i68i CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE THE SGUECES OP CHAUCEE^S PARLEMENT OF EOULES WILXABD EDWABD FABNHAM BALTIMORE, 1917 XIX.— THE SOUECES OF CHAUCEE'S PABLEMENT OF FOULES Theories offering interpretations of Chaucer's Parle- ment of Foules hased upon the orthodox belief that the central incident of the poem is in some way connected with a royal marriage have at least refused to do loyal service at one prominent point. No theory of historical allegory has yet explained in a wholly satisfactory manner the outstanding fact that the Parlement of Foules is artis- tically a well rounded poem, and yet contains an unfin- ished story. Why does not the formel eagle choose her mate after our interest has been aroused in the pleadings of her lovers ? Compliments to monarchs are not wont to go half-paid. We may draw upon history to show that Anne of Bohemia actually did make delay in her choice of a husband, but we are constrained to admit that Chaucer could have made a compliment to his king and queen more complete than that supposed to lie in this poem, had he so chosen. Many of the points against the acceptance of an histori- cal allegory have been adduced by Professor Manly. ^ The sponsors of allegorical interpretation have had trou- blous questions to answer, whether they have sought to identify principal bird characters in the Parlement with John of Gaunt and Blanche of Lancaster,^ with Enguer- rand de Couci and Isabel Plantagenet,* with King Eich- ard II of England, Anne of Bohemia, William of Bavaria, ' Festschrift fiir Lorenz Morsbach, Studien zur Englischen Philo- logie, L (1913), pp. 279 ff. * Tyrwhitt's Chaucer, note ver. 1920 ; Morley, English Writers, v, pp. 164 3, 'Saturday Review, Apr. 15, 1871. 1 2 CHATTCEE S PAELEMENT OF FOULES and Friedrich, Margrave of Misnia,* or witli Richard, Anne, King Charles VI of France, and Friedrich of Misnia.^ Often trouble has appeared in the matter of a plausible date for the poem which would allow historical interpretation. Even after 1381 had come to be regarded as a probable date of composition, and the historical alle- gory had been arranged accordingly. Professor Manly offered internal evidence for the date of 1382.' Only too little has been found in literary sources which might obviate some of the difBculties met in the explana- tion of the Parlement of Foules. By some the De Planctu Naturae of Alanus de Insulis has been thought a source sufficient to suggest to Chaucer the story of love arguments by the birds. Professor Skeat says, " And the fourth part, 11. 295 to the end, is occupied with the real subject of the poem, the main idea being taken, as Chaucer himself tells us, from Alanus de Insulis." "^ But as a matter of fact, Chaucer is silent as to the idea of his story. In his only mention of Alanus he merely acknowledges a debt to him for a description and perhaps for a setting: And right as Aleyn, in the Pleynt of Kinde, Devyseth Nature of aray and face, In swich aray men mighten hir ther flnde. (11. 316-18) This is, of course, no more than a casual statement by Chaucer that his figure of ITature has the appearance of Nature as described by Alanus.^ But in any case, we 'Koch, Chaucer Essays (Chaucer Society), pp. 400 flf ' Emerson, Modem Philology, vni, pp. 45 ff. ; Modem La/nguage Votes, XXVI, pp. 109 ff.; Moore, Modem Language Notes, xxn, pp. 8ff. 'Studien zur Englischen Philologie, l, pp. 288 ff. ' Skeat's Chaucer, i, p. 67. • Skeat's error is noticed hy Sypherd, Studies in Ohauoer's Boua nf Fame (Chaucer Society), 1907, p. 25. WILLAED EDWAED FABNHAM 7, cannot say that Chaucer extracted the central incident of the Parlement from the work of Alanus. The passage in question from the Planctus ® merely describes the robe of Nature as perpetually changing in hue, and as having on it " as a picture fancied to the sight " a parliament in which there are various birds. There is no hint of a court being held by these birds before Nature, and of a love story such as Chaucer's there is not the slightest trace. The most we can say is that Chaucer takes some inspi- ration from Alanus for his description of Nature, and for his list of birds, in which he has made maiiy changes ; beyond this he does not seem to have used Alanus. Since no sufficient source has thus far been suggested for the part of the poem dealing with the birds and their loves,^** we are left with two most likely possibilities: Chaucer is making his story out of whole cloth to fit historical characters, as many allegorists would have us believe, or he is following a source which for some reason we have not been able to identify. Certain peculiarities in the telling of the tale and in its ending would make more or less unlikely another possibility, namely, that Chaucer is merely telling in spirited manner an imaginary dream without allegorical or conventional meaning. However, there are sources for the central incident of the Parlement, which were extant and certainly within Chaucer's reach at the time he wrote, and which throw 'Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets, ed. T. Wright, n, p. 437; quoted by Skeat in his Chaueer, I, p. 74; translated by Douglas M. Mo£Fat {Tale Studies in English, xxxvi, pp. 11 ff.). "An admitted source for certain characteristics of the central incident of the Parlement and its general framework is the French love- vision poetry (see Sypherd, Studies in Chaucer's Hous of Fame, pp. 1 ff., and pp. 20 ff. ) . Likewise the Court-of-Love poetry may have furnished hints for birds ( see Manly, work cited, p. 285 ) . But here again can he found no suggestion of the story itself. 