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MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY 
 
 ^ Complete ffiutUe 
 
 IN COLLECTING AND PRESERVING 
 BIRDS AND MAMMALS 
 
 BY C. J. MAYNARD 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BOSTON 
 
 S. E. CASSINO AND COMPANY 
 
 1883 
 
Copyright, 
 
 BT S. E. CASS mo & CO. 
 
 1883. 
 
 ELECTROTYPED. 
 
 BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOinsrDBT, 
 No. 4 Pearl Street. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Twenty-five or thirty years ago amateur col- 
 lectors of birds were rare ; in fact, excepting in the 
 immediate vicinity of large cities, individuals who 
 spent their leisure time in gathering birds for the 
 sole purpose of study, were so seldom met with 
 that, when one did occur, his occupation was so 
 unusual as to excite the comments of his neigh- 
 bors, and he became famous for miles around as 
 highly eccentric. Such a man was regarded as 
 harmless, but as just a little "cracked," and the 
 lower classes gazed at him with open-mouthed 
 wonder as he pursued his avocations ; while the 
 more educated of his fellows regarded him with a 
 kind of placid contempt. I am speaking now of 
 the days when the ornithology of America was, so 
 to speak, in obscurity; for the brilliant meteor- 
 light of the Wilson ian and Audubonian period had 
 passed, and the great public quickly forgot that 
 the birds and their ways had ever been first in the 
 
IV MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 minds of any one. To be sure, men like Cassin, 
 Lawrence, Baird, and Bryant were constantly 
 writing of birds, but they did it in a quiet, scien- 
 tific way, which did not reach the general public. 
 Possibly the political troubles in which our country 
 was involved had something to do with the great 
 ornithological depression which fell upon the pop- 
 ular mind. Strange as it may appear, however, for 
 a period of thirty years after the completion of 
 Audubon's great work, not a general popular work 
 of any kind was written on birds in America. Then 
 appeared Samuels' " Birds of New England," pub- 
 lished"in 1867, a work which apparently did much 
 toward turning the popular tide in favor -of orni- 
 thological study, for from that time we can perceive 
 a general awakening. Not only did the newspa- 
 pers and magazines teem with articles on birds, but 
 in the five succeeding years we find three impor- 
 tant works on American ornithology announced as 
 about to appear: Baird, Brewer, and Ridgeway's 
 " History of American Birds," of which three vol- 
 umes have appeared, published in 1874; May- 
 nard's "Birds of Florida," issued in parts, but af- 
 terwards merged into the " Birds of Eastern North 
 America," completed in 1882, and Coues' "Key," 
 published in 1872. Other works quickly followed. 
 
INTRODUCTION. V 
 
 for now the popular ornithological tide was setting 
 strongly towards the flood, and it has ever since 
 been rushing on and gathering recruits as it goes, 
 until the tidal wave of popular favor for orni- 
 thological pursuits has reached from shore to shore 
 across our great continent ; and where there were 
 once only a few solitary devotees to this grand 
 science, we can number thousands, and still they 
 come ; so that high-water mark is not yet reached, 
 while to all appearances this tidal-wave will agitate 
 the coming generation more strongly than it does 
 the present. 
 
 Of all the vast numbers interested in the study 
 of bird life, there are few who do not gather speci- 
 mens. Years ago, in the beginning of the study, 
 when the solitary naturalist had no one to sympa- 
 thize with him in his pursuits, birds' skins were 
 usually made in what we would now consider a 
 shocking manner. Within the last fifteen years, 
 however, since ornithologists have become more 
 numerous, and the opportunities of comparison of 
 workmanship in preserving specimens has been 
 facilitated, great improvements are seen. Slovenly 
 prepared collections are now far from desirable ; in 
 fact, even rare specimens lose much of their value 
 when poorly made up. When there are enough 
 
VI MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 experienced collectors in one locality to compare 
 notes as to the various improvements each has 
 made in skin-making and rnounting birds, one aids 
 the other ; but there is always a multitude of be- 
 ginners who live in isolated localities and who do 
 not number experienced collectors among their 
 friends, and who consequently require the aid of 
 written instructions. Hence the need of books to 
 teach them. 
 
 This little work, then, is intended to meet- the 
 wants of amateur ornithological collectors, wher- 
 ever it may find them, for it is written by one who 
 has at least had the advantage of a very wide ex- 
 perience in collecting skins, making and mounting. 
 He has also had the advantage of, comparing his 
 methods with those of many excellent amateurs 
 and professional collectors throughout the country ; 
 and if he has not conferred any benefits on them, 
 he has at least gained much useful information, and 
 the results of all this are now laid before the 
 reader. 
 
 The art of taxidermy is very ancient, and doubt- 
 less had its origin among the very early races of 
 man, who not only removed the skins of birds and 
 mammals for clothing, but also for . ornaments. 
 Birds and mammals were also frequently regarded 
 
INTRODUCTION. VU 
 
 as objects of worship, and consequently preserved 
 after death, as among the ancient Egyptians, who 
 embalmed entire birds and mammals that were 
 considered sacred. 
 
 From the rude methods of preserving skins, 
 doubtless, arose the idea of mounting, or placing 
 the skins in lifelike attitudes. The first objects 
 selected for this purpose were, of course, birds and 
 mammals of singular forms or brilliant colors, as 
 objects of curiosity. Later specimens would have 
 been preserved for ornamental purposes, but it is 
 probable that it was not until the seventeenth cen- 
 tury that either birds or mammals were collected 
 with any idea of their scientific value. 
 
 Specimens either mounted or in skins must 
 have been rudely preserved at first, but, like all 
 other branches of art and science, when people 
 began to understand the value of well-made speci- 
 mens when compared with those poorly done, 
 workmen who became skilled in their art appeared 
 and turned out good work. The art of making 
 good skins, however, never was understood in 
 this country, at least until within the last fifteen 
 or twenty years, and even now it is rare to find 
 good workmen who can make skins well and 
 rapidly. 
 
Vlll MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 As is natural, many methods have been prac- 
 ticed to insure lifelike attitudes in birds and other 
 objects of natural history. A good opportunity of 
 studying the various schools of mounting may be 
 seen among the specimens of a large museum, 
 where material is gathered from various localities 
 throughout the world. I have seen birds filled 
 with many varieties of material, from cotton to 
 plaster, and have even seen cases where the skin 
 is drawn over a block of wood carved to imitate 
 the body removed. 
 
 As a rule, I prefer the soft body filling, where all 
 the wires are fastened together in the centre of the 
 inside of the skin, and cotton, or some similar elas- 
 tic material, filled in around it. This method is, 
 however, very difficult to learn, and, unless one has 
 had a large experience in handling birds, will not 
 give satisfactory results. I have therefore recom- 
 mended the hard body method, as . given in the 
 text, as being the best, as it is more easily learned 
 and always give's the best results in the hands of 
 amateurs. 
 
 In skin-making, although I have given two 
 methods, making in the form and wrapping, I pre- 
 fer the latter, as being by far the best, although it 
 is not as easy to learn. 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 Mounting mammals and reptiles and making 
 their skins also varies as given by different indi- 
 viduals, but I have given the method by which I 
 have found, by experience, amateurs succeed the 
 best. 
 
 Some may consider the information given in the 
 following pages, too meagre for practical purposes, 
 but 3^ have purposely avoided giving lengthy in- 
 structions, considering a few well-worded sen- 
 tences much better, as expressing much more 
 clearly the ideas I wish to convey. In short, the 
 reader has the condensed results of my extended 
 experience, and if he will follow with care and pa- 
 tience the instructions herein given, I am sure that 
 he will obtain satisfactory results from his labor. 
 
 I have endeavored to inculcate the idea in the 
 following pages that he who wishes to be a suc- 
 cessful taxidermist cannot accomplish his end 
 without the utmost care ; he must exercise pa- 
 tience and perseverance to the extreme ; difficulties 
 will arise, but he must overcome them by severe 
 application to the study of his art, and, as years 
 pass by, experience will teach him much that he 
 never knew before. I have been assured many 
 times, by men who are now skilful workmen, that 
 their first ideas of preserving specimens were 
 
X MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 divined from my "Naturalist's Guide." Thus I 
 trust the present little work may aid others who 
 are entering the fairy land of science, to prepare 
 lasting mementoes gathered by the way. 
 
 C. J. MAYNARD. 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Pagb 
 
 Explanation of Plates 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Part I. — Birds. 
 
 Chapter I. — Collecting i 
 
 Section I. Trapping, etc. Section II. Shooting. 
 Section III. Procuring Birds. Section IV. Care 
 of Specimens. 
 
 Chapter 11. — Skinning Birds 33 
 
 Section I. Ordinary Metliod. Section II. Excep- 
 tions to the usual iVIethod of Slcinning. Section 
 III. Ascertaining the Sex of Birds. Section IV. 
 Preserving SItins. Section V. Other Methods of 
 Preserving Skins. 
 
 Chapter III. — Making Skins 49 
 
 Section I. Cleaning Feathers. 
 Skins of Long-necked Birds. 
 Skins of Herons, Ibises, etc. 
 Owls, Eagles, Vultures, etc. 
 Specimens. Section VI. Care of Skins, Cabinets, 
 etc. Section VII. Measuring Specimens. Section 
 VIII. Making Over Old Skins. 
 
 Chapter IV. — Mounting Birds . . . .64 
 Section I. Instruments. Section II. Mounting from 
 Fresh Specimens. Section III. Crested Birds. 
 
 Section II. Making 
 Section III. Making 
 
 Section IV. Hawks, 
 Section V. Labelling 
 
Xll MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Section IV. Mounting with Wings Spread. Sec- 
 tion V. Mounting Birds for Screens, etc. Section 
 VI. Mounting Dried Skins. Section VII. Prices 
 for Mounting Birds. Section VIII. Panel Work. 
 Game Pieces, etc. 
 
 Chapter V. — Making Stands 8i 
 
 Section I. Plain Stands. Sections II. Ornamental 
 Stands. 
 
 Part II. — Mammals. 
 Chapter VI. — Collecting Mammals . . .84 
 Chapter VII. — Making Skins of Mammals . . 86 
 Section I. Skinning Small Mammals. Section II. 
 Skinning Large Mammals. Section III. Making 
 Skins of Mammals. Section IV. Measuring Mam- 
 mals. 
 
 Chapter VI 1 1. — Mounting Mammals . . .90 
 .Section I. Small Mammals. Section II. Large 
 Mammals. Section III. Mounting Dried Skins of 
 Mammals. Section IV. Mounting Mammals with- 
 out any bones. 
 
 Chapter IX. — Mounting Reptiles, Batrachians, 
 
 and Fishes 97 
 
 Section I. Mounting Lizards, Alligators, etc. Sec- 
 tion II. Mounting Turtles. Section III. Mount- 
 ing Fishes. 
 
LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
 
 Fig. I. — Page 2. 
 
 Sieve trap : B, common coal sieve, set with one edge raised 
 by stick A, to \/hich is attached the string C, one end of 
 which is held by the bird-catcher at a distance. When, the 
 bird, attracted by the bait, goes under the sieve, the stick is 
 jerked out and the sieve falls. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Page 3. 
 
 Ever-ready bird-trap : D, body of trap made of netting 
 F and A, hoops supporting netting. A, ring to which are 
 attached-the wires C, which point backwards. The bait is 
 placed within the body of the trap and scattered through the 
 ring B. Then the bird enters at the entrance A, goes 
 tlirough the ring B, so on past the wires C, which are 
 arranged in a circle to prevent his egress. The bird is 
 removed through an orifice in the back, drawn together with 
 a tring at F 
 
 Fig. 3. — Page 33. 
 
 Skinning-knife : The handle of this knife should be round, 
 and the blade does not close. 
 
 Fig. 4. — Page 37. 
 
 Skull of bird (side view) : Dotted line from A to B shows 
 cut to be made in removing back of skull to give access to 
 brain. 
 
XIV MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Fig. J. — Page 37. 
 
 Skull of bird, under side : Dotted lines A, A, A, show cuts 
 to be made in removing a triangular piece of bone and muscle, 
 to which the whole or a portion of the brain will adhere. 
 
 Fig. 6. — Page 42. 
 
 Dissection of a. song sparrow, showing male organs of re- 
 production : I and 2, lungs ; 3, 3, testicles. The four organs 
 below these are the kidneys. 
 
 Fig. 7. — Page 43. 
 
 Dissection of a song sparrow, showing female organs of 
 reproduction : 4, lungs ; i, i, small yellow glands, present 
 in both sexes ; 2, ovaries ; 3, oviduct. These last four 
 figures are merely diagrams, only sufficiently accurate in 
 outline to coavey an idea of the position of the parts indicated. 
 
 Fig. 8. — Page 50. 
 
 Tweezers for making skins, mounting, etc. : Several sizes 
 are used, but as a rule the points should be longer than 
 those given in the cut. 
 
 Fig. 9. — Page ji. 
 
 Drying forms fastened to a board, D, skin in the form. 
 I now use these forms detached. See text. Also, see page 
 54 for a better method of making skins which I now practise. 
 
 Fig. id. — Page 54. 
 
 Form of a skin of an oriole : I now use the long label 
 given on page 58. A skin should not be made too full ; a 
 dead bird laid on its back will convey an idea of the thick- 
 ness of the body of a skin. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. XV 
 
 Fig. II. — Page 64. 
 Straight-nosed, pliers : Used for bending wires in mounting. 
 
 Fig. 12. — Page 64. 
 Cutting-pliers : Used for cutting wires in mounting. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Page 66. 
 
 Body of a bird : E, neck-wire, wliich should be as long as 
 the neck and tongue in order to reach into the upper man- 
 dible. This wire should be wrapped in cotton. B, wire before 
 clinching; G, C, wire clinched ; F, tail wire bent in the form 
 of a T at H, a leg wire going through tarsus along dotted 
 line to D. 
 
 Fig. 14. — Page dfj. 
 
 Roughly-drawn skeleton of a pinnated grouse, only suiS- 
 ciently accurate to indicate the different bones : A, skull ; B, 
 B, B, vertebra ; furcula of neck and back, or wishing-bone ; 
 D, forearm ; F, carpus, showing hollow in bone through which 
 the wire is to be passed in wiring the wing; G, end of 
 furcula ; H, tip of keel ; I, indentations in posterior border 
 of stemma ; J, femur ; K, tarsus ; L, heel ; M, pelvis ; N. 
 cocyx ; O, crest of keel ; P, side of keel ; X, wire used in 
 mounting skeleton ; A, B, ribs. 
 
 Fig. 15. — Page 69. 
 
 Outline figure of grouse showing external parts : A, back ; 
 B, rump ; C, upper tail coverts ; D, under tail coverts ; E, 
 ventral region ; F, tibra ; G, tarsus ; H, breast ; I, side ; J, 
 throat ; N, chin ; L, abdomen ; M, feet 
 
 Fig. 16.- Page 73. 
 
 Outline drawing of a mounted bird : A, A, dotted line to 
 indicate the relative position of the head and body, with the 
 
XVI MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 perch on which the bird stands ; B, B, winding cotton to 
 keep the feathers in position ; C, C, indicating proper posi- 
 tion of wings ; D, tail feathers " plated." I do not now 
 recommend this method. E, E, tail bearing wire ; F, upright 
 of gland ; H, horizontal bar of stand ; I, feet of bird on stand ; 
 S, leg-wire wrapped around bar after emefging from foot. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Page 92. 
 
 Lower portion of bolt used in mounting large mammals : 
 A, movable nut on screw C ; B, immovable flat washer. 
 
MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 PART I — BIRDS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 COLLECTING. 
 
 Section I. : Trapping, ^tc. — Several devices 
 for securing birds for specimens may be success- 
 fully practised, one of the simplest of which is the 
 box-trap, so familiar to every schoolboy. If this 
 be baited with an ear of corn and placed in woods 
 frequented by jays, when the ground is covered 
 with snow, and a few kernels of com scattered 
 about, as an attraction, these usually wary birds 
 will not fail to enter the trap. I have captured 
 numbers in this way, in fact, the first bird which I 
 ever skinned and mounted, was a blue jay, caught 
 in a box-trap. I was only a small boy then, so I do 
 not now remember what first suggested mounting 
 the bird, but the inherent desire to preserve the 
 specimen must have been fully as strong then as 
 in later years, or I never could have brought 
 myself to the point of killing a bird in cold blood. 
 
MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 In fact, putting the bird to death is the worst of 
 trapping; and with me, unless I do it at once, 
 during the first excitement of finding the bird 
 entrapped, the deed is likely never to be done at 
 all. Sparrows, snow-buntings, and in fact nearly, 
 all birds of this class may be caught in box-traps 
 in winter. For these small birds, scatter chaff 
 over the snow so thickly as to conceal it, then use 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 a spindle upon which canary-seed has been glued, 
 for bait, scattering some of the seed outside. 
 Other traps, however, may be used more success- 
 fully for fringilline birds. For example, the clap- 
 net trap, where two wings, covered with a net, 
 close over the birds, which are attracted by seeds 
 strewn in chaff, scattered in the snow. This trap, 
 which is similar to those used by wild-pigeon 
 catchers, is sprung by means of a long cord, the 
 end of which is in the hands of a person who is 
 
COLLECTING. 
 
 concealed in a neighboring thicket or artificial 
 bower. A very simple trap, but excellent for 
 catching sparrows,. may be made by tilting a com- 
 mon coal sieve on one edge, keeping it up by 
 means of a stick which has a cord attached to 
 the middle (see Fig. i). The birds will readily go 
 under the sieve, in search of food, when the trap- 
 per, who is concealed at a short distance, jerks out 
 
 Fig. z. 
 
 the stick by means of the cord ; the sieve falls and 
 the birds are captured. This trap requires con- 
 stant watching, which, in cold days, is not very 
 pleasant ; thus a much better trap may be found 
 in one of my own inventions, which is called the 
 " Ever-ready Bird Trap." It is made of strong 
 netting stretched over wire, and is placed on the 
 ground or on a board in a tree. A decoy bird, of 
 the same species as those to be captured, is pro- 
 
4 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 cured if possible, and placed in the back of the trap 
 at Fig. 2, and then the birds enter the front of the 
 trap, B ; pass through the way of wires, C, 
 which pointing backward after the manner of the 
 well-known rat-trap, prevent their egress. This 
 trap is constantly set, and several birds are cap- 
 tured at one time. Orioles, bobolinks, rose- 
 breasted grosbeaks, goldfinches, snow-buntings, 
 all other sparrows and finches, in fact," all birds 
 which will come to a decoy or bait, may be taken 
 in this trap. 
 
 I have frequently taken jays in small snares 
 similar to those used in capturing rabbits. Quail 
 and ruffed grouse were also taken in this manner 
 before the present time, but it is now illegal to 
 trap game-birds in nearly all the States. 
 
 The steel trap of the smallest size is exceedingly 
 useful in capturing hawks, owls, and even eagles, 
 as well as many other large birds. One way is to 
 set it in the nest of the bird, first taking care to 
 remove the eggs, substituting for them those of a 
 hen. Almost all large birds may be taken in this 
 manner, and it is an excellent way to identify the 
 eggs in case of some rare hawks or herons. The 
 topmost portion of some dead stub, which is a 
 favorite roost of a hawk or eagle, is a good place 
 
COLLECTING. 5 
 
 to set a trap ; and small hawks and owls may 
 be captured by putting the trap on the top of a 
 stake, some eight or ten feet high, in a meadow, 
 especially if there are no fences near. Hawks and 
 owls haunt meadows in search of mice, and in- 
 variably light upon a solitary stake, if they can 
 find one, in order to eat their prey or to rest, and 
 thus are very apt to put their " foot into it," in a 
 manner decidedly agreeable to the collector, if not 
 so pleasing to themselves. Steel-traps may also 
 be set on boards nailed to trees, in the woods or on 
 hill-tops, but they should in this case be baited 
 with a small mammal or bird. I have succeeded in 
 capturing marsh hawks by tying a living mouse to 
 a steel-trap, and placing it in a meadow which was 
 frequented by these birds. Other hawks and also 
 eagles may be captured by using decoys ; the best 
 thing for this purpose being, strangely enough, 
 a live great horned owl. The owl is fastened to 
 a stout stake in an open field or meadow during 
 the migration of hawks, in the spring or fall, and 
 surrounded by baited traps. The hawks passing 
 over are attracted by the novel spectacle of an owl 
 in such a peculiar position and cortie swooping 
 down for a nearer view, when they perceive the 
 bait, and in trying to eat it are caught. A hawk 
 
O MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 or eagle may be used in this way as a decoy, but 
 the great horned owl is by far the best. 
 
 In using steel traps, care should be taken to wrap 
 the jaws with cloth, so as to prevent injury to the 
 legs of the bird captured. Vultures may be taken 
 in steel traps by simply baiting them with any kind 
 of flesh. Many species of birds may be success- 
 fully captured by one or another of the methods 
 given. In fact, we are in constant receipt of 
 trapped birds during the proper seasons, and thus 
 many hawks and owls which would have been 
 difficult to procure are taken in numbers by our 
 collectors. 
 
 Bird-lime, although scarcely advisable when the 
 birds are intended to be preserved, may be used 
 to advantage in capturing birds for the cage. A 
 small- quantity of it is spread on a twig or small 
 stick, one end of which is lightly stuck in a notch 
 on some upright branch or stem, in such a position 
 that the bird must alight on it in order to reach 
 the bait. The stick should be poised so lightly 
 that the slightest touch of the bird's feet will cause 
 it to drop, when the bird, giving a downward 
 stroke with its wings to save itself from falling, 
 will strike the outer quills against the stick, and 
 thus both feet and wings become fastened to it by 
 
COLLECTING. 7 
 
 the adhering lime. In case of a rare specimen, 
 the Hme may be removed from the plumage by the 
 aid of alcohol, or the bird will remove it in time, 
 if permitted to live. Good bird-lime is difficult 
 "to procure ; that made from linseed-oil and tar, 
 boiled down, is the best ; but this process must 
 be carried on in the open air, as the mixture is 
 exceedingly inflammable. The sticky mass thus 
 obtained must be- worked with the hands under 
 water, until it assumes the proper consistency. In 
 spreading lime on the sticks, the fingers should be 
 wet to prevent the lime sticking to them. Another 
 way in which I have taken such unsuspicious birds 
 as pine grosbeaks, crossbills and red-polls, is by 
 placing a noose of fine wire on the end of a pole, 
 and by approaching a tree cautiously, in which the 
 birds were feeding, have managed to slip it over 
 their heads, when they are drawn, fluttering down- 
 ward, and the noose removed, before any per- 
 manent injury is done. I have even taken pine 
 grosbeaks in an open field in this manner, and have 
 ascended a tree and captured them with only the 
 noose attached to a stout piece of wire, in my hand. 
 Section II. : Shooting. — Although, as shown, 
 many valuable species may be secured by trap- 
 ping, snaring, etc., yet the collector relies mainly 
 
8 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 on his gun. This much being decided, it at once 
 occurs to the beginner, What kind of a weapon 
 shall I get? Of course, muzzle-loaders are now 
 out of the question ; and among the multitudes of 
 breech-loaders in the market, one has only to 
 consult his taste or the length of his purse. 
 Therefore it is simply useless for me to recom- 
 mend any particular make of gun. Good single- 
 barrel breech-loaders can be bought for from nine 
 dollars to twenty dollars, while double-barrels cost 
 from fifteen dollars upward. For ordinary collect- 
 ing, a twelve-gauge is perhaps better than any 
 other, as such birds as ducks, hawks and crows 
 can be readily killed with it. For warblers, 
 wrens, and other small birds, however, a much 
 smaller gauge gun is almost indispensable, as a 
 large gun sends the shot with such force that it 
 not only penetrates the body of the bird, but also 
 goes out on the opposite side ; thus each shot 
 makes two holes, when one is all that is neces- 
 sary to kill. This fact should then always be 
 kept in mind, and as a rule load lightly, with just 
 enough powder to cause the shot to penetrate well 
 into the bird without going through it. In a 
 twelve-gauge gun, two drachms of powder behind 
 an ounce of shot is sufficient to kill a bird like a 
 
COLLECTING. 9 
 
 jay or golden-winged woodpecker, at a distance 
 of thirty or forty yards; then if more penetration 
 is necessary, more powder may be used with the 
 same quantity of shot, but this will cause the shot 
 to scatter more. A good collecting gun, one 
 which will kill small birds with a very small 
 amount of ammunition and little noise, has long 
 been a desideratum. I have tried many kinds, 
 but nothing has proved so satisfactory as a small 
 repeating gun of my own invention, and which is 
 manufactured by us. This gun consists of two 
 brass tubes, a smaller one within a larger, with an 
 air space between, thus greatly deadening the 
 sound ; and both are securely fastened to a finely 
 nickel-plated five-shot revolver. We make two 
 sizes, a twenty-two gauge, the report of which is 
 very slight, and a thirty-two gauge, which makes a 
 little louder noise. The former will kill warblers 
 at fifteen yards, and the latter at twenty yards, 
 while birds like jays, thrushes, and robins, may be 
 brought down with the thirty-two gauge at a 
 distance of ten yards. This gun served me well 
 in Florida last winter, and I killed at least two- 
 thirds of the birds that I collected there with it. 
 The light report of such a' gun does not frighten 
 the birds, while the fact that one nearly always 
 
lO MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 has a second shot ready in the revolving cylinder, 
 is a great help, in case of a wounded bird, or in 
 the sudden appearance of a second specimen, as 
 so often happens, after the first has fallen. The 
 prijce of this gun varies from four dollars and fifty 
 cents to five dollars and seventy-five cents, accord- 
 ing to quality and size. Blow-guns, air-guns, 
 catapults, etc., are useful only in cases when a 
 shot-gun cannot be used, as they cannot be de- 
 pended upon. A collector, in order to procure 
 birds with a certainty, requires a good shot-gun. 
 The ammunition used in the small collecting gun 
 is copper shells, primed, of three lengths for each 
 size. For shot, I use dust numbers ten and eight, 
 but for a larger gun, coarser shot is sometimes 
 necessary; collectors, however, — especially begin- 
 ners, — are apt to use too large shot. On the con- 
 trary, I do not like to shoot too fine shot at large 
 birds ; thus a hawk killed with a heavy charge of 
 dust-shot at twenty yards would have the feathers 
 cut up very badly, whereas a warbler shot at the 
 same distance would be likely to make a good 
 specimen, as it would only receive a few pellets of 
 shot, whereas a large number would strike the 
 hawk. As a rule, then, use dust-shot for birds up 
 to the size of a cedar-bird, then number ten to the 
 
COLLECTING. 1 1 
 
 size of a jay, after which number eight will kill 
 better and cleaner, and I should use this size as 
 long as it will bring down the birds ; and it is sur- 
 prising to see how large species may be killed with 
 it. I have taken brown pelicans, wild geese, and 
 large hawks with number eight, and I once secured 
 a frigate-bird with it, all at good distances. For 
 very large birds like cranes, white pelicans, or 
 eagles I have used a rifle very successfully. A 
 thirty-two gauge Allen is my favorite gun, and I 
 have killed birds at a,ll distances from twenty to 
 three hundred and twenty-five yards with it. Of 
 course, nearly all successful rifle shots must be 
 made at sitting birds, as I have met with but few 
 who could bring them down when flying. Another 
 good method of securing large shy birds which go . 
 in flocks, is to load with buckshot, putting a stiff 
 charge of powder, say three to five drachms, behind 
 it, then fire into the flock from a distance, elevating 
 the gun at an angle of some forty-five degrees 
 above the birds. I have killed both species of pel- 
 icans at two hundred yards distant in this way. 
 
 Section III.: Procuring Birds. — Birds are 
 to be found nearly everywhere, in fact, there is 
 scarcely a square acre of land on the face of the 
 earth which is not inhabited, at one season or 
 
12 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 another, by some species, and many are found on 
 the beaches, and on the ocean itself. Following 
 are some of the localities in which our American 
 species are to be found ; and, presumably, foreign 
 birds of the same families will occur in similar 
 places. 
 
 TuRDiD^ : Thrushes. — Of these, the robin is 
 the most common and is found everywhere. Next 
 among the true thrushes are the olive-backed, 
 hermit, and allied species. These occur usually 
 in woodlands, and are rather shy, keeping at a dis- 
 tance. The wood thrush inhabits deeply-wooded 
 glens. The mocking thrushes prefer thickets in 
 the neighborhood of dwellings, — for example, the 
 cat-bird. The brown thrush also inhabits thick- 
 ets, but are not, as a rule, fond of the society of 
 man, while the smaller thrushes, of which the 
 golden-crowned is an example, prefer the wood- 
 lands ; and the two water thrushes are found in 
 swampy localities. 
 
 Saxicolid^ : Stone-chats. — The blue-birds 
 are often sociable, building in orchards and farm- 
 yards, while the western species appear to prefer 
 mountain cliffs as breeding-places. The rare stone- 
 chat is, I think, found in open sections where it 
 occurs at all. 
 
COLLECTING. 1 3 
 
 CiNCLiDiE: Ouzel. — The solitary species of 
 ouzel found with us inhabits the mountain streams 
 of the far west. 
 
 SylvidyE : True Warblers. — Are pre-emi- 
 nently birds of the woodlands, but occasionally the 
 kinglets, notably the golden-crowned, will wander 
 into orchards during mild days in winter. 
 
 Cham^idjE : Wrentits. — The only species 
 found in the United States inhabits the sage- 
 brush in the far southwest. 
 
 Parid^ : Titmice. — Are also found in the 
 woods or thickets, but some species wander into 
 the orchards during winter. 
 
 SiTTiD^ : Nuthatches. — Are birds of the 
 woodlands as a rule, but the white and red-bellied 
 nuthatches wander considerably in autumn, while 
 the brown-headed seldom if ever leave the piny 
 woods of the south. 
 
 Troglodytid^ : Wrens. — The creeper-wrens 
 are found among the cacti of the far southwest, 
 while the rock-wrens occur among thickets in a 
 similar region. The true wrens are found in 
 thickets, often in the neighborhood of dwellings, 
 in which they frequently build, while the two 
 marsh wrens occur on both salt and fresh water 
 marshes throughout the country. 
 
14 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Alaudid^e: True Larks. — These birds occur 
 on the far prairies, on the coast of Labrador, and 
 in winter along the barren seashores of the north- 
 ern and middle section. 
 
 MoTACiLiD^ : Wagtails. — Are also birds of 
 the open country, and the titlark is found in 
 fields during the migrations, especially along the 
 coast from Maine to Florida. 
 
 SvLVicoLiDiE : American Warblers. — These 
 gems of the woodland and of wayside thickets 
 abound throughout the length and breadth of our 
 country. During the migrations they are gener- 
 ally distributed, it not being uncommon, then, to 
 find even the Blackburnian warbler, which, during 
 the nesting season, is pre-eminently a bird of the 
 deep woods, feeding in the open fields, while I 
 have taken the Cape May warbler, which occurs 
 in summer in the thick evergreens of the north, 
 feeding among the ora^nges and bananas in the 
 gardens of Key West. Warblers then should be 
 looked after nearly everywhere, among willows 
 by the brookside, on the barren hill-tops which 
 scarcely support a scant growth of pine or cedars, 
 and on the blooming trees of orchards. Some 
 species are exceedingly shy, so as to require a 
 heavy charge of dust-shot to reach them, while 
 
COLLECTING. ' 1 5 
 
 Others are so tame as to peer inquisitively into 
 the very face of a collector as he makes his way 
 through their chosen retreats. 
 
 Tanagrid^: Tanagers. — These strikingly col- 
 ored birds are usually found in the woods, occa- 
 sionally however visiting the open sections. They 
 are rather shy and retiring in habits, and their 
 presence must be usually detected by their song. 
 
 HirundinidjE : Swallows. — Are birds of the 
 open country, and are more common in the vicin- 
 ity of settlements than elsewhere. The violet- 
 green swallow, however, occurs among the cliffs 
 of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Ampelid^: Waxwings. — Are, as a rule, found 
 in the open country in the vicinity of settlements ; 
 and even the Bohemian waxwings occur abun- 
 dantly in some of the cities of Utah in winter, 
 feeding upon the fruit of the ornamental trees. 
 
 ViREONiD^ : ViREOs. — Thcsc widely-distributed 
 birds are usually fond of the woodlands, but the 
 white-eye prefers thickets in swampy places, while 
 the warbling is seldom found far from settlements ; 
 indeed, more often inhabits trees which grow in 
 the streets of villages than other sections. 
 
 Laniid^: Shrikes. — Are found in open sec- 
 tions, often in fields, and on the uninhabited Indian 
 
l6 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 hunting-grounds of Florida. I found the logger- 
 heads along the borders of the open prairies. 
 
 Fringillid^ : Finches, Sparrows, and Gros- 
 beaks. — These are, as a rule, found mainly in 
 the more open country. The cross-bills, how- 
 ever, enter thick woods, especially evergreens. 
 The grosbeaks, notably the rose-breast, prefer the 
 woodlands. The blue sparrows, like the indigo 
 bird, are found in open fields grown up to bushes. 
 The snow-buntings occur in open fields and along 
 barren sections of seaboard, while the sharp-tailed 
 and seaside finches inhabit the marshes. The 
 grass sparrows, notably the yellow-winged, Hens- 
 low's, and Leconte's, prefer grassy plains. Last 
 winter I procured all three species of this genus 
 {Coturniculns) on a plantation in Western Florjda, 
 securing them all in three successive shots, a feat 
 which has, I am certain, never before been accom- 
 plished. Many of these grass-haunting birds have 
 to be shot as they rise from the herbage to fly 
 away, but I found, by persistingly following a 
 specimen from point to point, that after a time 
 it would settle in a bush, when I could secure it 
 with my repeating collecting gun. 
 
