FEED S AND FEE DING HENRY AND MORRISON mm fotk HnU (^allege of J^grUultutc - At afnrncU UniMEraitH aitljata, W. ^. Cornell University Library SF 95.H55 1917 Feeds and feeding, a handbook for the stu 3 1924 002 955 825 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002955825 FEEDS AND FEEDING A HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDENT AND STOCKMAN BY W. A. HENRY, D. Sc, D. Agr. EMERITUS PBOFEBSOB OF AORICUITrUBE, AND FORMEBLT DBAN OF' COLLEGE OF AGBICTTLTUBE AND DIBECTOB OF THE AGBICULTUBAL EXFEBIMENT STATION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN AND F. B. MORRISON, B. S. ASBIBTANT DIBECTOK OF THB AGBICULTUBAL EXPBBIMENT STATXOX, AND ASSOCIATE FBOFESSOB OF ANIMAL HUSBANSBT, UNITEBBITT OF WISqpNBIN "The eye of the master fattens his cattle." — Geruan Adage. SEVENTEENTH EDITION MADISON, WISCONSIN THE HENRY-MORRISON COMPANY 1917 CorVRIOHT, 1915 BY THE HENRY-MORRISON COMPANY Translated into Portuguese by F. M. Draenert, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1907. Translated into Russian under direction of Paul Dubrov- sky, editor of "Agriculture and Forestry," and published by the Imperial Department of Agriculture, for the use of agricultural schools and other institutions of the Depart- ment, Petrograd, 191S. Wt)e lLaftein» ^rtiii R. R. DONNEIXEY & SONS COMPANY CHICAGO PREFACE Feeds and Feeding, first published in March, 1898, was received with immediate and widespread favor by practical stockmen, as well as by the professors and students of animal husbandry in our agricultural colleges and secondary schools. The plan of the book had been laid along original lines, and neither time, labor, nor expense was spared in its preparation. In 1910, after nine editions hdd come from the press, the book was entirely rewritten and improved in many ways. During the lapse of time since that date, the accumulation of new and important matter, both scientific and practical, has made another revision desirable. Accordingly, more than two years ago, the preparation of this, the second revision, was be- gun. Professor F. B. Morrison, who had so ably assisted with every page of the first revision, becoming joint author herein with the original author. With a corps of trained assistants he has devoted much time during the past two years to the preparation of this second revision. Previous to and during its writing he has visited numerous stock farms and ranches as well as the agricultural colleges and experiment stations of many states, so that now the combined observations and studies of the joint authors, along the lines of both theoretical and practical animal husbandry, cover quite intimately every state of the Union, as well as parts of Canada and the Old World. It has been the aim of the authors to give in Feeds and Feeding an unbiased and condensed presentation of the most important findings of the investigators of both the Old and New Worlds in the science of animal nutrition, together with the most important results of the vast number of feeding trials which have been conducted at the experiment stations in the United States and other countries, the whole being rounded out by the practical experiences of many of the leading stockmen of America. In a large number of instances, as the text shows, the data and results of important investigations, completed so recently at the experiment sta- tions as not yet to be in print, have been forwarded to the authors by those who were conducting them, in order that the findings might be sum- marized in this revision. In Part I the fundamental principles of animal nutrition are first briefly presented, including the most recent discoveries of the biological chemists. The various feeding standards for the different classes of farm animals are then fuUy discussed, and there is presented a new series of standards — "The Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standards," formulated by the authors, — which are based upon the recent findings of the scientists in this and other countries. To point out some of the economic principles which should be considered in the feeding of live stock, an entirely new chapter — "Economy in Feeding Live Stock" — ^has been added. iv PEEFACB In Part II the many new feeding stuffs are given full consideration along with the old. Especial emphasis is placed upon the importance of combining the legume roughages with corn and the other cereals for the economical feeding of farm animals, and upon the great value of silage for the various classes of live stock. Finally the vital relation of animal husbandry to the economical maintenance of soil fertility, thru the return to the soil of the manurial residue of feeding stuffs, is emphasized. In Part III there are presented the most important findings obtained by the experiment stations, to date, on the value of the many different feedings stuffs for each class of live stock, and on the effect of various methods of preparing feed, systems of feeding and caring for stock, etc. Rather than simply giving the results of single typical trials on the various subjects, in most cases the data for all the similar trials on a given subject have been carefully compiled and averaged together. The feeder is thus given more trustworthy information in regard to the relative value of the different feeding stuffs. Feeds and Feeding contains about one-third more matter than the former revision, due not only to the addition of 85 pages, but also to a larger type page, a change of type, and other devices for saving space. This expansion has been made chiefly in Parts II and III, so that teachers, students, and farmers in any section of the country may find in this volume information regarding all the feeds of any importance in that district. The sincere thanks of the authors are hereby extended to the hundreds of friends who by suggestions and reports of experiments and experi- ences have furnished invaluable assistance in innumerable ways — only by such help so generously given has the making of this book been possible. Acknowledgment is due Professor E. V. McCoUum of the University of Wisconsin for valuable suggestions in the revision of the first six chapters of the book ; to Messrs. F. R. Jones, G. Bohstedt, A. J. Dexter, and J. G. Poynton, and Miss Vivian Elver for help in compiling data; and especially to Mrs. Elsie BuUard-Morrison for invaluable assistance thruout the entire work of revision. -^ ^ Hbnbt Madison, Wisconsin, October, 1915 PREFACE TO SEVENTEENTH EDITION The favor with which the second revision of Feeds and Feeding was received has exhausted two large editions in less than two years. In this, the seventeenth edition, several changes have been made, the most important of which is the substitution on Page 121 for Armsby's older net energy values the values recently computed by him from the aver- ages given in Appendix Tables II and III of this book. W. A. Henby. Madison, Wisconsin, F. B. MORRISON. July, 1917 CONTENTS PAGE Introduction. Live Stock and Profitable Fanning vii Part I. — Plant Growth and Animal Nutrition Chapter I. The Plant; How it Grows and Elaborates Food for Animals 1 II. Composition of the Animal Body — Digestion — Metabolism 14 III. Measuring the Usefulness of Feeds 36 IV. Maintenance of Farm Animals 54 V. Growth and Fattening 75 VI. Production of Work, Milk, and Wool 100 VII. Feeding Standards — Calculating Rations 109 VIII. Economy in Feeding Live Stock 139 Part II. — Feeding Stuffs IX. Leading Cereals and their By-products 149 X. Minor Cereals, Oil-bearing and Leguminous Seeds, and their By- products 166 XI. MisceUaneouB Concentrates — Feeding Stuffs Control — Condimental Foods 181 XII. Indian Com and the Sorghums for Forage 193 XIII. The Smaller Grasses — Straw — Hay-making 204 XIV. Leguminous Plants for Forage 223 XV. Roots, Tubers, and Miscellaneous Forages 240 XVI. Silage— ^Soilage — The Preparation of Feed 254 XVII. Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 272 Part III. — Feeding Farm Animals XVIII. Factors Influencing the Work of the Horse 281 XIX. Feeds for the Horse 299 XX. Feeding and Caring for the Horse 320 XXI. General Problems in Dairy Husbandry 338 XXII. Feeds for the Dairy Cow 358 XXIII. Records of Production of Dairy Cows — Feed Required by Cow and Cost of Producing Milk and Fat 387 XXIV. Feed and Care of the Dairy Cow 398 XXV. Raising Dairy Cattle 412 XXVI. General Problems in Beef Production 430 XXVII. Feeds for Fattening Cattle 449 XXVIII. Raising Beef Cattle 484 XXIX. Counsel in the Feed Lot 493 XXX. General Problems in Sheep Husbandry 607 XXXI. Feeds for Sheep 521 V vi CONTENTS Chapter Page XXXII. General Care of Sheep and Lambs — Fattening — Hot-house Lambs — Goats 548 XXXIII. General Problems in Swine Husbandry 568 XXXIV. Feeds for Swine 587 XXXV. Feed and Care of Swine 624 Appendix Table I. Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 633 Table II. Digestibility of Feeding Stuffs 647 Table III. Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding Stuffs 653 Table IV. The Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards 667 Table V. The Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards 669 Table VI. The Mineral Constituents of Feeding Stuffs 672 Table VII. The Weight of Various Concentrates per Quart 673 Index 674 INFORMATION TO THE READER When seeking information on any subject presented in this book, the reader should first consult the copious index, the figures of which refer to the page on which the topic is presented. Additional information bear- ing on the subject given at other places may be found by following up the numerous references set in black-face figures in parentheses, occurring in the body of the text. These figures refer to the numbered Hack-face side- heads, and not to the pages. INTRODUCTION LIVE STOCK AND PROFITABLE FARMING The animals of the farm should be regarded as living factories that are continuously converting their feed into products useful to man. A fact of great economic importance is that a large part of the food they con- sume is of such character that humans can not directly utilize it them- selves. Among the products yielded by the farm animals are not only articles of human diet, such as meat, milk, and eggs, but also such materials as wool, mohair, and hides, which are needed for clothing and other purposes. Another product of greater aggregate money value than any one of these is the work performed by horses and other draft animals. Altogether, the farm animals of the United States yield each year products worth over $5,000,000,000, a sum nearly as great as the value of all the crops annually harvested on our farms. As the population of our country becomes more dense, most naturally and properly a smaller portion of the crops raised will be fed to animals and a larger part consumed directly by humans. This change must come with the increased demand for human food, since even high-producing animals are able to convert only a part of the feed they eat into food for our consumption. Accordingly, with our increasing population, we should expect the census statistics to show that the number of animals on our farms was failing in some small degree to keep pace with the in- crease in people. The actual decrease in farm animals compared with population is, however, surprising. While the population of the United States increased 21 per ct. during the decade 1900 to 1910, the number of cattle and sheep decreased, and the number of swine increased but slightly. This indicates that if animal products are to hold their present important place in the diet of our people, American farmers must more thoroly appreciate the basic advantages of stock farming and better understand the principles and methods which are essential to its success. 1. live-stock farming and soil fertility. — ^Lured by the high prices which have ruled for grain and other crops in recent years, many farmers all over the country have sold their crops for cash, rather than following the wiser plan of marketing a portion thru the feeding of live stock, and thereby maintaining a balanced agriculture. Seldom have they realized that with every ton of grain thus sold they are removing from their farms $7 to $8 worth of fertility. The loss thru such inining of the soil is grad^ ual, but in a comparatively few years there will result none the less surely worn-out fields, lacking in plant food and humus, which must ever after- wards be fed with fertilizers to secure fair prpps. On^t;he otjier haqd, if viii FEEDS AND FEEDING a part of the crops are fed to live stock and proper care taken of the resulting manure, most of the fertility may be retained on the farm, and the need of commercial fertilizers long delayed. Under intensive stock farming, where more or less milling by-products rich in fertilizing con- stituents are usually purchased and fed on the farm, the land will even become richer and more productive year by year, with but little need for commercial fertilizers. When the great South comes into its own, cattle raising will balance cotton raising. Neither the cotton lint nor the oil obtained from the seed, which is a valuable human food, takes an appreciable amount of fertility from the soil. On the other hand, cottonseed meal is the highest in fer- tilizing value of all common plant products. Fortunately, it is at the same time the highest in feeding value for cattle of all our commonly available feeding stuffs. Therefore, by feeding the meal resulting from his cotton crop to live stock the southern farmer may bring back to his fields most of the fertility drawn out by the cotton plants in their growth. Thus he may reap a double profit. 2. Consumption of feed otherwise wasted. — In exclusive grain farming there is no successful way of utilizing the large amount of roughage, such as straw and corn stover, which results as a by-product in the growing of the cash crops. Such materials are merely in the way and are disposed of in the easiest manner, often by burning, without regard for the loss of vegetable matter, so much needed by the soil. In a well-planned system of stock husbandry all these materials are utilized for feed or bedding. Much forage which can not be consumed by humans and would otherwise be wasted is thus refined thru the agency of animals and converted into a form stiitable for the nourishment of man, while a large part of the organic matter is returned to the fields in the resulting manure. Im- mense amounts of by-products result from the manufacture of the cereals and other seeds into flour, breakfast foods, vegetable oils, etc. "While unsuited for humans, some of these by-products are among our most valued feeds for stock. As the density of population increases and the prices of foodstuffs advance, the feed supplied our farm animals must to an ever increasing extent consist of substeinces resulting secondarily from the making of human food, whether they be coarse roughages or milling by-products. 3. Utilization of land unsTuted for tillage. — In some sections of our country much of the land is so rough or stony that it can not be cropped economically. Here cattle will gather the grass on the smoother stretches and sheep wiU search out the herbage on the more inaccessible, rocky slopes. Over great areas of the West there is too little rainfall to warrant even dry farming, and irrigation will never be possible, either because of lack of water or the roughness of the land. Yet stock wiU thrive on the scanty but highly nutritious grasses and other forage. Thru well- planned systems of grazing, with additional feed in time of winter storm or parching drought, the western ranges should, at no far distant date- LIVE STOCK AND PROFITABLE FARMING ix carry even more stock than they did before large areas were broken up into farms. In the cut-over districts of our country large areas of land may be profitably grazed by live stock before they are finally brought under tillage. 4. Distribution of labor. — Under exclusive grain farming the chief de- mand for labor is confined to the periods of preparing the land, planting the crops, harvesting, and later marketing the products. During the rush seasons labor is high-priced, and often hard to secure at any cost. On the other hand, live-stock farming offers employment thruout the entire year. Winter, when little other farm work can be done, is the very season when farm animals require the most care and attention, for they are then usually housed instead of at pasture. Because the live-stock farmer can thus offer steady employment ■ he is usually able to secure men who are both more efficient and more reliable than he would otherwise be able to obtain. 5. Intelligent and progressive agriculture. — The whole world over, the most enlightened and progressive agricultural districts are found where live stock provides one of the chief sources of income. This is due to several reasons : The live-stock farmer can not live from hand to mouth, but must providently lay in a store of feed for his animals thruout the winter months. This same care and foresight is then carried into his other activities. Under some systems of agriculture the returns from the year's crops all come in at once, which makes for extravagance and idle- ness, with resultant poverty until another crop is harvested. On the other hand, under most systems of live-stock farming, income is secured several times during the year. The care and control of domestic animals, which are intelligent yet submissive to his wiU, tends to develop the best instincts in man and make him kindly, self-reliant, and trustworthy. The good stockman grows proud of his sleek, weU-bred animals and derives a satisfaction therefrom not measured in money. With pride he may hand down to his sons his reputation as a breeder. He is also able to leave them fertile fields which he has built up rather than robbed, a heritage bequeathed by but few grain farmers. 6. Profitable live-stock farming. — In the early days, with land low in price, pasturage abundant, and feed and labor cheap, making a profit from live-stock farming was comparatively easy, even tho one possessed little knowledge of the principles governing the feeding and care of stock. Conditions have now changed. The great western prairies no longer offer rich fields free for the taking, and hence thruout the country fertile land has advanced in price. No less marked has been the increase in the cost of labor and of feeding stuffs. But the price of live-stock products has also advanced, so that satisfactory profits may still be realized from farm animals. However, present conditions call for a more intelligent type of stock farming than has ruled in the past. Good profits are possible only when all the operations are planned intelligently and with X FEEDS AND FEEDING good judgment, and there is a thoro appreciation of the requirements of the various classes of animals for food and care. In the pioneer days of our country the feeds commonly used for live stock were restricted to the grains and forages grown on the farm. Knowledge of the value of these farm-grown products is not now suf5cient for intelligent feeding. The problem is complicated by the host of by- products resulting from the manufacture of articles of human food which are offered on the markets as feeding-stuffs for stock. Many of these are valuable and economical supplements to the feeds raised on the farm. However, such products vary considerably in price and even more markedly in nutritive value. Most economical feeding is therefore possible only when the relative value of these different products com- pared with each other and with the farm-grown crops is clearly \mder- stood. In seeking a knowledge of feeds and of feeding we must first consider the plant substances which provide the nourishment for farm animals and study the manner in which these compounds are built up in the living plant. Next we should learn how the food consumed by animals is digested and utilized within the body for the production of meat, milk, work, or wool, and should also study the requirements of each class of animals for food, water, shelter, and exercise. Only then are we in some measure in a position to understand the value and merits for each of the farm animals of the many different feeds, and finally to con- sider the principles of care and management, the constant observance of which is essential to the highest success in animal husbandry. FEEDS AND FEEDING Part I PLANT GROWTH AND ANIMAL NUTRITION CHAPTER I THE PLANT; HOW IT GROWS AND ELABORATES FOOD FOR ANIMALS I. PiiANT Growth Aside from air, water, and salt, plants either directly or indirectly supply aU food for animals. It is therefore proper in beginning these studies to consider briefly how plants grow and elaborate this food. 7. The food of plants. — Of the 80 or more elements known to the chem- ist, only 14 are commonly present in plants, viz.: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, silicon, chlorin, and manganese. Iodine also is present in some plants. With the limited exceptions noted further on, plants can- not make use of the elements, as such, for food, but are nourished and supported by water, carbon dioxid (carbonic acid gas), and mineral salts which contain the elements in chemical combination. Water is the largest single component of plants, that not held in chemi- cal combination constituting from 75 to 90 per ct. of their fresh weight. The plant obtains practically all its water from the soil thru its roots, only a small amount being taken from the air by the leaves. Soil water, absorbed by the roots, enters the cells of which the plant is composed and passes onward and upward thru the stem, moved by capillarity and sap currents, eventually reaching every portion of the structure, being es- pecially abundant in the leaves and growing parts. Thruout its existence the plant takes great quantities of water from the soil, giving most of it off again to the air thru its leaves and other green parts. For every pound of dry matter which plants produce they take from the soil thru their roots from 200 to 500 lbs. of water in humid climates, and as high as 1,800 lbs. in arid regions. Next to water, carbon dioxid or carbonic acid gas is the great food material of plants. Ten thousand parts of air contain 3 to 4 parts by volume of carbon dioxid, and about 28 tons of this gas rests over each 2 FEEDS AND FEEDING acre of the earth's surface. The supply of carbon dioxid is never ex- hausted from the air, because thru the decay and dissolution of plant and animal matter it is being constantly returned thereto. On the under surface of plant leaves are innumerable minute openings, or pores, lead- ing inward among the cells of the leaf structure. The air, penetrating these pores, supplies carbon dioxid, which is absorbed into the cells and thus enters the plant proper. In the production of a 15-ton crop of green corn over 5 tons of carbon dioxid are required, to obtain which the plants must take in over 12,000 tons of air. Nitrogen abounds in the living, growing parts of plants. Despite the fact that about three-fourths of the air is nitrogen gas, with the exception noted farther on plants cannot take it up as such, but obtain their supply from the soil by means of their roots, either in the form of nitrates or as ammonia, chiefly the former. Plants obtain oxygen, which is a part of all plant compounds, largely from water and carbon dioxid, and not from the free oxygen gas of the air. Some free oxygen is necessary, however, for the growth of green plants. The mineral substances required by plants are taken from the soil thru the roots. They may be grouped as follows : Sulfates potassium Phosphates calcium Nitrates -of. magnesium Chlorids iron Silicates sodium Carbonates ammonium Sulfur, in small amount, is a component of plant proteins. Phos- phorus, likewise in small amount, is present in the life-holding proto- plasmic protein of the leaf cells and also abounds in the protein of seeds. Potassium is necessary in the formation of starch and sugar by plants. Magnesium is an essential part of chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants, which is necessary for their growth. , Calcium is vital to plants, tho its use is not well understood. Sodium, silicon, chlorin, and man- ganese, tho commonly present, are regarded by some authorities as not essential to plant life. Free oxygen gas is absorbed by seeds during germination, and a smaU amount is being constantly absorbed by the leaves and fruits of plants. Bacfoia inhabiting nodular growths on the roots of leguminous plants, such as clover, alfalfa, and peas, take nitrogen gas from the air and pass it on in combined form to the host plant, thus indirectly supplying this important element. With these exceptions, the elements, as such, are never used in uncombined form by plants, but serve them only when in chemical combination. 8. Plant building. — ^Living matter is distinguished from non-liAring matter by its power to grow, to repair its own waste, and to reproduce HOW THE PLANT GROWS 3 itself. In plants the life principle is most in evidence in the transparent, viscous protoplasm found within the plant cells. Because of inherent differences in the protoplasm, each plant possesses an individuality and is able to grow and reproduce itself after its own manner. The interior of the plant is everywhere bathed with juice or sap, which is the great fluid medium for conveying the chemical compounds, gathered by leaf and root, to the place where they are formed into or- gamzed plant substances or building materials proper, and, later, for transporting the materials thus formed to all parts where needed. By means of this sap, the green-colored protoplasm in the leaf cells is sup- plied with carbon dioxid taken from the air by the leaves, with water, and with nitrates and other soluble mineral salts taken by the roots from the soil. In some mysterious manner chlorophyll, the sensitive green coloring matter of plants, is able, under the influence of light, to decompose car- bon dioxid and water and rearrange their atoms to form primary plant compounds. The excess of oxygen resulting from this union of carbon dioxid and water is given back to the air as a free gas. It is not definitely known whether the first product formed is starch, sugar, or some simpler compound. " From the compounds first formed the plant builds up its more complex substances, some of which contain mineral matter taken from the soil as salts. Sugar and starch contain much energy which may be set free as heat when these substances are burned or otherwise broken up. Carbon dioxid and water, on the other hand, have little internal energy, and so on being decomposed do not liberate heat. Energy must therefore be supplied whenever sugar and starch are formed out of the elements contained in these two energy-poor substances. This energy, used by the active life-holding protoplasm in building carbon dioxid and water into energy-holding sugar and starch, comes from the sun, as light. 9. The carbohydrates. — Sugar and starch are the great common elemen- tary structural substances of plants. With the related products, the celluloses and pentosans, they constitute the major portion of all dry plant substance. They are grouped under the term carbohydrates, mean- ing formed of carbon and the elements hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion existing in water, the chemical formula for which is HjO. The molecular composition of the leading carbohydrates is shown in the following formulae : I 0»H„0„ f CiaHaaOi Glucose Fruit sugar ^ '^B^-aa^ Cane sugar Malt sugar ^ ^ii^-a^ix Starch ] /n rr n % Cellulose j (l^6±iio"Jx Pentosan (CjHgO^)! Pentose CgHioOe 4 FEEDS AND FEEDING Chemists hold that the molecules in the bracketed groups are in reality far more complex than the formulae indicate, the actual molecule being many multiples of the group here given. The formulae not bracketed are held to express the actual atomic composition of the molecule. All sugars — cane sugar, glucose, malt sugar, fruit sugar, etc. — are soluble in the juices of the plant and constitute the common, portable carbohydrate building material of plants, capable, by diffusion and sap currents, of passing to all parts of the structure as needed. Some plants, the beet and the sugar cane for example, store their carbon reserve as sugar. Starch, however, is the common intermediate carbohydrate re- serve of the plant world. It is insoluble in the juices of the plant and so cannot be directly transported as can the sugars. Starch abounds in most seeds, closely packed about the germs, as in the kernels of wheat, Indian corn, etc. Often it is stored in the underground parts of plants, as in potato tubers. When the starch thus stored is needed in other parts of the plant, it is changed by an enzyme, or ferment, called diastase (37), thru the adding on of water, to malt sugar, which is soluble and can be further changed to glucose by the adding on of more water. The sugars so formed can then be passed from cell to cell until their destination is reached, where they may be again changed to starch, pentosans, or cellu- lose, as required. Plants are primarily composed of minute cells, variously grouped and modified, the walls of these cells being formed of cellulbse, a carbohy- drate. Cellulose is the great insoluble building substance of the vegetable world, constituting as it does almost the whole of the skeleton or frame- work of plants. As before shown, cellulose is similar to starch and sugar in general composition and originates from them. In the dense wood of trees the cell walls are thick, in some cases nearly fiUing the entire cell. In the more tender twigs and leaves they are less dense, while in the still softer portions, such as fruits and seeds, they are thin and delicate. More or less mineral matter or ash is built into the cell walls of plants, being especially abundant in the bark of trees, as is shown by the residue when such material is burned. The pentoses and pentosans are carbohydrates with 5 atoms of carbon in the molecule, in place of 6 as in the sugars and starches. The pentoses correspond to sugars, and the pentosans to stkrches and cellulose. The pentosans, which are usually associated with cellulose in the more woody portions of the plant, form a considerable part of the nitrogen-free ex- tract of roughages and other feeds high in fiber. For example, hay from the grasses and the straw of the cereal grains usually contain over 20 per ct. of pentosans, and wheat bran about 24 per ct., while corn grain contains less than 6 per ct. 10. Vegetable fats and oils. — In some cases the plant stores carbon in the form of fat, which is solid at ordinary temperatiires, or of oil, which is liquid. Such storage is entirely possible since fats and oils are formed from the same elements that exist in the carbohydrates. In vegetable HOW THE PLANT GROWS 5 fats and oils the molecules are composed of a larger number of atoms than are those of the sugars, and the proportion of carbon is greater, as the following formulae of 3 common vegetable oils or fats show : Stearin 0^,11^1^0^ Palmitin CsiHgsO, Olein C„Hi„,Oe Vegetable oils and fats give off more heat on burning than do the car- bohydrates, because they contain relatively more carbon. Oils and fats most abound in the seeds of plants and represent carbon energy stored in condensed form. When seeds containing oil, such as the flax seed, begin to grow, the oil is changed over into products which nourish the growing plantlet the same as is done in ordinary seeds by the sugar which is formed from the stored starch. 11. Nitrogenous compounds. — ^We have learned how in the life-holding protoplasm of the green parts of plants, especially their leaves, the carbohydrates and fats are formed from the elements of carbon dioxid and water by the energy of the sun. To these life centers, with their green coloring matter, holding sugar and starch, the sap brings nitrates and other mineral salts gathered by the roots from the soil. Thru the union of the elements of the nitrates and other salts with those of the starches and sugars there is formed a new group of complex compounds called crude proteins, which, in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, found in the carbohydrates, contain nitrogen, sulfur, and some- times phosphorus. The nitrogenous compounds are the most complex of all plant substances. Osborne of the Connecticut Station gives the fol- lowing as the probable molecular composition of legumin, a protein found in the seed of the field pea, and hordein, found in the barley grain : Legumin C^igHuBsOjagNjiiS^ Hordein Cg^HioitOig^NigiS^ Because of their great variety and complexity, the nitrogenous com- pounds are the most difficult of all plant substances for study and classi- fication. For years able organic chemists have been attacking the intricate problems of their structure and composition with great energy and patience. Although their work has greatly advanced our knowledge, yet little more than a beginning has been made iu setting forth the differences in the composition of the various nitrogenous or protein com- pounds, and in pointing out their relative values as nutrients for animals. In discussions of feeding stuffs and the nutrition of animals, the terms crude protein, protein, and amids are commonly used for designating the various classes of nitrogenous compounds. Crude protein is the term employed to designate all the nitrogenous compounds of the plant. The chemist finds that about 16 per ct. of the plant proteins is nitrogen. Accordingly, he multiplies the nitrogen found in a given plant substance by 6.25 (100-j-16;=6.25) and calls the 6 FEEDS AND FEEDING product crude protein. Crude protein embraces 2 great groups of nitrogenous plant compounds, proteins and amids. The amids may be termed the building stones of the proteins, for from them the plant constructs the more highly organized proteins, and on decomposition the proteins are again broken down into these more simple bodies. These compounds are the portable building compounds of the plant, for they are soluble in its juices and hence may be conveyed wherever needed thruout the plant structure. Commonly included under the general term amids are compounds which the chemist calls amino acids, and others which he terms true amids. In this work, unless other- wise stated, amids will be used to denote both classes of substances. Proteins are the more highly organized forms of crude protein. They are not always soluble and therefore in many cases not transportable in the juices of the plant. The proteins form the basis of the living pro- toplasm of all plants and animals, and so are essential to all life. The complexity of the proteins is evident from the fact that 18 differ- ent amino acids have already been identified, which may enter into their composition. Just as the letters of the alphabet may be combined into innumerable words, so the possibility for the combination of the amino acids into different proteins is almost limitless. Thus far scores of differ- ent plant and animal proteins have been separated and examined by the chemists. Some of these, such as egg albumin, contain all the known amino acids, while others, as zein of com and gliadin of wheat, lack one or more of them. As will be shown later, such incomplete proteins may have a lower value for animal feeding than those which are complete in their composition. During the period of the plant's life when active growth is taking place, amids are constantly being formed in the living protoplasm out of the nitrates and other mineral salts and the elements composing sugar or starch. These amids are continually being transported to needed points and there changed into the proteins, and as a consequence do not usually accumulate in the plant. Just as starch and sugar may be changed one into the other in the plant, so the proteins and amids may be changed one into the other as plant necessity may require. When germination starts in a seed, an enzyme, or ferment, contained therein acts upon the insolu- ble proteins stored in and about the germ and changes them to soluble amids, so that the nitrogen may be transported to the newly forming parts of the plantlet. When com forage is placed in the silo, much of the proteia it then contains is changed back to amids thru the fermenta- tions which occur. Very little crude protein is found in the older woody parts of plants, the greater portion always being concentrated at the point of growth; i.e., in the leaves, seeds, and reproductive parts. The germ of seeds is largely protein, and the rich nutritive substances in the grain close about it usually hold much protein. It is in the life-holding protoplasm in the green parts of plants, principally in their leaves, that all the inorganic HOW THE PLANT GROWS 7 compounds taken up by the plant from air and soil are elaborated into true plant substances by sun power. The life processes of the plant are maintained and all changes are wrought thru its nitrogenous or protein compounds, and a knowledge of such fact is not only of interest, but has many practical bearings for the farmer and stockman. 12. Mineral compounds. — The elaboration of food materials in the pro- toplasmic masses, as well as the development of young plants from the seed, requires the presence of mineral matter, or ash, which is found in small amount everywhere thruout the plant. The leaves contain more ash than do the other parts, due to the life processes within the leaf cells and the constant evaporation of water from their surfaces by which the ash in solution is left behind. The ash content of the bark of trees and stems of plants is also usually high. 13. The end of plant effort. — If we study the life history of a plant, we observe that its first effort is toward self -establishment and enlargement. At this time all the elaborated material, as fast as formed, is transferred to the growing parts that they may be built up and established. As the plant approaches maturity, its energies are changed from growth to re- production, or the perpetuation of its kind. The nutrients in the juices, which were formerly directed to the growing portions, are now turned toward the reproductive parts. First come the blossoms, then the young enlarging fruits. Into these the sugars, amids, and mineral substances, all elaborated and worked over by the plant in its leaves, are poured in a steady current. The wheat plant resulting from a single kernel bears a hundred fruits in the shape of seed grains, while the Indian corn plant may produce a thousand-fold. In each of these grains is a miniature plant, the germ, composed largely of protein, about which is stored a generous supply of rich nutriment — ^proteins, starch, sugar, oil, and mineral matter — all in compact, concentrated form, awaiting the time when the germ shall begin life on its own account. In the tuber of the potato the cells are packed with starch, while in the beet root the stored material is largely in the form of cane sugar. Each germ, or reproduc- tive part, is surrounded with food nutrients stored after Nature's choicest plan to aid the new life which is to follow. 14. Plants support animal life. — ^Nature has decreed that it is the func- tion of plants to build inorganic matter taken from earth and air into organic compounds, by which operation the sun energy employed becomes latent. Thru the life processes the various plant compounds used as food by animals are, after more or less change, built into the animal body, or are broken down within it to give heat and energy. In this change and dissolution the sun energy which became latent or was hidden in the growing plant is again revealed in all the manifestations of animal life. In the coal burning in the grate we observe the reappearance of the energy of the sun which was stored in the plants of ages ago. In the stalks and ears of corn which we feed our cattle we are furnishing energy received from the sun and rendered latent by the corn plant during the 8 FEEDS AND FEEDING previous summer. Thus it is that the stockman, when supplying plants and seeds to the animals under his care, observes in their growing bodies, warmed by internal fires, the energy of the sun transmitted by the plant to the animal. To the plants of the farm the stockman turns for the nourishment and support of his animals. The final step is the consump- tion of the flesh or milk of the animals by man, whereby sun energy finally becomes human energy. A general knowledge and full realization of how plants live and grow is therefore not only of interest, but also may be helpful in a thousand ways. II. How THE Chemist Groups Plant Substances In the following table, taken from Appendix Table I, the composition of a few common feeding stuffs is arranged after the manner adopted by agricultural chemists. The first column gives the name of the feeding stuff, followed by others showing the average per cent of the several nutrients which the feed contains. Last is a column giving the number of analyses from which the average composition was computed. Chemical composition of typical feeding stuffs, from Appendix Table I Inorganic matter Organic matter Feeding stuS Crude protein Carbohydrates Fat No. of Water Ash Fiber N-free extract analyses Concentrates Perot. 10.5 9.2 10.2 10.1 9.2 9.1 11.6 12.9 11.5 68.4 73.7 90.6 Per ot. 1.5 3.5 1.9 6.3 4.3 5.4 4.9 7.1 5.4 2.8 1.7 1.0 Per ct. 10.1 12.4 12.4 16.0 22.6 33.9 6.2 12.8 3.6 4.1 2.1 1.4 Per ct. 2.0 10.9 2.2 9.6 7.1 8.4 29.9 25.5 36.3 8.7 6.3 0.8 Per ct. 70.9 59.6 71.2 53.7 23.2 3S.7 45.0 38.7 40.8 14.8 15.4 6.1 Per ot. 5.0 4.4 2.1 4.4 33.7 7.5 2.5 3.1 2.4 1.2 0.8 0.1 440. Oats 49b Wheat 858 Wheat bran 7, 742 Max seed 50 Linseed meal, old process 714 Roughages Timothv hav 221 Red clover hay Oat straw 76 41 Kentucky bluegrass, 32 Com silage, recent 121 38 15. Water. — To determine the amount of water in a fodder the chemist .places a small quantity of the material, finely divided, in a dish and as- certains its weight. It is then dried in an oven at a temperature of 212° F. for several hours and again weighed. The difference between the first and last weights represents the amount of water in the sample. Volatile compounds, such as some of the substances Which give various plants HOW THE PLANT GROWS 9 their characteristic odors, are also driven off by this heating, but the weight of such compounds is generally insignificant. From the second column of the table we learn that even such "dry" feeds as corn, oats, wheat, and wheat bran contain 9 lbs. or more of water per 100 lbs. of the feeding stuff. Timothy and clover hay contain still more water, and such succulent faeds as pasture grass, com silage, and mangels are largely water. 16. Ash, or mineral matter. — The chemist next burns the sample and ascertains the weight of ash, or mineral matter, which is left. From the third column of the table we learn that 100 lbs. of corn or wheat con- tains less than 2 lbs. of ash. Oats, with their strawy hulls, and wheat bran, consisting of the outer coats of the wheat grain, carry more ash. The hays and straws are higher in ash than such grains as com or wheat, due to the accumulation of mineral matter in the leaves during growth, to earthy matter washed upon the growing plants by rain, and to dust settling on the roughage before it is housed. Such foreign material is not really plant ash, but of necessity is reported as such. Owing to their high water content, the ash in 100 lbs. of fresh grass, silage, and mangels is low. The ash and water of plants together constitute the so-called inorganic matter; the other components — crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat — are termed the organic matter. 17. Crude protein. — The process of determining the nitrogenous con- stituents of feeding stuffs is too complicated for presentation here. SufSce it to say that the nitrogen content is found, and the result multi- plied by 6.25 to give the crude protein, since about 16 per ct. of plant protein is nitrogen (100-=-l 6^6.25). From the table we learn that 100 lbs. of wheat bran contains 16.0 lbs. of crude protein, while the amount in wheat is 12.4 lbs. and in dent com only 10.1 lbs. per 100 lbs. Red clover hay contains over twice as much crude protein as timothy hay. 18. Rber. — The woody portion of a feeding stuff is determined by boiling a sample thereof successively in weak acid and alkali and wash- ing out the dissolved matter. That which remains is termed fiber. As is shown later (48), fiber, which consists mostly of cellulose, is less diges- tible and hence has a lower nutritive value than the other nutrients of feeding stuffs. Com contains but 2.0 and wheat only 2.2 per ct. of fiber, while, owing to the woody hulls, oats contain 10.9 per ct. Most rough- ages, especially the straws, are much higher in fiber than the concentrates. Mangels contain but 0.8 per ct. fiber ; were they dried to the same water content as oats they would contain only 7.7 per ct. fiber — ^less than oats. 19. Fat. — A sample of the pulverized dried fodder is treated with ether, which dissolves the fats, waxes, resins, chlorophyll, or green color- ing matter, and similar substances. This, called ether extract in works on plant analysis, is for convenience termed fat in this work. The ether extract of seeds is nearly all true fat, or oil, while that of the leaves and stems of plants contains much chlorophyll, wax, etc. Corn and oats carry more fat than the other cereals. Some seeds, such as flax seed, are so 10 FEEDS AND FEEDING rich in oil that it may be extracted from them by crushing and subsequent pressure. 20. Nitrogen-free extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, expressed in the tables in this book as N-free extract, embraces the substances that are ex- tracted from the dry matter of plants by treatment with weak acids and alkalies under standard conditions, less the crude protein, fat, and ash. It is determined by difference and not by direct analysis. The total dry matter in a feeding stuff minus the sum of the ash, crude protein, fiber, and fat, equals the nitrogen-free extract. It embraces the sugars, starches, pentoses, non-nitrogenous organic acids, etc., of the plant. The nitrogen-free extract is more soluble and hence more dige;stible than the fiber, and thus has a higher nutritive value. (48) Over 70 per ct. of both corn and wheat is nitrogen-free extract, largely starch. The roughages, carrying much woody fiber, contain less of these more soluble carbohy- drates than the concentrates. 21. Carbohydrates. — The nitrogen-free extract and fiber together constitute the carbohydrates. By the present method all plant substances are grouped under the terms crude protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat, without regard to the differences in composition and feeding value of the different in- dividual proteins, carbohydrates, and fats which make up these classes. In many particulars this is unsatisfactory. In time chemists will work out a more accurate, tho necessarily more complicated, classification, but at present for the great majority of feeds there is nothing better than what is here given. 22. Roughages and concentrates. — In discussing feeding stuffs it is desirable to differentiate between those which are of coarse, bulky nature and others which are more condensed and more nutritious. Accordingly, the terms "concentrate" and "roughage" employed in the first edition of this book are retained, since they are now widely recognized and used. Concentrates are feeding stuffs of condensed nature, which are low in fiber and hence furnish a large amount of digestible matter. Examples of this class of feeds are the various grains, as Indian com, wheat, and oats, and milling by-products of high feeding value, as wheat bran, lin- seed meal, gluten feed, etc. Roughages are the coarser feeding stuffs, which are high in fiber and supply a lower percentage of digestible matter. Such feeds as hay, com fodder, straw, and silage belong to this class. Some of the low-grade milling by-products, such as oat hulls, ground corncobs, and peanut hulls are roughages, rather than concentrates, for they are largely fiber and furnish but little nutriment. Roots are watery and bulky, and contain relatively little nutriment per pound, yet based on the composi- tion of the dry substance they are more like concentrates than roughages, as they are low in fiber. They are really watery, or diluted, concentrates, tho for convenience they are included under fresh green roughages in Appendix Table I. HOW THE PLANT GROWS 11 III. The Study op an Acee of Corn The great basic facts in plant life, briefly set forth in the preceding pages, are admirably illustrated by a study of Indian corn, the greatest of our agricultural plants, such as has been made by Ladd at the New York (Geneva) Station^ and Jones at the Indiana Station^ 23. Changes in a growing com crop. — ^Analyzing the plants at various stages from July 24, when they were about 4 feet high, until Oct. 8, when the kernels were hard, Jones secured the following data, based on an average stand of 10,000 stalks per acre : Composition of an acre of Indian corn at different stages Stage of growth Total wt. of green crop Dry matter in crop Aah Crude protein Kber N-free extract Fat Four feet high, July S4.... First tassels, Aug. 6 SUks drying, Av^. Z8 Com and cob . Lbs. 5,138 18,827 4,839 19,488 Lbs. 731 2,245 755 3,812 Lbs. 90 195 24 248 T,bB 149 360 102 334 Lbs. 170 670 147 1,056 Lbs. 282 977 473 2,133 Lbs. 40 42 q Stalk, blade, etc 40 Total 24,327 7,288 19,422 4,567 2,268 3,906 272 50 278 436 252 292 1,203 263 1,098 2,606 1,648 2,198 49 MUk stage, Sept. 10 Com and cob 'i'i Stalk, blade, etc 40 Total 26,710 8,620 17,130 6,174 3,866 4,238 328 66 323 544 346 220 1,361 312 1,211 3,846 2,985 2,440 95 Glazing stage, Sept. ^4 Com and cob l^iS Stalk, blade, etc 44 Total 25,750 9,292 15,983 8,104 4,625 4,304 389 72 297 566 450 210 1,523 824 1,278 5,425 3,600 2,484 202 Silage stage, Oct. 1 Com and cob 17Q Stalk, blade, etc 36 Total 25,275 9,259 12,994 8,929 5,186 4,226 369 76 307 660 492 199 1,602 368 1,369 6,084 4,027 2,309 215 Beady to shock, Oct. 8 Com and cob 22^? Stalk, blade, etc 42 Total 22,253 9,412 383 691 1,737 6,336 265 From July 24, at a stage when sometimes fed as soilage, to Aug. 28, when the sUks were drying, the crop increased over 19,000 lbs. in total weight and nearly 4,000 lbs. in dry matter. The increase in total weight was thereafter less rapid, reaching the maximum when the kernels were in the milk stage. After this the gross weight decreased by over 4,000 lbs., due to drying out as it matured. The dry matter, however, continued to increase rapidly until the plants were fully ripe. Indeed in less than a month following Aug. 28 the acre of com stored over 3,000 lbs. of dry matter! When four feet high the crop was nearly 86 per ct. water »N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt 1889. 'Ind. Bui. 175. 12 FEEDS AND FEEDING and only about 14 per ct. dry matter ; while when the kernels were hard and the husks dry over 42 per et. was dry matter. On Aug. 28 less than 17 per ct. of the total dry matter was in the ears ; by Oct. 8 the ears contained over half the dry matter in the total crop. 24. Ash or mineral matter. — The total ash increased rapidly until the plant reached its full height. During the period of greatest starch for- mation, Aug. 28 to Oct. 1, the increase in potash was especially rapid. 25. Crude protein. — The most rapid increase in crude protein, the nitrogenous portion, occurred before the plants were tasseled, when cell growth was more active. After the ears were silked, as is shown in the following table from Ladd, the amids — ^the soluble circulating nitroge- nous compounds — did not increase. Changes in crude protein in growing corn crop Amids Protein Stage of growth Lbs. Lbs, Tasseled 69 171 Silked 158 279 Kernels in milk 102 377 Kernels glazed 152 491 Ripe 109 569 Altho amids — ^the building-stones of the proteins — were constantly being forlned during the development of the plants, they were in turn quickly built over into the more complex, stable proteins. Thus, there was a steady and marked storage of proteins up to maturity. At all stages of growth nearly all the amids are in the stalks and leaves, the amids in the ears never exceeding 1.5 lbs. per acre, according to Jones. At maturity, Oct. 8, over 71 per ct. of all the protein in the crop was stored in the ears, principally in and about the germs of the kernels, . ready to carry on the vital functions whenever the grains might find lodgment in the soil and begin growth to form new corn plants. 26. Fiber, — The stalk of corn must be strong and sturdy to carry the abundant foliage and especially the heavy ear — Whence the increase in fiber, the woody framework of the plant, which was especially rapid till the skeleton of the plant was grown. 27. Nitrogen-free extract. — The nitrogen-free extract, the most valu- able portion of the carbohydrates, made up of sugars, starch, and the other more soluble carbohydrates, increased more than 2.5 tons between tasseling and ripening. As is shown in the following, Ladd found that after the milk stage there was practically no increase of either glucose or sucrose, but a large storage of starch. Changes in glucose, sucrose, and starch of growing corn crop Glucose Sucrose Starch Stage of growth Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Tasseled 58, 9 122 Silked 300 111 491 In milk 665 129 707 Glazed 720 95 1,735 Ripe 538 1^9 2,853 HOW THE PLANT GROWS 13 The table shows that, altho sugars were being steadily formed in the leaves of the plant from tasseling to ripening, they were continuously being transferred to other parts, especially the swelling kernels of the ear. Here a large portion was changed to insoluble starch and com- pactly stored about the germs to serve as food for the future plantlets. Another portion of the sugars was changed into cellulose to form the woody framework of the plant structure. The elements of a third portion were combined with nitrates and other mineral matter from the soil to form the nitrogenous amids and proteins. It was because of such con- tinuous transference and change that the sugars showed no material increase. Up to the milk stage starch formed only a small part of the total nitrogen-free extract ; after this it increased rapidly until by maturity nearly a ton and a half of starch had been formed. Ladd found that the other soluble carbohydrates, which increased up to the glazing stage, consisted chiefly of pentoses and the more soluble pentosans and cellu- loses. A study of the several tables shows most plainly the heavy losses of valuable nutrients which are sure to occur when a crop of Indian corn is hai^ested before it has fully ripened. In producing this acre of corn, probably not over 10 lbs. of seed was placed in the ground in the spring time. From this insignificant begin- ning, by the following October, about 130 days later, the resultant plants had gathered inorganic matter — carbon dioxid from the air, and water, nitrogen, and mineral matter from the soil — and built all these, first into primary organic forms, and finally into complex organic parts of their structure. The product of such building amounted to over 11 tons of green or 4.7 tons of dry matter, all largely available for nourishing the animals of the farm and, thru them, man. This is a forceful illustra- tion of Nature's wonderful processes of food production occurring all about us under the guiding mind of man. The reader who will thoroly familiarize himself with this study of the growing corn plant can readily extend his acquirement to all the other crops of the farm. Thus equipped he is in position to study the compo- sition of the bodies of farm animals and consider how they are built up and maintained by food derived from plants, as later presented. CHAPTER II COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION- METABOLISM I. Composition of the Animal Body Division III of the preceding chapter sets forth the yield and compo- sition of an acre of Indian corn, thereby showing how the several nutrients of feeding stuffs are elaborated by the plants of the farm. We wiU next consider the nature and composition of the bodies of farm animals, which are built up and nourished by plants. 28. The animal body. — The unit of the animal body is the protoplasmic life-holding cell, which, associated with myriads of others and modified in innumerable ways, makes up the body structure. Both the cell envelop and its contents are of nitrogenous material in most complex combination. In studying the higher animals we may regard their bodies as consist- ing of a bony skeleton of mineral character surrounded by an elaborate muscular system. Fatty tissue permeates the bones and muscles, filling in and rounding out the body form, and around all is the enveloping skin. Within the body cavity are the various special organs, such as the heart, stomach, etc., designed for dissolving, assorting, distributing, and utilizing the nutritive matters of the food and for conveying and dis- posing of the waste. All these organs are nitrogenous or protein in nature, as are also a part of the organic matter of the bones and a large portion of the nerves, which control and direct all body activities. We have seen that in plants the great structural material is cellulose, a carbohydrate, and that the common stored reserve material is starch, also a carbohydrate. In the animal body, however, while the glucose in the blood and tissues and the glycogen in the liver and other organs perform important functions, these carbohydrates at no time form an appreciable part of the animal's weight. (60) 29. Composition of animal bodies. — To aid in a study of the compo- sition of the bodies of farm animals we have the following invaluable data gathered by Lawes and Gilbert^ of the Rothamsted (England) Experiment Station, whose classic investigations stand as models in agricultural research. The first division of the table shows the compo- sition of the entire body (fasted weight) of the several animals, and the second part the composition of their carcasses. Store animals are those in thrifty condition, but not fat. *Jour. Roy. Agr. See. Eng., 1898; U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Sta., Bui. 22. 14 THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 15 Due to the fact that the gains during fattening are chiefly fat (122), the animals of each kind contain a higher percentage of protein and a much lower percentage of fat before being fattened. Thus while 14.8 per ct. of the body of the store sheep is protein and 18.7 per ct. fat, the extrar fat sheep contains 45.8 per ct. fat and only 10.9 per ct. protein. The third column shows that in general the percentage of mineral matter, or ash, decreases as the animal fattens, because fatty tissue is low in ash. Due to the relatively light skeleton, the body of the pig in store condition contains but 2.67 per ct. ash and only 1.65 per ct. when fat, the lowest of any of the farm animals. Composition of the entire bodies and carcasses of farm animals Deaotiption of animal Protein Fat Mineral matter (ash) Total dry sub- Btanoe Water Contents of stomach and intestines in moist state Division I. Per cent in the entire animal (fasted live weight) Fat calf Half -fat ox . Fat ox Fat lamb Store sheep Half -fat old sheep . Fat sheep Extrarfat sheep . . . Store pig . Fat pig. . , 15.2 16.6 14.5 12.3 14.8 14.0 12.2 10.9 13.7 10.9 14.8 19.1 30.1 28.5 18.7 23.5 35.6 45.8 23.3 42.2 3.80 4.66 3.92 2.94 3.16 3.17 2.81 2.90 2.67 1.65 33.8 40.3 48.5 43.7 36.7 40.7 50.6 59.6 39.7 64.7 63.0 51.5 45.5 47.8 57.3 60.2 43.4 35.2 55.1 41.3 3.17 8.19 5.98 8.54 6.00 9.05 6.02 6.18 5.22 3.97 Average of all. 13.5 28.2 3.17 44.9 49.0 6.13 Division II. Per cent in carcass Fat calf Half -fat ox. Fat ox Fat lamb Store sheep Half -fat old sheep . Fat sheep Extra-fat sheep . . . Store pig . Fat pig... 16.6 17.8 16.0 10.9 14.5 14.9 11.6 9.1 14.0 10.6 16.6 22.6 34.8 36.9 23.8 31.3 45.4 55.1 28.1 49.5 4.48 5.56 4.66 3.63 4.36 4.13 3.46 2.77 2.67 1.40 37.7 46.0 54.4 61.4 42.7 50.3 60.3 67.0 44.7 61.4 62.3 64.0 46.6 48.6 57.3 49.7 39.7 33.0 66.3 38.6 Average of all. 13.6 34.4 3.69 61.6 48.4 The fourth and fifth columns, giving the percentages of total dry substance and water, show that in all but the extra-fat sheep and the fat pig, water is the largest single constituent of the body. For all the animals studied, on the average 49 lbs. in every 100 of the body weight, or nearly half, is water. This brings out strikingly the great importance 16 FEEDS AND FEEDING of water in the animal body. The percentage of water both in the entire body (Division I of table) and in the carcass (Division II) is higher in the fat calf than in the fat ox, and also higher in the fat lamb than in the fat sheep. All animals contain a higher percentage of water when lean than when fattened. 30. Nitrogen and ash. — The following table shows the nitrogen and the principal ash constituents in the fasted live weight of the animals analyzed at Rothamsted, and also in milk and unwashed -wool : Ash and nitrogen in 1000 Ihs. of farm animals, milk, and unwashed wool Nitrogen (N) Phosphorio acid Potash (KiO) Lime (CaO) Magnesia (MgO) Fat calf Half-fat ox ... . Fat ox Fat lamb Store sheep . . . . Fat sheep Store pig Fat pig Milk Unwashed wool Lbs. 24.64 27.45 23.26 19.71 23.77 19.76 22.08 17.65 5.76 54.00 Lbs. 15.35 18.39 15.51 11.26 11.88 10.40 10.66 6.54 2.00 0.70 Lbs. 2.06 2.05 1.76 1.66 1.74 1.48 1.96 1.38 1.70 56.20 Lbs. 16.46 21.11 17.92 12.81 13.21 11.84 10.79 6.36 1.70 1.80 Lbs. 0.79 0.85 0.61 0.52 0.56 0.48 0.53 0.32 0.20 0.40 The table shows that the nitrogen in each 1000 lbs. (fasted live weight) of the bodies of farm animals varies from about 17 to 27 lbs., being least in the fat pig and greatest in the half-fat ox. Lime, the largest mineral constituent of the bones, ranges from about 6 lbs. per 1000 lbs. of carcass in the fat pig to over 21 lbs. in the ox. Phosphoric acid almost equals lime in quantity, while potash runs only from 1 to 2 lbs. per 1000 lbs. of animal, and magnesia still less. Soda, silica, iron, etc., are found in small quantities. 31. Plants and animals compared. — One of the fundamental differences between plants and animals is that in plants the walls of the cells of which they are composed are of carbohydrate material, while in animals the walls of the body cells are of protein substances. Thus plants are on a carbon and animals on a nitrogen foundation. The higher plants are nourished by inorganic matter, while animals live upon both organic and inorganic substances, principally the former. Plants absorb thru their leaves great quantities of carbonic acid gas, composed of carbon and oxygen, retaining the carbon and giving off the oxygen as waste. Animals take free oxygen thru their lungs and combine it with carbon to form carbonic acid gas, which is thrown off as waste in the breath. Thus the two great classes of living objects are interdependent. In the animal body the organic material derived from plants may be built into still other highly organized compounds, usually protein in character. Thus built, matter has reached its last high stage of organized existence, and its fall or descent soon occurs. In the daily waste of the THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 17 body or upon the withdrawal of life, this highly endowed organic matter is broken down into inorganic compounds, to begin again the eternal round of Nature. II. Digestion 32. Digestion. — The changes which food undergoes within the digestive tract of the animal to prepare it for absorption and ultimate use in build- ing new tissues, repairing body waste, and as a source of energy are collectively known as digestion. Digestion is effected by enzymes, or ferments, elaborated by glands of the mouth, stomach, pancreas, and small intestines, and by the bile, secreted in the liver. Bacteria inhabit- ing certain parts of the digestive tract attack the woody cellulose of the food, breaking it down and thereby freeing nutrients. In addition to the action of the secretions and bacteria, the food in its course thru the digestive tract is subjected to mechanical processes which tend to reduce it to a fine state of division, the object of the whole process being to separate from the useless matter those constituents which are to nourish the body. 33. Nutrients. — The term nutrient is applied to any food constituent, or group of food constituents, of the same general chemical composition, that may aid in the support of animal life. Crude protein, the car- bohydrates, and fat constitute the generally recognized primary classes of nutrients, altho air, water, and mineral matter might likewise be so termed. The term digestible nutrient covers that portion of each nutrient which is digested and taken into the body, as determined by digestion trials with various mature animals. (86) 34. Concerning rations. — On the farm a ration is the feed allowed or set apart to maintain a given animal during a day of 24 hours, whether all thereof is administered or fed at one time or in portions at different times. A balanced ration is the feed or combination of feeds furnishing the several nutrients — crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat — ^in such pro- portion and amount as will properly and without excess of any nutrient nourish a given animal for 24 hours. A maintenance ration is one 'that furnishes enough, but no more, of each and all of the several nutrients than is required to maintain a given resting animal, so that it will neither gain nor lose in weight. 35. The alimentary tract. — The digestive tract is a long, tortuous tube passing thru the animal from mouth to vent, enlarged in places for the storage of food or waste. Within its linings are secretory organs fur- nishing various fluids of digestion, and into it, from other specific secre- tory organs located near by, pour still other digestive fluids. Within its walls are nerves controlling its action, arteries which nourish it with fresh blood, and veins and lymphatics which absorb and carry from its interior the products of digestion, as well as water, mineral matter, and 18 FEEDS AND FEEDING gases. It should be borne in mind that the contents of the stomach and intestines are really outside the body proper. Only when a substance has passed into or thru the walls of the digestive tract has it actually entered the body of the animal. Ruminants (animals which chew the cud), including the ox, sheep, and goat, have much more complicated digestive tracts than other animals. In the horse and pig the gullet is a simple muscular tube passing from the mouth to the stomach. On the other hand, in ruminants the gullet is expanded just before the true stomach, or abomasum, is reached into 3 compartments of great aggregate capacity, the first of which is the paunch, or rumen ; the second, the honeycomb, or reticulum ; and the third, the manyplies, or omasum. Of the 4 stomachs the paunch is by far the largest. The length and capacity of the intestiaes and the capacity of the stomachs of different mature farm animals are shown in the foUowing table. Obviously these values will vary widely, depending on the size of the animal. Capacity of stomach and capacity and length of intestines of farm animals Animal Capacity of stomach and intestines Average length of intestines Animal Capacity of stonuush and intestines Average length of intestines Horse Stomach* Small integtine . Large intestine. Quarts 19.0 67.4 137.4 Feet '73 .6 24.5 Ox All 4 stomachs. . Small intestine. Large intestine. Total Hog Stomach Small intestine. Large intestine. Total Quarts 266.9 69.7 40.1 Feet 150.9 36.3 Total 223.8 98.1 376.7 187.2 Sheep Rumen Reticulmn Manyplies Abomasum .... 24.7 2.1 1.0 3.5 .... 8.5 9.7 10.8 60.0 17.1 29.0 77.1 All 4 stomachs . Small intestine . Large intestine . 31.3 9.5 5.9 85.9 21.4 Total 46.7 107.3 * Chauveau, Comparative Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, places the capacity at 3 to 3.5 gallons. While the stomach of the horse holds only 19.0 qts., the 4 stomachs of the ox have a capacity of 266 qts., or 14 times as much. On the other hand, the large caecum, or blind gut, of the horse, a part of the large intestine, gives the large intestine a capacity of 137.4 qts., compared with 40.1 qts. for the ox. In young ruminants the first 3 stomachs are less developed than in mature animals. Colin found that the first stomach, or the paunch, of a calf held 2.6 lbs. of water ; the honeycomb 0.22 lb. ; the omasum 0.35 lb. ; and the true stomach 7.7 lbs. As the diet of the growing calf changes to more THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 19 solid food, such as grass, hay, and grains, the rumen, or paunch, gradually increases in size, until in the grown ox it holds 4 times as much as the other 3 stomachs combined. The alimentary tract of the sheep is similar in structure to that of the ox. The hog has neither the 4 stomachs of the ruminant nor the lai^e caecum of the horse, and is hence not fitted to consume large amounts of roughage. 36. Mastication. — In the mouth of the animal food is crushed and ground by the teeth and at the same time is moistened by the alkaline, somewhat slimy saliva, moist and slippery masses being formed which pass readily thru the gullet into the stomach. Mingling saliva with the food during mastication, or chewing, aids the sense of taste by dissolving small amounts of food which iaffect the nerve ends of the tongue. Cplin^ found that a horse fed on hay secreted 11 to 13 lbs. of saliva per hour. Oats require a little more than their own weight, green fodders half, and dry fodders 4 times their weight of saliva during mastication. If the ration for a horse amounts to 11 lbs. of hay and 11 lbs. of other dry fodder, this will require 4 times its weight of saliva, or 88 lbs., to which must be added 4.4 lbs. secreted during rest, making 92.4 lbs. in all. Ruminants while eating chew their food only enough to moisten it, if dry, and form it into masses of suitable size to be swallowed. When hunger is satisfied they seek a quiet place, if possible, and proceed to return the food in "cuds" to the mouth, chewing each thoroly before reswallowing. The guUet of ruminants opens into the first 3 stomachs thru a slit (called the esophageal groove), which has an exceedingly important function in the process of rumination. When the ox swallows the masses of solid food, which are so large as to distend the guUet, on coming to the slit they are pressed out, just as would be the case if one tried to force thru a rubber tube with a slit an object which fitted it tight- ly. These masses of food are usually pushed into the paunch until it is full, and then into the honeycomb instead. When the animal ruminates, or "chews the cud," the food is forced back to the mouth in masses, or "cuds," thru the same slit by contrac- tions of the muscular paunch, the honeycomb, and of the gullet itself. The ox chews each cud of about 4 ounces for a little less than a minute, adding saliva until the finely divided material becomes more or less soup- like. On being reswaUowed, this finely divided material usually fiows along the gullet past the slit, and directly into the third stomach, from which it passes into the fourth or true stomach. Water or liquid food may not be forced thru the slit into the paunch but may pass at once to the third stomach. Animals do not ruminate during sleep, while working, when excited, or if in pain. The fact that the ox requires 7 to 8 hours daily for rumina- tion handicaps him somewhat as a work animal, for if his hours of work are long he must dispense with sleep to masticate his food. ■Smith, Physiol. Dom. Anim., p. 286. 20 FEEDS AND FEEDING 37. The saliva. — In addition to preparing the food for swallowing, with most animals the saliva performs a highly important digestive function thru the enzyme, called ptyalin, which it contains. Enzymes are mysterious organic compounds which are able to change or break down other organic compounds without themselves being broken down. 38. Ptyalin. — The first enzyme of digestion, ptyalin, converts the insol- uble starches of food into malt sugar. The proteins and fats of food are not changed by the action of the saliva. Since most of the changes which food substances undergo during digestion are effected thru enzymes, their general nature should be under- stood by the student, and ptyalin action serves as an example. If a quantity of starch is treated with saliva and the whole kept at body temperature, the starch so treated will gradually dissolve, and after a time malt sugar will be found in its stead. The complex starch molecule has been cleaved or split into simpler ones by the action of the ptyalin. The enzyme causing this change is itself not altered in character or function, however, or seemingly exhausted in energy thereby, but is still capable of changing more starch into sugar. So far as known, there is no limit to the amount of sugar which a given quantity of ptyalin will produce if the supply of starch is maintained and the resultant sugar is continuously removed from the solution. If the saliva is heated above 176° F., it wiU no longer possess this power. At the temperature of ice water its action ceases, altho the enzyme is not destroyed, for on warming it becomes active again. Acids destroy ptyalin if added much beyond the point of neutrality. Each of the several enzymes of digestion is capable of acting on only one of the groups of nutritive substances — on either proteins, carbohydrates, or fats. Some act only in the presence of acids, and others only in neutral or faintly alkaline solutions. Recent investigations' show that the saliva of some animals contains little or no ptyalin. The saliva of man, monkeys, rabbits, rats, and mice has the greatest starch digesting power and that of swine contains a fair amount of ptyalin, while the saliva of horses contains but a small quantity and that of dogs and oxen little or none. 39. Digestion in the simple stomach — With such animals as the horse and pig, which have simple stomachs, the food passes directly from the mouth, where it remains but a comparatively short time, thru the gullet to the single stomach. There it is acted on by the gastric juice, which consists of water containing the enzymes, pepsin and rennin, and from 0.2 to 0.5 per ct. of hydrochloric acid. Pepsin, which acts only in weak acid solutions, converts the very com- plex proteins into soluble and simpler, tho still complex, products known as proteoses and peptones. Proteoses and peptones are soluble nitroge- nous compounds, simpler than the proteins from which they originate. They are the result of the partial cleavage of proteins with the addition of water. "Oppenhelmer, Handb. der Biochem., 1910, III, Part II, p. 38. THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 21 Bennin is the enzyme which curdles milk. The membranous lining of the stomachs of calves yields the rennet of commerce, which contains this enzyme. One part of rennin will coagulate 400,000 parts of milk. This enzyme is an interesting provision of nature for changing milk into a solid form so the animal may get the full value from it. Altho liquid, milk is not in condition to be taken directly into the animal system, but, like solid foods, must first undergo digestion. Milk being liquid, the stomach would naturally pass it quickly on to the small intestine, but if this occurred it would not be sufficiently acted on by the pepsin. Rennin quickly converts the milk into a solid curd which is easily retained by the stomach until dissolved by the action of the digestive juice. Acid destroys the power of ptyalin to convert starch into sugar. The construction of the stomach, however, is such that the action of ptyalin on the food after it reaches that organ, following mastication, is not too promptly checked. The first portion of the stomach, into which the gullet directly leads, secretes pepsin but no acid. The action of ptyalin on the starches of the foods continues, therefore, in this part of the stomach. The intestinal or rear end of the stomach, on the other hand, secretes little pepsin but much hydrochloric acid. Here the conversion of the starches into malt sugar by the ptyalin ceases, and pepsin digestion becomes active. Only the preliminary steps of digestion are accomplished in the stomach, and relatively little absorption of the digested nutrients takes place from it. Sugars may be absorbed to some extent, but the proteoses and peptones produced from the breaking up of protein, and also the fats, are mostly carried into the small intestine along with the other matter. Soon after the food reaches the stomach that organ begins a series of orderly movements for the delivery of its contents into the small intes- tine. In this delivery the stomach contracts at the middle region, and the wave of contraction proceeds slowly and regularly toward the intes- tinal end, one wave following another. When digestion has progressed to some extent, every time the contraction reaches the rear end of the stomach, the ring of muscles which keeps the stomach shut off from the small intestine relaxes and allows a small quantity of the semi-liquid contents of the stomach to spurt thru into the intestine. After this the ring of muscles again contracts, thereby closing the entrance. The stomach in turn slowly relaxes, and after a certain length of time, vary- ing in different animals, the process is repeated. By this means the fluid portions of the contents of the stomach are squeezed out and carried into the small intestine, while the more solid portions remain behind for further action by the gastric juice. In animals with a simple stomach little or no churning or mixing of the food is produced by the movements of the stomach. The contents are simply pushed gradually toward the intestinal end of the stomach by the waves of muscular contraction. 40. Digestion of ruminants. — The first 3 stomachs of ruminants are important organs of digestion, although they secrete no enzymes, but only water. The nutritive substances within the cells of plants are 22 FEEDS AND FEEDING enclosed within the cellulose cell walls. Where the cell walls are formed of hard, thickened cellulose, the nutritive substances within are not readily reached and attacked by the fluids of digestion. As stated before, when solid food is first swallowed it passes chiefly into the paunch. Here it is softened by the moisture, slowly but thoroly mixed by muscular contractions, and even macerated by being ground against the rough lining. In the first stomachs, especially in the paunch, the fermentation of cellulose by bacteria takes place, the walls of the cells being thereby more or less broken down and their contents set free, thus becoming available for digestion. In this fermentation gases are given off, which are ordinarily absorbed into the blood and carried away. When fresh, easily fermented forage, such as green clover or alfalfa, is eaten, gases may be evolved so rapidly that the blood circulation cannot take them up as fast as formed, and "hoven," or "bloat," results. No enzymes of the digestive tract are able to digest the pentosans, which are present in considerable amount in roughages and other feeds high in fiber. (9) Like cellulose, however, these compounds are digested by the bacteria in the paunch and thus serve as nutrients. Not only are the fiber and pentosans broken down, but when the food contains sugars these also are sometimes attacked by bacteria in the paunch, which action is detri- mental, for in such cleavage, or breaking down, a considerable percentage of their energy is lost as heat and gas. (84) The fact that only a small amount of ptyalin is present in the saliva of the ox and sheep, or that it is entirely absent, as is claimed by some, is thus advantageous. If their saliva easily converted starch into sugar, a large amount of sugar would be formed in the paunch, which would then in turn be attacked by bacteria, with much resultant loss of nutriment. Besides the diges- tion in the paunch caused by bacteria, more or less is also undoubtedly effected by the enzymes which are contained in some foods, such as the cereal grains, for the moisture and warmth of the paunch are favorable to enzyme action in general. After rumination the reswallowed food passes chiefly into the many- plies, or third stomach, where it is further ground between the muscular folds before being forced into the fourth, or true stomach. In the latter the digestive processes are similar to those in the simple stomach, as previously described. 41. The small intestine. — In the sm^U intestine the work of digestion proceeds even more vigorously than in the stomach. All classes of nutrients are attacked by the fluids it holds, and in it the digestive processes come to a close. The contents of the stomach, when received into the small intestine, consist of a semi-liquid mixture of undigested proteins, partially digested nutrients — ^proteoses and peptones, fats, sugars, starches, and ceIluloses--and waste matter. The small intestine receives digestive fluids from 2 outside organs, the liver and the pancreas, whose functions in nutrition are of the highest importance, and the food is also mixed with a secretion containing several enzymes which are pro- THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 23 duced by the intestine itself. Immediately on entering the small intestine the inpouring material is changed from an acid to an alkaline character thru rapid addition of the bile and pancreatic juice, both alkaline. 42. The pancreas. — The pancreas, or sweetbread, is a slender gland lying just beyond the stomach and connected with the small intestine by a duct. Its secretion, the pancreatic juice, varies in different animals, being thin, clear, and watery in some, and thick, viscous, and slimy in others. The pancreatic juice contains 3 enzymes — trypsin, amylase, and lipase. Trypsin is an enzyme which, like pepsin, converts protein into pro- teoses and peptones. It has the power of further cleaving these 2 partially digested substances into amino acids, which constitute the ulti- mate useful nutrients which come from the cleavage of all the proteins of food stuffs thru digestion. The digestion of protein goes on much more thoroly in the small intestine under the influence of trypsin than it does in the stomach with pepsin. It is most interesting that trypsin is secreted by the pancreas in an inactive form, which will not digest protein. As soon as the pancreatic juice comes in contact with the intestinal wall, intestinal juice is produced, which contains a substance that changes the trypsin into the active digesting form. Amylase, formerly called amylopsin, is a pancreatic enzyme which converts starch into glucose-like sugars. Lipase, formerly called steapsin, is a pancreatic enzyme which splits fats into fatty acids and glycerin. Ordinarily, when digestion is not going on there is no secretion by the pancreas. It has been found that if the mucous lining of the first part of the small intestine is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, the pancreas at once pours out its secretion. It will be remembered that the contents of the stomach, at the time of their ejection from that organ into the small intestine, are strongly acid because of the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice. This acid when it pours into the small intestine, acting on the' lining of the latter, produces something which, when absorbed into the blood, calls forth the pancreatic secretion just when needed — a forceful illustration of how all the organs of the complicated digestive tract work in harmony. 43. The liver. — The liver, the largest organ in the body, has numerous duties in the digestion and metabolism of nutrients. While some of its functions will be dealt with in a later chapter, attention is here directed to its function in the digestion and absorption of the fats of foods. Bile, the product of the liver, is a clear, greenish or golden colored fluid, alkaline in reaction, and extremely bitter in taste. The bile fur- nishes the alkalies which are necessary for the conversion of the fats of the food into soaps, that is, for changing them from an unabsorbable into a water-soluble and readily absorbable condition. It is of such nature that it readily forms an emulsion with fats, and in this form the latter present a very large surface for the action of the lipase of the pan- creatic juice. The process of the decomposition of the fats into fatty 24 FEEDS AND FEEDING acids and glycerin is greatly hastened by this means. In the presence of bile the fatty acids take on alkali and form soaps, which are soluble in water and can be absorbed into the walls of the intestine. After performing this important function the bile is not wholly excreted with the contents of the intestine, but is in part taken up by the circulation and again utilized. According to Colin, the liver of the horse secretes over 13 lbs., of the ox 5.7 lbs., and of the sheep 0.75 lb. of bile during each 24 hours. 44. The intestinal secretion. — The digestive fluid secreted by the mucous membrane of the small intestine contains several enzymes, the most important of which are erepsin and the invertases. Erepsin is an enzyme of great digesting power which attacks and still further splits or cleaves those proteoses and peptones which have escaped such action by trypsin, likewise converting them into amino acids, the ultimate digestion products of the proteins. The invertases, sucrase, maltase, and lactase, are enzymes which con- vert cane-, malt-, and milk-sugars into the more simple glucose-like sugars. Thus into the small intestine are poured the complex bile ; the 3 diges- tive enzymes from the pancreas — trypsin, amylase, and lipase; and finally erepsin and the invertases from its own walls. Water is also freely poured into the small intestine from its walls. While in the small intestine, the food, which has been masticated in the mouth and partially digested in the stomach, is acted on by all the various fluids above described. That part of the food which thus far has escaped digestion is now vigorously and variously attacked, so that under ordinary conditions little that is useful is lost. The larger portion of all the digested material is absorbed from the intestine into its walls, and thus enters the body proper, as will be shown on pages 32-3. 45. The large intestine. — The large intestine receives the contents of the small intestine after the latter organ has ceased further effort at digestion. These contents consist of undigested matter, bits of indigest- ible substances of all kinds taken in with the food, bile salts which have escaped resorption, water, mineral salts, and fragments of the mucous lining of the small intestine. Mixed with these are some of the digestive juices of the small intestine. The large intestine elaborates little, if any, digestive fluid, but its walls contribute water and certain metabolic waste products, especially certain inorganic salts common to the tract. It is possible that some digestion may occur in the large intestine owing to traces of digestive enzymes coming from the small intestine, but such digestion is insignificant in amount. There is a constant interchange of water between the contents of the large intestine and the blood circu- lation, which results in the absorption of any soluble products, nutritive or otherwise, which may be formed in the large intestine either by diges- tion or bacterial action. 46. Special provision for the horse. — The horse, tho eating coarse food like the ox, has a small stomach and no paunch for specially preparing THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 25 such food for digestion^ In partial compensation it has a large caecum, or blind gut, which is a greatly enlarged portion of the alimentary tract, linking the small and large intestine. Into the caecum is passed much of the undigested matter, together with the enzymes of the small intestine. Here the digestive processes of the small intestine are prolonged, thus making up for his small stomach and lack of a paimch. The caecum of other farm animals is small and unimportant in digestion. 47. Digestion of fat. — Since the steps by which the food is prepared thru digestion for final use by the body are so numerous and complicated, it is well to now review the subject, dealing with the nutrients and what occurs with them, rather than considering the organs and solvents employed. As has been stated, the fats of foods, no matter how finely divided, cannot directly enter the circulation, but must be changed in the follow- ing manner: One of the enzymes produced by the pancreas is the fat- splittiag lipase, which breaks some of the fats in the food into glycerin and fatty acids. The bile is largely made up of alkaline salts, and with these the fatty acids react and form soaps. These soaps in turn form an emulsion with the unchanged fats, the emulsified fats presenting a large surface on which the lipase may act. Thus, it is believed that the fat which is finally absorbed is split into glycerin and fatty acids, the latter and the alkali of the bile forming soaps. These soaps and the glycerin are absorbed by the intestinal wall, in the cells of which they are reunited into fats and are contributed as such to the circulation. Some authorities hold, however, that a part of the fatty acids and glycerin formed by the splitting of neutral fats by lipase may be absorbed as such, without being first changed to soaps. 48. Carbohydrate digestion. — The digestion of^ either starch or sugars (other than those of glucose-like form) consists in converting them into glucose or glucose-like sugars, which are the only forms of carbohydrates that can be used in the body. Since the carbohydrates constitute a large portion of the food of animals, nature provides for their digestion in several parts of the alimentary tract. Carbohydrate digestion begins with the action of ptyalin on the starches of foods in the mouth, whereby they are converted into maltose. Ptyalin action continues in the first portion of the stomach, but ceases in the latter part of that organ. Sugars of glucose form may be absorbed from the stomach. Even the compound cane-, malt-, and milk-sugars may without change be absorbed from the alimentary canal in small amounts. If these compound sugars remain in the digestive tract an appreciable time, as usually happens, they are changed to glucose and glucose-like sugars. Thus most of the carbohy- drates are absorbed from the alimentary tract in the form of glucose. Nearly all the carbohydrates are carried on from the stomach into the small intestine, which is the principal organ concerned in their final digestion. Here the starches which have escaped digestion in the mouth and stomach are acted upon by amylase, and the compound cane-, malt-. 26 FEEDS AND FEEDING and milk-sugars are converted by the invertases into simpler glucose-Uke sugars. When a human eats bread, or an animal consumes hay or corn, the starch of such food must all be changed to sugars before it can enter the body proper. With trifling exceptions all compound sugars are converted into glucose-like sugars. It is even held that milk sugar has no food value with birds, because their digestive tract provides no enzyme for breaking it up into glucose-like sugars which may be absorbed. In the digestive tract no enzyme has been found which acts on cellulose or on the pentosans. Bacteria inhabiting the alimentary canal, however, attack these substances, especially in the paunch of ruminants and the caecum of the horse. Among the products of such bacterial decomposi- tion are organic compounds, such as acetic and lactic acid, besides gases — marsh gas, carbon dioxid, and hydrogen. While these gases are of no value to the animal, there is little doubt that the other cleavage products are absorbed from the digestive tract and serve as nutrients. Smith* suggests that cellulose digestion may be brought about by ferments con- tained in the food itself. When artificially digested with strong sulphuric acid, cellulose is converted into a gummy product and finally into glucose. Because the goat and the ox can subsist for long periods on coarse straw, which consists largely of cellulose and pentosans, it is reasonable to hold that these substances have considerable nutritive value, tho the manner of their digestion is not yet fully understood. 49. Protein digestion, — In the process of digestion the protein com- pounds in the food are attacked first by pepsin in the stomach, and later by trypsin and erepsin in the small intestine. The action of these enzymes is to cleave the very complex protein molecules into simpler ones, during which process the split molecules take up water and become soluble. Pro- teoses and peptones are products of the cleavage of proteins, an example of which may be seen in the following experiment : If a fragment of the white part of a hard-boiled egg, which is a protein substance, is placed in a dish with dilute hydrochloric acid, a little pepsin added, and the whole kept at body temperature, in a short time the edges of the opaque egg mass will become swollen and transparent, the change gradually extending thru the whole fragment. After a time the mass will have entirely disappeared, and in its stead there will remain a clear solution. If this peptone solution is evaporated to dryness there will be left a yellowish, transparent mass resembling the dried white of an unboiled egg. This dry digested material, now a mixture of proteoses and pep- tones, is soluble in water the same as the white of egg ; but if dissolved in water it will not solidify on heating, as does ordinary white of egg. This shows that the substance has been changed to something other than the protein, which coagulates or solidifies on heating. These pro- teoses and peptones have resulted from the cleavage or splitting of the very complex egg protein into simpler molecules, which upon such cleav- age have taken up chemically a large amoimt of water and become sol- *Manual of Vet. Physiol., 1908. THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 27 able. When a piece of lean meat or hard-boiled egg is taken into the human stomach, the pepsin, acting in the presence of hydrochloric acid, gradually dissolves such meat or egg, changing it to soluble peptones and proteoses. If it escapes solution in the stomach, it is usually dissolved later in the smaU intestine. The soluble proteoses and peptones are not yet in suitable form for use in the body of the animal, and so are not absorbed, but are retained in the small intestine until they have undergone further enzyme action. This is effected by trypsin, which can not only attack protein directly and convert it into proteoses and peptones, as does pepsin in the stomach, but can also attack the peptones and proteoses and cleave them further. Brepsin, an enzyme of the small intestine, is of powerful action. It attacks nitrogenous substances after they have become proteoses and peptones. By the action of these last 2 enzymes the proteoses and peptones have their molecules further cleaved into simpler but still com- plex molecules, water being again taken up as in the first cleavage. The simplest products of such cleavage of the proteins of food substances are the amino acids. The amino acids are the common final nitrogenous nutritive materials of the digestive tract, resulting from the cleavage of the complex mole- cules of the food proteins. They are soluble in the juices of the small intestine and are ready for transference thru the intestinal walls into the body proper. These acids are still relatively complex in structure, but are much simpler than the proteoses and peptones from which they are derived. The amino acids, derived from the nitrogenous portion of foods, constitute the great primary nitrogenous building material out of which the protein tissues of the animal body are built. So far as known, protein compounds taken as food cannot be broken apart further than into amino acids and remain useful in body building. 50. Tissue building. — The process of protein digestion is the breaking down of complex nitrogenous bodies into simpler ones. A good picture of what takes place can be had by likening the protein molecule to a house being taken down by a builder in order that he may construct another from the materials. An animal eating protein compounds cannot use the protein molecules in the form in which the plant has built them up into its own substance, but must first take them apart to a greater or less extent, and from the parts reconstruct another kind of protein mole- cule suitable for its own use. In other words, its protein molecules must have a different architecture from those of the plants which serve as its food. The proteoses and peptones may be likened to the roof and walls of the house. These walls and the roof can be broken down into bricks and tiles, which are represented by the amino acids; and from these the animal, beginning anew, can construct new proteins of the specific architecture its body may require. 51. Bacteria. — In the stomach bacteria find unfavorable conditions for growth because of the free acid of the gastric juice, and in the small intestine the presence of bile rapidly causes the death of bacteria. 28 FEEDS AND FEEDING Consequently bacteria play little or no part in digestion in either the acid stomach or the alkaline small intestine. They do act, however, on the woody fiber or cellulose, and in some cases on soluble carbohydrates, in the first three stomachs of ruminants and in the caecum of the horse. In the large intestine there develops a profuse bacterial growth of various forms which thrive in the absence of air. The presence of more or less undigested food, together with moisture, warmth, and the faint alkaline reaction, furnishes ideal conditions for bacterial growth. Some cellulose is decomposed by the bacteria with the liberation of carbon dioxid, marsh gas, and hydrogen. Sulfureted hydrogen is also produced thru putrefaction of protein substances. Some nitrogen is found, but this has its source in the air taken in with the food. Much of the gas is doubtless absorbed into the circulation and eliminated from the lungs. Products other than gas which are mostly toxic or poisonous to the animal result in small quantity from bacterial growth in the large intes- tine. To these substances the odor of the feces is largely due. If the functions of the bowels are impaired, the contents may remain for an undue length of time, in which case excessive putrefaction may cause the animal to suffer from poisoning due to the absorption of the products formed. 52. Feces. — The solid excrement, or dung, of farm animals is that waste which finally escapes from the large intestine, the solids of which, for the most part, have never been within the body proper. It is com- posed principally of cellulose, or woody fiber, from the undigested por- tions of straw, hay, and grasses; and also of seeds, grains, or parts of the food that have escaped proper mastication and digestion. Matter not properly food, such as hair and dirt of various kinds taken into the alimentary tract, escapes thru this exit. Finally there are cast away traces of bile salts and some mucus from the lining of the intestines, together with much water. 53. Amid digestion. — The nitrogenous bodies of plants which are known collectively as "amids" are, as before stated, simpler nitrogenous com- pounds than proteins. They are either on their way to be built into proteins, or result from the cleavage of proteins in the plant for the purposes of transportation, or are formed in the partial breaking down and decay of protein. Very little is actually known of their chemical nature, but they are probably similar in character, in many instances at least, to certain intermediary products of digestion in the animal body. Since amids may result from enzyme action in the plant, their digestion in the animal may be looked upon as similar to that of proteins. 54. Mineral matter. — So far as known, the mineral matter, or ash, in foods is absorbed principally from the small intestine and is usually un- changed in chemical composition. Changes which occur in the different inorganic salts, or mineral matter, are entirely due to such chemical reactions as would have taken place outside the intestine under the same conditions. Insoluble mineral matter in food may become soluble because THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 29 of the hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice of the stomach, but this is hardly to be regarded as digestion. 55. The work of the digestive glands. — The brilliant studies of the Rus- sian physiologist, Pawlow," and his associates, followed by others along similar lines, have thrown much light upon the subjects of digestion, appetite, and palatability. In order to study the processes of digestion, operations such as the following were performed on many dogs: (1) The ducts, or tubes, which deliver the saliva into the mouth were cut, turned outward, and healed into the cut edges of the skin, so that when saliva was secreted it poured out thru the opening and could be caught in glass tubes attached to the dog's head. (2) The gullet, which carries food from the mouth to the stomach, was cut across, led outward, and healed in the skin at the throat, so that when food was swallowed it would pass out at the severed end and fall back into the dish out of which he was feeding. Food so eaten was called a ' ' false meal. ' ' In many cases a dog with a gullet thus severed would chew and swallow the "false meal" again and again with apparent satisfaction. (3) An opening was made thru the side of a dog and into his stomach. On the healing of the stomach wall with the cut in the skin, the investigator was enabled to pass food directly into the stomach and study the processes of digestion occurring within that organ. (4) A portion of the stomach was con- stricted and made into a small separate chamber, which likewise opened out thru the side of the dog. Here the flow of juices could be studied independent of admixture with food placed in the other portion of the stomach. (5) The small intestine was drawn to the side of the dog, and an opening made in it the same as in the stomach. (6) The pancreatic duct was cut and led outward, so that its secretion could likewise be studied. The animals usually yielded readily to the operations and lived comfortable lives, so that the results were normal. It was found that the sight, smell, or taste of food not only started the flow of saliva in the mouth, but the gastric juice also began to pour from the walls of the stomach in about 5 minutes even when there was no food in that organ. The gastric secretions which are brought forth by the sight, taste, or smeU of food are designated by Pawlow as "psychic secretions. ' ' For example, when a dog was given a false meal, and the swallowed food fell out of the fistula, or opening, in the throat and back into the dish out of which the dog was eating, the stomach would never- theless pour forth its fluids (psychic secretions), as tho the food had reached it. The more eagerly the dog ate his false meal the greater was the amount of gastric secretions, and the richer they were in both acid and pepsin. The gastric secretions were strongest and most copious with that food which was liked best, and food given in small portions called forth stronger juices than when the whole ration was given at one time. These psychic secretions do not last long enough to explain the long continued secretion of gastric juice when a normal meal is eaten. 'The Work of the Digestive Glands. 30 FEEDS AND FEEDING In studying other causes which might produce the secretion, it was found that no flow could be started by such mechanical stimulation as passing a feather or a glass rod over the mucous membrane of the stom- ach. Water caused a moderate flow of gastric juice, but when fat, egg albumin, starch, or sugar was introduced with water no greater flow re- sulted than with water alone. The juice of meat, however, called forth a marked flow. This explains the continuance of the secretion after the psychic secretion ceases. The gastric juice secreted as a result of the mental stimulus digests some of the protein of the food, thereby forming soluble nitrogenous compounds, which in turn stimulate the glands to further secretion. The saliva secreted was thin and watery when sand or dry, powdered biscuit was placed in the dog's mouth, and much more concentrated when stones were introduced, which the dog could swallow without the aid of a large amount of saliva. The amount of saliva and gastric juice also depended on the nature of the food fed. Pawlow's work indicated that the enzyme content of the digestive juices depended on the kind of food, the glands being guided by a form of instinct, so that, for example, the pancreatic juice would contain more trypsin when meat was fed than when starf h was supplied. However fascinating this idea is, after numer- ous more recent investigations the consensus of opinion is now against such an adaptation of the digestive juices to the food. It is indeed fortunate that the character of the digestive juices of an animal are not changed with variations in the food consumed. Between meal times the secretory cells are elaborating the enzymes which are to be contained in the secretions that will be poured forth to digest the next meal. If the cells formed only enzymes suited to digestion of the previous meal, and the animal then consumed food of a different kind at the following meal, the juices might be unsuited to its digestion. It is therefore wise that no matter what food the animal consumes, the diges- tive glands pour forth the enzymes needed for the digestion of all the various nutrients. 56. Palatability. — So vague and illusive is the subject of the palatabil- ity of food that it would be a waste of space to discuss it at any length in this work. "What is one man's meat is another man's poison" is an old saying, to which might be added, "and what is one man's meat to-day may be his poison to-morrow"; for desire, appetite, and digestion are not the same with any given individual at all times and under all circum- stances. Even with farm animals palatability is greatly influenced and controlled by familiarity and habit or custom. When corn silage is first placed before cows, not iirfrequently, after sniffing it, they will let it alone for a time. They then usually begin nibbling at it, and later may- gorge themselves thereon if permitted. In such cases food that at first seems unpalatable suddenly becomes palatable. In his early experience the senior author was feeding 2 lots of fat- tening steers, one on shelled corn and wheat bran, the other on wheat THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 31 bran and shelled com ground to a meal. After some weeks of successful feeding, the rations for the 2 lots were reversed. The steers changed from corn meal to whole corn showed a strong dislike for the new ration, eating so little at first that they shrank materially in weight. From this the general conclusion might have been drawn that shelled corn is less palatable than corn meal for fattening steers. But the steers given corn meal in place of sheUed corn were equally dissatisfied. This shows that custom and habit — something entirely extraneous to the food — are pos- sible factors in palatability. While palatability has a bearing on digestibility, the reverse is not necessarily true, for humans and animals often show fondness for kinds of food that are indigestible or worse. Even poisonous substances may be palatable, and, on the other hand, food which the human or animal does not relish or even dislikes may have high nutritive value provide^ the repugnance thereto is overcome. Despite the complexities of the subject, every practical stockman kn' that to get the best results he must at all times provide feed, fpf animals which is palatable and altogether acceptable. This mayjj^*- plished in considerable degree by steadily using the same fejef combinations, and in always avoiding sudden and viqlej their character and in the manner of feeding. (r III. Metabolism In the preceding division we learned how digqs^ trients of feeding stuffs for the nourishment of tV follows there is briefly set forth how the diges1< into the body proper and what becomes of |^ iologists, working together with skiU and gref quite fully to set forth and explain the p/ the nutrients leave the alimentary tract an# of following them and learning what heg Many of the changes that occur in th§ severing scientists, but concerning ott can yet be told. 57. Metabolism. — The processes by, food are utilized for the production^ the living matter of the body, in W becoming non-living matter, are ter olism, or the building-up prp^i? breaking-down and wasting pro'- ' 58. The circulative canals ,j made up of innumerable q$,F' of ways, ultimately form,s the cells are minute spaf with the lymphatics, a ^( 32 FEEDS AND FEEDING body. In some respects the lymphatics resemble the veins, but they are thinner and more transparent and drain in only one direction — toward the heart. Within these vessels is a clear fluid called lymph. These vessels unite with one another, forming a network in many places. Here and there a trunk subdivides into five or six smaller vessels, and the latter enter a nodule-like body called a lymphatic gland. From this gland come several small vessels, which, after a short space, again unite to form a trunk. Gradually these trunks unite, forming larger trunks until a large duct and another smaller one are formed which enter veins in the neck. The other set of canals is the arteries and veins, which permeate every portion of the body, the former carrying the blood away from the heart, and the latter carrying it to the heart. At the extremities of the arteries tire still more minute tubes, called capillaries, which connect them with e veins. If one extends his arms in front of him with his finger tips ^^.hing, his body will represent the heart, while one arm will represent *tery carrying blood from the heart, and the other a vein conveying "^■'he heart. The touching fingers will correspond to the capillaries "^e arteries with the veins, and the space all about the fingers t ^the surrounding body tissues. In general, neither the Tteries allow any substance within them to escape thru r. It is thru the capillaries that the nutritive matter d finds its way into the body tissues for their nourish- capillaries and the lymphatics, in turn, the waste of ' into the blood circulation. The cellular tissues of ^sed are thus everywhere permeated by the ducts md the capillaries of the blood system. The cells t"^ lymph, which is the fluid that receives and Mtritive substances and the body waste. The e small intestine has a velvety appearance, te, cone-like projections, or tongues, called interior of the intestinal tube, thereby lid contents. Within each villus are lymphatic system, and capillaries of /told, in the small intestine a part of f acids and glycerin by the action of '^s in bile combine to form soaps Kg fat, so that it also is rapidly acted 'fttty acids and glycerin. Modem "^ f ats are all absorbed as soaps % are reconverted into neutral 'tlie lymph a milky substance ftcs and poured into a vein "Seulation. t glycogen. — The glucose testinal contents by the THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION— METABOLISM 33 capillaries pass into the veins, and thence by way of the portal vein into the liver. Here they are for the most part withdrawn from the blood and temporarily stored in this organ as glycogen, a carbohydrate which is closely related to starch and, having the same percentage composition, is sometimes called animal starch. Normally from 1.5 to 4.0 per ct. of the weight of the liver consists of glycogen. The glycogen stored in the liver is gradually changed back into glucose, and then doled out to the system as required, the amount of glucose in the blood being kept at about 1 part in 1,000. The property of converting glucose into glycogen is not possessed by the liver alone, but by the tissues of the body gen- erally, especially the muscles. When work is being done the glycogen in the muscles is first drawn upon to furnish glucose, and after this store has been exhausted, the glycogen in the liver furnishes the needed glucose. 61. Absorption of proteins. — It was formerly supposed that the amino acids, the products of protein digestion, which are absorbed from the small intestine thru the villi, were joined together while still within the intestinal walls, thereby forming the complex proteins of the blood called serum albumin and serum globulin. Thru refinement of experi- mental methods Van Slyke,* and Folin and Denis' have been able to prove that the amino acids are not necessarily thus built into blood proteins in the intestinal wall, but that they may pass into the blood stream without being united. They are then carried into the general circulation, and from the blood stream each of the various tissues of the body — ^muscles, organs, etc. — absorbs a certain amount of the amino acids for growth, or the repair of the daily waste of protein matter. Mineral matter is taken up from the small intestines, and water is absorbed all along the alimentary tract, from the stomach to the large intestine. 62. Distribution of absorbed nutrients. — ^We have seen that the digested fats which are to nourish the body are poured into the blood current by way of the lymphatics, while the glucose and the amino acids enter the blood directly thru the capillaries and veins. The veins from the small intestine unite and become the portal vein, which passes the blood thru the liver and on into the heart. The various nutrient materials, having been mingled with the blood, are carried thru the circulation to the capil- laries. These are so constructed that, when the blood finally reaches them, the nutritive substances it carries pass thru their walls and are mingled with lymph that bathes the myriad body cells. In this manner all the nutrients, having been especially prepared and'^ransported, are available for the nourishment of every portion of the body. Oxygen is taken into the blood thru the lungs, and water and mineral matters are absorbed from the digestive tract. All are carried by the arteries and pass thru the capillaries into the lymph. 'Jour. Biol. Chem., 12, 1912, 399-410; 16, 1913, 187-233. 'Jour. Biol. Chem., 11, 1912, 87-95; 12, 1912, 141-162. 34 FEEDS AND FEEDING 63. Xlse of the absorbed nutrients. — The absorbed nutrients, thus transferred to all the tissues of the body, may be oxidized, or burned, to warm the animal, or to produce energy to carry on the vital processes and to perform work, as shown in the following chapters. In case more nutrients are supplied than are required for these purposes, the excess may be transformed into body tissue proper, as shown in Chapter V. The glucoses may be converted into fats and stored as body fat, as may also the fats derived directly from the food fats. The amino acids may be built up into body protein or, if not needed for this purpose, a portion of their carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen may be converted into fat, while the nitrogen is excreted, chiefly in the form of urea. The highest use of the proteins, however, is the formation of nitrogenous tissues — the muscles, brain, nerves, skin, hair, and various organs of the body. 64. Disposal of body waste. — In breaking up the food nutrients within the body proper for the production of heat, and in the changes which occur in building them into body tissues, carbon dioxid is evolved. Most of this escapes into the capillaries and is carried in the blood by the veins to the lungs, where it is eliminated in breathing, a portion, however, escaping by way of the skin. Some of the marsh gas produced by fer- mentations in the stomach of herbivora is absorbed into the blood and thrown out by the lungs. Nearly all of the nitrogenous waste, representing the breaking down of protein material in the body, is excreted in the urine thru the kidneys, tho a trace is given off in the sweat and a more appreciable amount in the feces. In mammals this waste takes the form principally of urea. In calculating the total amount of protein metabolism it is customary to determine the total nitrogen in the urine and multiply this by 6.25. This gives the amount of protein broken down, since it is assumed that, on the average, nitrogen forms 16 per ct. of the total weight of the protein molecule. (17) A great variety of other end-products of metabolism are likewise eliminated by the kidneys thru the urine. The inorganic salts, such as common salt, also escape from the body principally in the urine. Small amounts of most of the substances eliminated in the urine are also excreted by the skin thru the sweat glands. A considerable portion of certain inorganic salts containing calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus is eliminated by way of the intestines. 65. Summary. — In Chapter I we learned how the various inorganic compounds taken by plants from earth, air, and water are built into organic plant compounds, and how in such building the energy of the sun becomes latent or hidden in the substance of the plant. In this chapter we have learned how the animal, feeding on plants, separates the useful from the waste by mastication and digestion, and how the digested nutrients, after undergoing more or less change, are conveyed from the alimentary tract to the body tissues and used for building the body, for warming it, or in performing work. All the energy manifested THE ANIMAL BODY— DIGESTION-METABOLISM 35 by living animals and the heat evolved in their bodies represent the energy of the sun originally stored in food substances by plants. With the breaking down of the nutrient matters in the bodies of animals, and in the decay of the animal substance itself, the organic matter loses the condition of life and falls back to the inorganic condition, once more be- coming a part of the earth, air, and water as inert matter. After this degradation it is again gathered up by the plants and once more starts on the upward path. Such is the eternal round of Nature, in which plants, animals, the energy of the sun, and the mysterious guiding prin- ciple of life all play their parts. CHAPTER III MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS I. Digestibility of Feeds In determining the relative usefulness, of different feeding stuffs to the animal it is necessary to find a means of measuring the amount of nutrients which each actually furnishes. The most simple means for such measurement is to determine the digestibility of the several nutrients of a feed ; i.e., the percentage of the total crude protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat which is digested by the animal. The digestible matter is obviously the only portion of the feed which is of use, since the remainder passes out in the feces without ever having really entered the body. In studying the digestibility of a given feed the chemist first determines by analysis the percentage of each nutrient it contains. Weighed quantities of the feed are then given to the animal, and the feces voided during a stated period are saved and weighed, and samples are analyzed. The difference between the amount of each nutrient fed and that found in the feces resulting therefrom represents the digested portion. 66. A digestion trial with sheep. — To show how the digestibility of a feed is determined, the following results are given from an actual diges- tion trial conducted by Armsby at the Wisconsin Station.^ Desiring to ascertain the digestibility of clover hay and malt sprouts, 2 wethers weighing 87 lbs. each wej-e confined in specially constructed apartments and fed from zinc-lined boxes to prevent waste. Each day's allowance was ■iveighed and samples analyzed. The feces voided by the wethers were collected in rubber-lined bags attached to their hind quarters by a light harness. These bags were emptied each 24 hours, and the contents weighed and analyzed. Feeding progressed 6 days before the trial prop- er began, in order that all residues of previous feed might have passed from the alimentary tract. During the first period each sheep, as shown in the table, was fed 700 grams (about 1.5 lbs.) of clover hay daily, which was consumed without waste. Digestion trial with sheep fed clover hay; average for 1 day Diy matter Crude protein Carbohydrates Fiber N-free extract Fat Fed 700 grams hay, containing. . Excreted 610.6 grams feces, containing Grams 586.1 288.6 Grams 77.7 40.4 Grams 191.5 101.5 Grams 276.7 119.4 Grams 10.7 7.9 297.5 50.8 37.3 48.0 90.0 47.1 157.3 56.8 2.8 26.2 Per cent digested »Wis. Kpt. 1884. 36 MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 37 The table shows that the 700 grams of hay fed contained 586.1 grams of dry matter, and that the feces for 1 day, which represented the un- digested portion of the ration, contained 288.6 grams. The difference, 297.5 grams, or 50.8 per ct., is held to be the dry matter digested. The average dry matter digested in 2 such trials was 51.2 per ct. Of the 77.7 grams of crude protein supplied, 40.4 grams appeared in the feces. The difference, 37.3 grams, or 48 per ct., represents the digested crude pro- tein. In like manner the percentage of the other nutrients digested was determined. The average percentage of each nutrient digested in a feeding stuff is termed the coefficient of digestibility, or digestion coefficient, for that nutrient in the feed. 67. Digestibility determined by difference. — Ruminants and horses are not normally fed on concentrates alone. Therefore, when it is desired to determine the digestibility of a concentrate, the animal is first fed rough- age alone and the amount digested determined. The concentrate to be studied is then added to the roughage, and the total nutrients digested from both feeds are found. By difference, the amount of digestible nutrients coming from the concentrate is computed. To determine the digestibility of malt sprouts, the sheep used in the above trial were next fed a ration of 600 grams of clover hay and 175 grams of malt sprouts, as showh below : Trial with sheep to ascertain the digestibility of malt sprouts Dry matter Crude protein Carbohydrates Fiber N-free extract Fat Fed 600 grams hav Grama 600.9 154.1 Grams 67.4 36.8 Grams 163.3 21.0 Grams 236.3 87.6 Grams 9 4 Fed 175 grams malt sprouts 2.2 Total 655.0 296.2 104.2 41.5 184.3 100.6 323.8 129.0 11 6 5 5 Diffested tota.1 359.8 256.4 62.7 33.2 83.7 76.8 194.8 135.2 6 1 Diffeated from hav 3 8 Digested from malt sprouts Per cent digested 103.4 67.1 29.5 80.2 6.9 32.9 59.6 68.1 2.3 104 5 The digestibility of malt sprouts was determined indirectly in the fol- lowing manner: The dry matter of the clover hay and malt sprouts together equaled 655 grams. The excreted jdry matter from this equaled 295.2 grams, so that the total quantity digested was the difference, or 359.8 grams. In the previous trial it was found as the average of 2 periods that 51.2 per ct. of the dry matter in clover hay was digestible. Taking 51.2 per ct. of 500.9 grams gives 256.4 grams, which is the probable quantity of dry matter that was digested from the hay. Sub- 38 FEEDS AND FEEDING tracting 256.4 from 359.8 grams, there is left 103.4 grams, or 67.1 per ct., which is taken as the per cent of dry matter digested from the malt sprouts. In a similar manner the other digestion coefficients for malt sprouts are determined. The table reports 104.5 per ct. of the fat of malt sprouts digested — an absurdity. The total quantity of fat in the feeds used in this trial was so small that an error like this could easily occur. In digestion trials it is commonly assumed that all matter appearing in the feces has escaped the action of the digestive ferments and so rep- resents the indigestible part of the food. Tho substantially correct, there are exceptions to this assumption. The feces contain some w;aste from the body itself, such as bile residues, matter which sloughs off from the walls of the alimentary tract, and unabsorbed digestive juices. In a metabolism trial with a goat at the Wisconsin Station fed a ration of straw, which is low in protein, Steenbock, Nelson, and Hart^ found more nitrogen in the feces than in the original feed, due to the absorption of digestive juices by the bulky straw. Yet a considerable portion of the protein contained in the straw must have been digested. By treating the feces with an acid solution of pepsin, all the nitroge- nous compounds except the true undigested food protein may be dissolved therefrom, and the actual digestion coefficient thus found for the protein. In a few digestion trials in recent years this method has been employed. Armsby has shown^ that ruminants feeding on coarse forage convert much of the fiber into marsh gas, or methane, which has no nutritive value. In such cases digestion trials will show too high a value for the fiber. In digestion studies the ether extract, or so-called fat, is determined by the use of ether, which dissolves not only the true fat, but also chlorophyll, wax, bile residues, and other substances which are not true fat. Due to this, and because the fats in feeding stuffs are usually in relatively small amount, errors are liable to occur in their determination. Fraps and Rather* at the Texas Station, on studying the ether extract obtained from 18 different forage plants, found that only 42 per ct. was true fat. The digestibility of the true fat averaged 66.4 per ct. ; while only 29.1 per ct. of the remainder (not true fat) was digestible. The ether extract of seeds, which is nearly all true fat, is highly digestible. 68. Coefficients of digestibility. — The coefficients of digestibility for the various feeding stuffs, as determined by the experiment stations of this country, have been compiled by the authors and are presented in Appen- dix Table II. In the case of feeds for which American data are not available, coefficients from European sources have been included. From this extensive table the following examples are taken to show the diges- tibility of typical feeds : 'Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, p. 399. *Tex. Bui. 150. "Cyclopedia Am. Agr., Ill, p. 65. MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 39 Coefficients of digestibility of typical feeding stuffs, from Appendix Table II Feeding stuff Concentrates Dent com Oats Wheat, ground Wheat bran Flaxseed Linseed meal, old process Roughages Timothy hay Red clover hay Oat straw Kentucky bluegrass, green Com silage Mangels No. of trials 12 17 4 20 7 3 58 25 18 7 27 22 Dry matter Per ot. 90 70 87 65 77 79 55 59 54 56 66 87 Crude protein Per ct. 74 78 74 78 91 89 48 59 28 57 51 70 Carbohydrates Fiber Per ct. 57 35 59 31 r- 60 57 50 54 60 66 65 37 N-free extract Per ct. 94 81 93 72 « 55 78 62 66 51 61 71 95 Fat Per ot. 93 87 72 68 ' 50 57 39 52 82 The table shows that for dent corn 90 per ct. of the total dry matter, 74 per ct. of the crude protein, 57 per ct. of the fiber, 94 per ct. of the nitrogen-free extract, and 93 per ct. of the fat is digestible. Feeds which contain little fiber, such as corn and wheat, show high digestibility, be- cause their nutrients are not protected from the action of the digestive juices by thick cell walls of cellulose, or fiber. Owing to their larger fiber content, oats and wheat bran are less digestible than corn or wheat. As a class the roughages are high in fiber, and therefore much less digestible than the concentrates. This will be noted on comparing the digestion coefficients for timothy hay and oat straw with those for corn and wheat. The dry matter of mangels is as well digested as that of wheat, again showing that roots are more like concentrates than roughages. 69. Digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs. — To determine the digestible nutrients in any feeding stuff the total amount of each nutrient in 100 lbs. thereof is multiplied by the digestion coefficient for that nutrient. For example, 100 lbs. of dent corn contain 10.1 pounds of crude protein (Appendix Table I), of which 74 per ct. is digestible, as shown by the preceding table. Accordingly, there are 7.5 lbs. of digestible protein in 100 lbs. of this grain. By this method the data contained in the exten- sive Table III of the Appendix have been computed. The following examples are here taken from this table for illustration and study. In Appendix Tables I and II the fiber and nitrogen-free extract are given in separate columns, for, tho of the same chemical composition, these components often differ widely in digestibility. In preparing the tables showing the digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs, the digestible fiber and digestible nitrogen-free extract are determined separately and the results combined under the term carbohydrates, as is done in this 40 FEEDS AND FEEDING table. The digestible carbohydrates m dent corn are computed as fol- lows: According to Appendix Table I, 100 lbs. of dent corn contains 2.0 lbs. of fiber, 57 per ct. of which is digestible, as shown in Appendix Table II. Likewise there are 70.9 lbs. of nitrogen-free extract, 94 per ct. of which is digestible. Multiplying in each case and adding the products, we have 67.8 lbs., which is placed in the column marked "digestible carbohydrates." Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. of typical feeding stuffs, from Appendix Table III Feeding stuff Total dry matter Digestible nutrients Crude protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Total (inc. fat X 2.25) Nutritive ratio Concentrates Dent corn Oats Wheat Wheat bran Flax seed Linseed meal, old process Timothy hay Red clover hay Oat straw Kentucky bluegrass, green Com silage, recent Mangels. Lbs. 89.5 90.8 89.8 89.9 90.8 90.9 88.4 87.1 88.5 31.6 26.3 9.4 Lbs. 7.5 9 9 12 20 30 3.0 7.6 1.0 2.3 1.1 1.0 Lbs. 67.8 52.1 67.5 41.6 17.0 32.6 42.8 39.3 42.6 14.8 15.0 6.1 Lbs. 4.6 3.8 1.5 3.0 29.0 6.7 1.2 1.8 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.1 Lbs. 85.7 70.4 80.1 60.9 102.8* 77.9 48.5 51.0 45.6 18.5 17.7 7.3 10.4 6.3 7.7 3.9 4.0 1.6 1:15 1: 6 1:44 1: 7.0 1:15.1 1: 6.3 *The high value lor flaxseed is due to the fact that its 29.0 lbs. of digestible fat equals 65 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates (29.0x2.25=65.2). It will be noted that the typical feeds presented in this table show wide differences in the amount pf different digestible nutrients they furnish. Corn and wheat are high in digestible carbohydrates and rather low in digestible protein, while wheat bran and linseed meal are high in digestible protein but low in digestible carbohydrates. Linseed meal contains more digestible protein and less than one-fourth as much digestible fat as the flax seed from which it comes. The roughages range lower in digestible nutrients than the concentrates. Oat straw is es- pecially low in digestible protein, while immature and actively growing pasture grass wiU contain nearly as much digestible protein as wheat bran, if cut and dried to the same water content. 70. Nutritive ratio. — As protein serves special uses in the body, in discussions of feeding stuffs and rations the term nutritive ratio is used to show the proportion of digestible protein contained in comparison with the other nutrients. By nutritive ratio is meant the ratio which exists in any given feeding stuff between the digestible crude protein and the combined digestible carbohydrates and fat. It is determined in the MBASUEING THE USEFULNESS OP FEEDS 41 following manner: The digestible fat in 100 lbs. of the given feed is multiplied by 2.25, because fat will produce 2.25 times as much heat on being burned in the body as do the carbohydrates. The product is then added to the digestible carbohydrates and the sum is divided by the amount of digestible crude protein, the quotient being the second factor of the ratio. The manner of computing the nutritive ratio of dent com is as follows : Second factor of Diges. fat Beat equiv. Diges. carbohy. nutritive ratio (4.6 X 2.25) + 67.8 = 10.4 7.5 Diges. crude protein Nutritive ratios are expressed with the colon, thus, 1 :10.4. The nutri- tive ratio of dent com is therefore 1 :10.4 (read 1 to 10.4) ; i.e., for each pound of digestible crude protein in com there are 10.4 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates or fat equivalent. A feed or ration having much crude protein in proportion to carbohydrates and fat combined is said to have a narrow nutritive ratio; if the reverse, it has a wide nutritive ratio. Oat straw has the extremely wide nutritive ratio of 1 :44.6, because of its low content of digestible protein compared with the carbohydrates and fat ; oats the medium one of 1 : 6.3 ; and protein-rich linseed meal the very narrow ratio of 1 :1.6, the carbohydrates being less than twice the crude protein. When the total digestible nutrients (including fat X 2.25) in a feed or ration are given, as in Appendix Table III and this sample table, the nutritive ratio may be computed by simply subtracting the digestible crude protein from the total digestible nutrients, and dividing the re- mainder by the digestible crude protein. For example, the nutritive ratio of dent corn may be found thus: (85.7—7.5) -J- 7.5 = 10.4, second term of nutritive ratio. The term carbonaceous feed, which has recently come into common use, is a convenient designation for a feeding stuff having a wide nutri- tive ratio. Similarly, the term nitrogenous feed designates a feeding stuff having a narrow nutritive ratio. II. Respiration Studies Tables of digestible nutrients tell what part of the food may be digested and absorbed and thus really enter the body of the animal, but they throw no light on the use or disposition made of the nutrients when once they are within the body. To obtain such information the respira- tion apparatus has been devised. This is an air-tight chamber, arranged in such manner and with such devices that all that enters and comes from the body of the animal placed within it can be accurately measured and studied. In some cases mechanical work is performed. While in others the subject is at rest. Everything which passes into the animal— 'air, 42 FEEDS AND FEEDING food, and water — ^is carefully measured and analyzed so that the exact intake of the body is known. The air is in turn drawn from the chamber and analyzed, and the solid and liquid excrements passed by the animal are all likewise weighed and analyzed. If the intake is larger than the outgo, the animal has increased in body substance; if less, it has lost. The respiration apparatus has been used for studying the production of work and the formation of the tissues of the body, both the lean flesh and the body fat. Thru this means scientists have, in some measure, been able to determine what becomes of the food animals consume. 71. A respiration study. — The use of the respiration apparatus is illus- trated by the following example from Henneberg^ of the Weende Station, Germany. A full-grown ox weighing 1,570 lbs. was placed in the respira- tion chamber. During one day of the trial it was fed 11.1 lbs. clover hay, 13.2 lbs. oat straw, 8.2 lbs. bean meal, and 2.13 oz. salt, and drank 123.7 lbs. water. The intake and outgo of the body for the day are shown in the following table : One day's study with a 1570-11 . ox in a respiration apparatus Mineral matter Carbon Hydro- gen Nitro- gen Oxygen A. Intake of body 156 .25 lbs. feed and water, containing 27.94 lbs. dry matter Lbs. 1.96 Lbs. 12.84 Lbs. 1.65 14.26 Lbs. 0.68 Lbs. 10.81 114.05 15.99 128.311bs. water 15 .99 lbs. oxygen from air 172 24 lbs., total intake 1.96 1.27 0,67 12.84 5.69 0.49 5.89 0.04 15.91 9.28 3.26 0.02 3.11 0.68 0.23 0.37 140.85 73.14 26.85 15.72 B. Outgo from body 120.25 lbs. excrements, viz: 89.61 lbs. feces 30 .64 lbs. urine 49 .71 lbs. respiration products, viz: 21 .61 lbs. carbon dioxid 06 lb. methane gas 28 .04 lbs. water 24.93 169 96 lbs., total outgo 1.94 12.11 15.67 0.60 139 .64 A-B. Production in body 48 lb. dry lean meat 6.62 0.25 0.48 0.03 0.08 b'.ib 0.08 0.12 0.06 621b. fat 02 lb. mineral matter 1 16 lbs. water in flesh and fat 1.63 2 .28 lbs., total remaining in body 0.02 0.73 0.24 0.08 1.21 72. Intake of the body.— The first part of the table (A) shows that during the 24 hours of the trial the ox confined within the respiration apparatus took into his digestive tract 27.94 lbs. of dry matter in his food and 128.31 lbs. of water in food and drink, and breathed in air 'Neue Beitrage, Gottingen, I, 1870, p. XIX; Kraft, Lehrb. Landw., HI, p. 17. MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 43 containing 15.99 lbs. of oxygen, a total intake for the day of 172.24 lbs. The amounts of mineral matter, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen taken into the body in air, food, and water are shown in the respective columns of the table. 73. Outgo from the body. — The next division of the table (B) shows that during the day there passed from the ox 120.25 lbs. of excrements, of which 89.61 lbs. was feces and 30.64 lbs. urine. From the lungs and skin there was exhaled 49.71 lbs. of gas and vapor, somewhat less than half of which was carbon dioxid; a trace, methane gas; and the re- mainder, water. Of the 12.84 lbs. of carbon contained in the ration, there was voided in the undigested matter of the feces 5.69 lbs., or about two-fifths the total amount. Similarly, about onp-third of the nitrogen in the food never entered the body proper from the stomach and intestines, but passed away in the voidings. That part of the food which was digested and absorbed into the body was used to carry on the life functions and to repair the body tissues, or was stored as body substance. The 30.64 lbs. of urine excreted contained 0.37 lb. of nitrogen. This nitrogenous waste came either from the food which the ox had consumed during the day, or resulted from the small, continuous wastage of the protein tissues of the body. Since about 16 per ct. of such protein matter as was contained in the food or composed the body tissues of the ox was nitrogen, by multiplying the 0.37 lb. of nitrogen by 100/16, or 6.25 (17), we find that 2.31 lbs. of the protein of the feed or from the body was broken down and passed away in the urine during the day. 74. Production in the body. — By subtracting the total outgo of the body from the total intake, we obtain the figures in the last part of the table, A-B. These show that out of 172.24 lbs. of food, water, and air taken in by the ox during the day, 2.28 lbs. remained as some part of the animal body. Of this, 0.02 lb. was mineral matter or ash ; 0.73 lb. carbon ; 0.24 lb. hydrogen, 0.08 lb. nitrogen, and 1.21 lb. oxygen. By multiplying the 0.08 lb. of nitrogen (more exactly, 0.077 lb.) by 6.25 we find that the steer gained 0.48 lb. of protein or dry lean meat. As protein is a little over half carbon, about 0.25 lb. of carbon was built into the lean meat, leaving 0.48 lb. of carbon to be stored as fat. Pure fat is about three- fourths carbon, hence the 0.48 lb. of carbon represents about 0.62 lb. of fat, which was stored during the day. As fresh lean meat is nearly two-thirds water, the 0.48 lb. of dry lean meat equaled 1.25 lbs. of fresh lean meat. The body fat of the ox is about two-thirds fat and one-third water ; hence the ox stored about 1.0 lb. of fatty tissues during the day. From this most instructive study we learn that a 1570-lb. ox confined in a respiration chamber for 24 hours consumed during that time 11.1 lbs. of clover hay, 13.2 lbs. of oat straw, 8.2 lbs. of bean meal, and 2.13 oz. of salt; drank 123.7 lbs. of water; and breathed in 16 lbs. of oxygen gas. From all this it gained 2.28 lbs. of body weight, of which about 1.12 lbs. was dry lean meat, fat, and mineral matter, and 1.16 lbs., or over one- half was water. U FEEDS AND FEEDING III. The EisTEBaT of Food The living mature animal may be compared to a steam engine, in which part of the power derived from the fuel is used for the operation of the engine itself, i.e., the movement of flywheel, piston, etc., while the sur- plus may perform useful work. The steam engine derives its energy from coal or wood burned under the boiler; the animal, from the feed it consumes. Both require a small amount of repair material — steel, brass, etc., for the engine, and protein and mineral matter for the animal — but the largest demand with engine and animal alike is for fuel. It is therefore Both important and interesting to consider the relative value of feeds in terms of the fuel they furnish the body. 75. Fuel value of feeds. — The value of any feeding stuff as fuel for the animal depends on the amount of energy which it will furnish when burned. As with coal, the fuel value of a feed is determined by burning a weighed quantity of it in pure oxygen gas under pressure in an appara- tus called a calorimeter. The heat evolved is taken up by water sur- rounding the burning chamber and measured with a thermometer, the units of measure employed being the Calorie and the therm. A Calorie (C.) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1° C, or 1 lb. of water nearly 4° F. A therm (T.) is 1,000 Calories, or the amount of heat required to raise 1,000 kilograms of water 1° C, or 1,000 lbs. of water nearly 4° F. " The fuel value of 100 lbs. of various substances, or the heat evolved on burning them, is as follows : Therms Anthracite coal 358 .3 Timothy hay, containing 15 per ct. moisture 175 . 1 Oat straw, containing 15 per ct. moisture 171 .0 Com meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 170 .9 Linseed meal, containing 15 per ct. moisture 196 .7 Pure digestible protein 263 . 1 1 Pure digestible carbohydrates 186 .0 Pure digestible fat . .' 422 .0 The table shows that, on burning, 100 lbs. of anthracite coal yields 358.3 therms, or enough heat to raise the temperature of 358,300 lbs. of water 4° F.; or about 8,000 lbs. of water from 32° F., or freezing, to 212° F., or boiling temperature. One hundred pounds of timothy hay likewise burned yields 175.1 therms, or about half as much as coal. Lin- seed meal has a higher fuel value than corn meal because it contains more oil. Digestible protein yields considerably more heat than the carbohy- drates, and fat over twice as much as the carbohydrates. • The energy evolved on burning a substance may be expressed by the work it will do in lifting a weight, the unit of such measurement being the foot-ton. This is the amount of energy required to raise a weight of 1 ton 1 foot against the force of gravity. A Calorie will furnish the MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 45 energy required to raise a weight of 1.53 tons 1 foot. A therm (1,000 Calories) will thus raise a weight of 1,530 tons 1 foot, or 1 ton 1,530 feet. 76. Available energy. — The fuel value of any feed does not necessarily measure its nutritive value to the animal, because feeds which yield the same number of heat units in the calorimeter may vary in the amount of available energy which they can furnish to the body. This is because : 1. A part of the food consumed passes thru the alimentary tract undigested. This may be compared to bits of coal dropping thru the grate of the boiler unburned. 2. The carbohydrates, especially woody fiber, undergo fermentations in the intestines and paunch, combustible gases being evolved which are without fuel value to the animal. (48) Even in well-constructed engines a similar loss of energy occurs in the combustible gases which escape thru the chimney without being burned. 3. "When the protein substances in the body are broken down they form urea, a nitrogenous compound which is excreted by the kidneys. (64) Urea has fuel value which is lost to the body. Again we may liken this loss to that which occurs in the boiler thru the creosote which, tho having fuel value, is not burned in the fire box but escapes or is deposited in the chimney. The fuel value of any food which remains after deducting these three losses represents the available energy of the food (or as it is now often called, the metabolizable energy) . This is the portion which the animal can use for body purposes. 77. Net energy. — The available energy of the food measures its value for heat production in the animal, but does not represent its true value for other purposes. The animal must expend a part of the total available energy of any food in extra;cting the real fuel material from the rela- tively large proportion of useless material which it must excrete, and in converting the digested material into forms which can be used by the body. In other words, the work of masticating and digesting the food and of assimilating the digested nutrients requires considerable energy. The energy so expended finally takes the form of heat, but is not available for other purposes in the body, since the animal has no power to convert heat into other forms of energy. That portion of the energy which re- mains after masticating, digesting, and assimilating the food is termed the net energy of the food. This net energy is used by the animal, first of all, in the work of the heart, lungs, and other internal organs, and in case a surplus of net energy remains after satisfying the requirement of the animal for mere body maintenance, such surplus may be used for producing growth, fat, milk, or wool, or in the performance of ex- ternal work. The losses of energy due to mastication, digestion, and assimilation may be compared to the losses which would occur if a gasoline engine had to distil its own gasoline from crude petroleum and then get rid of the impurities which it could not use. 46 FEEDS AND FEEDING 78. Net energy of feeding stuffs. — The respiration apparatus, previ- ously described, furnishes a means by which the chemist may calculate the net energy of feeds from the amount of fat, protein, etc., deposited by the animal within its body during an experiment. In recent years the respiration apparatus of the earlier times has been improved by adding thereto means for accurately measuring the heat given off by the animal while under study. The new apparatus is styled the respiration calo- rimeter. The first respiration calorimeter in the United States was constructed by Atwater with the aid of the United States Department of Agriculture, at Middletown, Connecticut. It was for human nutrition studies only. The first and only respiration calorimeter for animals in this country was erected by Armsby some years since in a special build- ing at the Pennsylvania State College, thru the joint efforts of the United States Department of Agriculture and the Pennsylvania Station.* For many years Kellner^ of the IVi^ockem Station, Germany, employed the respiration chamber in animal studies. His studies and those of Armsby* with the respiration calorimeter have bden for the most part with the mature ox. In these investigations not only was a record kept of all the feed consumed and water drank, but of everything that passed from the animal, including the so-called solid excrement, urine, carbonic acid gas, and water, and in the case of Armsby 's experiments, all the heat given off by the body. While studies of this kind have really only begun, they have already brought out facts of great interest and im- portance. The following table sets forth some of their findings with reference to what becomes of the digestible nutrients and 3 common feeding stuffs when fed to the ox. Net energy from 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients and common feeding stuffs Total energy Energy lost Net en- ergy re- maining Nutrients or In feces In methane gas In urine In pro- duction processes Total loss Digeatible nuirienta Peanut oil (fat) Therms 399.2 263.1 186.0 170.9 179.3 171.4 Per ct. 100 100 100 Therms 0.0 0.0 0.0 15.7 87.7 93.9 Per ot. 9.2 48.9 54.8 Therms 0.0 0.0 18.8 15.9 6.8 15.5 Per ct. 9.3 3.8 9.0 Therms 0.0 49.2 0.0 6.6 5.5 4.3 Per ct. 3.9 3.1 2.5 Therms 174.4 118.3 68.7 62.0 62.9 47.4 Per ct. 36.3 29.5 27.7 Therms 174.4 167.5 87.5 100.2 152.9 161.1 Per ot. 58.7 85.3 94.0 Therms 224.8 95.6 98.5 70.7 26.4 10.3 Per ot. 41.3 14.7 6.0 Wheat gluten (protein). . . Starch (carbohydrate) Common feeding stuff s Wheat straw E:roreB3ed in per cent Wheat straw ' For a popular description of these calorimeters, see Century Magazine, July, 1887, and the Experiment Station Record, July, 1904. 'Land. Vers. Stat, 53, 1900, pp. 440-468. =U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bui. 101. MBASUEING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 47 This table sets forth some of the highest and most instructive attain- ments of the scientists working on problems in animal nutrition. The first column shows the total amount of energy which would be produced on burning 100 lbs. of the digestible nutrients or of typical feeding stuffs. "With the digestible nutrients no further loss occurs in the feces, but all are absorbed out of the small intestine and go into the body proper. The oil contained no nitrogen, and so no nitrogenous waste from it appeared in the urine, nor- did any of it form methane gas in the in- testines. To digest and assimilate this 100 lbs. of oil required 174.4 therms of energy, leaving 224.8 therms which might be stored in the body, either temporarily in the lymph bathing the tissue cells, or more per- manently as body fat. When 100 lbs. or 263.1 therms of wheat gluten, which is principally protein, was digested and absorbed into the body, a loss of 49.2 therms occurred in the urine, this loss coming from the Isreaking down of this protein nutrient within the body, or from the breaking down of body tissue which was replaced by new protein from this source. In all 167.5 out of 263.1 therms in 100 lbs. of gluten were lost either in the urine or in carrying on the work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation, leav- ing 95.6 therms which might be temporarily or permanently stored in the body. This amount of protein was available for building protein tissues or lean meat, which would be its highest use, or it could serve for the production of body fat, etc. 79. Losses in undigested matter, methane, and urine. — Studying the lower division of the table we observe that if the total energy of corn meal is placed at 100, then 9.2 per ct. of its heat value passed from the ox in the undigested matter of the solid excrement. This loss we may compare to bits of coal passing unburned thru the grate bars of a furnace. While undergoing digestion, large quantities of methane gas were formed. This combustible gas was taken from the intestines by the blood and given off thru the lungs and skin, a loss of 9.3 per ct. re- sulting. There was a further loss of 3.9 per ct. in the urea which left the body in the urine by way of the kidneys. The sum of these three losses is 22.4 per ct., which measures that portion of the total fuel value of the corn meal which was of no value to the ox, but really worse than useless, because work was required in passing it thru the alimentary tract. The remaining 77.6 per ct. represents the available energy of the com. 80. losses due to mastication, digestion, and assimilation. — From this 77.6 per ct. of available energy must be deducted the energy expended in the work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation, amounting to 36.3 per ct. of the total fuel value of the corn. Subtracting this last sum and the previous losses from 100, there remains 41.3 per ct. as the net energy value of the com, or the amount which the animal may use for repairing body tissue, for growth, for the laying on of fat, or for the production of external work. In the case of timothy hay only 14.7 per 48 FEEDS AND FEEDING ct., and with wheat straw but 6 per ct., of its original fuel value remains as finally available for such purposes. About one-half of the total fuel value of these two feeds passed off as undigested matter, this portion never having been inside the body proper. In noting the heavy losses shown under the column headed "Produc- tion processes, ' ' the following points are of interest : Zuntz found that the work of the horse in chewing hay and preparing it for swallowing required 4.5 per ct. of the total energy in the hay, oats only a little over 1 per ct., and com but one-third of 1 per ct. He estimates that with the horse the work of digestion calls for about 9 per ct. of all the energy in the digestible portion of the food. He further found that each 100 lbs. of fiber, or the woody part of feeding stuffs, in passing thru the animal, whether digested or not, required about 118 therms for the work of disposing of it. Such roughages as straw, hay, and com stover, because of their coarse, woody character due to the fiber they contain, place much work on the animal in digesting them and passing the waste out of the body. This means an evolution of heat. Therefore where the animal, such as an idle horse in winter, is doing no work and needs little net energy, no harm but rather economy in cost of keep may result from living on such rough- ages, because the large amount of heat necessarily evolved in the diges- tion and assimilation of this food helps keep the animal warm. On the other hand, animals at hard work and those producing milk or being fattened cannot profitably subsist chiefly on coarse forage, for they need large amounts of net energy in their rations. The data of the table we have been studying are as a whole correct, interesting, and helpful in extending our knowledge of a difficult, the most important, subject in animal nutrition. In details they are more or less imperfect, and the student should not regard the figures in each division of the table as exact and final, but rather as approxima,te to the facts. Taken in the right spirit, these data are of the highest value in setting forth what portions of the food consumed by the animal are lost at each step in their progress thru the body, and showing how a con- siderable part of the value of the food is required to carry on the work of mastication, digestion, and metabolism, leaving a relatively small portion ultimately available for building the body or for external work. The marvel is that the scientists have been able to go so far in solving these most complicated problems, and that their zeal is still unabated. IV. Factors Influencing the Nutritive Value of Feeds 81. Differences in composition of feeding stuffs. — The figures given in Appendix Table I for the composition of any feed are in most instances averages of all analyses of normal samples of that feed which have been reported by the various stations. It is obviously important to learn what variations from these averages may be expected in the case of MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 49 samples of a given feed originating in different sections of the country, grown in different years, or when gathered at different stages of matu- rity. Lack of space prohibits any detailed consideration of this question. However, from the mass of data compiled in Appendix Table I, includ- ing over 53,000 analyses in all, from all parts of the country, the following notes will give a fair idea of the range in the chemical composition of typical fe.eding stuffs. It has been found that the composition of a crop may be influenced to a limited extent by the amount of available plant food in the soil on which the crop is grown. Climatic environment and stage of maturity are, however, the most important factors in determining the composition of a given feed. Indeed, with some feeds they influence the content of nutrients to such a degree that an average of analyses from all sections of the country or at all stages of maturity is of little value for any pur- pose. Of the cereals, wheat is the most variable in composition, being profoundly influenced by climate, especially in its protein content. The analyses for this grain from different sections of the country are there- fore given separately in Table I. It is there shown that while the aver- age crude protein content of wheat from the northern plains states is 13.5 per ct., wheat from the Atlantic states contains only 11.7 per ct. and that from the Paciflc states but 9.9 per ct. crude protein. The same extended study shows that climate exerts little or no influence on the chemical composition of corn, providing the crop matures, the aver- age for the various sections showing no appreciable difference in content of the several nutrients. Grindley of the Illinois Station" has shown that samples of corn and wheat from the same region may vary 10 per ct. and sometimes even more in their content of protein or fat. The nitrogen-free extract is less variable, while fiber shows still larger differences than protein or fat. The same general tendencies as to local variations hold with the other cereal grains. The roughages are even more variable in composition than the cereals, owing to the fact that, besides climate, their composition is influenced by the stage of maturity, the manner of curing, and the moisture content. Analyses of com fodder and corn stover show a water content ranging from over 50 per ct. in field-cured material in wet seasons down to 10 per ct. or less in arid regions or where cured under cover in a dry season. To show the difference in nutritive value of these extremes it may be stated that corn fodder or stover containing 10 per ct. water will carry 80 per ct. more nutrients per 100 lbs. than a sample of the same forage containing 50 per ct. water ! To overcome this error so far as possible, separate averages are given for very dry and for ordinary field-cured samples of these feeds in Appendix Table I. The general rule that immature plants contain a much larger pro- portion of crude protein than when mature is well illustrated by analyses of samples of alfalfa cut at various stages of maturity by Dinsmore at '111. Bui. 165. 50 FEEDS AND FEEDING the Nevada Station^" and cured until they were somewhat drier than normal hay. The dried alfalfa cut when 3 inches high, a stage at which it is often grazed, carried 34.6 per ct. crude protein and only 43.4 per ct. total carbohydrates. As the crop matured the protein content of the hay therefrom decreased and the carbohydrates increased till the sample cut when seed was beginning to form contained only 14.1 per ct. crude protein, while the carbohydrates had increased to 68.1 per ct. Immature plants usually contain much more water than the same plants when more mature. On account of such wide differences in composition the authors have, wherever possible, given in Appendix Table I the averages for roughages at different stages of maturity. (See averages for corn fodder, timothy hay, Kentucky bluegrass, red clover, etc.) It is shown in later chapters that as the grasses and legumes mature their content of fiber materially increases, and as a consequence the feed becomes less digestible and usually of lower value. However, the large accumulation of starch which occurs in the corn plant as it ripens gives the more mature form of that plant a greater total feeding value. (27) If green forage is cured without waste and in a manner to prevent fermentation, the mere drying does not lower its digestibility. Ordi- narily, however, in curing forage much of the finer and more nutritious parts is wasted, and dews, rain, and fermentations effect changes which lower digestibility. The large amount of work done in masticating dry forage and passing it thru the alimentary tract explains why green forage may give better results and hence appear more digestible than dry forage. The long storage of fodders, even under favorable condi- tions, decreases both their digestibility and palatability. Hay browned by heating shows increased digestibility of fiber but decreased diges- tibility of crude protein and nitrogen-free extract. 82. Influence on digestibility of amount of feed eaten. — Animals tend to digest their food somewhat more completely when given a maintenance ration than when on full feed. This may be due to the more rapid move- ment of the food thru the digestive tract or to a less complete absorption of the digested nutrients when present in large amount. Jordan^^ found that sheep digested 4.7 per ct. more of the dry matter when given a half ration than when fed a full ration. Mumford, Grindley, Hall, and Emmett^'' of the Illinois Station, on feeding steers clover hay and corn in varying proportions, found that those fed a maintenance ration digested 75.4 per ct. of the dry matter; those fed one-half more, 71.6 per ct. ; those fed twice the maintenance ration, 69.4 per ct. ; and others on full feed, consuming two and one-fourth times as much as the first lot, 65.9 per ct. of the dry matter of the ration. The difference in diges- tibility was greatest in the case of the carbohydrates. The steers on full feed digested the crude protein and fat nearly as well as those getting the maintenance ration. Eckles" of the Missouri Station found that the "Nev. Rpt. 1907. "111. Bui. 172. "N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 141. "Mo. Res. Bui. 7. MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 51 dairy cow digests a maintenance ration somewhat better than a heavy ration. Under normal conditions, in feeding farm animals for the production of meat, milk, or work, other economic factors, which will be treated in later chapters, more than offset the slightly better utilization of feed when a scant ration is fed. 83. Influence of preparation of feed on digestibility. — Grinding, crack- ing, and rolling grain increase digestibility only in the case of hard seeds which would otherwise pass thru the digestive tract unbroken, or with animals unable to chew their food properly. Jordan^* states that crush- ing or grinding grain for horses may increase its digestibility as much as 14 per ct. In extensive trials at the Iowa Station with 60-lb. pigs, Eward^" found that grinding or shelling corn did not increase the diges- tibility over that for ear corn. With 200-lb. pigs grinding alone increased the digestibility 0.8 per ct., and both grinding and soaking 1.9 per ct. Tho this trial shows a slight advantage from soaking feed, other tests show no appreciable gain from soaking or wetting feeds, except where such preparation aidsin the mastication of unground hard seeds. Cutting or chaffing hay or straw does not increase digestibility, but may be advisable for other reasons, as is pointed out in Chapter XVI. Cooking usually lowers the digestibility of the crude protein of feed- ing stuffs. At the Oregon Station,^' Withycombe and Bradley found that steaming both vetch and corn silage materially decreased the digesti- bility of the crude protein and other nutrients. Cooking, steaming, or fermenting food, while often improving its palatability, generally lowers its digestibility, tho potatoes and possibly other starchy tubers are im- proved thereby. A comparison of the digestion coefficients for various kinds of silage with those for the green forages from which the silage was made shows that ensiling tends to decrease digestibility. The exceedingly favorable results from silage feeding are therefore due to the palatability of the silage, its beneficial effect on the health of the animals, and the fact that less feed is wasted than when dry fodder is used. Neither the frequency of feeding, the time of watering, nor the amount of water drunk appears to influence digestibility. Moderate exercise tends to increase digestibility, but excessive work lowers it. The flow of saliva and the other digestive juices is checked by fright. On the other hand, kind treatment and palatability of food should favorably influence digestion. Under skillful care animals show remark- able relish for their food, and it is reasonable to conclude that better digestion ensues, tho no confirmatory data can be given. 84. Influence of proportion of the several nutrients. — The addition of a large quantity of easily digested carbohydrates, such as sugar and starch, to a ration containing much roughage may reduce the diges- tibility of its crude protein, fiber, and nitrogen-free extract. According "The Feeding of Animals, p. 133. ^°Ore. Bui. 102. "Information to the authors. 62 FEEDS AND FEEDING to Kellner,*' such depression of digestibility occurs with ruminants when less than 1 part of digestible crude protein is present to every 8 parts of digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (carbohydrates plus fat X 2.25). With swine the nutritive ratio may be wider before the digestibility is affected. An explanation offered for such depression of digestibility is that when a large proportion of soluble or easily digested carbohydrates is fed, the bacteria in the digestive tract which normally decompose cellulose to secure food then attack instead the more readily available sugars or starch. (40) Not only is the digestibility of the cellulose, or fiber, consequently lowered, but also that of the crude protein and nitrogen-free extract, for the unattacbed cellulose cell walls protect the proteins and carbohydrates contained therein from the action of the digestive juices. This denression does not occur when nitrogenous fee^, such as oil meal, are added along with the starch or sugar, thus preserv- ing the balance between nrotein and non-nitrogenous nutrients. It is assumed that this is due to a stimulation of the bacteria by the addition of more protein, so that, invigorated, they attack the fiber of the food again. Adding nitrogenous feeds to roughages, such as hay, straw, etc., does not increase the digestibility of the roughage. Neither does the addition of fat to a ration increase the digestibility of the other constituents. Kellner^* states that supplying fat in excess of 1 lb. per 1,000 lbs. live weight or feeding pure fat or oil in unemulsified form may cause diges- ■ tive disturbance. Salt does not affect digestion, tho it may cause animals to eat more food and may improve nutrition. The addition of dilute acids, such as sulphuric acid or lactic acid (the chief acid in sour milk and in silage), does not infiuence digestibility. This is important in view of the fact that silage contains considerable free acid. 85. Class of animal, age, and breed. — Ruminants — ^the ox, cow, sheep — digest the same bind of forage about equally well. Kellner,^* however, shows that the ox is able to digest as much as 11 per ct. more of the less digestible roughages, such as straw, than is the sheep. He ascribes this difference to the fact that the contents of the last part of the intestine of the ox remain more watery and hence are subject to more complete fer- mentation. The more easily digested a feeding stuff is, the less difference will there be in its digestion by these various animals. For the great majority of feeding stuffs the same digestion coefficients may be used for the sheep and ox. The horse and pig digest less fiber than the ruminant, in whose paunch the coarse feeds undergo special preparation and digestion. The richer the feed, the more nearly do the digestive powers of the horse approach those of other farm animals. Swine digest the concentrates fully as well as do the ruminants, but make only small use of the fiber. "Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 55. "Land. Vers. Stat, 63, 1906, p. 313. "Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 51. MEASURING THE USEFULNESS OF FEEDS 53 In general, age does not, in itself, influence digestibility, tho young farm animals cannot utilize much roughage until their digestive tracts are developed. Eward found at the Iowa Station*" that while 200-lb. pigs digested ground corn as completely as did 60-lb. pigs, they digested 1 .58 per ct. less of the dry matter of shelled corn than did the younger pigs. This small difference was probably due to less thoro mastication of the shelled corn by the older pigs. The digestion of old animals is often indirectly impaired by poor teeth, which make the proper mastication of their food impossible. Breed has no influence upon digestibility. In- dividual animals may, however, show considerable difference in their ability to digest the same ration, tho ordinarily the digestibility of a given ration by different animals of the same race will not vary by more than 3 to 4 per ct.*^ 86. Summary. — The foregoing discussions make it evident that average figures for the composition of any feeding stuff are but approximately correct when applied to a particular lot of the feed. This likewise ap- plies to the expression of its nutritive value, whether stated in terms of digestible nutrients or net energy. In other words, different lots of any feeding stuff vary in feeding value, the same as different samples of coal vary in fuel value. Owing to the expense of obtaining analyses it is out of the question for any but the most extensive feeders to have their particular feeds analyzed, just as only the large manufacturer can afford to have samples of coal analyzed to determine their fuel value before purchasing. With the cereals and the roughages the general feeder must, therefore, rely on that average given in tables of digestible nutrients or net energy which corresponds most closely in his judgment to the feed at hand. In purchasing commercial concentrates, now sold in vast quantities everywhere, it is now fortunately possible in most sections of the country to secure standard brands, whose composition is fully guar- anteed by the manufacturer. ( Chapter XI) "Information to the authors. "Kellner, Ernahr. landw. Nutztlere, 1907, p. 46. CHAPTER IV MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS I. Requibements for Body Fuel Farm animals are supplied with food in order that they may convert it into such products as meat, milk, wool, and work, which are useful to man. However, as Armsby^ points out, just as a factory must be sup- plied with power sufficient to keep the machinery in motion before any product can be turned out, to make continued production possible with the animal, enough food must first be provided to maintain all essential life processes. This amount of food, which is required merely to support the animal when doing no work and yielding no material product, is called the maintenance ration. A respiration trial conducted with an animal receiving a maintenance ration would show that the body was neither gaining nor losing protein, fat, carbohydrates, or ash. (71) On the average, fully one-half of all the feed consumed by farm animals is used simply for maintenance, only the remaining half being turned into useful products. Knowing this, the intelligent feeder will realize that it is as important to understand the principles governing the maintenance requirements of his animals as those controlling the produc- tion of meat, milk, or work. The determination of the minimum amount of nutrients required for maintenance is also of great scientific impor- tance, for it is impossible to find the true relative value of feeding stuffs for production without first subtracting the amounts used in mere maintenance. To maintain an animal at rest sufficient food must be supplied to furnish: (1) Fuel to maintain the body temperature; (2) energy to carry on such vital processes as the work of the heart, lungs, etc. ; (3) protein to repair the small daily waste of nitrogenous tissues; (4) mineral matter to replace the small but continuous loss of these materials from the body. Since the greater part of the food in a maintenance ration serves simply as fuel to maintain the body temperature, we will first show how the animal body is warmed and discuss its fuel require- ments. 87. Body temperature.— While cold-blooded animals maintain their temperature but little above that of the surrounding air or water, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is usually much higher than that of the air. As shown in the following table the normal temperature of farm animals ranges from 98.4° to 105.4° F., a height which the air reaches only during the hottest summer days. It is therefore evident that *Penn. Bui. 111. 54 MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 55 heat must be continuously produced within the body to maintain these temperatures. Normal temperatures of farm animals Deg. Cent. Deg. Ffthr. Horse 36.9-38.2 98.4-100.8 Ox 38.0-39.3 100.4-102.8 Sheep 38.4-41.0 101.3-105.8 Pig 38.2-40.7 100.9-105.4 The normal temperature of different animals of the same species may vary considerably, as is shown by the table. On the other hand, the temperature of an individual animal, if healthy, varies only within a narrow limit, a departure of even 1 degree from normal with farm animals generally indicating some bodily derangement. 88. Heat production.— Heat is produced by all the decompositions or oxidations taking place in the body, whether of food yet within the digestive tract or of nutrients in the muscular tissues or the glands. We have seen that much heat may be evolved, especially with ruminants, in the decomposition of cellulose and other plant compounds in the digestive tract. (80) The remainder is produced in the tissues of the body by the following processes : Thru breathing, the oxygen of the air is brought to the blood. Floating in the blood stream are myriads of microscopic bodies, called red blood corpuscles, which owe their color to hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein. This hemoglobin absorbs the oxygen and holds it loosely. As the oxygen-laden blood permeates the capillary system it gives up the oxygen to the living body cells, where it is used for the combustion of a portion of the body nutrients with the result that heat is formed. Unlike the burning of fuel in a stove, the oxidations in the body take place at a low temperature. As a result of the combustion in the body, where before there were glucose, fats, and proteins in the tissues, there now remain carbonic acid gas, water, and urea, the latter substance rep- resenting the principal nitrogenous waste of the protein nutrients. In still another respect body oxidations differ radically from ordinary burning of fuel. In a furnace the wider the draft is opened, increasing the supply of oxygen, the more rapid will be the combustion. In the body, however, so long as there is a normal supply of oxygen the rate of burning of the food nutrients is independent of the supply of air. Hence the greater intake of oxygen in unusually deep breathing will not in itself cause an increase in heat production, tho the increased muscular work in such breathing may lead to an Increased production of heat. As we have seen before (80), all the energy expended in the various forms of internal work of the body is finally transformed into heat. Even with such an easily masticated and digested feed as corn, over one-third of the total energy which the digestible nutrients furnish is converted into heat in the internal work of masticating, digesting, and assimilating the feed. This proportion is much higher with the rough- ages, such as hay and straw, which demand more energy for mastication 56 FEEDS AND FEEDING and digestion. Tho this energy is lost so far as useful production is concerned, the heat evolved helps maintain the body temperature. With animals exercising normally, the larger part of the body heat is gen- erated in the muscular tissues, since all muscular contraction is brought about by the oxidation or burning of body nutrients. Even when the muscles are not actively contracting, heat is being generated in them. The heat produced in the various parts of the body is more or less equalized, chiefly by the circulation of the blood. Generally, however, the temperature in the different parts varies somewhat according to their activities. 89. Production of heat in starvation. — ^When food is withheld from an animal, the heat needed to warm the body, the energy required to carry on the vital processes, and the protein and mineral matter necessary for the repair of the active tissues must all come from nutrients pre- viously stored within the body. The small supply of glycogen in the liver and muscles is probably first used as fuel, but this is soon gone. (60) Fat is the animal's chief reserve fuel, stored when food is abundant, against times of scarcity, and is therefore the main source of both heat and energy during starvation. When the supply of fat begins to fail, the muscles and other protein tissues are broken down more rapidly to furnish heat and energy, and the animal finally perishes thru the impairment of its organs and the lack of body fuel to carry on the functions of life. Camivora, or flesh-eating animals, withstand hunger longer than herbivora. While dogs and cats have lived until their weights were decreased 33 to 40 per ct., horses and ruminants will die when their weight has been reduced 20 to 25 per ct." Men have volun- tarily fasted for over a month, and dogs have survived fasts of from 90 to 117 days without permanent ill effects.^ The age of the animal also influences the time at which death occurs from starvation, young animals losing weight more rapidly and dying after a smaller loss of weight than old ones.* 90. Heat regulation. — If heat were lost from the body by radiation only, as from a warm stone, it would be impossible for the animal to keep its temperature constant under varying external conditions and with daily supplies of food differing in amount and heat producing power. The body, however, possesses most effective means for con- trolling both the production and the loss of heat, this two-fold regulation being under the control of the nervous system. The production of heat is regulated by increasing or decreasing the oxidations taking place in the body. The amount of heat generated is controlled more or less voluntarily by regulating the exercise taken and the amount of food consumed. Experience reminds us that on cold 'M. Wllckens in t. d. Goltz, Hand. d. ges. Landw., Ill, p. 88. ■Armsby, Penn. Bui. Ill; Howe, Mattill, and Hawk, Jour. Biol. Chem., 10, 1911, pp. 417-432. * Halliburton, Chem. Physiol., p. 834. MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 57 days we eat more heartily and walk more briskly than in warm weather. The degree of external heat or cold also causes an involuntary rise or fall in heat production. The shivering of a chilled animal is the outward manifestation of increased muscular contraction, started solely to produce more heat. Controlling the amount of heat lost from the body is the second means of heat regulation. This is accomplished in part by varying the dis- tribution of the blood on the surface of the body, and thus controlling the amount of heat lost from the skin by radiation and conduction. The loss of heat is further regulated by the production of sweat and the vaporization of water from the lungs. The clothing of man and the thick skin, hair, wool, and feathers of animals also check and control the loss of heat. According to Howell,^ the heat lost from the human body escapes as follows : Avenues of escape of heat from human body Per ct. heat lost By urine and feces 1.8 By warming expired air 3.5 By vaporizing water from lungs 7.2 By evaporation of water from skin 14.5 By radiation and conduction from skin 73 . Total 100.0 The relative importance of these channels of heat loss depends upon various conditions and upon the species of "animal. Animals that do not sweat give off more heat by the lungs and less by the skin. In pro- portion to their weight, small animals lose more heat by radiation than do larger ones of the same species. High external temperature tends to diminish the loss by radiation and increase that due to evaporation from the skin or vaporization from the lungs. Violent exercise calls for the rapid burning of food and tissue fuel, with a consequent increase of body heat. This heat passes off thru the more rapid breathing and the increased losses from the skin. Because the loss of heat is largely controlled by the clothing he wears, man has, in some measure, lost his power of heat regulation. With many of the warm-blooded animals, however, this power is highly developed, as is shown by Rubner,* who determined the heat lost by a small dog at various air temperatures, before and after removing his coat of long hair. Before the dog was clipped lowering the temperature from 86° to 68° F. caused no increase in the loss of heat. After clipping, however, this change in temperature caused a 58 per ct. greater loss of heat, which was covered by increased production of heat in the body. 91. Heat and energfy required for maintenance. — Experiments have shown that with a mature animal being maintained at rest in the stall the requirement for fuel to keep up the body temperature ordinarily "Text Book of Physiol., 1907, p. 861. 'Gesetze des Energieverbrauchs, 1902, p. 14. 58 FEEDS AND FEEDING greatly exceeds the amount of net energy needed for the internal work of the body organs.' As will be shown later (448), Zuntz found that to maintain the horse at rest only one-third of the total energy of the ration need be supplied in the form of net ener^, the remainder serving simply as body fuel. Hence, excepting for the pig, the maintenance ration of farm animals may consist largely of roughages, such as hay and straw, which furnish abundant heat, but do not yield much net energy. (78-80) Since the ration must furnish at least a minimum amount of net energy, animals cannot be maintained on such feeds as wheat straw alone, which furnish no net energy to the horse and but little to the ruminant. Due to differences in temperament there is considerable variation in the maintenance requirements of different individuals of the same size and species, kept under the same conditions. As restlessness causes greater muscular activity and thereby uses up more body fuel, a quiet animal requires less food for maintenance than a nervous, active one. During experiments with a horse in a respiration chamber, Zuntz and Hagemann* found that the presence of flies caused the animal to give off over 10 per ct. more carbonic acid gas than normally, which means that this much more food fuel was burned. Armsby° found that the ox in the respiration calorimeter produced over 30 per ct. more heat when standing than when lying down. Some of this additional heat was undoubtedly produced thru the work of maintaining the body upright, but the larger part was due to the greater muscular movement of the animal when standing. Kellner^" shows that the ox in good condition, especially when fat, requires a larger ration for maintenance than a lean one of the same body surface. The loss of heat and energy from the body is not proportional to the size or weight of the animal, but rather to the body surface. This is shown by Rubner,ii who determined the quantity of heat given off daily by fasting dogs of different sizes but in the same bodily condition, as reported in the following table : Heai given off hy fasting dogs of different sizes Heat lost daily Body weight Body surface Per kgm. wt. Per sq. m. surface Kgma. Sq.m. CaL Cal. 3.2 0.24 88.1 1212 6.5 0.37 66.1 1153 9.6 0.53 65.2 1183 18.2 0.77 . 46.2 1097 24.0 0.88 40.9 1112 31.2 1.07 36.6 1036 'Kellner, Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 405. »Landw. Jahrb., 23, 1894, p. 161. "Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. ScL, 1902; Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1914. "Landw. Vers. Stat., 50, 1898, p. 245; 53, 1900, p. 14. "Ztschr. Biol., 19, 1883, p. 535. MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 59 It is shown that while the heat lost daily per square meter of body surface remained nearly constant, the larger the animal the smaller was the daily loss per kilo of body weight. This is because large bodies have less surface in proportion to their weight than small ones, and the loss of heat from the body is largely determined by its relative surface. Hence maintenance rations should be proportional to the surface bi. the body rather than its weight. Since it is difficult to actually measure the surface of an animal's body, the maintenance ration for animals of dif- ferent sizes may be computed by the well-known geometrical law that the surfaces of solids are proportional to the squares of the cube roots of their weights. The rate at which heat is lost from the body by radiation also depends on the difference between the air temperature and the body temperature. Exposure to cold winds, especially with animals having scant coats, greatly increases the radiation of heat. Animals with coats wet by cold rain or snow lose additional heat from their bodies, for the cold water which falls on them must be warmed and evaporated by heat generated thru the burning of food. With the weU-fed fattening animal, the greater loss of heat thru these causes may not produce any waste of food, for much more heat is being generated in the mastication, diges- tion, and assimilation of the heavy ration than is normally needed to warm the body. In the case of animals on a maintenance ration, whose chief demand is for body fuel, such exposure will necessitate an increased consumption of feed to serve as fuel. On the other hand, too high a stable temperature leads to loss of appetite and induces sweating. II. Requikements foe Protein 92. Protein waste from the body. — In view of the high cost and relative scarcity of crude protein in feeding stuffs, it is important to know the minimum amount of this nutrient required for maintenance. There is at all times an excretion of nitrogen from the animal body by way of the urine. With a well-nourished animal this excretion is relatively large, the amount depending chiefly upon the quantity of nitrogen sup- plied in the food. If all food is withheld from such an animal, the nitro- gen excretion decreases rapidly at first, until the supply of amino acids in the blood and tissues, which have not yet been built into body protein, is lowered to a minimum. The nitrogen waste in the urine then slowly decreases until it reaches a level which remains quite constant so long as heat and energy are furnished by the body fat. When the supply of the latter begins to fail, the muscles and other protein tissues must thereafter not only furnish protein for the repair of the vital body machinery but must also supply the necessary heat and energy; conse- quently they waste more rapidly until death follows. When animals are fed exclusively on nitrogen-free nutrients, such as the sugars, starches, fats, etc., the waste of fat from the body is materially 60 FEEDS AND FEEDING lessened, and the waste of the nitrogenous tissues of the body, such as the muscles, is somewhat reduced, tho not entirely stopped. On account of this sparing of the body substances, animals forced to live on such diet survive longer than those wholly deprived of food. Yet because of the continuous small waste of protein from the tissues of the body, animals nourished solely on fats and carbohydrates cannot long survive. 93. Feeding protein alone. — ^We might expect that when protein only is fed to a fasting animal, in an amount corresponding to the quantity lost daily during starvation, it would replace the protein wasted from the tissues, and the animal thus be brought to nitrogen equilibrium ; that is, it would excrete as much, but no more, nitrogen than was contained in the food. However, when protein is fed under such conditions, the amount of nitrogen excreted at once rises, and tho the loss of nitrogen from the tissues is reduced, nitrogen equilibrium is not reached. When practically pure protein is fed, the loss of nitrogen can be checked only if the supply is far in excess of the waste from the starving body. It is assumed that this increase in nitrogenous waste when protein is fed in such large proportion is due to a flooding of the tissues with amino acids, the products of protein digestion, and a consequent stimulation of the activities of the body cells. (11, 49) However, the food protein so decomposed is not entirely lost to the animal. Not only may it be burned as body fuel, thus saving the body fat, but, after the splitting of the nitrogen from the molecules of protein or of amino acids, the non-nitroge- nous residue which remains may be converted into glucose and finally into glycogen or fat. Carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, have lived for long periods on washed lean meat, consisting chiefly of protein, with only a small amount of fat and a trace of glycogen. Since plant tissue is rich in carbohydrates, such experiments have not been possible with the herbivora, or plant-eating animals. 94. Protein required for maintenance — The preceding discussions have pointed out the functions of protein in the body under various condi- tions. Let us now pass to a question of much practical importance — the amount of protein required to maintain animals at rest, when fed along with sufficient carbohydrates or fats to meet the needs of the body for fuel. "When enough of these nitrogen-free nutrients is supplied, the amount of protein required to prevent loss of nitrogen from the body is much less than where the ration is nearly pure protein. In trials with dogs Voit^'' found that from 2.6 to 3.3 lbs. of lean meat per day was required to check the loss of protein from the body when lean meat was fed alone — ^practically an exclusive protein diet. When carbohydrates or fat was added, only one-half to one-third as much lean meat was needed. Since the digestible portion of the crude fiber and likewise of the pentosans can serve as body fuel (48), these nutrients to some degree decrease the waste of nitrogen in the same manner as does a supply of the more easily digested sugars and starch. Experiments show that a pound of carbohydrates has somewhat greater "Ztschr. Biol., 5, 1869, p. 352. MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 61 protein-sparing action than a pound of fat, a surprising fact when we remember that, on burning, fat produces over twice as much energy as do carbohydrates. (70) Evidently there is no relation between the fuel values of these nutrients and their protein-sparing power. Landegren" explains this superiority of carbohydrates over fat as follows : For the carrying on of their normal functions, living cells need a certain mini- mum not only of protein but also of carbohydrates, especially glucose. When carbohydrates are not supplied, the body forms the necessary glucose by decomposing protein. So long, however, as there is an ample supply of carbohydrates in the food, protein is not used for this purpose. As the body can form carbohydrates from fat only with great difficulty, if at all, the fats are less potent than the carbohydrates in checking the protein wastes in the body. By feeding rations ample in carbohydrates and fat, some investigators have succeeded in reducing the requirement of nitrogenous matter to slightly more than the normal nitrogen waste of the body during starva- tion. At the Pennsylvania Station^* Armsby found in experiments with steers, covering 70 days, that from 0.4 to 0.6 lb. of digestible protein daily per 1000 lbs. of live weight was sufficient to maintain the nitrogen equilibrium. Contrary to the observations of some of the earlier inves- tigators, no ill effects followed this small supply of protein. Wintering cattle on feeds poor in crude protein — straw, inferior hay, corn stover, etc. — as practiced by many farmers, confirms this finding. In general, it is not wise to supply only the theoretical minimum of protein to animals for extended periods for the following reasons : As we have seen (81, 85), it is essential to make some allowance for the difference ia composition of feeding stuffs and the varying capacities of animals to digest and utilize the nutrients in the ration. Besides supply- ing protein to replace the daily waste from the organs of the body, suffi- cient must also be given to maintain the growth of the nitrogenous hair, hoofs, wool, etc. When the ration has too wide a nutritive ratio, the digestibility of the feed is decreased. Moreover, certain proteins of unbalanced composition fed as the sole source of nitrogen will not suf^ce to maintain an animal. For example, in numerous experiments animals have never been maintained successfully on gelatin, which lacks 2 amino acids and contains only small amounts of others. As we have little knowledge concerning possible deficiencies in the mixture of proteins supplied in the different individual feeding stuffs, it is advisable to make allowance for waste which may occur if the feed contains low amounts of some of the amino acids essential for maintenance. It is also a well- known fact that in general protein is a cell stimulant, and a supply somewhat above the minimum promotes the well-being of the animal. The wisdom of not attempting to limit the protein supply to the theo- retical minimum for long periods is shown by the experience of Haecker^' of the Minnesota Station. During many years of patient study he found "Skand. Archiv. Physiol., 14, 1903, p. 112. "Principles of Animal Nutrition, 1903, p. 142. "Minn. Buls. 71, 79, 140. 62 FEEDS AND FEEDING that dairy cows under good care and otherwise liberal feeding would for long periods continue a good flow of milk on a surprisingly small allow- ance of crude protein. After some years of such feeding, however, their vitality was so depleted that they became physical wrecks long before their time. These studies led Haecker to raise his crude protein standard for the dairy cow above his earlier allowance, tho such allowance is still below the Wolff-Lehmann standard, as is shown elsewhere. (182) Even when sufficient protein is fed to insure good health, the amount required to maintain mature resting animals is not large compared with the need of carbohydrates and fat for body fuel. Maintenance rations for such animals may therefore have a relatively wide nutritive ratio. For example, Kellner recommends for the maintenance of the mature ox at rest a supply of 0.6 to 0.8 lb. of digestible protein and 7.7 to 9.7 lbs. of digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (including fat X 2.25). (170) Armsby places the requirement of the horse somewhat higher, as is shown later. (172) 95. Can amids replace proteins ? — ^Whether the functions of protein in the body can be filled by the group of nitrogenous compounds, more simple than the true proteins, which are included under the term amids (11), is a disputed question among scientists. In the light of recent experiments, which have shown that even certain true proteins are in- sufficient for maintenance or growth when fed alone, it is not surprising that single pure amids have failed to fulfill the functions of food protein. Thus numerous experiments have shown that animals cannot be main- tained on asparagin, an amid, as the sole source of nitrogen. Tho they cannot replace protein, such amids, even when fed in pure form, furnish energy to the body. We have seen (49) , that all the digested food protein is broken down into amino acids and absorbed as such from the intestine, being later rebuilt into body protein. "With this in mind it is reasonable to hold that if the mixture of amids in a feeding stuff contains all of the amiao acids (the protein building-stones) needed to form body protein, these amids can be used in the same manner as true protein for the repair of body tissue or for the formation of new protein tissue. This belief is supported by the following : Nearly half the nitrogen in corn silage, and about 15 per ct. of that in dried corn forage, is in amid form. Yet, based on dry matter, com silage is somewhat more valuable than corn forage as a feed for dairy cows, which require a liberal supply of crude protein. (630) The amids are abundant in grass, roots, and silage, all of which are especially useful to growing or pregnant animals and to those producing milk and wool. III. Requirements for Mineral Matter 96. Importance of mineral matter. — That the ash of feeding stuffs is of the greatest importance to animals is shown by feeding them rations MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 63 freed as far as possible from mineral matter, in whicli case they die of mineral starvation. Indeed, animals thus fed generally perish sooner than when no food is given. During such starvation the nervous system first suffers ia a perceptible manner; marked weakness of the limbs, trembling of the muscles, convulsions, and great excitability result.^^ Mineral matter is found in all the vital parts of the body. The nuclei of all cells are rich in phosphorus, and the skeleton is composed largely of calcium (lime) combined with phosphorus. Blood deprived of its cal- cium does not clot. The blood serum is rich in common salt and other salts of sodium, while the red blood corpuscles are rich in potassium, compounds. The power of the blood to carry oxygen is due to hemo- globin, an iron-protein compound in the red corpuscles. In the stomach the pepsin acts only in the presence of an acid, normally hydrochloric, derived from the salts of this acid present in the blood. 97. Mineral salts control life processes. — In some mysterious manner, possibly by carrying electric charges which stimulate the body cells,^^ the mineral salts of the body direct its various vital processes. A simple experiment often performed in the laboratory will illustrate the im- portant functions of the mineral elements in life. If the heart, still beating, is removed from a frog and placed in a solution of pure sodium chlorid (common salt), its beats soon fade out. Now if a small amount of a calcium salt (lime) be added to the solution, the heart will at once begin to beat again, and will continue in rhythmical contraction for several hours. Unless a small amount of a potassium salt is likewise added, the beat will not, however, be normal, the heart failing to relax quickly and completely enough after each contraction. Therefore, if potassium is not added the relaxations become more and more feeble, until the heart stops in a contracted state. Not only must potassium be present, but there must be a correct proportion between the amounts of calcium and potassium. If too much potassium is added, the heart will fail to contract properly, and finally will again stop beating, but this time in a state of complete relaxation. Similarly, the other vital processes are dependent not only on the presence of various mineral salts, but also on a proper relationship be- tween them. Therefore it will be seen that unless the amount of these mineral salts in the blood is kept normal, serious consequences will follow. In large measure the kidneys protect the animal against an unbalanced mineral matter content in the blood by promptly excreting any excess of various salts which may be present. However, when the food continu- ally furnishes the blood an unbalanced salt mixture, the kidneys may be unable to keep the blood composition normal, with resultant injury to the animal. For instance, magnesium and calcium seem antagonistic in their action, and in voiding the excess of magnesium the body loses calcium. Given in excessive amount for long periods, feeds which con- tain much magnesium in proportion to calcium, such as wheat bran and " Kellner, Ernfthr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 169. "Forbes, Ohio Tech. Bui. 5. 64 FEEDS AND FEEDING middlings are said to cause a weakening of the bones, leading to such troubles as "bran disease" or "miller's horse rickets." Appendix Table VI sets forth the mineral constituents of representa- tive feeding stuffs. 98. Calcium and phosphonis. — ^Large amounts of calcium (lime) are deposited in the bones of animals, chiefly as phosphate and in smaller amount as carbonate. Indeed, over 90 per ct. of the ash of bone is calcium and phosphorus. It is not surprising, therefore, that a long- continued lack of calcium or of phosphorus in the food is harmful to the skeleton. Hart, McCoUum, and Humphrey of the Wisconsin Station^^ have shown that the animal skeleton acts as a reserve storehouse of mineral matter, doling out calcium, phosphorus, etc., when the supply in the food is below requirements, in order that the metabolic processes of the body may be maintained. Under such conditions the calcium and phosphorus in the flesh and other soft parts remain as high as in animals liberally supplied with these mineral matters. These investigators found that a cow fed a ration deflcient in calcium during 3.5 months gave off 5.5 lbs. more calcium in milk and excrement than was in the food. This was fully 25 per ct. of all the calcium in her body, including the skeleton, at the beginning of the trial. Such withdrawal of mineral matter from the skeleton produces porosity and brittleness of bone. In certain localities where the hay and other roughages are especially low in calcium and phosphorus,^® farm animals are so affected by the lack of these mineral substances that their bones are broken easily and in seemingly inexplicable ways. Often this brittleness of bone is noticeable only in years when the normal ab- sorption of calcium and phosphorus by the roots of plants is hindered by drought. Of grown animals, those carrying their young are most apt to suffer from the lack of these substances, since considerable amounts are deposited in the fetus. Growing animals whose bones are rapidly increasing in size suffer from a lack of calcium or phosphorus sooner than grown animals. Voit^" found that young animals receiving a ra- tion low in calcium are soon attacked by rickets, the joints swelling, the limbs and the spinal column becoming crooked, the teeth remaining small and soft, and the animal finally being unable to walk. Pigs, because of restricted diet, suffer from insufficient calcium and phosphorus more often than do calves, colts, and lambs, which usually receive enough of these mineral matters in their hay and other food. The superior value of such leguminous roughages as clover, alfalfa, and cowpea hay for farm animals has in the past been ascribed to their high content of protein. Ingle^"^ holds that in such concentrates as lin- ''Wis. Researcli Bui. 5; Am. Jour. Physiol., 1909. "Kellner, Emahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 185. "Ztschr. Biol., 16, 1880, p. 70. "Jour, of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, Mar., 1907. MAINTENANCE OF FAEM ANIMALS 65 seed oil cake, Indian corn, oats, wheat, and barley, and in such roots and roughages as turnips, swedes, mangels, corn stover, wheat straw, etc., there is generally an excess of phosphorus over calcium, or lime. He holds that this excess of phosphorus tends to waste or carry the calcium out of the body to an excessive degree and is therefore unfavorable to normal nutrition. The leguminous roughages contain a large excess of calcium over phosphorus, and accordingly supplying legumes with the other feeds named makes good such wastage of calcium. To this high content of calcium as well as to the high protein content we must here- after ascribe the beneficial effects of clover, alfalfa, vetch, and other leguminous roughages on the growth, milk yield, and bone development of farm animals. 99. Mineral requirements for maintenance. — It is probable that, by reason of its perfection, the animal organism is able to use many of the mineral substances over and over for the same functions, taking them back into the circulation again after they have once been used. In spite of this frugal economy, however, losses of mineral matter from the body constantly occur, even during starvation. Ordinarily the rations of farm animals contain all the necessary mineral matters, at least in small quantities, and since the body retains them with great tenacity when the supply is meager, these small amounts usually suffice, especially for mature animals. Common salt, calcium (lime), and phosphorus are often needed in such large amounts that they may fall short in certain rations, and hence must be added, if normal results are to be obtained. As is shown later (119), young growing animals require larger supplies of mineral matter than those which are full-grown; hence more care should be taken to provide a liberal allowance, especially of lime and phosphorus. In forming rations the calcium and phosphorus content of the feeds should be considered. Straw, chaff, the various root crops, molasses, and the cereals and their by-products, such as bran and middlings, are low in calcium. On the other hand, the legumes, as clover, alfalfa, etc., the meadow grasses, and many leguminous seeds, such as peas, beans, etc., are high in calcium. Straw, chaff, beet pulp, potatoes, and molasses are low in phosphorus, while the cereals and brans, malt sprouts, oil cakes, brewers' grains, slaughter-house and fish waste carry it in abundance. Both calcium and phosphorus may thus be lacking in some rations. When soft water is drunk, the calcium is especially apt to be deficient. 100. Inorganic phosphorus. — ^A considerable part of the phosphorus of common feeding stuffs is present in the proteins, the phosphorus-con- taining fatty substances, and other organic compounds. A higher nutri- tive value has often been ascribed by scientists to phosphorus in these compounds than to phosphorus in such materials as ground rock phos- phate, ground bones, or bone ash, which contain phosphorus in inorganic form, like phosphate of calcium. These materials are the cheapest forms in which phosphorus can be added to a ration deficient in this mineral 66 FEEDS AND FEEDING nutrient. The question as to whether animals can assimilate inorganic phosphorus and whether the body can use it for all purposes which organic phosphorus serves, are therefore questions to which scientists have devoted much study. Kohler^^ found that lambs can assimilate and use calcium phosphate, bone ash, and steamed bone. J. Neumann*' fed calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate to calves with good results. Experiments at Mockem** indicate beneficial results from the use of 30 to 50 grams of calcium phosphate in the daily ration of steers which had shown marked brittleness of bone. At the "Wisconsin Station,*^ Hart, McCollum, and Fuller found that pigs were able to assimilate inorganic phosphorus sup- plied in the form of precipitated calcium phosphate, bone ash, or ground rock phosphate, and that the addition of such phosphorus to a ration low in phosphorus caused increased bone formation. From 5 experi- ments with growing pigs, in which either inorganic phosphates or phos- phorus in organic forms were added to rations low in phosphorus, Forbes*" of the Ohio Station concludes that the inorganic phosphates were absorbed and retained, and apparently utilized for growth in the same manner as the phosphorus in organic form. We may therefore conclude that when a ration must be used which is deficient in calcium or phosphorus, calcium may be supplied in the form of calcium carbonate in wood ashes or ground limestone, or phos- phorus and calcium in the form of precipitated calcium phosphate, bone ash, or ground rock phosphate. This latter is by far the cheapest form of phosphorus easily available for such purposes. 101. Common salt. — The hunger of herbivorous animals for conunon salt is well known, but practical men have differed as to the necessity or advantage of adding it to the ration. In spite of the earlier belief that salt increased the digestibility of food, numerous experiments have shown that the digestibility of the ration is neither increased nor diminished thereby. Rather than increasing the waste of protein from the body, as earlier investigators believed, salt appears to slightly lessen protein de- composition. Kellner*' states that besides the physiological action of salt, it serves as a spice or condiment which whets the appetite and in- creases the palatability of many foods. It also stimulates the secretion of the digestive fluids, hastens the circulation of the fluids of the body, and prevents digestive disturbances. Excessive consumption of salt must be guarded against, since it great- ly increases the amount of water excreted in the urine. The consequent abnormal thirst causes animals to drink excessively, which impairs diges- tion and leads to other disturbances. If sufficient water is not supplied, the water content of the body will be lowered by the increased loss thru the kidneys, leading to greater waste of protein. Animals allowed free "Landw. Vers. Stat, 61, 1905; 65, 1907. "Wis. Research Bui. 1. « Jour. Land., 41, 1893, p. 343. "Ohio Tech. Bui 5. "Landw. Vers. Stat., 57, 1902, p. 239."Ernahr. landw. Nutztlere, 1907, p. 173. MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 67 access to salt or supplied with it at frequent and regular intervals will consume only enough to meet the needs of the body. Of the numerous salt-feeding experiments, only those of Babcock and Carlyle of the "Wisconsin Station^* are satisfactory and conclusive. In these trials dairy cows, weU nourished otherwise, were given no common salt (sodium chlorid) for long periods — ^more than a year in some in- stances. The following conclusions were reached: "In every case the cows exhibited an abnormal appetite for salt after having been deprived of it for 2 or 3 weeks, but' in no case did the health of the animal, as shown by the general appearance, the live weight, or the yield of milk, appear to be affected until a much longer time had elapsed. This period of immunity varied with individual cows from less than a month to more than a year. There was finally reached a condition of low vitality in which a sudden and complete breakdown occurred. This stage was marked by loss of appetite, a generally haggard appearance, lusterless eyes, a rough coat, and a very rapid decline in both live weight and yield of milk." If salt was supplied at this period recovery was rapid. In one case potassium chlorid was given instead of common salt (sodium chlorid). Considerable of the potassium salt was eaten, tho cows or- dinarily refuse to touch it, and recovery followed as quickly as when common salt was supplied — evidence that not the lack of sodium but the lack of chlorin was responsible for the troubles. The breakdown due to the lack of salt usually occurred after calving when the milk flow was heavy, and generally the cows giving the largest amount of milk were the first to show distress. Babcock points out that the salt requirement vrill vary greatly in dif- ferent localities. Soils which contain large quantities of salt doubtless produce feeding stuffs containing more salt than those poor in this ingredient ; and again, the water of streams and wells varies greatly in salt content. These facts doubtless account for the disagreement among experimenters in different parts of the world as to the importance and value of salt. Cows in milk and sheep show the greatest need of salt ; fattening cattle, horses, dry cows, and stock cattle require less salt ; and pigs but little. IV. Additional Requirements of Animals We have thus far considered in detail only the requirements of ani- mals for crude protein, carbohydrates, fat, and mineral matter. How- ever, just as vital as the demands for fuel and repair material, which are met by these nutrients, is the need for air and water. It is also necessary that the ration in its physical nature or bulkiness be adapted to the capacity of the digestive organs of the given animal. 102. Air. — While animals survive starvation for considerable periods, lack of air brings immediate death, as a supply of oxygen is required for all vital processes. The amount of air breathed by farm animals, as "Wis. Rpt. 1905. 68 FEEDS AND FEEDING given by King,^* is placed in the first division of the table below. The second division shows the quantity of fresh air that must pour into a room, where animals are confined, in order to provide substantially pure air, or that which does not contain over 3.3 per ct. of air that has been previously breathed. Air ireathed by animals, and air required for good ventilation Animal Air breathed Ventilation recjuire- ment per animal Hourly Per 24 hra. Hourly Per 24 hrs. Horse Cu.ft. 142 117 46 30 Cu. ft. 3,401 2,804 1,103 726 Lbs. 272 224 89 58 Cu. ft. 4,296 3,542 1,392 917 Cu. ft. 103,104 85,008 33,408 22,008 Cow Pig Sheep The table shows that the horse breathes hourly 142 cu. ft. of air, and daily about 3,400 cu. ft., which weighs about 272 lbs. To provide the horse in confinement with air, not more than 3.3 per ct. of which has been previously breathed, there must hourly pass into the room not less than 4,296 cu. ft., or over 103,000 cu. ft. each 24 hours. These figures show the necessity of providing some adequate system of ventilation when animals are confined to closed barns, as in the case of horses and dairy cattle during winter in the northern states. The cow gives off about 19 therms of heat each 24 hours, or enough to raise 79,603 cu. ft. of dry air from 0° to 50° F. As shown in the preced- ing table, proper ventilation for the cow requires about 85,000 cu. ft. of air each 24 hours. This is only a little more air than the heat from her body will raise from 0° to 50° F., which is a desirable winter temperature for cow stables in cold climates. 103. Water — ^Animals can live much longer without solid food than without water, and an insufficiency of water in the body causes serious disturbances. The processes of mastication, digestion, absorption, and assimilation are hindered ; the intestines are not properly flushed, and waste matter remains too long therein ; the blood thickens ; and the body temperature is increased. Thru these complications death may result. Animals partially deprived of water for a long period lose their appetite for solid food, and vomiting and diarrhea may occur, the latter also often taking place when water is again supplied. Under normal conditions animals consume a fairly uniform quantity of water for each pound of dry matter eaten ; Kellner places the amount at 4 to 6 lbs. for milch cows, 4 to 5 lbs. for oxen, 2 to 3 lbs. for horses and sheep, and for swine 7 to 8 lbs., which seems excessive. Possibly due to their laxative nature, feeds rich in crude protein — ^bran, linseed meal, peas, etc. — cause a greater demand for water than starchy feeds. *• Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools, and Stables. MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 69 KeHner^" found that for each 100 lbs. of water drank and in the food, the stabled ox passed 46.3 lbs. in the solid excrement, 29.2 ia the urine, and 24.5 in the breath and perspiration. Water is an important regulator of the temperature of the animal body. A large amount of heat is ab- sorbed in converting water into the vapor given off by the lungs and skin, and when sweat evaporates it carries much heat from the body. (90) The free drinking of water does not diminish the gains of animals nor increase the breaking down of protein in the body, tho flushing the intestines with much water may at first cause a more complete removal of the nitrogenous waste therefrom. "With animals which continue to drink freely the nitrogenous waste soon becomes normal again. Scientists now agree that farm animals should have aU the water they will drink, for they do not take it in excess unless they are forced to live on watery foods or are given salt irregularly. The excess of water taken into the body is discharged thru the urine. Water taken into the body must be raised to the body temperature, thus consuming heat. When an imdue amount of cold water is drunk in cold weather this demand for fuel may cause a waste of nutrients. Warington^^ points out that during winter sheep in the turnip fields of England consume about 20 lbs. of roots daily^ containing over 18 lbs. of water, or about 15 lbs. more than is needed. To raise 15 lbs. of water from near the freezing point to the body temperature requires the burning of 11 per ct. of the nutrients furnished by the turnips. In ad- dition the equivalent of more than 2 oz. of glucose must be burned for each pound of water vapor given off from the lungs and skin. Warming cold water taken into the body does not necessarily mean that more food must be burned, for animals evolve a large amount of heat in the work of digesting food and converting the digested matter into body products or work. Due to this, many animals have an excess of body heat. Com- fortably-housed and well-fed steers and dairy cows burn more food than is needed to keep their bodies warm, and such excess may go to warm the water they drink, so that no food is directly burned for that purpose. Armsby^^ points out that in winter farm animals watered but once daily drink freely. The sudden demand for heat caused by taking into the body this large quantity of cold water may exceed the available supply, with the result that some of the food nutrients or body tissues are burned to produce heat. Animals unduly exposed to cold and those sparingly fed or with scant coats may be directly helped by watering frequently or by warming their drinking water. In cold regions in order to induce animals, especially cows, to drink freely in winter, it is usually best to warm the water, which should also be comfortably accessible. When entirely oxidized in the body, 100 lbs. of starch or cellulose will yield 55.5 lbs. of water and 163 lbs. of carbon dioxid, and fats over "Landw. Vers. Stat., 53, 1900, p. 404. Principles of Animal Nutrition, p. 439. "Chemistry of the Farm. 70 FEEDS AND FEEDING twice as much water as starch. The nitrogenous compounds yield a little less than the carbohydrates because they are not entirely oxidized in the body. This shows that a very considerable amount of water comes to the animal body from the dry matter of the food consumed. It is probable that the water which results from the breaking down of the food is used in the building processes of the body, rather than that water which the animal drinks, tho this is not definitely known. 104. Commonly unappreciated factors in food. — ^Within recent years evidence has been accumulating which indicates that the classes of nutrients previously enumerated — proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and inorganic salts — are not all that is necessary to make a satisfactory ration. It has long been known that when humans live for extended periods on a diet containing no fresh vegetables or meat, scurvy is apt to result, even tho an abundance of the common nutrients is furnished. The addition to the diet of fresh vegetables readily prevents this disease. In districts of the Orient, where the inhabitants subsist mainly on pol- ished rice, there often occurs a serious disease known as beri-beri, char- acterized by general weakness and even paralysis. Where unpolished rice, carrying the germ and part of the husk, is eaten instead, this disease is not found. In experiments by various scientists a similar condition has been produced in animals fed almost exclusively on pol- ished rice, while unpolished rice did not cause such an effect. Tho many attempts have been made to determine the mysterious substance in the rice husk or germ which exerts such a pronounced influence on health, but little is yet known regardtug its composition. Another important development of recent years has been the finding that some of the substances included in the ether-extract or so-called "fat" of feeds are essential to the well-being of animals. Stepp^" first found that animals well fed upon foods from which all substances of a, fatty nature had been removed could not live. He further found that no better results were secured when pure true fats, such as palmatin, stea- rin, and olein— the most common plant and animal fats — were added to the ration. On the other hand, when certain crude fatty extracts of foods, such as butter fat, were added, the animals could be maintained in a satisfactory condition. McCoUum and Davis** of the Wisconsin Station subsequently showed that young animals (rats) could grow normally for 3 or 4 months on mixtures of casein, starch, milk sugar, and salts, but that growth then invariably ceased. The addition of lard, olive oil, or cottonseed oil did not prevent this condition. However, the addition of purified butter fat, egg fats, or kidney fat rendered the diet complete in every respect. Young rats grew from infancy to maturity, bore young, and brought them up normally on this ration. More recently they have shown that the fats of the com kernel and the wheat germ likewise supply the lacking constituent in the ration. These findings have been "Biochem. Ztschr., 22, 1909, pp. 452-460; Ztschr. Biol., 59, 1912, p. 366. « Jour. Biol. Chem., 15, 1913, p. 167; 19, 1914, p. 245; 20, 1915, p. 641; 21, 1915, p. 179. MAINTENANCE OP FARM ANIMALS 71 confirmed by Osborne and MendeP" of tbe Connecticut (New Haven) Station, who have found also that cod-liver oil and the softer portion of beef fats have the same remarkable properties. The foregoing experiments have shown for the first time a most unex- pected and important difference in the properties of the so-called fats from different sources. It seems certain that the substances which are responsible for the peculiar effects of these crude fatty mixtures are not true fats, but compounds of unknown nature which are soluble in fats and in the ether which is employed by the chemist to dissolve the fat from a feed. 105. Complete and incomplete rations. — The foUowiug experiments conducted by Hart and McCoUum^' at the Wisconsin Station with grow- ing pigs well show that rations which supply an abundance of protein, carbohydrates, and fat may be . insufficient for normal development. Soon after weaning, young pigs were placed in pens indoors where they had no access to the earth and were supplied with distilled water (con- taining no mineral matter), so that an exact record could be made, not only of the organic nutrients — ^protein, carbohydrates, and fat — which were consumed, but also of the mineral matter as well. When pigs were restricted to com meal and gluten feed, even tho a large amount of protein was supplied, little or no growth could be secured. However, when mineral matter was added, of kind and amount corresponding to the mineral matter in milk, pigs made approximately normal gains for 10 months, reaching weights of 235 to 275 lbs. When wheat and wheat gluten were fed, satisfactory growth was not secured even after mineral matter was added as before. The addition of both butter fat and mineral matter was somewhat beneficial, but ultimately growth ceased on this ration. However, when to the wheat ration were added not only butter fat and mineral matter but also 2.5 per ct. of casein (the chief protein of milk) normal growth was secured. These pigs fed wheat therefore needed not only additional mineral matter but also the mysterious substance in certain fats, and in addition a better bal- anced supply of protein than was furnished by wheat and wheat gluten alone. Studies of this character are just beginning to open up new fields of investigation in animal nutrition. It is yet too early to predict in what manner or to what extent the results may modify our present practices in feeding farm animals. These fragments of knowledge are, however, most interesting to the student in showing the limitations to our present understanding of the feeding of animals and in pointing out the possible path of future development. 106. Feeding ruminants concentrates only. — ^By reason of their high ability to digest coarse roughage, ruminants are especially adapted to convert the coarse plant materials of no value for human food into useful "Jour. Biol. Chem., 16, 1913-14, p. 423; 17, 1914, p. 401; Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, and Med., 12, 1915, p. 92. "Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, p, 373. 72 FEEDS AND FEEDING products. Tho only under most exceptional conditions would it be profit- able to feed such animals concentrates alone, the question whether they can be maintained on such feeds with no roughage is of scientific interest. In 1874 a Mr. Miller" of New York reported that for several years he had successfully maintained dry dairy cows weighing about 900 lbs. for 8 weeks in Tvinter by giving to each animal as its sole feed not above 3 quarts of finely-ground corn meal daily. The hay supply was stopped when meal feeding began. At first the cows were restless, but soon quieted down ; rumination, or chewing the cud, ceased ; and only a small quantity of water was drunk. The cows showed no signs of suffering or unrest, were much more quiet than cows fed meal with 4 or 5 lbs. of hay daily, and manifested no unusual desire for hay when it was shown them. Miller claimed that the animals remained in fair flesh and that the calves from these cows were fleshy, healthy, active, and of more than ordinary size. In the spring on changing back to normal feeding a limited amount of hay was at first given, and the supply gradually increased. The cows soon filled up and did not appear different from others wintered in the usual way. A committee of the American Dairy- man's Association, on making 2 visits to Mr. Miller's stables, substan- tiated his statements. Sanborn^* maintained sheep successfully for several months on grain and roots alone at the Utah Station. In Great Britain sheep are often fattened solely on concentrates and roots. Sanborn also fed a 2-yr.-old steer, weighing 635 lbs., grain and water only for nearly 8 months, dur- ing which time it gained 190 lbs. Upon the withdrawal of coarse food, rumination ceased and little water was drunk. Gains were made on about the same amount of feed as is required by pigs. We may therefore conclude that mature ruminants can be maintained for considerable periods, if not indefinitely, on a limited amount of ground grain with no roughage, and if the grain supply is liberal they may make fair gains in weight. With young ruminants nature seems less yielding. Sanborn main- tained a calf for 6 weeks in winter on grain and milk, when, thru its craving for roughage, the sawdust used for bedding was eaten, causing death. At the Illinois Station Davenport^" fed a calf skim milk exclu- sively for 7 months, by which time it refused its feed, could not hold up its head, and appeared nearly dead. When straw and hay were placed before it they were greedily consumed, and 3 hours later the calf was ruminating in contentment, thereafter making satisfactory gains on mixed feed. In a second experiment a May calf subsisted on skim milk until September, when, altho consuming 70 lbs. daily, it showed great unrest. Some grain was then fed in addition to the milk, with still unfavorable indications. In October when hay was offered it was greedily eaten, and rumination began some five hours later. Another calf was "Rpt. Am. Dairyman's Assoc, 1874. "Utah Bui. 21. "in. Bui. 46. MAINTENANCE OF FARM ANIMALS 73 maintained from June until September upon milk and mixed grains. By the latter date it evinced no desire for feed and would not rise ; later it suddenly died. Altho enormous quantities of milk or milk and grain were consumed, there was no fat on the carcass or about its kidneys, and the muscles, tho plump, were dense and rigid. 107. Horse requires roughage.