HOW TO WRITE AN E S S AY W.T.WEBB 4 Hatt GfoMege of AgrictftturV At CforncU InioetBttg Slibraty PE1471.W4T920 '''"'''' ''''™^^ 3 1924 014 450 922 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014450922 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY WITH SAMPLiE ESSAYS AND SUBJECTS FOR ESSAY^ BY W. T. WEBB. M.A, Some time Professor of English Literature, Presidency College, Calcutta ; Co- Author of " A Guide to the Study OF English." New and Enlarged Edition London : George Routledge& Sons, Limited New York : E. P. Dutton & Co. 1920 All Rights Reserved PREFACE In all Examinations, whether in England or in India, the' Essay is more and more being employed as a test of the ability of candidates to write clear, simple, and correct English. Thus we find, " Albcandidates will be expected to attempt the Essay, to which special importance is attached."' To help the candidate to pass this test with some measure of success is the object of this book. ' -' The eighty " Sample Essays " do not aim at either originality or high literary merit ; they are meant ta tepresent the kind of Essay that a student might be expected to write in an Examin- ation. ' And since necessarily no two Avriters are altogether alike in their mode of expressing themselves, the style ot these essays has been to some extent diversified. They also vary in length, because in some examinations short, in others longer. Essays are required of the cafididates. "The chapter on spelling and Punctuation has for convenience been placed last ; but a knowledge of these subjects is of course one of the first essentials to successful composition. Of the 1320 " Subjects for Essays," many have been set in various Public Examinations. I. JUniversity of London Regulations for the Matriculation Examina- tion io English. CONTENTS CHAPTER I Subjects and outlines Structure CHAPTER II CHAPTER III iDlCTION CHAPTER IV Spelling and Punctuation ; Summary Page I 17 34 57 SAMPLE ESSAYS I. NARRATIVE ESSAYS r. The Discovery of America by Columbus 67 2,^ A Collision at Sea ...... 69 3- The Black Hole of Calcutta . ' . 71 4- The Elephant's Revenge ~~ 72 5- The Story of Ulysses and the Cyclopses . 74 6. Two Stories illustrating Reasoning Power in Animals 76 7- A Railway Accident 78 8. _The Story of William Tell 79 9- The Battle of Waterloo 81 10. A Fire 82 II. -Queen Philippa and the Burghers of Calais 84 12. Two Anecdotes of Great Men .... 86 13- Sir Henry Lawrence . . . . 88 14- A Mountain Climb 89 I5- AriAdventure with a Tiger ' 91 16. Sheridan . ^ 92 17- The Battle of Assaye . 93 jc8. ;An Adventure with a Cobra 95 19. Nelson 96 20. TJie Emperor and the Poet 98 VI 21. 22. 23- 24. 25- .27- 28. 29. 30. 31- 32. 33- 34- 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43- 44. 45- 46. 47- 48. 49. 30. 51- CONTENTS II. DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS A Sijo^ Mountain Peru . The Alligator London • '\ '■ The Umbrella The British Museum . , . A teoar-hunt The Banyan Tree Ceylon .... The Mpsquito Page Coal ..... The Ape .... Lakes .... The Camel A Storm' at Sea . The Horse .... The Human Hand The Peacock The Climate of India . The Bamboo III. REFLECTIVE ESSAYS Arbitration Law and Order are the Basis of -all Gambling . Cleanliness .... Letter-writing . . Public Speaking . The Liberty of the Press Ambition . ^ Hero-worship "Example is better than Precept " The Right Use of Money True Freedom COJfTENTS 52. Good Manners 53. 1,'l^very T' . ' . 54. Procrastination . 55. The Influence of Good Books 56. War . . . 57. The True End of Education . 58. Resentment 59. '^ Look before you Leap '"^ 60. The Value in Life of a Sense of Humour I- IV. EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 61. ¥^iotography , . . 62. Air 63. The Historical Novel . 64. Strikes and Boycotting 65. The House of Commons 66. The Postal System 67. Ai^cient and Modern Warfare 68. The Census . * . 69. Direct and Indirect Taxation 70. Aircraft '. . . . 71. The Use Man has made of the Forces of Nature 72. Cycling 73. The Character of Hamlet 74. Travelling . , . 75. The Electric Telegraph.. 76. Arctic Exploration " 77. The Tramway 78. fhe Poetry of Tennyson 79. The Game of Fo'otball 8o.|5;|^olcanoes Subjects for Essays, with Notes Index . . . . i . ''iJ> CHAPTER I Subjects and Outlines 1. Introduction.— Literary coirposition is the art of ex- pressing thought or feeling effectively by words. The thinking must be done first ; ideas and opinioHs must be formed before the attempt is made to put them into words ; the writer should know befoirehand exactly what he means. Hence interest and ex- tperience in a subject are essential to him. What he wants, as Professor "Raleigh remarks^ "is not an abundance of facts so much as the connexions between the facts. It is the connexion of things with each other, the ability to go from point to point, which marks literature." Thus the art of composition is governed . by certain principles and methods which the young writer must learn and carry into practice in order to write well.' The aim of the following pages js to explain the most important of these principles with, special reference to the writing of Essays. 2. Classification ol Essays. — Essays may be divided into four classes' : — I. Narrative Essays, or Essays that consist of the narration of some event. Such events may be historical or legendary occurrences ; or they may be stories true or imaginary ; or they may be biographical sketches of some well-known person. II.' Descriptive Essays, or Essays that consist of the descrip- tion of some place or thing. These may be animals, plants,' fruits, or minerals ; towns, ports, ships, and buildings of all kinds, as towers, temples, museums, bridges ; countries, islands, mountains, seas; rivers, canals ; aspects of nature ; or, lastly, manufactured articles. III. Reflective Essays, or Essays that consist of reflection upon some topic, which is generally of an abstract nature. These topics may be habits, qualities, feelings, and capacities ; or they may be subjects of a social and political character. I Some writers add a fifth class, viz.. Argumentative Essays ; but subjects under this head are comparatively few, and may appropriately be included in Classes III and IV. 2 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY IV. Expository Essays, or Essays that consist of the exposi- tion or explanation of subjects. These may be comprised under the head of — first, institutions, industries, occupations, and phrase of life ; secondly, scientific topics ; and thirdly, literary topics. 3. Table of Essays. — Accordingly the four cfasses of Essays may be tabulated thus : — I. Narrative Essays {a) Historical events and legends. (6) Incidents, stories, etc. (c) Biographies. II. Descriptive Essays- (a) Animals, plants, fruits, minerals. (6) Towns, ports, ships, buildings. (c) Countries, islands, mountains, seas , rivers. (i) Aspects and phenomena of nature. {e) Manufactured articles. III. Reflective Essays (a) Habits^>qualities, etc. (b) Social, political, and domestic topics. IV. Expository Essays — {a) Institutions, industries, occupations, etc. (6) Scientific topics. (c) JLiterary topics. It should be remenibered that the above classification does not pretend to be exact. Very often description, narration, and reflection may be combined in the same composition ; the line that divides the descriptive essay from the expository, and the expository from the reflective, is sometimes harrow and difii- cult to define, while, as we shall see later, it is possible for the same subject to be placed in any one of the four classes according to the point of view from which it is regarded. 4. Choice of Subject. — In an Essay Examination it is usual to give several subjects for the candidate to choose from. Read the subjects through, and make your Ejection as quickly as possible. But while it is important notto lose time over the SUBJECTS AND OUTLINES 3 chflice of a subject, do not make your choice.without due consi- deration, and, having done so, keep to the subject chosen. To start on one subject and then leave it for another, involves a serious waste of time. Choose that subject ,which you know most about or wllich is most congenial to your taste. It is of, small use to handle a subject of which you know little or nothing ; though, if only one subject is given, the attempt must of course be made. Hence arises the importance, for the composition of essays, of some stock of general knowledge, whether historical, geographi- cal, social, political, scientific, or literary, on Ijhe part of the writer,; and it is mainly to provide- him with materials for such study ihat the ample list of Subjects for Essays has been appended to this volume.'. With this end in view, good literature should be studied, especially the Essays of Goldsmitli| Addison, and Macaulay ; he should be a reader of history knd books of general information ; the events of the day should be followed in a good, newspaper. He should also cultivate habits of observation and reflection, noting the varying aspects and processes of nature^ . the different phases and conditions of life in different places ; the form and ways of animals" and plants; human customs, feelings, actions, and pursuits. He should keep a common- place-book, in which to enter his impressions, or useful extracts from books that he has read. By these methods the young writer will furnish himself With sufficient ideas for the composition of a plain Essay on almost any ordinary topic. 5T Treatment of Subject— The subject once selected, the next thing to be dofie is to make up your mind as to its meaning and 2ie method of treatment. This is usualfy an easy task, but sometimes a subject is either vague in itself oris vaguely worded ; and this vagueness is sometimes intentional, with the object of given the candidate the more freedom in dealing with the topic before him. Thus the subject of " .Speed in travelling " can be treated in , several different ways. It can be treated historically and descriptively — from the ox-cart to the motor car, from the sailing ship to the Atlantic liner. Or, it may form au expository essay, and the various devices and forces by which, swiftness of locomotion is attained may be set forth, such as turbines, aeroplanes, steam, electricity. Or, again, it can be treated'^reflectively, and the advantages and disadvantages of speed in travelling may be enumerated and commented upon. , To combine effectively all three methods of treatment would 4 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY usually make an essay too long for examination purposes, and should therefore in most cases be avoided. 6. MeaHing of Subject. — There may, however, be instances of vagueness which require special care and judgment on the part of the candidate. Thus, should the subject of the essay be " Charity " the question arises whether the examiner means by Charity " Kindness in general " or " Alms-giving." The former interpretation might no doubt be made to include the latter, but the subject thus becomes too extensive for a short essay, and it will be better for the candidate to adopt the latter £ind more usual interpretation, and treat of alms-giving in all its varied forms and developements. Again, in " The value of cheap Hterature " as the subject for an essay, the word value might mean either the goodgeffects only or bQJih the good and the bad effects resulting from the cheapening of literature. Further, the word literature might mean reading-matter generally or only standard reading-matter, excluding low-class newspapers and sensational stories. Here the best interpretation of the subject will be " The advantages of cheap reading-matter," as being that which was probably intended by the Examiner. 7. Proverbs and Quotations. — It is sometimes difficult for the candidate 16 grasp the significance of some of the proverbs and quotations often set as subjects for essays. Thus such, a proverbial saying as " Virtue is its own reward " might at first sight puzzle the young essay-Writer. It means that the inward sense of satisfaction in doing a virtuous action is sufficient reward to the doer, and that therefore we ought to do good at the bidding of duty and conscience, without thinking of or desir- ing any gain or advantage to ourselves from so doing. It is indeed antithetical to another proverb, " Honesty is the best poUcy," which suggest that it pays best to be honest or Tionour-- able in one's conduct. With a view to lessening this difficulty, explanatory notes have been added to many^of the proverbs, etc. contained in the list of Subjects for Essays already referred to. Similar notes have also been appended to a few other subjects that seemed to need elucidation.' - 8. Digressions. — The true and exact meaning of the ., Subject being settled, keep to it in writing your Essay, and do not introduce topics that do not properly belong to it. If, for I These annotated Subjects may be usefully expanded into Essays by the student. ~ SUBJECTS AND OUTLINES 5 instance, the subject of the essay is " A journey by mail-cart " (or mail-coach), do not spend time in describing the journey to the place where you joined the mail-cart or from the place where you left it. Or, should the subject be "Borrowing money," k6ep to the evils usually resulting from such borrowing, and do not dilate upon the disadvantages or losses arising from tending money. ' Occasional digressions are permissible in a long essay but not in the short compositions required in Examina- tions. This fault is- one to be specially guarded against by the inexperienced writer, who is very apt to wander away from his subject into aH sorts of side topics, till the unity and coher- ence oi his essay is completely lost., 9. The Outline.^— The true remedy for this defect is a good skeleton framework or outline. Sometimes, in an Examination, an outline is given for you to expand into an essay.. In that case be careful to follow it closely, and do not introduce extraneous matter or deviate from the order in which its topics are arranged. Never start upon an essay without having an outline of your proposed, composition b^ore you. Even practised authors arrange their ideas in their heads, if they do not actually set them down on paper, before they begin to write. If you commence by setting down the first idea that occurs to you, without know- ing what you are going to say next, the result is that your essay is an ill-assorted jumble, or has to be reconstructed and rewritten with much loss of time and pains. A proper, logical order in the setting forth of your ideas can be ensured only by the use of an outEne. 10. An Outline prevents repetition. — Another advantage of an outline is that it prevents or should prevent the needless ^repetition later on in the essay of points that have already been discussed. When the details are once duly arranged under their different headings, the tendency of the writer to repeat himself is counteracted — a tendency which not only detracts froni the worth of the essay, but causes a waste of valuable time to the candidate. If unfurnished with an outline, he will often fall quite unconsciously into these vain repetitions, and the fact that he has done so will dawn upon him only when he reads over his composition after it is written, and when it is often too late to make the requisite corrections. The slovenly practice of intro- ducing (with " I ought to have mentioned before that," etc.) later on in the essay what should nave been inserted previously, is also guardedTagainst by the use of an outline. HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY II. Study of the subject. — Before commencing to draw up an outline, devote a short time to a careful consideration of the subject of the essay, and then cross-examine yourself about it, so as to draw out your ideas one after another. Such ideas should be jotted down as they occur to you, otherwise they may easily slip out of your mind and be lost. beyond recall. Thus if the subject is " The life of savages," ask yourself what is meant exactly by the term "savages"? Can you recollect ' any thing that you have read about the manners and customs of uncivilised peoples ? What are the drawbacks of savage, as compared with civUised, life ? Are these drawbacks counterbalanced by any advantages ? — and so on. Jottings of this kind will help to provide material for the outline. Remember that for writing a short essay a large amount of material is not required, so that it is important to select for use only such matter as is essential to a clear treatment of the subject. 12. Rules for Outlines. — In drawing up an outline llie following general rules~ should be observed : — 1. First set down the principal ideas that suggest them- selves (these we will call the " main topics "), and denote them by numbers, (i), (2). (3), etc. 2. Next set down under each main topic the subordinate ideas that follow from them (these we will call the " Sub-topics") and denote them by letters (a), (b), (c), etc. 3. Arrange both your main topics and your sub-topics in their natural order. - ^. 4. See that the ideas contained in the sub-topics are in keeping with the ideas contained in .the main topics. * 5. Word all your topics as briefly and compactly as possible.- 13. Example. — ^Xo exemplify the apphcation of these rules, take the subject of " Luxury ". The first point is to describe what luxury is and in what ways it shows itself. Hence the first main topic will be a definition of luxury and a descrip- tion of its nianifestation in food, dress, houses and furniture, and vehicles, all these forming the sub-topics. Next we look at luxury from ajhistorical standpoint and enquire into its prevalence in ancient and'in modem time. The Romans under the Empire , and the Americans may be taken respectively as examples. Thus we have a second main topic with two sub-topics. The SUBJECTS AND OUTLINES 7 third main topic that naturally suggests itself is the evil effects of luxury. What are the chief 6f these ? It causes a waste of capital, it fosters the vice of selfishness, it enervates men's bodies and minds, and it weakens and destroys nations. These will form the sub-topics. As our last main topic, we pass to the remedies for luxury, comprising the sub-topics — first, sumptuary! laws, a remedy once approved both in the time of the Romans and in our own day, but now regarded as of little avail ; secondly, the influence of an enlightened public opinion ; thirdly, good moral training and the discipline of out-door games anjd manly exercises ; and lastly, legislation hindering instead of encouraging the excessive accumulation of land and capital in the hands of a few. Presented in a tabular form, the outline will be as follows : Subject : " Luxury" Outline (i) Definition of luxury ; displayed in — (a) Food. (6) Dress. (c) Houses and furniture. {d) Carriages, motors, Pullman cars, etc. (2) Its prevalence : — {a) In ancient times ; e.g. under the Roman Empire. (6) In modern times ; e.g. in the United States of America. (3) Its effects : — (a) Wastes capital. (6) Fosters selfishness. (c) Enervates body and mind. {d) Weakens and destroys nations. (4) Remedies : — (a) Sumptuary laws (of little use). (6) Influence of public opinion. {d) Laws unfavourable to the accumulation of wealth in a few hands. 14. Classes of Essays considered. — In order to help the student in drawing up outlines, we proceedx to consider the different classes and sub-classes of essays, with a view to the kind of outline appropriate to each. The practised writer follows his own line of thought, and plans his essay accordingly ; but the learner will find it better and easier to follow the method suggested here for his guidance. O HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 15. I. Narrative Essays. — ^The aim of nairation is to call up before the mind's eye of the reader a series of real or imaginary, events, and to point out, if necessary, their cause and their relation to one another. Events are naturally arranged accord-t; ing to time, that is, in the order in which tiiey occurred. In . deaUng with (a) Historical events and (6) -Stories (§ 3), the time and place of tiie event should first be given, with the actor or actors, and what led up to it. The first paragraph should, explain the situation ; do this briefly, and rouse the interest of ■ your reader as soon as possible. Remember that causes should precede effects. In the case of a story or imaginary event, tinie and place can be invented equally with the event itself ; it is a gain to begin a, story with " Not many years ago in one of the suburbs of London " or " It was in the year 1895, in one of the cities of central India, that " etc., or similar openings, since to do: so makes the story seem more lively and real to the reader.| The circumstances or background otthe event with its difEerentl incidents come next ; no detail should be omitted that adds toj the vividness of the narrative, but tediousness should be guarded against. Then follows the climax or realilt, which must be kept back till the end of the story, otherwise its interest is spoilt. Any reflections that suggest themselves should be placed at the close, but do not obtrude your own rehgious or political opinions. It should be noted" that, since events vary somewhat in their nature and characteristics, the various schemes given below must be regarded as of general, and not of universal, application. The student will be able, without much difficulty, to introduce necessary modifications.. Thus the general plan suitable for such an essay will be as follows : — (a) HISTORICAL EVENTS OR (b) STORIES Scheme (i) Introduction: date and place; actor or actors i origin or occasion. (2) Circulnstances and incidents. (3) Result. (4) Reflections or conclusions. The following is an instance of the application of this scheme to the formation of an outline :' — -"^ SUBJECTS AND OUTLINES 9 Subject : " Sir Philip Sidney and the Wounded Soldier " Outline -fi) In 1586, at the battle of Zutphen, Sir Philip Sidney fought bravely yn&i IJie Dutch against the Spaniards. (2) Seriously wounded and parched with thirst, water was brought him. (3) Seeing>. wdUnded soldier wistfully eyeing the bottle, he handed it to him. (4) A noble instance of self-denial for the sake of others. The outline may then be expanded into an essay: — Essay At the Battle of Zutphen fought in 1586, in the cause of liberty against the tyrant Philip of Spain, Sir Philip Sidney, who was serving with the English auxiliaries commanded by the Earl of Leicester, dis- played the most undaunted and enterprising courage. - He had two horses killed under him, and, whilst mounting a third, was wounded by a musket shot, which, broke tiie bone of the thigh. He had to walk about a mile-aud a half td~the camp ; and, being faint with loss of blood and pajx;bed with thirst, he called fpr drink, which was instantly brought him. But, as he was putting the vessel to his mouth, a poor wounded soldier, who happened to be carried past him at that instantr looked at it with wistful eyes. The gallant and generous Sidney took the bottle from his lips without drinking, and, handing it to the soldier, said, " Thy necessity is yet greater ■ than mine." Sixteen days after, Sidney breathed his last, in the .thirty- second year of his age. / The incident reminds us of a somewhat similar act of self-denial in Bible history, on the part of David, who refused to drink the water he longed for, brought him by his mighty men at the risk of their lives, and " poured it out unto the Lord." There was self-denial in either case ; but David's was prompted by self-reproach at having exposed his brave men to extreme danger, whereas Sidney's was the outcome of a noble compassion for a fellow-sufferer. MW In dealing with (c) Biographies, the following general plan may be adopted : — (c) BIOGRAPHIES Scheme (•i)_ Date and place of birth ; parentage, ancestry ; surroundings. (2) Education ; temperament ; early proclivities. (3) Career and achievements. 10 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (4) Closing years ; date and place of death ; burial. (5) Personal appearance (if known) ; brief estimate of character ana actions. Application Subject : " Cowper " Outline (i) Bom 1731, at Great Berkhamsted, Herts ; father rector ot the parish ; mother a Donne ; village life. (2) Went to Westminster School ; then articled to a solicitor ; shy and nervous ; victim to religious melancholia. (3) Life at Huntingdon and OIney with the Unwins ; " Moral Satires;" Lady Austen and " The Task ; " " Homer ;" Letters. (4) Mental breakdown ; died 1800, at East Dereham, Norfolk ; buried in the church. (5) Large eyes, long nose, middle stature ; sensitive, gentle, humor- ous ; the poet of the simple human affections. Since the Biography belongs to the narrative class of essays, and you are telling not what the man was but what he did, it is out of place to give an analysis of his character. Hence the remarks under (5) above should be brief, and only such as throw light upon the events or actions of his life. 16. II. Descriptive Essays. — ^The aim of description is to produce in the reader's mind a clear picture of the thing described. This is done by giving details, one after another, in; their proper order, till the picture is complete. We now take the different kinds ofxdesaiptive essays, as before enumerated ' (§n3). giving first, a general outline or' scheme and then an example of its appUcation. '^ (fl) ANIMALS, PLANTS, FRUITS. MINERALS. Scheme ' (i) Designation (class, order, species, category, etc.) ; where found. (2) Properties or characteristics (appearance, habits, qualities). (3) How obtained or produced (by breeding, taming, cultivation, mining, etc.). (4) Relation io nlan or nature (usefulness, attractiveness, hurtful- ness, etc.) SUBJECTS AND OUTLINES II Application Subject : " Cotton " Outline (i) A vegetable product ; grown in India, Egypt, Brazil, and the Southern States of America. (2) Raw cotton is a white, soft fibre, forming a coating' for the seed of the cotton-plant. (3) The plant is cultivated by negro and native labour ; reqiiires considerable heat and some moisture ; is gathered by' hand froin the pods, separated from the seed by the cotton-gin, carded, and spu^ into yam in cotton-mills ; the yarn is woven into calico, etc. (4) Cotton material is used for clothing, sheets, handkerchiefs, thread, etc. ; it is the great Lancashire export. (&) TOWNS, PORTS, SHIPS, BUILDINGS Scheme (i) Designation and situation. (2) History and associations. (3) 'Characteristics (climate, soil, population, size, construction, contents, etc.). (4) UtiUty or notabiUty (pubUc buildings, trade ; function or purpose). Application Subject : " Agra " Outline (i) City of Agya ; on Jumna in United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. (2) Founded by Akbar, 1566 ; first capital of the Great Mogul ; fcaptured by British, 1803 ; held byjnutirieers, 1857. (3) Climate hot and dry ; soil fertile ; population about 200,000, (4) Celebrated for Taj, Fort, etc. ; large inland trade — indigo, cotton, tobacco. ' I With a few obvious modifications, the scheme given for (6) above is suitable also for (c) Countries, islands, mountains, seas, rivers. 12 HOW TO WRIIE AN ESSAY {d) ASPECTS AND PHENOMENA OF NATURE Scheme (i) General descriptions. (2) Particular asfiects or effects. (3) Influence on the feelings. V Application Subject : " The Starry Heavens" Outline (i) Beauty and majesty of the scene ; the planets, the constellations, the milky way. (2) Jupiter and his satellites, Saturn and his rings, the Moon, — a$f. seen through a telescope. -~ (3) Excites awe and wonder, and a feeling of the littleness of man and the vanity of human things ; gives a sense of rest and calm. (e) MANUFACTURED ARTICLES Scheme (i) Designation and origin. (2) Properties or appearance. (3) Process of manufacture. (4) Use. Application Subject : " Tobacco " Outline (i) So called from tahaco, the pipe in which the Indians smoked it ; first brought to Europe- from America in 1559 ; a vegetable product ; largely grown in the United States. (2) A narcotic ; . contains nicotine, a strong poison. (3) The leaves are gathered, dried, and slightly fermented ; made into cigars, tobaeco, and snuff. (4) Used forr— (a) smoking. (6) chewing, (e) snuffing. (et) medicinally for asthma, etc. SUBJECTS AND OUTLINES I3 17. ni. Reflective Essays.— The aim of the reflective essay (§ 3) is to set forth the opinions of the writer upon some subject, and to support them by arguments and illustrations. Where the subject is of a controversial nature, possible objections to the view maintained should be stated and rephed to. The particular bearing of the theme should be clearly indicated and examples given, either historical or drawn from the writer's experietace. (a) HABITS, QUALITIES, etc. Scheme (i. Definition or explanation of the subject. (2) Working and development; illustrations. (3) Value ; advantages or disadvantages. (4) Effects. (5) Concluding remarks. Application Subject : " Idleness " Outline (1) Hegl^t of one's proper work ; distinguish between idleness and laziness. . (2) Duty of work ; idlers prey upon the community, like drones in a hive ; beggars, loafers, tramps. (3) Leads to — (a) nnhappiness. (b) want of success. (c) poverty. {d) vice. (e) disease. (4) Enervates a man bodily and, mentally j the idler cannot enjoy rest or leisure. (5) Everbody, rich or poor, should have his appointed work. (J) SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND DOMESTIC TOPICS Scheme (i) Definition or explanation of the subject. (2) History (if any) ; working ; development or decline; illustrations. (3) CharactSlastics or conditions or effects. (4) Concluding remarks. 14 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Applleation Subject : " Political. Revolution." / Outline (i) Forcible establisEment, by subjects, of a new government, whether by (a) popular outbreak, (b) military 'revolt, or (c) private conspiracy. Examples, (z) Causes : — (a) Oppression of populace ; excessive and unjust taxation ; France, 1789. (6) Arbitrary and unconstitutional action: England, {1649 and 1688 ; France, 1848 ; Italy, 1859 ; Spain, 1868. (c) Military reverses : France, 1870 ; Russia, 1905. ' {d) Dynastic plots ; Russia, 1 730 and j_762 i Spain, 1874. {3) Sometimes only temporarily successful ; sometimes results in democracy, followed by autocracy : Caesar, Cromwell, Napoleon I and III ; reasons. (4) In what circumstances justifiable. 18. ' IV. Expository Essays. — ^The aim of exposition {§ 3) is to set forth details of a subject, sp that the reader may under- stand the theory or plan that underlies these details. Descrip- tioii has more especially to do with the outer form ; exposition with the inner working. ^ (a) INSTITUTIONS, INDUSTRIES," OCCUPATIONS') etc. Scheme (i) Definition and general statement, showing purpose, scope, etc. (2) History (if any). (3) Explanation of subject. (4) Good or bad results. (5) Concluding remarks. Application Subject : " Life-insurance " Outline (i) A contract with a Company guaranteeing a certain sum at a persons' death to his heirs in return for a fixed yearly payment. Explain " premium," " policy."- ^ SyBJECTS AJfD OUTLINES I5 (2) A modem idea ; first started in England in 1706 ; immense developement. (3) Example of its working ; based on the uncertainty of life ; vital statistics. (4) Benefits : — . (a), encourages providence and thrift. (6) prevents anxiety for the future, (c) equalises the chances of the insured. (5) Inexpedient for. possessors of sufficient capital ; show why. The above general outline (in some cases, with slight modi- fications) will apply to most subjects in sub-class (a). For (6) it may be modified as follows : — (6) SCIENTIFIC TOPICS ScJieme (i) Introductory statement: history (if any). (2) Explanation of subject ; origin or constituents ; action or pro- perties. (3) Value or use. (4) Concluding remarks. Application Subject : " Vaccination " Outline (i) Ravages of small-pox in Europe and America in 17th and i8th centuries. Inoculation of small-pcsc virus introduced against it in 1721. {2) Vacciniation is the transfer to a person of pus taken from a calf or a human patient sufiering from cow-pox ; discovered in 1796 by Dr. Jenner, who found that milk- maids who had ha^ cow-pox never took small-pox ; practised generally, 1799 ; Nationail "Vaccine Extablishment founded, i8o8. (3) A preventive against small-pox ; ' much opposed when first in- troduced, and again in recent times. (4) Inoculation of all kinds against diseases open to question. The subjects included under (c) Literary topics, are so varied, that no scheme suitable to all of them can be given. The following, which can be modified in accordance with the subject, is suggested. l6 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (c) LITERARY TOPICS Scheme (i) Introductory ; origin, definition, or description of subject. (2) History (il any), or sketch of writer or writings ; style, character- istics. (3) Analysis or examination of subject-matter. (4) Influence or effects ; conclusion. Application Subject : " The Epigram " Outline (i) The terse expression of a striking or a beautiful thought ; often witty or satirical ; compared to a bee — ^why ? (a) The Greek Anthologists ; Catullus and Martial ; Owen, Ben Jonson, Herrick, Pope, Landor ; Boileau, Lebrun ; I.essing, Herder. (3) Different kinds of epigrams ; characteristics of each kind | examples. Pasquinades. (4) A literary or political weapon ; Niccolo Franco ; " Despotisi:|< tempered by epigram." ~ i 16. Study^ ol Outline. — When the outhne is finished it should be carefully scfutinised to see whether anything irrelevant to the subject has been inserted or anything relevant to it omitted. CHAPTER II Structure 20. Beginning of Essay.— The Essay itself may now be proceeded with. The opening rem?irks should be brief and pointed. Set about the main tiieme as quickly as you can, with- out wasting time on prehmihary statements, such as " I take up niy pen etc.." " In lie short time allowed etc." It often adds to the clearness of an essay to begin by saying what the main subject comprises and what are the different heads under which you propose to consider it ; or the introductory remarks may be of a general nature, leading up to the subject. If the title is vague or obscure (§§,5, 6), b^gin by defining or elucidating it. Sometimes an apt quotation forms a good commencement. 21. Simplieity. — ^Write simply and in your own words, and do not try to introduce profound or original ideas. Essays writing for the youaig student is meant to be a test of his power of expressing himself clearly and grammatically rather than of the extent of his reading or the depth of his refleetions. 22. Proportion. — Each division of the subject should have its due space and attention allotted to it, no more and no less. For example,, if the subject is " town and country life,"do not give three quarters of your space to treatjng of town hfe, and leave only one quarter for country hfe. Important points, in an essay require more extended treatment than ^minor inatters, which should be lightly touched upon. Thus in dealing with such subjects as " Anger " or " Pride," the evils resulting from these ha,bits should form a much larger part of the essay than the comparatively rare instances in which their exercise is justifiable. 23. Paragrapliing. — ^A Paragraph is an ordered succession of sei^tences deahng with the same topic. Divide your essay- into paragraphs, which should be indented.' As you pass from one main topic to another, begin a new paragraph with each I That \s, the first Hne of the paragraph should be began about half an inch further to the right than the rest. 2 l8 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY new topic. A good outline should ensure that the topics follow one another in proper order; but you should note what you have said in the last sentence of a paragraph, and see that the next paragraph continues or developes the thought. An essay that is not divided into paragraphs gives the reader no oppor- tunity for a pause to make sure of the meaning, but presents a trackless waste of sentences through which he has to find his way as best as he can. 24. Sentence-connexion. — ^The connexion of sentences with one another should be made clear by — (i) The use of appropriate, cormectives, or (2) Sentence-construction, that is, so framing each sentence as to carry on the thought from one sentence to the nej^. (i) Connectives. — ^The following is a list of connectives introducing — (a) an affirmation : truly, in truth, surely, sure enough, certainly, for certain, of course, as a matter of course, doubtless, assuredly, at any rate, a all events, unquestionably. (6) an alternative statement : or, nor, else, otherwise, instead, rather,' on the contrary, on the other hand. (c) a qualification : but, whereas, yet, sHll, however, nevertheless, to be sure, it is true, at the same time, after aU. (d) an amplification : also, farther, moreover, now, again, once more, then again, besides, next, too (which jnust not head a sentence), not but what, in other words, add to this. (e) a contingency : if, though, while, when, where, whereas, because, as, since, for, seeing that. {/) a conclusion : therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, then, thus, sor' so that,_ consequently, accordingly, on the whole, in short, in a word, in con- clusion, for this reason, in that case, in these circumstances. Notice how the connectives (italicised) help forward the arguments in the following passage : — It is well to be impressed with a sense of the difficulty of judging about others ; still, judge we must, because the purposes of life require it." We have, however, more and better materials, sometimes, than we^^are aware of ; nor must we imagine that they axe always deep -seated and recondite; indeed fihey often lie upon the surface. For the primailt, character of a man is specially discernible in trifles, since he acts th^, as it were, almost unconsciously. {2) Sentence-construction. — ^Take the following paragraphs WelUngton's army was at that time inferior in numbers to the army of the enemy.' I say at that time, for the Prussian forces had not yet arrived upon the fidd of- Waterloo. Their delay was due to the length STRUCTURE 19 of their march northwards from Ligny on the 17th. There on the pre- vious day Blucher had been defeated but not routed by Napoleon, and was now on his way to unite with the English army. Here the last words of one sentence suggest the first words -of the next. Thus ' ' at that tinie " in the first sentence is repeated.^ at the beginning of the second ; " not yet arrived " in that sentence suggests the^word " delay " in the next ; and " Ligny " in the third sentence suggests " there " in the last. 25. Sentences Joined by "and," etc.— A common error with young writers is the monotonous use of and, and then, and so, and he, and it, etc. (instead of who, which, etc.),, as, to join their entences, instead of employing appropriate connec- tives, as : — A little dog once saved its master's life, as one day it was watching by his side, and he lay asleep in a summer-house, and it was^old and crazy, and so the dog saw the walls shake. So' it understood thi danger, as it began barking, and so it woke its master. Andi then he started up and so he had just time to escape, as the whole building fell down. Rewrite : — A little dog once sayeKts master's life, for one day it was v^tching by his side, as he lay asleep in a summer-house, which was old and crazy. Presently the dog saw the walls shake, and, understanding the danger,- . began barking. This woke its master, who started up and had just time to escape before the whole building fell down. 26. Transitional sentences. — ^These are useful . links to paragraphs. They are a means of indicating the logical sequence of events in.a narrative, and indeed of the different divisions of an essay generally. Such transitional sentences are : "The next thing he did was " ; " But this was not the only thing we saw " ; " So much for " (the matter) ; " It may be remarked here " ; " But this is not all " ; " There is no question that " ; " I say this because " ; Another matter remains to be noted "; "The sequel is well known"; 'Little more need be said;" " The result remains to be described " ^ " What actually happen- ed was this " ; " Such was the state of affairs, when " etc. ; " To accountfor this fact, we must remember " etc. ; " In taking leave of this part of our subject, we may note " etc. ; " Events served t& reveal the truth of this argument " ; " The worst was now over " ; " The issue was clear " ; " As we have seen." I A good rule is never to begin a new sentence with and. The con- junction so is better avoided as a connective where hence, thus etc., can • be substituted for it. 20 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 27. Introductory sentences. — ^A short statement placed at the beginning of a paragraph to inditate what follows — the Toimc Sentence — ^is often vesry effective, as : — (i) He (the Sirdar) sent out the Egyptian cavalry and camel corps soon after dawn to the plain lying between Gebel Surgham and Omdurman to lure on the Khalifa's men. The device was completely successful. Believiiig that they could catch the horsemen in the rocky ridge alongside of Gebel Surghaip, the Dervishes came forth from their capital in swarms, pressed them hard, and inflicted some losses. Retiring in good order, the cavalry drew on the eager hordes, etc. (2) At last I beheld through the gap, thousands of feet overhead, as if suspended in the crystal sky, a cone of illuminated spow. . You can imagine my delight. It was really that of an anchorite catching a glimpse of the seventh heaven. Thereat last was the long- sought-for mountain actually tumbling dowfn upon our heads. Notice here how effectively the short (itaUcised) sentences at the head of the second paragraphs summarise, as it were, what is to follow, viz., in the one case, a description of the success of the plan and, in the other, the cause of the dehght. Notice also how admirably these short statements act as transitional sentences, carrying the reader along from the first paragraph to the next. Again, when particulars are to T)e enumerated, it often promotes clearness to preface the enimieration by an opsning paragraph consisting of a single sentence, as : — (3) In defence of their academic treatment of this matter some considerations of a general nature may be urged. The need of colonies felt be Germany was so natural, etc. Such an opening paragraph is also useful for announcing a new topic and at the same time summing up what has been stated in the preceding section, as : — (4) After what I have stated in regard to the moral discipline, the studies, and the pursuits necessary, for the man of business, it remains for me only to describe his character. 28. Short sentences. — It is better to use short sentences than long ones. A short sentence is simple, incisive, and easily- understood ; whereas a long sentence requires skill in its con- struction, is often a strain upon the attention, and lays itself open to errors of syntax which a short sentence escapes. For the same reason the introduction of parentheses should be avoided, which, with a young writer, often lead to obsturity as STRUCTURE 21 well. At the same time, a succession of short sentences sounds^ jerky and monotonous, and it will be found that, as a rule, a mixture of fairly long and short sentences produces the best effect. Form a clear idea in your own mind of what you have to say, and compose a sentence in your head before committing it to paper. Clearness of thought generally ensures clearness of expression. The following passage (from Bagehot) is a good example of the judicious intermixture oblong and short sentences : — It is very possible for a conscientious man, under a bureaucratic government, to co-operate with the rest of a council in the elaboration and execution of measures, many of which he thinks inexpedient. Nobody asks him his opinion ; he has" not to argue, or defend, or persuade. But a free government boasts that it is barried on in the face of day. Its principle is discussion ; its habit is debate. The consequence is that those who conduct it have to defend measures they disapprove, or object to measures the;^^prove, or appear to have an accurate opinion on points on which they really have no opinion. 29. Loose and Periodic sentences. — Sentences, as regards their structure, are of two kinds, the loose sentence and the periodic or suspended sentence. In the loose sentence the main thought is placed iirst, and qualifications or subordinate details come afterwards. In the periodic sentence the qualificia- , tions precede the main statement, which is reserved to the last. By this means the reader's attention is roused and held in suspense till the^ding idea is stated. Thus" I shall not go out, if it rains " is a loose sentence, since the modifying clause "if itrains" is placed after the main statement "I shall not go dut,"\ whibh by itself is a complete sentence ; the reader is not kept in suspense. "If it rains, I shall not go out" is a pei^iodic ' entence, since the main statement is kept to the last ; the reader, till lie reaches the end, feels the sentence to be incomplete The loose structure' is used in conversatiojis and inordinary narratives, and has the advantage of simplicity, but is sometimes wanting in clearness ; the periodic structure is.jnore literary and generally more forcible, but should not i)e^ised in excess, so as to make your style monotonous or pedantic. In the following examples the studSit will observe that the periodic order is usually much more effective, than the loose order : — (a) Loose : Skobeleff was at once a commander and a soldier, since -he was the grandson of a peasant, whose bravery had won him promotion, and the son of a general whose prowess was renowned. 