WDDD '%^*tUf^rr4.^n^rwr.AirBD Quadrupeds 44 Cat Tribe 44 Dog Tribe 60 Weasel Family 79 Bear " 85 Seal " 92 1* (') Tl CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Clawkd Quadbupeds (Continued) ^^ Insect-eaters ^7 Gnawers 102 Toothless Quadrupeds 1^1 Pouched " 125 CHAPTER VI. HOOFKD QuADKirPBDS 131 Ruminating Quadrupeds ~ 133 Thick-skinned " 167 CHAPTER VII. Animals ov thb Whale Tbibe 190 CHAPTER VIII. Birds — General Chabactesistics 200 CHAPTER IX. UiBDS OF Pbet 205 Diurnal Birds of Prey 205 Nocturnal " '* 225 CHAPTER X. rsBCHINQ BiBDS 231 Cone-billed Perchers 231 Tooth-billed " 246 Slender-billed " 256 Gaping-billed " 261 CONTENTS. Vii CHAPTEK XI. Climbing, Scratcbino, ast) Rcnnino Birds 265 Climbers 205 Scratchers 270 Runners 286 CHAPTER XII. Wadino and Swihmino Birds 290 Waders 290 Swimmers 301 CfiAPTER XIII. Reptiles 813 Lizards 313 Serpents 823 Tortoises 827 Frogs 329 CHAPTER XIV. Fishes 333 Bony Fishes 334 Cartilaginous Fishes 347 CHAPTER XV. Insects 352 Sheath-winged Insects 353 Half-winged " 363 Scale-winged " 367 CHAPTER XVI. Insects (Ooniinued) 877 Nerve-winged Insects 377 Membrane-winged " 381 Two-winged " 890 Wingless " 893 VIU CONTENTS. •• - CHAPTER XVII. Gbustaceous Animals 898 molluses 401 CHAPTER XVIII. WOBMS 410 200FHTIEB 413 Umx 417 th\ nf SlIttstratinDH. European Faqe 18 Ottoman 19 Mongol 20 Ethiopian 21 Malay 21 American Indian 22 Abyssinian 22 Kamschatkadales 23 Hottentot 24 Orang-outau 30 Chimpanzee 81 Long-armed Gibbon 32 Hand of Long-armed Gibbon . ... 32 Face of Proboscis Monkey 32 Pigmy Ape 33 MandrUl 34 Dog-Faced Baboon 36 Maimon 36 Howling Monkey 37 Red Monkey 38 Slender Doris 40 Common Bat 41 Vampire Bat 42 Spectre Bat 43 Lion 45 Lioness 47 Tiger .^ 49 Coagar 50 Leopard 61 Wild Cat , 53 Lynx 66 Canada Lynx 67 Ichneumon 58 Javanese Civet 69 New Holland Dog 61 Highland Greyhound 61 St. Bernard Dog 63 Newfoundland Dog 64 Esquimaux Dog 65 Setter 68 Mastiff 69 Scotch Terrier Pia* 71 Wolf 73 Jackal 75 Fox 76 Striped Hysena 78 Weasel 80 Ferret 81 Pine Marten 82 Marten 82 Otter 34 Black Bear 86 Brown Bear 88 Racoon 90 Badger 91 Seal 92 Hedgehog 98 Mole 100 Water-Rat 104 Mole-Rat 106 Short-tailed Field Mice 108 Beaver 109 Porcupine Ill Agouti 112 Polish Marmot 113 Hare 116 Rabbit 116 Squirrel 118 Great Ant-eater '. 124 Great Kangaroo 120 Duck-billed Platypus 130 Scottish Wild Ox 133 Bull 134 Zebu 135 Buffalo 136 Bison 138 Musk Ox 14P Harnessed Antelope 142 Springbok 144 Gazelle 145 Chamois 146 Ibex , 148 (is) LIST or IIiLUSTEATIONS. Common Qoat 141 Syrian Ooat 160 Common Sheep 161 Wallachian Sheep 161 Tartar Sheep 152 Giraffe 153 Camel 165 Dromedary 158 lilama 159 Musk Deer 161 Stag 162 Hind and Fawn 163 Fallow Deer - 165 Rein Deer 166 Elk 167 Wild Horse 168 A.rabian Horses 169 Mule 170 Domestic Ass 171 Wild Ass 172 Kebra 173 Asiatic Elephant: 176 Tapir 177 Wild Boar 179 Sow 180 Boar 181 Babyroussa 182 Single-horned Rhinoceros 184 Double-horned Rhinoceros 186 Hippopotamus 188 Greenland Whale 192 Condor 206 Great California Vulture 206 Bearded Vulture 207 King Vulture 208 Griffin Vulture 208 Egyptian Vulture 209 Golden Eagle 210 Bearded Eagle 212 Bald Eagle 213 Sea Eagle 215 Osprey 216 Common Buzzard 217 Kite 219 Swallow -tailed Falcon 220 Common Falcon 320 Gyr-Falcon 221 Kestrel 221 Common Hawk 223 Night Hawk 224 Hawk Lannarius 225 Eagle Owl 227 Egyptian Owl 229 Raven 233 Crow 236 Emerald Bird of Paradise 238 Six-shafted Bird of Paradise ... 238 Baltimore Oriole 240 Common Starling 240 Grosbeak 241 Sparrow 243 Rhinoceros Hornbill 246 Wagtail 249 Thrushes 25C Mocking Bird 251 Golden Oriole 252, Spotted Fly-Catcher 253 Head of Shrike 254 Lapwing 257 Humming-bird 258 Swallow 260 Sea Swallow 262 Trogon 263 Common Kingfisher 264 Crested Kingfisher 264 Bee-Eater 264 Toucan 265 Ringed Farrakeet 267 Sulphur-crested Cockatoo 267 Woodpecker 268 Cuckoo 269 Turtle Dove 271 Carrier Dove , 272 Domestic Dove 273 Ring Dove 274 Peacock 275 Horned Pheasant 276 Crested Pheasant 277 Silver Pheasant 277 Golden Pheasant 277 Cock 278 Tailless Cock 278 Crested Fowl 279 Bantam Cook 279 Hen and Chickens 280 Wild Turkey 280 Domestic Turkey 281 Common Partridge , 282 Red-legged Partridge 283 Quail 284 Red Grouse 285 Ptarmigan ". 286 Ostrich .-. 287 Dodo 289 Great Bustard 290 Long-legged Plover 291 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONB. XI Crane 292 Heron, 293 Bittern 294 Stork 295 Adjutant 296 Ibis 297 Snipe 298 Ruflf 299 Flamingo 300 Berniele Goose , 301 Domestic Goose 302 Whistling Swan 803 Tame or Mute Swan 804 GanTass-baok Duck 305 Muscovy Duck 305 Common Duck 806 Tern 309 Cormorant _ 810 Pelican 811 Nimble Lizard 314 Salamander Lizard 815 Common Iguana 317 Flying Dragon 818 Chameleon 319 Crocodile 820 Alligator 822 Rattlesnake 823 Head of Rattlesnake 323 Viper 324 Head of Viper 325 Asp 826 Cobra de Oapello 327 Land Tortoise 328 Green Turtle 828 Common Frog 330 Common Toad 381 Skeleton of Perch 834 Perch 835 Sea-horse 337 Dace 839 Loach 340 Pike 340 Salmon 842 Trout 343 Herring 343 Shad 344 Cod 344 Turbot 845 Common Eel 346 Conger Eel 347 Sturgeon 848 Head of White Shark , 849 Torpedo 350 Digestive Apparatus of Beetle.. 353 Beetle 354 Hercules Beetle 856 Carrion Beetle _. 857 Cockchaffer Beetle 360 Rove Beetles 361 Glow Worm 362 Locust „ 364 Amboyna Locust 364 Grasshopper 366 Plant Lice 367 Scale Insect 868 Silkworm 869 Butterfly 869 Caterpillars 370 White Butterfly 871 Swallow-tailed Butterfly 371 Moths 872 Brown-tailed Moth 374 Clothes Moth 376 Ephemerse 378 Dragon-Fly 379 White Ants 381 Habitations of White Ants 381 Bees 383 Queen Bee 884 Working Bee 884 Drone 384 Sting of Bee 386 Bees Swarming 385 Common Wasp 887 Hornet 388 Gnat 390 Horse-Bot 892 Large Black Fly 392 Flea 393 Garden Spider 396 Scorpion 397 Crab 899 Lobster 401 Shells 403 Snail 405 Pearl Oyster 408 Earth Worms 411 Horse-Leech 412 Animalcules 41S GLIMPSES OF ANIMATED NATURE. CHAPTEB I. OLASSIEIOATION OP ANIMALS. Animated Nature is separated into two principal Divi- sions — Vertebrates and Invertebrates, or those having a skeleton and red blood, and those having no skeleton and white blood These are again divided into Classes, of which there are four in the first, and five in the last division. Under Vertebrates we have Mammak and Birds, warm-blooded, with Heptiles and Fishes, cold-blooded animals; while the Invertebrates comprise Insects, Crustacea, MoUuscs, Worms, and Zoophytes. These Classes are divided into a larger or smaller number of Orders, which are again subdivided into Genera, and, still further, into Species. But, as it is not the design of this work to enter more deeply into the subdivisions of the animal kingdom than the limited attainments of juvenile students will permit them tc follow, the arrangement will be confined to the Division, Class, Order, and Sub-order, under which each animal may be ranked, leaving to very profound treatises the task of instructing them how to make a more elaborate and minute classification. 2 (13) 14 TEBTEBRATE8. CHAPTER II. DIVISION I.— VERTEBRATES. CLASS I. — MAMMALS. OEDER I. — TWO-HANDED ANIMALS. The Vertebrates are possessed of an internal skeleton, •whicli is a perfect system of bones, corered with flesh, that serves to support, strengthen, and give form to the whole structure, and which also assists in enclosing the various internal organs, whose action is necessary to the life and vigor of the entire system. Animals of this division have a number of bones, called vertebrae, joined together in the form of a long column, generally known as the backbone, or vertebral column, and sometimes termed the spine, surmounted by a bony case, called the cranium, or skull. Through a canal, extending the whole length of the vertebral column, the spinal nerve, or marrow, passes from the skull, and is distributed to all parts of the body. The blood is always red, and always (except under extraordinary atmospheric conditions) warmer than the air or water in which the animals of this division reside. The first class under this division is the Mammals, the females of which produce their young alive, nourish them during infancy with milk from their breasts, and for this reason are termed mammalia. Man, monkeys, bats, quadrupeds, and whales, belong to this class. MAN. Man, as the head of the whole animal kingdom, naturally ranks first in the Class Mammalia, and we shall therefore now proceed to give a brief description of his organization, and subse- quently point out the existing differences between his structure and that of other animals of the same class. The human body MAN. 15 is made up of a head, trunk, and extremities. The head, which includes the skull and the face, is the most important pait of the whole structure. Several wide, thin, arched hones, united by sutures, form the large bony cavity called the skull, which contains the brain, and through all opening in its lower part the spinal marrow passes from the brain to the backbone. The organs of hearing, sight, smell, and taste, which make up the general shape, and constitute the features of the countenance, have for their basis a system of bones, not easily described, and united by sutures. The backbone supports the head, which can make many motions upon it, while it is also the main support of the trunk of the body. It is composed of twenty-four distinct vertebrae, placed one above the other, in the form of a pillar or column. The body of each vertebra is a solid, cylindrical piece of bone, united firmly by strong, elastic cartilages, to those above and below it, while behind, and on each side, are projections of bone, styled pi'ocesses, so arched over and connected together, as to form a canal from one end of the vertebral column to the other. The spinal nerve or marrow passes through this canal, and by means of holes between the vertebrae, branches of it are distributed to the various parts of the body. The neck has seven vertebrae, the back twelve, and the loins five j known respectively as the cervical, dorsal, and lumbar vertebrae ; and they increase in size from above downward — the lumbar vertebrae being as much larger, thicker, and stronger than those of the back, as these sur- pass in the same respects those of the neck. On each side of the dorsal vertebrae are affixed twelve ribs, which arching over forwards, are united to the breaat-bone by cartilage oi: gristle, and thus form the cavity of the thorax, or chest, which contains the lungs and heart. A muscular mem- brane, called the diaphragm or midrifl^, forms the lower termination of the thoracic cavity, and, extending from the edges of the lower ribs, it stretches across the backbone in such manner as to form a division wall between the chest and the abdomen, immediately below. The abdomen is the cavity usually called the belly, and contains the stomach, liver, spleen, caul, intestines, kidney, etc. 16 VERTEBUATES To support all the heavy organs contained within the abdomen, four bones, attached to the lower end of the backbone, spread out into a sort of basin, called the pelvis ; while they are still fur- ther protected in front and at the sides by skin, fat, and muscles. The limits of man and other animals are called their ex- tremities. TIi» arm, or upper extremity, is composed of the shoulder having two bones, the collar-bone, and the shoulder- blade, the two latter connecting it with the trunk ; the arm, which has only one long, firm bone, extending to the elbow; the forearm, which has two long, parallel bones, reaching from the elbow to the wrist; the wrist, composed of eight small, irregular bones; and the hand, which is made up of four fingers, each having four bones, and the thumb, which has but three. These bones are all so united by ligaments, as to be capable of various degrees of flexibility. Of similar construction are the lower extremities ; the thigh- bone, which is the largest and strongest bone in the body, being connected above with one of the bones of the pelvis, by means of a large, round head, fitting into a socket of corresponding size, and thus forming the hip-joint. The lower end of the thigh-bone, together with the knee-pan and one of the two bones of the leg, contributes to form the knee-joint. The bones of the leg are parallel to each other, and extend from the knee to the ankle, which, like the wrist, is composed of seven small bones, one pro- jecting behind to form the heel. The toes are formed of the same number of bones as the fingers and thumb of the hand, but they are shorter, and do not allow of the same variety of motions. Man, ths only example of the Order Bimana, or two-handed ' animals, holds the highest place in created nature, and is distin- guished from all other animals of the Class Mammalia, by his power of walking in an erect posture, upon two legs. His bodily, or anatomical structure exhibits, beyond all other animals, a supe- riority and perfection of workmanship altogether surprising and matchless, and this, with his mental faculties, gives him great advantages over other animals in point of skill and address- though he is inferior to most animals of his size in strength, aa MAN. 17 well as in speed, and destitute of natural means of defence, as also of natural covering. Thus it will be seen that man, who, in the social state,, is the lord of terrestrial creation, is naturally the most helpless and weakest of all animals. Between man and the species next helow him, there existe a wider difference than between any other two species which rank next to each other in the animal kingdom. His hands, although somewhat like those of the monkey, are more delicately and per- fectly constructed; the thumb being larger; the fingers, with the exception of the middle finger, possessed of the power of distinct motion; and the nails presenting excellent points of support^ which admit of his handling very small substances. His feet are also different, having soles suited only