^ — Patterson of the Maryland Station*" attempted to feed 2 horses on oats alone, offering from 13 to 15 lbs. to each daily. By the end of the fourth day one of the horses refused the oats entirely and drank but little water. On the seventh day the other horse would eat only a part of the grain, and by the tenth day none whatever. Evidently the horse cannot live upon concentrates alone, even oats with their straw-like hulls. 108. Milk alone for pigs. — ^At the Wisconsin Station*^ McCollum placed a 23-lb. sow pig in a dry lot with shelter, and fed it from May to July of the following year, at first on whole milk and skim milk, and later on skim milk alone. The sow remained in excellent condition, and at about 1 year of age, when weighing 406 lbs., gave birth to 8 living pigs averaging 2.3 lbs. each, and 2 dead ones, all normal. Before winter the pigs made an average daily gain of 0.39 lb. each, reaching an average weight of 18.6 lbs. in 6 weeks. This shows that milk alone will support the pig, and indicates that the failure of Davenport to maintain calves on skim milk and grain was probably due to the physiological requirement of herbivora for coarse food to fill the first three stomachs in order that they may develop normally. (40) The pig has no such peculiarity in the structure of its digestive tract, and hence no physiological disturbances result from taking liquid food alone in the form of milk. 109. Succulent feeds. — ^Numerous scientific trials and common expe- rience on farms have abundantly demonstrated the value of adding succulent feeds to the rations of farm animals. The beneficial effects of succulence, whether supplied as pasturage, silage, soilage, or roots, are many. Just as our own appetites are stimulated by fruits and green vegetables, succulent feeds are relishes for the animals of the farm, inducing them to consume more feed and convert it into useful products. It is reasonable to hold that such palatable feeds stimulate digestion (56) , and it is well known that their beneficial laxative action aids greatly in keeping the digestive tract in good condition. The findings of San- born*^ that the flesh of root-fed animals is in general more "sappy" or watery has an important bearing on the feeding of farm animals. There is no doubt that, for breeding stock, less tense and more watery flesh, a natural sequence of feeding succulence, is more conducive to vigorous young at birth and to their hearty maintenance after birth than is the condition of hard, dry flesh produced by feeding only dry forage thru the winter. The dairy cow gives her maximum returns when she is sup- plied with succulence. Such feeds tend toward rapid, sturdy growth "Md. Bui. 51. "Unpublished data. "Utah Bui. 17. 74 FEEDS AND FEEDING with the young of all farm animals. Some succulent food is especially beneficial in keeping the horse in condition, to which the thrift of the work horse when turned out to pasture bears witness. But the horse at hard or fast work should receive only a limited allowance of these feeds. Steers and sheep make rapid and economical gains on pasture, and grass-fed animals are in the best possible condition to make rapid gains when placed in the feed lot. Among the most important con- tributions of the experiment stations are their demonstrations of the economy of feeding silage to fattening cattle and sheep and of the possi- bilities of cheapening the cost of producing pork thru the utilization of pasture. The merits of the various forms of succulence for the different farm animals are discussed in detail in later chapters of the book. 110. Light. — Sunlight is a most effective germicide. To prevent the contraction or spread of disease, it is therefore important that the stables of farm animals be well lighted, with the possible exception mentioned in the following. Trials conducted by Graffenberger*^ with rabbits suggest that less light may be advisable for fattening animals fed for short periods. He observed an increased formation of fat, especially marked in the case of mature animals confined in a dark room. The hemoglobin content of the blood was lowered and the amount of blood in the body decreased by 9 to 22 per ct. thru such confinement. When confined too long in the dark the increase in fat formation was relatively small, and prolonged darkness retarded the development of the skeleton and liver, injuring the health of the animals. Graffenberger does not advocate entire darkness for fattening animals, but rather the partial absence of light, which tends to quiet and hence favors fattening. 111. Exercise. — ^For the maintenance of health exercise is essential. The only exceptions to this rule are fattening animals, soon to be mar- keted, which make more rapid gains if not allowed to move about too freely. Abundant exercise is of special importance with breeding animals. The exercise requirements of the various farm animals are discussed in the respective chapters of Part III. 112. ftuiet and regularity. — Farm animals are creatures of habit, and once accustomed to a routine of living show unrest at any change. The feed stable or feed lot should be free from disturbance, and the admin- istration of feed and water should be uniform in time and manner. Animals soon learn when these are to occur, and as feeding time ap- proaches the secretions begin pouring from the various digestive glands in anticipation of the coming meal. (55) The system of feeding and watering and the character of the rations should be changed gradually and only for good cause. In feeding operations a changing period is usually a losing period. «Arch. Physiol. (Pfluger), 53, 1893, p. 238. CHAPTER V GROWTH AND FATTENING I. Growth The preceding chapter shows that even when liberally fed the mature animal stores but little protein or mineral matter in its body. On the other hand, as the body of the young, growing animal develops it in- creases rapidly in both protein tissues and mineral matter. The skin, muscles, ligaments, tendons, and internal organs of animals are almost wholly protein, as is a large part of the nervous system and of the organic portion of the bones. During youth all these parts steadily increase in size, and at the same time much mineral matter is being built into the skeleton or is retained in the growing protoplasm of the body cells. It is therefore evident that the requirements for growth differ radically from those for the maintenance of mature animals. 113. Increase in protein and mineral matter. — Since the lean-meat tissues of the body are composed mostly of muscular fibers, any gain in these tissues can be caused solely by an increase in the number or by the thickening of these fibers. The fibers increase in number by divid- ing lengthwise, which process occurs with farm animals only while young and growing. Indeed, recent investigations show that with some animals all increase in the number of muscular fibers occurs before birth, the muscles of the new bom young containing as many as those of the mature animal.^ The fibers of the muscles can thicken to only a limited extent, and hence the muscular tissues, or lean meat, of the mature animal cannot be increased beyond a relatively narrow limit, compared with the great storage of fat which may occur. A healthy person with poor muscular development may materially strengthen and increase the size of his muscles, even after reaching maturity, thru a thickening of the individual fibers produced by suitable exercise and food. Caspari," studying working dogs, and Bornstein,^ experimenting with himself, found that when a considerable amount of muscular work was performed there was a small but continued gain of body protein if the body was supplied with an abundance of protein-rich food. An animal whose muscles have wasted thru sickness or starvation will rapidly repair its tissues upon a return to favorable conditions, thereby storing protein. Since the internal organs and such tissues as the tendons, brain, nerves, etc., do not increase in size after maturity, no further building of protein 'J. B. MacCallum, Johns Hopkins Hospital Bui. 90-91 (1898). 'Arohiv. Physiol., 83, 1901, p. 535. 'Archiv. Physiol., 83, 1901, p. 548. 75 76 FEEDS AND FEEDING tissue is possible in these parts after the animal is full grown. As is shown later (122), a limited storage of protein occurs in the mature fattening animal, since fatty tissue contains a small amount of protein. The skeleton, partly of protein, but chiefly of mineral matter, does not increase after maturity. While the amount of protein and mineral matter in the bodies of mature animals is thus subject to little change, the water, and especially the fat, may vary widely in total and relative amount according to heredity, the abundance and nature of the food, and the exercise taken. 114. TJtilization of food in youth. — The gains made by well nourished young animals are relatively much greater and more economical, based on weight and food consumed, than those of mature animals, even when fattening. The unweaned calf may increase 2 to 3 lbs. daily for each 100 lbs. of body weight, while a daily gain of 0.3 to 0.4 lb. per 100 lbs. of body weight is large for the mature fattening ox. The economy with which the suckling utilizes its food is shown by a trial at the Wisconsin Station* in which lambs fed cow's milk gained 1 lb. in weight for each 0.75 lb. of dry matter consumed. In respiration studies with a calf 2 to 3 weeks old, Soxhlet^ found a storage in the body of 72.6 per ct. of the protein, 96.6 per ct. of the lime, and 72.6 per ct. of the phosphorus fed in the milk. Weiske* found that even when 5 months old lambs stored 22 per ct. of all the protein digested from their food. The more rapid increase of young animals is due to several causes — their flesh contains more water, their food is more digestible and con- centrated, and they consume more food in proportion to live weight. As growth continues, the total quantity of food eaten increases, while the amount per 1000 lbs. live weight diminishes. More exercise is taken as the animal becomes older, and hence a larger percentage of the food nutrients is broken down in the body. All these factors gradually de- crease the daily gain per 1000 lbs. of live weight and lessen the product returned from a given amount of food until, when maturity is reached, there is little further gain, except from the laying on of fatty tissue. The following table by Armsby' shows the gain of protein, mostly muscular tissues, by the growing ox at various ages : Storage of protein hy the growing ox Authority Daily gain of protein to the body Average age Per 1000 lbs. of Computed on total live weight protein in body Daya Lba. Per ct. 8 Soxhlet 3.99 2.35 15 Soxhlet 3.55 2.08 32 Soxhlet 2.76 1.69 50 Neumann 1.84 1.08 100 De Vries 1.19 0.71 840 Jordan 0.09 0.06 *Agr. Science, 6, p. 397. "Ber. landw. chem. VerB. Stat. Wlen, 1878, p. 101. 'Landw. Jahrb., 9, 1880, p. 205. 'U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bui. 108. GEOWTH AND FATTENING 77 The table shows that when 8 days old a calf stored daily in its body tissues protein equal to 2.35 per ct. of the total protein then in its body, or about 4 lbs. daily per 1000 lbs. of live weight. The storage of protein, which practically measures the growth of muscular tissues in the body, steadily decreased with age and growth until the 100-day-old calf stored 1.19 lbs., or less than one-third as much as the 8-day-old calf. "When 28 months old and nearly mature, the steer stored but 0.09 lb. of protein daily per 1000 lbs. of body weight. It is thus shown that, as the animal matures, the quantity of protein built up in the body steadily diminishes. 115. Milk the natural food for young mammals. — Since milk is Nature's food for the young of all mammals, it is reasonable to hold that it con- tains aU the nutrients necessary to sustain the life of the young and that these are arranged in proper proportion. A study of the composi- tion of milk will therefore aid in showing the requirements for growth. The first milk yielded by the mother for her young, called colostrum, is thick and viscous and differs from ordinary milk in being richer in protein and often richer in ash, the colostrum of the cow being low in milk sugar. The following table shows the average composition of colostrum and normal milk of various farm animals :* Composition of colostrum and normal milk Animal and oharacter of milk Water Protein Fat Sugar Aah Nutritive ratio Cow, colostrum Cow, normal Per ot. 75.1 87.3 61.8 80.8 70.1 84.1 Per ot. 17.2 3.4 17.1 6.5 15.6 7.2 Per ot. 4.0 3.7 16.1 6.9 9.5 4.6 Per ot. 2.3 4.9 3.5 4.9 3.8 3.1 Per ct. 1.5 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.9 1.1 1:0.7 1:3.9 Ewe, colostrum 1:2.3 1:3.1 Sow, colostrum 1:1.6 1:2.0 The high protein content of colostrum is largely due to its excess of albumin, which causes such milk to clot on heating. Colostrum is laxa- tive and highly important for cleansing the alimentary tract of accumu- lated fecal matter and properly starting the work of digestion. During the week following birth the composition of the milk gradually changes to the normal. Normal milk contains an abundant supply of protein compared with the cereal grains, as is shown by its narrow nutritive ratio, ranging from 1 :2.0 with the sow to 1 :3.9 with the cow. The proportion of ash, or mineral matter, is also higher in milk than in the grains. While only 1.5 per ct. of the dry matter of corn and 3.5 per ct. of that of oats is mineral matter, 6.2 per ct. of the dry matter of cow's milk is mineral matter. The supply of lime and phosphoric acid, needed in large amounts in the growing skeleton, is especially liberal, over half the total mineral matter consisting of these two constituents. The non-nitrogenous nu- 'Konig. Chem. Nahrungs- nnd Genussmittel, Vol. I, 1903. 78 FEEDS AND FEEDING trients — ^milk sugar and milk fat — serve as body fuel and furnish material for the development of fatty tissues. 116. Relation between composition of milk and rate of growth. — In their analyses of different kinds of milk Bunge, Proescher, and Abder- halden" noted the striking relationship, shown in the table, between the rate at which different species of animals grow and the amount of mineral matter and protein contained in the milk : Influence on growth of amount of protein and mineral matter in milk Time required Protein Lime Phosphoric Total ash Species to double weight in milk in milk acid in milk in milk Days Per ct. Per ct. Per ot. Per ot. Human 180 1.6 0.03 0.05 0.20 Horse 60 2.0 0.12 0.13 0.40 Cow 47 3.5 0.16 0.20 0.70 Sheep 15 4.9 0.25 0.29 0.84 Pig 14* 6.2 0.25 0.31 0.80 Dog 9 7.4 0.45 0.51 1.33 Rabbit 6 14.4 0.89 0.99 2.50 * According to more recent data the young pig may double its weight in 9 to 10 days. The infant, which requires about 180 days to double its weight, receives a milk containing but 1.6 per ct. protein, 0.03 per ct. lime, 0.05 per ct. phosphoric acid, and 0.20 per ct. total ash, or mineral matter. The shorter the time required by the new-bom young of different species to double in weight the higher is the protein and mineral content of the milk, especially in lime and phosphoric acid. It thus appears that there has been provided for the young of each species milk of the composition needed for the development characteristic of that species. These studies emphasize the necessity of maintaining a liberal supply of protein and mineral matter in the ration of young animals as the mother's milk is replaced by other feeds during their early life. 117. Rich and poor milk for young animals. — Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station^" fed calves, pigs, and lambs on skimmed milk, ordinary milk containing from 3 to 3.5 per ct. fat, and rich milk containing from 5.1 to 5.7 per ct. of fat. The lambs also received a small quantity of hay. The table shows the milk solids, including fat, required to produce 1 lb. of gain : MilJc solids consumed per 1 lb. gain by calves, pigs, and lambs Milk poor Milk rich Length of feeding period Skim milk in fat in fat Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Calves ted 45 days 1 .03 1 18 Kgs fed 40 days (1st trial) 1 .36 1 78 Pigs fed 30 days (2nd trial) 1.48 1.40 1.56 Lambs fed 60 days 1 .08* 1 .37* * 0.42 lb. digestible matter in hay, additional. In every case milk rich in fat was less valuable per pound of dry matter, fat included, than milk poor in fat, or even skim milk. Beach reports that the pigs fed rich milk suffered loss of appetite and were attacked by diarrhea, finally not eating enough to sustain life, while those fed 'Abderlialden, Ztschr. physiol. Chem., 27, 1899, p. 594. "Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 31. GROWTH AND FATTENING 79 skim milk or milk low in fat, throve. The lambs on rich milk showed lack of appetite. In Europe studies on infant feeding show that cow's milk rich in fat tends to produce intestinal disturbances and is not so well adapted to the needs of the human infant as poorer milk. The following explanation of this harmful effect of excess of fat in the food of infants has been offered : The general capacity of an organism for the absorption of fat is strictly confined within narrow limits, and consequently any excess is not absorbed but remains in the intestines. There it is converted into soaps, composed of part of the fats and an alkali, and as such eliminated from the body in the excreta. This excretion of soap brings about a heavy loss from the infant body of alkaline bases, such as soda, potash, lime, etc., which, if continued, results in disturbed nutrition. On an exclusive diet of milk containing about 3.5 per ct. fat, the supply of alkaline bases is only sufficient for normal development. Milk rich in fat does not contain proportionally more of the alkaline bases, for man has bred and selected cows only to meet the demands for more milk and for that which is rich in fat. As Kellner*^ suggests, the eagerness with which calves eat mortar, chalk, and other lime-containing substances points to the milk being deficient in this respect; accordingly in such cases it is advisable to supply calves with chalk or ground limestone. 118. Protein requirements for growth. — ^As has been shown (11), the individual proteins differ markedly in the amount of the various amino acids they contain, and in some proteins certain amino acids are entirely absent. Scientists believe that animals are not able to construct in their bodies from other nutrients any of the different amino acids, with the single exception of the amino acid called glycocoU. In the formation of the protein tissues of the body all the various individual amino acids are required, for the body proteins contain some of each of these building stones. Hence for normal growth the protein in the food must supply all of the necessary amino acids. The following illustration will show the conditions the body may meet in forming body proteins from the mixture of amino acids resulting from the digestion of the food protein : Suppose we are building a brick wall in ascertain pattern which requires that 1 brick in 10 have a green end. If we are using as our source of material a pile of bricks resulting from the tearing down of another wall, in which only 1 brick in 50 had a green end, it is evident that we would soon have to stop building, tho having many perfect bricks left, because none had the green end required for the pattern. Some proteins, as the principal ones of wheat, yield on digestion as much as 40 per ct. of a certain single amino acid, which forms only 14 per ct. of the animal proteins. With this protein as the sole source of amino acids for growth, obviously a considerable part will be wasted. There are other proteins which entirely lack some of the essential amino acids and so will produce no growth. However, when the missing amino "Emahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 461. 80 FEEDS AND FEEDING acids are fed to supplement such a deficient or imperfect protein, the animal will then be able to continue growth.^^ The various incomplete proteins do not all lack the same amino acid. Hence we should expect that when 2 incomplete proteins were combined, the first might supplement the deficiencies of the second and better growth be made than on either alone. To study this problem McCoUum^^ has recently fed 60 to 75-lb. pigs on many rations in which a single feeding stuff or 2 or more feeds, mixed in various proportions, sup- plied the protein. The percentage of the food nitrogen which was re- tained for growth on each ration was determined with the results shown in the table : Yalue for growth of protein from various sources Proportion of nitTOgen Source of protein Number of in food retained trials Per ct. Skim milk 1 66.2 Casein 1 50 .6 Com 4 23.7 Wheat 3 26.7 Oats 2 28.3 Linseed meal 1 17 .0 Wheat embryo 1 39 .0 Com M, wheat K, oats J^ 1 32.0 Cora %, Unseed meal % 1 32 .0 Cora %, linseed meal }4, 1 37 .0 Wheat yi, wheat embryo ^ 1 30 .0 The milk proteins, which resemble the body proteins in composition more than do those of the cereals, were much superior to corn, wheat, or oat protein for growth, 66.2 per ct. of the protein of skim milk being used for growth. In the single trial reported a mixture of one-third of each of these cereals proved slightly superior to any single one. "While linseed meal fed as the sole source of protein was the least efficient of any of the feeds tested, when it was combined with corn the results were considerably better than with corn alone. From this we may assume that linseed meal and corn are not deficient in the same amino acids, and that when combined one tends to correct the deficiencies of the other. This agrees with the good results secured in numerous scien- tific trials and in practice when linseed meal is fed as a supplement to corn. On the other hand, no better results were secured when wheat and wheat embryo were combined than the average of the results ob- tained when each was fed separately. In this case evidently each feed is deficient in the same amino acids, and one cannot supplement the other. In time further studies of this character will, no doubt, reveal the supplementary relationships of the many feeding stuffs and so make possible the more efficient compounding of rations. From the foregoing it is evident that not only must the supply of protein for growing animals be liberal but its composition should also be considered. "Osborne and Mendel, Jour. Biol. Chem., 17, 1914, p. 325. "Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, p. 323; information to the authors. GROWTH AND FATTENING 81 The methods of determining the amounts of the individual amino acids furnished by different feeds are not sufficiently perfected as yet to enable scientists to ascertain by chemical analysis alone the value of the proteins from various sources. Hence, further knowledge concerning the value of the proteins furnished by individual feeding stuffs and by combina- tions of feeds must come thru actual feeding tests. The available data on the protein requirements for growth by the various farm animals and the nutritive values of the different feeding stuffs are presented in the respective chapters of Part III. 119. Mineral matter required for growth. — It has already been shown that the young animal, growing rapidly in skeleton and tissues, needs a liberal supply of mineral matter, especially calcium (lime) and phos- phorus. (113) The amounts supplied in the feeds must always be larger than the quantity actually stored in the body, in order to cover the con- tinuous excretion thereof from the body which occurs even in case of a deficient supply. The effects of a lack of mineral matter are shown in a trial by Hart, McCoUum, and Puller'* at the Wisconsin Station in which one lot of pigs averaging 47 lbs. in weight was fed a ration consisting of wheat bran from which a large amount of phosphorus, mostly in organic form, had been removed by washing, and wheat gluten and rice, both extremely poor in mineral matter. As shown in the table, other lots were fed this basal ration plus calcium phosphate, bone ash, and ground rock phos- phate, respectively, all supplying inorganic phosphorus. A fifth lot was fed unwashed wheat bran, rice, and wheat gluten, a ration in which a considerable part of the phosphorus was present in organic form. For a considerable period all the pigs throve fairly well, tho no ration was entirely satisfactory. As time went on, those in Lot I fell behind the others ; they had no appetite and remained lying down ; later they lost control of their hind quarters and had to be carried to the trough at feeding time. At the end of 4 months, when a pig of each lot was slaughtered, the findings given below were obtained : Scant and full allowance of organic and inorganic phosphorus for pigs Lot I Lot II Lot III Lor IV Lot V No phos- phorus added Lot II Precip. calc. phos- phate added Bone ash added Ground rock phos- phate added Unwashed wheat bran Av. amt. phosphorus fed daily, grams Weight of pig at slaughter, lbs ... . Average gain per pig, lbs Weight of skeleton, grams Breaking strength of thigh bone, per sq. millimeter, lbs Diam. of thi|h bones,_ millimeters . . Specific gravity of thigh bone Ash in thi^ bone, per cent "Wis. Res. Bui. 1. 1.12 77 32 870 0.87 16 0.98 33 5.29 87 42 950 1.70 16 1.15 46 5.45 85 35 950 1.77 15.5 1.12 53 5.20 82 43 1495 1,65 20 1.19 57 5.28 87 58 850 1.86 17 1.14 54 82 FEEDS AND FEEDING The pigs of the first lot, getting little phosphorus, had light, weak thigh bones, of low specific gravity and low in ash. The ones getting a liberal supply of inorganic phosphorus, especially those fed ground rock phosphate, had heavier skeletons than either the low-phosphate lot or even those getting organic phosphate in the unwashed bran. The thigh bones of the rock-phosphate lot were the largest in size and the highest in ash and specific gravity. At present there is little data regarding the minimum amounts of lime and phosphorus which will permit normal development of growing animals. From the available data Kellner^" concludes that the ration for growing animals should contain 3 times as much of these mineral constituenta as the animals are storing daily in their bodies. On this basis he recommends that during the first year calves receive at least 40 to 60 grams of lime and phosphoric acid per head daily ; pigs, 12 grams each of lime and phosphoric acid per head daily ; and lambs, at least 10 grams of lime and 11 grams of phosphoric acid daily for each 100 lbs. live weight. Since the common feeding stuffs which are rich in protein are likewise high in phosphorus, probably the phosphorus supply will be ample when rations are fed which are balanced according to the usual feeding stand- ards.^" The calcium supply for calves and lambs will usually be ample when hay and the cereals constitute the greater part of the ration. De- ficiencies will occur only in districts where the roughages are unusually low in lime, or when large amounts of such roughages as wheat and barley straw or timothy hay, which are low in lime, are fed. Where pigs are fed exclusively on cereal grains, especially on corn, the lime supply will usually be deficient. As has been shown (99-100), where lime alone is deficient it may be supplied in legume hay, which is rich in lime, or in the form of chalk or ground limestone. If phosphorus alone, or both lime and phosphorus are lacking, these may be supplied in ground rock phosphate or else in the form of bone ash. 120. Eequirements for pregnant animals. — In considering the feeding of young animals it is important to remember that the influence of the feeder begins before the young are born, for the nutrition of the mother during pregnancy profoundly influences the growth of the fetus and hence the vigor and health of the offspring at birth. To supply the protein and mineral matter, especially lime and phosphorus, needed for the development of the body tissues and skeleton of the fetus the ration of the mother should contain a larger supply of nutrients than would be required for her maintenance. Based on data from Eekles and P. F. Trowbridge" of the Missouri Station, the body of an 80-lb. new- born calf contains about 14.0 lbs. of protein, 2.8 lbs. mineral matter, and 2.5 lbs. fat, — an amount of protein and mineral matter that would be contained in 400 lbs. of milk of average composition. '■'Brnahr. landw. Nutztlere, 1907, pp. 472, 476, 478. "Hart, Steenbock, and Fuller, Wis. Res. Bui. 30, "Information to the authors. GROWTH AND FATTENING 83 In the case of an immature female, still developing her own tissues as well as those of the fetus, a liberal supply of these nutrients is espe- cially important. Fortunately the mother is able to protect the oflEspring to a certain extent against temporary or small deficiencies in her food by drawing upon her own skeleton for the lime and phosphorus and her muscular tissues for the protein necessary to the growing body of the fetus. Such maternal protection is, however, at the expense of her own body. The requirements for the various farm animals when pregnant and the feeds best suited for their maintenance are discussed in the respective chapters of Part III. II. Fattening 121. The object of fattening. — ^According to Armsby,^* the accumu- lation of fatty tissue, as such, is of secondary importance in fattening, the main object being to otherwise improve the quality of the lean meat. To some extent during growth, and especially during fattening, there is a deposition of fat in the lean-meat tissue. A small portion of this may be deposited within the muscular fibers themselves, but a much, larger part is stored between the bundles of fibers, constituting the so- caUed "marbling" of meat. This deposition of fat adds to the tender- ness, juiciness, flavor, and digestibility of the meat, besides increasing its nutritive value. It seems possible that there is also an increase in the soluble or circulating protein and in other extractives of the muscles, resulting in a further betterment of the quality of the meat as an addi- tional advantage from fattening. 122. Increase during fattening. — The changes in the composition of the bodies of farm animals during fattening were extensively studied by Lawes and Gilbert of the Rothamsted Station^' from analyses of the entire bodies of oxen, sheep, and pigs slaughtered at different stages of fattening. They give data from which the following table is derived : Percentage composition of the increase of fattening animals Mineral Total dry Animal Protein Fat matter Bubstance Water Per ct. Per ot. Per ct. Per ot. Per ct. Ox 7.7 66.2 1.6 75.4 24.6 Sheep 7.1 70.4 2.3 79.9 20.1 Kg 6.4 71.5 0.1 78.0 22.0 In most cases the animals studied had not entirely finished their growth when the tests began. The table shows that in 100 lbs. of live-weight gain made by the fattening ox, 7.7 lbs. was lean-meat tissue, 66.2 fat, 1.5 mineral matter, and 24.6 water. The sheep resembles the ox in character of increase during fattening, but stores more mineral matter, due to the growth of wool. The fattening pig stores very little mineral matter. "U. S. Dept Agr., Bur. Anim. Ind., Bui. 108. "Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1860. 84 FEEDS AND FEEDING Henneberg and Kern-" slaughtered a mature lean wether and deter- mined the amount of lean meat and fat in the carcass. A similar wether was fed for 70 days and killed when half fat, and a third was slaughtered when extra fat, after being fed 203 days. The carcass of the second wether contained 3 times as much fat and that of the third nearly 4 times as much as the carcass of the unfattened sheep. During fattening these wethers made practically no gain in lean meat. Trials by Friske^^ seem to indicate that under some conditions even mature animals may make considerable gains in lean meat. Scientists agree, however, that as a rule the fattening of mature animals is what the term implies — the laying on of fat — with but relatively small storage of protein. That animals fattened while growing will not only gain in fatty tissue but in lean meat is shown by the experiments of "Waters, Mumford, and P. F. Trowbridge,''^ who analyzed the entire bodies of steers killed at various stages of fattening at the Missouri Station. The following table shows the composition of the carcass of a 748-lb. steer in thrifty growing condition and the composition of the gains made by other steers during fattening : Composition of unfattened steer and gains during fattening Carcass of unfattened steer First 500 lbs. of gain Second 600 lbs. of gain Total 1,000 lbs. of gain While the carcass of the steer killed before fattening was over half water, the first 500 lbs. of gain contained only 37.6 per ct. water and the second 500 lbs. but 17.8 per ct. The first half of the gain was 48.6 per ct. fat and 11.9 per ct. protein, showing marked increase in lean meat. In the last half of the gain 75.6 per ct. was fat and only 5.2 per ct. protein. The storage of ash was likewise less in the last 500 lbs. of gain. Thus, as a partly mature animal fattens it progressively makes less growth in lean meat and skeleton, and a larger part of the gain is fat. 123. Composition of steers of different ages. — ^For several years Haecker of the Minnesota Station"' has been conducting extensive investigations on the food requirements of steers of different ages, in which he has had analyzed the entire carcasses of many animals. The following table shows the average composition of steers slaughtered at various stages, from birth up to a weight of 1,500 lbs. : =»Jour. Landw., 26, 1878, p. 549. "Landw. Vers. Stat., 71, 1909, pp. 441-482. ^Information to tie authors. ''Minn. Rpt. 21 and information to the authors. Water Per ct. Fat Per ct. Protein Per ct. Ash Per ct. 56.4 37.6 17.8 27.7 18,6 48.6 75.6 62.1 18.8 11.9 5.2 8.6 5.7 2.0 1.5 1.7 GROWTH AND FATTENING 85 Average composition of steers at various stages'* Normal Weight No. of ateera Water Dry matter Protein Fat Ash 100 5 4 3 5 5 3 4 3 3 2 1 2 1 1 Per ct. 71.84 70.46 66.31 65.78 62.86 61.99 60.34 58.43 54.10 53.01 48.03 48.63 47.77 43.46 Per ot. 28.16 29.54 33.69 34.22 37.14 38.01 39.66 , 41.57 , 45.90 46.99 51.97 51.37 52.23 56.54 Per ot. 19.90 19.14 19.02 19.29 19.17 19.42 18.60 18.80 17.66 17.57 16.18 16.69 16.15 15.67 Per ct. 3.99 5.98 10.18 10.59 13.76 14.00 16.58 18.53 24.08 25.60 31.91 31.11 32.57 37.67 Per ot. 4.27 200 4.42 300 4.49 400 4,34 500 4.21 600 4.59 700 4.48 800 4.24 900 4.16 , 1000 3.82 1100 3.88 1200 3.67 1400 3.51 1500 3.20 * Not including contents of the digestive tract. The table shows that the percentage of water steadily decreases as the aniinal matures, falling from 72 per ct. in the calves to less than 50 per ct. in the 1500-lb. steer. The percentage of fat increases rapidly during the growth and fattening of the animal, increasing from 4.0 per ct. soon after birth to over 37 per ct. in the 1500-lb. steer. The protein and ash show less change than the water and fat, but decrease percentagely as the animals increase in weight. Haecker states that the storage of protein by the animal, which is rapid in early life, shows a marked slowing up when the animal reaches a weight of about 800 lbs. On the other hand, the gain in fat is most rapid after the steer reaches a weight of 600 lbs. 124. Origin of body fat. — The source of the fat which animals store in their bodies has been the subject of much controversy. Kellner, Armsby, Hagemann, and other modern authorities agree that the body fat of animals may originate either from the fat or carbohydrates of the food. Scientists still disagree upon the possibility of animal fat being formed thru the decomposition of protein. The preponderance of evidence favors such formation, as is later shown. (128) 125. Body fat from food fat. — ^Many experiments have conclusively shown that the fat in food, which has been acted on. by the digestive fluids in the intestines, may be directly stored in the body tissues when supplied in large quantity. Hofmann^* allowed a dog to starve until its weight had decreased from 26.5 to 16 kilograms and the supply of fat in its body had practically disappeared, as shown by the increased decomposition of the protein tissues at that time. For 5 days this dog was fed large quantities of fat and only a little fat-free meat, during which time it gained 4.2 kgms. in weight. When slaughtered its body contained 1,353 grams of fat, only 131 of which could possibly have come from the protein fed. Hence "Ztschr. Biol., 8, 1872, p. 153. 86 FEEDS AND FEEDING much of the fat formed during this time must have come from the fat of the food. Henriques and Hansen^" fed 2 three-months-old pigs barley meal together with oil. The first pig received linseed and the second cocoa- nut oil. Samples of the body fat were removed from the back of each pig thru incisions, and analyzed. The fat which had formed during the feeding resembled in odor, consistency, and composition the vege- table fat which had been fed. Later, when the feeds were reversed the body fat then formed showed a corresponding change in properties. All the digested fat taken into the body of the animal beyond that required for maintenance cannot, however, be deposited as body fat, since considerable losses always occur thru the energy expended in digestion and metabolism. Kellner^" states that in the case of carnivora, or flesh-eating animals, such as the dog, not more than 87.3 lbs. of body fat can be formed from 100 lbs. of pure fat supplied in the food. "With herbivora, or animals which consume coarse forage, such as the horse, ox, etc., the work of moving the food thru the digestive tract, digesting it, and disposing of the waste is larger. Hence the amount of body fat which may be formed by these animals from 100 lbs. of digestible fat in the food consumed is much lower than with the carnivora, varying from 64.4 lbs. in the case of pure fats to 47.4 lbs. in the fats of roughages. 126. Fat from carbohydrates. — Scientists agree that the fat in the body of animals can be formed from carbohydrates. As early as 1842 Liebig maintained that animal fat was formed mainly from the carbo- hydrates, tho it might also originate from the protein of the food. The extensive experiments of Lawes and Gilbert of the Rothamsted Station,''' conducted from 1848-1853 witla. more than 400 animals, clearly showed that much more fat was stored than could be derived from the fatty matter and protein of the food. Soxhlet^' fed 2 full-grown pigs a ration of 4.4 lbs. of rice meal for 5 days. One pig was then killed and its body analyzed, while the other was fed 4.4 lbs. of rice, daily, and later a ration of 3.3 lbs. of rice with some meat extract, both being foods which are almost free from fat. After 82 days this pig was also killed and its body analyzed. Assuming that the bodies of both pigs were of similar composition when the first was killed, Soxhlet found the quantity of fat formed in the body of the second pig and its source to be as follows : Grams Maximum fat possible from fat in food 340 Maximum fat possible from protein in food 2,488 Minimum fat that must have been formed from carbohydrates in food ■ 19,352 Total fat from 3 sources 22,180 It is shown that during the trial 22,180 grams of fat were formed. Deducting from this the sum of the maximum amounts of fat which "■■Centbl. Agr. Chem., 29, 1900, p. 529. "Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. VI, Pt. 1, 1895. ""Emahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 143. ''Jahresber. Agr. Chem., 1881, p. 434. GROWTH AND FATTENING 87 could have been derived from the fat and the protein supplied in the food, there remains 19,352 grams of fat as the minimum which must have been formed from the carbohydrates in the food. Hence at least 87 per ct. of the fat formed by this pig during the trial was derived from the carbohydrates in the food. The formation of fat by ruminants from the carbohydrates was first demonstrated by Kiibn"" with the aid of a respiration apparatus. Oxen were fed for long periods on meadow hay and starch, which provided a ration low in protein and fat. Kiihn shows that even if all the carbon resulting from the digestion of the protein and fat in the food went to form fat in the body there still remained a large amount of deposited fat which could only have come from the carbohydrates of the food. These conclusions are confirmed by later experiments by Kellner,*" also with oxen. In these later trials it is shown that 100 lbs. of digested starch or digested fiber yielded about 24.8 lbs., and 100 lbs. of digested cane sugar only 18.8 lbs., of body fat. 127. Fat from pentosans. — Tho no experiments have yet been carried on to show that body fat may be formed from pure pentosans, it is certain that these carbohydrates may aid in its formation. Kellner*^ fed oxen straw in which pentosans furnished 33 per ct. of the energy. The large deposits of fat which followed must have come in part from the pentosans of the food. 128. Tat from protein. — ^When a liberal protein diet supplies the animal with more energy than is necessary for its maintenance, not only may a part of the excess protein be deposited in the body as flesh, but the non- nitrogenous portion resulting from the cleavage of protein may be con- verted into either body fat or glycogen. Since body fat may be derived from the carbohydrates, and since glucose and glycogen may be formed from the proteins, it is reasonable to hold that body fat may be formed from the protein of the food. Demonstration of the direct formation of body fat from food protein is difficult, as it is almost impossible to induce animals to consume any large quantity of pure protein food. The consumption of protein must be relatively large to maintain the nitrogen equilibrium of the body, and so usually but a small excess avail- able for the formation of fat remains above body requirements. Investigations by Cramer*^ with cats, and by Voit*^ and Gruber'* with dogs which were fed large amounts of lean meat, show that the protein it contained must have been the source of the fat which was stored in their bodies during the trials. Henneberg,*" working with dogs, concluded that 100 lbs. of protein may, upon decomposition, yield 51.4 lbs. of fat. Rub- ner,** likewise experimenting with dogs, has shown that owing to the "Landw. Vers. Stat, 44, 1894, pp. 1-581. "Ztschr. Biol., 42, 1901, p. 407. "Land. Vers. Stat., 53, 1900, pp. 1-450. "Landw. Vers. Stat, 20, 1877, p. "Landw. Vers. Stat., 53, 1900, pp. 1-450. 394. "Ztschr. Biol., 38. 1899, p. 307. "Ztschr. Biol., 21, 1885. p. 250. " Jahresber. Tier-Chem., 22, 1892, p. 34. 88 FEEDS AND FEEDING losses of energy which occur in the decomposition of protein not more than 34.7 lbs. of fat can be formed from 100 lbs. of protein in the food. Herbivora — the ox, horse, sheep, etc. — cannot be fed exclusively on protein, since such feeding causes intestinal disorders. Kellner,^^ ex- perimenting with steers, added wheat gluten, which is principally com- posed of vegetable proteins, to a ration which was already causing a considerable deposition of fat. The feeding of 100 lbs. of gluten caused the deposition of 23.5 lbs. fat in addition to the fat due to the basal ration. Kellner maintains that this additional deposit was derived from the protein fed in the wheat gluten. 129. Body fat from nutrients. — The following table from Kellner^' summarizes his studies on the amount of fat which may possibly be formed in the body of the growing ox from 100 lbs. of digestible matter of the several nutrients fed in combination with a basal ration already exceeding the maintenance requirements of the animal : Energy available for fat formation Possible fat Therms Lbs. Fat 204-259 47.4-59.8 Protein 102 23 .5 Starch and fiber 107 24.8 Cane sugar 81 18 .8 The table shows that if an ox is getting enough food for maintenance, supplying 100 lbs. of fat in addition may result in the storage of from 47.4 to 59.8 lbs. of body fat. For the other nutrients there is a smaller deposit, cane sugar forming only 18.8 lbs. 130. The ration for fattening. — Since the fattening of mature animals consists mainly in the storage of fat, there is no demand for a large sup- ply of food protein. While the "Wolff-Lehmann standards (Appendix Table IV) advise nutritive ratios of 1 :5.4 to 1 :6.5 for mature fattening cattle, 1 :4.5 to 1 :5.4 for fattening sheep, and 1 :5.9 to 1 :7.0 for fattening swine, numerous experiments have shown that mature animals of all classes can be successfully fattened on a much smaller allowance of crude protein. Kellner'" found that the gains of the mature ox remained unchanged whether 1 lb. of protein was fed with 4 or with 16 lbs. of carbohydrates, the total quantity of nutrients remaining the same. In such case the quantity of fat formed was in proportion to the nutrients digested in excess of the wants of the body. However, where less digestible protein is fed than 1 lb. to 8 or 10 lbs. of carbohydrates, the digestibility of the ration may be decreased. Kellner accordingly advises that for mature fattening cattle the nutritive ratio should never be wider than 1 :10 or 12. In regions where alfalfa hay or other nitrogenous feeds are abund- ant and low in price and the carbohydrates relatively high in cost, it may be profitable to feed a ration with a narrow nutritive ratio. Animals in "Landw. Vers. Stat., 53, 1900, p. 452. "Emahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 158. »»Bmahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, pp. 418-420. GROWTH AND FATTENING 89 thin flesh should at first be liberally supplied with protein in order that their muscular tissues may develop. For such animals Kellner holds that the nutritive ratio should be about 1 :6, with from 12 to 15 lbs. of digestible nutrients daily per 1000 lbs. of live weight. Owing TO the greater economy of gains by young animals, in this country the larger part of our meat-producing animals are fattened and marketed before maturity. Such animals are adding not only fat, but also considerable lean meat to their bodies as they fatten, and therefore require a more liberal supply of protein than mature animals. Skinner, Cochel, and King*" in extensive trials at the Indiana Station have found that 2-year-old steers make larger gains and require less feed per 100 lbs. gain when fed rations with a nutritive ratio of 1 :7 to 1 :8 than when the ration has a wider nutritive ratio. In 4 trials fattening lambs made larger gains and required less feed per 100 lbs. gain when fed rations having an average nutritive ratio of 1 :6.8 than when the nutritive ratio was 1:8.8. It is important to bear in mind that since protein-rich feeds are usual- ly high in price, the most profitable ration may not be the one producing the largest gains, the larger gains being in some eases offset by the higher cost of the ration containing an abundance of protein. Rations for fat- tening each kind and age of animals are discussed in detail in Part III. 131. Factors influencing fattening. — The deposition of fat in an animal depends primarily upon the quantity of food consumed in excess of main- tenance and growth requirements. Fattening may take place at any age, tho the tendency of young animals to grow greatly reduces the pro- portion of food usually available for that purpose. Since the process of fattening depends upon the excess of digested nutrients over the wants of the body, it is evident that anything that decreases the waste due to external work or to excess of exercise, and which lessens the internal work of digestion and assimilation, may aid in fat formation. Exertion of any kind increases the oxidations going on in the body. Vigorous exercise must therefore be avoided in the case of fattening stock and milch cows. Supplying an abundance of feeds that are palatable, con- centrated, and largely digestible tends to rapid fattening, because a large surplus of nutrients then remains after supplying the body needs, which surplus may go to form fat. The disposition of an animal to fatten depends upon breed and temperament. "While a wild animal, nervous and active, can be fattened only with extreme difficulty, domesticated animals are more quiet and usually fatten readily. The restless animal is rarely a good feeder, while the quiet one, which is inclined to "eat and lie down," will show superior gains. This is not due to difference in digestive or assimilative powers, but rather to the fact that the quiet animal has, from a given amount of food, a greater surplus of nutrients available for fat building. 132. Comparative fattening qualities. — ^Lawes and Gilbert*^ give the following data regarding the comparative fattening qualities of the steer, "Ind. Buls. 153, 162, 167, 168, 178, 179. "Warlngton, Chemistry of the Farm. 90 FEEDS AND FEEDING steep, and pig, based on trials in which there were required, on the aver- age, for 100 lbs. gain : By steers, 250 lbs. oil cake, 600 lbs. clover hay, and 3500 lbs. swedes (rutabagas) ; by sheep, 250 lbs. oil cake, 300 lbs. clover hay, and 4000 lbs. swedes ; by pigs, 500 lbs. barley meal. Comparative returns from the steer, sheep, and pig steer Sheep Pig Average live weight Per head per week Total dry food eaten Digestible organic matter in food . Increase in live weight Per 1,000 lbs. hve weight per week Total dnr food eaten Digestible organic matter in food. Increase in hve weight Required for 100 lbs. increase Total dry food eaten Digestible organic matter Lba. 1200 151 106 13.6 125 88 11.3 1109 777 Lbs. 130 21 16 2.3 160 121 17.6 912 686 Lbs. 175 48 40 11.3 270 227 64.3 420 353 The table shows that the average 1200-lb. fattening steer will consume during one week 151 lbs. of dry food, containing 106 lbs. of digestible organic matter, and will gain 13.6 lbs. Because they are smaller the food consumed and the gains per head by the sheep and pig are much less. When the feed consumption and gains per 1000 lbs. of live weight are compared, however, it is seen that 1000 lbs. of pigs consume 270 lbs. of dry matter per week against 125 lbs. for steers. However, the gains of pigs are enough more rapid to more than balance the greater con- sumption of feed. While the pigs consume about 2.2 times as much feed per 1000 lbs. as the steers, they make nearly 6 times as much gain. The reason why pigs require less food to produce 100 lbs. of increase than either steers or sheep is largely that their food is more concentrated and digestible, so that a smaller proportion is consumed in the work of diges- tion and assimilation, leaving a larger surplus for producing gain. 133. Eeturns from feed. — The following by Jordan*'' shows the amount of food suitable for man returned by the different classes of farm animals for each 100 lbs. of digestible matter consumed : Human food produced hy farm animals from 100 lis. of digestible matter consumed Animal Marketable product Edible solids Animal Marketable product Edible solids Cow (milk) Lbs. 139.0 25.0 14.8 36.5 6.4 Lbs. 18.0 15.6 9.4 8.1 5.4 Poultry (eggs) Poultry (dressed) .... Lamb (dressed) Steer (dressed) Sheep (dressed) Lbs. 19.6 15.6 9.6 8.3 7.0 Lbs. 5.1 Pig (dressed) Cow (cheese) Calf (dressed) Dnw rbutter^ 4.2 3.2 2.8 2 6 «The Feeding of Animals. GROWTH AND FATTENING 91 The table, which presents one side of a most complicated problem, phows that for 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients consumed : The cow yields about 139 lbs. of milk, containing 18 lbs. of solids, practically all digestible. The pig produces about 25 lbs. of dressed carcass. Allowing for water, bone, and gristle, there remains over 15 lbs. of edible dry meat. The steer and sheep yield less than 10 lbs. of dressed carcass, nearly half of which is water. Deducting this and the bone and gristle, there remains only from 2.6 to 3.2 lbs. of water-free edible meat. The cow easily leads all farm animals in her power to convert the crops of the field into human food, with the pig second, poultry following, and the steer and sheep coming lowest. III. Studies on Growth and Fattening 134. "Wide and narrow rations for growing steers. — At the Maine Sta- tion*' Jordan studied the influence of a ration rich in crude protein and of one poor in crude protein on the rate of growth and character of the flesh formed by growing steers. Four high-grade Shorthorn steer calves, from 5 to 7 months old when the trial began, were used. Lot I, 2 steers, was fed a concentrate mixture of 2 parts linseed meal, 1 part com meal, and 1 part wheat bran, which furnished a large amount of protein. Lot II, 2 steers, was given a mixture of 2 parts corn meal and 1 part wheat bran, furnishing much less protein. The roughage for both lots consisted mostly of timothy hay, some corn fodder and corn silage being fed dur- ing the first winter only. The ration fed Lot I was thus rich in crude protein, having an average nutritive ratio of 1 :5.2, and was also high in mineral matter. Lot II was fed a wide ration, having a nutritive ratio of 1 :9.7, which supplied much less protein and also less mineral matter. Both lots were liberally fed, tho there was no attempt to force growth. One steer in each lot was slaughtered at the end of 17 months and the remaining two at the end of 27 months, all carcasses being analyzed to determine whether any difference existed therein. Results of feeding wide and narrow rations to growing steers Digestible Composition of entire body except skin Total matter for gain 100 pounds gain Water Protein Fat Ash Lbs. Lbs. Per ot. Per ct. Perot. Per ct. Steer fed 17 morahs On narrow ration. . 737 495 59.02 17.89 18.53 4.56 On wide ration 552 686 56.30 17.82 20.27 5.61 Steer fed S7 months On narrow ration. . 962 773 51.91 16.93 25.86 5.30 On wide ration. . . 1005 708 52.16 17.10 25.32 5.42 ' Maine Rpt, 1895. 92 FEEDS AND FEEDING The table shows that during the first 17 months the steer on the narrow ration gained 185 lbs. more than the other on the wider one and that a given gain was made on less feed. The carcasses of both steers showed practically the same percentage of protein or lean-meat tissue, while that of the one getting the narrow ration had more water and less fat and ash. Of the steers fed 27 months, the one on the wide ration made the larger total gain and required less feed for 100 lbs. of gain. The water, protein, and ash in the bodies of these 2 steers were practically the same. These data support the statement previously made (116), that a ration having a narrow nutritive ratio is conducive to the rapid growth of the young growing animal. On the other hand, when the body is partly or largely grown, the largest gains, which are then mostly fat, come from liberal feeding with rations which are rich in digestible carbohydrates and rather limited in crude protein — i.e., having a comparatively wide nutritive ratio. Doubtless more economical results than were secured with either lot would have been obtained had these steers been fed the narrow ration during the first 17 months or thereabouts, and then fat- tened on a wider ration. Trials with larger numbers of animals, already mentioned (130), show that the largest gains are made by 2-year-old steers when fed a somewhat narrower ration than the wide one fed by Jordan. 135. Feeding pigs corn only. — In 1884 Sanborn of the Missouri Agri- cultural College** conducted studies in which growing pigs fed exclusive- ly on corn meal were compared with others fed on com meal and either wheat middlings or dried blood. The corn-meal ration furnished an abundance of easily digested carbohydrates and fat, but was deficient in crude protein and mineral matter. The addition of dried blood or wheat middlings to corn meal formed a ration rich in crude protein and mineral matter as well as carbohydrates and fat. Sanborn showed that, com- pared with the corn-fed pigs, those getting rations rich in crude protein had a larger muscular development and more blood, and that some of their internal organs were larger. Eealizing the fundamental importance of Sanborn's studies, the senior author conducted numerous trials at the Wisconsin Station*^ in which dried blood, wheat middlings, field peas, and skim milk, with or without corn meal, were fed in opposition to corn meal alone. Shelton of the Kansas Station*^ fed pigs a mixture of wheat shorts and wheat bran in opposition to corn meal, potatoes, and tallow. At the Alabama Station*' Duggar fed cowpeas, which are rich in crude protein, against corn meal. In France Fortier*' duplicated a trial by the senior author, feeding skim milk, dried blood, and wheat middlings in opposition to com meal. Thus at 5 widely separated points pigs were fed rations rich in crude protein and mineral matter, usually containing some corn meal, in opposition to «Mo. BulB. 10, 14, 19. "Kan. Bui. 9. «Wls. Rpts., 1886, '87, '88, '89. "Ala. Bui. 82. *Ext. Trav. See. Cent. d'Agr., Dept. Seine-Inf., 1889, 1890. GROWTH AND FATTENING 93 corn meal alone, which is rich in carbohydrates and fat but low in crude protein and mineral matter. The following table summarizes the findings of two trials at the Wisconsin and one at the Kansas Station, these being typical of all : Effect on pigs of rations rich in protein and ash, compared with com alone I. Daily gains, live weights, dressing percentage, and strength of hones station and feed Av. daily- gain Live wt. at end of trial Dressed carcass Strength of thigh bone per 100 lbs. Uve wt. Wisconsin Lot I, Milk, middlings, blood Lbs. 1.0 0.7 Lbs. 223 187 Perct. 81.2 80.2 Lbs. 503 Lot II, Corn meal 380 Wiscxmsin Lot I, J^ blood, ?^ com meal 1.4 1.2 1.1 298 277 254 83.2 82.3 83.5 385 Lot II, 3^ peas, ^ com meal 471 Lot III, Com meal 354 Kansas Lot I, Shorts, bran 1.4 1.1 211 183 76.8 79.8 357 Lot III, Potatoes, tallow, com meal 332 77. Weight of internal organs and parts per 100 lbs. of dressed carcass Station and feed Blood Liver Kidneys Tenderloin Leaf lard Wisconsin Lot I, Milk, middlings, blood. . . Lot II, Com meal Os. 54.4 41.3 o». 26.9 24.3 Oz. 5.0 4.2 17.1 13.8 Oz. 79.9 89.3 Wisconsin Lot I, J^ blood, % com meal. . . Lot II, J4 peas, J4 com meal — Lot III, Com meal 47.1 44.7 43.8 22.2 21.3 17.7 3.9 3.4 2.8 Kansas Lot I, Shorts, bran 50.4 36.8 44.7 33.8 7.4 5.8 13.0 10.0 65.1 Lot II, Potatoes, tallow, com meal 75.3 The first division of the table shows that the pigs fed rations rich in crude proteiu and ash made heavier gains than those fed rations poor in these constituents. As a rule the pigs getting the rations rich ia crude protein had a larger amount of blood and heavier livers and other organs per 100 lbs. of carcass, as is shown in the second division of the table. The strength of the thigh bones was determined in the following man- ner : The 2 rounded, iron supporting edges of a machine used for testing the breaking strength of materials were set four inches apart. On these a thigh bone was placed, the rounded edge of the breaking-bar pressing down on the bone from above, midway of its length. The downward 94 FEEDS AND FEEDING pressure was gradually increased, being measured by the tilting beam of the machine. Under the steadily increasing pressure the bone finally broke, its resistance at the time of breaking being recorded. The trials showed that the pigs fed the ration rich in crude protein had the strongest bones. In the first Wisconsin trial, as the table shows, the bones of the corn-fed pigs broke at an average pressure of 380 lbs. for each 100 lbs. of carcass, while those of the pigs fed milk, dried blood, and middlings broke at about 500 lbs. — a difference of 32 per ct. in favor of the pigs getting the ration rich in crude protein. In the first "Wisconsin trial the pigs getting milk, wheat middlings, and dried blood had over 54 oz., or nearly 3.5 lbs., of blood for each 100 lbs. of dressed carcass, while those getting only corn meal had less than 42 oz., or but little over 2.5 lbs. The livers and kidneys of the pigs fed the rations rich in crude protein were in all cases relatively heavier, as were also the tenderloin muscles, lying along the back, showing that a superior muscular development was associated with tlie larger internal organs, more blood, etc. On the other hand, the carcasses of the corn- fed pigs contained an unduly large proportion of fat. Analyses of the organs and parts of the pigs used in the second Wisconsin trial showed further that the corn-fed pigs had proportionately less dry matter in their blood and kidneys and a smaller amount of dry lean-meat tissue than those on the narrow ration. Later investigations show that differences produced by the exclu- sive corn rations and those rich in crude protein were not entirely due to the difference in the supply of crude protein. In each case the ration rich in crude protein was also the richer in mineral matter, for corn is not only low in crude protein but it also lacks mineral matter. To study the effect upon the carcass of varying the amount of protein in the ration when an abundance of mineral matter was supplied. Grind- ley and colleagues** at the Illinois Station analyzed the carcasses of pigs fed corn and varying amounts of blood meal from weaning, aU animals being supplied with calcium phosphate in addition, to furnish a liberal amount of lime and phosphoric acid. Pigs fed rations very high in pro- tein, containing 26 to 35 per ct. blood meal, had larger kidneys and livers, and heavier, stronger bones than when a ration containing only 7 per ct. blood meal was fed. No difference was found between the various lots in the forms of nitrogenous compounds in the protein tissues or in the dis- tribution of the ash between the various organs of the body. 136. Effect on tenderloins of exclusive corn feeding ^At the Missouri Station"" Forbes fed 6 lots, each of five 120-lb. pigs, on unlimited rations for 60 days. One lot was fed corn only, while the others received com supplemented with the various by-feeds shown below. All rations but the one exclusively of corn had the same nutritive ratio. On slaughter- ing the pigs, portions of the tenderloin muscles were analyzed, with the results shown on the next page. "111. Buls. 168, 169, 171, 173. "Mo. Bui. 81. GROWTH AND FATTENING ^ 95 Composition of the tenderloin muscles of pigs variously fed Supplement fed per 100 lbs. of corn Water Protein Fat Ash Perot. Perct. Perct. Perot. Lot I, Com only 71.5 19.2 7.28 111 Lot II, Wheat middlings, 81.8 lbs 72.9 20.7 5.04 1.15 Lot III, Linseed meal, n. p., 17.8 lbs 74 .1 20 .5 4 .01 1 18 Lot IV, Soybeans, 19.61bs 72.9 20.9 4.79 113 Lot V, Tankage, 8.1 lbs 73.7 19.8 5.17 113 Lot VI, Genn oil meal, 39.4 lbs 73.5 20.5 4.67 1.08 It is shown that the muscles resulting from exclusive corn feeding had more fat and less water and protein than the others. The corn ration and the corn and germ oil meal ration, both low in mineral matter, pro- duced muscle lower in ash than the other rations. While the muscles from the pigs fed exclusively on com contained less protein than the others and were therefore really smaller in size, because of their high percentage of fat they would, on cooking, furnish meat which would be more juicy and toothsome than that of the other lots. 137. Discussion of the pig-feeding experiments. — In analyzing the two preceding experiments we should hold that the pigs given feeds rich in crude protein and mineral matter developed bodies that were normal in skeleton, muscles, and all internal organs. Those fed com exclusively were prevented from building a normal body structure because of the insufficient and unbalanced supply of crude protein and a lack of enough mineral matter in their food. We should not forget that all parts of the normally nurtured body attain a certain normal development which cannot be materially increased beyond a constitutional limit. Only in a small degree can the stockman in a single generation increase by what he may feed the size of the bones and the muscles of the animals under his care. On the other hand. Nature sets no such close limitations on the amomit of fat that may be stored. This varies according to inheritance, the nature and abundance of the food, the amount of exercise, etc. The skeleton, the muscles, and all the organs of the body increase during the plastic stage of youth and cannot be augmented in the mature animal. (113) The quantity of fat which the animal may lay on is limited dur- ing youth and is more easily and largely stored after maturity has been reached. (122) These experiments should impress upon the stockman the plastic nature of the bodies of young, growing animals. They show it possible for immature animals living on unsuitable food to survive a long time and develop bodies that are dwarfed in size and made unnaturally fat. They help to show that Nature's plan is to first grow the body framework and afterwards to lay on the fat. They point to the reasonable, important, and far-reaching conclusion that if a pig or other young animal is im- properly fed so as to modify its bones, muscles, and vital organs even a very little, and the process is repeated during several generations, the cumulative effects will be marked and permanently injurious. The prac- tical lesson is taught that young animals should be nurtured on a combina- 96 FEEDS AND FEEDING tion of feeding stuffs that will develop the normal framework of bone, muscle, and all body organs. This calls for a ration containing crude protein and mineral matter not only in ample amount, but also of suita- ble composition for rapid formation of body tissues. Having developed the proper framework of bone, together with the enveloping muscular system and all the organs of the body, the food supply may then consist largely of carbohydrates and fat, which are the cheap and abundant sources of animal fat. In America corn is the common feeding stuff for swine, and pigs show such fondness for it that harm often results because the practice of the feeder and breeder is guided by the appetite of the animal rather than by a knowledge of the composition and limitations of feeds. Let us not despise com because when wrongly and excessively used, as it purposely was in these experiments with young, growing pigs, it fails to develop the normal framework of bone and muscle. Each feed has its function in the nutrition of animals, and only by its abuse can unfavorable results follow. 138. Growth under adverse conditions. — At the Missouri Station^ ^ Waters kept 15 steers, varying from fat show animals to those in ordinary farm condition, for long periods on rations sufficient for maintenance. Below are given the results obtained with 4 yearling steers kept at con- stant body weight : Growth of steers maintained at constant body weight Length of period Increase in Decrease in width of chest Age at beginning Height at withers Length of head Depth of chest Decline in condition from — Months 11 9.5 16.5 17 Months 7 12 12 12 Per ot. 10.2 9.9 6.8 5.8 Per ct. 11.1 19.7 12.0 9.6 Per ct. 5.6 8.5 6.0 1.1 Per ct. 10.1 12.1 10.6 9.4 Good to com. Med. to thm Prime to com. Prime to com. The table shows that in each case there was a marked increase in the height of the animal at the withers, the length of head, and the depth of chest, denoting a growth of the skeleton. The decrease in width of chest shows a thinning of the flesh covering the skeleton, indicating that the stored fat was re-absorbed or withdrawn from the tissues in the effort to continue growth on insufficient food. Examination of the fat cells of these animals showed a uniform reduction in their size as com- pared with those of animals receiving liberal rations. In other trials by "Waters and P. F. Trowbridge'^' at the Missouri Station steers in a thrifty growing condition, weighing 573 to 740 lbs., were fed rations just sufficient to maintain their weight for . various periods of time, and were then slaughtered and the carcasses analyzed. "Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sol., 1908. °' Information to the authors; GROWTH AND FATTENING 97 Others were fed sub-maintenance rations on which they lost 0.5 lb. per head daily, and still other rations on which they made 0.5 lb. daily gain per head. Even the steers losing weight made steady growth in skeleton. A steer weighing 654 lbs. when placed on the experiment lost 199 lbs. in 12 months, but nevertheless gained 3.6 inches ia height at withers, and 4.5 inches in length of body. While the carcass of the steer slaugh- tered and analyzed as a cheek animal at the beginning of the trial con- tained 56.5 lbs. of fatty tissue, that of an animal which had been given a ration just sufficient to maintain its weight for 12 months contained only 24.3 lbs. of fatty tissue. An animal which had lost 0.5 lb. daily in weight steadily for a year had used up practically all of its fatty tissues for body fuel. Indeed only 0.4 lb. of fatty tissue could be sepa- rated from the entire carcass of the animal. The following table shows the changes which were produced in the composition of the fatty tissues, lean flesh, and skeletons of 3 of the animals, compared with the tissues of the steer slaughtered as a check animal : Changes in body tissues of steers on scanty and liberal rations steer I, check animal steer II, on maintenance 12 months steer III, losing 0.5 lb. per day for 12 mo. . Steer IV, gaining 0.5 lb. daily for 5 mo. Fatty tissue Water Per ct. 19.0 74.8 6.0 0.2 71.0 8.0 20.1 0.9 37.1 14.7 20.4 25.3 Per ct. 36.2 50.8 13.6 0.5 74.0 4.6 19.7 1.0 36.2 16.4 20.0 26.6 Per ct. 81.2 4.6 9.7 1.1 76.9 2.1 19.8 1.0 52.6 2.9 19.1 22.8 Per ot. 18 5 Fat 73.4 Protein 6.5 Ash 2 Lean flesh Water 71.1 Fat 7 8 Protein 19.2 Ash 0.9 Skeleton Water 35 4 Fat 17.3 Protein 19 8 Ash 25 3 The table shows that in the case of Steer II, held at constant weight for 12 months, much fat had been withdrawn from the fatty tissue, being largely replaced by water. So far had the withdrawal of fat progressed in the case of Steer III, that the small amount of "fatty tissue" which was secured from the carcass contained 81.2 per ct. water and only 4.6 per ct. fat ! With the withdrawal of fat the percentage of protein and ash had increased. The lean flesh suffered much less change than the fatty tissues, even in the case of Steer III, which lost nearly 40 per ct. of the lean meat in his body during the trial. The data show that on insufScient food the fat was withdrawn to a marked degree from the lean flesh of the body. The skeleton is not affected by poor nutrition until practically all 98 FEEDS AND FEEDING the fat has been removed from the fatty tissues and the muscles. In the case of Steer III the withdrawal of fat had gone so far that nearly- all the fat had been removed from the marrow of the skeleton and re- placed with water. Indeed, the marrow had practically disappeared and in its place was a watery, ill-smelling liquid. This re-absorption of fat takes place from all parts of the skeleton. In contrast with these changes, the protein and ash content was but slightly reduced, even in the case of Steer III. In the process of fattening, the fat is laid on the body in a certain order, being deposited first and most rapidly in certain regions, while in others little is stored until fattening is well advanced. Waters states that the -withdrawal of fat from the tissues occurs in the reverse order from which it was laid on — ^that first deposited being the last to be absorbed. An experiment with two 8-months-old steers, one on full feed and the other on a maintenance ration, showed that on the whole the animal on full feed increased in height more rapidly than the one on maintenance. However, for a considerable period the poorly fed steer grew as rapidly as the other. "Waters states that the length of the period during which poorly fed animals gain as rapidly in height as well nourished ones ranges from 70 to 120 days, depending on the constitutional vigor of the individual and the excess fat -with which it starts. After this period the increase in height becomes less rapid, ceasing altogether in from 6 months to a year and a half, by which time the animal has become quite thin and has re-absorbed all fat not necessary to its life. For 5 months a steer fed less than a maintenance ration and losing in weight grew in height as fast as one on full feed. Growth on scanty rations is not due directly to the fat re-absorbed from the body. The animal bums its stored fat to support the body, and the protein in its food is used for building body tissue. The supply of mineral matter in the maintenance ration used in these studies was probably sufficient to provide an excess for growth. The steers developed depraved appetites in a short time after being placed on scanty rations and ate considerable earth, possibly making use of some of its mineral matter. "Waters concludes that the young animal may advance to normal size by any or all of the following ways : 1. By growing steadily from birth to maturity. 2. By storing fat in a period of abundant food supply to assist in tiding over a limited period of sparse food supply without serious inter- ruption of gro-wth. 3. By prolonging the growth period. 4. By an increase in the rate of gro-wth during a period of liberal feeding following a period of low nourishment and low gain. 5. By conserving the cost. Apparently the animal when kept for a long period on scaaty food gets on a more economical basis than when GROWTH AND FATTENING 99 more liberally fed. A ration which is at first insufficient to maintain the animal may be capable later of keeping the animal at a constant body weight, and still later of causing gain. 139. Effects of checking growth. — Waters, Cochel, and Vestal" have conducted numerous experiments at the Kansas Station to determine the effect on the subsequent development of pure-bred beef steers of checking their growth for various periods by under-feeding. They report that supplying a young, growing animal with a scant ration for a short period only will have no permanent effect on its development. Even when insufficient feeding is continued for a year or longer, the animal will recover to a surprising extent when placed on liberal feed, making unusually rapid and economical gains. Osborne and Mendel" have shown that while the normal growth period of rats rarely exceeds 335 days, those whose growth has been checked by insufficient food will resume growth even at the age of 480 to 532 days. The Kansas experiments show, however, that while a steer whose growth has been checked for a year or more may grow nearly as taU as one fed well all along, it is almost certain to have a smaller digestive capacity, narrower hips, flatter ribs, heavier shoulders, and lighter hind quarters, even when finished for market. The form of the highly devel- oped beef animal has evidently been caused by broadening the animal thru heavy feeding while young. If insufficient feed is supplied to distend the digestive tract and force out the ribs and hips when yet plastic, the body of the animal will never attain the desired conformation. These studies on growth are highly significant to the stockman. They show that under certain conditions it may be profitable to carry growing animals thru the winter on roughages alone, even tho they lose slightly in weight, for on a return to good pasture, animals in spare but thrifty condition make exceedingly economical gains. However, the breeder who seeks to develop his animals toward an ideal must supply ample feed during the whole growth period. '"Kansas Industrialist, May 10, 1913; Apr. 18, 1914; and information to the authors. "Jour. Biol. Chem., 18, 1914, pp. 95-106. CHAPTER VI PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL I. Production of Work It has long been known that nmscular exertion or external body work greatly increases the amount of food material burned or broken down in the body, but scientists have disagreed as to whether one or all of the nutrients — ^protein, carbohydrates, or fat — furnishes the energy. Liebig, "the father of agricultural chemistry," held that the protein of the muscular tissues was the only material broken down in producing volun- tary and involuntary motions, whether of the limbs, heart, or other parts of the body. 140. Waste of protein tissues during work. — That protein is not an important source of body energy was shown by Fick and Wislicenus,^ who in 1865 ascended the Faulhom, an Alpine mountain. While climb- ing the mountain these investigators consumed only non-protein food; 1. e., starch, sugar, and fat, and during this time they collected all the urine passed. The amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine during the trial follows : Nitrogen excretion during mountain climbing Total nitrogen excreted Nitrogen excreted per hour (average) Fick Wislicenua Fick Wislicenus Night before ascent Grams 6.92 3.31 2.43 4.82 Grams 6.68 3.13 2.42 5.35 Grams 0.63 0.41 0.40 0.45 Grams 61 During ascent 39 After ascent 40 Night after ascent 0.51 The table shows that only about two-thirds as much nitrogen was excreted per hour during and immediately after the climb as prior to it, when there was more or less residue in the system from the previous meal containing protein. Had the nitrogenous tissues or the muscles of the body been broken down directly in proportion to the labor performed, there would have been a large increase in the nitrogen excretion during and following this fatiguing work ; but such was not the case. Measured by the nitrogen in the urine, the protein broken down during the trial could not possibly have furnished energy for more than one-third of the work done by these men in lifting their bodies to the top of the mountain. > Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc, 1895; U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 22. 100 PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 101 From this trial and experiments by Voit, Pettenkofer, and Parks it was decided that only carbohydrates and fats were oxidized and burned in the production of muscular energy. Still later experiments by Ar- gutinsky, Zuntz, and others have shown that when carbohydrates and fat are sufficient in .amount they furnish all the muscular energy, and in such cases the breaking down of protein is not increased during work. However, if the supply of carbohydrates and fat in the food is insufficient, some of the energy for the production of work may be furnished thru the breaking down of protein, with a resultant increase in the nitrogen excretion in the urine. 141. Excretion of carbon dioxid. — ^Whether the material burned to furnish muscular energy be carbohydrates, fat, or protein, carbonic acid gas vsdll be produced, the quantity directly depending upon the amount of work done. This was shown by Smith,^ who determined the quantity of carbonic acid gas exhaled by the horse when at rest and performing labor as follows: Cubic feet Form of work per hour At rest 1 .03 Walking 1 .10 Trotting 2 .95 Cantering 4 .92 GaUoping 14.97 Thus, imlike the nitrogen excretion, the amount of carbon dioxid ex- haled per hour is increased by the performance of work, and depends upon the work done in that time. 142. Production of muscular energy. — ^We know that in doing work the muscles of the body contract; that is, become shorter and thicker. Yet in spite of all the study of scientists we do not yet know definitely the direct cause of muscular contraction. How the nutrients stored in the muscular tissues are converted into the energy of muscular action is still an unsolved question. We do know, however, some of the pro- cesses which take place in the working muscles. The most significant change which takes place during muscular con- traction is the increased production of carbon dioxid, already noted, which seems to bear a definite relation to the amount of internal and external work performed. There is also a large increase in the amount of oxygen taken up by the muscles from the blood during work. The increase in oxygen consumed and carbon dioxid given off might lead to the conclusion that the activity of the muscle duriiig contraction is due to simple oxidation, such as occurs when fuel is burned. However, cer- tain facts which cannot be dwelt upon here lead scientists to believe that the chemical changes by which energy is liberated are not simple oxidations, but are more in the nature of sudden decompositions or cleavages of some complex substance or substances built up in the muscle during rest, carbon dioxid being evolved in such cleavage.* Part of 'Jour. Physiol., 1890, No. 1; V. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 22. 'Armsby, Principles of Animal Nutrition, 1903, p. 187. 102 FEEDS A^^D FEEDING the energy liberated in this decomposition appears as heat, and another part as mechanical work. Glycogen, or animal starch, is stored in the muscle during rest, forming between 0.5 and 0.9 per ct. of the weight of well-nourished muscle in the resting condition. (60) A smaller quantity of glucose is also found in the muscular tissues. During muscular activity this stored glycogen and glucose disappear more or less, in proportion to the extent and dura- tion of the contractions, so that after prolonged muscular activity or hard work the supply may be entirely exhausted. Tho the amount of these carbohydrates in the body tissues at any one time is small, a supply, especially of glucose, is being continuously produced from the food nutrients or body tissues to replace that oxidized in the production of work. As the larger part of the food of farm animals consists of car- bohydrates, the oxidation of the glucose formed from them probably furnishes most of the energy for the production of heat and work by these animals. To supply the muscles with the necessary oxygen and also carry away the waste products formed during muscular exertion, the circulation of the blood must be hastened and larger quantities of air be taken in by the lungs. 143. Source of muscular energy. — All the organic nutrients absorbed from the food, not only the carbohydrates and fats, but also the proteins and apparently the pentosans, serve as sources of energy to the body. Under normal conditions the non-nitrogenous nutrients and the glycogen are first drawn upon for the production of work, no more protein being broken down than during rest. If the non-nitrogenous nutrients do not suffice for the production of muscular energy, then the body fat is next drawn upon. If this is insufficient or is much diminished by continued work, then as the last resort the muscles or other protein tissues will be called upon to furnish the needed energy. 144. Relative value of nutrients. — Investigations by Zuntz and his associates show that the value of each of the different classes of food nutrients for the production of work depends upon the total energy it contains. In one experiment* the diet of a man turning a wheel consisted, during separate periods, chiefly of either fat, carbohydrates, or protein. For 1 unit (kilogrammeter) of work the following amounts of energy were expended; Energy expended Penod Nutnent eaten per kgm. of work. ^ ^ . Cal. I Protein 11 .92 II Carbohydrates 11 54 III Fat 9,53 IV Protein 10 78 V Fat 9:25 It is shown that approximately the same fuel rations were required to produce a given amount of work whether the fuel was protein, carbohy- drates, or fat. It will be noticed that the energy expended was less in 'Arch. Physiol. (Pfluger), 83, 1901, p. 564. PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 103 the last trials on account of the proficiency which had been attained in the work. 145. Energy requirements for work. — The total energy required to produce a certain amount of external work depends upon many factors. Experiments by Zuntz" with the horse show that an increase in the speed at which work is performed results in an increased expenditure of energy per unit of work. Practice in performing a certain work lessens the energy expenditure for that particular form of labor. In experiments upon himself Gruber' found that in climbing a tower the amount of carbon dioxid exhaled and hence the energy expended was decreased by 20 per ct. after training for 2 weeks. In experiments by Lowy'' on him- self, and by Zuntz* upon horses, fatigue caused an increase of from 14 to 41 per ct. in the amount of energy expended in performing a given amount of work. This increased expenditure of energy is largely due to the fact that with increasing fatigue the muscles normally used, and which are thus the most efficient in performing the given work, are put out of use. Then other less used muscles are called upon to a constantly increasing degree, and these cannot perform the work so efficiently or economically. The part of the expended energy appearing in useful work varies in accordance with the build of the animal, the development of its muscular apparatus, and the structure of its extremities which bring about the work. Zuntz found great variations in the energy expended by different horses of the same weight in traveling upon a level track, a lame horse expending 99 per ct. more energy than a sound one. In the work of climbing a grade he found a variation with different horses of as much as 52 per ct. in the proportion of the total energy expended which ap- peared as useful work. An animal which is able to accomplish one form of work most economically may have to expend an unusual amount of energy at other kinds of work. For example,^ horses bred for generations to the saddle can carry the rider with smaller expenditure of energy than those whose breeding, form, and qualities specially fit them for draft purposes. Certain forms of labor are performed with greater economy of energy than others. Katzenstein" found in experiments with men that about 65 per ct. more energy was used in turning a wheel with the arms than was required when the same work was done with the legs. 146. The animal as a machine. — The extensive investigations by Zuntz and associates with men, dogs, and horses show that, aside from small variations due to the nature of the work and other factors, the part of the energy expended which is actually transformed into external work is quite constant for each class. With animals at moderate work the part of the energy which appeared in external work varied from 28.8 "Landw. Jahrb., 27, 1898, Sup. III. 'Landw. Jahrb. 27, 1898, Sup. III. •Ztschr. Biol., 38, 1891, p. 466. 'Wolff, Farm Foods, p. 84. 'Arch. Physiol., 49, 1891, p. 413. 104 FEEDS AND FEEDING to 36.6 per ct. of the total energy expended. On the average it is reason- able to hold that with men and animals about one-third of the energy- consumed in muscular exertion is recovered as external work. The rest takes the form of heat within the body, and is lost so far as the production of work is concerned. This does not take into account the energy lost in the excreta, nor that expended for digestion, assimilation, and the main- tenance of the body during rest. Atwater" found that a man returned 19.6 per ct. of the fuel value of his food as external work. The best steam engines have about the same efficiency, while the average engine falls below 10 per ct. Gasoline engines range in efficiency from 10 to 27 per ct. Thus, as a mere machine the animal body compares favorably with the best modern engines. In addition to performing external work the body must prepare and transport its own fuel, store it until needed, make all repairs, and maintain a definite temperature, as well as direct, move, and control itself. When all these functions are considered, the marvelous perfection of the animal body as a machine becomes apparent. 147. The body not a heat machine. — The animal body is not an engine which converts heat into mechanical work. As Armsby^i points out, the power of a steam engine is derived directly from the heat produced by the burning coal, but in the animal body the energy of the food is trans- formed into work in quite another way. While the fuel value of a food represents the total amount of energy it can liberate in the body, a vary- ing part of this total energy is always set free in the body as heat, and this heat can do no external work, tho it warms the body. Only that part of the food energy which is liberated in other forms than heat can be utilized for the production of either internal or external work. By processes still unknown the animal machine produces muscular energy, heat, light, and electricity with an efficiency greater than any machine made by man. With animals the fuel is burned at low temperature. The glow worm and firefly produce light without sensible loss of heat or other energy, and the torpedo fish and electric eel generate electricity by means unknown. Scientists and inventors alike are baffled by the mys- terious and wonderful processes continuously occurring in the animal body. As the horse is the principal animal machine for performing work, this subject is appropriately continued in Chapter XVIII. II. Production of Milk 148. Secretion of milk. — Milk, the marvelous fluid designed by Nature for the nourishment of the young of all mammals, is secreted by special organs, called the mammary glands. Scientists disagree as to the exact process by which the milk is formed in the small sac-like bodies, known as alveoli, in the udder. However, we do know that the blood, laden with nutrients, is brought by the capillaries of the udder to the alveoli. "V. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Sta., Bui. 136. "Penn. Bui. 84. PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 105 The nutrients then pass thru the walls of the capillaries into the alveoli, where by one of Nature's wonderful processes they are converted into milk, which differs entirely in composition from the blood, whence it originates. The chief proteins of milk — casein and milk albumin — differ from all other proteins of the body, and the milk fat also has entirely different properties from the body fat of the same animal. Milk sugar, the carbohydrate of milk, is found nowhere else in the body. While the blood contains much more potassium than sodium, in milk sodium pre- dominates. From the alveoli the milk passes into the network of milk ducts. In some animals the large milk ducts open directly on the surface of the teat, but in others, including the cow, they open into a small cavity, called the milk cistern, which is just above the teat. Most of the milk yielded at one milking is secreted during the milking process, for in the udder there is room for the storage of but a small part of the total amount produced. Tho the secretion of milk is involuntary and cannot be prevented by the animal any more than can breathing or the circulation of the blood, the flow may be reduced by nervousness caused by fright, an un- familiar attendant, or other unusual excitement. The animal has con- siderable power to "hold up" the milk already secreted in the udder, by contracting the ring of muscle which partially separates the milk cistern from the teat, and similar muscles guarding the milk ducts. Only in most exceptional cases does the true secreting tissue of the mammary gland develop before the animal becomes pregnant. How- ever, when an extract is made from an unborn fetus and injected into the blood of a virgin animal, the mammary gland develops just as tho the animal were pregnant. This leads scientists to believe that in the developing fetiis a mysterious chemical messenger, or "hormone," is formed, which is carried by the blood to the udder, and there stimulates the development of the alveoli- — an example of the surprising degree to which the activities of the body are dependent on each other. 149. The source of fat in milk. — For many years it was believed that the cow could form the fat of milk only from fat in her food. This was disproved by Jordan and Jenter^" of the New York (Geneva) Station in an ingenious experiment. A thousand lbs. of hay and 1500 lbs. each of corn meal and ground oats were sent to a new-process oil-meal factory, where nearly all the fat was extracted with naphtha in the percolators employed for extracting the oil from crushed flax seed. (253) The almost fat-free feeds were returned to the Station and afterwards fed to a cow which had freshened about 4 months before. For 95 days the cow lived on these nearly fat-free feeds, yet during this period she gave 62.9 lbs. of fat in her milk. The food she consumed contained but 11.6 lbs. of fat, of which only 5.7 lbs. was digested. Hence at least 57.2 lbs. of the fat found in the milk must have been derived from some other »N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 132. 106 FEEDS AND FEEDING source than the fat in the food. This fat could not have come from the body of the cow, for Jordan writes: "The cow's body could have con- tained scarcely more than 60 lbs. of fat at the beginning of the experi- ment; she gained 47 lbs. in weight during this period with no increase of body nitrogen, and was judged to be a much fatter cow at the end ; the formation of this quantity of milk fat from the body fat would have caused a marked condition of emaciation, which, because of an increase in the body weight, would have required the improbable increase in the body of 104 lbs. of water and intestinal contents. ' ' Jordan concludes that not over 17 lbs. of the fat produced during the trial could possibly have been produced from the protein supplied in the food. It is most evident that a large part of all the fat produced by this cow must have come from the carbohydrates in her feed, and so a long disputed question is at length settled. 150. Nutrients recLuired for milk production. — To aid in showing the nutrients required for the production of milk, let us compute the amount of product yielded by a well-bred dairy cow in the course of a year. Such an animal, of no unusual ability, should yield 8000 lbs. of milk of average quality. Taking the composition shown in a previous table (115), we find that she will produce annually in her milk 272 lbs. of protein, 296 lbs. of fat, 392 lbs. of milk sugar, and 56 lbs. of mineral matter. This is 56 per ct. more protein, 30 per ct. more non-nitrogenous nutrients (fat and carbohydrates), and 19 per ct. more mineral matter than is contained in the entire body of a fat 2-year-old steer weighing 1200 lbs. (29) Thus each year the cow yields more protein and mineral matter than has been built into the body of the steer during its entire life. At the same time she is also storing considerable protein and mineral matter in the developing body of her unborn calf. It is therefore evident that, far different from the requirements of the mature horse at work or of a mature fattening animal (140,130), the cow needs a liberal supply of protein and mineral matter. To yield the great amount of nutriment in the milk a ration supplying a large amount of net nutrients is also neces- sary, for energy used up in the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of such feeds as straw is of no value for the formation of milk. We have seen (118) that for growth individual proteins have widely different values. Hart and Humphrey^^ have found in recent metabolism experi- ments with dairy cows at the "Wisconsin Station that proteins from various sources are of different worth for milk production. In these trials cows were fed a basal ration of corn stover, which supplied but a small amount of digestible protein. To this ration was added corn or wheat grain or by-products (much of the protein in which is unbalanced in composition) or milk protein, supplied in the form of skim-milk powder and casein (furnishing proteins which are complete in composition). The percentage of the digestible protein of these rations which was used 13 Information to the authors. PRODUCTION OF WORK, MILK, AND WOOL 107 by the cows for milk production and the formation of body protein was 40 per et. with the corn ration, 34 per ct. with the wheat ration, and 58 per et. with the milk protein ration. Such complete proteins as are fur- nished by milk are thus apparently higher in efficiency for milk pro- duction. Since most of the scientific studies of the factors influencing the pro- duction of milk have been conducted with the dairy cow, the discussion of milk production as relating to that animal is continued in Chapters XXI to XXV. The requirements of the mare, ewe, and sow for the production of milk are also treated in the respective chapters of Part III. III. Wool Production 151. Composition of wool. — ^Aside from moisture and dirt, "wool" is made up of pure wool fiber and yolk, the latter including the suint and the wool fat. The wool fiber is practically pure protein, and is of the same chemical composition as ordinaxy hair, but differs in being covered with minute overlapping scales. The suint, chiefly composed of com- pounds of potassium with organic acids, comprises from 15 to over 50 per ct. of the unwashed fleece, being especially high in Merinos. As suint is soluble in water, most of it is removed by washing the sheep or fleece, and less is present in the wool of sheep exposed to the weather. The fat, often incorrectly called yolk, is a complex mixture of fatty sub- stances, insoluble in water, and may make up 8 to 30 per ct. of the weight of a washed fleece. 152. Requirements for wool production. — Owing to the large amount of protein stored by sheep in their fleece, their ration should contain some- what more protein than rations for cattle or swine at the same stage of maturity. As is shown in the next chapter, this is taken into considera- tion in the various feeding standards which have been formulated for various classes of animals. With ewes which are either pregnant or suckling lambs, there is a double demand for food protein, which makes a liberal supply especially advisable. Tho the suint of wool is rich in potassium, this constituent is amply supplied by all usual rations, since practically all the common roughages are rich in potassium, and most concentrates carry a fair amount. Experiments by Wolffs* and Henneberg^^ show that when sheep are fed insufficient food to maintain their weight, the yield of wool is consider- ably diminished. On the other hand, according to Warington,^^ the production of wool hair and wool fat is practically no greater when a full-grown sheep receives a liberal fattening diet than when it is main- tained in ordinary condition. Feeding lambs liberally produces a larger body and consequently a heavier fleece. At the Wisconsin Station^" Craig found that lambs fed grain from an early age sheared about 1 lb. "Landw. Vers. Stat, 1870, p. 57. "Chemistry of the Farm. "Jour. Landw., 12, 1864, p. 48. "Wis. Rpt 1896. 108 FEEDS AND FEEDING more of unwashed but practically the same amount of washed wool as those getting no grain until after they were weaned. The early feeding had produced more yolk but no more wool fiber. The strength of the wool fiber is dependent on the breed, the quality of the individual sheep, and the conditions under which they are reared. Conditions which cheek the growth of the wool, such as insufficient feed, undue exposure, or sickness, will produce a weak spot in the wool fiber, thus lessening its strength. The feed and care for the flock should there- fore be as uniform as possible. Certain regions or districts may produce wool of superior or inferior quality, due to the climate, soil, topography, and the forms of vegetation. CHAPTER VII FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS I. Early Feeding Standards In the preceding chapters we have considered the functions of the various nutrients in the nourishment of animals and have studied the general requirements for maintenance, growth, fattening, and the pro- duction of work, milk, and wool. To guide the farmer in choosing and computing rations for his stock, scientists have put these require- ments into definite form thru the drawing up of feeding standards. These are tables showing the amount of each class of nutrients which, it is believed, should be provided in rations for farm animals of the various ages and classes, to keep them in the best condition and secure maximum production. At the beginning of the last century almost nothing was known con- cerning the chemistry of plants and animals. The farmer then gave his stock hay and corn without knowing what there was in this provender that nourished them. But science soon permeated every line of human activity, and agriculture was benefited along with the other arts. Davy, Liebig, Boussingault, Henneberg, Wolff, Lawes and Gilbert, and other great scientists were early laying the foundations for a rational agri- cultural practice based on chemistry, and animal feeding gained with the rest. 153. Hay equivalents. — The first attempt to express the relative value of different feeding stuffs in a systematic manner was by Thaer^ of Germany, who in 1810 published a table of hay equivalents with meadow hay as the standard. According to this writer the amounts of various other feeding stuffs required to equal 100 lbs. of meadow hay in feeding value were : 91 lbs. clover hay 417 lbs. rutabagas 91 lbs. alfalfa hay 602 lbs. cabbages 200 lbs. potatoes 62S lbs. mangels Naturally opinions on feed values varied, and so there were about as many tables of hay equivalents as there were writers on the subject. 154. The first feeding standard. — Chemistry having paved the way, Grouven^ in 1859 proposed the first feeding standard for farm animals, based on the crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat in feeding stuffs. 'Landwirtschaft, New ed., 1880, p. 211. 'Feeding Standard for Dom. Anim., Expt. Sta. Rec, IV; also Agricultur- chemie, Koln, 1889, p. 834. 109 no FEEDS AND FEEDING This, however, was imperfect since it was based on the total instead of the digestible nutrients. 155. The Wolff feeding standards.— In 1864 Dr. Emil von Wolff, the great German scientist, presented in the Mentzel & von Lengerke's Agri- cultural Calendar' for that year the first table of feeding standards based on the digestible nutrients contained in feeding stuffs. These standards set forth the amount of digestible crude protein, carbohydrates, and fat required daily by the different classes of farm animals. The value and importance of the Wolff standards were at once recog- nized; and with their promulgation and adoption came the first wide- spread effort toward the rational feeding of farm animals. The Wolff standards were first brought to the attention of the American people in 1874 by Atwater,* America's worthy pioneer in the science of animal nutrition. Armsby's Manual of Cattle Feeding, based on Wolff's book' on the same subject, appeared in 1880. The Wolff feeding standards appeared annually in the Mentzel-Len- gerke Calendar down to 1896. From 1897 to 1906 they were presented by Dr. C. Lehmann of the Berlin Agricultural High School with some modifications. In 1907 Dr. 0. KeUner, the talented director of the Mockern (Germany) Experiment Station, took charge of this portion of the Calendar and substituted tables and feeding standards based on starch values, as elsewhere briefly presented in this work. (170) The numerous feeding experiments which have been carried on since the Wolff-Lehmann standards were formulated have given us a more complete knowledge of the nutrient requirements of the various classes of farm animals than was possessed by these pioneers in the field of animal nutrition. Naturally such results show that the standards set forth by Wolff and Lehmann are in some respects inaccurate. Taking these facts into consideration later scientists have formulated other standards which are presented elsewhere in this chapter. The Wolff- Lehmann standards are briefly explained first on account of their his- torical and foundational importance. II. The Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standabds 156. The Wolff-Iehmann standards. — The nutrient requirements of the various classes of farm animals, as prescribed in the Wolff-Lehmann standards, are given in Appendix Table IV. From this table the fol- lowing examples have been selected for purposes of study: 'Published annually by Paul Parey, Berlin, Germany. *Rpt. Me. State Bd. Agr., 1874; Rpt. Conn. Bd. Agr., 1874-5. 'Fiitterungslehre, let ed., 1874, FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 111 Digestible nutrients required daily iy farm animals per 1000 lbs. live weight Dry matter Digestible nutrients Animal Crude protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Nutritive ratio Ox. at rest . Lbs. 18 ,30 29 24 T.hH. 0.7 2.5 2.5 2.0 Lbs. 8.0 15.0 13.0 11.0 Lbs. 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.6 1 : 11.8 Fattening cattle, 1st period Cow, yielding 22 lbs. milk Horse, at medium work 1 : 6.5 1 : 5.7 1 : 6.2 The table shows that according to Wolff's teachings a 1000-lb. ox at rest, neither gaining nor losing in weight, requires for 1 day's main- tenance 18 lbs. of dry matter containing the following digestible nutri- ents: 0.7 lb. crude protein, 8.0 lbs. carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb. fat, with a nutritive ratio of 1:11.8. Tho the ox is resting, work is still being performed; the beating of the heart, mastication, digestion, standing, breathing — all the manifestations of life in fact — ^imply internal work and call for energy and for repair material. When the animal is growing, fattening, giving milk, or doing external work, a larger quantity of nutrients must be supplied than for main- tenance, as the table shows. For the cow yielding 22 lbs. of milk daily, the standard calls for the following quantities of the several digestible nutrients: Crude protein 2.5 lbs., carbohydrates 13.0 lbs., and fat 0.5 lb. These have a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5.7, which is much narrower than for the ox at rest. In his effort to attain the proper standard Wolff* reasoned that, since pasture grass is the natural food of the dairy cow, the nutritive ratio of such grass might most properly serve as the chosen standard. 157. Notes on the Wolff-Lehmann standards. — Later investigations have shown that the Wolff-Lehmann standards are only approximately correct. Kiihn of the Mockem Station'' f oirnd that the 1000-lb. ox can be maintained on 0.7 lb. of digestible crude protein and 6.6 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates. Kelhier, who was Kiihn 's successor, has practically adopted the Kiihn standard as wiU be shown later. (170) It has been previously pointed out that Armsby succeeded in maintaining steers for 70-day periods on rations containing only 0.5 lb. of digestible true protein per 1000 lbs. live weight. (94) Whether this allowance would satisfactorily maintain animals in good health over stUl longer periods has not yet been definitely shown. Haecker of the Minnesota Station* found that the 1000-lb. dry, barren cow can be maintained on 0.6 lb. of crude protein, 6 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb. of fat, all digestible. For the maintenance 'Farm Foods, Eng. Ed., p. 224. 'Landw. Vers. Stat., 44, p. 450. 'Minn. Bui. 79. 112 FEEDS AND FEEDING of the 1000-lb. cow producing milk he would allow 0.7 lb. of crude protein, 7 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb. of fat, aU digestible. In his standard, which is presented later (182), he holds that the Wolff- Lehman n allowance of crude protein for the cow in milk may be ad- vantageously cut 19 per ct. or more, unless feeds rich in that nutrient are available at relatively low cost. WoU of the Wisconsin Station' likewise found that the Wolff standard for dairy cows was higher in crude protein than necessary. The Wolff allowance of crude protein for fattening animals may be materially reduced without decreasing the rate of gain. It has also been found that less protein is needed by the work horse than these standards recommend. These various findings are taken into consider- ation in the "Modified Wolff-Lehmann Standards" which are presented later in this chapter. Altho we now have more accurate guides to the nutrient requirements of certain classes of animals than furnished in the Wolff-Lehmann stand- ards, both students and stockmen should, first of all, familiarize them- selves with the Wolff standards on account of their historical interest and because they are still widely and helpfully used in computing rations. These standards, coupled Avith tables of the digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs, such as Appendix Table III of this work, have been profoundly useful in advancing the great art of feeding farm animals. Having familiarized himself with the Wolfif-Lehmann standards, one is ' prepared for the study of other more accurate systems and standards now in the process of formation. III. Calculating Rations for Farm Animals 158. General requirements of satisfactory rations. — The various feeding standards make recommendations only in regard to the amounts of dry matter, of the various nutrients, and, in the case of the Kellner and Armsby standards, of the net energy which the ration should supply. However, the following highly important factors should also be taken into account in computing rations for farm animals. 159. Suitability of feeds. — The feeds selected for any animal should be such that they will not injure its health or the quality of the product yielded. Feeds which are suited to one class of farm animals may not be adapted to others. Again, a given feed may give satisfactory results when combined with certain other feeds, yet in other combinations it may prove unsatisfactory. A few examples of such conditions are fur- nished in the following: Cottonseed meal in moderate amount is an excellent feed for cattle, sheep, and horses, yet it is so frequently poisonous to pigs that feeding the meal, as at present prepared, to these ahimals cannot be advised. (249) While there is always danger from using feeds damaged by mold, such material may often be eaten with •Wis. Rpt. 1894. FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 113 impunity by cattle when it would poison horses or sheep. (397) Tim- othy hay, which is the standard roughage for the horse, is unsatisfactory for the dairy cow, and may cause serious trouble with sheep on account of its constipating effect. (312) Feeding cows a heavy allowance of ground soybeans produces unduly soft butter, while an excess of cocoanut meal makes the butter too hard. (256, 260) Peanuts and soybeans produce soft lard when forming too large a part of the ration of fattening pigs. (258) It is often highly beneficial to add wheat bran or linseed meal to the ration on account of their slightly laxative effect. (218, 254) On the other hand, when animals are already receiving such laxative feeds as silage, pasture grass, and legume hay, the use of bran or linseed meal may be unwise. 160. Bulkiness of ration. — ^We have already seen that at least with the horse and with young ruminants the ration must contain some rough- age to distend the digestive tract properly. (106) Furthermore, for the best results the proportion of concentrates and roughages in the ration should be regulated according to the kind and class of animal to be fed and the results sought. Cattle, sheep, and horses can be wintered satisfactorily on roughages alone, if of suitable quality. (80, 91) Even brood sows may be maintained chiefly on legume hay, when not suckling their young. In the rations for growing and fattening animals and those at work or in milk, a considerable part of the ration should consist of concentrates. The various feeding standards recognize these facts in the amount of dry matter which they prescribe in the rations for the different classes of animals. Obviously, when the requirement of digestible nutrients or of net energy is high compared with the total amount of dry matter advised, the proportion of concentrates in the ration must be large. . On the other hand, for the mere maintenance of animals the standards call for a much smaller amount of digestible nutrients or of net energy compared with the amount of total dry matter. 161. Mineral matter. — In the various feeding standards no statement is made as to the amount or kind of mineral matter required by the differ- ent classes of animals, the supposition being that a ration which provides the proper amount of protein and other nutrients will also furnish an adequate supply of mineral matter. We have already seen that in some cases, especially with the pig, the mineral supply may be deficient in amount or unbalanced in character in rations which meet the ordinary standards. (96-101, 119) In computing rations the special requirements of the various classes of animals, as set forth in the preceding chapters, should therefore be kept clearly in mind. 162. Palatability. — ^As has already been pointed out (56), the palata- bility of the ration is an important factor in stimulating digestion and in inducing the animal to consume heavy rations. The wise feeder will uti- lize feeds of low palatability chiefly for such animals as are being merely 114 FEEDS AND FEEDING maintained, and will feed growing and fattening animals, milch cows, and horses at hard work rations made up, for the most part at least, of well-liked feeds. Some concentrates, such as malt sprouts and dried dis- tillers' grains, which may not be relished when fed alone, are entirely satisfactory if given in mixture with other better-liked feeds. Similarly, such roughages as straw and marsh hay, which are of low palatability, may be given in limited amount even to animals fed for production, a practice widely followed by European farmers. While the maximum gains may be made on rations composed entirely of exceedingly palatable feeds, it should be remembered that one of the chief functions of our useful domestic animals is to consume and convert into useful products materials which would otherwise be wasted. (2) 163. Variety of feeds. — Skilled feeders usually maintain that a ration composed of a variety of feeds will give better results than when a smaller number are employed, even tho the latter ration supplies the proper amount of protein, carbohydrates, and fat. From the discussions in the preceding chapters, in which it has been pointed out that the protein furnished by certain feeds is unbalanced in composition, it is evident that a larger variety of feeds may, by the law of chance, furnish a better balanced mixture of proteins than 1 or 2 feeds alone. (94, 118) With these facts in mind it would seem wise, in choosing supplements for a ration low in protein, to select those which will supply protein from different sources. For example, it is injudicious, if other supple- ments are equally available, to use corn by-products, such as corn gluten feed or gluten meal, in balancing the ration of pigs otherwise fed corn only. With dairy cows, especially in the ease of high-producing animals being forced on official test, skilled feeders place emphasis on having variety in the ration, tho this does not imply changes in the ration from day to day. Indeed, sudden changes in kinds of feed are to be avoided. At least with horses and fattening animals, the advantage of a large variety of feeds in the ration does not seem to have been proven, pro- vided the simple ration furnishes the proper amount and kind of nutri- ents. For example,. oats and timothy hay for the horse, and corn and skim milk for the fattening pig, furnish rations which can scarcely be improved from the standpoint of production and health, tho other com- binations may perhaps be cheaper. 164. Cost of the ration. — The most important factor of all, for the farmer who must depend on the profits from his stock for his income, is the cost -of the ration. In securing a ration which provides the nutri- ents called for by the standards and meets the other conditions previously discussed, lies a great opportunity for exercising foresight and business judgment on every farm where animals are fed. The wise farmer- feeder will consider the nutrient requirements of his animals in planning his crop rotations. Thru the use of grain from corn or the sorghums, legume hay, and such cheap succulence as silage from com or the sor- ghums, it is possible in most sections of the country to go far toward solving the problem of providing a well-balanced, economical ration. FEEDING STAND AEDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 115 165. Feeding standards only approximate guides. — In a previoi:^ chap- ter it has been shown that the composition of a given feeding-stttff is not fixed, but may be materially influenced by such factors as climate, stage of maturity when harvested, etc. (81) Individual animals also differ from one another in their ability to digest and utilize their feed. (85-6) It should, therefore, be borne in mind that tables of digestible nutrients and likewise feeding standards are but averages and approximations — something far different from the multiplication table or a table of loga- rithms. They should be regarded as reasonable approximations to great vital facts and principles in the feeding of farm animals. The allowance of proteia set forth in the standards is the Tninimum amount recommended by the scientists for the best results. "Where pro- tein-rich feeds are lower in price than those carbonaceous in character, as alfalfa in the alfalfa districts of the West and cottonseed meal in the cotton-belt, it is often economical to furnish more protein than is called for by the standards. Except in the case of very young animals, it is, however, probably not advisable to feed rations having a nutritive ratio narrower than 1 : 4 or 1 : 4.5. Where protein-rich feeds are high in price it may be economical to feed a wider ration than advised by the stand- ards, tho it is rarely wise to depart far from them. 166. Limitations of balanced rations. — That other factors than the total amount of protein, carbohydrates, fat, and net energy are of importance in determining the value of rations, is shown in a striking manner by Hart, McCoUum, Steenbock, and Humphrey^" at the Wisconsin Station in experiments which are stiU in progress. In these trials, which have so far covered 8 years, heifers were fed to maturity on rations from a single plant source, which furnished the full amount of nutrients and of net energy called for by the standards. One lot was fed wholly on products from the com plant alone, including com stover, com grain, and gluten feed; a second, a ration from the wheat plant, including wheat straw, wheat grain, and wheat gluten; a third, a similar ration from the oat plant ; and a fourth, a combiaation ration from all 3 plants. The effects of these restricted rations were not especially marked imtil the animals underwent the strain of reproduction. Then it became evi- dent that the wheat ration was strikingly deficient in some hidden way, the cows in this lot invariably bringing forth either dead or weak, under- sized offspring. On the other hand, the calves from the corn-fed mothers were always strong and healthy. Contrary to what many practical feeders would expect, the ration from the com, wheat, and oat plants combined, altho supplying a much greater variety, proved inferior to the ration from the com plant alone. Apparently the bad results from the wheat ration are due to an unbalanced protein supply (94-5, 118, 150), to a deficiency of mineral matter (96-100, 119), and perhaps to other causes not yet ascertained. (104) It was found that when alfalfa hay replaced part of the wheat straw in the wheat ration normal calves were produced. "Wis. Res. Bui. 17; Rpts., 1912, 1914. 116 FEEDS AND FEEDING It should not be concluded from these trials that feeding stuffs from the wheat plant are dangerous feeds or that feeding standards are of little value. They merely emphasize the fact that, in forming rations, we must consider not only the physiological action of the individual feeds, but also the effect of the combination as it is found in the ration. "With this in view the practical feeder and the student alike will attach especial importance to the summaries presented in Part III of the re- sults actually secured with aU classes of animals when fed many different rations. 167. Hints on formulating rations. — In computing rations one should have in mind the approximate amount of roughage and concentrates re- quired per 1000 lbs. live weight by the various classes of animals. As will be shown in the experiments reviewed in Part III, the proportion of concentrates and roughages depends first of all on how much it is desired to force the animal; for example, when it is desired to fatten animals rapidly the allowance of concentrates must be considerably larger than when they are fattened more slowly and thru a longer period. In a similar manner, the horse at hard work should be given more grain and less roughage than the horse working but little. In general, the following summary will be helpful as a guide in computing rations : Maiwe idle horses and mature cattle and sheep being maintained at constant weight may be fed chiefly or entirely on roughage, unless it is of poor quality, when some grain must be used. Horses at loork should be given 2 to 3 lbs. of feed (roughages and concentrates com- bined) daily per 100 lbs. hve weight, the allowance of concentrates ranging from 10 to 18 lbs., depending on the severity of the work. Dairy cows in milk should be fed about 2 lbs. of dry roughage or 1 lb. of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage daily per 100 lbs. hve weight, with sufficient concentrates in addi- tion to bring the nutrients up to the standard. Fattening steers should receive 2.1 lbs. or more of concentrates and dry roughage (or the equivalent in silage) daily per lOO lbs. live weight, the allowance of concentrates ranging from less than 1 lb. to 1 .7 lbs. or more, depending on the rate of gain desired and the character of the roughage. Fattening lambs will consume about 1 .4 lbs. of dry roughage daily when fed all the grain they will eat, and up to 2 .3 lbs. or over when the grain allowance is restricted. Silage may replace a corresponding amount of dry matter in dry roughage. Pigs can make but limited use of dry roughage, except in the case of brood sows not suckling young. 168. Maintenance ration for steers. — Having discussed the general factors which should be considered in computing rations for farm ani- mals, let us now calculate the feed required, according to the Wolff- Lehmann standard, to maintain a 1000-lb. ox at rest in his stall when neither gaining nor losing in weight. Since it has been shown that mature animals can be maintained largely on roughages (91), let us see how nearly field-cured corn stover and oat straw will meet the require- ments. Since the standard calls for 18 lbs. of dry matter we will first try quantities of these feeds which supply slightly less than this amount. If for the trial ration it is decided to feed 10 lbs. of corn stover and 10 FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 117 lbs. of oat straw for roughage, then, using the values for digestible nu- trients given in Appendix Table III, the calculations for dry matter and digestible nutrients would be as given below : Com stover, field-cured In 100 In 10 pounds pounds Dry matter 59 .0-=- 100X10=5 .90 Crude protein 1 .4 -=-100X10=0. 14 Carbohydrates 31 .1-5-100X10=3 .11 Fat 0.6-5-100X10=0.06 Oat straw Dry matter 88 .5-5-100X10=8 .85 Crude protein .n . . . 1 .0-^ 100X10=0. 10 Carbohydrates 42.6-5-100X10=4.26 Fat 0.9-5-100X10=0.09 Arranging these results in tabular form, we have : First trial ration for maintaining 1000-lb. ox at rest Feeding stuffs Dry matter Digestible nutrients Crude Carbo- protein hydrates Fat Nutritive ratio Com stover, 10 lbs. Oat straw, 10 lbs. . . Lbs. 5.90 8.85 Lbs. 0.14 0.10 Lbs. 3.11 4.26 Lbs. 0.06 0.09 First trial ration Wolff-Lehmaim standard. 14.75 18.00 0.24 0.70 7.37 8.00 0.15 0.10 32.2 11.8 Excess or deficit. -3.25 -0.46 -0.63 -fO.05 This trial ration contains only about one-third the digestible crude protein called for and also falls below the standard in dry matter and carbohydrates. To improve it let us substitute 5 lbs. of clover hay, which is high in protein, for the same weight of corn stover, and add 0.5 lb. of protein-rich linseed meal. We then have : Second trial ration for madntaining 1000-lb. ox at rest Feeding stuffs Dry matter . Digestible nutrients Crude protein Carbo- hydrates Fat Nutritive ratio Clover hay, 5 lbs Com stover, 5 lbs Oat straw, 10 lbs Linseed meal, .5 lb ... . Second trial ration Wolff-Lehmann standard Excess or deficit Lbs. 4.36 2.95 8.85 0.45 Lbs. 0.38 0.07 0.10 0.15 Lbs. 1.96 1.56 4.26 0.16 Lbs. 0.09 0.03 0.09 0.03 16.61 18.00 0.70 0.70 7.94 8.00 0.24 0.10 12.1 11.8 -1.39 0.0 -0.06 -f-0.14 118 FEEDS AND FEEDING This ration closely approaches the standard. It falls below by more than 1 lb. of dry matter, but this deficiency is unimportant. Dry matter is only an indication of the bulk or volume of the ration, and may vary greatly with different feeds and animals without affecting results. The excess of fat will more than make up the trifling deficit of carbohy- drates, for fat has 2.25 times the heat value of carbohydrates. The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1 :12.1, which is very close to that called for by the standard. From this we learn that 5 lbs. of clover hay, 5 lbs. of field-cured corn stover, 10 lbs. of oat straw, and 0.5 lb. of lin- seed meal should furnish sufScient nutrients to maintaia a 1000-lb. ox for 24 hours at rest when neither gaining nor losing in weight. It is practically impossible, as well as useless, to attempt to formulate rations that will exactly agree with the standard in all nutrients. The Wolff-Lehmann standards were devised to cover the common systems of feeding in Europe, where some straw or other low grade roughage is commonly included in rations for horses and ruminants. "When only such high grade roughages as silage and legume hay are used, rations which supply enough digestible nutrients will fall below the standard requirement in dry matter. Provided the ration furnishes bulk sufS- cient to distend the digestive tract properly, no further attention need be paid to such a deficit of dry matter. American rations will usually furnish an excess of fat over the standard, in which case the carbohy- drates may fall somewhat below the standard as an offset, it being borne in mind that 1 lb. of fat will replace 2.25 lbs. of carbohydrates. (70) Several devices and expedients have been offered to shorten the work of calculating rations. Willard of the Kansas Station^^ presents a sys- tem based on alligation, while SpiUman of the Washington Station^^ and Jeffers^" have invented ingenious mechanical computers. It seems best in this work to show how to perform the calculations in the simplest and most direct manner. Thru such drill the student will become familiar with the quantity and proportion of the several nutrients in common feeding-stuffs and the amount of these required by farm animals ac- cording to the standards. The whole matter is less difficult and no more fatiguing than the simpler arithmetical operations of the secondary schools, while the benefits should richly compensate the agricultural student for the time and effort. IV. Kellner's Staech Valxjes and Feeding Standards We have already pointed out that the careful and laborious investi- gations conducted by Kellner and Zuntz by means of a modern respira- tion apparatus and by Armsby by means of a respiration calorimeter show that the total quantity of digestible nutrients in a feeding-stuff is not necessarily the true measure of its feeding value, as is assumed in "Kan. Bui. 115; Cyclopedia of Am. Agr., Bailey, Vol. Ill, p. 103. "Wash. Bui. 48. "H. W. JefCers, Plainsboro, N. J. FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 119 the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards. These investigators have found that, to determine the true net value of any given feeding-stuff to the animal, it is necessary to deduct the energy expended in the work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation from the total available energy furnished by the digestible nutrients in the feeding-stuff. (78-80) 169. Kellner's starch values. — As a result of his investigations Kellner formulated feeding standards based on what he called "starch values."^* He found that on the average 1 lb. of digestible starch fed to the ox in excess of maintenance requirements produced 0.248 lb. of body fat. (129) Taking 1 lb. of digestible starch as his unit, he gives the follow- ing starch values for the digestible nutrients in feeding-stuffs, based on the amount of body fat these several pure nutrients will form if fed to the ox : Statch Value In 1 lb. of digestible Lbs. Protein .94 Nitrogen-free extract and fiber 1 .00 Fat in roughage, chaff, roots, etc 1 .61 Fat in cereals, factory and mill by-products 2 . 12 Fat in oil-bearing seeds and oil meal 2 .41 Kellner further found that the net nutritive value of certain concen- trates, such as grains and seeds, oil cake, roots, and slaughter-house by- products was about the same as that obtained when the several pure nutrients in them were fed separately. Tho the exact starch value of each such feed can be determined only by careful experimentation, the approximate value may be computed from amounts of each class of digestible nutrients the feed furnishes. For example, the approximate starch value of dent corn can be found as follows, using the content of digestible nutrients as given in Appendix Table III. Calculation of approximate starch value of dent corn Digestible ato.nV. nutrients Factor „?i,?r in 100 lbs. ™'"« Lbs. Lbs. Digestible protein 7.5 X 0.94 = 7.05 Nitrogen-free extract and fiber 67 .8 X 1 00 = 67 .80 Fat 4.6 X 2.12 = 9.75 Total 79 .9 84.60 The approximate starch value of dent corn is thus about 84.6 lbs. It is not possible to compute the starch values of feeds high in fiber with any degree of exactness. From the few typical feeds which he actually studied in respiration experiments, Kellner found that with such feeds it was necessary to make deductions from the starch values computed as before, ranging all the way from 5 to 30 per ct. with mill and factory by-products, and from 50 to 70 per ct. with straw, to get their true starch values. By making arbitrary deductions in this manner he com- "Landw. Kal., 1909, I, pp. 103-119; Emahr. Landw. Nutztiere, 1907. 120 FEEDS AND FEEDING puted the starch values for a long list of feeding-stuffs. Owing to the great amount of labor involved, he determined the starch values by actual experiment for only about a dozen feeds. The others must, therefore, be regarded as approximations, which are helpful until the true net values of such feeds have been found. Moreover, he ascer- tained the starch values of these feeds only when they were fed in a moderate ration to the mature ox during the first stages of fattening. Eckles of the Missouri Station^^ has found these values too low when applied to the dairy cow, and Woods^* of Cambridge University, Eng- land, has shown that they are too high for the ox fed a heavy fattening ration. Concerning the starch values for other classes of animals we know little or nothing. 170. Kellner's feeding standards. — ^KelLner has formulated feeding standards for the various classes of animals in which the requirements are expressed in dry matter, digestible protein, and starch values. For example, his standard for the maintenance of the mature steer per 1000 lbs. live weight calls for 15 to 21 lbs. dry matter, 0.6 to 0.8 lb. digestible protein, and 6.0 lbs. starch values. The Kellner tables of starch values and his feeding standards are not here given in detail, but instead Armsby's tables of net energy values and of feeding standards, which are similar ^nd which are chiefly used in this country by those desiring to compute rations according to the net energy system. V. The Akmsby Energy Values and Feeding Standards 171. The Armsby energy values. — ^With the first and only respiration calorimeter used in the study of farm animals in America, Armsby of the Pennsylvania Station^' has determined the net energy values for 8 typical feeds and 2 concentrate mixtures. He has used these values and the starch values obtained by Kellner as the basis for estimating the losses of energy in the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of other feeds. By special permission of the authors of this volume, he has then computed from the average content of digestible nutrients of various feeds shown in Appendix Table III, the net energy values of the most important American feeds. Some of these values are given in the table on the next page. The last column of the table does not show the total energy in the digestible portion of 100 lbs. of the various feeding stuffs, but only the net energy, i. e., that portion which is finally available to the animal «Mo. Ees. Bui. 7. "Jour. Agr. Sci., 5, 1914, p. 248. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Buls. 51, 74, 101; Farmer's Bui. 346; Jour. Agr. Res., 3, 1915, p. 435; Penn. Bui. 142. FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 121 after deducting the losses occurring thru mastication, digestion and assimilation. He expresses the net energy in therms in place of Kellner's starch values (75). The second column gives the digestible crude pro- tein, as shown in Appendix Table III of this book, and the third column the digestible true protein as estimated by Armsby from the crude protein and Kellner's data. Net energy values in 100 Ihs. of various feeding stuff i «,_x-, a Digestible ^. .,^,. Feeding stuffs Grains Barley Corn, dent Com-and-cob meal Oats Peas, field Rye Wheat By-products Brewers' gralng, dried Brewers' grains, wet Buckwheat middlings Cottonseed meal, choice Distillers' grains, dried from corn. Distillers' grains, dried, from rye . Gluten feed Gluten meal Lliueed meal, old process Malt sprouts Rye bran Skim milk, centrifugal Sugar beet pulp, wet Tankage, over 60 per cent protein Wheat bran Wheat middlings, flour Wheat middUngSi Btaodord Dried roughage Alfalfa hay Clover, crimson Clover, red Cowpea hay Corn fodder, medium dry Corn stoveTtinedlum dry Millet hay, Hungarian Mixed timothy and clover hay . . . Oat straw Red top hay Rye straw Soybean hay Timothy hay Wheat straw Green fodder and silage Alfalfa, In bloom Clover, crimson Clover, red Com fodder, dent Com silage, well matured Millet, Hungarian Oat fodder Rape Timothy, In bloom Roots and tubers Carrots Mangels Potatoes Rutabagas Tmmipa Total flry Digestible Digestible Net energy value matter protein protein Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Therms 90.7 9.0 8.3 89.94 89.5 7.5 7.0 89.16 89.6 6.1 5.7 75.80 90.8 9.7 8.7 67.66 90.8 19.0 16.6 78.72 90.6 9.9 9.0 93.71 89.8 9.2 8.1 91.82 92. 5 21.5 20.2 63.38 24.1 4.6 4.4 14.63 88.0 24.6 20.8 72.19 92.5 37.0 36.4 93.46 93.4 22.4 18.3 86.08 92.8 13.6 11.1 66.01 91.3 21.6 20.1 80.72 90.9 30.2 28.1 84.15 90.9 30.2 28 6 88.91 92.4 20.3 12.6 72.72 88.6 12.2 10.6 79.35 9.9 3.6 3.6 14.31 9.3 0.5 0.6 8.99 92.6, 58.7 55.6 93.04 89.9 12.5 . 10.8 63.00 89.3 15.7 14.0 75.02 89.6 13.4 12.0 59.10 91.4 10.6 7.1 34.23 89.4 9.7 6.9 36.21 87.1 7.6 4.9 38.68 90.3 13.1 9.2 37.69 81.7 3.0 2.3 43.94 81.0 2.1 1.6 31.62 86.7 5.0 3.9 46.96 87.8 6.3 3.2 41.07 88.5 1.0 0.8 34.81 90.2 4.6 3.9 51.22 92.9 0.7 0.5 17.59 91.4 11.7 8.8 44.03 88.4 3.0 2.2 43.02 91.6 0.7 0.3 7.22 25.9 3.3 1.8 11.60 17.4 2.3 1.6 10.83 26.2 2.7 1.7 16.87 23.1 1.0 0.8 14.60 26.3 1.1 0.6 16.90 27.6 1.9 1.1 17.24 26.1 2.3 2.0 14.06 16.7 2.6 1.7 13.07 32.1 1.3 0.8 18.89 11.7 0.9 O.S 9.21 9.4 0.8 0.1 5.63 21.2 1.1 0.1 18.27 10.9 1.0 0.3 8.46 9.5 1.0 0.4 6.16 Of the feeds listed, rye has the highest net energy value, 93.71 therms per 100 lbs. Due to the large amount of fiber contained in the hulls, the net energy value of oats is only 67.56 therms per 100 lbs. The dry roughages furnish much less net energy than the concentrates, wheat straw having a value of only 7.22 therms per 100 lbs. 172. The Armsby standards for maintenance. — The following table by Armsby sets forth the maintenance requirements of horses, cattle, and sheep, no table having yet been formulated for swine : 122 FEEDS AND FEEDING Armsly's maintenance standards for horses, cattle, and sheep Horsea Cattle Sheep Live weight Digestible Energy Digestible Energy Live Digestible Energy protein value protein value weight protein Lba. Lbs. Therma Lbs. Therms Lbs. Lbs. Therms 150 0.30 2.00 0.15 1.70 20 0.023 0.30 250 0.40 2.80 0.20 2.40 40 0.05 0.54 600 0.60 4.40 0.30 3.80 60 0.07 0.71 750 0.80 5.80 0.40 4.95 80 0.09 0.87 1000 1.00 7.00 0.50 6.00 100 0.10 1.00 1250 1.20 8.15 0.60 7.00 120 0.11 1.13 1500 1.30 9.20 0.65 7.90 140 0.13 1.25 The table shows that a young horse weighing 500 lbs., if neither gaining nor losing in weight, would require for its daily support 0.60 lb. of digestible protein and 4.40 therms of net digestible matter, the latter including the 0.60 lb. of digestible protein. When this growing horse reaches 1000 lbs., there is required for its maintenance 1 lb. of digestible protein and 7 therms of net digestible matter. Tho it has doubled in weight, the food requirement has not likewise doubled. "When the horse reaches the weight of 1500 lbs., there is required a further in- crease of only 0.3 lb. of protein and 2.20 therms of net energy. This is due to the fact, already pointed out (91), that the maintenance require- ment depends not on body weight but upon body surface. In recog- nizing this fact, Armsby has made an important advance over the Wolff- Lehmann standards. 173. Standards for growing animals. — In the table which follows, Armsby sets forth the digestible protein and net energy requirements of growing cattle and sheep, no data as yet having been given for horses and swine. The figures include the maintenance requirements. The Armsby standards for growing cattle and sheep Cattle Sheep Age Live Digestible Net energy Live Digestible Net energy- weight protein value weight protein value Months Lbs. Lbs. Therms Lbs. Lbs. Therms 3 275 1.10 5.0 6 425 1.30 6.0 70 0.30 1.30 9 90 0.25 1.40 12 650 i.65 7.6 110 0.23 1.40 15 130 0.23 1.50 18 850 1.70 7.5 145 0.22 1.60 24 1000 1.75 8.0 30 1100 1.65 8.0 The table shows that a 3-months-old calf, weighing 275 lbs., requires 1.10 lbs. of digestible protein and 5 therms of net energy value, the latter including the 1.10 lbs. protein. When the calf has grown to 1100 lbs., FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 123 or quadrupled in weight, it requires but 0.55 lb. more protein and 3 more therms than before. This relative lessening in feed requirement is due to the fact that the larger animal requires relatively less for main- tenance, as explained elsewhere. (91) For the 1000-lb. steer Armsby al- lows 1.75 lbs. of digestible protein, and but 1.65 lbs., or. 0.10 lb. less, for the same animal when weighing 1,100 lbs. This is because at the higher weight the steer has practically ceased muscular growth and therefore needs less protein than earlier in life. A comparison of the maintenance and growth requirements of animals, as here set forth, reveals the fact that a large portion of all the feed the animal consumes is used for the support of the body, and that the additional requirements for growth are not relatively large. 174. Milch cows, fattening steers, and other animals. — Armsby supple- ments the foregoing partial standards with the following : 1. For milk production, add to the maintenance standard 0.05 lb. of digestible protein and 0.3 therm for each pound of 4 per ct. milk to be produced. 2. For 2- to 3-year-old fattening cattle, add 3.5 therms to the standard for growth for each pound of gain to be made. For the milch cow Armsby provides additional food, both protein and therms, as noted in the foregoing, because milk is rich in complex pro- tein compounds, and also contains carbohydrates and fat. Furthermore, the cow is usually growing a calf. Armsby holds that, after providing the protein set forth in the ration for growth, the steer will fatten sat- isfactorily without any additional protein, provided there are supplied sufficient carbohydrates and fat to meet the standard. It should be borne in mind that to prevent a depression of the digestibility of the ration on account of too large a proportion of carbohydrates, at least 1 lb. of digestible protein should be supplied in the ration for each 8 to 10 lbs. of carbohydrates and fat. (84) As a rough guide to the amount of dry matter to be fed, Armsby recommends that: 1. A 1000-lb. ruminant should receive 20 to 30 lbs., or an average of 25 lbs., dry matter per day. 2. The horse should receive somewhat less dry matter than ruminants. For work horses he recommends Kellner's standard which is based upon the extensive work of Zuntz. This standard, converted from starch values to therms, is given in a later chapter. (456) Armsby has formu- lated no standards for fattening sheep or lambs, for growing horses, or for pigs. 175. Fattening lambs. — Bull and Bmmett of the Illinois Station^' have made a critical and comprehensive study of the American investigations in fattening lambs, covering trials in which 265 lots of lambs, aggregat- ing 5,127 animals, were fed. From the results secured in these trials, they give the following as the approximate minimum requirements of digestible crude protein and net energy per 1000 lbs. live weight. ^IIl. Bui. 166. 124 FEEDS AND FEEDING BuU-Emmett standards for fattening lambs Per 1000 lbs. live weight Weight Digestible crude , Net energy protein value Lambs weighing 50-70 lbs Lbs. 3.1-3.3 2.5-2.8 2.2-2.4 1.4-1.9 Therms 17-19 Lambs weighing 70-90 lbs 18-20 Lambs weighing 90-1 10 lbs 17-20 Lambs weighing 110-150 lbs 16-19 It will be noted that the requirements fot protein are expressed in terms of crude protein instead of true protein, as in the Armsby stand- ards. Bull and Emmett state that the figures for lambs weighing 110 to 150 lbs. are only approximations, owing to the small amount of data available for animals of these weights. It will be noted that as the lambs become more mature the amount of protein required per 1000 lbs. live weight grows less, 176. Eation for maintaining the steer. — To illustrate the method of using the Armsby standards and table of net energy values, let us com- pute a ration for maintaing a mature steer weighing 1000 lbs., when neither gaining nor losing weight, assuming that there are available corn Btover, oat straw, dent com, and cottonseed meal. According to the standard, an animal of this weight requires 0.5 lb. digestible protein and 6.0 therms of net energy. As com stover and oat straw are much cheaper than the concentrates, let us first see how nearly a ration of these rough- ages alone will meet the requirements. Suppose that we select for a trial ration 10 lbs. of corn stover and 8 lbs. of oat straw. The calcula- tions will then be as follows : Calculations for trial ration for maintaining 1000-lb. steer Dry matter. . . Dig. protein. . Net energy. . . Corn stover In 100 lbs. In 10 lbs. ..81.0 -=-100X10=8.10 . . 1.6-7-100X10=0.16 .31.62-5-100X10=3.16 Oat straw In 100 lbs. In 8 lbs. Dry matter 88.5 -^ 100 X 8=7.08 Dig. protein 0.8 -^ lOO X 8=0.06 Net energy 34.81 -I- 100 X 8=2.78 First trial ration for maintaining 1000-lb. steer Feeding stuffs Total dry matter Digestible protein Net energy value Com stover, 10 lbs Oat Straw. 8 lbs Lbs. 8.10 7.08 Lbs. 0.16 0.06 Therms 3.16 2 78 First trial ration 15.18 0.22 0.50 6 94 Standard requirement 6.00 Excess or deficit —0.28 —0.06 This ration furnishes enough net energy but is deficient in digestible protein. Corn, which is high in net energy but low in protein, will not FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 125 improve the ration, while cottonseed meal, which is rich in protein, will make up the deficiency. Let us therefore substitute 1 lb. of choice cottonseed meal for 2 lbs. of oat straw. We then have: Second trial ration for maintaining 1000-lb. steer. Feeding stuSs Total diy matter Digestible protein Net energy value Com Stover, 10 lbs Oat straw, 6 lbs Lbs. 8.10 5.31 0.92 Lbs. 0.16 0.05 0.35 Therms 3.16 2.09 Cottonseed meal, l.QVa — 0.93 Second trial ration Standard requirement 14.33 0.56 .50 6.18 6.00 Excess or deficit +0.06 +0.18 This ration agrees closely with the standard in digestible protein and net energy value. Thus, according to the Armsby standard, a satis- factory ration for maintaining a 1000-lb. steer may be composed of 10 lbs. corn stover, 6 lbs. oat straw and 1 lb. choice cottonseed meal. 177. Discussion of the net energy systems. — The determination of the net energy values of feeding-stuffs is an important advancement in our knowledge of the values of different feeds for productive purposes. Owing to the immense amount of labor involved in each such determination, data of this kind can be secured but slowly. In 14 years Armsby has been able to study only 10 feeds, several determinations of course having been made upon each. The actual net energy value of only 22 feeding-stuffs has thus been determined by both Kellner and Armsby. While these values are helpful in estimating the probable net energy values of other feeds not yet tested, such computed results are but approximations. For ex- ample, in his earlier table of energy values, Armsby gave a net energy value of 33.56 therms for timothy hay containing 86.8 per ct. dry matter. This value was computed from Kellner 's data. After conducting several respiration experiments in which the actual net value was determined, Armsby found that timothy hay containing the same amount of diy matter had a net energy value of 42.20 therms, or 25.7 per ct. more than his former figure. Even for the feeds on which experiments have been conducted, the values are far from exact. Not only do different samples of a given feeding-stuff vary in composition (81), but the trials show that the ability to utilize feed, even by animals of the same kind, age, and condition, may vary to a greater or less extent. Moreover, both Kellner and Armsby have practically worked only with the steer, and the extent to which the values thus secured apply to other classes of ani- mals is still a question. (169) Zuntz,'^' who has conducted extensive studies on the utilization of different feeding-stuffs, states that with the horse and pig only a small portion of the starch in feeds ferments in the "Inter. Inst. Agr., Monthly Bui., 5, 1914, No. 4, pp. 435, 446. 126 FEEDS AND FEEDING digestive tract. On the other hand, in cattle upwards of 10 per ct. of the heat value of the digested food is lost in methane gas and about 7 per ct. is wasted, so far as productive purposes are concerned, in the heat pro- duced in the fermentations. (79-80) Accordingly, with horses and pigs starch will have a higher value compared with fat than in the case of ruminants. Zuntz concludes: "If we apply to pigs or horses the same starch values for a fat food, such as an oil seed, as was determined by Kellner, we commit a notable error. . . . "We must no longer attribute to a certain food the same nutritive value under all circumstances, as has hitherto been done. "We must rather find out in what combination the nutritive value of a food proves the most advantageous. ' ' "We must thus regard the present net energy values of feeding stuffs, not as exact measures of their value for all classes of animals, but as approximations which are most helpful in teaching great priaciples in the feeding of live stock. From the foregoing discussion the wise feeder will see the importance of studying carefully the results actually secured with different combina- tions of feed when fed to the various classes of animals, as presented in detail in the respective chapters of Part III. VI. The Scandinavian Feed-Unit System A system of feed equivalents, based mainly on the extensive experi- ments with milch cows and swine by Fjord and his successors at the Copenhagen Station, has been adopted in Denmark and other Scandina- vian countries, especially by the cow-testing associations, for measuring the relative production economy of cows. This system is extensively used with cows, occasionally with pigs, and rarely with other animals. It has great merit, especially in co-operative efforts to improve dairy cattle and their feeding — lines in which the Scandinavian farmers are leaders. 178. The feed unit. — The feed unit of the Danish associations is 1 lb. of standard grain feed, such as corn and barley, or their equivalents in feed- ing value. In Sweden it is one kilo (2.2 lbs.) of mixed concentrates or their equivalent. All feeding-stuffs are reduced to this standard in cal- culating the feed consumption of the animal. The amounts of various feeds required to equal 1 feed unit are shown in the following table . The table shows that corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, the dry matter in roots, etc., are all considered to have about the same value for the dairy cow, 1 lb. equaling 1 feed unit. On this basis it requires 1.1 lbs. of wheat bran or oats, or 1.5 to 3 lbs. of alfalfa or clover hay to equal 1 unit. Cottonseed meal, linseed meal, dried distillers' grains, gluten feed, and soybeans are rated at a higher value than the same weight of corn or wheat, less than a pound of these concentrates being required for a feed unit. FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 127 Amount of different feeds required to equal one feed unit* Feed Feed required to equal 1 unit Average Kauge For dairy cows Concentrates Com, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried brewers' grains, wheat middlings, oat shorts, peas, molasses beet pulp, dry matter in roots Cottonseed meal Oil meal, dried distillers' grains, gluten feed, aoy beans Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley feed, malt sprouts Alfalfa meal, alfalfa molasses feeds Hay and straw Alfalfa hay, clover hay „ Mixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and pea hay, red top hay Timothy hay, prairie hay, sorghum hay Corn stover, stalLis or fodder, marsh hay, cut straw Soiling crops, silage and other succulent feeds Green alfalfa Green com, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, cannery refuse , Alfalfa silage Corn silage, pea vine silage Wet brewers' grains Potatoes, skim milk, buttermilk Sugar beets Carrots. Rutabagas Field beets, green rape Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp The value of pasture is generally placed at 8 to 10 units per day, on the average, varying with kind and condition. For pigs Indian com, barley, wheat, oil cakes Rye, wheat bran Boiled i>otatoeB Ski m milk Whey For horses One lb. of Indian corn equals 1 lb. of oats or 1 lb. of dry matter in roots. Lbs. 1.0 0.8 0.9 1.1 1,2 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 7.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 4.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 12.5 1.0 1.4 4.0 6.0 12.0 Lbs. 1.5-3.0 2.0-3.0 2.5-3.5 3.5-6.0 6.0-S.O 7.0-10.0 5.0-7.0 8.0-10.0 loVo^i's.'o ♦The values for pigs and horses are those given in the Danish valuation table and those for dairy cows the values as revised by WoU for American feeding stuffs, given in Wis. Cir. 37. The feed-unit values are not true expressions of net energy, for in this system feeds rich in protein are given a higher value than feeds low in protein which furnish the same amount of net energy. For example, in the feed-unit system, only 0.8 lb. of cottonseed meal or 0.9 lb. of linseed meal is required to equal 1 feed unit. Yet, according to Armsby and KeUner the net energy value of these feeds is lower than that of corn. Again, the energy value of timothy hay is about the same as that of clover or alfalfa hay, but in the feed-unit system timothy hay is rated 50 per ct. below the legume hays. When added to rations deficient in pro- tein, feeds rich in protein will have a higher value than those supplying an equal amount of net energy but which are low in protein. But as has been pointed out (63, 93), when the protein supply in the ration is already adequate, any additional amount of this nutrient is broken down in the body, the nitrogenous portion being excreted in the urine, and only the remainder utilized for the formation of the fat and carbohydrates in 128 FEEDS AND FEEDING flesh or milk, for body fuel, or for the production of work. In all such cases protein will have a value corresponding only to the amount of net energy it furnishes. Over large sections of our country protein-rich feeds are cheaper than those high in carbohydrates. In the "West with its abundant and cheap alfalfa hay, and in the South with its low-priced cottonseed meal, it is often necessary to add carbonaceous feeds rather than protein-rich concentrates to balance the usual rations. Thus the feed-unit system does not furnish a safe guide by which the farmer can determine the value of feeds under all conditions. The worth of a given feed to him will depend on the other feeding-stuffs with which it is to be combined. In some instances protein-rich feeds will be worth the most, and in others, those which are high in carbohydrates. The feed-unit system has been evolved in a comparatively small region, where similar crops are grown on the different farms and the price of purchased feeds does not vary widely thruout the entire district, hence this difficulty has not arisen there. No arbitrary values for feeding-stuffs, expressed in terms of money or other fixed units, can be devised which will hold good under widely differing conditions. 179. Measuring economy of production in feed units. — The chief value of the feed unit system for dairymen in any given region is that it fur- nishes a simple means of comparing the feed consumption and the milk and fat production of different cows, as is shown in the following : If during a month a cow has consumed 240 lbs. of hay, 750 lbs. of silage, 60 lbs. each of barley and ground corn, and 90 lbs. of linseed oil meal, the calculation based on the valuation table would be as follows : Feed consumed Lbs. for 1 unit Feed units 240 lbs. hay -f- 2.5 = 96 750 lbs. silage ^ 6.0 = 125 120 lbs. corn and barley -^ 1.0 = 120 90 lbs. oil meal . 0.9 = 100 Total feed units = 441 It is shown that the cow consumed 441 feed units during the month. If in that time she yielded 850 lbs. of Inilk, containing 30.6 lbs. of fat, each 100 feed units produced |g =^ 193 lbs. of milk, containing |^ = 6.9 lbs. butter fat. If the fat brought 30 cents per lb., 100 feed units would return 6.9x$0.30=$2.07. 180. The Swedish Test Associations — In what follows is shown some of the work of the Swedish Test Associations for the year 1906-7. The first table shows the feed units consumed per cow annually in the associa- tion having the poorest and the best returns, and the average of 96 associations. The second table shows the production per cow and per 100 feed units consumed. The first table shows that the association with the poorest record fed each cow on the average 4920 feed units during the year. The association with the highest record fed 5733 units per cow, while the average for 96 associations was 5280 feed units. FEEDING STANDAEDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 129 Feed units consumed annually per cow in the Swedish Test Associations Concentrates Roughages Oil cakes Bran and grains Boots, beet pulp Hay and straw Soilage and pasture Total Association Showing poorest returns. . . . Showing best returns Average of 96 associations . . . Units 900 1056 856 Units 581 878 708 Units 900 1410 1166 Units 1142 1078 1256 Units 1397 1311 1294 Units 4920 5733 5280 Average production per cow and per 100 feed units Production per cow Production per 100 units Milk Butter fat Butter Milk Butter fat Association Showing poorest returns. . . . Showing best returns Average of 96 associations. . . Lbs. 6261 8650 7429 Lbs. 200.0 295.2 239.9 Lbs. 218.0 327.1 265.3 Lbs. 127.3 150.9 140.7 Lbs. 4.1 6.1 4.5 The second table shows that the average cow in the poorest association gave 6261 lbs. of milk, while in the best association she gave 8650 lbs. The herds in the poorest association yielded about 200 lbs. of butter fat per cow, and those in the best over 295 lbs. The best herds produced 1 lb. more butter fat from 100 feed units consumed than did the poorly- fed herds — a difference of over 24 per ct. in favor of the heavier feed- ing. These results show the manner in which Scandinavians have utilized the feed-unit system for comparing individual cows, herds, and asso- ciations to the great betterment of their dairy industry. The same comparisons can be made by means of the Armsby system of net-energy values. Except where the rations fed to different animals vary widely in proportion of concentrates to roughages, a fair comparison may also be made by using the total digestible nutrients in the ration, as given for each feed in Appendix Table III. 181. The feed-unit standard for dairy cows. — Hansson^" has proposed the following as the requirements for dairy cows according to the feed- unit siystem : For maintenance, feed 0.65 lb. digestible protein and 6.6 feed Units daily per 1000 lbs. live weight. j- For each pound of milk produced add to the maintenance requirement 0.045 to 0.05 lb. digestible protein and 0.33 feed unit. The requirements of a cow producing any given amount of milk can be readily ascertained by computation. "Kontrolfdren, Arbetsfait, 1910. 130 FEEDS AND FEEDING VII. American Standards for Dairy Cows 182. The Haecker standard. — ^As the result of long years of intimate study with a high-grade working dairy herd at the Minnesota Station," Haecker has made an important advance in the formulation of rations for the dairy cow. He has shown that the nutrients required for her nourishment should vary not only with the quantity of milk yielded, as is taught in the Wolff-Lehmann, the Kellner, Armsby, and the feed-unit standards, but also with the quality of the product. The allowance of crude protein recommended is also considerably lower than that set forth in the Wolff-Lehmann standard. In his standard Haecker first sets down the total digestible nutrients daily required to maintain the 1000-lb. cow, independent of the milk she produces, as follows : Crude protein 0.7 lb., carbohydrates 7.0 lbs., and fat 0.1 lb. For each 100 lbs. live weight the cow may exceed or fall below the 1000-lb. standard there is added or subtracted one-tenth of the standard ration. To this maintenance provision the further allowance set forth in the table is added. Haecker 's feeding standard for the dairy cow Daily allowance of digestible nutrients , Crude protein Carbo- hydrates Fat For support of the 1000-lb, cow Lbs. 0.700 0.047 0.049 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.064 0.067 0.072 0.074 Lbs. 7.00 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 Lbs. 100 To the allowance for support add: For each lb. of 3 per ct. milk 017 019 For each lb. of 4 .0 per ct. milk 021 For each lb. of 4 5 oer ct. milk 023 024 For each lb. of 5 .5 per ct. milk 026 For each lb. of 6 Dcr ct. milk 028 029 For each lb. of 7 Der ct, milk. ... 031 The table shows that a cow yielding milk containing 3 per ct. of butter fat should be fed, in addition to the maintenance ration, 0.047 lb. crude protein, 0.20 lb. carbohydrates, and 0.017 lb. fat, all digestible, for each pound of milk she gives. If the milk is richer than 3 per ct. the provision must be greater. Haecker has formulated the requirements for each increase of 0.1 per ct. in the fat content of milk. At least for ordinary herd feeding it is not necessary to refine the calculation of rations to this extent. Hence only a condensed table is here presented. » Minn. Buls. 71, 79, 140. FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 131 To illustrate the use of the table there is formulated below the nutrient allowance for a 1100-lb. cow producing 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily : Digestible nutrients required daily iy a 1100-lb. cow yielding 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk Crude protein Carbo- hydrates Fat For maintenance Lbs. 0.77 1.35 Lbs. 7.70 6.00 Lbs. 0.11 For 25 lbs. of 4 per cent milk 0.52 Total 2.12 13.70 0.63 In the above there is first set down the maintenance allowance for the 1000-lb. cow, increased by one-tenth because this cow weighs 100 lbs. more than the standard; this is 0.77 lb. crude protein, 7.7 lbs. carbo- hydrates, and 0.11 lb. fat, all digestible. The previous table shows the daily nutrient allowance for each pound of 4 per ct. milk to be 0.054 lb. crude protein, 0.24 lb. carbohydrates, and 0.021 fat, all digestible. Since this cow is yielding 25 lbs. of milk daily, the foregoing numbers multiplied by 25 are placed in the second line of the table. Thus it is shown that the production of 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk calls for 1.35 lbs. of crude protein, 6.00 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.52 lb. of fat. Adding these nutrients to those for maintenance, we have 2.12 lbs. of protein, 13.7 lbs. of carbohydrates, and 0.63 lb. of fat as the quantity of digestible nutrients required daily to nourish a 1100-lb. cow properly when giving 25 lbs. of 4 per ct. milk daily. 183. The WoU-Humphrey standard. — ^Prom studies at the Wisconsin Station^^ WoU and Humphrey have prepared convenient tables showing the feed requirements of cows of different weights and producing various amounts of butter fat per day. To simplify the computation of rations, in these tables the requirements are stated in terms of dry matter, digest- ible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients, the latter term including the digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates, and the digestible fat X 2.25. This simplification is in harmony with the uses made of the different nutrients in the animal body, for as we have already learned (88, 124-9), carbohydrates and fat in general perform the same functions in the body. Likewise, after there has been supplied the minimum amount of protein needed for the repair of body tissues and the formation of milk protein, any additional amount serves the same purpose as do the carbohydrates and fat. (88, 128) The requirements of a 1000-lb. cow according to these tables are shown in the table on the next page. The allowance for maintenance is the same as that prescribed in the Haecker standard. For the 1000-lb. cow yielding 1.0 to 1.25 lbs. of butter fat = Wis. Res. Bui. 13; Bui. 200. 132 FEEDS AND FEEDING per day the standard calls for a daily allowance of 23.6 lbs. dry matter, 2.11 lbs. of digestible crude protein, and 15.8 lbs. of total digestible matter. Woll-Humphrey standard for lOOO-lb. dairy cow Maintenance Production of butter fat per day Less than 0.5 pound .5 to .75 pound 0.75 to 1.0 pound 1 .0 to 1 .25 pounds 1 .25 to 1 .5 pounds 1 .5 to 1 .75 pounds 1.75 to 2.0 pounds Dry matter Lbs. 12.5 16.2 18.7 21.1 23.6 26.0 28.5 30.9 Digestible crude protein Lbs. 0.70 1.18 1.49 1.80 2.11 2.43 2.74 3.05 Total digest- ible matter Lbs. 7.9 10.6 12.3 14.1 15.8 17.6 19.3 21.1 This system of expressing the requirements of dairy cows has been found convenient in practice. It is not strictly accurate, however, when applied to milks varying widely in the percentage of fat contained. Haecker's table places the requirements for a pound of butter fat in rich milk considerably lower than for a pound in milk low in fat. For example, for 100 lbs. of 3 per ct. milk there are required 4.7 lbs. pro- tein, 20.0 lbs. carbohydrates, and 1.7 lbs. fat, while for 50 lbs. of 6 per ct. milk, containing the same amount of fat, only 3.3 lbs. protein, 16 lbs. carbohydrates, and 1.4 lbs. fat are required. This is due to the fact that, tho the 6 per ct. milk contains twice as much fat as the 3 per ct. milk, it is not twice as rich in sugar and protein. 184. The Savage standard. — From trials at the New York (Cornell) Station^^ Savage concludes that for maximum production the nutritive ratio of rations for dairy cows should not be wider than 1 : 6. He has accordingly modified the Haecker standard by increasing the protein requirement per pound of milk by from 18 to 20 per ct. His standard is also simplified by being stated in terms of dry matter, digestible crude protein, and ^total digestible nutrients (or as Savage terms it "total nutriment"), in the same manner as in the Woll-Humphrey standard. The requirements according to this standard are shown in Article 186. 185. The Eckles standard. — From experiments at the Missouri Sta- tion^* and from the work of Savage and Armsby, Eckles has formulated a tentative standard according to the Armsby system, showing the require- ments of cows producing milk containing various percentages of fat. He points out that these are but approximations, for the following reasons : The digestion coefficients in use, which have been chiefly obtained with steers and sbeep, are too high for feeds fed in heavy rations to dairy cows. This is, however, more than offset by the fact that the cow is able to utilize the nutrients she actually digests more efficiently in milk production than the steer or sheep does in formation of flesh. Hence ='N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 323. "Mo. Res. Bui. 7. FEEDING STANDAEDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 133 the net energy values given by Armsby are too low when applied to mUk production. 186. Comparison of standards for dairy cows. — In the following table the Haeeker, Savage, and Eckles standards are brought together for comparison. Haeeker 's figures have been converted into total digestible nutrients as in the Savage standard. The WoU-Humphrey standard can not be included for it is not based on the fat content of the milk, as are the others. Feeding standards for dairy cows compared For maintenance of 1000-lb. cow. . To allowance for maintenance add: For each lb. of 2 .5 per ct. milk. . For each lb. of 3 .0 per ct. milk. . For each lb. of 3 .5 per cfe milk. . For each lb. of 4 .0 per ct., milk. . For each lb. of 4 .5 per ct. milk. . For each lb. of 5 .0 per ct. milk. . For each lb. of 5 .5 per ct. milk. . For each lb. of 6 .0 per ct. milk. . For each lb. of 6 .5 per ct. milk. . For each lb. of 7 .0 per ct. milk. . Haeeker standard Savage standard Diges'ble crude protein Lbs. 0.700 0.045 0.047 0.049 0.054 0.057 0.060 0.064 .067 0.072 0.074 Total digestible nutrients Lbs. 7.925 0.254 0.284 0.313 0.343 0.372 0.398 0.424 0.451 0.480 0.502 Diges'ble crude protein Lbs. 0.700 0.053 0.057 0.061 0.065 0.069 0.073 0.077 0.081 0.085 0.089 Total digestible nutrients Lbs. 7.925 0.257 0.287 0.319 0.350 0.379 0.405 0.431 0.457 0.484 0.608 Gckles standard Diges'ble true protein Lbs. 0.500 050 052 055 058 062 066 070 075 Net energy Therms 6.00 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.40 0.45 0.50 The Haeeker and Savage standards agree in the requirements for maintenance. Savage's digestible crude-protein requirement for pro- duction is higher in each case, as already pointed out. In total digestible nutrients he agrees very closely with Haeeker. As Eckles' standard is expressed in digestible true protein (not crude protein) and therms, it can not be directly compared with the others. We may, however, compare this standard with the others in the following manner : In such a ration as 20 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. corn, and 4 lbs. wheat bran, we would find that about one-third of the total digestible crude proteia is in amid form (11) and hence not included in Eckles' figure for digestible true protein. With rations including green forage or silage, the proportion of true protein will be still lower. It is evident, then, that were Eckles' figures for protein converted into crude protein they would be even higher than Savage's when applied to ordinary rations. As about 1.1 to 1.2 lbs. total digestible nutrients have a net-energy value of 1 therm in the ordinary rations used for milk production, it will be found on compu- tation that Eckles' standard calls for about the same amount of total nutrients as the others for milk low in fat, but up to one-fifth more for milk high in fat. From the foregoing we may conclude that when protein-rich feeds are high in price compared with those low in protein, it will usually be economical to feed no more protein than is called for by the Haeeker 134 FEEDS AND FEEDING standard, at least to cows qf average production. On the other hand, when protein-rich feeds are comparatively cheap the dairyman may well feed as heavy an allowance as Savage and Bckles recommend. Even these amounts are lower than called for in the original Wolff -Lehmann stand- ards. (156) The skilled dairyman will adapt the amount of concen- trates fed to the productive ability of each cow, not compounding a different ration for each animal, but will balance the ration for the average of the herd and then feed the cows as much roughage as they will consume and concentrates in proportion to the milk or butter fat produced by the several cows, as is explained in a later chapter. (661) VIII. Modified Wolpf-Lehmann Standaeds 187. Methods of computing rations compared. — In this chapter it has been pointed out that the valuation of feeding stuffs for productive purposes, on the basis of their net energy content, is theoretically more accurate than the Wolff-Lehmann method of comparing them in terms of the digestible nutrients they furnish. Unfortunately, the net-energy values have actually been determined for but a few feeds, and with these only for the fattening ox. For other feeds and other classes of animals, the values which may be computed are but approximations. On the other hand, during the last half-century scores of thousands of analyses of feeding stuffs have been made, as shown in Appendix Table I, and large numbers of digestion experiments have been con- ducted in which the coefficients of digestibility have been determined, as given in Appendix Table II. Thus the values for digestible nutrients in the various feeding-stuffs, given in Table III, rest on a reasonably secure basis, tho we must remember that different kinds of animals digest somewhat different percentages of feeds, especially of roughages. (85) The value of a concentrate and of a roughage for productive purposes can not be compared on the basis of the digestible nutrients each fur- nishes, for in the roughage, containing more fiber, a larger part of the energy in the digested nutrients is used up in the non-productive work of mastication, digestion, and assimilation. (78-80) In the ordinary rations for each class of animals, concentrates and roughages are, how- ever, usually fed in about the same proportions. This tends to lessen any error due to inaccuracy in computing rations according to the Wolff-Lehmann method. Furthermore, the prescription of a definite allowance of dry matter is a check upon the net-energy value of the ration. If a ration contains sufficient digestible nutrients to meet the Wolff-Lehmann standards, but carries an excess of dry matter, obviously too much roughage or concentrates too high in fiber have been used and the net-energy value will consequently be too low. On the other hand, if the content of digestible nutrients satisfies the standard, while the ration does not contain the dry matter called for, it indicates that FEEDING STANDARDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 135 feeds more concentrated in character than necessary have been used, in which case some roughage or feeds higher in fiber may be substituted till the dry-matter content is brought up to the standard. With this simple check any large error in formulating the ration may be avoided. 188. Necessity for modifying the Wolff-Lehmann standards. — It has already been shown in this chapter that in several instances the original Wolff-Lehmann standards do not set forth the actual requirements of farm animals as revealed by the many experiments which have been carried on since these standards were drawn up. We know, for example, that the allowance of digestible crude protein prescribed is higher than is needed by fattening animals, dairy cows, and work horses. Yet these standards are today more commonly employed in this country, except perhaps with the dairy cow, than any other system for formu- lating rations. Indeed, the authors have recently found feeders, annu- ally fattening hundreds and even thousands of animals, who were balancing rations according to the original Wolff-Lehmann standards by the addition of unnecessary amounts of high-priced protein-rich con- centrates. 189. Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards. — ^With these facts in mind the authors have attempted to combine in one standard what appear in their judgment to be the best guides we have at present in the formu- lation of rations for various classes of animals. To facilitate the computations, the standards, which are given in detail in Appendix Table V, are expressed simply in terms of total dry matter; digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. Realizing that feeding standards are but approximations, in most cases minimum and maxi- mum figures are given for dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. Since progressive feeders thruout the country now appreciate the significance of the nutritive ratio of a ration, the approximate upper and lower advisable limits of nutritive ratios for the different classes have been stated. To correspond with these stand- ards a column has been added to Appendix Table III, showing the total digestible nutrients furnished in 100 lbs. of each feed. Likewise, so that one may see at a glance which feeds are high and which are low in protein, compared with carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio for each feed has been computed and is given in the table. With these aids it is hoped that the standards presented may be of real assistance to students and feeders who desire to compute rations substantially in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann method, while recognizing the results of the later investigations in animal feeding. The recommendations gathered together in these standards are from many sources. The standards for the dairy cow are those formulated by Haecker and Savage. The data for growing, fattening steers have been kindly furnished by Haecker,^" and are based upon his extensive in- vestigations of the nutrient requirements of steers of various ages. (123) " Information to the authors. 136 FEEDS AND FEEDING The figures for fattening 2-yr.-old steers and for growing, fattening pigs are based chiefly upon studies made at the "Wisconsin Station by the junior author^" of the feeding experiments carried on at American stations. Those for fattening lambs are computed from the Bull-Bmmett standards, based on their study of American feeding trials, and that for work horses from the investigations of Zuntz and from American feeding trials. In revising the requirements for the other classes of animals there have been utilized the Kellner and Armsby standards, which have already been discussed, and the extensive standards of Pott^^ of Ger- many, which are formulated in substantially the same terms as the Wolff- Lehmann standards. 190. Kation for fattening 2-yr.-old steers. — To illustrate the manner of computing rations in accordance with the Modified "Wolff-Lehmann standards, let us formulate a ration for fattening 2-yr.-old feeder steers. The steers, averaging 900 lbs. when placed in the feed lot, are to be fed a heavy fattening ration for 150 days so that they will gain 2.4 lbs. per head daily, or more. The Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards for 2-yr.- old steers on full feed are as follows : Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards for 2-yr.-old steers on full feed (From Appendix Table V) Per 1,000 Iba. live weight Dry matter Minimuza of dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Nutritive ratio First 50 to 60 days Lba. 22-25 21-24 18-22 Lbs. 2.0-2.3 1.9-2.3 1.8-2.1 Lbs. 18.0-20.0 17.0-19.5 16.0-18.5 1:7 0-1-7 8 Second 50 to 60 days 1:7 0-1:7 8 Third 50 to 60 days 1:7.0-1:7.8 It will be noted that the allowance of dry matter is the largest for the first 50 to 60 days of fattening. During this period the steers are being brought to a full feed of grain and are hence consuming a larger pro- portion of roughage to concentrates than in the later periods. The amount of total digestible nutrients required per 1,000 lbs. live weight also decreases as the steers fatten, but not so much as does the dry matter. The minimum amount of digestible crude protein advised for the first period is 2.0 to 2.3 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight. The larger amount will probably tend to slightly more rapid fattening than the lower figure, but as is pointed out later, may be less economical than the lesser amount. (196) On comparing these standards, which are based on the results of American feeding trials, with the original WoLffi-Lehmann standards, it "The compilation and computation of data in the study of the pig feeding experiments was chiefly done by Messrs. M. L. Geraldson and J. G. Poynton, students in the Wis. College of Agriculture. Mr. G. Bohstedt, a graduate student in the same College, has assisted in the compilation of still other data upon which these standards are based. "Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., I, 1907, pp. 374-376. FEEDING STANDAEDS— CALCULATING RATIONS 137 is seen that the minimum allowance of digestible crude protein advised is considerably lower than in the original standards. The dry matter is also materially lower, for fattening steers fed roughage of good qual- ity, as is commonly done in this country, will not consume as much dry matter as set forth in the original WolfE-Lehmann standards. In formulating rations for these steers, the most accurate way is to compute the rat,ions on the basis of the average live weight of the steers during each period, of fattening. If the steers weigh 900 lbs. when placed on feed and gain 2.4 lbs. per head daily, their average weight for the first 50 days wiU be 1,020 lbs. ; for the second 50 days, 1,140 lbs. ; and for the last 50 days, 1,260 lbs. Computing the standard require- ments for each period on this basis we have : Requirements for given steers at different periods of fattening Av. wt. during period Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Nutritive ratio First 50 days Second 60 days Third 50 days Lbs. 1,020 1,140 1,260 Lbs. 22.4r-25.5 23 .9-27 .4 22.7-27.7 Lbs. 2.04r-2.35 2.17-2.62 2.27-2.65 Lbs. 18.4-20.4 19.4r-22.2 20.2-23.3 1:7.0-1:7.8 1:7.0-1:7.8 1:7.0-1:7.8 Owing to the greater weight of the cattle in the last periods, tho they require less dry matter and total digestible nutrients per 1,000 lbs. live weight, the requirements per steer are slightly greater. Let us now formulate rations to meet these requirements. The steers are to be fed all the well-matured corn silage and good clover hay they will clean up, morning and night, and shelled corn is to be fed as the chief concentrate, with choice cottonseed meal if needed to balance the ration. As shown later (776), 2-yr.-old steers full fed on corn will eat 25 to 30 lbs. of corn silage during the first period of fattening and gradually less as fattening progresses. Owing to the palatability of the silage they will usually eat only 3 to 6 lbs. of clover hay. For a trial ration during the first period we will therefore take 28 lbs. of corn silage, 4 lbs. of clover hay, and enough shelled corn to bring the amount of total digestible nutrients up to the standard. As shown in the following table, this will require 14 lbs. of corn : Trial ration for fattening 2-yr.-old steers, first period Feeding stuff Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Nutritive ratio Com silacre. 28 lbs Lbs. 7.36 3.48 12.53 Lbs. 0.308 0.304 1.050 Lbs. 4.96 2.04 12.00 rsinvpr hav. 4 lbs SheUed com. 14 lbs Total 23.37 1.662 19.00 1:10.4 138 FEEDS AND FEEDING This ration furnishes sufficient total digestible nutrients and agrees with the standard in dry matter, but falls far short in protein. Let us, therefore, replace some of the com with cottonseed meal. As we wish these steers to make maximum gains we wiU supply somewhat more protein than called for by the lowest figure in the standard. Substitut- ing 2.0 lbs. of choice cottonseed meal for the same weight of corn, we will have the ration shown in the first division of the ^following table. This agrees well with the standard and should produce rapid gains when fed to thrifty feeders. In the same manner we will formulate rations for the middle and the last periods of fattening, bearing in mind that steers on full feed will eat less roughage and more concentrates as they fatten. Since we wish these steers to reach a high fiinish we will increase the protein supply during the last period to the higher figure set forth in the standard, 2.65 lbs. per head daily. Arranging the data as before, we will have the rations shown in the table : Rations for fattening Z-yr.-old steers, for first, second, and third periods Feeding stuff Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Nutritive ratio First BO days Com silage, 28 .0 lbs Lbs. 7.36 3.48 10.74 1.85 Lbs. 0.308 0.304 0.900 0.740 Lbs. 4.96 2.04 10.28 1.56 Shelled com, 12 .0 lbs Cottonseed meal, 2 . lbs Total 23.43 6.31 2.61 13.42 2.31 2.252 0.264 0.228 1.125 0.925 18.84 4.25 1.53 12.86 1.96 1'7 4 Second 60 days Com silage, 24 .0 lbs Clover hay, 3 .0 lbs Shelled com,i 15 .0 lbs Cottonseed meal, 2 .5 lbs Total ; 24.65 5.52 2.61 14.32 2.54 2.542 0.231 0.228 1.200 1.018 20.60 3.72 1.53 13.71 2.15 17 1 Third 60 days Clover hav. 3 lbs Shelled com, 16 .0 lbs Total 24 99 2 677 21 11 1:6.9 These rations meet the standards in all particulars and should give good results in practice. (777) As is explained later (196) , when protein- rich feeds are high in price compared with those carbonaceous in char- acter, it may be more economical to supply only as much protein as called for in the lower figures in the standard. If the steers were to be fattened more slowly, the rations could be computed in accordance with the standards for "growing, fattening steers," based on Haecker's ex- tensive studies. These would require less concentrates and in many instances result in much cheaper gains. (716, 768, 780) CHAPTER VIII ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK I. Sklecting Economical Rations To secure the largest returns from Ms farm animals the stockman must, first of all, thoroly understand the fundamental nutrient require- ments of the various classes of live stock which have been discussed in the preceding chapters. He must next study the possibilities of his farm for the production of crops, paying attention to both the probable yields and the value of the various crops for feeding to stock or for selling on the market. It is also necessary to consider the feeding value of the many feeds on the market and compare the prices at which they can be secured. With this knowledge he is in a position to plan his rotations so that from the crops raised, supplemented when it is economical by purchased feeds, well-balanced rations for his stock may be provided at minimum expense. As a rule it will be found wise to raise all needed roughage on the farm. Owing to the increasing demand for the cereal grains for human consumption, it is often economical to sell more or less of the farm-grown grains and replace them with purchased concentrates which economically supplement the feeds raised on the farm. 191. Market prices not guides to value. — On studying the market prices of different feeds it will be evident that the market price is often no index to the value of a feed to the individual stockman. A few examples will illustrate this fact. In the northeastern states timothy hay is gen- erally higher in price than clover hay, tho it is much inferior to clover for all animals except the horse. In the South cottonseed hulls usually cost more than the sum for which an equivalent amount of corn silage, a much more palatable feed, can be produced on the farm. Owing to their popularity, some feeds, such as linseed meal and wheat bran, are often high in price compared with other concentrates which are entirely satis- factory substitutes. At the other extreme, low grade concentrates, such as trashy corn and oat feed, cottonseed feed, and inferior mixed feeds often sell for as much or but slightly less than high grade concentrates of far greater feeding value. 192. How to select feeds for economical rations. — ^Many attempts have been made to assign a definite money value to 1 lb. of digestible crude protein, digestible carbohydrates, and digestible fat, and then compute the value of different feeds on the basis of the amount of these nutrients they contain, the same as is commonly done in arriving at the money value of fertilizers. (432) While such a system of valuation may be of some limited value for a short period of time and when applied to a 139 140 FEEDS AND FEEDING small district where the systems of farming do not vary widely, no such set of values has general application to the United States. As has been emphasized before (178), the value of any given feed to the stockman depends on the nature and composition of the other feeds he has at hand. If his chief roughage is alfalfa hay, protein-rich concentrates are often worth less to him than those rich in carbohydrates. On the other hand, if the cheapest roughage he can provide is corn or sorghum silage, low in protein, then concentrates rich in protein will be of higher value to him than those carbonaceous in character. In planning economical rations for any class of animals the stockman should first choose from suitable feeds a combination, containing the proper proportion of concentrates and roughages, which will supply the necessary total amount of nutrients at the minimum expense. If this ration is too low in protein, protein-rich feeds should be substituted for those lower in protein, until the protein supply is brought to the de- sired amount. On the other hand, if the ration which supplies the neces- sary total amount of nutrients is too rich in protein, then carbonaceous feeds should be substituted until the nutritive ratio is widened as much as is desired. In determining which feeds furnish total nutrients at the lowest price, the comparisons may be made on the basis of the cost per therm of net energy, per feed-unit, or per pound of total digestible nutrients. For the reasons pointed out in preceding articles (177-8), the authors be- lieve that the most convenient system for American farmers is on the basis of the cost per pound of total digestible nutrients. In comparing roughages with concentrates this system gives roughages somewhat too high a relative value, for 1 lb. of total digestible nutrients in a roughage is lower in net energy than 1 lb. of digestible nutrients in concentrates. However, in most cases, the desire will be, not to compare roughages with concentrates, but, instead, to determine which one of several con- centrates is the cheapest source of total nutrients, or which of the differ- ent available roughages is the most economical feed. To determine which feeds are the cheapest supplements to balance a ration low in protein, it will be found convenient to compute the cost of the different feeds per pound of digestible crude protein. In comparing the relative cheapness of different feeds, it is reasonable to value marketable farm-grown grain or roughage at the market price less the cost of hauling to market. Feeds which are not usually market- able may be assigned a value based on the cost of production. To the price of any purchased feeds should be added any cost of hauling to the farm. Often, however, purchased concentrates may be brought back to the farm on a return trip from market with little or no additional expense. 193. A comparison of corn-belt feeds for milk production. — To illustrate the manner in which the prices of the available feeds should be studied in computing rations, let us assume that a dairyman in the com belt has available the following: Ground dent com at $20, ground oats at ECONOMY IN FEEDING' LIVE STOCK 141 $25, ground barley at $26, timothy hay at $16, red clover hay at $12, and com silage from well-matured corn at $3.50 per ton. He can pur- chase hominy feed at $26, high-grade gluten feed at $30, wheat bran at $25, corn and oat feed at $25, choice cottonseed meal at $34, old-process linseed meal at $34, and alfalfa meal at $22 per ton. For convenience we will arrange in tabular form the data from Appendix Table III for these different feeds, and compute the cost per pound of digestible crude protein and the cost of 1 lb. of total digestible nutrients in each. Comparison of the economy of various feeds at the stated prices Feeding stuff Dry matter crude Total dig. Nutri- Price Cost per lb. Cost of 1 lb. of total in 100 protein nutri- tive per of dig. dig. Iba. In 100 ents in ratio ton crude lbs. 100 lbs. protein ents Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1: Dollars Cents Cents 89.5 7.5 85.7 10.4 20.00 13.33 1.17 89.9 7.0 84.6 11.1 26.00 18.57 1.54 91.3 21.6 80.7 2.7 30.00 6.94 1.86 89.9 12.5 60.9 3.9 25.00 10.00 2.05 90.8 9.7 70.4 6.3 25.00 12.89 1.78 88.6 7.3 75.6 9.4 25.00 17.12 1.65 90.7 9.0 79.4 7.8 26.00 14.44 1.64 92.5 37.0 78.2 1.1 34.00 4.59 2.17 90.9 30.2 77.9 1.6 34.00 6.63 2.18 93.4 22.4 88.9 3.0 31.00 6.92 1.74 88.4 3.0 48.5 15.2 16.00 26.67 1.65 91.2 10.2 60.7 4.0 22.00 10.78 2.17 87.1 7.6 50.9 6.7 12.00 7.89 1.18 26.3 1.1 17.7 15.1 3.50 15.91 0.99 Concentrates Dent com Hominy feed ; Gluten feed, high grade Wheat bran, all analyses Oats Com and oat feed Barley, ground Cottonseed meal, choice Linseed meal, old-process Distillers' grains, dried, from com Roughages Timothy hay, all analyses Alfalfa meal Red clover hay, all analyses. . . . Com silage, recent analyses. . . . This table does not assume to represent average conditions in any dis- trict of the country, but illustrates the manner in which any stockman may compare the relative economy of the different available feeds at local prices. The last column shows clearly that, for the feeds given and with prices as stated, corn is by far the cheapest source of total digestible nutrients among the concentrates. Of the roughages, corn silage sup- plies total digestible nutrients most cheaply, followed by clover hay. For balancing a ration deficient in protein, cottonseed meal will furnish di- gestible crude protein at 4.59 cts. per pound, linseed meal at 5.63 cts., dried distillers' grains at 6.92 cts., gluten feed at 6.94 cts., red clover hay at 7.89 cts., and wheat bran at 10.00 cts. In supplying protein these feeds will of course also furnish carbohydrates and fat as well, which are in- cluded in the total digestible nutrients. 194, A corn-belt ration for milk production. — From the feeds listed let us now formulate the most economical ration which will be satis- factory for a 1200-lb. cow yielding daily 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk. For this cow there will be required, according to the Modified Wolff-Lehmann standard (Appendix Table V) a minimum daily allowance of 2.31 to 142 FEEDS AND FEEDING 2.67 lbs. digestible crude protein and 18.99 lbs. total digestible nutrients. The ration should contain from 25 to 30 lbs. of dry matter, and should have a nutritive ratio no wider than 1 : 6.1 to 1 : 7.2. Altho corn silage is the cheapest roughage available, some dry rough- age should be fed with it to dairy cows. (629, 664) Of the dry rough- ages, clover hay is the cheapest. Let us then follow the general rule of feeding 1 lb. of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage per 100 lbs. live weight. (167) To this allowance of roughage, we will add enough corn to bring the total digestible nutrients up to the amount advised in the standard, for corn is the concentrate which furnishes total digestible nutrients most cheaply. Tabulating the results we will have : First trial ration for 1200-lb. cow yielding 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk Feeding stu£f Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Cost Nutritive ratio Clover hay, 12 .0 lbs Lbs. 10.45 9.47 7.16 Lbs. 0.912 0.396 0.600 Lbs. 6.108 6.372 6.856 Cents 7.20 6.30 8.00 Corn silage, 36.0 lbs Com, dent, 8 . lbs Total 27.08 1.908 19.336 21.50 1:9 1 This ration, which costs 21.5 cts., meets the standard in total digest- ible nutrients and dry matter but is decidedly deficient in protein. We could narrow the nutritive ratio by feeding less silage and more clover hay, but corn silage is the cheapest feed available. Therefore we should substitute protein-rich concentrates for a part of the dent corn. If 1.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal was substituted for the same weight of corn the ration would furnish about 2.3 lbs. of digestible crude protein, the minimum amount recommended in the standard. Ground corn and cottonseed meal are, however, both heavy feeds, weighing about 1.5 lbs. per quart. (Appendix Table VII) It is hence desirable to add some bulky concentrate which is also high in protein. Dried distillers' grains are about as bulky as wheat bran and furnish protein much more cheaply. Alfalfa meal is not so economical as distillers' grains, and gluten feed is a somewhat heavier feed. Let us then substitute 0.5 lb. of cottonseed meal and 2.0 lbs. of dried distillers' grains for 2.5 lbs. of corn, and again tabulate the results: Second trial ration for 1200-lb. cow yielding 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk Feeding stuff Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Cost Nutritive ratio Clover hay, 12. lbs Lbs. 10.45 9.47 4.92 0.46 1.87 Lbs. 0.912 0.396 0.412 0.185 0.448 Lbs. 6.108 6.372 4.714 0.391 1.778 Cents 7.20 6.30 5.50 0.85 3.10 Com silage, 36 .0 lbs Corn, dent, 5 .5 lbs Cottonseed meal, .5 lb Distillers' grains, dried, 2.0 lbs. Total 27.17 2.363 19.363 22.95 1:7.2 ECONOMY IN FEEDING- LIVE STOCK 143 This ration, which costs 22.95 cts., supplies the minimum amount of protein recommended by the standard, and is slightly above it in total digestible nutrients. Tho costing 1.45 cts. more than the first ration, it will be more economical for it should produce much better results. The concentrate mixture weighs about 1.2 lbs. per quart, being somewhat heavier than advised by some dairymen. Such mixtures as this have, however, been satisfactory in practice. It is explained elsewhere that the lower amounts of digestible crude protein advised for the dairy cow in the Modified Wolff -Lehmann stand- ards are the amounts recommended by Haecker, while the higher fig- ures are those set forth by Savage. (182, 184, 186; Appendix Table V) As has been stated before (186), for cows of pronounced dairy temper- ament it may be advisable to feed as much protein as called for by the higher figures, providing this does not greatly increase the cost of the ration. Let us then see how cheaply a ration can be provided which will supply 2.67 lbs. of digestible crude protein, the higher figure advised by the standard. The protein can be added most cheaply by substi- tuting more cottonseed meal for corn, but instead of merely using more cottonsed meal, let us feed 1 lb. of wheat bran, which will lighten the concentrate mixture and which is much relished by the cow. At the prices given bran is an expensive source of protein, since it is not high in that nutrient. The price per pound of total digestible nutrients is, however, slightly lower than that of cottonseed meal. Arranging the results as before, we will have : Third trial ration for 1200-lb. cow producing 30 lis. of 3.5 per ct. milk Feeding stuff Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Cost Nutritive ratio Clover hay, 12 lbs Lbs. 10.45 9.47 3.13 1.39 1.87 0.90 Lbs. 0.912 0.396 0.262 0.555 0.448 0.125 Lbs. 6.108 6.372 3.000 1.173 1.778 0.609 Cents 7.20 6.30 3.50 2.55 3.10 1.25 Com silage, 36 .0 lbs Com, dent, 3 .5 lbs Cottonseed meal, 1 .5 lbs Distillers' grains, dried, 2 .0 lbs. . Wheat bran, 1 .0 lb Total 27.21 2.698 19 .040 23.90 1:6.1 This ration, which has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.1, costs about 1 cent more than the preceding ration. The concentrate mixture will be pre- ferred by many dairymen, for it is more bulky, weighing 1.1 lbs. per quart. Whether this ration will produce enough more milk to pay for the increased cost will depend on how pronounced is the dairy temper- ament of the particular cow getting the ration. 195. A cotton-belt ration for milk production. — Let us next use the method which has just been illustrated in determining the most eco- nomical ration for the same cow if owned by a southern dairyman who has the following feeds available: Ground corn at $30, oats at $35, com silage at $3.50, cowpea hay at $15, and Johnson grass hay at $15 144 FEEDS AND FEEDING per ton. Cottonseed meal may be secured at $25, dried distillers' grains at $29, dried beet pulp at $29, wheat bran at $32, and cottonseed hulls at $7.50 per ton. Arranging the data for these feeds as before, we will have the following : Comparison of the economy of various feeds at the stated prices Feeding BtufF Dry matter in 100 lbs. Dig. crude protein in 100 lbs. Total dig. nutri- ents in 100 lbs. Nutri- tive ratio Price per ton Cost per lb. of dig. crude protein Cost of 1 lb. of total dig. nutri- ents Concentrates Dent com Wheat bran, all analyses Oats Cottonseed meal, choice Dried beet pulp Distillers' grains, dried, from com Rcrughages Cottonseed hulls Johnson grass hay Cowpea hay, all analyses Corn silage, recent analyses. . . . Lbs. 89.5 89.9 90.8 92.5 91.8 93.4 90.3 89.9 90.3 26.3 Lbs. 7.5 12.5 9.7 37.0 4.6 22.4 0.3 2.9 13.1 1.1 Lbs. 85.7 60.9 70.4 78.2 71.6 88.9 37.0 50.1 49.0 17.7 10.4 3.9 6.3 1.1 14.6 3.0 122.3 16.3 2.7 15.1 Dollars 30.00 32.00 35.00 25.00 29.00 29.50 7.50 15.00 15.00 3.50 Cents 20.00 12.80 18.04 3.38 31.52 6.59 125.00 25.86 6.73 15.91 Cents 1.75 2.63 2.49 1.60 2.03 1.66 1.01 1.50 1.53 0.99 With feeds at these prices cottonseed meal is not only the cheapest source of protein, but also furnishes total digestible nutrients at the lowest price among the concentrates. However, it is not safe to feed too large an allowance of this concentrate. (249-50, 596-7) In economy with which they furnish total digestible nutrients, dried distillers' grains and dent corn rank close to cottonseed meal. Among the roughages, corn silage is still the cheapest source of total digestible nutrients, followed by cottonseed hulls. Cowpea hay and Johnson grass hay furnish total digestible nutrients at about the same price. Since it is economy to feed a large allowance of cottonseed meal, which is exceedingly rich in protein, the roughage allowance should be rela- tively low in protein. "We might feed only corn silage and cottonseed hulls as roughage, but for the improvement of southern farms it is highly important that legumes be included in the crop rotation. Tho cowpea hay is more expensive than cottonseed hulls, when the benefit to the soil from growing the crop is considered the wise dairyman will decide to raise cow- peas or some other legume and feed the resulting hay. Let us then first compute a ration with a heavy allowance of silage, 42 lbs., with 8 lbs. of cowpea hay and 3.5 lbs. of cottonseed hulls, and to this add sufficient choice cottonseed meal to bring the total digestible nutrients up to the standard. On computing we will find that about 8 lbs. is required, as is shown in the table : ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 145 First trial ration for 1200-11. cow yielding 30 lis. of 3.5 per ct. milk Feeding stuff Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Cost Nutritive ratio Com silage, 42 .0 lbs Lbs. 11.05 7.22 3.16 7.40 Lbs. 0.462 1.048 0.010 2.960 Lbs. 7.434 3.920 1.295 6.256 Cents 7.35 6.00 1.31 10.00 Cowpea hay, 8 .0 lbs Cottonseed hulls, 3 .5 lbs Cottonseed meal, 8.0 lbs Total 28.83 41.480 18.905 24.66 1:3.2 This ration contains more cottonseed meal than is safe and has too narrow a nutritive ratio. To improve it we should substitute concen- trates which are lower in protein and also bulkier. Of the concentrates listed dried beet pulp best meets both these requirements. It is much more economical than oats or bran, and is bulkier than com which sup- plies total digestible nutrients somewhat more cheaply. Let us there- fore substitute 2 lbs. of dried beet pulp for the same weight of cotton- seed meal and likewise replace 1.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal with the same weight of dried distillers ' grains, which are bulky, lower in protein than cottonseed meal, and nearly as cheap a source of total digestible nutri- ents. We will then have : Second trial ration for 1200-lb. cow yielding 30 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk Feeding stuff Dry matter Dig. crude protein Total dig. nutrients Cost Nutritive ratio Lbs. 11.05 7.22 3.16 4.16 1.84 1.40 Lbs. 0.462 1.048 0.010 1.665 0.092 0.336 Lbs. 7.434 3.920 1.295 3.519 1.432 1.334 Cents 7.35 6.00 1.31 5.62 2.90 2.21 Cownea hav 8 lbs Cottonseed hulls, 3.5 lbs Cottonseed meal, 4.5 lbs Dried beet pulp, 2 .0 lbs Dried distillers grains, 1 .5 lbs.. . Total 28.83 3.613 18.934 25.39 1:4.2 This ration costs only 0.73 cts. more than the first, and does not con- tain more cottonseed meal than is safe when fed in mixture with bulky concentrates along with succulent feed like silage. It is evident that with feeds at the prices given in this illustration the question is not how little protein need be supplied, but how much may be safely fed. The 2 examples which have been given in the preceding pages — ^the most economical ration for the particular corn-belt dairyman, and the best ration for a given cotton-belt dairyman — show how widely the char- acter of the ration should be changed to make it the most economical under conditions in different parts of the country or with varying prices for the various feeding stuffs. The farmer who wishes to secure the largest returns from his stock should use a similar method to determine the relative economy of the available feeds for all his farm animals. 146 FEEDS AND FEEDING II. Adapting Systems of Feeding to Locaii Conditions 196. Amount of protein to supply. — The illustrations given in the pre- ceding articles show clearly that rations should be adapted to the local conditions. Feeding standards set forth approximately the amount of protein and total nutrients, which it is believed should be furnished for the maximum production of flesh, milk, work, etc., and for maintaining the highest well-being of the animal. It will be noted that in the Modi- fied Wolff-Lehmann standards a range is indicated in the amount of di- gestible crude protein advised for most classes of animals. For example, for 2-yr.-old steers on full feed from 2.0 to 2.3 lbs. of digestible crude protein per 1,000 lbs. live weight are recommended for the first 50-60 days of fattening. When protein-rich feeds cost but little or no more than carbonaceous feeds, it is well to feed at least as much protein as indicated by the higher figures. On the other hand, when corn or the other grains are relatively cheap it may be better economy to feed no more protein than called for by the lower figures. Rarely is it advisable to feed a materially smaller allowance of protein than the lower figures, for the production will be thereby lowered. As is shown later (732, 844-5), corn and clover hay alone make a fairly well-balanced ration for fattening cattle and sheep. However, the gains are usually slightly increased and a higher finish secured when a small allowance of some suitable nitrogenous concentrate is added to the ration. Whether such addition will be profitable or not depends on the prices of the feeds and on whether the market will pay a better price for the more highly finished animal. (733, 858) When protein-rich feeds supply nutrients more cheaply than those carbonaceous in character, as in the cotton belt and the alfalfa districts of the West, it will be economy to feed much more than the minimum amounts of protein set forth in the standards. (612, 768) However, protein should not be supplied in such excess as to injure the health of the animals. 197. Proportion of concentrates to roughages. — To meet the standards for fattening cattle and sheep and for milch cows, fairly liberal amounts of concentrates are required. When concentrates furnish total digest- ible nutrients nearly as cheaply as do roughages it is advisable to feed as large a proportion of concentrates as is called for by the standards. With feeds at the prices given in Article 193 dent corn furnishes nutri- ents at no greater cost than red clover hay. Under such conditions it may be most profitable to feed fattening steers and sheep as much corn as they will clean up. (716, 902, 906-7) On the other hand, in many of the alfalfa districts of the West, grain is usually high in price compared with alfalfa hay. Here it may be more profitable to restrict the grain allowance, even tho gains are slower. (768) With dairy cows much depends on the productive capacity of the animal. Except when concentrates are unusually high in price, the cow ECONOMY IN FEEDING LIVE STOCK 147 of good dairy temperament wiU pay for at least a fair allowance of con- centrates. On the contrary, for a low or limited productive capacity the most economical ration may be silage and legume hay with no con- centrates. (658-9) 198. Bonghing growing animals thm the winter. — The recommenda- tions of the standards for growing cattle and sheep are based upon continuous thrifty growth, and hence call for a limited allowance of concentrates in addition to roughage. The breeder of pure-bred ani- mals who wishes to develop the best there is in his young stock will feed the concentrates needed to keep them growing rapidly. On the other hand, the western beef producer may find it most profitable to carry young stock thru the winter on roughage alone or with but a small allow- ance of concentrates. Thus fed, they will gain in frame, and tho losing in flesh, will be thrifty enough in the spring to make good gains on the cheap pasturage. (138-9, 797-9) 199. Finish animals to meet demands of the market. — The wise stock- man will keep in close touch with the demands of the market and adjust his feeding operations accordingly. If the market pays a sufficient pre- mium for thoroly fattened animals he will finish his stock well before marketing them. On the other hand, on local markets which pay no more for a prime carcass than for one carrying less fat, it will pay not to prolong the fattening process or to feed as heavy an allowance of concentrates as is necessary to make the carcass "ripe," or thoroly fat. (121-2, 768, 800) 200. Adapt type of farming to local conditions. — It is outside the field of this volume to discuss in detail the many factors which the stockman should tEike into consideration in deciding the type of live-stock hus- bandry in which to engage and the systems and methods to follow. The foregoing paragraphs serve to illustrate how the farm operations and practices should be suited to local conditions, taking into consideration price of land and labor, nearness to market, and available crops. For example, the beef producer on high-priced land in the eastern part of the com belt wiU generally crowd his calves to rapid growth on a heavy allowance of grain and fatten them as baby beef. Or he will raise no cattle, but fatten feeder steers from the western ranges on a liberal allowance of com. On the other hand, in the West where pasture is cheap compared with grain the stockman will usually follow a less in- tensive system, roughing his growing stock thru the winter and market- ing them from grass as 2- or 3-yr.-olds, having been fed little grain at any time. The market rnilk for our cities must come from the surrounding dis- tricts which are within easy shipping distance. Dairymen maintaining herds on high-priced land to meet this demand properly tend to use a minimum acreage as pasture, but instead rely largely on com silage or soilage during the summer months. They often buy much of their con- centrates, for grain can be produced on land farther from market and 148 FEEDS AND FEEDING shipped in at less expense than it may be possible to grow it on their farms. Such a system is not, however, economical for the dairyman remote from the large markets, whose milk is used in the manufacture of butter or cheese. Since with him land is relatively less expensive than labor, he must adopt a less intensive system of dairying, where the herd is maintained largely on pasture in the summer. The reader will come to realize as he goes on in this book that, while there are no hard and fast rules for successfully managing live stock, a clear understanding of the principles of the nutrition of animals is essential to the highest success. This must be supplemented by good judgment and by a thoro knowledge of the farm animals themselves, which can only be gained by actual experience. He will further find that expensive buildings for housing stock and complex devices for feeding and caring for them are not necessary; that there are no "best" feeds for all conditions ; that elaborate and laborious preparation of feed is often wasted; that patent stock foods guaranteed to work miracles enrich, not the farmer, but the manufacturer. On the other hand he will come to appreciate that a proper balancing of the rations for his stock not only benefits the animals, but also in- creases his profits; that comfort for farm stock can be secured in inexpensive, easy ways, and that the operations of preparing and administering feed are really simple and direct, when once understood. He will further come to the deep and fundamental realization that animal husbandry under normal conditions is most successful when com- bined with general farming and the raising of farm crops, that it rests upon pasture lots which are fertilized so as to produce afbundant forage and upon tilled fields which are so managed that the fertility is main- tained and bumper crops are grown, a large part of which is marketed thru the animals of the farm. Having discussed in the preceding chapters the fundamental principles governing the rational feeding and care of the various classes of farm animals, let us now consider in detail the value of the many different feeding stuffs for live stock. Part II FEEDING STUFFS CHAPTER IX LEADING CEBEALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS I. Indian Coen and its Bt-peoducts The prime importance of Indian corn, or maize, Zea mays, as a grain crop in the United States is evident from the fact that in 1914, about 103,435,000 acres were grown, producing two and a half billion bushels of grain, worth $1,720,000,000. In acreage, in total production, and in value of grain, the corn crop of the United States exceeds that of wheat, oats, barley, rye, kafir, milo, emmer, buckwheat, and rice, combined. Indian corn can be successfully grown in every state of the Union, tho it flourishes best in the great middle region of our country lying between the Appalachians and the Rocky Mountain Plateau. In the South the tropical corn stems, 4 or 5 months from planting, carry great ears burdened with grain so high that a man can only touch them by reach- ing high above his head. At the other extreme, the Mandan Indian in the country of the Red River of the North developed a race of corn which reached only to the shoulders of the squaw, with tiny ears borne scarcely a foot from the ground on pigmy stalks. Corn is a heat-loving plant, and will not thrive in regions having cool nights during the grow- ing season. Like the other leading cereals which grow en masse, the corn plant must grow with others of its kind, but it requires more space, air, and sunlight. Because it requires thoro tillage and makes most of its growth during late summer and early fall, Indian corn stands in a class by itself among the cereals. (23) This requirement of thoro tillage brings many advantages to the soil not forced upon us in growing the other cereals. The corn grain is pre-eminently a carbohydrate bearer, every 100 lbs. containing nearly 70 lbs. of starch, which is its chief carbohydrate. Add to this 5 lbs. of oil, and we can understand why Indian com among the cereal grains may be likened to anthracite coal among the fuels. Corn is the great energizing, heat-giving, fat-furnishing food for the animals of the farm. No other cereal yields, on a given space and with a given expenditure of labor, so much animal food in both grain and for- age. On millions of farms successful animal husbandry rests upon this imperial grain and forage plant. (475, 575, 732-7, 844-7, 939-42) A pos- 149 150 FEEDS AND FEEDING sible explanation of the great fondness of farm animals for corn lies in the considerable amount of oil it carries. Again, on mastication the ker- nels break into nutty particles which are more palatable, for example, than meal from the almost oil-free wheat grain, which on crushing and mingling with the saliva turns to a sticky dough in the mouth. (For a discussion of corn as a forage, see Arts. 290 to 307.) 201. Corn lacks protein and mineral matter, — ^Being so rich in carbo- hydrates, corn is naturally low in crude protein. The crude protein of this grain is also somewhat unbalanced, for about 58 per ct. of it consists of the single protein, zein, which lacks some of the amino-acids neces- sary for animal growth. (118) Com is also unusually low in mineral matter, especially calcium, so necessary for growing animals. Numerous experiments show that even with fattening animals, which require rela- tively little protein and mineral matter, it is profitable to supplement these deficiencies of the corn grain by other feeds high in the nutrients which corn lacks. (732, 845, 939) Fortunately, the legume hays are rich in protein and calcium, and therefore admirably supplement corn. By the use of these roughages, less protein-rich concentrates are needed to balance a heavy allowance of corn. Indeed, for some animals legume hay and corn alone form a satisfactory, well-balanced ration. (733, 844) 202. Races of corn. — Three races of corn — dent, flint, and sweet — are of interest to the stockman. In dent corn the starch is partly hornlike and partly floury, rendering the kernel easy of mastication. In flint corn the starch is mostly hornlike and flinty, making the kernel more difficult for the animal to crush. Both chemical analysis and experience oppose the assertion, often heard, that yellow corn is more nutritious than white, or the opposite. In fact, the coloring matter of yellow corn is so minute in quantity as to be unweighable. While a certain strain or variety of one may be superior to any particular strain or variety of the other in a given locality, there is no uniform difference between white and yellow corn in productiveness or feeding properties. In sweet corn the starch is hornlike and tough. Before hardening, the milky kernels of this race carry much glucose, which is changed to starch as they mature into the shrunken grain. The sweetness of the immature grains of sweet corn, due to the glucose they then carry, adds to the palatability but not necessarily to their nutritive value, since glu- cose and starch have the same feeding value. (48) Sweet corn has some- what more crude protein and fat and less carbohydrates than the other races. Earliness of maturity tends to dwarf the corn plant. Hence, the higher the latitude or the altitude at which a variety was originated the larger will be the proportion of ears to stalk and leaves, tho the total yield of ears will usually be decreased. 203. Com cobs. — ^Well-dried dent ear corn of good breeding carries about 56 lbs. of shelled corn to 14 lbs. of cob. The proportion of cob to grain varies according to race, variety, and dryness, ranging from LEADING CBEBALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 151 below 20 to about 40 per ct., flint varieties having a larger proportion of cob to grain than does dent corn. The cobs carry about 30 per ct. of fiber, which at best is of low feeding value, and much of their nitrogen- free extract is in the form of pentosans. (9) Since the cobs have some nutritive value, under certain conditions it is profitable to grind the whole ear into corn-and-cob meal. (208) Manifestly it is not economical to purchase ground com cobs in adulterated commercial feeds at a price that would buy good concentrates. (285) 204. Shrinkage of ear corn. — ^While the amount of water in old corn varies but little from 12 per ct., the Iowa Station^ foiind as high as 36 per ct. in freshly husked ear corn. Rarely will corn carrying 20 per ct. or more of water keep if stored in any considerable quantity. Studies conducted by the Kansas Station^ with 3 lots of ear corn fairly dry when cribbed, others by the Illinois Station' with 2 cribs, each contain- ing 20,000 lbs., and an 8-year test by the Iowa Station* show the fol- lowing results : Shrinkage in ear corn during storage Nov. and Dec. Nov. to Mar. Nov. to Apr. In 1 year In 2 years Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Kansas 3.3 6.8 8.6 lUinois 2.6 6.0 17.8 19.4 20.6 Iowa 6.9 9.7 12.8 18.2 In a year the corn in the Kansas trial shrank only 8.6 per ct. while that in the Iowa trial shrank 18.2 per ct. The rate of shrinkage de- pends not only on the maturity of the corn when husked, but also on the moisture content of the air. When the water content of ear corn falls to 12 per ct., shrinkage practically ceases. A large part of the shrinkage of ear corn is in the cobs, which usually form about one-fourth of the weight of the ears at husking and one-fifth of their cured weight. Twist- ing the ears slightly will fairly indicate the moisture contained. Loose grained, "sappy" ears carry 20 per ct. or more of water, while solid ones usually contain not much over 12 per ct. Seventy lbs. of dry dent corn of good varieties will make 1 bushel, or 56 lbs., of shelled corn, but in early fall the buyers frequently demand 75 or 80 lbs., according to the estimated water content. According to the Federal corn grades, by which corn is sold on the large markets, the percentage of water in corn must not exceed for Number 1, 14 per ct. ; Number 2, 15.5 per ct. ; Num- ber 3, 17.5 per ct. ; Number 4, 19.5 per ct, ; Number 5, 21.5 per ct. ; and Number 6, 23 per ct. Corn is stored mostly on the husked ear in the North, but in the South the husks are left on the ears because of the wee- vil, a beetle that lives in the kernels unless they are protected. Shelled corn does not keep well in bulk, especially in summer, and so corn is held in ear form as long as possible. 205. Soft corn. — Corn frosted before the grains mature contains too much water for storage or shipment, and is best utilized by immediate 'Iowa Bui. 77. "Kan. Bui. 144. •111. Bui. 113. 'Hoard's Dairyman, 49, 463. 152 FEEDS AND FEEDING feeding. Soft com has been fed successfully to swine (940), and for steers a pound of dry matter in soft corn containing 35 per ct. of water is equal in feeding value to a povmd of dry matter in hard corn. (737) A late-maturing variety of corn should not be planted in a locality having a short growing season, with the hope of getting a larger yield. The corn will usually not mature, there is great danger of its heating and molding, and the shrinkage is large. It is also difficult to secure seed for the following year which will retain its vitality. 206. Composition of the corn kernel. — To determine the composition of the different parts of the corn kernel, Hopkins of the Illinois Station" separated the kernels of an ear of average dent corn into their several parts and analyzed each. The weights of each part av^ the nutrients contained therein for 100 lbs. of water-free com are shown in the fol- lowing table : Location of nutrients in the water-free corn kernel Total wt. in Crude Carbo- 100 lbs. com protein hydrates Fat Ash Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Hull and tip cap 7.39 0.36 6.88 0.08 0.07 Hornlike gluten 8.51 1.89 6.88 0.59 0.15 Hornlike Btarch 47.08 4.80 42.05 0.11 0.11 Floury starch 25 .49 2 .00 23 .36 .06 .07 Germ 11.53 2.28 4.09 4.02 1.14 Whole kernel 100.00 11.33 82.26 4.86 1.54 In 100 lbs. of water-free corn the hulls and tip caps together weighed 7.39 lbs., the hornlike layer of gluten just under the skin 8.51 lbs., and the flinty, hornlike starch at the sides and base of the kernel 47.08 lbs., or nearly one-half of the total weight. In each 100 lbs. of kernels the soft, floury starch in the middle portion of the kernel formed 25.49 lbs. and the germ 11.53 lbs. The last 4 columns of the table show the number of pounds of each nutrient contained in each of the several parts of 100 lbs. of water-free corn. It is seen that the hull and tip cap are largely carbohydrates, while the germ is heavily charged with crude protein and fat, or oil. Appendix Table I shows that air-dry dent com contains 70.9 per ct. nitrogen-free extract — nearly all starch — and only 2.0 per ct. fiber, which comprises the fiber of the hull, or skin, of the kernel, and of the cell walls inclosing the starch ^ains. On comparing the composition of corn with that of the other common cereals, it will be noted that corn is by far the richest in fat, containing 5.0 per ct. fat, or oil. Because of this abundance of starch and oil, corn excels as a fattening food. Corn has slightly less crude protein than wheat, barley, oats, or rye and is also lower in ash. It is especially deficient in lime, containing only 0.2 lb. per 1,000 lbs. of grain. As has been emphasized before (201) , in feed- ing com we must bear in mind these facts concerning its composition. "111. Bui. 87. LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 153 207. Com meal; com chop; com feed-meal. — ^The term corn meal, as applied to feeding stuffs, is most correctly used to denote the entire ground com grain, from which the bran oij hulls have not been re- moved by bolting. In preparing corn for human food the grain is either ground to a rather coarse meal or cracked coarsely, the fine sif tings and also the bran or hulls being removed. The milled product, which is like- wise called corn meal, has a more attractive appearance than the entire ground grain, but contains somewhat less protein and fat. Much of the commercial corn meal, particularly in the Mississippi valley, is made from the part of the kernel left after the manufacture of cracked corn or table meal. It is most correctly called corn feed-meal, and according to Smith and Beals of the Massachusetts Station,^ is equal in feeding value to corn meal made from the entire grain. Corn chop is a name sometimes applied to ground corn, and also to mixtures of ground corn and corn by-products. Since it has often been found best not to grind corn for stock (423, 475, 735, 847, 921), the question whether this grain should be reduced to a coarse or a fine meal has lost much of the interest once taken in it. On grinding corn the oil it carries soon becomes rancid and gives the meal a stale taste. Hence this grain should never be ground far in advance of use. 208. Com-and-cob meal. — ^When ear corn is ground the product is called corn-and-eob meal. Because of the rubber-like consistency of the cobs, much power is required to reduce ear corn to meal. If the cob particles in corn-and-cob meal are coarse, the animal will not usually eat them, but when finely ground corn-and-cob meal proves satisfactory with most farm animals. (576, 941) Much evidently depends on the nature of the roughage fed with the meal. The Paris Omnibus Company found corn-and-cob meal more acceptable than pure corn meal to its thousands of horses (475), and stockmen generally report favorably on its use. It has been suggested that com meal when fed' alone lies too compactly in the stomach to be readily attacked by the digestive fluids, while corn-and-cob meal forms a loose mass more easy of digestion. Where there is an abundance of cheap roughage, it is best to omit the cobs in grinding unless there is ample power at low cost. 209. Starch and glucose by-products. — In the manufacture of com- mercial starch and glucose from corn, the grain is first passed thru cleaning machinery. It is then soaked in warm water, slightly acidulated with sulfurous acid, which softens the grain and facilitates the separ- ation of the germ. Next the grain is coarsely ground and the mass passed into tanks containing "starch liquor." Here the germs, which are lighter on account of the large amount of oil they carry, rise to the surface, and are removed. After washing, the residue is then finely ground, and the coarser part, the bran, separated by silk sieves. The remainder, called "starch liquor," which contains the starch, gluten, and fine particles of fiber, is then passed slowly thru shallow, slightly inclined troughs where •Mass. Bui. 146. 