22 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Periodic : The grandson of a peasant, whose bravery had won him promotion ; the son of a general whose prowess was renowned, Skobelefi was at once a commander and a soldier. (6) Loose : The Nihilists struck down the Uberator of the serfs when on the point of recurring to better methods of rule, and thus dealt the death-blow to their own cause. Periodic : In striking down the liberator of the serfs when on_the point of recurring to better methods of rule, the Nihilists dealt the^ death- blow to their own cause. ^ (p) Loose : He was full of grand schemes, but he never succeeded in cait}ang them out. • Periodic : Though he was full of grand schemes, he never succeeded in carrying them out. {d) Loose: Cromwell concentrated his whole force upon the im- mediate object of beating Gordon, and hastened to the relief of the harassed foot, as soon as he succeeded. Periodic : Cromwell, concentrating his whole force upon the im- mediate object of beating Gordon, no sooner succeeded than he hastened to the relief of the harassed foot, - It is better not to mix the periodic structure and the loose structure in the same sentence, as : — Deserted by his friends, he did not know where to turn, being sur- rounded by his enemies. Make the sentence either (a) completely periodic, or (6) completely loose :-— (a) Deserted by Ijis friends and surrounded by his enemies, he did not know wherer to turn. (6) He did not know where to turn, being deserted by his friends and surrounded by his enemies. 30. Unity of the sentence, (i) Unity of thought. — See that your sentences possess unity, that is, contain one and only one main fact. There may be several facts in a sentence, but they must all contribute of the setting forth of the main thought, and so inust be dependent on one another. Example i : — , (a) When the town was reached, my uncle invited me to his house, where I stayed a week with the family, who entertained me most hospitably. Here we have a sentence of four clauses, each with a different subject (^oum, uncle, I. who), so that the reader's attention is diverted from the main subject, the speaker. Rewrite : STRUCTURE 2$ (6) On reaching the town, I was invited by my uncle to his house, ' where I stayed a week with the family and was entertained most hospitably. Example 2 : — (a) The purchase of the Suez Canal shares was sanctioned by Parlia- ment without a division, a speculation which from a commercial point of view has been most profitable. Here there are two ideas: (i) the sanction of the purchase;' (2) its advantage. These. two ideas are not^dependent On each other ; the sanction of the purchase did not make it profitable. Rewrite : — (6) The purchase of the. Suez Canal shares was sanctioned by Parlia- ment without a division. From a commercial point of view the speculation has been most profitable. Example 3 : — (a) Able and tactful in his conduct of public affairs, he occupied his scanty leisure with art, literature, and historical research. Here again there are two independent ideas ; his ability in the conduct of public affairs has nothing to do with how he occupied his leisure. Rewrite: — (6) He was able and tactful in his conduct of public affairs. His scanty leisure he occupied with art, literature, and historical research. Example 4 :— (a) Dr. Robinson died this morning. He was born March 10, 18 — . He was seventy years old, and left a large fortune to his wife and children. Here, on the other hand, we have a series of short sentences that do hot contain separate fapts. These are only two, the death of Dr. Robinson and his bequest. Rearrange : — (6) Dr. Robinson died this morning at the age of seventy, having been bom March 10, 18 — . He left a large fortune to his wife and childrei). Similarly, do not crowd a sentence with heterogeneous details or incongruous statements, thus confusing the sense by huddling together matters that ought to be kept apart. Note the jumble of ideas in the following sentence : — (a) Whatever you earn, save sornething, without minding what - people say about love of money or being miserly, as every one ought to be above becoming dependent upon others, and money in the bank makes a man hold his head up and respect himself, and he deserves such respect, which he has won by self-denial. 24 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Rewrite : — (6) Whatever you earn, save something. Never mind what people say about love of money and being miserly. Every one ought to be above becoming dependent upon others. Money in the bank makes a man hold his head up and respect himself. , He deserves such respect too ; for he has won it l^y self-denial. (2) Unity of Structure. — Sentences should also have unity or symmetry of structure ; they should be framed on the same plan. Examine the following :^— (a) He succeeded at first through the boldness of his action ; but he failed in the end because he was wanting in perseverance. (Here unity of structure is violated by the last clause, instead of which write " through his want of perseverance " to coincide with " through the boldness " etc.) (6) The Premier declared that such conduct was a violation of the Constitution and dangerous to the State. (Substitute a " danger " — ^to coincide with " a violation " — for " dangerous.") (c) The speaker, wishing to secure a friendly reception, and who felt uncertain of his audience, confined himself to generalities. "(Write either " who wished " for " wishing," or " feeling " for " who felt,") (d) Stairs that creak, smoky chinipeys, leaky roofs, windo'ws that stick, are the signs of the jerry-buildet. For "smoky chimneys" write " chimneys that smoke," and for " leaky roofs " write " roofs that leak,") (e) Has he not disappointed his friends ? Has he not beggared his family ? And, worse than all, he has ruined his reputation. (Write " has ~ he not ruined ? " instead of "he has ruined.") (/) The king refused to consider his decision, and immediate action was ordered by him to be taken. (Write " and ordered immediate action to be taken,") (g) Callousness is to have no feeling for others. (Write "is the want of feeling.") (A) He is firm in action, but at the same time gentle-mannered. (Write " gentle in" manner") (i) The place is used as a warehouse, with goods on the first floor, and has an office below. (Write " and with an office.") 31. Incongruous constructions.— The student must also beware of incongruous constructions arising from the attempt to make one word do the work of two. Thus in "I never have and never will believe it," believe is made to do double duty, both as infinitive after will and as participle after have. Rewrite " I never have believed it andTnever will beUeve it " or, more briefly, " I never have believed it and never will." Examples : — {a'f Incorrect : All his money is spent and all his hopes ruined. STRUCTURE 25 Correct I (6) Incorrect : I Correct : (c) Incorrect : Correct : (i) Incorrect : Correct : (e) Incorrect : Correct : (/) Incorrect: Correct : {g) Incorrect : Correct : (h) Incorrect : Correct : AU his money is spent and all his hopes are ruined. His writing is as good and perhaps even better than mine. His writing is as good as and perhaps even better than mine. His writing is as good as mine and perhaps even better: | if not the richest man 4n He is one of the richest, London. He is one of the richest men, if not the richest man in London. This rule may and ought to be disregarded. This rule may he and ought to be disregarded. He brought much wood and coconuts. He brought much wood i^nd many coconuts. ' They called us young rebels and to help ourselves if we could. They called us young rebels and told us to help ourselves if we could. He made a blunder and, worse than that, a crime. He made a blunder and, worse thaiv that, committed a crime. The chateau was small, a fact which added rather than -detracted from its beauty. The chateau was sma^l, a fact which added to rather than detracted from its beauty. 32. Confused constructions. — ^Do constructions or phrases, as : — not confuse different (a) Keep yourbody upright, like I do. (" like I do " is a confusion of " as I do " and " like me.")- (6) He gave his men orders that, as soon as he arrivjed, to arrest 1 him, (The sentence confounds " to arrest " and " that they should arrest.") (c) Did any one ever trust me and found me unreliable ? {" Did any one find " is confused with " has any one found.") (i) Though having been ill for years, he is now qujte well. (" After / having been ill " is confused with " Though he has been ill. (e) I have much pleasure to accept your offer (" It gives me much pleasure ^o accept " is confused with " I have-much pleasure in accepting") ^ (/) Hs put down this misfortune at my door. (" put down to me " is confused with " laid at my door.".) 26 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY ig) He is a man whom I supposed was incapabbs of such meanness (" who I supposed was incapable " is confused with " whom I supposed incapable.") •■(- (A) The robbers laid in wait for the traveller, ("laid wait" is confused with " lay in wait,") (i) I cannot help but think that you are wrong. (" I cannot help thinking " is confused with " I cannot but think.") 33. Careless sentences. — Sometimes -from confusion of thought, sometimes from mere want of thought, the young writer will express himself carelessly. This is a common fault in essay- writing, to be especially guarded against. Take the following sentence : — The public are responding but slowly to the appeal of the Post Office to facilitate the delay of correspondence in London by using the new num- bered addresses. Here instead of the italicised words, the writer obviously meant either " to facilitate the delivery " or "to prevent the delay." Examples : — (a) Incorrect : He is grateful to me for a heavy loss that I saved from him.* Correct : He is grateful to me for saving him from a heavy loss. (d) Incorrect : Dorothy's absence was required to look after her sick brother. Correct : Dorothy was aBsent because she was required to look after her sick brother. (c) Incorrect : One good runner I well remember how often he came in first. Correct : I well remember how often one good ruimer came in first, (i) Incorrect : I think it may benefit your health by taking a glass <^ of water before meals. Cofrect • 1^ think it may benefit your health to take, etc. \ I think you may benefit your health by taking, etc. (e) Incorrect : The Committee requests subscriptions to be paid to the treasurer. Corjrect : The committee requests that subscriptions be paid - to the treasurer. (/)-- Incorrect : The evacuation of the British troops from Suvla. Coorect : The evacuation of Suvla by the British troops. (j) Incorrect: Monmouth's disloyalty was strongly suspected by the king. . / Monmouth's loyalty was strongly suspected etc. Correct ' JMonmouth was strongly suspected of disloyalty ^ etc. STRUCTURE 27 Sometimes the carelessne^ consists in the omission of the principal verb or clause or other essential words, as : — (o) It was the opinion of all present that the Scots, who had marched into the heart of England and had not been joined except by a very insignificant number. (The principal clause " had done all that could be expected of them " is omitted.) (6) My house is not lai^ger than many others have built for them- selves. (" those that " is omitted before " many.") («) He declared when a letter was lost the bearer should be fined (" that " is omitted before " when ") (d) The greater the crowd, the larger space is required. (" the larger the space thai is required.") (e) The wheat on tiiis land is. finer than last year. ( " it was " is - omitted after " than.") 34. The Historic Present. — In narrating anything, do not use l!he historic present, but keep to the past tense throughout. Otherwise you wiU be Hable to mix your tenses in the same narrative, as is done in the following example (the tenses confused are italicised) : — Joan of Arc was born in 141 2. As a girl she was distinguished for her piety and simplicity. At the age of fifteen she hears voices urging her to help tije Dauphin against the English, and making" her way into his pre- sence,' she at length persuades him to believe in her heavenly mission. Soon after, fighting -with wonderful bravery, she compelled the Engflish to raise the siege of Orleans. Apart, however, from narratives of this kind, the introduc- tion of the pronouns " I " and "you " should be avoided. An Essay is not a Speech or a Lecture, and should in general be as impersonal as possible. Thus " I irtary point out here " should rather be "One may point out," or " It may be pointed out " ; " I have no time to add more " should be" Time wiU not permit further details " ; " I cannot agree with those who say " etc., should be " It is impossible to agree " ; " You should be careful not to indulge in this habit " should be " People should be careful. " 35. Position of the parts of a sentence. — ^The position of words, phrases, and clauses in an English sentence is very important, because the sense often depends upon the position. Thus in the sentence — 1. He gave the chair to the poor man that had a broken leg, 2. ■ He gave the chair that had a broken leg to the poor man, it is clear that the question whether the man or the chair had a 28 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY broken leg depends entirely upon the position of the relative clause, " that had a broken leg " Sometimes a slight change in the wording of a sentence is necessary in order to make the sense clear. Thus the sentence. (a) The master presented each of the boyS wit^ a Jbook that had ' passed the examination, declares that the book had passed the examination. Again, if we write (6) The master presented each of the -boys that had passed the examination with a book, the sentence might suggest that the book had been used for pass- ing the examination, Alter the sentence thus :^ (c) To each of the boys that had passed the examination the master presented a book. 36. Rule of Proximity. — ^The general rule is that the parts of a sentence that are most closely related in thought shoidd be placed nearest to each other. Thus : — (i) A relative pronoun should be placed next to its antece- dent : — (a) Incorrect : I have read this author's works, who is a good writer. Correct : I have read the works of this author, who is a good writer. (6) Incorrect : Dryden claimed a- delicate raillery as a mark of his satire, which he thought need not be offensive. Coorect : Dryden claimed as a mark of his satire a delicate raillery, which he thought need not be. offensive. (2) QuaUfying phrases or clauses should be placed as near- as possible to what they qualify : — (a) Incorrect : The men pursued the herd, brandishing long whips. Correct : The men, brandishing long whips, pursued the herd. (6) Incorrect : He did not lose his way and so arrive l^te, as I supposed. Correct : He did not lose his way, as I supposed, and so arrive late. (3) An adverbial phrase should come close to the word that it modifies : — STRUCTURE 29 (a) Incorrect : I told him that he had made a blunder as plainly as possible. Correct : I told him as, plainly as possible that he had made a bKnder. (6) Incorrect : You affirm that I am mistaken a great deal too soon. Correct : You affirm a great deal too soon that I am mistaken. (4) A prepositional phrase should be pla ced immediately after the word to whiieh it is an adjunct : — (a) Incorrect: A novel has just been published by a new author. tCorrect : A novel by a new author lias just been published. (6) ' Incorrect : The photographer was so weak from fever that he had to be carried to the spot where the lion lay on his camp bed. Correct : The photographer was so weak from^ever that he had to be carried on his camp bed to the spot where the lion lay. (5) An adjective and its qualifying phrase should come together : — "^ '- (a) Incorrect : I h%ve never seen a cleverer man at" engineering. Correct : I have never seen a man cleverer at engineering. (6) Incorrect : Hostile laws to the people were passed. Correct : Laws hostile to the people were passed. (6) Nouns and pronouns connected in sense should be placed near together : — (a) Incorrect : Solomon was the son of David, the builder of the Temple. Solomon, ,the builder of the Temple, was the son of David. {» Incorrect : Correct : Incorrect : Correct: I forgive you, as a father ; I condemn you, as a judge. As a father, I forgive you ; as a judge, I condemn you. ^-37. Position of Correlatives, i —Correlative words are frequently misplaced in a sentence. Thus in " He has not only hurt his leg ^ut his head," not only is misplaced, since it quahfies " his leg," not " hurt " ; and the sentence should be " He has hurt not only his leg but his head," Examples : — ^ . I Words that have a reciprocal relation to each other in a sentence. 30 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (o) Incorrect : He neither offended him nor his brother. Correct : He offended neither him nor his brother. (b) Incorrect : He both offended him and his brother. Correct : He offended both him and his brother. (c) Incorrect : f Exercise is good both for body and mind. t Exercise is good for both body and for mind. Correct : /Exercise is good for both body and mind. t Exercise is good both for body and for mind. ^ (d) Incorrect : This house is not advertised for sale but for hire. Correct : This house is advertised not tot sale but for hire. (e) Incorrect : He is as much noted for his firmness as for his gentle- ness. Correct : He is koted as much for his firmness as for his gentle- ness. 38. Position of Adverbs. — I. Adverbs and adverbial phrases such as only (see § 37), even, at least, at all events, not, hardly, scarcely, nearly, almost, are often misplaced, as : — (<<) Incorrect : A wealthy man can never even be sure of friendship. Correct : A wealthy man can never be sure even of friendship. (A) Incorrect : Your party at least might have waited for me. Correct : Your party might at least have waited for me. (c) Incorrect : : He found his headache at all events'^ no worse for the journey. He found his headache no worse for the journey at all events. ^ ) He found at all events his headache no worse for~ the journey. Gay colours were not thought to be in good taste. Gay colours were thought not to be in good taste. I hardly think that you intended this rudeness. I think that you hardly intended this rudeness. Everything nearly makes him ill that he eats. Nearly everything that he eats makes him ill. You can almost get any book at that shop. You can get almost any book at that shop. There are four main rales for the position of adverbs : — The adverb, unless it is one of time, should come immediately after an Intransitive verb : — I *rhe misplacing of at all events between two expressions either of which it may modify, makes it capable of two interpretations. Correct : w Incorrect : Correct : w Incorrect : Correct : if) Incorrect : Correct : is) Incorrect : Correct : 11. There ai (I) The ad STRUCTURE . 3I Peter went out and wept Utterly (not " bitterly wept "). He seldon answers correctly (not " correctly answers "). ^" (2) In the case of a verb with one Auxihary, the Adverb should generally come between the Auxiliary and the Participle : He was suddenly taken ill (not " siiddenly was taken "). (3) In the case of an Active verb with two Auxiliaries, the Adverbs should come between them^ : — I would gladly have accepted your offer (not " gladly would have, "). (4) In the case of a Passive verb with two AuxUiaries, the Adverb should cbme after thera both as in (a), unless it modifies the whole sentence, as in (&). (a) I have been, sgdly disappointed in him (not " have sadly been "). (6) / have usually been welcomed as a friend (not " have been usually") . 39. Emphatic Positions. — ^The important parts of a sentence should be placed in prominent or emphatic positions. The emphatip positions are the'lseginning and th'e end of a sentence ; and still greater emphasis is gaitied, when, in order to place; a word or words in those positions, -the normal order of words is altered. Examine the following examples : — (a) Aiter he had attended school for six months, he gained the first prize, to the surprise of everybody. (Here his gaining the prize is the important part, and the sentence should jgjn : " To the surprise of every body, after he had attended school for six months, he gained the first' prize.") (6) The greatest respect is due to the authority of Parliament; . for confusion must follow, if once that authority were to fail. [Here there are two important parts.: (i) the authority of Parliament; (2) the fact that confusion must follow its failure.. Re-arrange as follows, noting that the emphasis is increased by the fact- that -(i) is placed out of its normal order : " To the authority of Parliament the greatest respect is due ; lor, if once that authority were to fail, coafusion must fpllow."J (c) Milton is the most classical of all English poets. (Here by changing tbe^normal order and transferring " of all EngUsh poets " to the beginning, we make those words emphatic, and at the same time bring the important -part " is the most classical " to the end of the sentence : " Of all EngUsh poets Milton is the most classical.") 40. Ambiguity should in all cases be avoided- It is due mainly to — — I Except for emphasis, as :— ^" He was taken ill suddenly"; "I wOuld have accepted your offer gladly, or " Gladly would I have accepted your offer." 33 , HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (i) The omission of necessary words : — {a) He was angry with his neighbours for blaming his children, and especially Charles (Repeat with before Charles, otherwise Charles is object to blaming). (6) Napoleon criticised his officers more than Wellington (This might mean " more than he criticised Wellington." Write " more than , Wellington did "). V (c) The poor man was attacked by robbers whom he resisted as best he could and left for dead on thej©adside (This should mean that the robbers were left for dead. Repeat was before left). (2) The use of words with a double meaning : — (a) ^he king pardoned him for his frankness under examination (This might mean either that the king pardoned his frankness, or that the king pardoned him on account of his frankness). (6) Australia as yet possesses no capital (Write possesses no capital city " or " is destitute of capital " according to the meaning required). (c) Did you observe the regulations of the institution ? (Does observe mean " notice " or " keep ? " Alter accordingly). (d) You want a new suit of clothes (Here want might mean " wish --for." Write " You need "). (e) After his explanation I understood how little alterations were necessary (According as little is an adjectiveor an adverb, the sentence means either that some small alterations were necessary, or that no altera- tions were necessary). (3) Faulty phrasing or construction : — (a) The Professor's next experiment was not the least interesting (This might mean " not interesting in the least " or " one of the most interesting"). (6) India is in bad plight, if pestilence and famine remain unchecked, and her prosperity is lost (The last clause might mean " and if herjpros- perity is lost." Rearrange : " If pestilence and famine remain unchecked' India is in bad plight and her prosperity is lost "). (c) ^ I meant nothing less than to cause you annoyance (This might mean either " I mean to go so far as to cause you annoyance, or " I haH - no intention whatever of causing you annoyance "). (d) He said that he expected no reward and meant his name to be kept secret (Rewrite either " He said that he expected no reward, and that he meant " etc., or " He said that he expected no reward ; he meant " etc.). (4) Doubtful Reference of Personal Pronouns : — (a) The King having refused to pardon Monmouth, he was executed the next day (Show that he refers to Monmouth by rewriting : " Mon- mouth, the king having refused to pardon him, was executed the next day"). STRUCTURE 33 (6) The father told his son that if he did not return soon, he thought he had better send him a letter to say how he was getting on. (Rewrite : — The father said to his son : "If you do not return soon, I think you had better send me a letter to say how you are getting on.") (c) When I advocated the abolition of imprisonment for debt, he declared he was in favour of it. (Here it might stand either for imprison-- 'raent or for its^ abolition. According to the mea:;iing intended, substitute for »■< either " such imprisonment " or " Buch abolition." 41. ^ Qualifying phrases.— Want off pare in the use of qualify- ing phrases qften produces confused and slipshod writing, as : — (a) On .appearing on the platform, the audience greeted him with applause (appearing is made to refer to audience ; write : " On his appearing.") . (6) One of the most modest of men, his aim ever was to keep in the background. (Here the qualifying phrase has no noun to refer ^o. Write ' he ever aimed at keeping " etc.) / , (c) When looking through a mist, objects appear unnaturally large. {Looking is made to refer to objects. Write : " when we are looking "or better, " when seen through a mist.") ' (d) Thp machine is so constructed that it stops by preissing a button. (Here the machine is made to press the button. Write : " That you can stop it.") , I (e) To be free; a kick on the' crazy door of the hUt was enoughs (It was not the kick that wanted to be free. Write : " To free himself.") (/) Having lost his purse, the innkeeper agreed to accept my friend's promise of future payment. (Here the innkeeper is made to los^e his purse. Write : " My friend ihaving lost his purse, the innkeeper agreed to accept his promise " etc.). ' (g) Starting early in the morning ,our destination was reached the same day. . (Starting is made to relate to destination. Write : "we reached our destination.") 42. End of Essay. — It is quite as important to end an essay well as to begin it well. An abrupt or a feeble conclusion disappoints 'the expe'ctation df the reader, and leaves a bad im- pression upon' the Examiner's mind. The close should be natural and obvious, not forced. The following are effective^ methods of ending an essay : — (a) A brief summary of previous arguments or statements, with reflections and conclusions. (b) Simple reflections upon, and conclusions drawn from, the subject- matter of the essay. (c) A single striking sentence. ;- (d) An authoritative quotation bearing upon the subject. (e) A climax. 3 CHAPTER III Diction 43. Precision in the use of words. — The essay-writer should try to enlarge Tiis vocabulary, so as to have a good stock of words at his command to choose from. In order to do this,'_ read good .English authors and make sure that you know accurately the meanings of all the words that you meet with in your reading. Note any word that i^ new to you. and make it familiar by use. In writing, take pains to set down the word that exactly exprespes your meaning, and do not be satisfied till you have found that word. Keep a good dictionary by you to consult whenever you are in doubt as to the true significance of a word. A book of synonyms is another great help to composition : you will thus be able to employ them with accuracy and precision, and not use one word to express a dozen different meanings or shades of meaning. A common instance of this is the indis- criminate use of the word i^ice — ^a nice day, a nice walk, a nice bonnet, a nice house, a nice man, a nice train, for a fine day, a pleasant walk, a pretiy bonnet, a good house, an agreeable man, a convenient train — ;a use which, if tolerable in speech, is inadmissi- ble in an essay. iVt'ce has two main meanings : (ij delicate, fasti- dious, precise ; as " a nice calculation " : (2) oeUcious, as " a nice cake " ; and to these the word should be confined. Sweet, fine, funny, good, beautiful are often used in the same indis- criminate fashion. Other examples of the slovenly use of worc^~ are preventative for preventive,^ casuality ioi. casualty, speciality for specialty. Similarly, to ascertain should not be used loosely for " to find out " ; it means "to make certain," as : " Pilate, having ascertained that Jesus was dead, granted his body to Joseph." Be Careful therefore, in your selection of words, to see that you have the right word for the right idea. Examine the following passage : — (a) A State is a collection of free human beings, joined by mutual ties, some of which laky be said to have growp, some to have been manu- factured. The chief ties that have grown are the being of the same race language, religion, and inhabiting^ the same land. The most important manufactured ties are of a legal, social, and official nature ; these are mutual bonds whitfh the people have gradually established for themselves. DICTION \ 35 Here " collection " is not an appropriate word to use of persons. " Joined " is an inadequate word to express the idea intended, ai^d " mutual " is incorrect ; affection may be mutual; {i. e., felt by two persons for. each other) but- not a tie. A tie that " grows " siiggests a mixed metaphor, and a tie that is manufactured suggests a necktie. " The being " etc. is a yery , awkward mode of expression. The meaning of the statement " are of a nature " is not clear ; " mutual " is again incorrect ; and " established " is an inappropriate word when applied to a bond. The following is the passage as it should be written : — , (6) A State is an aggregation of free human beings, bound together by common ties, some of which may be called natural ties, some artificial. The chief natural ties are community of race, of language, of religion, and of territory. The most important artificial ties are law, custom, and executive government ; these' axe common bonds which the people have '• gradually develt^ed for themselves. \ 44. Inexact phraseology. — ^The young essay-writer is apt to be careless in wording his sentences, so that, while his meaning may be plain enough, his way of expressing it is illogical or incongruous. Thus he will write " A sea voyage is a good way of spendinga holiday." Now a voyage cannot be a way,, and he ought to have written : " To take a sea voyage is ' ' etc' Examine the following examples : — ^ (a) This view is the finest scenery in the world. (A vie'm is not scenery ; write : " contains the finest scenery " etc.). (6) He gave us a kind reception, which was shown us by all present. (A reeeption cannot he shown ; write " He received us with feindness/' etc.). , , , X (c) Presently I heard a strange sound. It was aiman trying to get in at the window. (A sound cannot be a man ; write " It was made by a>man " etc.). (d) Another method of killing rats is that of poison. (We cannot; .say " a method of poison " ; for " that, of poison " write either " that of using poison " or simply " the use of poison.") ,(«) Hfs Arctic expedition is a catalqgue of misfortunes, (kn expedi- tion is not a catalogue ; write " The history of his Arctic expedition " etc.). (f) A sad spectacle of want occurred this morning. (A spectacle cannot occur ; write either " instance " for " spectacle ", or " was seen " ior " occurred.'") :(g) ' Yesterday we had the good fortune of a most magnificent sunset '{Insert " seeing " after " of.") '(/i)To be an author means one ytho possesses literary ability. (Insert " to, be " before " one.") 36 , HOW jTO WRITE AN ESSAY ' ~ (i) The rule accords those who have passed this test to be excused from further examination. (Insert "the right" after "test," or substitute " permits " for " accords.") 45. Use of " I " and ' ' Yoh." — If your narrative is a story or incident idrawn from your own experience, do not try to avoid employing the personal plronoun" I." There is nothing boastful or offensive in saying " I" ; attempts to shun its use will only ^make your style feeble and clumsy. Of the following two versons of an incident, (a), and (b), observe how much more natural and vivid (b), in which " I " is retained, is than (a), in, w^iich attempts are made to exclude it :— (a) One day I determifled to go for a row on the river. So a boat was hired and the men were told to row to the Botanical Gardens. On the way we all on asudderiran inta another boat, and the next thing knpwn was rtiy filling into the water. As the tide swept me along, fortunately a buoy was seen in front of me. By catching hold of' this my hf e was saved. (6) One day I determined to go for a row on the river. So I hired a boat and toldXhe men to row to the Botanical Gardens. On / the way we all on a sudden ran into another boat, and the next thing / knew was that I had fallen into the water. As I was swept; along by the tide, fortunately I saw a buoy in front of me. / caught hold of this and saved my life. 46. Use of "We." — Leave "we" to Newspaper Editors.. Do not say " we have little doijibt," but " there is little doubt " ,' and never write " as a child we were taken to see the king," or begin a story with " When we were a little boy." Similarly, do not thrust forward your opinion by using such expressions as " I ttiink," " It seems to me," " I iDelieve^" " I feel sure," " I am certain," " I am convinced," " To the best of my knowledge," " As far as I am aware," and- soon. !^ . 47. Tautology.— Tautology, or the needless repetitioii in the same sentence! of the same thought in different words, must be guai'ded against, since the practice makes an essay very tedious reading. Write compactly, use only words enough to express ycpr meaning adequately; and say just Vv'hat you have to say and no more. In forming a sentence, the young writer should ask himself whether there are any words that can be ( left put without interfering with the sense. Thus in the sentence " The scenery of the Lake District is made more beautiful by DICTION 37 the beau1:y of the surrounding mountains," tautology* may be got rid of either by striking out "the beauty of" or by altering "made more beautiful" into "enhanced." Examples : — (a) When he fell, there was a universal cry of horror from everybody. , (Omit either " universal " or ' from everybody, " which repeat each other). (6 The accompanying spice of dartger only added more to the interest of the undjCrtaking. (Omit " accompanying " and " nlore.") (c)- Happily no one , by a liicky chance, happened to be in that part of the mine . (Ornit " by a lucky chance," which repeats " happily," and change " happened to be " into " was.") ' {d) Beauty is transient and fleeting; virtue is lasting and permanent. (Omit " and fleeting " and " and permanent.") («) This can be done at a small extra cost of a feyir,pence more. (Omit either " 61 a few pence more " or " small fextra.") (/) The weather was too hot for the boys to pay the proper attention they ought to their studies. (Write either " to pay proper , attention to, " br " to pay the attention they ought.") {g) AU were drowned except five survivors. (Omit " survivors.") {h I po se5s several autograph letters written by Tennyson (Either write" autograph letters of Tennyson " or omit " autograph,") (t) Though this book abounds in many inaccuracies, iievertheless it ' is at the same time a useful work of reference to consult. (Omit " many," " at the same time,f' and " consult.") , ' ' (j) Napoleon's reason forjetreat was on account of the want of 'opd , and shelter for his army, whose privations caused his reitrement from the burning city. (Omit " ott account of" and " wliose retirement^' and insert "from- the burning city " after " retreat.") 48. Pleomasms or redundancies of expression should be v avoided. Do not write " He eonlinued to remain silent " for " He remained silent," " This seems to look ungracious " for " This seem3 (0^ looks) ungracious," or " He offered to give me a ride," for" He offered me a ride." In "The whole sum toi«r' "Here- stored him to his mother agzin," They returned back," "Their mutual affe'ction for each other " (see § 37), "I did not mean to do it intentionally," the itaUcised words should be omitted. • 49. RepetUion. — Avoid the npejdless repetition, in a sente^ice, of the same word or expression. It has a monotonous affect and jars on the ear of the reader, as : — (a) Thi* staUment has been made before. It is a statement that people , often make when they desire to make ^ general statement, or when they Icnow that no statement they make can make any difference. 38 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (b) The great length of the heads of many of the inhabitants vf these islands is of course of importance in the determination of their origin. Rewrite : — \ (a) This statement has been made before. It is one that people often make when they desire \jo generalise, or when they know that nothing that they say can make any difference. (6) The great length of head in many inhabitants of these islands is obviously important in determining their origin. But the repetition of the same word for the same thing Aeed not be avoided, as : — ' We, may question whether the telegraph and the gramophone have added greatly to the sum of human happiness, but we cannot dispute that chloroform and aseptic surgery have lessened the swm of human misery; , Here to substitute total amount find man's for sum and human in the latter half of the sentence, would injure its sym- metry and force. It is a mistake to vary a word for the sake of varying it, as in — In most of the transactions of life there is some portion which no one cares to accsmplish, and which everybody wishes to be achieved. (Rewrite : "some portion which no one cares to do, and which everybody wishes to be done.") , 50. Verbosity is the use of many words where a few are sufficient for the purpose. Thus the verbose writer will say, " As soon as I heard of the unfortunate accident, I put on my hat, provided myself with an umbrella on account of the rain, went butj and hurried as fast as I could to fetch the doctor," instead of the concise and sufficient, " On hearing of the accident I ran off in the rain for the doctor." Further examples are : — (a) Th? storm was the occasion of much lo5S of life and entailed considerable injury to property throughout the whole district. (Rewrite ; " The storm caused much loss of life and property thoughout the district.") Ci) The disturbances which for a long time have kept the atmospheric-, situation in such an unsettled state appear to be about to pass away." (Rewrite: "There seems likely Ett last to be an improvement in the weather.") (c) In the event of his being elected, he has formed the design of holding in the near future a public exhibition of a, number of his pictures that he has painted on various subjects. (Rewrite : " If he is elected, he intends soon to hold an exhibition of his pictures.") {d) I find that in many cases there isroom for hesitation as to whether I should pass a candidate, in the face of the fact of the inferiority of his mCTIQ'N 39 handwriting. (Rewrite : " Bad hand-writing often makes me hesitate to pass a candidate.") 51. Periphrasis is a roundabout way of saying any thing, or the roundabout statement itself. Avoid using commonplace periphrases, such as— 1 The tender passion for love The fair sex The softer sex The weaker vessel The lords of crea;tiori ,, men Otie's better half 1,, wife The flowing bowl „ wine The staff of. life „ bread }- The gentle reader for reader The main chance „ gaii)[ The nuptial tie „ marriage The green-pyed monster,,' jealousy The great metropolis „ London Sons of Mars • „ soldiers Ploughs its way ' „ sails A periphrasis is correctly used when it implies Soihething ; thus in the sentence, "The conquerer of Jena was not likely to assent to such lenient terms of peace." -The conqueror of Jena is equivalent to "Napoleon since he had won the victory of Jena," or " Napoleon in his capacity of conqueror of Jena." 52. Idiom. — Be careful to preserve in your English com- position the idiom or literary usage of the language. Mistakes in idiom generally occur in the use of phrases, of tea metaphorical, and of prepositions. The use of wrong propositions after A*ords is a very common error which must be specially guarded against. In the following examples the wrong word ^r express- sion is italipised, and is followed by the correction in brackets : — 1. This functionary is a straw man (man of straw), appointed to ■ give an aspect of legality to the proceedings. 2. He is more (better) educated thfin I am. 3. He always had a hatred against (of or for) inefficiency. 4. By (in) acting as he did, he was inconsistent ^0 (with) his principles. ' ^ 5. Death stared him in his (the) face. 6. I have gone (run) through my. whole fortune. 7. He displayed gentleness, combined to (with) fi;rmness. ' ,8. I once bad the privilege to hear (of hearing) Gladstone speak. g. The Council's treatment toward {oi) the children is indefensible. 10. He refused to avail of (avail himself of) my assistance. 11. I should have been drowned twittoM* (h«t for) his help. 12. The proposal was com^jared with (to) thrusting a ramrod into clockwork. 13. Your means are great, compared to (with) mine. 14. He did not pursue (carry) his indignation so far as to refuse all aid. 15. He adhered himself (adhered) to the party in power. 16. It was wrong in (of) you to break your promise. 17. ., My strength is inadequate /or. (to) the effort. 40 HOW TO WRITE AN fSSAY 1 8. He has taken a leap tnio (in) the dark. , 19. There is little to do (to be done) in such a hopeless case as this. 20. * He passed as (for) a rich man. 21. I showed (gave) him the cold shoulder. 22. The debate was now coming (drawing) to a close. 23. He has resigned from (resigned) his appointment. 24. During the journey we had the carriage all by (to) ourselves. 25. He is head over ears (over head and ears) in debt. 26. There is a great difference in (between) the careers of Napoleon ahd Wellington. 1 27. He is hardly'^ (hard) hit by the Bank's failure, 28. The represfentation of Ireland is out of proportion with (to) its population. ^ 29. Since (for) several days he has been ill from (of) fever. 30. I will take (go)' shares with you in the profits. 31. We have so long (far) confined ourselves to England ; we now turn to Europe. 32. The rivers are connected to (with) each other by a canal. 33. I am powerless of altering (to alter) the sentence. 34. I have much pleasure to accept (in accepting) your kind offer. 35. He told the boy that he had been robbed, and for him to fetch (bade him fetch) a poUcemea. 36. I am ready to confide all my plans in (to), you. 37. No foreign Government has prbtested ai .(a-gainst) the Bill. 38. By (from) his bearing, I should say he has been in the army. 39. AUenation with (frota) our Colonies must be avoided. 40. He revenged himself against (upon) his detractors. 41. ^hey set ai (to) work at once to restore circulation in the feet. 42. This will subserve to, (sutserve) my purpose. 43. He had not a chance' to succeed (of succeeding) in his attempt. 44. I prevented htm jumping (him from jumping or his jumping) overboard. 45. I will punish you if you ^/ay/aZse ' reached) several editions. 52. In our lessons we will bfegin from (with) the alphabet. 53. You comjilain that yoiir work is iWy (ill) paid. / 54. ' He promised England's services for (to) science and art. 55. He is somewhat the worse 0/ (for) liquor. 56. They showered him with congratulations (showered congratula- tiops upon him). ' ' ' I. Hardly would mean "scarcely." Similarly, in "Tickets can be obtained free" free mean^ " gratuitously " ; freely would mean " liberally.' Go home direct "—" go straight home ; " " go home directly=" go home at once." Never write or say firstly, but "first, secondly, thirdly," etc. ; you might as well say ne/itty. DICTION .41 57. 1 congratulate you for (uppn) your success. 58. Tlie sun was shining too holly (hot) for my comfort. 59. I scraped, tip (scraped) acquaintance with him. > 60. The detective soon penetrated through (penetrated) his disguise, 61. The rebellion was crushed, out (crushed). I 62. I should like to morf is wrongly used to express' " point of time." " I partook of refreshmeitt " (for " I had something to eat ") is incorrect, since partake ( part- take) implies sharing; as, "He partook of my lunch." In " What did you observe, (for " say,") observe, which means "heed, take note of," is wrongly used: So " I will make a few observations " is incorrect for " I will say a few words," Do not use partially for " partly," or portion for " part." " To witness a marriage " should mean to act as witness to the signa- tures"; write " To be present at a marriage." Reforms are initiated hut " The proceedings were initiated " (^or " begun ") is inaccurate, and " The sale was inaugurated " (for " opened ") is no better. Transpire means to " become known " and should npt be used for " happen," as in " Much has transpired since we last met." " I anticipated you would be late " is wrong for " expected." " Very few were conscious of the conspiracy " should be " aware." " I doubt the veracity of this rumour " is wrong for " truth." " Do not use apartments for " rooms," indicate AoT "show," intimate for "say," remark for "see,", lengthened or lengthy for " long." " North of Soissons we effected (for "made") further progress" is bad writing, as is "Soon after the address began there arrived (for " came " or " ensued ") a profound silence. 