4 CHAUCBE 8 PAKLBMENT OW FOULIS light on each essential detail af the birds' love story. Many of the puzzling things about the poem, and especially the indecisive ending of its story, may find explanation in the conventional features of a widespread and very ancient folk-tale. The fact that this tale has almost noth- ijng to do with bird characters in its appearances outside Chaucer need not make trouble when comparisons come to be made. Space will permit here only a brief indication of the characteristics and importance of the many versions of The Contending Lovers, as I shall name the folk-tale, ver- sions whose interrelations and probable relation to Chau- cer's poem I am now working upon and hope to pre- sent in detail at a later time. However, it will be best to summarize at some length a story which is perhaps closest of all to Chaucer, both in da:te of composition, and in plot. The first riovella, in II Paradiso degli Alberti, a col- lection of novelle and discussions with a novelistic frame- work, is Delia Origine di Prato.^^ Wesselofsky has as- signed II Paradiso degli Alberti to Giovanni da Prato on external and internal evidence,^^ and dates it with some exactitude by means of the numerous references to historical characters and happenings in the work. It was written, he thinks, in the first years of the fifteenth century, but has to do vsdth events which took place in 1389.^* Wesselofsky calls the work "una specie di ro- " II Paradiso degli Alberti . . . . di Giovanni da Prato, del codice autografo e anonimo della Riooardiama a cura di A.lessandro Wessel- ofsky, Bologna, 1867, n, pp. 98-171. "IMd., I, ii, pp. 81flf. "• Ibid., I, i, pp. 24 ff. ; also pp. 220 ff. The " dates between which " Wesselofsky establishes as 1379 and 1415 by references to the death of two well known men. WILLABD EDWAKD FAENHAM 5 manzo, ossia meglio un tessuto di novelle e di ragionamenti che ebbero luogo sull' ultimo scorcio del secolo XIV, ai quali I'autore che li ricordo, giovine allora ed imberbe (come si vede dal brano sopracitato del proemio a stampa), confessa egli stesso aver preso parte insieme con molte altre persone, tutte storiche, che in quel tempo illustra- vano la repubblica e lo studio di Tirenze." ^* There can be little question that the first tale, with which we are to deal, came from matter traditional in Italy, as will appear later, and this will have an impor- tant bearing on the possibility of Chaucer's having ob- ta:ined it. If we accept the present place in Chaucer chronology of The Parlement of Foules, we cannot suppose that Chaucer could have come into contact with the Paradiso itself, since Wesselofsky's arguments that the action of the latter must have taken place in 1389 seem very cogent.^® But Chaucer would not have had to get hold of the Paradiso itself in order to come by the material under consideration. The tale runs as follows: Ulysses on his Trojan expedition captures the city of Pidasonta. Among his captives are a beautiful maiden, " una fanciulla d'etS. e di anni o circa a quatordici, di mirabile istificanza e divina bel- lezza," and other "donne e donzelle." Ulysses asks the girl who she is, and she says that her father was the valorous Fidasio, her mother Meliasea, a nymph of the Wood of Ida, and that her own name is Melissa. She is sad because of the loss of father and mother, and prays the gods to help her to forget former happy times. Moved by her tears, and perceiving that she is indeed descended from the immortal gods, Ulysses tells her he will make her not a, servant, but a " consorte " with his Penelope. He marries her and liberates the prisoners. Melissa bears a beautiful girl child to Ulysses, but her happiness is short-lived, for she dies soon after- '/6id., I, i, p. 23. ' Ihid., I, i, pp. 221 ft. b CHAUCJfiJi S PAELEMENT OF FOULJiS ward. As a last request she asks Ulysses to give the daughter her own name, Melissa. Melissa, the daughter, becomes a most beautiful maiden while Ulysses is besieging Troy. When Ulysses and his companions reach Circe's island, Circe, jealous ol the beautiful Melissa, enchants her by a potion, and turns her into a sparrow-hawk." In her new shape Melissa rises and flies to Fiesole. Through a, mishap she falls into a river, and in her exhausted condition begins a struggle against the water that has every promise of ending in her death. But the gods are kind to Melissa. Camerio, king of a princi- pality among the Etruscan powers, has chosen four young men named Laerte, Celio, Settimio, and Kesio to help him in a certain religious ceremony. Kiding by the river at the head of the caval- cade of young men, Laerte suddenly sees the bird and calls out to his companions that she should be rescued. Celio plunges into the stream and saves her. Settimio comments on her beauty and ad- jures his fellows to take good care of her. At this point Resio apparently does nothing for