to the purposes of loco- motion, and not adapted to handling and grasping objects, as are those of the ape. His head is larger, and his face smaller, ic proportion to his size, than those of the monkey; and his ears, eyes, as well as all his senses, are fitted only to the maintenance of an erect posture in walking. His lower extremities being much longer than the upper, he is unable to move about on all fours with facility, and hence is compelled to adopt an upright position. For these "reasons man is distinguished as a himanous or two-handed animal, in contradistinction to apes, monkeys, and baboons, which are known as quadrumanous, or four-handed animals. So numerous are the varieties which prevail among the tribes of the human family, that some have been led to conclude that they could not possibly have descended from one common origin. But of this there is no satisfactory proof; and, although we find distinct races of meii inhabiting different parts of the woi ld,'and having no resemblance in form, features, complexion, and character, yet the cause of these varieties is' an unsettled question. They have been attributed to climate, to situation, to . manner of life, etc. ; but, as none of these circumstances appear sufficient to have produced them, we still, therefore, remain in ignorance on the subject. If we compare the minute differences of mankind, there is scarce one nation upon the earth that entirely resembles another 2* B IH VERTEBRATES ind there may be said to be as many different kinds of men as there are countries inhabited. One polished nation does not differ more from another, than the merest savages do from those savages that lie even contiguous to them ; and it frequently happens that a river, or a mountain, divides two barbarous tribes that are unlike each other in manners, customs, features, and complexion. But these differences, however perceivable, do not form such distinc- tions as come within a general picture of the varieties of mankind. Custom, accident, or fashion, may produce considerable alterations in neighboring nations ; their being derived from ancestors of a different climate, or complexion, may contribute to make accidental distinctions, which every day grow less ; and it may be said, that two neighboring nations, how unlike soever at first, will assimilate by degrees ; and, by long continuance, the difference between them will at last become almost imperceptible. It is not, therefore, between contiguous nations we are to look for any strongly marked varieties in the human species : it is by comparing the inhabitants of opposite climates and distant countries ; those who live within the polar circle with those beneath the equator ; those that live on one side of the globe with those that occupy the other. Some describe the human family as divided into five vari- eties or races : the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malayan, and the American ; each of these being subdivided into families, as, for instance, the Caucasian race is subdivided into the Caucasian, the Celtic, the Germanic, the Arabian, the Libyan, the Nilotic, and the Indostanic families. The Caucasian race are distinguished by the beautiful oval form of their heads, a large and full forehead, regular and dis- tinct features — the face being small and narrow in proportion to the cranium — skin European. Varying from a light rosy white tint to a deep brown ; and hair and eyes of various colors. This race is called Caucasian, because its origin is referred to the group of mountains lying between the Black and Caspian MAN. 19 Seas, among which Caucasus has been celebrated. To this day the Georgians and Circassians, who inhabit that region, are consi- dered the most beautiful specimens of the human form. From this race all ancient and modern civilized nations are descended, and they have always been distinguished for superior intellectual and moral qualities. ottoman, or Turk. The Mongolian race is principally found in the eastern part of Asia; and is distinguished by low stature, projecting cheek- bones, a depressed and retreating forehead, faintly marked fea- tures, narrow and oblique eyes, broad, flat nose, thick lips, black, straight hair, thin beard, and an olive complexion. In this divi- sion are included the Chinese, Japanese, Kalmucks, Mongolians, Jinns, Laplanders, Kamschatkadales, and the. Esquimaux of Northern America. The individuals of this race are inferior in 20 VERTEBRATES. moral and intellectual qualities to those of the Caucasian, and have made but little progress in civilization or literary pursuits. Mongol- The Ethiopian race is characterized by a narrow and de- pressed forehead ; broad, flat nose ; thick lips ; projecting jaws ■ black, crisped, and curled hair or wool ; black skin and eyes • lone heels ; and shrunken shanks. This race is confined to the south of the Atlas chain of mountains, lying between the 20th and 25th degree of north latitude, and supposed almost to divide the continent from east to west. Unendowed with mental faculties or moral perception, the Ethiopian or Negro race has always re- mained in a barbarous state ; and if individuals are compelled for a time to adopt the customs and habits, of civilized life they MAN. 21 »lways return to their original barbaric mode of living, as soon as all restraint upon their actions has been removed. The Malay race includes nations differing widely in form, features, and character, but too imperfectly known to aamit of being accurately described. Some of them, as the inhabitants of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, resem- ble very nearly the African race; while others, as those of, Malacca, Sumatra, the Sandwich and other islands in the Pacific Ocean, vary in features between the Mon- golian and Caucasian races. Tlie American resembles the Mon- * *^' golian race in many respects ; but differs from it in having more 22 VEETEBEATES. distinct and strongly marked features, and a copper-colored sKin. All the native inhabitants of North and South America, Tith the exception of the Esquimaux, are com- prised in this division. They prefer a nomadic life, despise the comforts of civilized existence, except in a few in- stances, and have made but slight ad- vance in arts and literature. Their highest pitch of refinement was attained in the empires of Mexico and Peru. Having described the divisions of the human family under the old system of classification, we will proceed to give them according to that of Pickering, now most generally - received. He enumerates eleven distinct races of men, all of whom American' Indian. * ^vssinlan. MAN. 23 he has seen; the Arabian, Abyssinian, Mongolian, Hottentot, Malay, Papuan, Negrillo, Telingan, Ethiopian, Australian, and Negro. He differs from Prichard in several points, but especially in referring the population of America to the Mongolian race, whereas Prichard considers it as entirely separate. The characteristics and distribution, of each race are briefly these. The Arabian race extends over the whole of Europe, ex- cepting Lapland, about half of Asia, including the greater part of India, and most of the northern third of Africa. The complexion ' is light, the lips are thin, the nose is prominent, and the beard thick. The Abyssinian race occupies a small tract toward the east of Africa, including part of Abyssinia and part of Nubia. The features are like those of Europeans, the complexion is light, t^c hair crisp, and the beard moderate. The Mongolian race is remarkable for a feminine aspect in both sexes, so that a stranger is, at a short distance, often per- plexed to distinguish a man from a woman ; the hair is straight, and the beard is want- ing. It extends over the eastern half of Asia, except Corea, over Lapland, and the whole of America, except the western coast by California, and the upper part of South America. The Hottentot race occupies the p k c * mi Kamscbatkadale. southern extremity of Africa. The com- plexion is not so dark as that of the Negro, the hair is woolly, and frequently grows in irregular patches, leaving a bald spot in the centre of each patch. This race includes the Bechuanas and the Bosjesmans. The complexion of the Bosjesmans, or Bushmen, is very light, and strongly resembles that of an European, with a few sooty patches irregularly placed. The Malay race is almost amphibious, and is never found fer inland. It is widely spread, and inhabits the centre of Mada- gascar, the whole of the islands in the Pacific Ocean, except the Fejee, New Hebrides, Solomon's Isles, Papua, and par^ of tho 24 VERTEBRATES. Philippines. The parts of America not populated ly the Mongo- lians, are also inhabited by this race. . The complexion itf a dark copper, the hair straight, and the beard thin The Papuan race inhabits about two-thirds of Papua, and the Fejee Islands, where Pickering saw the only individuals af this race who came under his notice. The complexion is dark, the hair bushy, the beard copious. The most remarkable point in this race is the skin, which is astonishingly rough and harsh. The Negrillo race is like the Papuan in color, but the hair is more woolly, the stature is small, and the beard absent. The Negrillos inhabit part of Papua, Solomon's Isles, the northern extremities of Luzon and Sumatra, and the New Hebrides. The Telingan, or Indian race, inhabits the eastern parts of India, especially about Calcutta, several isolated spots in other MAN. 25 pai-ts of Indi^ and the ea/^t coast of Madagascar. The compkxion is dark (best imitated by a mixture of red and black), the skm is soft, the features are like those of Europeans, hair straight and fine, and the beard copious. The Ethiopian race is darker than the Telingan, the hair is crisp and fine, skin soft, and the features are more like Euro- pean .features than those of the Negro. This race inhabits the north-eastern portion of Africa, including Southern Egypt, part of Nubia, and part of Abyssinia; a few detached spots towards the north-west, and a large tract of country by Senegambia. The Australian race inhabits Australia alone. The com- plexion is like that of the Negro, but the hair is not woolly like that of the Negro. The Negro race inhabits the central parts of Africa, from the north of Ashanti to a little southward of Zanzibar. The com- plexion is black, the lips are immensely thick, the nose is flat, and the hair close and curly, strongly resembling wool. In the distribution of races, it is most interesting to observe the influence of climate and vegetation on the character of man. The vast tract of desert extending from the north-west of Africa, through Arabia, part of India and Tartary, as far as Mongolia, is inhabited by nomadic, or wandering tribes, who depend princi- pally on the milk of their domesticated animals for subsistence. The interminable and trackless woods of North America develop tribes whose faculties are moulded to the exigencies of their position. To their practised senses the tangled forests are as clear as the highway; the moss on the trees, the sun by day, the stars by night, the rushing of the wind, or the sounds of animal life, are as broad roads and legible signs to them, where we should discover no means to escape from the wilderness of trees. De- pendent in a great measure on hunting for their subsistence, their keen eye marks the slightest trace of the expected prey ; a droop- ing leaf, a twisted blade of grass, a bent twig, a ripple in the stream, are all noticed and all understood. Ever eagerly bent on the destruction of inimical tribes, and deeming the number of "scalps" attached to their dress, each designating a slain enemy, 3 26 VEETEBRATES. as tiie best mark of nobility, they learn to track an enemy by bin footsteps with unexampled patience and untiring assiduity. No bloodhound ever followed his prey with more certainty than the American Indian when on his "war-path" tracks his retiiing enemies, and when near them his approach is silent as the gliding of the serpent, his blow as deadly as its fangs. The Malay race, whose lot is thrown amid islands and coasts, are as crafty and fierce on the waters as the American Indians in their woods. Accustomed to the water from their earliest infancy, able to swim before they can walk, making playthings of waves that would dash an ordinary swimmer to pieces against the rocks, their existence is almost entirely passed on the water. As the American Indians are slayers and robbers by land, so are the Malays murderers and pirates by sea. They have been known to capture a ship in the midst of a storm by swimming to it and climbing up the cable, and many instances of their crafty exploits in ship- taking are on record. For a full account of their ferocity, cun- ning, and endurance, the reader is referred to Sir James Brooks's reports on the Borneo pirates. The Esquimaux, situated among ice and snow, where mer- cury freezes in the open air, and water becomes ice within a yard of a blazing fire, pass an apparently inactive life. They actually form the ice and snow into warm and comfortable houses ; wrapped up in enormous fur garments that almost disguise the human form, they defy the intensity of the frost, and place their highest hap- piness in the chance possession of a whale, which will furnish them with food, clothing, and light through their long winter. All these races, although they differ in habits and external appearance, are but varieties of one species. There is not so marked a distinction between the European and Negro, as between the light and active racer and the heavy brewer's horse ; yet no one attempts to deny that these are one species. The varieties in man are permanent; that is, the child of Negro parents will be a Negro, and the child of Malay parents will be a Malay, but that is no proof of a distinct species, as precisely the same argument may be used with regard to the horse. The mind is the important MAN. 27 part of man, not the body ; and though the outward bodies of men differ, the mind is the same in all, and in all capable of improve- ment and cultivation. Those nations which have pre&drvet. traditions of past events agree in many points in a very remarkable manner. All have some traditions of a creation, not always of a world, but of that particular part in which they reside.