154 FEEDS AND FEEDING the starch settles like wet lime, while the lighter ingredients — ^the gluten, fiber, etc. — are carried off in the current of water. In this process there are thus obtained, (1) the germ, from which corn oil and germ oil meal or corn oil cake are secured, (2) the bran, consisting of the hulls, (3) the starch, and (4) the gluten. The bran, together with some light weight and broken germs, was formerly dried and sold as corn hran. Now, however, the bran and gluten are usually united while stiU wet, and then dried and ground, the product being sold as corn gluten feed, or corn starch hy-product with corn hran, as it is sometimes called.'' The term corn gluten feed is used to distinguish this feed from "Continental Gluten Feed," a proprietary name for certain dried distillers' grains. (282) 210. Com gluten feed. — ^Formerly, the steep water, which contains the soluble materials, such as soluble protein and phosphates, was allowed to run to waste. It is now often evaporated and the residue, called com solubles, is added to the gluten feed. Gluten feed is rich in crude pro- tein, contains a fair amount of carbohydrates and fat, and is bulkier than corn. The protein content varies from 18 to over 29 per ct., depending chiefly on/ how completely the starch has been removed. The ash content ranges from less than 1 per ct. when the com solubles have not been added to 5 or 6 per ct. when this residue has been incorporated. Owing chiefly to the acid nature of some of the protein and phosphorus compounds naturally occurring in the corn solubles, gluten feed to which these have been added has an acid taste unless the acid has been neutral- ized in the process of manufacture. While the small amount of acid present is probably not injurious to live stock, the feed is more palat- able when the acidity is neutralized. In early years gluten feed was normally yellow, since it was usually made from yellow corn. When manufacturers began to use white com the resulting product had an uninviting grayish-white color, and was sometimes refused by purchasers. The manufacturers thereupon added artificial coloring matter to maintain the standard color. Tho the little coloring matter used is probably not injurious, it certainly adds nothing of value to the feed. Fortunately purchasers are learning to be governed by the guarantee and the taste, rather than by the color, and some manu- facturers are hence discontinuing the coloring of this feed. Gluten feed is a most valuable concentrate, especially in the ration of the dairy cow. (590, 757, 856) 211. Gluten meal. — This by-product, now sometimes called corn ly- product without corn bran, is one of the richest of concentrates in crude protein and fat, while fair in carbohydrates and low in mineral matter. It is a heavy feed, and, as mentioned before, is usually mixed with corn bran to form gluten feed. (491, 591, 981) 212. Germ oil meal. — The corn germs removed in the manufacture of starch are dried, crushed, and much of the oil pressed out, leaving the 'Wagner, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem., Bui. 122, 1909; Lindsey, Mass. (Hatch) Bui. 78. LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 155 residue in cakes. This is exported as corn oil cake, or ground and sold in this country as germ oil meal or corn germ meal. This feed contains somewhat less protein than the usual gluten feed, but carries a much larger amount of fat. (592) 213. Hominy feed, meal, or chop. — This by-product, variously called hominy feed, hominy meal, or hominy chop, is a mixture of the bran coating, the germ, and a part of the starchy portion of the corn kernel obtained in the manufacture of hominy grits for human consumption and of brewers' grits. It is a carbonaceous feed, similar in composition to corn, but somewhat bulkier. It is slightly lower in nitrogen-free ex- tract, higher in fiber, and contains much more fat. While slightly less digestible than corn meal, it is kiln-dried, almost invariably sweet, and keeps better in storage than does corn meal. As it is a bulkier feed than corn meal it is preferred for dairy cattle and has also proven superior to corn meal for fattening pigs. Cochel of the Kansas Station^ reports that fattening calves would not eat as heavy an allowance of hominy feed as of corn meal, perhaps owing to the larger amount of oil in the hominy feed. (577, 749, 943) 214. Com bran. — ^But little corn bran now comes upon the market as such, for, as we have seen, it is usually mixed with other by-products. (209) Corn bran contains about three-fifths as much protein as wheat bran, is somewhat higher than that feed in nitrogen-free extract and fat, and contains slightly more fiber. II. Wheat and its By-phoducts in Milling Since it costs more to produce wheat, Triticum sativum, tenax, than corn, and since our population is steadily increasing, it is reasonable to suppose that wheat will never again be used in any considerable amount for feeding stock in this country, as it was at one time. But the feeder should know both its absolute and relative value, for the low grades of wheat would better be fed to stock than sold. 215. Wheat as a feed. — Compared with com, wheat carries slightly more carbohydrates in the form of starch, more crude protein, and much less fat. Tho low in mineral matter, it contains somewhat more lime, phosphoric acid, and potash than corn. While the nutritive ratio of dent corn is 1 : 10.4, that of wheat is 1 : 7.7. Tho wheat thus carries a larger proportion of protein, this nutrient is unbalanced in composition, like that of corn. (118) Probably due to this. Hart, McCoUum, and Fuller' have found in trials at the Wisconsin Station that pigs fed on wheat as the sole source of protein for long periods are unable to make normal growth, even when an abundance of mineral matter is supplied. (105) Like corn, wheat should be supplemented by feeds rich in protein and lime. Fed in properly balanced rations wheat is about equal to corn for milk production or for fattening animals. (578, 739, 849, 945) Fed •Kansas Industrialist, 41, 1916. 'Jour. Biol. Chem., 19, 1914, pp. 373-395. 156 FEEDS AND FEEDING in large amounts to horses it has occasioned digestive disturbances and eruptions of the skin. (479) Because the kernels are small and hard, wheat should be ground for all farm animals except sheep. Wheat flour and meal fed alone are unsatisfactory because they form a pasty mass in the animal's mouth, a condition which can be remedied by adding some such material as bran or coarse corn meal. (423) As stated before (81), the composition of the wheat kernel is markedly influenced by climate, especially in protein content. Wheat from the northern plains region is highest in crude protein, while that from the Pacific coast districts is unusually low in this nutrient. When grown under the same climatic conditions spring wheat is usually slightly richer in crude protein than winter wheat.^" Durum, or macaroni, wheat is extensively grown in parts of the plains states, especially the Dakotas, on account of its higher yield in these sections. This variety shows no appreciable difference in composition or feeding value from ordinary wheat grown under the same environment.^^ (849) Wheat growers should sell only the best grades, retaining for their animals all shrunken, frosted, or otherwise damaged grain, for while such wheat has low selling value, it is often equal to grain of good qual- ity for feeding. (739, 849, 945) As a rule such grain is richer in pro- tein than is wheat of good quality. Salvage grain, which has been slightly charred or injured by smoke and water in elevator fires, thus being unfitted for human food, may have its value for stock feeding but little impaired. 216. Flour manufacture. — The wheat kernel is covered with three straw- like coats or skins. Beneath these comes the fourth, called the ' ' aleurone layer," rich in crude protein, and which in milling goes with the other coats to form bran. The germ, or embryo plant, in each kernel is rich in oil, crude protein, and mineral matter. The remainder of the kernel consists of thin- walled cells packed with starch grains. Among the starch grains are protein particles called "gluten," that give wheat-flour dough the tenacity so essential in bread making. In producing flour the miller aims to secure all the starch and gluten possible from the wheat grains, while avoiding the germ and bran. He leaves out the germs because they make a sticky dough and also soon turn dark and rancid, giving the flour a specked appearance. Nor does he use the aleurone layer, as it gives a brownish tint to the flour. In modern milling, flour is produced by passing the thoroly cleaned wheat thru a series of hardened steel rollers, each succeeding pair being set a little nearer together so that the kernels are gradually crushed into smaller and smaller particles. After passing thru each pair of rollers, or "breaks," the flour is removed by sifting or passing the material over bolting cloth, and finally only the by-products remain. The terms employed to designate the various mill products differ some- what in various sections of the country, but those most commonly used "Bailey, Minn. Bui. 143. "Ladd and Bailey, N. D. Bui. 93. LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 157 are wheat Iran, standard middlings or shorts, white or flour middlings^ red dog flour and wheat mixed feed. In the marnif acture of flour, from 25 to 33 per ct. of the weight of the wheat grain remains as bran, middlings, etc. Since the annual eon- sumption of wheat ia this country is about 4.5 bushels, or 270 lbs., for each person, the by-products of this grain amount to nearly 70 lbs. for each person, not including that resulting from the wheat milled for export. 217. Feeding bread. — When available, the stale bread from bakeries is used for feeding animals, especially horses. Gay^^ states that a Phila- delphia teamster fed stale bread mixed with molasses, at a considerable saving and with entire success. An English writer^^ also reports good results from feeding bread to cab horses in London, the only trouble being that many loaves were consumed by the workmen. 218. Wheat bran. — Bran, which consists of the coarse outer coatings of the wheat kernel, is comparatively rich in digestible crude protein, carries considerable digestible carbohydrates and fat, and is high in mineral matter, except lime. It is light and chaffy, carrying a consider- able amount of fiber. Bran from mills lacking machiaiery for perfect sep- aration of the starch from the bran coats is somewhat lower in crude proteiti and fiber and higher in carbohydrates than the bran from the large miUs. Woll^* concludes that the nutritive difference is usually small, making it advisable to select whichever is cheaper. Hart and Patten of the New York (Geneva) Station^^ have shown that ordinary wheat bran contains from 6 to 7 per ct. of an organic compound containing phosphorus, magnesia, and potash. In the past the laxative effect of bran, one of its beneficial properties, was ascribed to the mild irritation produced by the chaffy bran "particles on the lining of the in- testinal tract. These chemists have found, however, that the laxative effect of bran is due to this phosphorus compound. Phosphorus, an essential component of the bones and of milk, is abundant in bran, while lime, likewise needed in stiU larger amount, is but sparingly present. Horses heavily fed on wheat bran or middlings sometimes suffer from "bran disease,"^* which seriously affects their bones. To supply the lime which bran lacks, farm animals may be fed lime in inorganic form — ^wood ashes, ground limestone, burned lime, or ground rock phosphate (floats) , or they may be supplied lime in organic form by feeding lime-laden plants, such as the legumes, which include alfalfa, clover, vetch, cowpea, etc. (98) The best grades of bran are of light weight, with large, clean flakes and no foreign matter. Knowing the properties of bran, one is in position to use this most "Productive Horse Husbandry, p. 239. "The Field, England, July 15, 1893. "Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, p. 180. "N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 250. "Law's Vet. Medicine, III, p. 572. 158 FEEDS AND FEEDING valuable feed advantageously. As bran is ordinarily too expensive to be used as the sole concentrate for farm animals, it should be mixed with other concentrates to lighten the ration or add bulk while improving its nutritive qualities. Fairly high in protein and rich in phosphorus, it serves its highest purpose in giving virility to the animal and in help- ing build bone and muscle without tending to fatten, thus being especial- ly suited to young animals whose digestive capacities are sufficiently de- veloped for this bulky feed. (523, 681, 894) Both on account of its high content of crude protein and phosphorus and because of its laxative action, bran is of great value in putting the bodies of pregnant mares, cows, ewes, or sows in the best condition for bearing young. (514, 673-4, 883, 1015) Supplied to horses once or twice a week in the form of a "mash" made with scalding water, bran proves a mild, beneficial laxa- tive. (486) When used continuously, the animal system becomes accus- tomed to it and thfe laxative property is less marked. Hard-worked horses have neither time nor energy to digest feeds of much bulk, and hence their allowance of bran should be limited. (457, 486) Being bulky, bran is often mixed with corn and other heavy concentrates for starting fattening cattle or sheep on feed. (756, 856) It is a most excellent feed for the dairy cow, being slightly laxative, giving bulk to the ration, and providing the crude protein and phosphorus so vital to the formation of milk. (588) Tho too strawlike for young pigs, it is valuable for giving bulk and nutriment to the ration for breeding swine and stock hogs not getting legume pasture or hay. (972) Due to its widespread popularity, bran is often high in price compared with other nitrogenous concentrates which can be used with equally good results and many of which carry more protein than does bran. 219. Red dog flour. — ^Red dog flour, or dark feeding flour, generally contains the wheat germs and is therefore rich in crude protein and fat. Such flour differs but little in composition and feeding value from the best flour middlings. (971) 220. Wheat middlings. — ^Middlings vary in quality from red dog flour, which contains considerable flour, to standard middlings, or shorts, which may contain but little flour. To some extent standard or hrown mid- dlings and shorts are interchangeable terms. Standard wheat middlings comprise the finer bran particles with considerable flour adhering. Shorts too often consist of ground-over bran and the sweepings and dirt of the mills, along with ground or unground weed seeds. Flour or white middlings are of somewhat higher grade than standard middlings ; containing considerable low-grade flour and carrying slightly more crude protein and less fiber. Middlings are highly useful with swine of all ages. They should not be fed alone, but always with more carbonaceous feeds, as corn or barley. (969-70) Mixed with the various ground grains, mid- dlings and shorts are helpful with dairy cows, since they add crude pro- tein and phosphorus to the ration. (589) Middlings and shorts alone should never be fed to horses, since they are too heavy and pasty in LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 159 character and are liable to induce colic. (487) Like bran, both mid- dlings and shorts are low in lime, which should always be supplied by the other feeds in the ration. 221. Wheat mixed feed. — Wheat mixed feed, or sMpstuff, is, strictly speaking, the entire miU run of the residues of the wheat kernel left after separating the commercial flour. The term is also used for various mix- tures of bran and red dog flour or middlings. Smith and Beals of the Massachusetts Station*^ state that a good grade is superior to wheat bran, but that a difference of 10 per ct. in value is often noted in different samples, depending on the amount of flour contained. 222. Screenings. — In cleaning and grading wheat at the elevators and mills, there remain great quantities of screenings, consisting of broken and shrunken wheat kernels having a high feeding value, mixed with weed seeds. Many of the latter are nutritious, while others are of little worth, and a few actually poisonous. Poisonous seeds, such as corn cockle, are rarely present in screenings in sufficient quantities to cause ill effects. Unground screenings will never be used by farmers who seek to keep their land free from noxious weeds, for many such seeds will pass thru the animals uninjured and be carried to the field in the ma- nure. Finely ground screenings are free from this objection. Screen- ings have their place and use, tho, because of their variable character, little of a definite nature can be said concerning them. (850, 954) Along with molasses and the by-products of the distilleries, breweries, flouring mills, oatmeal factories, etc., they are now largely absorbed in the manu- facture of proprietary feeding stuffs. (285) The feed control laws of various states require that when screenings are present in feeds the fact be indicated on the label and in some cases the percentage must be stated. Wheat iran with mill run screenings is a trade term for pure wheat bran plus the screenings which were sep- arated from the wheat whence the bran originated. Wheat hran with screenings not exceeding mill run may be either wheat bran with the whole mill run of screenings or with but a portion of the screenings output. III. Oats and thbie By-products Next to com, oats, Avena sativa, are the most extensively grown cereal in America. In the southern portion of our country a bushel of oats often weighs only 20 lbs., while on the Pacific coast it may weigh 50 lbs. Southern oats have a larger kernel than the northern grain, but bear an inflated husk carrying an awn or beard, which causes the grains to lie loosely in the measure. In the North the kernel is encased in a compact hull, usually not awned. The huUs of oats constitute from 20 to 45 per ct. of their total weight, the average being about 30 per ct. "Clipped oats" have had the hulls clipped at the pointed end, thereby "Mass. Bui. 146. 160 FEEDS AND FEEDING increasing the weight per bushel. A huUess oat, but little grown in this country, serves well for poultry and swine, while the varieties with hulls are preferable for other stock. The oat grain is higher in crude protein than is corn, and in fat it exceeds wheat and nearly equals corn. 223. Oats as a feed. — Oats are the safest of all feeds for the horse, for the hull gives them such volume that the animal rarely suffers from gorg- ing ; in this respect they are in strong contrast with com. On account of the mettle so characteristic of the oat-fed horse, it was long held that there is a stimulating substance in the oat grain. All claims of the dis- covery of this compound have, however, melted away on careful exam- ination, and rations containing no oats have given results in every way as good as where oats were fed. (473-4) For dairy cows there is no better grain than oats, but their use is restricted by their high price. (579) Oats mixed with other concentrates are helpful in starting fattening cattle or sheep on feed. As fattening progresses more concentrated feeds should be substituted for all or most of the oats. (740, 851) Ground oats with the hulls sifted out provide a nourishing and wholesome feed for young calves and pigs. (946) For breeding swine, whole oats in limited quantity are always in place. As light weight oats contain more hull and less kernel than plump, heavy oats, their feeding value per pound will be correspondingly less. In recent years the bleaching of low-grade oats and barley with sul- furous acid fumes to whiten the grain and raise the market grade, has become common. Smith^' estimates that in 6 months beginning October 1, 1908, nearly 19,000,000 bushels of oats and barley were bleached at 13 grain centers in 3 north-central states. No feeding trials have been reported in which bleached oats have been fed, but complaints from horse- men of injurious effects on the health of the animals fed such oats are not uncommon. Several states have laws regulating the sale of bleached grains. 224. Oat by-products. — In the manufacture of oatmeal and other break- fast foods, after the light-weight grains are screened out to be sold as feed the hulls are removed from the remainder, a vast quantity result- ing. So completely are the kernels separated that the chaff-like hulls have but low feeding value. Oat hulls contain ab'out 30 per ct. fiber, as Appendix Table I shows, and their feeding value is only little, if any, above that of oat straw. If fragments of the kernels adhere, their value is of course thereby improved. The oat hulls are sold in mixture with other feeds under various names. (285) The statement of feed manu- facturers that the addition of a limited amount of hulls to a heavy con- centrate mixture is beneficial seems reasonable in view of the excellent results secured with the natural unhuUed oats. However, the appear- ance of such feeds is no guide to their value or the quantity of hulls present, and they hence should be purchased only on guarantee and on the basis of their actual composition compared with standard feeds. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Clr. 74. LEADING CEKEALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 161 After the oats are hulled, they are freed from the minute hairs which adhere to the outer end of the kernel. Small as these hairs are, they form with fragments of the kernels a product of great volume, known as oat dust, which contains considerable protein and fat, with about 18 per ct. fiber. This feed is usually sold in mixture with other concentrates, as its light, fluffy nature makes it unsuitable to feed alone. In feeding value this product ranks between oat hulls and oat middlings. Oat shorts or middlings, consisting of the outside skins of the kernels, closely re- semble wheat bran in composition, but carry more fat. Oat feeds are mix- tures, widely varying in composition, of ground oat hulls, oat middlings, and other by-products. Since the feeding value wiU depend on the amount of hulls present, these feeds should be purchased only on guar- antee of composition and from reputable dealers. The fiber content of any lot indicates the relative amount of hulls contained. Clipped oat by-product, or oat clippings, is the by-product obtained in the manu- facture of clipped oats. This material, which consists of chaffy material broken from the ends of the hulls, empty hulls, light immature oats, and dust, is used in various proprietary feeds. 225. Ground com and oats. — This feed, variously called ground corn and oats, ground feed, and provender, is extensively employed in the eastern and southern states for feeding dairy cows and especially horses. In composition it ranges from a straight mixture of good-grade corn and oats to one containing a large proportion of low-grade materials such as oat hulls, ground corn cobs, and other refuse. The best guide to the purity of this feed is the fiber content. As com contains only 2.0 per ct. fiber and oats 10.9 per ct. , when ground corn and oat feed contains over about 7 per ct. fiber, it has either been adulterated or was made from poor quality oats. Where more than 9 per ct. fiber is present adulter- ation is certain.^' This feed should be purchased only on guarantee and from reliable dealers. IV. Baelet and its By-products in Brewing Barley, Hordeum sativum, is the most widely cultivated of the cereals, growing as far north as 65° north latitude in Alaska and flourishing beside orange groves in California. Once the chief bread plant of many ancient nations, it is now used almost wholly for brewing, pearling, and stock feeding. Richardson^" found that Dakota barley contained the highest percentage of crude protein, and Oregon barley the lowest. The adherent hull of the grain of ordinary brewing barley or of Scotch barley constitutes about 15 per ct. of its total weight. California feed barley, grown extensively in some sections of the West, has more hull and weighs 45 lbs. or less per bushel; while the usual weight of common barley is 48 lbs. Bald, or huUess, barley also grown in the western states has hard kernels, contains less fiber owing to the "Woll and Strowd, Wis. Cir. 47. =°U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. of Chem., Bui. 9. 162 FEEDS AND FEEDING absence of the hull, and is as heavy as wheat. (848) Barley has less digestible crude protein than oats, and more than corn. The carbo- hydrates exceed those of oats and fall below those in corn, while the oil content is lower than in either of these grains. 226. Barley as a feed. — On the Pacific slope, where corn or oats do not flourish in equal degree, barley is extensively used as a feed for ani- mals. The horses of California are quite generally fed on rolled barley, with wheat, oat, or barley hay for roughage. (494) Barley is the common feed for dairy cows in northern Europe. The Danes sow barley and oats together in the proportion of 1 part of barley to 2 of oats, the ground mixed grain from this crop being regarded as the best available feed for dairy cows and other stock. (580) Fed with legume hay to fattening steers and lambs, barley has given nearly as good returns as corn. (738, 848) For horses barley is somewhat less valuable than oats. (478) At the Virginia Station"^ calves made excellent gains on barley and skim milk, but corn proved cheaper. (681) In Great Britain and northern Europe barley takes the place of corn for pig feeding, leading all grains in pro- ducing pork of fine quality, both as to hardness and flavor. In American trials somewhat more barley than corn has been required for 100 lbs. gain with fattening pigs. (944) Owing to its more chaffy nature Cali- fornia feed barley is somewhat lower in value than common barley. (848) Tho barley is somewhat higher than corn in crude protein, it is still decidedly carbonaceous in character, and should be fed with legume hay or with a nitrogenous concentrate for the best results. 227. Malt. — In making malt the barley grains are first steeped in warm water until soft. The grain is then held at a warm temperature until it begins to sprout, in which process the amount of diastase, the en- zyme which converts starch into malt sugar, increases greatly, and some of the starch in the grain is acted on by the diastase. When sufficient diastase has been formed in the sprouting grain, it is quickly dried. The tiny, dry, shriveled sprouts are then separated from the grains, and put on the market as malt sprouts. The dried grains remaining form malt. In the manufacture of beer the malt, after being crushed by rolling, is moist- ened and usually mixed with cracked corn which has been previously cooked. The diastase in the malt now converts the starch in the corn and the malt itself into malt sugar. This, together with some of the nitrogenous and mineral matter is then extracted from the mass and fermented by yeast. The freshly extracted residue constitutes wet brewers' grains, which on drj'ing in a vacuum are called dried brewers' grains or brewers' dried grains. It was formerly claimed that malting barley increased its value for stock feeding. Investigations by Lawes and Gilbert of the Rothamsted Station,^^ England, show that a given weight of barley is of greater value for dairy cows and fattening animals than the amount of malt and malt sprouts that would be produced from it. This is due to the oxidizing »Va. Bui. 172. ""Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. IV. LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 163 or burning up of some of the stored nutrients in the grain during the sprouting process. Malt is, however, very palatable to stock, and useful as a conditioner and in fitting animals for exhibition or sale.^* 228. Dried brewers' grains. — ^Dried brewers' grains, which are no more perishable than wheat bran, contain over 70 per ct. more digestible crude protein and twice as much fat as wheat bran, but are lower in carbohydrates, which are largely pentosans.^* (9) Higher in fiber than wheat bran, they are a bulky feed, and there- fore not weU suited to pigs. They are widely fed to dairy cows and serve weU as part of the concentrate allowance for horses, especially for those at hard work, and needing an ample supply of protein. (488, 593, 759, 856) 229. Wet brewers' grains. — Owing to their volume, watery nature, and perishable character, wet brewers' grains are usually fed near the brew- ery. Containing about 75 per ct. water, they have slightly over one- fourth the feeding value of an equal weight of dried grains. In the hands of ignorant or greedy persons cows have often been crowded into dark, illy-ventilated sheds and fed almost exclusively upon wet brewers' grains. Sometimes the grains are partially rotted when fed, and the drippings getting under feed boxes and floors produce sickening odors. It is not surprising that boards of health have prohibited the sale of milk from such dairies. There is nothing in fresh brewers' grains which is necessarily deleterious to milk. Supplied in reasonable quantity, 20 to 30 lbs. per head daily, and fed while fresh in clean, water-tight boxes and along with nutritious hay and other roughage, there is no better food for dairy cows than wet brewers' grains. So great is the temp- tation to abuse, however, that wet grains should never be fed to dairy cows unless under the supervision of competent officials. If this cannot be done, their use should be prohibited. In Europe the wet grains are considered excellent for fattening cattle and swine when used with dry feed and furnishing not over half the nutrients in the ration. On ac- count of their "washy" nature, they are not so useful for horses and sheep, tho horses may be fed 20 lbs. per head daily and fattening sheep 1 lb. daily per 100 lbs. live weight.^" 230. Malt sprouts. — The tiny, shriveled sprouts which have been sep- arated from the dried malt grains form a bulky feed which is rather low in carbohydrates and fat, but carries about 20 per ct. digestible crude protein, one-third of which is amids.^" At ruling prices they are an eco- nomical source of protein, but not being relished by stock should be given in limited quantity mixed with other concentrates. Malt sprouts are especially valuable for dairy cows, tho they will not usually eat over 2 or 3 lbs. daily. (594) In Europe horses have been fed as high as 5 to 6 lbs. =»Pott, Handb. Emahr. u. Putter., Ilf, 1909, p. 257. "Mass. (Hatch) Bui. 94. *Pott, Handb. Emahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 233. *Pott, Handb. Emahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 223. 164 FEEDS AND FEEDING per head daily with good results, and sheep 0.5 lb. daily per 100 lbs. live weight. Since malt sprouts swell greatly when they absorb water, they may cause digestive disturbances if fed dry to stock in large amounts and should therefore be soaked for several hours before feeding. When not over 1 lb. per head is fed to cattle with other feed, soaking is un- necessary, but moistening to lay the dust is advisable.^^ 231. Barley feed. — This by-product from the manufacture of pearl barley or flour has about the same feeding value as wheat bran, being somewhat lower in protein and higher in nitrogen-free extract. V. Rye and its By-products Rye, Secale cereale, the principal cereal of north Europe, is not ex- tensively grown in America. Tho it repays good treatment, this ' ' grain of poverty" thrives in cool regions on land that would not give profit- able returns with the other cereals. It furnishes about one-third of the people of Europe with bread, and when low in price or off -grade is com- monly fed to stock. (396) 232. Rye and its by-products. — Tho farm animals show no fondness for rye, they take it willingly when mixed with other feeds, as should always be done. Fed alone or in large amounts it is more apt to cause digestive disturbances than the other cereals. In northern Europe it is a common feed for horses and swine. (480, 948) Fed in large allowance to cows rye produces a hard, dry butter, but a limited amount mixed with other feeds has given good results. (581) The by-products in the manufacture of rye flour are rye hran and rye middlings, which are usually combined and sold as rye feed. All have about the same feeding value as the corresponding wheat feeds, each con- taining less fiber and being somewhat lower in protein and higher in nitrogen-free extract than the corresponding wheat feed. VI. Emmee Emmer, Triticum sat., var. dicoccum, often incorrectly called "spelt" or "speltz," was introduced into America from Germany and Russia. It is a member of the wheat family, altho in appearance the grain re- sembles barley. Being drought resisting, emmer is especially valuable in the semi-arid regions of America. In 1909, 12,700,000 bushels were grown, mostly in the northern plains states, the average yield per acre being 22 bushels of 40 lbs. each. The adherent hulls of emmer repre- sent about 21 per ct. and the kernels 79 per ct. of the grain. The following table shows the average yields of various spring grains grown without irrigation for 8 years at the North Dakota Station at Fargo^* and for 5 years at the North Platte, Nebraska, Station :^' "Pott, Handb. Emahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 226. "N. D. Bui. 75. "»Nebr. Bui. 135. LEADING CEREALS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 165 Yield of emmer compared with other spring grains . North Dakota Nebraska Grain Yield per acre Yield per acre Lbs. Lbs. Emmer 1,945 1,142 Barley 1,877 1,423 Oats 1,969 1,032 Wheat 1,711 Durum wheat 1,835* 1,151 * Av. of 7 years. Winter emmer, introduced more recently into the United States, is of considerable promise in states where it is hardy.^" 233. Emmer as a feed. — In composition emmer closely resembles oats. Like that grain it is somewhat bulky to use as the sole concentrate for fattening animals, and gives better results when mixed with corn or barley. (852) Tho its value is usually somewhat lower than that of corn, with corn silage and linseed meal, ground emmer proved equal to corn, pound for pound, with fattening steers in a trial at the South Da- kota Station. (743) With dairy cows and fattening pigs its value is somewhat less than that of corn. (582, 947) Thru the introduction of emmer, kafir, milo, and certain millets, all relatively new plants with us, the possibilities of the great plains region of America for the main- tenance of farm animals and the production of meat have been enor- mously increased. "IJ. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 466. CHAPTER X MINOR CEREALS, OIL-BEARING AND LEGUMINOUS SEEDS, AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS I. Rice and its By-products The production of rice, Oryza sativa, is steadily increasing in Louisi- ana, Texas, and Arkansas, where it already forms an important industry. In 1914 about 22,589,000 bushels of rice, over 95 per ct. of the entire crop of the United States, was produced in these states.^ Like wheat, this cereal is used almost entirely for human food, only the by-products from the manufacture of table, or polished, rice being fed to farm animals. 234. Rice and its by-products. — In preparing rough rice, often called paddy, for human food, first the hulls and next the bran, or outer skin of the kernel, are removed. The kernels are then "polished," both to separate the creamy outside layer of cells, rich in crude protein and fat, and to produce an attractive, pearly luster. The resulting floury par- ticles constitute rice polish. According to P^aps^ of the Texas Station, a sack of rough rice, weighing 162 lbs., will yield about 100 lbs. of pol- ished rice, 6.3 lbs. of rice polish, 20.2 lbs. of rice bran, and 32.1 lbs. of hulls, with a wastage of 3.4 lbs. Bice hulls are tasteless, tough, and woody. They are heavily charged with silica, or sand, and have sharp, roughened, flinty edges and needle- like points which, not softening in the digestive tract, prove irritating and dangerous to the walls of the stomach and intestines. Because of authentic reports of vomiting and death with cattle fed rice hulls, they should never be fed to farm animals.^ Yet rice hulls have been extensively employed by unscrupulous dealers for adulterating commercial feeding stuffs, and are sometimes ground and sold as "husk meal" or "Star bran." Rice bran, when pure, is composed of the outer layer of the rice ker- nel proper, together with the germs, and a small amount of hulls not separated in the milling process. This feed, when adulterated with hulls, is called "commercial bran." Unadulterated bran, which does not con- tain over 12 per ct. fiber, is a highly nutritious feed, as not enough hulls are present to be injurious. It contains about 11 per ct. fat, and approx- imately as much protein as barley or wheat, but less nitrogen-free extract. As rice oil, or fat, soon becomes rancid, the bran is frequently distasteful to animals. The Louisiana Station employed rice bran successfully as half the concentrates for horses and mules, and it was found satisfactory »U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1914. 'Tex. Bui. 73. »La. Bui. 77. 166 MINOR CEREALS 167 for fattening steers at the Texas Station. (745) Fed to dairy cows and swine in large amounts, even when not rancid, it injures the quality of milk and produces soft pork. (980) Bice polish, which has a feeding value equal to corn, carries slightly more crude protein and considerably more fat, but correspondingly less nitrogen-free extract. Its use in the arts removes it largely from the list of farm feeding stuffs. (745, 980) Only low-grade rough rice and hulled rice are commonly fed to stock. Dodson of the Louisiana Station* values rough rice at 7 and hulled rice at 16 per ct. more than corn. Hulled rice is the richest of all cereals in carbohydrates, but relatively low in crude protein and fat. Since no ill effects from the hulls have been known to foUow the feeding of rough rice, it may replace com in the rations of farm animals. On account of the hardness of the kernels it gives better results when ground. The Texas Station^ found that ground damaged rice had about half the value of cottonseed meal for fattening steers. Red rice, a pest in rice fields, equals the cultivated grain in feeding value. (745) II. SOEGHUMS AND MiUjETS Numberless millions of people in India, China, and Africa rely on the sorghums and millets for their bread. Church" tells us that 33,000,000 acres of land in India are annually devoted to growing the millets and the sorghums including the kafirs, milos, etc. — a greater area, he re- ports, than is devoted to wheat, rice, and Indian corn combined. BalF writes that thruout Africa — on the dry plains, in the oases of the Sahara, on high plateaus, in mountain valleys, and in tropical jungles — ^the sor- ghums are the one ever-present crop. Their forms are as diverse as the conditions under which they grow, the plants ranging in height from 3 to 20 feet, with heads of different shapes varying from 5 to 25 inches in length. The sorghums, Andropogon sorghum or Sorghum vulgare, vars., may be divided into two classes — ^the saccharine sorghums, having stems filled with sweet juices, and the non-saccharine varieties, with more pithy stems and juice sour or only slightly sweet. The Indian corn plant never gives satisfactory returns if once its growth is checked.- The sorghums may cease growing and their leaves shrivel during periods of excessive heat and drought ; yet when these conditions pass and the soil becomes moist again, they quickly resume growth. This quality gives to this group of plants great worth and vast importance as grain crops for the southern portion of the semi-arid plains region. Their value in this section is well shown by the fact that between 1899 and 1909 the acreage in the United States of kaflr and milo grown for grain increased from 266,000 to 1,635,000 acres. *La. Planter, 44, 6, p. 92. 'Food Grains in India, 1901. •Tex. Bui. 86. 'Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1813. 168 FEEDS AND FEEDING 235. Grain sorghums. — The non-saccharine, or grain, sorghums include kafir, durra, milo, feterita, kaoliang, and the less important shallu. The kafirs are stout-stemmed, broad-leaved plants, having slightly sweet juice and long, erect, cylindrical heads earrying small, egg-shaped seeds. The true durras were the first grain sorghums introduced into the United States. They were never grown to any great extent as they have coarse stems, relatively few leaves, lodge readily, and sucker badly. The grain shatters easily and the pendent, or "goose-necked," heads render har- vesting difiScult. The milos, sometimes classed under the durras, have few leaves com- pared with the kafirs, and hence are not as valuable for forage. They usually have short, thick heads with large, flat seeds. The heads are mostly goose-necked, but some strains have recently been developed in which nearly all the heads are erect. Feterita, or Sudan durra, has slender stems carrying more leaves than milo, but less than kafir, and erect heads bearing flattened seeds. The kaoliangs, early maturing sorghums from northern China, are slender, dry-stemmed plants, with loose, open, erect heads. Shallu, or "Egyptian wheat," is slender-stemmed, with low, spreading heads which shatter badly. Reports from various experiment stations show that shallu is of little value compared with the other sorghums. Most of the grain sorghum produced in the United States is grown in the southern part of the Great Plains region, east of the Rocky Moun- tains, extending from southwestern Nebraska to northwestern Texas. A limited amount is also grown in sections of Arizona, Utah, and Cali- fornia. By selection and crossing, varieties of sorghum are being de- veloped which are suited to the various districts, especially dwarf strains which have erect heads that are easily harvested with the grain header, and which are early maturing, thereby escaping late summer droughts. Thru the development of early types the sorghums are being carried fur- ther north. Over muph of the drier western portion of the grain-sor- ghum belt these crops are more sure, and, even on good soil, return larger yields than corn. On poor, thin uplands in central and eastern Kansas and Okla- homa the sorghums are also superior to com. Churchill and Wright' of the Oklahoma Station report that during the 5 years, from 1909 to 1913, on soil underlaid by hardpan where the average yield of corn was only 1 bushel per acre, kafir averaged 34.9 bushels. Even on better land in such districts it is advisable to replace some of the corn acreage with grain sorghum as an insurance against severe drought. Piper' states that the grain sorghums commonly yield 25 bushels per acre with maximums of 75 bushels for kafir, 46 for milo, and 80 for feterita. The customary basis for selling the seed of the grain sorghums is by the 56-lb. bushel, but, according to Churchill and Wright^"' of the Okla- homa Station, the usual weight is about 54 lbs. Kafir heads contain about 77 per ct. of grain and those of milo about 84 per ct. ; accordingly »Okla. Bui. 102. 'Forage Plants, p. 278. "Okla. Bui. 102. MINOR CEREALS 169 73 lbs. of head kafir and 66 lbs. of head milo are required for a bushel (56 lbs.) of grain. BalP^ states that altho the percentage of grain in the entire crop varies widely with the season and thickness of stand, under ordinary conditions from 35 to 40 per ct. of the air-dry weight of a crop of milo and kaoliang and 25 per ct. of kafir will be grain. When cut for grain the crop should not be harvested until the seeds are well matured. Because the hard-coated seeds when apparently dry may contain much water, the grain sorghums are especially apt to heat in the bin unless precautions are taken. 236. Grain sorghums as feeds. — The different sorghums are similar in composition, carrying about as much crude protein and nitrogen-free ex- tract as corn, but about 1.5 per ct. less fat. Properly supplemented with protein-rich feeds, they are excellent for all classes of animals. Tho less palatable than corn, their nutritive value ranges from fully equal to this grain to 15 per ct. less. (741-2, 853, 949-51) For horses, fatten- ing cattle, dairy cows, and pigs the grain is usually ground, being then caUed ' ' chop. ' ' Grinding for sheep is not essential. Often the unthreshed heads are fed, or the forage carrying the heads is supplied, especially to idle horses, colts, and young stock. (481 ) On grinding the entire heads the product is called "head chop," which resembles corn-and-cob meal in composition. 237. Kafir. — The kafirs lead in both grain and forage production in eastern Kansas and Oklahoma. This type does not sucker or produce un- desirable side branches, has erect, compact heads, and neither lodges nor shatters its grain. The most common type in the more humid districts is the BlackhuU while farther west the Dwarf BlackhuU and the "White are recommended as their earliness enables them the better to evade drought.^^ Grown in regions of deficient rainfall, the average yield of kafir is not large. In good seasons and on fertile soil yields of 50 bushels per acre, and occasionally 75 bushels, are secured. Kafir grain, being as- tringent and constipating, is suited for feeding with alfalfa, clover, and other somewhat laxative roughages. (481, 583, 681, 741, 853, 949) 238. Milo. — ^Next to kafir, milo is the most important of this class of plants. Grown but little in the extreme east of the grain belt, it outyields kafir in the more arid districts as it is earlier. According to Ball,^* milo is somewhat superior to the kafirs as a feeding grain, and unlike the ka- firs, has a beneficial laxative effect on the bowels. (481, 742, 853, 950) 239. Feterita. — This type of durra ripens with milo, but when both are planted late matures sooner. It yields as much grain as kafir, tho less forage, and is a most promising sorghum for the eastern portion of the grain sorghum belt. Unfortunately it stools badly and lodges easily after maturity." (870, 951) 240. kaoliang. — These early-maturing sorghums are of much promise for the northern plains section where the other types will not mature. The kaoliangs compare favorably in yield of grain with the milos, and "U. S. Farmers' Bui. 448. "U. S. Farmers' Bui. 322. •^Kan. Bui. 198. "Okla. Bui. 102. 170 FEEDS AND FEEDING are even better in severe drought. Hume and Champlin report that in 1911 at the Highmore, South Dakota, Branch Station^" when all the small grain crops were a failure because of drought, kaoliang yielded from 6 to 11 bushels per acre, small tho promising yields. The forage of the kaoliangs is scanty and of poor quality, the stalks being pithy and the leaves few. In sections where they mature, kafir, milo, or f eterita are to be preferred. (951) 241. Sweet sorghums. — The sweet sorghums, or sorghos, are forage rather than grain producers, and are therefore discussed more fully in Chapter XII. (308-9) Early varieties will mature wherever corn ripens. At the Wisconsin Station^® the senior author secured 32 bushels weighing 53 lbs. each of amber cane seed per acre. Cook of the New Jersey Station^^ found amber cane seed about 10 per ct. less valuable than Indian corn for dairy cows. (584) For grain production sweet sor- ghum is surpassed by corn in the humid regions and by the grain sor- ghums in the plains districts. 242. Broom corn. — In harvesting broom corn the heads are cut before the seed has fully matured, and the seed is removed from the brush be- fore it is thoroly dry. This seed has feeding value and may be saved by drying or ensiling or, as Miles^' showed, by preserving in an earth- covered heap. 243. Millets. — The millets chiefly grown in this country are: (1) the foxtail millets, Setaria Itdlica spp., all resembling common foxtail or pigeon grass in appearance; and, (2) the broom corn, proso, or hog mil- lets, Panicum miliaceum spp., which have spreading or panicled heads, wide hairy leaves, and large seed. Other types used only for forage are mentioned in Chapter XIII. In humid regions millets are chiefly sown in early summer as catch crops, owing to the short period required for growth. In the northern plains district, where the growing season is too short for the sorghums, they are of increasing importance for grain pro- duction. Zavitz of the Ontario Agricultural College,^® from 10-year plot tests with various types of foxtail millets, reports average yields per acre ranging from 33.8 to 49.3 bushels weighing 51 to 54.5 lbs. each. Hume and Champlin obtained an average of 16.4 bushels per acre with vari- ous types of proso millets in trials covering 6-7 years at the Highmore, South Dakota, Station,^" and of 20.7 bushels for foxtail millets in trials during 6 years. Wilson and Skinner of the South Dakota Station^^ pro- duced 30 bushels of hog, or Black Veronesh millet, Panicum miliaceum, per acre. The ground grain proved satisfactory for fattening swine, tho for a given gain one-fifth more millet was required than of wheat or bar- ley. The carcasses of the millet-fed pigs were clothed with a pure white fat of superior quality. At the same Station^^ in the production of baby «S. D. Bui. 135. "Wis. Sta.. Rpt. on Amber Cane, 1881. "N. J. Rpt. 1885. "Country Geptleman, March 23, 1876. »Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1913. "■S. D. Bui. 135. ••S. D. Bui. 83. "S. D. Bui. 97. OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 171 beef somewhat more millet than corn was required for a given gain. (744, 854, 952) III. Buckwheat and its By-peoducts Tho rarely used for feeding stock, buckwheat has a fair value for such purpose, its nutrients running somewhat lower than those in the lead- ing cereals. (953) 244. Buckwheat by-products. — The black, woody hulls of the buck- wheat grain, Fagopyrum eseulentum, have little feeding value and should be used to give bulk or volume to the ration only when it cannot be other- wise secured. On the other hand, buckwheat middlings, that part of the kernel immediately under the hull, which is separated from the flour on milling, contain 28 per ct. crude protein and 7 per ct. fat, with little fiber, and hence have a high feeding value. The miller, desiring to dispose of as much of the hulls as possible, mixes them with the middlings to form iuckwheat iran or feed. WolP* concludes that buckwheat feed, not over half of which is hulls, is worth about 20 per ct. less than wheat bran. Such feed carries about 15.7 per ct, protein and 24 per ct. fiber. The intelligent purchaser avoids the worthless hulls so far as he can, choos- ing instead the rich, floury middlings. Buckwheat by-products are nearly always used for feeding cows, rightly having the reputation of produc- ing a large flow of milk, but may be successfully fed in limited quantities to other farm animals. (595) The charge that buckwheat by-products make a white, tallowy butter and pork of low quality fails if they are not given in excess. When stored in bulk, buckwheat by-products are liable to heat unless first mixed with some light feed, like wheat bran. (953) IV. Oil-bearing Seeds and thehj Bt-peoducts The annual crop of cotton, Oossypium Jiirsutum, in the United States now amounts to over 14,000,000 bales of 500 lbs. each with not less than 7,000,000 tons of cotton seed as a by-product, since for each pound of fiber, or lint, there are 2 lbs. of seed. Previous to 1860 the seed of the cotton plant was largely wasted by the planters, who often allowed it to rot near the gin house, ignorant or careless of its worth, while meat and other animal products which might have been produced from it were purchased at high cost from northern farmers. The utilization of the cotton seed and its products as food for man and beast furnishes a strik- ing example of what science is accomplishing for agriculture. According to Burkett and Poe,^* 1 ton of cotton seed yields approxi- mately : Linters, or short fiber 27 pounds Hulia 841 pounds Cake, or meal 732 pounds Crude oil. , ■'■•'■ 280 pounds Loss, etc. .'. ' 120 p ounds Total 2000 pounds "Wis. Cir, 42. "Cotton, Its Cultivation, etc. 172 FEEDS AND FEEDING 245. Cotton seed. — The cotton seed carries about 19 per et. fat, or oil, and nearly 20 per ct. crude protein. Formerly much seed was fed in the South, especially to steers and dairy cattle. Now little is fed before the oil is extracted, both on account of the value of the oil and because cotton- seed meal usually gives better results. Burns of the Texas Station^' found that 205 lbs. of cotton seed fed with cottonseed hulls and kafir grain was not equal to 100 lbs. of cottonseed meal for fattening steers, while Ben- nett^^ at the Arkansas Station found 44 lbs. of meal and 59 lbs. of hulls fed with eowpea hay fully equal to 100 lbs. of seed for steers. Owing to the high oil content, cotton seed sometimes has an unduly laxative effect. (752) Connell and Carson of the Texas Station^^ report that boiled or roasted seed produced larger gains and was more palatable and less laxative, but owing to the cost of preparation the gains were more expensive. Wet, moldy cotton seed, or that which has heated, should never be fed. (598) 246. Cottonseed cake and meal. — At the oil mills the leathery hulls of the cotton seed, which are covered with short lint, are cut by machinery, and the oily kernels set free. These kernels are crushed, heated, placed between cloths, and subjected to hydraulic pressure to remove the oil. The residue is a hard, yellowish, board-like cake about 1 inch thick, 1 ft. wide, and 2 ft. long. For the trade in the eastern and central states the cake is generally ground to a fine meal, for the western trade it is often broken into pieces of pea or nut size for cattle and coarsely ground for sheep, while the export cake is commonly left whole. For feeding out of doors the broken cake is preferable to meal as it is not scattered by the wind. Unadulterated cottonseed meal of good quality should have a light yellow color and a sharp, nutty odor. A dark or dull color may be due to age, to adulteration with hulls, to overheating during the cook- ing process, or to fermentation — all of which impair its feeding value.^* Cottonseed meal is one of the richest of all feeds in protein and carries over 8 per ct. of fat. The protein and fiber content vary considerably, depending chiefly on how thoroly the hulls are removed from the meal. The value of fresh and wholesome meal depends on the percentage of protein it contains ; manufacturers and feed control officials have there- fore agreed on the following classification of products : Choice cottonseed meal must be perfectly sound and sweet in odor, yellow, not brown or reddish, free from excess of lint, and must contain at least 41 per ct. of crude protein. Prime cottonseed msal must be of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and must contain at least 38 .6 per ct. of crude protein. Good cottonseed meal must be of sweet odor, reasonably bright in color, and must contain at least 36_per ct. of crude protein. Cottonseed feed is a mixture of cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls, containing less than 36 per ct. crude protein. Owing to its wide variation in composition, cottonseed meal should be purchased on guarantee whenever possible. »Tex. Bui. 110. "Ark. Bui. 52. "Tex. Bui. 27. ""Hills, Vt. Rpt. 1909. OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 173 247. Cottonseed feed. — On northern markets cottonseed feed, which may consist largely of hulls, is often sold for but a few dollars per ton less than choice cottonseed meal. By appearance alone it is impossible to distinguish good cottonseed meal from finely ground cottonseed feed. Cottonseed feed may be an entirely legitimate product, for it is impos- sible to separate thoroly the hulls of certain kinds of cotton seed from the kernels. However, such feed should be bought at a price correspond- ing to its crude-protein content. In case of doubt as to purity, the following simple test will show the approximate amount of hulls present in cottonseed meal.^° Place a teaspoonful of the meal (do not use more) in a tumbler and pour over it from 1 .5 to 2 ounces of hot water. Stir the mass till it is thoroly wet and all the particles are floating. Allow it to settle for 5 to 10 seconds and pour off the liquid. If there has settled out in this time a large amount of fine, brown sediment which is noticeably darker than the fine yellow meal and which keeps settling out on repeated treatments with hot water, the product is low grade. All meals contain small quantities of hulls and will show dark specks when thus tested, but the results are striking when pure meal is compared with cottonseed feed. 248. Cold-pressed cottonseed cake. — Cold-pressed cottonseed cake, or "caddo" cake, is produced by subjecting the entire uncrushed, unheated seed to great pressure. In the residual cake there is a larger proportion of hull to meal than in normal cake, with correspondingly lower feeding value. This product is usually sold in nut or pea size but is sometimes ground to a meal. The crude-protein content of cold-pressed cake is a reliable guide to its feeding value. (598, 751) 249. The poison of cotton seed. — ^Practical experience and trials at the experiment stations unite in showing that cotton seed or cottonseed cake or meal is not always a safe feed. After a period of about 100 days steers closely confined and heavily fed on meal often show a staggering gait, some become blind, and death frequently ends their distress. The Iowa Station*" reports the death of 3 steers, and blindness in others when 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal was fed with a heavy allowance of corn-and- cob meal. Hunt of the Pennsylvania Station*^ cites the death of 2 calves out of 3, fed a ration of 1 lb. of cottonseed meal with 16 lbs. of skim milk. Emery of the North Carolina Station*^ states that 2 calves died follow- ing the use of 0.25 to 0.5 lb. of cottonseed meal daily with skim milk. Gips^^ reports the death of 3 out of 8 cattle from eating moldy cotton- seed cake. Cottonseed meal is often fatal to swine. Pigs getting as much as one- third of their concentrates in the form of cottonseed meal thrive at first, but after 5 or 6 weeks, sometimes earlier, they frequently show derange- ment and may die. Restricting the allowance of meal, keeping the ani- mals on pasture, supplying succulent feeds, or souring the feed may help, but no uniformly successful method of feeding cottonseed meal to swine has yet been found. =»Vt. Bui. 101. "Iowa Bui. 66. "Penn. Bui. 17. '^N. C. Bui. 109, ''Arch. Wis. u. Prakt. Thierheilk., 14, 1886, p. 74. 174 FEEDS AND FEEDING Numerous efforts have been made during the past 20 years to deter- mine the cause of the poisonous effect of cottonseed meal. The harm has been variously ascribed to the lint, the oil, the high protein content, to a poisonous albumin or alkaloid, to cholin and betaine, to resin present in the meal, to decomposition products, and to salts of pyrophosphoric acid. Further work shows that the poisonous effects are not due to any of these causes. Withers of the North Carolina Station^* has recently attributed the poisonous quality to some substance which withdraws iron from the hemoglobin of the blood, thereby diminishing its power of carrying oxygen, which results in death. (88) He has therefore tried the effect of adding to the food a soluble iron salt (iron sulfate, or cop- peras) as an antidote. In some trials in this country feeding copperas has seemed to prevent poisoning, but in other instances pigs have died even when fed copperas with the cottonseed meal. 250. Bational use of cottonseed meal and cake. — Cottonseed meal is one of the most valuable of feeds when rationally fed, often being the cheapest available source of protein, and thru it, of nitrogen for main- taining soil fertility. (435) The amounts which may be safely fed to each kind of stock are fully discussed in the respective chapters of Part III. The most extensive use of cottonseed meal is by dairymen, for com- paratively heavy allowances may be fed to milch cows without harm. (596) Fed in large amount, cotton seed or cottonseed meal produces hard, tallowy butter, light in color and poor in flavor. A limited quan- tity has little effect on the butter and is even helpful with cows whose milk produces a soft butter. For fattening steers and sheep cottonseed meal, in limited amount, is one of the most satisfactory of nitrogenous supplements. (750, 855) Great numbers of steers are fattened at the oil-mill factories, often on a ration of 6 to 8 lbs. of cottonseed meal with cottonseed hulls or corn silage for roughage. Harrington and Adriance at the Texas Station'' found that cotton seed produced harder fat than corn, the kidney, caul, and body fat of steers fed cotton seed having melting points 4.1°, 3.2°, and 8.7° C. higher, respectively, than the corresponding fats of corn- fed steers. The effect was even more marked in the case of sheep. In restricted amounts, mixed preferably with bulky feed, cottonseed meal has been fed to horses and mules with entire success. (490) Altho cotton- seed meal is especially poisonous to swine, some feeders, guided by ex- perience, use it in small amounts and for short periods with little loss. (974) Calves are easily affected by its poisonous properties. (681) Cottonseed meal having a dull color due to improper storage, and that from musty and fermented seed should never be used for feeding stock. Cottonseed meal does not have the beneficial laxative effect of linseed meal, but instead is somewhat constipating. Much more care must be used in feeding it than in using linseed meal, but when carefully fed in proper combination with other feeds as good results may be secured with "N. C. Cir. 5; Jour. Biol. Chem. 14, 1913, pp. 53-58. ««Tex. Bui. 29. OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 175 horses, dairy cows, and fattening cattle and sheep as when linseed meal is employed. This most nutritious feed, the richest in fertilizing con- stituents of all our common feeding stuffs of plant origin, is often spread directly on the land as a fertilizer. Obviously, its full value can be real- ized only when the meal is first fed to animals and the resulting manure applied to the soil. (436) With increasing knowledge of the usefulness of this feed, it is to be hoped that instead of annually exporting one- fourth the cottonseed cake and meal produced to other countries, as is now done, all wiU be fed on American farms, 251. Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls, which contain somewhat less digestible nutrients than oat straw, are extensively employed in the South as roughage for cattle feeding. The hulls are low in crude protein, of which but a small part is digestible. "With only 0.3 lb. of digestible crude protein in 100 lbs. the hulls have the extraordinarily wide nutritive ratio of 1 : 122, the widest of any common feeding stuff. Obviously they should be used with feeds which are rich in protein. Fed with cottonseed meal to steers by Willson at the Tennessee Station,'* cottonseed hulls pro- duced somewhat lower gains than corn silage, 100 lbs. of hulls replacing 170 lbs. of corn silage. '(773) Because of their low palatability and di- gestibility cottonseed hulls are not well suited to dairy cows, corn stover having a higher feeding value. (628) Cottonseed hulls are usually fuzzy, due to short lint which remains on the seed. Sometimes this lint is removed from the seed at the oil-mills for paper making and other purposes and the hulls from such seed ground, being then called cottonseed hull bran. Tho finely ground, the value of the product is not appreciably greater than that of ordinary hulls. 252. Flax seed. — The average production in the United States of seed from the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum, from 1909 to 1914 was about 18,847,000 bushels of 56 lbs., over 95 per ct. of which was grown in Min- nesota, the Dakotas, and Montana.'^ The reserve building material is stored in the flax seed largely as oil and pentosans, instead of as starch, which most seeds carry, no starch grains being found in well-matured flax seeds. On account of the high commercial value of the oil it eon- tains, flax seed is rarely used for feeding stock other than calves. (681, 683) The oil of the flax seed is either extracted by the "old process," thru crushing and pressure as in the production of cottonseed oil, or it is dissolved out of the crushed seed with naphtha, the residue in either case being variously termed linseed oil meal, linseed meal, or simply oil meal. Pure linseed meal should contain no screenings. In the United States nearly all the linseed oil meal is made by the old process. According to WoU,'* in the manufacture of new-process oil meal the crushed and heated seed is placed in large cylinders or percolators, and naphtha poured over the mass. On draining out at the bottom the naph- "Tenn. Bui. 104. "U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1914. »»Wis. Rpt. 1895. 176 FEEDS AND FEEDINa tha carries with it the dissolved oil. After repeated extractions steam is let into the percolator, and the naphtha remaining is completely driven off as vapor, leaving no odor of naphtha on the residue, which is known as "new-process" linseed oil meal. WoU gives the following method of ascertaining whether oil meal is new- or old-process: "Pulverize a small quantity of the meal and put a level tablespoonf ul of it into a tumbler ; then add 10 tablespoonfuls of boiling hot water to the meal, stir thoroly^ and leave to settle. If the meal is new-process, it will settle in the course of an hour and will leave half of the water clear on top." Old-process meal will remain jelly-like. Recent investigations have shown that in some instances flax seed may contain a compound which, when acted up- on by an enzyme in the seeds yields the poison, prussic acid. This enzyme is destroyed by the heat to which the ground flax seed is ordinarily sub- jected in both the old and the new process of oil extraction. In view of this and bearing in mind that linseed meal and cake have been fed on vast numbers of farms in this country and abroad with the best of re- sults, we may still consider these feeds among the safest and most bene- ficial of concentrates. In making gruel or mash from untreated flax seed, it is advisable to use boiling water and keep the mass hot an hour or two, to destroy any prussic-acid-forming enzyme in the seed. 253. Old- and new-process oil meal. — Since the oil is extracted much more thoroly from the flax seed by the new process, new-process meal carries an average of 3.0 per ct. more crude protein than old-process meal, but only about 2.9 per ct. of oil or fat. By artificial digestion trials with old- and new-process oil meal WolP° found that 94 per ct. of the crude protein in the old-process and 84 per ct. of that in the new-process oil meal was digestible. The lower digestibility of the new-process meal is doubtless due to the use of steam for driving off the naphtha, since cooking lowers the digestibility of many crude protein-rich foods. (83) Owing to its higher total crude-protein content the new-process meal, however, contains somewhat more digestible crude protein. 254. Linseed meal as a feed. — There is no more healthful feed for limited use with all farm animals than linseed oil cake or oil meal, with its rich store of crude protein, slightly laxative oil, and its mucilaginous, soothing properties. Its judicious use is soon apparent in the pliable skin, the sleek, oily coat, and the good handling quality of the flesh of animals receiving it. It is therefore most useful as a conditioner for run-down animals. A small amount of linseed meal is helpful in the rations for horses and dairy cows. (489) Opposite in effect to cottonseed meal, linseed meal tends to produce soft butter. (599) Fed to fattening cattle, sheep, or swine, the meal regulates the system and helps to ward off ill effects from the continued heavy use of concentrates. Rich in protein and all the necessary mineral elements, linseed meal is well suited to growing animals, ground flax seed or linseed meal being quite generally used for calves by progressive dairymen. Owing to its popularity lin- seed meal is often expensive compared with other protein-rich feeds and "•Wis. Rpt. 1895. OIL-BEARING SEEDS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCTS 177 it is then not economical to employ it as the chief source of protein in the ration, but to restrict its use to amounts sufficient to produce the de- sired tonic and regulative effects. (753, 855, 973) Unfortunately the American farmer usually insists that oil cake be ground to a meal. Except where it is desirable to mix the meal thoroly ■with other concentrates, or feed it as a slop to pigs, he should adopt the wiser practice of European farmers, who buy oil cake in slab form and reduce it in cake miUs to the size of hickory nuts or smaller just before feeding, or he should purchase the cake which has been ground to nut or pea size. In such form this feed is more palatable, and there is no chance for adulteration. 255. Other flax by-products. — Flax feed consists of flax screenings and is sometimes sold as such, but more often is used as a component of mixed feeds. Its composition and character are uncertain, depending on the relative amounts of inferior flax seed, weed seeds, and other refuse, as stalks, pods, and leaves present. The material should be avoided unless so finely ground as to crush all foul seeds. Since it contains only half as much crude protein as linseed meal and often has a decidedly bitter taste, due to the weed seeds present, flax feed is rarely economical at the prices asked.*" It is sometimes sold as flax flakes, or under the mis- leading name "Unomeal." Flax plant by-product, sometimes incorrectly called "flax bran," is that portion of the flax plant remaining after the seed has been sep- arated, together with much of the fiber of the stem. It consists of flax pods, broken and immature flax seeds, and the bark and other portions of the stems. It is seldom sold as such, but is used in certain proprietary feeds. Smith of the Massachusetts Station*^ concludes that such material is not worth to the Massachusetts farmer the cost of the freight from the states where it is produced. Unscreened flax oil-feed, or "laxo" cake meal, is the by-product ob- tained in extracting the oil from unscreened flax seed. The value is lower than that of linseed meal, depending on the proportion of screenings present. 256. Soybean. — The soybean. Glycine Jiispida, is one of the most im- portant agricultural plants of northern China and Japan. So great is the production of this seed, or grain, in Manchuria that in 1908 over 1,500,000 tons of soybeans were shipped from 3 ports, chiefly to Europe. The bean-like seeds of the soybean, which carry from 16 to 21 per ct. of oil, are used for human food and for feeding animals. The oil is used for human food and in the arts, and the resulting soybean meal is em- ployed as a feed for animals and also for fertilizing the land, the same as cottonseed meal. This plant produces the largest yield of seed of any legume suited to temperate climates, but at the present time is grown in this country chiefly for forage. Soybeans are adapted to the same range of climate as corn, early varieties having been developed that ripen seed wherever com wiU mature. On account of their resistance to drought "Mass. Buls. 128, 132; Vt. Buls. 104, 133, 144. "Mass. Bui. 136. 178 FEEDS AND FEEDING they are especially well suited to light, sandy soils. When grown for seed the yield commonly varies from 12 to 40 bushels per acre, equaling corn on poor soil in the Gulf states. The seeds of the soybean are the richest in crude protein of all the various seeds used for feed, besides being rich in oil. Being highly di- gestible, they contain fully as much digestible crude protein and con- siderably more digestible fat than linseed meal. Because of the demands for seed, soybeans have not yet been extensively employed in this coun- try for feeding live stock. For dairy cows soybeans are slightly superior to cottonseed meal, but as they cause soft butter they should be fed spar- ingly. (600) For fattening cattle soybeans are only slightly inferior to cottonseed meal. (754-5) Eich in protein and mineral matter, they are well suited to growing animals, equal parts of soybeans and shelled corn proving superior for lambs to equal parts of oats and corn in a trial by Humphrey and Kleinheinz at the Wisconsin Station.*^ (856) Owing to their richness in protein, soybeans should always be used in combination with carbonaceous concentrates. The seed should be ground for horses and cattle, but this is unnecessary for sheep and pigs. In the South pigs are often grazed on soybeans when nearly mature, thus saving the har- vesting cost. (989) The merits of this plant for forage are discussed in Chapter XIV. (358) No other plant so little grown in the United States at this time promises so much to agriculture as the soybean, which not only yields protein-rich seed and forage but builds up the nitrogen con- tent of the soil. 257. Soybean cake or meal. — The residue after the oil has been extracted from soybeans carries as much digestible protein as choice cottonseed meal, 11 per et. more carbohydrates and somewhat less fat. During re- cent years a considerable amount has been imported to the Pacific Coast states from the Orient, for feeding poultry and dairy cattle. In Europe the unground cake is used and in this country the meal. Tho high in price, soybean meal is greatly esteemed by western dairymen and is often fed in large amounts to cows on official tests. (601) 258. The peanut and its by-products The peanut, or earth nut, Arachis hypogaea, called "pindar" or "goober" in the South, is of growing im- portance for stock feeding in the southern states. The underground seeds, or nuts, are commonly harvested by turning swine into the fields when the seeds are ripe, and allowing them to feed at will. While a heavy allowance of peanuts produces soft fat and inferior pork, entirely satis- factory ham and bacon are produced when pigs are fed partially on pea- nuts. (979) On exposure to the air, shelled peanuts soon become rancid. The vines with the nuts attached may be gathered and cured into a nu- tritious, palatable hay useful with all kinds of farm stock. The use of this plant for stock feeding should be vastly extended thruout the South. (362) Peanut meal or cake, the by-product resulting from the manufacture of oil from the peanut, is a common feed in Europe where it has given "Wis. Rpt. 1905. OIL-FREE LEGUMINOUS SEEDS 179 good results with all classes of stock.*^ Meal from huUed peanuts con- tains over 47 per ct. crude protein, and is thus more valuable than choice cottonseed meal. But little peanut meal is sold in the United States and that which is sold is chiefly from unhuUed nuts, containing about 28 per ct. crude protein and 23 per ct. fiber. Peanut hulls, which accumulate in great quantities at the factories, are sometimes ground and used for adulterating feeding stuffs. This ma- terial, sometimes wrongly called "peanut bran," is over half fiber and less valuable than common straw. 259. Sunflower seed and oil cake, Helianthus annuus. — The sunflower is grown in Russia on a commercial scale, one variety with small seeds pro- ducing an oil which serves as a substitute for other vegetable oils. The large seeds of another variety are consumed as a dainty by the people. Tests of sunflowers in 5 sections of North Carolina** showed an average yield of 65 bushels of seed per acre, carrying about 21 per ct. oil. In plot tests covering 15 years at the Ontario Agricultural College, Zavitz** obtained an average yield per acre of 72.8 bushels of sunflower seed, weighing 20 lbs. per bushel. Despite these large yields, corn produced about as much digestible crude protein and over twice as much total di- gestible nutrients per acre in grain alone, without considering the value of the stover. Sunflowers proved hardy and produced good returns when many other crops failed. Oil cake from sunflower seed has proved a satisfactory feed for all kinds of stock in Europe. Cake from well-hulled seed contains about as much crude protein as linseed meal, but has somewhat more fiber. (603) 260. Cocoanat meal. — The residue in the manufacture of oil from the cocoanut, Cocos nucifera, known as cocoanut meal, is lower in crude pro- tein than the oil meals previously discussed but it contains somewhat more crude protein than wheat bran and much more fat and has a higher feeding value. It is used to some extent by dairymen in the Pacific Coast states and produces butter of good quality and firmness, therefore being well adapted for summer feeding. (602) European experience shows that cocoanut meal may be fed with success to horses, sheep, and swine. (491) On account of its tendency to turn rancid it can be kept but a few weeks in warm weather. V. Oil-free Leguminous Seeds 261. the Canada field pea, Pisum satwum. — The common field or Can- ada pea succeeds best where the spring and summer heat is moderate, as in Canada, the northern states, and in several of the larger Rocky Moun- tain valleys. No other widely known grain plant of equal possibilities has been so generally neglected by the farmers of the northern United States. Zavitz*' of the Ontario Agricultural College reports an average «Pott, Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, pp. 82-96. «Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1913. «N. C. Bui. 90b. "Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1913. 180 FEEDS AND FEEDING yield of 30 bushels per acre for 8 varieties of field peas in plot tests cov- ering 14 years. The field pea grain contains twice as much crude protein as the ce- reals and is high in phosphorus and potash. Combined with corn, peas may form as much as one-half the concentrates for dairy cows. They are relished by horses, and are eminently suitable for sheep and lamb feed- ing, their culture forming the basis for an important sheep-feeding industry in Colorado. (856) Peas, wheat bran, and corn form an excel- lent ration for brood sows and growing swine, proving especially useful in building the body framework and preparing the animals for fatten- ing. (975, 1013) 262. Cowpea, Vigna catjang. — The cowpea, a bean-like plant from India and China, now holds an important place in southern agricul- ture because of its large yield of forage. The early varieties grow well as far north as New Jersey and Illinois. The seed pods of the cowpea ripen unevenly, necessitating hand gathering. For this reason the crop is mostly used for hay, silage, and grazing. (357) In composition the coArpea seed is similar to the field pea, with only about 4 per ct. fiber. Suc- cessful trials are reported in which cowpeas formed a part of the ration for horses, fattening steers, and pigs. (755, 978) In the South cowpea vines carrying ripe seed furnish one of the best grazing crops for pigs. 263. The common field bean, Phaseolus vulgaris. — ^Many varieties of the common field bean are grown in this country for human food. Beans damaged by wet are used for animal feeding. Shaw and Anderson of the Michigan Station*' estimate the cull beans of Michigan at about 100,000 bushels annually. Cull beans are fed whole in large quantities to sheep, producing a solid flesh of good quality. For swine, beans should be cooked in salted water and fed in combination with corn, barley, etc. ; fed alone they produce soft pork and lard with a low melting point. (976) 264. Horse bean, Ticia faba. — The horse bean is used in England for feeding stock, especially horses. This legume grows fairly well in some parts of Canada, but has never proved a success in the United States. (485) "Mich. Bui. 243. CHAPTER XI MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES— FEEDING STUFFS CON- TROL— CONDIMENTAL FOODS I. Cow's Milk and its By-products As we have seen (115), milk contains an adequate supply of all the nutrients necessary to sustain the life of young animals. Milk and dairy by-products are almost wholly digestible and thus have high feeding value, considering the amount of dry matter they contain. Furthermore, the proteins of milk, which are well balanced in composition, have a greater efficiency for growth than those of any of the grains. (118) 265. Whole milk. — On account of the value of whole cow's milk, it is rarely fed to stock, except to calves for the first 4 to 6 weeks after birth. (679) One should not hesitate to employ whole milk when needed in rearing an orphan foal or lamb (521, 891), and young stock being pre- pared for exhibition can be forced ahead rapidly by its judicious use. Whole milk usually contains from 2 to 3 per ct. of casein, 0.4 to 0.9 per ct. albumin and traces of other proteins. It carries from 4 to 5 per ct. of milk sugar, which is only slightly sweet, is much less soluble than cane sugar, and has about the same feeding value as starch. When milk sours, some of the sugar is changed to lactic acid, which curdles the casein. This fermentation ceases when about 0.8 per ct. of acid has de- veloped, so that in sour milk usually most of the sugar is still unchanged. As is shown later (551-5), the percentage of fat varies widely depending on individuality, breed, and the portion of the milk drawn, the strippings often containing 10 times as much fat as the first-drawn milk. 266. Skim milk. — ^Because of the protein and ash it carries, skim milk is of high value for building the muscles and bony framework of young animals. Skim milk from centrifugal separators contains about 3.8 per ct. crude protein, 5.2 per ct. nitrogen-free extract, which in sweet milk is practically all milk sugar, and 0.1 to 0.2 per ct. fat. It is thus a highly nitrogenous feed, having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 1.5, and should hence be supplemented by carbonaceous concentrates. Skim milk is of the great- est use for feeding young animals when it comes sweet and yet warm from the farm separator. The experiments of Beach, already described (117), show that with calves, lambs, and pigs, skim milk is more valuable per pound of dry matter than is whole milk rich in fat. Dairymen have found that with care and judgment they can raise just as thrifty calves when whole milk is gradually replaced by skim milk during the first 4 to 5 weeks, only skim milk being given thereafter, as when the supply of expensive whole 181 182 FEEDS AND FEEDING milk is continued longer. (678-94) For swine of all ages, and especially for young pigs, skim milk is unsurpassed as a supplement to the car- bonaceous grains. (957-60) For these animals, from 500 to 600 lbs. of skim milk, properly combined with concentrates, has a value equal to 100 lbs. of grain. This dairy by-product is also excellent for foals which do not secure enough milk from their mothers, and for poultry. (521) When other animals are not available to consume all the milk it may be profitably fed to horses. (607) 267. Buttermilk. — This by-product differs little from skim milk in composition, tho usually somewhat richer in fat. Trials have shown that it has substantially the same value as skim milk for pigs. (962) Some feeders use buttermilk successfully in rearing calves, especially after they are well started in growth. The effort will probably end in failure, however, unless the calves are gradually accustomed to it, and extreme cleanliness is practiced. (695) In eastern Prussia and in Hol- stein-Friesia suckling foals are fed buttermilk.^ Creameries often dilute buttermilk with water, thereby reducing its value. If allowed to fer- ment in dirty tanks it is a dangerous feed. 268. Whey. — In the manufacture of cheese practically all the casein and most of the fat go into the cheese, leaving in the whey the milk sugar, the albumin, and a large part of the ash. Whey is more watery in composition than skim milk, containing only about 6.6 per ct. dry matter. It contains about 4.8 per ct. milk sugar and 0.3 per ct. fat, with only 0.8 per ct. protein, the nutritive ratio being 1 : 6.8, much wider than that of skim milk. Unlike skim milk and buttermilk, whey should therefore be fed with protein-rich feeds. Skimmed whey will have its value correspondingly reduced. Whey is usually fed to pigs, for which it has about half the value of skim milk. (983) At the Ontario Agri- cultural College,^ Day secured as good results with whey, somewhat soured, as with sweet whey. The feeder should not conclude from this that decomposing whey held in filthy vessels is a suitable feed for stock. Whey at best is a poor feed for calves and can be successfully used only with the utmost care and when fed as fresh as possible. (587) 269. Spreading disease thru dairy by-products. — Since milk from differ- ent farms is mixed at the creamery and cheese factory, the germs of bovine tuberculosis and other diseases may be widely spread from a dis- eased herd in the skim milk, buttermilk, or whey. The readiness with which such infection may occur is shown by a trial of Kennedy, Bobbins, and Bouska at the Iowa Station.* Forty pigs, believed to be free from tuberculosis, were divided into 4 lots. Two lots were kept on separate pastures and 2 in dry yards. Corn and creamery skim milk which had been pasteurized to destroy all disease germs were fed to all alike. The milk of one lot on pasture and one lot in the yard was, before feeding, infected with the germs of tuberculosis. When the pigs were slaughtered at the end of 196 days it was found that all that had been fed on infected •Pott, Emahr. u. Putter., Ill, 1909, p. 475. 'Iowa Bui. 92. =Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1896. MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 183 milk, 20 in number, were tuberculous. Of those not given infected milk, 2 proved tuberculous and 18 were free from the disease. Since the germs of tuberculosis are killed by pasteurizing the milk at a temperature of 180° F., this simple precaution -will remove danger from this source. The pasteurized product also keeps better and is less likely to produce scours. This practice is likewise advantageous to the factories, for the milk cans may be more readily kept in good condition and the quality of the milk delivered at the factory will thereby be im- proved. Careful farmers should insist that skim milk, buttermilk, and whey be thoroly pasteurized at the factory, a practice required by law in Denmark and followed by many creameries in this country. (957) II. Packing House By-products The packing houses now furnish to the feeder great quantities of by- products, including tankage, meat meal, or meat scrap, dried blood, and meat-and-bone meal. These are usually extremely rich in protein which is well balanced in composition and highly digestible. Most of them are also rich in lime and phosphoric acid, since they contain more or less bone. When fed in proper combination with other feeds, animals rarely object to these by-products. Owing to the high prices which these con- centrated feeds command, the feeder should understand their nature and how they must be fed to secure the best returns. 270. Tankage, meat meal, or meat scrap. — ^At the packing plants the fresh meat scraps, fat trimmings, and scrap bones are thoroly cooked in steel tanks by steam under pressure, which separates the fat. After the steam has been turned off and the mass has settled, the fat, which is yet liquid, is drawn off. The residue is then dried, being agitated mean- while, and after cooling is ground to a fine meal. The resultant product, sold as tankage, meat meal, or meat scrap, contains from 40 to 60 per ct. or more of crude protein and from 1 to 10 per ct. of fat. The vari- ation in content of crude protein is due principally to differences in the amount of bone present. Owing to the wide range in crude protein, and fat content, these feeds should always be purchased on guarantee of com- position. Commonly the value will depend on the percentage of pro- tein, for in case an additional supply of lime and phosphoric acid is needed, it may be furnished cheaply in ground rock phosphate. (100) Since tankage and meat meal are in part produced from the carcasses of diseased animals, the question arises whether they may not carry disease to animals fed on them. Mohler and Washburn,* who have studied the matter, write: "As tankage is thoroly steam-cooked under pressure it comes out a sterilized product, and owing to its dryness there is little dan- ger of infection." None of the many stations that have fed tankage have reported any trouble of such nature. These by-products are generally fed to swine and poultry, ranking next to skim milk and buttermilk as nitrog- enous supplements for these animals. (964-7) Mixed with other feeds, *TJ. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Cir. 144. 184 FEEDS AND FEEDING they may be fed to horses, cattle, or sheep. (491, 608, 856) When tank- age, or meat meal, contains a large amount of bone it should be termed meat-and-hone meal. This product is used chiefly for feeding poultry. 271. Blood meal Blood meal, also called blood flour or dried blood, is the richest in protein of aU the packing house by-products, usually carrying over 80 per ct. crude protein. As it contains no bone it is low in ash compared with tankage. Dried blood is particularly useful with young pigs and calves, as a sMm milk substitute or for sickly animals. (968, 684) Its usual high price stands in the way of its common use for other animals. Lindsey" of the Massachusetts Station found that 1 to 2 lbs. of dried blood per head daily mixed with other concentrates was satisfactory for dairy cows. (608) It has also been fed with success to horses and sheep. (491, 856) 272. Dried fish; fish meal. — Along the coasts of Europe the waste parts of fish, as well as entire fishes not used for human food, are fed in dried form to animals. Speir of Scotland' reports no bad influence on milk when reasonable quantities of dried fish are fed to dairy cows. Nilson' found that 80 parts of herring cake could replace 100 parts of linseed cake for cows. The better grades of dried fish meal, which resemble meat meal in composition, should be used for feeding farm animals. (608) 273. Bone meal. — ^Where rations are deficient in lime and phosphoric acid, needed in especially large amounts by growing animals and those producing milk (119, 150), these mineral constituents may be supplied in the form of bone meal, also called ground bone. Ground rock phos- phate is, however, usually a cheaper and probably just as effective a mineral supplement. III. SuGAE Factory Bt-peoducts In the manufacture of beet sugar, which constitutes over 70 per ct. of the sugar now manufactured in this country, the sugar beets are first washed and then cut into long V-shaped strips. The juice is extracted from these strips by means of warm water, leaving the by-product known as wet beet pulp. The juice is next purified by means of lime and in some cases also by sulfur dioxid, and evaporated under reduced pressure until the sugar crystallizes. The grains of sugar are then sep- arated from the residual molasses by centrifugal force. 274. Wet beet pulp. — The watery pulp after being pressed until it con- tains about 10 per ct. of solids, is fed fresh or is ensiled. Care must be taken in feeding fresh pulp, as it spoils rapidly on exposure to the air. Most of the pulp is therefore fed as soured or ensiled pulp. When fed near the factories the pulp is dumped into large, shallow, well-drained pits or trenches, or into huge tank-like silos built chiefly above ground. "Mass. Rpt. 1909, Part II, p. 157. "Trans. HigM. and Agr. Soc, 1888, pp. 112-128. 'Kgl. Landtbr.-Akad. Handl., 1889, p. 257. MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 185 A more wasteful method is to pile the pulp in large heaps, when the out- side layer on rotting will protect the interior from the air. On farms the pulp may be stored in ordinary silos or placed in pits, either with or without alternate layers of beet leaves, the mass, which may extend sev- eral feet above ground, being covered with straw and earth to keep out frost. Maercker* found that rather more than one-fourth of the to- tal nutrients of the pulp was lost in the fermentations which take place when it is ensiled. Such heavy losses teach that, where possible, the pulp should be dried. Tho carrying only 1 to 2 per ct. of sugar, wet beet pulp contains con- siderable of other easily digested carbohydrates, and per pound of dry matter is equal to roots in feeding value. Like roots, this watery ma- terial should be fed with dry feeds. Most of the mineral matter is extracted from the beets along with the sugar, and hence the pulp is low in these constituents. When heavy allowances of pulp are fed it is therefore well to see that the animals are supplied with sufficient lime and phosphoric acid. Pulp is also low in crude protein, but fortunately it is commonly fed with legume hay, which is high in both protein and mineral matter. Steers are annually fattened by thousands and sheep by ten-thousands on wet, soured, beet pulp at the western beet-sugar factories. Carlyle and Griffith of the Colorado Station" found 1 ton of wet beet pulp equal to 220 lbs. of corn or 620 lbs. of alfalfa hay for fattening steers. (746) Griffin of the same station reports that 1 ton of pulp has about the same value as 200 lbs. of com for fattening lambs. (871) The wet pulp is relished by dairy cows and, fed in not too large amount, produces a good flavored milk. (643) It may also be fed to idle horses. (512) 275. Dried beet pulp. — Owing to the high prices of concentrates and the favor with which dried beet pulp has been received by stockmen, many factories have been equipped with facilities for thus preserving the pulp. Shaw of the Michigan Station^" found that dried beet pulp compared favorably with com meal for fattening sheep and steers. It produced larger gains with growing animals, while com meal put on more rapid gains with fattening animals nearing the finishing period. (747, 854) In the Scandinavian feed-unit system the value of dried beet pulp for dairy cows is rated 10 per ct. below corn or barley. (585) As dried beet pulp absorbs a great deal of water, when a heavy allow- ance is fed it is advisable to moisten it with 2 to 3 times its weight of water before feeding.*^ Tho moistened dried beet pulp may be employed as a substitute for corn silage, at the usual prices the latter is the more economical form of succulence for those who can raise most of their own feed. Breeders of pure-bred dairy stock recommend dried beet pulp for cows on official test which are receiving heavy concentrate allowances, 'V. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem., Bui. 52. •Colo. Bui. 102. >°Mich. Buls. 220, 247. "Lindsey, Mass. Rpt. 1910, Part II, p. 24. 186 FEEDS AND FEEDING as it has a tendency to keep the bowels open and is not apt to cause di- gestive disturbances.^^ 276. Beet molasses. — The molasses from beet sugar factories is a valu- able carbonaceous feed when properly fed, as it contains about 66 per ct. of nitrogen-free extract, which is nearly all sugar. The crude pro- tein of both beet and cane molasses consists largely of compounds having little nutritive value. "When fed in too large amounts it is very laxative on account of its high content of alkaline salts and of other purgative substances. In the beet sugar districts the molasses is usually a cheap source of carbohy- drates, its value per ton being rated at three-fourths that of corn. Due to its sticky nature, the molasses, either undiluted or thinned with water, is usually distributed over hay or straw, while large feeders use machines for mixing the molasses with cut roughage. Animals should gradually become accustomed to the molasses and care must be taken not to feed too large an allowance. The maximum amounts of molasses advised by various authorities for animals accustomed to the feed are as follows, per 1,000 lbs. live weight : Driving horses, 2.5 lbs., and up to 4 lbs. or even more for draft horses ; dairy cows, 2.5 to 3 lbs. ; fattening cattle, 4 to 8 lbs. ; fattening sheep, 3 to 5 lbs. ; and fattening swine, 5 to 10 lbs. (483, 748, 854) Breeding ani- mals should be given smaller allowances than those being fattened, and the amount should be materially reduced 6 weeks before delivery. Beet molasses is extensively used in various mixed feeds, described later. (280) 277. Molasses-beet pulp. — Beet molasses is sometimes combined with beet pulp and dried, forming dried molasses-beet pulp. This feed is somewhat more palatable and digestible than the ordinary dried pulp and has equal or slightly higher feeding value. (586, 854) 278. Beet tops. — ^At harvest an acre of sugar beets will usually yield about 4 tons of fresh leaves and 1 ton of the severed upper portion of the roots. The leaves have about half the feeding value of the roots. These tops, freed from soil as much as possible by shaking, may be fed fresh or ensiled. As fresh or ensiled leaves tend to purge the animals, they should always be fed in a limited way with such dried roughages as corn stover, straw, or hay. When large allowances of leaves are fed, KeUner advises giving about 3 ounces of chalk or ground limestone to every 100 lbs. of leaves, to counteract the effect of the oxalic acid which the leaves contain, and which may otherwise be injurious.^* The tops may be ensiled in pits or silos in alternate layers with straw or may be mixed with cut dry corn fodder or stover. (409) German farmers add 7 lbs. of salt to each ton of leaves as they are ensiled.** 279. Cane molasses. — Cane molasses, or blackstrap, the by-product of the manufacture of cane sugar, is palatable and much relished by farm animals. When fed in large amounts it does not have the purgative "Smith and Beals, Mass. Bui. 146. "Ernahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 307. "Ware, Cattle Feeding with Sugar Beets, Sugar, and Molasses, etc. MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 187 effect of beet molasses, but tends to be costive in its action. It contains about the same amount of nitrogen-free extract as beet molasses. Tho the nitrogen-free extract of both cane and beet molasses is really all di- gestible, when molasses is fed with other feeding stuffs a depression of the digestibility of the basal ration occurs, as has been explained before (84), due to the large amount of soluble carbohydrates (sugars) it con- tains. Taking this into consideration, the digestibility of the nitrogen- free extract of cane molasses is reckoned at 90 per ct. In the southern states cane molasses is often a cheap source of carbo- hydrates and is fed extensively on the sugar plantations to horses, mules, and other animals. (482) On account of the high price at which molasses is usually sold in the North, Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station con- cludes, after several years study, that no advantage is to be gained by northern farmers from the use of molasses in place of corn meal and similar feeds. For facilitating the disposal of unpalatable and inferior roughage, as a tonic for horses and cows out of condition, and as a colic preventive for horses (482), from 2 to 3 lbs. of molasses per head daily is helpful. He states that a daily allowance of 3 lbs. of molasses per head may be advantageously fed to fattening steers, especially during the finishing period, when the appetite is fickle. (748) Like beet mo- lasses, blackstrap is commonly mixed with other feeds. 280. Molasses feeds. — Cane and beet molasses are now extensively used in the manufacture of the many molasses feeds, which consist of mo- lasses combined with a wide range of products, all the way from high- protein concentrates, such as cottonseed meal, to milling offal, such as screenings, oat hulls, rice hulls, peanut hulls, etc. Many of the early molasses feeds contained a multitude of live weed seeds, were poor in mechanical condition, and did not keep well on account of excessive moisture. Often entirely unwarranted statements were made in adver- tising these feeds. The conditions have now improved, and where screen- ings are present they usually have been finely ground to destroy all weed seeds. Because of the widely differing materials used in these feeds their value varies greatly. If sold at prices which are reasonable com- pared with the cost of equal amounts of nutriment in the straight con- centrates, nothing can be said against the use of the reliable feeds of this class, for they are well liked by stock. (483) However, deception is easy in these feeds, because the molasses masks the other ingredients so that inspection does not always show of what the feed consists. Molasses feeds should hence be purchased only from reliable dealers and on definite guarantees of composition and of freedom from live weed seeds. The state feed-control officials should be consulted in case of doubt as to the value of any molasses feed. Molassine meal, which has been manufactured for several years in Europe and has recently come upon the markets in the United States, consists of molasses absorbed by sphagnum moss or peat. Kellner and Pfeiffer have shown^" that peat has no nutritive value for farm animals, "Kellner, Emahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 369. 188 FEEDS AND FEEDING and the undecomposed moss can likewise have but small worth, the are- tie life subsists on it to some extent. Practically the only nutriment in this feed is in the molasses it contains, and at the prices usually asked, molasses can be purchased much cheaper alone than in molassine meal. HiUs" found the molasses in a ton of this meal worth only $25, while the feed sold for $39 per ton. Lindsey and Smith^' of the Massachusetts Station found molassine meal decidedly inferior to corn meal for cows. 281. Sugar. — Tho the nutritive value of sugar is no greater than that of an equal weight of starch, the great fondness for it shown by farm animals makes it helpful in some cases for stimulating the appetite. (484) A small allowance is often used in fitting animals for shows. Owing to heavy internal taxes laid upon sugar for human consumption in France and Germany, it is sometimes denatured by mixing with it vermouth powder, lamp black, salt, peat, etc., after which it is used for feeding to animals. 282. Dried distillers' grains. — In the manufacture of alcohol and dis- tilled liquors from cereals, the com, rye, etc., after being ground, are treated with a solution of malt to convert the starch into sugar, which is next converted into alcohol by the action of yeast. This is distilled off, leaving a watery residue, known as distillers' slops, or slump. For- merly the slump was fed to fattening steers at the distillery; now the solid matter is usually strained out and dried in vacuum, forming dried distillers' grains, or distillers' dried grains, which are sold as such or under various proprietary names. This by-product consists of the por- tions of the grains not acted upon during the fermentation process, i.e., the crude protein, fiber, fat, and the more insoluble part of the nitrogen- free extract. Distillers' grains from corn contain from 28 to 32 per ct. crude protein and are about equal to gluten feed in feeding value. Dried grains chiefly from rye are of considerably lower value, carrying only about 23 per ct. protein. Not being especially palatable, distillers' grains should be mixed with other concentrates. This rather bulky feed is one of the best high-protein concentrates for dairy cows, from 2 to 4 lbs. per head daily being usually fed. (605) Distillers' grains may also be used with good results as part of the ration for fattening steers and sheep. (758, 856) A large allowance of the grains is usually not rel- ished by horses, but they may constitute one-fourth the concentrate allowance for these animals. (491) On account of their bulkiness they should not be fed in large amounts to pigs. (981 ) 283. Acorns. — In some portions of the South and in California, acorns, the fruit, or nut, of the oak, Quercus spp., are of importance in swiae feeding, the pigs usually being allowed to forage upon the scattered nuts. Carver of the Tuskegee, Alabama, Station^* reports the successful feed- ing of acorns and kitchen slop to 400 pigs, allowing about 5 lbs. of acorns to each pig daily. Carver states that acorns produced a soft, spongy flesh and an oily lard, but this was doubtless due fully as much to the »Vt. Bui. 171. "Mass. Bui. 158. "Ala. (Tuskegee) Bui. 1. MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 189 slop fed, as German investigators report that acorns produce pork of good quality. Acorns may be used in limited amounts for other stock. Cases of poisoning have been reported where animals ate damaged acorns or consumed an undue amount. 284. Cocoa shells. — This by-product of the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate consists of the hard outside coating, or bran, of the cocoa bean. These shells, which are dark brown and brittle, are used in a few pro- prietary feeds. Only 4 to 18 per ct. of the crude protein in this material is digestible. According to Kellner^* cocoa shells have no more feeding value than straw. Lindsey and Smith found a lot tested at the Massa- chusetts Station^" somewhat more digestible, but do not consider the shells worth more than half as much as corn meal. 285. Proprietary and mixed feeds. — ^There are now on the market a host of mixed feeds, chiefly sold under proprietary names. Widely different ingredients enter into the composition of these articles. In some only such high-grade concentrates as cottonseed meal, wheat bran, malt sprouts, gluten feed, dried distillers' grains, etc., are combined. Others contain varying amoimts of screenings, or light grains of wheat, barley, or oats, which will in general have a lower value than good qual- ity grain from the same cereals. The larger number contain more or less of such low-grade by-products as oat hulls, ground com cobs, flax plant by-product, etc. Several states now require that the ingredients in any feed be stated on the sack or package. Tho the manufacturers of most of these feeds maintain the amount of crude protein, fat, and fiber in each brand at about the same figures from month to month, but few guarantee the amount of the separate ingredients, such as malt sprouts, or screenings, that the feed contains. Owing to this inability to know that a sample of the feed secured today will represent the feed put on the market next year under the same name, the experiment sta- tions have conducted practically no trials to determine the values of these mixtures. For this reason and because of the great number of these feeds, the composition of proprietary mixed feeds is not shown in Appendix Tables I and III. Many mixed feeds are the result of honest and intelligent effort to furnish a ready-mixed "balanced" concentrate mixture for dairy cows, horses, or cattle, as the case may be, and have won good reputations among intelligent feeders. »k Others are merely attempts to delude the purchaser into paying as high a price for a feed bearing a "fancy" name but consisting largely of low-grade materials as he would pay for high-class concentrates. Mixed feeds should therefore be purchased only when they are the product of reliable manufacturers, and especial atten- tion should be paid to the guarantee of crude protein, fat, and fiber. On comparing the fiber guarantee with the fiber content of well-known un- mixed concentrates, as given in Appendix Table I, the purchaser wiU be able to judge to what extent such low-grade by-products as oat hulls "Emahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 214. "Mass. Bui. 158. 190 FEEDS AND FEEDING and corn cobs have been added. As has been pointed out (203, 224), such bulky materials, high in fiber, furnish but little nutriment, tho they may be helpful in adding bulk to the mixture. Before buying, the wise feeder will compare the amount of nutrients he can secure for a given sum in different mixed feeds and in the unmixed standard by-products. rv. Commercial Feeding Stuffs Conteol As has been pointed out in the previous chapters, it is often impossible for the feeder to tell from the appearance of a commercial feeding stuff whether it is of standard quality or has been adulterated. The enact- ment of laws has therefore been necessary to protect honest manufactur- ers and dealers, as well as the users of commercial feeds. 286. Regulati&n of sale of commercial feeding stuffs. — ^Laws have now been passed in a large number of the states which in general require that each package of concentrated feed bear a label, tag, or state- ment giving the percentages of crude protein and fat the feed contains. " An increasing number of states are wisely requiring that the maximum percentage of fiber be also guaranteed. In others, each ingredient in all mixed feeds must be stated. From time to time the officials en- trusted with feed supervision issue bulletins setting forth the results of examinations, analyses, etc. Those interested should consult the bulle- tins, and aid and support the officers in the administration of the laws. Users of purchased feeds in large quantity are generally experienced and buy only the better grades of standard feeding stuffs at close prices, or secure such materials as screenings, etc., at low prices, fully under- standing their composition and relative value. The small buyer, often feeling the pinch of poverty, too frequently is looking for something that sells for less than is demanded for standard goods, and .so is the more easily caught by the low-grade, trashy articles often bearing catchy, high-sounding names. Low-grade feeding stuffs, no matter what their names, are almost sure to bring hardship to the animals that are fed on them, and to the owners of such animals as well. Such feeds are really more like roughages Jhan concentrates and roughage c^n be pro- duced on most farms far more economically than it can be purchased in bags from the feed dealer. Whenever one is in doubt as to what to buy, he should consult the feed control officials of his state or purchase only the pure unmixed grains, straight milling or factory by-products, or proprietary feeds of high grade that have won a good reputation. 287. Examples of feed adulteration. — Since the feed-control work has been carried on the instances of adulterated and misbranded feeds are becoming less frequent. The following will illustrate the fraud some- times still attempted by unscrupulous manufacturers and dealers. In Tennessee the United States Department of Agriculture^^ seized a ship- ment labeled "Mixed Wheat Middlings, from Pure Wheat Bran and = Notices of Judgment, 66, 67 — Food and Drugs Act MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 191 Ground Corn," which consisted of bran and ground com cobs. WoU and Olson of the Wisconsin Station,^^ examining a carload of so-called wheat bran shipped into "Wisconsin, found that each pound of the whole carload contained on an average 28,000 pigeon-grass seeds, 16,000 wild buckwheat seeds, 5,000 pigweed seeds, and many seeds of other kinds. Beach of the Vermont Station,^' examining 18 brands of molasses and flax feeds offered for sale in his state, found from 1,150 to 131,000 weed seeds in each pound of such feeds. In one case it was estimated that there were 129 million weed seeds, weighing 400 lbs., in a ton of one of these feeds. Beach found that 2 to 13 per ct. of these seeds would grow after having passed thru the cow. 288. A guide in purchasing commercial feeds. — In purchasing com- mercial feeding stuffs the guaranteed composition should be ascertained and compared with the average composition given for the same feed in Appendix Table I. If the feed is markedly lower in crude protein or fat, or is noticeably higher in crude fiber than there shown, it should be viewed with suspicion. Care should also be taken that the feed is fresh, free from mold and rancidity, and that it corresponds in appear- ance with the descriptions given in the preceding chapters. v. CONDIMENTAL OR StOCK FoODS Proprietary articles styled "stock foods," "seed meals," "condition powders," etc., costing from 10 to 30 cents or more per pound, are ex- tensively advertised and sold to American farmers. WoU of the Wis- consin Station,^* after ascertaining the amount of stock foods sold in 1906 in three counties in Wisconsin, estimated that the farmers of that state paid annually about $300,000 for 1,500 tons of such material. Michel and Buckman of the Iowa Station*^ estimate that Iowa farmers paid $190,ff00 for stock foods in 1904. 289. Composition of stock foods. — The better class of stock foods have for their basis such substances as linseed meal or wheat middlings, while the cheaper ones contain ground screenings, low-grade milling offal, the ground barlf of trees, etc. To this "filling" is added a small percentage of such materials as common salt, charcoal, copperas, fenugreek, gentian, pepper, epsom salts, etc., with or without turmeric, iron oxid, etc., for coloring. The stockman is told that a tablespoonful of the compound with each feed will cause his stock to grow faster, fatten quicker, give richer milk, etc., etc. Yet this amount will supply only an insignificant part of the dose of these drugs which is prescribed for animals by com- petent veterinarians. Tests of many of these stock foods by the experi- ment stations support the view of Sir John Lawes, the world's greatest investigator in scientific and practical agriculture, who, after carefully testing the stock foods then being sold in England wrote :^' "In con- "Wis. Bui. 97. ""Vt. Buls. 131, 133, 138. ""Wis. Bui. 151. "Iowa Bui. 87. "Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. 11. 192 FEEDS AND FEEDING elusion, I feel bound to say that I require much clearer evidence than any that has hitherto been adduced, to satisfy me that the balance-sheet of my farm would preseijt a more satisfactory result at the end of the year, were I to give each horse, ox, sheep, and pig, a daily allowance of one of these costly foods." (928) Farm animals managed with reasonable care have appetites which do not need stimulating. Sick animals or those out of condition should receive specific treatment rather than be given some cure-all. A good manager of live stock has no use for high-priced stock foods or con- dition powders, and a poor manager will never have fine stock by em- ploying them. In rare cases the available feeding stuffs may be of such poor quality that some condiment may cause the animal to eat more heartily, and where animals are in low condition and without appetite some spice may prove helpful. To coyer such rare cases the formulae for three "stock foods" or "spices" are presented. First formula Lbs. Second formula Lbs. Third formula Lbs. Fenugreek 2 Powdered gentian. . 8 Ground gentian 4 Allspice 2 Ginger 8 Powdered saltpeter. . . 1 Gentian 4 Fenugreek 8 Groxmd ginger 1 Salt 5 Powdered sulfur. . . 8 Powdered copperas.. . .1 Saltpeter 5 Potassium nitrate. . 8 Epsom salts 10 Kesin 8 Linseed meal 100 Cayenne pepper. . . 4 Linseed meal 44 Powdered charcoal. 20 Common salt 20 Wheat bran 100 The above materials are easily obtainable and there is no difficulty in compounding them. Oil meal or middlings is not necessary if one will thoroly mix together the other ingredients and give the proper amount along with some rich concentrate, like oil meal, wheat middlings, or ground oats. At ordinary prices for the materials, either the first or second formula can be made up for about 5 cents per pound, or about one-fourth what is usually charged for something no better. A table- spoonful in each feed will supply more drugs of possible value than the same measure of most of the advertised stock foods. The third formula, which is more concentrated, may be given at the rate of 1 tablespoonful daily mixed with the feed for 10 days, the dose omitted for 3 days, and then the tonic given for 10 days more. The flattering testimonials which the stock-food companies advertise are explained without granting any special virtue to their ' ' food. ' ' The stock foods are usually accompanied by directions which advocate liberal feeding and good care for the ani- mals to be fed in order to "secure the benefits from the tonic." Under this guidance the farmer feeds and cares for his stock better than ever before and secures better results, due not to the stock food but to follow- ing the directions which accompanied it. Rather than purchase advice with costly condimental foods the wise feeder will secure it in standard agricultural papers and books, or from the experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture. CHAPTER XII DIDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE I. Indian Cokn Indian com, maize, is the imperial agricultural plant of America. This giant annual grass reaches a height of from 7 to 15 feet in 4 or 5 months' growth, producing under favorable conditions from 10 to 25 tons of green forage per acre, containing from 4,000 to 10,000 lbs. of dry matter. When grown in a dense mass but little seed forms, and we have a rank grass which cures into a bright, nutritious, coarse hay. If the plants grow some distance apart, a large yield of grain results, with excellent forage as a secondary product. Were a seedsman to advertise Indian com by a new name, recounting its actual merits while ingeniously concealing its identity, either his claims would be discredited or he would have an unlimited demand for the seed of this supposed novelty. The possibilities of American farms in the live stock they may carry and the animal products they may turn off are restricted only by the quantity of com and of clover or other legumes which the land will produce, and this, under good management, seems almost unlimited. In Chapter I the studies on the composition of the growing Indian com plant are given at length to illustrate and fix in mind the manner in which plants grow and elaborate food for animals. The student should turn to that most helpful presentation and carefully review what it teaches. This done he is in position to proceed with the further study of the maize plant here set forth. (The importance of corn as a cereal has already been discussed in Chapter IX.) 290. Com as a forage plant. — The entire fresh green corn plant may be fed as a soiling crop, it may be ensiled, the crop may be cut and cured as fodder com, or the grain may be removed and the remaining stover used for feed. As later shown (300), ensiling is by far the most satisfactory means of preserving the entire crop as forage. The term fodder corn or corn fodder is applied to stalks of corn, green or dry, which have been grown primarily for forage, and from which the ears or "nubbins," if they carry any, have not been removed. Shock corn and bundle corn are terms applied to fodder com which carries much grain, but which is fed without husking. Stover or corn stover denotes the dried stalks of com from which the ears have been removed. Fodder corn or corn fodder, then, is the fresh or cured com plant which has been grown for forage, with all the ears, if any, origi- nally produced. Stover is cured shock corn minus the ears. Similarly, 193 194 FEEDS AND FEEDING the terms kafir fodder, kafir stover, etc., are employed in speaking of sorghum forage. 291, Thickness of planting. — In a study of thick and thin seeding for 3 seasons at the Illinois Station,^ Morrow and Hunt secured the results summarized below. In these trials the kernels were planted from 3 to 24 inches apart in the row, all rows being 3 feet 8 inches apart. Results of planting corn kernels various ddstances apart in rows Thickness of planting Yield per acre Digestible substance per acre Stover per acre Stover for Distance between kernels in row Kernels per acre Good ears Poor ears Stover Grain Total each lb. of corn 3 inches 6 inches 9 inches 12 inches 15 inches 24 inches 47,520 23,760 15,840 11,880 9,504 5,940 Bu. 13 37 55 73 63 49 Bu. 46 39 22 16 11 6 Lbs. 3,968 3,058 2,562 2,480 2,398 2,066 Lbs. 2,250 2,922 2,977 3,113 2,782 2,141 Lbs. 6,218 5,980 5,539 5,593 5,180 4,207 Tons 4.8 3.7 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.5 Lbs. 3.6 1 9 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.6 "With the kernels but 3 inches apart in the row there were 46 bushels of "nubbins," or poor ears, and only 13 bushels of sound ears per acre. However, this thick planting gave the largest returns in digestible nutri- ents — over 6,000 lbs. per acre. With this close planting there were 3.6 lbs. of stover for each pound of grain. The largest yield of sound ear com was secured by planting the kernels 12 inches apart in the row, or about 12,000 kernels per acre, which should produce 10,000 good stalks an acre. From this the returns were 73 bushels of sound and 16 bushels of poor ears per acre, with only 600 lbs. less digestible matter than from planting the kernels 4 times as thick. These trials, confirmed by the work of other stations, teach that when the stockman is seeking the greatest amount of nutrients possible from the com crop he will plant the seed so thickly as to choke the ears to about half their natural size. If he aims to produce grain, with stover secondary, he vrill plant the kernels at such distance apart as will allow each individual plant to produce fuU-sized ears. No general rule can be given as to the amount of seed to be planted per acre. This varies greatly and is determined by local conditions. One must know accurately the capacity of his land for com, and seed accordingly, bearing in mind that thick seeding gives the most total nutrients, largely as roughage, while thinner seeding gives the most sound grain. 292. Nutrients in the com crop. — ^Bven when grown for the grain, the stover contains a considerable part of the total nutrients of the crop, as is shown by the following table, arranged from a summary by Armsby^ of trials at 4 northern stations. 'HI. Bui. 13. 'Penn. Rpt. 1887. INDIAN COEN AND THE SOEGHTJMS FOR FORAGE 195 Distribution of nutrients in the corn crop grown for grain Average Distribution of digestible nutrients Distribution yield per Crude Total digestible of net acre moteia nutrients nutrients Lbs. Per ot. Per ot. Per ot. Ears 4,415 75 63 76 Stover 3,838 25 37 24 The table shows that in the northern states somewhat more than half the total weight of the com crop grown for grain is found in the ears. About 75 per ct. of the digestible crude protein is in the ears and 25 per ct. in the stover. The ears furnish about 63 and the stover 37 per et. of the total digestible nutrients. For animals at light work, those fattening slowly or giving only a small quantity of milk, and for main- taining animals in winter when much heat for warming the body is required, the value of the stover will be approximately measured by the total digestible nutrients it contains, or 37 per ct. of the crop. For fattening animals and those giving much milk or at hard work the stover will have a lower value, on account of the large amount of fiber it contains. For such animals a more accurate measure of the relative value of the ears and stover is furnished by the last column, which shows that the ears supply 76 and the stover 24 per ct. of the net nutrients. (78-80) The ratio of grain to stalk, and hence the distribution of the nutrients, will vary with the variety and with the section of the country. The rank growing southern com will have less of the total nutrients in the ear and more in the stalks. These data show clearly the great loss of animal food which occurs each year when unnumbered acres of stover are allowed to decay in the fields. Like the com grain, com forage is low in crude protein compared with its carbohydrate and fat content. As shown in Appendix Table III the nutritive ratio of com silage is 1:15.1, and that of fodder com 1 : 15.7 to 1 : 17.1, while com stover has the extremely wide nutritive ratio of 1 : 21.0 or over. Hence these roughages should be supplemented by feeds rich in crude protein. Com forage is fair in phosphorus and high in lime, compared with corn and the other cereal grains. 293. Preserving corn fodder or stover. — ^Losses of nutrients in com fodder after it has been gathered into shocks (stooks) are known to occur thru weathering but there are also large losses which are unex- plained. During 4 years' study at the Wisconsin Station, "WoU* deter- mined the dry matter and crude protein in a crop of com at the time of cutting and again after the shocks had been exposed to the weather for several months. It was found that under Wisconsin conditions well- made shocks of com which stand in the field for a few months lose about 24 per ct. of their dry matter, the crude protein content suJBfering to the same extent. Cooke showed that in the dry climate of Colorado* heavy losses likewise occur in shock com. In the South the com forage, »A Book on Silage. 'Colo. Bui. 30. 196 FEEDS AND FEEDING maturing early, melts away to almost nothing in a comparatively short time. The substances first lost thru such wasting are crude protein, sugar, starch, etc. — the most valuable portions of the plant. Nor is it possible to entirely prevent these losses by placing the cured fodder under cover or in stacks. Losses of this nature are probably due to fermentations which slowly but steadily waste the substance of the for- age. Sanborn^ writes: "Many trials with fodder. . .make it certain that 15 per ct. is the minimum loss to be expected with dry storage, while the loss may rise to 20 per ct. or even more in ordinary practice. ' ' The losses due to weathering can be lessened by making large shocks. Since the stalks stand almost vertical in the shocks, as the leaves wilt there is ample room for the upward passage of air currents, which rapidly dry the interior and check molds and fermentations. When shock com is pronounced dry by the farmer, it often still carries more water and consequently less dry matter than hay, a fact which should not be overlooked when feeding this forage. Care must be taken that corn fodder or stover is well-cured before it is stacked, and especially before it is stored in the mow, for musty, moldy forage is not only unpalatable but even dangerous. In southern states where it is exceedingly difficult to cure corn stalks so that they may be stacked, the silo is particularly useful. 294, Dry fodder com. — Corn grown and cured as forage constitutes a coarse hay of high feeding value, since only a portion of the nutrients has gone into the ear. Dry fodder corn is more palatable and nutritious than stover, which has transmitted much of its substance to the grain. Thickly seeded com bears small, palatable ears which are easily masti- cated. When grown for coarse hay and carrying some grain, com possesses a feeding value not as yet appreciated by most stockmen. Overlooking its splendid qualities as a hay plant, we have become accustomed to growing this grass for the grain it yields, and using the stover as a sort of straw to be eaten or wasted as accident determines. (500, 620-1, 771, 862) 295. Shock com. — Rather than husk corn and feed the grain and stover separately, it is often more profitable to feed shock corn and allow the animals to do their own husking. This is especially true for animals which need only a small grain allowance, such as cattle being carried thru the winter or idle horses. Shock corn may also be success- fully fed to fattening cattle and sheep, particularly at the beginning of the fattening period, and to a less extent it may be employed with the dairy cow. It is true that when fed unhusked some com passes thru the animal unbroken, but feeding trials show that, despite such waste, there is often little or no profit in husking the ear and reducing it to meal. A little study will determine the amount of grain the shocks carry, so that the feeder can properly adjust the ratio of grain to rough- "Cyc. Am. Agr., Vol. II, p. 569. INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 197 age by supplying either ear corn or corn stover as the animals may require. (735, 771) 296. Corn stover. — The forage which remains after removing the ears from shock corn has a higher feeding value than is usually conceded. Stover produced in the northern portion of the com belt is superior in nutriment and palatability to that grown in the South. As soon as fairly well cured and freed from external moisture stover should be placed under cover or stacked, rather than left to deteriorate in the field. Waters of the Missouri Station" found as the average of experi- ments covering 4 years that moderately thin yearling steers lost only 33 lbs. each when wintered on com stover alone. This shows that corn stover fed long or uncut will nearly furnish a maintenance ration for such animals. (502, 622, 771, 862) 297. Shredded or cut stover and fodder ^When shock corn is husked by machinery the stover is usually cut or shredded at the same oper- ation. Corn fodder is also often passed thru a feed cutter before feeding. At the Wisconsin Station' the senior author conducted 3 trials in which cows were fed either shredded or unshredded corn stover or fodder corn, all receiving the same allowance of grain and hay. While on the average 18 per ct. of the long forage was refused, the shredded fodder was all consumed. In these trials 100 lbs. of shredded stover or fodder produced slightly more milk than 132 lbs. of long forage. At the Kansas Station* Shelton, in experiments covering 3 seasons, fed stover cut into lengths varying from 0.25 to 2 inches to cows, and found an average waste of 31 per ct. of the cut stover, with no greater milk returns than from the uncut stover. The finer the stover was cut the larger was the waste, and the conclusion was that the only advantage from cutting stover lay in the greater convenience of handling it in the stable. Likewise at the Missouri Station* Waters found shredded stover slightly inferior to whole stover for steer feeding. In accounting for these differences it may be said that the stalks of corn grown in the middle and lower portions of the corn belt are larger, coarser, more woody, and doubtless less nutritious than the smaller, softer stalks of the northern states. It is also possible that in the Kansas trial the sharp edges of the cut stalks made the mouths of the cattle sore. This can be avoided by changing the length of the cut or by shredding. Cutting or shredding corn forage makes it easier to handle, and the waste is in better shape for bedding and manure. As this finer material is not more digestible than long stover, the only other possible advantage comes in getting the animals to eat more, or to eat those parts which would other- wise be wasted. 298. Fulling fodder. — In the South the tops of the ripening corn stalks are quite commonly cut off just above the ears, leaving the tall butts, each with an unhusked ear at its top. Next, the leaves are stripped from the butts, and these together with the severed tops are cured into a 'Mo. Bui. 75. 'Wis. Rpt, 1886. 'Kan. Rpt. 1889. "Mo. Bui. 75. 198 FEEDS AND FEEDING nutritious, palatable fodder, which is extensively employed for feeding horses and other stock. The previous study of the development of the nutrients in the corn plant shows the folly of this practice. During the last stages of its life the com plant is busiest in gathering crude materials from air and soil and elaborating them into nutritious food. Eemoving the top and leaves, at once stops all this work of food making. Stubbs of the Louisiana Station^" found that pulling fodder caused a shrinkage of from 15 to 20 per ct. in the yield of grain. (23) 299. The new corn product. — The pith of the cured com stalk is used as a packing between the walls of vessels to prevent the entrance of water should the hull be pierced, as well as being employed in various industries. It has been found that for each pound of pith there are 15 lbs. of blades, husks, and parts of stalks which remain as a by-product. This waste, ground to a powder, has been named "the new corn product." At the Maryland Station^^ Patterson found the new corn product somewhat more digestible than whole stover in feeding trials with steers and equal to hay for horses. As this material is used as a filler in some mixed feeds, it is well to bear in mind that grinding the by-product does not increase its content of nutrients. 300. Indian corn for silage. — Indian corn is pre-eminently a silage plant. The solid, succulent stems and broad leaves, when cut into short lengths, pack closely and form a solid mass which not only keeps well but furnishes a product that is greatly relished by stock, and consumed with little waste. Altho with enlarging experience the use of other crops for silage is increasing rapidly, by far the greater portion of all the forage stored in silos in this country is corn. The importance of silage on American farms is discussed further in Chapter XVI and in the respective chapters of Part III. 301. Losses by ensiling and field-curing. — ^After studying the losses of forage preserved in wooden silos during 4 seasons at the Wisconsiu Sta- tion,^^ King concludes that, omitting the top and bottom waste, which is the same for deep or shallow silos, the losses of dry matter in corn silage need not exceed 10 per et. Considerable of the protein in ensiled fodder is changed to amids (11), and some of the starch and sugar is destroyed, while the fiber is not diminished; thus the losses fall on the best portions of the ensiled material. Numerous trials at the stations show practically no difference between the digestibility of com silage and dry corn fodder, but both are somewhat less digestible than the green forage. This is shown in the average digestion coefficients given in Appendix Table II. The following table summarizes the comparative losses in preserving com forage by ensiling and field-curing as shown by 10 trials at 4 sta- tions : »La. Bui. 22. (Old Series.) "Md. Buls. 43, 51. "Wis. Bui. 59.. INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 199 Relative losses of field-curing and ensiling the corn crop Coin silage Corn fodder in sboolB Dry Crude Dry Crude Station and reference matter protein matter protein Per ct. Per ot. Per ct. Per ot. Vennont, av. 4 yrs., Rpts. 1889-94 18.2 12.0* 17.7 12.7* New Jersey, Bui. 19 18.0 17.3 Pennsylvania, Rpt. 1889 10 .8 4.4 21 .0 11 .6 Wisconsin, av. 4 yrs., Rpt. 1891 15.6 16.8 23.8 24.3 Average at 4 stations 15.7 11.1 20.0 16.2 •Average of 3 years. The table shows that more dry matter and crude protein were lost by drying corn forage in shocks than by ensiling. 302. Com silage vs. com fodder. — ^We have seen that the losses of nutrients by ensiling and drying corn forage are not materially different, tho somewhat favoring silage, and that ensiling a crop tends to decrease rather than increase the digestibility. (83) On the other hand, actual feeding trials with dairy cows and steers, reported in Part III, show that silage gives better results than a corresponding amount of dry fodder. (630, 781) The difference in favor of silage is doubtless due in part to the fact that cattle usually reject the dry butts of the corn stalks even when cut fine, while in silage they are eaten. Owing to the palatability of this succulence silage-fed animals consume a larger ration and more nutriment is hence available for milk or flesh production after supplying the wants of the body. Like other succulent feeds silage has a beneficial laxative effect and is a valuable aid in keeping farm animals in thrifty condition. 303. The corn for silage. — In the earlier years com was usually ensiled before the kernels were in the glazing stage. Experience has shown that much sweeter silage is produced when corn is not ensiled until the ker- nels have hardened and glazed (with the dent varieties when they are well dented). The crop should, however, be cut for silage while most of the leaves are yet green and succulent. The rapid storage of high- quality nutrients which takes place in the later stages of the development of the corn plant is a most important reason for waiting until the crop is practically mature. (23) Several stations have determined the yields per acre of green forage and digestible nutrients from southern varieties of corn, which usually do not reach maturity in the North, and from the smaller northern varieties, with the results shown below: Yield of corn forage at the North from northern and southern seed Maine, 5 years (Rpt- 1893) Penn., 3 years (Rpt. 1892). N. Y. (Cornell), (Bui. 16).. Wis. (Rpt. 1888) Minn. (Bui. 40) Green weight Southern ; per acre Northern Digestible nutrients per acre Southern Northern com Lbs. corn Lbs. corn com Lbs. Lbs. 34,761 32,321 34,060 47,040 43,000 22,269 18,606 16,980 24,890 19,500 3,251 3,076 5,042 4,149 4,758 2,953 6,414 5,229 3,887 2,911 200 FEEDS AND FEEDING In each instance the southern corn gave larger yields of green corn per acre. Tho southern com, which carries a small proportion of grain, is about 8 per ct. less digestible than northern com, it nevertheless pro- duced more digestible nutrients per aere.^* However, southern com should not generally be used for either silage or dry forage except where the climatic conditions permit the ears to develop kernels which reach the glazing stage at time of harvest. When there is an urgent demand for the largest amount of palatable roughage from a given area, the southern varieties have a place in the northern states, in spite of the fact that these types, which will not reach maturity, produce sourer silage. On the other hand, the northern stockman who has hay, straw, or stover at command will aim to fill his silo with a richer feed than southern corn yields, and therefore will use northern dent or flint varieties, which mature. He will plant the crop somewhat more thickly than when grown for grain, but yet so as to secure a relatively large proportion of grain to roughage, and will thus secure a rich silage that materially reduces the amount of concentrates required for his stock. 304. Silage from frozen or drought-stricken com. — ^When com is killed by frost or stricken by drought the silo is the best instrument for pre- serving all possible nutriment in the crop. When the plants have dried out unduly, water should be added as the silo is being filled to insure the necessary fermentations that preserve the silage. Hills of the Vermont Station^* found that silage from frozen corn is not necessarily poorer because of having been frosted, is not dangerous to cows, and does not injuriously affect the milk. He concludes that it is often advisable to allow a crop of immature, watery com to stand one or two weeks longer than usual, thereby gaining from 6 to 15 per ct. in dry matter should no frost come. Frosted com should be quickly ensiled, for the storm which usually follows the first fall frosts will wash out much nutriment from the frosted forage, and the winds soon whip off the dried, brittle leaves. 305. Corn fodder or stover silage. — It has been found that cured corn forage, when cut into the silo, thoroly moistened, and well-packed Tvill undergo fermentation similar to that which occurs with green material and may be preserved in a satisfactory manner.^^ Tho usually less palatable than silage from green com this product has an aromatic silage odor and is readily consumed by stock, with less waste than is dry fodder or stover. This method is now followed by many farmers, especially in the plains region, some even filling their silos 3 times a year — ^in the faU with green corn or sorghum, and later with the cured forage. The essential points in the process are to add enough water so that the material will pack well and then to tramp it down with especial thoroness ; otherwise the mass will spoil. Tho the water may be applied to the cut material in the silo, more even moisture distribution is possible and lience better silage is produced when a stream of water is run into "Jordan, Me. Rpt. 1893. "Vt. Rpt. 1906. "Del. Rpt. 1903; Vt. Bui. 170. INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 201 the blower, thereby wetting the cut fodder before it reaches the silo. Bckles of the Missouri Station^" states that only about one-third of the total amount of water needed will be taken up by the dry fodder as it passes thru the blower. The remainder should be sprinkled over the fodder in the silo as it is filled. Due to the widely varying water content of field-cured corn forage it is impossible to state definitely the amount of water to be added in such cases. Some recommend adding about an equal weight of water to the forage, others add just enough so that water may be squeezed out of the cut material. 306. Bemovlng the ears before ensiling. — ^Years ago it was recom- mended that, instead of ensiling the entire corn plant, the ears be removed and cured elsewhere, and only the stalks and leaves converted into silage. This grain-free silage would then be fed along with more or less of the grain separately saved. This matter was tested by "WoU at the Wisconsin Station^^ and Hills at the Vermont Station^' with adverse results. Hills found that 1 acre of green com fodder, including ears, reduced to silage was equal in feeding value to 1.26 acres of silage from stalks stripped of their ears and fed with the meal made by grinding the dry ear corn which was produced by the crop. 307. Com for soilage. — Corn ranks high as a soiling crop on account of its palatability, the high yield of nutrients, and the fact that it remains in good condition for feeding for a much longer period than many other crops grown for soilage. On farms lacking summer silage, feeding corn forage in the green stage as soilage should become general, for during the late summer and early fall pastures are often too scant to enable animals to do their best. In the ease of dairy cows such a shortage of feed will cause a decrease in milk flow, which often can not be recovered by subsequent liberal feeding. (642, 663) An acre of ripening corn fed in early fall may thus return twice as much profit as if it were held over until winter. For early feeding sweet corn may often be advantageously used. II. The Sorghums In the dry-farming districts, from Nebraska to Texas and Arizona, the sorghums, both the saccharine sorghos and the non-saccharine grain sorghums are of great and increasing importance as forage crops because they are far more drought resistant than com and the leaves remain green late in autumn. (235-41) In 1913 Kansas alone grew 1,633,000 acres of grain sorghum for grain and forage, and 738,000 acres of sorgho, these crops having a total value of over $17,200,000. The sorghums, chiefly the sorghos, are valuable crops in the southern states for hay, soilage, or silage, and are also grown in the northern states, chiefly for soilage. According to Piper^' 3 tons of air-dry fodder may be considered a good and 6 tons a large return from the sorghums, while maximum »Mo. Cir. 71. "Wis. Rpts. 1891, 2. »Vt. Rpt. 1892. "Forage Plants, p. 269. 202 FEEDS AND FEEDING yields may reach 10 tons of dry fodder or 40 tons of green material. Reed of the Kansas Station^" states that under Kansas conditions the sorghums will produce one-third to one-half more forage per acre than corn. 308. Sorghum fodder and stover. — Thruout regions of scanty rainfall the sorghums are most commonly grown in drilled rows of sufiScient width to allow horse cultivation, by which the moisture is conserved and larger yields obtained. When grown in drills, not too thickly, much seed is produced and the stalks are somewhat coarse. Sorghum forage is more palatable when cut before fully matured, but the seed should be allowed to reach the early dough stage, for if cut earlier the plants are watery and contain little nutriment. The crop is cured in shocks, the same as Indian corn, but in the case of the juicy-stemmed sorghos, which cure with difficulty, the shocks should be small. If left in the field in humid regions for 3 months or longer sorgho fodder is apt to sour, due to fermentation of the sugar in the stalks.^^ In sections with ample rainfall the seed is often broadcasted, and the fine-stemmed plants cut with a mower and cured in cocks, the same as the meadow grasses. In the South where the rainfall is ample or on irrigated lands 2 to 3 cuttings of sorghum may be secured in a season if the crop is cut before it matures; ia the dry-farming districts the crop is usually cut but once. The various types of grain sorghums have been previously described. (235-40) Of this group the kafirs give the largest yields of the most valuable forage, for they are leafy and the stems are more succulent than those of milo, feterita, or kaoliang. Kafir fodder and stover com- pare favorably in composition and feeding value with that from com. Feterita ranks next to kafir for forage, while milo, kaoliang, and shallu have less foliage and more pithy stems. (772, 861) The dwarf types of the grain sorghums are often harvested with a grain header, and stock grazed on the standing stalks. The sorghos with their juicy stalks rich in sugar are grown chiefly for forage. Early varieties, such as Amber cane, ripen earlier than kafir or milo and may be grown wherever corn will mature. Zavitz of the Ontario Agricultural CoUege^^ reports an average plot yield of 16.3 tons per acre from 3 varieties of sorgho tested for 15 years. Snyder of the North Platte, Nebraska, Sub-Station^^ regards sorgho as the best forage plant for the more arid sections of the plains district, where alfalfa can not be grown, being fully equal to good prairie hay in feeding value. Early sorghos have proved the best forage crops on dry farms in northwestern Texas and in Arizona, as they evade drought better than late maturing types.^* Where rainfall is more abundant the later varieties give a larger yield of forage. The palatable leaves, sweet » Kan. Cir. 28. " Ont. Agr. College, Rpt. 1913. f Piper, Forage Plants, p. 275. ^Nebr. Bui. 135. "Conner, Tex. Bui. 103; Clothier, Ariz. Rpt. 1912. INDIAN CORN AND THE SORGHUMS FOR FORAGE 203 stalks and freedom from dust make sorgho forage a desirable roughage for stock, especially horses. (499, 861) 309. The sorghums for grazing, soilage, and silage. — Especially in the southern states, the sorghums, mainly the sorghos, are widely used as summer pasture for horses, cattle, and swine, as they are available at a time when other crops are exhausted or immature. Owing to the danger from prussic acid poisoning, extreme care must be taken in pas- turing second growth or stunted sorghum. (395) By feeding the green crop as soilage it is the more completely utilized. Tho sorghum may be cut at any time after it reaches a height of 2 to 3 feet, a greater yield of nutrients will be secured when it is allowed to head. The early varieties of sorghos are admirable soiling crops for the northern states. (421) The sorghums formerly had the reputation of producing much sourer silage than corn. Numerous experiments have now shown, however, that when sufficiently matured, both the sorghos and the grain sorghums make excellent silage. Reed of the Kansas Station"" reports from 2-year trials that silage from kafir or sorgho, ensiled when the seeds were hard, contained less acid than corn silage and was practically equal to com silage in feeding value. (632, 782, 870) He states that the best way to determine when cane or kafir is ready to ensile is to twist the stalk with the hands. When it is so mature that just a very little juice will run out the proper stage has been reached. As with com, it is preferable to let the crop of cane or kafir stand till after frost rather than ensile it too green. (303) The bagasse, or waste of the sorghum syrup factories, should not be wasted, but may be satisfactorily ensiled, as well as the leaves removed before running the stalks thru the mill. ■°Kan. Cir. 28; and information to the authors. CHAPTER XIII THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING I. The Smaller Grasses The great grain-bearing plants — Indian corn, wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, and the sorghums — are all members of the grass family, tho they are annuals and require careful cultivation. The smaller grasses are nearly all perennials, thriving without cultivation and producing rough- age of high grade. In the humid regions Nature everywhere spreads a carpet of soft, green grass that beautifies the landscape and furnishes an abundance of palatable food for animals. Even in the desert the grasses struggle for existence and yield rich nutriment, tho in meager amount. For recuperating the soil and binding it together and for furnishing food to the domestic animals, the smaller grasses are of supreme importance. In summertime in those regions where grasses flourish, the animals of the farm largely feed themselves, and meat, mUk, and wool are produced at the minimum cost for labor. The smaller grasses may be divided into the sod- formers and non-sod- formers. The sod-formers spread by creeping stems below or above ground. This group includes our most valuable pasture and lawn grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass and Bermuda grass. The non-sod- formers grow in tufts or bunches, and tho they may increase in size by stooling, do not otherwise spread except by seed. Orchard grass is an example of this class. Certain grasses of the group, as timothy, increase to a limited extent by development and division of bulbs at the base of the stems. 310. Nutrients in grasses at different stages. — Hay from grasses cut at the usual stages of maturity is relatively low in digestible crude protein compared with carbohydrates and fats, and hence should be used with feeds rich in protein. When immature, before the great development of carbohydrates has occurred, the grasses contain a much larger proportion of crude protein. At the Michigan Station^ Crozier cut growing timothy grass 8 times from one plat, while on another it was cut and cured into hay after making full growth. The hay from the frequently-cut grass was nearly 3 times as rich in crude protein as that from the nearly mature grass cut once. Good of the Kentucky Station" found that Kentucky bluegrass, rye, wheat, and oats, cut when only 5 to 8 inches high, contain as high a percentage of crude protein as does alfalfa or the clovers. This shows that immature grasses, such as are gathered by grazing animals, are protein-rich feeds, and explains the favorable '■ Mich. Bui. 141. =Ky. Rpt. 1911-13, p. 9. 204 THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 205 results attained when com, a highly carbonaceous feed, is fed alone to fattening animals at pasture. Crozier secured nearly 4 times as much total dry matter per acre, and also the greatest total yield of crude pro- tein, when the grass was nearly mature. Hence, when grass is cut for hay at the usual stages, the aggregate yield of nutrients is greater than when the samje area is kept grazed by animals. 311. BluegrasB, Poa pratensis. — Kentucky bluegrass, or June grass, is the common carpet grass of the northeastern United States, easily rank- ing first for lawn and pasture. By its persistence it often drives red clover, timothy, and other grasses from the meadows and pastures, tenaciously holding its own against all claimants. Appendix Table III shows this grass to be one of the richest in both digestible crude protein and fat, which helps explain the fondness for it shown by stock. Differing from most grasses of the humid regions, mature dried blue- grass is quite readily grazed by animals, thus resembling some of the grasses of the western ranges. With the coming of spring bluegrass pushes forward so vigorously that early in May the fields display a thick, nutritious carpet of green, and a little later the seed heads show. With seed bearing late in May, the plant's energies become exhausted, and bluegrass enters a period of rest which lasts several weeks. During this time there is little growth, and if a midsummer drought occurs the plants turn brown and appear to be dying. They quickly revive with the coming of the fall rains, and again the pastures are green and grow- ing. They have had their rest, and each plant is once more busy gathering nourishment for the coming season's seed bearing. The ob- servant stockman soon learns that it is unwise to rely on bluegrass pasture for a steady and uniform feed supply for his cattle thruout the season. Accordingly he understocks the pasture in spring so that the excess of herbage during May and June may remain to be drawn upon during the midsummer dormant period, or he fully stocks it and makes up the later shortage by supplying silage or soilage. In some districts it has been found profitable to graze bluegrass pastures lightly or not at all in summer, and allow the self-cured herbage to stand for winter grazing. Because of its low, carpet-like growth, Kentucky blue- grass is primarily a pasture grass and should be so regarded. (419) 312. Timothy, Phleum pratense. — The total acreage in the United States of timothy, called "herd's grass" in New England, is nearly as great as that of all other cultivated hay plants combined, including clover and alfalfa. Timothy is a cool-weather grass, and of vast impor- tance in the northeastern states, where it furnishes probably three- fourths of the hay marketed in the cities. The following points make timothy a favorite with the farmer: Timothy seeds, large and easily recognized, are produced in abundance and long retain their vitality. A field of timothy is quickly established and usually holds out well. The grass seldom lodges, is easily cured into hay, and may be harvested over a longer period than most grasses. Hay from nearly-ripened grass is 206 FEEDS AND FEEDING usually bright, quite free from dust, and satisfies the city buyer, as it is well liked by driving horses, which get most of their nourishment from oats or other grain. (493) Timothy hay is not desirable as the sole forage crop on well-managed farms, because the yield is not large, there is little aftermath, the hay is low in protein, and there are other and better plants which may take its place. On most farms where timothy is now extensively grown, greater use should be made of the legumes, which not only furnish more nutri- tious hay, rich in protein, but at the same time increase the fertility of the soil. For cattle and sheep legume hay is far preferable to timothy (623, 764, 861), and even for horses the legumes may entirely or largely replace it. Fodder corn, hay from the cereals — oats, wheat, rye, or barley — or mixed clover and timothy hay are also desirable substitutes in many cases. Bed or alsike clover should always be sown vrith timothy, for the combination furnishes more and superior hay, even for horses. Grown together, the hay of the first season will consist largely of clover. With the close of the second season most of the clover disappears and the de- caying clover roots will nourish the timothy which .remains, so that a much larger yield of that grass is thereby obtained. Such indirect fertilization of the soil should also increase the nutritive value of the hay, for at the Minnesota Station' timothy grown on manured soil con- tained one-fourth more crude protein than that from the same soil with- out manure. 313. When to cut timothy. — The most extensive data on the time to cut timothy for hay are those of Waters and Schweitzer at the Missouri Sta- tion.* During 3 seasons they determined the yield of dry matter in hay from timothy cut at different stages, and also the yield of digestible nutrients, as found by digestion trials with steers, with the results aver- aged in the table : Yield of timothy cut at different stages Digestible nutrients per acre Dry matter Crude Carbo- Total dig. per acre protein hydrates Fat matter Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Coming into blossom.. 3,411 135 1,676 43 1,908 FuU bloom 3,964 147 1,867 44 2,113 Seed formed 4,089 113 1,802 51 2,030 Seed in dough 4,038 98 1,695 54 1,914 Seed ripe 3,747 92 1,576 38 1,754 Cutting the crop when the seed had just formed gave the largest yield of dry matter per acre, closely followed by the cutting made when the seed was in the dough, and this in turn by the cutting made when the plants were in full bloom. In view of the large storage of nutrients which continues in the com plant until the grain is mature (23), it at first seems surprising that the last cutting of timothy, made when the "Minn. Bui. 101. *Proc. See. Prom. Agr. Sci., 1910, pp. 71-98. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 207 seeds were ripe but before they had shattered, yielded 342 lbs. less dry matter than the third cuttiog. This was due to the partial loss of the lower leaves as the plant matures, to leaching by rain, and to the stor- age of nutrients in the bulbs at the base of the stems. More important than the total yield of dry matter is the content of digestible nutrients. Owing to decreased digestibility of the later cuttings, at full bloom the crop contained noticeably the most digestible crude protein, carbohy- drates, and total digestible matter. While the digestible crude protein had decreased 23 per ct. by the time the seed was formed, there was little or no decrease in the other nutrients up to this stage. Later the yield of both digestible crude protein and carbohydrates fell off marked- ly. The decrease in total digestible nutrients as the crop matured — a condition opposite to that in the com crop — is explained both by the reasons mentioned above and by the fact that the maturing corn plant is continuously storing nutrients in the highly digestible grain. Hills of the Vermont Station" points out that with the smaller grasses the nutri- ents stored in the seeds are largely lost to the animal, for the seeds are weU protected against mastication and digestion by their small size and hard seed coats. During 2 years Waters determined the preference of stock for the several cuttings, steers, dairy cows, and sheep being allowed free access to feed racks containing each cutting. Yearling steers with no other feed showed a decided preference for the first cutting over the second and for the second over the third, discriminating sharply against the fourth and especially the fifth. They ate all of the first 3 cuttings be- fore they really began on the fourth or fifth; Those fed liberally on grain and silage did not show such marked preferences for the earlier cut hay. Dairy cows getting grain and silage did not discriminate be- tween the first 3 cuttings, but avoided the later ones. Wethers fed all the com they would eat showed no preference. Based on yield of digestible nutrients alone, full bloom appears the best time to cut timothy for hay, but other factors must be considered. In the corn belt, the cutting must often be delayed because the cultiva- tion of com is then imperative. Immature grass is difficult to cure, the weather early in the season is usually more unsettled, and the ground cooler. When the crop is cut before the large storage of nutrients in the bulbs has occurred, the stand of grass will be impaired, according to Waters. The question is thus complex and must be determined from local conditions. In general we may conclude that for dairy cows, young stock, and sheep, timothy should be cut early, since these animals do not relish hay that is woody and lacks aroma, as does most late-cut hay. For horses and fattening cattle late cutting is favored. These animals subsist mostly on concentrates, and the hay they eat serves more for "filling," as horsemen say. In any case the harvest shoxild not be too long delayed lest the grass become tough and stringy and the seeds 'Vt. Bui. 152. 208 FEEDS AND FEEDING shatter. In trials with early-aad late-cut timothy for fattening steers, Sanborn* found that late-cut hay gave better returns. The senior author, in an unpublished duplicate experiment conducted many years ago, reached the same conclusion. 314. Red top, Agrostis alba or vulgaris. — This grass, of several species, is probably suited to a wider range of climatic and soil conditions than any other cultivated grass. A couple of years are required to establish strong plants from seed, but it then forms a close, well-knit, smooth turf, ranking next to bluegrass in this regard. Red top is often indig- enous to northern meadows and should be more generally grown. Tracy of the Mississippi Station' found no better grass than red top for marshy lands and seepy hillsides. It is especially valuable on damp lands from Canada to the Gulf States and thrives on soil too acid for most other cultivated grasses. At the same time it will withstand con- siderable drought and endures on poor uplands. Tho not so well liked as bluegrass, red top furnishes good pasture, and yields a palatable hay with fine stems and numerous leaves. 315. Orchard grass, Dactylis glomerata. — Tho it does well in full sun- light, this grass thrives better than most others in partial shade. It endures hot weather better than timothy and is well suited to the south- ern border of the timothy belt. As it starts early in the spring it fur- nishes valuable pasturage, tho stock prefer bluegrass. It grows in tufts, forming an uneven sod, and hence should be sown with other grasses or clovers, both for hay and pasture. Ripening 2 weeks before timothy, it fits in well with red clover. While late-cut orchard grass makes harsh, woody hay, lacking in aroma, that cut in early bloom is equal to the best of the hay grasses, carrying considerably more crude protein than tim- othy. This grass is usually persistent, deep rooted, withstands summer droughts well, and continues growth late in the autumn, producing much aftermath. 316. Brome grass, Bromus inermis. — For the eastern edge of the north- ern plains region, stretching from South Dakota to Saskatchewan, brome is the most important cultivated grass, flourishing there as do timothy and bluegrass farther east. This grass furnishes good crops of hay, equal to timothy in feeding value, for 3 or 4 years after seeding, by which time it usually becomes sod bound and should be renovated by harrowing or shallow plowing. Brome is one of the most palatable of pasture grasses and endures heavy grazing. Tho this grass is one of the most drought-resistant of the culti- vated grasses, Snyder' found brome unsatisfactory as a hay crop on dry farms in western Nebraska and less productive than the native prairie grasses for pasture, except in seasons with heavier rainfall than usual in that section. Ladd and Shepperd of the North Dakota Station* found brome the best grass for permanent pasture, yielding twice as much pro- "Rpt. N. H. Board of Agr., 1880. "Nebr. Bui. 135. ' Miss. Bui. 20. ' N. D. Bui. 47. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 209 tein and no more fiber than timothy. During a 5-year test, brome grass yielded an average of 2 tons of hay at the Manitoba and 1.25 tons at the Saskatchewan Station.** (496) 317. The millets. — The millets are rapid growing hot-weather annuals of many races and varieties. Of these, the foxtail milleis, previously described (243) , are the type most grown for forage ia the United States. In this group are common millet, the earliest, most drought-resistant, and, according to Piper,** the most widely grown variety; the less drought-resistant Hungarian miUet, shorter stemmed and with seeds mostly purplish; and German miUet, late maturing and with nodding heads, which yields more hay, but not of quite such good quality. The foxtail millets are especially valuable as hay crops on diy-f arms in the northern plains region. In the more humid regions they are grown chiefly as catch crops, thriving remarkably in hot and even dry weather and reaching the harvest period late in August or September. For millet hay of fine quality heavy seeding should be practiced. Millet grass designed for hay should be cut as soon as the blossoms appear, to prevent the formation of the hard, indigestible seeds. Thickly-seeded, early-cured millet hay is useful for cattle and sheep feeding. (798, 861) Since millet hay is sometimes injurious to horses, it should be fed spar- ingly and under close supervision. (498) Japanese barnyard millet {Echinochloa frumentacea) , a close relative of the common barnyard grass, has often been advertised as "billion doUar grass. ' ' This plant is much coarser than the foxtail millets and under favorable conditions yields large crops of coarse forage. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station*^ found this millet less satisfactory than com for soilage because it is more woody and less drought resistant. For hay it is inferior to the foxtail millets. The broom-corn millets, previously described (243), are grown chiefly for seed production, as the yield of forage is low and the stems woody. Pearl millet {Pennisetum glaucum), also called pencillaria o^ cat-tail millet, is adapted to the same conditions as the sorghums, which have largely displaced it in both the semi-arid regions and the South. As a soiling crop this tall growing grass has value in the southern states, yielding 3 or more cuttings in a season. It should be cut when 3 to 4 feet high, before the stems become hard. Teosinte (Euchlaena Mexicana), a giant millet resembling sorghum, requires a rich, moist soil and is too tropical to have value north of the southern portion of the Gulf States. The culture of this grass is de- creasing in the United States, because on moderately fertile soils it yields less than sorghum, and on rich land less than Japanese cane.*' 318. The small grains for forage. — Oats, barley, wheat, rye, and emmer may all be successfully used for the production of hay, soilage, and pasturage. In 1909 over 4,300,000 acres of small grains were cut for hay " Canada Expt Farms, Rpts. 1902-6. " Mass. Bui. 133. " Forage Plants, p. 288. " Piper, Forage Plants, p. 303. 210 FEEDS AND FEEDING in the United States, nearly as large an acreage as was devoted to alfalfa, and about 4 times that of the millets." Over half this area was in the Pacific coast states, wheat and barley being grown in Washington and chiefly barley in California. More than 40 per ct. of all the hay grown in the southeastern coast states, from North Carolina to Louisiana, is from the small grains. When intended for hay, the cereal grasses should be cut while the grains are in the early milk stage, at which time the stems and leaves may be cured into a bright, dust-free hay of good quality. Bearded wheat, barley, and rye should be cut before the awns harden. Cereal crops which have lodged badly because of overrich soil or excessive rainfall may often be advantageously converted into hay. (494) In the North, fall-sown rye and wheat furnish excellent late fall and early spring pasture and soilage, while spring-sown oats and barley pro- vide green forage in early summer. Barley is the best cereal grass for late summer seeding, since the young plants do not rust so readily as do other cereals. In the southern states faU-sown grains, including winter oats, may be pastured thru the winter, and if not cropped too closely or too late will still yield considerable hay or grain. At the Alabama (Canebrake) Station^^ a fall-seeded barley 'field yielded over 11 tons of green forage per acre by the following March. In southern Kansas it was found that fall-sown wheat pastured by cows during mild weather in winter gave a grass flavor to winter butter. The bad flavor which green rye imparts to milk may usually be avoided by grazing the cows thereon for but 2 or 3 hours immediately after milking. In the northern states the cereal grain plants are not as extensively used for hay and pasture as they should be. A field sown to rye, wheat, oats, or barley for temporary pasture may be changed to a permanent one by sowing clover and grass seed thereon early in spring in the usual manner. The grass and clover plants will then begin growth under shelter of the young grain plants. Stock may be turned into such pastures to graze on the cereal plants regardless of the young grasses and clovers, but should be kept off the field immediate- ly after rain while the ground is soft. The cattle will tramp out some of the tiny grass plants, but will do no permanent harm. The young grass and clover plants will grow rapidly, and as the cereal plants die will spread until they form a dense, permanent sod. Such double seeding gives the earliest possible summer pasture of rye, wheat, barley, or oats, followed by the more permanent one of mixed grasses and clovers. - , If ensiled when the kernels are just past the milk stage or slightly earlier, the cereals make silage of fair to good quality. The crop should be run thru a silage cutter and unusual care taken in tramping down the mass to force as much air as possible out of the hollow stems. Hooper of the Kentucky Station^® found rye silage relished by cows and not in- jurious to the flavor of the milk if fed several hours before milking. (636) "U. S. Census, 1910. «Ala. Bui. 9. "Ky. Bxten. Cir. 31. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 211 319. Minor northern grasses. — Canada iluegrass (Poa compressa) will yield fair pasturage or smaU crops of hay on poor or thin soil where Kentucky bluegrass fails. It withstands close grazing and is considered excellent for fattening cattle. This grass is important in Ontario and New York and is also abundant in Pennsylvania, the Virginias, and Maryland. Fowl meadow grass {Poa flava), a close relative of Kentucky blue- grass, thrives in the northeastern states on wet land subject to overflow where even red top and alsike clover are kiUed out. Hills of the Ver- mont Station^' reports yields on such wet meadows of 1.2 to 2.5 tons per acre of hay which is as well relished as upland hay. Meadow fescue {Festuca elatior), a tufted, long-lived perennial grass, is adapted to practically the same area as timothy, which excels it for hay. Tho it thrives best on rich moist land, the largest acreage is grown in eastern Kansas.^* It is best as a pasture grass, starting growth early in the season and continuing till late in the fall. As the seed is high- priced, it is usually sown in mixture with other grasses for permanent pastures. Italian rye grass {Lolium multiflorum) and EngUsh rye grass (LoUum perenne) are short-lived, rapid growing perennials. Tho of great im- portance in Europe they are little grown in this country, except in the humid region of western Washington and Oregon, where they are among the best pasture grasses. Slender wheat grass {Agropyron tenerum), known in Canada as west- ern vy& grass, the only native North American grass which has proved valuable under cultivation, is giving satisfaction in the northern plains district.^* 320. Bermuda grass, Cynodon Dactylon. — This low growing, creeping grass is to the cotton belt what Kentucky bluegrass and timothy combined are to the northeastern United States. Bermuda grass forms a dense, soil binding sod, which covers the southern fields with a carpet of green from April to October as pleasing to the eye of the stockman as it is to the animals grazing thereon. It serves best when closely grazed, as otherwise it becomes tough and wiry. Because of its aggressiveness, it drives most other grasses out in summer, but lespedeza or white clover vrall flourish in spots among this grass and improve the pasture. For winter pasture, when Bermuda fails, the Bermuda sod may be seeded to bur clover, hairy vetch, or Italian rye grass. (354, 359, 319) Piper^" states that good Bermuda pasture will carry 1 cow to the acre and the best mixed Bermuda and lespedeza pasture will graze 2 animals per acre during the summer. The Louisiana Station''^ grazed 30 head of cattle of all ages on 17 acres of Bermuda grass pasture, mixed with other grasses and some lespedeza, with no other feed from March to November. Killebrew^* states that on the best alluvial soils 1 acre of Bermuda "Vt. Bui. 137. "Piper, Forage Plants, p. 219. «La. Bui. 72. " Ten Eyck, Kan. Bui. 175. " Forage Plants, p. 243. "La. Bui. 72. 212 FEEDS AND FEEDING pasture will graze 10 sheep for 8 months. Bermuda pastures are best utilized by subdividing them and turning the stock from one lot to the other. Tho primarily a pasture grass, on rich soil Bermuda gives good yields of hay. While 3 to 4 tons of hay per acre have been secured in 2 to 3 cuttings, according to Piper^" the average yield does not exceed a ton per acre. (497, 625) The stout rootstocks when plowed up are readily eaten by hogs, and in the tropics, when the top growth is scanty, are often pulled up and fed to horses. 321. Johnson grass, Andropogon halepensis. — In the South this rela- tive of the sorghums is the worst weed of the cotton planter and at the same time the best meadow grass for many sections.^* Spreading by seed and vigorous creeping rootstocks, it can be eradicated only with great difficulty, and hence it is not as a rule sown on clean fields. On rich soil in the southern states 3 cuttings of good quality hay may be secured, if cut before maturity. Six tons of Johnson-grass hay per acre are reported, tho the annual return usually ranges from 2 to 3 tons. (497, 626) As the grass soon becomes sod bound, it should be plowed every 2 or 3 years. While this coarse grass is not well suited for pasture, it may be cut once each month for soilage during the sum- mer season. The rootstocks of Johnson grass are readily eaten by stock, especially hogs, fields sometimes being plowed in Texas to furnish winter feed.^"" 322. Sudan grass; Tunis grass. — Sudan grass (Andropogon sorghum, var.), a close relative of the sorghums, is a tall annual grass introduced into this country by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1909. It closely resembles Johnson grass, but has broader and more numerous leaves and fortunately has no creeping rootstocks, so that it cannot become a pest. Sudan grass grows 6 to 10 feet high in cultivated rows, and 4 to 5 feet when sown broadcast. For so rank a grass, the stems are fine, being seldom larger than a lead pencil. The hay is equal or even superior to millet and can be fed to all classes of stock without injury, and the plant is also well suited for soilage.^* In com- position it closely resembles timothy and Johnson grass. Thruout the northern states it yields only one cutting, but farther south it may be cut twice or even more. Sudan grass is adapted to the same conditions as the sorghums, and being drought resistant will doubtless prove one of the most valuable forage crops for the western portion of the plains region, from central South Dakota to Texas. According to Vinall,"'' in 1913, with unusually severe drought, yields ranging from 1.25 to 5.0 tons were secured in this section without irrigation. As Sudan grass is a warm-weather grass it does not flourish at high altitudes or in the ex- "= Forage Plants, p. 242. " Wing, Meadows and Pastures, pp. 355, 401. =* Piper, Forage Plants, p. 246. " Piper, Forage Plants, p. 281. " v. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 605. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 213 treme northern states. In the corn belt and in the east central states where alfalfa, clover, and timothy flourish, its chief value will be as a catch crop in place of millet. Under irrigation in the Southwest yields of 7.8 to 9.8 tons have been secured, which indicates its value as a forage to feed with alfalfa.''* Along the humid Gulf Coast, Sudan grass does not thrive. Since this grass crosses readily with the sorghums and bears seed closely resembling those of Johnson grass, unusual care is necessary to ensure its purity. Tunis grass, another variety of Andropogon sorghum which has been recently introduced into this country, is less leafy and vigorous than Sudan grass, which so far has surpassed it in value for all sections.^' 323. Japanese cane ; sugar cane. — Because of its heavy yields, Japanese cane, a slender stemmed variety of the common sugar cane, Saccharum officinarum, is one of the cheapest forage crops that can be grown in the Gulf states, and possibly in southern California. Scott^" reports that in Florida it furnishes good pasture for cattle and hogs from November to March but is killed by grazing after growth starts in the spring. Stock first eat the green blades and then the stalks, leaving only the short stubble. The crop may be cured as dry fodder and makes good silage. Scott^^ states that yields of 25 to 30 tons of green forage per acre are not unusual. The tops and leaves of common sugar cane, removed on harvesting the cane, also make satisfactory forage for live stock. Dodson and Staples of the Louisiana Station'^ state that cattle ate silage from sugar-cane tops well. They point out the great loss which occurs when this by- product is not utilized by feeding it to stock. 324. Other southern grasses. — Crab grass {Digitaria sanguinalis), an annual, weedy, volunteer grass, furnishes more forage in the Gulf states than any other grass. Springing up after early crops, it furnishes fair hay or good fall pasture.^^ Carpet grass {Axonopus compressus) , a perennial with creeping rootstocks, probably ranks next to Bermuda as a pasture grass for the southern half of the cotton-belt, being especially useful on damp lowlands. Para grass {Panicum barbinode) is a coarse, tropical grass with stout runners which may reach 15 to 40 feet, taking root at intervals. It pro- duces several cuttings annually, yielding as much as 4 tons of hay per acre at a single cutting.^* Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), a peren- nial with short creeping rootstocks, furnishes 4 to 6 cuttings in the Gulf region. Tracy'' states that 1 acre of this grass will carry 4 head of cattle thru the season by soilage, or 3 head by grazing. Rescue grass {Bromus unioloides), a short-lived perennial, is probably the best grass for temporary winter pastures on rich land in the South. On such soil '*U. S. Dept. Agr., Fanners' Bui. 605. " La. Bui. 143. "TJ. S. Dept Agr., Farmers' Bui. 605. "Hunt, Forage and Fiber Crops, p. 117. «»Fla. Bui. 105. "Piper. Forage Plants, p. 254. "Wing, Meadows andPastures, p. 360. »" U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 300. 214 FEEDS AND FEEDING it grows large enough to be cut for hay.*° Natal grass (Tricholaena rosea), when once seeded in the Gulf section, volunteers from year to year, coming after early crops and producing excellent fall and winter grazing and good hay.'^ 325. Wild and marsh grasses. — ^Along certain sections of the Atlantic coast are extensive salt marshes, the best of which are cut for hay at low tide, yielding 0.5 to 1 ton per acre. Lindsey^* of the Massachusetts Station found such hay from 10 to 18 per ct. less valuable than average mixed hay. from the cultivated grasses for dairy cows. (627) In all humid regions of the country are large fresh water marshes, some of which are covered with the more nutritious true grasses, while in others the rushes and sedges predominate. Such marsh hay as blue joint, Calamagrostis Canadensis, cut before maturity, nearly equals timothy in value. The prairies of the Great Plains and the grazing ranges of the West support numerous native grasses that furnish excellent pasturage and hay equal to timothy when the growth is rank enough to be cut. (495, 624, 761, 861 ) The sedges and rushes of the mountain states are richer in nutrients than those of the eastern states.^* 326. Mixed grasses. — No matter how valuable, no single variety of grass should be grown in permanent meadows or pastures, but always a mixture of several kinds in combination with the clovers. In the, North a combination of red top, timothy, and orchard grass, together with alsike and medium red clover, will yield a larger tonnage of aromatic, pala- table hay than is possible from any single variety. The variety and proportion of grasses and clovers to be included in such a mixture will depend on climate and soil, and can not be discussed in this work. In case of doubt as to the mixture to sow the stockman should consult the experiment station of his state, which understands the local conditions, and should also observe the growth of the different varieties on his own and adjacent farms. It must be remembered that the presence or absence of sufficient plant food^— nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime — determines and regulates not only the yield of forage, but also, in large degree, the particular species or varieties of grasses and legumes which do or may grow in any given field. 327. The abuse of pasturage. — Stockmen rely too blindly upon pastures for the maintenance of their cattle during half the year. But a few centuries ago the inhabitants of Great Britain trusted to the growth of natural herbage for the support of their stock not only in summer but thruout the entire year. If their animals, foraging for themselves as best they could, survived the winter, all was well; if they died from starvation, it was an "act of God." We have abandoned the crude practices of our ancestors, and now carefully store in barns an abundance of feed for flocks and herds during winter's rigor. We are amazed that » Piper, Forage Plants, p. 257. » Mass. Bui. 60. " Wing, Meadows and Pastures, p. 366. » Wyo. Bui. 78. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 215 our ancestors were so improvident as to gather no winter feed for their cattle. By turning cattle to pasture in spring and letting them forage as best they may until winter we show that all the barbaric blood has not yet been eliminated from our veins. If the summer rains are timely and abundant the cattle are well nourished on these pastures ; if drought prevails they suffer for food as surely, and often as severely, as did the live stock of England in winter, ages ago. To suffering from scant feed there is added the heat of "dog days" and the ever-present annoyance of blood-sucking flies. Our stockmen will never be worthy of their call- ing, nor their flocks and herds yield their best returns, until ample pro- vision is made against drought-ruined pastures in summer. The decline in yield of permanent pastures is often attributed to over grazing. This is undoubtedly a most important cause of the depletion of some of the western ranges, but heavy grazing is not necessarily in- jurious to pastures in humid regions. Carrier and Oakley of the Virginia Station*" found in a 5-year test that bluegrass pastures heavily grazed were more productive than those lightly grazed, as weeds were prevented from encroaching. Testing the effect of the often-recommended system of alternate grazing of pastures, they found insufficient increase in yield, measured by the gains made by the steers, to justify the extra expense. In America we have not begun to utilize our pastures as is done in Europe, where stock is still grazed on land worth several hundred dollars an acre. By proper fertilization, reseeding with suitable mixtures of grasses and clovers, and keeping down brush and weeds the productivity of pastures may be both greatly and profitably increased. Because of over-stocking and over-grazing under the system of free and unrestricted grazing, the carrying capacity of many of the western ranges has been seriously reduced. The day of the "all-year-round" open range is now almost past, and in its place has come a system under which, by the use of supplemental feed for periods of summer drought or winter storm, the natural forage is utilized much more wisely than be- fore. "With ranges thus handled the enormous losses of cattle and sheep from starvation, which were all too common in the old range days, are prevented. The improvement under a rational system of grazing has been demonstrated on the grazing areas under the control of the United States Forest Service*^ and by the studies of Thornber and Griffith at the Arizonia Station.*'' Fencing or otherwise restricting the range, the development of convenient water supplies, the conservation of the range during periods of seed ripening and germination, and the prevention of soil erosion have greatly increased the carrying capacity of such areas. Thomber cites an instance where, 6 years after fencing, a range of over 25 square miles carried nearly twice as many cattle as before fencing. The animals also kept in excellent condition thruout the year, while formerly they lost weight rapidly during the winter and occasionally some died from shortage of feed. " Va. Bui. 204. " Barnes, Western Grazing Grounds. " Ariz. Bui. 65. 216 FEEDS AND FEEDING II. Steaw AifD Chaff As the cereals and other plants mature, the nutrients which have been built up in the green portions of the plants are in large part stored in the ripening seed, thus exhausting the stems and leaves of easily digested nutrients and leaving in them the resistant woody fiber, or cellulose. All straws are therefore much lower in nutritive value than the same plants cut for hay before maturity. The feeding value of each class of straw may differ widely, depending on the stage at which the crop was cut, the care with which it was cured, and the amount of the more nutritious grasses and weeds present. 328. Straw and chaflf of the cereals. — Straw is poor in crude protein and fat, and high in woody fiber, or cellulose, a carbohydrate that re- quires much energy for its digestion and disposal. (80) Accordingly, it should be fed but sparingly to animals at hard work, fattening rapidly, or giving a large flow of milk. For animals at light work, fattening slowly, or giving only a little milk some straw can often be advantageous- ly used. Straw is particularly useful in winter with horses that are idle and cattle that are being carried over without materially gaining in weight. Heat is one of the requirements of such animals, and the large amount of energy expended in masticating, digesting, and passing straw thru the body finally appears as heat which helps warm the body. (501, 502) The stockman who understands the nature and properties of straw will usually be able to make large use of it. In Canada and Europe pulped roots and meal are often mixed with straw, which is cut or "chaffed," and the moist mass allowed to soften and even to ferment slightly. It is then readily consumed in large quantities by cattle and sheep with satisfactory results. In many districts of Europe horses are fed cut straw mixed with their concentrate allowance. In trials at the Indiana Station, Skinner and King found that oat straw was as satisfac- tory as clover hay for satisfying the desire for dry roughage of steers otherwise fed shelled corn, cottonseed meal, and corn silage. When fed with corn silage, oat straw is equal to corn stover for fattening lambs. (778, 862) Oat straw with its soft, pliable stems is the most nutritious, followed by barley straw. Wheat straw, being coarse and stiff, is not so readily eaten by cattle, tho spring-wheat straw is of more value than that from winter wheat. Rye straw, harsh and woody, is better suited for bedding than for feed. The chaff of wheat and oats contains more crude protein than does straw, and forms a useful roughage when not unduly con- taminated with dust, rust, or mold. 329. Straw from the legumes and other plants. — Straw from the le- gumes contains considerably more crude protein and less fiber than that from the cereals and is more digestible. In a trial by H. W. Mum- ford at the Michigan Station*^ field-bean straw proved superior to oat straw for fattening lambs. Carmichael of the Ohio Station** found that «• Mich. Bui. 136. " Ohio Bui. 245. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 217 lambs fed corn and linseed meal made better gains on soybean straw than on corn stover, tho refusing 41 per ct. of the soybean straw. Field-pea straw, with its finer stems and often still carrying some seed, has a high- er value than the coarser straw from field beans or soybeans. While not especially desirable, fiax straw may be fed in the absence of better roughage. The statement that the stringy fiber of flax forms indigestible balls in the stomachs of farm animals is unwarranted, since it is digested the same as other fibrous matter, such as the lint of cotton and the pith of com stalks. Green colored straw from immature flax plants should be fed with extreme caution, as it may contain large amounts of prussic acid. Ince of the North Dakota Station*" found the amoimt of this poison in straw or chaff from ripe flax plants so small that it could not cause trouble if fed in moderate amounts. Straw containing considerable flaxseed or weed seeds has increased value. Wilson of the South Dakota Station*' advises against feeding flax straw to pregnant animals. Buckwheat straw is of low value and may cause digestive disturbances if fed in large amount.*^ Nelson of the Arkansas Station** states that properly cured rice straw is excellent for stock, III. Hay-making Thruout the temperate regions hay from the grasses and legumes serves as the common roughage for all the larger animals that produce food or perform labor for man. The conversion of green forage into hay must have been the first great step in changing the nomad herdsman into the farmer-stockman. In the United States for the year 1914, over 49,145,000 acres of land produced 70,071,000 tons of hay worth on the farm $779,068,000.*" 330. Nutritive value of dried grass. — To determine the effect upon its feeding value of drying young grass Armsby°" conducted a trial at the Wisconsin Station and a later test at the Pennsylvania Station. In the Wisconsin experiment the grass was cut when 9 to 10 inches high, and in the Pennsylvania trial short grass was cut with a lawn mower. In each case half the grass was fed fresh to a cow, and the other half later fed to the same cow after being carefully dried in the sun on canvas in the first trial, and in the second, over a steam boiler. There was no difference in the amount either of milk or butter fat produced on the dried and the fresh grass, showing that perfectly dried grass yields as much nutriment as when fed in the fresh condition. In actual hay mak- ing, however, more or less of the finer portions of the plant is always lost. Exposure to the sun reduces the palatability by bleaching and causes a loss of aromatic compounds, dew works injury, and rain carries away the more soluble portions. (56) Thus, while the dried grass may theo- retically equal the fresh forage, in practice it falls short. « N. D. Bui. 106. « Ark. Bui. 98. "Breeder's Gaz., 59, 1911, p. 19. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1914. "Pott, Emahr. u. Futter., II, p. 329. "Penn. Rpt. 1888. 218 FEEDS AND FEEDING Stockhard"^ cured one sample of meadow hay in 3 days and left another in the field for 13 days in alternate wet and dry weather. Analysis showed that the weathered hay had lost 12.5 per ct. of its total dry substance, representing one-fourth of its original nutritive value. Marcker^^ found the loss in meadow hay exposed to prolonged rain to be 18.4 per ct. of the dry substance. Even greater losses occur when legume hay is exposed to rain. According to Wolff'' 40 per ct. of the dry matter of clover hay may be extracted by cold water. Headden at the Colorado Station" analyzed alfalfa hay before and after exposure to 3 rains, aggregating 1.8 inches, with the following results : Composition of alfalfa hay before and after exposure to rain Crude protein Fiber N-free extract Fat Asli Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Hay not rained on.... 18.7 26.5 38.7 3.9 12.2 Hay damaged by rain. 11.0 38.8 33.6 3.8 12.7 It will be noted that the damaged hay contained much less crude protein, considerably less nitrogen-free extract, and much more fiber. Of the original nutrients 60 per ct. of the crude protein, 41.0 per ct. of the nitrogen-free extract, and 33.3 per ct. of the fat, — or 31.7 per ct. of the total dry matter was lost. The actual damage was even greater, for the nutrients lost were those most soluble and hence most easily digested. 331. Hay-making. — The widely varying character of grass and legume crops, the dryness and the temperature of the soil of the meadows, the humidity of the atmosphere, and the intensity and continuity of sun- light and heat, are all modifying factors that combine to make the cur- ing of forage crops into hay one of those arts which cannot be very help- fully discussed in books. However, it is highly important to understand the principles underlying hay -making and have in mind the procedures under the leading systems. Bach can then adapt his practice to his own conditions. In curing hay under ideal conditions, 3 different processes take place which are well summarized by Piper:"'* (1) A reduction in water content to about 15 per ct. (ranging from 7 per ct. to 25 per ct.), (2) fermentations of the hay produced by enzymes, which usually develop a characteristic aroma, (3) more or less bleaching, due to destruction of the green chlorophyll by sunlight, the bleaching being increased by the action of the dew. The ends sought in making hay are to secure bright green color, good aroma, retention of the leaves and other finer parts (especially in legumes), and freedom from dust and mold. When it is desired to secure prime hay without regard to expense, it is mown as soon as the dew is off in the morning, allowed to lie in the " Wolff, Farm Poods, Eng. ed., p. 155. " Colo. Bui. 111. »" Loo. cit. » Forage Plants, p. 24. "Farm Foods, Eng. Ed., p. 160. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 219 swath until dry on the surface, then turned, if heavy, by hand or by hay tedder, or raked into loose windrows. Before the dew falls, it is bunched into well-made cocks and, if sufficiently cured so that it will not mold, is allowed to remain until it has passed thru a sweating pro- cess. With legume hay it is well to protect the cocks from rain by hay caps. After sweating, it is usually necessary to open the cocks carefuUy and in large flakes to avoid shattering the leaves. These flakes rapid- ly give off their moisture, which by this time has spread evenly to all parts, and the hay is soon ready for the barn. Where the hay was green or damp with rain when cocked, it may be necessary to open the cocks the next morning, recocking before nightfall if still not dry enough. By this system the hay is exposed but little to the bleaching action of the sun and dew, and there is no marked loss of aroma, which, tho un- weighable, has real value in rendering hay palatable. Before the partly dried plants are piled into cocks, the leaves will have dried out more than the stems. As the leaves and stems remain alive for some time after having been severed by the mower, if the hay is cocked before the leaves are entirely dried out and thereby killed, they wiU continue to draw water from the stems. This process is especially important with the legumes, which have thick stems that are usually quite succulent, while the leaves dry rapidly and become brittle and shatter badly. Hay cocked in the afternoon entraps much warm air, and the mass remains in a condition favorable to the transpiration, oi; giving off, of moisture during the night. The heat yielded by the plant while still carrying on its life functions and the warm air entrapped by grass gathered in the afternoon should not be confused with the heat which may develop in partially cured or damp hay thru fermentation, caused by molds and bacteria. Hay put into the barn when so dry that it will not pack well, is not in first class condition. It should be mowed away with just that amount of moisture which allows it to settle compactly when treaded down. Salt and lime scattered over hay when put into the mow tend to prevent fermentation and check the growth of molds. Salt also renders it more palatable. These materials are not essential, but are helpful, especially when storing partially cured hay during bad weather. Damp hay may be improved by placing it in alternate layers with dry straw. The straw absorbs moisture as well as aroma from the hay, so that cattle the more readily eat both straw and hay. Hay from second-growth grass, or aftermath, is rich in nutrients, but it is made at a time when the ground is often damp and cool, the days short, and the heat of the sun weak. This combination renders the curing of aftermath difficult, and the prod- uct is apt to be of less value than first-crop hay. Cured under favor- able conditions, aftermath hay is excellent. New-made hay is laxative and should not be fed to horses, since it makes soft flesh and may cause colic. Not until the sweating process has been completed in the mow and the mass cooled off can new-crop hay be fed with entire safety. 220 FEEDS AND FEEDING 332. Making hay under favorable conditions. — On farms where large acreages of hay are made, it is often unprofitable to cure the crop in cocks, owing to the labor involved, even tho better hay is thus secured. Under a system often followed the hay is mown in the morning and by frequent tedding and turning is housed before the dew falls at night. "When the weather is very dry, even clover and alfalfa, if dry on the sur- face of the swath, are often raked directly into small windrows by a side-delivery or other rake, without previous tedding. After curing here for a few hours the hay is loaded from the swath by the hay loader, or, in the West, is hauled to the stack with a sweep rake. Another method is to cut the crop late in the afternoon so that the dew will not materially affect the plants during the night, because they are but little wilted. Even should rain come it will cause far less in- jury than if the plants were partially cured. The following day, by aid of tedder or rake, the drying is hastened as much as possible, and the hay placed under cover or in the stack before night. When these methods are followed with the legumes, it is impossible to avoid much loss of the leaves, for when curing in the swath or windrow the leaves become dry and brittle long before the stems are dry enough to allow the hay to be stored. Headden of the Colorado Station"* found that 40 to 60 per ct. of the weight of the alfalfa plant is in its leaves, which carry four-fifths of the crude protein and over half of the nitrogen- free extract and fat. Three-fourths of the fiber, or woody portion, of alfalfa is in the stems. He further found that in the dry climate of Colorado, with all conditions favorable, for every ton of alfalfa hay taken off the field not less than 350 lbs. of leaves and stems was wasted, and with unfavorable conditions and careless handling there was a loss of as much as 3,000 lbs. In other words, it is possible for more hay to be lost than is garnered. In dry climates, to avoid undue loss of leaves and yet save the labor involved in cocking the hay by hand, especially with alfalfa and clover, the hay is not allowed to cure long in the swath, but is raked into wind- rows in the afternoon and allowed to remain there over night. The next morning after the dew is off the hay is bunched with a rake and should be ready to haul by afternoon."' 333. Aids in curing hay. — Besides hay caps to protect the cocks of cur- ing hay from rain, especially with such crops as cowpeas and peanuts which are thick stemmed and succulent, devices are often used, under unfavorable weather conditions, to allow the air to penetrate the cocks."* The simplest is the perch, which is a stake about 6 feet high with cross arms 2 to 8 feet long. This is driven into the ground so that the cross arms do not touch the earth, and the green or partly-cured plants are then piled on the frame so as to make a tall, slender cock. A somewhat "Colo. Bui. 110. "' Jardin and Gall, Kan. Bui. 197. "Adapted from Piper, Forage Plants, pp. 26-28. THE SMALLER GRASSES— STRAW— HAY-MAKING 221 more elaborate device, the pyramid, consists of 3 or 4 legs joined at the top and sometimes shaped so they can be driven firmly into the ground. This permits of making a larger cock with an air space in the interior. Other frames combine the characteristics of the perch and the pyramid. Often such crops as cowpeas are stacked before thoro curing, rails supported at the ends being used to separate the stack into layers with air spaces between. In Mississippi when the heavy rainfall menaces some of the alfalfa cuttings Gurler°* constructs sleds of boards and scantlings, about 5 by 5 feet, on which the alfalfa, cured as much as possible, is cocked and covered with muslin caps. These large cocks usually remain untouched, or when the alfalfa is very green when coeked they may be opened out in flakes to dry the more quickly. When cured, the cocks, still on the sleds, are drawn direct to the bam or baler. 334. Brown hay. — ^Where weather conditions render it impossible to make good hay by the usual methods, the crop may be preserved as "brown hay." The fresh-cut material may be made into cocks at once, each layer being thoroly compacted by tramping. The curing is brought about by the fermentation which takes place in the moist mass. After the cocks have stood for 48 to 60 hours they are opened out for a time to allow the vapor to escape, and the brown hay may then be safely housed. More commonly the crop is somewhat cured in the air and then piled in compact stacks where it remains until fed. The crop must not be too dry when stacked or it can not be packed firmly enough, and the undue amount of air present permits the fermentation to produce sufficient heat to char the mass. If the crop is too green, it will not cure, but be converted into stack silage. Pott** recommends stacking when about one-fourth of the water has been lost by curing. At this stage it will not be possible to wring any water from a wisp of the grass stems. The crop should not be stacked when wet with rain or dew. The product will vary in color from dark brown to nearly black, depending on the extent of the fermentation. The darker the color the lower will be the feeding value. Brown hay of good quality has an aromatic odor and is well liked by stock. However, as the losses of nutrients are greater than when the crop is cured into hay by the usual methods, the process can be recommended only when the weather is unusually unfavorable. 335. Spontaneous combustion. — It is now generally conceded that spontaneous combustion may occur in partly dried clover or grass. Hoff- mann"^ states that when hay heats, oxygen is taken from the air, and organic matter is transformed into carbon dioxid and water. The water thus formed further moistens the hay, which then ferments, owing to the presence of bacteria. The first fermentation may cause a tempera- ture of 133° P., and this leads to a higher one of about 194° F. When " Information to the authors. "Expt. Sta. Rec, 10, p. 880. "Brnahr. u. Putter., I, 1904, p. 211. 222 FEEDS AND FEEDING this temperature is reached, the hay heats still more and charring goes on rapidly. All these processes together destroy at least half of the material present. According to tests, clover hay will ignite at 302° to 392° F. The temperature may become sufficiently high for sponta- neous combustion, which is indicated by the hay becoming darker in color and finally black, by sooty odors, and by smoke. It is probable, tho not certain, that' spontaneous combustion does not occur in partially dried clover or grass even if quite damp, provided it carries only its own natural moisture. Spontaneous combustion generally, and possibly always, occurs in stored or stacked hay that carries external moisture in the form of dew or rain. The trouble is best avoided by never placing hay material in stack or barn when it carries excessive moisture or is wet with dew or rain. When curing hay heats dangerously high it should be compacted and covered with other material and all other possible means taken to shut out the air. 336. Measurement and shrinkage. — ^WolP^ states that 420 cubic feet of timothy or 500 of clover hay in the mow equals 1 ton. Wheeler and Adams of the Rhode Island Station'* found that field-cured, mixed red top and timothy hay, containing from 25 to 29 per ct. water when placed in the bam, showed a shrinkage of from 15 to 20 per ct. of the original weight when later removed. Jordan of the Pennsylvania Station'* found that timothy hay stored in the mow shrank on the average 22 per ct. and red clover 37 per ct. Wilson of the Arizona Station"* found the shrinkage of stacked alfalfa hay to range from 11 to 23 per ct. Sanborn of the Missouri Station" estimates that a hay stack 12 ft. in diameter has 33 per ct. of its contents in the surface foot where it is more or less exposed to the weather. A stack of second-crop clover lost 30 per ct. in weight between early August and the following March, 17 per ct. of this loss being water and 13 per ct. dry matter. ""Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen. " R. I. Bui. 82. " Penn. Bui. 5. ""Ariz. Rpt. 1907. ™Mo. Bui. 25, 1st series. CHAPTER XIV LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE The cereal grains and the grasses are all rich in carbohydrates com- pared with crude protein, and thus serve primarily as sources of energy and fat in nourishing animals. The legumes comprise the great group of food-bearing plants characterized by their high content of crude pro- tein, and therefore serve especially for building the muscles and the other protein tissues of the body. (92-4) Their great value is due not only to this but also to their richness in lime (97-8), which is required in large amounts by growing animals and those which are pregnant or giving milk. (See Appendix Tables I and VI.) The leguminous roughages are therefore admirable supplements to the cereal grains, and stand in marked contrast to forage from com, the sorghums, and the smaller grasses, all of which, if cut when nearly mature, furnish forage low in crude protein and only poor to fair in lime. Thru the proper utilization of roughage from the legumes the amount of concentrates needed to provide balanced rations for farm animals may be greatly reduced. Indeed, for many classes of animals merely legume hay and grain from the cereals furnish a most satisfac- tory combination. When to these vitally important facts we add the great basic one, that the generous and continuous growing of legumes is absolutely essential to the economical maintenance of soil fertility, then, and only then, do we begin to appreciate the importance of this beneficent group of plants in husbandry. In considering the legumes it must be kept in mind that these crops flourish and build up the nitro- gen content of the soil only when the proper nodule-forming bacteria are present in the soil. Where these nitrogen-fixing germs are lacking, it is essential that the soil be inoculated by some means. I. Alfalfa 337. Alfalfa, Medicago sativa. — The alfalfa plant is at its best in the great semi-arid plains region covering the western half of the United States, where the alkaline soil is usually rich and deep, with perfect drainage. When amply watered by irrigation and energized by the tropical sun of summer, alfalfa here furnishes from 2 to 5 cuttings each season, yielding a total of from 2 to 5 tons of nutritious hay per acre. In the hot irrigated districts of the Southwest as many as 9 to 12 cut- tings have been secured in a single season. Within the humid region, experience is fast locating districts scattered from Louisiana to Maine 223 224 FEEDS AND FEEDING V where this plant, which requires a deep, well-drained soil, rich in lime, may be profitably grown. Alfalfa thrives under irrigation in hot semi- arid climates, but languishes when high temperature is combined with a humid climate, except where soil conditions are unusually favorable. Marked success is obtained with alfalfa on certain soils iii the lower Mississippi valley where the annual rainfall exceeds 50 inches, but in general a rainfall of over 40 inches is unfavorable to the crop.^ Where soil and climate are suitable, this long-time perennial returns good crops for many years without reseeding. The acreage of alfalfa in the United States doubled during the de- cade 1899 to 1909, and in the states east of the Mississippi River it in- creased over eight-fold. The reason for this surprising advance is re- vealed in the following table, which gives the average yield per acre in 1909 thruout the United States from alfalfa, clover, timothy, and com: Returns per acre of alfalfa and other crops Dig. carbo- Yield Dry Dig. crude hydrates Net per acre matter protein and fat energy Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Therms Alfalfa hay 5,040 4,632 529 2,143 1,734 Clover hay 2,580 2,185 183 1,080 896 Timothy hay 2,440 2,118 68 1,106 819 Com (ears and stover) . . 3,440 2,604 140 2,110 1,762 The table, computed from the average returns for the whole country, shows that alfalfa produced by far the largest yield of dry matter per acre of all forage crops generally available, even 80 per ct. more than com, the king of forage plants. More striking still is the fact that alfalfa produced almost 3 times as much protein as clover and nearly 4 times as much as corn. It excelled corn in yield of digestible carbo- hydrates and fat (fat being multiplied by 2.25), tho owing to the high net energy value of the corn grain, the corn plant surpassed alfalfa in yield of net energy. Even in the eastern states, larger returns are possible from alfalfa than those given above. Voorhees of the New Jersey Station^ reports a yield of 26.6 tons of green alfalfa forage per acre from 5 cuttings. "^ This contained 11,785 lbs. of dry matter and 2,328 lbs. of crude protein, or as much as is contained in 7.3 tons of wheat bran. 338. Alfalfa for hay. — The recommendation often made, that alfalfa be cut for hay when about one-tenth in bloom, is not a safe rule, especially in the eastern states, where this plant often has but few blossoms. A better guide is to cut for hay as soon as new shoots are well started at the crown of the plant. Cutting late reduces the next crop, for many of these shoots will have grown so long as to be clipped by the mower. By harvesting the crop at this early stage the maximum yield is usually obtained, and the hay is more leafy and palatable, with no undue amount >Plper, Forage Plants and their Culture, p. 310. ' Forage Crops. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 225 of fiber. Such hay is suitable for all farm animals except horses, for which late-cut hay is preferable, since, tho less nutritious, it is less "washy." (506) Alfalfa hay is richer than red clover hay in digestible crude protein, but is lower in fat and contains slightly less digestible carbohydrates. Respiration experiments tend to show that clover hay furnishes slightly more net nutrients than alfalfa hay. Appendix Tables I, II, and III show that early-cut alfalfa hay is higher in crude protein and lower in fiber and more digestible than that from more mature plants. In making alfalfa hay it is especially important to guard against the loss of the leaves, which are the most valuable portion of the crop. (332) Widtsoe at the Utah Station* shows that while the leaves and flowers of alfalfa cut in early bloom make up only about 43 per ct. of the hay, they con- tain over two-thirds of all the crude protein and nearly three-fourths of aU the fat in the crop. The relative value of the different cuttings of hay wiU depend on the climatic conditions. Except for horses the finer stemmed, more leafy hay is to be preferred to that which is coarser. Carroll of the Utah Station* found no marked difference in the value of first, second, and third crop alfalfa for milk production. (610) In certain sections of the West, wild foxtail, or squirrel tail grass, Hordeum jubatum, injures the quality of the first cutting on account of its objectionable beards. As this grass makes palatable hay when cut early, the crop may be harvested then or may be ensiled, which will soften the beards. 339. Feeding alfalfa hay. — Owing to the fondness of horses for alfalfa hay their allowance should be restricted lest they gorge themselves thereon. Fed in proper amount alfalfa hay has given satisfaction as the sole roughage even with horses at rapid work. (506) The fattening of cattle and sheep in the western states has been revolutionized by the use of alfalfa hay, due to the large and economical gains secured when this nitrogenous roughage is combined with the carbonaceous grains and perhaps silage or wet beet pulp. (766-8, 857-9) From the few direct comparisons that have been made of the relative value of alfalfa and red clover hay for fattening animals, we may conclude that these rough- ages have about equal value for that purpose, and that the real superiority of alfalfa lies not in the greater nutritive value of the hay, but rather in the larger yields. Breeding and stock cattle wintered on this nutritious hay, preferably with com silage in addition, will more than maintain their weight. Cottrell of the Kansas Station' reports that heifers wintered on alfalfa hay alone made an average gain of 1.2 lbs. per head daily, returning 104 lbs. increase for each ton of hay fed. (797-8) For breeding ewes alfalfa hay is equally satisfactory. (884) For the dairy cow alfalfa hay is a most excellent feed, since it is rich not only in crude protein but also in mineral matter, especially lime, which is required in large amount in milk production. (610) It •Utah Bui. 48. *Utah Bui. 126. » Kan. Bui. 114. 226 FEEDS AND FEEDING also has a beneficial laxative effect. The statement is sometimes made that alfalfa hay is fully equal to wheat bran for the milch cow. A comparison of the digestible nutrients and net-energy value of these feeds will show that the hay contains only about nine-tenths as much digestible crude protein as bran, and about 3 times as much fiber. (218) Because of this alfalfa hay furnishes only about 70 per ct. as much net energy as bran. It is therefore not surprising that in trials at the New Jersey Station* alfalfa hay could not entirely replace bran, cottonseed meal, etc., with cows giving a large flow of milk. The coats of cows fed alfalfa hay in place of all the concentrates were less smooth and glossy than those getting some meal as a part of their ration. When alfalfa furnished as much as 60 per ct. of the crude protein usually supplied in the form of bran, cottonseed meal, etc., there was some shrinkage in milk flow, but a financial saving of over 25 per ct. in the feed cost of producing the milk. (611-2) Alfalfa hay can be largely employed in maintaining shotes and breeding swine during winter. CottrelF states that brood sows wintered on alfalfa hay with no grain farrowed large, healthy litters of pigs in the spring. Even for fattening pigs numerous trials show that a limited amount of alfalfa hay aids in producing cheap gains. (1010) 340. Pasturing alfalfa. — ^Alfalfa is not primarily a pasture plant, for it grows from buds on the crowns instead of by a lengthening of the lower parts of the stems and blades, as with the grasses. Especially in humid regions grazing is apt to injure the stand. Cattle and sheep on alfalfa pasture are, moreover, subject to bloat. Nevertheless, this crop furnishes such nutritious pasture that it is grazed on many farms even in the east- em states. To avoid serious injury to the stand, fields should never be pastured until they have become well established and animals should be kept off when the ground is frozen, soft, or muddy. Heavy stocking of the pasture is decidedly injurious, especially with horses and sheep, which gnaw the plants to the ground. Since certain parts of a field are always more palatable to stock and these are grazed closely while other spots are passed by. Wing* advises a combination of pasturing and mowing. The area to be pastured is divided into 3 lots, and after the stock have eaten a considerable part of the crop on the first they are turned onto the second lot, the alfalfa remaining on the first being cut for hay. When the first lot has grown to about the blooming stage it is again grazed. Except where mild vnnters prevail, alfalfa should be allowed to grow to a height of 6 to 12 inches in the fall for winter pro- tection. Alfalfa pasture is especially suitable for horses and pigs, which are not subject to bloat. Gramlich of the Nebraska Station* found that horses fed hay at noon only and turned on alfalfa pasture at night stood hard farm work as well as others which were dry-fed. For colts •N. J. Bui. 204. 'Alfalfa Fanning in America, p. 337. 'Kan. Bui. 114. 'Nebr. Exten. Bui. 28. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 227 and young horses the succulent alfalfa, rich in protein and mineral matter, is especially helpful. (609) This pasture is the foundation of cheap pork production on thousands of farms. (984-5) The danger to cattle and sheep from bloat varies greatly with climate and other factors. Tho it is always present in some degree, in such sections as the irrigated districts of the Southwest, but trifling loss is experienced. Sheep are more subject to bloat than cattle. The follow- ing methods advocated by Coburn^* and Wing^^ will aid in avoiding bloat, tho no procedure is absolute insurance against loss : For perma- nent pasture sow with the alfalfa, bluegrass, brome grass, or some other grass adapted to your conditions. Use upland in preference to lowland for pasture, and have a constant supply of water for the stock. Frosted alfalfa is especially dangerous, but in the late fall after the crop has dried it may be grazed again. Before turning animals on alfalfa for the first time, allow them to fill up on grass pasture, with grain in addition, if they have been accustomed to it. Then in the middle of the forenoon, when they do not care to graze longer, turn them on the alfalfa. Tho some advise allowing the stock to graze only a few minutes the first day and gradually increasing the length of time on the following days, it is probably safer to keep them on the pasture continuously, for they will then never consume undue amounts at one time. Watch the stock closely for the first few days and remove permanently those animals which exhibit symptoms of bloat, for individuals show great differences in their susceptibility to the trouble. The Miller and Lux Co., who graze thousands of cattle on alfalfa in the San Joaquin valley, Cali- fornia,^^ when starting cattle on alfalfa pasture cut part of a field and turn the cattle upon this portion after the alfalfa is half dry. Then after they are well filled they are allowed to eat whatever of the green crop they wish. 341. Alfalfa for soilage. — ^Alfalfa is one of the most valuable of all soiling crops, owing to the large yields and the fact that under proper management it will furnish rich succulence thruout the entire summer. Considerably more forage may be obtained from a given area as soilage than animals gather by grazing. In a trial with dairy cows by Lyon and Haecker at the Nebraska Station^* only half as much feed was secured when alfalfa was pastured as when the crop was cut and fed as soilage. Voorhees of the New Jersey Station^* reports that the first cutting is ready about the last of May or the first of June, with 3 cuttings following at intervals of from 4 to 6 weeks. In certain hot irrigated sections of the West where no satisfactory grass pastures can be pro- vided in summer, dairy cows are often maintained for most of the year mainly on alfalfa, fed as soilage. In the Sacramento valley many herds are fed 30 to 40 lbs. of green alfalfa per head daily with what alfalfa hay they will eat, but no concentrates. The allowance of alfalfa soilage " The Book of Alfalfa, pp. 109-119. " Information to the authors. "Alfalfa Farming in America, pp. 338-844. "Nebr. Bui. 69. "Forage Crops; 228 FEEDS AND FEEDING may even be increased to 50 lbs., which amount will furnish nearly 2 lbs. of digestible crude protein.^^ Alfalfa alone makes a very narrow ration, the nutritive ratio being 1 : 4.0 or less. Undoubtedly larger production would be secured were some carbonaceous concentrate added. Whether this would be profitable, however, would depend on the relative price of the feeds. Complaints have been received from practical dairymen that this one-sided ration tends to abortion and other troubles. In Europe where soilage is commonly fed to horses in summer alfalfa is the most popular crop.^" Whether it will prove profitable to feed alfalfa as soilage rather than to graze it will be determined by the relative cost of land and labor. 342. Alfalfa silage. — In many instances alfalfa is ensiled with entire success, but often poor, vile-smelling silage is produced. The difficulty seems due to the high protein content of the crop compared with the small amount of sugars, from which the acids necessary to preserve the silage may be formed. (404) True^'' reports the successful ensiling of alfalfa at the Nevada Station during 4 successive years. If the crop was somewhat dry when put into the silo, water was added to it. Favor- able results have been secured when alfalfa has been ensiled with green rye or wheat cut when just past the milk stage, when they are rich in sugars. Esten of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station^* suggests that the third cutting of alfalfa may be satisfactorily ensiled with green com or sorghum. Owing to the palatabiUty of good alfalfa hay, whenever the crop can be cured in a satisfactory manner there is little reason for ensiling the crop, especially in view of the fact that either corn or the sorghums are reliable silage crops in nearly all sections of the country. In the West where foxtail, with its troublesome beards, sometimes greatly injures the quality of the first cutting, it may be profitable to ensile the crop. (338) Alfalfa should be ensiled just as soon after cutting as possible and should preferably be cut into short lengths so that it may be well packed. When it is impossible to avoid xindue curing, it should be ensiled with dew on it or water should be added. 343. Types of alfalfa. — Besides the common alfalfa, which is the type chiefly grown in the United States, various other types are of importance in certain sections. Turkestan alfalfa is indistinguishable from ordinary alfalfa in growth. Tho inferior in the humid regions, the consensus of opinion in semi-arid regions is that it is somewhat superior to the common type in drought and cold endurance. Arabian and Peruvian alfalfa are rapid growing, tender strains, which have an unusually long growing season. In the irrigated districts of the Southwest these types are valu- able. Several strains of yellow-flowered, sickle, or Siberian alfalfa (Medicago falcata) , some of which produce rootstocks, have been intro- duced into the northern plains district. This type is especially hardy and promises to be of value in climates too severe for the common type. The term variegated alfalfa, or sand lucern, is applied to hybrids of the » N. J. Bui. 148. " Information to the authors. "Wing, Alfalfa Farming in America, p. 331. "Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 70. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 229 common and Siberian types, which are exceptionally drought resistant and hardy. 344. Alfalfa meal and feed. — The manufacture of alfalfa meal (ground alfalfa hay) and various feeds containing more or less of this material has increased rapidly of late. Alfalfa meal varies in fineness from a product nearly as fine as corn meal to a coarsely chopped or shredded material, containing pieces half an inch in length. Compared with hay the meal is easier to transport to distant markets, there is somewhat less waste in feeding it, and for animals having poor teeth, or horses worked long hours, the grinding is undoubtedly beneficial. (507) The bulky meal is also helpful in diluting heavy concentrates, which, if carelessly fed, may cause digestive disturbances. For these reasons alfalfa meal has a legitimate field. However, grinding ever so finely will not trans- form a roughage into a concentrate. As shown elsewhere (424), with animals having good teeth and ample time to masticate their food, grinding hay does not increase its digestibility. Owing to the great palatability of well-cured alfalfa hay but little is refused when it is fed long. Unfortunately, it is impossible to determine without chemical or microscopic analysis whether alfalfa meal has been made from nutritious, leafy, early-cut hay or from over-ripe, stemmy material. Hence the meal should be purchased on guarantee of composition, special attention being paid to the fiber content, which in first-class meal should not be higher than in good quality hay, or about 30 per et. From 4 trials at the Colorado Station^* Morton concludes that for fattening lambs the value of ordinary alfalfa hay may be increased 15 to 25 per ct. by grinding, but that with hay of good quality such preparation will not pay. (835) McCampbell of the Kansas Station^" found that alfalfa meal, fed dry, irritated the nostrils of horses and that they preferred long hay to the meal when wet. He concludes that alfalfa meal is not a desirable or an economical feed for horses when good alfalfa hay is available. (507) In view of the fact that the market price of alfalfa meal is often as high or higher than wheat bran, it is important to note that in trials at each of 3 stations substituting good quality alfalfa meal for an equal weight of bran lessened the production of dairy cows. (613) Ordinarily the stockman can produce roughage more economically on his farm than he can purchase it in commercial feeds. In case he desires to mix hay with heavy concentrates the ma- terial may- readily be cut sufficiently fine in a silage cutter. Unless good alfalfa meal sells at an appreciably lower price than wheat bran its purchase can not be recommended. Molasses, either beet or cane, is now mixed with alfalfa meal, the product being sold as "alfalmo" or under other names. The mixture is well-liked by stock, but its economy as a feed must be determined by comparing the composition and price with those of other feeds. Many mixed feeds, discussed in Chapter XI (285), contain more or less al- falfa meal. » Colo. Bui. 187. "Kan. Bui. 186. 230 FEEDS AND FEEDING II. Red Clover 345. Medium red clover, Trifolium pratense. — This legume, commonly known as red clover, is the most important legume in the humid sections of the northern two-thirds of the United States, where, grown in rotation with corn and the cereals, it so helpfully serves for pasture and hay production and for the maintenance of soil fertility. Clover is chiefly seeded in combination with timothy, 19,542,000 acres of mixed clover and timothy being grown for hay in the United States in 1909, compared with only 2,443,000 acres of clover alone. Red clover does best on well- drained soils rich in lime, being intolerant of a water-logged or acid soil. A short-lived perennial, but few plants live over 3 years, and the crop is usually treated as a biennial. Thruout the clover-growing districts red clover generally yields a heavy first crop of hay, with a second cutting which is usually much lighter and which is often allowed to mature for seed. In the southern states, where it does not thrive during the heat of summer, red clover is sometimes grown as a winter annual, the first crop being cut in the spring and the second in early summer. At the northern limits of its culture but one cutting is produced. The average yield of clover hay per acre, according to the census of 1910, was 1.29 tons, but under favorable conditions much higher returns are secured, the yield in 2 cuttings ranging from 2 to 4 tons or even more per acre. On all stock farms in the eastern United States there should be a well-planned rotation of crops, such as corn, followed by either wheat, oats, or barley, and this in turn by a legume, preferably red, alsike, or mammoth clover, grown either alone or with the grasses, some of the fields being grazed by the stock. Under such a rotation, when proper use is made of the farm manure, reinforced by phosphate and potash fertilizers when necessary, the humus and fertility of the soil on the whole farm is maintained or even increased, the weeds are held in check, and the maximum yield of crops is economically produced on all the fields. Because alfalfa fields are usually difficult to establish and should be maintained for many years, the alfalfa plant does not particularly favor a short rotation of crops. In their eagerness to grow alfalfa, ambitious farmers in the East are apt to neglect the clovers, which are so vitally helpful in maintaining fertility of the whole farm in short-time crop rotations. In many cases the growing of red or mammoth clover has been abandoned on account of failure to secure stands. Such "clover sickness" of the soil may be due to certain diseases, but in most cases it means that lime and phos- phate, and possibly potash are needed. Farmers who willingly prepare fields thoroly for alfalfa often fail to exercise reasonable care to get good stands of clover. 346. Development of nutrients. — Immature clover, like all young plants, is exceedingly watery. At the Wisconsin Station"^ WoU found «Wis. Rpt. 1889. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 231 but 8.2 per ct. dry matter in green clover cut long before it had reached the proper condition for making hay. Such clover contained more water than skim milk. This explains why clover when cut too early is such unsatisfactory soilage; the animals cannot then consume enough to secure the nourishment they require. Hunt of the Illinois Station^^ has arranged the results of studies of the medium red clover plant, made by himself and Jordan of the Penn- sylvania Station, to show the yield per acre at various stages of growth. Yield and nutrients in an acre of medium red clover Yield of Carbohydrates Stage of growth when cut hay Crude N-free per acre Ash protein Fiber extract Fat Illinois, Hunt Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. FuU bloom 3,600 217 400 660 1,052 197 Heads three-fourths dead... 3,260 196 379 672 1,024 156 Pennsylvania, Jordan Heads in bloom 4,210 260 539 1,033 1,731 116 Some heads dead 4,141 226 469 1,248 1,379 106 Heads all dead 3,915 208 421 1,260 1,378 94 The table shows that when cut at full bloom the clover crop yielded the largest amount of hay per acre, and also contained more ash, crude protein, nitrogen-free extract, and fat. The fiber, or woody matter, which is the least valuable portion of the plant, was the only nutrient which increased after full bloom. The loss of other nutrients after blooming was due to the withering and dropping of the lower leaves and probably to a leaching of soluble nutrients by rains. This shrink- age of nutrients as clover matures is similar to that in the smaller grasses (313), and is in marked contrast to the continued storage of nutrients up to full ripening in Indian com. (23) The table clearly points to full bloom as theoretically the best date for cutting clover hay. Practical experience, however, places the time somewhat later, or when about one-third of the blossom heads have turned brown. This is because at any earlier date the plant is so soft and sappy that only with difficulty can it be cured into good hay. De- laying until all the heads are dead makes haying stiU easier, but means poor, woody, unpalatable hay. 347. Clover for hay. — ^WeU-cured clover hay, bright and with leaves intact, is a most excellent roughage for aU farm stock. Tho dusty clover hay is to be avoided for feeding horses, that of good quality is successfully and economically used with both farm and city horses. (505) Mixed clover and timothy hay is preferred by many to clear clover hay for horse feeding since it usually is more free from dust. No investigations of the experiment stations in animal husbandry have been more helpful than those showing the great value of the legumes, including clover hay, for fattening cattle and sheep. By add- ing clover hay to the ration the grain requirement can be materially reduced and the fattening period shortened — ^both matters of great im- "IlL Bui. 5. 232 FEEDS AND FEEDING portance in these days of high-priced concentrates. (764, 857-9) For the cow, clover hay is unexcelled as a roughage, unless by alfalfa. Not only is it palatable and much relished, but it is high in protein and lime. Where weU-cured clover hay furnishes one-half or more of the roughage, the dairyman is able to cut the allowance of concentrates and materially reduce the cost of the ration. (614) This roughage has the same high place for feeding breeding ewes, wintering cattle, and especially for young animals. (787, 798-9, 692) Early-cut clover hay ranks next to alfalfa for swine, being especially valuable for breeding stock. (1011) 348. Clover for pasture, soilage, and silage. — Clover pasture is helpful and important for all farm animals. For pigs it furnishes about suf- ficient food for maintenance, so that all the grain fed goes for gain. Clover-pastured pigs are healthy and have good bone and constitution — points of special importance with breeding stock. (986) Tho there is somewhat less danger from bloat with clover than alfalfa, cattle and sheep should not be turned on clover pasture for the first time while hungry or before the dew has risen. As a preventive, dry forage, such as hay or straw, should be placed in feed racks in the pasture. To these cattle and sheep will resort instinctively when bloat threatens. Clover is particularly valuable for soilage, ranking next to alfalfa among the legumes available for that purpose. By cutting clover early, it at once starts growth again if the weather is favorable, and will furnish three or four cuttings annually. In some cases clover has made fair silage, but so many failures have occurred that this plant cannot be recommended for such purpose except where weather conditions pre- vent its being properly cured into hay. The same precautions should then be taken as with alfalfa for silage. (633) III. Othee Clovers and Leguminous Foeage Plants 349. Mammoth clover, Trifolium medium. — The distinctive character- istics of mammoth clover are its rank growth, coarse stems, and blooming 2 or 3 weeks later than the medium variety. It usually lives 3 years or more and thrives better on poor or sandy soil than does medium red clover. Since it yields but a single cutting during the season, this clover is frequently pastured for several weeks in the early spring. After the stock is removed the plants shoot up and are soon ready for the mower. Owing to its coarser growth the hay is more difiScult to cure and somewhat less palatable than red clover. Wallace^^ recom- mends that for pasture medium and mammoth clover seed be sown in equal proportions, together with grasses, holding that since mammoth clover blooms later there is more nearly a succession of good forage than is possible with only one variety. 350. Alsike clover, Trifolium hyiridum. — This variety of clover, once supposed to be a cross between red clover and white clover, has weak " Clover Culture. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 233 stems which fall to the ground unless supported by attendant grasses. Alsike flourishes on land too acid or too wet for other clovers, and is a hardier, longer-lived plant, enduring 4 to 6 years in good soil. As it will grow readily on "clover-sick" soil, it has replaced red clover on many fields during recent years. Well-made alsike hay is fine-stemmed and ranks among the best, being eaten with but little waste. 351. White clover, Trifolium repens. — This creeping perennial has the widest range of any of the clovers, thriving in almost any soil from Canada nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, if moisture is ample. In the North it is an important plant in mixed pastures, forming a dense mat of herbage and furnishing feed thruout the growing season. In the South it nearly disappears in summer, but reappears in the fall furnishing winter pasturage and thus combines well with Bermuda grass. (320) Owing to its low, creeping growth it does not yield hay. 352. Sweet clover. — ^White sweet clover, Melilotus alba, also known as melilot and Bokhara clover, is a biennial which is widely distributed along roadsides and in waste places over southern Canada and a large part of the United States, thriving best on soils rich in lime. It will grow on soil so poorly drained or so worn and low in humus that alfalfa or red clover wiU not live. Increasing experience shows that where these more valuable legumes do not thrive, sweet clover, which was once viewed as a weed, is of considerable value. Thousands of acres of de- pleted, gullied land in Kentucky and Tennessee are being restored to fertility by this legume. In the West it may be grown on hard adobe soils, which it mellows with its deep root system. The plant may also be utilized for pasture, hay, and soilage, and has occasionally been ensiled. At first animals usually refuse sweet clover, for all parts of the plant contain cumarin, a bitter compound with a vanilla-like odor. In spring the herbage is less bitter and animals of all classes can gener- ally then be taught to eat it. After becoming accustomed to the taste they are said sometimes to prefer sweet clover to other legumes or the grasses. In certain districts where the plants seem unusually high in cumarin it is reported that animals cannot be induced to eat them. When the clover is cured as hay a large part of the cumarin is volatil- ized, the hay thus being less bitter than the green plants. Sweet clover seed should be thickly sown so that the stems will not grow coarse, and the crop should be cut when the first blossoms appear, or even before, since after this stage they rapidly grow woody. The first season 1 cutting and the second 2 of hay can be secured in the North, and often 3 in the South. The crop should be cut about 6 inches from the ground, for the new shoots grow out not from the crown, as in alfalfa, but from the stems. Lloyd of the Ohio Station^* states that farmers report good results from feeding sweet clover to horses and cattle. (769) Wilson^® found the hay satisfactory for lambs at the South Dakota Station, and Eward^' obtained good results with sweet clover as a hog pasture at the Iowa Station, but alfalfa or red clover are M Ohio Bui. 244. ^ S. D. Bui. 143. ^ Iowa Bui. 136. 234 FEEDS AND FEEDING probably preferable where they produce good crops. Sweet clover rarely causes bloat. The plants should be grazed closely, as otherwise they become woody. A yellow-flowered sweet clover, Melilotus officinalis, 2 weeks earlier and somewhat smaller in growth than the white sweet clover, has been quite widely introduced in the United States. 353. Crimson ciloT«r, TrifoUum incarnatum. — This annual clover, adapted to mild climates, is grown chiefly in the Atlantic seaboard states from New Jersey to South Carolina. Here it is treated as a winter annual, being sown in the late summer or early fall, blossoming the following spring, and dying by early summer. Crimson clover has proved vastly helpful to the agriculture of these states, where it is Ksed mainly as green manure and as a winter cover crop. It is extensively used for pasture and hay, and to a more limited extent for soilage. This clover is suited to a wide range of soils, succeeding on both sandy and clay land if well drained. Duggar of the Alabama,^^ and Williams of the North Carolina Station"' believe that of all the clovers it has the widest adaptability to southern conditions. An especially valuable feature is that the crop may be harvested or turned under as green manure early enough in the spring to permit the raising of other crops the same year. The climate of the humid Pacific coast section is well adapted to crimson-clover culture. When grown for hay it is important that crimson clover be cut by the time the flowers at the base of the most advanced heads have faded, even tho the weather be Stnsettled for hay-making. When cutting is longer delayed, the minute barbed hairs of the blossom heads and stems become hard and wiry. If hay from such over-ripe clover is fed to horses or mules these hairs sometimes mat together in the digestive tract, form- ing felt-like masses which may grow to the size of baseballs and finally plug the intestines, causing death. When it is necessary to feed over- ripe hay to horses or mules, which are usually the only animals affected, to reduce the danger it should be given with other roughage, preferably with succulent feeds, or else wet thoroly 12 hours before feeding. Grantham of the Delaware Station"* found that of 108 growers over three-fourths considered crimson-clover hay as good or better than that from red clover or cowpeas. According to Piper*" yields of hay from good stands average about 1.25 tons per acre. (615) During a short season in the spring before it matures, crimson clover furnishes valuable pasturage or soilage in advance of grass or other clovers, and in warm sections it may be utilized as late fall or winter pasture. 354. Bur clovers. — The southern or spotted hur clover (Medicago ara- iica) and California or toothed iur clover (M. Jiispida) are winter annuals that furnish valuable pasturage in mild regions. The former, which is the hardier, is found chiefly in the southern states, and the latter in California and Texas. They are admirable supplements to "Ala. Bui. 147. " N. C. Cir. 7. »Del. Bui. 89. "Forage Plants, p. 432. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 235 Bermuda pasture, furnishing feed when that grass is resting and re- seeding unless grazed too closely. (320) Even on land where summer cultivated crops are grown, bur clover, if once sown, volunteers in the fall. Cauthen of the Alabama Station*^ states that tho not commonly so used it may be seeded for hay with fall grain. 355. The common field-pea vine. — The common field pea, Pisum sativum, var. arvense, the use of which as a grain crop has already been discussed (261), is grown in Canada and the northern states to some extent for forage. A combination of peas and oats, if cut early, makes nutritious hay, well liked by all classes of stock and also makes silage of good quality. The combination is frequently sown as a spring soiling crop, especially for dairy cows, or as pasturage, chiefly for swine. In some of the irrigated valleys of the Rocky Mountain region field peas, usually with a small quantity of oats or barley, are sown extensively and grazed when nearly mature by sheep and pigs. (860, 988) In the grain which the field pea furnishes and the hay and silage which it is possible to secure from it, the stockman located far north has a fair compensation for the corn crop which he cannot grow. 356. Pea-cannery refuse. — Formerly the bruised pea vines and empty pods from the pea canneries were used only for manure. The value of this rich by-product for stock-feeding has now been abundantly demon- strated, and it is usually preserved in silos or in large stacks, where the decaying exterior preserves the mass within. The silage has a strong odor but is relished by all farm animals, especially dairy cows, fattening cattle, and sheep. (870) By spreading cannery waste out thinly on a plat where the grass is short, it may be cured into hay worth, according to Crosby,^'' 20 per ct. more than clover hay, but this involves more labor than placing it in the silo. 357. Cowpea, Tigna sinensis. — This hot weather annual is the most important legume in the cotton-belt, furnishing grain for humans and animals (262), tho chiefly grown for forage and green manure. Its especial value lies in the fact that it will grow on all types of soil and with but little attention, increasing the fertility of the land and furnish- ing rich hay, pasturage, soilage, and silage. This vine-like plant does not mature in a definite time, but continues to bear pods and put forth new leaves during a long period. Sown at com planting or later, early varieties mature the first pods in 70 to 90 days. The crop may be then cut for hay, or the harvesting considerably delayed without loss. Cow- peas yield from 1 to 3 tons of excellent hay per acre, which is equal to red clover or alfalfa in value and is an excellent roughage for horses, cattle, and sheep. (508, 769, 859) When cowpea hay is fed to dairy cows or fattening steers the allowance of concentrates may be reduced to one-half the amount needed when a carbonaceous roughage, such as com stover or hay from the grasses, is fed. (616) Because of the suc- culent leaves and thick stems the cowpea is difficult to cure. To prevent »»Ala. Bui. 165. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Cir. 45. 236 FEEDS AND FEEDING loss of the leaves the crop should be cured in cocks built with devices which permit air circulation. (333) To support the vines cowpeas are often broadcasted or drilled with sorghum, soybeans, miUet, or Johnson grass, and Piper'' suggests that the new Sudan grass should prove excellent for this purpose, as it matures at the right time and is readily cured. Cowpeas are extensively planted with corn or sorghum, when some cowpea seed is often picked by hand and the remainder of the crop, corn and all, pastured, furnish- ing economical feed for cattle, sheep, or pigs. (770, 872, 990) The combination crop makes palatable, protein-rich silage that should be more extensively used. Thru the greater utilization of cowpeas and other legumes the live-stock industry of the South may be enormously increased. 358. Soybean, Glycine hispida. — Soybeans are for the most part bushy plants with no tendency to vine, and which, unlike cowpeas, die after the crop of pods has been matured. (256) They thrive in the same climate as com, maturing sufficiently for hay in northern sections where- ever corn may be grown for silage. Soybeans are better adapted to the northern part of the com belt than cowpeas, which require a longer growing season and are injured by slight frosts. They are also more drought-resistant than cowpeas and hence well suited to light soils, tho they will not thrive on such poor land as do cowpeas. The fondness of rabbits for the plants is a serious drawback in the plains district. The soybean crop should be cut for hay when the pods are well formed but before the leaves begin to turn yellow, for soon after this the stems become woody and the leaves easily drop off. The crop yields from 1 to 3 tons per acre of hay equal to cowpea or alfalfa hay in feeding value. (617) Soybeans alone make rank smelling silage, but 1 ton of soybeans ensiled with 3 to 4 tons of corn or sorghum makes a satisfactory product. For this purpose the soybeans and com or sorghum may be mixed as ensiled or they may be grown together. In the South soybeans alone or soybeans and corn are often grazed by hogs. When designed for pasture the beans should be planted in rows to lessen the loss by tramping, and the hogs should not be turned in until the pods are nearly mature. (989) In the northern states the chief value of soybeans is for sandy land or as a catch crop when clover or other crops fail. Moore and Del- wiche of the Wisconsin Station'* report that soybeans planted in June on jack-pine sand where sugar beets had failed produced 2 tons of hay per acre. Eward of the Iowa Station'" found soybeans or cowpeas surpassed for hog pasture by rape, clover, and alfalfa on soil where the latter crops flourished. 359. Vetch. — Only the hcdry vetch {Vicia villosa), also called sand or Russian vetch, and the common vetch {V. sativa), also known as smooth or Oregon vetch, are important in the United States. Both are ordinarily annuals, tho the hairy vetch especially may live for more "Forage Plants, p. 505. "Wis. Bui. 236. "Iowa Bui. 136. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 237 than a year. Being cool-weather plants, they are usually fall-sown in mild climates, but a spring strain of the common vetch is sometimes grown. While common vetch is killed by zero temperatures, hairy vetch usually endures the winter in the northern states if well established in the fall. Hairy vetch may be grown on poorer soil than its relative, is adapted to a wider range than crimson clover, and is markedly drought resistant. It is chiefly grown for hay, being usually sown with the cereals to support the weak vines, which clamber from 4 to 10 feet in a tangled mass. Harvested when the pods are full grown, a palatable hay is secured. According to Piper'* the yield from vetch grown alone ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 tons or more of hay per acre. (619) In the South and in western Washington and Oregon where the winters are not severe, common vetch is preferred for soil rich enough for its culture, since the seed is cheaper and the vines grow less tangled. Piper places the yield of hay at 2,5 tons in the latter district and slightly less in the southern states. Smith of the United States Department of Agriculture'^ reports that at Atlanta, Ga., vetch and oat hay is popular with liverymen, selling on a par with cowpea hay. Besides furnishing hay, the vetches afford excellent pasturage for cattle, sheep, and swine. Smith reports the successful use of vetch silage for a dairy herd. 360. lespedeza, Lespedeza striata. — Japan clover, commonly called lespedeza in the South, is a summer annual which has now spread over most of the territory from central New Jersey westward to central Kansas and south to the Gulf. Here, even on the poorest soils, it appears spontaneously as a common constituent of mixed pastures, and unless closely grazed reseeds itself from year to year. On the poorer sands and clays of the cotton belt lespedeza is perhaps the most valuable pasture plant, adding nitrogen to the soil, binding it together, preventing washing, and furnishing pasturage well-liked by all stock. This legume has not been known to cause bloat. Only on rich soil does it grow tall enough for hay. The crop is easily cured and in extreme cases yields 3 tons of hay per acre, which according to Duggar of the Alabama Sta- tion'8 is equal to alfalfa. (497) 361. Velvet bean, Stizolohium deeringianum. — The tropical velvet- bean plant flourishes south of a line drawn from Savannah, Georgia, to Austin, Texas. The vines, which run on the ground from 15 to 75 feet, are difficult to cure into hay, and are mostly used for grazing. Scott of the Florida Station'' reports a yield of 20 to 30 bushels of 60 lbs. of shelled beans per acre. He states that 1.5 tons of beans in the pod are equal to 1 ton of cottonseed meal for milk production and can be produced at 30 per ct. of the cost of the meal. (604) Scott found that the fat of pigs fed exclusively on velvet beans has a dark, dirty appearance and disagreeable odor and taste, which may probably be avoided by feeding a limited quantity of beans with corn, cassava, etc. "' Forage Plants, p. 472. " Wing, Meadows and Pastures, p. 354. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 529. "Fla. Bui. 114. 238 FEEDS AND FEEDING The charge that velvet beans cause abortion among cattle and swine and blind staggers with horses is substantially without foundation. Horses fed exclusively on velvet-bean hay may suffer from kidney trouble, but all danger may be averted by feeding equal parts of velvet-bean and crab- grass hay. Tracy*' reports 20 acres of velvet beans in Florida furnish- ing half the daily grazing for 30 cows during 27 days in winter, after which 10 tons of pod beans were harvested. Eighty acres of velvet beans in southern Georgia furnished grazing for 100 head of cattle 4 months. Seventy days' grazing on velvet-bean pasture was sufficient to put steers in marketable condition. (760) 362. Peanut, Arachis hypogaea. — Peanuts are grown chiefly for the under-ground nuts (258), tho the entire plant is sometimes cured .into a nutritious hay. According to Piper,*^ as a hay plant the peanut cannot compete with the soybean or the eowpea, but the plant is of importance as a pasture crop for hogs, which root out the nuts. Hogs finished solely on peanuts yield a soft pork, but this may be largely avoided by feeding corn or other feeds. (1005) Since the nuts will not long remain in the ground without sprouting, the crop must be pastured soon after maturity. When peanuts are grown for the seeds, the straw is used for stock feeding, the yield ranging from 0.75 to 1.5 tons or more per acre. 363. Beggar weed, Desmodium tortuosum. — This annual legume, which has rather woody stalks 3 to 10 feet high bearing abundant leafage, is used for green forage and hay production in the sub-tropical regions of our country. Garrison of the South Carolina Station*^ reports a yield of over 11.5 tons of green and 2.25 tons of dry forage from 1 acre. Smith*' states that on rich land yields of from 4 to 6 tons of hay are not unusual. The hay ranges between clover and alfalfa in protein con- tent and is relished by stock. 364. Miscellaneous legumes. — The Tangier pea {Lathyrus tingitanus), which is somewhat similar to the common sweet pea, but more vigorous in growth, has given promising results as a hay and green manure crop in the southern states and western Oregon.** Serradella (Ornithopus sativus), cultivated to a considerable extent in Europe on poor sandy land, has thus far attained no importance in the United States. As it will grow on soil too acid for other legumes it may be found useful on acid sands in the northern states. The moth hean {Phaseolus aconiti- foUus), a native of India, is in many ways superior to the eowpea in northern Texas, according to Conner*" being more drought resistant and curing more readily. The hyacinth bean or honavist {DoUchos lailai), an annual resembling the eowpea but more viny, is often grown as an ornamental. It is of no especial promise as a forage crop except in " U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 300. " U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1897. "Forage Plants, p. 547. "Wash. Bui. 2., Spec. Series. «S. C. Bui. 123. "Tex. Bui. 103. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR FORAGE 239 the plains region of Texas, where it is apparently somewhat more drought resistant than the cowpea.*' The Eudzu vine {Pueraria thunbergiana) is a rapidly growing annual vine, often grown as an ornamental in the South, where it reaches a length of 60 feet or more. Recent trials show it to be of considerable promise as a perennial forage crop for the Gulf region. Under field conditions the prostrate branches root at the joints and send up twining shoots 2 to 4 feet high, which may be readily cut with a mower. According to Piper," in northern Florida 3 cuttings of hay a season have been obtained, the yield ranging from lower than velvet beans to as high as 10 tons per acre. *• Tex. Rpt. 1912. " Forage Plants, p. 564. CHAPTER XV ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES L Roots and Tubees In northern Europe and in eastern Canada root crops are extensively grown for stock, but in this country such use has never assumed im- portance. Indeed, in 1909 over 5000 acres of corn were raised in the United States for each acre of roots grown for live stock feeding. Having cool summers, northern Europe is well suited to the growth of roots but not to the culture of corn, while in most parts of our country, with the hot summers, this imperial grain and forage plant thrives. As shown later in this chapter, where com flourishes it furnishes a palatable, succulent feed at less cost than do roots. Hence, it is reason- able to expect that in the United States the culture of roots for forage will increase only in districts having summers so cool that these crops give better returns than corn, and on farms in the corn belt where too few animals are kept to use corn silage economically, or where roots serve as a relish for show animals and dairy cows on official test. 365. Use and value of roots. — ^Roots should be regarded not as rough- ages, but as watered concentrates, high in available energy for the dry matter they contain. (22) All are low in crude protein compared to their content of carbohydrates. The studies of Friis^ in Denmark and Wing and Savage at the New York (Cornell) Station^ show that for the dairy cow a pound of dry matter in roots has the same feeding value as a pound of dry matter in grain, such as corn, wheat, or barley. (637) Wing and Savage found that mangels could replace half the grain ordinarily fed in a ration of grain, mixed hay, and silage without reducing the yield of milk or butter, and that with grain at $30 per ton, mangels were an economical substitute when they could be grown and stored for $4 per ton. Since nearly 90 per ct. of the dry matter in roots and only 66 per ct. of that in well-matured corn silage is digestible, one would expect the dry matter of roots to have somewhat the higher value. However, in the majority of the trials in which this question has been studied with the dairy cow, just as much milk was produced from 100 lbs. of dry matter in the silage ration as in the ration containing roots. (638) In addition to the nutrients they furnish, roots and other succulent feeds have a beneficial tonic effect upon animals, and are especially helpful in keeping breeding cattle, sheep, or swine in thrifty condition. Many successful stockmen recommend roots highly for animals being 'Bxpt. Sta. Rec, 14, 1903, p. 801. ''N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 268. 240 ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 241 fitted for exhibitions and for dairy cows crowded to maximum production on official tests. At the Michigan Station Shaw' and Norton found that when roots were added to a well-balanced ration for dairy cows contain- ing good corn silage the yield of butter fat was increased 5.8 per ct. Yet this increase was not sufScient to offset the greater cost of the ration containing the roots. (640) In this country the daily allowance of roots per 1,000 lbs. live weight is usually 25 to 50 lbs. or less. Thruout Great Britain fattening cattle and sheep are often fed 100 lbs., or even more, per 1,000 lbs. live weight daily with satisfactory results, and sheep are sometimes fattened on concentrates and roots alone. This practice can not be generally recom- mended, for better results are secured when some dry roughage is fed. Roots are usually chopped or sliced before feeding, and the cut roots are often put into the feed box and meal sprinkled over them. In feeding cattle in Canada and England, roots are quite commonly pulped and spread in layers several inches thick, alternating with other layers of cut or chaffed hay or straw. After being shoveled over, the mass is allowed to stand several hours before feeding, to moisten and soften the chaffed straw or hay. In this manner great quantities of straw may be successfully utilized. (784, 786, 865) For winter feeding in the northern states roots must be stored in well-ventilated pits or cellars, but in mild climates they may remain in the field until fed. In Great Britain sheep are often grazed on root crops, saving the labor of harvesting. 366. Soots vs. corn silage. — The most extensive of several trials in which the yields of roots and silage corn have been compared are summarized in the following table : Yield of fresh and dry matter per acre of roots and fodder corn Mangels Sugar beets Rutabagaa Fodder corn Station Green weight Dry matter Green weight Dry matter Green weight Dry matter Green weight Dry matter Maine* Lba. 15,375 38,273 47,480 Lba. 1,613 4,554 4,440 Lba. 17,645 25,591 29,760 Lba. 2,690 4,683 4,890 Lba. 31,695 : 39,260 Lba. 3,415 4,260 Lba. 39,645 18,332 38,320 Lba. 5,580 6,763 8,050 Penn f Ontario,! 5-8 yrs 33,713 3,536 24,332 4,054 35,478 3,838 32,099 6,798 *Woll, Book on Silage. tPenn. Rpt. 1898. jOntario Dept. Agr., Bui. 228. On the average, the corn crop contained 92 per ct. more dry matter than mangels, 68 per ct. more than sugar beets, and 77 per ct. more than rutabagas. At the Ohio Station* Thorne found that to grow and harvest an acre of beets yielding 15.75 tons and containing 3,000 lbs. of dry matter cost more than an acre of corn yielding 57 bushels of grain and containing 6,000 lbs., or twice as much, dry matter. In trials covering ' Mich. Bui. 240. ' Ohio Rpt. 1893. 242 FEEDS AND FEEDING 4 years at the New York (Cornell) Station" Minns found the cost of growing and ensiling silage com about the same per ton as that for growing and harvesting mangels. However, owing to their watery- nature 100 lbs. of dry matter in mangels cost over twice as much as in corn silage. These findings show that where com thrives, corn silage will furnish dry matter at one-half the cost of roots or less. This is largely because root crops require more careful and thoro preparation of the soil and far more hand labor in cultivation, harvesting, and storage than does corn. 367. Yields of various root crops. — The most extensive comparisons of the yields of various root crops are those reported by the New York (Cornell) Station* from 5-year tests and by the Ontario Agricultural College^ from trials covering 5 to 15 years, which are summarized in the following table. The yields from kohlrabi, cabbage, rape, and kale, which are sometimes included loosely under the term "root crops" are also given, along with the return from a 200-bushel crop of potatoes. Yield and dry matter per acre in various root crops New York (Cornell) Station Ontario Agr. College Green wt. Dry matter Green wt. Dry matter Tons Lbs. Tons Lbs. Mangels 39.7 8,400 23.7 4,440 Sugar mangels 28 . 1 6,400 24 .0 6,460 Sugar beets 28.3 8,000 14.9 4,890 Rutabagas (swedes) 26 .3 5,000 19 .6 4,260 Hybrid tiimips 27.1 5,200 Turnips 16 .8 3,600 27 .2 5,160 Carrots 18.5 4,400 27.5 6,460 Parsnips 8.3 3,800 8.3 2,760 Kohlrabi 23 .4 4,600 15 .8 2,819 Cabbage 36.4 4,600 23.1 4,102 Dwarf Essex rape 17.2 5,758 Thousand-headed kale 17.7 4,000 Potatoes (200 bushels) 6.0 2,540 6.0 2,540 As is shown in the table, the rank of these various crops varies widely in different sections, depending on the climatic and soil con- ditions. 368. The mangel, Beta vulgaris, var. — Tho the mangel, or mangel wurzel, is the most watery of roots, it returns a large amount of dry matter per acre because of its enormous yield. The dry matter content of mangels averages 9.4 per ct. and that of the half-sugar mangels, which are crosses between the mangel and the sugar beet, is somewhat higher. Because it stands well out of the ground, the mangel is easily cultivated and harvested, and furthermore it keeps better in winter than does the sugar beet. Mangels should not be fed until they have been stored for a few weeks, as the freshly-harvested roots may cause scours. Mangels are useful for all farm animals, except possibly the horse. (637-8, 784, 864) Fed to rams or wethers for long periods, both "N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 317. 'Ontario Dept. of Agr., Bui. 228. ■ Piper, Forage Plants and their Culture, p. 587. BOOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 243 mangels and sugar beets tend to produce dangerous calculi, or stones, in the urinary organs. 369. Sugar beets, Beta vulgaris, var. — This root has been marvelously developed for the single purpose of producing sugar, some strains now yielding 16 per ct. or more. The sugar beet demands more care in culti- vation than the mangel and more labor in harvesting, as it sets deep in the ground. Sugar beets are esteemed by many dairymen as succulence for cows under test. If liberally fed, this root may induce scouring be- cause of its high sugar content. Farmers patronizing sugar factories should utilize cull beets as well as the tops. Beet tops and leaves may be fed fresh or ensiled. Care must be taken when stock is turned on beet fields to forage, as decaying beet tops may poison the animals. Accord- ing to Morton of the Colorado Station,* tho the tops keep better if cut, they may be ensiled whole if the mass is weU packed. At the Wisconsin Station* Humphrey found that beet tops make good silage when run thru the silage cutter along with an equal weight of dry com fodder, sufficient water being added so that the mass will pack well. 370. Rutabaga, Brassica campestris. — The rutabaga, or swede, ranks next to the mangel in ease of cultivation and harvesting. Sheep prefer it to all other roots. Like other turnips, the rutabaga may taint the milk of cows, and for this reason should be fed immediately after milk- ing. This root is of vast importance to the stock interests of Great Britain and is likewise a favorite in Canada, where it is extensively grown. (511) 371. Turnip, Brassica rapa. — Turnips are more watery than rutabagas and do not keep so well. Hybrid turnips, crosses between the turnip and the rutabaga, keep better than ordinary turnips. Maturing early, turnips are used chiefly for early fall feeding. Sown as a catch crop, large yields are often secured without cultivation. Tho used mainly for sheep, they can also be fed to cattle. 372. Carrot, Daucus carota. — Under favorable conditions the stock carrot gives heavy yields. This root is relished by horses of all ages and conditions, but should not be fed in large amount to hard-worked or driving horses. (511) Carrots also serve well for other stock, especially dairy cows. Hills of the Vermont Station^" writes: "Carrots far sur- passed beets in feeding value. " 373. Parsnip, Pastinaca sativa. — The parsnip is the favorite root with dairy farmers on the islands of Jersey and Guernsey. It contains about as much dry matter as the sugar beet, but because the yield in this country is relatively low and the root difficult to harvest, it is little grown. (511) 374. Potato, Solarium tuberosum. — In Europe heavy-yielding varieties of large-sized potatoes are extensively grown for stock, but in this country potatoes are only fed when low in price or too small for market. Knowing their feeding value, the farmer is in position to utilize the 'Breeder's Gaz., 65, 1914, p. 115. »Wis. Bui. 228. »Vt. Rpt. 1907. 244 FEEDS AND FEEDING crop wisely, for feeding his live stock, rather than to force it on a pro- fitless market. Potatoes are chiefly employed for swine feeding ( 1001 ) , but may be fed in limited amounts to cattle, sheep, and horses in partial substitution for grain. For pigs the tubers should be boiled or steamed, and mixed with meal. The heavy feeding of raw potatoes is not ad- visable, as it induces scouring, but they may be fed in limited amounts sliced and mixed with dry feed. The bitter-tasting water in which potatoes are cooked should be thrown away, especially if the tubers are not sound. According to Pott,^^ potatoes may furnish half the dry matter in the ration for fattening cattle and sheep, and one-fourth for horses. (511) Milch cows should not be fed more than 30 to 35 lbs., as larger amounts injure the quality of the butter. (641) Unripe potatoes and especially the sprouts of stored potatoes contain considerable solanin, a poisonous compound; hence in feeding potatoes any sprouts should be removed. In Germany where machinery for drying potatoes has been perfected, the dried product is quite extensively fed to live stock. To produce 1 ton of tlie dried potato flakes from 3.5 to 4.0 tons of raw potatoes are re- quired. 375. Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus. — The tubers of this hardy perennial, which resemble the potato in composition, are sometimes used for human food and for feeding stock. The tubers live over winter in the ground and enough are usually left to make the next crop. Due to this the plant may sometimes become a weed. Goessmann of the Massa- chusetts Station^^ reports artichokes yielding at the rate of 8.2 tons per acre. They may be harvested in the same manner as potatoes, or hogs may be turned in the field to root out the tubers. At the Oregon Sta- tion^' 6 pigs confined to one-eighth of an acre of artichokes gained 244 lbs., consuming 756 lbs. of ground wheat and oats in addition to the tubers. Allowing 500 lbs. of grain for 100 lbs. of gain, we find that an acre of artichokes was worth 3,700 lbs. of mixed wheat and oats. The pigs made but little gain on artichokes alone. Pott^* reports that the leaves and stems may be cut when half the leaves are still green, without reducing the yield of tubers. This forage may be fed to sheep, goats, or dairy cows with good results. Despite the many enthusiastic endorsements of artichokes no community in this country seems to grow them continuously — a significant fact. (511, 1002) 376. Sweet potato, Ipomaea batatas. — The sweet potato, a southern crop grown as far north as New Jersey and Illinois, serves not only for human food, but also for feeding stock, especially swine, which do their own har- vesting. Tho the average yield is less than 90 bushels per acre, some farmers raise fully 200 bushels.^° The sweet potato is at its best on sandy "Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, pp. 363, 366-7. " Mass. Rpt. 10. " Ore. Bui. 54. "Handb. Bmahr. u. Futter., 11, 1907, p. 196. "Duggar, Southern Field Crops, p. 449. ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 245 soil. Keitt of the South Carolina Station^* states that land which under ordinary cropping yields but 20 bushels of corn will produce 200 bushels of sweet potatoes per acre. Dodson of the Louisiana Station^' considers sweet potatoes the best root crop for hogs for fall and early winter graz- ing. (1004) Conner of the Florida Station^' found that sweet potatoes may be successfully substituted for half the com in the ration of work horses, 3 lbs. of sweet potatoes replacing 1 lb. of corn. Scott of the same station^" found that 100 lbs. of sweet potatoes was as useful as 150 lbs. of corn silage for dairy cows. While more valuable, sweet potatoes were also far more expensive to produce than the corn silage. The vines, tho difficult to gather because they trail and take root at short intervals, are often utilized for feed, usually in the green state. 377. Chufa, Cyperus esculentus. — The chufa sedge, frequently a weed in damp fields on southern farms, produces numerous small, chaffy, edible tubers. These are relished by pigs, which are usually turned in to harvest the crop. As chufas are low in digestible crude protein, protein- rich feeds should be added to balance the ration. They grow best on light, sandy soils, yielding from 100 to 150 bushels of 44 lbs. each per acre. Like artichokes, the tubers remain in the ground uninjured thru the winter. Good crops of chufas have produced 307 to 592 lbs. of pork per acre, after making allowance for the other feed consumed by the pigs. (1006) 378. Cassava, Manihot utilissima. — Cassava, a bushy plant 4 to 10 feet in height with fleshy roots like those of the sweet potato, grows in Florida and along the Gulf coast. In the tropics varieties having bitter roots containing prussic acid are grown. These must be dried or heated be- fore feeding. The sorts grown in the United States have sweet roots con- taining but a trace of prussic acid. From 5 to 6 tons of rqots, carrying from 25 to 30 per ct. of starch, are produced per acre. They are used for the manufacture of starch and for cattle and swine feeding. At Musco- gee, Alabama,^* 200 steers and 100 hogs were fattened by using 1600 lbs. of cassava roots daily in place of grain. Dodson" reports that in Louisiana a larger tonnage can be obtained from sweet potatoes than from cassava, and at about one-third the cost. This crop has never been important in the United States and its culture has declined greatly in the last 20 years. The cassava waste of starch factories should be dried for feeding. (785) 11. Miscellaneous Succulent Feeds 379. Cabbage, Brassica oleracea. — On rich ground cabbage gives as good returns of palatable forage as do root crops, but as more labor is required in its cultivation, it is but little grown for stock feeding. Cab- bage is highly prized by shepherds when preparing stock for exhibition, " S. C. Rpt. 1909, p. 32. " Fla. Bui. 72. " U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 167. " La. Bui. 124. " Fla. Bui. 99. " La. Bui. 124. 246 FEEDS AND FEEDING and is also used for feeding milch cows, Gill of England''^ considering it superior to rutabagas. Like other plants of the mustard family it should be fed after milking to avoid tainting the milk. When cabbage is raised for market, the small heads and the leaves may be fed to stock. 380. Kohlrabi, Brassica caulorapa. — This member of the mustard fam- ily, which is valued for its thickened, turnip-like stem, can be grown wherever rutabagas thrive, tho the yield is usually lower. According to the New York (Cornell) Station^* kohlrabi is a good substitute for rutabagas in the Middle "West where these roots have a tendency to run to neck and form little root. Kohlrabi stands well out of the ground and thus can be readily pastured by sheep, which also relish the leaves. This crop has not been known to taint the milk when fed to cows. 381. Rape, Brassica napus. — Largely thru the instrumentality of our experiment stations, rape is now extensively grown by stockmen thruout the United States. This member of the turnip family stores its nutri- ment in the numerous leaves and stems, the parts eaten by stock. The Dwarf Essex variety should be sown, birdseed rape being worthless. While rape can be used for soiling, it is best to let stock harvest the crop. Unless grown in rows, cattle will tramp down considerable of the forage while grazing. Eape is too watery for silage. The seed, which is in- expensive, may be sown in succession from early spring until August in the North and even later in the South, either broadcast, in drills and cultivated, or finally with com just previous to the last cultivation. From 6 to 12 weeks after seeding the crop is large enough for use. Zavitz of the Ontario College^* reports a yield of 27 tons of rape forage per acre from 2 lbs. of seed sown in drills 27 inches apart, the crop hav- ing been cultivated ©very 10 days. In plot tests covering 15 years he secured an average yield of 19.2 tons per acre.^° Rape endures quite severe frosts, therefore furnishing late autumn feed. It should never be eaten so closely that only the bare stalks remain, for the yield of new leaves will then be reduced. Animals on rape consume large amounts of salt, which should be freely supplied, as it tends to check any undue laxative effect of the forage. Sometimes stock must be taught to eat rape, but they later become fond of it. Cattle which during the fall months have the run of a rape field, to- gether with pasture, will go into winter quarters in high condition. To avoid tainting the milk of dairy cows, rape should be fed or grazed only directly after milking. Rape has its largest use for sheep and hogs, and since the animals gather the crop, the cost is low compared with the re- turns. Cabbage, rape, turnips, etc., like all cruciferous plants, have an unusually high content of sulfur, which may explain in part their value for sheep. (875-6) Access to clover or bluegrass pasture when on rape is highly advantageous to all stock, besides reducing the danger from bloat or hoven. Rape furnishes one of the best forages for hogs, and as "Jour. Brit. Dairy Assoc, 1898. "Ont. Agr. College, Rpt. 19. "N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 244, "Ont. Dept. Agr., Bui. 228. ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 247 it somewhat more than maintains them, all the grain which is fed goes to make gain. (982, 992) Pigs, especially the white breeds, running in rape when the leaves are wet, may suffer from a skin affection. 382. Eale, Brassica oleracea, var. acephala.. — Coarse growing varie- ties of kale, a cabbage-like plant that does not form heads, are used ex- tensively for soilage and pasturage in England and France. In this country kale is grown extensively only in the northern Pacific coast dis- trict, where "thousand-headed" kale, the common variety, is considered the best of soiling crops for dairy cows. On rich soil and with ample moisture yields of 35 to 45 tons and even more are secured.^* In the mild climate of that section the crop is fed chiefly from October to April, as it endures considerable frost. Frozen kale should be thawed out be- fore being fed. Like other members of the mustard family, it should be fed after milking to avoid tainting the milk. Kale is an excellent feed for sheep and swine. A hybrid kale with thick, fleshy stems, called marrow cdbhage, has excelled common kale in trials at the "Western Washington Station.^^ The large leaves are harvested as they mature, and later the entire plant is cut and fed. 383. Pumpkins, squashes, and melons. — The pumpkin, Gucurhito pepo, is often planted in corn fields and the fruits used as a relish for horses, cattle, or pigs. The field pumpkin resembles the mangel in composition while the smaller garden pumpkin contains somewhat more dry matter. HiUs of the Vermont Station^* found 2.5 tons of pumpkins, including seeds, equal to 1 ton of corn silage for dairy cows. Tho often cooked for swine, trials show equally satisfactory results with the raw pumpkins. (1003) The tradition among farmers that pumpkin seeds increase the kidney excretions, tend to dry up cows, and hence should be removed before feeding, has no good foundation. The seeds contain much nutri- ment and should not be wasted. Pigs relish them, and they act as a vermifuge, freeing the animals of worms and putting the digestive or- gans in good condition. As the seeds are rich in protein and oil, eating an excess may cause digestive disturbance. Squashes and melons, es- pecially pie melons, or citrons (also called cow melons), are sometimes fed to stock. 384. Apples and other fruits. — ^Windfall apples, pears, peaches, plums, oranges, figs, etc., may often be fed advantageously to stock and sound fruit may be thus used when prices are too low to warrant marketing the crop, for all farm animals relish these fruits. (511) Fruits contain somewhat more dry matter than roots, the chief nutrients being the sugars. Since they are low in protein, they should be used with protein- rich feeds. For dairy cows apples have about 40 per ct. of the value of corn silage, and apple pomace is practically equal to the same weight of corn silage. (635) In trials at the Utah Station^' when fed with shorts "Wash. Bui. 2, Special Series; Ore. Cir. 5. * Vt. Rpt. 1908. "Wash. Bui. 2, Special Series. "Utah Bui. 101. 248 FEEDS AND FEEDING and skim milk to pigs 100 lbs. of apples equaled 9 to 15 lbs. of concen- trates. Wilson of the Arizona Station^" reports satisfactory gains with lambs fed ripe waste olives and alfalfa hay. 385. Spurrey, Spergula sativa. — On sandy land in northern Europe spurrey, which requires a cool, moist, growing season, is used as a catch crop for soilage and for green manure. The plant has proved of little value in this country, not being adapted to our hot summers. 386. Prickly comfrey, Symphytum asperrimum. — This plant, occa- sionally exploited by advertisers, has little merit in' comparison with the standard forage plants. When carefully cultivated it gives quite large returns of forage which at first is not relished by cattle. WoU of the Wisconsin Station^^ found that red clover returned 23 per ct. more dry matter and 25 per ct. more crude protein than the same area of carefully cultivated prickly comfrey. 387. Mexican clover, Bichardsonia scdbra. — This annual, which is not a legume, is abundant in sandy land in sections of Florida and along the Gulf Coast, where it springs up spontaneously each summer after the manner of crab grass. It furnishes pasturage and, tho rather succulent, may be cured into hay. 388. Purslane, Portulaca oleracea. — The succulent weed of the garden, purslane, can often be used to advantage with swine. Plumb of the Indiana Station'^ fed brood sows 9 lbs. of purslane each daily, along with wheat shorts and hominy meal, and secured fair daily gains. 389. Tree leaves and twigs. — The small branches and leaves of trees are regularly fed to farm animals in the mountain regions of Europe where herbage is scarce, and in case of the failure of pastures or the hay crop they have been extensively used elsewhere. Tree leaves are more digestible than twigs, and the better kinds compare favorably with or- dinary hay in feeding value. Leaves of the ash, birch, linden, and elder are valued in the order given. They are eaten with relish, especially by goats and sheep. These statements apply only to leaves gathered at the right stage and cured substantially as is hay from the grasses. Leaves which turn brown and drop from the trees in autumn are worthless for feeding farm animals. Brush feed, consisting of ground and crushed twigs, stems, and leaves, is used in certain mixed feeds as an absorbent for molasses. (285) III. Plants of the Desert Sagebrush, saltbush, and greasewood flourish on the plains of western America where alkali and common salt shut out many or even all of the ordinary forage plants. 390. Sagebrush. — ^Writing of the Red Desert of Wyoming, Nelson'^ says: "The amount of sagebrush, Artemisia, spp., consumed in the desert is simply amazing. . . . Whole bands (of sheep) will leave all »°Ariz. Rpt. 19. "Ind. Bui. 82. " Wis. Rpt. 1889. " V. 8. Dept. Agr., Div. Agros., Bui. 13. ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 249 other forage and feed on sagebrush for a day or two at a time. After that they will not touch it for some days, or even weeks. ' ' 391. Saltbush, Atriplex, spp. — Many species of the saltbush, both an- nual and perennial, furnish forage to range animals on the western plains. The Australian saltbush, introduced into California and Ari- zona, will under favorable conditions produce 15 to 20 tons of green forage per acre, or 3 to 5 tons of dry, coarse hay which has about the same digestibility as oat hay. Peacock of New South Wales^* reports that sheep fed saltbush in pens lost 3 lbs. in weight per head, but re- mained healthy during a period of a year. Others getting grass, hay, and saltbush made substantial gains. Saltbush mutton was dry and tough, but had a good flavor. 392. The greasewoods, Sarcobatus, spp. — The shrubby greasewoods likewise flourish on the plains and are browsed by range animals. Forbes and Skinner of the Arizona Station'" report an analysis of greasewood which compared favorably with alfalfa in the amount of crude protein and other nutrients contained. Such forage is readily eaten. 393. Russian thistle, Salsola kaU, var. tragus. — The introduced Rus- sian thistle, now growing over great areas of the plains east of the Rock- ies, is used to some extent for pasture and hay. The mature plants are woody and loaded with alkali. It should be cut when in bloom and quickly stacked. 394. Cacti. — In western Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, various cacti, principally prickly pear, Opuntia, spp., growing wild on the ranges, are used for feeding cattle, especially during periods of drought. The choUas and other types of cane cacti are also eaten by stock. Cacti grow but slowly unless the soil is good and there is reasonable rainfall during some part of the year. Because of its peculiar structure and habits this plant can survive protracted drought, tho it makes little or no growth at such times. Under favorable conditions the prickly pear may be har- vested about once in 5 years. In Texas Mexican teamsters make free use of the pear for feeding oheir work oxen, and some rangemen have fed large quantities along with sorghum and cotton seed or cottonseed meal to their fattening cattle. Cacti may be fed where they grow by first singeing off the spines with a gasoline torch, after which the cattle eat them with apparent satisfaction. Under favorable conditions a man can singe the spines from 6 to 12 tons of standing "pears" per day. In some cases the pears are gathered in wagons and put thru machines which chop them in such manner that the spines are rendered more or less harmless. Prickly pears are less watery than roots, containing on the average 16.5 per ct. dry matter, of which 3.4 per ct. is ash, and are lower in pro- tein but somewhat higher in nitrogen-free extract. The young joints are more watery than those which are 2 years old or over, and cattle are said to prefer those which are more mature. Cane cacti contain a «Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 1906. "Ariz. Rpt. 1903. 250 FEEDS AND FEEDING higher percentage of dry matter than the prickly pears. Cacti alone do not provide a maintenance ration for stock. According to Vinson,^" cattle in the deserts of Sonora, Mexico, subsist for 3 months of the year on little else than the fruits of cacti, but they become emaciated. When fed in large amounts with no dry feed cacti tend to produce scours. As cacti are all low in protein, this forage should be supplemented by pro- tein-rich feeds, such as alfalfa hay or cottonseed meal. From trials at the Arizona Station'^ Vinson concludes that 6 lbs. or more of choUa fruit with 0.5 to 0.75 lb. of alfalfa hay will maintain a sheep in a lean but healthy condition. In a trial by Griffiths'' cows fed 3 lbs. cottonseed meal and 8 to 12 lbs. of rice bran per head daily ate about 150 lbs. of singed prickly pear, 6 lbs. of pear equaling 1 lb. of sorghum hay in feeding value. A lot of 27 steers fed a ration of 96 lbs. chopped prickly pear and 4.4 lbs. of cotton- seed meal gained 1.75 lbs. per head daily, requiring 55 lbs. of pear and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal per pound of gain. Spineless cacti, which during recent years have been extensively ad- vertised, have long been known in Mexico and the Mediterranean coun- tries. The spineless varieties are not hardy where the temperature falls below 20° F. and are thus of limited value in the southwestern states. These cacti cannot survive on the open range because cattle will graze and destroy them, and moreover they must be enclosed by rabbit-proof fences, as these animals are fond of them. Griffiths'" reports yearly yields of 20 to 25 tons of spineless cactus per acre without irrigation at Chico in the Sacramento Valley, California ; this locality having an aver- age rainfall of 23 inches. These yields were secured with expert culti- vation and when a perfect stand was carefully maintained. The chief importance of cacti will undoubtedly be to furnish emer- gency forage for stock in the semi-arid regions in ease of drought, for these plants are able to utilize most efficiently small and irregular sup- plies of moisture. For this purpose plantations of the spiny cacti may be established on the open range, where they will be able to grow and hold their own untU drawn upon in time of serious drought, for cattle will not graze them when other feed is reasonably abundant. IV. Poisonous Plants Only the briefest mention can be made of the leading plants poison- ous to stock. One in trouble should send suspected specimens to the experiment station of his state or to the United States Department of Agriculture. 395. Plants carrying prussic acid. — ^Prussic acid, a most deadly poison, has been found in over 200 species of plants. It is present in the wild cherry, laurel, locust, vetch, Java bean, flax, etc. The leaves of the wild '"Ariz. Bui. 67. "V. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 91. " Ariz. Rpt. 21. "V. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 483. BOOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 251 cherry, especially when wilted, are particularly fatal to cattle. Peters and Avery of the Nebraska Station*" have shown that when the sorghums, both saccharine and non-saccharine, are stunted by drought, prussic acid may develop in such quantity as to bring death to cattle browsing upon them, the affected animals often dying soon after eating a few mouthfuls of the poisonous forage. While normal plants are entirely harmless, authorities advise caution in the use of the sorghums, kafirs, Johnson grass, etc., growing on rich soil, as well as in the use of second- growth and stunted plants. The poison is not found in wilted or cured sorghum or in sorghum silage, which are therefore always safe for feeding. 396. Ergdt. — The seeds of rye and many grasses are sometimes at- tacked by a fungus which produces enlarged black, sooty masses, known as ergot. Occasionally hay or straw bearing the fungus severely injures cattle which are continuously fed thereon during winter. Ergot acts on the nervous system, depressing heart action and thereby restricting the blood circulation. In advanced cases the ears, tail, and lower parts of the limbs of affected animals lose warmth and sensibility, dry gangrene sets in, and the diseased parts finally slough away. Animals showing symptoms of this trouble should have their feed changed to remove the cause, and be warmly housed and liberally supplied with nourishing food. 397. Forage poisoning. — During recent years serious losses of horses and mules have occurred in various parts of the country, especially in the Central West, from forage poisoning, or blind staggers (cerebro- spinal-meningitis). This is caused by eating moldy feed, either corn grain, corn fodder, silage, or grass, or it may result from drinking water which has passed thru moldy vegetation. Cattle also may be killed by such poisoning but are less susceptible than horses or mules. Whenever poisoning is suspected the feed should be changed immediately, for the mortality is high in well-developed cases, the animal dying in some in- stances in 6 to 8 hours.** To prevent the disease care should be taken not to feed moldy, improperly cured, or otherwise damaged feed. Grraham of the Kentucky Station*^ states that if moldy forage must be fed it should be given sparingly with other feed of good quality. When corn is at all moldy he recommends "floating" it. This consists of placing the grain in water, whereupon the damaged kernels will rise to the surface and may be skimmed off. 398. Cornstalk disease. — ^A mysterious ailment in the West at times attacks cattle turned into the stalk fields during fall and winter after the com ears have been removed. All efforts to determine the cause have thus far proved futile. Alway and Peters of the Nebraska Station*' investigated the losses from cornstalk disease in one county in Nebraska in which 404 farmers lost 1,531 head of cattle during a single fall. They state that no precaution and no feed or combination of feeds has so far "Nebr. Bui. 77. «Ky. Bui. 167. "Haslam, Kan. Bui. 173. «Nebr. Press Bui. 27. 252 FEEDS AND FEEDING been found to prevent or mitigate the losses from this disease. They further conclude that farmers in districts in which the disease is preva- lent, unless they are to lose the valuable forage of their com stalks, must choose between two alternatives: (1) Cutting the stalks when the corn ripens, shocking them in the field and feeding the fodder, thus avoiding all trouble. (2) Pasturing the standing stalks with the knowledge that they are liable to lose as many as one-twentieth of their cattle in an un- favorable season. 399. Corn smut. — ^At the Wisconsin Station** the senior author fed 2 milch cows on well-cleaned corn smut mixed with wheat bran, starting with a few ounces and increasing until 32 ounces of smut was supplied daily to each cow. At this point one refused her feed, but the allowance of the other was increased until 64 ounces, or 1 peck, was fed daily. This cow seemed to thrive on the smut and was growing fat, when she suddenly sickened and died. Smith of the Michigan Station*^ fed 4 cows on well-cleaned corn smut until each was eating from 1 to 10 lbs. daily. Only one cow showed any indisposition, and she recovered. In experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry,*" United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, corn smut was fed to heifers without harmful effect, It is reasonable to conclude that corn smut is generally harmless to cattle, tho animals becoming fond of it and eating inordinately may suffer harm. 400. Loco poisoning. — Great numbers of horses, cattle, and sheep have been lost on the great ranges of western America thru "loco" poisoning brought about by eating various plants, mostly legumes. The loss from this cause in Colorado alone has been estimated at a millon dollars an- nually.*' "Locoed" animals have a rough coat and staggering gait, carry a lowered head, and show paralytic symptoms — in general, going "crazy." The studies of Marsh and Crawford*' seem to show that the poisoning is due to the presence of barium salts in certain legume plants. Barium does not generally exist in the soil, so the dangerous plants are found only in certain districts. Loco poisoning is most prevalent in springtime when the ranges provide scant feed, and the emaciated animals are forced to subsist largely on plants which they would ordinar- ily reject. "Well-nourished animals are rarely affected. 401. Castor bean. — The castor bean and the pomace remaining after the oil has been extracted contain a deadly poison. Castor beans or pomace accidentally getting into feeding stuffs sometimes cause myste- rious deaths. Camivan*' reports that exposing castor oil cake to the air for 5 or 6 days or cooking the seeds or cake for 2 hours destroys the poison. "Wis. Rpt. of Regents, 1881. « Mich. Bui. 137. "V. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim., Indus. Bui. 10. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Bui. 121, Pt. Ill: Farmers' Bui. 380. " Loc. cit. " Ann. See. Agr., Lyon, 1887. ROOTS, TUBERS, AND MISCELLANEOUS FORAGES 253 402. Saltpeter. — ^Mayo of the Kansas Station"" reports losses of cattle from eating corn forage carrying quantities of saltpeter in and on the stalks. The dangerous forage had been grown on land previously used as feed lots where the soil was excessively rich. 403. Miscellaneous poisonous plants. — The common horsetail, water hemlock, poison hemlock, death camas, several species of larkspur, cockle bur, woody aster, and many other plants are more or less poisonous to farm animals. As Marsh"^ points out, stock seldom eat poisonous plants by choice, but only when induced or compelled by the scarcity of other feed. When the grazing is short animals should therefore be kept away from spots definitely known to be infested with such plants. In moving herds or flocks on the range special precautions should be taken when it is necessary to pass over a trail that has been used by many others, for all good feed will have been consumed, and the stock will eat whatever is left. "Kan. Bui. 49. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui.' 536. CHAPTER XVI SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF PEED I. Silage and the Silo The preservation of beet leaves, beet waste, and other green forage by gathering into heaps or into earthen pits and covering with earth has long been practiced in Europe. In 1877 the French farmer, Goffart, pub- lished his "Manual of the Culture and Siloing of Maize and Other Green Crops," the first book of its kind, covering 25 years of practical ex- perience. To Goffart belongs the credit of describing the first modern silo and of observing and recommending the peculiar merits and advan- tages of the maize (corn) plant for silage. In 1876 Francis Morris, Oakland Manor, Howard county, Maryland, made the first silage in America by putting whole corn forage into a pit dug in the ground and covering it with earth. The first silo in this country built partly above ground was constructed by Dr. J. M. Bailey of Boston, Massachusetts, in 1879. In the same year Mr. J. B. Brown of New York gave American readers a translation of Goffart 's book, and in 1880 Dr. J. M. Bailey issued ' ' The Book of Ensilage, the New Dispensation for Farmers. ' ' In 1881 Professor I. P. Roberts^ at Cornell University, and the senior author^ at the University of Wisconsin, built and filled the first silos used for experimental purposes in America. By these means silos and silage were brought prominently before the farmers of this country, and the interest which was awakened has steadily increased until the ensilage of fodders has become a factor of vast importance in American agriculture. 404. How ensiling preserves forage. — ^When green forage is packed firmly into an air-tight chamber, such as a silo, fermentations take place, caused both by the enzymes contained in the plant cells and by bacteria and yeasts carried into the silo on the forage. During these fermen- tations much of the sugar in the ensiled forage is broken down into or- ganic acids, chiefly lactic acid (the acid in sour milk), with some acetic acid (the acid in vinegar) , and traces of other acids. In these changes oxygen is taken up and carbon dioxid (carbonic acid gas) given off. At first the oxygen in the air which has been entrapped in the ensiled mass is used up, but if the mass has been well compacted, this is soon ex- hausted. The enzymes and bacteria then obtain the additional oxygen needed for these decompositions from the oxygen-containing compounds in the forage — chiefiy the sugars. When the sugar in the forage has been changed into the acids the fermentation is checked, for the other ^Information to the authors. "Wis. Rpt. on Amber Cane and the Ensilage of Fodders, 1881, pp. 60-69. 254 SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPAEATION OF FEED 265 carbohydrates are attacked to only a small extent. It is due to this that well-matured corn or sorghum makes less acid silage than immature plants, which contain more sugar. Even tho an excess of sugar is present the fermentation comes to an end at length, for sufficient acid is finally produced to prevent both the further growth of the bacteria and yeasts and the action of the plant enzymes. During the fermentation processes the temperature rises somewhat, but if the mass has been well compacted, so that but little air is present, the temperature in the interior of the silo rarely reaches 100° F. The changes are therefore far less extensive than those which occur in the making of brown hay. (334) Not only does the accumulation of acid automatically check the further action of the acid-forming enzymes and bacteria, but it also prevents the growth of undesirable putrefying bacteria, such as cause the decaying of meat. The poor-quality, foul-smelling silage which often results when such legumes as alfalfa, clover, or soybeans are ensiled alone is doubt- less largely due to the fact that there is not enough sugar present in the plants to yield sufficient acid to check the groAvth of these putrefying bacteria. . The high protein content of these plants also favors putre- faction. After a few days the silage-making processes cease, and no appreciable changes will take place so long as the air is excluded. Instances are on record where silage made 12 to 14 years before has been found to be of excellent quality. Tho the conversion of sugar into organic acids is the chief change which takes place in good silage other decompositions also occur to some extent. A considerable part of the protein is broken down by enzymes into amino acids (11), the silage sometimes containing 2 or 3 times as much of these cleavage products as> the original fodder. However, as this splitting of, the protein into simpler compounds is similar to the digestion which takes place in the digestive tract of the animal we need not suppose that the nutritive value is thereby necessarily impaired. (49) 405. Steaming silage. — It has sometimes been advocated that forage be steamed immediately after placing it in the silo, on the ground that the bacteria, yeasts, and enzymes are thereby destroyed, and the more or less perfectly sterilized mass thus preserved with little or no fermenta- tion. However, Withycombe and Bradley found in digestion trials with cows at the Oregon Station* that steaming corn forage after ensiling reduced the digestibility of the dry matter 16 per ct., the crude protein 91 per ct., the ash 79 per ct., and the fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat to a slight extent. Hence, tho the steamed silage was admirably pre- served and contained only half as much acid as ordinary silage, its feed- ing value was greatly reduced. (83) 406. Eequisites of a good silo. — 1. Air-tight walls. The silo walls must be air-tight, for if oxygen gains entrance the fermentations will con- tinue and molds will grow, spoiling the silage. Such action takes place ' Ore. Bui. 102. 256 FEEDS AND FEEDING at the top of the silo where the mass is exposed to the air, but if the silage has been well packed and wet down, the impervious top layer of rotten material, which soon forms, prevents further entrance of the air. All doors must fit tightly, else the silage will spoil about the openings. 2. Cylindrical shape. In the early silos, which were rectangular structures, it was exceedingly difficult to pack the mass in the comers so that it would not spoil. With the devising of the cylindrical silo by King at the Wisconsin Station* this serious trouble was overcome, thereby greatly advancing the practice of ensiling forage plants. The cylindri- cal silo has now been commonly adopted, for besides the advantage of having no comers, it provides the largest cubic capacity for a given amount of building material, and the sides are strong and unyielding. 3. Smooth, perpendicular, strong walls. Unless the walls of the silo are smooth and perpendicular, cavities will form along the walls as the mass settles and the adjacent silage will spoil. The walls must be strong and rigid, for during the settling of the silage a great outward pressure is developed. This increases with the depth of the silo and, according to King,° reaches 330 lbs. per square foot of wall surface at a depth of 30 feet. After the silage has fully settled this lateral pressure ceases. 4. Depth. The early silos were shallow, and even tho the forage was well-tramped it was often necessary to weight the mass down to force out the air sufficiently. By making the silo deep the great pressure com- pacts all but the upper layers so that the losses thru fermentation are reduced to a minimum. The fact that the losses of nutrients are heaviest in the upper layers and surface of the silage is another reason for having the silo deep, because the loss per ton of total contents is thereby reduced. At the Wisconsin Station* King placed about 65 tons of green corn for- age in an air-tight silo in 8 layers, and determined the loss in each layer, after standing from September to March. The dry matter lost in the respective layers was as follows: surface (eighth) layer, 32.5 per ct. ; seventh layer, 23.4 per ct. ; sixth layer, 10.3 per ct. ; fifth layer, 2.1 per ct. ; fourth layer, 7.0 per ct. ; third layer, 2.8 per ct. ; second layer, 3.5 per ct. ; and bottom layer 9.5 per ct. While the surface layer lost over 32 per ct. of its original dry matter, the average loss in the first 5 layers from the bottom was less than 5 per ct., and the loss for the whole silo only 8.1 per ct. 407. Types of silos. — Silos may be constructed of wood, solid concrete, concrete blocks, brick, stone, glazed tile, or sheet steel. In the semi-arid regions pit silos, preferably with cement lining and curb, are extensively used, but these are impracticable in humid climates. In the southwestern states silos are sometimes built of adobe, reinforced with wire and plas- tered with cement. The choice between the various types of construc- tion, all of which make good silos when well-built, will depend upon local conditions. This work can present only the primary principles relating to silo • Wis. Bui. 28., issued July, 1891. » Wis. Bui. 83. 'Wis. Bui. 83. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPAEATION OF FEED 257 construction, advising those interested to secure from the state experi- ment stations or the United States Department of Agriculture instruc- tions concerning the form, materials, manner of construction, etc., as detailed in bulletins which are available for the asking. 408. Advantages of silage. — The widespread use of the silo for the preservation of forage is easily explained when we consider the advan- tages this system offers, the more important of which are : 1. At a low expense silage furnishes high-quality succulent feed for any desired season of the year. For winter feeding silage is far cheaper than roots and is as efficient a feed, except possibly in the case of animals being fitted for shows or milch cows on forced test. (109,365) For sum- mer feeding silage furnishes succulent feed with less bother and expense than do soiling crops. Dairy cows yield no greater product from soilage than from silage. (420, 642) 2. When crops are properly ensiled less of the nutrients are wasted thru the fermentations which take place than are lost when the forage is cured as hay or dry fodder. (301, 330, 332) 3. Silage, even from plants with coarse stalks, such as com and the sorghums, is eaten practically without waste. On the other hand from 20 to 35 per ct. of dry com fodder, even if of good quality, is usually wasted.^ The use of silage thus permits the keeping of more stock on a given area of land, a factor of much importance on high-priced land. 4. Crops may be ensiled when the weather does not permit of curing them into dry fodder. In some sections of the South it is almost im- possible to preserve the corn crop satisfactorily as grain and stover on account of the humidity, and also because rodents and weevils cause great loss in the stored grain.* Preservation as silage obviates both difficulties. 5. Weedy crops which would make poor hay may make silage of good quality, the ensiling process killing practically all the weed seeds pres- ent.' 6. The product from a given area can be stored in less space as silage than as dry forage. A cubic foot of hay in the mow, weighing about 5 lbs., contains approximately 4.3 lbs. of dry matter. An average cubic foot of corn silage from a 30-foot silo, weighing about 39.6 lbs., will con- tain 10.4 lbs. dry matter, or nearly 2.5 times as much. Dry com fodder takes up even more space per pound of dry matter than hay. In climates where it is necessary to store fodder under cover this may be an added reason for the use of the silo. 409. Crops for the silo. — The suitability of the leading crops for silage has been discussed in detail in the foregoing chapters. Where it thrives Indian corn is the best silage plant. (300) The sorghums, including both the sorghos and the grain sorghums, are next in value and im- portance, as crops for silage. (309) In England meadow grasses have ' Skinner and Cochel, Ind. Bui. 129. 'Washburn, Vt. Bui. 170. » Ferris, Miss. Bui. 158. 258 FEEDS AND FEEDING been converted into stack silage, in which case the decaying outside pro- tects the interior of the mass — a practice which, however, is not gaining favor. Potts of Australia^" reports that 3 tons of grass silage is esti- mated to be worth 1 ton of oat hay. A stack containing 200 tons of grass silage, opened after 10 years, furnished good feed. Georgeson of the Alaska Experiment Station^^ reports that fresh native grasses kept well when stored in a log silo made smooth inside, and that such silage satis- factorily maintained oxen during 3 winters. Green cereals are fairly satisfactory for silage, providing they are ensiled before the stems have become woody. (318) Since the hollow stems of these plants con- tain air, such forage must be closely compacted in the silo. As a class the legumes have proved disappointing for silage when ensiled alone. (342, 348) Better results have been secured when such crops as alfalfa and clover are ensiled with plants which carry more sugar and less protein, such as green rye, wheat, com, or sorghum. Except where weather conditions prevent curing these legumes into satisfactory hay, there is usually little need of ensiling them, for more reliable silage crops may usually be grown. When ensiled with corn or the sorghums, cowpeas and soybeans produce silage of high quality, rich in protein. (357-8) The refuse of pea canneries makes a silage much relished by farm animals. (356) Such substances as beet pulp, beet tops, apple pomace, the waste from sweet corn canneries, and sorghum bagasse may be successfully ensiled in silos, or placed in heaps and covered with earth, or, if no better provision can be made, massed in large heaps without covering, in which case the outside portion on decaying forms a preserving crust. (274, 356) Cooke of the Vermont Station^^ found that ensiled apple pomace was preferred by cows to either hay or com fodder, and concludes that it has a value equal to corn silage for cows. (635) Boyce of Australia^* reports prickly pears making silage relished by cattle, the thorns soften- ing and becoming harmless. Weeds and other waste vegetation may sometimes be advantageously ensiled. Featherstonhaugh of Australia^* reports a case where 800 tons of ensiled thistles made satisfactory silage. Attempts to ensile cabbage, rape, and turnips have failed, the product being ill-smelling and watery. 410. Cost of silage. — The cost of silage per ton will vary widely de- pending on the price of labor, the yield of forage per acre, rent of land, etc. The following summary of recent data from 4 experiment stations gives the approximate ton and acre cost of growing a silage crop and placing it in the silo, including the rent of land, cost of fertilizers, man and horse labor, interest and depreciation on machinery and silo, and other charges, such as the cost of twine and fuel: " N. S. Wales Gaz., Vol. 15, p. 82. " N. S. Wales Gaz., Vol. 8, p. 505. " Alaska Bui. 1. " N. S. Wales Gaz., Vol. 9, p. 71. '^Vt. Rpt. 1903. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 259 Cost per acre of corn silage Minnesota Illinois Ohio New Jersey Station," Station," Station," Station," 201 acres 147 acres 115 acres 30 acres Oollare DollaiB Dollars , Dollars Land rental... 3.76 6.28 3.81 Manure or fertilizers 3.73 1.46 \ m ik Seed 1.06 0.42 0.28/ ^"•^'' Labor growing and cutting crop . . 5.19 \ io or ia at o ot Labor filling sUo .. 4.12/ ^^'^^ ^*°^ ^-^^ Twine 0.36 0.41 0.18] Coal -. 0.42 0.46 0.25 V 10.84 Rental of power for cutter 1 .39 1 .21 1 .36 J Interest and depreciation on farm machinery '. 1 .56 1 .76 1 .34 Miscellaneous 1.13 0.58 0.42 Total cost per acre 18.98 26.11 23.73 29.26* Cost per ton 3.30 3.65* * Not including rent and interest and depreciation on farm machinery. « Minn. Bui. 145. " Ohiq Bui., 268. " Unpublished data. " N. J. Rpt. 1913, pp. 414-415. Carrier of the United States Department of Agriculture,^" collecting data from 31 Wisconsin and Michigan farms, found the amount of corn forage placed in the silo daily varied from 3.3 to 7.4 tons for each man employed. Chase and Wood of the Nebraska Station,^" gathering data for 341 acres of silage corn, found that the average cost per ton in filling silos was as follows : Cutting with binder, $.20 ; hauling, $.44 ; putting in silo, $.40; twine, $.03; and interest and depreciation on silo, $.32. Figuring corn at $.50 per bushel and stover at $.50 per acre the total average cost of the silage was $2.98 per ton. 411. Silage on the stock farm. — The use of silage has practically revolutionized the feeding of dairy cattle over a large part of the United States, and is fast assuming equal importance for the feeding of beef cattle and sheep. This succulent feed tends to keep the bowels normal, the body tissues sappy, the skin pliant, and the coat glossy, all of which mark the animals as in condition to make the most from their feed. (109) Furnishing at any time of the year a uniform supply of succulence nearly equal in palatability and nutritive effect to the pasturage of early summer, silage is eminently suited to the dairy cow. (629-36) As shown by the trials reviewed in later chapters, thru the wise use of silage for fattening cattle and sheep the cost of meat production may be materially lowered. (774-83, 866-70) Silage is especially valuable for breeding stock and young animals, which would otherwise often be wintered exclusively on dry forage. On too many farms stock cattle barely hold their own during winter. This means that for half of each year aU the feed consumed goes for body maintenance, returning nothing to the owner, and serving only to carry the animals over winter and to pasture time, when they once more begin to gain in weight and thereby really increase in value. By the use of corn silage, combined with other »U. S. Farmers' Bui. 292. ^Nebr. Bui. 145. 260 FEEDS AND FEEDING cheap roughages, young cattle can be made to gain steadily all winter at small cost, so that with the coming of spring they will not only have increased in weight but are in condition to go on pasture and make the largest possible gains. Silage is a valuable succulence for the breeding flock, but must be fed in moderation to ewes before lambing or weak, flabby lambs may result. (884) Good silage may also be used in a limited way with idle horses and those not hard worked in winter, especially brood mares and colts. (510) Spoiled, moldy silage should always be discarded, and special care must be taken to feed no such material to sheep or horses, which are much more easily affected thereby than are cattle. Silage which is unduly sour is apt to cause digestive disturbances with sheep. For all animals only as much silage should be supplied as will be cleaned up at each feeding. Care should be taken to remove any waste for this succulence spoils in a comparatively short time on exposure to the air. Frozen silage must be thawed before feeding. If then given before any decomposition takes place no harm will result from its use.^^ On high-priced land and with high prices ruling for purchased con- centrates and for labor the farmer wiU find the legumes and Indian Corn or the sorghums his best crop allies. Heavily manured land will yield enormous crops of corn or sorghum forage carrying much grain, and this, utilized in part as dry forage, but mostly as silage, will materially extend the feeding powers of the farm in roughage rich in carbohydrates. Then let red clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, .vetch, or other legumes be grown to furnish a protein-rich dry roughage. With an abundance of silage and legume hay the stockman need then supply only the minimum of rich concentrates which he must either grow or purchase. With this combination of feeds the number of animals the farm will carry is greatly increased, to the great advantage of both land and owner, and the cost of producing meat and milk is cut to the minimum. 412. Summer silage. — In many districts summer droughts frequently injure the pastures, making necessary the supplying of additional feed to maintain satisfactory production with dairy cows and other farm animals. Especially on high-priced land, where intensive agriculture must be followed, it is often desirable to keep more animals than can profitably be maintained entirely on pasture during the summer. Silage will admirably meet both these needs where enough animals are kept to feed off 2 inches or more of silage each day so that the surface will not decay. (420) In trials covering 3 years at the Wisconsin Station^'' Woll, Humphrey, and Oosterhuis compared corn silage and soilage as summer supplements to pasture for dairy cows. In the production of milk and butter fat the silage ration was as efSeient as that containing soilage, and also far "TJ. S. Farmers' Bui. 556. "Wis. Bui. 235. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 261 cheaper and more convenient. (642) To provide a succession of green feed for animals by means of soiling crops it is necessary to fit and plant comparatively small areas to different crops at different times. As the cut soilage wiU quickly heat in warm weather if placed in piles and will then be less palatable, a supply must be harvested each day or at least about every 2 days. Harvesting in small quantities and in all sorts of weather is inconvenient and expensive, and moreover the work must be done at the busiest season of the year. On the other hand, when corn or the sorghums are grown for silage the large fields are fitted, planted, cultivated, and harvested with labor saving machinery at a minimum expense, and feeding the silage takes but a few minutes daily. Corn and sorghum return greater yields of nutrients than, many of the crops it is necessary to include in a soiling system. Silage furnishes feed of uniformly high quality thruout the season, a goal which is diffi- cult to attain by soiling, for one crop is often exhausted or too mature before the next is in prime condition for feeding. The years when drought is severe and pastures unusually short are the very times when soiling crops will be scant or may even fail. By means of the silo, the crop may be carried over from one year to the next, thus providing insurance against drought. 413. Filling the silo. — ^Provided the material is closely packed, it is not essential that green forage be cut into bits to preserve it in the silo. The legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, cowpea vines, etc., are often ensiled uncut, and some farmers ensile whole corn forage, tied in bundles. Especially with such coarse material as corn or sorghum, the forage packs much better when cut into short lengths by passing thru a silage cutter. For this reason and because of the greater ease in filling and especially in removing the silage, corn and sorghum are commonly cut before being ensiled, preferably into one-half to one inch lengths, for if cut longer than this stock may refuse the coarser portions. When filling the silo the inpouring material should be thoroly mixed and evenly spread, so as to prevent uneven settling, as well as to make the mass uniform for feeding. As the friction of the walls retards the settling of the adjacent forage, material here should be kept slightly higher than in the center and should be especially well-tramped. The silage settles best when several days are occupied in filling the silo, for time is required for the forage to soften and settle and to expel the entangled air thru heat and the generation of carbon dioxid. After the mass has settled considerably, more forage may be placed in the silo, but any spoiled material should first be removed. If feeding is not to begin immediately, the surface should be wet down thoroly and tramped well several times the first week, when an impervious layer of rotten silage will form on top and only a few inches will be spoiled. To lessen the waste it is well to remove the ears from the last few loads of com. A covering of a foot or so of cheap refuse, such as straw, weeds, or corn stalks, wet with water, will save the more valuable 262 FEEDS AND FEEDING forage underneath. Oat or wheat grains scattered over the top of the ensiled mass soon germinate and form a mat which helps to keep out the air. The crust should not be disturbed until feeding commences, when all spoiled silage should be removed and discarded. "When the forage becomes dry before being ensiled water should be added either to the mass in the silo or preferably to the cut forage as it passes thru the blower. 414. Danger from carbon dioxid. — In silo filling there is possible danger to those who go into the pit after an intermission, due to the generation of carbonic acid gas, which sometimes accumulates in sufficient quantity to prove fatal to life. The possibility of danger may be ascertained by lowering a lighted lantern or candle into the pit. If the light con- tinues to bum at the bottom human beings can live in the same atmos- phere, but if it goes out it means death to one entering the pit. The opening of a door low down in the silo will allow the poisonous gas to pour out, or pouring a lot of cut forage into the pit soon creates a circu- lation which removes the danger. 415. Weight of silage. — King^^ reports the weight of silage from weU- matured corn 2 days after filling the silo to be as follows : Weight of a cubic foot of corn silage at different depths Weight at Mean weight for Depth given depth whole depth Lbs. Lbs. Ifoot 18.7 18.7 lOfeet 33.1 26.1 20feet 46.2 33.3 30feet 56.4 39.6 36feet 61.0 42.8 The second column shows that 10 ft. from the top corn silage weighs about 33 lbs. per cubic ft., while 36 ft. down it weighs 61 lbs., or nearly twice as much. The last column shows that the whole mass down to 10 ft. has a mean weight of about 26 lbs., while the whole mass in a silo filled to a depth of 36 ft. has an average weight of 42.8 lbs. per cubic foot. 416. Capacity of the silo.— The following table, chiefly from data obtained by King,"* shows the approximate capacity of cylindrical silos for well-matured com silage 2 days after filling. The depth indicated is the actual depth of the silage, not the height of the silo wall. It is therefore necessary to have the silo about 5 feet higher than the depth given to allow for settling. The table shows, for example, that a silo 20 ft. deep and 15 ft. in di- ameter will hold about 59 tons of cut corn silage, one 32 ft. deep and 26 ft. in diameter about 346 tons, and one 40 ft. deep and 22 ft. in diameter about 340 tons. =« Wis. Bui. 59. "Wis. Bui. 59. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PEEPAEATION OF FEED 263 Approximate capacity of cylindrical silos in tons of corn silage Inside diameter in feet Depth of silage in feet 10 12 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 26 20 26 28 30 32 ' 34 36 38 40 42 44 47 49 51 66 61 70 38 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 74 80 87 101 51 55 59 62 67 71 75 79 83 87 91 96 100 109 118 138 59 63 67 72 76 81 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 126 136 160 67 72 77 82 86 91 97 102 109 114 119 125 131 143 155 180 85 91 97 103 110 116 123 130 137 144 151 158 166 181 196 228 105 112 120 128 135 143 152 160 169 178 187 196 205 224 243 282 127 135 145 154 164 173 184 194 205 216 226 237 248 271 293 340 151 161 172 184 195 206 219 231 243 256 269 282 295 177 21 189 22 202 23 216 24 229 25 242 26 257 27 271 28 285 29 300 30 315 31 330 32 346 34 36 40 417. Proper size of the silo. — The diameter of the silo should be gauged by the mimber and kind of animals to be fed from it, and its height by the length of the feeding period. The silo should be of such diameter that in the cooler part of the year at least 1.5 inches, and preferably 2 inches, of silage will be removed fromi the entire surface daily to keep the sur- face from spoiling. When silage is used for summer feeding somewhat more should be removed daily. The exact size of silo required may be computed from the length of the feeding period and the amount required daily for the different kinds of stock, as shown in the respective chapters of Part III. Knowing the number of animals of each kind to be fed, the entire amount of silage which will be consumed daily may be ascer- tained. The maximum diameter which the silo should have, may then be determined from the following : Two inches in depth of ordinary corn silage weighs about 3 lbs. per surface square foot near the top of the silo and 9 lbs. near the bottom, averaging about 6.6 lbs. in a silo filled to a depth of 30 feet. To use 2 inches from the surface each day the amounts indicated below should be fed daily from silos of various diameters. Minimum amount of silage to ie fed daily from silos of various diameters Diameter of silo Minimum amount of silage Lbs. 10 feet 520 11 feet 625 12 feet 745 14 feet 1,015 16 feet 1,325 Diameter of silo Minimum amount of silage Lbs. 18 feet 1,680 20 feet 2,075 22 feet 2,510 24 feet 2,985 26 feet 3,505 In cold weather and when the silage is weU packed, a somewhat smaller amount may be removed daily. 264 FEEDS AND FEEDING When the minimum diameter which the silo should have has thus been determined, the total amount of silage required for the desired feeding period may be computed and the dimensions for a silo of this capacity found by referring to the table in the preceding article. It should be borne in mind that silage in a relatively deep silo keeps better than in a shallow one, and that a deep silo is the most economical to construct. King''^ found that a silo 36 ft. in depth will store 5 times as much feed as one 12 ft. deep, due to the greater compactness of the stored mass. Many silos are now built 40 ft. or even more in depth. A silo 20 ft. in diameter will hold 4 times as much as one having half that diameter, while it costs but twice as much to build. Gurler^' advises against silos over 25 ft. in diameter on account of the increased labor involved in removing the silage. II. Soilage Soilage means supplying forage fresh from the field to animals in confinement. It was first brought to public attention in this country by Josiah Quincy, whose admirable essays, printed in the Massachusetts Agricultural Journal in 1820, were later gathered into a booklet entitled "The Soiling of Cattle," long since out of print. Soilage, one of the most intensive forms of husbandry, is especially helpful where it is desired to concentrate labor and capital in maintaining farm ani- mals on a relatively small area of land. So far as known to the authors the word "soilage" was used for the first time in an editorial in the New York Independent of March 11, 1909 by E. P. Powell, the helpful, chahning writer on rural topics. It is in a class with the words "leafage," "herbage," "forage," "pasturage," and "silage," and is here adopted as a valuable accession to our all too brief distinctively agricultural vocabulary. 418. Advantages and disadvantages of soilage. — Compared with allow- ing animals to gather their food by grazing, soiling has the following advantages: 1. With all crops, even grasses, which soon spring up again when grazed, a larger yield is secured by allowing the plants to nearly mature before harvesting than by pasturing them.^' (310) 2. With a properly planned succession of soiling crops an abundance of palatable feed may usually be supplied thruout the season, so that the production of the animals will not decline if pastures become parched in midsummer. 3. None of the forage is wasted thru being tramped down by the animals or fouled with manure. 4. Less fencing is required. 5. In bad weather cattle will be more comfortable fed soiling crops in the stable than when grazing. The greater expenditure for labor, seed, and fertilizer in producing the crops and for labor in cutting and carrying them to the animals are the chief disadvantages of soilage. In warm weather soilage will =» Physics of Agriculture. "Largely from Quincy, The Soiling of Cattle. "The Farm Dairy. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OP FEED 265 ferment and mold in a short time if left in piles. When but few animals are fed the green forage may be spread thinly on the barn floor, where it will keep, but soilage thus handled dries out and is less palatable. Where a considerable quantity is harvested at one time much labor may be saved by using the mower and horse rake. During wet spells the palatability of the soilage is reduced, and it is difficult to harvest and cart the food to the animals without injury to the land. On the other hand, pastures also suffer if grazed while wet. 419. Yield of pasturage and soilage. — Quincy reports that he main- tained 20 cows in stalls, allowing exercise in an open yard, on the soilage from 17 acres of land where 50 acres had been required when the land was pastured. The senior author'* kept 3 cows for 122 days in summer on 3.7 acres of excellent bluegrass pasture at the Wisconsin Station and maintained 3 others in stable and yard for the same period by feeding soiling crops (green clover, fodder com, and oats) from 1.5 acres. On this area a total of 44,835 lbs. of green forage was produced. The product from an acre under each system was as follows : Yield of milk and butter from 1 acre of soiling crops and pasture From 1 acre of soiling crops . From 1 acre of pasture :ilk per acre Lbs. Butter per acre 4,782 1,780 196 82 This shows that in Wisconsin 1 acre of soilage crops equalled about 2.5 acres of good bluegrass pasture for feeding dairy cows. Otis of the Kansas Station'" found that it required 0.71 acre of soiling crops, half the area being alfalfa, to furnish a cow roughage for 144 days, while, when the cow was grazed, during the same period it required 3.6 acres of pasture composed of prairie and mixed grasses. After allowing for the grain consumed, soilage returned $18.08 and pasturage $4.23 per acre. Voorhees'" found that to produce a ton of dry matter in soiling crops yielding from 3 to 4.5 tons of dry matter per acre annually, cost on an average $6.50, and that the total cost per ton of dry matter, including cutting and hauling to the bam, would be about $9.'^ The feeding value of this dry matter was nearly equal to that in purchased concentrates costing over $20 per ton. 420. The place of soilage on American farms. — It has been shown before (412), that silage is a more economical means of supplying succu- lent feed in summer than is soilage. On farms where too few animals are kept to prevent the molding of the surface of the silage as it is fed off or where a silo is not available, soilage should be provided to prevent the usual midsummer shrinkage in milk flow with cows, and in flesh with beef cattle or sheep. Under this system animals may be housed in darkened stables away from the flies during the heated portion of the day and fed liberally with fresh cut soilage, being turned to pasture at night for exercise and grazing. Young cattle will then continue «Wl8. Rpt. 1885. »Kan. Press Bui. 71. "Forage Crops. »N. J. Rpt. 1907. 266 FEEDS AND FEEDING growing, steers will increase in fatness, and cows yield a normal flow of milk during a period of the year when, because of heat, flies, and scant pastures, there is quite commonly no profit, and sometimes serious loss. It is also often advantageous to supply extra green forage during the fall months, even tho the pastures have then partly recovered their ability to supply nutriment. Because of the high price of labor in this country, it is not usually economical to maintain cattle in summer on soilage or silage with no pasturage in regions where good summer pastures may be provided. On high-priced land where it is desired to keep as many animals as pos- sible on a given area such a system may be the most profitable. In Europe where labor is relatively cheap compared with land, a much wider use can economically be made of soilage. 421. Crops for soilage. — A long list of crops are well suited for soilage, including the various legumes, such as alfalfa, the clovers, field peas, cowpeas, and soybeans; the cereals, as rye, wheat, barley, and oats; the smaller grasses; and especially com — sweet corn for early feeding and field corn later — and the sorghums. The adaptability of all these for soilage has been discassed in the preceding chapters. Soiling crops should not be fed until reasonably mature. Green, immature plants are composed largely of water, and often cattle cannot consume enough of them to secure the required nourishment. (23, 310) For this reason, where quite green crops are fed, some dry forage should also be supplied. 422. A soiling chart. — ^Wherever soilage is practiced, a succession of crops must be carefully planned so that a continuous supply of green forage of the proper stage of maturity will be available over the period desired. This must be worked out by each farmer, bearing in mind the yields and seasons of maturity of the various crops which are suited to his soil and climatic conditions. In such planning it is helpful to pre- pare a soiling chart, similar to the following, worked out by Voorhees of the New Jersey Station,^^ which will show the area of each crop to be grown, the date of seeding, the period of feeding, and the estimated yield. Any attempt in this line will be more or less imperfect at first but may be modified from growing experience and close study to meet the local conditions. This chart is an example of a practical system of soilage, since it records the actual attainment of one who most successfully specialized in this system for many years. The results here reported were obtained upon lands once regarded as of low agricultural value, brought to high productiveness by systematic soilage and fertilization. The table shows that 24 acres of land, producing 2 and sometimes 3 crops during the season, yielded 278.3 tons of green forage, supplying an average of 60.4 lbs. of green forage daily per head to an equivalent of 50 dairy cows from May 1 to November 1, a period of 6 months. "Forage Crops, p. 35. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OP FEED 267 Soiling crops grown at the New Jersey Station for the support of a herd equal to 50 dairy cows for 6 months Crops gro^n Total seed used Date of seeding Period of cutting and feeding Total yield Rye, 2 acres Rye, 2 acres AUaifa, 1 acre, 1st cutting. Wheat, 2 acres Crimson clover, 6 acres Mixed grasses, 1 acre Oats-and-peas, 2 acres .... Bushels 4.0 4.0 0.6 4.0 1.2 Sept. 27 Oct. 3 May 14 Sept. 26 July 16 Oats-and-peas, 2 acres Alfalfa, 2d cutting. Oats-and-peas, 5 acres Southern white com, 2 acres Barnyard millet, 2 acres Soybeans, 1 acre Cowpeas, 1 acre Cowpeas-and-kafir com, 2 acres Pearl millet, 2 acres Cowpeas, 1 aiSre Mixed grasses, 5 acres (partly dried) . Barley, 2 acres April 2 AprO 11 m 10. 7. 0.5' 1.4 2.0 2.0 {!:§} 0.25 1.5 April 19 May 2 June 19 June 1 June 10 July 10 July 11 July 24 3.5 Sept. 2 May 1- 7 May 7-19 May 19-25 May 25-June 1 June 1-21 June 21-26 June 26-July 4 July 4r-9 July 9-11 July 11-22 July 22-Aug. 3 Aug. 3-19 Aug. 19-25 Aug. 25-Sept. 1 Sept. 1-16 Sept. 16-Oct. 1 Oct. 1- 5 Oct. 5-27 Oct. 27-Nov. 1 Tons 9.4 19.2 11.1 10.4 42.8 8.3 12.4 8.2 2.1 16.4 17.7 23.2 8.8 10.5 24.4 20.2 8.0 20.0 5.2 Total . 278.3 III. The Peepaeation op Feeds In the nomadic stage of husbandry the animals gathered their own food, the care of the owner ending when grazing, water, and protection from marauders were provided. With the change from primitive times the growing of plants and their conservation for animal use becomes an ever-increasing burden on the stockman. It is therefore a question of prime importance to determine to what extent such preparation of feeds as grinding or rolling grain, cutting or chaffing hay and coarse forage, and cooking various feeding stuffs is profitable. The purpose of such artificial preparation of feed is to make it more digestible, to improve its palatability, or to permit the mixing of well- liked feeding stuffs with materials which would otherwise be refused. In studying any method of preparing feeds farmers must not only con- sider the beneficial effect, if any, on the animals, but must also determine whether such effect is marked enough to warrant the added expense in- curred. The value of the different practices for each class of stock is discussed in detail in the respective chapters of Part III, but a summary of the conclusions there drawn will be helpful in showing the principles which should govern the feeder in deciding how far to employ such methods of preparation. 268 FEEDS AND FEEDING 423. Grinding, crushing, or rolling grain. — ^As has been shown before (83), grinding, crushing, or rolling grain increases the digestibility only when animals fail to masticate the whole grain. In fact, grinding grain so finely that it is bolted with little chewing may sometimes decrease the digestibility because of imperfect mixture with the saliva. For all animals, such grains as bald barley or rice, which are unusually hard, or small seeds, such as millet, grain from the sorghums, or weed seeds, should ordinarily be ground. For animals with poor teeth or for young animals before their teeth are well developed, grinding grain in general is advisable. Ordinarily horses can grind their own oats and corn, and idle horses should always do so. For horses which are hard-worked and spend much of their time away from the stable the grain may well be ground and mixed with a small allowance of moistened chaffed hay. (462) A cow yielding a large flow of milk is a hard- worked animal, and her grain should usually be ground. (668) Where pigs follow fattening cattle to gather up any grain which escapes mastication and digestion there is no advantage in grinding com or even shelling it, except perhaps toward the close of the feeding period when the cattle may be induced to eat more by grinding. Where no pigs run with cattle, it is usually economical to grind or crush the corn before feeding. (735-6) Except in the case of small or hard seeds, sheep with good teeth should grind their own grain. (835) While it pays to grind the small grains for pigs, there is no appreciable advantage in grinding corn for pigs weighing 150 lbs. or less. For older animals such preparation may sometimes be profitable. (920-1) 424. Cutting or chaffing forage. — Passing such coarse forages as corn or the sorghums thru a feed cutter or shredder is usually profitable, not because the portions consumed are digested more completely but because the animals waste less of the feed and the cut forage is more convenient to handle. This applies to soilage as well as to cured forage. (297) Where hay is palatable and consumed with little waste, it is ordinarily not economical to cut or chaff it for cattle or sheep, unless it is desired to mix the good-quality hay with other less palatable feed so that the whole will be consumed. Such preparation will often pay with roughage of poor quality as the animals will consume the cut forage with less waste. (835) The use of cut, or chaffed, hay and straw is common in establishments where large numbers of horses are kept. A little water lays the dust of chaffed hay, and the feeder can rapidly and accurately apportion the allowance for each animal. If meal is mingled with a limited portion of moistened chaffed hay, the mixture is in condition to be quickly masticated and swallowed so that it can remain longer in the stomach undergoing digestion — an item of importance with hard-worked horses which are in the stable only at night. (459) Hay or straw should not be cut so fine that the animals will swallow it without chewing, or in the case of ruminants, that it will escape rumi- nation. Kellner** recommends that straw be cut into pieces 1 to 1.4 inches "Emaiir. landw. Nutztlere, 1907, p. 265. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OF FEED 269 long for cattle and 0.6 to 1 inch long for horses and sheep, green fodder and hay being cut somewhat longer. 425. Cooking feed. — In 1854 Professor Mapes voiced the popular opinion of those days when he wrote:" "Raw food is not in condition to be approximated to the tissues of animal life. The experiment often tried has proved that 18 or 19 lbs. of cooked corn are equal to 30 lbs. of raw corn for hog feed." Numerous scientific trials have since demon- strated, however, that in general cooking feed does not increase its digestibility, and in fact decreases the digestibility of the crude protein. (83, 922) This is shown by the trials of Ladd at the New York (Geneva) Station,^" in which he determiaed artificially the digestibility of the crude protein in several common feeds, before and after cooking, with the results shown below : Influence of cooking on digestibility of crude protein Per cant digested Uncooked Cooked Per ct. Per ot. Fresh com meal 68 .6 60 .5 Old com meal 72 .6 63 .2 Clover hay 67 .7 53 .3 Cottonseed meal 87 .7 73 .8 In each case cooking lowered the digestibility of the crude protein. 426. Steaming roughage for cattle. — Fifty years ago and even later, there could be found in this country establishments more or less elaborate used for steaming or boiling straw, corn stalks, hay, etc., for cattle feeding; it is doubtful if there is to-day a single one for this purpose. Feeding steamed hay to oxen at Poppelsdorf, Germany,*' showed that steaming rendered the components of hay, especially the crude protein, less digestible. When dry hay was fed, 46 per ct. of the crude protein was digested, while in steamed hay only 30 per ct. was digested. The advice given years ago by the editor of an agricultural journal is as sound today as when given :*'' "The advantages are very slight and not worth the trouble of either building the fire, cutting the wood, or erecting the apparatus, to say nothing of all these combined, with danger and insurance added." 427. Cooking feed for swine. — ^While cooking feed for cattle was aban- doned years ago, it is still practiced to some extent for swine. Fortu- nately the matter has been carefully studied by several experiment stations and definite conclusions reached. The most extended trial was one running 9 years at the Maine Agricultural College,'' in which cooked and uncooked corn meal were fed. In each case there was a loss by cooking. It is not going too far to say that the investigators of this •♦Trans. Am. Inst., 1854, p. 373. »N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt. 1885. "Homberger, Landw. Jahrb., 8, p. 933; Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding, p. 266. "Country Gentleman, 1861, p. 112. "Ann. Rpt. of Trustees of the Maine State Col. of Agr., 1878. 270 FEEDS AND FEEDING subject usually began their studies in the full belief that the common feeding stuffs would be improved by cooking. The following are fair samples of the comments which commonly accompanied the reports of feeding trials with cooked and uncooked feed for swine. Shelton^' closes an account of his own findings with these words: "The figures given above need but little comment. They show as con- clusively as figures can show anything, that the cooked corn was less useful than the raw grain. . . . Such entire unanimity of results can only be explained on the theory that the cooking was an injurious process so far as its use for food for fattening animals is concerned. ' ' Brown of the Ontario Agricultural College,*" reviewing several trials with cooked and uncooked peas and corn, wrote : "I am not, at present prepared to say definitely what other kinds of food may do, raw or cooked, with pigs or other domestic animals, or how the other animals will thrive with peas or corn, raw or boiled, but I now assert on the strongest possible grounds . . . that for fast and cheap production of pork, raw peas are 50 per ct. better than cooked peas or Indian corn in any shape. ' ' At the Wisconsin Station*^ the senior author, starting with the belief that cooking must increase the value of the common feeds for swine, after some 15 trials with cooked and uncooked whole corn, com meal, ground barley, and wheat middlings, was forced to the conclusion that the Maine findings were correct. (922) 428. Stock bread. — In some sections of Europe bread is made from ground cereals, leguminous seeds, potatoes, cut straw, chaff, etc., prin- cipally for horses, tho sometimes for calves and cattle. The bread may be more appetizing than the original materials, but the chemical changes which take place as a whole do not increase its nutritive value. Such preparation can be generally recommended only where unpalatable feed may thereby be consumed with less waste. Unless baked into hard biscuits such bread will keep only a comparatively short time. 429. When cooking feed is advisable. — No one can review the large accumulation of data from the experiment stations without being con- vinced that generally it does not pay to cook feed for farm stock when such feed will be satisfactorily consumed without cooking. However, a few feeds, such as the potato and the field bean of the North, can be successfully fed to swine only after being cooked. Hard grains and seeds which can not be ground should be cooked or soaked. Musty hay and corn fodder are rendered more palatable and safe by steaming. An occasional allowance of steamed or cooked barley or bran is especially helpful to horses because of its favorable action on the howels, and this is doubtless true in lesser degree with fattening cattle. In winter, breeding swine and stock hogs are benefited by a daily feed of steamed roots, tubers, clover or alfalfa chaff, etc. with meal added. It is often advantageous to administer warm feed in winter, especially to swine, but warming should not be confused with cooking feed. =»Rpt. Prof. Agr., Kan. Agr. Col., 1885. "Ont. Rpt. 1876. "Wis. Rpt. 1893. SILAGE— SOILAGE— THE PREPARATION OP PEEt) 271 430. Soaking feed. — Corn becomes hard and flinty a few months after husking, and sometimes causes sore mouths, so little being then eaten that gains may cease or the animals lose in weight. Grain which is difficult of mastication should be either ground or softened by soaking, so that the animals may at all times consume full rations. Studying the results of 12 feeding trials with pigs at 8 stations, Rommel*^ finds a difference of slightly over 2 per ct. in favor of soaked over dry feed for fattening pigs. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Parms*^ found a loss from soaking ground grain, while whole grain returned better gains when soaked. (735, 923) 431. General conclusions. — It has generally been assumed that by cutting, grinding, and cooking feed much labor is saved the animal, to the advantage of the feeder. This idea is based on the general theory that the less work the animal does in mastication and digestion the larger the net production of work, flesh, or milk. On the contrary, we know that the muscles of the body do not grow strong thru idleness, and that work and activity are conducive to bodily health, growth, and strength. We must therefore conclude that the organs of mastication and digestion should be kept working at their normal capacity. When cutting, grinding, cooking, or pulping brings more satisfaction to fatten- ing animals soon to be slaughtered, and causes them to consume heavier rations, such preparation may pay, as it may also with exceptionally hard-worked animals that have but limited time for taking their rations. Peeding liberally and in an orderly manner, with ample variety in wise combination, is more important and helpful than making feeds fine and soft so that they can be quickly swallowed with little chewing. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim., Indus., Bui. 47. « Ottawa Bui. 33. CHAPTER XVII MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS Unless the plant food removed from the soil in crops is returned in some form, after a period of years reduced yields will tell the story of soil depletion. Already over great areas of our country the soil has been so "mined" of its original fertility that only by the liberal appli- cation of commercial fertilizers are remunerative crops now possible. This is shown by the fact that during 1913 there were sold in the United States over 6,800,000 tons of commercial fertilizers, worth about $150,000,000. In the South Atlantic states alone over 3,750,000 tons were used, including hundreds of thousands of tons of cottonseed meal. Southern planters feed great quantities of cottonseed meal to their crops — a rational agriculture would combine mixed cropping and stock growing with cotton raising. The meal from the cotton seed would be fed to farm animals and the resulting manure, still rich in fertility, would pass back to the fields, thereby giving a double return. A judicious use of commercial fertilizers is highly commendable, but their place in general agriculture is to supplement deficiencies only after aU the fertility in feeding stuffs that have been fed to live stock has been wisely and fully conserved. 432. Farm manure as a fertilizer. — Just as with commercial fertilizers, the value of farm manure is computed on its content of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash, for of the constituents which plants remove from the soil only these need ordinarily be replaced. Phosphoric acid and potash, when naturally lacking in the soil, or when they have been carried off in crops or animals sold, must be replaced by means of com- mercial fertilizers or the manure of farm animals. The nitrogen needed may be indirectly obtained from the air by raising legumes, but in practice much is purchased along with phosphoric acid and potash. Not only do farm manures supply plant food but the vegetable, or organic, matter they contain is important in increasing the productivity of the soil. As this vegetable matter gradually breaks down in the soil, the acid products formed help dissolve and make available to plants some of the otherwise insoluble plant food in the soil. Furthermore, the humus formed from the organic matter of manure helps retain moisture, improves the soil texture, renders it more resistant to wind action, etc. The value of organic matter to the soil is shown by the fact that on fields lacking in humus such crops as rye are often grown and turned under as green manure for the sole purpose of increasing the humus content. 272 MANURIAL VALUE OP FEEDING STUFFS 273 Farm manures teem with bacteria of various kinds which cause chemical changes not only in the manure but also in the soil itself, con- verting insoluble plant food into forms available for crop growth. After much practical work at the Ohio Station, Thorne^ concludes that the fertilizing constituents of farm manures have as high a value per pound as those in such high-grade fertilizers as tankage, bone meal, and muriate of potash. In view of the highly beneficial effects which farm manure has in addition to supplying nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, this is a conservative estimate. Because of the enormous use of commercial fertilizers thruout the civilized world, the nitrogen, phos- phoric acid, and potash they carry have a recognized market price per pound, which fluctuates no more than that of other standard articles of world-wide commerce. In this country the average price of these in- gredients to those who buy in large quantities is about as follows: Nitrogen 18, phosphoric acid 4.5, and potash 5 cents per pound. These values are used in this volume in computing the fertilizing value of feeding stuffs and the manures resulting from feeding tiiem to farm animals. 433. Fertilizing constituents recovered in manure. — The proportion which is recovered in the manure of the total nitrogen, phosphpric acid, and potash supplied in the feed depends on the age and kind of animal, as shown in the following table from Warington ■? Proportion of nitrogen and ash of food which is voided by animal, Nitrogen Ash Per ot. Per ct. Horse at work 100.0 100.0 Fattening ox 96.1 97.7 Fattening sheep 95 .7 96 .2 Fattening pig 85 .3 96 .0 Milch cow 75.5 89 .7 Calf , fed milk 30.7 45.7 The mature horse at work is merely repairing his body tissues as they are broken down. (140) Therefore no nitrogen or ash (containing the phosphoric acid and potash) is stored in his body, but all the nitrogen and practically all of the ash is voided in the manure. (A negligible amount of ash is excreted in the perspiration.) With fatten- ing animals whose bodies are nearly or quite mature, but little of the fertilizing constituents supplied in the food are retained in the body, over 95 per ct. of both nitrogen and ash being voided by the fattening ox and sheep. (122) "With the pig fattened while not yet mature and storing nitrogen in his lean-meat tissues, about 85 per ct. of the nitrogen of the food is returned in the manure. As milk is rich in nitrogen and ash, the cow in milk voids only about 75 per ct. of the nitrogen and 89 per ct. of the ash contained in her food. (150) The young calf, growing rapidly in bone, muscle, and body organs, voids only 30.7 per ct. of the nitrogen and 45.7 per ct. of the ash in the food, storing the balance in lOhio Bui. 183. "Chemistry of the Farm, p. 214. 274 FEEDS AND FEEDING its body. (113) Considering the proportion of young animals and of those giving milk on the average farm, it has been estimated' that from the feed supplied farm stock about 80 per ct. of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash is ordinarily recovered in the feces and urine. The proportion of the organic matter of the food which is found in the feces will vary widely, depending on the proportion of difficultly diges- tible roughage in the ration. For well-fed ruminants and horses it ranges from about 20 to 35 per ct. As has been indicated before (432), the organic matter is a highly important factor in the beneficial action of the manure. No definite money value is, however, usually given to it in discussions of the fertilizing value of farm manures. 434. Influence of feed on the value of manure. — The animal creates nothing of fertilizing value, for it voids only that which it has eaten or drunk. Part of the fertilizing constituents is appropriated in the formation of flesh or milk, and the rest is voided in the excrements. The value of manure therefore depends primarily on the character of the food from which it originates. Foods rich in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash yield rich manure; those low in these constituents make poor manure. . In a trial reported by Warington,* cows fed 154 lbs. of mangels per head daily voided 88 lbs. of urine, containing but 0.12 per ct. nitrogen and 0.60 per ct. potash. Other cows fed 26 lbs. of alfalfa hay and given 66 lbs. of water daily voided only 14 lbs. of urine, which, however, carried 1.54 per ct. of nitrogen and 1.69 per ct. of potash, thus containing 13 times as much nitrogen and 3 times as much potash per pound as the urine from the cows eating mangels. 435. Fertility and manurial value of feeds. — Having shown that the value of manure depends primarily on the feeds eaten, we next consider the fertilizing constituents of typical feeding stuffs and animal products, shown in the following table, taken from the extensive data in Appendix Tables III and VI. For this table the fertility value of each feed per ton has been computed on the basis of what the total nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potash in that feed would cost if purchased in commer- cial fertilizers. The last column gives the manurial value^ of each feed ; i.e., the value of the manure which would result from feeding 1 ton of the feed to live stock. This has been computed on the assumption that, on the average, farm animals return in the manure about 80 per ct. of the total fertilizing value of the feed. (433) Obviously this value holds only when the manure is so cared for as to prevent the losses mentioned later. (442-3) 'Hart and Tottingham, Gen. Agr. Chem., 1913, p. 124; Van Slyke, Fertilizers and Crops, 1912, p. 300. * Chemistry of the Farm, p. 218. 'Hart, Wis. Bui. 221. MANURIAL VALUE OP FEEDING STUFFS 275 Fertilising constituents in feeding stuffs and animal products Concentrates Dent com Oats Wheat Wheat bran Linseed meal, old pro- cess Cottonseed meal, choice Roughages Timothy hay Red clover hay Oat straw Com silage, recent anal- yses Animak and animal Tpro- ducts Fat ox Fat pig Milk Butter Fertilizing constituenta in 1000 lbs. Nitrogen Lbs. 16.2 19.8 19.8 25.6 54.2 70.6 9.9 20.5 5.8 3.4 23.3 17.7 5.8 1.2 FhoB))horic acid Lbs. 6.9 8.1 8.6 29.5 17.0 26.7 3.1 3.9 2.1 1.6 15.5 6.5 1.9 0.4 Potash Lbs. 4.0 5.6 5.3 16.2 12.7 18.1 13.6 16.3 15.0 4.4 1.8 1.4 1.7 0.4 Fertility .value per ton Dollars 6.85 8.42 8.43 13.49 22.31 29.63 6.20 9.36 3.78 1.81 9.96 7.10 2.43 0.51 Manurial value per ton Dollars 5.48 6.74 6.74 10.79 17.85 23.70 4.16 7.49 3.02 1.45 1.94 The fertility values given in the fourth column mean, for example, that the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash removed from the soil in a ton of oat straw will cost not less than $3.78 if bought in the market in commercial fertilizers. A ton of corn (grain) removes $6.85 in fertility, and of wheat, $8.43. Because the legumes usually obtain much of their nitrogen from the air, only a part of the fertility in a ton of clover, worth $9.36, may have been taken from the soil. Clover hay is 80 per ct. richer than timothy hay and about 2.5 times as rich as oat straw in fertility. The fertility value of wheat bran is $13.49 per ton, while that of the wheat grain is only $8.43. This is because the starchy part of the grain, which forms most of the flour, holds but little fertility, while the outside portion, the bran, is high in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Of the feeds listed, cottonseed meal has the highest fertility value, $29.63 per ton; this explains why it has often been applied directly to the soil as a fertilizer. In 1913 the farmers of Connecticut* spread on their fields nearly 7,000 tons, or about 300 carloads, of this valuable feeding stuff, one of the richest and best for dairy cows and fattening cattle. Millions of dollars worth of cottonseed meal are annually applied by the planters of the South to the cotton fields to make another crop of cotton. Where the meal is first fed to live stock, the milk or flesh produced should easily pay its cost, and under good management also for a considerable share of the labor of feeding. "With proper care and application, the manure resulting from each ton of meal fed would 'Conn. (New Haven) Rpt. 1913. 276 FEEDS AND FEEDING be worth $23.70, the manurial value, as surely as would the application to the same land of commercial fertilizers worth this amount. 436. Selling fertility — The table in the preceding article further shows that those who sell such crops as hay, corn, and wheat part with far more fertility for a given sum of money than do those who sell animals or their products. The farmer who sells 1,000 lbs. of clover hay, worth $5 to $8, parts with about as much fertility as if he had sold 1,000 lbs. of fat ox or fat pig, worth $60 to $75, or more. Based on the selling price, milk carries considerable fertility from the farm, and butter practically none. Farm crops may be regarded as raw products, while farm animals, milk, wool, butter, etc., represent manufactured products. A large amount of raw material in the form of grass, hay, corn, etc., is put into animals, and the heavy waste or by-product resulting, in the form of manure, when carried back to the fields con- serves most of the fertility. The farmer who feeds his crops to live stock is a manufacturer as well as a producer, with two possible profits instead of one, while his farm loses little of its fertility. The farmer who grows and sells grain, hay, and straw is selling a large amount of fertility, the need of which will surely be apparent as time goes on and his fields give smaller and smaller returns. Such a farmer is slowly but surely mining phosphorus and potash from his soil, which can be replaced only by some purchased material. Virgin soils as a rule contain great quantities of available fertility, and the pioneer farmers in America, drawing upon Nature 's store, have given little consideration to how their crops are fed and have not realized that they are steadily and often wastefuUy drawing on the store of fertility which represents their principal capital. The western farmer, when marketing corn or wheat, or the southern planter, when selling seed cotton, considers he is selling labor and rent of land. Barely does he realize that he is also selling fertility, to replace which would cost a considerable part of all the crop brings. Rather than to reckon the value of his crop at the market price, he should recognize that its true value when sold from the farm is really the market price minus the value of the fertility which the crop removes from the soil. 437. Buying fertility. — Even in live-stock farming where little or no grain or roughage is sold and when proper care is taken of the manure, not all of the fertility removed in the crops is returned in the manure. The supply of nitrogen in the soil can usually be maintained by the growth of legumes, but sooner or later it is necessary to replace the small but steady loss of phosphoric acid and potash. Therefore in purchasing feeding stuffs, one should always consider not only the feeding value but also their worth as fertilizers. By purchasing those concentrates rich in phosphoric acid and potash, such as wheat bran and middlings, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, malt sprouts, etc., many live-stock farms are steadily being increased in fertility. MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS 277 438. British practice. — In Great Britain, where many of the farmers are long-period tenants, the manurial value of feeding stuffs is recognized by law in a manner that tends greatly to the betterment and permanence of her agriculture. The Agricultural Holdings Act, which is the law governing the relations between landlord and tenant, directs that when a tenant is vacating his leasehold he shall be reasonably compensated for the improvements he has made. Among these, credit must be given for the fertilizing value of feeding stuffs which the tenant may have purchased and fed out, and also, under certain conditions, for the fertilizing value of grains produced on the farm and fed to stock. In order to furnish data to guide the valuers who serve in settlement between landlord and tenant, after full and extended study Lawes and Gilbert and later Voelcker and Hall of the Rothamsted Experiment Station drew up tables showing the compensation to be allowed for the fertilizing value of various feeds. The recommendations, as revised in 1913 and adopted by the Central Association of Agriculture and Tenant Right Valuers,^ are that the tenant shall be credited as follows for all manure resulting from feeding purchased feeds to stock on the lease- hold: For all unused manure or that which has been recently applied to the land without a crop being grown thereafter, a credit of three-fourths of the total value of the phosphoric acid and potash in the feed is allowed. Because a greater loss of nitrogen commonly occurs in stored manure than in manure dropped in the fields by animals at pasture, a credit of 70 per ct. of the total value of the nitrogen is allowed when the stock have been fed at pasture, and of only 50 per ct. when they have been fed in barn or yard. When one crop has been grown since the application of the manure, a part of the fertility thereby being used up, the credit allowed is only half that stated above. It is realized that the beneficial effects of farm manure persist much longer than 2 years, but owing to the difficulties of checking records for a longer period, the compensation is not extended over a greater time. The principles of the English law, as here set forth, should be drafted into every lease drawn between landlord and tenant in this country. 439. Composition and value of fresh manure. — Even tho the value of manure produced by animals of the same kind depends primarily on the nature of the feed supplied, it is important to note the approximate composition of manure from the different classes of farm animals. The following table, adapted from Van Slyke," shows the percentage of water and the amount and value of the fertilizing constituents per ton in fresh manure, including both feces and urine, from the different farm animals. 'Jour. Roy. Agr. Sec, England, 74, 1913, pp. 104-119. 'Fertilizers and Crops, p. 291. 278 FEEDS AND FEEDING Composition of one ton of average manure from farm animals Phosphorio Water Nitrogen acid Potash Value Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dols. Horse manure 78 14 5 11 3 .30 Cow manure 86 12 3 9 2 .74 Sheep manure 68 19 7 20 4 .74 Pig manure 87 10 7 8 2 .52 Horse and sheep manures contain less water than that of cows or pigs, and are known as "hot manures" because their low water content permits rapid fermentation when stored. On the other hand the void- ings of the cow and pig form "cold manures," the high water content checking fermentation. Sheep manure has the highest value per ton, based on fertilizing constituents ; pig manure the lowest. Mixed farm manures carry about 10 lbs. of nitrogen, 5 lbs. of phosphoric acid, and 10 lbs. of potash per ton. 440. Amount of manure voided. — ^Various methods have been suggested for computing the amount of fresh manure — feces and urine — produced by farm animals. Heiden" found that on the average 100 lbs. of dry matter fed to farm animals produced the amount of fresh manure shown in the first column of the following table. The second column gives the weight of manure plus bedding, computed from data compiled by Van Slyke.^" Manure from 100 lbs. dry matter fed to farm animals Manure Manure plus bedding Lbs. Lbs. Horse 210 280 Cow 384 427 Sheep 183 285 Owing to the high water content of cow manure, a larger amount is produced from 100 lbs. of dry matter in the feed than in the case of the horse or sheep. The amount of manure voided daily by farm animals varies widely, depending on the nature and amount of feed given and the age, activity, etc. of the animals. The following table, adapted from Van Slyke,^^ is a helpful approximation of the amount of manure voided daily by farm animals, per 1,000 lbs. live weight. Daily production of manure iy farm animals per 1,000 lbs. live weight Feces Urine Total manure Manure plus bedding Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Horse 39 10 49 65 Cow 52 22 74 82 Sheep 23 11 34 53 Pig 50 33 83 99 •Storer, Agriculture, 1899, II, p. 289. "Fertilizers and Crops, pp. 294, 303. "Fertilizers and Crops, p. 303. MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEBING STUFFS 279 Based on live weight, the pig yields more manure than other farm animals, due to the heavy feed consumption per 1,000 lbs. live weight and the watery nature of the manure. 441. Fertilizing constituents produced yearly. — ^According to Van Slyke,^^ the approximate amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash voided annually by farm animals per 1,000 lbs. live weight is as follows : Anmial yield of fertilizing constituents per 1,000 lis. live weight Nitrogen Fhosphorio acid Potash Value Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Dollars Horse 128 43 103 30 .12 Cow 156 38 127 36.14 Sheep 119 44 126 29.70 Pig 150 104 128 38.08 The last column shows the total value of the fertilizing constituents, computed at the prices previously given. (432) 442. Losses in farm manures.* — From the foregoing it is evident that farm manure is one of the most valuable products of the farm. Yet many farmers who freely purchase commercial fertilizers allow much of the value of the manure produced by their live stock to be washed away in streams or otherwise dissipated. It is most important to realize that manure is a perishable product, and that unless proper care is taken over half its value may be lost. Plant food may be wasted thru: (1) Loss of urine, (2) loss by leaching, (3) loss of nitrogen by fermentation. The importance of bedding to absorb the urine is shown in the follow- ing table from Van Slyke :^^ Proportion of fertilizing constituents in urine and feces of farm animals Nitrogen in Phosphoric acid in Potash in Urine Feces Urine Feces Urine Feces Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Horse 38 62 100 44 56 Cow 51 49 100 85 15 Sheep 48 62 5 95 70 30 Pig 33 67 12 88 43 57 Average... 43 57 4 96 60 40 With the cow and sheep about half the nitrogen is voided in the urine; with the horse and pig somewhat less. Most of the phosphoric acid is excreted in the feces. The cow voids about 85 per ct. and the sheep 70 per ct. of the potash in the urine ; the horse and pig over 40 per ct. For all farm animals, 43 per ct. of the nitrogen and 60 per ct. of the potash passes in the urine. Pound for pound the urine has a greater fertilizing value than the feces, except with the pig. The fer- tility in urine is also in solution and hence much more readily available to plants than that in the feces. "Fertilizers and Crops, p. 295. "Fertilizers and Crops, p. 295. *This discussion of the losses in manure and the care of this valuable farm product is necessarily very brief. For more complete information consult the standard works on Soils and Agricultural Chemistry. 280 FEEDS AND FEEDING A manure pile under the eaves, against the side of the bam, or manure lying for months in an open barn yard is a sight all too common on American farms. When manure is exposed to the leaching action of the rains, the losses are great, even amounting to half of the total value in periods of 2 to 5 months. Obviously, the loss falls on the constituents which are most soluble and therefore most quickly available to plants. Thru fermentation a large share of the nitrogen in the manure may be dissipated into the air as ammonia or gaseous nitrogen. The strong smell which every farmer has noticed in close horse stables is due to the escaping ammonia produced by the breaking down of nitrogen com- pounds in the urine. In the hot fermentations which take place in dry, loosely packed manure, the temperature may rise high enough to cause "fire fanging," when as much as 80 per ct. of the nitrogen may be lost. Phosphoric acid and potash are not lost thru fermentation but heavy losses of these constituents may occur thru leaching. 443. Care of manure. — To prevent loss in manure, the urine should be saved by having tight gutters and using plenty of bedding. If possible, the manure should be drawn directly to the fields and spread each day. When this can not be done it should be stored, preferably under cover, in well-packed piles kept moist to prevent hot fermentation. If hogs or cattle have access to the shed, they aid in firming the pile. In Europe manure is often stored in pits or cisterns. When it is necessary to leave manure out of doors, the pile should be made high and compact so that rains -will not soak thru and should be built with the sides perpendicular and the top sloping toward the center. It is im- possible to prevent all waste in caring for manure, but under proper management not over 10 to 20 per ct. of the nitrogen and practically none of the phosphoric acid and potash will be lost. Pabt III FEEDING FARM ANIMALS CHAPTER XVIII FACTOES INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE The magnitude of the horse industry in the United States is apparent when we learn that there were in this country, according to the census of 1910, 23,015,902 horses valued at $2,505,792,58'8. These, with 4,480,140 mules and 122,200 asses and burros, make a grand total of 27,618,242 animals of the horse family, worth over $3,000,000,000. Despite the coming of the automobile and the auto-truck, for the decade ending 1910 the number of horses, mules, and asses in the country increased 11.6 per cent. The total value of these animals exceeds that of all the beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, goats, and swine combined. To feed these work animals requires an annual expenditure of nearly $2,000,000,000. In spite of the enormous feed bill, less attention is given to the scientific and economical feeding of this class of live stock than to any other farm animals. Many a farmer, for instance, will carefully determine which of the feeds available for his dairy herd will furnish a well-balanced ration most cheaply. Yet he may forget that similar prin- ciples apply to the feeding of his work animals. An average of about 4 horses or mules are kept on each farm in the United States. When we learn in Chapter XIX how it is often possible thru the economical and proper selection of feeds and their rational administration to save 10 to 40 per ct. of the usual feed bill, with no injury, and in some cases even a benefit to the animals, it is evident that a careful consideration of the principles governing the feeding of horses will pay every owner in dollars and cents. Furthermore, it is just as essential to care for work animals so as to ensure their maximum efficiency as it is to lubricate carefully the vehicles and machinery they draw. Before studying in detail the feeds for the horse and the methods of feeding and care, it is necessary to consider briefly the principles deter- mining the value of the different classes of feeds for the production of work and the various factors which influence the amount of labor the animal can perform. Most of the discussions which follow treat of the horse particularly, since over 83 per ct. of our work animals are horses, and nearly all of the scientific trials have been conducted with them. The same feeds may 281 282 FEEDS AND FEEDING be used for mules, however, and the same principles of feeding and care apply to these animals. (Special hints on the feed and care of the mule are given in Art. 532.) I. The Relation op Feed to the Wokk of the Horse The most complete investigations with the horse bearing on the re- lation of feed to work, are those of Wolff, Grandeau and LeClerc, and the more recent studies of Zuntz and his associates. Wolff's experiments were with a sweep-power constructed so that the amount of work per- formed could be measured. Zuntz, in conjunction with Lehmann and Hagemann, conducted hundreds of tests with horses working on a tread- power so built that the distance traveled and the work performed were accurately measured. The animals breathed thru a tube inserted in the windpipe, by which means the oxygen inhaled and the carbon dioxid exhaled were accurately determined. (141) To such gaseous intake and outgo was added that which passed thru the skin and vent, as determined by placing the animal in a Pettenkofer respiration apparatus. (71) 444. Work. — In discussing the production of work it is necessary to use the standard terms employed in its measurement, the foot-pound, the foot- ton, and the horse power. The foot-pound and foot-ton are terms which denote the work done in lifting a weight of 1 lb. or 1 ton, respectively, 1 ft. against the force of gravity. When the rate at which the work is done is taken into consideration the unit used is the horse power, which is the power required to lift a weight of 1 lb. at the rate of 33,000 feet per minute. If by means of rope and pulleys a horse raises a bucket of water weighing 100 lbs. from a well 330 ft. deep in 1 minute, it exerts a force equal to 1 H. P. The pull, or draft, exerted by the horse may be measured by a dynamometer, a crude form of which is a spring balance placed between the singletree or evener and the vehicle or object on which the pull is exerted. According to King,^ the maximum pulling power of a horse when walking on a good road is about one-half its weight, but for steady and continuous work for 10 hours per day and at the rate of 2.5 miles per hour the pull should not be more than one-eighth or one-tenth the weight of the animal. The daily work performed by horses of differ- ent weights would accordingly be as follows : Daily work performed hy horses of different weights Horse-power produced Foot-tons of work done 800-lb. horse 0.53— 0.67 5,247—6,633 1000-lb. horse 0.67—0.83 6,633—8,217 1200-lb. horse 0.80—1.00 7,920—9,900 1400-lb. horse .93—1 .17 9,207—11,583 1600-lb. horse 1 .06—1 .33 10,494—13,167 The draft required to haul a 4-wheel wagon on various types of road is approximately as follows, according to King :" ^Physics of Agr., p. 490. ' Physics of Agr., p. 436. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 283 Draft required to haul a wagon on various types of road Character of road Lbs. draft per ton Common eaxth 75 to 224 Gravel 75 to 140 Macadam 65 to 67 Wood block 28 to 44 Plank 25 to 44 This shows that it requires a draft, or pull, of 75 to 224 lbs., as measured on a spring balance placed between horse and load, to draw a load of a ton, including wagon, on a country earth road, while on a plank road the draft is but 25 to 44 lbs. The ox draws a load equal to the horse, but ordinarily at only two-thirds the speed. A man 's work is usually from one-sixth to one-tenth of a horse power, or about one-fifth that of an average horse. For a minute or two he can exert a full horse power or even more. 445. Digestion trials. — Since there have been relatively few digestion trials with the horse, we are usually obliged to use for this animal the coefficients of digestibility obtained with the ox or sheep. (66) While the horse digests the easily digestible feeds about as completely as do the ruminants, it falls below them in ability to digest the more difficultly di- gestible ones, as is shown in the following table from Wolff :* Digestion coefficients of common feeds for the horse and sheep compared Dry matter Crude protein Carbohydrates Fiber N-free extract Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 89 89 77 79 70 62 94 91 67 71 79 80 20 30 74 76 58 59 73 71 40 45 70' 66 51 56 56 56 37 50 64 61 51 64 62 65 42 63 57 65 23 48 19 27 59 18 37 Fat Com Horse Sheep Oals Horse Sheep Alfalfa hay {excellent quality) Horse Sheep Clover hay Horse Sheep Meadow hay {good quality) Horse Sheep Wheat straw Horse Sheep Per ct. 61 85 70 83 14 41 29 56 20 54 44 It is shown that the horse digests com, which is low in fiber, as well as does the sheep. On the other hand, it digests oats and meadow hay, which 'Land. Vers. Stat., 20, 1877; 21, 1878; Landw. Jahrb., 8, Sup. I, 1879; 10, 1881; 12, 1884. 284 FEEDS AND FEEDING contain considerable fiber, less completely. Of wheat straw the horse digests only 23 per ct., while the sheep digests 48 per ct. Both animals digest crude protein about equally well, but the digestive powers of the horse are markedly lower for fiber and fat. (85) 446. Influence of work on digestibility. — The effect of working a horse immediately after eating has been studied by Grandeau and LeClerc,* Tangl,° Colin,' Scheunerf and others. Their investigations show that moderate exercise, even immediately after the horse has eaten, tends to increase digestion in both the stomach and the small intestine, and also increases the rate of absorption of digested nutrients. Tho the rate of protein digestion is retarded for the first hour after eating, when the horse is exercised immediately after the meal, by the end of the second or third hour even more protein will have been digested than had the horse remained at rest. Contrary to some statements, exercise does not hasten the passage of food from the stomach into the small intestine, but apparently retards it. Severe labor may, however, depress digestion. Grandeau and LeClerc found that hard work at a trot lowered the di- gestibility of the protein 7 per ct. and of the fiber 13 per ct., compared with the amounts digested when the horse was allowed to rest after eat- ing. The greater depression observed in the case of the crude fiber is doubtless due to the fact that this nutrient is digested mainly in the caecum and large intestine and is hurried thru these organs by the mo- tion of the horse in action. 447. True value of feeds for work, — ^As previously shown (78-80), the true value of different feeds for work is not based merely on the amount of digestible nutrients they contain, for a varying percentage of the available energy in the digestible portion of the feed is used up in the work of mastication and digestion and thereby lost so far as useful me- chanical work is concerned. By subtracting the energy thus Used from the available energy which the digestible nutrients of any feed furnish, we will find the amount of net nutrients which may be used in the per- formance of such external work as propelling the body, carrying a burden, or pulling a load. We should remember, however, that the energy which is used up in mastication and digestion is all changed into heat, and so may aid in keeping the body warm. Zuntz found* that the 1100-lb. horse, when drawing a load on a level road, will produce about 864.4 ft.-tons of work for each pound of net nu- trients consumed in addition to the food required for maintenance. The following table shows the amount of work which various feeding stuffs will yield according to Zuntz, when fed to the horse which is already re- ceiving enough food for maintenance at rest. •Ann. Sci. Agron., 1884, Vol. II, p. 235. " Pfliiger's Arch. Physiol., 63, 1896, p. 545. « Traite Physiol. Comp. Anim., 1886, p. 822. ' Pfliiger's Arch. Physiol., 109, 1905, p. 145-198. 'Landw. Jahrb., 27, 1898, Sup. Ill, p. 431. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 285 Possille work from 1 lb. of various feeds when fed to the horse Feeding stuff Dry matter Crude fiber Total digestible nutrients Nutrients required for mastication and digestion Net nutrients remaining Possible work from 1 lb. oj feed Com Per cent 87 86 86 88 87 84 25 85 84 15 86 Per cent 1.7 6.9 5.9 9.4 10.3 26.6 1.0 26.0 30.2 1.6 42.0 Lbs. 0.785 0.720 0.687 0.690 0.615 0.453 0.226 0.391 0.407 0.113 0.181 Lbs. 0.082 0.111 0.102 0.125 0.124 0.219 0.027 0.209 0.239 0.021 0.297 Lbs. 0.703 0.609 0.586 0.565 0.491 0.234 0.199 0.182 0.168 0.092 —0.116 Ft.-tons 607.7 Horse bean Peas 526.4 506 6 Linseed cake Oats 488.4 424.4 Alfalfa hay Potatoes Meadow hay. . . . Clover hay Carrots Wheat straw . . . 202.3 172.0 157.3 145.2 79.5 —100.3 The table shows that after supplying the horse with sufficient feed for maintenance, each additional pound of corn supplied, up to the capacity of the animal, will furnish energy sufficient to produce 607.7 ft.-tons of external work, or enough to raise a weight of one ton 607.7 ft. against the pull of gravity. Because of its high per cent of digestible nutrients and its low content of fiber, Indian corn is the most potential of all the given feeds for the production of work. Feeds containing much fiber, such as hay and straw, furnish corre- spondingly less net food for the production of external work. The table shows that the work of masticating and digesting wheat straw requires more energy than the straw supplies. Hence the table shows a negative value of — 100.3 ft.-tons for 1 lb. of wheat straw. As has been stated before (80), the energy used up in mastication and digestion all takes the form of heat. Therefore, unless the total work of digesting a ration con- taining straw produces more heat than is needed to warm the body, the straw will have a positive value for the production of the heat so required, and this value will depend upon the total amount of digestible nutrients it furnishes. On the other hand, if more energy is spent in masticating and digesting the ration than is needed to furnish heat to maintain the body temperature, then the energy of the straw mil be wasted. This helps to explain why a larger amount of straw may be advantageously fed to idle horses than to those at work. As is shown later (457) , even in the case of the horse at hard labor a certain volume or bulk is necessary in the ration. To furnish this necessary bulk a small amount of straw is some- times used in place of other roughage, especially in Europe. 448. Maintenance requirement of the horse. — It is more difficult to de- termine the minimum amount of nutrients needed to maintain the weight of a horse than of the ox or sheep. This is due to the fact that any excess of nutrients supplied the idle horse above maintenance will not usually be whoUy stored as flesh or fat, for confined horses, even those of quiet temperament, dissipate more or less energy thru restlessness and moving 286 FEEDS AND FEEDING about, so that a ration which barely maintains them is really somewhat in excess of the theoretical requirement. One method of determining the maintenance requirement is to feed a horse at rest a ration insufficient to maintain his weight, and then after a time gradually increase the supply of nutrients until the weight is barely maintained. Using this method Grandeau and LeClerc* were able to maintain the weight of each of 3 horses getting walking exercise for half an hour daily on a ration of 17.6 lbs. meadow hay, which supplied 6.1 lbs. of digestible nutrients, or 7 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight. A more exact method is to give a horse gradually increasing amounts of a given feed, during successive periods, and determine in each period the maximum amount of work the animal can perform on the allowance and still maintain his weight. It is then possible to compute, by difference, the nutrients required for the performance of a given amount of work. By subtracting the nutrients expended in the work done during any period from the total nutrients supplied in that period, the actual maintenance requirement is found. By the latter method Zuntz and his colleagues^" found that to maintain the weight of the 1100-lb. horse and keep up the body temperature re- quired 7.06 lbs. of digestible nutrients,^^ or 12.7 therms. It was found that the larger part of the nutrients, nearly 66 per ct., were required merely as fuel to maintain the temperature of the body. Indeed, it was necessary to supply only 2.43 lbs. of net nutrients (or 4.4 therms of net energy) to cover the amount used up in the internal work of the body and in repair- ing the body tissues. This conclusion accords with the general experience, that idle horses can be maintained chiefly on such feeds as hay, corn stover, and straw, which furnish relatively little net energy but produce a large amount of heat in the body as the result of mastication and digestion. If the rough- ages are of sufficiently good quality the animals may be maintained on such feeds alone. As roughages are usually far cheaper sources of total available energy than the concentrates, maintaining idle horses on such feeds is obviously economical. 449. Protein required for maintenance, — In addition to supplying suffi; cient fuel to maintain the body temperature and enough net nutrients for the internal work of the body, as has been previously pointed out (94), the nutrients in the ration must include a certain amount of di- gestible protein to make good the small daily waste of nitrogenous tissues. In experiments by Grandeau and LeClere,^^ 3 horses main- tained their weight for 4 or 5 months on a ration of meadow hay fur- nishing an average of 0.54 lb. of digestible protein daily per 1000 lbs. live weight, the hay of course containing some amids beside the true pro- "Warington, London Live Stock Jour., 1894, p. 9. " Land. Jahrb., 27, 1898, Sup. Ill, pp. 422-426. " Including fat x 2.4, the factor used by Zuntz as the relative fuel value for fat, compared with carbohydrates. " Warington, London Live Stock Jour., 1894, p. 9. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 287 tein. One of the horses gained 5 lbs. in 2 months on a daily allowance of only 0.45 lb. of digestible protein per 1000 lbs. live weight. In another case an allowance of 0.37 lb. of digestible protein daily per 1000 lbs. of live weight proved insufficient to maintain the nitrogen equilibrium. Evi- dently the minimum protein requirement for the horse ranges from 0.4 to 0.6 lb. per 1000 lbs. live weight, which is the same as that of the rest- ing ox as determined by Armsby. Most authorities maintain, and practical experience shows, that the health of animals is improved when they are fed more than the theo- retical minimum of protein. In view of this, the Armsby standard rec- ommends 1 lb. of digestible protein for the maintenance of the 1000-lb. horse at rest. (172) 450. Nutrients required for work. — ^We have considered the nutrients required to maintain the horse at rest and studied the value of typical feeding stuffs for producing external work. Let us next determine the amount of net nutrients which must be fed in addition to the maintenance requirement when the horse is to perform various kinds of work. The work which the horse performs usually consists of a more or less complex combination of the following simple types : (1) Locomotion, or merely traveling along a level course with no load. (2) Raising the body, with or without a load, against the force of gravity in ascending a grade. (3) Carrying a load. (4) Draft, or hauling a load. In the case of a horse drawing a load up a hill, we find all of these types combined. The horse is (1) advancing, and at the same time (2) raising his body. He is also (3) carrying the harness and (4) hauling the load. When he descends the hill he will even perform a fifth type of labor in bracing himself so as not to be forced down the hill too rapidly. Zuntz^' found that to perform these different tjrpes of work, the 1100- Ib. horse carrying a 44-lb. harness required the net nutrients shown below, after he had already been supplied with enough feed for main- tenance at rest: Net nutrients required hy horse for various kinds of work Net nutrients required Lbs. Troweling without had, 1 mile on the level At a walking speed of 2 .5 miles per hour .134 At a walking speed of 3 .5 miles per hour . 169 At a trotting speed of 6 .6 to 7 .6 miles per hour .254 Traveling 1 mUe on the level when carrying a load of ZZO lbs. at Walking speed of 3 .4 miles per hour ■ ■ .210 Trotting speed of 6 .9 miles per hour .323 Raising his body 100 feet „ „~„ In climbing incline of 10.7 per cent • • 0.060 Lowering body 100 ft. on a road with a B per cent dip, compared with traveling on the level, saves .025 Draft on level per 1000 ft.-tons, not including locomotion of body 1 . 157 » Landw. Jahrb., 27, Sup. III. 288 FEEDS AND FEEDING Could all the work done by a horse each day be accurately determined, it would be possible to resolve it into these different types, so that the nutrients required for its production might be calculated and a suitable ration computed. However, the table is of theoretical rather than prac- tical interest, for the work of most horses varies greatly from day to day ; moreover the usual work is complex and difficult to resolve into these simple types. Still, these figures are important in showing the influence of various factors on the energy expended by the horse in the work he performs. 451. Influence of speed. — It will be noted in the table that 26 per ct. more net nutrients are required when the horse walks a mile at a speed of 3.5 miles per hour than 2.5 miles. When his gait is hastened to a trot, nearly twice as much food is required per mile of travel as at the slower walk. Among the reasons why rapid labor generally consumes more power than slow motion, even when the distance traveled and the actual work done are the same, are the following : When a horse is walking at a rapid speed the work of the heart is greatly increased. In trotting or galloping the rise and fall of the body is much greater than in walking, and therefore a smaller part of the energy expended is available for on- ward movement. The temperature also rises, and much heat is lost by the evaporation of water thru the skin and lungs. The proportion of food producing heat is thus increased, while that appearing as work is dimin- ished. Fourier^* found that the horse was at its best for drawing loads when moving at a rate of 2 to 2.5 miles per hour. When held down to a slower speed, and likewise as the rate of speed was increased beyond this figure, his eficiency decreased. At length, when a speed of 11.25 miles per hour was reached, less than one-tenth the maximum amount of work was ac- complished. Grandeau^^ states that a horse walking 12.5 miles per day was kept in condition on a daily allowance of 19.4 lbs. of hay, while a ra- tion of 24 lbs. was insufficient when the same distance was covered at a trot. A horse hauling a load 12.5 miles daily, the draft performed being equivalent to 1943 ft.-tons, was sufficiently nourished by a ration of 24.6 lbs, of hay, while one of 36.2 lbs. — all the horse would eat — was not enough to maintain its weight when the same amount of work was done at a trot. Where it is necessary to develop maximum power continuously at con- siderable speed, the number of horses required for a specific work must always be greatly increased. Thus when horses were used on mail- coaches, even on the admirable highways of Great Britian, the proprietors maintained 1 horse per mile of route for each coach, each horse traveling only 8 miles and working an hour or less per day on the average, 4 horses drawing the loaded coach which weighed 2 tons. Draft horses moving 2.5 miles an hour are expected to do 7 times the work of coach horses moving 10 miles per hour. " Thurston, The Animal as a Machine and a Prime Motor, p. 52. *» Warington, London Live Stock Jour., 1894, p. 49. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 289 With runniiig horses, the requirement of speed reduces the work per- formed (carrying the rider) to the smallest amount possible. Low writes:^' "When it is considered that an ounce of additional loading to the same horse may make the difference of a yard or more in half a mile of running, it will be seen how greatly the weight borne may affect the issue in the case of horses of equal powers." (145) 452. Locomotion and carrying a load. — The preceding table shows what experience teaches — that the horse requires more nutrients to travel a mile when carrying a load than when merely moving his own body. We see that while only 0.169 lb. net nutrients are required in walking a mile at a speed of 3.5 miles per hour with no load, 0.210 lb. of nutrients, or over 24 per ct. more, are needed when a load of 220 lbs. is carried at about the same pace. When the same load was carried at a trot with a speed of 6.9 miles per hour the amount of nutrients required was increased by over 53 per ct. Since in locomotion the body of the horse is alternately raised and low'ered, it is difficult to measure the actual amount of mechanical work performed in order to compare it with the energy expended. Compu- tations by Zuntz indicate that about 35 per ct. of the total energy ex- pended by the horse moving on the level is actually transformed into the external work of advancing his body, the remainder of the energy pro- ducing no external work, but taking the form of heat. 453. Influence of grade. — The table further brings out the striking fact that for every 100 ft. the horse raises his body in ascending an incline of 10.7 per ct. (a rise of 10.7 ft. in 100 ft.), he requires 0.06 lb. of net nutri- ents in addition to the amount required on a level course. In other words, in raising his body 200 ft. in going up a grade he would use up almost as much feed as in traveling a mile horizontally. At the incline of 10.7 per ct. the horse was about as efficient in converting feed into muscular work as when traveling on a level course, about 34 per ct. of the total energy expended being transformed into the actual work of both propelling his body and raising it against the force of gravity. In climbing a hill the horse does much more work in traveling a mile than when going on a level course, for besides propelling his body, he must raise it against the force of gravity. Including both the work of ascent and the work of locomotion, Zuntz found that in ascending the grade of 10.7 per ct. at a speed of 3.1 miles per hour the horse expended more than 3 times as much energy as in walking the same distance on the level at but a slightly faster pace. In the latter case he was merely propelling his body and not raising it against the force of gravity. At the steeper grade of 18.1 ft. in 100, nearly 5 times as much energy was expended as when moving on a horizontal course. In going down a gentle incline, owing to the pull of gravity, less energy was expended than in moving on a level road, resulting in a saving of nutrients, such saving being greatest when the down grade was about 5 ft. " The Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Isles. 290 FEEDS AND FEEDING m 100. If the grade was steeper, the horse expended energy in bracing himself to check too rapid progress. When the downward grade reached 10 ft. in 100, as much energy was expended as when traveling on a level, and on a still steeper down grade the amount of energy expended was greater than that expended on the level. The saving of feed by the proper use of wagon brakes in a hilly country is evident when we consider the energy the horse spends in descending a steep hill. Here he must not only brace himself to hold back his own body, but must also struggle to hold in check the heavy weight of the wagon. 454. Draft. — The preceding table (450) shows that after deducting the energy necessary for merely moving the body on a level course, 1.157 lbs. of net nutrients were required by the horse for each 1000 ft.-tons of draft on a level course. The horse is slightly less efficient as a machine in performing draft than in moving his body along a level course or in raising it against the force of gravity, for only 31 per ct. of the total energy expended was actually turned into draft. In drawing a load up a grade of only 8.5 ft. in 100, but 23 per ct. of the energy expended was actually turned into work. This was due to the fact that when perform- ing draft up that grade more work was done per minute, and this led to an increase in the rapidity of breathing and the over-exertion of certain groups of muscles, with the result that more energy was wasted as heat and less was utilized in moving the load. 455. The nutritive ratio for work animals. — ^We have seen before that under normal conditions the non-nitrogenous nutrients — carbohydrates and fats — furnish the energy necessary for the production of muscular work, and that no more protein tissue is usually broken down during work than during rest. (140) Hence, as Kellner^'^ points out, there is a great similarity between the nutrient requirements of mature working and mature fattening animals. After growth is completed and the pro- tein tissues and organs of the body have reached full size, both working and fattening animals need only so much crude protein in their food in excess of maintenance requirements as is necessary to insure complete digestion of the ration. The remainder of the nutrient requirements, whether for producing fat with the ox or performing work with the horse, may be met thru a sufficient supply of carbohydrates and fat. (143) Accordingly it is not necessary and is, furthermore, often not economi- cal to furnish as much digestible protein in the ration as stated in the Wolff -Lehmann standard, which places the nutritive ratio at 1 :7.0 in the case of light work, 1 :6.2 for medium work, and 1 :6.0 in heavy work. Grandeau and Alfekan^' found that when horses working at a trot were fed rations of corn, sugar, and oat straw, furnishing but little crude protein and having extremely wide ratios, varying from 1 :21 to 1 :28, the ration still contained sufficient digestible crude protein to keep them in excellent condition. Kellner^" found that horses were able to perform "Bmahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 443. "landw. Jahrb., 9, p. 665. " Ann. Sci. Agron., 1901, 11, p. 38. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 291 hard labor without deterioration on a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 :9. Grandeau fed 3 horses during a whole year, sometimes on a ration of horse beans and straw having a nutritive ratio of 1 :3, and again on one of Indian corn and straw having a ratio of 1 :10. While on these rations the horses were either resting in the stall, exercising at a walk or trot, working on a sweep at a walk or trot, or finally working before the car- riage. The effect of the rations was about the same in all cases, and any difference was in favor of the corn-and-straw ration having the wider ratio. These and other experiments, as well as practical experience, show that the nutritive ratio for work horses may vary widely without injury so long as the minimum requirement of crude protein is satisfied. We should remember, however, that when more than 8 to 10 parts of digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients (carbohydrates + fat X 2.25) are supplied to one part of digestible protein, the digestibility of the ration is decreased. (84) Most authorities agree also that a supply of protein in excess of the actual minimum requirement has a beneficial stimulating influence on the animal. It would, therefore, not seem advisable to feed to horses a ration having a wider nutritive ratio than 1 :8 to 1 :10, except possibly under unusual conditions when protein-rich roughages or con- centrates were not at hand, or were unusually high in price. McCampbelP" of the Kansas Station studied this question in his ex- periments at Fort Riley, the most extensive yet carried on with horses in the United States. From trials in which prairie hay and corn were fed with and without a nitrogenous supplement, he concludes that a ration having a wider nutritive ratio than 1 :8 is inadvisable. It is not necessary to employ protein-rich concentrates to secure this nutritive ratio when legume hay forms the larger part of the roughage allowance. 456. Ration for the work horse. — ^We have seen how it is possible to analyze the work a horse does, and determine the amount of net nutrients he requires for each type. In practice, however, in only a few instances is it possible to determine the nutrients in this manner, because of the complex and varying nature of the work. We must, therefore, use some simpler method in computing a ration for the horse. As shown in the pre- ceding article, the Wolff -Lehmann standard advises more protein than is necessary, and is hence often uneconomical. Kellner^^ has embodied the findings of Zuntz in his standards, shown in the following table, which states the amounts of digestible protein and net energy required by the horse at light, medium, and heavy work per 1000 lbs. live weight. Altho such a classification of work performed is somewhat vague, it is still helpful in practice. Murray^^ states that for the 1000-lb. horse, light work means the performance of from 250 to 500 ft.-tons of work per hour, or- dinary work 500 to 750 ft.-tons, and heavy work 750 to 1000 ft.-tons. For the convenience of American readers, the requirements of net energy, as set forth by Kellner, have been converted into therms. " Kan. Bui. 186. "Emahr. landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 453. '' Murray, Chem. of Cattle Feeding, 1914, p. 153. 292 FEEDS AND FEEDING Bequirements of horses at light, medium, and heavy work Bequired per 1000 lbs. live weight Digestible protein Net energy Lbs. Therms Horse at light work 1 .0 9 .8 Horse at medium work 1.4 12 .4 Horse at heavy work 2 .0 16 .0 It will be noted that the horse at heavy work is given twice as much protein as when at light work, while the net energy supply is increased by only about 63 per ct. This is due to the fact that the horse at severe labor is benefited by a fairly liberal supply of protein. The requirements of the work horse as determined by Zuntz and McCampbell have been stated by the authors in terms of dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients, and are given in Appendix Table V. 457. Severe work. — The more severe the labor which the horse per- forms, the larger must be the supply of net nutrients. Since the ration must not have undue bulk, this necessitates a large proportion of concen- trates, high in net energy content. On the other hand, the more severe the labor the smaller must be the allowance of roughage, for coarse feeds are of low value for producing work, and when given in undue amount hinder breathing, thru the distension of the digestive tract, thus placing an increased burden on the already hard-worked animal. However, some roughage must be supplied even during severe labor, for, as is shown elsewhere, horses fed no roughage but given an abundance of oats, which are rather high in fiber, soon show loss of appetite and impairment of the digestive functions. (107) It must be remembered that rich feed, carelessly administered, brings danger ; hence especial care must be used in feeding the horse at severe work. Wolff cites the intense work of the mail-coach horses on the route from Plieningen to Stuttgart, Germany. Two strongly built, spirited horses, in good flesh, drew a heavy mail coach, often carrying 8 passen- gers, up and down the mountain road 35 miles daily, trotting at the speed of 5.4 miles per hour. They were fed daily 22 to 24 lbs. of oats mixed with cut straw, and hay without limit, of which they ate very little — often none at all. Under these severe conditions these horses received sufficient fiber in the oats and cut straw, and hence instinctively refused hay. Formerly the German army horse was fed only 11 lbs. of oats, 5.5 lbs. of hay, and some cut straw during the maneuvers, when often traveling over 40 miles a day, covering about equal distances at the walk, trot, and gallop. It is not surprising that on this ration, containing only about 8.8 lbs. of digestible nutrients, the horses, which performed about 11,900 ft.- tons of work daily, lost heavily in weight, and that many were unfitted for further military service. 458. Variations in body weight. — During exercise and work a loss in body weight occurs due to the heavier oxidation or burning of the nutri- tive fluids of the body and to the largely increased evaporation of water. Grandeau and LeClerc^' found that 2 horses lost on the average 2.3 lbs. "'Ann. Sci. Agron., 1888, II, p. 276. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 293 each when walked for 148 minutes without drawing a load, while on haul- ing a load at a trot for 79 minutes each lost 9.3 lbs. A horse performing a certain amount of work at a trot gave off 20.6 lbs. of water vapor, nearly twice as much as when doing the same amount of work at a walk, and over 3 times as much as when at rest. Such losses diminish the amount of energy available for the production of work. Rueff^* found, after making corrections for food and droppings, that farm horses at medium work lost 7.7 lbs. each during 11 hours. A horse carrying a 176-lb. load lost 11 lbs. in 25 minutes and regained only 1 lb. in 24 hours. A 14-yr.-old blind stallion ridden 90 minutes by a 166-lb. rider lost 33 lbs., regaining 22 lbs. the following day. Von Lutzow^° found that 20 draft horses, weighing about 1750 lbs., each lost from 44 to 122 lbs. when put at hard work for 2 weeks. In a 3-day rest period only 3 horses regained their original weight. Boussingault^^ found the maximum variation in the weight of 2 horses on the same keep and care during 15 days to be 25 and 28 lbs. respectively. A horse put on the scales at 4 o'clock after fasting weighed 1051 lbs. one morning, 1060 lbs. the next morning, and 1038 lbs. the third morning. This shows the necessity of carrying on feeding experiments for consider- able periods and with several animals in order to escape, or rather lessen, the errors which are introduced into the calculations thru accidental variations in the weights of the animals studied. II. Preparation of Feeding Stuffs for the Hoese 459. Chaffed hay. — In large establishments chaffing or cutting the hay given to horses is usually advisable, because the cut roughage can then be accurately administered according to the needs of each animal, dust can be allayed, and the feeding operations more systemized and ex- pedited. Horses that have been on the street all day and have worked to the limit may be given meal mixed with a small portion of the moistened chaffed hay, some of the nourishment thus being passe^d to the stomach more quickly than is possible when feeding long hay. On this point Lavalard,^' summarizing extensive experience with omnibus and cab horses in Paris, writes: "For the past 4 or 5 years we have chopped coarse fodder, using a ration of equal parts of hay and straw, and have found this practice the most economical for several reasons : Straw may . thus be made to form an integral part of the ration, and the proportion of hay and straw may be accurately regulated. Furthermore, horses waste much less of such fodder. . . . The feeding of chopped fodder has brought about a considerable saving and permitted greater uniformity than was previously the case in our experiments." On the other hand, having in mind farm horses, Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station^* holds that there is no particular advantage in cutting hay. (424) "Von Gohren, Naturgesetze d. Fiitterung, p. 370. " Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, p. 12. =» Deut. Landw. Presse., 36, 1909, p. 285. " Mass. Bui. 99. "Ann. Sci. Agron., 1884, II, p. 330; Rural Economy, p. 397. 294 FEEDS AND FEEDING 460. Cooked feed. — The custom of cooking even a small portion of the feed given to horses has almost ceased. Johnstone,^^ who had the practice thoroly ingrained into his nature by early Scotch experience, out of his later observations writes: "Time was when I considered the feeding of sloppy stuff a necessity in properly wintering brood mares, but experience has shown me that dry food is best. Therefore I prefer uncooked food. . . Time was when I believed that for stallions during the season it was an excellent plan to give a mash of boiled barley every "Wednesday and Saturday night. . . . The experiments have, however, shown that the ad- dition of this material to a horse 's grain ration makes no appreciable dif- ference in the manner in which the grain is digested." (425-9) 461. Soaked grain. — ^Wolff^" found that healthy horses with good teeth utilized beans and corn equally well, whether fed whole and dry or after having been soaked in water for 24 hours, care being taken in the latter case to guard against loss of nutrients. Bar corn that is so dry and flinty as to injure the horse's mouth should be soaked or ground. Whole wheat and barley should always be soaked if they cannot be ground, or, better, rolled. (430) 462. Ground grain. — Investigations have shown that when horses are fed whole oats mixed with cut straw or hay the percentage of kernels passing thru the alimentary tract unmasticated is much smaller than when the whole oats are fed alone. From his extensive studies with thousands of cab, omnibus, and army horses in France, to which cut straw or hay was usually fed, Lavalard^^ concliides that the advantages gained by grinding oats were not covered by the expense. In some of the experi- ments the horses showed better appetites for whole than for ground oats. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms^^ likewise concludes that where oats are mixed with bran and cut hay there is no advantage in grinding if the horses have good teeth. Whether it will pay to grind oats when not fed with cut roughage will depend on how well the horse masti- cates the grain and on the expense of grinding. A profit from crushing oats is claimed by several large feed stables. As shown later (475), thruout the corn belt com is usually fed on the cob or as shelled corn, tho some authorities recommend the use of corn-and-cob meal or coarse- ly ground corn meal. It is reasonable to hold that when horses are hard worked and have but little time in the stable, or when their teeth are poor, it is well to grind their grain. All small, hard grains, such as wheat, barley, rye, and kafir, should always be ground or, better, rolled. III. Watering the Hoese; Salt 463. Time for watering. — On theoretical grounds various authorities have advised watering the horse before giving him grain, to prevent pos- sible flushing of the grain out of the stomach into the small intestine. "The Horse, p. 77. '^Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, p. 12. »»Landw. Jahrb., 16, 1887, Sup. Ill, p. 21. "= Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpt., 1905. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 295 TangP* of Budapest, whose investigations concerning the time of water- ing horses are the most complete of any recorded, found that horses may be watered before, after, or during meals without interfering with the digestion or the absorption of the food they eat. All methods are equally good, tho circumstances may favor one over the other. A horse long de- prived of water, or having undergone severe exertion, should be watered before getting his feed. An animal accustomed to a certain order of watering should not be changed to another order, for such change di- minishes the appetite. Horses drink the greatest amount of water when it is given after they have been fed, and the least when it is supplied before they are fed. In some cases watering before feeding somewhat decreased the appetite. Tangl shows that the only important point in this whole matter, about which there has been so much discussion and dogmatic as- sertion, is to adopt a reasonable, convenient system of watering, and then rigidly adhere to it. It is dangerous' to allow a horse to gorge himself with water when very warm, but a moderate drink taken slowly will re- fresh him without harm resulting. 464. Amount of water consumed. — The amount of water which horses will drink depends upon many factors, the most important of which are the individuality of the animals, the temperature of the air, the nature of their food, and the amount of work performed. Grandeau and LeClerc^* found that 2 Paris cab horses when drawing a load at a walk consumed 16 per ct. more water than when walking but drawing no load. On trot- ting with no load the amount was increased 6 per ct., and on drawing a load at a trot 85 per ct. over that consumed when walking without a load. Merrill of the Utah Station^" found that horses fed timothy hay drank 79 lbs. of water each daily, while on alfalfa hay they drank 10 lbs. more. One of 2 horses getting alfalfa hay drank 21 lbs. of water more per day than the other. Morrow of the Oklahoma Station^* reports that during hot weather in August a pair of farm mules drank 350 lbs. of water in 1 day — an extremely large amount. In making provisions for' water, from 10 to 12 gallons, or 100 lbs., daily should be allowed for each horse. (103) 465. Salt. — The horse shows great fondness for salt, and for his well- being it should be regularly supplied. Horses at hard work require more than those laboring less severely. Roberts*'' states that 4 horses on dry feed ate 28 pounds of salt in 56 days, or 2 ounces per horse daily. IV. Miscellaneous Factors Influencing Efficiency op Horses 466. Exercise. — The Arabs have a saying, "Rest and fat are the great- est enemies of the horse." The horse is par excellence the creature of motion, and in its feeding and management we should hold this point ever in view. The prudent horseman will bear in mind that correlative with "Landw. Vers. Sta., 57, 1902, p. 329. "Okla. Rpt. 1898. "Ann. Sci. Agron., 1888, 2, p. 276. "The Horse, 1905, p. 311. " Utah Bui. 77. 296 FEEDS AND FEEDING liberal feeding there must be hearty exercise or severe labor, and that these conditions may be happily balanced. As soon as hard labor ceases, or constant and vigorous exercise is over, it will be found absolutely necessary to reduce the allowance of food if the proper balance is to be maintained. The idle horse should be limited to less than half the grain given while on regular duty, and in some instances it were better to give none, provided the roughage supplied be of good quality. A colt fed heavily on suitable nutrients will grow rapidly and.develop good bone and strong muscle, provided at all times there be a proper balance between exercise and feed. The highly fed colt should be out of doors from 8 to 10 hours a day, and should move several miles each day either in the field, on the track, or both. A mature horse should receive regular exercise, traveling not less than 5 to 6 miles daily, to maintain health. 467. The stable. — ^Proper ventilation of the stable is most important in maintaining the health of the stabled horse. Cool, well-ventilated quarters are far preferable to warm, close stables. Captain Hayes^' states that in some large city stables of Russia the temperature is often kept 80° F. above that of the outside air in winter. Under these conditions trouble from influenza, inflammation of the eyes, and diseases of the respi- ratory organs are common. On the other hand, in the cavalry remount stables, roomy, clean, and well-ventilated, the horses keep in excellent health. He further states that previous to 1836, the mortality of horses in the French army was enormous, the annual loss varying from 180 to 197 per 1000 animals. Enlargement of the stables and better ventilation reduced this mortality to less than one-seventh the former figures. In all cases horses should be protected from drafts, and judgment must be used in blanketing them in extreme weather. 468. Blanketing and clipping. — Horses at work prove more efficient and last longer when reasonably protected against sudden changes in tempera- ture and cold rains. It is important to blanket the horse in cold weather whenever his work ceases and he is forced to stand in the cold for even a short time. Stable blankets keep the coat in better condition, but when they are used it is especially necessary to protect the horse when stand- ing idle out of doors. The heavy coat which the horse grows for winter protection has cer- tain disadvantages with the work animal under his artificial conditions. The horse with a long coat sweats unduly at work and his system is thereby enervated and relaxed, rendering him especially subject to colds. As it is difficult to completely dry such a horse after a day's work, it may often be advisable to clip him early enough in the fall to permit the growth of a lighter coat for protection before severe weather begins. However, he should not be fall clipped unless he is carefully protected from cold at all times when not working. Horses are often clipped in the spring after the shedding process has begun, but before the new coat has «= Stable Management and Exercise, 1900, p. 198. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORK OF THE HORSE 297 started, thus, it is claimed, preventing as great a draft on the animal's system and certainly obviating the annoyance of the shedding coat, es- pecially disagreeable in the case of gray horses. 469. Grooming. — As the horse at severe labor gives off several pounds of perspiration daily, when this evaporates considerable solid waste ma- terial is left on the animal's coat. Thoro and careful grooming is neces- sary to remove such body waste and keep the pores open and the skin healthy. Aside from the better appearance which results, proper groom- ing pays in the greater efficiency of the hard-worked animal. It is best to groom the work horse at night after a severe day 's work, so that he may rest more comfortably. As idle horses running at pasture sweat little, consume green grass and other laxative foods, and have abundant op- portunity to roll, grooming is unnecessary. While grooming should be thoro, a dull currycomb is preferable to a sharp one, and a brush should be used on the tender head and legs. 470. Care of teeth. — The teeth of the horse often wear irregularly, especially those of old horses, leaving sharp points and ragged edges that cause pain, prevent proper mastication of food, and in extreme cases actually cause starvation. Many horses that are poor in flesh and wear staring coats, despite a reasonable supply of food, owe their condition to poor teeth alone. The teeth should therefore be frequently examined and cared for, the irregularities being removed by a float or guarded rasp. The crowns, or caps, of the first, or milk teeth, are also apt to remain too long in the young horse's mouth, causing crooked permanent teeth; these crowns should be removed with forceps. 471. General hints. — To be most efficient in converting the energy of his feed into useful work, the horse must labor in a properly fitting har- ness. The collar needs special attention, for the capacity of many a horse is decreased because he wears an ill-fitting collar. It is vitally important that his feet be properly shod, so that the weight and wear are evenly dis- tributed on the joints of the ankle. The other mechanical principles which determine the efficiency of work, such as the correct use of eveners, the proper adjustment of traces and of line of draft, the distribution of the load on the wagon, and the influence of size of wheel, width of tires, and character of road bed must all be given due consideration. In start- ing the day the horse should be gradually warmed to his work, so that his collar will be shaped to his shoulders, his muscles in proper trim, his bowels relieved, and breathing and heart action quickened before he is put to extreme exertion. It is likewise well to cool him off gradually at the end of a trip or of the day's work before returning to the stable. That he may rest in comfort, his stall should be well bedded. No other farm animal is so strongly the creature of habit as is the horse, and in no way is he more so than in the matters relating to food and its administration. Sudden changes in quantity and variety should be avoided. A quick change from oats to corn may bring on colic, but changing from corn to oats is less dangerous. An abrupt change from old 298 FEEDS AND FEEDING to new hay or oats, or from late to early cut hay, is hazardous. "Wilted grass or new mown hay is more dangerous than fresh grass. Horses are especially susceptible to poisoning thru eating moldy grain or forage. (397) Any unusual feeding stuff, such as silage, roots, apples, etc., should be given in small quantities at first, and changes in kind and quantity of any food should be made gradually. It is best to mix and feed several kinds of concentrates together rather than feed them sepa- rately. As a rule some hay should be fed at the same time the concen- trates are given, in order to distend the stomach and intestines properly. As is shown in the following chapter (492), more horses are injured by gorging on hay than by being given too little. 472. Supervision of feeding. — In stables where many horses are main- tained, a group or row of animals should remain in the care of the same attendant, the whole establishment being under the watchful supervision of the superintendent. While we can estimate quite closely the amount of food to be given a hundred or a thousand horses, there should always be modifications and concessions to individual members of the establish- ment to be recognized and provided for by the guiding mind, — one horse should have a little more than the regulation allowance, and the next pos- sibly a little less, the object being to keep each in the desired condition. Usually it is not well to leave the feeding of horses to their own driver, for he has likes and dislikes, and the favorites are quite certain to receive more than their proper allowance of grain, while the others suffer. A watchful superintendent must ever be on the alert to see that each ani- mal secures the needed provender. ^ CHAPTER XIX FEEDS FOR THE HORSE I. Cabbonaceous Concentbates At any point of observation we usually find the common ration for the horse restricted to one or two kinds of grain and the same limited number of roughages. In the northern Mississippi Valley states the ration is quite generally confined to timothy hay and oats. In the South, Indian corn is the main concentrate, fed with dried com leaves, legume hay, and other roughages. Where sugar cane is grown, blackstrap molasses is an important source of energy for work animals. On the Pacific coast crushed barley is the common grain, with hay from the cereals. Passing to other countries we find an interesting array of articles in the diet of the horse, tho usually no large number in any one locality. In Europe various oil cakes and beans often form part of the concentrate allowance. In some districts stock bread is commonly employed. Thruout Arabia, Persia, Egypt, and Algeria the only grain is barley, usually mixed with barley or wheat straw which has been thoroly broken by the native threshing machine. In northern India and Bombay, a sort of pea, called gram, is the usual food. Bamboo leaves are fed^ as a complete sujjstitute for ordinary grass and hay in the hill districts of eastern Burmah. In Prance, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves of limes and grape vines, the tops of acacia, and seeds of the carob-tree are all employed. ' ' In some sterile countries," according to Loudon,^ "horses are forced to sub- sist on dried fish, and even vegetable mould. In parts of India, salt, pepper, and other spices are made into balls, as big as billiard balls, with flour and butter, and thrust down the animal's throat." With this brief survey of some of the foods employed in the nourish- ment of the horse, let us consider in detail the feeding stuffs of impor- tance in the United States. 473. Oats. — ^No other grain is so keenly relished by horses of all classes and ages and so prized by horsemen as the oat, the standard of excellence with which other concentrates are compared. Oats are the safest of all feeds for the horse, in part because the adherent hull, tho of low nutri- tive value, gives such bulk that not enough of this grain can be eaten at one time to cause serious troubles from gorging, and so there is little danger from possible errors in measuring the grain allowance. (223) On account of the hulls there is, likewise, less tendency than with com for this grain to pack in the horse 's stomach where there is much less churn- ing or mixing motion than with the ruminants. (39) > Hayes, Stable Management and Exercise. ' Encyclopedia of Agr.. 1886; Article, Feeding of Horses. 299 300 FEEDS AND FEEDING For mature horses with good teeth and ample time for masticating and digesting their food, it will hardly pay to grind or crush oats. They should be thus prepared, however, for horses with poor teeth, for foals, and often for hard-worked horses. New or musty oats should be avoided. A safe rule is to feed 1 quart or 1 pound of oats daily for each 100 lbs. of horse — more for the hard- worked and less for the idle. Even oats do not always form a perfect concentrate, for Axe' states that the strongest advocates of this feed in England recognize that for hunters and for other horses in severe weather the ration is improved by the addition of beans. 474. Substitutes for oats. — Because of their universal favor and the wide demand for them, oats are rarely an economical grain where ex- pense must be considered. Fortunately, both practical and scientific trials alike teach that other single grains or mixtures of concentrates may be substituted for oats without injury to the condition, wind, endurance, or even the spirit of the horse. The Arab steed, so renowned for mettle and endurance, is fed no oats, but chiefly barley. After experiments covering 35 years, involving the feeding of 16,000 omnibus horses in Paris and some 17,000 French army horses, Lavalard,* the great French authority on the nutrition of the horse, concluded that the substitution of other feeds for oats, while ef- fecting a great saving, had not in the slightest lowered the productive power of the horses. The entire success attained with grain mixtures containing no oats, but properly balanced in nutrients and having the requisite buUk, shows that in making up the ration for the horse, just as with other animals, the prices of the various available feeds should always be considered. The many grains and by-products which may be successfully fed to the horse in place of oats are discussed in the following articles. From these studies and a knowledge of ruling market prices for feeds each feeder may deter- mine for himself the most economical rations to employ. 475. Indian corn, — ^Next to oats, Indian com (maize) is the common grain for horses in America, being most largely used in the middle and southern portions of the com belt and southward in the cotton states. Millions of horses and mules on American farms and plantations get their strength from com, scarcely knowing the taste of oats. While corn does not have all of the superlative qualities of oats, nevertheless, because of lower cost and higher feeding value, it will always be extensively used in this country wherever large numbers of horses must be economically maintained. (201) When corn forms a large part of the concentrate allowance, the ration should be balanced by concentrates or roughages rich in protein and mineral matter, in which this grain is deficient. As com is a heavy, high- ly concentrated feed, care must also be exercised in limiting the amount fed to the needs of the animal. To neglect of these principles may be as- • The Horse, etc., 1907, Vol. 8, p. 347. ■• Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, 1900, p. 13. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 301 cribed the unfavorable results that sometimes follow the feeding of this grain. In all cases changes from oats or other feeds to corn should be brought about gradually. New corn may produce indigestion. Ear corn is safer to feed than shelled corn, for the grain keeps best on the cob and the horse eats corn on the cob more slowly and chews the grain more com- pletely. Unfortunately it is often difficult to secure good ear com in the city, due to its bulk. Altho thruout the corn belt the grain is usually fed on the cob or jshelled, various authorities* recommend grinding, especially for hard- worked horses. Finely ground corn meal fed alone, however, may form an adhesive mass in the stomach, difficult to digest, and cause colic. If it cannot be fed on the cob it is safer to grind coarsely, or if fine, it should be mixed with chaffed hay or straw. The Paris Omnibus Company* found it advantageous to feed corn-and-cob meal, holding that the fiber of the cobs made the ground material more like ground oats in fiber con- tent. In experiments at the North Carolina Station^ with 3 teams of mules and 1 team of horses Burkett found com-and-cob meal as valuable as an equal weight of shelled corn. The economy of grinding corn will depend on the cost and trouble involved; generally it wiU not pay. (423) 476. Com with carbonaceous hay. — Since a ration composed of corn and carbonaceous roughage, as timothy or prairie hay, is deficient in protein, even for work animals, it will be improved by the addition of some nitrogenous concentrate. This is shown by the following results secured by MeCampbeil at the Kansas Station* in a 140-day trial with artillery horses, performiag more severe labor than the average farm horse : Feeding a nitrogenous supplement with corn and carbonaceous hay Average ration Initial weight Gain or loss in weiglit Nutritive ratio Daily cost of feed per 1,000 lbs. live wt.* Lot I, 76 horses Oats, 12 lbs. Prairie hav. 14 lbs Lba. 1,131 1,181 1,159 Lbs. 16.3 —29.3 3.9 1 :7.9 1 :11.5 1 :8.4 Cents 20.3 Lot II, 76 horses Shelled com, 12 lbs. Prairie hav. 14 lbs 17.5 Lot III, n horses Shelled com, 6 lbs. Wheat bran, 3 lbs. Linseed meal, 1 lb. 16 7 * Oats, SO. 385 and shelled com, SO. 55 per bu.; wheat bran, S20.00, linseed meal, S35.S0, and prairie bay, S12 . 50 per ton. In the winter when the weather was cold and the work moderate there was no apparent difference between the horses in Lots I and II. However, as the weather grew warmer and the work more severe, the corn-fed horses began to lose weight, tho their endurance, wind, or spirit was not ^ Stewart, Feeding Animals, 1886, p. 384; Burkett, Farm Stock, 1909, p. 72. • CentW. Agr. Chem., 1881, p. 767. ' N. C. Bui. 189. « Kan. Bui. 186. 302 FEEDS AND FEEDING injured. The well-balanced ration fed Lot III was fully as satisfactory as the oat ration and more economical than the straight corn ration. The objections often raised against corn — ^that horses fed com lack nerve and action, sweat easily, and wear out earlier— are doubtless due to feeding an excess of this grain or failure to balance the ration properly. Hooper and Anderson of the Kentucky Station* report that corn with timothy and oat hay maintained mules, working on an average 6 hours a day, in good condition, but that the skin and hair of the corn-fed mules were not so soft and glossy as with those fed a mixture of 3 parts com, 1 part wheat bran, and 1 part oil meal. Beginning in 1874, the Paris Omnibus Company, employing nearly 10,000 horses averaging about 1200 lbs. each, conducted extensive feeding trials with Indian com. Feeding com exclusively with hay from the grasses was found to depress the spirits of the horses, and accordingly a mixture of 6.6 lbs. of com and 12.1 lbs. of oats was adopted, varying somewhat with different horses. Lavalard^" states that thru this com- bination the company effected a saving of from $200,000 to $300,000 yearly. The Paris Cab Company, also beginning at about the same time to feed corn in place of oats, had such satisfactory results that it almost entirely ceased feeding oats. From these trials, and others with some 17,000 French army horses, Lavalard writes: "Experiments have demonstrated that com can re- place oats in the ration of both army and cavalry horses, and if substi- tuted weight for weight, it increases the nutritive value of the ration. .... The horses fed the com ration were used the same number of hours in military drill, and in the maneuvers were ridden at the same gait as those fed oats, and it was practically impossible to perceive the least difference in the 2 classes. The army officers, prejudiced as they naturally were, were forced to admit that all the horses showed the same energy and vigor. Careful records kept show that sickness and mortality were the same for the horses on the 2 rations. ' ' 477. 'Corn and legume hay. — ^With legume hay, which supplies the lack- ing protein and ash, for roughage, corn may be successfully fed as the only concentrate to mature horses at general farm work. Carmichael fed one horse in each of 3 farm teams at the Ohio Station^^ ear corn, and the other one oats with mixed clover and timothy hay for roughage. The trial lasted 48 weeks, with the following results : Ear corn vs. oats with mixed clover and timothy hay Gain or Work Feed cost Initial loss in per day Daily coat per hour Average ration weight weight of teed* of work* Lbs. Lbs. Hrs. Cents Cents Corn-fed horses Ear corn, 14 .9 lbs. Mixed hay, 16.0 lbs... . 1,525 —3 5.4 15.0 3.3 Oat-fed horses Oats, 14.8 lbs. Mixed hay, 17.3 lbs... . 1,424 9 6.3 20.8 4.5 ' Corn, S0.40, and oats, $0.30 per bu.; hay $8.00 per ton. " Ky. Bul. 176. 1913. "Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, 1900, p. 14. " Ohio Bui. 195. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 303 The corn-fed horses received about the same weight of ear com, in- cluding cob, as their team mates did of oats, and ate less hay, yet they practically maintained their weight. Substituting ear corn for oats re- sulted in a saving of over one-fourth in cost of feed. Trowbridge fed one mule in each of 2 farm teams at the Missouri Station^^ shelled com and the other one oats, all receiving mixed clover and timothy hay, for 364 days, when the rations were reversed and the feeding continued for another 364-day period. The mules fed corn main- tained their weight slightly better than those fed oats and at 21 per ct. less expense for feed, with oats at $0.40 and shelled com at $0.50 per bushel. Both Carmichael and Trowbridge report that the corn-fed animals endured hard work during hot weather as well as those fed oats, and that the corn was not detrimental to health or spirit. 478. Barley. — This grain is extensively employed for horse feeding in Africa, in various parts of the Orient, and in Europe. In this country it is used on the Pacific coast, especially in California. Shepperd of the North Dakota Station^* found that for hard-worked horses barley was not quite so valuable, pound for pound, as oats. Lavalard also con- cludes from 20 years' experience that to replace oats a slightly greater quantity of barley must be fed, especially when rations are calculated as closely as they are with army horses. Where the horses' teeth are good and their labor not severe, barley may be fed whole, but it is usual- ly best to grind or, better, roll it. Barley meal forms a pasty, unpleas- ant mass when mixed with the saliva in the mouth. This can be largely avoided by crushing the grain to flattened discs between iron rollers. (226) 479. Wheat. — ^Altho the price of sound wheat usually prohibits its use as a horse feed, that which has been frosted or otherwise damaged, if not moldy, may be fed with economy. Wheat should preferably be roiled and fed in moderate amounts only, mixed with a bulky concentrate, such as bran, or with chaffed forage to avoid digestive troubles and skin eruptions. '^^ (215) 480. Rye. — In Germany, according to Pott,^' many work horses are fed 2 to 6.6 lbs. of rye per day in combination with oats or other concentrates, the grain preferably being rolled or bruised and mi-xed with cut straw. The change to rye must be gradual or colic may result, especially if the grain is not well mixed with cut fodder. The bad results reported with rye are probably due to grain of poor quality, or that containing impuri- ties. (232) 481. Kafir; milo. — In the regions where they flourish, the seeds of the various sorghums are extensively employed for horse feeding, tho some- what less valuable than com. Being small and hard, they should be ground or chopped, and if possible mixed with bran or middlings, for they tend to produce constipation. These grains may also be fed un- " Mo. Bui. 114. " N. D. Bui. 45. "Shepperd, N. D. Bui. 45; Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 445. "Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., 11, 1907, p. 449. 304 FEEDS AND FEEDING threshed in the heads along with the forage. Morrow of the Oklahoma Station^* reports the successful feeding of kafir to farm mules and horses. (235-42) 482. Cane molasses. — Thruout the sugar-cane districts cane molasses is often the most economical source of carbohydrates for work animals. Dalrymple^^ of the Louisiana Station, collecting data from 47 Louisiana sugar plantations employing over 5,000 work animals, chiefly mules, found that an average of 9.5 lbs. of cane molasses was fed daily to each animal, the maximum being 21 lbs. The molasses was usually mixed with corn (ground with both cob and husks), other concentrates, or cut hay, but was sometimes fed separately in troughs or poured on uncut roughage. The ration was usually balanced with legume hay or cotton- seed meal. Planters held that the use of molasses reduced digestive dis- turbances and improved the health and endurance of the animals, with a saving of 10 to 50 per ct. in cost of feed. No scouring, such as would be produced by large quantities of beet molasses, was noted. Bems^^ re- ports improvement in the condition of 100 heavy truck horses in New York on feeding 1 quart of molasses daily, diluted with water and mixed with grain and cut hay. Dalrymple and Berns both obtained satisfactory results on feeding molasses to driving horses. Because of its high price molasses is rarely an economical source of carbohydrates in the northern states, tho a quart or more a day may often be profitable as an appetizer or tonic with horses out of condition.^' (279) 483. Beet molasses and molasses mixtures. — Because of its laxative prop- erties, beet molasses must be fed only in limited amounts, but when not given in excess, it has given satisfactory results and is well liked by horses. (276) It may be thinned with warm water and mixed with cut fodder or fed in such mixtures as molasses-beet-pulp, alfalmo, etc. (280) In trials with 130 hard- worked horses of a Budapest transporta- tion company, Weiser and Zaitschek^" obtained entirely satisfactory re- sults for months with a ration, per 1000 lbs. live weight, of 4.1 lbs. beet molasses mixed with 5.6 lbs. wheat bran and fed with 5.7 lbs. corn with an unlimited allowance of hay. One lb. of molasses replaced 0.78 lb. of corn. When the molasses was increased to 5.5 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight no injurious effect on the health of the animals was observed, but the molasses-bran mixture proved too sticky to be palatable. Pott^^ mentions the successful use of various molasses mixtures and cites in- stances where 2 to 3 lbs. of peat-molasses successfully replaced an equal weight of grain. " OMa. Rpt. 1898. "La. Bui. 86, 1906; Breeder's Gaz., 48, 1905, p. 277. « Amer. Vet. Rev., 26, 1902, pp. 615-623. >» Lindsey, Mass. Bui. 118, 1907; Gay, Productive Horse Husbandry, 1914, p. 238. '"Landw. Jahrb., 37, 1908, pp. 138-149. "'Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 336. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 305 In trials with 15,000 horses of the Paris Omnibus Company Lavalard^^ fed as high as 4.4 lbs. of peat-molasses daily with fewer digestive disturb- ances than on a ration containing no molasses. Molasses and many of the molasses mixtures on the market are car- bonaceous feeds, deficient in protein, and at the high prices often asked are uneconomical sources of carbohydrates. 484. Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Sugar, fed in small amounts, has been recommended for horses. On feeding one lot of 18 artillery horses oats and prairie hay and another lot the same ration, except that 0.5 lb. of sugar was substituted for 2 lbs. of oats, McCamp- belP* of the Kansas Station found that the sugar-fed horses sweat more easily than the others, altho showing excellent coats of hair and good appetites. He concludes that while a small amount of sugar may be fed as a conditioner, it is not an economical substitute for the various grains ordinarily available. (281) Bough rice is an economical feed for horses and mules in the southern states, when low in price compared with other cereals. In trials with 2 mules at the Louisiana Station Dalrymple^* gradually substituted rough rice for an equal weight of cracked corn, feeding as high as 8 lbs. per day with good results. (234) Dried heet pulp is often refused by horses when fed alone, but when mixed with other concentrates may well be used as a portion of the ra- tion. In Hanover, Germany, 5.5 to 6.6 lbs. per head daily are often fed to work horses.'"' (275) II. NiTEOGENOUS CONCENTRATES 485. Leguminous seeds. — ^Like the horse bean and other varieties of beans, so widely fed in Europe, the field pea in the northern states and the cowpea and soybean farther south are useful in supplementing rations deficient in protein. (256, 261-2) At the North Carolina Station^^ Bur- kett obtained satisfactory results in feeding cowpea meal as one-third to two-thirds the grain allowance for mules getting corn-and-cob meal and meadow or oat hay. All these leguminous seeds should be ground, and on account of their protein-rich nature should not be fed as the sole concen- trate. Lavalard" states that when beans replace oats only half the quantity should be used. 486. Wheat bran. — Bran is one of the most useful feeds for the horse, because of its bulky nature and mild laxative properties. (218) If not more freely provided, its use once a week, preferably in the form of a '^ Deutsche Landw. Tierzucht, 1902, p. 986. =» Kan. Bui. 186, 1912. " La. Bui. 122. »Pott, Handb. Emahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 310. " N. C. Bui. 189. "Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, 1900, p. 15. 306 FEEDS AND FEEDING masli, wet or steamed, is desirable for its beneficial action on the alimen- tary tract. As the immediate effect of the laxative mash is somewhat weakening^* it should be given at night and preferably before a day of rest. When low in price, bran may profitably be fed in larger amounts as a partial substitute for oats. Burkett fed 2 1220-lb. farm work horses a ration of 7 lbs. of oats and 7 lbs. of corn with 12 lbs. of timothy hay dur- ing the summer at the New Hampshire Station,^" while in the ration of 2 others 7 lbs. of bran was substituted for the oats. The horses fed bran worked on the average 0.7 hour less per day than those fed oats but made an average gain of 113 lbs. during 26 weeks, while the oat-fed horses gained only 28 lbs. After repeating the trial during the winter with sub- stantially the same results, Burkett concludes that when fed in this combination bran can replace an equal weight of oats. As bran is low in lime, when heavy allowances of bran are used feeds should be given which are high in lime, or lime should be added in the form of ground lime- stone, etc. (98) After years of experience Shepperd of the North Dakota Station^" concludes that a mixture of equal parts by weight of bran and shorts, fed with prairie hay, is equal to the same weight of oats for farm work horses, tho not quite so palatable. Pott'^ holds that feeding over 1 lb. of bran per day to horses worked at a rapid pace tends to make them indolent. 487. Wheat middlings; shorts. — Tho furnishing more nutriment than bran, middlings or shorts are not as desirable for the horse, because of their heavier character. When fed to horses they should be mixed with bulky feed and given in relatively small amount, as they tend to produc6 colic, the danger being great with some horses. (220) 488. Dried brewers' grains. — This by-product may often be substituted for oats with economy. At the New Jersey Station'^ in a trial with 4 teams of 1000-lb. street car horses, fed a ration of 8 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 4 lbs. shelled corn, and 6 lbs. hay, Voorhees substituted an equal weight of dried brewers' grains for the oats in the ration of one horse in each team. The change produced no ill effects on the horses, which trav- eled not less than 24 miles per day. The conclusion was reached that pound for pound good quality dried brewers' grains were fully equal to oats. Voorhees reports'^ that a gardener living near the Station, guided by its teachings, successfully fed a ration of dried brewers' grains, corn, and hay to 8 animals, with a saving in yearly feed bills of about $150 over the previous cost. Not being particularly palatable, dried brewers' grains should be mixed with other concentrates. Hooper and Anderson'* of the Kentucky Station report the grains somewhat constipating for horses and mules. (228) ^"Burkett, Farm Stock, 1909, p. 73. "^ N. J. Rpt. 1892. ^N. H. Bui. 82. " N. J. Rpt. 1893. »° N. D. Bui. 45. " Ky. Bui. 176. "Handb. Emahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 159. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 307 489. linseed oil meal or cake. — Linseed meal, with its high protein con- tent and its tonic and somewhat laxative properties, is an excellent nitrogenous supplement for the horse. McCampbell of the Kansas Sta- tion^" compared the value of linseed meal and wheat bran in a 110-day trial in which 1170-lb. artillery horses were fed a ration of 12 lbs. prairie hay, 4 lbs. oats, 6 lbs. corn, and either linseed meal or wheat bran, as shown in the table : Linseed meal vs. wheat bran for horses Daily cost per Av. loss in wt. 1,000 lbs. Daily supplement allowance per head live wt. Lbs. Cents Lot I, 77 horses, Linseed meal, 1 lb 2.5 17 .0 Lot II, 75 horses, Wheat bran, 4 lbs 6.7 18 .8 In this trial 1 lb. of linseed meal was as effective in balancing the ra- tion as 4 lbs. of bran, for the horses in Lot I lost slightly less in weight than those in Lot II and showed better coats of hair, indicating a thriftier condition. The endurance and spirit of both lots were entirely satis- factory. "With linseed meal at $35.50 and bran at $20.00 per ton, the sub- stitution of the meal lowered the feed bill about 10 per ct. In a trial at the Iowa Station'" with 3 teams of farm horses Kennedy, Robbins, and Kildee found a mixture of 1 part oil meal and 10 parts shelled corn, fed with timothy hay, too laxative for horses at hard work in summer. A mixture of 1 part oil meal, 4 parts oats and 12 parts corn, proved as satisfactory as one of 6 parts oats and 4 parts corn. Substi- tuting oil meal for a large part of the oats saved 1.6 cents in daily cost of feed. Altho Pott'^ reports the satisfactory use with work horses of 3 to 4 lbs. of linseed cake in combination with other feeds, not over 1 to 1.5 lbs. per head daily should ordinarily be given. A pound or less a day of linseed meal is a helpful conditioner for run-down horses with rough coats, and is excellent in spring to hasten shedding of the hair and as a laxative with constipated animals. In fitting horses for show or sale it gives bloom and finish. (254) 490. Cottonseed meal. — ^While it is not safe to feed cottonseed meal in large amounts to horses or mules, good results are secured when this feed is properly used. Being a heavy concentrate, not particularly relished by these animals, it should be miKed with some well-liked bulky feed. At the North Carolina Station'* Curtis found it impracticable to feed mules on cottonseed meal and ear com. Altho fairly satisfactory, a mixture of 1 part cottonseed meal with 6 parts shelled corn was less relished than 1 part of meal with 3 of corn-and-cob meal, the remaining corn being fed on the cob. The meal may also be mixed with whole or crushed oats, dried brewers ' grains, or cut hay. It is claimed by some that crushed or ground unhusked com gives excellent results as a basal feed when using cotton- MKan. Bui. 186. ='Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 25. " Iowa Bui. 109. " N. C. Buls. 215, 216. 308 FEEDS AND FEEDING seed meal. Burkett'" suggests sprinkling the meal on silage, or on hay or stover moistened previous to feeding. Louisiana planters attribute their success in feeding cottonseed meal largely to the fact that they mix it with blackstrap molasses. Curtis states that the meal fed daily should rarely exceed 2 lbs. per ani- mal, a safe rule being 0.2 lb. for every 100 lbs. live weight of animal. For work horses the cottonseed meal fed should not exceed 15 or, better, 10 per ct. of the total ration by weight. Horses should be started on cottonseed meal gradually, not over one-fourth lb. being given at each feed for the first 2 or 3 weeks. When the maximum amount of meal is fed it should be distributed equally in the 3 daily feeds. Against the claim that work stock fed on cottonseed meal suffer from short wind and weak eyes, Curtis reports that trials covering 3 years showed no such harmful effects. Judge Henry C. Hammond of Augusta, Georgia,*" re- ports that for 5 years he fed 10 pleasure and work horses each 1 lb. of cottonseed meal daily without a single sick animal or one not ready for work, due, he holds, to the fact that the meal was always mixed with some light concentrate. In a 154-day test at the Iowa Station*^ with 3 work teams fed timothy hay, 6 per ct. of cottonseed meal proved as effective as 8 per ct. of linseed meal in balancing a grain mixture of 15 per ct. oats and the remainder corn. Burkett*^ found a ration of cottonseed meal, corn, and corn stover satisfactory in winter for horses and mules doing moderate work. Like linseed meal, cottonseed meal is useful in conditioning horses and im- proving their coats.*^ (246-50) 491. Miscellaneous nitrogenous concentrates. — Oil cakes and meals from sunflower seed, rape seed, peanut, cocoanut, sesame, etc., are fed to horses in different parts of Europe in quantities of 2.2 to 4.4 lbs. per horse daily with good results.** The Fretich war department*" found cocoanut meal equal to the same weight of oats for army horses. (258-60) Gluten meal was found by Kennedy, Bobbins, and Kildee at the Iowa Station*" to be rather unpalatable when 1 part was fed with 8 of corn meal, altho this mixture fed with timothy hay maintained the weight of farm horses as well as a mixture of 1 part linseed meal and 15 of corn. (211) Dried distillers' grains fed. by Lindsey*'' at the Massachusetts Station as one-fourth of the concentrate allowance to horses gave excellent results. Fed by Plumb** at the Indiana Station as one-third of the grain allow- ance, these proved fairly satisfactory with some horses, but unpalatable to others. (282) ^'N. C. Bui. 189. "Pamphlet "Cottonseed Meal for Horses and Mules"; private correspondence. "Iowa Bui. 109. « N. C. Bui. 189. "Curtis, N. C. Bui. 215, 1911; Pott, Handb. EJmahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 110. " Kellner, Emahr. Landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 456. "Milch Zeit., 1883, p. 517. "Iowa Bui. 109. "Mass. Bui. 99. *Ind. Bui. 97. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 309 Tankage and blood meal were found by Burkett at the North Carolina Station*" to be useful for run-down, thin horses, 1 to 2 lbs. of tankage or 1 lb. of blood meal being employed. Pott^" states that blood meal has given excellent results in horse feeding. La Querriere"^ states that boiled meat meal mixed with hay and straw is excellent for horses. The Arabs feed their horses camel's flesh mixed with other feed in the form of cakes. (270) III. Carbonaceous Roughages 492. Excess of roughage injurious. — ^We have seen previously that horses can not live on concentrates alone, even on oats with their straw- like hulls. (107) An excess of roughage, on the other hand, is also in- jurious. When we recall that the stomach of the horse has a capacity of only 19 quarts (35), while the 4 stomachs of a cow may hold 267 quarts, it is evident that the horse at hard work cannot well derive most of its nourishment from roughage. Thru carelessness or mistaken kind- ness the mangers are often kept filled with hay, especially in the case of farm horses. The horse then gorges himself on this provender, with a staring coat, labored breathing, and quick tiring as the least serious, tho probably the most noticeable results. For this animal there should always be a definite, limited daily allowance of hay, given mostly at night when there is ample time for its mastication and digestion. Many di- gestive disturbances are caused by forcing the horse to work with his stom- ach distended by coarse feed. More horses are injured by feeding too much than too little hay. On feeding 1 horse in each of 2 teams doing ordinary farm work all the timothy hay they would eat, in addition to oats, while the others were given about two-thirds as much hay, Clark" at the Montana Station found that those fed the smaller amount had more life and sweat less. In another trial a horse receiving 7.5 lbs. of grain daily was allowed all the early cut timothy hay it wished, and ate so much that it failed to gain in weight, had a staring coat, and lacked life and vigor. 493. Timothy hay. — ^Altho not rich in digestible nutrients, timothy hay is the standard roughage for the horse thruout the northeastern United States. The freedom from dust of good timothy hay commends it as a horse feed, and it is an excellent roughage for animals whose sustenance comes mostly from concentrates. While timothy cut too green makes "washy" hay, it should not be allowed to stand until it becomes woody and indigestible. A reasonable allowance of timothy hay is 1 lb. daily per 100 lbs. of animal. So far as possible the other roughages here considered win be compared with timothy hay as the standard. (312) 494. Cereal hay. — On the Pacific coast, especially in California, the cereal hays — ^barley, wild oat, wheat, etc. — are extensively employed as roughages for horses. The excellence of the speed horse and the endur- ance of the work horse of the coast region attest the merits of these feeds. " N. C. Bui. 189. "■ Milchzeitung, 1881, p. 753. " Handb. Brnahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 515. ^ Mont. Bui. 95, 1913. 310 FEEDS AND FEEDING In some cases where racing horses have been sent to the East cereal hay was forwarded with them for their nourishment. Thruout the Eocky Mountain region oat hay is of considerable importance. Cereal hay may often be advantageously employed for horse feeding in the eastern United States. At the North Carolina Station"' Burkett found that hay from oats cut in the milk stage compared favorably with clover and cowpea hay for horses. (318) 495. Prairie hay. — Thruout the western states prairie hay from the wild grasses forms an excellent roughage for the horse. Prom trials lasting 110 to 140 days with 453 artillery horses, McCampbelP* of the Kansas Station concludes that timothy hay is slightly more valuable than prairie hay, since the horses fed timothy maintained their weight rather better than those fed prairie hay. However, he holds that when timothy hay costs 10 per ct. more than good prairie hay, the latter is more eco- nomical. (325) 496. Brome hay. — This hay, common to the northern plains region, proved fully equal to timothy in a trial at the North Dakota Station in which Shepperd"' fed 1 horse in each of 2 work teams brome hay and oats, while their team mates received timothy and oats, as the following shows : Brome vs. timothy hay for horses Average ration Daily g^^^m weight Dagywork Lo«/, Brome hay, 22.2 lbs. Oats, 14.5 lbs 0.77 5.2 Loi 77, Timothy hay, 21 .9 lbs. Oats, 14.6 lbs 0.42 5.2 The horses getting brome hay gained slightly more in weight than those fed timothy. (316) 497. Southern hays. — To determine the value of Johnson grass, Ber- muda, and lespedeza hay compared with timothy or alfalfa hay Lloyd of the Mississippi Station"* conducted trials with 5 lots of 4 to 5 growing 2- to 3-yr.-old mules for 89 days, the animals being fed under shelter and allowed the freedom of a yard. The mules in each lot were given a grain allowance of 2 lbs. oats, 4 lbs. corn-and-cob meal, and 0.5 lb. cottonseed meal, with hay as shown in the table : Comparison of southern hays Av. daily Feed per 100 lbs. gain Cost per lb. Average allowance of hay gain Concentrates Hay gain Lbs. Lbs. Lba. Cents* Lot I, Johnson grass hay, 11 .3 lbs.. . .44 1,558 2,520 36 Lot II, Bermuda hay, 11 .3 lbs .43 1,607 2,601 37 Lot III, Timothy hay, 11 .3 lbs .44 1,573 2,545 48 io<7F, Lespedeza hay, 11. 3 lbs.... 0.67 1,038 1,680 27 Z,o< F, Alfalfa hay, 11 .3 lbs 0.86 812 1,313 21 * Johnson grass and Bermuda hay $11, timothy hay $20, and lespedeza and alfalfa hay $15 per ton. This trial shows that hay from Johnson or Bermuda grass is as valu- able for horses or mules as timothy hay. (320-1) Lespedeza and alfalfa " N. C. Bui. 189. " N. D. Bui. 45. " Kan. Bui. 186. "" Information to the authors. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 311 hay are of still higher value for growing animals on account of their rich- ness in protein and ash. With lespedeza and alfalfa hay at $15 per ton and Johnson grass and Bermuda hay at $11, the legume hays produced gains at a considerahly lower cost. 498. Millet hay. — Hay from Hungarian grass, Japanese miUet, etc., may often be advantageously fed to horses, provided the allowance is limited. Hinebauch of the North Dakota Station^' found that, fed ex- clusively to horses for long periods, millet hay caused increased action of the kidneys, lameness and swelling of the joints, infusion of the blood into the joints and finally destruction of the texture of the bones, which were rendered soft and less tenacious so that movements of the animal would sometimes cause the ligaments and muscles to be torn from them. Since the millets are among the oldest and most widely grown of all agricultural plants, it is but fair to hold that good millet hay, fed in moderation, or with other roughage and always with some concentrate, should prove satisfactory and produce no unfavorable effects. (317) 499. Sorghum hay. — Forage from the sweet sorghums, when properly cured, is superior to com forage for horses. It usually deteriorates rapid- ly in value after midwinter unless well cured and kept in a dry place. Moldy, decaying sorghum forage is especially dangerous to horses. Kafir, tho not quite so palatable as the sweet sorghums, is extensively and profit- ably used for horse feeding over a large region in the southwestern states. The Oklahoma Station^* found kafir stover equal to corn stover in feeding value. (308) 500. Com fodder and corn stover. — Thickly grown fodder com and corn stover, when properly cured and cared for, are among the best of rough- ages for the horse. Com leaves are usually quite free from dust, palat- able, and full of nutriment. For stallions, brood mares, idle horses, and growing colts good com forage is usually a most economical and helpful substitute for timothy hay. When the yield of fodder corn and its feeding value are compared with that of the timothy hay from a like area, the use- fulness and economy of this much neglected forage is apparent. The cured com plant should be much more generally used in America for horse feeding than it now is. (294-7) That the entire roughage fed farm horses during the winter when at light work may advantageously consist of corn stover is shown in a trial by Burkett at the New Hampshire Station'® with 2 lots each of two 1225- Ib. farm horses fed the following rations for 73 days from January to April. Corn stover vs. timothy hay for horses Average Av. work Average ration gain per day Lbs. Hours Lot 7, Com stover, 12 lbs. Com, 7 lbs. Oats or bran, 7 lbs. . . 3 3.4 ioi 77, Timothy hay, 12 lbs. Com, 7 lbs. Oats or bran, 7 lbs. . . 18 3.3 " N. D. Bui. 26. " Okla. Rpt. 1899. » N. H. Bui. 82. 312 FEEDS AND FEEDING Since the stover-fed horses did a little more work than the others and gained but slightly less, cut corn stover may be regarded as equal to tim- othy hay in this trial. With timothy hay usually selling for 2 to 4 times as much as stover, the great economy of the latter is apparent. 501. Straw. — Straw contains much fiber and its mastication and diges- tion by the horse call for a large amount of energy, which appears as heat, thereby warming the body tho not producing useful work. (78-80) Be- cause of this, horses doing little or no work in winter and having ample time for chewing and digesting their feed may often be profitably win- tered largely on bright straw. Many horses are fed costly hay in winter when straw, corn fodder, or corn stover would prove satisfactory and much cheaper. In Europe nearly all rations for horses contain straw, those hardest worked receiving the least. In feeding value the straws rank in the following order : oat, barley, wheat, rye, the last-named hav- ing but slight value. Farm horses should not be vdntered in the barn- yard on straw and com stover only, without any grain, for they will not be in condition to endure the severe labor upon the sudden opening up of work in the spring. (328-9) 502. Corn «tover and straw reduce feed bills. — The saving which may be made thru the use of such cheap roughages as corn stover and straw in place of a large part of the timothy hay, and of substitutes for oats is well illustrated in a trial by Norton at the Michigan Station'^" in which 2 lots, each of 6 farm horses doing moderate work, were fed the following rations for 10 weeks in winter : Lot I was fed exclusively on high-priced timothy hay and oats (with a light feed of bran once a week) , while in the ration fed Lot II shredded corn stover and oat straw were substituted for a large part of the timothy hay, and roots, ear corn, and a mixture of equal parts of bran, dried beet pulp, and linseed oil cake for most of the oats. Lessening cost of feed hy use of corn stover and straw Amount fed Cost of feed Feeding stuff Price per ton per day per day Dollars Founds Cents Lot I Timothy 12.00 20.4 Oats 31.00 11.0 29.6 Lot II Shredded corn stover 4 .00 8.6 Oat straw 5.00 4.3 Timothy hay 12.00 4.2 Carrots 3 .00 5.4 Ear corn 20.00 4.2 Oats 31.00 3.1 Feed mixture 21.00 2.6 17.7 During the trial the horses in Lot I, fed the ration of timothy hay and oats, costing 29.6 cents a day, each lost an average of 11 lbs. in weight. " Mich. Bui. 254. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 313 On the other hand those getting the cheaper but well-balanced ration gained 14 lbs. each at a feed cost of 17.7 cents per day — a saving of 40 per ct. 503. Carbonaceous roughages require supplement. — It should be remem- bered that hay from the grasses, corn fodder, corn stover, sorghum and kafir forages, and straw are all low in protein. Therefore, when these roughages are used exclusively, protein-rich concentrates should be fed to balance the ration. This fact, which has already been brought out (476), is also shown in other trials by McCampbell"^ in which horses fed corn and prairie hay only did not thrive as well as others fed corn and oats, or corn, bran, and linseed meal with the prairie hay. IV. Legume Hat 504. Legume hay. — Properly cured hay from the legumes is usually more palatable to horses than other roughage ; hence if they are allowed to eat at will, there is even greater danger of their consuming an excess than with hay froiii the grasses. Numerous experiments show that to maintain the weight of horses it is not necessary to feed as great "a weight of the legume hays, which are more like concentrates in their nature. These protein-rich hays are admirably suited to balance com or other concen- trates low in protein. As the legumes are more difficult to cure than the grasses, there is more danger of hay from them being loaded with dust or otherwise damaged in quality. The prejudice against legume hay for horse feeding, so frequently encountered, is largely due to the fact that these rich roughages have been given in excess or that hay of poor quality has been used. 505. Clover hay. — Because clover hay is often carelessly made and load- ed with dust, thereby tending to produce heaves, it is disliked by many horsemen, particularly for feeding roadsters. This objection, however, should not apply to clean, properly-cured clover hay. Roberts®^ suggests that for driving horses clover hay be mixed with bright straw and the mass dampened; this forms a satisfactory roughage for all but fast drivers' Gay advises the use of mixed clover and timothy hay instead of clover alone.*' For horses at ordinary farm work, clover is often used as the sole roughage. Terry,** the conservative, reliable farmer-writer, kept a me- dium-weight farm work team for a number of years in prime condition solely on well-made clover hay. To compare the value of clover and tim- othy hay, Obreeht*^ fed 1 horse in each of 6 teams of 1400-lb. farm horses at the Illinois Station clover hay with the grain allowance shown on the next page, while its team mate was fed timothy hay with the same grain allowance. After 196 days the rations were reversed and the trial continued for 20 weeks. " Kan. Bui. 186. " Our Farming, p. 137. " The Horse, p. 282. " HI. Bui. 150. M Productive Horse Husbandry, 1914, p. 240. 314 FEEDS AND FEEDING Glover vs. timothy hay for horses Gain in Daily Average ration weight worlc Lbs. Houra Clover-fed horses Com, 6 .9 lbs. Oats, 7 .3 lbs. Oil meal, 0.46 lb. Bran, 0.61 lb. Clover hay, 15.6 lbs 15.5 7.3 Timothy-fed horses Com, 6 .8 lbs. Oats, 7 .2 lbs. Oameal, 0.53 lb. Bran, 0.601b. Timothy hay, 15 .6 lbs 3 .0 7 .3 Altho most of the teamsters were prejudiced in favor of timothy hay at the beginning, they later reported that they could observe no difference in the spirit of the horses or their ability to endure hot weather. The horses fed clover hay had glossier coats and their bowels were looser, but not objectionably so for doing hard work. (347) "Wilcox and Smith^* state that second-crop clover hay is frequently accused of causing slobbering. The reason is unknown, but some horse- men state that the addition of bran or apples to the ration tends to prevent the trouble. 506. Alfalfa hay. — ^Because it is cheap and abundant this legume hay furnishes the sole roughage for horses upon tens of thousands of farms and ranches in the West. With the increasing culture of alfalfa in other sections of the country more and more alfalfa hay is likewise being fed to horses in these districts. It is therefore important to learn the conditions essential to its successful use. When the horse is allowed to gorge on al- falfa hay, in addition to having his stomach over-distended with the bulky feed he receives an excess of highly nitrogenous material. This must be excreted thru the kidneys, overworking them, and even, according to Mc- Campbell,"^ leading to a chronic inflammatory condition if excessive feed- ing is long continued. The alfalfa allowance for horses should therefore be limited, McCampbell advising that those at work receive not more than 1.2 lbs. per 100 lbs. live weight. The hay should be free from dust, mold, and smut, and should not be cut until quite mature, for hay from early- cut alfalfa, as commonly advised for cattle, is too "washy" for horses. In view of the prejudice among liverymen and owners of driving horses against alfalfa, a 140-day trial was conducted by McCampbeU** with ar- tillery horses, doing more hard work than the average farm team thruout the year, a considerable portion at a trot and no small amount at a gallop. The horses in Lot I were fed alfalfa hay Avith 2 lbs. oats and .8 lbs. com, while those in Lots II and III received prairie or timothy hay, with half as much corn and 4 times as much oats. " Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, 1908, p. 323. <" Kan. Bui. 186. »• Kan. Bui. 186. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 315 Alfalfa vs. prairie and timothy hay for horses Av. gain or Daily cost of feed Imtial loss per Nutritive per 1,000 lbs. Average ration weight head ratio live wt.* Lbs. Lbs. Cents Lot 1, 17 horses Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. Shelled com, 8 lbs. Oats, 2 lbs 1,163 25 .6 1:5.8 12 .95 Lot II, 74 horses Prairie hay, 14 lbs. Com, 4 lbs. Oats, 8 lbs 1,185 —12.9 1:8.9 18.86 Lot III, 76 horses Timothy hay, 14 lbs. Com, 4 lbs. Oats, 8 lbs 1,159 —7.7 1:9.0 19.21 ♦Alfalfa hay, $10; prairie and timothy hay, $12.60 per ton. Corn $0.55 and oats $0,385 per bu. The alfalfa-fed horses in Lot I, getting 16 per ct. less grain and 28 per ct. less hay than the others, showed no shortness of wind, softness, lack of endurance, or excessive urination. They gained over 25 lbs. each during the trial, while those fed timothy or prairie hay lost in weight. Obrecht found at the Illinois Station^" that farm horses fed alfalfa hay when doing hard work maintained their weight on 20 to 22 per ct. less grain than others fed timothy hay. Similar favorable results with alfalfa hay are reported by MerrilF" (Utah Station), Faville'^ (Wyoming Sta- tion), and Gramlich" (Nebraska Station). (339) At the Utah Station alfalfa formed the sole roughage for all the work and driving horses for 12 years, except during brief periods when they were on other experimental fodders. During all that time not a horse was lost either directly or indirectly from alfalfa feeding. It was found that horses fed timothy hay voided an average of 16 lbs. each of urine daily, and those on alfalfa 27 lbs., early-cut alfalfa hay causing a greater ex- cretion than late-cut. This increased excretion of urine did not seem to injure the horses in any way. In the West alfalfa hay, often with straw in unlimited amount, is a common maintenance ration for idle horses. Merrill found 20 lbs. of alfalfa hay sufficient to maintain a 1400-lb. horse when not working, while Emery^* at the Wyoming Station found that 13.8 lbs. of alfalfa hay and 2.25 lbs. of oat straw would maintain a 1000-lb. idle horse. 507. Alfalfa meal. — To compare the value of alfalfa meal and bran Mc- CampbelF* fed 2 lots of 1170-lb. artillery horses as shown in the table for 110 days. The data for a third lot of similar horses fed for 140 days on uncut alfalfa hay are included for comparison. "111. Bui. 150. " Nebr. Exten. Bui. 28. " Utah Bui. 77. " Wyo. Rpt. 12. "Wyo. Bui. 98. " Kan. Bui. 186. 316 FEEDS AND FEEDING Alfalfa meal compared with wheat bran and alfalfa hay Daily cost of feed Gain or loss per 1,000 Iba. Average ration in weight live wt.* Lbs. Cents Alfalfa meal, 162 horses Oats, 4 lbs. Com, 6 lbs. Alfalfa meal, 4 lbs. Prairie or timothy hay, 14 lbs — 2.6 17 .96 Wheat bran, 151 horses Oats, 4 lbs. Corn, 6 lbs. Bran, 4 lbs. Prairie or timothy hay, 14 lbs — 0.3 18 .78 Alfalfa hay, 17 horses Oats, 2 lbs. Com, 8 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs +25.6 12.95 *Alfalfa meal, $14; alfalfa hay, $10; timothy or prairie hay, $12.50, and bran $20 per ton. Corn $0.55 and oats $0,385 per bu. For maintaining the weight of the horses a pound of alfalfa meal was practically equal to a pound of wheat bran, when fed in a ration contain- ing 10 lbs. of corn and oats. McCampbell states, however, that alfalfa meal is dusty and disagreeahle to handle. If fed dry this dust irritates the air passages of the horse and may cause serious trouble. This objec- tion may be overcome by wetting the meal, which should be done immedi- ately before feeding to avoid souring or molding, but this involves con- siderable time and inconvenience, especially in winter. When uncut alfalfa hay constituted the sole roughage the horses main- tained their weights better, altho receiving less grain and hay, and the ration was less expensive. McCampbell states that when good quality hay is properly fed, little, if any, is wasted, and concludes that alfalfa meal is neither desirable nor economical when good alfalfa hay is obtainable. 508. Cowpea hay. — In a feeding trial at the North Carolina Station Burkett^° found that cowpea hay combined with corn-and-eob meal made a satisfactory work ration, and that cowpea hay with a reasonable quan- tity of corn could be substituted for bran and oats. (357) V. Pasture and Other Succulent Feed For horses receiving but little exercise succulent feeds are especially beneficial on account of their "cooling" and laxative effect. A limited amount of succtdent feed is often employed thruout the year in Europe for work horses and even for drivers. 509. Pasture. — Horses at pasture not only obtain succulent feed, but must exercise to secure it. Good pasture will maintain idle horses satis- factorily ; for those at hard work pasture without grain is insufficient. Not only do the various tame and wild grasses furnish pasture for horses, but '= N. C. Bui. 189. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 317 as these animals are not subject to bloat, they may graze the legumes as well. City horses are often turned on pasture so that their feet may re- cover from the ill effects of hard pavements. 510. Corn silage. — ^Until the past few years little corn silage has been fed to horses and mules, but it is now being fed with success on a large number of farms. It is preferable not to feed it as the sole roughage, rather using it as a partial substitute for hay. Nourse of the Virginia Station'* fed 6 mules and 2 horses during winter on hay, corn, and from 50 to 200 lbs. of corn silage per head weekly. The conclusion was that corn silage is a good roughage for horses when combined with hay, com stover, and grain. Nourse holds that most of the troubles caused by feed- ing silage to horses come from not gradually accustoming the animals to this feed, from feeding too heavily, and from not realizing that silage often contains much corn. In trials at the North Carolina Station" Bur- kett found that 2 lbs. of silage replaced 1 lb. of clover or oat hay when fed in properly balanced rations to horses or mules. As shown in the follow- ing chapter (533), corn silage may be satisfactorily employed in fleshing horses for market. Trowbridge of the Missouri Station'* states that ac- cording to successful horsemen, good legume hay and corn silage is a satisfactory ration for wintering mature in-foal mares. He points out that horses at hard work cannot be expected to consume heavy allow- ances of silage, on account of its bulky nature. Pearson'* of the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania, investigating an outbreak where 5 horses suddenly died, found that moldy silage had been fed. On feeding half a bushel of the moldy silage paralysis of the throat occurred, followed by death. When water which had percolated thru this moldy silage was given to a horse it likewise proved fatal. Wing*" reports the death of 8 horses from eating waste silage thrown into yards from racks where lambs were being fed. In view of such remotely possible troubles, silage should be fed to horses only where intelligent supervision insures the use of good material given in moderation to animals gradually accustomed thereto. (411) 511. Roots; tubers; fruits. — The only importance of roots for horse feeding in most sections of this country is as an aid to digestion, for the cereals generally furnish nutriment at lower cost. (365) Carrots, es- pecially relished by horses, are great favorites with horsemen when cost of keep is not considered. They are most helpful when it is necessary to carry horses along in high condition, as in stallion importing establish- ments. (372) Parsnips rank next in value. (373) In his extensive studies of roots for the horse Boussingault found*^ that it required 400 lbs. of rutabagas (swedes) or somewhat over 350 lbs. of carrots to re- place 100 lbs. of good meadow hay. (370) Boussingault found that artichokes were eaten greedily and with good results by horses, about 275 lbs. of the tubers replacing 100 lbs. of hay. " Va. Bui. 80. ™Expt. Sta. Rec, 12, p. 886. "N. C. Bui. 189. '"Breeder's Gaz., 45, 1904, p. 568. ™Mo. Cir. 72. "Rural Economy, p. 400. 318 FEEDS AND FEEDING (375) Potatoes, according to Pott,'^ may be fed raw or cooked in amounts as high as 17.5 lbs. per day along with suitable dry feed. Larger quanti- ties sometimes cause digestive disturbances. Boussingault states that 280 lbs. of cooked potatoes mixed with cut straw replaced 100 lbs of hay. (374) As horses are usually fond of fresh fruit it may sometimes be profitably fed in moderate allowance when there is no market for it. Dried fruits, slightly injured and thereby unsalable, have been successfully fed to horses. (384) 512. Wet beet pulp. — ^Wet beet pulp is unsuited for work horses, ac- cording to Pott,'^ altho it may be fed to idle horses at the rate of 22 to 44 lbs. per head daily. Larger quantities are said to be injurious. Clark** of the Utah Station reports that colts were allowed constant access to pulp at a sugar beet factory for several years without trouble arising. He fed as much as 20 lbs. of fermented pulp daily to work horses without injury, altho in later trials horses took to the pulp reluctantly and their appetite gradually decreased. VI. Cost of Keep 513. Feed consumed yearly. — Only a limited amount of data are avail- able relating to the total annual feed consumption of horses. During 2 years Burkett at the New Hampshire Station'^ recorded all feed eaten, water drank, and hours of work performed by 5 farm horses, averaging 1,230 lbs. They worked on the average 2,146 hours a year, or about 7 hours for each working day-^— a large aggregate for farm horses. The fol- lowing table shows the amount and cost of the feed consumed annually per horse : Feed consumed annually by the horse Yearly consumption Cost of per horse feed Lbs. Dollars Concentrates Oats, 36 cents per bu 1,004 11.30 Com, $16 per ton 2,557 20 .46 Wheat bran, $17 per ton 1,071 9 .10 Gluten feed, $18 per ton 153 1 .38 Linseed meal, $28 per ton 144 2 .02 Cottonseed meal, $26 per ton 23 .29 Total concentrates 4,952 44 .55 Roughages Timothy hay, $16 per ton 3,654 29.23 Com stover, $5 per ton 219 ,55 Total roughages 3,873 29 .78 Total feed 8,825 74.33 Water drank 27,992 Each horse consumed 4,952 lbs. of concentrates and 3,873 lbs. of rough- age per year, or about 13.6 lbs. of concentrates and 10.6 lbs. of roughage per day. The water drank averaged nearly 80 lbs. per head daily. With »'Handb. Brnahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 368. "Utah Bui. 101. »=Handb. Brnahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 299. "N. H. Bui. 82. FEEDS FOR THE HORSE 319 feeds at the prices given, the keep of each horse cost $74.33 per year, or 3.4 cents for each hour of work. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms'" reports that each of the 19 station horses consumed during a year an average of 6,225 lbs. of meal or grain and 5,500 lbs. of hay. The average cost of feed per horse was $99.80 per year, or 27.3 cents per day. It may therefore be held that a 1200 to 1400-lb. work horse will consume from 2.5 to 3 tons of concen- trates — grain, meal, etc. — and from 2 to 3 tons of roughage — hay, straw, etc. — annually. "Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1902. CHAPTER XX FEEDING AND CAEING FOR THE HORSE Witli the brief bill of fare usually adopted for the horse the adminis- tration of feed would seem a simple matter. It is, however, far from such. Given two grooms with similar conditions as to horses to be cared for, work performed, and feed bins to draw from, widely different results are shown. In one case the team emerges from the stable with an action and style which at once announce it in the best of condition. In the other the lagging step, dull eye, and rough coat tell better than words the lack of judgment in feeding and management. The unsatisfactory condition has not necessarily been brought about by any saving at the feed bin and hay mow. Indeed, the poorer groom usually makes the more fre- quent requests for supplies. The indescribable qualities which, rightly commingled, mark the good feeder, cannot be acquired from lectures or books, but must, in a large measure, be born in the horseman. Study and observation will add to the ability of the alert feeder, but all that may be written will not make an adept of one who does not take to the work naturally. No one can study the practices of successful horsemen without being strongly impressed with the fact that there are several ways of reaching the desired end of high finish and fine action with the horse. The skill of the "artist" horse feeder enters, along with the food he supplies, into the very life of the creature he manages. If the reader finds the counsel here given on feed and management not entirely to his satisfaction, let him remember that we have chosen a rational and generally applicable course, conceding that good results may also be obtained by following other systems. I. The Bkood Mare, Foal, and Growing Horse 514. Feed and care of brood mare. — It has been estimated that only 60 per ct. of the mares that are bred each year produce living colts.^ Yet the greater part of this enormous loss can be prevented by proper feed, care, and management of the brood mare. Idleness, the bane of horse breeding, should be avoided. (Ill) "Working mares are more certain of bringing good foals than idle ones, but judgment must always be used in working them. Pulling too hard, backing heavy loads, wading thru deep mud, or other over-exertion must be avoided. When not working, the mare should be turned out daily for exercise. As foaling time ap- 1 McCampbell, Kan. Bui. 186. 320 FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 321 proaches, the work should be lightened, and preferably discontinued 3 days to a week before foaling, altho in many instances mares have been worked up to the day of foaling without harm.'' When laid off, she should not stand in the stall without exercise. A roomy, well-lighted, well- ventilated box stall with wide doorway and ample bedding is none too good at such times. Mares heavy in foal are apt to be cross and quarrel- some, but they should always be handled gently. The feeding of the working brood mare is easier than that of the idle one. The essentials are a well-balanced ration of good feeds, containing a liberal supply of protein, lime, and phosphorus. An abundance of these is especially needed by immature pregnant mares and pregnant mares which are suckling foals, since in addition to the demand from the de- veloping fetus there is the draft for the growing body of the mother in the one case, and for milk secretion in the other. (113, 120, 150) All feeds should be free from dust, mold, or decay, which might cause abortion. Mares used only for breeding purposes do well without grain when on nutritious pasture. With insufficient pasture and in winter some grain should be given. The feed should not be concentrated in character, but should have considerable bulk or volume. The bowels should be kept act- ive thru a proper combination of such feeds as bran, linseed meal, roots, etc. 515. Gestation period and foaling time. — The average period of gesta- tion for the mare is about 11 months, or 340 days, tho it may vary quite widely. William Russell Allen of Allen Farm,^ Pittsfield, Massachusetts, from records of 1,071 foals produced by trotting mares during 15 years, found the maximum gestation period 373, the minimum 319, and the average 340 days. A wider range was observed by Tessier,* who reports that the shortest gestation period of 582 mares was 287, the longest 419, and the average, 330 days. Only the quick-maturing draft filly should under any circumstances be bred as a 2-year-old; all others when past 3 years. If the desire is to improve the strain of horses, one should not attempt to breed even the draft filly at 2 years of age, but when market draft horses are wanted it may prove economical and will not injure the filly to any noticeable de- gree if she is well-grown for her age and is properly fed and cared for. Shortly before foaling the grain allowance should be decreased and laxative food more freely used, since it is advisable to keep the bowels somewhat loose rather than otherwise. When wax forms on the mare "s teats, or dugs, the foal may be expected in 3 to 4 days. To avoid infection which may cause navel and joint disease, the stall should be thoroly dis- infected before the foal is born. Alexander^ advises removing all litter, scraping the floor, and scrubbing it and the walls with a good disinfect- ant. The ceiling should be cleaned, and freshly made whitewash, to each gallon of which has been added one-third pound of chlorid of lime, applied ' Harper, Management and Breeding of Horses, p. 284. » Catalog, 1905. ' Farmers' Cyc, Johnson, p. 562. » Wis. Cir. 13. 322 FEEDS AND FEEDING to both walls and ceiling. The floor should be covered with fresh, clean straw, as free as possible from chaff and dust, and all manure removed as soon as dropped. As foaling time approaches, the mare should be watched so as to render assistance, if necessary, yet she must not know that anyone is on guard, for often a mare will not give birth to her foal when persons are present, if she can delay it. The mare should be given a half bucket of water be- fore foaling, and when on her feet again she will need a drink of water or, better, of gruel made from half a pound of fine oatmeal in half a bucket of lukewarm water. A light feed of bran is good for the first meal, and this may be followed by oats, or by equal parts, by bulk, of corn and bran. After foaling the mare should be confined for a few days, her ration being: simple and not too abundant. With favorable conditions, after 4 or 5 days she may be turned to pasture, and in about 2 weeks, or even before if work is urgent and the mare has fully recovered, she may go back to light work, for a part of the day at least. 516. Fall foaling. — Altho the natural and customary foaling time is in the spring, where the mare must do a hard season's work or when she does not get in foal from spring service she may be bred to foal in the fall. 517. The foal. — It is of the highest importance in horse rearing that the foal start life in full health and vigor, and to this end it should, im- mediately after birth, take a good draft of the colostrum, or first milk, of the dam, which possesses regulating properties that tend to relieve the alimentary tract of fecal matter collected therein before birth. (115) If this result is not accomplished naturally, a gentle purgative of castor oil or a rectal injection is necessary. On account of the great danger from navel and joint disease the navel cord should receive attention immedi- ately after birth, and the stump be carefully disinfected. To prevent germ infection of the intestinal tract of the foal, which causes scours, it is well to wash the udder of the mare with a lukewarm 2 per ct. solution of coal-tar disinfectant and then rinse it off with warm water before al- lowing the foal its first meal. The tail and hind parts of the mare should likewise be washed once a day for the first week. Some dams, more frequently those with their first foal and those too hard-worked, fail to supply the proper amount of nourishment, and the young languish. In such cases the mare should be proAdded with food which will stimulate the milk flow. Good pasture grass is, of course, the best, but in its absence concentrates should be given in the shape of oats, rolled barley, wheat bran, etc., with an equal weight of corn. Sometimes the foal suffers from an over-supply of nourishment, or because the milk is too rich, and the indigestion resulting may terminate in diarrhea. In such cases the dam's ration should be reduced and some of her milk drawn, remembering always that the last portion carries the most fat, which is usually the disturbing element. 518. Weight and gains of foals. — ^AUen* found from the records for 1,071 trotting-bred foals that the weight of the fillies at birth ranged from • Allen Farm Catalog, 1905. FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 323 74 to 144 lbs., averaging 109 lbs., while the males weighed from 66 to 152 lbs., averaging 111 lbs. The average birth weight was 110 lbs. During the first year they gained 534 lbs., or nearly 5 times their birth weight. For the second year the average gain was 264 lbs., the third, 118 lbs., and the fourth, 76 lbs., bringing the total at the end of 4 full years up to 1,102 lbs. These colts made more than half their growth during the first year of their life. Data on the gains of 35 draft colts, from high-grade or pure-bred mares averaging 1,700 lbs. and sired by stallions averaging nearly 2,000 lbs., have been compiled by the Breeder's Gazette.^ The birth weights of the foals were not reported, but the weights and gains after the first month were as follows : Weights and gains of draft foals from iirth to two years Period Wt. at end Daily gain Period Wt. at end Daily gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Birth— 1 mo 34.5 ... 6—7 months. . 890 2.0 1—2 months 465 4 .0 7—8 months. . 960 2 .3 2—3 months 570 3.5 8—10 months . . 1,085 2 . 1 3— 4 months 675 3.5 10— 12 months. . 1,170 1.4 4— 5 months 760 2.8 12— 18 months. . 1,445 1.5 5—6 months 830 2 .3 18—24 months. . 1,590 0.8 These colts were well fed with the intention of making them as large as their parents. Some were given grain and cow's milk before weaning, while others had only hay and good pasture until after weaning. The figures show that at 12 months a well-fed draft colt weighs more than half as much, and at 24 months about three-fourths as much as at maturity. The daily gains were by far the largest before weaning and gradually de- creased as the colts matured. If the foal is to reach full development it must not be stunted during the first year of its life. 519. Feeding the foal. — ^By placing the feed box low, when 3 or 4 weeks old the foal will begin nibbling from the mother's supply and will soon acquire a taste for grain. The earlier the foals so learn to eat, the more independent they become, and the mare will then be able to do more work. Crushed oats or oatmeal, with bran, are excellent feeds, as is a mixture of 4 parts of crushed corn, 3 of bran, and 1 of linseed meal. Colts should be given good clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay as soon as they will eat it, and all the clean, pure water they want. Watchfulness should always detect the first appearance of ailment. Diarrhea brought on by over- feeding or exposure must be checked by giving parched flour, rice-meal gruel, or boiled milk; and constipation, the other common evil, may be relieved by castor oil and injections of warm water, flaxseed tea, sweet oil, etc., administered preferably with a fountain syringe having a small hard rubber nozzle. Harm may be done by injecting a large quantity of strong soapy warm water with an ordinary "horse" syringe. In all cases of derangement the food for both dam and foal should at once be lessened, since nothing aids nature more at such times than reducing the work of the digestive tract. 'Breeder's Gaz., 59, 1911, p. 1223. 324 FEEDS AND FEEDING When the mare is worked, the colt should be left in a cool, dark stall during the day, where he will be safe and not be bothered by flies, rather than allowed to follow the dam about the field. The mare should be brought to the barn to suckle the colt in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon. The colt should not be allowed to drain the udder when burst- ing full of hot milk, as indigestion and scours are apt to follow. Allow the mare to cool off, and perhaps draw some of the milk by hand before turn- ing her into the stall with the foal. Brood mares at work and nursing strong foals should be heavily fed to sustain a good milk flow. If the mare is worked during the day it is well to turn both dam and foal onto grass pasture at night, and in addition feed a liberal allowance of grain. (150) When dams and foals are running at pasture, a creep should be con- structed whereby the foals can have access to a separate supply of grain. Build a pen in the pasture near where the horses are inclined to loiter, making it so high that the mares will not try to jump it, and with suf- ficient space from the ground to the bottom rail to allow the foals to pass under. Put in a handy gate or bars, then an ample feed trough. After the mares and foals have eaten together within the pen a few times, the foals will visit the place regularly after their dams are shut out. To in- duce the dams to loiter about, it is well to keep a large lump of rock salt near by and occasionally give a feed of oats at the pen. If flies torture the foal, it is better to keep the mare and foal in a darkened stall during the day and turn to pasture only at night. 520. Mare's milk. — ^Mare's milk is white or bluish in color with an aro- matic, sweetish, slightly bitter taste. As the following table* shows, it is more watery than average cow's milk, and while it contains more sugar, it is decidedly poorer in casein, albumin, and ash. (115) Composition of mare's and cow's milk Number of Casein and Specific analyses Water albumin Fat Sugar Ash gravity Per ct. Per ot. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Mare's milk. . . 72 90.58 2.05 1.14 5.87 0.36 1.0347 Cow's milk.... 705 87.27 3.39 3.68 4.94 0.72 1.0313 According to Fleishmann,* Tartarian mares sometimes remain in milk for 2 years, producing 440 to 490 lbs. of milk annually beyond the require- ments of their foals. Vieth^" reports that good Russian milking mares, when milked 5 times a day, as is the practice, yield 4 to 5 quarts of milk daily. The foal may be taught to drink cow's milk by pouring it upon meal. The young thing readily eats the moistened feed, and by tipping the pan it soon learns to drink the milk. At the Iowa Station^^ Wilson and Curtiss ' Konig, Chem. Natr. u. Genuss-mittel, 1904, II, pp. 602, 663. = Lehrb. Milchwirtschaft, 1901, p. 65. » Landw. Vers. Stat., 31. 1885, p. 354. " Iowa Bui. 18. FEEDING AND CAEING FOR THE HORSE 325 successfully fed whole milk, and later separator skim milk to imported Percheron, Shire, and French-Coach weanling fillies shortly after their arrival from abroad and while out of condition. In changing from whole to separator skim milk the amount was reduced for a day or two to pre- vent scouring. Ten lbs. of separator skim milk was found equal to 1 lb. of grain. Grattan^^ reports favorably on the use of skim milk for foals, even when the milk is sour or lobbered. MacNeilage^' objects to the use of cow's milk for foals, claiming "no better means of manufacturing wind- suckers was ever devised, and it is rare that yearlings so brought out count for much as 2-year-olds and 3-year-olds" — a timely warning against the too free use of this food. 521. Eaising the orphan. — If the mare dies or has no milk the foal may, with proper care, be raised on cow's milk. (265-6) Choose the milk from a fresh cow, if possible, and preferably from one giving milk low in fat. To a tablespoonful of sugar add warm water to dissolve, then 3 to 5 table- spoonfuls of lime water, which tends to correct digestive troubles, and enough fresh milk to make a pint. Feed about one-fourth pint every hour for the first few days, always warming to blood heat. A satisfactory method of feeding the foal is to use an ordinary nursing bottle with a large nipple, tho, as Johnstone^* suggests, an old teapot may be used, over the spout of which the thumb of an old kid glove, pierced with holes by a darning needle, has been tied. Whatever utensil is used, it should be thoroly cleansed and scalded before each meal. Such feeding means much bother, but many foals have been killed by neglect of these important de- tails. As the foal grows, the amount of milk may be gradually increased, the period between feedings lengthened, and whole milk substituted. After a few days 6 feedings a day will suffice and later only 4. At 3 to 4 weeks of age the use of sugar may be stopped but it is well to continue the lime water. In 5 or 6 weeks sweet skim milk may be gradually substi- tuted for whole milk, and after 3 months the colt may be given all it will drink 3 times a day. If allowed to suck the attendant's fingers the foal will soon learn to drink from a pail. The bowels should move freely, but if scours occur at any time Alexander^' advises giving 2 to 4 tablespoon- fuls of a mixture of sweet oil and pure castor oil shaken up in milk, and stopping the feeding of milk for 2 or 3 meals, allowing instead only sweetened warm water with lime water added. At the earliest possible age the foal should be fed solid food, such as oat meal, crushed oats, corn, bran, and a little oil meal and legume hay. For exercise let the orphan run in a lot or grass paddock. 522. Weaning. — ^At from 4 to 6 months of age, depending on conditions, the foal should be weaned. When the mare is bred soon after foaling, or if for any reason the dam and foal are not doing well, it is best to wean comparatively early. On the other hand, if the mother has a good milk flow, and her services are not needed, the foal may well be allowed to " Breeder's Gaz., 6, 1884, p. 796. " The Horse Book. " Trans. Highl. and Agrl. Soc, 1890, p. 152. "■ Wis. Cir. 13. 326 FEEDS AND FEEDING suckle 6 months. If the foal has been fed increasing quantities of grain as it developed, the weaning process will not be difficult, for the quantity of milk consumed will have been gradually decreased. Complete separa- tion will then cause little, if any, setback to either dam or foal. In part- ing the dam and foal, keep them well separated, else all must be done over again. Weanlings should be placed in quarters where they can not in- jure themselves while fretting for their mothers. At such time the grain ration of the mare should be reduced till she is dried off. When the udder becomes so full as to cause uneasiness, part, but not all, of the milk should be drawn. The education of the colt should not be postponed until it is sought to "break" him as a 3-year-old, and then attempt to bring the independent animal under man's guidance all at once. The young foal should be taught to lead at the halter, stand tied in the stall, and display proper stable manners. 523. After weaning. — ^We have seen that the foal makes more than half its entire growth during the first year, and that if stunted during this time it will never fully recover. (518) Good bone and muscle are of prime importance with the horse, and feeds which tend to produce these should be chosen. (118-20) Nothing is superior to bluegrass or other good pas- ture and oats. Among the concentrates, wheat bran, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, buckwheat middlings, wheat middlings, soybeans, cowpeas, and Canada field peas are rich in nitrogenous matter, which goes to build muscle, and in phosphorus, a prime requisite of the skeleton. All the legume hays — alfalfa, clover, cowpea, etc. — are rich in lime, the principal mineral component of the bones. A combination of such concentrates and roughages as these should furnish abundant bone- and muscle-build- ing material. When properly balanced by nitrogenous feeds, com, bar- ley, kafir, milo, or emmer may be used as part of the ration. When fed large amounts of alfalfa hay, colts will relish a little timothy or prairie hay, straw, or corn fodder occasionally. If maximum growth is desired it will be necessary to feed some grain even on good pasture. The young horse which is not developing the proper skeleton may be fed substances especially rich in phosphorus and lime, such as 2 or 3 ounces daily of tankage containing ground bone, or 1 ounce daily of ground bone, ground rock phosphate (floats), or precipitated calcium phosphate. These rec- ommendations are based on the results obtained with other farm ani- mals. Unfortunately there are no definite experiments with horses to guide us at this time. In the case of high-grade and pure-bred draft foals it is especially necessary that the supply of feed be liberal, for the price of the draft horse depends largely on the size attained. Cochel and Severson^* fed a lot of 10 draft colts during 2 winters and the intervening summer as shown in the following table. The grain fed during most of the trial was a mixture of 5 or 6 parts of shelled corn, 3 of oats, 2 of bran, and 1 of lin- " Penn. Bui. 122. FEEDING AND CAEING FOR THE HORSE 327 seed meal. On account of limited pasture an unusually large allowance of grain was necessary during the summer. Feed eaten and gains made by draft foals Average ration Total gain Daily gain LbB. Lbs. First winter, 168 days Grain mixture, 5.8 lbs. Hay 10.6-13. 1 lbs.; or corn silage 8.2 lbs. and hay 7.4 lbs 244 1.45 Summer, 196 days Grain, 6.7 lbs. Hay, 6.0 lbs. Pasture 264 1.34 Second vnnier, 168 days Grain, 9 .2 lbs. Hay, 17.1 lbs 219 1.30 In this trial no effort was made to secure extreme weight, the colts be- ing merely kept in good growing condition. It will be noted that the gains gradually decreased as the colts approached maturity. The aver- age cost of feed was $53.97 per head for the first year after weaning, or $92.96 during the entire 18 months. 524. Substitutes for oats. — To determine the value of a mixture of 14 parts corn, 5 of bran, and 1 of linseed meal as a substitute for oats, Mc- Campbell^' of the Kansas Station fed 2 lots^ of high-grade draft colts as shown below for an entire year, beginning in January of their first year. The cost figure includes feed, labor, and veterinary service for a year. Substitutes for oats in feeding colts Feed per colt during year Total gain Daily gain Cost per colt Lbs. Lbs. Dollars Lot I, 8 colts Oats, 2,820 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 2,625 lbs. Com stover, 528 lbs. Straw, 183 lbs. Pasture during summer 459 1 .27 68 .78 Lot II, 10 colts Grain mixture, 2,828 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 2,625 lbs. Com stover, 528 lbs. Straw, 183 lbs. Pasture during summer 496 1.38 62.22 The colts in Lot II made larger gains and at a lower cost, showing that the grain mixture used was entirely satisfactory as a substitute for oats, as well as less expensive. (474) During the summer it was necessary to feed more grain than usual on account of scant pasture. That colts may make fair gains when fed no grain after the first winter is shown in a trial by Synder^* of the North Platte Station, Nebraska, in which 3 lots of foals were fed for 3 years after weaning. The colts were fed as shown in the table, all receiving grain during the first winter only, when 4 lbs. per head daily was fed. " Information to the authors. " Nebr. Bui. 130. 328 FEEDS AND FEEDING Rearing colts with but little grcdn Average gain Final wt. Lba. Lbs. Alfalfa hay in winter, alfalfa pasture in summer 678 1,268 Alfalfa hay in winter, native pasture in summer 611 1,228 Prairie and sorghum hay in winter, native pasture in summer 540 1,158 The colts fed alfalfa hay in winter and grazed on alfalfa pasture in summer made the largest gains. Snyder concludes that with plenty of native pasture available, it did not pay under his conditions to pasture the alfalfa in summer. However, it paid to feed alfalfa hay in winter rather than prairie and sorghum hay. (506) 525. Forcing draft foals. — During 2 winters Fuller^' fed a total of 11 pure-bred draft foals at the Wisconsin Station for periods ranging from 140 to 223 days all they would eat of a mixture of ground oats 60, corn meal 15, bran 10, and cut alfalfa hay 15 per ct. At the beginning of the first trial uncut alfalfa hay was offered in addition, but very little was consumed. The foals ate on the average 16.5 lbs. a day of this mixture and made gains averaging 2.1 lbs. per day. On this ration they weighed from 1000 to 1200 lbs. at the age of a year, with an estimated cost of $51.66 for feed for the entire year. Such heavy feeding of grain as this will usually prove profitable only in the case of high-grade or pure-bred foals. 526. Cost of raising horses. — The average total cost of raising colts on farms to the age of 3 years, according to estimates received from over 10,000 farmers in various sections of the United States by the Bureau of Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture,^" is $104.06. If we deduct the value of the work done by the average colt before his third year, the net cost is $96.54, or 70.9 per ct. of the estimated selling price, $136.17. The cost in different states varied from $69.50 for New Mexico and $71.59 for Wyoming, to $149.98 for Connecticut and $156.60 for Rhode Island. The average cost is distributed as follows : Cost of raising colts to 3 years of age First year Second year Third year Dollars Dollars Dollars Service fee 12 .95 .... Time lost by brood mare 10 .06 Breaking to halter 2.22 Care and shelter 4.98 5.36 6.35 Cost of grain fed 4.98 7.14 9.56 Cost of hay fed 4.14 6.61 8.48 Cost of pasture 2 .56 5 .41 6 .21 Veterinary and miscellaneous .... .... $104.06 It is shown that about 54 per ct. of the total cost of raising the 3-year- old was for feed and 16 per ct. for care and shelter. " Wis. Bui. 240. " Gay, Productive Horse Husbandry. Total cost Dollars 12.95 10.06 2.22 16.69 21.68 19.23 14.18 7.05 FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 329 II. The Stallion 527. Importance of exercise. — In the care of the stallion nothing so vital to his well being is more generally neglected than proper exercise. (Ill) Often his time is spent in idleness, ia a poorly-ventilated box stall, away from his kind. Under such conditions it is no wonder that he may con- tract vices, become unruly or even vicious, and get only a small per cent of colts. The best exercise is honest work, and there is no better advertise- ment of a stallion than letting him be seen at work on the farm or road. Even during the breeding season a half day's work each day is benefi- cial. Manifestly, judgment must be used in accustoming "soft" stallions to continued hard work. When real work is impossible he should be exercised on the road each day. The draft horse under ordinary circum- stances should travel at least 5 miles a day, while the light horse may jog and trot 6 miles or more. 528. Feeding the stallion. — The ration of the stallion should consist of first class, wholesome feeds, supplying ample protein and mineral matter for thrift and vigor. The choice of feeding stuffs will depend on the particular locality, the same principles applying as in the case of the work horse. A few combinations given by McCampbell^* as satisfactory in practice may prove suggestive. 1. Oats ; timothy or prairie hay. * 2. Oats, 4 ; corn, 6 ; and bran, 3 parts by weight ; timothy or prairie hay. 3. Oats, 4 ; com, 6 ; linseed meal, 1 part ; timothy or prairie hay. 4. Com, 7 ; bran, 3 ; linseed meal, 1 part ; timothy or prairie hay. 5. Com ; alfalfa hay 1/3 and prairie hay 2/3. No specific directions can be given as to the total amount of feed re- quired, since this depends on the exercise the animal gets and whether he is a "hard" or "easy" keeper. A safe rule is to keep the stallion in good flesh, but not "hog fat," for this will injure his breeding powers. Most horsemen advise that in the breeding season he be kept gaining just a bit, rather than allowed to run down in flesh. While some recommend feeding 3 times a day, 4 is preferred by others. In either case no more should be fed than will be promptly cleaned up. 529. General hints. — On the care of the stallion Sanders^^ writes, "Anything that adds to the health, strength, and vigor of the horse will increase his virility or sexual power, simply because the sexual organs will partake of the general tone of the system ; and on the contrary, what- ever tends to impair the health and vigor of the general system will have a deleterious effect upon the sexual organs." The stall should be kept clean, well lighted, and well ventilated. As a horse likes companionship, it is well to have the stallion's stall near those of other horses. He should be regularly and thoroly groomed and frequent attention should be given his feet. The idea that drugs, nostrums, or stock foods are necessary to 21 Kan. Bui. 186. " Horse Breeding, pp. 144-146. 330 FEEDS AND FEEDING increase the ability of the horse to get foals is sheer nonsense. The most successful grooms utilize only good food, carefuUy and regularly ad- ministered. It is important to conserve the energies of the stallion by regulation of the services, as many horses are otherwise injured. No definite rule can, however, be given, as the number of mares that can be bred will depend on many factors. III. Work Horse and Mule; Fattening and Fitting Draft Horses 530. The work horse. — ^Under favorable conditions the regularity in work, feeding, and rest brings comfort and long years of usefulness to the work horse. The general principles which govern the production of work by the horse, the factors influencing his efficiency as a machine for work, and the various feeds employed for his maintenance have been dis- cussed in detail in the preceding chapters. The ration to be fed will de- pend upon the size of the animal and the nature and severity of the work, as has been shown before. (450-6) As a rule from 10 to 18 lbs. of concentrates should be fed daily, the total allowance of grain and hay ranging from 2 to 3 lbs. per 100 lbs. of horse. The ratio of concentrates to roughage will be governed by the severity of the work. (457) The morning meal should be light, not over one-third the daily allowance of concentrates, with a small allowance of hay. The mid-day meal is sometimes omitted, especially with horses on the street all day, tho most horsemen believe that some grain should be fed then. The heaviest allowance of concentrates and most of the roughage should be fed at night. (492) On idle days the concentrate allowance should always be decreased. There is no more common error in the management of horses than on this point. Girard^* found that when hard-worked horses getting 19 quarts of oats with 14 lbs. of hay and straw without limit were stopped from work for 3 days and fed the same ration, paralysis, resulting in death, would often occur. By reducing the ration during idle days to 6 quarts of oats at noon and 6 quarts of bran mash both night and morn- ing, with roughage as before, the trouble ceased. On coming to the stable at noon, the work horse should have a drink of fresh, cool water, care being taken, if he is warm, that he does not drink too rapidly or too mnch. Before going to work he should be watered again. (463-4) The harness should be removed so he can eat his meal in comfort and rest easily. If possible, an hour should be given for the mid-day meal. When the horse comes in after the day's labor, after giving him a drink, unharness at once, and when the sweat has dried brush him well. (468-70) Many rations successfully fed to work horses have been given and dis- cussed in Chapter XIX, but it will also be suggestive to study the fol- lowing rations which have been employed with good results in different parts of the country. "Langworthy, U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 125. FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 331 Rations for various classes of work horses * Cab horaes, cont. San Francisco, Col., wt. 1S50 lbs. Oats, 8 .0 lbs. Hay, 16.0 lbs. Horses at severe work Chicago, III., daily, wt. 1500 lbs. Oats, 7.5 lbs. Hay, 20 .0 lbs. Chictigo, III., holiday, wt. 1500 lbs. Oats, 2.0 lbs. Bran, 2.5 lbs. Oil meal, 0.2 lb. Hay, 20 .0 lbs. South Omaha, Nebr., wt. 1500 lbs. Oats, 15.0 lbs. Hay, 12.0 lbs. New York. N. Y., wt. 1600 lbs. Oats, 23 .0 lbs. Hay, 12.0 lbs. Washington, D. C, summer, wt. 1600 lbs. Oats, 19.0 lbs. Hay, 13 .0 lbs. Washington, D. C, winter, wt. 1600 lbs. Oats, 12.5 lbs. Com, 6.8 lbs. Mixture — ^bran 2, corn meal 1 .6, cut hay 4 parts — i lbs. Hay, 10.0 lbs. Farm horses, Stations New Hdmpshire, wt. 1235 lbs. Bran, 2.0 lbs. Com, 6 .0 lbs. Gluten meal, 6 .0 lbs. Hay, 10.0 lbs. Massachusetts, wt. 1100 lbs. Oats, 3 .3 lbs. Crudied com, 2 .7 lbs. Provender, 6 .0 lbs. Wheat bran, 2 .0 lbs. Hay, 18 .0 lbs. New Jersey, wt. IIBO lbs. Com meal, 6 .3 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 6 .2 lbs. Hay, 8 .0 lbs. Utah, wt. IISO lbs. Bran and shorts (1 :1), 12 .6 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 16 .0 lbs. Utah, wt. ISSO lbs. Oats, 12 .0 lbs. Timothy hay, 13 .0 lbs. * Collected by Langworthy and preserved in "A Digest of Recent Experiments on Horse Feeding," U. S. Dept. Agr., 1903, Office Bxpt. Sta., Bui. 125. Omnibus horses Paris, France, wt. IS40 lbs. Com, 10.8 lbs. Oats, 8.1 lbs. Hay, 8.7 lbs. Straw, 8 .2 lbs. Fire company horses Boston, iWoss.j wt. IJfiO lbs. Ground gram, 9 .4 lbs. Hay, 18.0 lbs. Chicago, III., wt. 1350 lbs. Oats, 4.0 lbs. Hay, 15 .0 lbs. St. Lmiis, Mo., wt. 1360 lbs. Oats, 10.0 lbs. Bran, 2 .5 lbs. Hay, 7.0 lbs. New York, N. Y., wt. 1350 lbs. Oats, 12 .0 lbs. Hay, 9 .0 lbs. Express horses Richmond, Va., summer, wt. I4OO lbs. Com, 4.7 lbs. Oats, 5 .3 lbs. Bran, 0.81b. Com meal, 4.2 lbs. Hay, 15 .0 lbs. Richmond, Va., winter, wt. l/flO lbs. Com, 4 .4 lbs. Oats, 7.5 lbs. Bran, .8 lb. Com meal, .2 lb. Hay, 16 .0 lbs. Jersey City, N. J., wt. 1325 lbs. Com, 2 .0 lbs. Oats, 19 .0 lbs. Bran, 1.5 lbs. Hay, 9.5 lbs. Boston, Mass., wt. 1325 lbs. Com, 12.0 lbs. Oats, 5 .3 lbs. Hay, 20.0 lbs. Cab horses New York, N. Y., wt. 1200 lbs. Oats, 14.0 lbs. Hay, 10.0 lbs. Washington, D. C, wt. 1200 lbs. Oats, 10.0 lbs. Com, 5 .0 lbs. Hay, 23 .0 lbs. 332 FEEDS AND FEEDING 531. Wintering the farm horse. — It has already been shown that the farm horse when idle during the winter may be econonlically wintered wholly, or in part, on roughages. (448) Rather than keep the idle horse too closely confined at such times it is preferable to turn him out daily into a lot, protected from the wind. (466) At shedding time, feed some grain even if the horses are idle. Light grain feeding, together with light work, should begin a few weeks before the spring work starts, for horses are soft after a winter of idleness. 532. The mule. — It is often stated that mules require less feed than horses to do a given amount of work. Riley^* concludes, from long expe- rience with thousands of army mules, that there is no foundation for this statement. At 3 years of age, when shedding his milk teeth, the mule is especially susceptible to digestive disorders. However, he is an excellent feeder, as a rule being more sensible in eating and less likely to gorge himself with feed than the horse, and hence less subject to colic or foun- der. Indeed, mules are often fed at troughs, like cattle, and allowed to eat all they desire. The mule is not fastidious in his taste and consumes roughages which the horse will refuse. He also endures hot weather better, and because of the peculiar shape of the foot and its thick, strong wall and sole is less subject than the horse to foot lameness. However, the lack of weight and the small size of his foot somewhat unfit the mule for heavy draft in the city, as he does not get a good hold on the pave- ments. Tho the mule will endure more neglect than the horse, good care and feed will prove profitable. For feeding the mule the same feeds are available as in the case of the horse, and the same principles apply in suiting the feed to the size of the animal and the severity of the work performed. 533. Feeds for fattening horses. — As the markets demand draft horses in high fiesh, in certain districts their fattening has become an important industry. The horses are usually purchased in the fall after farm work is over and gradually accustomed to a heavy grain ration, getting all they will clean up when on full feed. At this time some of the heaviest feeders will consume nearly twice as much as when at hard work, or about 2 lbs. of grain for every 100 lbs. live weight. The feeds utilized are usually corn, oats, and clover or alfalfa hay. With 3 expert horse dealers for counsel, Obrecht^" fattened 13 eastern "chunks" at the Illinois Station to determine the relative value of com and oats and of clover and timothy hay, obtaining the results shown in the following table, in the test which lasted 84 days. Lot I was fed a mix- ture of corn, wheat bran, and oats and Lot II a mixture of corn, oats, bran, and oil meal, both being fed clover hay. Lot III was fed the same concentrate mixture as Lot II, but with timothy hay. " Farmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, 1908, p. 346. " 111. Bui. 141. FEEDING AND CAEING FOR THE HORSE 333 Rations for fleshing horses for market Average ration Daily gain Total gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Cost of 1 lb. gain * Value of 1 Concentrates Hay lb. gain • Lot I, 6 horses Com, 17.7 lbs. Wheat bran, 2.4 lbs. on meal, 0.41b. Clover hay, 13.9 lbs. Lbs. 2.3 Lbs. 192 Lbs. 894 Lbs. 607 Cents 13.9 Cents 26.6 Lot II, 4 horses Com, 8.6 lbs. Oats, 8 .6 lbs. Wheat bran, 2 .4 lbs. Oil meal, .4 lb. Clover hay, 13 .7 lbs. 3.0 250 674 461 12.4 19.5 Lot III, 4 horses Com, 8.4 lbs. Oats, 8.3 lbs. Wheat bran, 2.6 lbs. Oil meal, 0.41b. Timothy hay, 14.7 lbs 1.9 158 1,046 781 20.0 22.2 * Corn $0.63 and oats $0.55 per bu.; bran $26.00, oil meal $32.00, clover hay $11.00, and timothy hay $12.00 per ton. Clover hay proved much superior to timothy hay, the horses in Lot II, fed clover, making 58 per ct. larger gains than those in Lot III, fed timothy, and at a lower cost. Even when fed with clover hay and wheat bran and oil meal, oats and corn produced larger gains than corn alone. In a second trial 3 parts corn and 1 part oats proved more economical than half corn and half oats, when fed with clover hay. When much bran was fed with clover hay the combination proved too laxative. It will be noted that these fattening horses required about the same amount of feed as fattening cattle for a given gain in weight. (Chapter XXVII.) The value of corn silage and of cottonseed meal for fattening horses is shown in the following trial by CocheP* at the Pennsylvania Station in which 1455-lb. light draft horses, or chunks, were fed for 84 days. Corn silage and cottonseed meal for fattening horses Average ration Daily gain Cost of 100 lbs. gain* Lbs. Dollars Lot I Cottonseed meal, 1 .4 lbs. Shelled com, 12.3 lbs. Corn silage, 16 .9 lbs. Mixed hay, 10.5 lbs 1.59 13.40 Lot II Cottonseed meal, 1 .5 lbs. SheDedcom, 13.1 lbs. Mixed hay, 18.1 lbs 1.78 13.90 Lot III Oats, 8 .0 lbs. SheUedcom, 9.21bs. Mixed hay, 17.7 lbs 1.64 17.80 *Com $0 . 50 and oats $0 . 35 per bu. ; cottonseed meal $32, mixed hay $12, and com silage $2 . 50 per ton. "Penn. Bui. 117. 334 FEEDS AND FEEDING Lot I, getting silage, consumed slightly less grain, and made some- what cheaper tho slightly smaller daily gains than Lot II. The silage- fed horses were sleeker and better finished than those in either of the other lots. Cottonseed meal and com produced larger and more eco- nomical gains, and better finish than oats and com. For a few days it was necessary to substitute linseed meal for the cottonseed meal with some of the horses which at first refused the latter. Gramlich'^'' reports that many Nebraska feeders have obtained exceed- ingly satisfactory results in feeding alfalfa hay to horses that were being fattened. 534. Hints on fleshing horses. — Formerly fattening horses were usually confined to stalls and not exercised, as larger gains are then made. Obrecht found that horses getting no exercise gained 24 per ct. more than those walking 2.8 miles daily. Those in single staUs gained 8 per ct. more than others in box stalls, which had more opportunity to move about. If exercise is begun a few days before horses are marketed, a slight physic should be given to get the muscles in trim and the grain al- lowance cut in half to avoid digestive trouble, later again being gradu- ally increased to the former amount. When clover or alfalfa hay is fed, a bran mash twice a week is usually all that is necessary to keep the legs of these idle horses from becoming stocked. In some cases it is advantage- ous to give a dose of Glauber or Epsom salts twice a week. During the last few years many feeders are following the more natural plan of allowing the fattening horses to exercise at will in paddocks. Altho some feed the horses 5 or 6 times a day, others secure just as good results with 3 feeds. Water should be supplied freely at least twice a day. Usually no feed is administered between 5 or 6 o'clock at night and 6 the next morning. Grooming and blanketing aid in producing a soft, shining coat which increases the selling price. (468-9) It is important to keep mangers and feed boxes clean, and to see that the teeth and feet of the animals are in good condition. (470-1) With such feeding and care, surprising gains are sometimes made. Craig and Bretell^* report that one horse gained 5.5 lbs. per day for 50 days. Gramlich^" states that one feeder reports a daily gain of 4 lbs. each on 150 head fed for 2 months. While it is recognized that horses must be thus fed to top the market, such rapid and excessive fattening is of little benefit and may even be injur- ious. When put to hard work the horses quickly lose most of the soft flesh acquired by such forcing. On fattening horses, CocheP" writes : "The cost of gains is not the only factor which determines the profit or loss from the operation. Market values fluctuate quite widely during the time necessary for feeding, hence there may be considerable profit or loss due entirely to this factor. Horses that are kept in idleness are quite apt to become blemished or injured on account of playfulness in the stable. The risk of sickness is greater than with cattle, sheep, and hogs. Many horses are unable to stand a long « Nebr. Exten. Bui. 28, 1914. " Nebr. Bxten. Bui. 28, 1914. =» Breeder's Gaz., 35, 1899, p. 781. '» Penn. Bui. 117. FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 335 period of forced feeding because of constitutional weakness. Good judg- ment in buying and selling is necessary. All other conditions being equal, a close study of the selection of rations and methods of feeding wiU deter- mine the success or failure of those who finish horses for market. ' ' 535. Fitting for shows. — All show horses should be in good flesh, draft classes especially. The advice above given for fattening horses will apply to fitting draft horses for show, except that they must be exercised daily to keep their muscles in good trim. All show horses should be carefully fed, groomed, and exercised to bring them into proper "bloom." Train- ing also counts for much in the show ring. IV. Feed and Care op the Light Horse 536. Feeding the carriage and saddle horse. — Style and action are pri- mary requisites with these horses, economy of feeding standing second. Good drivers in this country still assert that the oat-fed horse exhibits mettle as from no other feed. Tho oats easily excel any other single grain or concentrate, there are numerous instances in which a properly com- bined concentrate mixture has given just as good results, as is shown in the preceding chapter. From 8 to 10 lbs. of oats or their equivalent, di- vided into 3 feeds, should sufSee for concentrates, the evening meal being the largest. In case the horse is at all constipated, a bran mash should be given. The hay is usually fed long, for the carriage horse has ample time for his meals. From 10 to 12 lbs. of hay is a liberal allowance, bringing the total ration within 18 or 22 lbs. The carriage horse must be trim in body, and so cannot consume much bulky food, yet we should not forget that the ration must have volume in order that the digestive functions proceed normally. (107). With this class of horses the feeder must also guard against undue feeding of laxative foods, such as clover and alfalfa hay, or bran. Carriage horses are usually overfed and exercised irregu- larly or too little, and mainly for these reasons their period of satisfactory service is often brief. (466) On days when they are not driven, oats should be fed only at noon, with a bran mash morning and evening, no difference being made in the quantity of roughage fed. 537. Feeding the trotter. — The single requisite of speed makes the carrying of every pound of useless body weight, and more especially of feed, a serious matter in the management of the trotting horse. There is also to be considered the effect of the food on the character of the muscles formed from it, and especially on the nerve and mettle of the horse. All horsemen agree in regarding oats as the one grain suitable for animals where speed is sought regardless of cost of food. While this opinion pre- vails in this country, we should remember that the Arab horse usually subsists upon barley. For information on feeding the trotter we can draw from no better source than Hiram Woodruff," whose advice is here condensed. After weaning, trotting bred colts should be fed about 2 lbs. of oats per » The Trotting Horse of America, pp. 90-105. 336 FEEDS AND FEEDING day with an unlimited allowance of hay. As the colt grows older the amount of oats should be increased to 4 lbs. for the yearling, 6 lbs. for the 2-yr.-old before training, and 8 to 12 lbs. for the colt 2 to 3 years old in training, an unlimited allowance of hay being given all this time. When going into winter quarters, the feed of the trotter should be re- duced fully one-half in order to prevent fattening. A few carrots may be given and a bran mash occasionally, with good clean, sweet hay. Horses whose legs must undergo blistering or firing should have more cooling feed, as mashes and carrots, with less oats, in order to reduce the tendency to feverish, inflammatory symptoms. Care must be taken not to permit the animal to get flabby or washy by too much soft food while undergoing treatment. Horses turned out to the field should be fed oats twice a day, for the exposure to the severity of the weather increases the need of heat- giving food. In the spring when shedding, bran mashes are in order to keep the bowels open, but not flax seed or linseed meal, which have a ten- dency to relax the system too suddenly and to cause the old hair to come away before the new coat is well started. "With the beginning of the season the feed should be increased to 8 to 10 lbs. of oats daily, in which case the horse wants less hay, but may still have all he will clean up unless he is a glutton. It is necessary to muzzle some horses to prevent their eating the bedding, long before the time for the race. No carrots or corn should now be given, unless it is necessary to induce a light feeder to eat his oats by mixing a handful of com with them. During the jogging and after preparation, a bran mash about once a week, depending on the condition of the horse's bowels, will be proper. The trainer must never relax his vigilant observation, or let his judgment sleep. During the fast work, preparatory to the coming trial, the horse will be put upon his largest allowance of strong food. Some will not eat more than 8 or 10 lbs. of oats a day ; and it is necessary that such light feeders be not over worked. A good feeder ought to have about 12 to 13 lbs. of oats with a fair amount, say 6 to 8 lbs., of hay. Some will eat 16 lbs. of oats a day. Splan*^ states that the famous trotter Rarus consumed 15 lbs. per day in the hottest part of summer. Woodruff, however, holds that any amount over 13 lbs. does more harm than good. 538. Army horses. — Oats, hay, and straw are the standard feeds used for army horses by the great nations, since they best fill the following rigid requirements : All provender for such purposes must not only be palatable and safe, but also widely known articles of trade, easily collec- tible in vast quantities, readily inspected, and generally uniform in quality ; moreover, they must not be subject to excessive waste or dete- rioration during storage and transportation. In the United States army the daily allowance of grain is 12 lbs. per head for horses weighing 1,050 to 1,125 lbs., and 9 lbs. for mules averag- ing about 1,025 lbs. Under unusual exposure, 3 lbs. of additional grain »2 Life with the Trotters. FEEDING AND CARING FOR THE HORSE 337 daily may be issued. The standard allowance of hay for both horses and mules is 14 lbs., with 100 lbs. of straw for bedding per month. In Great Britain the ration is 12 lbs. of hay and 10 to 12 lbs. of oats. Bight lbs. of straw per day is fed horses when at the garrison. In the French army a smaller allowance of hay, 6.6 to 8.5 lbs., is given with an allowance of oats ranging from 10.4 lbs. for light horses in time of peace to 14.7 lbs. for the heavier horses in war time. The German army uses cut straw generally in the ration, the roughage ranging from 7.8 lbs. straw and 5.6 lbs. hay in the garrison to only 3.9 lbs. straw and 3.3 lbs. hay when in the field. The allowance of oats ranges from 9.5 lbs. on a light ration in the garrison to 12.6 lbs. on a heavy ration in the field.** With the army horse it is often necessary to use substitutes for the regu- lation concentrates and roughages. General Carter** writes that oats, corn, bran, and sometimes barley, especially in the southwestern states, form the concentrate allowance for the horses of the United States army. Palay, or unhulled rice, was the main reliance of the cavalry horses in the Philippine Islands during the early days of the insurrection. Pott*° men- tions that a stock bread, made of coarsely ground oats, peas, barley, and linseed, with a little salt added, was employed by the Russian cavalry during war time. The kind of hay fed will vary according to the district. Carter writes that besides the common cultivated grasses, there have been accepted at various times in the United States army, hay from gram- ma grass, bunch grass, and other wild western grasses, various reed grass- es, wild oats, and "pulled" corn fodder. " Langworthy, U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Sta., Bui. 125. »' Horses, Saddles, and Bridles, 1902, pp. 357-379. ^Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., I, 1907. p. 329. CHAPTER XXI GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY I. The Daiet Cow as a Peoducer op Human Food Tho the use of milk and dairy products for food dates back to antiq- uity, dairy farming as now practiced is of recent origin. In the early days cows freshened in the spring, yielded their milk on pasture in the summer, and were "roughed" thru the winter on any forage that was available. Monrad,^ a most reliable dairy authority, tells us that in the mountain districts of Norway, in the dawn of dairying, cows on small farms were wintered on straw, birch leaves, reindeer moss, and horse dung, cooked and given as a mash mixed with chaff and leaves, while on large farms the mixture was fed uncooked. As late as the close of the last century, herring hauled inland and stored in snow banks were boiled with horse dung and shavings of mountain ash and birch bark for feeding goats, sheep, and young cattle. Along the coast even now herring, fish offal, seaweed, and ocean algte are fed in springtime if the hay gives out. The butter yield on the summer mountain pastures in the early times was from 24 to 48 lbs. per cow for the season, and the annual yield of milk from a good cow ranged from 1,600 to 1,800 lbs. While the changes from such primitive conditions have been great, the cow has generously re- sponded to every advancement in feed and care. 539. Dairying and maternity. — ^When a steer is fattening, the process goes on rapidly at first, but after a time it is accomplished only at a high cost for the feed consumed. How different is the dairy cow which uses her food, not for the formation of fatty tissue to be stored within her own body, but in making food for nurturing her young ! The basis of modern dairying is the maternity of the cow, and success in this art depends upon rationally recognizing this great basic fact. Whoever will study dairying from this standpoint, first prominently brought to public attention by W. D. Hoard of Wisconsin,^, will come to regard the cow in a new light and grow into a better dairyman. 540. Economy of the dairy cow. — ^As land, labor, and feed increase in price, the dairy cow will more and more displace the strictly meat pro- ducing farm animals, for she produces human food with far greater economy than does the steer, sheep, or pig. That this change is taking place is brought out plainly by the census statistics, which show that from 1900 to 1910 the number of dairy cows in the United States in- •Hoard's Dairyman, April 16, 1909. 'Wis. Farmer's Inst. Bui. 1, and elsewhere. 338 GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 339 creased about 20 per ct., tho the total number of all cattle actually de- creased. The following table, adapted from Lawes and Gilbert,' well shows the relative economy of the dairy cow and the steer as producers of human food : Relative returns by the cow and the fattening ox in one week Mineral Total dry Fiotein Fat Sugar matter matter Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Weekly returns from cow when yielding: 20 lbs. milk daUy 5.11 4.90 6.44 1.05 17.50 30 lbs. milk daily 7.67 7.35 9.67 1.57 26.25 50 lbs. milk daily 12.78 12.25 16.12 2.61 43.76 Weekly returns from ox when gaining: 10 lbs. weekly .75 6 .35 .... .15 7 .25 151bs.weekly 1.13 9.53 .... 0.22 10.88 The fattening ox, when making the substantial gain of 15 lbs. weekly, produces in that time 1.13 lbs. of protein or nitrogenous substance, mostly in the form of water-free lean meat. In the same time the cow yielding 30 lbs. of milk daily produces 7.67 lbs. of casein and albumin, or nearly 6 times as much nitrogenous substance. While the ox is lay- ing on 9.53 lbs. of fat, the cow puts 7.35 lbs. of fat into her milk. She also secretes 9.67 lbs. of milk sugar, against which there is no equivalent sub- stance produced by the ox. Changing this sugar to its fat equivalent (70), the cow is shown to yield somewhat more fat or fat equivalent than the ox. The ox stores 0.22 lb. of ash, or mineral matter, largely in his bones, while the cow puts into her milk 1.57 lbs. of ash, or over 6 times as much, during this time. A better measure of the relative economy of the cow and other farm animals in converting the products of the fields into human food is the amount of edible solids yielded for each 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients consumed. As has already been pointed out (133) , the dairy cow returns about 6 times as much edible solids in her milk for each 100 lbs. of digest- ible nutrients consumed as the steer or sheep yields in its carcass. 541. Cow and steer further compared. — Trowbridge of the Missouri Sta- tion analyzed the entire body of a 1250-lb. fat steer fed at that Station. At the same Station a Holstein cow gave in one year 18,405 lbs. of milk. The following table by Eckles* shows the total nutrients in the milk yielded by the cow during the year and in the entire body of the steer : Dairy cow vs. steer as producer of human food Dry matter in Dry matter in 18,405 lbs. l,2S0-lb. milk steer Lbs. Lbs. Protein substance 552 172 Fat 618 333 Sugar 920 None Mineral matter 128 43 Total 2,218 548 'Jour. Roy. Agr. See, Bng., 1895. 'Hoard's Dairyman, Feb. 25, 1910. 340 FEEDS AND FEEDING The steer's body contained about 56 per ct. water, leaving 548 lbs. of dry matter, which included not only the edible dry lean meat and fat, but also all other parts of the body — horns, hoofs, hair, hide, bones, tendons, and internal organs. In one year the cow produced 2,218 lbs. of dry matter which was wholly digestible and suitable for human food. In that time she produced enough protein to build the bodies of 3 such steers, fat sufficient for nearly 2, and mineral matter enough for 3, be- sides 920 lbs. of milk sugar, which is as nutritious as the same weight of cane sugar. Eckles writes : ' ' These figures show the remarkable efficiency of the cow as a producer of human food. It is because of this economical use of food that the dairy cow and not the steer is kept on high-priced land. When land is cheap and feed abundant the meat producing animals pre- dominate, but when the land becomes higher in value and feed expensive, the farmer turns to the dairy cow." (199) 542. Disposition of feed. — In extensive trials covering 9 years Haecker of the Minnesota Station^ found that cows averaging 910 lbs. in weight and yielding about 24 lbs. of milk daily, containing approximately 1 lb. of butter fat, utilized the digestible nutrients in their feed as follows : Utilization of daily feed hy the dairy cow, per 1000 lbs. live weight Total digestible Per ct. of ZLUtiients nutrients Lbs. Lbs. For maintenance of the body 7 .92 46 .5 For manufacture of milk 4 . 15 24 .4 In milk produced 4 .95 29 . 1 Total in feed consumed 17.02 100.0 It is shown that a well nourished dairy cow uses about 47 per ct. of the food she consumes to support her body and 24 per ct. in the work of con- verting food into milk, and that about 29 per ct. finally appears as milk. This shows the cow to be a more efficient machine than either the horse or the steam engine. (146) 543. Dairy vs. beef type. — ^When in full flow of milk a high producing dairy cow is generally spare and shows an angular, wedgie-shaped form, a roomy barrel, spacious hindquarters, and a large udder. This con- formation is in strong contrast to that of the low-set, blocky, beef animal, with its compact, rectangular form, and broad, smooth back. These two types are the result of careful breeding .with opposite objects in view. The beef animal has been developed to store in its carcass the largest possible amount of meat. On the other hand, for generations the dairy cow has been bred for the primary object of producing large yields of milk and butter fat. The great improvement in productive capacity in each breed of dairy cattle has come thru long-continued selection based on performance at the milk pail. As a result, tho a good dairy cow may put on flesh when she is dry, on freshening the impulse to milk pro- »Minn. Bui. 140. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 341 duction is so strong that she uses all the feed she can consume for the manufacture of milk. Even under liberal feeding she shows little or no tendency to fatten, but rather grows spare and lean as the lactation period progresses. To determine whether cows of dairy type were more economical pro- ducers than those of the beef type, Haecker of the Minnesota Station* divided the Station herd into 4 groups, the first including cows of the beef type; the second, those showing less tendency to beefiness; the third, spare cows lacking in depth ; and the fourth, spare cows with deep bodies and of distinctly dairy type. The returns from cows of the dif- ferent types are shown in the following table : Economy of cows of dairy and beef types Type No. of animals Av, live weight Dry matter consumed Daily Daily per 1,000 lbs. live wt. Per lb. fat. Feed cost of 1 lb. fat Beef type Less of Deef type Spare but lacking depth of body. Dairy type 3 4 3 12 Lbs. 1,240 945 875 951 Lbs. 20.8 20.4 20.0 21.9 Lbs. 16.7 21.0 23.0 23.6 Lbs. 31.3 26.4 25.5 21.2 Cents 17.5 15.1 14.6 12.1 The table shows that as the cows approximated the distinctly dairy tjTpe the amount of dry matter consumed and the feed cost per pound of butter fat decreased in a marked manner. In view of the widely differing nature of the functions of milk and flesh production, it is not surprising that both can not be developed to the highest degree in the same animal. With Smith^ we must conclude that the most perfect beef cows are not economical milkers, and the best dairy ctows are not satisfactory beef makers. 544. Good and poor producers. — To determine the relative economy of high and low yielding cows for producing milk and butter fat, Carlyle aaid Woll, at the Wisconsin Station,' studied the food consumed by and the returns from 33 cows, covering 88 lactation periods extending thru the entire winter. The herd was divided into the following classes according to their productive capacity. Feed eaten and returns by cows of different quality Wt. of cows Dry matter eaten daily Daily production Dry matter eaten per — Character of cows MUk Fat 1,000 lbs. live wt. 100 lbs. milk lib. fat. High producers Medium producers. . . . Low producers Lba. 956 1,133 1,012 Lbs. 25.3 24.7 21.1 Lbs. 26.6 21.5 14.6 Lba. 1.2 0.9 0.7 Lbs. 27.0 21.4 21.1 Lbs. 102 119 149 Lbs. 22 27 32 'Minn. Bui. 35. 'Profitable Stock Feeding, p. 38. 'Wis. Bui. 102. 342 FEEDS AND FEEDING The high grade producers ate much more feed for their weight than the others, yet they required only 102 lbs. of dry matter for 100 lbs. of milk, while the low-grade cows, which ate less feed, required 149 lbs., or almost 50 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. of milk. 545. Profitable vs. unprofitable cows. — Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station* found the cost of feed and the returns from the 5 best and the 5 poorest cows in the Station herd for 5 years to be as shown in the following table : Comparative returns from profitable and unprofitable cows Coat of feed Yield of fat Margin over cost of feed Feed cost of 1 lb. of fat First year 5 most profitable cows .... 5 least profitable cows .... Second year 5 most profitable cows . . . . 5 least profitable cows Third year 5 most profitable cows . . . . 5 least profitable cows Fourth year 5 most profitable cows . . . . 5 least profitable cows Fifth year 5 most profitable cows . . . . 5 least profitable cows Dollars 56.54 52.02 60,30 45.38 53.24 43.38 59.52 51.45 59.46 56.11 Pounds 304 189 377 164 375 217 376 237 366 269 DoUars 26.91 4.09* 43.27 5.75* 44.25 15.68 43.71 13.71 40.23 17.67 Cents 18.6 27.5 16.0 27.7 14.2 20.0 15.8 21.7 16.2 20.9 * Loss. The table shows that the good cows ate more feed but gave better returns over cost of keep than the small producers. During the first 2 years the 5 poorest cows did not pay for their feed. By gradual elimin- ation the net loss of about $4 for each of the poorest cows the first year was changed to a gain of $17 per head for the 5 poorest animals in the herd during the fifth year. Fraser of the Illinois Station^" reports a cow in the Station herd that in 12 years gave 87,102 lbs. of milk, containing fat sufficient to make 4,318 lbs. of butter. During 3 years a certain cow gave 11,930 lbs. of milk annually, containing 405 lbs. of fat, and returned $42.60 per year over cost of feed. Another with the same feed and care gave in the same time only 3,830 lbs. of milk annually, containing 138 lbs. of fat, and failed by $5.62 per year of paying for her feed. 546. Causes of inefaciency of dairy cows. — Observing a striking differ- ence in the productive capacity of 2 Jersey cows at the Missouri Sta- tion, which were raised under the same conditions and were more than half sisters, Bckles and Reed ^^ conducted the following trial to find the explanation. During their first 2 lactation periods the better cow had produced 2.8 lbs. of milk and 3.9 lbs. of fat for each pound produced by •Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 29. "111. Cir. 106. "Mo. Res. Bui. 2. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 343 the other. In the third lactation period the cows, calving 3 days apart, were fed the same feeds supplied in the same proportions, the amount fed being so adjusted that neither cow gained or lost in weight. Both were kept farrow and complete records kept and analyses made of the feed consumed and milk produced for the entire lactation period. During the year the better cow consumed 1.75 lbs. of feed for each pound eaten by the other, but produced 2.67 lbs. of milk and 2.77 lbs. fat for each pound yielded by the poorer cow. When dry the better cow required more feed to maintain her weight than the poor one. Her greater effi- ciency was therefore not due to a lower requirement for maintenance. She digested a slightly larger percentage of her ration, but there was far too little difference to explain her much greater economy in production. There was practically no difference in the amount of milk or fat pro- duced by the cows from each 100 lbs. of feed which they ate in addition to the maintenance requirement. The real cause of the greater efficiency of the better cow was that she was able to consume and utilize a much larger amount of feed above that needed to maintain her body, and hence had more feed available for milk production. The good producer secretes an abundance of milk, on account of her strong inherited im- pulse to milk production. To replace the nutrients she puts into her product she has a keen appetite and consumes a heavy ration. 547. The basis of profitable dairying. — Good authorities estimate that even in the leading dairy states from one-fourth to one-third of the dairy cows do not pay for their care and feed.^^ The chief reason why such a condition is found now, when the principles of successful selection, feed- ing, and care of dairy cattle have long been established by scientists and practical dairymen, is that the owners do not know which of their cows fail to yield enough milk to pay for their feed and care. They do not realize that tho the gross income from their herd would be reduced by weeding out the "boarders," their net profits would be materially in- creased. Since the basis of profitable dairying is the individual cow, the question arises as to how the dairyman can select the animals to be re- tained and those, if any, which should be culled out. Competent judges can usually distinguish a cow of very low productive capacity from one of high efficiency by her conformation. However, even experts are often unable to foretell a cow's yield from her appearance alone. The only reliable index to the value of a cow as a profitable producer is the record of the actual amount of milk and fat she has yielded, which record may now be readily secured by the combined use of the Babcock fat test and the milk scales. With records of the production of each cow and the approximate amount of feed she has consumed, the dairyman is in position to eliminate the unprofitable animals and proceed to build up a herd of high producers at little expense by using a bred-for-production sire and retaining all heifer calves from the most profitable cows. ^WoU and Harris, Wis. Bui. 226. 344 FEEDS AND FEEDING II. Milk ; Factors Inflxjencing Its Composition and Yield 548. Composition of milk. — ^As we shall see later (551-72), the chem- ical composition of cow's milk varies considerably, depending especially on the breed, the individuality of the cow, and the length of time she has been giving milk. The average composition of milk in several coun- tries, as presented by "Wing," is as follows : Average composition of cow's milk American English German French (Babcock) (Oliver) (Fleiaohmann) (Comevin) Per ot. Per ct. Per ct. Per ot. Water 87.17 87.60 87.75 87.75 Fat 3.69 3.25 3.40 3.30 Casein 3.02 3.40 2.80 3.00 Albumin 0.53 0.45 0.70 Sugar 4.88 4.55 4.60 4.80 Ash 0.71 0.75 0.75 0.75 100.00 100.00 100.00 99.60 It has been pointed out in previous chapters (115, 150) that milk is rich in crude protein and ash, especially lime and phosphoric acid, and that hence the ration for the cow should furnish an abundance of these nutrients. Attention has been called to the fact that colostrum, the milk produced by the cow immediately after freshening, differs from ordinary milk in being higher in protein and ash. (115) 549. Milk of the various breeds. — The milk of different breeds of cows varies considerably in composition, as is shown in the following table, chiefly from Wing,^* which summarizes data from various American stations. Solids Fat Breed Per ct. Per ct. Jersey 14 .70 5 .35 Guernsey 14 .71 5 . 16 Devon 14.50 4.60 Shorthorn 13.38 4.05 Brown Swiss 13 .27 4 .24 Ayrshire 12.61 3.66 Holstein-Friesian 11 .85 3 .42 It is shown that the Jersey and the Guernsey breeds give the richest, and the Ayrshire and the Holstein-Friesian the poorest milk. However, the breeds which give the richest milk usually yield a smaller quantity, so that the total quantity of solids and fat is nearly the same for all dairy breeds. Eckles and Shaw*° have shown that the sugar and albumin content of milk varies but little with either breed or individual, while there is a greater range in the percentage of casein. Milks rich in fat are generally high in casein, but the casein content does not increase in the same ratio as the fat content. According to Hart and Tottingham,^* for each 100 lbs. "Milk and Its Products, p. 17. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 156 "Milk and Its Products, p. 33. "Agricultural Chemistry, p. 291. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 345 of fat in Jersey or Guernsey milk there are as a rule 55 to 65 lbs. of case- in, while in Ayrshire and Holstein milk there are 65 to 75 lbs. The ratio of fat to casein shows considerable variation among cows of the same breed. These facts are important in cheese making since the yield of cheese de- pends not only upon the amount of fat in the milk but also upon its casein content. A milk testing 6 per et. of fat will not make twice as much cheese as one testing 3 per ct. Hart of the Wisconsin Station,^^ who has invented a simple casein test, advises paying for milk at cheese factories on the basis of the content of both fat and casein. 550. Fat globules. — Collier of the New York (Geneva) Station" placed the average secretion of milk by the cows of the station herd at 0.7 lb. or 19.6 cubic inches per hour. He found that the one-thousandth part of a cubic millimeter of average milk contained 152 fat globules, and accord- ingly that the average station cow secreted 138,210,000 fat globules each second thruout the day of 24 hours while giving milk. Babcock^" teUs us that a quart of average milk contains not less than 2,000,000,000,000 fat globules. These figures are beyond comprehension and should inten- sify our interest in the marvelous processes of life. They lead us to ponder on the infinite division which food must undergo during digestion before it is useful to animal life. The fat globules of Jersey and Guernsey milk are considerably larger than those in Holstein and Ayrshire milk, while the size of the globules in Shorthorn milk ranges between. This fact is of practical interest, for cream rises more rapidly in milk containing large fat globules. 551. Influence of individuality. — Individual cows of the same breed differ from one another not only in the amount of milk and fat they pro- duce but also in the composition of their milk, especially the percentage of fat. Indeed the difference in fat content of milk from individuals of the same breed may be as great as the difference between the grand averages for the different breeds. As Bckles^" points out, the cow that gives the richest milk does not necessarily produce the largest total yield of fat. He holds that as a rule the highest annual productions of butter fat are generally secured with milk carrying the average percentage of fat for the breed or even less. The composition of the milk from an individual cow often varies con- siderably from day to day, due to such causes as changes in the health of the animal, change in milkers, excitement, variations in the weather, and to some extent to changes in feed." To determine the variation in the percentage of fat in single milkings of individual cows, Anderson of the Michigan Station'"' studied 200 seven-day records made under ordinary herd conditions where regular feeding and milking were practiced, and 2000 seven-day records of "Wis. Buls. 156. 197. "N. Y. (Geneva) Rpt. 1892. "Wis. Bui. 18. "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, pp. 133-4. « Eckles and Shaw, TT. S. D. A., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 157. ''Mich. Spec. Bui. 71. 346 FEEDS AND FEEDING official Advanced Registry tests. From these data he draws the following conclusions: One may expect that during 7 consecutive days about 30 per ct. of a herd of cows will show a range in the percentage of fat in the milk at different miUrings of 1 per ct. or less; 50 per ct. of 1.1 to 2.0 per ct. ; 14 per ct. of 2.1 to 3.0 per ct. ; and the remaining 6 per ct. of the herd even a greater variation. In other words, 6 per ct. of the cows might yield milk testing 3 per ct. of fat at one milking during the week and at some other milking produce milk containing 6 per ct. of fat or over. The fluctuation in the composition of the milk from the same cow is thus much greater than has often been assumed. 552. First and last drawn milk — ^At the New York (Geneva) Station^' Van Slyke analyzed the successive portions of milk drawn from a Guern- sey cow with the following results : Composition of the successive portions of milk as drawn Weight of milk Fat Casein Albumiu- Lbs. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Firstportion 3.2 0.76 2.67 0.62 Second portion 4.1 2.60 2.57 0.64 Third portion 4.6 5.35 2.49 0.61 Fourth portion 5.8 9.80 2.39 0.58 We learn that the first milk drawn is very poor in fat, each succeeding portion increasing in richness of fat, while the casein and albumin show little change. Those who let the calf have the first milk drawn and re- serve the strippings keep the richest milk. 553. Effect of period between milkings. — ^When the intervals of time be- tween milkings are unequal, other conditions being the same, cows gener- ally yield a smaller amount of milk after the shorter period, but this milk is usually richer in fat. For this reason the evening milk is generally the richest in fat and total solids. With equal intervals between milkings there is no uniform variation in the fat content of the different milkings. When cows are milked 3 times daily at equal intervals, the mid-day milking is usually slightly the richest.^* 554. Effect of age. — From a study of all the data bearing on the effect of age of the cow on the yield and fat content of milk Eckles'^" concludes : "A dairy cow on the average as a two-year-old may be expected to produce about 70 per ct. ; as a three-year-old around 80 per ct. ; and as a four-year-old about 90 per ct. of the milk and butter fat she will pro- duce under the same treatment when mature. ' ' The richness of milk remains practically constant from year to year, except that after the third milking period there is a slow, gradual decline with advancing years. "Probably the majority of dairy cattle are rejected from the herd on account of failure to breed, or from udder trouble, before the effect of ''Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 30, p. 1173. " Eckles and Shaw, U. S. D. A., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 157. ^Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 153. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 347 advancing years can be observed to any marked extent. It is a fact often observed that a cow may make her best record when 10 or 11 years old, altho as a rule she does her best rather earlier. If a dairy cow continues to breed, she usually shows no marked decline until at least 12 years old. Occasionally a cow continues to breed until she is 16 or 18 years old." 555. Effect of advancing lactation. — ^WoU of the Wisconsin Station^' has condensed, in the table following, the findings of the New York (Geneva) Station with 14 cows of 6 breeds, giving the dry matter con- sumed and the yields of milk and fat, month by month, from freshening until the cows went dry : Effect of advancing lactation on economy of milk production DaUy yield Fat Dry matter eaten daily Diy matter eaten to produce: Month Milk Fat 100 lbs. milt lib. solids 1 lb. fat First month Second month Third month Fourth month Fifth month Sixth month Seventh month Eighth month Ninth month Tenth month Eleventh month Lbs. 25.1 26.0 23.8 21.2 19.6 19.8 19.0 16.0 12.5 9.4 5.6 Lbs. 0.98 0.95 0.84 0.79 0.73 0.75 0.72 0.60 0.48 0.41 0.26 Per ct. 4.02 3.74 3.71 3.84 3.87 3.90 3.94 3.89 3.92 4.19 4.58 Lbs. 23.6 27.0 28.9 29.0 28.5 29.3 28.5 , 28.0 28.0 26.5 24.3 Lbs. 94 104 122 137 146 148 160 175 224 282 436 Lbs. 7.1 8.2 9.5 10.5 11.1 11.2 11.2 13.0 16.1 19.4 28.1 Lbs. 24.1 28.6 34.4 36.8 39.3 39.4 39.7 46.5 58.3 65.3 95.5 Immediately after freshening the cows gave richer nulk than later. It then grew poorer for a month or two, and after that slowly increased in richness until they became dry. The changes in fat content as the lacta- ' tion period progresses often seem to follow no definite law, so that gener- alizations on this point are difficult. The table shows that during the first month after a cow freshens a given quantity of feed gives greater returns in milk product than later, and that the further advanced a cow is in lactation the more food she requires for a given quantity of miUc. When fresh the cow usually draws on her own body substance for nutrients used in milk production, and later she is nurturing an unborn calf. On studying the monthly records of 323 cows entered in the Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition and tested by the Station of that state, Woll^^ found that the average percentage of fat did not vary over 0.08 per ct. during the first 6 months of lactation. After this the fat content in- creased gradually up to the ninth month, and more rapidly thereafter. The combined studies of Carlyle and WoU at the Wisconsin Station,^* Beach at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station,*' Linfield at the Utah Sta- tion *" and the results of the Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition ^^ show "Wis. Bnl. 116. "Wis. Bui. 102. "Utah Bui. 68. "Wis. Res. Bui. 26. "Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 29. "Wis. Res. Bui. 26. 348 FEEDS AND FEEDING that -the normal monthly decrease in the yield of milk in weU-managed herds is about as follows : From the second to the seventh month the shrinkage varies irregularly, ranging from 4 to 9 per ct. per month, based on the yield of the previous month. The average monthly decrease during this period is about 6 to 7 per ct. After this the decrease becomes, more rapid, being 9 to 11 per ct. for the eighth month, 12 to 18 per ct. for the ninth month, and 12 to 23 per ct. for the tenth month, after which the cows are generally dried off. 556. Period of greatest yield — Haecker of the Nebraska Station** studied 239 lactation periods with cows at the Nebraska and Minnesota Stations, the records beginning 4 days after calving. He found that 90 per ct. of the cows made their best records during the first 10 weeks of lactation, and over one-half during the first month. The greatest number gave the most milk during the third week, and the most fat during the second week after calving. 557. Influence of condition at calving. — Observing dairymen have for some time known that cows calving in a fat condition will sometimes yield milk abnormally rich in fat for a short time after calving, losing markedly in weight during this period. This fact has been brought to public attention by WoU,** and Eckles.** At the Missouri Station Eckles fed a mature cow so as to be excessively fat at calving, and there- after gave her food sufficient only for a dry cow. Beginning with 21 lbs. of milk daily, she was giving 19.5 lbs. at the end of 30 days of such poor feeding, during which time she lost 115 lbs. in weight. Eckles estimates that the 43 lbs. of fat and 53 lbs. of other solids yielded in the milk during this period must have been drawn from her body tissues. During this period her milk averaged 6.1 per ct. fat. Within 48 hours after her feed was later increased it declined about 1.4 per ct. In another trial Eckles fed one heifer liberally on rich rations from birth until she calved, while another was kept poor and thin. After calving, the milk of the well-fed heifer tested over 4 per ct. fat and that of the thin one about 3 per ct. For several weeks after calving the fat heifer declined in weight, the fat percentage remaining constant. When at length her weight became stationary the percentage of fat declined somewhat. The thin heifer did not lose in weight after calving, and the fat in her milk did not decrease. In the end the milk of the two heifers was about equally rich. These trials show that when a cow of good dairy temperament calves in high condition, owing to the strong impulse to milk production she will withdraw fat from her body and put it into her milk. While she is doing this the fat content of her milk will be raised abnormally high. This fact is important, for it shows that the total yearly production of fat is increased by having cows in good condition when they calve. The fat they have deposited on their bodies is not wasted, but is returned in the form of the more valuable butter fat. The bearing of this fact on '^'Nebr. Bui. 76. "Hoard's Dairyman, July 9, 1909; Mo. Bui. 100. =«Wls. Rpts. 1902, p. 117; 1903, 115. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 349 the value of short-time tests of dairy cows is obvious, for by having xiows calve in a high condition a seven-day record of fat production may be secured shortly after calving which is no index to their ability as long- time producers. Yearly records obviate this criticism. 558. Loss in weight — Haecker of the Minnesota Station^' found that cows lose rapidly in weight after freshening. In one case the average decrease for 15 cows was 49 lbs. per cow for the first week, with an average daily loss per cow of 2 lbs. for the first 7 weeks. During this time the cows yielded products in excess of what the food furnished — ^in some instances twice as much. Such excess of yield gradually decreased until the eleventh week, when cows of pronounced dairy temperament reached equilibrium between the food nutrients consumed and dairy prod- ucts yielded, while others required a longer time to reach equilibrium. 559. Influence of feed on yield of product The quantity of milk and butter fat the cow yields depends directly on the constitution of the animal and her inherent tendency toward milk production. Within these inherited limits, however, it is governed directly by feed, care, and en- vironment. In a state of nature the cow provides only sufficient milk for the nourishment of her young, even tho her feed be abimdant. When she is liberally fed, the modern dairy cow, produced thru long-time selection and breeding, secretes far more milk than her calf can utilize. So generous is the dairy cow that few dairymen feed to the limit of profit- able production. Within wide limits, then, the quantity of milk a dairy cow yields is directly dependent on the feed and care she receives. This is shown in a striking manner by a test conducted by Wing and Foord at the Cornell Station.*' For a full year they recorded the milk and fat yield of a herd of poorly nourished cows kept by a farmer on a New York farm. The herd was then moved to the Station where it was liberally fed for 2 years ; then the cows were returned to the farmer who fed them poorly as before. Below appear the average returns of 7 cows so studied: Effect of continued under-feeding on milk production First and fourth Second and thiid years on farm years at Station Lbs. Lbs. Average weekly yield of milk per cow 109 165 Average weekly yield of fat per cow 4.7 7.1 Here is an increase thru good feed and care of 42 per ct. iu the quan- tity of milk and 51 per ct. in the quantity of fat over that obtained by the farmer. When again subjected to the hard conditions enforced upon them by the poor farmer, the cows fell back to their old record. 560. Influence of feed on richness of milk. — ^Down to the most recent times it was universally held that milk varied in richness, or percentage of fat, from milking to milking, according to the feed and care the cow received daily. We have now come to know that the milk of each cow possesses a fixed, inherent composition, and that normally the richness "Minn. Bui. 79. °°N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 222. 350 FEEDS AND FEEDING of milk is not the immediate sequence of feed and care, provided the cow receives sufficient nutriment to maintain her body weight. Cows starved or greatly underfed may produce milk somewhat lower in fat percentage than normal. However, as is shown in the following paragraphs, under all ordinary conditions the percentage of fat can not be materially altered for any long period of time by the particular kind of feed the cow re- ceives. The Jersey cow gives milk which is relatively rich in fat, and the Hol- stein, milk that is relatively low in fat. No kind of feed or care will cause the Jersey to give milk like that of the Holstein, or the reverse. Were a piece of skin, clothed with yeUow hair, taken from the body of a Jersey cow and grafted on the body of a Holstein cow, we should expect the grafted portion to continue growing yellow, Jersey-like hair. In the same way, were it possible to graft the udder of a Jersey cow on to the body of a Holstein, we would then expect the Holstein to give Jersey-like milk. It is not the body of the cow or the digestive tract, but the glands of the udder which determine the characteristics of the milk yielded by each individual cow. This is what we should expect, for if milk varied with every slight change of food and condition, the life of the young, dependent on such milk, would always be in jeopardy. 561. Eflfect of protein-rich rations. — That feeding an excess of protein over the actual amount required for body maintenance and milk pro- duction tends to stimulate the cow to a greater yield of milk is shown in trials by Lindsey at the Massachusetts Station.'^ In one test, supplying twice the minimum amount of protein required increased the milk flow 15 per ct. Owing to this stimulation of the yield very narrow rations, i.e., those rich in protein, are commonly employed when cows are being forced to maximum production on official tests. While the yield of milk may be thus increased by feeding an excess of protein, Lindsey con- cludes from 8 trials that varying amounts of protein do not seem to in- fluence the percentage composition of the milk, making it richer or poorer in fat, for example. On the other hand, the experiments of the Copen- hagen Station,^* covering observations with about 2000 Danish cows and extending over ten years, indicate that the fat percentage was possibly raised as much as 0.1 per ct. thru the feeding of highly nitrogenous ra- tions. Michels of the North Carolina Station'* found the fat content of the milk slightly higher when a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4.0 was fed than when the nutritive ratio was 1 : 5.7. . 562. Effect of feeding fat. — ^Numerous experiments have been con- ducted in this country and Europe to determine the efEeet on the yield and fat content of the milk when various fats are added to the ration. After feeding cottonseed-, palm-, com-, cocoanut-, and oleo-oil, and stearin, the solid fat from beef, to cows. Woods of the New Hampshire Station *" concluded that the first effect of such feeding is to increase ='Mass. Rpt. 1911, 1, pp. 86-121. "N. C. Rpt. 1911, pp. 90-97. »CopenIiagen Sta. Rpt. 45; Well, Wis. Bui. 116. "N. H. Bui. 20. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 351 the percentage of fat in the milk, but with the continuance of such feed- ing the milk tends to return to its normal composition. "Woods holds that the increase in the fat percentage is not due to the oils fed, but to the unnatural character of the food. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station" likewise found that feeding large quantities of oil, either linseed, cotton- seed, com, or soy bean oil, caused a temporary increase in the richness of the milk. That the feeding of fat does not always cause a temporary increase in the richness of the milk is shown in 2 trials by Wing at the New York (Cornell) Station*^ in which tallow was fed to 10 cows while on pasture or on winter feed. Beginning with a small amount, the allowance of tallow was gradually increased until each cow was consum- ing about 2 lbs. daily, this allowance being continued for several weeks. The tallow feeding had no uniform effect either on the yield of milk or the fat content. During the first 2 or 3 weeks the percentage of fat was increased slightly in the case of some animals, but after this the milk again became normal in composition. 563. Effects of feed on fat composition. — The fat of milk is a composite of many kinds of fat — ^palmitin, olein, stearin, butyrin, etc. While the kind of feed given the cow does not materially change the percentage of total fat in her milk, in some cases it does seem to alter the relative pro- portion of the several component fats or otherwise change the character or nature of the fat, as shown by the resultant butter. Many years ago investigators began to study diligently the influence of various feeds on the composition of the fat of milk, and their work is still in progress. The results thus far secured are conflicting in some respects, but in gen- eral it has been found*^ that feeds rich in vegetable oils (which contain a large amount of olein) produce milk fat high in olein. This usually tends to make the butter softer, for olein is a liquid fat, but in some in- stances this tendency is offset by stiU other changes in the composition of the fat. Cottonseed and cocoanut meal produce firm, hard butter. A change from dry feed to pasture generally produces fat higher in olein and results in softer butter. 564. Withholding lime. — ^At the Wisconsin Station** Hart, McCoUum, and Humphrey fed a 1150-lb. cow producing about 30 lbs. of milk daily a liberal ration save that it lacked lime. It was found that there went into the milk daily about 20 grams of lime (CaO) and into the solid excrement and urine, principally the former, about 30 grams, the latter loss being due to the normal changes (metabolism) taking place in the body. In all, about 50 grams, or nearly 2 ounces, of lime disappeared daily from the body of this cow, only one-half of which could have been furnished by the lime in the food. During the trial, which lasted 110 days, this cow maintained a good flow of milk and continued to put the normal amount of lime into it. It was calculated that during the trial "Mass. Rpt. 1908, pp. 109-112. «N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 92. "Lindsey, Mass. Rpt. 1908, pp. 109-112; Hunzicker, Ind. Bui. 159. "Wis. Ees. Bui. 6. 352 FEEDS AND FEEDING she gave off in milk and excrement 5.5 lbs. more lime than she received in her food. It was estimated that her skeleton contained about 24.2 lbs. of lime at the start, and this being true, this cow gave up in 110 days about 25 per ct. of all the lime in her skeleton ! Here is a striking illustration of the overpowering force of maternity. (98, 150) 565. Turning to pasture.— The Copenhagen (Denmark) Station*" for 10 successive years studied the changes in milk when cows are turned from winter stables to spring pastures. In all 1,961 fall-calying cows on 8 different farms were used. During the month before turning to pasture the average daily yield was 20.7 lbs. of milk, carrying 3.18 per ct. fat and 8.73 per ct. other solids. For the first month on pasture the average yield was 21.2 lbs. of milk, containing 3.37 per ct. fat and 8.92 per ct. other solids. Turning to pasture increased the milk flow by over 7 per ct., the percentage of fat by about 8 per ct., and the other solids by nearly 2 per ct. While the increased milk flow was maintained, the percentage of fat fell back to normal after the cows had been on grass about 20 days. The small increase in solids not fat seems to have been more permanent. Humphrey and Woll** state that during each of 9 seasons the per- centage of fat and the yield was increased on turning the Station herd to pasture. The average increase in percentage of fat was small in all the years, ranging from 0.01 to 0.22 per ct. The increase in average daily yield of fat ranged from 0.02 to 0.16 lb. per head daily. During the first 2 weeks on pasture the herd lost in body weight each season, the average decrease in weight ranging from 1 to 95 lbs. During 3 of 8 seasons Hills of the Vermont Station*^ found no change in the percentage of fat in the milk on turning to pasture, in 4 seasons an immediate and marked improvement, lasting 2 to 4 weeks, occurred, and in the other, a slight tendency toward increase in fat content. Linfield of the Utah Station** observed that cows turned on pasture early in the season while the grass was soft and lush lost in weight fo* a short time, due probably to the extreme flushing of the system. This result, however, had no effect on the milk production. Where the grasses were more mature when the cows were first turned on them no material loss in live weight was noted. 566. Temperature and weather. — From 5 tests covering practically the entire year and varying conditions of pasture, summer soiling, and win- ter barn feeding, Hills of the Vermont Station*^ concludes that the ten- dency both in summer and in winter is for cows to give richer milk when the temperature falls and poorer milk as it rises. Cows exposed to cold rains shrink in mUk flow and may yield milk poor in fat. 567. Effects of drought. — ^Van Slyke of the New York (Geneva) Sta- tion,"" studying the milk supply of cheese factories during a drought, found that the general effect thereof was to diminish the flow of milk « Copenhagen Rpt. 45; Well, Wis. Bui. 116. '"Wis. Bui. 217. "Vt. Rpt. 1907. ^Utah Bui. 68. "Vt. Rpt. 1907. =°N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 68. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 353 rapidly. The fat increased, while the casein, and especially the albumin, diminished. Tho percentagely small, the changes were in the direction of giving the milk the appearance of having been watered — a point of importance with milk inspectors. 568. Exercise, work, and grooming. — Dolgich" found that moderate exercise tended to increase the quantity of milk and all the constituents except casein, which was slightly decreased, while excessive exercise de- creased nearly all the constituents. Light work decreased the quantity of both milk and milk solids, while excessive work decidedly decreased the flow and injured the quality, the casein not coagulating and some of the food-fat appearing unaltered in the milk. (446) Hills of the Vermont Station"^ found from 3 trials that when cows were fatigued by being driven a long distance or shipped by rail the flow of milk was lessened temporarily. In some cases the fat content of the milk was decreased and in others increased. Hills points out the folly of testing cows after transferring to new quarters and before they have become rested and accustomed to their surroundings. In trials in Germany^^ grooming cows caused an increase of 4 to 8 per ct. in the flow of milk. Hills of the Vermont Station^* found no such in- crease in yield due to grooming. However, in the Vermont trial the ungroomed cows were never allowed to become so filthy as they do on many farms in winter. Tho grooming may not increase the yield of milk, it does improve its quality by lessening the bacterial content and is also said to improve the health of the animals. 569. Dehorning, tuberculin testing, and spa3^ng. — ^WoU and Humphrey of the Wisconsin Station,^'' studying the results at 11 experiment sta- tions, conclude that dehorning dairy cows causes a temporary loss of about 8 per ct. in yield of milk and only an insignificant loss in yield of butter fat. This is repaid a hundred fold in greater comfort of the herd thereafter. The wise dairyman will agree with Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station^' who writes after dehorning the Station herd: "The worry, pain, and cruelty of animals to their mates is eliminated when these instruments of torture are removed, and the lack of fear and the quiet contentment of the individuals of the herd are at once noticeable. The benefits from dehorning dairy cattle cannot be accurately measured, but there is an almost unanimous opinion in its favor among those who have practiced it in their herds." Studies at the Wisconsin Station"'^ show that subjecting cows to the tuberculin test has practically no effect on the yield of milk and butter fat. Spaying has sometimes been recommended in the case of cows which are not to be retained as breeders, it being held that not only is the milk "Molkerei Zeitung, 17, 1903, p. 19L "Wis. Rpt. 1905. »"Vt. Rpt. 1907. "Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1902. "Backhaus, Jour. Landw., 41, 1893, p. 332. "Wis. Rpt. 1905. "Vt. Rpts. 1899, 1900. 354 FEEDS AND FEEDING of spayed cows richer but that the lactation period is also lengthened 1'2 to 15 months. Nicolas,^' after continued experiments with spayed and unspayed cows, concludes that such practice is not warranted by the results. The quality of the milk from spayed cows is better than that of non-pregnant cows, but poorer than that of the pregnant cows. 570. Milking machines. — Because of the difficulty of securing efficient hand milkers, the use of milking machines attracts wide-spread interest. The various types of machines have now been improved and long-con- tinued trials at various stations^" show that when cows are milked with the best machines by careful operators and with well-adjusted teat cups there is no injurious effect on the yield or quality of the milk, or on the health of the animals. While with most cows the machine does not draw quite all the milk from the udder and it is necessary to strip by hand, nevertheless a considerable saving in time results from the use of ma- chines. Hooper and Nutter of the Kentucky Station*" found at the Blmendorf dairy that 2 men required 3 hours to milk 50 cows by hand, aided by a boy to carry the milk to the milk house. Using 2 units per man the men, aided by the boy as before, milked these cows in 1 hour and 15 minutes. Later, using 3 units per man, the 2 men alone milked the cows in 1 hour and 45 minutes. When the machines are properly cleansed and the rubber tubing kept in an antiseptic solution, the sani- tary condition of the milk is improved over that ordinarily obtained by hand milking. Owing to the first cost of the machines and the labor involved in their operation and cleansing, various authorities consider machine milking economical under usual conditions only where at least 15 to 30 cows are milked thruout the year. 571. Kegularity and kindness. — ^For the best results with dairy cows, as with other farm animals, they should be treated with kindness at all times, and regularity in feeding and care should be observed. Many of the highest yielding cows are of nervous temperament, and especially with such animals any excitement usually causes a sharp decrease in yield. Hence cows being driven should not be hurried and attendants should never strike or otherwise abuse them. Changes in the daily routine which do not unduly disturb cows apparently have no great effect on their yield. Carlyle of the Wisconsin Station"^ found that changing milkers had no appreciable effect upon the yield of milk or fat. Lin- field"^ concludes that any change in milk yield is due to the individuality of the milker and not to the mere change of the milkers. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms°^ found thg,t irregularity in the intervals between milkings slightly reduced the quantity and quality of the milk. ■» Soc. de L' Aliment. Rationelle du Betail, 1898. ■^Mairs, Penn. Bui. 85; Price, Tenn. Bui. 80; Haecker and Little, Nebr. Bui. 108- Woli and Humphrey, Wis. Res. Bui. 3, also Bui. 173; McMillan, Agr. Gaz., N S Wales, 22, 1911, pp. 859^868; Smith and Harding, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 353; Larsen, White, and Fuller, S. D. Bui. 144; Hooper and Nutter, Ky. Bui. 186. 60 Ky.' Bui. 186. "Wis. Rpt. 1903. «= Utah Bui. 68. °» Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpts. 1901, 1902. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 355 When the changes were not sudden, the effect due to the difference in the length of the intervals between the milkings was negligible. 572. Minor Points. — Lane of the New Jersey Station"* found that cows receiving 3 feeds daily consumed more roughage and gave slightly more milk than those getting 2 daily, but the increase barely paid for the extra labor and feed. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farm^" found 2 feeds as effective as 3 in maintaining the milk flow. It is reason- able to hold that 2 generous feeds daily are sufficient for the dairy cow with her roomy digestive apparatus. (35) On feeding cows wet and dry concentrates, Grisdale"" found a smaU difference in favor of the dry feed. Hills of the Vermont Station"^ holds that it does not usually pay to milk cows thrice daily, tho a temporary increase in milk flow is produced thereby. Dean of the Ontario Agricultural College"' concludes that such practice is not profitable except perhaps in the case of very heavy milkers. The "Hegelund method" consists in so manipulating the cow's udder after milking as to bring down all remaining traces of milk. By this system, WoU of the Wisconsin Station"* found that the daily milk yield of a herd of 24 cows was increased 4.5 per et. and the fat yield 9.2 per ct. The average daily gain per cow of 1 lb. of milk and nearly 0.1 lb. of fat seemed to be maintained thruout the whole lactation period. Wing and Foord at the New York (Cornell) Station''" found no advantage in this method over thoro stripping by the ordinary method. Woodward, Turner, and Curtice of the United States Department of Agriculture^^ found that when cows which were immune to tick fever were infested vrith ticks the milk yield was reduced 34.2 per ct. on ac- count of the depletion of the blood. In tick infested districts they advise spraying or dipping vdth an arsenical solution, at least when animals are heavily infested. 573. Flavor, odor, and color. — Milk and its products possess qualities cognizable only to sight, taste, and smell. The Guernsey breed excels in producing a milk with a yellow fat. Pasture grass, soiling crops, car- rots, and some other feeding stuffs impart a yellowish tinge to milk fat. Due to minute quantities of volatile oils they contain, onions, leeks, turnips, rape, etc., impart an objectionable flavor to milk, possibly ap- parent to all people, while other flavors are detected by some but pass unnoticed by many. When cows are first turned to pasture, we at once observe a grass flavor in the milk and butter, tho it soon disappears ; but whether it has really disappeared or we only fail to notice it, we do not know. It is possible that after a time the cow more completely eliminates such volatile oils than at first. Bad flavors can be largely avoided by " N. J. Rpt. 1900. " Ont. Agr. Col., Rpt. 1898. » Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1904. "Wis. Rpt 1902. «» Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1901. "N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 213. "Vt. Rpt. 1907. "U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 147. 356 FEEDS AND FEEDING feeding whatever causes them immediately after milking so that the volatile oils they furnish, which are the source of the trouble, may the more completely escape from the body before the next milking. It is further possible that the facility with which flavors and odors pass from feed to milk or are eliminated from the body when once with- in it varies with different cows. The flavors and aroma of butter are mostly due to fermentation of milk sugar, so that this matter rests only in part on feeding. Sometimes when a cow is far along in lactation her milk grows bitter and distasteful. Eckles^" states that so far as he has observed this occurs only when the animal is far advanced in pregnancy and rarely happens when green feed is supplied. He writes that reducing the grain ration and giving 2 or 3 doses of Epsom salts may remove the trouble. It is probable that the milk of every cow, aside from the influence of feed, possesses a distinctly individual flavor too delicately fine to be ob- served by most humans, but plainly noticed by others. It may be that in the future, when the grosser problems now perplexing dairymen have been solved, it will be found that certain cows yield a peculiarly palat- able milk. Should this prove to be the case, then thru selection there may be established breeds or families possessing this ultra-refined and most desirable quality. The whole subject of odors and flavors in milk and dairy products is greatly complicated by the fact that there is a wide range in the ability of different individuals to detect and distinguish them. Flavors and odors plainly evident to one person are unnoticed by another. Often odors and flavors charged to feed or cow are due to contamination of the milk in the stable or elsewhere, after it is drawn from the cow. 574. The yellow color of cream and butter. — It is common knowledge that cows produce cream and butter which is more deeply colored in summer when eating green feeds than in winter, and that Jerseys and Guernseys usually produce a yellower product than the other breeds. Extensive investigations by Palmer and Eckles at the Missouri Station'^' have at length shown the cause of yellow color in butter fat. They find that the color is due to a substance called carotin, so named because it is the coloring matter of the carrot. This compound is commonly found in green plants along with the green chlorophyll, which masks its color. (8) It was found that animals given feeds poor in carotin for long periods invariably produced white cream and butter fat, regardless of the breed. This shows that the yellow color of Jersey and Guernsey butter is not due to any ability of these breeds to manufacture carotin. However, when cows of these breeds are given feeds rich in carotin they transfer to their milk a larger part of the yellow coloring matter of the feed than do cows of the other breeds, and hence produce yellower but- ter fat. Green feeds in general were found to be rich in carotin, as well "Dairy Cattle and MUk Production, p. 227. "Mo. Res. Buls. 9, 10, 11, 12; also Cir. 74. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY 357 as hay of a bright green color and new corn silage. Carrots and other yeUow roots also contain much of this coloring matter. On the other hand, bleached hay, dry com fodder or stover, straw, old corn silage in which the carotin had been destroyed by fermentation, com, both yellow and white, and all the common concentrated by-products, such as wheat bran, linseed meal, brewers' grains, etc., were found to be poor in carotin. This explains why cows usually produce light-colored butter in winter. The color of yellow corn is due to a colored substance other than carotin, which does not pass into the milk. The yellow color of the body fat and skin of Jerseys and Guernseys was found to be due to carotin. This shows why cows of these breeds yield a highly colored product for a long time after going on winter feed. During such periods the yellow coloring matter in their body fat is transferred to the milk. Purchasers often discriminate against beef having deeply colored fat, yet this tallow is colored by the same substance that gives butter the highly desired yellow color. CHAPTER XXII FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW I. Cahbonaceous Concentrates With the high prices now ruling for feed and labor, studies of the cost of milk production reveal that on many farms, even where dairy- cows of good quality are kept, milk is being produced at little or no profit to the owner. Yet by a wise selection of feeds and intelligent feeding other dairymen secure goodly profits from cows no better. This shows emphatically that the feeding of the herd must be given most care- ful study and the system of farming so planned that a ration both well- balanced in chemical nutrients and otherwise satisfactory may be pro- vided at minimum expense. 575. Indian com. — Thruout the corn belt Indian com, a grain highly relished by the cow, is usually the cheapest carbonaceous concentrate available for the dairy herd. Owing to its wide nutritive ratio corn should be used as the sole concentrate only when leguminous roughages supply the lacking protein, and even then more variety in the ration is better. (201) At the Illinois Station^ Fraser and Hay den fed 1 lot of 10 cows for 131 days on the well-balanced ration shown in the table, in which gluten feed and clover hay furnished the protein necessary to balance the ground com and com silage. Another lot was fed com as the sole concentrate, vnth corn silage, timothy hay, and a small amount of clover hay for roughage, as is indicated in the table : Corn requires supplement for feeding dairy cows Nutritive Average daily yield Average ration ratio Milk Fat Lot I, Balanced ration Lb*- Lbs. Ground com, 3 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 8 lbs. Gluten feed, 4 .7 lbs. Corn sUage, 30 lbs 1:6 30 . 1 0.96 Lot II, Unbalanced ration Ground com, 8 lbs. Timothy hay, 5 lbs. Clover hay, 3 lbs. Com sikge, 30 lbs 1:11 20.6 0.69 As soon as Lot II was changed from the excellent ration they had previously been fed to the unbalanced ration shown in the table, which had a nutritive ratio of 1 :11, they fell off sharply in production. While the cows in Lot I were seldom off feed, this occurred frequently in Lot II. During the trial the cows in Lot I produced 47 per ct. more milk and 39 per ct. more fat than those in Lot II. At the Maryland Station^ Patterson fed cows on com meal with com > 111. Bui. 159. =Md. Bui. 84. 358 FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY cow 359 fodder and soilage corn as the chief roughages during the entire lac- tation period, while others were given a well-balanced ration of gluten feed, wheat bran, and corn meal, with, the same roughages. The next year the rations were reversed so that each cow was on both sides of the trial. On the unbalanced ration containing corn meal as the sole con- centrate the average annual yield of the cows was only 3,150 lbs. of milk or 152 lbs. of butter. When the protein-rich concentrate mixture was fed the yield of milk was increased 33 per ct. and that of butter over 45 per ct. These trials show the folly of expecting profitable production from such unbalanced rations, even tho they may be palatable. 576. Corn meal; corn-and-cob meal. — Com is comnionly ground for the dairy cow (423), but sometimes ear or shock com is fed. When other bulky concentrates are not furnished it may be advisable to feed this grain in the form of corn-and-cob meal. Lane of the New Jersey Sta- tion* secured 9.4 per ct. more milk when feeding corn-and-cob meal as half the concentrate allowance than when an equal weight, including cob, of ear com was fed. Cook of the same Station* found corn-and-cob meal of slightly lower value than an equal weight of corn meal. (208) 577. Hominy feed. — This carbohydrate-rich by-product, quite similar to com in composition, compares favorably in feeding value with this grain. (213) Like corn it must be supplemented by feeds rich in pro- tein. 578. Wheat. — ^Wheat, which is usually too high priced for feeding except when low in quality, has about the same value for cows as com. This is shown in a trial by Bartlett at the Maine Station^ in which 6 cows were fed by the reversal method for three 21-day periods. When 5 lbs. of wheat meal replaced an equal weight of com meal in the ration the returns in milk and fat were practically unchanged. At the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station Friis* compared ground wheat with a mixture of equal parts of ground barley and oats in trials on 6 farms. When fed with a basal ration of 3.3 lbs. wheat bran, 1.8 lbs. oil cake, 30 lbs. mangels, 10 lbs. hay, and straw without limit, 5.2 lbs. of wheat was fully equal in value to the same weight of mixed barley and oats. Wheat should be ground or preferably rolled for cows. (215) 579. Oats. — This grain, which supplies somewhat more protein than does corn or wheat, is an excellent feed for the dairy cow. However, owing to the high price of oats, most dairymen cannot economically use them in any large way. Usually the various concentrate by-products are cheaper sources of crude protein, while com furnishes carbohydrates at less expense. The value of this grain is well shown in the following table, which presents the results secured by WoU at the Wisconsin Sta- tion^ on feeding 4 cows for 2 alternate 21-day periods on rations of 6 lbs. clover hay and com stover without limit for roughage, with the concen- trate allowances indicated: • N. J. Bui. 84. 'Me. Rpt. 1895. ' 'Wis. Rpt. 1890. *N. J. Rpt. 25, pp. 159-167. 'Copenhagen Sta., 34tli Rpt., 1895. 360 FEEDS AND FEEDING Ground oats vs. wheat bran for dairy cows Average daily yield Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. /. Ground oats, 10 lbs. Com meal, 2 lbs 23 .3 1 .03 II. Wheat bran, 10 lbs. Com meal, 2 lbs 20 .8 .93 When fed oats in place of wheat bran, the cows produced 12 per ct. more milk and 11 per ct. more fat. It should, however, be remembered that bran is much higher in digestible crude protein than oats and hence wiU be more efficient than this grain in balancing a ration deficient in this nutrient. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station* found that when fed with a basal ration of 3.2 lbs. bran and 19.1 lbs. mixed hay, 4.5 lbs. oats was equal to the same weight of corn meal for milch cows. (223) 580. Barley. — Barley is fed to dairy cows to a considerable extent in Europe and has a reputation for producing milk and butter of excellent quality. The Danes regard ground barley and oats as one of the best concentrate mixtures for dairy cows. Judging from the composition of barley and the results of trials with other animals (226), it would seem that the value of barley for the dairy cow would be slightly lower than that of corn per pound, but the Scandinavians consider these grains of practically equal value. 581. Rye. — Large allowances of rye produce a hard, dry butter, but about 2.2 to 3.3 lbs. per head daily mixed with other feeds has given good results.® At the Pennsylvania Station^" Hayward fed 3 cows a basal ration of 2.5 lbs. cottonseed meal, 2.0 lbs. linseed meal, and 12 lbs. tim- othy hay and supplied in addition 3.5 lbs. of either rye meal or corn meal during 3 periods of 35 days each. Four per ct. less milk and 5 per ct. less butter was produced on the ration containing rye, indicating that rye meal is somewhat less valuable than corn meal for the dairy cow. (232) 582. Emmer. — ^Wilson and Skinner of the South Dakota Station,^^ when feeding brome hay and com silage for roughage, found that cows produced 1 lb. of butter fat for each 15.5 lbs. of corn op barley meal fed, while 17.5 lbs. of ground emmer (spelt) were required, a difference of 13 per ct. in favor of barley or com meal. (233) 583. Kafir meal. — In a trial with 18 cows for 7 weeks, Cottrell and Skinner of the Kansas Station^^ found that 8 lbs. of kafir meal and 20 lbs. of alfalfa hay made the cheapest dairy ration for Kansas con- ditions. When fed with prairie, timothy, or sorghum hay or with corn fodder, kafir tends to dry up the cows, and if fed abundantly to fatten them, as would be expected from the unbalanced nature of the ration. (237) 584. Sorghum meal. — ^During three 20-day periods Cook of the New Jersey Station^^ fed cows rations composed of 5 lbs. corn stover, 20 lbs. wet brewers' grains, 5 lbs. bran, and 9 lbs. of either com meal or meal 'Mass. Rpt. 1913, Part I, pp. 141-153. "Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1907, p. 451. "Penn. Bui. 52. "S. D. Bui. 81. "Kan. Bui. 93. "N. J. Rpt. 1882. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 361 from seed of sweet sorghum, for each 1000 lbs. live weight. When the sorghum meal ration was fed the yield of milk was about 10 per ct. less than when the corn meal was suppUed. (241) 585. Dried beet pulp. — This bulky carbonaceous concentrate has be- come popular with dairymen, especially those feeding cows on forced test, on account of its slightly laxative and cooling effect. At the Massachusetts Station^* Lindsey found 4.3 lbs. of dried beet pulp equal to the same weight of corn meal when fed with a basal ration of 2.0 lbs. wheat bran, 0.7 lb. cottonseed meal, and 17 lbs. mixed hay. (275) Where silage is not available, dried beet pulp, moistened before feeding, as it should always be when a large allowance is fed, is a satis- factory, tho usually expensive, substitute. This is shown in a trial by Billings at the New Jersey Station^" in which 2 lots each of 2 cows were fed the rations shown below alternately for two 15-day periods : Dried heet pulp as a substitute for corn silage '■ Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. /. Dried beet pulp, 9 lbs. Mixed hay, 10 lbs. Rich concentrates, 10 .5 lbs 33 .6 1 .39 II. Com silage, 45 lbs. Mixed hay, 5 lbs. Rich concentrates, 10 .5 lbs 30 .2 1 .25 Where 9 lbs. of dried beet pulp and 5 lbs. mixed hay replaced 45 lbs. of corn silage, the cows gave 11 per ct. more milk and butter. 586. Dried molasses-beet pulp. — Billings of the New Jersey^" and Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station^^ found dried molasses-beet pulp about equal in feeding value to dried beet pulp for dairy cows. In a trial by Billings dried molasses-beet pulp proved almost as valuable as an equal weight of hominy meal, the cows eating the dried molasses-beet pulp with more eag;erness and remaining in better health. The milk from cows fed on dried molasses-beet pulp at first had a sweet taste, which soon passed away. Since both dried beet pulp and molasses-beet pulp are low in protein, they should not be fed as substitutes for protein- rich feeds, as has often been done. (277) 587. Whey. — ^At the Kiel Dairy Station^' Schrodt fed cows a ration of 11 lbs. clover hay, 5.5 lbs. barley straw, 10 lbs. mangels, 5.5 lbs. wheat bran, and 2.2 lbs. palmnut meal. During one period 11 lbs. of sweet whey was fed, and during another, 22 lbs. The whey had a favorable influence on the quantity "of milk yielded, and no deleterious effect on the quality of the butter. (268) II. Protein-Rich Concentbates 588. Wheat bran. — This palatable, bulky concentrate is one of the most esteemed feeds for the dairy cow, for it is quite high in crude "Mass. Rpt 1913. Part I, pp. 139-140. "Mass. Rpt. 1913. Part I, pp. 129-140. ">N. J. Bui. 189. " Jahresber. Agr. Chemie, 1882. p. 441. "N. J. Rpt. 1904. 362 FEEDS AND FEEDING protein, is rich in phosphorus, and has a beneficial laxative effect on the digestive tract. (218) Owing to its popularity, bran is usually high in price, considering the amount of crude protein it furnishes. Other by-products, such as gluten feed, dried brewers' grains, and cottonseed meal, which are richer in digestible crude proteia, are therefore usually more economical sources of protein for balancing the ration. Under many conditions it is accordingly best to feed bran only in limited amount for its beneficial effect on the health of the animals, rather than as the chief source of crude protein in the ration. This concentrate is especially valuable for cows just before and after calving, for those on official test, and for young, growing animals. In feeding trials with 447 cows on several Danish farms the Copen- hagen Station^* found wheat bran fed as the sole concentrate fully equal to a mixture of equal parts of ground barley and oats. Bran, however, should rarely be so fed, but always in combination with some feed rich in carbohydrates, such as corn, rye, barley, etc., and with some legume roughage to furnish Hme, which it lacks. (98) 589. Wheat shorts; wheat middlings; wheat mixed feed. — Tho higher in digestible crude protein than wheat bran, shorts or middlings are less palatable and are heavy, rather than bulky feeds. They should hence be fed to dairy cows only in limited amounts mixed with other con- centrates. The Copenhagen Station^" secured slightly larger returns from wheat shorts than from wheat bran in trials with 240 cows. (220) On account of its higher content of digestible protein and carbo- hydrates Smith and Beals of the Massachusetts Station'^ rate the value of a good grade of wheat mixed feed at 10 per ct. more than that of bran. 590. Com gluten feed. — This by-product, which contains about twice as much digestible crude protein as wheat bran and is not a very heavy feed, is a valuable concentrate for the dairy cow. In a trial at the Vermont Station^^ with 2 cows fed by the reversal method in 18-day periods, Cooke foimd that when 4 lbs. of gluten feed replaced an equal weight of a mixture of wheat bran and corn meal the yield of milk was increased 15 per ct. and of fat 16 per ct. (210) 591. Gluten meal. — HiUs of the Vermont Station^* fed 6 cows for 20 weeks, comparing gluten meal with a mixture of equal parts of com meal and wheat bran. He found that 100 lbs. of dry matter in the form of gluten meal, substituted for an equal amount of dry matter in a mixture &f equal parts com meal and wheat bran, increased the yield of milk and total solids 12.5 per ct. (211) 592. Germ oil meal. — In a feeding trial with 4 cows at the Vermont Station^* Hills compared a mixture of equal parts of germ oil meal and wheat bran with one composed of 1 part cottonseed meal, 1 part linseed meal, and 2 parts wheat bran. In a second trial the germ oil meal and "Copenhagen Sta., Rpt. 1894. " Mass. Bui. 146. ''Vt. Rpt. 1895. » Copenhagen Sta.. Rpt. 1894. "Vt. Rpt. 1892. «Vt. Rpt. 1901. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 363 bran mixture was compared with ground oats. The roughage consisted of mixed hay and corn silage. In both trials the returns were in favor of the germ oil meal. (212) 593. Dried brewers' grains. — To compare the value of dried brewers' grains and wheat bran Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station^" fed a lot of 4 cows and one of 3 cows by the reversal method for two 28-day periods. All were given a daily roughage allowance of 26.2 lbs. corn silage and about 12.4 lbs. bluegrass hay, with concentrates as shown below : Dried hr ewers' grains vs. wheat bran for dairy cows Average daily yield Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. /. Dried brewers' grains, 4 .3 lbs. Gluten feed, 3 .0 lbs. . 21 .4 1.1 //. Wheat bran, 4 . 4 lbs. Gluten fed, 3 . lbs . . 20 . 8 1.1 The results show dried brewers' grains somewhat superior to wheat bran for milk production. Hills of the Vermont Station^' found dried brewers' grains and wheat bran equal in feeding value to a mixture of cottonseed meal, linseed meal, and wheat bran. (228) 594. Malt sprouts. — Tho not especially palatable, malt sprouts may be successfully fed to dairy cows when mixed with other feeds, and are often a cheap source of protein. When over 2 lbs. daily is fed, they should be soaked before feeding in order to avoid digestive disturbances, as they swell greatly on absorbing water. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station^^ fed 2 lbs. malt sprouts against 1.5 lbs. gluten feed to cows getting a basal ration of 10 lbs. of Kentucky bluegrass hay, 10.4 lbs. rowen hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, and 1 lb. corn meal, with the following results : Malt sprouts vs. gluten feed for dairy cows Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. Ration I. Malt sprouts, 2 .0 lbs. Basal ration 18 . 1 .89 Ration II. Gluten feed, 1 .5 lbs. Basal ration 18.2 0.91 It will be seen that 2 lbs. of malt sprouts were about equal to 1.5 lbs. of gluten feed. Lindsey^* states that an excess of malt sprouts should be avoided as they are deficient in lime and also may cause abortion when fed in large amounts. According to Pott"" feeding over 3.3 lbs. per head daily may impart an aromatic, bitter taste to the milk. When making up half to two-thirds the concentrate allowance Hills of the Vermont Station^" found malt sprouts of lower value than oats. (230) 596. Buckwheat middlings. — Hills of the Vermont Station*^ reports that cows fed buckwheat middlings produced 8 to 11 per ct. more milk "Mass. Bui. 94. "Mass. Rpt. 1911, Part II, p. 83. "Yt. Rpt. 1903. "Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 225. "Mass. Bui. 94. ™Vt. Rpt. 1902. '^Vt. Rpts. 1900, 1907. 364 FEEDS AND FEEDING than on an equal weight of a mixture of equal parts corn and wheat bran. When fed as the sole concentrate, the cows did not usually relish buckwheat middlings, and the quality of the butter was somewhat im- paired. Hayward and Weld of the Pennsylvania Station'^ found buck- wheat middlings and dried brewers' grains equally valuable for dairy cows when judiciously fed as part of a balanced ration. When thus fed neither of these feeds had a detrimental effect upon the flavor or quality of the milk or butter. (244) 596, Cottonseed meal. — Experience has shown that cottonseed meal may be fed to dairy cows in properly balanced rations for years with no ill effects. This is most fortunate since this highly nitrogenous feed is usually the cheapest source of protein in the South and often likewise in the North. Since cottonseed meal is constipating it should be fed with laxative concentrates, such as linseed meal or wheat bran, or with succulent feed, such as silage or roots. The milk of cows heavily fed on cotton seed or cottonseed meal yields a hard, tallowy butter, light in color and poor in flavor. If a moderate allowance is fed in a properly balanced ration the quality is not impaired and may even be improved if the other feeds tend to produce a soft butter. (562) This feed is used as the sole concentrate on many southern farms, a practice which is safe when only a limited aUowanee is given. Soule of the Georgia Sta- tion^^ reports that for several years the station dairy herd has been fed 2 to 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily with Bermuda grass pasture in summer and corn and sorghum silage in the winter with satisfactory results. The custom has been to feed 2 lbs. to a 700- to 800-lb. cow giving 1.5 to 2 gallons of milk and somewhat more to the heavier pro- ducers, but rarely is over 3 lbs. of meal fed. Michels and Burgess of the South Carolina Station'* found cottonseed meal and corn silage by far the cheapest ration available for dairy cows under prevailing con- ditions. Since cottonseed meal is a highly nitrogenous, heavy feed, when a large allowance is given the meal should be mixed with feeds which are bulky and lower in crude protein. McNutt of the North Carolina Station'" found a mixture of equal parts cottonseed meal, dried beet pulp, and dried distillers' grains highly satisfactory when fed with corn silage. A mixture of cottonseed meal, corn meal, and wheat bran was also satis- factory, but more expensive. During 4 years McNutt fed as much as 6 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily to large cows for extended periods, without any unfavorable results when it was given in such a mixture as this and with silage for roughage. At the Texas Station" in trials lasting 56 days with 18 cows Soule found that 6 lbs. of cotton- seed meal fed daily as the sole concentrate proved more effective and gave larger profits than allowances of 7 to 10 lbs. (250) »=Penn. Bui. 41. ""Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod. 1914. ■"Breeder's Gazette, 62, 1912, p. 21T. "Texas Bui. 47. "S. C. Bui. 131. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 365 597. Cottonseed meal vs. other concentrates. — ^At the South Carolina Station'^ Michels and Burgess fed 21 cows for 3 alternate 27-day periods on a ration of 32 to 35 lbs. corn silage (all they would consume) with wheat bran and cottonseed meal in addition as is indicated in the follow- ing table. In Period II, 5.1 lbs. of cottonseed meal was fed as the sole concentrate, while in Periods I and III, 3.4 lbs. of wheat bran replaced 1.7 lbs. of cottonseed meal. At the New Jersey Station** Lane fed 4 cows for 66 days on a ration of 36 lbs. corn silage and 6 lbs. corn stalks, with either cottonseed meal alone or a mixture of equal parts of wheat bran and dried brewers' grains for the concentrate allowance, as shown in the table : Cottonseed meal vs. wheat hran and dried brewers' grains Average daUy yield Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. South Carolina Station Cottonseed meal, 5 . 1 lbs 16 .4 .71 Wheat bran, 3 .4 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 3 .4 lbs 15.9 0.68 New Jersey Station Cottonseed meal, 4.5 lbs 22.7 0.96 Wheat bran, 5 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 5 lbs 23.9 0.95 From the South Carolina trial we learn that when 1.7 lbs. of cotton- seed meal was replaced by 3.4 lbs. of wheat bran the yield of milk and fat was slightly decreased. In the New Jersey trial, where com silage and corn stover formed the roughage, 4.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal did not prove quite equal to 10 lbs. of a mixture of wheat bran and dried brewers' grains. Michels concludes that 1 lb. of cottonseed meal is equal to 2 lbs. of wheat bran for milk production, while Moore of the Missis- sippi Station*® holds that 1 lb. of cottonseed meal is only equal to 1.5 lbs. oi wheat bran. In a feeding trial with 24 cows lasting 120 days at the Virginia Sta- tion,*" Soule and Fain, comparing cottonseed meal and gluten meal, found that the relative amount of digestible crude protein contained in these feeds was a fair measure of their feeding value. 598. Cold-pressed cottonseed cake; cotton seed. — In a trial with dairy cows Lee and Woodward of the Louisiana Station*^ found cold-pressed cottonseed cake less valuable for milk and butter production than an equal weight of a mixture of two parts of meal and one of hulls. They conclude that the chemical composition of cold-pressed cottonseed cake is a reliable indication of its feeding value. With cottonseed meal at $30 per ton and hulls at $5 they estimate that cold-pressed cottonseed cake is worth $21.65 per ton. (248) Moore of the Mississippi Station*'' found 100 lbs. of cottonseed meal equal to 171 lbs. of cotton seed in feeding value for dairy cows. (245) "S. C. Bui. 117. "Miss. Bui. 70. "La. Bui. 110. "N. J. Rpt. 1903. "Va. Bui. 156. «MiSB. Bui. 60. 366 FEEDS AND FEEDING 599. Linseed meal, — This slightly laxative, cooling, nitrogenous con- centrate is one of the best dairy feeds, but owing to its popularity is often too high in price to furnish protein as cheaply as some of the other feeds which are usually available. Even then 1 to 2 lbs. per head daily is often advisable on account of its tonic and laxative effect, especially with cows out of condition or those soon to freshen. To compare the value of linseed and cottonseed meal "Waters and Hess conducted a trial at the Pennsylvania Station*' with 9 cows fed for 2 alternate 30-day periods. The cows were fed 9.3 lbs. corn stover per head daily with the concentrate allowances shown in the table : Linseed vs. cottonseed meal for dairy cows Average concentrate allowance I. Linseed meal, 6 .0 lbs. Chopped wheat, 6.0 lbs //. Cottonseed meal, 5.3 lbs. Chopped wheat, 6 .7 lbs .verage Milk Lbs. daily yield Fat Lbs. 15.1 16.2 0.78 0.77 The cows receiving the cottonseed meal produced somewhat more milk but no more fat than those getting linseed meal. Hills of the Vermont** and Michels of the North Carolina Station*^ also found cottonseed meal of slightly higher value than linseed meal as a source of protein. Michels concludes, however, that no farmer should hesitate to use a small amount of linseed meal at any time for animals whose health will be benefited thereby. Linseed meal tends to produce a soft butter and therefore may sometimes be advantageously fed in rations which would otherwise produce a tallowy product. (254) 600. Soybeans. — The relative value of ground soybeans and cottonseed meal for milk production was tested by Price at the Tennessee Station*" with 2 lots each of four 2- and 3-year old heifers, fed the following rations alternately during three 30-day periods : Ground soybeans vs. cottonseed meal for dairy cows Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Ration I Lbs. Lbs. Ground soybeans, 2 .3 lbs. Corn silage, 24 .7 lbs. Com-and-cob meal, 2 .3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 .3 lbs 14 .4 .81 Ration II Cottonseed meal, 2 .3 lbs. Com silage, 23 .5 lbs. Corn-and-cob meal, 2 .3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 .0 lbs 13 .6 0.77 It is shown that ground soybeans gave slightly better results than cottonseed meal. At the Massachusetts (Hatch) Station*'' 2 lots of 4 cows each were fed 6 weeks by the reversal method. To a basal ration of hay, silage, and bran, an allowance of either ground soybeans or cottonseed meal was added in practically equal amounts. The ground soybeans proved "Penn. Rpt. 1895. «N. C. Rpt. 33, 1910, p. 29. "Mass. (Hatch) Rpt. 1894. "Vt. Rpt 1907. "Tenn. Bui. 80. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 367 slightly superior to the cottonseed meal as a milk and fat producer, and the butter was of better quality. Cook of the New Jersey Station*' found 3.4 lbs. of ground soybeans slightly superior to the same weight of cottonseed meal when fed with 3.4 lbs. corn-and-cob meal and 2.3 lbs. dried beet pulp with silage, soilage, and hay for roughage. Otis of the Kansas Station*' found that when soybeans formed one- half the concentrates, the butter from such feeding was so soft that it was impossible to work it satisfactorily even tho chilled with ice water. This can be prevented by the addition to the ration of cottonseed meal, which tends to produce hard butter. (256) 601. Soybean cake. — Gilchrist^" of the Armstrong College, England, found soybean cake slightly superior to cottonseed cake for milk pro- duction. In an experiment lasting 6 weeks Hansen of the Royal Agri- cultural Academy, Q«rmany,°^ found soybean cake and linseed cake of practically equal value for milk production when added to a basal ration of hay, bran, and sugar-beet chips. Tho a daily allowance of 4 to 7 lbs. of soybean cake was fed, no ill effects resulted. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station" found that soybean meal from which the oil had been extracted did not modify the composition of the milk nor exert a marked influence on the body of the butter. Feeding soybean oil temporarily increased the percentage of fat in the milk and produced a softer, more yielding butter. In view of the vast importance of the soybean in the Orient and its rapidly increasing use in Europe and America, these trials are signifi- cant and suggestive. (257) 602. Cocoanut meal. — ^Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station"* reports that when fed with a basal ration of 20 lbs. mixed hay and 3.5 lbs. wheat bran, 3.7 lbs. of cocoanut meal produced substantially the same amount of milk as when an equal weight of gluten feed was fed. The yield of butter fat was 6 per ct. greater on the cocoanut meal ration, possibly due to the oil in the meal causing a more or less temporary increase in the fat content of the milk, a finding also reported by European investi- gators. (562) Scott of the Florida Station"* concludes from a feeding trial that a unit of protein from cocoanut meal is nearly, tho not quite, equal to a unit of protein in cottonseed meal for milk production. A limited amount of cocoanut meal produces a firm butter of excellent quality, but when fed in excess of 3 to 4 lbs. per head daily it may make too hard a butter. (260) 603. Mixed oil cakes vs. grain. — European dairymen make wide use of the various oil cakes, employing not only cottonseed, linseed, soybean, and cocoanut cake, but also such by-products as palm-nut, simflower- «N. J. Rpt. 1913, pp. 293-316. "Mass. Rpt. 1908. " Kan. Bui. 125. "' Mass. Bui. 155. ""Mark Lane Express, 100, 1909, p. 667. "Fla. Bui. 99. " Deutsche Land. Presse, 36, 1909. 368 FEEDS AND FEEDING seed, hemp-seed, and rape-seed cakes, which are practically unknown to American feeders. In trials with 240 cows on Danish farms the Copen- hagen Station found that when a mixture of equal parts by weight of palm-nut, rape-seed, and sunflower-seed cake was substituted for the same amount of mixed barley and oats there was a marked gain in yield of milk, provided the oil-cake mixture did not form more than half the concentrate allowance. For every 100 lbs. of oil-cake which was substi- tuted in the ration, there was a gain of 66 lbs. of milk. These trials well illustrate the high value of oil cakes and meals for milk production. 604. Velvet bean. — Scott of the Florida Station" found that cows produced as much milk when fed a ration of 4.3 lbs. velvet beans in the pod, 10 lbs. wheat bran, and 24.5 lbs. Japanese cane silage as when given a ration of 3 lbs. cottonseed meal, 10 lbs. bran, and 34 lbs. cane silage. Hence 4.3 lbs. of velvet beans in the pod were fully equal to 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal. Scott reports that the Florida farmer can pro- duce about 5 tons of velvet beans in the pod for the cost of 1 ton of cottonseed meal. (361) 605. Dried distillers' grains. — Dried distillers' grains, which are about as bulky as wheat bran, are extensively employed for feeding dairy cattle. Lindsey of the Massachusetts Station^" compared this concen- trate with gluten feed in trials with 6 cows, covering 2 alternate periods of 4 weeks each. The following table shows the concentrate allowance fed during each period, the roughage thruout the trial consisting of 10.7 lbs. bluegrass hay and 10.7 lbs. rowen hay per head daily : Dried distillers' grains vs. gluten feed Average daily yield Average concentrate allowance Milk Fat Lbs, Lbs. I. Dried distillers' graias, 3 .7 lbs. Wheat bran, 3 .0 lbs. 25 .8 1 .23 //. Gluten feed, 3 .7 lbs. Wheat bran, 3 .0 lbs. 24 .3 1 . 18 The ration containing dried distillers' grains produced 6 per ct. more milk than that containing the gluten feed. Hills" of the Vermont Sta- tion similarly found that dried distillers' grains produced 5 per ct. more product than dried brewers' grains. A mixture of 1 part wheat bran and 2 parts dried distillers' grains produced 4 per ct. more milk and fat than did dried distillers' grains alone. Dried distillers' grains pro- duced one-eighth more milk and one-sixth more fat than a mixture of equal parts of corn meal and bran. Dried distillers' grains and cotton- seed meal proved equally efficient. Dried distillers' rye grains made less milk and butter than did the alcohol grains. Armsby and Risser of the Pennsylvania Station"* found that the substitution of dried distillers' grains for an equal weight of a mixture of 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal and 2.5 lbs. of com meal caused a slight increase in the milk yield. The butter from the distillers '-grains ration was not quite as high in quality »Fla. Bui. 114. "Mass. Bui. 94. "Vt. Rpt. 1907. »» Penn. Bui. 73. FEEDS FOE THE DAIRY COW 369 as that from the cottonseed meal ration. On the other hand, Billings of the New Jersey Station"" reports that the butter from cows fed dried distillers' grains was firm, of good flavor and texture, and very market- able. (282) Hooper of the Kentucky Station*" states that some cows must become accustomed to the slightly sour smell and taste of dried distillers' grains before they vdll eat large allowances. While some cows would readily consume 4 lbs. per head daily when mixed with corn meal, it was neces- sary to mix the grains with silage to get others to consume them at all. 606. Cereal by-products vs. pure grains. — To determine whether the digestible matter ia such by-products as dried brewers' grains, malt sprouts, and gluten feed are as valuable as the digestible matter of the pure grains, Jordan and Jenter of the New York (Geneva) Station'^ fed the following rations to 2 lots each of 5 cows for 9 weeks : Comparison of grains and cereal by-products for milk production Digestible Daily Dig. nutrients nutrienta yield of eaten for 1 lb. Average ration eaten daily nulk solids milk solids Ration I Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ground oats, 5 lbs. Timothy hay, 5 lbs. Ground peas, 6 lbs. Com silage, 40 lbs. . 15.3 2.7 5.6 RaMonll Malt sprouts, 2 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 3 lbs. Timothy hay, 15 lbs. Gluten feed, 3 lbs. Com silage, 25 lbs. 14 . 1 2.7 5.2 The table shows that the ration containing malt sprouts, brewers' grains, and gluten feed was rather more efficient for milk production than one of oats and peas, containing slightly more digestible matter. 607. Skim milk. — ^Beach and Clark of the Connecticut (Storrs) Sta- tion*^ found that when sweet separator skim milk was offered to the herd of 24 cows, only 4 would drink it, even tho water was withheld for 48 hours and grain was mixed with the milk. Skim milk was substituted for half the grain in the ration at the rate of 8 lbs. of milk for 1 of concentrates, and about 1 ton of milk was fed to each of the 4 cows. Feeding the skim milk caused a small increase in milk flow and a saving of grain, which, taken together, gave to the milk so fed a value of 19 cents per cwt., which is less than pigs would have returned. (266) 608. Blood meal; flesh meal; fish scrap. — Blood meal proved equal to twice the weight of cottonseed meal in a trial by Lindsey at the Massa- chusetts Station** in which cows were fed either 1.1 lbs. of blood meal or 2.2 lbs. of cottonseed meal with a basal ration of 4 lbs. hominy meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, and 20 lbs. of mixed clover and bluegrass hay. The blood meal produced no objectionable flavor in the milk and when mixed "N. J. Rpt. 1907. "Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1904. "Ky. Bui. 171. "Mass. Rpt. 1909, II, pp. 153-157. "N. Y. (Geneva) Bui. 141. 370 FEEDS AND FEEDING with the other concentrates was readily consumed. Lindsey believes that the allowance should be restricted to 1 or 2 lbs. per head daily. (271) Dairy cows may be accustomed to eating flesh meal, which is some- what similar to the tankage or meat meal of this country, by mixing a small amount with well-liked concentrates. European investigators do not recommend feeding over 2.2 to 2.8 lbs. daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight. In a trial by Schrodt and Peters, bran and rape cake were gradually replaced by equal quantities of flesh meal until the allowance of the latter reached 2.2 lbs. per head daily.** The cows learned to relish the meal and the yield of milk and fat was increased. (270) Fish meal from which the fat had been extracted proved equal to cottonseed meal in trials by Isaachsen*' with 20 cows. Kiihn"* states that a daily allowance of 2.3 lbs. of fish scrap produced no deleterious effect on the milk. (272) III. Hat feom the Legumes 609. legume hay for the dairy cow. — Almost everywhere in America the Indian-corn plant provides the cheapest, most abundant, and most palatable carbohydrates the farmer can produce, but it falls short in furnishing protein, so vital in milk production. Happily, at least one of the legumes — alfalfa, clover, eowpeas, or vetch — can be grown on every American farm to supply the deficiency. The dairyman who grows great crops of corn for silage must also have broad fields of clover, alfalfa, or some other legume to help round out the ration. High in crude protein and mineral matter, especially lime, the legume hays are of great importance in reducing the amount of expensive protein-rich concentrates needed to provide a properly balanced ration for the dairy cow. The following articles show' that when an abundance of legume hay of good quality and silage from well-matured corn is supplied, but half as much concentrates need be fed as when only carbonaceous rough- ages are used. Indeed, for cows of moderate productive capacity a ration of legume hay and corn or sorghum silage alone is often the most economical ration that can be furnished. Tho the milk yield may be reduced somewhat on such a ration, an animal of this kind may not pay for the addition of any concentrates. "When legume hay is fed to dairy cows it is desirable that some succulent roughage such as corn silage or roots form a part of the ration to furnish variety and palatability as well as nourishment. 610. Alfalfa hay. — Good alfalfa hay is generally placed at the head of the list of roughages suitable for the dairy cow, on account of its high content of protein and its palatability. The value of this hay in balancing "FuM. Landw. Ztg., 1892, p. 836. ""Ber. Norges, Landbr. Hoiskoles Virks, 1910-11, pp. 13-33; Expt. Sta. Rec. 28, p. 363. =• Jahresber. Agr. Chem., 1894, p. 482. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 371 rations otherwise low in protein is shown in a trial by Caldwell at the Ohio Station'^ in which 2 lots each of 6 cows were fed the rations shown below for 56 days : Alfalfa hay as source of protein for dairy cows Average daily yield Average ration MUk Fat Nutritive Lot I Lb9. Lb3. ratio AJfalfa hay, 11.6 lbs. Com silage, 27 .8 lbs. Com meal, 5 .9 lbs 22.0 0.87 1 :7.0 Lot II Com stover, 5 .6 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 3 . 1 lbs. Com silage, 29 . 3 lbs. Wheat bran, 3 . 1 lbs. Com meal, 3.1 lbs 20.5 0.90 1 :5.7 The ration fed Lot I — alfalfa hay, corn silage, and com meal — ^would undoubtedly have been improved had a,greater variety of concentrates been fed, yet with alfalfa hay as the sole supplement, a well-balanced ra- tion was provided which produced substantially as good results as that fed Lot II, in which wheat bran and cottonseed meal furnished most of the protein. While Lot II was fed 9.3 lbs. of rich concentrates. Lot I re- ceived only 5.9 lbs. of corn meal. On account of a wide-spread opinion among dairymen in Utah that first crop alfalfa hay was the highest in feeding value, Carroll of the Utah Station'* compared first, second, and third crop hay in trials dur- ing 2 years. Each crop was cut at the period of early bloom from the same field and was cured in excellent condition. In order that the test might be as much as possible upon the 3 crops of hay, only 0.66 lb. of concentrates ^as^fed to each cow daily for every pound of butterfat she produced per week. The concentrate mixture the first year consisted of equal parte of wheat bran and crushed oats, and the second year of equal parts of wheat bran and chopped barley. The cows were given all the hay they would clean up without waste. In the trials the advantage of any one crop over the others was found to be almost negligible. Considering the hay actually consumed, the second crop hay had slightly the highest value, but it proved slightly less palatable and a little more was wasted than of the other cuttings. In general, leafy, fine-stemmed, early-cut hay is preferred by dairy cows. (338) 611. Substituting alfalfa hay for part of the concentrates. — Billings at the New Jersey Station'" and Fraser and Hayden at the Illinois Station^" conducted trials with dairy cows in which alfalfa hay was substituted for part of the concentrates in the ration, with the results shown in the table : "Ohio Bui. 267. "^Utah Bui. 126. '"N. J. Bui. 190. "111. Bnl 146 372 FEEDS AND FEEDING Feeding alfalfa hay in place of part of the concentrate allowance Average ration Average daily yield Nutritive MUk Fat ratio New Jersey, 2 lots of 4 cows fed two 30-day periods Ration I Com stover, 7 .0 lbs. Com sUage, 40.0 lbs. Wheat bran, 4.5 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 4.5 lbs. Cottonseed meal. 2 lbs Lba. 27.3 26.3 23.8 24.4 Lbs. 1.13 1.05 1.00 0.98 1 :5.4 Ration II Alfalfa hay 14.0 lbs. Com silage, 35 .0 lbs. 1 : 4.5 Illinois, 2 lots of 3 cows fed two 66-day periods Ration I Com silage, 30 lbs. Clover hay, 6 lbs. Com meal, 6 lbs. Wheat bran, 8 lbs 1 : 6.9 Ration II Alfalfa hay, 8 lbs. Com silage, 30 lbs. Clover hay, 6 lbs. Com meal, 6 lbs 1 :7.0 In the New Jersey trial 14 lbs. of alfalfa hay in Ration II replaced 8.5 lbs. of the protein-rich concentrates, 5 lbs. of the corn silage, and all the corn stover in Ration I. Yet on this cheaper ration there was a shrinkage of only 1 lb. of milk and 0.08 lb. of fat per head daily. In the Illinois test, tho 8 lbs. of alfalfa hay in Ration II replaced an equal weight of wheat bran fed in Ration I, Ration II produced slightly more milk and practically as much fat. 612. Substituting alfalfa hay for all the concentrates. — Billings'* con- ducted a more drastic trial of the value of alfalfa hay for milk pro- duction by replacing all of the concentrate allowance with this hay in the following test with 2 lots each of 4 cows fed for two 60-day periods : Replacing all the concentrate allowance with alfalfa hay Average ration Average daily yield Milk Fat Lbs. Lba. Feed cost per 100 lbs. mflk* Cents Ration I Com stover, 6 . 8 lbs. Distillers' grains, 4 . 6 lbs. Com silage, 40 . lbs. Wheat bran, 4 . 2 lbs. Cottonseed meal, .5 lb. Ration II Alfalfa hay, 17.5 lbs. Com silage, 35 .0 lbs. No concentrates 24.6 20.4 1.07 0.88 83.7 94.4 •Cost of feeds per ton: alfalfa hay, $16; com silage, $3; corn stover, $4; distillers' grains, $30; wheat bran, $24; and cottonseed meal, $34. "N.J. Bui. 204. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 373 In this trial when the cows were fed Ration II, containing a hesLYj allowance of alfalfa hay but no concentrates, the yield of milk was 17 per ct. and of fat 18 per ct. less than when Ration I, containing over 9 lbs. of purchased protein-rich concentrates, was fed. With feeds at the prices indicated, milk was produced more cheaply on Ration I. The relative economy of such rations obviously depends on the price of alfalfa hay compared with concentrates. At the Illinois Station'^ Fraser maintained a herd of good productive cows for 6 years exclusively on the alfalfa hay and corn silage grown on 20 acres. The average yield of milk was 3,980 lbs. and of fat 139.5 lbs. per acre. This ration did not maintain the cows in as good health as when concentrates were fed in addition, and undoubtedly a larger and also more economical yield would have been secured had at least a moderate concentrate allowance been supplied. In a 12-week trial with 8 cows at the New Mexico Station''^ Vernon found that 246 lbs. of alfalfa hay fed alone, or 202 lbs. of alfalfa hay and 49 lbs. of wheat bran, produced 100 lbs. of milk. The cows yielded more milk on the bran-alfalfa ration, but the increase was dearly purchased. The preceding trials show that alfalfa hay can be substituted for a large part of the concentrates in the ration of the dairy cow without materially reducing the yield of milk or fat. However, when all the concentrates are so replaced the yield of cows of good productive capacity is markedly decreased. This is what we should expect, for alfalfa hay, tho standing at the head of all roughages, is nevertheless a roughage and not a concentrate. It contains about 3 times as much fiber as wheat bran, which is bulky for a concentrate, and furnishes but 70 per ct. as much net energy. Bearing in mind the productive capacity of his cows and the price of legume hay compared with concentrates, each dairyman must decide for himself to what extent it is economical to substitute legume hay for concentrates. In some sections of the West, owing to the cheapness of alfalfa hay, dairy cows are given this feed alone, possibly with green alfalfa soilage or pasturage in addition during the summer. Complaints are made that this unbalanced ration, which is too high in protein and too low in net nutrients, does not always maintain the animals in as good health as where concentrates or even roughages lower in protein are added. Woll of the California Station''* found in trials in which rolled barley was added to an exclusive alfalfa ration that the immediate increase in production resulting from grain feeding was not sufficient with feeds at prevailing prices to pay for the added expense. However, considering the influence on the production during the balance of the lactation period and the effect on the condition of the cows, he believes that the feeding of some grain is advisable, especially in the case of large pro- ducing animals or heifers in milk. "Information to the authors. "Information to the authors. "N. Mex. Rpt. 1904. 374 FEEDS AND FEEDING 613. Alfalfa meal— Hills of the Vermont Station," on substituting alfalfa meal (ground alfalfa hay) for the same weight of wheat bran, found a loss of from 3 to 6 per ct. in milk flow caused thereby, and Mairs of the Pennsylvania Station''* reports a loss of about 5 per ct. by such substitution. Similar results were secured by Lindsey in a trial at the Massachusetts Station.''' In view of the palatability of alfalfa hay to the dairy cow and its thoro mastication duriUg rumination, the use of alfalfa meal is ordinarily not economical when good alfalfa hay is available. (344) 614. Clover hay. — ^Hay from the clovers, cut while yet in bloom, is one of the best roughages for dairy cows. Somewhat lower than alfalfa hay in protein, red clover hay furnishes a slightly larger amount of net energy than alfalfa. (171) By the use of clover hay — ^red, alsike, or crimson — ^the dairyman may reduce the amount of concentrates needed to supply a well-balanced ration in the same manner as has been shown in the case of alfalfa hay. (347, 350, 353) At the New Jersey Station''^ Lane fed 2 lots, each of 2 cows, for two 12-day periods alternately on the rations shown below: Crimson clover hay fed against purchased protein Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Ration I Lbs. Lbs. Crimson clover hay, 16 .4 lbs. Com silage, 30 .0 lbs. No concentrates 20.1 0.85 Ration II Mixed hay, 6 .0 lbs. Wheat bran, 6 lbs. Corn silage, 30 .0 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 5 lbs. .. . 23.8 1.00 The table shows that the yield of milk was 3.7 lbs. and of fat 0.15 lb. less on the crimson clover ration than on that containing purchased concentrates. Using the home-grown ration, however, effected a saving of 18.3 cents in the feed cost of producing 100 lbs. of milk. 615. Crimson clover hay and cowpea silage. — ^Lane'* also compared a ration of crimson clover hay, cowpea silage, and corn-and-cob meal with one in which the protein was largely purchased. The following rations were fed alternately for 2 periods of 12 days each to. 2 lots of 2 cows each: Crimson clover hay and cowpea silage compared with purchased protein Average ration Ration I Crimson clover hay, 10 lbs. Cowpea silage, 36 lbs. Corn-and-cob meal, 6.0 lbs.. Ration II Mixed hay, 5 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 6 .0 lbs. Com silage, 36 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2 .3 lbs " Vt. Rpt. 1906. " Mass. Rpt. 1909, pp. 158-166. " Penn. Bui. 80. " N. J. Bui. 161. Averag Milk Lbs. e daily yield Fat Lbs. 24.8 0.94 24.6 0.99 7» N.J. Bui. 161. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 375 The amount of milk and fat produced was practically the same for both rations, showing the high value of crimson clover hay and cowpea $ilage as sources of protein for dairy cows. (353) 616. Cowpea hay. — In the South the cowpea vine, thriving on all types of soil, is of great importance to the dairy industry, as it furnishes palatable hay rich in protein. To determine the effect of substituting cowpea hay for protein-rich concentrates Lane*" fed 2 lots each of 2 cows the rations shown below for 15-day periods : Cowpea hay compared with purchased protein Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat RcUion, I LbB. Lbs. Cowpea hay, 17 lbs. Com silage, 36 lbs. No concentrates 23.7 0.92 Ration II Corn stover, 5 lbs. Wheat bran, 4 lbs. Corn silage, 36 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 3 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2 lbs 25.7 1.05 Tho 2 lbs. more milk and 0.13 lb. more fat were produced by each cow daily on the ration containing purchased concentrates, this increase was not sufficient to offset the greater cost of the purchased feed. At the Alabama Station*^ Duggar fed 2 lots each of 3 cows for two 30-day periods a basal ration of 9.6 lbs. cottonseed hulls and 9.6 lbs. of a mixture of 2 parts cotton seed and 1 part each of wheat bran and ciDttonseed meal, with either wheat bran or cowpea hay in addition, as shown below : Cowpea hay compared with wheat bran Average ration Ration I. Cowpea hay, 7 .8 lbs. Basal ration Ration II. Wheat bran, 6 . 1 lbs. Basal ration Average daily yield MUk Fat Lbs. Lba. 17.3 16.0 1.13 1.02 In this trial the cows getting the cowpea hay averaged 1.3 lbs. more Tnilk- daily than those fed wheat bran, showing that where there is a fair supply of rich concentrates it is more economical to complete the ration with some protein-rich roughage, like cowpea hay or silage, than by adding expensive concentrates. Wing found at the Georgia Station'^ that cowpea hay produced 30 per ct. more milk than cottonseed huUs, a reasonable result when the compo- sition of these feeds is considered. (357) 617. Soybean hay. — At the Tennessee Station'* Price compared soybean ^traw and ground soybeans, combined in the same proportion as they occur in soybean hay, with alfalfa hay in a trial with 2 lots of 4 cows each. The returns from rations fed alternately during three 30-day periods are shown in the following table : "N. J. Bui. 174. "Ala. Bui. 123. «Ga. Bui. 49. "Tenn. Bui. 80. 376 FEEDS AND FEEDING Soybean hay vs. alfalfa hay Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Ration I Lbs. Lbs. Soybean straw, 7.1 lbs. Ground soybeans, 3 .7 lbs. SUage, 25 .0 lbs. Com-and-oob meal, 3.7 lbs.. . . 17.2 0.98 Ration II Alfalfa hay, 12.3 lbs. Silage, 24.6 lbs. Com-and-eob meal, 3.7 lbs. . .. 15.1 0.80 The table shows that the soybean ration proved more effective than the alfalfa-hay ration. In trials during 2 years by Caldwell at the Ohio Station'* a ration of 8.7 lbs. soybean hay, 31.9 lbs. silage, 5.7 lbs. com meal, and 1.0 lb. of cottonseed meal proved as good as one containing 8.4 lbs. of concen- trates (equal parts by weight of wheat bran, cottonseed meal, and com meal), 7.0 lbs. corn stover, and 32.8 lbs. corn silage. The feed cost of butter fat was 9.5 per ct. lower on the soybean-hay ration. (358) 618. Soybean silage and alfalfa hay. — At the New Jersey Station*" Lane fed 2 lots of 2 cows each for 2 periods of 15 days alternately upon the rations shown below: Soybean silage and alfalfa hay compared with purchased protein Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Ration I Lbs. Lbs. Soybean silage, 36 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 8 lbs. Com meal, 6 lbs 27.2 0.98 Ration II Corn silage, 36 lbs. Wheat bran, 4 lbs. Corn stover, 6 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 4 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2 lbs 25 .7 .98 The table shows that the yield of fat was the same on these rations, while the home-grown ration with corn meal produced slightly more milk. There was a saving of 1.1 cents per pound of butter when the ration of soybean silage and alfalfa hay was fed. 619. Hairy vetch hay. — Duggar of the Alabama Station'* substituted 6.6 lbs. of hairy vetch hay for 7 lbs. of wheat bran for short periods, and found substantially no decrease in milk flow. (359) IV. Cakbonaceous Roughages 620. Com fodder. — Tho inferior to corn silage, good com fodder, especially that from thickly planted corn, is relished by cows and is a satisfactory substitute for hay from the grasses. Rather than being fed as the sole roughage, it should preferably be used with legume hay. To compare the value of corn fodder and timothy hay as the sole rough- ages Hunt and Caldwell fed 2 lots each of 4 cows for 45 days at the Pennsylvania Station.'^ Each cow was given 3 lbs. of ground oats and 3 lbs. wheat bran daily, with either corn fodder or timothy hay as shown in the table : "Ohio Bui. 267. ''N. J. Bui. 174. "Ala. Bui. 123. "Penn. Rpt. 1892. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 377 Corn fodder vs. timothy hay for dairy cows Average dailyyield Gain or loss Average roughage allowance Lot I, Com fodder, 22 .8 lbs. . Lot II, Timothy hay, 22 .3 lbs. MUk Fat in weight LbB. Lbs. Lbs. 16.2 0.66 —23 17.1 0.64 +84 Lot I, fed corn fodder, produced less milk but slightly more fat than Lot II, fed timothy hay, and lost in weight while Lot II gained. Taking all the facts into consideration, the fodder com proved almost as valua- ble as the same weight of timothy hay. Two tons of timothy hay per acre is a high return, while the yield of the fodder com used in this trial was nearly 4.5 tons per acre, or over twice that of the timothy hay. The high value of fodder corn for the dairy cow is thus apparent. (294) 621. Com fodder with alfalfa hay. — The value of corn fodder when fed with legume hay is shown in the following summary of 4 trials by Linfield at the Utah Station'* in which cows were fed 3 lbs. of wheat bran and 3 lbs. of either wheat, barley, or corn meal, with alfalfa hay or both com fodder and alfalfa hay for roughage : Alfalfa hay and corn fodder vs. alfalfa hay Average daily yield Average roughage allowance Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. I. Com fodder, 8 .7 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 11 .5 lbs 16 .9 .75 II. Alfalfa hay, 21. 5 lbs 17.1 0.74 It is seen that when fodder corn replaced nearly half of the alfalfa hay, about as good returns were secured as when alfalfa hay alone constituted the roughage. "Where com and alfalfa flourish, both should be used rather than alfalfa alone. (609) 622. Corn stover vs. mixed and clover hay. — ^At the Wisconsin Station*' the senior author conducted 2 trials to compare corn stover with mixed hay and with clover hay. A crop of dent corn yielding 4,490 lbs. of cured stalks and 4,941 lbs. of ear com per acre was cut and shocked in the usual manner. After curing, the corn was husked and the stover reserved for feeding. In both trials 2 lots of 2 cows each were fed by the reversal method for 2 periods each of 3 weeks. AU were fed 5 lbs. of corn and 7 lbs. of bran per head daily, with either hay or uncut com stover as indicated in the table : Corn stover vs. mixed and clover hay Average daily yield Average roughage allowance Milk Butter Lbs. Lbs. First trial I. Com stover, 42.4 lbs 20.0 1.02 //. Mixed clover and timothy hay, 13 . 5 lbs 19 .0 1 .00 Second trial I. Com stover, 33.3 lbs 19.3 0.93 II. Clover hay, 11 .5 lbs 18.9 0.97 "Utah Bui. 68. "Wis. Rpt 1884. 378 FEEDS AND FEEDING In the first trial 42.4 lbs. of uncut corn stover was slightly superior to 13.5 lbs. of mixed hay, and in the second 11.5 lbs. clover hay produced somewhat more butter than 33.3 lbs. uncut corn stover. Reduced to tons, we may conclude that 1 ton of mixed clover and timothy hay is worth 3 tons of uncut com stover, and that 1 ton of clover hay is some- what superior to 3 tons of uncut stover. Thirty-four per ct. of the coarse, uncut stover was left uneaten in these trials. Had the material been cut, the cows would have wasted somewhat less and the stover would have then had a higher value per ton. This trial shows the heavy losses incident to feeding dry com forage, which if ensiled would be wholly consumed. (300-2) 623. Timothy hay. — ^While timothy hay is a standard and most satis- factory roughage for the horse, it is unsatisfactory for the dairy cow. It lacks protein, is not very palatable to cows, and has a constipating effect quite opposite to the beneficial action of legume hay. The value of mixed clover and timothy hay for cows will depend on the proportion of clover present. To demonstrate the poor results secured when timothy hay is fed with other feeds likewise low in protein, Fraser and Hayden of the Illinois Station"" conducted a trial on a dairy farm in which 2 lots each of 8 cows were fed by the reversal method for two 42-day periods. The cows were given 12.5 lbs. per head daily of a concentrate mixture of 2.5 parts com meal and 1 part wheat bran with the roughages shown in the table : Timothy hay vs. alfalfa hay when fed with protein-poor feeds Average daily yield Average roughage allowance of milk Lbs. /. Timothy hay, 10 lbs. Com stover, 10 lbs 23.4 II. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. Com stover, 10 lbs 27 .5 When fed the alfalfa-hay ration, which had a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.6, the cows produced 17.5 per ct. more milk than on the unbalanced timothy-hay ration, the nutritive ratio of which was 1 : 10.2. The tim- othy-fed cows lost in weight and were in poor condition generally, a number being "off feed" at times. This trial shows clearly that when timothy hay must be fed it should be supplemented by concentrates high in protein. (312) 624. Upland prairie vs. timothy hay. — Haecker of the Minnesota Sta- tion*^ compared native upland prairie hay of excellent quality with medium fine, early-cut timothy hay properly cured. Sixteen cows were used during the trial lasting 77 days, the same quantity of grain and hay being supplied in each case. The returns in milk and fat were practically the same from the 2 kinds of hay. This study®^ was repeated with the same results. It is fair, then, to hold that good upland prairie hay, like that of the Minnesota region, is equal to timothy hay with the dairy cow. (325) "111. Bui. 146. " Minn. Bui. 35. "Minn. Bui. 67. FEEDS FOE THE DAIRY COW 379 625. Bermuda hay.— Lloyd of the Mississippi Station"^ studying the returns from a herd of 30 to 60 cows during 3 years, concludes that Bermuda hay equals timothy hay for milk and butter production. (320) 626. Johnson-grass hay. — ^Moore of the Mississippi Station" found Johnson-grass hay nearly as valuable as cowpea hay when corn silage, cottonseed meal, and wheat bran were the other feeds given. Had less rich and palatable concentrates been fed, Johnson-grass hay would probably have shown but half to two-thirds of the value of the cowpea hay. (321) 627. Salt-marsh hay. — ^Lindsey and Jones of the Massachusetts (Hatch) Station,*^ in trials with 12 cows, covering 7 months, found that where 10 lbs. of various kinds of salt-marsh hay were given daily in place of an equal weight of mixed hay, the milk flow was decreased from 2 to 5 per ct. They state : "When fed directly after milking, no objectionable flavor could be detected in the milk or butter. It is possible that if these hays were cut very soon after being covered by the tide they would then produce a disagreeable flavor." (325) 628. Cottonseed hulls. — Cottonseed hulls are a roughage fair in carbo- hydrate content, but very deficient in crude protein, and are rather unpalatable to cows. Moore of the Mississippi Station,"* in feeding trials with dairy cows, found 100 lbs. of well cleaned cottonseed hulls equal to 67 lbs. of prime Johnson-grass hay. Soule of the Texas Sta- tion°^ found cottonseed hulls nearly equal to sorghum hay for cows. Nourse of the Virginia Station*' considers cottonseed hulls about equal to oat straw in feeding value. Conner of the South Carolina Station®* found cottonseed hulls decidedly inferior to com stover, and Michels of the North Carolina Station^"" found stover of rather poor quality equal to the hulls. Flint and Dorman^"^ report from trials on Georgia farms that carbohydrates can be supplied under their conditions much more cheaply in the form of corn silage than by cottonseed hulls. Silage also stimulates a greater flow of milk, and is palatable and succulent, aiding in keeping the animals in good condition. Failing to appreciate the value of the forage from the corn plant, southern dairymen often leave the com stalks standing in the field and purchase cottonseed hulls for roughage. (251) V. Succulent Feeds 629. Com silage. — Succulent feeds are of even more importance in the feeding of the dairy cow than of the other farm animals. On account of their cooling, slightly laxative action, such feeds aid greatly in keeping the digestive tract of this hard-working animal in good condition, as well as whetting the appetite so that large amounts of feed are con- sumed. Thruout the chief dairy sections of the United States corn ''Miss. Bui. 70. '"Miss. Rpt. 1903. "S. C. Bui. 66. "Miss. Rpt. 1895. "Tex. Bui. 47. ^"N. C. Bui. 199. "Mass. (Hatch) Bui. 50. "Va. Bui. 148. "'Ga. Bui. 80. 380 FEEDS AND FEEDING silage furnishes the cheapest form of succulence. Due largely to the fact that the silage made during earlier years was frequently of poor quality and fed in a careless manner, a widespread belief existed that silage injured the flavor of the milk. For many years the largest milk condensing company in the country prohibited the use of silage by its patrons. Experience has now abundantly demonstrated that when good silage is fed under proper conditions the quality of the milk is thereby improved, rather than impaired. Like other feeds, silage may be abused. Only that which is well made should be used, and this should be fed after milking and be eaten up clean at each feed, none being left scattered on the floor of the stable, the air of which should be kept pure and wholesome by proper ventilation. If such conditions prevail, no one need fear ill effects from feeding silage to dairy cows, for when thus fed even the milk condensing factories no longer object to its use. The daily allowance of silage commonly fed ranges from 20 to 40 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight. A common rule is to feed 3 lbs. of silage and 1 lb. of dry roughage per 100 lbs. live weight. (300-5) 630. Com silage vs. fodder corn. — Tests of corn silage and field-cured fodder corn at the Vermont^"^ and Wisconsin^"' Stations were conducted in the following manner : Two rows of maturing com extending across the field were placed in shocks, while the next 2 rows were run thru the feed cutter and placed in the silo. By thus alternating until the silo was fiUed, substantially equal quantities of material having the same composition were obtained as silage and shock corn, respectively. The field-cured fodder, after being run thru the cutter, was fed in opposition to the silage to dairy cows along with equal quantities of hay and grain. At the Vermont Station the green fodder corn, converted into silage and fed with hay and grain, produced 11 per ct. more milk than the same amount of green corn dried and fed with the same allowance of hay and grain. In the "Wisconsin trial the com crop produced 243 lbs., or 3 per ct., more milk per acre when fed as silage than when fed as dried corn fodder. In the following table are summarized the results of these and other trials in which the amount of milk produced from 100 lbs. of total dry matter in rations containing silage or corn fodder was determined : Corn silage vs. fodder corn for milk production Milk from 100 lbs. dry matter Station and number of trials Silage ration Podder ration Lbs. Lbs. Wisconsin (Rpt. 1888), 3 trials 104 .2 95 .8 Wisconsin (Rpt. 1889), 3 trials 110.5 . 104.8 Vermont (Rpt. 1892), 1 trial 82.0 76.5 Pennsylvania (Rpt. 1890), 1 trial 111.9 106.3 New Jersey (Bui. 122), 1 trial 116.2 103.0 Average of 9 trials 106 .0 . 98 .6 "»Vt Rpt. 1891. "»WIs. Rpt. 1891. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 381 Averaging these trials we find that 7.4 lbs. more milk was produced from 100 lbs. of dry matter in the silage rations than in the rations con- taining fodder corn. The higher value of the silage is not due to any increased digestibility of the silage over weU-cured dry fodder, for we have seen that ensiling tends to decrease the digestibility of forage rather than to increase it. (83) The superiority of silage must be largely due to the fact that while good-quality silage is eaten with little or no waste, a considerable part of the corn fodder is usually left uneaten. Various trials show that the dry matter of that part of the corn fodder which is actually consumed may have just as high a nutritive value as an equal weight of dry matter in corn silage.^"* Another reason why silage gives better results than dry corn fodder is that cows fed the succulent, palatable silage usually consume a heavier ration than those fed the dry fodder and hence have a larger amount of nutrients avail- able for milk production after the maintenance requirements of the body have been met. 631. Corn silage vs. hay. — To determine the relative value of com silage and mixed hay (mostly timothy) Jordan fed 4 cows at the Maine Station^"' for three 14-day periods. During the first period the cows were fed good hay ; during the second, hay and silage ; and during the last, hay again, the same amount of concentrates being fed thruout the trial. When the cows were changed from good hay to both silage and hay their milk flow increased 7 per ct. and when changed back it de- creased 8 per ct. The silage fed in this trial was watery and contained but 16.7 per ct. dry matter, while average silage from well-matured com contains about 26 per ct. dry matter, Jordan found 444 lbs. of this silage, which had less than two-thirds the value of high-quality silage, slightly superior in feeding value to 100 lbs. of the hay fed. It is fair to conclude that had the silage been of average quality 280 lbs. would have been slightly superior to 100 lbs. of hay. In an extended trial with 6 cows Hills of the Vermont Station^"' found that when 3.5 lbs. of com silage was substituted for 1 lb. of mixed timothy, red top, and clover hay, the milk yield was increased 7 per ct. Rating hay at $10 and silage at $3 per ton, there was a gain of 1.66 cents daily per cow by replacing one-third of the hay with silage. From these data we may conclude that for dairy cows 280 to 350 lbs. of good corn silage is worth rather more than 100 lbs. of mixed hay. In the feed unit system as revised by WolP°^ and in the Armsby table of energy values corn silage is rated at half the value of timothy hay. (171, 178) To determine the relative value of com silage and alfalfa hay Carroll of the Utah Station^"* fed 2 lots of 7 cows each the rations shown in the table for 2 alternate 28-day periods. The concentrate allowance con- sisted of a mixture of equal parts wheat bran and rolled barley. •"Wis. Rpts. 1890, 1891. "" Vt. Rpt. 1901. "» Information to the authors. '■"Me. Rpt. 1889. '"Wis. Cir. 37. 382 FEEDS AND FEEDING Relative value of corn silage and alfalfa hay Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs, Ration I Alfalfa hay, 22.2 Iba. Com sUage, 21.3 lbs. Concentrates, 4 . 1 lbs 27 . 2 . 99 Ration II Alfalfa hay, 29 .0 lbs. Concentrates, 4.0 lbs 26.6 0.95 When fed silage the cows yielded 2 per et. more milk and 4 per ct. more fat, but were given 2.5 per ct. more grain. We may therefore conclude that 6.8 lbs. of alfalfa hay was fully replaced by 21.5 lbs. of com silage, or 100 lbs. of hay by 310 to 320 lbs. of silage. 632. Silage from the sorghums. — Next in value to corn silage is that from the grain and the sweet sorghums. Beed and Fitch found kafir silage practically equal to corn silage when fed with hay and grain in a trial at the Kansas Station.^"" In each of 2 trials the cows produced 3 per ct. more milk and 1 per ct. more fat when fed corn silage than when fed silage from sweet sorghum, showing this silage to be but little inferior to that from the corn plant. (309) 633. Silage from the legumes. — Tho there is far less certainty of secur- ing silage of good quality from clover or alfalfa than from corn and the sorghums, these legumes are sometimes ensiled, especially when the weather does not permit making them into satisfactory hay. (342, 348) In each of 3 years Clark ensiled red clover at the Montana Station^^" and fed the silage to dairy cows in comparison with clover hay. When from 32 to 43 lbs. of clover silage was fed per head daily with clover and tim- othy hay and concentrates, 233 lbs. of the silage proved equal to 100 lbs. of good clover hay. On the silage ration the yield of milk was increased 5.7 per ct. and of fat 4.3 per ct. Clark reports that the cows relished the silage during the winter months, but that in summer it became darker in color and acquired a strong odor, a point also observed by Reed at the Kansas Station^^^ with alfalfa silage. Such combinations as field peas with oats, soybeans or cowpeas with com or the sorghums, and vetch with oats, wheat, or barley, make satisfactory silage. (357-9) 634. Mixed silage vs. heavy concentrates. — ^At the Ohio Station^" Williams fed 2 uniform lots of 4 cows each the rations reported in the table during 4 months to determine whether a large part of the concen- trates usually supplied could not be replaced by silage composed of 2 parts soybeans, 1 part cowpeas, and 7.5 parts of rather watery corn silage. The 2 rations contained practically the same amount of dry matter and crude protein. ^"Kan. Cir. 28. "'Hoard's Dairyman, 47, 1914, p. 889. ""Mont. Bui. 94. "* Ohio Bui. 155. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 383 Feeding mixed silage in place of part of the concentrates Average daily yield Average ration Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. Lot I Mixed silage, 58 .0 lbs. Oil meal, 2 .0 lbs. Mixed hay, 6.8 lbs. Bran,2.01bs 19.6 1.03 Lot II Stover, 4 .7 lbs. Oil meal, 2.5 lbs. Mixed hay, 6.5 lbs. Com meal, 5 .0 lbs. Bran, 6 .0 lbs 16 .9 .80 It is seen that the cows fed 58 lbs. of mixed silage with 4 lbs. of con- centrates yielded more milk and fat than those receiving 13.5 lbs. of rich, expensive concentrates and no silage. Less dry matter was con- sumed by the silage-fed cows for 1 lb. of fat than by those getting no silage. During the trial the fat yield of the silage-fed cows increased 1.9 per ct., while that of the others shrank 14.2 per ct. These results forcibly illustrate how protein-rich silage may aid the dairyman in re- ducing the cost of producing milk. 635. Apple-pomace silage. — Hills^^^ fed cows daily allowances of 24 to 35 lbs. of apple-pomace silage, as much as they would eat in addition to 8 lbs. of grain and 10 to 12 lbs. of hay. On apple-pomace silage the cows consumed somewhat more dry matter than those getting corn silage, with a corresponding increase in milk flow. The apple-pomace silage had no deleterious influence on the cows or their milk. (384) 636. Other silage studies. — Hills of the Vermont Station^^* found that rye silage was drier and less readily eaten than com silage, and made 10 per ct. less milk and butter. Cows changed from com to rye silage shrank 20 per ct. in milk, while on changing back from rye to corn they gained 2 per ct. Good corn silage gives better results than good Hun- garian-grass hay or silage. (318) 637. Boots. — Since roots may be regarded as watery concentrates rather than roughages (22, 365) the question naturally arises as to their value in replacing the concentrates in the ration. In studjdng this prob- lem Friis of the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station^^" conducted extensive trials on different farms in which cows were fed the same basal ration, consisting of 6.5 lbs. of hay and 10 lbs. of straw, and were given in ad- dition varying amounts of cereal grains, cottonseed meal, and mangels or other roots. Friis concluded that 1 lb. of dry matter in roots is equal in feeding value to 1 lb. of Indian corn or of a mixture of barley, oats, and rye, or to 0.75 lb. of cottonseed meal. In trials during 2 years Wing and Savage of the New York (Cornell) Station^^" found that 1 lb. of dry matter in mangels is equal to 1 lb. of i dry matter in grain, and that mangels can successfully replace half the grain ordinarily fed in a ration of grain, mixed hay, and silage. The »» Vt. Rpt. 1903. "'N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 268. "•Vt. Rpt. 1907. »«Bxpt. Sta. Rec. 14, 1903, p. 801; Landokon. Forsog (Copenhagen), 1902, p. 30. 384 FEEDS AND FEEDING Cornell studies led to the conclusion that with concentrates costing $30 per ton mangels are an economical feed for dairy cows when they can be produced and stored for $4 per ton, — a high figure for this compara- tively easily-grown crop. (368) Haecker of the Minnesota Station^^' has likewise found that 1 lb. of dry matter in mangels or rutabagas is substantially equal to 1 lb. of mixed grain, 11 lbs. of mangels or 9 lbs. of rutabagas having the same value as 1 lb. of grain. In the earlier years it was thought that the feeding of roots produced watery milk, but the extensive experiments in Denmark and this country with roots and silage prove beyond a doubt that the milk of the cow can- not be watered by supplying succulent feeds. 638. Dry matter in roots and silage. — The value of the dry matter in roots and corn silage for milk production has been studied at the Ohio,^^' Pennsylvania,^^' and Vermont^^" stations with the following results: Milk from 100 lbs. of dry matter in corn silage and beet rations station Beet ration Silage ration Lbs. Lbs. Ohio Station, 1889 59 62 Ohio Station, 1890 59 60 Ohio Station, 1891 62 66 Ohio Station, 1892 69 76 Pennsylvania Station 87 82 Vermont Station 113 119 It will be seen that, altho practically all of the dry matter in beets is digestible and only a part of that in corn silage, in each of these trials dairy cqws gave somewhat better returns on the dry matter of corn silage than on that in the beet ration. On the other hand. Wing and Savage at the Cornell Station^^^ found 1 lb. of dry matter in mangels slightly supe- rior to 1 lb. of dry matter in corn silage. (365—74) 639. Sugar beets vs. corn silage. — Haecker of the Nebraska Station^^^ compared corn silage and sugar beets with 2 lots of 5 cows each, fed for a period of 5 weeks. The cows were given 6 to 10 lbs. per head daily of a mixture of equal parts of oats, com, and wheat bran, with hay and succulence as shown in the table : Corn silage compared with, sugar heets Average daily yield Allowance of hay and succtilence Milk Fat Lbs. Lbs. /. Corn silage, 30 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs 17.4 0.84 II. Sugar beets, 30 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10 lbs 16 . 1 . 78 It is shown that where 30 lbs. of corn silage was fed against an equal weight of sugar beets, the small difference in yield of milk and fat was in «'Minn. Rpt. 1913. "»Penn. Rpt. 1890. «'N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 268. »■ Ohio Rpt. 1893. "° Vt. Rpt 1895. "" Nebr. Bui. 76. FEEDS FOR THE DAIRY COW 385 favor of the silage, as might be expected from the fact that corn silage contains considerably more dry matter than sugar beets. 640. Addition of roots to ration containing silage. — To determine whether the addition of roots to an already excellent ration of corn silage, clover hay, and concentrates would increase the yield of milk or fat by dairy cows, Shaw and Norton carried on trials during 3 years at the Michi- gan Station"' with a total of 40 cows. Each year 2 lots were fed the rations shown in the table by the reversal method for periods averag- ing 26 days in length : Effect of roots when added to ration containing silage Average daUy yield Average feed cost of* Average ration Milk Fat 100 lbs. milk 1 lb. fat RaiionI Roots, 18.3 lbs. Com silage, 30.6 lbs. Clover hay, 5.0 lbs. Cbncentrates, 9 .2 lbs Lbs. 23.8 22.5 Lbs. 0.93 0.88 Cents 66.5 62.3 Cents 17.0 RatirniH Com sflage, 30 .8 lbs. Clover hay, 5 .0 lbs. Concentrates, 9 .2 lbs 15.8 'Cost of feeds per ton: concentrate mixture, $17.60 to S19.21; clover hay, S6.00; corn silage, S2.50; and roots, $2.00. On Ration I, which was practically the same as Ration II with the exception that it contained in addition 18.3 lbs. of roots, the average daily yield of milk was increased 1.3 lbs. and of fat 0.05 lb. This gain was not enough to offset the cost of the roots fed, for the average cost of 100 lbs. miUs was 4.2 cents and of 1 lb. of fat 1.2 cents lower on the ration containing no roots. "While breeders feeding cows heavily on ofScial test may find it advisable to feed roots in addition to a liberal allowance of corn silage for the sake of the small increase in yield, this practice will rarely be economical for dairymen in general. (365) 641. Potatoes. — A heavy allowance of potatoes produces milk and butter of poor flavor. According to Pott^''* cows of average weight should not be fed more than 33 lbs. per head daily of cooked potatoes and somewhat less of the raw tubers. When feeding a heavy allowance of potatoes HiUs of the Vermont Station^^* found the dry matter in corn silage superior to that in raw potatoes. The cows ate the potatoes readi- ly, but at 15 cents a bushel they were more costly than corn silage. But- ter from the potato-fed cows was salvy. (374) 642. Soilage. — ^During 3 summers WoU, Humphrey, and Oosterhuis at the Wisconsin Station^^° fed 1 lot of cows which had access to limited pasture a succession of soiling crops in addition to a small allowance of "'Mich. Bui. 240. «*Handb. Emahr. u. Futter., 11, 1907, pp. 363-364. "•Vt. Rpt. 1896. "'Wis. Bui. 235. 386 FEEDS AND FEEDING mixed concentrates. Another lot, otherwise fed similarly, received corn silage instead of soilage. In 2 of the trials each lot was given a small allowance of hay. The results of the trials, which averaged 82 days, are given in the following table : Soilage vs. silage as supplements to pasture Average daUy yield Average ration Milk Fat Lba. Lbs. Lot I Soilage, 28.1 lbs. Mixed hay, 2 .2 lbs. Pasture, limited Concentrates, 5 .4 lbs 23 .9 .92 Lot II Com silage, 27.3 lbs. Mixed hay, 2.0 lbs. Pasture, limited Concentrates, 5 .4 lbs 22.5 0.94 The cows fed soilage, consisting of red clover, peas and oats, sweet corn, field corn, and "succotash" (mixed oats, peas, and corn), yielded no more milk and slightly less fat than those fed corn silage. Silage was relished rather better than the succession of soiling crops. In a similar trial by Frandsen at the Nebraska Station^^'' the feed cost per pound of butter fat was 24.5 cents with soiling crops and 21.5 cents when corn silage was used. Since soilage is far more expensive and much more in- convenient to feed than silage (418-20), the latter is preferred by dairy- men as a supplement to pasture, except where too few cows are kept to consume the silage fast enough to prevent its spoiling. When silage is not available for summer feeding, the wise dairyman will provide a well- planned succession of soiling crops to maintain the milk flow when pastures are scant, knowing that it is weU-nigh impossible to bring the yield of milk back to near the former amount if it has once been checked by insufiScient feed. (421-2) 643. Wet beet pulp. — ^Wing and Anderson of the New York (Cornell) Station^^' found that cows will eat 50 to 100 lbs. of fresh beet pulp per day in addition to 8 lbs. of grain and 6 to 12 lbs. of hay. The dry 'mat- ter in wet beet pulp proved equal to that in corn silage. As the pulp comes from the factory it contains about 10 per ct. dry matter, or about one-third as much as does corn silage of good quality. Beet pulp may have a higher value than given above when no other succulent food is supplied. The fermented pulp appears to be more palatable and satis- factory, tho even fresh pulp seems to stimulate the consumption of dry roughage. There are occasional reports of beet pulp tainting the milk. Buffum and Griffith of the Colorado Station"' found 2 lbs. of fresh beet pulp equal to 1 lb. of sugar beets for dairy cows. (274) "'Hoard's Dairyman, 47, 1914, p. 403. ""Colo. Bui. 73. «»N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 183. CHAPTER XXIII RECORDS OP PRODUCTION OP DAIRY COWS— PEED REQUIRED BY COW AND COST OP PRO- DUCING MILK AND PAT I. Recoeds of Pkoduction of Daiet Cows That successful dairying depends primarily on the selection of indi- vidual cows of good productive capacity has already been pointed out. (544-7) It is therefore important to consider the various agencies which have been of service in pointing out to dairymen the profitable and the unprofitable animals in their herds, and in enabling them more intelli- gently to feed and breed for production. Chief among these agencies are the cow-testing associations, the system of official testing, the ad- vanced registers, dairy cow censuses, and public competitions. 644. Cow-testing associations. — The remarkable development of dairy- ing in northern Europe during the ^ast 20 years has been due in large part to the work of the cow-testing associations. Prom 1895, when the first association was organized in Denmark with 13 herds entered, the growth has been most rapid, until in 1914 there were between 2,500 and 3,000 such associations in European countries. In these organiza- tions a trained tester is employed, who spends a day every month with each of the herds in the association. Arriving on the farm in the after- noon he weighs and samples the milk from each cow at milking time. He furthermore weighs the concentrates given each cow and also the rough- age which several cows get and then estimates the approximate amount given to each cow in the herd. The following morning this is repeated, after which the samples of milk are tested for butter fat. Prom this day's record he computes the milk and fat production and cost of feed for each cow for the current month. While such records are not as exact as if every milking were weighed, careful studies show the results to be within 2 per ct. of the actual production of the cow. The tester not only makes these records, but he also studies the local feed market and aids the dairymen in working out the most economical rations for their herds. Many dairymen who would not go to the trouble of testing their herds themselves are glad to secure this service at small expense as a member of the association. The improvement wrought by these associations is marvelous. In Den- mark, largely due to their work, the average annual yield of butter per cow has increased from 112 lbs. in 1884 to 224 lbs. in 1908. In 10 years one association in Sweden increased the annual production of butter fat 109 lbs. per cow.^ » Carroll, Utah Bui. 127. 387 388 FEEDS AND FEEDING 645. Cow-testing associations in the United States.* — ^While the cow- testing associations are yet in their infancy in this country, they have already accomplished much good. In 1914 the total number grew from 100 to 163, or 63 per et. The first association in the United States was organized in Newaygo County, Michigan, in 1905, in charge of Helmer Eabild, now of the United States Department of Agriculture. The following table shows the improvement brought about in 8 years in 7 herds which have been in this association since its organization: Improvement in 7 herds in Newaygo cow-testing association Average Fat Annual Annual Returns No. of yield of content yield of Value post of over cost Year cows milk of milk fat of fat feed of feed Lbs. Per ot. Lbs. Dollars Dollars Dollars 1906 50 5885.0 3.92 231.1 53.88 31.65 22.23 1907 60 5952.7 3.94 234.6 68.23 39.79 28.44 1908 69 6095.4 4.15 253.3 69.20 40.45 28.75 1909 72 6302.6 4.28 269.7 83.98 42.05 41.93 1910 79 6208.8 4.28 265.7 90.22 49.52 40.70 1911 80 6411.0 4.38 280.9 80.65 48.48 32.17 1912 80 6154.8 4.45 273.9 95.73 44.46 51.27 1913 69 6123.4 4.64 284.7 100.35 49.27 51.08 These herds were much above the average for the whole country when the association was organized, averaging 231 lbs. of butter fat per cow, while the estimated average annual production for the United States is but 160 lbs. During the 8 years of record the average annual yield of butter fat was increased nearly 54 lbs. or 23 per ct. over that for 1906. Tho the prices of feeds have advanced markedly, the net returns over cost of feed have more than doubled in these herds. 646. Official tests and advanced registry of dairy cows — The establish- ment by the dairy breed associations of advanced registers for pure-bred cows is another important movement in the development of the dairy industry. Cows are entitled to place in these registers of production only when their yield in tests conducted by representatives of the state experiment stations or of the breed associations has reached the standard set by the association. Entry in these registers increases the money value, not only of the given cow, but also of her relatives, for progressive breeders in their selection of animals now rely more and more upon records of production and less upon show-ring successes. 647. Keeping records on the farm. — For the dairyman who desires to keep his own records of the production of his cows, the following, con- densed from Eckles,* will be helpful: The only records which are entirely satisfactory are those setting forth the daily production of each individual cow. This does not require as much work as one would anticipate, if a convenient spring balance and handy milk sheets for entry of the records are provided. Daily individual records make pos- sible the feeding of each cow with the greatest economy, enable the herds- ^^From circular issued by U. S. Dept. Agr. = Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, pp. 136-140. RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 389 man. to detect sickness quickly by the decline in milk flow, and aid in judging the efficiency of the different milkers. Where the weight of each milking is recorded, it is sufficient to take a sample covering 3 to 5 days of each month for the butterf at determination. Those who feel that they cannot spend the time necessary to weigh each milking may obtain reasonably satisfactory records by weighing and sampling the milk of each cow regularly on 3 consecutive days each month thruout the year. The average yield of milk and fat for this period is taken as the average for the month. Another method of less value, but better than no testing, is to record the production of each cow for 7 consecutive days at intervals of 3 months. 648. Unreliability of short tests. — Glover* reports that during 3 years the best weekly record of one cow in an Illinois dairyman's herd was 309 lbs. of milk and 10.5 lbs. of fat. In her best lactation period, which lasted 266 days, she produced 5,355 lbs. of milk and 184 lbs. of fat. The best weekly record of another cow was 197 lbs. of milk and 10.2 lbs. of fat, less than the first cow. During her best lactation period (315 days) this cow, however, yielded 7,190 lbs. of milk and 367 lbs. of fat. This weU shows the unreliability of short tests. Time, the scales, the Babcock fat test, combined with good judgment, are aU essential in determining the true value of dairy cows. 649. A herd record,— On taking charge of the New York (Cornell) Station" Roberts found a herd of cows yielding about 3,000 lbs. of milk per head yearly. After years of careful breeding and selection the rec- ords shown in the table below were actually made : One year's milk and fat record with a herd of 20 cows No, of cow Age Cost of feed MUk produced Feed cost of 100 lbs. milk Pat produced Feed cost of lib. of fat Yrs. Mo. Dollars Lbs. Dollars Lbs. Cents No. 1.... 7+ 44.24 8,029 0.66 391.6 11.5 No. 2.... 5 4 47.65 9,740 0.49 309.2 15.6 No. 3.... 3 5 42.00 4,743 0.89 233.6 18.0 No. 4k.... 1 9 49.07 6,009 0.82 219.3 22.6 No. 5.... 7+ 38.74 6,215 0.62 326.7 12.0 No. 6.... 1 10 41.24 2,830 1.48 159.0 26.0 No. 7.... 6 4 52.06 11,165 0.47 418.0 12.5 No. 8.... 4 39.96 5,671 0.70 285.1 14.0 No. 9.... 3 36.24 3,388 1.07 197.3 18.5 No. 10.. . 4 8 46.51 6,324 0.74 224.7 21.0 No. 11 ... . 1 9 43.80 6,136 0.86 160.8 27.0 No. 12. ... 3 5 43.66 6,786 0.75 294.3 15.0 No. 13. ... 10 4 44.34 5,459 0.81 195.3 22.5 No. 14. ... 2 4 46.98 7,757 0.59 260.3 17.6 No. 15.... 3 4 47.44 9,003 0.63 299.1 16.0 No. 16.... 6 4 43.12 9,777 0.44 330.6 18.0 No. 17. . . . 7 3 47.87 10,417 • 0.46 302.9 16.0 No. 18.... 3 4 48.63 7,965 0.61 282.4 17.0 No. 19.... 7+ 53.38 8,656 0.62 382.8 14.0 No. 20. . . . 7+ 49.08 10,754 0.46 439.4 11.0 ♦111. Cir. 84. "N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 52. 390 FEEDS AND FEEDING "We observe a considerable range in the cost of feed for the several cows, a wide one in the yield of milk, and a marked diflference in the cost of producing milk and fat. While in 1875 the average milk yield of the cows in the herd was only 3,000 lbs., in 1892 the descendants of the same cows averaged more than 7,000 lbs. This table teaches that even with good, well-fed herds it is of the highest importance to study the feed consumption and milk and fat production of each individual, in order that only the best cows and their progeny may be retained. 650. Dairy cow censuses. — ^Many years ago Hoard's Dairyman, thru trained representatives, began studying the returns from cows on dairy farms in many states and under varying conditions. Following the first "cow census," conducted under the supervision of W. D. Hoard in 1887, a series of 26 canvasses were taken from 1899 to 1908, including 2,163 herds which contained 28,447 cows. In the following table are summar- ized some of the most important data compiled in these extensive surveys :° Summary of the Hoard's Dairyman cow censuses No. of cows Annual yield of butter fat Cost of feed Gross returns Returns over cost of feed Received forSl worth of feed Feed cost of butter fat per lb. Type of cow Good dairy type Lacking dairy type .... Value of silage Herds fed silage Not known to be silage- fed . 9,365 8,104 6,689 21,759 9,506 3,775 6,202 9,122 3,848 3,459 Lbs. 189.0 138.2 181.8 151.2 180.0 130.0 185.0 136.7 234.0 102.2 Dols. 33.95 32.01 34.98 32.95 34.53 32.53 34.78 35.00 33.66 33.76 Dols. 51.33 34.04 48.48 39.41 48.65 32.76 49.32 36.85 59.84 40.46 Dols. 17.38 2.03 13.50 6.46 14.12 0.23 14.54 1.85 26.18 -6.70 Dols. 1.51 1.06 1.39 1.20 1.41 1.01 1.42 1.05 1.78 0.80 Cts. 18.5 23.0 18.9 22.2 Value of good stables Herds in good stables . . Herds in poor stables . . Valtie of dairy literature Owners read dairy papers 18.7 26.6 17 5 Owners read no dairy Daoers 28 8 Good and poor producers Most profitable herds . . Least profitable herds . . 14.5 32.1 The various differences recorded are not whoUy due to the different single factors. For example, the low results from the herds in poor stables were not due to this alone but also to the fact that, compared with the cows in good stables, a greater proportion of these cows were undoubtedly lacking in dairy type and that a smaller number were fed silage or belonged to progressive owners who read dairy literature and applied its teachings in their business. The poor dairyman is usually deficient in not one but in many particulars. While the herds in which the cows were of good dairy type returned $17.38 per cow on the average •Compiled in U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Anim. Indus., Bui. 164, RECORDS OP PRODUCTION OP DAIRY COWS 391 over cost of feed, the herds lacking in dairy type little more than paid for the feed they ate. The cows fed silage yielded $1.39 for each dollar's worth of feed consumed, while those not known to have been fed silage returned but $1.20. Dairymen who read dairy papers secured a profit over cost of feed of $14.54 per cow, while those not directly influenced by dairy literature received only $1.85 per cow. 651. Exposition breed tests. — Tests of pure-bred cows of various breeds for the production of milk and butter fat were conducted at the "World's Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893; at the Pan-American Exposition held in Buffalo in 1901; and at the Louisiana-Purchase Exposition held in St. Louis in 1904. In each case the test was super- vised by a joint committee composed of delegates representing, on the one hand, the various breed associations interested, and on the other the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta- tions. The representatives of the several breed associations had direct and fuU charge of the cows and their feed and care in all particulars. The representatives of the colleges and stations took charge of all weighings of feed as well as of milk and conducted all analyses of the milk. Prom the vast accumulation of data gathered during these tests the following condensed table is compiled, giving some of the more striking and helpful findings. The data for the Columbian Exposition test are taken from the Jersey BuUeiin, 1893, and the Journal of the British Dairy Farmers' Association, 1894; for the Pan-American test, from the Holstein-Friesian Register, October, 1901 ; and for the Louisiana-Pur- chase Exposition, from the Dairy Cow Demonstration of the Louisiana- Purchase Exposition, Farrington, published by Hoard's Dairyman. In these competitive tests the cows were selected and entered by the several breed associations, there being no restrictions as to choice. The chosen specimens of each breed were managed as to feed, water, and care entirely in accordance with the ideas and wishes of the committee in charge of that particular breed. The feeding and milking of each cow, however, was done in the presence of representatives of the colleges and experiment stations. A price was established for each and all kinds of feed by the joint committee. The sub-committee in charge of each competing herd was allowed to give as much of any and all kinds of the various feeds as it wished to each cow imder its care. FuU records were kept of everything eaten, of all the milk yielded, the gain or loss in the weight of the cows, etc. A price was established for milk and fat so that the returns of each cow over the cost of the feed consumed could be credited. The table which follows shows the results of one test at each exposition condensed and arranged for comparative study. Since widely different prices were charged for feed and allowed for products at the different expositions, the returns from milk and fat over cost of feed in the different tests should not be compared with one another. 392 FEEDS AND FEEDING Summary of principal tests of pure-bred dairy cows at the Columbian, Pan-American, and Louisiana-Purchase Expositions Av. daily yield per cow Per cent fat Feed cost 100 lbs. milk Feed cost 1 lb. fat Gain in live wt. Daily Breed Milk Fat Total solids over feed cost ColumbiaD Exposition, Chicago, 1893: best cow in 90-day test Jersey Lbs. 40.4 39.0 40.9 Lbs. 2.0 1.7 1.5 Lbs. 4.9 4.4 3.7 Cents 70.2 64.6 65.5 Cents 14.3 14.8 18.0 Lbs. 81 -13 115 Cents 81.3 Guernsey 64.2 Shorthorn 58.5 Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo, 1901 : average of 5 cows, 146 days Jersey Guernsey Ayrshire Shorthorn Holstein-Friesian . Polled Jersey .... French Canadian. Brown Swiss Red PoU Dutch Belted 31.0 1.3 4.2 4.2 48.8 11.5 31.6 1.4 4.2 4.3 47.9 11.1 37.6 1.2 4.6 3.1 40.5 12.9 36.7 1.2 4.4 3.3 48.4 14.6 44.2 1.3 5.1 3.0 40.2 13.2 23.4 1.0 3.1 4.4 51.5 11.6 28.5 1.1 3.6 3.8 44.2 11.8 35.8 1.2 3.5 3.4 45.7 13.4 33.3 1.3 4.2 3.8 45.8 12.1 28.0 0.9 3.3 3.2 61.4 16.1 22.5 23.1 26.4 22.7 28.6 15.7 20.2 23.3 21.8 15.7 Louisiana-Purchaae Exposition, 8t. Louis, 1904: best and poorest cow, 120 days Jersey Best cow 48.4 2.3 6.7 4.8 55.0 9.7 77 42.1 Poorest cow 38.8 1.6 5.1 4.1 65.0 13.2 85 22.3 Holitein-Friesian Best cow 67.5 2.4 7.5 3.5 45.0 11.0 54 38.4 Poorest cow 47.1 1.5 5.1 3.2 61.0 16.5 147 15.0 Brown Swiss Best cow 51.0 1.8 6.1 3.4 54.5 13.7 74 23.1 Poorest cow 38.5 1.5 5.1 3.8 69.5 15.5 147 16.5 Shorthorn Best cow 43.4 1.7 5.5 4.0 54.5 11.7 139 27.1 Poorest cow ...'.. 21.4 0.8 2.7 3.9 107.5 23.5 234 1.6 652. Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition. — The most extensive breed competition which has been conducted in this country is the Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition, carried on under the supervision of the Wis- consin Station.^ Some of the data secured in this contest, in which yearly records were secured for 395 cows, is condensed in the table: Results of Wisconsin Dairy Cow Competition Vpnrlir VparW Net Value of No- of 4eldof ■rieldof Value of Cost of returns products «o''» milfc fat products* feed over cost per 100 of feed feed units* Lbs. Lbs. Dols. Dols. Dols. Dols. Holstein 158 14,689 503 164.40 91.07 73.33 2.08 Guernsey 157 8,465 421 131.59 70.95 60.64 2.05 Jersey 80 7,047 363 113.00 53.88 59.12 2.05 A Lb tVfP&lR Highest producers 134 528.8 166.82 79.10 87.72 2.33 Medium producers 133 420.6 133.75 71.08 62.67 2.04 Lowest producers 131 338.9 108.12 66.95 42.17 1.77 * Butter fat, $0.28 per lb., skim milk, $0.20 per 100 lbs. 'Wis. Res. Bui. 26; Bui. 226. RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 393 The results of this competition show plainly the fact, already empha- sized, that high producers yield sufficient product to much more than pay for the larger amount of feed they eat, compared with low-pro- ducing individuals. (544-7) 653. Forced feeding of cows on test. — The feeding of cows being forced to their utmost production is an art concerning which only general suggestions can be made. Skilled feeders employ heavy allowances of rich concentrates mixed in considerable variety, in addition to legume hay, corn silage, and often roots, soilage, or other succulence. By care- ful attention to all details and by adapting the ration to the peculiar- ities of the individual cows, the animals are kept from going off feed on their rich rations. Farrington' gives the following to show the actual rations fed on a certain day to cows of the several breeds in the Louisiana-Purchase Exposition dairy contest. Rations fed on the same day at the Louisiana-Purchase Exposition Roughage Long alfalfa hay Cut alfalfa hay Com silage Green cut com forage Green cowpeas Total roughage (green and dry) . Concentrates Wheat bran Linseed oil meal Ground oats Hominy feed Gluten feed Com meal Com hearts Cottonseed meal Distillers' grains , Total concentrates Brown Swisa Lbs. 7 40 47 1 15 24 Holstein- Friesian Lbs. is is 35 65 2 1 14 22 Jersey Lbs. 18.0 6.0 16.0 40.0 3.