56. Colloquialisms. — There , are some expressipns that are permissible in common speech and familiar letters, but not in written composition such as an essay. In talk even bad grammar is sometimes tolerated, but not of course in writing. Thus we often say " Who did you see ? " and the correct " Wh&m did you see ? " sounds somewhat pedantic ; but we must write " whom " not " who." Similariy, " It is me," instead of the correct " It is / " and "is that him ? " for " Is that he ? " may be spoken but not written. " I like this best of the two " is wrong f or " I like this better^' but is often used in talking. " Each of the boys and girls will receive a prilze if they (instead of he or she) deserves it " is.ungrammatical, but is often heard in conversation, in whifch " he or she " sounds cumbrous, A common conyersational idioin to be avoided in writing, is the use of and for to in such sentences as " Be sure and tell him what I say," " Do try a,nd be in tiipe." A similar colloquialism is " Nice and warm," " Nice and dry " tor Nicely (or very) warm," " Nicely dry," In speech the word only is commonly misplaced, and we say "Now-a-days an 44 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY umbrella only costs a trifling sum" ; whereas we should write " costs-only a trifling sum," Similairly, "I only saw hinn yester- day " should be written " I saw him only yesterday." Other expressions, such as " I am in a. fix" (=a di;fficulty). " It is ever so far (=a very long way) to my house," " I got (= reached) hopie at 10 o'clock^" " Directly (=as soon as) he arrives, we \yill start," " This loss is very aggravating " (=proVoking), " I have been quite a long {=a very long) walk," " The affair made quite a sensation " (==a great sensation), " There were a lot of (=a great many) people present " are used in conversation, but are beneath the dignity of written composition. In writing, again, we should omit the to and the got in " Where are you going to ? " "I have got a bad cold," The: word that, frequently omitted, in talking, should usually be inserted in writing: " He, feared in the end he migljt lose all he had won " should be " He feared that in the end he might lose all that he had won." Sinailarly, for " Laoisanne was where Gibbon composed his history " write " was the place where " ; for " I might have seen him, if I had wished to " write " if I had wished to do so " ; for " It is of no use to say" Write " no use " ; for " Those boys are the same age " write " of the same " ; and for " I hope you will stay dinner" write " stay to dinner.". Elided forms, used colloquially, like didn't for " did not," hadn't for " had not," won't ior " will not," shan't for " shall not," isn't he ? for" is he not ? "I'm for " I am," I've for " I liave," 'tis arid it's'ioT " it is," 'twas for "it, vfa.s," we're for "we are," let's for " let us," should not be used except in reporting a con- versation, a thing that seldom occurs in a school essay.' In the same way curt expressions such as pkoto for " photograph," phone for " telephone," exam, for " examination," gyt?^ for " gym- ria,stic," bike for " bicycle," doc for " doctor," digs (=diggings) for " lodgings," tick (^ticket )for " credit," quad for " quadran- gle," circs for " circumstances," maths for " i^athematics," Matric iot " Matriculation " are inadmissable. The following sentences contain colloquialisms (italised) which should be avoided , in. essay- wri ting : — '^^ ' , I. He went in for (= entered) the le^al profession. '2. Scott ^Mj-neil 0M« (= produced) two novels a y^ar. 3. We held the proofs, so that he was obliged to own «/> (=make full confession), 1 Never use plon't for '' doesn't " or " does not ; " as, " He don't know \then he is beaten." ■ . DICTION 45 4. No judge iaorth his i«K (=of repute) could submit to such an insult. 5. Clive was a plucky (= brave) general. ^. The King /awaeii ( = thought) that he had the right t6 refuse. 7. This subject is nothing like (=?not neaHy) so important as that. 8. The list is nowhere near (=not nearly) complete. ' 9. I do not know bu^ what (=tha.t) he is right. ^ 10. Prose composition was not in Tennyson's line (^province). II., Charles tried to bacit out of (=withdi'aw from) his engagement. 12. This discovery 6oi/ie)'ed(=troubled) Othello. 13. The minister saw that the King was chaffing (=bantering) him. , 14. The cruelty of the conquei^or (Jams out, (=was seen or was shown) in his treatment of the prisoners. 15. QaeenMary did her best to help Catholicisin a/ong (= to aid the progress of) . 16. There is nothing so very (^specially) remarkable about his succesis. 17. I felt like turning (= felt disposed to turn) him out of doors on the spot. 18. The enemy was defeated; but the conqueror had little reason to crow over (= boast of) his victory. 19. The nobles grew tired of running (= administering) the govern- ment. I 20. Then Macbeth came across (=met) Maciduff. ^ 21. On the battle-field he came across (=foundj the crown. 22. King John found himself in a. scrape { = a difficult position), f 23. If he is not careful, he will come to grief(=iaSl, be undoije)^ ' 24. Lord North was apt to, make a. fuss (= disturbance) over small matters. ^ ■ ' ' ' „ 25. Never before had there been such a great victory {=so great a victory). 26. The Prime Mnister was not there. He had left {=gone away) before the meeting was held. 1 27. After remaining in England for a couple of months (=two months) he returned to Normandy. 28. They had every ( = complete ) confidence in him. He gave them every ( = all possible) assistance. 29. Harold found it a bit of a nuisance{ = unpleasant) to have to take the oath. 1 30. Elizabeth could not stand (= endure) her cousin, the Queen of Scots. ' 31. He got up (= formed) a conspiracy against the reigning monarch. 32. Of the v/hole council only' one member turned up (appeared). 33. Charles ^o< into hot water (=had difficulties) with his parliament. 34. The commander hoi a bone id pick (T=an unpleasant matter to settle) with his officers. ' , 1 ■ ' 35. The general was handicapped (=at a disadvantage, hampered)*,' by his want of cavalry. ' ' 36. After defeating the rebels, the king had a good time (=gave himself up tor enjoyment). , ' 37. Hampden showed plenty of gn< (= spirit, courage.) 46 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY ' 57. Slang, cant, etc. — Slang, cant terms, vulgar expres- siohs, and puns are offences against literary, good taste and must never be introduced iiito an essay. Examples of slang are ^" He hookgd it " or " He took his hook," for " He wraitaway ;" " I son jolly (or mighty) glad to see you," for " very glad ; " " He is an awfully^ decent chap," for "a very pleasant man; " " Terri- fically sorry " for " extremely sorry ; " " We have had a ripping time," for " delightful ; " " He had to take a back seat " for " keep in the background ; " " He had rotten luck," for " bad ; '' "^ It wks hard lines on you," for " very unfortunate for you ; " " It was a toss-up which side would win," for " quite uncertaiii ; " " I 'thought him very stuck-up," for " proud ; " " He has heaps of friends/' for " a great many ; " " I ran /or all I was worth," for " as fast as I could ; " " I feel very fit," for " weU ; " " precious good." for " very good," _ Abbreviations such as invite for " invitation,'.' combine for " combination," biz for " business,'.'^ sov. for " sovereign," cause (or cus) for " because," cert for " certain," sub for " subscription," pal for "comrade," hain't for "haven't" ain't fbr "am not," ' alright for " all right," gent for " gentleman," are vulgar. So are the following : — j A real. good time for a very good time. What's the damage ? ,, the cost. I shall return inside of an hour „ within an hour. My own country is plenty good enough for me „ quite good enough. He took iU ' ,, he was taken ill. To enjoy a sail.the weather „ must be fine {or fine weather is wants to be fine ,, needed). She is a very stylish person ,, JashionMe person. I dent feel that- way about it „ those are not my feelings about The medicine did him a power it. (or a sight) of good „ a great deal of gbod. I feel Aind 0/ hungry * ,, rather hMapy. He went away unhnoiun to me '„ without my knowledge. ' Shun the smart journalistic style of — " He voiced {expTessed) the I opinion of the people," " Chinese honesty is stressed (em- I. ' The trivial use of words like. " awful " or " horrid " has the unfortunate effect of impairing their expressiveness as literary words. The significance of Scott's " within that awful volume lies " etc. or of Milton's , " Moloch, horrid King " is tainted by the cant use of tlie words., The same thing has happened with " ghastly " and " weird " ; they are harped upon till they become ridiculous. The writer, out' cycling, once met four ,young ladies, also cycling, on a narrow path. He dismounted to give them room to pass. The ffrstsaid, " Thanks awfully." ; the second said " Thanks awfully " ; the third said " Thanks awfully'' ; and the fourth said " Thanks awfully." DICTION ^ 47 phasised) in this book," " He punctuated (emphasised) his refusal by tqming his back," " The retirement of the army has been' accentuated (increased)." " This subject ought to be ventilated (disc!ussed)." PoUtics bulk {or loom) largely (have a prominent place) in his pages," " Shakespere no longer spells ruin (means -ruin, is ruinous), to "theatre managers," We cannot endorse (approve, support)" their views," "The balance (remainder) of the day was spent in repose," " His promises must be largely discounted" (are extravagantly great, are not worth much}. " His wit was a great factor in (largely contributed to) his success," " Education is aniinportantassei (advantage) even inamercbant's office." "He is vfeW posted (informed) in these matters," "A clamant (crying) need," " A virile (forcible) expression," "The txvid (eager) pursuit of wealth," " He writes me " (writes to me). Avoid idioms or expressions taken frbm the_French, as the common "it goes without saying" for " it may be taken for granted," or "it is needless to say ;" " the Town Councillors assisted at the ceremony,'' for " were present " ; " a pronounced failure," for " a decided fa^ilure ; " " a banality " for " a common- place"; "to be in evidence" for "to be conspicuous"; "it gives furiously to think " for " it is matter for serious thought ; " to the foot, of the letter " ior " literally " ; " this question is onihe carpet" for "under consideration"; "an embarrassment of riches " for " superabundance ; " " let us return to our muttons " for " our subject." Punning or any kind of word-play is entirely out of place in a school ess^^y. Never try to be funny. Do not write " He was proud of this/e«jf of walking or walking of the/eef" oi; " I took him by surprise and by the hand at once,'" Indeed, all attempts at humour are best avoided by the young writer. Such attempts generally fall flat, and should be left to practised hands.' 58. Quotations. — ^The introduction of quotations requires care. Four cautions^ are necessary : — ^ \ (i) They should not be hackneyed. Quotations that froin frequent use have become commonplace repel a reader of taste. Eicamples : — . The cry is still they come Far from the madding crowd The time is out of joint It wastes its sweetness on the Td be or not to be, that is the desert air •question The whiriigij of time brings in his Hope springs eternal in the human • revenges "breast -To bum the midnight ofl 48 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Thereby hangs a tale Othello's occupation's gone ( • Durance vile Distance lends enahantment to the At his own sweet will view The feast of reason and the flow gf Sweetness apd light soul , Tell it not in Gath Caviare to the general More in sorrow than in anger There's the rub Darkness visible Not wisely but too w611 'Tis not in mortals to command A thing of beauty is a joy for ever success Tiie light, fantcistic toe The rest is silence More sinned against than sinning One touch of nature makes the Like angels' visits, few and far whole world kin between The' end is not yet Their name, is legion To own the soft impeachment As who should say (2) They should be accurate. Misquotations are inexcuse-- able in essay-writing ; they annoy the cultured, and mislead the ignorant, reader. The following aire common misquotations, with the correct version in brackets :— Fresh fields (wdods) and pastures Screw your courage to the sticking new point (place) Lives (breathes) there a (the) man A goodly apple, rotten at the core with soul so dead (heart) Water, water, everywhere, And not A Triton among (of) the minnows a (nor any) drop to drink I ne'er, shall (shall not) look upon The combat thickens (deepens) his like again Pursued (kept) the noiseless tenour Chdwing the cud (food) of sweet of their way and bitter fancy Small (fine) by degrees and beauti- The devil can quote (cite) Scriptiire fully less for his purpose. < (3) They should he apt. Do not drag in a quotation to show your learning, or turn aside from your theme in ordeir to lead up to an otherwise pointless, quotation. (4) They should he sparingly introduced. Numerous' quotations, however ajpt, soon become wearisome, and look like a parade of the writer's erudition. Quotation marks, which are often omitted by writers from famiUar quotations, should alwayi be used by the young essay- writer, so as to avoid the possibility of laying himself open to the charge of plagiarism. \ 59. Trite phrases. — Do not bring in expressions that through much use have bcicome tiresome and pointless. iExamples : — DICTION 49 Greatly daring , Too funny for words Taking one's coiirage in both hands At the psychological moment Proven up to the hilt Conspicuous by his absence I am bound to say Every schoolboy knows I hasten to. say We may leave it at that The true inwardness Leave severely alone You may take it from me I have no use for it It is come to stay A bolt from the blue But that's another story For all the world like We hold no brief for / 60. Foreign words. — Foreign words and expressions should, as a rule, be avoided by the young essay-writer. Naturalised words, that is, words that have been adopted into English from some other language without change of shape, such as' rajah, lascar, vista, bouquet, souvenir, stampede, equilibrium, may be used when necessary ; but expressions hke sobriquet for " nickname," eclat or kiidos (slang) for " renown, glory," recherchi, for "rare, uncommon," distingue- iov "fashionable," raison d' etre iov " gro\xaA of existence," wteftey for " trade^ province," liierateur tor" Uterary man,"" a. quondam friend "for " a former friend," chef, d' oeuvre for " masterpiece," sotto voce for "in a low yoice," nous avons change tout cela for " we have changed all that," in extremis for " at the point of death," are unntedessary and out of place in a short essay. D,o not write : " The people ought to be consulted re (regarding) a matter of such importance. Of the following passages observe how affected and pretentious (a) is compared with (6) : — (a) I may remark en passant that I am au fait at cricket ; on dit that I shall soon be in the First Eleven. Jupiter pluvius stopped our game yesterday, but I was hors de combat at the time with a sprained ankle. We could not have lunch alfresco, for which fine weather is, a sine qua non. (b) I may remark by the way that I am a good hand at cricket ; people say that I shall soon be in the First Eleven. Rain stopped our game jf esierday, but I was disabled at the time with a sprained ankle. ' We 'ould not have lunch out of doors, for which fine weather is indispensable. The want of adequate English substitutes is the only justi- ficatioa for the use of these foreign expressions. The foUowiiig are better dispensed with :— Amour propre, self-complacency Confrere, colleague Arridre pensde, ulterior object Contretemps, hitch, mishap Bete noire, (one's) abomination Coup de grace, death blow BStise, foolish remark or action CoiUe que coute, at all costs Brutum fulmen, vain boast Derniei' ressort, last resort Compos mentis, sane Emeute, outbreak, revolt 50 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY En regie, in due form Entomrage, surroundings Esprit, wit Fait acpompli, accomplished fact Fracas, quarrel, disturbance Gouche, awkward, tactless Hauteur, haughtiness Juste milieu, golden mean Lapsus Ungues, slip of the tongue Maladroit, clumsy MaJ, de mer, sea-sickness ' Ne plus ultra, acme, climax Nolens' volens, willy-nilly , Nuance, nicety Pdbulum, food, matexial Penchant, Uking^ fancy Pis oiler, last resource Rara avis, a rarity Sangfroid, coolness, composure Sp.ns, without Terra firma, dry land Terra incognita, unknown region Vis-d,-vis, opposite Vrai^emblance, plausibility Zeitgeist, spirit of the times 6i. Archaisms.— The introduction of words sounds affected and should be avoided. old or obsolete Such are': — Albeit Howbeit Perchance 1 Peradvehturel Belike Thereof Whereof I Withal Anent for since nevertheless perhaps probably of it of which with it, as well concerning Divers Bewray Intitule Parlous Incontinently Bemuse Scant Folk Essay for various ' betray entitle perilous immediately stupefy little people try 62. Coined and far-fetched words. — ^Do not strain after novelties in diction, but let your style be natural and unaffected. Do not use coined words, such as erroneity for " erroneousness," corr?ctitude for " correctness ; " or far-fetched words, such as forbear for " ancestor," minify for " underrate," Other examples are : — , Egolater Trepidous Preventative Intensate Insuccess Invitingness Declination , for egoist timid Prej udicate preventive i Intimity intensify Memorise' failure Ruination attractiveness refusal Contumacity for contumacy prejudge inwardiiess learn by!heart ruin 63. Nouns made into verbs. — Similarly, do not make verbs out of nouns (or adjectives), a practice that appertains to poetry, not to prose, as.: — ' ' To loan for to lend To intercess for to intercede To firm , ,, to become firm To emblem „ to symbolise I. So with — hereof, hereby, whereby, thereby, thereto, therefrom,' heretofore, (till now) theretofore (till then). , '' DICTION ; 51 To resurrect for to revive To enthuse for , to be or make To clear ,, to make clear enthusiastic To motive ,, to instigate To evidence „ to demonstrate To sense „ to feel To glimpse „ to have a , [glimpse of ,64. Simile and Metaphor./— Do not strain after figurative language. It may be used where it comes in iiaturally, but should always be sparingly introdu'ced by the young writer. Metaphors add force and beauty to a composition more often than, Clearness. Thus' to say that a man was a " lion," in the iSght is forcible, but is not so clear as to say that he was valiant. To describe the sky as glowing with " livirig sapphires " is beauti- ful, but is not so clear as to say that it glowed with hright stars. "The ability," it has been remarked, "to write plain, bare ■ English is absolutely indispensable'. The ability to write figura- tively is an enyiable, but not a necessary possession. A figure that is not |in good taste is incomparably worse than no figure at all." At the' same time, the advantage to be derived from an aptsinaile or' illustration should not be lost sight of. But care must be taken that the illustration is apt, otherwise it is better omitted. \ Similes and Metaphors may be iised for the sake of — (l) ornament, (2) force, (3) clearness. Figures, however, used for ornament should be sparingly introduced into ordinary prose ; , they belong rather to poetry. Figures used for foite give hfe and emphasis to a statement and are so far serviceable; but they are of less importance than figures used for clearness, which add not only vividness but distinctness. (i) Ornament. — Thus the similes (itahcised) in the following passage are almost entirely ornamental ; whaf they do is to add to the picturesquen,ess of the description : — The large meadow lay before our window like {he Field of the Cloth of , Gold, so crowded was it with buttercups ; the hawthorn bushes around were laden with blossom like snow, and the copses had in them spaces of bluebells that were like " the heavens up-breaking through the earth." (2) Force. — In the following passages the, similes and the metaphors are forcible ; they add vigour to the statements : — (w) He ajjove the rest, in shape and gesture proudly eminent; stood' like a tower. ' \ ' ■ I (6) The lightning enveloped us as with a mantle ; the thunder? were '' louderthan the roar of a million cannon. (c) The land Act- of 1881 pulled the central brick out of landlordism,^ • and the whole structure has been lumbling to, pieces ever since^ 52 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAV (This is more forcible .than the literal statement, " The Land Act of i88i caused vital injury to landlordism, which has been growing weaker and weaker ever since). (3) Clearness. — In the following passages the similes and the metaphors are explanatory ; they make the preceding state- ments clearer : — (a) Down the hillside rushed the flood. Great boulders were tossed like corks on its surface, and houses and trees were swept away like chaff before the wind. s (6) He spoils the beauty of a moonlight evening by analysing it, to \ find out the pleasurable element ; like the little hoy who cut open his drum to see what made the noise. (c) The policy of Augustus was to gain his ends quietly without I unnecessarily exciting opposition ; to take out the nut with the least possible cracking of the shell. (d) Lord Beaconsfield bade an importunate suitor remember that titles and decorations were meant to be given, not extorted ; that the source of honour was a fountain, not a pump. Two Cautions. — i. Confusion of metaphors should be avoided, as : — • . He afterwards became entangled in the stormy sea of politics, but emerged iJictorious from the fray. (Here we have three incongruous metaphors, politics being figured in the same sentence as at once a net, a sea, and a battle). 2. Be careful not to mix metaphoiical with literal state- ment, as : — l^e came out of the Examination -with flying colours and the highest possible marks. - 65. Confusion of words. — The young writer is apt to :onfuse the meaning of words. This confusion is due — (i) sometimes to a similarity of form or of sound ih the words them- selves, (2) sometimes merely to his ignorance of their correct usage. (i) Accept, except. We accept a gift ; we except a thing from a general statement. Acceptance) acceptation. I sent my acceptance of the invitation. This word has a different acceptation. Affect, effect. Noise affects his nerves. He did not effect his purpose. Affection, affectation. A mother's affection for her child. My friendship for you is real ; ■ there is no affectation about it. DICTION 53 Apposite, opposite. This is an apposite quotation. Opposite the house stands a tree. ^ Ascendant, ascendancy. My star is in the ascendant. His strength of character gives him the ascendancy. Attenuate extenuate. The villagers are attenuated with famine. Nothing can extenuate your conduct. Avocation, vocation. His vocation is the law ; gardening is his favourite avocation. ' Barbarism, barbarity. The island is sunk in barbarism ; the natives treat shipwrecked men with great barbarity. Beneficent, beneficial. This is a kind and beneficent act. I found this medicine very beneficial. Capable, capacious. A capable Jiousewife. A capacious drawing- room. Collision, collusion. A collision occurred on the railway. The thieves acted in collusion with the police. Compliment, complement. We pay a compliment. A regiment has its complement of men. Continuous, continual. Yesterday there were continual showers ; to-day the rain is continuous. Credibly, creditably. I am credibly informed that this is so. He behaved very creditably in this matter. , Decry, descry. • Conscientious objections ought not to be decried, I descried him on d. hill in the distance. Deduce, deduct. What conclusion do you deduce froln this state- ment ? A large sum was deducted from his salary. Deliverance, delivery. The hour of deliverance is at hand. The delivery of a speech or of letters. Depreciate, deprecate. We should not depreciate other people's merits. We deprecate a person's displeasure. Destiny, -destination. His destiny is to be drowned. ^They left by train, London being their destination. Eminent, imminent. Gladstone was an eminent man. I was saved from imminent loss. Extract, extricate. Honey is extracted from flowers. The man was extricated froin the' ruins. Flagrant, fragrant. Flagrant crimes. Fragrant flowers. Flee, fly. Defeated enemies flee : birds and aviators fly. Fluent, fluid. A fluent speaker. Fluid bodies. Goal, gaol. He had reached the goal of his desires. The thief was sent, to gaol. Imaginary, imaginative, An imapnary ill. An imaginative Yfriter, 54 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Ingenious, ingenuous. An ingenious device. An ingentwus con- fession. Judicial, judicious. This is little less than a judicial murder. Your behaviour was kind and judicious. Luxurious, luxuriant. Li^xurious ease. Luxuriant foliage. Momentary, momentous. Anger is momentary ■ madness. The French Revolution was a momentous event. Necessaries, necessities. He has the necessaries of life. Tliis will ipeet the necessities of the case. Observation, observance. The observation of , a star. The obser- vance of the laws. ' OOIcial, offlcious. Warden is his official designation. He pressed his services upon me and was very officioiis. / ,' 'J Physic, physique. The patient needs little physic, as his constitu- tion and ^Aj'ifjwe are good. Popular, populous. Bright was a popular orator. He lived in the populous town o' Birmingham. Precipitous, precipitate.' A high, precipitous rock. A rash, precip- itate action. Principal, principle. The principal of a college. A man of high principle. Product, production. Rice is a product of Bengal., "Hamlet" is one of Shakespere's productions. Propose, purpose. I purpose to carry out the plan you propose. Prescribe, proscribe. These are the rules prescribed. These danger- ous doctrines are proscribed. Resource, recourse. To beg v^as his last resource. He was obliged to have recourse to begging. Respectful, respectable, respected. I received a respectful, letter from the agent, a respectable man, addressing me as " Res- pected Sir." Reverend, reverent. The reverend Archbishop. Be reverent at Church. Sanguine, sanguinary. I am sanguine of success. A sanguinary battle!. Sanitory, Sanitary. Sanitory agencies succeed under sanitary conditions. Sequel, Sequence. What is the sequel to this story ? This happened in the ordinary sequence of events. Servitude, servility. A state of servitude produces an attitude of servility. Signiflcation, significance., What is the signification of this accent ? Small tilings often have great significance^ DICTION 55 ; Stationary, stationery. Some trains were moving, some were stationary. He sells books arid stationery. Statue, statute, stature. A staizte of Wellington'. Laws and I statutes. Goliath was of gteat stature. Suspense, suspension. Do not keep me in suspense. A suspension of hostilities. ( ■ '■ Stop, stay. The train sto^i at this station. I am staying' a.t the inn. Venal, venial. A venal crew of scribblers. A venial offence. Wave, waive. He wmied his hand to me,. T waive rtiy claim. Wreck, wreak. He wrecked my career in order to wreak his ven- geance on me. (2) AUnds, refer. He alluded to a matter to whicfi he dared not openly refer. ' At, in. I live in London at a boardirig-house. Between, among. The two boys divided between them the cake which should have been divided among all the boys. Either, any. You may take either pi these two pictures or any bt these three books. Eliminate, elicit. We wiU. first eliminate all superfluous matters. Inquiry -will elicit the truth. Fetch, bring, take. Go and frtcJt me a hammer, an^ bring your breakfast ; take a bag with you. (' / From, since, for. He has been lame from childhood. He has' been lame since last year. He has been lame/dr two years. Go, come. I hear that you, like me, are gping to the cpnceri. Will you come with me ? , , . Hire, let. He 7e< me the room that I ^ic^i from him. ■ Last, latest. I have read the /aiesi novel to the /asi' page. Latter, last. He brought a goat and a whip, the latter being broken. He brought a goat, a rope, and a whip, the last being broken. Lay, laid ; Lie, lain. They have laid down, their arms. He has - I . law down to rest. / ' ' ' , Less, fewer. I ordered fezver hotses and less corn. Literally, actually. What you say is not literally true ;^ indeed you have actually told a lie. Mistake, be mistaken. You mistake my meaning. You,, are mis- taken in this matter. Some, any. I have some pens, but I have not brought any ink Substitute, replace. An oar was substituted, for the broken mast. The broken mast was replaced by an oar. 56 HOW t6 write an essay Testimony, evidence. The testimony of the witness was contra- dicted by the othtr evidence. Transpire, liappen. The whole story at length transpired, and we knew -what happened. Witiiotit, unless. I will not go without you. I will not go unless you go. CHAPTER IV. Spelling and Punctuation ; Summary. ' 66. Spelling.— A knowledge of spelling, like good hand- writing and correct punctuation, is one of the earhest. essentials to essay-writing. English spelling no doubt presents some difficulties, but it can be mastered if you set about the task in the right way. For this purpose you should — (i) have a dic- tionary at Jiand to consult whenever you are in doubt ; ■ (2) make a list of the words that you misspell, and practise yourself on them ; (3) .commit to memory the main riiles of sp,dling, and apply them, when you are in search of^a spelling : (4) note the derivation and formation of words — ofteti a help to their spelling ; (5) be careful about the pronounciation of words ; careless pronounciation leads to careless spelling : thus if you say " beneficent " (instead of " beneficent,") or " surprise " {instead of " surprise ") you will be apt to write them ; (6) mark the spelling of the printed word when you are readings This last is the most important aid of all to good spelling, for py this means you will get to know by the look of a word whether it is rightly or wrongly spelt, and correct spelling will come to you naturally as it were. "■ I. The following forms deserve special attention : — (i) ie, ei : believe, perceive, etc. (2) -ceed,, -cede ; proceed, precede, etc. j {3) -able, -ible ; eatable, edible, etc. (4) -ent, -ant ; prevalent, complaisant, etc. (5) The Possessives of Proper Nouns eijding in -s : Sing. James's (not James') ; Plur. Jameses'. A\s6Plur. Norn, and Accus. Jameses not James's. II. Note the following anomaHes : — i Deceive, deceit but Receive, receipt , Suffer, siifference „ Hinder, hindrance Pure, purify „ Rare, rarefy {and ratify) Mountain, mountainous „ Villain, villanotis {and villainous) Murder, m^urderous „ Monster, monstrous Thunder,, thunderous „ Idolater, idolatrous Panger, dangerous ,, Wonder, wo54rons 58 HOW TO WTeiTE AN ESSAY Dexterous Murderer, murderess Duke, dukedom Mire, miry Liquefy Stratagem Proceed Comparative Ambidextrous Emperor, empress Wise, wisdom Fire, fiery Liquidate ■ Strategy Procedure Comparison III. The following two lists Will be found useful : — (i) Words of the same or of similar sound that differ in spelling and meaning : — aisle, of a church isle, island angel, divine messenger aiJale, corner, to fish altar, for sacrifice alter, to change areas, regions arrears, debts ascent, going up assent, agreement aught, anything ought,- the verb beach, shore beech, tree beer, the drink bier, for a corpse berry, fruit bury, to inter birthi being born berth, bed on a ship blue, colour blew, did blow born, brought into life borne, carried breach, gap breech, hinder part bridal, nuptial bridle, of a horse brooch, ornament broach, to pierce calendar, almanac calender, roller-machine cannon, great gun canon, rule canvas, coarse cloth canvass, to solicit votes cast, throw caste, breed ceiling, of a room sealing, with wax champagne, wine champaign, open country clamant, noisy claimant, one who claims cord, string chord, in mitsic council, assembly counsel, advice cruise, voyage cruse, bottle cue, in acting and billiard queue, line of persons SUMMARY ^9 currant, small grape current, circulating decease, death disetise, malady dependent, adj. dependant, noun deacendent, adj. descendent, noun desert, to abandon dessert, fruit dual, double duel, a single combat dyeing, colouring dying, expiring faint, weak feint, pretence faun, satyr fawn, dear flour, meal flower, blossom ' forth, out fourth, from four gamble, to play for' money ^ gambol, to frisk grizzly, grey grisly, frightful hoard, to store up horde, tribe hole, pit whole, entire hoop, band whoop, thif sound jam, of fruit, to squeeze jamb, side-post of a door key, for a lock ' quay, of a harbour lath, strip of wood lathe, machifne licence, noun license, verb lightning, ;?asA **• lightening, lessening making bright lose, part with loose, relax magnate, great man magnet, loadstone mantle, cloak mantel, of fireplace meddle, to interfere medal, coin metal, as iron mettlcy courage > meter, measure metre, in verse mussel, shell-fish muscle, part of body oar, for rowing i ore, crude metal o'er, oveif pallet, a bed palette, of a painter palate, of the mouth passed, gone past, not present pedal, worked by foot peddle, to trifle peace, rest piece, part pier, jetty peer, noblemen plain, clear, eic plane, a tree,, etc. 6o HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY plum, a fruit plumb, to faihom surplus, excess surplice, a ^rment practice, noun practise, verb taught, instructed taut, tight pray, to entreat prey, plunder president, one who precedent, example rapt, transported wrapt, enclosed reck, to care wreck, to shatter tear, from the eye tier, a row teem, to abound team, of oxen tenor, purport, etc. tenure, holding (of land, etc.) their, pronoun there, adverb right, straight rite, ceremony vain, fruitless vane, weathercock vein, blood-vessel write, indite wright, maker skull, of the head scull, oar vale, valley veil, for the face wain, waggon wane, to decline slight, trivial sleight, trick sew, with a needle sow, to plant stjike, of wood steak, of beef stayed, remained staid, dignified story, tale storey, of a hotise straight, direct strait, narrow style, manner of writing §tile, jet of steps wait, to stay , / weight, heaviness waste, to squander waist, the middle weather, state of air whether, if wether, sheep week, seven days "weak, feeble won, did win one, the number yew, a tree ewe, female sheep yoke, of oxen yolk, of an eg§ SUMMARY (2) Words that are apt to be misspelt : — Abbreviate attach carousal accede automaton carriage acQ^elerate average casualty accessible awful catalogue accomodation , awkward caterpillar accompaniment azure cauliflower accumulate cavilling accurate Balloon celibacy acetylene bankruptcy cemetery achieve ' banquet centenary acquaintance barometer ^ centennial acquiesce barricade chagrin acquittal ' basin chandelier address bauble changeable admissible beacon chapel advisable beggar chaplain aghast believe character aggravate beneficent charlatan agreeable benefited chestnut allege bereave chimney alchohol beseech chrysalis allegiance besiege cider {not cyder almond beverage cinematograph amenity bicycle clamorous amphibious billiards coalesce analogous bivouac coarse' aiialyse {not analyze) bleach coalx anatomy bUssful coincidence ancient bUthe college ankle {or ancle) boulder colonel annalist Britain colonnade announce ' Britannia column annually browse committee anomalous bugle comparative anonymous buoyant comparisoii antidote burglar competitive antithesis by the by concede apophthegm , *^ conceive appal Cabmet conscious apparatus caitifE correspond apparition calibre corroborate apostasy {not apostacy) campaign corollary apostle camphor couple appreciate cannibal covetous arraign canopy crescent artisan capital criterion ascertain capricious criticism uscetic caravan crystal assassin carcass cuirass assurance caricature cylinder g.thletic carol cypress 6i 62 ' HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Dearth enveigle guardian decalogue etiquette guerilla deceive etymology guild decision exaggerate gutteral decrepit exasperate defendant exceed Haemorrhage deign excel hammock. delegate exchequer handiwork delicacy excite (not handywork delineate exhaust i handkerchief demeanour exhilaration handsome derogatory , expire harangue destroy extraordinary harass develop exuberant heinous devise heifer ' dexterous Fascinate hereditary dialogue February heterogeneous dilapidated fiery hindrance ' dilemma flourish , hoarse diocese forfeit holiday disappoint forty horde discomfiture fourteen horizon discreet fossil humorous dishevel freer hurricane dispensary- freight hydrophobia distil ~ friar hygiene ' divine fuchsia hyprocrisy divisible fulfil hysterical doggerel funeral dominant furlough Illegible donkey furniture illiterate dormitory immediate draught Gardener imitate drought gaudy independent drowsy gauntlet indescribable dynasty gelatinous indict . 1 genealogy inoculate Earnest gibbet interrupt eccentricity gibe intercede ecstasy girage intricacy efiervesce glimpse intrigue, effigy glutton inveigh eligible glycerine irrelevant, embarrass gnaw isthmus emissary goddess empress goodbye Jaunty encroach grieve ; eer encyclopaedia grammar ; ealous endue granary : eopardy engiiie grate ewelry, jewellery ennoble grocer ostle eathusiasm guarantee : ourney juvenile Kernel knoll knowledge Laborious labyrinth Jacquer launch laundry legible legitipiate leisure leopard lettuce libellous lightning liquefy liquidate literature litigation lozei\ge lucrative luncheon Machinery magazine malevolence mantelpiece manoeuvre marriage martyr masquerade massacre mattress menagerie medicine mercenary message - messenger mihtary millinet miracle miscellaneous missile molasses monkey nlorocco moustache murderous SUMMARY mutineer potato myrrh poultice mystery precedence mythical precipice preferable Negligible | prejudice . , negotiate {not negociate) prerogative necessary prevalent neigh privilege neighbour proceed net {not nett) niece procedure proficiant nuisance propagate providence Obeisance puissant occasion pulley occurrence punish oculist purify onion pursue opaque purveyor oracle putrefy origin oscillate Quarantine oxygen quarrel Pamphlet Raiment panegyric , ravenous panic realm parachute recede paragon receipt paralyse {not paralyze) receptacle parasite regiment parricide rehearsal pavilion relevant peaceable relieve pelisse religious penitent remedy permissible renegade perceive repetition phosphorous representative physician reprieve piebald requital pigeon, ' resurrection pittance revenue pity - reverie plagiarism rhetoric plebeian rheumatic pleurisy rhinoceros polygamy ridiculoiis poniard righteous pony rogtierj' porridge 63 64 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Sacrilege subtle utensil salutEiry 1 subtract saucer succeed VaciUate scatheless suflEerance valiant sceptic summary ■ variegated schedule supererogation vegetable scheme supplement vehement vei: scholar surety science surfeit vengeance scintillate surname {not simame) venomous scissors surprise . verandah scythe susceptible vestige secede syllable veteran secrecy symbol vicissitude sediment symmetrical vigorous sedentary symptom vilify seize system villainous sensitive synonymous vinegar Separate visible several Tariff vivify sewer tenement vixen siege testament vocabulary sieve threaten ^» votary sinecure thunderoils , siphon tiro {not tyro) Waif siren {not syren) treadle wasteful skein treasure Wednesday skeleton transcendant weird skulkinot sculk) treble whirl sleight-of-hand tremendous wholesome solicit twelfth wield soluble tying wintry {not wintery) sorcery tyrant woeful speech | woollen sponge Unanimous worshipper 1 stalactite unique wreak staunch underrate ■ stratagem unparalleled Yacht stratagy until yeoman stupefy {not stupify) urchin yield 67. Comma punctuation. — Correct punctuation is an important means of making the sense clear. The young and inexperienced 'writer often has a way of separating his state- ments merely by commas, and almost ignoring the use of semi- colons, colons, and full stops. Observe how the following passage gains in' clearness by being properly punctuated. This is the passage with comma punctuation : — (a) Being small, the^ house was naturally full, the six people who lived there were enough to account for that, but it was also unnaturally SUMMARY 63 full by reason of the owner's habit- of acquiring ol^. (2) The voyage. (a) Preparations; (b) Consternation and mutiny on board. (c) Landing at San Salvador. (3) Conclusion ; Columbus's character and work. Essay Christopher Columbus was bom at GenSk in the middle of the fifteenth century. His father sent him to schooLat Pavia, and Christopher seems to haye been early interested in astronomy and navigation. After making several short voyages of discovery and residing in various parts of the world, Columbus made up his mind -to discover a new route ta Asia by crossing the Atlantic, With this end in view he applied foi" help to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. At the Spanish court he was treated some- times as an idle dreamer, sometimes as a needy applicant for favour. His humble dress and his want of high connexions and of academic honours formed, in the eyes of the courtiers, an inexplicable contrast to his brilliant proposals and aspirations. But indigence and contumely could not shake the determination of Columbus. Again and again the Spanish king deferred inter- views with him and refused hrs- petitions, till at length Columbus was on the'goint of seeking better fortune at the court of France when the interference of Queen Isabella turned the current in his favour-and it was decided to give the,poor adventurer a trial. 68 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY In August 1492 Columbus embarked on his memorable expeidition with three ships, provided by the King of Spain, and a hundred and twenty men, the latter full of doubts and fears, and indeed partly pressed into the service. Many as were the difficulties, that beset Columbus before he sailed, the worst arose when his ships were out of sight of land. As soon as the Canary Islands were sunk beneath the horizon, consternation and despair took possession of the crew. Columbus was obliged to keep them in ignorance of the progress they were making into unknown seas, lest their teiTor should become un- governable. He therefore adopted the practice of keeping two_ charts, a false one for the benefit of the sailors, and a true one for his own private use. In order to appear confident of success he kept his course due west, and never turned aside in search of islands which he judged by floating weeds and other indications to be 'near his course. As the days and weeks wore on, the sailors grew more and more mutinous. When two months had passed since they left their native land, they grew so desperate that they actually meditated throwing their captain overboar4 and setting sail for home. Columbus now ceased trying to pacify them in friendly manner, andrassumed a tone of severe authority. Nothing but "his indomitable faith and resolution could have triumphed over the difficulties he had to face. For he alone of all that company believed that land, the land of promise, lay before them, and, strong in that belief, he was able to carry through his^ enterprise to the end, in spite of opposition and mutiny. On the nth of October the signs of land ahead were so un- mistakable as to convince the most incredulous. That night not an e^e was closed. All waited in breathless 'suspense for the morning to disclose the longed-for shore. When the sun rose and revealed the New World to the eager eyes of the weary sea-farers, even the most mutinous were fiUedwiththe joy of discovery. With tears of joy Columbus kissed the earth on which he landed, and with much solemnity and fervent thanksgiving planted the cross on the beautiful island of San Salvador. This he believed to be the Eastern coast of Asia, and hence the natives whom he fbund there were called Indians, and the group of islands to which San Salvador belongs still bears the name of the " Indies." The story of Columbus is the story oi a great initid batthng against terrible oddsX a strong personality overcoming opposition by the mere strength of its belief in a divinely-appointed mission. KAREATIVE ESSAYS 69 " Still steer on, braVe heart ! though witlings laugh at thy emprize, And though the helmsmen dro|i weary and nerveless their bands. Westward, westward sjjll ! there land must emerge to the vision ; There it lies in its light, dear to the eye of the mind." 2. A COLLISION AT SEA Outline (i) Perils of the sea. (a) Storms. (6) Fire. (c) Fog. {d) Collisions (the worst). 