet, and was fastened by a large nninljer of 
 fibulae, or hooks. Hclbig thinks that this fashion was 
 due to Oriental influence, since such openings are 
 very coTnnionly found on monuments representing 
 Oriental nations. 
 
 There is much in favour of Holbig's hypothesis, 
 especially the circumstance that a dress similar in 
 many respects appears to have maintained itself for 
 several centuries. The vase pictures, as well as several 
 works of art, show, as Boehlau has remarked, that 
 in almost all the Greek states (especially Corinth 
 Chalcis, Athens, Jlegara, Sparta, as well as Ionian and 
 Sicilian towns) a closely-fitting chiton was worn by 
 women as late as the seventh, perhaps even the sixth, 
 century. This was not drawn over the head, but put 
 on like our dress of the pi-esent day, and open in front. 
 Numerous monuments of the oldest stylo show that 
 slit in front, and it appears to be seldom wanting 
 in very ancient pictures of the deities. This chiton is 
 provided with tight sleeves falling down to the elbows, 
 a,nd is generally adorned at all the edges (accordingly 
 round the neck and armholes, as well as round the 
 hem) Avith broad stripes and patterns of various 
 colours ; and as a further peculiarity it has folds 
 drawn up over the girdle and falling on each side 
 over the hips. 
 
 Helbig's hypothesis concerning the Homeric pep- 
 los : that it had a long opening in front extend- 
 ing to the feet, has been energetically combated by 
 ^Ja idniczka , who attempts to explain differently all 
 the passages quoted from the epics in support of the 
 other theory, and regards the strips down the front 
 found on monuments as merely meant for ornamental 
 purposes, and not a reminiscence of that opening. 
 Studniczka, for his part, considers the Homeric female 
 
22 (;ri:ek life at home. 
 
 (lirss iilriitical ^vith the so-called Doric, which is 
 (k'sci-iliril til US \<x writei's as the oldest Greek feinalo 
 dress, ill iilai;e of which the Ionic afterwards came. 
 His first assiiinptinn, therefore, is that the dross was 
 not sewn and arraii^-cd for slijipin^- on, but rather 
 CI insisted in a shawl-shaped i)iece nf stuff fastened on 
 the shoulders hy means of pins. This is not tho 
 fitting- place to discuss tliis controver.sy ; we nuist 
 therefcire content ourselves with alluding to it, and 
 reh-ain from decidine- in favour of either opinion, 
 since this would not he the })urpose of our book. 
 
 Herndiitus informs us, concernine' the female dres,s 
 of the historic period, that the Athenian women in 
 olden times wore the 1 )oric dross, a woollen chiton 
 fastened with fibulae, but afterwards, instead of this, 
 adopted tlio Ionic, dress, a stitched linen chiton. 
 However sinqih; this statement may sound, it is ]>y 
 no means so easy to trace this chang-c of dress on 
 the works iif art. Those show us female dresses in 
 ancient times which appear to have been sown rather 
 than pinned togetlier : while the chiton which wo 
 tind ill the classic period of Orepk art niay really bo 
 traced 1_'ack to the JJoric type. It is, therefore, com- 
 jirchensible tliat atteinpts lately made, especially by 
 ixieldau and Studniczka, to trace the transition from 
 the ancient Doric to the later Ionic costume on works 
 of art, sli(_iuld have led to very different results. 
 
 If \ve look at the female dress (.>n the oldest vase 
 pictures (compare Figs. 1, o, ll-l;3j, wo ahnost always 
 timl a stiff' chiton descending without folds to tho 
 feet (the Homeric name " pcplos " gradually falls into 
 disuse), wliich could, iKjwever, in no i;ase bo as 
 narrow as it is dei)icted, else it would be impossililo 
 to walk in it ; the feet as a rule are unco\'ered, l>ut 
 soiiietiiucs the di'css is lengthened boliind in the forni 
 
COSTUME. 23 
 
 of a traiu, and there touches the f^Tound. (Compare 
 Fig. 15.) The girdle is regularly worn with tliis chiton, 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 rather high up, and so as to be Tisiljle. There is also 
 a second garment covering breast and shoulders, and 
 falling down nearly as far as the girdle. How this 
 
24 
 
 (IKF.EK 1,1 FE AT UdME. 
 
 chitnu was put (in, and how tlio upper ,t;urnicnt was 
 connected with it, is not cleai-. \\'hen we see long 
 bonlei-s (lescen(hng tVoni the -inUe to the feet on 
 some tignres, and also continued above tlie girdle (as 
 in the case of two women in Kig. 1 1 ), we might assume 
 that here was an opening for 
 putting on the dress; but we 
 have already shown above 
 that these borders are often 
 (if a purely ornamental char- 
 acter, and have no structural 
 importance; and, indeed, they 
 lire entirely wanting on many 
 (diitons. It is, th(.'rcforo, gener- 
 ally assumed that the garment 
 represented here was sewn to- 
 gether bel( iw, and thus fastened 
 all round, but aliove the girdle 
 was oyien at the side, and that 
 the bib was produced by mak- 
 ing this upper part double, and 
 fastening the folded ends on 
 the shoulders with pins, thus 
 corres[ion(ling to that style 
 wliich is commonly called 
 l>(jric. In fact, the jioiiit of the diX'SS, passed from the 
 liack to the b'ont, is often visilile on the shoulder (cc^im- 
 parc Figs. 1, ;], and 11); sometimes even the hmg pin 
 which fast(.'ned both jioints can be plaiidy recogiused 
 ( Fig. f i ) ; but in spite of this tliere is a great deal that 
 this hypoth(.'sis does not explain. It is ti'ue wo may re- 
 concile with it the o(;ca.si(iiial appearance of different 
 borders at the n(.'ck of tlie bifi, fir th(;se might be sewn 
 on, and thus this garment would be (;(.instructed ready 
 ior the wearer, while in the coiTcspoiiding dress of the 
 
CUSTUME. 25 
 
 later period it rested witli tlie wearer to draw down a 
 shorter or longer piece of her chiton. But how are 
 we to explain that upper part of the chiton in such 
 a case as Fig. 12 i Here it is 
 closely fastened at the side. 
 Clearly the artist wished to re- 
 present an arnihole. These two 
 facts are in opposition to the 
 previous hypothesis, unless we 
 assume that the upper part also 
 was sewn together on one side, 
 and its open side with the pins 
 must be sought on the left side 
 of the woman, which is not 
 visible here. It is stiU more re- 
 markable when, as in Fig. 13, 
 the painter represents the lower 
 pjart of the chiton with a pattern 
 and the ujjper plain ; or, as in 
 Fig. 14, gives different patterns 
 to the Xako parts. If we do not 
 atti^ute this to the arbitrary 
 fancy of the artist, or assume 
 that the upper part of the chiton 
 was ornamented w'ith a different 
 material behind, we are reduced 
 to the opinion wdiich, in view of 
 similar developments in the dress 
 of a later period, is not improb- "^'"'' ^"' 
 
 able — that this upper part was 
 
 sometimes cpiite separate from the chiton, and was 
 put on as a special garment. 
 
 AVith this costume we sometimes iind an over 
 garment, which must not, however, be confused with 
 the himation. This is worn over the chiton, but 
 
 /LJ® 
 
 
 M 
 
 O® 
 
 
 [EJl 
 
 M__ 
 
 [B], 
 
 
 _ 
 
 tsj 
 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 S 
 
 " 
 
 p 
 
 laJ 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 El 
 
 m 
 
 
 © 
 
 1 
 
 CPl 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 =J 
 
 :®i 
 
 
26 (IliEEK LIFE AT ][()ME. 
 
 fastened in li\" the giviUe also, and is nsually ojien on 
 one side. (Cniiiparc Fig. lo.) This npper ganiient, 
 wliii-h nsnal]\- is only seen below the girdle, is some- 
 times made of the sanio material as the hih, some- 
 times of a different one, hnt it nsnally difl'eis in eolonr 
 and ]>attern frnin the garment "worn nnder it. It is 
 
 not very evident 
 from the vase 
 pictnresho^\•this 
 was put on, hnt 
 it seems to huvc 
 been draped and 
 not sewn, and 
 worn over the 
 (•liiton for more 
 elafiorati' dress, 
 and fastened to- 
 gether \vitli it 
 by means of the 
 girdle. 
 
 With this 
 antiijne eostnme 
 thehimationwas 
 Worn as u (doak, 
 
 Fio. I-l. 
 
 which, both in its 
 shape and m tlje moih.' ot wearing, forrespon<led abso- 
 lutely to the lai'go hiniation worn by ujon ; like this, it 
 spoidall}" eovori.'il th(_' Ijaclc and hdl over the arms in two 
 points. There is. howevi.'i-, this distinction betwecji tlic 
 nude and fen lale costume, that the woTuen often drew this 
 cloak up so liigfi as to cover the back of the head fconi- 
 parc i ig. ] ), a tashion whirhalso continued inlatortimes. 
 Tho (diange \vhich \v(^ sec gradualK' producod in 
 this I'ostume on works of art has been oft(ai rcuardod 
 as a roal change in the fishiidi, but was pi-obably 
 
28 r;i;i;i;K lifk at H(ime. 
 
 in rjTcat jiavt only a conseqiicnco of tlie development 
 of art, whicli reuclei-ed it posslMe to represent a great 
 deal ^vhicli at an earlier sta^'e could nnt be depicted. 
 As in the ease of male dress, the dresses on the vase 
 pictures gradually heeorao wider with tidier folds. At 
 first, it is true, they are still so narrow that if a long- 
 step is taken the .shape of the hody becomes very 
 distinct : but the cylindrical form, quite free from 
 folds, which tht:^ earliest vase stylo gives to the 
 woman's dress below the girdle, disapi)ears entirely. 
 Besides this we find, instead of the bib, a double 
 girding, ur lul /jd.^, which henceforth is the character- 
 istic of the female dress. This was arranged in various 
 ways, though in later times it was sometunes dispensed 
 with altfigether. There are different modes of pro- 
 ducing this kolpos ; sometimes it lielongs to the dress 
 itself; the length of the dress then so far exceeds that 
 of the body that, in order to prevent the hem from 
 dragging on the ground, a piece must be drawn up 
 above the girdle, whi<dr then falls do^vn in folds below 
 it, and in the fashion of the time, wliich we have first 
 to deal with, often descends a long way, not, however, 
 equally all round the waist, l>ut only in front, and 
 probably also lieliind. But as the vase pnctures often 
 represent this upper p)art as of an entirely different 
 material from the under dress, it is possil)le that it 
 was sometimes not connected with the chiton, but was 
 a distinct garment worn over the under dress, and, 
 like the chiton, fastened in by the girdle, (('onq)are 
 Fig. 10.) If we remember that in the ancient dress of 
 the previous period, the liib was sometimes a distinct 
 eannent, we ujay surmise that this gradually de- 
 eloped into tlie kolpos close round the waist, and 
 that the fashion of c(.instructing this girding by means 
 of the chiton itself, and not by a separate piece, was a 
 
 V 
 
COS'ITME. 29 
 
 further stage in this development. A\'ith this cos- 
 tume we usually find longish sleeves, reaching below 
 as a rule wide and pufied, though very 
 is evident that a 
 
 arndw 
 
 lies. 
 
 It 
 
 the elbow 
 narrow round the 
 chiton of this de- 
 scription, as well as 
 the upper garment, 
 if it was separate, 
 was entirely con- 
 structed b>y sewing, 
 and was put on 
 over the head by 
 passing the arms 
 into the sleeves; for 
 we nowhere fin dan 
 opening above the 
 girdle in this dress. 
 We do, however, 
 find, when the 
 upper garment is 
 separate, that the 
 chiton has an open- 
 ing on one side be- 
 low the girdle. If 
 we remendjer the 
 remark of Herod- 
 otus previously quoted about the introduction of the 
 stitched Ionic linen chiton, it is a natural assumption 
 that this chiton, which was entirely put together by 
 sewing, and worn without pins, was an Ionic garment; 
 and in accordance with this we find this particular 
 form of sleeve on Athenian reliefs as well as on those 
 of Asia iliiror. 
 
 Contemporaneously with this change in female 
 dress, the elaboration of the folds mentioned above 
 
30 CliEEK I.lFi; AT JKIJIE. 
 
 with cnt-Diit fnnioi's and rumilar zigzag folds, pi'o- 
 (lui'fd 1.V stitiliiiiiL;- and imniiig, becomes more and 
 iiiDve apijarent, especially round the hems of the 
 lower garments. It is true we jniist not depend too 
 miii-li on the monuments, fir wo often observe on 
 these tliat only the front hem of the garment has the 
 zigzag f lids, while the back hem is quite plain, with 
 only a suggestion of the necessary stiff folds. (Com- 
 pare Figs. 17 and 10.) It is evident, therefore, 
 especially in the case (.if the vase painters, that this 
 drapery is not so much an imitation of actual costume 
 as a pec-uliarity of the artist's style. 
 
 If we niay draw ajiy (Conclusion from the above- 
 mentioned facts as to the difti^^rences lictwoen Doric 
 and Ionic costume, these do not apjiear to be funda- 
 mental, affc(;ting the shape and ap[iearance of the 
 whole dr(.'ss, but rather to have depended essentially 
 on the mode of wearing, for the Dorian chiton was 
 shaped hy jiinning, the Iorii(i constructed by sewing. 
 There is, however, a difference of material, since the 
 ] )orie chiton was woollen and the Ionic linen. Nor 
 must we understand Her(jdotus to mean that the 
 Doric dress disappeared entirely after the introduction 
 of tile loni(.', fjr the monuments show us clearl}' that 
 both Ivinds existed side liy side: so that just at the 
 timi.' of Herodotus tlie cliitcm, which, at any rate in 
 its upper part, was not sewn, but fasteneil by pins or 
 buttons, Was the mon.' common. It is true that 
 fashion, ^vhich ^^•as just as important in anticpiity 
 as now. is apparent in various changes, and these 
 are especially corispicu(jus in pictures by the vase 
 painters of the tiftli C(.'ntur3-, such as Hiero,__JJuris^ 
 Biygos, etc. On these mcmuments (compare Figs. 
 4, IN, 1!)) the femal(; dress is much wider and 
 tidier than before, tlie kolpos goes all round the 
 
COSTU^rE. 
 
 31 
 
 body, and falls down below the liips almost to 
 the knees. There is also a bib, which only falls a 
 little way belrjw the breast ; there are almost always 
 sleeves, as there were in the previous fashion, but 
 
 I'iG. n 
 
 they are o-enerally less puffed and Jiave no narrow 
 arinhole, but a wide opening at the arms. The 
 mode of putting on the chiton is also different, and 
 corresponds to the Doric fashion ; the sleeves are not 
 sewn together all round, but have a slit at the top, so 
 that wdien the chiton is put on it is quite open there. 
 
32 
 
 (;i;eek like at home. 
 
 The (Ira win-- toi^otbrr "f thr sl.'rvo openings by 
 little tilnilue or buttons fastens the chiton together 
 at the neek. and gives the whole dress consistency. 
 Fi" 17 a <-ithara iilaver about t(.i tie, or possibly 
 
 Fir,. IS. 
 
 to unloose, the girdle, whii-h fastens her upper gar- 
 ment, shows this nictliod of putting on and fastening 
 the np])er garment A'ery jilalidy. However, the bib, 
 wdiich i'^ usual!'," i'oimd, is absent here. 
 
 But if we look somewhat more closely at this 
 costume, we find in it a sort of combination of the 
 
COSTUME. 33 
 
 Doric and Ionic. The bil.> belongs to the former, the 
 kolpos to the latter : the fastening ^\-itli hbiilae 
 is characteristic of the former, the sewing of the latter. 
 For we must regard a chiton like that worn Ijy the 
 Maenad on the left in Fig, 18 as one connected piece, 
 one wide garment, more than twice the length of the 
 body, sewn together round the sides, open at top and 
 bottom, out of which the wearer constructed the bib 
 and sleeves by drawing up the folds and letting them 
 fall over the girdle, and by fastening or buttoning on 
 the arms and shoulders. There is, however, reason to 
 suppose that parts of this dross were sometimes separ- 
 ately constructed of different material. On the vase 
 pictures of that period the various parts of the dress 
 are sometimes characterised by different drapery. As 
 a rule, the folds of the dress are marked by unbroken 
 black lines : but, besides these, we sometimes find 
 reddish brown, zigzag, or wavy lines (thus in Fig. 17, 
 the upper part of the woman's dress ; in Fig. 18, the 
 kolpos of the Maenad on the right; in Fig. 19, the 
 kolpos and the sleeve). AMien we observe (as in 
 Fig. 18) that in other figures the corresjjonding parts 
 of the dress are all marked by the same lines, we find 
 ourselves almost forced to the conclusion that the 
 artists wished to represent distinct garments separ- 
 ately put on, especially as this distinction of unbroken 
 and zigzag folds can also be traced in sculpture. It 
 would be very easy to imagine it in such a dress as 
 that in Fig. 17; for if in Fig. 10 the upper garment 
 above the mi'fUe is distinct, it might also be the case in 
 Fig. 17. But such an assumption would be more diifi- 
 cult, nay, almost impossible, for Fig. 18. If we assume 
 distinct material for the kolpos, the woman would be 
 wearing three separate garments — the long chiton, 
 which simply covers the whole body, the kolpos, and 
 D 
 
:U 
 
 GltEElv J.ll'i: A'l' IKIMK. 
 
 over that a distinrt iqijic'i' Lsaniiont with .sleeves. Tlio 
 (hvss in Ki,u'. lit Wduld Kc no less coniplieated. It 
 si'enis, thevefdve, that wc on^ht not to lay too nnich 
 stress on that treatment of the folds ; probabl)' 
 the artists made use of it in order to distinguish some- 
 times between the wa,vy folds 
 of full garments, .sleeves, etc., 
 and the stiff folds of the per- 
 pendicular sicirt. For we may 
 (]bsi-r\-e that the wavy folds are 
 never foimd in th(>se per[)en- 
 dic.nlar garments, sn(di as the 
 idiiton and the bib. 
 
 If tiie vase painters are ti> 
 lie i-clied on, rspceially ui the 
 arrungrment of the girding, the 
 fashion at Athens in the middle 
 of the fifth century H.c was still 
 rather heavy anil awdcward. It 
 was not until the excessi^'e ful- 
 ness of the ffirdinw was limited 
 that it developed that regular 
 and truly noble dress whieh wo 
 admire in tln' female figures of 
 (dassie art and the following 
 })eriod. Still the dress is by no 
 for the same chiton can lie worn 
 icciirding to the arrangement of the 
 The ^■ase pi(;ture in Fig. 20 gives 
 Idiere were, in partii;ular, two 
 ]iiethods. The one was to cover the body from the 
 feet to tlie shoulders with a piece of stuff, and to 
 fasten this liy flrawing the points of the fohlcd liack 
 piece o\-er the shouldeis aiid hooking them to the 
 [loint- of the I'lcjut piece, which was also doidjlcd 
 
 means unifirm 
 in \"ai-ions wa\"s 
 girdine' and bifi. 
 examples of this 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 back. Then tlie extra piece fell down at the hack 
 and front, and the girdle was passed over it. The 
 stuff' was then drawn np a litth.^ over the girdle, 
 Avhile the ends of the garment fell down over the 
 
 Tig. 20. 
 
 hips. Strictly speaking, the girding here was 
 over the bib. (Compare the figure on the left.) 
 The second plan was to take a longer piece of 
 the chiton than was requirerl below the girdle, so 
 that the remainder fell on the ground ; the upper 
 part was drawn up to the shoulders and fastened there 
 by fibulae, either in such a way that these were visible 
 (in that case the doubled pieces were fastened together), 
 or so that the pins were hidden b\' tlic front piece 
 D 2 ■ " 
 
30 
 
 (JllEEK LIFE A r ll(i:\lE. 
 
 (then the doub- 
 led piece at the 
 1 laclv was fas- 
 tene(I to the 
 under Liyer of 
 the front piece, 
 as in Fio". 20). 
 The bib then fell 
 freely over the 
 fireast and back 
 till a little above 
 the waist, the su- 
 perfluous piece 
 1 lelow was drawn 
 up over the 
 girdle. The 
 luainier of ar- 
 ranging thiskind 
 of di'ess, which is 
 th(.'.(;oininoner,i,s 
 wry clciirly seen 
 in the Ijronze 
 statue from Her- 
 cula.neuui repre- 
 sented in Fig. 
 21. The ^irl, who 
 is in the a(;t of 
 dressing herself, 
 has already 
 g i r d e d the 
 chiton, and is 
 no-w arranging 
 the jjili ; she has 
 fistenc'd it on 
 the left shoulder 
 
COSTU.AIE. 37 
 
 and is now drawing' tlie folded baclv piece over the 
 right shoulder with her 
 rig-ht hand, in order to pin 
 to it the front piece, which 
 she holds in her left hand 
 in such a waj- that the back 
 piece may fall over the 
 front piece. The points of 
 both then fall over the hips 
 to right and left a little 
 more than half-way down 
 the front breadth. To com- 
 plete her dress, the girl will 
 then draw up part of the 
 garment, which is too long 
 for walking, over the girdle, 
 and this will appear below 
 the bib. In the dress of 
 the best period this gird- 
 ing does not fall as low as 
 before (or as that on Fig. 
 20). It is so arranged that 
 the folds fall lower on the 
 sides than in the middle, 
 so that its lines may follow 
 the outline of the bib, the 
 points of which fall lower 
 at the sides. Thus origin- 
 ated that beautiful costume, 
 inspired by a truly artistic 
 spirit, which we admire in 
 the best Attic works of the 
 age of Pheidias. As an ex- 
 ample of this, compare Fig. 
 Erechtheum at Athens. 
 
 Tl, a 
 
 Car3'atid, from the 
 
Fi.,. 2;. 
 
COSTUME. 39 
 
 With this dress sleeves, hke those above described, 
 are sometimes, but not always, worn. They are 
 usually half-sleeves, with openings fastened by buttons 
 or libulae, not pieces separately sewn on, but part of 
 the actual chiton. 
 
 The last-described form of the chiton, which 
 formed the kolpos and bib by means of the girdle 
 and pins, continued in the next period, and seems not 
 only to have extended throughout Greece, but also 
 throughout later (Ireek anticpiitj' down to the Eoman 
 period. But there were also several other styles of 
 dress, distinguished partly by their shape, partly by 
 the manner of wearing-. Thus, for instance, the 
 o-eneral form of the chiton was retained, but the dress 
 Avas made more comfortable bj' the separate con- 
 struction of the bib, which, as we observed, was 
 probabl}'' the case at an earlier period too, and 
 by sometimes omitting it altogether. Sometimes, 
 again, only a light chiton ivas worn without any 
 kolpos or bib, either with a girdle which was some- 
 times worn above the waist (compare Fig. 23, " A 
 Daughter of Xiobe "), or sometimes falling Cjuite 
 freely (compare FTg. 24). Afterwards it was not 
 unusual for the bib to fall below the girdle, while the 
 kolpos was entirely absent (compare Fig. 25), or else 
 fell above the bib (compare Fig. 20). In the graceful 
 female figure in Fig. 2G there is another peculiarity. 
 Here, as in Fig. 25, the chiton is open at one side, 
 even below the hips, which was not the case with the 
 ordinary dress, especially that worn out of doors. It 
 is probable that this was the original form of the 
 so-called Doric chiton, for it is thus that the Doric 
 maidens were dressed, and on this account were 
 mockingly described as " showing their hips." In the 
 ideal figures the chiton of Artemis and the Amazons, 
 
40 GUEEK LIFE AT HdME. 
 
 though shorter, is of the same kuid. The fonn of the 
 chiton fastened toi^ctlier all round originatevFso early 
 
 fiG. -n. 
 that ive only find the kind open at the side in 
 rare instances on the oldest monuments. This 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 41 
 
 chiton corresponds in shape most closely to the 
 short male chiton ; like this, it often only ex- 
 tends to the knees, and is fastened on the shoulders 
 by pins without forming 
 the bib. The dress with 
 regular sleeves is also found 
 in the later costume, either 
 connected with the under 
 garment or specially con- 
 structed so as to cover 
 only the upper part of the 
 body. It was fastened to- 
 gether all round, and opened 
 at the sleeves, which were 
 constructed by buttons. 
 
 The himation continued 
 to be the usual upper gar- 
 ment. In the older costume 
 of the sixth and fifth centuries 
 it is often treated as a scarf 
 in the manner aljove de- 
 scribed, with two points fall- 
 ing down in front over the 
 shoulders (compare Figs. 4 
 and 24), but afterwards 
 women began to wear the 
 himation in the same way as 
 men, either enveloping the 
 arms entirely or leaving the 
 right arni free (compare 
 
 Fig. 23). A third mode of wearing the himation, which, 
 however, is commoner in older than in later costume, 
 is to draw it from the right shoulder across the 
 breast to the left hip, leaving the left breast un- 
 covered, and letting the points fall down on the right 
 
 i'lG. 25. 
 
42 
 
 iltEEK LIFE AT HOJIE. 
 
 side of the body. In the pictures it often looks as 
 tliou,u-li the liiiiKition were fastened on the shoulder 
 
 Fig. 2i;. 
 
 by pins, or even stitched together. Wo also find a 
 light kind of shawl, put on something in the manner 
 
COSTUME. 43 
 
 ot the scarf worn Ijy ladies some im'ty or fiftj- 3'ears 
 ugo. In fact, there seem to have been many varieties 
 of female dress in the Alexandrine period, but we are 
 not intimatel}' acijuainted with the details, as our 
 principal authorities, the vase pictures, at that time 
 no longer confined themselves as strictly as in the 
 older periods to the prevailing fashioir. In one of 
 T heocritu slidylls a woman puts on first her chiton, 
 then a peivnatriti (a robe fastened by clasps) of 
 costly material, and over that an <mi'pechonion. It is 
 not clear what sort of garment this peronatris was. 
 On the other hand, the terra-cottas of that period 
 often represent graceful female forms in walking dress, 
 that is, in the chiton and himation. Thus in Fig. 
 27, a and h, we see a woman in a long dress with a 
 train, wearing over it a cloak drawn over her head in 
 such a manner that only her face is visible. To pro- 
 mote freedom of motion her cloak is drawn up over 
 both arms, which are closely enveloped. In a similar 
 matron-like dress is the lady represented in the terra- 
 cotta figure, No. 28. She holds up her long himation 
 daintily with both hands, to enable her to walk more 
 easily. 
 
 We cannot with certainty prove the existence of a 
 chemise, since those expressions which are generally 
 thus interpreted appear to relate to different kinds of 
 chitons. Sometimes we see in vase pictures repre- 
 senting scenes from the baths short garments with 
 little sleeves, which cannot well be anything but 
 chemises, worn under the actual chiton. We must 
 not, however, assume that these were universally 
 worn ; far commoner was the band called stropli. ion, 
 corresponding to the modern corset, used to check 
 the excessive development of the breasts, or to hold 
 them up when the firmness of youth was gone. 
 
44 GliEEK LIFE AT HiiME, 
 
 Wc kuiiw very little alxnit the colour and jiattem 
 of the dresses. The elothiii-- worn hy men, or, at any 
 
 rate, those of the lower 
 classes who laboured 
 in the workshop or 
 in the field, was cer- 
 tainly dark, either of 
 the natural colour of 
 the wool or dyed 
 lirown, grey, etc. 
 ( )tlierwiso the com- 
 monest colour for the 
 cliiton and himation 
 was -white, and, as 
 such garments natur- 
 ally soon got dirty, 
 tliL'y were often sent 
 to the fuller, -who 
 washed thei 1 1 and gave 
 them fresh hrightness 
 Ijy means i^f pipeclay 
 and similar methods. 
 On festive f)ccasions 
 gaily-coloured dresses 
 were usually worn, 
 and then even simple 
 people indulged in 
 the luxury of bright 
 colour ; though, as a 
 rule, to displa_y tliis in 
 ordinary, every - day 
 life was regarded in 
 the better ages of 
 Greek antiquity as a mark of A'anity or characteristic 
 of a dandy. Naturally, women were more inclined to 
 
cosxnrE. 
 
 45 
 
 bright hues, and they were especially fond of saft'ron- 
 coloured dresses, and also of materials with coloured 
 borders and rich desims. 
 Generally speaking, we may 
 infer from the -works of art 
 that bright coloiu- and rich 
 ornamentation were most 
 popular in the oldest pjcriod, 
 and afterwards again in the 
 epoch of declining taste ; 
 while the classic period 
 made but a sparing use of 
 either. The older vase 
 pictures almost always re- 
 present materials with 
 coloured patterns, either 
 purely ornamental desigTis 
 (compare Figs. 10, 11, 13), 
 or with representations of 
 figures. (Sometimes whole 
 scenes full of figm-es in 
 coloured embroider}' were 
 part of the dress, and this 
 was sometimes arranged in 
 rows, like the decorations 
 on pots in ancient art. 
 (Compare Fig. 12.) This is 
 quite natural if we consider 
 that in the more ancient 
 costume there was 
 scarcely any drapery : 
 both the chiton and the 
 cloak were drawn tightly 
 
 round the figure, and, therefore, the pictures could be 
 fully developed and seen without any interruption 
 
 Fig. 21b. 
 
46 i:i!t;ek i.i[''K A'I' iih.mi:. 
 
 from fdlils. rurcl\' nviiaiiirntal juittcnis arc also vory 
 CdiiiiiKiu, anil sliow uToaf variety, hut xcry seldom 
 
 l;'oo(1 (losiyns. 
 (.'Iioi'IkS and dia- 
 monds Avero esperj- 
 ally popular. 
 
 As tlio fashion 
 in di'css cliRnn'cd, so 
 did the use of ma- 
 terials \vi t.li patterns ; 
 for Ljarmcjits worn 
 at reli,n'ious cere- 
 monies, or liy actoi'S, 
 tli(; coloured em- 
 liroidery was re- 
 tained; l>ut in 
 ordinary life the 
 ]iien, and even 
 Women, L^radually 
 discarded it, or at 
 any rate reduced it 
 to moderate j)ropor- 
 tions com])ared with 
 the rielL fulness of 
 ornament in the 
 o]d(.'i' fashion, which 
 almost oneealed 
 tluireal colour of the 
 dress. This is cspeci- 
 :dly notic-eable in 
 the cViiton wdieri it 
 fulls in iree lolds, 
 wliilo the old-lasliioiK'd chiton, which had very few 
 folds, hore lioldrr d(_'si;_;ns. It is also the case with 
 the hiiuation, which even in the classic period, when 
 
COSTL'JIK. 47 
 
 it no longer fell stiff and straight over the back, 
 but was drawn round the bod}' in plentiful drapery, 
 was often richly adorned -wdth emljroidery. The 
 reason is probably because such shawl-like gar- 
 ments are more loosely related to the bod}', and 
 therefore the introduction of a pattern which 
 weakened the impression of the figure is less dis- 
 turbing here than in the chiton. However, these 
 bright-coloured cloaks were exceptional luxuries. 
 The fashion of the better period shows its classic 
 sense of beauty in forming chiton and cloak from 
 materials of one colour, and merely introducing orna- 
 ments at the seams and edges, and these such as are 
 of especial beauty and noble simplicity. 
 
 In the fourth centur}' B.C. a gradual decline is again 
 observable, and after the time of AlexarLcler the 
 Great rich desio-ns, sometimes introducino- tisfures, 
 become commoner, even in purely Hellenic dress. 
 Numerous examples on works of art show us the 
 unaesthetic and absurd side of this fashion. The 
 elaborate patterns give a disturbing appearance to 
 the whole figaire ; the outline of the body is com- 
 pletely hidden by the dress ; and when the drapery- 
 is disturbed or folded, in the case of borders or 
 materials covered with figures, the result is some- 
 times very ridiculous. 
 
 As reo-ards the material of the dresses, we men- 
 tioned above that when the change described by Herod- 
 otus was made, the linen chiton was introduced, but 
 woollen materials were not on that account dis- 
 carded; and as men ceased to wear the chiton long, 
 it became commoner to make it of wool. The oldest 
 sculpture as a rule represents two distinct materials 
 when once we get beyond the tight-fitting costume of 
 the earliest period. One of these shows fine and flat 
 
4S (iPiEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 t'(il<ls, wliilf the other falls iu largo, (loop folds. Wo 
 cannot always maintain with oortainty tliat those are 
 two (listini't niatorials, the former wool, the latter 
 linen; sometimes it seems as though there wore onl}' 
 two (iiialities of the same material, one being hnc and 
 thin, and the other coarse and thick. Yet the fre- 
 (juent use of hnen is |>roved hy the regular [)arallel 
 and zigzag fol<ls so common iu the older art, winch 
 could ijuly lie produced in linen by artificial means. 
 
 As a rule, they wore, as we do, lighter stuffs iu the 
 sununer and heavier ones in the winter ; but though 
 Ko very often find (jn archaic monuments transparent 
 garments showing distinctly the outline of the body 
 (compare Figs. f.S, 24-), we are scarcely justified in 
 .assuming a veryr widespread use ot rc'ally transparent 
 garments. Even though such thin mateiials niay 
 have liecn worn at that time, especially by hotaerae, 
 their extensive ust' in vase painting is probably due 
 to the fact that the })ainters, not knowing how to 
 represent the outline of tlie body and the movements 
 of the limbs under the dress, and yet desiring not to 
 hide them completely by the (dothes, resorted to this 
 e.xjiedient of letting th<; outline ap[(ear through the 
 divss matei-ial. 'khese thin stuffs were always e(jnnnon 
 in tile dress of the hetac'rae, Imt respectable women 
 used them oul}' as under garments. A\'e niay, how- 
 ever, assume tliat this was also a matter of fashion, 
 since ujatcrials from the looms of the island of 
 Amorgos, ivhich wrrc especiall}' noted for theii- fine- 
 ness and transparenc}', were oidy fashionafile for a 
 short time in the period of the older Attii; coi]iedy. 
 Later allusions to these stuffs are made chiefly by the 
 learned, and do not refer to actual realit\'. ;\[oreover, 
 it is natural that the circumstances of the persons 
 concerned plaj'ed a part in the chcjice of coarser or 
 
COSTUJIE. 49 
 
 finer materials. The stufis introduced from foreign 
 parts, such as cotton and muslin, could only be worn 
 by the rich, as also silk, which, even in the Alexandrine 
 period, was very rare and expensive. On the other 
 hand, common men wore felt-like materials, and 
 countrymen even tunics of skin or leather. 
 
 In Greek antif|uity coverings for the feet were not 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 so essential an article of clothing as at the present 
 day, at any rate not for the male portion of the 
 population. At home, and in summer, men as a rule 
 Avent barefoot ; artisans and other members of the 
 lower classes and slaves did so out-of-doors also, as 
 well as people who desired to harden their bodies, 
 like Socrates, or those who jjerhaps only affected an 
 ascetic mode of life, like some of the Cynic philo- 
 sophers. At Sparta, where the State took cognisance 
 of the dress and food of the citizens, young men were 
 actually forbidden to wear shoes, and man}- adhered 
 to this habit even in old age, as, for instance, 
 
;■)() ClilClOK 1,1 it; at IKiMi;. 
 
 Ac;V'si!.ins, \v]\t>, I'NTii as an old man, used to g'O 
 witlniut sliofs and cliilon, dressed only in liis cloak. 
 Still, if ^vas uiinsual lor nn'ii to j^'o ont oF doors in 
 "winter liareloot, as Soci'ates is sa,id to have done 
 
 Clenerall\' speakin;.;-, the foiit^cai' oF tlie Ch'eeks 
 was of f w'o kinds: sandals, tliat is, inei'e soles tied 
 
 nnder tin' Foot, and aetnal 1 1,s. Hetween tlie two, 
 
 lio\\"i_'V(;r, there wei'e a ureat nnnilier <iF transition 
 StaLi'es, s.) that it is soiiH'tinies inijiossiMe to say to 
 wiiifdi of the two classes some kinds helonc-ed. 
 Sandals, which wei'e |.roliahly ihe oldest kind, and 
 in llonie)- a[i]i,iivnfly I lie oidy one, -wei-e worn liy men 
 and \vomen alike, t'.ion^h Fai' Jimre i'o)iimcjid\- hy the 
 
COSTinrE. 
 
 51 
 
 latter. Thej^ consisted of a .sole made of several 
 thicknesses of strong leather, Avitli sometimes a layer 
 of cork ; to this straps ^vere fastened, ^vhich passed 
 across the foot and held them firm. Fiir this purpose 
 (compare the selection in Fig. 29, taken from works 
 of art) a pair of straps passing over the instep and 
 
 l-'iG. 31. 
 
 heel were often sutiieicnt, and the.se were either tied 
 or fastened in such a wa}- that another strap, passing 
 between the first and second toes, was connected with 
 the other two, which were fastened to the edge of the 
 sole and buckled on the instep, the buckle usually 
 having the shape of a heart or a leaf But these 
 straps were often more niunerous, and so complicated 
 as to cover almost the whole foot, and thus resemble 
 a perforated shoe. Sometimes they were contmucd 
 as far as the ankle, or even the shins (compare the 
 examples in Fig. 30), but this is onlj- the case in 
 E 2 
 
52 GliEEK LIKE AT IKUIE. 
 
 iiirn's ilvcss. Costly and linoiitly-(M)loiu-c(I leather, 
 -with L;ilt and dtliev iimaments, made this f()t)ti^-ear, 
 ^vlLi^■h was naturally simple, hoth ornamental and 
 expensive. 
 
 The hoDts were something- like onrs ; they eovcred 
 
 tlie whole foot, and were laccd or l)Utton<.'d in 
 front, over the instep, or at the side. In the older 
 period ni(_'n's hoots j^'i 'nerally went above the ankle, 
 and at the front edge liad a nKji'o or loss pointed 
 tongue hent forward. ((Jompai'e examples in Fig. 31, 
 which also show ns how this tongue gradually became 
 smaller, and at last disapjieared entii'ely.) Afterwards, 
 low shoes, generally sto])ping short of the ankle, were 
 the rule, especially for women, if they did not wear 
 sandals. Fig. ."52 gives various examples of this : thoy 
 
COSTCJrE. 
 
 53 
 
 are usually pointed at the toes, and old Spartan reliefs 
 even represent shoes with pomts in front as part 
 
 of female dress. Huntsmen, countrymen, and the 
 hke, wore high boots reaching to the shins (iv- 
 S/oo/i/Se?), laced or buttoned in front, as in Fig. 33. 
 
54 ClIKEiv I.IFI-: AT HOME. 
 
 Tlirsc Lj'onci-allv liad livoiul tors and tliick soles, but 
 like tliu ordinary shoes tlicy liail no liccls. A f.oiniiion 
 decoration of siieli boots were broad zi^'zai;" lap]iets ot 
 leatlier, iallini;' dmvii iVoiii tli(,' n])]icr edt;'e, as in the 
 examples in Fig. -"U. lietwecn sandals and boots we 
 find various forms of low shoes, in which the foot is 
 ])artly covered with leather and jiartly witli straps. 
 Tims there was a kind of slip]icr covering the up]ier 
 
 part of tlie foot in front, while the Ijack was covered 
 witfi straps, and another kind wliich left the toe.s 
 quite free and covered the rest of the foot. Probably 
 the i-rrjiiilii, Avliich only originated in the Alexan- 
 jlrine period, Imt then became very connjion, belonged 
 to this class, and was a shoe with low leather sides, 
 from "which strajis passed across the foot. Other 
 kinds of shoes we know onh' Ijy their anti(|ue names. 
 Tims there was an elegant kind worn by guests 
 in\ited to dinner ((iXavrai) ; and a coarser kind 
 worn chiefly by peasants (Kap/3aTipcu) made of 
 rough leather, and probably not on a block, but 
 roughly se^vn together Ity tlie country people them- 
 
COSTUME. 55 
 
 selves. In fact, the number of names for footgear 
 used b}^ the ancient writers is very large, and we 
 may thence conchide that tiro fashion changed fre- 
 quently. Thus in Greece there were shoes of the 
 Persian fashion. At Athens the}^ wore Laconian 
 shoes, Amyclaean, Sicyonian, Ehodian shoes, and 
 others which are also mentioned, probabl}^ refer more 
 to the shape than to the origin. There were also 
 shoes called after celebrated men, who probably made 
 use of them, such as Alcibiades shoes, Iphicrates 
 shoes, etc. ; but we cannot illustrate all these from 
 works of art, in spite of the rich variety supplied by 
 them. They also distinguished between shoes which, 
 like our slippers, could be worn on either foot, and 
 those which were made on particular lasts for the 
 right and left foot. The latter wei'e reg:u-ded as 
 more elegant, for they laid great stress on having 
 shoes well-fitting and not too wide. They said of 
 people wdio wore too comfortable shoes that they 
 " swam about " in them. It was a mark of poverty 
 or avarice to wear patched boots, and heavy 
 nailed shoes were only wtirn by soldiers or country 
 people, and for others wore regarded as a mark of 
 rusticity. 
 
 The material used was, as a rule, leather, but 
 occasionally felt. They were mostly black ; but we also 
 find coloured shoes mentioned, especially for women, 
 and sometimes see them represented on polychrome 
 vases. 
 
 Stockings were unkno^vn to antiquity, but some- 
 times in extreme cold it was the custom to w-rap 
 fur or felt round the legs. Thus, in Homer, old 
 Laertes, when domg rough work in his garden wears 
 gaiters of neat's leather, and also gloves to protect 
 himself against the thorns. As a rule, the latter were 
 
5(5 CREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 iilsii uiikiinwn; "n1y actors wore somctliini;- of the 
 Idiid, Imt tlieir (il.joct was, l.y appai-cnt Iciit^-tlienin.u- 
 of tlir arms, to liavinoniso tlioiii with the artiiicial 
 increase in heiq'ht. 
 
 As a rnlc, men went bare-headed, or wore caps in 
 had woiither. (ieuerally speaking, they (hstingnished, 
 as wc (h), Ijrtween hats and caps. The hat, whose 
 distinunisliinu' mark was the brim, l)ore tbo name 
 
 jii'lii.^'os. It originated in 'J'hcssaJy, bnt spread to 
 other places, and at Athens was regarded as tlie 
 characteristic riding hat, and as suidi was w<)rn with 
 tlie clilam\'s l.iy youths. AVe see many in this dress 
 on the Parthenon frieze. Otherwise the petasos was 
 essentially a part of travelling dress, and, therefore, a 
 usual attriliute of Hermes as messenger of the gods. 
 When ijlder men wore the petasos there was generally 
 some distinct reason for it. ((Compare Figs. 9 and 
 lO.j The shapes of the petasos (in works of lU't are so 
 various that it is sometimes ditfi(nilt to tell whether 
 they ought all to be included under the same name. 
 
COSTUilE. 57 
 
 Some of the hats are so very hke caps that we 
 can scarcel}' decide whether they ought to bear the 
 name of petasos. In the oldest period the petasos 
 almost always had a |)ointed, rather high crown, and a 
 broad Ijrirn turned up in front and Ijehind. (<_'onipare 
 
 Fir;. 36. 
 
 the examples in Fig. 35.) Afterwards varieties 
 were introduced ; sometimes the crown was semi- 
 circular, sometimes flattened, now high, now low, or 
 with a little point like a button ; the brim, too, was 
 sometimes broad, shading the whole face, sometimes 
 quite narrow ; now turned down, now horizontal ; at 
 other times, again, turned up or bent roimd the head. 
 Thus in the first half of the fifth century, we find 
 a very peculiar shape. The brim projects in front in 
 
58 liUKKK \AVV: AT linMK. 
 
 a nan-ciw ]Hiiiit, and at tlic liack is tiivucd mi as far 
 as the luL;h conical crown. (Compare Fi,i;-. '■]!').) The 
 commonest sliape is that of v.hich examples are given 
 in Kin'. :l(l : the crown is toleruMy Hat, gener- 
 ally not higher than the sknll ; tlie hrim, which is 
 rather hmad, and generall_v tnrjied down, is not 
 circular all round, Imt cut <>nt at severa,! [ilac.es — either 
 between the ears and the forehea,d, so that a ponit 
 fiills over tlie latter, while the brim extends in semi- 
 
 Fic. o7. 
 
 circular form round the back of the head; or else 
 this half is cut out in the same way as th(! front part, 
 so that the liriiii ends in four ])(.)ints, which generally 
 fall over the foi'ihcad, back of the head, and ears. 
 Still, Wo siimctimes tiiid instances where it is only cut 
 out over the loi-eliead, and the points lall to the right 
 and left nf the face, 'fhis shape is very connuon in 
 the liest period, that is, in the lifth and fourth 
 centuries. Afterwards, th(.'re Avere some vei'y strange 
 shapes, such as that in Fig. :-!7, on the left, 
 which is found on vas(.! pictures oF the best pjeriod 
 and reiuinds us of the hals jiointed in fi'ont and 
 liehind worn at the beginning of this cejitmy. The 
 petasos Was f (.stencil u.nder the chin with a cord; 
 
COSTUME. 59 
 
 ■when it was not wanted it was pushed down below the 
 neck, where it was Ivopt in place by the cord ; and we 
 find it frequently in this position. (Compare Fig. 88.) 
 When, as sometimes happens, the petasos has a high 
 crown, and a narrow 
 turned-up brim, it is 
 often very like the 
 pilos, a cap of leather 
 or felt, which was the 
 common dress of work- 
 men, especially sndths, 
 countrymen, fishermen, 
 sailors, etc. Odysseus, 
 as sailor, is almost 
 always represented with 
 it; and so is Charon, the 
 ferryman of the nether 
 world, He phaestus , as 
 smith, etc. Invalids 
 who were obliged to 
 protect their heads 
 from the weather, also 
 wore such caps. These 
 cai^s, too, were of 
 various shapes ; semi- 
 circular, fitting closely 
 
 to the head, and half-oval, projecting somewhat be- 
 yond the head, or of a more pointed conical shape. 
 (Compare that of Odysseus, Fig. 39, and the sailors, 
 Fig. 40, where, as is often the case, it has a narrow, 
 lower brim.) It is evident from the drawing that the 
 material must have been skin,whichwas the commonest 
 next to felt. These caps were often fastened with 
 strings below the chin, and there was sometimes a 
 bow at the apex by which they could be hung up. 
 
 lir!!NigrjLgiBL^r 
 
 Fio. 
 
60 
 
 fillEEK LIKK AT H(nrE. 
 
 Women, who wuve seen out of doors mncli scl- 
 doiner than men, had even less need for head- 
 coverinj^'s. Especially in the oldest period, where 
 
 I'm. 3'J. 
 
 scarves covering the greater part of the hair were 
 hi fasliion, they probahly contented themselves with 
 drawing- the himation over their heads wlien they 
 went ont. (('onipare Fig. 4.) This -was oft'ii done 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 61 
 
 in later periods also, as ^ve see in terra-cotta figures 
 (compare Figs. 27 and 2S) ; but even at that time 
 women in the country, or tra\-elling, often wore a 
 petasos similar to that of the men, though Avith a 
 narrower brim. A graceful Sicilian terra-cotta, repre- 
 sented in Fig. 41, shows a lady wearing one of these, 
 and it is very becoming to the face. On the other 
 hand, after the Alexandrine period, the th<iU(L is very 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 common. This is a light straw hat, with a pointed 
 crown and Vjroad l;>rim, fastened by a ribbon and bal- 
 anced on the head — no douljt very convenient, smce 
 the broad brim protected the wearer from the rays 
 of the sun, but by no means becoming. Terra-cotta 
 figures from Tanagra give numei'ous examples of this 
 hat, which was evidently very common at the time, 
 and is also mentioned by writers. 
 
 For further protection against the sun women 
 often used sunshades, which were made to fold up 
 like ours. Such sunshades are common on old 
 
62 
 
 nr.EEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 monuments, but, as a rulr, ladios did not carry tlicm 
 themselves, liut were accompanied liy a slave, who 
 pert'iirmed this office for them. The sunshades were 
 
COSTUME. 63 
 
 usually round (compare Fig. 42), but there are also 
 examples of a fan-shaped kind, which enabled the ser- 
 vant who walked behind to hold the sunshade Ijy its 
 
 Fig. 42 
 
 long handle comfortably over her mistress without 
 going too near her. Sometimes we even see men on 
 vase pictures with sunshades. This, however, was re- 
 garded as effeminate luxury. The stick belong(?d to 
 the ordinary equipment of a man. Old people walked 
 
G4 (ir.EKK LIFE AT ]|i)ME. 
 
 with the help "f ;i heavy Ivuntti-'il sfci('.l';, or leant 
 on it as they stodd, lilve the Athenian citizens on tlio 
 Parthenon frieze; and yonno- people also nsod them. 
 They seem always to have ns(!d natnral sticks; bnt 
 the jjaconian canes, with cnrved handles, were con- 
 siflcrcd specially convenient, and were used at Athens 
 by those who liked to iiuitate Spartan manners and 
 enstorns. In the fonrth eentnry the nse of sticks 
 seems to have lieeonic less common. 
 
 The last heading' to he considered is the fashion of 
 wearing- the hail-; and, although the writers and 
 statues give ns consideralile information, there are 
 several ditticulties here which have not yet Leon 
 solved. 
 
 In the heroic period \oivj; cnrly hair was regarded 
 as a suitable ornament for a man. This is proved by 
 tlie favonrite epithet, " llic curly-haired Achaeans," 
 and by other (piotations from epic ])oetry ; various 
 indications ])rovc that the curls were not always left 
 to fall natural]}', but that artificial means were some- 
 times adopted for facilitating and preserving their 
 regular arrangement. When the " effeminate Paris " is 
 said ti) rejoice in Ids " horn" (Kepa dyXae), old commen- 
 tators state that this horn was a twisted pdait. It is 
 p(jssible that this might lie produced liy the mere use 
 of stiffening pomades or other cosmetic means, which 
 had been introduced from the East in the Homeric 
 period; but the statenrcnts in the Iliad ajjout the gold 
 and silver " curl-holders " of the Trojan Euphorbus- 
 clearly point to artificial aids. The oldest sculp- 
 tiux'S and vase pictures give sufticient proof that this 
 inodc of wearing the hair in regular curls con- 
 tinued for a long time, for they almost always 
 represent luiir falling i'ar d<;iAvn the mjck, generally in 
 
COSTUME. 65 
 
 reg'ulav stiff locks with horizontal waving, while small 
 curls surround the forehead, arranged with equal 
 accuracy. As to the means employed for producing 
 these curls, Helbig's opinion is that the spirals of 
 bronze, silver, or gold wire found in old graves in 
 several parts of the Old World were used as a foiurda- 
 tion for the curls, which were twined around them. 
 (Jertainly these spirals have often been found in 
 Etruscan graves, near the spot where the head rested, 
 and generally one on each side. This might, however, 
 be explained by the other interpretation that they 
 were a kind of primitive ear-ring. Perhaps the " gold 
 and silver " with which Euphorbus " bound together " 
 his locks, according to Homer, Wiis not a particular 
 kind of adornment, but onlyflexible gold and silverwire. 
 The monuments as well as the writers teach us 
 that men wore their hair long, in the next period also, 
 down to the fifth century; we sometimes find hair of 
 such length and thickness depicted that it seems 
 almost incredible that a man's hair could have been 
 so much developed, even by the most careful treat- 
 ment. However, it did not often hang c|uite loose, 
 but it was tied back somewhere near the neck by 
 a ribbon, and, unlike the Homeric head-dress, where 
 each curl is separatelj- fastened, the whole mass 
 of hair was bound together, and then spread out 
 affain below the fastenmo- and fell clown the 
 back. Sometimes the hair, after being tightly tied 
 together in one place, was interwoven with cords or 
 ribbons lower down, so that it fell in a broader mass 
 than where it was tied together, but by no means 
 hung loose. Another kind of head-dress is that in 
 which the hair is tied together in such a manner as to 
 resemble a broad and thickish band, something like 
 our head-dress of the last centurj-. The hair falls a 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 (iJiEKK l.iFE A'l' IKI.ME. 
 
 little way below tlio iirck, ami is then taken uj) again 
 and tied in with the other piece by a ribben in snch a 
 manner that the end t:>f the hair falls dowir over this 
 ribbon. Here, too, we tind variety, for the hair 
 sometimes fell some way down the baek, sometimes 
 Avas fastened up again at tlic baek of the head. An 
 example of tlie former Ivind is tlie bron/e head from 
 Ulympia represented in Fig. 44 ; of tlie latter. Fig. 4o, 
 from a vase painting of the fifth eentnry. 
 
 Fi... 
 
 j\lost Commonly, however, in the sixth and fifth 
 (ientiuies nien plaited their long hair and laid the 
 plaits round their head. There were two distinct 
 ]uode of doing this. Une was to take two plaits from 
 the back of the head in diiferent directions and fasten 
 them like bandages round the head ; the other was to 
 begin the plaits at tlie ears, turn them baelvwards so 
 that they <'rossed each other at the bad-: of the head, 
 then Ijring them round to the front and knot them 
 together o\er the centre of the forelicad. This is the 
 head-dress of the tigure on tln' IJnqdialos known as 
 Apollo (Fig. 45), and the liead of a youth (Fig. 46). 
 There are also many other differences ui detail ; some- 
 
CDSTL'ME. G7 
 
 times the two plaits were laid ai;r.:>ss tlie liair from 
 the 23;^i'ting to the forehead in tlie form of a tiUet 
 holding the hair fast, as in the mavhle head (Fig. 47) ; 
 btit sometimes the front hair is laid across the ends 
 of the plait fastened together in front, as in the head 
 from a vase jjainting represented in Fig. 4S. Th(/ 
 head in Fig. 47 also shows a pectdiar mode of treating 
 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 the back hair. The lower part of this is plaitf :1, and 
 the plait ttirned tip again and fastened where the 
 other two braids cross each other. Other plaits 
 also fall from behind the ears in regular arrange- 
 ment over the shoulders in front, often reaching 
 as far as the breast. The hair on the fore- 
 head is dressed with ecptal care. With this fashion 
 also the regnlar little cnrls, arranged in one or more 
 rows round the forehead, are very common. Some- 
 times the}' are in spiral form, sometimes in that 
 F 2 
 
OS 
 
 (iKEEK LIKE AT IKlME:. 
 
 curls, as on the arcliaii' linmzc 
 -ntud in Fi<j-. 4!) and 
 
 or covkscrow 
 
 lirail fniiii roniprn ivprosr: 
 
 in Fii;'. 4S. 
 
 Thcsr arc tlic principal archaic modes of wearing;- 
 the hair funnd i>n the nionnments, hut they hy nd 
 means exhaust the varieties wliiidi nn'^ht bo observed. 
 The wrilers, hdwever, only mentii)n one ancient head- 
 dress. Thucydides, in the passage already tpioted, 
 which descriljes the long chitons formerly worn by the 
 
 Fk;, !7. 
 
 Athenians, also tells us that at the same tnne that this 
 nld-fashiiined dress was abandoned, the Athenians gave 
 up the old way of dressing their hair in the crobylvK 
 (Kp(xif3vXo'^}, into which they fastened golden grass- 
 hojipers. It has not yc't, hcjwever, been possilile to 
 determine with any certainty which of the head- 
 dresses found on the statues corresponded to this cro- 
 liylus, whii-li seems to Ije identical with the corijinhiis 
 (Kopv/jifBoi} mentione<l in otlier jilaces; nor has it 
 Ijeen pnssiljlc to find any traces of the grasshopjiers. 
 </onsiM|Uiiitly almost all the head-dresses above de- 
 scribi'd have lieen claimed fur the croljylus, even the 
 douljk' plaits behind the ears : and the grasshoppers 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 69 
 
 have been explained sometimes as the above-men- 
 tioned spirals, sometimes as liair-pins or fibulae. 
 Perhaps some day a fortunate discovery may throw 
 ligdit on this difficult Cjuestion. 
 
 It would be scarcely possiljle to assign a chrono- 
 logical order to all these various archaic head-dresses. 
 However, in the latter half of the fifth century they 
 all disappear, and here we have another ]:)roof of the 
 increasing aesthetic sense 
 noticeable in all domains 
 of life in the classic period. 
 The allusions in Aristo- 
 phanes show that in his 
 time it was onl)- old-fash- 
 ioned people, who probabb. 
 also went about in long 
 chitons, who still Avore the 
 grasshoppers. From the 
 time of Pheidias, the elabor- 
 ate head-dresses entirely 
 vanish; and though they 
 are continued for a loncrer 
 period on the vase paintings, that is probablj' 
 painting adhered longer than sculpture to 
 
 Fm. 48. 
 
 because 
 the old 
 
 forms and fashions, since its free development in style 
 was also of later growth. After this time the long, 
 flowing hair of the men, and the pigtail disappear ; 
 and though only youths and athletes wore their hair 
 quite short, yet the men's hair was also .shortened, 
 and owed its chief beauty to nature, which has 
 granted the gift of graceful curl to Sotithern and 
 Oriental nations. The portrait heads of this and 
 the following period depict the hair as simply curled, 
 soft, and not too abundant. This seems to have con- 
 tinued during the following centuries ; at any rate, 
 
ci:)STrME. 71 
 
 the moniuncnts sliow no trace of a return to the 
 artiticial head-dresses fashionable in ancient times. 
 Just as "wigs, powder, and pigtails have disappeared 
 for erer among us, so anticphty, when it hacl once 
 recognised the beauty of hair in its natural growth, 
 never returned to the stiff and laborious head-dress of 
 the past. Of course, there were various fashions in 
 the mode of wearing the hair and having it cut : in 
 fact, there are a nundjer of different names for 
 the modes of cutting it, such as the " garden,"' the 
 ■' boat,' but we do not know what these were like, 
 since the monuments afford no clue. Probably it 
 was only dandies who laid any stress on such matters. 
 It is but natural that there should have been many 
 local v-ariations in the mode of wearmg the hair, as in 
 the dress, and probably these were of some import- 
 ance iir the oldest period ; but we kno^v very little 
 about them. At Sparta it was the custom at 
 the time of the Peloponnesian War to shave the 
 hair cpiite close to the head, but as the Spartans 
 wore long, carefully-curled hair at the tinre of the 
 Persian wars, a change in the fashion must have taken 
 place at Sparta in the course of the fifth centur}-. 
 
 Xo special ornaments were worn in the hair by 
 men after the}- gave up the old-fashioned curl-holders 
 and the mysterious grasshoppers. The " band " or 
 fillet laid round the forehead, which Dionysus com- 
 Tiionly wears in works of art, Avas only actuall}^ used 
 as the reward of victory in gymnastic or other 
 contests. The diadem is a token of ro^'al dignit}-, and, 
 therefore, unknown in free Greece. 
 
 The change of fashion in the mode of wearing 
 the beard can also be traced in Greek antiquity. 
 There is no direct account of it in the Homeric 
 poems, but probably some indirect hints. A well 
 
72 CHEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 l^iiown simile in Homer mentions tlie razor. As 
 tlie Acliaeaiis >V()ro their hair long, and certainly 
 -were not smooth shaven, the question arises, what use 
 thev could haA-e made of the razor. Helbig ptnnts to 
 the anali_ig>- of th(; Egyptian and Phoenician custom, 
 which had cunsideralile influence on Hellenic culture, 
 and also shows, liy means of old (Ireek monuments, 
 that very |irohal.ily the lonians of the Homeric period 
 shaved the ujipcr lip; as, in fact, the Horians also did 
 in older times. It is true this period nuist have fieen 
 preceded hy an older one unacquainted with this 
 custom, for the gold masks found in graves at 
 ilycenae hear a moustache; and the best example of 
 these is treated in such a way as to point to the use of 
 some stiffening pomade, as well as the artihcial 
 cutting of the moustache. 
 
 The monuments also show us that the custom ot 
 shaving the upper lip continued for some tinje in the 
 following centuries : but it was not the only prevailing 
 one, for we also find whiskers, Ijcard, and moustache. 
 It is but natural that in the period when the hair was 
 claboratel}' flressed, special care was taken also with 
 the treatment of the beard. It was not only 
 regularly cut, and usuall}' in a point (compare Fig. 
 50), but it was also cut short at certain places, 
 especially between the lower lip and the chin, so that 
 the part thus treated presented a different appearance 
 from the rijst of the beard. They also curled the 
 moustache, and arched it upwards ; and if wo may 
 believe the testimony of archaic monuments, we 
 must assume that curling-irons were sometimes used 
 for the artificial arrangement of the beard. It was 
 not till the latter half of the hfth century that 
 the Ijeard was allowed to fall naturally and simply, at 
 the time when they began to treat the hair in a 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 7.3 
 
 similar manner. The beard, although not entirely 
 abandoned to its natural growth, since it was cut into 
 a shape corresponding to the oval of the face, instead 
 of the former point, at any rate was no longer treated 
 by artificial means, such as pomades, elaborate curl- 
 ing-, etc. The portrait type of Pericl es or S ophocles 
 
 (compare Fig. 7) shows us the finest example of 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 a simple and dignified mode of wearing the beard, 
 while the ideal head of Zeus from Otricoli, with its 
 artificially parted beard, in spite of the grandeur of 
 the treatment, is far removed from the classic sim- 
 plicity of the age of Pheidias. After Alexander the 
 Great and his successors it became the custom to 
 shave the whole face. The portrait statues show us 
 that old men especiallj^ who had formerly allowed 
 their beard to grow, now almost always shaved it off. 
 Aristotle, Menander, Poseidippus, the princes of the 
 
 Alexandrine 
 
 etc., have smooth-shaven faces. 
 
74 
 
 (iliEEK LIFE AT IlliME. 
 
 ^'ouths and iniddlc-aoed men at that, period some- 
 times let their beard grow, hut old men onl}' did so 
 when they wished to indicate, hy a long, ragged 
 beard, that they were followers of the (J)'nic school; 
 for even down to the time of the Empire the long 
 beard \\as the distinguishing mark of the philosopher. 
 Tlie hrad-di'ess of women also underwent many 
 
 l-'ic;. 51. 
 
 Fig. 5'i. 
 
 changes. We do not know how their hair wan bound 
 up and arranged in the Homeric period, wdien it was 
 treated with sweet-scented oils and pomades, which 
 were, in fact, very common during the heroic period. 
 Mention is especially made of a cap-like arrangement 
 of the hair, and a })laited braid connected with it. 
 Helbig believes he has recognised the same fashion 
 in the women's head-dress on old Etruscan pictures, 
 on which it is jiossilile to distinguish a high-])ointed 
 cap and a liau<l laid over it. However this may be, 
 Andromache's head-dress, as described by Homer, has 
 
COSTUME. 75 
 
 a distinctlj' Oriental character. In the next period 
 the works of art are again our best guide. They show 
 us that, apart from external ornament, the head-dress 
 of men and women in ancient times was essentially 
 similar. We find the long hair either falling freely 
 or in single plaits domi the back (compare Figs. 11 
 and following) ; curls falling on the shoulders ; and 
 little ringlets surrounding the forehead ; we find the 
 hair tied up at the back of the neck, or the mode 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Fit;, oi. 
 
 described above of tying it up in band-like fashion 
 in several places. (Compare also the peculiar hair- 
 knot in Fig. 11.) We also find that arrangement of 
 double plaits laid several times round the back of 
 the head, which has been claimed as the crobylus, 
 although this is only mentioned as a male head-dress. 
 This last fashion is even found in the graceful C'arj^a- 
 tides of the Erechtheura, but here it is probably a 
 reminiscence of the old custom, natural in these 
 female figures, which are, as it were, in the service 
 of the i^oddess. Otherwise none of these fashions 
 continue be3^ond the last quarter of the fifth century, 
 either for women or men. 
 
 About the middle of the fifth century the fashion 
 
76 
 
 CiUEEK LIFE AT H(;):\IE. 
 
 of wearing manN'-CMilcnircd kercliiofs, covering the 
 greater part of the liair, must have been very preva- 
 icnt. I'olygnotus p)aints his women thus, and we find 
 the same fashion in the pediments of Oh'mpia, and 
 on some of the female figures on the Eastern 
 Parthenon frieze, and on numerous vase paintings of 
 that period. (I'ompare Fig. 17, where the kerchief 
 even seems to develop hito a ca}>, with a how at the 
 apex.) ]!ut at the s:unc period, when the men began 
 
 Flu. o'l. 
 
 Fig. oG. 
 
 to emancipate themselves from the stiff head-dresses, 
 and to wear their hair in a natural manner, a simple 
 and beautiful fashion also became conmioner among 
 the women. The hair was usually parted in the middle 
 and either fell in slight ripples loosely down the back 
 or else was drawn up mto a knot at the back of the 
 head. (Compare Figs. 20 and 24.) The latter 
 fashion, which we still call the " Greek knot," is the 
 commonest and most beautiful in the next period too. 
 Sometimes the knot fell far down the neck (compare 
 Figs. 51 and 52), which was certainly the most grace- 
 ful, or else it was higher up the head (compare Fig. 
 5o), where the hair is combed upwards from the face, 
 or else (compare Fig. 54) the knot developed into 
 
COSTUME. 77 
 
 a flattened nest or wreath. A simple ornament fre- 
 quently found is a narrow band or lillet entwined 
 witli the hair or laid around the hair and forehead. 
 (Compare Figs. 16, 20, 24, and 52.) Kerchiefs were 
 also much worn afterwards, sometimes put on in such 
 a way as to cover almost the whole hair (compare 
 Figs. 55 and 56), sometimes only a part, so that the 
 hair at the back of the head is visible beneath it. 
 (Compare Fig. 25.) There were also a variety of 
 metal ornaments, which were fastened into the hair 
 either to keep it firm or else for decorative purposes 
 ^ — golden circlets or diadems (compare Fig. 57), pins, 
 etc. Detailed consideration of these ornaments show 
 us that the age of Pericles and that immediately 
 following it, were the periods wdien the style and 
 technique attained their highest develo]3ment and 
 artistic beauty. Thus dress, hair, and ornament all 
 combined harmoniously to represent the people of 
 that age in surroundings corresponding in the fullest 
 deoree to the poetic and artistic attainments of the 
 epoch. 
 
 Fig-. 57. 
 
CHArXER n. 
 
 lUUTfl AND INFANCY. 
 
 All AUiriiiau II(iiiii: — Thu JjirtU of a Child — Its Dcdicatiuii — Its First 
 Years — Lcarniii!;- to ^Valk— I'laytliings — Aimiscmciils. 
 
 W'l: iimst iii'W transport oursflvos in imiiL;-iii:itiiiii to 
 the limise (if an Atliciiiaii (/.itizen of the better classes. 
 He is a I'ich man, who not only owns a comfortable, 
 thont^li simple, town house and land oiitsi<lc the gate 
 inanaged by slaves, bnt also draws considerable 
 interest from capital invested in traditig vessels, and 
 frotn the nimierons slaves who ^^.-orlc in factories for 
 wtxges. l]nt, in spite of his e(_)nifortable circiniistances, 
 his j(:)y has hitherto been troidjied by one sorrow — 
 he has been married for several years, ;xnd as yet no 
 heir to liis })<issessions htis been given him. A little 
 daughter is growing np in the house to the joy of her 
 parents, bnt even this cannot console the father for 
 the sad prospect of seeing the possessions inherited 
 from his ancestors, and hicreased by his own industry 
 and eC(_inoniy, pass into the hands of strangers. 
 
 But to-day joy and gladness haYc entered this 
 mall's house. His wife has Ijorne him the much- 
 longed-for son and heir. The neighbours, who had 
 seen the well-known nurse enter the house, were 
 anxious to see in what manner the lnjuse door would 
 be dc(.-ked — whether, as before, woollen fillets would 
 iuunounce the birth of a daughter, or thejoj'ous wretith 
 of olive brandies proclaim the advent of a son and 
 heir. A\'hile tlie slaves are festively decking the door 
 
BIRTH AND IXKAXCY. 79 
 
 outside, within tlie house the new-born child is re- 
 ceiving its tii'st care. Witli a happv smile the vouny 
 
 ^f')£^;^^ 
 
 Fig. .38. 
 
 mother looks on from her couch while the nurse and 
 maids are busil}- occupied in preparing the bath for 
 
80 (^KEEK LIFE AT HdJlE. 
 
 the little one. For this only tepid water and tine oil 
 are used, tVir the Spartan enstoni of adding wine to 
 the baliy's hrst hatli is unknown at Athens. After 
 the. hath, too, the baby has a Avarnier bed than would 
 liave fallen to his lot in the sterner city. True, the 
 father intends, as soon as possilile, to send to Sparta 
 fur one of those celebrated nurses known and prized 
 for their success in rearing children ; but still he 
 shrinks from beginning the hardening pn-ocess at this 
 tender age, and roaring up the child according to 
 Spartan customs without the warm swaddling clothes. 
 Si) the baby is carefully wrapped in numerous swad- 
 (Uings, in such a manner that even the arms are firmly 
 swathed, and onlj? the little liead is visible. (Compare 
 Fig. 5.S.) The ancient phj'sicians prescribe for the 
 new-born child soft woollen swaddlina' three tinsiers 
 broad, and direct that the swaddling should begin 
 with the hands, then pass on to the chest, and at last 
 cover the feet, swathing eacJi })art separately but 
 loosely, only drawing the bandages tight at the knees 
 and the soles of the feet ; the head also must be 
 enveloped, and, finally, a second covering is put over 
 the whole body. When modern physicians maintain 
 that this swaddling must injure the child and check 
 the development of its organs, they forgot that the 
 (jreeks treated their children thus for centuries and 
 3-et were a healthy nation. But it is quite incredible 
 that they should liave been thus swaddled for the 
 first two \^ea.rs of their life, as a passage in Plato 
 seems tij indicate, for this would not only have been 
 extranrdinar)-, but also injurious to the health. It 
 can onl}- be a cjuestiijn of maintaining a covering 
 suitalile to the age for these two years, instead of the 
 children's dress afterwards worn. A physician of the 
 age of the Jimpirc recommends the end of the fourth 
 
BIRTH AND IXFANCY. 81 
 
 month as the time for graduall)' leaving oti the 
 swaddling ; and probably this was also the Greek 
 custom. Antiquity does not seem to have been 
 acquainted with our soft cushions, but the little 
 Athenians also had their cradles, though these did not 
 stand on the ground on rockers like ours, for such 
 cradles are not mentioned till the Roman period, and 
 seem to have been unknown in the classic age; but 
 they resembled a basket of woven osier, suspended 
 from ropes like a hammock, and thus made to rock. 
 The cradle in which Hermes, who seems already to 
 have attained the age of boyhood, is depicted on a 
 vase painting represented in 
 Fig. 59, is of a peculiar shape, 
 quite like that of a shoe ; the 
 handles at the side, through 
 which ropes were probably 
 passed, show that this was also Fig. 59. 
 
 made to rock. Fig. 60 shows a 
 
 different kind of cradle. It is a bed on rockers, 
 which may have been used in the same way as the 
 babies' cots common among us. 
 
 The young mother now for the first time gives the 
 new-born baby the breast (compare Fig. 61, taken 
 from a Greek terra-cotta), and rejoices that she is 
 able to perform this duty herself. However, in case 
 she should not have been able to do it, a poor peasant 
 woman from the neighbourhood had been brought to 
 the house and paid for her services. Meantime, the 
 husband sits down by the bed and discusses with his 
 wife the steps which must next be taken. A question 
 that sometimes causes a good deal of difficulty pre- 
 sents none on this occasion — viz., the legitimation of 
 the child. And as the boy is strong and healthy, 
 there cannot be a question of the barbarous custom 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 GREEK LITE AT HOME. 
 
 of exposing- it, which, thi->ii,L;'h nmAy resortod to at 
 Athens, was still quite coiuuion at Sparta. JMen had 
 the child been a second daughter, the kindly-dis[)(>sed 
 master of the hmise would not have resorted to this 
 cruel step; althouoh, had he d(inc so, his fellow- 
 
 citizens would not liave l)laniod him for it. ])Ut the 
 parents have to settle on which day the family 
 festival shall take place, to welcome and dedicate with 
 religious rites the newborn child {Arivph.id'irnnia) 
 and what name the}' shall give it. They decide upon 
 the tenth day after the birth for the festival. Many 
 parents, it is true, celebrate this as early as the fifth 
 day, ami then on the tenth hold a second festival 
 
BIRTH AXD IXFAXCY. 83 
 
 ■svitli an elaborate banquet and sacritices. and but few 
 ricli people content themselves witli a sinde celebra- 
 tion. But though in this case there is no lack of 
 means, yet, as the 
 j'oung mother wishes 
 to take part herself 
 in the Amphidromia, 
 they decide to be con- 
 tent with one celebra- 
 tion, which is to take 
 place in ten days. 
 According to old 
 family custom, the 
 boy receives the name 
 of his paternal grand- 
 father. 
 
 When the ap- 
 pointed day has come, 
 and the house is fes- 
 tively decked with 
 garlands, messengers 
 begin to arrive early 
 in the morning from 
 relations and friends, 
 bringing all manner 
 of presents for the 
 mother and child. For 
 the former tliej" bring 
 many dishes which 
 will be useful at the 
 
 banquet in the evening, especially fresh fish, polypi, 
 and cuttle-fish. The baby receives various gifts, 
 especiallj" amulets to protect him against the evil 
 e3'e. For, according to widespread superstition, these 
 innocent little creatures are specially exposed to 
 G 2 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
84 gi;eeiv life at home. 
 
 the influence of evil niai;ie. Therefore the old 
 slave, to whom the parents have confided the care ot 
 the child, chooses from among the various presents 
 a necklace which seems to her especially suitable as 
 an antidote to magic, on which are hung all manner 
 of delicately-worked charms in gold and silver : such 
 as a crescent, a pair of hands, a little sword, a little 
 pig, and anything else which popular superstition 
 may include in the ranks of amulets ; and hangs this 
 round the child's neck. 
 
 Tlie festival heyins with a sacrifice, and is followed 
 by the solemnity in which mother and child, who, 
 accordiuij- to ancient notions, are regarded as unclean 
 by the act of birth, are purified or cleansed, along 
 with all who have come in contact with the mother. 
 This part of the ceremony is the real " Amphidromia " 
 (literally " running round "). The nurse takes the 
 child on her arm, and, followed b}- the mother and all 
 who have come in contact with her, runs several times 
 round the family hearth, which, accordmg to ancient 
 tradition, represents the sacred centre of the dwelling. 
 Probably this 'was accompanied by sprinkling with 
 holy water. At the bancpiet the relations and friends 
 of the family appear in great numbers. In their 
 presence the father announces the name which he 
 has chosen for the child. After this all take their 
 places at the bancpiet, even the women, who, as a 
 rule, do not take part in the meals of the men. The 
 standing dishes on this occasion are toasted cheese 
 and radishes with oil ; but there is no lack of excellent 
 meat dishes such as Ijreast of lamb, thrushes, pigeons, 
 and other dainties, as well as the popular cuttle-fish. A 
 good deal of wuie is drunk, mixed with less water than 
 is generally the custom. Music and dancing accom- 
 pany the baufpiet, which extends far into the night. 
 
BIKTH AND INFANCY. 85 
 
 Tlie first years of his life were spent by the little 
 boy in the nnrsery, in which things ^vent on in much 
 the same wa}- as with us. During this period boys 
 and girls alilve were under the supervision of mother 
 and nurse. If the baby had bad nights and could 
 not sleep, the Athenian mother took him in her arms 
 just as a modern one would do, and carried him up 
 and clown the room, rocking him, and singing some 
 cradle song like that which Alcmene sings to her 
 children in Theocritus : — 
 
 " Sleep, children mine, a liglit luxurious .sleep. 
 Brother with brother : sleep, my boys, my life : 
 Blest in your slumber, in your waking blest." * 
 
 At night a little lamp burnt in the nurserj^. Although, 
 as a rule, in small houses the apartments for the 
 men were below and those for the women and children 
 m the upper storeys, yet it was customary for the 
 women to move into the lower rooms for a time after 
 the birth of a child, partly in order that they might 
 be near the bath-room, which was necessary both for 
 mother and child. During the first years of their life 
 the children had a tepid bath every daj' ; later on, 
 every three or four days ; many mothers oven went 
 so far as to give them three baths a day. When the 
 child had to be weaned, they first of all gave it broth 
 sweetened with honey, which, in olden time, took the 
 place of our sugar, and then gradually more solid 
 food, which the nurse seems to have chewed for the 
 child before it had teeth enough to do this itself. 
 Aristophanes gives us further details about Greek 
 nurseries, and even c|uotes the sounds first uttered 
 by Athenian children to make known their various 
 wants. 
 
 * Translated by S. C. Calveiiey. 
 
86 
 
 gi;eek life at home. 
 
 They do not seem to have had an}' special 
 mechanieal contiivanees for learning- to walk. In 
 
 
 i-'lG. U2. 
 
 tlic time uf the Empire baskets furnished with wheels 
 are mentioned. Apparently they were in no great 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 87 
 
 hurry about this. For the first year or two the nurses 
 carried the children out into the fields, or took them 
 to visit their relations, or brought them to some 
 temple ; then they let them crawl merrily on the 
 ground, and on numerous vase pictures we see 
 children crawling on all fours to some table covered 
 with eatables, or to their toys. (Comimre the Stele, 
 
 Fig. 63 
 
 represented in Fig. 62, on which a child has crawled 
 to its mother and is trying to raise itself.) When the 
 child made its first attempt at walking, prudent 
 nurses took care that it should not at first exert its 
 feeble legs too much, and so make them crooked ; 
 though Plato probably goes too far when he desires to 
 extend this care to the end of the third year, and 
 advises nurses to carry the children till they have 
 reached that age. 
 
 Children's dress must have given but little trouble 
 during these first years. At home — at any rate in 
 summer — boys either ran about cpiite naked or else 
 
tsS 
 
 OKEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 with only a short jacket ojien in front, like the little 
 boy with the cart in Fie-. G-'l The girls, however, had 
 long dresses reachuig to their feet, fastened hy two 
 ribbons crossing each other in front and behind. 
 Nanghty chil(h-cn were brought to obedience or quiet 
 by threats of bogies, but, curiously enough, these Greek 
 bogies were all female creatures, such as Medusae or 
 
 Fig. G-1. 
 
 witches: " Acco," " ilornio," "Lamia," " Emptisa," etc.; 
 and when the chil(h-en would not stay quiet indoors, 
 they seem to have threatened them with "The horses 
 will bite you." The mothers and nurses used to tell the 
 children all sorts of legends and fairy tales — Aesop's 
 Fables were especially popidar — and little stories from 
 mythology or other tales of adventure, which often 
 began, like ours, with the approved " Once upon 
 a time." Among the many poetical legends of 
 gods and heroes there were, it is true, some which 
 were morally or aesthetically objectionable, and the 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 89 
 
 philosophers were not wrong in Ccalling attention to 
 the danger which might ho in this intellectual food, 
 supplied so early to susceptible childish minds ; yet 
 this was undoubtedly less than what is found in our 
 own children's stories. 
 
 Greek children had toys of various kinds, though 
 the excessive luxury attained in these at the pre- 
 sent day was unknown to antiquity. A very ancient 
 toy is the rattle, usually a metal or earthenware 
 
 ^"^^MUiwv/d 
 
 '^^a^te'S^^ 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 jar filled with little stones, sometimes nnade in 
 human form ; and there were other noisy toys, 
 with which the children played and the nurses 
 strove to amuse them : though complaints were 
 sometimes made that foolish nurses by these means 
 prevented the children from going to sleep. A very 
 popular toy, found in many pictures in children's 
 hands, was a little two-wheeled cart (compare Fig. 63), 
 or else a simple solid wheel, without spokes, on a 
 long pole — a cheap toy which could be purchased 
 for an obol (about three-halfpence). Larger carriages 
 were also used as toys, which the children drew them- 
 selves, and drove about their brothers and sisters or 
 
90 
 
 (iKKEK LII'E AT H()J[E. 
 
 Fio. CO. 
 
 Cdiiipanions, as we see 
 ill Fig. (i-i. Sometimes 
 till no dogs or goats 
 were harnessed to 
 them, and the boys 
 rode merrily along, 
 cracking their whips. 
 ( (J( )mpare Fig. G5.) The 
 custom of letting the 
 nurses draw the child- 
 ren in perambulators 
 in the street seems to 
 have been unknown, 
 but baby-carriages, in 
 which the children 
 were drawn about in 
 the room, are men- 
 tioned by the ancient 
 physicians. (C'ompare 
 Fig. GO.) 
 
 The little girls 
 liked to play with all 
 kinds of earthenware 
 vessels, pots, and 
 dishes; and, like our 
 little girls, they made 
 their first attempts 
 at cooking with these. 
 Many such are found 
 in the graves. More 
 popular however, even 
 in ancient times, were 
 the dolls, made of wax 
 or clay and brightly 
 coloured ; sometimes 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 91 
 
 Avith flexible limbs, like tlio one in Fig. G6, or with 
 clothes to take on and off, and representing all manner 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 of gods, heroes, or mortals ; dolls' beds were also 
 known. Though boys may have sometimes played 
 with these iigures, or even made them for themselves 
 out of clay or wax, yet we generally find them in the 
 
92 
 
 GREEK LIFE 
 
 Fio. G8. 
 
 AT IIOJIE. 
 
 hands of girls, who seem 
 to have taken pleasure in 
 them oven after the first 
 years of childhood ; in- 
 deed, it was not un- 
 coininon, since Greek 
 girls married very early, 
 for them to play with 
 their dolls up to the time 
 of their marriage, and 
 just before their wedding 
 to take these discarded 
 favourites, with their 
 whole 'wardrobe, to some 
 teurple nf the maiden 
 Artemis, and there dedi- 
 cate them as a pious 
 offeiing. 
 
 The boys delighted 
 in other more masculine 
 pleasures. Like our own 
 boys, they played with 
 box-wood tops and whips, 
 singing a merry son" the 
 while, or else they bowled 
 their iron hoops, to which 
 bells or rings were at- 
 tached. The hoop was a 
 favourite to}^ until the 
 age of youth, and we 
 often find it on vase 
 paintings in the hands 
 of C|uite big boys. (Com- 
 pare Fig. r>7.) We may 
 certainly assume that 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 93 
 
 they also had little imitations of warlike implements, 
 such as swords and shields ; a little quiver, which can 
 hardly have served any other purpose (compare Fig. 
 68) has been found. Clever boys made their own toys, 
 and cut little carts and ships out of wood or leather, and 
 
 Fig. 
 
 carved frogs and other animals out of pomegranate 
 rinds. Our hobby-horse, too, was known to the 
 ancients, as is proved by a pretty anecdote told of 
 Agesilaus. He was once surprised by a visitor 
 playing with his children, and riding merrily about 
 on a hobby-horse. It is said that he begged his 
 friend not to tell of the position in which he had 
 found the terrible general, until he should himself 
 have children of his own. Kite-flying also was known 
 to them, as is proved by the vase painting represented 
 
94 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 in Fig. 69, which, though rough in drawing, distinctly 
 shows tlie action. 
 
 They wore also acquainted with the little wheels, 
 turned by means of a string which is rolled and 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 unrolled, which are still popular with the children 
 of our (lav, and about a hundred years ago were 
 fashionaljlo toys known as " incroyables." What we 
 see in the Ijoy's hand in Fig. 70 can hardly be any- 
 thing else. This was a game in wliich even grown-up 
 people seem to lia^'e taken pleasure. (Jn the vases of 
 Lower Italy we often see in the hands of Eros, or 
 women, a little wheel, with daintil)- jagged edge and 
 spokes, fastened to a long string in such a waj' that, 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 95 
 
 Avhen this is tirst drawn tight by both hands and then 
 let go, the wheel is set revolving. (Gonipare Fig. 71.) 
 Probably this 
 was not a mere 
 toy when used 
 by grown - u]3 
 people, but 
 rather the magic 
 wheel so often 
 mentioned as 
 playing a part 
 in love charms ; 
 but about this 
 we have no ex- 
 act information. 
 
 Swings must 
 also be men- 
 tioned as popular 
 with both young 
 and old. These 
 were exactly like 
 ours : either the 
 rope itself was 
 used as a seat 
 and held fast 
 with both hands, 
 or else a com- 
 fortable seat was 
 suspended from 
 the cords. (Com- 
 pare Fig. 72.) This was a merry game, in which 
 grown-up women sometimes liked to take part ; 
 and so was the see-saw, of w^hich even big girls 
 made use. (Compare Fig. 78.) Sometimes the 
 mother or older sister took the little boy b)' the 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
96 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 arm and balanced him on her foot, as the i^'irl in 
 Fig. 74. does with Eros, and, as in the well-lcnown 
 beautiful statue, " The Little Dionysus," is carried 
 
 f:)fmw m?m^mmmmmmmjmm 
 
 Fir,. 
 
 on the shoulders of a powerful satyr. Many a 
 Greek father prolial.dy gave his son a ride on his 
 shoulders. 
 
 It is a matter of course that the young people of 
 that da.}- were acquainted with all the games which 
 
BIRTH AXD INFANCY. 
 
 can be played at social gatherings b}' children, without 
 any assistance from without. The various games 
 of running, catching, hiding, blind-man's-buff, etc., in 
 which our young people still take pleasure, were 
 plaj'ed in Greece in just the same iiianner, as well as 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 the manifold variety of games with balls, beans, 
 pebbles, coins, etc. 
 
 Games of ball served as recreation for youths and 
 men, and some of the above-mentioned games of 
 chance, rather than skill, were especially popular with 
 grown-up people, particularly games ot dice or 
 "knuckle-bones," to which wo shall refer later on 
 in another section. 
 H 
 
98 GREEK ]>IFE AT HOME. 
 
 Thus our young Atlioniau spends the first j^ears of 
 his life amid merrj' jjla}' with his companions, under 
 the watchful care of his mother. During the first six 
 years the nursery, where girls and boys are together, 
 is his world, though he is sometimes allowed to run 
 about in the street with bi\ys of his own age. He is 
 not yet troubled with lessons, and although, should 
 he be obstinate or naughty, his mother will sometimes 
 chastise him with her sandal, yet in a family in which 
 a right spirit prevails, the character of the education 
 at this early age is a beneficent mixture of severity 
 and gentleness. Sometimes, it is true, the father does 
 not trouble himself at ;dl about the education of his 
 children, and leaves this entirely to his wife, who laay 
 laclc the necessary intidL^^ctual capacity, (.ir even to a 
 female slave. This, of cours(/, has bad results, and 
 the same happens when the wife, like tiie mother of 
 Pheidippides, in the " Clouds " (.)f Aristophanes, is too 
 ambitious for her little Hon, and, in constant opjiosi- 
 tion to the weak, though well-intentioned, f'athei-, 
 spoils him sadly. Let us assume that the boy whose 
 entrance into life we descrilied aliove, is free from 
 such deleterious influeuces, and, sound in mind and 
 body, passes in Ids scvi.'nth year out of his mother's 
 hands into tliose whicli -will now minister to his 
 intellectual and physical ilc'velopment. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Schools — At Sj^ai-ta — At Athens — Methods of Instruction— Reading 
 Lessons — Music — Geometry — The Gymnasia — Physical Training 
 — The Education of Girls. 
 
 Here, as in so many other domains of wliicli we must 
 treat, there is a marked distinction between tlie Doric 
 and Ionic states. In tlie latter tlie education of boys 
 was a private duty of the parents, and tire State only 
 retained a general right of control ; while in the 
 Doric states, and especially at Sparta, with whose 
 institutions we are best acquainted, boys were regarded 
 as belonging, not to the family, but to the State, which 
 undertook the entire charge of their physical and 
 intellectual well-being. 
 
 At the age of seven years the Spartan boy left his 
 father's house to live with companions of his own age, 
 whose occupation and mode of life were regulated by 
 definite rules. All the boys were divided into com- 
 panies, according to age. Several of these companies 
 were again combined into a troop. At the head of 
 each company and of each troop was a superintendent, 
 chosen from among the youths. His duty was to 
 direct the occupations and exercises of the boys under 
 his charge, and, as leader in their gymnastic exercises, 
 to help them by his example. The general care of 
 their education was in the hands of the trainers 
 {■jTM^ovofioi), themselves under the control of a Board 
 of Inspection {IBihialoi), but in other respects their 
 power was unlimited, and they had the right, by 
 H 2 
 
100 (;i!EEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 means of " scour^'e-bearors " {jjLaaTL^/6<popoL), to inflict 
 punishment for disoljedience or other faults. In this 
 office, which was a verv res|ionsil)le one for a single man, 
 they were assisted by the whole fiody of citizens, who 
 were not only permitted, but even bound by their 
 duty, to take part in the exercises of the boys, instruct- 
 ing, encouraging, or even punishing them. Every 
 Spartan citizen could, in a measure, exercise paternal 
 rights (_)ver ever)' Ijoy, and, again, was regarded hy 
 every bo}- in the same light as his own father. .Obedi- 
 ence towards their elders, modest and reverent bearing, 
 were impressed on the Spartan boys from their earliest 
 }-ears, and they were thus advantageously distinguished 
 from the somewhat precociou.s Attic }'outh. ^ The aim 
 of their whole education was to harden the bi:id3' and 
 to attain the greatest possible bodily skill. The boys 
 had only the most necessary clothing ; from their 
 twelfth 3'ear onwards the}- "wore o\\\j an upper gar- 
 ment, even in winter, and in all otlier respects their 
 life was <jf the simiilest, so that it is not a mere fiQ-mv 
 of speech to talk of Spartan discipline. They received 
 only sufficient food for the liarest needs, and, though 
 the bo^-s were often taken to the meals of the arown 
 men, }'et these too Avere anything but luxurious. 
 Their bed was hay or straw ; from their fifteenth year 
 onwards reeds or rushes, which the)- liad themselves 
 to fetch from the Eurotas. Indifference to physical 
 pain was carried to an excess which appears to us 
 aljsolutely barbarous, even in later times, when they 
 had departed in some respects from the original 
 severity of the so-called laws of Lycui'gus. 
 
 The instruction at Sparta also corresponded to these 
 principles. There was little questiijn of developing the 
 intellect, nor was this part of the public duty, but only 
 a piivate matter. Tfnise wlio wished to learn readin"- 
 
EDUCATION. 101 
 
 and writing doubtless found an opportunity of doing 
 so, but not in the institutes conducted by tlie State ; 
 at any rate, we find no mention of suclr. Probably 
 most Spartans did learn so much, but very little 
 more. A little arithmetic was added, as mental 
 arithmetic especially' was regarded as important 
 on account of its practical utility. But this was 
 all the literary cidture which a young Spartan re- 
 ceived. They also studied music, for which the ]3oric 
 race had always natural ability and liking ; and this 
 instruction was compulsory. The boys learnt to pla}' 
 the cithara and flute, and to sing songs or choruses of 
 serious moral nature. The inspectors were careful 
 to see that nothina: unsuitable was admitted here, and 
 that traditional methods were adhered to in harmony 
 and metre ; therefore, every innovation on the domain 
 of music was regarded with suspicion, and departure 
 from the traditional custom was sometimes even 
 punished. 
 
 The most important part of the instruction con- 
 sisted in gymnastic exercises. These were methodic- 
 ally studied on rational principles ; the exercises 
 were graduated according to age, and only those were 
 admitted which developed strength and skill, and did 
 not merely fit a man for the career of an athlete. Their 
 first aim was to make their men good warriors, and 
 this they certainly attained. But it was a necessary 
 consequence of the excessive development of the 
 ph3-sical side, and the disregard of all higher intellec- 
 tual developments, that Sparta never attained any 
 real greatness in literature or art. - Again, however 
 attractive the moral seriousness developed by the 
 S]Dartan education may seem t(i ns, we cannot deny 
 that the deadening of the family feeling, and the 
 complete abandonment of everything to the State, 
 
102 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 [iroduced that bariliicss and cruelty wliicli we so 
 (iftcn incet with in the history of Sparta. 
 
 Very (htterent was the system of education at 
 ^Vthens, Here it was left entirely in the hands of 
 individuals. The State provided no pulillc schools, 
 but only appointed certain hoards, whose duty it was 
 to See that there were no oti'ences a^'aiust tradition or 
 morality conunitted in the private institutes. This 
 duty was entrusted to the superintendents (eVt/xeXf/Tai 
 and ao)(ppoi'iaTai). These were, however, chiefly con- 
 cerned -with the youths, and thus especially with the 
 instruction in the gynmasia. \ye do not know how 
 far the Areopagus took part in this control. 
 
 As a ride, Athenian l:)oys, when they had completed 
 their sixth year, were entrusted to the charge of an 
 t)ld slave, called PuiJiii/di/os, whoso duty it was, not 
 to train or instruct the hoys, but simply to accompan}^ 
 them to school, or on their walks, and to wat(di over 
 their beliaviour. As it was not considered correct for 
 the son (if an Athenian citizen to carry his school 
 utensils himself, it was the duty of the paidagogos 
 who accompanied him, to carry his books or his 
 cithara, lus strigil, or even his ball. A'ery often the 
 paidagogdS remained in the rooju (or perhaps in an 
 ante-roiim) during the lesson, ai"id at the end again 
 aci/,(>mpanied his charge home. Though ho was only 
 a slave, and often but slightl}' educated, he generally 
 had authority given him over the boys entrusted to 
 his care. AVhen they reached the age of eighteen 
 the C(_)ntrol of the [laidagogos either ceased entirely, or 
 assumed a different character. 
 
 It is impossible not to recognise that there were 
 many objections to this system. It was by no means 
 always the worthiest and most trustworthy slaves 
 wdio were chosen for this office, but rather old men 
 
EDUCATION". 103 
 
 who were of no use for other work, and who were 
 not onljr entirely ignorant inteUectualty, but whose 
 manners were often bad. As foreigners the}? often 
 spoke barbarous Greek, set their charges a bad 
 example by fondness for drink, or else winked at 
 their faults and bad habits ; in short, were by no 
 means fitted to have the charge of growing boys. 
 Many complaints seem to have been made, but the 
 practice still continued ; in fact, in some respects 
 matters grew worse in the Hellenistic period. On 
 monuments, wdiere we often see them accompanying 
 boj's, even in m3'thological representations {e.fj., The 
 Children of Niobe, Archeniorus, Medea, etc.), the 
 paidagogoi appear in a special dress corresponding to 
 their non-Hellenic orioin — in a chiton with sleeves, 
 rough cloak, and high boots. However, this corre- 
 sponds to the practice of Greek tragedy, which had 
 tixed costumes for certain characters. In reality the 
 paidagogoi probably dressed much like other citizens. 
 The instruction at Athens is divided into two 
 headings : music and gymnastics. Let us first con- 
 sider the former. It appears to have been very rare 
 for boys to be taught at home by private teachers. 
 Thej' were usually sent to some school conducted hy 
 an elementary teacher. We know very little about 
 the arrangement and curriculum of these schools. 
 It seems that boys from the same neighbourhood 
 generally attended the nearest school, and were 
 taught there in the same room by one teacher, who 
 had to instruct in turns the beginners and the more 
 advanced pupils. Cases of over-filled classes are 
 mentioned, but these do not refer specially to Athens. 
 It is not improbable that classes not only received 
 different instruction, but were also taught in separate 
 rooms; and that besides the master who was the 
 
10-1 CREEK LIEE AT HflME. 
 
 iliroctor and proprietor of the scIkjoIs, assistants paid 
 li}' him also took part in tho instruction. But in 
 reality avo know very little about these jnatters : it is 
 however, certain that some teachers had no school- 
 room at all, but sat out in tho street ^vith their 
 scholars — a thing which is only possible in th(.' sunny 
 South. Xo doubt these were only schools for the 
 jTOor, and the sons of rich parents did not attend 
 them. 
 
 The furniture of the schoolroom was doubtless 
 very simple. A music teacher sometimes set up in his 
 school statues of Apollo and the Muses, but he would 
 be well paid, and we nuist not expect to tind such 
 luxuries in the furniture of ordinary elementary 
 schools. Here probably, there was little more than 
 the benches for the boys, a seat for the master, and 
 some aids to teaching, such as we see hanging on 
 the walls on the few ancient monuments which intro- 
 duce us to Greek schoolrooms. (Compare Fig. 75.) 
 Among the requisites was a white board. It is not 
 proljable that the charts, used in the Roman period to 
 impress dates of mj-thology and history on the pupils' 
 minds b}- plastic re^iresentation, were already known 
 to Greek antiquity. The inaster supplied the ink 
 required for instructioir in writing : ^ve nray infer this 
 Ironi the fact that Aeschines, who as a boy used to 
 help his father, a schonlmaster, had to mix the ink 
 and sweep out the schoolroom. The salary •\\diich tlxe 
 master received for his instruction jjrobably depended 
 on his knowledge and aljility ; doubtless popirlar 
 teachers were well paid. But it was not a paying- 
 profession, fur it is not likely that the school fees, 
 usually ])aid inonthly, were high ; also negligent 
 i'athers (iften put off paying them for a long time ; 
 while stingy parents kept their chddren at liome 
 
EDUCATION. 105 
 
 during a month in which there were many h(jhda)-s, 
 in order to save tlie school fees. We must not as.sume 
 high culture in these elementary teachers, and we 
 
 find that the pupils feared their masters more than 
 they loved them, which is natural, seeing that they 
 seem to have made a freer use of canes and sticks 
 than our present pedagogic principles would permit. 
 Still we do not find any Greek pendant to Horace's 
 Plagosus Orhilius. 
 
10/] OREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Instruction usually began cavly in tlie morning' ; 
 we do not know how long it lasted, but there certainly 
 were lessons given in the afternoon ; an ordinance of 
 Solon's forbade their continuance after sunset. We 
 do not know how the elenientarj- and gymnastic 
 instruction were combined. There were plenty of 
 holidays, owing to the numerous feasts and festivals ; 
 there were also special school festivals, especially 
 those of the Muses for the grammar schools, and of 
 Hermes fV)r the gymnasia. 
 
 A very interesting picture b}' the vase painter 
 Duris, represented in Fig. 75, gives us, in spite of 
 some artistic liberties, an excellent idea of Attic 
 school teaching in the fifth century B.C. The scenes 
 are represented on the outside of a Ijowl ; on each 
 half five people are depicted : two masters, two pupils, 
 and an oldish man looking on. Tliis cannot, there- 
 fore, represent one of the ordinarj- schoolrooms, where 
 a single ma,ster instructs together a "wdiole class of 
 boj's, but each bo}' is being instructed by a separate 
 teacher. Perhaps this is a liljcrty on the part of the 
 painter, who has grouped together four separate 
 scenes, cjr else this individual instruction may really 
 have taken place even in the ]iulilic schools. j\Iasters 
 and pupils are dressed alike, wearing only the hima- 
 tion. It is hnportant, however, to remendjer what 
 was stated on page 20, that this dress on the monu- 
 ments l.iy no means corresponds to reality, and, as 
 a rule, the chiton cannot have been wantins- imder 
 the himation. The masters, some of whom are yoimg 
 and beardless, others more advanced in age, sit on 
 simple stools ; with the exception of one pupil, who is 
 learning the Ijvc, the boys stand upright before them, 
 lioth arms wrapped in their cloaks, as was considered 
 fitting for ^veil-bred youths. Of course, the boy with 
 
EDUCATION. 107 
 
 the lyre must have the upper part of his bod}'- free, 
 and his hiraation is folded over his knee. There is a 
 difference of opinion as to the two bearded men 
 leaning on their sticks, who are present at these 
 scenes, and attentively looking on ; it has been sug- 
 gested that they are paidagogoi, who have accom- 
 panied the boys to school, and are superintending 
 them during the instruction ; or else, on account of 
 the manner in which they are sitting, it has been 
 assumed that they are fathers or inspectors. 
 
 The subjects taught here all belong to musical 
 instruction (that is, instruction over which the Muses 
 preside), and are partly concerned with grammatical 
 teaching, partly with actual teaching of music. 
 On one side we see a young teacher playing the 
 double pipe, while the boy standing in front of him 
 listens attentively. It is usually assumed that the 
 boy is learning to play the flute, but then it is curious 
 that he has not an instrument in his own hands, like 
 the boy ivlio is learning the lyre ; for if he wished to 
 imitate what the teacher is showing him, he would 
 have to take the master's instrument. There is 
 something, therefore, to be said for the hypothesis 
 that the boy is learning to sing, and the master is 
 giving him on the flute the notes or the melody 
 which he has to sing. The scene on the right of this 
 represents instruction in wa-iting. The boy stands 
 in the same position as the other, before another 
 young teacher, who holds a triptt/cli. consisting of 
 three little folding tablets, open before him, and 
 has a pencil in his right hand. He is looking 
 attentively at the tablet, either correcting the boy's 
 writing or about himself to write a copy for the 
 pupil. On the other side of the picture we have, 
 on the left, musical instruction. Both master and 
 
lO.S CliEEK EIFE AT Ilo.ME. 
 
 pupil Imve scvcn-strin^ecl lyres in their hands ; 
 at the niiiiiient ^'presented the master seems to 
 be only showini;- the hoy how to grasp the chords by 
 the tinkers of the loft hand, and is making' no use of 
 the rod (ttXi]ktpov), which he holds in his right. The 
 boy, wlio sits bent forward, is trying to inntate the 
 master's action. Tlie last group represents a [)upil 
 who appears to be reciting a poem, the beginning of 
 which is written on the scroll which tlie master liolds 
 in his hand. 
 
 Various implements hang on the Avails of the 
 schooh'uom : at one side a roll of manuscript with a 
 handle ; next to it a writing tablet, with a C(.ird 
 fastened round it, and a handle ; next, a lyre 
 and a curi(ius cross, which is not easy to interpret ; 
 some think that it is meant for a sextant for the 
 geometrical instruction. On the other side hang two 
 drinking-cups, which the pu[)ils are probably allowed 
 to use during the intervals ; two seven-stringed lyres : 
 a liaskct with handle and feet, })robably used to con- 
 tain the manuscripts ; and finall}'", a case for a flute, 
 with the capsule for the )nouthpieces hanging to it. 
 
 We must now examine more closely the special 
 implements used in musical instruction, and the mode 
 in which that instruction was given. Elementary 
 knowledge of reading and writing was very common, 
 at an\' rate in Attica, and people who were un- 
 ac.fpiainteil "with either A\'ere even rarer in ancient 
 (ireece than in our own day. In the school of 
 the teacher «dio had charge of the boys' elementary 
 grammatical instruction (7pa/i/j,aTta-TJ/?), the boy was 
 probably first taught his letters, their names and 
 shapes, and very likely some external helps were 
 used for this ])ui'pose ; at aiiy rate, these were common 
 in later periods. The next process was combining the 
 
KDUCATIDX. 109 
 
 letters in syllables ; and thus gradually they advanced 
 to reading whole words. At the same time, probably, 
 instruction in writing began. The nnaster made 
 single letters and words for the pupds to copy in the 
 space left free under his lines, and probably helped 
 them a little by guiding their hands. The place of 
 our slate was taken by a wax tablet. This was a 
 wooden tablet covered with a thin coating of wax, 
 in which the letters were scratched with a pointed 
 stpe, made of bone, ivory, or metal ; the broad end 
 was used for flattening the wax when the slate 
 was full, and then it could be used again. There 
 were generally two, three, or more of these tablets 
 connected by hinges, and these were called (liptych, 
 tripfi/ch, etc. It was only more advanced pupils who 
 were allowed to use such expensive material as 
 papyrus and reeds for writing, and oven then, on 
 account of the expense, they were not provided with 
 new paper, but wrote on the back of what had 
 already been used. Chance has preserved to us, in a 
 discovery dating from the age of the Ptolemies, some 
 very interesting specimens of Greek instruction in 
 writing — several wax tablets, six inches long and four 
 inches broad, all containing the same Greek trimeter 
 verses, probably by Menander. The writing on one 
 of these tablets, which was probably the master's copy, 
 is good and careful ; that on the others, the pupils' 
 copies, is inferior. Under one the word " industrious " 
 has been written by the master's hand. But slight 
 demands seem to have been made on the pupils in 
 the matter of writing, and more stress was laid on 
 clearness than beauty or speed, since there were 
 always experienced slaves ready to do work of this 
 kind. 
 
 For reading lessons the poets were chiefly used. 
 
110 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 and tlieii- writiugs were inscribed in manuscripts 
 which were either rolled or folded. (Compare Fig. 
 75.) Homer was used as the school book of the 
 Greeks, from the earliest periods to the fall of the 
 Byzantine Empire, and his writings were read and 
 expounded, as well as other poems in various metres, 
 chiefly of a l^-rical character. The master then either 
 gave the boj's copies, which he had probably made 
 himself, or else, if they were already able to write, 
 dictated longish passages to them : the pupils also 
 had to learn a good deal biy heart. Many teachers 
 ])re]ia.rc(l aiithi.ilogics of various writers for reading 
 jnu-poses ; those especially were chosen which b)' 
 their contents wei'o well adapted for the reading of 
 youth, such as Hesi(.)d, Theognis, Phocyhdes, etc. 
 The boys thus, by their reading and learning, ac- 
 quired a knowledge of mytholi:)gy, while at the same 
 time the most important ethical principles were 
 impressed on them. We must be careful not to rate 
 too low the results of this instruction, however little 
 we may thinlc of tlie Athenian acquirements in the 
 meclianical arts of reading and writing. A pe< >ple wIk > 
 knew liDW to ap})reciate the tragedies of Ac.'schylus, 
 who could understand the comedies of Aristophanes, 
 with tlieir fulness of mythological, literary, and 
 political allusions, must have possessed a degree of 
 culture which in many respects \vas far above the 
 average of tin; present day. It was, of course, easier 
 for the pupils to acqm're a large amount of mytho- 
 logical and literary knowledge when there were so 
 few sul)jects to study ; since natural science, geography, 
 histor}', and foreign languages were all disregarded. 
 In reading, the elements of prosody were also learnt, 
 ;md these were more fully treated in the musical 
 instruction. 
 