- The Fejee islanders be- lieve that one of their gods fished up Fejee from the bottom of the sea, by entangling his fish-hook in a rock, and that the island would have been higher had not the line broken. The fish-hook is still preserved as a proof, but they do not state where the god stood while fishing. A traveller asked one of the priests why the hook, an ordinary tortoise-shell one, did not break ? " Oh, it was a god's hook, and could not break." But why then did the lin3 break ? was the traveller's very natural response. Whereupon the man, according to the prevailing system of argument in. those countries, and perhaps in a few others, threatened to knock him down if he abused the gods any more. Most nations have dim notions of a deluge which overwhelmed the whole world, and from which only a few individuals escaped, by whom the earth was repeopled. Nearly all believe in a good and an evil power contin- ually at warfare, and that the good will finally subdue the evil. Many savage nations, in consequence, seek to propitiate the evil power with prayers and offerings, feeling sure that the good one will not injure them. All nations (except one or two, such as the abject Bosjes- man, who can form no idea of what he cannot see, and whose an- swer, when told of a God, is, " Let me see him") believe in a future state. Their belief is invariably modified according to their habits. Some of the debased dark races believe that after death they be- come white men and have plenty of money ; the Mohammedan con- siders his paradise as an abode of everlasting sensual indulgence ; the savage believes that when he leaves this world he will pass to boundless hunting-fields, where shall be no want of game, and where his arrows shall never miss their mark ; while the Christian knows his heaven to be a place of unspeakable and everlasting hap- pinesfS, where the power of sin shall have ceased for ever. 28 VERTSBRATE8. CHAPTEE III. DlVISIOlf I.— VERTEBRATES. CLASS I. — MAMMALS. ORDER II — FOOT-HANDED AND HAND-WINGED ANIMALS. The Foot-handed Animals approach more nearly to mau, in their internal structure and external form, than any others. They diflFer, however, in the size and shape of the head, which is proportionably smaller, narrower, and less elevated ; in the con- formation of the face, which has a flat, depressed nose, and very prominent jaws and teeth; in the length of the fore-arm; and in the construction of the lower extremities, which are not calculated for the erect posture, and are furnished with hands, instead of feet like those of men. Their structure fits them evidently for climb- ing, and their usual places of habitation are trees, on the fruits of which they feed. They maintain the erect position with diffi- culty; it is a constrained one, since it obliges them to straighten the joints of the hip more than is easy or natural, and to rest theii weight upon the outer edges of their feet or hind hands. Gene- rally, then, they employ all four of their limbs in walking or run- ning; but their motions, when upon the ground, are very various and irregular. They form a numerous tribe, and comprehend a great variety of species, known under the name of apes, baboons, monkeys, lemurs, etc. These names are generally employed with little dis- crimination, but they are intended to point out some general differ- ences of form. Thus, the apes are destitute of a tail ; that of the baboons is a very short one ; and that of the monkeys is about the length of their bodies. Besides these, which are confined to the old continent, there are those belonging to the new world, which have all long tails ; and these are, in many instances, of so much A i- E s . 29 strength, as to answer in some measure the purpose of a fifth limb, enabling the animal to grasp with it the branches of trees or other objects, to assist in climbing. . These are called prehensile tails. The orang-outan and chimpanzee are the most celebrated of the foot-handed animals, for their similarity in face and form to the human race ; whilst many other species, by their elongated snout, depressed forehead, and other particulars, approach more nearly to other quadrupeds. APES. The Orang-outan, or wild man of the woods, found ii Borneo and Sumatra, is the largest of all the apes. It possesses immense strength, and is an animal remarkable not only from being extremely rare, but as having, in many respects, a strong resem- blance to man. What is technically denominated the cranium is perfectly human in its appearance ; the shape of the upper part of the head, the forehead, the eyes (which are dark and full), the eyelashes, and, indeed, ererything relating to the eyes and ears, differing in no respect from man. The hair of his head, however, is merely the same which covers his body generally. The nose is very flat, the distance between it and the mouth considerable j the chin, and, in fact, the whole of the lower jaw, is very large, and his teeth, twenty-six in number, are strong. The lower part of his face is what may be termed an ugly oi jaricature likeness of the human countenance. The position of the scapulae, or shoulder-blades, the general form of the shoulders and breasts, as well as the figure of the arms, the elbow-joint especially, and the hands, strongly continue the resemblance. The metacarpal, or that part of the hand immediately above the fingers, is somewhat elon- gated ; and, by the thumb being thrown a little higher up, nature seems to have adapted the hand to his mode of life, and given him the power of grasping more efiectually the branches of trees. He is corpulent £^bout the abdomen, or, in common phrase, rather pot-bellied, looking like one of those figures of Bacchus often seen riding on casks : but whether this is his natural appear- ance when wild, or acquired since his introduction into new society, 3 * 30 VERTEBRATES. and by indulging in a high style of living, it is diflScult to determine. His thighs and legs are short and bandy, the ankle and heel like the human ; but the fore part of the foot is composed of toes, as long and as pliable as his fingers, with a thumb a little situated before the inner ankle ; this conformation enabling him to hold equally fast with Lis feet as with his hands. When he stands erect, he is about fire feet high, and can walk, but his natural locomotion, when on a plain surface, is support- ing himself along, at every step, by placing the knuc- kles of his hands upon the ground. All the fingers, both of the hands and feet, have nails exactly like the hu- man race, except the thumb of the foot, which is with- out any. When young the Orang-outan is very docile, and has been taught to make its own bed, and to handle a cup and saucer, or a spoon, with tolerable propriety. For the former occupation it proved itself particularly apt, as it not only laid its own bed-clothes smooth and comfortable, but exhibited much ingenuity in stealing blankets from other beds, which it added to its own. The young Orang in the collection of the Zoo- logical Society, London, evinced extreme horror at the sight of a small tortoise, and, when the reptile was introduced into its den. The Orang-outan. APES. 31 stood aghast in a most ludicrously terrified attitude, with its eyus intently fixed on the frightful object. The Chimpanzee is a native of Western Africa, and ia kolerabiy common on the banks of the Gambia and in ■ Congo. Large bands of these formidable apes congregate together and unite in repelling an invader, which they do with such fury and courage, that even the dread- ed elephant and lion are driven from their haunts by their united efibrts. They' live princi- pally on the ground, and, as their name imports, spend much of their time in caves or under "ocks. Their height is from four to five feet, but they are said not to reach this growth until nine or ten years of age. • Several young Chimpanzees have been recently imported into America, and have shown themselves very docile and gentle ; but, had they lived, they would probably in a few years have be ' come fierce and obstinate, as apes almost invariably are when the? reach their full growth. The Long-Armed Gibbon is a very extraordinary and re- markable ape. It is of different sizes, being from two to four fee^ high. It walks erect, is without a tail, has a face resembling that of a man, with a circle of bushy hair all around the visage ; its eyes are large and sunk in its head : its face tanned, and its ears The Chimpanzee. 32 VEETEBRATES. Iland of Long-Armed Gibbon. The Long-Armed Gibbon. exactly, proportioned. But that in which it chiefly differs from all others of the monkey tribe, is the extraordinary length of its arms, which, when the animal stands erect, are long enough to reach the ground; so that it can walk upon all fours and yet keep its erect posture at the same time. This animal, next to the Orang-outan and the Chimpanzee, most nearly resembles mankind, not only in form, but ^ gentle manners and tractable disposition. It is a native of the East Indies, and particularly found along the coast of Coro- mandel. The Kahau, or Proboscis MonTceij. is a native of Borneo. It derives its name from the cry it utters, which is a repetition of the word " Kahau." It is remarkable for the extraordinary size and shape of its nose, and the natives relate that while leaping it holds that organ with its paws, apparently to guard it against the branches. The length of its head and body is two feet. The Sylvanus, or Pigmy Ape, has a flattish face. There is a great resem- blance in the ears to those of the human species. So diminutive is its size, that it is only about as large as a common cat Above, the color is of an olive brown ; be- , neath, yellowish; the nails are flat; and what is common to many of. the ape species, the buttocks are bare ; it sits in an upright posture; the face is almost naked, and is long and wrinkled, giving it a most antiquated appearance ; the eyes are very lively, and are round and reddish; it has no tail, but in the place, a small protuberance of skin, consisting of five or six lines in length. They are natives of Africa, and abound in Ethiopia. Face of tbe Frobopcls Monkey. BABOONa. The Pigmy Ape. BABOONS. The Baboon. — Descending from the more perfect of the monkey kinds, we come to the baboon and its varieties, a large, fierce, and formidable race, that mixing the figure of the man and the quadruped in their conformation, seems to possess only the defects of both; the petulance of the one, and the ferocity of the other. These animals have a short tail ; a prominent face ; with canine teeth, larger than those of men, and callosities on the rump. The Mandrill, which also bears the name of the Kibbed- nosed Baboon, is an ugly, disgusting animal. It is found on the Gold Coast, and in other southern provinces of Africa, where the Negroes call it Boggo, and the Europeans Mandrill. This animal is the largest of the Baboon kind, and is equally remarkable for its variety of color, its singularity of appearance, its immense sirongth, and its unconquerable savageness. " Under itn project- c 84 VERTEBRATES. ing forehead," says Mr. Bingley, " are two small and vivid eyes, situated so near to each other that their position alone gives to the physiognomy an air of ferocity. An enormous muzzle, indi- cative of the most brutal passions, terminates in a broad and rounded extremity of a fiery red color, from which continually oozes a mucous humor. The cheeks, greatly swollen and deeply furrowed, are naked, and of a deep blue color. A narrow blood- colored ridge extends down the middle of the face, and termi The Mandrill. nates ia the nose." Eound the neck the hair is very long. On the sides of the head it joins that at the top, and the whole ter- minates in a somewhat pointed form. Each hair of the body is annulated with black and yellow; so that the whc^e fur has a greenish brown hue. When standing upright, the Mandrill is in -height from three feet and a half to five feet. It is to be found on the Gold Coast, in several other parts of Africa, and also in the East Indies and the Indian Archipelago. Its voice bears some resemblance m the roaring of a lion. No art or kindness can in thfi least B A li O N S . 31 subdue its brutal propensities ; and its great strength renders it an object of perpetual dread to its keepers. Yet it is not, strictly speaking, a carnivorous animal ; for, though it will eat meat tliat has been cooked, its usual food is fruits and nuts. The Dog-Faced Baboon is between four and five feet I 'gh, inhabits various parts of Africa and Asia, and is diiptia- guished by a longer tail than the rest of its kind ; in this respect it seems to bear some affinity to the Monkey, and has been classed under that denomination by several naturalists. Its head is larg"-, muzzle long and thick, eyes small, face naked, and of an oiivs color; the 'hair on its forehead is separated in the middle, and hangs down on each side of the face ; from thence down its back as far as its waist it is long and shaggy, of a bluish gray color, freckled with dark spots ; the hair on the lower part of the body is short; and its buttocks are bare and red. It lives in troops, commits great depredations in gardens and cultivated grounds, and is exceedingly strong, vicious, and impudent. 