the little sparrow-hawk. Celio places Melissa in his breast, and the company proceeds onward to the village of Corno, where Prato now stands. Here at an " allogimento" Celio takes the bird from his breast, and Resio, pitying her condition, asks the host for something to revive her. Meanwhile, however, some " ninfe " come down from the nearby mountain, and from these Resio obtains flowers. One of these is a marigold, and when the sparrow-hawk sees it, she takes it in her beak and is at once disenchanted. She stands before the wondering youths as the divinely beautiful maiden that she was before her unfortunate meeting with Circe. Melissa modestly thanks the young men for her disenchantment, and does not forget to return pious thanks to the gods. Without delay all four youths fall violently in love with her. Who shall have her for liis own? The problem is much more serious than it might be, because all the lovers are of equal nobili- ty, and none has an advantage over another in this respect. " Et, perch6 ciascuno di loro era d'alto legnaggio e somma potenza, tanto fu la cosa piil di pericolo e grave." Indeed, the young men are known throughout Italy for their goodness and nobility. The argiunent grows heated. Laerte lays first claim to Melissa as having seen her first, but his companions are nothing slow at argu- ing their own claims. Each points out that he has done something " The Italian has " isparvieri." This seems only a chance re- semblance to any bird in the Parlement of Foulei. WILLAKD EDWAED FAENHAM 7 indispensable. Laerte then argues for a settlement by arms, and fiercely says he will prove his right to Melissa with sword in hand. The others readily accept this challenge and prepare to fight. Meanwhile Melissa laments at length her fate, because she is apparently about to be the cause of strife among four young nobles to whom she wishes no harm. She addresses the immortal gods and reviews her past misfortunes. She concludes, " Che magiore dolore a me essere puote, che dinanze alia mia tristissima vista, per mia propria cagione i valorissimi giovani, e me sommamente amando, in tanta confusione veggia morire?" Then she begs her lovers to kill her, rather than kill themselves for her sake. Her lament and her plea shame the youths, and they put up their arms. The tension is broken by an old man from among the people of the neighborhood, who addresses the young men respectfully, as one of low degree to his betters, and ventures to suggest that the inhabitants of that particular region had found a means of settling disputes. There is a temple where appeals to Jove accompanied by sacrifices are wont to be successful. Jove will act as a mediator. All repair to this temple, where each suitor calls on his chosen deity for aid. in the controversy. Melissa invokes Jove as the judge. Then to the wonder of all present Jove gathers his court, with Minerva and Venus by his side. Saturn, a "frigido e antichissimo vecchio,'' appears, and announces that he argues for Settimio. The Aegument of Satubn fob Settimio. — Settimio's case is clear- ly defined. Man is formed of two " nature," the intellect and the body. One is common to the gods, the other to wild-beasts. Settimio has above all else this greatest of gifts, intellect. His act in coimselling his friends to take good care of the sparrow-hawk showed prudence, foresight, intellect. What the others did in res- cuing and disenchanting Melissa was largely due to chance. Where- fore, considering his royal stock, his noble intellect, and certain gifts he possesses useful in agriculture (which Saturn says is "dear to me and to you, o gods"), Melissa should go to Settimio. Mars, " il rubicondo e ferocissimo," announces that he is to argue for Laerte. The Aboument of Maes fob Laeete. — ^The cause of the " valoris- simo" Laerte is just and most worthy of consideration, notwith- standing the good argument in favor of Settimio just given. Things are conceived by the intellect, but carried out by the body. Laerte bravely and foresightedly rode in front of his friends to meet all that should happen. He saw the sparrow-hawk first, and as the first to advocate her rescue from the waters, she owes most to him. 8 CHAUCEE'S PAELEMENT OF FOULES Moreover, Melissa is of noble fighting stock, since she is the daugh- ter of Ulysses, and so is Laerte the royal offspring ("prole reale") of men glorious in arms. Laerte has the qualities necessary to make a ruler of the earth. In conclusion: "Adunche, o iddii immortali, judicate e vedete il mio Laerte come piil degno per condizione e discendimento di aangue, e per influenzia nostra, per piil essercizio nobile e dottissimo in quello." Apollo, " il grazioao vago e imberbe," with a laurel wreath about his brow and a lyre in his right hand, acts as lawyer for Eesio, and like a lawyer he refers to those who have argued before as " nostri aversari." The Aegument of Apollo fob Resio. — Considering Resio's mind and body, who is so insensate that he would ever grant Melissa to another suitor? Of the four young men, Resio is the most fair and pleasing. Moreover, he has the power of seeing into the future," and of touching the divine chords of the lyre. He is a poet. As a matter of fact, it was Resio who actually restored