EDUCATION. Ill 
 
 We are no longer in a position to state how 
 arithmetic, with whose practical uses the ancients 
 were naturally well acquainted, was taught ; but it is 
 probable that — at any rate at Athens — this instruction 
 was given at home and not at school, and was acquired 
 by children in play by means of concrete objects, 
 which enabled them to learn the principal notions 
 and relations. As regards method, counting on the 
 fingers was very common in Greece. The left hand 
 was used to represent all the units and tens, and 
 with the addition of the right hand all the hundreds 
 and thousands ; the mode in which a finger was 
 placed on the open palm and the number of the 
 fingers, which were either bent or stretched out, 
 determined the number required. More complicated 
 calculations were performed by help of an abacus 
 with little stones, an ancient invention Ions: known 
 to the Egyptians, in which the arrangement of the 
 stones in the parallel lines on the board determined 
 their value as units, tens, hundreds, etc. We do not, 
 however, know anything further about the arrange- 
 ment of the Greek abacus. 
 
 The instruction in these elementary subjects occu- 
 pied the first years of school life. In the twelfth or 
 thirteenth year the instruction in music began, and 
 was given by a special master called the harpist 
 {KtOapia-Tt]^), the Greeks regarding music not from 
 the standpoint of the modern amateur, as only a 
 pleasant distraction for hours of recreation, but rather 
 as an essential means of ethical development. The 
 main object of the instruction was not the attainment 
 of facility in execution on any instrument, but rather 
 ability to render as well as possible the productions 
 of the poets, especially the lyrists, and at the same 
 time to accompany themselves suitably on a seven- 
 
1!2 fJKEEK LIFE AT llnME. 
 
 Stringed instruinciit. Accordingly, niost weight was 
 given to the instruction in the lyre (which we see in 
 Fig. 75 in the hand of lioth teacher and piqiil), while 
 the cithara, on acroiint ni its louder soundincr-board, 
 as well as the phorniinx, which was connected with 
 it, if not, in fact, identical, were reserved for the use 
 of professionals, and were regarded as a kind of con- 
 cert instrument, and therefore learned sjiecially b}' 
 those win:) desired to attain something more than 
 average proficiency in music. No doubt there was 
 opptirtunity given in the ordinary schools for learning 
 both kinds of stringed instrument. The flute, which, 
 when used for purposes of accompaniment, could 
 natiu'ally not be played by the singer, was on this 
 account less popidar at Athens ; at Thebes, on the 
 other hand, it was universally popidar, and it has 
 been supposed that the neglect of the flute at ^Vthens 
 was due to the ancient antagonism between Attica 
 and Bocotia ; moreover, the flute, ■\\diich originally 
 belonged to the Bacchic worship of Asia ilinor, with 
 its sharp, shrill tone, was ren'arded as an excitinc 
 instrument, hostile to a calm state of mind, and 
 therefore the philosophers all agreed in considering it 
 unsuitable from a pedagogic point of view. We must 
 not forget that the Greek fiuto was very different 
 from that to which we give the name at the present 
 day, which is regarded as a somewhat sentimental, 
 effeminate instrument. There was, hdwever, a time 
 when Hute-playing was popular at Athens among 
 amateurs ; according to Aristotle, the flute was intro- 
 duced into Attic schools after the time of the Persian 
 Wars, and soon became so popular that almost all 
 the youths uf the Vietter classes learnt to play on it. 
 Afterwards, ho\\-ever, apparently about the time of 
 the Teloponnesian AVar, the)' recognised how very 
 
EDUCATION. 113 
 
 unsuitable tliis instrument was for intellectual and 
 musical development, and it was again discarded by 
 people of culture, probably in consequence of the 
 example set by Alcibiades, who was regarded as a 
 leader of fashion. Afterwards the flute was still 
 learnt, and on vase pictures we see flutists and 
 hetaerae playing it, as well as youths, but it was no 
 longer a subject of instruction in the ordinary 
 schools — at any rate, not at Athens. Naturally 
 Sparta carefully avoided an instrument which 
 was regarded as absolutely dangerous in its ethical 
 effect. 
 
 No musical instruction, besides the elemen- 
 tary subjects and playing on stringed instruments 
 and singing, was given at school during the best 
 period of Athens. Boys attended school until the 
 ao'e of adolescence : that is, about their sixteenth 
 year ; though it is not probable that there was a definite 
 limit of age ; those who wished to extend their educa- 
 tion had opportunities for doing so, even in the fifth 
 century, by attending the sophists' lectures. How- 
 ever, compared with the cheap fees of the elementary 
 schools, the honorarium paid to these by their pupils 
 was very high. There was no question of organised 
 school instruction. 
 
 In the course of the fourth and the third centuries 
 B.C. some other subjects of instruction were added to 
 these. After the time of Alexander the Great, 
 drawing was also taught to boys ; probably this 
 was due to the influence of Pamphilus, who was 
 the Principal of the Painting School of Sicyon. 
 The pupils learnt to draw with a style, or brush, 
 on boxwood tablets, specially prepared for the pur- 
 pose. As the school of Sicyon laid especial stress 
 on correct drawing, and appears to have been 
 I 
 
114 GREEK LIFE AT HOJIE. 
 
 rather bcliiiul the others in enlouring, we may 
 assuuie that the instruction in drawing was chiefly 
 confined to outhne, but we have few exact details 
 concerning it. 
 
 At tliat time instruction m the elements of 
 geometry was added to the teaching in arithmetic, 
 but only the older boys appear tti have learnt it. This 
 seems to have begun as earl}- as the iiftli century, but 
 Socrates thought it ought to be limited to what was 
 absolutely necessary. The philosophers of the fourth 
 century, however, recommended geometry as an ex- 
 cellent means for developing and sharpening the 
 intellect and logical powers. I'lato oven suggests 
 teaching boys in play not onlj- arithmetic and geo- 
 metry, but also the first principles of astronomy, and 
 afterwards continuing the study more seriously till 
 about their eighteenth }'ear. Astronomy, however, 
 would only signity to them what we now include 
 in mathematical geography. LLess educated people 
 had a decided prejudice against geometry and other 
 such abstract studies, on the groinid that they were 
 quite superfluous, since they were of no practical use 
 in after years, either fijr the purposes of private or 
 puljlic life ; and the opinion so often heard at the 
 present day prevailerl even then, that these subjects, 
 since they could not be practically applied in after 
 life, were onl}- leamt f jr the purpose of being forgotten 
 as soon as possible. ^^ 
 
 In this manner the granunatical and musical 
 instructiijii developed the intellect of the boys, while 
 gymnastic exercises were used to strengthen and train 
 their Ijodics. Although these did not occupy quite 
 so proniiiicnt a positii.m at Athens as in the iJorian 
 states, yet considerable time and attention iverc 
 devoted to them, since the real aim of all pedagogic 
 
EDUCATION. 115 
 
 efforts was supposed to be the harmonious develop- 
 ment of body and mind. It is not easy to determine 
 at what age the gymnastic training began ; wliat 
 Plato and Aristotle saj^ on the subject merely gives 
 the pedagogic opinion of these philosophers, but does 
 not refer to actual existing circumstances. Among 
 modern scholars some assume that both musical and 
 gymnastic instruction began with the seventh year, 
 and that from that time onwards boys went every day 
 to two distinct schools. Others suppose that gymnas- 
 tic instruction came first, but that at first the exercises 
 were easy ones, suited to the previous life of the child 
 and tending to strengthen his body, and that after- 
 wards the training in elementary subjects began. 
 We have too little information to pronounce a definite 
 opinion. ' fi 
 
 The buildings in which the boys received their 
 gymnastic training were not, as was formerly sup- 
 posed, the gymnasia, but the wrestling schools 
 (TraXala-Tpai) — a name given to these establishments 
 because wrestling and running were regarded as the 
 most important exercises in elementarjr gjuimastic 
 training. No doubt other gymnastic exercises were 
 practised at the wrestling school. (3f course, many 
 changes took place in the course of centuries till the 
 time of the Roman Empire, and therefore it is but 
 natural that very various opinions should prevail 
 about the wrestling school and the gymnasium. The 
 most probable theory is, that, at any rate at Athens 
 in its best period, the instruction in gymnastics was 
 given at the wrestling school, while the gymnasium 
 was used for the further training and development of 
 the youths. The wrestling school was not a public 
 institute, but a private undertaking conducted by a 
 teacher of gymnastics, who received a fee for the use 
 I 2 
 
116 (iKEEK LIFE AT ]1(IJIE. 
 
 of tliG liuikliiiL^- and the instruction given l>y liini. 
 These schools -wei-e xuider directors and managers 
 {TraiSoTpLjBai): the institutes nsually bore their names, 
 but the}' were sometimes calleil after the founder, 
 LilvC other luasters, they had a full disci})linary 
 right over their pupils ; but they were also subject 
 til the supervision of the inspectors mentioned above, 
 whose duty it was to see that nothing which oftcnded 
 against morality took place in the gymnastic insti- 
 tutes, and also that the mstruetion was methodical 
 and suited to the different ages. Eesides these 
 inspectors, no one else, except the paidagogoi who 
 accompanied their charges, was allowed to be present 
 at the instruction in the wrestling school : an ordi- 
 nance of Solon's forbade adnhssion to grown men, 
 but in later times this rule seems to have fallen 
 into disuse. 
 
 The gymnastic training had a doid)lc purpose ; in 
 the first place to teach the boj-s a modest and digni- 
 fied bearing (much as dancing is taught in the present 
 day), and in the second, which, of course, was most 
 important, to train them in the chief gymnastic exer- 
 cises. These were jumping, which included both the 
 high and long jump, for which piu-pose dundj-bells were 
 generally used; racing, throwing the cpioit and the 
 spear, and wrestling. Boxing was not included in the 
 instruction given to boys, nor yet the paiu-raiiuru, a 
 combination of wrestling and boxing, nor the -pen- 
 tiAflduTii, a ciindjination of tive exercises specially used 
 in athletic cuntests, and therefore not generally prac- 
 tised at the wresthng unless boys were to take part 
 in some public contest, in which case they might, of 
 course, lie prejiared here Ijef jrehund. ^Ve shall deal 
 later on in greater detail with the separate exercises, 
 and must therefore content ourselves for the present 
 
EDUCATION". 117 
 
 with merely enumerating tliem, since tlie exercises 
 of the boys only difiered in degree, but not in kind, 
 from those of the youths and men. 
 
 Such was the training given to the boys until 
 about their sixteenth year. This was, however, by no 
 means the end of their education, at any rate not for 
 boys of the better classes, who were not obliged to 
 follow any definite profession ; and the gymnastic 
 training extended for several years longer. The years 
 between adolescence and somewhere about the twen- 
 tieth year were generally called ephebeia; but besides 
 this expression we find a good many others, especially 
 in inscriptions, which prove that there were several 
 sub-divisions for the purposes of gymnastic exercises 
 and tests, made according to age ; in fact, they gener- 
 ally distinguished between a first, second, and third 
 class of ephehi. But there were other special names 
 in use. In ancient times the only distinction in the gym- 
 nastic tests was between boys and men, and the ephebi 
 were therefore included in the former class ; but after- 
 wards they distinguished between boys, youths, and men, 
 though these designations and their sub-divisions accord- 
 ino- to acre seem to have varied a cood deal accordino: 
 to time and place. In any case, we must distinguish 
 between the use of the term ephebus in the gymnastic 
 classes and in the State. For State purposes it was 
 not applied till the eighteenth or nineteenth year, and 
 the boy had then to take his oath as a citizen ; his 
 name was entered in the book of his dome, and he 
 received a warrior's shield and spear. Wlie oath taken 
 by the ephebi, composed by Solon, has been preserved 
 to us. The youth had to swear " Never to disgrace 
 his holy arms, never to forsake his comrade in the 
 ranks, but to fight for the holy temples and the 
 common welfare, alone or with others ; to leave his 
 
lis GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 ("•ountvv, not in a -worse, Imt in a liettcr state than he 
 found it ; to obey the magistrates and the laws, and 
 defend them against attaclc : tinally to hold in honour 
 the religion of his eountry.", Tlie witnesses to this 
 oath were, besides Zeus, a number of speeial Attic 
 local deities (_)f military or agrarian importance. 
 
 When a bov attained to the condition of ephebus 
 he discarded the hiniation and adopted the chlamys 
 as his characteristic dress. The hair, which Avas worn 
 long by boys, was cut short, and this act of cutting 
 the hair was a kind of religious ceremony, since the 
 hair cut off was often dedicated to some deity. This 
 holy ceremony, the iinpurtance of wliich we can best 
 understand if we imagine our modern rite of C'on- 
 tirmation combined with the attainment of majurity, 
 Avas TLsually celebrated as a festival in tin.' family 
 circle. The new ephebi, after taking their oath and 
 receiving their arms, were presented })ublic]y to the 
 })eople in the Theatre. This usually took place at 
 the festival of Dionysus, immediately before the pier- 
 formance of a tragedy. It is, ho\\-cver, ]iot ipiite 
 certain whether this introduction was confined to the 
 sons of those only who had fallen in battle, whose 
 equipment was presented to tliem fiy the State. This, 
 however, like most of the details which we have about 
 the ephebeia in Ancient flreece, refers specially to 
 Athens ; at Sparta and other places there were ctis- 
 toms, more or less different, of which we know little or 
 nothing. Moreover, at Athens, as well as in the rest 
 of CJreece and Asia ilinor, the tisage concerning 
 the eiiliebi underwent many chanuX'S durini;- the 
 Hellenistic pieriod and the Roman Empire. The 
 numerous inscriptions give ns far more exa,ct details 
 of this later period than of the best time ; but we 
 refrain from discussing tliem, since this institution, 
 
EDUCATION. 119 
 
 which originahy had an essentially warlike character, 
 gradually became a mere matter of form, and was 
 confined to the sons of rich citizens, who merely 
 played with the customs without regarding their 
 ethical or political importance. Most of the informa- 
 tion Avdiich the inscriptions supply about the officers 
 and teachers of the ephebi also belongs to the later 
 period ; a great many boards of management for the 
 arrangements concerning the ephebi, which became 
 more and more complicated, were either created fresh 
 or transformed out of the older ones, but their 
 importance and powers were entirely different. IMoro- 
 over, our purpose is to confine our attention to the 
 classical and Hellenistic period. 
 
 We mentioned above that the place where the 
 ephel.ii received their gymnastic instruction, or prac- 
 tised on their own account, was the gynmasium. 
 The gymnasia, of which every town possessed 
 one or more, were not, lilie the wrestlino' schools, 
 private undertakings on the part of gymnastic 
 teachers, but State institutions. At Athens the 
 two oldest institutions of the kind were the 
 Acaderfiy and the Cyaosargi:^, at the foot of the 
 Lycabettos, and in the time of Pericles the Lyceum 
 was added as a third ; the gymnasium of Ptolemy •ivas 
 not built till the Hellenistic period. The originally 
 simple structure and arrangement of these institutions 
 became in the course of centuries more com];)licated 
 and extensive ; and, though the first gynniasia -ivere 
 probably not more than simjjle halls supported by 
 columns, with a racecourse attached, in course of time 
 other rooms were added, and also baths, since the 
 gymnastic exercises rendered bathing immediately 
 afterwards absolutely necessary. At the tinre of 
 Plato a number of different rooms belonging to the 
 
120 OREEK LIFE AT HdilE. 
 
 g3'mnasia are mentioned, which show that even at 
 that tinii_i these nnist have been very extensive. Wo 
 cannot clearly tell, from the accounts of the Greek 
 writers, how these rooms were arranged and connected, 
 and the description given by ^'itruvius of a g)-mna- 
 sium is liut unsatisfactory, because in many points he 
 is not ck'ar in his expressions. Moreover, it does not 
 give a general scheme, but only a particular descrip- 
 tion, and this may not refer to his own period, as has 
 been generally assumed, siirce the Roman gymnasia 
 were on a far more com|ilicated plan than the one 
 described by A'itruvius, but rather to an earlier period, 
 thiiugh not the best. 
 
 A\'e are cnaliled to complete and correct the state- 
 ments of Vitruvius from the ruins of various gymnasia 
 in Asia ilinor and Greece, especially those of Perga- 
 nuim and <)l3'mpia. The description oH A'itruvius 
 connects the gyumasium and the wrestling school, 
 but we nuist distinguish this wrestling place, which 
 ^^•as a neci_'ssary part of the wdiolc plan of the gymna- 
 sium, from tliat mentioned above, which was only 
 used as a gymnastic sidiodl for boys. In the ]}lan 
 given by Yitruvius the centre is a square court with 
 covered arcades : connected with this are a s])ace for 
 the cphrlji, rooms f>r exercises with the vori/cus 
 (bii.xing Ki\\\ a dunmiy), fjr anointing, sprinkling wutli 
 dust or sand prcvinus to wrestling, bath-rooms for hot 
 and cold liatlis, etc. : further, in connection with these 
 principal buildings there are covered racecourses, with 
 levelled floors, gardens, and places for exercise, for 
 rest, exedrae, etc. The arrairgements of the gyuma- 
 sium at Olympia, which probal)ly dates from the end 
 of the fourth or the beginning of the third century 
 H.c, seem to have been simpler. AA"o can distinguish 
 two separate buildings — a smaller one, the actual 
 
EDUCATION 121 
 
 palaestra, which has been ahnost enthcly uncovered ; 
 and a larger, the large gymnasium, of which only a 
 little has been excavated. Both lie close together, west 
 of the sacred grove of Altis, near the banks of the 
 Kladeos; it was, in fact, veiy common to place the 
 gymnasia near running water, in order to have at 
 hand the water so necessary for the baths. We do not, 
 however, find any trace of those complicated bathing 
 arrangements described by Vitruvius, and probably 
 they did not become common till the Roman period. 
 In the wrestling school of Olympia we can only trace 
 one large bath, but still it is possible that there were 
 more extensive arrangements in the larger gymnasium. 
 The wrestling school itself is a square, the sides of 
 which measure about sixty- four yards each, surrounded 
 with Doric arcades ; on the south there is a long hall 
 in the Ionic style; on the three other sides are also 
 halls and little rooms, the purpose of which we cannot 
 determine, connected with the inner court by doors or 
 porticoes ; on the north wall is the door connecting it 
 with the south hall of the larger gymnasium. This 
 latter was separated from the wrestling place, though, 
 as a rule, this is an integral part, or even the centre of 
 the whole structure ; it is oblong in form, and is sur- 
 rounded by arcades on two or three sides. The 
 eastern hall extends to the length of 2101 yards. No 
 doubt the exercises in jumping, running, throwing the 
 quoit and spear, took place here. The best-preserved 
 ruins are those of Ephesus and Alexandria Troas, but 
 even here we are obliged to be very arbitrary in our 
 attempts at reconstruction. 
 
 In any case it is certain that the gymnasia of the 
 classic period gave sufficient opportunity for different 
 kinds of gymnastic exercises, as well as for wrestling 
 and the various contests, and also supplied places for 
 
122 GREEK LIFE AT HOME, 
 
 recreation .and comfortable repose from the fatigues of 
 pliysical exertion. The supcrinteudence of tlie youths 
 ^\■ho practised here, and the maintaining of order were 
 tlie duty of the G!imraif<iarc]is. They had the right 
 of disciphne, wliich they could exercise on any visitor 
 to the g^-nmasium, and in token of this tliey earri(Kl a 
 rod ; thus vc often see on vase pictures, among the 
 gynmasts, men with long sticks, probably meant to 
 represent the gyumasiarchs. In the oldm- period 
 at Athens there was but one gynmasiareh, but 
 afterwards several shared the dignity. We cannot 
 decide Imw far the)- also exercised a right of con- 
 .trol i>\-rr the wrestlino-- schools. Besides the gymnasi- 
 arch, or perhaps below him, was a board of ofKcials 
 ^\diose duty it was to see to the preservati<.>n ot the 
 buildings and of the im})lements used in the g3'nmasia, 
 while the general superintendence of the gymnastic 
 exercises, and therefore also of the gynuiasia, was 
 exercised by the superintendents mentioned al;>(.)ve 
 (page 11-")), and, as a rule, men somewhat advanced in 
 years were chosen for these posts. 
 
 There were other offic.irds who were not so much 
 concerned with the external ari'aiig(,'ments of the 
 gymnasia as -with the instruction given there. The 
 president of the gymnasium and head of the teachers 
 {KoajMi}T>]i) is not mentioned until the Lite Hellenic 
 and Itoman periixls ; under liiin were the actual 
 teachers and also tliose wdio instructed the ephebi in 
 granmiar, rhetoric, and philosophy ; but in the classic 
 ]3criod no instruction of this kind was given. At that 
 time, however, we hud the trainer {'yvfiracrTt']^;) acting as 
 gymnastic teacher to the older youths, whose aim was 
 to pre^Jare themselves for athletic contests, and ^\■}\o iji- 
 tcnded to enter the lists as professional athletes. As 
 boj's were sometimes prepared for such contt^sts, no 
 
EDUCATION. 123 
 
 doubt tlic trainer sometimes took the place of the 
 ordinary teacher ; and again, on the other hand, a 
 competent gymnastic master sometimes undertook 
 the training of athletes. Generally speaking, how- 
 ever, in the older period this distinction was main- 
 tained, that the boys' teacher was concerned chiefly 
 with the general training of the body suitable for 
 everyone, and wrestling on a rational and hygienic 
 basis, while the trainer was a professional teacher, 
 and was more concerned with special subjects than 
 the general harmonious development of the body. 
 Below these teachers stood the ruljber (uXetTTT;;?), 
 Avhose task was originally a purely mechanical one, 
 but gradually when anointing and rubbing carne to be 
 regarded from the hygienic point of view, and were 
 perhaps connected with a kind of onassage, his stand- 
 ing improved, and after a time he took a far more 
 important position than belonged to him of right. 
 
 In spite of the numerous allusions to the instruc- 
 tion of the cphebi which have come down to us, there 
 is a good deal that is still doubtful or unexplained ; 
 as, for instance, in how far the trainer also in- 
 structed those ephebi who were not in training for 
 the contests, and whether they were paid for their 
 services by the State or by each pupil individual!)'. 
 Afterwards, at any rate, the ephebi as a rule only 
 paid a fee to the teacher for musical instruction, 
 while the gymnastic teacher seems to have been paid 
 by the State. 
 
 As for the subjects of gj-mnastic instruction, these 
 were in part the same as those in which the boys had 
 already been trained in the gymnastic school, but 
 gradually becoming more difficult, while others were 
 added to them which were usually excluded from the 
 wrestling school — namely, boxing, pancratium, and 
 
124 GKEEK LIFE AT lUmE. 
 
 pcntatbluni. Jjcsidcs these there Avas fencing with 
 heavy weapons (oTrXofiaxtO') ; tlio fencing was not 
 properly connected with the exercises of the 
 gymnastic tests, bnt it formed an important part 
 of the military education of tlie ephebi, and was 
 the more important for these because, wlien tliey 
 attained their majority as citizens, they liad to 
 spend several years in a kind of garrison and frontier 
 service {TrepiiroXoL). This was a training for military 
 service which the ephebi, like all other citizens 
 capable of bearing arms, had to perform from 
 their twentieth year upwards, and they generally 
 served the State for two years before in the manner 
 above mentioned. Methodical instruction in fencing 
 Avas originally rather loiiked down upon, but still was 
 accepted in the curriculum of the ephebi, and in the 
 inscriptions the fencing-master (o7rXo/xa;i(;os') has a 
 regular place beside the other masters. Plato also 
 recommends fencing as strengthening for the body 
 and usefid in case of war, but he warns people to 
 avoid all display and professionalism. 
 
 In the course of time other exercises in arms were 
 added. Throwing the spear was part of the regular 
 gyrunastic training practised even Ijy bo)-s ; and in 
 manjr inscriptions of the last three centuries B.C. 
 mention is made of special teachers {aKovTiaTat). 
 Shooting ^\\i\i bow and arrows Avas also learnt, and a 
 teacher for this is mentioned in these inscriptions, 
 as Avell as one who gave instruction in huiilng and in 
 the use of machines for throwing. Probably these 
 purely military exercises were not part of the regular 
 gynmastic curriculum. The same may be said of 
 riding. Every youth had to learn riding, for he had to 
 perform his frontier service on horseback ; and at the 
 great festivals, especially the Panathenaea, the troops 
 
EDUCATION". 
 
 125 
 
 J( 
 
 of ephobi on horseback formed one of the most con- 
 spicuous parts of the procession, and, indeed, they 
 occupy the greater part of the relief on the Parthenon 
 frieze. Fig-. 76, taken fronr a vase painting, represents 
 ephebi racing on horseback ; on _ 
 
 the left stands a column, no doubt 
 marking the limit of the course. 
 In fact, representations on vase 
 paintings of ephebi on horseback 
 are very common. Still we cannot 
 assume that regular methodical 
 instruction in riding was given in 
 the older period, at any rate not as 
 part of the instruction of youths, 
 though even in the time of Plato 
 there were riding-masters who 
 seem to have understood how to 
 deal with difficult horses. At a 
 later period the president seems 
 to have occupied himself with in- 
 struction in riding, but we know 
 no details about this. The Greeks 
 used neither horse-shoes nor stir- 
 rups, therefore, unless some stone 
 for nrounting happened to be at 
 hand, they had to jump on to their 
 horses, and this they usually did 
 with the help of their lances ; 
 saddles were also unknown, but horse-cloths were 
 generally used, and though on the Parthenon frieze 
 and the vase pictures we see the ephebi riding 
 without these, we must regard this as an artistic 
 license, like the absence of the chiton on the 
 same pictures. To ride thus in a procession, clad 
 merely in the chlamys, without any under garment. 
 
126 GREEK- LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 on a liorsc without a saddle, would appear a very doubt- 
 ful pleasure even to the most hardened Athenian youths. 
 
 As regards the other exercises not directly in- 
 cluded in gynuiastics, we may state that swimming 
 was practised from earliest youth, and was regarded 
 as indispensable for everyone, so that it was [iroverbi- 
 ally said of an absolutely uneducated person that he 
 could neither swim nor say his alphabet. "Jdie most 
 celebrated swimmers were the inhabitants of the 
 island of Delos, but the Athenians were also distin- 
 guished. There were no special swhnming masters ; 
 children learnt to swim by themselves or were in- 
 structed by their fathers. 
 
 Inscriiitions also tell us that the Attic epliebi 
 every year made expeditions by sea from the Poiraeus 
 to the harliour of ]\lunychia, and in later times also 
 to Salamis, and these apparently partook of the 
 natiu-e of a regatta. Connected with these, even in 
 the Hellenistic period, were naval contests, so that at 
 that time the ephebi must have had some knowledge 
 of the elements of seafaring, unless these sea-fights 
 bore the character of naval games, and were con- 
 ducted rather for amusement than for serious military 
 pTU'|Miscs : and this is the more probable as at that 
 period, when Athens had long ago lost its political 
 importance, actual preparations for naval warfare had 
 no s]iecial aim for 3'oung Athenians. 
 
 Finally thr-re ■were, even in the earlier centuries, 
 exercises in marching in tlie neighbouring country. 
 These were partly connected ^vith the military posi- 
 tion of the ephebi as protectors of the frontier, and 
 they partly auiied at extending their knowledge of 
 localities as well as givini'' vtractice in mandiint;' and 
 riding. As they sometimes had to march out in 
 heavy armour, and generally bivouacked in hastily- 
 
EDUCATION. 127 
 
 pitched tents, sometimes even in tlio open air, tlieso 
 marches supplied an excellent opportunity for growing 
 accustomed to the fatigues of military life. It is clear 
 from all this that the instruction of the ephebi bore 
 a half-gymnastic, half-military character, and thus 
 chiefly aimed at physical development ; yet, on the 
 other hand, many opportunities were given the young 
 men for further intellectual development. Wo 
 cannot, of course, determine whether the ma,jority 
 of them took advantage of this, for undoubtedly it 
 was optional, and not immediately connected with 
 their necessary training. However, in the second 
 century B.C. the custom prevailed of letting the presi- 
 dents of the various gynmasia at Athens see that they 
 were regularly attended. 
 
 As regards the subjects of this more advanced 
 instruction, opportunity was certainly given for 
 further study in arithmetic, geometry, and astron- 
 omy, as well as music and drawing. After the 
 fourth century the various schools of philosophy 
 which arose at that time, began to take a very 
 important place in the intellectual development of 
 these youths. As early as the fifth century the 
 Sophists gave instruction to young and older men for 
 payment ; but after the time of Plato the higher 
 instruction was regularly organised and also given 
 free of charge, and from this time forward it was 
 closely connected with the training of the ephebi, 
 since the gymnasia destined for gymnastic teaching 
 were also used for instruction in philosophy. Plato 
 and his school taught, as is well known, in the 
 Academy ; Aristotle and the Peripatetics in the 
 Lyceum ; and Antisthenes and the C^-nic school in 
 the Cynosarges ; the Stoics also originally taught at 
 the Lyceum, but afterwards in the litria Poikile (the 
 
128 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 "|>:iintcd porticd") near the old A<jo/-a; at Athens 
 tmly tlie Epicurean school was not connected with 
 any existiny gynmasinm. This connection, however, 
 liet.ween these schools and the gymnasia was merely 
 an external one, and really meant that the gromid 
 and gardens belonging to them were situated in the 
 domain of these special gymnasia. However, the fact 
 that the schools possessed a fixed place under the 
 direction of the head for the time being did very 
 mucli to establish their stability. Wo must not 
 regard these philosophical schools as higher schools 
 in the modern sense; though each school had a head 
 -wdio had the management in his own hands, and at 
 his death appointed a successor, j^et there was no 
 tpiestion of an organised scheme of studies or of 
 instruction regularly occupying certain liours of the 
 da\-, ov, indeed, of any of the conditions wdii(/h could 
 be compared with our modern universities, at an}' 
 rate not before the period of the Ixoman Empire. In 
 the fourth century and in the Hellenistic period the 
 instruction uiercly consisted in a discourse given by 
 the head, or a disputation with his scholars, by means 
 (jf which the vari(jus branches of philosophy and ethics 
 ^vere treated. Practical instruction in rhetoric was 
 also given, sometimes by pliilosophers, but ofteuer by 
 celebrated rhetoricians, such as Lsocrates, and this 
 training lasted several years. Very often young men 
 pre[iared themselves in this way for their future 
 can/er as statesmen or lawyers; and in the Hellenistic 
 period the study of philological grammar began to 
 gain importance, espec-ially in the schools of Alex- 
 andria., Pergamum, and Antioch, to which places cele- 
 brated teachers attracted numerous pupils. These 
 stu(Ues were in no way connected with the regular 
 training of epliebi. 
 
f/ EDUCATIOX, 129 
 
 Generall}^ speaking, we may say tliat the main 
 object of the education of the youths in the best period 
 of Greek antiquity was to train a citizen, capable in 
 body and mind, who should be able to servo his 
 country as well in war as in peace, in a public as in a 
 private capacity, while all special development of any 
 branch of learning, except, of course, the gynniastic 
 element, was excluded. This is the more comprehen- 
 sible since Greek antiquity was unacquainted with the 
 higher professions in our sense of the word, v^ 
 
 There is far less to be said about the education of 
 girls, since no regular instruction was gi^'cn. The 
 sphere to which women were confined in all the Greek 
 states was the household, and their position, especially 
 in the Ionic states, was so distinctly a subordinate one 
 that it was not considered desirable to give them also 
 regular teaching. In consequence there were no girls' 
 schools ; girls belonging to the better classes were 
 taught a little reading and writing by their mothers 
 or nurses — the women of the lower classes did not 
 learn even this — and, with the addition of some super- 
 ficial knowledge of religion and mythology, such as 
 could be accjuired from stories or by reading the 
 poets, this constituted all the intellectual develop- 
 ment which fell to the lot of the girls. Sometimes a 
 little musical instruction was also given, and even in 
 -the Ionic states there were some exceptions, since we 
 hear of women of higher intellectual development. 
 As a rule, it was only the hetaerae, whose freer inter- 
 course with men enabled them to gain from them 
 more extensive literary culture ; and as a consecpience 
 we find that even men of high intellectual powers 
 enjoyed intercourse with these women, and that at 
 Athens, at any rate, the men who desired the stiuudus 
 of intercourse with intellectual women, were bound to 
 J 
 
130 (;reek life at home. 
 
 si'ck it t'rdiii tliis class. 'Yhv fault was, of courso, their 
 own, siiifr the S('nii-(.)i-ii'ntal .system of shutting oft' 
 wouicu from tlie outer \V(irlil ajul det^-rading them 
 into mere uianagers of the housrhokl, necessarily 
 lowered the average eulture of women. Still, it some- 
 time.s happeneil that a man who had married a young 
 open-minded girl eontrived to raise her up intellec- 
 tually to himself, and to develop her piowers, as 
 Xenophon lias shown in his (J'lkirnviiilko-K. 
 
 On the other hand, (.ireek women appear to have 
 heen expt'rieneed in feminine arts — such as spinning 
 and weaving, sewing and end)roiilery, accomplish- 
 ments which they certainly learnt from their mothers 
 and nurses. No regular instruction was given in 
 them, or in cooking, an art with which (jreek women 
 were inidoubtedly well ac([nainted. This system of 
 educating girls did not, however, meet with general 
 a]ipro\'al, for we find that Plato, in his " Laws," ]3re- 
 scribes regular school instruction for girls in the 
 subjects required for women, and also musical and 
 even gynmastic training. These principles were, 
 however, never practically realised at Athens, though 
 elsewhere the conditions may have been different, 
 since an inscription from Tt'os of somewhat late date 
 makes express mention of instruction given in eonnnon 
 to bo)-s and girls. 
 
 It was a natural consecpience of the very different 
 position occupied by Avomen at Athens and Sparta, 
 that tho latter had a very different educatioii from 
 the Athenian women. Though the young Spartan 
 maidens did not, like the boys, associate together in 
 (.■lubs, but remained A\-itli their families, yet the State 
 took cognisance of these also, and especially prescribed 
 for them gynma,sti(_', training, which was in essentials 
 the same as that given to the boys, though with 
 
Fio. 77. 
 
 J 2 
 
1.32 (UiEEK ].IFi: AT HOME. 
 
 (■iirrrspiindiiiL;' iiinilirii'iitioiis, in cirilrr tn (lo\"ol(i|) and 
 strrn^thrn tln'ii' Imdirs. (.)t' cunrsr, tlioy had their 
 <nni spoi.-ial schools for this pur}iosr, (hstinet from 
 those of the hoys, wlii_'ro tlioy were instructed in 
 i-uniiini;-, junipinn', wresrhny, throwini;' the spear and 
 (pioit, as well as in several exercises in running ami 
 springiuLC, wliicli were partly of a, niilitar\- eliaracter, 
 parth' allied with dancing. For this pnr}»jse they 
 wore a special di-ess : Fig. 77 shows us a female racer 
 from Elis. The statue which is in the \'atican is in 
 tlie ancient style, and re])resents a robust girl clad in ' 
 a short chiton, with a girdle descending only a little 
 wav below the hii>s, and leaviuL!' the right breast 
 exjiosed. This special dress used fir gymnastic exer- 
 cises must not, however, be confused with that in 
 which the Spartan ladies usually appeared, though 
 this, too, as already stated (page 41), differed from the 
 ordinai-y dress of (ireek girls. In sjnte, however, of 
 this dress, and of the fact that 3-ouths and maidens, 
 who in the .Fonic states scarcely ever met each other 
 excejit at religious festivals, were firought into frequent 
 contact atSpai'ta, especially at publie contests, games, 
 choruses, etc., the Spartan womc-n bore an imstained 
 reputation. The system of physical ex(.a'cises pro- 
 duced healthy wojiieii, strongly built, with Ijlooming 
 complexions; and it also implanted and developed in 
 them the manly and determined spirit for which the 
 Laconian women and mothers ^\•ere distinguished. 
 Yet, even at Sparta, th(jre was no ipiestion of intel- 
 lectual training tor the girls ; and, inileed, as we have 
 ali-eady seen, even in the case of the boys, it was re- 
 garded as far less important than physical education. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 :\rARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 Love amongst the Greeks — Engagements— Jlurriage Kites and Cere- 
 monies — The Laconian Custom— Marriage in the Doric States — 
 The Mode of Life of the Atlienian Women— Tlieir Personal 
 Habits— The Hclun;,,-. 
 
 The boj^liood of the young Athenian was occupied 
 by school and ]jlay ; his yonth was spent in 
 gynmastic exercises, and sometimes also in scientific 
 studies and military labours. When he attained his 
 majority as a citizen, ho acquired the right of ex- 
 ercising his political and ciA'ic duties, taking part 
 in popular assemblies and other public gatherings ; 
 but apparently the young people did not make nmch 
 use of these privileges when they first entered on 
 their political majority. Besides these oi/cupations 
 there were many others to draw them away from 
 serious duties : pleasant intercourse with companions, 
 drinking bouts, and also the charnrs of pretty hetaerae, 
 who were easily won to regard with favour anyone 
 possessing a tolerably well-filled purse. And this was 
 all the compensation they had for exclusion from the 
 society of the daughters of citizens ; for, with the 
 exception of the hetaerae, and the flute and cithara 
 jjlayers who performed at the banquets, women 
 played no part in social intercourse at Athens. There 
 were but few occasions when the girls left the close 
 confinement of the women's apartments for an}^ kind 
 of publicity, and this custom, which resembled the 
 Oriental, and was probably introduced by the Ionic 
 
134 nUEEK LIFE AT IloME. 
 
 Greeks from Asia Minor, while the ] loric practice 
 was ^■er\' dirt'erriir, caused one of the t^i-catest wants 
 nf Attii- lil'r. Tliis is la'uu^'ht foi'ribly before ns in 
 the eonieiHfs of the fourtli century, the so-called 
 '■ New Attic Comedy," in which the Ijasis was usually 
 a Icvc stor\-, ^vhii-h oiu- modern ideas would regard as 
 ]iurelv sensual, <>r even iuuiioral ; while leve, in the 
 best sense of the 'word, is ni'ver re[:)resented. We 
 luust not, on this aeeount, su}>pose that the (irecks 
 Were entirelv unacijuainteil with tliat kind of affection 
 "which is liased on real inclination, similarity of mind, 
 and recoe-nition cf intellectual A'irtncs ; in fact, the 
 contrast often emphasised l.>y ]ioets and artists he- 
 twet'U A [ill luiil itc Urdu III, as the type of lieaA'cnly 
 intellectual love, and Ajili roil ih- Pn inhnniiK, as that of 
 sensuous love, must convince us of the contrary: 
 while (ireek literature also sup[ilies manv examples 
 of pure lo\-e in the truest sense of the \vord, though a 
 strong admixture of the sensuous element was natural, 
 even here, to a passionate southern race. 
 
 It was, however, quite unusual ii.ir such attacll- 
 ment to bi'gin before marriage.', since o])portunities for 
 tliis were wanting. iJut often, in spite of the conven- 
 tional mod(; b\' ^\hich mari'iagcs were arranged, this 
 attaidiment was d(_'veli:)]ied after marriage, and wo 
 nuist not fall into the mistake of judging married 
 life in CJreece, or especially at Atliens, only from 
 tlie greatlv exaggerated ilescriptions of Aristophanes, 
 or the sarcastic tirades of misogynists like Eiuipides. 
 The gn.'at majority of the wonren were not so sitper- 
 ficial or so qnaii'elsonie as these ])oets have represented 
 them, nor the young men, as a rule, so vicious or hostile 
 to niarriag(.' as they are depicted in the niaif>rity of 
 tlic Xe"w Attic ( 'omcdies. 
 
 It is true cnougli, of course, that marriae-e was 
 
marria(;e and womex. 135 
 
 usually a matter of contract between the fathers or 
 guartlians of the young pair, and not the consequence 
 of affection between the youth and niaiden ; and this it 
 is whicli we see in the comedies of Plautus and Terence, 
 who copied Greek originals. Very often tlie fathers 
 agreed to a marria<}-e between their children ; sometimes 
 the arrangements were made by a woniiin(7rpo/j.v7jaTpla) 
 acquainted with the circumstances of the citizens' 
 families, who made a kind of liusiness of arranging 
 marriages. An important point was equality of for- 
 tune ; of course, both parties had to be full citizens, 
 but degrees of relationship do not seem to have been 
 any hindrance. The girl's consent was not asked at 
 all ; it was a matter of course that she should accept 
 the husband chosen by her parents, and, as she had 
 no other male acquaintances, objections can very 
 seldom have Ijeen made. Generally she was only 
 acquainted with the husband destined for her l>y 
 seeing him hastily on her ivalks or at festi^•als. The 
 destined bridegroom is more likeh' to have made 
 objections if the appointed bride did not please him ; 
 yet here, too, as a rule, the father could have his wa}-, 
 since his son was entirely in his power, unless it so 
 happened that he earned his own living b}^ any pro- 
 fession, which was seldoin the case among the better 
 classes. The fathers or guardians then concluded the 
 contract of engagement, in which the bride's dowry 
 was fixed and special arrangements made for com- 
 niunity of goods, return of the dowry in case of a 
 divorce, etc. The Homeric custom, b}^ which it was 
 the bridesrroom who liroui'-ht gifts in order to win a 
 bride, while the father gave his daughter to the one 
 who promised the rich(.'st liridal presents, had early 
 falleninto disuse, and probably even in the heroic period 
 it was only customary arnong nolde families. In the 
 
l;!(j (IliElCK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 historic, pcriiid ;i dnwiy was vi^garded us an iiidis- 
 ponsalilr l.iasis fur iiiaiTiai;e : snimieh so that dani^hters 
 or sisters df poor citizriis were Kt'teii ciidowi.'d at the 
 expense nf n'enerniis friends, cir poijr orphan yirls by 
 their L;-nar(hans ; sometimes the State even yuA'C a 
 diiwrv to tlie danyhtcrs of citizens who liad deserved 
 well of their eonntr\'. The eno-:iL;'emi;nt itself was, as 
 a rnle, a Ic^-al ai-t, which followed the private agix-e- 
 inent het ween the fathers, and was considi.'red an 
 essential preliminary to a le,L;'al niarria,L;'e ; it was not, 
 howevi'r, a general custom to eclelirate this act in a 
 social manner by a liaiiipiet. As is usual in southern 
 countries, the girls married very )-onng, sometimes 
 even at the ago <:)f fifteen, or earlier: hut the period 
 between their sixteenth and twentic'th years was 
 probably the usual one for marriage. There seems to 
 have been no distinct limit of age for men, but 
 proliablv the 3'ears lietweeii twenty and thirty were 
 those in which most of them entered the married 
 state. We do not know how long a jieriod usually 
 elapsed bctwi.'en the i.'ngagement and the marriage; 
 ]>robably there was no definite custom, l.iut ^v(i know 
 that very often the wedding iuniiediatelv follo-weil the 
 (.ngagt'ment. We are likewise luiahle to say whi.'ther, 
 in tlie case of a hirig engagement, tin.' bride and bride- 
 gi'oom hail any opportunities fir meeting each other. 
 The actual wedding usually took place in the winter, 
 and a favourite time was tlie month (hrttidioii (the 
 end of Januiuy ami liegiiming of Feljruary), which 
 hence received its name. Certain days regarded as 
 auspicious were generally chosen, and the waning 
 moon was sp(.'ciully aA^oided. It is c-urious, when we 
 compare riur owti ami the Itoman customs, to note 
 that, though the wedding received a religious charac- 
 ter by sai;-rifices and cjtfier solemn ceremonies, it was 
 
ji.vi-iKiAUJi ANjj wo:\iEX. 137 
 
 not of itself regarded as a religious or legal act. The 
 legality of the marriage depended on the engagement, 
 and the religious consecration was not given by a 
 priest (who took no part, as a rule, in the wedding 
 ceremony), but by the marriage gods, who wei-e involved 
 by pra}-er and sacrifice, more especially Zeus and Hera, 
 Apollo, Artemis, and Peitho, the goddess of persua- 
 sion. We must now endeavour to form an idea of 
 an Athenian wedding ceremon}-, as described by 
 Greek writers. 
 
 Among the ceremonies bearing a religious 
 character which preceded the wedding, an important 
 part was played b}^ the bath. Both bride and bride- 
 groom took a bath either on the morning of the 
 wedding-day or the day before, for wdiich the "water 
 was brought from a river or from some spring 
 regarded as specially sacred, as at Athens the 
 spring CalliHioe (or Enneacrunos), at Thebes the 
 Ismenus ; and this water had to be fetched by a 
 boy who was some near relation ; sometimes, however, 
 we hear of maidens sent to fetch it. The Ijride also 
 offered liljations and gifts — as, for instance, her toys, 
 locks of hair, and the like — to one of the marrias'e 
 goddesses. More important was the sacrifice generally 
 celebrated on the wedding-day, but we know few 
 details about the mode of its performance. It was 
 offered to the marriage deities mentioned above, 
 either to all collectively or singly ; the families of 
 both bridegroom and bride took part in the ceremony. 
 We do not know of any special directions as to the 
 animals to be sacrificed ; it appears to have been the 
 custom to remove the gall of the victim, and not burn 
 it with the rest of the inner parts, and this was sup- 
 posed to indicate symbolically that all bitterness must 
 be absent from marriage. 
 
l.'i.S (HiKEK LIFE AT IKiME. 
 
 Mdst sacritices coiineetcd with the slaii^u'litcriii,^' of 
 aniiiiiils were fullowLMl ]>y n trstive Lancinet, at Avliieli 
 the tii'sli of the vietiuis eonstitiited the piiiicipal dish, 
 and thus the WL'ddin^' sacrifice also was foUowcd h)' a. 
 feast, which -was ,L;cneraUy hekl at the house of the 
 bride's fatlier. As this nnist, acconhny to custom, 
 ha^•e taken place in the afternoon, we nia}- assume 
 that the other wedchni;- ceremonies had been per- 
 formed in the mornini;-. The wedding' hanipiet Avas 
 one of the few occasions wlien men and wonu^n (hned 
 together : this generally occurred only in luost inti- 
 mate famil}- circles, Imt not wdien guests were present. 
 The luxury of these wedding bantjuets seems to have 
 increased so much that the State was at last obliged 
 to limit the numlier of guests by law. I'lato would 
 not have allowed husband and wife to invite more 
 tlian tiA-e friends and five relations each — that is, twenty 
 in all — on any oecasiiin, whether a wedding or other- 
 wise ; and a statute i>f the fom-th century Ji.C. makes 
 tliirtv the maximum limit for weddings, and in- 
 structs the officials -who had charge nf the women 
 i'^/vvaitcovofjLOL) to see that this rule is not infringed ; 
 and they seem to haA'e carried out their office so 
 strictly that on the.se occasions they often entered the 
 house, counted the guests, and turned out all who 
 exceeded the legal nuiidjcr. At the lianquct, as well 
 as at the sacritiei.' which preceded it, the bride 
 appeared in all her liridal adornments. Some female 
 relation or friend wlio took the p)art of aniodern lirides- 
 niaid (vvtM(pevTi>la) undertook to deck the bride and 
 anoint her witli costlj- essences, and dress her in 
 clothes of som(_; tine, probably coloured, material, 
 while special shoes, ribljons, and flowers in the hair 
 ^v^■vr regarded as important, as well as the veil, which 
 was the special mark of the f)ride, and covered the 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 139 
 
 head, falling low down and partly covering the face. 
 The hridegrooni, too, appeared in a festive white dress, 
 which differed from his ordinary clothing chiefly by the 
 fineness of material ; he, too, wore a wreath, as did all 
 the other guests at the banquet ; but special flowers, 
 supposed to be of fortiinate omen, were worn by the 
 bride and bridegroom. We do not hear of any special 
 dishes supplied at weddings, but cakes, to which the 
 Greeks assigned a sj-mbolical connection with festive 
 occasions, played an important part, and in particular 
 cakes of sesame found a place at the wedding banquet. 
 A special custom peculiar to Athens was for a boy, both 
 of whose parents jnust be alive, to go round wreathed 
 with hawthorn or acorns carrying a basket of cakes, 
 singing, " I fled from misfortune, I found a better 
 lot." 
 
 When the banquet was concluded, according to 
 custom, by libation and praj'crs, and the night began 
 to set in, the bride was conducted home to the house 
 of the bridegroom. It was only among verj^ poor 
 people that the bride went on foot in this procession ; 
 if it was at all possible, she took her place between 
 the bridegroom and the groomsman {7rapavvfx.(f>o^ or 
 Trdpo~)(o^), who was a near relation or intimate friend 
 of the bridegroom, in a carriage drawn by oxen or 
 horses. All the other persons who took part in the 
 procession — that is, all who had been at the banquet, 
 and probably many others as Avell — went on foot 
 behind the carriage to the sound of harps and flutes, 
 while one went on in front as leader. The bride's 
 mother occujjied the \)Vmb of honour in the pro- 
 cession, carrying in her hand the bridal torches, 
 kindled at the family hearth, and thus the bride toi:)k 
 the sacred fire of her home to her new dwelling. Un 
 this account the ancients represL'nted the god of 
 
140 (iREEK LIKE AT HOME. 
 
 Marriage, Hviiicn, with a ton-h as symbol. If otliei- 
 memliers of the |iroi-essii)n also carricil torches, that 
 was (inl\- in aeeonlancc with tho. fiistoiii of using- 
 them when going c>nt in the evening; it was only the 
 torches of the briile's mother that had any syniliolical 
 meaning. ^leantimc the brides attendants sang a 
 bridal Sling, while the procession moved through the 
 strei.'ts tt> the l.iridegroom's house. This song is called 
 Hiiiiiciiiiriis, and the following is foimd at the end 
 of the llii'ds of Aristophanes : — 
 
 ".Iu|iiter, that .nod suliliine, 
 When the Fates in t'Di'incv time 
 ^Matched him with tlie (.^tiieeii nf lle:i\en 
 At a solemn liamjuet ,i;i\'en, 
 Sucli :i feast «as heM iiljove. 
 And the rharmins i^ud (if Love, 
 Jkang present in comuianil, 
 As a bi'idei;roiim tool^ his stand 
 "With tlie .wlih-'n reins in hand. 
 Hymen, Hymen, Ho I " ' 
 
 The bridegroom's mother, alsn carrying torches, 
 awaited the procession by the bridegroom's door, 
 wln(di was festively decked with "\yreaths. A shower 
 of all manner of sweetmeats was poured on tho 
 bridal jiair, jiartly in jest and partly to symbolise 
 the rich ble'ssing invoked upon thein ; nor was 
 the serious \vork forg<jtten which no^w a^wiuted the 
 Vf.iung wife in her \v^^\' position : a pestle i'or brrnsing 
 the corn grains was hung u]) near the bridal chamber, 
 tei ]-emind In.'r of lier duties as head of the household, 
 and it was an ancient Atlienian custom for tho bride 
 herself tn carry some honseliold implement in tho 
 procession, as, for instance, a si(.'ve or a vessel for 
 roasting. Another symbolical custom, su]:iposod also 
 
 * Tv.iii^I.ito.l l.v .T. llookli^ni, Frrir. 
 
MAKKlAUij: AND W(),MK\. l41 
 
 to date from an ordinance of Solon, was for the bride, 
 after her arrival in her now home, to eat a qnince, 
 ■which, like the pomegranate, was supposed to be a 
 sjanbol of frnitfulness. 
 
 The bridegroom's mother then attended the bridal 
 pan- to the tludamus or bridal chamber, where the 
 richljr-decked, Hower-strewn marriage couch was pre- 
 pared. When all the guests had gone away the 
 bridegroom locked the door, and while the bride 
 unveiled herself to him for the first time, the youths 
 and maidens outside santr another sono- — either a few 
 verses of the Hymenaeus or an Epithalamium, accom- 
 panied Avith praises of the married pair, and also 
 doubtless by some jesting personal allusions. The 
 Epithalamium of Helen, in Theocritus, begins thus: — 
 
 " Slumberest so soon, sweet bridegroom ? 
 
 Art thou over-fond of sleep ? 
 Or hast thou leadeu-weighted limbs ? 
 
 Or hadst thou drunk too dee)) 
 When thou didst Ming thee to thy lair ? 
 
 Betimes thou shouldst have sped. 
 If sleep were all thy purpose, 
 
 Unto thy bachelor's bed, 
 And left her in her mother's arms 
 
 To nestle and to jilay, 
 A girl among her girlish mates, 
 
 Till deep into the day : — 
 For not alone for this night. 
 
 Nor for the next alone. 
 But through the days and through the years 
 
 Thou hast her for thine own." 
 
 And it ends thus : — 
 
 " Sleep on, and love and longing 
 Breathe in each other's breast ; 
 But fail not, when the morn returns. 
 
 To rouse you from your rest : 
 With dawn shall we be stirring, 
 
l-\-'2 (iREEK LIFE AT Mt lAit. 
 
 ^\\\vn, lifting hi.gli Ills fair 
 Anil fcatliLTed neck, the earliest bird 
 To clarion to the dawn is heard. 
 O (!od of lirides and bridals, 
 
 Siny ' JHapiiy, happy pair 1 ' " * 
 
 Very often the young men, before setting out liome- 
 wards, amused themselves by knocking and banging at 
 the door of the l)ridal chamber, though a friend of the 
 bridegroom's kept watch there, ostensibly to prevent 
 the maidens from going in to their married conu'ade. 
 The last lines of the above - quoted epithalamium 
 show that the chorus sometimes returned early next 
 morning to greet the pair on their awakening. 
 
 On the morning after the -wedding the newdy- 
 married pair received visits and cimgrattilations fr<jni 
 their relations and friends. The husband presented 
 his vounc -wife with o-ifts, and so also did the visitors, 
 but this ceremony sometimes did not take place till 
 the second daj' after the wedding ; for a ctu-ious 
 custom existed (only at Athens, however) for the 
 husband on the day after the wedding to move into 
 his father-indaw's house, and there spend a night 
 apart from his wife ; she then sent hijn a new gar- 
 ment, wdiereupon he returned to her. With the 
 wedding presents the do^wry was often p)resented, 
 along with various objects belonging to the troitsseau, 
 such as jars, ointments, sandals, toilette implements, 
 etc. The wedding festivities were then concluded by 
 a banquet given either by the bridegroom's father in 
 his house or by the bridegroom himself; but it does 
 not appear that there were any w'omen present on this 
 occasion. Still, tliis banqiiet was of a certain im- 
 portance for the young wife; at Athens it was con- 
 nected with her formal admission among the clansmen 
 
 * Translated l.y S. C. Calvcrley. 
 
Marriage and wojien. 
 
 148 
 
 to whom the bride now he- 
 longed by her marriage. Every 
 tribe (^uX»;) at Athens was 
 divided into three chxns 
 {(^parpai), each of these into 
 thirty househf>kls {'yevrf) ; the 
 mei nbers of the chrns examined 
 into tire 2:)urity of descent of 
 citizens, and every new-born 
 child had to be entered in 
 their register. This ceremony 
 gave a sort of official, or at 
 any rate pnblic, legitimation 
 to the marriage. 
 
 Among the mommients 
 which have been preserved to 
 ns, there are several which 
 refer to marriage; but, as a 
 rule, they adhere to a mytho- 
 logical form, and do not re- 
 present a real scene from daily 
 life. Thus, for instance, we 
 often see the bridal pair driv- 
 ing in a car, but those who 
 attend them are the Marriage 
 gods in person, especially 
 Apollo and Artemis, and Avhen 
 the presentation of marriage 
 gifts to the newly-wedded j^air 
 is represented, it is usually the 
 celebrated couple, Peleus and 
 Thetis, that we see depicted, 
 while those who offer them 
 the gifts are gods, such as 
 Hephaestus and the Horae,etc. 
 
144 CUEEK ETEI-: AT HOME. 
 
 The vasf viaiiitiiiu-, wbirli is hero "■ivoii as Fi^'. 7S, 
 also boars a iii_ytholog-ical character, though it, no 
 doubt, aflhoros very closely to the forms of roahty. It 
 re})reseuts the arri\'al of the bride at the bridogrooiii's 
 house. The latter stands leaning on a spear (which, 
 however, ninst be an heroic attribute, and irot cus- 
 tomary at marriages in the historic period) before the 
 door of his house. On the left comes the bride, who 
 is recognised by the veil covering her head. She ap- 
 proaches \\ith a hesitating step, and the bridesmaid 
 attending her is pushing her gently forward with both 
 hands, Avhilc the groomsman, who goes before her, 
 holds her left hand. Apollo, with his laurel staff, and 
 Artemis, with quiver and bow, are gazing .sympa- 
 thotic'ally at the bride ; in front of them a woman, 
 either the match-maker or the bride's mother, holds 
 out both her arms to welcome the bridegroom. 
 
 Of course, marriage cu.stoms diti'ered considerably 
 in the vari(.)us (ireek states, as is p)roved l>y many 
 allusions. Strangest of all seems the Laconian 
 custom, which points clearly to marriage l>y capture, 
 a custom of great anti(|iuty, mentioned in many 
 legends (as, for instance, that of the l)ioseiu'i and the 
 daughters of Leucippus). No mention is made here of 
 a real marriage celebration : the Ijridegroom carried off 
 his liride, win.) must, however, have previously been 
 betrothed to him bj- lier father, from her parents' 
 house, and in his ow]i dwelling handed her over to 
 the charge of some middle-aged woinan (vvfKpevTpia), 
 who was either a relation or an intimate friend. 
 iJuring his al>scnce at the c<jmmon dining table, to 
 which all Spartan citizens and youths went every 
 day, this woman cut off the l)ride's hair, dressed her 
 in male dress, with men's shoes, and left her lying in 
 till' dark on some straw. Tlien,wdren the liridegroom 
 
IrViVAvi^l'TJll 2\iM_/ IVtJJllljIN. 
 
 i45 
 
 returned, Jie unloosed the Luide's girdle and carried 
 her in his arms to the bridal chamber, (juriously 
 enough, the appearance of secrecy was kept up for 
 some time longer ; the young husband continued to 
 live -with the other young citizens, and only visited 
 his wife occasionally in secret. Similar practices pre- 
 vailed also at Crete. We do not, however, know how 
 long these strange customs continued in the Doric 
 states. 
 
 In consideiing the position of women in relation 
 to men and in the household, we must alloAv for the 
 differences between the heroic and historic periods, 
 and also between the Doric and the Ionic-Attic 
 states. Of the Aeolian states we know very little. 
 In the heroic period, as far as we can gather from 
 the Homeric poems, women occupied an huportant 
 position, in many respects equal to that of the men. 
 Heroic times, like the rest of (ireek anticpiity, were 
 only acquainted with monogamy ; polygamj- is an 
 entirely Oriental custom. Still, it was by no means 
 unusual in olden times for princes and nobles to have 
 a number of concubines, who wore either slaves or 
 female captives, besides their own lawful wives, who 
 were sprung of noble family. In fact, the idea of 
 conjugal fidelity held good only for the female portion 
 of the population, while the men were absolutely free 
 to act as thej^ pleased. Undoubtedly there were cases 
 in which husband and wife were so well suited to- 
 gether that the men resisted all temptations to in- 
 fidelity ; among these we may include Hector, Laertes, 
 and Odysseus, in spite of the amours of this last with 
 Circe and Calypso. Whenever we obtain a closer in- 
 sight into the conditions of married life, as in the case 
 of Hector and Andromache, Odysseus and Penelope, 
 the impression received is a favourable one. There is 
 
 K 
 
14G (!1!EEK LIKE Al HUiME.. 
 
 even a vein ii( true art'ectidii pereeptible, •\vliich is 
 gi.'nenill\- absent from ancient eonceptions of marriage. 
 In the heroic ai^e women were chiefly occupied 
 with lionseliold management and female accomphsh- 
 ments, while fhr\- phod their tasks with their 
 attendants in the women's apartments: Imt their 
 hfe was not one of sncli absohite retirement as that of 
 the Oriental harems. On some occasions they asso- 
 ciated with men, and took part in their sacrifices and 
 banquets : and though they ne^'cr went out unat- 
 tended, yet a good deal of liberty must have been 
 allowi'd the yi:)ung girls, to judge from the story of 
 Nausicaa. who went down to the sea-shore to wash 
 the clothes. 
 
 In the historic age, the Doric states bear the 
 closest analogy to heroic times in their marriage 
 customs. Here too, we find the same undisguised 
 assumption that marriage existed f)r the sake of 
 rearing children ; and, in fact, the laws of Lycurgus 
 permitted a man to transfer his conjugal rights for a 
 time to another, if his childlessness im])erilled the 
 existence of the family. In s]iite — or, perhaps, on 
 ai-count — of this custoui, infidelity was very rare at 
 Sparta, e-\en among the men, and the institution of 
 hetaerao never gained ground there. (Joncul)inage, 
 which was very ciimmon in the lieroic age, fell into 
 disuse durhig historic times, Ijut, except at Sparta, it 
 was really discontinued only in name. The domestic 
 relations between husband and wife more closely 
 resendjled our own at Sparta thaji in the Ionic-Attic 
 states. Even at Sparta the household was tjie centre 
 around which tlie woman's life re\'olved, but she was 
 not degraded into a mere liousekee})er ; a Spartan 
 addressed his wife as " ^Mistress " (Uairoiva), made her 
 the partner of his interests, and consulted lier about 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 147 
 
 matters of importance. This seemed so strange to 
 tlie other Greelv states that the}^ were inchned to 
 regard the Spartan husbands as henpecked, which was 
 hy no means the case ; but there is no doubt that 
 Spartan history can boast of far more remarkable 
 women and admirable mothers than Athenian. The 
 strong patriotism of the Spartan women which 
 triumphed over gentler feelings is sometimes a little 
 unattractive to our modern sentiments, but, in any 
 ■case, these women command our fullest respect. 
 
 The ]Dosition of women in the Ionic states bears a 
 more Oriental character, and here it is the wife who 
 addresses the husband as " Master." The Athenian 
 regarded his wife as a subordinate being, who would 
 bear hinr children and keep his house in order, but 
 was incapable of rising beyond this spihere. A woman 
 must keep silence about all political matters, and, as 
 a rule, she was not even acquainted with her husband's 
 private affairs. The husband was very seldom at 
 home ; public life, professional duties, gymnastics, 
 social intercourse, kept him from his family during 
 the greater part of the day ; at meals they met to- 
 gether, except when the husband had invited guests, 
 and then the wife had to withdraw into retirement. 
 As a rule, husband and wife hardly knew each other 
 before marriage ; it was not till afterwards that it was 
 possible to discover whether their characters were 
 suited to one another, and then it often turned out 
 that these were quite incompatible. Then they went 
 their own ways, or else jarred and quarrelled. Some- 
 times a sensible man succeeded in educating and 
 raising to his own level a really intelligent wife, 
 to whom he could comnmnicate his plans and in- 
 terests, and thus make her his partner in the true 
 sense of the word ; but this was the exception, and, as 
 K 2 
 
14>s 
 
 liKKEK Liri-; AT IKi.Mt. 
 
 :i rnlo, I lie s[)1r'1-cs ot Imsliand and wile i\'!iia,iiic(l 
 ilistimt. M<ire(iver, tlir o^'or-iiiiToasiny iiiriiiriirr ot 
 tlir lictacrac did iiniidi to lodsrii tlu' IkhhIs of inar- 
 rian'c It \vas a viT\' ciinmioii tliiiiL;' tor iiianird iiicii 
 tci visit lirtacrae (ir cntrr iiitu love intiii^iirs with 
 slaves; and, as a i-nl(;, the wivrs sluit tlieir eyes to it. 
 SI) loni^ as soiiio regard was shown tor appearanres. 
 Jf a nian'icd man wiTo to take an hetaora into his 
 own lioiisc, tliat would Ix/ a. i^i'ound of di\-ori-r ; hut 
 iiniiiarrird men "\'ev\' often kept niistvesses, and the 
 relation between tliem sometimes (dosely I'esi.'mhled 
 marriaL;c. Supposing a. man were to negii.'i-t liis own 
 laniih- too niU(di through this intercourse, or, hy 
 spending his nionry in this way, to iiiHict an injury 
 on theni, the wife, if she p(.)ssessed thi.' full rights ai 
 citizenship, had the right to cnte'r a (•omplaint. Im- 
 proper language in the presi.'Uce of women was nol 
 ]iei-mitted, and no stranger was allowed to enter 
 tlie w"onien's ii]iartments during th(^ ahsence <ii the 
 husliand. The eliilih'en wvvo liound to the most 
 alisolute oliedienc(.' and reverence to botli hither and 
 luother. 
 
 <Tenerally speaking, the hnv afforded a W(jmun liut 
 little protection from her hnshand ; infidelit\- on his 
 part did ]]ot entitle her ti;i a divoj'ce. <J)i the other 
 hand, the strictest fidelity was required fi'om the \vife : 
 hut, in spiti! of the se(dusion in wdilch sh(.> lived, 
 intidclity was hy no jneaiis uut/ommon, siui-e there 
 \\'ere always plenty of obliging shu'es read\- to helj) 
 their mistress iu these luatteis. In most fii'cek states 
 the offenders were punishi.'d Ii\- the loss of certain 
 rights, and the husband was not oidy justified i]i 
 demanding a divorce, but even morally liound to do 
 so it his wife's wr(;ng-doing had been noised afiroud. 
 The law to(.)k ]io steps to pn)iish the lover : but the 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 149 
 
 liusbanrl had the right to inflict eoi'p<ii'al puiiishuicnt 
 on hiui, or oven, if he caught hini in the act, to kill 
 him, unless, indeed, he preferred to seek compensation 
 lor his shame in a nione}' flne. In case of divorce, 
 too, the woman was worse off than the man. In con- 
 sequence of the loose relation of the marriage-tie, it 
 was very easy to break it. A husljand could dismiss 
 his Avife or send her hack to her parents, or the 
 woman could simply leave her husband's house, and 
 this was usually enough to annul the marriage. In 
 the latter case the wife was obliged to lodge a com- 
 plaint against her husband in person with the archon, 
 as there were certain legal matters connected with 
 the divorce, chiefly concerning the dowry; as a rule, 
 if the husband sent away his wife without sufficient 
 reason, he had to give back tlie dowry to her or her 
 legal representative (father, brother, or guardian), 
 unless the cause of the divorce was infidelit)' which 
 had been clearly proved against the wife. But though 
 there is an appearance of justice here, in reality the 
 man had the advantage ; for it was onl}' the n:iost 
 cogent reasons that would induce a woman voluntariljr 
 to leave her husband, while the jnan often arbitrarity 
 put away his ^^vife for the most trivial reasons ; more- 
 over, as a woman was always jDolitically a minor, and 
 if she left her husband could not go on living by 
 herself, she was obliged to return to a state of 
 tutelage under her lather, or, il he were no longer 
 living, her brother or legal guardian. Many a woman 
 would rather endiu-e the most cruel treatment 
 from her husband than return thus to her father's 
 house. 
 
 The life of Athenian -women was entirely devoted 
 to domestic affairs. The part of the house set aside 
 for the wife and children, and afterwards for the 
 
1 50 
 
 (.•KEEK EIKE AT HOME. 
 
 ,l;t<)\vu-uji ilaiiglitei's and tin- feiiiulo slaves, was i^rnor- 
 ally so|iai-atc from the rest of tlu' ilwelliiig; and a 
 Oi'crk writer says that, as the door which sejtaratefs. 
 the women's ajiartments from the rest of tlie house 
 is the houndary set fir a maiden, so t]ie door 
 w]ii(di shuts the htmse otf from the street must he 
 the hoim(hiry f)r the wife. We must not, however. 
 
 Fi(^ 79. 
 
 suppose tliat Greek women were entirely shut oft' 
 from puhheity. The wives of poorer citizens, whose 
 circumstarjcos wi.'re, of eonrse, quite dift'erent from 
 those of the upper classes, went out of doors often 
 enoTig'h. Some wore compelleil to do so by their 
 orcupation, and others, who liad few or no slaves 
 at their disposal, were oldioed to go out every day to 
 purchase food and otlier necessaries of life. 
 
 It was very conn ij( 111 fcir wonicn to fetidi water from 
 the ]iulilie wells, and to have a little chat there ; but in 
 ricli iK.iuses this duty of fetching the water naturally 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEX. 151 
 
 fell to the slaves. We find allusions to these expedi- 
 tions to the well in legends and in real life ; and they 
 are often represented on monuments, especially vase 
 paintings. Fig. 79 gives an example of the kind 
 taken from a vase painting in the antique style. On 
 the left we see the well, surmounted by a Doric 
 portico ; the water is flowing from a lion's month into 
 a jug (vSpla) placed beneath it ; the woman who has 
 come to till her vessel stands waiting beside it. 
 On the right we see other women conversing in pairs ; 
 two have already filled their jars, and are carrying 
 them on their heads, supported by a little cushion, 
 according to the pretty custom Avhich still prevails 
 widely in the south ; the vessels of the two others 
 have not yet been filled, as we can tell from their 
 position. 
 
 Women of the better classes only went out attended 
 by a servant or slave, and then but seldom. A respect- 
 able woman stayed at home as much as possible ; in 
 fact, the symbol of domestic life was a tortoise, a 
 creature which never leaves its house, and was re- 
 garded as an attribute of Aphrodite Urania. In 
 consequence, the women liked to linger by the win- 
 dows of the upper storey, the one generally used 
 for their apartments, in order to look down on the 
 street, which afforded many women the only enter- 
 tainment and change they had in the day's occupa- 
 tions. There were no common meetings for them 
 as there were for men. They visited one another 
 occasionally, and there were a few festivals in the year 
 to which they went without the men, and then the 
 proceedings seem to have been very lively, as for 
 instance, at the Thesmophoria. The women drove in 
 their finest clothes to the Eleusinian celebrations, 
 and they also took part in the Panathenaea, on which 
 
152 (IIIKEK LIFE AT linJlE. 
 
 iircasimi the duni^litris i>t' tlir I'usidriiL toix'igncrs 
 (fxeToiKoi) caiTicd tlieir cliiui-s and sunshades bohind 
 tlicni. In i^rni'i-al, it apjiears as tliniiL;h more liburty 
 liad liL'cn L^railualh' ^i-antod women in the matter ot 
 appearanie in pnMic, tliongh this hlierty did not 
 extend ill (Jreeee as fai' as at Alexandria in the time 
 of the I'toleniies, when Theoeritns, in one of his idylls, 
 ve}ireseiits two i-itizens' wives, attended by their ser- 
 vants, |i(.'netrating into tlie densest crowd on the 
 occasion of the Festival of Adonis. The manifold 
 contradii/tions vliicli we find in the ancient writers 
 reganling tlie ]iul)lic appearance of women which 
 have Called fi_)rtli so many various opinions among the 
 learne<l of the present dav, nmst be attributed in })art 
 to dift'erences of period ami, in p>art, to differences of 
 
 locality. 
 
 X(.it\\'itlistanding tins, everywhere and always in 
 anti<p_nt\', a woman's sphere was supposed to be the 
 household, and when the family and the number of 
 sla\'es was large, this charge' rei[uired a good deal of 
 strength anil attention. Not only had all the food to 
 lie prepared for the household, but also the clothing 
 had to be provided for all its members; for it was 
 very unusual for any woman, who had numerous slaves 
 at her dis|iosal, to purchase stuffs or clothes ready- 
 made. The)- theref )re spent a great part of the day 
 with their daughters and maids in a specially ap- 
 pointed part of the house, where the looms were set 
 up. Here, in the first place, the wool, whi<di was 
 bought in a rough condition, was prepared for 
 working, by washing and beating, then fulled and 
 earded, disagreeable occupations winch, on account (.)f 
 the exertion recpiired, were usually left to the maids. 
 The wool thus prepared for working was then put in 
 large work- or spinning-liaskets (KaXaOoi. or rdXapoi), 
 
MAKKIAGE AND WOMEN. l53 
 
 and we often see tlieso on monuments which represent 
 scenes from a woman's hfo. A statue of Penelo|ie, 
 the prototj'po of an industrious woman, of which 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 several repKcas have come down to us, represents a 
 spinning-basket under her chair. The spinning-wheel 
 was unknown to antiquity, hut the distaff and spindle 
 were used exactly as they still are in the south. 
 (Compare the representation from a vase painting in 
 Fig. 80.) The Avoman here represented is seated 
 
^rA CKEEK I.IKE AT HtiME. 
 
 (sometimes we find wdiiieu walkiiii;- or standing as 
 tliey spin) ; she holds u)) the distaff in lier left hand ; 
 ill tVont of hei- is a stand, on whieh wool or fiax seems 
 to be fastt^ned ready to fill the distaff afresh. For 
 weaving;- they nsed an npright loom of tolerably 
 simple construction, but yet suited for wea.ving heavy 
 materials and elaborate patterns. Such an one is 
 
 Eii;. 81. 
 
 represented on Fin'. M, from a vase picture of Penelope 
 at the loom. We can reconnise on the already finished 
 materia], an ornamental border and various figured 
 patterns interwoven. The construction of the loom is 
 only superficially indicated, and has therefore been 
 explained in many different ways, into which wo 
 cannot at present enter. Fig. ,S"2, taken from a vase 
 painting, re})resents a number of women, of whom 
 some arc occupied with feminine work and others with 
 their toilet. On the left we s(.'e a woman holding a 
 spirming-basket in her left hand ; further to the right 
 a sec(jnd woman is seated on an easy chair [KaOeBpa), 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 155 
 
 holding can em- 
 broidery frame, on 
 which, a piece of ma- 
 terial is stretched, 
 while a third wo- 
 man stands near, 
 watching her. Fur- 
 ther to the right is 
 a fourth, who is 
 drawing up the 
 folds of her dress, 
 and probably about 
 to fasten her girdle. 
 The woman sitting 
 next her on the 
 easy chair holds an 
 object in front of 
 her which is not 
 quite distinct — 
 possibly a mirror, 
 represented in pro- 
 file, in which she is 
 looking at herself; 
 near her stands a 
 maid, holding in 
 her right hand a 
 pot of ointment, in 
 the left some un- 
 determined object, 
 perhaps a pin- 
 cushion. 
 
 The fulling of 
 the woven materials 
 was not undertaken 
 at home, since it 
 
156 
 
 CKEEK LIFE AT HO.ME. 
 
 was a (littirult operation and vcciuiivd sporial aiTant^'O- 
 iiK'iits; it was (lone by tlic fnllor, to whom any soiled 
 elotli Ljavnients were also sent. Simple woollen cdotlies, 
 ;is well as linen e'afments, were, of <'ouvse, washed at 
 home. 
 
 The ehai'min"- deseriptii>n in the "Odyssey" ot 
 
 Fic: 
 
 Nausieaa, who n'oes with her companions to the 
 sea-sliore to wash the clothes, is well known ; donbt- 
 less similar scenes might he seen in later times, even 
 though no king's ilanghtcr teiok part in them, and no 
 god-like hero alarmed the maidens by his unexpected 
 appearance. Fig. N-"! represents a \nsn picture, show- 
 ing hi.iw an artist of the fifth centur}^ imagined that 
 scene in I'haeacia, according to the analog)' of his own 
 time. On the left side of the pic'turc, not represented 
 here, stand Odysseirs and Athene, and several articles 
 
kare:ags and women. 157 
 
 of clothing are hanging np to dr}' on the branchos of 
 a tree ; on the right, which is here represented, sonic 
 girls are engaged in hanging out the clothes. Tlie 
 finished, or newly-washed, clothes were then care- 
 fnlly folded and laid in chests, since cupboards for 
 hanging np dresses, such as we have, seem to have 
 been unknown. 
 
 The vase picture represented in Fig. S4 shows us 
 
 
 
 pi 
 
 vMw//llli //l^m iMVu IK^^/I 
 
 w^ 
 
 H\' 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 two women occupied in folding some kind of em- 
 broidered garment ; on the left another woman is 
 turning round to look at theuj : on the floor stand a 
 chair and a chest, on the wall hang a mirror and a 
 garment. 
 
 Notwithstanding these numerous dimicstic occu- 
 pations, the women seem to have had sufticient time 
 to devote to their toilet. In spite of the few oppor- 
 tunities thejf had of appearing elegantly dressed 
 before strange men, or their own friends, ({reek 
 women seem to have been no exception to their sex 
 
.59 
 
 in their fondness for dress and fine clothes. Consider- 
 able attention was devoted to the care of the body. 
 Washing and bathing were, of course, very common. 
 Scenes from the bath are often represented on monu- 
 ments ; especially we often find in sculpture or paint- 
 ing representations of Aphrodite, or some beautiful 
 mortal, stooping down while a maid pours water over 
 her back from a jar. In the vase picture represented 
 in Fig. 85, next to which a scene from the toilet is 
 depicted, one woman is pouring water into a basin, 
 while another has disrobed, and is arranging her hair 
 before a mirror. We must suppose the locality of 
 these scenes to have been a special bathroom, which 
 Avas always found in the better class of houses on the 
 lower storey. 
 
 The usual morning wash was performed in large 
 basins standing on high feet, or sometimes at the 
 well itself, which was situated in the courtyard of 
 a house : women of the lower classes probably washed 
 at one of the public wells. On a picture representing 
 the Judg-ment of Paris, of which some figures are 
 represented in Fig. S6, a vase painter naively repre- 
 sents Athene thus performing her toilet before pre- 
 senting herself to the judge ; she is holding both 
 hands imder the water flowing from the fountain, 
 evidently intending to wash her face ; she has care- 
 fully drawn her dress between her knees in order to 
 keep the water from it. There were also large public 
 baths for women, but ancient authorities tell us very 
 little about their construction and use ; still, notices 
 here and there in writing, or on monument.s, enable 
 us with certainty to assert their existence. The vase 
 painting. Fig. S7, gives a wonderfully vivid picture of 
 one of these public liaths for women. It is a hall, 
 supported by Doric cohunns, covered to the height of 
 
Fic. sc. 
 
1(12 CliEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 aliuTit a fiiot with water, which is always riowing fresh 
 fi'Kiu tlic heads of animals below the capitals ot the 
 pillars ; prohalily the water was led through the piju.'s 
 passing from cohunn to column, on which the women 
 have hung their clothes. The women, with their hair 
 plaited hi single ]ilaits to prevent it getting wet, are 
 standing under the douches and lotting the water 
 pour over their head, back, arms, and legs, while thev 
 rub theuLselves with their hands. We cannot tell 
 whether women of the better (dasses also went to 
 these |:)ul)lic liaths; in any case, the middle classes, 
 who probably had no bathrooms of their own, formed 
 the greater part of the attendance. 
 
 Bathing was accompanied by anointing and rub- 
 bing with oils or other fragrant essences ; tliis, too, 
 we often iind represented on monmnents, where a 
 lady herself makes use of a little oil-tlask (XyKvOo'i), or 
 an attendant rubs her body Avith it. In fact, rich 
 women alwa3's had a slave who acted as lady's-maid 
 to help them at their toilet, anrl on tlie many toilet 
 scenes depicted on the Greek vasesweseldoni see women 
 dressing without assistance. Thus, in Fig. SS ( Frontis. ), 
 two women are heljiing a third to dress ; the mistress 
 stands in the middle, and is about to fasten her girdle, 
 and, in order not to be hindered Ijy the falling folds 
 of lier chiton, she is holding tlio tip in licr mouth : in 
 front of her stands an attendant holding a mirror; 
 another woman standing behind her, a])parent]y ratlier 
 a friend than a slave, holds a jewel casket in the left 
 hand, and with the right hands a pearl necklace taken 
 from it to the lad)'. On Attic Stdtii wa very com- 
 monly find a lady represented with her lady's-maid 
 and jewel (gasket. The use of the nurror is also a 
 favourite subject in works of art, especially connected 
 with the ari-angement of the hair and veil. Tims in 
 
^63 
 
 Fig. 8(3, we find that ovoii Hora, before sliowinp;- 
 herself to Paris, finds it necessary', with the help of 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 her hand-mirror, to make some slight alteration in 
 her veil. A similar scene is depicted by the pretty 
 fcerra-cotta from Tanagra (Fig. 80). Fig. 90 represents 
 L 2 
 
164 (.;i;eek life at homi;. 
 
 a, lailv fullv dressed, perhaps a l>ride, attended 
 bv twii lad\-'s-iiiaids, one nf \\-h(iin holds an upen 
 jewel easket hetore her, in ovder that she may 
 ehoesc soniethini;- more out of it, in .spito ot tlie taet 
 that she is so earefully veiled that all ornament 
 
 Flu. '.J(l. 
 
 seems supei'tiiKius. Ijesides these toilet scones, Fil;'. 
 1)1 ri:'pres(_:nts a vase picture L^'iving other scenes from 
 the life i>f womi'ii, which, lniwever, have not yet l>ecn 
 clearly interpreted. The -weman represented here is 
 seated en a idiair. her rii;iit lei;' is uncovered, and the 
 foot is ]>la(:-e(l (jn a curious rest; in her hand she 
 holds a liandatjj'e, as though she intended to fasten it 
 romrd her f)iit. Another woman stands and looks 
 on ; a spinning-basket and a stool are also in- 
 cluded in the picture. It is impossible to say 
 
MAURIAGE AND WOJIEN. IGo 
 
 Avhethei' this should also be reo-ardcfl as a toilet, 
 
 scene. 
 
 Greek women made use of many cosmetics for 
 
 Fin. 91. 
 
 their toilet. They not only anointed their bodies 
 with fragrant essences and their hair with sweet- 
 scented oils and pomades, but the practice of rougeing 
 was also a very common one. The Spartan women, 
 whose healthy complexions were celebrated, probably 
 made little use of it ; but the ancient writers supply 
 sufficient testimony to its commonness at Athens. 
 
106 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 'I'his ]ira<-tice |iV(ilial)ly (U'iLj'inatod in tlic East, and its 
 <_;i'rat pdpiilantv aninnL;' tlio avouk'H <if the Lmic-AttK' 
 race is iiroliably due tu tlio fact tliat want of fresli air 
 and uxiTfiso pive them a i)ale, sickly coniplcxiini, and 
 they theretnre (•iinsidere<l it necessary to improve it 
 artiticially, though it were only to please their own 
 Imshands. Tlii'\- snpplied the tender colouring' ot 
 forehead and el'iin -with wliite lead, the redness of 
 their checks with cinnahar, fncus, and buc-loss, or 
 other (usnally YcL^-etable) dyes; there was a special 
 hesh tint nsed for paintini;' helow the eyes. The eyc- 
 lirows were dyed with black jjaint, which was made of 
 pine blacking or pidverised antimony, and dyeing the 
 hair was qnite connnon as early as the fifth eentnr}' 
 I'..C., and by no means nnnsual even among men. 
 The ronge was pnt on either with the tinger or a little 
 lirnsh. In vain the poets, especially the comic writers, 
 aimed the sharpest arrows of their wit at this evil 
 practii-e : in vain they described in drastic colours 
 how, in the heat of summer, two little black streams 
 poured down from the eyt's over the face, while the 
 red colour from the clieeks I'an down to the neck; 
 and the hair falling over the torehead -was d3'ed green 
 by the white lead. The best cure would doubtless 
 liave been found, if every man had been as sensible as 
 the Young husband descj'ibcd in Xenophon's stor}' 
 alluded to above (pi. 130), wdio cured his wife of 
 rougeing by rep)resenting to her the absurdity of this 
 practice, showing her how impossible it was for a. 
 woman to deceive her own husband in this way, 
 since the truth might C(]me to light every moment. 
 He also advised his wife ]iot to spenrl the whole da}' 
 ill ]ier room,l)ut to move about the house, superintend 
 the servants' work, help the housekeeper, and herself 
 lend a hand in kneading the (hnigh, and other such 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOJIEX. 1G7 
 
 occupations, while supplyingexercise for herself by shak- 
 ing out and folding up the clothes. Then she would 
 have a better appetite for her meals, be in better health, 
 and naturally have a better complexion. But such 
 sensible husbands were rare, and probably all the women 
 were not so obedient as the wife of Ischoniachus. 
 
 We do not intend to penetrate any further into 
 the toilet mysteries of Greek ladies, but, instead, will 
 give our readers a representation of a vase picture 
 equally remarkable for fineness of drawing and variety 
 in the scenes rejjresented. (Fig. 92.) It is the decora- 
 tion of a lid of some terra-cotta jar or box, and 
 was probably used for cosmetic purposes. Here we 
 see a large number of girls, most of whonr are occupied 
 A\-ith their toilet. In spite of the modesty of their 
 dress and behaviour, it does not seem probable that 
 we are here obtaining an insight into a fainilj' dwel- 
 ling ; the numerous little Cupids rejaresented, and 
 also the presence of a young man, lead us to suppose 
 that we see hetaerae before us. The 3'oung man is 
 leaning against the seat of a richly-clad lady, who 
 appears somewhat more matronly than the others ; she 
 holds an open jewel casket in her hand, from which 
 she is about to take some object. The young man is 
 leaning on a stick, at the end of which a Cupid is 
 climbing up in play. If we follow the view of 
 L. iStephani, in regarding this woman as the 
 superintendent of the girls, he is probably right 
 in his further interpretation, that the youth has 
 given the casket to this lady in order to win her 
 favour and access to the girls. To the left of this 
 group we find a girl holding a hand mirror before 
 her, apparently about to arrange her hair, as she is 
 holding one hand up, but this might also be inter- 
 preted as a gesture of pleased surprise at her 
 
168 OKEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 appearance. Xext tu her is an attendant helping a 
 girl arrange her h(_',Ml-ilress ; both her hands are occu- 
 pied -witli it, while the girl bends her head a. little 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 forward, and in her hands already holds the necklace 
 which she is going to put on. Two Cupids stand 
 beside her, one carrying sonic indistinct object, per- 
 haps a tyrn])aninn, the other apparently holding two 
 bracelets. On an i_'as}'-chair, under which appears a 
 bird, perhaps a duck, a girl is sitting holding an 
 open casket, nut of which a woman, standing in front 
 
MAKKiAliJi AJNLI \>UiVlJiJN. i69 
 
 of her, has taken some fine material, or a veil, which 
 she is now unfolding. Between the two, on the ground 
 stands an incense-burner (dvfj,iaT7]piop), next a Cupid 
 holding an oil-flask in his hands. A richly-dressed 
 woman leans against a terminal figure of the bearded 
 Dionysus, bending a branch into a wreath with both 
 hands ; in front stands a clog, looking wp at her. 
 Further to the left a girl is sitting on a stool, while an 
 attendant is arranging her hair ; she has placed both 
 hands on her knees, and is sitting quite quietly while 
 the other, to judge from the posture of her left hand, 
 appears to bo saying something to her ; the Cupid, 
 kneeling on the o-round, is fastening the sandals of 
 the seated girl ; an incense-burner stands beside them. 
 Next them stands a woman with richty-dressed hair ; 
 her rio-ht hand hano's down and holds a mirror ; 
 at her feet is some object whose meaning is not clear. 
 Still further we see a little table on three goat-shaped 
 feet, at which two girls are sitting opposite one 
 another, one on an easy-chair, the other on a simpler 
 seat ; under the easy-chair is a cage with a little bird. 
 We cannot determine the occupation of the girls who 
 have placed their hands on. the table, while one of 
 them holds some indistinct object in her left hand — 
 probably they are playing some game ; above them 
 hovers a Cupid with a wreath of leaves ; near him we 
 observe a beautifully ornamented little chest. The 
 last of these female figm-es stands in front of a washing- 
 basin, in which she has placed both hands, j^robably 
 to wash them, rather than, as Stephani supposes, in 
 order to Avash some object in the basin ; for a domestic 
 occupation such as the washing of any garment would 
 not be appropriate to the rest of the scenes. On the 
 ground stairds a beautifully-shaped water-jar. 
 
 It would not be easy to pass judgment on Greek 
 
170 OlIEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Aviimen in n'onoral, as (iitttTciiccs of race liavu coiisidor- 
 ablo intiuence. Xdi- can \w place much coiitidcnce in 
 <iui- litcrai-\- authiiritics, least of all in Arist()}ihaiies, 
 who says in the TlirKmojiliorio^nsiii' that the men 
 could ]ilace no trust -whatt'ver in their ^^•ivcs, and were 
 oliliged til keep theiu under hick and ke\", and keep 
 Molossian hounds oi\ piu'pose to frighten awa}' their 
 lovers, while they deprived them oven of the keys ol 
 tlie stnreroom. This is, of ciiurse, exaygX'rated inven- 
 tion, as is also the statement that all the suspicion of 
 the women is due to thecalunmies of Euripides. The 
 poets of the Old Comedy directed the arnjws of their 
 •wit onlv at women of ill fame : and the Newer Attic 
 Comedy chooses most of its heroines from among the 
 hetaerae (though a favourite iJeDnumcnt was the dis- 
 cover)- that these were really li:ing-li:>st legitimate 
 daughters of citizens) ; and consei[uently the women 
 are generally treated from their worst side, and the 
 men represented as poor victims. The aim of comedy, 
 which is to provoke laughter, is more easily attained 
 by the representation of characters wdiose morality is 
 iii;)t unimpeachable ; and it would be ecpially unfair in 
 <iur own time to form a picture of modern morals 
 based on the representations of the stage. Undoubt- 
 edly, tlie Athenian women were far inferior to the 
 Spartan in morality, and in some towns — especiall\- 
 Corinth and Byzantuun — female uioralit\' seems to 
 have been at a very low eli1) : liut wo nurst not on that 
 account condemn all Greek women indiscriminately- 
 One reproach is tijo often heard, and too clearly 
 ])roved to be discredited, and that is inclination to 
 <lrink. This vice was so cinnmon that in some places 
 women were actually forbidden to drink ^\'ino, and it 
 was this that sometimes compelled husbands to take 
 the ko\'s from tlieir wives. 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 171 
 
 We cannot close this section without a woitI on 
 that class of women who sold their favours to any who 
 would pay the price for them. The Greeks euphem- 
 istically called these hetaerae (eTolpai), female com- 
 panions. They seem to have been unknown in the 
 heroic age, hut in historic times the)- -were found 
 almost everywhere, and association with them was so 
 common that it was hardly a cause of reproach even 
 to married men. The law regarded their existence as 
 not onlj' a matter of course, but even as necessary, 
 and the State promoted the establishment of houses 
 for them. There were many such at all the ports, 
 and many large manufacturing or trading cities, such 
 as Corinth, obtained a distinct repntation on this 
 account ; though at the same time it was often said 
 that a stay there was both dangerous and expensive. 
 Besides these public establishments, the visitors to 
 which paid a fixed entrance fee, the amount of which 
 varied according to the elegance of the honse, there 
 were also private establishments of a somewhat differ- 
 ent character. These were kept by a man or woman, 
 sometimes an old hetaera, whose ]Di'operty the girls in 
 the house became, by being bought direct as slaves 
 or obtained in some other way. Many of these poor 
 girls had been exposed in their infancy, and brought 
 up by the owners of these houses, who repaid them- 
 selves for the cost of nurture by the income thus 
 brouo'ht in. Such girls were often the heroines of 
 comedies, and in the end were happily nnited to their 
 lovers. The flute-girls, who played at the symposia, 
 were also often kept in such houses, and their owners 
 not only provided rich and elegant clothing, but also . 
 spent much money on their education, and especially 
 on the training of their musical talents, which enabled 
 them to earn higher pay. 
 
172 (JREEK LIFE AT HOJIE. 
 
 Eut far the greater part of the lietaerae lived alone, 
 aird cvcrv large town possessed a nnndier ot tlieso 
 •women, "who were classed in different grades according 
 to their education. Some of them were rich women, 
 owning large nnnd.)crs of slaves: their fame spread 
 thn^ngh the whole of (Ireecc, and their rooms were 
 crowded by men of the first rank in politics, literature, 
 and art : great artists 'sded in representing them in 
 bronze and marble, and their fame has descended even 
 to our own times. Among all these, the most cele- 
 brated was the older Aspasia, the friend of Pericles, a 
 woman of the highest intellectual endowjiients and 
 iuost r-ultivated taste, who attracted men rather by 
 the po^\•er of her intellei-t than of her charms. Other 
 celebrated hetaerae, such as Lais and Phrjuie, owe their 
 renown, which has descended even to the present da)', 
 chiefly to their extraordinary beauty and the numer- 
 ous anecdotes current about their life and also about 
 their greed for money, and shameless character. These 
 hetaerae, who thus liyod ]iy theuiselves, wei'e either 
 freed -w-omen or foreigners ; some of them arc not 
 unattractive characters, whose wit and grace may 
 easily have attracted even men of note, while others 
 were mere courtesans, covetous, superficial, and dress- 
 loving. 
 
 In order to miderstand the possibility of their 
 social intercourse Avith men of unblemished reputa- 
 tion, and the fact that these girls played a part in 
 (_Treek literature almost more important than that of 
 honest women, we nnrst bear in niind the sllo-ht 
 education and retired life of the Greek women. Even 
 this can hardly account for the permission granted 
 to a hetaera like Phryne to dedicate licr statue by 
 Praxiteles at Delphi, or her venturing to bathe in the 
 sea, completely naked, like an Aphrodite Anadyomene, 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 173 
 
 in the presence of numerous admiring spectators, 
 ^^^e can only explain this by remembering the intense 
 Hellenic love of Ijeauty, apart from the considerations 
 of morality, which looked on a beautiful human 
 body as a divine work demanding adoration, which 
 made it possible to forget the moral weaknesses 
 inherent in it. At Corinth, in the temple of Aphro- 
 dite, more than a thousand temple slaves (lepoSovXoL) 
 were maintained, who were reo-arded as in the service 
 of the goddess, and this conception of love as worship 
 was very connnon throughout the East. But although 
 much was openly done in ancient times which would 
 be concealed at the present daj', it would be a mistake 
 to suppose that the position occupied by these women 
 was a really honourable one. 
 
 Although there was no official control kept over 
 them, }-et they were not left absolutely free ; in most 
 towns they had to pay a tax to the State. Later 
 writers have maintained, but with what accuracy is 
 uncertain, that a special dress was prescribed for 
 them; probably they were only distinguished from 
 other women by conspicuous bright clothing and more 
 elaborate dress. The legal protection generally ac- 
 corded to women in case of wrongful treatment, could 
 naturally not be claimed by them, and a hetaera who 
 had a child could not claim from its father money for 
 its support. In fact, the lot of the majority was at 
 best but gilded misery, and many ended their days in 
 extreme poverty. 
 
 Greek art is very rich in scenes from the life of 
 lietaerae ; many have been already represented here 
 (compare Figs. 17 and 92), and others will follow. 
 We must face the fact that the very period which is 
 renowned in Greek literature and art as that of the 
 greatest splendour, was a time, also, of moral rottenness. 
 
17-i 
 
 (iUKEK LIFE A'|- Hd.Ml-,. 
 
 A\'lii're there is iimeli light ^ve must expect iiuich 
 sliiule : and in imxlem art, too, the liiij-heKt ilevelopiuent 
 of paintiiiL;' and sculpture was cunteuiporaneous with 
 the roliLj'ious and moral deqeneracN' of the I\[iddle 
 aijes; indeed, the Kmne of Alexander \l. ;uid Ta'O X, 
 wa.s probaMy far more immoral than the Athens of 
 I'orielcs. 
 
CHAPTER Y^ 
 
 DAILY LIFE WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE HOUSE. 
 
 At Sparta — At Athens — Chronology — Sun-dials — Breakfast — Morning- 
 Occupations — Lnnch — The Afternoon — Warm Baths — Dinner — 
 Amusements — The Ciymnasia — Grroek Hospitality. 
 
 A PICTURE of the daily life of tlio Greeks must of 
 necessity be subject to various changes according to 
 time and place. Life in the sixth century B.C. was 
 different from that in the fourth ; the daily occupation 
 and the mode of life of a Spartan differed from those 
 of an Athenian or Theban ; and again, the rich and 
 free citizen spent his time in a very different way from 
 the small artisan or countryman, who was dependent 
 on the work of his own hands. 
 
 There is very little to say about the heroic period, 
 and we cannot form any complete picture of it. 
 Homer describes only the life of the nobles, but he 
 does not tell us how they spent their time when they 
 were not tifjiitino-, though this was a very common occu- 
 pation, owing to the numerous feuds and predatory 
 expeditions against their neighbours. It is not likely 
 that the princes and nobles spent all their time at 
 festive banquets, delighting in plentiful food and drink, 
 and listening to the songs of the bard, though there 
 are many passages in Homer which might lead us 
 to suppose so. No doubt the pleasures of the feast 
 and of wine were held in very high estimation in the 
 heroic period, yet serious and respectable citizens 
 can hardly have spent their whole day in luxurious 
 
17G <;i!KEK life at home. 
 
 idleness, like the wooers of Penelope, who dail)' feasted 
 at the ex[iL'nse of others. Laertes, who, even in his 
 old age, worked in his garden, was far nioru typical of 
 the Homeiie noble, who was in reality only a landed 
 Ijropiictor on a large scale, and devt)ted the greater 
 part of his time to agrienltnral pnrsuits, himself often 
 taking active part in them. He was also occupied 
 with gvninastic exercises, and occasionally hy political 
 dnties, snch as attendance at the popnlar assemblies 
 which concerned the interests of the coinitry. 
 But the great tiuiss of the people, as o])posed to the 
 few mendiers of the noliility, occitpied themselves 
 chiefly with agricidtm'e and cattle rearing, and, to a 
 small extent, with handicrafts which were bnt .slightly 
 developud at this time, when many things were 
 imported from other cotmtries, and othei's chiefly 
 made at home. Of course they all liad to attend their 
 Prince as ^"assals in case of war, and in conse(|uence 
 there must have Ijcen military training for the lower 
 classes, even in time of peace. A[)art, however, from 
 military details, we learn nothing from Homer about 
 the life of these classes of society, and verj' little about 
 that of the nobility, for his description of the life of 
 the Phaeacians bears only a ver)' partial analogy to 
 Greek circumstances at that time, since the jjoet 
 desires to represent this ]i)i.'ople as specially fortmiate 
 bej'ond others. We may, therefore, forsake the misty 
 domain of legiiid and turn to those ages which are 
 enlightened for us b}' writers, th()Ugli even there we 
 shall find i]iauy gaps imhlled. 
 
 It is a natural consecpicnce of the nature of our 
 authorities that, even in historic times, the descriptions 
 of authors present us principtally with a reflection of 
 life in towns, and esjjecially large tfjwns or capitals. 
 At the piresent day life in large to\vns differs in many 
 
DAILY LIFE. 177 
 
 essential respects from that in small ones, and even 
 more from that in the country : and doubtless, even in 
 antiquity, there were strong contrasts, though, perhaps, 
 less clearly niarkcd than in modern times. In largo 
 towns, too, there were manj^ differences due to the 
 character of the race and the nature of the town 
 itself ; the life of a citizen in a large trading city 
 must have been very different from that at a place 
 where there was very little trade, and the interest 
 of the inhabitants was centred in ag'riculture. But of 
 all this in reality we know very little. 
 
 The life of the Spartan citizens was the most 
 regular and uniform, and this in consecpience of the 
 fixed and severe demands made on them by the State. 
 Their dwellings, though large and roomy, were of the 
 simplest description, and in other respects, too, the 
 life of the Dorians was distinguished by simplicity, 
 yet even here refinements of life gradually gained 
 ground, and in the Dorian colonies often went so far as 
 to produce effeminacy. Life at Sparta itself adhered 
 longest to its primitive simplicity. Here, too, the old 
 Dorian custom of common meals, called Syssifiit or 
 Fheiditia, prevailed longest; a Spartan took his 
 meals, not with his family, but with other com- 
 panions, usually connected by relationship. They 
 were small parties of about fifteen men, who clubbed 
 together for this purpose ; each contriljuted his 
 appointed share to the expenses of the meal, partly in 
 kind (especially barley, wine, cheese, figs, or dates), 
 partly in money for the purchase of meat. This last 
 was, however, supplied in part by the frequent sacri- 
 fices, and also by hunting, for the custom, prevailed of 
 contributing additional gifts now and then, apart from 
 the legal contribution : sometimes some game or 
 whoaten bread, instead of the usual barley bread, or 
 
 M 
 
17s CltF.EK I,TFE AT HOME. 
 
 poultry, yoniii;' i';il tlr, tVuits, etc., accurdiiig to o])por- 
 tunity (ir seasun. Tlit' iiornrions "black broth," which 
 played a urea t part at tlicsc meals, wa-s imt sn much 
 sonp as a sdhd mral dish with lirotli, and though 
 siuiplr and casil\" piTparcd, ^\'as pi'dbrdily not as bad as 
 it seemed t" the daiiit\- palates of the other ( Irecks. 
 These (-(immon meals, though by nn uu/aus luxurious, 
 were not in au\' sriisr meagre: and though jilentit'ul 
 drinking- atba' llir meal was not as customary at Sjiarta 
 as in other places, \"et e\'ery yuest had his cup beside 
 him tilled with mixcil wine, and as soi:>n as it ^vas 
 enipt\' it \vas tilled u[) aL;'aiu by the cup-bearer. The 
 intercourse aunjUL;' these men was cheerful and free; 
 they discusseil politic:d and military mattci'S, and 
 also found time for mei'ihiient and even sinyiny. 
 Women dined alon(.' at heina.' \\ith the smaller children 
 and the daughters; the boys, as soon as tlu'y had 
 outgrown thi.'ir mother's care, wei'i,'. taken by their 
 fathers to the mess, and sat beside them there on low 
 stools, reeei\'ing little p<:irtions of the dishes -which 
 were considered suitable for youth. When they gi'ew 
 older they dined together with their own mess. 
 
 No ( ireekraec desjiised handicrafts wlieu pursued for 
 the sake ot money as mmdi as the- ] )orians ; no Spartan 
 Avould pursue a craft or trade. Still the life of the 
 Jjaijonian must not be imagined as one of pure idleness ; 
 there were sufficient opportunities for other occupa- 
 tions. In the first place there were the gymnastic and 
 militar)- exercises, which (occupied a great part of the 
 day, then thei-e was tiic study of music, wdncli was 
 continued even after their education had ended ; 
 hunting, too, was a very favourite i'>ccupation among 
 the J torians, and was valued on account of its tendency 
 to harden the l»od}". Some time, too, was occupied by 
 State matters, and also Ijy the exoi-cise of reheious 
 
iJxi.iji L Ajir j:j. 17.) 
 
 duties, such as sacriticos, choruses, etc. Moreover, 
 there was a great deal of social life auioug the uieu. 
 In most Dorian cities there were special i nee tiny -halls, 
 or club-rooms (Xeo-T^at), which existed at Athens also 
 and other places. The older citizens used to assemble 
 there and discuss various matters of interest. 
 
 We must now turn to Athens, where, in con- 
 sequence of tlie more numerous literary autlKjritics, 
 we can form a clearer idea of the conditions, and 
 attempt also to form a picture of the town itself, such 
 as it appeared iir its most flourishing period under 
 Pericles, and after his time. It -would be a great ■ 
 niistake to form an idea of the appearance of the 
 whole city from the .splendid buildings on the Acro- 
 polis, the temples which are partly standing at the 
 present day, and the other public buildings which 
 were constructed and decorated without regard to ex- 
 pense. Most private houses were cjuite plain outside; the 
 ground-floor generally had no windows ; there were no 
 splendid porticoes, or elaborate facades, and theywerelow, 
 seldom having more than two storeys. There was no 
 regular arrangement of streets in the older period, any 
 more than there was in our cities in the nnddle ages ; 
 and even after the burning of the city by the Persians, 
 when dwellings had to be constructed for the returning 
 population, the town was cjuickly rebuilt without any 
 regular plan. It was not till later that streets were 
 methodically laid out, and this was largely due to the 
 influence of Hippodamus of Miletus, who flourished 
 about the middle of the fifth century, and reformed 
 the ancient style of building cities. Athens itself 
 could not profit by his system, which adopted a 
 uniform artistic plan for the construction of a whole 
 town ; but he was able to carry out his scheme in the 
 building of the lower citj^ near the Peiraeus, \vdiich 
 M 2 
 
ISO fiitEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 took place under I'erides. Here Hippoclaiinis con- 
 structed a networlc ef strai^lit bmad streets, cutting 
 each other at right angles, and in the middle he placed 
 a large market, CA-idently in the iurm of a stpiare, 
 called the " ilarket of Hijipodamus." The land 
 holonging to this suburb had probably beeii very little 
 built on; Ave de nut know whether the State had any 
 right uf Dwnership (jver these new buildings. The 
 flourishing suburbs, the numerous public squares 
 planted with trees and laid out in the manner of parks, 
 did nmeh to improve the appearance of the city, but 
 a great deal jnust still have been wanting to make it 
 appear reallv comfortable to us UKiderns, or even to the 
 liomans of the Empire. In the first })lace, the streets 
 were unpaved, and there were uo sidewalks; these 
 improvements Avere not introduced until the Eoman 
 period, and Greek antifputy was content with ordinary 
 high roads ; it is natural, therefore, that in dry weather 
 the dust, and in rainy weather the uukI, should have 
 been disagreeable. Very little attention -was paid to 
 the cleanliness of public roads ; all kitchen re-fuse, bath 
 water, etc., was simply poured out of doors ; at night 
 it was even thniiwn straight from the windows on to 
 the street, and though it was usual to call, "Out of the 
 way/' yet careless people might sometimes be be- 
 sprinkled (ju their way home at night. There was no 
 public cleansing of the streets; it was left to beneficent 
 rains to wash away all undeanness, although the 
 street and market police {daTvv6/j.oi and dyopav6fj,oi,), 
 whose duty it was to maintain order in the streets and 
 market places, w-ere supposed to see that they were 
 kept in proper condition, and could compel proprietors 
 who threw out ashes or other refusi; to clear this 
 a\vay_: yet they prolialjly (/ontined themselves to kec))- 
 ing the streets in fairl\' goiid fiuilding coiulition and 
 
DAILY LIFE. ISl 
 
 seeing that all was in order when processions liad 
 to pass along certain roads. Generally speaking, 
 Nisscn* is pro'oabljr right when he maintains that, to 
 form an idea of the life at Athens by any modern 
 counterpart, wc must not think of Florence or Munich, 
 but rather of Cairo or Tunis. 
 