42) The-Tcollision. (a) Sudden crash. (6) Engines, reversed in vain. (c) Discipline on^ board. (d) One vessel escapes serious damage. (3) Transfer of those on board. (a) Woman and children first. (6) Then the male passengers, (c) Lastly the crew and the captain. (4) Conclusion. Essay ' How many perils menace those who "go down to the sea in ships "—perils from storms, from fire, from fog, and fronx collisions with other vessels ! Of these the last is, in the nature „pf things, most likely to happen without the possibility of warn- ing or preparation. Stor^ps can be foreseen by the appearance of the sky or the fall of the barometer long before they burst upon the ship ;^^ fire can be detected in its beginning by the sense of smell and by the presence of smoke ; and though fogs are dangerous enough, for that very reason ships in a fog move with the utmost caution. , But a collision, when all Seems vfell ! The night is thick .70 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY and cloudy, but the captain has taken his -bearings, the ship is travelling full steam ahead, while the passengers are sleeping peacefully. Suddenly through the darkness flash the lights of another steamer. The engines are reversed, all is doiie that can be done to avert the threatened catastrophe, but in vain ; in a moment the two vessels are crashing into each other. The shock awakens some of the passengers, and cries of alarm and hurryings to and fro add to the confusion of the first few minutes. But the sailors are discipUne4.to obedience, and order is speedily restored. The terrible question now rises in all hearts, " Will both ships go down ? " but soon it becomes evident that, though one vessel is sinking fast, the other still keeps afloat ; and the energies of the officers are bent on transferring everyone from their own ship to the other before it is too late. The less injured vessel draws away a httle, that it may not be sucked down with the sinking ship ; but all available lights are hung out to guide the boats, and all hands not engaged iii attending to the damage to their own vessel, are in readiness to help the rescued on board. The order, " Womeii and children first ! " rings out through the doomed ship and while the.sailors stand resolutely to their posts, the women and children are Ijrought iip from the cabins, some v/eeping and terror-stricken,, others pale and calm, and one by one are lowered into the boats. It is a sad moment for husbands and wives who are thus sepa-, rated, without knowing whether the boats will return in time to save the men ; but all realise the need of ready obedience in such a crisis, and the boats put off without interference or delay. Willing hands hgljp these first boat-loads up the sides of th% other ship, which look terribly high and inaccessible as they all are safely transferred. No sooner have the crew and fmally the captain left the sinking ship, than with a deafening roar it is engulfed in the waves. The last boat-loadis almost drawn down with it, but succeeds in getting safe away through the swirling waters to the welcoming lights of the other vessel. Such is a brief sketch of a collision at sea, as, happily, .it usually occurs ; but not infrequently, after a. colUsion, ship- wrecked crews and passengers have been compelled to put to sea in open boats without knowing how long it might be before they should be rescued by a passing steamer from their perilous situation. NARRATIVE ESSAYS 7 1 3. THE BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA Outline (r) The situation of affairs. («) Succession of Surajah Dowlah. (b) Wealth and defencelessness of Calcutta. (z) The fall of Calcutta. "(a) Flight of the governor. (6) Feeble defence by the traders. (c) Dowlah's disappointment. (d) The prisoners left to the mercy of his soldiers. (3) The Black Hole. (a) Description. - (6) Death of 123 out of 146^ prisoners. ^ (4) The punitive expedition. (a) Battle of Plassey. [b) Death of Dowlah, (5) .Conclusion. Essay tn the year 1756 Surajah Dowlah succeeded to the sov- ereignty of Bengal. He was a youth of 19, whose naturally vicious character had been made worse by self-indulgence. His cupidity was excited by the report of the riches of the English trading settlement at Calcutta. He was too short-siglited to see that their trade brought him more wealth than any booty could do, and too ignorant to realise the greatness of the power whose vengance he must inevitably face. On some flimsy pretext he raised an army and marched upon Calcutta . ^ In Madras the East India Company had insisted that its servants should be soldiers as well as traders, but the same wise -precaution had not been taken with regard to those in Bengal. Upon th& approach of Surajah Dowlah the Governor and the mihtary commander both fled to the ships for «afety ; without them the traders made but a feeble resistance, and were soon overpowered. Surajah Dowlah, however, was bittetiy dis- .appointed at the small- amount of plunder he obtained, arid consoled himself by violently abusing his unfortunate captives. ^2 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Believing that the company's treasures must be concealed some- where, he finally promised his prisoners their lives in the hope, of inducing thepi to reveal the secret. He then retired to rest, leaving them to the disposal of his guards, men who had never learnt the "quaUty of mercy" from their master. In the fort was a small room eighteen feet square, knoWn by the! name of the " Black hole prison " with two small barred windows high up in the waUs. In the close atmosphere of an Indian summer, a place so small and ill-ventilated would have caused discomfort to a single individual shut up in it for the night. Into this room the guards drove all the prisoners, to the number of one hundred and forty-six, and locked them in. Their sufferings may be imagined from the fact that the next- morning only twenty-three were still alive, and these were so disfigured by the horrors tl^ey had gone through as to be quite unrecognisable. This inhuman deed took place on the 20th of June, and the news of it did not reach Madras till August. A punitive expedi- tion was immediately equipped, with Clive in command, and Surajah Dowlah was decisively defeated at the battle of Plassey. He was soon after put to deathljy Mir Jaffir, whom the victorious English had placed upon his throne. Thus ended this terrible episode in Anglo-Indian history ; and seeing that the war which Clive undertook to avenge, the outrage ended in the British conquest of India, it is hardly too much to say that the foundations of the new empire were laid in the sufferings of those that perished in the Black Hole of Calcutta. 4. THE ELEPHANT'S REVENGE Outline (i) The wild beasts' show ; the elephant carries the children round on his back. (2) A tailor on the road-side sits at work, with buns beside him. (3) The elephant, stretching out his trunk for a bun, is pricked by the tailor's needle instead. (4) The elephant takes his revenge by drenching the tailor with water from his triink. NARRATIVE ESSAYS *r3 Essay It was a fine day in July and the little town of Hammerton' was full of groups of eager, chattering people, for it was the day of'th^annual Fair, afld, to help in the merry-making, there had arrived the night before a travelling wild beasts' show. Amongst its many attractions was the always popular ope of a ride on an elephant, and the children, were already crowding round the huge creature, eager for the treat. The elephant in this case' was a particularly fine animal, gifted 'with a quick intelligence and a simple trust in human nature ; for he had always been kindly treated, and his keepgr was proud of his gentleness and affection. A small group of children were soon ensconced in the comfortable seats on the elephant's back, and the elephant gravely tramped along the road amid the happy shouts and laughter of the young people. It happened that at one point in the road along which the elephant was going his appointed round, was a tailor's shop, where at the open window, sat tlie tailor, busily sewing, and by his side lay a httle pile of buns he had just bought from a passing hawker. Now our elephant was very fond of buns ; he had often- been presented with them by his admiffirs ; and thinking that the tailor could surely spare one out of so many, as he reached the shop, -he extended his lopg trunk through the window for the expected dainty. The tailor knew what the elephant wanted ; but, in a spirit of mischief, instead of a bun, he thrust his sharp needle into the animal's sensitive proboscis. Pained and sur- prised, the elegant quickly withdrew his trunk, and passed on apparently witiiout reseirting the injury. The amusements of the moming"-were at length over, and the children were called away to their dinner. To the elephant also came an interval of rest and refreshment, and when/he was led round to the water-butt -his keeper noticed that he drank longer and deeper than usual. Then the children were again crowded upen his back, and he set out on his usual round. As he went along he looked carefully at the groups of busy traders and interested spectators, and presently he caught sight of the tailor, who, " unconscious of his doom," sat at work on his -bench. Suddenly the merry-makers were startled b3r a sound something between a snort and" a hiss, and turning they saw the elephant squirting a stream of water fr^m his trunk over the 74 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY astonished tailor, who was almost knocked over by the sudden discharge. The spectators raised a cry of delight at the animal's sagacity in thus inflicting a well-deserved punishment on his tormentor. As for the soaked and shivering tailor, let us hope that he took to heart the lesson taught him by tha elephant, and that he never again wantonly ill-treated an unoffending fellow- creature. 5. THE STORY OP^JLYSSES AND THE CYCLOPSES Outline (l) The landing on the island of the Cyclopses. (a) Polyphemus's reception , of Ulysses. (&) His men lulled and eaten. (2)- The revenge of Ulysses. ~ {a) He finds and sharpens a pole. (6) He gives Polyphemus wine, and deceives him about his name. (c) The blinding of Polyphemus. (d) No help for him from the other Cyclopses. (3) The -escape. v {a) The party, slung beneath the sheef), pass out of the cave unperceived by Pol5^hemus. (6) Ulysses embarks and taunts Polyphemus. (c) Polyphemus hurls a rock and nearly sinks the ship. (4) Conclusion. Essay Among the many adventures of Ulysses, the most thrilling perliaps was his encounter with the Cyclopses. Leaving most of ids company behin3^ Ulysses set out with one ship to explore their islands. He took with him a few picked men, and presently reached a sheep-fold, where they awaited the coming of the owner. At length the bleating of flocks was heard, and driving a number of fat, woolly sheep, the monster Polyphemus appeared. At sight of him Ulysses and his men fled in terror, and hiding themselves at the back of the cave, watched the Cyclops's proceedings.^ First he rolled against the entrance a rock so NARRATIVE, ESSAYS 75 big that not twenty ordinary men could move it; and then having milked and fed the ewes, he spied the intruders, and in- stantly seizing two of the men devoured them for his evening meal. Then he lay down to sleep. Meanwhile Ulysses pondered over plans of vengeance and escape. He saw clearly that to draw his sword and slay the giaiit would be useless, for then, shut in as they were by the huge stone, they could have no hope of getting out of the cave. So he determined to wait and overcome Polyphemus by guile. In the morning the ^ant devoured two more men, aad then drove his flock to the pastures, leaving the great stone against the mouth" of the cave. , And now Ulysses and his 'companions foimd a long pole, and after sharpening the end and hardening it^ the fire, they hid their new weapon in a corner of the cave and awaited the return of Polyphemus. That night, after the giant had had his usual supper, Ulysses offered him a draught of specially good wine that he had brought with him. Polyphemus was so pleased with it that he drank a large quantity, and asked for the donor's name. " My name," replied Ulysses, is " Noman." Soon after, heavy with wijie, the giant sank -into a deep slumber, whereupon Ulysses and his men prepared for action. Taking the pole from its hiding-place, they heated it in the fire and fiien plunged it red-hot into the great eye of. the sleeping cyclops. Stung with pain, the giant awoke, and cried out to his brother cyclopses, " Friends ! Noman is slaying me by guile." To this his comrades replied that if his affliction was caused by "no man," then it must be sent by the gods, and they could not interfere. So sa3Hlng, they turned and left him. BeUghted at the success of his stratagem, Ulysses next devisecj a plan of escape from the cave. Polyphemus, mad with rage, had ^oped his way to the cave's mouth and rolled away this st®ne, and now sat with arms adtoss^the opening>^so as to intercept anyone who might try to escape. ^ But Ulysses was too clever for him. Knowing that the flock would be let out to pasture, he tied the sheep together in groups of three, and underneath the middle one of each group he fastened ,one of his men. Hig companions being thus, provided for, Ulysses himself seized a large ram and hung on beneath it, chnging tight to the thick wool. In the early morning the herd passed out, and all were conveyed safely through the very clutches of the giant. Once outside, the wily hero dropped on his feet, loosed his men and 76' HOW TO Write an £Ssays with them made for the ships. Then hf ting up his voice he flung taunts at Polyphemus and disclosed his r^l name. Where- upon the furious giant, breaking off the top of a hill, hurled it into the water and nearly sank the ship. ^ So ended the adventure, and Ulysses, setting his face towards the grey oceail, started oncb more on his unknown and perilous way. 6. TWO STORIES ILLUSTRATING REASONING ' POWER IN ANIMALS Outline / (i) The cat and the door-bell, («) A cat frequents a wall along which runs a bell-wire.. ' (6) She is f bund to have sei; the bell ringing, (c) The process of reasoning by which she contrived this. ; (2) The elephant and the apple. ' («) An apple thrown to the elephant falls beyond his reach. (J) His plan for its recovery. (3) Conclusion that some reasoning power is possessed by , animals. Essay The cat that is the subject of my story lived in a large house on the borders of a sniall town. Outwardly she was just like any ordinarylcat, but thit she was possessed of a more than conmion intelligence will- be clear from what "follows. The! house had a large walled-in garden,' with two gates,*^one leading to the ir^nt door, and one to the back. On the wall that adjoined the tradesmen's entrance was our cat's favourite retreat, for from this vantage-ground she clbuld watch the ^ carts coming baqk and forth, ^and sometimes purloin a bit of fish or meat, while the unsuspecting tradesnian's back was twned. On cold wintry days when pussy delighted, as all cats do, to sit beside the fire and dream away the hours till night-fall, she would seek her favourite spot, should door and window be fast closed, and wait her opportunity when some friendly milk-man or baketboy NARRATIVE ESSAYS 77 should come and ring the door-bell. Then, upon the opening of tiie'door, pussy would enter, tail in air, and purr in grateful anticipation of milk. But there came a/iay when, though the bell rang and she entered as usual, there was no tradesman or other person at the door. This happened several times, but, search as she would, Martha, the housemaid, coiild see no sign of, the truant bell-ringer. At length it became apparent that whenever the cat desired entrance into the house, shei managed by some means or other to set the bell ringing. But how ? Martha determined 1x) find out, and watching from her window she spied the cat jump on the garden wall and give the wire which ran along the wall a sharp pull with her claws. The bell rang, and pussy hastened to the door from her perch te- await the desired result. For she had noticed the tweaking of the wire 'under her paws as she sat on the wall, arid the consequent jangle of the hell, a sound which was invariably followed by the " opening of the door. Hence it had occurred to her that, if she were to tweak the wire in the same way, the same effect would be produced. Thus did this cleveE- victor of the field, on which the enemy left six thousand of their men and most of their guns. This victory practically deci- -ded the campaign, and marlied out Wellesley as a man destined to tlie highest distinction in the career of arms. NAEEATIVE ESSAYS 95 18. AN ADVENTURE WITH A COBRA Outline (i) Time and place of the occurrence. (2) The hero goes to bed ; noises in the night ; rats in the roof.-- J (3) He is waked by a rustling ; procures a light and finds a cobra ; his lamp goes out. (4) His predicsunent ; opportune arrival of his servant ; the snake killed. (5) Conclusion. Essay Arthur Wliite sat in his bungalow in Ipdia one evening think- ing o'^er his day's work. He had had a hard day, and as he intended' to be up betimes the next morning, he detei-mined to go to rest early. ~ Accordingly, not long- after, he was comfortably ensconced in bed and was soon dozing, when a'queer noise caught his ear and woke him up. At first it sounded like a faint scratching, which appeared to come from the thatched roof over hfs head. Then the sound Was repeated,, and presently developed into the scampering of many smalHeet which he knew to be those of rats, and he could seg the cotton sheet that served as ceiling undulating beneath their tread. Then he remembered that at one end there jwas a small slit in that cotton sheet. And then the noise ceased altogether and he fell sound asleep. Suddenly he awoke with a start. Listening intently, he could hear a soft rustling as of an aniihal gently moving in one corner of the room. The room itself was pitch-dark, but he knew that there was a light in the adjoining bathroom ; and noiselesslysteahng thither with unslippered feet, he came back with the- little oil-lamp in his'hand. Then slowly and with great caution he advanced towards the spot whence the sound had come, and this was what he saw in the dim light — a huge cobra, with hood wide expanded and flickering tongue, rearing^ itself as f«ady to strike ! Horror-struck , at the sight, he sprang back, and the sudden movement extinguished his lamp. He was face to face with a cobra in the dark ! Thought after thought chased themselves through his brain. He must get out of the room somehow. But the door to safety 96 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY was near the place where he had seen the creature. Yes, but there was the bath-room door. That would take him, beyond, into the open air where on the garden path there might be more cobras waiting for him, barefooted as he was. Still, this seemed, his best chance of escape, when, as he hesitated, to his intense relief, the door, which led into the verandah opened, and his servant appeared, with a light. He had heard the noise and had come to see what was the- matter. To warn the man and bid him fetch a loaded gun was the work of an instant ; and presently , White had the satisfaction of seeing the huge snake dead at his feet. He has since had it stuffed and put in a glass case, where it is a continual reminder of his Adventure with a Cobra. ' 19. NELSON Outline (i) Birth and early life. (2) Enters the Navy ; service in the West Indies. (3) Service in the Mediterranean ; Battle of Cape St. Vincent. (4) Battle of the Nile. (5) Life at Naples. (6) Battles of the Baltic and Trafalgar ; death. Essay. Horatio Nelson was born on September 29, 1758, at Bumhanr Thorpe, a village in Norfolk of which his father was rector. He entered the Navy at the age of. twelve, under the care of his uncle. Captain Suckling, with whom he went a voyage to the West Indies. His youthful experience of the sea was very varied ; for, besides making this voyage, he had served in an Arctic expedition and spent two years in the East Indies before he was eighteen years old. , His mother's family was connected with the Walpoles, and by their i;ufluence he obtained a command as heutenant, immedi- ately after passing his naval officer's examination in 1777 ; Taut his subsequent rapid promotion was due to his own extraordinary ability. At the age of twenty-two he was placed in command of an expedition against San Juan, and for thei next few years he NARRATIVE ESSAYS - 97 V remained on active service in the West Indies. While there, he formed a life-long friendship with Prince William, afterwards William IV, and married the widowed niece of the President of NeviSr one of the West India Islan4s. On the outbreak of the war with France in 1793 he accom- panied Lord Hood to the Mediterranean, and was engaged for many years in a series of minor operations, in one of which he lost his right eye, and in another his right arm. The only important battle during this period was the battle of Cape St: Vincent in 1797, in which Nelson greatly distinguished himself both by his strategy and by his personal c6urage. In 1798 he was appointed to the command of a sqiiadron in the Mediterranean with orders to watch Napoleon's movements. Napoleon was at this time xorrtemplating an attack upon Egypt, but kept his plans so secret that Nelson lost sight of his fleet twice. -Eventually, however, he came up with it lying in Aboukir Bay, and in the Battle of the Nile "biy a brilliant manoeuvre practically annihilated it. This splendid victory brought him many rewards : a peerage and a pension of £2,000 froih his own country ; a title,. Duke of r Bronte, and an estate from the King of Naples ; and large pre- sents from Turkey and Russia, who were rejoiced at being delivered from the overshadowing dread of Napoleon. For the next few years Nelson remained at. Naples superin- tending the affairs of the little kingdoni, and while there formed that fatal attachment to Lady Hamilton, the wife of the English Ambassador, which lasted for the rest of his life. r After taking part in an expedition against Copenhagen, and spending some months in strengthening the coast defences. of England against the expected attacks of Napoleon, Nelson returned to the -Mediterranean, and 6n October 21st, 180^, at Trafalgar won his last fight, in which he lost his life. He was 'shot early in .1;he engagement, but lived long enough to learn that victory was secure.' It was before this battle that he hoisted his famous signal, " England expects every man to do his duty," and this signal may truly be said to sum up his own life history. His one thought was for his country, his one desire to serve her, and he died with the words " Thank God, I have done my duty " on his lips. 7 98 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 20. THE EMPEROR AND POET Outline ^(i) Introduction; the Emperor Augustus's good humour. (2) A poor poet tries to win the Emperor's patronage by presenting him ,with complimentary epigrams. (3) To stop the nuisance, Augustus writes an epigram of his own(On the poet's tablet. Pretended deUght of the poet, who hands the Emperor a gratuity. Charmed with the man's wit, Augustus makes him a hand- some present. Essay Periiaps the most agreeable feature in the pharacter of the Emperoi- Augustus was the good-humoured cheerfulness which showed itself, among other things, in the pleasure he took in plajdng with children and in his affectionate intercourse with his family connexions. Fond of wit and repartee, he could enj^ a joke, even if it were against hiinself. At one time, in the exercise of his State functions, he was accustomed to pass daily between his house and the Forum. Like the Roman nobles of that day, he was borne in a litter and accompanied by a large retinue. A poorGreek poet, in want 6f patronage, noticed these regular journeys of the great EmperOT, and" took the opportunity of soliciting his .favour with compli- mentary epigrams, which day after day he endeavoured to thrust into the great man's hands. For a while Augustus took no notice of the writing-tablet presented to him with such indomitable perseverance, but. at last, growing weary of the poet's importunity, he determined to put a stop to the nuisance. Accordingly, one day, as he was taking his usuai journey, he snatched the tablet from the man and hastily sGribbhiig,upoii it an epigram of his own, handed it back to him with a smile. But our poet was equal to the situation. He read the epigram with an affectation of the greatest delight and admiration, and, as -the Emperor was moving on, ran up to his sedan, and with gestures of pleasure aniJ gratitude, handed him a few pence, crying out, " By the heaven above you, Augustus, if I had had more, I would have given it you !" " This outburst was greeted with a chorus of merriment from the imperial attendance and the bystanders, Augustus, far from being offended, laughed heartily at the man's ingenious retort, and was so pleased at his clever- ness that he ordered his steward to present the poet willi a substantial sixm of money. ' ~ n DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS , 21. A SNOW MOUNTAIN Outline (i) General description. (2)pDifferent aspects, as affected by^ (a) Point of view. (6) Distance. - (c) Weather. (3) Seen below the snow line. (a) . Forest. {b) Flowers. (4) Seen above the snow line. fa) Rocks.' (b) Glaciers. ^ (c) Snow plant. (5) Conclusion. Essay There is no grander or more inspiring sight in nature than a lofty mountain, its crest crovvned with eternal snow, its sides wreathed with fleecy clouds, its base rising from green and smiling valleys. Its aspect changes with every change of view, of distance, aiid of weathei. "' As we walk along the valleys that lie round it, or begin to cUmb its sides, every moment its aspect alters, as some new feature of it appears. And how our distance from it varies its effect! From far away it seems, as it were, a shining peak of salt, high against the blue of heaven ; as we come nearer, the picture grows more detailed; snowy ridges appear and mighty glaciers ;'till, close at hand, we marjc its endless variety of form, its ghttering pinnacles, its jagged, menacing edges, its snipoth, ^rounded shoulders of rock, and its broad sloping fields of Snow. Then again, how gloomy and threatening ij: looks, blackened Wrtth stoi-m clouds ; how peaceful and inviting in the sunshine; how inexpressibly beautiful, tinged with; the dehcate pink of dawn or tlie redder glow of sunset! 100 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Below the snow line the mountain is clothed with forests of fir trees, and flowers bloom in abimdance in the open spaces, making them glorious with scent and colour. Tiie conditions are favourable for their growth : the air is pure and clear, the sun brilliant; and the ground kept moist by the continual melting of the snow above them. Thus the lower parts of the mountain form a great contrast, in their wealth of vegetation in summer, to the bare snows above. ' - But there also we find beauty of form and colour. Amongst the highest peaks the snow does not lie on the vertical sides of the rocks, and these are often very beautiful, especidly in the Andes, among which the heights are formed of columns of red porphyry. ' In—the glaciers that lie between the ridges, are found huge caverns and_ crevasses, v^iere the ice shines- bliie and green in the dim light. The glaciers themselves are some- times smooth like a broad plain, sometimes rough as' if the sea had been suddenly frozen on a wild stormy day. Then too there grows up in some places amid the snow a little red plant, which spreads itself over considerable areas, and looks like red snow, which indeed the peasants believe it to be. Since snow mountains possess such an endless variety^ of beauty and charm, ^we cannot wonder that those who dwell among them are often heart-broken when they leave them; and that those who have learnt to love them, return again and again, drawn to them by their resistless fascination — the wonder and the grandeur of them, which makes them hajrdly seem like things of earth. 22. PERU ^outline (t) Situation, extent, and government. (2) Physical features. (a) The coast district. (b) The Sierra. (c) The Montana. (3) Political geography. (a) Towns.' (b) Railways. (c) Products, DESCRIl'TIVE ESSAYS 1 01 (4) Inhabitants. - (a) Incas. (b) Spaniards. '. (5) Conclusion. - Essay Peru lies on the west coast of south America between Ecuador and- Chili, with Brazil an3 Bolivia to the east. The extent of its territory has varied considerably at different periods of its history J it now covers about 400,000 square miles, with nearly 1,000 miles of coast line. Its form of government is Republican, with a Senate, a Chamber ^f Deputies, and a Presideht. The surface of the country is divided into three clearly marked regions, differing greatly in their character. Between the sea and the western slopes of the mountains, lies the coast district, which is composed of sandy desert, except where it is crossed by short rivers, of which there are about fifty. The valleys of \these streams are extremely fertile, and present a wonderful contrast to the surrounding desolation. Then comes the Sierra, the table-lands and valleys lying amid the triple chain of the Andes, abounding in minerals, plants, and animals, which form the chief source of the country's wealth. Finally, inland lies the basin of tributaries of the Amazon, called' the Montana, which consists for the most part of vast and only partially explored tropical forests. With the exception of a few ports, all the chief towns of Peru are in the Sierra. Of the ports, Lima, the capital of Peni, has a population of about 200,000 and a very flourishing trade. There are several small railways down the fertile coast valleys to convey the produce of the Sierra to the sea ports, and two railways from the coast into the interior across the mountain ranges, both engineering feats of no small difficulty.. The chief products of the country are silver, which is found along the whole length of the mountains ; guano, a valuable manure ; wool, especially that of the alpaca, of which large herds are kept all over the Sierra ; cotton and sugar, which are grown in large quantities in the~ coast valleys. The original inhabitants were the Incas, a tribe of Indians that was very superior in intelligence to those of the surrounding countries, and whose customs and accomplishments at the time of tneir conquest by the Spaniards shewed that they had then 102 ' HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY attained a high state of civilisation. After their conquest in the i6th century, the country was largely colonised by Spaniards, but the Incas still form more than half of the population. This fascinating country, possessing every variety of climate and scenery — the Sierra filled with remains of the imposing temples, aqueducts, and palaces of the Incas, the inland forests rich Miith rare plants and flowers, and innumerable strange birds and beasts— has always been and will always be the delight and wonder of the traveller and the explorer. 23. THE ALLIGATOR Outline ^i) Description. (2) Habitat. (3) Characteristics. (a) They prefer swamps. (6) Are active at night. (cj Live on fish. " (a) Bury large animals. (e) Their noise. (4) The pike-headed alligator. is) Conclusion. Essay The alligator, like the crocodile, has a large flat hea^, a lizzrd-like body with the back covered with homy plates, short Umbs, and a long and powerful tail. It is more or less web- footed, and three of the toes on each foot are furnished with strong, sharp claws. It belongs to a sub-genus of the crocodile" order. ^ The alligator proper is found only in America : the pike- headed alligator abounds in the south east of the United States. especially in the lagoons and swamps of the Mississippi; the caiman inhabits the tropicaFregions of South America, being known as the " jacare " in Brazil. The magar and the-garial are the members of the crocodile family that are found in India, . They all prefer swamps and stagnant pools to running water, and spend the hottest part of the day lying on the mud bants in. DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS i I03 the sun. Most of the day however they remain in the water, looking Uke floating logs, ready to snap up anything that comes in their way. It is at night that they become active and search for fish, which forms their principal diet. Beneath the mouth they have two small glands, opening outwards, which secrete a musky substance. It is suggested that they eject this into the wateir to attract the fish, but nothing is definitely known about it. Ayhen the fiercer species succeed in catching any land animal too large to swallpw at a mouthful, they hold it under water till it is drowned a;ra then bury it in the bank till it ibegins to putrefy ; this is because their teeth are not adapted to tear flesh when it is fresh. - The noise they make has been compared to the bellowing of a bull, and can be heard a mile away. All the species hibernate in the colder climates, burying themselves in the mud beneath the pool. In^ tropical countries also they bury themselves in times of drought, and remain in a semi-torpid condition until awakened by returning moisture. The pike-headed alligator is the largest and fiercest of the crocodile order. It measures from eighteen to twenty feet in length, and does not hesitate to attack human beings, if its ordi- nary focSd is scarce. When the female wishes to lay her eggs,^ she digs a deep hole in the sand, and deposits the eggs layer by layei: to the. number of about sixty, placing a thick matting of , dried leaves and grass between each layer. The heat engendered hy their decomposition helps, with the heat of the sun, to hatch the eggs. The mother remains near the nest till they are hatched, and -then leads the young to the water and feeds and cares for them till they are grown. The alligator is' an ugly, clumsy-looking creature, but in- teresting to scientists because, though a reptil^, it possesses some of the characteristics of the mammalia, thus forming a kind of connecting link between the mammals and the reptile world'. 24. LONDON' Outline (i) Locality : population. (2) Its fascination due to — (a) Its wealth of material. ''(6) Its infinite variety. 104 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (3) Its mixed character. ~ (a) Slums in the West. (b) Beautiful places in the East. (4) Its river. (5) Conclusion ; Dickens's London. Essay London is i:he capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,, and stands at the head of the navigable part of the river TThames. It is the largest city ia_the world, and indeed its area and population are so great that it is now reckoned as a county in itself. - It is a place that possesses great fascination for all who know it well. This is partly, perhaps, because it contains such wealth of material — ^such parks and squares, such palaces and theatres, such crowded thoroughfares and populpus suburbs, that those who know it best know aiso how much more there is to know. Then too its diversity is so endless and so surprising. There is pleasure to be found in the mere walking about in the heart of London. At almost every comer one comes upon some apcient church or interesting old monument ; some quaint name that calls up scenes of its past history, or some quiet " lodge in this vast wilderness " in the shape of an old secluded garden that'has survived the changes of the centuries. There is nb method in its building ; one feels it is a spontaneous growih with something of the personality of a living thing. We speak of the East end as the poor district, and the West as the rich, and to a great extent this is true ; but the' wanderer may turn out of some of the grandest streets in London straight into slums as small and as dirty as any in the East end ; and he may walk down an East end slimn and come upon lovely gardens . bright with flowers and shaded with stately trees ;■ or pass the entrance of some beautiful old mansion, now perhaps turned into a factory but strU preserving in its fcJlen state the grandeur of its carved and stately portals, its wide halls, and its oak- paneUed chambers. What more than all gives London its personality is the Thames. A glance at a map of London shews how it winds its way through the mighty city ; and as we walk its streets we jEome upon the river constantly and unexpectedly. And everywhere so - different ! Here it washes .the dark entrance to the Traitors' Gate, a spot full of sad afid terrible mepiories ; there it is gay DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS I05 with ihe noise and bustle of departing steamers. Here it flows broad and smooth past the historic towers and wide terraces of the Houses of Parliament ; there it hurries by crowded wharfs and tall, grimy factory chimneys. For the romantic aspects of the great city we may go to the novelist Dickens, who, Uke Johnson, was Jf Londoner to the backbone, and who has drawn for us with unerring pen many pictures of its varying moods, its ugliness and its beauty, its terror and its charm. 25. THE UMBRELLA Outline (i) Definition ; the parasol.' ^ (2) Primary uses. (a) For protection frdm sun. (b) As an emblem of authority. (3) Introduced into England by Jonas Hanway foT pro- tection from rain. (4) Adaptations. (a) To form tent. (b) To fonn parachute. Essay An umbrella is a portable canopy of silk or cotton extended on a folding frame composed of ribs or strips of steel, the frame being made to slide on a stick. It has been much improved since its first introduction into Europe, when it was a very clumsy- contrivance, with a long handle, iphs of whalebone or cane very imperfectly jointed, and a covering of oiled silk or cotton which was apt to stick together in the folds. A small and light form of the umbrella, nTade of white or coloured material and carried by ladies as a protection from the sun, is called a parasol. The original home of the umbrella was the countries situ- ated near the equator, where people constructed a simple frpme- work of bairiboo and palm leaves as a protection frojp the burn- ing rays of the tropical sun. Thus the primary use of the umbrella' was to shelter from heat rather than from rain. Again, in the East, tlie umbrella came to be regarded as an emblein of royalty afnd power. - Many examples point to this fact. Thus on the seulptured reinains of anqient Nineveh and Egypt I06 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY there may be seen representations of kings marching -in state processions with umbrellas held over their heads. Indian princes adopted the title of " Lord of the Umbrella," and in 1855 the King of Burmah in addressing the Governor-General of India called himself the "Monarch who reigns over the great umbrella- bearing chiefs." In each of the BasUian churches at Rome there still remains suspended an umbrella. Among the Greeks and Romans, however, only women used umbrellas, men considering it effeminate to avail themselves of such a luxury. As early as the seventeenth century the umbrella was known in England, for Michael Drayton in a poem on doves, writes : — " And like umbrellas, with their feathers ' Shield you in all sorts of weathers," and some of the coffee-houses kept' one umbrella for the use of their customers ; but it did not come into conunon use in Eng- land till after the death of Jonas Hanway in 1786. He appears to have been the first person who made a practice of carrying an umbrella in the streets of London, and bore the brunt of the ridicule Which so often accompanies the introduction of anything strange and new, however excellent. In the end however he succeeded in convincing people that whereas in the East an umbrella is a good protection, from the sun, in England it is an equally good protection from the rain. Indeed to the 'western mind the word umbrella at once suggests rain, and " Shall I need an uihbreUa ? " is equivalent to sayirig " Is jt likely to rain ? " While however this is the chief use of the umbrella, it serves other purposes. Large canvas umbrellas with flaps of the same material attached to them all round, are often used for bathing tents or summer shelters, while the parachute, used for dropping to the ground from a balloon, is formed on the same principle. 26. THE BRITISH MUSEUM Outline (i) Origin and history. (a) The Sloane collection. (b) George II's Library. ~ (c) Legacies. (d) Purchases by Parliament. (2) The edifice. ' («) Reconstruction, DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS IO7 {b) Exterior, (c) Intertor. (3) Contents. (a) The Scientific and Zoological Sections at Ken- sington. (b) Library. ^ (c) Archaeological departments.; (i) Egyptian & Assyrian, (ii) Greek & Roman, (iii) Ethnological, (iv) Coins and medals. (4) Usefulness. (a) Reading-Room. (6) Explanatory laBfels. - (c) Guides. (5) Reflections. Essay The British Museum originated in the private collection ol Sir Hans Sloane, which he left ^0 the nation on his death in 1753. He was a rich physician, who had devoted his whole life to col- lecting curiosities from all parts of the world; and these curiosi- ties together with George II's royal library-; were opened to the public as the " British Museum " jn 1759. Many valuable lega- cies, especially private libraries, and collections of works of art, have been left to the museum at different times; while puithases authorised by the Act of Parliament have occionally been made, the most important being the acquisition of the Elgin Marbles in 1816 for the sum of £36,000. An entire reconstruction of the original building was begun in 1828, and was finished in 1852. Its exterior is plain, except for a huge pillared pprtico surmounted by gilded designs and havi g a large -gravelled space in front. Within the building is a large hall,-from which open out passages and stairways to the various departments. The treasures of the British Museum are so numerous that even So large a building could not hold everything, and the.scienti-, fie and zoological collections have been housed in a separate building in Kensington, known as the Natui-al History Museum. Within the British Museum itself are housed the library, consist- ing of more than two million printed volmnes with thousands of I08 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY manuscripts, and the archaeological departments. These latter contain an important collection of Egyptian and Assyrian re- mains, including mummies, sarcophagi, statues and—perhaps most interesting'of all — many hieroglyphic writings of a very ancient date, with translations appended for the benefit of the unlearned. The Greek and Roman antiquities, the specimens of the arts and industries of the different races of mankind, and the collection of coins and medals, are all more nearly complete than those of any other museum in the worldT No effort is spared to make the place a truly national one. There is a reading room in connexion with the Ubrary, the only entrance fee to which is a guarantee of respectability, and once there, all the books_are at the readers' command. The antiqui- ties are provided with explanatory labeE, and at the present time a special official has been appoiiited to act as guide to any one wishing for fuller information, and should his services prove to be in request, the staff of guides is to be increased. Thus it is plain that the British Museum contains much both of interest and instructioH, and though the nation as yet does not take proper advantage of its treasures, the number of visitors to the Mustuni ysirl}' grows larger, and there is little doubt that the people are taking increasing pride in the posses- sion of this gr6at national heritage. 27. A BOAR HUNT Outline (i) The start. (2) The rousing of the boar. (3) The chase. (4) The boar's charge. _ (5) Conclu«;ion. Essay Boar hunting, or, as it is more usually called in India, " pig- sticking," is one of most exciting of all the different varieties of the chase. Early in the morning of the day of the hunt- natives are sent out to "beat" a piece of marshy jungle such as boars generally retire to after their night's foraging. The hunters on horseback, wait in groups near, at hand, armed with short, sharp spears, , DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS 10$ When /a. boar is roused from his lair and dashes out into the open he is immediately pursued at a gallop by two of the hunters nearest to the place from which he breaks out. The horses on which they are mounted need to be both swift and agile, and Arabs are generally found to be the best for the purpose. The pace of the boars is so fast, that even on good grojind they are not likely to be overtaken in less thaii a mile. As long as the country is open sa4:hat there is no danger of the animal's taking cover, the hunters prefer to keep up the pursuit, without attempt- ing to arrive within striking distance. For the hoa.T, as soon -as he finds himself hard pressed, turns like lightning and charges his pursuers, andTmtil he is fairly tired out such a charge is very dangerous on account of his tremendous strength and activity. The chase itself calls for wariness and good horsemanship, as the /ground is often full of h6les and cracks, made during the periods of great heat, and afterwards completely hidden by rank vegetation. Sometimes too the boar will lead his pursuers over treacherous bogs which it requires^reat circumspection to cross safely. But all these demands upon the huntei: are small compar- ed with those madeiipon him when at last the boar turns at bay. V Then is needed not only skill in handling the horsej^to keep it from starting aside before the critical juncture of the boar's charge, but a quick eye and a steady hand to drive the spear into the boar's neck, when it makes its attack, as well as a cool judg- ment to calculate the right moment to do this and then spring^ aside in time to avoid the final rush. The smallest miscalcula- tion" may have serious results : as when once a hunter drove his spear not quite true, go that instead-of penetrating the animal it slipped against the tough hide and struck the ground. The spear snapped with the strain, and the broken piece, flying upwards, pierced the horse he was riding and killed it instantly. Boars are very savage and strong, and their mode of attack is to drive their stout, upcurled tusks under the body of their rvictimr If therefore a hunter is unhorsed and the boar chairges him, his best hope of escape is to lie flat upon the ground. The danger attending this form of sport makes it only the more attractive to the sportsman, and we need not be surprised to find that it is one of the most popular pastim.es of the Englishman in India. IIO HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 28. THE BANYAN-TREE Outline (i) Description. (a) Genus. (b) Locality. (c) Habit of growth. {£) Size. (2) Products. {a) Foliage. (b) Fruit. (c) Wood. (3) Uses. (a). Place of entertainment. (b) Sabred tree of Brahmins. (4) Summary. Essay The banyan-tree belongs to the fig genus, but its habit of growth is so extraordinary as to differentiate it from all the other species. It is found in all parts of India, but is not native to any other c#untry. For, the first hundred years it grows like any ordinary tree, except that its lateral branches stretch out to an unusual length. Then it begins to develope the characteristics for which it is remarkable. 