36 VERTEBEATJES. The Ursine Baboon is not unlike the last, but rather less. Its nose is long, head large, ears short, forehead high and prominent; terminating in a ridge; the body thick and strong, covered witL long dusky hair, which gives it the appearance of a young bear ^ its tail is half the length of its body; its buttocks red. This animal is very numerous about the Cape of Good Hope. Troops of them make expeditions for the sake of plunder, ia which, to prevent being surprised, they plaice a sentinel which, upon the sight of a man, gives a loud yell, when the whole troop retreats with the greatest precipitation ; the young ones leaping on the backs of their parents, and clinging closely to them. When the Ursine Baboon sees a single person sitting and eating in the fields, it will steal behind him, snatch his food from him, retire to a little dis.tance, and begin to devour it; now and then holding it out in its paws towards the loser, with many laughable grimaces, as if offering to restore the prize. It may be tamed, and will then guard its master's property with all the sagacity and fidelity of a dog. The Maimon, which is a native of the banks of the Ganges, has pouches on each side of its cheeks, and callosities on its posteriors; its tail is naked, curled up, and about the length of five or six inches ; the canine teeth are not much longer in proportion than those of men ; the snout is very broad ; the orbits of the eyes very acute above; the face, ears, hands, and feet are naked. monkeys. The Maimon. The Coaita has received a variety of names. It is called the paniscus, the four-fingered, and the spider-monkey. It has received this last name on account of the great length of its arms and legs, to which its diminutive body bears so small a proportion. The length of this animal is about eighteen inches, exclusive of the tail, which measures nearly two feet, and therefore longer Ihan MONKEYS. 87 its whole body. The face is naked, of a copper color, long and flat. The eyes are sunk in the head, and the ears are like thos« of the human form. The body is very slender, and universally covered with long black hair. Other monkeys have thumbs ; this species has no thumbs, only four fingers on each hand, and hence called the four-fingered monkey. What is very singular, while it has only four fingers on its hands, it has five toes upon its feet. As to its long tail, it is almost as useful as a hand ; being prehensik, that is, having the power of laying hold on objects. This very singular spfecies is found in great numbers in Carthagena, Guiana, Brazil, and Peru. The Howler. The Howling Monkeys are larger and mere clumsy than the Spider Monkeys, and are chiefly remarkable for the peculiarity from which they derive their name. These animals possess an enlargement in the throat, which renders their cry exceedingly loud and mournfiil. They howl in concert, principally at the rising and setting of the sun ; one monkey begins the cry, which »» VEBTEBRATEi. is gradually taken up by the rest, precisely as may be observed in a colony of rooks. They are in great request among the natives as articles of food, their slow habits rendering them an easy prey. The Ursine Howler, or Araguato, is common in Brazil, where forty or fifty have been observed on one tree. They generally travel in files, an old monkey taking the lead, and the others following in due 3rdor. They feed principally on leaves and fruit; the tail is prehensile, like that of the Spider Monkeys. The Red Monkejr. The Patas, or Red Monkey (simia rubra), is of a reddisl /awn color, rather lively in the upper parts of the body, and whitish below. It has a black band over the eyes, sometimes "sur- mounted with white. It is a native of Senegal, Congo, and other hot parts of Africa. This species is tailed and bearded. The crown, the back, and the tail, are of a deep red color. There arc two other varieties ; the first is provided with a yellow beard, while the band over the eye is black. The second is furnished with a LEMURS. 39 white beard, and the band over the eye is also white. The height of the red monkey is from eighteen inches to two feet. The red monkey is a pretty animal. We even see the sovereignty of the Deity displayed in the comparative beauty given to some species of the family of monkeys, and the disgusting deformity given to others. But though the red monkey has outward beauty, it is in a proportionate degree defective in agreeable disposition. It is violent, capricious, mischievous, and very little susceptible of attachment. The Marmoset is a most interesting little creature. It is exceedingly sensitive to cold, and when in the United States is usually occupied in nestling among the materials for its bed, which it heaps up in one corner, and out of which it seldom emerges entirely. It will eat almost any article of food, but is especially fond of insects, which it dispatches in a very adroit manner. It will also eat fruits, especially those of its native country. Its fondness for insects is carried so far, that it has been known to pinch out the figures of beetles in an entomological work, and swallow them. The Collared Tee Tee, or White-throated Squirrel Mon- key, is found to the east of the Orinoco. It lives on small birds, insects, and fruits. Its habits are, apparently, mild and inoffen- sive, but its acts belie its looks, for when a small bird is presented to it, it springs upon its prey like a cat and speedily devours it. LEMURS. The Lemurs derive their name from their nocturnal habits, and their noiseless movements. The Ruffled Lemur is a native of Madagascar. It lives in the depths of the forests, and only moves by night, the entire day being spent in sleep. Its food consists of fruits, insects, and small birds, which latter it takes while they are sleeping. This is the largest of the lemurs, bping rather largerthan a cat. The Slender Loris is a native of India, Ceylon, etc. It, like the Lemur, seldom moves by day, but prowls about at night jn search of food. No sooner (^oes it espy a sleeping bird, than 40 VERTEBRATES. it slowly advances until ■within reach j then putting forward its paw with a motion slow and imperceptible as the movement of the shadow on the dial, it gradually places its fingers over the devoted bird; then, with a movement swifter than the 3yo can follow, it selees its startled prey. HAND-WINOED ANIMALS. Bats. — These are the only types of this family, and were arranged by Linnaeus with man and the monkeys. They are The Slender Loria. Sufficiently distinguished, however, by their wings. These are formed of a thin fold of skin, which extends between the two limbs of the same side, and is likewise stretched across the claws of the fore feet, which are very long and slender, and serve to keep the membrane extended like the sticks of an umbrella. By means of thi? apparatus, many of them are enabled to fly with a force and rapidity equal to that of birds ; but, in others, it answers only the purpose of a parachute to break their fall from lofty places, or to enable them to perform great leaps in their passage from tree to tree. They are principally nocturnal animals, seeking their prey (which consists of iniiects, small quadrupeds or birds, and flesh of any kind) in the twilight, and retiring during the day to dark and hidden recesses, where they remain suspended by their claws, till the return of night. They possess the singular faculty of directing theii flight with great accuracy and precision, without the assistance of the sense of sight, and even after their eyes have been destroypd. It has been found that, after the complete removal of the pyeball, bats Are able to fly about in a room without touching the walls, apparently with as much ease and security as before. What is still more remarkable, when several willow rods are placed six inches distant from each other, so as to form a sort of grating, the bats, after the destruction of their eyes, are able to pass backward and forward through the spaces without ever coming in contact with BATS -11 the rods. It is difficult to give any satisfactory account of this phenomenon, and yet the experiments from which the knowledge of it has been derived, are well authenticated, and have been fre- quently repeated. It has been attributed to the great extent and uncommon delicacy of the membrane constituting the wings, and of that lining the car, which have been supposed to render the animal capable of judging, from the impressions made upon it by the air, of the relative distances and positions of external objects. The Common Bat The following characters belong to the various species of bats. The skin of the body is laterally The Common Bat. prolonged to the extremities of the toes ; the toes, or fingers of the fore-limbs, much longer than those of the hinder, united by broad membranes, usually without claws; the thumb separated, but always very short in proportion to the other toes, except in the genus pteropus, and always armed with a strong and very sharp claw. The toes of the hind feet are united, very short, and pro- vided with very strong nails. The cutting-teeth are sometimes wanting in one of the jaws, and vary in number from two to six. The canine-teeth are very strong, and the grinders in most in- 42 VERTEBRATES. Stances have sharp protuberances. The membrane with which f.hey fly, and which resembles a wing, is naked. There is either a tail, or the rudiments of one. The ears are almost always large in proportion to the size of the animal. The wings are a most beautiful and singular construction. These consist of an ex- tremely thin, light, and delicately-formed membrane, surpassing the finest texture of silk, extending from one shouldej- enlirely round the body to the other. This connects the fore and hind legs, and is capable, from its firmness and pliableness, of being contracted at pleasure into innumerable folds, so as to occupy little room, and give the animal no inconvenience when at rest, and also capable of being stretched to a wide extent for occasional flight. The eyes are deeply seated in the head, and scarcely visible. The Vampyre Bat. Bats retire upon the approach of cold weather in the au- tumn, and pass the winter in a dormant state. iThey frequently suspend themselves together in large clusters, thaj, by their warmth they may reciprocally assist each other in resisting the efiects of the cold. During this period, the powers of life seem to jjp almqs| BATS. 43 extinct; the temperature of the animal is much lo'nerfcd, and he bfioomes lean and exhausted, so that he awakens in the spring in a state of great weakness and emaciation, although in the autumn he may have been very fat. The Vampyre Bat is from five inches to a foot in length, and has membranous wings extending from four to six feet. It inhabits Africa and Asia, but is found most abundantly in the East Indian islands. It is very gregarious, and is found in im- mense flocks. Five hundred have been counted hanging on a single tree. It does not confine itself to animal food, but subsists also upon fruits and vegetables, and is the cause of gi'eat injury to the produce of the countries it inhabits. It has been supposed to suck the blood of persons lying asleep, by making an orifice in some exposed vein, which it does so easily as not to , awaken the sleeper, to the soundness of whose slumbers it contributes by fan- ning him gently with its wings. Hence this animal has received the name Vampyre, and is thought to have given origin to the ancient fable of the Harpies. It is said to be excellent food. Th* Bptctra But 44 TERTBBBATEB. The Spectre Bat is a species very similar in its habits »*> the one just described. It is a smaller animal, not exceeding seven inches in the length of its body, and two feet in the extent of the membrane of its wings- It is an inhabitant of South America and New Holland, and exists in immense numbers. It has the same propensity for drawjng blood as the Vampyre, s-nd is said to cause great injury and destruction amMg cattle by this means. In New Holland, twenty thousand have been computed to be seen within the compass of a mile. It is of i mild dispo- sition, and is easily tamed and domesticated. CHAPTER IV DIVISION I.— VEETEBRATES. CLASS I. — MAMMALS. ORDER III. — QUADRUPEDS. I. CLAWED QUADRUPEDS. This order includes a great number, and a great variety of animals, which, with a few exceptions, are furnished with the tree kinds of teeth, differing more or less in shape from those of man and the monkeys, to adapt them to the mastication of animal food, upon which they wholly, or in part, subsist. The animals of this Order are subdivided into Quadrupeds with claws, and Quadrupeds with hoofs; and under these again we have still other subdivisions,' which will be indicated in their proper order. . /. Carnivorous Quadrupeds. THE OAT TRIBE. The Lion is entitled to the first place among wild beasts His figure is striking, his look confident and bold, his gait proud, THE OAT TRIBE. 