 As regards the interior of the houses, we know 
 very little about the arrangement and ajipointment of 
 the rooms. Naturally these were liable to variations, 
 since a small family might inhabit a modest little 
 dwelling, or there might be larger houses, containing 
 numerous apartments. The front door, ^vhich opened 
 (sometimes outwards) into the street, at which those 
 who desired entrance knocked with their hngers or 
 the knocker, was opened by a slave, acting as 
 porter, and generally led to a hall, through which, 
 either direct or through a second door, an open hall 
 surrounded with a colonnade {Peristjilimn) was 
 reached, which in the dwelling-houses of the historic 
 period corresponded to the open courtyard of the 
 Homeric palace, and bears an analogy to the Afrlurn 
 of the Roman house. This space, which was un- 
 covered in the middle, and surrounded b}^ colonnades, 
 was the usual dwelling-place of the family ; sometimes 
 they took their meals there, and the altar to Zeus 
 fferkeios, generally stoofl there. Round about were 
 apartments whose doors, and probably windows, too, 
 opened into the central hall ; for it was not custom- 
 ary to have ground-lioor windows opening on the 
 street, and the sides of the houses usually touched 
 the walls of the neighbouring buildings, so that the 
 rooms on the ground-floor could, as a rule, only 
 obtain their light from the central hall. Part of 
 these apartments were destined for the men, and 
 
 * Nisscn. — " Pompeianisclic Studieu." 
 
lS-2 
 
 <:i;i:i:k like w home. 
 
 others lor tlie winin'ii, but tliero was no i^'onoral 
 roiiiu. If till' liiinsr uas built on a consiilrrablo 
 space, and liad only one store}-, the men's rooms 
 t^-enerally uptaied direi't <>n the central hall, while 
 the women's Avei'e jilaced beliind these, and were 
 se[)arated frdiii them by a special door, and 
 doubtless, tiio. bv a special corridor, throunh wdiich 
 the women could I'cach the street without passing 
 thronuli the men's apartments. If the house was 
 suiall it was built in t^'o storeys, and the -women's 
 apartments were then situated in the upper storey. 
 This lalter arranu'ement ap])ears to have been the 
 most ['rei]uent. We often tind allusions to women 
 lookini;- ilown on to the street from the. windows of 
 the upper storeys, and "we also often find wi;>nien 
 ri.'pi'csented on vase jiietures sitting' at upper-storey 
 ■windows. These window openings were closed either 
 by bars or wooden shutters, sini-e ghiss panes were 
 ludoiown in the ( Ireek period. Where there wore a 
 go(-id many slaves, it sceins that the male slaves slept 
 in the men's apartments, and the female in the 
 women's a[)artmi'nts, excejit in those cases wdiere the 
 master allowed certain couples to live together. In 
 Lu'c'cr houses, which containeil a, great number of 
 
 1 ms, ^vv must imagine not ord}^ special sleejiing and 
 
 dinini;' apartments, al<;>ng with gncst-chainbers, rooms 
 for the slaves, store-roiims, work-i'ooms, library, bath- 
 room, etc., Ijut also a second hall in the centre of the 
 Women's apartments, and u'ardens c'omieeted with 
 this: thoueh flower gardens seem to have been a late 
 introduction at Atliens — it is said, indeed, that they 
 date' from tlie time of K]ii(;urus. AVc must not 
 assume that e\-eryon(^ had his own house in ancient 
 Athens. It is true that a house could be acquired 
 for a very low jirice, us is pro\'ed li)- the example of 
 
DAILY J.IFK, iS3 
 
 Socrates, whose whole wealth was taxed as fi^-c nhnae 
 (something under twenty pounds), and j^ct inchided a 
 house ; hut still there Avere a great number of poorer 
 citizens who hired their dwellings. The upper storey, 
 which no doubt had a special entrance, and which 
 occasionally projected beyond the ground-Hoor, was 
 let to lodgers, while the owner lived on the ground- 
 floor. Large lodging-houses, many storeys high, such 
 as existed at Rome, were probably not found at 
 Athens in tlie classical period. 
 
 We have no certain information about the place of 
 the kitchen. It was probably alwa)-s on the ground- 
 floor, and was certainly the only I'oom in the house 
 which had a chimney, since there was no heating 
 apparatus in the dwelling rooms. There appears to 
 have been a complete absence of all sanitary con- 
 veniences. 
 
 At the present day an indispensable factor in our 
 daily occupations is some apparatus for measuring the 
 time. This was not of so much consequence in Greek 
 antiquity, and, in fact, the means for exact division 
 were wanting. Thej' had no exact arrangement of 
 days extending from midnight t(j midnight, with 
 twenty-four hours of equal length, but instead they 
 distinguished between day-time and night-time, cal- 
 culating from sunrise to sunset, and naturally the 
 length of these periods dift'ered according to the time 
 of year. These two chief divisions were again sub- 
 divided ; first came early morning (fronr about (J till 
 9, if we take the equinoctial periods), the forenoon, 
 when the market-place began to fill (f) to 12), the 
 mid-day heat (12 to 3), and the late afternoon (3 to 6); 
 in the night there was, first, the time when the lamps 
 were lit (G till 10), the dead hours of the night (10 till 
 2), and the dawn (2 till 6). Besides this, they divided 
 
1S4 GREEK LIFE AT ]I<.)ME. 
 
 thu (lay iutii twelve C(|n:il divisions, the length of 
 A\'hi(;-li naturall)' ^•;^l■iell aeeordini;- to the Icngtli of the 
 (la^-. For this pm'pose the)' made use of the sun, 
 ^^'hich was, oi course, only available on cloudless days, 
 though these are by no means infre(|uent in the 
 south. All these arrangements for measuring the 
 time were probably invented by the Babylonians in 
 ^"er^' ancient tiuies, and introduced among the (Irecks 
 by Anaximander about 500 B.C. The most primitive 
 is the " shadow-pointer," which is only a pointed stick 
 fixed in the earth, or a column, or anything else of 
 the kind ; the length of the shadow, \\ liicli varies with 
 the position of the sun, supplied the standard for 
 calculating the bmurs. The length of the shadow, 
 which chanu'cd from morninsj' to evening, made a 
 superficial division of tii Lie possible, but it could not fix 
 the time once for all, for all days of the year, but had 
 to be special] \' calculated according to the changes of 
 the seasons. Twelve divisions of the day, to be deter- 
 mined by the shadow, corres[)onded with ours only at 
 the equinox : tliese hours, if wc may use the expres- 
 sion, were longer in summer and shorter in winter 
 than (.lur equinoctial hours. This explains wdiy the 
 time of the chii.'f meal, wliich was usually taken at 
 abiout five (.)r six in the afternoon, N\'as indicated some- 
 times b}' a 7-f'oot, sometimes li)' a 10- or 12-foot, or 
 even a. 20-foot shadow ; for though at midsummta- 
 the shadow would be quite sniall at this time, it would 
 liave a consideralile lengtli at the equinox, and at the 
 time of the Avintcr solstice it is probable that they did 
 not dine until after sunset. Unfortunately, we have 
 not sufficient information to determine exactly the 
 length of this shadow-pointer, Avhicli was douljtless 
 always the same, in order to prevent confusion. The 
 assumption tliat the pointer was aljout the average 
 
DAILY LIFE. 185 
 
 height of a hiunan being, and that people even used 
 their own shadows for measuring time, is very im- 
 probable. Such shadow-pointers probably stood in 
 public places, where everyone could make use of them 
 with help of the lines drawn on the ground ; they 
 could only bo set up in private dwellings when these 
 had large open spaces (which wa,s not often the case) 
 to which the sun could have access all day long. In 
 later times inventions were made which supplied wdiat 
 was wanting in this mode of reckoning time ; lines 
 were graven on the stone floor on which the shadow- 
 pointer stood, wdiich gave, at any rate, some indication 
 of the change in the length of the hours according to 
 the months ; a network of lines of this description 
 belonged to the obelisl-c which Augustus set up on 
 the Campus Martins, and also used as a shadow- 
 pointer. 
 
 The sun-dials, invented later than the shadow- 
 pointers, probably by Aristarchns, about 270 Ji.c, 
 were different ; here the shadow of a stick placed in 
 a semicircle, on which the hoiu's were marked 
 by lines, indicated the time of day. There wore 
 three kinds : first, those that were calculated at the 
 place on which they were set up, and could not be 
 moved, and which indicated the hours of the day 
 according as they changed in the course of the year ; 
 second, those wdrich were arranged for moving, and 
 could be set u}) at different places ; and, third, those 
 used by mathematicians, which showed the equi- 
 noctial hours such as we use to-day. It is impossible, 
 however, to determine whether the (Ireeks were 
 acquainted with all the three kinds wdiich w^e hud 
 in use in the Roman period. 
 
 Besides this, water clocks were used, and here 
 aeain we must disting-uish two kinds. The common 
 
LS(.i GIIEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 "water cloi-lc. wliii-li, like "ur li(nir-L;l:iss, niarked a 
 dctinito iiniod i)t' time l.iy the Mowing away of a 
 certain (jnantity uf water, is certainly a very ancient 
 invention. This clock consisted of a vessel ot clay or 
 glass, in tlie shape of a jar or a liasin, whiidi was 
 tilled with water hy an opening above, and a, second 
 cnp-shap!'(l vessel, on the top uf Avhicli the former 
 was arrariLjeil in sncli a way that the water ponred ont 
 slowh' throngh little sieve-like oiienings into the lower 
 vess(.'l. Water clocks uf this kind probably existed in 
 must honseliolds, Imt were not real clocks, smce they 
 did not indicate the honr of the day, bnt were only 
 nsed for ealcnlating some particnlar period of time. 
 They were chiefly nsed in the law courts to mark the 
 time allowed to eaeh spcalicr, and when a speech was 
 interrupted in order to hear witnesses, or to read out 
 documents, or for any other purpose, the flow (if the 
 water was stopped, and it was set going again when 
 the orator continued his speech. These water clocks 
 Were also used on other occasions wherever certain 
 periods r)f time had to be calculated, and this might 
 take place in any household. The same principle 
 underlay the water clocks \vhicli were supposed to 
 have l)een invented by Plato, and perfected bj' the 
 Alexandrine Ctesibius, by means of whiidi a long 
 p(.>riod of timi.' (Mjuld be subdivided into Cfjual parts, 
 and thus the hours of the night could Ije calculated, 
 which was of great importance. These water clocks 
 Could only lie constructed when it was possible to 
 make transparent glass vessels large enough to hold 
 a quantity of water sufficient to last for twelve 
 hours anrl longer ; on the glass there ^N'as a scale 
 gravc'n, Avljich ga^-e the relation of the hours to the 
 height of the water. JJut as the length of the 
 night decreases and increa,scs in the course oi the 
 
DAILY LIFE. i87 
 
 year, like that of the daj-, and therefore the len,<^th of 
 the night hours is continnally decreasing and in- 
 creasing, a very comphcated network of hnes was 
 required ; four vertical lines denoted the length 
 of the hours at the two solstices and the two 
 equinoxes, so that the exact ratio was given 
 for these days. At other times they had to 
 make shift with a more or less exact calculation, 
 assisted hy horizontal 
 cvu'ves, which con- 
 nected together the 
 third, sixth, ninth, 
 and twelfth hours. 
 (Compare the scheme 
 represented in Fig. 
 93, which shows the 
 network of lines en- 
 Q'raved on the tjiass 
 vessel.) The longest 
 and shortest daj-s 
 are here set down 
 according to the lati- 
 tude of Athens, the former as 14 hours, 36 minutes, 56 
 seconds, the latter as 9 hours, 14 minutes, 16 seconds. 
 The improvement of C'tesibius consisted in adding a 
 table with horizontal hour-lines to the water-vessel, on 
 Avhicli a metal wire, fastened to a cork that swam on 
 the water, marked the time h\ its position, which r(ise 
 according to the increase of the water. These clocks 
 could, of course, be used in the daytime, when the 
 weather made the sun-dial useless, but a different 
 scale was required from that of the night clocks. 
 Still, as the difference between the longest night and 
 the longest day, and the shortest night and the 
 shortest day, is very slight, the same scale could 
 
ISS 
 
 CREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 reallv Ihj used for day and nii^lit, l>ut in revorsc order, 
 as indicated liy Fi,^;'. O-'i 
 
 Jjct ns now (.'onsider tlic manner in -wdiicli an 
 Athenian citizen nsually divided his time. We can- 
 not, ot' eiiurse, name an)' definite honr for rising', still 
 it seems jirolialile that early rising was the rule at 
 Athens, and that not only the artisans henan their 
 work dirccth- after snnrise, lait that the schools, too, 
 often opened earh". The moi'nini;- toilet (hn's not 
 seem to have o(/enpied nni(di time. In washing', a 
 slave poured water over his master from an ower over 
 
 a basin, and some sub- 
 stitute for soap, such 
 as fuller's earth <.)r l^'e, 
 was used ; men who 
 1 i ved very si n i }>le lives, 
 like. Socrates, proliahly 
 performed their ablu- 
 tions at one of the 
 ]>nljlic wells. Jh'cak- 
 fast was a scanty meal, and generally consisted of 
 unmixed wine and bread. After that, artisans or 
 oth(.'rs who had a definite trade went to their 
 daily occupations; but the citizens who hail no 
 regular ])rofession, unless attracted liy somi.! otlier 
 occupation, such as hunting, generally tised the 
 inorning hours visiting thcar friends, practising 
 gymnastics, or, snpjiosing thev put oft' these oc- 
 cupations to a later honr, ^•isiting the liarlier to 
 have their hair arranged or their lic;irds lait or 
 shaved. As \\'e liave aln.'ady discussed the; (jnes- 
 tion of hair-drc'ssing (p. (j,5), we Avill here only give 
 a picture of some' ancient lironzi.' razors (l''ig. 04), 
 whicli are of s(.'mi-circtdar shape, and differ (.■ssentially 
 from i.iur modern ones. The pri.'tty terra-cotta group 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 .l«!j 
 
 from Tanagra, in Fig. 95, transports us to a barber's 
 shop ; a worth)' citizen, apparently covered bj' a long 
 dressing-mantle, is seated on a low stool, while a 
 
 Fig. 9.3. 
 
 short man standing behind him — perhaps a slave — is 
 carefulh' cutting his hair with a pair of scissors. 
 Barbers undertook the care of both hair and beard, 
 and cut and cleaned the nails. These barbers' shops 
 were also meeting-places for the citizens — not only 
 for idlers, but, generally speaking, for all who desired 
 to hear the news. This custom still prevails in many 
 
100 GP.EEK LIFK AT IIO:^Ii:. 
 
 jiarts (if ltal\-, fs]n'rially in tlir south, where the 
 ><<diiii(: is a general iiieetiii,L;-place. Even in ancient 
 times harlioi's liad a i-e[)ntation for heini;' talkative. 
 Ever\' (la)' many people entered their shops, and 
 amoni;' them stranyers who l)roni;'ht ik.'WS and ex 
 pieeted to reei.'ive some in exchan^'e. It is well known 
 that the news of th(.' defeat of tlic Athenian expe- 
 dition t(i Sieilv \vas first made known in a harber's 
 shop in the Teiraeus by a stranger who had just 
 landed. 
 
 All this occupied about tla; first cpiart(.'r of the 
 da^• : the second part was devoted to "\dsiting the 
 market. The market-place serve(l not I'nly its 
 original end as a jilacc for selling, but was also the 
 place wlierc ac(piaintanccs met and business was 
 transacted. Here stood the money-changers and the 
 bankers, at their booths or shops; here were shady 
 arcades, with comfortable seats, where the hot rays of 
 the sun miglit be avoided in summer, while there was 
 opi)ortunity in the winter of proHting by the warmth 
 of the workshops situated close by the market-place. 
 It was a very general custom in cold weather to go to 
 public batlis or smiths' workshojis, where a warm 
 stove could certainly Ik; found, and poor people, who 
 did not possess the means of warming themselves 
 at Iiome, often pressed so eagerly to the bath-stoves 
 that they singed their c-lothes. In fact, it was a very 
 general cust(.)in to enter any workshop or Iiooth to 
 have a chat ^\'itll the (l^vn(_■r or the visitors there, even 
 without any intention of making purchases. We 
 need not, therefore, be surprised when wo hear of 
 Socrates visiting a .shoemaker or a sculpttor or any 
 other artisan anrl beginning a discussion with him ; 
 this custom was so general that meetings were 
 arranged in the \vorksh(jps — thus, for instance, the 
 
DAILY LIFE. 191 
 
 people of Decelea, when they came to Athens, iilways 
 met at a particular barber's shop. 
 
 The men also went to marlvct with the object (if 
 making purchases, for at Athens, curiously enough, 
 this shopping was not imclertaken by the women or 
 their servants, but by the men instead, who were 
 accompanied b}' a slave, and themselves purchased 
 the required food, and in particular the fish, so very 
 popular at Athens, for which there was a special 
 market, whose beginning was announced by a bell. 
 Later on, in the third century, it seems to have been 
 no longer regarded as correct for the master of the 
 house to make his own purchases ; in the richer houses 
 there ^vas a special slave (ayopaa-T^]^) kept for this 
 purpose ; female slaves, too, were sometimes sent. 
 
 At mid-day the market was usuallj' over ; then the 
 men -went home and took a slight repast, not by any 
 means the chief meal of the day, but rather something 
 like our lunch. This meal, of course, varied a q-ood 
 deal according to individual fancy ; man}- people con- 
 tented themselves with the reinains of the previous 
 day's dinner, others had fresh warm dishes served 
 them ; and in Sicily and llagna Graecia, where great 
 stress was laid on good and plentiful food, this 
 often became a really substantial meal. Some people 
 entirely omitted this lunch, and either took a late 
 breakfast or an earlier dinner. Still, most well-to-do 
 people seem to have taken some meal at the end of 
 their morning's business. 
 
 The afternoon was spent in various ways. The heat 
 which prevails at this time during the greater part of the 
 year generally compelled people to stay at home then ; 
 some took a little mid-day nap, but this was not very 
 general. Men of serious disposition devoted these hours 
 to reading or other intellectual pursuits, while those 
 
192 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 M-ho wcr{> inclined to idleness probably went, even in 
 tbe afternoon, to tbe houses devoted to dice- thro wing 
 and drinking, or else dawdled about in the barbers' 
 shops, workshops, etc. ; the club rooms, which were 
 specially devoted to social intercourse among the 
 citizens, were probably very full at this time. Between 
 the third and fourth divisions of the da}', they generally 
 took a bath as a preparation for dinner'. The custi^m 
 of taking a warm bath daily had at first found much 
 opposition in (Ireece. In Homer we find warm baths 
 only mentioned as a refreshment after long journeys 
 or other fatigues, or else used for purposes of cleanli- 
 ness ; later on, cold baths, especially in the sea ov in 
 streams, were recommended as good fV)r the health 
 and strengthening for the nerves, while warm baths 
 were looked upon as enervating ; still the custom 
 be(.-ame very common of taking a bath before dinner, 
 either at home or in one of the 2inblic baths. We 
 have already introduced our readers to a jmblic bath 
 for w(.)men ; Fig. 90 represents a public bath for men, 
 taken from a vase picture. In the middle is the bath 
 room, where the water is pouring out of two animals' 
 heads, <Jn the right and left are youths wdio have 
 already taken their bath, and are about to anoint 
 themselves with oil. We know very little about these 
 public liaths from writers ov from remains of the 
 buildings. They Avere certainly not nearly so large or 
 so luxurious as the Tliri-niiir of the Roman Em})ire ; 
 but even in the (ireek baths there were separate 
 apartments for warm, cold, and vapour baths, with 
 large reservoirs or smaller basins, in which water was 
 poured out over the body, alsf) rooms for undressing, 
 anointing, etc. The more the custom grew of remain- 
 ing for hours in these places or connecting them with 
 the gymnasia, the more extensive they became and 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 193 
 
 the more luxurious. "We cannot accurately ascertain 
 to what extent the State sometimes owned these 
 public haths and attended to their maintenance, but 
 admission was not free even to these ; a small fee was 
 paid to the bath 
 attendant, win i 
 superintended 
 the place, and 
 rendered assist- 
 ance in the bath, 
 not perhaps to 
 cover the ex- 
 penses of main- 
 tenance, so much 
 as for his own 
 trouble and la- 
 bour. The owners 
 of private baths 
 were, of course, 
 obliged to charge 
 higher fees if 
 the}' wanted not 
 only to cover 
 their expjenses, 
 but also to gain 
 a profit ; mention 
 is made of a 
 private bathing 
 establishment 
 
 Avhich iN'as sold for 3,000 drachmae, and must, there- 
 fore, have b)rought in corresponding interest to the 
 purchaser, which could only be obtained by the 
 entrance fees of the bathers. The owner and atten- 
 dants ^YeTe responsible for the care of the bath, but 
 not for' the clothes of the bathers, which were often 
 
 X 
 
104 caiEEK LIFE AT JU1.MI-. 
 
 st(.)len. Those who had jilonty oi slaves used, there- 
 fore, to Wmg one witli them to earry the utensils 
 rei|nireil for the hath, sncli as towels, oil tiashs, and 
 stri^ils, and to "wateh over liis master's clothes wliile 
 he was hathini;-. As the custom ol' takiuL;' a warm 
 liath daily heeamc more general, the scene in the bath 
 houses an hour heforo dinner L;rew more and more 
 animated. Talkim;' and jeikiug \vent on; eheertully- 
 ihsjioscd |ici.iplc even saiiL;', though that was rei^'arded 
 as unseend\-: in tlie rooms devoted to rei'reshmcnt 
 after the hath they })la\-o(l knuckle-hones, or dice, or 
 haU, sometimes even eottahus, k>Y which L;'anic wine was 
 neeessarA', and hence we must infer that ojiportunitv 
 for wine di'inkiny was also ci\-cn tliei'i.' in later times. 
 
 Towards sunset, or in ^vinter after sunset, th(y 
 returned homi.' f u' the jirini-ipal meal, or els(.' "went to 
 the house of some friend who had invited uuests. In 
 the latter case the meal was t;'enera,lly a e.ri(:)d deal 
 prolonge(k anil f illowcd hv drinking, whi(di exteirdi.'d 
 tar into the night. Those \\ho diiu'd at home with 
 their wives ami children generally hnishi'd their meal 
 ver}- (juickly, and as the custom of early rising pre- 
 vailed, they \veri> pnjfiahly in the liahit of retiring 
 early, rmless the cares of Ijusiness, studw cir other 
 serious pursuits kept some of them awake by lamp- 
 hglit : for tlie cpiiet of the m'ght v.'as a propitious 
 time f.tr serious thought after the noise of the day, 
 whicli was profialily as great in ancient times in the 
 busy south as it is to-day. It is well-known that 
 Demosthenes prepared nearly all liis speeches at iright. 
 
 There wi.'re also many otlier occupations, partly 
 serious, parti}- entertaining, which Hlled U]> the life of 
 the fn-eek citizen. At the time of the highest political 
 development of Athens, in the fifth and fourth centuries, 
 the political and judicial duties occujiied a. (consider- 
 
DAILY LIFE. IDS 
 
 able amount of a citizen's time. Even if he did not 
 till any of the numoi-ous unpaid posts, or sit in the 
 Council of Five Hundred, the Boale, whose duty it 
 was to hold preliminary discussions, he still had to 
 devote about forty days of the year to the ordinary 
 popular assemblies, in addition to which there were 
 often extraordinary meetings. Supposing the lot 
 should have appointed him to bo one of the 0,000 
 juijmen {ifKiaaTai) annually chosen, this gave him 
 plenty to do for his j-ear of office, for, besides the 
 ineetings, he had to accpure information about various 
 suits at which he had to give his opinion ; and wo 
 know, chiefly from Aristophanes, how devoted many 
 citizens were to their judicial duties, and how all their 
 thoughts and actions were often centred in this 
 activitj^, which b)' no means alwaj's exercised a good 
 moral intiuence over them. Rich citizens also per- 
 formed voluntary public services {Xeirovpylai,), which 
 consisted partly in entertaining the p)eople by provid- 
 ing scenic or choric representations, gjnimastic games, 
 torchlight processions, etc., partty in important services 
 to the State, such as equipping a man-of-war at their 
 own expense. These voluntary services not only 
 imposed on the rich citizens considerable money 
 burdens, which in later times, when the Athenian 
 wealth had diminished, could no longer be met by 
 one individual, but also took up a great deal of 
 their time, since they had not only to supply the 
 necessary money, but also to superintend and 
 arrange the work. Another change in the monotony 
 of daily life was supplied by the religious festivals, in 
 which the Attic calendar wa5 unusually rich, and the 
 theatrical and other performances connected \vith 
 them, v\'ith which we shall deal later on. 
 
 Those who possessed estates in the country, even 
 N 2 
 
l!»lj (ii;EEK LIFE AT H<i.ME. 
 
 wIk.'Ii i1ii'\- liN'i'd ill tiiwn, oftt'ii wrut out to tliciu to 
 liidl; a['t(.T llic iM;iri:i;^viui.'iit ; Imiitiuy and l>ii-fl-catcliii\n- 
 wrri' alsii AiTN' popular uecujiatioiis. The ii)i'iiier 
 (■spccial]\- was a t:n"i"mrile ainusrinciit. Hunting in 
 ancii'nt times was Yt'r\- diflerent from what it is at 
 tlio pri'si;nt day ; this is partly (hio to the great 
 dilt'iTcuec iH^iwceii ouv modi.TU firearms and the hinit- 
 iiig implimeiits of the ani'ients, partly to their almost 
 iiin\'ei'>al custom of using nets, into whieh they drove 
 the game and there killed it. These nets were used 
 for nearly all (|uadruppds whieli they hunted, and the 
 sirength and di_'nsity of the meshes diflert'd aeeording 
 to the iilijei/t fiunted, as wt'll as the method of arrange- 
 nirnt. Tliere A\'ei-e in particular hag nets, which 
 were draA\-u together hehijid the game when it ran 
 into it, and falling nets, which were hung loosely on 
 foi-kcd stii/ks, and when the animal I'an against them 
 fell down from the sticks and, entangled it. Snares 
 "w.'rc also used for catching not only hares and 
 foxes, hut also larger foiu--fi:ioted game, such as hoars 
 and stags. In (•onseijuence of this custom of driving 
 the game, andi liringing it to hay, liows which wore 
 cali/ulated fir longer distances were, of ver)" little US(! 
 in hunting: the animals wer(.' (.'ith(.'r killed by a light 
 javelin thrown fn.im a. small distance', oj', if tlie game 
 had turned ti.i hay, Avith a hanger, which was especially 
 useftil in jioar fmnting. l)ogs were used for starting 
 the game and driving it into the nets at ha)', and the 
 ancients de\-i"ited a good de:d of care to their training; 
 indeed, tlie important part played I13- dogs^ in (frcek 
 hunting is express(.'d liy tlie ( ire(d^ name for huntsman, 
 wdiich means ■' (fig hrddw " {Kuvrjyo^). They used to 
 hunt hoars, stags, liares : heasts ijf pre\-, such as wolves 
 and jaelrals, weri.' only hunted when they were danger- 
 is to the herds ; and larger animals, such as lions 
 
 01 
 
JJAlJjl Jjiiii. 
 
 and bears, did not exist at all in Greece in historic 
 ages, although the numerous legends of lion hunts 
 bear sufficient testimony to their existence in earlier 
 times. Birds were caught with nets, snares, traps, and 
 lime ; and, since Greece was by no means rich in 
 quadrupeds suitable for hunting, bird-catching was 
 one of the most popular occupations, and also a lucra- 
 tive one. On the other hand, lishing, which was 
 carried on with both lines and nets, seems never to 
 have become a regular sport. 
 
 We have already alluded to the practice of visiting 
 the gjannasia, and the military duties of the citizens. 
 There were also public houses and gaming houses, but 
 these do not appear to have played a great part in 
 the lives of the men. The drinking parties supplied 
 sufficient opportunity for social meetings. Those wdio 
 visited the public drinking bars usually did so for 
 other purposes as well — to see pretty girls or to meet 
 companions for dice, though both these purposes 
 coidd be effected in special houses. It is natural, 
 therefore, that it was not regarded as respectable to 
 visit the wine bars, and that respectable men, as well 
 as youths of good principle, avoided them. iStill, even 
 here the custom seems to have gradually relaxed, and 
 though the Athenians were never as bad as the in- 
 habitants of Byzantium, who were accused of spending 
 the whole day at the bars, yet at the end of the fourth 
 and in the third century B.C. it was very common for 
 young men, or people of the lower classes, to dawdle 
 about in the wine bars and gaming houses. 
 
 Travelling played a far less important part in the 
 life of the Greeks than it does at the present day. In 
 ancient times almost the only inducement for travel- 
 ling was business. The merchant plied his trade 
 chiefly as a sailor, the smart shopkeeper travelled 
 
198 OKEEK LIKE AT HOME. 
 
 about the country as a pedhir. In the heroic period 
 we also tind artisans and travelHui;' singers on their 
 wanderiui;-s, and in the first centuries of the develop- 
 iuent of art, and to some extent even afterwards, 
 sculptors and architects were siunnmned Ironi a 
 distance to execute conuuissions under the orders 
 of the State, or some special board of officials. 
 Hut those who -were neith(.'r merchants nor artisans 
 had less inducement to travel; for military expeditions, 
 which of Course were nnniei'ous, can hardly be included 
 amoui;- journeys. There 'vvere also official embassies 
 iind pilgrimages to celebrated shrines, or visits to 
 the great national festivals. Again, Solon, Herodotus, 
 and others travelled for political or scientific ])ur]3oses, 
 with a vie^v to stud}' history or etliuography, that they 
 might learn to know foreign nations, their manners 
 and customs, countries and buildings. In the Alexan- 
 drine period, journeys were also undertaken f(jr 
 jnu-poses of natural science. (_)in.' modern custom of 
 visiting foreign lands f(_)r the sake of their natural 
 beaut}' was unkn(_>wn in (ilreek anti(|uity, but we must 
 not on that account supjiose that the ancients had no 
 feeling for natural beauty. The <)dyssey gives a 
 picture of travel in heroi(; tiiiies; the connnon man 
 trudges along on foot, -while the ri(di man goes in his 
 carriage, drawn by hoises or mules, and the fact that 
 the latter was possible even in the mountainous Pelo- 
 ponnesus, pro\-es that even at that period good roads 
 must have existed theiT:!. The ( ireeks never attained 
 as great perfection in road-making as the Romans ; 
 ajiparently those roads were kept in best condition 
 -\\-hicli led to the national sanctuaries, and here rc'ular 
 tracks were cut out of the rocky ground, and there 
 were places for passing other carriages, halting places, 
 etc. This was not, however, the case with all the 
 
DAILY LIFE. ia9 
 
 roads, and we must not assume that ancient Greece 
 possessed a well-kept complicated network of streets, 
 such as the practical Romans constructed at every 
 place to which their legions came ; indeed, in historic 
 times it appears that people travelled very little in 
 carriages. Of course those had to be used on long- 
 journeys, especially when women were travelling ; then 
 they used four-wheeled carriages, which were some- 
 times used for sleeping in ; and they also had smaller 
 two-Avheeled carts. But as a rule men travelled on 
 horse-back or mule-back, and very often merely on 
 foot, followed by one or many slaves, wdio carried the 
 baggage required for the journey, in particular bed- 
 coverings, clothes, utensils, etc. 
 
 If it was necessary to spend the night anj^-where 
 on a journey of several days, the widespread beautiful 
 custojii of hos]3itality which prevailed in ancient times, 
 and made men regard every stranger as under the 
 protection of Zeus, enabled them to tind shelter ; and, 
 though this custom could not maintain itself in later 
 times in its full extent, yet the effects of it still 
 remained, and many people entered into a sort of 
 treaty of hospitality with men in other towns, which 
 was usually handed on to the descendants. By this 
 they pledged themselves on the occasion of visits 
 from members of one or the other family, to receive 
 them in their houses and afford them the rights 
 of hospitality ; some little token of recognition 
 previously agreed on — such as a little tablet, a ring 
 Ibroken into two halves, or something else of the 
 sort — was used in such cases to legitimise the 
 stranger. Sometimes whole districts entered into 
 a league of this kind with one another, or one single 
 rich man became the " guest-friend " of some foreign 
 community, and entertained them when they came to 
 
200 rniEEK li1''E at iidme. 
 
 his homo. The service of the " gtiest-frieiid " was not 
 always extended so far as to supply complete enter- 
 tainment to the stranger as well as ludgiuL;- ; utten lie 
 only supplied the lodging, the necessary eo^■erings for 
 the hcd, and the use of the tire, «dii(/li could not 
 easily he ]irocured, hut in other respe(;ts lett the 
 guest, if he had hiTinght servants with liini, to prii- 
 vide for himself; some additional gifts of hospitality 
 were usually sent him. Still this custom of "guest- 
 friendship" was not sufficient to supply slielter for all 
 travellers: therefore inns were openc<!. in large trading 
 cities, near harhours, and places of pilgrimage, such 
 as iJelos, ] )elphi, (Jlympia, etc., where strangers were 
 entertained for payment. Tliese inns were of very 
 various character — some of them apparently supplied 
 onljr rooms and a little furniture, espe(/ially liedsteads 
 while the stranger brought his owii bed and coverlets, 
 and had to provide his own fo()d ; others supplied 
 food and drink, and were often houses of ill-fame, and 
 in consetpience it is natural tliat the position of inn- 
 kee})er should have been generally looked do'wn upon 
 in Greek antirpiity. Probably these inns were not 
 particularly pleasant places to stay in ; A'cry often the 
 landlord cheated the travellers, and it was customary 
 to arrange the price of everything beforehand : there 
 were also inns which ^vere used as liiding-places 
 by robbers and thieves, and thus niight pi'o^-e dan- 
 gerous cpiarters for the guests. Another disagreeable 
 aceompaniiuent of southern inns, even in the present 
 day, is hinted at by Aristophanes in the " Frogs," 
 when Dionysus, on his journey to Hades, inquires for 
 the inns m which there are fewest Heas. Travellers do 
 not seem to have troubled themselves about passports ; 
 a legitimation was only necessary when the town to 
 which they were giving was engaged in war, or when 
 
they went into a hostile country in time of war. Bnt 
 to travel at all at such times was not ach-isaljlc, 
 for the roads, which at no time were specially safe, 
 were then infested Ijy traA-elling- mercenaries or 
 marauders. Sometimes travellers had to suljniit to 
 an examination of their luggage. Ofticials generally 
 farmed out the tolls to private nndertalvcrs, and these 
 therefore had, or at any rate took, the right, if they 
 suspected travellers of trying to smuggle dutiable 
 articles, to stop them and examiire their luggage, and 
 sometimes even to open letters which they had by 
 them. 
 
I'HAl'TEE YT, 
 
 MEALS AND SOCIAL EXTERTAIX:\[EXTS. 
 
 Hanqviets — T]io Vaiious Coui'sos — The Symposium — Its Cliaractrr — 
 Con^-ersatiun — iliisic — Knti rtainmi'nt.s — Jugglers — Flutr-( iirls — 
 KidtUos — ( Tames — Excussivr ])rinking-. 
 
 jVt Athens, and ])robably tliroii^liout (iroecc — except, 
 lierliaps, at S[iarta — the I'hief meal of the (hiy was 
 taken in the evening. This was not, hi;i\\'ev(n', the 
 case in the Homeric jierioch wlien it was taken at 
 miil-(hi\", and the eYening' meal was of less iniport- 
 ane.e. Tin:! cnstmns of the hi_'riiic age differed in 
 many respects from those of later times. In par- 
 ticnlar, the jiractice of sitting i.m chairs at meals then 
 prevaik'd, and, in fact, there was no largo C(jmmon 
 table nsed l)y all, fmt eaedi guest had his own little 
 table l)ef(ire him, on whii/h the attendants placed the 
 iood whii'h hail been carved at a, special board used 
 for the purpose. Another difference is that, though 
 the Homeric lieroes, in aca;ordance with the condition 
 of their lim(,'S, whiidi laid special stress on the pleasures 
 of the sens(.'s, eared a good deal for plentiful food and 
 (h'ink, and tliough full (/ujis were continually ciriding 
 at the UK.'als, still the ri_'gular di'inking parties ^vliich 
 were conuiion in later times, and which followed the 
 Tiieal itself, were fpiite luiknijwn in the heroic age. 
 
 In considi.'ring the meals of the historical period, 
 particularly at Athens, \vo nxust rememljcr that we 
 are dealing speeiallv with large common banquets, 
 v.'hich we)'e V(jry frerpient among men, and not with 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 203 
 
 the usual family meal, which the master of the house 
 took in the circle of his family. We know^ very little 
 of the proceedings at these family dinners, and that 
 only from works of art. On ({reek reliefs on tomb- 
 stones we often find, from the classical to thelniperial 
 period, representations of the family meal, where the 
 master of the house lies on his couch, his wife sitting 
 on it at his feet, for it was not considered correct for 
 women to lie down at meals as the men did, and when 
 we see on works of art women lying clown along with 
 the men, we may ho certain that these are hetaerae, 
 who were not bound by the same rules of custom. 
 The children of the house sat round the table on 
 chairs. Eut as a nde, the wife and children only 
 dined in the most intimate family circle ; when guests 
 were invited they dined alone in the women's apart- 
 ments, and only on some few occasions, especially 
 weddings and family festivals, were the women 
 allowed to appear before the men. 
 
 The custom of entertainments for men alone was 
 far more connnon in antiquity than at the present 
 day ; for these banquets took the place not ordy of 
 our parties and other social gatherings, but they 
 also gave the men an opportunity, especially in the 
 drinkino- which followed, while sittino- tot'-ether over 
 their wine, to discuss at their leisure both serious and 
 frivolous matters. There were also plenty of festive 
 occasions which gave opportunities for these common 
 banquets ; a public or private sacrifice was a very 
 common excuse, if only because the fiesh of the 
 victim — of which, as a rule, only the entrails were 
 burnt — could be best made use of in this manner. 
 There were also birthdays, funerals, victories in some 
 contest or game, departure or return frour a journey 
 of a friend, etc. ; all these occasions were celebrated 
 
204 (IlIEEK LTFE AT H(OIE. 
 
 by feasts, ami there were also great ]inblie banquets, 
 "which were usiuUh" of a simpler charaeter, ewiiii;' to 
 tlie number, of o'uests auil the i'aet that the expensi's 
 were publielv delraN'ed, jlesides these meals, to Avliich 
 individuals invited their friends or relations, picnics 
 were verv eouunon. Very "ften all who participated 
 sent liaskets of provisions into the house of one who 
 ^'uve up his rooms for tin.' purpose ; Imt it was evt'U 
 coumioner for eaidi to contribute a certain share of 
 moU(.'\-, and thus to defray the expenses of the uu'al, 
 \vlu(di \vas taken at the house of one of the }iar- 
 lici[>ants, or of souie obligiuL;' hetaera. AVe do not 
 IvUow what a)'ra.nL;'ement was made about the "wine, 
 and Avhether the expenses of this were also delVayed 
 out of the general charge. 
 
 ( ienerally speaking, in the iifth and f.iurth centuries 
 there ^vas a great deal of simple and pleasant social 
 intercourse ; friends were invited without any ceremony, 
 during tlie com-se of the day, to come to the evening 
 meal. If they did not appear at the appointed hour, 
 the meal began without therji, and if the guest put 
 in his appearance later on, this was regarded as a 
 matter of course. It seems not to have been unusual 
 to go even uninvited to the meal or to the Si/nqx/siiim 
 which followed it, and one of the sjieakcrs in Plato's 
 ■• Syni[iosiuiii " suggests the following version of a line 
 in Homer : — 
 
 '' To tlio fc;i.-;t.s (if the guod, tlie good iiiiliidden go." 
 
 Sometimes idle felljws, smdi as the parasites who 
 were always hunting for a dinner, made too liberal use 
 ot this hi.ispitality, or persons made their appearance 
 wdio did not suit with the rest of the company and 
 would have disturbed the general harmonjr. In such 
 cases the door keeping slave received the order to 
 
MEALH ANU WUUlAl^ JiiM JiKiiiliN jitiMn. ^05 
 
 send away certain persons, saying, " My master is not 
 at home," or else, " He has aheady retired to rest." 
 
 The nsual course of proceedings at one of these 
 banquets was as follows. The invited guests, wlio 
 according to custom had previously attended the bath, 
 first took their places sitting on the couches placed 
 ready for them. The slaves of the host, or even of 
 the guests, who often brought them to help wait at 
 tabic, then took off their masters' sandals or shoes, 
 and as the dust of the street might have soiled their 
 feet, "which were but slightly protected b}' the soles, 
 these were washed once more by the slaves, a proceed- 
 ing which was the more necessarj-, as in lying down 
 tliey often rested on couches covered with ver}^ 
 valuable coverlets. Hereupon they laj^ down, as a 
 rule two o'uests on one sofa, but the monuments 
 often show us three or even more persons on a single 
 couch, and we cannot always determine with certaintj^ 
 whether the artist has adhered to the actual practice 
 or introduced arbitrarj' changes of his own. In lying- 
 down they rested on their left elbow, or on numerous 
 cushions at their back ; the right arm was left free, in 
 order to take the food from the table and reach it 
 to the mouth ; but plates, dishes, cups, etc., were also 
 taken in the left hand. "When the guests had all lain 
 down and washed their hands in bowls handed round 
 for the purpose, the little three-legged dining tables 
 were brought in, which were always a little lower than 
 the sofas. On these the food was arranged in dishes 
 or plates, and always cut up small, for forks were 
 never used at table, but only in the kitchen by the 
 cooks for carving the meat, whilst the guests made 
 use, instead, of a spoon or sometimes of a piece of bread 
 hoUo^ved out, and very seldom used a knife. Tafile 
 cloths and napkins were unknown : the place of the 
 
206 < UEEK UFE AT HOME. 
 
 latter was taken bv soft (l()u,L;ii, (in which the fingers 
 were rul)bfd. At lai'^'o Ijamjucts, sometinics towels 
 and -\vater fur washinif the hands were handed round 
 betwevn the eourses, and this -was alwaj'S done at the 
 end of a meal. Tlie practice of using the fingers tor 
 eating niade this indispensaljle. 
 
 Lu.xurious living, which \\-as of course unknown 
 at Sparta, «"as tar less couurion at Athens, too, 
 than ni ninn)' uthev < ireidv states, such as Thessaly, 
 and in particular iSicil)' and i\Iagna (Jraecia. In 
 these places the gastroni;))nic art was cultivated 
 to a. high degree, :iud there were boi)l-:s in whi(di 
 tlie A'ariiius kinds of joints and ragouts, fislies and 
 sweets, eti"'., were eniunerated in A'crse, sonietiim's 
 in a comic niarmcr and sometimes with due serious- 
 ness. The Boeotians, on the other hand, had a bad 
 uanie for consumiug great Ljuantities of food, and this 
 of a Coarse descripcion. At Athens, in the classic 
 periiid, meals were, as a rule, simple and modest. 
 In the- various descriptions of fianquets hairded down 
 to us b}' diifererit writers, no mention is ever nrade of 
 tlic cooking, and the simjihcity of Plato's meals ma}^ 
 be inferred from the somewhat malicious remark 
 conunonly made that those who had dined with Plato 
 would be iir excellent healtli next morning. 
 
 Tlie meat most in use was that of the sacrificial 
 animals, especially oxen, sheep, goats, and swine ; this 
 last was very populai', both rcjast and salted or smoked, 
 and was alsij used for sausages. The ancients were 
 acquainted with various kinds of sausage; we find 
 allusions to these even in Homer ; they were also 
 acquainted with the ])ractice of adulterating them by 
 introducing the flesh of dogs or asses. In poultry, 
 they had fowls, ducks, geese, (juails, aral alsei wild 
 birds, such as partridges and wood pigeons ; the 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTEllTAIXMENTS. 207 
 
 special favourites were thrushes, which were a very 
 popidar dainty in the poultry market, where dis- 
 honest poulterers blew the Lirds up in order t(-i make 
 them seem fatter and in better condition. A favourite 
 kind of game was hare, which is very frecpiently 
 mentioned ; they even had a proverb, " T(.) live in the 
 midst of roast hare," which means to be in a land of 
 plenty. Fish, too, was eaten in great quantities. In 
 the Homeric period the taste fur it did not yet exist, 
 but in later times it was very much sought after. A 
 special delicacy ivas eels, from J^ake C'opais, which 
 are often mentioned, and were favomites with all the 
 Athenian (jov/niids. Otherwise, sea lish was pre- 
 ferred to fresh-water fish, and tliere seems no end to 
 the various kinds mentioned, which ^vere also pre- 
 pared in nrany diilerent ways. The inexhaustible 
 wealth of the neighbouring sea permitted even the 
 poor people to have fish in plenty ; in particular, the 
 delicate sardines, which were caught in the harbour 
 of Phalerum, and "which were cheap and also quickl)* 
 prepared, formed an important article of food for the 
 Athenians, There were also great quantities of salt 
 and smoked fish, which were prepared in the large 
 smoking establishments of the Black Sea and on the 
 coast of Spain, and brought b}^ ti'aders to (.-rreece. 
 The salted tunnies, herrings, etc., were excellent and 
 also cheap, and therefore very common as food for 
 the people. In the houses of the richer classes the 
 finer kinds were also used — ^'arious sorts of fish 
 sauces, caviar, oysters, turtles, etc., which added to 
 the variety of the bills of fare, and could satisfy even 
 the daintiest palates. 
 
 Under the heading of vegetable food, we must 
 first of all con.sider bread and porridge. The kinds of 
 grain chiefly used were wheat and barley, as well as 
 
208 f;i!EEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 spelt: rve -was not eultivated in <lrecce, and lye 
 l)rea'l was re^'ardcil as food tVir barljarians. Bread 
 was made eliietly of wheat, and was white or brown, 
 accor(hnL;' to tlie L;i'eater or less additfon of bran and 
 the hner quality of the tionr. lint the eoninion 
 ]ieo])le did not eat miieli whcatcn bread; the chief 
 dailv food of the jioorer people was a kind of barley 
 cake, called hkizh, a sort of porridge, which was 
 moistened and dissolved in water, and of which there 
 were various kinds with different savoury additit)ns. 
 This porridge seems to have resendjled the ■polenta 
 still used in the south, but was probably not nuich 
 eaten li\- the richer classes. They had also green 
 vegetabli's and salads, as[iaragus, radishes, nuisli- 
 rooms, lentils, peas, lupins, etc. These leguminous 
 vegetables su[iplied nnurishing fare fu' poor people, 
 and were therefore sold liy street cooks hot from the 
 fire, at a loAv pri(/e. AVe find even in antiquity the 
 fondness f )r (_)nions and garlic still shown by southern 
 nations, and tliese v/ere eaten raw with bread. Be- 
 sides salt, pe[)per, and vinegar, various spices were 
 used to flavour the dishes, such as sesame, coriander, 
 earaway, mustard, etc., and also siljiliium, which was 
 much si.iught afti.'i', but very expensive, and was im- 
 port ed from (Jyr(.>ne, Imt could no longer be obtained 
 at the iH.'gininng of the Christian era. (Jlive oil was 
 used fir cooking. 
 
 The si.'cond Course, wliiiTi p)layed an important part 
 at larLje dinners, consisted of cheese (butter was not in 
 use for iood), all kinds of iruit, and cakes. Athens 
 was especially distinguished for its cakes, because the 
 excellent honey of Hymettus supplied good material for 
 it ; confectioners kncAv how to make the most various 
 kinds of cakes, and often produced them in the shapes 
 of animals, human beings, and other objects. 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINilENTS. 209 
 
 It is commonly supposed that the (-Ireeks did not 
 drink at all during their meals, but this is an untenable 
 opinion. The great number of salt or highly-spiced 
 dishes which they had, must of necessity have induced 
 thirst. In fact, many allusions in the writers show us 
 that some drinking went on during dinner, but in a 
 very moderate degree when compared with the 
 symposium which followed the meal, and only with a 
 view to quenching thirst. In any case, when the last 
 course was brought in, they took a draught of unmixed 
 wine in honour of the " good genius." Then the tables 
 were taken away, and, if no drinking party followed, 
 the guests arose from their couches after once more 
 washing their hands. Usually, however, these banquets 
 were followed by a symposium. 
 
 The proceedings at the symposium were generally 
 as follows : — The servants in attendance removed the 
 larger tables which had been used at dinner, and 
 brouo'ht in instead other smaller tables, which were 
 also three-legged, but had round tops. On these they 
 arranged the drinking cups, bowls, and cooling vessels, 
 plates with all kinds of dessert, and little dainties that 
 would induce thirst. Then wreaths were given to the 
 guests to adorn their heads, and sometimes to put 
 round their necks, and sweet-scented ointments were 
 handed round. AVhile the guests were occupied in 
 adorning themselves, the servants brought in the wine 
 in large mixing bowls, generally three at the beginning 
 of the feast, and later more, as occasion required. The 
 customary drink at these feasts was a mixture of wine 
 and water. Even at the present day southern nations 
 seldom drink strong wine unmixed with water, and 
 in ancieirt times unmixed wine was only drunk in 
 very small quantities ; at the symposium, when it 
 was customary to drink deep and long, they had only 
 o 
 
210 
 
 r:i!EEI\ LIKE AT HOJIE. 
 
 niixrfl Wine, sniiictiiuos takint;- equal parts of wine and 
 watir, and somi/tinies, -which was even connnoner, thvee 
 parts of water to two parts of wine. (Icnerall}-, at the 
 beginning- of every symposium, a president, or " Syni- 
 
 posiarch," was ap- 
 pointed by lot i>r 
 (lice to tak<' com- 
 mand for the rest 
 of the evening, 
 and it was liis 
 duty to determine 
 tlie strength nf 
 the mixture, for 
 this might be of 
 various kinds, as 
 weak even as two 
 })arts of wine to 
 five of water, or 
 one to three, or 
 even one ])art ol 
 wine to five of 
 water, which last 
 was certainly a 
 somewhat taste- 
 less drink, and was 
 conteniptuously 
 called "frog's 
 wine." In early 
 times it was usual Ui put the water first into the 
 njixing fiuwl and pour tlie wine upun it : afterwards 
 th(.' reverse proceeding took place. 
 
 The connnoner sorts of wine were very cheap, and 
 in i;i;>nse(|uence it w-as tlie universal drink, of wdiich 
 evrn tlie poor people and slaves partook ; bettor kinds 
 were more expensive, and the best came from the 
 islands, especially Lesbos and (Jliios ; Khodian and 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL EXTKRTAIXMEXTS. 
 
 211 
 
 Thasian wines were also largelj^ exported. PSeer was 
 by no means unknown to antiquity : in Egypt, Spain, 
 Gaul, Thrace, etc., they brewed a malt ]i(|Uor which 
 must have had 
 some resemljlance 
 to our beer, but 
 the Greeks dis- 
 liked this drink, 
 and always spoke 
 of it contemptu- 
 ously. The gift 
 of Dionysus re- 
 mained the na- 
 tional drink of the 
 (Ireeks, but it 
 diti'ered in many 
 respects from our 
 wines of the pre- 
 sent claj'. ilucli 
 of the ancient 
 wine must have 
 resembled in taste 
 the resin wine 
 of modern Egypt, 
 since resin was 
 added to it, anrl 
 as the large cla)- 
 casks in -which the wine was exported were painted 
 over internally with pitch, this must of necessity 
 have given a taste to the wine. Xor did they know 
 how to clear their wine: it was usually thick, and. 
 in order to be made at all bright, had to be filtered 
 through a fine sieve or cloth each time before it was 
 used. To return to the symposium. Figs. 97 and 
 98, taken from pictures on the outside of painted 
 cups, give representations of drinking parties. In 
 o 2 
 
212 CREEK I.IEE AT HOJIE. 
 
 FiS'. 07 wc see throe liciirded men with wreaths Iviiil;- 
 near one another; in tVnnt of them are two l»nvls, a 
 wine ean.a eoohn;;' vessel, a t'odtstmil, and a shoe. The 
 man on the ri_uht li.ilds a cup in his left hand and pnts 
 his ri_L;ht hand to his head, whieh is hent haekwards ; 
 his open month shows that he is supposed to he sin^i;- 
 in--. The uuest in thr middle is playhii;- eneru'eticall}- 
 on tlio <loulile tlntc, the one on the right licdds a l^yre, 
 and hi his right hand the rotl hnt he is not strikmg 
 the strings: near him, on the wall, hangs a flnte-case. 
 Fig. OS also represents thrci.. men, and in front of them 
 a liowha ean, a cooling vessel, another vessel ot enrions 
 shape, and three slioes. The man on the left is stretch- 
 ing ont his right hand ^vith a cnp, to a hoy with a wine 
 ean near Inrji ; the one in the nnddlc also holds a enp 
 and tnrns in conversation to the one on the I'ight, wlio 
 in his right hand holds a gohlet {a/<:v<j)o^). 
 
 The syjiiposiniii bi/gan witli three libations, ottered 
 to the C)lynipian deities, the heroes, and to Znis !^<ifi;r ; 
 sometimes incense was hnrnt meantime, and if the 
 flute girl, who as a rule did not make lu.'r appearance 
 till afterwards, was j'resent at the begimiing of the 
 syiiLposium, the soL.'nm proceedings were probaUy 
 accompanied fiy flutf.^. phn'ing. For these libations 
 they used three mixing liowls wdiich had previously 
 been made ready, taking one libation from each; after 
 the libation from the first, they sang in chorus a short 
 hynm in praise of ])ionysus (Paean), which was 
 repeated it, as otten happened, a new mixture had 
 to be prep)ared in the course of the e^-ening. The 
 drinking, as well as the rest of the procediu-o was 
 carried on according to certain fixed rules, which 
 somewhat resend.ilcd th<ise still practised f)y (lennan 
 students. If a president or symposiarch was chosen, 
 he had to appoint not onlj- the strength of the 
 
o 
 
 o 
 
 MEALS AXD SOCIAL EXTERTAIXMEXTS. 213 
 
 mixture, but also the kind of cup, whether large or 
 small, from which it was to bo drunk, and, in fact, 
 ,t;'enerally undertook the direction of the conversation, 
 the toasts, forfeits, etc. Wo generally find on the 
 monuments flat, two-handled cups in use at the 
 symposium, but sometimes also large, deep goblets, 
 and after drinking for some time, it seems that they 
 even occasionally drank from the capacious vessels, 
 really destined for cooling the wine by nieans of 
 snow-water, and that practised drinkers, such as 
 Socrates and Alcibiades, could empty them at a 
 draught. It was a very common custom to empt}^ 
 goblets thus, and many drinking cups were shaped 
 in such a way that they must be. emptied at 
 once, as they could not stand upright. Every 
 guest had to submit to the ordinances of the 
 symposiarch ; he exercised unlimited authority in the 
 matter of drinking, unless, indeed, the arrangement 
 had been made from the first that everyone should 
 drink for the evening little or much, just as he 
 pleased. Those who disobeyed the commands of the 
 president had to submit to some punishment, which 
 consisted either in drinking a certain cpiantity, or 
 else was directed at some personal infirmit}- ; thus, 
 for instance, a bald man was told to comb his hair, a 
 stammerer to sing, a lame man to hop, etc. This 
 compulsion of submitting to the ordinances of the 
 president naturally led to very deep drinking, and 
 even the mixture of the water with the wine was 
 insufficient defence against tliis practice. It was 
 also very common to drink to one another, and 
 propose the health of filends or popular girls. It 
 was customary for the drinliing to circulate to the 
 right, and this practice was also kept up for all 
 other performances which were expected from 
 
21-t (IliEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 rvoi'v i^-nest, snrh as the sini^'ing of songs, guessing of 
 I'iddli's, etc 
 
 Thougli the main ohjcct of the syniposmm was, 
 unilonbt'ihv, the drinking, 3'et we must not compare 
 the (ireek symposia ivith the wild drinking honts 
 enstomarv in (Germany during the middki ages, which 
 continued tiU the I7th century. In consequence of 
 the weakness of the mixtiu'e, it must have taken some 
 time for the intoxicating effects to make themselves 
 apparent. ^Moreover, there were various kinds of 
 aumscment which caused the drinking to fall somewhat 
 into the liackgrotmd,Lut these naturall}- varied a good 
 deal ;;ccording to the degree of culture and character 
 of the guests. Symposia, su(di as those described by 
 Xenojihon and Plato, at which there was very deep 
 drinking, but also really intellectual conversation and 
 discussion of deep problems, are, of cotu'sc, idealised ; 
 and, even in Plato's S)nnposiun.i, the presence of the 
 flute girl shows that the sensual element was regarded 
 as well as the intellectual entertainment. As a rule, 
 music played an important part at the symposia. 
 Even in the Homeric period, song was an important 
 feature of the banquet. The cimning singer, Avho sang 
 the stories of gods and heroes to the accomjjaniment 
 of the " lyre," and who was listened to eagerly by all, 
 was never absent from any banquet at ■which a great 
 nundjer of guests were jiresent. In historic times, the 
 musical entertainment took a different character, for 
 the guests, instead of merely listening, took part in it 
 themselves, singing generallj' as well as ])laying 
 There were three kinds oi singing ; choruses, sung by 
 all together, such as the Fuean already mentioned ; 
 part songs, in which all shared, not together, but each 
 in his turn : and sijIos, sung by thf)se who had special 
 musical al>ility and education. These solos were 
 
MEALS AXD SOCIAL ENTEKTAIN.MLMS. ^15 
 
 especially popular ; the singer accompanied himself 
 with the harp, and here, too, they adhered to the 
 custom of always passing to the right the harp and 
 the myrtle bough, which the singer had to hold in 
 his hand during the performance. Of especial im- 
 portance among these solo songs, from a literary 
 point of view, Avere the " Scolia," which were usuall}^ 
 of a serious character, either religious, patriotic, or of 
 a general moral nature. A well-known scolion sang 
 the praises of the two conspirators who nun-dered 
 the tyrant Hipparchus ; if began as follows : — 
 
 "In myrtle veiled, I will tlie falchion wear ; 
 
 For thus the patriot sword 
 Harmodius and Aristogeiton bare, 
 
 AVhen they the tyrant's bosom gored ; 
 And bade the men of Athens he 
 Regenerate in equality. 
 Beloved Harmodius, oh, never 
 Shall death be thine, who livest for ever. 
 Thy shade, as men have told, inherits 
 The islands of the blessed spirits, 
 Where deathless live the glorious dead, 
 Achilles, fleet of foot, and Diomed." * 
 
 Other songs celebrated the praise of wine, the jo^'S of 
 love, the happiness of friendship ; there were also special 
 drinking songs, some composed by very great poets, 
 such as Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Simonides, Pindar, 
 who composed them in various metres. A vase 
 painting shows us a reveller lying on a couch with a 
 wreath on his head, holding a lyre in his hand, and 
 singing, while raising his head as though inspired ; the 
 words written underneath by the vase painter show us 
 that he is singing a song by Theognis in praise of a 
 beautiful boy. Here, too, changes in taste took place 
 in the course of time ; many of the old songs were 
 
 * Callistratus, tran.slated by Elton. 
 
21G OKEEK LIFE AT Hi )ME. 
 
 regarded as old-fasliioned, even in the time uf Aris- 
 tophanes, and he who ^vhen his tnrn came sang a 
 s(ing Ijy Sinionides, instead of some grand air from 
 Euripides, was regarded as quite behind the times. 
 
 A'ery eommonly flute or harp girls were present at 
 the syiiijiosium, and entertained the guests by playing 
 and singing, and probably also by dancing. These girls 
 were eitlier speciall}' invited and paid by the host lor 
 the evening, or else entered of their own accord a house 
 where they injagined there was a merry company, or 
 they were si:)metimes introduced by guests who came 
 late in the evening. Thus, in I'lato's Symposium we 
 find a flute girl present at the beginning, who accom- 
 panies the introductory libation with her pla)-ing, but 
 one of the , guests suggests that they should send her 
 away, and let her either play to herself or to the women 
 in their own apartments, since men preferred to enter- 
 tain each other by sensible conversation, liut Tlato 
 was almost alone in this opinion, whi(di he expresses 
 far iiKire strong])- in another place, saying that educated 
 men did not require flute or harp girls or dancers, or 
 any such foolish entertainment while drinking. Most 
 people regarded these playing girls as equally indis- 
 }iensable at the symposium with the entertainments 
 and wreaths, and accordijigly in Plato's lian(|uet, 
 to\vards tlie end of the evening, Alcibiades, coming 
 from aniither drinking party, ah'ead}- in a state of 
 intoxication, is supported Ijy a flute girl ^vho ac('om- 
 panies him. On the vase pictures these girls are 
 sidilijm Avanting ; and these pictorial representations, as 
 well as other allusions to the symposia, show that the 
 [iresence of these girls Avas not due onl}- to a desire for 
 nmsic. The flute and harp girls were almost always 
 hetaerat.', and liberties of various kinds were taken with 
 them ; for instance, a guest might be ordered tij carr^' 
 
MEALS Aj;U SIJUiAL JiJNitKTAiiNMtKiS. ^S-I 
 
 the flute girl several times round the room, or she 
 might be put up for auction, and handed over to the 
 highest bidder as his property for the evening ; and in 
 consequence of the presence of these girls the drinking 
 parties often became veritable orgies, in which Eros 
 was hoiroured no less than Dionysus. The vase painters 
 sometimes give us a picture almost too truthful, though 
 this degeneracy of custom seems to have increased 
 
 rather than diminish- . 
 
 ed in later times. 
 
 Other kinds of 
 amusements were also 
 offered to the guests 
 at the symposia. In 
 the " Banquet " of 
 Xenophon, at an early 
 stage of the proceed- 
 ings, a Syracusan ap- 
 pears, who has been 
 invited by the host, 
 with a flute girl, a 
 dancing girl, and a 
 
 beautiful boy who plays a harp and dances. They play 
 and perform pantomimic dances; in particular, there is 
 a full description of one such dance, which represents 
 in very graceful fashion the meeting of Ariadne with 
 Dionysus. Conjurers, too, so-called " Thaumaturgists," 
 show their skill on these occasions. The dancing girl 
 in Xenophon's " Banquet " throws twelve rings into the 
 air while dancing, and catches them all in turn ; then 
 she performs a bold sword dance, turning head over 
 heels into a stand round which sharp knives are set, 
 and out again in the same fashion. We often find 
 similar representations on vase paintings ; thus, Fig. 99 
 shows a girl walking on her hands and performing a 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
218 CREEK LIFE AT HOJIE. 
 
 dangerous dance betAveen sharp swords. In a similar 
 posture the -woman represented in Fig, 100 shoots an 
 arrow with her toes from a. bow held between her feet. 
 The ancit'ut jugglers seem to have known all the many 
 trieks whieli are stdl admired at fairs and other popular 
 festivals, surh as swallowing swords, eating tire, etc. ; 
 a feat unknown at tlie jiresrnt day was wiiting on a, 
 quickly-revolving potter's wheel, or reading something 
 written on it. It was wrv common to invito such 
 
 jugglers at weddings or after feasts, but it -was un- 
 doubtedly a confession of weakness to have recourse 
 to such trivialities instead of carrying on an intellectual 
 and interesting conversation. On a shnilar low level 
 were tlie official '• entertainers," who in ancient times 
 took tlie p)lace of the Court fools of the ndddlc ages. 
 The jokes of these " entertainers," wdio travelled from 
 house to liouse, from meal to meal, who were always 
 hungry, and glafl to supply their jokes in retiu'n for 
 entertainment and payujent, were as a rule very poor 
 and shallow, and their chief point seems to have 
 consisted in leading the yoimg men to make fun of 
 each other, and to submit good-humouredly to jokes 
 practised upon them. 
 
JIEALS AND SOCIAL EXTERTAIXMENT.S. 219 
 
 On a higher level were those social entertainments 
 which laid the intelligence and wit of the participants 
 under contribution. To hegin with, there was free 
 conversation, dealing ^vlih. the many questions of the 
 day, politics, literature, etc. : but they generally avoided 
 serious subjects, and Anncreon says : — 
 
 " That man liold I not dear, who drinking his wine from 
 
 a full bowl, 
 Ever of conquest and war sings f>ut the dolorous strain, 
 But who the glorious gifts of the Muses and fair 
 
 Aphrodite, 
 Mingling together, recalls feelings of joy and of love."* 
 
 They amused themselves with games recpiiring 
 thought — riddles and such-like — as, for instance, 
 naming an object which contained a certain god's 
 name, or singing a verse in which one particular letter 
 must not apjjear, or whose first and last syllables 
 must have a particular meaning, etc. In circles where 
 the culture was above the average, a definite subject 
 was sometimes given the guests for oratorical discus- 
 sion. Here, as in the drinking and singing, the 
 turns also went to the right after the subject had 
 been previously discussed and fixed by all together. 
 The appointed tasks were of various kinds. A 
 favourite amusement seems to have been to compare 
 the guests present with particular objects, such as 
 mythical monsters, etc., and here opportunity was 
 given for showing wit and making innocent jokes. 
 Sometimes, when a professional " entertainer " was 
 present, the task was left to him, but as he was not 
 always plentifully supplied with wit, it often happened 
 that the poor man, who practised his jokes from neces- 
 sity, grew quite sad at the disregard of his witticisms. 
 
 * Translated by T. J. Arnold. 
 
1^20 OUEEK LIFE AT HnJlE. 
 
 A iiiore (lilticult task, and one making greater demand 
 i>u tlie intellect, was to make a little improvised 
 sjieeeli on some set subjeet, to praise or blanu^ some 
 particnlar thing, and this liecame especially common 
 with the development of the rhetorical art. Thus, in 
 the " BaiKpiet " of Xenophon, each guest has to say 
 what he is proud of and to give his reasons ; in 
 Platn's symposium, the glorification of Eros is the 
 task appointed. In the ages of the Alexandrine 
 learning, this even led to learned discussions, in which 
 scientitie problems of all kinds were treated over the 
 cups. Those who were successful in these intellectual 
 Contests, who solved ditficult riddles, etc., were re- 
 warded, receiving "wreaths or fillets, or sometimes 
 kisses ; on the other hand, the symposiarch inflicted 
 jiunishments on those who -were unsuccessful, and 
 these usually consisted in drinking, at a draught, a 
 whole cupful of mmiixed wine, or, which was worse, 
 wine mixed with salt water. 
 
 There were also a great mmd>er of games plaj'ed 
 at the symposium, and also at other times, chiefly by 
 young people. The one which was the most popular 
 at tlie symposia, and vhicli in consequence we find on 
 numerous monuments, was C<ittahas, a game intro- 
 duced from Sicdy, which fell into disuse during the 
 ago of Alexander's successors, and was unknown to 
 the liomans, so that the accoimts we have of it are 
 somewhat confused. This mucdi is certain, that it 
 consisted in skilfully throwing drops of wine left in 
 the cup at some delhiite goal, and pi-oducing a cer- 
 tain effect ui striking it. The cup was held, not by 
 the foot, but by one handle with tlie fingers, and they 
 did not use tlie whole arm in throwing it, but only the 
 wrist, or, if the arm wah bent, only the lower arm. 
 There were various ways of playing this game ; for the 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAIXMENTS. 221 
 
 commonest, tliey seem to have used a stand somcthinj^r 
 like a liigii candelabrum (see the one re^aresented in 
 Fig. 101), the shaft of which could be screwed higher or 
 lower according to requirement. On the top of it was 
 balanced, placed loosely upon it, a little saucer or 
 bowl of brass, and the -ivinc which was thrown had to 
 fall with a ringing noise upon it, and throw down 
 the disc ; it is clear, from various vase ])aintings, that 
 this -^vas not fastened to the top, since we see girls in 
 the act of laying the disc on the top of the shaft. 
 This, however, was not enough ; various complications 
 were added to increase the difficulty. On some of 
 the cottabus stands they fastened the figure of a 
 slave, called " Manes," made of brass, which must also 
 be struck in throwing, and according as it was fast- 
 ened on the shaft, either first or last, yometimes the 
 disc on to which the wine was thrown nrust, when 
 struck, fall down on to another small scale fixed a 
 little lower down, and the sound then made, accord- 
 ing as it was strong or weak, was regarded as a kind 
 of oracle in love. In Fig. 101, the bearded man lying 
 on the couch is in the act of throwing the wine left in 
 his cup, which he holds by the first finger of the right 
 hand, at the cottabus stand. Near him lies a youth 
 with a thyrsus, who is handing fruit, or something 
 of the kind, to a woman with a tambourine, sittinc;' on 
 a cushion in front of him. On the right is a cup- 
 bearer, a naked boy with a wine can. Sometimes 
 they seem to have spirted the wine from their mouths 
 instead of from a cup ; or they set little saucers or nut- 
 shells to swim empty on the water, and tried to fill them 
 by throwing in the wine drops and making them sinlv. 
 This occupation, in spite of the great popularity it 
 seems to have had in the fifth and fourth centuries, 
 can but be regarded as a very unintellectual one. 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL EXTEliTAlXMEXTS. 223 
 
 We may deal at once with the other most import- 
 ant games, in which grown-up people took part in 
 their hours of leisure. ilanj- of these were also 
 children's games, in particular the game of ball, which 
 we find even in Homeric times, and it was very popular 
 throughout the whole of antiquit)^ especially in the 
 hours of recreation after the bath or after physical 
 exercises in the gymnasium, and it was especially 
 recommended by physicians as healthy exercise. Some 
 other ffanies also bore a half-gymnastic character, and 
 will therefore be mentioned afterwards under the 
 heading of gynmastics. Games of skill or chance, 
 which were played with boards, figures, dice, etc., 
 were very popular. ^Ve meet with these board 
 games, which were already known to the Egyptians, 
 even in the Homeric period. In later times, too, they 
 were a favourite amusement, and we often find them 
 represented on ancient monuments. Among the various 
 modes of playing these, some bore a great resemblance 
 to our modern o'ames ; the " o'ame of towns " mav be 
 compared to our draughts ; two opponents played at 
 a board divided into scpiares with thirty stones apiece, 
 which differed in colour, and the game was, by enclosing 
 a hostile stone, either to capture it or to prevent it from 
 moving. The terra-cotta group represented here in 
 Fig. 102 probably shows a game of this kind. A 3'outh 
 and a woman are playing together, while a third person, 
 a caricature, is looking on ; the Ijoard is roughly 
 divided into fortj^-two squares, and there are twelve flat 
 stones, but we cannot from this dra-w any conclusion 
 about the nature of the game. 
 
 In this game, as in chess or draughts, the victory 
 de^aended entirely on the skill of the player, but an 
 clement of chance was added when the defence of 
 the stones on their lines or squares depended on the 
 
224 (UtEEK EIFE AT HOME. 
 
 throwino; of dice, wliicli was the c-iso in tlie t;-aiiic of 
 " ttve-lines " {ireini'ypajiixos)- But even here there seem 
 to have heen modifieations, which would enal ile a slsih'nl 
 
 Fig. 1(12. 
 
 idayer to compensate hinisch' for an unfavourable throw, 
 hy the choice of various moves open to him. The 
 oames played with knuckle-ljones and dice were pure 
 games of chance, and Avero very often played i'or money. 
 In plaj'ing dice thej^ used several, generally three, dice, 
 corresponding exactly to tlKjsc of the present day, and 
 
JIEALS AND SOCIAL liKTJiKTAliNiMtA is. i.^0 
 
 •A cuji from which they threw them, and a board or a 
 talile with a raised edge on to which they were thrown. 
 The victory depended on the number of points thrown. 
 The best throw, three times six, was called the '■ Coan," 
 the woi'st, three times one, was called the " dog-," but 
 there were various rules of the game dealing with 
 particular combinations, such as is still the case in 
 dice-playing at the present clay. 
 
 There were several ways of playing with astragals, 
 or knuckle-bones, which were really the ball of the 
 ankle-joint of a lamb, or else were artificially imitated 
 in other material. One way of playing, chiefly used by 
 children, but also sometimes by grown-up people, was 
 a real game of skill, and consisted in throwing up a 
 number, usually five, knuckle-bones or pebbles, beans, 
 coins, etc., and catching' them ag-ain on the back 
 of the hand, meantime picking up with the stretched- 
 out fingers those which had fallen down. Sometimes 
 they only played " odd or even," and one of the players 
 had to guess straight away whether the other had an 
 odd or even munber of these astragals, which took the 
 place of our counters, in his closed hand. Sometimes 
 tlie}^ played with astragals in the same way as with 
 dice. In this case the four large sides of the bone, on 
 which it might fall, had a particular numerical value, 
 which was not written upon it, but depended on the 
 shape of the bone, as each side differed from the others. 
 The convex narrow side counted as one, the other, 
 concave, narrow side as six, the broad convex side as 
 three, and the broad concave side as four ; two and 
 five were wanting altogether, for the other little surfaces 
 of the bone were not counted, since it could never fall 
 upon them. Four pieces were generally used for play- 
 ing, and they were treated just like dice ; the best throw 
 was that in which each of the astragals lay in a different 
 
220 
 
 OliEEK LIFE AT KOME, 
 
 position, and thus all values were represented, some- 
 times they counted according to the highest number 
 
 '-^^ Fill 
 
 I'lO. l()o. 
 
 thrown. In works of art wo \'cry often see girls play- 
 ing astragal. One of the jirettiest of these istho terra- 
 cotta figure from Tanagra, represented in Fig. 10:1 
 
 Another game of chance was " fast and loose," which 
 very closely resembled the game still played at fairs 
 
ilEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAIXJIEXTS. 
 
 227 
 
 by sharpers. A strap was folded double and -wound 
 round several times on a table ; the player then pricked 
 it with a dagger or other pointed instrument, and if, 
 when the strap was unwound, it appeared that the 
 point had gone between the layers of the strap, he 
 won ; but he lost if the strap could be entirely wound 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 oft: 
 
 Another favourite game was similar to morra. 
 
 still popular in Italy. Two plaj^ers quickly thrust out 
 their right hands with some finders bent in and othei's 
 stretched out, and they have at one glance to notice 
 and exclaim how many fingers ot both hands together 
 are stretched out. This game is often represented 
 on ancient works of art : for instance, on the vase paint- 
 ing depicted in Fig. 104 Here a youth and a girl are 
 playing, both are seated, though morra players of the 
 present day stand ; in their left hands they hold a stick, 
 p 2 
 
22.S 
 
 (ir.EEK ]JFE AT IHiME. 
 
 the object of wliicli is to ]n-ovent tlioni in the excite- 
 ment of the game from using their left liands by mis- 
 take. Similarly the Italians pnt their left hands 
 behind their b:i(/ks while playing. The 3'onth is stretch- 
 ing ont fonr fingers, the girl two, so that the number 
 to Ijc called ont in this case is six. A Cupid seated 
 aljOYC is handing a wreath to the girl, and thus point- 
 ing her out as victorious. 
 
 A popular amusement in (iveece was cock and 
 
 Fig. 10.5. 
 
 cpiail fighting, a pursuit which played so inqiortant 
 a part at Athens that even the great theatre i>f 
 ])i<)nysus had to be used for the purpose, and the 
 Atheniaiis actually maintained that this was a spec- 
 tacle calculated to rouse the courage of the citizens to 
 brave deeds. Fighting cocks were trained at Tanagra 
 and Rhodes ; liotli young and old men aimed at the 
 pi_)ssession of fighting C(_)cks or quails, carried them 
 about for hours, and tried by all possible means to 
 excite their courage in order to obtain prizes. For 
 this purpose they were fed with garlic, and sometimes 
 brazen spurs were even tied on them in order to make 
 the wounds they inflicted more serious. The repre- 
 sentations (compare the vase painting, Fig. 105) show 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL EXTERTAIX:MENTS. 
 
 i'29 
 
 that before the beginning of the tight each owner toolc 
 his bird in his hand, knelt do\v'n, and tlius gradually 
 approached the cocks to one another in order to 
 
 Fig. lOS. 
 
 excite them from a distance ; then they were sent 
 against each other, and the owners stood up again. 
 Sometimes the hens were present at the light, because 
 the cocks were more inclined to fight in their pres- 
 ence. A curious custom is mentioned — namely, that 
 the owner of the defeated bird took it up as quickly 
 as possible and shouted loud into its ear ; the object 
 
230 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of this was supposed to be to prevent the defeated 
 eoek fVoiu hearing the triumphant erow of his 
 couiiueror, and thus beino- (hscoura"ed lor future 
 combats. 
 
 To return to the symposium. We have ah-eady 
 mentioned that, in spite of the custom of mixing the 
 wine with water, the great quantities consumed, since 
 drinlcing \vent on far into the night, did often conduce 
 to fh'unlconness. The scenes which were sometimes 
 enacted by the hght of the (piivering oil lamps were 
 not ah\"a3's very attractive or indicati\'e of the grace 
 and moderation which we are apt to regard as the 
 special qualities of Greeks. The vase painting de- 
 picted in Fig. 106 shows us the inmiediate conse- 
 quences of excessive drinking : we see a youth 
 vomiting his wine, while a pretty girl is snnling and 
 holding his head. 
 
 The official termination of the symposium was a 
 libation to Hermes, but even then they did not always 
 set out on their homeward joiu'ney in company with 
 the slaves who ^\■el^e waiting for their niasters with 
 torches or lanterns, but sometimes their excitement 
 led them to wander noisily through the streets with 
 the flute girls and torch bearers in a Comus (/cco^o?), and 
 they thus entered the houses of friends who were still 
 sitting at tlieir -wine, or carried on all manner of jokes 
 and absurdities. This naturally led to other scenes, 
 such as hghting, etc., especialty if one of the partici- 
 pants tried to obtain entrance to an hetaera, when a 
 quarrel often ensued between the rivals. The vase 
 painting depicted in Fig. 107 represents a scene from 
 the comus, the chief jjerson in which is the dnmken 
 Hercules, accompanied by satyrs, but in reality it is 
 only a scene from real life transported to the heroic 
 domain. The hero, who is lying dead drunk on the 
 
'2:]-2 OKEEK LIFE AT HOJIE. 
 
 i^Tound, appears to have (lenianiled adniittaiice at a 
 door wlii(di reiuaiiied eloscd to liiui, and sonic old 
 woman has jionred water npon liini I'roni a "window 
 liver till.' ddorwav. Twn yoinig satyrs, aihirned with 
 tiUets and wreaths, of whonL one hears a th)-rsns and 
 a basket of frnit and eakes, the other a mixing-bowl 
 and fillets, and a harp girl with a thj'rsus wand, and a 
 Hnte player with a torch, arc the attendants of tliis 
 night wanderer. These scenes fnrnish an mipleasant 
 contrast to the conclusion of the i'latonic Symposium, 
 when Socrates, who has been driidciii"' hard all nitrht, 
 but at the same time carrying on serious ctmversation 
 with some friends as staunch as himself, gets np at 
 daybreak, wlillc the rest of the participants have 
 fallen fast asleep, walks with steady step to the well 
 in the Lyceum, and then, as usual, proceeds to his 
 day's occupations. 
 
CHAPTER \aL 
 
 SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 
 
 The C4reat Plague — Homer's Keferences to Physicians — AHldtp'iadae 
 — The Oath of Hippocrates — General Practitioners and Specialists 
 — Plntns of Aristophanes — Customs connected with Di'ath, Burial, 
 and Burning — Tombs and their Ornaments. 
 
 Greek mythology tells us that in the golden age 
 mankind lived without trouble or sorrows, equally 
 unacquainted with vice and with cruel disease ; but 
 when fatal curiosity opened the disastrous box of 
 Pandora, alonaf with a thousand other troubles which 
 pursue mankind, there came forth also the countless 
 diseases which attack men by day and night. The 
 myth thus expresses in simple language that, with 
 the advance of civilisation and the disappearance 
 of the ancient simple mode of life in accordance 
 with nature, the number of diseases also increased. 
 But the greater the number of these attacks on the 
 health and life of mankind, the more eagerly do men 
 seek to avoid them, though, at hrst, in a piu'ely 
 empirical manner, and, therefore, the beginnings of 
 the healing art are as ancient as human civilisation 
 itself The oldest literary momnnent of Greek life, 
 the Homeric Epic, makes little mention of disease, 
 with the exception of the great plague, which devas- 
 tated the camp of the Greeks before Troj'. The 
 reason of this, however, lies in the nature of the poet's 
 subject, and we must not on that account infer that 
 illness was little known. Even in Homer mention is 
 made of physicians, and though the Homeric doctors 
 
■2:U (illEEK I>[FE AT HOME. 
 
 were I'liicHv coiicurned Avitli liealing tlio wounds in- 
 liictod ill war, stiU tliey possessed sonic surgical skill 
 in futting arrows out of wounds, putting on liaiidages, 
 etc., and were also acquainted with the healing 
 qualities of certain herbs, which they used not onl)' 
 for external treatment of injuries, but also apparently 
 for internal use, in reducing fever, etc. Kno'wdodge of 
 this kind always appears very earl}', even aiiK)iig 
 nations of slight (■ivilisation, and is handed down from 
 generation to generation. But the healing art was 
 not confined to heroes or demigods, such as Aesculapius 
 and Potlalirius, \vli(i -were afterwards regarded as 
 ancestors i:)f the physicians' profession, and -who traced 
 their origin and their knowledge alike to the gods. 
 There were also, even at that time, professional 
 physicians, and certainly it cannot have been left to 
 chance to determino that some pei'sons possessing 
 surgical and medical knowledge should bo with eveiy 
 army. 
 
 It is no longer possible to trace in detail the de- 
 velopment of the medical pjrofession after the times of 
 Hiimer. In the historical period we find the healing 
 art developed in two special directions ; first, as 
 practised by an actual medical profession; secondly, 
 as a kind of religious mystery in the hands of priests ; 
 Iiesides these, rpiackery -was known in antiquity, as in 
 all times. 
 
 The professional ])liysi(;ians, who, even in later 
 times, regarded their art as divine, and handed (hjwn 
 by their ancestor Aesculapius (on which account they 
 also called themselves AsUfq^Uidae), were probably 
 a development from the piriestlj' physicians. It is 
 vcr)' likely that in the first centuries after Homer, 
 the practice of the medical art was still directly con- 
 nected with the worship of Aesculapius, and that the 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 235 
 
 separation which we find in the historic period, where 
 some remained as medical assistants to the priests in 
 the sanctuaries, and others practised independently 
 on their own account, only gradually made way. It 
 cannot be a mere chance that the places where the 
 most celebrated medical schools of antiquity existed, 
 Cos and Cnidus, were also regarded as the chief seats 
 of the worship of Aesculapius. The professional 
 physicians, who practised their art independently, and 
 were not connected with the sanctuaries, naturally 
 received a fee, and though this brought them into 
 somewhat bad repute, with which every art that con- 
 duced to making money was regarded, yet their 
 occupation stood in much higher general estimation 
 than any of the trades, and it was a serious reproach 
 if they, as sometimes happened, insisted on receiving 
 their payment beforehand, and in case of inability to 
 pay, refused to give any treatment at all. Their 
 knowledge was not acquired at colleges or hospitals, 
 like that of our modern physicians, but, as a rule, thej- 
 became assistants or apprentices to old experienced 
 physicians, whom they accompanied on their visits, 
 and by whom they were instructed in diagnosis and 
 therapeutics, as well as in the preparation of medicines. 
 There were sellers of drugs, who kept the most im- 
 jiortant remedies, but there were no apothecaries in our 
 modern sense, and physicians ahvays prepared their 
 own medicines. There does not appear to have been any 
 examination necessary in early times before practising 
 the medical profession, or any direct control or super- 
 vision of the doctors, but in later times physicians 
 seem to have held together in a sort of guild, and, 
 perhaps, even solemnly dismissed their apprentices at 
 the end of their period of instruction before their 
 assembled colleagues. This is suggested by the oath 
 
23(1 CREEK LIKE AT IIOJIE. 
 
 of Hippocrates, which has Wvn presen'od to us, in 
 which tlic vouiil;' (hsciplc of Aescidapins promises to 
 keep only the weh'are of liis patient before lihn, to 
 kee|) silence, to yive no one poison, even at his own 
 request, etc. Probably this oath was only used in the 
 school (if Hippocrates and his followers. 
 
 Among tlie ^professional physicians there was a 
 further (hstinction between those who practised privately 
 and tlmso who had official positions. The former either 
 gave their advice at home or else visited their patients. 
 Shght invalids, who were afile to go out, generally 
 visited the plu'sician in his consulting hours, and there 
 they received not only advice but souietimes also direct 
 treatment, since other apartments for bathing, operating, 
 etc., were cimnected with the consulting room, and the 
 phj-sician also prepared and dispensed his medicines 
 here. Even those who -were ver)' ill, as, for instance, 
 the wounded Lamachus in the " Acharnians " of Aris- 
 tophanes, were carried straight t(j tlie doctor when 
 the case Avas pressing. Of course a ver}- celebrated 
 physician coidd not himself treat all his patients, and he 
 therefore emplo}'ed assistants in his consulting room, 
 who also accompanied him -when he paid visits abroad, 
 in order to profit by the master's experience at the 
 sick bed ; and it may not have been very pleasant for the 
 patients when the doctor thus arrived in company of 
 a not inconsiderable troop of students. It was still 
 more unpleasant, however, if want of nieans compelled 
 them to resort to inferior assistants, -who somethnes 
 were even slaves. These slave doctors were not only 
 sunnnoned to the slave population, but they also 
 treated free peo})le, chieti}' those who -were too poor to 
 pay a high fee. Of these it was said that they diftered 
 from the bietter physicians, who were careful and who 
 stu<lie(l :md watched their patients, in Jiaying very 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND JJUIUAU zo* 
 
 hasty visits, scarce!}^ talking time to inquire after tlie 
 nature of the ilhiess, and hurrying on after giving any 
 directions that might occur to them. Sometimes a 
 citizen had one of his slaves tauglit tlie healing art bj^ 
 some physician, supposing he showed any abiUty for 
 this profession, and by tliis means he had someone in 
 the house Avho, in case of need, could supply help at 
 once. The position of the Greek slaves, especially in 
 Attica, was a comparatively free one, and therefore 
 we must not be surprised that they were willing to 
 entrust the welfare of their body to a slave, seemg that 
 they even left much of the moral training of their 
 children to him. Complaints were often made, too, 
 about free physicians, not on account of their hastiness 
 and carelessness, but rather because of their boastful 
 and haughty bearing ; thus, for instance, Menecratos, 
 a physician of Syracuse, was accused of always dress- 
 ing in the most elaborate fashion, and wishing to be 
 called Zeus. Others were rude or inconsiderate to 
 their patients, like that doctor who answered a patient, 
 when he expressed fear of death, with the words of 
 Homer : — " Patroclus, too, is dead, and he was a better 
 man than thou." Others gave annoyance by careless- 
 ness in their dress and noisy manner, loud talk, etc. 
 Hippocrates insisted that a physician should aim at a 
 certain amount of elegance in dress and care in regard 
 to his person, though he adds characteristically that 
 any doctor is at liberty to do otherwise supposing his 
 patients prefer it. 
 
 The position of the public jjhysicians, who were 
 chosen and paid by a community, and therefore bound 
 to receive no fees for their treatment, was a different 
 one, though it is not clear whether they treated all the 
 citizens or only the poor ones. These public physicians 
 sometimes received very high salaries. Thus the 
 
2:iS CltEEK LIFE AT H(X'\IE. 
 
 plivsician 1 )oini>redos, as public doetor at Acgiiia, re- 
 ceived a salary of one talent (about .CVli)) ; thereu))on 
 he was sunnnoned to Athens with a salar}' of a hundred 
 minac (£:3I):5), and in the following- 3-ear the tyrant 
 Polyerates, of Sanios, invited him, i)robably to till the 
 post of public physician, not as his own private doctor, 
 and i;'ave hill 1 a salary of two talents (probably Attic 
 talents, therefore £471). On the other hand we 
 sdmetinies hear of rich physicians treating the poor 
 free of charge. 
 
 Specialists do not seem to have been connuon in 
 ancient Greece, the same doctors treated external and 
 internal complaints, and also men and women. It 
 seems, however, from the oath of Hippocrates that 
 tlieri.' were spei'ialists who undertook the operation of 
 cutting tVtr stone. < )culists were unknown till a later 
 period, when the medical practice generally developed 
 in various ways, and in particular the influence of 
 g\-nmastics, and the dietetics connected therewith had 
 a verv important influence on medical methods. 
 
 These physicians, although they at times made use 
 of strange or ".sympathetic " means of treatment, yet 
 in general aimed at scientiflc methods, building on the 
 knowledge handed diiwn to them by their predecessors, 
 and enriching it by their own experience and studies. 
 (Jn the other hand, the healing processes, to which the 
 priests of the Aesculapian sanctuaries resorted, seem 
 to have occupied a very doulitful position between 
 empirical therapeutics and superstitious hocus-pocus. 
 It had been a custom from ancient times for the priests 
 of Aesculapius to practise the healing art. Their 
 knowledge was supp<.)sed to 1)0 in part verj- ancient, 
 handed down by the god himself, and in part divine 
 revelation, which was continually renewed. Scjme of 
 the sanctuaries of Aesculapius were reno\vned and 
 
SUJRNESH AND FHY.SiClAN.S, JJEATH AND BURIAL. Z-i:» 
 
 Yisited beyond all others on account of their wonder- 
 ful and successful cures, in particular Cos, Cnidus, 
 Tricca, but esj^ecially Epidaurus, and afterwartls also 
 Perganuun. To these sanctuaries the invalids who 
 sought healing went as pilgrims, just as people still go 
 in Catholic countries to wonder-workins' shrines, and 
 as in these we see countless memorials of successful 
 cures, pictures and descriptions of diseases, wax or 
 silver imitations of the part or limb that was 
 healed, etc., so in ancient times thank-offerings were 
 made to Aesculapius, sometimes in the shape of coin, 
 sometimes also imitations of hands, legs, eyes, ears, and 
 breasts, etc., in marble, silver, or gold, or else in simple 
 wax or clay, together with the name of the person who 
 found healing there. Some also dedicated tablets, on 
 which was inscribed a detailed account of their illness 
 and cure, and the priests set up large tablets in the 
 domain of the temple, on which all manner of wonder- 
 ful cures were described. The geographer Strabo tells 
 us of such inscriptions, describing diseases, in the 
 sanctuaries of Epidaurus, Cos, and Tricca. Pausanias 
 saw in the temple domain at Epidaurus six large 
 tafilets of this kind. Very considerable fragments of 
 two of these were found a few years ago, which give 
 us a very interesting insight into the proceedings at 
 the Aesculapian sanctuaries. 
 
 The healing methods of the priests of Aesculapius 
 were especially distinguished from those of the pro- 
 fessional physicians by the veil of secrecy and miracle 
 which surrounded them, since they rightly understood 
 that the love of miracle among the common people 
 would always bring them success. The healing was 
 effected by what was called " incubation " ; the patient 
 had to lie down at night in the sanctuary arid sleep ; 
 in a dream the god appeared to him, and either 
 
■2H) (lUEEIv ]>1FE AT HOME. 
 
 siiL;;^estc(l to him the roniedy which would euro hiui, 
 or else uurk'i-ttiok, on the spot, to heal the sleeper, so 
 that the ]>atient, when he awoke, found himself restored 
 to health, and went joyfull}- away ! Aristophanes, in 
 his " riiuus,' drastically depicts one of these cures in 
 tlie tennile. The Mind g(.)d of riches conies to the 
 temple of x\_esculapius to seek for healing; after 
 taking a bath in the sea, he is conducted to the sanc- 
 tuary, he offers a sacrifice and then lies down to sleep, 
 together with other patients, and one of the temple 
 servants warns them to keep imliroken silence. The 
 ser\aut who accoinpanies Hutus, and who relates the 
 procuodings, seems to be a soniewdiat free-thinking 
 rogue. He cannot sleep, and as he observes that 
 afti'r the in\-alids have gx)ne to slee}i, the priests take 
 away and poi'ket the offerings laid upon the altars, 
 he also talvcs the opportunity to hlch a pot of 
 ])orridgc from an old woman near him. After a time 
 the god himself appears, accompanied by twx> goddesses 
 of healing. He goes roimd, examines the individual 
 patients, and, at last, comes also to Plutus ; he feels 
 his head, dries his eyelids with a linen cloth, and one 
 of the goddesses puts a jiurjjle veil over his face. 
 Suddenly two great snakes come from the interior of 
 the temple, creep under the veil, and lick the eyelids of 
 riutus, ^vho thus recovers the power of sight. Here 
 the cure ta]<es place during sleep, as also in the stories 
 wdiicli are related on the inscriptions of Epidaurus, 
 menti'.med above. There, too, an account is given of 
 the cure of a blind woman to wdionr Aesculapius 
 appears in a dream, and restores her sight liy drop- 
 l)ing some healing lotion into her eyes, in return for 
 the promise that she will dedicate a silver pig to 
 Aesculapius (to whom pigs were often sacrificed), as a 
 penalty for having come to the temple in a state of 
 
SICKNESS AND THYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 241 
 
 unbelief. Siicli cures of blindness are often mentioned 
 in tlie inscriptions ; sometimes tlie dog, whicli was 
 also sacred to Aesculapius, takes the place of the 
 god, as the snakes did in Aristophanes, and cures 
 the eyes by licking them ; in another case the 
 snake of Aesculapius cures the wounded toes of a 
 patient by licking. Many cases are even more 
 wonderful. A man, who has completely lost one of 
 his eyes, receives the lost eye again by means of 
 healing lotion poured into his sockets by the god 
 during sleep. A woman, who has a worm in her 
 body, dreams that Aesculapius cuts it open for her, 
 takes the worm out, and sews it up again. A man 
 has moles on his forehead, which the god removes by 
 laying a bandage over his brow, whereupon next 
 moment it appears perfectly white and pure, while 
 the moles are left on the bandage ; another man has 
 lost the use of the fingers of one hand, the god jumps 
 on his hand and pulls his fingers straight again, 
 whereupon he is once more able to use them, etc., etc. 
 Indeed, Aesculapius not only cures sick people, but 
 also lifeless objects. A slave has broken his master's 
 cup, and as he sits sadly looking at it, a passer-by 
 laughingly says that even Aesculapius could not mend 
 that. That suggests to him taking the fragments 
 into the temple, and next morning, when he opens the 
 case in which he has put them, behold, the cup is 
 whole again ! 
 
 It is difficult to say which part of these stories 
 is mere charlatanism and what refers to real medical 
 treatment by means of operation. It is but natural 
 that the priests at first got information by c^uestioning 
 each patient about his illness. The sleep in the 
 sanctuary, which was indispensable for healing, was 
 probably not a natural one, but either a mesmeric 
 Q 
 
242 GliEKK LIKE AT lloME. 
 
 sleep — since luidoiilitedly the iincieiits were acquainted 
 with tliis — (IV else a half-sleeji induced by some narcotic, 
 dnrinL;' which the priests in tlm service of Aesculapius 
 or their assistants appeared and performed slight 
 sur'^ii-d o]ii'rations on tlie sick people. This hypothesis 
 is till' moi-e prolial)le, since all the cures mentioned in 
 these inscriptions from Epidaurus (which, thongh 
 dating fi'om the time of Alexander the (Ireat, are copies 
 of oilier inscri})tions, proliably of the fifth century) deal 
 iinly with external means and never with internal 
 treatment ; no medicine or healing drink is mentioned. 
 The cures which took pilaee later on in the 
 sanctuaries of Aesculapius lijr means of incubation, or 
 t(Mni)lo sleep, which were customary oven in the Eomun 
 p(.'riod, were of a diffeivnt nature. The invalids were 
 not actually cured during their slecji, but Ihey received 
 in a dream an indication from the god of the manner 
 in which they could be freed from their sufferings, 
 dirc'ctions sometimes in reference to dietetic measures, 
 such as fiaths, fasting, etc., and sometimes direct ciu'es. 
 In these eases, tO(.>, we nmst suppose that the invalid 
 fell into a state of half-sleep, during "which a priest in 
 tlie form of the god ap[)eare(l, and gave the directions 
 in (luestioii, for which a ouantit'i' of medical know]ed<'-e 
 gradually acquired )>)' cx]>ei'ience, stood the priests in 
 good stead. Sometimes healing l/ieniiiir, (.>r springs, 
 which wvYo found near some of the sanctuaries, did 
 good service, especially if the invalids remained there 
 tia- some time. The Greek sanctuaries of Aesculapius 
 were almost always situated on higli ground, wliere the 
 air was healthy and jmre. There nmst always have 
 been houses for the reception of sick people, especially 
 tfc.ise who caiia.' fnjm a great distanc(,'. Thus the 
 sanctuary of Aesculapius at J][>idaurus was alujut four 
 miles from the town, fmt, ti' prevent any pcillution of 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 243 
 
 the lioly place, no children must be Lorn there and no 
 one must die there, and on this account pregnant 
 women and d3'ing people were mercilessly sent a\\'ay. 
 Of course the priests did not give their aid for nothing, 
 but ^vere repaid in money or offerings to the shrine, 
 and we find man}' allusions to these offerings ; indeed, 
 the sanctuary at Epidaurus could vie in wealth with 
 that at Delphi. 
 
 It was not only in the temples of Aesculapius that 
 dream oracles existed. Many other gods or heroes 
 took similar care for suffering humanitj-, just as at the 
 present day the shrines which possess miraculous 
 pictures of Madonnas or relics vie with one another. 
 Thus sick people were received in the temple of Hades, 
 situated between Tralles and Nysa, in Lydia, but here 
 it was the priests and not the patients to whom the 
 method of cure was revealed in sleep, and this was 
 also the case in the temple of Amphiaraus at Oropus, 
 on the borders of Attica and Boeotia. 
 
 ilention must also be made of quackery and 
 sympathetic cures. The belief in the latter was very 
 general in antiquity, and was shared even by unpre- 
 judiced men of considerable education. This was 
 effected by amulets, supposed to ward off or heal 
 diseases, and also by magic words which we should now 
 describe as conjuring ; laying on of hands, symbolical 
 washing, etc. The sellers of drugs were specially 
 occupied with quackery ; besides rouge, paint, and other 
 means of promoting beauty, they also sold medicines 
 and offered their wares in mountebank fashion. Very 
 often, when sick people had failed to obtain alleviation 
 or cure from a regular phj-sician, they gave him up 
 and resorted to quackery instead. 
 
 There were a number of half symbolical, half su]icr- 
 stitious, customs connected with death and burial, 
 Q 2 
 
24-t (IliEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 which won.' ])ai'tlv(hic tdthr licHct' that the sdiil 'would 
 be more rasil\- rccci\-(.'(l and allowed to remain in the 
 dark realm of sha(k)ws in eonse(|uenre of this care of 
 the body ; but the ancients also regarded titting burial 
 and care for the grave as the fultilment of a duty 
 imposed by the g'ods, and likelj^ also to bring lilessing 
 to the surA'iving members of the race. This duty was, 
 therefoR', only neglected in the very rarest cases. 
 (Jrinunals were buried without an}' ceremony, or were 
 left to rot unburied ; suicides, too, were refused the 
 common honours of public liurial, and Avere put away 
 by night, a time which was not customary for funerals. 
 In order to gain some insight into these customs, 
 let us turn once more t(.) that house which we visited 
 in order to be present at the birth and early life of an 
 Athenian of the well-to-do class. Let us suppose that 
 after spending a long aird honourable life m the 
 service of his country, he has lain down to take his 
 last rest. Siui'ounded liy tlie nearest mend)ers of his 
 famil)', he has breathed his last breath, after having 
 himself, with his dying liand, drawn one of the points 
 of his gai-ment over his fVu'c, in order to spare his 
 friends the painful sight of the death struggle. 
 One of the survivors now steps u]) to the Ijed, 
 uncm-ei's the fac'c of the dead man, and softly (doses 
 his eyes and mouth. A(.'Cording to the curious 
 ancient belief, not ])eculiar to the Greeks, that a 
 human being is unclean inniiediately after entrance 
 into lite, and also oji his fleparture from the world, 
 and as tliis uncleanness is extended to the whole 
 house and all who associate with it, immediately 
 after the death a Mjssel of consec'rated water, wdiich 
 )iiust be Ijrouglit from another house, is jdaced before 
 tlie door, and everyone who leaves the dwelling 
 sprinkles liimself from it, in order to be once more 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 245 
 
 pure and able to associate with otliers. The corpse is 
 then washed by the women of the fainilj', anointed 
 with tine oil and sweet-scented essences, and clothed 
 in pure white garments. These are the dress of 
 connnon life — the chiton and the himation, l>ut so 
 put on that both arms are covered and only the 
 head and feet seen. Youths were probably clad in 
 the chlamys, and the Spartans preferred to clothe 
 their dead in the scarlet militarj' cloak, while at 
 Athens coloured garments were sometimes used in- 
 stead of white. On the dead man's head they put a 
 Avreath of real flowers — whatever the season might 
 supply — or else laurel, olive, or ivy. At burial, 
 this was often replaced by an artificial wreath of 
 beaten gold leaf, and numerous remains of these 
 death-wreaths, which were often of very artistic work- 
 manship, have been found in Greek graves. Relations 
 and friends also sent fresh wreaths and garlands as a 
 token of synrpathy, and these were used for decking 
 the bier and grave. In the dead man's mouth they 
 put a coin, as passage money for the ferryman who 
 had to ferry the souls over the Stj^x ; for after the 
 belief in Charon, which was unknown in the Homeric 
 period, had taken firm root among the Greeks, it was 
 regarded as a pious duty to supply the dead man, as 
 soon as possible, with this passage mone}', in order 
 that the shade might not wander too long restlessly 
 by the shore of Styx. The coin was put in his mouth, 
 because in connnon life it was not unusual to put 
 single coins in the hollow of the cheek, since pockets 
 were unknown in ancient costume ; large sums were 
 seldom carried about, or else they were put in a bag. 
 It was a similar superstition which made people in 
 some j^laces put a honey-cake by the side of the 
 corpse to pacify the dog Cerberus, the fierce guardian 
 
240 r;i!EEK Lii-i: at home. 
 
 of the lower re,n-ioiis. rrevions to the funeral there 
 -was A soleiiin layiiij^-out of the liofly, when friends 
 and acijuaintances canu^ to see the departed for the 
 last tinu', and the near relations t<:>ok part in the 
 funeral lament tor the dead. This layin,L;--out, or 
 TTpoOeiTi^. nsnally took plare in the eentral hall of 
 the house, hut eare was taken that the sun should not 
 sliine on the eor})se, sinee even the Sun n'od must 
 not ]io]lute himself by the sight of a (hnid hody. Un 
 a ciiuidi covered -with cushions and hannings, adorned 
 «"itli tlowers and liranclies, the d<'ad man was laid, his 
 feet turned towards the house door, through which ho 
 nnist take his last journey ; round aliont him, at any 
 rate at xVthens, they jiLicx'il large or small (_)il Masks 
 {Xi]KvOoc), adorned with paintings, all depii-ting scenes 
 di.'aling A\'ith death i>r graves, which were made in one 
 of the Attic vase factories specially for this iiurposc, 
 and were prohalily sent l)y sym}>athetic friends as 
 funeral offerings. I'esides the nearest r(>lations, in- 
 timate friends also took part in the solemn funeral 
 lament, and were sometimes s]iecially invite(l for the 
 purjiose. The servants of the. lionsi;- also stood hy the 
 coucdi witli the (.)tlier moimiers, and joined with tlieju 
 in the lament, in whi(di men and women, standing 
 apart, joined alternately. This lament was no wild, 
 irregular wail, hut a regular hvnnr of sorrow, and very 
 often singers "were specially hired in order t(.i add to 
 the beauty of the performance, and the liyjun was 
 sometiujcs broken from time to time by choruses sung 
 either by the whole assembly or bv semi-choruses. 
 ]\[anv externa] marks of sorrow "wei'e also shown, such 
 as are customary in the south, where the character of 
 tli(.' people is more A'iolent and excitable, viz., Ideating 
 tlie bri.'ast, lacerating the cheeks, tearing out the hair, 
 rending IIk.' garments; and sometimes cries of e-rief 
 
24S 
 
 (iUEEK TJt'E AT 
 
 
 HOME. 
 
 intorvuptcd the 
 sdiii;' of iiiiiiuiiinL;'. 
 Solon iiad ordered 
 iiioderation in these 
 marks of sorrow, 
 Init it must liave 
 been dittieult, if not 
 impossible, to keep 
 within bonnds by 
 an}' legal decrees 
 the expression of 
 w i hi d s p air, 
 espeeially on the 
 part of the women. 
 The cnstoni of 
 t h e s e f n n e r a 1 
 g laments is a very 
 ancient one. We 
 Z find it universally 
 adopted in the 
 Homeric period, 
 and here, too, in 
 the form of respon- 
 sions ; the wail is 
 heard at Troy by 
 the corpse of Hec- 
 tor, as well as in the 
 (.Treek camp by the 
 l)ier of Achilles. 
 AVe find the laying- 
 011 1 of the corpse 
 and tlie funeral 
 lament represented 
 on a great many 
 vase paintings, as, 
 
SICKNESS AND rHYSiUlANS, DEATH AJS'D JBOKIAL. z49 
 
 for instance, in the one depicted in Fig. 108. Here 
 we see the dead man lying on a richljr-decked 
 couch, in front of whicli stands a footstool; he is 
 enveloped in his mantle up to his neck, he wears a 
 wreath, and his head rests on several cushions. In 
 front of the couch and at the sides stand six women, 
 all raising their arms with gestures of grief; some of 
 them are touching their heads, as though to tear 
 out their hair. A little girl in a similar attitude 
 stands at the foot of the bed ; on the right, turning 
 away from the scene, stands a boy. Fig. 109 is 
 similar. Here we see under the dead man's couch 
 his shield, helmet, and cuirass ; of the wailing women, 
 who are almost all tearing out their hair, one holds a 
 lyre in her hand, and another a fillet ; the former is 
 accompanying the lament, the other is about to 
 deck the corpse or the bier. The hot climate of the 
 south generally necessitated limiting the duration of 
 this ceremony to a single day, and, indeed, Solon 
 expressly commanded that this should be done ; only 
 where special measures were taken for preserving 
 the body was it possible to leave it for several 
 days. Embalming was not customary in Greece ; 
 it was only when the corpses of those who had died 
 in foreign lands were brought home to be buried, 
 that they were placed in some substance to check 
 the dissolution — for instance, in honey, as the Spar- 
 tans did with those of their kings who died away 
 from home. 
 