Melissa to her original form when the others were almost ready to abandon her. " If you honor Resio, o gods, he can honor you in song and poetry. Therefore, give Melissa to him." Mercury, who is characterized as " I'eloquente," with his serpent rod in hand, stands before the court to present Cello's case. Mercury is much more oratorical than the other advocates. The Aegument of Mebcuby foe Celio. — Who was it if not Celio who took Melissa from the river and cared for her? He loves her with 'the purest of flames, and demands her as his just right. " Quali possono essere li cagioni che negata li sia? Certo nuUe appreso alle leggi umane e divine." Among his accomplishments are eloquence, the art of writing and interpreting, and the knowl- edge of diverse nations and their languages. The Judgment. — ^After the arguing is over Jove declares that if there were more than one Melissa, surely each of these estimable young men would merit one of her. But since Melissa is after all only one maiden, he will turn her case over to his "figliuole" Venus and Minerva. Supported by Minerva, Venus judges that Melissa shall choose for herself the suitor she deems most pleasing, since love is an important consideration. " This and other strange professions or accomplishments which are attributed to the lovers, and yet seem to play no part in the story, will be better understood when the folk-tale behind the Paradiso is examined. Many are apparently petrified features of the old tale. 11 WILLAED EDWAED PAENHAM g The gods agree to this judgment, and look to the maid for her decision. Here the story ends strangely, We know that Melissa does make a choice, but we have no hint as to which lover she takes. Not a word does the author venture in explanation, moreover. He says that there is feasting over the happy event, and that the gods are present at the nuptials, but who the bridegroom is he does not choose to say. Here is a tale into which one cannot go far without finding obvious resemblances to the Parlement of Foules. An important point at which the two stories touch is at the holding of love pleadings before a judge. The arguments are extremely well schemed in the Italian tale. Plow schematic the arguments are in Chaucer's poem appears most plainly perhaps when a short abstract of them is made: The fowl royal, highest in degree, whose rank itself is an argument in favor of his being granted the formel. (11. 415-551) 1. He may not live long without the formel. 2. None loves her as he does. 3. ITever in future will he cease to serve her. The second tercel, " of lower kinde." (11. 449-462) 1. He loves as well as the first tercel. 2. His service has been already shown in the past, and the formel will not have to depend merely upon promises for the future. He has served longer than any. 3. He will never cease to love. The third tercel. (11. 463-483) 1. He cannot vaunt long service, but he is convinced- that the true lover may do more real serving in a half-year than some lovers in a gr-eat while. 2. His love is truest. 3. He will never cease to love. 10 chaucee's paelement of poules In both the Parlement of Foules and in the Paradiso story the arguments are given as carefully and with as much formality as though they were being presented in an actual court of law. The appearance of the gods as pleaders or advocates in the Paradiso story makes the simi- larity here to legal procedure yet more striking. The pleading is so well done in both tales, in fact, that each of the suitors appears to have undeniable claims to the object of his desire, and the judge despairs of making any decision. Here begins to make itself plain the real point of that type of tale to which both the Eng- lish and Italian works belong. The judge cannot reach any decision, and the girl or f ormel eagle, when the matter is given over to her, evidently does make a decision, but what it is the author does not choose to tell us. Such a tale is, of course, a hoax, intended all along to provoke discussion among the readers or hearers, after great in- terest has been aroused in the claims of the lovers. Pro- fessor Manly, without ventiiring to suggest any source for this particular class of hoax tale, has shown how the Parlement of Foules might be compared to a modern tale like Stockton's The Lady or the Tiger.^^ I summarize here what seem to be the important points of resemblance between the Parlement and the Paradiso: I. Three or four suitors have one object of affection. II. The suitors and the loved one are all very obviously of noble rank. III. A court is convened, of which the judge represents the guiding hand of worldly affairs, Nature or Jove. IV. The claims of each siiitor are presented with for- mality and completeness. "Work cited, p. 287, note 4. WILLAED EDWAED FAENHAM 11 V. Each argument is apparently of equal weight with the others. In both stories much is said about service, though in the Parlement of Poules this is indefinite service suggesting courtly love ideals, and in the Paradiso tale it is service of a more material character. VI. A proposal to settle the dispute by arms occurs. VII. An audience is present at the pleading and takes some part in the holding of the court. VIII. The judge is greatly perplexed and asks counsel. IX. The