45 and his roice terrible. His stature is not overgrown, like that of the elephant, or rhinoceros ; nor is his shape clumsy, like that of the hippopotamus, or the ox. It is compact, well proportioned, and sizeable : a perfect model of strength joined with agility. It is muscular and bold, neither charged with fat nor unnecessary flesh. It is sufficient but to see him in order to be assured of his superior force. His large head surrounded with a dreadful mane ; Ul those muscles that appear under the skin swelling with the slightest exertions; and the great breadth of his paws, with the thickness of his limbs, plainly evince that no other animal in the forest is capable of opposing him. He has a very broad face, that, as some have imagined, resembles the human. It is surrounded with long hair, which gives it a very majestic air. The top of the head, the temples, the cheeks, the under-jaw, the neck, the breast, the . shoulder, the hinder part of the legs, and the belly, are fur- nished with it, while all the rest of the body is covered with a rery short hair of a tawny color. The length of the hair in many parts, and the shortness of 46 VERTEBRATES. it in othera, serves a good deal to disguise this animal's real figure. The breast appears very broad, but in reality is as narrow anA contracted in proportion as that of the generality of dogs and horses. For the same reason, the tail seems to be of an equal thickness from one end to the other, on account of the inequality of the hair with which it is encompassed ; it being shorter near the insertion where the flesh and bones are large, and growing -onger in proportion as its real thickness lessens towards the point, where it ends in a tuft. The hair about the neck and the breast is not different from that on the rest of the body, except in the length of it ; nor is each hair pointed, as in most other animals, but of an equal thickness from one end to the other. The neck is very strong, but, though very short and muscular, it has as many bones as the camel or the'horse. The tongue is rough, and beset with prickles as hard as a cat's claws ; these have the grain turned l)ackwards ; so that it is probable a lion, if it should attempt to lick a man's hand, as we are told it sometimes does, would tear off the skin. The eyes are always bright and fiery ; nor even in death does this terrible look forsake them. In short, the structure of the paws, teeth, eyes, and tongue, are the same as in a cat; and also in the inward part these two animals so nearly resemble each other, that the anatomist's chief distinction arises merely from the size. In this animal, all the passions, even of the most gentle kind, are in excess, bu ; particularly the attachment of the female to her young. The lioness, though naturally less strong, less cou- rageous, and less mischievous than the lion, becomes terrible when she has got young ones to provide for. She then makes her in- cursions with even more intrepidity than the lion himself; she throws herself indiscriminately among men and other animals; destroys without distinction ; loads herself with the spoil, and brings it home reeking to her cubs, whom she accustoms betimes to cruelty and slaughter. She usually brings forth from two to four cubs at a time, in the most retired and inaccessible places ; and when she fears to have her retreat discovered, often hides her tracks, .by runnini^ back over her ground, or by brushing them out with THE CAT T U I n E . 47 her tail She sometimes, also, when her apprehensions are great, transports them from one place to another; and, if obstructed, defends them with determined courage, and fights to the last. The cubs are beautiful, playful little things, are slightly striped, and have no mane until they are about two years old. Lioness. The lion is chiefly an inhabitant of the torrid zone; and u always most formidable there : nevertheless, he can subsist in more temperate climates; and there was a time when even the southern parts cf Europe were infested by him. At present, he is ;nlj found i 1 Africa and the East Indies ; in some of which countries he grows to an enormous height. The opinion that lions will not touch a dead animal is erro- neous; as they were frequently shot by Mr. Gumming while de- vouring gnus, etc., that had fallen by his rifle. Those lions who have once tasted human flesh are generally the most to be dreadedj^ as they will even venture to spring in among a company of men, and seize their victim. These lions are called man-eaters. During 48 VERTEBRATES. the latter part of Cumming's residence in South Africa a dreadftil instance of their ferocity occurred. While the hunting party was encamped for the night in the territory of the Balakahari, a lion, Hiking advantage of the stormy night, suddenly sprang upon two rr.en, Hendrick, the driver, and Ruyter, the Bosjesman tracker, who were wrapped in the same blanket, by the fire. It seized Hendrick by the neck, and dragged him into 'he bushes, in spite of the blows which another man gave it with » burning brand, leaving Euyter unhurt except by a few scratch i with its claws. Next morning it was shot by Mr. Gumming, wh, placed its skin in his magnificent collection, where Ruyter points it out with great glee. The Tiger is in length about nine feet, its height four or five, its tail of the same length, making, from the nose to the tip of the tail, fourteen feet. ' The chief color of its body is orange yellow. White prevails nearly over the face, throat, and belly; and the whole is traversed or crossed by numerous long black stripes. This animal is a native of India, being found in China, Chinese Tartary, but chiefly in the hot climates of India, and the Indian Islands. It has a preference for hilly and woody districts and it lurks in jungles and thickets, from which it rushes with dreadful impetuosity, attacking flocks and herds, by no means terrified at the sight of man, and even engaging with the lion in puch fierce encounters that the combatants -have been found to fall together. Its thirst for blood is extraordinary and appalling. The •■•^er plunges his head into the body of his victim, and continues to suck the blood until the sources are exhausted. His strength is so prodigious that it is said he can drag along a dead buflFalo. The roar of the tiger is tremendous. It is at first deep, slow, and melancholy ; then it becomes more acute, and finishes in a dreadful cry. When robbed of her young, the rage of the tigress knows no bounds ; no danger can terrify it, and shejnll pursue the plun- derers to the sea-shore or the gate of the city. When she finds Ler ofi'spring irrecoverably lost, she expresses her grief and indig- nation by the most fearful bowlings. The chase of the Tiger is among the most exciting «nd THE CAT TRIBE. 49 favorite sports in India. A number of hunters assemble, mounted I n elephants trained to the sport, and carry with' them a supply of loaded rifles in their howdahs, or carriages mounted on the ele- phants' backs. Thus armed, they proceed to the spot wheie a tiger Kaa been seen. The animal is usually found hidden in the long gn«is or jungle, which is frequently eight or more feet in height. and when roused, he endeavors to creep away under the grass. The movement of the leayas betrays him, and ho is checked by a rifle ball aimed at him through the jungle. Finding that he cannot escape without being seen, he turns round, and springs at the nearest elephant, endeavoring to clamber up it, and attack the part) in the howdah. This is the most dangerous part of the proceed- ings, as many elephants will turn round and run away, regardless of the efforts of their drivers to make them face the tiger. Should, however, the elephant stand firm, a well-directed ball checks the tiger in his spring, and he then endeavors again to escape, but a volley of rifle balls from the backs of the other elephants, who by this time have come up, lays the savage animal prostrate, and in a yery short time his skin decorates the successful marksman's how- 5 D 50 'VERTEBRATES. dah. These hunts aie not carried on without considerable danger, as in some cases the tiger has succeeded in reaching the howdah, and more than one hunter has been known to overbalance himself in his anxiety to get a shot at his game, and has fallen into the very claws of the enraged brute. Once a wounded tiger sprang at a badly trained elephant, who immediately turned round and made off. The tiger succeeded in reaching the elephant's tail, which it mangled dreadfully, but could climb no higher, partly on account of its wounds, and partly through the exertions of a native, who kept it back with a spear. The tiger. hung in this way. for the greater part of a mile, when another hunter succeeded in over< taking the terrified elephant, and with a single ball freed the poor animal from its tormentor. The Cougar is extremely common an South America ; and, where the towns border upon the foTHstj these animals make fre- quent incursions by night into the midst of the streets, carrying off fowls, dogs, and other domestic creatures. They are, how- ever, but weak and con- temptible, being found un- able to cope with a single man. The Negroes and Indians are very dexterous in en sountering them ; and some, even for the sake of their skins, geek them in their retreats. The arms in this combat, seemingly so dangerous, are only a lance of two or three yards long, made of heavy wood, with the point hardened in the fire; and a kind of scymetar, of about three quarters of a yard in length. Thus armed, they wait till the cougar makes an assault against the left hand, which holds the lance, and is wrapped up in a short cloak of baize. Sometimes the animal, aware of the danger, seems to decline the combat; but then its antagonist provokes it with a slight touch of the lance, in order, while he is defending himself, to strike a sure blow. As soon, therefore, as the creature feels the Oongar. T HE OAT TRIBE. 51 lance, it gra.'.ps it with one of its paws, and with the other strikes at the arm which holds it, when the person nimbly aims a blow with his scymetar, which he kept concealed, with the other hand, and hamstrings the creature, which immediately draws ;ack en- raged, but instantly returns to the charge. Receiving another strokis, however, it is totally deprived of the power of motion ; and the combatant, killing it at his leisure, strips the skin, cuts off the bead, and returns to his companions, displaying these as the tro- phies of his victory. The Leopard, or Panther, is smaller than the tiger, and is an inhabitant of Africa, India, and the Indian Islands. A black variety inhabits Java, and is not uncommon there. There is great liveliness in its eyes, which are continually in motion. The feet are large; the fore ones having five toes, and the hind but four. It can draw back and push out its dreadful claws at pleasure. It has the power of opening and closing the toes of its feet like the Leopard. human hand,~and thus becomes dreadfully formidable to the crea, tures wh'ch it attacks. It is peculiarly fierce and savage ; ail ani- 52 VERTEBRATES. mals, not even man excepted, it attacks indiscriminately, and it is rarely capable of being tamed. It watches long and patiently for its prey, and will spring or leap upon them from a considerable distance, so far as seventeen feet. Nothing can be more beautiful than the elegant and active manner in which the leopards sport among the branches of the trees ; at one time they will bound from branch to branch with such rapidity that the eye can scarcely follow them ; then, as if tired, they will suddenly stretch themselves along a branch, so as to be hardly distinguishable from the bark, but start up again on the slightest provocation, and again resume their graceful antics When tamed, it expresses great fondness for its keeper, and will play with him like a cat. The Ounce, a native of India, and frequently confounded ' with the leopard, is, however, much smaller, being not, at most, above three feet and a half long; however, its hair is much longer than that of the leopard, and its tail still more so. The leopard of four or five feet long, has a tail but of two feet, or two feet and a half. The ounce, which is but about three feet, has a tail often longer than the rest of its body. The color of the ounce is also apparently different, being rather more inclining to a cream-color, which is deeper on the back, and whiter towards the belly. The hair on the back is an inch and a half long; and that on the belly two inches and a half, which is much longer than that of the leopard. Its spiits are disposed pretty much in the same manner as the large leopard, except that on the haunches it is rather marked with stripes than with spots. The Jaguar inhabits America. It is larger and more power ful than the leopard, which it resembles in color, but has a black streak across the chest, and a black spot in the centre of the ro- settes. It is fond of climbing trees, and finds little difficulty in ascending, even when the trunk is smooth and destitute of branches. It chases monkeys successfully, and is said to watch for turtles on the beach, and to scoop out their flesh by turning them on their backs and inserting its paws between the shells. It often makes fearful havoc among the sheep-folds, and is said to depart so fax THECATTRIBE. 63 from the usual habits of the Felidse, as to enter the water after fish, and to capture them in shallow places. There have been in- stances of the domestic cat acting in the same manner. The Puma inhabits the whole of America, where it is held in much dread by the natives. Its color is an uniform grey, fading into white on the under parts of its body, and this similarity of color is the reason that the name " concolor" has been given to it It lives much on trees, and usually lies along the branches, where its uniform dusky fur renders it so like the bark that it can scarcely be distinguished from the branch. This habit it preserves when in captivity, and many persons pass its den in the London Zoological Gardens, fancying it empty, while the puma is lying along its shelf unobserved. Mr. Eaton Stone, the celebrated equestrian who has tra- velled for many years in the wilder parts of America, says that the puma is accustomed to follow men by scent, and to track them on their journey, waiting for an opportunity to spring upon them unobserved. If the traveller keeps his eye on the animal it is perfectly harmless, but it will wait for the moment when his eye is withdrawn to spring upon him. The Ocelot is the fiercest, and, for its size, one of the most destructive animals in the world. It is a native of South America, and by no means capable of the same education is the ounce, which it more approaches in size than in disposition. Two of these were carried to England from Carthagena, and having been taken from the dam when very young were afterwards suckled by a bitch. But, before they were three months old, they had strength and ingratitude enough to kill and devour their nurse. Their suc- ceeding fierceness and malignity seemed to correspond with their first efforts; for no arts could tame or soften their natures; and while they continued in their cages, they still testified an unceasing disposition for slaughter. When their food was given them, the male always served himself before the female would venture to touch a bit; and it was not till he was satisfied that the other began. 