 The fimeral usuallj^ took place in the early morn- 
 ing before sunrise, and throughout the whole of 
 antiquity both burying and burning were common, 
 sometimes subsisting side by side, while at other 
 times one fashion or the other was more general. It 
 seems as though burying had at first been more 
 
250 CHEEK LIFE AT )I(IME. 
 
 eominoii among the (Ti'ceks tlian luiniiiig. It is true 
 ■\\"o find only burning nientioned iu tlic H(inicric 
 puonis, l.iut we must not forget tliat we are concerned 
 with exceptional circumstances in the Iliad, since 
 the warridrs who fell liefore Troy did not die at home ; 
 and in such cases, even in later times, burning was 
 ju'cferred, since it enable<l the survivors to bring 
 the ashes of the dead man Imme with them. Still, 
 even in tlmse early times, Imrying was Axay connnon, 
 as is proved, in spite <if the lack of literary evidence, 
 b}' the ancient burial grdunds discovered at many 
 ]i]aces in ( Jreece ; and similarly, in the historic period, 
 till' buiiiing (if dead liodics, though certainly prac- 
 tised, was not so (-(inunon as Imrving, if only for the 
 very practical rt^ason that the latter was far cheaper 
 and much less troublesome. Whichever form was 
 chosen by the friends, or had been appointed by 
 the dead man himself, the solenni funeral piroces- 
 sion was never omitted ; the crematoria, like the 
 cemeteries, were outside tlie city gates, since at 
 Athens, and probafily in most ( ireelv states, thev were 
 not allowed to burj' their dead within the A\'alls ; the 
 I »oric states alone seem to ha^•e made an exception 
 to this rule. A very ainiient }iainted vase seems to 
 aflbi'd a pi'oof that it was customary in early times to 
 convey the dead to the cemeteiy on a car drawn by 
 horses, Imt in the historical age, at any rate, the 
 corpse was taken to the grave on the same couch 
 on which it had liccn <'xposed to view. Tliis duty 
 was generally performed Ijy the slaves of the house- 
 hold, and where there were not sufficient of these, 
 gra\-edigL;'ers were specially lured ; while in tlie case 
 of men who had deserved -well of theii- country, the 
 citizens regarded it as an honoiu' to perform this 
 duty theniselves. If the dead man had dicfl a violent 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 251 
 
 death, a spear was carried in front of liini, ■\vhicli 
 pointed to the revenge to be taken ; the spear was then 
 fixed in the earth near the g-raTe, and the nearest rela- 
 tion pronounced a curse against the murderer, after 
 which the phice was watched for three days. This did 
 not.however, point to revengeon the part of tlie relations 
 alone, but to the punishment to be inflicted by the legal 
 authorities. As a ride, the male relations and friends 
 walked at the head of the processions, and the women 
 behind the corpse ; but one of Solon's ordinances 
 limited the female followers to the nearest relations 
 not extending beyond the nieces. Among the more 
 distant relations, only women over sixty j-ears of age 
 were allowed to follo\\'. This law does not, however, 
 seem to have been quite strictly observed. All the 
 mourners wore grey or black mourning ; the nearest 
 relations cut their hair off, for the custom of shaving 
 the hair in case of death is a verj' old one, and even 
 in Homer we read that the hair cut off was sometimes 
 placed in the dead man's hand. During the proces- 
 sion laments were again sung, and acconi])anied by 
 the wailing tones of a flute ; but here customs differed 
 somewhat, and at Coos, for instance, where the ordi- 
 nances concerning burial, differing in many respects 
 from the Attic customs, have been preserved to us, 
 there were especial directions that the body should 
 be carried out in silence. The dead man wore 
 the clothes in which he had been laid out, but 
 extravagance and excessive luxury necessitated 
 some limitations bj^ the law, so that Solon expressly 
 ordained that the numlier of garments shoidd not 
 exceed three, and the above-mentioned ordinance 
 allowed only one under garment, one cloak, and 
 one pall or covering, the whole value not to exceed 
 300 drachmae, and also ordained that the couch on 
 
25^ 
 
 CliEEIv LIKK AT HOME. 
 
 which the (Trail 111:111 was eairiod U> the grave, and the 
 other hann'ini^s or cushions, should not be hurnt or 
 buried, but lironnTit back again. 
 
 There were various ways of liur\-ing the dead. If 
 the}' were placed in a grave it was custoniar)- to make 
 use of a cottiu, which was li.'t down into the grave b}- 
 the bearers. We see this represented on the vase 
 
 picture, Fig. ]1(). Twn men, who look like barbarian 
 slaves or men of the lower classes, are standing in the 
 grave and holding up their hands in order to receive the 
 coffin, which is carefully let down by two men of similar 
 appearaiiiM:- : on the right and left stand weeping 
 women. The coffins were sometimes made of wood, 
 espeeiall}- ('yprus A\-ood, which was occasionally decorated 
 with costly carving and painting; sometimes of clay, 
 less often uf stone, although stone sarcophagi have 
 been found in (Ireece, but the custom of decorating 
 their sides with sculptured pi(/tures did not Ijecome 
 common until the Roman period. The sliapes of the 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 253 
 
 coffins differed ; there were square box-like coffins, and 
 also others of an oval shape, or pointed coffins, made 
 of flat terra-cotta tiles. Poor people were generally 
 buried in some common cemetery, in simple coffins, 
 and in graves made to hold a large number. Richer 
 people had special vaults, which were either constructed 
 
 ::n^^>;>:^^, . 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 by hollowing out the rocky ground below or above the 
 earth, or by the artificial building up of a tumulus. 
 The curious tholos buildings of Mycenae, Orcho- 
 menus, Attica, etc., are generally supposed now to be 
 nothing but large vaults of this description ; and, 
 indeed, throughout the whole of Greece, Sicily, and 
 Lower Italy, numerous tombs, either vaulted out of 
 the rock or constructed of large blocks of stone, have 
 been discovered, not to speak of the temples and towers 
 which are chiefly found in Asia Minor, and usually 
 appear to be clue to non-Greek origin or influence. In 
 
254- (lUEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 tlu'sc \aults, ^\•lli(■ll uften served for whole fiuiiilies, they 
 laid their dea<l, eithei- in eottins or without theiii, nierely 
 in their ^Tave clothes, L;-enevally resting- on a Hat stone. 
 Thus the Attic vase picture in F\<j;. HI represents the 
 dead man inhis tomb, thevanltint;' of which the painter 
 lias imitated, wrapped in a white cloth, a cushion under 
 his head; fillets hang down from above. In Attica it 
 was the custom to place the bodies so that their heads 
 turned to the west and their feet to the east, while the 
 opposite position was usual at Megara, where the 
 customs differed in other ways, and three or four 
 corpses wei'o sometimes put in the same coffin. The 
 custom of placing \arious (jbjects required in daily life in 
 the grave by the side of the dead man was universal, 
 chiefly the things with which he had been occupied in 
 his lifetime, or which belonged to his profession; 
 ckithes, money, oil-Hasks, and other vases were put in, 
 and besides them, in the case of a child, his toys ; in the 
 case of a warrior his arms ; a woman's spindle or orna- 
 ments and mirror ; a young man's strigil and oil-Hask ; a 
 musiidau's flute or lyre. We owe nearly all the small 
 art treasures which have come down to lis from 
 antiquity, such as A'ases, terra-cottas, cameos, gold 
 ornaments, caskets, etc., to this custom of adorning the 
 graves of the dead with the objects iisc'd in daily life. 
 Many i.if these, especially vases, lamjis, candlesticks, 
 arms, etc., seem to have been specially made with a 
 Yiow to being placed in the grave, since they were often 
 of no use fi:)r practical purposes. There Avere no doubt 
 special places outside the walls dev<jted to burning the 
 b<.>dies, though it is (piite possible that some people 
 were fiurnt on their ciwn land if that happened to be 
 large enough. AA'oijd, twigs, and other easily-conj- 
 biistible snbstan(;es were Used for erectuig a pile ; tlie 
 bod}- was laid on it, along with the cushions destined 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 255 
 
 to be burnt, among wliicli, besides tlie objects already 
 mentioned, the favourite animals of the dead were often 
 included ; and the pile was lighted with a torch. 
 Bound about stood the mourners, who called aloud 
 many times on the dead, bidding him farewell. There 
 do not appear to have been any other ceremonies 
 connected with the funeral, nor did it bear a specially 
 religious character, such as would be given it by the 
 presence of priests or the offering of sacrifices ; still, 
 we must not forget that the mere act of burying 
 or burning was regarded as a religious one. Funeral 
 orations were only pronounced in the case of soldiers 
 who had fallen in war, or men who had deserved 
 specially well of their countr}^ When the corpse 
 was consumed by the fire and the pile had burned 
 down, the glowing remains were quenched with 
 water or wine. This act is represented on a vase 
 painting (Fig. 112), which gives a scene from the 
 Apotheosis of Hercules. The ashes and pieces 
 of bone which had not been completely consumed 
 were then collected and put in a special vessel. 
 For this purpose they used urns, coffin-like boxes, and 
 small vessels, which were afterwards placed in larger 
 cases. These were constructed of different materials, 
 clay or stone, brass, lead, sometimes even silver or gold. 
 The urns were then placed, like the coffins, in a vault 
 or under the earth. 
 
 When the burying or burning was ended, it was 
 the custom for the relations and intimate friends of 
 the deceased to return to the house of the latter, and 
 after both the house and its inhabitants had been 
 purified from the pollution connected with the death, 
 by means of incense and sprinkling, or washing with 
 consecrated water, they took part together in a funeral 
 banquet. At this the near relations, who had hitherto 
 
250 (IKEEl-: LIKE AT H()i\[E. 
 
 roti-aiiieil from food, or at any rate from meat, for the 
 first time ai;-ain partook of it, a custom which could 
 probably only he carried ont when the funeral took 
 place on the second day after the death. On the third 
 
 Vir.. 112. 
 
 and ninth days after, the nearest relations went to the 
 o-rave with libations, which consisted in part of blood- 
 less ofterings, such as milk, honey, wine, etc., and 
 purtly in tlie sacrifice of real victims. On the spot 
 wdiere the Ijody or the ashes ^v'ero buried, unless the 
 remains were placed in some vault above the earth, 
 they erected a funeral monument, wliich bore the 
 name of the family and home of the deceased, some- 
 times in metrical form ; and even gave details about 
 
Fir. 113. 
 
258 (.r.KEK 1,1 1'E AT ])OME. 
 
 his life and his virtnrs. Tliis was usually deroratcd 
 iu an artistic nianma-. The (•Dininonost- t'oi'ui was 
 the ■Stele," which was SdUietiiues a tall eoluniu, 
 at i:ithers uiei'ely a hdrizoutal gravestone, and iv- 
 ])resented the dead man in some occupation of daily 
 life. A boy mieht be si.'cn playing- with his ball, and 
 a L;irl with her doll: a young man holds his ipioit ; a 
 strong warrior stands fully armed as though ready 
 to depart: a countr\-man accompanied by his faithful 
 dog, leans on his knotted stick : a young wife sits 
 near her work-basket or gazes with pleasure at her 
 ornaments, like the one represented on the relief in 
 Fig. llo, where the lady seeius to be taking a ring 
 from a jewel ease held for her by her attendants; 
 others represent the di-ad person alone or with others, 
 not engaged in any occupation, but in sonro simple 
 natural attitude, like the two women on the stone 
 I'epresented in Fig. ll-l- : others suggest death, since the 
 relations are taking leave of a member of a family. 
 On one it is the mother wdio is dying, and the small- 
 est of the children is cree])ing up to her (compare Fig. 
 C>'2). or they are holding out to her a child still 
 wrapjied in swaddling clothes for her last kiss (com- 
 pare Fig. 5.S) ; the liusfjand steps to his wife, who is 
 resting in an easy cliair, and gives her his hand for a 
 last farewell, with an e.x})ression of sorrow mingled 
 with self-control. (.)n some tombstones of a longer 
 shape' tlie faiuil)' meal is represented; the liusband 
 lies on the coui'h, the wife sits near him, the children 
 ai-e pressing around them, and even the faithful 
 aniioals, the dog and favijurite horse, are not for- 
 gotten. This subject is a \evy connnon one; some- 
 tinjcs it is a sim[ile scene fr(.)m daily life, sometimes 
 the master is represented in a more heroic attitude 
 as ah-eady dead, and his relations are paying the 
 
Fig. 114. 
 
 R 2 
 
2fi0 
 
 fiHEEK LIKE AT HOME. 
 
 departed the tittliiL;- lidiiour and aduratinii. There seems 
 to ho httle attciii]>t at rei)resentin,ii: I'eal ixirtraits on 
 most (Treck toiuhstoiies : they are ideal types, often ot 
 extraordinary beauty, now and then, perhaps, with 
 some sUyht resenddanc'e to the dead, hut hy jio means 
 ri/rdistie portrait statnes. Bnt whether it is a seene 
 
 f'riiiii ri';d litr tliat is n.'prcsented l>y art, oi' the hitter 
 last farcwidl or ^dietlier it is an}^ liint of the life in a 
 fntnre state, whieh last is by no means uncommon, 
 these reliefs are always distinguished by their modera- 
 tii;in in the expression of jiain, arid a jii/aeeful i'eeling of 
 (•aim and worthy exjin-'ssion of sorrow, whiidr ean Imt 
 have an elevating effect even on those wlio liave 
 grown up in the views of (diristianity. This is the 
 ease even where sonic simple stO}iema.son has rongiily 
 expressed in stone the thought of parting and 
 reuui(jn : liow much moi-e, then, in those nnignificent 
 
262 (U!i:ek lifi: at home. 
 
 crcatidiis of tlie tiiicst [KTiod of Attic art to which thc 
 cxaiiiplcs i'(.'prcsciif('(l ahuvc hclong. 
 
 Tlicrr -wci-c Hiauv other sliapcs adoptdl for these 
 tc)iiilistones. A'er\- (ifteu the stclai were dei^orated 
 ^vitli paiiitiiiL;' insti:'ail of reliefs: in soiue tlie sur- 
 face Avas extruded and the haclv^Tound hollowed out, 
 which nave theiii an altar-like character, and the)' were 
 often framed in c(.)rrespondinL;iy by pillars and gables. 
 Occasionally the stones bore the shape of a vase, 
 es[)eciallv (if the oil-tlask, sn important in its asso- 
 ciatiiin with death, and this, too, might be (h'corated 
 with scnlptnre. Si;>nietimes they set low colnnms 
 of r(innd or S(|nare shape on the grave, on whicdi 
 they often represented a siren, who had a special 
 significance as singer of monrning songs ; sometimes 
 whole statnes — ideal p)ictnres or portraits of tlic de- 
 ceased — were placed there, thongh the custom was 
 more common in the HeUenic period than in the 
 best ages ot art. 
 
 (Jhildish aftection and belief led them to decorate 
 these graves still further with wreaths, billets, growing- 
 plants, etc. These were often rencwefh and especially 
 on tlie anniversaries of birth and death the relations 
 caujc with libations and sacrifices, pouring out sweet 
 odours or wine, or by other nicans showed that the 
 meniory of the (h.'parted was not gone from them. 
 There are many pictures extant, especially (jn vases_. 
 depicting tln' care of the graves. Fig, ] 15, from a vase 
 jiainting, shows two woiuen apjiroaching a stele, 
 carrying ])Lites with flasks and hllets. Similarly, in 
 Fig. 11 li, tin; wee}>ing -woman at the end i>f th(; stide 
 is drawn \\dth es[iecial grace. 
 
 Tims the(Tre(d-:s held the memory of their dead 
 worthily in honour, although their time of mourning* 
 did not last near])' as long as is customary wdth us, but 
 
Fig. 117 
 
2G4 i;heek life at hii^ie. 
 
 Avas qenerallv limited to one or a few inoiitiis. i^ven 
 in the ease of those ^vlio luwl died away from home, 
 aud wIkisc remains eonld not he hrouLjht liael<, as, 
 for instanee, thi.ise who -were (h'owned at sea, or 
 aUogether L>st to sin'ht, they erected eenotaphs, in 
 order to have some sjiot with which to connect the 
 ceremonies devoted to the memory of the (h_'ad. The 
 tombstone represented in Fin'. 117 was prol)ah]y that 
 of a man whi) had lost his life in some sneh wa}', 
 perhaps in a shipwreck. Thi.^ relief shows the dead 
 man sittini;- saiUy on land near his ship, and gazing 
 towards his distant liome which he was not permitted 
 to see again. In the empty space below, his name and 
 probably also the details of his death were inscribed 
 in writing, wlii(di has now bci.'ii i.'ft'aced. 
 
CHAPTER A'lII. 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 Jumping — Use of l)uinb-bolIs — Running — The Torch-race — Quoit- 
 throwing- — The Javelin — Wrestling — Boxing — Taneratlon — Fen- 
 taiJiloii — Ijall-ganies — Archery — Training. 
 
 We have already liad occasion to allude to the im- 
 portant part played by gymnastics in Greek lite. In 
 the Doric states it was the basis of the education of 
 girls as well as boys, and even at Athens the training 
 of the body was an important feature of the education 
 of boys and youths, and was also diligently cultivated 
 even afterwards for the sake of developing and 
 strengthening the body. We have now to consider 
 the most important of these gymnastic exercises, and 
 the mode in which they were carried on, dealing tirst 
 with the easier and simpler ones, and afterwards with 
 the more difficult and complicated. 
 
 One of the chief exercises in the gymnastic 
 schools and at the sports was jumping. Along with 
 running, quoit-throwing, wrestling, and boxing, jump- 
 ing was regarded even in the Homeric ago as part 
 of gymnastics, but we know very little of the mode 
 in which it was practised. In the historic period 
 we find the same kinds of jumping as at the pre- 
 sent day, namely, the high jump, the long jump, 
 and the high long jump; among these the long jump 
 was of the first importance, and was the only one 
 in use at the contests. While we, however, confine 
 
■Ibb uniiEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 ourselves more to the iiuii[) witli nr witliont a. s|ii-iiiL;'- 
 liiiard, and use no a.rtitii-ial moans exco[)t perhaps 
 a ]>'i\v. in aiieient times weights {I'/XrPjpe';) were 
 lari^'eh' in use, and tlinugli tliey required a greater 
 ert'ort un the jiart of tire jumper on aeiMiunt of the 
 additional \veiL;ht, yet they,L;ave him some a.dvantae-o 
 hy inereasiuL;' the imjietus. 'j'hesi' Aveiii'hts are simply 
 dumli-liells made i>t' metal iir stone, and resemhle in 
 shape those whieh we use at the present day for veiy 
 dirterent pnr])oses. There were two kinds. The older 
 t'(.)i'm rt'semliled the seg'nient nt' a eirele, son^i'what 
 smaller than a semicin/le, part of the eirele hiauL;' 
 used as a handle. This older kind of dumh-holl, which 
 is re[ii'esented oir many vase ]iietin-es, Avas used in later 
 times ehii'fly for hyu'ienic pmqioses. Another kind 
 came into L;'eneral use for sports, and e.spccially the 
 Pentathlon; these exactly rescndiled our modern 
 dundi-liells, for which, indeed, fhey served as models. A 
 round hall is fastened at cither end of a )nassivo 
 handle, fient int<i sonicthine' of a eurA'O, and some- 
 times — especially when the}' were used not merely 
 to exercise the ai'ms l.iut in leapinc' — oiie of these 
 halls was larger and lieavier than the other, and this, 
 in the leap, was thrust forward. 
 
 ^^'e are expressly told that these ihunh-l.iells were 
 also usi'd in ancient gynmastics for strengthening the 
 shoulders, arms, an<l fingers, and on many old vase 
 jiaintings, where we see duml)-l)ells in the hands of 
 _youths, the attitude suggests su(di exercises and net 
 jumping. In the painting represented in Fig. ll.S one 
 of the men holds two suidi (hnidj-liells in his han<ls ; 
 it is not easy to decide whetlier he is preparing to 
 jump, as is usually supposed, or is onl\' practising 
 dumh-hell exercises. Still, the latter seems to have 
 Ijcen a subordinate use only, and the clhef use of the 
 
GYMXASTIGS. 
 
 2C7 
 
 dnnib-bell was in jiiinping. In running, ]n'evions to 
 jumping, they held the dumb-bells behind them, and 
 at the moment of jumping thrust the arms violently 
 forward ; the impulse given bj' the weight then com- 
 miTnicated itself 
 also to the legs, 
 and enabled 
 them to cover a 
 longer distance. 
 We, therefore, 
 often find jump- 
 ers represented 
 in pictures hold- 
 ing their arms 
 stretched in 
 front of them ; 
 and practical at- 
 tempts in recent 
 times have con- 
 vinced us that 
 the importance 
 of the dumb- 
 bells in jumping 
 was due not so 
 much to a back- 
 ward motion 
 communicated 
 by them, as to 
 the thrusting forward of the 
 down the arms were thrust backward again, as we may 
 also learn from the pictures, and thus a firm and 
 safe standing posture was attained. In the case of the 
 youth represented with dumb-bells in Fig. 119, taken 
 from an engraved discus (compare below. Fig. 126), it 
 is uncertain whether he is using them merely to 
 
 arms. On springing 
 
268 
 
 GHIOEK LIKE A'l' IfDME. 
 
 exercise his arms m- to help him in jumping ; possihly 
 he is taking a prehminury run. (Jther representations 
 of jumpers are given below, in Figs. 121 and 127. It 
 is very pniliablc that these spring-weights were used 
 t'oi' the long jump, hut not for the high jump, where 
 the\' Would be rather an impediment than an assistance. 
 Another ditticult question is wlietlier the ancients 
 made use of leaping-poles. Tln/re is not a single 
 picture (.>f Avhii'ji -we can say with certainty that it re- 
 presents exercises with a leaping-pole, althougli on ^'asc 
 
 paintings of gymnastic 
 
 scenes we do yvy i'rc- 
 quently see sticks or 
 poles, but it is always 
 possil)le to find another 
 interpretation for these. 
 Thus they may" be jave- 
 lins, such as Avere used 
 for throwing, or measur- 
 ing rods, with which the 
 superintending teachers 
 Fio. 119. or judges measru'cd the 
 
 length of a junip or a 
 cpioit-throw, or thi/y ina\ lie merely sticks carried in 
 token of otttcial positif.m. None of the writers afford 
 an)' direct information alniut the use of leaping-poles ; 
 they are hardly mentioned except in references to 
 occasional leaps over trench(^s with the help of a 
 pole, and mounting horses by help of a lance ; and, 
 accordingl\', we niay infer that they did not play an 
 important part in ancient gynniastics. 
 
 Another disjnited cpiestion is whether the ancients 
 used a s[iring-board. Some references among the 
 later writers seem to suggest that they made use of 
 a little elevation {iBaTi'jp), from which they took the 
 
GYMNASTICS. 269 
 
 long jump, which was far the commonest and the only 
 kmd in use in the contests. There is nothing, how- 
 ever, to show that this elevation was of wood, and 
 thus gave the jumper an advantage in consecpience of 
 its elasticity ; it seems to have been only a little 
 mound of earth. The course of events was something 
 of this sort ; all who took part in the contest took 
 their stations in a row behind a lino drawn in the sand 
 of the wrestling school, and jumped from there in 
 turn ; of course, this was not done without previous 
 running, for some of the achievements of the ancients 
 in the long jnmp would have been cpiite impossible 
 without rtmning. Accordingl)', they must have run 
 from the appointed place to the mound and jumped 
 from that. Where the first jumper stopjjed a fresh 
 line was drawn with a pick-axe, such as we often see 
 on vase pictures in the hand of a j'outh or superinten- 
 dent, and they were also used to loosen the earth in 
 order to lessen the shock in jumping down. Those 
 that followed, of course, tried to jump even further, 
 and every longer jump was again marked by a line, 
 while the short ones were left unnoticed, unless, as in 
 the case of the Pentathlon, the object was to have 
 several victors. Finally, the result of the various 
 jumps was determined by long measuring chains. 
 \Miat the ancient writers have told us about the 
 wonderful achievements of the Greek athletes in tlie 
 long jump, sounds almost fabulous ; especially the 
 story about (.'hionis, who is said to have jumped 52 
 feet, and Thayllus, who jumped .5.5. Modern writers 
 on gymnastics have declared these statements im- 
 possible and exaggerated, in spite of the fact that 
 they rest on good authority ; but it is not right to 
 declare our disbelief simply on account of our modern 
 gymnastic training, which is entirely different from 
 
270 (lliEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the (ircek, siuuo the ehistieity of the sinews and 
 the nniseles, whieh couic into phiy in jinniiinL;', lias not 
 1ieen neavl)- so well developed from earliest yonth np- 
 wards as it was in (Greece; moreover, these aeconnts 
 reter to especial tours dc farci-, and we're only rt'inark- 
 alile exceptions. In anv case, (ir(.'eks mnst have 
 demanded a yreat deal even from ordinary jnmpers, 
 otherwise thev wonld not have e<.>nsidei(.'(l the jnmp, 
 which in itself is one of the easiest exercises, one of the 
 most difficult achievements in the gymnastic contests, 
 liuiminc' is already mentioned by Honn'r anionn' 
 the sports practised hy the yonth of Phaeaeia : it was 
 very popular, too, in after times, and formed an 
 important part of the gynniastic contests whiidi took 
 place at the great Hellenic festi^'als. Speed was not 
 of as much importance as endurance, and overcoming- 
 diiticulties of ground : for they did not I'un on firm 
 i!arth, hut in soft sand, where it was donhl)' ditticadt 
 to run fast, since the feet sank in if they wcrv too 
 tirnd\' set down. There were four kinds of racing, 
 accorfhng to the length of the cidu'se: thi' single 
 course ((jTaSfO!'), the douhle course (SiavXo^), the horse 
 race ('i-mrios opajjio^), and the long coursi.' {ZoXiy^uK). 
 Tlie single course was the length of the race-course, 
 or stud in III — that is, six hundred feet; the runner 
 had to measure the ccun'se from heginning to end. 
 Jn the diiuMe course the same space was jias.scd 
 over in hoth directions — that is, twice. In tlie horse 
 rai'c thi'y ran twice backwards and forwards, conse- 
 quently four stiiili<i,v,'lncAi therefore was tlie length of 
 the course on horseback, and heiu/i- its name. There 
 are very different accounts aljout the length of the 
 long course ; seven, twelve, twenty, and even twenty- 
 four stud III have Iji'en inenti(_)ned ; tlie last (ab(_)Ut 
 three miles) seems to have Iieen tlie usual leniith at 
 
c;ymnahtics. 271 
 
 Olyiiipia. It is impossible to say wlaetlier these 
 various statements arc due to erroneous calculations 
 or diiiering customs ; still there is no reason to doul.it 
 even the longest coiu'se mentioned, since many of our 
 modern runners can achieve tar greater distances, so 
 that a course of twenty-four sladia might very "well 
 have been reijuired as the highest achievement of a 
 good athlete. Our authorities, however, do not inform 
 us what degree of speed was usual. AVe know that 
 the educational and practical value of running de- 
 pended not onl)' on the attainment of great speed 
 over a short distance, but also on the endm'ance 
 necessary for achieving a long distance ; and amono- 
 the exercises in the g}'nmasia they probably laid as 
 much stress on an even pace in the long races as on 
 speed. But when running was practised at the con- 
 tests, the moderation in speed of cnurse gave way to 
 the attempt to be first in the race and in conse- 
 cpience we hear of cases in which the victorious 
 runner, on reaching the winning-post, fell down dead 
 iir consequence of excessive exertion, like the runner 
 Ladas, whose statue Myron made. Therefore, the 
 runners, as well as others who engaged in gymnastic 
 contests, were in the habit of previously rubbing their 
 bodies with oil in order to make their limbs flexible. 
 In running, three or five generally entered at the 
 same time ; when there were more they seem to have 
 been divided into parties of four, and in that case the 
 winning party had to nm once more to decide the 
 final victory. The signal for running was given by 
 the dropping of a rope stretched out in front of the 
 runners ; in running, they either held their arms with 
 the elbows closelj' pressed to their sides or swimg 
 them violently and regularly back^vards and forwards, 
 corresponding in time to the feet ; the former attitude 
 
272 
 
 <;i;eek life at home. 
 
 ■was pvdlial'lv rcsrrve'd tor the long course, "wlion it 
 was a (|nrstiiin of preserving an i.'i[ual sliced, and the 
 latter for the ijiiickest eourse, in -wliieli tlie swinging 
 of the arms might be a help : even here, however, 
 the rule held that a good nnmi.'r should ado] it a 
 slower motion at first, and only gradually proceed to 
 his greatest speed. The pictures of runners, wliich 
 
 are very C(immon on "\'ase pictures, especially on tho 
 so-i'alled F<i iKitln'innc prizo amphorae, generally 
 show the peculiarity of holding the front leg very 
 high up, while the other is set far liack\\-ards, and 
 seems oidv to touch the ground "with tlie toes. Now 
 in ordinary pictures of runners we generall\- see the 
 front leg resting on the ground and the other thrown 
 out far behind, and this is sometimes found on antique 
 pictures, but less otten ; we theretVire must snpiiose 
 that (piick running in ancient times consisted rather 
 in a series of wide jumps, in which only the toes 
 touched the ground. In the vase piunting repre- 
 
GYMXASTICS. 'Zl'S 
 
 seiited in Fio-. 120 we see four runners movino- thus 
 from left to right ; their left legs are thrown far 
 forward, their right legs back, and the arms swing 
 with a motion corresponding to that of the legs. The 
 hypothesis formerly current that on the vase paintings 
 the runners from left to rioiit are runnino- the sintiie. 
 
 those from right to left the long course, is, however, 
 not tenable. The two men practising, on the vase 
 23icture Fig. 121, are jumping in exactly the same 
 manner ; behind them another man is preparing to 
 jump with dumb-bells, near them stands a teacher or 
 superintendent in a cloak, with a switch in his hand ; 
 on the ground lies a quoit. 
 
 In ancient times, runners usuallj' wore some 
 
 drapery round their loins, but afterwards they had no 
 
 clothing at all. There was, however, a special kind of 
 
 race, called " armour-race," {oirXiTohpofila), which was 
 
 s 
 
274 
 
 (UiKEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 not introiliir-i'd into the (Jlympic games till the 3-car 
 520, in -which tlie runners wore the heavy armour of 
 HupVitcs. In aneient times, they seem to have run in 
 
 lull armour — 
 that is, with 
 helmet, cuirass, 
 greaves, sword 
 and spear; 
 afterwards, if 
 we may trust 
 the representa- 
 tions on the 
 vases, the 
 armour-race 
 consisted in 
 running witli 
 helmet and 
 round shield, 
 as in Fig. 122. 
 This kind of 
 race, which, 
 of course, re- 
 quired still 
 greater exer- 
 tion, seems to 
 have been only 
 in use for the 
 siny'le and duul>le course, and chieHy for the latter 
 but not fir the horse-course, or the long course. 
 
 The torch-race (Xa/j-Trahoopofxla) was more a matter 
 of skill than of speed or bodily strength. This was. 
 especially jiopular at Athens, and there constituted an 
 important part of certain festivals, especially the 
 Panathenaea, and the festivals of Hephaestus and 
 Prometheus, but had nothing to do with the g3m- 
 
GYMNASTICS. 275 
 
 nastic contests at the areat national g-auies. The 
 youths who took part in the torch-race, lighted their 
 torches at an altar in the Academy, and ran together 
 from there, with burning torches to some appointed 
 place in the town. In this race the victor was not he 
 who ran fastest, but he who first arrived at the goal with 
 a burning torch. It was important, therefore, to run 
 quickly, and at the same time cautiously, so that the 
 torch might not be put out. The expenses of the 
 arrangements, which, however, cannot have been very 
 consiclerable, belonged to the so-called Liturgies, the 
 charges voluntarily undertaken by certain wealthy 
 citizens. They also had to superintend the practising, 
 or, at any rate, to see to its being done. If we may 
 judge from ancient representations of the torch-race, 
 the runners sometimes, besides the torch, bore a 
 shield on their left arm, and also some head-covering, 
 and, since it was not really a question of great speed, 
 some light article of clothing. 
 
 In the third place, we must consider quoit-throw- 
 ing. This exercise, in which the object was to throw 
 a heavy disc as far as possible, is also mentioned in 
 the Odyssey. The youth of Phaeacia played it, but 
 Odysseus excels them all, and sends the disc hurled 
 by him beyond all the marks of the other players. 
 (Quoits are also mentioned as an amusement of the 
 suitors, and among the funeral games in honour of 
 Patroclus. Homer mentions stone and iron quoits ; 
 in later times metal, chiefly iron or bronze, was the 
 commonest material. They were round and flat in 
 shape, somewhat raised on each side, with a diameter 
 of about a foot, and were, therefore, very heavy, and 
 not easy to grasp on account of their smoothness. 
 The descriptions of ancient writers and monuments 
 give us a very clear idea of the manner in which these 
 s 2 
 
Yu,. 1: 
 
GYJIXASTICS. 277 
 
 discs were thrown. The (jnoit-pkiyer, first of all, took 
 a firm stand, and while he measured the space over 
 which he had to throw his disc, he held it in his 
 left hand in order not to tire the right too soon ; 
 this is the position in which we see the standing 
 " ]Jiscobolus " in the Vatican, represented in Fig. 123. 
 The attitude adopted when actually throwing is best 
 given by the Discobolus of Myron, which has come 
 down to us in several copies,and which is thus described 
 by Lucian : " He is stooping down to take aim, his body 
 turned in the direction of the hand which holds the 
 quoit, one knee slightly bent, as though he meant to 
 vary his posture and rise with the throw." The 
 thrower, therefore, bent his whole body somewhat in 
 the moment when he threw back the right hand with 
 the disc, in order to give it the necessary impulse, 
 pressing his left leg firmly on the ground, and digging 
 his toes into the sand, at the same time bending the 
 right knee in order to give the disc increased power 
 by springing up from his bent position at the moment 
 of throwing. In this attitude the position of the head 
 followed the whole direction of the body with a slight 
 inclination to the right (the left of the spectator), as 
 we may learn from the best copies preserved to us of 
 Myron's Discobolus, a statue in the Palazzo Massimi, 
 at Rome, and a bronze statuette at Munich ; the 
 downward bending of the head, in the Vatican cop}', 
 represented in Fig. 124, and on the other replicas of 
 the statue, is due to a mistake in restoration. We 
 may also assume with some certainty that they did 
 not remain on the same spot at the moment of throw- 
 ing, but had space enough to run a little way forward, 
 as is done even now in playing skittles — a game which 
 differs but little from cpioit-playing — for the force of 
 the throw would be checked by remaining in one 
 
■27s (UiEEIv I.IKE AT HnME. 
 
 place. Thus the bronze, statue, Fhj;. 1:25 (though this 
 is soiuetiiues interpreted as a wrestler rniininL;' to the 
 attack), shows the disc thrower runnini;- forward a 
 few sti.'ps, the upper part of his body bent forwards, 
 and trying to follow the result of his throw. Probably 
 the Uttle elevation from which, according to the 
 aui'ient writers, the thrower hurled the quoit, supplied 
 the necessar)' space for this forward movement, and 
 the extreme edge of this elevatiiin (/3aX/S«) was also 
 the limit which, in case of a contest prevented any 
 from running i'urther than others, or throwing their 
 discus fr(.>ni a nearer point, ,so that the conditions of 
 the contest might be alike for all. The umpires, or 
 superintendents carefully marked, by lines or some 
 other means, the place to which each combatant threw 
 his disc, and he whose quoit flew the farthest Avas 
 the victor. 
 
 (ihK.iit-throwing, as well as ruiming and jumping, 
 was taught even toboj's, Imt undoubtedljr they used 
 smaller and lighter discs than men. The disc from 
 Aegina, now in the Berlin Museum, one side of which 
 is represented above in Fig. 119, was only eight inches 
 in diameter, and aljout foiu' jjounds weight, but was 
 pri)bal)l)- ne\er used as an actual implement of the 
 school. 
 
 Throwing the javelin was also taught in the boys' 
 gymnastic si-lionls. This was originally a militarv 
 exercise; we find it mentioned in heroic times, not 
 only as a mode of fighting, f>ut also as a game. In the 
 gynmastic schools of the biiys and youths they often 
 used, as we may tell from the pictures, instead of a real 
 spear, a blunt stick of about the same length, l)ut tliev 
 must sometimes have made use of real spears with 
 shar];) point'^ for their exercises, since the orati:>r 
 Antiplion tells us that one of the older lioys at the 
 
Fig. 124. 
 
Fh;. 12r, 
 
GYMNASTICS. 2<Sl 
 
 gyuinasiuni Icilled a yoiuiger one, who had by mistake 
 run in the "way, and this would have been impossible 
 if a mere stick had been used. Probably the weit;ht 
 of the spears was g-radnally increased, as also of the 
 quoits, and the youths used heavier weapons than the 
 boys, while the men in their turn used still heavier 
 ones. We mav, however, infer that, besides throwing 
 a mere stick in which certainty of aim would be the 
 object, they used actual spears, and studied especial 
 ways of managing them, since the javelin, which was 
 supplied with a loop or strap, had to be thrown in a 
 quite pecuhar way, while the stick had no loop, and 
 could be quite differently thrown. This loop was near 
 the lower end of the javelin ; the thrower put the first 
 and second lingers of his right hand through it — some- 
 times it was a double loop, so that each linger gi-asped 
 a separate strap — he laid his thxnnb on the wood of the 
 spear, which rested on the third or fourth fingers 
 placed underneath, or else on the third linger alone ; 
 in this position the hand was drawn backwards and 
 then aim was taken at some definite goal, the natnre 
 of which we are not acquainted with. This we learn 
 from the Berlin disc already mentioned (Fig. l:^(i), 
 and also from various vase paintings, and the tigure 
 of the giant frieze from Pergannmi. The throw was 
 either horizontal, if distance was aimed at, which was 
 most usual, or npwards towards some raised mark. 
 Among g■J^nnastic exercises represented in a vase 
 painting (Fig. 127), throwing the spear also plays a 
 part. We see here, on the left nearest the haft, a youth 
 represented as just about to run ; on the right, near 
 him, a second is practising dumb-bells, or else pre- 
 paring to jump. Xear a long-robed flute-player, whose 
 nnisie is accompanj'ing the exercises, a spear-thrower 
 is runnino' forward, but his face is not turned forward 
 
■2S-2 cr.EEK ]JFE AT Hi iME. 
 
 to the murk, but liackward tnwards the hand which 
 hokls the spear (like the throwing Diseobohis), so 
 that "we innst suppose that it was not a cpiestion of 
 throwing the spear at a detinite mark, hut only ot send- 
 ing it as far as possiMc, Next to a liearded superin- 
 tendent, wearing a cloak and holding a switch, follows 
 a (jnoit-plaver, who is aliout to throw the disc whieh 
 he holds in the right hand. Lastly, we have a pair of 
 boxers, whose attitude will be discussed further on 
 
 Other representations 
 show us that, in throw- 
 ing upwards, the handle 
 with the loop was held 
 downwards, but in 
 throwing to a distance, 
 if the object was to 
 throw as far as possiljle, 
 the right arm was drawn 
 back as in Fig. 11!) and 
 here ; but if a mark was 
 aimed at, the iippter arm 
 was kepit in a horizontal 
 position, about the height of the ear, and the aim care- 
 fully taken l:>efore throwing. The javelin used in gyni- 
 nastic exercises and contests differs from that used in 
 war in being constructed of very light wood, and 
 having no lance-head like the one used in battle, but, 
 as Fig. lliJ shows, a very thin and rather long head, 
 obviotisly in order that the spear may cling more 
 easily to the mark whi(di was proliably made of wood. 
 Throughout the whole of anticpiity the favourite 
 contest was An-estling, and the importance of this 
 depended on the fact that the whole Ijody ^\-as 
 exercised at the same time, and all the nuiscles 
 came into play : and also that it was not an e.xercise 
 
"284 (HtEEK LIFE AT Hd.ME. 
 
 performed liy one single man, Init wus an innncdiate 
 measuring;' i>f strength of two i.ipj)onents, and, there- 
 fore, even more tl^ian the other contests, re(|uired full 
 bodily power. Even in the Homeric age, theref)re, 
 wrestling played an important part, and the deep hold 
 it toolc on (-ireek life is shown by the great nnniber 
 of technical expressions taken from wrestling which in 
 metaphorical form fonnd their way into the ordinary 
 every-day langnage ; no other exercise had so large a 
 store of technical expressions ; indeed, it is afisolutely 
 impossible for us to iind words to express them 
 all at the present day. A\^restling, like other gym- 
 nastic exercises, Avas carried on at first ^vitli some 
 drapery round the loins, and afterwards without any 
 clothing. As a preparation, the combatants rubbed 
 their whole bodies with oil, with a view to making 
 their limbs more supple and elastic. For this pur- 
 pose there were special rooms in the gynmasia and 
 wrestling schools, in which stood large vessels, tilled 
 with oil, from which they filled their own little flasks: 
 then they poured a little oil out of these into their 
 hands, and either rubbed their bodies with it or else 
 had them rublied fiy one of the attendants of the 
 gynmasia appointed fir the purpose (dXeiTTTri';). But 
 as this oiling and the perspiration which resulted from 
 the Contest W(juld have made the bod)' too smooth 
 and slippery, and absolutely impossible to grasp, 
 they covered themselves, when the anointing was 
 tinishc(l, with tine dust, taken from special pits, or else 
 prepared on purpose. This was supposed also to serve 
 a hygienic purpose, for it was assumed that the dust 
 prevented excessive perspiration, and in consequeniie 
 saved the strength ; it was also regarded as advan- 
 tageous because it closed the pores and sh(dtered 
 them from the air, Avhic-h might have an injiu'ious 
 
GYMNASTICS. ZOO 
 
 effect. Oil, perspiration, dust, and also the soft sand, 
 which, when the wrestlers continued their contest 
 on the ground, clung to their bodies, together 
 formed a thick crust, which could not have been 
 sutticiently removed by a mere warm bath ; therefore 
 the wrestlers used a stlengin, or strir/il. for cleansing 
 their bodies, rubbing off the dirt partly themselves 
 and partly with the help of attendants, and afterwards 
 took a warm bath. The action of this scraping, 
 which, in spite of its unaesthetic nature, gave rise to 
 njany graceful attitudes, has been often plastically 
 represented by artists ; a good copy has come down 
 to us of the most celebrated of these figures, the 
 A'poxijo'inenos of Lysippus. The liath was usually 
 followed by oiling the body once more, because the 
 use of oil was regarded as good for the health and 
 tending to strengthen the limbs. As already men- 
 tioned, this anointing was accompanied by a kind of 
 massage, a pressing and kneading of the body, which 
 the rubber understood, and which was regarded as a 
 hygienic method, so that one who was specially skilled 
 in it was called a medical-rubber (jaTpaXet'TrrT??), and in 
 a measure combined the duties of physician and 
 rubber. The constant exposure to fresh air and 
 accustoming of the naked body to the rays of the sun, 
 combined with the oiling and dusting mentioned above, 
 produced in the wrestlers especially, though to some 
 extent in all the athletes, a very dark complexion, 
 which the ancients regarded as a mark of health 
 and of manly courage, and often held up to admiration 
 in contrast to the pale colouring of the artisans and 
 stay-at-homes who " sat in the shade." There were 
 two principal methods in ordinary wrestling — stand- 
 ing and ground Avrestling. In the first kind of 
 contest everything depended on throwing an opponent. 
 
■ISG OKEEK LIFE AT I1():\1E. 
 
 eitlici' bv skill, (n' by certain tricks which wcro allowed 
 in wrestling, in snch a way that his shonlder touched 
 the earth, while the other kept his position ; throwing 
 once, however, did not decide the victory, but in order 
 to be victorious in the standing wrestling-bout it was 
 necessarv for a nian to throw his opponent three times 
 in this manner. AMien both opponents fell together 
 while wrestling without clasping each other, they 
 jumped up and liegan the contest afresh; but if they 
 grasped each other tirmly when they fell, so that the 
 contest was not yet decided, the wrestling usually 
 passed into the second stage, in which both wrestled 
 while h'ing on the ground, when now one now the 
 other might get the advantage, until one of the two 
 declared himself concpiered, and gave up the struggle. 
 The wrestlers in the celebrated Florentine marble 
 group, represented in Fig. 128, are in this position. 
 This wrestling on the ground, however, only took place 
 in the bo3's' gymnastic school, and after^vards in the 
 public contests of Pancratiasts (see below, page 296), 
 and professional athletes ; in the great contests and 
 the Pentathlon only standing wrestling was allowed. 
 The mode in which the ^\T0stlers began the combat 
 has been clearly described by several writers, and 
 often represented on monuments. Each combatant 
 took his place, with his legs somewhat apart, his right 
 foot forward, stretched out his arms, drew his head a 
 little between his shoulders, and thrust forward the 
 u}iper part of his body, back, shoulders, and neck, in 
 order to protect the lower part somewhat from the 
 attack of his opponent. In this manner the com- 
 batants stepped towards each other, each watching foi- 
 the moment when the other would expose himself in 
 some way of which he could take advantage, and as 
 they were naturally lioth as much as possible on their 
 
Fig. 123. 
 
■2SS 
 
 OREEK LIFE AT H(:>:\IE. 
 
 H'uai'd, it \\as nftcn a cnnsidoralile time before they could 
 lie^'in the contest by seizini;' hokl of their opponents, 
 lint wlien it was once begun, the masters or other offi- 
 cials who superintended watched to see that no tricks 
 
 contrary to tra- 
 dition and rule 
 were made use 
 of, that there was 
 no striking or 
 biting ; but still, 
 the}^ were al- 
 lowed to luake 
 use of certain 
 tricks or feints 
 in order to de- 
 ceive the enemy 
 or gain an ad- 
 vantage over 
 him. Among 
 the methods al- 
 lowed Avas throt- 
 tling, either b)' 
 touching the 
 opponent's neck 
 or throwing an 
 arm round it, 
 or pushing the 
 elbow under 
 and sometimes the combatant who was 
 in this way was forced from want of 
 breath to declare himself concjuered, even without 
 Ijeing thrown ; shiiilarly his opponent might force him, 
 Ij}' pressing his body together to aliandon the C()ntest ; 
 and in the ground wrestling it soniethnes happened 
 that the condjatant who had the upper hand knelt 
 
 his chin 
 attacked 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 L'8t) 
 
 down on the one avIio had been thrown to the gronnd 
 and throttled him until he asked for mercy. Twisting 
 and bending the lindjs was also allowed, thrusting an 
 armor a foot into the opponent's belly, pushing or forcing 
 him from the spot, 
 which, if the hands 
 were occupied, was 
 often done by means 
 of the forehead, the 
 two combatants dash- 
 ing their heads against 
 each other like tw<,) 
 angry bulls: this was a 
 Tery favourite trick, 
 and is frequently 
 sliown on works of art. 
 In Fig. 129, taken from 
 a vase painting we see 
 two wrestlers who have 
 grappled, each hold- 
 ing his opponent's 
 right arm with his 
 own left : their fore- 
 heads are pressed to- 
 gether, one has drawn 
 back his right foot in 
 order to increase his 
 resisting jjower. The 
 combatants in Fis'. 130, are fio-htino- in a similar manner, 
 the left hand of one seizes the right arm of his opponent, 
 while his right arm is thrown roimd his body ; the left 
 hand of the other meantime attacks his enemy's back. 
 On the left a superintendent, who wears a cloak, and 
 holds a branch in his hand, stands looking on ; on the 
 right a young man is running quickly away, 
 T 
 
 Among 
 
290 CltEEK LIFE AT JIDJIE. 
 
 the peniiitted feints was a sudden thnist of the log, 
 which hit the opponent's kneo from hehind with the 
 foot in such a manner as to throw him, or, if this was 
 impossible, a similar blow was attempted on the side; 
 they also seized an opponent by the log or ankle in 
 such a way as to lift it fr(_im the ground ^\■itll a violent 
 impulse, so that he nmst fall backwards. .Sometimes 
 a strong and skilful wrestler would jiutliisarms round 
 Ids opponent's hips in such a way as to lift him entirol}' 
 from the "'round, and turn him over with his head 
 downwards. (Jn the A-ase painting represented in 
 Fig. 1 .")! , in the group on the right, one of the wrestlers 
 lias lifted up his opponent in this nianner, and the 
 latter is tr3'ing to free himself from the arms which are 
 liolding him. In the other group, one of the wrestlers 
 with his right arm seizes the left arm of his opponent 
 and tries to press him down with his body, tlirusting 
 Ins head over the loft shoulder of the other ; the latter, 
 liowever, thrusts his head over his opponent's back, 
 and with his right arm seizes his opponent's right arm 
 from behind. The richly-clad youth standing by 
 presents an almost fennnino appearance, holding a 
 staff and Hower in his hands, and it is not clear for what 
 purpose he is thei'e. tSuuilar tricks and manoeuvres 
 were used in ground wrestling. Eesides this they also 
 attempted to entangle the opponent's logs in theirs, in 
 order to prevent him from standing np again. There 
 were a great many similar modes or plans of wrestling, 
 all with a special terminology, ami it seems as thongh 
 no gynmastic exerciseliad been so thoronghlydeveloped 
 mto a real art as that of wrestling. 
 
 IJoxing, which wo hear of among the funeral games 
 in honour of Patroclus, was also jiractised in the 
 historic period, but as a mode of tinhting it was not 
 actnall)' necessary for the g)'mnastic training of every 
 
IJI •/ 
 
292 GltEEK LIKE AT HnME. 
 
 Greek, Ijiit was rather studicil by those wli<:> desired to 
 win ]irizes in th(> pubHe names, and to obtain honour 
 and reward 1iy their l)odily skill and strenL;-th. We are 
 aeeustonied to regard tlie yyninastie training of the 
 (xrcelvs as tending not only to the development of the 
 body, but also to that of the mind ; and we cannot deny 
 that boxing, especially in the form whieh it assumed 
 in the course of centuries, was a rough spcirt, and that 
 the pleasure whicdi the Greeks undoubtedly took in 
 -^vatching it, though not tpiite of so degrading a nature 
 as the cruel delight taken by the Romans in the tights 
 of gladiators and Avild beasts, yet, considered in con- 
 nection with certain other ]>i>pular sports, sucli as 
 cock-tighting, must be taken as a sign that even 
 the high degree of culture, \vhich the Athenians had 
 undouljtedly attained b}' the tifth century, was not 
 quite sufticient to suppress completely the animal 
 instinct in man. After all, ( )iu- much-lauded nineteenth 
 century is not unacquainted with such amusements as 
 boxing, pigeon-shooting, and sinular sports. 
 
 ]!<:>.\ing, like wrestling, was subject to special rules, 
 from "\vhich we see that more stress was laid <;)n artistic 
 and elegant methods than on the mere evidence ot 
 grc'at liodily strength and rude force. Sjjccially skilful 
 boxers, indeed, devoted themselves chiefly to wearing 
 out their enemy b}^ keeping strictly on the defensive — 
 that is, parr3-ing all his blijws with their arms, and thus 
 forcing liim at last to give u}) the contest, rather than 
 making him untit to hght liv well-aimed blows. They 
 distinguished, too, in the defensive between correctly- 
 aimed blows and mere i-ough hitting, which somethiies 
 gave a combatant the victory if he happened to possess 
 considerable strength, ))Ut liy no means won reputation 
 fiir him. All the same, severe bodily injuries, or, at 
 any rate, lasting deformities, especially in the head and 
 
(A'MXASTICS. 293 
 
 face, were inevitably connected with boxing, and it was 
 by no means nnnsnal for boxers to have their ears 
 completely disfigured and beaten quite flat, and, 
 indeed, we see this on some of the ancient heads ; 
 afterwards it became customary to use special bandages 
 for protecting the ears. A jiractice which made boxing 
 especially rough, and sometimes even dangerous to life, 
 was that of covering the hands with leathern thongs. 
 Originalljr these thongs were tolerably harmless ; they 
 consisted merely of leather, and were put on in such a 
 way that the fingers remained free, while the thongs 
 extended a little way above the wrist and covered part 
 of the lower arm — of course, in such a way as not to 
 check the motion of the hand. But this rentier kind, 
 which were still capaljle of inflicting rather serious 
 injuries, were afterwards in use only for the preliminary 
 practice before a serious contest ; for the latter they 
 used heavy boxing-gloves of hardened bull's hide, into 
 which knobs of lead, etc., were worked. We can easily 
 imagine what terrible wounds might be inflicted by a 
 blow from one of these. Many of the old athletes 
 could show bodies covered with wounds like that of an 
 old soldier, and the writers of epigrams laughingly 
 compared the bodies of athletes to sieves full of holes. 
 And although they were forbidden purposely to give 
 blows which threatened the life of an opponent, yet 
 it sometimes happened, as in the notorious contest 
 between (Jreiigas and Damoxenus, that in the excite- 
 ment of the moment the combatants forgot the 
 established rules, and the professional contest turned 
 into mere brutality, from which those of the spectators 
 whose feelings were of a less coarse nature turned away 
 with horror. 
 
 For the contest they generally took their position 
 in such a manner as not to turn their whole body to 
 
2!)4 
 
 (iliEEK I.IKE AT lIo.Mi;. 
 
 the cnc'iiiy, but only one side, ami, as a rule, the left. 
 It was in the nature of the ODiitest that a constant 
 ehani;'!.' hct\vecn attack and (lefence must take place; 
 the attitude re])rescnted on nuuierons uionnuieuts, in 
 Avhiili tlie left arm is used for |iari'yinL;-, the right for 
 
 attack, was 
 the CO] union 
 one, not only 
 as an o[)en- 
 inn', hut re- 
 peated at 
 e a c h n e w 
 p h a s , 
 though a 
 c h a n I;- e 
 wonldsoiue- 
 tinies take 
 place, and 
 the right 
 arm be used 
 in defence, 
 the left for 
 attack. Un 
 t h e vase 
 |)ainting' re- 
 ]iresentedin 
 F i g . 1 .'5 2 
 ^ve see two 
 1) o X e r s , 
 
 whose huge prop(jrtiiins sliciw tliat thev were endowed 
 Avitli espei-ial sti-ength: both have covered tlieir arms 
 and hands with hea\'v thongs, one is apparent^ 
 countering witli tli(.' left : the otlier ha\iug failed with 
 his left to rrach the head of liis eneui}-. On the right 
 stands a \\-inged (Inddess of A'ictor}-, on the left a 
 
GYMNASTICS. 295 
 
 Ijoxer with the thongs, raising his left arm to his head. 
 The vase painting, Fig. 13:^, represents two boxers, one 
 of wliom aims a well-directed blow with his left at the 
 breast of the other, who totters. <.)n one side lie some 
 poles, as well as implements belonging to the wrestling 
 
 school, strigil, sponge, etc. There are also two boxers 
 on the vase painting represented in Fig. 127. The one 
 to the right has " got home " so effectively on the head 
 with his left, that the other, who has tried to guard 
 with his left arm, has to give ground, and seems to have 
 had enough, for he is raising the first finger of his right 
 
296 (UiEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 hand, a sign that he begs for mercy and declares him- 
 self conquered. The th<.)ngs here are only worn on the 
 right hand of one of the combatants, but this was prob- 
 ably merely an omission on the })art i.if the painter. 
 
 As preliminary practice in boxing, especially 
 in learning the cininnoncst attacks and parries, they 
 used a kind of quintain (KcopvKo^), a bladder or leather 
 ball, hung up and tilled with sand : this exercise is 
 often represented on old monuments, and most clearly 
 on the so-called " Ficoronese C'ista." This striking at 
 the quintain was one of the regular contests in the 
 gymnasium, for though the dangerous fighting with 
 the leaded thongs was left to professidual athletes, yet 
 a trial of skill in the commoner kind of harmless box- 
 ing, in which there was no risk of losing teeth, etc., 
 was a very favourite practice, and this, no doubt, is 
 meant when we find lioxing mentioned oven among 
 the gynmastic exercises of boys. 
 
 Similar was the Faiirrdtuiri, as difficult as it was 
 dangerous, which was unknown to the heroic age, a 
 combination of boxing and wrestling, which, though 
 included among the exercises of the boys and youths, 
 was only of real importance for professional athletes. 
 Here all the parts of the body came into play, tricks 
 and cunning feints to lead an ojjponent astray were 
 permissible, and as important as bodily strength and 
 powerful fists. The combatants fought naked, like 
 the wrestlers, after oiling and strewing dust over 
 their bodies ; but tliey did not use thongs, which 
 -ivould have been in the way in wrestling, nor were 
 they permitted to strike with the wIkjIc fist, but 
 only with the bent fingers. They began the fight 
 standing, as in wrestling, and the special difficulty 
 was, in taking the ()ffensive, to avf)id being seized 
 b}' an opponent as well as to ])arry an unexpected 
 
GYMNASTICS. '197 
 
 blow from his fist. Blows were dealt not only in the 
 standing fight, but also in the ground wrestling, and 
 in the pancration they made even more use of their 
 feet for hitting and kicking than in the separate con- 
 tests in wrestling and boxing ; they also tried to twist 
 their opponent's hands and break his fingers, since 
 the main object was to make him incapable of fight- 
 ing. It is, therefore, natural that among professional 
 athletes the pancration was regarded as the most 
 important of all modes of fighting. 
 
 Another contest, the Fentotldon, was of a very 
 different nature. In the pancration the two modes 
 of wrestlinfr and boxinc;' were combined tot;'ether, but 
 in the pentathlon the diti'erent contests were under- 
 taken one after another by a number of competitors, 
 and he who did well in all of them, and took the first 
 place in some, was declared victor in the whole. 
 The contest consisted in jumping, running, throwing 
 the quoit, throwing the spear, and wrestling. Although 
 the combination of these five contests was arranged 
 with a view to the public games, yet it also had some 
 educational importance ; for difficult and easy contests 
 were here combined, both those which required skill 
 as well as those in which mere bodily strength 
 carried off the palin, and thus the pentathlon was W'ell 
 calculated to develop the whole body harmoniously, 
 and to keep professionals from devoting too much 
 attention to one side of gymnastics to the disad- 
 vantage of the others. For this reason it was 
 introduced among the exercises of the boys. We 
 have no conclusive information about the proceedings 
 in the pentathlon, the order in which the various 
 contests followed one another, and the conditions on 
 which a combatant was declared to be victorious. 
 There is a good deal of difference of opinion among the 
 
208 OREEK LIFE AT HOJIE, 
 
 iiioflems wlio have ventured hypotheses on the subject. 
 Uno ^reat dittieuhv in deciding- this question arises 
 tVoni the fact that, thouyh a considerable number of 
 combatants niiglit take part in the four tirst-mentioned 
 contests, wrestling must in the nature of things be per- 
 formed bv onlv two : we nmst therefore assume that 
 the contests were arranged in such a manner thatonh' 
 two Combatants shi:nild be left for the last. Probably- 
 they began with running, for which a considerable 
 number could enter; supposing there were very 
 man^■, the^' may have had several series of com- 
 bats after\\-ards. The ti^•e best rimners Avoidd then 
 enter u[>on the second contest, l^erhaps throwing 
 the spear: then the worst of these live would be 
 thrown out, and the I'cmaining four enter for the 
 next, the jump; the three best jumpei's would then 
 throw the quoit, and the two best (pioit-throwers 
 would wrestle finally for the palm. Whether this or 
 something similar was the arrangement, it might happen 
 that a combatant wdio had never taken the first place 
 in one of the first four contests might carry off the 
 victory at last, l)iU: thej^ avoided this by the rule that, 
 if anyone took the first place in the first three contests 
 or in tlu'ceof the four, the two last or the last might 
 l:ie left out, and he would be considered victor in the 
 pentathlon, (.'onseijuently, the final wrestling match 
 only toolc place if after the fourth contest the victory 
 was still undecided — that is, if among the two best 
 <|uoit-throwers neither had taken the first place three 
 times. It might, therefore, happen that a man who 
 took the first place t\\"ice and the second plae-e once 
 in the first three contests was thrown out in the 
 fourth, and the victc:iry fall to another who hail never 
 taken the first ];ilace except at the last. Still, this 
 ap].)arent injustice was counterbalanced by the fact 
 
GYMNASTICS. T.)9 
 
 that the last contest was reaUj- the most difficult, while 
 a certain average excellence in the former contests was 
 recjuirecl of everyone who entered the pentathlon at 
 all ; also it was no small merit to keep a place among 
 the victors in all live contests, though it might not 
 be the first or second. Of course these are merely 
 hypotheses; we have not sufficient materials for 
 attaining certainty in this matter. 
 
 A mimber of other gymnastic exercises were of 
 greater importance for the gynmasium than for the 
 public games. Among those which were mercljr pre- 
 liminary training for more serious tasks we have 
 already mentioned the dumb-bells and the cpuntain. 
 Others bear some resemblance to our own gymnastics : 
 thus, for instance, exercises in bendino' the knees, 
 which were especially popular at Sparta, and also 
 practised by girls there ; thrusting the arms for- 
 ward and backward whilst standing on tijatoe, 
 hopping on one foot, or changing the foot, etc. Ball 
 was also included anrong the games of a semi-gymnastic 
 character, as with us, too, it plaj's some part in 
 gymnastic exercises ; rope-pulling was also a favourite 
 practice, but throughout the whole of antiquity far 
 the most popular recreative game in the gymnastic 
 schools was ball-plaj'ing, and there were special 
 places devoted to it, just as there were after- 
 wards in the baths or thernrae. The ancient writers 
 mention several other occupations of this kind, half- 
 way between serious exercises and mere games ; un- 
 doubtedly there were many others concerning which 
 we have no information, and the relief in Fig. 134 
 probably shows us one of these. It seems to repre- 
 sent a game with a large hard ball, which was 
 thrown up into the air and caught on the thigh, and, 
 perhaps, thrown up again into the air from there. 
 
 o. 
 
:500 
 
 (JllEKK LIFE AT HDJIE. 
 
 Many exercises of u jiartlv military character were 
 also j'ractised in the gymnasia. ]5esi(les throwing 
 the spi'ar, which was regarded as an entirely gym- 
 nastic exercise, and was practised at the jiubhc con- 
 tests, there was archer}', wdiich, in the Alexandrine 
 age, as we previonsly mentioned, even found a. place 
 in the curricnlum of the Attic yonths. This was 
 also the case with the Cretans, wIki were I'enowned as 
 
 Fig. i:j4. 
 
 excellent archers at tlie time of Plato, and probably 
 even earlier. The)' used for the purpose a bow con- 
 structed of horn or hard wood; bows were of two 
 different shapes, one which was connnon in the East, 
 and was alread)' descrilied by Homer, in which two 
 horn-shaped_ ends were connected by a straight 
 middle piece ; the other was a simpler shape, in 
 which the whole ijow consisted of one piece of elastic 
 wood, scared}' curved at all when the Ijow was not 
 bent, and which, when bent, acquired a semicircnlar 
 shape. As a rule, when the bow was not in nse the 
 string was only fastened at one end. Before shooting, 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 yui 
 
 it was attached to the hook at the other end by 
 means of a little ring or eye. A good deal of strength 
 was needed to bend the bow far enough to attach 
 the string. In shooting, they drew back the feathered 
 arrow, on which a notch titted, along with the string 
 towards the breast, holding the bow firnil}- in the left 
 hand. The yase painting depicted in Fig. 135 repre- 
 sents archery practice. The target here is the wooden 
 figure of a cock set upon a column ; of the three 
 
 Fig. 13.5. 
 
 youths whii are practising one shoots standing, the 
 second laieeling, the common position for an archer, 
 and the third is just about to draw his bow press- 
 ing;' his knee aoixinst it. All three use the second 
 kind of bow. It is, of course, only an artistic licence 
 that the archers are placed so near their goal; similarly 
 the arrows are still flj'ing while the two archers are 
 about to shoot fresh ones. 
 
 We haye alreadj- had occasion seyeral times to 
 point to the difference between the gymnastic train- 
 ing of youths, continued into manhood with a yiew to 
 strengthening the body, and the professional gym- 
 nastics of the athletes ; we must, therefore, say a few 
 
302 (u:eek life at ho:\ie. 
 
 words alioul the position as well as the training of 
 the latter. As the ]Mib]ie Ljaiiies increased in import- 
 ance, and the n'lory gained hy the victors induced 
 ambitious youths anil men to stri^•e for a wreath in 
 tlie gynmastie contests, and thus gain imdying 
 fame f(.)r tln'inselves and their native city, it gradually 
 became the custom for especially strong and i^kilful 
 athletes (u'^iMviaTal) to make the development of their 
 body for these gymnastic contests the (iliject of their 
 life, in order, h\ constant prac-tice, fiy a particular diet 
 and mode nf lite calculated to increase their strength, 
 to attain tlie highest position in this profession, and 
 thus to be almost sure of victory. In this way 
 " agduistics," which was originally only a development 
 of gymnastics in accordance with the rules of art, 
 became a regular pnifessiiin, and th<.ise Avho devoted 
 themselves to it were distinctively known as athletes. 
 As athleticism liecame a profession and a means of 
 making money, it ceased, of course, to bo an occupa- 
 tion worthy of a free and noble citizen : and it is, 
 therefore, natural that at Sjiarta, where e\-ery \)\o- 
 fession by which money coidd be made was looked 
 down upon, it should have made no way, and that in 
 other places, too, it was only men of the lower classes 
 who devoted themselves to it, however enticing it 
 nn'ght seem to an ambitious youth who desired to 
 attain the material advantages enjoyed by the victors 
 in these ciiutests, as well as the glorious honours with, 
 which they were specially distinguished. 
 
 The athletes received their training from a trainer 
 (7D/.t!'ao-T?i?), who must Ije carefully distinguished from 
 the gyjjinastic teacher of the lioys (TraiooTpi/Si'i^). The 
 trainer instructed his pupils in the higher l>ranches of 
 gymnastics, practised frecpiently with them, and prob- 
 ably also accompanied them to the public games, in 
 
GYMNASTICS. 30o 
 
 order to instruct them to the very hxst moment, since 
 the victory of a pupil was also honourable and advan- 
 tageous to the master. The exercises prohablj^ took 
 place in the gymnasia belonging to the trainers, or on 
 the public gynmastic places ; and consisted not merely 
 in a methodical increase in the usual gymnastic 
 exercises until the highest achievements were 
 attained, but also in many Avhich were not practised 
 elsewhere, and which were not calculated to harden 
 the body or make the limbs supple. Along with the 
 gynmastic training they observed, as already men- 
 tioned, a very careful mode of life, which was superin- 
 tended by the rubber, whose half-uiedical training has 
 been already alluded to. This diet was in part 
 observed at all times, but was especially severe just 
 before the games, at which an athlete had to appear. 
 In ancient times the principal nourishment of the 
 athletes was fresh cheese, dried figs, and wheaten 
 porridge : in later times they abandoned this vegeta- 
 rian diet for meat, and gave the preference to beef, 
 pork, and kid. Bread might not be eaten with meat, 
 but was taken at breakfast, while the princi^Jal meal 
 consisted of nreat ; confectionery was forbidden ; wine 
 might only be taken in moderate quantities. In 
 addition to this diet, which was prescribed to the 
 athletes for the whole year, a special training had to 
 be followed at times, especially when preparing for 
 the games, which lasted for more than three-quarters 
 of the year ; at these times the athletes every day, 
 after the conclusion of their practice, had to consume 
 an enormous quantity of such food as was permitted 
 them, and then digest it in a long-continvied sleep. 
 By gradually increasing the amount, an athlete suc- 
 ceeded at last in consuming an enormous quantity of 
 meat, and at length this becanie a habit and oven a 
 
'■iOi (iliEEK IJFE AT IKIME. 
 
 ncecssit)-. By this means tliey attained, not, it is 
 true, hardening of the muscles, but the corpulence 
 which is often represented in the ancient pictures, 
 and which might be advantageous in certain contests, 
 especially in Avrestling and the pancration, since it 
 enabled them more easily to press down and wear 
 out their op]:)onents ; on the iitlier hand, this arti- 
 ticially-produced corpulence was very unhealthy, and 
 it is natural that these athletes were liable to many 
 kinds of disease, esjiecially apoplectic strokes. 
 
 The training and mode of life of the athletes just 
 described was obviously not suitable for all kinds of 
 gymnastic contests. Such diet would have been very 
 pernicious fi:)r running and jumping ; wrestling and 
 boxing and the jiam-ration were their chief domain, 
 and it Avas in these that the more celebrated athletes 
 of anti([uity, whose names have come down to us — 
 viz., Milo, IVilj'damas, Glaucus, and the rest — were 
 specially distinguished. Their rewards were of various 
 kinds. The A-ictors in the Olympian games were 
 allowed to set up a statue in the (Irove of Altis, at 
 (_)lympia, at their own expense or that of their 
 relations, sduietimes even of the state to which the 
 victor belonged ; and at home, too, thev very fre- 
 ejuently had the same honour of a public statue 
 assigned to them. ^\'hen they returned from the 
 giimcs, they held a solemn entry into their own 
 town, dressed in purple, riding on a car drawn by 
 four white horses, acCdiupanied Ij}- their friends and 
 relations and a rejoicing crowd ; it was even an 
 ancient custom to pull down a piece of the city wall, 
 in order to sh(jw that a city ^vhich could produce 
 such citizens recpiired no walls for its defence. 
 Then followed a bancpiet in honour (jf tlie victor, in 
 which hj-rnns were sung in his pndse. Itewards were 
 
GYJIXASTICS. 305 
 
 also given in coin. At Athens, after the time of Solon, 
 the victor in the Olympian games received 500 
 ■drachmae, the victor in one of the three other great 
 national contests a hnndrcd drachmae ; in later times 
 they even had the right of dining every day at the 
 public expense in the town-hall (TrpvTavelov), and they 
 also enjoyed the honoiu' of sitting on the front benches 
 of the theatre {TrpoeSpla). Moreover, most of the pro- 
 fessional athletes, if they lived carefnlly and abstained 
 from all departures from their customary diet and 
 mode of life, were able to continue their contests for 
 a good many years, sometimes thirty or more, and 
 were thus able to pile honour on honour and reward 
 on reward. Tlio unlimited admiration which the 
 mass of the people, and especially the youth, who 
 were easily won by exhibitions of strength, gave to 
 these combatants, who seem to us at the present day 
 to have been but rough prize-fighters, stands in strong 
 contrast to the judgment pronounced on them by men 
 of real intellectual development, especially by the 
 philosophers. They rightly complained that this one- 
 sided development of the body was perfectly useless to 
 the State, since the athletes were only capable in their 
 own domain, but were cpiite unable to endure fatigues 
 and imdertake military service ; they pointed out that 
 the mode of life which aimed merely at increasing the 
 bodily strength tended to chvarf the intellect, and 
 that, therefore, the athletes were absolutely useless for 
 political as well as for all intellectual purposes. Wise 
 educators, therefore, disapproved of athletic training, 
 and, indeed, the greatest warriors and statesmen of 
 Greece seem always to have despised it. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 :\[ XT S I C A N D D A X C I N G . 
 
 Stringed Instruments — The Lyre — The C'ithara — Wind Instruments 
 — The Flute — Trumpets, Tambourines, and other Instruments 
 — Danein^ as a Pepular Amusement — Tlie Danee in Ueligious 
 Ceremonies. 
 
 AVe do nut intend in this place to discuss the history 
 and theory of ancient music, l)ut only ti> su|ipleniont 
 what has been said already aliout the musical instruc- 
 tion of y(.iuth, bv indicatins;' the mo.st important 
 hraiiches of music which were studied in (Irecce and 
 descrihini;- the instruments in use. We shall pass 
 over vocal music entirely, since it played no ^rcat part 
 in antiquity apart from instrumental accompaniment, 
 and its chief purpose was for song and the drama. 
 
 The ciinunonest instruments in ordinary use 
 were stringed. These were well suited for solo- 
 playing as well as for accompanying songs, and the 
 singer could accompany himself with them, which 
 would have been impossible in the case of wind instru- 
 ments. The stringed instruments used in (Treece were 
 all played by striking or thruimning, and not by means 
 of a bow; in fact, it is a disputed point whether the 
 ancients, and in particular the Egyptians, were at all 
 ai-quainted with the liow : in any case we do not find 
 it in classical antiquity. Among the various kinds of 
 stringed instruments which had either existed in 
 (irecce since the oldest times or been intrexbiced from 
 foreign countries, espec-ially from the East or from 
 Egy[)t, there were only two ^vdlich were of special 
 
J[USIC AND DAXCIXO. 307 
 
 importance for educational and ordinary purposes. 
 These wore tlie lyre and the cithara, which were closely 
 related to one another, and only distinguished by 
 the effect of the sound. Of these the simpler, and 
 probably also the older, was the lyre, which, according 
 to a Greek legend, was an invention of Hermes, who 
 constructed the first lyre out of a tortoise, which he 
 used as a sounding-board, stretching cords across it. 
 Even in later times tortoise-shells seem to have been 
 actually used in the construction of lyres, and on 
 works of art, especially vase pictures (compare the 
 " Bowl of Duris," which represents school teaching in 
 Attica, Fig. 75), we can plainly distinguish the mark- 
 ings of the tortoise on the outer side of the instrument. 
 It must, however, have been more usual to construct 
 the sounding-board of wood, and only adorn it extern- 
 ally with tortoise-shell or other decorative materials ; 
 the writers mention boxwood and ilex as the principal 
 materials for lyres, as well as ivory, which last was 
 probably used for decorative purposes. In the 
 Homeric hymn to Hermes, in which the invention of 
 the lyre by the god is described in detail, Hermes cuts 
 little stems of reed, which he fastens into the shell in 
 gridiron fashion and covers with ox-skin, and by this 
 means obtains the necessary covering for the sounding- 
 board. In later times the proceeding was probably 
 different, since the usual material for the sounding- 
 board was undoubtedly wood, and the covering was, 
 no doubt, made of wood also. But the shape oi the 
 sounding-board alwaj^s remained the same ; the outer 
 side was a scood deal raised, while the inner side on 
 which the strings were attached was a level surface. 
 Into this sounding-board two arms were fixed, which 
 are almost always represented on Greek monuments 
 as merely curved pieces of wood fastened on the iiuier 
 u 2 
 
 ti 
 
308 CHEEK ElEE AT HOME. 
 
 side i>t' the .si)Uii(Uiiu-boai-<l ; but the custom which in 
 later tiiucs, especially iu the Alexandrine and Rojnan 
 peril mIs, liecanie ver)' coninion, of not nrerely con- 
 structing these arms in the shape of horns, but even 
 luaking them of real horns of chamois or gazelles, 
 mi diiubt existed even in the ancient ({reek [)eriod. 
 
 At their upper ends the two arms, which might bo 
 called horns, were fastened together by a cross-piece, 
 called the }-(ikc, which was usually constructed of hard 
 woiid, and on to this the strings, constructed of sheep- 
 guts, Were stretched. Of these the lyre usually had 
 seven, all nf eipial length, which was also the ease 
 in the cithara. These strings, as we can clearly sec 
 in the lyres of the above-mentioned bowl (Fig. 75), 
 passed downwards over a bridge consisting of a piece 
 of reed tixed en the flat covering of the sounding- 
 board, and were then fastened singl)', probably to a 
 little s(piare Ijoard, such as we see "U the lyre hanging 
 iin the wall in Fig. 7.5. rmbably this little board 
 cduld be taken out, and thus, if a string were to 
 break, the injury cijuld be easil)' repaired. (Jcca- 
 sionally the strings were merely tied to the yoke; 
 but, as this primitive method Avould make it im- 
 possible til tune tliem, we must assume that there 
 was usually some other contrivance, though neither 
 writers nor luonuments give us sufficient informa- 
 tion aliout it. On the lyres in Fig. 75, and also iu 
 other pictures ot stringed instruments, we perceive at 
 the u[iper ends of the strings, longish rolls which 
 in other places are shaped luore like rings or discs, 
 and are proliably set at an angle to the stretched 
 strings. An hypothesis has been set up by Von Jan, 
 who Inters, trom ancient writers, after comparing 
 similar ci_intrivani-es in Xubian stringed instruments, 
 that these mils were constructed of thick skin or 
 
MUSIC AND DAXCIXr;, 809 
 
 hide, taken from the backs of oxen or sheep ; tlie 
 strings were fastened into these adhesive covers and 
 twisted along with them ronnd the yoke of tlie lyre 
 until they attained the right tune, and they were then 
 fastened into their proper position by strongij- press- 
 ing down these rolls of hide. Still, this rough mode 
 of fastening which could onl}' permit of verj' snjier- 
 ticial tuning of the strings, docs not appear very 
 satisfactory : indeed. Yon Jan himself calls attention 
 to a far more artistic contrivance observed in some 
 of the pictures which has not yet, however, been 
 satisfactorily explained. There seems also to have 
 been a third mode of fastening ; sometimes the whole 
 yoke was divided into as manj" little pulleys con- 
 nected by pegs as there were strings, so that each 
 string had, as it were, its own yoke, by the tightening 
 of which it could be timed without the other strings 
 being affected. We have no further details about 
 this construction. 
 
 On the vase painting represented in Fig. 13G, 
 which presents a number of women with musical in- 
 struments, perhaps Muses, one is leaning back comfort- 
 ably m her easy-chair, and playing on the lyre, here 
 represented with six strings ; the woman standing in 
 front of her seems about to tune the strings of her 
 cithara. The cithara differed from the Ij're chiefly in 
 the form aiid structure of the sounding-board. This 
 was constructed of wood, often artistically decorated 
 and adorned with valuable materials, precious stones, 
 etc., and was much larger and jnore arched than the 
 sounding-board of the lyre. It usually had a straight 
 base, and sometimes sounding- holes, which was less 
 often the case with the lyre, and its arms were far 
 wider and squarer, and, being also hollow, seem to 
 have helped to strengthen the sound. On some 
 
SIO 
 
 (iREEK LIFE AT HOJIE. 
 
 iiistriimcnts it is duar 
 that the soundint;- 
 L(.)ar(l and the anus 
 which rise out of it 
 were eonstnieted out 
 of a single })iece, and 
 that, eonsequently, 
 the cavities are in 
 connection : on some 
 tlic arms are of a dif- 
 ferent colour from the 
 sou n d i n g-b o a v d, 
 usually -wdiite, which 
 would suggest ivory 
 still, we must not on 
 tliis account conclude 
 that they were con- 
 structed separatel}', 
 since it is possible 
 that the different 
 colouring was onl}' an 
 external ornai iienta- 
 tion or veneer for the 
 arms, and need not 
 lead us to assume a 
 diti'erent material for 
 the whdle structure. 
 The arms were usually 
 slightl}' curved out- 
 wards, l.>ut turned in- 
 wards again at the 
 top. The instrument 
 in Fig. 1:30 is one of 
 the sim])lest, since the 
 arms are quite plain ; 
 
& 
 
 MUSIC AND DANCIXG, 311 
 
 on other examples we often see elaborate carvino-. 
 The bridge wliicli unites the two arms is either a 
 perfectly simple rod, as in the case of the lyre (com- 
 pare Fig. 136), or else the arms have at their pro- 
 jecting ends solid handles or crooks, which probably 
 assisted the tuning. The number of strings was 
 originally limited in the cithara ; seven was at iirst 
 the usual number, and this number was even fixed 
 by law at Sparta, l_>ut in other places nine, ten, or 
 eleven strings were used. The writers and pictures 
 give us no more accurate information about the mode 
 in which these strings wei'e fastened to the yoke and 
 to the sounding-board than they do about the lyre ; 
 the pictures dating from the Eonian 2:>eriod are much 
 clearer in that respect, but we cannot safely use them 
 as authorities. 
 
 The lyre was generally played sitting. This in- 
 strument, which Avas a light one, was held close to the 
 left side, as w^o see in Figs. 75 and 136, and supported 
 by the seat of the chair. The cithara was played 
 standing, and it was therefore necessary, on account of 
 the considerable weight of the instrument, to suspend 
 it by a band over the shoulders. This band is seldom 
 represented in works of ai't, but it must always be 
 assumed to be there, since the mode in which the 
 stringed instruments were played would not leave a 
 liand free for holding it. Both lyre and cithara were 
 played in such a manner that the strings w-ere 
 thrummed from without by the left hand, but struck 
 from within by an instrument called plectrum, held 
 in the right hand, and constructed of wood, ivorjr, or 
 some half-precious stone. This plectrum was fastened 
 by a string to the instrument (compare again Fig. 75). 
 There were, however, exceptions to this mode of play- 
 ing; thus, a woman in Fig. 136 apparently does not 
 
312 i:i!EEK LIFE AT IIOJIE. 
 
 use the iilectruiii, l)iit tliruiiis the strings of the lyre 
 ^v\[h liothhauils, and at other times it seems as though 
 the left hand and the ])leetrnm, whieh Avas held in the 
 right, were not used at the same time, hnt in turns. 
 Thus, in Fig. 75, hotli teacher and pupil are only 
 thrurnniing the instrument with tlieir left hand, and 
 leaving the plectrum at rest. The practical object of 
 fastening the pleetrinn to the instrument was that it 
 enabled the player at any moment to pass from the 
 use of the plectrum to the fingers of the right hand, 
 and vice versa. An hypothesis based on -works of art,, 
 and apparently Yiay plausible, has been made by \'on 
 Jan, who su])|ioses that musicians, as a rule, accoin- 
 ])anied their song with the phiy of the left hand, and 
 only used the plcc.'trum in the pauses. 
 
 iSesides the lyres and citharac, among which we 
 must certainly include the Hcmieric Flionii i lu:, of 
 A\hich we find various kinds but all with tlie same 
 main features, there are several other stringed instru- 
 ments, to which we can, as a rule, assign the ancient 
 ) tames with some certainty, thougli we find a very 
 great number of designations for these instruments in 
 ditt'en.nt writeis, and apparently most of them were 
 introduced into (ireecc from the East and from 
 hjgypt. 'Jne of the safest idr'ntiheations relates to a 
 large, many-stringed instrument, of a shape which 
 closely resenililes oiir modern harp (Fig. l.'j(j). This is 
 played by the third woman in the centre, and is also 
 found elsewhere (compare the vase painting. Fig. i;)7). 
 We almost always find this instrument in the hands 
 of women ; they play it seated, resting the horizontal 
 base on their laps, while tlie broader sounding-lioard 
 which joins this at an angle, rests against the upper 
 jiart cif their liody ; tlicy strike the short strings near 
 them with the right hand, witliout a plectrtnn, and 
 
MUSIC AND DAXCIXO. 313 
 
 "svitli the left liancl tlic long strings -wiiieli are fiirtlier 
 from tlieni. The pictures sometimes sIioav contriv- 
 ances for tuning, shortening, or lengthening the strings; 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 the numher of strings varies. As the shape is usuallj- 
 triangular, we may probably assume that this instru- 
 ment is the one called Trigonon. Possibh' some of 
 the examples may be instances of the S(Amhuca, since 
 this, too, had a triangular form. 
 
 We also hear of manj^ other stringed instruments, 
 of Avhich we know only the najues, some with a 
 
314 (iUEEK LIFE AT JloJIE, 
 
 small number of strings — three or four, others with 
 a large number — thirty to forty ; but we know 
 
 little or nothing about 
 their shape, and, there- 
 fore, ^vill not enter 
 into details eoneern- 
 ing them, espeeially 
 as their nse nuist haye 
 been \'ery rare as eom- 
 pared with that of the 
 instruments already 
 describeil. We must 
 just mention the Bur- 
 h'ltoii, since it seems 
 pro liable that an instrument 
 which apipears yery often on 
 ancient monnments, yery nar- 
 row and long, with a sonnding- 
 loard closely resembling the 
 but smaller, and with a 
 very few strings, which "w^as 
 played witli th(.! hand and the 
 plectrum, niay have been the 
 barl)iton which -was pojjulai- at 
 festive ''■atherinsjs, and for ac- 
 companying love-songs. 
 
 Among wind instruments we 
 must, in the first instance, cf)n- 
 sider the flute. Although for a 
 time this was not popular in 
 the most fashionable circles at 
 Athens, still it was much in use 
 in Boeotia, and also in the rest 
 of Greece, even among amateiu's, and at all times 
 was of great importance, especially for choruses 
 
 Fig. 13S. 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 315 
 
 and festive performances, for entertainments durino- 
 meals, dancing, and other snch occasions. The form 
 of this instrument 
 which is commonest 
 on the monuments is 
 the double flute. The 
 ancient flute (av\6^) 
 differed in shape and 
 use from that which 
 bears the name at 
 the present day, since 
 the players did not 
 blow into it at the 
 side, but made use of 
 a mouthpiece like that of a 
 clarinet. This mouthpiece, which 
 was usually of the same ma- 
 terial as the flute proper, has 
 an easily vibrating tongue cut 
 in its ujDpei' part, which vibrates 
 within the mouth, as the o'reater 
 part of the mouthpiece is taken 
 right into the mouth by the 
 player. The principal part of 
 the flute, the pipe, which is 
 either of the same thickness 
 throughout, or else somewhat 
 widened at the lower end, was 
 sometimes formed of a single 
 piece and sometimes of several 
 component parts. Yarious notes 
 were produced by the holes of 
 which there were at first only 
 
 three or four, but afterwards a larger number ; there 
 were also holes at the side, which helped to increase 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
316 (iUEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the compass of the ilute, and A'avious other helps, 
 such as valves on the side, vin,L;s wliich in turnino- 
 either opened or closed the luiles, etc. In spite of the 
 very nnniennis practical attempts instituted during 
 the present century to procure some notion of the 
 mode of playiny and the effect of the ancient tluto, 
 it docs not seem possible to ohtain an)' proper 
 conception of it. 
 
 The pipe seems never to have been used singij- in 
 Greece, but only as the double Hute, as we see on so 
 many representations, and, as a rule, the flutes arc 
 both of e(pial length. In order to facilitate the play- 
 ing on twci instruments at the same time or in quick 
 succession, and pci'haps also to prevent the escape of 
 air, they often, though not always, made use of a 
 chet'k-piccc round the mouth. The bronze statue of a 
 flute player, of which both sides are rejircscnted in 
 Figs. loS and IM!), shows very plainly the mode in 
 which this bandage was fastened liy two leathern 
 thongs passed round the head ; wo can also recognise 
 it in the flute player in Fig. 140, a vase painting 
 whi(di imdoubtedl}', as the pedestal on which he 
 stands indicates, represents a flute player at a public 
 Contest; this is also suggested l>y liis curious cos- 
 tume — the long festive roljo and sliort jacket without 
 sleeves. 
 
 In the vase painting re]jresented in Fig. 127, the 
 flute player, who accompanies the gymnastic exer- 
 cises, is also playing the douljle flute with the mouth 
 bandage: over his arm hangs the flute case, which was 
 usually made of skin, and with which the case for the 
 mouthpieces, of ^vhich they Lad several, was con- 
 nected. (Jn the other hand, the youth in Fig. 75 
 has no bandage : nor j'et the two women in Fig. 120, 
 (ir the seated hetaera in Fig. 142, nor the youth who 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 317 
 
 in the vase painting represented in Fig. 141, with a 
 double flute in his hand, mounts the pedestal from 
 which he intends to perform to the audience who are 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 319 
 
 seated close by. On the Greelc monuments of the j^re- 
 Roman period we always find two similar flutes con- 
 nected together, but afterwards, and especially in 
 
 Fig. M2. 
 
 pictures connected with the worship of Cybele, one of 
 the ilutes very often has a curved horn, which seems 
 to have been a special peculiarity of the Phrygian 
 flute. This was apparently not known to the (ireeks 
 in ancient times. 
 
 The other wooden wind instruments are of no 
 
■■!20 (!1!EEK LIFE A'i' H(iME. 
 
 s[)ecial importance for iinisic or art. Tlic Si/rivx, 
 or pan-pipe, constructed of a number of reeds fastened 
 togL'ther, wliicliin one Iviml of syrinx were all of ecpial 
 length, but in others varied from short to long, w^as 
 used by the shepherds, and is often seen in jiictnres, 
 especially of Tan and (:>ther forest and held di\-inities, 
 but played ui) part in actual music. Still more is 
 this the case with the PlKi/iaiilos, answering to the 
 modern FhUr t rn r,'rsier<\ whi(/h originated in Egypt, 
 and with various other kinds of single flutes which 
 have been describe(l to us. 
 
 Metal wind instruments, or trumpets [adXTrij^), 
 were onh' used for nnlitary and religious purposes. 
 Thev were usually made of bronze, with a bone mouth- 
 piece, wi_'re of a longish shape, with avery broad mouth. 
 Ami.mg otlicr nuisical instruments in use among the 
 ( h'eeks we iimst mention tandiourines (rv/xTrava), 
 cymbals, a.n<l castanets (icporaXa), \vhich A\'ere used 
 in the worship of Dionysus and C'yljcle, ami in dances 
 of an orgiastic character; in Fig. 142 a girl, dancing 
 to the Sound of a flute, holds castanets in her hands. 
 But, in spite of the fre<piency with which these 
 instruments are representi_'d on ^vorks of art, especi- 
 ally those which are connected with Dionysus, their 
 use in (hul}^ life must have Ijcen \Qry ]-are, except 
 for the dani/ing girls wh(_i appeared at the sj'uiposia, 
 aiid who markeil the time of their moti<jns with them. 
 
 There is very little to say about dancing among 
 the Grei.'ks ; in spite of its im])ortance in religious 
 oliservances and plays or (dioruscs, it was of little 
 account in daily life, ^^'e do not tind it mentioned 
 among the usual subjects of instructiijn, except, in- 
 deed, at S[)arta. i)a]icing was a j.opular amusement, 
 especiall)' as an eiitertainment during barapiets 
 and thinking feasts ; but the guests did not ihancc 
 
& 
 
 MUSIC AND DAXCIXG. 321 
 
 themselves, but contented themselves with lookin 
 on at professional performers. Still, no doubt, it 
 sometimes happened that when the revellers had 
 drunk a good deal of wine, they felt inspired to 
 join the dance ; there were certainly opportunities 
 for learning- it, since \vg are expressly told that Socrates 
 took lessons in dancing at an advanced age. It is 
 almost always solo dancing that is in question ; this 
 consisted chiefly in rhythmic movements of hands 
 and feet in a variety of well-chosen postures, and was 
 essentially connected with gymnastics, in which the 
 training in dancing was sometimes included. Dancing 
 together by people of different sexes, such as is 
 customary with us, was unknown in the social life of 
 anticjuity, and would in any case have been impossible 
 in Greece, o^ving to the separation which existed in 
 ordinary life between men and women. 
 
 The chief use of the dance was for religious purposes. 
 In the most ancient times solemn dances were always a 
 part of worship ; merry dances were part of the worship 
 of Dionysus ; and sometimes both sexes took part in 
 these choric dances, but even hero there was no ques- 
 tion of round dancing, but only of a series of move- 
 ments regulated by music, and of a dignified and 
 rhj'thmical character. The dances in armour Aviiich 
 were popular in the Doric states, and were, of course, 
 only performed by men, were of a livelier character. 
 The dancers were equipj^ed with helmet, shield, and 
 sword, and went through a numljer of choregraphic 
 evolutions ; the dances at country festivals, which very 
 often had a pantomimic character, were also of a lively 
 nature. Here, as well as in the solemn religious dances, 
 it was very common for the dancers to sing as they 
 danced, and sometimes even accompany themselves on 
 some instrument ; in fact, this distinction In^lds good 
 
 V 
 
•^-- i.T.EEK IJI'E AT HOME. 
 
 between (lani.:-inL;' in aiiricnt and in modern times, that 
 in antii|uitv it \\"as not an oliject in itself, bnt was 
 always elos(_'ly connei-tcd witli tlic other mnsieal arts. 
 The aneient danee attained its hii^'hest development 
 and perfection in the drama, where (hmeini;', nnisic, 
 and j)ante)mime "were most pcrfeeth' eonihined: bnt 
 we .shall have oecasion to refer to this later on, in 
 discus.sinij- the theatre of the llreeks. 
 
CHAPTER X, 
 
 11 E L I G I O U S W O R S H I P. 
 
 Greek Religion — The Functions of the Priest — Forms of Worsliip, 
 Prayer, and yacrifico — Purification — Holy Water — Two Forms 
 of Sacrifice, Blooily and Bloodless — Libations— Prox'hecy and 
 Divinations — The Oracles. 
 
 In a description (_if (.Ireek life it is impossiljlo cntin-'h' 
 to pass over the many customs connected -with the 
 worship of the gods, and their importance in the hfe 
 of individuals. Greek religion did not appoint any 
 fixed ceremonies to be observed ever)'' day, as the 
 Jewish or Mahometan religions do; but still it placed a 
 believer in connection with the Deity, and thus gave 
 occasion for some religious act every day. There were 
 also some special occasions which led them to ttmi to 
 their gods, and it is, therefore, natural that re]iL>-ious 
 worship should have played a xevy important part in 
 the life of the (.Ireeks, especially as it was onU' in rare 
 cases that the}' required to resort to the mediatory 
 help of a priest ; as a rule, any Greek might perform 
 the various religious ceremonies himself. It is a clis- 
 puted cjuestion whether Greek natural religion in its 
 first beginnings was acquainted with temples, images 
 of the gods, and priests as a separate class ; in any 
 case, in the oldest literar}' monument of Greek life, the 
 Homeric poems, worship was chiefly in the hands of 
 laymen, and service in the temples and priesthood 
 generally played a very subordinate part in the life <;if 
 mankind. 
 
 Greek religion was unacquainted with regular 
 V 2 
 
324 CHEEK Ell'E AT llD.AfE. 
 
 \voi'sliip rrtnniiiLL;' <>ii c-ertuiii a|)[i(iinteil i-la)'s, U>y wliicli 
 pricsls -.nid liniiicii nssciiiMril tnnetlKT in t\w Ilonsu 
 (if (Idil Jt is true the t(.'iii]ili' was rc,L;-ar(l(.'<l as tlic 
 (IwclliH;,;- nf tlif -imI; bill tin' bclicvrr, as a I'lilc, iinly 
 eiU'Ti-'il it if 111' liad suiuc sperial prayer to iiialvc, ami 
 otliiTwise pi'iinniieil his relinidiis dutii.'S at homo in his 
 (luii (hvL'lhii;^. This he cmild ,L;rnerally do without the 
 lie]]) of a jirirst : the priest rxisted, in the tirst pLice, 
 lor tlie sak(.' of tlie •j:'>(\, and only in the second in 
 onlor to taeilitato the intercourse Ijctwcen i^'od and 
 mail. The u'ods desired worshi[i and sai'rifice, and, as 
 it roidd not he left to chanc(M\diether some one person 
 Would supply thes(.', since thiTi,' must he no interrupi- 
 tion to the \\'orship. it was necessary to have a class 
 of men wdmse work in life was the perfoiniancc of 
 thesi_' duties towai'ds the di\'inity. It \\'as proljahl}' 
 this idea, \\liirh l(.^d them to appoint u pviestl)' idass ; 
 and it was oid\' as a consecpiem-e of tlu's that laymen 
 sometimes called upon the hel}i of the priest, especially 
 in important cases, since these mcir, wdio were in con- 
 stant intercourse with the ,L;ods, were assume<l to liavi; 
 tin; most accurate knowded^'e of the forms well-pleasing' 
 to till.' divinities. Consccpiontl)", as the devclopniont 
 ot' i-i\"ilisation uiade greater claims f>n ordinary peopli.' 
 in their prof(_'^sional activity, such as military service, 
 ]iolitics, stiidii's, etc., and thus dri.'W them uwa)^ from 
 dn'iui.' things, it became romiuoner to make use ot 
 till' mediatory assistance of the priest, and thus the 
 intluence and importance of the priestl)' class con- 
 tinued to increase. Tliere was another reason "wdnidi 
 led tile Lniiieii to make use of the piriests. Aci/ording 
 to (T}'eek lielief, tlie gi.ids I'cvealed tlieir ^vill to man- 
 kind liy various signs arid A'isii.ms ; it was not everj'one, 
 hm'.'ever, who knew how to interpret tliese signs; a 
 dec}! knowledge of tlie ili\inij nature and will, as well 
 
KELIGKK'S WORSHIP. 325 
 
 as a rich treasure of experience were required, and 
 it was, tlicrefore, natural that they turned fur this 
 purpose to those who liad devoted tlreir whole life to 
 discovering the will of the gods. These were the 
 seers or interpreters who were closelj' connected with 
 the priests, though the)' must not be identified ^vith 
 them. 
 
 AVhen wo speak of a priestlj- class among the 
 (lirceks, we nurst not take it in the literal sense of the 
 word; the (ireek priests did not constitute a class in 
 om- modern sense of the word, since there were n(T 
 preliminary studies required for the office. (.-Jreek 
 religion possessed no dogmas ; the priest's duty was 
 onljr to perform certain rites and ceremonies, and these 
 wei-e easily learnt. C'onseciuentl}^, the priesthood iir 
 (Ireece was limited to no age and no sex ; hoys and 
 girls, 3'Ouths and maidens, men and married women 
 could perform priestlj^ functions for a long or short 
 period. TJie essential requirement was legitimate 
 birth and participation in the community in which 
 the priestl)' functions had to be performed ; bodily 
 purity and moral character were also requirefl ; mem- 
 bers of ancient and noble families were especially 
 privileged, and sometimes bodily strength and beauty 
 were regarded in the choice. Generally s]::)caking, 
 however, the requirements rnado differed not only 
 according to the gods in whose service they -were to 
 stand, but also according to local or other accidental 
 circumstances. Thus sometimes priestesses Avere re- 
 quired to be virgins, if not for their whole life, at any 
 rate for the duration of their priesthood ; i)i other 
 cases, however, married women inight undertake the 
 priestly functions. The same held good for the men. 
 Although, as a rule, priests entered for their whole 
 life, yet it sometimes happened that their priestly 
 
326 i;i!EEK LIFE Al' 1I(>>[E. 
 
 fniiftions wri'c (lulv porl'oriiird iVu' a time, :is for 
 iiistaiii'C, ill the <'aso of lio\'s ov girls who entered the 
 ser\-ii.-e of tile temple until tlie^v attained their man 
 or \\niiiaiihiiiid, or in i;)tlier (/ases Avliere citizens -were 
 mad(_' priests I'nr nne nr several years, and, when 
 th(.' time was up, retired aL;aiii and let otliers take 
 
 tliei)- plaer. 
 
 There were varinns modes of appointini;' priests, 
 Tlie\" were either elected from among several eainli- 
 dat(_'s, in wliieli casr the right "f electiini lay with the 
 eitiziiis or their representatives, or else 1iy lot, or the 
 riglit was given tVom Ijirth. (Certain priesthooils were 
 hereditary in families ; either the tirst-horn was a})- 
 iiointed as such, or idse the h)t had to dei/ide he- 
 twrcu the various members of a family; sometimes, 
 if disputes ensued, a legal deeision might even be 
 gi\-en. ( 'onse(pieiith', it is (dear that the jiriests in 
 (ireeee did not h)rni a speeiul easte, and as they very 
 often I'etiriMl again to private life, their infhienee was 
 not extensive or ^'ery important. 
 
 Tile duties of the priests i-onsisted, in the first 
 instauT'o, in performing those ai'ts of wiirship to the 
 ilivinity A\'liieh might also 1ie jierformeil by any lay- 
 man — \'iz., pra\'ers and saeritices ; and in tlie second, 
 tlioso wliii/h lielonged t(.) the "worship (.if the partieular 
 di\"inity, and r(_-curred at ei.'rtain hxcd periods, and 
 particularly those which they undertO(.)k at the re- 
 ([uest of others. IJesides tiiis, there were various 
 duties conne(/ted with the care of the temple and 
 divine images, the fulfilni'.'Ut of the \'arious cus- 
 toms comK.'cted "with the worship of eiadi divinitx', 
 the )ierf jrmance of mj-sterious dedications aial puri- 
 fications, guarding of the temple treasure, etc. To 
 this were due various ordinances concerning their 
 mode of lite, tood, idotliing', etc. Tla.'ir persons were 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 327 
 
 regarded as sacred, just as the sanctuary was, and 
 tlicy also received tlicir share in the adoration paid 
 to the gods, being regarded, in a measure, as their 
 representatives, ^'ery often they had a house in the 
 temple domain, and received a share of its income, 
 which had, in the hrst instance, to supply the means 
 for performing the service of the god, erecting neces- 
 sar}^ huildings, statues, etc., but which often supplied 
 the priests also with considerable profit ; thus, the 
 skins and certain parts of the sacrificial animals fell 
 to their lot. In some of the sanctuaries the income 
 derived from the temple property, and the money 
 lent out for interest from the temple treasure, was 
 very considerable, and far exceeded the means re- 
 quired for the maintenance of the sanctuar}' and 
 the service of the god. Another privilege enjoj^ed by 
 the priests was the right of occupying places of honour 
 in the theatre and at public meetings. They were 
 usually distinguished by their dress from the rest of 
 the citizens ; they wore the long chiton, which had 
 gone out of fashion for ordinary people ; it 'was gener- 
 ally of white or purple colour, and they had wreaths 
 and fillets in their long hair, and probably carried a 
 staff as a token of dignity. 
 
 The priests were assisted in their duties in the 
 temples bj' a large number of attendants and servants. 
 Some of these only took jaart occasionally in a pro- 
 cession or sacrifice, and, as this was regarded as an 
 honour, they gave their service without return. Some 
 were permanent temple servants, who either per- 
 formed for pay certain menial services connected with 
 the worship and the care of the temple, or else were 
 slaves and the property of the god. Among these were 
 included the so-called "temple-sweepers "(yecn/co/)o(.),men 
 and women whose duty it was to clean and care for 
 
328 (JliEEK LIFK AT lioME. 
 
 the tem]ile. There were alsd heralds, sarriticial servants, 
 liutchers. bearers of the sarred vessels, siiii;'ers and 
 iinisiciaiis, ete., eonecrniiiL;' whem inscriptinns yive ns 
 a, i^'ood deal of ini'iiniiatii)ii. Even tlicse jjositiems, so 
 Lmi;- as the services to be performed were not menial 
 but honourable, were an object of ambition to citizens, 
 or regarded as a A'ahiable privilec'c inherited by certain 
 families ; thus, for instance, at<Jlympia, the descendants 
 of rheidias liad charge of the statue of Zens, which 
 was the masterpiece of their ancestor. 
 
 The two forms in which the worsliip of the ancients 
 chietlv consisteil "were pra3'er and sacrifice. I'rayer, 
 either to all the o'ods toe'ether or to some single one, 
 consecrated the beginning and enil of the day; com- 
 1 lined Avith libations, it atten<hjd the beginning and end 
 of the meals, and was, in fact, an essential part of everv 
 important action of dail)' life. These prayt'rs were, of 
 conrsi.', of a general character, but there were other 
 occasions when special pi'ayers "were used, adapted to 
 jiarticular cases; thus it was a matter of course that 
 in the assemblies of the ]>eople the blessing of the god 
 sh<")uld be invoked on the discussion. When thcA' set 
 out to war they called on the help of the god in the 
 coming tight, and similarly private i.'itizens asked for 
 divine aiil in their undertakings and help in difticultii's, 
 tliough soiue wiser men — and especiallv those who had 
 had a ])hilosopliical training — c(:iuld mit disguise from 
 themsidves that it was a foolish hope to e.\})eet that 
 their prayers should neci.'Ssarily be lieard, and they 
 li:M:>ked upon prayer rather as a religions consecration 
 of human actions. Kneeling and folding the hands 
 were tmknown to the am/icnts. In })riiying tfiey stood 
 and stretclied out their hands to th(_' region which they 
 supposed to be tin; dwelling of tin; gijdhead invoked ; 
 thus, the}' held them U[iward when praying to one of 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 329 
 
 the Olympian fleities, forward when pra3'ing to a sea 
 god, and down to the gronnd if the prayer was addressed 
 to one of the infernal deities, at the same time trying 
 to attract his attention by stamping on the gi'oimd. 
 The commonest position was towards the east ; when 
 they prayed in the temple tlicj turned towards the 
 altar and the statue of the god, and sometimes even 
 embraced the altar. In fact, the Avorship of the temple 
 statues led to a very sensual conception of prayer ; 
 they not only threw kisses to the god they were wor- 
 shipping, but even touched or kissed his statue; 
 while suppliants threw themselves on the ground 
 before the temple imago, or at any rate knelt down 
 before it. 
 