1 From .nea,r the ends of the long branches, rootlets are thrown out, which grow downwards till they reach the earth and there establish, themselves, becoming new-stems. • These in their turn send forth long branches, which again throw out roots downwards. In this way a single tree becomes a spacious colonnade of stems spreading over a vast area and lasting for hundreds of years, even after the original stem has quite decayed. One famous tree has three hundred and fifty large trunks with more than three thousand smaller ones> covers a space sufficient to shelter seven thousand persons, and is said to have been standing when Alexander the Great was pushing his conquests over the then- known world. The leaves are very large and rounded in shape, andthis no doubt led Milton to describe them as the fig leaves with which our first parents are said to have clothed themselves : — " There soon they chose The fig-tree, not that kind for fruit renowned. DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS III But such, as at this (^ay to Indians known In Malabo or Deccan spreads her arms. Those leaves They" gathered, broad as Amazonian targe." The fruit is no larger than a cherry, of a bright scarlet colour, and grows in*pairs in the axils of the leaves. It is of no value as food. The wood is light and porous, and consequently usteless as timber. The foliage is so dense that nothing will grow beneath it, and thus the wide-spfeacfeg spaces between its stems form a ready-cleared ground under a natural canopy very suitable for entertaining large companies of people. In such a place, which can be readily divided into suites of apartments, a rajah will have plenty of room to lodge the numerous retinue of a princely visitor, as if it were a magic palace built by a genie. The banyan is also the sacred tree of the Brahmins,, and if it ife found in the near /neighbourhood, nuns of ancient temples can always be recognised as belonging to that caste. , This majestic tree, so unusual in itsTiabit,> and so extra- ordinary in its appearance, spreading over such large areas, an5 affording shelter, not only to thousands of people on the ground below, but to numberless birds and monkeys in the branches above, is one of the wonders of India, and well merits the atten- tion and admiration that have been bestowed upon it by travellers in all ages and from all parts of the world. 29. CEYLON Outline (i) Situation and government. (2) Descriprtipn. (a) Northern part. (6) Southern part, (c) Coast. (3) Inlyibitants. ' {a) Singhalese. (6) Veddahs. {c) Tamils, (rf) 'Moormen. (4) Industries. f {a) Pearl fisheries. (Sj Conclusion : a highly-favoured land. 112 - HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (b) Mining for gems. (c) Tea-planting. Essay Ceylon is an island lying to the south east of India, from which it is divided only by a narrow strait half bridged by a chain of rocky islets It is a British Crown colony, thatns, it is governed by a ruler appointed by the Crown. The northern part of the island consists of undulating plains covered with beautiful forests, which also clothe the moimtainous district of the south. The coast is formed of deposits brought both by the ocean currents from the shores of India, and by the- island rivers from the hills, and the shore thus formed is covered with cocoanut palms even to the water's edge. The picture of the island as it first dawns on the sight across the sea is thus one of extrene beauty ; the y«^Uow sands, crowfied with the graceful palms, stand out against the deep blue of the sea, while the distant hills, rising height beyond heijght, form a dim background of half-mysterious lovehness. The principal inhabitants of the island are thfe Singhalese, who are supposed to have conquered the island about B.C. 500. There stiU remain in the eastern quarter of theJ' island a few descendants of the abonginal inhabitants called the Veddahs, who are almost more like animals than men. In the north live the Tamils, descendants of later settlers^ and ever37where are found members of a highly intelligent race callei Moormen, who are supposed to be of Arab descent. The most important indtfitries are" pearl-fishing, which is a government monopoly ; minijig for graphite and gems ; and tea cultivation. This last is grown on clearings- on the southern slopes of the mountains,' and is rapidly increasing in importance as a product. Ceylon has a very equable temperature and a plentiful supply of rain in the soiithem districts ; in the north irrigation is success- fully resorted to. Among- other things that marlrout the island as highly favoured by nature is the fact that it possesses about eight' hundred species of plants that are found nowhere else in the world. What a treasure-hQUse for the botanist ! Its forests and lakes abound with many kinds of beautiful birds, and it is singularly free from insect pests. No wonder that Eastegi poets, have described it as " the fertile land" and " the island of delight;';"' DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS ~ II3 30. THE MOSQUITO. — Outline (1) The mosquito tha^ame as the gnat. (12) Habitat. (3) Only the female stings. (4) The stinging process. (a) Structure of proboscis. (b) Injection of 'poison. (c) Dissemination of disease. (5) Precautions against raosquitos.^ (a) Destruction of eggs. (6) Curtain. (c) Smoke. (d) Smearing with oil. (6) Conclusion. Essay Mosquito is a SpanishlVord mining " little fly," and is by ;most English people applied only to thejarge gnats common in tropical countries. There is, however, no essential difference between the tropical and the other species. Mosquitos are not confined to any climate or locality. Nan- sen-in his account of his north polar expedition says that they were so numerous in the north of Greenland that if he took off his gloves for an instant, his hands were covered with them so thickly that it looked as if he stiU wore his hairy gloves ! It would seem, therefore, that mosquitos prefer ebctremes of tem- perature, since they c^lainly abound more in very hot and very cold countries than in:temperate ones. In nearly all the numerous species it is only the female that possesses the power of stinging. This fact has led some people- to suggest that the drinking of blood is in some way necessary to her egg-laying ; but when we consider the vast swarms of mosquitos, and the small proportion of them that can have the opportunity of tasting blood, this does not seem likely. 114 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY The process of stinging is as follows. The mosquito pos- sesses a long flexible lower Up, in a groove in which he five fine needle-hke structures, two of which are barbed lik^ arrows, while one has a hollow tube running down its length. The lower lip is placed firmly against the skin and then curled backwards, aUowing the five " setae," as they are called, to enter the skin. When they are in as far as they can gp, saliva is injected through the hollow tube, and" blood is dra^n up by a sort of pumping apparatus at the foot. It has been conjectured that the sahva must be poisonous for the sting to be so painful, but no research has yet succeeded in finding any trace of it, -and some authorities therefore say that 'the pain must be the result of the laceration caused by the withdrawal of the barbed " setae." Be this as it may, scientific experiments have made it clear that mosquitos can and do^ inject the germs of disease with the saliva. This is particularly the case with two species — one in India, which , carries the microbe of elephantiasis, arid another in Africa, which carries the malarial microbe. The dissemination of yellow fever is also largely, if not entirely, to be attributed to the mosquito, one species, the white-ribbed or tiger mosquito (stegomyia) being responsible for conveying the varus of this feVer to human beings. ~ As the eggs of the mosquito are always laid round the edges of "stagnant pools, it is important that, where possible, such pools should be emptied or filled up. Parafiin oil effectually destroys the eggs, so that it has been found possible in some malarial districts practically to exterminate the mosquito, and with it the malaria, by pouring this oil round the edges of all the ponds in the neighbourhood at breeding-time. It is difficult, however, to apply this expensive and troublesome remedy on any large scale, and in countries where mosquitoes abound, various other methods of guarding against them have been devised. In hot countries a mosquito curtain to cover the bed, is a necessary part of bedroom furniture. Ariiong the villagers, where such' curtains are not available, fires are Ughted inside their huts and the mosquito is smoked off the premises. In the arctic regions the natives keep off these pests by smearing their bodies with oil. I It is only in recent time that scientific research has^hown us'liow important it is to guard against the attacks of this noxious though seepiingly insignificant insect. DESCRIPTIVE,. ESSAYS II5 31. COAL Outline (i) Application of the term. (2) Origin. \(3) Varieties. (a)- Lignite. (b) Anthracite. (c) Cannel Coal, (rf) Welsh Coal. (4) Distribution. (a) Great Britain and the United States. (b) Germany, Russia, and Australia. (c) China. i (5) Uses. ^ (a) As fuel. (b) For smelting. (c) To produce gas. Id) To drive machinery. (e) To make tar^and its products. (6) Recapitulation. Essay The term coal was originally applied to any sort of fuel, and when what we now call coal was brought into general use, it was distinguished by the names of pit-co^ or sea-coal. The latter name arose from the fact that the new fuel was usually trans- ported by sea on account of its weight-. Various explanations of its origin have been put forward at different tinics, but the following is the one now generally accepted. During the carboniferous age vast forests covered the earth. Those situated on nrSrsJily ground or near the mouths of rivers >vere gradually submerged,' and on the earthy deposits above them fresh forests grew, which were in their turn submerged. During succeeding ages these f^re^ts havejaeen chapged by compression and chemicial action info the black, rock-like subs- tance that we now know as coal. We find, as we should expect, that there are many different kinds of coal; the differences arising partly from the original Il6 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY quality of the wood, but chiefly from the length of the period of transformation. For instance, there are in Central Canada, great tracts of an inferior coal called lignite, which is brown in colour and still partially fibrous. At the other end of the scale is the coal of the oldest formation • which is called anthracite or stone coal. It is very hard and black, and when kindled gives out great heat. Between these two extremes, there are so many varieties, that according to an Admiralty Report, more than seventy different kinds of coal are imported into London. The best known of these are Lancashire Cannel or Candle coal (so called because it bums with a very bright flame) and Welsh" coal. The chief coal-fields of the world are in Great Britain and the United States, the annual output of both countries being several hundred milUon tons. That a very large_amount of coal is still available in Great Britain is known from the fact that a Royal Commission has calculated thai; in spite of the vast and steadily increasing output, it will last another thouscuid years ! A considerable quantity of coal is also found in Germany, Russia, and Australia, while in China enormous coalfields are known to exist, which have not yet been opened up. The uses to "which coalias been put, besides its obvious use as fuel, are many. It is emplo5'ed for smelting iron and other metal ores. From it is obtained the gas which still forms one of our chief means of illuminating both streets and houses. Locomotive and factory engines are for the most part driven by power derived from coal or gas. Anbth^ of its products is tar, from which are obtained various articles of high rommercial value, such as naptha, creosote, saccharine, and aniline dyes. Thus, to recapitulate, we see that coal is a natural product, found in varying quantities in most parts of the globe. Its importance can hardly be over-estimated, since it provides us not only with warmth and light and driving power for our machinery but with several valuable articfes of commerce. 32. THE APE. Outline (i) Definition of the term. (2) Limited to three species. la) The chimpanzee and the gorilla.' DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS II7 {b) The orang-utan, (c) The gibbon. (3) Characteristics. - (4) Habitat. (5) Interest to us. Essay The term a^^was at one time applied indiscriminately to all the monkey tribe ; but it is now confined by zoologists to those members of the tribe which have certain distinctive features wherein they resemble man more closely than do their- fellows. ^These are the absence of tail and of cheek pouches, and the possession of teeth of the same number and form as man's. The above definition limits the appellation to three well- known species : the c^iimpanzee, the orang-utan, and the gibbon. Of these the first two compete for the position of being next-to man in the scale of animal life. Therchimpanzee is the more intelligent, and its proportions are more human ; but the skull of the orang-utan bears the grea.ter resemblance to that of man. The legs of the orang are very short compared with its body, and its arms are so long that they reach beloW the Icnees, so that it walks slowly and clumsily, supporting itself first on one side and then on the^other with its arms, Uke a lame man with his crutches. The arms^and legs of the chimpanzee, on the other hand, being more like those of a human being, it walks upright without the assistance of its arms. The neck of a chimpanzee is similar to that of a human being, while the orang's is furnished with a large goitre-Uke sack. This is supposed to give the animal its pectJiarly loud and resonant voice, which can be heard for miles. TKfe gibbons are a less known and inferior kind of ape, haAfinga small flattened skull, and two of the fingers of the hmd limbs united as far as the nail. In their native woods they display the most marvellous activity, and have been known to catch a bird while on~the wing. " / The chimpanzee, with its near relation, ife'^gorilla, is found on the west coast of equatorial Africa; the (irahg-utan inhabits the remote forests of Sumatra and Borneo; and the gibbons are abundant ia the Malay peninsula and islands. The chimpanzees live in companies in the woods, build themselves rough huts of the branches of trees, and arm themselves with tree stumps. The young of all the different species of apes have been kept in ItS HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY captivity and prove gentle and docile, though peevish and irritable when crossed; but they do not as a rule, Uve long in this state, though there are instances of chipipanzees that have grown up in captivity, and have shown amazing intellfgence.' The strong resemblance of the apes to the human race makes it impossible for us to regard them with indifference. They fill some people with fascinated interest and othfers with instinctive repulsion. But \j^atever our feelings towards them, we cannot but recognise in them that ''section of the animal creation which is most nearly allied to ourselves. 33. LAKES Outline (i) How a lake differs from an ocean and a river. (2) The mountain lake and the low-lying lake described. (3) The chief lakes of the world. {a Swiss find Italian lakes. {p African and American lakes. (c) Lakes of Asia. (<0 European lakes. \i) Lakes of the British Isles. (4) The Enghsh lake district and its literary associations. 1 Essay > A lake has a character all its own. It is of little importance as a means of communication, likd the great ocean highways of commerce, or like the river down whose stream barges carry merchandise, and ships are continually passing in their voyages from port to port. A lake is in its nature something apart, something outside the busy stir of hfe and action ; and as we gaze upon the lonely waters of a lake on a still summer evening there seems to he an element of mystery, almost of enchantment, in the scene, and the sight of a steamer laden with eager sight- . seers breaking in upon 'flie silence, comes to us with a shock of incongruity. The-most beautiful lakes are those lyipg high among the mountains. Here the jutting rocks and' tall pines mirrored in the calm surface of the lake and the blue mountains in the distance fading into haze, combine to form a picture unsurpass- DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS Itg , able in its majesty and repose. But the low-lying lake has also a charm of its own. The abode of the wild duck and the heron, where the.-^dge sighs in the breeze and the melancholy note of the plover is heard overhead, it presents a weird solitude much like that of the " great water " pictured by Tennyson, where the only sound was that of " The ripple washing in the reeds, An4 the wild water lapping on the crag." \ Lakes are found in almost every country in the world. Switzerla^nd is the country richest in them, considering its size. But the lakes of Switzerland, of which the best known are those of Geneva and of Lucerne, and the Italian lakes — Constance, Maggiore, and Como — althouglT very beautiful, are insignificant in size, compared with the immense lakes of Africa and tjie new world. Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika in Equatorial Africa, - and the five North American lakes are so large that they might almost be reckoned as inland seas. Asia likewise has a few large lakes, such' as lake Aral and lake Baikal, which, although they cannot compete with those of Africa and, Arqerica, are yet considerably larger than most of the European lakes. For of great lakes For instance,, besides its 144 HOW TO WRITE A^^ ESSAY marked tendency to produce envy or jealousy mentioned above, the wish to rise in the social scale may assume such paramount importance in a man's eyes as to obscure his principles of honour, Thus a small shop-keeper might be so ambitious of success in his trade as to be guilty of petty dishonesties in order to save more money with which to enlarge his business ; or a man who had raised himself by his abiUties from a lowly station in Kfe rnight, out ota contemptible pride, yield to the temptation of disowning his own parents, lest he should be despised by his ne^V associates. The dangers of the higher kind of ambition — the danger of pursuing lofty objects for selfish ends, of desiring self-glorifica- tion rather than the good of the people — may be illustrated by, two passages from Shakespeare. Wolsey, at his fall, thus acknowledges that his ruin was caused by his amlytion : — " Cromwell, I charge tliee, fling away ambition : By that sin fell the angels." And he adds the significant words, "Love' thyself last." Again, Caesar was murdered by those who feared he would use his populaiity to seize absolute power for himSelf ; and Antony, in his funeral oration, thus comments on the accusation : — " The noble Brutus Hath told you Csesar was ambitious : If it were so, it was a grievous fault, And grievously -Jiath Caesar answered it." Thus we conclude that ambition, whether to do great deeds, or to outdo our neighbours, is useful in inspiring, a man to do his utmost, and to .make the best of his abilities ; but that it often helps to develope natural tendencies to evil, and may result in the commission of serious crimes. 49. HERO-WORSHIP Outline • (i) Definition. « (2) A universal sentiment. (a) In early ages. (£) In- the present day. (3) Valuable for both nations and individuals. REFLECTIVE ESSAYS I45 (4) Examples of heroism in women. (a) Grace Darling. (b) Florence Nightingale. (c) Josephine Butler. (5) Conclusion. Essay Hero-worship is the feeling of reverence and admiration implanted in our nature towards those who are truly great. It is a sentiment that has always been inherent in man. In the earliest ages of the world the great man was indeed often literally worshipped — regarded as not much less than a god in. his life, and deified after his death. As the world has grown older, it has grown less demonstrative ; but even in our own day a sort of delirium of enthusiasm for the hero of the day is by no means uncommon. As instances of this may be quoted the reception ^ven to Hobson, the hero of the SpajiislvAfflerican war ; to the piper of Dargai after the Tirah campaign of 1897 '• and to Lord Roberts after the Boer war^ This excessive emotionaUsm is nothing to be proud of ; but at least it shews that the spirit of hero-worship is not dead, and it would be a dark day for any nation or individual; when this xould truly be said of it. The critical spirit that can only see faults ; the mean -spirit that belittles and decries all great- ness ; the sneering spirit that refuses to believe in greatness at all; — these make greatness ilnpossibleforthe men or the peoples that entertain them. For to reverence greatness implies the power of appreciating it^ and we cannot appreciate anything that is wholly outside our cognisance. It is not only in war that a man can play the hero, nor only the warrior that calls forth hero-worship. And there are heroines as well as heroes. The names of Grace Darjihg, the girl who rowed through a raging storm to save a few ship-wrecked people ; of Florence Nightingale, who faced the horrors of the Crimea to minister to the wounded ; of Josephine BuUer, who braved the worse horrors of misrepresentation and obloquy t& better _ the lot of her fellow women ; these and many other names that leap to the memory are familiar to and honoured by all. We have skid that admiration for the heroic is implanted in our nature, and that the capacity for this admiration impUes 10 146 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY of itself the possibility of greatness. We may therefore b^ sure that, unless the world falls very low indeed, heroic deeds will continue to be done, and hero-worship, ft) be freely and hgartily accorded to the doers. 50. " EXAMPLE IS BETTER THAN PRECEPT." Outline (i) Meaning. " (2) Inapplicability, in respect of duties. — • (a) To schoohnasters and their pupils. (b) To parents and their children. (3) Applicability, in respect of quaUties : — (a) To the above cases. (6) To social intercourse. (4) Illustrations from : — (a) Warfare. {b) Religion. (5) Conclusion. Essay. This proverb means that a man may more readily incline people to do what they ought to do, by himself setting them the example of doing it, than py simply teUirig them what they ought to do. . Like most proverbs, This one is limited in application. It is not, for instance, applicable to the relations between school- masters and pupils, nor to the relg-tions between parents and children, with respect to the duties of either pupils or children. In neither of these cases would be either possible ordesirable that the preceptors should do more than instruct and command, or that the children should expect to be set an axample of receptivity or obedience. It is however applicable to both the cases just mentionedrin respect .pf quaUties. A chUd whose parents or teachers are ifpright, honourable, and unselfish in their conduct, will be'^more likely to become such himself, from unconsciously imitating them, than from any amount of moral instruction. It i^^ especially applicable to the influence of men and women upon each othei; in ordinary social intercourse. The man who is always talking REFLECTIVE ESSAYS I47 of lofty aims is apt to be set down as a prig, and will certainly have far less influence on the lives around him than the man what silently does the things that the other merely talks about. In warfare we may see t^ie proverb illustrated. The greatest military commanders have not alway^ been those who have been the greatest strategists, but those who have fired their men with the example of their own courage and daring. The battle of Agihcourt, won by an "exhausted and starvmg army, lighting,, against overwhelming numbers, would have ended very differently had .not the troops been inspired by the dauntless spirit of their leader. Many a rout has been turned at the last moment into, a victory by the impetuous bravery of a single man. Again, the religious teachers of the world have generally influenced men more by their lives than by their teachings. This is pathetically illustrated in the case of St. Francis of Assisi, whose lofty ideals proved too high for the age he lived in, so that the Order he founded to propagate thein, fell far below them, when his magnetic personahty was withdrawn. We conclude, therefore, that the man wha performs some heroic or unselfish deed, does far more to inspire heroism and un- selfishness in others, than the man who preaches but does not act. 51. THE RIGHT USE OP MONEY Outline (i) Introduction ; money a power or talent, carrying with it its pecuUar responsibilities. (2) What to do and to avoid doing..^ / (a) Shun both extravagance and parsimony. (b) Live within your income, and lay by something/ •(c) Do not lend or borrow. (d) Dp not speculate. (Slavery abolished in the United States in 1863. , {d) Africa the last great centre of the slave-tral|de. Essay The instutution of slavery was at first a step forward in civili- sation, for in the early ages captives taken in war were killed, and sometimes eaten ; but later, as labour was wanted for agriculture, they were kept as slaves. In all the ancient civilisations of which we have any account the greater part of the work was done by slaves, and it was the slaves who made up the greater part of their population. Thus we find that both in Greece and Rome there were three slaves to one free man ; and', white the citizens were fighting, the slaves carried on the agricul- ture and commerce of their masters. The greatest thinkers of Greece approved of the system, and it is not until the second century that we find a few Roman writers disapproving. Doubt- less the spread Of Christianity began te influence pubUc opinion, and at the sahie time the more peaceful conditions of the Roman Empire gradually decreased the number of slaves obtainable by war ; while the Roman citizen, no longer wanted as a fighter, 152 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY could settle down to develop his country, But the abolition of slavery was very slow ; and the fact remains that during a considerable part of the world's history the majority of its inhabitants have been slaves. The slave was a mere pfece of property, like on ox or a sheep. He was not allowed a legal marriage, and could be sold away from his wife and children. He could own no property and gain, no public distinction ; and if his owner wished,he could kill him. The results of such treatment could not fail to be bad, for if you take from men all chances of reward for diligence, and make them entirely dependent on others for their peace and security, you destroy their self-respect ; and^ losing this, they are sure to degenerate. The effect too, on the slave-owners was equally bad, for the absolute pwnership and control of crowds of servile people inevitably leads to laziness, selfishness, cruelty, and immoraUty." Moreover, the fact that all the work was done by slaves had such a marked effect on the non-wofkers that even to-day the false idea is still held that work is " servile " and a disgrace. Hence, although slavery may have been a necessary step in the progress of the world, we cannot fail to see that its moral effect was pernicious ; and, for this reason, it was iound In time to disappear. But the progress of the world is painfully slow, and the history of slavery is a striking illustration of this. About the ninth century absolute slavery began to be replaced in Eurpoe by serfdom, a modified form of slavery. The conditions of the serf were better than those of the old slave, but they were still bad ; and so serfdom was in its turn condemned. Its abohtion was an exceedingly slow process, and it was not until the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that the serfs of Europe were all made free" men. And still there were slaves. Men who had agreed Uiat it was wrong to enslave members of their own race, still thought vthey were justified in keeping other races in a state of slavery I It is amazing to remember that the United States of America did not liberate their slaves until 1865, and then only after four years of civil war. And there are slaves still — slaves in millions ; and not until the whole civilised world unites to stamp out the terrible slave-trade of Africa is there much hope for the progress of that dark continent. REFLECTIVE ESSAYS 153 54. PROCRASTINATION. Outline (i) Denfinkion ; peculiar force of " to-morrow." (2) Nature. (a) Generally physical. (6) Sometimes intellectual. (3) Illustration from Hamlet of its — {a) Working. (6) Effects. - (4) Its evils ; the procrastinator-^ (a) Causes-delay. (6) Disorganises business. (c) Discomposes himself and annoys others. (d) Cannot be trusted. (5) Reflections. Essay Procrastination is the putting off till to-morrow (Lat. eras what ought to be done to-day. It is always a vice, since it is a sin against the sense of duty. The peculiar force of to-morrow lies, in the fact that it is always future, and the pecuUar disease of the procrastinator is his aversion to the present time as a time for action. He is continually hoping that to-morrow may bring what for him to-day never brings, the jdght moment — in other words, the impetus he needs, for the defect is in himself, not in this or that time. This defect is generally akin to laziness, and so in its nature is physical, arising from a weakness of the will, which shows itself in the reluctance to make a necessary bodily effort. Occasionally, however, procrastination is intellectual, and is the result of a state of mental indecision which is jjuite compatible with strength of will and vigour of action. Thus in Shakespeare's Hamlet we are shown a man of high intelligence and great determination, who yet again and again turns, at the brink of action, from a task that he feels it to be his duty to accompUsh. It is not energy that he lacks ; it is rather that moral and intellectual doubts and scruples lead him perpetually from zeal to indolence, from one postponement to another. And yet, however pardonable Hamlet's procrastina- 134 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY. tion might seem to be, dire effects follow, effects which we cannot doubt are directly traceable to this shortcoming. Nor is this all ; under the influence of this persistent irresolution the character of the man gradually deteriorates ; he becomes a mere straw swept along by the tide of circumstance; ^d so unex- pectedly at last does he meet with his own tragic end, that he heis barely time to carry out his long-contemplated deed of vengeance. Procrastination has well been called "the thief of time." The proverb tells us that delays are dangerous, and it often hap- pens that a thing which is not done at the right time cannot be done at all. In a business position, the man who procrastinates causes a confusion of affairs arid an accumulation of work which is never finished. He is always behindhand and always in a hurry ; his habit is a perpetual source of discomfort to himself and of annoyance to others, in addition to the material loss which it often entails. Such a man moreover cannot be trusted with any business of importance; no one can be sure that he wUl keep an appointment or fulfil an engagement. ■ ■ It should be remembered that rarely, if ever, does a task ■ become easier for being deferred on account of its difficulty and since each day makes its own demands, in leaving to-day's work to be done along with to-morrow's we run the risk of failure in both, 55. THE INFLUENCE OF GOOD BOOKS Outline (i) The teaching power of good books. (2) Their indirect influence. (a) As a holiday from real life. (b) The consequent refreshment to the reader. (c) The benefit to his daily woVk. (3) Their influence on social life. (a) Profiting by the experience of others. (b) The lesson of tolerance. (4) Their influence on the life of a nation. (a) Knowledge of history a preparation for states manship. {h) Without this preparation a statesman may be a danger to his country. REFLECTIVE ESSAYS 155 Essay To read good books is to learn the best that has been thought and said in the world ; and the reader who succeeds in acting up to what he knows, above all men stands the best chance of leading a well-ordered and profitable life. Now the best that has been said and thought is the gathered wisdom of all who have lived and learned before us ; and, .although in 6ur eariier years we may not be able to understand its full Vcilue, it is impossible for an intelligent man not to gain some good from it. , And besides the direct influence of good books on the reader, there is an indirect effect on his daily life that is sure to be felt. For when he leaves his reading, he will return to his' ordinary occupations a fitter man ; his holiday from the rear world will send him back to it with renewed zest ; he will appre- ciate it the more for having left it for atiine ; and his work will, on this account, be more Ukely to be wpll done. He will thus be of more practical use both to himself and to any others who may live with him and depend on his exertions. ' Again, in his books h£ has followed the painful struggles of all sorts and conditions of men, and where they have succeeded he may profit by imitating them ; where they have failed h|e may endeavour to avoid their mistakes. So too will he learn a wise tolerance in his conduct towards others ; he will not condemn them^or words or deeds when he is not perfectly sure that he knows all the facts of the case ; for the experience he has gained from his books and the precepts of these his best friends will have taught him that a man may be quite innocent in spite of appear- ances. ' - ' - But his reading will have given him experience of matters far more important than the events of private hfe ; it will-have taught him the history of nations ; and if he should be called upon to' decide a serious political question, he will not be unprepared for the task. For by reading he has become, as Bacon saySj a full man ; his mind is stored with knowledge of how men, and nations have acted in the past, and he will thus be in a position to benefit his gountry by the judgment of a mind trained in the consideration of great Mtional affairs. Without this preparation of reading the man who interferes with politics is apt to be a danger to his country ; and it is only when he is prepared in this way that he can with safety be placed in any high political position. 156 ^ BOW to Write an essay- 56. WAR Outline ^ (i) Causes of War. (a) CiviKsed countries attacked by barbarous tribes. (6) Disputed ownership of territory. (c) War wilfully brought about by statesmen. (2) Cost of War. (a) In soldiers. (6) In men working to supply annies. (c) In loss of business in wartime, (rf) In loss of life. (e) In suffering. (3) Can war be abolished ? 5 (a) Most people desire its abolition. (b) Difficulty of general disannament. ,^ (c) Apparent hopelessness of the task. (4) Where our hope lies. (a) Education. (b) Arbitration. (c) Religion. Essay War is such a terrible thing that it is often asked whether any cause is important enough to justify it. There are instances in which it seems impossible to avoid it, as when a civilised state is attacked by barbarous tribes ; but too frequently war is a greater evil than the wrong that it is meant to redress. When great nations go to war, the reason of their quarrel is probably not even understood by nine out of ten of the combatants ; and if they were asked individually, " Do you or do you not want to fight this country ? " They would answer No. Perhaps the war is to decide which of two countries shall own and govern a certain strip of the earth's surface ; or, again, it may be wilfully brought about by *a statesman, in order to draw away attention from difficulties in his own country which he cannot settle. But in all cases the reason given by each of the countries is that they are fighting for theif rights ; and the victors always declare that ti^ey have " vindicated their rights." and what this really means is thatlhe world acts upon the principle that " might is right." Whether or not war is ever right, the whole world is con- REFLECTIVE ESSAYS I57 stantly preparing for it. Millions of the healthiest men are taken away from the ordinary work of life to learn to fight, and hundreds of thousands of workers are employed in making arms for them. And in the event of a war the toilers suffer still more, for their work often becomes useless because they are shut, ofi from their markets, as when the American Civil War caused a cotton famine in Lancashire.^ Add to this the terrible destruction of property, the loss of thousands of strong young men, the enormous expense, and the sufferings of those who lose husbands and Sons, and it will be admitted that the cost of war is so great that it should never be undertaken except for the gravest reasons. Indeed, as has been remarked already, many people think that there is no reason whatever strong enough to justify it. If the opinion of all the civilised people in the world should be known, we should probably find that very few of them really approved of war. Why, then, do wars continue ? Why are we always preparing for war ? The explanation is that, although all the great nations are becoming more civilised, it is not so very long since they were barbarous. It is a slow matter to civilise nien, and it takes still longer for them to understand that, because their minds have changed, their actions ought to change too. It is so easy to go on as we are ; it is so difficult to alter the conduct of whole communities. A powerful man might possibly induce his own nation to agree to disband its army, but .who will induce all the other nations to agree to abandon theirs ? The task is so gigantic that it seems sometimes impossible that war will ever cease. But although the chances of putting an end to warfare seem so Email, we must still do all we can to'try to stop it. Education will help us ; for, as men more and more learn from history the horrors and the wastefulness of war, so wiU they become increas- ingly opposed to it ; and when people reach a certain stage of education they generally elect their political representatives. In this way the opinions of the greater number decide what a country shall do ; and we may therefore hope that some day all civilised people will decide to have no more war. When this hapjpens, we -shall probably have Arbitration in its place ;- and already we find that efforts are being made by different " Peace Societies " to get the disputes of nations settles by this method. _ And we must not forget too that true religion forbids warfare, and bids its followers never to return blow for blow, but rather good for evil. It is this spirit which will finally make war impossible. 158 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 57. THE TRUE END OP EDUCATION ^ i ~ Outline (r) The development of latent faculties. (2) Education teaches men their vocation, and so makes them useful and happy ; illustration, Wordsworth. (3) It teaches self-control. (4) It gives a high ideal, inculcating humility and tolerance. . Essay The true end of education is the development of those faculties that are dormant in mankind. The baby asks for physical comforts alone, but the child begins to understand the difference between right and wrong, ugliness and beauty. True educatibn, then, teaches the child to prefer the good and the beautiful. Thus it developes the learners and instructs them how to develope themselves. A great English writer, Ruskin, has said that the true end of all education should be to teach the young the woric for which they are fitted and to enable them to carry out that work, . In so doing they become useful citizens, for everyone who is doing his right work is of use in the would and brings happiness to himself and those around*him. The love of work is the secret of success, and it is what everj' nation should strive to teach those who are to be its citizens. - .^ Men read the lives of great ones in art and literature to find what master mind instructed them and what were the influences that aided their genius. Thus of the poet Wordsworth they learn that the beautiful scenery of Cumberland and the freedom he enjoyed to roam amid its lakes and mountains became his first source of inspiration. They taught the boy his vocation, and this is what education should strive to do for us all, since none are thrown into the world by chance, but all have their part to "play. It would nevertheless be unwise if in youth each could choose that which pleased him, for the man wha is to succeed must be no idle pleasure-lover, but must learn self-control and the power of applying his attention to difficult tasks. If he has been taught this by the time he is a man, he has been taught much, for he is now'capable of'feducating himself. Knowing what is the bEFLECTIVE ESSAYS 1^9 right thing for him, he will pursue it in spite of all difficulties, and will continue to do so through life, for such a man's education never stops, but is always striving after perfection. J Education, then, has for its aim to set this high ideal before men, so that they may be humble, teachable, and open-minded, and may learn the great truth conveyed by Tennyson's lines — " Self -reverence, self-knowledge, self-control, These three alone lead life to sovereign power." 58. RESENTMENT Outline (i) Defined ; two limitations. (2) Compared with anger or indignation. (3) Sometimes justifiable. (4) Felt more readily by som'e than by others. (5) How to guard against it. Essay In its most general sense resentment is the feeling of indig- nation excited by a sense of injury done, to one's self or one's friends. Usually, however, this definition has two hmitations. Resentment is a term more often ascribed to the feeling resulting from a small than from a serious injury. Thus a man might resent a slight or a blow, but he could not properly be said to resent his brother's murder. He would be enraged or exasperated at it. Again resentment is more often used of the sense of anger at an injury felt by a person who is not in a position to retaliate, than of the same sense of anger felt by a person in authority. Thus we might speak of a servant's resenting his master s disbelief in his honesty ; whereas we should hardly invert the statemtent -and say that the master resented; his servant's disbeUef in his honesty, but rather that he was indignant or offended at his conduct. , Thus we see that resentment is a state of mind closely allied to anger, but for the most part without its redetoiing features^ Anger or indignation at wrong done to others may even be a-, noble passion, but resentment is felt only for wrongs done to ourselves or our associates. < Anger blazes forth at terrible l6o HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY injuries, and may rebuke and bring conviction to the trembling offender ; resentment smoulders inwardly at petty delinquencies, and is prone to cloud the mind-Df him who feels it. Johnson indeed defines resentment as " a union of sorrow and mahgnily." This quality, however, is not necessarily or always a bad one : we are justified, for instance, in resenting an unwarrantable intrusion upon our privacy ; and if a man's honour or property is wantonly assailed, he is right in resenting the wrong done him. " Peoples vary very much in tempCTament, and perhaps in nothing so much as in their passions. Some are like tinder- boxes, slow to be moved to anger, but flashing out fiercely when roused, though easily pacified again. Such natures are almost incapable of resentment. On the other hand there are some who are always looking out for injuries and offences, and who find them easily enough where none are meant. People of this disposition are naturally resentfuL If -we desire to guard against this feeling, we should be careful to cultivate a lofty and generous habit of mind, always ready to think the best of others' motives, and not be too greatly concerned about our own dignity and importance. 