1 The Ocelot is about two feet and a half in length, from the nose to the insertion of the tail. It is extremely like a cat, except 5* 54 VERTEBRATES. that it is larger and slenderer, that its colors are 'more beautiful, and its tail rather shorter. The fur is of a reddish color, the whole beautified with black spots, and streaks of difiFerent figures. They are long on the back, and round on the belly and paws. On the ears are black stripes, which run acjoss ; but, in other respects, they entirely resamble those of a cat. These colors, however, which naturalists have taken great pains minutely to describe, are by no means permanent, being differently disposed in different ani- mals of the same species. The Cat is a quadruped with which we are all familiar. Though in a tame and domesticated state it is most sociable, useful, and harmless, yet the wild animal is as furious as the tiger, and bloodthirsty as the hyena. In all quarters of the globe it is found in a wild and unreclaimed state. Though the domestic varieties are exceedingly numerous, there is no doubt that they have all origi- Wild Cat. nated in that species which roams in woods and forests. The various points of appearance and manners in which the wild and domestic agree, plainly show that both species have proceeded from THECATTRIBE. 65 one common origin; however, the wild cat is much less subject to variety than the tame one, the intestinal canal is considerably shorter; it is, besides, larger and stronger, and the fur of much greater length. The fur is generally soft and fine, of a pale yellow, blended with grey. A dusky list runs along the middle of the back from head to tail, the sides are streaked with grey, and the tail is thick, and marked with alternate bars of white and black. It is partial to hilly and woody tracts, and lives in trees. Of course it is an expert hunter ; birds, rabbits, hares, mice, rats, and moles, are among the number of the objects of its rapaMous prey : it is well known that in the country domestic cats are lawless poachers; at night they sally forth, and participate largely in the enjoyment of field-sports. Wild cats will ever invade the out- houses of the peaceful farmyard, and carry off young poultry. They will also spread abroad their havoc among lambs, kids, or fawns, and thus prove themselves to be among the most destructive beasts of prey. The wild cat fights with determined valor; if only slightly wounded, it will rush on its assailant, and is repelled with difficulty. Some reach a very considerable size; and have measured upwards of five feet from nose to tail. The Caracal, which is the lynx of the ancients, is common in Barbary, in Arabia, and in the southern half of Asia, and in all those countries which are inhabited by the lion, the panther, and the leopard ; like them it depends on prey for its subsistence ; but, unlike them, from its inferior size, its inferior strength, to procure that prey it has much difficulty. The Caracal is not spotted like the iynx ; it has hair rougher and shorter, its tail is largier, and of a uniform color ; its snout is more elongated ; in appearance it is less mild, and in disposition it is fiercer. The lynx is an inhabit- ant of the cold, or at most of the temperate regions; while the Caracal is only found in the hot countries. The Lynx is about the size of a moderately large dog, measuring upwards of four feet from head to tail, and the latter is about six inches in length. The body is covered with long soft hair; the feet are thick and strong, and the eyes, which are of a pale yellow color, are proverbially piercing. , This animal is found 5e VE RTEBR ATE 8. in Europe, America, and the north of Asia. It is considered to live for many years. It subsists by hunting, and pursuing its prey Upon tlie highest trees; feeding on ermines, weasels, squirre's, and other animals, which are unable to escape from it. It is not satisfied with these minor creatures, but has the audacity to watch the approach of the fallow-deer, hare, and other animata of the chase, which it darts upon from the branches of trees, where it lies concealed. It seizes them by the throat, sucks their blood, after which it abandons them and goes in search of fresh game. In this respect, it remarkably resembles the tiger, which sucks the blood of its victim, and then leaves it. The sight is singularly quick, and its eyes see its prey at a great distance. The Canada Lynx is a native of North America, and is remarkable for its gait. Its method of progression is by bounds from all four feet at once, with the back arched. It feeds prin- cipally on the American hare, as it is not xiourageous enough to attack the larger quadrupeds. Its length is about three feet. The natives sometimes eat its flesh, which is white and firm, and TIIEOATTEIBE. 57 not unlike that of the American hare itself. Its skin forms an important article in commerce, and between seven and nine thou- sand are imported yearly by the Hud- son's Bay Company, by whom the grey specimen in the British Museum was presented. The Chetah, or Hunting Leopard, is a native of Africa and Southern Asia. With the distin- guishing characteristic of the cat spe- ''''°"'* ^^'"' cies, it combines somewhat of the dog. Unlike those of the cat, its claws are only slightly retractile. In size he is intermediate between the leopard and the hound, but has a slenderer body, more elevation in his legs, and a less flat fore-part of the head than the former, while he wants the graceful and lengthened form of head and body by which the latter is distinguished. His fur is not sleek, but has a peculiar crispness. Above, the ground color is a bright yellowish fawn ; beneath, it is a pure white ; the back and sides are covered with innumerable spots, close to each other, from half an inch to an inch in diameter. The spots are larger, but less closely set, on the back than on the head, sides, and limbs. On the chest and under part of the body they are wanting. The tail is marked with interrupted rings of them, till near the ex- tremity, which is surrounded by three or four complete rings Along the back of the neck and the anterior part of the spine, is a mane, consisting of longer, crisper, and more upright hairs. In the East he is used in hunting by the higher classes Hiding himself as much as possible, he approaches the f eject, and when he las come sufficiently near, he makes five or six enormous bounds, with incredible velocity, darts on his victim, and instantly strangles him. In his domesticated state, the Che- tah is one of the most playful and fond of animals. He has not the slightest appearance of the caprice and mischievousness of the cat. The Ichneumon, from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, is from twenty-four to fortr-two inches in length; nearly 68 VERTEBRATES. half of which is occupied by the tail. At the base, the tail is very thick ; it tapers gradually towards the point, which is slightly tufted. The eyes are of a bright red ; the ears al- ichneumon. niost naked, Small and rounded ; the no^e is long and slender. The legs are short. The hair is hard and coarse, and of a pale reddish grey, each hair being mottled with brown or mouse :olor. This animal is domestic in Egypt, like our cat; and, like that, is serviceable in destroying rats and mice ; but its inclination for prey and its instinct are much stronger and more extensive than the cat's ; for it hunts alike birds, quadrupeds, serpents, lizards, and insects; it attacks every living creature in general, and feeds entirely on animal flesh ; its courage is equal to the sharpness of its appetite; it is neither frightened at the anger of the dog nor the malice of the cat, nor even dreads the bite of the serpent : it pursues them with eagerness, and seizes on them, however veno- mous they may be. As soon as it begins to feel the impressions of their venom, it immediately goes in search of antidotes, and particularly a root that the Indians call by its name, and which, they say, is one of the most powerful remedies in nature against the bite of the viper. It sucks the eggs of the crocodile, as well as those of fowls and birds ; it also kills and feeds on young croco- diles, when they are scarcely come out of their shell ; and, as fable commonly accompanies truth, it has been currently reported, that, by virtue of this antipathy, the Ichneumon enters the body of thti crocodile, when it is asleep, and never quits it till he has fevoured its entrails. It was formerly deified by the Egyptians for its ser- viceable qualities. The Javanese Civet differs considerably from the common Civet. The body, narrow, compressed, and higher behind than before, is from fifteen to eighteen inches long. The back is strongly arched. The muzzle is narrow and tapering; the ears short and rounded ; the profile forms a perfectly straight line ; the tall, tapering gradually to the tip, is as long as the body, and is THECATTRIBK. 59 marked with eight or nine broad black rings, which alternate with as many of a greyish hue. A much lighter grey than that of the Civet composes the ground color ; there is a broad longitudinal dorsal line of black, and on each side two or three narrower black lines, consisting of confluent spots. Over the rest of the body these spots are thickly but rather irregularly scattered, so as to constitute a series of flexuous dotted lines. The side of the neck above is occupied by a deep longitudinal black line, and below, there is a second, which is more obliquely placed. The head is greyish, and has no spots and the legs are externally black. Civets are active little animals. The whole group is cele- brated for a perfume which is secreted in a glandular pouch near the tail, and is of some importance in commerce. If the Civet is kept alive, the perfume is obtained by enclosing it in a long narrow box so that it cannot turn round, and then scraping the secretion from the pouch with a spoon. If the creature is killed, the entire pouch is usually cut off, and sells for a higher sum than when the perfume is sold separately. The Civet is only found in North Africa, especially in Abys- sinia, where it takes up its abode on uncultivated and barren hills. It feeds upon birds and the smaller quadrupeds, which it takes by surprise. As it pursues its prey by night only, its eyes are formed for seeing in the dark, and gleam as do those of a cat The Genet is an animal smaller than the civet. It hiis a long body, short legs, a sharp snout, and a slender head. Its fur, which is exceedingly smooth and soft, is of an ash color, glossy, and marked with black stripes, which are separate upon the sides, but which unite upon the back. It has also upon the neck a kind of mane, or longish hair, which forms a black streak from the head to the tail, which last is as long as the body, and is marked with seven or eight rings, from the inser'^ion to the tip, which are alternately black and white. 60 VEETEBRATES. The Genet has, under the tail, and in the very samt place with the civets, an opening, or pouch, in which is separated a kind of perfume resembling civet, but less strong, and apt sooner to evaporate. It is an animal somewhat larger than the martin, which it strongly resembles, not only in the form of the body, but also in disposition and habit, and from which it seems chiefly to differ in being more easily tamed. It is a native of Spain, Africa, and the south of Asia. THE DOG TRIBE. Under this head are classed Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, Hyaenas, etc The Dog is the companion of man, participates in his plea^ sures, shares his dangers, guards his person and property, and, in short, performs all the various duties which are required of him by his master. The dog is the only animal that is capable of dis- interested affection. He is the only one that regards the human being as his companion, and follows him as his friend ; the only one that seems to possess a natural desire to be useful to him, or from a spontaneous impulse attaches himself to man. We take the bridle from the mouth of the horse, and turn him free into the pasture, and he testifies his joy in his partially recovered liberty. We exact from the dog the service that is required of him, and he still follows us. He solicits to be continued as our companion and our friend. Many an expressive action tells us how much he is pleased and thankful. He shares in our abun- dance, and he is content with the scantiest and most humble fare. He loves us while living, and has been known to pine away on the gravj of his master. The genus, or general class in which all the different de- scriptions are comprehended, is thus described by naturalists. The head is flat on the crown, with a lengthened snout ; the claws are long, a little curved, and not retractile ; that is, the dog has not the power of drawing them in, or darting them out, like the cat or the tiger : the females produce many young at once, and these are blind, and, in other respects, not quite formed at birth ; in about two years most of them attain to full maturity, and the general THE DOG TRIBE. 