girl or formal eagle is given the privilege of deciding the dispute according to her own fancy. X. After all the arguing, we are left with no knowl- edge of the decision, although we are justified in inferring from both stories that some decision is made. Such an array of resemblances do not come from mere chance similarities between the tales of Giovanni da Prato ^® and Chaucer, even though at first blush the love story of the Parlement appears to be different in character from that in the Paradiso. The Italian tale is a more or less conventional " foundation story " into which a folk- tale has been woven, and the essential points of relation- ship between Chaucer and Giovanni become even clearer when the general folk-tale which lies behind the two tales is examined. The Contending Lovers, which has been known to schol- ars by other and often confusing names, has a venerable position in folk-lore, for its ancestry is registered at an early period in India, birthplace of many stories which have been appropriated by Europe. It reaches European countries, Italy apparently among the first, through Persia "I adopt for convenience the assignment of authorship made by Wesselofsky, whose arguments have not been challenged, so far as I know. 12 CHAUCEB S PAELEMIINT OP FOULES and Arabia, following a usual route of migration for folk-tales travelling from Orient to Occident. The story is one of love rivalry and has very marked characteristics which make it easily possible to identify the various ver- sions. Yet there are so many dilBEerent distinct types and so much intermixture between the types, as well as so much admixture of features from other folk-tales, that investigators who have contributed to our knowledge of the story have usually been content to deal with only one or two types, perhaps for an immediate purpose which did not require a comprehensive treatment of the tale as a whole. In fact, it has never yet been pointed out that all the types constitute divisions of one common and well defined folk-tale theme. Benfey,^" "W'esselofsky,*^ Olouston,^* D'Anoona,*' Koh- ler,^* Chauvin,^^ Basset,^® and Cosquin " have written con- cerning different types of the tale or have collected cita- tions to versions. Benfey has dealt with the migration from Orient to Occident of what may be called the Rescue type,.^* and his Aiisland essay embodies not only the first " Das Mdrchen von den "Menschen mit den wunderha/ren Eigen- sohaften," seine Quelle und seme Verbreitung, Ausland, xu (1858), pp. 969 3., Kleinere Bchriften, ii, iii, pp. 94 ff. " II Paradiso degli Alberti, i, ii, pp. 238 ff. "Popular Tales amd Fictions, 1887, i, pp. 277 £E. " Stud} di Oritica e Storia Letteraria, Bologna, 1912 (Revised and enlarged edition), ii, pp. 160 flF. '* Kleinere Bchriften, i, pp. 438 flF. " Bibliographie des ouvrages Arabes, 1892-1909, vi, p. 133, note 3; vrn, p. 76. " Bevue des Traditions Populmres, vn (1892), p. 188, note 4. '''Revue des Traditions Populaires, xxxi (1916), pp. 98 S. and 145 ff. "See p. 508, below, for a scheme of classification. Perhaps the most familiar version of the Rescue type is Grimm 129, Die vier kunstreichen Briider. For very close analogues to Grimm see Fr. WILLAED EDWAED FAENHAM 13 scholarly treatment of The Contending Lovers, but is also, of course, a classic expression of some of his general theories of folk-tale transmission. Wesselofsky's notes are in many ways admirable; as in Benfey many tales are given at some length, and there is also in Wesselofsky material which Benfey had been unable to use. These two are the only studies which aim to organize and com- pare versions at length, the other scholars mentioned con- fining themselves to brief presentations of material or to bibliographical notes. When it is considered that the work of both Benfey and Wesselofsky is over a half-cen- tury old, that they do not deal with all of the many well- represented types of the story, and that since their time a large number of versions have become accessible to the student, it becomes plain that a new study and organiza- tion of the material is most desirable. As has been re- marked, it will be impossible to do more in the present paper than indicate all too sketchily the scope of The Contending Lovers and its importance in connection with Chaucer. A summary covering most versions of the story may be made as follows: Woeste, Zeit. filr D. Myth., i, p. 338; Paul Sfibillot, Contes Popu- laires de la Haute-Bretagne, 1880, No. 8, pp. 53 ff; Georg Widter und Adam Wolf, Jahrluch filr Rom. und Eng. Lit., vn, p. 30; A. H. Wratislaw, Sixty Folk-Tales, 1889, No. 9, pp. 55flf.; H. Parker, Village Folk-Tales of Oeylon, 1910, No. 82, ii, pp. 33 ff. These all have striking similarities to the German tale. Because Grimm 120 is so familiar, and because Benfey naturally gives it an important place in his essay, the mistake is sometimes made of considering it representative of all versions of The Contending Lovers. However, it is well to keep in mind that the tale in Grimm has gone far from the simpler Oriental versions, and shows much probable admixture from general folk-lore. With its highly skilled lovers and rescue accomplished by means of the ship, it is representative only of one class of