 IcTERiD^ : Orioles, Blackbirds, etc. — Orioles 
 prefer, as a rule, orchards and ornamental trees 
 
COLLECTING. Ij 
 
 about dwellings, but they sometimes occur in the 
 more open woodlands. The marsh blackbirds, like 
 the red-wings and yellow-headed, prefer wet mead- 
 ows. The rusty and brewer's are found in swamps. 
 The crow blackbirds and boat-tailed occur in fields 
 and along the borders of streams. 
 
 CoRviD^ : Crows, Jays, etc — These usually 
 occur in the woodlands or thickets. Crows fre- 
 quent the seashore in numbers in winter, and 
 may be secured by exposing meat which is poi- 
 soned by strychnine, as they will frequently eat it 
 during the inclement season. Canada and blue 
 jays occur in woods, while the Florida and Cali- 
 fornia jays inhabit thickets. 
 
 Tyrannid^ : Flycatchers. — Are widely dis- 
 tributed species. The king-birds are found in the 
 more open sections, and the same is true of the 
 crested flycatchers. The bridge pewee inhabits 
 the vicinity of dwellings, while the wood pewee 
 occurs in the woods. The least flycatcher pre- 
 fers orchards, but the greater portions of the 
 genus Empidonax are found in woodlands or 
 thickets. 
 
 CaprimulgidjE : Goatsuckers. — The whip- 
 poor-wills and chuck-wills-widow occur in the thick 
 wood, emerging occasionally at night, but seldom 
 
1 8 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Straying from their retreats. A good way to 
 secure these birds is to note as accurately as pos- 
 sible the point where one begins to sing ; then, on 
 the following evening, conceal yourself near the 
 spot, when the bird will be seen to emerge from 
 its retreat and alight on some particular rock, post, 
 or branch, on which it invariably perches, and utters 
 its song. Then if the bird be too far away to 
 secure at the time, it may readily be taken another 
 evening by the collector posting himself nearer. 
 These birds may also be started from their con- 
 cealment during daylight, and thus be shot. The 
 night-hawks inhabit the more open sections, but 
 perch on trees during the day. They may readily 
 be secured while flying over the fields. 
 
 Cypselid^ : Swifts. — The white-throated swift 
 occurs among the clefts of the Rocky Mountains, 
 and is exceedingly difficult to procure. The well- 
 known chimney swift inhabits chimneys almost 
 everywhere, but, as it never alights outside of these 
 retreats, must be shot on the wing, 
 
 TrochilidjE : Hummingbirds. — Inhabit as a 
 rule the open country. I have secured numbers of 
 our ruby-throats on cherry-trees when they were 
 in blossom, and later, on beds of flowers ; and I 
 presume the western species may be found in sim- 
 
COLLECTING. 1 9 
 
 ilar situations. I shoot them with light charges 
 of dust-shot, fired from my collecting gun. 
 
 Alcidinid^ : Kingfishers. — These noisy birds 
 are found plentifully in the vicinity of streams. 
 They are shy and require a heavy charge of number 
 eight to bring them down. 
 
 CucuLiD^: Cuckoos. — The roadrunner of Cali- 
 fornia, Texas, and intermediate locality, occurs in 
 the sage bush, but our species of cuckoos, even 
 the mangrove, inhabit thickets from which they 
 occasionally emerge. They are usually betrayed 
 by their notes. They are easily killed, their skin 
 being very thin and tender. 
 
 PiciD^ : Woodpeckers. — Occur, as a rule, in 
 the woodlands, but the smaller species and the 
 golden-winged inhabit orchards. They are all 
 tough birds to kill. They are a generally dis- 
 tributed family, but some species are confined to 
 certain localities, for example, the great ivory- 
 billed is not found outside of Florida, and even 
 there, is confined to a limited area, and very rare. 
 Strickland's woodpecker has as yet only been found 
 in the United States in a single range of moun- 
 tains in Arizona. 
 
 PsiTTACiD^ : Parrots. — Our Carolina paroquet 
 is now exceedingly rare out of Florida, and then 
 
20 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 occurs in, the neighborhood of cypress swamps, 
 but occasionally visits the plantations. 
 
 SxRiGiDiE : Owls. — The burrowing owl occurs 
 in the western plains and in a limited area of 
 Florida. The snowy owl inhabits sand-hills of the 
 coast in winter, and the short-eared occurs in the 
 marshes, but all other species are birds of the deep 
 woods, occasionally emerging, however, especially 
 at night. The great horned and barred may be 
 decoyed within shooting distance in the spring by 
 imitating their cries, and the latter-named species 
 will also eagerly fly toward the collector when he 
 produces a squeaking sound similar to that made 
 by a mouse. The small owls may be often found 
 in holes of trees. 
 
 FALCONiDiE : Hawks, Eagles, etc. — Marsh 
 hawks occur in fields, meadows, and marshes. 
 Everglade kites are found on the widespread 
 savannahs of Florida, while the swallow-tailed 
 Mississippi and white-shouldered are found on the 
 prairies of the" south and west. The buzzard 
 hawks usually occur in the woods, but during the 
 migrations pass over the fields, flying high. The 
 fish-hawk is abundant on the seacoast, but also 
 visits the ponds and lakes of the interior. The 
 duck-hawk is fond of clefts, and migrates along the 
 
COLLECTING. 21 
 
 seacoast. The sharp-shinned sparrow and pigeon 
 are often found in solitary trees in fields, where 
 they hunt for mice, but they also occur in open 
 woods. The bald eagle occurs on the seashore 
 or on large bodies of water, but the golden eagle 
 prefers the mountainous regions. 
 
 Cathartid^ : Vultures. — Occur everywhere 
 throughout the south. The great California vul- 
 ture is now very rare. 
 
 ColumbidjE : Pigeons. — Are usually found in 
 fields, but the wild pigeon is often taken in the 
 woods. The ground doves are found in fields 
 which are bordered with thickets, to which they 
 retreat when alarmed. Two or three species are 
 found on the Floirida Keys, and about as ■ many 
 more in Texas. 
 
 Meleagrid^e : Turkeys. — Wild turkeys occur 
 in the wilderness of the south and west. They 
 inhabit open woods as a rule, often roosting at 
 night in swamps. 
 
 TetraonidjE: Grouse, Quail, etc. — The Can- 
 ada, ruffled, and allied species of grouse occur in 
 the woodlands. The prairie sharp-tail and sage- 
 hen are found on the plains of the west, while the 
 ptarmigans inhabit the bleak regions of the north. 
 The common quail is widely distributed through- 
 
22 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 out the more open country, from Massachusetts to 
 Texas, and the plumed California and allied species 
 occur in the southwest, frequenting the thickets of 
 the prairies, or along the mountain-sides. 
 
 Charadriid^ : Plovers. — These are, as a rule, 
 maritime birds, especially during the southward 
 migrations, but many of the species breed in the 
 interior, and the kildeer and mountain plovers are 
 always more common on bodies of fresh water. 
 None of the species are, however, found. far from 
 water, but they all alight in dry fields in search 
 of food. 
 
 HiEMATOPODIDiE : OySTER-CATCHERS AND TURN- 
 STONES. — All these birds inhabit the seacoast. 
 They occur in oyster-beds or among rocks. 
 
 Recurvirostrid^ : Avocets and Stilts. — 
 Both these species are birds of the interior, being 
 found in the south and west in the vicinity of 
 water. 
 
 PhaleropodidjE : Phaleropes. — These singu- 
 lar birds are found off the coast, often far out at 
 sea during winter, but, oddly enough, breed in the 
 interior, nesting throughout the northwest and 
 north. They are, however, occasionally found on 
 the coast during the northward migration, especially 
 during storms. 
 
COLLECTING. 23 
 
 ScoLOPACiDiE : Snipes, Woodcock, etc. — 
 Woodcock and snipes are usually found in fresh- 
 water swamps, especially in spring. The true 
 sandpipers, like peep, grass-birds, etc., haunt the 
 pools in marshes or accompany the sanderlings 
 on the beaches. The godwits are found on the 
 marshes, as are also red-breasted snipe, but the 
 curlews inhabit hill-tops, especially during the 
 autumnal migration. I have, however, found the 
 long-billed curlew on the beaches of Florida. 
 Willets and yellow-legs occur on the marshes or 
 on the borders of streams. 
 
 TANTALIDiE : IbISES AND SPOONBILLS. OcCUr 
 
 along the borders of streams and other bodies of 
 fresh water, or on mud-flats in the far south. 
 
 ARDEiDiE : Herons. — These are widely dis- 
 tributed birds. The true herons occur along the 
 margins of bodies of water, both on the coast and 
 in the interior, while the bitterns generally haunt 
 only the fresh water. 
 
 Gruid^e : Cranes. — Are found on the prairies 
 of the west and south, frequenting the vicinity of 
 water. 
 
 Aramid^e : Courlan. — The well-known crying- 
 bird is found only in Florida, inhabiting swamps 
 . along the rivers and lakes of the interior. 
 
24 manual of taxidermy. 
 
 Rallid^ : Rails, Gallinules, and Coots. — 
 The true rails inhabit very wet marshes, both salt 
 and fresh, concealing themselves in the grass. 
 Gallinules and coots are found on the borders of 
 fresh water. 
 
 Phcenicopterid^ : Flamingoes. — The flamingo 
 occurs only with us, on the extensive mud-flats in 
 extreme Southern Florida, where they are exceed- 
 ingly difficult to procure, being very shy. 
 
 Anatid^e : Geese, Ducks, etc. — These are 
 all inhabitants of the water, being seldom found 
 far from it. Some species, like the teal, prefer 
 secluded pools in the interior, while the wood-duck 
 and others frequent woodland streams ; and the 
 eiders and marine ducks are abundant in the 
 waters of the ocean. 
 
 SuLiDiE : Gannets. — Excepting while breed- 
 ing, these birds keep well out to sea, and are thus 
 quite difficult to procure. All of the marine spe- 
 cies are liable to be driven inland during severe 
 storms, and the collector should not fail to take 
 advantage of such circumstances. 
 
 Pelicanid^ : Pelicans. — The brown pelican is 
 a resident of the extreme southern coast, and may 
 be found on sand-bars or perched on trees in the 
 immediate vicinity of water. The white pelican is 
 
COLLECTING. 2$ 
 
 found in similar localities in winter, but migrates 
 northward during the summer, breeding in the 
 interior, from Utah to the Arctic regions. 
 
 Graculid^e : Cormorants. — Occur on sand- 
 bars in the south, or on rocky cliffs in the north, 
 and on the Pacific coast. During migrations they 
 keep well out to sea. They have the habit, in 
 common with the gannets and pelicans, of alight- 
 ing on barren sand-spits which rise out of the 
 water. 
 
 Plotid^ : Darters. — The snake-bird of the 
 south occurs on bodies of fresh water, and may be 
 seen perched on trees or flying high in air. They 
 are exceedingly difficult to kill, being, as a rule, 
 shy, and very tenacious of life. 
 
 TACHYPETiDiE : Frigate Bird^. — The frigate 
 bird is found with us only on the Gulf of Mexico 
 and among the Florida ^iCeys. They are usually 
 seen upon wing, but I have observed thousands 
 perched on the mangroves on the Keys. They 
 roost on the trees on lonely islets at night, at 
 which time they appear so stupid that they may 
 be approached quite readily. 
 
 Ph^tontid^ : Tropic Birds. — These fine 
 birds occur only in tropical waters unless they 
 are accidentally blown out of their latitude by 
 
26 MANUAL OP TAXIDERMY. 
 
 storms. They breed on the rocky cliffs of the 
 Bahamas and Bermudas. 
 
 Larid^ : Gulls, Terns, etc. — The Skua gulls 
 keep well out to sea, as a rule, but occasionally 
 enter harbors and bays in pursuit of gulls and 
 terns, which they rob of their prey. Gulls and 
 terns of the various species rest on sand-bars or 
 fly along the shore. 
 
 PROCELLARiDiE : Petrels. — Excepting while 
 breeding, these birds keep well out to sea and are 
 thus quite difficult to procure. They haunt the 
 waters which are frequented by fishermen, how- 
 ever, and may be procured by visiting these local- 
 ities on some fishing-smack. 
 
 CoLYMBiDiE : Loons. — Are found in both fresh 
 and salt watfers^ but are somewhat difficult to pro- 
 cure on account of their habit of diving. 
 
 PoDiciPiD^ : Grebes. — These birds have sim- 
 ilar habits to those of the loons, but are found in 
 smaller bodies of water, notably the Pied-billed, 
 one or more specimens of which occur in almost 
 every little pool throughout the country, especially 
 during the southward migration. 
 
 Alcid^: : Auks, Puffins, etc. — These birds 
 are found off the coast during migration, but breed 
 on the rocky shores of both coasts. 
 
COLLECTING. Z^ 
 
 Although the foregoing list gives the locality in 
 which a given species may be found, as a rule, it 
 is always well to bear in mind that birds have 
 wings, and by the use of them may stray into 
 unaccustomed localities far distant from their 
 usual habitance. For example, a burrowing owl 
 was shot on the marshes of Newburyport, and a 
 petrel, which has hitherto been known to science 
 through a single specimen which was taken many 
 years ago in the southern hemisphere, was picked 
 up, in an exhausted condition, in a ploughed field 
 of the interior of New York. The young collector 
 then should ever be on the alert, keeping well in 
 mind the fact that the art which he is pursuing 
 is not lightly learned. I have frequently heard 
 the inexperienced remark that he could easily kill 
 a hundred birds in a day ; and although this might 
 be true on certain occasions, — for I have seen over 
 this number killed by one person in two dis- 
 charges of a gun, — yet, as a rule, a good collector 
 will seldom bring in over iifty birds during his 
 best days. A man must not only be experienced, 
 but will be obliged to work hard in order to 
 average twenty-five birds in a day. Although 
 there are some " born " collectors who will 
 procure birds, even if they be provided with no 
 
28 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 more formidable weapon than a boy's catapult, 
 yet the peculiar attributes which make up a good 
 collector are mainly to be acquired. A quick 
 eye to detect a flutter of a wing or the flit of a 
 tail among waving foliage ; an ear ready to catch 
 the slighest chirp heard amid the rustling leaves, 
 and so skilled as to intrepret the simple grada- 
 tions of sound which distinguish the different 
 species ; a constant wide-awake alertness, so that 
 nothing escapes the observation, and which gives 
 such nice control over the muscles that the gun 
 comes to the shoulder with a promptitude that 
 combines thought with action ; and an unwearying 
 patience and pluck which totally disregard minor 
 obstacles, are some of the characteristics which 
 must be possessed by the individual who wishes 
 to bring together a good collection of birds by 
 his own exertions. If one does not possess these 
 traits, why, then study to acquire them; for 
 securing birds is as fine an art as is preserving 
 them after they are obtained. 
 
 Section IV. : Care of Specimens. — Just as 
 soon as a bird is shot, examine it carefully by blow- 
 ing aside the feathers in order- to find the shot- 
 holes ; if they bleed, remove the clotted blood with 
 a small stick, or, better, the point of a penknife, 
 
COLLECTING. 29 
 
 then with a pointed stick, or the knife, plug the 
 hole with a little cotton, and sprinkle plaster, or 
 better, some of my preservative, on the spot. 
 Next plug the mouth with cotton, taking care to 
 push the wad down far enough to allow the bill to 
 close, for if the mandibles are left open the skin of 
 the chin and upper throat will dry, causing the 
 feathers to stand upright. Smooth the specimen 
 lightly and place it, head down, in a paper cone, 
 which should be long enough to allow folding the 
 top without bending the tail feathers. Then the 
 bird may be placed in a fish basket, which is the 
 best receptacle for carrying birds, as it is not only 
 light to carry, but also admits the air. Never 
 shut a bird up in a close box in warm weather, as 
 it will spoil very quickly. Care of a bird in the 
 field will save much labor, and your cabinet speci- 
 mens will look enough better to warrant it. 
 Blood left under the plumage gradually soaks 
 through the feathers, thus causing them to 
 become matted, when they are exceedingly diffi- 
 cult to clean. Some specimens however, will 
 bleed, and if they are to be preserved this blood 
 must be removed. I have always found it best 
 to wash the blood off in the first water I could 
 find, and then let the bird dry, either by carrying 
 
30 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 in my hand, or, by suspending it to a limb of 
 a tree, where I could return for it afterwards. 
 Care should be taken in such cases, however, to 
 wash all the blood off, and then plug the wound 
 with cotton, as if any flows out when the plumage 
 is wet it will spread on the feathers and stain 
 them. In picking up birds that are only wounded 
 never take them by the tail, wing, or any part of 
 the plumage, but grasp them firmly in the hand 
 in such a way as to imprison both wings, then 
 kill them by a firm pressure of the thumb and 
 forefinger, applied to the sides just back of the 
 wings. This compresses the lungs, and the birds 
 die of suffocation almost instantly. Never strike 
 a bird, no matter how large, with a stick, but in 
 case of hawks, eagles, etc, the talons of which are 
 dangerous, seize them first by the tip of one 
 wing, then by the other, work the hands down- 
 ward until the back is grasped,, then apply the 
 pressure to the lungs. There is no danger from 
 the beak of even the most formidable species 
 after the pressure is put upon the lungs, for I 
 never knew a specimen to bite while being killed 
 in this way; the only thing necessary is to 
 keep out of the way of their talons. I have fre- 
 quently been obliged to remove eagles from a box 
 
COLLECTING. 3 1 
 
 and kill them, and have done it with my hands 
 alone. 
 