61 The Dingo. duration of their life seems to be between fourteen and twenty years. Though the characteristic features, or marks of domesti- cated dogs are the same in all countries, there is an amazing difference in their shape and size. The Dingo, or New Holland Hound, approaches in appear- ince to the largest kind of shepherd's dog. The head is elon- gated, the forehead flat, and the ears short and erect, or with a slight direction forwards. The body is thickly covered with hair of two kinds — the one woolly and grey, the other silky and of a deep yellow or fawn color. The limbs are muscular, and, were it not for the suspicious yet ferocious glare of the eye, he might pass for a handsome dog. The Australasian dog, according to M. Desmarest, resembles in form and in the proportion of his limbs the common shepherd's dog. He is very active and courageous, covered in some parts with thick hair, woolly and grey, in other parts becoming of a yellowish-red color, and under the belly having a whitish hue. When he is running, the head is lifted more than usual in dogs, and the tail is carried horizontally. He seldom barks. The Greyhound was once held in such estimation that it was the peculiar companion of a gentleman ; who was anciently known by his horse, his hawk, and his Greyhound. In such repute was it, that Canute enacted a law that it should not be kept by any one who was under the rank of a gentleman. It has a long body, a neat and elongated head, full eye, long mouth, sharp and very white teeth, little ears, with thin gristles in them, a straight neck, and full breast j his fore and hind legs are long and straight ; his ribs round, strong, and full of sinews, and taper about the belly. It is the swiftest Highland Oreyhound. 62 VERTEBRATES. of the Dog kind, and easily trained for the chase when twelve months old. It courses by sight, and not by scent, as other hounds do ; and is supposed to outlive all the Dog tribe. Buffon imagines it to be descended from the Irish Greyhound, only rendered more thin and delicate by the influence of climate. There is a variety of this species, which is called the Highland Greyhound. It is very large, strong, deep-chested, covered with long rough hair, and has the scent and sagacity of the bloodhound. This kind has become exceedingly scarce. The King Charles' Spaniel is so called from the fond- ness of Charles II. for it — who usually had some of them following him wherever he went. Its form and character are well preserved in one of the paintings of the unfortunate parent of that monarch and his family. The ears deeply fringed and sweeping the ground, the rounder form of the forehead, the larger and moister eye, the longer and silken coat, and the clearness of the tan, and white and black color, sufficiently distinguish this variety.. His beauty and diminutive size have consigned him to the drawing-room or parlor. The Water-Spaniel. — Of this breed there are two varie- ties, a larger and smaller, both useful according to the degree of range or the work required ; the smaller, however, being ordinarily preferable. Whatever be his general size, strength and compact- ness of form are requisite. His head is long, his face smooth, and his limbs, more developed than those of the springer, should be muscular, his carcase round, and his hair long and closely curled. Docility an 1 affection are stamped on his countenance, and he rivals every other breed in his attachment to his master. The Alpine Spaniel, or Bemardine Dog, is a breed almost peculiar to the Alps, and to the district between Switzerland and Savoy. The passes over these mountains are exceedingly danger- ous from their steepness and narrowness. A precipice of many hundred feet is often found on one side, and perpendicular rocks on the other, while the path is glazed with frozen snow or ice. In many places the path is overhung with huge masses of frozen snow, which p"casionally loosen and fall, when the dreadful storms pceu- THE DOG TRIBE. 63 liai to these regions suddenly come on, and form an insurmount- ible barrier, or sweep away or bury the unfortunate traveller. Should he escape these dangers, the path is now become trackless, and he wanders amid the dreary solitudes until night overtakes him ; and then, when he pauses from fatigue or uncertainty with regard to the path he should pursue, his limbs are .speedily benumbed. Fatal slumbers, which he cannot shake off, steal upon him, and he crouches under some ledge, and sleeps, to wake no more. The snow drifts on. It is almost continually fall- St. Bernard Dog. ing, and he is soon concealed from all human help. On the top of Mount St. Bernard, and near one of the most dangerous of these passes, is a convent, in which is preserved a breed of large dogs trained to search for the benighted and frozen wanderer. Every night, and particularly when the wind blows tempestuously, some of these dogs are sent out. They traverse every path about the mountains, and their scent is so exquisite that they can discover the traveller, although he may lie many feet deep in the snow. Having found him, they set to work and en- deavor to scrape away the snow, uttering a deep bark that revtrr- berates from rock to rock, and tells those who are watching in the convent that some poor wretch is in peril. Generally, a little flask of spirits is tied round the neck of the animal, by drinking which ihe benighted traveller may recruit his strength, until more efioctual rescue arrive. The monks hasten in the direction of the sound, and often succeed in rekindling the vital spark before it is quite extinguished. Very many travellers have been thus rescued from death by these benevolent men and their intelligent and interesting quadruped servants. The Newfoundland is often confounded with the Labra- dor Dog, a larger and more powerful animal. Both these dogs are (j4 VERTEBRATES. trained by their native masters to draw sledges and little caAria^es, and on that account are highly esteemed. The carts used in the winter-work are drawn by these dogs, who are almost invariably urged and goaded on beyond their strength, fed only with putrid aalt fish, and an inadequate quantity even of that. A great many Newfoundland Dog. Df them are worn out and die before the winter is over; and, when the summer approaches, and the fishing season commences, many of them are quite abandoned, and, uniting with their companions, prowl about, preying on the neighboring flocks, or absolutely starving. Mr. Macgregor, however, states that in almost every otlier fart of British America they are valuable and useful. They are remarkably docile and obedient to their masters, serviceable in all the fishing countries, and yoked in pairs to draw the winter's fuel home. They are faithful, good-natured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend their master and their master's property, and sufier no person to injure the one or the other; and, however ex- treme may be the danger, they will not leave them for a minute. They seem only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their .good wishes and feelings understood, and they are capable TIIEDOGTRIBE. 65 of being trained for all the purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used. The feet of this Dog are more palmated than usual; which structure enables it to swim very fast, to dive easily, and to bring up anything from the bottom of the water. It is, indeed, almost as fond of the water as if it were an amphibious animal. So sa- gacious is it, and so prompt in lending assistance, that it has saved the lives of numberless persons who were on the point of drown- ing ; and this circumstance, together with its uniform good temper, has justly rendered it a universal favorite. The Esquimaux Dog is a beast of burden and of draught, usefully employed by the inhabitants of the extreme parts of North America and the neigh- boring islands. When the Esquimaux Indian goes in pursuit of the seal, the reindeer, or the bear, his dogs carry the materials of his temporary hut, and the few neces- saries of his simple life ; or, yoked to the sledge, often draw him and his family full sixty miles a day over the frozen plains of these inhospitable regions. At other times they assist in the chase, and run down and destroy the bear and the reindeer on land, and the seal on the coast. These dogs are very early trained to the work which they are destined to follow, and even at the tender age of four or five months are harnessed together or in company with older animals and are compelled, either by persuasion or brutal chastisement, to draw heavy weights, and thus soon become accustomed to the trammels of the rude gearing, and familiar with the service that they afterwards perform with so much sagacity and alacrity. Capt. Lyon states that they are very similar in appearance to the shepherd dog of England, but more muscular and broad nhested, owing to severe work ; ears pointed, of a savage appear 6* E Esquimaux Vog, 66 VERTEBEATES ance ; the finer dogs are equal to the Newfoundland breed in point of height and general symmetry. The Sheep Dog possesses much of the same form and character in every country. The muzzle is sharp, the ears are short and erect, and the animal is covered, particularly about the neck, with thick and shaggy hair. He has usually two dew claws on each of the hind legs ; not, however, as in the one claw of other dogs, having a jointed attachment to the limb, but merely connected by the skin and some slight cellular substance. These excrescences should be cut off when the dog is young. The tail is slightly turned upwards and long, and almost as bushy as that of a fox, even in that variety whose coat is almost smooth. He is of a black color, or black prevails, mixed with grey or brown. Professor Grognier gives the following account of this dog as he is found in Prance : — " The shepherd's dog, the least re- moved from the natural type of the dog, is of a middle size ; his ears short and straight; the hair long, principally on the tail, and of a dark color ; the tail is carried horizontally or a little elevated. He is very indifferent to caresses, possessed of much intelligence and activity to discharge the duties for which he was designed. In one or other of its varieties it is found in every part of Prance. Sometimes there is but a single breed, in others there are several varieties. It lives and maintains its proper characteristics, while other races often degenerate. Everywhere it preserves its proper distinguishing type. It is the servant of man, while other breeds vary with a thousand circumstances. It has one appropriate mis- sion, and that it discharges in the most admirable way : there is evidently a kind and wise design in this.'' The Poxhound and Beaqle are not very dissimilar in form or habits. They both follow game by the scent, and are used in hunting. The Foxhound, as its name implies, is used for hunt- ing the fox, and enters into the sport with extraordinary eagerness These dogs are trained with great care : whole books have been written on their education, and men are engaged at high salaries to train them to the sport. England possesses the finest breed of foxhounds in the world, and certainly no expense is spared to im- THE DOO TEIBE. €)'l prove them, as one kennel is said to have cost nearly twenty thou sand pounds. The height of the foxhound is about twenty-twc inches. The Beaqle is used principally for hare hunting It is much smaller than the foxhound, and not nearly so swift, but its scent is so perfect that it follows every track of the flying hare, unravels all her windings, and seldom fails to secure her at last. Sportsmen usually prefer the smallest beagles obtainable. The most valuable pack of these dogs known in England used to be carried to and from the field in a pair of panniers slung across a horse's back. Unfortunately, this pack was so well known, that numerous were the attempts to gain possession of it. One ill-fated evening, as the dogs were returning in their panniers after the day's sport, the keeper was decoyed away by some stratagem, and when he returned, his dismay was great to find that the dogs, panniers, and horse were all missing. No traces of them were discovered, and it was conjectured that they must have been sold on the Continent. It is a common custom in the military schools, and sometimes at the universities, to follow the beagle on foot. The Bloodhound does not materially differ in appearance from the old deer-hound of a larger size, trained to hunt the human being instead of the quadruped. If once put on the track of a supposed robber, he would unerringly follow him to his retreat, although at the distance of many a mile. Such, a breed was ne- cessary when neither the private individual nor the government had other means to detect the offender. Generally speaking, how- ever, the bloodhound of former days would not injure the culprit that did not attempt to escape, but would lie down quietly and give notice by a loud and peculiar howl what kind of prey he had found. Some, however, of a savage disposition, or trained to un- natural ferocity, would tear to pieces the hunted wretch, if timely rescue did not arrive. The bloodhound is taller and better formed than the deer- hound. It has large and deep ears, the forehead broad and the muzzle narrow. The expression of the countenance is mild and 68 VERTEBRATES. pleasing, when the dog is not excited ; but, when he is following the robber, his ferocity becomes truly alaTming. The Setter is evidently the large spaniel improved to his peculiar size and beauty, and taught another way of marking his game, viz., by setting or crouching. If the form of the dog were Dot sufficiently satisfactory on this point, we might have recourse Hie Setter. to history for information. The setter Is used for the same pur- pose as the pointer, and there is great difference of opinion with regard to their relative value as