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 6.0 1.5 2.5 19.0 ShorthorxL Lbs. 9 24 33 4 2 2 3 2 2 2 4 21 While the roughage supply for the cows under test was not large, a heavy concentrate allowance of from 19 to 24 lbs. was fed daily, the Brown Swiss cows getting the largest and the Jerseys the least. Haecker of the Minnesota Station,® on studying the records secured in this con- test, finds that on such heavy rations the cows converted a smaller percentage of the nutrients into milk than do good cows on ordinary, well-balanced rations. In forced feeding especial care must be exercised lest the health of the cow be permanently injured. 654. Records of great cows. — The following summary of the records of production and feed for champion cows of the leading dairy breeds will be of interest in showing how such great cows have been fed while 'Dairy Cow Demonstration, La.-Purch. Expo. •Minn. Bui. 106. "Hoard's Dairyman, 46, p. 477. 394 FEEDS AND FEEDING on test : Auehenbrain Brown Kate 4th,*" a pure-bred Ayrshire, yielded 23,022 lbs. of 3.99 per ct. milk, containing 917.6 lbs. fat, in the year ending October 2, 1913. Thruout the test she was milked 3 times a day. During the year she consumed 704 lbs. bran, 762 lbs. hominy, 1,074 lbs. ground oats, 548 lbs. gluten feed, 812 lbs. cottonseed meal, 134 lbs. peanut meal, 908 lbs. linseed meal, 8,000 lbs. silage, 21,000 lbs. beets, and 2,880 lbs. alfalfa hay, the total cost of feed being $184.62. The highest allowance of grain fed was 15 lbs. per day. During the year ending January 20, 1914, the pure-bred Jersey cow Sophie 19th produced in her fifth lactation period 17,558 lbs. of 5.69 per ct. milk, containing 999.1 lbs. of fat. In this and her preceding 4 lactation periods she yielded a total of 4,428 lbs. of butter, containing 85 per ct. fat,^*^ a remarkable record of persistent high production. Murne Cowan,*^ a 9-yr.-old pure-bred Guernsey, during the year ending February 19, 1915 gave 24,008 lbs. of milk testing 4.57 per ct. fat and containing 1,098.2 lbs. of butter fat. Three months after she com- pleted her record she dropped a vigorous calf. While on test she was milked 4 times daily. During the year she consumed an average of 16.3 lbs. of mixed concentrates daily, and ate in addition 3.5 lbs. dried beet pulp, 1.3 lbs. molasses, 16.0 lbs. of beets, 38.0 lbs. of silage, and 8.5 lbs. of alfalfa hay, with green sweet corn and green alfalfa additional during the summer. The wide variety of feeds often employed by skilled feeders with cows on test is shown by the rations fed this cow during 2 months: March, 1914. From the 1st to the 18th, 17 lbs. of the following concentrate mixture: bran 4.5 parts; hominy 3.5 parts; ground oats 3 parts; dried distillers' grains and linseed meal, each 2 parts; Sugar Malt and gluten feed, each 1 part. In addition 4.5 lbs. dried beet pulp, 30 lbs. beets, 36 lbs. silage, and 11 lbs. alfalfa hay. Prom the 19th to the 31st., 19.5 lbs. of the following concentrate mixture: bran 4 parts; hominy, dried distillers' grainsi, and linseed meal, each 1.5 parts; ground oats and wheat feed, each 3 parts; flaxseed meal 2 parts; Sugar Malt, gluten feed, and peanut meal, each 1 part. In addition 8 lbs. dried beet pulp, 24 lbs. beets, 37 lbs. silage, and 13 lbs. alfalfa hay. August, 1914. Fourteen lbs. of the following mixture: bran 4 parts; hominy 2.5 parts; ground oats 3.5 parts; dried distillers' grains 5.5 parts; Sugar Malt 2 parts; gluten feed 0.5 part; cottonseed meal and linseed meal, each 1 part. In addition 1.2 lbs. oat feed, 2 lbs. dried beet pulp, 20 lbs. beets, 15 lbs. each sweet corn forage and green alfalfa, 36 lbs. silage, and 9.5 lbs. alfalfa hay. The total cost of feed for the year was $196.73 and the estimated cost of labor, including feeding, grooming, and milking, $146. Duchess Skylark Ormsby,^^* a 5-yr.-old pure bred Holstein cow, yielded 27,761.7 lbs. of milk testing 4.34 per ct. and containing 1205.09 lbs. of butter fat in the year ending November, 1915. She was fed about 22 lbs. daily of a concentrate mixture of wheat bran, oats, brewers' dried grains, gluten feed, distillers' dried grains, hominy feed, and linseed meal. In addition she was given about 24 lbs. of corn silage, 11 lbs. alfalfa hay, and 32 lbs. roots. She was not turned to pasture in summer but was " Hoard's Dairyman, 47, p. 75. " Guernsey Breeder's Jour., 7, 1915, Nos. 3 and 6. "'Holstein-Friesian World, Nov. 13 and Dec. 18, 1915. II. Feed Required by Cow and Cost op Producing Milk and Fat 655. Annual feed requirement. — The next table condenses studies covering from 1 to 6 years at 10 widely separated American stations, showing the yearly feed requirement of cows and their returns in milk and fat. Annual feed requirement of the dairy cow as found hy 10 stations No. of yeara Feed eaten Av. coat of feed per cow Returns Stationa Paature Concen- trates Soilage, Toota, auage Hay Milk Fat Massachusetts'. . . Connecticut* New Jersey* Michigan* Wisconsin' Wisconsin* ,. Minnesota'- Missouri' Utah» 6 5 6 1 3 4 1 1 5 2 '2 Daya 38 152 168* 139 180 150* 131 191 153 150 187 Lba. 2,149 2,029 2,624 2,774 1,914 2,010 3,435 3,027 1,305 1,169 1,979 Lba. . 4,938 8,694 16,753 3,638 9,448 8,318 5,306 '3,692 Lbs. 5,105 1,830 1,825 3,986 1,200 1,490 2,029 3,480 4,518 6,468 2,347 Dols. 90.04 53.46 44.68 35.96 37.68 48.82 37.82 35.30 21 .43 32.45 31.61 Lba. 6,036 5,498 6,165 7,009 7,061 8,036 6,408 5,927 5,601 6,993 8,783 Lbs. 306 279 277 260 299 344 301 248 237 Montana"" Nebraska"... 250 339 « Buls. 167, 187, 217. ' Bui. 35 > Bui. 145. 2 Bui. 29. " Rpts. 1897-1904. « Bui. 166. » Rpts. 1905-7. «Bul. 26. • Bui. 68. w Rpt. 1905. " Bui. 101. * Pasture limited in amount. At the Massachusetts Station the cows were fed soilage thruout the summer, only the dry cows being turned to pasture. In New Jersey the cows were likewise maintained in summer almost wholly on soilage and silage. At the other stations the pasture period ranged from 131 days in Minnesota to 191 in Missouri. The great value of alfalfa hay in reducing the amount of concentrates fed and the cost of keep is shown by the Utah and Montana reports. The prices of feed have advanced materially since these results were reported so the figures do not repre- sent the present cost of feed per cow. In the second average for Wiscon- sin, for the years 1907-11, the annual cost of feed per cow is $11.14 higher than the average for the first 3 years reported, 1904-7. Since 1911 the prices have advanced stiU further. The milk returns varied from 5,498 lbs. per cow in Connecticut to 8,783 lbs. in Nebraska, and the fat from 237 lbs. in Utah to 344 lbs. in Wisconsin. From this table the intelligent, experienced dairyman can closely estimate the quantity and cost of the concentrates and roughages re- quired to maintain his herd of cows during the year, and the returns in milk and fat he may reasonably expect therefrom. 656. Monthly feed cost of milk. — The following data from 4 widely separated stations, compiled in 1897, show the feed cost of milk and fat for different months of the year at the prices prevailing for feeds and pasture at that date: 396 FEEDS AND FEEDING Feed cost of 100 lbs. of milk and 1 lb. of fat by months New Yorki Minnesota' Missouri' Utah* Average Number of cows 20 1,123 lbs. 286 lbs. 23 976 lbs. 301 lbs. 12 990 lbs. 248 lbs. 15 970 lbs. 222 lbs. Average weight of cows Average fat per cow Month 100 lbs. milk lib. fat 100 Iba. millr lib. fat 100 Iba. milk lib. fat 100 lbs. milk lib. fat Milk Fat S .64 .68 .71 .71 .58 .28 .38 .65 .51 .41 .65 .63 $ .17 .18 .18 .18 .145 .075 .095 .155 .125 .105 .175 .155 $ .65 .67 .67 .71 .59 .32 .37 .51 .51 .60 .68 .65 $ .149 .151 .165 .162 .132 .076 .078 .114 .106 .140 .159 .164 » .94 1.01 1.21 1.01 .43 .24 .23 .14 .21 .42 .65 1.03 i .240 .253 .299 . .234 .096 .053 .053 .033 .052 .098 .153 .265 S .56 .62 .59 .49 .48 .15 .19 .21 .26 .38 .59 .63 S .138 .160 .142 .121 .113 .038 .049 .051 .066 .091 .135 .143 S .68 .72 .76 .71 .54 .26 .31 .42 .41 .47 .65 .71 t .168 .179 March .187 April .171 May .125 .064 July .072 August .098 September .094 October .112 .157 December .174 Average $ .57 S .145 * .58 S .133 $ .63 S .152 ( .43 S .104 S .55 t .133 1 Bui. 52. 'Bui. 35. » Bui. 26. « Bui. 43. Since these data were gathered the cost of feeding stuffs has greatly advanced, so that the figures are only relatively valuable. They show that in 1897 the feed necessary to produce 100 lbs. of milk in March cost 76 cts., while when the same cows were on pasture in June it fell to 26 cts. Winter prices were again reached in November. The average feed cost for the year at the 4 stations was 55 cts. for 100 lbs. of milk and 13.3 cts. for a pound of fat. To get the present feed cost of milk and fat in the United States the figures should be increased by from 40 to 75 per ct. 657. Cost of keeping cows.^In addition to the cost of feed, the dairy cow should be charged with: (1) depreciation, interest, and taxes on the cow herself; (2) depreciation, interest, and taxes on barn; (3) depreci- ation and interest on barn tools and dairy implements ; (4) cost of perish- able tools and supplies, including bedding, ice, salt, brushes, record sheets, etc.; (5) proportionate cost of pure-bred sire; (6) cost of labor in caring for cow. These charges are estimated by various authorities as follows : Cost of keeping cows in addition to cost of feed Lindsey, Mass. Station^ Trueman, Conn. Station' Rasmusaen, N. H. Station' Cook and Minkler.N.J. Station* Int. and depreciation on cow Bam for housing cow and feed ....... Int. and depreciation on tools and im- plements Perishable tools and supplies Cost of pure-bred bull, per cow Labor Dollars 16.50 7.50 1.15 9.00 4.00 35.00 Dollars 21.40 Dollars 22.43 Dollars 15.00 5.00 7.00 3.00 33.60 7.57 3.79 33.73 3.65 1.93 30.34 73.15 65.00 67.52 55.92* I Maaa. Bui. 145. ' Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 73. ' N. H. Exten. Bui. 2. « N. J. Rpts. 31, 33. * Does not include charge for dairy apparatus, milk utensils, insurance, or incidental expenses. RECORDS OF PRODUCTION OF DAIRY COWS 397 These charges will vary greatly for the different sections of the country, depending on the price of labor, the shelter required, etc. The above figures will, however, give an approximate idea of the amount which should be added to the cost of feed to obtain the total cost of maintaining a cow for a year. In turn, the cow should be credited not only with the value of her product, either milk, or butter fat and skim nulk, but also with the value of her calf and of the manure she produces. CHAPTER XXIV FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW I. Feeding fob Milk Peoduction Every dairyman knows that it is in late spring or early summer while on luxuriant pasture, that the dairy herd normally reaches the maximum production for the year. As Eckles^ points out, this fact teaches that to secure the largest total yield of milk the dairyman should imitate these summer conditions as closely as possible during the other months of the year. The summer conditions which bring about the maximum production of milk and butter fat are : 1. An abundance of feed. 2. A balanced ration. 3. Succulent feed. 4. Palatable feed. 5. A moderate temperature. 6. Comfortable surroundings. 7. Reasonable exercise. Upon the ability of the dairyman to maintain these favorable con- ditions for his herd thruout the year, depend in large measure the profits he will receive. 658. Generous feeding. — As before pointed out (540-2), the properly- bred and properly-fed dairy cow is the most efficient animal machine in existence for the conversion of the gross products of the fields and pastures into refined articles of the highest palatability and nutritive properties for human consumption. Yet many dairymen make the serious mistake of failing to supply this responsive animal machine with sufficient raw material, in the shape of feed, to ensure the most economical production. Since it requires about half of all the feed that even the good dairy cow will eat, merely to maintain her body, if she is given but little beyond the maintenance ration obviously only a small portion will be available for milk production. Since the 1000-lb. cow requires about 7.9 lbs. total digestible nutrients daily for her maintenance, as shown in Appendix Table V, the following table^ shows the theoretical economy with which she will produce milk when given additional feed: •Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 257. "Adapted from Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 261. 398 PEED AND CAEE OF THE DAIRY COW 399 Economy of milk production on varying allowances of feed Half ration, 7 .90 Ibp. dig. nutrients Three-fourths ration, 11 .85 lbs. dig. nutrients. Full ration, 16 .80 lbs. dig. nutrients Nutrients for maintenance Lbs. Available for production Lbs. Proportion available for production Per ct. • 7.90 7.90 7.90 3.95 7.90 33 50 Theoretically, when fed 7.9 lbs. digestible nutrients the 1000-lb. cow requires the entire amount for the up-keep of her body, leaving nothing for milk production. While she will continue for a time to yield some milk on this meager allowance, such return will be at the expense of her own body tissues. (543) When fed three-fourths of a full ration the cow can then use one-third of her feed for mUk production, while if given a full ration half her feed is available for milk production. 659. The proper concentrate allowance. — The question of how much concentrates should be fed the dairy cow is of great economic impor- tance to dairymen, for under normal conditions roughages are the cheap and concentrates the costly part of the ration. The amount of concen- trates advisable depends first of all on the quantity and quality of the roughages furnished; and second, on the productive capacity of the cows. We have seen in the preceding chapter that a ration containing only legume hay arid good com silage will sustain a fair production of milk. Indeed, with ordinary cows such a ration may prove the most economical when concentrates are high in price. However, a cow of good dairy type and temperament will generally pay, thru the increased product, for a reasonable allowance of concentrates added to all the good roughage she will eat. Linfield of the Utah Station,^ where alfalfa hay is largely fed for roughage, states that any excess over 6 lbs. of concentrates in the ration usually increases the cost of production. Stewart and Atwood of the West Virginia Station,* feeding timothy hay and corn silage for roughage, found that any increase in concen- trates beyond 5 or 6 lbs. per cow daily did not bring corresponding returns. Hills of the Vermont Station,^ after years of study of rations in which mixed hay and corn silage usually formed the roughage, con- cludes that 10 lbs. of concentrates will rarely pay over a smaller allow- ance, while 2 lbs. is too little, even with a full supply of roughage. When good quality roughage is plentiful, 4 lbs. of concentrates is likely to yield net returns nearly equal to an 8-lb. concentrate allowance ; but when the after-production and the manurial value of the ration are con- sidered, a concentrate allowance of 6 to 8 lbs. seems advisable. WoU and Carlyle in 2 trials at the Wisconsin Station* found that with hay and com silage for roughage 8 lbs. of concentrates gave as good returns in milk and fat as 12 lbs. Attention is directed to the relatively small allowance of concen- trates recommended by the various investigators. This material reduc- •TJtah Bui. 43. 'W. Va. Bui. 106. »Vt. Bui. 137. 'Wis. Rpts. 1899, 1900. 400 FEEDS AND FEEDING tion from earlier recommendations tends to the more economical pro- duction of dairy products. The reader should note, however, that where small allowances of concentrates proved the most economical the roughage fed was always ample in quantity and desirable in quality, corn silage carrying more or less grain, and clover or alfalfa hay usually being employed. The dairyman who persists in feeding his cows wholly on such low-grade roughages as timothy hay, corn stover, etc., must pay the penalty by feeding from 10 to 12 lbs. of expensive concentrates daily if his cows are to maintain a reasonable, flow of milk. The wise dairyman will hold in mind that a good dairy cow in full flow of milk is expending fully as much energy as a horse at hard labor and this without cessation for many months. We know that the harder a horse works the more grain and the less roughage he must have, and the same is true for the cow. (457) In feeding, the aim should be to supply as much good roughage as the cow will readily consume, and to this add sufficient concentrates to keep the digestible matter up to the standard set by the scientists. (Chapter VII) 660. The ration should be properly balanced. — ^As we have seen (310), immature grass is rich in protein compared with carbohydrates and fat. Indeed "Wolff based his standard, in which he advocated a heavy allow- ance of protein for the dairy cow, upon the composition of pasture grass. (156-7) While we have learned thru actual feeding trials that it is not necessary to furnish the dairy cow with as much protein as was advised by Wolff, her ration should nevertheless be much richer in pro- tein than those for fattening or work animals. (150) Owing to the heavy demand for lime and phosphorus in milk production, the supply of these mineral nutrients must likewise be ample. Fortunately, both of these constituents are furnished in abundance by legume hay. The amotmt of protein it will pay to feed the dairy cow will depend, as has already been pointed out, on the relative prices of nitrogenous and carbonaceous feeds. In no ease should the protein allowance fall far below the minimum amounts shown in Appendix Table V. In districts where protein-rich feeds are cheap, it is often more important to know how narrow a ration may safely be fed. Michels' and McNutt' found in trials at the North Carolina Station that rations containing 4 to 6 lbs. of cottonseed meal and having nutritive ratios as narrow as 1:4 were entirely satisfactory. 661. Cows should be fed individually. — So pronounced is the tendency to milk production in cows of marked dairy temperament that, in spite of the most liberal feeding, they will rarely lay on flesh when in full flow of milk, provided their ration is well balanced. On the other hand, cows of ordinary capacity may easily be overfed, in which case they will store the surplus nutrients in the form of body fat, rather than increasing . their milk production. Since even in a well-bred and well-selected herd the different cows vary widely in productive ability, for the greatest ' N. C. Bui. 213. ' Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1914. PEED AND CAEE OF THE DAIRY COW 401 profit the cows must be fed as individuals, rather than each animal being given the same ration. Only under exceptional conditions does this mean, however, that it is practicable to compute a balanced ration for each different animal. Ordinarily it wiU suffice to determine what amounts and proportions of feeds should be used to provide an econom- ical ration that will meet the standards for the average of the herd, in the manner shown in Chapters VII and VIII. Each cow may then be given all the roughage she will eat, and the allowance of concentrates adjusted according to her production. A dairy cow will usually con- sume about 2 lbs. of dry roughage of good quality daily per 100 lbs. live weight, or 1 lb. of dry roughage and 3 lbs. of silage. Common rules for feeding concentrates are: 1. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each pound of butter fat the cow produces per week, or 2. Feed 1 lb. of concentrates per day for each 3 to 4 lbs. of milk, depending on its richness, or 3. Feed as heavy an allowance as the cow will pay for at the ruling prices for feeds and products, increasing the allowance gradually until she fails to respond by an increase in production which will cover the increase in cost. The first 2 rules apply only when abundant roughage of good quality is supplied. Heavy producers require a narrower nutritive ratio than ordinary animals, and hence it may be advisable to alter the character of the grain mixture for them. It is also wise to feed a more nitrog- enous concentrate allowance to cows which show a tendency to fatten, while animals which are losing flesh should receive a larger proportion of the carbonaceous concentrates, such as the farm-grown grains. 662. Feeding concentrates on pasture. — The economy of feeding con- centrates to cows on pasture has been studied at a number of stations. Shelton and Cottrell of the Kansas Station' found that feeding grain to cows on pasture did not directly pay, even tho the yield of milk was increased as much as 31 per ct. Moore of the Mississippi Station,^" on feeding 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal and 4 lbs. of wheat bran daily per cow to a dairy herd on pasture, found that the increased milk flow did not justify the expense, tho the firmness of the butter was greatly improved by feeding the cottonseed meal. At the Utah Station^^ Linfield found that cows getting some concentrates while on pasture, at first showed no great advantage therefrom; later the effects of such feed became apparent, the difference being very marked by the following winter. Eoberts of the New York (Cornell) Station^" found that cows fed con- centrates while on luxuriant pasture gave less milk and no more fat than those on grass alone. With luxuriant pasture except for a short period, both lots did equally well. Grain-fed cows that were fed grass for soilage gave just enough more milk than others fed no grain to pay for the concentrates fed. The study was then transferred to a nearby dairy •Kan. Rpt. 1888. "Utah Bui. 68. "Miss. Bui. 70. "N. Y. (Cornell) Buls. 13, 22, 36, 49. 402 FEEDS AND FEEDING farm. A herd of 16 cows lightly fed the previous winter was divided into 2 lots of 8 cows each, all grazing on the same pasture. Each cow in Lot I was given 4 quarts daily of rich concentrates, while those in Lot II re- ceived none. When the grass began to fail in August soilage was fed. The returns for 22 weeks are as follows: Feeding concentrates to cows on pasture Lot I Lot II Pasture with Pasture without conoentrates couoentrates Concentrates fed, pounds 5,200 Milk yield, pounds 22,629 17,698 Excess of milk in favor of Lot I, pounds 4,931 Gain in weight per cow, pounds 166 113 Average per cent fat in milk 4 .67 4 .70 Average per cent total solids 14 .08 14 . 19 In this trial the pastured cows getting concentrates gave 28 per ct. more milk than those getting no concentrates, and each pound of con- centrates fed returned about 1 lb. of milk. The following year no concentrates were fed to either lot while on pasture. The 6-months yield from 6 cows that remained in each lot was as follows : Residual effect of feeding concentrates Lot I Lot II Fed no Fed concentrates ooncentrates previous year previous year Average yield per cow, 6 months, pounds 3,440 2,960 In favor of Lot I, pounds 480 .... Tho getting no concentrates, Lot I returned 480 lbs., or 16 per ct., more milk than Lot II. Roberts holds that this was due to feeding con- centrates the preceding year. The benefits were especially marked in the case of the heifers, the 2- and 3-yr.-olds fed concentrates the year before developing into better animals than their mates which had been fed no concentrates the previous year while on pasture. In a test on the Elmendorf Farm, Hooper of the Kentucky Station^' found that one lot of cows, fed 4 lbs. of a grain mixture per head daily while on bluegrass pasture, returned 19 cents per head daily more profit over cost of feed than another lot on bluegrass pasture alone. A third lot, fed 10 lbs. of corn silage per head daily, returned only 2 cents more profit than the cows on pasture only, and a fourth lot, fed 4 lbs. of grain and 10 lbs. of silage, but 12 cents more over the cost of feed. Foster and Latta found at the New Mexico Station^* that altho the production was increased by feeding grain to cows on good mixed pasture, the additional product did not pay for the greater cost of feed. The advisability of feeding concentrates to cows on ample pasture thus depends entirely on the relative cost of pasturage and concentrates, "Ky. Bui. 171. "N. M. Bui. 98. FEED AND CAEE OF THE DAIRY COW 403 the price secured for dairy products, and the productive capacity of the cows. While the animal giving only an average quantity of milk may not pay for such addition of concentrates, the heavy-yielding cow can not continue long on her level of high production without some concentrates, unless the pasture be unusually luxuriant. Eckles^" con- cludes that a Jersey giving as much as 20 lbs. of milk per day, or a Holstein yielding 25 lbs. of milk or more, should be fed some concen- trates on pasture. The amount to be fed must be left to the business judgment of the individual dairyman. 663. Supplementing short pasture. — It is of the greatest importance that additional feed be provided for dairy cows when pastures become parched and scant in midsummer. Corn or sorghum silage usually furnishes the cheapest feed for this purpose (412), but where this is not available soiling crops should be specially grown. (418-22) When the pasturage is scant, the increased milk flow will fully and directly compensate for additional succulence or other feed supplied. Where the pastures are short, unless soilage crops or concentrates are fed, the milk flow will surely decrease, and, even should the pastures improve later, the cows cannot be brought back to their normal milk flow. The greater value to the pastures of the droppings from concentrate-fed cows will often prove the deciding factor with thoughtful dairymen. The residual effects upon the cows from concentrate-feeding on pastures, as pointed out by Roberts and Linfield, are most important and should not be overlooked. 664. Succulent and palatable feed. — The great importance of succulent feed for the dairy cow has been shown in the trials which have been reviewed in the preceding chapter. (629-43) These show clearly that it pays to provide succulence, either corn silage or roots, for winter feeding to take the place of the green grass the cows get in summer. The value of succulent feed is due in no small measure to its beneficial laxative effect and to its palatability, which undoubtedly tends to stim- ulate digestion. (109) In general, not only should succulence be supplied, but the rest of the ration for cows yielding a good flow of milk should be as palatable as possible. Such roughages as timothy hay, straw, and com stover may be used in limited amount, but for the best results should not constitute the chief roughage. As has been pointed out before, concentrates which are not relished when fed alone may be mixed with well-liked feed, the whole forming a palatable mix- ture. (594, 608) The concentrate allowance should be composed of a reasonable num- ber of feeds, for a mixture is relished better than only a single kind of grain or roughage. It is also best to feed at least 2 kinds of roughage. The most successful dairymen maintain that when a satisfactory bal- anced ration has been provided, it is then best to make as few changes as possible.^' "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 256. " Haecker, Minn. Bui. 130; Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 284. 404 FEEDS AND FEEDING 665. Water. — Cows require a large amount of water for their bodily- needs and for the milk. Eckles" found that cows in milk drank 4 times as much water as when they were dry and farrow. Collier of the New York (Geneva) Station" found that cows obtained 4.6 lbs. of water in feed and drink for every pound of milk they yielded. At the Pennsyl- vania Station^' Armsby found that cows averaging about 750 lbs., fed fresh grass in stalls where the temperature averaged 70° F., drank about 60 lbs. of water each daily. Others fed dry grass where a temperature of 73° F. prevailed drank 107 lbs. "When at the "Wisconsin Station^" the same investigator found that cows drank more water on protein-rich than on protein-poor rations. In general the water provision for dairy cows should be about 100 lbs., or 12.5 gallons, per head per day. Heavy yielding cows will require much larger amounts, for Eckles found that a Holstein cow producing about 100 lbs. of milk per day on a ration of 18 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. corn silage, and 14 to 20 lbs. of concentrates drank from 216 to 307 lbs. of water daily. As cows are creatures of habit, those of ordinary productive capacity will have their needs sup- plied if once each day they have opportunity to secure easily all the water they then can drink. Most authorities agree that high-producing animals should have water at least twice a day. The supply should be of good quality and close by, so the cows will not be forced to travel far. The dairyman who boasts of a spring or creek to which his cows must daily journey, often in inclement weather, will find a conveniently located well with windmill or gasoline lift far superior. (103) Opinions differ as to the advisability of warming water for cows in winter. Owing to the heavy rations cows in milk consume there is a large amount of heat produced in their bodies thru the energy expended in the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the feed. "When com- fortably housed probably little or no nutrients need be burned in the body for warming the water drunk in winter, provided it is no colder than that from a deep well. Hills of the Vermont Station"^ found no benefit from warming water for cows in comfortable quarters. An important reason for warming the water for heavy-yielding cows is that unless this is done they may not drink a sufficient quantity to make possible the maximum production of milk. There has been much dis- cussion in regard to watering the cows in their stalls. Hayward of the Pennsylvania Station^^ and Hills of the Vermont Station^' found no advantage in keeping water continuously before cows, instead of allowing them to drink once daily. In regions with severe winters most author- ities recommend that the animals be watered indoors when the weather is so inclement that it is not desirable to turn them out for exercise. Some devices for stall-watering are actually dangerous, for tho the drinking basin may be kept clean, the supply pipe coming into it from below re- " Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 242. "Vt. Rpt. 1907. " Proc. of "N. Y. Farmers," 1892-3. ^ Penn. Bui. 56. »Penn. Rpt. 1888. '=Vt. Rpt. 1907. "Wis. Rpt. 1886. FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW 405 tains saliva and particles of food which may drop into the basin. Such material quickly putrefies, lines the pipes with a slimy mass, and con- taminates the water which rises into the basin. 666. Salt. — The studies of Babeock and Carlyle, already reviewed (101), show that dairy cows require salt to thrive. The amount to be fed will vary according to the salt content of the feeding-stuffs in the ration. More should be supplied when heavy allowances of rich concen- trates are fed. These investigators found that when allowed free access to salt cows consumed about 1 ounce daily, and conclude that 0.75 ounce daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight, with 0.6 ounce in addition for each 20 lbs. of milk, is generally sufficient. The salt allowance may be regularly mixed with the feed, or it may be placed where the animals can consume it as their appetite directs. II. Hints on Cabing for Daiet Cows 667. Shelter and comfort. — The steer, gorged with feed and every day adding to the heat-holding fat layer just beneath the skin, prefers the yard or open shed to the stable. (727) The dairy cow stands in strong contrast, her system being relaxed thru the annual drain of maternity and the daily loss of milk, the combination severely taxing her digestive and assimilative powers and drawing heavily on her vitality. In winter the cow should be comfortably housed in a weU-lighted, well-ventilated stable, the temperature of which should range from 40° to 50° F. (91) To preserve the health of the herd as well as for sanitary reasons it is advisable to have not less than 4 square feet of window glass for each animal. It is well to clean and disinfect the stable thoroly at least once a year, to check any possible spread of disease.''* As the dairy cow is a sensitive, nervous animal the wise dairyman will provide comfort- able stalls or swinging stanchions, and see that the cows are well bedded. The benefits from dehorning have already been pointed out. (569) The sharp decline in milk production which often occurs in midsummer, charged by many to the annoyance of the cows by flies, undoubtedly is more often due to a shortage of feed. Beach and Clark of the Connect- icut (Storrs) Station,^^ and Eckles of the Missouri Station,^* found no increase in milk production when the herd was sprayed with a fly re- pellant, tho the cows were less restless during milking when they had been previously sprayed. 668. Preparation of feed. — The cow giving a large flow of milk is working as hard as the horse ever does, and, this true, any grain given her should be ground or crushed if not otherwise easy of mastication and digestion. Com and oats should generally, and wheat, rye, barley, kafir, and milo always, be ground or "chopped," and roots should be sliced or pulped. Because the cow takes kindly to dry feed and every- thing which enters the paimch is quickly soaked and softened, there "Lindsay, Mass. Bui. 145. '"Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 32. ""Mo. Bui. 68. 406 FEEDS AND FEEDING seems no occasion for feeding slops, nor is there any advantage from cooking ordinary feeding stuffs. (423-31) 669. Frequency of feeding. — The ample paunch and the considerable time needed for rumination teach that the common practice of feeding cows twice daily, morning and evening, with possibly a little roughage additional at midday, is a reasonable one. Those who give their cows first a little of this and then a little of that, busying themselves all day in the stable, usually ascribe success to their irksome system of feeding, when in truth it is due to good care generally and not to the particular system of feeding. Habit is strong with the cow, and a simple system of feeding and stable management once established should be rigorously con- tinued. (571) 670. Order of feeding. — In the roomy paunch hay and grain, eaten separately, are rapidly and thoroly commingled by the churning action of that organ and gradually softened in the warm, abundant liquid it contains. This true, the particular order of feeding roughages and con- centrates is not important. While the particular time of feeding is not of prime importance, it is essential that the cows be fed at regular in- tervals. If then satisfied they are content until the time for another feed. The cow seems best satisfied when the concentrates are given first, and these out of the way, she proceeds to dispose of the roughage be- fore her. Some cows give down their milk more freely when eating their concentrate allowance, but this is probably due to habit, for others which have always been fed their concentrates either before or after milking seem equally contented. Hay or other dry forage is usually not fed till after milking, because it fills the air with dust. Silage, turnips, cabbage, or other feeds with a marked odor should be given only after milking. 671. Regularity and kindness. — To skillful feeding and wholesome quarters the successful dairyman adds regularity and kindness. On this point Babcoek of the Wisconsin Station"' writes : "I would recom- mend, therefore, in order to obtain the best results from any cow, that first of all she be treated kindly, all sources of excitement being avoided so far as possible. She should also be fed and milked at regular inter- vals by the same person, and all conditions should be maintained as nearly uniform as possible at all times. It is my opinion that kind treat- ment and pleasant surroundings will have a greater influence upon the quality of milk than the kind of food, provided the ration given contains sufficient nutriment for the maintenance of the animal. ' ' While milking is usually regarded as a simple task which anyone can do, there may be a great difference in the returns which different milk- ers get from the same cow. A cow should be milked quietly with the dry hand, and stripped out thoroly, the milker bearing in mind that the last- drawn milk carries about 10 times as much fat as that drawn first. (552) If the teats are chapped or injured, vaseline or other ointment should be "Wis. Rpt. 1889. FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW 407 applied, and the milker should be especially patient, lest the evil habit of kicking be developed. On the general treatment of the herd Haecker of the Minnesota Sta- tion^* offers the following sage advice : "We know of many instances where the best of dairy cows were kept, and where good methods of feeding were practiced ; and still results fell far short of what might reasonably be expected, simply because the animals did not receive that kindly treatment which is so essential to a cow giving much milk for a long period. The herd as a whole should always be moved slowly. Never hurry a cow, or strike her or speak loudly and harshly. A gentle voice and a caressing touch are quite as potent as is digestible protein. If you so handle the cows that they are fond of you, you have learned one of the most important lessons that lead to profitable dairying. The most successful milk-producers are always in close touch with every cow in the herd. The milk-producer has to do with motherhood, in which affection always plays an important part. A cow's affection for the calf prompts the desire to give it milk; if you gain her affection, she will desire to give you milk. If you have not been in the habit of caressing the cows, the time to inaugurate the practice is when they approach the time of calving, as it is at that par- ticular time when they take kindly to grooming and to gentle rubbing of the udder. "Each cow should have a name, which should always be spoken when approaching her. This one point counts for much in the successful hand- ling of a herd. Suppose the cows are slowly filing into the bam, and you see that Rose is about to go into the wrong stall. A quick call of "Rose !" will attract her attention, and she will forget that she was about to go into her neighbor's stall to steal a mouthful of her feed. If Rose, when in the yard, is about to hook another member of the herd, and just at that moment hears her name called, she will forget what she was about to do. Again, suppose the herd is slowly wending its way down the lane to the pasture, and someone has thoughtlessly left a side gate open, leading into a grain field. Rose is in the lead, and, as you see her turning toward the open gate, a quick, sharp call of "Rose !" wiU exert a wonder- ful influence in bringing her back into line. It is by such methods that a herd can be gradually taught to do the right things, to save you many steps, and at the same time bring a larger return." III. Feed and Caee Bepoee and After Calving 672. Giving the cow a rest. — Practically all observing dairymen agree that it is most profitable to give the dairy cow a rest between lactation periods, for experience has shown that she will produce more milk an- nually if dry 6 to 8 weeks than if milked continuously. Carroll of the Utah Station,^* studying data secured with 496 cows in a cow-testing =»Minn. Bui. 130. "Utah Bui. 127. 408 FEEDS AND FEEDING association, found that cows dry for 2 months produced more fat and returned more profit than those allowed to rest but a single month. Eckles^" recommends that under ordinary conditions the cow be dry 6 weeks and preferably 2 months if in a thin condition. Dairymen differ as to the best length of lactation period, but so far as the available data warrant conclusions, there is no apparent difference in the annual re- turns from cows again freshening 9, 10, or 12 months after calving, providing they are allowed to be dry for 6 weeks to 2 months.^^ To avoid injury to the udder the cow should be dried off gradually. It is well to milk only once daily for a few days, not stripping the udder out clean ; then but once in 2 days for 3 or 4 days, after which the inter- val is lengthened to twice a week. "When the milk yield is decreased to 10 lbs. per day or less, according to Eekles,'^ milking may be entirely discontinued. The udder will fill for a few days, but the milk will be gradually reabsorbed, and no harm will result. If the cow continues to produce more than 10 lbs. a day her concentrate allowance should be withheld and only poor roughage, like timothy hay, fed until the flow is checked. 673. Feed for the cow when dry. — To ensure a good flow of milk the cow should be in good condition at freshening, as has already been pointed out. (557) "When the animal is in a thrifty condition there is also less trouble in calving. Only sufficient concentrates should be fed to put the cow in proper flesh, for if she has been heavily fed with rich con- centrates while giving milk, a helpful change may now be made to a ration which will rest and cool the digestive tract. Just previous to calving time the feed should be slightly laxative, tho if on pasture no es- pecial attention need be given to this point. For cows that freshen while housed nothing is better than legume hay and silage, with a couple of pounds of concentrates added, if necessary. The cow soon to calve should have exercise, but should not be chased by dogs or driven thru narrow gates. 674. Gestation period; calving time. — The average gestation period of the cow is placed by various authorities at from 280 to 285 days. "Wing of the New York (Cornell) Station^^ found the average of 182 recorded gestation periods for the cow to be 280 days, ranging from 264 to 296 days. About an equal number of births occurred on each day from the 274th to the 287th, inclusive. The gestation period was not different for the sexes. Unless the herd is at pasture the cow should be kept in a clean, com- fortable, well bedded box stall at calving time. If her bowels are not moving freely give a drench of Epsom salts. As parturition approaches the udder will become distended and hard, and when the muscles on each "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 229. "■ Carroll, Utah Bui. 127. =' Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 230. " N. Y^ (Cornell) Bui. 162. FEED AND CARE OF THE DAIRY COW 409 side of the tail head relax, leaving a hollow on each side, the calf may be expected within 24 hours, or 3 to 4 days at the longest. The cow should not be molested during calving unless assistance is required. For 2 or 3 days after calving her drinking water should be lukewarm, and she should be protected from cold drafts, for her vitality is low. The feed for the first few days should be limited in amount and cooling and laxa- tive in nature. Besides legume hay and silage she may be given such feeds as bran (often fed as a mash), oats, and linseed meal. High-pro- ducing cows should be watched closely for signs of milk-fever, and the air treatment, the great boon to dairymen, used if necessary. The yearly production of the cow depends in a large measure on the feed she receives during the first month after calving. The concentrate allowance, small at first, should be increased gradually, at the rate of a a half-'pound every other day until the full allowance is reached, for heavy feeding immediately after calving is apt to lead to digestive dis- turbances. If the udder is swollen and hard, even more care should be used in getting the cow to the full ration. It is quite customary to save the seventh milking after the cow calves for human use, altho sometimes the milk is not normal before the eighth or ninth milking. A simple test for normal milk, advised by Hoard's Dairyman,^* is to heat a small quantity to boiling; if the sample does not thicken, due to the high content of albumin, the milk is usable. (115) 675. Fall vs. spring freshening. — Spring-fresh cows yield most of their milk when low prices prevail for dairy products and the dairyman is busiest with the crops. In winter such cows yield only a small flow at most. On the other hand, the fall-fresh cow gives a large supply of milk during the winter, and flushes again with the stimulus of pasture in springtime. Fall-fresh cows should annually yield from 10 to 15 per ct. more milk than those csdving in the spring. When cows freshen in the fall more of the work of milking comes in the winter when farm work is slack. More time can be given to the raising of the calves, and less trouble will be experienced from scours than during the summer. Fall- dropped calves are large enough by spring to make good use of pasture and better able to stand the hot weather. Under this system a larger supply of skim milk is available for the young spring pigs. IV. Reducing the Cost op Milk Production 676. The burden of dairying. — So large are the feed and labor bills on many dairy farms, especially in the older settled portions of our country, that when these have been met little remains for the proprietor. To reduce the cost of milk production to a point where a reasonable profit may be made the dairyman must first of all cull out all cows whose product will not under any conditions pay for their keep. (544-7) An analysis of his expenses will then show that in nearly every case it is the " Hoard's Dairyman 43, 1912, p. 865. 410 FEEDS AND FEEDING feed bills and not those for labor that are the real burden. "Whoever would improve his condition must cut the monthly feed bills to the minimum, not thru parsimonious feeding, but by growing great crops of the best feeding stuffs. With rare exceptions the dairy farm should produce all the roughage and the greater part of the concentrates the herd consumes. Growing the needed feeding-stuffs will increase labor and fertilizer bills, but such shifting of expenditure should prove highly economical in the end. Indian com or the sorghums flourish over a large portion of the United States, furnishing both concentrates and roughage, and one or more kinds of legumes, furnishing protein-rich roughage, can be successfully grown on every farm. By the judicious and generous use of these best allies of the dairyman the great burden of the feed bills can be lessened. 677. Selecting economical rations. — In Chapter XXII the values of the different feeding stuffs for the dairy cow have been discussed in detail and with the data there given the dairyman can readily determine the most economical rations to employ. In computing rations the general principles which have been pointed out in Chapter VII should always be considered. (158-67) To illustrate the widely different value for milk production of rations which are balanced so far as amount and proportion of digestible nutri- ents are concerned, the following rations, which meet the requirements for a 1000-lb. cow giving 25 lbs. of 4 per et. milk, are presented : Rations that are balanced, but of unequal value for milk production Dry matter Digestible protein Total dig. nutrients Nutritive ratio A poor ration Timothy hav, 20 lbs Lbs. 17.7 1.8 6.7 1.4 Lbs. 0.60 0.15 0.94 0.45 Lbs. 9.70 1.71 4.56 1.17 Dent com, 2 .0 IbB Wheat bran, 7 .5 lbs Linseed meal, 1 . 5 lbs 27.6 2.14 17.14 1 :7.0 A fair ration Clover hay, 22 .0 lbs 19.2 6.3 1.67 0.52 11.22 5.99 Dent com, 7 .0 lbs 25.5 2.19 17.21 1 :6.9 A good ration Com silage, 35 . lbs 9.2 13.1 2.7 0.9 0.38 1.14 0.22 0.37 6.20 7.65 2.57 0.78 Clover hay, 15 .0 lbs Dent com, 3 .0 lbs Cottonseed meal, choice, 1 .0 lb. .. 25.9 2.11 17.20 1 :7.1 In the first ration, where timothy hay, low in protein and not palatable to the cow, supplies the roughage, 11 lbs. of expensive concentrates are required to provide the additional nutrients needed. Even then this FEED AND CARE OP THE DAIRY COW 411 expensive ration is unsatisfactory, for timothy hay is a poor cow feed at best. (623) The second ration of clover hay and ground com is better and less expensive than the first. Such a ration is theoretically ample, but there should be a larger variety of feeding-stuffs to make it satisfactory. (163) The last ration is much superior. Legume hay and corn silage make a combination of roughages which is most palatable and acceptable to the cow, and there is further required only 4 lbs. of concentrates to balance the ration. As has been pointed out (659), when the after- effect of the ration on the animal and on the manurial value of the ration are considered, it may be advisable to feed at least 6 lbs. of concentrates to cows of good dairy temperament, when concentrates are not too high in price. The third ration, containing only 4 lbs. of concentrates, is less expensive and more desirable than the second one, and far less expensive and much more desirable tJian the first. Altho all are theoretically "balanced," the last one is not only the lowest in cost, but if put to the test will probably produce from 20 to 30 per ct. more milk than the first, and somewhat more than the second. CHAPTER XXV RAISING DAIRY CATTLE I. The Skim-Milk Calf The profitableness of dairying depends to a large degree upon the careful rearing of the heifer calves from the best cows in the herd and sired by a pure-bred bull of quality. Improvement of the herd can best be made by replacing the discards with well-bred, home-reared heifers of greater productive capacity. Starting with common cows, one may by this means in a few years build up a high-producing herd. On the other hand, the dairyman who replenishes his herd by purchase must pay high prices for animals which, tho of good appearance, may not be well-bred. Careful dairymen are loath to part with their best heifers, preferring to keep them to improve their own herds. Another import- ant reason for rearing the heifers is that it is much easier to keep the herd free from such diseases as tuberculosis and contagious abortion when the heifers are home-raised, than when they are continually being brought in from outside sources. Tho the value of the calf at birth depends primarily on its breeding, the feed and care it receives while young are fully as important factors in deciding its future usefulness in the herd. The general principles of calf-rearing, which are presented in this chapter, are well founded upon scientific trials and practical experience, but the raising of calves will ever remain an art, in which much depends on the skill and judgment of the feeder, who should study the individual requirements of the ani- mals, rather than blindly following hard and fast rules. 678. Eaising calves on skim milk. — The fat of milk is so valuable that but few dairy calves are now reared on whole milk when skim milk is available. Those prejudiced against the rearing of calves on skim milk by the sight of unthrifty, undersized skim-milk-fed specimens should know that such results are not due to the removal of the fat from the milk on which they were fed, but to the ignorance or carelessness of the feeder. Careful dairymen have abundantly demonstrated that skim- milk calves, properly fed, develop into as good cows as those fed whole milk until weaning time. 679. Skim milk vs. whole milk. — In a trial at the Kansas Station^ Otis fed one lot of calves skim milk and a second whole milk, while a third lot ran with their dams at pasture. Those getting skim milk or whole milk were given in addition equal parts of com meal and kafir meal, with alfalfa hay for roughage. After weaning, all the calves, which were >Kan. Bui. 126. 412 RAISING DAIRY CATTLE 413 steers, were placed in the feed lot and given the same feeds until 1 year of age. The following table shows the rate and cost of the gains of the calves in each lot. Bate of gain of calves variously fed up to 1 year of age Before weaning 210 days in feed lot, after weaning How fed No. of calves Length of time Av. daily gain Feed cost of 100 Iba. gain Av. daily gain Concentrates per 100 lbs. gain Skiin millc 10 10 22 Days 154 154 140 Lbs. 1.5 1.9 1.8 Dollars 2.26 7.06 4.41 T,h» 2.1 1.9 2.0 Lbs. 439 Whole milk Running with dam . 470 475 The skim-milk calves, tho not gaining so rapidly as the others up to weaning, cost less for a given gain than either of the other lots. ; In the feed lot the skim-milk calves made the most rapid gains and also the most economical ones, measured by the feed consumed. Otis reports that the 22 calves running with their dams lost 73 lbs. the week following separa- tion at weaning time, requiring several weeks to recover this loss. In estimating the cost of the several lots before weaning, skim milk was valued at 15 cents per 100 lbs., and whole milk at 21.1 cents for each pound of fat it contained. Hay was rated at $4 per ton, and concen- trates at $10. The cost of a calf running with its dam until weaned was placed at $12, and of one raised on skim milk at $5.27. Hooper of the Kentucky Station^ fed one lot of 6 calves whole milk in a 79-day trial, while another was changed in a few days to skim milk. Each lot received in addition 0.5 lb. per head daily of a mixture of equal parts corn meal, bran, and linseed meal, besides what hay they would eat. The skim-milk calves made slightly larger gains than those fed whole milk, and were just as thrifty. 680. Supplements to skim milk. — It has already been pointed out that whole milk is the ideal food for young animals, being rich in protein and ash. (115) Skim milk differs in composition from whole milk only in having had most of the fat removed. Provided no water has been added, this will increase the percentage of water, protein, sugar, and ash over that in whole milk. Owing to the removal of the fat, skim milk is a much more nitrogenous food than whole milk, having a nutritive ratio of 1 :1.5 compared with 1 : 4.4 for unskimmed milk. Not appreciating this fact, early investigators usually advised supplementing skim milk with nitrogenous concentrates, such as linseed meal and wheat bran. It is evident, however, that in a skim-milk supplement the need is not for additional protein, but for an abundance of energy-giving carbohydrates or fat to replace the fat removed from the milk. While various fats and oils may be used to supplement skim milk, the cereal grains, rich in carbohydrates, are cheaper supplements than the »Ky. Bui. 171. 414 FEEDS AND FEEDING oils available for calf feeding. Moreover, unless oil is fed as an emulsion with the milk it is apt to produce indigestion and scours, for young ani- mals in general have but limited ability to digest fat. (117) At the Massachusetts Station* Lindsey found cod-liver oil added to skim milk unsatisfactory, the calves sometimes refusing the combination. A cheap grade of oleomargarine was heated to 110° F. and mixed with skim milk by churning. It was found that 1 ounce of oil per quart of skim milk was all that the calf could take without indigestion being produced. Cot- tonseed oil and com oil to the amount of one-half ounce per quart of milk were fed without bad effect. A calf fed skim milk containing 1 part oleo and 2 parts brown sugar gained over 2 lbs. daily, with kidneys well covered with fat. Calves thus fed were superior to those receiving skim milk only, but not equal in fatness to sucking calves. 681. Farm grains as skim-milk supplements — During 3 trials lasting 60 to 90 days at the Iowa Station* Curtiss fed skim milk fresh from the farm separator, having a temperature of 90° F., to Shorthorn and Hol- stein calves weighing 180 to 200 lbs. An average allowance of 15.4 lbs. of milk and 2.9 lbs. of hay was given to each, with either linseed meal, sieved ground oats, or corn meal with a little flax seed. Eight calves were fed each ration with the following results : Fresh separator skim milk with various concentrates for calves Average concentrate allowance Av. total gain Av. daUy gain Dry matter per 100 lbs. gain Feed cost of gain per lb. Nutritive ratio Lot I, Linseed meal, 1 .2 lbs. . . Lot II, Oat meal, 1 .5 lbs Lot III, Com meal, 1 .3 lbs. Flaxseed, 0. lib Lbs. 109 116 116 Lbs. 1.47 1.57 1.56 Lbs. 339 337 330 Cts. 2.8 2.1 2.2 1 :2.6 1 :3.6 1 :4.0 These trials show no advantage in using a protein-rich concentrate such as linseed meal to supplement skim milk. In one of the trials corn meal alone produced larger and cheaper gains than linseed meal, oat meal, or com meal and flaxseed. Curtiss concludes: "In the corn-belt states, with their surplus of corn and oats, there is no necessity for the purchase of a high-priced nitrogenous product to be used in supple- menting the skim-milk ration." Cottrell, Otis, and Haney of the Kansas Station" report that kafir meal, given dry, is particularly suited to feed with skim milk because its con- stipating nature overcomes the scouring tendency of the milk. (237) Fain and Jarnagin at the Virginia Station* found barley an excellent supplement to skim milk. (226) Bran was helpful in teaching the calves to eat grain, but no benefit, either in the rate of gain or the appearance of the calf, was secured from adding it to a ration pf shelled corn and skim milk. (218) •Mass. Rpta. 1893, 1894. *Iowa Bui. 35. 'Kan. Bui. 93. 'Va. Bui. 172. EAISING DAIRY CATTLE 415 At the Kansas Station' Otis found ground soybeans unsatisfactory as a skim milk supplement for calves on account of their laxative nature. (256) Duggar of the Alabama Station* reports that rice meal is de- cidedly inferior to com meal as a supplement to skim milk. Because it was impossible to get the calves to eat sufScient rice meal, one-third wheat bran was added. (234) Cottonseed meal is not a safe feed for young calves, as is shown else- where. (249) Soule of the Georgia Station" states that after calves are 6 to 8 months old they may be fed 2 lbs. per head daily with silage and such feeds as shredded corn stover and oat straw. The allowance should be gradually increased, starting with 0.5 lb. per head daily. 682. Grinding grain for calves. — Otis^" found that calves fed whole com were less subject to scours and more thrifty than when given ground com (com chop). Ground kafir gave better results than whole kafir, owing to the hardness of the seeds. At the Virginia Station^^ Fain and Jarnagin secured a gain of 1.4 lbs. daily when feeding calves com meal with skim milk, and 1.6 lbs., or 14 per ct. more, when whole corn was used. Kildee of the Iowa Station^^ prefers whole oats to ground oats for calves. In teaching calves to eat, ground grain is usually fed, and whole com or oats substituted later. After the calves are several months old they masticate their feed less thoroly, and grinding corn or oats may then be profitable. 683. Various concentrate mixtures with skim milk. — ^WoU conducted 2 trials, both with 2 lots of 8 dairy calves each, at the California Station*' to compare the value of a mixture of equal parts ground barley, oats, and middlings with a mixture of 1 part linseed meal and 2 parts each of ground barley, oats, and middlings, when fed with skim milk and hay : Value of linseed meal added to concentrate mixture for calves Average ration Concen- Skmi Ape at Wt. at Daily Concentrate mixture trates milk Hay* gain Lba. Lbs. Lbs. Days Lba. Lbs. First trial, 70 days Without linseed meal . . . 0.9 12.1 2.3 40 126 1.14 With linseed meal . 0.9 12.1 2.2 31 127 1.27 Second trial, 84 days Without linseed meal . . . . 2.01 11.3 5.7 115 201 1.84 With linseed meal . 1.96 10.8 5.7 106 200 1.74 *Not all of the hay offered waa consumed. In the first trial the lot receiving linseed meal made slightly the larger gains, while in the second trial the results were reversed. There was no difference in the appearance or thrift of the 2 lots. WoU con- cludes that there was no decided advantage from including linseed meal in the ration for skim milk calves so far as the immediate gains are con- 'Kan. Bui. 126. "Va. Bui. 172. 'Ala. Bui. 128. "Iowa Cir. 16. 'Breeder's Gaz., 63, 1913, p. 81. "Information to the authors. "Kan. Bui. 126. 416 FEEDS AND FEEDING cerned. The linseed meal, however, aids somewhat in making the mix- ture palatable. To determine whether any advantage resulted from including a large variety of feeds in the concentrate allowance for skim-milk calves, Otis at the Kansas Station^* fed one lot of 10 calves equal parts of shelled corn and ground kafir, while another was fed a mixture of 10 parts shelled com, 10 parts ground kafir, 6 parts whole oats, 6 parts bran, 2 parts linseed meal, and 0.5 part dried blood. The corn and kafir mixture produced larger gains than that supplying a greater variety of feeds. In another trial no advantage resulted from adding either ground flaxseed or a proprietary calf feed to groimd kafir for skim milk calves. With Otis we may therefore conclude: "While calves may do well on high- priced concentrates, they are unnecessarily expensive and give no better results than the cheaper carbonaceous grains, as com, barley, oats, kafir, or sorghum." For calves up to 3 or 4 months of age some dairymen advocate feeding ground flax seed, either added directly to the milk or made into a jelly with boiling water and then mixed with the milk, about a tablespoonful of the flax seed being used to each quart. Others report equally good results from starting directly on farm grains. From experiments at the Louisiana Station^° Woodward and Lee conclude that "blackstrap," or cane molasses, cannot be used as a supple- ment to skim milk for calf feeding in sufficient quantity to be of any practical value, as it tends to produce scours. (279) In Europe the use of "saccharified" starch, or starch which has largely been converted into sugar thru the action of diastase, has attracted considerable attention as a supplement to skim milk. In experiments covering 3 years with 70 calves Hansen^* found saccharified starch a cheap substitute for milk fat when fed with skim milk. Calves reared on skim milk and saccharified starch produced cheaper gains than from whole milk, were sleek and thrifty, and developed afterwards in a thoroly satisfactory manner. Feeding more than 0.8 lb. of sacchari- fied starch per head daily leads to scouring. The use of saccharified starch is held to make possible a somewhat earlier change from whole to skim milk. On account of the good results secured with the cereal grains, which are much cheaper, this product is little known in America. 684. Dried blood. — Otis of the Kansas Station^'' found that sickly calves, given at first a teaspoonful and later a tablespoonful of dried blood with their allowance of skim milk, rapidly regained their health. Blood meal which has been especially prepared for calves is best. In all cases it should be carefully incorporated with the milk to prevent settling. (271) 685. Mineral matter. — In many cases calves otherwise well nourished suffer from the lack of lime or phosphorus, or both. (119) Even tho "Kan. Bui. 126. "Landw. Jahrb., 37, 1908, Sup. Ill, p. 235. "La. Bui. 104. "Kan. Bui. 126. EAISING DAIRY CATTLE 417 milk is high in both lime and phosphorus, Kellner^* recommends feeding half an ounce of common chalk (carbonate of lime) daily to calves on milk, in view of their rapid growth in skeleton and consequent need of an abundant supply of lime. As hay from the grasses contains a fair amount of lime, and legume hay is rich in this mineral constituent, calves will ordinarily receive enough lime when they are eating hay regularly. In districts where the feeding stuffs are low in lime or phosphorus, or when straw, which is deficient in these mineral nutrients, forms the roughage, either lime alone or both lime and phosphorus should be added to the ration. Gouin and Andouard of France'^" as a result of long continued studies recommend feeding ground bone, such as is used in commercial fertilizers, to calves. Based on the studies with pigs by Hart, McCoUum, and Fuller of the Wisconsin Station, it is reasonable to recommend that one-half ounce of ground rock phosphate (floats) be given daily to calves in place of chalk or ground bone. 686. Water and salt. — The calf should be amply supplied with pure fresh water, something which is often neglected with calves fed milk. At the Kansas Station^" Otis observed that skim-milk calves would drink water several times a day, sipping a little at a time, sometimes soon after their feed of milk. Calves 2 to 3 months old consumed on the average 10 lbs. of water each daily. (103) As soon as the calf begins to eat grain and hay it should be given salt, the same as in the case of older animals. (101) 687. Starting the calf on whole milk. — The skim-milk calf is usually allowed to get its milk from the dam for 2 or 3 days, tho many dairymen never allow it to draw milk from the mother, claiming that if separated at once it learns more readily to drink from the pail. In any event the calf should always get the first milk, or colostrum, which is designed by nature for cleansing the bowels and starting the digestive functions. (115) If the cow is a heavy milker the calf should not be allowed to gorge on milk lest scours result. After each feeding the cow should be stripped clean. When the cow's udder is caked, leaving the calf with her will aid in reducing the inflammation. The calf is best taught to drink milk from the pail by using the fingers. If it is allowed to go 12 to 24 hours without feeding, or until it becomes genuinely hungry, much less difficulty will be experienced in the first lesson. Some dairymen use calf feeders, claiming that the slowness with which calves suck milk from the nipple, compared with drinking from the bucket, aids digestion. Hooper found at the Kentucky Sta- tion^^ that during the first 7 to 10 weeks calves were more thrifty when fed thru the nipple. After the 70th day, however, the feeder was no more effective than bucket feeding, and by the time the calves were 6 months old there was little difference in size or vigor between the lots. Many of the calf feeding devices on the market are unsatisfactory, and "Blmahr. Landw. Nutztiere, 1907, p. 472. "Kan. Bui. 126. "Bxpt. Sta. Rec, 19, p. 468. "Ky. Bui. 171. 418 FEEDS AND FEEDING all are dangerous unless extreme care is exercised in cleansing and steril- izing them. The young calf has a small stomach and naturally takes milk fre- quently and in small quantities. Too large an allowance of milk pro- duces indigestion and scours. When milk feeding begins, for the first day or two only 5 to 6 pounds shoidd be fed daily, or somewhat more for a large lusty calf, the allowance being usually divided between 2 feedings. Some advocate feeding at least 3 times a day at first, which occasions little extra work if the cow is milked thrice daily. "When the cow is milked twice a day, the bother of warming the milk at noon is held by many not to be repaid. In all cases the milk should be fed as fresh as possible and at blood heat, the temperature being determined by a thermometer, which all careful feeders use. The allowance of milk should be gradually increased, but over-feeding, the common cause of poor success in calf rearing, should be avoided at all times. A safe rule is always to keep the calf a little hungry. Calves should be fed individually, the allowance for each being measured or weighed and the amount fed depending on the size and vigor of the individual. Guernsey and Jersey calves do not require over 8 to 10 lbs. daily for the first 3 to 4 weeks, while 10 to 12 lbs. is all a calf of the larger breeds should have. 688. Feeding skim milk. — ^When the calf is 2 to 4 weeks old, the exact age depending on its vitality, skim milk may gradually replace the whole milk, the change being usually made at the rate of 0.5 to 1 lb., or slightly more, per day, a week or 10 days being required to get the calf on skim miUi alone. With cows giving very rich milk, some prefer to dilute with skim milk from the start. A few breeders feed some whole milk for as long as 2 months. After the change to skim milk has been made the allowance may be increased very gradually, but should not exceed 18 lbs. daily until the calf is 6 weeks old, and only in rare cases should over 20 lbs. be fed at any time. Skim milk is at its best when, still warm, it goes at once from the farm separator to the calf. Milk held for any length of time or chilled should always be warmed to blood temperature before feeding. In cold weather it is not safe to rely on the skim milk being warm enough as it comes from the separator, but the thermometer should be used. When the calf is 3 to 4 months old it can usually be accustomed to cooler milk provided the temperature is reasonably uniform. The calf pails in which the milk is fed should be kept scrupulously clean, a good rule being to cleanse them as thoroly as the milk pails. Feeding skim milk which is sour, stale, and teeming with undesirable bacteria is a frequent cause of scours; Trials by the United States Department of Agriculture"" indicate that satisfactory results may be secured in summer with clean milk when soured quickly by lactic acid bacteria, such as are used in starters in butter making. In winter some of the ^^Breeder's Gazette, 66, 1914, p. 17. EAISING DAIRY CATTLE 419 calves showed a distaste for the sour milk. Skim-milk feeding should usually continue for 8 to 10 months, hut when the supply of milk is scant a thrifty calf may be weaned after 3 months, provided good substi- tutes for milk are fed, as shown later. (697) At feeding time hand-reared calves should be confined in stanchions, to remain for a time after the milk is drunk until they consume their concentrate allowance and overcome the desire to suck each other's ears or udders. When this precaution is neglected the shape of the udder may be injured or a heifer may later persist in sucking herself or others. 689. Fastenriziiig creamery skim milk. — ^Patrons of creameries should insist that all skim milk be pasteurized before it is returned to the farm. This precaution keeps the milk sweet and kills the disease-pro- ducing bacteria, thereby lessening trouble from scours and preventing the possible introduction of tuberculosis. In 2 trials at the Ontario Agricultural College^' Dean found that calves fed pasteurized skim milk (heated to 160° F.) made somewhat better gains than others fed unpasteurized skim milk. At the Kansas Station^* Otis found practically no difference in the feeding value of pasteurized creamery skim milk and that fed directly from the hand separator, except that the pasteurized skim milk caused less trouble from scouring. 690. Feeding concentrates. — ^When 1 to 2 weeks old the calf should be taught to eat concentrates. Such feeds as com meal, sieved ground oats, barley meal, kafir meal, wheat bran, red dog flour, and linseed meal, alone or in mixture, may be placed in the bottom of the pail after the calf has finished drinking its milk. Some add the concentrates to the milk, but this is inadvisable as the meal is then less thoroly mixed with the saliva. The addition of such concentrates as bran or linseed meal to the farm grains may be helpful in teaching the calf to eat. The dull calf may be taught to eat the meal by rubbing a little on its muzzle when it is thru drinking milk. Having learned the taste of the meal, the calf should thereafter be fed its allowance dry from a con- venient feed box. Until it becomes accustomed to the new article of diet, a supply of meal may be kept before it. After this, however, only as much should be fed as wiU be eaten up, and the feed box should be cleaned out regularly. At 6 weeks the calf will usually eat 0.5 lb. of concentrates a day; at 2 months, about 1 lb.; and at 3 months, 2 lbs. Unless it is desired to push the animal ahead rapidly no more than this need be fed the skim-milk calf up to 6 months.^ 691. Concentrates for skim-milk calves. — ^The following list by Otis^ will aid dairymen in selecting feeds for skim milk calves : "Ontario Agr. Col. Rpt. 1899. "Kan. Bui. 126. "Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 184. "Wis. BuL 192. 420 FEEDS AND FEEDING "1. Com meal gradually changed In 4 to 6 weeks to shelled corn with or without bran. "2. Whole oats and bran. "3. Whole oats and corn chop, the latter gradually replaced by shelled corn in 4 to 6 weeks. "4. Ground barley with bran or shelled corn. "5. Shelled com and ground kafir or sorghum. "6. Whole oats, ground barley, and bran. "7. A mixture of 20 lbs. of corn meal, 20 lbs. of oat meal, 20 lbs. of oil meal, 10 lbs. of blood meal, and 5 lbs. of bone meal, changed to corn, oats, and bran when calves are 3 months old. "8. A mixture of 5 lbs. whole oats, 3 lbs. bran, 1 lb. com meal, and 1 lb. of linseed meal." The Griiemsey Breeder's Journal,"' on gathering the experience of over 100 breeders of Guernsey cattle, found that the following were used as supplements to skim milk : Thirteen fed a mixture of equal parts oats and wheat bran; 11, a mixture of 5 parts oats, 3 parts bran, 1 part linseed meal, and 1 part com meal; 8, whole oats; 7, ground oats; 7, oats, bran, and linseed meal; 6, corn and oats; 6, the concentrate mixture given the dairy herd; 5, corn meal, oats, and bran; 4, corn meal, bran, and linseed meal ; and others, mixtures of wheat middlings and linseed meal, of com meal and linseed meal, of hominy and bran, and of com and bran. The feeder thus has an extended list of successful mixtures from which to select the one most economical for his local conditions. 692, Hay for calves. — Calves will begin to eat hay at about the same age as they do grain, consuming nearly the same quantity of each at first. As the calf grows and its paunch, or first stomach, develops, the proportion of roughage to concentrates should be increased until when 6 months old it will be consuming about 3 times as much hay as grain. The Guernsey Breeder's Journal"* found in replies from over 100 suc- cessful breeders in various parts of the country that the great majority preferred clover or alfalfa hay for calves. Some report better results from bluegrass, native, or mixed hay for the first 2 or 3 months because they are less liable to cause scours. Bright, early-cut hay which is fine and leafy is best for the calf. If legume hay is fed, it may be necessary to restrict the amount lest the calves gorge on this palatable roughage. The heifer should be encouraged to eat a goodly amount of hay to develop the roomy digestive tract desired in the dairy cow. Uneaten portions of the roughage should be removed from the rack or manger before the next feeding time, for calves do not like hay which has been "blown on." 693. Succulent feeds. — ^A small amount of silage from well-matured corn, free from mold, may be fed to calves when 6 to 8 weeks old. In teaching them to eat this succulence it is well to offer them only the leaves at first. "WolP" recommends 2 lbs. of silage daily for calves old enough to eat roughage, and 5 to 10 lbs., along with dry roughage, for "Guemsey Breeder's Jour., May, 1915, p. 38. ^ Guernsey Breeder's Jour., May, 1915, p. 38. "Productive Feeding of Farm Animals, p. 222. EAISING DAIRY CATTLE 421 older ones. (300) When roots are available they are a most satisfactory succulent feed. (365) Pasture is excellent for calves old enough to make good use of it. To avoid scours they should be turned on grass gradually, say for an hour the first day and for slowly lengthening periods thereafter. Another method is to accustom them to green feed by giving increasing allowances of soilage before turning to pasture. It is well to keep spring or summer calves in their stalls until they are 2 to 4 months old, as there is less trouble from scours, and the young things will not suffer as much from the flies and the heat. 694. Gains of skim-milk calves. — Otis of the Kansas Station^" gives the following table showing the weight by months of calves reared on skim milk, grain, and pasture from birth until 1 year of age : Weight of calves from birth until 1 year old No. of Age Range in Average No. of Age Kange in Average calves weight weight calves weight weight Months Lbs. Lbs. Months Lbs. Lbs. 23 Birth 59-108 77 38 7 288-461 403 45 1 70-154 111 28 8 332-507 455 66 2 88-199 144 21 9 370-575 515 60 3 111-248 181 20 10 427-645 578 60 4 148-290 229 20 11 444-730 626 54 5 183-362 287 19 12 476-770 669 43 6 228^25 349 It is shown that calves averaging 77 lbs. each at birth attained, an average weight of 669 lbs. at the end of 12 months, showing an average daily gain of 1.6 lbs. for the entire period. Properly fed on skim milk, along with suitable grains and roughage in liberal supply, the thrifty calf should gain from 1.5 to 2 lbs. daily for the first 4 to 6 months. The aim should be not to fatten the calf but to keep it in a vigorous, growing condition, building strong bone and muscle. Where skim-milk calves do poorly, the blame usually rests with the feeder. The cause of the trouble will ordinarily be found in some one or more of the following conditions: Lack of sunlight and fresh air; unsanitary stalls or boxes that are not properly cleaned and disinfected; feeding too much mUk, or at irregular intervals; feeding stale or chilled milk; feeding from pails that have not been scalded daily ; feeding improper concentrates or allowing the excess to ferment and stale in the feed box. II. Raising Calves On Skim-milk Substitutes Increasing numbers of dairymen thruout the country are selling whole milk for city consumption, for cheese making, or for the manu- facture of condensed and evaporated milk. Because it is too expensive "Kan. Bui. 126. 422 FEEDS AND FEEDING to rear the calves on whole milk alone, many of these men sell the heifer calves from even their best cows for veal and depend upon buying cows to replenish their herds. Since this practice prevents any improvement in their herds, the successful raising of calves on skim-milk substitutes is a question of prime importance. 695. Buttermilk and whey. — ^Where available, fresh buttermilk is per- haps the best substitute for skim milk, but the watery slop sometimes obtained from creameries, often from filthy tanks, should be avoided, as such material is almost sure to cause scours. At the Kansas Station'^ Otis found that buttermilk gave slightly less returns with calves than skim milk but caused less trouble from scours. (267) The whey usually obtained from the cheese factory, acid and often loaded with germs that derange digestion, is unsuited for calf feeding. Where is it pasteurized and can be obtained sweet and undiluted, whey may give fair results when fed imder the strictest rules as to quantity, regularity of feeding, and cleanliness of the vessels employed. GraeP" secured a daily gain of 2 lbs. with calves fed skim milk, while those getting whey gained from 1 to 1.4 lbs. At the Kansas Station'^ Otis changed calves from skim milk to whey when 3 to 5 weeks old, feeding 10 to 14 lbs. of whey daily with alfalfa hay, prairie hay, kafir meal, and sieved ground oats. The whey-fed calves were thrifty and healthy, tho less fat than those getting skim milk. In feeding whey it should be remembered that instead of being a protein-rich food like skim milk, it is relatively poor in this nutrient. Instead of the cereal grains, feeds high in protein, such as wheat bran and linseed meal, should therefore be fed with it. (268) 696. Minimum amount of milk needed by calf Fraser and Brand con- ducted 3 trials with a total of 28 calves at the Illinois Station** to determine the minimum total amount of whole milk and skim milk necessary to ensure dairy calves getting a good start before placing them upon concentrates and hay alone. It was found that after the dam's milk was fit for human use calves could be raised successfully on a total of 137 to 167 lbs. of whole milk and 378 to 491 lbs. of skim milk, with good clover hay, and such concentrates as bran, oats, linseed meal, and corn. The calves were fed whole milk for the first 4 days, while the milk could not be used otherwise. Starting with the fifth day, 10 lbs. of whole milk and 2 lbs. of skim milk was fed daily per calf for about 10 days following, after which the whole milk was gradually replaced with skim milk at the rate of 1 lb. per day. Each calf was then fed 12 lbs. of skim milk per day for 20 days, or until 45 days old, when the allowance was reduced 1 lb. each day, no milk being fed after the calves were about 56 days old. The calves were rather thin for a time, but after being kept on pasture with a limited allowance of grain until 6 months old all were in good thrifty condition, and later several developed into good-producing cows. "Kan. Bui. 126. "Milchzeitung, 1880, p. 143. "'Kan. Bui. 126. " 111. Bui. 164. RAISING DAIRT CATTLE 423 697. Substitutes for milk. — Several different concentrate mixtures have been used with more or less success as substitutes for milk in calf feeding. While carbonaceous grains are better supplements to skim millr than are concentrates rich in protein, substitutes for milk must supply an abun- dance of protein, as does milk itself. At the Pennsylvania Station''' Hayward fed calves whole milk for 7 to 10 days and then gradually substituted a home-mixed calf meal consisting of 30 parts wheat flour, 25 parts cocoanut meal, 20 parts sMm-milk powder, 10 parts linseed meal, and 2 parts dried blood, the mixture costing about 3 cents per pound. One pound of the mixed meal was added to 6 lbs. of hot water, and after stirring for a few minutes, cooled to blood heat before feeding. "With careful feeding the calves receiving the calf meal made as good growth as others fed skim milk. Hayward points out that calves raised upon a milk substitute should have warm, dry quarters as they are apt to be less resistant to disease than milk-fed calves. Dean of the Ontario Agricultural College** reports success with coeoa- sheU milk as a milk substitute. The "milk" was made by boiling one-fourth pound of cocoa shells in 2 gallons of water, and 1.5 to 2 gallons per day was fed with bran, oats, and soilage. At the North Carolina Station'^ Michels obtained satisfactory results with rolled oats as a substitute for skim milk. Thrifty calves were raised when the allowance of whole milk was decreased to 2 lbs. per head daily by the fifth week, being gradually replaced by a gruel made by adding 12 ounces of rolled oats to 1 gallon of boiling water and allow- ing the mixture to stand until cool enough to feed. Hooper at the Ken- tucky Station** found calves reared on rolled-oats gruel less vigorous than those fed sMm milk. At the Kansas Station** Otis boiled hay, previously soaked in a tank, for 1 or 2 hours. It was then removed and the liquid which remained was concentrated by boiling, 12.5 lbs. of the hay yielding about 100 lbs. of "tea." "With kafir meaJ, wheat middlings, and oil-meal jelly for con- centrates the calves fed alfalfa hay tea gained but 0.4 lb. daily, poor returns. On tea from mixed hay calves gained 0.9 lb. daily, making fair growth, but much less than others fed skim milk. Stewart*" successfully reared 5 calves on hay tea with one-fourth pound each of flaxseed and wheat middlings per head daily. He states that the hay should be cut early, when it has the most soluble matter, and the tea boiled until well concentrated. At the Indiana Station" Caldwell fed 2 lots, each of 10 calves, for 6 months from birth to test the value of a home-mixed calf meal consisting of equal parts of hominy meal, linseed meal, red dog flour, and blood meal, with the following results : "Penn. Bui. 60. "Kan. Bui. 126. "Ontario Dept Agr., Rpt. 1903, Vol. I. "Feeding Animals, p. 246. "N. C. Bui. 199. "Information to the authors. »Ky. Bui. 171. 424 FEEDS AND FEEDING Home-mixed calf meal vs. skim milk Wt. at Av. dally Average ration beginning gain Lot I Lbs. Lbs. Calf meal, 1 . 33 lbs. Ground oats and corn, . 84 lb. Water, 8 . 64 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 2 . 8 lbs. Whole milk, 1.171b. Corn silage, 0.22 lb 70 0.95 Lot II Skim milk, 11.11 lbs. Whole milk, . 72 lb. Alfalfa hay, 2 . 5 lbs. Gromid oats and cornj 0.98 lb. Com silage, 0.33 lb 62 1.21 The calves fed the calf meal, tho making slightly smaller gains than those receiving skim milk, were equally thrifty and vigorous at the close of the trial. 698. Proprietary calf meals. — There are on the market several calf meals, which are more or less complex mixtures of such feeds as linseed meal or flaxseed meal, ground cereals, and wheat by-products, with or without dried milk, casein, and mild drugs. (285, 289) These meals are fairly satisfactory substitutes for skim milk, but give no better returns than home-mixed meals that are much less expensive. Dean*^ of the On- tario Agricultural College found ground oats and bran superior to a pro- prietary calf meal. Savage and Tailby in 2 trials at the New York (Cornell) Station*^ with a total of 37 calves compared 3 proprietary calf meals and skim milk powder with skim milk. The calves fed skim milk made the best gains, closely followed by those fed the skim-milk powder. Those fed the calf meals made fair to good gains, but at a greater expense. Tho in most instances less thrifty at the close of the trial when 5 months of age, by the time they were 2 to 3 years old they had developed into as likely animals as those fed skim milk. III. Geneeal Pkoblems in Rearing Calves 699. Birth weights of dairy calves. — The following table shows the birth weight of dairy calves and the weight of their dams, as determined at the Connecticut (Storrs),** Missouri,*^ and Wisconsin Stations:*^ Birth weight of calves of the dairy breeds Average of both sexea Number Av. wt. Av. wt. Av. wt. Wt. of Wt. of calf to Breed of calvea . of males of females of calf dam wt. of dam Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Per ot. Jersey 119 58 49 55 900 6.11 Guernsey 57 75 68 71 996 7.13 Ayrshire 34 77 74 76 976 7.79 Holstein 104 94 85 89 1,153 7.72 Brown Swiss 5 107 90 100 1,123 8.90 Dairy Shorthorn. . 8 ... 76 1,249 6.08 "Ontario Agr. Col. Rpts. 1900, 1905. "N. Y. (Cornell) Buls. 269, 304. "Beach, Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1907. "Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 174. "Unpublished data compiled by the authors. EAISING DAIRY CATTLE 425 The table shows that in each breed the bull calves average heavier than the heifers. The weights of the Jersey calves at the "Wisconsin Station ranged from 44 to 80 lbs. ; of the Guernseys, from 48 to 87 lbs. ; of the Ayrshires, from 62 to 89 ; and of the Holsteins, from 62 to 108. Calves from mature cows are generally somewhat heavier at birth than from heifers. 700. Economy of gains by calves. — ^Linfield of the Utah Station*' found that up to 14 weeks of age the calf takes less dry matter than the pig for 1 lb. of gain, and after that more, because of the greater amount of roughage then used in the ration. Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station** found that calves required 1.03; lambs 1.08; and pigs 1.36 lbs. of dry matter in whole milk for each pound of gain made. Martiny** found that from 3.5 to 6 lbs. of new milk was sufficient to produce a pound of gain, live weight, with calves between the first and fifth weeks, while older ones required from 16 to 20 lbs. At the Pennsylvania Station^" Hunt fed 3 calves whole milk con- taining 4.6 per ct. of fat for 161 days. They gained 1.77 lbs. each daily, requiring 8.8 lbs. of whole milk and 1 lb. each of hay and grain for a pound of gain. 701. Feed required by the calf. — The following table shows the total amount of feed required by skim-milk calves up to 6 months of age, as determined by Beach at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station'^ and by Eckles at the Missouri Station :°^ Feed required by skim-milk calves to 6 months of age No. of Wt. at Average Whole Skim Concen- Station calves beginmng daily gain milk milk trates Hay Pasture Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Days Connecticut Fed whole milk 4 weeks. 8 65 1.31 220 2,908 ... 619 Fed whole milk 2 weeks. 9 69 1.25 90 3,001 127 337 Missouri Spring calves 4 74 1.42 367 3,041 90 80 90 Fall calves 3 51 1.10 367 2,331 159 275 From these data the cost of feed for a calf up to 6 months of age iaay be readily computed at market prices. 702. Fall calves. — ^Where cattle are reared under natural conditions, the rule that the young be dropped in the spring will continue, but this practice is not necessarily the most successful in the older sections of the country. Fall-dropped calves come at a time when the little attentions they need can easily be given, and they occupy but little space in barn or shed. Subsisting on the mother's milk, or on skim milk with a little grain and hay, when spring comes the youngsters are oM enough to make good use of the pastures and to stand the hot weather and the attacks of flies and mosquitoes. « Utah Bui. 57. "Penn. Rpt. 1891. « Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1904, p. 118. "Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1903. "Die Milch> 2, 1871, pp. 9-15. " Dairy Cattle ajid Milk Production, p. 180. 426 FEEDS AND FEEDING 703. Scours. — The most frequent trouble in raising calves by hand is indigestion, or common scours. This is usually caused by over-feeding, by the use of cold milk or that laden with disease germs, by dirty pails or feed boxes, or by keeping calves in dark, dirty, poorly-ventilated stalls. Each animal should be watched closely for signs of scours, for a severe case gives the calf a setback from which it recovers but slowly. Since soft, foul-smelling dung is often the first indication of trouble, it is well to keep each new-born calf in a pen by itself for 2 to 3 weeks where it can be observed more closely than if it ran with others. At the first indication of scours the ration should be reduced to less than half the usual amount. Such remedies as castor oil, formalin, and a mixture of salol and bismuth subnitrate, are used with success by dairymen. Common scours should be distinguished from contagious, or white, scours, also called calf cholera, which is due to an infection of the navel soon after birth. This most'serious disease, from which an animal once affected rarely recovers, may usually be avoided by providing that the calf be dropped in a clean stall or on pasture. When the calf is bom in the bam, it is best to wet the navel thoroly with a disinfectant, such as a weak solution of creoline, zenoleum, or bichloride of mercury. IV. The Heifer The rearing of the heifer after 6 to 8 months of age is an easy task, and perhaps because of this many are stunted for lack of suitable feed. Since the usefulness of the cow when mature is dependent on her proper development before the first calf is dropped, it is important to heed the few essentials in feeding and caring for the heifer. 704. Feeding the heifer. — ^Heifers on good pasture usually require no additional feed. In winter there is no better ration than legume hay, silage, and sufficient grain to keep them thrifty and growing without becoming fat. The ration should supply an abundance of protein and mineral matter, and hence unless legume hay forms the roughage, the con- centrate allowance should be more nitrogenous in character than advised for skim-milk calves. From 2 to 3 lbs. of concentrates with 8 to 10 lbs. of legume hay and 12 to 20 lbs. of silage, or 12 to 15 lbs. of legume hay, alone, if no silage is available, should be provided for the ration during the second year. Many breeders hold that if the heifer is allowed to become fat she will develop a tendency toward using her feed for the formation of body fat, which will persist when she is in milk. Eckles states that in trials at the Missouri Station"^ in which heifers were variously fed before calving, heavy feeding while young had no injurious effect on the pro- ductive capacity of the animals when mature. Heifers which were kept fat from birth until calving lost the surplus body fat within a short "Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, p. 206. EAISING DAIRY CATTLE 427 time thereafter and showed no more tendency to fatten later on in the lactation period than those raised on a less abundant allowance of con- centrates. The most marked effect of heavy feeding of concentrates was a more rapid growth and quicker maturity. The results show, how- ever, that feeding a heavy allowance of concentrates is a much more expensive way of raising heifers than giving them a ration consisting mostly of good roughage. 706. Age to breed. — The age at which heifers should drop their first calves depends on the breed and the size and development of the indi- vidual. Jerseys and Guernseys which have been well-fed are usually bred to calve at 24 to 30 months of age, while the slower maturing Hol- steins, Ayrshires, or Brown Swiss should not calve until 30 to 36 months old. Some breeders believe that if the heifer calves at an early age, the tendency to milk production will be intensified. Owing to the demands of the fetus, the heifer makes but little growth in her own body during the last few months before calving, even when liberally fed. Where early calving is practiced, breeders therefore usually allow 18 to 20 months to elapse between the first and second calves in order to give the heifer an opportunity to continue her growth. Further, it is believed that lengthening the first lactation period tends to make the heifer a more persistent milker. As a rule cows that have dropped their first calves at an early age are finer in bone and often considerably smaller than those which do not calve until more mature. 706. Feed eaten by heifers; cost of rearing — The following table shows the total amount of feed eaten by heifers during the first and second years, as determined in trials by Trueman at the Connecticut (Storrs) Station"* with 5 head, by Bennett and Cooper of the United States Department of Agriculture"" with 17 to 20 heifers on a Wisconsin farm, and by Shaw and Norton at the Michigan Station"* with 57 calves : Feed eaten iy heifers up to 2 yrs. of age Conneoticut WiBcoosm Michigan First year Whole milk, lbs 445 342 405 Skim milk, lbs 2,953 3,165 3,968 Concentrates, lbs 303 547 1,144 Hay, lbs 918 857 1,007 Silage, roots, or soilage, lbs 1,245 353 1,354 Pasture, days 135 123 Second year Concentrates, lbs 434 Hay or other dry fodder, lbs 2,227 1,792 Silage, lbs 1,693 3,250 Pasture, days 165 171 .... In the Connecticut trial the heifers were fed a limited allowance of concentrates during their second year, while in the Wisconsin test they were fed only hay and silage during the winter and grazed on pasture without additional feed in th6 summer. In the Michigan test the calves "Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 63. "U. S. Dept Agr. Bui. 49. "Mich Bui. 257. 428 FEEDS AND FEEDING were not turned to pasture during the summer and were fed a heavier allowance of grain than is usual thruout the year. Trueman estimates the cost of rearing a heifer to 2 years of age in Connecticut as follows : Cost of feed, first year, $28.34 ; cost of feed, second year, $27.25; labor for both years, $10.00; bedding for both years, $2.00; bam rent, insurance, and taxes, $4.00; total gross cost, $71.59 ; credit for manure, $5.00 ; net cost for two years $66.59. From records for 117 calves Bennett and Cooper found that the cost of rearing dairy heifers born in the fall was as follows : Cost of rearing dairy heifers in Wisconsin Cost to 1 year Cost to 2 years Dollars Dollars Initial value of calf 7.04 7.04 Feed 24 .67 40 .83 Labor 4.45 7.81 Othercosts 6.36 13.73 Gross cost 42.52 69.41 Credit for manure 3.00 8.00 Net cost 39.52 61.41 Under "other costs" are included charges for barn equipment and utensils, interest, bedding, losses by death and from discarding poor individuals, share of general overhead expense in running farm, and miscellaneous expenses. Many of these items are not ordinarily taken into consideration by the dairyman in estimating how much it costs him to raise heifers. Labor, both man and horse, is charged at a uniform figure thruout the year. It should be remembered that with fall calves most of the labor comes in the winter when farm work is light and labor worth much less than in summer. The cost of raising heifers will natur- ' ally vary widely in different districts depending on prices for feed and labor, the shelter required, etc. V. The Bull Despite the fact that improvement in the productive capacity of the dairy herd rests as much with the bull as with the cows, the feed and care of the sire at the head of the herd is often neglected. To build up a profitable herd a pure-bred bull which has been bred for dairy pro- duction should be selected; this done, he should be so fed as to keep in the best condition for breeding. 707. The young bull. — The same principles apply to the rearing of the bull calf as to the heifer. The bull should be fed from birth to maturity so as to make normal growth, for, while the offspring of an animal which is thrifty but is undersized on account of insufficient feed will not neces- sarily be smaller than those from a larger sire, such an animal will bring a lower price when it is desired to sell him to another dairyman. From 6 months of age, when the bull calves should be separated from the EAISING DAIRY CATTLE 429 heifers, they should be fed a somewhat heavier allowance of grain. The bull should be sufficiently mature for very light service at 10 to 12 months of age. He should be halter broken as a calf and when about 1 year old should have a stout ring inserted in his nose. He should be so handled from calfhood that he will recognize man as his master and should never be given an opportunity to learn his great strength. Stall and fences should always be so strongly built that there is no possi- bility of his learning how to break loose. 708. Feed and care of the hull. — The ration for the bull in full service should be about the same as for a dairy cow in milk. He should be given good legume hay or hay from mixed legumes and grasses and fed from 4 to 8 lbs. of concentrates, supplying an ample amount of protein. When idle or but in partial service less concentrates will be required. Some breeders hold that feeding corn silage impairs the bull's breeding powers and therefore prefer roots. Hoard's Dairyman,"^ holds that a bull may be fed 10 to 15 lbs. of silage per day with satisfactory results in a properly balanced ration. Except in severe climates the best quarters for the bull are an open shed with an adjoining paddock where he may exercise. Tho this open-air treatment is admirable for the health of the animal, it results in a heavier and rougher coat of hair, and hence breeders offering ani- mals for sale usually prefer to keep the bulls in comfortable box stalls, turning them out only on fair days. Rather than confine the bull in isolation, it is well to have his stall so located and built that he can see the other members of the herd. The hoofs of the bull spending most of his time in the stall need regular trimming. The bull should be tied by a strong halter to one end of the manger and by his ring to the other end, so that the attendant may approach him from either side without danger. The bull should be dehorned and should always be handled with a strong, safe staff. Even with a quiet, peaceable bull safety lies only in handling him without displaying fear and yet as if he were watching for an opportunity to gore his attendant. Nearly all the acci- dents occur with "quiet" bulls that have been too much trusted. To maintain health and virility, the bull must have ample exercise. This is perhaps most conveniently furnished by a tread power, where he may run the separator, pump water, do other useful work, or run the power for exercise only. Many declare that the purchase of a tread power merely to furnish exercise for the bull is a wise investment. Others fix a long sweep on a post and tie the bull at the end, allowing him to walk around the circle. Another device is a light cable stretched between 2 high posts, the bull being attached to it by a sliding chain so that he is able to walk back and forth the length of the cable. The bull may also be harnessed and hitched to cart or wagon for such odd jobs as hauling manure or feed. Whatever the plan adopted, it is essential that the bull receive ample and regular exercise, else he is almost certain to develop an ugly disposition and may become iinpotent. "Hoard's Dairyman, 46, 1914, p. 339. CHAPTER XXVI GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEP PRODUCTION During recent years the number of beef cattle in the United States has decreased, rather than increased, while our population has been growing rapidly. Hence we find that the number of beef cattle per thousand people has fallen off markedly. In 1900 there were about 660 cattle, other than milch cows, per 1,000 inhabitants in this country, but in 1910 the number had decreased to 450, and later estimates indicate a further failure of beef cattle to keep pace with population. Among the reasons for this condition are the breaking up of large areas of the western ranges into farms, the high prices ruling for grain and the consequent tendency of many farmers to sell their crops for cash rather than feed them to stock, the increase in the number of tenant farmers who have insufficient capital to stock their farms, the growth in dairying due to the demand from the rapidly growing cities for dairy products, and the fact that not infrequently the fattened steer has been grown or finished at a loss. Beef production has naturally become separated to a considerable extent into 2 distinct phases. In sections where the land is unsuited for tillage, either by reason of its rough nature or deficient rainfall, breed- ing herds are maintained and cattle raised to be sold as feeder steers. On the other hand, in the com belt, where land is high in price, the majority of the steers which are fattened for market are not raised by the men who finish them, but are shipped in from the range districts. Altho many steers are still fed by farmers who handle only a few head each year, the fattening of cattle has passed to a considerable extent into the hands of professional feeders, who fatten from a few carloads to hundreds of animals yearly. In many instances these men make but little use of the manure produced and purchase most of their feed. On such a basis the enterprise is largely speculative. Fortunately for the American public, which would be exceedingly loath to give up beef as a common article of diet, our experiment stations have pointed out the manner in which the cost of beef production may be brought down to where it jdelds a reasonable profit to the farmer without the finished product being unduly costly to the consumer. The trials reviewed in these chapters show how the breeding herd may be maintained cheaply, utilizing the roughage which would otherwise be wasted on the farm, and the steer finished for market on a much smaller allowance of concentrates than was formerly believed to be necessary. The next few years should see beef breeding herds established on thousands of farms In the corn belt, where the maximum use will be 430 GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 431 made of com silage and only limited pasture be employed, in the eastern states, with their low-priced grazing land, and in the South, with its tremendous possibilities for beef production, especially where the cattle tick has been eradicated. These farmers will look for their profits largely in the increased fertility which will come to their fields and in the profitable utilization of roughages which would otherwise be wasted. As is explained in Chapter XXIX, the general methods followed will be adapted to the local conditions in each region. I. Influence of Age ; Long and Short Feed 709. Margin. — Under usual conditions, the cost of the feed consumed by fattening cattle or sheep per 100 lbs. of gain is greater than the sell- ing price per cwt. of the finished animal. With normal market con- ditions, this is offset by the fact that fattened animals usually sell for a higher price per 100 lbs. than feeders, which are animals in thinner flesh. This difference between the cost per cwt. of the feeder and the selling price per cwt. of the same animal when finished is called the margin. In studying all commercial aspects of the fattening of meat- producing animals a clear understanding of this term is most essential. The principle of the margin may be illustrated thus : If a 1000-lb. steer costs the feeder $7.00 per cwt. when placed in the feed lot, its initial cost is $70.00. If during fattening it gains 400 lbs. at a feed cost of $36.00, each cwt. of gain costs $9.00. Assuming that the manure produced pays for the labor, the steer, now weighing 1,400 lbs., has cost $106.00 and accordingly must bring $7.57 per cwt. at the feed lot to even the transaction. On account of the high cost of the gains, under all usual conditions a margin must be secured in fattening cattle or sheep to make a profit or "break even" on the transaction. The term necessary margin is used to denote the margin needed to prevent loss. In this case it will be $0.57, the difference between $7.57 and $7.00. The actual margin is the difference between the actual selling price and the purchase price. The factors which influence the necessary margin in fattening are : 1, the initial cost of the cattle ; 2, their initial weight ; 3, the cost of the gains ; and 4, the expenses incidental to getting the steers to the feed lot and then to the market when finished. Other conditions remaining the same, the higher the initial cost, or purchase price, of the feeder the narrower, or smaller, is the necessary margin. For example, let us assume that a feeder steer weighing 1,000 lbs. is fed until he has reached a weight of 1,300 lbs., the gain costing 10 cents per pound for feed. If the feeder costs $4.00 per cwt., he will have to bring $70.00, or $5.38 per cwt., to break even. The necessary margin would then be $5.38-$4.00=$1.38. Had the feeder been bought for $7.00 per cwt., no money would be lost if he were sold for $100.00, or $7.69 per cwt. In this case the necessary margin would be only $0.69. 432 FEEDS AND FEEDING The heavier the animal when placed on feed the narrower will be the necessary margin, for the increased selling price is secured for a greater number of pounds of initial weight. This factor may be offset, as is shown later, if the heavier cattle are older and hence make more expensive gains. It is evident that any factor which increases the feed cost of the gains makes necessary a wider margin. The necessary margin is thus greater when feeds are high in price, and is wider with mature animals than with younger ones, which make more economical gains. (710-13) Since gains on grass are usually cheaper than in the dry lot, a wider margin is required for winter feeding than in fattening animals on pasture. (814) The higher the degree of finish, or fatness, to which the animals are fed, the more expensive the gains become and the wider the necessary margin. (714) From statistics gathered from feeders in Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois in 1902, Waters^ found that an average margin of $1.02 was required to cover the entire cost of fattening cattle in summer — ^that is, they must sell for $1.02 per cwt. above the purchase price to break even on cost of production. Far the 6 months of winter feeding with 2-yr.-olds, Waters held that a margin of $1.50 per cwt. was necessary. Skinner and Cochel of the Indiana Station^ found in 1906 that with Indiana cattlemen it cost $4.80 per ewt. for summer gains and $7.20 per cwt. for winter gains, and that an average margin of $1.07 per cwt., or 20 cents per cwt. per month, was required. Conditions have changed materially since these dates. Any one can readily compute the approximate margin required under his local conditions from the cost of feeders, the price of the available feeding stuffs, and the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain. 710. Feed and gains from birth. — To determine the amount of feed consumed by a steer from birth to maturity and the feed-cost of gains in successive periods of its growth, Zavitz' of the Ontario Agricultural College confined an animal from 3 days of age until 3 years old in a well-bedded box stall, giving exercise, when required, by leading. Ac- count was kept of all water and food supplied, and of the voidings, as shown in the table : Feed and gains hy steer from MrtJi to maturity Daily gain Total gain Feed per 100 lbs. gain Milk Concentrates Hay Succulent feed Digestible nutrients per 100 lbs. gain Water drank daily Excrement voided daily 'Mo. Bui. 76. 'Ind. Cir. 12. First year Second year Third year Lba. 2.2 785 492 159 184 314 315 27 30 Lbs. 1.2 456 480 777 1,928 875 43 48 Lbs. 1.0 350 689 776 2,637 1,183 47 50 'Ont Agr. Col. Rpt. 1893. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEP PRODUCTION 433 During the first year the steer gained 2.2 lbs. per day, or a total of 785 lbs., while the daily gain for the second year was only 1.2 lbs. and for the third year but 1.0 lb. In the first year there were required on the average for 100 lbs. gain 492 lbs. of milk, 159 lbs. of concentrates, 184 lbs. of hay and 314 lbs. of succulent feed (roots, silage, or green fodder), containing a total of only 315 lbs. digestible nutrients. The second year nearly 3 times and the third year nearly 4 times as much digestible nutrients were required for the same amount of gain. A small part of this difference is accounted for by the fact that the flesh of the calf is more watery and contains less nutrients per pound than that of the older animal. (123) The average amount of water con- sumed and of excrement voided is shown in the last lines of the table. At the end of the 3 years the steer weighed 1,588 lbs. and would have yielded about 1,000 lbs. of dressed carcass. During this time it had consumed a total of 3,862 lbs. of milk (in the first 6 months), 5,857 lbs. of concentrates, 7,716 lbs. of hay, and 20,511 lbs. of succulent feed. Accordingly, for each pound of meat as sold by the butcher there were required about 3.9 lbs. of milk, 5.9 lbs. of concentrates, 7.7 lbs. of hay and 20.5 lbs. of succulent feed. When we realize that there are many other items of expense besides the mere cost of the feed consumed by the steer, it is evident that the price which the producer gets for the live steer is less rather than more than it should be. It is doubtful if any other article of universal use and necessity is continuously sold on so narrow a margin over cost, if any, as the live fattened steer. 711. Influence of age on cost of fattening. — ^At the Ottawa Experi- mental Farms* in trials during 4 winters with 153 head in all, Grisdale compared the rate and cost of gains made by steers of different ages during feeding periods of about 6 months. The results are shown in the following table, partially as arranged by Waters.^ Rate and cost of gains for fattening steers of various ages Calves*. . Yearlings. 2-yr.-olds. 3-yr.-olds. Av. wt. at begimuiig Lbs. 397 883 1,011 1,226 Av. daily gain Lbs. 1.8 1.6 1.8 1.7 At. cost of 100 lbs. gain Dollars 4.22 6.31 5.62 6.36 For equal profit compared with calves Purchase price per cwt. must be less by: Cents 35 43 53 Or seUing price per cwt. must be greater by: Cents 27 33 43 •Three trials. It is seen that 6-months calves averaging 397 lbs. in weight made an average daily gain of 1.8 lbs. during the fattening period of about 6 months, yearlings to 3-yr.-olds averaging about the same. The feed cost for 100 lbs. of gain was $4.22 with the calves, and increased with the age of the animals, the gains made by the 3-yr.-olds costing $6.36, or 50 per ct. more than the calves, for each 100 lbs. •Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpts. 1900-1904. "Mo. Bd. Agr. Rpt. 1907. 434 FEEDS AND FEEDING The greater cost of the gain by the older animals might have been offset by buying these steers as feeders at slightly lower prices per 100 lbs. than the younger animals, or by a small increase in their selling price when fattened, because of their superior condition. Had the yearlings been purchased for 35 cents per 100 lbs. less than was paid for the calves and sold at the same price per 100 lbs., or if after fattening they had been sold for 27 cents more per 100 lbs., the increased cost of the gains by the yearlings would have been met. 712. Fattening calves, yearlings, and 2-yr.-olds. — During each of 3 winters. Skinner and Cochel fed 1 lot of ten 2-yr.-old steers, 1 of 10 yearlings, and another of 20 calves at the Indiana Station' to determine the influence of age on the economy of gains and the profit from feeding cattle. The calves were of the best type and breeding possible to obtain, as it is not practicable to attempt to produce fine yearling beef from inferior calves. The yearlings and 2-yr.-olds compared favorably with the calves in capacity and condition at the beginning of each test, though not of quite so good type. Each lot was fed until all would sell as prime beeves. The following table, in which the results for 2 winters in which the same feeds were used are averaged, shows that the time required to make the steers fat was greater with the younger animals because the older ones had more nearly reached their limit in growth : Fattening calves, yearUngs, and 2-yr.-olds Number of cattle Initial value jjer cwt Av. initial weidit, lbs Length of feeding period, months Av. daily gain, lbs Av. total gain, lbs Av. feed consumed per head: Shelled com, lbs Cottonseed meal, lbs Clover hay, lbs • Com silage, lbs Feed per 100 lbs. gain by steers: Shelled com, lbs Cottonseed meal, lbs Clover hay, lbs Com silage, lbs Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain* Selling value per cwt with prices during trial stationary* Profit per head with stationary prices* Pork per bushel of com fed to steers, lbs* Calves 20 $4.50 618 9 1.88 508 3,026 445 857 1,950 596 88 168 385 $7.74 $6.60 $4.25 1,00 Yearlinga 10 $4.15 888 6.5 2,22 431 3,034 480 714 2,849 704 111 165 660 $9.09 $6.45 $6,43 1.85 2-yT-old» 12 10 $4, 1,067 6 2, 471 3,212 510 760 2,700 681 108 160 573 $9.37 $6,35 $7,95 2,50 *Av. of 3 triale. As is usual, the calves cost more per 100 lbs. live weight than did the older feeders. The rate of daily gain increased with the age of the steers, yet the older ones required more feed per 100 lbs. gain than did the calves, thus making their gains more expensive. The calves ate less feed •Ind. Bui. 146. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 435 per head daily, but required a longer time to finish, and so there was little difference in the amount of feed required to make the steers of the various ages prime. Skinner and Cochel state that with quality, breed- ing, and type the same, calves, yearlings, and 2-yr.-olds will sell at about the same price per 100 lbs. if equally fat. From the 3 trials they con- clude that the average margin required between buying and selling prices to prevent loss was $1.60 per cwt. on calves, $1.71 on yearlings, and $1.55 on 2-yr.-olds. The smaller necessary margin with the 2-yr.- olds was due to their greater initial weight and the smaller gains neces- sary to finish them. These two factors more than offset the cheaper gains made by the calves and their higher cost per 100 lbs. With the year- lings, the differences in the initial weight and in the amount of gain re- quired for finishing were not sufficient to overcome the advantage due to the cheaper gains and greater cost of the calves. Hence a larger necessary margin was required with the yearlings than with the calves. Based on stationary market prices thruout the trial, the profit per head increased with the age of the animals fed. Skinner and Cochel conclude that the experienced farmer who buys feeders and finishes them for the market should handle older cattle in preference to calves, while one who both raises and finishes his cattle may find calves more profitable. The table shows an added advantage with the older cattle in the amount of pork produced by the pigs following the cattle, per bushel of com fed the steers. In similar trials at the South Dakota Sta- tion'' Wilson found with 2- and 3-yr.-old steers that 1 lb. of pork was made for every 5 lbs. of beef produced, while with yearlings only 1 lb. was made for every 9 lbs. of beef. In a survey of the cattle feeding industry in Indiana, Skinner and CocheP found that of 929 feeders, 76 per ct. fed 2-yr.-olds, 16 per ct. yearlings, and only 7 per ct. calves. The average weight desired in a 2-yr.-old was 1,000 lbs. Some feeders preferred steers 3 years old or over, the reason being that such cattle usually carry more flesh and make more rapid gains, thus requiring a shorter feeding period. They also need less grain to finish them, utilize coarser food, feed out more uni- formly, and withstand severe weather better. 713. Tltilization of feed by range steers. — ^Under southwestern range conditions the calves, dropped in the spring or summer, run with the cows until weaned in the fall, normally making good growth during this period. About weaning time the ranges dry up, and the calves must subsist on scanty pickings with usually a small allowance of concentrates, generally cottonseed cake or meal. Hence, before the calves are a year old they wiU have passed thru a semi-starvation or sub-maintenance period, and this wiU occur each year of the steer's life. To determine whether these periods had any permanent effect on the animal's ability to utilize feed, and to study the efficiency of steers of different ages, Christensen and Simpson of the New Mexico Station* conducted trials 'S. D. Bui. 125. 'Ind. Cir. 12. 'N. Mex. Bui. 91. 436 FEEDS AND FEEDING lasting 120 days with range steers, — calves, yearlings, 2-yr.-olds, and 3- yr.-olds — all fed alfalfa hay alone, securing the results shown in the table : Vtilizaiion of alfalfa hay by range steers of different ages Av. ration per Av. daily Dry matter Hay per 100 I,OOQIbs. live wt. gain cGgeated lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Per ct. Lbs. Calves 24 .4 1 .67 56 .6 777 Yearlings 23 .3 1 .33 55 .2 1,111 2-yr.-olds 23.5 1.55 57.1 1,146 3-yr.-olds 18.4 1.03 57.1 2,034 The calves made the largest gains and the 3-yr.-olds decidedly the lowest, but this was undoubtedly due to the fact that they were wilder and more nervous. There were no consistent differences in the ability of the steers of the various ages to digest the hay, the variations in the different periods and between the different animals of the same age being greater than between the different ages. The calves, however, consumed much less hay per 100 lbs. gain, as we would expect, since the flesh of calves is more watery, contains less fat, and hence has a lower energy value than the increase of more mature animals. (123) 714. Influence of degree of finish. — Other conditions being equal, the higher the degree of finish to which the animal is carried the larger the quantity of feed required to produce a given gain. Georgeson of the Kansas Station^" found the grain required for 100 lbs. of gain with fattening steers for different periods to be as follows : Grain for Increase of 100 lbs. gain feed required Up to 56 days the steers required 730 pounds of grain Up to 84 days the steers required 807 pounds of grain 10 per cent Up to 112 days the steers required 840 pounds of grain 15 per cent Up to 140 days the steers required 901 pounds of grain 23 per cent Up to 168 days the steers required 927 pounds of grain 27 per cent Up to 182 days the steers required 1,000 pounds of grain 37 per cent We learn that while at first only 730 lbs. of grain were required per 100 lbs. of gain, for the whole 6-months period 1,000 lbs., or 37 per ct. more, was required. The heavy cost of thoroly fattening the steer and the importance of selling at the earliest possible date are here made plain. In a trial at the Illinois Station^^ with 96 steers fed for 179 days, following a limited allowance of grain for 3 weeks, Mumf ord found that less digestible nutrients were required for 100 lbs. gain during the last half than in the first half of the fattening period. He points out that with these steers the "fill" was eliminated, which often makes the gains during the first part of the period appear large and economical. As these steers were sufficiently finished to meet the high demands of the Chicago market, of good type and all grading good to prime, he con- cludes that it is unnecessary to carry steers to that degree of fatness which necessitates small gains for food consumed. "Kan. Bui. 34. "111. Bui. 90. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEP PRODUCTION 437 715. Short vs. long feed. — Two distinct methods are followed in fatten- ing steers in dry lots. In "short feeding," mature, flleshy feeders are usually given a heavy grain feed for 90 to 100 days or less. In "long feeding" younger or lighter and thinner cattle are fed for a longer period. To determine the relative profitableness of these methods, dur- ing each of 4 winters Skinner and Cochel short-fed one lot of steers for 90 to 120 days at the Indiana Station^^ while another lot was long-fed for 160 to 180 days, with the results shown in the table : Short vs. long feeding periods Lot I Short-fed Lot II Long-fed Av. length of feeding period, days Total number of steers Av. weight at beginning, lbs Av. gain per head, lbs Av. daily gain, lbs Av. ration: Shelled com, lbs Cottonseed meal, lbs. , Clover hay, lbs Com silage, lbs Feed per 100 lbs. gain: Shelled com, lbs Cottonseed meal, lbs. Clover hay, lbs Com silage, lbs Feed cost of 100 lbs. gain Initial cost of steers per 100 lbs . . Necessary margin Necessary selling price Actual selling price Profit per steer, including pork. . . 110 50 1,166 307 2.81 19.72 2.96 4.41 15.33 702 106 152 558 $9.03 «4.69 $1.03 $5.72 $6.31 $15.27 175 40 1,000 431 2.46 16.66 2.78 4.48 14.42 678 114 183 584 $9.34 $4.36 $1.61 $5.97 $6.64 $16.41 Lot I, the short-fed steers, which were given the heavier and more concentrated ration, made larger gains and at a less feed-cost per 100 lbs. gain. Due to the fact that they vrere in better flesh, the initial cost of the steers in Lot I was 33 cents per 100 lbs. more than those in Lot II. On account of this and of their heavier initial weight, the smaller amount of gain needed to finish them, and their cheaper gains, they could have been sold without loss on a narrower margin than the long-fed steers. This brought the necessary selling price of Lot I 25 cents per 100 lbs. lower than that of Lot II. The long-fed steers, however, brought enough more when sold to more than counter-balance this advantage, and hence returned a slightly larger profit, when the pork produced by hogs follow- ing was included. The kind of cattle to be fed should largely determine the length of feeding period, since a longer time is required to finish young or thin cattle than those which are fleshier or more mature. Another determin- «Ind. Buls. 130, 136, 153. 438 FEEDS AND FEEDING ing factor should be the relative supply and cost of grain and roughage, for short-fed cattle, which are usually in higher condition when placed on feed, should be given a larger proportion of grain to roughage than is needed with long-fed cattle. 716. Feeding steers chiefly on roughage in early part of fattening period. — During each of 3 years Skinner and King^^ fed 1 lot of steers clover hay and com silage during the first 60 to 70 days of the fattening period, with 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal per 1,000 lbs. live weight in ad- dition, in 2 of the trials. The steers were then finished on the same feeds with all the sheUed com they would eat. A second lot was fed an unlimited allowance of com from the start, the results being shown in the following table : Limiting concentrates during early part of fattening period Tnitial Dafly gain Feed per 100 lba. gain Feed cost Necessary margin XUltllU weight Concen- Hay or Com of 100 trates straw silage lbs. gain Lot J, no com at first Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dols. Dols. SheUed com, 9.0 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2.4 lbs. Hay or straw, 3.6 lbs. Com silage, 35.2 lbs 1,013 2.15 529 170 1,637 8.71 0.72 Lot II, corn thruout trials Shelled com, 14.0 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2.8 lbs. Hay or straw, 2.5 lbs. Com silage, 27.5 lbs 972 2.41 697 103 1,143 8.87 0.87 Lot I, fed no com during the first 2 months of the fattening period, made smaller gains than Lot II, fed corn thruout the trials, and required more roughage but less concentrates per 100 lbs. gain. The relative feed cost of the gain under these systems of feeding wiU depend on the cost of concentrates compared with roughage. In these trials the cost aver- aged slightly lower for steers iu Lot I. Owing to the slightly cheaper gaius, the necessary margin was somewhat lower with Lot I. The steers in this lot, however, sold at a lower price each year on account of in- ferior finish, and returned less profit than those in Lot II. Feeding roughage alone or with only a small allowance of concen- trates during the early part of the feediug period is often advisable when it is desired to carry the steers longer than usual before marketing, with the hope of a better price. They wiU then not become excessively fat and hence will not make uneconomical gains before they are marketed. In a trial at the Pennsylvania Station^* Cochel fed a lot of twelve 880-lb. steers only com silage and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight for the first 56 days of a 126-day trial and ear com in addition thereafter. Another lot was given the same feeds with ear "Ind. Bula. 153, 163, 167. *Penn. Bui. 118. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 439 com from the start. The steers fed no corn during the first part of the period made as large gains as the others and returned a larger profit, tho selling for 20 cents less per 100 lbs. In a later trial at the same Station^^ Tomhave and Severson found that it was preferable to begin feeding a small amount of corn after the first month of the fattening period owing to the better finish thus secured. II. Value op Breed in Beep Making Everyone with experience in the cattle business knows that "blood tells" in beef production. Where there is such unanimity of opinion the fact must exist, but the reasons given are not always the same. Let us, therefore, consider the trials conducted by the various stations which bear on this important point. 717. Fattening steers of the various market grades. — To determine the rapidity and economy of gains made by feeders of the 6 different market grades and the dressing percentages and the quality of the beef from the steers when fattened, Mumford fed 16 steers of each grade at the Illinois Station^* for 179 days. Lot I, fancy selected feeders, contained nearly 100 per ct. of the blood of the beef breeds and possessed the quality and comformation that characterize the typical beef-bred steer. As it was desired that the steers in each lot weigh 900 to 1,000 lbs. when placed on feed, the animals in the higher grades were naturally the youngest, for well-bred and well-developed steers mature earlier and reach a given weight sooner than do scrubs. Thus the steers in Lot I were the youngest steers in the trial, being only 2 years old at the time of marketing. Lot II, choice feeders, were high-grade beef steers possess- ing large frames and averaging about 6 months older than Lot I. Lot III, good feeders, did not show the quality so manifest in Lots I and II, tho beef blood stiU predominated and the steers were of better type than the average feeders offered on the central markets. Lot IV, medium feeders, were 3-yr.-olds of mixed breeding, tho carrying some beef blood, and showing coarseness and angularity. Lot V, common feeders, showed little evidence of beef blood. They were rather coarse boned and large headed, were plain thruout, and all showed a lack of quality and confor- mation. They were the result of indiscriminate breeding and the use of inferior grade bulls. Lot VI, inferior feeders, were scrubs showing no beef blood and were inferior in quality and conformation. The feeds were the same for aU lots. During the first half of the trial the steers were fed cracked ear corn, and later com-and-cob meal. An average allowance of 2.1 lbs. of cottonseed or linseed meal per head daily was supplied in addition thruout the trial. The roughage, consisting of alfalfa or clover and timothy hay, was cut and mixed with the con- centrate allowance. During a part of the trial a small amount of com stover was given to all lots. The steers were fed in paved feed lots with "Information to the authors. "111. Bui. 90. 440 FEEDS AND FEEDING an adjacent open shed. The results secured in the trial are summarized in the following table : Fattening steers of the various market grades Lot I Fancy feeders Lot II Choice feeders Lot III Good feeders Lot IV Medium feeders Lot V Common feeders Lot VI Inferior feeders 935 1,115 1,019 1,022 966 965 15.2 6.8 16.0 7.0 16.0 7.0 15.8 7.1 15.6 7.1 15.2 7.0 2.57 2.54 2.34 2.13 2.21 1.96 995 1,209 1,208 1,305 1,200 1,293 61.6 9.5 $4.75 $7.00 61.5 9.7 $4.55 $6.90 60.7 10.6 $4.20 $6.50 59.7 10.8 $3.85 $5.80 69.9 10.1 $3.60 $5.50 59.4 11.8 $3.35 $5.40 Wt. at beginning, lbs Dry matter in ration per 1000 lbs. live wt. Concentrates, lbs Roughage, lbs Daily gain, lbs Dry rnatter per 100 lbs. gain. Dressed carcass, per ct Caul and rough fat, per ct . . . . Cost of steers per cwt Selling price of steers per cwt. * *0n the basis of stationaiy market Evidently because considerably younger, the steers in Lot I consumed less dry matter daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight than any of the others, except those in Lot VI. Considering Lots II to VI, the better-bred steers ate slightly more feed per 1,000 lbs. live weight than those of lower grade. The fourth line shows that the feeders of the 3 higher grades made noticeably more rapid gains than those of the lower grades. Lot I made by far the most economical gains, measured either by the dry matter per 100 lbs. gain or by the feed cost of gains, but this was probably due, for the most part, to the fact that these steers were younger than the others. With the other lots there is no consistent difference in dry matter required per 100 lbs. gain or in the feed cost of the gains. The steers of the better grades yielded a higher percentage of dressed carcass than those of the poorer grades. This was due to their beef conformation and not to any greater degree of finish, for the steers in Lots IV, V, and VI, which were older, were nearer their maximum degree of finish at the end of the trial than the younger steers in Lots I, II, and III. The better steers also had less internal fat but carried a heavier layer of the more valuable surface fat. Tho the lower-grade feeders cost less than the better-bred animals, they were worth correspondingly less when fattened. 718. Amount of feed consumed. — Occasionally the claim is yet ad- vanced that well-bred cattle eat less than natives or scrubs. This opinion is not substantiated by feeding trials nor is it generally held by owners of pure-bred or high-grade stock, who believe rather that the well-bred and well-formed animal has a large capacity to consume feed and con- vert it economically into meat. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 441 719. Kapidity of gains. — Tests at other stations corroborate the findings of the Illinois Station, that steers of the beef breeds and conformation make larger gains than do those lacking in these points. During 2 years Willson of the Tennessee Station/^ determining the individual gains of feeders of various types, secured the following results : Average gains of feeders of various types No. of Typa of feeder steera Daily gain Total gain Lbs. Lbs. Very good feeder 24 1.76 159 Good feeder 65 1.60 144 Medium feeder 70 1.36 122 Poor feeder 37 1.39 125 The table shows that the very good and good feeders made consider- ably more rapid gains than those which were classed as medium and poor feeders. The trials at the various stations^* show that dairy-bred steers, especially those of the larger breeds, do not necessarily make smaller gains than beef-bred steers. This is reasonable, for in the de- velopment of both the beef and the dairy breeds one of the chief objects has been the securing of animals with large capacity for food and vig- orous assimilative powers. In these qualities the native, or scrub, steer is apt to be lacking. It is well known that there is great difference in the capacity of in- dividuals of the same breed to "make gains when given the same feeds and fed under the same conditions. Bliss and Lee found that in a lot of 8 Hereford-Shorthorn steers fed at the Nebraska Station^' the best steer gained 166 lbs. more in 154 days than did the poorest. This emphasizes the necessity in scientific trials of selecting uniform animals, feeding as many as possible in each lot so as to eliminate differences due to the individuality of the animals, and of repeating the experiment before drawing hard and fast conclusions. An experienced judge of cattle can generally pick out the good gainers from a bunch of feeders, by selecting those of beef conformation. Such animals are low-set, deep, broad, and compact, with roomy digestive tracts and vigorous constitutions. Smith and Lee^" found that the middle girth, or the width and depth in the region of the paunch, was a more important factor in determining the rate of gain of steers than the heart girth. The size of bone did not appear to influence the rate of gain, some of the best gainers being large in bone and others small. Cattle feeders well know that temperament is of great importance in determining gain in the feed lot; the calm, quiet animal which eats and then lies down is almost sure to outgain the restless, active one. "Tenn. Bui. 104. "Mich. Buls. 44, 69; Iowa Bui. 20. "Nebr. Bui. 151. "Nebr. Buls. 132, 151, and information to the authors. 442 FEEDS AND FEEDING 720. Early maturity. — The most common claim for superiority with the beef breeds is that such animals mature earlier than others. Ex- perienced feeders know that only the blocky calf of beef conformation is suited for early fattening as baby beef. Tho dairy steers grow rapidly and make large daily gains, they do not become well-finished at as early an age. 721. Dressed carcass. — The following table shows the daily gain from birth and the percentage of dressed carcass yielded by steers of various breeds fattened at several stations^^ : Daily gain and dressed weight of steers of different breeds Breed No. of animals No. of stations Av. age Av. live weight Daily ^ain from birth Limits of dressed weight Dressed weight Hereford RedPoU Aberdeen-Angus Swiss Shorthorn Galloway Devon Ayrshire Sussex Holstein Jersey Native 11 2 16 2 26 6 7 1 1 6 3 9 Days 983 1,000 976 1,000 1,011 923 1,021 1,095 1,021 937 1,058 1,038 Lbs. 1,515 1,5^ 1,493 1,570 1,510 1,503 1,376 1,320 1,625 1,469 1,440 1,259 Lbs. 1,54 1.52 1.53 1.57 1.50 1.62 1.35 1.20 1.69 1.57 1.36 1.26 Per ot. 63.0-68.0 63.8-66.5 63 .2-«9 .0 64.8 62.1-68.0 62.0-66.7 62.5-65.8 60.6-64.4 58.7-63.9 57.9-61.5 Per ot. 65.0 65.2 64.8 64.8 64.4 63.9 63.6 63.3 63.0 62.6 60.5 60.2 The data referring to daily gain from birth bear out the statement previously made that dairy steers do not necessarily make smaller gains than those of the beef breeds. "While the gains of the 3 Jerseys and the single Ayrshire were smaller than of any of the beef breeds, the Hol- steins compared favorably with the beef-bred steers. Too few animals of most of the breeds are included to make breed comparisons concern- ing the yield of dressed carcass. It is evident, however, that the native and dairy steers are inferior to the beef steers, a finding which agrees with the results of the Illinois trial, already discussed. More important than breed in determining the yield of dressed carcass is the condition, or degree of fatness, of the animal. Mumford points out from the results of the Illinois trial that it is possible to secure reasonably high percentages of dressed beef even from steers of inferior breeding if they are well-finished. He notes the fact that there is more difference in the appearance on foot in the feed lot and gains during fattening between the well-bred steer and the mongrel than there is in the carcasses when the animals have been fed to a high finish. 722. Internal fat. — Trials at the stations show that native and dairy steers have a larger quantity of fat about the internal organs than do '"Iowa Buls. 20, 28; Kan. Bui. 51; Mich. Buls. 44, 69; Mo. Bui. 23; Ont. Agr Col. Rpt. 1892. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 443 beef animals. . Commenting on tlie character of the carcasses of steers of various breeds slaughtered at the Michigan Station,^^ Davenport wrote : "Note the excess of rough tallow in "Walton (a Holsteia steer) as com- pared with the others. Walton was 'all cow' as the saying goes, and the fat about his kidneys was astonishing. ' ' There is evidently a specific difference between the beef and dairy breeds in the distribution of fat within the body. It appears that the beef representatives place more of the fat between the fibers of the muscles. On the other hand, steers of the dairy breeds deposit propor- tionately more fat about the intestines and kidneys. Fat intimately mingled with the muscular fibers of the lean tissues renders such meat tender, juicy, and toothsome. Placed in separate masses anywhere about the body, and especially within the body cavity, it has but low value. Such storage is doubtless best for animals whose function is milk pro- duction, but it is certainly against their highest usefulness for beef. In the above characteristic, which sets beef animals somewhat apart from dairy animals, we have a remarkable example of specialization for a definite end, and this lesson is important and far-reaching. 723. Proportion of valuable parts. — Tho somewhat conflicting, the data from the various stations indicate that the well-finished steer of beef conformation yields a somewhat higher percentage of loins and ribs, the most valuable cuts, and less of the cheap parts than do mongrel or dairy steers. This difference is less, however, than many believe. The small difference usually found is due to the fact that the beef steer has a broader back and fuller hind quarters than the native or dairy steer. 724. Quality. — ^Beyond that which can be expressed in figures or stated percentagely lies that indefinable something described by the word "quality" which enters into all objects of barter. No one can compare a bunch of well-fed beef-bred steers with one representing the dairy breeds or natives without being impressed by a difference not measured by the scales. Speaking of the breed tests at the Iowa Station, Wilson^* writes: "The carcasses of the dairy breeds lacked in thickness of cuts, and the marbling of the fat and lean was not equal to that of the others (beef breeds)." Georgeson wrote after conducting a trial at the Kansas Station:^* "The Shorthorns gave the best returns, not simply because the gross weight of their carcasses was greater than that of the scrubs, but also because their meat was esteemed better by experts in the packing-house who were asked to judge of the quality and assign prices." Of a native steer fed in comparison with others of the beef breeds Shaw^" wrote: "There was a lack of thickness of carcass thruout, the deficiency in the rib and loin being very noticeable, and the absence of what may be termed fleshiness was conspicuous." The thick-fleshed cuts from well-finished beef steers command a much higher price on the large markets than do the thin-fleshed cuts, thereby giving to the carcass that furnishes them a marked advantage in the «=Micli. Bui. 24. "'Iowa Bui. 20. "Kan. Bui. 51. '*Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1892. 444 FEEDS AND FEEDING market. In the Iowa trial the carcasses of the beef steers were valued by experts at $1.66 per 100 lbs. higher than those of the dairy steers. In the Kansas trial the loins of the best Shorthorns were rated at 18 cents per pound and of the natives as low as 14 cents. The matter at issue may be illustrated by a condition in the fruit world : No orchardist will hold that the Baldwin apple tree necessarily grows faster than the seedling apple tree, or that it will make wood and fruit on less material from soil and air. Neither will he hold that Baldwin trees necessarily yield more barrels of fruit than seedlings, nor that a given measure of Baldwin apples contains more juice or human food than the same measure of common seedling apples. Fruit growers do rightfully assert, however, that the market wants Baldwin apples and will pay more for them than for common seedling fruit, due to the fact that their quality is generally far superior, and that from this judgment of the market there is no appeal. Beef cattle have been bred for meat production — it would be passing strange if they did not excel for that purpose. 725. The most profitable type of steer. — For the beef producer who raises the animals he fattens it is evident that well-bred specimens of the beef breeds are the most profitable. The question is more compli- cated for one who purchases feeders on the market. He must consider the price at which he can secure the various grades and the probable price at which they can be sold when fattened. As Mumford con- cludes :^° Opportunities for larger profits, and losses as well, lie with the better grades of feeders, for as a rule the price of common, rough, fat steers fluctuates less than the price for prime steers, and the price of inferior and common feeders varies less than those of the choice and fancy grades. The greater the difference in the price of the various grades of feeders, the more is the advantage in favor of the commoner grades. On the other hand, the greater the difference between the prices for the various grades of fat steers, the more is the advantage in favor of the better feeders. When prices rule low for beef cattle and the market is dull or downward, the range of prices between prime steers and com- mon rough steers is narrow, and as a result, condition or fatness is more important than beef blood. On account of the greater speculation in- volved in feeding prime or choice feeders, Mumford advises the beginner to first handle a few carloads of the commoner kinds, which must be purchased at correspondingly lower prices, since the margin for profit in feeding low-grade cattle is usually slight. 726. Gains of steers of various breeds. — The most extensive data avail- able concerning the gains made by steers of various breeds are furnished by the records of the Smithfield England Fat-Stoek Show." The follow- ing table, compiled by the authors from the London Live Stock Journal, summarizes the data for 20 years, 1895 to 1914: =»m. Bui. 90. "London Live Stock Jour. 1895-1914. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 445 Age, weight and daily gain from Mrth of steers slaughtered at the Smithfield, England, Fat-Stock Show, 1895-1914 Bleed No. of ani- mals Age Weight Av. daily gain Breed No. of ani- mals Age Weight Av. daily gain Days Lbs. Lbs. Days Lbs. Lbs. Aherdeen-Angui Kerry 1 year old. . . . 93 672 1,416 2.11 1 year old — 1 644 658 1.02 2 years old. . . 86 1,025 1,848 1.83 2 years old... 4 954 1,134 1.18 3 years old... 2 1,269 2,130 1.70 Red Poll Deuon 1 year old. . . . 52 659 1,254 1.90 1 year old. . . . 91 664 1,216 1.82 2 years old . . . 54 999 1,637 1.64 2 years old . . . 123 993 1,609 1.63 3 years old. . . 3 1,247 1,736 1.38 3 years old... 4 1,218 1,753 1.45 Shorthorn Dexter 1 year old. . . . 85 674 1,446 2.14 1 year old. . . . 47 630 800 1.27 2 years old. . . 91 1,012 1,901 1.88 2 years old.. . 51 975 1,039 1.06 3 years old. . . 4 1,353 2,363 1.74 Galloway Sussex 1 year old 72 662 1,229 1.86 1 year old. . . . 98 678 1,463 2.17 2 years old... 73 1,018 1,655 1.63 2 years old... 106 1,015 1,831 1.80 3 years old . . . 2 1,236 1,794 1.44 3 years old... 5 1,316 2,019 1.53 Hereford Welsh 1 year old — 77 670 1,426 2.13 1 year old. , . . 76 698 1,463 2.09 2 years old . . . 84 999 1,844 1.85 2 years old. . . 90 1,039 1,831 1.76 3 years old. . . 2 1,316 2,066 1.57 3 years old... 7 1,231 1,919 1.55 Highland Cross-bred 1 year old — 2 730 1,448 1.98 1 year old. . . . 96 682 1,469 2.15 2 years old. . . 71 996 1,498 1.51 2 years old . . . 100 1,006 1,897 1.89 3 years old . . . 76 1,334 1,806 1.35 3 years old... 4 1,293 2,076 1.60 4 years old . . . 12 1,704 1,923 1.13 In the "average daily gain" here given is included in all instances the birth weight of the steer. The table well shows that the daily gain of the highly-fed steer decreases as the animal becomes more mature. The records of the slaughter tests at the Show from 1889 to 1895 show that with steers equally well finished, the more mature the animal, the higher is the percentage of dressed carcass yielded. The average dressing percentage of the 3-yr.-olds was 68.2 per ct. and of the yearlings 65.6 per ct. III. MiSCELLAIinEOUS PROBLEMS IN BeEF PRODUCTION 727. Shelter. — ^A survey of the trials conducted at the Utah, Texas, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Alabama Stations^* in which steers have been fattened in open sheds with adjacent yards in comparison with others housed in barns shows that the fatten- ing steer, consuming an abundant ration, a considerable portion of which is roughage, has no need for warm quarters. Similar conclusions are reached by Ingle^° from English trials. Sufficient heat is produced in the body of the steer thru the mastication, digestion, and assimilation of the ™ Partially reviewed by Armsby, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 108; see also Penn. Rpt. 1906 and Buls. 88, 102; Ala. Bui. 163. ^Trans. Highl. and Agr. Sec. Scotland, 1909. 446 FEEDS AND FEEDING food to maintain the body temperature under ordinary conditions with- out diminishing the amount of net nutrients available for fattening. (91) A reasonable degree of cold is a benefit rather than a detriment, provid- ing the coats of the animals are kept dry. The loss of heat in the evapo- ration of the water from a wet skin, coupled with that by radiation, may be so great that a portion of the food nutrients is burned up merely to keep the animal warm. During 7 winters Mairs and CocheP" fed one lot of 975-lb. steers in a yard with an open shed for shelter at the Pennsylvania Station, while another lot was confined in a well-ventilated barn. The average gains of the confined steers were no larger than of those sheltered only by the open shed, and practically the same amount of feed was required per 100 lbs. gain by both lots. During the last 5 years when the yard was kept dry by means of cinders, the steers fed therein made larger gains on the average than those in the bam. "Waters fattened one lot of dehorned steers during each of 4 winters at the Missouri Station'* in an open shed located in a small yard, while a second lot was housed in a comfortable barn, but turned out daily for water and allowed to remain in the yard for 7 hours, except in stormy weather. The steers fed in the open shed made average daily gains of 1.9 lbs., which was 0.2 lb. more than those fed in the barn. They required 10.3 lbs. digestible matter per pound of gain, or 1 lb. less than the steers housed in the warmer and more expensive quarters. During 3 winters Waters also fed similar lots of steers in an open yard without any shelter and with only a pile of corn stalks on which to lie. These steers made slightly larger gains than those fed in the open shed or in the barn, and required no more digestible nutrients per pound of gain. Feeding in open yards with no shelter other than windbreaks is common in western sections with little rainfall, even in regions with rig- orous winters. In experiments at the Manitoba Experimental Farm'^ steers fattened with no shelter except trees and brush made nearly as large gains as others fed in the barn, providing a convenient supply of water was furnished. For humid regions with severe winters an open shed should be provided where the animals may find shelter from storms. Where the winters are mild the saving thru providing shelter may not be great enough to warrant the expense. Gray and Ward'* found in Ala- bama that steers fattened in the open in winter made practically as large gains as those allowed access to an open shed. Shelter saved only 6 cents per 100 lbs. of gain in the cost of feed. From his trials Waters concludes: "It is of more importance that fattening animals lie down regularly and during a large portion of the time than that they be protected from the cold. Abundance of sunshine "Penn. Buls. 64, 68, 74, 83, 88, 102; Rpt. 1906. "Mo. Bui. 76. "Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpts. 1910, 1911, 1912. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anlm. Indus., Bui. 159. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN BEEF PRODUCTION 447 and fresh air, a comfortable place in which to He, and freedom from all external disturbances are ideal conditions for large and economical gains." Stock cattle being carried over winter are not crowded with heavy rations and hence no great excess of heat is generated in their bodies. The loss of heat by radiation is greater in young animals, for the body surface is larger in proportion to the weight. Yearlings, especially, may hence well be given greater protection than fattening steers, but their quarters should always be well-ventilated. Waters found that yearlings wintered on hay alone or with a small allowance of com in addition came thru in better condition when housed in an amply ventilated bam and turned out for exercise than when kept in a yard with an open shed. Under usual conditions mature breeding beef cows when in thrifty con- dition in the fall need no winter shelter other than an open shed. 728. Loose vs. tied steers — ^At the Ontario Station^* Day found that box-fed steers made larger and cheaper gains, had better appetites, and did not get off feed as easily as tied steers. Trials at the Ottawa Sta- tion*^ by Grisdale were also decidedly ia favor of loose box feeding. Not only is there less expense for equipment when this method of feeding is followed but less labor is needed. 729. Self-feeder. — ^By the use of a large receptacle called a self feeder, cattle may be supplied with concentrates twice a week. At the Illinois Station^* Mumford and AUison fed 2 lots, each of 17 fleshy 3-yr.-old steers, the following rations for 89 days. Lot I was fed whole clover hay and a concentrate mixture of 7 parts ground com and 1 part linseed meal separately at regular feeding periods twice daily, while Lot II was supplied chaffed (cut) hay mixed with the concentrates, the whole being fed in a self feeder to which the cattle had access at all times. Value of self feeder for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration gain Concentrates Qover hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot. I, hatiA-fed C!oncentrates, 22.0 lbs. Long hay, 13.5 lbs 3.0 737 451 Lot II, self-fed Concentrates, 24.6 lbs. Chaffed hay, 12.8 lbs . . 3.3 743 385 The self -fed steers consumed a heavier concentrate allowance and were brought to full feed in a shorter time without any set back from over- eating. Tho consuming more feed than Lot I, this was more than offset by their larger gains. Even after adding the cost of chafSng the hay, the self-fed steers made the cheaper gains. Both systems required about the same amount of labor, but by the use of the self-feeder the necessity for a skilled feeder was reduced. Mumford reports that steers visit the self feeder with remarkable regularity, and once accustomed thereto do not "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1907. "111. Bui. 142. == Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1904. 448 FEEDS AND FEEDING over eat. He holds that the system is often unjustly condemned because careless cattle feeders do not use it properly. Skinner and CocheP^ found self feeders more generally used in summer than in winter. The grain in the self feeder should be protected from rain and snow and care is necessary to avoid clogging, as an abundance of feed must be available at all times. 730. The paved feed lot. — In parts of the corn belt the feed lot in winter often becomes a sea of mud and mire. Mumford of the Illinois Station^^ fed one carload of steers during winter in a brick-paved lot and another in an ordinary mud lot, both lots having access to an open shed, the bedding in which was kept dry. Due to this fact the paved-lot steers made no cheaper gains than the others. However, because of their dirty appearance, tho not inferior finish, the mud-lot steers sold for 10 cents less per 100 lbs. Pigs following the paved-lot steers gained 1 lb. more from each bushel of corn fed to the steers than did those following the mud-lot steers. 731. Heifers vs. steers. — At the Iowa Station'* Wilson and Curtiss con- ducted 2 experiments with steers and spayed and open heifers. The cattle topped their respective classes in the Chicago market, the heifers of the first trial selling for $4.75 and the steers for $5.75 per cwt. on the same market. In the second trial the heifers brought $4.25 and the steers $4.50 per cwt. All lots yielded practically the same amount of dressed carcass, but the heifers yielded about 1 per ct. more in the high-priced cuts of meat. But little, if any, benefit was derived from spaying heifers. "Ind. Cir. 12. =»Beef Production, p. 155. '"Iowa Bui. 33. CHAPTER XXVII FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE I. Cabbonaceous Concentrates 732. Indian com. — Of all the concentrates Indian corn is and must continue to be the great fattening feed for cattle in America. While we cannot vie with England in the luxuriance of her pastures, the ad- vantages given the American farmer by the corn crop cannot be surpassed and place us in the very forefront in beef production. No other concen- trate is so toothsome and palatable to cattle as the corn grain. Not only is com loaded with starch but it carries much oil and has but little fiber or other inert matter, the whole forming the best concentrate for quickly filling the tissues of the steer's body with fat, and thereby rendering the lean meat tender, juicy and toothsome. (201-6) Numerous trials at our experiment stations have clearly shown that corn is too low in protein, even for fattening animals, and should there- fore be fed with legume hay, or, when carbonaceous roughages only are used, some nitrogenous concentrate should be added to balance the ration. The superior results from properly balanced rations are shown in the following table, in the first division of which are summarized the results of 8 trials, averaging 144 days in length, in each of which corn was fed with carbonaceous roughage, such as timothy hay, prairie hay, corn stover, or kafir stover, to one lot of 2- or 3-yr.-old steers, and with clover or alfalfa hay to others. In the second division the results are given for 4 trials, averaging 132 days, in which the effect of adding a nitrogenous supplement, either linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten feed, to a ration of corn and carbonaceous roughage was studied : Corn requires supplement for fattening 2-yr.-old steers , .. Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Concentrates Roughage Legume hay as supplement to com* Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. UvhoiUmced raiion, 90 steers Com, 15.2 lbs. Carbonaceous roughage, 13.0 lbs 959 1.7 930 832 Balanced ration, 71 steers Com, 15.4 lbs. Legume hay, 13.2 lbs 952 2.3 689 575 Nitrogenous concentrate as supplement to comf ■ UiSiolaneed ration, 44 steers Com, 16.3 lbs. Carbonaceous roughage, 8.3 lbs 995 1.6 1,082 522 Balanced ration, 54 steers Com, 16.7 lbs. Nitrogenous supplement, 2.1 lbs. Carbonaceous roughage, 8.6 lbs 1,002 2.2 862 402 ♦Average of 1 trial by Haney (Kan. Bui. 132), 2 by Burtis (Okla. Rpts. 1900, 1901), 1 by Mumford (IlL Bvil. 83), 2 by Skinner and Cochel (Ind. Buls. 115, 129), and 2 by Smith (Nebr. Buls. 90, 93). tAverage of 1 trial by Mumford (IlL But S3), 1 by Skinner and Coohel (Ind. Bui. 115), and 2 by Smith (Nebr. Buls. 90, 93). 449 450 FEEDS AND FEEDING- While the steers fed corn and legume hay gained 2.3 lbs. per head daily, the daily gain of those fed corn and carbonaceous roughage was only 1.7 lbs., and these steers, receiving the unbalanced ration, required 35 per ct. more corn and 44 per ct. more roughage per 100 lbs. gain. Where the ration of corn and carbonaceous hay was supplemented by 2.1 lbs. of a nitrogenous concentrate, the steers made 37 per ct. larger gains and required much less feed per 100 lbs. of gain. When the corn allow- ance is properly balanced, not only is the feeding value of this grain greatly increased with both the cattle and the pigs which follow the steers, but it keeps the animals more healthy, shortens the feeding period and gives a higher finish than can be secured with unbalanced rations. When other carbonaceous concentrates, such as barley, wheat, kafir, milo, hominy feed, or dried beet pulp, are fed it is just as important that protein-rich feed be included in the ration as when the chief con- centrate is corn. 733. Adding a nitrogenous concentrate to com and clover hay. — To determine whether it was profitable to add a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of corn and clover hay for fattening 2-yr.-old steers. Skinner and Cochel conducted 2 trials at the Indiana Station,^ and Mumford 1 trial at the Illinois Station^ for periods averaging 172 days, with the results summarized in the following table : Adding a nitrogenous concentrate to corn and clover hay for steers Initial Av. daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Concentrates Hay Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, SB steers Com, 18.4 lbs.* Clover hay, 9.4 lbs 1,032 2.0 940 484 Lot II, 35 steers Com, 17.7 lbs.* Nitrogenous concentrate, 2.9 lba. Clover hay, 9.1 lbs 1,047 2.4 854 376 '''Ear corn fed in the Illinois trial has been reduced to the equivalent of shelled com. In each of the 3 separate trials Lot II, receiving a nitrogenous concen- trate (cottonseed meal or linseed and gluten meal) in addition to corn and clover hay, made larger and more economical gains from the stand- point of feed required per 100 lbs. gain. With feeds at the market prices, the gains were also cheaper than in Lot I. Due to better finish the steers in Lot II sold for a higher price in both trials, bringing 25 cents more per 100 lbs. on the average than those in Lot I. Whether it will pay to add a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of corn and legume hay will depend on the relative prices of these feeds. Steers supplied all the corn and legume hay they will clean up, during the early part of the fattening period eat a much larger proportion of hay than during the later stages. Until well advanced in fattening they vrill eat >Ind. Buls. 129, 136. '111. Bui. 103. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 451 enough hay to balance their ration fairly well. Later, as the propor- tion of corn increases, the ration becomes unbalanced and there will be more benefit from the addition of a nitrogenous concentrate. With alfalfa hay for roughage, there is less need of adding protein-rich con- centrates than with clover, which is lower in protein than alfalfa. 734. Heavy vs. light corn feeding. — ^When corn was low in price, fatten- ing steers on full feed in the corn belt were commonly given all the com they would clean up. In recent years, with corn higher in price, it is often more economical to restrict the allowance and thereby induce the steers to eat a larger proportion of roughage. At the Nebraska Station* Smith fed 2 lots, each of 10 steers grown under range conditions and averaging 978 lbs., the first for 140 and the second for 168 days, on light and heavy rations of corn together with alfalfa hay and corn stover, with the results shown in the table : Heavy and light corn feeding for steers Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration Daily gain Gain per head Corn Roughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I Com, 22.3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 4.9 lbs. Com stover, 4.9 lbs 2.4 339 922 403 Lot II Com, 13.9 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 10.9 lbs. Com stover, 7.2 lbs 2 .0 339 691 896 Lot II, fed the light allowance of corn, gained 0.4 lb. less per head daily and required 168 days to put on 339 lbs., the same amount that Lot I did in 140 days. The steers in Lot II required 25 per ct. less grain per 100 lbs. gain than Lot I, but over twice as much hay. In another trial Smith found that 870-lb. steers fed 12.0 lbs. of corn meal and 17.2 lbs. of alfalfa, made practically as rapid gains as others fed 18.8 lbs. of corn meal and 8.7 lbs. of alfalfa. The heavy-fed steers required 36 per ct. more corn per 100 lbs. gain but only half as much hay as those fed the light allowance of corn. Cochel and Doty found at the Pennsylvania Station* that 2-yr.-old steers fed a full allowance of corn, supplemented by cottonseed meal, and with corn stover, com silage, and mixed hay for roughage, gained only 0.15 lb. more per head daily than others fed two-thirds as much corn. The steers on the lighter feed of corn made cheaper gains and returned the greater profit. The amount of corn to be fed should be governed by the relative price of corn and roughage and by the time it is desired to have the cattle ready for market. 735. Preparation of corn for beef cattle. — The practice of successful stockmen in the corn belt and trials at the experiment stations show that, »Nebr. Bul8. 100, 114. *Penn. Bui. 102. 452 FEEDS AND FEEDING in general, getting corn to cattle in the simplest manner and with the least preparation and handling is the most economical, when pigs follow the steers to consume any grains which escape mastication. Waters,^ gathering replies from hundreds of cattle feeders in Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois, found that 50 per ct. fed husked or unhusked ear corn, 25 per ct. shelled corn, and the remainder, crushed, soaked, or ground corn. Only 3 per ct. fed ground corn as a regular practice. Skinner and CocheF report that of 929 Indiana feeders 73 per ct. used broken ear corn at some time during the feeding period, 46 per ct. shock corn at some time, 35 per ct. snapped corn, 27 per ct. corn-and-cob meal, and 21 per ct. used shelled corn. In finishing prime beeves many skilled feeders seek to "keep the feed better than the cattle," i.e., prepare the feed more as the cattle gain in flesh. Thus, they may start the steers on shock corn, then as they require more concentrates, add snapped corn or ear corn ; still later the ear corn is broken or shelled; and at the close of the fattening period, to tempt the steers to consume a heavier allowance of grain, corn meal or corn- and-cob meal is employed. Silage from well-matured corn is the most palatable form in which the entire corn plant can be offered to the steer. In addition to the grain in this succulent feed, some additional corn should be fed, usually in the form of ear corn or shelled corn. Next to silage, corn is never so palat- able to the steer as when given unhusked on the stalk, for there is an aroma and palatability about the ear in Nature's own wrappings that every steer recognizes and appreciates. Such being the case, wherever possible let shock corn with its wealth of ears be thrown into the long feed racks standing in the open lot or under the shed and allow the steers to do their own husking and grinding. Where com cannot be fed unhusked, ear corn should be given, whole, chopped, or split, as best suits the animal. Corn long stored in the crib becomes dry and hard, losing fragrance and aroma thru exposure to air and vermin. For summer feeding such grain should be specially prepared by soaking or shelling, or possibly by grinding. Corn should be soaked from 12 to 18 hours, care being taken to change the water frequently and to keep the feed boxes clean and sweet. Old cattle can utilize ear corn, stover, and coarse feed more advantageously than can younger animals. To induce young steers to consume sufficient corn to overcome their tendence to grow rather than to fatten, more preparation of the corn is warranted than with older animals. (423) 736. Feeding corn in various forms. — To determine the economy of preparing corn in various ways, Mumford fed 5 lots of choice 1000-lb. feeders the rations shown in the table for 186 days at the Illinois Station.'' "Mo. Bui. 76. °Ind. Cir. 12. '111. BuL 103. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 453 Feeding corn in various forms to fattening steers Average ration DaUy gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Concen- trates Rough- age Pigs per 10 steers Gain of pigs per 100 lbs. corn fed to steers Feed cost returned by pigs Lot I, 16 steers Ear com, 20.1 lbs. Gluten or oil meal, 2.9 lbs. Clover hay, 8.0 lbs Lot II, 16 steers Com-and-cob meal, 20.0 lbs. Gluten or oil meal, 2.9 lbs. Clover hay, 8.1 lbs Lot III, 10 steers Shelled com, 16.6 lbs. Gluten or oil meal, 3.0 lbs. Clover hay, 9.0 lbs Lot IV, 16 steers Com meal, 16.6 lbs. Gluten or oil meal, 2.9 lbs. Clover hay, 8.7 lbs Lot V, 10 steers Ear com, 13.5 lbs.' OU meal, 1.4 lbs. Shock com, 14.7 lbs. Clover hay, 7.2 lbs Lbs. 2.3 2.3 2.0 2.4 2.1 Lbs. 986 993 984 822 Lbs. 344 350 454 370 No. 991* 782 6 Lbs. 1.7 0.5 3.6 0.7 1.8* Perot. 9.7 2.6 16.7 3.0 12.7 '''Including ear corn in the shock corn. While the steers in Lot IV, fed corn meal, made the largest gains and required the least feed for 100 lbs. gain, for combined gains of steers and pigs ear corn proved the most economical. Lot III, getting shelled corn, made the poorest gains, due to the fact that, as shown by the gains of the pigs following, the steers in this lot did not masticate their corn so thoroly as the others. While about the same amount of concentrates was required for 100 lbs. gain as with Lots I and II, it must be remem- bered that the ear corn and the com-and-cob meal rations contained over 17 per ct. cob. Thus shelled corn proved inferior to ear corn or corn-and- cob meal in beef production. Lot V, fed shock corn at first and ear corn during the finishing period, made larger gains than Lot III, fed shelled corn. In economy of combined gains of steers and pigs the shock- corn ration ranked second. Where shelled corn was fed, the 7 hogs following each 10 steers gained 3.6 lbs. from each 100 lbs. of corn fed to the steers, the hogs returning 16.7 per ct. of the value of the corn given to the steers. Where ground corn was fed, the hogs returned but 0.7 lb. increase for 100 lbs. of corn fed to the steers, and com-and-cob meal made still poorer returns. Good of the Kentucky Station* finds that steers fed silage often fail to eat sufficient com when it is supplied in the form of ear corn, possibly due to the fact that the silage makes their gums tender. By feeding shelled corn this difficulty is obviated. "Information to the authors. 454 FEEDS AND FEEDING 737. Soft corn. — Kennedy and Rutherford of the Iowa Station,* study- ing the feeding value of soft corn with 2 lots of 8 steers each, fed for 6 months, found that soft corn, containing 35 per ct. of moisture at the beginning of the trial and 16 per ct. at its close, made rather more economical gains than mature com, taking dry matter as the basis of comparison, and that the cattle finished equally well on it. (205) 738. Barley. — In sections of the "West where corn does not thrive, barley is of much importance as a grain for fattening cattle. To com- pare this grain with corn, Wilson fed 866-lb. steers the rations shown below in 2 trials at the South Dakota Station^" averaging 108 days in length : Barley vs. corn for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration gain Concentrates Corn silage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, 8 steers Ground barley, 14.8 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.5 lbs. Com silage, 14.2 lbs.. .. 2.1 790 674 Lot II, 8 steers Ground corn, 16.8 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.7 lbs. Com silage, 14.2 lbs. . . . 2.2 856 648 The steers fed barlej'^ did not consume quite as much grain as those fed the more palatable corn and hence did not make quite as rapid gains. However, less concentrates were required for 100 lbs. gain than with corn. In a trial at the Hays, Kansas, Station^^ Haney secured similar results with 8- to 10-months-old steer calves fed alfalfa hay and either ground barley or corn-and-cob meal. The calves fed corn gained 0.2 lb. more per head daily, but required 5 per ct. more grain than those fed barley. (226) 739. Wheat. — This grain is not commonly fed to cattle except when off grade or unusually low in price. Linfield of the Montana Station^^ found wheat and barley of practically the same value when fed in limited allowance with clover hay to 936-lb. steers. At the Nebraska Station^^ Burnett and Smith found wheat superior to corn for fattening yearling steers, when fed with 20 to 30 per ct. of bran and linseed meal along with alfalfa hay, prairie hay, and wheat straw for roughage. Two- yr.-old steers fed ground wheat and alfalfa hay in a trial by Haney at the Hays, Kansas, Station^* gained 0.45 lb. less per head daily than others fed ground corn, due to the fact that the wheat was less palatable and hence the steers ate less grain than those fed corn. The wheat-fed steers, however, required less grain per 100 lbs. gain. We may conclude that, while steers fed wheat may consume less grain than others fed an un- limited allowance of corn, no more wheat than corn is required for 100 lbs. gain. •Iowa Bui. 75. "Kan. Bui. 128. "Nebr. Bui. 75. '°S. D. Bui. 160. "Mont. Bui. 58. "Kan. Bui. 128. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 455 At the North Dakota Station^" Sheppard and Richards found that fat- tening steers fed low-grade ground wheat and bran, with poor quality hay for roughage, required about twice as much feed per 100 lbs. gain as others fed corn meal. The wheat-fed steers grew rather than fattened, indicating that low-grade wheat, which is usually higher in protein than wheat of good quality, should be used for growing animals rather than for fattening ones. (215) 740. Oats, — Since oats are usually high in price compared with other grains, they are seldom used as the sole concentrate for fattening, tho they are well liked by cattle and produce beef of good quality. In 2 trials of 101 and 115 days, respectively, Wilson of the South Dakota Sta- tion^" fed steers averaging 875 lbs. about 14 lbs. of corn silage per head daily and concentrates as shown in the table, to compare the value of ground oats and ground com ; Oats vs. corn for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average concentrate allowance gain Concentrates Silage libs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Oats 15.0 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.5 lbs 2.0 862 746 Lo< 77, Com, 16.8 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.7 lbs 2.2 856 648 The first year the oat-fed steers made as large gains as those fed corn, but the second year when the oats were rather light in weight, the corn- fed steers made better gains. The table shows that the steers fed oats required about the same amount of concentrates for 100 lbs. of gain as those fed com, but consumed somewhat more silage. Linfield at the Montana Station^' found oats, wheat, and barley about equally effective when fed with clover hay to fattening steers. A mixture of the 3 grains was somewhat superior to any single one. Oats are excellent for grow- ing cattle, and are also useful for mixing with corn in starting cattle on feed, especially calves being fattened for baby beef. For fattening cattle oats should be ground, as any whole grains escaping mastication are not so readily recovered by pigs as is corn. (223) 741. Kafir. — Thruout the southern portion of the great plains region the grain sorghums are of great importance in the feeding of beef cattle. The following table presents the results of 3 trials, averaging 138 days, in which ground kafir and alfalfa hay were fed to one lot of steers, and ground corn and alfalfa hay to another lot. In the second division of the table are summarized the results of 4 trials, averaging 148 days, in which these grains were fed as the sole concentrate with kafir or sorghum fodder or kafir stover. Com or kafir with these carbonaceous roughages made an unbalanced ration, from which as good gains could not be expected as from corn or kafir with alfalfa hay. «N. D. Bui. 73. "S. D. Bui. 160. "Mont. Bui. 58. 456 FEEDS AND FEEDING Kafir vs. corn in balanced and unbalanced rations Initial Daily Average ration weight gain Lbs. Lbs. With alfalfa hay* Lot I, total of 18 steers Ground kafir, 16.7 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 15.1 lbs 952 2.4 Lot II, total of 18 steers Ground com, 15.5 lbs. J Alfalfa hay, 15.2 lbs 943 2.6 Feed for 100 lbs. gain Grain Roughage Lbs. Lbs. 697 636 612 610 With carbonaceous roughage'\ Lot I, total of 35 steers Ground kafir, 18.1 lbs. Carbonaceous roughage, 14.6 lbs. . Lot II, total of SI steers Ground corn, 16.7 Ibs.J Carbonaceous roughage, 14.8 lbs . . 968 953 1.7 1.8 1,081 934 936 872 ♦Average of 2 trials by Burtis (Okla. Rpts. 1899, 1900, 1901) and 1 by Haney (Kan. Bui. 132). tAverage of 2 trials by Burtis (Okla. Rpts. 1900, 1901), 1 by Georgeson (Kan. Bui. 67), and 1 by Haney (Kan. Bui. 132). JCom-and-cob meal fed in trial by Haney reduced to equivalent of ground corn. These trials well show the value of kafir for fattening steers. When given alfalfa hay, the steers fed kafir required only 14 per et. more kafir grain for 100 lbs. gain than those fed corn. "With poorly balanced ra- tions of carbonaceous roughage and either kafir or corn, about 16 per ct. more kafir than corn was consumed per 100 lbs. gain. (337) 742. Mile and kafir vs. corn. — At the Texas Station^' Burns fed 3 lots, each of six 2-yr.-old grade Angus steers averaging about 875 lbs. in weight, 12.6 lbs. of cottonseed hulls and 3.0 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily with 15.1 lbs. of corn chop, milo chop, or kafir chop, for 120 days with the results shown in the table. The grains were all ground to the same fineness. Milo and kafir compared with corn for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Concentrate allowance gain Concentrates Hulls Lbs, Lbs. Lbs, Lot I, Com and cottonseed meal 2.1 858 599 Lot II, Milo and cottonseed meal 2.1 863 596 Lot III, Kafir and cottonseed meal 2.5 731 610 Fed with cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls, kafir produced the largest and most economical gains, and milo proved equal to corn. There was no material difference in the quality of meat from the 3 lots. (238) 743. Emmer (spelt). — To compare the value of ground emmer and ground corn for fattening steers, "Wilson conducted 2 trials at the South Dakota Station^' in which 880-lb. steers were fed an average of 14 lbs. corn silage per head daily with the concentrate allowances shown in the table for periods averaging 108 days : •"Tex. Bui. 110. "S. D. Bui. 160. Daily gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Concentrates Silage Lba. Lbs. LbB. 2.2 840 648 2.2 856 648 FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 457 Emmer vs. corn for fattening steers Average concentrate allowance Lot I, Emmer, 16.7 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.7 lbs. Lot II, Com, 16.8 lbs. Linseed meal, 1.7 lbs. In this fairly well balanced ration ground emmer was fully equal to ground corn. "Wilson concludes that under South Dakota conditions emmer is the best small grain to grow for feeding with corn silage. In a previous trial at the same Station^" in which the unbalanced rations of prairie hay and either corn or emmer were fed, Wilson and Skinner found that it required 125 lbs. of emmer to replace 100 lbs. of corn. Fed to calves fattened for baby beef ,^^ emmer produced a hard fat the same as did oats, and meat of as good quality as that from corn. (233) Emmer closely resembles oats in composition, having considerable bulk, and there- fore should be especially useful in starting cattle on feed. (740) 744. Millet. — That the seed of hog, or broom-corn, millet, which is a reliable grain crop on the northern plains, is a satisfactory feed for fat- tening cattle was shown by Wilson and Skinner at the South Dakota Station.^^ Calves weighing about 500 lbs. fattened for baby beef on ground millet and clover hay gained 1.5 lbs. per head daily for 431 days, while others fed corn and clover hay gained 1.8 lbs. The steers fed millet required 6 per ct. more grain and 32 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain than those fed corn. Millet produced carcasses of as good quality as corn, but with somewhat softer fat. (243) 745. Bough rice and by-products. — In feeding trials with steers at the Texas Station^* Craig and Marshall found that when fed with cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls 2.3 lbs. of ground rough rice was equal to 1 lb. of cottonseed meal in the ration. Ten lbs. of rice bran proved equal to 6 lbs. of cottonseed meal when forming two-fifths of the concentrates of the ration. Rice polish was about equal to cottonseed meal. Rice hulls proved to be without value. Cruse secured satisfactory results with a ration of 7.3 lbs. rough red rice (a pest in the rice fields), 4.2 lbs. cotton- seed meal, and 12.5 lbs. Johnson grass hay in a trial at the Fort Worth, Texas, Substation.^* Rice should always be ground for cattle. (234) 746. Sugar-beet pulp. — In the vicinity of the western beet sugar fac- tories thousands of cattle are fattened annually on beet pulp with alfalfa hay, which admirably supplements the protein-poor pulp, and usually with a limited allowance of grain in addition. To study the most profit- able method of feeding pulp Carlyle and Griffith fed 4 lots, each of twelve 956-lb. steers, the rations shown in the table for 100 days at the Colorado Station.^' Alfalfa hay of poor quality was fed to all without limit. ^S. D. Bui. 100. ''S. D. Bui. 97. "Tex. Bui. 135. ^S. D. Bui. 97. ='Tex. Buls. 76, 86. ="Colo. Bui. 102. 458 FEEDS AND FEEDING Value of wet heet pulp in steer feeding Daily Feed for 100 lb». gain Average ration gain Corn Hay Beet Pulp Lbs. Lba, Lbs. Lba. Lot I Beet pulp, 93.4 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 20.0 lbs. Ground com, 6.6 lbs. . . 2.6 251 759 3,545 Lot II Alfalfa hay, 31.3 lbs. Ground com, 6.6 lbs. . . 1.8 376 1,778 Lot III Beet pulp, 97.3 lbs. • Alfalfa hay, 21.9 lbs 1.8 .... 1,189 5,283 Lot IV Alfalfa hay, 41.5 lbs 1.5 .... 2,829 The Steers in Lot I, fed an unlimited allowance of wet beet pulp and alfalfa hay with 6.6 lbs. of corn per head daily, made the excellent daily gain of 2.6 lbs. each, considerably larger than that of Lot II, fed only alfalfa hay and corn, or Lot III, fed beet pulp and hay, with no com. Thruout the trial the pulp-fed steers were more thrifty than those getting no pulp. The conclusion was that for 2-yr.-old fattening steers 1 ton of wet beet pulp was equal to 620 lbs. of alfalfa hay or 220 lbs. of ground com. In feeding this succulent food, care should be taken that refuse pulp does not accumulate in the troughs and decompose. Animals should be gradually accustomed to the pulp, later being usually given all they will clean up. (274) 747. Dried beet pulp. — Shaw and Norton of the Michigan Station** found as the result of 3 winter trials that dried beet pulp tended to growth with cattle rather than to fattening, and conclude that while in the earlier part of the feeding period dried pulp can be fed advantage- ously in large quantities because it produces rapid gains, during the finishing period it should be largely replaced by com meal. They found a 1000-lb. steer will not consume over 10 lbs. of dried beet pulp daily. (275) 748. Molasses. — In the sugar-cane districts of the South, cane molasses is an economical carbonaceous concentrate for cattle. In a 120-day trial at the Texas Station^'^ Bums fed 2 lots, each of 6 high-grade 2-yr.-old Aberdeen-Angus steers, averaging about 870 lbs., a basal ration of 12.6 lbs. cottonseed hulls and 3 lbs. cottonseed meal, with com or com and blackstrap molasses, as shown in the table : Cane molasses as a partial substitute for corn Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration gain Concentrates Hull* Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Com, 15.1 lbs. Basal ration 2.1 858 599 Lot II, Molasses, 6.5 lbs. Com, 8. 6' lbs. Basal ration 2.3 798 659 "Mich. Bui. 247. "Tex. Bui. 110. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 459 When 6.6 lbs. of molasses replaced an equal weight of corn the gains were slightly increased and less feed was required for 100 lbs. gain, showing molasses to be somewhat the higher in feeding value per pound, when replacing not more than half the corn in the ration. In a 140-day trial at the Pennsylvania Station^* Tomhave and Sever- son fed a lot of six 1040-lb. choice feeders all the com and mixed hay they would consume, in addition to 20 lbs. of corn silage per head daily and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight. Another lot was given the same feeds with 5 lbs. of molasses in addition. The steers fed 5 lbs. of molasses per head daily made no larger gains than the first lot, and their gains were more expensive, with molasses at $20 per ton and sheUed corn at 70 cents per bushel. At the Indiana Station^" Skinner and King found in a 150-day trial that steers fed 2.8 lbs. molasses, 10.9 lbs. shelled corn, and 3.3 lbs. cot- tonseed meal gained 0.34 lb. more per head daily than others fed 13.6 lbs. shelled com and 3.3 lbs. cottonseed meal, both lots receiving corn silage and clover hay without limit in addition. The steers fed molasses consumed over 4 lbs. more silage per head daily than the others. With com ranging from $21.60 to $24.75 per ton and molasses at 13.5 cents per gallon ($22.50 per ton), the steers fed molasses made the cheaper gains. From these trials we may conclude that in the North as heavy an allowance of molasses as 5 lbs. per head daily is not ordinarily eco- nomical, tho a small amount may be profitable in stimulating the appe- tite. Molasses is especially useful in getting animals to clean up rough- age which would otherwise be unpalatable. Ware^" reports that beet molasses has been fed to oxen for many years at the Hohenau sugar factory, Germany. During the first month 3.3 lbs. is fed per head daily, and after this 4.4 lbs., the molasses being mixed with beet pulp. The oxen so fed have better appetites than those fed no molasses, and fatten rapidly. Not more than 4 to 8 lbs. of beet molasses daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight should be fed to fattening cat- tle. When fed at this maximum rate of 8 lbs. per head daily, with alfalfa hay valued at $3.50 per ton and bran and shorts at $14 per ton, mo- lasses was worth only $2.35 per ton for fattening steers. Morton'^ of the Colorado Station states that the use of molasses is greatly increasing in the beet-sugar districts. The molasses is spread over hay or cut straw, either by means of a force pump on an ordinary wagon water tank, or is thiimed with water and poured over it from buckets. Large feeders heat the molasses in tanks and mix it with cut hay or straw in mixing machines. (276) 749. Hominy feed. — ^At the Kansas Station** Cochel fed 2 lots each of fifteen 540-lb. calves for baby beef on 19.7 lbs. sorghum silage, 1.7 lbs. cot- tonseed meal, and either 9.3 lbs. ground corn or 8.9 lbs. hominy feed per » Information to the authors, "Cattle Feeding, p. 245. "Information to the authors. "Information to the authors. "Kansas Industrialist, May 1, 1915; information to the authors. 460 FEEDS AND FEEDING head daily for 120 days. For the first 2 months the hominy-fed calves made the most rapid gains, but later they were passed by those fed on corn, apparently because they would not eat as heavy an allowance of hominy feed, which is rather high in fat. The hominy-fed calves gained 1.87 lbs. per head daily and those fed corn 1.96 lbs., the feed require- ments per 100 lbs. gain being practically the same for the 2 lots. (213) II. Nitrogenous Concentrates 750. Cottonseed meal. — This rich concentrate is the basis of the fatten- ing of beef cattle in the South and is widely used in the northern states as a supplement to rations deficient in protein. Trials at the Indiana Station, which are reviewed later (777), show that 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight is sufficient to balance a ration of shelled corn, corn silage, and oat straw or clover hay. In the South, owing to the cheapness of cottonseed meal, it is commonly fed as the sole concentrate. Since the meal is a heavy, highly nitrogenous feed, and is poisonous to fattening cattle when fed in excess, the determination of the allowance to be fed for the best results is of great importance. (249-50) During each of 3 years Willson fed 2-yr.-old steers, averaging 944 lbs. in weight, for 90-day periods at the Tennessee Station'^ on corn silage and different amounts of cottonseed meal, as is shown in the table. The steers fed low cottonseed meal allowances received 3 lbs. of meal for the first 30 days, 4 lbs. for the second 30 days, and 5 lbs. for the last month. Those on medium allowances received 4 or 5 lbs. for the first month, 5 or 6 for the second, and 6 or 7 for the third, while those on the heavy allowances received 7, 8, and 9 lbs. respectively, for the 3 months of the feeding period. Low, medium, and heavy allowances of cottonseed meal Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Cost of 100 Average ration gain Meal Silage lbs. gain* Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars Low allowance, total of S2 steers Cottonseedmeal, 41bs. Comsilage, 561bs. . 1.62 253 3,542 8.47 Medium allowance, total of 24 steers Cottonseed meal, 6 lbs. Com silage, 52 lbs. . . 1.70 335 3,124 8.87 Heavy allowance, total of ^4 steers Cottonseed meal, 8 lbs. Com silage, 69 lbs. . . 1.66 491 3,622 11.56 ^Cottonseed meal at $25 and com silage at $3 per ton. In none of the trials did the heavy allowance of cottonseed meal pro- duce larger gains than the medium allowance. On the average the medium allowance made slightly larger but more expensive gains than the low allowance. Willson concludes that the use of as much as 7 to 9 ""Tenn. Bui. 104. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 461 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily is uneconomical except for short feeding periods of only 30 to 50 days. Since the feeders of the south Atlantic states have access to the large eastern markets, which demand well-finished cattle, Gray and Curtis conducted trials at the North Carolina Station'* to determine the maxi-' mum amount of cottonseed meal which could be fed with good results to 2-yr.-old steers with corn silage or cottonseed hulls given in unlimited amount. In a 99-day trial 8 lots, each of 9 to 10 steers, were fed the allowances of cottonseed meal shown in the table. Amount of cottonseed meal to feed with corn silage or cottonseed hulls Daily Feed cost of Selling price Average daily allowance of meal gain 100 lbs. gain* per 100 lbs. Lbs. Dollars Dollars Com silage for roughage Lot /, Cottonseed meal, 6.0 lbs 1.19 11.39 7.90 Lot 77, Cottonseed meal, 7.5 lbs 1.49 10.34 8.00 Lot 777, Cottonseed meal, 9.0 lbs 1.76 9.79 8.20 Lot 7F, Cottonseed meal, 10.5 lbs 1.89 10.03 8.40 Cottonseed hulls for roughage Lot 7, Cottonseed meal, 6,0 lbs 1.43 9.86 7.90 Lot VI, Cottonseed meal, 7.5 lbs 1 .55 10 .30 8 .00 Lot 777, Cottonseed meal, 9.0 lbs 1.59 11.17 8.15 Lot VIII, Cottonseed meal, 10.5 lbs 1 .45 13 .29 8 .00 ^Cottonseed meal, $25; cottonseed hulls, S6; and corn silage, $3.50 per ton. With corn silage for roughage the allowance of 10.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal produced the largest gains and the highest finish, as shown by the selling price, and brought the most profit. The gains were, however, cheaper when 9 lbs. of meal was fed. With hulls the gains were largest, the finish highest, and the profit greatest on the allowance of 9 lbs. of meal. In another trial lasting 107 days with 4 lots, each of 20 steers, 9 lbs. of meal fed with silage made smaller gains than 7.5 lbs., but pro- duced slightly better finish. When fed with hulls 9 lbs. of meal pro- duced decidedly lower gains at a much higher cost than 7.5 lbs. From these and other trials Curtis concludes that cattle fed 7.5 lbs. of meal per head daily with either silage or hulls will continue to gain and fitnish quite satisfactorily for 130 to 140 days, which is the maximum period for feeding this allowance with hulls. With corn silage the feeding period may be extended 30 to 50 days or even somewhat longer without harm. When 9 to 10.5 lbs. of meal is fed with hulls, the daily gains decrease after 120 to 130 days until finally the animal begins losing weight. The same amount of meal may be fed with silage for 30 to 60 days longer with continuous gains and consequent high finish. The retarding of the poisonous effect of cottonseed meal by silage seems to be due to the succulent nature of the silage, for the same effect is also produced by pasturage. Owing to the protein-rich nature of cottonseed meal, with young steers it tends to produce growth rather than to fatten; hence 2- or 3-yr.-olds are best suited for heavy cottonseed meal "'Information to the authors. 462 FEEDS AND FEEDING feeding. When fattening yearlings on cottonseed meal, McLean of the Mississippi Station^^ recommends that they be given not over 5 lbs. per head daily. Gray and Ward ^° found a daily allowance of 2.3 lbs. cottonseed meal and 1.2 lbs. corn-and-cob meal somewhat superior, for 6- to 8-months old calves fed for baby beef, to an allowance of 3.1 lbs. cottonseed meal, cottonseed hulls and mixed alfalfa and grass hay being fed to both lots. In feeding cottonseed meal it is exceedingly important that the steers be started on the feed slowly, as many animals are injured by failure to observe this precaution. Soule of the Georgia Station" states that with cattle to.be fed 180 days about 4 lbs. per head daily is enough for the first 60 to 90 days, the allowance eventually being increased to 8 to 10 lbs. The meal should also be mixed thoroly with the roughage, so that the greedy steer will not be able to gorge on the meal. 751. Cold-pressed cottonseed cake. — To compare the value of cold- pressed cottonseed cake, or "caddo cake," with choice cottonseed meal, Kennedy and Bobbins fed 2 lots, each of seven 714-lb. steers, the follow- ing rations at the Iowa Station^* for 168 days : Caddo cake vs. cottonseed meal for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration gain Cake or meal Com Hay Lbs. libs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I Osiddo c£Lk6 4 4 lbs Com-and-cob meal, 14.4 lbs. Clover hay 5.3 lbs. 1.8 239 793 290 Lot II Cottonseed meal, 3.1 lbs. Com-and-cob meal, 14.2 lbs. Clover hay, 5.4 lbs. 1.7 180 815 310 Lot I, fed 4.4 lbs. caddo cake containing 28.9 per ct. crude protein, made slightly larger gains than Lot II, fed 3.1 lbs. choice Cottonseed meal containing 42.9 per ct. crude protein. In feed required per 100 lbs. gain, 133 lbs. of caddo cake was more than equal to 100 lbs. of cot- tonseed meal, a somewhat higher value than would correspond to the amounts of crude protein in the 2 feeds. Kinzer states that in a trial at the Kansas Station^" steers fed caddo cake likewise made slightly larger gains than others fed cottonseed meal, and Smith reports from trials at the Nebraska Station*" that cattle relish caddo cake even better than cottonseed meal. (248) 752. Cotton seed. — The practice of feeding cotton seed to beef cattle in the South is rapidly declining according to Soule of the Georgia Sta- tion,*^ both because of the demand for the seed for oil production and because cottonseed meal gives uniformly better results than the whole "■Miss. Bui. 121. '^Breeder's Gaz., 58, 1910, p. 350. =»Ala. Bui. 158. "Nebr. Bui. 116. "Breeder's Gaz., 59, 1911, p. 1163. "Breeder's Gaz., 66, 1914, p. 713. "Breeder's Gaz., 58, 1910, p. 303. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 463 seed. In a 90-day trial at the Texas Station*'' Burns fed 2 lots, each of 6 high-grade Angus steers, 16.0 lbs. of kafir chop and 12.8 lbs. of cotton- seed hulls per head daily with the allowance of cottonseed meal or meal and cotton seed shown in the table : Cotton seed vs. cottonseed meal for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. enin Cottonseed meal and cotton seed per head daily gain Concentrates Hulls Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. I, Cottonseed 4.0 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 1.0 lb. .. 2.0 1,026 626 //, Cottonseed meal, 2.9 lbs 2.5 750 508 Substituting 4 lbs. of cotton seed for 1.9 lbs. of cottonseed meal pro- duced smaller gains. In this trial cottonseed meal at $26 per ton was cheaper than cotton seed at $12. In a later trial with steers fed sorghum and cowpea silage, Burns*^ found that when the allowance of cotton seed was increased beyond 8 lbs. per head daily the animals scoured badly ; on substituting cottonseed meal for the cotton seed they recovered and made much larger gains. Cottonseed meal at $27 per ton was more profitable than cotton seed at $17. (245) 753. Linseed meal. — Thruout the northern states linseed meal is wide- ly used as a nitrogenous supplement for beef cattle. Smith of the Ne- braska Station,** as a result of 3 trials with steers, fed corn and prairie hay, in comparison with others fed 90 per ct. corn and 10 per ct. linseed meal with prairie hay, found that it required 23 per ct. less concentrates for 100 lbs. gain when the ration containing linseed oil meal was used. For steer fattening linseed meal was slightly superior to cottonseed meal, and nauch more valuable than wheat bran for supplementing a ration of corn and prairie hay or corn stover. As a supplement to corn and prairie hay, in 2 trials*^ with yearling steers linseed meal was worth $29.74 to $32.00 per ton, compared with cold-pressed cottonseed cake at $25. (254) 754. Soybeans. — The protein-rich seed of the soybean is well suited to serve as a nitrogenous supplement for fattening cattle. To compare this concentrate and choice cottonseed meal. Skinner and King con- ducted 2 trials at the Indiana Station*' with 900-lb. steers, fed the fol- lowing rations for 180 and 175 days, respectively : Ground soybeans vs. cottonseed meal for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration gain Concentrates Straw Silage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I Shelled com, 13.0 lbs. Oat straw, 1.1 lbs. Ground soybeans 2.7 lbs. Comsilage, 22.1 lbs. 2.2 722 52 1,011 Lot II Shelled com, 13.9 lbs. Oat straw, 0.9 lb. Cottonseed meal, 2.8 lbs. Com silage, 26.3 lbs 2.5 676 36 1,062 «Tex. Bui. 110. "Nebr. Bui. 100. "Ind. Buls. 167, 178. «Tex. Bui. 159. "Nebr. Bui. 132. 464 FEEDS AND FEEDING While Lot II made somewhat larger gains and required slightly less feed per 100 lbs. gain, the results from Lot I, fed ground soybeans, were on the whole satisfactory. The steers showed a greater tendency to go off feed during the last 3 months of the feeding period on soybeans than on cottonseed meal, due undoubtedly to the large amount of oil that soy- beans contain. With soybean meal, from which the oil has been ex- tracted, this condition would probably not result. In a third trial*^ lasting 150 days, steers fed the same ration as Lot I made slightly larger gains than lots fed cottonseed meal, shelled corn, corn silage, and either clover or alfalfa hay. (25G) 755. Soybeans, cowpeas, and com. — In the southern states it is possible to grow a winter crop of small grain and harvest it in time to plant soybeans, cowpeas, or corn, thus securing 2 crops each year from the same land. During 7 years the following crops have been grown on different acres at the Tennessee Station** by Quereau and Willson and fed to steers, to determine the amount of beef produced per acre under the different systems of cropping. In addition to the product from the given acre, the steers were each fed 20 lbs. of corn silage per head daily. The manure resulting from the crops on each acre was returned thereto. Acre yields of heef from various crops in the South Beef Beef Crops and acre yield per acre Lbs. Crops and acre yield per acre Lbs. Acre I Acre IV* Soybean grain, 1,189 lbs. Soybean grain, 1,202 lbs. Soybean stover, 2,877 lbs. Soybean stover, 2,552 lbs. Barley grain, 1,411 lbs ... 508 Wheat grain, 1,216 lbs ... 402 Acre II AereV^ Cowpea grain, 550 lbs. Soybean hay, 3,727 lbs. Cowpea stover, 2,104 lbs. Barley grain, 1,443 lbs .. 435 Barley grain, 1,656 lbs ... 451 Acre VI* Acre III Soybean hay, 3,376 lbs. Com grain, 1,839 lbs. Oat grain, 1,610 lbs 456 Corn stover, 3,045 lbs. Barley grain, 1,332 lbs 434 Acre VII% Alfalfa hay, 8,228 lbs 515 *Av. for 4 years. fAv. for 6 years. JAv. for 5 years. Of the various combination crops. Acre I, on which soybeans were grown for grain and stover, with barley as a winter grain crop, pro- duced the largest amount of beef per acre. Cowpeas yielded much less grain and stover and produced less beef per acre. Acre III, on which were grown corn for grain and stover, with barley as the winter crop, made considerably less beef per acre than Acre I, due in no small measure to the unbalanced nature of the ration of corn grain, corn stover, corn silage, and barley grain. Alfalfa, tested for 5 years, slightly surpassed even Acre I. The returns from these acres well illustrate the possibilities of the South for beef production in a system whereby more than a single crop is grown each year. (262) "Information to the authors. "Information to the authors. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 465 756. Wheat bran. — Since wheat bran is lower in protein than cotton- seed or linseed meal, a correspondingly larger amount is needed to balance a ration deficient in this nutrient. While bran is used more extensively for dairy cows than for feeding beef cattle it is often employed for the latter, especially in starting cattle on feed. Skinner and Cochel*" found in replies from 929 Indiana cattle feeders, secured in 1906, that 40 per ct. of those using some supplement to corn pre- ferred bran, doubtless because it was available in almost every locality. In 4 trials at the Nebraska Station"" Smith found that when fed as a supplement to corn and prairie hay, corn stover, or corn silage, bran produced somewhat smaller gains than linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or cold-pressed cottonseed cake and the gains were more expensive. In 2 trials at the Pennsylvania Station"^ by Tomhave, Hickman, and Severson the common Pennsylvania ration of wheat bran, corn, mixed hay and corn stover proved inferior to one of corn, cottonseed meal, mixed hay, and corn silage, undoubtedly due in large part to the sub- stitution of silage for the stover. (218) 757. Gluten feed. — Tho most commonly fed to dairy cows, gluten feed is a satisfactory nitrogenous concentrate for fattening cattle. In trials at the Missouri Station^'^ in which the value of various supplements to corn for steers of various ages on good bluegrass pasture was compared, Mumford found that steers fed linseed or cottonseed meal and corn generally made slightly larger gains than others fed gluten feed and corn. (210) 758. Dried distillers' grains; distillery slop. — That a limited allowance of dried distillers' grains is satisfactory for fattening cattle is shown in a trial by May at the Kentucky Station"^ with 2 lots, each of 4 steers, running on closely cropped bluegrass pasture, and fed an unlimited allowance of clover hay. Lot I, fed 14.3 lbs. of corn-and-cob meal and 5.4 lbs. of dried distillers' grains per head daily, made 2.2 lbs. aver- age daily gain, and required 882 lbs. of concentrates per 100 lbs. gain. Lot II, fed a daily allowance of 23.0 lbs. corn-and-cob meal, gained only 1.8 lbs. daily per head and required about 400 lbs. more concentrates per 100 lbs. gain. (282) In the vicinity of distilleries many cattle are fattened on the wet distillery slop or mash. Hooper of the Kentucky Station^* reports that in 1911 about 25,000 steers were so fed in Kentucky. The slop i§ pumped from the distillery to the feed lots, where it is fed in troughs. In addi- tion to the slop an average of about 3 lbs. of cottonseed meal is fed per head daily, with 10 to 15 lbs. of hay, straw, bluegrass chaff, or cotton- seed hulls. The roughage and the cottonseed meal are usually mixed with the slop, tho sometimes the steers are permitted to drink the clear slop. "Ind. Cir. 12. "'Mo. Bui. 90. "Nebr. Buls. 100, 132. "Ky. Bui. 108. "Penn. Bui. 133; information to the authors. "Ky. Sta. Miscel. Circular. 466 FEEDS AND FEEDING 759. Dried brewers' grains. — According to Pott," in Germany dried brewers' grains are well esteemed as a concentrate for fattening mature cattle, meat of especially good quality being produced on dried brewers' grains, fed as the sole concentrate with potatoes, beets, and dry rough- age. (228) 760. Velvet bean.— At the Florida Station" Scott fed velvet beans in the pod in comparison with other feeds to sixteen 700-lb. steers di- vided into 4 lots of 4 each, for 84 days, with the results shown in the table : Velvet ieans compared with other southern feeds for steers Av. daily Feed cost of Average ration per 1,000 lbs. of steer gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Dollars Lot I Com, 8.0 lbs. Velvet beans in pod, 12.0 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 10.0 lbs 2.9 7 . 55 Lot II Com, 10.5 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 3.8 lbs. Crab-grass hay, 13.5 lbs 2.6 9.07 Lot III Com, 6.0 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 14.0 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 5.0 lbs. Sorghum silage, 20.0 lbs 2.7 10.65 Lot IV Cottonseed meal, 6.5 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 25.0 lbs 1.9 12 .00 It is shown that the steers getting 12 lbs. of velvet beans in the pod per 1,000 lbs. of live weight, together with corn and cottonseed hulls, made the high average gain of 2.9 lbs. daily for 84 days. While all gains were satisfactory, those of the steers fed velvet beans were the largest and cheapest. (361) III. Legume Hay and Other Dry Eoughages 761. Value of legume hay. — The great importance of hay from the legumes in balancing the carbonaceous grains, such as corn, barley, and wheat, has already been pointed out. (732) On account of their richness in protein and also because of their palatability, the legume hays are the most valuable of dry roughages. Even when a ration of corn and such carbonaceous roughages as timothy hay, prairie hay, or corn fodder is properly supplemented by linseed or cottonseed meal or some other protein-rich concentrate, smaller gains will nearly always be produced than when the ration consists of corn and legume hay. This is shown in the following table, which summarizes the results secured in 4 trials in which 2-yr.-old 942-lb. steers were fed for periods averaging 158 days : »Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., II, 1909, p. 241. "Fla. Bui. 102. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 467 Legume hay vs. carbonaceous roughage plus nitrogenous supplement Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average tation gain Concentratea Boughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, total of 40 steers* Legume hay, 9.3 lbs. Com, 17.9 lbs 2.3 778 405 Lot II, total of 4B steers* Caxbonaoeous roughage 8.0 lbs. Com, 16.4 lbs. Supplement, 2.2 lbs 2.0 916 387 *Av. of 1 trial by Bliss and Lee (Nebr. Bui. 151), 1 by Mumford (111. Bui. 83), 1 by Skinner and Coohel and. Bui. 115), and 1 by Smith (Nebr. Bui. 90). Lot I, fed legume hay and corn, gained on the average 0.3 lb. more per head daily and required 15.1 per ct. less concentrates and about the same amount of roughage as Lot II, fed the equally well-balanced but less palatable ration in which the roughage was prairie hay, timothy hay, or corn stover with a small amount of oat straw. Only when silage, appetizing as well as nutritious, is fed is it possible to provide a ration which will be equal to one where the roughage is legume hay. (775) Waters"^ points out that where cattle are being fattened on corn, the use of legume hay instead of hay from timothy, millet, or sorghum, or such roughages as corn stover and straw, results in the following advantages : 1. Increased gains by the cattle. 2. Increased selUng price of the cattle due to extra bloom. 3. Increased gains by hogs following the steers.' 4. Increased fertility of the land where the feeding operations are conducted. 6. The better condition of the fields on which the leguminous crops are grown. 762. legume hay plus carbonaceous roughage. — Even on farms where large areas of legumes are raised for hay much carbonaceous roughage, such as corn and sorghum stover, straw, and hay from the grasses, is normally produced in addition. In economical beef production these roughages should be wisely and fully utilized, for while they do not equal legume hay in nutrients or palatability, when judiciously combined with it satisfactory and cheap gains may be secured. This is shown in a 116-day trial by Snyder at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation^^ in which 5 lots, each of 20 good grade steer calves averaging about 425 lbs., were wintered on 2 lbs. of a mixture of 2 parts corn and 1 part oats, with the roughages shown in the table : Value of legume hay combined with carbonaceous roughages Av. daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average daily roughage allowance gain Concentrates Boughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Alfalfa hay, 12.3 lbs 1.2 162 1,000 Lot II, Sorghum hay, 14.3 lbs 0.4 604 3,666 Loi///, M.hay,8.51bs. Sorghum hay, 8.5 lbs. 1.2 165 1,416 Lot IV, Prairie hay, 10.9 lbs 0.7 305 1,676 Loe 7, Alfalfa hay, 7.6 lbs. Prairie hay, 7.6 lbs . 1.1 174 1,315 "'Mo. Bui. 76. •'Nebr. Bui. 106. 468 FEEDS AND FEEDING "When fed as the only roughage sorghum hay produced unsatisfactory gains, but when the roughage allowance was half sorghum and half alfalfa, the gains were as rapid as those made by Lot I, fed alfalfa only. Likewise Lot IV, fed prairie hay, made much poorer gains than Lot I, while Lot V, fed half prairie hay and half alfalfa made satisfactory gains for calves being carried over winter. In all cases the gains on the rations containing alfalfa were made with a surprisingly small amount of feed. The good results from combining legume hay with carbonaceous rough- age are further shown in a trial by Waters at the Missouri Station.°° Two-yr.-old steers fed timothy hay and corn made much smaller gains than those fed clover hay and com. However, on clover hay, corn stover, and corn, as large gains were produced as when clover hay was the sole roughage. Smith"" reports that cattle full fed on corn with alfalfa as the only roughage are more subject to scours, which cause them to go off feed, than when some such carbonaceous roughage as prairie hay, sorghum hay, or corn stover is fed with the alfalfa. 763. legume hay with cottonseed meal. — Since legume hay is rich in protein it should not be fed as the chief roughage with cottonseed meal, which is itself so rich in this nutrient. Craig and Marshall found in trials at the Texas Station"^ that steers fed 5 lbs. of cottonseed meal and 2.8 lbs. rice bran per head daily with peanut hay developed looseness of the bowels and showed redness of the eyes and some swelling about the sheath; when changed to prairie hay the unfavorable symptoms disap- peared and the gains increased. Similar poor results were secured when alfalfa hay was fed with cottonseed meal. When shelled corn was sub- stituted for a part of the cottonseed meal, gains became normal. Legume hay serves its highest purpose when combined with such carbonaceous concentrates as corn, kafir, and milo. Where cottonseed meal is the chief concentrate leguminous roughages should be fed in limited amount, at most, along with such carbohydrate-rich roughages as forage from corn or the sorghums, or cottonseed hulls. 764. Clover hay. — The value of this standard roughage of the eastern corn belt compared with timothy hay, when both are fed with corn, is shown in the following table. This summarizes the results of a 180-day trial by Skinner and Coehel at the Indiana Station"^ and a 105-day trial by Waters at the Missouri Station,'^ both with 2-yr.-old steers : Clover hay and shelled corn compared with timothy hay and shelled corn Daily Feed for 100 Iba. gain Average ration gain Corn Hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Clover hay, 9.8 lbs. Shelled corn, 21.5 lbs 2.4 919 416 Lot II, Timothy hay, 6.4 lbs. Shelled com, 18.8 lbs 1 .8 1,086 380 «'Mo. Bui. 76. »'Tex. Bui. 76. ™Mo. Bui. 76. "Nebr. Bui. 116. "Ind. Bui. 129. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 469 In both trials the clover-fed lot ate more grain and roughage than Lot II, fed timothy, and made larger and more economical gains, requir- ing about 15.4 per ct. less corn for a given increase. Skinner and Cochel report that thruout the experiment the clover-fed steers were in better condition, had better appetites, and were more regular feeders. The timothy-fed steers were irregular in their appetites, and even when eat- ing a full feed seemed unsatisfied. At the close of the 6-months feeding period the average weight of the clover-fed steers was 1,373 lbs., and that of the timothy-fed steers 1,281 lbs. Waters found that corn was worth about 8 cents per bushel more when fed with clover or cowpea hay to fattening steers than when fed with timothy hay. (312, 347) 765. Clover vs. alfalfa hay. — In 2 trials at the Indiana Station^* Skinner and King compared the value of clover and alfalfa hay when fed either with shelled corn and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight or with the same feeds and an unlimited amount of corn silage. When fed without silage, clover hay made slightly larger gains and with slightly less feed per 100 lbs. gain than alfalfa hay. With corn silage, the results were reversed. We may therefore conclude that these hays have about equal value when fed in such rations. It should be pointed out, however, that all of these rations con- tained sufficient cottonseed meal to balance the ration fairly well without the legume hay. Since alfalfa hay is considerably richer than clover hay in protein, it is reasonable to hold that it is more efficient than clover in balancing a ration deficient in this nutrient. This view is substantiated in a trial by Wilson at the South Dakota Station*' in which yearling steers fed only alfalfa hay and corn silage during the first 91 days of the fattening period gained 2.5 lbs. per head daily, while others fed clover hay and silage gained only 2.3 lbs. and required more feed per 100 lbs. of gain. 766. Alfalfa hay as a nitrogenous supplement. — The value of alfalfa hay as a supplement to rations low in protein is shown in a series of 5 trials by Bliss at the Nebraska Station.*" Yearlings or 2-yr.-old steers were fed rations of corn and carbonaceous roughage (prairie hay, corn stover, or corn silage) to which were added quantities of alfalfa hay, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, and cold-pressed cottonseed' cake, supply- ing approximately equal amounts of protein. In these trials the lots fed alfalfa hay as the sole nitrogenous supplement made, on the average, the largest gains and reached the best finish, a fact of great importance to the corn-belt farmer who can grow this legume. (339) 767. Alfalfa with and without silage. — The results of 4 trials in which a ration of alfalfa hay and corn has been compared with one of alfalfa hay, corn silage, and com are summarized in the following table. In these trials 2-yr.-old steers averaging 945 lbs. were fed for periods rang- ing from 150 to 157 days. "Ind. Bui. 178; information to the authors. ™Nebr. Buls. 100, 116, 132. "S. D. Bui. 160. 470 FEEDS AND FEEDING Alfalfa with and without silage for fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 Iba. gain Average ration gain Com Hay Silage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, total of 30 steers* Alfalfa hay, 8.3 lbs. Com, 16.4 Ibs.f. ... 2.1 770 391 Lot II, total of 49 steers* Alfalfa hay, 3.9 lbs. Com silage, 20.6 lbs. Com, 14.7 Ibs.f .... 1 .9 761 200 1,070 *Average of 2 trials by Bliss and Lee (Nebr. Bui. 151), 1 by Lee at the Nebr. Station (Information to the authors), and 1 by Rusk at the 111. Station (Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1041). t Broken ear corn fed in Illinois trial reduced to shelled corn equivalent. The addition of corn silage to the excellent ration of alfalfa hay and com decreased rather than increased the gains. We might suppose that this was due to Lot II not eating sufficient alfalfa to balance their ration. However, at both the Nebraska and the Illinois Stations adding cotton- seed meal or cake to the ration fed Lot II, brought no larger gains. The relative economy of the rations fed Lot I and Lot II will depend on the cost of alfalfa and silage. In the Nebraska trials the cheaper gains were produced without silage. On the other hand, Rusk concludes that in Illinois the larger the proportion of silage to alfalfa, the cheaper will be the gain. 768. Fattening cattle on alfalfa and other roughage. — In some sections of the West where alfalfa is abundant and the market does not pay a higher price for a well finished animal than for one in only fair flesh, cattle are fed on alfalfa alone or alfalfa and other roughages without concentrates, when they are not marketed directly from the range. To determine whether it would be profitable to feed a limited allowance of corn in addition to alfalfa, either thruout the feeding period or for the last part only, Simpson fed yearling range steers as shown below for 90 days at the New Mexico Station."^ Alfalfa alone, vs. alfalfa and corn stover, vs. alfalfa and corn Daily Feed cost per gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Dollars Alfalfa alone 1 .84 3 .92 Alfalfa plus com stover 1 . 17 4 .01 Alfalfa plus 8 lbs. com meal per day 2 .58 7 .33 Alfalfa plus com during last 30 days 2 .06 5 .55 The Steers fed alfalfa alone made larger gains than those fed alfalfa and corn stover, and were in much better condition at the end of the trial. Those fed corn, either thruout the trial or during only the last month made better gains than those fed hay alone, but under New Mexico conditions the gains were much more expensive, with corn at $35 and alfalfa hay at $10 per ton. In a trial by Vernon and Scott at the same Station*^ 2-yr.-old range steers averaging 550 lbs. gained 1.7 "N. Mex. Rpt. 21, p. 32. "»N. Mex. Bui. 57. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 471 lbs. per head daily on alfalfa hay alone, making a total gain of 205 lbs. per steer, and requiring only 1,100 lbs. of alfalfa hay per 100 lbs. of gain. This shows the marked economy of alfalfa for feeding steers for the local markets in the western alfalfa districts. True and McConnell of the Arizona Station,"' after 6 feeding trials, conclude that, where no concentrates are fed, alfalfa hay alone is about equal in feeding value to alfalfa hay combined with such carbonaceous roughages as com, kafir, and sweet sorghum. Where water is abundant alfalfa hay is cheaper than the other roughages, but where it is in scant supply or the soil is excessively alkaline, kafir and the sweet sorghums form economical roughages in combination with alfalfa. 769. Sweet clover hay; cowpea hay. — ^When fed with corn silage and without concentrates to yearling steers during the first 91 days of fat- tening, Wilson of the South Dakota Station'"' found sweet clover hay practically equal to alfalfa hay. The steers in both lots made average daily gains of over 2.4 lbs. Some difficulty was experienced in getting the steers to eat the sweet clover hay until it was run thru a hay cutter. (352) Waters found cowpea hay fully equal to clover hay when fed with shelled com in a trial at the Missouri Station'^ in which 2-yr.-old steers were fed for 105 days, the average daily gain for both lots being 2.7 lbs. (357) 770. Grazing cowpeas and com, — Bennett of the Arkansas Station'* sowed cowpeas in a five-acre corn field. In October, after gathering the com, steers were turned into a portion of the field to graze on the corn forage and cowpeas, with cotton seed accessible. When one-third of the field was grazed off, another portion was set aside, and so on until it was all grazed over. Six steers averaging 770 lbs. when turned into the field made an average daily gain of 2 lbs. each for 64 days, con- suming 250 lbs. of cotton seed in that time, besides corn forage and pea vines with pods. Bennett states that allowing for all expenses the gains made by the steers cost but $1.60 per 100 lbs. Such practice tends to soil improvement as well as cheap meat production. 771. Corn fodder or shock com; stover — It has already been pointed out that shock corn is often the most economical way to supply corn to fattening steers, especially during the first part of the fattening period. (735) As is shown later, fattening cattle fed bright corn fodder with legume hay, may make practically as large gains as those fed silage. (781) The economy of feeding silage lies in the smaller amount of feed required per 100 lbs. gain. (295, 302) The value of corn stover when combined with legume hay is shown in 2 trials by Smith at the Nebraska Station'^ in which lots of ten 2-yr.- old range steers, averaging 957 lbs., were fed the following rations : "Ariz. Bui. 50. "Mo. Bul. 76. "Nebr. Buls. 90, 93, 100. »S. D. Bul. 160. "Ark. Rpt. 1899. 472 FEEDS AND FEEDING Average ration gain Corn Roughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Corn stover fed in combination with alfalfa hay to fattening steers Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain " "oughai Lbs. Trial lasting 84 days Lot I, AUalfa hay, 22.2 lbs. Com, 9.5 lbs 2.1 460 1,075 Lot II, Com stover, 11.2 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 11.2 lbs. Com, 9.6 lbs 2 .0 490 1,144 Trial lasting 168 days Lot I, Alfalfa hay, 9.2 lbs. Com, 18.6 lbs 2.3 814 402 Lot II, Alfalfa hay, 4.9 lbs. Com stover, 4.9 lbs. Com, 18.4 lbs 2.4 789 456 Replacing half the alfalfa hay by corn stover did not affect the rate of gain in these trials. Thru thus combining such cheap roughage as corn stover with legume hay the cost of beef production may often be materially lowered. In these trials there is brought out incidentally the interesting fact that the short-fed steers required less than 500 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain, while the long-fed steers, which were of course much better fattened, required 800 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain — 69 per ct. more than the short-fed steers. (715) 772. Roughages for the plains district. — In the semi-arid districts fodder and stover from the sorghums, both sweet sorghum and the grain sorghums, are most useful feeds in beef production, when fed with legume hay or with a sufficient amount of nitrogenous concentrates to balance the ration. At the Hays, Kansas, Station''* Cochel wintered 4 lots each of 25 yearling heifers, averaging 667 lbs., on the following roughages with 1 lb. of linseed meal per head daily : Wintering yearling heifers in western Kansas Daily Cost per Average roughage allowance gain head daily* Lbs. Cents 7, Kafir stover, 12.9 lbs. Silage, 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs. . . 0.69 5.8 77, Sorghum stover, 6.6 lbs. Silage, 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs.. 0.67 5.7 777, Sudan hay, 7.5 lbs. Silage, 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs .67 5.7 IV, Alfalfa hay, 8.2 lbs. Silage, 10 lbs. Straw, 2.6 lbs 0.66 6.3 *Kafir and sorghum stover, S3, Sudan hay, SS, damaged alfalfa hay, 1(6, silage, S3, straw, S0.50, and linseed meal, $30.80 per ton. These heifers were carried thru the winter, making satisfactory gains to put them into condition to make good use of pasture the next sum- mer, at a surprisingly low cost. (The figures given include expenses for both feed and labor.) The alfalfa hay had been damaged and was therefore not marketable. This trial well shows the possibilities in beef production, where wise use is made of by-product roughages which would be wasted in a system of grain farming. (308) 773. Cottonseed hulls. — For many years the standard ration for fat- tening cattle in the South was cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls. This combination has been compared with a ration of cottonseed meal "Kansas Industrialist, May 1, 1915. Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed cost Initial Daily Cottonseed Hulls or of lOO weight gain meal silage lbs. gain Lba. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 473 and corn silage in 8 trials averaging 110 days, at 4 different stations, with the results summarized in the table : Cottonseed hulls vs. corn silage for fattening steers Average ration Lot I, total of ISl steers'' Cottonseed hulls, 25.2 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 6.9 lbs. .. . 924 1.5 466 1,690 12.78 Lot II, total of 111 steers* Com silage, 42.0 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 6.9 lbs.... 927 1.7 439 2,574 10.72 ♦Average of 4 trials by Curtis (N. C. Buls. 199, 218, 222), 1 by Lloyd (Miss. Station, information to the authors), 1 by Smith (S. C. Bui. 169), and 2 by Willson (Tenn. Bui. 104). In these trials the steers fed silage usually made slightly larger gains than those receiving hulls, but the chief difference was that with a single exception the silage-fed lot made by far the cheaper gains. As has already been shown (750), the longer the feeding period, the greater is the superiority of silage over hulls. In these trials the silage-fed steers almost uniformly showed better finish and better handling quality than those fed hulls. Willson points out that cottonseed hulls are so success- fully fed that there is a tendency on the part of many southern farmers to purchase hulls and allow more valuable roughage to waste on the farms. Willson reports that when 6 lbs. of hulls were given per head daily with com silage to steers fed cottonseed meal, slightly larger gains were produced than with corn silage as the sole roughage. On the other hand, in 3 trials at the North Carolina Station''^ Curtis found that on the average steers fed corn silage as the sole roughage with 7.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily made slightly larger gains than others fed corn stover in addition to corn silage and the same allowance of cottonseed meal. Whether silage should be fed as the sole roughage with cottonseed meal will therefore depend on the price at which dry roughages are available. Silage from sweet sorghum or the grain sor- ghums is but little inferior to corn silage as a roughage for steers fed cottonseed meal. (782) Compared with other dry roughages cottonseed hulls are exceedingly well suited to feed with cottonseed meal. Gray and Ward''* found in an Alabama trial with 855-lb. steers that when fed with cottonseed meal cottonseed hulls produced better gains than a combination of Johnson grass hay and cottonseed hulls. Duggar and Ward''' report that 2-yr.-old steers fed cottonseed meal and hulls made larger gains than others fed cottonseed meal with either shredded corn stover or cut sorghum hay. At the Texas Station^* Craig found that yearling steers fed cottonseed meal and hulls made nearly as large gains as those fed corn-and-cob meal and alfalfa hay. (251) "N. C. Bui. 222. "Ala. Bui. 103. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anlm. Indus., Bui. 159. "Tex. Bui. 76. 474 FEEDS AND FEEDING In a 119-day trial witli 1230-lb. steers at the Kentucky Station" Good found that slightly larger gains were produced on a ration of 21.3 lbs. broken ear corn, 3.5 lbs. cottonseed meal, 4.7 lbs. cottonseed hulls, and 4.3 lbs. clover hay than when the steers were fed the same feeds and all the corn silage they would consume. The silage ration, however, pro- duced the cheaper gains, and returned a greater profit. The great value and usefulness of corn silage in combination with cottonseed meal for fattening cattle, as demonstrated by the experiment stations of the South, should greatly stimulate cattle rearing and fattening in the cotton belt. III. Succulent Feeds 774. Importance of silage in beef production. — The use of silage is fast revolutionizing the feeding of beef cattle, just as it has the feeding of milch cows in the leading dairy sections of ouf country. Wherever either corn or the sorghums thrive, silage from these crops, cut when well matured, has proven of great value in cheapening the cost of beef production. (411) As is shown later (788-90), breeding cows and stock cattle may be maintained in winter in good condition on silage from well-matured corn or the sorghums, with a limited amount of legume hay or a small allowance of such nitrogenous concentrates as cottonseed or linseed meal. For growing animals this palatable suc- culence can not be excelled, when fed in proper combination with legume hay or concentrates rich in protein. (798-9) On well-balanced rations in which silage is the chief roughage the steer will fatten rapidly and reach a high finish on a moderate allow- ance of expensive concentrates. By feeding, during the first stages of fattening, only silage and either legume hay or a small allowance of some nitrogenous concentrate to balance the ration, the feed cost of the gains may usually be still further reduced. At first it was thought that silage-fed cattle shrank more in shipment than those finished on dry roughage. Trials have now abundantly demonstrated, however, that if silage is withheld for the last day or two before shipment and dry roughage fed instead, cattle thus fattened will not shrink any more than those receiving no silage. 775. Com silage. — Silage from well-matured corn, carrying an abund- ance of ears, is the best of all silage for beef cattle. (300-4) Such silage carries a high proportion of grain and aids materially in reducing the amount of concentrates which need be supplied in addition. Many ex- perienced cattle feeders prefer silage from corn which is even more mature than the stage at which it is usually cut for dairy cattle. When the corn is cut when nearly mature, especial care must be taken in tramp- ing the silage, or it may mold. To show the good results from feeding corn silage there are summarized in the following table the results of 10 trials where corn silage was added to the already excellent ration of "Information to the authors. Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed cost Ctonoeu- of 100 tratoB Hay Silage lbs. gain Lb8. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 475 shelled corn, cottonseed or linseed meal, and clover or alfalfa hay. In these trials 2-yr.-old steers averaging 1,006 lbs. in weight were fed for an average of 162 days. Value of corn silage when added to an already excellent ration Average ration gi^ Lbs. Lot I, total of 106 steers" Legume hay, 10.7 lbs. Shelled com, 18.0 lbs. Supplement, 2.8 lbs 2.47 849 435 ... 11.66 Lot II, total of 106 steers" Com silage, 23.6 lbs. Legume hay, 3.8 lbs. Shelled com, 15.0 lbs. Supplement, 2.9 lbs 2.51 716 152 952 10.18 'Average of 8 trials by Skinner, Cochel, and King (Ind. Buls. 129, 136, 153, 163, 167, 178, and informa- tion to the authors) , 1 by Allison (Mo. Bui. 112) , and 1 by Evvard at the Iowa Station (Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1040). The steers in Lot II, given a heavy allowance of silage, consumed 23.6 lbs. per head daily and ate 3 lbs. less corn and 6.9 lbs. less legume hay than those in Lot I. The silage ration did not produce appreciably larger gains than did legume hay fed as the sole roughage. The prin- cipal advantage from feeding silage is shown in the feed required per 100 lbs. gain and in the feed cost of the gains. The 952 lbs. of silage eaten by Lot II per 100 lbs. gain saved 133 lbs. of concentrates and 283 lbs. of legume hay, or about 16 per ct. of the concentrates and 65 per ct. of the hay eaten by Lot I. Substituting silage for this amount of concentrates and hay reduced the feed cost of the gains $1.38 per 100 lbs., a sum which would often make the difference between feeding at a loss and making a goodly profit. The silage-fed steers were slightly better finished on the average and sold for 3 cents more per 100 lbs. than those fed no silage. 776. Feeding a supplement with unlimited silage allowance. — ^We have seen that a ration of corn and legume hay is fairly well balanced and that the addition of a nitrogenous concentrate does not greatly increase the rate of gain with 2-yr.-old steers. (733) When steers are allowed an unlimited allowance of silage in addition to corn and legume hay, owing to the great palatability of the silage they will generally eat but 3 to 6 lbs. of hay per head daily, while they will eat 25 to 30 lbs. of corn silage during the first weeks of fattening, and gradually less as fattening progresses. To determine whether this small amount of clover hay is sufficient to balance the large quantity of com and corn silage consumed, Skinner and Cochel conducted 2 trials at the Indiana Station*" and Allison 1 at the Missouri Station** with 2-yr.-old, 1035-lb. steers fed for an average of 153 days. «' Ind. Bui. 129. " Mo. Bui. 112. 476 FEEDS AND FEEDING Adding a nitrogenous supplement to corn, corn silage, and clover hay Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed cost , .. Daily Concen- of 100 Average ration ^in trates Hay Silage lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars Lot I Shelled com, 16.7 lbs. Com silage, 17.0 lbs. Clover hay, 4.2 lbs 2.0 852 215 855 9.05 Lot II Nitrogenous supplement, 2.8 lbs. Shelled com, 17.3 lbs. Com silage, 17.3 lbs. Clover hay, 4.2 lbs 2.8 722 151 610 7.95 The steers in Lot II, fed 2.8 lbs. of nitrogenous supplement (cotton- seed or linseed meal) in addition to shelled corn, corn silage, and clover hay, gained 0.8 lb. more per head daily than Lot I, receiving no supplement. The feed cost of 100 lbs. gain for Lot II was $1.10 lower than for Lot I, and furthermore Lot II sold for 30 cents per 100 lbs. more on account of better finish. The nutritive ratio of the rations fed Lot I in these trials was 1 : 9 or wider, while with Lot II it was 1 : 7 or narrower. These trials hence indicate that for the most rapid fattening the 2-yr.-old steer should receive a narrower nutritive ratio than 1 : 9. There appears to be less advantage in adding a nitrogenous concen- trate to a ration of corn, corn silage, and alfalfa hay, doubtless due to the richness of this hay in protein. Bliss and Lee have studied this problem in 2 trials at the Nebraska Station''' and Kusk in 1 trial at the Illinois Station.'^ In no trial did the addition of a supple- ment (cottonseed meal or cold-pressed cake) increase the gains. The use of the supplement did, however, result in better finish and a con- sequent higher selling price. When a carbonaceous roughage, such as prairie or timothy hay, corn or kafir fodder, or straw, is fed with corn and corn silage the need of a nitrogenous supplement will be greater than when clover hay is used. 777. Amount of nitrogenous supplement with silage. — To determine how much cottonseed meal should be given to 2-yr.-old steers full fed on shelled com, corn silage and clover hay. Skinner and King fed one lot of 10 steers 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight and another lot 1.25 lbs. daily in 2 trials at the Indiana Sta- tion,** lasting 150 and 160 days. Two similar trials lasting 175 and 180 days, were conducted'^ to determine whether it was more profitable to feed 2.5 or 4.0 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight to steers fed shelled corn, corn silage, and oat straw, with the results shown in the table : "Nebr. Bui. 151 and information to the authors. "Ind. Bui. 153. »»JBreeder's Gaz,, 61, 1912, p. 1041, »» Ind. Buls. 167, 178, FEEDS FOE FATTENING CATTLE 477 Amount of cottonseed meal to feed with corn and corn silage Feed for 100 lbs. gain Nutri- Daily allowance of cottonseed meal Initial Daily Concen- Dry aiioiTA ^^^® per 1,000 lbs. live weight weight gain trates roughage °"*8e ratio < Lbs. Lbs. LbSk Lbs. Lbs. With clover hay and silage Lot I Cottonseed meal, 2.5 lbs 1,011 2.6 760 261 671 1:6.7 Lot II CottonBeed meal, 1.25 lbs. .. . 1,004 2.3 792 280 714 1:7.9 With oat straw and sUmge Lot I Cottonseed meal, 2.5 lbs 908 2.5 676 36 1,062 1:7.0 Lot I J Cottonseed meal, 4.0 lbs 904 2.4 707 33 1,072 1:5.6 With corn silage and clover hay for roughage, 1.25 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight (the ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 :7.9) was not sufficient to balance the ration, as is shown by the larger and more economical gains of the steers fed 2.5 lbs. (this ration having a nutritive ratio of 1:6.7). The second division of the table shows that with corn silage and oat straw for roughage, 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight (the nutritive ratio being 1 :7.0) produced larger and more economical gains than the allow- ance of 4 lbs. (the nutritive ratio of the latter ration being 1 : 5.6). The steers fed the smaller allowance were also equally well finished at the end of the trials. 778. Silage as the sole roughage. — ^Whether steers fed silage alone for roughage will make as large gains as those supplied some dry roughage in addition, is a question of great importance to the cattle feeder. The following table summarizes the results of 9 trials, in each of which com silage was fed as the sole roughage with com and a nitrogenous supplement (cottonseed or linseed meal) to one lot of steers, while another received the same feeds with legume hay in addition. In these trials 2-yr.-old steers averaging 942 lbs. were fed for an average of 156 days. Silage as the sole roughage vs. silage and legume hay Daily ^^^ consumed for 100 lbs. gain ^ol "^Oo"' Average ration gain Concentrates Hay Silage lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars jers* lbs. Com, f3.5 lbs Lot I, total of 87 steers* Com silage, 29.2 lbs. Supplement, 2.7 lbs. 2.24 693 ... 1,283 9.13 Lot II, total of 87 steers* Legume hay, 4.3 lbs. Com silage, 24.3 lbs. Com, 13.8 lbs. Supplement, 2.7 lbs. 2.36 701 195 1,065 9.87 *Av. of 5 trials by Skinner, Coohel, and King (Ind. Buls. 136, 153, 163, 167) , 1 by Allison (Mo. Bui. 112), 1 by Eward at the Iowa Station (Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1040), 1 by Rusk at the 111. Station (Breeder's Gaz., 61, 1912, p. 1041), and 1 by Tomhave and Hickman (Penn. Bui. 133). 478 FEEDS AND FEEDING Lot II, receiving legume hay in addition to corn silage, made slightly larger gains than Lot I, which was fed no dry roughage. The addition of clover hay to the ration increased the feed cost of 100 lbs. gain by $0.74 on the average but resulted in slightly better finish, the steers in Lot II selling for 7 cents more per 100 lbs. than those in Lot I. In some of the trials the selling price of Lot II was enough higher to offset the more expensive gains, and return a greater profit. In others, feeding silage as the only roughage was the most economical. Where the silage was from corn which had nearly matured and hence was high in dry matter, the addition of dry roughage did not always increase the gains. As steers fed clover hay in addition to corn silage, ate but little hay. Skinner and King thought that possibly the benefit from the hay lay more in satisfying the appetites of the steers for dry roughage than in the nutrients actually supplied. Accordingly, they conducted 2 trials*" in which either clover hay or oat straw was fed with corn silage, shelled corn, and 2.5 lbs. of cottonseed meal daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight. In both trials, tho the steers ate an average of but 1.5 lbs. oat straw, this seemed to satisfy their desire for dry roughage, and they made as large gains, at less cost for feed, and sold for fully as high a price as those fed clover hay. It should be pointed out that these results would not have been secured had not sufficient cotton- seed meal been fed to balance the oat straw, com silage, and corn ration. In a trial at the Nebraska Station*^ Bliss and Lee found that adding 4.0 lbs. of prairie hay per head daily to a ration of corn silage, corn, and cold-pressed cottonseed cake, while not increasing the gains of 2-yr.-old steers, did decrease the feed cost of the gains and result in better finish and greater profit. In a similar trial at the South Dakota Station*' Wilson secured larger and cheaper gains with yearling steers when prairie hay was added to a ration of com silage, shelled com, and linseed meal. These extensive trials teach that steers will usually make larger gains and reach a higher finish when fed a small amount of dry rough- age in addition to silage. An important fact is that this dry roughage may consist of such cheap material as oat straw, rather than the far more expensive legume hay, when a nitrogenous concentrate is fed to balance the ration. 779. Restricting concentrates during first stages of fattening. — It has already been pointed out that it is often profitable to feed only rough- ages during the first few weeks of the fattening period, with 2 or 3 lbs. of some .nitrogenous concentrate, if needed, to balance the ration. (716) Especially good results are secured with this system where the chief roughage is silage from well-eared corn. At the Kentucky Sta- tion in a 159-day trial Good*' fed a lot of ten 1062-lb. steers receiving "Ind. Buls. 163, 167. '«S. D. Bui. 137. "Nebr. Bui. 151. '"Information to the authors. Feed for 100 lbs. rain Feed cost Daily Concen- C seed Com of 100 gain tratea hulls Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. silage lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 479 corn silage and cottonseed hulls for roughage, broken ear corn and cottonseed meal, while a second lot, otherwise fed the same, was fed no corn for the first 2 months, and thereafter shelled com. Cheapening gains by Umiting concentrates during first of fattening period Average ration Lot I, corn thruout trial Broken ear com, 13.6 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 3.4 lbs. Com silage, 22.6 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 3.7 lbs 2.0 866 188 1,150 13.12 Lot II, no corn for first S mo. . Shelled com, 7.0 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4.0 lbs. Com silage, 36.3 lbs. Cottonseed hulls, 4.3 lbs 2.4 472 182 1,541 10.43 In this trial the gains of Lot II, fed no corn during the first 2 months, were not only considerably cheaper, but also somewhat larger than those of Lot I, fed com from the beginning of the trial. The cause of the larger gains of Lot II, which received less com, is prob- ably to be found in the fact that, as has already been mentioned, (736) shelled corn gives somewhat better results with corn silage than does ear corn. 780. Silage with small eoncentrate allowance. — To determine the gain made by yearling steers fed com silage as the sole roughage and only a small allowance of concentrates, Wilson"" fed 3 lots each of four 648-lb. steers the rations shown in the table for 146 days at the South Dakota Station : Fattening steers on silage with, a small concentrate allowance Feed for 100 lbs. gain Feed Daily Concen- Corn cost of 100 gain tratea dlage lbs. gain. Average ration Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars /, Linseed meal, 3.0 lbs. Silage, 48.3 lbs 2.4 120 1,970 5 .86 II, Cottonseed meal, 3.0 lbs. Silage, 41.3 lbs 2.0 160 2,120 6.64 III, Dried distillers' gr., 3.0 lbs. Silage, 44.0 lbs. . . 2 .2 130 2,030 5 .50 *Linseed meal and cottonseed meal, $32.00; dried distillers' grains, $24.00; and corn silage, $4.00 per ton The silage was of poor quality, for it was cut after having been thrice frosted and when most of the ears were in the milk stage. With only 3 lbs. of concentrates per head daily and this poor silage as the sole roughage, these steers made surprisingly good gains. With feeds at the high prices indicated the gains were exceedingly cheap. This, trial shows the possibilities of producing cheap beef thru the use of silage and but a small amount of high-grade concentrates. Tho steers so fattened may not yield "prime" beef, yearlings such as these will furnish meat of a quality which will please all but the most exacting. In this trial the steers fed linseed meal made somewhat the largest gains and at the close of the trial had the appearance of corn-fed "S. D. Bui. 148. 480 FEEDS AND FEEDING animals. Owing to the low price of dried distillers' grains, the gains on this concentrate were the cheapest. 781. Corn silage vs. shock corn. — Mumford of the Illinois Station*^ divided a bunch of 50 good, thrifty 8-months-old grade Hereford and Shorthorn steer calves, weighing about 500 lbs. each, into 2 lots of 25 each. During 88 days each lot was fed 2 lbs. of oats per head daily, with mixed hay and either corn silage or shock corn from the same field, part having been placed in the silo and the remainder cured in the shock. The calves were not heavily fed, but merely kept in good growing condition, with the results shown in the table : Corn silage vs. shock corn for wintering steer calves Daily Corn forage fed Total gain of Average roughage allowance gain Weight Area Steers Pigs Lbs. Tons Acres Lbs. Lbs. /, Silage, 26.1 lbs. Mixed hay, 4.6 lbs 1.7 28.8 3.7 3,693 87 77, Shock corn, 13.2 lbs. Mixed hay, 4.0 lbs 1.4 14.6 5.3 3,133 587 The table shows that the silage-fed calves gained 560 lbs. more than those getting shock corn. Lot I consumed 28.8 tons of corn silage, grown on 3.7 acres. In the same time Lot II consumed 14.6 tons of shock corn, grown on 5.3 acres, or 43 per ct. more area than was re- quired to furnish the corn silage. The silage-fed calves in Lot I gained 3,693 lbs. and the pigs following them only 87 lbs. The steers in Lot II, getting shock corn, gained only 3,133 lbs., but the pigs fol- lowing them gained 587 lbs. Combining the gains of calves and pigs, the gross returns were practically equal for the 2 lots, but, measured by the area of land required, corn silage was 30 per ct. ahead of shock corn in feeding value. In a 130-day trial at the Missouri Station'^ Allison found that 2-yr.- old steers fed corn silage with clover hay, shelled corn, and linseed meal made no larger gains than those getting shock corn. However, the silage-fed steers required less concentrates for 100 lbs. gain, made cheaper gains, and sold for 10 cents more per 100 lbs. Including the returns from the pigs following the steers, a ton of dry matter in silage had over 50 per ct. greater feeding value than a ton of dry matter in shock corn. (302) 782. Kafir and sorghum silage. — In silage from the sorghums the feeder in the semi-arid sections has an admirable substitute for corn silage. (309) During each of 3 years Cochel wintered steer calves at the Kansas Station"^ on silage from corn, kafir, or sweet sorghum, with the results shown in the table. In addition to the silage, during the first and third years 1 lb. of cottonseed meal was fed per head daily and during the second year 1 lb. of corn and 1 lb. of linseed meal. Forty-two calves were fed each kind of silage for periods averaging 107 days. "111. Bui. 73. "Mo. Bui. 112. »=Kan. Bui. 198; Kansas Industrialist, Apr. 18, 1914, May 1, 1915. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 481 Kafir and sorghum silage compared with corn silage Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Silage eaten per head daily gain Concentrates Silage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot J, Com silage, 26.8 lbs 1.15 113 2,330 Lot II, Kafir silage, 26.3 lbs 1.25 104 2,104 Lot III, Sweet sorghum silage, 26.6 lbs 1 .08 127 2,467 In these trials the different kinds of silage had about the same value, kafir being slightly superior to corn, and sweet sorghum ranking lowest. Cochel advises growing for silage whichever crop will yield the greatest tonnage. 783. Comparison of silages for the South. — ^Lloyd of the Mississippi Station"* conducted a 137-day trial with 4 lots, each of 4 to 5 steers averaging 1,145 lbs., to compare the values of silage from corn, sweet sorghum, cowpeas and Johnson grass, and corn stover. The steers in each lot were fed 6.5 lbs. cottonseed meal per head daily, with silage as shown in the table : Silage from sorghum, cowpeas and Johnson grass, and corn stover Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Silage per head daily gain Meal Silage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Com silage, 46.1 lbs 1.8 365 2,588. Lot II, Sweet sorghum silage, 46.1 lbs 1.6 411 2,911 Lot III, Cowpea and Johnson-grasa silage, 46.1 Lot /F, Com-stover silage, 46.i lbs 0.7 997 7^070 Corn silage gave the best results, followed closely by sweet sorghum silage. Corn stover silage produced the lowest gains, due to the fact that it contained no grain and also because much was refused by the steers. 784. Roots. — ^Wherever corn or the sorghums thrive, silage from these crops provides cheaper succulence than do roots. In northern districts where root crops flourish but where corn will not mature sufficiently for silage, roots are a valuable feed for beef cattle. At the South Dakota Station"" in a 90-day trial Wilson fed lots of 4 yearling steers, each averaging 800 lbs., 19.4 lbs. of shelled corn and 1.7 lbs. linseed meal per head daily with hay and silage from corn in the dent stage or roots, as indicated in the table, to compare the value of these succu- lent feeds : Roots vs. corn silage for fattening steers Feed for 100 lbs. gain Daily Conoen- Prairie Silage Allowance per head daily gain trates hay or roots Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Com silage, 7.0 lbs. Prairie hay, 5.8 lbs 2.54 835 227 277 Lot II, Sugar beets, 6.3 lbs. Prairie hay, 5.51bs 2.55 823 217 248 Lot III, Mangels, 9.0 lbs. Prairie hay, 7.4 lbs 2.61 813 284 343 Lot IV, Stock beets, 8.9 lbs. Prairie hay, e.llbs 2.39 873 257 374 "Information to the authors. "S. D. Bui. 137. 482 FEEDS AND FEEDING In this trial when fed in a limited allowance of 6 to 9 lbs. per head daily, roots were fully equal, pound for pound, to good corn silage. Mangels were more palatable than the other roots and produced the largest gains. In 2 trials at the Ontario Agricultural College"* in which a larger allowance of silage or roots was fed than in the fore- going trial, Day found that silage had a somewhat higher value, pound for pound, than roots, due to the larger percentage of dry matter it contains. (365-73) 785. Sweet potatoes; cassava; Japanese cane. — ^At the Florida Station"^ Stockbridge fed 3 lots of 4 steers each averaging 446 lbs. the following rations for 70 days to test the value of sweet potatoes and cassava in beef production. Cassava and sweet potatoes for fattening steers Average ration per 1,000 lbs. live weight Daily gain Lbs. Feed for 100 lbs. gain Concentrates Rougliage Lbs. T.ha. Lot I Sweet potatoes, 35 lbs. Pear-vine hay, 10 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4 lbs . . 1.8 226 2,541 hot 11 Cassava, 35 lbs. Pea-vine hay, 10 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 4 lbs. . . 2.1 195 2,188 Lot HI Crab-grass hay, 20 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 5 lbs. Com meal, 5 lbs 1.9 517 1,033 It is shown that cassava and sweet potatoes are satisfactory in beef production when combined with pea-vine hay and cottonseed meal. The steers fed crab-grass hay required more than twice as much con- centrates for 100 lbs. of gain as those in the other lots. Scott of the same Station"* reports that steers fed on corn, velvet beans, and sweet potatoes barely maintained their weight, due to the fact that sweet potatoes are too laxative when fed without some roughage. When Japanese cane was added to the ration the results were satisfactory. In another trial by Scott®" 930-lb. steers fed an average ration of 21.3 lbs. Japanese cane, 7.3 lbs. corn, and 4.2 lbs. cottonseed meal gained 1.6 lbs. per head daily for 90 days, requiring 698 lbs. of concentrates and 1,298 lbs. of Japanese cane for 100 lbs. gain. 786. British system of fattening cattle. — The great value of succulence in reducing the amount of high-priced concentrates needed to fatten cattle is well shown in the extensive compilation by Ingle^"" of all the cattle-feeding trials carried on in Great Britain between the years 1835 and 1908 — 201 in number. From this report the following examples are chosen as broadly illustrating the British system of fattening beef cattle. "Ont. Agr. Col. Rpts. 1901, 1902. "Tla. Rpt. 1901. "Fla. Rpt. 1909. "Pla. Rpt. 1912. ""Trans. Highl. and Agr. See. of Scotland, 1909. FEEDS FOR FATTENING CATTLE 483 Rations used hy British farmers in heef production Initial Daily Total gain Average ration No. weight gain per head fed Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Shorthorns, S to S years old, fed 98 days Swedes, 171 lbs. Linseed cake, 2.4 lbs. Straw, 14 lbs. Com meal, 2.0 lbs 4 1,305.0 3.0 292 Irish yearlings, fed 11$ days Turnips, 50 lbs. Cottonseed cake, 3.6 lbs. Oat straw, 8.4 lbs. Dried brewers' grains, 5.8 lbs. 10 942.2 1.3 149 Irish 2-yr. -olds, fed 13S days Roots, 112.0 lbs. Hay and straw, 8.0 lbs. Linseed cake, 8.7 lbs. 4 1,030.4 2.1 280 Aherdeen-Angtis, fed 112 days Mangels, 108.8 lbs. Oatstraw, 8.0 lbs. Cottonseed cake, 3.0 lbs. . 6 947.6 1.9 211 Galloways, $ to S years old, fed 100 days Swedes, 150.0 lbs. Oat straw, 7.0 lbs. No concentrates 3 933.0 1.4 143 Irish S-yr.-olds, fed 88 days Pasture Cottonseed cake, 2.8 lbs. Com meal, 2.8 lbs. 10 876.2 3.7 322 Shorthorn S-yr.-olds, fed 123 days Swedes, 40.5 lbs. Cottonseed cake, 5.0 lbs. Hay, 16.2 lbs. Linseed cake, 3.0 lbs. Barley.l.Olb 8 1,178.4 2.4 294 The American cattle feeder who critically reviews the data given will be impressed first of all with the surprisingly small amount of concentrates employed in the ration. In the 201 trials presented by Ingle the largest amount of concentrates fed per head daily to any lot was 13 lbs. In a few cases no concentrates were fed, but usually the allowance for each bullock was 6 or 7 lbs. per day. The rich nitroge- nous concentrates such as linseed meal, cottonseed meal, dried brew- ers' and distillers' grains, and peanut cake are the ones commonly employed, followed by barley and com meal more sparingly used. Equally striking is the heavy use of roots, the amount fed ranging from 35 lbs. per head daily to above 150 lbs. in extreme cases. The light feeding of concentrates and the heavy feeding of roots is accom- panied by the large consumption of hay and straw, which the British feeder chaffs or cuts, and mixes with the pulped or sliced roots and meal before feeding. It will be further observed that the British farmer generally feeds quite mature bullocks, and that the feeding period is relatively short, ranging from 80 to 120 days. It is probable that the cattle are usually in good flesh when the feeding begins. In studying these figures we should remember that it was the British farmer who originated and developed all the valuable breeds of beef cattle now scattered over the globe, and his ability and success in pro- ducing beef of high quality is unquestioned. With the high prices now prevailing for concentrates in this country and the ever upward tendency, our feeders may wisely adopt a similar system of beef production, em- ploying silage from corn and the sorghums instead of the roots which are the basis of English feeding. CHAPTER XXVIII RAISING BEEF CATTLE I. The Breeding Heed In establishing a herd from which to breed animals for beef produc- tion the first step should be to select well-bred individuals of the beef breeds, having the conformation which betokens off-spring that will make economical gains, mature early, and yield carcasses with a large per- centage of high-priced cuts of meat. (717-25) Where cows are kept only for raising calves for beef, the cost of their keep for an entire year must be charged against the fatted steer. In reducing the cost of beef production it is therefore essential that the breeding herd be maintained as cheaply as possible, yet kept in vigorous breeding condition. 787. Breeding cows. — Cows kept solely for beef production are com- monly grazed on pasture during the growing season, the suckling calves running with their dams. Usually the pastures thus utilized will be the land least suited to tillage. Where land is high-priced and there is but little waste land for grazing, the herd may often be maintained most cheaply on limited pasturage supplemented by summer silage. (412) Pure water, salt, and shade should always be supplied the herd at pasture. In winter the herd may be maintained entirely on roughage where legume hay is available, or on carbonaceous roughages with enough of some . such nitrogenous concentrate as cottonseed or linseed meal to balance the ration. They should not be allowed to run down in flesh, else they will be unable to produce vigorous calves and nourish them with a goodly flow of milk. (91, 120) The winter feed and care may range from the most intensive system, where the herd is fed in barn or shed with the freedom of exercise paddocks, to the practice yet followed in some of the grazing districts of the West, where the only feed is that furnished by the winter range on which the grass has been allowed to grow up and mature. However, bitter experience has taught the western stockman that he must provide against winter's rigors by having available a supply of feed to supple- ment the range. On many farms the herd may glean much of their living from aftermath and stalk or stubble fields, thereby materially reducing expenses. 788. Wintering beef cows. — Mumford of the Illinois Station^ divided a lot of 860-lb. grade Angus cows which had suckled their calves the previous summer and were thin in flesh into bunches of 10 each and '111. Bui. 111. 484 EAISING BEEF CATTLE 485 fed them the rations shown below during 140 days in winter. Twenty- eight per ct. of the corn silage and 54 per et. of the shock corn con- sisted of ears. Wintering breeding cows on silage and shock corn Daily At. gain ain per hea ' lbs. Lbs. Average ration gain per head lib Lot I Com silage, 16.7 lbs. Oat straw, 9.6 lbs. Clover hay, 3.5 lbs 1.1 150 Lot II Shock com, 8.7 lbs. - Oat straw, 10.8 lbs. Clover hay, 3.5 lbs 0.8 106 Lot III Com stover (42 days), 21.7 lbs. Shredded stover (98 days), 10.3 lbs. Oat straw, 8.2 lbs. Clover hay, 1.6 lbs. 0.4 58 At the close of the trial the cows in Lot III, fed only 1.6 lbs. of clover hay, were in poor condition, having made but small gain. The cows of Lots I and II, which had made good gains, appeared about the same until after calving, when those in Lot I, which had been fed silage, were in decidedly superior form. It required the feed grown on one- third of an acre to support a cow making fair gains for 140 days vrith Lots I and II, and that from one-fifth of an acre to little more than maintain a cow of Lot III. 789. Wintering beef cows on silage and cottonseed meal. — ^During 3 winters Cochel, Tomhave, and Severson maintained one lot of 10 pure- bred Shorthorn cows and another of Aberdeen- Angus cows at the Penn- sylvania Station^ on silage as the sole roughage with 1 lb. of cottonseed meal per head daily. Both lots were kept in an open shed or a barn open on one side, with access to an adjacent lot. The results of the trials, which averaged 155 days, are shown in the following table : Wintering ieef cows on silage and cottonseed meal Initial Gain per Feed cost Total cost Value of Net coat Average ration weight head per head per head manure per head Lbs. Lbs. Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Lot I, Shorthorns Com silage, 58.8 lbs. Cottonseedmeal, 1.01b. 1,180 51 18.28 26.4? 7.33 19.14 Lot II, Angus Com silage, 57.8 lbs. Cottonseedmeal, 1.01b. 1,143 47 18.05 26.24 7.33 18.91 The cows in both lots were maintained in satisfactory condition on aU the silage they would eat, with only 1 lb. of cottonseed meal per head daily, even tho several were suckling calves during the winter. With corn silage at $3.50 and cottonseed meal at $30.00 per ton, the feed-cost of wintering the cows was $18.28 and $18.05. Including the straw used for bedding (1,088 lbs. per cow at $8 per ton), $2.34 per cow for labor, and $1.50 per cow for interest on shed and silo, the total gross cost per 'Penn. Bui. 118; Rpt. 1913; and information to the authors. 486 FEEDS AND FEEDING cow was $26.47 and $26.24, respectively, for the 2 lots. Deducting the value of th^ manure at $1.50 per ton, the net cost of wintering the cows was about $19 per head. During the remainder of the year the cows, with the calves at their sides, grazed a pasture so rough that it washed badly when in tilled crops. Allowing 2 acres of pasture per cow, the average yearly cost of main- taining the cows, including labor, was as follows: Cost of wintering, $19.02 ; cost of pasturing, $7.36 ; interest on value of cow, $5.40 ; service of sire, $2.00 ; total $33.78. With 80 per ct. of the cows raising calves each year, a calf at weaning time would cost $42.22. 790. Plains rations for wintering cows. — In a 100-day trial at the Hays, Kansas, Branch Station,' Cochel wintered 4 lots, each of nine- teen 905-lb. cows, on the roughages shown in the table with 1 lb. of cottonseed meal per head daily in addition : Average roughage allowance gain per head* Lb " Rations for wintering cows in the plains district Daily Feed cost gain per head ' Lbs. Dollars I, Kafir sikge, 35.6 lbs. Wheat straw, 14.2 lbs 1 .34 6 .30 //, Kafir silage, 20.0 lbs. Wheat straw, 17.2 lbs 0.56 4 .44 ///, Kafir fodder, 27.2 lbs. Wheat straw, 10.3 lbs .50 9 .91 IV, Kafir stover, 25.6 lbs. Wheat straw, 10.8 lbs .35 6 .61 * Kafir silage S2.66, kafir fodder $5.00, kafir stover $3.00, wheat straw S0.50, and cottonseed meal $30.00 per ton. Lot I, fed 35.6 lbs. kafir silage, 14.2 lbs. wheat straw, and 1.0 lb. cottonseed meal per head daily, made the largest gains, but at a greater cost than Lot II, where the silage allowance was only 20.0 lbs. Kafir silage not only carried the cows thru the winter in better condition than kafir fodder, but was also easier to feed. The advantage of ensiling the sorghum crop is shown by the fact that Lot II, fed kafir silage, con- sumed the crop from only half as large an area of kafir as Lot III, fed kafir fodder, and yet made as large gains. That fair results may be secured when only low-grade roughages are used with 1 lb. of cotton- seed meal per head daily is shown by Lot IV. In another trial Cochel* found that when cows were wintered on a ration of 12.1 lbs. kafir stover, 14.1 lbs. wheat straw, 5.4 lbs. kafir silage, and 1 lb. of cottonseed cake, the cost of feed per cow for 136 days was $5.70 and of labor, $1.94, making a total of $7.64, from which should be deducted the value of the manure produced. 791. The beef bull. — On the range the bulls run with the cows, but under farm conditions it is best to confine the bull during the summer, preferably in a well-fenced pasture lot. It will then be possible to keep a record of the date when the cows are due to calve, and the bull so handled can serve a larger number of cows a year. The same general principles apply to the feed and care of the beef buU as with the dairy buU, which have already been discussed. (708) As Mumford writes," "Kan. Bui. 198. 'Information to the authors. "Beef Production, p. 165. EAISING BEEF CATTLE 487 "He should be kept in good, thrifty condition, and if it is found that he requires an abnormal amount of feed to maintain this condition, in other words, that the bull is a 'hard keeper', he is not well calculated to sire cattle possessing good feeding qualities, and should be replaced. ' ' II. Raising Calves foe Beep; Veal Production 792. The beef calf. — ^Under the simplest method of beef production, as on the range, the calves are dropped in the spring and run with their dams during the summer. Under farm conditions some prefer to allow the calves to suck only at stated intervals, 3 times a day at first, and later twice. Where the calf remains with the dam her udder should, for a time, be stripped night and morning lest neglect bring garget and destroy her usefulness. If the calf is getting too much milk, as shown by scouring, cut off part, remembering that the last drawn portion is the richest in fat, and that richness as well as quantity causes digestive troubles. (117) The greatest danger under this system comes at wean- ing time, when, if the calf has not been taught to eat solid food, it pines and loses weight. To avoid this, before weaning it should be taught to eat shelled corn, whole oats, wheat bran, linseed meal, hay, etc. The first departure from this simple and primitive method is putting two calves with each cow, which is feasible where the cow yields a good flow of milk. Suckling calves should gain 2 lbs., or over, per head daily if their dams give a good flow of milk. At the Pennsylvania Station" Hunt fed 3 calves whole milk containing 4.6 per ct. of fat for 161 days. They gained 1.77 lbs. each daily, requiring 8.8 lbs. of whole milk, and 1 lb. of hay and 1 lb. of grain for each pound of growth. Martiny^ found that from 3.5 to 6 lbs. of new milk was sufficient to produce a pound of gain, live weight, with calves between the first and fifth weeks, while older ones required from 16 to 20 lbs. Linfield of the Utah Station* found that up to 14 weeks of age the calf takes less dry matter than the pig for 1 lb. of gain, and after that more, possibly because of the greater amount of roughage then used in the ration. Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station' found that calves required 1.03 lbs., lambs 1.08 lbs., and pigs 1.36 lbs. of dry matter in whole milk for each pound of gain made. (117) While in some districts it is still best to rear the beef calf on whole milk from dam or pail, over large sections of the country it is now more profitable to sell the fat of the milk in butter or cream and rear the calf on skim milk with proper supplements. This method involves in- creased labor, ^ill, and watchfulness on the part of the feeder, but its success has been widely demonstrated. The method to be employed is •Penn. Rpt. 1891. "Utah Bui. 57. 'Die Milch, 2, 1871, pp. 9-15. 'Conn. (Storrs) Rpt. 1904, p. 118. 488 FEEDS AND FEEDING not different from that already detailed for the rearing of the dairy calf, (678-94) except that the beef calf should be forced to more rapid gains thru more liberal feeding. Calves that fail to thrive when sucking the cow or when fed on rich milk should have their allowance reduced or should be given part skim milk. Lime water or wood ashes may possibly prove correctives in cases of trouble from this source. (117) The lime water used in such cases is made by dropping a lump of unslaked lime into a jug filled with water and keeping the jug corked. A tablespoonful or more of lime water should be given with each feed. After weaning, growth should be continuous. If the calves are not at pasture, they should be fed plenty of good roughage, with sufficient concentrates to produce the desired gains. As has been shown in the discussion of raising dairy heifers (704), for young beef cattle nothing excels good legume hay, rich in protein and bone-building mineral matter. Where this is not available nitrogenous concentrates should balance the ration. The majority of beef producers prefer to have calves dropped in the spring, as the cows may then be wintered more cheaply, with less shelter, and less care. Mumford^" points out that fall calves not fattened as baby beef must be carried thru 2 winters, while spring calves may be sold at the age of 18 to 20 months, after but 1 winter. Some, however, prefer fall calving, reasoning that the cow is in better condition to de- liver her calf after the summer on pasture and the fall calf is better able to handle grass, and endure the heat and flies the following season. 793. Veal production. — ^For the highest grade of veal whole milk is the sole feed allowed, and growth must be pushed as rapidly as possible, the whole process being completed before there is any tendency in the flesh to take on the coarser character of beef. Such veal commands a high price in some of the European markets, and the butchers are extremely expert in judging whether the calf has received any other feed than whole milk. Only when whole milk has been used exclusively, is the white of the eye of the veal calf free from any yellow tint, and the inside of the eyelids, lips, and nose perfectly white. In this country veal of this kind can be profitably produced only for a special market. A less expensive method of producing veal is to feed a limited amount of whole milk supplemented by grain, or skim milk may be gradually substituted, as with dairy calves. (687-8) "With the latter method, con- siderable skill is necessary to feed the calves so they will gain rapidly without going off feed. 794. Dutch veal. — In Holland, where unusually heavy, well-fatted calves are a specialty, the following practices are common, according to Forssell :^^ The new-born calf is placed in a stall 6.5 ft. long by 1.6 ft. broad and about 5 ft. high, the stall being so narrow that it cannot turn around, tho it can lie and stand comfortably. The floor of the stall is "Beef Production, p. 166. "Fodret ocli Utfodringen, 1893, p. 155. RAISING BEEF CATTLE 489 of slats or perforated boards, and is littered daily so that the animal has a perfectly dry berth. The calf barn is kept dark. Two or 3 times daily the calves get as much milk as they will drink, and during the first 14 days only the dam's milk is fed. Eggs or other by-feeds are not given. The calf consumes on the average about 34 lbs. of whole milk daily for the whole fattening period of 10 to 12 weeks, at the end of which time the veal is considered to be at its best. To prevent the calves from eating feed other than milk, they are muzzled if straw or other roughage is used for bedding. Finely-ground shells and sand are given to prevent scouring. The dressed weight ranges from 187 to 220 lbs., or, according to Rost,^^ from 220 to 330 lbs. One lb. of gain is made in the beginning from 8 lbs. of milk and toward the close from 12 lbs., the average being 10 Ibs.^^ The fat calf dresses from 55 to 60 per ct. of its live weight. 795. Scotch veal. — ^At Strathaven, Scotland, a region noted for the excellence of its veal,^* the youngest calves receive the first drawn milk and the older ones the last and richer portion. Thus one calf is often fed portions of milk from 2 or 3 cows. After the third week they receive as much milk twice a day as they will take. Following feeding they are bedded, the stable being kept rather warm and dark. Lumps of chalk are placed where the calves have access to them. The fattening period continues from 5 to 7 weeks, when a dressed weight of 100 to 120 lbs. is secured. In the vicinity of London veal calves fed for about 10 weeks in isolated pens, as in Holland, ordinarily dress 140 lbs. III. Growing Beef Cattle 796. Summer care. — Except where calves are being fattened for baby beef (820), growing beef cattle are not ordinarily given any feed in addition to good pasture. When necessary to keep the animals growing, additional feed should be supplied, such as summer silage, soiling crops, or specially grown pasture crops. Considerable fall pasturage is fur- nished by aftermath on meadows or by the stubble fields, especially where a small amount of rape seed is sown with the spring grain. 797. Wintering growing cattle. — The ration needed to carry grow- ing cattle thru the winter in good condition will depend on their age, and on whether it is desired to have them make substantial gains or merely come thru the winter in thrifty condition to make maximum gains on pasture the following summer. While yearlings and 2-yr.-olds may be wintered on roughage only, for calves 1 to 3 lbs. of concentrates per head daily will be needed in addition, for it is important to keep the calf growing steadily, enlarging its framework but not laying on fat. Where cattle are to be grazed the third summer without fattening, the effort should be to grow as large a framework as possible the second winter, "Molk. Zfeifc, 1894. p. 547. "Molk. Zeit, 1894, p. 547. "Kraft, Landwlrtscliaft, 3, p. 163. 490 FEEDS AND FEEDING leaving the animal thin but thrifty. Mumford writes:" "The more cattle gain on concentrated feeds in winter the less they wiU gain on grass in summer. That is to say, if corn is fed liberally during the winter months the cattle will not make as large gains when turned to grass as they would were they wintered on roughage, and not the best roughage at that." "Where cattle are to be fattened on pasture the summer following the second winter, a reasonable storage of fat toward the close of winter and in early spring will helpfully shorten the summer feeding period. In such eases excellent feeds for the last of winter and early spring are legume hay and silage rich in ear corn. These, with a moderate grain allowance, will warm the animals up, start fattening, and send them to grass in prime condition to make the most of the heavy feeding of grain which follows. Calves are not able to utilize such coarse roughages as older cattle will consume. At the North Platte, Nebraska, Station^* Snyder conducted 2 trials in which lots of 18 and 20 steer calves, respectively, were wintered on the roughages shown in the table with 2 lbs. per head daily in addition of a mixture of 2 parts corn and 1 part oats. The following and the second summers all lots ran on a canyon pasture. The second winter the steers were fed roughage alone. Average daily gains of steers fed various roughages during winter First year Second year Hay or fodder fed during winter Winter Summer Winter Summer Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Alfalfa 1 .08 1 .07 .72 .57 Alfalfa and prairie .99 0.93 .70 .55 Alfalfa and sorghum 1 .05 .94 .87 .49 Prairie 0.46 1.22 0.20 1.21 Sorghum 0.41 1.19 0.42 0.92 In all instances the steers fed prairie hay or sorghum fodder made much smaller winter gains than those fed alfalfa hay. When half al- falfa hay and half prairie hay or sorghum fodder was fed, the gains were about as large as when only alfalfa was fed. The steers that made the best winter gains made smaller gains the following summer, but the total gains for the entire year were larger for the lots fed some alfalfa. Trials by Cochel at the Kansas Station show that calves may be wintered satisfactorily on silage from corn, kafir, or sweet sorghum, with 1 lb. of cottonseed or linseed meal per head daUy in addition. (782) The manner in which cheap roughages may be largely utilized even in wintering calves, when combined with silage, is shown in a 144-day trial by Cochel" in which 30 calves fed a ration of 3.3 lbs. wheat straw, 2.3 lbs. com stover, 2.9 lbs. foxtail and damaged alfalfa hay, 6.8 lbs. kafir silage, and 0.8 lb. of a concentrate mixture, gained 41.8 lbs. each at a daily feed cost of 3.3 cents per head. The total gross cost of wintering "Beef Production, p. 46. "Information to the authors. »Nebr. Buls. 105, 117. RAISING BEEF CATTLE 491 the calves was only $5.72 per head, from which should be deducted the value of the manure. 798. Winteriiig yearlings without grain, — ^At the Missouri Station" during each of 4 winters Waters fed lots of 4 or 5 high-grade yearling Hereford and Shorthorn steers each for periods of 49 to 92 days. These steers, rather thin in flesh and averaging about 725 lbs. in weight, were fed the following roughages of medium quality, without grain, with the results shown below: Roughages for wintering yearling steers without grain Roughage Av. daily Average roughage allowance refused gain or loss Per ct. Lbs. Lot /, Timothy hay, 17.6 lbs." 16.3 +0.31 Lot //, Whole com stover, 31.3 lbs.* 40.8 -0.18 Lot III, Shredded com stover, 23.6 Ibs.f 35 .8 -0 .14 Lot IV, Ensiled com stover, 47.4 Ibs.f 4.6 +0 .58 Lot Y, Com stover, 13.6 lbs., clover hay, 13.6 Ibs.f 27 .0 +0 .44 * Four trials. t Two trials. It is shown that yearling steers in thin condition made only a small gain when wintered on timothy hay alone. Those fed whole or shredded field-cured com stover lost in weight, while on ensiled stover, or stover and clover hay there were substantial gains. Skinner and CocheP' in a survey of Indiana cattle feeding found that only about one-fourth of the feeders from whom replies were re- ceived fed grain in any form to stockers being carried thru the winter, and of these the majority fed grain late in the spring just previous to turning on grass. 799. Wintering yearlings with a limited grain allowance. — ^During 4 winters Waters^" compared various roughages when fed without limit to yearling steers with a limited allowance of shelled corn. Lots of 4 steers each, similar to those fed in the preceding trials and averaging about 750 lbs. in weight, were fed the rations given in the following table for periods of 66 to 120 days: Roughages for wintering steers getting a limited grain allowance Com fed Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average roughage allowance per day gain or loss Corn Roughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Whole com stover, 29.3 lbs.* 3.8 -0,32 Com stover, 11.0 lbs., clover hay, 10.9 Ibs.J 5 .3 1 .37 400 1,754 Clover hay, 19.0 Ibs.f 6.0 1.97 305 966 Timothy hay, 16-6 lbs. t 5.3 1.01 552 1,815 Cowpea hay, 19.0 lbs.f 5.5 1.42 362 1,343 Alfafia hay, 17.3 lbs.* 6 .0 1 .63 368 1,061 Millet hay, 13.1 lbs.* 6.0 0.37 1,613 3,516 Sorghum hay, 25.8 lbs.f 6 .0 .91 809 2,921 * One trial. t Two trials. t Three trials. The steers fed whole corn stover with an allowance of 3.8 lbs. of shelled com per day lost 0.32 lb. each daily. Those fed equal parts of ''Mo. Bui. 75. "Ind. Cir. 12. "Mo. Bui. 75. 492 FEEDS AND FEEDING stover and clover hay gained 1.37 lbs. each daily, requiring only 400 lbs. of corn and 1,754 lbs. of roughage for 100 lbs. of gain. Waters points out that stover serves best when combined with a limited quantity of clover or other leguminous hay, a point of great importance. The steers fed clover hay made nearly twice as large and far more economical gains than those fed timothy hay, another fact of great value to the feeder. Alfalfa hay proved about equal to clover hay, and cowpea hay of slightly lower value. Millet and sorghum hay made a poor showing w;hen fed with shelled corn. Waters concludes : ' ' One ton of timothy hay is worth as much as 3 tons of whole corn stover when each is the sole feed. (622) Shredding corn stover did not enhance its feeding value, and nearly as great waste occurred as with whole corn stover." While the steers fed whole, or shredded field-cured corn stover did not maintain their weight, those fed silage made from corn cut at the same time and from which all the ears had been removed made small daily gains. More dry matter was given in the stover, but a large part was left uneaten, while nearly all the silage was consumed. At the Tennessee Station^^ Willson fed 3 lots each of 5 steers and a fourth of 13 steers the rations shown in the following table for 133 days during the winter: Silage, straw, or cottonseed hulls for wintering stoclcers Average gain per head pgej „oat ^f Average -winter ration Winter Summer Total wintering Lbs. I Silage, 30.2 lbs ^8 //, Straw, 13.6 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 1 lb 21 III, Straw, 14.4 lbs. Cottonseed meal, 2 lbs 62 IV, C'seed hulls, 13.7 lbs. C'seed meal, 3 lbs. . -11 The steers fed corn silage alone failed to maintain their weight, while those fed straw (half oat and half wheat) with 1 to 2 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily made small gains in weight. In this trial straw was superior to cottonseed hulls. In another trial steers wintered on silage alone gained only 16.4 lbs. each, while others fed 1 lb. cottonseed meal per head daily in addition gained 109.6 lbs. Steers fed corn stover and 1 lb. of cottonseed meal gained 62.6 lbs. each. Willson concludes that corn stover or straw, with 1 to 2 lbs. of cottonseed meal per head daily, makes a satisfactory ration for wintering stocker steers that are to be grazed during the following summer and finished for the block the next winter. The larger the winter gain, the smaller was the summer gain generally, tho where the steers made no gains during the winter or lost in weight they made smaller total gains during the year than those which had gained 80 to 100 lbs. during the winter. "Infonnation to the authors. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 292 244 6.03 251 273 7.06 237 299 9.07 302 291 9.14 CHAPTER XXIX COUNSEL IN THE PEED LOT In an earlier chapter we have learned that the main object of fatten- ing is not the accumulation of fatty tissue in the body, but an improve- ment in the quality of the lean meat thru the deposition of fat in the lean-meat tissues. (121) When- fattening has progressed to this point the meat shows the characteristic "marbling" and is of better flavor and much more tender and juicy than that from the unfattened animal. Fat is concentrated fuel energy stored as surplus in the animal's body against the time of need. Impelled by a hearty appetite, under liberal feeding the steer at first lays on fat rapidly, storing it everywhere within the body — ^among the fibers of the muscles, within the bones, the body cavity, etc. After a few weeks on liberal feed the appetite loses its edge, and the steer shows indifference and a daintiness in taking his food not at first noticed ; every pound of increase now means the consumption of more food than formerly. The fattening process may be likened to inflating a collapsed football — the operation, easy and rapid at first, grows more and more difficult until the limit is reached. (714) The principal indications of a well-fattened animal which the experi- enced judge of beef cattle looks for are a fullness at the root of the tongue and the base of the tail, a well-filled flank, and a full "twist" and "cod," in addition to a smooth, firm covering of fat over the body. The increase of the growing animal is largely water, -with some protein, some fat, and a little mineral matter; the increase of the fattening animal on the other hand, is largely fat, with a little water, and a trace of protein and ash. It takes far more food for a given increase with the fattening than with the growing animal. The laying on of fat calls for heavy feeding with rich feed and is always an expensive process. 800. The ration for fattening. — In the general discussion of the re- quirements for fattening, given in Chapter V, we have seen that the nutrient requirements of the fattening animal differ materially from the requirements for growth. With the mature animal there is compara- tively little storage of protein or of mineral matter, as the muscular tissues and the skeleton are already grown. The ration may therefore have a relatively wide nutritive ratio, but even with a mature animal, when the nutritive ratio is wider than 1 : 8 or 1 : 10 the digestibility of the ration will be depressed and a waste of feed result. (84) In this country most of the beef cattle are now fattened before they are full-grown, and the tendency is increasing to shorten still further jthe peripd before the ^tepr reaches the block. For the fattening of such 493 494 FEEDS AND FEEDING animals sufficient protein must be furnished to provide for the growth in protein tissues which takes place during the fattening period. In the preceding chapter it has been pointed out that larger and more economical gains were made by 2-yr.-old steers on a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 :7.0 than when the ratio was 1 :9.0. (776) It has further been shown that when the nutritive ratio was 1:5.6 no larger gains were secured than when it was 1:7.0. (777) Studies made by the authors, of southern feeding trials in which the only concentrate used was cottonseed meal, show that exceedingly satis- factory gains are produced on rations having a nutritive ratio as narrow as 1 : 3.8 or even narrower. From these data, and studies of other trials by the authors, it appears that the nutritive ratio of the ration for the 2-yr.-old fattening steer may range from 1 :3.8 to nearly 1 :8.0 with- out influencing the results. "Wlien the nutritive ratio is 1 : 8.0, slightly smaller gains will usually result than on a narrower ration, but under some conditions a ration having this ratio may be the more economical. It is evident from this discussion that the allowance of crude protein prescribed in the Wolff-Lehmann standard is unnecessarily high, the nutritive ratio there advised ranging from 1 :5.4 to 1 :6.5. On the other hand, at least for the 2-yr.-old steer, which is yet growing, the Kellner and Armsby standards prescribe insufficient protein for maximum gains. (170, 174) These facts have been taken into consideration in the recommendations set forth in the Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards, which have already been discussed. (187-9; Appendix Table V) The proportion of concentrates needed in the ration will depend on the condition of the cattle when placed on feed, on the rapidity with which it is desired to fatten them, and on the degree of finish which the demands of the market make most profitable. As has been shown, feeders in thin flesh require a long feeding period, during the first part of which the ration may consist largely of palatable roughage. On the other hand, fleshy feeders may be finished in a comparatively short time on a more concentrated ration. (716, 779, 780) Hastening the fattening naturally means supplying a heavier allowance of concentrates than when the period is lengthened. Where the market does not pay a premium for the prime beef furnished by the highly finished animal, a heavy concentrate allowance is not profitable. (768) 801. Practical rations for fattening cattle. — The reader who wishes to know the quantity and proportion of the various concentrates and rough- ages in well balanced rations for fattening cattle will find his wants adequately met in the two preceding chapters, wherein are summarized the principal feeding trials at the different experiment stations, covering almost every form of concentrates and roughages. Out of the many presented he should be able to find several that approximate his indi- vidual conditions. 802. Getting cattle on feed. — Mumford^ recommends that cattle going on full feed be given all the clover or alfalfa hay they wiU eat without ^Beef Production, pp. 49-52. COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 495 ■waste. In addition, start with 2 lbs. of corn per steer per day, increasing 1 lb. daily until 10 lbs. is fed. From this time the allowance may be gradu- ally increased 1 lb. every third day until they are on fuU feed. Cattle getting from 12 to 15 lbs. of corn daily should have about 12 lbs. of clover or alfalfa hay per 1,000 lbs. live weight; later only about one- fourth of the ration should be roughage. Where the feeding period is to cover 6 months, from 30 days to 6 weeks should elapse before the cattle are on full feed. In such cases proportionally more good roughage, such as clover or alfalfa, is fed. "While the animals so managed do not make such rapid gains at first, near the close of the feeding period the gains are as large as ever and more economical and satisfactory. As shown before (729), Mumford reports success in using the self-feeder in getting steers on full feed, the grain being mixed with chaffed hay. 803. Hogs following steers. — The following is condensed from Waters :^ The number of hogs required to utilize the waste per steer will vary greatly with the character of the feed, the way in which it is prepared, and with the size and age of the cattle being fed. The range is from 2 to 3 hogs per steer on snapped corn, 1.5 per steer on husked ear corn, about 1 per steer on shelled corn, and 1 hog to 2 or 3 steers on crushed or ground com. Whatever favors rapid and profitable gains with cattle, other than the preparation of the feed, also favors the gains of the hogs following. For example, hogs make better gains following corn-fed steers getting clover, cowpea, or alfalfa hay than they do when the roughage is timothy, mil- let, or sorghum forage. Likewise feeding the steers linseed meal benefits the hogs that follow. It is almost as profitable to feed tankage or linseed meal to hogs following cattle as to those fattening directly on grain ; this is especially true with hogs following cattle fed straight com with timothy or stover for roughage in winter, or with cattle fattening on corn and bluegrass or timothy pasture in summer. Waters strongly recommends separate clover or alfalfa pastures acces- sible to hogs following fattening steers in summer ; on these the hogs can graze at will after having cleaned up the waste from the cattle, instead of feeding on the steer pasture. He further recommends providing a field of cowpeas or soybeans on which the hogs may forage early in fall and so have this nitrogenous grain together with the corn they pick up from the steers. Any extra grain fed should be given to the hogs before the cattle are fed so that the hogs will not crowd around the feed troughs or under the wagon and team. In the best practice the hogs are fed in a near-by pen to keep them from the cattle while the latter are feeding. Whenever hogs begin to show maturity or fatness they should be sup- planted by fresh ones, for fat hogs are unprofitable for following steers. The best hog for following cattle is of good bone, thin in flesh, weighing from 100 to 150 lbs. If shotes are used they should at least weigh 50 to 60 lbs. Sows in pig or young pigs should never be put in the feed lot. Because of the narrow margin in fattening cattle, Waters recom- ''Mo. Bui. 76. 496 FEEDS AND FEEDING mends that where it is impossible to provide hogs to follow the steers the fattening of the steers be delayed until hogs can follow or be given up entirely. This advice does not apply to feeding weanling calves for baby beef, because then the grain should be ground and fed with alfalfa, clover, cowpea hay, etc., in which case the animals utilize their feed so much more closely that hogs are not absolutely necessary. (712, 736) 804. Frequency of feeding. — ^According to Mumford,* the majority of cattle feeders prefer feeding their cattle grain and roughage twice a day in winter and grain once a day in summer. Feeding once a day in summer is practiced largely as a matter of convenience and not because it is believed to be better for the cattle. For the most part the same reasons that make it desirable to feed grain twice a day in winter apply in summer with equal force. 805. Water. — Fattening cattle should not only have an abundant supply of uncontaminated water at all times, but it should be easily accessible. The water for hogs running in the same lot should be separate and so set off that the steers cannot have access to it, nor should hogs drink from the water troughs of the cattle. "While it is best to have water before cattle at all times, they readily adapt themselves to tak- ing a fill once daily and thrive. The water provision should not be less than 10 gallons per day per head for mature cattle. Georgeson of the Kansas Station* kept a record of the water drunk by fattening steers in winter with the following results: Water drunk hy fattening steers in winter Amount of water drunk Daily per Per lb. Per lb. Feed given steer of gain of feed Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot /, Com meal, bran, shorts, oil meal, with hay. . 79 33 2.5 Lot II, Com meal, molasses, and corn fodder 73 66 2.4 Loi 777, Oil cake, hay 91 57 3.4 Lot IV, Ear com, com fodder 56 27 1 .8 We note that on the carbohydrate-rich ration of corn and corn fodder the steers drank but 1.8 lbs. of water for each pound of feed eaten, while on the highly nitrogenous ration of oil cake and hay they drank 3.4 lbs., or nearly twice as much. (103) 806. Salt. — ^Animals fed large quantities of rich nutritious food, such as fattening steers receive, show a strong desire for salt, and this crav- ing should be reasonably satisfied. Kiihn^ recommends 1 ounce of salt per day for a steer weighing 1,000 lbs. at the beginning of the fattening period, 1.3 ounces at the middle, and 1.7 ounces near the close. Whether granular or rock salt be supplied is merely a matter of convenience. Some give salt once or twice a week, others keep salt before their cattle at all times. As in other matters of feeding, habit rules, and a plan once adopted should be followed without deviation. "Beef Produetion, pp. 93-4. "Ernahr. d. Rlndvlehes, 9th ed., p. 325. *Kan. Bui. 39. COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 497 Mumford and Hall of the Illinois Station^ state that some feeders re- port favorably on a mixture of equal parts of salt and wood ashes, which the steers eat slowly and with seeming benefit. (101) 807. Variations in weight. — Fattening steers show surprising varia- tions in weight from day to day, and even from week to week. Much data could be given on this point, but the following from one of George- son's experiments at the Kansas Station^ will suffice: Weekly variations in the weight of steers during fattening Date of weekly weighing Weight of steer No. 1 Gain or Weight of steer No. 2 Gain or loss Weight of steer No. 3 Gain or loss November 30 December 7 . . December 14. December 21 , December 28. May 2 May 9 May 16 May 23 May 30 Lbs. 1,232 1,269 1,280 1,278 1,325 Lbs. 37 11 —2 47 Lbs. 1,190 1,205 1,213 1,226 1,250 Lbs. 15 8 13 24 Lbs. 1,207 1,240 1,236 1,244 1,270 Lbs. ' 38 -—4 8 26 1,545 1,565 1,597 1,598 1,610 20 32 1 12 1,583 1,603 1,620 1,643 1,606 20 17 23 —37 1,567 1,593 1,619 1,626 1,593 26 26 7 —33 These variations, which are not extraordinary, show how difficult it is to know the true weight of a steer at any given time. Experiment stations now quite generally weigh the steer for 3 successive days, taking the average as the true weight of the steer on the second day. It has been suggested that the variations follow somewhat the amount of water drunk from day to day, but this explanation does not always seem sufficient. It seems more generally due to the irregular movement of the contents of the digestive tract, which movement is influenced by changes in the character and quantity of the food consumed, the exercise or confinement enforced, and the weather. 808. Cost of fattening. — ^Mumford' gives the following in concise form : "For the purpose of securing a definite basis from which to work, we may assume what has been repeatedly accomplished in practice, that one man and team, or their equivalent, can care for and feed 200 cattle together with the hogs following. This includes not only feeding the grain, but also hauling hay or other roughage to the feed lot from near- by stacks or mows, providing bedding, attending to water, and looking after the wants of steers affected with injuries, lump-jaw, lice and itch. With this assumption as a basis the following statement is possible : Man, 6 mo. at $40 .00 (wages $25, board $15) $240 .00 Team and wagon, 6 mo. at $40 (maintenance $15, feed $25) 240 .00 Total cost labor, 6 mo $480 .00 Cost per steer 2 .40" "111. Cir. 92. 'Kan. Bui. 34. "Beef Production, pp. 33-4. 498 FEEDS AND FEEDING The returns of hogs following steers fed whole corn will under fa- vorable conditions usually offset the labor cost of caring for fattening steers and the hogs following them. Another reasonable assumption is that when farm-grown crops are charged to the steers at market prices, the labor of feeding them to the cattle is no greater than the labor of hauling them to market. According to Mumford the manure produced by steers during the 6 months' feeding ranges from 3 to 4 tons, worth, on many farms, from $9.00 to $18.00 per steer. These factors should be considered in count- ing the cost and returns of fattening steers. Cotton and "Ward of the United States Department of Agriculture,* collecting data on 24 Iowa farms where 2,099 cattle were fed in 1909-10 and 1910-11, found that the total cost to the feeder of the fattened steer was distributed percentagely as follows : Purchase price, 57.8 ; feed, 34.3; interest at 6 per ct., 1.6; labor, 1.7; shipping and selling (not including shrinkage), 4.5 per ct. The proportionate cost of the different items will vary from year to year, especially the first cost of the cattle and the cost of the feed. 809. Preparing for shipment. — Concerning the preparation of cattle for shipment, Clay,^° than whom there is no better authority, writes: "A day or two previous to shipping, feed the cattle in a pen, and feed hay only. The secret of shipping all classes of cattle is to place them on the cars full of food but with as little moisture as possible. A steer full of water is apt to have loose bowels and show up badly in the yards ; properly handled cattle should arrive in the sale pens dry behind and ready for a good fill of water; not very thirsty but in good con- dition to drink freely. Many shippers think that by salting their cattle or feeding them oats they can fool the buyers, but it always goes against them to use unnatural amounts. As to feed on the road, nothing equals good sweet hay, which excels corn or other grains because it is easily digested and does not fever the animal. Of water in mid-summer, care must be taken to supply the animal wants, whereas in winter a steer can go for many hours without a drink. Cattle should arrive at the sale yards at from 5 to 8 A. M., appearing on the scene as near the latter hour as possible, since they always look better just after they have been fed and watered." 810. Shrinkage. — Extensive investigations in different sections of the United States by Ward of the United States Department of Agricul- ture^^ show that the shrinkage of range cattle in transit over 70 hours during a normal year is from 5 to 6 per ct. of their live weight. If they are in transit 36 hours or less the shrinkage will usually be 3 to 4 per ct. of the live weight. The shrinkage of fed cattle does not differ materially from that of range cattle for equal periods of time. Silage-fed cattle show a larger gross shrinkage but usually fill so well at market that the »U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 588. "U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 25. "Live Stoclc Rpt. Chicago, Sept. 28, 1894. COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 499 net shrinkage is even lower than with cattle fed no silage. Pulp-fed cattle shrink more than any other class. The difference in shrinkage between cows and steers was not as great as is ordinarily supposed, tho cows shrank somewhat less than steers of the same weight. When the cattle were fed succulent grass, silage, or beet pulp before being loaded, the shrinkage was great. Slow, rough runs to market naturally increased the shrink. For a long journey the common method of unloading for feed, water, and rest was better than the use of "feed and water" cars. Where cattle reached the market just before being sold, the fill was small, but when they arrived the afternoon of the day before, or about daylight of the sale day, they generally took a good fill. However, an exceedingly large fill at market is not desirable, be- cause buyers then discriminate against such cattle. 811. rattening cattle requires business judgment. — In fattening cattle, even more than in other lines of animal husbandry good business judg- ment must be exercised, or the venture is apt to result in loss. Cotton and Ward^^ well summarize some of the important points to be ob- served by one entering the cattle feeding business: "Before purchasing his feeders the farmer should estimate the quan- tity of feeds on hand and their market price, the number and class and size of cattle desired, and the time required to consume the feed. Then he can estimate from market reports the approximate cost of his feeders, and with these various items at hand can figure what they must sell for if he is to break even. He is then in position to select steers which will suit the given conditions. If the outlook is not good, it is usually advisable not to purchase at that time. It is an old adage among stockmen that 'cattle bought right are more than half sold.' A man may be a skillful feeder and lose money year after year because of poor judgment in buying. The beginner should hire some experienced cattleman to purchase animals that will best suit his needs, or deal with a reliable commission firm that is acquainted with his conditions. By following the various market reports the feeder can tell approximately when his cattle can be marketed to greatest advantage. The steers should be fed so as to be finished at that time. When the steers are ready for market, it is usually not advisable to hold for better prices unless they continue to gain in weight and condition. The extra feed consumed by finished cattle will soon more than offset any ordinary increase in price that may be obtained. When they are almost finished the owner should watch the market reports and communicate with his commission man to determine the date of shipment." The droppings of the steer are an excellent index of the progress of fattening. While they should never be hard, they should still be thick enough to "pile up" and have that unctuous appearance which indicates a healthy action of the liver. There is an odor from the "tr. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 588. 500 FEEDS AND FEEDING droppings of thrifty, well-fed steers known and quickly recognized by every good feeder. Thin droppings and those with a sour smell indicate something wrong in the feed yard. The conduct of the steer is a further guide in marking the progress of fattening. The man- ner in which he approaches the feed box; his quiet pose while rumi- nating and audible breathing when lying down, showing the lungs cramped by the well-filled paunch; the quiet eye which stands full from the fattening socket; the oily coat, — all are points that awaken the interest, admiration, and satisfaction of the successful feeder. 812. Order and quiet. — On these important points Mumford^^ writes : "As soon as the fattening process begins, the cattle should be fed at certain hours and in the same way. This cannot be varied 15 minutes without some detriment to the cattle. The extent of injury will depend upon the frequency and extent of irregularity. . . The even-tempered attendant who is quiet in manner and movement invariably proves more satisfactory than the erratic, bustling, noisy one. The cattle soon learn to have confidence in the former and welcome his coming among them, while they are always suspicious of the latter, never feeling quite at ease when he is in sight. Under the management of the former, the cattle become tame and quiet, even tho more or less wild at the outset; while under the latter, wild cattle become wilder and tame cattle become timid. The writer has observed a wide difference in practice among feeders as to their manner of approaching fattening steers. Some are brusque in manner, rushing up to the steers and scaring them up quickly, while other (and I am bound to say more successful) feeders approach the cattle with the greatest care and consideration, getting the cattle up, if at all, as quietly as possible. Pastures for cattle in quiet, secluded places are more valuable for fatten- ing cattle than are those adjacent to the public roads or adjoining pas- tures where horses or breeding cattle run." (112) 813, The eye of the master. — The ability to fatten cattle rapidly and profitably is a gift, to be increased and strengthened by experience and study. The ability to carry a steer through a six months' fattening period without once getting him "off feed" is possessed by many a stock- man ; but how this faculty is attained is something he cannot well impart to others. In general, when the steer has reached full feed, all the grain he will readily consume should be supplied, but any left in the feed box, to be breathed over, is worse than wasted. Many experienced feeders follow the rule, "Keep the feed always a little better than the cattle." As has been shown (735), this means that the preparation of the feed is increased as the fattening progresses. Likewise as the animal advances in flesh there is greater benefit from adding a nitrog- enous concentrate, such as cottonseed or linseed meal, to a ration which is already fairly well balanced. (732) Scouring, the bane of the stock feeder, should be carefully avoided, "Beef Production, pp. 92-3. COUNSEL IN THE PEED LOT 501 since a single day's laxness will cut off a week's gain. This trouble is generally induced by over-feeding, by unwholesome food, or by a faulty combination in the ration. Over-feeding comes from a desire of the attendant to push his cattle to better gains, or from carelessness and irregularity in measuring out the feed supply. The ideal stockman has a quick discernment which takes in every animal in the feed lot at a glance, and a quiet judgment which guides the hand in dealing out feed ample for the wants of all, but not a pound excess. Cattle of the same age, or at least those of equal size and strength, should be fed in the same enclosure. Weak animals, and those unable for any reason to crowd to the feed trough and get their share, should be placed where they can be supplied in quiet. II. Methods of Beef Production 814. Fattening cattle on pasture. — ^Whether the feeder should finish his cattle during the winter and spring in the dry lot or carry them thru the winter to be fattened on pasture in the summer will depend first of aU on the relative cost of pasturage compared with hay, silage, and other roughage. In the grazing regions cattle are commonly sold at the close of the pasture season, when if the grass has been good many are fat enough to be sold as killers, while the rest will go into feed lots to be fattened further. On farms where land is high-priced and there is little waste land the tendency is to fatten feeders in the dry lot, since under these conditions com silage may be cheaper than pasturage. This is shown in a trial by Bliss and Lee at the Nebraska Station^* in which one lot of steers were fed on pasture from June 1 to Sep- tember 10 and another lot given corn silage in a dry lot, both getting a concentrate mixture of 4 parts corn and 1 part cold-pressed cotton- seed cake. The steers fed silage made as large gains as those on pas- ture and only one-fourth as much land was needed to produce the silage as was required for pasture. Mumford and Hall of the Illinois Sta- tion,^' from extensive inquiries in that state, report that cattlemen esti- mate the daily increase per head of steers during the grazing season at 1.66 lbs. for yearlings and 1.87 lbs. for 2-yr.-olds. Waters of the Missouri Station,^* gathering statistics from more than 1,000 successful cattlemen in Missouri, Illinois, and Iowa, found the average gains from cattle pastured for the 6-months period. May 1 to November 1, to be as follows : Average gain of steers for the 6-months season on grass By yearlings By 2-yr.-old8 gf 2fQ Per month Per season Per month Per season Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Missouri 47 282 63 318 Iowa 48 288 52 312 Illinois 45 270 62 312 "Nebr. Rpt. 1913. "111. Clr. 79. "Mo. Cir. 24. 502 FEEDS AND FEEDING Assuming a pasture charge for yearlings of 75 cents per month, their gains cost approximately $1.60 per 100 lbs., while the 2-yr.-olds at a pasture charge of $1 per month would put on gains costing but little over $1.90 per 100 lbs. When we reflect that gains made by steers in winter cost from $6 to $10 per 100 lbs. the importance of wisely and fully utilizing the pastures in summer is apparent. Skinner and Cochel of the Indiana Station^'' found thru extensive inquiry that in Indiana during summer feeding each grain-fed steer grazed over 1.1 acres of land on the average. Where no grain was given, each steer grazed over about 2 acres. Lloyd of the Mississippi Station^* reports that 2-yr.-old heifers, fed a light ration during the winter, when turned to pasture gained 1.3 lbs. each daily for 178 days on pasture alone. Steers of the same age, thin in flesh when turned to pasture, made daily gains of 1.4 lbs. for 178 days, while those full fed the previous winter gained but 0.8 lb. each day during 158 days. 815. Summer vs. winter feeding. — ^Waters of the Missouri Station^® reports the gains in 3 summer and 5 winter feeding trials as follows : Summer Winter Number of animals 88 105 Average length of feeding period, days 209 107 Concentrates per 100 lbs. of gain, lbs. 814 999 Roughage per 100 lbs. of gain, lbs grass 382 Average daily gain per steer, lbs 2 .37 2 .13 Because of the longer feeding period the summer-fed cattle were much fatter than those fed in winter. Despite this the summer gains were made on 18.5 per ct. less grain. Mumford and Hall of the Illinois Station,''" from extensive corre- spondence with feeders of their state, conclude that a bushel of corn will produce : Gain in winter Gain in summer feed lot on pasture With calves 8.9 pounds 10 .0 pounds With yearUngs 6.5 pounds 7 .6 pounds With 2-yr.-olds 5.4 pounds 6 .8 pounds Waters^^ sets forth the following advantages of fattening on pasture compared with finishing cattle in the dry lot : Grass is cheaper than hay. Summer gains require less grain than winter gains. Steers fatten more quickly and can be made thick and prime on corn and grass with greater certainty, more uniformity, and the smaller use of expensive supplements like cottonseed meal and linseed meal. Hogs following the steers make larger gains, and return more profit, with a lower death rate. In summer the grain only is drawn; there is no roughage to handle. The steers are usually fed but once daily. The manure is scattered by the cattle themselves. 816. Feeding concentrates on pasture. — ^When cattle are finished on pasture no concentrates at all may be fed, a small allowance may be "Ind. Cir. 12. "Miss. Rpt. 1903. "Mo. Bui. 76. "111. Cir. 88. ='Mo. Cir. 24. COUNSEL IN THE PEED LOT 603 given during the entire pasture period, concentrates may be fed during only the last few weeks, or an unlimited allowance of grain may be given thruout the entire period. Except under range conditions and in certain districts, as in the bluegrass region of Virginia, where the pastures are unusually nutritious, it will usually pay to feed some grain in addition to pasture. As Waters^^ points out, the cheapness of gains on grass alone is offset by the low selling value of the cattle, because they are not usually fat enough to market and must be sold as feeders with sufficient margin for the buyer to profitably fit them for market. 817. Feeding supplements with corn on bluegrass pasture. — ^During 5 years Mumford conducted extensive trials at the Missouri Station''' with high-grade beef steers of various ages to study the economy of feeding a nitrogenous supplement to animals full fed on corn and running on a good bluegrass pasture. In these trials a total of 126 yearlings, 55 two-yr.-olds, and 51 three-yr.-olds were fattened. Each year the steers were turned to pasture May 1, and fed for 7 months, by which time the 2-yr.-olds and 3-yr.-olds were finished while the yearlings in every instance required feeding for 40 to 60 days longer. The results secured in these trials are summarized in the following table : Feeding supplements with corn to steers on bluegrass pasture Com alone 'Corn and linseed meal Com and cottonseed meal Com and gluten feed Yearlings, av. of 6 years Av. daUy concentrate allowance, lbs . Av. daily gain, lbs , Concentrates per pound gain, lbs , . . . Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain* Two-yr.-oUs, av. of 2 years Av. daily concentrate allowance, lbs . Av. daily gain, lbs Concentrates per pound gain, lbs Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain* Three-^r.-oMs, av. of 2 years Av. daily concentrate allowance, lbs . Av. daily gain, lbs Concentrates per pound gain, lbs ... . Feed cost per 100 lbs, gain* 15.8 2.0 7.78 $6.55 20.1 2.5 7.98 86.71 23.1 2.3 10.13 $8.38 17.2 2 .2 7.76 $7.21 20.4 2.7 7.64 $7.09 24.9 2.8 8.77 87.96 16.5 2.2 7.67 $7.09 21.0 2.6 7.97 $7.14 23.7 2.5 9.85 $8.39 16.5 2.2 7.64 $6.98 ^Shelled com, 40 cents per bu. ; linseed meal, S2S; cottonseed meal, $24; and gluten feed, ¥22 per ton; pasture — ^yearlings, 60 cents, and older cattle, 75 cents per month. Since immature grass, such as is usually eaten by grazing animals, is much richer in protein than grass at the stage when cut for hay, corn and bluegrass pasture alone make a fairly well-balanced ration for the fattening steer. (800) Adding a nitrogenous concentrate, however, in- creased both the consumption of feed and the rate of gain with all the ages. With the exception of the 3-yr.-old steers fed corn and linseed meal, the lots receiving the supplements required about as much feed per pound gain as those fed corn alone, and with feed at the prices given "Mo. Bui. 76. "'Mo. Bui. 90. 504 FEEDS AND FEEDING made more expensive gains. With the yearlings and 2-yr.-olds the greater feed-cost of the gains when a supplement was fed was, however, offset to a greater or less extent by the fact that the steers fed the supplements showed better finish at the close of the trial and would therefore sell for a higher price. The difference in gains between the steers fed corn alone and those receiving a supplement was greatest toward the close of the trial and with steers which were in the best flesh. Mumford concludes, "The results of our experiments for many years and with various rations and kinds of cattle clearly indicate the value of supplements in maintaining the appetite and in securing satisfactory gains during the last stages of the feeding period. The value of supple- ments during the first part of the feeding period has in many experi- ments been of doubtful economic value." Obviously the higher the price of corn compared with the cost of the supplements, the greater the advantage from their use. While cottonseed meal gave slightly better returns with the yearlings than did linseed meal, the results were reversed with the older cattle. 818. Hints on fattening cattle on pastnre. — Care should always be taken in changing cattle from dry lot to pasture, especially where they are in good flesh, else they may not continue to gain or may even shrink severely. As young pasture grass is laxative, if silage or roots have been fed during the winter the allowance should be reduced or entirely withdrawn as soon as the cattle are turned to pasture. Dry roughage which is palatable should be fed during the change, for otherwise the cattle may refuse the dry feed, preferring the grass. When the cattle are turned to pasture early in the season and there is no dry grass standing over from the preceding fall, it is wise to leave them on pasture for only a short time the flrst day and increase the period gradually, else severe scouring may result. If grain has been fed during the winter it should be continued until the cattle are accustomed to grass. Where cattle are nearly finished by the time the pasture season opens they had best be finished in the dry lot, for if turned to pasture they will usually make much poorer gains. Shaw'* recommends that cattle be kept from pasture unless they are to be fed at least 2 months before being marketed. When the corn crop matures before the cattle are finished for market they may be turned into the standing com, hogs following to get the corn not eaten by the steers. Where this practice is followed the cattle should be accustomed to new corn by being fed gradually increasing amounts of new snapped, or ear corn, or com fodder before being turned into the com field. 819. Baby beef. — The most intensive method of beef production is the fattening of calves as baby beef. Under this system beef calves are fattened as they grow, reaching a good finish when 16 to 18 months old and weighing about 1,100 lbs. or less. In the production of baby beef, "The Management and Feeding of Cattle, p. 174. COUNSEL IN THE FEED LOT 505 first of all, blocky calves of good beef type and conformjation must be selected, for scrub or dairy-bred calves will not usually reach the desired maturity and finish at this early age. As Mumford^° writes, profitable baby beef production requires experience, judgment, and skill of the highest order in the feeder. It is a mistake for the inexperienced to dip heavily into this art. To fatten young animals profitably, they must be good, they must be fed for a considerable time, and they must be made fat; this means that "tops" must be bought or bred. The most suc- cessful operators try to retain the "calf fat" or bloom of the young calf. The calf should be in good condition when fattening begins and should be induced to consume considerable roughage of high quality, such as clover or alfalfa hay and silage, during winter and rich pasture grasses in summer. Shelled, crushed, or ground corn should be fed together with linseed meal, cottonseed meal, or other protein-rich concentrates. If the com is given whole, hogs may profitably follow. Oats are one of the best of feeds with which to start the calf on its way to fattening. The tendency of the calf and yearling is toward growth rather than fattening. In baby beef production the young things must fatten as they grow; this can only be accomplished by the most liberal and ju- dicious feeding, since it is extremely difficult to get calves and yearlings sufficiently fat for the market requirements. Heifer calves mature more quickly and may be marketed earlier than steers. It is seldom possible or profitable to get spring calves ready for the, baby beef market before July of the following year ; more frequently they are not marketed until October, November, or December when approximately 18 months old. This system of beef production is best suited to corn-belt farms where pasture is relatively expensive, while corn is cheaper in price than in other sections of the country. (711-2) 820. Economy of gains of calves fed for baby beef. — ^At the Kansas Station^' Cottrell, Haney, and EUing placed 130 calves, just weaned, in the feed lot during the latter part of October. Sixty were grade Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus range heifers. The rest were pur- chased locally or raised at the college farm. All were fed twice daily, getting all the grain and roughage they would clean up within 3 hours after feeding. They were sheltered by a common board shed open to the south and were fed for 7 months with the results shown below : Feed and 7-months' gain of calves fed for toby heef Feed for 100 lbs. gain Av. gain Concen- Rough- Feed given per head trates age Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot 7, Alfalfa hay and com 407 470 644 Lot //, Alfalfa hay and kafir 379 624 626 Lot III, Prairie hay, com %, and soy beans J4.. . 378 520 486 Lot IV, Prairie hay, kafir %, and soy beans H- • • 342 594 539 Lot V, Skim-milk calves — alfalfa hay and com . . 440 439 , 436 Lot VI Whole-milk calves — alfalfa hay and com. 404 470 420 Average 392 503 509 »Beef Production, pp. 76-82. »Kan. Bui. 113. 506 FEEDS AND FEEDING The surprisingly small amount of feed for 100 lbs. of gain will be noted. By the end of the following May, when from 12 to 14 months old, the entire lot averaged 800 lbs. in the college feed lot, and on ship- ping to Kansas City shrank 3 per ct. 821. Fattening yearlings. — ^Less extreme than the feeding of calves for baby beef is finishing steers as yearlings, i.e., before they are 2 years old. Spring calves may be carried thru the first winter on roughage with but a small allowance of concentrates. However, the ration must be such as to keep them growing steadily. The second summer good pasture alone will be sufficient to put them into condition for the feed lot in the fall. Calves to be fattened as yearlings should be taught to eat grain before being weaned so that there may be no loss of condition at this time. Yearlings can hardly be finished in a 6-months winter feeding period, but require fattening for 8 to 10 months even if of good beef type. Skinner and Cochel conclude from 3 years' trials at the Indiana Station^^ that it is ordinarily more profitable to complete the fattening in the feed lot, rather than turn the half-finished cattle out to grass in the spring, for larger and cheaper gains are thus made. (711-2) 822. Fattening cattle 2 years old or older. — ^Where pasturage is cheap, cattle are usually not marketed until 2 years old or older. They may be carried thru the first winter chiefly on roughage, or even entirely, if fed legume hay and other roughage of good quality. (799) On good pasture they will make good growth the following summer. If they are to be finished on grass early the third summer they will need a moder- ate allowance of concentrates the second winter. If to be sold in the fall or after finishing in the feed lot, little or no grain will be required provided good quality roughage is fed. According to Cochel,^* the system of beef production usually most profitable in western Kansas is to raise the calves on pasture the first summer, winter them on kafir, milo, or sorghum silage, alfalfa hay and straw or stover from the sorghums, with perhaps some cottonseed meal in addition, pasture the yearlings the second summer without feeding grain, carry them thru the second winter as before, and market the third summer from grass. With good pasture such cattle should reach a weight of about 1,050 lbs. and be fat enough to sell as fleshy feeders or fair killers. In other sections of the western grazing district a still more extensive system is yet followed, the steers not being sold until 3 years of age. However, the tendency is ever toward hurrying the steer to the block, and while 4- and 5-yr.-old steers were once common on the range, but few now reach this age. "Ind. Bui. 142. ^Information to the authors. CHAPTER XXX GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY The sheep is the plant-scavenger of the farm. Because of its dainty manner of nihhling herbage we might suppose that its likes were few and dislikes many, yet nearly every plant at some period of its growth seems palatable and is freely eaten. No domestic or wild animal is capable of subsisting on more kinds of food. Grasses, shrubs, roots, the cereal grains, leaves, bark, and in times of scarcity fish and meat, all furnish subsistence to this wonderfully adaptive animal. In the great pine forests of Norway and Sweden^ they will exist thru a hard winter by eating the pungent resinous evergreens. Among the Lap- landers, when other foods fail, they eat dried fish, the half-rotten flesh of the walrus, or even the very wool off each others' backs. Low^ reports that the sheep of the Shetland Islands feed upon the salty seaweed dur- ing winter, knowing by instinct the first ebbing of the tide, and that they are fed dried fish when normal foods are scarce. McDonald* writes of the Iceland sheep: "The only kindness which these animals receive from their keepers in the winter is being fed on fish-bones and frozen offal, when their natural food is buried too deep even for their ingenuity and patience. ' ' While sheep may exist under such conditions, we can expect good returns only when they are given proper feed and care. 823. Place of sheep on the farm. — The organs of mastication and di- gestion indicate that plants in some form constitute the natural food of sheep. The cutting teeth in the lower jaw fit against the cartilag- inous pad above in such manner that, when feeding, the herbage is torn off rather than cut. While horses and cattle eat only about half the plants considered weeds, less than one-tenth are refused by sheep. They even prefer some weeds, when yet succulent, to the common grasses. Sheep graze more closely than other stock, and if many are confined to one field every green thing is at length consumed. When closely pas- tured on cut-over timber lands where the growth is not too rank they derive much nourishment from the leaves, bark, and twigs, destroying the brush nearly as effectively as goats. (3) The feces of the sheep show the finest grinding of any of the farm animals, and as they relish most weed seeds this further fits them as weed destroyers. As sheep graze, their droppings are distributed more uniformly than with other stock. At nightfall they instinctively seek the higher, usually poorer, land and 'Sheep Husbandry, Klllebrew, p. 6. "Cattle, Sheep and Deer. ''Domestic Animals of the British Islands. 607 508 FEEDS AND FEEDING thus leave their droppings on areas where most needed. Thru increas- ing the fertility of the pastures it grazes, the sheep has won the title of "The Golden Hoof." Only a relatively small investment is necessary to start in sheep hus- bandry, since the foundation animals cost but little and the flock in- creases rapidly. Sheep require neither expensive bams nor implements and only the minimum of care and attention during the busy summer season. In wool and in the flesh of her off-spring, the ewe gives double returns each year. With fair prices, the wool pays for her maintenance, leaving as profit all income from the lamb or lambs, after deducting the smaU cost of the additional feed and care they require. Eeturns come quickly, as lambs may be marketed 8 or 9 months after the ewes are bred. While surpassed by the pig in economy of meat production, the lamb requires less feed per pound of product than the steer. Because sheep readily consume food which would otherwise be wasted a flock will prove profitable on many farms where most of the revenue is derived from other sources. On rough or hilly land that cannot be economically tilled sheep may often be the main live stock of the farm. Tho the cost of mainte- nance is lowered thru their utilization of otherwise waste feed, one must not expect profitable production from such feed alone. 824. Mutton breeds and Merinos compared. — The Merino sheep is pe- culiarly a wool-bearer, and nearly all lines descended from the Spanish stock have been selected for that single purpose. The story of the Spanish Merino in its home country forms one of the most interesting chapters in the history of live stock.* In their pilgrimage from South to Central Spain each spring and their return in the fall the great Spanish flocks made annual journeys covering over a thousand miles. Only the strong- est and most rugged survived the long, fatiguing, perilous marches. The ability to exist in enormous flocks, to range over a vast territory, and to subsist upon scant food are the leading of the many remarkable quali- ties wrought by stem Fate into the very constitution of the Merino sheep. Almost opposite in several characteristics are the English mutton breeds, which have been reared in small flocks confined to limited pas- tures, the best specimens being saved and nurtured each year with in- telligent attention to all their wants. They have been sheltered from storms and liberally fed with rich roughage and grain in the sheepfold whenever the fields were scant of herbage or the weather severe. In general the life of the English mutton sheep has been one of quiet con- tentment and plenty almost to surfeit. In this country we cannot hope to attain the wonderful success reached by British flockmasters unless we closely follow or improve upon their methods. 825. Size of the flock. — The sheep is distinctly gregarious. The im- proved American Merino still shows the result of inheritance in its ability to exist in great flocks and thrive under the most ordinary con- ditions of care and keep. With reasonable oversight thousands of Me- •Low, Domestic Animals of the British Islands, Vol n. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 609 rino sheep can be held in single bands where the range is ample, and for the brief period of fattening tens of thousands may be successfully fed together, as is still done with range sheep, carrying Merino blood, which are brought to feeding points in the western states and in the Missis- sippi valley. In the humid regions, two hundred sheep of the mutton breeds are as many as can usually be successfully managed in one flock, and to secure the best returns from even this number one should have had pre- vious experience. The novice would better begin with a flock of 25, increasing the number as experience grows. When the farm is heavily stocked with sheep, increased vigilance is needed to prevent infestation with internal parasites and other troubles which are sure to threaten. 826. A breed test. — ^Wilson and Curtiss" at the lo-wa Station fattened wethers of different breeds on the same rations in 2 trials, lasting 90 and 105 days, respectively, with the results averaged in the table. In the first trial there were ten 12-months-old wethers in each lot and in the second 9, averaging 9 months of age. National Delaine Merinos were used in the first trial and Rambouillets in the second. Comparison of breeds for mutton and wool production Av. wt. Av. daily gain Av. total gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Per cent dressed carcass Av. wt. of fleece Value Grain Hay Boots fleece Southdown Shropshire Dorset Lbs. 78 9S 92 105 107 109 102 108 78 Lbs. 0.40 0.41 0.45 0,47 0.46 0.48 0.55 0.50 0,32 Lbs. 39.2 40.6 44.8 46,3 45,2 47,2 54.5 49.7 32.4 Lbs. 483 500 485 492 499 465 418 457 573 Lbs. 451 476 494 493 600 462 411 451 509 Lbs. 279 306 286 280 311 293 249 270 345 Lbs. 65.3 54.6 63.4 53.1 52,6 54,8 64,2 63.4 50.7 Lbs. 5.7 8.3 6,4 6,4 9.5 10.3 11,3 11,7 8.2 Dollars 0.70 1.04 0.80 Suffolk 0.81 Oxford 1.30 Leicester Cotswold Lincoln Merino 1.54 1,56 1.67 0.87 The large breeds — Leicester, Cotswold, and Lincoln — ^made somewhat the largest daily gains, the Merinos ranking lowest and consuming the most feed for 100 lbs. of gain. 827. Breeds for crossing on western ewes. — To learn the value of the various crosses on western ewes, Wilson* of the South Dakota Station divided 60 Montana-bred yearling ewes into 6 lots, breeding each lot to an average-quality ram of one of the breeds shown in the table. The experiment ran 6 years, each lot being bred in successive years to a ram of each of the 6 breeds. The lambs were grazed on bluegrass and rape pastures until freezing weather in the fall, and then fattened on a grain mixture of 100 lbs. shelled com, 100 lbs. oats, and 25 lbs. linseed meal, with all the upland prairie hay they would eat. They were shorn before marketing in the spring. During the course of the experiment, some of the ewes in each lot were lost from various causes. •Iowa Buls. 33, 35. 'S. D. Bui. 127. 510 FEEDS AND FEEDING Value of rams of various breeds for crossing on western ewes Breed of ram Cotswold Oxford Hampshire Shropshire Southdown . . . . Rambouillet. . . •Average of 3 years. No. of lambs fed 55 53 55 57 53 63 Initial weight Lbs. 77 82 80 73 72 72 Daily gain Lba. .36 .34 .31 .31 .25 .31 Concentrates for 100 lbs. gain Lbs. 624 643 687 575 564 563 Value of wool per head Dollars 1.63 1.36 1.37 1.36 1.11 1.24 Dressed carcass* Per et. 62.4 62.9 63.4 53.2 53.1 54.2 The Cotswold lambs made the largest and most economical gains and led in value of fleece. In percentage of dressed carcass the Cotswolds were the lowest and the Rambouillets the highest. The general criti- cisms before slaughter were that the Cotswolds were too leggy and heavy, the Hampshires and Oxfords too heavy, and the Eambouillets not smooth enough. The Southdowns and Shropshires best met the demands of the market. Faville,'^ at the Wyoming Station, mated 29 fine-wooled western ewes with a good Cotswold ram and another lot with a Southdown ram, and fattened the resulting lambs. The Cotswold grades made slightly larger and more economical gains, but the Southdowns gave a higher percentage of dressed carcass, worth more per pound. Carlyle and Iddings,^ on fattening a lot of 139 Lincoln-Merino lambs and 161 Shropshire-Merinos at the Idaho Station, found that the latter made slightly larger gains, while the feed consumed per 100 lbs. gain was practically the same for both lots. 828. Feeding grain before and after weaning. — At the Wisconsin Sta- tion,* Craig studied the profitableness of feeding grain to lambs before and after weaning when on good pasture. In 4 trials high-grade Shrop- shire lambs, early induced to eat various grains, were given all they would consume in a trough placed in a lamb-creep. (894) The following table summarizes the results secured before weaning, in periods averag- ing 10 weeks: Feeding various grains to lambs before weaning Average daily grain allowance Lot I, Com meal, 0.4 lb.* , Lot 11, Whole oats, 0.4 lb Lot III, Wheat bran, 0.3 lb Lot IV, Cracked peas, 0.4 lb •Average of S trials. The large daily gain of over one-half pound made by these unweaned lambs and the small concentrate requirement in addition to the dam's milk forcefully illustrate the great general principle that young, grow- ing animals give the best returns for feed consumed. All the different concentrates fed were found satisfactory. Corn fed alone gave good 'Wye. Bui. 95. 'Idaho Bui. 77. 'Wis. Rpts. 1896, 1903. Initial Daily Total Concentrates for weight gain gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 39 0.51 35.8 74 44 0.53 37.0 78 43 0.48 33.6 71 37 0.53 37.0 81 GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 511 returns, especially when cost was considered, the dam's milk supplement- ing this highly carbonaceous grain. From these and other careful studies, Craig reached the following conclusions : ' ' The continuous grain feeding from birth until the lambs were about 10 months old did not produce any noticeable difference in the carcasses in respect to the mixture of fat and lean, but materially influenced the early maturity of the lambs. The lambs so fed attained a given weight from 4 to 7 weeks sooner than those fed no grain before weaning and required about the same amount of grain for the same increase in weight. When lambs are fed grain continuously from birth they are fit for the market at any time, so that advantage may be taken of any favorable fluctuation that may occur in prices. When the lambs are to be sold at weaning time in July at the age of 3 or 4 months, or in November when about 7 months old, it will pay to feed them grain." The unlimited feeding of grain after weaning led the lambs to eat less pasture. One-half pound of grain per head daily is the greatest amount that was found profitable to feed at this time. 829. Soiling ewes and lambs. — ^Because of their daintiness and the large variety of plants they crop if opportunity offers, it is usually undesirable to maintain sheep on soilage. However, desiring to ascer- tain, regardless of cost, the amount of food required by sheep for growth in summer, the senior author^" conducted the following trial at the Wis- consin Station. Ten large Merino ewes were chosen, each with a vigor- ous lamb at foot 1 month old when the trial began, June 3. With pa- tience and laborious attention to details the shepherd fed the lot success- fully, obtaining the results given in the table : Feed required for 100 lbs. gain when soiling ewes and lambs Green Green com Total dry clover fodder Hay Oats matter Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Ewes and lambs before weaning, 106 days 1,806 1,366 ... 45 850 Lambs after weaning, 28 days 915 292 413 806 When we remember that the ewes and lambs would have preferred to do their own foraging the amount of dry matter required per 100 lbs. gain was most reasonable. When we further consider that, if allowed to graze, they would have eaten weeds and weed seeds as well as the better forage, we must conclude that the sheep is one of the most eco- nomical meat producers on the farm. 830. Shearing lambs before fattening. — ^Prom trials covering 4 years at the Wisconsin Station^^ Craig found that fall shearing, not later than October, was beneficial from the standpoint of size and economy of gains, when lambs that were 6 months old were to be prepared for the early winter market. With lambs fattened during a 3 or 4 month winter pe- riod no advantage resulted. Tho more wool was obtained by shearing in "Wis. Rpt. 1890. "Wis. Rpt. 1904. 512 FEEDS AND FEEDING the fall and again in the spring, the market value of the 2 clippings was no greater than the single clip with its longer fibers. In a 13-week trial by F. B. Mumford at the Michigan Station," a lot of 10 lambs was shorn in November while another was left unshorn, both being fattened on a ration of clover hay and equal parts of corn and wheat. Both lots were kept in a barn, the window in the pen contain- ing the unshorn lambs being left open, while that in the pen of the shorn lambs was kept closed. Despite this care, the shorn lambs suffered from the cold. The shorn lambs ate 0.1 lb. more grain and 0.2 lb. more hay per head daily, yet made 30 per et. less gain than those not shorn. Had the shorn lambs still warmer quarters, there undoubtedly would have been less difference in the returns. On account of the prevalence of the practice of shearing lambs before fattening when they are to be fed late in the spring, Skinner and King fed 166 lambs for 60 days, beginning March 14, at the Indiana Sta- tion.^^ Half were shorn when they had been on feed 10 days while the others carried thfeir wool till 10 days before the close of the trial. The early-shorn lambs made neither larger nor more economical gains than the others. Undoubtedly if the weather grows very warm in the spring before lambs are finished, it will pay to remove their fleeces. 831. Fattening sheep of different ages. — ^At the Montana Station^* Shaw compared the fattening qualities of average western range lambs, 1- and 2-yr.-old wethers, and aged ewes. Each lot of about 50 was fed whole barley and clover hay for 88 days with the following results : Fattening range sheep of different ages Average ration Av. wt, Av. Av. Feed for 100 lbs. gain Clover at be- daily total Clover Age when fed Barley hay ginmng gain gain Barley hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Lambs 0.7 2.1 63 0.27 23.7 253 763 One-year-old wetheis 0.7 3.8 95 0.27 23.5 256 1,413 Two-year-old wethers. . . 0.7 4.1 116 0.28 24.3 248 1,469 Aged ewes 0.7 2.3 92 0.18 15.6 387 1,320 It will be observed that all lots, except the aged ewes, made practically the same daily and total gains. All were fed the same amount of grain, but the lambs ate only about half as much hay as the yearlings or 2-yr.- olds. Hence the gains of the lambs were much more economical. In other trials at the same Station,^^ lambs made not only more economical but also more rapid gains than yearling wethers. It is generally unwise to feed yearlings for the block, since they are shedding teeth and there- fore not in condition to give the best returns for feed and care. Unless prices for wool rule high the stockman cannot afford to carry wethers past the period when they may be fed off as lambs. Culls can be pre- pared for the butcher at any time by the use of a little grain. In the vicinity of cities profitable sales can be made of fat culls at times when regular feeders have failed to supply the market. "Mich. Bui. 128. "Ind. Bui. 168. "Mont. Bui. 36. "Mrait. Buls. 47. 69. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 513 The demand for well-fattened lambs grows, the tender, juicy, high- flavored meat finding increasing favor among Americans. Not only do prices for fat lambs rule high as compared with mature sheep and farm animals generally, but there are other advantages in feeding off lambs before they reach maturity. A given weight of feed goes further with lambs than with mature sheep ; the money invested is sooner turned, and there is less risk from death and accident. tWs the tendency is toward marketing the lambs as rapidly as they can be satisfactorily sold. If lambs raised on farms are not sufficiently fat in late summer or early fall to meet the reasonable demands of the market, it shows a lack of feed and care, or that parasites have destroyed profits. Owing to their ten- dency to grow, lambs require a longer period to fatten than do mature wethers. Since they are not only making fat but also lean meat, the ration should be somewhat narrower, that is, contain more protein, than is needed for fattening mature sheep. However, a ration which is too narrow wiU unduly stimulate growth, and not give the requisite fimish. 832. Shelter for sheep. — ^Above every other animal on the farm the sheep should be kept dry as to both coat and feet. Inattention to either of these essentials will result disastrously. With dry winter quarters sheep wiU stand a great degree of cold without injury. Their shelter should not be warm, compared with that of other farm animals, for sheep sweat badly in winter when confined in quarters suflSciently warm for dairy cows. One thickness of matched boards will make the barn or shed where sheep are confined sufficiently warm in the northern states except for winter lambs. Ample ventilation is of great importance, but drafts must be avoided. On the western plains, it is even more necessary to protect sheep from cold winds than from rain. Sunshine, good drain- age, and conveniences for feeding are the other requisites of a good sheep barn. "When succulent feeds, such as wet beet pulp or silage, are fed the quarters must be especially well drained and the barn or shed well bedded. Stone basements are unsatisfactory for sheep on account of dampness, and if used good ventilation is especially necessary. Damp walls are a sure indication of lack of ventilation and impending trouble. In late spring and early summer when cold rains begin, the flock should be sheltered if possible, for exposure is dangerous, especially to young lambs. In the heat of summer if there is no natural shade in the pastures the flock should have access to a darkened but well ventilated shed. A fringed curtain thru which the sheep force their entrance will keep back the flies from this retreat. (881) 833. Winter quarters for fattening sheep. — ^At the Minnesota Station^' Shaw fed eight 78-lb. lambs for 117 days in a yard sheltered from the wind by a low building at one side. A second lot was confined in a yard with an open shed for shelter, while a third was kept in a compartment of a barn ventilated by means of a large window facing the east. All lots were fed the same ration with the following results : "Minn. Bui. 44. 514 FEEDS AND FEEDING Effect of various methods of confinement on fattening lambs Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average WHeat Wliere fed daily gain screenings Oil meal Hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, out of doois .28 804 90 316 Lot //, in yard with shed 0.32 668 74 251 2/0* ///, in stable 0.28 722 80 283 Lot II, kept in a yard with an open shed, made the largest and the most economical gains, while Lot I, kept out of doors, made as good gains as those confined in the barn, but required slightly more feed for 100 lbs. of gain. Skinner and King found at the Indiana Station^' that lambs fattened during the winter in an open shed and adjacent yard made 0.01 lb. less daily gains and required slightly more feed for 100 lbs. gain than others kept in a well-ventilated barn. But the lambs in the open shed were better finished, and sold for enough more to overbalance the slightly higher cost of gains. In a later trial the lambs fed in the open shed consumed less feed per 100 lbs. gain and again sold for a higher price than those fed in the barn. That shelter from rain is needed even in a moderate climate is shown in a trial by Mumford, Trowbridge, and Hackedom at the Missouri Sta- tion^* in which yearling wethers fed in an open yard made smaller gains and required over 19 per ct. more feed per 100 lbs. gain than others which had access to a bam. In the northern states a dry, littered yard, having a sunny exposure, and provided with a well-bedded, comfortable shed opening to the east or south, extending along the windward side to break the cold winds and driving storms, is ideal for fattening sheep. In such quarters the air is bracing, the sunshine invigorating. Here the animals, heavy coated and fiUed with rich grain and roughage, are both warm and comfortable, and comfort is essential to the highest gains. In the arid regions, protection from driving winds and sandstorms is all that is essential. 834. Exercise. — ^For the breeding flock abundant exercise thruout the year is essential. (Ill) That fattening sheep make better gains if allowed but limited exercise is shown by trials at the Wisconsin Station^* in which during 3 consecutive winters Humphrey and Kleinheinz kept one lot of 12 wether lambs in a dry, airy, weU-Kghted pen during fattening while another was turned out daily for exercise when the weather per- mitted. The results are averaged in the following table : Exercise vs. confinement for fattening wether lambs Average ration Av. daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Grain Hay Roots gain Grain Hay Roots Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Exercised 1.1 19 1.4 0.15 708 1,297 1,068 Not exercised 1.1 19 1.4 0.17 618 1,113 899 "Ind. Bui. 168; information to the authors. '^Mo. Bui. 115. "Wis. Rpts. 1904-05. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 515 In no case did these lambs make large or economical gains, for they were in better condition at the beginning than average feeder lambs and were not forced for the largest gains. The lambs given exercise made slightly smaller gains and required over 16 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain than those more closely confined. 835. Grinding grain; cutting or grinding hay. — Of all farm animals the sheep is best able to do its own grinding, and with few exceptions whole grain only should be furnished. (423) The common saying of feeders, "a sheep which cannot grind its own grain is not worth feeding," is a truthful one. Valuable breeding sheep with poor teeth may be contin- ued in usefulness by being fed ground grain. In certain cases grinding may prove advantageous. At the Colorado Station^" Cooke, when feed- ing western sheep on wheat, observed that much of the grain passed thru the animals unbroken. As shown in the next chapter, it is well to grind such hard seeds as bald barley, millet, and screenings containing small weed seeds. From 4 trials testing the value of cutting and grinding alfalfa hay for fattening lambs, Morton of the Colorado Station '^ concludes that when good quality long alfalfa hay is fed not enough is refused to warrant such preparation. When poor quality hay is used, cutting into three- fourth inch lengths may be profitable thru inducing closer consumption, provided the cost is not more than $1 per ton. Reducing such hay to meal may be warranted, if the cost is not more than $3 to $4 per ton. 836. Self feeders; feed racks. — To save time and labor some feeders place quantities of grain sufficient for a week or more in a self feeder, a box so arranged that the grain passes down into the feed trough as rapidly as the sheep consume the supply below. Trials with self feeders by F. B. Mumford at the Michigan Station''^ with ten 80-lb. lambs in each lot, fed for 105 days, and by Shaw at the Minnesota Station^* with eight 80-lb. lambs in each lot, fed for 117 days, are summarized in the table : Trials with self feeders for fattening lambs Method of feeding Average ration Grain Hay Av. daily gain Av. total gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Grain Hay SelJf-fed... C^dinary . S«lf-fed... Ordinary . Mim/nesota Self-fed... Ordinary ■ Com, 1.4 lbs Corn, 1.5 lbs Com and bran, 1.8 lbs. . . Com and bran, 1.6 lbs. . . Wheat screenings, 3.2 lbs. Wheat screenings, 2.4 lbs, Lbs. 0.9 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.5 0.8 Lbs. 0.23 0.31 0.22 0.25 0.35 0.32 Lbs. 24.8 32.8 23.7 26.7 41.6 37.5 Lbs. 607 481 776 638 908 742 Lbs. 387 334 405 421 130 251 "Colo. Bui. 32. "Colo. Buls. 151, 187. «Mich. Bui. 113. "Minn. Bui. 44. 616 FEEDS AND FEEDING In each trial the self feeder increased the feed consumed for 100 lbs. of gain. Mumford"* concludes from tests covering 3 years, "Fattening lambs by means of a self feeder is an expensive practice, and economy of production requires more attention to the variation in the appetites of the animals than can be given by this method. ' ' After a later trial with yearling wethers at the Missouri Station^" Mumford writes, "The ad- vantage of a self feeder even at a low price of corn is small, as it will be found necessary to feed by hand the first 5 or 6 weeks of the feeding period in order to accustom the sheep to a full feed of grain before them all the time." Numerous observations show that the death rate is higher when self feeders are used. The more concentrated the grain, the greater the danger in feeding it thru the self feeder. Bulky wheat screenings have been satisfactorily fed in self feeders. From trials during 2 years Morton"' reports that under Colorado con- ditions, with lambs fattened in the open, self-feed hay racks, costing $1 per running foot and accommodating 4 lambs per foot, 2 on a side, saved sufficient hay, compared with feeding it on the ground outside the pens, to pay their cost in 3 seasons. It is well to construct hay racks so that chaff and seeds will not fall upon the necks of the sheep, since such material will work down into the wool, injuring its quality. Grain and roughage should be fed separately to sheep. If sheep are fed in close quarters the hay should be supplied daily, since they dislike provender that has been "blown on," as shepherds say. In feeding sheep in open lots, as is done thruout the West, racks sufficiently large to hold roughage for several days are often used. Grain troughs should have a wide, flat bottom, forcing the sheep to consume the grain slowly. Fif- teen inches of linear trough space should be provided for each animal. 837. Water. — Opinions as to the amount of water necessary for sheep vary more than with any other domestic animal. In countries with heavy dews and ample succulent feed in summer, and where roots are largely used in winter, water may possibly be denied sheep, but ordinarily it is a necessity. Because of the danger of infestation with internal para- sites, drinking from stagnant pools must be avoided. On the arid ranges of the Southwest, when grazing on certain succulent plants, like singed cacti, sheep sometimes go 60 days without water.^^ The wise shepherd will under all usual conditions see that his sheep are supplied with water daily. A sheep needs from 1 to 6 quarts of water daily, according to feed, temperature, and weather. Ewes suckling lambs, and sheep that are being fattened require more water than those being simply carried thru the winter. The following table presents data gathered at the Michi- gan^* and Colorado"* Stations on the amount of water consumed by fattening lambs, averaging about 80 lbs. at the beginning of the trials : "Mich. Bui. 128. "-Mich. Buls. 113, 128, 136. »Mo. Bui. 115. "Colo. Bui. 75. ""Colo. Bui. 187. '"Wilcox and Smith, Farmers' Cyclopedia of Live Stock, p. 590. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 517 Water drunk by lambs on various rations during fattening Water Water , Av. daily drunk drunk per No. of Rations gain daily 100 lbs. gain trials Lbs. Lbs. Lbfl. Michigan Grain and clover hay, open-yaxd feeding 0.22 1.4 599 1 Grain and clover hay .28 2.8 979 8 Grain, roots, and clover hay .36 1 .9 540 3 Clover hay and sugar beets 0.13 0.3 314 1 Colwado Grain and alfalfa hay (cold water) 0.36 5.1 1,423 2 Grain and alfalfa hay (warmwater) . .. 0.36 5.3 1,514 2 Adding roots to the ration greatly decreased the water requirement, the lambs fed clover hay and unlimited sugar beets drinking only 0.3 lb. each daily. Lambs fed in an open yard required less water than those in confinement, due probably to the lower temperature outside. Supply- ing lambs fattening on alfalfa hay and grain with warm instead of cold water made no difference either in the quantity of water drunk or in the rate and economy of the gains produced. Gray and Ridgeway of the Alabama Station"* found that in late sum- mer ewes in confinement drank 2.5 lbs. of water each while living on green sorghum forage, and 6.1 lbs. when on cottonseed meal and hulls. (103) 838. Silt. — Sheep require salt, which should be available at all times, for an irregular supply induces scouring. In winter it may be given in a trough used only for this purpose. In summer salt may be rendered doubly useful by scattering it on sprouts growing about stumps, on brush patches, or over noxious weeds. Some western sheep raisers never salt their sheep but allow them to eat alkali, which is safe when it contains 80 per et. salt.*^ It is believed that salted sheep are less liable to become locoed. In an experiment in France?^ in which 3 lots of sheep were fed the same ration of hay, straw, potatoes, and beans, those receiving a daily allowance of 0.5 oz. of salt with their feed gained 4.5 lbs. more per head than those fed no salt, and 1.25 lbs. more than those fed 0.75 oz. per head daily. This indicates that sheep may be given too much as well as too little salt. The fleeces of the salt-fed sheep were better and heavier than those fed no salt. (101) 839. Weight and gains of fattened wethers. — ^By far the most compre- hensive data on the weights and gains of fattened wethers of different ages and from the various breeds are furnished by the records of the ani- mals winning prizes at the Smithfield Club Show, London, England. Below are presented these data for the years 1895 to 1912, inclusive.'* As given in these records the daily gain includes the weight of the ani- mal at birth. »AIa. Bui. 148. »> Wilcox and Smith, Parmer's Cyclopedia of Live Stock, p. 590. «Abs. in Agr. Jour, and Mln. Rec. 5 (1902), p. 361. "Lond. Live Stock Jour., Vols. 42-76. 518 FEEDS AND FEEDING Weight of prize-winning wethers at Smithfield Wether lambs Yearling wethers Breed Number Av. age Av. vrt. Av. daily gain Nxunber Av. age Av. wt. Av. daily gain Middle-^ool Cheviot 35 49 94 36 56 57 99 76 25 42 73 54 48 Days 238 331 309 232 298 266 286 287 276 276 250 247 290 Lbs. 141 200 208 132 196 159 150 201 188 188 160 157 209 Lbs. 0.59 0.60 0.67 0.56 0.66 0.58 0.52 0.70 0.68 0.68 0.64 0.64 0.72 53 23 78 60 53 58 105 56 15 28 65 59 55 Days 592 679 661 591 649 636 637 648 624 625 606 607 639 Lbs. 224 261 282 197 285 253 202 291 292 268 267 273 334 Lbs. 0.37 Dorset 0.38 Hampshire 0.42 Mountain 0.33 Oxford 0.44 Shropshire 0.39 Southdown 0.31 Suffolk 0.44 Long-wool Cotswold 0.46 Devon 0.42 Kent 0.44 Leicester 0.45 Lincohi 0.52 The greater economy of the gains made by lambs is shown by the fact that the lambs made daily gains ranging from 0.52 lb. to 0.72 lb., while those of the yearlings were considerably lower, ranging from 0.31 to 0.52 lb. per head daily. 840. Weight of fattened sheep. — The weights of fat sheep of the sev- eral breeds competing for prizes at the American Fat-Stock Show, Chi- cago, during the years 1878 to 1884, inclusive,^* were as follows : Weights of fat sheep of various breeds — American Fat-Stock Show Wethers Ewes Breed Under 1 year 1 year and under 2 years 2 years or over Under 1 year 1 year and under 2 years 2 years or over Cotswold Lbs. 142 151 119 117 79 118 Lbs. 199 239 172 181 112 188 Lbs. 258 263 205 223 137 221 Lbs. 127 112 97 87 52 122 Lbs. 235 204 130 20S 73 165 Lbs. 273 Other long wools Southdown Other middle wools American Meriao Grades or crosses 238 169 211 101 213 In most instances the ewes of a given breed and age were somfiwhat lighter in weight than the wethers. 841. Slaughter tests; dressing percentage. — The records of the slaugh- ter competitions at the Smithfield Club Show'° also furnish the most extensive data available on the dressing percentage, and weight of in- ternal fat, pluck (heart, Uver, and lungs) , and skin for wethers of t]ie different breeds. In the following table are averaged the results of these "block" tests for 20 years, 1895-1914 inclusive. "Trans. Dept. Agr., III., 1884, p. 228. '^Lond. Live Stock Jour., Vols. 42-80. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SHEEP HUSBANDRY 519 Smithfield slaughter tests Breed and age Av. live wt. at slaughter Av. wt. of dressed Av. per ct. of dressed Av. wt. of fat Av. wt. of pluck Av. wt. of skin No. of animals Blackf aced, lambs . . . . Blackfaced, 1-2 years , Cheviot, lambs Cheviot,_l-2 years Hampshire, lambs . . . . Hampshire, 1-2 years , Kent, lambs Kent, 1-2 years Shropshire, 1-2 years . Southdown, lambs. . . . Southdown, 1-2 years Suffolk, lambs Suffolk, 1-2 years . . . . Welsh, 1-2 years Cross-bred, lambs ... Cross-bred, 1-2 years . Lbs. 116 171 113 147 163 209 141 242 259 123 142 152 188 121 129 161 Lbs. 71 110 67 94 102 135 85 155 175 76 92 95 121 74 79 102 61 64 59 64 63 65 60 64 68 62 65 62 64 61 61 63 Lbs. 6.6 9.0 6.8 6.9 6.2 6.8 6.2 5.5 6.2 4.3 6.2 7.0 10.6 8.8 5.9 8.3 Lbs. 3.7 4.4 3.6 4.4 5.1 6.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 3.9 4.1 5.0 5.7 3.4 4.2 5.0 Lbs. 14.6 18.6 12.6 14.3 15.0 15.8 19.4 27.0 25.2 10.8 12.0 13.6 14.3 11.0 13.2 14.8 7 16 54 68 54 30 5 2 4 54 45 104 43 14 106 101 It will be noted that the yearlings yielded a slightly higher percent- age of dressed carcass than the lambs. These wethers were thoroly fin- ished, and thus their dressing percentage is higher than with sheep as ■usually fattened for the market. A survey of the experiments at the various stations in which slaughter tests have been conducted with the animals fattened shows that the usual dressing percentage of lambs or yearlings ranges from 48 to 57 per ct., depending on how completely the animals were fattened. 842. Shrinkage in shipping. — ^During 4 winters Linfield of the Mon- tana Station^" fattened average range lambs and 2-yr.-old wethers on clover hay and grain, shipping them from Bozeman to Chicago, a distance of about 1,440 miles. Lambs, averaging 87.5 lbs. when shipped, shrank 7.6 per ct. on the average, the range being 4.6 to 8.7 per ct. The 2-yr.-old wethers shrank somewhat less, averaging 6.8 per ct., with a range of 5.1 to 8.6 per ct. The older sheep yielded 2.2 per ct. more dressed carcass. Shaw^^ states that fattened lambs weighing under 100 lbs., when 4 days in transit, will shrink 7 to 8 lbs. ; l-yr.-old wethers weighing about 120 lbs., approximately 10 lbs.; and aged wethers and ewes about 12 lbs. On shipping lambs fattened in 4 trials on corn and either clover hay, alfalfa hay, corn stover, soybean straw, or timothy hay, with and without the addition of a nitrogenous supplement, Carmichael and Ham- mond of the Ohio Station^* found no variation in shrinkage attributable to the ration. Lambs shipped 135 to 149 miles shrank 1.3 to 6.8 per ct. When sheep are marketed off pasture, especially rape, excessive shrink- age from scouring may be prevented by giving dry feed for a day or more prior to shipping. The grain ration should be decreased previous ™Mont. Buls. 47, 59. »=Ohio Buls. 187, 245. ■'Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 365. 520 FEEDS AND FEEDING to shipping for the same reason. Shaw** regards oats as the safest con- centrate to feed sheep when in transit. 843. Wool production. — A general discussion of the nutrients required for wool production has been given in an earlier chapter. (151-2) Soil and climate produce marked effects on the characteristics of sheep, as shown by Brown*" in his study of the evolution of the various English breeds. The rich lowlands of England with their abundant, nutritious grasses produced the heavy-bodied, plethoric Long-wools, the next higher lands with less abundant herbage furnished the Downs and Middle-wools, while the mountains with scanty herbage produced the active, still lighter breeds. Coleman*^ states that the peculiar luster of the Lincoln wool diminishes when these sheep pass to a less congenial soil, and that wool in certain districts of Yorkshire brings a higher price than that of other localities, due to the favorable influence of soil and climate. He further states that limestone soils, otherwise peculiarly suited to sheep, tend to harshness in wool which renders it less valuable than that from sheep living on clays or gravels. To prevent injury to the wool, feeding racks should be so constructed that seeds and chaff will not lodge on the neck and shoulders of the sheep, and the feed lot or barn must be well bedded so that the wool will not become soiled. "Weiske and Dehmel*^ found that sheep shorn 6 times a year produced less unwashed wool, but nearly 25 per ct. more pure wool fiber than those shorn annually, but such short wool is of low value. "Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 361. "British Sheep Farming. "Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs of Great Britain. " Fiitterungslehre, 1872, p. 511. CHAPTER XXXI FEEDS FOR SHEEP I. Concentrates FOE Sheep In the following articles, which discuss the value of various feeding stuffs for sheep, especially for fattening animals, it will be noted that nearly all the trials reviewed were with lambs. This is due to the facts, already pointed out, that lambs make better use of their feed and that their flesh is in greater demand. (831) In all trials where the weight of the lambs and duration of the fattening period are not stated, it may be assumed that either western lambs weighing about 65 lbs. or eastern lambs of about 80 lbs. were used, and that the feeding period covered from 12 to 15 weeks. 844. Indian com. — Com, the best single grain for fattening sheep, is the cereal most commonly used over the United States as far west as Colorado, beyond which wheat and barley are more generally fed. Leg- ume hay, rich in protein, admirably supplements this carbonaceous grain. Hence, the combination of com and legume hay has become a standard ration for fattening sheep over a large extent of our country. In this chapter, so far as possible, other rations are compared with this successful combination. To show the possibilities of this ration, below are averaged the results from 8 stations with 26 lots, including 527 lambs, which were fed an unlimited allowance of shelled com and either clover or alfalfa hay, for periods averaging 90 days. The results are also given from 4 stations at which 17 lots, including 1,180 lambs, were fed a limited allowance of shelled corn (from 0.7 to 1.1 lbs. per head daily), with the same roughages, in trials averaging 92 days. Corn and legume hay for fattening lambs Initial Daily Fead for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Com Hay Lba. Lba. Lba. Lbs. Com aUowance unlimited Shelled com, 1 .3 lba. Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 .4 lbs 67 .32 400 436 Com aUowance limited Shelled com, 0.91b. Clover or alfalfa hay, 2 .libs 60 .32 288 655 The lambs given a full feed of corn consumed an average ration of 1.3 lbs. shelled corn and 1.4 lbs. clover or alfalfa hay and gained 0.32 lb. per head daily, requiring 400 lbs. shelled corn and 436 lbs. hay per iOO lbs. gain. Due probably to the superior quality of the hay fed, the lambs getting the limited com allowance made as good gains as those 521 522 FEEDS AND FEEDING on a full feed of corn. These lambs required 655 lbs. of hay and only 288 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain. From these averages, the feeder may readily calculate the cost and possible profits of fattening lambs under reasonably favorable conditions, and when the fattening period is not too extended. (201-7) 845. Corn requires supplement. — Owing to its carbonaceous character corn should be supplemented with some variety of legume hay, or if this is not available then vnth some protein-rich concentrate, even when fed to fattening sheep or lambs. (201) This is shown in the following table, in the first division of which are summarized the results of 7 trials, averaging 81 days, in each of which com was fed with clover or alfalfa hay to one lot of lambs and with tim- othy or prairie hay to another lot. In the second division are given the results of 4 trials, averaging 80 days, in which the effect of adding linseed or cottonseed meal to a ration of corn and timothy hay was studied. Thus, the first division shows the value of supplementing corn with legume hay, and the second, of adding a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of corn and carbonaceous hay. Corn requires supplement for fattening lambs Initial weight Daily gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration Concen- trates Hay Legume hay as supplement to com* Unbalanced ration, 164 lambs Com, 0.91b. Carbonaceous hay, 1 .0 lb Lbs. 59 59 64 64 Lbs. 0.19 0.32 0.23 0.30 Lbs. 497 340 520 463 Lbs. 547 Balanced ration, 172 lambs Cora, 1.1 lbs. LeECume hav , 1 . 5 lbs 475 Nitrogenous concentrate as supplement to com] Unbalanced ration, 90 lambs Com, 1 .2 lbs. Timothy hay, 1 .0 lb 448 Balanced ration, 90 lamhs Com, 1 .2 lbs. Cotton- or linseed meal, 0.2 lb. Timothy hay, 1 .0 lb 334 ♦Average of 1 trial by Burnett (Nebr. Bui. 66), 1 by Emery (Wyo. Bui. 51), 1 by Faville (Wyo. Bui. 85), 1 by Morton (Wyo. Bui. 73), and 3 by SHnner and King (Ind. Bui. 162). t Average of 1 trial by Carmichael and Hammond (Ohio Bui. 245), 1 by Hays (Minn. Bui. 31), and 2 by Skinner and King (Ind. Bui. 162). While the lambs fed corn with carbonaceous timothy or prairie hay gained only 0.19 lb. per head daily, those fed corn with legume hay, either clover or alfalfa, gained 0.32 lb. The lambs on the unbalanced ration required 46 per ct. more grain and 15 per ct. more hay than those on legume hay. Supplementing the carbonaceous ration of corn and timothy hay with 0.2 lb. of protein-rich cotton or linseed meal per head daily, iacreased FEEDS FOR SHEEP 523 the gains and lowered the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain. Lambs will go off feed more readily when com is fed without being properly supplemented by some protein-rich feed. On the other hand, in these trials the lambs fed corn and legume hay or corn, carbonaceous hay, and a nitrogenous supplement had good appetites at all times. 846. Com alone and in combination. — ^Altho com and legume hay alone have given excellent results in numerous experiments and in extensive commercial feeding, many maintain that the animals have better appe- tites and are less subject to digestive disorders when a variety of grains is used, especially toward the close of the fattening period, or when lambs are being forced on heavy grain allowances. Without question, mixing a more bulky concentrate, such as oats or wheat bran, with corn is advisable to prevent digestive trouble in starting animals on feed. Whether there is any benefit in adding other feeds to com for the sake of variety when the lambs are on full feed seems to be an unsettled ques- tion, for in trials reviewed later (851), the Indiana Station secured just as good results with com as the sole concentrate, when fed with clover hay and com silage, as with a combination of com and oats. Much of the trouble experienced in feeding com as the sole concentrate is due to its improper use with carbonaceous roughage without any nitrogenous supplement. At the Wisconsin Station Craig^ fed lambs grazing on bluegrass pasture corn meal alone, com meal and oats, or corn meal and peas for 8 weeks be- fore weaning and for the same period after weaning. The lambs fed com meal alone made the largest and most economical gains before weaning, and as large and economical gains as the other lots after weaning. In this case, the needed protein came from the dam's milk and the pasture grass. 847. Feeding com in various forms. — To determine the relative efficiency of different methods of preparing com for fattening lambs, Eward^ at the Iowa Station fed 6 lots, of 40 range lambs each, averaging 52 lbs., corn in various forms, as shown in the table, all lots getting 0.6 lb. al- falfa hay, 0.7 lb. com silage, and 0.15 lb. linseed meal per head daily ia addition. Various methods of preparing corn for fattening lambs Feed for 100 Iba. gain Cost of Daily Concen- 100 Iba. Average daily com allowance gain trates Hay Silage gain* Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Dollars Lot I, Whole ear com, 1 .3 lbs .33 438 181 225 5 .95 Lot 77, Broken ear com, 1 .3 lbs .33 425 177 220 5 .86 Lot III, SheUed com, 1 .3 lbs .34 416 175 217 5 .81 Lot IV, Ground com, 1 .2 lbs .33 425 184 > 228 6 -18 Lot V, Whole, broken and ground com, 1.3 lbs 0.35 399 167 208 5.51 Lo< 77, Com-and-cob meal, 1.2 lbs.. 0.34 415 172 214 5.77 •Com, per bushel, on basis of 66 lbs. grain— Tfhole ear 54 cts., broken ear 65 cts., shelled 56 ots., ground 69 cts,, and com-and-cob meal 60 cts.; oil meal, S30; silage, {3.50; and alfalfa hay $12 per ton. 'Wis. Rpt. 1897. "Information to the authors. 524 FEEDS AND FEEDING In the table the equivalent amount of shelled com is given for each lot; e. g., each lamb in Lot I received daily ear corn equivalent to 1.3 lbs. of shelled corn. The whole ear corn, fed Lot I, made practically as large and economical gains as broken ear com or shelled corn, tho shelling the corn decreased the feed required for 100 lbs. gain enough to slightly more than pay the expense. Wing' declares that no ration will make better or more marketable lambs than a combination of ear corn, corn silage, and alfalfa hay. Lot IV, fed ground corn, made the lowest gains in the trial. From previous trials Bward concluded that the best results may be secured by starting the lambs on ear com, changing to broken ear com as the feeding period progresses, and finishing on ground com and broken ear corn; i. e., increasing the preparation of the grain fed as the lambs fatten. Lot V, fed in this manner, made slightly the largest and most economical gains. Corn-and-cob meal ranked second in amount of gains and economy of production. To study the most econom- ical method of preparing corn for lambs fed clover hay Coffey fed 5 lots, each of 16 western lambs averaging 65 lbs. in weight, clover hay and com in various forms for 98 days in a trial at the Illinois Station* with the results shown in the table : Methods of preparing corn for fattening lambs Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration eain Corn RougliaKe Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot 7, Ear com, 1.6 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .3 lbs 0.293 439* 453 Lot II, Shelled com, 1 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .3 lbs.. . . .205 432 449 Lot III, Ground com, 1 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .3 lbs. . . .264 483 505 Lot IV, Com-and-cob meal, 1 .5 lbs. C. hay, 1 .2 lbs. .264 489* 475 Lot V, Shelled com, .06 lb. Clover hay, 1 .0 lb. , .„« Shock com, 2 .7 lbs... . .247 23 \ j J^J| ^Reduced to shelled com basis. fShock comi containing 53 per ct. of ears. The lambs in Lot II, fed shelled corn, made the largest and most eco- nomical gains. Both ground corn and corn-and-cob meal produced smaller and more expensive gains than did shelled corn. Bar com, fed Lot I, produced about as large and economical gains as shelled corn. Lot "V was fed a small amount of shelled corn until they had learned to husk shock com, and thereafter were given com only in the form of shock com. These lambs made somewhat lower gains than the other lots, and, including the corn in the shock corn, required. 522 lbs. of com for 100 lbs. gain. Coffey points out that both ear com and shock com are better suited for feeding on a thick sod than in a dry lot or barn; for they may be scattered on the sod so that each lamb will have an equal chance to feed and little will be wasted. In the lot or bam lambs are apt to drop the ears on the ground where they become soiled or bunch them up in the trough so that each lamb does not get its share. From these trials we may conclude that it will rarely pay to grind com for fattening lambs, except perhaps where they are fairly fat and 'Sheep Farming in America, p. 285. 'Information to the authors. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 525 it is desired to continue feeding them for some time. (423, 835) "When ground corn is to be fed, it should be cracked or ground coarsely, for Carlyle" found in repeated trials that lambs ate corn ground coarsely much more readily than that which was fine and powdery. 848. Barley. — Thruout the western range district, where but little com is grown, barley is extensively used for fattening sheep and lambs. In the following table are summarized the results of 6 trials, averaging 96 days, in which brewing or Scotch barley was compared with shelled corn for fattening lambs when fed with alfalfa hay. The table also summarizes 4 trials, averaging 98 days, in which barley was compared with shelled corn when fed with carbonaceous roughage — ^prairie, timothy, or mixed prairie and brome hay. , Barley vs. corn for fattening lanibs Initial weight Daily gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration Grain Hay WUh alfalfa hay* Lot I, total of 355 lambs Whole barley, .9 lb. Alfalfa hay, 2 .4 lbs Lbs. 62 60 71 71 Lbs. 0.31 0.21 0.23 Lbs. 296 283 580 528 Lbs. 777 Lot II, total of 355 lambs Shelled com, 0.91b. Alfalfa hav. 2 .3 lbs 708 With carbonaceous hayt Lot I, total of 57 lambs Whole barley, 1 .2 lbs. Hav. 1 3 lbs 598 Lot II, total of 57 lambs SheUedoom, 1.2 lbs. Hay, 1 .3 lbs 586 'Average of 3 trials by Faville C^yo. Buls. 81, 85, 103), 1 by Buffum and Griffin (Colo. Bui .75), and 2 by Morton (Colo. Bui. 187). fAverage of 1 trial each by Hays (Minn. Bui. 31), Morton (Wyo. Bui. 73), Faville (Wyo. Bui. 89), and Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Bui. 86). "With alfalfa hay for roughage, the lambs fed whole barley made only slightly smaller gains than those fed corn, the former consuming 5 per ct. more grain and 10 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain. In trials by Mor- ton with 450 lambs, Scotch barley proved fully equal to shelled corn in the amount and economy of gains. With carbonaceous hay, the barley- fed lambs required 10 per ct. more grain and only 2 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain than those fed corn. These trials show that good brew- ing or Scotch barley nearly equals corn for fattening lambs. California feed barley was found by Morton to have slightly lower value than the heavier Scotch barley, lambs given feed barley requiring 11 per ct. more grain and 4 per ct. more alfalfa hay than those fed Scotch barley. Altho somewhat richer in protein than corn, barley is decidedly a carbonaceous grain and hence gives the best results when fed with legume hay, as the "Wis. Rpt. 1899, p. 45. 526 FEEDS AND FEEDING table shows. When fed with carbonaceous hay, the ration should be sup- plemented with a protein-rich concentrate, such as linseed or cottonseed meal. (226) At the Wyoming Station Faville* found that soaking, cracking, or grinding western Scotch barley, which is harder than eastern brewing barley, did not increase its value for lambs. It will probably pay to roll or crack the hard bald or huUess barley, as Faville^ found that lambs passed more of it undigested than of Scotch barley. Cooke* at the Colo- rado Station found that, when ground, bald barley formed a sticky mass in the lambs' mouths and they would not consume more than 1 lb. per head daily. (835) 849. 'WHieat. — Rarely will wheat be fed to sheep unless off grade or low in price. To show its value compared with shelled corn, the fol- lowing table presents the results of 3 trials, averaging 104 days, in which good quality common wheat was compared with corn in lamb-feeding trials. In the table are also summarized the results of 3 trials, aver- aging 101 days, in which wheat and barley were compared. Wheat vs. corn or harley for fattening lambs Average ration Initial weight Daily gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Grain Hay Wheat vs. com* Lot I, total of 29 lambs Wheat, 1 .4 lbs. Hay, 1 .5 lbs Lot II, total of Z9 lambs Shelled com, 1 .4 lbs. Hay, 1.5 lbs Wheat vs. barley^ Lot I, total of 56 lambs Wheat, 1 .0 lb. Hay, 1.7 lbs Lot II, total of 56 lambs Barley, 1 .0 lb. Hay, 1.8 lbs Lbs. 78 79 66 69 Lba. 0.30 0.30 0.25 0.25 Lbs. 624 515 382 400 Lbs. 482 472 686 712 ♦Average of 2 trials by Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Buls. 80, 86) and 1 by F. B. Mumford (Mich. Bui. 128). tAverage of 2 trials by Liofield (Mont. Buls. 47, 59) and 1 by Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Bui. 86). The lambs fed wheat made the same gains as those fed corn, and re- quired only 2 per ct. more grain and hay for 100 lbs. gain. Those fed wheat and barley also made the same average daily gains, but the barley- fed lots required 5 per ct. more grain and 3 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain. Carlyle and Iddings^ likewise found wheat slightly superior to barley in a trial with 505 lambs at the Idaho Station in which 0.8 lb. of either wheat or barley was fed with a basal ration of 0.3 lb. oats and 2.4 lbs. alfalfa hay. These experiments, confirmed by British tri- •Wyo. Bui. 103. 'Wyo. Bui. 89. 'Colo. Bui. 40. "Idalio Bui. 77. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 527 als," show that good quality wheat is slightly superior to barley and nearly equal to com for fattening sheep. Since wheat is a carbonaceous grain, the best results are secured when it is fed with legume hay. In 2 trials at the South Dakota Station Wilson and Skinner" found durum, or macaroni, wheat practically equal to common wheat for fat- tening lambs. Frosted wheat, in a trial by Foster and Merrill^^ at the Utah Station, produced as large and more economical gains than market- able wheat. (215) 850. Wheat screeningg. — The value of wheat screenings from the ele- vators and mills depends on their quality, the light, chaffy grades being more like a roughage than a concentrate. Successful feeders wisely util- ize screenings of low grade in getting the lambs on feed, and as fatten- ing advances change to the heavier screenings. Hundreds of thousands of Montana sheep and lambs were annually fed during the nineties on wheat screenings in feed lots near St. Paul, Minnesota. The screenings were fed in sheds and usually from self feeders, as the bits of chaff and straw in the feed render it so bulky that there is less danger of founder- ing than when com is fed in self feeders. With the bulky class of screen- ings which were used, little or no hay was required. During the season of 1902 about 330,000 sheep and lambs were fattened in these feed lots.^* Two years later the number fell below 200,000, and at the present time, because of prohibitory prices for screenings and their poor quality, this district has ceased to be a factor of importance in the winter mutton supply. Screenings are still employed more or less extensively in other sections of the country for sheep feeding. (222) The relative value of heavy Tfrheat screenings and good wheat for fat- tening lambs is shown in the following table summarizing 3 trials, from 90 to 97 days in length, where either clover or alfalfa hay was fed for roughage to lambs averaging 58 lbs. in weight. Wheat screenings vs. good-quaUty wheat for lambs Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain zain Grain Hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Average ration gain Grain Hay Lb Lot L 68 lambs* Wheat screenings, 0.81b. Legume hay, 1 .8 lbs 0.26 307 695 Lot 11, 70 lambs* Wheat,0.81b. Legume hay, 1 .7 lbs 0.22 347 744 ♦Average of 2 trials by Lxufleld (Mont. Buls. 47, 59) and 1 by Poster and Merrill (Utah Bui. 78). The table shows that when fed with legume hay heavy-weight screen- ings produced larger and more economical gains than good wheat. Fos- ter and Merrill found that it required 35 per ct. more light-weight, chaffy screenings than those of heavy weight for 100 lbs. of gain. Screenings should be fed close to the mills or elevators, thereby avoiding large "Trans. Hlghl. and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1910. "S. D. Bui. 86. "Utah Bui. 78. "Breeder's Gazette, 46, 1904, p. 1000. 528 FEEDS AND FEEDING freight bills. As with wheat, the best returns come thru feeding in com- bination with legume hay. Lambs fed by Hays" at the Minnesota Station on unground screen- ings containing 90 per ct. of either small wheat, wild buckwheat, or pigeon-grass seed, made as large gains as others receiving cracked corn, but required 42 per ct. more grain per 100 lbs. gain, in the case of those fed small wheat, and 67 per ct. more with those fed pigeon- grass seed. To prevent the spread of weeds, screenings should be ground. 851. Oats. — This grain, so well liked by sheep, is especially useful and safe in getting them on feed and is excellent for the breeding flock. (883) Owing to their usual high price and the fact that they induce growth rather than fattening, oats are rarely economical as the sole grain for fattening sheep. When used, the proportion of oats to other concentrates should be decreased as the fattening period progresses. At the South Dakota Station Wilson and H. Qi. Skinner^" compared the value of oats and shelled com as the sole grain for lambs fed mixed prairie and brome hay for roughage in trials averaging 111 days, with the results shown in the following table. In the second division of the table are given the results secured by J. H. Skinner and King^* at the Indiana Station in three 90-day trials, in which a mixture of oats and corn was compared with shelled corn alone, clover hay and corn silage forming the roughage. Value of oats for fattening lamis Initial weight Daily gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration Grain Hay Silage Oats vs. com Lot 1, 10 lambs OatB, 1 .6 lbs. Mixed hay, 1 .3 lbs Lbs. 70 71 60 60 Lbs. 0.25 0.28 0.32 0.33 Lbs. 650 561 365 "349 Lbs. 535 485 329 323 Lbs. Lot II, 10 lambs Shelled corn, 1 .5 lbs. Mixed hay, 1 .3 lbs Oats and corn vs. corn Lot I, total of 75 lambs Oats, 0.51b. Corn, 0.71b. Clover hay, 1 .0 lb. Com silage, 1 .4 lbs 453 428 Lot II, total of 75 lambs Com, 1.2 lbs. Clover hay, 1 . 1 lbs. Com silage, 1 .4 lbs Both in the South Dakota trial where oats was fed as the sole grain and in the Indiana trials where a mixture of oats and shelled corn was used, the lambs getting either oats or oats and corn, required more feed "Minn. Bui. 31. »S. D. Bui. 86. "Ind. Buls. 168, 179; information to the authors. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 529 for 100 lbs. gain than those fed com only. The Indiana trials show that in a ration properly balanced with legume roughage corn alone is as satis- factory for fattening lambs as a mixture of corn and oats. In the South Dakota trial the lambs fed corn made larger and more economical gains than those fed oats. In the Indiana trials the lambs fed corn as the sole grain made slightly larger gains than those fed a mixture of oats and corn, and required less feed per 100 lbs. gain. In starting Lot II on feed, some oats was mixed with the corn during the first few days. These trials indicate that when lambs are on full feed, corn as the sole grain is as satisfactory as a mixture of com and oats, when fed with legume hay. (846) In 2 trials at the Montana Station by Linfield^'' lambs fed clover hay for roughage made nearly as large gains on oats as those fed barley, but required 6 per ct. more grain and 5 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain. (223) 852. Emmer. — Owing to greatly increased production, emmer (wrongly called spelt) has become an important concentrate for sheep and lambs in the northern plains states. The value of emmer compared with shelled corn is shown in the following table, in which the results are summarized for 3 trials, averaging 91 days, where alfalfa hay was fed, and 2 trials, averaging 110 days, in which the roughage was prairie and brome hay : Emmer vs. corn for fattening lamis Initial weight Daily gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration Grain Hay WUh alfalfa hay, S trials* Lot I, total of 81 lambs Emmer, 0.91b. Alfalfa hav. 2 4 lbs Lbs. 59 59 75 76 LbB. 0.28 0.31 0.29 0.32 Lbs. 324 276 660 513 Lbs. 875 Lot II, total of 81 lambs Shelled com, 0.9 1b. Alfalfa hav. 2 2 lbs 673 With mixed hay, 2 trials^ Lot I, total of 18 lambs Emmer, 1 .8 lbs. Mixpd hav. 1 4 lbs 511 Lot II, total of 19 lambs Shelled com, 1.6 lbs. Mixed hay, 1 .4 lbs 462 ♦Average of 2 trials by Faville (Wyo. Buls. 81, 85) and 1 by Bu£fum and Griffin (Colo. Bill. 75). fAverage of 2 trials by Wilson and H. G. Skinner (S. D. Buls. 80, 86). Both with alfalfa and with prairie and brome hay as the roughage, emmer produced 0.03 lb. less daily gain per lamb, altho the lambs fed emmer ate as much or more grain. "With alfalfa hay, the corn-fed lambs required only 85 per ct. as much grain and 77 per ct. as much hay for 100 lbs. gain as those fed emmer. With prairie and brome hay, 78 per "Mont. Buls. 47, 59. 530 FEEDS AND FEEDING ct. as much grain and 90 per et. as much hay was required by the corn- fed lambs as by those receiving emmer. Considering the larger amount of both grain and hay required per 100 lbs. gain by the lambs fed emmer, we may conclude the value of emmer to be about 75 per ct. that of shelled corn. In the South Dakota trials emmer had a somewhat higher value when fed with barley or corn, than when used as the sole concentrate. (233) 853. Kafir; milo. — Cochel of the Kansas Station^* compared kafir and shelled com in a 60-day trial with 3 lots, each of fifty 56-lb. lambs, fed 1.4 lbs. alfalfa hay and 1.1 lbs. sweet-sorghum silage per head daily for roughage. Kafir vs. corn for fattening lambs Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average concentrate allowance gain Grain Hay Silage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Whole kafir, .9 lb. Cottonseed meal, .19 lb. .35 308 385 309 Ground kafir, .9 lb. Cottonseed meal, . 19 lb. .36 303 378 303 Shelled com, 0.9 lb. Cottonseed meal, 0.19 lb. 0.40 269 335 271 In this, as in 2 previous trials at the same Station,^" lambs fed kafir made satisfactory, tho slightly smaller gains than those fed corn. The lambs fed kafir in this test required about 15 per et. more feed for 100 lbs. gain than those receiving corn. Grinding kafir did not increase its value for sheep. This trial is valuable and important in showing the excellent returns possible from feeds so well adapted to the southern plains states — sorghum silage, alfalfa hay, kafir, and cottonseed meal. Tho the stations have reported no tests with milo for fattening sheep, it should have substantially the same value as kafir. (236-40) 854. Miscellaneous carbonaceous concentrates. — Dried beet pulp pro- duced as large and as economical gains as corn in a trial by Shaw at the Michigan Station^" in which mixtures of either 4 parts dried beet pulp or 4 of corn, together with 2 parts wheat bran and 1 part linseed meal, were fed with clover hay to western lambs. Humphrey and Klein- heinz of the Wisconsin Station^^ found dried beet pulp equal to corn for producing growth in ewe lambs when oats were fed with both. (275) Molasses-beet pulp showed no marked superiority over ordinary dried beet pulp in the trial by Shaw when 3 parts of either was fed with 1 part of linseed meal, clover hay forming the roughage. (277) Beet molasses is now in some instances being fed to sheep in the vi- cinity of beet sugar factories in the West. Morton of the Colorado Sta- tion^'' states that it is used chiefly with the cheaper grades of sheep, such as old ewes. To avoid "smearing" the wool, the molasses is pref- erably mixed thoroly with cut hay or straw. In some cases no other concentrate is fed, and in others wet beet pulp and a little cottonseed cake are added to the ration. (276) "Information to the authors. ="Wis. Rpt. 1906. "Breeder's Gaz., 51, 1907, p. 960. ^Information to the authors. ^'Mich. Bui. 220. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 531 Millet seed, coarsely ground, was found by Wilson and H. G. Skinner^* practically equal to corn for fattening lambs when fed with, mixed prai- rie and brome hay. Sheep fed whole millet voided a large percentage of the seed undigested. (243) 855. Linseed and cottonseed meal or cake. — The value of these nitrog- enous concentrates, the supplements most commonly used with sheep in balancing rations deficient in protein, has already been Dointed out. (845) The relative value of linseed and cottonseed meal is shown in 2 trials presented in the following table, the first by Carmichael at the Ohio Station^* and the second by Mumford, Trowbridge, and Hackedorn at the Missouri Station."" Linseed vs. cottonseed meal for fattening sheep Initial weigiit DaUy gain Feed for 100 Iba. gain Average ration Concen- trates Hay Ohio Station, 112-day trial Lot I, Jfi lambs Linseed meal, .2 lb. SheUed com, 1 .0 lb. Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs Lbs. 65 67 79 78 Lbs. 0.30 0.31 0.25 0.24 Lbs. 397 388 491 511 Lbs. 497 Lot II, 40 larnhs Cottonseed meal, .2 lb. SheUed com, 1 .0 lb. Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs 486 Missouri Station, 98-day trial Lot I, W yearling wethers Linseed meal, 0.21b. Shelled com, l.llbs. Clover hay, 1 .8 lbs 703 Lot II, W yearling wethers Cottonseed meal, 0.2 lb. Shelled com, 1 . 1 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .8 lbs 748 These trials show that cotton- and linseed meal have substantially the same value for balancing the rations of fattening sheep and lambs. (250, 254) Undecorticated cottonseed cake, which is similar to the cold-pressed cake sold in this country (248), was found by Bruce"' at the Edinburgh Agricultural College to produce 0.06 lb. less gain per head daily with yearling wethers than linseed cake, when both were fed as the sole concentrate with hay and turnips. Wethers fed undecorticated cotton- seed cake required 20 per ct. more cake and 29 per ct. more roots than those fed linseed cake. Lambs should not receive more than half a pound of linseed or cottonseed meal per head daily, and one-eighth or one- fourth pound, in combination with other concentrates, will usually pro- ^S. D. Bui. 86. ""Mo. Bui. 115. "Ohio Bui. 179. "Edinburgh and East of Scot. Col. Agr., Bui. 10. 532 FEEDS AND FEEDING vide a well-balanced ration. Linseed cake of pea size is better relished by sheep than the finely ground meal. (883) 856. Minor protein-rich concentrates. — Field peas and soybeans are usually too expensive to form the entire concentrate allowance for fat- tening lambs, but may be used with com or other grains. Of several concentrate mixtures tested for fitting yearling wethers for show, the best results were secured with a mixture of peas, oats, and bran. Hum- phrey and Kleinheimz of the "Wisconsin Station^^ show that peas produce firm flesh and, combined with other grains, are especially helpful in securing high quality mutton. (261, 860, 883) Richards and Kleinheinz"' fed one lot of 10 ewe lambs equal parts of soybeans and shelled corn and another equal parts of oats and corn, all receiving a daily roughage allowance of 0.8 lb. hay and 0.6 lb. corn stover per head. The results of the trial, which lasted 84 days, are shown below : Soybeans vs. oats for ewe lambs Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average grain allowance gain Grain Roughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot 7, Soybeans and com, 1 .2 lbs 0.19 611 711 Lot 11, Oats and com, 1 .2 lbs .16 728 862 With these lambs, lightly fed, since they were intended for the breed- ing flock, soybeans and corn produced larger and more economical gains than oats and corn. (256) Wheat bran should form no large part of the concentrate allowance for fattening sheep, for, like oats, it induces growth rather than fatten- ing and is too bulky. When lambs are being started on feed, bran is useful for mixing with corn and other heavy concentrates to forestall digestive troubles. Bran is a most valuable feed for breeding ewes. (218, 883) Dried distillers' and brewers' grains, rarely fed to sheep in this coun- try, have given good results in Europe.^® Aitken'" of Scotland found that dried distillers' grains fed with roots, or with roots and hay, to fatten- ing sheep produced as large gains as linseed meal. (282, 228) Gluten feed, tho not relished by sheep, in a trial by Gilchrist'^ at Durham College, England, produced larger gains than split peas or equal parts of barley meal and undecorticated cottonseed meal, when fed as the sole concentrate with hay and rutabagas. (210) Flesh meal, according to Schenke,'^ was readily consumed by sheep when it was fed with better-liked feed and formed not more than 5 to ''Wis. Rpt. 1905 and Bui. 232. =»Wls. Rpt. 1904. =»Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., Ill, 1909, p. 241. s'Trans. Highl. and Agr. See. Scotland, 1900, 1901. "Trans. HlgM. and Agr. Soc. Scotland, 1910, p. 253. «Landw. vers. Stat., 58, 1903, pp. 26, 27. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 533 10 per ct. of the ration. Flesh meal produced larger but less economical gains than grain alone, and evidently increased the wool production. Dried blood, fed to young lambs in place of milk, at the rate of about 0.5 lb. daily for each 100 lbs. live weight, gave excellent results in a trial by Regnard.*^ (271) Tankage was found by Morrison and Kleinheinz** at the Wisconsin Station to be readily eaten by lambs when mixed with 9 parts coarsely ground corn. When fed with corn and poor-quality, over-ripe blue- grass hay, both feeds low in protein, 10 per ct. tankage was as effective as 18 per ct. linseed meal in balancing the ration. (270) II. Roughages for Sheep 857. Legume hay. — The legumes are the prime source of roughage for sheep — ^in the East clover and alfalfa, thruout the West alfalfa with clover and field peas in certain sections, and in the South the cowpea, beggarweed, and other plants. It is more important for sheep than for cattle that the hay be fine-stemmed and leafy. The superiority of legume over carbonaceous hay for sheep is shown in the following summary of 5 trials, averaging 99 days, in which rations of clover or alfalfa hay with corn as the sole concentrate, have been com- pared with rations of timothy or prairie' hay with corn and cotton- or linseed meal, which were equally well balanced so far as the amount of protein was concerned: Legume hay vs. carbonaceous hay for fattening lambs Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Concentrates Hay Lbs. Xba. Lbs. Lbs. Legume hay, 71 lambs* Clover or alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs. Com, 1.3 lbs 63 0.32 388 455 Carbonaceous hay, 63 lambs* Timothy or prairie hay, 1 .0 lb. Com, 1 .0 lb. Cotton- or linseed meal, 0.2 lb J 63 0.24 505 422 ♦Average of 1 trial by Burnett (Nebr. Bui. 66), 1 by McDonald and Malone (Okla. Bui. 78), 1 by Morton (Colo. Bui. 73), and 2 by Skinner and King (Ind. BuL 162). Tho the lambs fed timothy or prairie hay received a well-balanced ration, those on clover or alfalfa made much larger gains and required less feed per 100 lbs. gain. So long as there is an ample supply of good legume hay of any kind, sheep show little desire for other roughage. (Chapter XIV) 858. Nitrogenous supplement with com and legume hay. — The ad- vantage of adding a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of corn and legume hay for fattening lambs has been studied by several stations. The following table summarizes 10 trials in which a ration of clover or alfalfa hay with corn alone was compared with the legume hay and corn plus cotton- or linseed meal. "Pott, Handb. Ernahr. u. Futter., HI, 1909,»p. 515. «' Unpublished data. 534 FEEDS AND FEEDING Adding a supplement to a ration of corn and legume hay Initial Daily Peed for 100 lbs. ^ain weight " Li>s. Average ration weight gain Concentrates Hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, 193 lambs* Com, 1 .3 lbs. Legume hay, 1.4 lbs 63 0.32 402 424 Lot II, 193 lambs* Com, 1 . 1 lbs. Cotton- or linseed meal, .2 lb. Legume hay, 1 .4 lbs 63 0.33 402 428 ♦Average of 5 trials by Carmiohael and Hammond (Ohio Buls. 187, 245), 1 by Coffey aU.. Station, information to the authors), 1 by F. B. Mumford (Mich. But H3), and 3 by Skinner and King (Ind. Buls. 162, 168). In 7 of the trials the lambs fed the nitrogenous supplement made slightly larger gains and in 3, smaller gains than those on corn and legume hay alone. On the average, replacing 0.2 lb. of corn in the ration by the same weight of cotton- or linseed meal increased the daily gain 0.01 lb. but did not decrease the amount of concentrates or hay consumed for 100 lbs. gain. "With normal prices for corn and nitrog- enous concentrates, the only advantage from adding a nitrogenous sup- plement to an already vrell-balanced ration of corn and legume hay is evidently the fact that the gains are usually somewhat more rapid, en- abling the feeder to put the lambs in condition for the market in a shorter time. 859. Legume hays compared. — Bed clover, one of the best roughages for sheep, should be cut early to secure the leaves and heads, which are the portions most desired. (347) The relative values of alfalfa and clo- ver hay for sheep is a disputed point. In trials covering 3 years at the Ohio Station,^^ Carmichael and Hammond found that lambs fed good quality alfalfa hay and shelled corn gained 0.02 lb. more per day on the average than those fed clover hay of the same quality, tho consuming 16 lbs. less grain and 9 lbs. less hay per 100 lbs. gain. Humphrey and Kleinheinz, when fitting yearling wethers for exhibition during 8 years at the Wisconsin Station,^* found that clover hay produced slightly larger and more economical gains, but the carcasses from the alfalfa- fed wethers were superior. Skinner and King^^ in a 90-day test found good clover slightly superior to good alfalfa hay for fattening lambs when fed with shelled com. From these data we may conclude that there is no material difference in the value of clover and alfalfa hays for sheep. (338) R. S. Shaw found alsihe clover hay slightly superior to alfalfa or red clover in a trial at the Montana Station^' where lambs were fed grain, hay, and roots. (350) Cowpea hay proved equal to alfalfa hay in a trial by McDonald and Malone at the Oklahoma Station,'" while at the Kansas Station lambs fed cowpea hay by Cochel*" required 14 per »Ohio Bui. 245. '"Mont. Bui. 21. ™ Information to the authors. '"Okla. Bui. 78. "Ind. Bui. 179. - "Information to the authors. FEEDS FOE SHEEP 535 ct. more grain and silage and 29 per ct. more hay for 100 lbs. gain than others fed alfalfa hay. (357) In a trial at the South Dakota Station** Wilson -found sweet clover hay a palatable and satisfactory roughage, tho somewhat inferior to alfalfa. Lambs fed equal parts of shelled corn and oats with sweet clover hay, gained 0.43 lb. per head daily during a 67-day trial, requiring 442 lbs. grain and 319 lbs. hay for 100 lbs. gain. (352) In the same trial field pea hay, while relished by the lambs, pro- duced lower gains than either alfalfa or sweet clover hay. (355) Field bean straw proved a good substitute for clover hay in a trial by H. W. Mumford at the Michigan Station,*^ lambs fed a ration of 1.5 lbs. bean straw, 1.4 lbs. shelled corn and 1.2 lbs. rutabagas gaining 0.30 lb. daily, in comparison with 0.33 lb. for lambs fed clover hay. With bean straw, 9 per ct. more grain and 35 per ct. more dry fodder was re- quired per 100 lbs. gain than with clover hay. Lambs fed a ration of 1.2 lbs. soybean straw, 1.2 lbs. shelled corn and 0.2 lb. linseed meal by Carmichael and Hammond at the Ohio Station*^ made daily gains of 0.28 lb. per head and required 499 lbs. concentrates and 420 lbs. soy- bean straw per 100 lbs. gain — a fair gain, tho 19 per ct. less than was made by lambs fed corn with alfalfa or clover hay. (329) 860. Field peas. — The fattening of lambs by grazing on field peas is an important industry in certain sections of the West, especially in the San Luis valley, Colorado." Mexican peas, similar to the common Ca- nadian field peas, are sown at the rate of 30 tq 50 lbs. per acre, with a small quantity of oats or barley to support the vines and furnish ad- ditional feed. About November 1, as soon as most of the peas have matured, lambs or sheep are turned into the field, and without other feed are fattened in from 70 to 120 days. An acre of such peas will fatten from 8 to 15 lambs, each making a gain of from 6 to 8 lbs. per month. One acre of peas produces about $15 worth of lamb mutton at no expense for harvesting the crop. Confining the lambs to small areas by hurdles gives better results than allowing them to roam over the en- tire field. Sometimes the peas are cut, stacked, and fed to the lambs in yards. (355) At the Wyoming Station*^ lambs grazed on field peas made larger gains and reached market in better condition than others fed alfalfa and corn. In a second trial Morton** found that altho the gains of al- falfa and com fed lambs were 50 per ct. greater than those grazed on field peas, due to the low cost of producing the peas the net returns were the same. In this trial the lambs consumed 0.6 acre of peas for each 100 lbs. gain. 861. Timothy and other carbonaceous hay. — Timothy hay is unsatis- factory for sheep, being both unpalatable and constipating. The dry heads of this grass work into the wool, irritating the skin, lowering the quality of the wool and making shearing difficult. As has been shown «S. D. Bui. 143. "Ohio Bui. 245. "Wye. Bui. 64. «Mich. Bui. 136. "Breeder's Gaz., 49, 1906, p. 244. "Wyo. Bui. 73. 536 FEEDS AND FEEDING before (857), even when a nitrogenous supplement is added to timothy- hay and corn, the ration is still inferior to one of legume hay and corn. Marsh hay is too coarse and woody for sheep. Bluegrass hay and bright oat straw are preferable to either of these hays. (311, 328) Millet hay in a trial at the Michigan Station*' by H. "W. Mumford proved poorer than corn stover or oat straw. More care was necessary in feeding this hay than any other coarse fodder, as it induced scours unless fed in limited quantity. (317) Western prairie hay, tho more palatable than timothy hay, is much inferior to alfalfa hay. (857) When prairie hay is fed with carbona- ceous grains, as corn, larger gains will be secured by the addition of some nitrogenous supplement to the ration. This is shown by the fol- lowing table, giving the average results of 2 trials at the Wyoming** and 1 at the Nebraska Station :*' Value of supplement with prairie hay and corn Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Concentrates Hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, total of 45 lambs Prairie hay, 1 .2 lbs. SheUed com, 0.91b 64 0.19 485 628 Lot II, total of 4S lambs Prairie hay, 1 .3 lbs. Shelled com, 0.81b. OUcake or meal, 0.21b 64 0.23 451 547 Lot II, fed oil meal in addition to prairie hay and corn, made larger gains than Lot I, receiving the unbalanced ration, and required 34 lbs. less grain and 81 lbs. less hay for 100 lbs. gaiu. When corn or other carbonaceous grains are very low in price compared with all nitrogenous concentrates, the unbalanced ration may prove more profitable for the feeder, even tho the lambs make less rapid gains. Sorghum hay ranks with corn stover, its value depending to a large extent upon its fineness. Burnett of the Nebraska Station^" has shown that some nitrogenous supplement, such as linseed meal, should be added to a ration of corn and sorghum hay for the best results. (308) 862. Com stover and com fodder; straw. — ^Next in value to hay from the legumes come the dry leaves of the corn pla,nt. For sheep feeding, corn should be cut early and cured in well-made shocks. The sheep will eat a little more of the stalks if shredded, but cutting will not in- duce them to eat any of the coarser parts. (294-5) That neither corn stover nor straw should form the sole roughage for sheep is shown in the following table, which gives the average results secured by Car- michael and Hammond°^ at the Ohio Station in 2 trials, lasting 93 and 83 days, and presents the data obtained by McDonald and Malone in a 140-day test with lambs at the Oklahoma Station :°^ "Mich. Bui. 136. "Nebr. Bui. 66. "Ohio Bui. 245. «Wyo. Buls. 73, 89. '"Nebr. Bui. 71. ""Okla. Bui. 78. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 537 Corn stover and oat straw for fattening lamibs Daily roughage allowanoe Concentrates fed daily Corn Cotton- or linseed meal Daily gain Feed for 100 lbs, gain Concen- trates Dry fodder Ohio trials Lot I, Clover hay, 1 .2 lbs. Lot II, Com stover, 1 .4 lbs Lot III, Oat straw, 1 .1 lbs.. , Oklahoma trial Lot I, Alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs. Lot II, Com stover, .8 lb. . Alfalfa hay, ,7 lb. Lbs. 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.6 1.2 Lbs. 6'.2i 0.21 0.40 Lbs. 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.36 0.34 Lbs. 389 453 527 454 479 Lbs. 383 485 447 411 426 While making fair gains and showing fair finish, the Ohio lambs fed stover consumed 16 per ct., and those fed oat straw 35 per ct., more con- centrates for 100 lbs. gain than Lot I, fed clover hay. Carmichael and Hammond conclude that at the prevailing prices for feeds and lambs, it is unprofitable to feed either corn stover or oat straw as the sole rough- age. In the Oklahoma trial, tho fed for an unusually long period, both lots of lambs made exceedingly good gains. Lot II, fed corn stover and alfalfa hay, made practically as large gains as Lot I, receiving twice as much alfalfa hay. The amount of concentrates required by this lot for 100 lbs. gain was also but little more than with Lot I. Coffey"* of the Illinois Station states that experienced Michigan sheep feeders give oat straw at one feed and alfalfa hay at the next, claim- ing that the lambs so fed gain as well as tho alfalfa formed the sole roughage. "With yearling wethers Coffey"* secured daily gains of 0.26 lb. per head on a ration of shelled corn, corn silage, and oat straw, and 0.25 lb. on shelled corn, silage, and corn stover, in comparison with 0.29 lb. on corn, alfalfa hay, and silage, and only 0.15 lb. on corn and oat straw alone. This trial shows clearly that for the best results straw should be fed with other more palatable roughage, especially succulent feed. Such good gains with rations as low in protein would have been impossible with lambs, which are growing as well as fattening. These trials show that, judiciously fed, such cheap roughages as com stover and oat straw may lower the cost of mutton production. (296, 328) Shaw"" advises that when both legume hay and some other less palat- able roughage are fed, the legume hay be given for the evening meal. Shock corn may be fed to sheep with satisfactory results, as is shown in a trial by Coffey"" at the Illinois Station, which has been previously reviewed. (847) Whether it will be more profitable to feed shock corn or to husk and shell the corn before feeding will depend on the price of feeds and labor. "Breeder's Gaz., 66, 1914, p. 85. "Information to the authors. "Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 212. "Information to the authors. 538 FEEDS AND FEEDING III. Succulent Feeds 863. Value of succulent feeds. — One of the advantages of succulent feeds, so keenly relished by sheep, is their tonic and regulating effect. Roots are universally fed in large amounts to sheep in Great Britain, and to this fact may be attributed much of the reputation of the British shepherd for producing mutton of the highest quality. As is shown in the following articles, experiments in this country have proved that roots can be successfully replaced by corn silage, which is produced at lower cost in most sections of the United States. (109) 864. Roots. — The value of roots for fattening lambs is shown in the following summary of 5 trials, averaging 113 days, in each of which 1 lot was fed roots in addition to an already excellent ration of grain (chiefly corn) and either alfalfa, clover, or mixed clover and timothy hay. Value of roots for fattening lambs Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Grain Roots Hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Roots, total of 4i lambs* Roots, 3.7 lbs. Hay, 1 .4 lbs. Grain, 1 .4 lbs 81 0.39 374 940 358 No roots, total of 41 lambs* Hay, 1 .7 lbs. Grain, 1 .5 lbs 82 .32 456 ... 525 ^Average of 3 trials by Kennedy* Robbins, and Kildee (Iowa Bui. 110), 1 by Smith and Mumford (Mich. Bui. 113), and 1 by Arkell (N. H. Bui. 152). In these trials the allowance of roots — ^mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, or turnips — ranged from 1.9 to 5.0 lbs. per head daily, the average being 3.7 lbs. The lambs fed roots ate 0.1 lb. less grain and 0.3 lb. less hay per day but made 0.07 lb. larger daily gain. It is noteworthy that in each of the 5 trials the root-fed lambs made the larger gains. In these trials 100 lbs. of roots replaced 8.7 lbs. of grain and 17.7 lbs. of hay. In trials at the Iowa Station by Kennedy, Bobbins, and Kildee"^ sugar beets ranked first in amount and economy of gain, with mangels second, and turnips third. Since mangels and sugar beets when fed to sheep tend to produce calculi, or stones, in the kidneys or bladder, which are dan- gerous in the case of rams and wethers, these roots should not be fed to males for long periods. In the Iowa trials rams died after being fed on rations containing 4.4 lbs. of sugar beets or mangels for 5 to 6 months. Ewes are not so affected. (365-74) 865. lessons from Great Britain. — The value of succulent feed in the form of roots for sheep fattening is well shown in the compilation made by Ingle of the results of sheep-feeding trials reported in Great Bri- tain"* from 1844 to 1905, numbering 194. From his extended report the following typical examples show the use British farmers make of roots in fattening sheep and lambs : "Iowa Bui. 110. ■* Trans. Highl. and Agr. See. Scotland, 1910. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 539 Rations used hy British farmers in fattening sheep and lambs Initial Daily Total gain Average ration weight gain per head Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. O^^ordr-Hampahire lambs, fed 87 days Boots, 5.7 lbs. EoUrabi, 11 .2 lbs. aover hay, 0.381b. Unseed cake, .7 lb 117 0.48 43 Leicester-Bladcfaced lambs, fed 105 days Swedes, 15 .3 lbs. Hay, 0.71b. No concentrates 80 0.21 22 Oi^ord lambs, fed 102 days Swedes, 22 .9 lbs. Linseed cake, .3 lb. Hay, 0.41b. Barley, 0.31b 107 0.43 42 Cotswoid yearlings, fed ISl days Roots, 15 lbs. Hay, 1.0 ft). Cottonseed cake, 1 .6 lbs Ill 0.33 41 Leicester-Blaekfaced lambs, fed 63 days Swedes, 19 .3 lbs. Dried dist. grains, 0.5 lb 72 0.39 25 Leieester-Blackfaced lambs, fed 105 days Swedes, 12 .8 lbs. Linseed cake, 0.7 lb 81 0.36 37 Not only is the large allowance of roots noteworthy, but also the almost universal use of oil cake — ^linseed or cottonseed. The gains re- ported in the first trial are surprising, considering that the only con- centrate fed was 0.7 lb. linseed cake per head daily. In the second trial fair gains were secured on swedes and hay alone. In the last 2 trials the lambs fed no dry roughage, but only roots and dried distillers' grains or linseed cake, made excellent daily gains. Altho these British trials show that large amounts of roots may be safely fed to sheep, it is not ordinarily profitable in this country to feed over 4 to 5 lbs. per head daily, and even half this allowance, pref- erably pulped or sliced, will furnish the needed succulence in the ration. 866. Com sil^e vs. roots. — Owing to the low cost of producing com silage, the possible substitution of this succulence for roots is a question of prime importance. The following table summarizes the results of 7 trials, averaging 116 days, in which com silage and roots (sugar beets, mangels, rutabagas, or turnips) were compared, when fed with concen- trates and legume or mixed hay : Corn silage vs. roots for fattening lamhs Imtial D^y Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Concentrates Hay Succulence Lbs. Lbs, Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. SHage, total of 7S lambs* Ctom silage, 3 .0 lbs. Hay, 1 .3 lbs. CJonoentrates, 1 .2 lbs 89 0.30 396 439 1,040 Rocia, total of 90 lambs* Roots, 4.6 lbs. Hay, 1 .5 lbs. Concentrates, 1 .2 lbs 89 0.32 380 471 1,507 *Average of 3 trials by Grisdale (Ottawa Expt. Farms Ri>ts. 1910, 1911, 1912), 2 by Kennedy, Bobbins, and Sldee (Iowa BuL 110), and 2 by F. B. Miimford (Mich. Buls. 81, 107). 540 FEEDS AND FEEDING The lambs fed silage made the same gains in 2 of the trials, larger gains in 1, and somewhat smaller gains in the other 4 trials. On the average there was only 0.02 lb. difference in the daily gains of the lambs fed silage and roots. The silage-fed lambs required 16 lbs. more grain, but 32 lbs. less hay for 100 lbs. gain than those fed roots, the larger require- ment of grain by the silage-fed lambs being offset by the larger con- sumption of hay by those fed roots. Thus, based on the feed required per 100 lbs. gain, 1,040 lbs. of silage replaced 1,507 lbs. of roots, due to the more watery nature of the roots. (366) 867. Com silage. — Only in recent years has the value of corn silage for cheapening the cost of fattening sheep been appreciated. The fol- lowing average of 7 trials, lasting from 70 to 105 days, in which a ration of clover hay and shelled corn was compared with one of corn silage, clover hay, and shelled corn for fattening lambs shows the benefits from adding silage to an already excellent ration : Value of corn silage when added to well-balanced ration Initial Daily Feed for 100 Iba. gain weight gain Corn Hay Sill.. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs, Average ration weight gain Corn Hay Silage Lbs. Lot I, total of 147 lambs* Com silage, 1 .4 Iba. Clover hay, .9 lb. SheUed com, 1 .2 lbs 62 .326 360 284 425 Lot II, total of 147 lambs* Clover hay, 1 .5 lbs. Shelled com, 1 .3 lbs 62 0.323 394 471 *Average of 5 trials by Skinner and King (Ind. Buls. 162, 168, 179;'and information to the authors), and 2 by Coffey of the 111. Station (Information to the authors). On the average, the lambs fed silage ate 0.6 lb. less hay and 0.1 lb. less corn daily yet gained slightly more than those fed clover hay and shelled corn. Adding silage to a ration of clover hay and corn does not, however, always result in increased gain, for in 4 of these trials the lambs fed no silage made the larger gains. The great advantage in feeding silage lies in the saving of com and hay required for 100 lbs. of gain. In these trials 100 lbs. of corn silage saved 8.0 lbs. of corn and 44.0 lbs. of clover hay. With corn at a cent a pound and clover hay at $10 per ton, the silage fed had a value of $6.00 per ton, or nearly twice the cost of production on most farms. (410) Besides cheapening the gains in these trials the addition of silage to the ration usually resulted in higher finish and consequently in a greater selling price. (300, 411) Corn silage of good quality is as valuable for the breeding flock as for sheep being fattened for market. (884) The numerous instances in which sheep of all classes have died from eating moldy or decayed silage show that greater care is necessary in administering this feed to sheep than to cattle. As sour silage is apt to cause colic and scour- ing, silage for sheep should be made from well-matured corn. 868. Supplements to silage, com and legume hay. — It has already been shown that adding a nitrogenous concentrate such as cotton- or linseed FEEDS FOR SHEEP 541 meal to an already well-balanced ration of corn and legume hay is not ordinarily profitable. (858) When corn silage is added to a ration of corn and legume hay, all being fed in unlimited allowance, the lambs will eat less of the protein-rich hay, the nutritive ratio thereby being widened to a marked degree. Skinner and King"' conducted trials dur- ing 5 successive years at the Indiana Station with 60-lb. lambs to deter- mine whether it would be profitable to add a nitrogenous concentrate (cottonseed meal) to such a ration. In 3 of the trials, as is shown in the table, they also determined whether it was more profitable to feed 1 part of cottonseed meal to 7 or to 4 parts of shelled corn : Adding a supplement to a ration of corn, corn silage, and clover hay DaUy gain Feed for 100 lbs. gain Nutritive ratio Average ration Concen- trates Hay Silage Supplement vs. no supplement, B trials Lot I, total of 116 lambs Cottonseed meal, . 16 lb. Shelled corn, 1.1 lbs. Com silage, 1 .3 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .0 lb LbB. 0.355 0.331 0.355 0.358 Lbs. 348 360 337 336 Lbs. 287 299 312 307 Lbs. 368 379 428 422 1:6 8 Lot II, total of lis lambs Shelled com, 1 .2 lbs. Com silage, 1 .2 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .0 lb 1:8 8 Amount of supplement, S trials Lot I, total of 75 lambs Cottonseed meal, . 15 lb. Shelled com, 1 .0 lb. Com silage, 1.5 lbs. Clover hav. 1 1 lbs 1:6.8 Lot II, total of 76 lambs Cottonseed meal, 0.24 lb. Shelled com, 1 .0 lb. Com silage, 1.5 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .1 lbs 1:6.1 The first comparison shows that feeding 1 part of cottonseed meal with 7 parts of shelled corn increased the gains and slightly decreased the amount of feed for 100 lbs. of gain. This shows that the ration of shelled corn, corn silage, and clover hay, having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 8.8, was too wide for the maximum gains with fattening lambs. It does not imply, however, that the most profitable gains are necessarily produced when a nitrogenous supplement is added, for the economy of the gains will depend on the relative price of com and the supplement. In 2 of these trials cheaper gains were produced without cottonseed meal. On the average the lambs fed cottonseed meal reached slightly higher finish and sold for 5 cts. more per 100 lbs. In 3 trials the prof- it was greater and in the other 2 less when cottonseed meal was fed. Whether or not to add a nitrogenous concentrate to a ration of shelled "Ind. Buls. 162, 168, 179; information to the authors. 542 FEEDS AND FEEDING corn, corn silage, and legume hay must be determined by each feeder for himself, after taking into consideration the prices of feeds, the value of the manure, and the time the animals should be ready for the market. The second part of the table shows that the gains were not appreciably larger when 1 part of cottonseed meal was fed to 4 parts of corn than when the smaller allowance was used. In 2 of the 3 trials the gains were cheaper on the smaller allowance of cottonseed meal. These trials indicate that a ration having a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.8 is about as satis- factory for fattening lambs as the narrower ratio of 1 : 6.1. 869. Amount of silage to feed. — That corn silage should not ordinarily form the sole roughage for fattening lambs is shown by the following summary of 2 trials, averaging 95 days, conducted by Skioner and King at the Indiana Station.'" The table further gives the results for 3 trials, averaging 94 days, 1 by Skinner and King" and 2 by Coffey,*^ in which the relative value of large and small allowances of corn silage were com- pared when fed with clover hay and shelled corn. Amount of corn silage to feed fattening lambs Feed for 100 lbs. gsin Initial Daily Average ration weight gain Concen- - tratea Hay Silage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Silage vs. silage and hay, 2 trials Silage alone, 50 lambs Com sikge, 2 .2 lbs. Shelled com, 1 .0 lb. Cottonseed meal, . 14 lb 61 0.26 431 858 Silage and clover hay, SO lambs Clover hay, 1.1 lbs. Com silage, 1 .6 lbs. Shelled com, 1.1 lbs. Cottonseed meal, . 16 lb 61 0.36 344 301 436 Large vs. small silage allowance, S trials Silage in small amount, 57 lambs Com silage, 1.1 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .0 lb. Shelled com, 1 .2 lbs ,66 0.31 379 332 360 Silage in large amount, 57 lambs Com silage, 1.7 lbs. Clover hay, 0.81b. Shelled com, 1 .2 lbs 65 0.32 361 268 626 In each of 2 trials averaged in the first portion of the table the lambs fed corn silage only for roughage made much smaller gains, had poorer appetites, and required more care to prevent going ' ' off feed. ' ' Tho in the first trial silage alone produced cheaper gains, the poorer finish of the lambs resulted in a sufficiently lower selling price to more than off- set the cheaper gains. In the other i trial gains were cheaper and profit greater when hay was fed in addition to silage. Contrary to their find- ««Ind. Buls. 168, 179. "Ind. Bui. 168. '"Information to the authors. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 543 ings with steers (778), Skinner and King report that the appetite of lambs for dry roughage was not satisfied by supplying oat straw in ad- dition to silage. They therefore conclude that for the best results legume hay should be fed with corn silage. The second part of the table shows that the largest allowance of si- lage produced the most rapid, and, with feeds at the usual prices, the cheapest gains. Similar results were secured by Skinner and King"* in 2 trials in which large or small allowances of silage were compared when fed with clover hay, shelled corn, and cottonseed meal. In each trial as good or better finish was produced by the heavy silage feeding. Skinner and King conclude that it is best to allow the lambs all the silage they will clean up both morning and evening, with free access to legume hay. It is interesting to note that the lambs given all the silage they would eat still consumed nearly one-half as much hay as they did silage, while on similar feeds steers eat 5 to 7 times as much silage as hay. (776) 870. Silage other than com. — Sorghum silage from plants sufficiently matured to produce silage low in acidity is satisfactory for sheep. This is shown by the results already reported (853), secured by CocheP* in trials at the Kansas Station in fattening lambs on sweet sorghum silage, alfalfa hay, cottonseed meal, and corn or kafir grain. In a 119-day trial by Jones of the Texas Station"" a lot of 250 western lambs were fed a ration of 0.23 lb. cottonseed meal and 3.8 lbs. of feterita and sorghum silage during the first 59 days, during which time the average daily gain was 0.28 lb. Ground feterita was then added, the average ration during ths remainder of the trial consisting of 0.35 lb. cottonseed meal, 1.0 lb. feterita, and 3.5 lbs. silage. During the last 60 days the lambs gained 0.29 lb. per head daily, requiring 121 lbs. cottonseed meal, 341 lbs. feterita, and 1,196 lbs. silage for 100 lbs. gain. While these lambs, fed silage as the sole roughage, made satisfactory gains, Jones states that it is advisable to supply some dry roughage, as otherwise the lambs are apt to go off feed. In districts where the field pea flourishes, the whole plant may be profitably ensiled for sheep fattening. (355) In the vicinity of pea canneries fattening sheep and lambs on ensiled pea vines and pods is an important industry, especially in Wisconsin. (356) Some dry roughage, such as corn stover or hay, is supplied in addition to the silage, and grain or screenings fed, especially during the latter part of the fattening period. Tormey" of the Wisconsin Station reports that one winter a large feeder fed about 6,000 59-lb. lambs for an average of 94 days on a ration of 1.6 lbs. of grain, chiefly corn and screenings, 3.5 lbs. pea vine silage, and a small allowance of hay. The lambs gained 0.30 lb. per head daily on the average, requiring 541 lbs. grain and 1,147 lbs. silage for 100 lbs. gain. "Ind. Bui. 162. "Information to the authors. "Information to the authors. "Country Gentleman, 79, p. 808. 544 FEEDS AND FEEDING 871. Wet beet pulp. — ^Wet beet pulp has been extensively fed to fat- tening sheep in the vicinity of beet sugar factories in the western states, and has proved an excellent feed. The value of an unlimited allowance of pulp and alfalfa hay, fed with and without grain, was tested by Lin- field at the Utah Station"' in a 78-day trial with the following results : Wet ieet pulp with and without grain for fattening lambs Initial DaQy Feed for 100 lbs. gain Average ration weight gain Concentrates Pulp Hay Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs, Lbs. Lot I, 17 lambs Wet beet pulp, 3.3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .4 lbs. Screenings and bran, 0.5 lb .. 64 0.33 156 1,014 423 Lot II, 17 lambs Wet beet pulp, 3.7 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .6 lbs .. 61 0.21 1,786 797 Lot I, fed a half-pound of concentrates with an unlimited allowance of pulp and alfalfa hay, made over 50 per ct. larger gains than Lot II, fed pulp and hay only. The feeding of 156 lbs. of grain effected a sav- ing of 772 lbs. of wet beet pulp and 374 lbs. of alfalfa hay for each 100 lbs. of gain. In another trial"' practically as large and decidedly more economical gains were produced with an average daily grain allow- ance of 0.4 lb. per head as when 0.9 lb. was fed. The Colorado Sta- tion*' f oimd 1 ton of wet beet pulp equal to 200 lbs. of corn for fatten- ing iambs, tho when fed without grain it produced soft flesh and the lambs shrank excessively when shipped. Alfalfa hay contains an abun- dance of protein and mineral matter, in which both corn and beet pulp are deficient, and is therefore an admirable roughage to use with the pulp. Pulp is especially suitable for fattening aged ewes with poor teeth. When feeding heavily with pulp, the yards should be kept dry by proper drainage and the use of bedding. Morton''" of the Colorado Station states that in Colorado pulp is generally fed to old ewes and wethers, rather than lambs, the pulp seeming to be too bulky to give the best results with the younger animals. Owing to its cheapness the pulp is usually fed in unlimited allowance thruout the whole fattening period. ,(274) 872. Pastures. — ^As sheep relish weeds and browse with avidity on sprouts and brush refused by other stock, they are helpful in cleaning up the farm, especially such by-places as lanes and fence corners. Of the permanent pastures, bluegrass is the most common in the upper Mis- sissippi valley and eastward. (311) Farther south red top is prominent, and in the southern states Bermuda grass. (314, 320) In the West the native grasses,, especially the grama species, furnish much of the graz- ing on the ranges, tho on mountain ranges in Idaho, Beattie of the Wash- ington Station'^ found the food mostly herbs, and the leaves and twigs of shrubs. "Utah Bui. 78. "Colo. Bui. 76. , "Wash. Bui. 113. "Utah Bui. 90. "Information to the authors. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 545 The clovers furnish valuable pasture, but great care is necessary to prevent bloat when sheep are grazed on them. (340, 348) Alfalfa is especially liable to cause bloat and can be recommended as a pasture plant for but few sections, altho some skillful flockmasters suffer little loss. In some sections of the West alfalfa is utilized for winter grazing as it is then so lacking in succulence that danger from bloat is practically absent. In the humid regions care is always necessary to prevent in- festation with stomach worms when permanent pastures are used. 873. Annual pastures. — Grazing sheep chiefly on annual pastures spe- cially sown for them was first practiced in America at the Minnesota Station in 1895 by Shaw.'^ This system enables the flockmaster to main- tain more animals on a given area than otherwise, favors rapid, contin- uous gains by providing succulent pasture from spring to fall, destroys nearly all kinds of weeds, and uniformly fertilizes the land. In one trial Shaw grazed 2 lots, each of ten 80-lb. yearling wethers, for 112 days by means of hurdles on the following succession of pastures : Winter rye, peas and oats, barley and oats, rape, kale, peas and oats. Lot II re- ceived 0.5 lb. of oats per head daily in addition to pasture, as is shown below : Grazing yearling wethers on special crops with and without grain Average ration Lot I, Pasture Lot II, Pasture and .5 lb. oats. Daily gain Gain per head 0.15 16.8 0.24 26.9 While the gains were not large with either lot, they were all that could be expected during warm weather. Lot II gained 60 per ct. more than Lot I, which received no grain, and was in better condition at the close of the trial. The increase in gain was worth more than the grain fed. In this system grass pasture should be available during wet seasons, es- piecially on heavy soils. Craig^* reports that on British farms heavily stocked with sheep, a rotation of grazing crops carries the ewes and lambs from the first of the season until weaning, after which the ewes go on old grass land and the lambs to freshly seeded land or other green crops. Lands newly seeded to grass and clover can be successfully pastured by sheep pro- vided they are withdrawn therefrom when the ground is soft from rain and if they are not allowed to crop the young plants too closely. 874. Supplementary gfrazing crops. — ^More common than keeping sheep primarily on annual pastures is the growing practice of using various annlial crops to supplement permanent pastures. The earliest grazing is usually furnished by the cereals, the best of which, according to Shaw,'* is winter rye. Rye is also grown for faU grazing and in sec- tions with moderate winters, winter wheat furnishes feed during the colder months. (318) The sorghums are useful in the plains region, "Minn. Bui. 78. "Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 171. "Sheep Fanning, p. 206. 546 FEEDS AND FEEDING altho not especially relished by sheep. Where they flourish field peas, vetches, cowpeas, and crimson and Japan clover all furnish excellent grazing. (355, 359, 357, 353, 360) Rape is the most widely useful member of the mustard family, which furnishes several other grazing crops. (381) In the mild climate of the Pacific coast where it endures the winter, kale provides excellent spring feed. (382) In the fall kohlrabi and cabbage may be useful. (379-80) Both rutabagas and turnips are widely grown in Britain for grazing. Shaw suggests that these crops should be profit- able for winter grazing in the southern states. (370-1) Caution should be used in putting sheep onto clover or rape pasture, as both often cause bloat, which may prove fatal. When beginning to pasture these forages, the sheep should be allowed to graze but a short time the first day, and the period gradually increased till after a week they may remain continuously on the pasture. It is well to allow sheep to satisfy their hunger largely on other pasture or with hay or grain, be- fore turning them on these crops. Even when care is taken, animals occasionally bloat, especially on sultry days following a rain. Immediate attention is then necessary to save the afflicted ones. Kleinheinz'"' of the Wisconsin Station recommends a drench of a pint to a quart of milk warm from the cow. Others place a stick in the animal's mouth, tied back of the head with a string, or resort to the trocar or knife. 875. Rape. — To determine the value of rape for lambs Shaw''* at the Ontario Agricultural College confined 3 lots of 71-lb. lambs each to a measured acre of rape by means of hurdles. Lot II was fed oats in ad- dition and Lot III had the run of an adjoining grass pasture. Each acre of rape lasted 15 lambs gracing thereon 58 days, during which time the gains were as indicated : Returns from rape grazed hy fattening lamis Daily gain Gainper acre Lbs. Lba. Lot /, Rape only 0.39 344 Lot II, Rape and .5 lb. oats per head daily .40 348 Lot III, Rape and grass pasture adjoining 0.47 420 The addition of oats did not prove economical, while the value and importance of grass pasture in supplementing rape is strongly brought out by the larger gains of Lot III. From 344 to 420 lbs. of gain was made per acre of rape by these lambs. Shaw^^ concludes that feeding grain to lambs grazing on rape wiU not pay when bluegrass pasture is available. The economy of feeding grain when no pasture is available will turn on the relative abundance of rape and the cost of grain, as the feeding of grain should decrease the amount of rape eaten. 876. Rape vs. bluegrass, — At the Wisconsin Station Craig''* grazed one lot of 48 lambs on a bluegrass pasture and another on rape for 4 weeks, feeding in addition 0.7 lb. daily per head of a mixture of equal "Sheep Management, p. 121. "Management and Feeding of Sheep, p. 197. "Ont. Agr. Col. Rpt. 1891. "Wis. Rpt. 1897. FEEDS FOR SHEEP 547 parts of peas and corn. During this period the first lot consumed the rape on 0.64 acre. Both lots were then placed in pens and fed an un- limited allowance of hay and an increased grain allowance, as shown in the table : Relative value of rape and bluegrass pasture for lambs Pasture period of 4 weeks Pen period of 12 weeks Average ration Daily gain , Average ration Daily gain Feed for 100 Iba. gain Grain Hay /, Rape; Grain, .7 lb Lbs. 0.37 0.24 Grain, 1 lb.; hay, 0.6 lb. . Grain, lib.; hay, 0.7 lb. . Lbs. 0.24 0.22 Lbs. 429 476 Lbs. 261 //, Bluegrass; grain, .7 lb 315 The table shows that the lambs pastured on rape did much better than those on bluegrass, both while on pasture and later when confined to feeding pens. CHAPTER XXXII GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS— FATTENING— HOT- HOUSE LAMBS— GOATS I. The Breeding Flock Order, regularity, and quiet are paramount in the management of sheep. The flock should always be cared for by the same attendant, who moves among them quietly, giving notice of his approach by speaking in a low voice and closing doors and gates gently. Dogs and strangers should be kept from the pens at all times. Cleanliness is essential, for the sheep is the most dainty and particular of all farm animals. The successful shepherd is therefore gentle, patient, punctual, and cleanly at all times in the care of his flock. 877. The ewe flock. — Autumn is the time when the beginner in sheep husbandry usually makes his start, and when preparations for the suc- ceeding lamb crop are made in flocks already established. Before the breeding season opens in the fall, all non-breeding ewes, poor milkers, those with "broken" mouths or spoiled udders, and others which are too old or otherwise past usefulness should be discarded. The reserve ewes should not be selected by looks alone, for the thinnest ones may have been brought to this condition by a heavy milk flow. As a rule a good ewe should be retained as long as she will breed. The ewes disposed of should be replaced by the yearlings picked as most promising the pre- ceding faU while still lambs. 878. Date of lambing; gestation period. — The lamb dropped in late winter or early spring is far more valuable than one coming later. Under good management the early-yeaned lamb comes into the world with com- fortable surroundings and a kind master to give attentions conducive to comfort and growth. With the coming of spring the young thing is of sufScient size and vigor to pass out with its dam and make the most of the fresh grass and genial sunshine. The early lamb is less susceptible to stomach worms and many of the evils which attack the later-dropped lambs. Early farm-raised lambs may be fattened and sold before the market is flooded with western range lambs from the feed lots. Where there are poor accommodations or cold quarters lambs should not be dropped in northern latitudes earlier than May, and not until the dams are on pasture. The most extensive data on the gestation period of the ewe are those compiled by Humphrey and Kleinheinz^ from the records of the flock at the Wisconsin Station, consisting mainly of ewes of the English 'Information to the authors. 548 GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 649 breeds. The gestation period for 1,142 ewes ranged from 140 to 156 days, the average being 147 days. The greatest number (19 per ct.) dropped their lambs on the 146th day, :^ollowed by the 147th and 145th. Over half the entire number yeaned on these 3 days. Tessier of France^ reports that the average gestation period of 912 ewes, doubtless of the Merino breed, was 152 days, over 75 per ct. lambing between the 150th and 154th days. This accords with the "Wisconsin records, which show that the Merino and Cheviot ewes carried their lambs longer than those of the English breeds. It was further found that the gestation period for Shropshires and Southdowns was shorter than for the larger English breeds. 879. Flushing the ewes. — Altho the ewe with lamb at foot may have had good care and pasture during the summer, if she has had a large milk flow she will be somewhat run down by fall. With the farm flock it is often advisable to "flush" the ewes after their lambs are weaned and before breeding, a common practice with English flockmasters. This consists in giving an extra allowance of nutritious, highly palatable food for 2 or 3 weeks before the desired date of breeding, so that the ewes will then be rapidly gaining in flesh. Several advantages result from this pi:actice. Not only is the ewe which is bred iu a thrifty condition more certain to produce a vigorous lamb, but she is a more reliable breeder and more likely to drop twins. The flock wiU all breed within a briefer time if flushed, thus shortening the lambing period with its anxious hours. Craig^ found that ewes suckling twins lost no more flesh than those with one lamb, and that twins made as rapid gains as singles; hence the ad- vantage of twins under favorable farm conditions. On the western ranges, where but little attention can be given to the individual ewe, single lambs have given the best results. 880. The ram. — ^A well-built, vigorous ram should be chosen and then be so fed and cared for that he will remain virile. He needs no grain while on good pasture during summer, but beginning at least a month before breeding time some concentrate should be fed. During the breed- ing season he should be kept in good condition on such muscle-forming foods as bran, oats, peas, and oil meal, and not be allowed to run down thru insufficient feed or over use. On the other hand, he should never become fat. In purchasing, avoid a ram that has been fitted for shows, for such high living tends to impotence. During the breeding season the ram should run with the ewes but a short time daily, or at night only. Where "hand coupling" is not prac- ticed, to determine whether a ewe has been bred and at what time, the ram should be painted on the brisket with some compound which will leave a mark on the wool of the ewe. In the winter the ram may be kept in thrifty condition on a daily al- lowance of 0.5 to 1.0 lb. of concentrates, with good roughage. Some suc- culent food is desirable but mangels and sugar beets should be avoided. 'Coleman, Sheep of Great Britain. 'Wis. Rpt. 1899. 550 FEEDS AND FEEDING (864) Earn lambs need liberal rations of muscle-building foods, but should be given little fat-forming food. Lack of exercise injures the ram's procreative powers. Except during mating time the ram should be kept away from the ewe flock, so that he cannot annoy them. 881. The flock in winter. — Before going into winter quarters the flock should be divided into groups of the same age, sex, strength, and gen- eral characteristics. To give the highest returns a division of mutton sheep should not contain over 50 members. Aged breeding ewes should constitute one band, shearling ewes another, the ewe lambs a third, and the wether lambs a fourth. These bands should be again divided if there is a marked difference between their strongest and weakest members. Each member will then have an equal chance with its fellows at the feed trough and in enjoying comforts and attentions from the shepherd's hand, and the ration may then be adapted to the special needs of each group. The quarters for the flock in winter should be dry, well-ventilated, and sunny. Drafts must be avoided, or trouble is sure to result. "Warm quar- ters are not only unnecessary, but inadvisable. (832) From 10 to 15 square feet of ground space shoidd be provided for each ewe. There should be wide doorways, lest the animals suffer injury when aU attempt to rush thru at once, in true sheep fashion. Conveniently placed feed racks should furnish 15 to 24 inches of space per head. To insure a crop of strong, healthy lambs exercise for the ewes is essential. Breeding sheep housed in winter should have access to a dry, sunny yard, well protected from wind and storm. To force the ewes to exercise on all fair days roughage may be scattered in small bunches over a nearby field. When the snow is deep, paths should be broken out with snow plow or stone boat. On stormy days the sheep should remain indoors, for wet fleeces dry but slowly in winter. 882. Wintering the breeding ewes. — ^When pasturage is deficient in the fall or the grass soft and washy, it is well to provide supplemental feed before the ewes are taken off pasture. This may be hay, grain, or better, such grazing crops as rape or fall rye. For the greatest economy the winter feed of the ewes should consist la,rgely of roughages, hay from the legumes easily leading. (857) Indeed, when good legume hay is given along with an allowance of roots or silage no grain is needed until about a month before lambing time. The aim should be to bring the ewes to lambing in medium flesh and vigorous condition, thus in- suring a good milk flow for the new-born lambs. The trained shepherd knows that the only safe way to determine the condition of a sheep is by "handling" its back. If he finds that the ewes are not thriving, he will add concentrates to their ration. With an ample supply of good roughage not over 0.5 lb. per head daily of concentrates is needed. While breeding ewes should not be fat, they should carry more flesh than most American farmers think proper. To winter them on only straw, or straw and hay is to perpetuate a flock that will gradually but surely deteriorate. Both ram and ewe lambs intended for the breeding flock should receive GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 551 liberal rations of muscle-building foods during the first winter to insure steady growth, but they should never receive a fattening ration. Craig* writes : ' ' The growth and development of the lamb the first year of its life determines very largely the size and weight of the fleece and the vigor and power the animal will attain." 883. Concentrates for ewes. — Such feeds as oats, bran, and peas are especially suitable for breeding ewes, since they contain ample protein and mineral matter and do not tend to fatten. When legume hay is fed, carbonaceous grains, such as corn, barley, and kafir, may be used, but should preferably form but a part of the grain allowance for they are too fattening. Linseed meal and wheat bran ward off constipation, which is responsible for many of the winter troubles of the breeding flock. For this purpose 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of linseed meal a day should suffice. (855-6) The value of various concentrates for wintering breeding ewes was studied at the Wisconsin Station by Carlyle and Kleinheinz^ with uni- form lots, each of 12 ewes, chiefly of the mutton breeds and ranging from 138 to 157 lbs. Each ewe was fed 2 lbs. of mixed hay and 2.5 lbs. corn silage, with 0.5 lb. of concentrates, as shown in the table : Comparison of concentrates for wintering breeding ewes Average concentrate allowance Daily gain Lbs. Lot I, WLole oats, .5 lb,. .23 Lot II, Wheat bran, 0.5 lb. . : 0.20 Lot III, Shelled com, 0.5 lb 0.23 Lot IV, Dried brewers' grains, 0.5 lb .24 All rations proved satisfactory, these large ewes gaining steadily on the 0.5 lb. of concentrates. When the milk flow of the ewe after lambing was considered, dried brewers' grains ranked first. A fifth lot fed 0.7 lb. of a mixture of equal parts of com, bran, and oats made no larger gains, tho consuming slightly more hay and silage. From these data and those following, the cost of feed required to winter breeding ewes may readily be computed. 884. Eoughages and succulence. — Ewes should have an abundant sup- ply of roughage, the legume hays — alfalfa, red and alsike clover, cow- pea, and vetch — ^being the best. (857-9) Other useful roughages supply- ing less protein are com fodder or com stover, cut while the leaves are still green, prairie hay, oat hay, pea straw, oat straw, barley straw, etc. These serve best when fed with good legume hay. (861-2) Alsike clover is highly satisfactory. Timothy hay is unsatisfactory for it may cause serious constipation. Succulent feeds promote thrift and keep the di- gestive organs in condition. Chopped roots are an excellent succulence, tho corn silage, free from mold and low in acid, is equally satisfactory and usually less expensive. (864-6) It is not wise to supply too much succulent feed to pregnant ewes, for shepherds declare that it produces soft flabby lambs. Tho larger allowances are sometimes successfully fed 'Wis. Rpt. 1897. "Wis. Rpt. 1903. 552 FEEDS AND FEEDING when silage of excellent quality, high, in dry matter, is available, Klein- heinz" of the Wisconsin Station recommends no more than 2 lbs. per head daily of roots or silage for ewes in lamb. At the Missouri Station during each of 2 winters Hackedorn^ compared various roughages for ewes, when fed with and without a concentrate mixture of 6 parts shelled corn, 3 of wheat bran, and 1 of pea-size linseed cake by weight. Lots of 9 to 17 western ewes, averaging 86 lbs., were fed the rations shown in the table : Comparison of roughages for wintering breeding ewes Total gain Daily grain or loss Average daily roughage allowance allowance per head Lbs. Lbs. Lot /, Clover hay, 3 .0 lbs 0.44 +4.9 Lot 77, Com silage, 2 . 1 lbs. Clover hay, 2 . libs .45 +4.3 Lot 777, Com silage, 3.4 lbs 0.43 +1.2 Lot 77, Com stover, 2.4 lbs. Clover hay, 1.9 lbs 0.40 —0.3 Lot 7, Com stover, 6.2 lbs 0.60 —0.8 Lot VI, Com silage, 2 .4 lbs. Clover hay, 1 .9 lbs —2.6 Lot 777, Com stover, 2.3 lbs. Clover hay, 2.3 lbs —2.1 Lot VIII, Clover hay, 3 .3 lbs. (One trial) —3.2 Clover hay and grain, fed Lot I, and corn silage, clover hay, and grain, fed Lot II, proved the most satisfactory rations. The ewes in Lot IV, fed com stover, clover hay, and 0.40 lb. grain daily, nearly main- tained their weights and produced strong, thrifty lambs. A compar- ison of Lots II and IV, with III and V, shows that the ewes fed silage maintained their weight, while those fed stover lost a trifle. (867) The rations fed Lots VI, VII, and VIII, containing no grain, were quite satisfactory up to lambing, nearly maintaining the weights of the ewes. After lambing, however, it was necessary to add grain to the ration to produce a milk flow sufficient for the lambs. At the Alabama Station Gray and Ridgeway* found that breeding ewes gained 1.6 lbs. per head during 106 days on a ration of 1.9 lbs. soybean hay, maintaining their weight practically as well as others fed 0.5 lb. cottonseed meal and 1.3 lbs. cottonseed huUs. Carlyle and Kleinheinz' studied the value of corn forage (corn fodder and corn stover), corn silage, and roots for wintering breeding ewes during each of 2 winters at the Wisconsin Station. Lots of 12 ewes, averaging 148 lbs. and mostly of the mutton breeds, were fed 0.5 lb. of a mixture of equal parts corn, oats, and wheat bran per head daily, with the roughages shown in the table : Corn forage, corn silage, and roots for wintering breeding ewes Average roughage allowance Av. daily gain Lbs. Lot 7, Com silage, 2 .9 lbs. Mixed hay, 2 . 1 lbs 0.16 Lot II, Roots, 2 .9 lbs. Mixed hay, 2 .6 lbs .18 Lot III, Com silage, 3 .0 lbs. Com forage, 1 .8 lbs .09 Lot IV, Com forage, 3.3 lbs 0.19 'Sheep Management, p. 35. 'Ala. Bui. 148. 'Mo. Bui. 120. »Wis. Rpta. 1900, 1901. GENERAL CARE OP SHEEP AND LAMBS 553 The ewes were satisfactorily maintained in all cases. A significant finding was that Lot I, fed corn silage, mixed hay, and grain, made prac- tically as large gains as Lot II, getting roots ia place of silage, and re- quired 0.5 lb. less hay per head daily. Tomhave and Severson of the Pennsylvania Station^" report that breed- ing ewes were maintained satisfactorily on alfalfa hay and com silage with 0.25 to 0.50 lb. of a mixture of 15 parts of shelled corn, 3 of oats, 2 of wheat bran, and 1 of liriseed meal. When silage was fed as the sole roughage the cost of feed was reduced but a large loss of lambs resulted. Trials by Skinner and Smith^^ at the Indiana Station and Eward^^ at the Iowa Station likewise show the value of com silage for breeding ewes. Com silage and clover hay proved a more economical roughage allowance than clover hay alone. 885. Lambing time. — ^As lambing time approaches, the shepherd should take quarters in the sheep bam or close by, and remain in attendance untU the season is over. It is wise to provide lambing pens for the ewes and their newly bom lambs. Where lambs come early, the pens should be kept warmer than the quarters for the rest of the flock. Here each ewe and her new-bom yoimg remain for a couple of days until they are well wonted to each other and the lambs strong enough to look out for themselves among the flock. Then they may pass back to the flock or to quarters especially set apart for the ewes and lambs. As they enter the world lambs of the mutton breeds often need quick, intelligent attention, which is always given by the true shepherd. The mucus should be cleaned from the nostrils and mouth of any weakling. With the first fill of milk from the dam the new-bom lamb becomes comfortable, and is usually able thereafter to care for itself. The new- bom unable to draw milk within a few minutes after birth should have patient, intelligent assistance ; to this end the ewe must be held, and the lamb aided, aU being accomplished by that kindly, sympathetic skill so characteristic of the good shepherd, but impossible of description. A chiUed, new-bom lamb is best warmed by immersion in water as hot as the hand can bear. When well warmed it should be wiped dry, taken to its mother, and held uUtil supplied with her milk. Some advise^^ wrapping it in thick woolen cloths that have been warmed on a stove, and renewing these as often as they become cool. A lamb bom almost lifeless may often be restored by alternately blowing gently into the mouth to start breathing, and laying it on its belly and slapping the body smartly on each side of the heart.^* One twin is usually weaker than the other, and frequently the mother cares only for the stronger one. Here the shepherd's tact serves well in promptly helping the weak- ling to its fuU share of food. A ewe that refuses her lamb will usually accept it if they are placed "Information to the authors. "Craig, Sheep Farming, p. 193. "Ind. Bui. 147. "Iowa Cir. 6. "Kleinheinz, Sheep Management, p. 47. 554 FEEDS AND FEEDING together in a small pen out of sight of the other sheep and the lamb helped to suckle a few times. The stubborn ewe may be confined in stanchions so that she cannot prevent the lamb sucking. In case a ewe loses her lamb, she may often be induced to adopt a twin by first sprink- ling some of her own milk over it. Still more effective is tying the skin from the dead lamb upon the back of the one to be adopted. 886. Breeding studies; weight of lambs. — The following table gives the average birth weight and percentage of increase (the annual number of lambs per 100 ewes) of lambs from ewes of different breeds, as recorded during 24 years by Kleinheinz" with the flock at the Wisconsin Station. Annual increase from ewes and birth weight of lamis Breed No. of ewes Increase Av. birth wt. of lambs Singles Twins (each) Triplets (each) Southdown Shropshire. Hampshire. Cheviot . . . Dorset .... Oxford .... 181 448 96 81 30 12 Per ot. 154 167 156 147 163 183 Lbs. 9.15 9.51 10.61 9.45 10.20 10.42 Lbs. 7.70 7.67 8.23 7.67 8.46 8.18 Lbs. 5.50 6.49 7.10 8.20 7.60 7.12 Tho the table shows a considerable range of increase for the several breeds, data from many flocks covering a much larger number of ani- mals, would be necessary to show definitely any real difference in this regard. These data are of interest in showing the actual increase ob- tained with good feed and excellent care. The single lambs averaged somewhat heavier than the twins, and the twins larger than the trip- lets, tho the difference is not great. The percentage of increase was highest with ewes 4 to 6 years old, due somewhat to discarding the poorer breeders as 3-yr.-olds. After the 6th year the fecundity of the ewes lessened. The larger the ewe of a given breed the greater was the percentage of increase and the larger the lambs. To a less degree the size of the ram had the same influence. The gestation period tended to be slightly longer with large lambs. The average birth weight of the ram lambs was about 0.5 lb. greater than of ewe lambs. Of 1,804 lambs yeaned, 900 were ewes and 904 rams. As the records grow, the more nearly do the sexes balance. 887. After lambing. — Soon after lambing the ewe should be given water with the chill removed. For 2 or 3 days but little grain should be fed, to avoid udder troubles, but she may have all the dry roughage she wishes. Close attention must be given for a few days to see that the lamb is taking milk from both sides of the udder. All surplus milk should be drawn, or better, a needy lamb helped to an extra meal. Caked udders and sore teats should receive prompt treatment. "Wis. Rpts. 1902, 1907, and information to the authors. GENERAL CARE OP SHEEP AND LAMBS 555 With the demand for more milk by the lamb, the ewe's ration should be increased, for sucklings make the most economical gains. (114) If there is not sufficient roughage of high quality for the entire winter the most palatable and nutritious portion should be reserved until after the lambing period. Legume hay and succulent feeds are essential at this time, and more succulence can be safely fed than before lambing. The amount and character of the concentrates fed depend on the roughage, but seldom is over 2 lbs. per ewe daily necessary. 888. Ewe's milk. — In America the milk of sheep is seldom used by man, but abroad, and especially in the mountain regions of contiuental Europe, it is extensively employed, both for direct consumption and for the manufacture of cheese. The average composition of ewe 's milk com- pared with that of cow's milk, is shown in the following table : Composition of ewe's and cow's milk No. of Casein and analyses Water albiunin Fat Sugar Ash Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Ewe's milk (Sartori") 2,700 78.70 6.30 8.94 6.06 1.02 Cow's milk (Konig") 705 87.27 3.39 3.68 4.94 0.72 The table shows that ewe's milk is much richer in protein (casein and albumin) and fat, and higher in ash than cow's milk. (265) Ewe's milk has a peculiar, somewhat unpleasant odor and taste, is thicker, and sours more slowly than cow's milk. The fat content is extremely variable, ranging from 2 to 12 per ct.^* The butter is pale yellow, less firm than cow's butter, and becomes rancid much quicker. The yield of milk by sheep will vary greatly according to breed and feed. Sieglin^* states that the East Priesian milk sheep in Germany at 2 to 3 years of age yield from 3 to 4 quarts of milk daily for 2 months after weaning their lambs, and keep up an excellent flow during the autumn months. These sheep are prolific, dropping 2, 8, and even 4 lambs, individuals lambing twice a year. Three sheep are estimated to consume as much feed as 1 cow. Ordinary sheep yield from 100 to 150 lbs. of milk per year, while the milk breeds produce from 300 to 1,400 lbs. 889. Milking qualities of ewes. — To determine the yield and compo- sition of TnilV from various breeds Carlyle, Puller, and Kleinheinz^" at the Wisconsin Station kept lambs from their dams except at regular intervals when they were allowed to suckle. The milk yielded by the ewes was determined by weighing the lambs immediately before and after placing them with their dams. "Jensen, Milchkimde und Milchhygiene, p. 18. "Chem. Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, II, 1904, p. 602. '"See Staz. Sper. Ag. Ital. 23, p. 572; Analyst, 1893, p. 248; Pleischmann, Milch- wirtschaft, 1901, p. 64; Jensen, Milchkunde und Milchhygiene, 1903, p. 17. "Sehafer-Sieglin, Lehrbuch der Milch wirtschaft, 1908, p. 17. "Wis. Rpt. 1904. 556 FEEDS AND FEEDING Da4,ly milk yield of ewes of different breeds Composition of milk Number Av. daily Solids Total Speoiflo Breed of ewea milk yield Fat not fat solids gravity Lbs. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Oxford 2 3.1 7.7 11.0 18.6 1.038 Southdown 2 1.9 8.4 11.1 19.5 1.038 Dorset 2 4.3 7.2 10.9 18.1 1.038 Shropshire 3 2.5 5.9 10.8 16.7 1.039 Merino 3 2.3 6.0 10.8 16.8 1.038 Range 2 2.7 7.2 11.1 18.3 1.039 Average, 14 ewes 2.8 7.1 10.9 18.2 1.038 The Dorsets gave the most and the Southdowns the richest milk. On the average the milk contained over 7 per ct. fat and nearly 11 per ct. of solids not fat, its specific gravity exceeding that of cow's milk. 890. Feed for 100 lbs. of ewe's milk. — ^At the Wisconsin Station Shep- perd" recorded the milk yield of ewes receiving a mixture of 3 parts wheat bran and 1 of linseed meal, with fair-quality clover hay and sliced potatoes for roughage. Feed and water consumed by ewes for each 100 lbs. of milk produced Concentrates Clover hay Potatoes Water drunk Dry matter libs. Lba. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Single ewe 51 61 .6 38 293 105 Group of 2 ewes.. 59 55.5 29 417 105 Group of 2 ewes.. 72 63.0 36 404 125 The single ewe produced 100 lbs. of milk while consuming 51 lbs. of concentrates, 61.6 lbs. of clover hay, and 38 lbs. of potatoes, containing in all 105 lbs. of dry matter. When we compare these figures with those showing the amount of dry matter required by cows for 100 lbs. of milk, (S44) and further consider that the milk of the ewe is richer and that she is at the same time growing a fleece, the economy of her production is most striking and suggestive. 