 Wounded doves and pigeons should be grasped 
 very firmly, and not allowed to struggle in the 
 least, as their feathers fall out very easily ; and 
 the same is true, though to a less extent, with 
 cuckoos ; in fact, it is always best to brush the 
 plumage as little as possible, handling the speci- 
 men when dead by the feet or bill. In picking up 
 white herons or other birds which have fallen in 
 mud or other dirty water, take them up by the bill 
 and shake them gently to remove the ooze. The 
 feathers of all birds, especially aquatic species, 
 are covered with a delicate oil, and all extraneous 
 matter glides off the plumage if they are not 
 soaked in water. In catching wounded herons, 
 take them by the beak to avoid the danger of 
 losing an eye from a lunge of the sharp point. 
 When a bird is to be placed in a basket or on a 
 bench, do not throw it down, but lay it gently on 
 its back, always bearing in mind that the smoother 
 a bird is kept before it is skinned the better it will 
 look when preserved. I have even, noticed that 
 the true ornithological enthusiast always keeps 
 his birds in good condition, while others who 
 merely shoot birds for the momentary pleasure of 
 
32 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 the thing, or for gain, are very apt to handle them 
 roughly. In other words, the student of nature 
 possesses an innate love of his pursuits, which 
 causes him to respect even a dead bird. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 SKINNING BIRDS. 
 
 Section I. : Ordinary Method. — The only 
 instruments that I use in removing the skin of 
 birds ordinarily is a simple knife of a peculiar form 
 (see Fig. 3) ; but I like to have a pair of dissecting 
 scissors by me to be used in cases given further 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 on. I also have plenty of cotton, and either 
 Indian meal or dermal preservative at hand to 
 absorb blood and other juices. 
 
 To remove the skin from the bird, first see that 
 the mouth is plugged with cotton, and if it is, 
 note if this be dry, if not remove it and substitute 
 fresh. It is also well to note if the bird be flex- 
 ible, for if rigid it is extremely difficult to skin, 
 and it is always best to wait until this peculiar 
 rigidity of the muscles, which follows death in 
 all vertebrate animals, shall have passed. This 
 occurs in warm weather in much less time than in 
 
 33 
 
34 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 cold, often in one or two hours, but in moderate 
 temperature a bird had better lie for at least six 
 hours after it has been killed. Take then a speci- 
 men in the proper condition, lay it on its back 
 on a bench, on which clean paper has been spread, 
 with its head from you, but slightly inclined to the 
 left. Now part the feathers of the abdomen with 
 the left hand, and, excepting in ducks and a few 
 other species, a space, either naked or covered 
 with down, will be seen extending from the lower 
 or costal extremity of the sternum to the vent. 
 Insert the point of the knife, which is held in the 
 left hand, with the back downward, under the 
 skin near the sternum, and, by sliding it down- 
 ward, make an incision quite to the vent, taking 
 care not to cut through the walls of the abdomen. 
 This can readily be avoided in fresh birds, but not 
 in specimens that have been softened by lying too 
 long. The fingers of the right hand should be em- 
 ployed during this operation in holding apart the 
 feathers. Now sprinkle meal or preservative in 
 the incision, especially if blood or juices flow out, 
 in order to absorb them and prevent them soiling 
 the feathers. Next, with the thumb and finger of 
 the right hand, peel down the skin on the left side 
 of the orifice, at the same time pressing the tibia 
 
SKINNING BIKDS. 35 
 
 on that side upward. This will disclose the 
 second joint of the leg, or knee proper. Pass the 
 knife under this joint, and, by cutting against the 
 thumb, cut it completely off, a matter easily ac- 
 complished in small birds ; rub a little absorbent 
 on either side of the severed joint ; then grasping 
 the end of the tibia firmly between the thumb and 
 forefinger of the right hand, draw it outward. At 
 the same time, the skin of the leg should be 
 pressed downward by the fingers of the right hand 
 to prevent tearing. The leg is thus easily exposed, 
 and should be, as a rule, skinned to the tarsal 
 joint. With the thumb-nail, nip off the extreme 
 tip of the tibial bone, and strip the flesh off the 
 remaindei: of the bone by a downward pull ; then 
 give the whole a twist, and cut all the tendrils at 
 once. Of course the flesh may be removed from 
 the bone by scraping, etc., but the above is the 
 best method, and in case of large birds, break the 
 end of the tibia with pliers. Turn the bird end for 
 end, and proceed the same with the other leg, but 
 during both operations the bird should not be 
 raised from the bench. Now peel away the skin 
 about the tail, place the forefinger under its base, 
 and cut downward through the caudal vertebra 
 and muscles of the back quite to the skin, the 
 
36 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 finger being a guide to prevent going through 
 this. Rub absorbent on the severed portion. 
 Grasp the end of the vertebra protruding from 
 the body, thus raising the bird from the bench; 
 peel down front and back by pushing downward 
 with the hand, rather coaxing the skin off than 
 forcing or pulling it. Soon the wings will appear ; 
 sever these where the humerus joins the cora- 
 coid, cutting through the muscles from above 
 downward in large specimens, thus more readily 
 finding the joints. Rub on absorbent, and it may 
 be well to remark that this must be done when- 
 ever a fresh cut is made. Then the body is laid 
 on the bench, and the skin is held in one hand, or, 
 in large specimens, allowed to rest on the lap or 
 on the bench, but never to dangle. Keep on 
 peeling over the neck by using -the tips of as many 
 fingers as can be brought into service and soon, 
 the skull will appear. The next obstruction will 
 be the ears ; these should be pulled or, better, 
 pinched out with the thumb and forefinger nails. 
 Do not tear the ears, and special care should 
 be exercised, in this respect in owls. When 
 the eyes are exposed, pass the knife between 
 the lids and orbit, close to the former, taking 
 care that the nyctatating membrane be removed 
 
SKINNING BIRDS. 
 
 17 
 
 from the skin, or it will be in the way when 
 the eyelids are arranged in making the skin. 
 Peel well down to the base of the bill, so that 
 every portion of the skin may be covered with 
 preservative. Push the point of the knife under 
 the eyes, and remove them by a single motion, 
 
 Fig. s. 
 
 without breaking them. Cut off the back of the 
 skull at the point shown in the line A, Fig. 4; 
 Turn the head over and make two cuts outward as 
 seen at A. A., Fig. 5. thus removing a triangular 
 portion of the skull B,. Fig. 4, to which the brain 
 will usually adhere, but when it does not, remove 
 it with the point of the knife. This leaves the 
 eye-cavities open from beneath. Draw out the 
 
38 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 wings by grasping the end of the humerus in 
 the left hand, and press the skin back with the 
 right, to the forearm ; then with the thumb-nail, 
 or back of the knife, separate the secondary quills 
 which adhere to the larger bone from it, thus 
 turning out the wing to the last joint or phalanges. 
 Cover the skin well with preservative, especially 
 the skull, wings, and base of tail ; roll up balls 
 of cotton of about the size of the entire eye 
 removed, and place in the cavities in such a condi- 
 tion that the smooth side of the ball may come 
 outward so that the eyelids may be arranged 
 neatly over them. Nothing now remains but to 
 turn the skin back to its former position. Turn 
 the wings by gently pulling the primaries and the 
 head, by forcing the skull upward until the bill 
 can be grasped ; then by pulling forward on this, 
 and working the skin backward with one hand, 
 the matter will be accomplished, when the feathers 
 may be lightly smoothed and arranged. It must 
 be borne in mind that the quicker and more 
 lightly a skin is removed the better the specimen 
 will look. By lightly, I mean that the skin should 
 not be tightly grasped nor stretched by pulling. 
 Some workmen will remove a skin from a bird 
 which is nearly spoiled without starting a feather, 
 
SKINNING BIRDS. 39 
 
 while others may skin a specimen as quickly, but 
 the plumage will be crushed and broken through 
 rough usage. The time for removing the skin 
 from a small bird should not exceed six minutes, 
 and I have seen it taken off in half this time. Of 
 course the beginner will be longer than this ; and 
 then the skin should be occasionally moistened, 
 by using a damp sponge. 
 
 Section II. : Exceptions to the Usual 
 Method of Skinning. — In case of birds which 
 are very soft on account of having been dead a 
 long time, it may be advisable to open either be- 
 neath the wing, making a short incision along the 
 side or above the wing, cutting along the feather 
 tracks just above the scapularies ; and some skin 
 ducks through a hole in the back just above the 
 rump. I do not, however, advise such practice, as 
 a rule, as the skins are more difficult to make up, 
 and the bird cannot be mounted quite as readily. 
 
 Woodpeckers with large heads and small necks, 
 like the pileated and ivory-billed, and ducks having 
 similar characteristics, as the wood, pintail, and a 
 few other species ; also flamingoes, sand-hill, and 
 whooping cranes, cannot be skinned over the head 
 in the usual manner, but the neck should be cut 
 off after the skin has been removed as far as pes- 
 
40 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 sible, and then a slit should be cut in the back of 
 the head, and the head be skinned through this 
 orifice, but an abundance of absorbent should be 
 used to prevent the feathers from becoming soiled. 
 ' Care should be exercised in skinning cuckoos, 
 doves, thrushes, and some species of sparrows, as 
 the skin is not only thin, but the feathers start in 
 the rump and back very readily. Peel the skin off 
 gently, and do not fold it abruptly backward in 
 working on these parts, but hold it as nearly as 
 possible in its original position. The skin of the 
 wood duck, and sometimes that of the hooded 
 merganser, adheres to the flesh of the breast, but 
 it may be separated by working carefully with the 
 back of the knife. In removing the skins of young 
 birds in the down, like ducks and gallinaceous birds, 
 do not attempt to skin the wings. 
 
 If a specimen is to be mounted with the wings 
 spread, the secondaries should not be detached, 
 but the knife should be forced down back of the 
 primaries in order to break up the muscles ; then 
 as much of the flesh as possible should be removed, 
 and a quantity of preservative pushed in beneath 
 the skin. In larger birds a slit should be made 
 on the under side of the wing, and the muscles 
 removed from the outside without detaching the 
 
SKINNING BIRDS. 4 1 
 
 secondaries ; and also when a specimen is to be 
 mounted, the eye cavities should be filled with clay 
 well kneaded to the consistency of putty. 
 
 Section III. : Ascertaining the Sex of Birds. 
 — Although the sex of many birds can be ascer- 
 tained with tolerable certainty by the plumage, 
 yet this is never an infallible guide, and to make 
 perfectly sure of every case the intern'al organs 
 should be examined. I always advise dissecting 
 such plainly-marked birds as scarlet tanagers or 
 red-winged blackbirds, and by practising this habit 
 I was once fortunate enough to discover a female 
 painted bunting in full male livery. The sex of 
 birds can be readily ascertained in the following 
 manner : Lay the bird's body on its left side, with 
 the head from you ; then with a knife or scissors, 
 cut through the ribs and abdominal walls on the 
 right side ; then raise the intestines, and the organs 
 will appear. 
 
 In males, two bodies, the testicles, more or less 
 spherical, will be seen lying just below the lungs on 
 the upper portion of the kidneys (Fig. 6, 3, 3). These 
 vary not only in color from white to black, but also 
 in size, depending upon the season or age of the 
 the specimen. Thus, in an adult song sparrow, 
 during the beginning of the breeding season, the 
 
42 
 
 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 testicles will be nearly or quite a half inch in dia- 
 meter, whereas in autumn they will not exceed a 
 number eight shot in size ; and in nestlings of the 
 same species they are not larger than a small pellet 
 of dust-shot. At this early age, the sex of birds 
 which have become somewhat soft is quite difficult 
 to determine, and the same is true at any season 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 if the specimens be badly shot up. There are 
 other organs, however, in the male. For example, 
 the sperm ducts are always present, appearing like 
 two white lines ; and in the breeding season the 
 plexus of nerves and arteries about the vent be- 
 comes swollen, forming two prominent tubercles 
 on either side (Fig. 6, 3, 3). 
 
 In the female the ovaries lie on the right side 
 (Fig. 7, 2) in about the same position as is occupied 
 
SKINNING BIRDS. 
 
 43 
 
 by the testicles in the male. The ovaries vary in 
 size from that of half the size of an egg to minute 
 points, depending, as in the male, on the season of 
 the year and age of the specimen. In very young 
 birds the ovaries consist of a small white body 
 which under a magnifying glass appears somewhat 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 granular. In both male and female are two yellow- 
 ish or whitish bodies, in the former sex lying above 
 the testicles, but further forward, and consequently 
 just in front of the kidneys ; and in the female they 
 occupy about the same position. In addition to 
 the ovaries in the female, the oviduct is always 
 present (Fig. 7, 3), large, swollen, and convoluted 
 during the breeding season, but smaller and nearly 
 
44 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 straight at other times. In young specimens it 
 appears as a small white line. 
 
 The denuded breast and abdomen seen in birds 
 during the breeding season, cannot always be de- 
 pended upon as a mark of sex, as this occasionally 
 occurs in males as well as in females. 
 
 Section IV. : Preserving Skins. — Taxidermists 
 for many years have made use of arsenie^in some 
 form as a preservative ; and in the first edition of my 
 " Naturalists' Guide," I recommended the use of it 
 dry, stating that I did not think it injurious if not 
 actually eaten. I have, however, since had abun- 
 dant cause to change my opinion in this respect, and 
 now pronounce it a dangerous poison. Not one 
 person in fifty can handle the requisite quantity of 
 arsenic necessary to preserve specimens, for any 
 length of time, without feeling the effects of it. 
 For a long time I was poisoned by it, but attributed 
 it to the noxious gases arising from birds that had 
 been kept too long. It is possible that the poison 
 from arsenic with which my system was filled might 
 have been affected by these; gases, causing it to 
 develop itself, but I do not think that the gas itself 
 is especially injurious, as I have never been poisoned 
 since I discontinued the use of arsenic. 
 
 When I became convinced that arsenic was 
 
SKINNING BIRDS. 45 
 
 injuring my health, and that of others, I began to 
 experiment upon other substances, and after trying 
 a quantity of various things, have succeeded in 
 manufacturing a nearly odorless compound which 
 has the following advantages over arsenic : It 
 thoroughly preserves the skins of birds, mammals, 
 reptiles, and fishes from decay, and also prevents 
 the attacks of dermestes or anthrenus, while the 
 feathers of birds and hair of mammals are not as 
 liable to be attacked by moths as when the skin is 
 preserved with arsenic. This preservative when 
 properly applied abstracts the oil from greasy skins, 
 thus preventing them from becoming decayed 
 through carbonization, as nearly always occurs in 
 ducks' skins after a few years. It is a deodorizer, 
 all disagreeable smells leaving the skin to which it 
 is applied ; and above all it is not a poison. I used 
 this dermal preservative, as we have named it, as 
 an absorbent while skinning birds, especially small 
 ones, as then the plumage is duSted with it neces- 
 sarily, which insures more or less protection to the 
 feathers from the attacks of moths. 
 
 To render my preservative, or indeed any other, 
 effective, it must be thoroughly applied to the 
 skin; all the portions, especially those to which 
 any flesh adheres, must be well covered with it, 
 
46 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 and the fibre of the muscles should be broken up 
 as much as possible. But a small portion, at best, 
 of arsenic is soluble in either water or alochol, and 
 but a little in the juices of the skin, whereas in 
 my dermal preservative at least threfe-fourths of 
 that which comes in contact with a moist skin is 
 absorbed, thus thoroughly preserving the speci- 
 men. In the case of a greasy skin, remove as 
 much fat as possible by peeling it off or gently 
 scraping until all the little cells which contain the 
 oil are broken up and the skin appears ; then coat 
 the skin liberally with the preservative, when it 
 will be found to absorb the oil. Allow this layer 
 to remain a few minutes, then scrape it all off and 
 coat again with a fresh supply. Continue to do 
 this until all the oil that will flow out is absorbed, 
 and then dust with a final coating. 
 