59. • • LOOK BEFORE YOU LEAP " Outline (i) Meaning. (2) The truth of the proverb ; illustrated — (a) Literally. (b) Figuratively. (3) Conclusion. Essay The meaning of this proverb is that one should neVer undertake anything hurriedly and without first considering whether one is able to~c"arry it through. The complete form of the sayinjg appears to have been "Look before you leap, for fnakes among sweet flowers do Creep," but the latter part is now seldom or never quoted. It indicates that what the proverb specially einphasises is the lurking danger that atten"as upon I ash and hasty action. REPtECTIVE ESSAYS l6t The reasonabkness of the proverb is evident in both ,its literal and figurative sense ; and it is a proverb that is oftener^ than most others quoted in its literal sense. Of its literal truth a good illustration is the following, A dog that was unused to houses, had been taken to an upper storey room; and while there it heard its,riiastfer's voice on the lawn outside. Like a flash it sprang out of the window, and must have been considerably astonished to find itself 'falling through the air. Fortunately, though it was badly shaken, no bones Were broken ; but such good fortune cannot often be counted upon. A similar impulsive rush t^achieve some object without considering the obstacles in the way has brought many a fcareer to ruin, A wise caution that calculates difficulties;" an^ foresees the best means of overcoming them is necessary to real success in any path of life. There must of course be moderation in all things ; excessive caution may delay the commencement' of a business till it is useless to commence it at all ; but examples of harmful rashness are legion. There are, scattered over the country, large and often half-ruined houses known by the name of So and-so's "folly," which have either been begun and then abandoned for lack of means to finish them, or have involved their owners in bankiniptcy by the time they were finished. Both cases are examples erf how people will foolishly rush into expenditure without considering whether they can afford it. . Thus it is plain that in- any undertakirig it is necessary to use forethought and judgment, lest we involye ourselves in unforeseen difficulties from which we may find it impossible to extricate ourselves. 60. THE VALUE IN LIFE OF A SENSE OF HUMOUR Outline ,(i) Definition. (2) Different kinds- of people. (a) The despondent, (6) The over-sanguine. . (c) Those with a sense of humour. (3) Its advantages. » (a) It helps a man to keep his temper. (b) It enables him to bear annoyances and trials. (c) It gives him discernment and sympathy. II i62 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY '' (4) Its value to — (a) Those who work under others. lb) Those who minister to the poor and degraded. (c) Those in high places. (5) It prevents errors of judgment or action. (6) Conclusion. Essay A sense of himiour is- that faculty of imagination which enables a man to see the ludicrous aspects of common events or notions. There are some people who always look on the dark, side of everything. In contemplating the past, they feel that nothing has gone right ; in dealing with the present, tl^y think every- thing is against them ; in looking into the future, tiiey expect the worst. Such Jjeopleare a burden notonly to themselves but to all about them. Others are light-hearted and careless, always expecting something to turn up, or someone ta-do something for them in all emergencies. Such 'people may find themselves pleasant c6mpany enough, but are hardly less irritating and troublesome to their ndghbdtirs than the pessimists described above. Between these extremes are those who are blest with a sense of humour, men who can take life seriously^ enough if need- be, but who yet can find relief in the most trjnng situations by being alive to their humorous side. Thus a sense of humour will help a man to keep his temper during an unpleasant interview ; it wiU prevent him from being irritated by petty persecutions ; and it will enable him to bear not only trivial annoyances but even serious troubles with cheerful- ness. JFor a sense of humour carries with it a clear insight into the inner values of things, and therefore assures to its possessor a true discernment and a sympathetic jnind. All these qualities are of the greatest advantage to a man in his journey through life. There are three classes of persons to whom a sense of humour is particularly valuable ; to the able man working under someone less capable than himself, or under someone who dislikes him ; to the clergyman or the missionary ministMing to poor and degraded people, where'the prospect of effecting an improvement must often seem dark indeed ; and* lastly to all who are in high places, where a cleaj jufigment of men and things, and. a capacity for keeping cool-headed and not taking offence are especially needful. REFLECTIVE ESSAYS 163 The possession of a sense of humour, too^ will often prevent a ihan from fornaing a wrong judgment or takiag a wrong step. For he who has this sense is able not only to view a matter from all sides, "but to " see himself as others see him " ; and this will often iiave him from blundering into an absurd or. untenable position. Like other faculties^ the sense of humour is innate, but it is also to some extent capable of cultivation ; and enough has been .said to show that the possession of so valuable a quality will well reward the pursuit of all. IV EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 61. PHOTOGRAPHY Outline (i) Definition. (2) Materials. (a) Camera. (6) Lens. (cj Sensitive plate. (3) Improvements. (4) The -Cinematograph. (5) Use in astronomy. (6) Conclusion. Essay Photography is the art of producing pictures by means of the action of light on a properly sensitised plate. The most, important part of the necessary apparatus is a dark box, called the camera.iyith a lens attached in such a way as to throw on a glass screen at the back a sharply defined image of the thing to be photographed. When the object is properly focussed, that is, when, by altering the positioii of the lens, its image is made as clear as fwssible, a sensitiseid plate is put in place of the glass to receive the impression. The process by which this impression is afterwards made permanent is called " fixing " the photograph. > The excellence of the photograph clearly depends on several things ] chiefly on the lens, the sensitiveness of the plate, and the subsequent process of development. All these have been Ihe subject of much study for years past, and great improvements have been, made in them all. The lens is important as affecting the clearness of the picture thrown on the screen, and many different kinds have been invented with a view to increasing this clearness without distorting the picture. The sensitiveness of the plate determines the length of exposure, and it is evident that a photograph of animate objects will be the more Ufe-like the less time is spent in the process of taking it. In the early days of EXPOSITORY ESSAYS I65 photogiaphy, several minutes were necessary for a sufficient impression to be made, but the discovery of more sensitives media has now made it possible to take a photograph in the fraction of a second. » This discoVery his introduced a new class of photograph called the cinematograph. This consists of a series of* photo-, grdphs of moving scenes taken in such rapid succession, that every phase of every movement is photographed. These photo- graphs are then passed before the eye in- succession at the same rate at which they were taken, so that the moving scene appears as it actually took place. One important service that photography has rendered to science must not be overlooked. It lies in the realm of astronomy. For~it has been found that the sensitive plate can receiye impress- ions from stars whose light is too faint to be seen by the most powerful telescope. Moreover it would be hard to say how much astronomers owe^to the fact that they can by means of photo- igraphy secure permarient records of phenomena that are too transi- tory to be properly studied as they take place. la fact photography jays us all under an obligation. Happy events of the past, scenes we have visited and friends we have known, are recalled to us by its aid. It is no wonder that with the cheapening of material, the passion for it grows, till the camera is becoming as much part of the-necessary equipment of the tourist as the walking-stick or the knapsack. 62. AIR Outline (i) Composition of pure air. (a) Oxygen ; its peculiarity. \b) Niti-ogen. (2) Respiration. {a} Oxj^gen unites with, other substances to create warmth. (6) Oxygen in this process changes into carbonic acid gas. (3) -loiportance of fresh air, (a) Necessary to life. ,' (6) Insufficiency of it causes jU health ; hence the Factory Acts. l66 liOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY (4) The supply of oxygen is kept up by — (a) "Hie vegetable world. (6) The winds. (5) Conclusion. Essay The atmosphere that surrounds our earth is composed of a mixture of two gases, nitrogen and oxygen. They are mingled in the proportion of four parts of nitrogeri to one of oxygen. This mixture is called air, and these two gases are the only constituents of pure air, though water vapour and caxbonic acid gas are both usually found, in varying amounts, in ' the atmosphere. The peculiar quahty of oxygen is to combine with other substances and produce heat'. This process of combination with oxygen is called burning, and if the air were composed only of oxygen, this burning would go -on too quickly. When we breathe air into our lungs the oxygen unites with the substances we have taken into our bodies in the form of food and creates warmth. When we take any violent exercise, v/e breathe more quickly and deeply and consequently thfr burning process goes ,on more rapidly, with the result that we become hotter than usual. But during the process of b eathing, the. oxygen which we take into our lungs is combined with carbon, and transfonned into a poisonous gas called carbonic acid gas, which the lungs reject. Thus we are continually drawing in oxygen into our lungs, and sending out cafboniclicid gas. We see then that if we sit in a closed room, we soon use up all the oxygen in the air of the room, and fill it instead witL carbonic acid gas. As we cannot live without oxygen, we should then die, and the reason why people do not die from sitting in closed rooms, is that there are always some cracks or holes- through which fresh air penetrates from outside. But though people seldom die from sitting in closed rooms, the want of oxygen makes them feeble and sickly, and does them serious harm. It is evident that if there are a great many people in the room, liiey use up the oxygen much faster than one person would do ; hence workers in factories often suffered from ill health for lack of sufficient air. Now, however, the Factory Acts of 1889 compel employers to provide 600 cubic feet of fresh air every hour for* each worker. But the question may be asked, if people are continually changing the oxygen in the air into carbonic acid gas, how is it EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 167 that the oxygen is not used up ? The answer is that though the animal world is thus constituted, the vegetable world reverses the process ; -for plants absorb carbonic acid gas, and give it out again in the form of oxygen. This is one reason why it is so much healthier to live in the country than in the town, because in the "former plant life. is so much more abundant. .But even in the most crowded towns the winds that are always blowing are doing the work of carrying away the poisoned air, and bringing fresh air from the county to take its place. Thus we see liiat fresh air is vital to our existence because of our need of oxygen, and the supply of oxygen is kept up for us by vegetable Sfe. Hence it is our duty to take care that we obtain as -much of it as possible, both by keeping windows constantly open, and by taking every opportunity of going into the country. 63. THE HISTORICAL NOVEL Outline (i) . Definition ; - two classes of historical novels. (2) Historical accuracy. (3) Scott the founder of the historical novel ; examples. (4) His successors. (5) Reflections ; -ought fiction and history to be inter- mingled ? Essay The historical novel is a story that is based upon the career of some well-known historical person or upon some great hist- orical event. Many of the characters and incidents may be purely fictitious, bur they have a backgrround of historical truth. ^ In some historical novels, as in Kingsley's Hypatia, the history occupies the chief place ; in others, as in Scott's Quentin Durwari, -the main'actors and events are fictitious ; they are only. placed, as it were, in a historical atmosphere. The writer of a" historical novel, if he aims at historical accuracy, would seem to have a harder task than the writer of pure fiction. For he has to curb his imagination and bijgd himself down to fact ; and at the same time so mingle the real and the ima^native Ihat they shall form a perfect whole. "If, on ^e l68 HOW JO WRITE AN ESSAY Other hand, discarding historical accuracy, he attributes to history the productions of iiis own brain, fact and fiction are apt to become so confused, that it is impossible- for the ordinary reader to distuinguish between them. Such a novel may be ' interesting, but it possesses httle historical value. Sir Walter Scott was the founder of the historical novel. Of the twenty-seven novels of the Waverely series nineteen are historical. Thus Waverley pictures the period of the Jacobite rebelUon of 1745 ; The Legend of Montrose deals with the opera- tions'of the royalists under Montrpsedn the High^nds in 1645- 46 ; Old Mortality describes the "rebeUion of the Scottish Cove- nanters ; Ivanhoe introduces us to King John and Richard Coeur de Lion j while Kenilworth gives us a vivid delineation of Queen Elizabeth and her favourite, the Earl of Leicester. Scott's most famous successors are Kingsley and Bulwer Lytton. To the former we owe Hypatia, HerewatJ^the Wake, and Westward Ho ; to the latter Rienzi, Harold, and The Last of the Barons. Thackeray in his Esmond and The Virginians, and Dickens in his Barnahy Rudge and Tale of two Cities, introduce historical characters or events, but the main outlines of the stories are wholly fictitious. Among more modem historical novels may be mentioned Disraeli's Lothair, Seton Merriman's Flotsam, Stanley Weyman's The Story of Francis Cludde, Walter Besant's, By Celia'-s Arbour, Charles Reade's The Cloister and the Hearth, and Eden Phillpot's The American Prisoner. ■ The question whether fiction and history ought to be inter- mingled, as they are in historical novels, may be looked at from two points of view, viz., from' that of art on the one hand and of utility on the other. There can be no doubt that the historical novel may be a work of true art, just as much as the historical drama or the historical epic. ; but on the point of utiUty it is not quite so easy to decide. We may, however, come to the conclu- sion that the confusion between fact and fiction referred to above as liable 'to be produced in the reader's mind by the historical novel, is more than compensated by the additional interest and vividness imparted to historical events by their being represented ip the picturesque garb of fiction. EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 169 64. STRIKES AND BOYCOTTING Outline (I) A strikp. (2/ Strikes the (modern) offspring of trade unions ; not like the old peasant revolts. (3) Causes of strikes ; their decrease. 1 14) Employers' federations ; their conferences with the unions. (5) Attempts to control strikes by — (a) Legislation. (6) Conciliation Boards. (6) Boycotting. (/i) Origin of the term. / (6) Explanation of the system." (c) Its cruelty. Essay When a body of workers in some particular trade agree to- gether to cease work in order to compel their employer to accede to some demand they make upon him, such a cessation of york is caUed a " strike." It is plain that a strike is only possible where the Workmen are organised, and so capable of concerted action. Hence it is no surprise to-Jind that strikes have taken place only since the formation of trade unions froin 1825 onwards, and therefore belong wholly to modem history. It is true that in earUer times the peasants on some estate, or even over a large part of the country, would rise in revolt against the hardships of their lot ; but such undisciplined outbursts have little, in common with the regular strikes of the present day. The most usual cause of dispute is the question of wages ; other^auses are the length of the working hours and the condi- tions under which the work is carried on. From the first forma- tion of trade unions, all questions affecting the hvelihood and conifort of their members have been their chief concern. And since the trade unions were looked upon with suspicion and disKke by those in authority, and even at first prosecuted as -illegal under the Conspiracy Acts.strikes were their orily effec'tive weapon for enforcing their demands. These unions have survived to become a power in the land, and have done much towards amelw^rating the conditio^ of the workmen, As the unions 170 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY increased in power and influence, employers became increasingly! more reasonable in considering the demands of their men, witl^ the result that there has been, under normal conditions, a gradual' decrease in the number of strikes. This decrease has been still greater since the formation of the employers' federations ; or rather since these federations have consented to treat with the trade unions on equal terms. These conferences have usually induced a more amicable spirit in the contending parties and resulted in agreements which lessen the liability of strikes. Unfortunately the trade unions have not always been strong enough to compel their members to abide by their decisions ; and in several instances the workers have gone on strike in defiance of their official leaders. Such an unwise pohcy, if persisted in, may end in the destruction of trade unionism. Since strikes involve financial loss to the community, as well as to the feniployers and their men, attempts havelaeen made by various Parliaments to control them by legislation, and, if possible, to prevent their occurrence. New Zealand and New South Wales have, since 1894, taken the drastic step of compelling the workers and the employers in each trade to form a Conciliation Board, to which aU disputes are to be submitted, and the award of which is to be accepted by both parties under pain of imprison- ment. Strilces are thus made" illegal. No other countries have g6he as far as this, but in England and in America Concilia- tion Boards have Jaeen formed to whidi disputes can besubmitted,x, if both parties agree to the proceeding. Boycotting is so called from the name of its first victim. Captain Boycott. It was instituted by the Irish leader, Pamell, in 1880, to further his scheme of ridding Ireland of English or Anglicised landlords, and making the peasants-ewhers of the soil. Boycotting has been briefly de&ied as " exclusive dealing," and is a kind of strike directed by the community against- some individual whom they wish to punish or coerce. A man who was placed under this ban was never spoken to by his neighbotirs, nothing^ was allowed to be sold to him or bought from him, no one was permitted to work for him or serve him in any way, his children were forbidden the village school, and he himself anathematised and driven from churcji by the village priest. . The cruelty involved in this system has condemmed it in the eyes of public opinion and brought it within the purview of the law. l\ was proscribed by the Pope in 1888, EXPOSITORY ESSAYS - I7I 65. TH£ HOUSE OF COMMONS Outline (i) Description ; -special functions. (2) Opening of Session. (3) Procedure. (a) Questions. (b) Debates. (c) Divisions. (4) Committees. {a) Of the whole house. (b) Select Committees. (5) PetitionsT conclusion. Essay The House of Commons is one of the, three Estates of the Realm by which England is governed. It shares with the House of Lords the power of int^ducing bills, but, being composed of members elected by the people, itpossesses the exclusive cons- ' titutional right of dealing with finance, both as regards taxation and the voting of supplies for the public service. When the House of Commons has been elected, the date of meeting is appointed by royal proclamation. The first duty of the Commons is to elect a Speaker or chairman, who is con- -firmed in his -appointment by royal assent,' the members are 'then sworn in, "and the House iff thus duly constituted. The business that is to be laid before the HoUse during the session is. announced in "the King's ^^ Speech, " which is sometimes delivered by the King in person, sometimes by a representative^ Tiie Speech having been replied to by an Address, the serious business of the session then begins. * First, Questions by individual members on matters that call for enquiry or that are open to criticism are replied to "By the Government. Next, the motions that are down on the Orders for the Day, are taken in turn, and put as questions to the- llouse by the Speaker. The members then- proceed to debate on the motion itself, and on any amendments that may have been proposed. A -members who desires to speak, rises in his place, and if two or more rise at the same times, the Speaker decides which shall, be permitted to speak first. A meniber may speak only once otv 172 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY ahy one motion. At the cqnclusion of the debate, unless the motion is withdrawn or agreed to, the members vote upon it ; this is called a Division. On either side of the House is^a lobby, and those who wish to vote for the motion pass into the right hand one, those against it into the left. If the voting is equal, the Speaker gives the casting vote. ~, In order to cope with large amount of business that the' House has necessarily to deal with. Committees are formed to consider special matters. These are of two kinds Pfirst, com- mittees of the whole House, which are presided over by a chair- man who sits in the clerk's chair; and secondly, select com- mittees, which ar» appointed by the House from among its members. The House goes into committee to discuss the de- tails of the bills before it, and the cliief difference of pro- cedure in committee is that members may speak as often as they please on any motion. The House forms itself into a special committee, called the Committee of Supply, when it deals with the estimates for Government salaries and other payments for public service ; and into another, called the Committee of Ways and Means, when it has to decide on the means of obtaining the money needed for these supplies. Once a year the Chancellor of the Exchequer lays before this committee his proposals for, obtaining this money by taxation or otherwise ; these proposals are called the " Budget ." When a measure before the House needs more enquiry and .consideration than the whole House tan conveniently give to it, it is referred to a Select Committee, which reports its investigations to the whole body. Besides making laws for the nation. Parliament receives petitions, and is bound to consider them with a view to redress- ing the grievances of the people. For the adequate performance of its varied functions, the House of Commons needs to be guided by able arid patriotic statesmen, and to be composed of men that fully recognise the duties and responsibilities of their high position. 66. THE POSTAL SYSTEM ^v •>' m Outline (i) Derivation of "post." (2) Development of the postal system. ~ (a) By the Hanse towns in 13th century, {l>) Edward I,'s mHitary posts, EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 173 (c) Regular posts in 1635. (d)- By mail-coaches. (e) By r^ilvyays. ~^ (/) ^By aircraft. {3) The penny Post. (a) When introduced, -^ (6) Previous postal charges ; illustration, (c) Extension abroad. (4) The Postal Union. (5) Post-office undertakings. ^ (a) Money Orders. (b) Savings banks. (c) Parcel post. {d) Telegraph and telephone departments, {e) Wireless telegraphy. , - > (6) Conclusion. Essay The word " pcmt " comes from the Latin positum, meaning " placed " or " fixed,*^ and has acquired its present-day meaning from the fixed points on the roads throughout the Roman Empire, at which were stationed couriers to convey despatches to Rome. The fn^t letter-post we hear of, in European history, v^as xrrganised amongst the Hanse towns early in the 13th century. It was a century later that regular posts were established.jn England, but even then they were chiefly used to convey King Ed- ward I.'s despatches from his Scottish wars ; and it was not till 1635'tl^at a regular letter-post for ordinary citizens was 'established. It was declared a Govermnent monopoly ; and, rthough various attempts have been made at different times by private individuals to institute letter-carrying businesses on their own account, they have al\i'a5rs been speedily suppressed. The einplojmient of mail-coaches in 1784 marks an important advance in the history of the postal system, while the intro- duction of "Sailwaj^ may be said to have revolutionised it. The first mails to go by rail were those between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. Letters are now sometimes dispatched by air-craft, and this method of carriage is capable of considerable development. The introduction of the Pejiny Post in 1840 by Sir Rowland Hill met with strenuous opposition at first, but proveji not 174 HOW TO Write an essay only of enonnous benefit to all classes of society, but also a great financial success. When we remember that previously;! no letter could be despatched for less than 4d. and that for a distance of only 15 miles, "we can realise somewhat the impor- tance of the change. Adhesive stamps, too, had not- been invented.vand the postage was paid by the receiver of the letter. The story goes-that what first suggested penny postage to Sr Rowland HUl was the following occurrence. As he was walking one .day down a village street, he saw -an oM woman take a letter fipm the postman, look a:t the envelope, and, too poor apparently to pay the fee, return the letter to him. Being sorry for her, he hastened after the departing postman, paid a shilfing for the letter, and presented it to the woman. She thanked him, but said he need not have taken the trouble, as there was nothing inside the envelope. She then explained that her son had gone to the north, and since it was impossible for her to afford a shilling for postage, they had arranged between them that as long as all was weH'with him, he should direct weekly to her an empty envelope I In^ 1901 penny postage for the whole British Empire was introduced, and in 1908 penny postage to the United States. _^ An international conference was held at Beme in 1874 to supervise the conditions of letter-carrying between different countries ; and all those countries that agreed to the suggestioii^ of the conference were included in a Postal Union. All- the" couhtries of Eiurope, the United States of America, and British India, were the original members of this Union ; but^ most other nations have sinfie joined it, Abyssinia in 1908 being the latest adherent. ,. The post-office has added many different undertaking to its original one of letter-carrying. In 1838, postal and jridiiey orders were first officially issued ; in 1861, Ae pogt-office savings bank was instituted ; in 1882, the parcel post was started. Not very long after the invention of the telegraph,, it was made a department of the post-office ;, and this, Edong with the tele- phone, is one of the few, departments that have been; and are still, worked at a considerable loss to the revenue. In igOQj eight wireless telegraphy stations were taken over by the Post-' office. - ''■ We have said enough to show the many and far-reaching activities of the Post-office. Probably few citizens, receivin'^ their letters two or three times a day as a matter of course, reflect EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 1)75 on the enormous amount of work involved in the collection and distribution of the vast numbers of letters — amounting to nearly ten miUion daily in the United Kingdom alone— that pass through the hands of the postal authorities. 67. ANCIENT AND MODERN WARFARE Outline (I) Difference between them owing to the use of gunpowder, (a) Ancient weapons used— (g) In Homeric battles. (6) In Classicaf~times. , (c) By ancient Britons. (rf) By Sa^fns and Normans. (3) Persoucil valour neuTraUzed by rifles and artillery. (4) Modem waiiaxe based on strategy. (5) Decreased deadliness of modem warfare ; explanation. Essay iThe difference between ancient and modem warfare is so great, that they hardly seem to belong_to the same category. This immense* difference has been brought About by the inven- tion of gunpowder and the consequent introduction of various forms of artillery instead of the ancient weapons for fighting at a distance. _ Of these the chief are the bow and arrow and the spear or javelin, which were and are found in use among all primitive ptoples. In the Homeric battles the spear and the sword seem to have been principally used. The hero went to battle girt with his sword, and carrying two spears, which he hurled in succession at his foe, and then closed with him sword in hand. Sometimes the spear, instead of being hurled, was used as a pike, as at the close of the last great fight between Achilles and Hector. In the later days of the Classical period many elaborate engines of war were devised : the battering ram, much qsed by Alexander the Great ; various forms of catapult for hurling both stones and spears ; a moveable tower, often many stories high, containing aU sorts of battering and hurUng appliances ; spiked balls, which were thrown in front of the enemy's cavalry : and sharp stakes placed in lightly-covered pits, stich as in later times Bruce used with such effect at Bannockburn. 176 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY Chariots with long scyjthes attached to the spokes of Ae wheels were used by the ancient Belgians and Britons. The chief weapons of the Saxons and the Normans were the sword, the lance, the mace, and the battle-axe ; while the EngUsh archers of the 13th and 14th centuries were famous throughout Europe. Since, with such instruments of warfare as these, the fighting was necessarily hand to hand or at fairly close quarters, it follows that personal valour was the most- important agent in deciding a battle. With the invention of rifles and artillery all this was changed, battles were fought at a distance, and the personal, element was largely done away with. The Elizabethan poet, Samuel Daniel, thus laments over this aspect of the matter: — " For by this stratagem, they shall confound All th' ancient form and discipline of war : ' Alter their camps, alter their fights, their ground. Daunt mighty spirits, prowess and manhood mar. For basest cowards from afar shall wound The most courageous, forced to fight afar : Valour wrapped up in smoke, as in the night. Shall perish without witness, without sight." With every fresh improvement in artillery, the tange of guns has incf eased, and with it the distances that separate the combatants. In modem warfare, the chief. responsibUty rests with the commander who directs the operations; for the results of the battle depends more upon his disposal of his forces than upon the courage of his troops. In modern battles the men sometimes hardly see the enemy, but simply shoot in the direction whence they see the^ enemy's fire coming. One at first surprising difference between ancient and modern warfare may be noted : viz. that in proportion to the numbers engaged (and it must be remembered tiiat a modem far exceeds an ancient army in size), though the deadliness of the weapons used has increased, the loss of life in battle has decreased. It appears that hajid-to-hand fighting, in which ardiers and spearmen marked and picked off their men, was really more fatal to those concerned, than the distant contests " wrapped up in smoke " of modern times. The rccison is that, as has been remarked above, much now depends upon strategy, and hence when once a general has found himself completely out-nianoeuvred, he' recognises that further fighting is useless. A modem battle is never fought7 as the old battles were, " to the bitter end." j EXPOSITORY ESSAYS I77 68. THE CENSUS Outline (i) Definitionj (2) History. (a) In Roman times. (b) In the Middle Ages. ' (c) In modern times. - (3) Methods. (4) Usefulness for social reforms. Essay The " census " is the name given in modern time^ to the enumeration of the people of any country, together with various facts about them, such as, age, sex, occupation, etc. The name comes to us fromJRoman times, when certain of the functions of a Roman official, called the censor, were iiicluded under the title of the census. One of these functions was the lenumeration of the people with a view to taxation. Thus these statistics corresponded more to the Domesday Book of William I. than to the census of to-day. In the days of feudalism the word came to mean simply taxation, without any corresponding idea of enumeration. In- deed the numbering of the people seems to have'Tjeen an idea wholly foreign to the thoughts of the Middle Ages, and even down to modem,times no serious attempt was made to discover the exact population of any countiy. Historians and geographers had to content themselves with vague, general estimates. When, however, the United States of America won their, Independence from Great Britain towards the close of the i8th century, it became a politiqal necessity for them to have statistics of the population in each State. We therefore find the first Congress prescribing a ten-yearly census, of which the first was taken in 1790. Great Britain followed the example of America in 1801. ' Various methods were tried, in order to arrive at the most satisfactory results. At first, classification according to the different trades and occupations was attempted ,' then classificar tion under townships and parishes. By degrees the machinery for obtaining and arranging information has become perfected, «o that at the present date the census gites the numbers and 12 178 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY ages of the people engaged in any trade, the number of inhabi- tants ±0 any given area, the number of people suffering from various physical defects, and o.ther items of valuable information. These statistics are useful in many ways : to those occupied with the amelioration of the condition of tiie poor, by providing them with Ijie means of calculating the average number of inhabitants to each house in the poorer ^3istricts ; to those concerned with the general health of the nation, by indicating the average length of hfe in the various trades. This latter is also useful for life insurance purposes. These statistics help to make it clear that the overcrowding of the towns, coupled with the depopulation of the rural districts, is one of the vital questions of the time. In the Enghsh census oi 191 1 provision for the first time was made for obtaining information from married people as to the duration of the marriage and the number owthe children; It would indeed be difficult to define the Umits of the usefulness of the census, or to say what parts of our 'complex national life may not be illuminated by the results obtained fromthis stringent and far-reaching enquiry into the number and condition of ihe people. m. DIRECT AND INDIRECT TAXATION Outline (i) Source of State revenue : — {a) Crown lands. (6)' Taxes. (a) Direct and indirect taxes defined. (3) Examples of direct taxes ; income tax. (4) Examples of indirect taxes : — (a) Excise and customs. (b) Stamp duties. (5) This classification not always accurate ; examples : — (a)^A tax indirect in England and direct in France. (b) Income tax on Joint Stock Companies. (c) A direct tax becoming indirect. (d) An indirect tax becoming direct. (6) Its convenience and universal adoption. Expository essays 179 Essay The Government of a country, it is plain, must have money to carry oh the affaii-ff of the nation. In old tiines this money was principaJly obtained from lands belonging to the king, and a few of these Crown Lands, as they are called, still remain iil most of the countries of Europe. ^ These revenues were, however, never quite sufficient, especially ik time of war ; and the additional money required was obtained by compelling all citizens to con- tribute somethkig towards the piibhc purse. These compulsory contributions are called taxes. It is from these that in modern times, in which the Crown Lands have greatly diminished and the expenditure of the country enormously increased, the principal revenues of the State are derived. - These taxes are of many differeat kinds, but they are usually classified under two headings, direct and indirect. A direct tax is one that is wholly paid by the person on whom it is levied. An indirect tax is one that is paid by a person who does riot bfear the burden of it, but charges it to others; who again may pass on the charge. The income tax is the standard type of the direct tax. Every one whose income is over a certain amoutit has to pay a Certain proportion of it to the Govcmmeilt. France has several other taxes that come under this heading ; as the land tax, the furniture tax, and the door and window tax. Chief among the indirect taxes are the excise and customs duties on articles of food, and the stamp revenues. Excise duties are charged on articles othome manufacture, while customs are charged on those imported from abroad. Alcoholic beverages are practically the only articles of consumption excised in England. Tobacco, sugar, tea, cofEee, and cocoa are the articles most com- monly subjected to customs duties. In all these it is clear that the manufacturer or the importer, in reckoning the price at which to sell his goods, will add to what he thinks a fair return for them the amoiint of duty he has to pay, thus passing on the tax to the consumer. AlT legal documents and many trade transactions have to be made valid by affixing a stamp of aj:ertain value. This institutes the stamp revenue, and the tax will be passed on by the person who pays it to those for whom he is doing the business. This division into direct and indirect taxation is a somewhat arbitrary one,^nd. it'is difficult to say under which heading some l8o HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY taxes are to be jdaced. Thus in England licenses for trading are reckoned as indirect, whilst in France they are included amoiigst the direct. Again, in certain special instances the most direct tax may become indirect. In the case of a joint stock company, for example, the company pays its income tax; and then passes it on, by deducting the amount from the dividends paid to the share-holders. On the other hand, taxes classed as indirect may, through force of circumstances, become direct. Thus, when in 1894, the beer duty in England was increased by six pence a barrel the price of beer did not rise, because the sum was too small to divide amongst the number of pints in the barrel. Again in Italy, when a tax was imposed on grinding com the millers in a small way of business, being unable to meet it, gave up their "trade, which thus fell into the hands of the larger millers ; and they preferred to pay the tax themselves out of these increased profits rather than put up the price of com. In both these cases the" tax was paid directly by the manufacturers. But this division, if somewhat arbitrary, is very convenient. After all, any classification in so complex a subject must neces- sarily be imperfect, and this one has 50 long been accepted by State Exchequers and framers of Budgets and is so prominent in all " Tariff Reform " and Free Trade discussions, that it must be accepted as the best that has yet been devised. 70. AIRCRAFT y Outline (i) Their' gradual development. (2) Two kinds : — (a) Dirigible balloons. (6) Aeroplanes. (3) Their uses :— (a) In war. r (b) As a means of communication, (c) For exploration. (4) Their future. I Essay Among the many wonderful inventions pi the nineteenth and twentieth centuries none is more wonderf^ or of more fascinating EXPOSITORY tSSAVS ' 18 1 interest than that of the air machine. Since the day when Daedalus winge^ his flight over the ^gean, man has desired and striven to use the air, as he has used the water, as a means of locomotion, and much money and ingenuity have been wasted in , fruitless attempts to fly. Now, at last, after years of labour and experiment a great degree of success has been achieved. Air niachines are of two kinds, dirigible balloons and aero- planes. Both are driven by means of motor engines ; but in the former the buoyancy is supphed 'by a cigar-shaped balloon from which the car is suspended, while the latter are supported in the air by a huge horizontal framework resembling wings, and rely for their buoyancy on the speed with which they travel. As with the large birds, the aeroplane provides itself with impetus for flight by running along the ground on small wheels attached to the machine. Count Zeppelin, a German, the brothers Wright, Americans, and a Frenchman, M. Bleriot, the first to fly across the channel, are among the best known inventors of these wonderful machines, whidi grow more numerous every day. The uses to which aircraft may be put are several. Perhaps the one most talked about at the present day is its use as an instrument of warfare. People discuss the number of soldiers it is possible to carry in an airship, and hpw air machines may best be utilized to drop bombs on the enemy below. Instead of having only two fields of action, war now has three, the land, the sea, and the air, and when an estimate is made of a nation's power it is necessary to reckon not only men, artillerj', and war-vessels, but aircraft as well. ■ But happily the capabiUties of the air machine are not confined to this questionable use in battle. The great speed attainable by these machines should largely increase the means of communication and the opportunities of trade, just as the invention of the steam-ship produced a flourishing commerce between countries which before its introduction had been to a large extent cut off from communication with one another. The exploration of unknown regions of the earth will also be facilitated by this invention,. An attempt to reach the North Pole in a non-dirigible balloon l^s proved disastrous ; but " in a few years," says commander Peary, " with the perfected aeroplane the field of exploration will be widened and expeditions rendered more easy." At the present day the cost of construction is too serious to l82 HOW TO WSlffi AN ESSAY allow of aircraft being generallj' used, butit has great possibilities in the future, and the tinie may come when, through the cheapen - ihg and improvement of this means of transit, it will be possible to visit every part of the earth's surface easily and quickly. The impetus that the air machine will then give to travelling will go far to create a more friendly spirit between the nations, and we may hope that Tennyson's vision of " the nations airy navies grappling in the centraJ Wue " wilt come to be regarded as so horrible, that, in deciding a quarrel, war will only the sooner for this invention give place to the peaceful methods of arbitra- tion. 71. TH£ USE MAN HAS MADE OF THE FORCES OF NATURE Outline (i) Introduction. ^~ (2) The two principal forces of nature. (a) Wind. (Ji) Water. (3) Steam as a force of nature; used for — (a) Locomotives. (6) Steamships; (c) Factories. (4) Conclusion. ' Essay Without the aid of the forces of nature, man would still be in a very primitive state. From early times he has turned these forces to his own use, and before the introduction of machinery they were inore under direct requisition than they are at the present day. The two chief forces of nature are wind and water. The former jSays an important part in various ways. Com is still ground by "means of mills that are worked by the wind, and land is drained by means of wind-pumps. SaiUng ships of all classes from the large merchantman to the small fishing vessels, - depend still for their means of progress on the wind. Jn all these cases man has adapted the instrument to take advantage of EXPOSITORY ESSAYS , 183 the force with which nature has suppUed hirti. For the mills he has made sails to catch the wind, together with an ingenious contrivance by which the wind itself turns the mill round so that it always has its sails facing the wind. The ship .with its sails is controlled by man himself, who has reached such per- fection in their handUng, that he can take advantage of the very smallest breeze to drive his craft through the water in any direction he pleases. The latter force, namely water, has been similarly utiUsed. Thus flour-miUs were once frequently worked by running water, and still, to sortie extent, use this motive power. The discovery of electricity moreover has brought this force into requisition in a prominent manner, since running water is used to work the machinery that generates electricity. A conspicuous example of this is the Niagara Falls, which are now largely used for this purpose. Steam may be indirectly called a force of nature, since it is another form of water produced by evaporation. This has proved a great stimulus to the introduction of machinery. Since the invention of the railway by Stephenson, steam has been used for working all kinds of engines. There is the railway engine by~means of which hundreds of miles of country can be traversed in a comparatively short time ; there is the engine that works the screw or paddle of hierchant or passenger ships and men-of-war, enabling them to cross the ocean far more rapidly and with greater safety than can saihng vessels, which depend on wind and currents ; and there is the steam engine that works machinery in large factories. Thus -it will be seen that the forces of nature, whether directly or indirectly, play a very important part in the material progress of mankind. 