versions, not of the whole tale. 14 CHAUCEE S PARLEMENT OF FOULES Three or more youths (sometimes as many as seven J fall so violently in love with the same maiden that no one will give way to another. The young men usually perform an important service for the maid, often by means of highly skilled arts or professions, to the accomplish- ment of which each lover makes an indispensable contri- bution. However, the suitors may have claims resting on nobility or on general excellence and worth. The ques- tion naturally arises, " Who has earned the maid for his wife ? " There is a dispute, and very often a judge in some guise, perhaps the father of the girl, hears each lover state his case in turn. Sometimes the judge in his perplexity allows the maiden to choose for herself. In any case, the normal tale concludes with no lover chosen, and the problem still unsolved. The Contending Lovers is thus essentially a problem or hoax tale, and one of its rightful adjuncts is the lack of a definite decision among the lovers. The earliest recorded versions are four tales in the San- skrit Vetalapanchavinsati (Ttventy-five Tales of a, De- mon), of which the Qivadasa recension was probably made in the sixth century A. D.,^® and these undoubtedly repre- sent old Indian folk-tales which, so far as we know, are the originals of versions in many other collections of Oriental '' The tales in question are the second, fifth, sixth, and seventh of the collection. A text of the Vetdlapandhavinsati has been con- stituted by Uhle, based largely on the Civadasa redaction (Die Vetalapancavinoatika, Leipzig, 1881). However, the tales are to be found translated directly from the Sanskrit only in scattered places. It is convenient to use the Hindi version of the work known as the Baital Pachlsi, which is translated from the Sanskrit and has in turn been translated into English by W. Burckhardt Barker (Hertford, 1855) and into German by Hermann Oesterley (Leipzig, 1873). See pp. 65 ff., 133 ff., 143 ff., and 157 ff. of Barker's trans- lation. WILLAED EDWAED FABNHAM 15 tales.*" The hoax or problem characteristic is almost always emphasized by the frameworks into which the stories are fitted. In the Vetdlapanchavinsati a Veidla or demon tells the tales to a rajah, and in each case he does not reveal which lover is rewarded with the hand of the maiden. His purpose is to draw the rajah into a discussion and to make him guess the proper decision. The chief types of The Contending Lovers are already well-defined in the Orient,^^ though after the tale has travelled westward many more subdivisions appear, owing to extensive adulteration from the folk-lore with which it comes in contact. But although our tale is now popular in most European countries and in other lands besides,'^ " See the Vetala tales as they appear incorporated into the twelfth- century Sanskrit compilation Eatha-8arit-8dgara, tr. C. H. Tawney, 1884, rr, pp. 242 flf. and l, pp. 498 ff. ; for other Oriental versions, some of them quite diflFerent from those of the Vetalapanchavinsati, see Veddla Gadai, tr. B. G. Babington, 1831 (Miscellaneous Trans- lations from Oriental La/nguages, Vol. I), tales 2, 4, and 5; B. Jftlg, Kalmiiokische Marchen, 1866, No. 1, pp. 5 ff. ; B. Jiilg, Mongo- lische Marchen-Sa/mmlung, 1868, pp. 238 ff.; Baron Lescailler, Le Tr6ne Enchants (the Persian Senguehassen-Battissi, which is re- lated to an old Sanskrit collection known as the Svrihasana-dvatrim,- sati) 1817, I, pp. 177 ff.) ; Tooti Nameh, or Tales of a Parrot (the Persian Tuti Nama), tr. for J. Dehrett, 1801, pp. 49 ff., 113 ff., and 122 ff.; W. A. Clouston, The Book of Bindibad (the Persian Sindiiad Nama), 1884, pp. 106 ff. ; Galland, Les Mille et Une Nuits, 1881, X, pp. 1 ff. " Each of the four tales in the Vetala collection represents a dis- tinct type. "A cursory glance over titles cited will give some idea of how widespread it is. I have been able to gather some more or less out-of-the-way versions which have not hitherto been cited. It is an interesting fact that The Contending Lovers is a favorite in Africa. See, for example, George W. Ellis, Negro Culture in West Africa, 1914, pp. 211 ff. and 201 ff. See also R. E. Dennet, Folk-Lore of the Fjort, 1898, No. 3, pp. 33 ff. and No. 16, pp. 74 ff.; C. Velten, Marchen und Erzdhlungen der Suahedi, 1898, p. 71 ; Henri A. Junod, Les Chants et les Oontes des Ba-Ronga de la Bale de Delagoa, 1897, No. 27. 16 chaucee's paelement of foules and has taken on many new characteristics, it still remains above all a problem tale with an indecisive ending. When a decisive ending does apepar, it is plainly a corruption. Sometimes the problem is left with only an inferred invi- tation to the audience to solve it, but again the teller may put the question definitely." Curiously enough, no emphasis has ever been laid on the very pronounced and important problem characteristic of The Contending Lovers. Neither Benfey nor "W'esselof- sky stresses this as a distinguishing feature, and Tlie Con- tending Lovers has frequently been confused with other folk-tales which were never problem stories. It is true that among the many outside influences which show effects upon our tale, especially after it has reached Europe, are the tale of The Skilful Companions and tales of brothers who go out into the world to seek their fortunes, for in Europe the lovers are often skilled in arts or professions and often brothers. The relationships here are exceed- ingly complicated, but there is conclusive evidence that The Skilful Companipn is in origin quite distinct from The Contending Lovers, and that it was originally not a problem tale, but existed alone and unconnected with any tale of lovers.