 There are two chemical processes carried on 
 in preserving oily skins, one of which converts the 
 oil into soap, and this is in turn absorbed and 
 dried. Thus the preservative which has been 
 scraped from the skin can be after a time used 
 again, as it has lost but a small portion of its effi- 
 ciency. It might be borne in mind, however, that 
 all the fat cells possible must be broken up, as 
 the skin which surrounds these is, in a measure, 
 
SKINNING BIRDS. .47 
 
 impervious to the preservative, which must, in 
 order to absorb oil, come in contact with it. 
 
 Section V. : Other Methods of Preserv- 
 ing Skins — Skins may be temporarily preserved 
 by simply using black pepper, but the effect is 
 not lasting. The same is true of tannic acid, but 
 either of these, alum, or even common salt, will do 
 as a substitute for the preservative until the skins 
 can be got into the hands of a taxidermist, or until 
 the collector can procure the proper preservative. 
 I will here mention that the dermal preservative 
 costs only twenty-five cents per single pound, and 
 this quantity will preserve at least three times as 
 many skins as the same amount of arsenic. 
 
 A good method by which large skins may be 
 temporarily preserved is by salting them. Simply 
 coat the inside of the skin with fine salt, turn it, 
 smooth the feathers and fold the wings neatly, 
 then pack in paper. The salt prevents the skin 
 from quite drying, and thus it can be moistened 
 much more readily, and made into a skin or 
 mounted. The advantage of packing large birds 
 in so small a capacity is obvious to any one. Two 
 collectors whom we have had out the past season 
 have sent in some thousand large skins in this 
 condition ; and these we shall endeavor to work up 
 
48 ' MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 within six months' time, as salted skins become 
 quite brittle if allowed to lie too long. They 
 should be kept in a dry place, as salt absorbs 
 moisture, which causes the skin to decay. They 
 are also liable after the first year to be attacked 
 by dermestes and anthrenus. 
 
 Birds which are in a bad condition through 
 having been dead a long time may be sometimes 
 skinned, in case of rare specimens, by using great 
 care. Sprinkle the inside of the skin well with 
 preservative, as this tends to set the feathers, 
 being a stringent, keeping the skin as straight as 
 possible, as folding it is liable to loosen the 
 feathers. The intestinesof birds may be removed 
 and the cavity salted when large birds are to be 
 sent from a distance. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 MAKING SKINS. 
 
 Section I. : Cleaning Feathers. — If a bird 
 is bloody, the feathers may be washed either in 
 turpentine or water. Saturate a rag or piece of 
 cotton, and clean off the blood, which if dry may 
 require some soaking. Try to keep the water 
 from spreading as much as possible, but be sure 
 that every particle of clotted blood is removed and 
 the spot washed thoroughly. Then dry by cover- 
 ing the spot well with either plaster or dermal pre- 
 servative, the latter being preferable as it never 
 bleaches the plumage. This should be worked 
 well into the feathers with a soft brush, aided by 
 the fingers, applying a fresh supply constantly 
 until all the moisture is absorbed ; then dust with 
 a soft duster. In case of grease-spots, if fresh, 
 use the dermal preservative alone, but if old and 
 yellow use benzine to start the grease, and then dry 
 with preservative, when it will generally be found 
 that all stains will be removed ; but in some cases 
 two or three applications of benzine may be neces- 
 
 49 
 
so MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 sary. Small spots of dried blood may often be re- 
 moved from dark feathers by simply scraping with 
 the thumb-nail, aided by a moderately stiff brush, 
 much after the manner in which a living bird 
 removes foreign substances from its plumage. Do 
 not leave clotted spots of blood in the plumage, as 
 the feathers never lie well over them, and such 
 places are liable to be attacked by insects, and 
 even a spot of blood under the wing should, in 
 my opinion, always be removed. Before any at- 
 
 FiG. 8. 
 
 tempt is made either to make a bird into a skin 
 or mount it, it should be thoroughly cleansed. 
 Stains of dirt may be removed with alcohol, which 
 dries more readily than water, but it will not start 
 blood as well as turpentine or water. 
 
 Section II.: Making Skins of Small Birds. — 
 The instruments for skin-making are a flat brush, 
 a duster for cleansing, three or four pairs of tweez- 
 ers of varying sizes (see Fig. 8), needles, curved 
 or straight as preferred, silk thread for sewing, 
 and soft cotton for winding, and metal forms made 
 of rolled tin or zinc (Fig. 9). Lay the skin on its 
 
MAKING SKINS. $1 
 
 back, and push the single bones left on the fore- 
 arm into the skin, then fasten them by taking a 
 stitch through the skin near the base of the wing ; 
 then, passing the thread around the bone, tie it 
 firmly. Now with the same thread, uncut, sew the 
 other bone in a similar manner, leaving the two 
 connected by a piece of thread which is about as 
 long as the natural width of the body of the bird, 
 thus the wings are kept the same distance apart as 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 they were formerly. Now take a piece of cotton 
 and form it into a rough body as near as possible 
 in size to the one removed, but having a tapering 
 neck of about the length of nature. Now grasp 
 this firmly in the tweezers, and place it, neck fore- 
 most, in the skin, taking care that the point of 
 the tweezers enters the brain cavity of the skull, 
 so that the cotton may fill it, and projecting down- 
 ward, form the throat ; now allow the tweezers 
 to open, and slip them out. Open the eyelids, 
 arranging them neatly over the rounded cotton 
 
52 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 beneath. See that the bones of the wing He 
 along the sides, as they are Hable to become 
 pushed forward in putting in the cotton. This 
 can be remedied by raising the cotton gently. If 
 the cotton body has been placed in the proper 
 position the neck will be full, but not over stuffed, 
 and of just the right length to form a skin that 
 has the appearance and size of a freshly-killed bird 
 lying on its back with the head straight. The bill 
 should be horizontal with the bench on which the 
 bird lies, and from which the specimen should not 
 be raised while at work on it. Now roll the skin 
 over and examine the back ; see that the wing 
 feathers, especially the scapularies, lie in regular 
 rotation, and that they have not been pushed one 
 above the other ; and the same attention should be 
 given to the tail. Note if the feathers of the back 
 lie neatly over the scapularies, and these in turn, 
 should be over the wing-coverts ; in short, all 
 should blend neatly, forming a smoothly rounded 
 back. Now place the skin, back down, in the 
 form, lifting, by placing the thumb and forefinger 
 on either side of the shoulders, which is the 
 proper way to handle a small skin, even when dry. 
 In placing the skin in the form, care should be 
 used that the cotton does not slip out of the skull, 
 
MAKING SKINS. 53 
 
 causing the head to fall down. See if the tip of 
 the wings are of equal length ; if not make them so 
 by drawing one wing downward, and pushing the 
 other up toward the head, but do not pull them 
 out of place at the shoulders. Be careful that the 
 wings are placed high enough on the back. This 
 is easily ascertained, if the closed tips of the 
 primaries lie perfectly flat on the bottom of the 
 form with their inner edges nearly downward. 
 Now smooth the feathers with a pair of tweezers, 
 placing the feathers of the sides that come below 
 the sparrow's wing inside the wing; above this 
 they will lie outside. Always bear in mind that 
 although a skin can be made perfectly smooth by 
 an expert in from eight to fifteen minutes, one 
 who is not accustomed to the work will be obliged 
 to occupy a much longer time, as a skin cannot be 
 made too smooth. Arrange all spots and lines on 
 the feathers as they occur in life, especially about 
 the head or on the back ; in fact, too much atten- 
 tion cannot be given to these details, before and 
 after a skin is placed in the form, if one wishes to 
 turn out a first-class specimen. 
 
 Now bind the skin with soft cotton thread, used 
 on bobbins in the mills, beginning at the lower 
 portions of the wings, and winding the thread over. 
 
54 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 the body and under the form, so that the threads 
 lie about a quarter of an inch apart, ending with 
 the throat. Now arrange all the feathers which 
 may have become disarranged under the threads,, 
 and place the skin away to dry where there is no 
 draft, for a slight breeze will be sure to blow some 
 of the feathers out of place. (For the form of a 
 skin, see Fig. lo.) 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Another method of making skins which may be 
 practised to advantage is as follows : After the 
 skin is ready to place in the form, wrap it closely 
 in a very thin layer of nice cotton batting, taking 
 care that the feathers lie perfectly smooth, although 
 these may be partially arranged through the cot- 
 ton, which must be thin enough for the feathers 
 to be seen through it. The skin is then laid aside 
 to dry without placing in the form. 
 
 Skins should not be exposed to too great artificial 
 heat, neither should they be left to dry during 
 
MAKING SKINS. 55 
 
 damp weather in a room without a fire. Small 
 birds, like warblers, will set perfectly hard in forty- 
 eight hours in a moderate temperature with dry 
 air. Never allow a skin to freeze. 
 
 Section III. : Making Skins of Long-necked 
 Birds. — Sandpipers, thin-necked woodpeckers, or 
 any birds, the necks of which are liable to become 
 broken, should have a wire placed in the neck to 
 support and strengthen it. Proceed in sewing the 
 wing-bones as directed in small skins ; then make 
 a body of cotton around the end of a wire that has 
 about an inch of the end bent into the form of a 
 hook, and then the body may be wrapped about the 
 wire with some of the winding cotton. The neck- 
 wire should project from the body for about the 
 same length as the natural neck, or a little more. 
 This neck-wire should also be wrapped with cotton 
 to the size of the natural neck, but rather thicker 
 where it joins the body. A small portion of this 
 wire which has been sharpened, as hereafter to be 
 directed, should project beyond the body. Now 
 place the body in position inside of the skin, forcing 
 the point of the wire into the skull, up into the 
 base of the upper mandible as far as it will go. 
 The heads of long-billed birds may be turned on 
 one side, but in this case the bill will be placed 
 
S6 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 to- a greater or less angle. Sew up specimen 
 as before ; arrange and place in a long form and 
 bind. The legs of such birds as yellow-legs may 
 be stitched together at the tibial joint, then bent 
 toward the sides, and the toes stitched to the skin. 
 
 In making skins of all birds where the back of 
 the head is opened, the orifice should not be sewed 
 up until after the wire has been inserted in the 
 upper mandible, as it may be necessary to add 
 more cotton through here to make the throat 
 or back of the head as full as in life. Sew up this 
 orifice by taking fine stitches in only the extreme 
 edge of the skin, and the same caution must be 
 exercised in sewing up accidental tears in the 
 skin. Very tender skins may have tears mended 
 by pasting tissue-paper neatly over the holes from 
 the inside. In fact it is best to sew up tears 
 from the inside, always using silk thread for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Section IV. : Making Skins of Herons, Ibises, 
 ETC. — Proceed exactly as in long-necked birds, 
 but to make a compact skin lay the bird breast 
 down, and turn the head and neck on the back, 
 and fasten the legs to the sides. I always wire 
 the necks, and for additional security, to prevent 
 them being straightened by careless or inex- 
 
MAKING SKINS. 57 
 
 perienced persons, I stitch the bill to the skin of 
 the back. In addition to sewing on the inside of 
 the wing, stitch the wing firmly to the inside, by 
 sewing over the outer primary into a pinch of skin 
 on the side, thus the wing is fastened in two places. 
 
 Ducks' skins may be made in a similar manner, 
 but the feathers of the side must be brought over 
 the wings, and the webs of the feet may be spread 
 with a wire, which must be removed, however, 
 when the feet are dry, or it will rust ; and galvan- 
 ized or brass wire is the best for making skins. 
 
 Section V. : Hawks, Owls, Eagles, Vul- 
 tures, ETC. — The skins of these large birds are 
 made in forms, but the wings must be stitched to 
 the sides, as in herons, etc. The necks must be 
 wired. In making the skins of all large birds it 
 is best to use bodies made of excelsior or grass, 
 rather than cotton, which does not make a firm 
 enough body. See remarks under mounting for 
 instructions for making bodies ; but they do not 
 need to be quite as solid for skins as in mounting ; 
 in fact, keep them as light as possible. Too much 
 care cannot be taken in forming the eyelids of all 
 birds, especially large ones. Have the cavity oc- 
 cupied by the eye round, with the cotton lying 
 smoothly inside, and not projecting in a ragged 
 manner. 
 
58 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Section VI. : Labelling Specimens. — A skin 
 is of little value unless labelled with date, locality, 
 and sex. Never lay a bird one side without a 
 label is firmly attached to one foot or other part. 
 The sex of birds is indicated by the astronomical 
 signs of the planets ; Mars ( S ) and Venus ( $ ), the 
 former being, as is obvious, the mark for males 
 and the latter for females. To keep these in 
 mind one has only to remember, that that of Mars 
 is a conventionalized spear and shield, indica- 
 tions of his warlike profession, while that of 
 Venus is supposed to represent a looking-glass, an 
 article so indispensable to feminine taste. I use 
 blank forms for labels, and the simpler the better; 
 thus, below is one which I used during my last 
 expedition to Florida : — 
 
 Explorations in Florida, 
 By C. J. Maynard & Co., 
 9 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass. 
 Hosezvood, Nov. lOt 2881. 
 
 The sex of either, male or female, is printed, 
 but at least two-thirds as many males as females 
 are needed ; while any notes regarding the color 
 of feet, bill, and iris of each specimen may be 
 written on the back. The size given is the one 
 
MAKING SKINS. 59 
 
 used for specimens from the size of a humming- 
 bird to that of a golden-winged woodpecker. The 
 labels of ducks and herons may be attached to the 
 beak by securing through the nostrils, as then 
 they are more readily found. 
 
 It is well to keep in mind that in order to have 
 any value as a scientific specimen, a bird must be 
 labelled as near as possible with date, locality, and 
 sex, but never guess at either. If you have a skin 
 in your possession that you are not absolutely 
 certain about, either label it with an interrogation 
 mark filling the part of which you are in doubt, or 
 do not label it at all. Thus if you are unable to 
 determine the sex satisfactorily, say so by draw- 
 ing a line through the sex mark and substituting 
 a query (.'). 
 
 Section VII. : Care of Skins, Cabinets, 
 ETC. — When skins are removed from the forms 
 they should be dusted with a light feather-duster, 
 striking them gently from the head downward so 
 as not to ruffle the plumage. Althcrugh skins are 
 well preserved from the attacks of demestes and 
 anthrenus, which feed upon the skin, yet the 
 feathers are always liable to be attacked by moths, 
 while the skin on the feet or bills is also liable to 
 be eaten. This may be prevented by washing the 
 
60 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 parts with a solution of bleached shelac dissolved 
 in alcohol. By far the best way to insure absolute 
 safety is to shut up the skins in insect-proof 
 cabinets. Various methods have been tried to 
 prevent the ingress of moths, etc., in cabinets, 
 but the best and simplest is to have a door 
 fitted to the outside of the drawers of an other- 
 wise perfectly jointed cabinet. This door is 
 provided with a bead which surrounds the out- 
 side and fits in a groove on the margin of the 
 woodwork outside the draws, while the whole door 
 fits in a groove which extends quite across the 
 bottom. Another method which we practise on 
 our latest-made cabinets is to have each drawer 
 moth-proof, by having a margin made all around it 
 which fits into a groove, then all the drawers are 
 covered by closing a flange on the sides. 
 
 Section VIII. : Measuring Specimens. — Speci- 
 mens of all rare birds should be measured. With 
 the beginner, it is best to measure every specimen. 
 I measured some fifteen thousand birds before I 
 made a single skin without so doing, and now I am 
 careful to take the dimensions of all rare speci- 
 mens. The dimensions of a bird are taken as 
 follows, using dividers and a rule marked in hun- 
 dredths of the inch : First measure the extreme 
 
MAKING SKINS. 6l 
 
 length from the tip of bill to end of tail ; then the 
 extreme stretch of wing from tip to tip ; then the 
 length of one wing from the scapular joint to tip 
 of longest quill ; next, the length of tail from 
 end of longest feather to its base at the insertion 
 in the muscles ; now the length of bill along 
 culmen or chord of upper mandibles ; and of 
 tarsus from tarsal joint to base of toes. I have 
 a blank sheet ruled, and fill it out as per sample 
 (page 62). 
 