891. Value of ewe's milk for lambs. — Shepperd" further recorded the amount of milk consumed by lambs and their gains by weighing the lambs before and after sucking. Daily gain of lambs and gain per pound of ewe's milk consumed Milk for 100 lbs. Age Gain per day gain Days Lbs. Lbs. Lamb No. 1 25 0.62 641 Lamb No. 2 28 0.47 602 Lamb No. 3 36 .44 690 Lamb No. 4 34 0.40 629 Average 31 .48 640 The lambs made an average daily gain of nearly 0.5 lb. and consumed 640 lbs. of milk for 100 lbs. gain. Shepperd concludes that the gain of lambs, during the first month of their lives at least, is largely controlled "Agr. Science, VI, p. 397. »Agr. Science, VI, pp. 397, 405. GENERAL CARE OP SHEEP AND LAMBS 567 by the quantity of milk they receive, and consequently that ewes should be carefully selected for their milking qualities. 892. Cow's milk for lambs. — ^Lambs can be successfully reared on cow's milk, tho close attention is necessary during the first month. Warm cow's milk with some cream added can be fed from a nursing bottle or a tea- pot over the spout of which a rubber "cot" with an opening in the end has been placed. At first the lamb should be fed 15 to 18 times in 24 hours, and later half a dozen times. At the Wisconsin Station^^ the senior author reared 4 vigorous cross-bred Shropshire-Merino lambs, 10 days old and averaging 10 lbs. in weight when the trial began, on cow's milk and other appropriate feeding stuffs. For the first 21 days whole cow's milk at blood heat constituted their sole food; later skim milk, ground oats, and green clover were supplied. During the last 21 days hay was fed in place of the milk. Cow's milk and other feeds required for 100 lbs. gain with lambs Whole Skim Green Period Tnillr milk Oats clover Hay Lbe. Lbs. Lbs. Lba. Lbs. 1st period, 21 days 579 ... ... .... 2d period, 115 days 830 119 262 3d period, 21 days 291 1,197 176 At the close of the last period, when 167 days old, the lambs averaged 79 lbs. each, showing a daily gain, including birth weight, of nearly 0.5 lb. each. The heavy gains which followed the use of cow's milk sug- gest its profitable use in forcing lambs to meet the requirements of spe- cial markets, e. g., "Christmas lambs." 893. Relative economy of lambs and pigs. — ^From the figures for the second period of the preceding article and those in Art. 913 the fol- lowing data are deduced : Feed required for 100 lbs. of increase by young pigs and lambs Feed ^e'^ Lambs Lba. Lbs. Meal ; 237 119 Skimnulk 475 830 Green clover • ■ • 262 Meal equivalent 316 284 Estimating that 6 lbs. of skim milk equals 1 lb. of meal in feeding value, according to the Danish formula, (958) we have 316 lbs. of meal or its equivalent, as the feed required for 100 lbs. of gain with unweaned pigs. Using the same ratio for the skim milk fed to the lambs and allow- ing 10 lbs. of green clover to equal 1 lb. of meal, we have 284 lbs. of meal, or its equivalent, as the feed required for 100 lbs. of gain with young lambs or 32 lbs. less than that required by the pigs. Prom this it is apparent that lambs make at least as economical gains for feed consumed as do pigs of the same age. =»Wis. Rpt. 1890. 558 FEEDS AND FEEDING 894. The young lamb.— When about 2 weeks old the lusty young lamb will be found nibbling forage at the feed trough beside its dam, and the shepherd should provide specially for its wants to early accustom it to take additional food. This is best accomplished by having an enclosure or room called the "lamb-creep" adjoining the ewe-pen, into which the lambs find their way, while the mothers are prevented from entering because of the limited size of the openings. In this space, accessible to the lambs only, should be placed a low, flat-bottomed trough, with an ob- struction lengthwise over the top to prevent the lambs from jumping into it. In the trough should be sprinkled a little meal especially palatable to the lamb, such as ground oats, bran, corn meal or cracked corn, oil meal, soybean meal — one or all — ^varying the mixture to suit the chang- ing tastes of the young things. At first they will take but little, but soon they become regular attendants at the trough thru habit impelled by appetite. There should be no more feed in the trough at any time than will be quickly consumed, and any left over must be removed and the trough thoroly cleaned before the next allowance is given. Fine alfalfa or second-crop clover hay should be provided, and roots, cabbage, or good silage will be appreciated. All feed should be fresh, with no smell of the stable — ^th^t which is left over can be given to the pigs. Lambs will drink a good deal of water, and this also must be fresh and clean. Ram lambs not intended for breeding should be castrated when 1 to 2 weeks old, and all lambs should be docked, the ewes when 8 to 14 days old and the rams 5 to 7 days after castration. 895. Turning to pasture. — ^With the springing of the grass, ewes and lambs should be turned to pasture for a short time during the warm part of the day. It is best to accomplish the change gradually and while the grass is short. After a few hours spent in the sunshine, nib- bling at the grass, the ewes and lambs should be returned to shelter, where a full feed awaits them. "When the grass has become ample and nutritious, stable feeding may be dropped for ewes, or both ewes and lambs, according to the plan followed. "With good pasture, breeding ewes need no grain. Indeed, we may look forward to the pasture sea- son as marking the time to "draw the grain from their systems," as it is termed by shepherds. In some instances pasture so stimulates the milk flow of ewes that an over-supply of rich milk causes digestive de- rangement and sudden death mth young lambs. The shepherd should forestall such trouble by removing the ewes from the pasture after a few hours grazing each day, and by giving hay or other dry feeds, thereby reducing the milk flow. It is usually best to feed the lambs concentrates in addition to what they get from dams and pasture. To this end, at some convenient point in the pasture let there be a "lamb-creep," and in a space accessible by way of the creep a trough for feeding grain. Whenever the lamb passes thru the creep it should find something in this trough to tempt the appe- tite — oats, bran, pea meal, and corn meal constituting the leading GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 559 articles. "Williams of the Arizona Station^* reports good results from feeding a mixture of 4 parts of corn meal, 1 of bran, and 1 of cottonseed meal to lambs running with their dams on alfalfa pasture. Grain never gives such large returns as when fed to thrifty young animals, and the growing lamb is no exception. 896. At weaning time. — ^Lambs of the mutton breeds, more or less helpless at birth, are lusty at 4 months of age, and will be found graz- ing regularly beside their dams in pasture when not at rest or eating grain within the lamb-creep. At this time they should generally be weaned, for their own good as well as to allow their dams a rest before another breeding season. Wing^" states that it is not necessary to wean lambs of the mutton breeds before they go to market if they have been well fed, for they will reach a weight of 75 to 85 lbs. while suckling their mothers. If possible, advantage should be taken of a cool spell in summer to wean the lambs. Lambs weaned during excessively hot weather may receive a serious setback because of the heat and fretting for their mothers. The lambs should be so far separated from their dams that neither can hear the bleating of the other. For a few days the ewes should be held on short pasture or kept on dry feed in the yard. The udders must be examined, and if necessary, as is often the case with the best mothers, they should be drained of milk a few times lest inflammation arise. The lambs should be put on the best pasture and given a liberal supply of grain. New clover seeding is especially relished, while young second-crop clover is also satisfactory. An es- pecially choice bite may always be provided for the lambs at this im- portant time by a little forethought on the part of the shepherd. 897. After weaning. — ^Fresh, nutritious pasture should be provided for the lambs after weaning. Besides clover, rape is especially suitable. Other forage crops may also be employed in sections where they thrive. Lambs that are to be marketed early or those being fitted for shows will utilize a grain allowance with profit. For those to be fattened in winter or for the ewe lambs to be retained in the flock grain may not be necessary when grazing is good. Ram lambs require grain during the fall to secure proper development, whether they are to be sold as lambs or retained till yearlings. Naturally the concentrate allowance for the lambs des- tined for the breeding flock should supply a greater proportion of pro- tein than is necessary for those being finished for market. 898. The stomach worm. — In the territory east of the Mississippi river the stomach worm, Strongylus contortus, is a serious menace to sheep raising, lambs being especially susceptible to attack. The eggs of the parasite pass in the droppings of the sheep and are scattered about the pastures, where they soon hatch. Sheep become infested only by swallow- ing the worms while grazing. Fields on which no sheep, cattle, or goats have grazed for a year, and those that have been freshly plowed and cultivated since sheep grazed thereon, are practically free from infes- " Information to the authors. "'Sheep Farming in America, p. 149. 560 FEEDS AND FEEDING tation. Old bluegrass pastures are especially to be avoided. It is also dangerous to allow sheep to drink from stagnant pools. During warm weather, otherwise clean pastures may become infested in from 3 to 14 days by grazing sheep thereon. To remove the worms from the intestinal tract of sheep, various drenches are recommended, the one most commonly used being 1 table- spoonful of gasoline, thoroly mixed with 5 to 6 ounces of fresh cow's milk, with a tablespoonful of raw linseed oil added. The above dose, suitable for a lamb of average size, should be increased for older sheep. The treatment should be repeated each day for 3 days. With weak lambs the doses may be given on alternate days. Tho remedies are of value, prevention of infestation has proved more successful. Kleinheinz^® of the Wisconsin Station recommends the fol- lowing system of handling sheep and lambs: In the northern United States worm-free and infested sheep may graze together in a clean field at any time from the last of September until May with little danger. From June to September change to freish, clean pasture every 2 or 3 weeks. Annual pastures, as rape, clover seeding, etc., are well adapted to this system. This effective method requires several separate, clean pasture lots. In the warmer sections the sheep should be changed to clean pas- ture earlier in the spring and more frequently during the summer. Thor- oly treating the ewes with some vermifuge will remove most of the worms, and aid in preventing infestation. Farmers often make the serious mis- take of allowing the lambs to remain with their dams after weaning. Instead, they should at once be placed on fresh, clean pasture on which no sheep have previously grazed that season. Nothing is better than turning the lambs into a field of well-matured rape connecting with a fresh grass pasture. Well-fed, thrifty sheep and lambs can much better resist parasites than those getting poor feed and care. II. Hints on Fattening Sheep 899. Hints on sheep feeding. — Sheep feeders do not begin operations at an early hour in winter, preferring not to disturb the animals until after daybreak. Usually grain is first given, followed by hay and water. The trough in which grain is fed should be kept clean at all times, and there should be ample space, so that each animal may get its share of grain. As has been previously pointed out in this chapter, regularity and quiet are of especial importance with fattening sheep. Faville of the Wyoming Station^'' reports that during a certain 2-week period of a feeding trial 160 lambs fed by McLay, a most experienced shepherd, made a total gain of 475 lbs. During the next 2 weeks McLay was ab- sent. Tho his place was taken by a man who followed the "letter of the law" the lambs lost 85 lbs. in the 2 weeks, several going off feed. The regular shepherd then returned and in the next 2 weeks the lambs gained 508 lbs. '"Sheep Management, p. 111. "Wyo. Bui. 89. GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 561 Nowhere does the skill of the feeder show more plainly than in getting sheep to full grain feed without getting a single one off feed. Western sheep may not be able at first to take over 0.1 lb. of grain per day. If so, 2 months or 10 weeks may be required in getting the flock to full feed. English mutton sheep take grain more readily, and in some cases no more than 3 or 4 weeks need intervene between placing the lambs on feed and full feeding. In no case should this operation be hurried, for it means waste of feed and injury if not loss of some of the animals. In all cases before sheep are admitted to the fattening pens they should be examined by an experienced shepherd, and if any evidence of skin disease or vermin is found the flock should be dipped in the most thoro manner. In the "West scab and in the Bast lice and ticks are common troubles. To attempt to fatten sheep afflicted with any of these pests is to court disaster. Ticky sheep show increased irritability and rest- lessness as soon as fattening begins. 900. Length of feeding period.— ^The feeding period with sheep and lambs which have never received grain while on pasture should last from 12 to 14 weeks, according to their condition in the beginning and the rapidity with which they gain. The tables in the preceding chapter show that lambs increase in weight at least a quarter of a pound per day when gaining normally. For a feeding period of 100 days the gains should run from 25 to 30 lbs. per head. This weight, mostly fat, added to the carcass of a lamb weighing originally 60 to 80 lbs., brings it to the size desired by the market. Formerly the market called for a large lamb, but now the demand is for plump ones weighing from 80 to 90 lbs., or even less if they are from the western ranges. As soon as lambs are ripe, or when the backs and the region about the tail seem well covered with fat, they should be sold, for further gains cannot be made at a profit. Ripe lambs fed a heavy grain ration at the North Dakota Station^* gained only 0.8 lb. each in 4 weeks, returning a heavy loss instead of profit. 901. Rations for fattening lambs; cost of gains. — From the many trials reviewed in the preceding chapter the feeder can readily determine the best combination of feeds to employ under his local conditions. The tables showing the amount of feed required for 100 lbs. gain will en- able him to compute the approximate cost of gains with feeds at market prices. It should be remembered that the results presented were se- cured with thrifty lambs, fed by skilled feeders and under good con- ditions. The feed required for a given gain will therefore often exceed the amount stated. Comparing the cost of gains, it will be found that lambs give better returns for the feed supplied than do steers. The gains of mature sheep will cost from 25 to 30 per ct. more than those of lambs. 902. Proportion of concentrates. — Thruout the corn belt and the east- ern states lambs are commonly fed all the grain they will clean up after being brought to full feed. On the other hand, in the "West, where hay =»N. D. Bui. 28. Initial weight Lbs. Daily gain Lbs. Feed for 100 lbs. gain Corn Hay Lba. Lbs. 69 69 69 69 0.30 0.27 0.22 0.20 412 389 327 266 408 527 791 918 65 65 65 0.33 0.32 0.29 411 356 299 353 466 606 562 FEEDS AND FEEDING is cheap compared with grain, the allowance of grain is often restricted. At the Illinois Station^' Coffey conducted the following trials lasting 90 and 98 days, respectively, with lots each of 20 western lambs, to determine the effect of feeding various proportions of shelled corn and alfalfa hay : Feeding various proportions of shelled corn and alfalfa hay to lambs Average ration First trial Lot I, Com, 1 .2 lbs. AlfaKa hay, 1 .2 lbs. Lot II, Corn, 1 .0 lb. Alfalfa hay, 1 .4 lbs. Lot III, Com, . 7 lb. AlfaKa hay, 1 . 7 lbs. Lot IV, Com, .5 lb. Alfalfa hay, 1 .9 lbs. Second trial Lot I, Com, 1 .4 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .2 lbs. Lot II, Com, 1.1 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 1 .5 lbs. Lot III, Com, .9 lb. Alfalfa hay, 1 .8 lbs. In each trial the rate of gain increased with the amount of corn fed, tho the difference was not great between Lots I and II in each trial. Coffey concludes that except with very high-priced corn and cheap hay, the cost of gains is usually less and the profit greater when the lambs are full fed on corn. At the New Mexico Station^" Simpson found that when lambs were fed allowances of corn ranging from 0.25 lb. to 0.90 lb. per head daily with alfalfa hay, the lambs fed the heavier allowances of grain made more rapid gains and reached a better finish. On a market which paid a premium for well-fattened lambs the heavier corn allowances would have been the more profitable. Simpson states that the time required to finish the average lambs is about as follows: With a heavy corn allowance, 70 to 80 days; with a medium corn allowance, 90 to 100 days; with a light corn allowance, 100 to 110 days; with alfalfa alone, 110 to 120 days. On alfalfa, alone lambs can hardly be brought to the same finish as on grain, hence many western feeders use hay alone dur- ing the first of the fattening period and then add grain to finish the lambs and harden the flesh. 903. Fattening lambs in the fall. — ^Finishing lambs for market in the fall is the common practice with farmers who raise their own lambs and many who rely on buying feeder lambs from the western ranges. Until cold weather sets in the lambs may be grazed on rape or other pasture, being fed grain in addition. Thrifty lambs placed on feed in the fall should be ready for sale in December or early in January, a season when there is usually a scarcity of good lambs on the market, since the grass- fed lambs have been marketed and those in winter feed lots are not yet finished. In some sections train loads of lambs are annually distributed in Au- gust among the farmers of a neighborhood and by them given the run of the stubble fields from which the small grain has been harvested. »ni. Bui. 167. '"N. Max. Bui. 79. GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 563 Often rape has been sown on the fields to increase the herbage, the seed- ing not taking place until the small grain is well above ground, lest the rape grow so large as to injure the grain crop. The stubble fields well cleaned, the lambs are shifted to the fields of standing corn, where they feed on the lower leaves of the corn and on rape or turnips sown at the last cultivation of the corn, finally eating more or less of the corn on the ears. 904. Fattening lambs in the western states. — Thruout the western states, especially in Colorado, large numbers of lambs and older sheep are fat- tened annually. Alfalfa hay is the chief roughage, with wet sugar beet pulp in the vicinity of beet sugar factories. In Colorado corn is the chief grain fed, while farther north and west larger use is made of the small grains, especially barley. The whole western range is drawn on for feeders, and the small fine-wool type of earlier times has been largely replaced by the cross-bred lamb of better mutton quality. Formerly many mature wethers were fed ; but now mostly lambs are fattened. In large feeding plants the corral, or enclosure, is commonly divided into 2 rows of lots with a lane between, each lot accommodating from 400 to 500 lambs. No shelter is provided, but windbreaks are desirable. The hay is usually fed in the lanes, 12 to 14 feet wide, extending be- tween the lots. The low fences bordering the lanes have a 7 or 8 inch space between the first and second boards, thru which the lambs feed on the hay. About 1 running foot of lane fencing and feed troughs is al- lowed each sheep. The hay from the stacks is hauled down the lanes and piled along the fences, being pushed up to them 2 or 3 times a day as it is eaten away. All lots are provided with flat-bottomed troughs for feeding grain. There is an extra or vacant lot at one end of each row of lots, likewise provided with troughs. At feeding time grain is placed in the troughs of this extra lot and the lambs from the adjoining lot are turned in. As soon as a lot is vacated, grain is put in the troughs of this lot, and the lambs enter from the next lot, and so on. At the next meal feeding begins by using the vacant lot at the other end of the row, reversing the process. After a week or more of preliminary hay feeding, corn feeding is begun. At first only a very little corn is sprinkled in the troughs, but as the lambs get used to it the amount is gradually increased until after about 2 months the lambs are on full feed, which is from 2 to 3 bushels of corn per 100 head daily. The feeding yards are usually located on streams or ditches which supply running water. Those on high ground have watering troughs into which the water is pumped. Salt is liberally furnished in troughs. Most of the Colorado lambs are marketed unshorn. If feeding con- tinues until late in the spring the lambs are usually shorn 6 weeks be- fore shipping. They will then gain enough more to make up the weight of the wool removed, will pack more closely in the car, and shrink less in shipping. Gains of from 15 to 30 lbs. per head are secured by this 564 FEEDS AND FEEDING method of fattening. "With favorable markets and low-priced feed enor- mous profits are made, but sometimes heavy losses occur. Under this system often little or no use is made of the manure produced. As has been mentioned in the preceding chapter (860), large numbers of lambs are fattened on field peas in certain districts of the "West, especially the San Luis Valley in Colorado. 905. Feeding small bands. — Fattening great numbers of lambs at a single point reached its zenith years ago when corn and wheat screen- ings ruled low in price, and the large operator suffered little compe- tition from the ranchman and farmer in finishing range lambs for the market. Now conditions have changed. The price of feed has increased, and the fattening of range lambs in smaller bands has rapidly developed in the western states, in the corn belt, and farther eastward. Most for- tunately for a conservative agriculture, the large operator, who often receives no benefit from the great accumulation of rich manure in the feed lot, cannot compete with the farmer who fattens one or more car- loads of lambs and uses the manure for enriching his land. Prudent farmers rightly hold that enough fertility is returned to their land thru the feed lot to pay the entire labor cost of feeding. As sheep and lamb fattening on range and farm increases, the gradual decline of the old feed lot is assured. 906. Fattening lambs in the com belt. — Tho many extensive feeders in the corn belt each annually fatten thousands of lambs, for the rea- sons mentioned in the preceding paragraph the tendency is toward feed- ing small bands. In the corn belt, shelter is required to protect the lambs from the winter storms. "While too much exercise decreases the gain, the lambs are commonly allowed the freedom of small yards. In the western states the allowance of grain is often limited, so that the lambs will consume more hay, but in the corn belt they are commonly brought to full feed as soon as can be done vidth safety. 907. Fattening in the East. — In the eastern states an intensive sys- tem of feeding has been developed, in which the lambs are kept in pens in a bam or shed, never being turned out for exercise. The grain troughs are protected by vertical slats in such a manner that there is just room for a lamb to feed in each opening, and a single space is provided for each lamb. The lambs are brought to full feed as rapidly as possible and are given as much grain as they will clean up until ready for mar- ket. "With this heavy feeding and the small amount of exercise care must be taken to keep the lambs quiet and a feeding space must be closed up whenever a lamb is removed from the pen, for excitement or overeating will cause heavy losses from apoplexy. III. Hot House and Spring Lambs ; Goats During recent years an increasing demand has developed for winter, or "hot house" lambs. The term "hot house" lambs does not mean that they, are reared in artificially heated quarters, but has been applied be- GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 565 cause the lambs are produced at an unusual season and are hence com- parable to the out-of -season products of hot houses. The greatest obstacles to success in this specialty are getting the ewes to breed sufficiently early, and producing carcasses which meet the exactions of the epicure. The demand for winter lambs prevails from the last of December to Easter, the price usually being the best between New Year's and the first of April. The condition of the carcasses of such lambs is more important than their size. They must be fat and present a weU-developed leg of mutton with plenty of tender, juicy lean meat and a thick caul to spread over the exposed flesh of the carcass when on exhibition. Winter lambs should weigh alive from 45 to 60 lbs. Large but lean and bony ones present a staggy appearance and bring unsatisfactory prices. Early in the season small lambs top the market, but later the heavier ones are in demand. 908. Breeding for winter lambs. — The ewes best suited for winter lamb production are pure-breds or grades of the Dorset, Tunis, and Merino or Rambouillet breeds, for the other breeds can not usually be depended on to breed sufficiently early.*^ However, Hampshires, Shropshires, and Southdowns are occasionally used with success. At the Minnesota Station,*^ in trials covering 6 years, Shaw found that the breeding habit of common grade ewes which usually drop their lambs in the spring may be so changed by 2 or 3 generations of judicious crossing and the selection of the early yeaned lambs for breed- ers that they will drop lambs in fall and early winter. This change can be hastened and more permanently fixed by mating the ewes with pure- bred Dorset rams. Where the ewes have the early breeding habit well fixed, superior lambs may be obtained by using dark-faced rams, such as Shropshire and Southdown. Shaw further found liiat ewes which have suckled winter lambs breed more readily before being turned to grass than subsequently, especially when fed a stimulating grain ration while still in the shed. At the New York (Cornell) Station^* Dorset ewes bred earlier, stood forced feeding better, and were less affected by unfavorable weather than Shropshire ewes, and their lambs made more rapid gains. Miller and Wing** advise using a young ram, well fed dur- ing service but not too fat, turning him with the ewes not earlier than the middle of March nor later than the middle of May. The ewes should be in good condition and so fed as to be gaining in flesh. Even with favorable conditions, all the ewes will not breed at the desired time, and to secure 400 winter lambs about 500 ewes are necessary. Ewes which fail to breed are sold early, and those breeding late drop lambs useful for later sales. Ewes which are successful breeders are kept as long as possible, since those lambing in November are likely to brieed at the right time the following year. 909. Care of the ewe. — ^During the summer the ewes need abundant "Wing, Savage, and Tailby, N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 309. "Minn. Bui. 78. ""N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 88. "The Winter Lamb, p. 6. 566 FEEDS AND FEEDING pasture, water, and shade. Should the grass become scant, they should receive additional feed — rape, pumpkins, etc. If in good condition it is rarely necessary to feed grain before lambing, and then only in small amount. The ewes should be shorn in the faU or as early in winter as possible so as to keep' them cool. At weaning time the ewes should be removed to the lambing pen and fed lightly for a few days. The lamb- ing pen should be warm so that the new-born lambs may not be chilled. Alfalfa and clover hay with silage or roots serve best for roughage, while oats, bran, oil cake, and corn prove suitable concentrates. The object at all times is to produce the largest possible flow of milk to hasten the lamb's growth. In trials at the Ohio Station^^ Hammond found a mixture of 4 parts corn and 1 part linseed meal and an- other of 5 parts corn, 2 parts oats, 2 parts bran, and 1 part linseed meal of about equal value when fed with alfalfa hay and corn silage to ewes raising winter lambs. Corn as the sole concentrate resulted in as good gains by the lambs, but the ewes lost in weight while others fed corn, oats, bran, and linseed meal gained. 910. The lambs. — A creep should be provided and the lambs taught to eat from a trough as soon as possible. To this end, a little sugar may sometimes be sprinkled on the grain to render it specially palatable. The lambs begin to eat freely when 2 or 3 weeks old, and are forced on bran, cracked corn, linseed meal, ground oats, barley, gluten feed, etc. They should be induced not only to eat,. but to eat a large quantity, and to keep eating. Alfalfa, clover, or soybean hay is indispensable, while roots and silage are helpful. The feed troughs should be cleaned each morn- ing, and the grain and hay supply be changed 2 or 3 times a day. When necessary, lambs are fed new milk from a nursing bottle or from a tea- pot having a punctured rubber cot placed on the spout. Ewes bereft of their lambs thru sale are given one of a pair of twin lambs. Thus forced, the best lambs weigh from 50 to 60 lbs. alive at 10 to 12 weeks. For the eastern markets the lambs are "hog dressed," i. e., the feet and all the viscera, except the heart, liver, and kidneys, are removed, but the pelt and frequently the head left on. The caul fat is carefully spread over the exposed parts, and the carcass sewed up in muslin after thoroly cooling. To be profitable, winter lambs must sell for not less than $5 per head, and the best ones sometimes bring as much as $12. This spe- cialty can be conducted with profit only by experts who have gained their experience thru patient and discreet effort, and who have nearby markets that will pay the high prices such products must command. 911, Spring lambs. — ^A less intensive system than the preceding is the production of spring lambs. These should be dropped from January to March and are usually marketed in May and June, weighing 65 to 90 lbs., at a time of the year when there is a good demand for lambs. Rais- ing spring- lambs is especially profitable in Tennessee, Kentucky, Vir- ginia, and states to the southward, for here the ewes may be largely "Ohio Bui. 270. GENERAL CARE OF SHEEP AND LAMBS 567 maintained on pasture thruout the year, greatly lowering the feed bill. Quereau^" writes that in the Cumberland plateau ewes are pastured in summer and allowed to run on the fields after the crops are removed. "Winter crops, such as oats, barley, wheat, vetch, and crimson clover, are planted for winter and spring pasture. The sheep receive little if any grain, but during periods of bad weather are run under a shed and fed hay or other roughage. 912. Goats. — The raising of Angora goats for their mohair has be- come an industry of considerable importance in certain districts of the United States, especially Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Oregon, and California. According to the census of 1910 there were over a million goats in Texas and about half a million in New Mexico. In the west- ern states the goats graze upon rough land, utilizing browse which even sheep would refuse. In the cut-over districts of the North, Angora goats are useful in cleariag land of brush at a low expense. In Europe the milch goat is of importance as a milk producing ani- mal, there being over 3,000,000 milch goats in Germany alone.'^ By their habits of life they are peculiarly adapted to the needs of the peas- ants, or poorer classes, of these countries, and have hence been ap- propriately termed "the poor man's cow." While the quality of the milk may be injured if the goat is maintained largely on weeds, kitchen waste, and other refuse, yet they can utilize much feed which would otherwise be wasted about the household. As with cows, the milk yield of goats varies widely. A good milch goat should continue to produce for 8 to 10 months, and yield 2 quarts of milk or more daily. The milch goat produces somewhat more milk, based upon body weight, than the cow, often yielding 10 times her body weight annually, and also requires less feed to produce 100 lbs. of milk, tho the milk is higher in fat than average cow's milk. The milch goat has not yet attained any importance in this country, but it should have a place in supplying fresh, pure milk for households in our cities. The general principles of feeding and care which have been presented for sheep also apply to goats. "Tenn. Bui. 84. "Thompson, Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats, p. 177. CHAPTER XXXIII GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY Because of the economy with which the pig converts its food into edible flesh, this animal steadily increases in importance as our population be- comes more dense. (132-3) Practically every farmer should raise and fatten pigs, for family consumption if not for the market, in order to profitably conserve valuable nutritive material that would otherwise be wasted. "We should dismiss the idea that profitable hog raising belongs to the corn belt only. Denmark raises no corn, yet produces more pork of the highest quality than any other equal area in the world. The south- ern states still buy vast quantities of pork from the North despite the fact that their experiment stations have demonstrated that it can be pro- duced at lower cost in the South. Pigs produce a pound of gain from 4 to 5 lbs. of dry matter while fattening cattle require from 10 to 12 lbs. The pig yields from 75 to 80 per ct. of his live weight as dressed carcass; the steer only 55 to 65 per ct. (717, 726) Pigs will profitably utilize many by-products of the farm otherwise lost, such as dairy by- products and kitchen and garden waste, as well as grains that cannot otherwise be profitably disposed of. No otiier line of stock farming can so quickly be brought to profitable production with limited capital in- vested in stock and equipment as can the making of meat from the pig. In many cases the grower should not only fatten his pigs but also slaugh- ter them and market the cured products, obtaining increased profits even tho the undertaking be a small one. In this book we have generally used the word ' ' pig ' ' rather than ' ' hog, ' ' thereby following the usage of English farmers, for we regard the pig as the young, and the hog as the really mature animal among swine. In modern pork production swine are usually mere pigs in age when they are finished for the market and therefore such usage of the word is reasonable. 913. Rate and economy of gains by pigs The economy with which pigs of different weights convert feed into meat is shown in the follow- ing table summarizing the data from over 500 feeding trials with more than 2,200 pigs at many American experiment stations. In this table 6 lbs. of skim milk or 12 lbs. of whey are rated as equal to 1 lb. of con- centrates. The table shows that pigs weighing under 50 lbs. consumed on the average 2.2 lbs. of feed daily, while 300-lb. pigs consumed 7.5 lbs. daily. Based on weight, the 50-lb. pigs consumed 6.0 lbs. of feed per 100 lbs. of body weight, while 300-lb. pigs consumed only 2.4 lbs. per 100 lbs. In 56S GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 569 other words, young pigs consume far more feed for their weight than do large ones. The average gain per day started at 0.8 lb. for pigs under 50 lbs. each, and gradually increased until those weighing 250 lbs. showed a daily gain of 1.5 lbs. The last column shows that pigs weighing less than 50 lbs. each gained 100 lbs. for every 293 lbs. of feed or feed equivalent consumed, and that the quantity of feed required for 100 lbs. gain steadily increased as the pigs became larger, until at 300 lbs. weight it required 535 lbs. of feed to make 100 lbs. of gain. The great economy of young, growing pigs over older and more mature ones for making gain from a given quantity of feed is plainly brought out by the table. (114) When we compare the amounts of feed required for 100 lbs. gain by pigs of the different weights with the amounts required by beef cattle and sheep, the superiority of the pig as a meat producer is most striking. Relation of weight of pigs to feed consumed ana I rate of gain Wt. of pigs Actual No. of ftTiimnlR Av. feed eaten per Feed eaten daily per 100 lbs. Av. gdin Feed for av- wt. fed day live weight per day 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 15 to 50 38 174 2.2 6.0 0.8 293 50 to 100 78 417 3.4 4.3 0.8 400 100 to 150 128 495 4.8 3.8 1.1 437 150 to 200 174 489 5.9 3.5 1.2 482 200 to 250 226 300 6.6 2.9 1.3 498 250 to 300 271 223 7.4 2.7 1.5 511 300 to 350 320 105 7.5 2.4 1.4 535 In trials by the senior author at the Wisconsin Station,^ 5 sows and litters were fed 70 days on corn meal, wheat middlings, and sour skim milk. The unweaned pigs were also given all of the same food they would consume at a separate trough. At 10 weeks the pigs were weaned, and the feeding continued for 7 weeks with the sows and weaned pigs separately. While suckling their pigs, 1 sow lost and 2 gained in weight. The table shows the feed required for 100 lbs. of net gain with sows and pigs before and after weaning : Feed for 100 lbs. gain by sows and pigs before and after weaning Meal Meal Milk equivalent Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. By SOWS and pigs 10 weeks before weaning 237 475 316 By pigs only, 7 weeks after weaning ; 288 676 384 By sows only, 7 weeks after weaning 710 1,420 947 It is shown that 237 lbs. of grain, together with 475 lbs. of separator skim milk, produced 100 lbs. of combined net gain with sows and their unweaned pigs. Reckoning 6 lbs. of skim milk equal to 1 of the mixed meal, it is shown that 316 lbs. of meal equivalent produced 100 lbs. net gain with sows and their unweaned pigs. For the 7 weeks following weaning the pigs required 384 lbs, of meal equivalent, or 22 per ct. more »Wis. Rpt. 1897. 570 FEEDS AND FEEDING feed, for 100 lbs. of gain than before weaning. It thus appears that young, unweaned pigs are fed more economically thru the sow than after weaning. The table shows that, after their pigs were weaned, the sows required the surprisingly large amount of 947 lbs. of meal equivalent to make good each 100 lbs. of flesh lost while suckling their pigs. The prudent stockman always feeds both sows and pigs liberally before wean- ing, realizing that the sows should not be allowed to grow thin thru scant feeding. 914. Gain of young pigs. — To show the rate of gain by young pigs before and after weaning, the following table is taken from a study by the senior author at the Wisconsin Station,^* the data covering 70 days before and 49 days after weaning : Weight of a litter of pigs at birth and gains before and after weaning Before weaning Days from Wt. of Weight of pigs Date birth BOW No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. May 24 . . 332 May 25. . 3.6 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.2 2.8 1.9 May 31 . . 7 290 7.1 5.1 5.9 6.4 6.3 5.8 4.8 3.0 June 7 . . . 14 285 10.7 7.7 9.9 9.4 9.5 9.2 7.5 5.1 June 14 . . 21 277 19.0 11.5 13.5 13.5 12.5 12.5 10.8 7.6 June 21 . . 28 278 19.4 14.5 17.4 17.8 15.6 16.0 14.1 10.4 June 28 . . 35 280 24.2 16.4 22.2 23.1 20.6 20.9 18.2 14.4 Julys.... 42 293 28.0 18.7 25.5 26.5 23,5 24.2 22.0 16.5 July 12... 49 280 32.5 19.0 30.0 32.5 29.0 29.5 26.0 21.0 July 19... 56 278 40.5 22.5 37.0 43.5 38.0 38.0 35.5 26.5 July 26... 63 268 47.0 24.5 44.0 61.0 45.5 45.0 42.5 31.0 August 2 . 70 261 50.5 25.0 50.0 60.5 50.0 51.0 47.0 37.5 —29 46.9 21.8 46.7 57.3 46.6 47.8 44.2 35 6 After weaning August 2 . . August 9 . . August 16 . August 23 . September 6 SeptemberlS September20 Gain . . . 7 14 21 35 42 49 50.5 53.0 67.0 62.5 69.0 77.5 85.6 35.0 25.0 25.0 27.5 33.6 43.0 48.0 66.0 50.0 57.5 63.5 72.6 84.0 84 .0 104.0 31.0 54.0 60.5 68.0 75.0 86.5 101.0 106.0 114.0 53.5 50.0 57.6 61.0 67.0 80.0 86.0 92.0 42.0 51.0 65.0 59.0 69.0 76.0 88.0 93.0 42.0 47.5 54.5 61.0 72.0 79.0 88.0 93.0 45.5 37.5 44.0 50.0 56.0 64.0 74.0 82.0 44.5 It will be seen that the sow lost 29 lbs. in weight while suckling her pigs, which gained from 21.8 to 57.3 lbs. each in 10 weeks between far- rowing and weaning. For the 7 weeks succeeding weaning the individual gains ranged from 31 to 54 lbs. It is possible for a suckling pig to weigh 70 lbs. when 70 days old, and sometimes, tho rarely, it may exceed that high figure. laWis. Rpt. 1890. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 571 915. Maintenance requirement of the pig. — ^At the "Wisconsin Station'' Dietrich gradually reduced the feed of four 50-lb. pigs getting corn meal, wheat middlings, and sMm milk during 2 weeks until they were neither gaining nor losing in weight. They were held on this allowance for 7 days to confirm the figures and then gradually brought back to full feed again. When the pigs averaged 100 lbs. the process was repeated, with the results shown in the table: Daily maintenance requirement of pigs at different weights Average ration Digestible nutrients per Concen- SMm 100 lbs. live weight trates milk Crude protein Total Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. When pig weighed 60 lbs 0.3 1.2 0.12 0.60 When pig weighed 100 lbs 0.8 1.6 0.12 0.70 When pig weighed 150 lbs 1.6 1.6 0.13 0.84 When pig weighed 200 lbs 2.0 ... 0.10 0.72 The table shows that a 50-lb. pig maintained its weight on a ration of but 0.3 lb. of concentrates (corn and middlings) and 1.2 lbs. skim milk, which furnished 0.12 lb. digestible crude protein and 0.60 lb. total digest- ible nutrients per 100 lbs. live weight. The amount of feed eaten daily per pig increased as the pigs grew heavier, but there was no marked change in the requirements per 100 lbs. live weight. In these and also in later experiments at the Illinois Station' Dietrich found that if the ration was reduced after the animal was apparently receiving only enough feed to maintain its weight it would lose in weight for a period and then often be able to maintain itself on the reduced ration or even gain in weight, due to a better utilization of the feed. It has already been pointed out that steers fed scanty rations are likewise able to utilize their feed more efficiently than when liberally fed. (82) Dietrich found that pigs could be maintained on 0.10 lb. digestible crude protein and 0.42 to 0.57 lb. total digestible nutrients per 100 lbs. live weight. This is 4.2 to 5.7 lbs. total digestible nutrients per 1,000 lbs. live weight, somewhat less than the amount required by the dairy cow or the steer, as is shown in Appendix Table V. This is probably due to the fact, previously pointed out (91), that maintenance require- ments depend upon body surface, and since the pig is built more com- pactly than the steer or cow, he has less body surface per 100 lbs. live weight. 916. TJtilization of feed by the pig. — In the trial reported in the pre- ceding article, after each maintenance period the pigs were gradually returned to full feed, which was continued until the next maintenance period. The following table shows the gains made during these inter- mediate periods, together with the percentage of the feed which was required for maintenance and used for making gain. 'Wis. Rpt. 1899. '111. Bui. 163. 572 FEEDS AND FEEDING Use made by the pig of the feed consumed Av. daily Percentage of food used gain For maintenance For gain Lbs. Per ct. Per ct. When pig weighed 501bs 0.93 18 82 When pig weighed 100 lbs 1.66 25 75 When pig weighed 150 lbs 1.85 27 73 When pig weighed 200 lbs 1.22 36 64 The table shows that the 50-lb. pig, when gaining nearly 1 lb. a day, used only 18 per ct. of its feed for the support of the body, leaving 82 per ct. of all it consumed for gain in body weight. As the pig increases in weight, as has already been pointed out, it consumes less feed per 100 lbs. live weight, and hence after the maintenance requirements are met has a smaller percentage of its feed left for gain. (913) 917. Maintenance of the sow. — At the Wisconsin Station* Davies re- corded the feed eaten by a 394-lb. Berkshire sow and her 7 suckling pigs for 10 weeks between farrowing and weaning, obtaining the fol- lowing results : Feed required to maintain the brood sow Concen- Skim trates milk Lba. Lbs. Feed (H com, J^ wheat middhngs) consumed by sow 660 1,381 Calculated amount needed to maintain sow alone 242 484 Feed eaten by sow that went to nourish her pigs 418 897 Additional feed given to pigs 100 313 Total 518 1,210 Feed given sow and pigs for 100 lbs. gain by pigs 146 339 Feed required to maintain sow 1 day 3.5 6 .9 Davies estimates that concentrates equivalent to 1 per ct. of the weight of the sow supported her for 1 day, and that about one-third of what she ate went for the support of her own body, while two-thirds was used in elaborating milk for her young. It required but 146 lbs. of grain and 336 lbs. of skim milk fed to sow and pigs for 100 lbs. of gain by the pigs — an exceedingly small allowance. Faville of the Wyoming Station" found that brood sows weighing 314 lbs. at the beginning of the trial and 376 lbs. at the close made average daily gains of 0.4 lb. on a daily allowance of 4.6 lbs. of concentrates (2 parts corn and 1 part mill feed) . This ration supplied only 57 per ct. of the nutrients called for by the Wolff-Lehmaun standard. 918. Nutrient requirements of swine. — Since pigs are now commonly fattened for market before maturity, they are growing rapidly as well as storing fat in their bodies. Consequently their ration should supply ample protein and mineral matter for normal growth. The requirements ♦Wis. Rpt. 1904. °Wyo. Bui. 96. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 573 of pigs of various ages, as shown in studies by the junior author of the numerous trials at American experiment stations, are set forth in the Modified Wolff-Lehmann standards. (Appendix Table V) The other farm animals eat large quantities of hay, which is relatively high in mineral matter, including calcium (lime), compared with the cereal grains. Except when on pasture, pigs, on the other hand, are fed chiefly on the cereal grains, not being fitted to utilize much dry rough- age. Since all the cereals, especially corn, of which pigs are iinusually fond, are low in calcium, there is much greater danger than with other animals that they will not obtain sufficient calcium for normal growth of skeleton and body tissues. When rations are fed which do not con- tain ample calcium it should be supplied in the form of ground lime- stone, bone ash, or ground rock phosphate. When the ration furnishes sufficient protein to meet the standards, it will also supply sufficient phos- phorus for rapid growth, since the common feeds which are rich in pro- tein are likewise high in phosphorus. (119) 919. Effect of adding calcium to the ration. — ^The trials reviewed in a preceding chapter (135-7) show clearly that when pigs are fed com alone they develop weak skeletons and fail to make normal growth. This is both because corn is low in proteia and because it is low in mineral matter, especially calcium. To determine the effect upon the strength of the skeleton of adding various supplements to corn, during each of 2 years Burnett fed 4 lots, each of four 79-lb. pigs, the rations shown in the table for 137 days at the Nebraska Station.' The breaking strength of the right and left femur, tibia, humerus, radius, and ulna of the legs of each pig was determined at the close of the trial. During the first 5 weeks of the first trial and the first 12 weeks of the second all lots were on alfalfa pasture. Ground hone and tankage as supplements to corn Concen- Av, breaking Daily trates for strength of Average ration gain 100 lbs. gain bones Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Com, 5.0 lbs 1 .0 511 303 Lot II, Ground bone, 0.5 lb. Com, 4.5 lbs 1.0 507 575 Lot III, Shorts, 1.3 lbs. Com, 3.7 lbs 1.0 491 354 Lot 7F, Tankage, 0.51b. Com, 4.5 lbs 1.1 456 497 Due to the alfalfa pasture during the first part of the trial, the lot on com alone made satisfactory gaias. However, Lot II, receiving ground bone in addition to corn, had much stronger bones. The skele- ton was also greatly strengthened by the addition of tankage, which con- tains considerable calcium, and to a small degree by the addition of shorts. As shown later (1013), it is important that the calcium supply in the ration of the brood sow be ample. 920. Grinding grain. — ^At the Wisconsin Station^ during each of 10 consecutive winters the senior author, at first alone and later with Otis, "Nebr. Bui. 107. 'Wis. Rpt. 1906. 674 FEEDS AND FEEDING fed ground corn, in comparison with shelled corn, to fattening pigs averaging 175 lbs. in weight at the beginning of the trials, during per- iods ranging from 63 to 98 days each. Iowa No. 3, year-old shelled corn was used, part of which was ground in a buhrstone mill to the usual fineness, while part was fed unground, as shelled corn. Since pigs do not thrive on corn alone, in aU cases the ration was made up of one-third wheat middlings and two-thirds ground or shelled corn. The mixed ground corn and middlings were fed wet with a small quantity of water, while the shelled com was fed dry and alone, the middlings having first been fed as a slop. Salt and wood ashes were supplied at all times to both lots. The results of the 18 trials are summarized in the following table : Summary of 10 winters' feeding ground corn and shelled corn Total feed given Feed for Whole Com Wheat Total 100 lbs. Feed given corn meal middlings gain gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 140 pigs fed shelled com and wheat middlings 46,736 22,590 13,828 601 140 pigs fed ground corn and wheat middlings 50,647 24,189 15,891 471 In 11 out of 18 trials the saving from grinding corn ranged from 2.5 to 18.5 per ct., and in 7 cases there was a loss by griading, ranging from 1.1 to 11.1 per ct. On the average it required 501 lbs. of whole corn and wheat middlings for 100 lbs. of gain, and only 471 lbs. of ground corn and middlings, a saving of 6 per ct. This means that with corn worth 50 cts. per bushel there was a saving of 3 cts. on each bushel by grinding, allowing nothing for labor or expense. It was observed that the pigs getting ground com ate more feed ia a given time and gained more rapidly than did those getting shelled corn, which fact no doubt explains the general impression among farmers that pigs do better on ground corn than on shelled. Rommel,'* summarizing 9 trials at 5 stations where whole or ground grains — ^peas, wheat, rye, oats, and barley — were fed, either dry or soaked, to fattening pigs, found it required approximately 473 lbs. of whole grain or 415 lbs. of ground grain to produce 100 lbs. of gain — a saving of 12 per ct. by grinding. We may then conclude that it will usually pay to grind the small grains for pigs. 921. Effect of preparing corn for pigs. — To study the benefits of pre- paring com for pigs of various ages. King conducted trials at the Indiana Station* with a total of 140 pigs. Similar lots of pigs were fed either ear corn, shelled corn, or ground corn, the corn being supplemented with tankage and wheat shorts. Some lots were placed on experiment when the pigs weighed about 50 lbs., others at 85 lbs., and still others at 100 lbs., at 150 to 160 lbs., and at 210 to 220 lbs., respectively. The ear fall. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 47. »Proo. Amer. Sec. Anlm. Prod., 1913, pp. 22-31. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 575 Effect of preparing corn for pigs of different weights Preparation of com No. of pigs Initial weiglit Daily gain Average ration Feed for Com Shorts Tankage 100 lbs. gain* Fint month Ear com Shelled com . . . Ground com. . . Second month Ear com Shelled com. . . Ground com. . . Third month Ear com Shelled com . . . Ground com. . . Fourth month Ear com Shelled com . . . Ground com . . . Fifth month Ear com Shelled com . . . Ground com. . . Sixth month Ear com Shelled com . . . Ground com . . . 16 16 16 16 16 16 43 42 43 51 50 51 58 58 58 64 53 64 Lbs. 54 54 54 73 74 73 108 106 107 140 139 141 178 178 182 219 217 226 Lbs. 0.63 0.66 0.64 0.89 0.84 0.84 0.96 0.92 1.00 1.14 1.14 1.23 1.21 1.20 1.36 1.44 1.46 1.58 Lbs. 1.39 1.38 1.38 2.33 2.18 2.25 3.35 3.32 3.47 4.44 4.51 4.65 5.21 5.29 5.56 6.05 6.30 6.43 Lbs. 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.01 0.01 0.01 Lbs. 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.28 0.27 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.36 Lbs. 376 357 370 374 378 388 404 417 399 422 428 408 460 468 434 445 455 431 * Ear corn reduced to shelled corn basis. corn and shelled corn were fed dry and the' ground corn was wet enough so that it would not be thrown out of the trough by the pigs while eating. In the above table the results are arranged by months, starting ivith the pigs weighing 54 lbs. The table shows that during the first and second months there was no appreciable benefit from shelling corn or from grinding it. In the third month the pigs fed ground corn began to make slightly larger gains, and required a little less feed for 100 lbs. gain. When the pigs reached a weight of 140 lbs. the difference became slightly more marked. During each of the last 3 months the pigs fed ground corn ate more feed, made slightly more rapid gains, and required less feed for 100 lbs. gain. For these months the saving by grinding, however, was not large, amounting to only 4.1 per ct. on the average over ear corn. Bar com gave better results than shelled com. The slightly more rapid and more economical gains of the older pigs on ground com were probably due to the fact that as pigs mature and fatten they masticate corn less thoroly. This is shown by digestion experi- ments conducted by Eward at the Iowa Station* with 60-lb. and 200-lb. pigs, the results of which are summarized in the table : 'Information to the autbors. 576 FEEDS AND FEEDING Percentage of dry matter digested with, corn fed in various forms Ear com (not including cob) . Dry shelled com Soaked shelled com Dry ground com Soaked ground com By 60-lb. pigs By 200-lb. pigB Per. ct. Per ot. 88.8 85.4 88.0 86.5 87.2 85.4 87.2 87.2 85.9 88.4 The young pigs digested corn when fed as ear corn or dry shelled corn fully as well as when the dry ground corn was fed. With young pigs soaked ground corn gave the poorest results. "With the 200-lb. pigs, on the other hand, grinding increased the percentage digested. Other trials at the Iowa Station" show that for older pigs as large and economical gains are made when soaked shelled corn is fed as when ground corn is used. Corn should be soaked for about 12 hours and must not be allowed to become stale. From these trials we may conclude that for young pigs there is no appreciable advantage in shelling, grinding, or soaking corn. Pigs weigh- ing 150 lbs. or over may make slightly more rapid gains on soaked or ground corn and require somewhat less feed for 100 lbs. gain. Whether this saving, which will average 4 to 6 per ct., will cover the cost of prep- aration must be decided by the feeder. 922. Cooking feed. — The early agricultural authorities uniformly and strongly advocated cooking feed for swine. The first definite results in opposition came from the Maine Agricultural College" in 1876, which reported that as the average of 9 years of continuous experimentation it had found that 89.9 lbs. of raw corn meal was as valuable for putting gains on fattening pigs as was 100 lbs. of com meal that had been cooked. In not a single trial did a given weight of corn meal on being cooked by steam prove as satisfactory as the same weight of uncooked meal. These results were so at variance with popular opinion that the matter was soon tried out at a number of stations, some of the findings of which are as follows: Results of feeding coohed and uncooked grain to fattening pigs station reporting No. of trials Kind of feed How prepared Feed for 100 lbs. gain Cooked Uncooked Wisconsin* Wisconsin* Wisconsin* Wisconsin* Ontario Collegef . . . Kansas Agr. CollegeJ Iowa Agr. College §. . Iowa Agr. College!. Ottawa" Ground barley Ground com Whole com, shorts. . . . Com meal, shorts Peas Whole com SheUed com Ground com Ground peas, bar- ley, rye Steamed Steamed Steamed Steamed Steamed Steamed Not stated Not stated Steamed Lbs. Lbs. 628 589 517 463 564 484 597 574 476 360 750 630 538 443 562 445 417 425 * 4th An. Kpt. t2d An. Bpt. "Iowa Bui. 106. tKpt. 1885. SCoburo, Swine in America. ||Rpt. 1891. "An. Rpt. Trustees Me. State Col. Agr., 1876. GENBEAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 677 The trials above reported, which are but a fraction of all that have been made in this country, show that in most cases there is an actual loss of food value by cooking the various grains for fattening swine. Some few feeds, such as potatoes, are improved by cooking, but as a rule there is no gain and usually a loss by such operation, (425, 427, 429) From trials at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation^^ in which the value of stewing alfalfa hay for pigs was tested, Snyder concludes that the farmer is not warranted in going to much, if any, expense in thus preparing the hay. (426) 923. Wetting or soaking feed. — ^RommeV* studying all the trials at the various stations in which feed was either wet or soaked with water be- fore feeding, found a difference of only 2 per ct. in favor of soaking or wetting. We have seen in a preceding article (921) that it may be advis- able to soak shelled corn for large pigs, while this does not noticeably in- crease its value for young animals. Any grain so hard as to injure the mouths of the pigs during mastication should always be soaked if it can not be ground or rolled. This is especially necessary with such small, hard grains as wheat and rye. In a trial at the Kansas Station^* Kinzer and Wheeler found no advantage from soaking alfalfa meal and ground com for fattening pigs. In trials at the Indiana Station^^ Plumb and Van Norman, when feeding corn meal or hominy feed with shorts to pigs, found it made no difference whether 1 or 3 lbs. of water per pound of meal was used to form the slop. Good and Smith of the Kentucky Station^* state that when dry ground wheat is fed to pigs it often gums up in the mouth, forming a pasty mass which is difficult to masticate and swaUow. Feeding the wheat as a thin slop largely overcomes this trouble. In severe winter weather slop should be warmed for pigs housed in cold quarters. 924. Light vs. heavy feeding. — In experiments at the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station^^ with sixty 35-lb. pigs, the influence of intensity of feeding on gain was especially studied. The following results were secured in trials lasting 120 and 210 days, respectively, the feeds used being barley, buttermilk, skim milk, and whey : Results from feeding heavy and Ught rations Grain fed At. gain Grain for 100 Character of feeding daily per day lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Light 3.61 0.92 391 Medium 4.23 1.07 397 Heavy , 4.51 1.12 404 These results indicate a tendency toward a poorer utilization of the food in the heavier feeding, tho the difference is slight. "Nebr. Bui. 147. "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 47. "Kan. Bui. 192. "Ind. Bui. 86. "Ky. Bui. 190. "Copenhagen (Denmark) Rpt. 30, 1895. 678 FEEDS AND FEEDING 925. Self feeders for swine. — Eward of the Iowa Station" has eon- ducted numerous trials with self feeders for various classes of swine. His results show that this method of feeding is well adapted to the quick fattening of well-grown shotes, for fattening old sows, and for growing, fattening shotes where it is desired to feed them an unlimited grain al- lowance. The self feeder should not be used when rapid gains are not wanted, for instance, where it is desired to force pigs to make the maxi- mum use of pasturage by limiting the grain allowance. It should not be used for pregnant sows except early in pregnancy or unless bulky feed, of which ground alfalfa is the best under corn-belt conditions, is mixed with the grain. By decreasing or increasing the proportion of corn the gilts or sows may be kept in the proper condition. To compare the rate and economy of gains when pigs were self-fed and hand-fed, Eward fed 3 lots, each of 5 spring pigs, from weaning until they weighed 250 lbs. on the feeds shown in the table. The pigs were grazed on alfalfa pasture during the summer and finished in the dry lot. Self feeder for pigs on alfalfa pasture Time to reach Daily Concentrates for Averaee concentrate allowance 250 lbs. g^n 100 lbs. gain* Days Lbs. Lbs. Lot I Ear com, hand-fed, 3 .8 lbs.* Meat meal, hand-fed , 0.28 lb 206 1 .06 385 LotJI Ear com, hand-fed, 3 .6 lbs.* Meat meal, self-fed , 0.39 lb 206 1 .07 373 Lot III Shelled com, self-fed, 4 . 1 lbs. Meat meal, self-fed ,0.331b 180 1.22 364 *Ear corn reduced to shelled corn basis. Lot III, getting shelled corn and meat meal in separate feeders, made the largest gains, reaching 250 lbs. in 180 days, and also required the least concentrates in addition to pasture for 100 lbs. gain. A lot of 241-lb. yearling sows self-fed in a dry lot on shelled corn gained 2.6 lbs. per head daily, requiring 417 lbs. of corn for 100 lbs. of gain. Another lot hand-fed on shelled corn gained 0.3 lb. less per head daily, and required 436 lbs. of com for 100 lbs. of gain. The large gains which may be secured with growing pigs self-fed in dry lots on corn and suitable supplements are shown in another trial by Eward in which 3 lots, each of five 45-lb. pigs, were allowed access to the following feeds in separate self feeders for 162 days. A fourth lot on. alfalfa pasture was supplied shelled corn in addition by means of a self feeder and finished in a dry lot on shelled corn and meat meal in self feeders for 22 days after the pasture was gone. Salt was sup- plied each lot in a self feeder, and in addition ground limestone and charcoal were furnished the pigs in the dry lots. •'Proc. Amer. Soc. Anim. Prod., 1914; Corn Belt Meat Producers' Assoc, Rpt. 1914. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 579 Value of self feeder for growing, fattening pigs Concentrates Daily per 100 lbs. Average ration gain gain Lbs. Lbs. Lot I Shelled com, 5 .4 lbs. Oats,0.101b. Meat meal, 0.461b 1.5 399 Lot II Shelled com, 6 .0 lbs. Linseed meal, .10 lb. Oats.O.OSlb. Meat meal, 0.401b 1.6 417 Lot III Shelled com, 5 .6 lbs. Oats, . 04 lb. Linseed meal, . 02 lb. Middlings, 0.221b. Meat meal, 0.42 lb 1.5 418 Lot IV Shelled com, 5 .9 lbs. Alfalfa pasture Meat meal, 0.07 lb.* 1.5 395 *Meat meal fed only while in dry lot. All these self-fed pigs made exceedingly large and economical gains. The pigs in Lot II reached an average weight of 316 lbs. at 248 days of age, one of the pigs weighing 405 lbs., an unusual record. Eward states that pigs allowed free access to com and supplements, such as tankage, linseed meal, and wheat middlings, show a remarkable ability to balance their own ration. At first about 75 per et. of the entire ration was corn and the remainder meat meal and other supplements. As the pigs grew older they widened the nutritive ratio of their ration till at the close about 99 per ct. of the feed eaten was corn. All lots showed a tendency to eat a larger proportion of oats during the first few weeks than later, finally consuming only an insignificant amount of this bulky feed as they became well fattened. Eward points out that when pigs are not sup- plied with all the corn they will eat it is inadvisable to feed tankage in a self feeder, for because of hunger they will eat more meat meal than is needed to balance their ration. 926. Water required by pigs. — ^Dietrich,^' who has given the subject much careful study, concludes that the proper amount of water for the pig ranges from 12 lbs. daily per 100 lbs. of animal at the time of wean- ing down to 4 lbs. per 100 lbs. during the fattening period. He holds that pigs do not usually drink enough water in winter, and that they should be forced to take more by giving it, warm if necessary, in their slop. He states that the total quantity of water drunk seems to be of greater im- portance than the manner in which it is administered. On protein-rich feeds the pig needs more water than wien on starchy feeds. (103) 927. Salt and correctives of mineral nature. — Tho pigs require less salt than the other farm animals, they should be supplied with it regularly. In a trial by Eward at the Iowa Station^" pigs allowed free access to salt made better gains than those receiving no salt or others getting allowances of one-sixty-fourth, one-thirty-second, or one-sixteenth ounce "Swine, p. 156. "Information to the authors. 580 FEEDS AND FEEDING per head daily. Salt may be supplied in a trough or a small self feeder. If pigs have not had free access to salt they may at first overeat. Pigs, especially those kept in confinement, often show a strong craving for seemingly unnatural substances — charcoal, ashes, mortar, soft coal, rotten wood, soft brick, and many others being greedily devoured when offered. Such cravings should be satisfied by supplying such materials as charcoal, air-slaked lime or ground limestone, wood ashes, bone meal or ground rock phosphate, and copperas, with or without salt. A mix- ture of correctives may be placed before the pigs or they may be offered in separate compartments of a covered trough or of a self feeder. 928. Proprietary stock foods. — ^At the Ottawa Experimental Farms^^ Grisdale fed groups of 4 pigs, ranging in weight from 45 to 75 lbs. each, for 90 days to test the value of certain proprietary stock foods when added to a mixture of half shorts and half mixed ground grains — ^peas, oats, and barley. The results of the trial are shown below: Value of proprietary stock foods in pork production Allowance of Btook food or supplement Meal At. Fetd for 100 lbs. gain per head daily dally gam Meal Other feed Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 5.2 1.2 438 4.3 1.0 432 22 4.0 0.9 437 12 4.9 1.3 393 10 3.5 1.2 295 309 4.8 1.2 421 Pasture Cost of 100 lbs. gain /, Meal alone II, Anglo-Saxon stock food, . 22 lb III, International stock food, . 12 lb.. . . IV, Herbageum, .13 lb V, Sour skim milk, 3 .7 lbs VI, Clover and rape pasture Dollars 4.38 6.52 6.17 5.15 3.42 4.21 Of those receiving stock food, only Lot IV, fed Herbageum, made larger gains than Lot I, fed a straight meal ration. Valuing the mixed meal at $1, skim milk at 15 cents per 100 lbs., and the stock foods at market prices, all the lots receiving stock food made more expensive gains than Lot I. Skim milk at 15 cents per 100 lbs. lowered the gain- cost materially, and clover and rape pasture to a less degree. In this trial the stock food was added to a palatable, well-balanced ration of mixed grains. In trials at the Iowa Station*^ with International, Iowa, and Standard stock foods Michaels and Kennedy found that the stock foods when added to corn alone had no beneficial effect on digestion and that a bushel of corn produced as much or more pork when fed alone as when stock foods were added to it. (289) At the Kansas Station^^ Kinzer and Wheeler fed International, Pratt's, and Hercules stock foods with corn to 170-lb. pigs in comparison with others fed com alone and still others fed corn and tankage, or corn, tank- age, and wheat shorts. The pigs fed corn and stock food made but slightly larger gains than those fed corn alone, while those fed com and tankage, or corn, tankage, and shorts gained over twice as much as those fed corn "Ottawa Expt. Farms Rpt. 1904. "Iowa Bui. 113. =»Kan. Bui. 192. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 581 alone. The wise farmer will not seek to use stock foods as a supplement to corn, but will employ such protein-rich feeds as skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, and linseed meal. 929. Winter vs. summer feeding. — The Copenhagen (Denmark) Sta- tion^* has compiled the results of 199 trials conducted at that station with about 2,500 pigs, so as to compare the relative economy of gains by pigs in summer and winter. In the following table, which summa- rizes the results of these trials, all the skim milk, whey, roots, etc. fed have been reduced to their grain equivalent to facilitate comparison : Feed required to fatten Danish pigs in winter and in summer Grain equivalent eaten Grain equivalent for per day per head 100 lbs. gain Weight Winter Summer Winter Summer Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 35 to 75 lbs.* 2.66 2.65 371 346 75 to 115 lbs 3 .96 3 .92 446 397 115 to 155 lbs 5.26 5.25 516 457 Average 3 .96 3 .94 444 400 ^Danish pound=:l.l avoirdupois lbs. It is shown that winter-fed pigs required 444 lbs. feed for 100 lbs. gain, or 11 per ct. more than summer-fed pigs. In Denmark the sum- mers are cool, and the winters more or less damp but not excessively cold. It is fair to hold that in the northern parts of America the differ- ence between winter and summer feeding is somewhat greater than the Danish figures indicate, while over much of our country there is no great- er difference and often no difference at all. 930. Shelter and exercise. — Even in the northern part of the corn belt where the winters are severe, inexpensive shelter is all that is necessary for swine. The requisites for healthful winter shelter are freedom from dampness, good ventilation without drafts on the animals, sunlight, rea- sonable warmth, and a moderate amount of dry bedding. The quarters should be located on well-drained ground and should be so arranged that they may be easily and thoroly cleaned and disinfected. Swine may be housed in a central hog house with a number of pens or in small movable "cabins" or colony houses. Many use a combination of the 2 systems, for in the northern states the central house is well suited for winter shelter and spring farrowing, while the portable houses are particularly useful for housing pigs on pasture. At the Ottawa Sta- tion,^" where the winters are severe, Grisdale kept lots, each of 4 to 7 pigs weighing about 70 lbs., during 60 days in winter in small board houses, such as were used for summer shelter. Other lots were kept in the well-built piggery, which afforded much greater protection. The pigs in the small houses gained 0.68 lb. per head daily, 0.02 lb. less than those kept in the piggery, and required 44 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain. "Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 30, 1895. "Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt 1904. 582 FEEDS AND FEEDING Brood sows in the small houses required only 25 per ct. more feed than those in the warmer quarters, showing that large animals can withstand severe cold better than small ones. The health of the animals was good under both conditions. Shelton of the Kansas Agricultural College'" found that during a winter in which the temperature at 8 a. m. ranged from 31° F. to -12° F. large hogs in warm quarters required 25 per ct. less feed than those in a yard protected only by a high board fence on the north. Tho somewhat more feed is required by pigs wintered in the small, colder houses, this is more or less offset by the low cost of the cabins and by the ease with which they may be shifted to prevent disease and par- asites and to distribute the droppings of the animals. In severe weather corn stalks, horse manure, or other litter may be banked against the sides of the houses. "With liberal bedding, aU but the youngest pigs should then be comfortable. When litters come in severe weather a lantern hung in the cabin will furnish sufficient warmth. For breeding stock and growing pigs ample exercise is of the utmost importance. To enforce exercise animals quartered in several cabins can be fed at a point, at some distance from the shelters, where there are troughs and a feeding floor. "When snow covers the ground, paths can be broken out with a snow plow. In winter, even where the cold is severe, pigs housed in colony houses and forced to take daily exercise thrive amazingly. If a permanent hog house is used abundant exercise should be enforced at all times with breeding and stock animals. 931. Types of swine; breed tests. — The principal breeds of swine are of 2 distinct types, the lard type, of which the Poland-China, Berkshire, Chester-"White, and Duroc-Jersey are the leading breeds, and the bacon type, represented by the Tamworth and Large Yorkshire breeds. The Hampshires, tho often classed as bacon hogs, really stand between the extreme bacon type and the lard type. Lard hogs, which are the type commonly raised in the United States, have compact, wide, and deep bodies. Since the hams, back, and shoulders are the most valuable parts, the packer desires a hog furnishing a maximum of these cuts. Usually being well-fattened, lard hogs yield a high percentage of dressed car- cass. Formerly heavy hogs were in largest demand, but now pigs weigh- ing 250 lbs. or less will command the highest price, if well finished. The true bacon type is raised but little in the United States, the do- mestic demand for bacon being largely satisfied by the leaner pigs of the lard type. The bacon pig is raised chiefly in Denmark, Great Britain, and Canada, where corn is not the main feed for swine. Pigs of the bacon breeds are longer of body and of leg than those of the lard breeds, have less thickness and depth of body, and are lighter in the shoulder, neck, and jowl. The highest quality bacon is that made for the English mar- ket under the name of ""Wiltshire side," which consists of the whole half of the dressed pig, less the head, feet, shoulder blade, neck bone, and ="Kan. Agr. Col., Rpt. Prof. Agr., 1883. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 583 aitch bone. For this purpose the pigs should weigh from 160 to 200 lbs. and carry but medium fat, which should be uniformly from 1 to 1.5 inches in thickness along the back.''' Breed tests have been conducted at several stations to determine whether there is any difference in the economy of meat production by the different breeds. Of these the most extensive were tests at the On- tario Agricultural College''* and the Iowa Station,^" in which pigs of the Berkshire, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester-White, Tamworth, and Yorkshire breeds were compared. A study of the results shows that there was no consistent and uniform difference in gains or economy of pro- duction, a breed which ranked high in some of the tests, being surpassed by other breeds in the rest of the trials. The bacon breeds made as eco- nomical gains as those of the lard type. We may conclude that there is no best breed of swine so far as rate and economy of gains are concerned. There are far greater differences between individuals of the same breed than between the different breeds. One should select the breed which seems best adapted to his conditions and suits his fancy, and then be sure to secure and to maintain vigorous, well-bred animals of that breed. 932. Razorbacks. — Carlyle of the Wisconsin Station'" procured razor- backs or semi-wild swine, also called feral swine, from Texas and Okla- homa. In one trial 6 unmixed descendants from the original pair of razorbacks were fed in comparison with the same number of pigs ob- tained by crossing razorbacks on improved Berkshires or Poland-Chinas. The razorbacks made slower gains and required more feed for a given gain than did the cross-breds. Carlyle reports that they were also fickle in appetite. At one time they would gorge themselves, and then eat sparingly, only to follow with another gorge. They seemed to thrive best with abundant pasture and bulky food. The second cross with the improved breeds produced pigs of fine form that were good feeders. None were immune from hog cholera, the original pair dying of that disease. 933. Spayed and unspayed sows. — ^At the Utah Station'^ Foster and Merrill secured a daily gain of 0.82 lb. with spayed sows and 0.86 lb. with unspayed sows, no difference in their appetites being noticed. 934. Barrows vs. sows. — In feeding trials mostly by the senior author at the Wisconsin Station,'^ the weights and gains of 98 sows and an equal number of barrows were as follows : , Sows Barrows Av. weight at beginning of feeding penod, lbs 136 144 Av. gain per animal during feeding period, lbs 102 107 It is shown that the barrows, weighing somewhat more than the sows, made slightly better gains. Data obtained in feeding 1,216 pigs at the » Day, Productive Swine Husbandry, pp. 13-14. » Wis. Rpt. 1903. =» Ont. Agr. Col., Rpts. 1896-8. »• Utah Bui. 70. "Iowa Bui. 48. »"Wis. Rpts. 1897-1906. 584 FEEDS AND FEEDING Copenhagen (Denmark) Station"^ showed practically no difference be- tween barrows and sows as to gain, shrinkage, or quality of carcass. 935. length of intestines. — Darwin^* states that the nature of the food supplied the pig by man has evidently changed the length of the intestines. He quotes Cuvier as reporting the total length of the intes- tines of the wild boar to be 9 times the body length; in the domestic boar 13.5 to 1 ; in the Siam boar 16 to 1. The senior author^" measured the intestines of 39 fattened hogs and found that the large intestine var- ied from 13 to 16 ft., and the small intestine from 54 to 60 ft. in length. The average extreme body length of these animals was 3.5 ft. This makes the small intestine alone from 15 to 17 times the length of the body, and the large and small intestines combined about 21 times the body length. From these figures it appears that the intestines of pigs of the improved breeds are longer in proportion to the body than those given by Cuvier. This may indicate that the modern pig can digest his food more thoroly than his ancestors, and also that he can eat a larger quantity of food in a given time. (35) 936. Dressing percentage. — Coburn^® gives the following concerning the percentage of dressed carcass that pigs will yield on slaughtering after being deprived of feed for 12 hours. Yield of dressed carcass by pigs of various weights Dressed Dressed carcass carcass Per ct. Per ot. Live weight, 100 lbs 72 Live weight, 250 lbs 77 Live weight, 150 lbs 73 Live weight, 300 lbs 79 Live weight, 200 lbs , 75 Live weight, 350-500 lbs 80-87 It is shown that the small, immature, unfinished pig yields the least and the large, mature fat one the greatest percentage of dressed carcass. For each 100 lbs. of live weight increase over the first 100 lbs. the yield is approximately 4 per ct. more dressed carcass. The pig leads all 4-footed farm animals in the percentage of available carcass it yields. 937. Requirements for bacon production. — ^Day^^ of the Ontario Agri- cultural College states that to produce a good Wiltshire side of bacon requires in the pig "certain definite peculiarities as to weight, condition, and conformation." The customers for this class of bacon are most fas- tidious, and bacon which does not come up to the standard in every par- ticular is heavily discounted. The fat should be clear white in color, the flesh firm, and there should be a much higher percentage of lean to fat than in the carcass of the lard hog. (931) According to Day, a peculiar feature of swine is their tendency to develop fat. If the very best specimens of the bacon type are fed largely "Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1895. "Animals and Plants under Domestication. "Wis. Rpt. 1889. "Swine in America, p. 535. 8' Productive Swine Husbandry, p. 13. GENERAL PROBLEMS IN SWINE HUSBANDRY 585 on corn, in a couple of generations they will show a tendency to become shorter and thicker in body. "Even under the most favorable conditions there is a tendency for the bacon type to change gradually in the direc- tion of the fat type, unless care is exercised in selection. It is safe to say, therefore, that it is easier to increase the proportion of fat in a hog's carcass than it is to increase the proportion of lean, and that the extent to which the lean may be increased by the character of the feed is very limited and is fixed by the individuality of the animal. Further, any attempt to increase the amount of lean thru feeding must be started when the pig is very young in order to be successful." (137) 938. Soft pork. — In bacon production a varying number of carcasses are usually rejected by the packers after slaughter because they are too soft for the requirements of the bacon market. Olein, palmitin, and stearin are the three principal fats in the lard of the pig. Olein is liquid at ordinary temperatures, while the others are solid. Shutt of the Ottawa Experimental Farms'* concludes that soft pork is largely due to an undue proportion of olein in the fat of the carcass. He finds that the fat of firm pork carries 68 per ct. olein or less, and that of soft pork 75 per ct. or more. Pigs fattened exclusively on com give a lard carry- ing as much as 92 per ct. of olein, while an oats-peas-barley ration pro- duces a lard with only 67 per ct. olein. From the extensive studies of Fjord and Friis of the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station,'^ and those of Day, Grisdale, and Shutt of the Can- adian Stations,*" we learn that soft pork unsuited to the production of high quality bacon is due on the part of the animal to unthriftiness, lack of exercise, immaturity, and lack of finish, and only in a small way to the breed. Imperfect feeding, marketing before beiog finished, hold- ing too long after finishing, and undue forcing — especially when im- mature — are other causes. In general, improper feeding stuffs and feeds improperly combined tend to produce low-quality bacon. According to Day,*^ exclusive meal feeding is one of the most common causes of soft- ness, especially with pigs not given exercise. Of the grains in common use, corn has the greatest tendency to produce softness. This can be modified by mixing it largely with other meal, or by feeding skim milk, green feed, and roots, but its tendency to produce softness is so strong that it is undesirable for bacon pigs when fed in large amount. While com appears to give a good quality of meat in the case of the lard hog, it must be remembered that the bacon hog is marketed at lighter weights and in thinner condition than the lard hog, which may possibly explain why com is unsatisfactory for feeding bacon hogs. It is possible also that the difference in the methods of curing the flesh may have an in- fluence. Beans seem to have a more marked effect than corn in pro- " Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 38. '•Copenhagen (Denmark) Rpts. 1884, et seq. "Rpts. and Buls. Ont. and Ottawa Expt. Stations, 1890-96. "Productive Swine Husbandry, pp. 133-5. 586 FEEDS AND FEEDING ducing soft pork and should not be used for finishing bacon hogs. Soy- beans and peanuts also tend to produce a soft, oily pork. Barley ranks first for producing the highest grade of bacon, while oats and peas fol- low. Skim milk and whey in combination with the cereal grains, in- cluding com, make a solid flesh that is particularly desirable. Rape, roots, and clover are helpful, but these and other succulent feeds should be judiciously used. Pigs that have been properly fed and have had free- dom until they weigh 100 lbs., if in thin condition, may be finished on almost any of the common meal mixtures and produce fine bacon. They should be fed slightly less than the full ration. Kennedy states*'' that the following rations are used by the Danes, who excel in the production of bacon: "Ground barley, cooked pota- toes, and skim milk ; shorts and skim milk ; 2 parts shorts, 2 parts ground barley, 1 part corn meal, and skim milk ; 2 parts ground barley, 1 part wheat bran, 1 part ground rye, and skim milk; 2 parts ground barley, 1 part ground oats, 1 part corn meal, and skim milk. Corn meal is fed with care, especially during warm weather; when fed in small quanti- ties with barley, shorts, oats, and bran, combined with a liberal allowance of skim milk, there are no bad results. Some good feeders use corn meal to the extent of one-third or one-half of the grain ration during the first 3 or 4 months and then omit it and finish with oats or similar feed. Feeders are sometimes compelled to use corn on account of the low price of bacon. Ground rye to the extent of about one-third of the ration gives good results, but rye shorts are not satisfactory and are only used in small quantities. The best feeds are ground barley, crushed oats, and wheat shorts. Roots are fed during winter and soiling crops during summer." "U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Bui. 77. CHAPTER XXXIV FEEDS FOE SWINE I. Cakbonaceous Concenteates The digestive organs of the pig, with their contents, comprise but 7.5 per et. and those of the ox over 14 per ct. of the total weight of the body. (35) The horse, ox, and sheep are normally herbivorous, living on the finer and more delicate portions of plants and their seeds, while the omnivorous pig feeds not only on the tender leaves, stems, roots, and seeds, but on animal matter as well. Because of the limited capacity of the stomach and the nature of its digestive apparatus the pig requires food that is more concentrated and digestible and less woody than that of the other large farm animals. Not only is the pig an omnivorous feeder, but in nature it lives close to the earth, gathering some of its food from be- neath the surface and swallowing considerable earthy matter in doing so. The intelligent swine feeder bears all such facts in mind in feeding his herd. 939. Indian corn. — This imperial fattening grain is the common hog feed in the great pork-producing districts of America. Corn is low in protein compared with its wealth of carbohydrates and fat, and is also deficient in mineral matter. (201) Hence, even for fattening well-grown pigs, much larger and more economical gains are secured when this grain is properly supplemented by feeds rich in protein and mineral matter, especially calcium, or lime. This is clearly shown in the following table, which summarizes the results of 32 trials at various stations, averaging 82 days, in each of which one lot of pigs was fed corn alone and another lot com and a protein-rich concentrate, such as tankage, wheat middlings, linseed meal, pea meal, or soybean meal. Corn alone vs. corn and nitrogenous supplement for pigs Average ration Initial weight Lba. Daily gain Lbs. Feed for 100 lbs. gain Lbs. 115 0.9 602 117 1.3 441 Lot I, total of 180 pigs Com, 4.8 lbs Lot II, total of 187 pigs Com, 4 .3 lbs. Supplement, 1 .4 lbs Altho most of these pigs were well grown when placed on trial, aver- aging over 100 lbs. in weight. Lot II, fed com and a nitrogenous supple- ment, made over 40 per ct. larger gains and required 27 per ct. less feed for 100 lbs. gain. Had the pigs been younger at the beginning of the trials the results would have been even more striking. These trials show 687 588 FEEDS AND FEEDING that no one can afford to feed corn alone to growing, fattening pigs. Corn alone gives better results for fattening old sows, but even here the use of a supplement is advisable. For brood sows it is highly important that feeds rich in protein and lime be supplied with corn. Many recommend that not over one-third to one-half the ration of the brood sow should consist of corn, but in the corn belt good results have been secured with corn and only enough nitrogenous supplement to balance the ration, pro- viding the allowance of com was so restricted that the sows did not be- come too fat. (1013) In the corn belt most of the corn is fed on the cob, a commendable practice since it involves the least labor by the feeder and is satisfactory to the animals. (921) Where early fall feeding is desirable, corn in the roasting-ear stage may be supplied, stalks and all, but in limited quantity at first, for if much is eaten digestive derangements follow. As the kernels harden, the corn may be more liberally supplied. Pigs that have grazed on clover, alfalfa, or other pasture incur the least risk from new corn. Coburn^ quotes Atkinson as stating that a given area of standing corn will go 3 times as far after it begins to dent as it will if fed off when in the roasting-ear stage. (23) The Virginia Station^ found that pigs fed new ear corn made as good gains as others fed old com. 940. Soft com. — Cobum* states that soft corn is considered excellent for swine and especially for young pigs, many breeders believing they can obtain better gains from soft than from sound, hard corn. As soft com contains less starch than mature com, it is advisable to feed some old com for finishing. Soft corn may be used during cold weather without danger, but should not be carried over into the warm season, as it wiU ferment and thereby become unfit for use. (205) 941. Corn meal; com-and-cob meal. — The trials reviewed in the preced- ing chapter (920-1) show that there is no appreciable advantage in grinding corn for pigs under 150 lbs. in weight, and that for older pigs the saving of corn thru such preparation is but slight. The trials of Kennedy and Bobbins at the Iowa Station* show that the labor involved in grinding ear corn to eorn-and-cob meal is more than wasted, the pigs making larger and more economical gains on the ear com. This seems reasonable for the pig has a digestive tract that can at best but poorly utilize a hard, fibrous material such as the com cob, even after it is ground. Where the pig's food is limited in quantity the cob particles may be useful in distending the digestive tract. Even in such cases the feeder should supply woody matter of better character, such as clover and alfalfa hay furnish. (208, 921) 942. Hogging down com. — In the com belt many farmers turn pigs into fields of standing com, in which rape or other supplemental crops have usually been sown, and allow them to do their own harvesting. This system, called "hogging down," was compared with feeding pigs ear corn 'Swine in America, p. 287. 'Swine in America, p. 276. »Va. Bui. 167. *Iowa Bui. 106. FEEDS FOR SWINE 589 in dry lots by Gaumnitz, Wilson, and Bassett in 2 trials at the Minnesota Station" and by Eward in 1 trial at the Iowa Station,' with the results siumuarized in the table. In the Minnesota trials rape and in the Iowa trial rye was sown in the com field at the last cultivation to furnish sup- plemental feed. The pigs in the Minnesota trials were also fed an allow- ance of shorts and in the Iowa trial an allowance of tankage in addition to the com. Hogging down corn compared with feeding corn in yard No. of At. length DEuly Concentrates for pigs fed of trial gain 100 lbs. gain* Days Lbs. Lbs. LotI, Hogging down com 68 53 1.4 488t Lot 77, Fed ear com in yard 31 57 1.1 546 * CSom reduced to basis of shelled com. t Com consumed by pigs hogging down crop estimated. The pigs homing down the com crop made larger gains and required over 10 per ct. less concentrates per 100 lbs. gain than those fed ear corn in the yard. Eward found that of 194 men in Iowa who had had Ex- perience with hogging down com only 1 was unfavorable to the practice. Over 70 per ct. sowed supplemental crops in the com field, rape being by far the most popular, followed by rye, and by pumpkins. In tests at the Iowa Station^ rape was grown in the com field at an additional cost of only $0.40 per acre, rape and pumpkins at $1.00, rye, soybeans, or cow- peas at $3.33, field peas at $3.60, and hairy vetch at $6.00 per acre. Rape, and rape and pumpkins were the most economical supplemental crops. Eward found that nearly half of the farmers reporting fed some nitrog- enous concentrate, such as skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, or lin- seed meal, in addition to the com. Such a supplement is especially im- portant when no supplemental crops have been grown in the com field. Even when supplemental crops are used it is preferable to feed a small allowance of nitrogenous concentrates in addition. Spring shotes, well grown on pasture and forage crops, are generally used for hogging down. Many turn in old sows and little pigs after the shotes are removed to clean up what little com has been left — ^a good practice, for it enforces an abundance of exercise. Pigs hogging down com pick it up as closely as is usually done in husking. It is best to confine the pigs to limited areas of the field by fencing, so that they wiU clean up the corn in 20, or better, 14 days. Older hogs should be confined to smaller areas than shotes, for otherwise they will knock down and waste more corn. Woven wire is used for fencing, being tied to corn stalks and further supported by posts or stakes where neces- sary. According to the Minnesota Station,* pigs weighing 125 lbs. at the beginning will clean up 1 acre of com in the time shown in the follow- ing table : "Minn. Bui. 104. 'Iowa Bui. 143. •Iowa Bui. 143. "Minn. Bui. 104. 590 FEEDS AND FEEDING Number of days required iy pigs to clean up 1 acre of corn Yield, 40 bu. Yield, 50 bu. Yield, 60 bu. Yield, 70 bu. per acre per acre per acre per acre Days Days Days Days When 20 pigs forage 15 19 23 26 When 40 pigs forage 8 9 11 14 When 60 pigs forage 5 6 8 9 When 80 pigs forage 4 5 6 7 Field feeding of corn is most successful when the weather is dry. It is not judicious to keep pigs in the fields after heavy rains, for they then waste com and injure the land. 943. Hominy feed. — In 5 trials at the Indiana Station, averaging 86 days. Skinner and King" compared the value of hominy feed and corn meal for fattening pigs, when fed with either wheat shorts or tankage, obtaining the results shown in the table : Hominy feed vs. corn for fattening pigs Initial Daily Feed for Feed given . weight gain 100 Iba. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Hominy feed and supplement 102 1.15 427 Lot II, Com meal and supplement 102 1 .03 495 The pigs fed hominy feed made slightly larger gains than those fed corn meal and required about 14 per ct. less feed for 100 lbs. gain. Similar results were secured by Eastwood in 2 trials at the Ohio Sta- tion." (213) 944. Barley. — In Europe barley is the most esteemed cereal for the production of high quality bacon and is important in this country as a feed for pigs in the western states. The values of barley and corn when fed with wheat middlings have been compared at 3 stations in 6 trials averaging 49 days, with the results summarized in the table : Barley vs. corn for fattening pigs Initial Daily Feed for Average ration weight gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, total of S2 pigs ' Ground barley, 3 .4 lbs. Middlings, 2.8 lbs 108 1.26 499 Lot II, total of 32 pigs * Ground com, 3 .4 lbs. Middlings, 2 .7 lbs 104 1 .34 452 ♦Average of 2 trials by Burnett (S. D. Bui. 63), 1 by Richards and Shepperd (N. D. Bui. 84), and 3 by Smith (Minn. Bui. 22). The pigs fed barley and middlings made slightly smaller gains than those fed corn and middlings, and required 10 per ct. more feed for 100 lbs. gain. (226) As barley is carbonaceous in character and is also not especially palatable to pigs, it should never be fed alone, but with palat- able protein-rich feeds. Barley kernels, being small and hard, should always be ground, or better, rolled before feeding. (920) 945. Wheat. — Commonly wheat of good quality is too high in price to feed to stock, but in some seasons, as in 1913, when unusually low in »Ind. Bui. 158. '"Ohio Bui. 268. FEEDS FOR SWINE 691 price, it may be fed with economy in place of com. In the following table are summarized the results of 3 trials, averaging 110 days, with a total of 46 pigs, in which ground wheat and ground corn were compared when fed with tankage, and of 8 trials, averaging 99 days, with a total of 76 pigs, in which either ground wheat or ground corn was fed alone to fattening pigs: Wheat vs. corn for fattening pigs Initial Daily Feed for Average ration weight gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Wheal vs. com, fed with tankage ' Lot I, Ground wheat, 6.2 lbs. Tankage, 0.64 lb 104 1.64 440 Lot II, Ground com, 5 . 6 lbs. Tankage, . 58 lb ... . 98 1 .37 454 Wheat vs. com, fed alone f Lot I, Ground wheat, 6 .3 lbs 143 1 .35 472 Lo<77, Ground com, 6.1 lbs 140 1.23 510 * Av. of 1 trial by Eastwood (Ohio Bui. 268) and 2 by Weaver (Mo. BiU. 136). t Av. of 1 trial by Chiloott (S. D. Bui. 38), 1 by Georgeson, Otia, and Burtis (Kan. Bui. S3), 1 by Good (Ky. Bui. 175), 2 by Weaver (Mo. Bui. 136), 1 at the Ohio Station (Kpt. Kansas Bd. Agr. 1894), and 2 by the senior author (Wis. Rpts. 1894, 1895). Both when fed with tankage and when fed alone, good (juality wheat produced slightly larger gains than did com. The pigs fed wheat and tankage requireci 3 per ct. and those fed wheat alone 7 per ct. less feed per 100 lbs. gain than the corn-fed pigs. In trials at the Missouri Sta- tion,^^ "Weaver found no appreciable advantage from mixing wheat and corn, either when these grains were fed alone or when fed with tankage. As wheat, like corn, is low in protein, it should always be fed with some nitrogenous supplement. (215) Wheat should be ground, or preferably rolled, for swine. At the Ore- gon Station^^ Withycombe found that grinding wheat to a meal saved 16 per ct., and crushing or rolling 22 per ct., over the whole grain. Bliss and Lee at the Nebraska Station^^ found soaked ground wheat worth 13 to 25 per ct. more than soaked whole wheat. At the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation,** Snyder found that compared with whole wheat ted dry the value was increased 1 per ct. by soaking, 16 per ct. by grinding, and 19 per ct. by both grinding and soaking. As it tends to form a sticky mass in the pig's mouth it may be advisable to feed ground wheat in the form of a thin slop. (923) Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms*^ found that from 360 lbs. to 400 lbs. of frozen wheat were required to produce 100 lbs. of gain with fattening pigs — a most favorable showing for such grain. At the Ontario Agricultural College, Day*° found frozen wheat fully equal to good quality barley when fed with wheat middlings. 946. Oats. — ^At the Wisconsin Station*^ the senior author fed whole and ground oats with corn meal to 115-lb. pigs for 60 days with the following results : "Mo. Bui. 136. "Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1908. "Ore. Bui. 80. "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1908. "Nebr. Bui. 144. "Wis. Rpt. 1889. "Nebr. Buls. 144, 147. 592 FEEDS AND FEEDING Whole oats compared with ground oats Average Daily Feed for Feed ration gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, ^ whole oata, 1^ com meal 3.8 0.68 564 Lot II, J^ whole cats, % com meal 4.0 0.82 492 Lot 7/7, ?^ ground oats, >i com meal 4.4 1.03 429 7,ot 7F, Jl ground oats, ?| com meal 5.1 1.27 402 The pigs getting whole oats ate less feed and gave poorer returns than those fed ground oats. The best returns were with a ration of one-third ground oats and two-thirds ground com. Owing to their bulkiness, oats should not be fed as the sole grain to fattening pigs. From trials at the Ohio Station^^ Eastwood concludes that, while oats may be used satis- factorily during the first part of the fattening period when low in price, the proportion of oats in the ration should gradually be decreased and they should be omitted entirely during the last 4 or 5 weeks. Grisdale of the Ottawa Experimental Farms^' found that pigs fed soaked shelled corn and skim milk made 49 per ct. greater gains than those fed soaked whole oats and skim milk — a good example of the great waste which follows the wrong combination of feeding stuffs. Oats and corn, or skim milk and com, are proper combinations, while oats and skim milk are not. Again, oats must be ground if they are to be fed in quantity to swine, especially when the pigs are JJ^oung. For pigs while still quite small there is nothing more helpful thsii ground oats with the hulls sieved out. For breeding stock and for shotes not being fattened, there is no more useful feed than whole oats, fed by scattering thinly on the groxmd or on a feeding floor. (223) 947. Emmer. — In a trial at the Nebraska Station^" lasting 94 days, Bur- nett and Snyder compared emmer meal with corn and barley meal as a feed for fattening pigs. In a second trial lasting 42 days, an allowance of half emmer and half corn meal was fed against one of corn meal only. In both trials alfalfa hay was fed to the pigs in addition to the meal : Emmer meal compared with corn and iarley meal for pigs Av. wt. at Av. daily Grain for Daily grain allowance beginning gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. First tfioil Lot 7, Com meal, 4.8 lbs 82 1.02 470 Lot 77, Barley meal, 4.8 lbs 80 0.81 590 Loi 777, Emmer meal, 4 .8 lbs 81 0.77 618 Second trial Lot 7, Com meal, 7.2 lbs 160 1.53 470 Lot II, Com meal and emmer, 6 .6 lbs 146 1 .35 482 In the first trial it required 148 lbs., or 31 per ct., more emmer meal than com meal, and 5 per ct. more emmer meal than barley meal, to produce 100 lbs. of gain. In the second trial emmer meal combined with corn meal proved nearly equal to corn meal alone. For swine emmer should always be ground and fed with other feeds. (238) ""Ohio Bui. 268. "Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 51. "Nebr. Bui. 99. FEEDS FOR SWINE 593 &48. Rye. — Extensive trials by the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station^^ showed that rye meal ranks a little below corn meal and about equal to barley meal as a feed for swine. The pork from rye-fed pigs was satis- factory, especially when the ground rye was fed with other grains, milk, or whey. Rye shorts and middlings had a lower feeding value than rye meal and produced a poorer quality of pork. In 1 trial pigs fed rye meal became sick. Snyder found at the North Platte, Nebraska, Substation^^ that 8.6 per ct. more soaked whole rye than soaked whole wheat was required for 100 lbs. gain. (232) Coburn^* recommends feeding ground rye as a thin slop, since dry rye meal forms a sticky paste in the pig's throat on which he is liable to choke. (920, 923) Rye may be hogged down when mature by pigs ; but there is more waste than in hogging down corn. 949. The grain sorghums. — Thruout the western plains states the seed of the grain sorghums is becoming of great importance for pork produc- tion. (235-40) These grains are similar in composition to corn, and hence should not be fed alone, but always with other feeds rich in protein, such as skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, linseed meal, or alfalfa hay. As the seeds are small and hard the grain should be ground. Where this is not possible, it is best to feed the sorghum on the head rather than the threshed grain. This is shown in a trial by Cochel at the Kansas Station^* in which lots, each of ten 140-lb. pigs, were fed the allowances of kafir shown in the table with 2.3 lbs. of wheat shorts and 0.4 lb. tankage per head daily for 74 days. In addition all lots had access to alfalfa hay. Preparation of kafir for pigs ConcentrateB Feed cost Duly for 100 lbs. of 100 lbs. Average allowance of kafii gain gain gain Lbs. Lbs, Dollars Lot 7, Ground kafir, 4.9 lbs 1.40 534 6.29 Lot 77, Whole kafir, 5 .6 lbs 1.15 718 7.94 Lo«777, Kafir heads, 6.2 lbs 1.28 690 6.13 Lot I, fed ground kafir, made considerably larger gains than Lot II, fed whole kafir. Tho the gains of Lot III, fed kafir in the heads, were slightly smaller than of Lot I, with head kafir at $14, whole kafir at $20, and ground kafir at $22 per ton, they made the cheapest gains. (920) 950. Kafir, mile, and sorgho vs. com. — To determine the relative value of kafir, milo, and sorgho, compared with corn, Waters, Kinzer, Wright, and King^° fed 10 lots of ten 125-lb. pigs, which had been grown during the summer on alfalfa pasture and a limited amount of grain, and carried thru the fall on alfalfa hay with a little grain, the following rations at the Kansas Station : » Copenhagen (Denmark) Rpts. 1887, 1890. i^Nebr. Bui. 147. =" Swine in America, p. 347. "Kansas Industrialist, May 1, 1915. »Kan. Bui. 192. 594 FEEDS AND FEEDING Kafir, milo, and sorgho vs. corn for pigs Feed for 100 lbs. gain Initial Daily Conoen- Average ration weight gain tratea Hoy Lbs. Lbs. Lba. Lbs. With alfalfa hay, fed 80 days Lot I Ground com, 6.6 lbs. Alfalfa hay, 0.6 lb. . . 124 1.6 432 39 Lot II Ground mUo, 6 .2 lbs. Alfalfa hay, .9 lb.. . . 125 1.2 510 74 Lot III Ground kafir, 7.3 lbs. Alfalfa hay, .9 lb ... 124 1 .3 520 67 Lot IV Ground sorgho, 5 .7 lbs. Alfalfa hay, .9 lb ... 126 0.9 650 103 With shorts and tankage, fed 60 days Lot V Ground corn, 4.6 lbs. Shorts, 2 .2 lbs. Tankage, 0.6 lb 125 2.0 370 Lot VI Ground milo, 4 .2 lbs. Shorts, 2.0 lbs. Tankage, 0.5 lb. ... 124 1.7 390 Lot VII Ground kafir, 4.6 lbs. Shorts, 2 .2 lbs. Tankage, .6 lb 125 1.8 390 Lot VIII Ground sorgho, 4.6 lbs. Shorts, 2 .2 lbs. Tankage, .6 lb 125 1.7 440 ... In both trials corn produced slightly the largest gains and with less feed for 100 lbs. of gain. The difference between corn and kafir or milo was more marked when fed with alfalfa hay. When sorgho was fed con- siderably more feed was required for 100 lbs. gain than with kafir or milo. On account of its lack of palatability sorgho grain is not particu- larly desirable as a hog feed. (241) 951. Grain sorghums compared. — ^At the Kansas Station^" Cochel fed 5 lots, each of ten 140-lb. pigs, the allowances of grain shown in the table for 74 days to compare the value of kafir, milo, feterita, kaoliang, and com. In addition the pigs in each lot were fed 2.3 lbs. of wheat shorts and 0.4 lb. of tankage per head daily and had access to alfalfa hay. Grain sorghums compared with corn for fattening pigs Daily Concentrates for Average allowance of grain gain 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Ground kafir, 4.9 lbs 1.40 534 Lot II, Ground milo, 4 .9 lbs 1 .43 523 Lot III, Ground feterita, 4 .9 lbs 1 .36 549 Lot IV, Ground kaoliang, 4 .9 lbs 1 .31 572 LotV, Ground com, 4. 9 lbs 1.46 514 Both kafir and milo produced practically as large gains as corn, and with kafir only 4 per ct. and with milo but 2 per ct. more concentrates were required for 100 lbs. gain than with com. Feterita and kaoliang were slightly lower in value than kafir and milo, tho producing satis- factory gains. In a trial by Wilson at the South Dakota Station,"' when "Kansas Industrialist, May 1, 1915. "S. D. Bui. 157. FEEDS FOR SWINE 595 fed with alfalfa hay 27 per ct. more kaoliang was required for 100 lbs. gain than com. From these and other trials we may conclude that when ground and fed with feeds rich in protein, the value of milo or kafir is but 2 to 8 per ct. below that of corn, while the other grain sorghums are somewhat less valuable than kafir or milo. 952. Millet.— Wilson and Skinner of the South Dakota Station"* fed hog, or broom-corn, millet meal against barley and wheat meal to lots of 2 pigs each for 84 days with the results shown in the table : Millet meal compared with wheat and barley meal Daily gain per head Feed for 100 Av. wt. at 1st period, 2d period, lbs. gain, Average ration beginning 56 days 28 days both periods Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. LotI, MiUet meal, 6 .8 lbs 116 1.32 0.76 595 Lot II, Barley meal, 6.2 lbs 125 1.34 1.07 495 Lo<7//, Wheat meal, 8.2 lbs 168 1.75 1.51 487 For the first 8 weeks the pigs fed millet meal gave substantially as good returns as those fed barley meal, but during the next 4 weeks they made poorer gains. Combining both periods, it required about 20 per ct. more millet than barley to produce a given gain. Millet meal should never be fed alone, but always in combination with some other grain, such as corn or barley, or, better, with some protein-rich concentrate, such as soybeans, linseed meal, heavy wheat middlings, alfalfa hay, etc. It is not so useful for fattening hogs in cold weather as wheat or barley, and produces a softer pork than those grains. (243) 953. Buckwheat. — In a 77-day trial by Robertson at the Ottawa Sta- tion,''® in which 100-lb. pigs were fed either ground buckwheat or ground wheat soaked 30 hours before feeding, the pigs fed buckwheat gained 1.2 lbs. per head daily, compared with 0.8 lb. for those fed wheat. However, for 100 lbs. gain the pigs required over 8 per ct. more buckwheat than corn. In another trial R. Robertson of the Nappan, Nova Scotia, Ex- perimental Farm^° found that buckwheat, fed with skim milk to 85-lb. pigs, was a little lower in feeding value than the same weight of wheat middlings. Grisdale of the Ottawa Station'* states that buckwheat pro- duces a poor quality of bacon. (244) 954. Pigeon-grass seed. — ^Western grain elevators screen great quan- tities of pigeon-grass seed from wheat. At the Wisconsin Station^" the senior author tested its value as a food for swine. Since the pigs refused to eat any large quantity of the raw pigeon-grass seed meal, it was cooked, after which treatment it was readily consumed. A ration containing 2 parts cooked pigeon-grass seed meal and 1 part corn meal was found to be fuUy equal to one of corn meal for fattening pigs. A lot fed 1 part raw pigeon-grass seed meal and 2 parts corn meal gave poorer "S. D. Bui. 83. "^ Ottawa Expt. Farms, Bui. 51. "Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1894. ''Wis. Rpt. 1894. "Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1901. 596 FEEDS AND FEEDING returns, tho still justifying the use of this weed seed when it can be had at low cost or would otherwise be wasted. To be satisfactory for pigs, pigeon-grass seed should be both ground and cooked. 956. Lamb's quarter or pig weed. — ^Lamb's quarter, Chenopodium al- hum, is a common weed in the wheat fields of Manitoba and the North West. In a trial at the Manitoba Experimental Farms'* 100 lbs. of lamb's quarter seed screened from wheat was found to be equal to 60 lbs. of mixed grain when constituting one-fifth of the ration for pigs. 956. Garbage. — Garbage, or household waste, may be fed to swine, but care must be taken that dishwater containing lye or washing soda, broken dishes, etc., which are apt to cause death, be kept apart from the ma- terials having food value.** As there is likewise danger of poisons result- ing from the decay of the garbage, the material should be thoroly cooked in all doubtful cases. Minkler'^ reports that in New Jersey, especially in the vicinity of Se- caucus, thousands of pigs are fattened on garbage collected from New York and other cities. In some instances the garbage is fed without sorting or any treatment except partial drying. At other plants the grease is extracted and skimmed off in rendering vats, and the residue carefully sorted. In some cases it is run thru steam digesters, concen- trated, and put on the market as garbage tankage, which is used chiefiy as a fertilizer. In other cases, the residue remaining after the grease is removed is thinned with water, elevated to storage tanks, and from thence carried by troughs to feeding pens. Here pigs are fed garbage, swill, and stale bread as the sole ration. Large gains are not secured, but all the income from the pigs is often profit, the grease paying for the expense of collecting and treating the garbage and for all labor. In a trial with 200-lb. pigs, Minkler secured satisfactory gains with such mixtures as corn meal 4 parts, molasses 2 parts, and garbage tank- age 9 parts; corn meal 4 parts, skim milk 18 parts, and garbage tank- age 9 parts; and corn meal 4 parts, molasses 2 parts, skim milk 18 parts, and garbage tankage 9 parts. The garbage tankage was of about the same consistency as molasses. At first the pigs refused any feed con- taining the garbage tankage, but were gradually accustomed to it. The flesh of the pigs fed garbage tankage was firm and of good color. II. NiTEOGENOUS CONCENTRATES 957. Dairy by-products. — Skim milk and buttermilk are ideal feeds for swine, especially growing pigs and brood sows. Rich in digestible pro- tein and carrying much mineral matter, they should never be fed alone but always in combination with such starchy feeds as corn, barley, wheat, kafir, milo, emmer, and millet. This combination stands unexcelled for producing economical growth and for fattening. Indeed, where skim milk or buttermilk is used as a supplement to com or other cereals, "Ottawa Expt. Farms, Rpt. 1902. "N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 141. "N. J. Clr. 40. FEEDS FOR SWINE 597 the gains will usually be slightly larger than with any other supplement. (118) For example, Skinner and CocheP" obtained the following results in a 60-day trial with 114-lb. pigs in which skim milk, tankage, wheat middlings, linseed meal, and soybean meal were fed as supplements to corn meal, about the same amount of protein being fed each lot : Skim milk compared with other nitrogenous supplements for pigs Daily Feed for 100 Iba. gain Average ration gain Corn Supplement Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Skim milk, 9 .0 lbs. Com, 6.0 lbs 2.02 297 445 Lot II, Tankage, .44 lb. Corn, 6.6 lbs 1.83 359 24 Lo< 7/7, Middlings, 3 .6 lbs. Corn, 3.6 lbs 1.97 181 180 Lot IV, Linseed meal, .73 lb. Corn, 5 .8 lbs 1 .75 333 42 LotV, Soybean meal, 0.841b. Corn, 5.8 lbs 1.82 321 46 Large and economical gains were made by all lots, but skim milk slightly excelled the other supplements. Dairy by-products are so use- ful for pigs that the breeder of pure-bred swine should in many cases keep a dairy in order to have the by-products for the sows and their young. (266-8) It has been emphasized before that skim milk, buttermilk, or whey should always be pasteurized at the creamery or cheese factory before being returned to the farm, in order to prevent the spread of tuber- culosis and other diseases. Swine are especially susceptible to tuber- culosis and may contract the disease not only from infected milk, but, as Kennedy and Dinsmore found at the Iowa Station,^^ by following tuberculous cattle to work over the droppings. (269) 958. Skim milk. — That skim milk should not be fed alone is shown in an 86-day trial by Beach and Garrigus at the Connecticut (Storrs) Sta- tion.^' Pigs averaging 25 lbs. in weight, fed skim milk alone, gained only 0.72 lb. per head daily and required 2,739 lbs. of milk for 100 lbs. of gain. Others which were fed 3.2 lbs. of grain and 12.9 lbs. of skim milk per head daily gained 1.38 lbs. and required only 233 lbs. grain and 935 lbs. skim milk for 100 lbs. gain.. The value of skim milk when fed with corn or the other cereals has been determined at several stations. The following table summarizes the results secured in some of these trials : Grain value of skim milk for pigs Milk required to equal 100 lbs. of grain Lbs. Fjord, Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1887 600 Grisdale, Ottawa (Canada) Expt. Farms, Bui. 33 604 Linfield, Utah Bui. 94 , 495 Soule and Fain, Tenn., Bui. Vol. XVI, No. 3 476 The senior author, Wis. Rpt. 1895 475 "Ind. Bui. 137. "Iowa Bui. 107. "Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 39. 5^ FEEDS AND FEEDING It is shown that when properly combined with concentrates, from 475 to 600 lbs. of separator skim milk has a feeding value equal to 100 lbs. of com or other grain. Clinton of the New York (Cornell) Station^" recommends that, in starting pigs on a ration containing a large quantity of skim milk, care be exercised lest at first the pigs be overfed. Cooke of the Vermont Station*" found that pigs fed sour skim milk were more thrifty than those getting sweet skim milk. According to Day*^ sweet milk is better for very young pigs. (266) 959. Proper proportion of skim milk to grain. — To determine the proper proportion of skim milk to feed with meal to pigs, the senior author con- ducted 19 feeding trials at the Wisconsin Station*^ in which a total of 88 pigs, usually weighing 100 lbs. or over, were fed varying amounts of skim milk with corn meal. In the following table the results are arranged in groups according to the amount of skim milk fed per pound of corn meal. The last column shows the amount of skim milk required to save 100 lbs. of corn meal, assuming that 500 lbs. of com meal fed alone would have produced 100 lbs. of gain. Skim milk and corn meal required for 100 lbs. of gain hy pigs Feed for 100 lbs. gain Milk to replace Proportion of milk to corn meal Com Milk 100 lbs. com Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1 lb. com meal with 1 to 3 lbs. milk 321 585 327 1 lb. com meal with 3 to 5 lbs. milk 265 1,048 446 1 lb. com meal with 5 to 7 lbs. milk 250 1,434 574 lib. com meal with 7 to 9 lbs. milk 207 1,616 552 The table brings out plainly the important fact that skim milk has the highest value when not over 3 lbs. of milk are fed with each pound, of com meal to pigs weighing 100 lbs. or over. The nutritive ratio of a ration of 1 part com and 3 parts skim milk is 1 : 5.2, which is slightly too wide for pigs just after weaning. For pigs of this age 4 or 6 parts of skim milk to 1 part of com should be ample. Larger allowances of skim milk may be fed than here stated with entirely satisfactory gains when a surplus is at hand, but the milk will not then have as high a value as when only sufficient is given to balance the ration properly. 960. Money value of skim milk. — The feeder desirous of knowing the money value of skim milk compared with com at varying prices wiU gain help from the following table, derived from the previous study : Money valice of 100 lbs. of skim milk When 1 lb. of com meal is fed With 1 to 3 With 7 to 9 Average lbs. of milk lbs. of milk of all trials Cents Cents Cents Com at $16 per ton or 44 .8 cents per bushel 24 15 17 Com at $18 per ton or 50 .4 cents per bushel 28 16 19 Com at $20 per ton or 56 .0 cents per bushel 31 18 21 Com at $30 per ton or 84 .0 cents per bushel 46 27 32 »N. Y. (Cornell) Bui. 199. "Productive Swine Husbandry, p. 210. "Vt. RDt. 1891. "Wis. Rpt. 1895. FEEDS FOR SWINE 599 The table shows that when com is worth $16 per ton, or 44.8 cents per bu. of 56 lbs., separator skim milk has a value of 24 cents per 100 lbs., provided not over 3 lbs. of sMm milk is fed with each pound of com. Should the feeder give as much as 7 to 9 lbs. of skim milk with each pound of com, then the milk is worth but 15 cents per 100 lbs. The above measures in a general way the value of skim milk when combined with com for fattening pigs. Those familiar with this feed- ing stuff and its worth for bone and muscle building know that in many cases, especially for young pigs and brood sows, its value is much higher than stated. A rule by Hoard for finding the money value of skim milk when fed to fattening pigs is in substance : To find the value of 100 lbs. of skim milk when fed alone, multiply the market price of live hogs in cents per pound by 5; if fed in combination with com or barley, multiply by 6. According to this rule, when live hogs are worth 5 cents per pound, each 100 lbs. of milk is worth 25 cents when fed alone, and 30 cents when fed with com or barley meal. The Gurler rule proposed many years ago is : The value of 100 lbs. of skim milk when fed along with com to fattenii^ hogs is half the market price of com per bushel. By this rule, when com is worth 50 cents per bushel, skim milk is worth 25 cents per 100 lbs. for fattening hogs, if combined with corn or some other suitable grain. 961. Whole milk. — On account of the high values of butter fat for human food it is not profitable to feed whole milk to pigs. Scheven*^ found that when whole cow's milk was fed to 12-weeks-old pigs, from 900 to 1,620 lbs. was required to produce 100 lbs. of gain, the average being 1,253 lbs. Linfield concludes from a trial at the Utah Station** that whole milk is worth only about twice as much as skim milk for pigs. This shows that ordinarily one cannot afford to feed whole cow's milk to pigs. (265) Beach of the Connecticut (Storrs) Station*" has shown that cow's milk rich in fat is far from satisfactory as a feed for young pigs. (117) 962. Buttermilk. — The value of buttermilk and skim milk ias been compared by Goessmann in a 125-day trial at the Massachusetts Station** and by Wilson in two 62-day trials at the South Dakota Station*^ with the results shown in the table : Buttermilk vs. skim milk for pigs Initial Daily Feed for 100 lbs, gain Average ration weight gain Com MilV Lbs. Lbs. Lba. Lbs. Lot I, Buttermilk, 17. libs. Com, 4.1 lbs. . . 77 1.67 249 1,026 Lot II, Skim milk, 17 .2 lbs. Com, 4 .0 lbs . . . 77 1 .67 246 1,036 "Martiny, Die Milch. «Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 31. "S. D. Bui. 136. "Utah Bui. 94. "Mass, Rpt. 1884. 600 FEEDS AND FEEDING The pigs in Lot I, fed buttermilk and corn, made just as large and economical gains as those in Lot II, fed skim milk and corn. These trials support the general experience that where no water has been added buttermilk is fully equal to sMm milk for pig feeding. (267) 963. Whey In pig-feeding trials by Day at the Ontario Agricul- tural College** and by the senior author at the "Wisconsin Station*" whey fed in combination with meal of the mixed grains gave the following returns : 481 lbs. of mixed grain when fed alone produced 100 lbs. of gain. 303 lbs. of mixed grain with 1,398 lbs. of whey produced 100 lbs. gain. Since 1,398 lbs. of whey saved 178 lbs. of grain, 785 lbs. of whey was equal to 100 lbs. of grain. The whey used in the Wisconsin trials was richer in fat than the average. Fjord of the Copenhagen (Denmark) Station^" estimates that for swine feeding in Denmark, where the whey is poorer than with us, 1,200 lbs. is equal to 100 lbs. of mixed grain. From the above we may conclude that, when properly combined with corn and barley meal, 1,000 lbs. of ordinary whey is worth 100 lbs. of corn meal for fattening swine. Accordingly, whey is worth about half as much as skim milk for pig feeding. As whey contains only a fair aonount of protein", it should be fed along with some protein-rich con- centrate, like tankage, wheat middlings, or linseed meal. Day,^^ states that the first slight fermentation which whey undergoes does not seriously detract from its value for pig feeding. Day^^ further found that ordinary whey was worth from 25 to 30 per ct. more than separated whey. (268) 964. Tankage; meat meal. — The value of tankage or meat meal as a supplement to corn or other carbonaceous concentrates has been demon- strated in trials at many stations and by experience on many farms. Rich in protein which is well-balanced in composition (118) and like- wise high in calcium and phosphorus, tankage is excelled only by skim milk or buttermilk in producing thrifty growth and large gains. Since tankage or meat meal for stock feeding is thoroly cooked under pressure at a high temperature, there is no danger of spreading disease by its use. (270) To illustrate the value of tankage as shown in the trials at the various stations there are given in the following table the results of 2 trials of 127 and 100 days, respectively, in which various proportions of tankage were fed as supplements to corn, and 1 trial of 56 days in which different amounts of tankage were used as supplements to corn for pigs running on alfalfa pasture : « Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1896. "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1897. "Wis. Rpt. 1891. "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1909. "Copenhagen' (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1887. FEEDS FOR SWINE 601 Tankage or meat meal as supplement to corn Supple- Feed for ment Initial Daily 100 lbs. Average ration fed weight gain gain Per ct. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Indiana Station, 12 pigs, fed 1S7 dayt * Lot I, Com meal, 3 .5 lbs 64 0.7 520 Lot II, Tankage, 0.41b. Com meal, 3 .9 lbs 9 66 1.2 370 Lot///, Tankage, 0.71b. Com meal, 3 .9 lbs 17 65 1.2 378 Iowa Station, 48 pigs, Jed 100 days t Lot I, Com meal, 6 .5 lbs 135 1.2 557 Lot II, Meat meal, 0.81b. Com meal, 7.6 lbs.. . 9 137 1.9 451 Lot ///, Meat meal, .9 lb. Com meal, 7.3 lbs.. . 11 140 1.7 457. Lot IV, Meat meal, 1 .0 lb. Com meal, 6 .7 lbs. . . 13 136 1.8 436 Nebraska Station, SO pigs, fed B6 days % Lot I, Soaked com, 5 .2 lbs 145 1.3 416 Lot II, Tankage, 0.31b. Soaked com, 5.3 lbs. . . 5 144 1.5 371 Lot///, Tankage, 0.61b. Soaked com, 5.0 lbs. . . 10 144 1.5 366 *Flumb and TanNorman (Ind. BuL 90). fKennedy and Bobbins (Iowa BuL 91). tBurnett (Nebr. BuL 94). In the Indiana trial the ration containing 9 per ct. tankage produced slightly more economical gains than the one containing 17 per ct. In this trial 100 lbs. of tankage, when forming 9 per ct. of the ration, replaced 555 lbs. of corn. In the Iowa trial, with older pigs, the ration containing 9 per ct. meat meal produced the largest gains, 100 lbs. of the meat meal replacing 359 lbs. of com. In the Nebraska trial, with pigs on alfalfa pasture, 5 per ct. of tankage produced as large gains as 10 per ct., due to the fact that the protein-rich alfalfa largely balanced the corn allowance. From these and other trials we may conclude that when high grade tankage, carrying 55 per ct. of protein or over, is fed as the sole supplement to corn to pigs over 100 lbs. in weight, not over 9 to 10 per ct. is needed to balance the ration. With mature pigs the proportion of tankage may be reduced even lower. With young pigs soon after weaning it is advisable to feed as high as 20 per ct. of tank- age, or better, feed 9 to 10 per ct. of tankage and add sufScient lin- seed meal, wheat middlings, etc., to .provide the proper amount of pro- tein for animals of this age. (Appendix Table V) Where a lower grade of tankage is fed the amount supplied should be correspondingly in- creased. For pigs fed corn on such protein-rich pasture as alfalfa, clover, soybean, cowpea, or rape, 5 per ct. of high grade tankage is usually sufficient to balance the ration. (985) 965. Tankage as sole supplement vs. tankage and shorts. — To determine the effectiveness of tankage as the sole supplement to com, compared with both tankage and wheat shorts, Waters, Kinzer, Wheeler, Wright, and King°* conducted 4 trials, averaging 62 days, at the Kansas Station with a total of sixty-three 145-lb. pigs, obtaining the results shown in the table: "Kan. Bui. 192. gam gain Iba. gain Lbs. Lba. Lbs. 1.6 94 381 1.5 89 394 602 FEEDS AND FEEDING Tankage alone vs. tankage and shorts as supplements to corn Daily Feed for Feed cost of Average ration gain 100 lbs. gain 100 lbs. gain* Lbs. Lbs. Dollars Lot I, Tankage, 0.701b. Com, 6.3 lbs 1.44 485 5.20 Lot II, Tankage, 0.521b. Shorts, 2 .03 lbs. Corn, 4 .9 lbs 1 .60 460 5.11 "Corn at $19, shorts at $24, and tankage at $41 to $45 per ton. In each of the 3 trials Lot II, fed both tankage and shorts to supple- ment the corn, made slightly the most rapid gains, and, with feeds at the prices stated, the cheapest gains in all but 1 of the trials. It seems probable that these results are due to the greater variety of proteins furnished when both tankage and shorts are fed as supplements to com. 966. Tankage vs. linseed meal. — ^At the Indiana Station" Skinner and Cochel, in 3 trials averaging 57 days, compared tankage and linseed meal as supplements to corn meal with a total of 43 pigs, averaging 164 lbs. in weight. Since tankage contains almost twice as much digestible crude protein as linseed meal, only half as much of the former was fed. Tankage compared with linseed meal as supplements to corn Daily Total Feed for 100 Average ration Lot I, Com, 6.0 lbs. Tankage, 0.3 lb Lot II, Com, 5 .5 lbs. Linseed meal, .6 lb 1.5 The table shows that when fed with com 0.3 lb. tankage produced slightly larger and more economical gains for feed consumed than twice as much linseed meal. 967. Tankage for pigs following corn-fed steers. — ^At the Ohio Sta- tion°° Carmichael placed one 108-lb. pig with each 2 steers fattening on a ration composed mostly of com. The corn voided by the steers was ample for the pigs, not all being consumed. Half of the pigs were each given one-third of a pound of tankage daily. The pigs on drop- pings alone gained 1 lb. each daily, and those getting tankage in addition, 1.5 lbs. For each 100 lbs. of tankage fed, the pigs made 162 lbs. of extra gain. 968. Blood meal vs. skim milk. — In experiments at the Virginia Sta- tion"*^ Quick and Spencer found blood meal and skim milk about equal in value as supplements to corn, when fed on the basis of equal pounds of protein. Blood meal at $3 per 100 lbs. was as valuable as skim milk at 25 cents per 100 lbs. It was found necessary to mix blood meal with about its own weight of wheat middlings for the pigs to relish it. Day^'' states that since blood meal is a highly concentrated feed it must be fed in small amount and with care to avoid injurious results. (271) 969. Wheat middlings, or shorts. — ^Wheat middlings, or shorts, are one of the most popular nitrogenous supplements for pigs. They are rich in protein and phosphorus, but are relatively low in calcium. Hence "Ind. Bui. 126. '"Ohio Cir. 73. "Va. Bui. 176. "Ontario Agr. Col., Rpt. 1905. FEEDS FOR SWINE 603 when middlings are used as the sole supplement to corn for pigs in dry lots, it is important to supply additional calcium iu the form of ground limestone, slaked lime, etc. (927) That it is not economical to feed mid- dlings alone to swine is shown in a trial by the senior author"* with 3 lots, each of 3 pigs, fed the following rations for 6 weeks : Wheat middUngs alone vs. middlings and corn DaUy Total Feed for Average ration gain gain 100 Iba. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. LotI, Com meal, 4.4 lbs 0.8 35 537 Lotll, Wheat middlings, 4.0 lbs 0.8 32 522 Lot III, Com meal and middlings, 3 .8 lbs 0.9 36 439 While the pigs fed either com meal or wheat middlings alone required over 500 lbs. of feed for 100 lbs. of gain, tl^ose in Lot III, fed equal parts of middlings and com, consumed only 439 lbs. of feed per 100 lbs. of gain. As has been pointed out (965), when both middlings and tank- age are fed as supplements to corn, larger gains are generally secured than with either middlings or tankage as the sole supplement. In a trial by Carroll at the Utah Station"® with 2 lots, each of 6 pigs fed 84 days, adding 1 part of tankage to the already fairly well-balanced mixture of 6 parts wheat shorts and 5 parts barley did not increase the gains sufficiently to prove profitable. Middlings are often useful for mixing with other feeds as they make a fine textured, palatable slop. (220) 970. Wheat shorts vs. tankage. — To compare the value of wheat shorts and high-grade tankage as supplements to corn. Erf and Wheeler fed 2 lots, each of ten 128-lb. pigs, the following rations for 45 days at the Kansas Station :"• Wheat shorts vs. tankage as supplements to corn Feed for 100 lbs. gain Daily _ Supple- Feed cost of Average ration gain Lbs. Lot I, Shorts, 2 .40 lbs. Com meal, 4 .79 lbs. 1 .5 Lot II, Tankage, 1 . 16 lbs. Com meal, 5 .82 lbs. 1 .6 While the pigs fed tankage made slightly the larger gains, the feed cost of 100 lbs. gain was about the same for both the lots, with com at $19, shorts at $24, and tankage at $40 per ton. 971. Red dog flour. — ^At the Virginia Station** 54-lb. pigs were fed soaked red dog flour and com meal, equal parts, for 58 days. They gained 1.3 lbs. daily, requiring but 390 lbs. of the mixture for 100 lbs. of gain, while on the same feed given dry 490 lbs. were required. The high value of red dog flour when properly fed is here shown. This feed serves its highest purpose with quite young pigs, which need a highly digestible, palatable feed, containing little fiber. (219) "Wis. Rpt. 1885. "Kan. Bui. 192. "Information to the authors. "Va. Bui. 167. Com ment 100 lbs. gain Lbs. Lbs. Dollars 319 160 4.95 364 73 4.92 604 FEEDS AND FEEDING 972. Wheat bran; wheat mixed feed. — ^Bran is too bulky a feed to be fed in any large amount to fattening pigs, for which middlings or shorts are far preferable. Where clover or alfalfa hay, roots, or other cheaper bulky feeds are not available, a limited amount of wheat bran is help- ful in adding nutriment and volume to the otherwise meager ration usually given brood sows and shotes not being fed for gain. At the Maine Station*^ Jordan found wheat middlings twice as valuable as wheat bran for fattening pigs, and at the Copenhagen (Denmark) Sta- tion" bran gave unsatisfactory results when fed alone to pigs. (218) At the Kentucky Station** Good obtained satisfactory results with a good grade of wheat mixed feed (shipstuflf) which contained all the mid- dlings, when fed with an equal weight of corn meal to fattening pigs. (221) 973. Linseed meal. — The value of this feed compared with tankage as a supplement to carbonaceous feeds has already been discussed. (966) The value of linseed meal compared with other protein-rich concen- trates is further shown in a trial by Forbes at the Missouri Station'" in which 6 lots, each of 5 pigs averagiag 93 lbs., were fed for 90 days on corn meal supplemented with the feeds shown in the table : Linseed meal compared with other nitrogenous concentrates Average Daily Feed for ^ Supplement fed with each 100 lbs. of com ration gain 100 Iba. gain Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I, Linseed meal, 20 lbs 6.4 1.4 445 Lot 77, Wheat middlings, 100 lbs 5.2 1.0 502 Lot III, Wheat middlings, 60 lbs 5 .0 1.0 518 Lot /F, Linseed meal, 10 lbs. Germ oil meal, 10 lbs. .. . 5.5 1.2 476 Lot V, Linseed meal, 10 lbs. Gluten meal, 10 lbs 5.6 1.2 483 Lot VI, Linseed meal, 10 lbs. Gluten feed, 10 lbs 5 .9 1 .3 452 Lot I, fed linseed meal as the sole supplement to corn meal, made the largest and most economical gains. The lots fed middlings and corn required from 13 to 16 per ct. more concentrates for 100 lbs. gain than those fed linseed meal and corn. When germ oil meal, gluten meal, or gluten feed was substituted for half the linseed meal, the rate of gain was lowered and the amount of grain required for 100 lbs. gain in- creased. Gluten feed proved slightly more valuable than gluten meal or germ oil meal. Forbes writes that the pork from pigs fed linseed meal was characterized by hard, white fat. As large an allowance of linseed meal as is necessary to balance a ration of corn or other cereals is often rather unpalatable to pigs. Hence many feeders prefer to feed less linseed meal and a small allowance of other supplements, such as skim milk, tankage, or middlings. A small allowance of linseed meal is often highly beneficial, especially with brood sows before farrowing, on account of its slightly laxative effect. Because of its mucilaginous nature linseed meal makes a slop of uniform, creamy consistency. (254) "Me. Rpt. 1889. "Ky. Bui. 175. "Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt. 1892. "Mo. Bui. 67. FEEDS FOR SWINE 605 974. Cottonseed meal. — As now prepared, cottonseed meal is poisonous to swine. All the various proposed ways for safely feeding this meal have failed under careful and continued tests. Pigs thrive at first on the meal, but usually in from 4 to 6 weeks some die — not all, as a rule, — but so many that all possible profits from the use of this feed are lost. A few feeders continue to use the meal, experience enabling them to avoid most of the losses. If cottonseed meal is not fed continuously for over 40 days and='°Wis. Rpt. 1890. "^Ottawa Expt Farms, Bui. 57. "^Copenhagen (Denmark) Station, Rpt 1890. "- phorie acid Folaali 33.4 32.6 26.9 49.9 60.0 25.8 44.3 55.7 5.6 28.2 6.1 5.3 58.6 5.8 1.6 131.5 77.4 83.8 62.6 31.5 63.7 53.1 Lbs. 10.1 12 '.4 9.2 3.1 7.6 10.1 ii".6 1.4 13.7 12.5 7.8 11.0 20.3 33.2 12.2 2i'.6 1.9 6.6 2.2 2.2 i'.7 1.2 4.9 140.0 Lbs. 14.9 ii'.i w'.i 10.0 10.3 '6.4 6.5 10.6 7.4 24.7 23.7 24.2 5.0 13.2 14.7 5.B 11.7 1.7 1.1 1.7 1.7 i".6 2.6 1.2 3.0 APPENDIX 667 Table IQ. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — continved. Feeding stuff ToWdrjr matter in 100 lbs. Digestible sstrienta is 100 Ibi. Crnde protein Cubo- bjdntes rat Total HntritiTe ratio illsingeonstitaeati in llOO lbs. nitro- gen PhOB- phorio acid Potash CONCENTBAXEB — COn. Slaughter house by-^oducta — con. Pork cracklings * Poultry bone * Tankage, over 60% protein * Tankage, 65-60% protein * Tankage, 45-55% protein * Tankage, below 45% protein * . . . Miscellaneous concerUrales Acorn, kernel and shell * Acorn, kernel * Beet pulp, wet * Beet pulp, dried Beet pulp, molasses- Bakery r^use * BiBad* Cassava, dried * Cassava starch refuse * Chess, or cheat seed * Cocoa shells Com, oat, and barley feed * Distillers' grains, dried, from com . Distillers' grains, dried, from rye. . Distilleia' grains, wet *.'. Distillery slop, whole * Distillery slop, strained * Lamb's-quarter seed * Molasses, beet * Molasses, cane, or blackstrap .... Molasses feeds, below 10% fiber. . . Molassesfeeds, 10-15% fiber Molasses feeds, over 15% fiber *. . . Molasses-alfalfa feeds * Molassine meal * Mustard feed or bran * Pigeon-grass seed * Pigweed seed * Potato flakes, dried * Potato flour * Starch feed, dry * Starch feed, wet * Starch refuse * Dried RouaHAGB Cured com and sorghum forage, ete. Com fodder (ears, if any, remain- ing), very dry, from bam or in aM districts Com fodder, medium in water . . Com fodder, high in water Sweet com fodder Com stover (ears removed), very dry Lba. 95.0 92.7 92.6 92.5 92.5 93.5 72.1 65.6 9.3 91.8 92.4 91.7 66.2 94.4 88.0 92.3 95.1 90.3 93.4 92.8 22.6 6.2 4.1 90.2 74.7 74.2 88.4 88.3 90.7 86.5 83.4 94.3 89.3 93.7 87.9 89.4 90.7 33.4 89.7 91.0 81.7 60.7 87.7 90.6 Lbs. 52.4 22.6 58.7 54.0 48.1 37.6 2.3 2.9 0.5 4.6 5.9 8.3 5.8 1.4 0.5 6.2 1.7 9.1 22.4 13.6 3.3 1.4 1.0 10.2 1.1 1.0 8.2 7.4 8.4 8.5 5.4 22.8 8.5 10.8 3.6 1.4 11.2 4.1 4.6 3.5 3.0 2.2 5.9 2.2 Lbs. 36.2 27.3 6.5 65.2 68.0 60.8 51.9 77.4 56.4 60.6 44.8 59.9 40.4 38.0 13.3 2.8 1.4 40.6 59.4 58.2 47.2 47.7 45.5 41.0 50.3 28.7 45.4 43.8 67.2 73.9 55.0 20.0 66.1 51.7 47.3 35.5 47.6 47.8 Lbs. 32.6 3.0 12.6 12.7 13.7 16.7 3.8 4.7 0.2 0.8 0.6 7.0 0.5 0.2 0.6 1.5 3.0 4.0 11.6 6.6 1.6 0.6 0.7 6.9 6.0 4.2 2.8 0.5 0.8 10.2 4.3 6.0 0.2 0.4 6.6 3.1 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.3 1.0 Lbs. 125.8 29.4 87.0 82.6 78.9 75.2 47.1 40.8 7.4 71.6 75.3 84.9 58.8 79.2 58.3 70.2 53.3 78.0 88.9 66.4 20.0 6.6 4.0 66.3 60-.5 59.2 66.6 64.5 60.2 50.6 57.5 74.5 63.6 68.1 71.2 76.2 81.0 31.1 73.6 58.6 53.7 39.9 56.4 52.2 1: 1.4 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.6 1.0 19.5 13.1 13.8 14.6 11.8 9.2 9.1 55.6 115.6 10.3 30.4 7.6 3.0 3.9 5.1 3.0 3.0 5.5 54.0 58.2 7.1 7.7 6.2 5.0 9.6 2.3 6.5 5.3 18.8 53.4 6.2 6.6 15.0 15.7 16.9 17.1 8.6 22.7 Lbs. 90.2 38.9 101.0 93.0 82.7 64.6 6.4 6.7 1.4 14.2 15.2 17.9 12.6 4.5 1.3 16.8 24.6 18.2 49.1 37.0 7.2 3.0 2.2 22.6 5.6 5.0 21.4 19.5 21.9 19.2 14.1 50.7 23.0 24.0 11.4 4.3 24.6 9.0 10.1 12.5 10.7 7.7 14.7 9.4 Lbs. 6.1 55.8 101.5 135.7 0.4 2.4 1.5 2.0 6.6 13.4 6.8 8.3 1.6 1.3 6.5 2.4 8.4 8.4 2.2 0.8 2.9 3.7 3.3 2.5 4.0 4.5 Lbs. 6.6 0.7 3.8 18.1 1.2 2.8 26.6 1.7 2.4 0.4 0.7 56.3 31.6 20.6 20.6 0.7 0.2 1.5 9.9 8.9 6.6 11.8 12.9 658 FEEDS AND FEEDING Table III. Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents — continued. Feeding stif Total dry matter in 100 lbs. Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. Grade protein Gurbo- hjdr&tes M Total NntritiTe ratio Fertilizing oonstitnents in 1000 lbs. Hitr»- gen PboE- phorio acid Potash Dried Rotjghaqe — con. Cured corn and sorghum forage, etc. — con. Com stover, medium in water Com stover, high in water Com leaves Com husks Com tops New com product K^fir fodder, dry Kafir fodder, high in water Kafir stover, diy Kafir stover, high in water Milo fodder, dry Milo fodder, high in water Milo stover, hi^ in water * Sorghum fodder, dry Sorghum fodder, high in water. . . Sorghiun bagasse, dried Durra fodder * Broom-corn fodder * Japanese cane fodder * Sugar-cane bagasse * Hay from the grasses, etc. Bent grass, Canada, or blue joint * Bermuda grass Black grass Bluegrass, Canada Bluegrass, Kentucky, all analyses.. Bluegrass, Kentucky, in milk Bluegrass, Kentuc^, ripe Bluegrass, native western * Brome grass, smooth Bluestem grasses * Buffalo grass Bunch grasses, miscellaneous. . . . . Carpet grass * Chess, or cheat Crab grass Crow-foot grass * Fescue, meadow Fescues, native * Fowl meadow grass * Foxtails, miscellaneous * Gama grass * Grama grasses * Hair grasses, miscellaneous * Johnson grass Millet, barnyard Mfllet, common, or Hungarian. . . Millet, German * Millet, hog, or broom-com * Millet, pearl, or cat-tail Lba. 81.0 59.0 76.6 75.3 82.1 90.8 91.0 71.7 83.7 72.7 88.9 60.9 64.5 90.3 62.6 88.7 89.9 90.6 93.2 89.8 93.3 90.3 89.7 89.3 86.8 87.6 76.3 91.9 91.5 93.1 93.0 93.0 92.1 91.6 90.5 90.5 88.3 95.1 88.9 93.2 88.2 93.4 93.4 89.9 86.5 85.7 91.3 90.7 87.2 Lbs. 2.1 1.4 3.2 0.6 3.1 3.8 4.1 3.0 1.7 1.3 1.9 0.6 0.4 2.8 1.5 0.5 1.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 4.6 3.7 4.4 2.8 4.7 4.8 3.5 6.4 5.0 2.4 3.8 1.2 3.1 3.0 3.5 3.8 3.5 4.6 6.1 5.6 3.4 3.2 4.2 2.9 5.1 5.0 4.8 5.3 4.2 Lb3. Lbs. 42.4 0.7 31.1 0.6 40.1 1.1 47.3 0.3 45.5 1.1 49.8 2.3 45.0 1.7 38.2 1.6 43.1 1.3 37.8 1.0 36.3 2.8 29.8 1.4 31.3 0.5 44.8 2.0 32.9 1.8 52.3 0.6 43.6 1.8 44.6 1.1 55.0 1.2 47.6 3.3 44.6 1.3 37.9 0.8 39.4 1.1 48.5 0.9 43.5 1.5 44.1 1.5 38.3 1.6 44.0 1.6 44.2 0.9 44.6 0.8 43.9 0.8 37.9 0.7 44.6 1.0 35.5 0.7 40.0 1.0 40.0 0.9 45.2 1.1 48.9 1.1 43.0 1.4 48.0 1.7 40.5 0.8 41.9 0.7 41.9 0.9 45.0 1.0 40.5 0.8 46.0 1.8 49.7 1.7 49.5 1.6 43.8 0.8 Lba. 46.1 33.9 45.8 48.6 51.1 58.8 52.9 44.8 47.7 41.3 44.5 33.6 32.8 52.1 38.4 54.2 48.6 47.7 58.2 55.5 52.1 43.4 46.3 53.3 51.6 52.3 45.4 54.0 51.2 48.8 49.5 40.7 49.9 40.1 45.7 45.8 51.2 56.0 52.3 57.4 45.7 21.0 23.2 13.3 80.0 15.5 14.5 11.9 13.9 27.1 30.8 22.4 55.0 81.0 17.6 24.6 107.4 47.6 78.6 115.4 110.0 10.3 10.7 9.5 18.0 10.0 9.9 12.0 7.4 9.2 19.3 12.0 32.9 15.1 12.4 12.1 11.1 13.6 11.2 7.6 9.2 12.4 46.7 13.6 48.1 10.5 50.1 16.3 47.4 8.3 65.0 10.0 58.3 11.1 58.4 10.0 49.8 10.9 Lbs. 9.1 6.2 11.4 4.6 9.0 10.2 14.2 10.4 8.2 6.1 19.2 5.9 3.7 11.8 6.2 5.4 10.2 6.2 2.2 5.3 12.2 11.4 12.0 10.6 13.3 13.6 9.8 17.9 15.8 7.8 11.2 9.6 11.2 11.5 12.8 13.8 10.9 14.2 15.7 14.9 10.7 10.2 13.3 10.6 13.3 13.3 12.8 14.1 10.7 Lbs. 4.0 2.0 4.6 5.4 4.2 6.6 9.0 4.6 4.7 4.2 5.6 3.6 3.5 4.4 Lbs. 11.5 8.3 10.2 20.0 18.8 23.3 21.0 21.5 17.8 30.9 17.2 17.3 11.3 25.3 21.5 14.4 21.1 APPENDIX 659 Tabit Total HatritiTO ratio Uiiiiie eonstitnesti in 1000 lbs. Kitro- gen Pkos- phorio acid Fotasb Silage — con. Silage from com, the sorghums, etc. — con. Duira * Kafir Sorghum Japanese cane * Sugar-cane tops * Miscellaneoits silage Alfalfa* Apple pomace * Barley * Clover Com and clover * Com and rye * Com and soybean Cowpea Cowpea and soybean * Field pea* Millet* MiUet, barnyard, and soybean. . Mixed grasses * Oat* Oat and pea Pea-cannery refuse * Rye* Sorghum and cowpea * Soybean Sugar beet leaves * Sugar beet pulp * Vetch Wet brewers' grains * Lbs. 20.3 30.8 22.8 22.4 23.5 24.6 20.6 25.0 27.8 28.6 19.4 24.7 22.0 28.5 27.9 31.6 21.0 30.7 28.3 27.5 23.2 27.2 32.3 27.1 23.0 10.0 30.1 29.8 Lbs. 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.5 1.2 0.9 2.0 1.3 2.1 1.1 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.8 1.6 1.6 1.3 1.5 2.8 1.6 2.4 0.9 2.6 2.1 0.8 2.0 5.2 Lba. 9.9 15.3 11.6 11.2 12.2 7.8 15.0 12.0 9.5 15.9 10.0 13.8 10.1 13.2 13.1 15.3 9.2 15.0 13.8 12.6 11.6 16.1 16.6 11.0 10.0 6.5 15.2 11.1 Lbs. 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.8 1.9 Lba. 11.4 17.5 13.3 12.5 13.1 10.4 17.3 15.8 11.9 19.6 13.3 17.2 13.3 16.7 17.9 18.7 12.4 17.7 17.3 17.6 15.0 19.6 18.9 15.2 13.0 8.0 19.0 20.6 18.0 20.9 21.2 19.8 25.2 7.7 18.2 6.9 8.2 8.3 11.1 9.8 6.4 7.8 5.4 10.7 6.8 12.6 10.5 5.3 8.4 7.2 20.0 4.8 5.2 9.0 8.5 3.0 Lbs. 1.9 2.9 2.4 2.4 1.9 5.6 2.6 4.2 5.9 5.3 3.4 4.0 6.1 5.4 6.1 4.5 4.5 3.7 3.2 6.1 4.5 4.8 3.8 6.2 4.5 2.4 5.6 10.2 Lbs. Lbs. APPENDIX 667 Table IV. Wolfp-Lehmann Feeding Standards fob Farm Animals The "Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards have been fully discussed in a preceding chapter. (156-7, 168, 187-8) It is there pointed out that we now have more accurate data on the nutrient requirements of various classes of animals than was possessed by scientists when these standards were formulated. For students and stockmen who desire to compute rations substantially in accordance with the WoUBf-Lehmann system, but taking into consideration the results of recent feeding trials at the Experiment Stations, the authors have drawn up the "Modified Wolff- Lehmann Feeding Standards" given in Appendix Table V. The Wolff- Lehmann Standards, as last presented by Lehmann in the Mentzel and Lengerke Agricultural Calendar for 1906, are here given, however, because historically this table is worthy of a place in any book on the feeding of farm animals, and further because no matter what line one may ultimately foUow in these matters, he should know and understand the teachings of Wolff and Lehmann. The standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the lacta- tion period with animals yielding milk of average composition. The standards for growing animals contemplate only a moderate amount of exercise; if much is taken, add 15 per cent — ^mostly non-nitrogenous nutrients — ^to the ration. If no exercise is taken, deduct 15 per cent from the standard. The standards are for animals of normal size. Those of small breeds will require somewhat more nutrients, amounting in some cases to 0.3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of non- nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live weight of animals. Animal Per day per 1,000 Iba. live weight Digestible nutrients matter Crude protein Carbo- hy- drates Fat Nutri- tive ratio Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. , Lbs. 1: 18 22 25 28 0.7 1.4 2.0 2.8 8.0 10.0 11.5 13.0 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 11.8 7.7 6.5 ,6.3 30 30 26 2.5 3.0 2.7 15.0 14.5 15.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 6.5 5.4 6.2 25 27 29 32 1.6 2.0 2.5 3.3 10.0 11.0 13.0 13.0 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 6.7 6.0 5.7 4.5 20 23 1.2 1.5 10.5 12.0 0.2 0.3 9.1 8.5 1. Oxen At rest in stall At light work At medium work At heavy work S. FaUening caiUe First period Second period Third period S. Milch cows, yielding daily 11 .0 pounds of milk. . . 16.6 poimds of milk. . 22 .0 pounds of milk. . , 27 .5 pounds of milk. . , 4. Sheep Coarse wool Fine wool 668 FEEDS AND FEEDING Table IV. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards for farm animals — continued. Animal Per day per 1,000 lbs, live weight Dry matter Digestible nutrients Crude protein Carbo- hy- drates Fat Nutri- tive ratio B. Breeding ewes With Iambs 6. Fattening sheep First period Second period 7. Horses Light work Medium work Heavy work 8. Brood sows 9. Fattening swine First period Second period Third period 10. Growing cattle, dairy breeds Age in Av. live wt. months per head, lbs, 2- 3 150.... 5- 6 300.... 6-12 500.... 12-18 700.... 18-24 900. . . . 11 . Growing cattle, 6ee/ breeds 2- 3 160.... 3- 6 330.... 6-12 550.... 12-18 750.... 18-24 950. . . . IS. Growing sheep, wool breeds 4r- 6 60.... 6-8 75.... 8-11 80.... 11-15 90.... 15-20 100.... 13. Growing sheep, mutton breeds 4:- 6 60.... 6-8 80.... 8-11 100.... 11-15 120.... 15-20 150.... 14. Growing swine, breeding stock 2-3 60.... 3-5 100.... 6- 6 120.... 6- 8 200.... 8-12 250.... 15. Growing, fattening swine 2-3 50.... 3-5 100.... 5- 6 150.... 6-8 200.... 9-12 300.... Lba. 25 30 28 20 24 26 22 36 32 25 23 24 27 26 26 23 24 25 24 24 25 25 23 22 22 26 26 24 23 22 44 35 32 28 25 44 35 33 30 26 Lba. 2.9 3.0 3.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.5 4.5 4.0 2.7 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.8 1.5 4.2 3.5 2.5 2.0 1.8 3.4 2.8 2.1 1.8 1.5 4.4 3.5 3.0 2.2 2.0 7.6 4.8 3.7 2.8 2.1 7.6 5.0 4.3 3.6 3.0 Lbs. 15.0 15.0 14.5 9.5 11.0 13.3 15.5 25.0 24.0 18.0 13.0 12.8 12.5 12.5 12.0 13.0 12.8 13.2 12.5 12.0 15.4 13.8 11.5 11.2 10.8 15.5 15.0 14.3 12.6 12.0 28,0 22.5 21.3 18.7 15.3 28.0 23.1 22.3 20.5 18.3 Lbs. 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.4 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 2.0 1.5 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 1: 5.6 5.4 4.5 7.0 6.2 6.0 6.6 5.9 6.3 7.0 4.5 5.1 6.8 7.5 8.5 4.2 4.7 6.0 6.8 7.2 5.0 5.4 6.0 7.0 7.7 4.0 4.8 5.2 6.3 6.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 4.0 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.4 APPENDIX 669 Table V. Modified Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards for Farm Animals It has been pointed out on previous pages that the recent investigations of the experiment stations of this and other countries have shown that the original Wolff-Lehmann standards are in many instances inaccurate. (187-90) To provide a means by which rations can be computed sub- stantially in accordance with the Wolff-Lehmann system, while taking into consideration the results of the recent scientific work on live stock feeding, the following standards are presented. The recommendations for dairy cows are based on the standards of Haecker and Savage. (182, 184, 186) The standards for growing, fattening steers are hitherto unpub- lished recommendations by Haecker, based upon his extensive investiga- tions at the Minnesota Station. (123) In the recommendations for fattening lambs the BuU-Bmmett standards have been chiefly used. (175) The standards for the other classes of farm animals are based upon studies by the authors, of feeding trials at the various experiment stations, and upon the standards of Kellner, Arihsby, and Pott. The method of com- puting rations in accordance with these standards has been fully ex- plained in the text. (190, 193-5) In most instances a minimum and a maximum are indicated for dry matter, digestible crude protein, and total digestible nutrients. As has been pointed out in the text (146), when protein-rich feeds are cheaper than carbonaceous feeds, somewhat more digestible crude protein may be supplied than is stated in the standards. This will narrow the nutritive ratio beyond the limits here indicated. On the other hand, the amount of protein should not fall much below the lower amount indicated. These recommendations are presented, not as final, arbitrary standards, but as approximations, based on the older standards, on the data of recent experimental trials, and on the rations which have given excellent results in practice. It is hoped that in the present form they may be helpful until future investigations have thrown further light upon the nutrient requirements of the various classes of farm animals. Modified standards are not presented for growing dairy cattle, growing sheep, and growing pigs (breeding stock) on account of the lack of sufficient data. Digestible crude Total digestible protein nutrients Lbs. Lbs. 0.700 7.925 0.045-^.053 0.256 0.047-0.057 0.286 0.049-^.061- - 0.316 0.054-K).065 0.346 0.057-O.069 0.376 0.060-0.073 0.402 0.064r-0.077 0.428 0.067-O.081 0.454 0.072-0.085 0.482 0.074-0.089 0.505 Dairy cows For maintenance of 1000-lb. cow . . To d[Lowancefor maintenance add, For each lb. of 2.5 per ct. milk. . . . For each lb. of 3.0 per ct. milk. . . . For each lb. of 3>5 per ct. milk For each lb. of 4.0 per ct. milk. . . . For each lb. of 4.5 per ct. milk. . . . For each lb. of 5.0 per ct. milk For each lb. of 5.5 per ct. milk For each lb. of 6.0 per ct. milk For each lb. of 6.5 per ct. milk For each lb. of 7.0 per ct. milk 670 FEEDS AND FEEDING The amount of dry matter to be fed daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight to dairy cows may range from 15.0 lbs. or even less with dry cows to 30.0 lbs. with cows yielding 2.0 lbs. of butter fat per head daily. Cows producing 1.0 lb. of fat per head daily should receive about 21.0 to 25.0 lbs. of dry matter daily per 1,000 lbs. live weight. The nutritive ratio may readily be found by computation ; for example, a 1,200-lb. cow yielding daily 30.0 lbs. of 3.5 per ct. milk will require for maintenance and production 2.31 to 2.67 lbs. digestible crude protein and 18.99 lbs. total digestible nutrients. The nutritive ratio should hence not be wider than 1 : 6.1 to 1:7.2. lave weight Actual, per head daily Per 1000 lbs. live weight Nu- tritive Digestible Total Digestible Total crude digestible Dry crude digestible ratio protein nutrients protein nutrients Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1: 1.41 0.32 1.66 14.1 3.2 16.6 4.2 3.11 0.49 2.58 20.7 3.3 17.2 4.2 4.81 0.67 3.48 24.0 3.4 17.4 4.1 6.40 0.74 4.42 25.6 3.0 17.7 4.9 8.00 0.80 5.36 26.7 2.7 17.9 5.6 8.87 0.84 6.87 25.3 2.4 16.8 6.0 9.72 0.87 6.32 24.3 2.2 15.8 6.2 10.83 0.96 7.23 24.1 2.1 16.1 6.7 11.95 1.04 7.88 23.9 2.1 15.8 6.5 12.95 1.13 8.55 23.6 2.0 15.6 6.6 13.94 1.22 9.25 23.2 2.0 15.4 6.7 15.83 1.41 10.35 22.6 2.0 14.8 6.4 17.13 1.61 11.43 21.4 2.0 14.3 6.2 18.17 1.78 12.22 20.2 2.0 13.6 5.8 19.66 1.80 13.51 19.7 1.8 13.5 6.5 19.92 1.73 13.91 18.1 1.6 12.6 6.9 20.76 1.84 14.71 17.3 1.5 12.3 7.2 Growing, fattening 100 lbs 150 lbs 200 lbs 250 lbs 300 lbs 350 lbs 400 lbs 450 lbs 500 lbs 550 lbs 600 lbs 700 lbs 800 lbs 900 lbs 1000 lbs 1100 lbs 1200 lbs On comparing the foregoing standards for growing, fattening steers with the original Wolff-Lehmann standards for growing beef cattle, it will be seen that for the later stages of growth these standards are some- what lower in dry matter and digestible nutrients. The standards here given for steers weighing 1,000 to 1,200 lbs. are markedly lower in dry matter and digestible nutrients than the original Wolff-Lehmann stand- ards for fattening cattle. They are also lower than the following standards for fattening 2-yr.-old steers on fuU feed, which contemplate the feeding of all the concentrates the steers will eat. Tho cattle fed as indicated in the preceding standards will not make maximum gains, the gains are produced with a smaller amount of feed than if a heavier ration were fed. For example, 1,000-lb. steers fed by Haecker according to this system until they reached a weight of 1,200 lbs. required only 8.0 lbs. of total digestible nutrients per pound of gain. APPENDIX 671 Per day per 1,000 lbs. live weight Animsl Dry matter Digestible crude protein Total digestible nutrie&ts Nutritive raiio S. FtUtening X-yr.-dId steers on fvafeed First 50-60 days 22.0-25.0 21.0-24.0 18.0-22.0 13.0-21.0 14.0-25.0 13.0-18.0 15.0-22.0 16.0-24.0 18.0-26.0 15.0-22.0 18.0-22.0 27.0-30.0 28.0-31.0 27.0-31.0 18.0-23.0 20.0-26.0 23.0-27.0 46.2^1.0 37.0-40.8 32.4-35.8 29.0-32.0 25.5-28.1 22.4-24.8 20.O-24.0 Lbs. 2.0-2.3 1.9-2.3 1.8-2.1 0.6-0.8 0.7-0.9 0.8-1.0 1.1-1.4 1.4-1.7 2.0-2.2 1.2-1.5 1.6-1.8 3.1-3.3 2.5-2.8 2.3-2.5 1.1-1.3 1.4-1.6 2.6-2.9 7.8-«.5 5.5-6.0 4.4r4.9 3.5-3.9 3.0-3.4 2.6-2.9 2.4r-2.7 Lbs. 18.0-20.0 17.0-19.5 16.0-18.5 8.4^10.4 9.0-12.0 7.0- 9.0 10.0-13.1 12.8-15.6 15.9-19.5 9.0-12.0 11.0-13.0 19.0-22.0 20.0-23.0 19.0-23.0 11.0-13.0 12.0-14.0 18.0-20.0 41.0-45.4 32.9-36.4 28.8-31.9 25.8-28.5 22.7-25.0 20.0-22.0 18.0-21.0 1: 7 0-78 7 0-78 Tliiid 50-60 days 7 0-78 4- Ox at rest in stall 10 0-16 6. Wintering heef cows in col}. . . . 6. Horses Idle 10.0-15.0 8 0-9 At light work 8 0-8 5 At medium work 7 8-8 3 At heavy work 7 0-8 7. Brood mares suclding foals, but not ai work 6 5-7 5 8. Growing coUs, over 6 months. . 9. Fattening lambs 6.0-7.0 Wdght 50-70 lbs 5 0-6 Weight 70-0) lbs 6.7-7.2 Weight 90-110 lbs 7 0-8 10. Sheep, maintaining mature Coarse wool 8 0^ 1 Fine wool 7.5-8.5 11. Breeding ewes, wUh lambs 12. Growing, fattening pigs Weight 30-50 lbs 5.6-6.5 4 0-4 5 Weight 50-100 lbs 5 0-5 6 Weight 100-150 lbs Weight 150-200 lbs Wei^t 200-250 lbs Weight 250-300 lbs IS. Brood sows, with pigs 5.5-6.2 6.2-7.0 6.6-7.3 6.7-7.5 6.0-7.0 672 FEEDS AND FEEDING Table VI. Mineral Matter in 1,000 Lbs. op Representative Feeding Stuffs The data presented in the following table have been compiled from analyses by the American Experiment Stations, especially the analyses reported by Forbes in Ohio Bulletin 255, supplemented by others from Gterman sources. Feeding stuff Potash KO Soda NasO Lime CaO Mag- MgO Iron oxide FeaOs Svd- phuric acid SOa Plios- phoric acid PsOs Silica SiOs Chlorin CI Com Gluten feed Wheat Wheat flour Red dog flour Standard wheat middlings . Wheat bran Oats Malt sprouts Brewers' grains, dried Rough rice PoMied rice Rice polish Kafir grain Cottonseed meal Linseed meal, old process. . Bean, navy Cowpea Soybean SJam "'ill'' Whey Beet pulp, dried DistiUers' grains, dried, from com Com stover Sorghum fodder Bluegrass hay Timothy hay Alfalfa hay Red clover hay Cowpea hay Soybean hay Wheat straw Mangel Lbs. 4.0 2.3 S.3 1.0 7.6 11.8 16.2 5.6 18.3 0.9 2.6 0.6 11.7 3.1 18.1 12.7 13.7 14.9 24.7 1.7 2.6 3.8 1.7 12.9 25.3 21.0 13.6 22.3 16.3 41.3 23.3 7.4 2.2 Lbs. 0.4 5.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 2.3 1.1 3.5 1.0 0.4 1.5 0.8 3.5 3.4 1.0 2.2 6.1 0.6 0.4 2.2 1.9 6.5 1.7 4.3 5.6 1.2 2.5 1.8 3.0 1.1 Lbs. 0.2 3.5 0.6 0.3 1.7 0.8 0.9 1.4 n 2.2 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.2 3.6 5.1 2.8 1.4 2.9 1.8 0.6 9.2 0.6 6.6 3.9 4.3 2.5 19.5 16.0 25.4 17.2 2.9 0.2 Lbs. 1.8 3.6 2.2 0.3 4.8 5.4 7.3 2.0 3.0 2.6 1.2 0.4 10.9 2.1 8.6 8.1 2.9 3.4 3.8 0.2 0.1 4.2 0.8 1.4 2.9 3.6 1.7 5.9 4.5 16.2 10.3 1.0 0.7 Lbs. 0.11 6.23 0.34 0.38 0.95 0.39 0.31 0.84 1.44 0.71 0.79 6.37 1.68 0.67 0.26 0.08 Lbs. 3.8 14.6 5.4 3.6 6.5 6.8 6.7 4.9 20.0 9.7 2.6 4.2 4.1 12.4 10.2 4.8 6.0 10.3 0.8 7.7 3.7 7.8 4.4 7.9 5.8 3.8 0.6 Lbs. 6.9 6.2 8.6 2.0 20.0 21.1 29.5 sr.i 9.9 4.9 1.7 30.8 6.7 26.7 17.0 7.8 10.1 13.7 2.2 1.2 2.4 6.8 4.5 2.3 6.4 3.1 5.4 3.9 9.6 6.8 1.3 0.4 Lbs. 0.3 '6.4 0.3 12.5 13.6 12.3 41.6 5.5 6.9 9.0 9.1 5.9 14.2 8.1 1.7 28.4 0.2 Lbs. 0.65 • 0.90 0.82 0.70 1.40 0.90 0.70 3.60 0.58 0.02 0.36 1.34 1.04 0.39 0.86 0.40 0.40 0.28 0.91 1.18 0.43 0.60 2.87 60 16 83 74 39 1.49 0.76 1.98 1.68 APPENDIX 673 Table VII. Weight op Vabious Concentrates In computing rations for farm animals it is desirable to know the weight per quart, or the bulk, of the different concentrates. The following table, compiled from Massachusetts Bulletin 136 by Smith and Perkins, Louisiana Bulletin 114 by Halligan, and Indiana Bulletin 141 by Jones, Haworth, Cutler, and Summers is therefore presented. Feeding stuff One quart weighs One pound meas- ures Feeding stuff One quart weighs One pound meas- ures Whole com. . . . ". Com meal Com.-and-cob meal Hominy feed Gluten feed Gluten meal Grenn oil meal Com bran Wheat Wheat, groimd Flour wheat middlings. Standard wheat middlings. . . Wheat bran Wheat feed (shorts and bran) Wheat screenings Rye Rye meal Rye middlings Rye bran Rye feed (shorts and bran) . . . Oats Oatmeal Oats ground Oat feed Oat middlings. . ; Oat hulls Barley Barley meal Malt sprouts Lbs. 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.1 1.3 1.7 1.4 0.5 1.9 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.6 1.0 1.7 1.5 1.6 0.8 1.3 1.0 1.7 0.7 0.8 1.5 0.4 1.5 1.1 0.6 Qts. 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.7 2.0 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.3 2.0 1.7 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.6 1.3 0.8 1.0 0.6 1.4 1.3 0.7 2.5 0.7 0.9 1.7 Brewers' grains, dried Millet, foxtail Rice polish Rice bran Buckwheat. Buckwheat flour Buckwheat middlings Buckwheat bran Buckwheat hulls Cotton seed Cottonseed meal Cottonseed hulls Flaxseed Linseed meal, old process. . . . Lioseed meal, new process . . . Flax feed Flax screenings Beans, navy Cowpeas Peas, field Soybeans Cocoanut meal Cocoanut cake Sunflower seed Beet pulp, dried Distillers' grains, dried Molasses, cane, or blackstrap Molaases feed Alfalfa meal Lbs. 0.6 1.6 1.'2 0.8 1.4 1.6 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.8 1.5 0.3 1.6 1.1 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.5 0.6 0.6 3.0 0.8 0.6 Qts. 1.7 0.6 0.8 1.3 0.7 0.6 1.1 1.7 2.0 1.3 0.7 3.3 0.6 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.7 1.7 1.7 0.3 1.3 1.7 INDEX The Beferences are to Pages Abomasum, 18 Absorption of nutrients, 32-3 Acid, effect of, on digestibility of feed, 52 Acid In gastric juice, 20, 28 Acorns, 188 effects on pork, 188 Adulteration of feeds, 190 Aftermath, 219 Age, influence on digestibility, 52 gain of pigs, 568-70 sheep, 512 steers, 432-6 milk yield of cows, 346 Age to breed heifers, 427 mares, 321 sows, 626 Air, heat carried off by expired, 57 required by farm animals, 67 Albumin In milk, 77, 344, 346 Alfalfa, 223-9 compared with other forages, 224 types of, 228 value of diSei^eut cuttings, 225, 371 Alfalfa feed, 229"^ Alfalfa hay, 224-6 cut at various stages, 50 for brood sows, 622, 625 calves, 420 cows, 370-3 ewes, 551 horses, 314-6 pigs, 226, 621-3 sheep, 533-5 steers, 467-70, 490, 491 ground, see Alfalfa meal in place of concentrates for cows, 371-3 losses bf feeding value in hay-making, — 218, 220, 225 loss of leaves in hay-making, 220 making, 218-21 yield compared with corn crop, 224 Alfalfa meal, 229 for cows, 229, 374 horses, 315 sheep, 515 vs. wheat bran for cows, 374 Alfalfa pasture, 226 for cows, 373 horses, 226. 316 pigs, 610-1 sheep, 226, 545 Alfalfa silage, 228, 258 Alfalfa soilage, 227, 266 Alfalmo, 229, 304 Alimentary tract, 17 Alsike clover, see Clover, alsike Amber cane, 202 Amids, 6 digestion of, 28 in com crop, 12 in various feeds, 62 use by animals, 62 Amino acids, 6, 27 absorption of, from intestine, 33 Amylase, 23 Amylopsln, 23 Anabollsm, 31 Animal, as a machine, 103 composition of, 14-7 influence of kind on digestibility, 62 nitrogen and mineral matter in, 16 not a heat machine, 104 Animals, checking growth of, 99 nutrients stored by young, 76 Animals and plants compared, 16 Apples, 247 for pigs, 247 Apples and com silage compSired, 247 Apple pomace, 247 Apple pomace silage, 258 for cows, 383 Armsby's energy values for feeds, 120 Artichokes, 244 for horses, 317 pigs, 619 Ash in bodies of farm animals, 16 in com crop at different stages, 12 in corn kernel, 152 in feeds, how determined, 9 retained and voided by farm animals, 273 see Mineral matter Ashes, wood, for farm animals, 66 Assimilation of food, energy lost in, 47 Available energy, 45 Baby beef. 504-6 Bacon, soft, 585 Bacon hogs, 582 see Pigs Bacon production, 584 Bacteria, action in digestion, 22, 27 Bagasse, sorghum, for silage, 203, 258 Balanced ration, 17 see Ration Bamboo leaves for horses, 299 Barium salts, cause of loco poisoning, 252 Barley, 161 for calves, 414 cows, 360 horses, 303 pigs, 590, 615 sheep, 525, 529 steers, 454 see Cereals Barley and by-products in brewing, 161 Barley feed, 164 Barley hay, 210 Barley pasture, 210 Barley soilage, 210 Barley straw, 216 Barrows and sows, gains of, 583 Beans, castor, 252 field, 180 for horses, 305 pigs, 605 sheep, 180 produce a soft pork, 180, 605 horse, see Horse bean hyacinth, 238 moth, 238 table, see Beans, field velvet, see Velvet beau Bean straw for sheep, 216-7, 535 Beef, baby, 504-6 . effects of cottonseed meal on, 174 feed consumed in producing, 432-5 Beef calves, see Calves, beef Beef cattle, see Steers fattening ca'ves, 433-5. 504-6 yearlings, 433-5, 506 2-yr.-olds, 433-5, 506 raising, 484-492 summer care of, 484, 489 wintering, 484r-6, 489-92 674 INDEX 675 Beef cows, see Cows, beef Beef production, 430-SOS cost of, 433-5, 497 labor cost of, 497 methods of, 501-6 Beet, mangel, see Mangel stock, for steers, 4S1 sugar, see Sugar beet Beet leaves and tops, 186, 243 silage flrom, 243, 258 Beet molasses, see Molasses, beet Beet pulp, dried, 185 for cows, 361 horses, 305 sheep, 530 steers. 458 Beet pulp, molasses, 186 for cows, 361 horses, 304 sheep, 530 Beet pulp, wet, 184 for cows, 386 horses, 318 pigs, 618 sheep, 544 steers, 457 Beet pulp silage, 185, 258 Beet tops, 186 Beggar weed, 238 Bermuda grass, 211 rootstocks for pigs, 212 Bermuda hay for cows, 379 horses, 310 steers, 211 BUe, 23 Blanketing horses, 296 Bloat, in cattle, cause of, 22 how prevented, 226, 232 Blood, circulation of, 31 influence of light on, 74 Blood meal, or dried olood, 184 for calves, 416 cows, 369 horses, 309 pigs, 602 sheep, 533 Blood of pigs, influence of com feeding on, 92-6 Bluegrass, Canada, 211 Kentucky, 205 Bluegrass pasture vs. rape for lambs, 546 Bluegrass hay for sheep, 536 Body, growth, under scant feeding, 96 Body of horse, energy expended in lifting, 289 Body temperature of farm animals, 54 Body waste, disposal of, 28, 34 Bonavist, 238 Bone, increase of, in young animals, 76, 81 Bone ash for farm animals, 66 pigs, 81-2 Bone meal, 184 for calves, 416 foals, 326 pigs, 573 Bones, brittle because lacking lime, 64 of pigs, influenced by feed, 92-6 strengthened by calcium phosphate, 66, 81, 573 Bran, see Wheat bran. Bice bran,' etc. Bran disease, 157 Bread, 157, 270 for horses, 157, 270 Breed, influence of, on digestibility, 52 value in beef production, 439-44 Breed tests of cows, 391-3 sheep, 509-10, 554 steers, 439-45 swine, 582-3 Brewers' grains, dried, 163 for cows, 363 horses, 306 pigs, 163 sheep, 532 steers, 466 pentosans in, 163 Brewers' grains, wet, 163 for cows, 163 British feeding trials with sheep, 538 steers, 482 Brome grass, 208 Brome hay for horses, 310 Brood mare, see Mare, brood Brood sow, see Sow Broom-corn seed, 170 Buckwheat, 171 effects on butter, 171 for pigs, 595 wild, for lambs, 528 Buckwheat bran, value of, 171 Buckwheat hulls, feeding value, 171 Buckwheat middlings, feeding value, 171 for cows, 363 Buffalo Exposition, tests of dairy cows at, 391 Bull, beef, feed and care of, 486 Bull, dairy, feed and care of, 428-9 Butter, effects of buckwheat on, 171 cocoanut meal on, 179 cottonseed meal on, 174 linseed meal on, 176 potatoes on, 244 soybeans on, 178 yellow color, cause of, 356 Buttermilk, 182 for calves, 422 pigs, 599 Cabbage, 245 marrow, 247 Cacti, 249 for cows, 250 steers, 249-^50 spineless, 250 Caecum, 18, 24 Calcium, in blood, 63 in skeleton, 64 needed by pregnant animals, 82 required for maintenance, 64-5 growth, 81 see Lime Calcium carbonate utilized by animals, 66 Calcium phosphate, for farm animals, 66 _, , . ^^ pigs, 81-2. 573 Calorie, 44 Calorimeter, 44 respiration. 46 Calves, beef, feed and care of, 487-9 wide and narrow ration for, 91 wintering, 489 Calves, dairy, 412-26 (For the value of the various feeds for calves, see the different feeds; i.e.. Corn, Oats, etc.) advantage of fall-dropped. 425 birth weight. 424 calf meals for. 423-4 chalk for, 417 compared with Iambs and pigs, 425 concentrates for, 413-6,419 cost of rearing, 427 fall vs. spring, 425 feed and gain by, 425, 427 feeding concentrates only, 72 gains made by, 421 grinding grain for, 415 groimd bone for, 417 ground rock phosphate for, 417 hay for, 420 hay tea for, 423 mineral matter for, 416 percentage of food nutrients stored by, 75-6 raising on minimum amount of milk, 422 , skim milk, 412-21 skim milk substitutes, 421-4 returns f^om, compared with other farm animals, 90, 425 rich and poor milk for, 78 salt for, 417 scours, 426 676 FEEDS AND FEEDING Calves, dairy, continued substitutes for milk for, 423 succulent feeds for, 420 , variety of feeds, effect of, 416 water for, 417 Canada field pea, see Pea, field Cane molasses, see Molasses, cane Cane sugar, 4 Capillaries, 32 Carbohydrates, 3 absorption of, 32 a source of muscular energy, 102 compared with other nutrients for pro- ducing work, 102 determination In feeding stuffs, 10 digestion of, 25 effect on digestibility of other nutrients, 51 effects of feeding only, 59 energy lost in digesting, 46-8 fat formed from, 86 feeding in excess to pigs, 92 in ripening clover, 231 corn, 11-2 grasses, 206 what the term embraces, 40 Carbonaceous feed, 41 Carbon dioxid, amount in air, 2 amount produced by horse during work, 101 danger from, in silo filUng, 262 how taken up by plants, 2 the great food of plants, 2 Carbonic acid gas, see Carbon dloxld Carnivora, ability to withstand hunger, 56 Carotin causes color of butter, 356 Carpet grass, 213 Carrots, 243 for horses, 317 Casein in milk, 181, 344, 346 Cassava, 245 for pigs, 621 steers, 482 Castor bean, 252 Catabolism, 31 Cattle, see Steers, Beef production. Cows Cellulose, 4 decomposition of, 28 digestion of, 26 nutritive value of, 26 Cereal by-products for dairy cows, 369 Cereal hay, 209 for horses, 309 Cereal pasture, 209 for cows, 210 pigs, 615 sheep, 545 Cereal silage, 210 Cereal soilage, 209 Cereals, 149-71 Chaff from the cereals, 216 Chaffing hay and straw, 268 for horses, 293 sheep, 515 Chalk for calves, 79, 417 Charcoal for pigs, 580 Cherry leaves, prussic add in wild, 251 Christmas lambs, see Hot-house lambs Chufas, 245 for pigs, 621 Chyle, 32 Clipping horses, 296 Clover, alsike, 232 for sheep, 534 bloat from, how prevented, 232 bur, 234 combined with timothy, 206, 231 crimson, 234 for soilage, 232 Japan, see Lespedeza * mammoth, 232 Mexican, 248 red, 230-2 development of nutrients in, 230 Clover, red, continued losses In curing, 218 methods of making hay trom 218-21 pasture, 232 silage, 232 for cows, 382 soilage, 232 time to cut, 231 sweet, 233 pasture, for pigs, 612 white, 233 Clover hay, crimson, dangerous to horses, 234 for cows, 374 Japan, see Lespedeza hay red, for calves, 420 cows, 374 ewes, 551 horses, 313 pigs, 623 sheep, 534 sows, 621, 625 steers, 468-9, 491 rich in Ume, 65, 82, 232 sweet, for sheep, 535 steers, 471 Clover pasture, for pigs, 611 Coarse forage, see Boughage Cocoanut meal or cake, 179 for cows, 367 horses, 308 Cocoa shells, 189 Cocoa-shell milk for calves, 423 Cod liver oil for calves, 414 Coefficients of digestibility, 36-9, Appendix Table II Colic in horses, due to changes in feed, 297 corn meal, 301 Colostrum, 77, 417 Colts, daily gains of, 323, 328 education of, 326 see Foals Columbian Exposition, tests of dairy cows, 391 Comftrey, prickly, 248 Common salt, see Salt Composition of feeding stuffs, 8-10, Appen- dix Table I factors Influencing, 48-50 Concentrates, 10 adapting amount fed to local conditions, 146 feeding animals exclusively on, 71-3 proper amount for dairy cows, 399 horses, 292, 330 pigs, 573, 631 sheep, 561 steers, 438, 479, 494 Condimental stock foods, see Stock foods Cooked feed, 269-71 digestibility of, 51 digestion trials with, 269 for pigs, 269, 576 horses, 294 stock, 269-71 Com, Indian, 149-53 by-products of, 153-5 characteristics of, 149 composition of, 152 dent, characteristics of, 150 ear, for cows, 359 horses, 301 pigs, 574-6 sheep, 523 steers, 451-3 shrinkage In drying, 151 effects of thick planting on, 194 Federal grades, 151 feeding exclusively to pigs, 92 field feeding to pigs, 588 flint, characteristics of, ISO for cows, 358 horses, 300-3 pigs, 587-90 INDEX 677 Corn, Indian, continued for sheep, 521-S grinding, 'see Corn, preparation of heavy vs. light feeding to sheep, 561 steers, 451 lacks protein and mineral matter, 150 loses palatability after grinding, 153 preparation of, for cows, 359 horses, 301 pigs, 573-7 sheep, 523 steers, 451-3 races of, 150 shelled, for pigs, 574 sheep, 521—4 steers, 451-3 weight of 1 bu., 150 soaked, for pigs, 576, 677 steers, 462 soft, 151 for pigs, 688 steers, 454 source of starch and glucose, 150 sweet, characteristics, 150 water in green and dry, 151 weight of 1 bushel, 150 yellow compared with white, 150 see Com crop and Com plant Com-and-cob meal, 153 for cows, 359 horses, 301 pigs, 588 sheep, 623 steers, 462 Com bran, 166 Corn chop, see Corn meal Corn cobs, weight and composition of, 150 Com crop, changes in carbohydrates during ripening, 12 changes in crude protein during ripening, 12 composition of, at different stages, 11 distribution of nutrients in ears and stover, 194 increase in, during ripening, 13 losses In field curing, 196, 198 proportion of ears and stover, 194-5 yield of nutrients in 1 acre, 11, 13 Com feed-meal, 153 Com fodder, 193, 196 for cows, 376-7, 380 horses, 311 sheep, 536 silage, 198, 200 steers, 471 green, 193 for soilage, 201 preserving, 195 puUing, 197 saltpeter in, 253 sliocking or stooldng, 195—6 shredding, 197 vs. com silage for cows, 380 Com fodder silage, 200 Corn forage, see Corn fodder and Corn stover Com gluten feed, see Gluten feed Com kernel, parts and composition, 162 Com meal, 153 as sole feed for cows, 72 for calves, 414 cows, 359 Iiorses, 301 pigs, 588 sheep, 523-6 steers, 451—3 Com plant, 11, 193 changes in maturing, 11 crude protein at different stages, 12 distribution of nutrients, 195 for silage, 198-201 losses by ensiling and field curing, 198 Corn plant, continued mtrogen-free estract at different stages, 12 number of stalks per acre, 194 nutrients at different stages, 11 removing ears before ensuing, 201 requirements for growth, 149 southern for silage, 199 Com oil, 154 for calves, 414 Com product, new, 198 Com silage, see Silage, com Corn smut, feeding experiments with, 252 Corn soilage, 201 Com stalk disease, 251 Corn stover, 193, 197 ensiled, 200 for cows, 377 horses, 311, 312 sheep, 536 steers, 471, 491 percentage of nutrients of crop in, 195 shredded, 197 i for cows, 197 steers, 491 vs. mixed hay for cows, 377 vs. timothy hay for horses, 311 Com stover silage, 200 Correptives for pigs, 679 Cost of feeds, considering in formulating rations, 114, 139-48 Cotton seed, 171 as a feed, 172 fo^ cows, 366 steers, 462 poison in, 173 products from 1 ton, 171 roasted, 172 Cottonseed cake, 172, 174 cold-pressed, 173 see Cottonseed meal Cottonseed hulls, 176 for cows, 379 steers, 472-4, 492 Cottonseed meal, 172, 174 effects on animal fats, 174 for beef cows, 485 calves, 415 dairy cows, 364-5 horses, 307-8 pigs, 173, 605 sheep, 531 steers, 460-2, 468, 472-4, 476-7. 492, 603 makes hard butter, 174 poison in, 173 Cottonseed oil for calves, 414 Cowpea, 180, 235 for pigs, 606 horses, 305 steers, 464 Cowpea hay, 236 for cows, 375 horses, 316 sheep, 634 steers, 471, 491 Cowpea pasture, 236 for pigs, 613 steers, 471 Cowpea silage, 235, 268 for cows, 374, 382 steers, 481 Cowpea vine, 235 Cows, beef, feed and care of, 484-6 vs. dairy cows for butter fat, 340 wintering, 484-6 Cows, dairy, 338-429 (For the value of various feeds for cows, see the different feeds; i.e.. Com, Clover hay, etc.) advanced registry, 388 amount of heat given off daily, 68 annual feed regulrements, 396 as producers of human food, 338-43 baSs of profitable dairying, 343 678 FEEDS AND PEEDING Oows, dairy, continued breed tests, 391-3 burden of dairying, 409 calculating rations for, 112-6, 130, 140-S, 410 care before and after calving, 407-9 censuses, 390 changing milkers, 354 comfort, importance of, 405 compared with heifers, 346 composition of milk of various breeds, 344 concentrate allowance for, 399 concentrates for, 358-70 cooking feed for, 405 cost of keep, 396 milk, by months, 395 dairy vs. beef type, 340 dehorning, 353 disposition of feed by, 340 dry feed for, 405 drying off, 407-8 economy of, 338-40 effects of advancing lactation on milk yield, 347 age on milk yield, 346 cattle ticks on milk yield, 355 dehorning on milk yield, 353 drought on milk yield, 352 exercise on milk yield, 353 milking machines on milk yield, 354 spaying on milk yield, 353 temperature on milk yield, 352 tuberculin testing on milk yield, 353 turning to pasture on milk yield, 352 work on quality of milk, 353 excessive and low feeding, 348, 349 exercise for, 353 feed and care of, 398-411 yield of great, 393-5 feeding as individuals, 400 concentrates on pasture, 401—3 exclusively on concentrates, 72 fat, 350 feeds for, 358-86 required by, for 1 year, 395 when dry, 408 forced feeding, 393 flrequency of feeding, 355, 406 milking, 346, 355 freshening In fall vs. spring, 409 generous feed and care for, 398 gestation period, 408 good and poor producers, 341 great, feed and yield of, 393-5 grinding grain for, 268, 405 f rooming, 353 [egelund method of milking, 355 herd records, 388-9 InefBcient, causes of, 342 kindness in care of, 354, 406 liberal and meager feeding, 348, 349 lime withheld from, 64, 351 loss in weight, 349 milk, see Milk, cow's milk and fat records, 387-96 milking machines, 354 three times dally, 355 ofBclal tests, 388 order of feeding, 406 palatable feed, importance of, 403 pastiu-e, supplementing short, 403 pasturage vs. soilage for, 385 preparation of feed for, 405 profitable and unprofitable, 342 ration for, should be well balanced, 400 rations for, examples of economical, 140-5, 409-11 when on test, 393—5 records, keeping on farm, 388 of great cows, 393-5 regularity in care of, 354, 406 Cows, dairy, continued rest, importance of, 407 returns from, compared with other farm animals, 90, 338-40 steers, 338-10 in Swedish test associa- tions, 129 good and poor producers, 341-3 roughages for, 370-86 salt for, 405 shelter for, 405 shredding com fodder for, 268 spaying, 353 substituting legume hay for concen- trates, 372-6 succulent feed. Importance of, 403 succulent feeds for, 379-86 tests of, at expositions, 391, 392 unreliability of short, 389 tuberculin testing, 353 turning to pasture, 352 use of feed oy, 340 variations in fat in milk, 345-53 water for, 404 wet and dry feed for, 355 see Heifer Cow-testing associations, 387-8 Crab grass, 213 Creep for foals, 324 lambs, 558 Crimson clover, see Clover, crimson Crops for the silo, 257 Crude protein, see Protein, crude Cud, chewing the, 19 Cull beans, 180 Cutting hay and straw, see ChafOng Cylindrical sUo, 256 capacity of different sizes, 262 Dairy and beef breeds, internal fat from, 443 Dairy by-products, 181-3 for pigs, 596 spreading disease thru, 182 Dairy calves, see Calves, dairy Dairy cows, see Cows, dairy Dairying, the burden of, 409 based on maternity of cow, 338 the individual cow, 343 Darkness, see Light Dehorning, effects on cows, 353 Depression of digestibility, 51-2 Diastase, 162 Digestibility, 36-41 coefficients of, 36-9, Appendix Table II depression of, 51, 291 effect of acid on, 52 effects of work on, 284 factors Infiuencing, 50-3 general discussion of, 37-9, 50-3 influence of age on, 53 amount of feed eaten on. 50 breed on, 52 frequency of feeding on. 51 kind or class of ammal on, 52 palatablUty of feed on, 30 preparation of feed on, 51, 267-71, 675 proportion of different nu- trients on, 51 starvation on, SO water on, 51 work on, 51 method of determining, 37 of coarse forage, 39 of cooked food, 51, 269-70 of fat, 38 of feeds, 36-41 of feeds high In fiber, 39 of food by horse, 52, 283 pig. 52 ruminants, 52 INDEX 679 Digestibility, emUnued of grasses affected by maturity, 50 of ground grain, 61 of nitrogenous feeds, 52 of silage, 51 Digestible nutrient, 17 Digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs, 39, _ Appendix Table III Digestion, 17 heat evolved in, 45, 47 in stomach, 20-2 of fiber involves much work, 47, 55 studies of Pawlow on, 29-30 trials with cooked feed, 51, 269-70 horses, 283 sheep, 36 work involved in, 45, 47, 55, 285 Digestion coefBcients, 37-9, Appendix Table II Digestive glands, work of, 29 Digestive tract of farm animals, 17 Dipping sheep, 561 Distillers' grams, dried, 18S for cows, 368 horses, 308 pigs, 607 sheep, 532 steers, 465 Distillery slop, 188 for steers, 465 Draft, energy expended by horses in, 290 required on different road beds, 283 Dressed carcass, comi)osition of, from farm animals, 15 yielded by pigs, 584 sheep, 518 steers, 440, 442 Dried beet pulp, see Beet pulp, dried Dried blood, see Blood meal Dried brewers' grains, see Brewers' grains, dried Dried distillers' grains, see Distillers' grains, dried Dried fish, see Fish meal Drought, effects of, on milk, 352 Durra, 168 Dynamometer, 282 Earth nut, see Peanut Economy in feeding live stock, 139-48 Egyptian com, see Milo Emmer, 164 for cows, 360 pigs, 592 sheep, 529 steers, 456 Energy, 45-8 available and net, 45 expended by dairy cows, 340 factors influencing amount appearing as useful work, 103, 288-90 for animals derived from sun, 7 for work furnished by carbohydrates, 102 fat, 102 protein, 102 in common feeds, 44, 46 in pure nutrients, 44 in iu-ea, 45, 46 losses of, depend on body surface, 58 muscular, may come f^om protein, 56, 100, 102 produced by oxidation of car- bohydrates and fat, 101-2 production of, 101 source of, 102 net, 46 in feeding stuffs, 46 in feeds determines amount of work pro- duced, 102, 284 lost in chewing feeds, 48 part expended wliich is utilized in work, 103 reciuired for maintenance, 57 required for work, decreases with prac- tice, 103 Energy required for work, amtinueS factors influencing, 103, 288-9, 292 increases with fa- tigue, 103 increases with speed, 103, 288 of animal machine compared with steam engine, 104 of feeds, loss of, in assimilation, 45-8 digestion, 45-8, 284-5 feces, 45, 47 mastication, 45, 47, 284^5 production processes, 46-8 urine, 45-7 see Work Energy values of feeds, Armsby's, 121 Engine compared with animals, 44, 45, 104 English system of allowing for manurial value of feeds, 277 Ensilage, see Silage Ensiling, manner in which green forage is preserved by, 254 Enzymes, 20 Erepsin, 24 Ergot, 251 Ether extract, see Fat Ewes, breeding, feed and care of, 548-59 care of, at lambing time, 553 after lambing, 554 when raising winter lambs, 565 concentrates for, 551 date of lambing, 548 feed required for 100 lbs. milk, 556 flushing, 549 milking qualities of, 555—6 roughages for, 551-3 succulent feeds for, 551-3 turning to pasture, 558 wintermg, 550-3 Ewe's milk, composition of, 77, 555 value for lambs, 556 Excrement, see Manure Exercise for brood sows, 582, 625 carriage horses, 295, 335 colts, 296 dairy cows, 353 fattening animals, 74 horses, 295 lambs, 514, 564 pigs, 582, 625 stallions, 329 Exposure for lambs, 513 steers, 445 Farm animals, calculating rations for, 112-8. 124, 136-45 comparative fattening qual- ities of, 89-91 composition of bodies of, 14^6 importance of, to agriciilture, vii-x manure voided by, 278 nitrogen and ash retained and voided by, 273 relative economy of, 90, 338-9, 425, 568 see Live stock Farming, adapt type of, to local conditions, 147 Farm manure, see Manure Fat, 4 absorption of, 32 amount formed ftom various nutrients. 88 a source of muscular energy, 102 compared with other nutrients for pro ducing work, 102 digestion of, 25 effect of cottonseed meal on, 174 680 FEEDS AND FEEDING Fat, ctmtinued feeding, eftect on digestibility, 52 feeding to dairy cows, 350 formed by ox In 1 day, 43 ftom carbohydrates, 86 pentosans, 87 protein, 87 in animal may resemble that in veget- able, 86 in milk, factors influencing composition and yield, 344-57 globules in, 345 origin in body, 85 possible amount produced in body by nutrients, 88 source of, in milk, 105 vegetable, 4^5 yielded by great dairy cows, 393 wool, 107 Fatten animals to meet demands of market, 147 Fattening, 83-91 composition of increase during, 83-5 factors Influencing, 89 influence of age on, 89 ample food on, 89, 97-8 breed on, 89 exercise on, 89 palatabllity on, 89 temperament on, 89 object of, 83 ration for, 88 Fattening period, cost of gain increases with length, 436, 568, 630 length for pigs, 630 sheep, 661, 562 steers, 437-9 Fattening process, what it is, 83 Fattening qualities of ox, sheep, and pig compared, 90 Fattening the horse, 332-4 Fatty tissues, storage of, see Fattening Feces, 28 heat lost in, 45, 47, 57 Feed, administration to cows, 405—7 horses, 297-8 lambs, 560 pigs, 624-5 steers, 500-1 Feed, consumed dally by pigs of various weights, 568-9 from Dirth to maturity by steers, 432 yearly by calves, 427 cows, 395-6 horses, 318 cooking, for farm animals, 269-71 horses, 294 pigs, 269, 576 effects on butter fat, 351 influence on body of pig, 81, 92-6 milk fat, 349-51 long and short for steers, 437 preparation for farm animals, 267-71 calves, 415 cows, 405 horses, 293-4 pigs, 573-7 sheep, 515 steers, 451—3 relation to work of horse, 282 regulation of sale, 190 returns from by various farm animals, 90 soaking, 51, 271 for horses, 294 swine, 577 see Feeds, also Feeding stuffs waste, utilized by livestock, vlli Feed adulteration, 190 Feeding standards, 109-38 first, 109 , , ,„„ for dairy cows, comparison of, 133 Eckfes, 132, 133 Haecker's, 130 Feeding standards, continued for dairy cows. Savage's, 132 Scandinavian, 126 WoU-Humphrey, 131 for farm animals, 109-38 Armsby's, 120-6 Kellner's, 118-20 Modified Wolff-Lehmann, 134-8, Appendix Table V Wolff, 110 Wolff-Lehmann, 110-2, 116-8, Ap- pendix Table IV for lambs, Bull-Emmett, 123 history of, 109-10 only approximate guides, 115 Feeding stuffs, 149-271 adulteration, 190 coefBcients of digestibility, 39, Appen- dix Table II composition, 8, Appendix Table I control, 190-1 digestible nutrients in, 40, Appendix Table III fertilizing constituents in, 274-6, Ap- pendix Table III guide in purchasing, 191 mineral matter in, 8-9, Appendix Table VI value of, to animal, 44 Feed lot, counsel in, 493-506 paved, 448 Feed racks for sheep, 516 Feeds, Armsby's energy value of, 121 cost of, considering in formulating rations, 140-5 fertilizing value of, 274r-5 how allowed for in England, 277 for beef buUs, 486 beef calves, 487-9 beef cows, 484-6 breeding ewes, 549-55 brood mares, 320-2 brood sows, 624—6 carriage horses, 335 dairy bulls, ,429 dairy calves, 412-24 dairy cows, 358—86 dairy heifers, 426 foals, 323-8 horses, 299-319 lambs, 558-9 pigs, 587-623 rams, 549 sheep, 521-47 staUions, 329 steers, 449-83. 489-92 trotting horses, 335 work horses, 330 KeUner's starch values, 119 low in fiber, digestibility of, 39 in lime, 65 In phosphorus, 65 market prices not guide to value of, 139 mixed or proprietary, 189 rich in lime, 65, Appendix Table VI in phosphorus, 65 selecting, for economical rations, 139-45 suitability of, considering in formulat- ing rations, 112 true value of, for work horses, 285 see Feed, also Feeding stuffs Feed imits, 126-8 measuring economy of cow by using, 128 use in Swedish test associations, 129 Fertility, buying, in purcliased feeds, 276 selDng, in crops, 276 Fertilizers, composition and value of, 272 essential elements in, 272 see Manure Fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs, 274, Appendix Table III Fertilizing value of feeds, retained and voided by animals, 273 INDEX 681 I^ermentation In stomach, 22 Feterlta, 168, 169 „ for pigs, 594 Feterita fodder, 202 Feterita silage for sheep, S43 Fiber, 10 changed to marsh gas, 26 digestion of, 26 how determined In feeds, 10 loss of energy in digesting, 48 Field bean, see Bean, field Field pea, see Pea, field Filly, weight of at birth, 322 time to breed, 321 Fish meal, 184 for dairy cows, 369 Flat turnips, see Turnips Flavor of milk affected by feed, 355 Flax feed, 177 Flax oil-feed, 177 Flax plant by-product, 177 Flax seed, 175 for calves, 414, 416 Flax straw, 217 Flesh formation, 75 Flesh meal for dairy cows, 369 sheep, 532 Flock, see Sheep Flour, manufacture of, 156 red dog, 158 Foaling time, care of mare at, 321-2 Foals, care of, 322-8 cost of raising, 328 cow's milk for, 325 creep for, 324 feed for, after weaning, 326-7 fall, 322 forcing draft, 328 mineral matter for, 326 raising orphan, 325 weaning, 325 weight of, at birth, 322 yearly gain of, 322, 328 see Colt Fodder, ensilage of, 254 Fodder com, see Corn fodder and Corn forage Food, cooked, digestibilit:r of, 51, 269 coarse, energy lost in digesting, 48 disposition of, in respiration study, 42 of horse, loss of energy tn digestion, 48 taken by ox in 1 day, 42-3 unappreciated factors in, 70 see Feeds, also Feeding stuSs Forage, coarse, see Boughage green, digestibility of, 50 Forage poisoning, 251 Force, see Work Foot-ton and foot-pound, 282 Fowl meadow grass, 211 Frosted corn for silage, 200 Fruit, 247 for horses, 318 sugar, 3 Fuel value of feed, see Energy Gain, by calves, 421 foals, 322 lambs, 556, 559 pigs, 568^70 sheep, 512 steers, 432-6 comparative, by ox, sheep, and pig, 90 of growing animals, 75-6 Garbage for pigs, 596 Gasoline and steam engines compared with animals, 44, 45, 104 Gastric juice, 20 Germ oil meal, 154 for cows, 362 Gestation period of cow, 408 ewe, 548 mare, 321 sow, 626 Glucose, 3-4 disappears from muscles during work, 102 manufactured from corn, 153 stored in the muscles, 102 Gluten feed, 154 for cows, 362 pigs, 608 sheep, 632 steers, 465, 503 Gluten meal, 154 for cows, 362 horses, 308 pigs, 608 Gluten of wheat, 156 Glycogen, 32, 102 disappears from muscles diu'ing work, 33, 102 produced continuously in body tissues, 102 stored in the muscles, 33, 102 Goat, Angora, 567 milch, 567 Goober, see Peanut Grade, influence on energy expended in work, 289 Grain, grinding, see Grinding grain ' ground, digestibility of, 51 hogging down ripe, 615 soaking, for horses, 294 pigs, 574^6, 577 Grass, 204-15 changes in ripening, 60, 204 Cluing into hay, 217 dried compared with fresh, 217 effects of frequent cutting on yield, 204 weather in curing, 217-8 for silage, 258 gains of steers on, 501-2 Influence of ripeness on digestibility, 50 pasture for pigs, 615 quality of yoimg, 204 time to cut for hay, 205, 206 Grasses, mixed, 214 the smaller, 204-15 see Hay, also Pastiure Greasewood, 249 Great Britain, fattening sheep in, 538 steers in, 482 Green forage, digestibility of, 50 Grinding grain for cows, 405 farm animals, 268 horses, 294 pigs, 573-6 sheep, 515, 523 steers, 451-3 oats for horses, 268, 294 Grooming, effects on cows, 353 Grooming horses, 297 Ground bone for calves, 417 colts, 326 pigs, 573, 680 Ground rock phosphate, see Phosphate, rock Growing animals, 75-83 effect of checking growth of, 99 ndlk natural food for young, 77 roughing thru the winter, l47 Growth of animals, 75-83 Increase in protein and mineral matter during, 75 relation between composition of milk and rate of, 78 mineral matter requirements for, 81-2 protein requirements for, 79-80 Guinea grass, 213 Haecker feeding standard for dairy cows, 130 Hairy vetch, see Vetch, hairy Harness, influence of, on work of horse, 297 Hay, aids in curing, 220 aroma of, 218 brown, 221 digestibility of, 60 chamng or cutting, see Chaffing hay changes while curmg, 218-9 682 FEEDS AND FEEDING Hay, continued from second growth grass, 219 lime for caring, 219 losses by stacking, 222 making, 218-22 under favorable conditions, 220 measurement, 222 mixing straw with, for curing, 219 new made, laxative, 219 salt for curing, 219 shrinkage, 222 spontaneous combustion, 221 time to cut clover for, 231 grass for, 205, 206 vs. com silage for dairy cows, 381 see Grasses, also Legumes Hay, alfalfa, effects of rain on, 218 losses by stacking, 220 Hay equivalents, 109 Hay tea, for calves, 423 Heat, amount given ott by cow daily, 68 in coal, pure nutrients, and various feeds, 44 controlling loss of, from body, 56 energy expended in body takes form of, 48, 55 how it is produced in body, 55 loss from body, 56—9 depends on body surface, 58 covering of body, 57 temperament, 58 lost in digestion, 47 warming water drunk, 69 manner of escape from body, 57 manner of equalization in body, 56 of body increased by work, 55 produced by all the work of body, 55 production in body, 55-6 influenced by standing and lying, 58 regulation in body, 56 requirements for maintenance, 57 see Energy Heating water for cows, 404 farm animals, 69 Heifers, beef, vs. steers, 448 Heifers, dairy, advantage of home-reared, 412 age to breed, 427 cost of rearing, 427-8 feed and care of, 426-8 yield of, compared with cow, 346 Hemp seed cake, 367 Herblvora, feeding concentrates only to, 72 Herd records of cows, 387-91 Herd's grass, see Timothy Hogs, see Figs Hogging down com, 588 Hominy feed, 155 for cows, 359 pigs, 590 steers, 459 Honeycomb, or second stomach, 18 Hordein, 5 Horse bean, 180 for horses, 305 Horse feeding, a skilled art, 320 Horse power, definition, 282 Horses, 281-337 (For value of varioxis feeds for horses, see the diflerent feeds; 1. e.. Corn, Oats, etc.) air breathed by, 67 army, feed and care of, 292, 336 blanketing, 296 body temperature of, 54 care of, hwts on, 297, 320-37 carriage, feed, and care of, 335 chafBng hay for, 293 clipping, 296 concentrates for, 299-309 cooked feed for, 294 cost of feed, 318 raising, 328 digestibility of food by, 52, 283 Horses, continued effects of exercise and work on, 284 energy expended in carrying load, 289 draft, 290 Ufting body, 289 locomotion, 289 excess of roughage injurious, 309 exercise for, 295 fattening, 332-4 feed and care of, 320-37 work, relation of, 282-93 feed consumed yearly, 318 preparation of, for, 268-70, 293—4 required for maintenance, 285 feeding, supervision of, 298 feeds for, 299-319 fitting for shows, 335 grade, effect on energy expended in Twork 28Q grinding grain for, 268, 294 grooming, 297 hints on feeding, 297 locomotion of, 289 magnitude of horse industry, 281 maintenance requirements, 285 measuring work performed by, 282 nutrients, net, needed in work, 287 nutritive ratio for, 290 power exerted by, of varying weights, 282 preparing feed for, 293-4 protein requirements of, 286, 290 rations for, 331 relation of feed to work, 282 speed to feed and work, 288 roughage, amount for, at hard work, 292 excess of, injurious, 309 necessity of, 73 roughages for, 309-18 saddle horse, care and feed of, 335 salt for, 295 severe work by, 292 soaking grain for, 294 speed influences energy required for work, 288 stables for, 296 succulent feeds for, 316-8 sudden changes In feed dangerous, 297 supervision of feeding, 298 teeth, care of, 297 temperature of, 55 trotting, feed and care of, 335 unusual feeds for, 299 water drunk by, 295, 318 evaporated by, 292 watering, time of, 294 weight, variations in, 292 wintering, 332 work, factors infiuenclng, 281-98 feed and care of, 330 value of feeds for, 284 wide and narrow rations for, 291 work performed by, 282 influence of speed on, 288, 292 grade on, 289 in relation to feed, 282 types of, 287 Hothouse lambs, see Lambs, hot-house Hungarian grass, see MiUet Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 20 in stomach, 21, 63 influence on pancreatic secretion, 23 Increase during fattening, composition of, 83-5 Indian com plant, see Corn Inorganic phosphorus, see Calcium phos- fhate secretion, 24 Intestine, large, digestion In, 24 small, digestion in, 22-4 Intestines, length and capacity of, 18 of pigs, length, 584 Invertases, 24 INDEX 683 Iron In blood, 63 plants, 2 Japan clover, see Lespedeza Japanese millet, see Millet, Japanese Japanese cane, 213 for pigs, 616 steers, 482 Jerusalem artichoke, see Artichoke Johnson grass, 212 Johnson grass hay for cows, 379 horses, 310 Johnson grass and cowpea silage for steers, 481 June grass, see Bluegrass Kafir, 168, 169 for calves, 414 cows, 360 horses, 303 pigs, 593-4 steers, 45&-6 may contain poison, 251 Kafir fodder, 201-2 for beef cows, 486 Kafir silage, 203 for beef cows, 486 dairy cows, 382 steers, 480 Kafir stover, 202 for beef cows, 486 steers, 472 Kale, 247 Kaoliang, 168, 169 for pigs, 594 Kaoliang fodder and stover, 202 Kellner's starch values and feeding standard, 118-20 Kentucky bluegrass, see Bluegrass Kidneys, elimination of waste thru, 34 Kidneys of pigs, influence of corn feeding on, 93—4 Kindness, effect of, on digestion, 51, 354 Kohlrabi, 246 Kudzu vine, 239 Labor, see Work Labor, distribution of in livestock farming, iz Lactase, 24 Lactation, eSects of advancing, 347 Lacteals, 32 Lambing, date of, 548 Lambs, see Sheep assimilate calcium phosphate, 66 compared with calves, 425 pigs, 425, 557 economy of, compared with pigs, 557 fattening, 560-4 feed and care of, 553, 554, 558-60 feeding grain before and after weaning, 510 gains by, 512, 556 gain from ewe's milk, 556 hot-house, 564r-6 returns from, compared with other farm animals, 90-1, 557 rich and poor milk for, 78 spring, 566 teaching young, to eat, 558 weaning, 559 weight of, at birth, 554 winter, 564-6 Lamb's-quart^r seed for pigs, 596 Leaves and twigs, 248 Legumes for forage, 223-39 for silage, 258, 382 importance in feeding, 64, 223 in place of concentrates for cows, 371-6 rich in lime, 223 Legume hay, importance of, for cows, 370 horses, 313 pigs, 621 sheep, 533-4 steers, 466-8 Legume roughages for pigs, 621-3 Legumin, 5 Leguminous seeds, 177-9, 179-80 for horses, 305 Leguminous plants for green forage and hay, 223-39 Leguminous roughage contains lime in excess of phosphorus, 65 Lespedeza, 237 Lespedeza hay, 237 for horses, 310 Light, Importance of, for farm animals, 74 absence of, favors fattening, 74 Lime, 64-5 effect of deficiency in ration, 64 feeds low in, and rich in, 65, Appendix Table VI in legumes, 65, 223 required for growth, 81 maintenance, 64-5 withholding from cows, 64, 351 pigs, 81-3 see Calcium Lime phosphate, see Calcium phosphate Linseed cake, see Linseed meal Linseed meal or cake, 176 for calves, 414, 415 cows, 366 horses, 307 pigs, 602, 604 sheep, 531 steers, 463, 476-7, 503 new process, 176 old process, 176 Linseed oil meal, see Linseed meal Lipase, 23 Liver, 23 infiuence of corn feeding on, 94 Live stock and profitable farming, vil consume feed otherwise wasted, viU employ labor thruout year, is promote intelligent and pro- gressive agriculture, Ix utilize land unsuited for tillage, vlil Load, energy expended by horse carrying, 289 Locomotion of horse, 289 Loco poisoning, 252 Lucerne, see Alfalfa Lymph, 32, 33 Lymphatics, 31 Machine, the animal as a, 103 Maintenance of farm animals, 54r-74 Maintenance ration, see Bation, main- tenance Maintenance requirements, 54-74 greater when animal is standing, 58 of horse, 285-7 vary with body surface, 58 Maize, see Corn Malt, 162 manufacture of, 162 Maltase, 24 Malt sugar, 4, 24, 162 Malt sprouts, 163 for cows, 363 Mammoth clover, see Clover, mammoth Mangels, 242 dangerous to rams or wethers, 242, 638 for cows, 384 pigs, 618 sheep, 538 steers, 481, 483 Manure, 272-80 barnyard, benefits the soil, 272 calculating amount of, 278 care of, to prevent loss, 280 fertilizing constituents recovered in, 273 influence of feed on, 274 losses in, 279 value of 1 ton ftom farm animals, 277 684 FEEDS AND FEEDING Manure, continued voided by steer from birth to maturity, 432 see Fertilizers Manurial value of feeds, 274 Manyplles, 18 Mare, brood, feed and care of, 320-2 gestation period of, 321 see Horse Mare's milk, composition and yield of, 324 Margin in fattening live stock, 431 Marsh gas, or methane, 28, 38, 43, 47 Marsh hay, 214 for sheep, 536 Mastication, 19 energy lost in, 48 Meadow fescue, 211 Meat, marbUug-of, 83 Meat meal and meat scrap, see Tankage Melons, 247 Metabolism, 31 Metabolizable energy, 45 Middlings, see Wheat middlings, Oat middlings, etc. Milch cows, see Cows MUk. cow's. 181, 344-57 ash in. 77 bitter. 356 color of. affected by feed. 356 colostrum, 77 composition of, 77. 344 factors influencing. 344-57 influence of advancing lactation on, 347 age of cow. 346 condition at calving. 348 drought. 352 exercise, 353 feed. 349-51 period between milk- inss, 346 turmng to pasture, 352 work, 353 effects of rich, on infants, 79 young animals, 78 fat globules in, 345 fat, source of, in. 105 feed-cost of producing. 395-6 first and last drawn, composition of, 346 flavor, affected by feed, 355 rape pasture, 246 rye pasture, 210 for calves, 412, 417 foals, 325 lambs, 557 pigs, 599 nitrogen and ash in. 16. 77 odors in. due to feed, 355 of different breeds, 344 yield, effects of advancing lactation on, 347 of great dairy cows, 393—5 period of greatest, 348 Milk, ewe's, 77, 555 mare's, 324 sow's, 77. 629 MlUc, production of, 104 nutrients required for, 106 secretion of, 104 source of fat in, 105 the natural food for young animals, 77 Milking cows 3 times daUy, 355 Milking, Hegelund method, 355 Milking machines, 354 Millet seed, 170 for pigs, 595 < sheep, 531 steers, 457 foxtail, 170 German, 209 hog, or broom-corn, 170 Hungarian, 209 Japanese. 209 Millet hay, 209 dangerous to horses. 311 for horses, 311 lambs, 536 steers, 491 MHo, 168, 169 for horses, 303 pigs, 594 sheep, 530 steers, 456 Milo fodder and stover, 202 Mineral matter, 2, 62-7, 81 controls Ufe processes, 63 digestion of, 28 effects on animals of lack of, 63, 81 bones of pigs, 81, 94, 573 for calves, 416 colts, 326 cows, 64, 351 pigs, 66, 81, 94, 572-3 importance of, in food, 83 increase in, during growth, 75-6 in feeding stuffs, 8, 9, 65, Appendix Table VI in plants, 2, 7 required for growth, 81-2 maintenance, 65 stored in body of ox In 1 day, 43 see Calcium and Phosphorus Mixed feeds, 189 Modified Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard, 134-8, Appendix Table V Molasses, beet, 186 for horses, 304 pigs, 618 sheep, 530 steers, 459 Molasses, cane, 186 for calves, 416 cows, 187 horses, 304 Molasses-beet pulp, see Beet pulp, molasses- Molasses feeds, 187 for horses, 304 Molassine meal, 187 Mules, 281, 332 Muscles, cause of contraction unknown, 101 increase thru exercise, 75 of pigs, influence of com feeding on, 94r-5 see Protein. Muscular contraction. 56. 57. 101 Muscular energy, may come from protein, 56, 60, 101 produced by burning car- bohydrates and fat, 100 production of, 101 Natal grass, 214 Net enerpy, see Energy, net Net nutrients, see Nutrients, net New corn product, 198 Nitrogen, in feeds, as a fertilizer, 273 in fresh excrement, 278 produced yearly by farm animals, 279 voided by farm animals, 278 Nitrogen-free extract In feeds, how deter- mined, 10 Nitrogenous compounds In plants, 5 Nitrogenous feed, 41 Nitrogenous waste In urine, 47, 59, 100 Nutrients, defined, 17 Nutrients, 17 digestible, 17, 39 distribution of absorbed, 33 final uses of, 34 In feeding stuffs, explained, 8 required by dairy cows, 106, 398-405 horses, 285-92 pigs, 572-3 sheep, 107, 561-2 steers, 493—4 total digestible, 41 INDEX 685 Nutritive ratio, 41 for work horses, 290 how calculated and expressed, 41 may be iride for maintenance, 61 narrow and wide, 41 narrow favors rapid growth, 91 wide may depress digestibility, 51-2 Oat dust, 161 Oat feed, 161 Oat hay, 209 Oat hulls, 160 Oat meal for calves, 414, 423 Oat middlings, 161 Oats, 159 bleached, 160 by-products of, 160 cupped, 159 for calves, 419 cows, 359 foals, 323 horses, 299-300 pigs, 591 sheep, 528 steers, 455 no stimulating principle in, 160 weight of, 159 see Cereals Oat straw, 216 for horses, 312 sheep, 536 Oat substitutes for horses, 300 Odors In milk, due to feed, 355 Oil cake, see Linseed meal or cake Oils, see Fats Olein, 5, 585 Oleomargarine for calves, 414 Omasum, 18 Order and quiet, importance of, for cows, 406 sheep, 548 steers, 500 Orchard grass, 208 Ox, body temperature of, 55 composition of body, 15 increase by, in 1 day, 43 see Steer Oxygen, breathed by ox in 1 day, 42 Oxygen intake increased during work, 101 PalatabiUty, 30, 113 Falmitin, 5 Palm nut cake, 367 Pancreas, 23 Pancreatic juice, 23 Para grass, 213 Parsmps, 243 for horses, 317 Pasturage vs. soilage for (iows, 265 Pasture, abuse of, 214 annual, for sheep, 545 effects of feeding concentrates to cows on, 401-3 on milk yield and composi- tion, 352 fattening cattle on, 501-4 for beef cattle, 501-4 horses, 316 pigs, 608-15 sheep, 544-7 gains by steers ft'om, 501—4 midsummer shortage of, 214 milk trom. 1 acre, 265 Paunch, 18, 22 see Stomach Pea-cannery refuse, 235, 258 Pea meal, see Pea, field Peanut, 178, 238 Peanut cake or meal, 178 Peanut hulls, 179 Peanuts for pigs, 607, 620 Peanut vine nay, 238 Pea, field, 179, 235 for horses, 305 sheep, 532, 535 pigs, 605, 612 Pigeon-gra^ hay, 235 for sheep, 535 Pea, Tangier, 238 Peavine silage, 235 fattening sheep on, 543 Peavine waste, troja canneries, 235 Pentosans, 3—4 a source of body fat, 87 muscular energy, 102 in dried brewers' grains, 163 in flax seed, 175 Pentose, 3-4 Pepsin, 20, 21 Peptones, 20, 26 Phosphate, calcium, for farm animals, 66, 94 Phosphate, ground rock, for farm animals, 66 foals, 326 pigs, 81-2 Phosphoric acid in feeds as a fertilizer, 273, 275 in ft'esh manure, 277 produced yearly by farm animals, 279 voided and retained by farm animals, 273 Phosphorus, effect of low supply, 64, 81 feeds low in, and rich in, 64r-5, Appendix Table VI in bran, 157 in nerve cells, 63 inorganic, for pigs, 81 regiWEed for maintenance, 64 '*-, growth, 81 by calf, 76 )ldjng fl-om pigs, 81 >r lambs, 528 pigs, 595 Pigs, 568-632 ' (For value of various feeds for pigs see different feeds; i.e.. Corn, Clover hay, etc.) air breathed by, 67 bacon production, requirements for, 584 barrows vs. sows, 583 birth weight of, 628 body of. composition, 15 body temperature of, 55 bone for, ground, 573 breed tests, 582 calves and lambs compared, 425 composition of increase during fatten- ing, 83 concentrates for, 587-608 cooking feed for, 269, 576 correctives of mineral nature for, 579 digestibility of food by, 52 dressed carcass, per cent jrielded by. 584 droppings of corn-fed steers for, 434, 452, 495 economy of meat production by, 90, 568-70 compared with lambs, 557 exercise for, 581 fattening, 630 fattening period, effect of lengthening, 568-70, 630 feed eaten daily, 568-9 eaten for 100 lbs. of gain, 568-9 utilization of, by, 571 feeds for, 587-623 feeding corn exclusively, 92-5 grain on pasture, 609 inorganic phosphorus to, 81-2 thru the dam, 568-70 following steers, 495 forage crops, for 608-21 gains tl:om birth to maturity, 568-70 droppings of steers, 434, 495 grain, amount to feed on pasture, 609 grinding grain for, 268, 573-6 ground DOue for, 573 ground rock phosphate for, 81-2 hogging down corn, 588 ripe grain, 615 home markets for pork products, 631 686 FEEDS AND FEEDING PlSS> continued Influence of feed on body, 92-6 length of fattening period on gains, 568-70, 630 intestines, length of, 584 light vs. heavy feeding, 577 maintenance requirements of, 571 milk only for, 73 milk, rich and poor, for, 78 mineral matter for, 81-2, 573, 579 number in Utter, 627 nutrient requirements of, 572 phosphorus-poor rations, efllect of, 81 pork from, see Pork preparation of feed for, 573-7 quarters for, 581 razorback, 583 returns from, compared with other farm animals, 90, 568 rich and poor milk for, 78 roughage for, 608-23 salt required by, 579 self feeders for, 578 shelter for, 581 soaking feed for, 51, 271, 576-7 soft pork from, see Fork, soft sow, see Sows stock foods for, 580 strength of bones aflected by feed, 81-2, 92-4 stubble fields, gleaning, 616 succulent feeds for, 60^^ 1 summer care and feea^^24 summer vs. winter 4[^^Bkf, 581 tuberculosis, from ^t^^^^Biis steers, 597 ^^^M thru fe^^^^Hkcted milk, 182 ^'yfrn types of, 582 unweaned, gains by, 569 water required by, 579 weight at birth, 628 wetting feed for, 577 winter care and feed of, 625 see Swine, and Sows Plants and animals compared, 16 Plants, carbon dioxid, food material for, 1 composition, at different stages of maturity, 49 factors influencing, 48— 50 elements present in, 1 food of, 1-2 how they grow, 1-7 poisonous, 250-3 support animal life, 7 the source of animal life, 7 use of ndneral matter in, 2 water required by, 1 Plant substances, how grouped, 8-10 Poisonous plants, 250-3 Pork, effects of acorns on, 188 barley on, 162, 586, 590 beans on, 180, 585, 605 buckwheat on, 171, 595 com on, 92-6, 585 linseed meal on, 604 millet on, 170 molasses on, 618 oats on, 586 peas on, 586, 605 peanut feeding on, 178, 238, 586, 621 roots on, 586 rye shorts on, 593 skim milk, on 586 soybeans on, 586, 606 squashes on, 620 velvet beans on, 237 Pork, soft, causes of, 585 Potash, as a fertilizer In feeds, 273, 275, Appendix Table III in fresh manure, 278 produced yearly by farm animals, 279 voided by farm animals, 278 Potassium chlorid, feeding in place of salt, 67 Potassium in blood, 63 Potatoes, 243 dried, 244 for cows, 385 horses, 318 pigs, 619 Poultry, returns of, compared with other farm animals, 90 Prairie hay for cows, 378 horses, 310 sheep, 536 steers, 467, 490 Pregnant animals, food requirements of, 82 Preparation of feeds, 267-71 Preparing feed, general conclusions on, 271 Prickly comfrey, 248 Prickly pear, 249-50 for silage, 258 see Cacti Products, edible, returned by various farm animals, 90 Profltable farming, Ix-z Proprietary feeds, 189 Protein, 5-7 absorption of, 33 amount in rations, adapting to local conditions, l46 a cell stimulant, 61 body, a source of muscular energy, 102 building of body, 27 compared with other nutrients for pro- ducing work, 102 complete and Incomplete, 79 crude, 5 dlgestibiUty of, 38 how determined in feeds, 9 in ripening clover, 231 corn, 11-2 timothy, 206 in young and mature grass, 204 digestion of, 26 effects of carbohydrates in sparing, 56, 59-61 excessive feeding of, 60 fats In sparing, 59-61 feeding only, 60 fat formed ftom, 87 feeding carbohydrates and fats with, 60 pain in, by growing ox, 76 increase of, during growth, 75-6 Uberal supply essential to normal growth, 79 minimum requirement, 60—2 by cows, 61 horses, 286 steers, 61 percentage stored ' In body during growth, 76 replaced by amids, 62 required for growth, 79 maintenance, 59-62 source of muscular energy, 102 stored by ealf, 76 waste of, from body, 59 Protein metabolism, 34, 59-62, 79-81 Protein-rich rations, effect on fat in milk. 350 Protein supply must be ample, 61 Protein tissue, storage of, 75-6 „ waste of, during work, 100 Proteoses, 20, 27 Protoplasm, plant, 3, 5 Prussia acid, plants carrying, 250 Ptyalln, 20, 21 Public tests of dairy cows, 391-3 Pumpkins, 247 for cows, 247 pigs, 620 Pumpkin seeds, 247 Purslane, 248 Quarters for farm animals, see Shelter Quiet, importance of, for farm animals, 74 INDEX 687 Bam, feed and care of, 549 see Sheep Rape, dwarf Essex, 246 for cattle, 246 pigs, 614 sheep, S46-7 Bapeseed cake, 308, 367 Rations, 17 balanced, 17 limitations of, 115 bulkiness of, importance of, 113 calculating, for dairy cows, 131, 140-5 fattening steers, 136-8 steers at rest, 116-8, 124r-5 complete and incomplete, 71 compounding, for dairy cows, 410-11 digestibility of, affected by acid, 52 age of an- imal, 53 breed of an- imal, 53 carbohy- drates, 51, 291 cooking, 61 drying green forage, 60 fat, 52 kind of an- imal, 52 salt, 52 steaming, 51 economical, for farm animals, 139-48, 410 fed cows on test, 393 feeding wide and narrow to steers, 91 for dairy cows, standards for computing, see Feeding standards for various farm animals, see Feeds general hints on computing, 112-5 general requirements of, 112-6 hints on calculating, 116 influence of scanty, on growth, 96-8 maintenance, 17, 64-74 economical, 48, 58 for mature animals, 54-74 growing steers, 96—8 for various farm animals. Appendix Tables IV and V, see also Horse, Pig, etc. heat requirements in, 58 influence of quiet on, 58 restlessness on, 58 temperature on, 59 protein required in, 60-2 should vary according to body sur- face, 59 see Maintenance ration meager, effect of, on growing steers, 96-8 poor, fair, and good, for dairy cows, 410 practical considerations concerning, 112-6 practical, for steers, 494 standard, see Feeding standards Rations and feeding standards, general con- clusions, 115 Red clover, see Clover, red Bed dog flour, 158 for pigs, 603 Bed top grass, 208 Regularity, importance of, for farm animals, 74 Rennet, 21 Bennln, 21 Rescue grass, 213 Respiration apparatus, description, 41 Respiration studies with ox, 41 Reticulum, 18 Rice, 166 damaged, value, 167 red, feeding value, 167 returns from sack of, 166 rough, for horses, 305 Bice bran, 166 adapting flknoi carbo^^^^K nc affectea iiy nltro Rice by-products and rough rice for steers, 457 Rice by-jproducts for pigs, 607 Bice hulls, dangerous to animals, 160 Rice meal for calves. 415 Rice polish, feeding value, 167 Rice straw, 217 Roads, draft required on various, 283 Rock phosphate, see Phosphate, rock Roots and silage, dry matter in, 241 relative cost of, 242 yield of, 241 Roots and tubers, 240-5 costly, 241, 242 for cows, 383-5 horses, 317 pigs, 617-9 sheep, 241, 538-40 steers, 481, 482-3 how fed in Canada and Great Britain, 241 Influence of feeding on bacon, 586 use in steer feeding in Great Britain, 241 stock feeding, 240 vs. concentrates for dairy cows, 240, 383 vs. com silage, 241, 384 for lambs, 539 steers, 481 value of dry matter in, 240 yield of, and dry matter in, 241, 242 Roughages, 10 adapting ^Jlli^ortion of roughages and 33 to local conditions, need supplement, 313 " affected by carbohy- aflecte^^ nitrogenous matter, 52 effect of storage on digestibility of, 50 excess injurious to horses, 292, 309 for various farm animals, see Feeds losses of energy in digestion of, 48 necessity of, for calves, 72 cows, 72 herbivora, 71-2 horses, 73 sheep, 72 steers, 72 swine, 630 steaming for cattle, 269 Rumen, 18 Ruminants, 18 digestibility of food by, 52 digestion of, 21 Russian thistle, 249 Rutabagas, 243 for norses, 317 lambs, .539 steers, 483 Rye, 164 effect on dairy products, 164, 360 for cows, 360 hay, 210 horses, 303 pasture, 209-10 pigs, 593 silage, 210, 383 see Cereals Rye grass, English, 211 ItaUan, 211 Rye pasture Injures flavor of milk, 210 Rye straw, 216 Sagebrush, 248 Saliva, action on food, 20 amount secreted, 19 Salt, common, 66 effect of excessive consumption of, 66 on digestibility, 52 for calves, 417 cows, 405 horses, 295 pigs, 579 sheep, 517 steers, 496 688 FEEDS AND FEEDING Salt, continued In blood, 63 Influence on digestibility, 52 need of, by farm animals, 66 withholding, from cows, 67 Saltbush, 249 Salt-marsh hay for cows, 214, 379 Saltpeter in corn forage, 233 Scandinavian feed unit system, 126 Scarlet clover, see Crimson clover Scours In calves, 426 Screenings, see Wheat screenings Self feeders for pigs,, 578 sheep, 515 steers, 447 Separator skim milk, see Skim milk Serradella, 238 Serum albumin, 33 Serum globulin, 33 Sesame oil cake, 308 Shallu, 168 Shallu fodder and stover, 202 Shearing, effect of frequent, 520 Sheep, 507-67 (For the value of different feeds for sheep, see the various feeds; i.e., corn, clover hay, etc.) age, influence of, on gains, 512 air required by, 67 body temperature of, 55 breeding studies of, 554 breed tests of, 509-10 care and managemeni composition of Dodj?, concentrates for, 521 cost of gains by, 56L dally gain of, 517, 5fi_ ,,. , danger from feeding mangels, 242, 538 dipping, 561 dressed carcass, per cent yielded by, 518 exercise for, 514 fattening, 560-4 different ages, 512 in Great Britain, 538 in small bands, 564 in the com belt, 564 in the East, 564 in the fall, 562 in the West, 563 length of feeding period, 561 proportion of concentrates for, 561 rations for, 521-47, 561 feeding, hints on, 560—4 feed racks for, 515 feeds for, 521-47 flock, proper size of, 508 general problems in sheep husbandry, 507-20 gestation period, 548 grinding grain for, 268, 515 increase during fattening, 83 legume hay for, importance of, 533-5 mutton and Merino, compared, 508 regularity and quiet for, 548 returns compared with other farm animals, 90 roughages for, 533-7 salt consumed by, 517 self feeders for, 515 shearing before fattening, 511 shelter for, 513 shrinkage in shipping, 519 slaughter tests, 518 soilage for ewes and lambs, 511 stomach worms, 559 succulent feeds for, 538-47 turning to pasture, 558 unusual feeds for, 507 water required by, 516 weight of dressed carcass, 518 fattened, 517-8 winter care of, 550 winter quarters for, 513, 550 wool production, see Wool see Ewes and Lambs Shelter, for cows, 405 farm animals, 69 horses, 296 pigs, 581 sheep, 513, 550 steers„ 445—7 Shlpstufl, see Wheat feed Shock com, for steers, 471 value in feeding, 196 see Com fodder Shocking com, 196 Shorts, see Middlings, wheat Shotes, care and feed of, 630 Shredding com forage, 197 see Corn forage Shrinkage in shipping sheep, 519 steers, 498 Silage, 254-64 advantages of, 257 alfalfa, 228, 258 apple pomace, 258 as a feeding stuff, 259 beet leaves for, 243, 258 clover, 232, 258 Silage, corn, 198-201, 257 for beef cows, 484-5 dairy cows, ^59, 379-82 ewes, 551-3 horses, 317 pigs, 621 \ sheep, 539-43 \ steers, 474r-80 removing ears from com before ensiling, 201 vs. apples, 247 vs. com fodder, 199, 380 vs. hay for cows, 381 vs. roots, 240 for co#s, 384 lambs, 539 steers, 481 vs. shock com for steers, 480 vs. sugar beets for cows, 384 Silage, cost of producing, 258 cowpea, 236, 258 for dairy cows, 374 crops suitable for, 257 ciu'ed com forage for, 200 digestibility of, 51 effects on milk, 380 for beef cattle, 474-82 frosted corn for, 200 losses in silo, 255 mixed, for cows, 382 mouldy, dangerous, 317 peavine, 235 preservation, manner of, 254 position of, on stock farm, 259 prickly pear, 258 size of, proper, 263 sorghimis for, 203 southern vs. northern corn for, 199 space occupied by, 257, 264 steaming, 255 summer, 260 for cows, 403 thistles for, 258 vs. soilage for cows, 260, 385 waste in airtight sllo, 256 weight of, 262 Silage and roots, dry matter in, 241 relative cost of, 240, 242 Silo, 255-7 capacity of, 262 cylindrical, 256 danger from carbon dioxid in filling, 262 economy of various sizes, 256, 264 fllliag, 261 proper size of, 263 rate of fllling, 259 requisites of a good, 255 types of, 256 Skim milk, 181 for cows, 369 INDEX 689 Skim milk, continued for colts, 325 calves, 412-5, 41S-9 horses, 182 pigs, 596-9 money value, for pigs, 598 pasteurized for calves, 419 proper proportion for pig feeding, 598 substitutes for, in calf rearing, 421-4 Skin, heat carried ofl by water escaping from, 57 lost from, by radiation and con- duction, 57 Slaughteivhouse waste, 183—1 Slop, amount of water in, for swine, 577 feeding grain in form of, to cows, 405 Smut, corn, 252 Soaked feed, 271 for horses, 294 pigs, 51, 271. 576-7 Soft pork, see Pork, soft Soilage, 264^7 advantages of partial, 266 alfalfa for, 227 cereals for, 209 clover for, 232 crops for, 266 defined, 264 disadvantages of, 260, 264 for cows, 385 pigs, 616 sheep, 511 , labor involved in, 264 sorghums for, 203 vs. pasturage. 265 vs. silage, 260, 385 Soiling chart. 266 Sorgho, see Sorghum, sweet Sorghum, sweet, 167, 170 for cows, 360 pigs, 593 Sorghum fodder or hay. sweet. 201-2 for horses. 311 sheep, 536 steers, 467, 490, 491 Sorghum hay, see Sorghum fodder Sorghum pasture, 203 for pigs. 616 Sorghum silage, sweet. 203 for cows, 382 sheep, 543 steers, 480-1 Sorghum soilage. 203 Sorghum stover, sweet, 202 for steers, 472 Sorghums, grain, see Kafir, Milo, Feterita, Kaoliang. Durra, Shallu Southern grasses, 211-4 Sow and litter, care of, 628 Sows, age to breed. 626 care at farrowing. 627 composition of milk, 629 feeding exclusively on skim milk, 73 gestation period, 626 maintenance requirements. 572 milk, yield of. 628-9 number of litters, 626 spayed vs. unspayed, 583 vs. barrows, 583 wintering, 625 see Pigs Soybean, 177, 236 for calves, 415 cows, 366 horses, SOS pigs, 605 sheep, 532 steers, 463-4 Soybean cake for cows, 367 Soybean hay, 236 for cows, 375 Soybean meal or cake, 177, 178 for cows, 367 Soybean pasture and corn for pigs, 612 Soybean silage for cows, 376, 382 Soybean straw for sheep, 535 Spayed vs. unspayed sows, 583 Spaying, effects of, on cows, 353 Speed in relation to feed, 288 work, 283, 292 Spelt, see Emmer Spread or margin in selling steers, 431 Spurrey, 248 Squashes, 247 for pigs, 620 Stables for beef cattle, 445 , dairy cattle, 405 horses, 296 pigs, 681 sheep, 513 Stallions, feed and care of, 329-30 exercise for, 329 St. Louis Exposition, tests of dairy cows at, 391-3 Standard rations, see Feeding standards Starch, 4 absent in flax seed, 175 action of saliva on, 20 digested by ptyalin, 20 in corn kernel, 152 production of. from com, 153 saccharified, for calves, 416 Starch values. Kellner's. 119 Starvation, effects of. 56, 97-9 Steam engine iand animal compared, 44, 45, 103 Steaming roughage for cattle. 269 silage, 255 Steapsin, 23 Stearin, 5 Steer,feeding, counsel in feed lot, 493-506 importance of order and quiet in, 500 requires business judgment, 499 see Steers Steers, 430-506 (For the value of the different feeds for steers, see the various feeds; i.e.. corn, corn silage, etc.) age, influence of on gains, 76, 432-6 breeds compared. 439-45 calcium phosphate beneficial to. 66 calculating rations for. 116-8, 124-5, 136-8 compared with heifers for beef, 448 composition of, at different ages, 84 composition of increase during fatt'ening, concentrates for, 449-66 confinement vs. open shed for. 445-7 cost of fattening. 497 Increases with age, 76, 432-6 increases with degree of finish, 436 counsel in the feed lot, 493-506 dressed carcass, per cent yielded by, 440, 442 early maturity of beef breeds. 442 effects of feeding wide and narrow rations, 91 fat of. effects of cotton seed on, 174 fattened animal, indications of, 493 fattening, methods of, 501-6 on pasture, 501-4 on roughage alone, 470 on small allowance of concen- trates, 478-9 ration for, 494 requires business judgment, 499 feed consumed by various breeds, 440 ft-bm birth to maturity, 432 feeds for, 449-83 feeding exclusively on concentrates, 72 chiefly on roughage during first of fattening, 438. 478 finished, cost of, 432 frequency of feeding. 496 gains on grass, 501-5 from droppings, by hogs, 495 influenced by age, 76, 432-6 690 FEEDS AND FEEDING SteerB, continue getting on feed, 494 grain feeding on pasture, 502-4 grazing on cowpeas and corn, 471 grinding grain for, 268, 451-3 growth under adverse conditions, 96-9 eavy and light feeding of corn, 451 increase during fattening, 83-5 long vs. short feeding, 437 loose vs. tied, 447 manure voided ft:om birth to maturity, 432 margin required in fattening, 431 market grades compared, 439-14 order, importance of, for, 500 pasture for fattening, 501-4 vs. summer feeding, 502 paved feed lots for, 448 pigs following. 495 preparation of feed for, 268, 451-3 preparing for shipment, 498 profitable type of, 444 proportion of valuable parts in carcass, 443 pure-bred, amount of feed consumed by, 440 early maturity of, 442 feed consumed by for given gain, 440 quality, value of, 443 quarters for, 445-7 quiet, importance of, for, 500 rations fed by British feeders, 482 rations for fattening, 449-83, 493-4 returns from, compared with dairy cow, 338-40 other farm animals, 90 roughage, feeding none to, 72 roughages, for, 466—83 salt for, 496 self feeder for, 447 shelter for, 445-7 shipment, preparing for, 498 short vs. long feeding, 437 shrinkage in shipping, 498 soaking corn for, 451-2 succulent feeds for, 474-83 summer vs. winter feeding, 502 tied vs. loose, 447 valuable parts in carcasses of various breeds, 443 vs. heifers for beef production, 448 water drunk from birth to maturity, 432 required by, 496 weight of fat, at Smithfield Show, 444 variations in, 497 wide and narrow ration for, 91 wintering growing, 489—91 with grain, 491-2 without grain, 491 Steers and pigs, gain of. In feed lot, 434 Stock, cooked feed for, 269 preparing feed for, 267-71 Stock foods, 191 for pigs, 580 formulse for, 192 Stomach, capacity of, 18 digestion in, 20-2 simple, 20 Stomachs of ruminants, 18, 21 Stomach worms in sheep, 559 Stooking com, see Shocking com Stover, see Corn stover Straw, 216-7 for horses, 312 sheep, 536 steers, 472, 478, 492 from cereals, 216 legumes and other plants, 216 Succulent feed, value of, 73 for cows, 403 horses, 316 pigs, 608 Succulent feed, contin'ued for sheep, 53S steers, 474 Sucrase, 24 Sudan grass, 212 Sudan grass hay for steers, 472 Sugar beet pulp, see Beet pulp Sugar beets, 243 . for cows, 384 pigs, 618 sheep, 538 steers, 481 vs. corn silage for cows, 384 Sugar cane, 213 . Suint in wool, 107 Summer silage, 260 Sunflower seed, 179 Sunflower seed cake, 179, 308, 367 Sun, the source of life, 7, 35 Swedes, see Rutabagas Swedish clover, see Clover, alslke Sweet clover, see Clover, sweet Sweet potato, 244 Sweet potatoes for pigs, 620 steers, 482 Swine, management and feed of, 624-32 see Pigs Systems of feeding, adapting to local con- ditions, 146-3 Tallow, fed to cows, 350 rough, yielded t^y steers of various breedis, 443 Tankage, 183 for horses, 309 pigs 95, 600-2 sheep, 533 see Flesh waste Teeth, care of, in horses, 297 Temperature, body, of farm animals, 55 effects of too high, in stable, 59. 296 see Heat Teosinte, 209 Testing association, for dairy cows, 128, 387-8 Therm, 44 Thistles, Russian, 249 silage from, 258 Timothy, 205-8 effect of manuring on, 206 yield at different stages, 206 Timothy hay. 205-8 early and late cut, 206 for cows, 378 horses, 309 sheep, 535 steers, 468, 491 vs. upland prairie hay for cows, 378 Tissue bmldlng, 27, 34 Tree leaves and twigs, 248 Trotter, feed for the, 335 Trypsin, 23, 27 Tuberculosis, pigs infected thru following steers, 597 spread by feeding Infected milk, 182 Tubers, see Boots and tubers Tunis grass, 212 Turnips, 243 Twigs, see Tree twigs Urea, 34 energy in, 45, 47 Urine, 34 fertilizing constituents voided in, 279 heat carried off by, 47 nitrogenous waste in, by ox in 1 day, 43 voided by farm animals, 278 waste of nitrogen in, 47 Variety of feeds, importance of, 114 Veal, feeding for^ 488 Dutch, 488 Scotch, 489 INDEX 691 Velvet bean, 287 for cows, 368 pigs, 237 steers, 238, 466 Velvet bean pasture for pigs, 613 Ventilation, air required by farm animals, 67 see Air Vetch, hairy, 236 common, 236 Vetch hay for cows, 376 Vim, 32 Waste land and waste feed utilized by live stock, viii Waste of body, disposal of, 34 Water, amoimt required by animals, 68 calves, 417 cows, 68, 404 horses, 68, 205 lambs, 516 pigs, 68, 579 sheep, 68, 516 steers, 496 danger from drinking when overheat- ed, 295 drunk by steers fl:om birth to matur- ity, 432 effects of depriving animals of, 68 evaporated by horses, 292 evaporation of, carries heat from body, 69 formed from breaking down food, 69 f^e drinking does not cause body waste, 69 frequency of drinking, 69, 404 influence on digestibility of feeds, 51 in feeds, how determined, 8 in plants, 1 must be warmed in body, 69 stored In body of ox in 1 day, 43 taken by ox in 1 day, 42-3 vapor of lungs, heat carried off by, 57 warming for cows, 69, 404 farm animals, 69 Watering, time for horses, 294 Weaning colts, 325 calves, 419 Iambs, 559 pigs, 630 Weeds, silage ftrom, 258 Weight, body, variations in, of horse, 292 steer, 497 Wet beet pulp, see Beet pulp, wet Wet brewers' grains, see Brewers' grains, wet Wetting feed, for cows, 355 pigs, 577 Wethers, see Sheep and Lambs Wheat, 155 by-products of, 156-9 for cows, 359 hay, 210 horses, 303 pigs, 690 sheep, 526 steers, 454 frosted, for lambs, 527 stock, 156 low grade, for steers, 455 shrunken and damaged, for stock, 156 see Cereals Wheat bran, 157 cause of laxative effect, 157 for calves, 414 colts, 326 cows, 361, 365, 371-4 horses, 305, 333 lambs, 558 Wheat bran, coTitinued for pigs 604 sheep 532, 551 stallions, 329 steers, 465 trotting horses, 336 phosphorus in, 157 poor in lime, 157 uses for stock, 158 Wheat bread, feeding to animab, 157 Wheat feed, 159 for cows, 362 Wheat grass, 211 Wheat middlings, 158 for cows, 362 horses, 306 pigs, 602-3 Wheat pasture favorably affects milk, 210 Wheat screenings, 159 for sheep, 527 Wheat shorts, see Wheat middlings Wheat straw, 216 Whey, 182 for calves, 422 cows, 361 pigs, 600 Whole milk, see Milk, cow's Wild grass, 214 see Prairie hay Wild hogs see Pigs, razorback Winter lambs 564-6 Wintering beef cows, 484-6 growing cattle, 489-92 orses, 332 Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, 110-2, 116-8, Appendix Table IV Wood ashes for farm animals, 66 Woll-Humphrey standard, 131 Wool, composition of, 107 influenced by shearing, 520 feed, 107 production, 107, 520 Work, 100-4 carbon dioxid produced during, 101 effect on digestibiUty of feeds, 51, 284 on milk production, 353 of practice on, 103 energy requirements for, 103 factors influencing eflSciency of, 103 heat produced thru, 104 Internal, produces heat, 45, 47, 104 measurement of, 282 ne nutrients needed by horses for, 287 nutritive ratio for, 290 of the horse, 282 miscellaneous factors influencing, 297 performed by the horse, 282 possible from 1 lb. of feed, 284 protein waste during, 100 relation of speed to, 288 relative value of nutrients for producing, 102 requirements by horse for light, medium, and heavy, 292 severe, by the horse, 292 source of energy for, 102 types of, performed by the horse, 287 value of feeds for, 284 see Energy Work animals, nutrient requirements of, 100-4, 290-2 see Horses Work horse, see Horses Worms in pigs, 631 Yolk In wool, 107 ^