72. CYCLING Outline (i) Sketch of development of bicycle, (a) The hobby-horse. (6) ' TTie direct-action bifiycle. (c) Safety bicycles. ■(^Pneumatic tires. 184 HOW WRITE AN ESSAY (e) Ladies' bicycles. (/) The' free wheel. (g) Two and three speed gear, (A) Tricycles. (i) Motor cyclesv^ (2) Disadvantages of cycling. ' (a) Erom a pubHc point of view. v^ ft) Danger to foot passengers. (m) Danger to horses. (6) From the point of view of rider. ■ (j) Not such good exercise as some others. (m) Danger of injury to chest from stooping. (in) Danger to heart from over-exertion. (iv) Punctures. (3) Advantages. (a) Good exercise, in moderation. (6) Cheapness. (c) Convenience. % (d)' Pleasant and healthy -method of travel. Essay Bicycles had their origin in what was known as the hobby- horse, whioh was propelled by the rider, who pushed with his feet against the ground. After several developments, a form of bicycle came into use of which specimens may still occasionally be seen. It had a large wheel in front, and a small one behind, and the rider sat on a saddle about five feet from the ground and drove the machine by pedals acting directly on the axle of the large wheel. A good many years ago, however, this was superseded by the type of bicycle now generally used. This later was at first known as the safety bicycle, because it was thought that, as it was so much lower than the old kind, there would be less danger of the rider's being injured, if he fell off ; but as it is also much faster, this expectation has not been realised." Soon after the introduction of these bicycles, pneumatic tyres t.e.,, tyres inflated with air, were invented, which added greatly to the comfort of the rider ; and as it is much easier to learn to ride the modern bicycle than its predecessor, there was at once a igreat inprease in the popularity of cycling. It was about this tinje als\that bicycles for ladies came into use. EXPOSITORY ESSAVS 185 Some years later a further step in advance was made by the introduction of the free wheel, or wheel that ^vill revolve while the treadles are at rest. A still later improvement is the invention of two and three^ speed gear, by means of which the rider, by touching a lever, can make his gear either high or low according to his requirements. Thus the low gear, which involves less exertion on the part of the rider, is suitable for going up-hill or against the wind. The high gear is used when the travelling conditions are easy. Machines with three wheels, working on similar principles to bicycles, are also constructed ; but the majority of cycUsts prefer, the two-wheeled machine, as it is more convenient in most ways, and the initial difficulty of learning to keep one'§ balance on it is much more easily overcome than one who had never tried it would be apt to imagine. Motor cycles are also increasingly used, but to speak of them would fall more properly under the head of rhotoring than that of cycling.. The enormous increase in the number of cyclists which followed the introduction of safety bicycles sometimes caused inconvenience to other people using the roads. Foot-passengers were injured by reckless ridfers, and horses were apt to take fright at the new machines ; so that a considerable outcry arose against them. This gradually died away ; but it is im- portant that all cyclists should scrupulously obey the rules of the road, and be careful not to do anything that might annoy or endanger other people. Besides the objections which may be brought against cycling from the point of view of the pubhc, sometiiing may be said against it from that of the individual. As an exercise, it is not so good as riding on horseback, or walkihg, or rowing. .The stooping position so often assumed by riders is bad for the chest and back ; and over-exertion on the part of the cyclistr especially, in riding uphill, may lead to injury to the heart. As a means of travel, cycling has also the drawback of liabiUty to delay through the puncturing^of the pneumatic tyre. As against these objections it may be said that as an exercise cycling, if indulged in with moderation, is good, even though there may be other' better ; that it is cheaper than riding on horseback ; that as a means of. travel it is extremely .convenient, saving time, enabling the rider to visit many places which he could not reach on foot, and making him independent of public conveyances ; while as "compared with railway travelling, it is not l86 MOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY only healthier and pleasanfer, but also gives the traveller an opportunity of seeing much more of the countiy through whieh" he is' passing. 71. CHARACTER OF HAMLET Outline (i) It makes the tragedy of the play. (2)' Its good qualities. - (a) Aifectionateness. (6) Unselfishn^s. (c) Self-control. (rf) Wit. (e) Shrewdness. {/) Wisdom. (g) Courage. {3) Its bad qualities. (a) Moral weakness. (b) Morbid imagination. (c) Oversensitiveness. (4) Concluding remarks. Essay As in the case of Othello and King Lear, the secret of the tragedy of Hamlet lies in the character of the hero ; but, unlike the other two plays, Hamlet opens in an atmosphere of storm — " Something is rotten in the stat« of Denmark," the King has been dead but two months, and the Queen has married his brother. Thus we never see Hamlet under normal conditions; - and in judging his character, it is important to remember this. The strain and stress under which he lives and acts must in the end leave him better or worse. Hamlet, at our first introduction to him, shows himself to be a man of strong affections, which have received two severe shocks, the sudden death of his father and the shattering of his respect for his mother. From the former he would have re- covered, but the second leaves an indehble scar. Naturally of a faithful disposition, he cannot easily obKterate old memories ^: in the midst of his grief he can feel a natural pleasure at the sight of even such friends as Rosencrantz and Guildenstem ; EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 187 and there is something ahnost pathetically courteous — something that speaks alike of his unselfishness and his self-control — in the words of welcome with which he turns to Horatio and his companions when the despairing cry of " Oh God, God ! " has scarcely left his Ups.^ This self-abnegation- jeaches its height in his repression of his Ipve for OpheUa until he shall know the result of his vengeance. He will not drag her into the whirl- pool of family dishonour. Again and again throughout the play his never Jailing wit comes to his rescue — a wit which in happier circumstances would have been bright and humorous, but now becomes cynical and poignant. Along with this goes a shrewd- ness and a power of penetrating the minds of men, so that neither the plotting King nor Queen, Polonius, Rosencrantz, nor Guildenstem can hide their designs from him ; and behind all this there hes a greater and graver wisdom, which realizes the foUies and failures of Denmark, and which might have mii.de him its reformer. In all that concerns himself alone he is able to act with promptness and decision, nor is personal courage lacking ; he dares to follow the apparition " though hell itself should gape." Upon his own life too he set but little value ; so that, at first sight, it seems extraordinary that he should not immediately vk'esk the vengeance demanded by the ghost, instead of continually vacillating as he does, with the burden of unpaid filial duty upon his conscience. " But with all his viilues, Hamlet is the victim of an innate weakness of character, and the pity of it is that this weakness is the outcome of his mental gifts. His is an artistic nature, endowed jvith great powers of thought and imagination, which are ovenvorked till they become morbid, and simply provide him with arguments for inaction. A bom actor, he enacts in his own mind the part of criminal as well as that of avenger; hence time after time he shrinks from the task of killing his uncle,'whilst his oversensitive nature finds it hard to inflict pain on a mother whom he still loves. Thus he wavers until fate itself intervenes and strikes down the many instead of the one. Yet, in spite of all, as we see him lying dead, we cannot but join in Fortinbras's eulogy : — " Let four captains Bear Hamlet, like a soldier, to the stage ; For he was likely, had he been put on, To-have proved most royally." l88 HOW to' WRlTt AN ESSAY 74. TRAVELLING Outline (i) Modern increase of travelling. (2) Old methods of travelling. {a) By land. (6) By water. (3) Modern methods of travelling. (a) By land . (6) By water, (c) By air. {4) Advantages of travelling. » {a) To nations ; promotes peace and trade. (6) To individuals ; gives health,, pleasure, and new interests. Ess^y As civilisation advances, the means of- travelling grow cheaper and more convenient, and the number of travellers steadily increases There are old men and women still living who have never passed the narrow hmits of their own town or village ; but instances of this kind are few, and grow fewer every day. The reason for this will be evident by a comparison of old methods of travelling with the methods of to-day. In the olden time travelling by land or water was expensive and uncomfortable, and, in addition, comparatively' slow. All long distance travelling by land had of necessity to be performed in those days either on horseback or in some ■^ehicle drawn by a horse. Passengers and mails were carried from place to place by stage coaches at the rate of some ten or twelve miles an hour,', For the sake of greater speed and convenience post-chaises, too, were used, more especially By the rich, who would also utilize their private conveyances and themselves provide the necessary relays of horses. Travelling by water was equally laborious and more dangerous. Sailing vessels, being at the mercy of the winds, were liable to be driven out of their course, and were often obliged to wait many days for a favourable breeze. ; so that a sea voyage was attended by a great deal of risk and uncertainty. Owing to the discovery of steam power and electricity our modem methods of travelling are very different. England is EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 189 covered with a network of railways, and express trains hurry passengers from one end of Europe to the other. The journey from Calcutta to Allahabad, which formerly occupied several months, can now be accomplished in a single day. Besides carriages .driven by steam, we now have a large number of electric trains both underground and overhead, and an extensive service Of elecrtic tramcars. The use of the motor-car, a swift, pleasent though still somewhat expensive, mode of travelling, is growing more common every day. The same discoveries, which have thus transformed land traveUing, have much improved the conditions of voyaging by sea. Steam power has produced the great ocean-liners which' now pass regularly to and from all parts of the world, witfiout the need of consulting wind or current. Indeed, so perfected is this means of locomotion, that steamers coming from distant Australia are able to calculate within a few hours the time of their arrival iji England. These huge Uners moreover supply their passengers wilh every comfort and even luxury, so that they have been justly described as " floating hotels." Another element now bids fair to be utilized generally for travelling purposes. The old floating balloon has never proved a very satisfactory means of progression, but lately by the use of motor power it has been made dirigible, and the invention of the aeroplane, seems to herald the conquest of the air as a medium of -locomotion. It is not improbable, that in the next Century aircraft may become almoat as common as motor cars are now. The advantages to be gained from travelUng are mahy7 In the first place it promotes peace and brotherhood among mankind. For the more people, of different nations intermingle, the more are amicable feelings likely to be fostered among them. The stranger is the enemy, and speaking generally, suspicion Ues at the root of war. In the second place travelling gives a stimulus to trade and commerce, by bringing people into touch with one another and opening up new markets. And, thirdly, for the individual, travelUng provides health, plea- sure, and instruction. Of these the last is the most important effect, especially in the case of the young. For gravelling, when it is wisely planned and conducted and does riot consist of a feverish rush from place to place, both enlarges the sympathies and widens the intellectual horizon, by the fresh interest and the igo HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY ever-new experiences of human life that it brings. Well does Shakspeare observe of one who " spends his youth at home^" that he " cannot be a perfect man. Not being tried and tutored in the world." 75. TH£ ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH Outline (i) Method of working. — (a) Principle of electro-magnet. (6) Morse Code. (2) Histdry of invention. ^ (a) When introduced. (6) Geean cables. (c) Wireless telegraphy. (3) State and private ownership. {4) Uses of telegraph, (a) By newspapers. (c) In commerce. (6) In government business. id) In military operations./- (e) By private individuals. Essay. ^ The electric telegraph is an application of the property of electricity by which, if an electric current is passed through 'a coil of insulated copper wire surro&iding a bar of iron, this 1bar is for the time being converted into a magnet, losing its magnet- ism again as soon as the current ceases. If then such an electro- magnet be connected with one end of a wire, and if another piece of iron or steel, capable of turning about a fixed point, be placed near enough to this magnet to be attracted by it, an operator at the end of the wire will be able, by transmitting and cutting off an electric current, alternately to deflect this second piete from,' and restore it to, its normal position. Noth- ing then remains but to arrange a code by which different combinations of these movements shall represent diiferent letters; of the alphabet. The code generally used in telegraphy is that EXPOSITORY ESSAYS I9I known, from the name of its inventor, as the Morse Code, in which the letters are represented by combinations of dots and deishes, a dot being indicated by a quick movement and a dash by a slower one. Tlie electric telegraph came into use during the iirst half of the nineteenth century, having been invented independently, at about the same time, by Wheatstone in England and Morse in America. At first it was regarded as Uttle better than a scientific toy ; but a proof of its practical utiUty was sOon given by the capture of a murderer, who had fled by train from the scene of his crimfi, and would probably have escaped, if a message requesting his arrest had not been sent by telegraph to the station at which he was due to arrive. Perhaps the two most striking developments in the subsequent history of the electric telegraph have been the introduction of ocean cables and the invention of wireless telegraphy. It is still too soon to say whether this latter is likely to supersede the ordinary telegraph ; but it is already coming into general use on board ships, especially men-of-war and the larger passenger steamers ; and by enabling those on board sinking vessels to summon help, it has^ already saved many lives. In most countries the inland telegraph lines, like the post office, are owned and managed by the Government ; but some inland telegraph lines, and the majority of ocean cables, belong to private companies. The newspapers are among the chief users of the electric telegraph, and by its means they are enabled, within a few hours or perhaps even a few minutes of the occurrence of important or interesting events in distant parts of the world, to publish an " account of them. Press messages, in view of their numbers and length, are generally sent at lower rates than are charged for others. The telegraph, is also extensively used in commerce, in the business of Government, in nulitary operations, and by private individuals who have messages to send requiring im- mediate delivery. It has saved an incalculable amount of time and money ; and in addition, by caUing in timely aid, such as that of the doctor in cases of sudden illness, the telegraph, on land as at sea, has often been the means of savir^ life. 192 HOW to WRITE AN ESSAY 76. ARCTIC EXPLORATION Outline - (i) Reasons for which lindertaken. (a) Search for North- West Passage. (i) Whaling. (c) Love of adventure, and scientific curiosity.-- (2) Carried on by — ;' (a) Ships. (b) Sledges. (c) Balloons. (3) Dangers and discomforts. . (a) Storm and fog. (6) Dreary scenery and absence of life. (c) Rough and difficult travelling. (d) Snow blindness. (e) Darkness of winter. (/) Intense cold. (g) Moving ice. (4) Fascination of arctic regions' for explorers. Essay The earlier arctic exploring expeditions, like the voyages of Columbus which resulted in the discovery of America, were chiefly undertaken with the object of finding a new trade route to India. It was thought that a1;hannel might be discovered^ to the liorth of America by which ships could sail from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean ; and it was only after the sacrifice of many lives and much treasure that the attempt was abandoned as impracticable. One of the most famous of the explorers who devoted themselves to the search for the North-West Passage was Sir John Franklin, who perished in the ice with all his men. It has since been proved that such a passage exists, J and quite recently a Norwegian captain, with a few com-* panions, sailed through it in a small vessel : but it is too. much encumbered with ice to be of any value for commercial purposes. Among the* earlier visitors to the arctic seas there were also many who went in pursuit of whales^ The whale fishery is still EXPOSITORY ESSAYS I93 Carried on, but its importance has much decreased through the discovery of petroleum. Arctic exploration was thus begun for jpractical reasons; but even after these had lost most of their force, it was not abandoned. There is a large class of men for whom the prospect of adventure, of overcoming difficulties and penetrating where no one has ever been before, has great attractions ; and the later arctic explorers have besides been actuated by the hope of obtaining information of scientific value. The aim of most of them has been to reach the North Pole, and many expeditions have been sent out with this object ; till at last the world was startled by the announcement that Commander Peary had succeeded in achieving this feat. Arctic exploration has been carried on, to a large extent in ships ; but as there is land in the polar regions as well as water, and ice covers much of the sea itself, sledges and teams of dogs to draw them are a necessary part of the equipment of an arctic . expedition. Schemes have also been proposed for reaching the Pole by balloon, and one explorer, Aiidree, actually made the attempt some years ago ; but he has never been heard of since. It is quite possible, however, that modem developments in aircraft may make this method practicable. Besides the dangers of storm and fo* to which navigators in all latitudes are exposed, arctic exploration has its own pecuhar perils and discomforts. The e:q)lorer must travel through scenery dreary in the extreme, with no sign of life anywhere, and nothing to be seen but ice and snow ; and these not smooth and easy to travel 'over, but rugged and intersected by dangerous crevasses, so that he can often advance only a few miles in a day. In the summer he is in danger of snow-blindness, brought on by the dazzling glare of the sun on the snow ; in the winter he must pass long months in darkness, illuminated only by the aurora boreaJis. The cold is so intense that if he touches any metal objects with his bare hand they will bum him as though they were red-hot ; and he is in constant danger of frostbite. The ice is a continual source of peril to him". ; When travelling over what looks like a soUdly froz^- surface, he may suddenly find that movements caused by gale or currents in open water miles away have cut him off from the shore, and left him adrift on a floating island ; while his ship, however, stoutly built, is hable to be crushed like an eggshell between moving masses, or even if not thus dest|-byed, to become so firmly ^3 194 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAT? embedded ^hat it is impossible to extricate her, thus exposing him to the risk of death by starvation or cold. In spite of these drawbacks, however, the arctic regions seem to have for many men an irresistible fascination. Their pure, keen atmosphere has an exhilarating and bracing effect \ on mind and body ; and though practical people may ask whether any- thing that can be gained by arctic exploration is worth the risk and suffering that it involves, its attractions for the explorers themselves are too strong for such a question to trouble them. 77. THE TRAMWAY Outline (1) Origin of the tramway. (a) Friction lessened by rails. - (b) Introduction of railways. (2) Differences between the tramway and the railway. .{a) Railway for long distances, tramway for short. (b) ^^ailway on special road\ tramway on street. (c) Railw^ carriages form trains, tram-cars run singly. (d) Intervals of starting. {e) Distances betv/een stopping places. if) No stations on tramways, (g) Methods of charging fares. (A) Names given to vehicles. (3) Methods of traction. {a) Horses. (6) Steam, (c) Electricity. (4) Advantages of the tramway. (a) Makes locomotion easy. (6) Prevents overcrowding in towns. Essay It was long ago discovered by engineers that a vehicle would travel with much less friction on rails than on an ordinary jroad ; and that therefore on a railway a given load could be drawn at EXPOSlTOliY BSSAYS I55 a given, speed, with a much smaller expenditure of power. It was this discovery that brought railways into general use. Later on it^was perceivecj that rails might be used in connexion with passenger traffic for short distances and between different parts of the same town withT as much advantage as for long distances and between different towns ; and so tramways came into existence, and are now found in almost all towns of any import- ance throughout the civiUsed world. The tramway is thus really a particular kind of railway ; but it differs from the railway in several respects. Generally speak- ing, it may be said that the railway is a line for the carriage of both goods and passengers for long distances, and the tramway a vline for the carriage of passengers for short distances ; and most of the points of difference between them arise from this difference in their use. Railway trains, however, are frequently run for short distances, and the distances for which trams are run are gradually getting longer, so that railv/ay and the tramway now very often come into competition. The railway is built on a specially constructed iroad, which is exclusively reserved for the trains ; while the tram-rails are laid oh the ordinary streets. A large number of railway carriages are usually coupled together and drawn by one locomotive, the whole formihg what is known as a train ; but tram-cars are generally nin singly, and seldom more than two or three together. Railway trains start at com- paratively long intervals, and trams every few minutes. The distances between the stopping-places are also for the most part longer on a railway than on a tramway ; and tramways, have nothing resembling a railway station, except sometimes a shelter- shed for passengers. Formerly it was the common practice for trams to stop whenever passengers \^anted to get on or off ; but now as a rule there are regular stopping-places, marked merely by an inscription, put up in some convenient place, ta the effect that tram-cars stop there. On most railways the fare charged is in proportion to the distance travelled ; but on tramways the line is usually divided into a number of stages, and the fare charged is according to the numbef of stages over which the traveller has passed, the fare being the same for the whole of a stage or part of it. For example, if a passenger entered the tram near the ^lid of one stuge, trilled through the whole of the next, and then went a -little way on into the third, he would have to pay the full fare for three stages. It may also be mentioned that in England the vehicle which runs on a railway is galled a railway carriage, igS HOW to WRITE AN ESSAY and that on a tramway is called a tram or tram-car ; but there is often very little except the difference of name to distinguish them from one another, and in the United States of America they are both called cars. -" Tram-cars were at first drawn, by horses, and later steam was also tried ; but both these methods of traction are now being rapidly superseded by electricity ; whith has been found to be speedier, cleaner, and more economical. The electricity for the tramway is generated by powerful machinery at a central station called the Power House, and conveyed to the trams sometimes undergroimd, but more often by an overhead wire. There is no good thing that may not be put to a bad use, and it does sometimes happen that the tramway encourages, laziness, and that people who would be much the better for more exercise get into the habit of riding even for the shortest dis- tances : but on the whole it is a very useful and convenient institution. It renders passage easy from one end of a town to another, and in many large towns, Where it was very difficult fpr people to get houses, and where the dweUings of the poorer classes were very much overcrowded in consequence, it has done a great deal to remedy this evil by making it possible for people to live further away from thfeir work. 78. THE POETRY OF TENNYSON Outline (i) Its melody and careful workmariship. (2) It pictures nature rather than mankind ; is wanting in dramatic power. (3) It reflects the science of his age. (4) Its high moral purpose. Essay Tennyson's poetry is remarkable far its combination of lofty thought with perfect melody of rhythm and diction. The saying that "' Genius is an infinite capacity for taking pains " finds ample illustration in the works of Tennyson. For he polished and repolished his verses unremittingly, and the only poem he, seems to have left uncorrected in his manuscript is the well known lyric, '• Break, break, break, On thy cold grey stones, O sea ! " And EXPOSITORY ESSAYS I97 yet none of his poems appear to be laboured except those of his early years. Wien Wordsworth made alterations it was almost always for the worse, but Tennyson possessed the true artistic nature, and is as careful in the framework as in the subject-matter of his poetry. He is a true musician, with an ear for all the cadences of harmonious rhythm. This is well seen in that most mtisical of all his compositions. The Lott{s-eaters, in which sense and sound are inextricably inter- woven. As here, Tennyson is almost always happiest when he has nature for his subject. , Many instances have bpen pointed out of his minute observation of natural phenomena. Take only these two examples : — " Hair . More black than ashbuds in the front of March. " " Blasts that blow the poplar white." Tennyson, indeed, is not^ a dramatic poet. He is little , touched with human affeirs. The men and women he has sketched for us are nearly all as shadowy as Arthur, " the grey ^cing " of his Idylls. His early verses on different types of women are graceful but colourless, and among his other poems the only- character that stands out is that of the " Princess," while perhaps the most attractive is the " Gardener's Daughter," who, however, is pictured rather as a rose among roses than as a woman of flesh and blood. His men as a rule are even more characterless than his women — witness the heroes of The Princess and of Locksley Hall, and the morbid lover of Maud ; though to these " Will Waterproof " forms a healthy contrast :— " And yet; tho' all the world forsake, Tho' fortune clip my wings, I will not cramp my heart, nor take Half views of men and things." * — But evetThe does not Uve before us as do the men of Browning. The scientific discoveries of his day are strongly reflected in Tennyson's poetry, anS have given birth to some of his finest utterances, as in Maud : — ^ ; " A monstrous eft was of old the Lord and Master of Earth. For him did the high sun-flame; and the river billowing ran. And he felt himself in his force to be Nature's crowning race. As nine months go to the shaping an infant ripe for his birth. So many a million ages have gone to the making of man." Yet while he beheved in the advancing light of science, Tennyson clung to his old faith amid the doubts,,of his age, and igS HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY in after days he drew from these very doubts his philosophy of life, expressed in such poems as The Ancient Sage and De Pro- furidis. After the troubled unrest of Shelley and Byron comes the moral calm won by Tennyson and Browning. With all his artistic power and loye of the beautiful, Tennyson, 'Uke Words- worth, ever-takes for his motto "Art for Humanity's sake," condemning in Xlie Pala'ce of Art with no. uncertain voice the fallacy of " Arts for Art's sake." Glowing with pure truth and high endeavour, his poetry is a ,beacon-hght to those who are ready with him to " follow the gleam " : — ',' We needs must love the highest when we see it. Not Lancelot or another." 79. THE GAME OF FOOTBALL Outline (i) Class of games to which football belongs, (2) A winter game. (3) Varieties. (a) Rugby. - (6) Association. (4) Objections to football. (a) Brutality. (b) Danger. {5) Answers to objections. \ (a) Not unreasonably dangerous. [b) Cultivates good qualities in players, ^ Essay Football is one of a class of games in which the object of the players on each side is to drive a ball across a certain line, or between two posts whiclv -constitute what is known as their opponents' goal ; and of course to protect their own goal from the attacks of the opposing players. Other well-known games of this class are polo, hockey,- and lacrosse. / Football involves such violent exertion that it would be i^hriost inipossible to play it in 'ko\ weather ; but it is a good game EXPOSITOEY ESSAYS I99 t - for cold weather, especially as it does not require siich a smooth turf as many of the summer games. In England it js as popular from Novehiber to April as cricket is from May to October, if not more so ; and though the climate of India is not so suitable for it, even there football is extensively played. There are two main varieties of the game of football, Rugby and Association. The former derives, its name and its rules from Rugby School, an English vpubhc school which became famous under the head-mastership of Dr. Arnold. A well-known passage in that celebrated book, " Tom Brown's School Days," describes the game as played there. In that game there was no limit to the number of players on either-side ; but in Rugby foot- tiall, as it is now played, the opposing teams nuniber fifteen each. The Association game, which is so called because it is played under the rules of the English Football Association, is played by eleven on each side. The ball in both games is made of pigskin and inflated with air ; but in the Rugby game an ovalball is used, and in tjie Association a spherical one. There are a number of differences in the rules, but the principle of the two games is the same. The tendency of modem developments of football has been to give greater importance to combined play^than to individual achievement, and a good footballer - plays for his side rather than for himself. i Football is necessarily a rough game, and if the players lose control of their temper, it sometimes- degenerates into mere brutality ; while serious and even fatal accidents occasionally happen even when it is properly played. For this reason there "^re many people who disapprove of the game altogether. Its advocates, however, contend that there iran element of risk in aU athletic sports, so thatXit is only a question of degree, and that football is liot unreasonable dangerous ; more- over that it tends to cultivate in its votaries qualities of mind and body such as strength, agility, presence of mind, courage, self-command, and unselfishness, which will not only make th'eni better players, but better men and better citizens. 200 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 80. VOLCANOES Outline (i) Foipiiation of volcanoes. (a) Lava. (b) Vapours and Gases. :(c) Cone and crater. (d) Fissure eruptions. (2) Active and intermittent volcanoes. (3) Description of volcanic eruption; [a) Earthquakes. (6) Cloud of dust and vapour. (c) Darkness.. y Id) -Ashes, dust, stones, mud, and lava. (e) Tidal waves. " ( ) Landslips. (g) Alteration of shape of mountain. [h) Appearance and disappearance of islands. (4) Well-known volcanoes. Essay The heat of the earth's interior is so great that rocks are melted by it, forming what is known as lava. Vapours and gases are also generated in large quantities, and where these can find any vent .they force their way to the surface, often expelling before them with great' violence fragments of soUd matter which have obstructed their path ; while the lava may also be driven by pressure from beneath to seek the Same outlet. The materials thrown out usually fall over a wide extent of country ; but: both they, and the lava as it cools and solidifies, naturally he thickest immediately around the vent. Thus a^ conical hill or mountain is gradually formed, having, a funnel-hke depressiorir at the top, called the crater, through which fresh matter is from time to time ejected. This is the commonest form of volcano; but what are called " fissure eruptions " also occur, in which lava, instead of issuing from a round hole, wells up through a crack or fissure in titie surface of the earth, and sometimes flows away without forming any cone or crater. Some volcanoes are constantly active, though varying from time to time in the decree of ^heir activity. Others are inter- EXPOSITORY ESSAYS 201 mittent, remaining quiescent for long periods, perhaps even for centuries, and then breaking out again with a violence intensified by their interval of repose. Thus the celebrated eruption of Vesuvius which destroyed the towns of Pompeii and Hercu- laneum — the first volcanic' outburst of which we have any authentic record in European history — took place at a time when the volcano liad been so long inactive that it was generally believed to be extinct. Volcanic eruptions vary considerablyin their details ; but they are always among the most terrifying and destructive of natural phenomena. They are usually preceded by earthquakes ; then a dark column of vapour, impregnated with dust, shoots up from the crater to the great height, and spreads out at the top like a tree. Lightnings play round ^the^ cloud thus formed'; and often it envelopes the country for miles around in darkness. Then the volcano discharges sometimes a fiery whirlwind of burning ashes ; sometimes a shower of dust, stones, or hot mud ; sometimes a torrent of boiling lava. The great eruption of Krakatoa, in the Straits of Simda, caused t dal waves which destroyed an enormous number of lives ; while in the eruption of Bandai San, in Japan, the whole side of the mountain broke a^ay, and came down in one huge landslip on the villages below. It frequently happens that the shape of the volcano is com- pletely changed by the outburst r sometimes whole islands disappear ; and sometimes new ones are thrown up from the depths of the sea. Other well-known volcanoes, in addition to those already mentioned, are Etna in Sicily, Stromboli in the Mediterranean, Hekla in Iceland, Kilauea in the Sandwich Islands, Cotopaxi in the Arldes, which is the highest active volcano in the world, and Mont Pelee in the French colony of Martinique in the West Indies, an eruption of which some years ago destroyed the town of St., Pierre, with terrible loss of life. 202 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS WITH NOTES I. NARRATIVE ESSAYS 7- 8. 9. 10. II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17- 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 24. 25. 26. 27- 28. 29. BO- SI- 32. 33- (a) Historical eveni^ and LEGENDS. The reign of Edward VII. The story of the Ramayana. The story of the Mahabharat. The Spanish Armada. The story of Sakuntaia. Invasions of India (i Greek — Alexander ; 2. Scythian ; 3. Arab ; 4. Turkish — Mahmud : 5. Tartar — Timur ; 6. Moghul ; 7. Persiarir^Nadir Shah). The Pindaris. The battle of Plassey. The first Burmese war. The battle of Agiacourt. The Sikh war, 1845-9. The history of the Parsees. The Crimean war. The Frenc h Revolution of 1 789 . The story of the Pilgrim Fathers. The battle of the Nile. The Mahrattas. The Portuguese in, India. The Dutch in India. The Thugs. The battle of Poitiers. The third Crusade. The defence of Arcot. The battle of Crecy. The story of Boadicea. The story of Grace Darling. The Turks in Europe. An arctic expedition (Cf. Essay 76). The story of Ulysses and the Sirens. King Alfred and the cakes. An incident in Indian History, The s^ory of Solon ^ndCrcesus, 34. The battle of Hasting^ (of Senlac). 35. The story of Tantalus. 36. Androcles and the lion. ^ 37. The dog of Montargis. 38. George Washington and his little axe. 39. Any great siege. 40. Any great rebellion. 41. Metz and Sedan in the Fran- co-German War, 1870. 42. The fort of Gwalior. 43. An inpident in Epglish history. -- 44. The story of Milton's " Para- dise Lost," - 45. The reign of Akbar. 461 The. insurrection of the Duke of Monmouth. 47. The massacre of Glencoe. 48. The Gordon riots. 49. The battle of Trafalgar. 50. The siege of SebastopoL 51. The first ascent of the Matter- horn. 52. The Reformation. 53. Any great sea fight. 54. Any great land fight> 55. Jack Cade's insurrection. 56. The revolt under Wat Tyler. 57. The rising of the Young Pretender 'in 1745, 58. The assassination of EarlMayo. 59. The siege of Port Arthur. 60. The Russo-Japanese War. 61. The Cossacks. 62. The siege of Plevna. 63. The story of " The Merchant of Venice." 64. The story tif Alexander Sel- kirk (Cf. "Robinson Crusoe.") 65* The story of "The Lady of the L^k?," SUBJECTS FOTR ESSAYS 203 66. The story of " The Tempest." 67. "the conquest of the Sudan, 1898. 68. The - passing of «the Reform >3ill of 1832. 69. The wars of the Roses. 70. The relief of Lucknow. 71. Tlie conquest of Canada. -•J2. The Roman occupation of Britain 73. The siege of Calais. 74. The conquest of Wales. 75. The White Ship. ^76. The 100 year's war. 77. Llewellyn and his dog. 78. The Norman conquest. 79. The battle of CuUoden. 80. Bruce and the spider. 81. The Boer war, 1899-1902. 82. The battle of Thermopylae. 83. England's conflict with Napoleon I. 84. Thestoryof Scott's"Marmion" 85. Our relations with France in the 15th century. 86. The battle of Blenheim. (6) Incidents, Stories, etc' 1. A steamboat journey.. 2. How I spent my hoUdays. 3. A railway journey. 4. Caught in a cyclone at sea. 3. A tale told by an old' soldier. 6. The traping of the elephant. 7. A fairy tale. 8. A balloon adventure. 9. A true story. 10. A night at sea. 11. A brave-deed. .12. A holiday ramble. J 3. A ghost story." 14. Sow I shot my first tiger. 15. A journey by mail cart (or coach). ■ ' 16. The theft of the jewels. 17.. A walk through a great city. 18. A rescue frpm a house on fire. ;9. How the hill-fort was cap- ti(red, 20. 21. 22. 24. 25- 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31- 32. 33- 34- 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. 41. 42. 43- 44- 45. 46. 47- 48. 49. 50- 51- 52- 53. 54- 55- 56. 57- 58. A fight with a boa-constrictor. An . adventure with an elephant. Caught by the tide. A shipwreck. The duel. How I once played truant. The runaway horse and carriage. " » The story of Ali Baba^and the forty thieves. Tl>e fable of the fox and the goat. , An accident.^ A race for life. . The land-slip. An incident in my life. A great plague. A trip by aeroplane. , A journey roupd tbe world. Lost in the j uugle. ^ Two stories of wild animals, tamed by kindness. An imaginary account of a shipwreck. A tale of a cat (cf. Essay 6). Gulliver in Lilliput. Alice in Wonderland. The life of a rat on board ship. The story of Faithful in "The Pilgrim's Progress." A mischievous monkey. Picture England suddenly de- prived of steam, electricity, and gas. A succ^essful experiment. A sleigh ride. A capsize.- Caught in a shower. An unpleasant surprise. A day at the seaside. A noble deed. A strikiug scene i^ any play that you haVe read. A ride in a motor-car. Supposing ypurself left in charge of a village shop for a day, recouivt your experiences, A voyage by submarine. The visit of a celebrity to ypnf - town. 204 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 59. Life on a, large farm. 60. An unexpected piece of luck. 61. A day's fishing. 62. Out with the fire engine. 63. A walking tou^. 64. A haunted house. 6^ . An imaginary visit to a famous author. 66. Snowed up in a train. 67. *A journey in a tramcar. 68. The story of a coin ; its birth, life, and experiences. 69. A cricket matcS^ 70. A hockey match. 71. A football match. 72. Kindness rewarded. 73. An alarm of fire. 74. Life in a manufactory. 75. A difficult errand. 76. A disappointment. 77. A visit to a country fair. 78. Life on board ship. 79. A story. 80. Speech-day at your school. 81. The laying of a foundation stone. 82. A picnic. "^ ' 83. A military review. ' • "..' _" 84. A boating tour. 85. Sindbad the sailor.^ " 86. A cruise in the Mediterranean. 87. The adventures of an um- brella. 88. A bicycling tour. *~ S"*:-"!^'-,' . 89. A day at an Exhibition. 90. Missing the train. 91. A clever stratagem. 92. A faithful dog. (e) Biographies. 1. William Ewart Gladstone. 2. Thomas Beket. 3. Sakya Muni (or Gautama Buadha). 4. Asoka. 5. Frederick the Great. 6. Clive. 7. Lord William Bentinck. 8. Ranjit Sipgh. 9. Francis Bacon. lOi Rammohan Roy. 11. George Washington. 12. Sir Walter Scott. 13. Macaula,y. 14. Oliver Cromwell. 15. Your favourite hero. 16. Sir Walter Raleigh. 17. Cardinal Wolsey. 18. Siyaji. 19. Warren Hastings. 20. Vasco da Gama. 21. Lord Dalhousie. 22. Milton. 23. Sir Isaac Newton, 24. Joan of Arc. 25. George Stephenson. - 26. Peter the Great. 27. Cowper (See §15). 28. Garibaldi. 29. Napoleon I. 30. Keshub Chandra Sen. 31. A short life of some great man 32.Tf Socrates. gfNi 33.^- Your favourite heroine. 34."* SamueL Johnson. 35. Lord Macaulay. 36. The Earl of Mayo. 37. Dupleix. 38. Mary, Queen of Scots.- '^ 39. The Duke of Marlborough.' 40. Savonarola. 41. David Livingstone. 42. General Wolfe. 43. Sir John Moore. 44. Chandra Gupta (or Sandro cottus). — • 45. Richard I. of England. 46. Timnr. 47. Baber. ' 48; Oliver Goldsmith. 49. Mohammed. 50. John Howard. 51. 'Owen Glyndwr (or Glen- dower). 52. Saladin.' 53- Louis XIV. 54. Sir Francis Drake. 55. Constantine the Great. 56. Victoria, Queen and Empress 57. Abraham Lincoln. Subjects for fiSSAYS; 2e>5 58. General Gordon. 71- 59- The Karl of Beaconsfield. 72. 60. Colonel Burnaby. 73- 61. General Skobeleflf, 74- 62. LordDnfierin. 75. 63- Julius Caesar. 76. 64. Gambetta. 77. 65. Mazzini. 78. 66. Ignatius Loyola. 79. 67. The life of your favourite 80. author. 81. 68. Lord ^jJisbury, 1830-1903. 82. 69. Joseph Chamberlain. 83. 70. The life and work of any great historian. 11. DESCRIPTIV EES (a) Animals, Plants, Fruits, 30- Minerals. 31. 32. I. Snakes. -33. 2. The cow. 34- 3- Rice. 4- The cocoanut palm. 35- 5- The tiger. 36. 6. Fruits, Indian and Engjish. 37- 7- The Indian crow. 38. 8. The agriculture products of 39. Bengal. 40. 9. The cuckoo. .41. 10. Fishes and fishermen. 42. II. The elephant. 43- 12. Petroleum. 44- 13- The carrier pigeon. 45. 14- The bufialor 15- 16. The pptato. ChaK: 46, 47- 17- The kite. 48. 18, The apple. 49. 19. 20. Clay. *TrSe mongoose. 50. 51- 21. The human eye. 22. The zebra. J2. 23. The ostrich. 53. 24. Bees. 54- 23- The cat. 55- 26. The tamarind tree. 56. 27, Cocks and hens. 28; The chestnut tree. 29. The cobra. 57- Rudyard Kipling. The Duke of Wellington. King Edward VII. Alfred the Great. WUliani the Conqueror. William Pitt, the elder. Shakespeare. Lord Kitchener. Florence Nightingale. Queen Elizabeth. William of Orange. Henry VIII. • Charles I. Salt. Cork. The Indian rhinoceros. The owl. Extinct animals (in human times). Indian tl^es. The bat. The duck. Birds and their habits. The Hon. Domestic animals. Fruit tree^. The human body. Indian Flowers. A sponge. Draught-beasts and beasts of burden. Beasts used ifor riding. Wasps. Butterflies and moths. Iron and its uses. Pearte. Any two animals useful to man. Creeping plants. The wild boar. The dog. Slate. Whales (Ptoducts : i. Whale- bone; 2. -Spermaceti; 3. Train-oil). The eagle. 2o6 ttOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 58. Ants. to8. 59. The seal. rog. 60. The palmtree. no. 61. The rpse. III., 6z. The parrot. 112. 63. The wolf (Cf. in mythology 113- and legend ; the werwolf). 114. 64. The jackal. 115- -Ss. The ass. 116. 66. The goat. 117. 67. The spider. 68. Gold) 118. 69. The hippopotamus. 119. 70. The orange. 1 20. 71- Tin. 121. 72. The adjutant stork. 122. 73- Glass. 123. 74- The sugarcane.^ 124. 75- Maize (or Indian corn). 125- 76. Diamonds. 126. '77- Silver. 127. 78. The jackfruit. 128. 19' The Sheep. 80. Lead. 81. Copper. \ 129. 82. The rat. 130. 83- Antidiluvian animals. 131- 84. The white ant. 132- 85. The girafie. 133- 86. The oyster. 134- 87. The' mouse. 