 Section IX. : Making over Old Skins. — 
 Sometimes it is desirable in case of rare birds 
 to make over into presentable skins specimens 
 which have been improperly prepared. Prepare a 
 dampening box by placing a quantity of sand, 
 dampened so as to just drip water, in any metal 
 vessel having a tight-fitting cover. Then wrap 
 the specimen to be made over in paper, lay it on 
 the sand, and cover with a damp cloth folded 
 several times. Place the cover on the vessel and 
 set in a moderately warm place for about twenty- 
 four hours if the specimen be small, longer if 
 large. At the end of this time the skin will be 
 quite pliable. Then remove the cotton and 
 examine the inside of the skin carefully, and if 
 there are any hard places caused by the skin 
 
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MAKING SKINS. 6$ 
 
 being too thick, scrape them down with a blunt 
 knife or, better, use our skin-rasp, and thus thin 
 them down until the feathers above are as flexible 
 as in any other portion. If there be grease on the 
 feathers or inside of the skin after scraping, wash 
 with benzine, and dry with preservative as de- 
 scribed. When every portion of the specimen is 
 perfectly pliable, and all superfluous dried flesh 
 has been removed, sew up the rents,' and make up 
 as in fresh birds, but such skins generally require 
 more careful binding. It is also often necessary 
 to wire the neck of even small birds, especially in 
 badly shattered and decayed skins. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MOUNTING BIRDS. 
 
 Section I. : Instruments. — The instruments 
 necessary for mounting are cutting pliers (Fig. 12), 
 or tin shears, straight-nosed pliers (Fig. 1 1), wire 
 
 Fig. II. Fig. 12. 
 
 of various sizes, tweezers, and other implements 
 used in skin-making ; leg awls, for dried skins, and 
 awls for boring stands ; also stands of various kinds. 
 Section II. : Mounting from Fresh Speci- 
 mens. — Be sure that a skin is perfectly clean in 
 every way before attempting to mount, as it 
 cannot be washed nearly as well afterwards. 
 Remove all the bodies of skinned specimens well 
 out of the way, and spread a clean sheet of paper 
 where the skinning has been done, that there may 
 be no danger of soiling the plumage. Make a 
 body of fine grass, excelsior, or, better, the peculiar 
 64 
 
MOUNTING BIRDS. 6$ 
 
 tough grass which grows in shady places, in sandy 
 soil, is preferable, by winding with thread, moulding 
 it so as to have it quite solid, shaping it in the 
 hands until it assumes the exact length and 
 breadth of the body removed, and as near its form 
 as possible. Thus see that the back is fuller 
 than the under side, and that there is a well- 
 defined breast. Great care should be taken not to 
 get this body larger than the natural one ; if 
 anything it should be smaller. With .the pliers 
 cut a piece of wire of the proper size, that is, of 
 about half the diameter of the bird's tarsus, and 
 about three times the length of the body. In 
 cutting all wires which are to be sharpened, the 
 cut should be made diagonally across it, thus 
 forming a point. Push this wire through the 
 body so that it will emerge in the front much 
 nearer the back than the breast, protruding so 
 that it equals the length of the neck, and tongue 
 of body removed. Bend over the end remain- 
 ing at the back, turn, down about half of it and 
 force it into the body (Fig. 13, c). This will hold 
 firmly if the body has been made sufficiently solid. 
 Wrap the wire with cotton by taking a strip and 
 winding it gradually so that it assumes a taper- 
 ing form with a portion of the wire protruding. 
 
66 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Place this body in the skin and push the pro- 
 truding wire into the upper mandible. Cut two 
 wires of about half the size of that already used, 
 and twice the length of the outstretched wing. 
 Work these into the wings, beginning at the 
 fleshy portion of the phalanges, so on into the 
 body, taking care not to allow it to pierce through 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 the skin anywhere. The wire should enter the body 
 at the point where the end of the lower portion 
 of the forearm touches it when the wing is folded 
 naturally. Pass the wire through the body diag- 
 onally until it emerges so that it can be grasped 
 with the pliers somewhere near the orifice, and 
 firmly clenched. Next find the metacarpal bone, 
 which has a hollow place in the centre (Fig. 14, f), 
 and force the upper end of the wire through it so 
 
MOUNTING BIRDS. 
 
 67 
 
 that about a quarter of inch shall protrude on the 
 upper side of the wing, and bend this down by- 
 applying one jaw of the flat pliers on the side of 
 
 the wing opposite. This will fasten the wing 
 firmly, and the spurious wing will cover the wire, 
 while that on the lower side will be concealed 
 
68 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 by the feathers. The wing should be outstretched 
 when this is done. 
 
 Cut wire for the legs of the same size as used for 
 the neck, and about as long. Pass them up through 
 the tarsus, inserting in the middle of the sole of 
 the foot. Be sure the wire is perfectly straight 
 before attempting this. A good way to straighten 
 wire is to place a pine-board on the floor, stand on 
 it, and then draw a long pull of wire under it by 
 grasping the end with pliers ; or a small piece of 
 wire may be straightened by rolling it on the 
 bench with a file. If the skin of the tarsus splits 
 in boring, it shows that the wire used is either 
 too large or crooked. After the wire is pushed up 
 to the heel or tarsal joint (Fig. 15, f), turn the 
 tibial bone out until the point of the wire appears, 
 when it should be grasped and drawn up so that 
 the point protrudes slightly beyond the tibial 
 joint. Wrap the, tibial bone, wire and all, with 
 cotton or tow (in large specimens, the wire should 
 be bound to the bone with fine wire or thread) so 
 as to form a natural leg, then draw it back into 
 the skin. Next force the wire through the body 
 at the point where the knee touches it, or about 
 midway on the side. The wire will emerge on the 
 opposite side. Turn down the skin of the orifice, 
 
MOUNTING BIRDS. 
 
 69 
 
 draw the wire out, leaving about enough project- 
 ing out of the sole of the foot to go through the 
 perch of a stand and clench ; then fasten the end 
 firmly into the body. On large birds, like eagles, 
 I draw the wire through the body twice before 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 clenching, to make all secure. This work must 
 be well done if the bird is to be mounted nicely, as 
 it must stand firmly on its feet. As a rule, use 
 wire large enough, at least, to support the weight 
 of the body and skin without bending, but wire 
 one-half the size of the tarsus is generally large 
 
yO MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 enough to do this. Cut a tail-wire which is at 
 least as long as the entire bird. Insert it under 
 the tail, so that it enters the muscles in which the 
 feathers are embodied, taking care that it does not 
 spread them apart ; push this up the centre of the 
 body so that it will emerge at an angle just at the 
 upper portion of the orifice, and clench it. Bend 
 the remaining end under the t;ail twice, so as to 
 form a T, on which the tail may rest, and which 
 should, however, have' the top broad enough to 
 spread the tail on to the required width. During 
 wiring see that the plumage is ruffled as little as 
 possible ; also avoid soiling by keeping the speci- 
 men on clean paper. If by chance the feathers 
 become greasy, they may be cleaned by sprinkling 
 liberally with the dermal preservative, which is 
 afterward brushed off. 
 
 Sew up the orifice neatly, taking care, as before 
 described, only to take in the extreme outer edge 
 of the skin ; and, if the body be not, too large, it 
 will meet nicely. If the body has not been made 
 quite large enough, especially on the breast, some 
 cotton may be placed between the skin and body 
 before sewing. This must be done neatly, with 
 tweezers however, not so as to form a wad, but 
 spread out so as to blend neatly with the curve of the 
 
MOUNTING BIRDS. 71 
 
 body. Now place the wires which protrude from 
 the feet in holes bored in the perch of the stand, 
 which should be about as far apart as the bird na- 
 turally stands while perching. See that the feet 
 come well down on the perch with the toes arranged 
 properly, remembering that cuckoos, woodpeckers, 
 etc., have two toes in front and two behind, while 
 with hawks, owls, etc., the outer toe generally stands 
 at right angles with the others, and should therefore 
 grasp the end of the stand. Either twist the ends 
 of the wire together or wind them around the 
 stand very firmly. Now comes the most difficult 
 part of the task of mounting. Hitherto all has 
 been merely mechanical ; certain rules had to be 
 observed only. But now the instructor must 
 pause for want of words wherewith to express his 
 meaning, for who can tell an artist how to put in 
 those bold and hasty strokes with which he maps 
 out his picture.' He knows just what he is about, 
 however, for he has before his mental vision the 
 complete picture, and strives to place on canvas 
 that which appears before him. So must the artistic 
 taxidermist have before him a vision of the bird he 
 wishes to represent, with the combined mass of 
 feathers now in hand. Whether lightly poised for 
 flight or calmly sitting at rest, before he puts his 
 
72 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 hand to the work before him let him fully decide 
 what he wishes to produce. Let him see it just 
 as clearly as he sees the birds sporting in their 
 natural element. The true artist does not copy 
 what the imagination of others have produced, he 
 invents for himself or takes nature as his guide. 
 Let us then who aspire to the highest in taxider- 
 mal art, take infallible nature as our guide. 
 Study carefully every poise of the birds, every 
 uplifting of the wing, every turn of the head or 
 motion of the eyelids. I have long made a prac- 
 tice of keeping birds in confinement in order to 
 thoroughly impress on my mind the different 
 attitudes which they assume. I have had nearly 
 all species of our owls, hawks, and eagles, and 
 have kept herons, gulls, terns, pelicans, auks, and 
 almost countless numbers of smaller birds, and 
 in this way I have become so familiar with them 
 that I can tell at a glance whether a bird is 
 mounted in an easy attitude. Well, there must be 
 no hesitation in mounting birds, or the specimens 
 will dry ; and I will merely state in what order I 
 arrange the different members, then leave the 
 attitudes to my pupils. I first see that the bird 
 stands correctly, that the legs are bent so that the 
 bird will balance well in the position in which I 
 
MOUNTING BIRDS. 
 
 n 
 
 wish it to be placed. As a rule, a perpendicular 
 line drawn through the back of the head of a 
 perching bird will fall through its feet (see Fig. 
 
 i6, a a). Now bring the bird into position, and 
 fold' the wings just as the bird does it. Note if the 
 scapularies, tertiaries, and secondaries lie in their 
 
74 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 proper places, the first highest and the others 
 under them, which will give the bird a good 
 rounded back. Now place the bird in the proper 
 attitude, with the neck properly bent, remember- 
 ing that in nearly all birds this nearly assumes the 
 form of the letter S, especially in long-necked 
 species. I do not like to see a bird staring 
 straight forward, but, as this is a mere matter of 
 fancy, I will not presume to dictate regarding 
 attitudes, only make the specimen look easy. Be 
 artistic, even if the specimen is going into a 
 public museum, where birds too often stare at the 
 visitors in grotesque attitudes. One can be 
 interesting and easy even in writing on the driest 
 scientific subject, — why not then give ease and 
 grace to our museum specimens .-' No more room 
 need be occupied ; a slight turn of the head, a 
 twist of the neck, or an advance of a foot, will do 
 this just as a bird would do it if it were alive. 
 Now place the eyes in position, and these should be 
 pushed well into the clay, and the lids arranged 
 over them naturally with a needle. Do not have 
 the eyes too large, as it gives the bird a staring ex- 
 pression, nor too small, but as near as possible to 
 the natural ones removed. It would be well in 
 ordering eyes from a dealer to give the measure- 
 
MOUNTING BIRDS. 75 
 
 merits of the required eye in hundredths of an 
 inch. A good colored eye should not, in my opin- 
 ion, have too much clear or flint glass in front of 
 the pupil. This should be thinner and thus flatter, 
 as seen in eyes of German manufacture. In point 
 of perfect coloring, French eyes are the best and 
 most expressive, but they do not have the requisite 
 flatness and the thinness of flint which the German 
 eyes possess. English eyes may be mentioned as 
 third in the catalogue of quality, while America 
 must unfortunately come last. The above re- 
 marks, however, are true only as regards colored 
 eyes, as black eyes are almost always good, no 
 matter where manufactured. 
 
 After the bird is placed in the required attitude, 
 smooth the feathers with the aid of small tweezers, 
 noting that all lines and spots are in their proper 
 places. The primary quills should be kept in 
 position by clamping with fine wire; that is, a 
 piece of wire should be bent on itself like a hair- 
 pin and slipped over the edge of the wing. 
 Spread the tail by laying it on the cross-piece of 
 wire under it, and clamp it down with a piece of 
 very flne wire, which is wound around each end of 
 the cross-piece. If the tail is to be spread very 
 widely then run a wire through the two outer 
 
76 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 quills, thus keeping them apart ; though even then 
 the clamp should be used. If a convex or concave 
 tail is desired, bind the cross-piece in a corre- 
 sponding manner. I do not, as a rule, recommend 
 binding freshly-skinned birds, nor do I consider it 
 necessary excepting in instances where feathers 
 are rough. If a bird be properly mounted a few 
 more clamps on the wings will keep it" in form; 
 then the feathers can be made to stand out as 
 they do in nature, not lie down close to the body 
 as if the birds were badly frightened. This is 
 particularly noticeable with owls ; a perfectly 
 happy and contented owl, who is pursuing his 
 vocations, has apparently a body nearly or quite 
 twice the diameter of one that is frightened. 
 
 Section III. : Crested Birds. — If a bird has a 
 crest it should be raised by gently pulling forward 
 the skin, where it will remain in position after it is 
 neatly arranged ; but in case of a dried skin, it may 
 be necessary to prop the crest up with a piece of 
 cotton, moulded on the head of a pin, the point of 
 which is sunk into the head. 
 
 Section IV. : Mounting with Wings Spread. 
 — In skinning for spread wings, leave in the 
 humerus as well as the forearm, and do not 
 detach the quills, as already mentioned. Wire the 
 
MOUNTING BIKDS. "JJ 
 
 wing from the inside, and clench firmly in the 
 body ; wrap the humerus to the natural size with 
 cotton, after fastening the supporting wire to the 
 bone with fine wire or thread. Push both wires 
 into the shoulders of the artificial body at once, at 
 the same time pushing the neck-wire and body 
 into position. This can be learned by practice. 
 Proceed as before, but support the wings while 
 setting on either side by long wire clamps. Be 
 sure, however, that the supporting wire is strong 
 enough to hold the wing in position without these, 
 and thus when the wings are dry they will be 
 very strong. 
 
 Section V. : Mounting Birds for Screens, 
 ETC. — Proceed as in specimens with wings spread, 
 but sometimes the wings should be cut off, sewed 
 on on opposite sides, so that they may be reversed ; 
 that is, the back of the wing may be toward the 
 breast in cases where it is desired that the back 
 of the wings and breast should show. It is usual 
 to stretch the wings up over the head, which 
 emerges between them. The wings had better 
 be kept in position with strips of pasteboard fas- 
 tened together with wire. Sometimes both sides 
 of the specimen show; or, in other instances, the 
 back is covered with paper, silk, velvet, or other 
 material. 
 
78 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Section VI. : Mounting Dried Skins. — 
 Soften as directed in making over dried skins, 
 observing the caution given under that section, 
 and have the skin very pliable. The cavities of 
 the eyes may be filled from the mouth or from the 
 inside of the skin. If the skin be too tender to 
 turn, rasp it down by working through the orifice. 
 Mount as directed in fresh specimens, but dried 
 skins almost always require to be bound with 
 winding cotton in order to keep the feathers in 
 place. They also require rather more harder filling 
 with cotton. This should be wrapped around the 
 bird in as continuous a string as possible until all the 
 feathers lie smoothly. They may be arranged under 
 the bindings with small tweezers. Avoid binding 
 too closely or too tight, and above all things bind 
 evenly, that is, do not make depressions nor allow 
 elevations to appear, for, as a rule, these will always 
 remain after the bindings have been removed. 
 Small birds should be allowed to stand at least a 
 week in a dry place before the bindings are 
 removed. Birds mounted from skins dry more 
 quickly than from fresh specimens. Large birds 
 should stand from two weeks to a month, especi- 
 ally if the wings be spread. To remove the 
 binding threads, cut down the back, thus taking it 
 all off at once. 
 
MOUNTING BIRDS. 79 
 
 Section VII. : Prices for Mounting Birds. 
 — For the convenience of amateurs, who do not 
 always know what price to put on good work, we 
 give our price list for mounting specimens on orna- 
 mental stands. Size from humming-bird to robin, 
 one dollar and twenty five cents ; robin to wild 
 pigeon, one dollar and fifty cents ; wild pigeon to 
 grouse, two dollars ; grouse, ducks, small owls, two 
 dollars and fifty cents ; large hawks and medium- 
 sized owls, three dollars and fifty cents ; loons and 
 large owls, five dollars ; eagles, seven dollars. For 
 birds with spread wings, add thirty-three and one- 
 third per cent. 
 