** °^Straparola in a tale (/ piacevoli Notti, night vii, fable 5) closely taken from Morlinus (see Bieronymi Morlini, Parthenopei, Novellae, Fafiulae, Oomoedia, 1855, No. ucxx, pp. 155 S.) has the following conclusion (tr. W. G. Waters, 1894, p. 73) : " But with regard to the lady, seeing it was not possible to divide her into three parts, there arose a sharp dispute between the broth- ers as to which one of them should retain her, and the wrangling over the point to decide who had the greatest claim to her was very long. Indeed, up to this present day it is still before the court: wherefore we shall each settle the cause as we think right, while the judge keeps us waiting for his decision." "Exhaustive proof would be too lengthy, but it may be suggested that from old times tales have existed about artisans or skilful WILLAED EDWAED FAKNHAM 17 According to the services performed or to the basis of contention by the lovers for the maiden's hand, the ver- sions of The Contending Lovers divide into six clearly marked types. I indicate a scheme for classification.^^ The Caste Type.^^ No services are performed for the princess, but her lovers, who are four, present in turn before her father claims based on unapplied accomplish- ments, comeliness, and general excellence. The caste of brothers who go out into the world and contend with one another for fortune, but in which no girl is the reward. (See Benfey, Pant- sohatantra, 1859, n, pp. 150 flf., Der kluge Feind; material men- tioned by Wesselofsky, II Paradiso, i, ii, p. 246; Benfey, Kleinere Schriften, ii, iii, pp. 132 ff., the second part of the Aiisland essay.) It may be also suggested that in many ancient versions of The Contending Lovers and in some more modern versions the love service is dependent slightly or not at all upon skill or professions possessed by the lovers. Y etalapanchamnsati 7 has a contention where emphasis is laid upon caste and general excellence, and where no service is performed by means of skilled accomplishments, though there is some mention of these. The second tale of the same collection tells of a girl who was restored to life by the faithful services of her suitors, who neither are artisans nor profess skill. In this connection it is well to note that exceedingly little skill and nothing of artisanship enters into the services performed by the young men in II Paradiso degli Alberii. "^ Of necessity I give here only a very brief description of types together with examples from among versions of the tale. I hope to follow this scheme in making a detailed study of The Contending Lovers and in carrying out closer comparisons with other folk- tales and with the Pwrlement of Foules than it is possible to make in this paper. " This is represented in the Orient, but so far as I know does not exist as a separate type in Europe, although its influence is sometimes seen in other types. See Vetalapanchavinsati 7 (Baitul Pachisi, tr. Barker, pp. 175 ff.), where one lover can make a won- derful cloth, one understands the language of animals, one is ac- quainted with the Shastras, and one can discharge an arrow which will hit what is heard though not seen; also see Katha-Sarit-Sdgara, tr. Tawney, n, pp. 275 ff. and i, pp. 498 ff., which are practically the same tale. 18 CHAUCEE S PAELEMiENT OF FOULES the suitors is important wlien merit comes to be considered. Neither father nor daughter is able to choose the most deserving. The Resuscitation Type.^'' This type has three or four well-born lovers, whose claims to the maid may vary. However, each youth must contribute some service toward the resuscitation of the loved onp, who is often a princess, and who may be dead or mortally ill. The services may be skilled, or unskilled and fortuitous. The Gifts Type.^^ Three youths, usually princes, fall '" See Vetalapanchamnsti 2 (tr. V. Henry, Revue des Traditions Populaires, i, 1886, pp. 370 ff.) in which one lover renders love service by allowing himself to be burned upon the maid's pyre, one guards her ashes, and one travels and accidentally finds a magic formula which is the means of resuscitation; see also as repre- sentatives of the type Senguehassen-Battisai, tale 10, part 3 (tr. Lescailler, Le Tr6ne EnchomU, 1817, I, pp. 199 ff.); Rev. E. M. Geldart, Folk Lore of Modern Greece, 1884, pp. 106-25 (first tale told by the casket) ; Charles Swynnerton, Indian Nights' Eriter- toMiment, 1892, i, p. 228; H. Parker, Village Folk-Tales of Ceylon, 1910, No. 74, I, pp. 378 S,; H. Parker, same work. No. 82, n, pp. 39-9 (variant A) ; H. Parker, same work. No. 82, n, pp. 42-3 (variant C) ; P. Macler, Revue des Traditions Populaires, xxrn (1908), No. 1, pp. 327 S.; R. E. Dennett, Folk-Lore of the Fjort, 1898, No. 3, pp. 33-4. °"nie Oriental prototype is represented by the first part of the tale of Prince Ahmed