135- 88. The locust. 136. 89- The silkworm. 137- 90. The hawk. 138. 91- The kangaroo. 139 92. The lark. 140 93- The tortoise. - 94- Ljzards. 141. 95- Frogs and toads, 96. The shark. 97- Crabs. 98. The sword-ffsh. 99- The flyinJg-fish. 100. The scorpion. lOI. The centipede. I. 102. The cricket. 2. 103. Flies. 3- 164. The snail. 4- X05. Earth-worms. 5. 106. The hedgehog. \ 6. 107. The mole. 7- The fire-fly. Cotton (See §16). Wool. An egg. The mango. English* trees. English flowers. Melons. The pineapple. The rabbit (i. Its fecundity ; —str-^is destructiveness.) The eucal3rptus. The mocking bird. The sensitive plant.- The sundew. The reindeer. The oak tree. Edible roots. Edible berries. Steel. Hops. The bent-grass (Note its use in annexing and colonising sand-chines) . Jhe bear.- Ivory. The daisy. — The sparrow. Marble. Stone. The geranium. The salmon. The five senses. Any fruit-tree. Any foreign vegetable product. The. character and behaviour of a dog or any pet animal. The history of a butterfly or a swallow or a salmon. (6) Towns, ports, ships,' buildings, etc. An Indian temple. Westminster Abbey. Stonehenge. Venice. Udaipur. New York. Delhi. SUBJECTS FOR ESSAVS 207 8. Amritsaiy 57. 9- Windsor casWe. 58. lo. Bombay. 59- II. A ruin. 60. 12: Darjeeling. 61. 13- The town or village in which 62. yoii live. 63. 14- Indian seaports. 64. 15. Paris. 65. 16. Dwelling-houses, Indian and 66. European. 67. 17-' Docks. ,68. 18. Sydney. '69. 19. A pagoda. 70. 20. Rock-cut temples. 71- 21. The Coliseum. 72. 22. Chicago. 73- 23- Agra(5eeri6). 74- 24. The port of Calcutta. 11: 25. A cathedral. 26. The great wall of China. 77- 27. A;lighth>j.use. 78. 28. The-Eifiei tSwer. > 79- 29. A school-room. 30. A jail. 80. 31. A museum. 32. A mosque. 8i. 33- A village school. 82. 34- A cotton mill. 83. 35- The pyramids of Egypt. 36. A bridge over a great river. (c)C 37. Benares. 38. River ghats (or landing stages) I. 39- Madras. 2. 40. An Indian fortress. 3- 41- Ahmedabad. ~ 4- 42. Mandalay. 5- 43- Aden. 6. 44- Colombo. 7- 45- Fort WilUam, Calcutta. 8. 46. Quebec 9- 11: The Crystal Palace. 10. Lhassa. II. 49. Rangoon. 12. 50.^ Birmingham., 13- 51- An Indian hill-station. 14. 52. An English watering-place. 15- 53- Edinburgh. 16. 54- The Kew Gardens. 17- 55- St. Paul's Cathedral. 56- Stratford-on-Avon. The Thames Embankiiieilti Petrograd. Rome (ancient or modern), The Port of Bristol. Constantinople. Liverpool. Poinpeii. Pekin. Dublin. The Taj Mahal. Alexandria. Moscow. A locomotive engine. The Tower of London. A motor car. A bicycle. A ruined abbey. A great liner. A life-boat. ,- A fire-engine. The interior of a church. A dreadnought. The Mpital of any foreign country. The chief seaports of the United Kingdom. The Albert Memorial. Khartoum. f London in the 14th century. (c)COUNTRIES, ISLANDS, MOUNTAINS, SEAS, RIVERS. An Indian river. Africa. The Mediterranean Sea. Japan. The Suez Canal. > The Niagara Falls. The Himalayas. The Ng4:ive States of India. The river Nilfe. The West Indies. Ceylon. The Khyber Pass. The river Ganges. The river Thames. The Black Sea. Alaska. The Australian Common- wealth {Name the Colonies included; area, climate, 2o8 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY natural features ; products, chief towns) . i8. Egypt. 19. Cashmere. 20. The river Indus. 21. The Panama Canal. 22. The South African Federation. 23. The Dominion of Canada {of what States composed ? New- foundla/nd not included) . 24. The Victoria Falls. 25. The great lakes of North America. 26. Oudh. 27. The river Danube. 28. Mont Blanc. 29. -English possessions in Europe {Enumerate them ; say how acquired ; their advantages and disadvantages). , 30. Enghsh possessions in Asia. 31. English possessions in Africa 32. English possessionsinAmetica. 33. The Atlantic Ocean {Length and bfeadth ; river-drainage ; depth ; islands ; commercial routes) . 34. The Pacific Ocean, 35. The Turkish Empire. 36. The Baltic Sea. 37. The Indian Ocean. 38. Afghanistan. . 39. The Congo Free State. 40. Siberia. 41. Crete. 42. The river Euphrates. 43. Switzerland. 44. Malta. 45. The English Lake District {Cf. Essay 33)- 46. An important English Colony or Dependency, 47. The lakes aiid rivers of Ireland. 48. The Scottish Aighlands. 49. The Amazon. 50. Thibet. 51. Russia.. _ 52. The great lakes of N. America. 53. The Alps, 54. The Andes. 55. New Zealand, 56. The rivefs of France. 57. The Trossachs. 58. The United States of America {d) Aspects and phenomena of Nature. 1. An orchard. 2. The rainy season in India. 3. The hot season in India. 4. The cold season in India. 5. Mountain scenery. 6. A moonlight'night. 7. An Indian jungle. 8. A village at sunrise. 9. An evening walk. Id. A garden. It. Sunrise in the plains. 12. Night in the jungle. 13. Some scene of natural beauty. 14. A summer nigBt. 15. A waterfall. •16. A sunset. 17. A great river in time of heavy TaJB, 18. Early morning in a great city. 19. A thunderstorm. 20. The plains of Bengal. 21. A great desert. 22. The seaside in winter. 23. A flood. 24. The physical conformation of India. 25. Sunrise in the mountains. 26. Spring in England. 27. Winter in Russia. 28. An American prairie. 29. A busy city sbreet— 30. Autumn. 31 . A heavy fall of snow. 32. A Devonshire lane. 33. Norwegian scenery. 34. A wet day. 35. The banks of the Thames. 36. An English forests ' ;-o' 37. The picturesque featurtS^of your district. ,j (e) ManuJ-actured articles, I. A watch. SUBJECTS FOE ESSAYS 209 2. Silk. 3- Gunpowder. 4- Material fo/ clothing. 5- , Bread. 6. Tea. y. Coffee. 8. Opium. 9- Paper. IP. Any great picture or statue that you have- seen. II. Butter. 12. Tobacco (S«? § 16). 13. p 14- 13- 16. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. A bullock-cart. ' Leather. Indigo. Cocoa. Agricultural implements. A pianoforte. Sugar (1. Cane sugar, 2. Bee sugar, 3. Palm sugar, t^ Maple i^sugar). Cheese. Wine. Beer. III. REFLECTIVE ESSAYS. 2. 3. 4- 5- 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. II. 12. 13. 14. 15- 16. 18. 19. .20. 21. 22. 33. 24. 25- 26. 27^ 28. (a) Habits, Qualities, etc. The importance of bodily exercises. Kindness to animals. Self-denial. ' Humility. _ Obedience to parents. Good taste. Philanthropy. ■ PoUteness. Contentment. Character {What it is ; its manifesiations and results) . Idleness {See § 17). Tact. Bad habits {How they are pro- duced ; their effects ; how to overcome them) . Punctuality (" The politeness of kings "). Truthfulness, thrift. Health, and how to preserve it. Moral courage {Strength of mind ; " moral " is opposed to "physical"). Instinct and reason (How they IStiffer ; have animals reason ?) The pleasures of hope. Zeal. Charity {See § 6). Heroism (See Essay 49). Carelessness. Tnie bravery. Self-reUance. Patriotism. Solitude. 29. 3°- 31- 32. 33- 34- 35- 36. 37- 38. 39- .40. 41- 42. 43- 44- 45- 46. 47- '48. 49. 56- 51- 52. 53- 54- 55. 56. 57- Perseverance. Loyalty. Superstition. Contentment. Suspicion. Luxury (See § 13). Ingratitude. Imagination. Irritablity. Flattery. Toleration. Popularity. Obedience to authority. The different kinds of cour- age {i. Physical^ 2. Moral, 3. Intellectual). Courtesy (Based on sincerity, tolerance, hindlinesij self-re', straint, unselfishness). . , , Revenge. Making a right use of time. The cultivation of the memory. Cheerfulness. Intemperapce. Selfishness. Fastidiousness. - Optimism and pessimism, (Hopefulness and the reverse). Sympathy. - •' Taciturnity (Its causes, gains, and losses ; cf. " Speech is^ silvern, silence is golden"'^. A sense of duty. - * Wisdom. Enterprise. Curiosity (Cf. thirst for know 14 210 HOW TO WRIT&-^N ESSAY ledge as opposed to inquisi- tivemss). 58. Exaggeration. j9. Enthusiasm {Contrast with fanaticism) . 60. Envy. j6i. Decision of character. 62. -Temperance. 63. Good humour. 64. Self-conceit. 63. Falsehood. 66. Sympathy. 67. Thoughtlessness. 68. Manliness. 69. Of&ciousness. 70. Knowledge and wisdom com- pared (C/. Cowper, " Task," VI. 88-97). 71. Deafness and blindness (WAicA is the worse ? How they are ameliorated) . 72. Presence of mind {Self-posses- sion ; calmness in the face' of danger). 73. Avarice. 74. Business habits. 75. Self-control. 76. Pride (See § 22). 77. Industry. 78. Prejudice. 79.- Extravagance. 80. - Justice. 81. Forgiveness. 82. Patience. 83. The true gentleman {Charac- ieristics : _ i . Good manners, 2. High principle, 3. Liber- al education, 4. Refinement of feeling,^ 5. Consideration for others). 84. Hospitality. 85. Self-help. 86. Parental affection. 87. Keverence. 88. Playing truant. 89. Early rising. 90. Secsecy {Cf, reticence, reserve, and t^o. 53,) -^ 9T. Affectation. 92. Credulity. 93. Gonscieo^ousness. 94. Cowardice. 93- Anger (Cf. Essay 58). 96. Companionableness. 97- Sensitiveness. 98. Talkativeness {Cf. No. 53). 99- The formation of character as the true end of education (Cf No. 10). 100. The sense of duty and its influence on conduct. lOI. True greatness. 102. The memory, and how to cultivate it. 103. Jealousy. 104. Discipline. 105- Mercy or Pity. 106. Self-sacrifice. 107. Benevolence. 108. Fear; 109. Eloquence as a power in the world. 110. The power of habit. III. Piety. 112, Humility. 113- Duty. , 114. Modesty. ^ 115- Rashness. 116. Thoroughmess. 117. Sincerity. t 3- 9. (6) Social, Pomticai., and Domestic Topics. The advantages of passing a Matriculation Examination. . Holidays and how to spend them, " Be it ever so humble, there's no place like home ". (The advantages and the intexests of family life). Friendship. The influence ^ gclod example. Female- education. The study of Science. The value of time (Includes the importance of making a good use of one's time). The importasce' of the study of drawing; " Virtue is its Own reward " {See § 7). ■ SOBJECTS FOR ESSAYS 2tl II. 12. Il- l6. XI- l8. 19- 20. 21. 23. 24. 25- 26. 27. 28. 29. " Many hands make light work " (When apiece of work is distyibuted_ among many workers, it- is easily accom- , plished. This is different from. No. 157.) ■ Famines. " None are coiiipletely happy" {Cf. "No rose without a thorn" Vegetarianism (Living en- tirely on vegitable foof[\ . " Familiarity breeds con- tempt " (Cf. ,'• No man is a hero to his valet.") " Vice brings its own punish- men.t " (Vicious habits bring suffering upon those who indulge in them). Making the best of things (To be resourceful in the face of- ■ misfortune or difficulty). The uses and ^vantages of foreign travel. Death. Education. " Knowledge is "Power " (Cf. Bible, Proir. xxii, 5 ; " A wise man is strong "). Where there is a, will there is a way " (// you are deter- , mined upon a business, you will find a means of carry- ing it out). The sources of happiness (i. Health; 2, A compe- tency ; 3. Congenial work ; 4, Family affection ; 5, A good conscience.) Fame. The benefiis of commerce. " Well begun is half done " (In any work, if you make a good beginning, half your difficulties are over). , The choice of a calling or profession. Tfo importance of the study of history. " Penny wise and pound foolish " (To he careful about small expenses or little mat- ters, and to be careless about great ones). 30. The effects -of wealth on national character. 31. The choice of books. 32. " Slow and steady wins the race " (Cf. the fable of the hare and the tortoise). 33. Holidays & how to spendthem. 34. Competitive Examinations. 35. " Fire is a good servant but a bad master " (Fire is useful for cooking, etc., but if it gets beyond control, it may burn the house dotan). 36. Borrowingmoney./C/.£ssaj'5J^ 37. The practice ot keeping a diary. , ' 38. Rebgious persecution (Has it - ever succeeded in its object .') 39. " One man's meat is another man's poison " (Different things suit different persons j' people's tastes and disposi- tions vary). 40. Conscience (The extent of its authority. Does it require to he instructed ?) 41. Genius and talent compared. 42. "Better to wear out than to rust out " (Cf, Scott : '' One crowded hour of glorious life Is worth an age with out a name " and Tennyson : " Better twenty years of Europe than a cycle of Cathay " ; and No. 279.) 43. Heredity (The transmission/ of qualities, etc., from parents to their offspring. Compare its influence with - that of environment^ ' 44. Parliamentary government. 45. " A little learning is a dan- gerous thing " (Imperfect knowledge of a subjict leads to error, which is corrected by further knowledge). 46. The Renaissance (or Revival of Learning). 47. The Stone and the Bronze 212 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 48. 50. 51- 52. 53- 54- 55. 56. 57- 58. 59- 60 <63. ages {The period when stone- '■ implements were used was succeeded by the period of bronze implements). " Hone^y tis the best policy " (See § 7.) The advantages to a native of India of a knowledge of English. ^ " A rolling stone gathers no moss " (Owe who is change- able and erratic cannot thrive ; keep to your choice — of sub- ject for study, of professiont of place, of abode, etc.) - How to spend one's leisure. poverty {The poor man is — I. Dependent on others, 2. Unable to provide for the future, 3. Limited -in his enjoyments and aims) . " Murder will out " {A mur- derer is sure to be detected in the end. How far is this true ?). - Prosperity and adversity. Civilisation, its blessings and its evils. I " Necessity is the mother of Invention " (A man who needs must do a thing will find out a means of doing it) . Oratory. {See Essay 46). " To thine ownself be true" {Follow the dictates of your higher nature ; do what you know to be your duty). " Nf'thing venture, nothing have" {Nothing of impor- tance is achieved without -:some risk). Technical education. Self-culture . " Thrice is he armed vthat hath his quarrel jusF" {A righteous cause is the best incentive io sUStessfui effort, " Know thyself " {Make a study of your own character, aims, etc., with a view to self-discipline) . 64. Socialism {Community 0/ 3 labour, land, and capitt^^^ opposed to Individualism^ I 65. Hobbies {Favourite pursuits). 66. Archaeology {The science of. ancient civilizations ; their art, monuments, inscriptions, etc.) 67. Opportunism {Waiting upon opportunities ; acting in accord- ance with circumstances.) 68. Free trade and Protection. jSg. Compulsory education {If compulsory, it must be free). 70. " Genius is an infinite capa- city for taking pains " {How. far is this true)." 71. Work and wages. 72. Family life. 73. The nationalisation of rail- ways {Should railways be- long to the State ? If so, on what principle ?). 74. The nationaiisation of land (Afo<« that land is^^ natural monopoly) . 75. The use and abuse of ridicule. 76. Biography and autobiogra^gljy {Compare advantages .and dis- advatftages ; ef. Southey^ Moore, Trevelyan, St. Augustine, Mill, Rousseau). 77. The laws of war {Interna- tional laws or rules to regu- late warfare; of what use?) 78. School friendships.' 79. The influence *of climate-«n a nation's amusements. 80. The power of the tongue, the pen, and the sword compared. 81. The- Indian student in Englanfl-^ j 82. "There is nothing new undeif* the sun " {Man has no crea- ■ live power ; history ' repeats itself', but not true of scien- Hfic discoveries). 83. Public opinion {Cf. " Vox populi vox Dei " : "the voice ; of the people is the voice of God "). , 84. The importance of little things. > , SX)»jECtS FOlR teSSAYS 213 85. The advantages and disad- Vcintages of the adoption of a universal language (C/. ^ "Volapttli"a,nd" Esperanto"). 86.' Luek and chance. 87. The power of custom. 88.^ Anonymous letters {Discuss any cases wherf they are — permissible) . 89. " Great honours are great burdens "- {High dignity brings cares and responsibi- lities ', , cj. " Uneasy, lies the head that wears a croivn "). ^ 90. ; Democracy. 91. tnterafttional disafmament (C/. Nos. iqp, 215, and Essays 41, 56). 92. '• Little strokes fell great oaks" _{Patient assiduity over- comes all difficulties). 93. ^Fashion. 94 . Simple -pleasures . 93. Public Meetings. 96. England) the mother of Parliaments. 97. " A stitch in time saves nine " , {Apply a remedy at once and so prevent future trouble); {Cf. No. 124). 98. Religion and morality {How far is morality based upon religion .? Can morality \ exist alone ?). 99; Feudalism. ioo. The promotion of peace {Cf. No. 91.) loi. Electioneering {Its methods — fair and unfair, legal and illegal, right and wrong). 102. Schdol Inspection. 103. ' History is the biography of great men " {History is made up of the doings of great jnen. How far true .'). 104. "The study of foreign lan- guages. 105. Town and country life com- pared. 106. Free education {Cf. No. 69). 107. Yivisoction {The dissection of live animals for medical or scientific purposes). 108. Reverence for antiquity. 109. '' Time is money " {Time J wasted might have been spent in earning something) . no. " Honest labour bears a lovely face " {Honourable toil is happy and praise- \ worthy). 111. The spread of the English language. 112. "A straw shows which way the wind blows " {Bui a trivial word or action is not always a guide to character). 113. The influence of the Press, 114. " You must Cut your coat according to your dloth " {Do not go beyond your re- sources ; spend according to your income). ' 115. Childhood. 116. The power of kindness. 117. ''The exception proves the rule '' {The exception tests the rule ; that there are ^certain exceptions shows that a rule exists). 118. Social equality {Is it attain- able ?) 119. " Self-trust is the first secrdt of success " {Distinguish between a right and a 'wrong self-confidence). 120. Commercial speculation (Cf. Essays 43, 51). 121. The introdnction of gymnas- ■ tics into schools. 122. The advantages and disad- vantages of cheap literaturis. 123. The value bf books {Cf. § 6). 124. " Prevention is better than cure " {e.g., it is better to "'ward off a plague by good sanitation than to apply remedies after its appear- ance. Cf. No: 237). ' 125. Soldiers {Ranhs and duties ; voluntary service v. con- scription ; See No. 164.) 214 HOW td WR1T6 ArJ ESSAV 126. Manhood. 127. ' ' Make hay while the sua shines " {When a good oppor- tunity occurs, rnake use of it ; Cf. Nos. 136, 138, 150). 128. Arbitration as a substitute for war. (See Essay 41). 129. " A miss is as good as a mile." {Whether you are within a little or much of . gaining something, the result is the same. Is this always true ?) 130. " A penny saved is a penny gained " {Be thrifty ; little expences quickly mount up ', use of savings bank ; cf. " Take care of the pence and the pounds will lake care of themselves "). 131. Dealing by interviews and by correspondence compared. 132. " The tongue is an unruly evil " {Cf. Nos. 80, 210). 133. "The burnt child dreads the lire " {A painful experience makes us cautious in the future). 134. Bargaining. 135. Sleep. 136. " Strike while the iron is hot" (See No. 127). — 137. Money. 138. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush " {Take what you can get ; future gains are uncertain ; Cf. No. 127). 139. The use and. abuse of speech (Cf. No. 132). 140. The benefit a man derives from having to work for his living. 141. "More haste, less speed"' (Poing a thing quickly, often , means Joing it badly.) ' 142. Early marriages. 143. Indian vernacular literature and its improvement. 144. The advantages of the study ^ of geography. 145. " Rome was not built in a day " {Do not expect to achieve great things in a short time). 146. Bores. - 147. " Every man is the architect of his own fortune " (You must depend upon yourself for success). 148. A debating society. 149. Conversation. 150. " Time and tide wait for no man " (Make use of an oppor- tunity ; it may not recur : Cf. No. 127). 151. Capital punishment (Should it be abolished ?j. 152.. Bribery;- 153. The shortness of life. 154. Old age. 155. The right emfdoyment of our time. 156. " Union is strength " (When men combine, they may accomplish much). 157. Division of labour {Appor- tioning the separate parts of a work to separate workers. Point out its advantages qnd disadvantages.) 158. Desultory habits. 159. School education and private tuition compared. - 160. Phonetic spelling (Spelling words as they are pronounced: describe its advantages and drawbacks) {Cf, No. 228.) 161. " All that glitters is not gold"" (Outward,- appearances are deceptive). 162. The advantages and dis- advantages of Britain's being an island (Cf. IV, (a), 134) 163. Our rights and duties in relations to animals. 164. Conscription (Compulsory: military service ; advantages - and disadvantages see Nos. 125. 2I5-) 165. Teetotalism. 1 66. Bimetalism (The use of both SOBJECtS FOK ESSAYS 215 „ silver and gold money as standards of value). 167. Millionaires {Are they bene- ficial or harmful to the ■ community •'). 168. Ideals of character. 169. The divine right oi kings. 170. Eepresentative government. 171. State-patronage. 172. Imperialism (i. true, moral 2. false, materialistic. Cf. " Jingoism "). 173. The iimuence of Shakspeare 1. Extent; 2. Causes; his broad, human sympathy ; his expressiveness ; his know- ledge of character and life). 174. Misers {How dees miserliness differ from thrift ? Cf. the Elweses). 175. Advice and advising. 176. ^aJiitation. 177. The difference between wit and humour {Wit is coldly intellectual ; humour has warmth of feeling. Wit is .- ^ sharp and subtle, humour is genial and sympathetic ; wit sparkles ; humour glows). 178. Old age pensions. 179. Essay-writing 180. Precfs-writing. 181. The pleasures of schckjl life, 182. " No smoke without some fire " {Often false ; a slander may have no foundation I whatever).' 183. Corporal punishment {In " schools, the army and navy, fails, etc.). 184. "-Half a loaf is better than no bread " .{A little is better than nothing). 185. " God helps those who help themselves " {Self-help is the way to success in life. Cf. {2Vk 138). 186. Interest and usury. 187. How do games educate? 188. Recreation. .189. Authors and publishers igo. 191. 192. 193- 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. .199. 200. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 212. 213. 214. 215- 216, {Their mutual relations; do their interests clash ?). Methods of raising levies for war {Cf. No. 164, and the Highland " fiery cross "; the " press-gang"). The life of savages {See §11). Village life. Symbolism. Heraldry. Ventilation. Poet laureates. Duelling. Infanticide. Nihilism. Health and its preservation. . Was the execution of Charles I. justifiable ? "Live and learn " {Experience, is a good teacher). The importance of utilizing acquired knowledge. !2 Game preservation. The treatment of juvenile criminals. . , The duties of voters. Fatalism. Holiday tasks. Books for recreation (i. Travel, 2. Biography, 3. Fiction) . The power of words {Por good or evil; conversation and gossip; scandal. Cf. No. 132), " Let the ^cobbler stick to his last " { Do not meddle in . matters that are outside your province). Triennial, as opposed to septennial, FarliaiQeiits. Fasting (i^ Religious, 2. Medicinal, 3. Experimental). " You caimot eat yoAr cake and have your cake "{All gains are made at some sacrifice). Militarism' {The military spirit. No. 91)- The modern growth of news- papers .{pauses: I. Print 2l6 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 217. ing by steam-powef ', 2. .Electric telegraph; 3. Easy and rapid conveyance ; 4. ' Shorihaiid writing). Colonization (Methods; bane- fits or disadvantages', examples) 218. Speed in travelling (Steam; eUciricty; the bicycle, the motor-car, the aeroplane. Its advantages and drawbacks. Cf Essay. H). 2ig. " Ali;s. well that ends well " (Previous disappointments do not matter, so long as one .succeeds in the end). 220. The qualifications of Mem- bers of Parliament (i. Leis- ure; 2. Speech-power : i. In- terest in his constituency; 4. Political knowledge; 5. Busi- ness habits a^d capacity) . 221. Rank (Why is it admired and sought? What are_ its effects and duties?) . 222. The inconvenience of great- ness (Cf. No. 89). / 223. Competition in trade (Ad- ■' vantages ; drawbacks ; sweat- ing, etc.). 224. Dreams (Their origin, nature, ' and value ; Biblical examples) 225. The study of nature (Cf. No. 2^5)- 225. The value of a g«od name .(Cf. laws against libel). 227. National characteristics. 228. English spelling reform (Why needed ; advantages ; any drawbacks. Cf. No. 160). 229. Adcidents . (Define ; their effects ;.,give historical instances 230. The study of English literar ture in schools. , 231. Martyrdom. j 232. Is untruth ever justifiable ? . (Cf. replies to dangerous or to inquisitive persons ; sick room deceptions ; society conventions). 233. The moral value of proverbs. , ' [Note' any doubtful, inaccur- ate, or mischievous proverbs i see Nos. 48, 53, 7°. 82, 112, 117, 129, 147, 182). 234. School punishments and re- wards. , * 23 j. The value of Nature study in education (Cf. No. 225). 236. The payment of members of Parliament (Advantages and drawbacks ; amount). 237. 'Tt is vain to shut the stable door after the horse is stolen" (Precautions are useless after the event. Cf.Na. 124). 238. Asceticism (i Buddhist ; 2. Hindu ; 3. Greek ; 4. Chris- tian) . 239. " Sweet are the uses of ad- versity." 240. The value of home training. -241, The influence_ of literature in refining the manners and life of a people. 243. The influence of his times upon a poet. 243. " He makes no friend who never made a foe " (Dignity, self-respect, strength of character, needed for friend- ship, often produce enmity). 244. Government by Party. 245. The subordination of private interests to the public good. 246.. The endowment of research (Should the expenses of experiments, etc. be paid out _ of the public funds ?), 247. The preservation, of the . monuments of the past. (e.g., ancient historic build- ings). 248^ Strikes and Government in- tervention (Cf. Essay 64). 249. A comparison of Alfred the Gjeat with William the Conqueror. 250. The "Advantages and disad- vantages of boarding schools (C/. No. 159). ■ ^ 251. Shouia'we have a state-sup- ^ ported theatre ? SUBJECTS FOE EsSAYS 217 252. The best poems for children. ^253. The giving of alms (C/. § 6). 254. " Let sleeping dogs lie " {Do not raise opposition unneces- sarily ; do not meddle with a difficult' qutslion that can wait). - ' 255. " I am never less lonely than when I am alone " (C/. Milton's " Solitude some- times is best societyj'). 256. Westminster Abbey. 257. Naval Warfare in the past and at the present day. 258. Compulsory Vaccination (C/. § 18). , 259. The, relation of a liberal education to liie. 260. Thoughts suggested by the sight of the sea. 261. The possibility of an inva- sion of Britain. 262. The respective advantages of a literary and of a scien- tific education. 263.1 nt^ational antipathies. |26^. FrencTi and English charac- teristics as represented in Shakespeare's Henry V. 265. "To do a great fright, do a httle wrong " (TAe dangers underlying this ^oposition). 266. Every great poet is a teacher _(G/. Shakespeare, Shelley, Wordsworth, Browning). 267. The place of England in the .history -of European civi- lization (Religious tolera- tion, the support of weak nationalities, slave emancipa- tion, political reform; the. Royal Society). 268. Th^ effect of poverty on character (C/. No. 52). 269. The influence of climate on amusements. • 270. " A word spoken is an arrow let fly " (It^ cannot be re- called • it may do harm unintentionally. Cf. No. 210). ^71,- The pleasures of a country life as enhanced by a study of physical science. 272. ' A lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest of lies " (C/. No. 182). 273. The remedies for overcrowd- ing in large cities. 274. '■ Let toe make the ballads, and let Who will make the laws of a nation. 275. The causes of the migration fromthecountry to thetowns. 276. " As you make your bed so you must lie on it " {We are responsible for the results of our' actions). 277. The value of a good physique in modern life. v^ 278. Talent and character. 279. " We live in deeds not years" (Life should be rated not by its length, byt by its achievement. Cf. No. 42.) 280. Race problems in the united States of America (The negro question ; the incor- poration of the foreign Euro- pean element ; Asiatic immi- gration) . '■ 2S1. " Evil is wrought »by want of thought as well as want of heart " (Want of con- ( sideration for- others causes as much unhappiness as deliberate , unkindn'ess ; e.g. children thoughtlessly torture animals) . ^ 282. Back to the land (Cf. No. 74), 283. " Literature is a good crutch but a very bad walking- stick " (Make authorsh^) your avocation, not your vocation ; do not rely ,on it for a living). 284. Government monopolies, (e.g. lucifer matches in France f. 283. Cambridge and Oxford com- pared. 286. Has commercial enterprise done more to promote peace or to promote war 2l8 KOW to WRITE An essay between nations ? 287." Your idea of a happy life. 288. The distinction between vanity and conceit. 289. " Conscience makes cowards of US all " {The conscious- ness 0/ guilt makes people nervous and apprehensive. Cf. Macbeth, and No. 40), 290. The study of modem lan- guages. 291. The development of religious toleration in Europe. 292. The influence of Puritanism on literature and the drama. 293. The distinction between courage and rashness. 294. Popular superstitions. 295.,Managing a flower-garden. 296. Palmistry. 297. Realism and Idealism. 298. The recovery of lost articles. 299. " Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war" (Victories over nature, disease, ignorance^ oppres- sion, etc.). 300. Chivalty. 301. The effects of the crusades. 302. " A man is known by the company he keepsl" 303. The best way of spending a million pounds to benefit the poor of a large town. 304. Which do you consider the greatest of the queens of England, and why ? 305. " Take time by the forelock " (Vtilise your opportunities, C/. No. 127). 306. The revival of the Olympic Games. 307. " There are two sides to every question " {Cf. the story of the tivo knights and- the shield. Dots this justify compromises .'). 308. " Travel is a part of educa- tion " {Cf Essay 74),. 309. The vanity of human grandeur 310. National prejudice. 311. Henry VIII. ; 'his merits and defepts as a ruler. 312. The virtues and the failings of the Stiiart dynasty. — 313. "A fool and his money are soon parted " {Be careful in spending). 314. The British occupation of Egypt. 315. The Ail-Red route. 316. " The virtue of prosperity is temperance " - {Shun W« pride or arrogiince of success) . 317. The decline of great nations .{Causes. Cf. Assyria, Persia, Rome, Spain. Cf. § 13.). 318. The horrors of civil war. 319. The drama and the novel as vehicles of education. 320. " He is a freeman whom the truth makes free " (" Truth " is freedom from passion ; self-knowledge, self-control), 321. Stupid people. 322. Votes for women. 323. The conflict and blending of races in the British Isles. 324. Epitaphs. 325. The future of the English- language. 326. " The heights by great men reached and kept were not , attained by sudden flight." {The virtue of_ hard work ', the need of industry and perseverance. Cf. No. 70). 327. ITie state of , religion in England in the 14th century. 328. " Count not your chickens before they are hatched " • (bo not forestall success y^ wait for results).' 3 J29. The relative advantages i^S health, wealth, and wis^;;^ 330. To be prepared for war is bne of thF most effectual means of preserving peace. {The fallacy of this proposition). 331. The rise and development. pf representative govern-' ment in England. - SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS dlQ 332. 333- The growth of democracy in the 19th Century. \Cf. the gradual decay of the Feudal Sys(em~&l over Europe) The advantages of " Summer Time" or ("Daylight Saving") - 334. " Trade follows the flag " (But wars are waged in behalf of u nation's com- merce. Cf. the East India Company, England's wars with China, etc.). IV. EXPOSITORY ESSAYS. (fl) Institutions, Industries, 34- Occupations, etc. 35- I. A festival. 36. 2. -A marriage. 3- A fair. 37- 4- Theatrical performances. 5- Asiatic and European dress 38. contrasted. 39- 6. Funeral rites. " 40. 7- University Examinations. 4«- 8. The game of chess. 42. 9- Hindu Castes. 43- 10. The slave-trade {Origin ; need 44- of labourers in tropical coun- tries ; Cf. Fox, Penn, Clark- 45- son, Wilberforce \ and 46. Essay 53). 47- It. International Exhibitions. 48. 12. The game of cricket. 49- '3- Emigration. 50. J4- Steamships. 51- IS- An Eastern city bazaar. 52. 16. Market day in a town. 53- 17- Privateering (Cruisii^ by 54- private persons to seize an 55. enemy's ships). 56. 18. Pearl fisheries. 57- 19. Cremation. 58. 20. Savings banks. 59- 21. The game of polo. 22. Jubilees. 60. 23- " The British navy. 24. Gymnastic exercises. 61. 25. Public (free) libraries. 62. 26. Hypnotism. 63- 27. The art of printing. 64. 28. Trade and commerce. 65. 2a<. 30. Professions. Jhe Permanent Settlement. 66. 31- ^^aming to swim. 67. 32- ^^gftftUfe-charming.— 68. 33- All dut-door game. «9. The school at which I study. The manufacture of silk. The games of Indian school- boys. The bazaar of an Indian village. The life of a peasant. Indian jugglers. Tea-planting. Coffee-planting. ' Brick-making. Gold-mining. The abolition of slavery in the British Empire. The fine arts.- The mint. ' Paper-making. Whale-fishing. ^ Copyright in books. Exhibitions. Banks and banking. Statistics. Improvements in locomotion. The East India Company. Taxation. Polygamy. Machinery. Music. Games of chance and skill compared. Travelling to-day years ago ' {Cf. Sea-voyages. Nature study. Modem inventions. Field sports. The characteristics of modem warfare {See Essay 67). •Public Gardens. Engineering. Your favourite ofeupation. A college. and sixty § 5 and {Essay 74). 220 aow TO WKitfi An essav 70. Sledging and tobogganing, 71. Gardening. 72. Tunnels and tunnelling. 73. The taming of animals. 74. The races inhabiting India. 75 . A visit to England, or to India. 76. The importance of good hand- writing. 77. Collecting postage stamps. 78. Historic London. 79. Sati (or Suttee). 80. Object lessons. 81. Commercial credit. 82. Gipsies. 8g. Ships old and new. 84. Titles of honour. 85. The Mohurrum. 86. A Coronation. 87., Thf Juggernaut (or Jaganath 88. A public school. ^ [festival) 89. Soap manufacture. 90. Trial by jury." 91. An Indian Durbar, 92. Performing animals. 93. Road-making. 94. The currency. 95. Government service 96. A prize distribution. 97. Zoological gardens. 98. Picture Galleries, gg. lionunJtents. 100. Botanical gardens. 101. Waterworks. / 102. Hospitals. 103. Manufactures. 104. Riding. 105. The medical profession. 106. Charitablfr dispensaries. 107. Masters and servants. 108. Capital punishmejit. log. Secret sopieties. J 10. The police. 111. The zenana. 112. The Cabinet (or Ministry).' 113. The Government of India, 114. Clubs. ' , ijrj. House-'building. 116. Railways."^ j 117. Athletic sports. J IS. Smuggling. ' 119. Piracy. ' , 120'. Architecture, ancient and modern. 121. Life Insurance {See § 18). 122. Mountaineering. 123. How fire aided primitive man {Used for making dug^ outs, pottery, etc ; for light- ing his cave ',- for scaring away wild beasts j torch- light fishing and hunting). 124. Trusts. (A trustl is a combin-' tion of rival firms into one organisation, in order to secure a monopoly, and so keep up prices). -'• 125. Slums {Caused' by people's clinging to the towns in order to get work ; hence over-crowding and poverty from over-competition for employment. Legal remed- ies — Hotising jind Small- holdings Acts). 126. The uses of fire in modem times. _ 127. Republics, ancient and modenu 128. The causes of failure in busi- ness. 129. The causes of failure at school or college. {Neglect of health ; over-study ; de- sultory work ; self-conceit ; want of method, etc.). 130. Camping-out, 131. Japanese art. 132. The South Sea Bubble. 133. A Levee. 134. The natural -advantages of England [i. Position ; 2. Insularity ; 3. Climate ; 4. Soil ; 5. Mineral pro- ductiveness ; 6. Physical conformation : mountains rivers, harbours, etc. Cf., Ill, (b), 162]. 135. Sea^power ; its influence in history. 136. The origin 'aad growth of the British army {In Anglo- Saxon and in feudal times'; SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS 221 undey Crowtwell ; the Mutiny Bill). 137. The Monroe doctrine {That America is no longer to be a colonising ground for, or subject to the political inter- ference- of, any European '- power. How does this doc- trine affect either power ? ) . 138. The causes of the decay of nations, 139. Serfdom and its abolition. - 140. The Mercantile System. (Its theory that money is the only wealth). 141. The partition of Africa ]C/. - m. (6)j. 142. The Delhi durbar, Jan. • i, 1878. ' 143. The Eastern Question. (The fate of the Turkish Em- pire) . 144. Second Parliamentary Cham- bers. ^ ■ 145. Modern scientific progress. 146. Seal fishing. ,147. Reform, political and social ; ^the proper principles to f(3Uow, and the proper cau- tions to observe, in promo- ting it. 148. HoW does University teach- ing differ from School teaching. 149. Knighthood in the Middle ages. 150. The dissolution of the monas- teries. 131. The influence of rivers upon^ , human intercourse. 152/Making a collection of natural ' obj ects . 153^ American Indians, 154. Substitutes for paper before its invention, 155. A School Magazine 156. Banking 157. Historic pageants, 158. Canadian industries 159. Light-ships, 160. winter sports in Switzerland. 161. Keeping accounts (Why important ; a e\eck on ex- 162, Electric trams. [penditure). 163, Municipal trading (Argu- ments for and against). 164. How to make a kite and how to ily it. i6g. Foreign trade competition. 166. Private theatricals. 167. Street locomotion (tValking; man-propelled, \ horse^rawn, engine-driven, electricity- driven vehicles). i68. How. to mend a puncture in a rubber tube. 169. The relation between com- merce and national progress. 170. The carrying trade of Eng- 171. Fur and feathers. [land. 172. The Congo and its adminis- tration. 173. The products and commerce of Scotland, 174. The problem of national' defence in England, , - 175. The attractions of Egypt as a place, to visit. 176. '^he housing of the poor. 177. Rustic sports. , 178. Parliamentary Elections. 179. Indoor amusements and their value. ' 180 *Life in a British Colony. 181. The inventions of the future. 182. The growth* of the British Empire. 183. England in 1837 and in 1917. 184. A town or a parish council election. 185. Motor vehicles (For business, for pleasure • buses, lorries, taxis, cars, " tanks" ; dange' to traffic ; effect on the road i possible future uses) . 186. Naval supremacy in Europe from the earnest times 187. The characteristics of your ideal friend. J 88: The pleasnre(S and the pains of athletics, 189. An imaginary conversation 222 HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY regarding man between two of the lower animals. 190. The products, manufactures, and commerce of Spain -^ and Portugal. 191. The cities of northern Italy. 192. Inventions and discoveries -,in the Igth century. 193. The newspaper : the chief kinds of reading that it contains, and for what each is valuable. 194. The problem of the " un- employed." 195. The future of Africa. (6) Scientific Topics. 1. The telephone. 2. Eclipses. 3. Rain and its uses. 4. The mariner's compass. 5. Glaciers. 6. Evolution. 7. Magnetism. 8. Vaccination {See § 18). 9. Steam amd its uses. 10. Clouds. n. Cyclones. 12. Water-spouts. 13. The trade winds. 14. Lightning-conductors. 15. Gas. • 16. Submarines. 17.. Any scientific experiment. r8. Respiration? v 19. The solar system. 20. The Gulf Stream, -21. Forestry. 22. The tides. 23. The thermometer. 24. The progress of science. 25. The rainbow. 26. Cork and its uses. 27. India-rubber. 28. Mountains and their uses 28. Mountains and their uses. (i. Cause rain ; 2. Produce streams ; 3. Wash down soil ;' 4. Affect climate ; 5. Form 29. Telescopes. [boundaries). 30. Balloons. 31- Aetoplanes (C/. Essay 70). 32. Rivers and their uses. 33. Food. 34- Water. 35- The monsoon. 36. The barometer. 37- Radium. 38. The liver. 39. The Sontgen rays (or X 40. The moon. [rays). 41. The planets. 42. .Icebergs. 43- Comets. 44- Geysers. 45- Earthquakes. 46. Gi-avitation. 47- Wireless telegraphy. 48: Subm-arine telegraphy. 49- Ocean currents. 50- Snow. 51- The signs of the weather. 52. T-be atmosphere. ■ 53- The causes of difference of climate within the United Kingdom. 54- A geographical excursion. 55- The cinematograph. 56. The future of electricity. 57- " The fairy tales of Science." (c) Literary Topics. 1. Proverbs See III, (6), 233^; Cf. " A proverb is the wisdom of many and the: wit of one "]. 2. Newspapers. 3. The Lake poets. 4. Epic poetry. • 5. The ode. 6. The poetry of Byron. 7. English satirical writers. 8. Indian novel-writers. 9. - Kipling's writings. 10. Cowper's " Task." 11. The play of Macbeth." 12. Your favourite book. 13. The different kinds of poetry. 14. The use and abuse of quo- tations (Cf. § 58). 15. The differences in character between prose and poetry. SUBJECTS FOR fiSSAYS 223 16. I7. 18, 19- 20, 21. 22, 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. «9. 30. 31- 32. -1 33- 34- .35- 36. 37- 38. 39. 40. 41- 42- 43. 44- 45- 46. 4Z- 48. 49; 50. 51. 32. ^ {Prose appeals to the intellect ; poetry to the emotions): Poetic metre and rhythm. The influence of the Bible on English literature. The Waverley novels. Classical and Romantic poetry. A poem you have read. The different kinds of poetry. The poetry ofWordsworth. Literary criticism. Grea.t prose writers. The great poets of the world. The poetry of Pope. The great histories. The Elizabethan dramatists. The elements of a good style. Patriotic poems in English literature. Shylock's place in " The Merchant of Venice " Novels of adventure and novels of character. Addison's " Spectator." Boswell's " Life of Johnson." Ballad literature. English sonnet-writers. Milton's " Comus." Tennyson and Browning compared. Essays and essay-writers. The allegory in literature. Abbotsford and Olney. William Blake, poet and artist. The ' interest that literature derives from the revelation of the author's character in his work. Didactic poetry. Which is the greater poet, Wordsworth or Tennyson ? The humour and pathos of Lamb's Essays. The character of Edmund in Shakespeare's " King t^ar." The Scottish covenanters as depicted .by Scott. Novels of adventure. ' B'aery lore. The Holy Grail. .•The sonnet in English -litera- ' ture. 53- 54- 53- 56. 57- 58. 59- 60. 61. 62. 63. 64- 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 7*- 72. 73. The appetite for novel-read- ing and its causes. The finest character in fiction with which you are acquainted . The charm of poetry. The novel " with a purpose." Some character in fiction. " The Arabian Nights." An account of any one novel by Geo. Eliot, Marryat, or R. L. Stevfeson. " Kenilworth " as history. A comparison between any two great English allegories or elegies. Town and Countiy as subjects of poetry. Books of travel. One of Shakespeare's tragedies. Autumn as pictured in English poetry. One of the foUowingcharacters: Robinson Crusoe, Don Quixote, Samuel Weller, Isaac of York, Colonel New- come, Banquo, Maggie Tulliver, Capt. Dalgetty. King Lear, Dominic Samp- son, Smike, Mr. Pecksniff, Caleb Balderstone, Catriona, Tom Brown, Little Dorrit, Rodney Stone, Elizabeth Bennet, Capt. Cuttle, Elaine, Malvolio, Roland Yorke, Edie Ochiltree, Sir Roger de Coverley. Contrast Dickens , with Thackeray. " The Fair Maid of Perth." Write a short review of any well-known flovel. Esmond's impressions of Malborough. The social condition of Rome as represented in Shakes- peare's " Coriolanus." The Celtic, the Welsh, and the Highland character as portr-ayed by Shakespeare and Scott. The poetry of Milton. 224 INDEX The references are to the sections. Abbreviation, 37. Adverbs, position of, 38. Ambiguity, 40. Archaisms, 61. ^ Biographies, 3, 15. Clearness, 24, 27, 53, 67. Colloquialisms, 56. Composition, the art of, I. Connectives, 24. Gonstructions, Faulty, 40, (3). Incongruous, 31. ^ Confused, 32. Correlatives, Position of, 37. Digressions, 8. Elided forins, 56. Emphatic positions, 39. End of Essay, 42. Essays, Argumentative, 2 {footnote). C^ssiiication of, 2, 14. Descriptive, 2, 16. _ Expository, 2, ify. Narrative, 2, 15. Reflective, 2, 17. Subjects for, 4, 8. Table of, 3. Figurative language, 64. Fine writing, 53, 55. Causes error, 55. Historic Present, the, 34. \ Jdiom, 52. Idioms, French, 57. Metaphor, 64. Confusion of, 64. Mixed, 64. Nouns made'into verbs, 63. Outline, The, 9, 10. Rules for, 12, 13. Study of, 19. Omission of necessary words, 40 (j). Paragraphing, 23. Perophrasis, 51. " Phraseology, inexatt, 44. „ Phrases, qualifying, 41; Phrasing, faulty, 40 (3) . „• Position of Adverbs, 38. of Correlatives, 37. Possessive of Proper Nouns, 66, i ; Precision m the use of words, 43. Prepositions, wrong, 52. Pr6tentious words, 54. Proportion, due, 22. Proverbs, 7. Punctuation, 67. Puns, 5^. Qualifymg phrases, 41. Quotations, 7, 58. ' Repetition, 49. Sfentence-conndxion, 24. construction, 24, (2). Sentences, Careless, 33. Introductory, 27. Joined by " and " etc^ 25. Loose, 29. Parts of (theirposition),35. Periodic, 29, Short, 28. ' Transitional, 26. Unity of, 30. Simile, 64. Simplicity, 21. Slang, cant, etc., 57. Spelhng, 66. Subject, Choice of, 4. Meaning of, 6. Study of, II. Treatment of, 5: Summary, 68. Ta.utolog3r7 47. Trite phrases, 59. Unity of thought, 30, (i). - of structure, 30. U-se of " I " and " You," 45. of " We," 46. Vulgarisms, 57. Verbosity, 50. Words, Coined, 62. Confusion of, 56. Far-fetched, 62. Foreign, 60. Misspelt,, 66. of the Same sound, 66, III, (i^. Absolete, 61. Precision in use of, 43. PreteKLti(3us, 54. Pronunciation, of, 66, (5). Slovenly use of, 43. Trivial use of, 57 (footnote)^:; , with a double meaning, 40, (2).