 Section VIII. : Panel Work. — Game Pieces, 
 ETC — Panel work is made by using only half of a 
 specimen, the back side being turned in or 
 removed. The specimen is mounted as usual and 
 fastened to the picture or other design used as a 
 back ground, by wires emerging from the side and 
 firmly clenched in the body. Game pieces are 
 made by simply mounting the specimen, then 
 placing it in an attitude as if it were hanging dead. 
 Much skill and study is required for work of this 
 nature, for if carelessly done, it has the effect' of 
 a poor painting, but if well completed both panel 
 and game pieces produce a pleasing effect. All 
 
80 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 such work should be usually placed behind glass, 
 as, in fact, is true with all mounted birds, especi- 
 ally light-plumaged birds, which are liable to 
 become soiled through exposure to dust. Mounted 
 birds, not kept in moth-proof cases, should be care- 
 fully dusted at least twice a week to prevent the 
 attacks of moths. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 MAKING STANDS. 
 
 Section I. : Plain Stands. — The best stands 
 for the cabinet are simple wooden ones, either of 
 pine or other woods, turned by machinery with a 
 simple cross-piece for perching birds. As a rule, 
 the shaft should be about as high as the cross- 
 piece is long, but in cases of specimens with long 
 tails, the shaft should be somewhat higher, while 
 the base should a little exceed in diameter the 
 length of the perch, and should be about as thick 
 as the shortest diameter of the other parts. 
 
 Section II.: Ornamental Stands. — Papier- 
 machd used for making ornamental stands is quite 
 difficult to make, but following is the receipt: 
 Reduce paper to a perfect pulp by boiling and 
 then rubbing through a sieve. To every quart of 
 this pulp add a pint of fine wood-ashes and a half 
 pint of plaster. Heat this mass over the fire, and 
 to every quart add a quarter of a pound of glue, 
 which has been thoroughly dissolved in a glue-pot. 
 
 8i 
 
82 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Mix well until it is of the consistency of putty, 
 when it is ready for use. 
 
 In making a twig for an ordinary perch, fasten 
 a moderately stout wire in a wooden base ; wind it 
 with cotton, larger at the base, taperiiig toward 
 the end ; bend it in a position and cover with a 
 layer of papiermach6, then with a comb indicate 
 the ridges in the bark of a tree, and add knots and 
 excrescences as desired, by moulding small pieces 
 with the fingers. Set aside to dry for a few 
 days. If the papier-mach6 cracks it does not con- 
 tain a sufficient quantity of glue, or if it shrinks 
 too much, more ashes or plaster should be added. 
 When dry paint with water-colors, made by adding 
 dry paint to dissolved white glue, stirring until the 
 mixture becomes of the consistency of cream. 
 A quarter of a pound of glue will take up a pound 
 of paint. Cover the bottom of the stand with this 
 paint, or with some other color, then sprinkle 
 profusely with smalt or mica sand. When dry, 
 add artificial leaves to the branches by winding 
 the stems around them. Trim the bottom of the 
 stand with mosses and grass fastened on with 
 glue. Stands for cases are made in a similar 
 manner, but it is an improvement to touch the 
 ground-work here 'and there with dry paint of 
 
MAKING STANDS. 83 
 
 various colors. A piece of looking-glass may be 
 used to imitate water ; and ducks from which the 
 lower portions have been cut away may be placed 
 on this with a good effect. A very good stand 
 may be made by simply winding a wire with 
 cotton and painting the cotton. The cotton can 
 be made into a species of papier-mach6 by soaking 
 it in flour-paste. Rock work is made of either 
 papier-mache, cork, blocks of wood, or pieces of 
 turf painted and sanded, or by pasting stoiit paper 
 over pieces of wood, and the whole structure 
 painted and sanded. If papier-mach6 be used the 
 effect may be heightened by sticking in pieces of 
 quartz or other rock. Natural stumps, branches, 
 etc., may be manufactured into stands or cases to 
 advantage ; in short, with the aid of papier-machd, 
 glue, moss, grasses, smalt, etc., nature may be 
 imitated in a variety of ways. 
 
PART II.— MAMMALS, REPTILES, ETC. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 COLLECTING MAMMALS. 
 
 Mammals are, as a rule, much more difficult to 
 procure than birds, especially the smaller species. 
 Mice occur in all localities. The white-footed 
 mice are often found in the deserted nests of 
 squirrels or of crows in the tree-tops. Jumping- 
 mice are found in the meadows, under haycocks or 
 in nests deep in the earth during winter, at which 
 time they are in a dormant condition. Field- 
 mice of several species occur in the meadows, 
 where they have nests, while the house-mouse 
 and several species of mice inhabit dwellings. All 
 these little rodents may be trapped by using a 
 variety of bait, and the same is true of squirrels, 
 which are, however, quite easy to shoot. The 
 gray, red, and flying-squirrels live in nests placed 
 in bushes or trees or in holes in tree-trunks. 
 Shrews and moles burrow in the ground, and they 
 may be snared by setting fine wire nooses in their . 
 holes. Cats often bring in these little mammals 
 84 
 
COLLECTING MAMMALS. 8 5 
 
 and leave them lying around, as they rarely eat 
 them. A pit dug in an open field or a barrel set 
 down with the top on a level with the ground 
 and half filled with water will be the means of 
 capturing many rare, small mammals which fall 
 into it accidentally. Mink, weasel, otter, rabbits, 
 skunks, etc., may be trapped or shot. A variety of 
 bait may be used to decoy animals of this class, 
 and the contents of the scent-bags of any of these 
 species are good ; as well as fish, birds, or small 
 mammals. Foxes, wolves, etc., which occur in the 
 wilder sections, may be shot or trapped, and the 
 same is true of wild-cats, pumas, and other large 
 mammals, in procuring which the hunter must be 
 guided by circumstances. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MAKING SKINS OF MAMMALS. 
 
 Section I. : Skinning Small Mammals. — 
 Lay the animal on its back, make an incision 
 about one-third of the length of the body on the 
 under side of the body from the vent forward, peel 
 down on either side until the knee-bones are 
 exposed, then cut the joint and draw out the leg, 
 at least as far as the heel. Remove the flesh, 
 cover well with preservative, and turn, then pro- 
 ceed thus with the opposite leg. Pull down to the 
 tail and draw out the bone by placing a stick on 
 the under side of it and pressing backward. If the 
 tail bone does not readily come out, as in musk- 
 rats, wrap the tail in cloth and pound it with a 
 wooden mallet, and it will then come out without 
 further trouble. Peel down on either , side until 
 the front legs appear, cut off at elbow joints, and 
 draw these out ; remove the flesh, cover with pre- 
 servative, and turn. Skin over the head, taking 
 care to cut off the ear next the skull, so as not to 
 86 
 
MAKING SKINS OF MAMMALS. 8/ 
 
 cut through into the exterior surface ; pull down 
 the edges, cut between the lids and eye-sockets 
 down to the lips, cut between these and the bone, 
 but near the latter, thus removing the skin entirely 
 from the skull ; cover the skin well with preserva- 
 tive, after removing all fat and surplus bits of 
 flesh. Then turn the skin, detach the skull from 
 the body, by carefully cutting between the atlas, 
 the last vertebra joint, and the skull. The skull 
 should be boiled to remove all the flesh and brain ; 
 or, if this cannot readily be done, and if the mam- 
 mal be very small, roll it in preservative, and lay it 
 one side ; if the animal be large, cut off all the flesh 
 possible, and work out the brain through the open- 
 ing in the base of the skull. It is always, however, 
 best to remove the flesh by boiling ; after which 
 care should be taken to tie the lower jaw firmly to 
 the upper. 
 
 Section II. : Skinning Large Mammals. — 
 Large mammals should be skinned by making a 
 cross incision down the entire length of the breast, 
 between 'the fore-legs to the vent, then down the 
 under side of each leg quite to the feet. Remove 
 the skin but leave in two bones and the joints in 
 each leg. In removing the horns of a deer or other 
 ruminant, make cross cuts between the horns, 
 
88 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 and then back down on the neck for a short dis- 
 tance. The lips of a large mammal should be split 
 open carefully, and the ears turned out quite to the 
 tip ; this can be done with a little practice. Cover 
 with preservative, well rubbed in, and dry as quickly 
 as possible without tearing. 
 
 Section III. : Making Skins of Mammals. — 
 Remove all blood and dirt, by either washing or 
 by continuous brushing with a stiff brush. Dry 
 off with preservative : rub it well into the hair. 
 Draw out the bones of the leg, wrap them well 
 with cotton to the original size of the leg; then 
 fill out the head to the size and form of life, sew- 
 ing up the neck, and fill up to the body to the size 
 of nature with cotton or tow. Sew up the orifice, 
 then lay the skin, belly down, with the feet laid 
 neatly; and if the tail is long, lay it over the back. 
 
 Mice and other small mammals should not have 
 the bone of the tail removed, as the skin cannot be 
 filled and turned over the back easily. Large 
 mammals may be also made up if they are to be 
 used for cabinets or for skins. 
 
 Section IV. : Measuring Mammals. — It is 
 quite as easy to measure mammals as birds. The 
 dimensions to be taken may be seen by the accom- 
 panying filled blank, which is the form I always use. 
 
MAKING SKINS OF MAMMALS. 
 
 89 
 
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 & 
 
 8! 
 
 s 
 
 r 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Hi 
 
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 to 
 
 to 
 
 
 se 
 
 
 
 Ear. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 &9 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Occiput. 
 
 
 M 
 
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 en 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Boot of Tail. 
 
 
 K 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
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 to 
 
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 Outetretclicd Hind Leg. 
 
 
 
 
 
 End of Vertebra. 
 
 s- 
 
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 End of Hair. 
 
 M 
 
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 Hind Leg. 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MOUNTING MAMMALS. 
 
 Section I. : Small Mammals. — Skin as 
 directed, but the skull should not, as a rule, be 
 detached unless the animal be large enough to 
 have the lips split. The eye cavities should also 
 be filled with clay. Cut a piece of wire of the 
 suitable size to support the head ; have it about 
 twice "as long as the head and body of the speci- 
 men in hand. Wind up a turn or two with the 
 pliers small enough to enter the cavity in the base 
 of the skull, which will have to be enlarged to 
 admit of the ready removal of the brains. Place 
 the wound portion of the wire in this cavity, and 
 fill in around it with either plaster of paris, or 
 tamp in excelsior, tow, or cotton firmly enough 
 to hold the skull perfectly firm on . the wire. 
 Wind up a body of excelsior or grass, as nearly the 
 form and size of the one rfemoved as possible, taking 
 care that the neck be of proper shape, and that the 
 surface be very smooth. 
 90 
 
MOUNTING MAMMALS. 9 1 
 
 This surface may be covered with a thin layer of 
 clay or of papier-mach6, if a very nice smooth 
 surface is required, in case of short-haired mam- 
 mals. Cut four wires for the legs and one for the 
 tail. Run the wire up the front legs, and tie them 
 firmly to the bone with fine wire, especially at the 
 joints. Now wind each leg with cotton, hemp, or 
 tow to the size and form of the miiscles removed. 
 In order to get the legs very exact, one may be 
 wound before the muscles of the other be removed, 
 and measurements may thus be taken. The legs 
 may be also covered with papier-machd or a thin 
 layer of clay in short-haired mammals. Now 
 place the body in position, taking care that the 
 wire of the head goes the entire length of the 
 body, and is firmly clinched. 
 
 The wires of the front legs should enter the 
 body at the proper point on the shoulder. The 
 wires of the hind legs should also enter the body 
 at the point near the back, where they join the 
 natural body. Run a wire the entire length of the 
 tail and fasten in the lower end of the body. See 
 that all wires are firmly clinched, and sew up 
 the orifice. Bend the legs into as natural a posi- 
 tion as possible, and insert the wires protruding 
 from the soles of the feet into the holes in the 
 
92 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 stand or perch ; bend the body in position, insert 
 the eyes, arranging the lids carefully over them, 
 taking care the eye has the proper form in the 
 corners. 
 
 Arrange the eyelids and ears by occasionally 
 moulding them into form as they dry. Smooth 
 the tail carefully and attend to all the little de- 
 tails, such as spreading the toes etc., etc., and 
 
 carefully watch them from day to day, until the 
 animal becomes perfectly dry. 
 
 Section II.: Large Mammals. — In drawing 
 the lines between mammals mounted as described 
 above and the present method, it may be well to 
 remark that the one now given is the best in all 
 cases, but requires rather too much time to be used 
 with very small specimens. Have five large wires 
 or bolts of a suitable size to support the mammal 
 mounted, cut to the proper length, and cut a screw 
 on either end for about two inches (Fig. 17, a). 
 
MOUNTING MAMMALS. 93 
 
 Screw a broad flat nut on (Fig. 17, b), then have 
 another nut ready to screw on above the first. 
 Prepare a strip of board a little shorter than the 
 natural body of the mammal, and in this bore four 
 holes, two at each end, with one extra between the 
 two, but a little back of them on the front end. 
 After bending the bolts so as to form the legs, 
 place the ends in the holes and screw on the 
 nuts, place the lower ends of the irons in the 
 holes in the stand and screw on the nuts, thus 
 the beginning of the structure will stand firm. 
 Fasten the end of the fifth iron firmly in the brain 
 cavity by filling in with plaster, or wedging in 
 pieces of wood, and screw the lower end in place. 
 Now wind excelsior on the legs to the proper size 
 and form ; cover it with a thin layer of cotton. 
 Then place on the body in sections of excelsior of 
 exactly the form and size of life, and cover with 
 clay. The neck is now to be formed in the same 
 way; of course to get all the parts accurate, one 
 must have the natural body, which has been re- 
 moved, at hand, or should have the correct 
 measurement of it. The skin, from which the leg 
 bones have been removed quite to the toe-nails, 
 may be fitted on occasionally to judge the effect. 
 Procure sheet lead, and, if too thick, beat it out ; 
 
94 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 cut it in the form of the cartilage removed from 
 the ear. Fasten wire into these pieces of lead with 
 the ends protruding downward ; bore holes in the 
 skull into which the ends are introduced, thus form- 
 ing the support, and keeping the ears in proper 
 position. Supply the muscles of the skull with 
 excelsior and clay or papier-mach^ then adjust 
 the skin firmly and sew up. Fill the lips and nose 
 with papier-mach6 or clay, and mould into shape. 
 The above instructions, if followed, will give a 
 mounted specimen, but I cannot convey the ideas 
 which must teach the student the exact poise, the 
 swell of the muscle, the exact shape of the eye 
 which will give life and beauty to the subject in 
 hand ; all these must come from patience, study, 
 and long practice, for skilful taxidermists do not 
 spring at once into existence, but require expe- 
 rience and careful education. 
 
 Section III. : Mounting Dried Skins of 
 Mammals. — Skins of mammals must be soaked in 
 a strong solution of alum water, and when perfectly 
 soft see that the parts above the lips, eyes, etc., 
 are peeled down quite thin, and that every "portion 
 of the skin is perfectly pliable, then it should be 
 moistened as described. 
 
 Section IV. : Mounting Mammals Without 
 
MOUNTING MAMMALS. 95 
 
 ANY Bones. — If the skull of a mammal be desired 
 for a skeleton, a cast may be taken of the entire 
 head before the flesh is removed, by placing the 
 head in a box which will contain it and leave a 
 space around it ; pour in plaster of paris to the 
 consistency of cream, until the head is about half 
 covered — which should be placed on the bottom of 
 the box, lower jaw down — let the i)laster set ; now 
 cover the top surface of the plaster with paint, or 
 oil, or paste paper over it. Then fill up the box 
 with fresh plaster : after this has set well remove 
 the side of the box and open the mould where the 
 joint was made with the paint or paper. Take out 
 the head, and then cut a hole in the mould at the 
 base of the skull, in which the plaster for the head 
 may be poured. Paint or oil the inside of the 
 mould everywhere, fit the pieces together, then 
 tie firmly and pour in the plaster for the mould ; 
 then insert the bolt for the head in the hole, and 
 let the plaster set around it. Remove the mould 
 by chipping off pieces with a chisel until the paint 
 surface is exposed. If the head be large and heavy, 
 a large ball of excelsior, in which the bolt is firmly 
 fastened, may be placed in the centre, but this 
 must be covered with a thin layer of clay to make it 
 impervious to plaster. The lips and other naked 
 
96 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 spaces must be painted the color of life, with paint 
 mixed with varnish, first filling out the imperfec- 
 tions with paraffine wax. Casts may be taken of 
 the larger in wax, making a mould in plaster. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MOUNTING REPTrLES, BATRACHIANS, AXD FISHES. 
 