 In order to ensure the efficacy of the pi'ayer, those 
 who offered it must be free from every Ijodilj' and 
 moral taint and, therefore, if necessary, submit to 
 purification. There were a nundjer of occasions 
 which rendered a man unclean and unfit for inter- 
 coiu'se with the deity ; such were birth and death, 
 which required the purification of all those who 
 had come in contiict with the mother or the dead 
 person, not only in order that they might appear un- 
 tainted before the deit)^ but also to prevent their 
 conmrunicating their impurity to others, and to en- 
 able them once more to enter into intercourse with 
 human beings. Even apart from these special occa- 
 sions it was impossible to tell whether some accidental 
 contact might have produced impurity, and on this 
 account it was usual to precede the act of praj^er Ijy 
 washing, or, at any rate, by a symliolical purification, 
 such as sprinkling with holy water. For this jiurposo 
 a vessel with holy water and a whisk for sprinkling- 
 were placed in the entrance of every temple for the 
 use of those who entered the domain ; similar arrange- 
 
ooO (niEEK LIFE AT Hn.ME. 
 
 meiits Avcro made in private luiuses, and prelovonco 
 was n'iven to Hnwini;- water, esjieeially sea-water, wliicli 
 was sn]>]i(_ise<l to liavc special [inrit'yinL;- pewer: for 
 sprinklinn' tliey nsed a braneli ef some sa.erod tree, 
 sneli as lanrel. This ])nriHeati<>n was extended not 
 i)nl\- to the person of tliosc wlio apin'oa(4ied tlio 
 divinitw lint also to tlieir i^'arments ami the ntonsils 
 nsed for pra\'er and sacrifice, as "well as the dwellini,;' 
 _L;'enerall\" : ciinse(jnentl\-, pnrification Ijv fire and 
 snidl^e — I'speeialh' hv means of hnrut sirlphnr — 
 played an important jiart alon^' witli tin; wasldni;'. 
 There "were also certain j^lants to which a pnrifyint;' 
 power was ascribed : tlms, it ^vas cnstomary to hang 
 np a. sea-leek over tlie honso door. 
 
 I'nririi-ation of tliis Ivind was, of conrse, even more 
 necessary wlien some aetnal crime, sncli as a mnrdcr, 
 even if an accidental one, had been connnitted, or any 
 other actii:>n performed whi(di woidil render a man 
 imfit to come into the ]irescn("'e of the tleity. In these 
 cases an important yiart was ids(.i ])layod by sacrifices, 
 for it was an ancient belief — tonnd also in the Jewish 
 ritnal — that sins conld be laid on file victim, and in 
 this wa\' removed from the sinner. Special cere- 
 monies were nsed on snch occasions, sncli as pnri- 
 fication by tlie blood of swine, since tlrese animals 
 were snjiposed to have a special lustral power. At 
 Athi^ais it Was the custom to sac-rifice sucking-pigs 
 ficfore tlie assemfily of the people was held ; the 
 slanghfered animals were caiTied I'onnd tlic as- 
 sembly, the seats sprinlcled with tlieir Idood, and 
 the bodies thrown into the sea. (Jn a vase painting 
 representing the pnrihcation of ( )r(/stes after the 
 ninrder of his mother, AjioUo liimself liokls a sncking- 
 pig aliove the head of tlie mnnlerer ; a sinn'lar ijro- 
 eeeiling is represented b}- the vase painting Fig. 14:3, 
 
KELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 331 
 
 where the woman who is performing the histral rites 
 — probably a priestess — holds in her right hand a 
 sucking-pig, in her left a basket Avith offerings, whUe 
 three torches stand on the ground in front of her, 
 the smoke of which also possessed purifying power. 
 Similar ceremonies were observed by those who, 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 according to a very common superstition, regarded 
 themselves as bewitched, or who desired to protect 
 themselves from the injurious influence of philtres 
 or other witchcraft, or else to cure madness, which 
 was traced to the wrath of the infernal gods ; in these 
 cases, Hecate was the goddess to be propitiated, and 
 TDart of the curious ceremony consisted in carrying 
 about young dogs. 
 
 Next to pra3-er, the commonest observance was 
 sacrifice. The anthropomorphic conception of the 
 gods induced the Greeks to try to win their favour, 
 
332 
 
 tniEEK Lll-E Al' H(on:. 
 
 as tlicv Avould that of pdwcrful princes, 1 13- lueiuis of 
 yifts, in thcliolicf that they would lie more inclined 
 to fulfil human wishes if they were ]iv( initiated by 
 valuable presents. These ,L;ifts consisted in dedicatoiy 
 nfferings and also in saeritices, and these had to be 
 rronlarly offered in order to preserve the goodwill 
 of the divinities, (ienc)-ally speaking, any gift offered 
 
 Fic. 144. 
 
 to the god might he regarded as a sacrifice ; hnt, as 
 a rule, this name was only a[iplied to tliose ott'erings 
 "which were injt to fie a lasting possession of the god 
 fiut were only given for luonicntar}- enioyment, and 
 must, as a rule, be destroyed, generally by means of 
 fire. The idea underlying these sacrifices was tlie 
 participation of the gi.ids in the niatci-ial posses- 
 sions of men. The gifts included under 1 lie heading 
 of offerings were not all of such a nature as to 1ic 
 destroyed at once; thus, first-fruits of the field, fruit, 
 jars of cooked lentils, flowers, fillets, and other such 
 things could not Ijc I'egardiMl as real gifts, owing to 
 
KELIGIOUS Wl )1!,SHIP. 
 
 333 
 
 their transitory nature : and tliese ivcro merely laid 
 on the altar of the god, or else hung up beside it ; 
 sometimes there was a special table near the altar to 
 receive these gifts. On the vase painting (Fig. 144) a 
 
 Fig. 14o. 
 
 table of this kind is represented near the altar ; be- 
 hind it we perceive the anticjuated statue of Dionysus, 
 on one side stands a woman with a goat destined for 
 sacrifice, and on the right another woman is apjDroach- 
 ing carrying a flat dish, probably containing cakes. 
 The offerings represented in Figs. 145 and 14G were 
 probably also destined for Dionysus. A satyr, carry- 
 ing in his left hand a branch, in his right a dish, 
 probably containing cakes, is approaching an altar, on 
 which similar gifts have already been placed ; on the 
 
S.34- GREEK LIFE AT HojrE. 
 
 Other side, near the table fer otierings, on whieh ho 
 fruit and calces, a wdinan, proljably a ;^[acnad, is seated, 
 holding in her right hand a braneh, in her left a flat 
 baslvet Avidi little dedieatorv offerings. Although 
 these gifts were not innriediately flcstroyed by tire, 
 thev were of so transitory a nature that they could 
 not be counted among those destined to be a lasting 
 possession of the gods, 
 tireless sacrifices. 
 
 The Greeks called these gifts 
 
 Yir,. 14G. 
 
 Sam'itices were usually di^•i(led into two classes 
 — Iiloodv and filoodless. The l:ili:iodless seem to bo 
 the most ancient ; they consisted chiefly in the tirst- 
 frnits of the field and cakes, usual I \' mude of honey, 
 -wliich were regarded as a specially welcDme gift by 
 some of the gods. Very (jften cakes were used as a 
 substitute for animals, since pijur people, who could 
 not afford the considerable expense of sacrificing real 
 animals, fashioned the dougli into the sha[)e fif oxen, 
 swine, sheep, goats, geese, etc. In this class -we may 
 include smoke offerings. The custom of burning sweet- 
 scented woods and spices proliabily came to ({n'oce 
 from Asia, where it had long iirevaiied. At first they 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 335 
 
 made use of the products of the country, especiaUy 
 cedar wood ; after-wards frankincense, storax, and other 
 fragrant sidistanccs were introduced from foreign 
 countries. These smoke offerings were often connected 
 with animal sacrifices, since grains of incense were cast 
 into tlie flames of the altar on which the flesh of the 
 animal was burnt, in order to overpower the smell of 
 biu'ning meat. Libations, too, may be included among 
 bloodless sacrifices. Just as the gods recpiired a 
 portion of the food of men, they desired also to share 
 in their drink, for they were supposed to recpiire 
 food and drink as men did. Libations were therefi:ire 
 offered before partaking of wine after a meal, or drink- 
 ing any other draught, and Socrates even wished to 
 offer some of his hemloclc to the gods. On other occa- 
 sions too libations were offered, as for instance before 
 public speeches, on the occasion of sacrifices tor the 
 dead, invocation of the gods for especial purposes, etc. 
 The part of the wine or other liquid destined for 
 the god was poured from a flat cup either on to 
 the ijround or into the flame of the altar, and -wiirds 
 of consecration were spoken meantime. It was most 
 usual to use unmixed wine, but there were some 
 gods to whom no wine might be offered, in particular 
 the Erinnys, the infernal deities, nymphs, Muses, etc. ; 
 to these they dedicated libations of honey, milk, or oil, 
 either separately or mixed together, or with water. 
 On these occasions there were certain fixed ceremonies 
 to be observed, but these were not the same in all parts 
 of Greece. 
 
 There are numerous indications in legends which 
 show that the Greeks were not originally unac- 
 quainted with the custom of human sacrifices ; but 
 these are no longer heard of in the historic period, 
 and wherever they had formerl}- existed their place 
 
:,■-](> (JIIEEK Lll'E A'l' lidME. 
 
 \v;is talvfU li\' sNiiiliolic actioiis, uv tin; sucriricc of 
 uniiiiiils iiistr:i(l lit' liiiiiian lirin^'s. Tiic CDiiiiiKiiirst 
 ^'ii/tiiiis wori_' aiuiiials. ami tlir cliiiicc "i thr par- 
 ticular virtilll il(.']irll(lc(l on tlir <j;inl to wlioiji tho 
 Sa'Titiri; was oftV'Vi 'i 1. Hrl'C. as ill tllo casL' ol till' lijood- 
 
 Icss sacritii'rs, soiue ,l;'i-m1s rt.'jcetcil n'ilts \vhi(.-li were 
 \vell-]i1i_'asiiiL;' ti.> others, and s[ii_'rial animals were oHered 
 t(.) particular yjils. It is not always easy to trace the 
 oriu'iu 111' this choice, thoUL;ii iu .soim; cases it can he 
 (louc ; tlius, t'(.ir instance, L;'oats w^ere oti'iTCil to l)ionysus 
 liccausc tlicv tlestvoyed the vineyards, and swine to 
 i )cnicfcr liei-ause they injured the corii-tields. Oxen 
 and sheep "were the coimiionest victims wrxt to ^-iiats 
 and sNvine, and V(_'ry often several animals were offered 
 ill a i/cmimoii sacririci.'. Horses were oh'en.'d to 
 Poseidon ami Helios, doi;'s to Hecate, asses to Apollo, 
 etc. IJird^, too, \vere sacrihced ; fir instance, ,L;'eese, 
 doves, fowls, a.nd, in particular, codes to Aesculapiius. 
 Game and Hsh were A'ery seldom emplo\"ed for the 
 pur[iosi;, prolialily because they were not iiiu(dt itsed 
 fir loud in ancient times: f:ir in most cases the 
 ^standard of rating deidded wduedi unimals sh(.iuld ho 
 used, tlioun'h there were exceptions, too, auioni;' the 
 classics alread\' named. 
 
 It was oric;inally the custom to Ijurn the wdiolo 
 animal, ^vith skin and hair, fnit thoiin'h this extravagixut 
 mode of sacririi-ine' was sometimes in use in later 
 times, it Ijccamc common to Imrn onl\- tho thii;Ii 
 bones aiifl certain flesh parts of the animal, and to 
 use the rest fir a festive banijuet. In conse(|ucncG the 
 numfier of victims was often calcidated according to 
 tlio nunibc'r ot pi/rsons iiivit(.'d to tho liaii'piet; in 
 other casc's it depcndeif on tlie im[iortance of the 
 occasion, nr the f irtune ot the sacriticcrs, uufl even in 
 hist'iiical times it was nut umisual fir wdiofj cominu- 
 
EELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 337 
 
 nities or very rich private citizens to offer a hecatomb 
 (a sacrifice of a liundrecl oxen), or even several, on 
 which occasions the sacrifice only supplied the oppor- 
 tiuiity for entertaining the people on a magnificent 
 scale. As a rule, the animals sacrificed must be sound 
 and healthy in every respect ; but at Sparta, which 
 was often reproached with excessive economy in sacri- 
 fices, diseased cattle were sometimes used. There 
 were several other necessary conditions to be oliserved ; 
 thus, the animals must never have been in the service 
 of man ; the ox that drew the plough might not be 
 sacrificed. The sex of the victim generally corre- 
 sponded to that of the deity to whom it was offered. 
 Even the colour was of importance ; white animals 
 were usually offered to the gods of light, black to the 
 infernal gods. There do not seem to have been any 
 fixed regulations with regard to age, except that the 
 animals must have attained a certain maturity. 
 
 The ceremony observed at sacrifices was much the 
 same throughout the whole of antiquity, and remained 
 such as it is described bj^ Homer. The victim which 
 had been dedicated to the god, was adorned with 
 wreaths and fillets, and led to the altar by servants or 
 attendants ; Homer .speaks of gilding the horns of 
 bulls, and this was customary afterwards. If pos- 
 sible, thejf tried to induce the animal to go forward 
 of its own free will, since violent struggling was re- 
 garded as an unpropitious omen, and sometimes led 
 to the rejection of the victim. It was even customary 
 to require the animal to give a sort of conseirt, by 
 nodding its head ; this consent of the victim was, of 
 course, produced by artificial means, such as pouring 
 water into the ears, etc. Hereupon all the participants 
 in the solemn action were prepared by sprinkling with 
 holy water, which was sanctified by dipping into it a 
 w 
 
338 (illEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 tin .brand t:\krn troni tln' altav, ami tliev were exhorted 
 til Iceep unbroken silenrc The iietnal sacriliro then 
 lietj'an l>y strewiiiL;- roasti'd barleyeoriis, as the oldest 
 tdiid of their anoest(ir.s, on the animal, and in tnken of 
 dodication they cut a bundle of hairs from its fore- 
 head and throw it into the tiro, which was alroady 
 Imrnino- on the altar. Tn heroic a^'es, the jarincos, as 
 hi^h priests, themsolves Ivilled the animals; aftorwards 
 tliis dut\' was nndortakcn by ]3riosts or attondants. 
 Thev gave the animal a blow on its forehead with 
 a idub or axe, and then cut its throat with a saeri- 
 ticial knife, and sprinkled the altar with the l)lood; 
 in so doing they nsually bent the head backwards ; 
 or, if sacriticing to the infernal gods, or the sliades 
 of the dopartod, they pressed it down to the ground. 
 When the victim fell, the women who stood round 
 littered a low cry, and in the ages after Homer it 
 was very usual to accompany the wlmle ceremony 
 by the sound of the Hute. Experienced attendants 
 tlien flayed the animals and cut up the bodies, 
 \\dii_'reiipon tlie parts destined for the gods, espe- 
 cially tlie thigh liones surrounded with fat, were 
 tiurnt in the flames of the altar with incense and 
 sacrificial cakes, and at the same time libations wore 
 piiured nut : tlic^ flesh was lield in the Are l>y means of 
 li)ng forlcs. This is very often i-cpresented on ancient 
 works of art. Tn the vase painting in Fig. 147 we 
 see an :iltar <in which Avuod apjioars to Ijc regularly 
 piled 11}): parts nf th(.! sacrifice arc recognised in the 
 flames. An attendant wearing a short garment round 
 liis lonis kneels in frcuit. holding a pieec of flesh in 
 the flames on a long pule or spit; on his left a man 
 liiilds a cup for liliations, into which a. goddess of 
 victory, flying over tin.' altar, jmurs the licpiid ; (ju the 
 riglit st'Uids Apollo, with lyre and pL.'Ctrum. 
 
w -l 
 
;)40 UIJEEK LIFE AT HdME. 
 
 Tli(.' Hrsh (if the animals wliidi was not used tor 
 tlic sacritico was usually consuiiioil at the toast wliioli 
 foUowod tlio ceivinoin' ; this custoni ^vas only departed 
 from in the ease of saorifiecs to the sliades ot the dead 
 or for pui'poses of propitiation, and then the flesh 
 which was not burnt was Imried or destroyed in some 
 other Avay, and, in fact, on these oeeasions man}- of the 
 reremonies were of a different kind. 
 
 As a rule, another piu'pose \vas combined with 
 the saerifiee ; it was necessary not iirdy to win tlie 
 favour of the gods, or atone for some crime, but 
 also to disi.'over the will of the yods liy interpreta- 
 tion of sicns. Althouc-h pra\'er was called for from 
 all men — from laljourer as well as from priest — 
 and sacrifices, though nsualh' offered by priests, 
 could also l_ie performed by others, the interpre- 
 tation (if omens was an art wdnch depended on 
 ancient traditions and knowledge of ritual, and was 
 aluK.ist entirely confined to the priests, tliough, in the 
 nature (if things, it could be undertaken b)' anyone. 
 This mode of prophe(n" had existed in various forms 
 since the most ancient times. The commonest, 
 though unknown in the time of Homer, was the 
 examination of the entrails, in whicli tlic structure, 
 that is, colour, form, and intcgrit}- of the iimer parts 
 of the victim, esjiecially the liver, gall, etc., were 
 regarded as of fortunate or unfortunate omen. .Some 
 anatomical knowdedgc of tlie inner parts of animals 
 was therefore indispensalde. and in consecpienco it is 
 natui'al tliat this brancli of knowledge was kept in 
 tlic hands fif the priests. The older kind of jiro- 
 pliecy deseriljod in Homer "was of a different nature, 
 since it de]>ended on all manner of idienomena 
 appearing (h.iring the sacrifice ; whether the flanie 
 attacked the victim (juickly or .slowdy, wdiether it 
 
RELIGIOUS WOPuSHIP. 'Ul 
 
 lnuiit elcavl)-, whether it rose upwards, Avhether it 
 was not put out until the whole animal was con- 
 sumed, whether the avoocI crackled loudly, what 
 shape was assumed hy the ashes of the victim and 
 of the wood, etc. 
 
 Apart from sacrifices, projihecy and divination 
 played a great part in the life and religion of the 
 rireeks. A distinction made by the ancients them- 
 selves was between prophecy by art and without art. 
 Prophecy without art was regarded as inspiration 
 of a human being by the divine spirit, and was not 
 dependent on external signs or on the interpretation 
 of an experienced person. There were three kinds : 
 ecstas)', in which the gift of prophecy was com- 
 municated to a liiunan being ■without his own assist- 
 ance by divine strength and jDower : dreams, in Avhich 
 the gods revealed directly to men their will or coming 
 events ; and thirdly, the oracles, which were of a 
 somewhat different character, being connected with 
 professional prophecy. They were also regarded as 
 direct revelations of the will of the god, so the mode 
 in which this was expressed differed a good deal 
 according to the various oracles ; but the questioner 
 Avas not immediately inspired, as in ecstasy and 
 dreams, but required a mediator, one who was alone 
 able to interpret the revelations of the gods. 
 
 Of these three classes, the least imjDortant during 
 the historic period is ecstasy ; the seers in the real 
 sense of the word, ivdrom we so often meet with in 
 legends, had no importance later on. The second 
 kind, the dream oracle, is of far greater importance. 
 The idea that dreams were communications from the 
 gods, no less than other oracles and signs, was so 
 universally adopted that it not only took firm root in 
 the popular belief, but was shared by educated men. 
 
:i42 rir.KEK t.ike at hume. 
 
 evou l)v tliDSo '\vhn luid mure or less disr'urdcd tlie 
 old Ix'lief in the n'ods. 'J'he aneiont writers i;i\-e ns 
 numerous a<-riiunts of portentous dreams ; uiduekv 
 dri'ams were averted liy religious ceremonies, sacri- 
 HiM.'s to the Lj'ods wlio eould turn away ill fortune, 
 sju-iidvliuL;' with holv water, ete. It was usual to pra}' 
 for prophetic dreams, and, as we have already seen, 
 these "were specially produced by sleeping in the 
 temple of Aesculapius, though they often reipnrcd 
 interpretatir)n aftenvards at the hands of the pi'iests. 
 It is a verv old helief that dreams reveal the •will of 
 the ,gixls, not directly and inuiiediati'lv, but in the 
 form of parables or images, ivhich rccpiiro special 
 comprehension and secret knowledge, and thus the 
 interpretation of dreams became an especial art, 
 whiidi led to a whole literature of dream-books 
 (remains of which have been preserved to us ; in 
 particular the dream-book of Arti'midorus, dating 
 from the sec'ond cenitnrv a.d.), and to the profession 
 of interpreters, who, although not held in especial 
 honour, were yet greatly sought after bj- all classes 
 of the conununity. 
 
 Tlie influence of the oracles was even more im- 
 portant. In (Ireei'e and Asia Minor there were several 
 hundred pla<(.'s where oracles were given ; this much 
 is common to all id them, that it was not a divinely- 
 inspired human being, but the god himself who 
 announced Ins will by special tokens, while the 
 priests were oidy the interpreters of the god's will ; 
 the signs and methods of interpretation differed con- 
 siderabily. The oracles oi Apollo wcvi: far the most 
 celebrated, sinee lie was specially tlie god of pri)phecy; 
 among these, the oracle of ] )elphi surpassed all others 
 in importance. Here the medium through which 
 tlie god revealeil liis will t(j mankind was the holy 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 343 
 
 priestess called Pj^tliia : a vapour whicli rose from a 
 cleft in the earth produced ecstas}' in the Pythia, 
 who had i)reviousljf purified herself by chewing laurel 
 leaves and drinking from the sacred spring, and clad 
 in rich garments with a golden head-dress, long 
 flowing robes, and buskins, and had taken her place 
 on a tripod over the cleft. In this condition she 
 uttered the oracles, which were, as a rule, incompre- 
 hensible to ordinary people. It was then the duty of 
 the priests who were present during the ecstasy with 
 the questioners, to discover the real meaning and 
 sense of the senseless sounds, and arrange the answer 
 in p(ietic form, usually in hexameters, which were, as 
 ii rule, cunningly arranged so as to have a two-fold 
 meaning. At first this took place only once a year, 
 but when the reputation of the oracle increased, and 
 thousands of people came every jeai' to Delphi, or 
 sent messengers with questions to the temple, it 
 became the custom to supply answers all the year 
 round, and, in consequence of the great numbers, 
 two P)-thiae had to mount the tripod alternately, 
 while a third was at hand to take their place occa- 
 sionally. Only a few days in the year were regarded 
 as unlucky, and then no oracles were given. At the 
 time of the Empire, when the influence of the Delphic 
 oracle had considerabljr diminished, it was only ac- 
 cessiljle once a j-ear. The order in which the sup- 
 pliants were to enter was generally decided by lot ; 
 in some few cases it ma}^ have Ijeen determined by 
 rank. Prayer and sacrifice of course preceded the 
 sacred ceremony ; goats were chiefly offered, because, 
 according to the legends, the discovery of this 
 miraculous vapour was due to a goat. 
 
 At the other oracles of Apollo the proceedings 
 were different : at Hysiae, in Boeotia, the prophet 
 
.344< intEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 s()iiL;-ht his iiispiratidii m a woW: at Ai'l;vis, in the 
 MiiimI of a vietiiii ; at the ( 'larian tcinplr "t Apollo, at 
 ( 'olo|)hon, a priest drseoiKk'd into tho sacred cave 
 and draidc h(:>lv watei', whereupon the gift of pi'ophee}^ 
 was granted ti.i him ; at tlie sanctuary of the ISran- 
 chidac. at l»id\'niae, near Miletus, thi' oracles were 
 given li\" a priestess, who moistened the hem of her 
 garment and her feet at a well, and then let the 
 rising vapour act upon her. At other oracles the god 
 revealed his will or the events of the future by 
 signs instead of words, whiidr the priest then had 
 to interpret. This was the case with the oldest 
 and most sacred of all the Greek oracles — that of 
 Zeus, at 1 )od<:>na in Ejiirus. These signs were of 
 various kinds : sometimes it was the rustling of 
 tlie branches in the sacred iiak, sometimes the mur- 
 muring of the spring at its toot, sometimes the sound 
 given b}' a brass bowl. The excavations latelv under- 
 taken at 1 >odona have sujijilied some' information about 
 the nature and variety <">1 the questions, though not 
 about the mode in which the oracle was given. Those 
 who desired an oracular answer had to hand in their 
 (|Uestion in writing, usually on a tablet of lead, on 
 which it was scrat(died. Tliis was laid in a vessel and 
 |)laced in the sanctuary, so that the priestess might 
 learn wdiat the (|uestion was; the answer was then 
 given on a similar tablet, sometimes the sami.' on 
 wliicdi the question had been written. 'J'lie examples 
 found of these tablets show that these ipiestions were 
 not always of political import, and seirt 1)\- whole (.■(jm- 
 numities or princes, but tliat even [irivatc' aifairs were 
 sometimes made the subji'ct of a (|uestion. Thus, on 
 the talilet represented in V\<j:. T4S, a certain L\-saru'as 
 ini[uires whether the child which his wife' is about to 
 lii.'ai- him is reall}" his own : anothei' iiKpiires wliether 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 345 
 
 it would be proiitable for him to rear sheep ; a third 
 asks who has stolen the cushions he has lost. These 
 questions on leaden tablets were also in use at other 
 places. At the oracle 
 of Apollo-C'oropaeus, in 
 thePeninsula Magnesia, 
 in Thessaly, the ques- 
 tioners had to give 
 their names to the 
 temple scribe to be 
 written on the tablet ; 
 they were then called 
 in turn and conducted 
 to the sanctuary, where 
 the leaden tablets were 
 handed them. On these 
 tliey wrote their cpies- 
 tions ; the tablets were 
 then collected and 
 placed in a vessel, which 
 was sealed with the 
 official seal of the tem- 
 poral and spiritual 
 officials, and left for 
 the night in the sanc- 
 tuary. Next morning 
 the seals were broken, 
 the names of the cpies- 
 tioners called according- 
 to the list, and the 
 tablets given back with 
 the answers. Among 
 oracles we must mention that of Zeus Amnion, in the 
 Libyan Desert, which enjoyed a great re]3utation in 
 Greece even in early times ; that of Zeus Trophonius, 
 
?)40 f4]!EEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 at Lcbadia, ill Jjoeotia ; that of Aiiipliiaraiis, at (.)riipu^;, 
 which last was included aiuoiiL;' the drcaiu <>ra<des, since 
 the niediatiuii of the priests was not veqiiired here, and 
 the (piestioners received their revelation direct from 
 the ^f^-od. It would be impossible to enumerate all the 
 ora(des and the customs observed there : throu,L;-li(iut 
 the whole of (jreek antitjuity they played a. very 
 important part in the life of the nation and the in- 
 <lividual, and were often decisive in politii/al matters, 
 us well as in trivial details of daily life. 
 
 (_)f ]io less importance than the modes of prophecy 
 alreadv mentioned are those which mav' he called pro- 
 fessioiud, and which did imt depend tui a direct 
 revelation of the will of the god, so much as on the 
 observation and interpretation of certain apparently 
 fortuitous signs, which were, however, supposed to 
 proceed from the divinitv. *-)f cijiirse, many oracles 
 were very closel}- connected with these professional 
 pro[>hei/ies. Here, too, we may distinguish several 
 dift'erent kinds. In the first })lace, there is interpre- 
 tation of signs which appear though unsought for. 
 The number of these is, of course, countless, since the 
 whole realm of nature and life affords scope for them. 
 .Signs of the sk)', atmospheric jjhenoinena, change in 
 the course of rivers, earth(|uakes, clefts in the ground, 
 almormal births, all which are frequently mentioned 
 in ancient liist<jry, maj- 1 le included in this class, as 
 also the flight of birds, to which particular attention 
 was given, though the proceedings of other animals 
 ■were also watched, or the mere fact of their a[)pear- 
 ani/c was supp(.ised to announ(;e gc.iod or evil fortune. 
 Then there were phenomena relating tolnunan beings, 
 sucli as snee;iing, singing in the ears, words spoken 
 l:iy chance, etc., and the place where these things 
 occur is of great importance, as, foi- instance, whether 
 

 
 RELIGIOUS WOliSHll'. 347 
 
 on the right or the left hand. The second class of 
 professional prophecy is that in which man seeks for 
 the signs and calls upon the god to grant liinr a token 
 of his presence and will. In this class we may includ 
 prophecy from sacrifice and also some of the oracles, 
 but in particular the private oracles — if we maj' use 
 this expression — by means of Avhich individuals pro- 
 cured signs by any means whatever, and either in- 
 terpreted them themselves or got some skilled prophet 
 to do it for them. This closely resembles onr modern 
 fashion of telling fortunes from cards, and in these 
 cases it was not usually a priest, but some cheat or 
 conjurer who interpreted the prophecy ; thus dice and 
 sieves were used for prophesying, and fortunes were 
 told from physiognonry, or the lines of the hand, as 
 they still are at the present day. 
 
 The interpreters of prophecy and signs, whether 
 belonging to the class of priests or laymen, naturallj' 
 represented their art as coming direct from the gods, 
 a,nd loved to envelop it in the veil of mystory, though 
 in other respects Greek religion aimed at publicity 
 and universal comprehension. There were, however, 
 some ceremonies which were closely concealed from 
 the world without ; and those who took part in them 
 were i'ec[uired to observe absolute secrecy, and were 
 subject to a gradual initiation, passing through several 
 stages before they attained the final one. We refer to 
 the mysteries which were universally kno'wn through- 
 out Greece, and, owing to the great number of those 
 who sought initiation, played an important part in the 
 life of the ancient Greeks. Our knowledge of these 
 secret doctrines is very small, as is natural under the 
 circumstances, and, consecpiently, the most ]:ecent in- 
 vestigations have led to very different hypotheses. 
 Still, the latest discoveries enable us to feel sure that 
 
348 (UtEEK LIFE AT HiiME. 
 
 these mvsteries were nut, as was formerly supposed, 
 remains of aneient revealed wisdom containinL;' pnrer 
 and 1 letter doi:trines than were known to the 
 popnlar religion: nor were they, as A'ciss supposes, 
 merely priestly triekerv. They represented the 
 reli^iiius nntlis, and their form enrresponded to 
 the ordinary religious worship ; the m)-ster)' was due 
 simply to the fact that in the myth the symbolic 
 and alk'o-orical elements prevailed, and in the worship 
 the purifications and expiations harl a specially im- 
 pi:irtant place : while the other ceremonies connected 
 therewith, such as sacrifices, signs, dances, etc., bore a 
 strongly orgiastic and ecstatic character. There were 
 also dramatic iir pantomimic representations of the 
 mythical actions, and a great number of artistic and 
 decorative means were used to dispose the mind of 
 the initiated to a condition suited for solemn and 
 mysteri(jus doctrines. There were n<i really deep 
 secrets hidden behind these mysteries, whicdi wen^ 
 so numerous tliat almost each god hail his own; and 
 indeed, the initiation was not a difKcult one, and was 
 open to every free and bkimeless (ireek. 
 
CHAPTER XT. 
 
 PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 The Oh-mpic Festival — The Gymnastic and Eqno.strian Contests — 
 The Hippodrome — The Judges — The Preliminary Ceremonies — 
 The Course of the Festival — Honours to the Victors — The Delphi 
 Festival and Pythian Games — Tlie Isthmian and Xemean Games 
 — The Athenian Festivals — The Festivals of Dionysus. 
 
 In ancient and in modem times alike it lias been 
 usual to connect public festivals Avitli some religious 
 observance, even though the actual occasion uright be 
 the celebration of the change of the seasons or some 
 regular event connected with agriculture. (Ireek 
 worship was naturallj' of a cheerful nature. The 
 sacrifices Avere usually followed by banquets, which 
 communicated a festive character to an act of worship, 
 and this was often accompanied bj- singing and 
 dancing, sometimes of a serious and solemn nature, 
 at other times lively and cheerful. As a rule, sacri- 
 fices to the heavenly deities were offered early in the 
 clay, but the bancpiet did not take place till the after- 
 noon, and thus opportunity was aftbrded for de- 
 voting the interval to entertainments, among which, 
 along with song and dance, dramatic and gymnastic 
 performances soon began to occupy a place, and 
 gradually to assiune the character of regular com- 
 petitions. Sacrifices to the infernal deities took place 
 in the afternoon or evening, and were, in conserjuence, 
 followed by a festival at night, which often degenerated 
 into a wild orgy. These festivities, which were partly 
 connected with the worship and partlj- celebrated for 
 their own sake or connected with ancient national 
 
 o 
 
350 CREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 games, were :il tirst a natural coiiseqiience of the 
 reliL;iiuis (/ereiiKinies and the nianni'r in wliicli a 
 nation of the cheerful dispusition of the (nveks would 
 celebrate them. l!ut as these pcrforniances and 
 festivities came to fie u^ore idosely connected with the 
 religious festivals, thej uraduall)- became an integral 
 part I if them, and were no longer left to the arliitrary 
 disposition of the persons concerned, but were tidvcn 
 in hand bv the state or comuumity, ami subject to 
 regular arrangement. 
 
 The entertainments most ccinuiioidy added to the 
 religiiius ceremnnies at the festivals were, in the first 
 place, thdse (if a nuisical character, pailly viM.-al, parti)' 
 instrumental, or a combination of both : in the second, 
 dances, both clioric and pantonnraic, lastly scenic repre- 
 sentations, gynmastic contests, processions, national 
 games, etc. Auiong these the nuisical. (dioregraphic, 
 sceni(.', and gyuuiastic representations were first 
 raised to the dignity of regular competitions. Of 
 course, different festivals were (.-elebrated in dift'erent 
 ways ; apart from local differences, the verv character 
 <if tlic divinity in whose honour the festival \\'as held, 
 and the different phases of tlie legend, necessitated 
 difl'erences in the mode of celebration and in the 
 regulation of those who were to take }iart in tliem : 
 thus Some festivals were eelefiratod fiv both sexes 
 togethei'. and otliers liy ordy one, to the exclusion of 
 the otliei-. In one point, es])ecially, the Hellenic 
 differed fr<im our modern <_'hristian festivals. It is 
 a. natural conserpience of the Christian religion that 
 the great festivals are celelirated at the same time by 
 all believers in all parts of tlie ci\-ilised world, while 
 the Greek religion knew of jio such religi(jus festivals 
 corumon tci all Hellenic trifics. There were a nund.ier 
 of national festiA'als \vhicli were of cijual iui])ortance 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 351 
 
 to all (Ireeks ; but these were not celebrated simul- 
 taneously tlirougliout tlie country, but only at one speci- 
 ally appointed place, to wliicli spectators came from all 
 parts, and which thus provided an opportunit}' for 
 great national meetings recurring at regular intervals. 
 In consequence of the decentralisation of the country, 
 these provided the only means of awakening and 
 maintaining national feeling among the Greeks. 
 <3ther festivals were peculiar to particular countries, 
 or even to towns or communities ; the differences 
 existing in Greek belief which are often closely con- 
 nected with national traditions and racial peculiarities, 
 were also marked in the act of worship. Even those 
 regular festivals which were celebrated alike in most 
 of the Greek states were not all held on the same 
 day, but at different times, which was probably 
 due to the fact that Greek antiquity was acquainted 
 with no conunon calendar. The proceedings at these 
 festivals also differed greatly according to the place. 
 We know very little about the majority: most 
 details have come down to us concerning the Attic 
 calendar and the customs in use there, though even 
 here our knowledge is very incomplete. The great 
 Hellenic national festivals, which Avere celebrated at 
 Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and on the isthnuis of 
 Corinth, will first claim our attention. 
 
 Of these the Olympic festival is the oldest, at any 
 rate as regards its national importance. The festival 
 and the games celebrated there existed long before 
 the year 776 B.C., after which its regular recurrence 
 was used for expressing the date of the year ; still, it 
 is only from this time onward that we can regard it 
 as a really national festival. The Pythians did not 
 begin to calculate by their games till the year .586, 
 the Isthmians in 5S2, and the Xemeans in 573. The 
 
352 (iREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Olviuijic anil rvtliiau l■esti^'als i-eeiuTod vvcvy lour 
 Vrars, the other t^^■l;> every two yeavs ; tho (Jlyinpii; 
 fesfivuls always took plai-e at tlio first full moon of 
 the summer solstier, the Pythian in the autuuui of 
 the tliird vear of an l)lynipia<l ; \\'e cannot deterniine 
 the exact jjeiiod <:)f the others, and oidy Ivuow that the 
 Isthmian ;^ames were held at nudsummer, and the 
 Xemean alternately in winter ami in suumier. The 
 main featiu'es of all, next to tlie usual aets of worship, 
 such as pra\-er, sacrihces, etc., was th(.' g-yuniastic ei)n- 
 tests connected with them. All four had attained so 
 H'ri'at a reputation even beyond the frontiers of their 
 narrow home that most of the Greek states took part 
 in them Ijv means of otiicial embassies (deapiai) and 
 numlicrs of spectators came from a distance, and agreat 
 market was held there in consequence. This lurivorsal 
 int(n'est taken in the festivals gave them a character of 
 in\'iolability, so that they were able to continue even in 
 tinn:- of war, since there was always a truce as long as 
 the games lasted, an<l all wdio took pjart in them "were 
 allowed to travel undisturbed, as soon as the heralds 
 of peai/c had annoiurced the lieginning of the sacred 
 month, first in their own state, and afterwards in tliat 
 <if all tile (jreeks wdio took part in the contests. We 
 jjrissess far more details concerning the (Jlvmpic 
 festival than any oth(.'r, and, in fact, it exceeded them 
 all in importance. The games constituted the most 
 iujportant part, and it was for their sake that spec- 
 tators came from most distant }iarts of the ancient 
 world to the plain of the Alpheus ; and, indeed, the 
 myth concerning the origin of the festival is inti- 
 mately connei-ted with these games. Every free-boi-n 
 (jreek w'as allowed t'.) take part in th(jm. Barliarians 
 were strictly rejecteil, at any rate in the best period of 
 the 01\"mpic festival, and it was not till the tinie ot 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 353 
 
 the Roman Empire, when its glory had long departed, 
 that this practice was abandoned. They also ex- 
 cluded all who had coniniitted murder or any other 
 great crime, or forfeited the rights of citizenship, 
 and before the beginning of the contest a strict exami- 
 nation was held into the claims of all who desired to 
 take part. At first only yoTiths and men were ad- 
 mitted : from 632 onwards boys were allowed to 
 contend, at any rate in some of the sports. We hear 
 of women taking part or being victors in the Olympic 
 games, but this does not mean that they appeared in 
 person ; in the chariot races and riding it was not the 
 custom for the owner of a horse to drive or ride, and 
 thus rich women who were interested in the training- 
 of horses could let them run at the (Olympic games ; 
 and since it was not the charioteer or rider, but the 
 trainer and owner of the horses who was crowned, 
 they might thus obtain the prize. 
 
 The contests at Olympia were of a gymnastic or 
 equestrian nature ; musical contests were excluded. 
 But the perfect development of gymnastics as 
 shown at the Oljanpic competitions only took 
 place very gradually. At first the contests consisted 
 only in running, and this was the case for the first 
 thirty Olympiads after the time when the counting 
 began. Then the double-course was introduced, and 
 soon aftei'wards the long course (724 B.C.). In the 
 year 708 the pentathlon was added, and thus the most 
 important sports — -jumping, throwing the spear and 
 quoit, and wrestling — were introduced, along with 
 running, and henceforward were regarded as one of the 
 most attractive parts of the whole contest. In 688 a 
 boxing-match was added ; in 680, chariot races with 
 four full-grown horses ; in 648, riding races and the 
 pancration. No more cozitests were added ; further 
 
 X 
 
354 flREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 chanL^'cs were only sliqlit niiKlitieatiuns, snch as the 
 admissidu of boys, who at tivst took |iai't only in the 
 runnmg and wrestling;-, tlien for a short time in the 
 pentathlon, and afterwards in the boxing-match, and 
 only in very late times (200 H.c.) in the pancration. 
 In the year 520 the race in full })ano})ly was intro- 
 duced, and in 408 the chariot race -with two horses. 
 Attempts were made to introduce mules and mares, 
 but these were soon abandoned ; c(.ilts were, however, 
 introduced for the contest with f(.iur and two horses, 
 and also for riding. It was natural that when there 
 was so large a number of events they could not all, 
 as at first, take place on one day ; and, indeed, it 
 WDuld hardly have been worth the journey from such 
 great distances. From time to time, as new sport.s 
 were added, another day was given t(_) the festival, 
 sci that when the number was comjilete it generally 
 lasted for five days, divided in sucli a way that the 
 three intermediate days were devoted to the contests, 
 the first and last to the public and private sacrifices, 
 processions and banquets. 
 
 The gynuiastic contests have been already dis- 
 cussed in a previous section; we nmst give some 
 details here about the equestrian competitions, among 
 which racing with four-horse chariots was always 
 regarded as one of the most splendid. Thev employed 
 for the purpose the light two- wheelefl chariots used in 
 battle in tlie heroic age ; these had, as a rule, wheels 
 with four spokes, and the car was open at the back 
 and closed in a semicircular shajie in front, with two 
 bent hoops turned back behind, which were used to 
 catch hold of in jumping up. (Compare the vase 
 painting. Fig. 149.) Here we sec the preparations 
 for driving ; the charioteer, clad in a long garment 
 according to ancient custom, stands belund the two 
 
X 2 
 
356 (m;eek like at hume. 
 
 liorsfs, which avc yoked to tlic chariot, and seems 
 about to connilcto the arran^eniont of the harness, 
 while an attendant in a, short t^arinent is lielpinLf him ; 
 another attencL^nt leads a third horse, which is 
 probably also to be ynked t<> the chariot; while 
 the iiwner holds in his hand the reins and the goarl 
 with which to urge on the horses. The usual plan 
 was to fasten the middle horse to a yoke at the end 
 of the pole which is raised in front, while the outer 
 horses were connected with ro2)es at either side, 
 fastened to a ring in front of the chariot. The reins 
 were all di'aun through a ring or loop at the top 
 of the pole, and the pin on to which this ring was 
 fastened was connected with a vertical rod in front of 
 the churiiit b)' a line drawn ver}' tight, the object oi 
 which is not clear: jierhaps it was to establish e(|ui- 
 hbriuni bet\\'een the car, which \\'as drawn l.iackwards 
 b)' the -weight of the driver, and the forward jjressure 
 given to the pole by the pull of the h()rses. This 
 picture also shows other details of harnessing, the 
 bridle, etc. 
 
 The races took place in the Hippodrome; but the 
 one at (.)lympia is comjiletely destro3red, and all the 
 knowledge we possess of its situation is due to Pau- 
 sanias, who gives us no information concerning tlie 
 length of the course to Imj run twice by full-grown 
 horses. However, he supplies a detailed descrijition 
 of the starting places, which were very complicated, 
 since no competitor nnist have an advantage over 
 another b}' starting earlier or liaving a shorter piece 
 of ground to cover. For this purpose the two long 
 sides of the Hippodronre were of unetpial Icngtli, and 
 the one at the end of whicli were the goal andfthe 
 seats of the judges was rather .shortei- than the other ; 
 the stands tVir the chariots were not in a straight line, 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 357 
 
 but in the form of the segment of a circle. The ropes, 
 which prevented the chariots from starting Lefore 
 the appointed time, did not all drop at the same moment, 
 but one after another in such a Avay that the chariots 
 started first from the more distant stands, and reached a 
 given ]3oint at the same time as those from the nearer 
 stands, which started a few seconds later, so that the 
 racing began at this place under equal conditions. The 
 signal was given by the sound of trujnpets, anrl also 
 by some ingenious mechanism which caused a bronze 
 dolphin on an elevated place at the beginning of the 
 course to fall, while an eagle, which till then had 
 rested on an altar, rose into the air with extended 
 wings. At this sign the barriers fell, and the chariots 
 started in the appointed order over the longer side of 
 the course, and then, turning back, returned by the 
 shorter side. This was the exciting contest which 
 has been so magnificentl}' described by Homer in his 
 account of the funeral games in honour of Patroclus, 
 and by vSophocles in the " Electra." The victor 
 who first reached the goal, near which sat the 
 umpires, received the much-coveted reward of a 
 ■vvi-eath ; but even the next seems to have had some 
 distinction or, at any rate, an honourable mention. 
 
 Racing with four full-grown horses was always 
 most popidar, but there were also races with two- 
 horse chariots and with colts. Afterwards, when 
 riding races came into fashion, they became extremely 
 popular, although they never attained the great im- 
 portance claimed by the chariot races in the 
 Olympic games. In both contests it was the trainer 
 of the horse who was regarded as victor, and though it 
 sometimes happened that the owner or his son drove 
 or rode himself, yet it was more conunonly done 
 liy strangers, very often by professional charioteers 
 
ooN (;i!Ep:k like w home. 
 
 mill riders hired for tlic purpuse, like our jockeys 
 of till' prescTit day. Instead of the wreath, -wliieh 
 was nut allotted to them, they received a tillet as 
 a token of victory. 
 
 The jiidyes {'EWai'oBiKai) -were aiipointecl by the 
 Ehans, on wliose territory the uanies took place. Their 
 iniiiiber varied in tlie course of yeai's. At first, in 
 .)7ii ]'..e'., t^vo citizens -were chosen hv lot tii arrange 
 and superintend the contests ; but a hundred years 
 later there were nine judges appointed, three for the 
 equestrian contests, three for the pentathlon, and 
 three for the rest of the sports : to these nine a tenth 
 was soon added, then foi- a .short time the number 
 was rt'dui-L'd to eight, and afterwards once more in- 
 creased to ten, wliicli remairii'il tlie ap}iointeil numlier. 
 They were chosen by Lit even in later times. As their 
 decisi(.ins Avere of extreme imjiortance, it was regarded 
 as no small matter to undertalce this resjionsible otfice ; 
 in fact, the judges had to be trained in a special buikl- 
 ing in the market-place of Elis, in the arcades of 
 which they sjient the grt'atcr part of the day for ten 
 months, to ho instructed in tlieir duties 1)V the 
 guardians of tin.' laws {vofio^vXaice^), and in particular 
 to acijuire an accui'ate knowledge of g\'mnastic rules. 
 When the tiirie of the games arrived, they took a 
 solenm oath in the court-hous(_' at Olympia, before 
 the altar cit Zms Hrrl.i'nix ; tlicir period of office 
 extended oidy oxox a single festival. 
 
 Their duties were to nial;e the arrangements for 
 tlic contests, and all tlie f(.'sti\-als connected tlien/with ; 
 to examine the competitors as to their right to enter ; 
 to superintend the training of the atlil(.'tes and their 
 teacliers in tlie gvmnasium ; to sei.' that the athletes 
 really entered tor the contests "wllicli tlie\-had chosen, 
 and that everything was done according to establislicd 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. ;jo!) 
 
 custom, and the laws of the games Avero in no M'Ay 
 broken ; for this purpose they also had disciplinarj- 
 power, and a right to impose considerable fines, and 
 even sometimes inflict corporal punishment. Finally, 
 in case of uncertainty, the}' had to give judgment about 
 the victor}', if necessar}', by a majority of votes. A 
 combatant who was not satisfied could appeal against 
 their decision to the council (/SovXi]) of Ulympia, but 
 he could not afterwards be pronounced victor ; the 
 most he could obtain, should it appear that the judges 
 were in the wrong, was their condemnation to pay a 
 fine. Under the judges were officials who helped to 
 maintain order and cany out their ordinances ; and 
 all the attendants present — and this must have been 
 a considerable number, owing to the great concourse 
 of spectators and combatants — were under their 
 orders. 
 
 We can fiirni some general idea of the succession 
 of events and the arrangement of festivities durino- 
 the five days of the festival, although we are 
 not fully acquainted with all the details. A pre- 
 liminary ceremony was the entrance of the embassies 
 from the various Hellenic states. All the states con- 
 sidered it a matter of importance to send their repre- 
 sentatives equipped with as much splendour as possible, 
 and therefore the richest people were always chosen 
 for the purpose. Since a great deal of splendour was 
 shown by these delegates at the festive processions 
 with their chariots and horses, their mao-nificent 
 utensils, etc., they probably held a grand entry on 
 their arrival, and thus the spectators, at the very 
 beginning of the festival, were able to gratify their 
 love of fine sights. No doubt the whole proceeding 
 began with a sacrifice to Zeus, in whose honour the 
 eames were held, and who was regarded as their 
 
o(iO (iREEK LIFE AT Hii:ME. 
 
 director. Next, the xiiiii)ires, the athletes who entered 
 for the contests, and tlie trainers wlio had come with 
 them, toolv a solemn oath in the court-hduse at 
 •Jlyuniia. After a swine had been sacrificed, the 
 competitors had to swear that the}' ])osscssed the full 
 ri<4-hts of citizens, that they had fulfilled all the con- 
 ditions which were necessary for admission, and were 
 ready t<i snlmiit to the reL;'nlati<:)ns. In spite c)f this 
 oath, an exanunation into their claims took place ; it 
 was lait only ]iecessary to prove the ri^'ht of citizen- 
 ship, lint also the appointi.'d trainini;' for the contests 
 hy the athletic diet already described, and on this 
 account the presence iif the trainei's was desirable, if 
 not indispensable, at the examination and oath. The 
 horses fur tlie races were also examined. It is un- 
 certain wliethcr the lots to determine the groups of 
 competitors were drawn on this tirst day. The draw- 
 ing was preceded by a prayer to Zi'ii-s Afoiraijete-^, 
 the Director of ] )estiny ; then the charioteers drew lots 
 for their places at starting, and the others fir their 
 order of entry. The runners were diviiled into groups, 
 probalily of four; the lot decided the order in which 
 they were to fciUow oiii' another ; and the victors in 
 these races had then to run once more for tln' prize. 
 This lio-ivever \vas pn.ibalily only the case with the 
 single and double course', since it is not likely that 
 there were so many competitors for the more dithcidt 
 long (/oiirse and the race in full panoply. Wrestlers, 
 boxers, and pamratiasts di'cw lots fmm an urn, in 
 which small lots, (if wliidi a pair was marked with 
 the same letters, were thrown ; each competitor drew 
 out (inc. Those \\lio drew the same letters had to 
 tight together : the vict<irs then fouglit afresh. If there 
 were more tlian twn victoj-s, they jirobahlv drew lots 
 again in the same way. At last there \vas only one pair 
 
rUBLIC FESTIVALS. KGI 
 
 left, of which one was victor in the whole contest. It 
 sometimes happened that when tliesc lots were drawn 
 the nnmher of combatants was unecpial, and tliiis one 
 was left without an opponent. He was called the 
 third combatant (ec^eSpo?), and it was a very lucky 
 thing to draw this lot. * )f course, it would be a very 
 unusual piece of luck for one person to be third com- 
 batant at all the drawinsj's, and thus be able at last to 
 meet, with his strength unbroken, an opponent who 
 would have sustained many contests already : still, to 
 draw this lot even once was to have a distinct ad- 
 vantage. There was, of course, a certain amount of 
 unfairness connected with it, but they seem to have 
 found no other way out of the dilemma ; still, in most 
 cases, when the victors and the third condiatant 
 drew afresh, it might be left to chance to see that one 
 person w^as not too highly favoured. Sometimes a 
 competitor was lucky enough to obtain a wreath 
 without iiny contest at all : for instance, if only two 
 had entered for a particular contest, and one of them 
 did not appear in time or abandoned the fight. ]\Iany 
 celebrated athletes could obtain a prize thus by the 
 mere terror of their names. 
 
 The gymnastic and ecpiestrian competitions con- 
 tinued from the second to the fourth day : probaljly 
 the boys contended on the second, the men on the 
 third and fourth days. We know little about the 
 order of events ; still, it is probable that on the third 
 day the racing took place first, and in this order — 
 lono- sintrle, and double course, then wrestling, boxintf, 
 and pancration ; on the fourth da)' the ecjuestrian 
 contests, the pentathlon, and, last of all, the race in 
 full panoply. There would then be several changes of 
 locality, since the ecpiestrian contests took place in 
 the Hippodrome ; the races, pentathlon, and other 
 
.■^0:^ CREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 gymnastic sports in the Stadion. Tlicre was, of course, 
 a j^vnmasinm at Olynipia, but this could not contain 
 the JiiuUitiidc nf spectators as well as the Stadion, 
 and, therefore, the wrestling' school and gymnasium at 
 Olympia were used exclusively for the previous train- 
 ing of tlie competitors who came there for the contests. 
 On tin.' last da}' the prizes were distributed. The prize, 
 as is \Vf\l known, was the simplest possible — a mere 
 ■\vreatli of olive, which a boy, both whose parents 
 must be alive, according to the old tradition, cut 
 with a golden knife from a "wild olive tree in the 
 ({rove of Altis. Another outward token of victory was 
 the palm branch granted to the victor, and, in (.-on- 
 sequenee, the palm as a token of victorjr often apjjcars 
 in the statues of the < )lympic concpierors. In olden 
 times the wreaths to be distributed were placed on a 
 brazen tripod ; but Kolotes, a pujul of Pheidias, con- 
 structed a ]iiagniticent table of gold and ivory for the 
 purp(.)se, which was usually kept in the temple of Hera. 
 It was the duty of one of the judges to crown the head 
 of the \'ii'torwith the wreath after it had licon previously 
 surroundod by a woollen fillet. l)uring this solenui 
 act tln' herald anuomn/ed the name of the victor, 
 as well as of his father and his native city. The 
 importance attributed by the ancients t(j the victory 
 in the Ol3'm])ic games ^vilH such tliat this proud 
 moment, when the victor recci\'ed his reward amid 
 the applause of the whole peojile, and, as it were, 
 bef )re the eyes of all <Treece, was a .sufficient com- 
 pensation for all the troubles and difficulties involved 
 in tlie pre})aratii.in for the contest. .Still, there were 
 many otlier hi.mouvs which fell to his lot, Ijoth in 
 ( >h'm}iia and at home in his o\\ii counti'v. 
 
 After the name of the victor had lic(_>n armouuced, 
 sacriticcs and liancpiets took pla(.-e. It is not certain 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 363 
 
 •whether the great sacrifice of the Ehaiis, a hecatomb 
 offered to Zeus as the supreme director of the contests, 
 took place at the conclusion of the festival, or at the 
 beginning ; in any case, numerous sacrifices of thanks- 
 giving were ofl:ered by the victors and also by the 
 delegates sent from other states. Very often the 
 victor's sacrifice was combined with that of his country- 
 men ; for the state to which the conqueror belonged 
 considered itself honoured by his victory, and it was 
 the duty of the delegates to exhibit as much splendour 
 as possible at the sacrifice as well as at the procession 
 connected with it. These solenni processions, which 
 made the last day of the feast a specially magnificent 
 one, were accompanied b}' flutes and citharas, and, 
 perhaps, also by the singing of choruses. They probably 
 marched at first round the altars, while the flames of 
 the sacrifices were burning on them, and afterwards 
 touched at all the sacred places near the holy Altis. 
 
 In the afternoon a great banquet, given by the 
 Elians to the victors, united them all in the town hall 
 {TTpvTavelov) ; but even this was not the end of the 
 festivities, for feasting continued in the evening and 
 far into the night at entertainments given by the 
 victors to their relations and friends, who had hurried 
 to the spot. These were more or less magnificent 
 according to the means of the givers, though some- 
 times the state to which they belonged bore a part 
 of the expenses. These festive gatherings were also 
 honoured by nausic and song, and it was on these 
 occasions that the songs of victory {eirLviiaa), specially 
 composed in praise of the victor and his f'amil}', were 
 often sung, along with old songs, supposing it to have 
 been possible in this short interval to write, compose, 
 and study one of these hymns of victory. Most of the 
 odes, especially those of Pindar, which have come down 
 
364 <;i!EEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 til US, ^vero not pertoniu'd on these occasions, but at 
 the festivities held in honour of the victor in his own 
 i-iiuiitrv, whieli were often celebrated there from year 
 to ycav. 
 
 Herewith the official pro^rauurie of the festivities 
 came to an end, but there was no lack of further 
 entertainment: for the (ij)portiuuty of a]ipearing 
 fiefore so gTcat a number of their c(;)untrymen, and 
 thus attaining- sudden fame, was a. very attractive 
 one for poets and writers, who in those da3-s were 
 little assisted fiy the liodkscllin,^' trade. The custom 
 of holdinc' lectures or reciting poems befoi'c the 
 assendjled people originated in the .5th centurjr, 
 when it is said ti.i have been introdni'od liy Herodotus, 
 whi:i reail aloud a portion of liis history at (Jlympia, 
 though this story is not entirely removed from doubt. 
 It is, however, a fact that from that time onwards 
 recitations of tins kind became commoner: thus 
 Gorgias the Sophist, and Hipjiias the Elian, field 
 long discourses hero; and similarly, Prodicus and 
 Anaximenes, Lysias, Isocrates, etc, lectured at 
 Olympia: and in later times this was a freipient 
 occurrence. Occiisiomdlv, though less often, works 
 of art were here exposed to view : thus, a painter. 
 Action, exhil.iited his picture of the marriage of Alex- 
 ander the (ireat and Koxana, and the astronomer, 
 ( )ino[(ides, of (_'hios, exlnbited a lirass tablet whicli 
 Avas to explain a new method of calculating tlie 
 time, discovered by him. This last, however, turned 
 out a failure. The publicity of the ( )lvmpic ti'stival 
 was ulso used in otlier wavs. Important decrees 
 relating ti:i solemn pleilges, treaties among states, 
 mutual acknowledgment of mc'ritoiious actions, de- 
 cisions to confer crowns, or other matters of imjiort- 
 aiice, whicli it was desirable to firing into uni\ersal 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 365 
 
 notice as soon as possible, were pi-oclainied by the 
 solemn voice of the herald and then graven in 
 bronze or stone, and set up in the Altis. 
 
 Every free man might be present at the contests 
 and other festivities, provided his means permitted 
 him to defray the expenses of the journey and of 
 a stay in the festive city. Naturally the greater 
 number of the spectators came from the neigh- 
 bouring states of the Peloponnesus ; but, still, many 
 came very long distances. So great was the 
 interest roused by these contests that people from 
 all classes came to view them ; and even men of the 
 highest intellectual eminence took pleasure in them. 
 Statesmen and generals, such as Themistocles, Cimon, 
 Philopoemen ; philosophers, such as Thales, Chiron, 
 Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato ; orators, such as Gorgias, 
 Lysias, Demosthenes ; poets, such as Pindar, Simon- 
 ides, were among the spectators ; and though 
 some of the poets, especially Eui'ipides, and philo- 
 sophers were inclined to criticise rather severely the 
 value of the performances at Olympia, yet these 
 were but isolated opinions, and in no way tended to 
 diminish the popularity of the games or the glory of 
 the victors in the eyes of the general public. This 
 interest was revealed by the endurance with which 
 the spectators continued to watch the games, in spite 
 of the fact that they took place in the verj' hottest 
 season, and lasted for the gi'eater part of the day ; 
 from early morning, when the)' went to the Stadion 
 in order to secure a good place, till late in the after- 
 noon, when the decision was given, they watched and 
 endured the heat, dust, crowding, and thirst, either 
 standing or squatting, according as space permitted, 
 with that patience and endurance of which only the 
 people of the south are capable. No doubt there 
 
366 IIREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 were noisv oxin'cssioiis of sympathy during the 
 contests, enciiiiniginL;' nr iao(;ki]iL;" cries, applause 
 and sounds of sorrow, since all feelings are ex- 
 pressed in a violent manner by southern nations. 
 Women were nor allowed to be present at the games. 
 The statement that the maidens of Elis were an ex- 
 ception to this rule is scarcely credible. Those 
 women or girls whi:) had come to the festival to 
 accompanv competing husbands, sons, or brothers, 
 had to remain on the other side of the Aljiheus. In 
 conseipience of the great number of spectators, inns 
 and lodging-houses were built to accommodate those 
 who had not, like the sacred envoys, brought their 
 own tejits with them. Moreover, as already indicated, 
 a kind of fair was connected with tlie Olympian fes- 
 tivities ; traders, with all manner of wares, some of 
 them olijects directly connected with the festival, such 
 as fillets, flowers, food, etc., and other useful articles, 
 set up their booths and tents ; and, thus, along with 
 the festival, there was a Ijusy commercial activity, 
 such as was conunon in every place where great 
 crowds of people met together at fixed times. 
 
 The games performed at iJelphi in honour of 
 Pythian Apollo f)orc tlie name of the Great I'ythia, to 
 distinguish them from the Lesser Pythia, held every 
 year at Delphi, and also from the festival of the same 
 name celebrated in other places. This festival, which 
 at first was held ever}' eight years, had been changed 
 to a quadrennial one after the beginning of the 6th 
 centurv B.C. ; it lasted several davs, and ra-aduallv 
 many additions were made to the original con- 
 tests. At first the musical competition, which com- 
 prised cithara and flute playing, was the only one ; 
 in later times, too, it was the principal part of the 
 festival, but after the example of the <.)lympian 'games, 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 367 
 
 gymnastic and equestrian contests were also added. 
 A general truce was connected with the Pythian 
 games as well as with the Olympian, and this lasted 
 long enough to enable spectators from the distant 
 colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean to journey 
 in safety to Delphi and back. The chief events of 
 the festival and the order of proceedings were some- 
 thing of this sort. 
 
 A great sacriiice to the three gods, Apollo, Artemis, 
 and Leto, called Trittyef< probably formed the in- 
 troduction. Then followed an important part of the 
 festival, calculated to arouse lively interest in the 
 public, the Pythian JSfoinos, the subject of which 
 was the celebrated fight with the dragon Pytho by 
 Apollo. Many suggestions have been made about 
 the nature of this performance. One is that 
 the tight was presented in dumb show ; another 
 that it was a song, accompanied by instruments ; 
 and, again, another very popidar theory is that this 
 Pythian Nonios was a concerto of flute solos, by 
 means of which various stages of the fight with the 
 dragon were represented in tone painting. Probably 
 the most important situations — the fight, thanks- 
 giving, and hymn of victory — could be thus repre- 
 sented, and, indeed, they must have attained consider- 
 able proficiency in tone painting, since even the 
 gnashing of the dragon's teeth was musically repre- 
 sented. With a view to strengthening these eifects, 
 the flute, which always remained the chief instrument, 
 was afterwards reinforced at certain places by trum- 
 pets and shepherds' pipes. This Pj^thian Nomos 
 constituted part of the musical contest, which was of 
 greater importance in the Pythian games than the 
 gymnastic competition, since Apollo was essentiallv 
 the representative of the musical arts. Besides the 
 
oli.S (!1!EEK LIKE AT HOJIE. 
 
 sold fliitu plii\'ing', the musical competition iucludod 
 song's with cithara accompaniment, and at tirst also 
 with the flute, but this last was dis(.'ontinued, being 
 regarded as too sad and g'lo(:)niy ; and, instead, cithara 
 playing without song was introduced in the musical 
 contest. It was only in much later times, when 
 troops of artists wore called in to luako the festival 
 more splendid, with the consent of the officials of the 
 land, that dramas were also presented at the P3'thian 
 games. 
 
 M'o know but little of the gymnastic contests 
 ^vllich gradually foimd a place in the r)'thian games. 
 In essentials they ^YCl•e the same as those at Olympia, 
 but the double course and the long course for boys 
 were also added, while at r)lympia these tw(.) contests 
 were tinly open to men. The order of events, too, was 
 dift'erent ; the competitors were classed according to 
 age, and each class, after completing its (.>wn contests, 
 was aljle to rest while the others went through the same 
 exercise, so that these intervals for rest enabled the 
 boys to perform greater feats of running than they 
 could at Ulympia, where they had to enter for all 
 tlieir contests before the men's turn came at all. To 
 the usual g}'mnastic sports were afterwards added the 
 race in full panoply and the pancration for boys. 
 Efpiestrian competitions were early introduced : racinri- 
 with full-grown horses, with four-horse chariots, and 
 afterwards with two-horse chariots ; when colts were 
 introduced at Olympia the example was also followed 
 at Delphi: pmbubly the events followed in such a 
 way that the musical contest was connected with the 
 acts of w(.)rship, and was followed by the gymnastic, 
 and this Ijy the equestrian contests. The gymnastic 
 s])orts were held, at the time of Pindar, in the neigh- 
 Ixiurhood of the ruined city Cirrha, south of the 
 
PDBLTC FESTIVALS. 369 
 
 month of the Pleistos ; afterwards the Delphic Stadion 
 was to the north-west of the city, while the driving 
 and riding races took place in the old Stadion near 
 the ruined city of Cirrha. In later times there was 
 also a theatre for the performance of the musical 
 contests. 
 
 Here, as at Olympia, punctual attendance was 
 required of the competitors ; those who entered un- 
 lawfully were expelled by the servants of the Amphic- 
 tyons, who were entrusted with disciplinary power. 
 It was they who had the superintendence of the 
 ganres, as well as the right of judging. Originally 
 both these privileges had belonged to the inhabitants 
 of Delphi ; but after the reorganisation of the games 
 in the year 5SG, the duties of superintendents and 
 judges passed to the Amphictyons, or to officials 
 appointed by them. It seems that we nmst dis- 
 tinguish between the Amphictyonic superintendents 
 (e7rifieX7]Tai}, in whose hands were the arrangement 
 of the programme, and all matters of expense, 
 the appointment or ratification of the festive officials, 
 etc. (d'ywvoOea-la), and the umpires (^pa^evrai) 
 who had themselves to make the most important 
 arrangements for the contests, such as assifjiiin"- the 
 places for the chariots in the races and giving deci- 
 sions about the victory ; but we cannot attain any 
 certainty in this matter. Sometimes, towards the 
 end of the age of Greek freedom, the right of super- 
 intendence was conferred on princes — as, for instance 
 on Philip of Macedon — and in the time of the Empire 
 it was not unusual for a rich man to bear the expenses 
 of the ceremony wholly or in great part ; though even 
 here the old custom was, at any rate externally, 
 observed. The prizes of victory were originally valu- 
 able gifts, tripods, etc. ; at the rearrangement of the 
 
 Y 
 
.'570 CI'.EKK LIFE AT IIOJIE. 
 
 L,Minos the etistiiiji oriniiiatcd of n'l^'iiiL;', instead, a 
 wreath, as Avas dour :it Olyinpia, maile of laurel sacred 
 to Apollo. Tlievalst) followed the example of Olyiiipia 
 in introducing lectures and recitations hy historians 
 and ])octs ; thus Gornias the Sophist, delivered an 
 oration on one of these occasions. A very ini- 
 portant part of the festival was the great pro- 
 cession (tto/xtt)/), in -whiidi strangers who came to the 
 games, endiassies with their dedicatory offerings, the 
 officials and priests, took jjart ; and hesides the offer- 
 ings, which "were often very splendid, valuable treasiu-es, 
 usually kept in the treasuries, were exhif)ited ; costly 
 weapons and armour, splendid garments and je^vels, 
 vases, etc., were exposed to view, so that this pro- 
 cession, which probalily marched from the suhurb 
 Pylaea, upwards to the temple of Apollo, must have 
 presented a very vari(_'d and richly-colf)ured picture. 
 As well as the triple sacrifice already mentioned, there 
 were otlier solemn sacrifices, among them a hccatond.i 
 to Apollo; this was, of course, connected with the 
 great lianquet, at which there was no lack of nn.isical 
 entertainment. 
 
 The Isthmian games, the third of the great 
 Hellenic national festivals, were celebrated on tlie 
 isthmus of ( '(jrintli, in the sacred [)inc grove of 
 Poseidon, where a hipp(wlrome and a stadion for 
 ei[uestrian and gymnastic contests had Ijeen erected. 
 The festival, which from the year .5S2 onwards, fie- 
 canie national and Hellenic, took place every two 
 years, in the first and third yi'ars of an Olympiad; 
 it consisted of musical, gymnastic, and ecjuestrian 
 contests. Wo do not hear of any differences between 
 these games and tliosc at <Jlyinpia, and we may 
 assume that there "were tlic usual competitions for 
 men and boys; in iiddition to them there was an 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 371 
 
 intermediate class of the beardless ones — that is, 
 youths {e^iiJBoL). Of course, there -was a universal 
 truce duruig the Isthmian games, and numerous 
 and splendid embassies attended it, since the 
 site between two seas facilitated attendance. 
 The arrangement of the programme fell to the 
 Corinthians, who also appointed the umpires, prob- 
 ably from aniong the rich and respected citizens. 
 The prize of victory was a wreath of ivy, for which 
 they afterwards substituted one of pine, and this 
 seems to have been still the custom at the time of 
 Ibycus, who, as SchiUer tells us, met his death on 
 the way to this " contest of chariots and song." In 
 the later period, especially in the Hellenistic and 
 Roman times, there were also rhetorical and poetical 
 recitations at the Isthmian games, but they did not 
 form a part of the musical contest. 
 
 The Nemean games were held at Argolis, in 
 a valley between Cleonae and Phlius, in a grove 
 belonging to the sanctuaiy of Zeus-Neriieios, and they 
 did not attain national importance till the year 573. 
 These, like the Isthmian games, were held every two 
 years, in the second and fourth years of an Olympiad. 
 The contests here also comprised nuisical, gymnastic, 
 and equestrian competitions ; we are incidentally in- 
 formed that cithara and flute players appeared in the 
 musical contest. We have no information about the 
 length of its duration, but it must certainly have 
 lasted for several days. The Cleonaeans were for a 
 long time superintendents and umpires, but when the 
 Argives gained possession of the Nemean sanctuary 
 they also claimed this privilege. The prize of victory 
 here, as at the Isthmian games, was a wreath of ivy ; 
 there were the same arrangements for a universal truce, 
 and visits of sacred envoys, as at other great festivals. 
 Y 2 
 
o(2 IIUEEK LIFE AT IhlME. 
 
 I'l'iiin this consideration of the Hclloiiic national 
 eoli.'hi'ations we ninst now tnrn specially to Atliens, 
 with whose festive eali/ndar ^\^l' aiv nnudi hetter ae- 
 qnainted: bnt we must content onvselves with a selec- 
 tion frrini amoni;- the most important. The first place 
 is (hie to. the greatest festival of the Athenians, the 
 Pit iKilliciuici celebrated in the first m(.)nth of the 
 Athenian calt'ndar, 11 ek atom bacon (probably our 
 ■Jiih'). We nnist distinguish between the lesser and 
 the L;reater ranathenaea.; the former "was celebrated 
 evei'y year ; tlie lattiji', introduced by I'eisistratns, 
 every lour years; the real difference was tliat, at the 
 greater Panathenaea the contests were more splendid 
 and probably lasted a longer time. The festival was 
 held in honour of the patron e-|,ddess in the ancient 
 tenrple of Atlicnr. FoUus ; it consisted of sacrifices and 
 competitions, equestrian, gymnastic, and also musical. 
 The oldest musical contest was a competition bet^veen 
 rhajisodists, perhaps introduced by Peisisti-atus. The 
 performances of the rhapsodists were prol)a1ily chicfiy 
 concerned Avith the Homeric jioems, wliich had been 
 collected and edited at the conmiand of IVisistratus, 
 Ijut wi' do not luiow in what wa\- they contended for 
 the ]>rize ; the |)la(:-e of recitatioi^i was the Odeon. 
 After\vards the Homeric rhapsodies fell into the back- 
 ground, when Pericles extended the nuisical contests 
 by iiiti'oduciug cithara and flute playing and song. 
 A\'e learn i'rom the inscri]>tions that songs with cithara 
 acc'ompaniment, as well as witli fiute accompaniment, 
 were usual, and they also s[)eak of cyclic ch<:)ruses, 
 that is, dithyrambs, sung liy choruses wliile circlin"- 
 round the altar on wdii(di the sacrifice was bni'iiiu"'. 
 The prize for the musical contest was a, gold wreath 
 and some money. 'Hv; gymnastic contests were ar- 
 ranged according to age (boys, youtlis, men; ; the 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 373 
 
 youngest entevccl first, and each class ended its com- 
 petitions before the next one Legan. Siniilarl)- the 
 competitions advanced from eas}' to difficult ; they 
 were of the usual kinds already described, but it was 
 only the men from whom all were required. ]'!o)'s and 
 youths in the earliest period entered for racing, wrest- 
 ling, and boxing, pancration, and pentathlon. After- 
 wards the pentathlon was abandoned, and the double 
 and long course introduced instead, though pnibalil)' 
 the recpiirements for these were reduced, since the 
 usual attainments of these contests would have been 
 too great for boys, ^^'e do not know exactly ^^dlere 
 the gynmastic competitions took place, since the 
 Panathenaeic Stadion was not built till the latter half 
 of the fourth century. Before that there seems to have 
 been a place to the west of the Peiraeus, where both 
 equestrian and gymnastic contests were carried on ; 
 here, too, the victors were proclaimed, and the prizes 
 conferred on them. These consisted in a quantity of 
 oil from the celebrated olive-trees of Athene in the 
 Academy, and this was drawn into earthen amphoras, 
 on one side of which was represented the image of the 
 patron goddess, and on the other generally a scene 
 from the gymnastic competition. Many imitations of 
 these amphoras exist, and no small number of them 
 have come down to us, and are known as Panathanaeic 
 prize amphoras. 
 
 There ■were several events peculiar to the eques- 
 trian contests at Athens. Thus, in Attica and P>oeotia 
 chariot-jumping was a popular spoi't. Besides the 
 charioteer on the tAvo-wheeled car there was a second 
 person ((tTro/Sar?;?), who, while the chariot Avas moving 
 at full speed, jumped down from the car and up again, 
 assisted by the charioteer; this performance is traced 
 back b}' legend to the time of Erichthonius. There 
 
374 (iiiEEK LIFE AT i[():\n:. 
 
 wrre also mariial rimtcsts, in which waiTiuvs in tnll 
 paniipl)" stiMiil in their chariots; and also races cit 
 iav(.'lin-thr(>\vers, ^vho aimed at a fixed g<:>al from tln/ir 
 rimnine- hors(.'s ; l_int tla.'se sports connected with the 
 I'anathanaea are known to ns only liy casual allusions, 
 and not hv ai.-curatc description. Here, as els(.'where, 
 •we learn from the inscriptions that the usual kinds ot 
 vai/ine- took place, namely, with four horses, and after- 
 wards, too, \\-ith colts, as well as riiline- races. Here, 
 as in tlie gymnastic contests, the jirize consisted m 
 jars of oil ; in both cases the first prize was generally 
 five times the value of the second. 
 
 To the festivities of the ranatlianaca helonged also 
 a perfornianci.' of the Pyrrhic Avar dance (Trvppi'xv'i 
 A\"hi(di originate(l af Sparta, and was prolia,))l)' intro- 
 dui'ed at Atliens at the time of Solon and i'eisisfrafus. 
 In later times thev distinguished three kinds, accoj-d- 
 ing to age. Tlie various classes, clad in magnificent 
 armour, i-ond lined together in Ijarids and pertormed a 
 dance fo the music of the flute, which partook of the 
 doufile uaturi' of cliorc^'raphic and military movements. 
 A still e.\tant relief ifom th(.' Acrojiolis, s(.'t up hy a 
 choragns who had won the ]irize (rich, cifizens under- 
 took tlic efpiipment of the I'yrrhic choruses as a 
 ]>nfilic sia'\-ice or liturgy), presents a number of youth- 
 ful dancers performing a measured <lance in light 
 helmets, and holding their shu'ld in their left hand, 
 but "witliout aii\' clothing; they arc in two divi- 
 siiius: the choragns stands superintendinc" them in a 
 long chiton (as festive garment) and himation. We 
 do not know how the victoi-y of a I'yrrhlc chorus was 
 decided. Tlie prize of victory was an ox. 
 
 Anotlic'r (.Mjutest peculiar to the I'anathenaea was 
 a ujuster ot men (evavopi'a). T^ike the dramatic I'eiiri'- 
 sentations. the toi'ch-race, and the l'\"rrljic ilam/c, this 
 
rUiSLKJ l<Ji!S-JlVAL«. 375 
 
 was a liturgy, that is, a voluntary service performed 
 by a rich citizen. It was his duty to select the hand- 
 somest and strono'cst men of his tribe, to clothe and 
 equip them, and present them at the festival ; that 
 tribe which, in the opinion of the judges, made the 
 best impression, received the prize. This curious 
 custom originated after the expulsion of the Poisistra- 
 tidae, since they would not have been permitted, 
 during the tyranny, to bring forward the armed 
 citizens in this manner. Another liturgy was the 
 torch-race (X,a/i7ra8o(/>opta), which was superintended 
 by the gymnasiarchs ; the victor in this contest 
 received a water-jar. The contests of the Panathcnaea 
 were concluded by a regatta, -which took place at the 
 Peiraeus. Here, again, it was not individuals, but 
 tribes, that competed for the prize, Avhich was not 
 inconsiderable, since the victorious tribe received 300 
 drachmae, and money for a festive banquet. 
 
 The expenses of these various contests, if they did 
 not happen to be voluntary services, were defraj-ed from 
 the treasury of Athene Polias ; the sacrifices, in par- 
 ticular the hecatomb offered to the goddess at the greater 
 Panathcnaea, were provided by the superintendents of 
 sacrifice (lepoTroiol), appointed as the ten representa- 
 tives of the ten tiibes, but there were sometimes 
 special subscriptions for the purpose, and, at the great 
 festivals at any rate, the Attic client cities sent their 
 contributions to the sacrifices, apparently each one 
 cow and two sheep. The hecatomb wns ottered on 
 the chief day of the feast ; another sacrifice ^vas jk'T- 
 formed to Afhene-Hygeid, and a third on the Areo- 
 pagus, but ^ve do not know when these took place, 
 nor whether they were also offered at the lesser 
 Panathcnaea. 
 
 • Wo have only a general notion of the or<ler of the 
 
37G GliEEK LIKE AT TK^FE. 
 
 testh-itios. They boyan with the contests, which 
 lasted se\'eral days, taking the nnisical contest tirst, 
 which was followed by the gyii mastic, and this again 
 by the equestrian. AVith these were probably con- 
 nected the Pyrrhic dance and the muster of men. 
 Then came the chief day of all, the glory <if the 
 festi\al, intr<;)duced the e^-ening before by a festivity 
 combined with a torch-race, and lasting far into the 
 night {Travvv')(^k). At sunrise began the great pro- 
 cession which was peculiar to the greater Panathenaea. 
 Here the g(jddess received her splendid robe, which 
 was renewed every four years, and artistically worked 
 by the Attic women and maidens, so as to represent 
 the battle of the gods and giants. This procession, of 
 which a w'onderfuUy idealised representation has come 
 down to us in the friezes of the (Jella of the Par- 
 thenon, C(iml;iined all tlic chief splendour and glory of 
 Athens, all the proud youth and fair beaut}' of women. 
 In it marched priests and prophets, archons, and the 
 treasurers of Athene, the superintendents of sacrifice, 
 generals, envoys from the Attic colonies, "with their 
 dedicator}' offerings, and otlier delegates sent to the 
 feast. ISehind these dignitied men follo\\'ed Iseautiful 
 maidens, carr}ing sacrificial vessels, censers, etc. ; then 
 came the resident foreigners (jaeVot/cot), with flat dishes 
 filled with lioney-cakes, fruits, and other sacrificial 
 oft'erings, and jars containing the wine required for 
 the sacrifices : their daugliters carried sunshades and 
 seats for the daughters of Attic citizens. Next came 
 the mimerous herds of cows and shee[) for the sacri- 
 fices, acconqianied b)' dr(n-ers. These were foUoAved 
 by the Attic citizens, venerable old men and men in 
 the prinic of life, carrying their knott}' sticks and olive 
 brandies in tlieir hands; then came the four-horse 
 chariots, wdiich had entered for the contests of the 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 377 
 
 previous days. The greater part of the procession 
 was taken up by the cavahy, in which a^jpoared the 
 citizens who served on horseback in the army, as well 
 as other owners of fine horses ; the fondness for horse- 
 rearing peculiar to Attica made this part of the pro- 
 cession especially large and splendid. There were also 
 the heavy-armed infantry under the command of 
 their officers, and the musicians, who played during 
 the march on their instriunents — iiutos and citharas ; 
 of course, the victors in the various competitions took 
 part in the procession, though probably each walked 
 with the members of his own tribe. The most con- 
 spicuous place was occupied by the robe of the 
 goddess, which, at any rate after the beginning of 
 the fourth century, was suspended like a sail on the 
 mast of a ship, running on rollers, and spi'ead out 
 in such a way that all might admire the splendid 
 workmanship. 
 
 This endless procession moved from the Kera- 
 meikos to the market-place, then eastwards to the 
 Eleusinion, north of the Acropolis, and round this to 
 the western ascent of the citadel, whore the ship halted, 
 and the robe was taken off in order to be carried in 
 procession to the temple of Athene Polias, the Erech- 
 thaeum. Here the hecatomb was offered on the great 
 altar in front of the temple, as well as the sacrifices of 
 the Attic clients. A plentiful bancpiet concluded this 
 chief day of the festival, for the meat sacrificed was 
 divided among the people, being distributed among 
 all the demes separately, who specially told off a 
 number of members to receive their share. The meals 
 took place also according to demes. The after cele- 
 bration at the Peiraeus consisted in the regatta already 
 mentioned. We cannot tell how long the whole festi- 
 val of the greater Panathenaea lasted ; opinions vary 
 
■ITS (illEEK LIFE AT Ti( i:\lE. 
 
 l.iotwoon six iind nine (lavs, accoi-diuL;' as a loiin'iT or 
 sliorter |iori(i(l is assumed tortile various (■oiii]i('titions. 
 The n'enoral dircrtion ot tlii_' pnx.'cssion ami the sacri- 
 ticcs, as well as ot tlie niylit te>sti\-ity, was uud(.T the 
 coiitrol and superintendence ot tlie annual su[>crin- 
 tcudcuts of sai-ritiee: while ten judges (adXodeTai), 
 appointed tor a period of foin- years, inrdertook tlio 
 direction of the contests. 
 
 Tli(.' annual 8acre<l Festival of the l^leusinia 
 must lie distinguished from the lesser Kleusinia 
 eidehrated at Agrao in spring. It tool; place in 
 the month of tSoedromion, aliout Si.'ptemher, in 
 lionoiu' of Demeter of Eleusis. This was a- ci'li.'lira.tio]i 
 of the m\-steries, and, tlierefore, no national lesti\'al, 
 but still the numher of the mitiatcd Avas so gi-eat, an<l 
 the mysteries were renowned so far even heyoud the 
 hounds of Attica, tliat it miglit he i-egarded as 
 Hellenic, especially as the holding of the mysteilcs 
 was amioimced in the neighhoinlng states liy 
 special envoys or heralds, whose ofHce \vas Inu'editary 
 in certain fauulies, and a general truce prevailed diudng 
 the celelirati(.in. The wIkjIc festival cousistt'd of two 
 ])arts, of "wliich the first Avas h(dd at iVthens, the 
 si^cond at Eleusis. It began with a genci'al assi.'inbh', 
 of which we onl\- kmiw tliat it \\'as probabK' a noisy 
 proi/ession, such as Avas \'er\'common at the celebration 
 of luN'steries. Another feature of the begimn'ng of the 
 festival wrvi: thi_' puljlic addresses to tlie comiiiujiity, 
 delivered in the Slua Poil/ilc (Painted Torch) at 
 Athens, where the Hierophant, i\n: idjief priest of the 
 Eleusinian sanctuaries, and one of tlie (diief iiric'sts 
 in Attica, and tlie tor(didiearer C6aoov-)(o<;), anotlier 
 Eleusinian official, a(/i|uainted the candidates for 
 initiation with tlie arrangement of the festival and 
 the conditions on Avhich pa)'ticipation in the cere- 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 379 
 
 mony (lependcd. It was the duty of tlio Initiators 
 (/u.Lio-Ta7m7ot )tosee that the numerous people assembled 
 really fulfilled these conditions ; these were not otiicials 
 but private people who had passed through all the 
 degrees of initiation, and were acquainted with all the 
 rites; and foreigners who attended the mj'steries ivere 
 obliged to prove their initiation in the first place to 
 these. Either on this day or the next ensued that 
 ceremony which received its name from the cry, " To 
 the sea, ye Mystae ' " when the whole coimnunity de- 
 scended to the sea coast in order to purify themselves 
 and the sacrificial animals, whicdi on this occasion were 
 swine, in the sea water for the impending sacrifices. 
 Sometimes, if a visitor to the contests was conscious of 
 special and numerous acts of wrongdoing, this purifi- 
 cation was repeated several times, and the efficac}^ 
 further ensured by fasting for nine days — that is, re- 
 fraining from food during the time between sunrise 
 and sunset. On the following days sacrifices were 
 offered, especially the great Thankoffering (<TCiiT-)'jpLa), 
 offered by the superintendents of the mysteries to 
 Demetcr and Kora and the other gods, probalil}' in the 
 town of Eleusinia. Another sacrifice offered by a town 
 was the Ejjidauria, which was said to have been 
 founded in honour of Aesculapius, who arrived belated 
 from Epidaurus. We are not accpiainted with the 
 place of this ceremony, nor with the time or other 
 circumstances connected with it ; the fourth and the 
 fifth days of the festival have been suggested. Next 
 followed the njain part of the festival, the great pro- 
 cession which escorted lacchus, the sacred child of the 
 crods, from Athens to Eleusis. In the course of the 
 day the participants in the procession, who often 
 numbered several thousand, assembled at various parts 
 of the cit}% and were drawn up in order in the Agora 
 
oSO (!1!EEK LIFE AT >l(i:\lE. 
 
 and the Keraiueikos. The priests and ntHcials, as well 
 as the whole band of ^lystae, were deeked with inyrtL; 
 and Wv leaves, and carrii'd eavs of corn and ayi'i- 
 enltnral implements in their hands, as well as 
 tondies. for they did mit reaidi Elensis liefoi'e night- 
 fall. The leader of the priircssion was Iae<dins him- 
 self, though, at the same tim(;,he was led. His sacred 
 imaue was fetched, along with the temple ntensils, 
 from the sanctuar\' of laecduis, and placed on a car, 
 aecdiiipanied Lv attendants {'loK-^aycjoyot ). at the 
 head of the procession, which set ont trom the 
 Kerameikos to the gate known as ]_)ipylon amid 
 l(.)nd slionts of " Licehus," and throngh this liegaii 
 its long journey' along the sacred road to Elensis. 
 Th(.! jiroce.ssion moved on, singing a song es]>ecially 
 composed for it, as was believed, by tlie god himself, 
 accompanied l\y dancing and other ceremonies. The 
 jonrncy lasted fonr hours, and, in conse(juenci' ot its 
 length, rich women used to ride in carriages until the 
 orat(_ir Lycurgus forljade this by a specdal law. 1 )uring 
 this long march they stO|jped to worshiji at A'arious 
 sanctuaries on the ^vay, and also entertained each other 
 with jokes, such as were custoinary at the festi\'als of 
 Demeter and Dionysus : ;it the Kephisos es})ecially 
 there was jesting and mockery. At the fountain of 
 Kallii/huros dances and games 'wen; carried on by 
 torchlight. Of course, all this detained the procession 
 longer than the mere length of the journey would have 
 •e(_p.iired, so that aftei' the arri\-al at Kleusis, when 
 tlie image of tlie god had Ijeen ])Ut in its place, tlie 
 jiilgriuis reipiircfl rest and refreshment before going 
 on til th(.' rt'iiiainder of the festival. 
 
 The rit(.'S at Elensis also lasted several days. 
 
 ISesides solemn sacrifices and the festive banouets 
 
 i. 
 
 connected with theiri, there was the ci'remony of 
 
 1' 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 381 
 
 seeking the Maiden (Koprj) and the sacred rcin'csenta- 
 tions. The t'onner was an imitation of the sad 
 wanderings of ] )emeter, when seeking lier (hiughter, 
 who had been stolen from her ; the Mystae ran about 
 with torches in the white raiments of the Eleusinian 
 sanctuaries, and frequent jokes, some of a coarse 
 description, reminded them that Demeter in her 
 wanderings had been similarly cheered in her deep 
 sorrow by the coarse jests of her maid Iand.)e. The 
 mystae also imitated the goddess in chinking a 
 strengthening potion (KVKecov), which, according to 
 a legend, the goddess drank at Eleusis after her 
 long fast. The main feature, however, was the per- 
 formance, on a stage in the sanctuary, of the mysterious 
 sacred dramas which presented the secret doctrines 
 of the Eleusinian mysteries to the new initiates, and 
 also brought them clearly before the eyes of those 
 who had been already initiated. We must not, how- 
 ever, suppose that all were present at the same repre- 
 sentations. It was, in fact, here that the difference of 
 degrees required different representations ; beginners, 
 among whom there were some not far removed from 
 the age of childhood, were only admitted to repre- 
 sentations corresponding to the ordinary legends of 
 Demeter and Persephone, while the highest degrees, 
 which were granted only to those of advanced years, 
 went beyond these popular presentations, and repre- 
 sented the new-born lacchus reunited in bliss with 
 Persephone and Demeter. On these occasions even 
 the highest dignitaries of the Eleusinia did not 
 scorn to appear as actors ; the Hierophant as the 
 Demiargoy, the leader of the initiates as Helios, 
 the altar priest as Selene, the herald (lepoKfjpv^) as 
 Hermes, etc. These dramas, which fully occupied 
 the eighth and ninth days, thus concluded the chief 
 
'A>i-2 (iltEElC I.IL'E A'l' HdJli:. 
 
 puit of till' coroHK.iny. The last ai't <if worship was 
 to takf two oai'tlioii vessels tilled with water, as was 
 done at tiinerals, and pour them ont t<.i east and wt'st 
 amid mystic words {TT\i}iJ.oyoai.). Idien followed some 
 (la\s occupied Avith entertainments of all kinds — 
 L;'\ninastii' contests, national n'ames, song and dance, 
 arid in later times also scenic representations. 
 
 The festival of the Tln'sniopJiorut, held in 
 r\ane})sion (< )ctoliei'), was in hononr of Demeter 
 alone: it lasted five days, and only women might 
 taki' part in it. These women had to nndergo a 
 solenni preparation id' nine days, dnring which they 
 kept apart from their husbands, and purified them- 
 seh'cs in ^•arions Avays. After this the}' went to 
 Halimus, the scene of the Thesmophoria, not in a 
 long procession, but in small groups and at night- 
 time. The comic- side of the l)enieter festivals was 
 visilile here also: those who went alone met each 
 other on the way, and demanded and gave tokens of 
 recognition in jest, anud luuch laughter, which 
 became e.xi-essive if, as sometimes happened, a man 
 fell into their hands. At Haliinns, in the sanctuary 
 of the ThesmoplK.iria, the mysteries took i>lace by 
 night ; the day was occupied with purif\-ing baths in 
 the sea, and playing and dancing on the shore. After 
 this had gone on I'l )r a day ( )r a day and a half, the women 
 set 'lut again for Athens, this time in a li:>ng ])ro- 
 cession, carrying the laws of ])enicter, the T!ii'siiii>i, 
 whence the festi\-af took its name, in caskets on the 
 head of sacred women, and the festival was then 
 continned at Athens, either in the Thesmo[)horion of 
 the town or in that of I'eiraeus. Tins further celebra- 
 tion occnpied two da3's, besides the day of retiu'ii ; 
 first came the da}- of " fasting," so-called fiecaiise <in 
 this day the women sat in deep mourning on the 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 3S3 
 
 ground and took no food, probably singing dirges and 
 observinsr other customs common in case of a deatlr ; 
 they also sacrificed swine to the infernal gods. The 
 third day (KaXXijeveta) bore a more cheerful character. 
 Its name, signifying " the birth of fair children," seems 
 to refer to Demeter, who was assumed to be appeased 
 and who gave the blessing of fair children to women. 
 This day was occupied with sacrifices, dances, and 
 merry games, of which we know very little. At all 
 these festivals the presence of men was most sternl)^ 
 forbidden ; only those women who were full citizens 
 might take part, and probablj? none who were un- 
 married. 
 
 There were various smaller festivals which we 
 must pass over, and turn to the festivals of Dionysus, 
 which had an important influence on life in Greece, 
 as well as on its literature and art. There were four 
 of these every year at Athens ; in the month of 
 Poseidon (February), the country Dion3'sia, called also 
 " the lesser," took place. Naturally this was a vine 
 festival, as would result from the character of the god ; 
 but the common opinion, that it was to celebrate the 
 vintage, is open to many objections, especially since 
 the time of the feast seems too late for the vintage. 
 It is more probable that the new wine was then tasted 
 for the first time. This festival was not connected 
 Avith any special place ; country Dionysia were cele- 
 brated in ever}^ village, and not only in Attica, but 
 everywhere in Greece where vines were cultivated, 
 and it always bore the character of a cheerful national 
 feast connected with fun and merry frolic. In the 
 " Acharnians " of Aristophanes a peasant celebrates 
 the festival alone with his family ; it begins with 
 prayer and a procession to the sacrifice, in which the 
 daughter, as basket-bearer [Kavr}<^6poi,), carries the 
 
:1S4 CREEK LIFE AT lldME. 
 
 basket of <iffei-ini:;-s on her head ; the slu^-e with tlie 
 I'liiilliix. the symbol "f fertihty and the never ex- 
 tinct prixhieinL;' power of the earth, next thllows ; 
 and the master of the house sink's his incrry plialhc 
 sonii', while liis wife looks on at the procession from 
 the roof of the honse. What was (hnie ln're on a 
 small scale by a single famih", we nuist assume was 
 performe(l uii a larger scale in the real ceremony 
 bv all tlie assembled villagers. There were also other 
 parts of the festival, especially the chorus, which stood 
 riiund the altar during the sacriKce of the goat, and 
 praised the god in speech and song, probably also in 
 answering refrain ; they sang the birth, sufferings, a.nd 
 death of ])ionysus, and were the origin of the dithy- 
 ramb as well as of the drama, since this latter, as is 
 well known, owes its origin to the festivals of Dionysus. 
 <.)tf<'n there were real dramatic representations at 
 the lesser Dionysia ; it was especially the custom 
 for strolling actors on these occasions to perforni 
 before the country people old plavs, which had been 
 alreadj' represented iir the towns. Among the other 
 entertainments, along with the festive ]irocessions, 
 choruses, and bancpiets, one is especially worthy 
 of mentioir {aaKcoKca). This was a game in wliich the 
 young people of the village hopjK'd about on greased 
 wine skins, and tried to push each otlier down, 
 while the falls were greeted with laughter l)y the 
 bystanders ; those who succeeded in retaining their 
 place received prizes. This entertainment, which 
 may l;>e set on a par with our own running in sacks, 
 was customary, too, at other festivals of Dionysus. 
 
 The second Athenian festival of I )ion\-sus was 
 peculiar to Athens, but was probabl)- only one of the 
 country Dionysia transferred to the town: it was 
 called L/'iuiea, after the }ilace Avliere it was usually 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 385 
 
 held, the Lenaeon, in the suljurlj Liinnae, and was held 
 in the month of Ganielion (Janiiaiy), The name 
 suggests a feast of wine-presses, which does not coin- 
 cide with the time of the celebration ; many attempts 
 have been made to explain this ditlicultj, but with- 
 out result. The festival, or at an}f rate a special 
 part of it, bore the name Amljrosia, probably 
 because they drank a great deal of the new wine to 
 Avhich they assigned this divine name ; and, in fact, 
 plentiful drinking was a characteristic of all the 
 festivals of the wine god. A great banquet accom- 
 panied the festivities, for which the State provided 
 everything, and there was also a solemn procession 
 into the town, in which many people drove, amid jest 
 and frolic, so that the "jokes from the car" became 
 proverbial. In the Lenaeon, to which the procession 
 first marched with the sacrificial animals, solemn 
 dithyrambs were sung in competition, and the prize 
 was a wreath of ivy ; there were also dramatic repre- 
 sentations, at which both old and new pieces were 
 performed. 
 
 The third festival of Dionysus was the Anthes- 
 terUi, in the month Authesterion (February), which 
 lasted three days, and was even more distinctly associ- 
 ated with the tasting of the new wine tlian the 
 Lenaea. The first day of the festival bore the dis- 
 tinctive name of " Cask-opening " {iridoiyla). It was 
 essentially a family festival. The casks, with the new 
 Avine which was to be used next day for the ban(|uet, 
 were brought in by the servants and opened ; the wine 
 was drawn off into amphoras or other vessels, and 
 naturally many a draught was drunk, and in par- 
 ticular the slaves had their share. For the Athenians, 
 who always treated their slaves well, did not grudge 
 them their fair share on this festive occasion, and 
 z 
 
3SG cr.EEK LIFE AT llDME. 
 
 when tliry ortnvd tlioir sacrifices at the (.'ask-npcniiii;-, 
 and helped to draw nff the wine, they probaMy them- 
 selves tilled ajar for their servants and workmen with 
 the noAv '^ih nf liaeeluis. All other work ceased for 
 this day and the next, and the children, too, had 
 holidays. The old image of Dionysns, which was to 
 make its solemn entr\- into the town in the procession 
 of the followini;- day, was also lirought on this tirst 
 day from its tempk.' in the Xeniaeon to a chapel in 
 the (inter Iverameikos. lint this festival was only a, 
 jireparation for the principal day, called, " The Feast 
 of (.'ans " (T^oat ), wluch hegan at snnset — the time 
 when all festivals connnenccd — whh a great piroces- 
 sion. Thdse who took part in it appeared wreathed 
 and bearing torches (fir th(' procession did not take 
 place till dark) in the onter Kerameikos ; (diildren, 
 too, except those under thri'C yi.'ars, took part in it, 
 probably accompanied by their inothers, or in car- 
 riages, fir many participants drove ; and here, as in 
 the country Dionysia, it was the cnstoin to mock the 
 passcrs-liy from the carriage. In fact, this part (jf tlie 
 festival bore the character of a merry carnival; many 
 people appeared in costume as Horae, Xyniphs, IJacch- 
 antes, etc., and crowded gaily around the triumphant 
 car (in winch th(.' statue of Jlioni/sos-Eltuifheron, which 
 liad liccn fetched from its temple on the previous day, 
 was conducted to the town. ( )n the way ndigious 
 rites were observed at various jilaces sanctified liy 
 legend. At one placi.' the Hiinili iiu, that is, the wife 
 of the Archon cliief, to()k her place on the car 
 next the statue of |)ionysus, fir on this day she 
 was the bride n{ the gud, and thus, on her \vedding- 
 car, she ent(.'red tli(^ Lenaeon, where a m\'sti(i 
 sacrifice was offered for tlie weh'anj of the State in 
 thij most sa(;ri.'d part of th(; temple, by the bJasilina, 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 387 
 
 togetlier with the fourteen ladies of honour ap- 
 pointed for this purpose by the Archon {yepapal). 
 These toolv a solemn oath to the queen before the 
 ceremony took ])lace, and in so doing followed an 
 ancient formula inscribed on stone columns in the 
 temple. After the sacrifice, with which other secret 
 ceremonies were connected, followed the symbolical 
 marriage of the Basilina with Dionj^sus. \Vhile these 
 sacred ceremonies, to which but few were admitted, 
 were taking place in the interior of the temple, the 
 other celebrants enjoyed themselves in different ways. 
 On the next day the actual Feast of Cans took place 
 — the great banquet, with the drinking contest, that 
 follovN'ed it. At this great public feast the Archon- 
 chief was the superintendent of the festival, Ijut 
 the State defrayed the expenses, originally, probably, 
 in kind, but afterwards in such a way that each 
 citizen received a fixed sum of money, and with this 
 supplied his food and also the can of pure wine which 
 stood in front of everyone, and gave its name to this 
 day. Both the banquet and the drinking contest 
 were probably held in the theatre in the Lenaeon, 
 where the chief priest of Dionysus had to provide 
 cushions, tables, and other conveniences. A proclama- 
 tion by the herald, in ancient style, introduced the 
 most interesting event — the drinking contest. At a 
 signal given by a trumpet, all who took part in it 
 set their cans to their mouths, and the judges allotted 
 the victory to him who first emptied his can ; the prize 
 consisted iir a skin of wine, cakes, or something of the 
 kind. Besides this public banquet there were also 
 private hospitalities, provided by those who preferred 
 to celebrate the day by themselves in the circle of a 
 few intimate friends, and here, too, nmch drinking 
 went on ; the Sophists, in particular, "who received 
 z 2 
 
oSS CliEEK I.ll-'E AT IKiME. 
 
 tlioir lionorariiuu and ]>rrsents on this day, were in 
 the habit of inviting;' tlirir ai/i|naintarii-cs tu a frast. 
 Tims tilings wrnt on nuTrily till the heginning iif tlir 
 night ; then oaidi guest took his can, and, with the 
 •wTcath of fresh flowers whieli he had worn at the 
 feast, went tn the sani-tuary oi Jjlnn f/sox-Klcnf/irriis, 
 whi(di was slnit off by a rupe, anil licre the wn'uths 
 wove handed to the jiriestess, and the remains in the 
 ean ]H)ured ont as a hliatimi to the god. 
 
 The third (hi^- was called the "Feast of ]^lts" 
 (■)(^vTpot), from a. saeritiee offered to JJcriiu-s ('//fl/oiiids 
 and till.' spirits of the dead, and here they observed the 
 traditional custom of first sacrifieing t" those who had 
 perished in the Flood nf ]..)eTiealion. At these sarri- 
 iices, pots containing a number of ^^egetablle sub- 
 stances coolvcd together, played an important part, 
 and these dishes a]si:> constituted the meal of this day, 
 on which no flesh was eaten. The ladies of honour 
 alsij cittc'red sacrifices tn l.)ionysns at sixteen specially 
 erected altai's, and tliere were probably other cere- 
 monies conne(.;ted with this ; in fact, this third day of 
 the " Anthesteria," with its serii)us ceremonial, formed 
 a strung contrast to the merriment of the previous 
 days, and suggests a similar contrast between our 
 Shrove Tnesday and Ash Wednesday. ]!ut even on 
 the" I >ay of Pots " there Avas no lack of anm.sements 
 for the peo[)le ; sacred choruses were conducted by the 
 poets, but it does mjt seem that any regular dramas 
 were performed. Possibly dramatic contests had Ijcen 
 the custom in earlier times, or else only such comjieti- 
 tions \\-ere allo^^'cd as determined the admission of the 
 poets and actors, wlm wiju the prize on this occasion, 
 to competition at the greater Dionysia. The chief 
 festival of Dionysus in Attica was the greater, i:ir city 
 l»ionysia, hi Klaphebolic.m (i\Iareli), which lasted at 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 381) 
 
 least five claj's, and perhaps even longer, and whose 
 chief importance consisted in the pla}'S acted during 
 these days. The first solemn ceremony of the greater 
 Dionysia was in honour of Aesculajaius, to whom a 
 public sacrifice was brought. Here, too, there was a 
 procession, in which the statue of Dionj/sos-Eleutltems 
 was carried ; whether it Avas the old wooden imasj'e 
 which was carried at the Lenaea, or the new statue 
 by Alcamenes, is uncertain, but the latter was of 
 gold and ivory, and, therefore, not easily portable ; 
 in any case the statue was fetched from the sanc- 
 tuary at Lenaea, and carried by torchlight to the 
 theatre of Dionysus, where it was set up in the 
 orchestra. On the following day came the procession, 
 in which the sacrificial animals, as well as the presents 
 sent by allies, probably appeared. The procession 
 stopped in the market place, and a cyclical chorus 
 performed a dance round the altar to the Delphic 
 gods who stood there. When they passed on they 
 seem to have fetched away the Dionysus statue from 
 the theatre, and carried it once more in a festive pro- 
 cession to the sanctuary in the Lenaeon. This proces- 
 sion was followed by sacrificial bancpiets, and on the 
 other days plentiful feasting was also a part of the 
 celebration. The following days were chiefly occupied 
 by the performances, which seem to have followed in 
 some such order as this : First of all, lyric choruses ; 
 both men and boys entered, and the expenses, which 
 were heavy, were defrayed by citizens acting as choragi. 
 Perhaps this day was concluded by a " Comus," as 
 public processions of this kind often followed common 
 bancpiets, and since it was the god of wine who was 
 specially to be honoured, it was, no doubt, verj' splen- 
 didly equipped. The next days were occupied with 
 representations of tragic tetralogies and comedies ; it 
 
:]'.)() (iUEEK LIFE AT HUME. 
 
 is not (/ci'tain wlietlicr those lasted twd or more ilays, 
 Imt it is proliuMe that they eoiitimieil ]oi- thvee 
 (h\vs, ami that on each (if these a tetralogy was per- 
 foriiied in the nmrnini;- and a comedy in the al'ternoon. 
 On the evenirtu' ut' the third day of the performances, 
 wdiich ronehided the wliole f('sti^•al, the prizes Avcre 
 distrihnted : in these musical contests they consisted 
 of hidls and trijieds. These last were often set up 
 in a pnlilie street ou a Ingli pedestal hy the victors, 
 and hcnee it ac(pureil the name " Street of Trijiods." 
 