and the Fay Pari-Banou in the Arabic Thousand and One Nights (Galland, ed. 1881, x, pp. 1 ff.), in which one lover buys a magic flying carpet, one a telescope, and one a magic apple, one smell of which cures a person on the point of death. The youths are thus enabled to see the princess mortally ill, to reach her, and to cure her. The versions are very numerous, but show surprisingly little variation. See Gherardo Nerucci, Ses- santa Novelle Popolajri Montalesi, 1880, No. 40, pp. 335 ff. ; Chris- tian Schneller, Mdrchen und Sagen aus Wdlschtirol, 1867, No. 14; J. 6. von Hahn, Oriechische und Albanesische Marchen, 1864, No. 47, I, pp. 263 ff. ; Rev. W. Henry Jones and Lewis Kropf, The Folk-Tales of the Magyars, 1889, pp. 155 ff.; Madam Csedomille Mijatovics, ed. Rev. W. Denton, Serliam. Folk-Lore, 1874, pp. 230 ff.; John T. WILLAED EDWAED FABNHAM 19 in love with one maid and are sent out into the world to get wonderful gifts in competition for her hand. By means of the gifts they are able to resuscitate the princess, who is discovered to be dead or on the point of death. The Rescue Type.^^ The suitors vary in number from three to seven, and also vary greatly in character, though they are most frequently skilled in special arts. Each young man contributes something to the rescue of a maid- en from a monster, demon, magician, or powerful king. There are many versions, which, especially in Europe, tend to subdivide as follows : Versions with the incident of the ship.*" NaakS, Slavonio Fairy Tales, 1874, pp. 194 flf. ; G. Stier, Ungarisohe Sagen und Marchen, 1850, No. 9, pp. 61 ff.; Friedrich S. Krauss, Tausend Sagen und Maerchen der Sildslafoen, 1914, No. 63, i, pp. 196 ff.; F. H. Groome, Gypsy Folk-Tales, 1899, No. 13, pp. 53 ff.; Feman Caballero, tr. J. H. Ingram, Spanish Fairy Tales, 1881, pp. 22 ff.; Conaiglieri Pedroso, tr. Miss Henriqueta Monteiro, Portuguese Folk-Tales, 1882, No. 23, pp. 94 ff.; Adeline Eittershaus, Die Neu- isVindischen Volksnuarchen, 1902, No. 43, pp. 183 ff. ; Mrs. A. W. Hall, Icelandic Fairy Tales, 1897 ( ? ) , pp. 19 ff. ; J6n Arnason, tr. Powell-Magnflsson, Icelandic Legends, 1866, pp. 348 ff. ; M. Long- worth Dames, Balochi Tales, Folk-Lore, vr (1893), No. 12, pp. 205 ff. ; Gteorge W. Ellis, Negro Culture in "West Africa, 1914, No. 18, pp. 200 ff. ; Henri A. Junod, Les Chants et les Contes des Ba-Ronga de la Baie de Delagoa, 1897, No. 27; C. Velten, Marchen wnd Ereah- Ivngen der Suaheli, 1898, p. 71 (the tale being here given in dia- lect; it is summarized by Cosquin, Revue des Traditions Populaires, XXXI, p. 103). "For Oriental prototypes see Vetalapanchavmsa>ti 5 (tr. Benfey, Eleinere Schriften, n, iii, pp. 96 fl. ), in which the suitors are a man of supreme knowledge, a possessor of a magic chariot, and a wondrously accurate marksman; see also Senguehassen-Battissi, tale 10, part 1 (tr. Lescailler, Le Tr6ne Enchants, 1817, i, pp. 188 ff.) ; TUti Nama 22 {Tooti Nameh, tr. for Debrett, 1801, pp. 113 ff.) ; W. A. Clouston, The Book of Smdihad, 1884, pp. 106 ff. *" Here the youths always reach the captive princess by means of a ship, which one of their number is usually skilful enough to build. See tale from II NovelKno, text of Giovanni Fapanti, Cata- 2*J CHAUCEIf's PAELEMBNT OF FOTJLES Versions with the incident of the tower.*^ Miscellaneous versions.*^ logo dei NovelUeri Italiani in Prosa^ 1871, No. 23, l, pp. 44 ff.; HieronjTUus MorlinuB No. 79 (Parthenopei, Novellae, Fabulae, Go- moedia, 1855, pp. 155 ff.) ; Giovanni Francesco Straparola, I Piace- voli Natti, night vn, fable 5; Gian Battista Basile, II Pentamerone, V, 7; Domenico Comparetti, Novelline Popolari Italimie, 1875, No. 19, I, pp. 80 ff.; Georg Widter und Adam Wolf, Volksmdrchen aits Venetien, Jahrhuch fiir Bomamsche und Englische Literatur, vn, p. 30; A. H. Wratislaw, Sixty Folk-Tales, 1889, No. 9, pp. 55 ff.; Joseph Wenzig, Westslaioischer Marchenschate, 1857, pp. 140 ff. ; Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmarchen, No. 129; Friedrich Woeste, Zeitschrift fur Deutsche Mythologie, i, p. 338; Paul Sebillot, Gonites Populaires de la Baute-Bretagne, 1880, No. 8, pp. 53 ff. ; F. M. Luzel, Contes Populaires de Basse-Bretagne, 1887, No. 9, ni, pp. 312 ff.; Svend Grundtvig, Danske Folkeaeventyr, 1881, No. 17, pp. 210 ff.; H. Parker, Village Folk-Tales of Ceylon, 1910, No. 82, n, pp. 33 fl. "When the demon or monster pursues, the princess is hidden by the suitors in a tower or palace which one of their number can erect at a moment's notice. The number of lovers is large, usually seven. See Laura Gonzenbach, Sicilianische MaroJien, 1870, No. 45, 1, pp. 305 ff. ; Giuseppe Pitr6, Novelle Popolari Tosoam, 1885, No. 10, I, pp. 65 ff.; Giuseppe Pitrfe, same work, I, pp. 71 ff.; Giuseppe Pitrfe, Fiahe Novelle e Bacoonti Popolari Biciliani, 1875, I, pp. 196 ff. ; Giuseppe Pitrfe, same work, I, p. 197; Auguste Dozon, Contes Albanais, 1881, No. 4, pp. 27 ff.; Gustav Meyer, Alhamische Marchen, 1881, No. 8, pp. 118 ff.; Friedrich S. Krauss, Sagen und Marchen der Sudslaven, 1883, No. 32, I, pp. 120 ff.; I. JagiMb, Ate?^ H?f' ^^" GAYLORD PRINTED IN U S A. Cornell University Library PR 1886.F23 The sources of Chaucer's Paf'S^"* °i *° 3 1924 013 110 907 A I Id my 111 iS! ^ '" \ ' I I? I li, 4 hi'