 MouxTixG reptiles, batrachians, and fishes as 
 collected in this department is scarcely a part of 
 taxidermy. I shall only give general instructions 
 regarding mounting some species. Snakes may be 
 readily skinned by cutting a longitudinal insertion 
 about a fourth of the distance down from the head 
 on the lower side where the body begins to enlarge, 
 near its greatest diameter ; then the skin may be 
 speedily taken off both ways. When the vent is 
 reached the skin comes away harder, but in order 
 to make a perfect piece of work it must be skinned 
 quite to the end of the tail, even if it splits open ; 
 the eyes must be removed from the inside of the 
 head. The skin on the top of the head cannot be 
 removed in this class of ani m als, leading the jaw 
 and skulL Cover well with preservative, and turn 
 the skin. To moimt, two ways are practised, one 
 with plaster, in which the orifice on the inside and 
 the vent are sewed up, and the plaster poured into 
 
 97 
 
98 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 the mouth until the snake is filled. It is well, how- 
 ever, to place a copper wire the entire length of the 
 animal to strengthen it ; then before the plaster is 
 set, place the snake in the proper attitude. This 
 kind of work requires practice, as you must be 
 careful of the attitude in which you wish to place 
 the animal, as the plaster begins to set quite 
 quickly ; to make it set more slowly, howeVer, mix 
 in a little salt. The mouth should be filled up 
 with clay or plaster. Care should be taken that 
 water does not accumulate in any portion of the 
 skin, and it should be perforated with an awl occa- 
 sionally to allow the water to escape. The skin of 
 a snake may be filled with papier-mach6 by working 
 small pieces downward ; then insert a wire and 
 place into position. The skin requires some time 
 to dry, and in both cases place the mounted reptile 
 in a dry place, where it will rapidly dry, as the skin 
 is liable to decay if kept in a damp place. 
 
 Section I. : Mounting Lizards, Alligators, 
 ETC. — Reptiles of this descriptiori should be 
 skinned like mammals, through a longitudinal in- 
 sertion made in the abdomen. The skin from the 
 top of the head cannot be removed however. In 
 mounting, proceed exactly as in mammals, but as 
 there is no hair to hide defects, all cotton, excelsior, 
 
MOUNTING REPTILES, ETC. 99 
 
 etc., wound on the bones must be very smooth. 
 The attitudes of all this class of animals are apt to 
 be stiff and ungainly even in life ; but by putting a 
 bend or two into the tail, turning the head, or 
 slightly curving the body, too much rigidness 
 may be avoided. 
 
 Section II.: Mounting Turtles. — To re- 
 move the skin from a turtle, cut away a square 
 portion of the under shell, using a small saw for 
 this purpose. Then remove the softer portion 
 through this hole, and draw out the legs and head 
 as in mammals ; but the top erf the head cannot be 
 skinned over. In mounting proceed as nearly as 
 possible as in mammals, only the legs may be filled 
 with clay or plaster in small specimens. Care 
 should be taken not to fill the skin too full ; but 
 let the wrinkles show, as seen in life, and imitated 
 as nearly as possible. 
 
 The shell of the soft-shelled turtle, like the 
 leather-back, is quite difficult to keep in good 
 condition — is apt to become distorted in drying. 
 The only method which has occurred to me is to 
 cover the body, and exposed under portions, with 
 layers of plaster, which will keep the shell in 
 position until it is dry, when it may be removed. 
 
 Section III. : Mounting Fishes. — Fishes are 
 
lOO MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 quite difficult to skin, especially those with scales. 
 In flat fishes I remove a portion of one side, 
 skinning the other; then, in mounting, lay the 
 animal on its side. Mounting in this case means 
 filling the fish to its natural life-size with cotton, 
 tow, or other available material. Plaster or clay 
 will also answer. The fins may be pinned out fiat 
 against pasteboard, or put in place with fine wire. 
 
 In skinning larger fishes, or those which have 
 no scales, or scaled fishes which have cylindrical 
 shaped bodies, open from beneath by cutting nearly 
 the whole length of the body. The skin from 
 some fishes comes off easily, while in others it is 
 more difficult to remove. In mounting large fishes 
 use a hard core to the body; made of either wire or 
 wood. The fins should be wired from the inside ; 
 care should be taken that the skin lies smoothly 
 over the surface beneath, as it shows considerably 
 in drying, and all imperfections around it. 
 
 In preserving the skins of all reptiles and fishes 
 the dermal will be found excellent, especially in 
 removing the oil from the skins, etc. Cover well 
 with the preservative, and nothing more will be 
 necessary. Skins of this class of animals may be 
 kept for future mounting by simply coating with the 
 preservative, and kept turned wrong side out with- 
 
MOUNTING REPTILES, ETC. lOI 
 
 out filling. When they are to be mounted throw 
 them into water, in which a small quantity of 
 dermal has been dissolved. When they are soft 
 turn and mount as"in fresh skins. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Page 
 
 Alaudidse '4 
 
 Alcidae 26 
 
 AlcidinidEe 'S 
 
 Alligators 9^ 
 
 American warblers i4 
 
 Ammunition for repeating guns 10 
 
 Ampelidae '5 
 
 Anatidae ,• ^4 
 
 Aramidffi 23 
 
 Ardida . . . . ^ 23 
 
 Arsenic a dangerous poison 49 
 
 Ascertaining the sex of birds 43 
 
 Auks 26 
 
 Avocets 22 
 
 B. 
 
 Batrachians 97 
 
 Basket for collecting birds ...... 29 
 
 Bird lime 6 
 
 Birds I 
 
 Box-trap i 
 
 Blackbirds 16 
 
 Breech-loading guns 8 
 
 Burrowing owl, Newburyport, Mass 27 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabinets 59 
 
 Caprimulgidae 17 
 
 103 
 
104 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Care of skins 59 
 
 Care of specimens 28 
 
 Catching wounded birds 31 
 
 Catharatidse 21 
 
 Charadridae 22 
 
 ChamEeidae 13 
 
 Cinclidae 13 
 
 Clap-net 2 
 
 Clypsilidae 18 
 
 Collecting birds I 
 
 Collecting mammals " . .84 
 
 Collectors 27 
 
 ColumbidjB 21 
 
 Colymbidae 26 
 
 Coots 24 
 
 Cormorant 25 
 
 Corvidas 17 
 
 Coturniculus 16 
 
 Courlans 23 
 
 Cranes 23 
 
 Crested birds — mounting 76 
 
 Crows 17 
 
 Cuckoos 19 
 
 Cuculidse 19 
 
 Cuts of the skull 37 
 
 Cutting-pliers 64 
 
 D. 
 
 Darters 25 
 
 Dermal preservative . . . . . . .45 
 
 Dried skins, mounting 78 
 
 Drying forms 51 
 
 Ducks 24 
 
 Ducks' skins 57 
 
 Dusting birds 80 
 
INDEX. 
 
 105 
 
 E. 
 
 Eagle as decoy ........ 6 
 
 Eagles 20 
 
 Ever-ready bird-trap , 
 
 Exceptions to the usual method of skinning . . .39 
 
 F. 
 
 Falconidae 20 
 
 Falcons 20 
 
 Finches jg 
 
 Fishes q- 
 
 Form for measurements of mammals . . . .89 
 
 Fly-catchers J7 
 
 Frigate birds 25 
 
 Fringilidas 16 
 
 Gallinules 
 Gannets 
 Game pieces 
 Geese . 
 Goatsuckers 
 Graculidse 
 Grebes . 
 Grosbeaks 
 Grouse . 
 Gruidse . 
 Gulls . 
 
 24 
 24 
 
 79 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 75 
 26 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 26 
 
 H. 
 
 HamatopodidEB 22 
 
 Hawk as decay c 
 
 Hawks 20 
 
 Herons g'l 
 
I06 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Herons' skins 24 
 
 Hirundinidae IS 
 
 Hummingbirds 18 
 
 I. 
 
 Ibis 23 
 
 Ibis' skins 56 
 
 Icteridae 16 
 
 Instruments for mounting 64 
 
 J- 
 
 Jays 17 
 
 K. 
 
 Killing wounded birds 30 
 
 Kingfishers 19 
 
 L. 
 
 Labelling specimens 58 
 
 Label, sample 58 
 
 Large birds, mounting j6 
 
 Large mammals, mounting 92 
 
 Large mammals' skins 88 
 
 Larids 26 
 
 Lizards 98 
 
 Loading shells 8 
 
 Loons • . . . .26 
 
 M. 
 
 Making over old skins 61 
 
 Making skins 49 
 
 Making skins of long-necked birds . . . ■ S^ 
 
 Making skins of mammals 86 
 
 Making skins of small birds 50 
 
 Making stands 84 
 
INDEX. 107 
 
 Mammals 84 
 
 Maynard's dermal preservative 49 
 
 Measurements of birds recorded 62 
 
 Measuring birds 58 
 
 Measuring mammals 88 
 
 Meleagridae 21 
 
 Motocilidse 14 
 
 Mounting birds 64 
 
 Mounting dried skins, birds .78 
 
 Mounting dried skins, mammals 94 
 
 Mounting fishes 99 
 
 Mounting fresh specimens, birds 64 
 
 Mounting fresh specimens, mammals . . . .90 
 
 Mounting lizards, alligators, etc 98 
 
 Mounting mammals 88 
 
 Mounting mammals without any bones . . ' . -95 
 
 Mounting with wings spread 76 
 
 Mounting reptiles, batrachians, and fishes . . -97 
 
 Mounting screens 76 
 
 Mounting turtles 99 
 
 N. 
 
 Naturalists' guide 44 
 
 Nuthatches 13 
 
 O. 
 
 Old skins, making over 61 
 
 Other methods of preparing skins 47 
 
 Ordinary method of skinning birds . . . .43 
 
 Orioles 16 
 
 Ouzels 13 
 
 Owl as decoy S 
 
 Owls 20 
 
 Oyster-catchers 22 
 
I08 MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 P. 
 
 Panel work 7° 
 
 Papier-machd 82 
 
 Paridae 13 
 
 Parrots 21 
 
 Part I I 
 
 Part II 84 
 
 Pelecanidae 24 
 
 Pelicans 24 
 
 Petrels 26 
 
 Phaetonidae 25 
 
 Phalaropodidas 22 
 
 Phalarops 22 
 
 Phoenicopteridae 24 
 
 Picidae 19 
 
 Plain stands 81 
 
 Pliers 64 
 
 Pigeons 22 
 
 Plovers 22 
 
 Plotidas 25 
 
 Plugging mouths of birds 33 
 
 Podocipidae 26 
 
 Preservative 45 
 
 Preserving skins 44 
 
 Prices for mountiiig birds 79 
 
 Procellaridae 26 
 
 Procuring birds 11 
 
 Psittacidae 19 
 
 Puffins 26 
 
 Quail 21 
 
INDEX. 109 
 
 R. 
 
 Rails . 24 
 
 Rallidae 24 
 
 Recurvirostridae 22 
 
 Repeating collecting gun 9 
 
 S. 
 
 Sample label for birds 58 
 
 Saxicolidse 12 
 
 Screens 77 
 
 Sex of birds 43 
 
 Shooting birds 7 
 
 Shot for birds .11 
 
 Sieve trap 2 
 
 Sittidae 13 
 
 Skinning birds 33 
 
 Skinning-knife 33 
 
 Skinning large mammals .... -87 
 
 Skinning small mammals ....,, 86 
 
 Skins of birds -54 
 
 Skins of hawks 57 
 
 Skins of herons, ibises, etc 56 
 
 Skins of long-necked birds 55 
 
 Skins of owls 57 
 
 Skins of small birds 52 
 
 Skins of vultures 57 
 
 Small mammals 88 
 
 Snipe 23 
 
 Solopacidae . , 23 
 
 Sparrows 16 
 
 Spoonbills 23 
 
 Steel traps. 4 
 
 Stilts 23 
 
 Stonechats 12 
 
no MANUAL OF TAXIDERMY. 
 
 Strigidae 22 
 
 Sulidae 24 
 
 Swallows IS 
 
 Swifts 18 
 
 Sylvidae I3 
 
 Sylvicolidae 14 
 
 T. 
 
 Tachypetidae 25 
 
 Tanagers . . • 'S 
 
 Tanagridae ij 
 
 Tantalidae 23 
 
 Terns 26 
 
 Tetraonida 21 
 
 Thrushes 12 
 
 Titmice 13 
 
 Trapping birds I 
 
 Trochilidae 18 
 
 Troglodytidae 13 
 
 Tropic birds 25 
 
 True larks 14 
 
 True warblers 13 
 
 Turdidae 12 
 
 Turnstones 22 
 
 Tweezers 50 
 
 Tyrannidae 17 
 
 V. 
 
 Vironidae 15 
 
 Vireos 15 
 
 Vultures 21 
 
 W. 
 
 Wagtails 14 
 
 Warblers, American 14 
 
INDEX. Ill 
 
 Warblers, true 13 
 
 Waxwings 15 
 
 Wings spread, mounting 76 
 
 Woodpeckers 18 
 
 Wrens 13 
 
 Wrentits 13 
 
C J. MAYNARD & CO., 
 
 No. 9 Pemberton Square, 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
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 Ziife on the Sea- Shore ; 
 
 Or, Animals of Our Coasts and Bays. With illustrations and descrip- 
 tions by James H. Emerton. 12mo. Cloth. Price, S3 .50 
 
 JPviinative Industry ; 
 
 Or, Illustrations op the Handiwork ts Stone, Bone and Clay, of 
 THE Nativk Races of the Northern Atlantic Sea-Board. By 
 Charles C. Abbott, M. D. 560 pages. 8vo. 429 cuts. Price, $3.00 
 
 How to Mount Birds and Animals; 
 
 Ok, the Taxidermist's Guide. By C. J. Maynaed. 12mo. Cloth. 
 Illustrated. Price, $1.50 
 
 This is an entirely new work, just issued, and should be in the hands of 
 all who are interested in our birds and animals. With its aid the tyro can 
 soon prepare skins in as good shape as the most experienced taxidermist. 
 
 Any book mentioned sent by mail on receipt of price. Books imported from 
 all European centres at lowest rates. 
 
 S. E. GASSING & CO., PUBLISHERS, 
 
 41 Arch Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 IPERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY, 
 
 FOR LABORATORIES AND SEASIDE STUDY. 
 
 B-s- w. k:. brooks. 
 
 Associate Professor of Zoolog;y and Comparative Anatomy, and 
 
 Director of the Marine Laboratory of the Johns Hoplcins 
 
 University : formerly Assistant in the Boston Society 
 
 of Natural History. 
 
 The book contains directions I'or studying the general anatomy, the micro- 
 scopic structure, and the development of selected types of nnimal life; and it 
 also describes the method of collecting and preserving the foims which are de- 
 scribed. The following are some ot the subjects treated: 
 
 The structure of VorticellEc, 
 
 The reproduction of Vofticellse, 
 The structure of a Sponge, 
 
 The structure and growth of a Campanularian Hydroid, 
 
 The structure and development of a Hydro- Medusa, 
 Tlie general anatomy of a Starfish, 
 
 The microscopic anatomy of a Starfish. 
 
 The general anatomy of a Sea Urchin, 
 The embryology and metamorphosis of the Sea Urchin and Starfish, 
 The general anatomy of the Earthworm, 
 
 The microscopic structure of the Earthworm, 
 The anatomy of the Leech, 
 
 The anatomy of a Crab. 
 
 The metamorphosis of a Crab, 
 
 Tlie structure and development of Cyclops, 
 I'.ie anatomy of a Grasshopper, 
 
 The general anatomy of Unio, 
 
 The microscopic anatomy of Unio, 
 
 The embryology and metamorphosis of Unio, 
 
 The anatomy and embryology of the Squid. 
 
 Illustrated by nearly t^/fro hundred cuts from the author's dratr- 
 Ingft, or from drawings made from nature under his direction. 
 
 S. E. CASSINO & CO., Publishers, 
 
 41 Arch Street, Boston, Mass. 
 
Naturalists' Instruments. 
 
 ^ ■« il <1. ...i-'ri'ii t~^ 
 
 We keep constantly on hand an assortment of Instruments used by Natural- 
 ists, suoli as 
 
 SCALPELS, BIED-STUFFING FORCEPS, SCISSORS (curved and straighl >, 
 
 EGG BLOWERS, EGG DRILLS, INSECT PIKS, 
 
 INSECT PIN FORCEPS, &c. 
 
 Scalpels, Ebony Handle S .75 
 
 Bied-Stl'FFING FobOEPS 75, 1.25, 1.75, 2.00, 2.25, 2.75 
 
 According to length. 
 
 Scissors, straight 
 
 Scissors, Cui-ved . . . ... 
 
 Egg Dbills . .... 
 
 Syringes . . . . . 
 
 Egg Bloweks, Kickeled . 
 
 NATURALISTS' CASES. 
 
 Prof. Maeks' Case Instkumeuts 
 Pbof. Wildee's Case Instruments . 
 
 . .75, 1.00 
 
 1.26, 1.37, l.CO 
 
 .25 to 1.50 
 
 . 4.00 to 25.00 
 
 . .50 
 
 |;6.00 
 10.00 
 
 S. E. CASSmO & CO. 
 Publishers of Scientific Works. 
 
 SUPPLIES FURNISHED. 
 
 41 Arch Street, Boston, 
 
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