 \'ei'V different in character Ifom these ])ionysia(- 
 festi\"als of Attii;a ^vvvl^ the nii;ht celehrations which 
 took pluee in some parts of ( ireeee, hut especially on 
 the Citliaeron and I'arnassns, on the Islands, and in 
 Asia Minor, every other year, and in which only 
 women, lioth married and unmarried, took part. 
 The wild and orgiastic character of those Dionysia 
 originated in Thrace, Imt spread very cpaickly, and 
 found nmch favcjui' among the "women, ^\dio were 
 mclined to this kind of ecstatic worship. They fell in 
 tlie middle of winter, ahont the tina:' of tlio sliortest 
 (\:i.\ : the women dressed for the pur[M)se in Bacchic 
 Costume, threw deer-skins over their shoulders, let 
 their hair fly loose, and took in their hands the 
 th)-rsus staff and tamhourine, and thus wandered to 
 the hills near their homes, and there performed all 
 manner of jiiysterious ceremonies, sacrifices, dances, 
 etc., amid the wildest merihnent resulting from the 
 juice of tfie grape, Avhi(di was seldom allowed them. 
 \\q can tijrm some notion ot the wild nature of 
 tin.' proceedings froni the descriptions (.)f the poets 
 and ai'tistic rejjresentatioirs of ilaenads ; still, we 
 must always remcmher that liotli poets anil artists 
 dc'scrihcd rait so mindi the customs of their own 
 day as those c>f mythical or heroic p)criods, and 
 
PUr.LIC FESTIVALS. .'391 
 
 pennitted themselves man)' exaggerations vliicli did 
 not correspond to reality. 
 
 These descriptions of Greek, and especial!)- 
 Athenian, festivities must sufHce, and wo pass over 
 a number of festivals in Clreece and the colonies, 
 of which T\'e know little more than the names. 
 Those who desire a striking picture of a great 
 festival, wliich, though Oriental in its origin, had 
 become Hellenised, celebrated in a great city in 
 the Alexandrine age, should read the splendid de- 
 scription by Theiicritus in his Fifteenth Idyll of th 
 Feast of Adonis at Alexandria. 
 
 e 
 
<'H AFTER Xl[. 
 
 THE THEATRE. 
 
 Iliigin nf thr C^ivck Thaiiia— Th.- Strurtun- nf fhr Tliratrc— 
 'J'li.' Thiatre of T)ioi[yMis — Tlir Tlioatru at Syracuse — Tli.; 
 Auiiitorium — Tln' StaL;^ — The < irtlirsha — Sr'cnc-paintiug — Stagi; 
 Accr'SsorifS — Tlie (iicelc I'rania — Trrtgidy, Comedy, and .Satire — 
 Tie;- «"/./,/;«— T'lieatiieal :\rasl;s— (Just niiii'.s— Uenditieiis of Ad- 
 iiiissien to the Theati'e — 'lie; Sicuriiig ef Seats — The .Vudienc*'. 
 
 (tUEEK (Iruina, Imth traged}- and (:■0llte(l3^ originated 
 ill the national aninscments and prrfornianccs of tlio 
 (•lionises at tlie iJionysiac fi.'Stivals. A few words 
 iiinst also bo said about the arrangements of tlio 
 thi'atre. such as tliey were at the time of the 
 greatest glory of the drama at Athens. Here, for- 
 tunately, vo have so large a store of information and 
 niominients still extant, that we ean form a very clear 
 picture t)f these representations, ditt'ering as they did 
 entirely from our nuiiili'rn performances. 
 
 Tn spite of tlie great advance made hy (ireek drania 
 frijm tlie rough popular beginnings till the time of its 
 greatest ghny, and in spite of the enormous difference 
 between the tragedies of the three great masters and 
 the comedies of Aristophanes, both in their whole 
 character as well as in the details of their structure and 
 performance, and the cyclic choruses and rustic sports 
 of the old Dionysia, yet there are a few pxiints in which 
 tli(_' drama, ivven in its highest de\'eltipmi'nt, shows the 
 traces of its origin. < )iii:' of thc'si.' is the custom of 
 giving theatrical rep)resentations cinl\- at c(.'rtain festive 
 seasons iif the year, and in some way connected with 
 the worship of ].)ii:'nysns us aftual reli'jious acts, thou"'h 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 893 
 
 towards tlie end of the ancient Hellenic period theat- 
 rical representations were also given at festivals not in 
 
 A Ti?mi)lc of Afclepios. 
 
 B Rucky (-'round, 
 
 (,' Seats Liewii from tlie rocks. 
 
 D Entrance. 
 
 K Remjiins of rows of scats. 
 
 ¥ Destroyed iiortions. 
 
 G Parts not yet excavated. 
 
 H Not yet excavated ; private property, ■with 
 
 liouses on it. 
 r Avenue or boulevard. 
 K Cliurcli of the Passover— 
 
 (m) Former size. 
 
 (b) Present size- 
 
 
 ^^' J 
 
 
 ■.<^S§ s' 
 
 Tig. 1.50. 
 
 lioiionr of Dionysus. In consequence of this the 
 structure of the theatres, and especially the place for 
 the spectators, had to be far larger than at the present 
 day. As performances only toolv place a few times in 
 
■394 CUEEK EIKE AT ll(i,-\IE. 
 
 tile \'cav, and not only the Avliok' jiDpnlation of tlio 
 town and neiu'libonrliood, Imt even many strangors 
 trnin a distani-r, colliM'tcd togi'tlnn' tur tln'iii, tlio space 
 for the audienec liad t" be so largt'that nian3-thonsands 
 e\'rn ti.'ns of thousands, might have room there, and it 
 mnst alsi] he lunlt in snch a waytliat the' perfoi'niance 
 <-(iuId fie ctinvenicntly seen froni cvt'ry phiee. Tliese 
 rcmar];s refer in particnlar t(.i Athens, Avith wliose 
 tlieatriral arrangements we are hest ai'(|Uainted, and 
 A\'liii-h, nioreiiver, was the model for most uf the others. 
 In the hrst place, it was impossiWe to have a, covered 
 space : covered theatres — concert-halls (toSeta), as they 
 Avere called — Avere destined, not for drajuatie, but for 
 musical performances; secondly, the perfornrances 
 took place I13' daylight, in consequence i:if which lUTich 
 (if the illusion was lost. Again, the great size of the 
 structure and tin.' eonsiderafile distance of most of the 
 seats from the actors necessitated certain peculiarities 
 in tVie costume of these latter "wliich we must discuss 
 later on. 
 
 The memory of the origin of the drama from 
 cliorusi.'s, to which in the course of time was added 
 dramatic action, was preserved in a separatioir lietween 
 the performers who presented the action and the 
 <diorus who only accompanied it — a separation which 
 only gradually disappeared at a time when means 
 were insuflicieut for defraj'ing the considerable ex- 
 ]jenscs of e(pii[ip>ing a chorus. This distinction 
 between actors and chorus A\'as not only oljserved in 
 the compjositiiin of the drama, but also in locality ; 
 the chorus, who not only sang, but also danced and 
 marched, required a very laig-c space for their e^'olu- 
 tions, wliile the actors, whose number was voiy small, 
 couM do with less. Therefoi'c', while the nioflern 
 theatr(_' consists of only two parts, the stae-e witli its 
 
39 U 
 
 GliEEK LIFE AT IKI.ME. 
 
 accessovics and an auditDn'niii, the Greek tlieatvo 
 consisted of tliroi.^ parts ; l.iesldes the auditoriuni and 
 the struetnre of the stage, tlieve was between the 
 two a, sjiai-e for tlie chorns known as orchestra. In 
 I'linsiderinL;- the arrangement of the buihhugs, we 
 derive assistanct' from tlie descriptions of the ancients, 
 as "Well as the still existiny' remains of (Ireek theatres. 
 
 Fii;. 15'J. 
 
 Fig. 150 re[irrsi.'rits tin/ ground plair of the ruins of 
 the great theatre of J )ionysns at Athens, though w'O 
 must remember that this structure, built originally in 
 the fifth and fourth centuries ji.c., had experienced 
 cojisideraUc changes in the Ihinjan period. Fig. 151 
 gives a view of the tlieatre of Syracuse in its present 
 i-ondition, and the ground plan restored is seen in 
 Fig. 152 : while Fig. 15-'j gives a I'cstored view of the 
 theatre of Sei;'esta, receinstructed 1iv Stra(d-;. We 
 

 
 \i'^. 
 
 - 
 
 
 '- 
 
 
 
 
 ai — 3? 
 
;)!1S (IliEEK LIFE AT HUME. 
 
 iiiav I'on'avfl the (ircliestra as tlic centre of the whole 
 stniet-iire. Tliis was oi-iginally only a level daueing 
 place, and its shape was iisnally an inc(:)niplete circle, 
 since part was cnt offhy the stage, which extended at 
 i-ight angles along the orchestra. Opposite to this 
 the circnniference of the orchestra was surrounded in 
 concentric lines by the raised seats of the auditorium, 
 the theatre in the true sense of tlio Avord. There is 
 no tixed standard for the shape of the orchestra and 
 the corresponding auditorinni ; sonietinies it is a 
 semicircle with the circumference extended a little 
 wav on both sides, sometimes it is lengthened b^' a 
 tangent, or some other lino at right angles to the 
 circle. In the great theatre of I >ion3-sus the orchestra 
 was originally a perfect circle: a comjilete semi- 
 circle, wliicli is conunon in the Roman tlieatres, was 
 very unusual in tlmse of (Trce(:'e. Here, as in the 
 structures used for games, such as the Stadia and 
 Hippodromes, the Oi reeks tried as far as possifile to 
 utilise the natural ct:)n(litions of the ground for their 
 theatres. If possible, therefore, they [ilaced the audi- 
 torium on some natural elevati(_)n ; thus, the great 
 theatre of I)ionysTrs extends up the soirthern slope 
 of the Acro[iiilis ; and if there was no such elevation 
 they often supplied it by artificial mounds of earth, 
 differing thus from the custom of the Romans, who, 
 in consecpience of the greater development of their 
 architectin-al knowledge, were able to build a theatre 
 on a free space, and to support the auditijrium bv 
 strong sub-structures. The (ireek mode of building- 
 had the advantage of greater cheapiress and seciu'ity, 
 and, if the nature of the ground permitted, also 
 enabled them to make exits and enti'ancos for the 
 piublic besides those Ijelow. In the tlieatre of Dionysus 
 there were side approaches on the high ground also. 
 
THE THEATKE. 309 
 
 The auditorium of the Greek theatre was usually 
 situated in some beautiful spot, from which the 
 visitors to tlie theatre, at any rate those on the higher 
 places, who were not hindered by tlie structure of the 
 stage opposite, had an extensive view. Thus the 
 theatre of Syracuse (Fig. 1.51) had a glorious view 
 over the harbour and town — in fact, nearly all the 
 theatres in the neighbourhood of the sea are usually 
 so built tliat the auditorium is open towards the sea, 
 and the fresh breeze may refresh the public during 
 the hot hours of the day. 
 
 The seats, according to the nature of the locality, 
 were either hewn direct out of the rocky ground 
 or based on artificial foundations. At Athens the 
 spectators originally sat on the bare ground of the 
 Acropolis slope or on wooden benches placed there ; 
 in the fourth century stone steps were made there. 
 At Syracuse, Sicyon, and other places, nearly the 
 whole auditorimn and the steps were hewn out of the 
 rock; the ends or wintrs of the auditorium, which 
 jutted out where the seats ended, close by the stage, 
 had to be of specially massive construction. Some- 
 times, though more often in the Roman than the 
 ({reek theatres, the auditorium touched the side 
 wings of the stage,; but this was not a particularly 
 convenient method, since a consicleral)le number 
 of the places along this stone wall had no view of 
 the stage or, at any rate, only a very unsatisfactory 
 one. Entrance was procured for the public by the 
 great gates which led on the right and left between 
 the auditorium and the stage, and which, when the 
 spectators were assembled, also formed the entrances 
 for the chorus {irdpohoi). When a theatre was situated 
 on elevated ground, there were also other approaches 
 leading to the gangways of the upper storeys ; probably 
 
400 GREEK LIKE AT IKiME. 
 
 tlir.sc were uiilv used iov (,'iiipt\iiiL;' tlic tlu-atre, ami 
 uiit tor a(luiissii:>n, sim-r dn cntLTiiiL;' the speetatm^ 
 li:ul to pay tor tlifir adiiiissidii. oi- l'1si_' present their 
 tiel;i'ts, and therefore thi; nnndier of entrances was 
 prelialily hniited with a view to sinijiHtyine' the 
 (•(introl. In thi.ise theatres where the seats extended 
 as far as the stage, the approaches which -were helow 
 the seats had to be covered over (eiinipare the view of 
 tile theatre at Syracuse), httt, as a nde, we nnist sn})- 
 piise tliat they were uncovered. The seats were 
 ui'ranL;('d in snch a manner that the steps, which rose 
 frniii the iirchestra to the top of the tlieatre, Avere als(-i 
 iiseil as seats ; people sat c)n the actual stone, tndi'ss, 
 as SDHietinios happened, thev hronght cnshions A\-ith 
 them, (ir had these carrit'd ly slaves. There Aven.' 
 a number of places in the lower rows distinguished 
 from the others b}^ seats of honour, made also of stone, 
 usually of costly marble: some of these seats, dating, 
 howe\"er, from the Roman period, have been found in 
 the theatre of Dionysus. The usual lieight of the 
 steps was from about ]G to 1!) inches, and the dejith 
 from 24 to 2.s. There was no division of seats, and 
 though jircibably care was taken that too njanv per- 
 sons shoidd not )ie crowded together, vet there were 
 no lin(_'S dra\\'n to mark out the appointed places. 
 Tliere was a very convenient and at the same 
 time simple arrangement f.)r preventing the feet of 
 those who sat on a. higher row from inconveniencing 
 those in front. The dejjth of the scat was often snf- 
 hi-ient to prevent contact, fait, besides that, it was the 
 <;-ustom to hollow out that part of tlie step where the 
 s[)ectators Avould put their i'riA. Some of the steps, 
 in fact, have three distinct surfaces: the nearest of 
 these to the VOW above was holk.iwed out for the feet : 
 then came a gangway fjr those who wished to move 
 
THE THEATRE. 401 
 
 to or from their places, who could thus pass alon^- 
 without incommoding those who ■were seaterl : and 
 the third surface was that on which the next row 
 below were seated. There were, as a rule, no backs 
 to the seats, but in places where there was a wider 
 gangwaj', and thus one row of spectators did not 
 come into immediate contact with the next, they 
 were sometimes introduced and made of one piece 
 with the seat. 
 
 In larger theatres the auditorium was ahnost 
 always divided into several storeys by gangways. 
 These gangways ran round the auditorium concen- 
 trically with the seats, and their object was to 
 facilitate the circulation of the public ; they were 
 therefore of considerable brea<lth (compare Fig. 153), 
 and sometimes two such gangways were put close to 
 each other, one higher and one lower, so that the 
 public could circulate easily on them without pushing 
 each other. The separate seats were everywhere 
 connected by steps. Although the arrangement of 
 the whole auditorium with its raised seats was that of 
 a circus, yet the seats were far too high to be used as 
 steps also, and these had to be specially constructed. 
 They were of two kinds ; small ste]3s in the direction 
 of the seats, the object of which was to enable people 
 to mount from one seat to the next, and the principal 
 staircases, which intersected the seats through their 
 whole extent from top to bottom, and formed, as it 
 were, radii of the circle represented by the auditorium. 
 The number of these staircases was larger or smaller 
 as occasion required ; sometimes the number was 
 doubled at the top, where the distances increased, by 
 introducing a third staircase between each pair ; 
 sometimes the staircases which began below did not 
 continue at the top, but there was a change in the 
 A A 
 
402 (lUEEK LIFE AT II():MK. 
 
 radii. It was most conniion. lidwevor, tor tlirsc stair- 
 cases t(i intoi'srct the whole tlieatre riij'ht ii|) in the 
 highest seats, and thus tn (U\-iile the wliole aiuhtoriniu 
 iuti:) a iLiimhei' nf wiMlL;'e-sha[>e(l (H\"isi(iris. wliich, in 
 t'ai:-t. received the di.'si^'natinii nt' "wed^;'es (/cep/ci'Ses-). 
 Sdiiiefimes these wedyws had special names, heinc- 
 ealled after statues which wci-c jilaced there, as, for 
 instance, in the theatic ;it S\racuse, and these desin- 
 nations facilitated the tindinu' of places. As a rule, 
 the steps wei'e so arranu'ed that there were t"wo to 
 ever\- scMt, thus each step ^vas lialf the heiLj'ht of 
 the si'at. 
 
 Ill later timi's the iijiper seats led to open arcades ; 
 wdien the cToiind permitted it, the limiians efteii laid 
 otit walks and c'ardens en the elevation of the theatre, 
 wheri:' the spectators minht refresh themselves dnrin,<;' 
 the pauses: helow, near tli<.' in'chestra, the auditorium 
 was eut off [i\' a wall, whicli must lie so low that the 
 spectatiirs i:in the first seat could conveniently see 
 the stae'e, wliiidi was raised a s^'ood l)it al.iove the 
 orchestra. Sometimes the first n'ane-way for the 
 cireulatiou of the puhlie was ])laced hehind this 
 wall, which was hounded li\- a low Ijreastwork : 
 when this was the <'ase, ste[is of the first-mentioned 
 kind led up sidewa\-s to the orchestra (compare Fijj'. 
 1.58), 
 
 The size of the auditorium varied ereath'. If our 
 measurements of ruined tln'atres are correct, the 
 theatre at Kpliesus was tile largest of all : Falkener 
 has calculatcil tliat it could cMintain 5(i,70() ])eople. 
 The laruest theatre in Kumpe was tliat ijf Me,t;alopolis, 
 which \vas calculated to ha\M' 44, ()()() seats, and 
 the thi'atr(.-' of Dionysus SO.OOO. 'Jdies(j calculations 
 are, liowe\'cr. vei'v uncertain. sinc(.' we do not know 
 liow nian\" feet were allottdl to ea(di iierson, and a. 
 
THE THEATltE. 403 
 
 variation of lialf a foot would nifike a very consider- 
 able difference . 
 
 Tlio most important question connected with tlie 
 orchestra deals with the Tliifraele, often alluded to 
 by ancient writers. It was fornrerly assumed that 
 this represented the ancient altar of Dionysus, round 
 which the choruses originally danced, and that it was 
 situated in the centre of the orchestra, while the 
 chorus grouped around it, and that the leader of 
 the chorus stood near the Thymele or on its steps, 
 and the officials of the theatre also took their stand 
 there. The view given by Strack in Fig. 153 is con- 
 structed according to this hypothesis ; and a structure 
 resembling an altar with steps is placed in the middle 
 of the orchestra. But this interpretation of the 
 Thymele has proved untenable, and though it is not 
 possible to decide this cpiestion with any certaint}^, 
 yet, among the various hypotheses, that of Wieseler 
 seems the most probable — viz., that the Thymele was 
 a wooden scaftblding constructed in the orchestra, on 
 which the chorus performed its dances. The main 
 object of this scaffolding, or podium, was not so much 
 to place the chorus on higher ground as to facilitate 
 their games and dancino', because it was easier to 
 move and dance on the elastic floor of a wooden 
 scaffolding than, as formerl};', in the dusty orchestra, 
 which, in fact, from this circumstance received the 
 name " dust-place " (KovlaTpa), or even on the stone 
 pavement which seems to have been afterwards laid 
 down in the orchestra. We do not know whether 
 there were steps leading from the floor of the 
 orchestra to this scaffolding, and, in fact, we cannot 
 even determine its height. The size of the podium 
 must have been considerable, since it must have 
 supplied sufficient space for a large chorus. Besides 
 
 A A 2 
 
4.04 (iliEEIv LIFE AT ))()ME. 
 
 its iueiiili("'rs, the numlii.T of wliicli in cyclic clioriisos 
 often aiiiountcil to tit'tv, the iiiiisiciaiis wlio 
 accoiii])aiiieil toolv tln.'iv place tlien.', and, apparently, 
 evi'n tlie constables (palBBotpopoi), who snperintendi'd 
 the theatre; for, strann'e as it may seem to ns that 
 the ottii/ials whose duty it was to keep order anion"' 
 the public should be placed in so jn-oniinent a position 
 at the side of the chorus, j-ot the ])roofs in favour of 
 this arraii^'cuient seem decisive. The usual entrances 
 to the orchestra for the chorus were the same as those, 
 used l.iy the public ; here, as in the arranL;X'ments on 
 the sta^e, the rule was that the entrance on the ri^ht 
 hand of the spei'tators indicated apjiroach from the 
 neic'hbotn-hood, from the town or Iiarbotu', and the 
 left arrival from a. distance. 
 
 The stan'c in the early days of the theatre was not 
 much mor(.' than a mere wooden scaflbldini;', on 'which 
 the actors appeared, 'while the chorus pei'formed its 
 dances in the orchestra l)elo^\■. There was a tent on 
 the sidi.' turned away from the orchestra ^\■hich served 
 as a ]>laco of waitini;' for tlie actors wIk.'U they had 
 nothinL;' to do on the sta^'c, and it was this tent 
 (a-Kijv/]] wliich e-ave its name to tl'K,' stai;'!', althoug'h 
 even afterwards distinction was made between the 
 actual stai;'e and the structures connect(_'d with it. 
 'J'hc^ real stage \vas an oIiIoul;' surface, raised from ten 
 to tweh'e feet aljove the (.>rchestra ; it was called the 
 prose'cnium (iTpoaKijpioi'), and sometimes the speaking- 
 place iXoyelov). The lower frcjut wall was decorated 
 in tlie lioman period with architectural designs, 
 ndiefs, or painting ; 'we do not kno\\- whether this was 
 alsi:i the case in the (Ireek theatre', as Strack has 
 assumed in his reconstruction, Ijut it is very probable 
 that the front scene, which was turned to the specta- 
 tors was not left quiti' liare. In Strack's view there 
 
THE THEATRE. 405 
 
 ^^•o^•e also steps leading from the orclicstra to the 
 speaking-place. We cannot tell whctlier these Avere 
 n\gularly placed in the theatres. Still, stops between 
 the orchestra and stage were indispensalde in those 
 plays in which (as, for instance, in " Philoctetes ") 
 the chovTis leaves the orchestra and ascends to the 
 stage ; hut it is cpiite possible that there were .special 
 wooden steps used for this purpose, which were taken 
 away again when this connection was not recpiired. 
 The existence of these inoyable steps is especiall)^ 
 mentioned in ancient writers. 
 
 Connected with this proscenium were the biuld- 
 ings belonging to the stage ; these usually formed a 
 structure several storeys in height, which enclosed 
 the stage on three sides (compare Fig. 153) in the 
 plan of the theatre of Dionysus (Fig. 150). The 
 older walls belonging to the fourth century are 
 sketched more . lightly than the later restorations ; 
 here the walls of the stage, the actual sheiw, is the 
 piece marked (4. Z. ; on the right and left were side 
 wings (TrapaaKijvia), and these were terminated b}' the 
 walls 12 and 13. The latest investigations of Dijrp- 
 feld prove that the. stage of the theatre of iJionysus, 
 constructed by the orator Lyciu'gus, had originally no 
 fixed proscenium, but that a fresh wooden stage was 
 constructed on every occasion. In later times they 
 cut off a piece of the two side •\vings anfl fixed scenery 
 between them. Several doors led from the tent to 
 the stage ; as a nde, there were three in the back- 
 ground, of which the middle one was the entrance of 
 the chief actor, called " Protagonist," and was sup- 
 posed to lead either from a royal palace, or a d^velling, 
 01' a cave, according to the nature of the plaj- ; the 
 door on the right was for the second actor, the one 
 on the left had no special significance. We must not, 
 
40G (ilJEEK 1,1 1'K AT HiiME. 
 
 ll(>Wr\-|'r. )-("_;;il'(l these st il t el I lei it s as inii\'evsal. 1^1'ob- 
 aMv tliere \vei'e iisiialh' tliree eiitrain'cs to tlio stage, 
 tli(iUL;li ill tlie theatre ot |iiiiii\"siis there is duly a 
 sii]el(; doiii'; hut as tlii' troiit was usually eoMTod 
 hy some ilecoi'atioii, these (.'Utraiiei's "Were not direi.-tly 
 iise(h Init tile aetors came tlii'oii,L;'li tlieni into the 
 narrow sjiai-i.' lietwi.-en tin.' "wall of the sta^e and thi'. 
 deeorations, and theiiee throiieii the doors in the 
 de'coi'al ions on to tln' stae'e. The seener}' of the 
 liaeke'roimd x'aried aecordine' to the nature of the 
 action, and sonii'tinies re(|iiired se\'eral doors or 
 entrances ; sonietinies there may huve li(.'en no door 
 at all, since the actors also had at their disposal the 
 entrances li\- the side wine-s. These statements, there- 
 fore, only reter to <-ertain ]ilays, es[)ei'iallv those 
 trae'edies in which the chief personaL;(! is a king; in 
 this case, in'ohahU', the middle door was the one snn- 
 jiosed to lead to the ro\'al ]ialace, and used, thei'efore, 
 only liy the protagonist, aJthoiigh we ninst not on 
 that aceonnt suppose that lie always caiia^ and went 
 through this door, since the nature of tlie plan's would 
 of itself fori lid this. Yfvx often, too, a king appeared 
 in the ]ilay whose pai't was an unimportant one, not 
 gi\'i'ii to the ])rotagonist, and then, of <-ourse, the rule 
 alio\"e (juoted could not he ohseiA'ed. 
 
 The side \\ings were useil foi' the' actors to wait in, 
 and it is ^•ery profiahle that the cjioriis also before 
 making their ajipearance, and during the time when 
 they were not presi-nt in thi_' orchestra, retired thither, 
 and that tliei'e were ]iassages heading thence to the 
 side entrances. There were also doors comnnmicating 
 with the stage, and these, like those in the orchestra, 
 ha<l their special signihcance ; through the rie-ht- 
 hand door c;mie iliose actors \\'lio were sui")])o,sed to 
 I'ouH/ froni the town, and tln'oiigh the left those wlio 
 
THE THEATRE. 407 
 
 came from a distance, such as messengers, guests, 
 friends returning home, etc. 
 
 The decorations were only on the stage, the 
 orchestra was left quite bare, and probaljly had not 
 even any movable properties. It is pure fantasy to 
 suppose that in some plays a connection was established 
 bet\veen the stage and orchestra b)' making the whole 
 represent a mountain with rock}' caves, etc. The 
 Greeks assumed a certain amount of illusion, but con- 
 fined this to the stage ; they did not troulile about 
 the space in front, any more than we care to-day 
 about the ap])earance of the orchestra in front of the 
 opera. It was the scene represented on the stage 
 that gave its significance to the orchestra ; if a palace 
 was represented, and the stage represented the place 
 in front of it, then the orchestra became an open 
 space, on which the people assembled ; if the baidv- 
 gronnd was a temple, the orchestra "\vas the saci-ed 
 space immediately in front of it (re/iei'o?), and so (in. 
 Possibly the wall under the front of the stage -was 
 connected with the decoration, so that if the stage, 
 for instance, represented a wild forest with a cave, the 
 front of the scene was similarly decorated. 
 
 Scene-painting, in which Greek art first made an 
 attempt at perspective drawing, had no such difficult 
 and complicated tasks to accomplish in those times as 
 in oui's. The chief pieces of scenery •were the back- 
 ground and the revolving pieces (irepiaKTa). The back- 
 gromid of the proscenium had to cover the wall of 
 the stage, and also indicate the place of the action, 
 Avhether a square in front of a palace, or a street 
 with private houses, or a forest, etc. We must not 
 think of the great variety of scenery known to our 
 modern stage ; no doubt, too, they were content Avith 
 very simple execution, merelj- hinting at the scene 
 
40.S i;r,EEK life at home. 
 
 reijnireil. Tlic luick^TOund was jiruliaMy suspended 
 in a wiKiden scatirildini;- uv t'ranie, and placed innne- 
 diatch- lirtnrr tlir inniT scono trdnt on the door ot the 
 staL;o. Wo do not know, liowever, how tlic decoration 
 of the hacki^Tonnd was changed, for chani;'c of scene 
 Avas sonictinies necessarx' even in the ancient (h'ama ; 
 perliaps the\- were in the habit in such cases of phicing 
 one of the scenes in fnmt of another, so that, a.s at 
 the present (hu', the front (h'coration had only to be 
 ]rio\'e(h eitfier by (h'ejipinL;- it or l)y (hviding it in two 
 ])arts (h'awn to the side (for in the absence of rods 
 the\- could not draw them n[)), and tlnis the second 
 scene fiecame visible liehind. 
 
 The second Ivind of decoration, \vhicli took the 
 jilace of our niovaljle scenes, were the revolvini,;' pieces. 
 These were two contrivances shaped like a three-sided 
 ])risni, placed on either side of the stage at a little 
 distance from tli(.' side-wings ; their axis was a.tta(died 
 to the wooden floor of the stage, and round this 
 they niii\"ed. Each <if them had thret' surfaces for 
 decoration, so that, h\ turning theiu round, three 
 ditti'rent scenes could be I'epresented, and this was 
 iliiubtless enough fur any jilay, for in the jiieces which 
 hav(! conii_' down tii us there is only change of scene 
 in two, till.' '■ Kumenides " of Aesdulus, and the " Ajax" 
 lit Soplioides, and in lioth tliese tragedies there is only 
 i.mi' change. These revolving pieces must also have 
 liad a little store tit decnrations, tor it was very easy 
 to cover them with a change of jiicture, as they 
 ajjpear to have lieen simple stands. The theory that 
 the ancient stage had alto^vtllcr (inly three scenes for 
 these stands — viz., one for tragedy, one' for comedy, and 
 one for the satyrie drama, is undoubtedlv nustakeir 
 
 The (xreek sta,L;'i.' had no other sccner\' than that 
 for the background and the revolving pieces; tliero 
 
THE THEATRE. 409 
 
 must liavc been some movable properties, such as 
 benches, altars, tombs, etc., which are indicated l.ij' the 
 contents of many plaj-s preserved to us. It is very 
 doubtful whether the (_Treek theatre resembled the 
 Roman in the use of a curtain, which, instead of 
 drawing up, sanl'C down into the ground when the 
 pla}' opened ; there is no absolute proof that this was 
 the case. The modern promjjter's box was unknown, 
 and it is evident that they did not make use of a 
 prompter. 
 
 The machinery of the ancient stage seems to have 
 been verj' complicated. (Jf most of the theatrical 
 machines we know only the names, and can form but 
 a very insutiicient conception of them. A contrivance 
 in very frequent use was the " rolling-out machine " 
 (iKKVK\ri/u.a), which, according to the statements of 
 ancient writers, was used to show the spectators pro- 
 ceedings in the interior of a house — as we should 
 say, "behind the scenes;" for in the (jreek drama the 
 scene was never laid inside a I'oom, but everything 
 went on in the open air. Our authorities do not, how- 
 ever, enable us to form any clear conception of this 
 contrivance : probably the background opened out in 
 some waj^ and the person or group which Avas to be 
 seen on the machine was rolled out on a wooden 
 scaftblding moving on rollers or wheels, which must, of 
 course, have been decorated in some wa}- ; in some 
 cases it may have been unnecessary to open out the 
 backarround, and sutiicient for the machine to be 
 pushed in through one of the three doors. There was 
 a similar contrivance for rolling out persons who were 
 to be shown in the upper storey of a house at a corre- 
 sponding height above the stage, as we see from the 
 " Acharnians" of Aristophanes, where Euripides appears 
 in this manirer on a sort of balcony in the upper storey. 
 
410 (iUEEIv I.ll-K AT HOME, 
 
 Aniitlior (•i)iitri\"ai"irelii.ir(.'thcsjn'ciiil naiiie ot " iiiacliinc" 
 (/xv;y«''';>. 'iii'l ^\':i^ till-' on'u'in nf till' cxprossiou Decs 
 
 c.r iiKii-liiini. used \\-1icu a L;'iiil, ( IcscondillL;' trillll 
 
 ( Myiiipus, \-io|i'nth- cut tlic Iviiot of the action; this 
 was iiscil lor siis[icii(liii^- in tlii_' air n'ods, heroes, or 
 mortals, luit cspccialh' those persons who had to 
 appear aliove a'^ thouv;'h tl^'iiig. We cannot tell 
 Avliere this niacliine was attached, and how it was 
 Avorlved ; tliere seems to liave heen a eontrivanee of 
 this kind on citliei- side of tlie sta^'e, above the si<Ie 
 entranci,'s, near tlie side pieces, anil the iine on the 
 loft Was ns(.'il li\" L;'ods, while that on the riL;'ht was 
 used tor other purposes. The maeliine itself must 
 usualh" haA'i' hecn kept in some upjier storey of the 
 stan'e structure. It must liave lieen a somewhat 
 <lant;'erous m(_'ans of transit; the actors who had to 
 perform this aerial journey were usually l.iound fast 
 witli ropes oi'L;'irths, and in the "I'eaee" of Aristo])lianes 
 TrNL^-aeus, wlien mounting' on his aerial horse, tliedung- 
 Ijeetle, \\'liii-h must iiave heen a similar tiyiuL;' machine, 
 implores the maitacc'r of the machini.'ry, \vho has to 
 superintend all tlicse arrangements, to he very <'areful 
 that lie does not come to grief. The " gods' speakmg- 
 placi.' ' (f'eoXoYeZo!') apjiears to have l.ieen a scaffolding 
 ahoye the chief entrance in the Ijackground, on which 
 the goils appc'ared, prohahly surrounded by clouds ; 
 it differed from the " machine "' in sliowing the gods 
 pc'acefidly throned aliove, instead of bringing the 
 ()l\'mpian deities down to earth. ( 'onneeted with tlie 
 '■maeliine" A\-as the "crane" {yepavo';), a. cra.ne-like 
 ma(diinc' let down trom above, whi<di was used when 
 human beings "wi^'c to be lifted up fi'om the stage ; as, 
 tor instanc(.', -wh(,-n Kos i/arried away the corpse of 
 Memnon through the air. 
 
 TViey also had machines tor pi'oducing thtuider 
 
THE THEATRE. 411 
 
 and lightning. We do not Icnow how the lightning 
 was made, and it is ditiicult to imagine that it could 
 have lieen produced with any great result in broad 
 daylight. The thunder was caused i.iy rolling bladders 
 lull of little stones to and fro on bi-ass plates in the 
 hollow space under the stage. In this hollow space 
 were also probably the " steps of Charon," a contrivance 
 for bringing the spirits of the dead on to the stage. 
 Nothing certain is known concerning these steps, but 
 it is very probable that they were managed after the 
 fashion of our trap-doors, for undoubtedly the floor 
 of the stage covered a hollow space, and thus a con- 
 trivance of this Icind was very easily produced. 
 
 We must next consider the plays which had to 
 be ]ierforniecl here. On the old (^Ireek stage there 
 were three Ivinds of drama — tragedies, comedies, 
 and satyric dramas. The comedies were acted 
 singly, and each constituted a comjjlete whole: but 
 tragedy, as it developed oiit of the Dionysus legend 
 and the division of the action into three connected 
 therewith, Avas so constructed that a large circle 
 of myth was treated in three separate tragedies, 
 whose contents were connected, but which were 
 structurally complete in themselves, and these were 
 called a Trilogy. ]3ut about the same time the 
 curious custom originated of following up these 
 three serious pieces, with their deeply pathetic coji- 
 tents, by a merry sat}'ric drama by the same author, 
 — a wild farce, in which a chorus of satyrs was intro- 
 duced in connection with some mythical action, which 
 of course, onljr appeared in travesty ; and this com- 
 bination of four dramas was called a Tetralogy. 
 Unfortunately no tetralogy has come down complete 
 to us ; the trilogj' of Aeschylus alone, which deals with 
 the story of Orestes, gives us some notion of the mode 
 
412 GREEK LIFE AT H():\1E. 
 
 in which the tragic pdots arraiigcil thriv iiuitoi'ial in 
 the form of a tiilogy. 'J'hc first inirt, " Aganiennion," 
 represents tlie nmrdcr nf Ayanioninun liy Clyteni- 
 nestra and Acgistlins : tlic sorond, the " < lioephorae," 
 the \'engeance taken liy Orestes on the murderers; 
 tlie tliird, tlie " Ennienides," tlie ahsohition for tlio 
 murder (if his motlier liy the Arcojiagiis. The tragic 
 poets did not very long abide by tlie custom of pre- 
 senting ciimplcte tetralogies at the J)ionysia, in which 
 thi_^ trilogy presented ime ctmnei'ted subject. It at- 
 tained its complete development under Aeschylus, 
 liut Sophocles already fiegan to depart from it, and in 
 the tetralogies with whi(di ho and Euripides competed, 
 the internal connection between the tragedies was 
 Avanting. In later times it was cnstoniary fir tragedies 
 complete in themselves to he acted singly, so that the 
 poets competed with drama against drama; still, the 
 inscriptiiiHs show us that even in the f lurtli centurj' 
 tetralogies were acted, though they may not have 
 been connected. Each of these three kinds of drama 
 underwent several cdianges during tlie comse of (ireek 
 literature. 
 
 In tragedy, whose subject was nsualh' legend, but 
 which also dealt with (piesticms of the dav, snch as the 
 ciccupation of ililetns and the wa.rs with the Persians, 
 there was at first a distinct preponderance of the lyric 
 element supplied liy the chorus over the purely 
 dramatic jiart. Bef irc! the time of Aes(diylus there 
 was little idea of dramatic, treatment; at that timci 
 there was only a single actor who, togc'ther with the 
 chorus, supplied the whole action, and contined him- 
 self chiefl}' to recitations, so tliat tliere could be no 
 ijuestion of striking situations and dialogue. Aeschylus 
 then introduced a second actor ; and as these actors, 
 liy a change of dress, could undertake se\'eral jiarts, 
 
THE THEATRE. 413 
 
 the action was enlarged and animated, and the dialog'ue 
 grew more interesting. Wlren Sopliocles added a 
 third actor — an innovation of whiclr Aeschylus, too, 
 made use in his later period, and which constituted 
 the highest number ever used in the Greek drama — 
 the victory of the dramatic part over the lyric was 
 accomplished ; and from that time onward the chorus 
 sank in importance compared with the actors, and at 
 last disappeared altogether. In the tragedies of 
 Euripides the dramatic element had become so im- 
 portant that the chorus could really be dispensed 
 with ; true, Euripides could not venture entirely to 
 discard this custom, which was sanctified by religion 
 and tradition, but, by gradually diminishing the share 
 of the chorus in the action, he prepared for its com- 
 plete abandonment. In Aeschylus, therefore, the 
 solemn songs and reflections of the chorus occupy a 
 considerable space, and the chorus even sometimes 
 takes an active part in the action, since it preponde- 
 rates in the play, and may be regarded as an acting 
 personage ; in Euripides its presence is more acci- 
 dental — it expounds the dogmas and opinions of the 
 poet, but takes no part in the action, and in tragedies 
 it might be entirely left out without injury. In Sopho- 
 cles alone the chorus and dialogue are harmoniously 
 balanced. Corresponding to these changes in the 
 position of the chorus was the amount assigned to 
 them for declamation. We may say in general that 
 the chorus sang an entrance song (TrapoSo?), and 
 afterwards during the further course of the play 
 choric songs to mark pauses in the action, ac- 
 companied by marching, but without leaving the 
 orchestra, and these were called standing songs 
 (a-Tacn/j-a) ; these long odes divided the drama into a 
 series of parts, called episodes (eireia-oSiM), which may 
 
414 (JltEEK IJFE AT HOME. 
 
 lie (■(iiupureil to onr acts, since the action stops dniing 
 the sonL;-, anil the sjiectatoi' has time to collect himself 
 and to let what he has heard ami seen act npon him, 
 •\vliile tlu' song eontimieil through the interval helps 
 him to keep the impression produced by the action, 
 or else prepares him for what is to tollow. 
 
 The older comedy, of whieli Aristophanes is tlic 
 chief representative, made use of (diorus and dialogue 
 in the same way as tragedy. Its snhjeets referred to 
 actual life, and dealt with political, social, and 
 literarv questions, and others of universal interest, 
 but in a fantastic manner, with the most eccentric 
 masques and absurd contrivances, dealirig out hits all 
 round with the wildest licence, and sjiaring neither 
 the conmion citizen nor the most powerful and exalted 
 personages. The part plaj'cd by the chorus differed 
 in many respects from that undertaken in tragedy; 
 the comic ch(.)rus very often stepped entirely outside 
 the action, and, as the mouthpiece of tlie jioet, who 
 used this opportunity to bring his political or other 
 opinions before the public, to figlit out personal 
 (piarrels, and, in general, to sav wliatever he pleased, 
 it directed itself ti:> tlie public; sucli are tliose cojiiic 
 choruses Avhich liear tlie nauLc Pn rahdNiN. The 
 comic chorus was also adecpiately distinguished from 
 the tragic, both in the difference of ci;)stunie and in 
 the number of its members ; the latter were generally 
 only tweh'e, and the former twice as many. Again, 
 the dances and rhythmic movements of the comic 
 choruses differed greatly from those of the tragic. 
 But even during the lifetime of Aristopliaiies, the 
 transformation of the ccimcdy began in its outer form 
 as well as in its real nature. Tin.' outer (diange con- 
 sisted in the abolition of the chorus, tin.' expenditure 
 of wliic-h the citizens were no longi.;r willing to defray, 
 
THE THEATRE. 415 
 
 and thus an excellent opportunity was lost of saying 
 rough truths with a laughing face, and the waj' ^vas 
 paved for a gradual change of subject. The change 
 was accomplished by the so-called newer Attic 
 Comedy, which had no chorus, and, instead of politi- 
 cal or social satire, took as its subject pictures from 
 Athenian life, love intrigues, comic misunderstand- 
 ings, etc., and, in fact, more closely resembled our 
 modern comedies. Then the lyric element naturally 
 vanished, which in the older comedy, as in tragedy, 
 appeared not only in the chorus but also in the 
 dramatic performance of the actors ; the action was 
 presented only by dialogue, and the musical element, 
 which had formerly played a very important part in 
 comedjr, was confined to accompaniment of the recita- 
 tion, and thus became entirely subordinate. 
 
 The satyric drama is the one in which wrc can trace 
 the fewest changes, but it had only a short exist- 
 ence. It was invented by Pratinas, a contemporary of 
 Aeschylus, jDrobably with the intention of compensat- 
 ing the public, who must have sadly missed the 
 popular sports which had formerly enlivened the 
 celebration of the Dionysia, and to satisfy their desire 
 for coarser fare. At first the satyric drama seems to 
 have preceded the tragedies, but this was soon 
 changed. In the best period of the drama we never 
 find satyric pla)'s alone without tragedies preceding 
 them ; they were so essentially a part of the tragedy 
 that we only hear of tragic writers as composers of 
 satyric dramas. The best period of the satyric drama 
 was the time of Pratinas and Aeschjdus ; Sophocles 
 and Euripides, too, composed them — one by the latter 
 has come down to us, the " Cyclops " — ]jut at that 
 time its best period was already over, since it no 
 longer formed the necessary conclusion of a ch-ainatic 
 
4ir, (iREKK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 tetraloL;-\". Still, satyrir dratnas ivtaiiu^d tlioir ]i()siti(in 
 on the sta^v until tin; sci'oiid ccntui'v, anil, in fart, 
 thr Alexandrint' ports made a. fresh attempt to nm- 
 nei-t tin; sut\'rii' drama with trage(hes in a tetralot^y. 
 ^\'i■ km.iw yrvv little ahont the .snbjeet of these later 
 satvrie dramas. Tin; titles of Alexarnhhie plays tliat 
 have cdHK.' down to ns show that at that time actual 
 life "Was introduced, though tla.' mN'thological subjects 
 "which had foruied the sole basis of the ancient satyvic 
 drama were also ust'd. 
 
 The ancii'Ut drama,, uiidi'r wliicli we iindude 
 tragedw satvrie ih'iUiia, and comedy, was a condiina- 
 tion of thri.'(.' arts — poetry, urusie, and dancing. The 
 hrst was, as a ruli.'. confined to the idiorus, and it very 
 seldom happened that a.u actoi- in the pla\- ]ierforme(l 
 a (hmi:'C, hut the nuisii'.al part lielonged not only to 
 the chorus but also to the actors : for though the 
 usual dialogui; consisted mendy in recitation, \'et 
 tlii're wer(.' long passages in tlie pur(;l\' dramatic part 
 whiidi were not declaimed by the acti:irs, but sung. 
 Our modern writers express very difterent opinions 
 about the mode in which the dialogues were recited. 
 It appears to us most |)rofiable that in <-omcdy thei'e 
 was, as a ruli-, only speaking, without any musii'al 
 accompaniment: while in tragedy continuous nmsical 
 comjiositiou was introduced alternating with dramatic 
 spi.'eeh — that is, spoken recitation, accompanied by 
 music — and even with .simple declamation. Tlien 
 there were also solo songs ly tlie actors, of -wdiiidi the 
 metre was lyrii/, and these l)ore some resend)lance to 
 the airs of our mod(>rn opera; they are less common 
 in the older tragedy than in Euripides, with whom 
 they sometimes take a disjiroportionately large place. 
 There were also musical dialogues between the actoi's 
 and chorus, in particular its leader. The instruments 
 
THE THEATliE. 417 
 
 used for acconipaniiiieiit were the 13'ro and citliai'a, and 
 also the flute. The stringed instruments were used 
 chiefly for striking a few notes hke the chords struck 
 at our recitations ; the flute only indicated the chief 
 notes, and accompanied the melody of the chorus and 
 the solo song either at the same height or one or two 
 octaves higher. Flute playing accompanied niost of 
 the choric songs ; with the chorus entered a flute 
 player, who alwaj's took his place on the thymele. 
 In later tragedy the music, which had formerly been 
 very simple, grew more elaborate and complicated ; 
 several flute players played at the same time, and 
 with their shrill music very often drowned the sing- 
 ing ; but the solo performances on the stage were 
 accompanied by only a single flute. 
 
 The choregraphic element in the drama, which be- 
 longed especially to the chorus in tragedy, consisted 
 chiefly in marching with various figiu-es, much like 
 our modern polonaise. The dances in comedy were 
 much more lively and often of a lascivious character, 
 and those of a satyric chorus were also of a burlesque 
 nature. But, doubtless, the choric dancing consisted 
 not merely in certain regular movements of the feet 
 adapted to the music, but also in rhythmic motions of 
 the whole body, and especiallj- of the hands and arms, 
 so that their dancing must have somewhat resembled 
 our modern ballet. It is not easy to get any complete 
 conception of it ; the later hypotheses are by no 
 means proved, and many strange statements have 
 been made about the recitation of the chorus, the 
 division of verses and words of the song among the 
 semi-chorus, leaders, or individual members. In any 
 case the task of the chorus was no easy one, since the 
 members were not professional artists like the actors, 
 but amateurs, who had to be specially trained for 
 
 BB 
 
418 GREEK LIFE AT H(»IE. 
 
 each pei'ftH-i nance. This \vaw (hie to the iiistitntiun 
 i)t the (Jliiii-iKiiii. 
 
 In aneient times the eiinipment and perferniancc 
 of phi3-s was nut, as at'toi-waixls, a dnty oi the State ; 
 the 25oet inidertnok the ex[)enses, and tried te eovev 
 tlieui b)- entrance money. lint when the theutricid 
 representation became a reL;'nh\r part of the Dionysiac. 
 festivals, the State took the matter in its own hands, 
 and arranged thino's in snch a way tliat the expenses 
 for the cliorus A\-ere nndertaken by some weahhy 
 citizen as a litnrg\", ^\■\\\\o the rest of the expenses 
 \\-ere defrayed )iy the State. This htnrgy Avas called 
 C/ioruf/ia, bceanse originally the person who defrayed 
 the expenses also trained and led the chorns. For 
 the varions choric performances required at the many 
 festivals — since besides tragic and conne choruses there 
 were also cyclic and other choral representations — each 
 tribe chose its " choi'agiis," and this was done a year 
 in advance, because the preparations reijuir(.>d a great 
 deal of time. If a poet wanted to perform one of his 
 dramas at a festival, he Jieed not consider how to pro- 
 cure tlie necessary actors, fjut only how to get his 
 <-horus. b'or this jiurjHjse he addressed himself to 
 that aridion wliose duty it was to make tlie arrange- 
 ments for tli(_' festival in (piestion, and ficgged him to 
 assign Inm a choragus. It appears to ha\"e been in 
 the power i.if this official to accept or refuse the play. 
 I'roljftbly the poets handed in the manuscript of their 
 plays. Tlie only limitations in applying were that 
 the poet must be a citizen, and of unstained reputa- 
 ti<:in ; and in comedy, on account of its political 
 character, he inust l:>e of a certain age — tliirt\- j'ears, 
 according to most of tlie statements. If the arclion 
 accepted the drama, he assigned the poet one of 
 the choragi, either Iiy election or lot. It was hy no 
 
THE THEATRE. 419 
 
 means a matter of indifference ^vllethcl■ this was 
 reqnired for tragedy or conied)-; for at the time when 
 the)' competed with, tetralogies, tragedy involved at 
 least as much expense as dirl comedy with its larger 
 chorus. It is probable, therefore, that the choragi Avere 
 sometimes assisted by the State, especially as in later 
 times, when the glory of Athens had departed, and its 
 citizens were no longer so rich, it became more and 
 more difficult to iind people ready to undertake these 
 great expenses ; and in later times it was not 
 unusual fVir several choragi together to undertake a 
 chorus. 
 
 The tirst dut)- of the choragus was to collect the 
 necessary number of persons and to pay those who 
 were not bound to appear unpaid. He had also to 
 choose and pay a chorus teacher, who had to train the 
 chorus {-^opoBLSatj/caXo^), and usually undertook the 
 place of chorus-leader at the performance. In former 
 times, -when this instruction of the chorus was not a 
 profession as it was later on, and the poet often helped 
 in the training, the choragus freciuently trained the 
 chorus himself, and oven appeared as their leader at 
 the performance ; birt in later times this was unusual. 
 The choragus had also to prociu-e, or if necessary hire, 
 a place for the training of the chorus, to keep the 
 inembers during the time of training, and to jjrovide 
 them with festive garments and wreaths for the per- 
 formance. It resterl with him to spend a large or a 
 small amount for this last purpose, but a choragus 
 who equipped a comic chorus economically, risked 
 being made the subject of the poet's sarcasm on 
 some future occasion, and in the allotment of prizes, 
 too, the appearance of the chorus would be con- 
 sidered, as well as the manner in which it performed 
 its task. 
 
 p. Ti 2 
 
420 r;r,EEK life at ikuie. 
 
 The cliorns-nionibors wero usually free citizens ; 
 slvanLj'ers were jcalemslv excluded. Their taslv v\;is Ijy 
 \M means a linht one; Imdily dexterity was i'e(|uire(l 
 for the dances, and i^'ood ninsical training, ijodd d(,'- 
 livery and ronipi-ehensidn i:)t' the jioetic text were 
 neressai'v in order to L;'ive a satisfactory representation 
 of the poet's Work before the keenly critical Attic 
 pidilic. It is, therefore, natural that a L;'ood (diorapis 
 took consideral>le trouble to pnicun.' a c'ooil idiorns. 
 the rather as the choragia was a contest in A\diich not 
 oidy the poet but also the ehoragi contended for the 
 prize. Besides those already mentioned, the (dioragi 
 had also other duties : to prt)cnre the requisites, sucli 
 as decoration for the side-scenes, perliaps even to 
 supply sacrificial animals if they were required in the 
 plav. In later times, when the chorus had lost its 
 importance, and the expenses w"ere less considerable, 
 the choragirs had also to supply the dr(3sses i)f the 
 actoi's, though this was never the case in the best 
 period of the (h'ama. In fact, as we may h'arn from 
 the inscriptions, a c(im])leto change in the choragia 
 took place in th(i Hellenistic pi'rioil. It became the 
 custom tor the people to choos(; presidents of con- 
 tests {iV/wvodeTai), whose duty it was to provide f)r 
 the musi(/al conqietitioirs at th(? Uionysia and other 
 festivals. They had to attend to th(.' i-egular and 
 suitable pei'firmance of the contests, to supply c-ertain 
 sacrificial animals, etc. ; this was often a very expen- 
 sive imdertaking, and, like all otticials, they had to 
 make a statement concerning their othce at the con- 
 clusion of its duration. This institution in a way 
 placed the cdioragia in tlie hands of the pc'0])le, wdro 
 transferred their duties to tlie })residc'nts, and iliese 
 liad then to equip all the (dioruses, which ^vere no 
 longer so numerous as they hail been foriucrh'. This 
 
THE THEATRE. 421 
 
 iiino\-;ition was ne(_'ossitated by the fact that the 
 number of rich famihes of whom these pecuniary 
 sacrifices could be demanded, had become very small, 
 and these now supplied the presidents. This change 
 in the arrano-ements of the chorayia seems to have 
 taken place under the rule of Demetrius of Phalerum, 
 towards the end of the fourth century B.C. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that in the ancient theatre 
 women never appeared on the stage, and all women's 
 parts were presented by men ; we have also noted the 
 fact that there was at first only a single actor, who 
 represented various parts one after another, and en- 
 tered into a dialogue with the leader of the chorus, 
 and that Aeschylus added a second, and Sophocles a 
 third. Originally the poet himself appeared as actor, 
 iind when there were several actors, as protagonist — 
 that is he represented the chief part. When Sophocles, 
 whij had himself appeared a few times, abandoned 
 this custom, it gradually fell into disuse, and the first 
 iictor, as well as the two others, was supplied to the 
 poet b}' the State. As a rule, the actors were allotted 
 to the poets by lot ; it seems, however, that before the 
 *State midertook to pay an actor, he had to submit to 
 examination, and that only those who had already 
 iippeared, and whose performances were well known, 
 were excluded from this examination. The State, 
 then, engaged for each festival a number of protag- 
 onists, deuteragonists, anel tritagonists, corresponding 
 to the number of poets contending ; thus, if there 
 were three poets competing, they required nine actors, 
 supposing the same actors continued to perform 
 throughout the whole tetralogjr, of which we cannot 
 be certain. The lot assigned to each of the poets 
 -one out of the three classes ; still, we know that some 
 poets always had the same protagonist, who appeared 
 
422 GREEK LIFE AT lln:\IE. 
 
 ill uU their jilays, and tVn- -wlinm, in I'aer. they sonie- 
 tinics wi-otr a special part: therefore, it nmst have 
 lieen cnstoinarv for poets who had ah'eady been vic- 
 torions to ask for a particular protagonist without 
 drawing lots, and this enstoni probably bccanie tho 
 i-ide afterwards. ^^'c cannot, however, say how the 
 two others were chosen. 
 
 The parts of the play were now divided between 
 these three actors ; the chief part, which, as a rnle, ivas 
 the most dithcnlt, fell to the protagonist ; the next in 
 importance — viz., the one whi(di was lirought into 
 the closest i-onnection with the chief person, fell to 
 the deuteragonist ; the tritagojiist nndertoolv nnim- 
 portant parts, such as messengers, lieralds, etc., and 
 these actors of tho lowest class did not stand in j>ar- 
 ticnlar estimation with the public. J-5nt as the play.s 
 c(intaincd more than three ])arts, each actor had to 
 undertake several, and therefore, even while coujposing' 
 a play, the poet had to be i-areful that the actors, if 
 they had to appear in another part, had sntHcient time 
 for cliange of costume, and that the absence (.)f an 
 actor who was to be nsed for another part sliould bo 
 in some way explained. There were, however, plays 
 in wliich it was absolutely inijiossible to manage with 
 thi'ce actors, and for these there was a r-ontrivance 
 about which the exponents of jiassages referring to it 
 hold ver\' different opinions, and, indeed, there seem 
 to bo mistakes or misre])resentations in the authors 
 themselves. It is most probable that when a pioet 
 r(.'<piired more than the tliree actors assiiiiied him l)y 
 tlio Stati/ he applied to the idioragus, and '.'arno to 
 an agreement with him : he then supplied a fourtli 
 actor, or even a fifth, since it was onlv small parts 
 tliat had to be thus undertaken, and, if necessary, 
 the c-horagus also prcjvidi/d a secimd, ijr minor. 
 
THE THEATRE. 423 
 
 eliorus, sncli :is was required in certain plays 
 {■Trapa')(opi]^riiJi.a). There were also rliunb ]iersonages, 
 or statists, called also " spear-bearers," since these 
 parts were frec^uently merely standing parts. We do 
 not know whether the State or the choragus paid for 
 these. We have, in fact, little information about the 
 payment given to the actors, which must have Ijeen, 
 however, different in proportion to their performances ; 
 in the Macedonian period celebrated actors received 
 very high pay. In the Hellenistic period a complete 
 transformation toolv j^lace in acting. When the chorus 
 was abolished, and the representation of dramas in 
 consequence became easier, and took place at other 
 festivals as well as the Dionysia, unions of actors were 
 formed, calling themselves " ] )ionysiac artists," con- 
 cerning which the inscriptions give us a good deal of 
 interesting information. A number of these companies 
 combined tos'ether into sacred Quilds, which had their 
 seat in the large towns, and sent their members in 
 companies into small towns and also into the provinces 
 as far as Asia Minor, for festive representations. We 
 are best acquainted with the arrangements of the 
 Dionysiac artist company of Teos, an Ionic town on 
 the coast of Lydia. These not only appeared in Asia 
 Minor, but had also rights in Delphi, Thebes, and 
 Thespiae. It numbered a great many members, not 
 only actors, but also writers of tragedies, comedies, and 
 satyric dramas, epic poems, and encomia ; composers, 
 musicians, dancers, machinists, decorators, wardrobe 
 owners, etc. The)' also instituted a dramatic musical 
 school, a kind of C'onservatorium, in which pupils from 
 various parts of Greece were trained, and usually in 
 turn became members of the guild. It is very intorest- 
 ino' to examine the details, management, inner organi- 
 sation, and life of the members of these actors' guilds 
 
424 CHEEK LIKE AT linME. 
 
 in till? Alcxiindrinc |iei'i(Hl, lint uiirdrtuuatcly space 
 (Iocs ucif pen I lit us ti) (1" so licrc. 
 
 All the arranL;tiiirnts already desciibed show 
 stroll^' coiitrasts lietween ancient and niodcrn theatres, 
 and perhaps tliere is nothinL;' which strikes us as so 
 extvaordinar)' as the (ireek theatrical costume, and 
 especialh' tln' appearance of actors in masks. It is 
 iiiipdssililc for us to iniderstand this complete dis- 
 regard of exi>rcssion and change in representing feel- 
 ings, and this [)erp(.'tual stare of tlie unidiaugiug 
 mask. This curious custom has been (.'Xplained in 
 many different ways. It is a mistake to sup[iose that 
 the (ireek theatres were too large Ibr the play of an 
 actor's expression to he observed, and that the coarse 
 features of the uiasl; were arranged with a view to 
 this distanci', in which their want of (drange "would be 
 li'ss striking. Since tliey played in brijad daylight, in 
 the shar]> (dear light of a southern sky, the spectators, 
 even in the most distant places, could have fV)ll((\v(.'d 
 the jilay of the actor's featiu-es, especially sin(/e the 
 ancients had better eyes than our present generation. 
 Nor is it correct t(( suppose that the masks were 
 recpiired in order that the funnel-shaped contrivance 
 ajiplied to its mouth shijidd strengthen the sound: f()r 
 tlie acoustics in the (ireek theatres were usually so 
 g(jod that the ^^-'ry slight(_'St word e\-en \\diispered on 
 the stage could be heard in the auditorium. Un- 
 doubtedly it Y\'oul(l Ir.iyi' l)een impossiljle witliout 
 masks for th(.' same actor to undertake niari)- ixirts in 
 ipiick succession: but at the same time we may ask 
 whether they \\-ould have held so strictl\- to this 
 system of dividing all tlie parts among three actors if 
 th(iy had not already ipossessed the masks, and thus 
 the piissibilit\- (.>f aliiduig within these limitations. 
 The introducti(.in of real characters, whose features 
 
THE THEATRE. 425 
 
 wore to be faithfully iinitated was also facilitated by 
 the masks, but good iiiiinics could achieve this even 
 without, as examples on the modern stage have 
 shown. Consequently, none of these reasons really 
 explain the use of masks ; in reality they originated 
 in the religious customs which were the origin of the 
 drama, and afterwards were simply maintained with 
 many other relics of its religious origin, as people had 
 got accustomed to them and found them convenient. 
 It had formerly been the practice at the Dionysia, 
 whence the drama originated, for people to disguise 
 their faces by smearing them over with husks of 
 grapes, etc., or to cover thorn up completely, or dis- 
 guise them with wreaths of ivjr, etc. Instead of paint- 
 ing and covering them Avith leaves they gradually 
 began to use pieces of linen, at first cpiite shapeless 
 and destined only to cover the face and prevent 
 recognition, liut afterwards b)' imitating human 
 features, these developed into masks. This custom 
 continued, then, as sanctified by tradition, and, indeed, 
 all the theatrical arrangements were regarded as a 
 sacred ceremou}' in honour of I)ionysus. 
 
 The theatrical masks, the material of which in 
 later times, too, was linen, covered with plaster of 
 Paris, or else Avood, bark, etc., differed from our modern 
 masks in covering not only the face, but the whole 
 head of the actor. The actor who had put on the 
 mask could, of course, only see through the slits for 
 the ej'cs, and, indeed, it sometimes happened — and in 
 the oldest period seems to have been common — that, 
 instead of cutting out a slit for the whole eye, there 
 was onlj^ one for the pupil, and the iris was repre- 
 sented on the mask itself, and coloured, so that the 
 actor had the difficult task of looking only through 
 the place for the pupil ; still, as the dimensions of the 
 
42G nitEEK LTFE AT HO.Mt:. 
 
 lllasl^s were usually larger tliau tli^sc i^f a luunan 
 face, this uiay have been larger than his own. Of 
 course, the masks were coiiipletel)' painteil over : the 
 eyehrows. lijis, cheeks, wrinkles, etc., were niarkefl ; the 
 beard and hair were made of real hair, or wool, or 
 sonic (ither succcdaueum. Some of the tragic masks 
 had a high liuncli of hair above the forehead to 
 increase the height; this was called the "superficies'' 
 {6yKo<:). and its object was mainly to increase the 
 height of the actor and make him appear of greater 
 size — an object at whi(di many other peculiarities of 
 the tragic costiuno also aimed. The ears were not 
 alwa^'s visible. The mouth was usually open very 
 wide, with lips and sometimes artificial teeth. The 
 object of the great width of the mouth opening was to 
 enal)le the actor to declaim and sing imhindered. The 
 comic inasks (see below, Figs. 156 and 157), very often 
 had a funnel-shaped mouth opening, which gave a 
 ver}' grotes(p.ie expression to the ^vhole face, and may 
 have been connected with some special technical 
 object, or else merely destined to increase the comic 
 effect. In putting on the masks thej' took hold of 
 the chin, and dre^v them on from bottom to top ; they 
 were then fastened under the chin with strings, and 
 the actor's neck was almost conjpletely covered by 
 the mask and his clothing; hence the curious, we 
 might almost say astlnnatic, impression given by the 
 pictures of ancient actors. 
 
 Generally speaking, wo may distinguish three kinds 
 of masks, according to the three kinds of drama — 
 tragic, comic, and satyric : and it is not ditticult among 
 the numerous rejn-esentations of masks on ancient 
 works of art to distinguish between these three kiufls, 
 cspt'cially since the expression is, as a ride, decisive. 
 In the tragic masks we see calm solemnity, deep grief, 
 
Vs 
 
42.S G}!EEK LIFE A'l' HOME. 
 
 or "wild passicin ; evrr\" t'ccliui;' is expri'sscd (Jii a larijc 
 andusualK" di'^nitii.'d scale. Tho coiiiie masks, on tho 
 otluT hand, always incline to caricafnri' ; and those 
 nsed for the satvrii- drama, since they were meant lor 
 satyrs, uatnrally represent the physiognomy of animals. 
 But, liesides these general indicatii:ins, there were a 
 larij'e mmd.ier (if t;radati(ins — some of them very finely 
 marlvcd — ^vhildl pruves tn ns that the old malcers of 
 masks, which w as a special hraneli of trade, thoronghh- 
 undcrstoixl their wurk and also human ]diysioL;'nomy. 
 In olden tinie.s they .seem to have made th(.' masks 
 speeiallyfor eaeh drama, so that they might eori'espond 
 exactly to the characters. This was the ease in tragedy 
 as well as in the older c(:imed3'. Aeschylus, to whom 
 in particidar imitivations and inventions in this doiuain 
 are ascribed, reijuired quite new masks fdi- his " Eume- 
 nides," which had never fiefore appeared on the stage ; 
 as did Aristophanes and the other poets of the (ilder 
 ciimed}" for their fantastic (diara.ct(.'rs — frogs, cluuds, 
 liirds, etc., as also for the real personages represented 
 in tlieir couK.'dies, suidi as Euripides, Socrates, ('Icon, 
 and could only use the already (.'xisting ma.sks fir the 
 usual ty[iical figures <if citizens and citizens' Avi\-i.'s, 
 slaves, etc., as well as tVir tin; mythological pei'sonages, 
 Hercules, i)ionysus, (.'tc. The newer xVttic couiedv, 
 Avitli its typical (diaracters, ^any seldom reipnred 
 specially-c(.>nstructed masks, and it thus liecame the 
 custom for the pniperties of every stage iir acting 
 company to inidude a considerafile supply of character 
 masks cif every kind, which in m<ist cases were suthcient 
 for the demand. (JonsetjUently, tii speak simply of 
 tragic or comic masks is to cxjiress ourseh'es rather 
 superficially : for thougli an actually c(jmic mask — that 
 is, one whose ahsurdity excites to laughter — coidd never 
 lie used in a tragedy, yet there were seriou.s masks 
 
THE THEATRE. 429 
 
 which mi.Lfht be used in a comedy ; and it would he 
 wrong to suppose that all the persons in a comedj- 
 for instance by Menander, appeared in masks which 
 could be designated as specialljr comic. 
 
 Among the typical masks they distinguish between 
 sex, age, and differences of figure ; thus there was a 
 nrask called " the young girl," another " the thin old 
 woman," " the fat old woman," etc. ; then they distin- 
 guished according to the colour or cut of the hair : there 
 was the " curly-headed youth," the " short-haired 
 maiden," the "fair man," the "grey satj'r," or by the 
 beard : the " man with a long beard," the " beardless 
 satyr," or by the complexion: the ''brown man," the 
 " fair woman with flowing hair," and even by the shape of 
 the nose, as the " satyr with a pug-nose." Other masks 
 •were characterised by the social position they were to 
 represent, such as " the old housewife," " the countrj'- 
 man," "the old hetaera," " the soldier," "the lady's ]naid 
 with elaborate coiffure," or according to special peculi- 
 arities of mind or character: "the worthy young- 
 man," "the talkative old woman." Even varying moods 
 of mind or feelings were represented by the masks, and 
 it is probable therefore, that when an important change 
 took place in any one person, the actor changed his 
 mask behind the scenes. The writers also supply 
 various instances to show the different means by which 
 special traits of character were represented. (Jne of 
 these tokens was the colour of the complexion ; a brown 
 complexion characterised healthy men, living much 
 out of doors, or devoting themselves to physical exer- 
 cise ; a Avhite complexion was given to women and 
 to delicate or effeminate youths ; pale or yellowish 
 to invalids, or those whose mind was disordered or 
 suffering, as for instance unhappy Levers. The colour 
 and expression of the eyes was also important ; they 
 
-l-'!0 GKEEK [.IKE A'l' lUiME. 
 
 ilistini;iiishe(l lictwcen dull, pierciiiL;', dark, nLxniiy, 
 sad, I'tc, and all this Avas not ropix'scuted by the arUn-, 
 liiit \\'as already indicated in tlii- mask. The eyebrows, 
 tiH), werr of importance : when they were drawn up hinh 
 they indicated, in comedy, ]iride and boastfulness, and 
 Avere thus allotted to parasites, soldiers, etc. ; narrow 
 c\-ebrows indicated seriousness or a sad state of mind. 
 No less important for the character of the mask was 
 tlie treatment o{ the forehead, nose, etc. To explain 
 all this we i;ive, in Fi^s. 154 and 1.")."), the front and 
 sidi.' A'iew of a tragic terra-cotta mask, whose wide- 
 open month, staring eyes, brows drawn upwards, and 
 wrinkled forehead indicate fear and terror. A con- 
 trast to these is the comic mask (Figs. 15U and 157), 
 Avirh the funnel-shaiied mouth o[icning, the pug-nose, 
 s(pnnting e\'es, and eyeljroM's drawn down towards the 
 middle. Similar is the mask \vorn by the comic actor 
 in Fig. 15.S, who in other respects appears in the 
 costume of ordinary life — that is, in the short slave'.s 
 dress — and the mask of the comii- actor in Fig. 159 is 
 a similar caricature. 
 
 Besides the regular masks, from which the actors 
 chose those that suited their part, unless the poet had 
 already prescrified what they were to wear, others 
 were in later times adapted fi:)r extraordinarj- situa- 
 tions — fin- iiersonages of cpiite abnormal figure, alle- 
 gorical characters, etc. — and these could not be used 
 for ordinary performaii(;es. Tragedj' especially was 
 often obliged to bring unusual masks on the stage; and 
 the comedy of Southern Ital)-, wlii(.'h treated mytho- 
 logical subjects in grotes()ue fashion, may ha\-e occa- 
 sionally recpiired quite special masks. Thus, on the 
 Toni])eian wall-painting (Fig. l(iO), which, doubtless, 
 was copied from a Greek picture, the masks relate to 
 the legend of Andromeda ; the one on the left belongs 
 
4:i2 CREEK T.IFE AT HOME. 
 
 to a youth witli a brinvn coinjilcxion, wliosc winQ-od 
 
 ■ a]! ami harp vestiiiL;' on 
 the nmunil mark liiiii 
 out as IVrsoiis ; this is a 
 special iiiasl;, ami so is 
 that of the monster in 
 the iiiidille, while that 
 of Audroraeila above on 
 the riL^ht, and the others 
 'in tlieright below, which 
 are not quite distinct, 
 may easil_y have lormed 
 ]iart of tlie ordinary 
 supply. 
 
 E(|nally strani;'e and 
 different from the 
 modi.'rn was the rest of 
 the costume of the (h'eek 
 stage. S] I caking of 
 tragic equipment, we 
 may characterise the 
 contrast between that 
 day and our own b}' say- 
 ing that titrerks, in the 
 choice iif their tragic 
 Costume, aimed at the 
 type, while ^vo desire to 
 indicate the individual. 
 In thoatrical costume, as 
 in art, we wish to repre- 
 sent overything with 
 historical truth ; the 
 history of costinne and 
 of special study for modern 
 
 stage managers. Ancient traLreilies vei'v seldom 
 
 Fiu. 1.5S. 
 
 fashion is a subject 
 
THE THEATRE. iSS 
 
 dealt with historical subjects, but usually ^vith 
 legends ; therefore a costume must, as it were, be 
 invented for the characters. Art could assist them 
 but little, since it generally represented the gods 
 and heroes in the nude; but the theatre, which at 
 the same tune was a religious institution in whii.h 
 all the co-operators were particip- 
 ants in the celebration, sought its 
 effects chiefly by splendour of cos- 
 tume. Thus was developed the 
 ordinary tragic dress, which be- 
 longed neither to actuality nor to 
 the past, but was an ideal costume 
 most closely resembling the gar- 
 ments of religious festivities. 
 There were also certain special 
 means adopted for increasing the 
 height of the actor beyond reality, 
 but we must not suppose that this 
 was rec[uired by the great distance 
 at which the actors were seen ; 
 these attempts at magnifying were 
 rather caused by the desire to 
 make the actors appear super- 
 human, heroic ])ersonages, excel- 
 ling the men of the day in physical 
 power and dignity, just as the wonderful deeds of the 
 Homeric heroes exceeded the weak actions of their de- 
 scendants. The recpiirements of costume in comedy 
 were somewhat different ; for gods and heroes the same 
 costume was used as in tragedy, but slaves or persons of 
 ordinary life were also introduced, and these could not 
 be clad in solemn garments. It is difficult to find a 
 tixed standard in comedy, since we must take into 
 account not only the difference l:ietwecn the older and 
 c c 
 
 Fig. 1.59. 
 
434 GliEEK 1,11'E AT HOME. 
 
 the nowrr cuincilw luit alsci the comody (intsidr Attica 
 — for instance, that of the Sicyonians, the Taivntines, 
 etc. — which had its peenliav character, and, (h)nbtless, 
 also pecuhar (h'ess, jnst as the " Arlecehino " of the 
 \'enetian popnhir eonied}' appears in a different (h-ess 
 from the Florentine " Stentcrcllo," and the Neapolitan 
 •■ rulcinella," althoiii^-h originally they were all three 
 the same person. A special eostnme was not recpiired 
 for the satyric ehorns, since all that was necessar\- 
 here was to imitate' as well as piossiMe what was 
 represented by works of art. In sta^v costume, as 
 in that of real life, we nnist distinguish betAveen 
 upper and lower garments. The lower garment of 
 the tragic actor, as well as of the chorus, both in 
 male and female parts, was the long chiton, wliich 
 was worn in Attica before the time of Pericles, and 
 traced its origin to Ionia; this dress was maintained 
 on the stage because it was especially a festive gar- 
 ment, and, lilvc these festive garments, the theatrical 
 dresses were many-coloured, richly adorned with 
 endiroidi'iy or borders, and often ver\' costly, if a rich 
 choragns closired to ecpiip his chorus splendidly. As 
 a rule, this chiton was girded in the old fashion, 
 which we see also in the cithara players, iimnediatcly 
 under the shoulders, thus forming a very high «-aist. 
 They also wore long sleeves reaching down to the 
 hands, a peculiarity of festive costume which liad dis- 
 appeared from real life. To increase the magnificence, 
 the chiton often liad a train, not only for women liut 
 even for men. The upper dress was either the hinia- 
 tion and chlamys, connnon in ordinary life, or else 
 garments peculiar to the stage, of which a number 
 of names have coiui: down to us, but no exact 
 details of their shajjc and mode of wearing. Here, 
 too, lolour was the rule ; black clothinLi' was worn 
 
c c 2 
 
4oG (JliKEK 1,1 FE AT HiiME. 
 
 li}- -ivroti'licd anil perseeuted })Ooplo. In tlioiv case, 
 of course, tlio festive eostnnie, which would have 
 formed too sharp a contrast with their parts, 
 was discarded ; Fhiloctetes, Teleplius, etc., did not 
 appear in ro\"al splendour, but in shnple garments 
 or even in rags, ^\'e may remember the description 
 given in the " ( )edipus at (/olonus " of the apijiearancc 
 of the unhappv exiled prince : and Aristophanes' jokes 
 show us that Eitripides aimed spieciall}? at attracting 
 the pity of the spectators by wretched beggars' dress. 
 The dress of the women, generall)' speaking, was 
 similar; perhaps there was a dift'erence in the mode 
 in which the upper garment was put on. Subordinate 
 personages in tragedy — messengers, satellites, slaves, 
 etc. — -wore the short chiton ; paidogogoi appeared in 
 tlie barbaric dress alreadv described ; and thus variety 
 in the appearance of the actors -was produced, while 
 the ceremonious dress was reserved for the most im- 
 portant perscinages. The ivor}' statuette of an actor, 
 of which two sides are represented in Figs. 101 and 
 l(i:2, gives an exct'llent notion (.)f tlie tragic costume. 
 He wears a long chiton, with sleeves (painted lilue in 
 the original) decorated with three broad stripes, de- 
 scending from the gii'dle to his feet, and with hoi'izontal 
 stripes round his sleeves. The mask, with the high 
 superficies, liears an expression of wild anger : the 
 size of the slits for the eyes is remarkable, and we can 
 see through tliem the e3'es of the actor, as well as a 
 piece of the face innnediately roimd them. As a rule, 
 onlv the pupil so a])pcars in ( Jreek masks, and there 
 fore the editor (V. Kobert) surmises that this pcjints to 
 a Roman custom of the Imperial age. This statuette 
 is also interesting for the shape of tlie " cothurnus,' 
 the usual foot-gear of the tragic actor. The cothurnus 
 was a tolerably high shoe, but made to tit either foot ; 
 
THE THEATRE. 437 
 
 tlio traoic cothurnus was especially distino-uislied by 
 
 Fir;. 161. 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 very liigii cork soles, whicli considerably increased the 
 height of the wearer. As may here he seen, the foot 
 
b 
 
 4o.S (UiEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 with the actual cuthiirmis is hi(hli.'n iindor the dress, 
 only tlic high soles are A'isilile beneath it. "When the- 
 height of the actor was thus increased hy the super- 
 ficies and cc^thurnus, it was necessary to give a larger 
 appearance to the rest of the figure : for this purpose 
 the}' stuffed themselves out with cushions, and wore 
 gloves with long fingers, which seem to have been 
 fastened to the sleeves, etc. The whole produced an 
 eti'ect that would hardlj- have suited our taste, but in 
 reality Avas not nearly so strange as the costume of 
 the heroes of t'ornrillr and llacine, to whose court 
 dress and long wisjs the seventeenth century seems to 
 have taken no exception. Of course, there were various 
 necessary additions ti) this costume : arms for the 
 warriors, a sceptre for the kings, a lion's sl<in and club 
 for Hercules, and a fawn skin for Artemis, etc. In 
 comedy the women probably a^ipeared in the costume 
 (if ordinarj' life. For the male characters, except the 
 fantastic parts, the short chiton seems to have been 
 commonest, especially for persons of the lower classes i 
 and the slaves, who were never absent fronr the newer 
 comedy, wore the "cxoniis," the common workman's 
 dress. The skin garments of the country people were 
 also worn, and knapsacks and knotty sticks completed 
 their ecpiijiment. In later comedy special charactei's 
 were marked out by the cnlour of the dresses: thus, 
 the parasites wore black or green dresses ; others, 
 again, coloured dresses with cloaks; slaves, the white 
 oxomis ; youths, the white chiton with piu'ple border: 
 i-cioks, unfulled garments, etc. Similarly the feminine 
 characters were marked out : there was the old wo]nan, 
 the daughters of citizens, the rich heiresses, hetaerae, 
 etc. In the comedy of Southern Italy, the costume of 
 which is repiresented on many vase paintings, the actors 
 of male parts usually wear a closely-fitting dress. 
 
440 GKEEK LTt'E AT HOME. 
 
 coviji-iiiL;' the legs as far as the ankles, and the arms 
 clown to the hand, and over this a tight-htthig tunic, 
 leaving- arms and legs free (eompare Fig. IGo). Here 
 it is evident that the lower garment takes the place 
 of our tricot ; the arms and legs are supposed to l>c 
 bare. If the object was to represent absolute nudity, 
 the tunic was replaced by a close-fitting vest, usually 
 pro\ ideil with a false stutting, on which the breasts and 
 navel w ere marked. To this was sometimes added the 
 comic phallus, a remnant of the old coarse popular 
 jokes, in which the Older Comedy frequently indulged. 
 ])ut in the New Comedy it fell gradually into disuse, 
 and was entirely absent from the representations of 
 ordinary life, though introduced into farces which 
 burlescpied the mj-ths and tales of the heroes. 
 
 ^^'e give here several examples of pictures from 
 ancient comeclj'. In Fig. 103, the meaning of which 
 is not clear, the stage has on its left side a scaffolding 
 covered in with a roof, to which a staircase leads ; on 
 the floor of this erection lie a bundle of fieds or (.'ar- 
 ])ets, a cap, and a litter. Chiron, whose name appears 
 on the jdate, is climbing up the staircase with diifi- 
 cidty, and bending down leaning on his rough knotty 
 stick ; a slave is pushing hinj Tip fnjm behind, while 
 Xanthias, standing on the top of the stairs, seizes hold 
 of his head as though to draw him up. In the l.iack- 
 groimd we see two not specially attractive iryuiphs, of 
 wdiom onl}- the upper part is visible : these again are 
 designated in the inscription ; the }-outh on the right, 
 in the hirnation, and without a luask, is not one of 
 the actors. Possibly this is a representation of the 
 sick Chiron seeking healing at a sanctuary of th(i 
 nymphs. The costume and the tricots, as well as the 
 grotescpie masks, are ^vorthy of notice. The vase 
 painting in Fig. 104 has not ))een satisfjictorily 
 
4-4:2 HKEEK LIFE AT HUME. 
 
 i'X|ilaiiie(l. It is evident that Hcrrulos is ens'a.^-ed 
 in sonic love adventure, as is proved by the hon's slcin 
 in which the actor, who is jesting witli a girh is 
 fh'cssed, and the chtb which rests beside hinj. 'Hie 
 fignre on the right probably represents air old woman ; 
 on the left is a man contemplating the scene. With 
 the exception of the girl and the -woman in tlu^ 
 middle, the masks are extreme earieatures : the ci:)s- 
 tnme of the two men resembles that in Fig. Kj.'i 
 Fig. 105, a l^ompeian wall-painting, ma\' be here conL- 
 pared, liecanse it evidently imitates (ireek prototypes, 
 and the scene represented in the centre belongs to 
 the later corned}'. The one actor with a, curious head- 
 dress and a spear seeins to be a sort of M'iIck 
 (ihirioKiis, the man in a reverential position speaking 
 to him a parasite. The three youths who stand near 
 wear mi masks, and it is therefoi'c doubtful whether 
 thev are to be regarded as part of the representation 
 in the character, pei'haps, of statists, who may have 
 appeared without masks. T-wo old men to the right 
 and li.'ft of the central scene, seated on a somewhat 
 l(n\'er plane, and leaning on their knotty sticks, with 
 serious official mien, are doubtless theatrical police, 
 who had to keep order dnri)ig the performance. It is 
 not easy to say what place in the theatre they were 
 su]>])Ose(l to occu|iv. 
 
 We gain some information concerning the costume 
 of the satyric drama from a very interesting vase 
 [lainting, whiidi caniK.it, liowever, for various reasons, 
 be re]>r(.'sented here, and whicli we propose, there- 
 fore, shortly to desi:-i-ib(.'. This rejiresents the })er- 
 sonages taking ])art in a satyric drama before the 
 connuencement of tlie performance ; a group in 
 the centre of the top row iloes not belong to the 
 perfi:i)-mers ; this represents l)ionysns resting on a 
 
444 (iKEEK LIFE AT IIO.^IE. 
 
 cnurh \\itli Ariadne, near him is a winnaii liolilinj^' 
 lip a mask, probalily a irusi.', and the little Kms 
 Hiiiirras. To the rit^lit and left of this group, which 
 must be regarded as the ideal scene, stand three 
 actors, each holding his mask in his hand (the string.s 
 by which they were held are visible) ; next on the 
 right is Hercules, who niay be rei-ognised b\' his lion's 
 skin, ehib, and quiver; near hhn is the " Papposilenus," 
 his A\liole body covered -with skin, a panther's skin 
 tlirowii over his left arm, and holding a short staff; 
 We do not know the name of the third actor on 
 the left. The chorus of satyrs consists of i^leven 
 persons, of wliom only one has as yet put on his 
 mask. That one is practising a dance in pre]:>aration 
 for the performance. Most of the chorus are dressed 
 alike with onl\- a little covering of skin round their 
 loins, and the short satyr's tail ; one of them, however, 
 has a little garment of some material with a pattern, 
 and another wears an embroidered dress with hima- 
 tion ; he might be taken i'ov an actor if his mask did 
 not liear the satyrie ty])e like the rest, the pug nose 
 and the pointed ears. In the middle of the lowest 
 row two musieians are represented : a splendidly 
 dressed flute player seated, in front of him stands a 
 cithara player. Further to the left sits a young man 
 holding a roll in his haiKk fuiother roll lies on the 
 ground, a l\re is visible behind him. In spite of his 
 striking youthfulness, this young man is probably the 
 ti.'acln'r of the chorus or the poet himself. The actors 
 are bearded men, the chorus beardless youths. Two 
 tripods close by proljably suggi_'st the ])rize to be com- 
 peted for. 
 
 ^^'e must now say a few words about the external 
 di'tails of the performani;e, the public, and the recep- 
 tion of the ])ieces. (Jriginally, admission to theatrical 
 
THE THEA'J'KE. 445 
 
 repvesentations was free, as to a religious festival in 
 which the whole population were to take jiart. Biit 
 when the crowd of spectators became greater this had 
 its disadvantages, and very often quarrels for places 
 ensued between citizens and strangers. We know 
 little of the conditions in other places ; but at Athens, 
 when in 500 b.c. the old wooden theatre fell down 
 during a performance, and the new stone theatre 
 of Dionysus was erected, they took advantage of 
 the occasion to levy an entrance fee, the amount 
 of which is uncertain. Even at the beginning of 
 the fifth century the income from this source 
 seems to have belonged to a theatrical lessee, whose 
 dut}' it was in consecjuence to keep the building in 
 proper condition. He paid a fixed sum to the State, 
 and in return received the entrance money. It is 
 well known that Pericles, partly with a benevolent 
 desire of making the theatre accessible for the poorer 
 class of citizens, and partly also in order to increase 
 his popularity by this democratic measure, introduced 
 a law by which every citizen received the price of 
 admission from the State. This was the "show- 
 money" {Oewpmov), an institution which seems to have 
 lasted for centuries, but the arrangements connected 
 with it are by no means clear. In the first jjlace, it 
 was probably calculated for the poor people only ;. 
 but the rich, too, made use of it, if only to escape 
 from possible reproach of pride or haughtiness by 
 some of the numerous informers wdio at that time 
 existed at Athens. There Avas a special board en- 
 trusted with the distribution; the show-money was 
 allotted to the citizens according to tribes fiy 
 cashiers appointed by lot, wdiose duty it was to 
 see that none received it without proper claim. It 
 was therefore distributed in the separate tribes 
 
44G (;kkek life at H(ime. 
 
 acciinlino' to tlie registers of citizens in the denies. 
 The statements of the ancients do not a.qTee ahmii 
 the aniiiunt of the money : Imt the nmst proliable nf 
 the newer liyjiotht'ses is that for one day it amonnted 
 to two ohols, for the three (Lns of tlie _L;r(_'at ] )ionysia 
 cine ih'aihma. Tile m(>ne\' was paid, mi admission 
 into the tlieatre, to tlu.' lessi'e, avIio eitlier received it 
 in jicrson, or levied it li\' nn'ans ol his controllers or 
 easliiers; the same peojile took the tees from those 
 who had not received the slio\v-money, sm-li as the 
 residcnit forein'iicrs, strangers, (^tc. Jt is ^•ery dilli- 
 enlt to decide "wliether this was paid in coin or 
 not; one liypotliesis is tliat, instead of money, 
 the citizens received tick'i.'ts, which had the "\iilue 
 of monev, and simplified the pa\iiie' ont as well 
 as the payiiii;' hack; numy such eonnters IjcariiiL;' 
 theatrical emlilems, have come (hiwii to ns, and are 
 sn])pos(.'d to have been admission passes. Still, 
 weighty ohjections liave hi^en made to this hv[)o- 
 thesis ; and it is more ])rolialile th;it the citixens 
 reahy reeeivt'd the actnal money, with which the^' 
 eonld do what they pleased ; they either hoiicht a, 
 ticket for the tlieatre — and very likely tliese eonn- 
 ters were really entrance tickets — or sjient it in 
 any other way they pleased. It was ncit possihli^ 
 to control this; and herein, no doulif, lay the dis- 
 advantage of the institution, wliich has often heeii 
 spoken of as injnrions to the Attic democracy, since 
 it was billowed by similar institutions at othi'r times, 
 and conse([uently the' unproductive expenses of the 
 Attic budget extendeil more and more, A number 
 of jilaccs in the thealre Avero given free, or were 
 ]ilaces of honour: thus, for instance, those re- 
 served by the Stati' for foreien envoys, the places 
 for the priests and cithei's who had a right to special 
 
THE THEATIIE. 447 
 
 seats ; naturally, tlic expenses of these places had 
 to be paid by the State to the theatrical lessee. 
 
 The question whether women and children might 
 visit the theatre is often asked. Undoubtedly women 
 Avere allowed to be present at the tragedies, since there 
 are sufficient passages to prove this. Now, tragedy 
 was followed by the satyric drama, which was often 
 exceedingly coarse both in language and gesture : 
 obviously then the women must have sat this out, 
 and this need not appear so very strange to us, since 
 there does not seeiu to have been much prudery 
 amonw the Greek women. Moreover, the satvric 
 drama was i:>nly indecent now and then, and the 
 jokes were vulgar according to our ideas, but not 
 exactly frivolous, and no worse than modern operettas 
 to which ladies arc in the habit of going. The come- 
 dies were dift'erent, especially the older comedies, for 
 the whole contents are often coarse, and situations 
 occur in them which make it impossible for us to 
 imagine that women or boys should have been present. 
 Still, all indications seem to prove that the}^ were seen 
 l>y women, with this limitation, that respectable 
 women who had regard for their reputation did not 
 go to comedies ; hetaerae, who are often alluded to as 
 eager theatre-goers, probably constituted the greater 
 part of the feminine public. It also seems that 
 boys were present. Slaves were allowed to visit the 
 theatre ; some even earned money, and could there- 
 fore pay their own admission, others may have gone 
 in attendance on their masters, or have received the 
 money for their entrance in some other way ; but it 
 is unlikely that tliej' sat among the citizens ; prob- 
 ably there were special places allotted them ; indeed 
 it has been suggested that there were distinct seats 
 for every class. The only places about ^vhich this 
 
44S (;l!KEK LIKE AT HOME. 
 
 is certain arc tlie l()'\vest idws, wliidi wore seats 
 I if lioiKuir tor orticials, priests, etc. Mdreovcr, it is 
 prolialile, but nut quite certain, that tlie hii;'hest 
 places were reserved for strann'ors. It has also been 
 assumed that the wouicn sat in the more distant 
 places, or, at any rate, not in the front rows, and tliis 
 seems proliable ; otherwise, there is no passage which 
 proves for certain tliat the seats for the men at 
 Athens were distinct from those of the women. 
 
 Another question is the manner in whicli the non- 
 reserved places were allotted. It seems certain that 
 they "were not numbmvd, and, indeed, this would 
 ha\e been scarcely possible among so many thou- 
 sands; but there may have been a general division of 
 the theatre according to the wedges, and the separate 
 divisions of each wedge, and these may have been 
 indicat(.'d on the entrance counters. JrSenndorf has 
 suggested that at Athens each •\\"edge rua}- have been 
 assigned ti> th(_' mend_>ers of a particidar tribe, and 
 that on the counter given to each citizen the tribe in 
 (piestion was marked by some symbol. bint this 
 hypothesis is imU- probable if wi; assuiiic, with 
 Benndorf, that tlie citizens received not money but 
 counters; if the spectators bought their theatre 
 tickets from the less(.'e with the show-money, or at 
 their own expense, it was impossible for theiv, to be 
 any division of places according to tribes, for this 
 would have necessitated a fresh and very troublesome 
 (/ontrol of the registers i;if citizi/ns. We must there- 
 fore assume that the coimters fiought of the theatrical 
 lessee were marked according to wedges and division, 
 and the spectators liail to taki' tlieir placi.'s accordingly 
 but that, with the excejJtion oi a fe\v classes i.if spec- 
 tators, there was no compulsion to take a place in any 
 special division. 
 
THE THEATItE. 449 
 
 Of the three musical contests celebrated at the 
 greater Dionysia, each kind, namely, the tragedies 
 with the satyric dramas, the comedies, and the cyclic 
 choruses had their special judges. At the appoint- 
 ment of the choragi, which took place a long while 
 before the festival, the Council of the Five Himdred, 
 probably under the presidency of the Archon, in 
 the presence of the elected choragi, elected these 
 by ballot, and the lot once more decided which of 
 them was to pronounce judgment. We know tor 
 certain that five judges were appointed for comedy, 
 probably the same number was re(.|uired for tragedy, 
 although an exceptional case is mentioned, dur- 
 ing a contest between Aeschylus and Sophocles, in 
 which there were ten judges, a departure from the 
 ordinary custom, which "was required by the great 
 excitement in the pidjlic and the fear that the judges 
 might be influenced in their decision bj' it. The 
 judges had to pronounce on three ]ioints : the 
 work of the poet, the performance of chorus and 
 choragus, and the acting. The reward for the 
 victorious poet was a -wreath of ivj' : the choragus 
 received permission to set up a public monument in 
 token of his victory, and, as already mentioned, the 
 choragi in the tragic choruses usualh' dedicated 
 tripods, those of the comic choruses lillets, thj-rsus 
 wands, and (ither festive apparatus ; their decisions 
 were also commemorated bj' inscriptions. The prize 
 of the actors probabl}- consisted in additional gifts 
 of money besides the fees that were legally due to 
 them. 
 
 D D 
 
( 'HAl'TEU XIII. 
 
 W A U A X ]( SEA r A II I X C . 
 
 Thr Ilrinir Peii. .(1— Tiil HI 1 AVavs— Tlir ( 'lmii.il -C'liavartciisliis nf 
 (ii't-ck Waniurs — Tlii' Spalttnis — 'I'hr Atln'iiiau Amiy — (in-rl; 
 xVriiis — ( 'avalry — (hi'cic Sieges — Clivek Sliips — Thf Tiiicano. 
 
 Scarcely any changes scciu to have taken jilacf in 
 the character of tlie Dtt'ensive and defensive arms ot 
 the Greeks from thi' most anci(.'nt perind until the 
 Roman time, thcnu'h t1ie con(hict of warfare made 
 enormiins advance's in tlie tliousand years lietwei^n the 
 Trojan War and the age of Alexander the, (iri.'at ami 
 his sneeessi_)rs. Our authorities for the earlii'st period 
 are hut few, hut the wars of the tifth and fourth 
 centuries i'..('. have been carefully descrilicd hy 
 historians, some of whom themselves possessed 
 militarv knowledge. AX^- must therefore be content 
 to olitain i.inr knowledge of warfare in earj-^- times 
 from the descriptions of poets, who naturally aimed 
 at a very different result from the historian. Tlie 
 Homeric Epics are not authorities which we can 
 follow alisolutely in e\-cry respect, but still they 
 enable ns to form a picture of the warfare of that 
 period, and gain some general notion of the najde 
 in which it Avas conducted. 
 
 The military conditions of that time liore the same 
 patriarchal character which characterised the govern- 
 ment of the heroic age. (Treece, which even in the 
 historic age was broken up into a nnndjcr of separate 
 
WAR AXD SEAFAKIXG. 451 
 
 nationalities, was in the heroic period merely a 
 collection of tribes li^•ino■ in constant fend with one 
 another, and undertaking continual predatory expedi- 
 tions on their neigiibours' territory ; the nobles placing 
 themselves at the head of a mnnber of enterprising 
 men, and regarding these proceedings as ui no way 
 dishonourable to them. Sometimes a great common 
 undertaking ci>iubined several tribes under one head, 
 but even then the power of this chief was l>}" no 
 means an unlimited one ; the separate tribes who took 
 part in the expedition under their own princes and 
 nobles stood under their immediate conmiand, and 
 it depended on the goodwill of these little kings 
 whether they submitted to the ordinances of the 
 chief commander or not. Consequently there could 
 be no question of a common arrangenrent of the 
 ami's', or of a subdivision of the people according to 
 the natTu-e of the arms they used : the Ijattle order 
 was drawn up according to tribes. 
 
 Xor were they acquainted with any definite plan 
 of battle. The main brunt of the fight was borne by 
 the nobles, who fought from their chariots, and whose 
 single combat Avith renowned leaders on the other side 
 excited such universal interest that very often the 
 battle stopped meantime. Moreover, these duels were 
 often decisive for the victory or defeat of the whole 
 army. The nobles appeared in full armour, accom- 
 panied b}' their charioteers, on their war chariots, 
 usually drawn b}' two horses. On the vase painting 
 depicted in Fig. 166 the painter has represented four 
 horses drawing the chariot, but in so doino- he was not 
 following an old tradition, since in his time the custom 
 of fighting with chariots had long ceased, but rather 
 the universal practice of ancient vase painting, which 
 always represented war chariots with four horses, 
 
 D D 2 
 
452 CiKEEK LIFE AT Hii.Mi:. 
 
 following;' the cxaiii|ile of the IJiukI rKjur used in I'ui'cs. 
 The warrior stands holding tlu^ reins in his lel't hand, 
 and his spear in the I'iglit, and has not yet mounted 
 his chariot : he is in l\dl armour, and so is the warrior 
 standing in front of the ehariot, and consequently we 
 are iustified in supposing that tliis really represents a 
 war ehariot. The (ireeks, when they fought tfoni 
 their chariots, dashed at full speeil from their own 
 ranks against the foe, and often cliallenged an enemy 
 to single condjat with words of bitter mockery; this 
 was heguu with lances, and afterwards, when tlie coni- 
 hatants had got close together and possibly left tlK'ir 
 chariots, with the sword ; even stones 'were not despised 
 in the heat of combat, (.'avalry was unknown in the 
 time of Homer; the masses of infantry seldom fought 
 hand to hand, l)Ut usually from a distance "with liows 
 and javelins. But when they canie to closi;! ipiartci's 
 they closed theii- rard^s and locked tlic^ir shields 
 together; for the prineijile of the closed phalanx, 
 which l)e(/ame so impdrtant for Oreek warfaro, "was 
 indicated even in the heroic age. Their mode of war- 
 fare shows the uncivilised condition of the (iri'cks at 
 that time, (.'unning and ambush were regarded as 
 pei'uiissiljk.', and cruelty and harshness to thi:- fallen 
 enemy were universal. The captives taken in war 
 became slaves if they -were not ransomed, and were 
 sometimes even mcrcilessljf sacrificed. It was con- 
 sidered a glorious deed to roll the fallen enemy of his 
 armour in the niidst of the fight, nor \\-as it ignoble to 
 leave his corjise unburied, to be consumed by the ^vild 
 beasts. Still, there were traces of noble self-sacrifice 
 and conu-adeship in their conduct towards their own 
 fellow-countrymen. 
 
 In tlie following centuries, after man)" revolu- 
 tions and internal contests, the trilies were combined 
 
4.54 (IliEEK EIFE AT HOME. 
 
 togetlier into sejiariite states, in tlio iiianurv wliirh 
 contiuuL'd -with slight torntorial changes down to the 
 Macedonian period. V>nt as the (Ireeks never suc- 
 ceeded in becDuiing one groat nnited power, or even a 
 federation of states, they never attained to a connnon 
 army, and tlie arjuies of ({recce were as manifold and 
 various as the circumstances in the various small 
 states of Hellas. I)etails have come down to us con- 
 cerning very few ; wo lamw most of Sparta, and Athens. 
 Sparta in particular was warlike in th(_^ whole 
 character of its iidiahitants, and (•onse((uently the 
 whole constitution was liased on military pihiciples. 
 Every " Spartiatc," that is, every man descended 
 from an ancient Spartan family, was hound ti_> mili- 
 tary service in his country from his twentieth to his 
 sixtieth year. (Jf i-ourse, they did ntit call upon all 
 capable of bearing arms in time of war, l>ut in each 
 case the Ephors decided which classes were to be 
 levied. Each of the five communities of Sparta su])- 
 plied one division fXoT^o<r) ; these were again sulidividcd 
 in companies {jjLopai), \\\\o messed in <-ommon. In 
 later times, towards the end of the fifth centiu'y, tho 
 divisions were changed. The wh(jle La<;'edaemonian 
 arm)' was then divided into six divisions, each of these 
 into twi) companies ; the size of these divisions varied 
 according to rccpnrement. The non-citizens too were 
 called to military service ; the " Pcrioiki " formed 
 separate divisions, who as a rule did not tight in the 
 same ranks with tlie Spartiates, liut still served like 
 these, as hcavy-ai-mcd infantry (oirXlTai), while the 
 " Helots," who were actual skues, fVillowed their 
 masters to Inittle as attendants, cliieti\' as shield- 
 bearers, and were si.imetimes used in battle as light- 
 armed troops. The i;'i:)nnnand in time of war fell 
 t(.) one of the two kin^s, and it was the citizens who 
 
WAK AND .SEAFAlUX(i. 455 
 
 (lecidc<l which of the two should take the chief coui- 
 uiand on a particnlar occasion. Each separate division 
 (if troops had its own leader, who was probably 
 entrusted in time of peace also with the military train- 
 ing and exercise of his men. In military matters the 
 Spartans far excelled most of the other Greeks, because 
 their whole training and education rested on a military 
 basis, and no glory was regarded as greater than that 
 achie\'ed in war. Moreover no Spartiate might work 
 at any profession or trade, but was obliged to dedicate 
 all his powers to the State, and therefore the Spartans 
 were professional soldiers in the true sense of the word. 
 It is true they were only strong in infantry ; the 
 cavalry was insignificant both in qualit}' and quantity. 
 Each division had some cavalry, but for this purpose 
 they took the weaker men, Avho were incapable of 
 serving as heavy-armed infantry, and, in consequence, 
 the cavalry plaj^ed a very unimportant part in the 
 Spartan army, and they were often obliged to engage 
 fiireign mercenaries for the purpose. 
 
 The warlike Spartans regarded a militar}* expedi- 
 tion as a desirable opportunity of putting to the test 
 their powers acquired in time of peace, and it was 
 really a kind of festival to them. They set out for a 
 campaign after sacrificing and takmg auspices. In 
 the enemy's country they set up a camp, and this 
 was not square as was the usual Greek custom, but 
 round and unfortified ; it was guarded by the out- 
 posts and the cavalry, who were sent out to patrol. 
 The helots -were encamped outside, llilitary drill 
 was carried on very energetically within, but still, on 
 the wdrole, the life and discipline in the field were 
 less severe than at home ; and on these occasions 
 jnirple garments were Avorn, and the liair was care- 
 fully curled and decked with wreaths, a thing which 
 
4-5{i nitEEK l.TFE AT IKiME. 
 
 was never done at home in time of jieaee. IJefore a 
 battle tliey nft'ei-ed sacritices in the early hi)nr,s of the 
 morning: then thcv set ont against the enemy, with 
 closed ranks and regnlar step, to the joyons sound oi' 
 flutes and the marching song, in which the whole 
 army joined. The heroic courage and self-denying 
 endurance with which the Lacedaemonians fought, 
 even without hope of victory, are everywhere re- 
 nowned, and the nohle Iriendships hetwcen older 
 and younger men on these occasions stood out in 
 the hrightest light. 
 
 At Athens too the citizens were bound to military 
 service till their sixtieth year, hut this obligation was 
 not so general as at Sparta.. According to the consti- 
 tution of Solon, it was only the citizens of tlie three 
 highest classes who -were bound to military service; 
 the " Tlictes," who formed the fourth class, were 
 exempt, and onl\^ in exceptional cases, such as 
 occurred in later times, <luring long and serious wars, 
 they were levied as light-armed troopis, or more often 
 as sailors for the fleet. After the Revolution of ( 'lei- 
 stlienes, when Attica was divided into ten tribes, this 
 political divisiiin "was also maintained for the levy ; 
 the register of citizens was jnade the liasis of a roll 
 of the men in each trilic and denic who were lialjle 
 to military service, and on each si'parate occasion the 
 dei-ree of the people decided what ages wei'e to he 
 levied. It was the rule, liowever, that the flrst two 
 ages, from the eighteenth to the twentieth year, i.e., the 
 ephelii, should not be called for serviiie in the field, 
 but only in the ceiuntiy as riding patiT)!, and it was 
 not till their twentieth year that citizens were re- 
 cpiired to serve outside the country. The mejufiers of 
 tile Council, as well as the higher officials, were 
 exempt from military service during their pi.i-iod of 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 457 
 
 office. The Athenian ainij was divided into ten 
 divisions (Ta^et?) according to the number of tribes ; 
 these, again, Avere divided into companies and further 
 subdivisions, whose strength varied according to the 
 size of the levy and the conditions of the counti'y. 
 The resident foreigners, who were also bound to 
 militaiy service, served in the fleet, and also in the 
 land army among the infantry, Ijut never in the 
 cavalry ; they were chiefly used to garrison fortified 
 places and defend cities. The cavalry were far more 
 important at Athens than at Sparta. Ever}^ tribe 
 supplied a hundred horsemen, and altogether these 
 formed two divisions of five hundred men, com- 
 manded b)' the Hipparchs. As the State did not 
 provide the horses, but expected the soldiers to pro- 
 cure and feed their own, this service was a very ex- 
 pensive one, and consequently was only undertaken 
 by the first two classes. These cavahy regiments, 
 which were the pride of the Athenian citizens, were 
 exercised in time of peace also, and from time to 
 time inspected by the Council of Five Hundred ; we 
 have already mentioned that the cavalry played an 
 important part at the Panathenaic procession. In 
 ancient times the army was commanded in time of 
 war by the king, and afterwards by the archon as 
 long as there was only one ; when there were nine 
 archons this duty fell to one of them, called the 
 Poleinarch. After the reforms of Cleisthenes, it 
 became customary for each tribe to elect a general 
 (aTparriyoi) , and for the chief command in time of 
 war to fall to all these generals in turn, each com- 
 manding for a day. Next came the " Taxiarchs," and 
 the two " Hipparchs," and ten " Phylarchs," but nearly 
 all these offices lost their importance, as did also 
 the military organisation of tlie citizens, when the 
 
45S 
 
 CI'vEKK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 mercenary system was introduced. This bet^an as early 
 as tliG time of the Peloponnesian war, and o-ra(hiaUy 
 .gained ^ronnd. ( )ri<;inally they hired troops from 
 foreign nations of a kind whieh were waritinL;' in tlieir 
 own army ; thns, ja.veh'n throwers wore liroui;'lit Iroin 
 Ehi)(U'S, and archers from ( 'rete.hutin the course of the 
 fourth century the ai^ual Hellenic po}iulatiiin, and in 
 particular that of Attica, became more and more 
 
 unwarlilvC, and as the princes of Macedonia and other 
 iion-HellcMic states l)e_can to form standing- armies of 
 well-disi-iplineil nK.'i'cenary troops, tlie H(dlenic re- 
 Ijulilics were forced to follow this exam[ile as tlieii' 
 own luihtary po\ver diminished. Tliis mercenary 
 system did a L;reat deal to undermine the inde})end- 
 (.■nce i:)f ( Jreece, and facilitate its subjection under the 
 ^Tacedonian dominion. E\'en in the time of the 
 l^elopijmiesian war, the Arcadians were 'wilhui;' to fit^'ht 
 for anyone who \\'onld pay theiu, against their own 
 countrymen; in tli(.> e.\[>e(lition of the Ten Thousand, 
 tliey formed an impo)-tant part of the troops of 
 
WAR AND SEAFAKIXfJ. 
 
 459 
 
 the younger C3a'us, and by no means the worst part. 
 As the population was impoverished by many wars, 
 they became more wiUing to respond to the invi- 
 tation of any capable Condottiere, and collected from 
 all states, bnt chiefly from Peloponnesus ; and it 
 sometimes happened that the members of a single 
 state or tribe united together as a special division of 
 the ariiiy. As the warlike spirit disappeared among 
 
 Fig. 1G8. 
 
 the citizens, who were unwilling to undergo the 
 fatigues of service, these standing mercenarj' troops, 
 under the command of excellent erenerals, became 
 more and more disciplined and capable. The pay for 
 a common soldier was usually four obols a day (about 
 fivepence), half of which was pay and the other half 
 ration-money ; this amount was sometimes increased. 
 The captain of a company received twice as much, the 
 general four times, but the prospect of booty was even 
 more attractive than the money ; for according to the 
 conditions of warfare of that time, everj^ campaign was a 
 predatory and ravaging expedition, and the mercenary 
 
4(i() 
 
 niiEEK I.Il'E AT IldME. 
 
 troops who went to war tVoiu purcl}' personal motives 
 spared neither friend nor foe, and lierein sinipl)- 
 fohowed the example of their leaders. 
 
 We ninst now say a few words ahont ( Iroel-; arms, 
 
 Fic. ICI). 
 
 in wliicli, as already mentioned, very few changes took 
 place. Tlie full armour of a Homeiic hero consisted 
 of greaves, cuirass, helmet, shield, sword, and on(_^ or 
 two spears, and in all essentials this was also the 
 armour (jf the heavj'-armed soldiers of the histoi'lc 
 
WAR AND SEAFAIUNG. 
 
 40] 
 
 period ; there were, however, a few ino(h'fications in 
 the centuries which followed Homer. The defensive 
 armour of the infantry consisted in helmet, cuirass, 
 _afreaves, and shield. As a rule, thej^ began by putting 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 the greaves on first, as it would have been difficult to 
 bend the body after putting on the cuirass, and we 
 see this rule observed in most old works of art, thouo-h 
 there are some exceptions. The greaves were half- 
 bent plates of brass, lined within with leather or wool ; 
 
4(i2 OltEEK LIFE AT TldME. 
 
 tliry liad to lie tlastic, because the}' were bent mit- 
 warils in |)uttinL;' nn, and b^- means of tlieir elasticity 
 they clnni;' to the leg, the front of which they covci'cd, 
 extending above the knee: still, there must have been a 
 ring round the ankle to hold tlieiu fast, and perhajis 
 tlicrt' was another fastening aliovc. In Fig. Kit, whi(di, 
 wilh Fig. lOS, represents pictures from a painted Imwl 
 Avith red tignres, we sec on the right a young warrior 
 stooping flown to put on one of his greaves, which hr 
 is liending outwards for this purpose; contrary to the 
 usual custom, the youth has alread)^ put on the cuirass 
 and clilamys over his chiton. In Fig. 1(J9 the imier 
 ]iicture of a drinking cup, representing the murder of 
 Dolon, the (ireek hero Diomedo wears greaves, on 
 whicli we <-an clearly recognise the ring below. 
 
 The cuirass of the In-roic and historic periods is 
 •shorter than that which was customary with tin' 
 Romans, but still descends far enough to cover the 
 greater part of the body below, and ma}' be seen on 
 works of art; but, as a ride, the luassive ]iarts do not 
 extend below the waist, and there are movable lajipets 
 attached to it to protect the parts below-. The cuirass 
 was generally' made of bronze, and ('onsisted of two 
 plates, one oi wdiich covered the Ijreast, the other the 
 back, and these were fastened together at the lowei- 
 edges, and also below and al)Ove the shouhlers ]>\' 
 buckles or other fastenings. In later times, shoulder- 
 pieces were added, which are not mentioned in H<:>mer ; 
 these ^vere fastened to the back wdien the cuirass ^v•as 
 put on, and drawn from there over the shoi.dder, and 
 fastened in front with little chains or cords to rings or 
 hooks. In Fig. 1G8, the man on the right, who is put- 
 ting iin his armour, has already drawn on his cuirass : 
 the two slioulder-pieces are still open, and he is just 
 on the point of pulling the right shoulder-piece 
 
404 
 
 CHEEK EIEE AT lIoME. 
 
 rm-wunl. in order to tksteu it there tn the front pit'ix' 
 lit' his cuirass. In Fie\ 170, a. heroic (/cure jueture, wo 
 
 Fic. 172. 
 
 run sec even more clcarhr how Achilles liandagcs the 
 arm of the womnhMl I'atroehis ; the rie'ht shoulder- 
 piece of Patmclns is fastened, Imt the left is openi.^d 
 in iirder net te luu't the "wounded arm. TIk.' mode 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 465 
 
 ill which the shoulder-pieces were fastened to the 
 enirass is very clearly represented in the figure of 
 Aniphiaraus, in Fig. 171, a vase painting represent- 
 ing the " Farewell of Amphiaraus." There were two 
 kinds of cuirass : those with stiff plates, and those 
 with scales. In the former, those plates are com- 
 n lonest which do not lit closely to the body, but only 
 roughly represent its shape ; of this kind are the 
 cuirasses of the warriors in Figs. 167 and 16S, and also 
 that of Amphiaraus in Fig. 171. In Fig. 172, taken 
 from a bowl painted liy Duris, the youth who is going 
 to battle receives a cuirass of this kind (compare also 
 Fig. 166). Sometimes this cuirass was made in a 
 shape common among the Romans, imitating the form 
 of the human l)(idy and representing its chief features. 
 The warriors in Fig. 170 wear scale armour : the 
 cuirasses are evidently made of leather, covered with 
 little brass plates, arranged one over another like scales. 
 Some parts of the cuirasses seem also to be made of 
 plates ; for instance, the girdle of Achilles and a strip 
 behind, also the upper part of the breast-plate of 
 Patroclus ; the shoulder-pieces, however, are made of 
 scales, for flexibilitj' was of special importance here. 
 The belly was protected by leather strips or lappets, 
 covered with metal, hanging down at the lower edge 
 of the cuirass, and covering part of the thighs (com- 
 pare Figs. 169 and 170). The cuirass was gener- 
 ally fastened round the hips by a leathern belt, with 
 brass coverings ; perhaps this is the object which the 
 boy in Fig. 168 is offering to the warrior putting on 
 his armour. 
 
 Below the cuirass the}' wore a short chiton woven 
 
 of especially strong threads, and frecjuently mentioned 
 
 by Homer as twisted or woven ; the sleeves were 
 
 usually cut short, falling a little way below the 
 
 E E 
 
4GG 
 
 (;i!r;EK life at tkijie. 
 nul it only (leseeudi'd over [larl of tlio 
 
 shouldrr 
 
 thighs. (('ouipiii'O the pictures.) Honior also makes 
 mentirui of a broad nirdle {ftiTpa). plated with hrass, 
 worn iimiiediatelv over the ehitou in sueh a manner 
 
 Fir:, llo. 
 
 Fif.. 174. 
 
 that tile upper part of the i^'inlle was covered by the 
 cuirass, wliile tlie lower w;is exposed. This girdle 
 seems to have fallen into disuse soon after the 
 Homeric age, for we can find no trace of it on any 
 works i.>f art. The linen tunics mentioned in Homer, 
 which became connnoner in later times, were probably 
 woven (:)f .strong thread, and covered with Ijrass at the 
 most exp<:)sed places. 
 
 The helmet, which, even in the earliest ages, took 
 
WAR AND SEAFARIXG. 
 
 407 
 
 the place of the original head-coveiing' of skin 
 ■\vas nsiially of bronze, and, according to the state- 
 ments of Homer and originals still existing, was 
 of three thicknesses, strongest in the middle, -with a 
 thinner layer above and below. The chief part ot 
 the helmet fitted close to the head like a cap, and 
 covered forehead and temples ; in front it hung down 
 in two se]3arate pieces over the cheeks ; there were 
 two 0]ienings for the e)'es between the nose-piece and 
 
 Fig. 17C. 
 
 cheek-pieces. In ancient times the skull cap and 
 cheek-pieces were made of a single piece, as we see on 
 the ancient Greek helmets from Olympia and Sar- 
 dinia, represented in Figs. 173 to 175 ; these are also 
 provided with nose-pieces, so that not much could be 
 recognised of the warrior who was covered in this 
 way. The helmet accjuired an additional jarotection 
 by a ridge extending over the middle of the skull cap 
 from the back of the head to the forehead, in which 
 the crest was fastened ; there wore also helmets with 
 two ridges to increase the resisting power, and this 
 
 E E 2 
 
4G8 c'liKEK LIFE AT ii(i:\n:. 
 
 tlion liad two crests. \vvy oftcii the ci'ost, which was- 
 of L;'i-cat s\7A\ was iiot fastened (hroi-tlv into the ridgv. 
 hut coiuiocteil Avith it hy means of a tall, iiavvow 
 elevation, so fliat it t<:iwei'e(l liii^^h ahove the hehnet. 
 The vase jiaintiiie- repi'esented in Fi,<;'. 17G shows 
 helmets of tin's kind fielongin^ to two Avavriors who 
 arc playing dranghts ; one of them has taken off his 
 hchiiet and jilaced it on the shield heside him ; the 
 other keeps liis on, hnt has raised tin' part over the 
 forehead; the shape I'esenibles the originals I'epre- 
 sented in Figs. 17:! to ITo. Sonietimes the i-rest was 
 fastened straiglit into the sknll cap Avithont any ridge, 
 as on Fig. l(>(i, in the liehuet lielonging to the warrior 
 on the right. Jn later times, many changes took 
 jilace in tlie sliapi' of helmets; the nose-piece and 
 elieek-]iieces were sometimes fle.Kilile and sometimes 
 stiff, hut of a different shapi.' ; thns the helmet of 
 Achilles, in Fig. 170, has the stiff forehead and nose- 
 ]iieee, Imt the eheek-j.iieces move on a hinge, and for 
 the sake of c(.)nd'ort the hero has tnrned th(.'ni n[i- 
 wards. (Jf the three helmets in Fig. I(j7, tln^ one on 
 the ground on tlie right seems also to havi' mova.lile 
 i-heek-]iicces, hnt there is no nose-piece, and only a 
 ])rotection for the forehead, which could prohaldy also 
 he pushed l.iack ; the tw(.i othei-s have stiff nose- and 
 check-pieces in one with tlie skull cap, Imt the check- 
 |)iec(.'s ari' not ]iointed, as was usnall)' the case iir the 
 older kind, hut rounded off. (<■ '(.imjiare also Figs. l(i(j, 
 f()i;l, anil 17:2.) Thi;'re was usually also a ])rotecting 
 piiece for the neck, as niay be seen on many other 
 pictures. AX^.irks of art show manifold w'ays of 
 decorating the h(/hiiets. {('ompare the helmet of 
 Fioniede in Fig. KjO.) Sometimes they made them 
 in the shape of a liuman face, imitating the lines of 
 the forehead, e\'i'hrows, (.'tc, in hronze. ( 'nriously 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 469 
 
 enous'h, this mask i'orui was soiuetiiiios transferred 
 even to tlio back of the hohnot, as nia}- lie seen 
 in Fig. 177, representing the death of Menmon, 
 where tlie king hair of the warrior descends below 
 tire helmet, though this nvAj have been due to a 
 mistake on the part of the artist ; another point of 
 interest about this helmet is its two crests. Besides 
 
 these high and usually splendid helmets, the simple 
 cap-shaped helmets were also extant in later times, 
 iind these ^rere strengthened by lidges or plates of 
 brass nailed on them ; such is the helmet worn by 
 AmjDhiaraus in Fig. 171. To prevent excessive pressure 
 on the head, they nsuall)' wore a closc-titting cap 
 below it, as we see in the case of Patroclus, in 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 In the Homeric age, there were t-wo chief kinds of 
 shields : a small circular one, and an oval shield of 
 
470 fiUKEK I.lKi: AT HOME. 
 
 iiliiicist huiiian ln'ight. '[l\fy wvw iiiadc nt several 
 layers (if bull's hide, sewn (111 tlie top of one aiiotlier, 
 and i-(i\fi-e(l, as a rule, on the oiit^r side, with hronze. 
 As the diameter of the skins decreased from without 
 to witliiii, and the strengtii of the metal coveriii,o-s de- 
 creased from the nuddle to the edge, the result was 
 that the middle (if the shield, which had to offer the 
 gn.'atot resistance, was also the strongest part ; besides 
 this, a boss or convex bronze plate (oyU-c^aXos"), was aJs(> 
 tix(,'d in the centre (if the outer side, but in later times 
 thi'\- put tlie coat of arms in its place. The smaller 
 circular shield seems to have been carried by a. double 
 handle, through one jiart of which, in the middle of 
 the hollow, the arm was thrust, while the other at the 
 edg(j was clasped by the hand (compare Fig. KiiV). 
 This mode of carrying would be impossible for the 
 larg(^ shields, and these must have been managed by 
 a siii'de handle, tliouo'h we must not forget that these 
 very heavy shields were also suspended from tlie body 
 by straps. In later times, too, we Hnd the round and 
 oval shields still in use, but the latter were considerably 
 diminished in size, which is very natural, since it must 
 have been extremely inconvenient and troublesoirie 
 in battle to carry these enormous shields. Jioth kinds 
 were moderately vaulted, and had a soni(.'\vliat project- 
 ing edge; the shields, both round and oval, often had 
 tw(i slits at the sides, tlie object of which was to enable 
 the warrior to peep at the enemy from behind his 
 shield, and also perhaps to send his spear through the 
 opening : these slits ma)- lie recognised in the shields 
 in Fig. TTG. As t(j tlie mode in which they were 
 Carried, we sometimes tiiid two handles, both at a little 
 distance fronr the centre, as on the shield in Fig. 17], 
 of which the inner side is visible; sometimes a cross- 
 liar extended over the ^vhole inner bireadth of the 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 471 
 
 shield, through which the arm was tlirnst, while there 
 Avere various straps at the edge which could he easily 
 grasped, and which i))ade it possible to go on using the 
 shield even if one of these handles should have been 
 torn off. There is a rather dift'orent contrivance in a 
 shield in Fig. 167, of which we see the inner [side ; 
 instead of one crossbar used as a diameter of the 
 circle, there are three like radii meeting together in 
 
 Fig. 17S. 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 the centre. Here, too, there were probably loops at 
 the edge. Very often the shields were lined inside 
 with coloured materials, and decorated with tassels or 
 cords ; on small round shields we sometimes find a 
 broad lappet of leather, or some such material, hang- 
 ing down, to give the combatant a further protection 
 for the lower part of his body. The coats of arms, 
 which were very various and full of meaning, were 
 either put on in relief like the head of a satyr m the 
 centre of a shield in Fig. 176, or else inlaid of metal 
 of another colour, or nailed on. 
 
472 GREEK LIFE AT H(JJ1E. 
 
 Ofi'cnsive arms inaj' be divided into tliose wliich 
 were used in close condjat, especiall_y lance and sA\-ord, 
 and those which were used from a distance, in par- 
 ticnlar, javelin, bow, and sling. The spear, or lance, con- 
 sisted m a shaft nsually made of ash, provided 
 I at bi;ith ends A\'ith a bronze point ; one of these 
 points A\fas used for attack, the other (cc)mpare 
 Fig. 166) to fix the spear in the ground when it 
 was not required. The material for the point, 
 in the heroic age, "was usually bronze : in later 
 times, iron. The blade of the point recpiired 
 for attack was usuallj' leaf-shaped and t\\'o- 
 edged (compare Figs. 178 to 181, taken from 
 originals in Dodona) ; its length was from 7 to 8 
 inches, its breadth about 21 in the middle ; it 
 WAS fastened to the upper pointed end of the 
 shaft !>)• a socket, and this socket "was sur- 
 rounded by a ring in order to increase the firm- 
 ness. The lower end was usually only a short 
 conical point. The length of the spear was 
 greater in the heroic age than afterwards. 
 Homer mentions spears about five yards long, 
 ^Y and in uaA'al warfare even one about ten 
 yards long, but this was cimstructed of several 
 pieces fastened togetlK.'r, and -was probably 
 only used in naval warfare to keep off the gra]j- 
 |!| pling irons ; in later times the usual length was 
 Y^f, from two to tA\-o and a quarter j^ards. That 
 isi. is aliout the lengtli of the spears represented 
 in Figs. 167, 168, and 171. We often find, 
 as in Fig. 176, two spears in the hand of a 
 ^^•arrior ; tliis usually happened Avhen the soldier used 
 his long spear not onl)' iov thrusting, but also for 
 tlu•o^\"ing, in -which case lie wcjuld require a re- 
 ser\-e speai'. In thrusting, as well as in throwing, he 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 473 
 
 clasped tlie spear in the middle with the right hand 
 
 alone. 
 
 The sword is an even 
 
 more usehil weapon for 
 
 hand - to - hand combat 
 
 than the spear, which on 
 
 account of its length can 
 
 only be used from some 
 
 distance. Originallj' 
 
 swords were constructed 
 
 of bronze, and this is 
 
 the only kind mentioned 
 
 by Homer, afterwards of 
 
 iron: the blade was two- 
 edged, and in the heroic 
 
 age tolerably long, prob- 
 ably shaped like that in 
 
 Fig. 182, which was 
 
 brought from Mycenae 
 
 and is twenty-four inches 
 long; the two - edged 
 blade and the top of the 
 handle, ^^•hich was de- 
 corated by plates of 
 wood, bone, or such like, 
 fastened on hy nails, but 
 which has not been pre- 
 served, were formed of a 
 smgie piece. As this 
 sword and the others re- 
 sembling it were equally 
 well calculated for thrust- 
 ing and piercing, Hel- 
 
 big's theory that they most closel}- resemble the 
 Homeric swords, is a very probable one. The swords 
 
 Fig. 182. Fio. 183. Fig. 184. 
 
474 CItEEK LIFE AT lloJlE. 
 
 in Figs. 1S3 and l.S-t, also troiii Mycenae, are of a dif- 
 ferent Idiul : the blades are two-edged, and nicasnre 
 
 thirt3--two inches 
 in length : the top 
 of the haft is 
 formed i:)f the same 
 piece with the 
 blade, and covered 
 Avith plates of a 
 different material, 
 bnt this weapon 
 seems to have been 
 exclusively used for 
 piercing. (Jf another 
 kind are those in 
 Figs, is.) and lS(j, 
 bnt these date from 
 Italian lake dwell- 
 ings, thongii the 
 same kind is said 
 to have been also 
 found in C-ireece. 
 The two - edged 
 blade is short here, 
 very broad at the 
 top, l>ut growing 
 gradually narrower, 
 so that the shape 
 almost resendiles 
 an acute - angled 
 landle, the lower end of which is 
 in the shape of a senucirele, is 
 a scjjarate piece of Ijronze, and 
 In the historic 
 
 ti'iangle. Tlie 1 
 
 bent outwards 
 
 wrirked nut ot 
 
 cnnnected with the blade by nails 
 
 age the swords are usually slmrt, the blade about 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 475 
 
 twenty inclies long, reed-shaped, and two-edged, 
 adapted for thrnsting and piercing ; the handle, which 
 is generally suited for parrying strolics, is rather 
 small (compare the sword in Fig. 1G9, where the 
 sheath and shonlder-belt are well represented). The 
 sheath was often of some costly material, and 
 artistically decorated, ordinary kinds were made of 
 leather ; the shoulder-belt was usually a leather strap, 
 with metal plates ; it was suspended over the right 
 shoulder, and was so long that the sword hung down 
 by the left side, but in later times they sometimes 
 wore the sword on the right side. Besides the kinds 
 of swords already mentioned there were some others ; 
 in particular that which is specially designated as the 
 Lacedaemonian sword, the blade of which is slightly 
 curved on one side from the handle onwards, and very 
 sharp, while the other edge is straight and evidently 
 blunt ; this kind of sword coidd of course only be 
 used for thrusting. Towards the end of the Hellenic 
 period, Iphicrates again introduced long swords in 
 the Greek armies ; they measured as much as a j-ard 
 with the haft, but the heavy-armed infantry prob- 
 ably continued to use the short sword. 
 
 There were two other weapons for close encounter, 
 the club and the battle-axe, but they are not im- 
 portant for (ireek warfare. The fornier was chiefly 
 used in the mythical contests of pro-historic times, the 
 latter, represented on works of art as the usual weapon 
 of the Amazons, is sometimes mentioned in Homer as 
 used by Greek heroes, but it was afterwards only in 
 use as an actual military weapon among some Oriental 
 nations. 
 
 Throwing weapons were chiefly used by light- 
 armed troops. In the heroic ages the javelin was 
 only a hunting w'eapon ; the heroes usually used their 
 
476 GliEEK LIFE AT H( )M K. 
 
 ordinary long lanr.rs for thro-wiug. 'I'Ik' li.u'it" jaAcliu, 
 about twn and tlirec-([narter yards in U'n,L;th, liocanio 
 a very eoninion iveapon of attack in the noxt pri-iod, 
 when the li,i;-ht-arnicd troops formed a rognlar part ot 
 the army ; this closely resembled thi^ javelin used in 
 the ^vmnastic contests, especially in the Pentathlon, 
 and like this was pr(.>vided with a loop, which the 
 throwi.'r wound round his fingers. Wo have already 
 discussed the method of throwing this spear. 
 
 Next we have to consider bow and arrows. There 
 were two kinds of bows: in the first place, a simple 
 one formed (if a single piece of elastii/ wood bent 
 outwards at the ends ; its form is slightly bent, and 
 (inly attains the shape oi a strong curve when it 
 is (b'awn. This bow was called the "Scythian," 
 or " Parthian," but we find it also on Greek works 
 of art, and it was jirobabl}' the tAdev kind. The 
 other shape is tliat of th(.! douljle liow, in which 
 two curved pieces of h(_irn are connected together 
 by a cyHndrical piicce of metal; this shape was the 
 connnoner in tlie (Ireek army, and (.'ven when they 
 gave up using goat and gazelle horns for the Ihjw, 
 l)ut constructed it of wood, it retained the shape. 
 The metal plate in the middle was also us(.'d as a rest 
 for the arrow, and the ends of the Ijow to wdiicli the 
 string ^\'as fastened, were usually plated 'v\-ith metal. 
 The string was made of plaited gut, and as a rule, 
 when the bow was not in use, was fastened (inly 
 to one end, and hung down loose, in order that the 
 bow might not lose its elasticity through the constant 
 strain of the string. The arrow was a shaft about 
 twenty-four inches long, usually of light reed, on 
 wdiich the point, supplied with two or more barbs, was 
 fastened with a string : at the other end, it usuall)' 
 had a little weight, supplied -with a notcli for setting 
 
^^'AR AND SEAFARING, 
 
 47( 
 
 hnng down 
 
 belonged to the ({reek boAV. 
 
 it more firmly against the string. We have evidence 
 in Greek excavations of the throe-edged arrow men- 
 tioned by Homer; compare Fig. 187, an arrow-head 
 from Megalopolis. The arrows were kept in a quiver 
 made of leather or basket-work, of which two kinds 
 are found: one •wide kind of triangular form, worn 
 on the left side, and generally used with the so-called 
 Si/ythian bow; and a snraller cylindrical shape, which 
 on the back over the left shoulder, and 
 The sling consisted in a 
 cord or strap, broad in the middle, 
 and narrower at the two ends, by 
 means of which little plummets 
 were thrown ; these were placed 
 on the broad centre of the strap, 
 the two ends of which were pressed 
 together in the hand and awung 
 a few times round the head ; with 
 a careful aim they then let go one 
 end of the strap, whereupon the 
 shot flew in the direction which it 
 had received by the impulse of swinging. In the 
 heroic age the sling-shots wei'e always stone balls ; 
 afterwards they also used plummets of cla\- or lead, 
 very often in the shape of an acorn. The most im- 
 portant part of the (Jreek army in the heroic age, 
 both in the period of citizen armies and in that of 
 mercenaiy troops, were the heavy-armed soldiers 
 (ottXitm). The weight which they had t() carry, in- 
 cluding offensive and defensive armour, amomrted to 
 about 70 lbs., but this considerable weight was only 
 carried l;)y a soldier in battle. On the march, part of 
 the armour was carried in baggage-carts, or else the 
 shield, or even the helmet, was given to a slave to 
 carry (yiraa-maTri'^). But as the inconvenience of the 
 
478 CliEKK LIKE AT HOME. 
 
 LagH'at^e-wanu'dUs was i^-roat, and the nuiiilicr dt slaves 
 — whii-h liad t'linnei'l}' hvvn \'erv coiisiilevaWe, sn tliat 
 amoiiL;- the J>aco(Iaeuioiiians there A\'ere sotiietiiiii's 
 seven helots tn one Spartan — gradually diminished, 
 we notii'C a tendency to decrease thi^ Aveight of the 
 soldier's arnmnr, tii'st hy substituting for the brazen 
 cuirass a tunic of h'ather plated witl) brass and 
 shoulder-pieces, and afterwards by using a small 
 round shield for the largo oval one. In the time of 
 the Persian wars the light infantry took the place of 
 the slaves, who had formerly, in order that the}' might 
 not be a useless adihtion to tlio army, been armed 
 with javelins and stones. ]!ut as the skill required 
 of the light-armed troo]js A\'as not equally developed 
 among all nationalities, it was neci'ssary here to .supply 
 their defects by mercenary soldiers. Thus, as we have 
 already mentioned, the Cretans were celebrated 
 arcliers ; excellent slingers came from Rhodes and 
 Thessal}' ; and the liest javelin-throwers from 
 Acarnania and Aetolia. These three kinds of light- 
 ai-mcd troops were distinct; they all went to battle 
 witliiiut anv defensive armoiu', not even wcarint;' a 
 hohiiet, but only a light felt cap or some national hat. 
 Besides these, and standing midway between .slaves 
 and light-armed soldiers, were the " Peltasts," 
 originally a Thracian troop, deriving their name 
 from the pclfn, a small wooden .shield covered with 
 leather, which resendjled the crescent-shaped shield 
 of the Amazons ; their offensive weapons were the 
 sword, a long spear, and four or five little javelins. 
 The light -arraei.l troops and peltasts were placed in 
 the field, now in front, now behind the main l.iody of 
 the army, on the wings, or wherever soeined good to 
 the general ; the}' were also used a good deal for 
 sallies, arcdiery, as spies, in ambushes, etc. 
 
WAK AXl) SEAFAHING. 
 
 479 
 
 The Greeks did not attach any great importance 
 to the cavah-y, which was in part the resuh of the 
 mountainous nature of their countr)^ where cavahy 
 regiments could seldom be properly deployed. Con- 
 sequently the Greek cavalry, as a rule, rode badly 
 and with uncertainty ; they only fought against each 
 other, and never attacked closed ranks of infantry, but 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 
 Fifi. 189. 
 
 pursued them when they wore thrown into confusion ; 
 regular cavalry attacks, in which the horse not only 
 carries its rider, but also is a means of attack, were 
 unknown. The horses wore saddle-cloths, not regular 
 saddles, and Ijit and bridle, and armour — consisting of 
 head-piece, breast-plate, and side-pieces. The rider 
 wore a brazen cuirass, with neck-pieces, protected his 
 abdomen by the usual leathern apron with metal 
 coverings, and also wore a special kind of mail over 
 arms and shoulders ; the hips were also protected. 
 
4.S0 CIIEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Tlie shield was not used for ordinary sorvic<>, the 
 ottensive weapons were a loni^' lance and a sword. 
 There can he no donlit that spnrs Avcre nsed at tliat 
 time, Itnt it is possihle that they wore thcni on only 
 one foot, as the statues of the vVniazons seem to show ; 
 File's. INS and IS!) represent (Ireek spnrs, still in 
 existenee. Horse-shoes and stirrnps were nnknown, 
 the rider spraii<4' on his horse with the help of his 
 lance, oi' else itst'd some stone, firatudi, or other nhpH-t 
 to enable him to monnt. 
 
 A\'e do not propose to enter into detail conceiiiinL;' 
 the arrangement and discipline, tactics and stratc'gy, 
 (if the (In'ek armies. A few words must hr said 
 almnt (drerk sien'cs. Schliemann's excavations at 
 ilycenae and Tiryns have ]irovcd to ns the magiii- 
 ficeiice of some ancient fortifieations. It is, therefore, 
 natnral that thi' sieye of a stmngly- fortified place was 
 a diffictdt matter for a ( h'eek army, sim-e (.■ffective he- 
 sieging machines were onlv very gradually invented. 
 For i-enturies the}' contented themselves with simply 
 sini'ounding a city and trying to force it by hunger ; 
 an ewn more favoniite device was trickery or ti'cacdi- 
 cry ; they were neither able to storm a town nor 
 make lireacdics in the wall The first machin<' for 
 stornung made use of by the (ireeks was the ram, an 
 invention of the (_'arthaginians, but this, too, was 
 ineffectual against very strong walls. They, therefore, 
 very often resorted tci the device of undermining the 
 walls in order to make them i\\\\ : sometimes they 
 raised the groiuid for attack by constructing a nuiund, 
 or made movable towers in order to enable them to 
 fight frijin the same height as the garrison. There 
 \\-ere \-ariotis devices, too, for setting the town, or at 
 any rate its fortifications, on tire ; and if the h.tcal con- 
 ditions ]>ei'mitted it, thi'V sometimes tried to reduce 
 
WAR AX I) SEAFARIXG, 
 
 481 
 
 the besieged to oxti-emities bj- cutting ott' their di'iulv- 
 ing water, or producing an artificial flood. This pri- 
 mitive kind of siege warfare only gave way to a more 
 rational method during the Macedonian wars ; it -was 
 in particular the merit of King Philip, instead of 
 enclosing a city, to concentrate the attack on one 
 point in the wall, in which breaches were made. The 
 discovery of heavy artillery, the perfection of breaching 
 implements, movable batteries, protective apparatus, 
 
 Fig. 190 
 
 and I'evolving turrets, did not take place till the Alex- 
 andrine age. 
 
 It was a natural consequence of the geographical 
 position of Greece that seafaring developed far more 
 quickly. Even in the heroic period fairly good 
 ships were built, though thej' were better suited for 
 coasting than sailing in the open sea. They were 
 moved by twenty to fifty sailors, seated on thwarts 
 on either side of the ship, while their oars were sus- 
 pended in leathern straps between the rowlocks : if 
 the wind was favourable, they replaced the oars by a 
 sail suspended from the mast by a sail-yard ; in the 
 
 F F 
 
4S2 
 
 UUKEK I.IKE AT HoM K. 
 
 Stern, the lielnisinaii directed the course ef the ship 
 with the rudder. The ship of Odysseus was thus 
 represented, even in later art, rutting' its way through 
 the sea (conipare Fig. 191 ). Still, this pictiu-e, which 
 dates from a much later perind, cannot give us a 
 proper conception of the build of the Homeric ships; 
 
 we should rather turn to the representations from 
 ancient vases on Figs. \',)2 and 1!).'^, in spite of the 
 r<:)ughness and smallness (jf the drawing. Both these 
 have a .strong spur at the prow, and were, therefore, 
 apparently used for naval \varfare, with Avhicli the 
 Homeric age was not yet acquainted. Trohably the 
 ships of the heroic age had high pnijecting ends both 
 forward and aft. 
 
 As in the Homerii- age, so probaljly also in the 
 following period, the ships were constructed in such a 
 
WA]{ AXL) SEAFARING. 
 
 488 
 
 manner as to bo tolerably flat, and accommodate only 
 one line of roA\'ers on each side ; consetjuently, in 
 large ships there Avould be fifty oarsmen or more on 
 either side. But tliey soon began to build the ships 
 higher and to arrange the oarsmen in several ranks 
 one above another, in two rows, as in Fig. 194, but 
 
 Fie. 192. 
 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 more commonly in three rows, and these ships were 
 then called Triremes ; in later times, especially after 
 the fourth century, tliere were four or even six rows, 
 and possibly still more. The arrangement of these 
 rowers' benches is of particular interest, and is made 
 tolerably clear by the Athenian relief represented in 
 Fig. 195.* The rowers' benches occupied the whole 
 
 * Compare an essay by Eaoul Lemaitre, " fSur la disposition des 
 rameurs sur la triere antique," in the " Revue Archcologiquc " for 
 1883, pp. 89 and fol. His conclusions, however, differ from Eraser's. 
 The question of the arrangement of oars is still an open one. 
 FF 2 
 
4S4. 
 
 (iKKEK LIKE AT lln.ME. 
 
 l:\vii loni 
 
 spueo of tlio l:\vii loni;- sides of tiie ship, with tlic 
 exceptidU of the two ends; tliey were urraneed o\-er 
 one anotlier in ro\\-s of diffei'ent heights, nut sejiaratod 
 b\- partitions, bnt only hy the open stniotnro of wood. 
 In each ix.iw each rower sat immediately in front ot 
 ihe next man in a straight line, hnt there is a ditfer- 
 eni'e of opinion as to the manner in Avhich the rowint,' 
 bencdies were arranijod. According' to frrasor, they 
 
 were immediately midei' one another, Imt tlie rowers 
 did not sit jierpendienlarly above eacli other ; bnt in 
 ordei' to sa\e s})ae(.! as mneh as possibL.', anil partly to 
 facilitate tlieir ni<jvenients, they were arranged in 
 such a wa}' that the seat of the next hi^'hest was in 
 the same direction and heielit as the head of the man 
 on the next seat below, so that each man, instead of 
 sittint,;' directly nnder the man aljove, sat a, little 
 towards the back, and, in nioving, kept his arms 
 immediatel)- inider the seat of the man aljove. 
 Lemaitre, on the other hand, assnnies that only tlio 
 lowest l.ienclies were close to the edye, and those 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING 
 
 485 
 
 above were removed by the lircadtli of tlie tliwart, 
 the third by two breadths, in which case the height 
 must have lieen so arranged that the oar of tlie man 
 above always passed over the head of the one innne- 
 diately below. It is hnpossible to attain any certainty 
 
 Fig. lfl 
 
 about this matter ; both hypotheses are open to objec- 
 tion. For the length of the oars naturally mcreased 
 in proportion to the distance of the rowers from the 
 water, and those of the highest row nmst have been 
 longest ; according to Grasei.''s arrangement, the length 
 of the oars increased 1 yard for each row, so that m 
 a ship of five rows the lowest rank had oars 2^, yards 
 lono- the highest Gi ; according to the arrangement 
 
4S() (;i!KEK IJFE ,\'r lliiMK. 
 
 "f Lciiiaitre, the length was evm griMtii-, but there 
 was this advantage, that the lungei- oars had alsn 
 longi'i- leverage, and eould coiisi'iini'ntly 1"' more 
 rasih controlled. The larger the nnndier ot rows, 
 th(.' greater in eonsc(|iience was the length ot tlie oars, 
 hut still tliev were ahli.' to l)ni]d and control shijis of 
 fifteen or sixteen rows. The splendid shij) of I'toleni}' 
 riiilopater is said to have had no less than forty rows, 
 and the length of the highest oars was ]S^ yards; 
 hut this was not a ship of war, and was only nsed in 
 calm water — in tVu.-t, a ]no(lcrn authority on seafaring 
 regards tlie whole description of this forty-<lecker as 
 a satire. Of ci.iurse, the larger the ships tlie greater 
 tile nuniher of oarsmen re([uire(l, since the numbor 
 of ro\\'s would lie greater; a "trireme" was rowed 
 Ijy 174 men, a " quin(|uerenie " liy -"ilO, the arrange- 
 ment fieing tliat each liiglier row had two mi.ni nior(j 
 than the one below, beeauso the litdk of tlie ship was 
 broadened towards the top. In rowing the greatest 
 regularity of movement was indis]>ensable ; this was 
 attained by the eommand of a s])ecial captain, and 
 also by inarking time A\ith flutes, so tliat all the oars 
 might strike the water at the sanu.' moiuent. Here 
 we meet with a ]:irobleni, hitherto unsolved: how was 
 it possible for the long oars of the upper rows to 
 k(.'ej> stroke with the short ones of the' lower rows ? 
 This \\"oul(l have fieen imjiossiljle if the same word 
 of eommand was give'ii to all the rowing fienche.s, 
 sinei_' the stroke of a bing oar "would naturally rt'ipiire 
 more' time tlian that of a sJK.irt one. Another ditti- 
 i.'ultv is the great number of (.)arsmen whieli \vould 
 have been reipurc'd tor Attica, where the Jiumlier of 
 .sliips "Was verv eonside'ralili.' ; still, the nunili(;r of 
 sailors and marines was ver\' small, as in naval 
 wai'fare the main obie(;t was to run tlie eni'iiiy's ships 
 
WAR AND 8EAFARING. 487 
 
 aground with the prow, and they did not trouble much 
 about shooting and fighting at a distance. 
 
 As to the construction of the ships, the prow and 
 stern were, generally speaiving, of similar build ; both, 
 as a rule, ended in curves, but there was usually a 
 lofty decoration of leaves or feathers for the stern, 
 while at the prow they put the image of a god, or the 
 head of an animal, or some other picture, which often 
 showed the name of the boat ; these were constructed 
 of wood or bronze, and a fiag waved at the top. Below 
 the prow, for the most part under water, lay the strong 
 beak, made of boards firmly fastened into the bow, 
 and protected in front bj^ massive iron points. On 
 the cleck there was usually a little canopy at both 
 ends ; in Fig. 194 this is seen on the front deck, 
 and apparently also in Fig, 191, though this may be a 
 little tent used as a protection against the sun, such 
 as was often placed on the upper deck. The tower 
 at the back, and the little hut for the helmsman from 
 which he directed both rudders, are wanting on these 
 pictures. The old ships had two rudders, to the right 
 and left of the stern ; by means of a mechanical con- 
 trivance, which is, however, not represented in the 
 pictures, these two rudders could be directed at the 
 same time in a jsarallel direction. 
 
 In Figs. 192 and 193 we observe near the bow a 
 round opening, corresponding to a similar hole in 
 Fig. 191 ; the object of this was to enable the anchor- 
 ropes to pass through the ship to the anchors, which 
 resembled our modern ones in all essentials, and were 
 hung up when not in use on little projections at both 
 sides of the prow, which also served the purpose of 
 keeping off the enemy's ship when avoiding an attack. 
 On the great mainmast there were, as a rule, two 
 square yard sails, fastened one over another, with a 
 
4SS 
 
 (il!EEK T.IFE AT IIDME. 
 
 third above tlieni, and at the top of the mast two 
 triangular topsails. The ships of war also had two 
 sails following the length of the ship, which were of 
 partieidar importance for turning when the wind 
 blow from the side. The Attic inscri])tions give us 
 man}' other details aliout seafaring, but these are only 
 of special interest for jirofessional sailors. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT, 
 
 The AncieDt Greek Prejudice Against Laljour— Cultivation of the 
 Soil — Agricultural Implements — Cattle Rearing — Handicrafts — 
 The Organisation of Labour — Various Trades — Wholesale and 
 Retail — Bankers and Money-Changers. 
 
 The domains on which the activity of the ancients 
 was chiefly concentrated were agriculture and cattle 
 rearnig, trarle, and handicraft. Intellectual or artistic 
 labour, which at the present day plays a very im- 
 portant part as a means of earning a livelihood, was 
 hardly considered at all in Ancient Greece, and the 
 artist, if he worked for pay, was put on the same 
 footing as the artisan ; in fact there were very few 
 intellectual professions connected with money. These 
 circumstances changed somewhat in the Hellenistic 
 period ; but even there the intellectual labour of 
 teachers, physicians, etc., would be placed in the 
 same class with other occupations, though gradually, 
 as the payment of this labour increased, so did also 
 the estimation in which it was held. 
 
 As to the statistical relation in which agriculture, 
 industry, and trade stood to one another, there were 
 naturally manj' changes as civilisation advanced ; and 
 again, local circumstances in every part of Greece, in 
 every district, and perhaps even every city, as well 
 as the geographical position, the nature of the land, 
 the adaptability of the soil for cultivation, etc., 
 were of importance for these branches; and again, 
 
490 CliEEK LIFE AT HOJIE. 
 
 peculiarities of race, naticnal jncju dices, Avere often of 
 groat Avciylit in the choice of a profession. It was an 
 idea not peculiar to the l)oric races, though most 
 strongly developed among them, that in reality every 
 kind of work done for pay was unsuitable for a citizen, 
 and tliat his whole activity should be given without 
 reward to the State ; but this theory — tli(.)Ugh the main 
 features of it are defended even by philosophers such 
 as Plato and Aristotle, and it rests on the assumption 
 that everA" citizen must have sufficient possessions for 
 himself ;nid his fanu'Iy, and obtain what he requires by 
 till' labour of slaAX'S — Avas oidy gradually developed, 
 and was (piite foreign to the Homeric age, as well as 
 to the period ijumediatelv following, in whieh Hesiod 
 could venture to say that not work but idleness was 
 disgracehd. (Changes in political conditions pro- 
 duceil other elianges as well. When the old ilonarchy 
 was succei_'ded by the rule of tlie ( )ligarchs, and the 
 priA-il(.'ged class being in possession of landed pro- 
 perty and numerous slaves, de^'oted its whole activity 
 to military and political matters, the jirejudice 
 originated that imly such occupations were worth)' of 
 a free ami noble citizen, and that all "work was low 
 and servile ; and it is natural that this opini(jn should 
 have lieen obstinatel}' maintained at Sparta, because 
 -the constitution there kept the character of the Olig- 
 archy most rigidly. In other places a healthier con- 
 ception of work gradually ]:)revaile(l, and, in particular, 
 the t\"rants of thi' older period tried to eond.iat the 
 disinclinatiun of tin.' citizens for prcjfessional activity; 
 in their case, howevei-, it was not only reasons of 
 political ei-i:)noiiiy, l.iut also political i.'.\])ediency that 
 influi.'nce<l them, since they did not Avish to see tlieir 
 rule threati'ued liy an unoccii])ied wai'like jiojiulation 
 longmg for a share in the L;<i\ermii(.'nt. liut these 
 
AGRICULTl'KE, TRADE, AND HAXDICltAFT. 491 
 
 efforts were only partially crowned with success, and 
 though in the time of absolute democracy many 
 citizens practised occupations connected with money, 
 yet the old idea still prevailed that those really stood 
 on a higher footing whose fortune permitted them to 
 live without any definite occupation, and we con- 
 stantly meet with traces of it even in a philosopher 
 like Socrates, whose statement that idleness was the 
 sister of freedom reflects the opinion of the majority 
 with particular eni2)liasis. 
 
 The jDrejudice against many professions was not 
 equally directed against all. Agriculture was least 
 liable to it. In the heroic period, agriculture was the 
 chief occupation, not only of the lower classes, but 
 even of the nobles and princes, who regarded it as 
 no disgrace to perform with their own hands, or super- 
 intend, many duties connected with farming. It was 
 natural that a change should be gradually introduced 
 in these patriarchal conditions, and this was due not 
 only to political revolutions, but also to the advance 
 of civilisation, and the growth of industrial and com- 
 mercial life in Greece ; yet agricultiu'e alwa}-s remained 
 one of the most respected occupations, especially in 
 those states whose geographical position cut them off 
 from trade, and the nature of whose soil was suited 
 for agriculture and cattle-rearing ; in these places the 
 citizens too took part in these occupations, though in 
 other places, especially at .Sparta, any work joerformed 
 with the hands was regarded as unsuitable for citizens, 
 and was assigned to slaves or free subjects. In the 
 large towns, such as Athens, where trade and industry- 
 attained a great height, and democracy, growing freer 
 and freer, tended to advancx' idleness bj- official gifts to 
 citizens, such as the show-money and public meals, agii- 
 culture lost in general estimation, and the citizen of a 
 
4!I2 (JKEEK LIFE AT IKiME. 
 
 larg'c to-wn i-t'garded the industn'tnis couiitvyiiian as a 
 creatm'o of a Imvcv rank. This was Ijut natural, and wo 
 tind analouY fur it in many nf nur niodi-rn <'i)iiditii)ns. 
 Jjocal circnnistances naturally had a gcaxl deal to do 
 in determining the jmsition oecnpied by an agrieul- 
 tural po|iulation. ^\"h^r(.' the land was good and the 
 profits eonsiderahle, the farnn'r oc(n}iie(l a better 
 position than in those plaees where but a pijor 
 harvest rewarded his toil. The soil of (ireecc 
 Avas not everj'where suited for agriculture, and in 
 many jdaces it required the most careful laliom' to 
 win any fruits from it. In Hellas, the mountainous 
 districts are more extensiAc than the plains suitable 
 foi- cidtivation ; eonscipn^nth' in man\' places tlicy 
 had tci construct artificial terraces, liceause the stony 
 ground would n(.)t otherwise have borne any fruit. In 
 other plaees toci, want of water, which in the hot 
 season of the yt'ar often amounted to actual drought, 
 necessitated artificial irrigation by means of canals 
 and drainage, and again, the mountain brooks, which 
 often overHowed tht'ir banks in the I'ainy season 
 and threatened destruction to the fields, had to bo 
 regulated by means of dykes. J )escriptions of such 
 structtu-es have come down to us, and niany traces of 
 them niay still be foimd iu tvreece, some of them even 
 pointing to very cunsiderable teidmical knowledge; 
 the State, too, sometimes midertook work of this kind, 
 as is proved fi)- the office of water-superintendent, 
 who, in many jilai/es, liad the control of the natinid 
 and artifieial watercourses, and whose duty it w^as to 
 prevent undue use, and to inflict fines in such cases. 
 
 W'v know very little alMJUt the management of 
 farms and the arraneements for dividiny land anion"' 
 large landownei's m- small ctdtivators, in the se]iarato 
 districts of* Ireece. < h'(.'ek anti(piity shows no traces of 
 
AGlUCULTUPvE, TliADE, AXL) HAX])I(;itAFT. 4!»:j 
 
 lotifwndid., sueli as gi-;ulually made wAy in Ital}- : there 
 were some large estates with numerous slave-workers, 
 but small farms wore commonest. In some districts, 
 as for instance in Arcadia, a small peasantr)' ■ivere the 
 chief part of the jJopulation, and it is not surprising, 
 therefore, that even the leaders of the State did not 
 shrink from taking part in agricidtural labour, though 
 the larger landowners left this to their slaves and 
 overseers. The Athenians, however, regarded the 
 rough manners of these smaller farmers as coarse, and 
 the citizens of the larger towns, accustomed to the 
 refinements of ordinar)- life, mocked at their rustic 
 manners ; we scarcely ever find any recognition of the 
 fact that a strong and healthy race of peasants to- 
 gether with an industrious middle-class is the best 
 means for maintaining the life of a state. 
 
 In its technical aspects, ancient agriculture re- 
 mained in much the same state throughout the whole 
 of antiquit}' as it occupied in the heroic age, and 
 probably this was the common inheritance of the 
 Indo-Germanic race. In Homer, we find the custom, 
 which always prevailed afterwards, of alternating only 
 between harvest and fallow ; even the succeeding ages 
 seem to have known nothing of the rotation of crops. 
 The implements used for the necessary farming occu- 
 ■ pations were of the suiiplest kind, in particular the 
 primitive plough, which was not sufKcient to tear up 
 the earth, so that they had to use the mattock in 
 addition ; they had no harrow or scythe, in place ot 
 which they used the sickle, and their threshing ar- 
 rangements were most unsatisfactory, since they simply 
 drove oxen, horses, or mules over the threshing floor, 
 and beat out the ears with their hoofs, bj- which means 
 a great part of the harvest was lost. It was only the 
 large number of labourers at the disposal of the 
 
494 
 
 <:l!EEK LIKE AT HOME. 
 
 
 
 
 fai'iuci's, in (^onscqiience of the 
 ninnerous slaves, to which at 
 times, when there was a ])rcss 
 of work, they added hired 
 hibourers, and the ,L;'reat eare 
 taken in nianiu'inn' and im- 
 proving the gromid, etc., tliat 
 enabled them to earn a living 
 at all. (Ireat wealth -was never 
 attained in ancient (Trecce by 
 agricidture, certainly not by 
 growing corn ; vines and olives 
 supplied better profits, though 
 here too the instruments used 
 were of the simplest, but the 
 ground was especially favour- 
 able to their cultivation. Oil, 
 in particular, could be supplied 
 by Greece to foreign countries, 
 
 but 
 
 did not 
 
 ei'ow m 
 
 cpiantity sufficient to pr(.)vido 
 their own population, and con- 
 sequently they had to import a 
 great deal from foreign coun- 
 tries, especially from the Black 
 Sea, and afterwards too from 
 
 Egypt- 
 Greek writers give us very 
 little inf< irmation about the life of 
 the country people; a few simple 
 pictures taken from vase paint- 
 ings afford some little notion of 
 it. Fig. 19G represents three 
 coiuatrymen surrounded \)y a 
 variety of animals : deer, lizards, 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 495 
 
 a tortoise, a strange bird, and another creature, perhaps 
 meant to represent a locust ; each of the men is direct- 
 ing a plough drawn by two oxen, holding the handle in 
 one hand, and in the other the goad-stick for urging on 
 the beasts. Behind one of the ploughmen walks a man 
 with a large basket on his left arm, in which, no doubt, 
 there are supposed to be seeds, which he is about to 
 
 L ^/ K 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 strew with his right hand. Fig. 197 represents a scene 
 from the olive harvest. On the right and left of an 
 olive tree sit two men, before them on the groimd 
 stand jars ; one of them holds a little flask in his left 
 hand, and appears to be squeezing the juice of an olive 
 into it through a funnel, in order to test the quality of 
 the harvest. The inscription on the picture is, " 0, 
 Father Zeus, would that I may become rich ! " The 
 reverse side of the vessel, not represented here, shows 
 the fulfilment of this simple prayer in the picture 
 and inscription. 
 
49G (!1!EEK LIFE A'l' IIOJIE. 
 
 Cattlo-reariiiL;- plavi'd a very important part in 
 (ircek fanniiiL;'. In the tinu- of Homer it even ex- 
 reeded aL;'rieulture in importaiiee ; the Avealtli of threat 
 peo])le at that time eonsi«tcd ehiefly in lierd.s ; to yivu 
 cattle as a 1iri(hil L;ift was very conmion ; in ealru- 
 hitions of value cattle formed the basis instead of 
 coined money, which ^vas at that time unknown. The 
 kinds especially cultivated in the histoi'ic period were 
 horses, asses, mules, and oxt-n, and also sliet'p, coats, 
 and swine. Except in a few districts, horse-rearinc' 
 was I )f little importance. The mountainous nature of 
 the country made the use of horses for driving' difficult, 
 nor do they seem to have been retjuircd for I'arryinc' 
 bui'dens : they Avere chiefly used for ridiuL;' pur])oses, 
 for the cavalry, and also for travelliuL;', racing, etc. ; 
 and in connection with i-acing horse-rearing fx'cume a 
 favourite occupation of the aristocracy, and almost a 
 n:iania at Athens at the time of the Peloponnesiai:t^ 
 war, when many young men were ruined by it. 
 Horse-rearing was best dcvek)ped in Thessaly, where 
 the wide plains were suitable for the ])urpose. The 
 Thi^ssalian cavalr}- was always noted for its quantity 
 and excellence. F(.)r domestic use nudes and asses 
 tnok the place of horses, especiall}- as beasts of burden. 
 The mules were irsed for drawing and for the plough, 
 wdnle the asses were chiefl}' eniplo)'e(l for carrying 
 burden.s. (_'attle-rearing seems to have been more un- 
 portant in the Homeric age than afterwards, when the 
 nee<ls of the })Opulation could not be satisfied by the 
 home growth, and importation of foreign cattle from 
 the Black Sea and from Africa was necessary. The 
 small nundjer of herds of cattle was probably due to 
 the fact that in (Ireek antitputy very little cow's milk 
 was di-unk, Imt chiefly goat's milk. Sheep-rearing, 
 however, was very general, and brought to great 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AXD HANDICRAFT. 497 
 
 perfection, since they not onlj'nsed the flesh and niilk 
 of the sheep foi' food, but in particular required their 
 skin and avooI for clothing. Linen was not much worn : 
 the country people wore sheepskins, and the rest of 
 their dress was almost entirely made of sheep's wool. 
 Excellent Cjualities of this were produced by Hellas 
 proper, as well as by the (Ireek colonies in Asia Minor 
 and Lower Italy, and a great deal of it was exjoorted 
 to foreign countries, wdiere the woollen stuffs of Asia 
 Minor, Attica, and Megara, were held in great repute 
 from most ancient times. Goats were chiefly kept 
 for the sake of the milk ; the skins were used by the 
 peasants for clothing. The goat's hair was woven into 
 stuff, not in Greece itself but probably in Northern 
 Africa and Oilicia, where a kind of coarse cloth was 
 manufactured of it, which however was not often used 
 for clothing. The facility of goat-rearing, which re- 
 quired no special care, and could be carried on even on 
 rocky ground, where but little grass grew, enabled it 
 to become very extensive, and we find it, in fact, 
 throughout almost the whole of Greece in ancient 
 times. Swine-rearing, on the other hand, played a verj- 
 small part, for it was not sufficiently remunerative. 
 Although the flesh was used for food, j^et, in the 
 historic period it was not so popular a dish as in the 
 age of Homer, and they did not understand how to 
 draw a profit in other ways from swine. Cattle-rearing 
 was conducted on tolerably rational principles. They 
 were very careful in the choice of the animals used for 
 breeding, and in very early times attempts were made 
 to improve the race hj importing foreign kinds from 
 other countries. The cattle were chiefly fed on pas- 
 ture ; the herds were driven out not only in summer, 
 but even in winter, when the climate permitted it ; 
 and in summer they were taken to the mountains 
 
 G G 
 
40S (JliEEK IJFE AT IK IMK. 
 
 and forests, in wintoi- tn the pluiiis. Tlio slieop L;'ot 
 iiiost attention, lieeanse tlie excellence ot the ^^•ool 
 depended on the care they received, and ] )ioc;encs is 
 supposed to have saiil that it was hetter at Jleg-ara to 
 be a ram than the son of a citizen, for the sheep were 
 carefully covered np, hut the children were allowed to 
 nui about naked. This custom of covering- the sheep 
 with skins to preserve the wool existed in other places 
 too. As Greei'c was not riidi in pasture land, there 
 was a difKcultv occasionally in providing sufficient 
 pasture for the herds ; sometimes they had to Ijc sent 
 to very distant parts, it even happened that states 
 made treaties together, which permitted the citizens 
 of one state to use the pasture land of another for a 
 fixed ])eriod. 
 
 During- the Homeric age, handicraftsmen seem 
 to have been in a position which, corresponding to 
 the ideas entertained in ancient times aljout physii'al 
 labour, was fiy no means despised. This is easily 
 comprehensible, since OA'en tlie gods \\'ero represented 
 as im(h;'rtaking the labour of artisans : Hephaestus 
 working at a forge, Athene weaving; and we find even 
 the lierncs, the princes, and nobles sometimes them- 
 selves working as carpenters and johiers, and with 
 their own liands constructing some object for their 
 home ; noAvhere in Homer do Ave find a trace of con- 
 tempt fur liaud-work. (Jf course, liandicrafts were 
 n(jt much developed at that time, and there were only 
 a small number of crafts which could be looked upon 
 as actual trades, such as that of snnths, workers in 
 gold, carpenters, stone masons, etc., while many occu- 
 pations Avliich afterwards formed a distinct trade were 
 performed at home by the masters and slaves. In 
 later times a A-ery important change took place con- 
 nected witli th(_' political and social revolutions already 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AXl) HANDICRAFT. 49!') 
 
 mentioned. Agricnlture and cattle-rearing were still 
 regarded as an occupation which a free citizen might 
 carry on without degrading himself, since the more 
 menial part of the work was performed by slaves or 
 hired labourers, and the master only superintended ; 
 but the work of the handicraftsmen was designated 
 by them Avith the word mechanical {jSavavao'^), a 
 word indicating a contempt that cannot be expressed 
 in the translation. This word expressed the full scorn 
 felt by the free citizen living on his own fortune, and 
 devoting all his intellectual and physical powers to the 
 State — of the gentleman, in fact — for the man with the 
 horny hand, who toiled in his worlcshop to earn his daily 
 bread. This reproach of " mechanical " \vas never 
 aimed at the rich owner of a number of slaves, vA\o 
 worked for his benefit ; a factory owner need not take 
 part in the work himself, but had his overseers to 
 attend to that ; it was the little man who had no 
 other hands to work for him, and who wielded the 
 hammer himself, or who worked the cloth in the 
 fuller's shop, whom they looked down on. In vain 
 wise lawgivers tried to call the attention of the 
 citizens to the blessino- of handicraft, and the honour- 
 able nature of this occupation ; in vain the democrats 
 gave political equality to artisans by perjjiitting them 
 to vote and speak in the Assembly of the people 
 along with the other citizens ; while there was even a 
 law forbidding anyone publicly to reproach a citizen 
 with his occupation. There were some states in which 
 an important part of the prosperity depended on 
 handicrafts, and there a more moderate view gradually 
 made way, but, generally speaking, the contempt for 
 handicraft remained and continued, the rather as 
 even philosophers regarded it as but a necessary 
 evil. Doubtless they recognised the usefulness of 
 G G 2 
 
500 (lltKEK LIFE AT ii(.):\ri;. 
 
 lianclici-afts, but still they maintained that work of this 
 kind in the workshup, near the hot furnace or in the 
 gloomy room, was not suited to a free citizen, and 
 that the effort of gaining money which was connected 
 with it was injurious to the mind, and made it coarse 
 and uncultivated, and it was thus that the word 
 h(iinui>iiis came to be sj-nonymons with common, 
 low, and stu})id. No wonder that even the artists, 
 whose work depended on handicralt, and who, with 
 few exceptions, worked for pay, were put in the same 
 class with shoemakers, bakers, and smiths! It is 
 strange indeed, that this depreciation of handicraft 
 oljscrved throughout Greek literature in no wa}' pre- 
 vented the development and perfection of the technical 
 arts of ( Jreece. There were many branches of it which 
 continued for centuries at the same point without 
 making any techni<.'al ad"\-ances ; but still trades attained 
 a high degree of perfection in antiquitj', though it was 
 chietl}' in those where the practical element was not 
 as important as the artistic that the natural sense of 
 beauty of the (ireeks made itself felt, so that 
 there are numerous productions of ancient handicraft 
 which even our modern trades cannot rival. In fact, 
 we might almost say that, with the exception of such 
 trades as bakers, butchers, or fullers, Greek handicraft 
 in almost every branch developed into art, while at 
 the jjrcsent day tliere are only a few brairchcs which 
 rise above the ordinary craft level. 
 
 The handicrafts w^cro parti}' in the hands of 
 citizens, and partly in those of free settlers {fieToiKoi) 
 and slaves. The proportion in wdiich they were 
 divided among these three classes varied a good deal 
 according to time and the natm-e of the occupation. 
 At Athens the numljer of free citizens who carried on 
 handicrafts was not small, in spite of the contempt in 
 
AGIUCULTURE, TRADE, AXD HAXDICllAFT. 501 
 
 which they •were held ; in Peloponnesus, it v-as only 
 Sparta where the free citizen kept aloof from all 
 trades, while in the other states the conditions were 
 much the same as at Athens and elsewhere. The 
 resident foreigners formed a very important part of 
 the workmen ; at the time when industry iJourished 
 most in Attica, trade seems to have lieen almost 
 entirely in their hands ; and it is but natural that in 
 those countries where the free citizens kept aloof 
 from trade, the settlers who performed their lahour 
 with the help of slaves should have formed a great 
 part of the working population. Every master work- 
 man wdiose position permitted kept working slaves ; 
 rich capitalists invested their money in large under- 
 takino-s, in which the work was done by a o'reat 
 number of slaves, who either belonged to them or 
 were hired for the purpose. We shall have occasion 
 later on to discuss the conditions under which they 
 worked. 
 
 We know very little about the organisation of 
 labour. There were no castes compelled by law to 
 undertake certain trades, though in some p)laces special 
 occupations were hereditary ; thus, for instance, at 
 Sparta, the cooks and flute players always belonged to 
 particular families. Otherwise, Avhen -we find any 
 occupation hereditary, this is not due to legal com- 
 pulsion, liut to natural causes ; thus the sons of 
 sculptors very often became sculptors, or the medical 
 profession was handed down in certain families, and 
 so on. Xor do we meet with the guilds so early 
 developed in Italy : these are not heard of until the 
 Roman period, when we find them in Asia Elinor. It 
 is uncertain to what extent the State -was conc'crncd 
 with trade and its productions. There do not seem 
 to have been any limitations put upon it except 
 
502 CHEEK LIEE AT llnMi:. 
 
 certain police regulations, such as that at Athens, 
 which compelled tanners and cheeseniongers to have 
 their workshops and lidoths outside the denser parts 
 of the city <>n acciiunt of the .smell. There do nul 
 seem to have been any taxes (in 
 trade ; at Athens there was a toll 
 on hetacrae; at ] iyzantimn jiinglers, 
 soothsayers, eti'., })aid fine; Imt 
 there is no reason to supjiose 
 that handicrafts wci'c taxed in the 
 same \\'a.y. 
 
 It would be impossible to i.'nter 
 into the technical details of all the 
 trades. A few pictures tahen from 
 the life of artisans must suftice 
 instead. The terra-cotta figure, 
 jVo. V.)H, represei^ts an artisan in. his 
 usual costume, the exomis, wliich 
 left the riglit side free, and the 
 pilos, or felt cap; it is not clear 
 from the picture what occupation 
 he is carrying on, since the object 
 in his left hand is not distinct. 
 Fig. l!)y inti'oduces us to a shoe- 
 maker at his work ; he is seated on 
 a low stool in front of his work- 
 table, and with one hand holds a 
 })icce of leather, stretched over a 
 board of hard wood ; ho is just 
 aljout to cut it out with the curved .shoemaker's 
 knife; a second knife is suspended above near some 
 shoes, a hanuner, and some stri[).s of leather on 
 tlie wall. Fig. 200 also introduces us into a shoe- 
 maker's workshop. Hero a girl is lieing measured 
 for a pair of slices ; for this pur])(.ise slle has got 
 
AGHICULTUKE, TRADE, AND HANDICIJAFT. 
 
 50:3 
 
 on the table, so that the bearded ■w'oi'knian, who is 
 sitting in front of it, may mark the ontlino of her 
 soles on the leather on which she is standing. In his 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 
 right hand the shoemaker holds his crescent, a knife 
 with a curved blade ; the apprentice, seated on the 
 other side, is holding a piece of leather bent togethci', 
 probably destined to make the upper part of the shoes. 
 A white-haired old man, perhaps the master of the 
 
•)04 rjKEEK LIFE AT HdME. 
 
 worksliop, or tho father of the girl, stands by giving 
 directions ; tools, lasts, strips of leather, and sncli like, 
 are hnng round on the ^vi\ih. Fig, -201, tho eomiter- 
 jiart to Fig. 200, represents a smithy. Near the hearth, 
 of which only a portion can be seen, cronches a young 
 workman, holding a piece of iron on the anvil with 
 the forceps in his right hand, while another Avorlvman, 
 also Avithont any clothing, strikes the iron with a 
 massive hannner, suspended above his head by both 
 liands. Two men wearing the himation, perhaps 
 visitors to the workshop, are seated on low st<iols. On 
 the ground lie a hammer and forceps ; on the -walls 
 hang tools, such as hammers, chisels, drills, and pro- 
 ductions of the workshop, viz. a sword and a can. 
 
 Fig. 202 introduces us to tho workshop of an 
 artist and a metal founder. In the presence of two 
 men dressed in the himation, leaning on their sticks, 
 two workmen are occupied in chiselling or working- 
 over the colossal figure of a warrior, rej^resented in a 
 posture of attack, which is placed under a scaffolding. 
 There is another colossal figure of a naked youth, who 
 has fallen to the ground, and is stretching out his 
 arms as though praj'ing fijr help. Here the head has 
 not yet been added, for as a rule the ancients com- 
 posed their large bronze figures in several pieces ; the 
 liead lies on the ground near the statue, at which a 
 workman is doing something with his hammer, per- 
 haps trying to smooth away roughness |iroduced in 
 the casting. This second figure seems to be connected 
 with the first, and the whole tij represent a group of 
 combatants, A little further is the fruirace, behind 
 which stands an assistant looking round ; a workman 
 crouching on a low stool wears the cap usually worn by 
 labourers with fire, and consequently represented in 
 pictures of Hephaestus : he is stoking tlie coals in the 
 
oOU OHEEK LIFE AT 111 i:\IE. 
 
 fninacc to a fresh glow Avitli a long polo ciii'vo(l at tli(> 
 011(1, and a sooond apprentice stands looking at liiiii, 
 leaning on his haninier. On the walls hang a variety 
 <it' tiiols — hainincrs, tiles, a saw, etc. ; also models of 
 feet and heads, and little tablets representing sketches 
 of whole men and animals. 
 
 No less interesting is the workslidp cif a vase 
 ]iaiiiter, re|ireseuted in Fig. 20o. Here we see a youth 
 seated in an armchair, with a large two-handled cup 
 cm his knee, which he is painting with the brush held 
 in his right hand; near him stands a little low talile, 
 on which are several pots containing paints or varnish. 
 Behind him a young apprentice, wdio also has ^lots on 
 the ground near him, is painting a large amphora; on 
 the right a second bo}' and a girl are ■working at a cup 
 ;ind another amphora, while a jar and a large drink- 
 iug-cup {Kuvdapo^) stand on the ground, and other 
 vessels hang on the wall. Athene, the patroness of 
 the arts, and Nike are hasting to crown the skilful 
 laljourers as the reward of industry. 
 
 It is ditticult to determine the kind of work wdiich 
 the niagniticent old man in Fig. 204, a terra-cotta 
 figure fn.im Taiiagra, is doing; in front of liini is a 
 l.Miard with which he is occupied, and a little gridiron. 
 Some have pronounced him a baker, others a maker 
 of plaster of Paris tablets, others a tanner ; perhaps he 
 might be a cook, seated in the street, and frying some 
 quickly-cooked dish o^x-r the gridiion, in order to sell 
 it to the common people, a\1io often procured their 
 food in this way from travelling cooks. 
 
 Even worse than the positinn of tlie artisans was 
 that of the hired workmen, that is, those laliourcrs 
 ■who, though free citizens, had not learnt an}' technical 
 art with ■wliicli they could earn their living, and ■who 
 were therefore oliliged ti:i liire themselves out for 
 
508 
 
 vr; 
 
 ,t:T-^ 
 
 -CiiS-^ 
 
 
 V 
 
 iU7;EK LIFE AT IKiME. 
 
 liiird liddilv laliDur. ^«'l)t nnly 
 citizoiis, liut oven their wives, 
 were dften driven l)y need to 
 pert'iirni sneh menial offices as 
 day labourers in mills or in tlie 
 tields : many su(di "workmen 
 earrii'd weights in the harbonr, 
 or hel[ied to load or unload the 
 L;'oi:)ds, to carry stones for build- 
 ing, ete. The jiay was very 
 small, if only on account of the 
 competition of slave labour ; 
 sometimes a day's \\'agcs was 
 three or four oliols, though higher 
 amounts are mentioned. The 
 fleets, and in partii'ular the row- 
 ^ ing boats, wi're maimed out of 
 ^[ tliis class, "whicli was socially ro- 
 -r^ garded as the l<:iwest, and which 
 liore the name of " thetes." 
 
 In tlu' c\'es of the < Jreeks, 
 tradesmen stood on the same 
 footing as mechanical labourers. 
 There was, of course, a distinc- 
 tion; if the cidtur(,'d (-ireck', wdio 
 (ii'cupieil himself onl\' with, 
 higher intellectual piu'suits, de- 
 spised the artisan liecause he 
 ri.'gardcd his bodiU- a<.'tivity as 
 unworthy ef a. fret.^ man, the 
 tradesman seemed to him con- 
 temptible liecause he was in- 
 flu(;nci'd Duly by desire foi' gain, 
 and all his sti'iving was to get 
 the ad\-antagc ovei' otliers. The 
 
510 Gl'vEEK TJKE AT HOME. 
 
 ]iriitit and wealth arcvnini;' tn so many Greek states 
 from traile was not sutticient to decrease the prejudice 
 as^ainst monev-makinL;' occupations, even the eoimuon 
 ])co}ile were not aljle to understand that the merchant, 
 on account of the risk of injury, or even loss of his 
 L;iiods, cliaiiging conditions of price, and all his own 
 troulile involved, was ohligcd to demand a higlicr 
 price for his wares than wdiat liad lieen orii;inally ]>aid 
 li}' himself; and the o[>inion that the merchant's 
 liusiness was luised on love of ,i;ain anil deceit 
 was so coinnion that even a jihilosophieal intellect 
 like Aristotle's was nndi'r tlic influence of tin's 
 jirejndice. It is possible tliat the (ireek merchants 
 often deserved the ]Tputation of dishont'sty wdiicli 
 they liore ; their predecessors, the I'hoenicians, who 
 had formerly carried on the whole trade of (irec(/e, 
 hail not unduly been re[iroached ^vith deceit and even 
 robbery and piracy, and it is possililc that there were 
 traces of this still visible in the (ircek merchants. 
 Still tlie contempt for the merchant class was not, 
 eijually directed at all ; tlic wholesale dealer who im- 
 ported his wares from a distance, and had little 
 personal contact with the }iub]ic, was less affected by 
 it; in trading cities, such as Aegina and Athens, 
 a great rmmber of the rich citizens belonged to this 
 class. ]]ut the small trader was tlie ujore exposed to 
 the rcjiroach c>f false W'eiglits and measures, adultera- 
 tion of goods, especially food, and all manner of 
 deceitful tricks. Some ciimplaints wi:re maile that 
 are still heard at the ])i'escnt day, that the wine 
 dealers mixed water witli thi.'ir wine, tliat the cloth- 
 workers used artificial iln.'ssing (o make their materials 
 look thicker, that the poulterers blew out the l.iirds 
 to make them seem fatter, etc. Worst of all was the 
 re])Utatii:>n of the ci:>rn dealers. The division between 
 
i^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 .-sg^ ^ V 
 
 s-^ .1^ 
 
 
 
 
ol2 OliEEl-: IJKE A'l' HOME. 
 
 "wliok'Sule and retail tradors sreuis to lia.vo IjOcu soiuo- 
 what sharper in (jrcck airti<|nity than at the present 
 day, partly beeanse the former were not only nier- 
 chauts but also seatVircrs. The wholesale dealers as a 
 rule were owners of ships ; thej' fetched their goods 
 themselves on their journeys, or commissioned respon- 
 sible subordinates in their place. The ship was laden 
 at. horjie with g'oods -which were likely to tind a good 
 sale at the port to which she journeyed ; of course the 
 <:)wner made inquiries beforehand about the best 
 places for disposing of his goods, the private conditions, 
 piossible competition, etc. It was, therefore, very im- 
 portant to hit the right moment, and artiticial 
 manoeuvres for sending up the price of goods were 
 not unkno-wn. Arrived at their destination, the wares 
 "were publicly sold, for which purpose bazaars were 
 erected in large harbours : then the goods were either 
 Ijought collectively by a wholesale dealer, or in small 
 quantities by smaller traders ; there were also agents 
 A\dio Tmdertook the mediation between the buyer and 
 seller in return for a commission. As a rule, there- 
 fore, goods were purchased Avith the money, chiefly 
 p)roducts of the countr}' -\\diicli might bo sold with 
 advantage at home ; it was almost necessar}^ to make 
 fresh purchases, since the money of another state 
 would have no value at home, though Attic money 
 coidd pass current anywhere. A merchant did not 
 always content himself with putting in at one single 
 port ; he often visited a succession of ncighlxjuring 
 ports, calling at snraller stations on the way, some- 
 times sellins', sometimes buvinLT, and riften the c.ar&'o of 
 a ship changed three or four times diuing ;i journey. 
 Proljaldy these wholesale dealers did not deal only 
 with particular goods as at tlie })resent day, fait took 
 anything which v-as likely to find a good sale, such as 
 
AGRICULTUKE, TRADE, AXL) HANDICRAFT. 51o 
 
 corn, wine, oil, lione\% sliins, wool, rlotlies, textile 
 ware, metal work, even statues and books. Payment 
 was made in coined money, and the calculation cannot 
 always have been an easy one, owini;' to the variety of 
 money systems prevailing in antiquity. In the 
 Homeric age barter was usual, but after\\'ards this 
 ceased in civilised countries, though in some districts, 
 as for instance the neighbourhood of the Black Sea, 
 it continued for some time longer. 
 
 Very ditferent was the position and occujiation of 
 the retail dealer or pedlar. He did not travel by sea, 
 scarcely even by land, lait usually carried on his 
 busmess at one jjlace ; he either bought his goods 
 direct from the f)i'oducers or from the Avholesale 
 dealers, and offered them for sale in open shops or in 
 booths on the market-place ; in large towns there 
 were special stands or markets for particular goods, 
 but those who offered their wares at these places were 
 usually the producers themselves, thus at the Pot 
 Market at Athens, tlie "wares were offered bj' real 
 potters, who had doufitless made them themselves. 
 We must therefore distinguish between shopkeepers 
 who lived only by trade, and did not themselves pro- 
 duce, and producers, who brought their own goods to 
 market ; the latter were regarded as merchants by 
 the ancients, and the hatred, where it existed, was 
 chiefly directed at the small shopkeepers, who sold 
 their wares for as high prices as possible. In small 
 cities the circumstances may have been some-what 
 different, for it was only the most important trades 
 connected with food and clothing that were carried 
 on there, and many branches were not represented at 
 all ; consequently many kinds of goods had to be 
 imported for sale by the small shopkeepers. No 
 doubt the inhabitants of the small towns and even 
 
 H H 
 
514. (iUEEK LIFK AT IKI^IE. 
 
 the cminti'v }ir(iple cit'tcn went to tlic ia|iital to satisfy 
 thi'ir wants, especially to tlie uroat markets held 
 on fixed days of the month, nsiialU- on tJR! first; the 
 national festivals too provided opportunities for many 
 kinds of pui'chases, since a sort of fair was nsually 
 connected with them. 
 
 In the market-places <if laroe towns there were 
 nsnally t'i.)vered arcades in \\diii-li the merchants and 
 dealers st't up their wares; in some pilai-es there 
 were market-halls of this kind for special ji-oods, 
 suidi as corn, oil, ointments, etc. ]!esides these 
 pt'rniauent places of sale, there were light booths of a 
 temporary nature, constructed in tent fashion of woven 
 rei'ds and linen. The life in the market-pdace prob- 
 ahly resendiled that of the piresent day in the south ; 
 the custom of ealliny out and extolling goods existed 
 in ancient (ireece as well, and s(.) did the excessive 
 demands of the seller and the depreciation on the 
 part of tlio ]inrchaser, ami even the notorious rude- 
 ness of the hsh-wivcs seems to ha\'e ix'cn known to 
 the (ireeks. We find mention also of peddling, and 
 carrying wares from house to house, and this was 
 chiefly the case with ]irovisions. 
 
 (_Treek art supplies very fe'w pictures from the 
 trader's life. Fig. ^O.l, taken from a vase-painting, 
 though a caricature, l)i'ars especial inten.'st on account 
 of its suliject: a certain king Arcesilas of ( 'yrene 
 (probalily mythical), is represented as a dealer in 
 silphium ; it is well kiu.iwn that the sil[ihiinn plant, 
 so much valued by ancient epicures, came from 
 Cvrene, and was an important article of trade. Under 
 a cani:)])V, tlie curtains of which, are suspended liy 
 rings, stands a large pair (jf scales, at which five men 
 are weighing goods, some of which are heaped up on 
 the scales and others Ivinij' abi.>ut on the eround. 
 
AORICrLTUKE, TKAJJE, AX] ) HAXDICISAFT. 515 
 
 ilost of tlie goods arc as yet unpacked ; tlicsc Avork- 
 luon, liowevcr, have alrcad}' tilled largo woollc^n sacks 
 with them, and one of them is in the act of tying(liis 
 up, while another is carrying his a^vav. The weighing 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 and packing are conducted under the superintendence 
 of kins' Arcesilas, who is seated close by, holding 
 in his left hand his sceptre, and with his right ap- 
 parently giving directions to a w(irkinan standing 
 before him. His costume is very extraordinary. The 
 panther under the prince's seal, a lizard, a stork (or 
 H H 2 
 
510 cliKEK LIFE A'l' HOME. 
 
 crane), a iiiDiikrv, and several |n\L;ei'iis, L;'iv(' life lo the 
 picture, and ]iartl\- indicate tlie ]ilace \vli(>re tlie scene 
 is laid. I'lelnw tile main pii/ture, where we nuist sup- 
 posc the cellar fur the stores te he, workinen ar(^ 
 piliiiL^' U]i tinished packets, under the directinn ol a 
 man iti a cleak. 
 
 ( lccu]iat inns connected "with ui(>ne\- "\\'ei'e larc'oly 
 de\-(diiped in antii|uit\'. 'I'he merchants "who dealt 
 with such husiriess — the bankers attd mone\'-chanL;'ers 
 — ^\'rrl^ called by the (Iri'cks "table-merchants" 
 (T/iflTre^tTnt), trom the |abl(.' at "which they orie'iually 
 carried on tln'ir oc("-upati(">us. Tlu'ir duties were of a. 
 double nature; besides the actual business of chaiiL;'- 
 ing, the\" undertook the investment of eajiital and 
 the transaction (:)f jiioney business. When the in- 
 creased coinai^c of nieney and the aUL;iiientati(_)n of 
 trade anil travel brouL;'ht lar^'e sums into the hands of 
 indi\'iiluals, thos(_' wlio had not iuA'ested their possess- 
 ions ii"i wares or property or slaves, naturalh' desired 
 to p)r(.itit. l)V it in some other \\"a\". and thus the loan 
 fiusiness "ivas e'radualb' ile\elopeil, in which capitidists 
 lent luonev to those whn reipiireil it for an\" mercan- 
 tile undertaking, in return for a securit\" and interest. 
 In till.' bond executed in the ]iresence of "witnesses, tlie 
 amount cif the capital, the interest agreed u])on, as 
 wi.'ll as till.' time for Avhich the loan "was arranged, had 
 to be enti.'red. For greater safety, a third ])erson 
 usuall)' liec-aiiie se<-urity for the debtoi', or else some 
 possession "was mortgaged, tlie value of whicli corre- 
 sponded to the sum lent. They distinguished between 
 pledges in rnovaljle objects, suidi as cattle, furnitiu'e, 
 slaves, etc. ; and mortgages given partly on movable 
 objects, suidi as factor}" slaves, and [lartly on immovable 
 pro}>ert\". ^Mortgages of this kind "were very r'onimon 
 in seafaring business. The merchant who l.)orrowed 
 
AfJRICULTritE, T1!A])E, AND HAXlUCKAt'T. 517 
 
 iiionej- Iroiii u rieli citizen in order to carrv on a jiar- 
 ticnlar bnsiness with it, pledged his sliiji or the gixids 
 with wliich he dealt, or perhaps both, to his creditor 
 in a formal contract. They endeavoiu-ed to olitain as 
 mnch security as possible by very exact arrangements 
 concerning the object of the jonrney, the nature of the 
 goods, etc. ; moreover, the interest in business of tliis 
 kind was very high, because the creditor ran the risk 
 of losing his bargain entirely, or in part, by storms, or 
 pirates, or other niisfijrtunes. ilortgages were also 
 given on property in land, and the creditor's right of 
 ownership was inscribed on stone tablets set up on the 
 property in (piestion, with the name of the creditor 
 and the amount of the debt. In some jjlaces the 
 State itself conducted books and mortgages, in which 
 all the property was entered, together with the 
 amount of the mortgages upon it. Here, as in other 
 loans, interest was high, and this was due to tlie in- 
 security of trade and the very incomplete develop- 
 ment of agricultural conditions. There Avere no laws 
 against usmy ; from ten to twenty per cent., or higher 
 if it was for risk at sea, was conunon, but there were 
 even cases where thirty-six or fort3'-eight i>er c-ent. 
 were taken. Uf course, in these circumstanc-es com- 
 plaints i:)f extortion were made. 
 
 The arrangement of this money Ijusiness was 
 chiefly in the hands of the bankers. Their original 
 and chief occupation was the (dianging of monev — 
 the various kinds of coinage Avhicli became current 
 through foreign trade; and here the}' got their proHt 
 from the rate of exchange. They also lent money, 
 both small sums and capital for trade and other business 
 undertakings, and this was their share in these mone- 
 tar}- transactions. Rich people often invested their 
 money with these bankers, who paid them interest 
 
olS 
 
 (iliKEK LIKK AT IKiME. 
 
 mill L;■:i^■(■ tlirm security or |i1c(1l;x's : iIh')' tlion tliciii- 
 si'h-rs li'lit thr ',i;(ili('\" to liirll of bllsilR'ss, ulld i>ll 
 ai CI II nit I if tlir rislv nal ii rally (lriiiaii(le<l lii^licr interest 
 than tlii'V paid. IJiit e\rii when iiiniiey was lent 
 direct by a capitalist t<> a merchant, thi^ mediation 
 (if a Ijaid-cer was (iften resorted to in concludinc- 
 the ciintract; fur tln'se mi'ii were well known to 
 the public (in accoiuit of their extensive business, 
 and possessed considerable Imsiness knowlede'e. As a 
 rule, though some were known as usurers, and triekt'ry 
 and bankruptcy (ic(-asionally (x/curred, thc'y enjoyeil 
 so much coiitiih.'Uce that the\' were gladly engagX'd as 
 witnesses in business I'ontracts, and reipiested to takt^ 
 charge of the do(.'umeiits. iloney also was de[iosited 
 witli thi'iu, for which no |»arti('nlar use ap])eared at 
 the moment, and which would not be safe if kept at 
 home: of course, if this capital lay idle the lianker 
 could pay no interest, but often demanded a sum for 
 taking chavge of tile deposit. Some (if them kdt th(.'ir 
 money in the hands of mouey-changers to increase 
 the liusiness capital, and the extent to "whiidi this wa.s 
 done is proved by th(! fact that the banker Pasion, at 
 the time of I >emosthenes, in a business capital of 50 
 talents (£11,700), had II tah^iits (X2,5!»:!) lent by 
 private [lersons. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 SLAVERY. 
 
 Slave.s in Ancient Greece — Captives Taken in A\'ai' — Tlie Slave 
 Trade— Tiie rriee of Slaves— Native Sert's— Th.^ Helets— The 
 Pene.stae and th(; Glarotac — The Status of tlic Slave — I'roteetion 
 against Ill-treatment — The Slave's Duties — Jlodes of Liheration. 
 
 All the social and economic conditions (if antiqnity 
 are based on the institution of slaver}^ and without it 
 would have been impossible ; in fact, shivery is so 
 closely interwoven ivitli the whole life of antiquity 
 that even the political development of the ancient 
 nations and their achievements in the domain of art and 
 industry would be inexplicable without the existence 
 of a large slave population. So great was the import- 
 ance of slaveiy in anticpiitj^ that any account of (xreek 
 life would l^e incomplete, which did not give some 
 slight sketch of these peculiar conditions. 
 
 The institution of slavery in Greece is ver}' ancient; 
 it is impossible to trace its origin, and we find it even 
 in the very earliest times regarded as a necessity of 
 nature, a point of view which even the following ages 
 and the most enlightened philosophers adopted. In 
 later tioies voices were heard from time to time pro- 
 testing against the necessity of tli(_' institution, showing 
 some slight conception of the idea of human rights, 
 but these were only isolated opinions. From the very 
 earliest times the right of the strongest had estab- 
 lished the custom that captives taken in war, if 
 not killed or ransomed, became the slaves of the 
 
520 (;i;kek life at home. 
 
 conqnordrs, or \\'('r(j sold iiitu sla\'ri'v li\" tliein. This 
 cnstiiiii, whicli was uviivii'sal in tlic Hnmcrii- aye, 
 continued to exist in tlio liistoric jieriod also, so that 
 not only was it adopted in eonti'sts lietween Hehenes 
 and barliarians, Imt oven in the ntnnevons fends 
 between Hclli'm's ;ind Hellenes they ortcii condemned 
 tliciv own couiiti'N'nien to the hard lot of slaveiy; in 
 later times, liowevei-, it was oidy in cases of s])eeial 
 aniniosity that the\' resorted to this ex]ie(lient ; as a 
 rule, they exchan;_;-eil or ransonicd ca]iti\-e < i reeks. 
 ]"!(.'si(lcs the wars, |iirac\", orieinally regarded as liy no 
 means dislionoin'ahle, sn|i])lied the slave markets ; 
 and thoneii ii^ later times endea.vonrs wetx^ made to 
 set a limit to it, \-et the trade in hnmari beinc's never 
 ceased, since the need tor slaves was considerafiie, not 
 oidy in (ireece, bnt still more in ( hiental conntries. 
 
 In the historic jieriod the slaves in (ai'cee were 
 for the most part barbarians, (dn'i;liy from the districts 
 north ot the Ilalkan jieninsiila and Asia Elinor. The 
 <ireek dealers supplied themsch'cs from the ,i;Teat 
 slave markets held in the to"wns on the Jllack Sea 
 and on the Asiatic (/oast of the Archipelago, not 
 only by the barbarians themselves, but even by(Treeks, 
 in particular the ( liiaiis, who carrii'd on a c(.>nsidcrable 
 slave trade. Idiese skn'es w(.'re then jmt up for sale 
 at honn.' : at Athens tliere were s])eeial markets held 
 for this purp(ise on ihe first of ever)- month ; the 
 slaves were' ari'aneed on ]>latforms, so tliat the buyers 
 might examine them citi all sides, f.ir they sought 
 chiefl\' to .attain physical perfection and strength of 
 limb for hard work, and therefore, if the purchasers 
 desired it, the slaves had to be undressed. < )f course, 
 those slaves who "were bought merely for the sake 
 of their bodih- strength wer(.' least valuables; a higlier 
 price was given f )r those "who had an\' spei/ial skill or 
 
SLAVERY. 521 
 
 ■were suited for posts of confidence, and considerable 
 prices were also given for pretty female slaves or 
 handsome boys. Conseqnently, there was great variety 
 of price ; at the time of Xenojihon the price for a 
 common male slave, who was only suited for I'ougli 
 work, was half a niina (about £2), else the ordinary 
 average ^vas two minae (about £8) ; for slaves who 
 possessed any technical skill or higher education the 
 23rice rose from five to ten minae (£20-£40), and even 
 in exceptional cases aniounted to one talent (£240). 
 
 A large portion of the slave population consisted 
 of those who were born in slavery ; that is, the chil- 
 dren of slaves or of a free father and slave mother, 
 who as a rule also became slaves, unless the owner 
 disposed otherwise. We have no means of knowing 
 whether the numl)er of these slave children born 
 in the houses in (Ireece was large or small. At Rome 
 they formed a large proportion of the slave popula- 
 tion, Ijut the circumstances in Italy diftered greatly 
 from those in (.{reece, and the Roman landowners 
 took as much thought for the increase of their slaves 
 as of their cattle. Besides these two classes of slave 
 population, those who were taken in war or by piracy 
 and those who were born slaves, there was also a third, 
 though not important, class. In early times even free 
 men might become slaves by legal methods ; for 
 instance foreign residents, if they neglected their 
 legal obligations, and even Greeks, if the}- were insol- 
 vent, might be sold to slavery by their creditors, a 
 severe measure which was forbidden by Solon's legis- 
 lation at Athens, but still prevailed in other (jreek 
 states. Children, when exposed, became the property 
 of those who found and educated them, and in this 
 manner man)' of the hetaerae and Hute girls had 
 become the property of their owners. 
 
5:22 OKEEK LIKE AT lldME. 
 
 Finally, wi; know that in sonic cdnntrios the 
 Hellenic population originally resident there were 
 snlidnedbv foreign tribes, and ln'canic the slaves ot 
 their contpierors, ajiil their position diftci'cd in hut 
 few respects from that of the liarliarian sla\-es ]iur- 
 chased in the markets. Such native serfs were the 
 Helots at Sparta, tlie Penestae in Thessaly, the ( hu-otae 
 in (_'rete, etc. We have most information al)out the 
 position and treatment of the Helots: hut here we 
 must receiA"e the statements of ^vriters with great 
 caution, since they undouhtcdly exaggerated a good 
 deal in their accounts of the cruelty with which the 
 S})artans treated the Helots. Still, it is certain that 
 in man\' respects tlieir lot \\as u sad one. The con- 
 stant fear of general insurrection on the [>a,rt of the 
 Helots entertained by the Spartans, whose own 
 numbers were f;u' fewer, and the tei'rible se\'erity 
 with which they ]junished, not only real insurrection, 
 but even niercl}' suspected revolution, pro\e to us 
 that the statements concerning the cruel treatment 
 of the Helots are not absolutely without I'oundation. 
 hint, as a rule, they did not perform menial slave 
 offices in the houses of the free citizens, but culiivated 
 tlieir lands, and as they were on!}' oljliged to hand 
 over a certain part of the profit to the owners, they 
 were able to keep the remainder for themselves, and 
 sometimes to aci;-unu_ilate fortunes and even to pur- 
 chase their freedom. Xor do we hear of cases in 
 wdiii.di individual Spartans treated tlie hlelcits wlio 
 were subordinate to them with especial severity — 
 most of the i/ases of cruelty towards Helots are those 
 in which State reasons seemed to require such pro- 
 ceedings, and were aimed, not at nidividuals, l>ut at 
 the whole mass of slaves. This was due to a curious 
 arrangement Ijy wdiicli tlie H(dots were not, like other 
 
SLAVERY. 523 
 
 slaves, private propert}- of the individual citizens, but 
 State property and assigned to a particular piece of 
 land, and along with it to the owner for the time 
 being, without enabling him to maintain right of 
 ownership over them. A\'e must not therefore regard 
 the Helots in the same light as ordinary slaves ; they 
 were rather public serfs, and on this account they 
 were better off than those who belonged to 
 individual owners. There seems no doubt that besides 
 the Helots there were also private slaves at Sparta, 
 who rendered personal services in the households. 
 
 The position and treatment of the slaves varied in 
 different periods, and differed also in the different 
 parts of Greece. Here, too, the conditions of the 
 heroic age were patriarchal, and the distinction 
 between free men and slaves was not so great as after- 
 wards. Trustworthy slaves superintended extensive 
 farms and numerous herds ; old female slaves had the 
 whole direction of the household ; they were often 
 intimately connected with the inmates of the house, 
 and showed touching fidelity and affection for their 
 masters, with whom they lived on a familiar footing. 
 Similar conditions existed in later times too, but only 
 in remote pasture districts, such as Arcadia, where 
 even in the historic age the slaves were almost 
 regarded as nrembers of the family, ate at the same 
 table as their masters, and shared their labours and 
 recreations. Generally speaking, the Dorians wore 
 regarded as stern masters, and the Athenians as 
 kinder and more considerate ; in fact, a common 
 reproach against the Athenians was that their kind- 
 ness degenerated into weakness, and that the slaves 
 were nowhere so insolent as at Athens ; they expressed 
 themselves freelj-, it was said, did not gi^-e way c\'un 
 to free citizens in the street, the}- drank, they met 
 
•j^-l- i:i;ekk \avk at llnMi;. 
 
 tcii;'ftlior tor rdiiiiiKin IjuiKjin'ts, (•;in'ir<l dii ]iiw Mtihirs, 
 etc., jiist likt' Im'c iiirn. These rcjiroaclics si'Oiii not 
 til have lioon altoi;'cthri- cxuLiLjiTiitril, as is proved by 
 tile iiiipnrtant part phn'i.'d liy sla\'es in tlic newer 
 Attii/ emnedv: the\' were usnalh' insolt'iil, eimnint;- 
 fellows, wliii c-ared littli.' (nv an (iccasinual lieating, and 
 Were ah\"a.vs ready te ]ila\' their masters a. trick, er to 
 intrii^'m.' witli the sons aL;'ainst their stern talliers. 
 Still it "was not nnnsnal in Attica fur sla\-es t" run 
 away, and therefore the slave-owners tried (o prevent 
 this hy stern supervision, and even 1>\' eliaininL;' and 
 hi'andinc'. It is natural tliat tin.' tcnijieranient of 
 the Atlieniiuis, \\-hieli changed (jnickl\- from extreme, 
 to i.'xtremi.', should not often succeed in tindiuL;' the 
 right mean hetween scA'crity and kindness, and 
 thereloi-e, in their sudden transitions froiu excessive 
 consideration to severi'st cruelty, a real feeling of 
 altai.'huH'Ut fietween slaves and masters was very 
 rare; still thei'e were instances of de\"olcd fidelity 
 on the ]iart of the sla\-es, and luany inscriptions still 
 extant spi.'ak of such devotion (.■ontinuing even to 
 tli(_' gi-a\'t'. 
 
 Tfie j'ights assigned l:iy kiw to the luastei' ovt'r his 
 slaves wi.'r(.' ver\' consideraljle. Id (.■ might throw them 
 in chains, put them in the stocks, condeiiin them to 
 the hardest lahour — for instance, in the luills — leave 
 them without fiod, hiand them, punish them with 
 sti'ipcs, and attain thc^ utmost limit of endurance ; hut, 
 at any rate at Athens, he was forliidden to kill them. 
 These se\'c're puiiishnients were gem.'ralh' ivserved for 
 special cases of ohstinacy, thett, oi- such like: as a 
 I'ule. tile slaves were treated much as our servants are. 
 Their masters gave them the oi'diuary dress of arti- 
 sans and wijrkmen — the exonus, or sfioi't garuajnt 
 "with slee\"es (compare the ti_'rra-ci.)tta figure. No. 20(i); 
 
SLAVEKY. 
 
 their t'oo'-l was .simple but nuti'itii;ius, chiufly Ijarlcy 
 porridge and pulse, sometimes meat ; their drink 
 was the cheap wine of the country ; they had their 
 own sleeping apartments, usually those of the male 
 slaves were separated from those of the female, except 
 when the master allowed a 
 slave to found a familj' and to 
 live with one of his fellow- 
 slaves. Legal marriages be- 
 tween slaves were not possible, 
 since they possessed no personal 
 rights ; the owner could at any 
 moment separate a slave family 
 again, and sell sejjarate mem- 
 bers of it. On the other hand, 
 if the slaves were in a position 
 to earn money, they could ac- 
 quire fortunes of their own ; 
 they then worked on their own 
 account, and only paid a certain 
 proportion to their owners, 
 keeping the rest for themselves, 
 and when they had saved the 
 necessar}' amount they could 
 purchase their freedom, suppos- 
 ing the owner was ■willing to 
 agree, for he was not compelled. 
 
 Generally speaking, the position of the puljlic sla^'es 
 was even more favourable. There were certain occu- 
 pations which free men were unwilling to undertake, 
 and for this purpose the State used slaves ; thus, fjr 
 instance, at Athens the hangman, torturers, gaolers, 
 and police were usually slaves ; the}' had their own 
 dwellings assigned them by the State, could possess 
 property, and received a small salary from the State 
 
 Fig. 20H. 
 
5'2(i (ir.EEK i.iKi-; at iid.me. 
 
 out of which th(_'\' had to fucil and clotlio ihi'iiisclvt's ; 
 they coukl also ram iiionev by other kinds of wovk, 
 and sometimes attained a ])osition of fortune. Some 
 of them, as for instance the Athenian )iohee, held a 
 position whi(di nave them certain rii^hts nver the 
 citizens, and, therefore, the pesition of these ])uhli(; 
 slaves imist have been a very independent one, while 
 the numerons tem]ile slaves alse felt tin- hardness of 
 their position mneli less than those whcise ownt'rs 
 Avere private persons. 
 
 Th(.' protection given to slaves by the State was 
 very small, but here again there were differences in 
 different states. It was ojdy in cases of the utnu)st 
 emergency that the State interfered bt'twcen master 
 and slave. Tn the oldest ]ierio(l the owner had 
 power of life and death over his s]a,ve, but later legis- 
 lation put an end to this, and at Athens, in particular, 
 the master might not even kill a slave if he found 
 him committhig a crime, the penalty of which was 
 death ; cases of necessary defence, or such where the 
 r-rime could oidy be prevented by killing the ])cr- 
 petrator, were, of c(.)urse, excluded. If any owner had 
 killed his slave without being able to justify himself 
 ho was piimished for so doing, not as severely as 
 though he had murdered a free man, but only as if 
 it were a case of manslaughter. Further protection 
 against excessive ill-treatment from their masters 
 was given by the right of sanctuary, which per- 
 mitted the slave to take I'cfuge at the altar of some 
 god, wdiere he foimd, at any rate, iirotection IVir the 
 time Iicing ; they might even, supposing they were 
 too cruelly used by their masters, ask to be sold to 
 another master, and it even apjjcars as if tlie owner 
 could be legally compelled to grant tin's re(piest. In 
 other respects the State took little notice of slaves, 
 
 •> 1 
 
SLAVERY. oit 
 
 except to forbid certain things, sueli as gymnastic 
 exercises, love-making with free citizens, participation 
 in certain festivals and sacrifices. Yery curious and 
 characteristic of the view they held of slaves, were the 
 arrangements when a slave had to give evidence in a 
 court of law. So bad was their opinion of the moral 
 character of barbarians, and especially of those who 
 were not free, that they thought the slaves could only 
 be induced to speak the truth by direct physical com- 
 pulsion, and consequently they were always (questioned 
 under torture. If in a suit one party required the 
 testimony of his opponent's slave, the latter could re- 
 fuse it, but he did so at the risk of losing the suit. 
 Sometimes a master voluntarily offered his slave as 
 witness. If the torture, of which there were various 
 grades, some of them very severe, inflicted any lasting 
 injury on his body or health, the owner might demand 
 compensation, supposing that he was not the loser in 
 the case. 
 
 The mode in which slaves were used varied a good 
 deal, according as an owner required his slaves for his 
 own personal service or household, or used them for 
 work in the field or at some trade, or sent them out 
 to work for others. Among those in the personal 
 service of their master were all who were (jccupied 
 with the duties of the household and service and 
 attendance on their master and his family. Their 
 nimiber was, of course, regulated bj' the size of the 
 household : a jaoor family had often to content itself 
 with a single slave, but very few were so poor as not 
 to have any ; in large houses a winkle army of slaves 
 was kept, who all had their special chities, though 
 often very slight ones. There were the door-keeper, 
 the slaves who attended their master or his family in 
 the street, the paidagogos, the ladj^'s maid, the cook, 
 
oi^.s (iueek: iji'i-: at ikimi:. 
 
 thv i/(>acliiii;m, the stable litiys, water ea.ri'iers, wi»)[ 
 \\'<:irkers, etc. This \vhcile anm' nf sei'\ants was usually 
 uikU'I' llie (hrect snjier\"isii>ii dt' a sii[ieriiit('ii(leiit nr 
 stewaril, himself a sLa'e, Imt a ])aTtie.nlarly trust- 
 \\'m'tli\" one, wlio was el'teu trusted Sd iiiiieh hy liis 
 liiast(_T as to \\A\i: charge of his ke\'s ami his sii^'uet 
 rinn'. The (>ttie(; ol' these stewards was of particular 
 ini])(irt;niee on the eountry estates, whei'e they 
 had all tile sla\a's re([uired lor laruuHL;' ])nrpiises 
 iunuediately uuder theui, and hail to assi^'u them 
 oecupatiuiis and superintend tlieir work, unless tho 
 master undertook tliis or himself took u]) his (hvelliuL;' 
 (.)n the I'stato. Slaves who e<;)ulil fill su(di |iosts ot 
 confidence would, of eoursi', fetch a. very hii;h price, 
 and their position i/air in no wa\' he compared with 
 that of ordinary slaves. The same may be said of 
 those who possessed some intellectual culture, and 
 conkl serve theii' mastei's as secretaries or readers, or 
 even hid[) them in scientitie lal.iours, hy makiuL;' ex- 
 tracts, etc. ; but this was tar rarer ainont;' the Ijarbar- 
 ian slaves of the (Ireeks than anion'.^' the (jreek slaves 
 of tlie Komans. The slaves could also rcjider their 
 masters important assistance liy teidmical skill; thus, 
 in a ri(di lnjusehold, tlierc would be, liesides the cook, 
 a special baker for bread and cakes, also wcavei's, 
 fullers, embroiderers, whose duty it was to ])rovide the 
 clotliinn'. And as the slaves in tic country had to 
 work in field and meadow, to attend tlie A-incyarils, 
 and olive garchjns, to ^-uard and attend the cattle, so 
 the artisan set his slaves to work in his workshop, and 
 either instructed them himself in his art or l_)ouL;'ht 
 such as were already trained lor the p)urpose. Even 
 pliysicians often had slave, assistants, and some of 
 these were so mucli trusted by their masters that 
 they to()k their place by the sick bed. 
 
SLAVE U\'. 529 
 
 It was veiy common, too, for people who were not 
 themselves artisans to own a number of shives who 
 practised some particular trade, as in a factory. 
 Among the ancients slaves took the place of 
 machinerjr, for they were tolerably cheap to buy and 
 maintain, and thus a factor)' of this kind, worked by 
 slaves, was a good investment for capital, especially if 
 the owner understood enough business to undertake 
 the direction himself, or if he had a good overseer. 
 These factorj? owners also escaped the prejudices 
 against artisans ; to own slaves who made money by 
 the work of their hands was not regarded as " mechani- 
 cal " so long as they kept their own hands from 
 the work. Thus the father of Demosthenes possessed 
 a knife factor}', that of Isocrates a flute factory, 
 Lysias and his brother o-wned a shield factory of one 
 hundred and twenty workers. The slaves who worked 
 in these were not all necessarily the propierty of 
 the owner. Very often a slave proprietor who did 
 not understand a business himself, let his house to 
 someone who carried it on at his own risk : or, sup- 
 posing a master to possess among his slaves one who 
 understood some particular trade, he let him out 
 for a certain time at a fee (which was paid not to 
 the slave, but to the master) to sonreone who could 
 make use of him, perhaps in a large factor}-. In this 
 way slaves were often let out for work in the mines, 
 which required a great many hands ; in fact, they 
 might be let out for a long or short period, even for 
 days and half-days, for work in the fields, donrestic 
 occupations, personal service, etc. Many of the flute 
 girls and hetaerae were slaves, and were hired out 
 by their owners by the hour, day, or month, an 
 arrangement with which we are familiar from ancient 
 comedy. 
 I I 
 
5-SO (IKEEK LIKE AT HOME. 
 
 MdiTdVLT, it SDiiietiiiM's liappened tliat s];n'os avIid 
 had learned some prot'essimi made an ai^veemcnt witli 
 tlieii- musters te ])ay them a eortain proportiou of 
 their eaiTUiiu's, and keep the rest for themselves : 
 sometimes these lived in their mvn honses and paid 
 for their own food, and miL;ht easily earn enough 
 to purchase their freedoni. 
 
 There were various ways of liberating slaves, and 
 the proeeedings were diti'orent in dift'erent states; it 
 was a matter of some importanee too, whether a 
 slave was private property or owned hy the State or 
 h_y some sanctuary. There was no definite legal 
 formula for the manumission of ]>rivate slaves as at 
 Rome; the State did Jiot interfere in the matt<'r, but 
 oidy demanded a certain tax from the liberated slave. 
 As a rule, the act of manumission was jierformed 
 before witnesses or pulilicly in some lai'ge assembl}', 
 at the Theatre, in courts of law, etc., in order to give 
 the freed Jiian a guarantee of its validity. It often 
 hapjjened that an owner gave all or some of his slaves 
 their freedom in his will, either innnediately upon his 
 death or on the condition that the slave should serve 
 his heirs for a certain period, oi' pay a certain sum to 
 them out of his own earnings in return for his free- 
 dom. If a sLiA'e purchased his freedom during tlie 
 lifetime of his master tliere was a curious arrangemejit 
 for establishing the legality of the p)roeeeding, since 
 a slave was not able to conclude a legally valid 
 contract. AVe owe our knowledge of this p)ro(;i.'cding 
 idiiefly to documents at ]-)elphi. A mock sale had to 
 ].)e carried f:in ; the master sold the slave for a sum 
 mentiojied in the contract (wliich was paid by the 
 slave himself, uidess it was remitted by the master) 
 to some god, r.ij. at Delphi to Apollo, under the con- 
 dition that lie should be free as soon as he entered 
 
SLAVERY. 5-'31 
 
 the possession of the god. The slave did not then 
 become a temple slave, but was set free hj the gxid, 
 probably in return for some small payment to the 
 sanctuar}'. As these contracts were concluded in the 
 presence of witnesses, usually priests of the divinity 
 in question, and cle]3osited in the sanctuarjr, the freed 
 slave had the securit}' of not being afterwards claimed 
 b}' his former master or his heii's, and again losing 
 his freedom. Sometimes these contracts contained 
 clauses which pledged the slave to certain obligations 
 towards his master as long as ho lived, or towards 
 his heirs, or to care for the burial and grave of his 
 former master, etc. In most cases the freed slave 
 did not immediately lose all connection with his 
 old master; he was not a citizen, and therefore his 
 former owner became his legal patron. It was not 
 unusual for the contract to specify that in case the 
 slave should die Avithout children, his property should 
 belong to his former master or his heirs, and some- 
 times this even extended to the children of the slave, 
 supposing they in turn died without legal heirs. It 
 may have often happened, as was also the case among 
 some of the Russian serfs iir our own time, that 
 the freed slave was richer than his master, and we 
 may thus explain such obligations as those already 
 mentioned, or the condition that the liberated slave 
 should nnaintain his master until his death. The right 
 of citizenship was seldom conferred on slaves when 
 they were set free ; supposing this Avas the case, of 
 course, all such obligations were omitted. This was 
 usually done when a slave had deserved especially 
 well of his country ; thus, for instance, all those who 
 fought at the battle of Arginusae received their free- 
 dom and the right of citizcnshi]). The conditions at 
 Sparta were different : sometimes the Helots received 
 I I 2 
 
532 GREEK LIFE AT HDJIE. 
 
 their froedinn from the Stati\ esprcialh' tlioso cliildren 
 of Holots who were educated and brought up tt)L;Tlher 
 with the sons of citizens, but the right of citizenship 
 was never combined with this freedom. Still, it was 
 not unusual for children who were born of Spartan 
 fathers and Helot mothers to bo both free men and 
 i-itizens ; the celebrated Spartan generals Lysander, 
 (iylippus and t'allicratidas, were sons of Spartans and 
 Helots. 
 
 It would be impossible to make a guess at the 
 nund.ier of slaves in Greece. Statements on the sub- 
 ject are e.\tant, but these are insutHcient to give us 
 any general idea. There can be no doubt that tho 
 mnulter was a very large one ; it was a sign of tho 
 greatest poverty to own no slaves at all, and Aeschines 
 mentions, as a mark of a very modest household, that 
 there wore only scA-en slaves to si,\ persons. If wo 
 add to tliese domestic slaves the many thousands 
 working in the country, in the factories, and tho 
 mines, and those who were the property of the State 
 and the temples, there seems no doubt that tlieii' 
 number must have considerably exceeded that of tho 
 free population. The injurious influence of this part 
 of the populatii.in, who were (diiefiy Ijarbarians, was 
 felt in many different ways : and though it is not 
 as evident in (xreece as in Rome, where the disastrous 
 residts of slavery are most mai'ked, yet we cannot 
 hesitate to affirm that the spee'<l\- fall ()f ( jreece from 
 her political and social height, and the sad picture 
 she offered under Roman dominion, was due, among 
 otlier causes, in very great part to the institution 
 of slaver}". 
 
 THE END. 
 
LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED FOR 
 THIS BOOK. 
 
 I. — Works Bearing on the Subject Generally. 
 
 .J. A. St. John. " The Hellenes." London, 1844. 
 
 J. P. Mahatfy. " Social Life in Greece from Homer to 
 Menander. " Loudon, 187.5. 
 
 W. A. Becker. " Charikles neu bearbeitet von H. Goell." 
 Berlin, 1877. 
 
 C. F. Hermann. " Griecliische Privataltertiimer," 3rd ed., 
 edited by H. Hliimner. Freiburg and Tubingen, 1882. 
 
 Panofka. " Bilder Antiken Lebens." Berlin, 1843. 
 
 Panofka. " Grieclien und Grieohinnen." Berlin, 1844. 
 
 Weiszer. " Lebensbilder aus dem Klassicheu Altertura." 
 Stuttgart, 1862. 
 
 A. Baumeister. "Denkniiiler des Klassicheu Altertums." 
 Munich, 1884. 
 
 Th. Sclireiber. " Kulturhistorischer Atlas des Altertums." 
 Leipzig, 188.>. 
 
 H. Bliimuer. " Kunstgewerbe im Altertum." Leipzig and 
 Prague. 
 
 II. — Works Dealing with Special Subjects. 
 
 1. Costume. 
 
 W. Helbig. " Das homerisehe Epos aus den Denkmiilern 
 erliiutert." Leipzig, 1884, pp. 115 — 180. 
 
 T. Boehlau. " Quaestioues de re vestiaria Graecorum." 
 Weimar, 1884. 
 
 Fr. Studniczka. " BeitriigB zur Geschichte der altgriech- 
 ischen Tracht." Vienna, 1886. 
 
 Th. Schreiber. " Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaeo- 
 logischen Instituts in Atheu." Vol. VIII. (1883), pp. 246 f. ; 
 IX. (1884), pp. 232 f. 
 
584 LIST III' ArTiKiitniEs. 
 
 ■2. liiiili mi, I E.trlii Cliil,lli,i<<,I. 
 
 W. V. Swiccicki. "I lie l'rte,;;e <ler Kinder bi'i den 
 drieelien." ISreslau, 1^77. 
 
 liecii de l''iini[uiere>. " Les jenx des ancieiis." Paris, lS(i!l. 
 
 L. (!i-as1)ei\i;'er, " iMv.ieliun,:;' uiid T'litenielit ini Klassischen 
 Altertum." Wiir/.liuij;', Isi;4-IsnI. 
 
 ;!. Eihicdfiiin. 
 L. (ivaslievger. (Si, -1.) 
 
 J ]j. TJttinn'. " Erzieliuns' nnd •Tu,i;enduiitei'i'ielit liei den 
 Orieclieii und Kinnein." ISerlin, ISH."). 
 
 ■^. Jf,f rr,,fif( ,f}i<l M',,)n,}i. 
 Xo special bonks (|Uiited. 
 
 ">. l),iihi Li/,' ii'itlini ,111,1 //•itliiiiif til,' //,iiin,'. 
 (t. I')iltin,t,'ei'. "l)ie Zeitniesser der antiken Viilker." 
 Stnttyai-t, issc. 
 
 (1. Mi-Ills und iSiiriii/ Eii1irliii)iiiii-n1s. 
 Anastasios ^laltns. A luddern (freek work on the 
 symposia of the ^Vm-ient (ireeks. Athens, isso. 
 
 7. Sii'l'iiexx mill J'/ii/xiniiiix,- Di'iit/i iiml Biiriiil. 
 Weh'ker. " Kleine Sehiiften." HI., pip. If. 
 
 H. (t'l/innKulicn. 
 L. (irasliei'Ker. {Sei' -2.) 
 
 T. H. Kraiise. "Die (Jynmastik und Agonistik der Mel- 
 lenen." 2 vols. Leiiizij;', ls4l. 
 
 VA. finder. " Teller den l''iinfkanipf der Helleneu."' lierlin, 
 
 1HI17. 
 
 H. .Manjuardt. " Zinn Pentathlon der Hellenen." IHH.t. 
 !l, M iisii- iinil Dmiriiui. 
 
 K. V. Jan. ''hie (Jrieehisrhen Saiteninstruniente. Pi-n- 
 granini des Lyceums vmi Saai-gemiind." Leijizig, 1K82. 
 
 (-ievaert. " Histoire et tlienrie do la musique dans I'an- 
 ti.iuite." Vol. Tf. (IsM), l.p. 2\\ f. 
 
 K. V. .Jan. An article in " Piautneister's Deidimfilcr des 
 Klassisclien Altertunis.' 1., .'i.j3 f. 
 
 10. Reiuj'niyi. 
 K. F. Hermann. " jA'hrliuchder (Jottes-dienstlichen Alter- 
 tiimer der (Triechen." Second edition, lievised Ijy K. P. Stark. 
 Heidelberg, 1.m,-,s. 
 
UST f)F AUTHOKITIES. o-IO 
 
 Metzger. An article entitled Divinnfi,, in Paulys " Realen- 
 cyklopadie." It., pp. 1113 f. 
 
 Bouche-Lecleripie. " Histoiie de la divination dans I'an- 
 tiquite." Paris, 18S0. 
 
 Biich.sen.scluitz. " Traum und Traumdeutung im .Vltertum." 
 Berlin, iss2. 
 
 11. Gitmes and Fcxtivn/ts. 
 
 •J. H. Krause. '"EWrii'iKd." Part I. Olymiiia. Vienna, 
 1838. Part II., Pytliien, Nemien, und Lsthmien. Leipzig, 
 1841. 
 
 E. Cnrtiu.'!. Olympia. Berlin, isry2. 
 
 A. A. Bdttiger. " Da.s Fest und seine Stiitte." Second 
 Edition. Berlin, 1K86. 
 
 Hohverda. An article in the " Arehieologisclie Zeitung" 
 for 188l>, pp. 169 f. 
 
 A. ilommsen. " Delpliica." Leipzig, l.s78, pp. 149—214. 
 
 H. Guhrauer. " Der Pythische iSTonios " in " Siipplemente 
 der neuen Jalirbiicher fiir Philologie und Pndogogie." 
 Vol. VIII., pp. 3U9 f. 
 
 A. Momnisen. " Heortologie. Antiquarisclie Untersuch- 
 ungen iiber die stlidtiscben Fe.ste der Atlieuer." Leipzig, 1864. 
 
 A. Michaeli.s. "Der Parthenon." Leipzig, 1871. 
 
 Preller. An article in Pauly's "llealencyklopadie.'' 
 Vol. III., pp. 83 f. 
 
 Preller. " Demeter und Per.sephone." 
 
 12. T/u- Theatre. 
 
 Wieseler. An article entitled "(iriechisches Theater," in 
 Ersch. Gruber's "Encyklopadie." First series. Vol. LXXXIIL, 
 pp. 243 f. 
 
 Wieseler, " Theatergebaude und Denknialer des Biihnen- 
 wesens." Giittingen, 18.")1. 
 
 Alb. ^Miiller. "Lehrbuchder szenischen Altertiinier."' Frei- 
 burg-im-l!r., 1886. 
 
 W.Donaldson. " Theatre of the Greeks.'' Xiuth edition, 
 London, 1879. 
 
 Liiders. "Die Dionysischen Kiinstler." Berlin, 1873. 
 
 iSommerbrodt. "Scaenica." Berlin, 1876. pp. 199 f. 
 
 Arnokl An article in " Verhandlungen der 29ten Philolo- 
 gen versammlung," 187.5. pp. 16 f. 
 
 Wieseler. " Das Satyrspiel." Giittingen, 1848. 
 
586 LIST l)F AUTHIIIUTIES. 
 
 O. Benndorf. " lieitriige zur Kenntnis des Attisclieii 
 Theaters," an article in the " Zeitschrift fUr ostcrreichische 
 (iynmasien.'' 187.'j. 
 
 13. ll'i/r iin:1 Sfifcirimj. 
 
 W. liiistow and H. Kiichly. "(iescliiclite des ( iiieeliischen 
 Kriegswesens," Aarau, Is'ii. 
 
 Helbig. "Das Honierisclie Epos aus den ])enkm;Uern 
 eriautei-t." p]!. l!»')--:i">0, 
 
 Jahns. " Haiulbui'h ciiier Oeschiclite des Ki'iegswcseus 
 von del' Ui'zcit bis zur lienaissance." Leipzig, 1880. 
 
 A. Miiller. An article in Baumeister's " Denkniider iles 
 Klassischen Altcrtums." Vol. I., pp. 525 f. 
 
 Biieck. " Ih'kundcn iiljer das Seewesen des Attischen 
 Staates." llerlin, 184(i. 
 
 (Iraser. " 1 )e veterum re navali." Berlin, 1864. 
 
 A. C'artault. " La triere Athenienne." Paris, 188(1. 
 
 A. Breusing. " ]Jie Nautik der Alten." Bremen, 18s(;. 
 
 Baoul Lcinaitre. " 8ur la disposition des ranieurs sur la 
 triere anti(|Ue,"' an article in the Bcnie Arcliajlugiiine for 
 1883. jip. 8!) f. 
 
 14. Agnri(/fiire, Trade, kiiJ Covimercc. 
 Biichsenscliiitz. " ]!esitz iind Gewerb." Halle, 18(i!). 
 Biichsenscluitz. "Die Hanpstatteu des GewerbHeiszes im 
 
 klassischen Altertuni." Leipzig, 18(i;t. 
 
 W. Drumanii. " Die Arbeiter vnid Konininnisten in (jriecli- 
 enland uud lioni.'' Konigsberg, lN{i(i. 
 
 Bliinmer. "Die gewerbliclie 'J'hatigheit der Vijlker des 
 klassischen Altertnms." l^eipzig, 1869. 
 
 Bluinncr. "Technologic uiid Terniinologie der (Jewerbe 
 und Kiinste bci Griechen und Bianern." 4 vols. Leipzig, 
 187.')— 1887. 
 
 15. ,S7<((v-,s. 
 
 Wallon. '■ Histoire de I'esclavage dans rantiijuitc." Second 
 edition. Paris, 187!). 
 
 Biichbenschiitz. " Jlesitz und Gewerb." pp. 1(14— 208. 
 
I IT D E X. 
 
 Almcus, The, 111 
 
 Academy, The, at Alliens, li;\ 127 
 
 Acarnaiiia, Javelin tlirnwers of, 4VS 
 
 "Aehacans, C'miy-hairetl," (34, 72 
 
 Achilles, Wail at the death of, 248 ; 
 bandaging tlie arm <.if Patrochis, 
 464 
 
 Acropolis, Buildings nii the, 17I-' 
 
 Actors, Dross nf, 4. 4(> ; Gloves of, 5(,-i ; 
 sometimes poets, 421 ; selected by 
 poets, and examined hv the f^tate, 
 421 ; Division of parts tn, 422 ; 
 Dnnih, 42:;5 ; Payment of, 423; 
 Guilds and Schunls of, 42:^; Cos- 
 tuuies and masks of, 422 — 444 ; 
 Prizes of, 449 
 
 Adonis, Festival rif, 152 
 
 Aesehines, Figure i.>\\ 2 ; his employ- 
 ment in boylKjnd. 104 ; his allusion 
 to slaves, 5)^2 
 
 Aeschylns, The Trilogy of, 411 ; his in- 
 troduction of a second actor, 412; 
 Songs and Chi.>rus of, 413 ; his 
 "Eumenides," 428 ; his contest 
 ■with Sophocles, 440 
 
 Aesculapius, 234; Sanctuaries of, 238; 
 Sacrificial offering of cocks to, 336 
 
 Aesop's Fables, 88 
 
 Aetion exhibits his picture at Olynipia 
 of Alexandei's Marriage, 304 
 
 Aetolia, Javelin-throwers of, 478 
 
 Agesilaus, Dress of, 50 ; Anecdote of, 
 and the liobby-liuise, 93 
 
 Agora, The, 12S 
 
 Agi'ae, The lesser Eleusinia at, 37S 
 
 Agiicultur;d inqilements, 493 
 
 Agricultural pursnits, 17ti 
 
 Agricultui-e, in statistical relation to 
 industry and trade, 489 ; the chief 
 occui"iation in the heroic period, 
 491 ; at Sparta, 491 ; at Athens, 
 491 ; Irrigation in, 492; in Arcadia, 
 493 ; Allusion in Homer to, 493 ; 
 Imjilements of, 493 
 
 Alcibiades, Shoes named after, 55 ; at a 
 banquet, 216 
 
 Alcmene, her song to her children, 85 
 
 Alexander tlie Great anti Roxana ; picture 
 of their marriagr, by Aetion, 364 
 
 Alexandria, School of, 128 
 
 Alexandria Troas, Ruins of AVrestling 
 School at, 121 
 
 Alexandrine jteriod, ^'arietie.s of female 
 dress in the, 43 
 
 Altis, Grove of, 121, 304, 362, 305 
 
 Amazons, Chiton of, 30; Battle-axe of, 
 475 ; Shields of, 478 
 
 Ambrosia, Festival of, 385 
 
 Amorgos, Looms of, 48 
 
 Ampechonion, The, 43 
 
 Ampliiaraus, Temple of, 243 ; Oracle of, 
 340 ; Figure of, 405 ; Helmet of, 
 460 
 
 Amphictyons, The, 369 
 
 Amphidriimia, The, 82, S3, 84 
 
 Amphoras, 373 
 
 Amulets for infants, 83, 84 ; in curing 
 disease, 243 
 
 Anacreon on Conversation, 219 
 
 Anaximander Introduces methods of 
 measuring time, 184 
 
 Anaximenes lecturing at Olymi.iia, 364 
 
 Andromache, Head-di'ess of, 74, 145 
 
 Andromeda, Jlasks relating to, 430 
 
 Animals, Sacrifice of, 137, 138, 203, 336, 
 337 
 
 Animals, wild, Hunting, 190 
 
 Anthesteiian Festival, The, 385 
 
 Antioeh, School of, 128 
 
 Antiphon on spear-throwing, 278 
 
 Antisthenes, 127 
 
 Aplirodite Anadyomcue, 172 
 
 Aiihrodite bathing, 150 
 
 Aphrodite Fandemos, 134 
 
 Aplirodile Uranki, 134, 151 
 
 Ax'oUo, Figure of, 4; The chlamys of, 
 10 ; Head-dress of, iji? ; invoked at 
 weddings, 137, 144; at the purifi- 
 cation of Orestes, 330; Sacrifice of 
 asses to, 330; Oracles of, 342; Clariau 
 Temple of, 344 ; Sacrifice at Pythian 
 Games to, 307; Hecatomb to, 370; 
 A skive set free by, 531 
 
 ApoUo-Coi-opaeus, Oracle of, 345 
 
 Aj-WxyoiiwHos, The, of Lysippus, 285 
 
 Arcadians, Tlie, 458 
 
 Arcesilas of Cyrent.-, 514 
 
 Archery, Skill of Civtans in, 300; In- 
 stiiictiou in, 124 (,sv.r, a.h", Bow and 
 Anows) 
 
588 
 
 Arrlioii r.iisihNf. riivss lif till', -I 
 
 An-c.paKiis, Tlir, Kli; 
 
 Ar-ii]us;u-, tlir l.iiltlf c.r, Sl;ives a(, 
 51(1 
 
 Algolis, :i71 
 
 ArK"s, L'rniilircv at, :;44 
 
 Ariiichic, 4-14 
 
 Aristart'liiis, iiivriit.ir ol'sinulials, Is.'i 
 
 Aristii|.lKilirs, liis iillusi.iiis t.i i-liitous 
 an. I iiiclc ciC wi'uriiij; llic liair, r.'.l ; 
 allnsiiins to iiiirsrrics, sfj ; alliisiiui 
 ti. til.' ni.>tll.T ..r l'll..i.lilil.i.l.'S, '.IS; 
 Ills .k-sci'ipti.ilis ..r liiarriaL:r, 1:14, 
 17(1 ; ■■liinis" i.f, 141) ; " Finns" .if, 
 •-'00 ; allu.iiiiii tn li.lvlitv nt citiznis 
 t.ijii.li.iiil iliitii-.s, I'.i,-, ; Tlic'-Adi;ir- 
 iiiiiiis'i.r, -j:',!;, :i.s:l;liisacciiiniti.ftli.; 
 rri'tiM TV lit rliitll.s from lililiillii's.s, 
 
 ■J4II; L'liMirilii-siif, UHL' ; .riiki'.ii.f, 4:ii; 
 
 Aristiitli', .Sliavi-ii faci' nf, 73 ; lii.s allii- 
 .siiiii t.i th.' llnti-. 111' ; trai-luis in 
 tjic l.vrpuiil, I'JT : lli.-l iijiilliiill nf 
 \v.irk,'4'.«l, iif tra.li'Sin.-n, .".lO 
 
 Aritlniirtii' in tSiiartiin I'llui-alinii, 101; 
 in Altic .•ilnratiiin, 111, lliT 
 
 " Arnninr-racc," 4'hi', L;7:i, 1^74 
 
 Anns, i;xiiosnr.' nt, is 
 
 Arms, )ilvsi-litr.l t.if;i/iW.I, lis; nspil in 
 war, 4riL'; nf Ili.ni.Ti.' snlil i.TS, 4(;ii; 
 .if lat.T tini.-s, 4I1-J-4SIJ 
 
 AniiY .if K|iavla, 4r,4-4:Ml ; nf Athens, 
 450— 4i;0 (,s'ir, ii^.svi, Hnldinrs) 
 
 Arti^iniiliiins, Mivaiii-lin.ik nf, :I4'2 
 
 Alt.-lnis, Chitnn .if, IJ'J ; llolls nff.-rerl tn, 
 '.rl ■ inv.ik.'.l at w.-.lilings, l:f7, 144; 
 Saciitic.i at. I'vtliian Gann-s tn, 3iiT 
 
 Artist, Priifi-ssi.iii nf, 4s',i, ,000 ; Wnrk- 
 simp nf an, .'ii)4 
 
 Asknlia, (iann; nf, .■)S4 
 
 Asjiasia, 17;^ 
 
 Astragals (See Knn.'kl.'-li.mi-s) 
 
 Astriiniiniv in Attic si4 Is, 114, 127 
 
 Atlieuc at licr t.iilet, ir.'.i ; as a wiaivrr, 
 4y.S 
 
 Alli: ite-lhl^lcUi, 37.0 
 
 Allieiie l\,i;iis, 372, 37.0, 377 
 
 Atliens, Diess at, 12; 81i.ies Murn at, 
 .05; Walking-stinks at, 04 ; .Miiilr .,1 
 .Irrs.sing tin' hair at, OS; .System .if 
 edncati.in at, 102—132 ; Tribes ami 
 clans nf, 143; Daily life in, 17SJ— 
 201 ; Streets anil snlinilis nf, 170, 
 LSO; Hnus.'S at, 170, ISl ; Unties 
 and v.iinntai'v ser\ii'es nf citizens nf, 
 194, r.15; liani|ili'ts in, 2"3-232 ; 
 F.'stivals .,f, 372-300; Tlnatre nt, 
 300 ; Jlilitarv service in. 400 
 
 Atlileti-s, Hair nf, I'ii ; (Oini|ili'.\ii.n nf. 
 2S0 ; riisitinn and tiainin'4 nf. 302 
 — 305; nsel.'ss tn till' Stall', 3n0; at. 
 (djni|iia, 35S 
 
 An.iit.irinm nf tli.'.itres, 31.1S— 4n2 
 
 Angnstns, (Ibelisk nt, in llie Canipiis 
 Martins, ls5 
 
 Baliylnniaiis, tlieir arran-i'imnts fur 
 nieasnrin- tiiiii-, 1S4 
 
 Ball, Gan f, 22:'.. 20:1 
 
 Hankers, I'.m, olii, 017, 51,s 
 
 ixnEx. 
 
 llamini'ts fnr men, -203 ; Ordi'r of jiro. 
 
 .'.'.'.iiiius at. 200; 'I'll.' yarinns.iisli.'s 
 
 at, s.'iA.'.l al, 200. 207; Drinking at, 
 
 200; at li'lisiniis festivals, :i4'.l ; at 
 
 , Olvinpia, 303 (,s','.',.ifeii, Svmpnsinni) 
 
 Barbels' simps, IS;., loo 
 
 i:„,i.:t„„. Till', 314 
 
 llarlev-eake, ■2(is 
 
 Barter, 5l:i 
 
 B.isilina. ;)S0, ;is7 
 
 Baskets fill' learning tn walk, si! 
 
 Bathing I'liildr.'n, SO 
 
 Hatlis fnr n.'W-bnrn infants, sO ; in K>in- 
 nasia, 121; fnr lirideand liridegr.inm, 
 137 ; nf wnmen, 100 ; fnr men, 102 
 — 104; Public and |irival.', I'.e2, 103; 
 cnnnecte.i with the gjiniiasia, 102 
 
 BatteriUK-ram, 4.S0 
 
 Battle-axe, The, 475 
 
 Beard, the, Mmles nf w.'aring. 71—74 
 
 Beer, 211 
 1 Bib. The, 0, 10, 24, ■2S, 32, 33, 35, 3l'i, 30 
 
 Birds, Snaring, 107 ; Sacrilice nf, 330 
 
 Birds nf Aristi.|ihanes, 140 
 
 Birth and Infancy, Feri.i.l of, 78— OS ' 
 
 Birth.lavs, ■203 
 
 " Black broth," 17S 
 
 Blinilness, Cur.'s f.ir, 240 
 
 Bnaril nf Ins]ieeti.in in .Sparta, |iO 
 
 Mnating, 120 
 
 Boehlaii nn I he wnman's .diil.m, 21 
 
 Bneotians, F 1 nf, 201; 
 
 Bogies, ss 
 
 Bonts, 52. 53 
 
 I!„i,le, Thi', ]'.I5 
 
 Bnw an.l Arrnus, Teai-hing the use nf, 
 124; Cnnstinctinn nf, :J00 ; in war, 
 470, 477 (.See, ..;.<.., Arelierv) 
 \ •' Bnwl .if Diiris," The, 307 
 
 Bnxillg, 110, 1-23, 201, 202; snliject to 
 s]iei'ial rules, 2!i2 ; Ininries from, 
 203 ; Jlellm.ls .,f, ■203—200 ; Thongs 
 nsi'il in, 203, '200; atlHvmpia, 353 
 
 Boys, Clolhing of, 100, 11,S; Kdiication 
 of, 00 — 132; Gymnastic exeieises of, 
 100, 1 15, 1 10, ilO- 1-24 ; Gath taken 
 by, 117; perio.l when cl.'issed as 
 f/.//r/.i III, 117; I'x.'icised in arms, 
 124; imrse-riding, swimming, boat- 
 ing, ami marching, 124—120; Ad- 
 
 Xd\ 1 instrnction of, 127. 128; at 
 
 .jn.iit-tlirowing, 278 ; as ]iriests, 
 320, 320; at the Glvnipic games, 
 .3.03, 3.54 ; at Pythian gani.'s, 308; at 
 tlieatres, 447; as slaves. 521 
 
 Branchiilae. The Sanetnary of, 314 
 
 Bread, 207, 2ns 
 
 Jtri.lal .Iress, 13s 
 
 BriiLal preseiils, 130 
 
 Bridal prneessinn, 130 
 
 Bridal snug. 140 
 
 lirid.'d lor.hi's, 130 
 
 Urooches, 
 
 lirygns. vase painter, 30 
 
 Hiiriiinglli.' ilea.l, 2.01). 201. 205 
 
 B.\/:.intiiiiii, liili'iii]ieran.'.' at, 107 
 
 fakes, 
 l.':illiilii 
 
 20s ; Oil' Ci'ibeins, 245 
 lie s.iere.l walei' .if, 13i 
 
IIN UIL.V. 
 
 Calypso, 145 
 
 Camps, ■i'\^i 
 
 Caps, ^SIia]ie and iiiatcvial of, o'.t 
 
 Captives taken in war, 452 
 
 Carnages for infants, 00 ; of the rich, 108 
 
 Caryatid, Dress of a, lil ; Head-dress of 
 a, 75 
 
 Castanets, 320 
 
 Cattle rearing, 17t.i, 406, 497 
 
 Cavalry, 452, 457, 470, 4S0 
 
 Cenotaphs, 264 
 
 Ceos, Bnrial ordinances of, 251 
 
 Cerberus, 245 
 
 Chairs, 202 
 
 Chariot races. 353, 354-357, 368, 373 
 
 Charioteers, Costume of, 4, 354 
 
 Chariots, Fighting from, 451 
 
 Charon, The pilos of, 59 ; his fees, 245 
 
 Chemises, 43 
 
 Childretj, Customs at the birth of, 7S — 
 SO ; Swaddlings for, SO ; Suckling, 
 81 ; Legitimation of, SI ; Exposure 
 of, 82 ; Naming, 83 ; "Welcome and 
 Dedication of, S2, 84; Charms for, 
 84; in the nursery, 85; Bathing, 
 85; Weaning, 85 ; learning to walk, 
 87 ; Clothing of, 88 ; Threats for 
 quieting, SS ; Stories for, 88 ; Toys 
 for, 80—92 ; Gaines of, 02—97 ; Chas- 
 tisement of, 98 ; Education of, OS ; 
 Kegistration of new-born, 143 ; 
 bound to obedience, 148; at meals, 
 178 ; at the Feast of Cans, 3S6 ; as 
 sla\es, 521 (,Sce, also, Buys and 
 Girls) 
 
 Chioiiis, Jumping feat of, 260 
 
 Cliiton, The, long and short, and by 
 wliom worn, 3,4 ; Homeric descrip- 
 tions of, 6 ; Change in the cut of, 8 ; 
 of Hermes, 11 ; of worUmen and 
 others, 12 ; Modes of wearing the, 
 14, 15 ; combined with tlie himation, 
 17 ; worn at home, 19 ; its resem- 
 blance to the peplos, 20 ; worn by 
 women, 21, 24 — 26 ; Changes in, 
 30 ; Construction of, 33 ; Folds of, 
 33, 34; Arrangement of, 37; Varie- 
 ties of, 30—41; Colour of, 44, 45; 
 Patterns of, 46 ; Material of, 47, 
 48 ; on the stage, 438 ; of soldiers, 
 465 
 
 Chlaina (Cloak), 3; shape of, 7, 8; 
 material of, 15 
 
 Chlamys, The, 7 ; jtlaceofits origin, 17 ; 
 shape and nioile of wearing, IS ; 
 of Hermes and Apollo, 18, 19 
 
 Choragia, The, 418 
 
 Choruses, 214, 350, 3S9, 302, 3li4, 413, 
 415; Training of, 417, 410, 420; 
 Prizes to, 410 ; The selectiim of, 
 420 ; Dress of, 444 
 
 Circe, 145 
 
 Cirrha, 368 
 
 Cithara, The, taught in Attic schools, 
 112 ; Construction of, 309—311 ; 
 Manner of playing, 311 ; at Pytliian 
 games, 366 
 
 Cithara player. Dress of, 32 ; at ban- 
 quets, 133 
 
 Citizens, Daily life of, ]SS— 201 ; Judi- 
 cial duties and voluntary st-rvices 
 of, 105 ; as soldiers, 45ii 
 
 Civic riglits of young' men, 133 
 
 Civil duties, 105 
 
 Clans at Athens, 143 
 
 Clarian Temple of Apollo, Tlie, ?.44 
 
 Clarofaie, The. 522 
 
 Cleisthenes, Reforms of, 457 
 
 Cleon, 428 
 
 Cloak, The, V ; Mode of wearing, 15, 17, 
 19 ; Coloured, 47 
 
 Clocks, Water, 185— 1S7 
 
 Clothes. Washing, 156, 157 
 
 Club, The, 47.'. 
 
 Club-rooms, 170, 102 
 
 Cnidus, Jlcriii-al scliool nf, 235, 230 
 
 Cock and (luail ligliting, 228 
 
 Coffins, Material and shapes uf, 252, 253 
 
 Coins put inti.t mouths of dead uil-u, 245 
 
 Collicratidas, 532 
 
 Colours of dress, 44—47 
 
 Comedy, 414, 415, 436—442 
 
 ConiUR, The, 230 
 
 Com.-ubinagi', 145, 146 
 
 r<nidnttirn. Tin-, 450 
 
 (,'onjurprs, 217 
 
 Con\ersations and disrns^^ions at sym- 
 posia, 210 
 
 Cooking, 206 
 
 Corinth, Female morality at, 170; The 
 hetaerae of, 171 ; Temple of Aph- 
 rodite at, 173 
 
 Corn dealers, 510 
 
 Corynibus, The, 68 
 
 Cos", Medical s.^io.d of, 235, 239 
 
 (.'osmetics, lii5 
 
 Costume, Knowledge of, essential to a 
 complete picture of past ages, 1 ; 
 Theatrical, 432— 444 (.See, rt^st), Dress) 
 
 Costume, Greek, Incorrect ideas of, 2 ; 
 Two kinds of, 2 ; Names of garments 
 in, 3 {See, aho, Dress) 
 
 "Cothurnus," The, 436 
 
 Cottabus, Game of, 194, 220, 221 
 
 Cotton garments, 40 
 
 Council of Five Hundred. 195, 449 
 
 Cradles, SI 
 
 Crematoria, The, 250 
 
 Crcpidif, 54 
 
 Crete, Marriage custom at, 145 ; skill 
 of its jieople in archery, 300, 47S 
 
 Crobylus, Tbp, i;8, 75 
 
 Ctpsi'bius, Water clock of. 187 
 
 Cuirass, Tin-, 4(i0, 462, 4(;4, 4r,5, 4,9 
 
 Culture of Greeks, 110 
 
 Cup-bearers, 17S, 221 
 
 Cu|)s, Wim;, 213 
 
 "Curl-holilcrs," 64, 71 
 
 Cnils ^vorii by men, 64, fi5, OS 
 
 Curse 'in mui'derers. 251 
 
 Cybele, iMosical instruments used inthe 
 woisliip <if, 310, 320 
 
 "Cyclops," Tlie, 415 
 
 Cymbals, 320 
 
 Cynic pliih.sophers, Dress of. 20; Bare 
 feet of, 40; Beards of, 74; at the 
 Cynosarges. 127 
 
 Cynosarges, The, at Athens, 110 
 
540 INDEX. 
 
 Cyi-c]if. sil|iliiinii iif, .-,14 
 
 Daily lilV at ^<iiartii, 17,",— 17'.i ; at 
 Atlifiis, irtl-UOl 
 
 Danciny, at sviiiimsia, I'lii : raiilMjiiiiiiif, 
 217"; clili'Hy (■.jnliiii'd fu i,n,f,>ssi.ili:il 
 ptn'fnriiifis, '.'.'I] ; ItL'twccii tlic sexes 
 untviiuwii, 3'2\ ; foi- icli^'inns piir- 
 pnses, 3'Jl ; hi till' wi.lsliili .,f 
 l>iMii\siis, :5L'i ; ill aruiiiiir, ^.'^^2\ ; 
 ^■illJ;i'Il^; riiiiiliinnl nitli, .'):;l ; l>is- 
 tiiicti'in ill amiriitaiiil mmtri'ii, 'i-22 ; 
 ill coiiiifctiiui with reli.Liiniis liiys- 
 terii-s, .'.US; after ]-eli;,'iniis eere- 
 inoiiies, :t:,0 ; rill, vie, 417 
 
 "Daiialiterof Niolie, A,' :i',i 
 
 Deatll anil burial, Ciistniiis ennnecteil 
 with, L'44— 2i;4 
 
 Deh's, ri-nlieieiicv in swiiiiiiiiii;^' i,f in- 
 habitants iif, 'liiii 
 
 Del|.lii, Oraele iif, :lll', 34:1; rythiaii 
 ^allies at, 3il6— 3711 
 
 Deuieter, (Jlterillg i,r swine In, 33i; ; 
 Waiiilerin^'s i.r, :i,s| ; Festival in 
 lioiiniir ,,r, 3.S:; 
 
 Dennieeiles, tlie i)li\sieiaii, LMS 
 
 Deinnsthenes, in4 ; Factory .if the 
 fatlier "1, .'iL'Ii 
 
 Dice, :i7, in:;, ln4, 2-i::. \:--H, ±i::, 347 
 
 Diogenes, his allnsion to the eaie taken 
 of si |i, 4'.l,s 
 
 Dionieile, Helmet of, 4i;S 
 
 DioiAslls, Fillet on forelnei.l of, 71 ; 
 Festiv.il of, lis ; ill a vase iiictinv, 
 in'.l; his iolirnev fo Il;iiles, eiHl ; 
 Ilvniii in praise nl, -n^l ; Worship 
 of, 3-M ; baciiliee to, :;:.:', ; (4nats 
 otfere.l to, ;j3n ; Festi\als of, 3S3 - 
 3!IU ; Theatre of, I'.K, 4(13, 44.-, ; on 
 the sta-e, 44'J 
 
 " Dioiivsiis. Tlie Little," '.Hi 
 
 Dio,i,is,>~-l':ir„/l,.',-os, 3s.;, :«'.! 
 
 Diplax, Tlie, s 
 
 Discipline ill Sparta, IliO 
 
 " Diseobolns," The, ill the Vatican, 277 
 
 Diseases, deseribcil in inseript ions, 23'.' ; 
 
 lloiles of Cnrii.e, 230— 24:; 
 Dishes at a birth-festival, S4 ; sonic- 
 
 tinies eniinierateil in \crsc, 21)11 
 
 Divorce, Ibolllcls of. IIS, IP.I 
 
 Doihina, (iiaele of /.lis at. :;-14 
 Does lor hunting', Pm : earrieil alioiit in 
 tlie propitiation of Hecate, 3:;l 
 
 Dolls, on— :i2 
 
 Door, Deckiii- tlie, on tlie biiHi of a 
 
 chihi. 7s 
 Doric atel Ionic costume, Ilillcrcnces 
 
 between, 22— ::n 
 Dough, as a subsliliitc h.r lable-nap- 
 
 kiiis, 2iii: 
 Dowrv.Uiiile's, l:)'., 13ii; Return of. n:i 
 Dragon, Apollo's tight with the, :;n7 
 Drama, Origin of, :«12 ; Divisions of the, 
 
 411. 41i;; Choregraphic clinient in 
 
 tins 417; Hcl.iesentati. f the. 
 
 421-44S 
 Dramas at Kleiisiniali fe.,tiials, :«1 ; 
 
 at the Feast of Cans, :;,s:i, :;:i:i. 
 DiJipety In l-^gyi^t 41HJIJ n.i ., '.' ; among 
 
 the Phoenicians. ;i ; as shown in 
 lasc liaintings, 311, :i:',, 34 
 
 Drawing, Teaching of, 113. 127 
 
 Drawing lots at (llvinpia, 3i;0 
 
 Drea raclcs, 240-243 
 
 Drcalii-I k of Artcini. loins, 342 
 
 Dreams, 341 ; revealing the will of the 
 g.iils, :;42 
 
 Dress, ol aelois, 4; at Athens, 12 ; of 
 I'liariotecrs, 4 ; of eviiic iihiloso- 
 phers, 20; of tbilc jiiayers, 4; of 
 gotls, 3; of harp players, 4 ; in 
 Ionia, 12 ; of the age of Pericles, 2; 
 of priests, 4, 327; of riders, IS, 
 12'.; of sohliers, S, IS, V>r,; in 
 .Sparta, 12; .,f wa.rkim'n, 12, 19, 
 .W2; of youHis, IS, 100, lOli, 118 ; 
 of w.Mii.ai, 20 — 40 ; Col.iur and 
 patt.nn of, 44 ; with ilesigns of 
 tignrcs, 47 ; Mat.nial ..f, 47, 48 ; 
 of hcta.aa.., 4S ; ..f chihlrcn, 87, ,SS ; 
 ]iai.lag..goi, 103; ..ff.niialcgvliiliast, 
 
 132; of bri.lc, 138 ; ..f l.ri.l.-gr , 
 
 l:):i ; of a -pse, 21.'.; ..f fini.nal 
 
 inounicrs. 2.',1 ; .jf p.aisants, 407 ; 
 olslav.-s, .V2I 
 
 Drinking paiti.'s, l:i7, 202, 200 ; lie- 
 pivsenfations of, 212 
 
 Drinking songs. 21.'. 
 
 Drunkenness. 2:)0 ; of iv n, 170 
 
 Dumb-bclks, nil; used in Jinn|.ilig. 20(5 
 
 Diiris. vase-paiiit.T, :;o ; his r. ■presenta- 
 tion of scl It. ■aching, lOil 
 
 Dw.^llings ill S].arta, 177 ; in Athens, 
 170, 181 
 
 Dy.^ing the hair, IC.G 
 
 Carly rising, 104 
 
 Ear-rings, r.;'. 
 
 Ecstasv, 341, 
 
 E.llication, Hislinction in the I).. tie 
 an. I I..ni.^ staphs in syst.^m of, 00; 
 in Spaita, li'.i- 102, 1:10, 1:12 ; in 
 Ath.ns, 102 132 (,8Vt, ..?.«), Schc.ols) 
 
 Egvj.t, Ilia|,.^rv in, 
 
 El.-nsini.in eel.-brations, 1.01, 377— 3S2 
 
 Flialis, The, ::.'.N, 303 
 
 Bliibalmiug, 240 
 
 Enibroi.lcrv, 4'., 130 
 
 Eplnhi, 117 ; IL.nbh^ us., ,.f tin- t.TUl, 
 
 117 ; Th ilh taken bv, 117 ; their 
 
 change of .Iress, and .l.-.li.^at..ry 
 rites," lis; Jlilitary c.bicatioii of, 
 124, 1211, 127, 4:".0 
 
 Ei.li.^siis, Ruins of wi.^slling sclio..l at, 
 121 ; theat f, 402 
 
 Eplcrs, The, 1-.4 
 
 E],ie.ircalis, Tic, 128 
 
 Epi.laliriali s;o-i ilic.^, 37:i 
 
 Epi.hdiius, Saiiel iiar,\ . .t -\.-s.:ulai.ius at, 
 
 E].itTial'aliiiii'iii of H.-leii, 111 
 Eriiin\s, The, :i:l.". 
 
 Kros, (;l..iirM^ali .f, 220 
 
 Etbi.^s, no 
 
 f;tnisr-:,ii grav.'s. Spirals P.. mil in, 0.5 
 Fii|.le.ilins, 'flm l.airof, 0:'. 
 E.lil],i,|.s, his lira. I. -s against married 
 III.', 134, 170 ; S.mgs from 210 ; ou 
 
INDEX. 
 
 541 
 
 Olynipic. games, 365 ; Tetralogies of, 
 
 412 ; " C'ycloi)s " of, 415 ; repre- 
 
 stnted on tlie stage, 42S 
 Evil eye, The, 83 
 Exomis, mode of wearing tlic chiton, 
 
 13 ; on the stage, 438 
 Exposure of infants, S2 
 Eyebrows, Dyeing the, IGG 
 
 Factories, 529 
 
 Fair at Olympic Festival, 307 
 
 Fairy tales, 88 
 
 Farms, Management of, 402, 493 
 
 " Fast and Loose," Game of, 22i> 
 
 Feast of Adonis at Alexandria, Sl'l 
 
 " Feast of Cans," Tlie, 386 
 
 Feet, the, Coverings for, 49 — 55 
 
 Felt gariiients, 49 
 
 Fencing, 124 
 
 Festivals, Costume for, 3, 40 ; at the 
 hirth of children, 82—84; of the 
 Panathenaea, 124 ; at marriages, 
 13S ; for women, 151 ; of Adonis, 
 152 ; Religious, 195, 349, 350, 351 ; 
 Frequency of, 203 ; National, 35(i ; 
 at Olympia, 351—300; at Delphi, 
 300—370 ; Isthmian, 370 ; Nemean, 
 371 ; Athenian, 372—391 
 
 Fibulae, ti, 32, 33, 39, 09 
 
 " Ficoronese Cista," The, 290 
 
 Fireless sacrifices, 334 
 
 Fish, Eating, 207 
 
 Fish-market, 191 
 
 Fishing, 197 
 
 " Five-lines," Game of, 224 
 
 Flowers for funeral wreaths, 245 
 
 Flute, the, Instruction in, 10", 112; 
 neglected at Athens, but popular at 
 Thebes, 112; its Bacchic origin, 
 112; carefully avoided in Sparta, 
 113 ; Construction of, 315 ; playing, 
 310—319 ; at Pythian games, 300 
 
 Flute players Costume of, 4 ; at sym- 
 posia, 214, 210 ; at sacrificial cere- 
 monies, 338 ; as slaves, 521 
 
 Forfeits, 213 
 
 Fortune-telling, 347 
 
 "Frogs," The, of Aristophanes, 200 
 
 " Frog's wine," 210 
 
 Fruits, 208 
 
 Fuller's earth used in washing, 188 
 
 Funerals, 203, 245—204 ; Bearers at, 252 ; 
 Cars at, 250 ; Games at, 290 ; 
 Laments at, 240 ; Orations at, 255 
 
 Gamelion, The nmnth, favourite time 
 
 for weddings, 130 
 Games of children, 92—07, 223 ; at the 
 
 symposium, 220, 223—220 
 Gaming houses, 197 
 Gaolers, 525 
 Gardens at Athens, 182 
 Geometry in Attic schools, 114, 127 
 Gifts for new-born chihireji, 83 
 Girdle, The, 11, 20, 23, 24, 35, 3!> 
 Girls, Early marriages of, 92 ; Education 
 of, 129 ; Domestic instruction of, 
 l:-^0 ; Plato on the education- of, 
 130 ; their gymnastic training in 
 
 Sparta, 130, 131; cJebarred from 
 social inti'i-couise, 133; as priest- 
 esses, 325, :!20 ; of Elis, 300 
 
 GlaucLis. 304 
 
 Gloves, 55, 5ii 
 
 Goat-rearing, 407 
 
 Gods, CostuMje of, 3 ; Lili.itions to, 212 ; 
 Temples of. 324; modes of revealing 
 their will, 324 ; their desire for 
 worship and sacrifice, ;;24 ; Prayers 
 to, 328 ; Sacrihces to the, 331—335 
 
 G(.)ld masks discovered at Mycenae, 72 
 
 " Gooil genius," the. Drinking in 
 honour of, 200 
 
 Gorgias, his discourses at Olympia, 364 
 
 Graser on arrangement of rowing- 
 benches, 4S4 
 
 Grasshoppers, Golden, for the hair, OS, 
 09, 71 
 
 Graves, 252 ; Adornment of, 254 ; Liba- 
 tions at, 250 ; Cai'e of, 2i.)2 
 
 Greaves, 400, 4til, 4(12 
 
 Gieece, Conditions in heruic period, 451 
 
 "Guest-friend," The, 199, 200 
 
 Guests, Reception (d; 203, 204 
 
 Oylippits, 532 
 
 Gyninusia, Tlie, 115; State institutions, 
 119; at Athens, and tlieir arrange- 
 ment, 110, 120; of Riane, 120; 
 Teachers in, 122, 123 
 
 Gymnasiarchs, The, 122 
 
 Gymnastic exercises, 205 — 305 ; in 
 Sparta., 301; in Athens, 115—124; 
 of Spartan girls, 130, 131 
 
 Hades, Temple of, 243 
 
 Hair, the, Modes of wearing, of men, 
 04—74; of women, 74 — 77; curled, 
 04, 75 ; plaited, 00, 07, 75 ; orna- 
 mented, 05, OS, 77 ; cut short, 09 ; 
 M(jdes of cutting, 71 ; Shaving, 
 71 ; Scenting, 74 ; Kerchiefs for 
 70, 77 ; jiarted in the niid<lle, 70 ; 
 with " Greek knot," 70 ; with a 
 tillet, 77 ; of ephchi, IIS ; Laconian 
 custom of cutting oil' the bride's, 
 144 ; dyeing, Ifiii ; cut off at 
 funerals, 251 ; of soldiers, 455 
 
 Handicral'ts, 170 ; of gods, 49S ; depre- 
 ciation of, 499, 500 ; in the hands of 
 three classes, 500 ; of foreigners, 501 
 
 Hands, W;ishing, at meals, 205, 200 ; 
 Lines of, 347 
 
 Hangmen, 525 
 
 Harj., The, 215 
 
 Harp players. Costume of, 4 ; at sym- 
 posia, 215 
 
 Hats, Place of origin of, 5ti ; Various 
 shapes of, 50—59 ; of straw, for 
 women, ill 
 
 Head, the, Co-\-erings fi>r. 5i'i— 01 
 
 1-Iecate, Propitiation of, in cases of 
 madness, &c., 331, 330 
 
 Hecatomb, Ottering of a, 337 ; to Apollo 
 at the Pythian Festival, 3<o; to 
 Athene Polias, 377 
 
 Hector, 145 ; AVail at death of, 248 
 
 Helen, Epithalamium of, 141 
 
 Helios, Sacrifice of horses to, 330 
 
542 
 
 JIfliiiri, -I'll,/. !,;(; -4 
 
 ■li-.s ; .i|- Aln|.hiar:nis, 4(;'.l 
 " IlHliils" Till-, 4:,4, 4;.:.. 47s. VJl' 
 Ik'pliapsllls, Til.' piliis nr, .V.i; (iiris t 
 
 IH'wivWBililed jKiir Inini. 14 
 
 thr for^'f, V.is 
 llaa. invnkol at wc.ldiii-s, |:17 ; with 
 
 Tier iiiirruf, I'VS ; 'J'oiiiilf of. ;;ilj 
 Herbs, Mi-ilical, ■_'34 
 H.-rcnlcs, lliiinki-ii, 'J:;!! 
 lleniics, Thi; rliit f, 11 ; Tlir liinn- 
 
 tinil uf, 1:, : Tin- clilaiiivs (,1, IS ; 
 
 Tile ]..tas..s ,if, :a;; (Jia.ll ; SI ; 
 
 Liliatioii I,,, at sviii|.isia, L'iai ; 
 
 Iliveiit.ivcf tia- Iviv, :ni7 
 Heroilutiis, iHi tViiialc clivss, 21;, :'.0; 
 
 Travels (il, ras 
 Hesiial, ill Allie srli.a.ls, nil ; liis 
 
 "jiiiii t «,irk, 1:111 
 
 IIel,:,'n:,, I leess 1 if, 4s ; l.iteiarv eilltine 
 
 iif, I'J'.i; P.isitinn i,r, 1:1:1, 17:1; 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 le, llvsiae, Pii,|ilieo,v al, :l4:i 
 
 without le^Ml jirntectioii, ] , :: ; at Isii 
 
 l.aeehns, :i7;i, :1SI1 
 
 Inj lalilV ofthe a^'e nf I'erielrs, 174 
 
 at: I liii|ileiiieiiis of aKiieiiUiire, 4:1:1 
 
 I " liicroval.les,'' :i4. 
 th '■ Ilieiiliatiiiii" ill the eine of iliseas", 
 
 ■.':i:i-i;4:; 
 
 lllf:llihy, 4a-.' : .\niliilir of, 4r,l ; ill the 
 time of refsi.iii wars, '17s 
 a- I Illfenial deities, :i:i,a, Hill 
 s ; [mis, -JOO, :li;ii 
 
 liisi-riiitioiis on toiiilis, L'.'iil, -J.'o 
 Iiiti-i-|iieteis of dreams, :142; of imiiihe. 
 
 i-ies, :!4:l— :147 
 Iiiiii,-i, llii-ss ill, I'J ; Shaviii- ill, 7:1 
 loliie and Diirie eostlliiies,'" llillerc-iiee.s 
 
 lietiveeli, L"_' :in 
 Il.hielat.-s, Shoes named after,:,.-,; re- 
 introdm-es the sword into the Uri-ek 
 V, -tr 
 
 Th. 
 
 • the, i:i7 
 
 Hi. 
 
 meals. -20:1 ; at svi 
 slaves, .'lej ; r.-asou of tli.-ir s.,eial 
 int,-r, ,,uisi- with men. 1 7-' ; 'I'a^ 
 i-xa.-l.-.l fi.,iii. 17:: : ill I II. I l.-.iiui-ilv. 
 1711 : sali.-ti.in.-.l liv Ihi- ,siat.-. I7i ; 
 (Jel.-l,riti.-s .imoli-jsl, 17J ; lli.-ir iii- 
 
 tlile n Ih.- niaiTfi-Ae lelalion- 
 
 slii|., I4.S ; ill a \-.-isi- jiietiire, 1(17 ; 
 at tie- theatre, 447 
 
 ls.,erat.-s, T.'s ; l.-etiirine at c II vm|iia. 
 
 :ii;4 ; L.'a.-t..rv ofthe father of. :-,e:i 
 Isthmian Kaim-s, 'I'll.-, their similaritv to 
 
 till- Dlmijii.-, :!7ll ; Prizes and re.-ita- 
 
 tioiis at, :170 
 
 ■-'S2, 47: 
 
 ute 
 
 :iii 
 
 wi-ai 
 
 Jliiiiation, The, :i, il ; 111 
 
 1:-| ; of youths. Is ; of w.,iijeii, 211, 
 41 ; as a s(-arf. 4 1 ; Colour of, 44, 
 4.j ; Kiiil,r.,iili-iv of, 47 ; ,liawii.,v.-r 
 the lii-ail, i;ii 
 
 " Hipliarchs,' 'Hie, 4.',7 
 
 Hi|,i.arelius, -:i.-, 
 
 Ilippias, llis.-.,nrs.-s atlllvmiiia 111, :iil4 
 
 Hi|i|)oeral.-s, lialli ,,1, 2:;ti 
 
 Hi|.l,.:,ilaiiius of .Miletus. 17'.i 
 
 Hilili.i.lrome, The, :j,-,il, ::i:i 
 
 Holiliv-h.ir.s.-, 'Ilie. :i:) 
 
 Ilolii.-r, his r.fireni-.- to skins as Un- 
 dress of s.ililii-rs, s ; his .■illusion to 
 l.aert.s ear.li-uiiiL;. .j.i ; in Allic 
 s,-h.„.ls, 110; llis.leserilitioll .,f the 
 life of nolih-s, 17.0 ; his alliisi.,11 to 
 warm baths, 1112 ; alhisi.in to [iliy- 
 sir-i:iiis, 2:::i ; his Hec.aint ..I tlie 
 funer;il -^aiin-s in honour ..j; i':.lro- 
 eliis, :;',7 ; his allusions to ;irnioui-, 
 4i:.'i, 41:.;, 4.17, 47.". ; t.. a-iii-ultnre, 
 4:.:i ; t.. lian.li.-raftsm.u. f.i.s 
 
 Jloli.-y, .,f Hyinettils, 2IJ.S ; nsi-.l t., 
 ciieck liissiillltion ofa eorjise, 2411 
 
 Horace's /Yesosns Orbnins, 1110 
 
 Horae, 'J'he, 14:i 
 
 Horse-el. ilhs. 120 
 
 Horse-ra.-iim. 2711, :;07 
 
 Horse-r.-aiin-, 4:ir, 
 
 Horse-sli.i.-B, 4Sn 
 
 H..si,itality, Cust.im of, 100 
 
 Hiimjin sai-rilh-.', :i:kO 
 
 Iluntin.,', ,-1111011.2 the Dori.ins, 17s ; 
 aimin;,' tin- Atlienrin,, Im; 
 
 Hymen, 'lOu-cli of, 140 
 
 ;;,/„i<«,.r./,s 140 
 
 10 
 
 .Iay.-liu-thr.,wiu-2. : 
 .lav.-lms. nnnliiiK 
 
 W.-II-. I7i: 
 .lew.-l i-askils, ir,l 
 .lil.K'es at llhni|iii- |,;aiin-s, :10S 
 .lud-iiient .,1 Paris, The, too 
 .luilieial dnti.-s, 100 
 .lll,^Kl,-rs, 21.1 
 .Iuiii|iin^', ini. 121 ; Varieti,-s of, 'iilo ; 
 
 llumb-b.-ll us.-d in, 2i;i;, 2.17 ; l.ea|i- 
 
 in-2-lioI.-s ill, 2.I.S ; Sprilii^'d.oards ill. 
 
 2.10 ; llislane.-s e.iv.-r.-.l in, 2ii0, 270 ; 
 
 at iilviii|iia. :io:i, :)iio 
 
 .luryinen, lOO 
 
 Kerameikos, The, :177 
 
 Keri-hiefs lOir tin- hair, 7.1, 77 
 
 Kisses ill the worship of ;,'.iils, :i2|i 
 
 Kiti-h.-u, Th.-, ls:i 
 
 Kite-Hyin;,', o:i 
 
 Klaileos, The, 121 
 
 Knees, the, I'lx.-rcises in beii.lin;;, 20:1 
 
 '■Knnekledi.iiies, 07. 104, 224 ; .Mode of 
 
 ]ila\ii|e with. 220 
 K.,l.,t.-s. Talih- .,f, at Ohiii|,ia, :iil2 
 Kijlp,:., The, II, 2S, :iO, ■■;■■', 
 
 i^aeonian marriage enst.im, 144 
 
 Ladas, Till- runner, 271 
 
 Lady's iiiai.l, I112 
 
 Laert.-s, ;0.0, 140, 1 TO 
 
 I/ais. 172 
 
 Lanienl. l-'iin.-ial, 21.1 
 
 Lane.-. The, 472, 47.1, ISO 
 
 r<aws of l^.^'c^r:ills, 100 
 
 Iv,Hyin^.-ont a .-.irpse, 240, 240 
 
 I.ea]iili^.-poli-s, 2I1S 
 
 I.eath.-r tuiiies, 40 
 
 Leetur.-S at (llyiil|ii(- Feslivals, :|.14 
 
 l,et!eiiils told to children, ss 
 
 Ijegitiluation of i-hil.lreli, Kl 
 
INDEX. 
 
 543 
 
 Leiiaea, Festival of, 384 
 
 Leto, SiiCi'ilice at Pytliuui ;^;iiiirs to, oOT 
 Libations, Daily, 32S ; as blnudtcs.s 
 sacrifices, 335 ; at the sacrKice of 
 animals, 33S 
 Linen garments, 22, 2'.', 47, 4'.>7 
 Lions, 196, 197 
 
 " Liturgies," Tlie, 275, 37.5, 418 
 Lota, Drawing, at Olymjiia, 300 
 Love, Idea of, in " New Attic Comeily," 
 134; in Aphruditf Uranio, ami 
 AphroiUte Po.u'leiaus, of, 134. 
 Love-charms, 9o 
 Lunch in Atliens, ll'l 
 Lycahettos, The, at Athens, 119 
 Lyceum. Tlie, at Atliens, llli, 127 
 Lycur^-us, Laws of, 100 
 Lye, as a substitute foi' soii|i, 188 
 Lyre, the, Instruction in, 107, 112 ; 
 played at banquets, 215 ; an inven- 
 tion of Hermes, 307 ; Construction 
 of. 307—309; Manner of playing, 311 
 Lysander, 632 
 Lysias, lecturing at Olyntpia, 3fj4 ; owner 
 
 of a shield factory, 52'.i 
 Lysipi)us, the Apoxyu-mmtos of, 285 
 
 Machinery in the Greek theatre, 409—41 1 
 
 Madness, Methods supposed to cure, 331 
 
 Maenads, The, 390 
 
 Magic, Antidotes to, 84 ; in curing 
 disease, 243 
 
 Magna Graecia, Lunch in, 191 ; Luxuri- 
 ous living in, 20('. 
 
 Manuring tlie grouu<l, 494 
 
 '• Market of Hippodanius," ISO 
 
 Market-place, The, 190, 514 
 
 Marriage, entered into early by girls, 92, 
 13ti ; Tirades of Aristophanes and 
 Euripides against, 134; a matter of 
 contract between fathers or guar- 
 dians, 135 ; Bride's dowry at, 135 ; 
 Homeric custom of bridegroom 
 bringing presents at, 135 ; Engage- 
 ment prior to, 13i> ; Favourite montli 
 and days for, 13U ; Ceremonies of, 
 137; Banquet at a, 138; Dress of 
 bride and bridegrooni at, 13S, 139 ; 
 Bridal processitm at, 139 ; Singing 
 and torches at, 140, 141 ; Gifts and 
 congratulations after, 142 ; Monu- 
 mental representations <:>f, 143, 144 ; 
 Laconian custom of, 144 ; Laws of 
 Lvcurgiis respecting, 140 ; Grounds 
 fo'r dissolution of, 148, 149; 8ym- 
 holical customs at, 140, 141 
 
 Masks, theatrical. Material of, 425 ; 
 Designs of, 426 ; Tliree kinds of, 
 426, 428; for different sexes, ages, 
 phases of character, and moods of 
 mind, 429 ; for mythological clia- 
 racters, 430 
 
 Massage in gymnasia, 123, 285 
 
 Match-makers, 135 
 
 Mattock, The, 493 
 
 Maza, 208 
 
 Meals, in Sparta, 177, 178; in Athens, 
 191, 194; in the evening, 202 ; Re- 
 clining at, 205; Sinrplicity of, in 
 
 Adieos, 200; Thu various dishes at, 
 
 20r., :j07 
 ^leat, Vari.'tics (,f, 200 
 Medical schools of Cos and Cnidns, 235, 
 
 231' 
 Medical students, 230 
 Medusae, The, ss 
 Meetiiig-lialls, 179 
 Megalopolis, Theatre of, 402 
 Mtnimjn, Figure of death of, 40!) 
 Menander, Shaven face of, 73 
 :\[enccrates, 237 
 Merchants, l'J7, 512, 517 
 Jletal-founders, 504 
 Milo, 304 
 
 Sfilitary expeditions, 198 (occ, also, War) 
 Military training oiephehl, 124, 120, 127 ; 
 
 of lower classes, 17ti, 455 
 Miracle, Love of, in connectifin with tiie 
 
 healing art, 239 
 ^Mirrors, 102, 103 
 Mrjnej'-changers, 190, 51ti 
 Money systi.'nis, 513 
 MonnnnMits, Mrapery of, 9 
 Murra, '{'],<■ game of,' 227 
 Mortgages. 5|i;, -,17 
 Mountebanks, 243 
 i\roustache. The, 72 
 Mules and asses, 49(5 
 Murderers, Curse on, 251 
 Muses, The, 335 
 Music, Compulsory instruction in Sparta 
 
 in, 101 ; Instruction at Attir scliools 
 
 in. 111 — 113 ; at a symiKisium, 212 ; 
 
 Branches and instrnnients of, 306 — 
 
 320; after religions ceremonies, 350 ; 
 
 at Pythian ganres, 300 ; of the stage, 
 
 413^421 
 ^[usical Contests, 449 
 j\Insic;d ilialogues, 410 
 jViuslin garments, 49 
 Myeenae, Disc(j\'eries at, 3 ; Gold nnisks 
 
 at, 72 
 Myron's statue of Ladas, 271 ; of Disco- 
 bolus, 277 
 Mythology taught in Attic schools, 110 
 Myths, Beligious, 348 
 
 Nails, Cutting the, 1S9 
 
 Naming cliih.lren, 83, 84 
 
 Naiisicaa on the sea-slnu'C, 1-10, 150 
 
 Nenieau games, 371 
 
 " New Attic Comedy," The, 134 
 
 Nissen on life ;it Atliens, isi 
 
 Nobles, Daily life of, 175, 170 ; in the 
 
 heroic period, 451 
 Nurseries, 85 
 Nurses, chihlren's, Duties of, 85 
 
 Oath taken by epliehi, 117 : of Hippo- 
 crates, 230 ; taken by atldetes, 360 
 
 Obedience to elders in Sparta, 100 
 
 Oculists, 238 
 
 Odysseus, Tiie pilos of, 59 ; Fidelity of, 
 145 ; playing at quoits. 275 ; Shii' 
 of, 4S2 
 
 "Odyssey," The, Descriptnm of Nau- 
 sicaa in, 15(> ; Qnoit-tli rowing 
 mentioned in, 275 
 
5U 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Oils, ,Svvi-ct-sfenti-a, I'm- tlir liair, 7-1 : 
 fnrtlii' linilv, 1>;--': tnr;i.-.iriis,', uM'i; 
 usrd liy niiiii.Ts, I'Tl; usi-a l.v 
 ivrcstli'is, L'N4 ; sUlililinl Idlnrci-ii 
 ciiiiiiLlics, 4:14 
 
 Oinoiiiiles, :ii;4 
 
 Olivi-s. 4:14, 4:1:. 
 
 <Hv]]iiiia, Ananiioiiiriils of ;4vtiiiiasi;i at., 
 l-.!il; Wifsllnii; s,-li-inl ,,[■, 1-jl 
 
 Olviiipic Frstival, tiM'. l-'lir"ii"l"i;v "f, 
 ::.M : Jlytliic uri-in nr, ;i:,j ; IVi-scms 
 cxclinlfii tVniii, :i.'>2, ;^.'.:i ; Coiiti'sts 
 at, :i'(;i — S.'i'.i ; Embassies, ami sacri- 
 lici-' ti. Z.-ns at, :f.v.i ; Sivvaviiii,' .it 
 ri)iiii>i'1 itnrs at. :a;0; I 'rawiii;,' nt 
 
 l"ts liv ( i|irliln]-s aral in-avrr t.i 
 
 Zras jliiiraneti's at, 3(111; (Inler ..f 
 
 niwtitiuiis at, 3111; Distrilaitinii 
 
 (pt iiriz.'s ..(t, 3Hl> ; Sacriliccs at, 3fl-_i, 
 :;il3 ; l!alh|U.-ts at, 3il3; Rn-ita- 
 ti.ilis, ,irt I'xiiiliilinris, anil cjtlii-ial 
 .■MiiaMuirTiiiPUts at, ;iil4 ; i{r|iresctil - 
 ativrs (,f ;ill rlassc'S al , 3(1.-.; Fair 
 
 r ifCtr.l Witli, llllH 
 
 Olyjiiiiic ^'alia-s, 274, :iU4, 3."..'— ;1.09 
 Oiiii'iis, luti'rpretatinii cf, HV) 
 Oracli's, Tlie, 341; .if Aii-ill.i, 34;;; 
 
 uttered liv Pvtliia, :W3 ; al various 
 
 plares, 343-:J4(l; yuestimis t", 344 
 Orations, Fiinei-al, 2a.'j 
 Orcliestra of tjieatn>s. il'.is, 403 
 Oresles, Fiirilicatioi] of, 3:J0 
 OriiaiM-iits lor tlie liair, ll.j, il.s, 71, 77 ; 
 
 of bride, I3.S 
 
 raean, Tlie, 214 
 
 Fii'iihni.nins, Duties ol a, 1I)-J, 1 111 ; Ills 
 bail iiiHui'iiee, 103 ; on tlie sbene, 4::e, 
 
 railitill;; selioni or.'<irv 113 
 
 Faintint;s, 4 he eliili.ii in. 4 ; Folds of 
 dress ill, ;i; Hi-Jire.seiital ions of 
 daily life in, F.i ; al. l>lyin]iia, 3114 
 
 Palm braiieli. The. :alJ 
 
 Paiiiiihilias, 113 
 
 Panalle'ii.-ioa, Festiv.ils of tlir, 1 -J I , ],-,! ; 
 
 trsts at Ihe, 372 -37.'r ; i'vialue «'ai 
 dance, 374 ; Jlustn- of neii al , 374, 
 37.'. ; Toieli-race at. 37il ; Procession 
 at, 3711;. Indies al, :;7.s 
 I\ui<-rutnf,i,, The, llil, 12:i. 2:'i; ; ils 
 iiiiliortaiier as a mode of li-litin;^, 
 
 Pandoi;i', Uux iif, ssi 
 
 Panloniiinic dancin;^', 217 
 
 Paii\"rlls in sehools, liri 
 
 Parabasis. The. 414 
 
 Paris, The 1 liiton of, 11 ; The bimalion 
 
 of, 10; Tlie liair of, .14, 1.13 
 Parlhenon marbles. F.-mab- .irai.erv of 
 
 the, 2 ; Hats in. .0.1; Walliing-stifks 
 
 in, (14; ll.-a.l-.hvsses in, 7i; 
 Falr.edus, Funeral ,L,'anies in liononr ..f, 
 
 21111, :M7; his "arm liaiela^.-d bv 
 
 A.diilles, 4.14 
 I'ausanias, 231i ; bis albishin lo I he liif.- 
 
 jiodroine, 3.j(l 
 Peasants, 41)3, 4|i4, 4'.i.j 
 
 Pedlars, .^.13, .',14 
 
 Peisistratiis. ;I72 
 
 P.'ith.i in\-..k.M at «-..i|.liims, 137 
 
 P..1..I1S ami Th.dis. 14:1 
 
 Pel.ip.innesiis. til.'. Soldiers from, iv.i; 
 llan.licraris in. .'ilil 
 
 ■• P.dtasts," The, 47s 
 
 Penelo|ie, bF. ; at Ihe loom, 1.'.3, l.vl; 
 W.i.iers.if, 17(1 
 
 Pencstae, The, .122 
 
 Venlnthhi,,,, The, llil. 123. 21(7, 2IK. 3:i3 
 
 Pelilos, the. Sha|.ean.l ino.l.- .it wearing, 
 2(1, 21 ; The Hoiii..ri.. slll.posc.l t.i be 
 identical with th.' lloric, 21, 22; .if 
 Athenian wumeii, 22 ; ..n \ase [lie- 
 tiires, 22, 2:1 
 
 PeiwiniHin, Nchool of, 12s 
 
 Pericles, Dress .if tl..> a.,'.' of, 2; li.'ar.l 
 ..f, 73 ; ami .\s|iasia, 172 ; Imiiiorab 
 ity of th.' a^e of, 174 ; ami the 
 theatre, 44:1 
 
 " Perioiki," The, 4.14 
 
 P.-r.in,atris(r.ili..), Th.', 43 
 
 Pias.-ph..n.-. 3.SI 
 
 P.dasos(lial,). .Ill, .',7, .'.H ; of ivomen, 111 
 
 Phaeacians, 'the, 17(1 
 
 Phaylbis, .liimpim;- h^at of, 21111 
 
 Ph. a. lias, l.'ostume ..f the a^'c (if, 37 ; his 
 dese.'lidalitsastemple-s\v..e]).as, 32.S 
 
 Pheidippides, The in.itlier .if, US 
 
 HiriiUlia. 177 
 
 Philosophv, .Sclio..ls .,f. 127. 12s 
 
 Philtres, 331 
 
 I'h.nyli.h.s in Atti.' s.di.iols. 111! 
 
 Pho.nd.-lans, the, l)r;.piMV anions', II; 
 Dishonesty of, .1111 
 
 Ph.inuinx, 44ie, taiieht in Atth- schools, 
 112, 312 
 
 Phryiie, 172 
 
 " Phylarchs," The, 417 
 
 Physicians, and the nvatnmid of infants, 
 3U ; their eallv .■.inne.dion with 
 priests, 234; (iiiil.l of, 231 ; their 
 apprentices, 231; Tw.i classes .if, 
 2:1(1; r.iiii]i]aiiits aL,eiinst, 237; 
 Sa]aril■.^ of public, 23.S; asspceialists, 
 23S ; then ni.'tli.i.ls.iftr.'atimmt, 23s 
 
 Pbvsin-noiin. Foilini.'s |.,l.l fr.ini, 347 
 
 Pi. iiics", 2111 
 
 Pil'2rimag.'s, I., shrni.'s, F.i.S; ofinvali.ls 
 tonn-.lical saimliiaiies, 2311 
 
 Piii.lar, 0.1, 's .,f, 3113 
 
 Pipe, Ihr. n^e.l as tl..' .loiible llllte, 31il 
 
 /V././ic,.;,.,,., 'llil-, 3211 
 
 Pla-nc, (Ice.it, ill cani],oftlicGreek3, 233 
 
 Plaitil..^' the hair, (111, (17 
 
 Plal.i, .111 I 111' .■aipor..liiI.lr(>ii, S7 ; reconi- 
 nien.ls r..n..inu', 121 ; t.a.diili^ at Ihe 
 Academy, 127 ; on Ihe r.liieatioh ..f 
 girls, 13ll;siip|iii^...l tolia\ein\-i.iited 
 uat.r cl.i.ks. |s.i ; The ".Sympie 
 siiiiii" of, 2111, 21 t ; siiiii.lieity of his 
 liicats, 21111 ; on music al symposia, 
 211; : jiis .i|,iiii,,n of work, 4311 
 
 Pla\s ,,f llivek stage, of tliree kinds, 
 411 ; Tiie.'ic, 412 -414 ; l.l.nii.', 41 1, 
 411 ; Sal vri.', 411, 41(1 
 
 Phiugb, Tim, '4113, 131 
 
 Plains, his ri very IV.im blindness, 240 
 
INDEX. 
 
 545 
 
 Podalirius, 234 
 
 Poets at Olviiipic festival, oii4, 3^5 
 
 Foltnia, 208 
 
 Police of Athens, ISO, 020. 52ij 
 
 Pulycrates, 288 
 
 Polydaiims, 304 
 
 Polygnotus, liis paintings ot wnnien, Ti.> 
 
 Pomades, U4, 72, 74 
 
 Porridge, 207, 20S 
 
 Poseidippns, Shaven face of, 7o 
 
 Poseidon, Dress of, It' ; Sacvi("i<;iol ofler- 
 ing of horses to, a3ij 
 
 Pot Market, The, 613 
 
 Ponltry, 200 
 
 Pratinas, 41.3 
 
 Praxiteles, Statue of Pliryne by, 172 
 
 Prayer, i:ifrered by priests, 320 ; Times 
 for otferiiig, 328; for special occa- 
 sions, 328 ; Attitude in, 328 ; Quali- 
 titiatioiis to ensure the efficacy of, 
 320 ; at the utterance of oracles, 
 348 ; to Zeus Mnirtigetes, 300 
 
 Presents, Bridal, 142 
 
 Priam, Figure of, 4 
 
 Priestesses, Qualifications of, 325 ; with 
 the gift of propliecy, 343, 344 
 
 Priests, Costume of, 4 ; Practice of 
 healing art by, 238 ; their office, 
 and gradual increase of their in- 
 fluence, 324 ; of both sexes, 325 ; 
 Qualiti cations of, 325 ; Modes of 
 appointing, 327 ; their duties, 320 ; 
 their privileges and distinguishing 
 dress, 327 ; their attendants, 327 
 
 Prizes at Olympic festival, 302 ; of 
 poets and actors, 449 
 
 Prodicus, Discourses at Olympia i »f, 
 364 
 
 Prophecy and divination, 341— ;-j4« {Sea, 
 also, Oi'acles) 
 
 " Protagonist," or chief actor, 405 
 
 Ptolemy Philopater, Ship of, 4S0 
 
 Public houses, 197 
 
 Puridcation, after childbirth, 84; be- 
 fore offering prayer, 329 ; by fin% 
 smoke, and the sea-leek, 330 ; (.)f 
 Orestes, 330 
 
 Pyrrhic war dance, 374 
 
 Pythia, iituerer of oracles, 343 ; the 
 Great .'ind the Lesser, 3ti0 
 
 Pythian g; mes, The nuisical competi- 
 tion :it, 306 ; Sacrifices and the 
 Pythian Nomas at, 307 ; Gymnastic 
 and Equestrian contests at, 308 ; 
 The Amphictyons at, 309 ; Ex- 
 penses of, and prizes at, 309 ; Reci- 
 tations and ofl'erings at, 370 
 
 Pythian Nornos, The, 307 
 
 Quackery, 243 
 Quadrigae, The, 452 
 Quaii-hghtiiig, 228 
 Quince, The, 141 
 Quintain, Striking at the, 296 
 Quoits, 121, 275, 277, 278 
 
 Racing, Various kinds of, 270, 273 
 " Rape of Helen, The," 9 
 Razors, 188 
 
 J J 
 
 Readiu- and writing at Sparta, lol ; at 
 Atlieus, 108—110 
 
 Recitations at Olympic f(,-!^tivals, ;_if;4 
 
 Reclining at meals, 205 
 
 Reeils tbr writing, 109 
 
 Regattas, 120, 377 
 
 Registration of new-liorn cliiMrcn, 143 
 
 Reliefs, Representiitinns nt ilaily life in, 
 19 
 
 Religious festivals, 195 
 
 Religions mytbs, .-.US 
 
 Religious worship, 323—348 ; chiefly in 
 the hands of laymen in Homeric 
 times, 323 ; The two forms of, 
 328 ; its cheerfulness, 349 
 
 Resin wine, 211 
 
 Rliaiisodists, Competition between, 372 
 
 Rhetoric, 128 
 
 Rhodes, 228 ; Slingers of, 478 
 
 Riders, The chlamys of, 18 
 
 Riding, Instruction in, 124, 125 
 
 Riding races, 353 
 
 Riddles, 214, 219, 220 
 
 Road-making, 198 
 
 Robbers, 200, 201 
 
 Roi.ie-pulling, 299 
 
 Rougeing, Practice of, 105, 100 
 
 Rowers, 482—486 
 
 Running, The course for, 270 ; Speed 
 attained in, 271 ; Starting-signal for, 
 and method adopted for making the 
 limbs flexible in, 271 ; Mode of, 
 272, 273 ; at Olympia, 353 
 
 Sacrihce at a birtli-festival, 84 ; at 
 weddings, 130. 137; a common oe- 
 cnirence, 203 ; of swine aiiel suck- 
 ing-pigs, 330; object of, 331; the 
 idea underlying, 332; variety of gifts 
 offered in, 332, 333 ; bloeMy and 
 bloodless, 334, 335 ; ceremonies ob- 
 served in, 337 ; for discovering the 
 will of the gods by interpreta- 
 tion of signs, 340 ; at the utterance 
 of oracles, 343; time of offering, 
 349; at Olympia, 303; Tlie Epid- 
 aurian, 379 ; before war, 450 
 
 Sailors, 481, 483—480 
 
 Salone, The, 190 
 
 Sanihiica, The, 313 
 
 Sandals worn by nien and women, 50 ; 
 how made, 51 ; Children (^liaslised 
 with, 98 ; removed at banquets, 205 
 
 Satyric drama, 415, 442, 444 
 
 Satyrs, 333 
 
 Sauces, 207 
 
 Sausages, 206 
 
 Scarf, The, 11 ; of Paris, 12 
 
 Scenery in the Greek theatre, 407—409 
 
 Schools of Athens, 102—132 ; Masters 
 and teachers of, 104 ; Furniture of, 
 104, 108 ; Fees of, 104 ; Corporal 
 punishment in, 105; Hours of tuition 
 hi, 100; Holidays in, 100; Repre- 
 seidation Ity Duris of teaching in, 
 10i.i ; System of tuition in, 108—115 ; 
 Text-books in, 110; Instruction in 
 music in, HI- 113; Geometry in, 
 114, 127 ; Time of openuig, 188 
 
546 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 sci :.sori,iiii,,^,,|,i,v, I-:;, r.>s 
 
 N>i.'Tici'. Tnnvlliii- tin' iiuii„,sr,-- (,f. Ins 
 ■■S.vilia," Till', -Jl.-. 
 ■' ScnllV;{t'-lir;nvrs" iif .Sp;llt:l, 100 
 S.Mllltnl'S, .'.01 
 
 S.Atli.-. The, V.ri 
 SiMf.iiiii.L;, +S1— J.S3 
 
 S.Tis, (i|- iii|-rrprrlcr>, r'nniurl ion with 
 
 tin- i.vipsts, :;ij:, 
 Sr,,-.st:i, TiiH^arv nf, 3:..; 
 Si'w'ili-. i.;o 
 
 ••Slia.|ou--|i.iiiitris," isl, IS,-, 
 
 Sliaviii',', 7l', 73 
 
 SIkuvIs, 4J 
 
 Sli.'Pli-r.MiinL.', J'.n-i, JMi 
 
 «hii"l(l<, 4i;'.i_47l, -IS, I 
 
 Sliiii,, M,iile ,,r irni- itiii',', 4S1 ; C"H. 
 
 stincli.iii (,r, 4S-J- 4ss 
 Sliil4, 'riir, iO 
 
 SI iiiiikris, -,11:.', .'m, :,n4 
 
 SI .-, Vari,,us il,.si,,;iis ,,r, :,.', -,4, .■,,', 
 
 Sli.,i,k.',-|i,-rs, r.PO, 1:17 
 
 Sii'iU-, I'.'ll, I'.ll ; l.itxiiri,,lisli\'in,.; ill, 'Jor, 
 
 Si,-V,,ll. l';.intili-», 1 1 ,,r, 11:: 
 
 Si, ■-,■«, .M,,.l,.s ,.1 I Iin'tin,,', 4.SII, Js| 
 
 Si,-v.,s nsi'il li.r |,n,|,li. ■,■!■, :;47 
 
 si:;ii.,, liiti'ri)iviati,,ii ,,r, ::4(;, :U7 
 
 Silk j;anii,-lits, 4:1 
 ,MI|,liiiiiii, .-,14 
 Silii,ilii,l,-s, -Jl,; 
 Sint;prs. Ti'.na.llin.^, 1:1s 
 
 Si]r,;ili- at \v,.,l,|iii.4,, H", 141 : .at ll„. 
 lialln, 1'.14 : al a svill|„,siillll, L'l 1 
 
 Sl:iij.s, (.'],, llii..^ ni.ail,. ,,r, K, 4ii 
 
 si iv,av iiil,.ru,,M.ii uitli 111,- lilV ,ir;iiili- 
 
 ,|iiilv, .M'.i ; iv^'anl,',! as .• .,.^silv 
 
 ,,riialinv, -,111; i,f caiitiv.s I ikia, in 
 "■ai,,',l'i, .atJO; f,,r,'i,_'ii,,iss.,l,l t,,,.-,j| ; 
 Siiluli's lopslati,,!, a-^.aiii.sl, :.Jl ; ,,!,,■ 
 (,f tlicf caiise.s of tin- fall ,,f (in-,.,,,,, 
 .a:i3 
 
 Si:i\ps,7S: ,.iilniM,.,l Willi tli,.,.,l,i,.ali,,ii 
 ,if .■liilillTii, US ; ,.iii|,l,,\,.,| in \Mit- 
 in..', 111:1 ; f,.|cl,iii- iiat,'r, l,-,l ; as 
 la,li,,.^' iii:,i,ls, 1,;2 ; Sl,.,.|,iii- aliart- 
 111, a, ts ,,r, ISL', .VJ-, ; s,ait I,, mark,. I, 
 l:il ; .at tl„, lialhs, l:i4; as i„,:t,a's, 
 Isl, L'll4 ; 1 infill Ihr li,.;ilili- ait. 
 
 al 
 
 til 
 
 til. .all,-, 417 ; (',i|.liM..s ,,l war 1,,'- 
 f:.,)iiili:.', ■l-'rl ; Til,, H..I..I .'lass ,,r, 
 4-, 1. .■,!'■: ; ill aLii,ailliiri., 1:10, 4:i| ; 
 .M.iiki.I, l,,i, .-.-,1, .V.'l ; Tin-i-s 1,1,1,1 
 f,,t, .■,:JI ; tlirir r,,i„lil i.,11 ami tirat- 
 
 Ill, r,x; ; llirir I'll;,,!,, a, 'IS, .VJl ; 
 
 Ma-t,.is' li_.|il,, 1,1. r, .-.J4 ; iHvs., ..I, 
 
 .',:it ; tli.ar I I, .■,!'.-.; «'i.rkiii,' mi 
 
 tlii.ii i.wii ai'L-ijiint ami |.iireliasiim 
 
 tl,.-ir lr.....l .-.■_..-, ; as liaii.,'lii..li, 
 
 -la.l.a-s, ,V.:., .yj.', ; llw..lliii4S ..I, 
 .'.L'.-. ; ri..|,.,-li,,ii i,r, ,",:iii ; T,.rtiii-,- ,,l, 
 :yj: ; Van,., I, ,:li,,<,.s ,,1. :,-s ; in 
 fart, ,11,'.,, .',!':.; tl,..it 111,,. rati,,!,, ',::'i. 
 :,.n : tli.-ir nnml ns in lii, .,.,.,:, f,;;-J 
 s.l..,:vi.s ,,f cliit,,iis, 4, II ; i.f w.ilimli's 
 cliiti.iis, -1], ■j:i, ;j1, :;:i, 41 
 
 Sjilr^, Till-, 477 
 Sli|.|„.is,54, no 
 
 Sim.kp i.ir.riii,,;s, 33.'. 
 
 Sii,,\\--w:,t.l- r..f c-,„ilinL; wine, '213 
 
 H,,ali, Siili.stititti-s fur, iss 
 
 Sncial lilV aimma Spartan iimti. 17:i 
 
 Socrat.-s, 41), ,'.ii; W.-allli ..I', 1S3; 
 visitinn simps, f:io ; Al. lull, .lis ..I, 
 ISS; aftiT tlir s\-iiiii,.siiiiii, -JS-J ;s;iiil 
 t..liavi'tak..iil.'ss..nsiii.laiiciii:,i,3-Jl ; 
 uisliim,' ti, ,.ir.-f s,,nn> of his h.-iii- 
 h.i-k til tin- ^Tiils, 33.-. : n-pri-si-nl.-.l 
 1.11 tin- stn^a-, 4is; i.ii i,ll,-iii-ss, .fill 
 
 Si.hli.-ls, Skins as tin- liri-ss ..f, s ; Tin- 
 chlamvs iif, 1,S ; iif Spait.a, 404 -4.-.ii : 
 ,.f.\tln.ns,4,-.r.-4i;il; hiri-il, 4.-.S ; I'av- 
 lin-iit I.f, 4.-.:l 
 
 S..l,.|i, Oath fur .■,./../..■ ....iii|ii.s...l l.v, 
 
 117 ; Svnil.i.lii-al marria:;i- i-iisl 
 
 i.r-hiin.-.l l.v. 111 ; Tniv.-ls ..f. Ins : 
 on t'liiii-i-al laiiii-nts, -.'is ; on tin- 
 ^'arnii-iits of a ...rps.-, :i.-.l ; ..11 
 inililarvs.-rvif-i.', 4.-.r. ; his li'aislali..ii 
 a.^ainst till- slavi-r,v of fon-i.^'m-rs, :-.:;i 
 
 S.im^- in ).rais,- ot tin- liiiirik-rei-s (.if 
 Hil.pari-hiis, -Jir, 
 
 Si.ii-,'s, llriiikili-4, -J I.-. ; of ^il-torv, at 
 lllMiil.ic h-stivals, 3i;:i; on tli.- 
 sta.,..-, 411'. 
 
 S..|,hisls, Til.-, lL'7 : at tin- l-'.-ast of 
 Cans, :JS7 
 
 Sophoi-h-s, l--i^.iir,- of, in tlm Taili-r 
 
 L'17 ; Ik-aril of, 7:1 ; his aci-.mnt of 
 tin- fnni-ral ^-alm-s in Imtn.iir of 
 I'alro.'liis, 3->7 ;'IVtialo-,-i,-s ..f, 41-J; 
 Chorus and .lialo-in- of, 413; 
 .Safvric ilianias of, 4 1.-. ; cainti-st 
 «itii Ai-si-hvliis, 11:1 
 
 Si.ai-la, Hr.-ss ..f iiiali- ]...]. illation of, 
 
 T_'; Wraiim^ ..f si s foil.i.t.lHli in, 
 
 4:1 ; Miiili- I.f «i-arili,^' tin- hair in, 
 71 ; Ilaiili-niii',' infants in, SO, .s:; ; 
 Svst.ni of i-ihmatiiiii in, 0:l— l»:i ; 
 (.'lolliiiiKlinil Uisriplilll' of l.oys ill, 
 lUO ; linliiri-romi- to .frain in, loll ; 
 Stiiilv of iiiusir in, nil, 113 ; (ivni- 
 iiasfiii .>xi-i-i-isi-s in, nil, 13-J ; Iiiali 
 li-|iiltali..ii of «■. ,1111-11 of, 13-J ; 
 
 1 Stic r.-hiti..iis rlT;.t4i; ; Dail.v 
 
 lifi- at, 17r.-l":i ; i>|.iiiioii of work 
 in, 1:10 ; lI.-imlii-r.ilN in, -.01 
 
 "Sparliali-s," I'lir, 4.0 1, 400 
 
 Spi-ar, Thiowinu' llm, l-'l, l:;l, :;sl , :;s:;, 
 303 ; of s..l.ii.-rs, 47-J 
 
 Spinniii^., 1311, 10:i— 104 
 
 Sprilit;-l.oal-ils, 'MK, Jiio 
 
 .S^l!■in,^-\^■^i,^4lts, -jr.s 
 
 Spurs, 4S0 
 
 Sta.li 'I'll.', 3.;j, 3.10 ■ 
 
 Sl.-iiji- of till- Illi-.-k lln-iiln-, 401-41 I 
 
 Slatm-s, Ui-pri-soiilations of ihiily lit 
 111, P.i 
 
 Sl.-lai, ll,.|-i,rali,,li of, ■J-,s--J,;2 
 
 Stirrli|,s, ISU 
 
 ,s/,„. ;.„//,,;,., Til... I-J7, 37s 
 
 S^.i-kin-s, Snl.slilnli.s lor, 00 
 
 St..iL-s, Till-, TJ7 
 
 Stom-s iis,-,| in n;ir, 477, 47S 
 
 Mtrabo, j:!'l 
 
 Kti-.-.-ts..r Atlii-ns, 17:1, IsO 
 
 ,Stiiii-i'i| iii^lriinii-iits, 301) -314 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 54 
 
 riliCL-, :i3ii 
 
 tit Atln-iis, 
 
 Stmlildoii, Tlir, i:: 
 
 Stmliiiczkii nil the sliajie i.f tlif pi-iil 
 21 
 
 Stvx, 2« 
 
 Squares, Pnlilif, ISO 
 
 Sti'Betnf Tvi]..iils, :i:«i 
 
 Suburbs of Atlii-Ms, IS 
 
 Sucking-piys orter.'il ii 
 
 SiickliMsiiifinits, SI 
 
 Siui-.lials, is:, 
 
 Siuisliades, HI— (;:l, lri2, 3Ti; 
 
 Sliperiiitendeuts of si-liuuls 
 102 
 
 Sujierstitions (-iistiiuis at death ?.nd 
 burial, 343-2IU 
 
 SwaddUiig i-lnthes. SO 
 
 Swiiiiiiuiig, Priictice of, 12'I 
 
 Su'iue (itterod iu sacrilice, 330, 3lio ; 
 Rearing. if, 497 
 
 Swings, iir. 
 
 Sword, The, 473— 47:j ; tlie "Lacedae- 
 monian," 470, 4S0 
 
 Sword-dauee, 217 
 
 Synipatlietic cures, 243 
 
 .Si/mposium, Tlie, 2(14, 200; Proc-eedings 
 at, 209 ; Games and riddles at, 210— 
 230 ; Regulations at, 213 ; Music at, 
 214; souietiuies becauie an orgy, 
 2ie ; its ending, 230 
 
 Syracuse, Tlieati-e of, 3;io 
 
 Siiruu, The, 320 
 
 N(/s-*i/«(, 177 
 
 " Table-merchauts," .Olii 
 
 T.ibles, 202, 20'.. 200 
 
 Tablets f.ir writing, lOS 100 
 
 Tambourines, 320 
 
 Tanagra, 22S 
 
 " Taxiar.-hs," The, 4o7 
 
 Teinple-sweej.ers, 327 
 
 Temples, M.-.lical, 230-243 
 
 Temples, Religiou.s, regarde.l as tlie 
 .Iwelliugs of the gods, 324 
 
 Ten Tlioiisaiid, the, Expedition of. 4r>s 
 
 TeiTa-cottas, Women's dress in, 43; 
 Head - coverings iu, 61; Playing 
 games in, 22.3, 226 
 
 Thnhnmis, Tlie, 141 
 
 '■ Tliaum.iturgists," 217 
 
 Tlieatie. Tlie, Origin of, 392; Daylight 
 performances in, 394; Auditorium, 
 stage anil orchestra of, 396 ; of 
 Dionysus, of Syracuse, and of 
 Segesta, 396 ; Plan and structure 
 of, 398 ; Situation and seats of, 
 399; SHatsi.fh.jnour in, 400; Gang- 
 ways ami staircases in, 401 ; .Ar- 
 ea. les and size of, 402 ; of Ejiliesus, 
 aii.l of Megalopolis, 402 ; Tlie 
 tliymele rif orchestra in, 403,; En- 
 trances to orchestra in, 404 ; De- 
 coration of proscenium in, 404 ; 
 Stage doors of, 40-t ; Scenery of, 
 406, 407 ; Various uses of the 
 orchestra in, 407 ; Revolving pieces 
 of scenery in, 40S ; Maeliinery of, 
 409; Gods in, 410; Plavs acte.l in, 
 411—421 ; Actors of. 421—432 ; 
 Masks iise.l in, 42j— 432 ; Costuui.-s 
 
 J J 2 
 
 ..f |..-ir..niii'rs ill, 432—144 ; A.liiii" 
 
 si.m of til.' public to, 444 — 44s; 
 
 Prizes of a. -tors iu, 449 
 Theocritus, Allusions to \voiii.Mr> 
 
 .Iress by. 43; Aleineii.-'s s..iig to 
 
 her .■hil.'lren in, S.', ; Epitbakinii.iii. 
 
 of H.deii ill, 141 ; his allusion P. 
 
 the women at the Festival ..| 
 
 Adonis, i:,2, 3..111 
 Theognis, in .Attic schools, Un; s.,..- 
 
 I.v, 21:. 
 Thcnaae, The, of the R..iiian Eiiipiiv, 
 
 192 
 Thesniophniiii, Till'. I'.l. 3S2. ,;s3 
 37if.s.-no,i;..i ,■;..:...«. i',Tlie,. if ,\ilst.ipliaii,'s, 
 
 170 
 Thessaly, and tlip ..1 igiiiati.m of tie- 
 
 elilamys, 17; Luxury in, 2or. ; Sliii- 
 
 gers of. 47s ; Horse-rearing in, 49.; 
 "Tlietes." The. 4-".; 
 Tholia, The. 61 
 Thiiloi bnililings. 2'i3 
 Threshing, 403 
 Throwing the iavelin, 27S, 279, 2S2 ; 
 
 quoits, 121, 275, 277, 27S ; tli.' 
 
 spear, 121, 124, 2SI, 2s2 
 Tlutcydides. Ids allusion to male .Iress. 
 
 12 ; allusion to iliessing the hair, us 
 Thymele, The, 403 
 Time, Measnremi'iit of, 1S3 
 Tolls, 201, 502 
 Tombs, 254; Inscriptions ami d.'sigiis 
 
 on, 2.3S— 262 
 Torch-race, Tli.., 274, 275, 376 
 Torches, Bridal, 13 1, 14li 
 Tortoise, The, as a symbol of .b.niestic 
 
 life, 151; Lyre of Hermes con- 
 structed out of a, 307 
 Torture of slaves, 527 
 Torturers. 525 
 Towns, Life in, 177 
 " Towns, Game of," 223 
 Toys, 89—93 
 
 Trades (See Handicrafts, &c.) 
 Tradesmen. Contempt for, 50S, 5011 
 
 Dishonesty of, 510 
 Tra.gedies, 411—414, i?M 
 Trainers of youth in Spaita, 99 
 Travelling, 197—201 
 Tribes, at Athens, 143 ; of Greece in 
 
 heroic perio.l, 451 ; in later cen- 
 turies, 453, 454 
 TriaonO'i, Tlie, 313 
 Trousers, 20 
 Trumpets, 320 
 Tumulus, 253 
 Tonics, 49 
 Tyndareus, Tin- .diiton of, 11 
 
 Umpir.'s at lilyiiipic games, 35S, 359 
 Urns, 255 
 Usui;', 517 
 
 Vase painter, Workshop of a. 50.; 
 
 Vase painting-^. The chiton in, 4; Ile- 
 l.reseiitations of daily life in, I'.i ; 
 p\-inale .li-ess in, 22, 28, 30 ; Diapei y 
 in, 33, ;',4 ; Coloured patterns in, 
 45; A'^'/(..'5.' rai'ing on hors.dia. k in. 
 
548 
 
 1X])EX. 
 
 IL'.". ; Ilri.liil l.nifc.^sinii ill, 14(; 
 
 Hilin-sciiliilioiisdlw.iiiini in, i;i:; — 
 
 l.'.!i, li;4, 1117 ; llriiikiii- sc.-ih's in, 
 
 LJ-O: Cliariiitcpis in, 4.M 
 Viiullji fcrtlli- ile;nl, iVJ, :;:i4 
 Vi-Ljrtalil.'S, '.'(ir, -JUS 
 Nines, +'.i-l 
 Visitin;;. 1:14 
 Mtrnvins, ]iis iicsnil>tion nf n ,L:yiii - 
 
 liiisinln, IL'O 
 
 U'.iil. FnTi.-ral, i-IK 
 
 \V;iiiiiii.,;-,siii-lis, i;:i, (;4 
 
 War, Anlli.irilics on tin- sulij.'.-t ,,l\ -IMI ; 
 raittakciibyn..iai-siin4."il; I'lniii.il- 
 et-i-s in, 4r.l, 4.ri ; Arms nscii in, 
 4.V->, 4ii0-4.S0 ; Cavalry in. 4."il', 47',i ; 
 Infantry in, 4,'.:i; Tlie cjuKr,! ]ili:ilanK 
 ill, 4,"rJ ; Cii|.tivrs talc. 11 in, l.'ij ; 
 ,Mo,lcsinlii.r.,i.-a^c.il,4:i:; ; ri-anlnl 
 • IS a fcsiival, l.V. ; Sinilicp liofcnv 
 mlril^m il| , 4.'.i'i: Sirp;rs, 4S1I, 4SI 
 
 WasliiliuTlnllirs, i:ii;, i;,7; al «.'lls, I.V.I 
 
 Watrr, H.ilv, ]:;7 ; siuiiildi'il allrr .Iralli, 
 
 ivasliili',' (4ntii,'.s-, l.'.i;, 1",7 ; at tlnir 
 tniln, i.-,7, l.'.:i ; liaths fm-, ]'.:', liiL'; 
 ain.intiiii,' tin-lin.lv, lil'J ; .Maiil.s nf, 
 lliL' : niiii.nnn, ilvrili^' tin' liair, &f.. 
 lil.-i, liir. ;■ liileiiiirit.v lif lln. Afliniiaii 
 to till' S|.artali, 17(i; ail.lictial (n in- 
 tniniirralKa', 170; ilinin;;, I7S, --'fi:! ; 
 siltiiiKiitwiinliiws, IS-j ; at Innrrals, 
 
 ninny, ;i;iS; fiirlii'Mcii I'l ^\i1iirsw tin- 
 t HvMipic i;aiiiL's, :alil : at I'lli'ii.siniaii 
 frstival.s, USD ; at tin- fi-stival of 
 ]l,-lin-ti-r, 3.V2; at liiKllt l-.-l.-liratimis 
 i.r Diiiiiysiis, 3:10 ; at tin- tln-atn-, 
 447 ; -IS slavi-s. .a-jl. '••^^^ 
 
 Wi.olli-n c-l"t]iin^, II, 47, 4117 
 
 Win);, hmv rci;.-in\,-il l.y llmii- ami ..lln-r 
 lai-i-s, 4iiu ; lli-siiiifsciliiniiin ill, MH) ; 
 ,-in-uiiri-.;.-,l liy tin- tviaiits, 4:i0 : 
 (l|iininii (il,S(ii-iati-« of, 4;il ; Lli-ia-i- 
 f-iati.in 111, I'.iii, .700 
 
 ■\VMik 11, Dn-ss 111, 1.;, 1:1, INS ; tiavi-l- 
 
 liln.'.lllK; Citizi-ns'i-ontiaiilil f..|-,l;is; 
 
 Iliri-.l, .'jOr. ; Wa-^rsiil, r.o.s 
 
 its Wiirksliiiiis, I'.io, I'.ii.'. ."-li-J-.'-ni 
 
 \Vi 
 
 J44, i;.7"i ; in till- 1ini]ili-s, :lj:i 
 
 iisi' at till- linn- III .sarrilicr, ijii' 
 Wati-r cliirks, l-s.", -Is7 
 Wi-aniliH, s". 
 Wi-aviln;, l:iO, l.'i:; 
 Wi-ililia- l.aiiMiH-t<, l:iK (,s-,r, ir^,., JIar- i Wivstliim, Trrlinii-al ,.\|iirssi,ins iif, 
 
 ria-.i-) I :;M ; I'r.-i-aral inns Im , JM ; 'I'li.- 
 
 W,-i-^lits anil nirasnn-s. K.-iI.m-, -,1i1 
 
 Wiiiil instill Ills. :;l I— .'L-ll 
 
 W in... IniliaMrn In « -11, 17(1 ; lliiiik- 
 
 iii--'. 17s, -Jirj. Jl.l'.i; nii\i-it Willi wati-r. 
 
 Ulii ; \"aiirli(-s 111, :;lo ; nsi-il in flu- 
 
 ■^1 - nl i-nttalm.s, -J-JI ; nlli-n-il in 
 
 sa(-rili.-.-tnf;-nas,H:l.O; at tlir Alllllrs. 
 
 Ii-lian li.-slival, :rl.s,-| 
 Witi-ln-rall, l'rijti-i.-tinii fniiii, :i:;l 
 Wit(-lii-s. ss 
 Wivi-s, tlirirtnliiiissinn aiiii.n^' tln-.claiis- 
 
 iniii, l4-_' ; their Iniiiniiralili- iicsilii.n 
 
 .-it S|iiii4a, 1411 ; tin-ir snliiinlinati- 
 
 ]i"silini, aiiinn- till- .Mln-liians, 147 ; 
 
 hlliilrlilV nf, I IS ; nil l - r I.- i tizel Is , 
 
 l.M.i ; .\ihii-i- l.-r. Imi. I117 
 Wiiinni, liri-ss nl, -Jii -I'.i ; I l.-.-iil-i-nyi-r- 
 
 ili^S -4. i-n -r,:i ; ||,.;„|-,li,.ss nl, 74 — 
 
 77 : silrklilin lli.-ir i-lillih-eli, SI I 
 
 tlieir ii.irl in tin- Aiiiiilii-ii iniiia, s:l, 
 
 S4; imrilii-atinnafli-r i-liililliirtli, si ; 
 
 aniusilit; lln-ir .-liilil l.-n, ss ; tln-ii- 
 
 lii^'li n-iiiilatiniiin ,s;|i.-irta, l.-ii;; tin-ir 
 
 piisifiun in ri-latinll tn iin-ii ami in 
 
 the liunsi-linlil, 14n; tln-ir ini|initaiil 
 
 linsitinn in In-rnii; tiin.-s, I 1.7 ; tln-ii- 
 
 llnusi-ln.l.l ilnties, 1411 ; --is uivrs. nil 
 
 —1411; tlii-ira|Kirtiiieiits, I7u ; li-ti-li- 
 
 in^' «ali-r frnin tin- wi-Us, lal ; al- Zrns Aiiinmii, I irai-li- nf, :;.f.-, 
 
 ti-n.l.-il Ijv slavi-s, l.-il, is-j; lln-u- Z. "s //,,-;.. ms, Altai tn. Is I , M.'iS 
 
 si-t-lnsinn. 1.71 ; tln-ir li-w jiillilii- aji- Znis Mnira-^i-li-s, I'raM-r tn, mill 
 
 ^'ivt.-.ll tn uni-sls al a s\iii]i. 
 siiini, -JOO ; nil tin- (li-ail, -Jl-'i ; " 
 tiilnbs, -211^; nf iirii-sts, :l-i7 ; a 
 lUvniinriia s, 31,1, iiil-J 
 
 prn.-rssnf i-l,-aiisiir,'ariri-, -JS.'- ; 'I'wn 
 luiliL-ijial Ini-lhniU nf, -JS.". ; ii-jil-i-- 
 si-nt(.-.l ill till- l-1nii-iiliiii- iiiarM-- 
 -,'rnii|., -jsil ; 'I'rii-ksnr l.-ints in, -Jss ; 
 Siijipriiiti-iiili-nts .4', 2SS, -i.su ; Its 
 tlininii^li il.-vi-li.iniii-nt iiitn an art, 
 2!lll ; at (llviiipia, :i-7;i 
 Wli-st-liny .sclinnl. Tin-, 11-'. ; lis inanani.- 
 ini-iit, llil; M.-tlinil anil i.l..i.-.-t ..I' 
 instriictii.il in, llil, 2S2 ; nf ( llMiipia, 
 121 ; of Efiln-siis anil .\li-.\aii.lria 
 Trnas, 121 
 
 Xi.-ni.iilinli's n;;,„„,„„i;.„.., Allnsi-.n tn, 
 1:111, inn ; il.-si;ri]4i'iii nf syin|insia, 
 214, 217, 220 
 
 Vnntlis, l)ri.-ss nf, IS ; Hair nf, nil ; 
 lii-ar.ls nf, 74 (.Srr, n7wn, liiiys) 
 
 Znis. as ri-|ii-rsi-nti-'l in wnrks nf ar 
 111 ; l!i-,il.l i.f, 73 ; Willi. -ss tn 11 
 i.ath t.-iki.-n liv I'l-hrhi, I Is; inynk. 
 at\v.;i|.liii;;s 1:17; |.inl-i-tnri.tstra 
 K.-rs, 1011 ; slaliii- l.\ I'lii-iilias. 22: 
 (h-a.-l.- ..I, 1144 ; Sa.-iili.-.-at (Jlvni|i 
 l.-sliv,il t.i, :i.7'.i ; Apiii-al IV.iln nliv 
 -■I..U.-1S tn, 411.'. 
 
 l.'.l, 172 ; tli.-ir «.- 
 
 lnls|.i 
 l,-l.-J.l 
 
 /;.-ils-X.-iii.i..s, Sainitilaiy nf, 371 
 
 -174 : Va,i.- |.aiiil. Zi-u,, Snt.-r, lal.ati. 
 
 alinlisnl, 177, 1114, 111 
 
 Z.-ils 44-n|.linliiiis, (irai.-li- nf, 34.7 
 
 J'i:iMr.D i-v C.\ssi:i.i. ic Cn.Mr-ANV, l^iMrrKD, L.\ liri.i.i; 8.\ry,\i;i;, la.Nl.n.s, E.C. 
 
r:4p' 
 
 '■ ■' 'At'i/. pv>%