sporting-dogs. Setters are not so numerous; and they are dearer, and with great difficulty obtained pure. It was long the fashion to cross and mix them with the pointer, by which no benefit was obtained, but the beauty of the dog materiallj' impaired ; many Irish sportsmen, however, were ex- ceedingly careful to preserve the breed pure. Nothing of the pointer can be traced in them, and they are useful and beautiful dogs, altogether different in appearance from either the English or Scotch setter. TiiE Spanish Pointer, originally a native of Spain, was once considered to be a valuable dog. H*> stood higher on his THE DOG TRIBE 69 \ey^, but was too large and heayy in his limbs, and had widely spread, ugly feet, exposing him to frequent lameness. His muzzle and head were large, corresponding with the acuteness of his smell. His ears were large and pendent, and his body ill-formed. He was naturally an ill-tempered dog, growling at the hand that would caress him, even although it were his master's. He stood steadily to his birds ; but it was difficult to break him of chasing the hare. He was deficient in speed. His redeeming quality was his excel- lent scent, unequalled in any other kind of dog. The Mastiit. — The head considerably resembles that of the bull-dog, but with the ears dependent. The upper lip falls over the lower jaw. The end of the tail is turned up, and fre- quently the fifth toe of the hind feet is more or less developed. The Mastiff. The nostrils are separated out one from another by a deep furrow. He has a grave and somewhat sullen countenance, and his deep- toned bark is often heard during the night. The mastiff is taller 70 VERTEBRATES. than the bull-dog, but not so deep in the chest, and his head is larg;e compared with his general form. The Bull-Dog. — The round, thick head, turned-up nose, and thick and pendulous lips of this dog are familiar to all, while his ferocity makes him in the highest degree dangerous. In gene- ral he makes a silent although ferocious attack, and the persisting powers of his teeth and jaws enable him to keep his hold against •my but the greatest efforts, so that the utmost mischief is likely to ensue as well to the innocent visitor of his domicile as the ferocious intruder. The bull-dog is scarcely capable of any education, and is fitted for nothing but ferocity and combat. The name of this dog is derived from his being too often employed, until a few years ago, in baiting the bull. It was prac- tised by the low and dissolute in many parts of the country. Dogs were bred and *rained for the purpose ; and, while many of them were injured or destroyed, the head of the bull was lacerated in the most barbarous manner. Nothing can exceed the fury with which the bull-dog rushed on his foe, and the obstinacy with which he maintained his hold. He fastened upon the lip, the muzzle, or the eye, and there he hung in spite of every effort of the bull to free himself from his antagonist. The Bull-Tereier. — This dog is a cross between the bull dog and the terrier, and is generally superior, both in appearance and value, to either of its progenitors. A second cross consider- ably lessens the underhanging of the lower jaw, and a third en- tirely removes it, retaining the spirit and determination of the animal. It forms a steadier friendship than either of them, and the principal objection to it is its love of wanton mischief, and the dangerous irascibility which it occasionally exhibits. The Terrier. — The forehead is convex ; the eye promi- nent; the muzzle pointed; the tail thin and arched; the fur short- the ears of moderate size, half erect, and usually of a deep black color, with a yellow spot over the eyes. It is an exceedingly useful animal ; but not so indispensable an accompaniment to a pack of foxhounds as it used to be accounted. The coat of the terrier may be either smooth or rough ; the smooth-haired ones are moro THE DOG TRIBE. 7! delicate in appearance, and are somewhat more exposed to injiiry or accident ; but in courage, sagacity, and strength, there is verj little difference if the dogs are equally well bred. The rough terrier possibly obtained his shaggy coat from the cur, and the smooth terrier may derive his from the hound. There is reason to believe that the Scotch Terrier in fai older than the English Terrier. There are three varieties : first. Scotch Terrier the common Scotch Terrier, twelve or thirteen inches high ; his bgdy muscular and compact — considerable breadth across the loins — the legs shorter and stouter than those of the English ter- riers. The head large in proportion to the size of the body — the muzzle small and pointed — strong marks of intelligence in the countenance — warm attachment to his master, and the evident devotion of every power to the fulfilment of his wishes. The hair is long and tough, and extending o-ser the whole of the frame. In 72 VERTEBRATES. color, they are black or fawn : the white, yellow, or pied are always deficient in purity of blood. Another species has nearly the same conformation, but is covered with longer, more curly, and stouter hair ; the legs being apparently, but not actually, shorter. This kind of dog prevails in the greater part of the Western Islands of Scotland, and som; of them, where the hair has obtained its full development, are much admired. The Shock Dog is traced by Buffon, but somewhat erro- neously, to a mixture of the small Danish dog and the pug. The head is round, the eyes large, but somewhat concealed by its long and curly hair, the tail curved and bent forward. The muzzle resembles that of the pug. It is of small size, and is used in this country and in Europe as a lap-dog. It is very properly described by the author of "The Field Book" as a useless little animal, seeming to possess no other quality than that of a faithful attach- ment to his mistress. There are circumstances which go to prove that dogs are endowed with a degree of intelligence almost equal to that of man. As an instance, we will describe the performance of a game of dominoes, by one of a pair of dogj, which M. Leonard, a French gentleman, had been training for some time : After many other performances, M. Leonard invited a gentleman to play a game of dominoes with one of them. The younger and slighter dog then seated himself on a chair at the table, and the writer and M. Leonard seated themselves opposite. Six dominoes were placed on their edges in the usual manner before the dog, and a like number before the writer. The dog having a double number, took one up in his mouth, and put it in the middle of the table ; the writer placed a corresponding piece on one side j the dog im- mediately played another correctly, and so on until all the pieces were engaged. Other six dominoes were then given to each, and the writer intentionally placed a wrong number. The dog looked surprised, stared very earnestly at the writer, growled, and finally barked angrily. Finding that no notice was taken of his remon- sl'rances, he pushed away the wrong domino with his nose, and THE DOa TRIBE. 7a •ook up a siivtable 5ne from his own pieces, and placed it in ita stead. The writer then played correctly; the dog followed, and won the game. Not the slightest intimation could have been given by M. Leonard to the dog. This mode of play must have been entirely the result of his own observation and judgment. It should be added that the performances were strictly private. The owner of the dogs was a gentleman of independent fortune, 9,nd ihe instruction of his dogs had been taken up merely as a curious and amusing investigation. The Wolf, as well externally as internally, so nearly re- sembles the dog, that he seems modelled upon the sam? plan ; and yet he only offers the reverse of the image. If his foria he similar, his nature is different; and indeed they are so unlike ifl >*lKeir dis- positions, that no two animals can have a more perfect srtipathy to each other. A young dog shudders at the sight of a Wolf; a dog who is stronger, and knows his strength, bristles up at the sight, testifies his animosity, attacks him with courage, endeavors to put him to flight, and does all in his power to rid himself of a presence that is hateful to him. They never meet without either flying from, or fighting with each other. If the Wolf is the 7 74 VEKTEBRATES, Strong jr, he tears and devours his prey : the dog, on the contrary, is more generous, and contents himself with his victory. The dog, even in his savage state, is not cruel ; he is easily tamed, and continues firmly attached to his master. The Wolf, when taken young, becomes tame, but rarely forms an attachment. Nature is stronger in him than education; he resumes, with age, his natural dispositions, and returns, as soon as he can, to the woods whence he was taken. Dogs, even of the dullest kinds, seek the company of other animals ; they are naturally disposed to follow and accompany other creatures : the Wolf, on the contrary, is the enemy of all society ; he does not even keep much company with those of his kind. When they are seen in packs together, it is not to be considered as a peaceful society, but a combination for war : they testify their hostile intentions by their loud bowlings, and by their fierceness discover a project for attacking some great animal, such as a stag or a bull, or for destroying some formidable dog. The instant their military expedition is completed, their society is at an end; they then part, and each returns in silence to his solitary retreat. There is not even any strong attachment be- tween the male and female ; they seek each other only once a year, and remain but a few days together. The difference in the duration of the pregnancy of the she Wolf, which goes with young above a hundred days, and the bitch, which does not go above sixty, proves that the Wolf and the dog, so different in disposition, are still more so in one of the principal functions of the animal economy. The Wolf generally brings forth five or six, and sometimes even nine, at a litter. The cubs are brought forth, like those of the bitch, with the eyes closed. The dam suckles them for some weeks, and teaches them betimes to eat flesh, which she prepares for them, by chewing it first herself. They do not leave the den where they have been littered, till they are six weeks or two months old. It is not, however, till they are about ten or twelve months old, and till they have shed their first teeth and completed the new, that the' dam thinks them in a capacity to shift for them- selves. Then, when they have acquired arms from Nature, ar d THE DOG TRIBE. 75 have learned industry and courage from her example, she declines all future care of them, being again engaged in bringing up a new progeny. These animals require two or three years for their growth, and live to the age of fifteen or twenty. The Jackal is larger and taller than the fox ; the head is above of a fox-red color ; the upper lip is white on each side of the nose, and the throat is of the same color ; outwardly, the ears are fox-red, inwardly, white ; the neck and back are all over of a *Ui^ Jackal. grey-yellow ; behind the neck and on the back is a large marking of dark grey in the form of a lancet, and pointing to the tail; the tail is straight and more bushy than that of the fox, and it is of a greyish-yellow; it is eleven inches in length, and the body about thirty. Some think that the jackal is an animal betwixt the dog and the wolf; in familiarity it resembles the former, and in ferocity the latter. Jackals in their natural state associate in packs; during the night they hunt, in full cry, the gazelle and other animals of the antelope tribe : they devour poultry and lambs, ravage the streets of villages, and will even destroy unprotected childrer : when 76 VERTEBRATES. they cannot meet witli any live prey, they dig up the dpad bodies of human beings. When once accustomed to feed on human flesh, they will follow caravans and armies, and run from country to country : their appetite is the most vehement, so that they will feed on the driest leather or infectious flesh, and on animals in a state of the most loathsome putridity : their bowlings in the night' are loud and hideous, for when one begins the whole join in one general cry. The Fox is an animal of the dog kind ; it resembles in form the common dog, and in size the spaniel : its tail is straight, bushy, and with a white tip ; it has a broad head, a sharp snout, a flat forehead, eyes obliquely placed, ears sharp and erect, and its ^^_^SwtSKK:Sr^ The Pox. body well covered with hair: it is found in all the northern ar.d temperate regions of the globe ; it is remarkable for its smell, by which it is so easily traced and followed by hounds accustomed to the pursuit, over extensive tracts of country. The fox is proverbial for his cunning, deriving greater benefit from his craft than from his courage : he chooses his babi THEBOGTRIBE. 77 (ation and prcpaies his bed under hard ground, in brakes, woods, nr coppices : he is careful to contrive proper outlets to escape from danger : his abode is generally near the habitations of men, in the neighborhood of some farm-yard or village, whither he can resort, when all is quiet, to supply himself with poultry. His manner of attacking, killing, and carrying off his prey, all betokens the most surprising caution, sccresy, and craft : he is a most adept and successful thief, and seldom makes a fruitless expedition. This animal profits much by experience ; if he is ensnared by a favorite lure in the days of his inexperienced youth, he can never after- wards be caught by the same expedient j he seems to smell the very iron of the trap, and carefully avoids it. On the banks of the Kentucky river rise huge rocky bluffs many feet in height. A fox that lived near this river was con- stantly hunted, and as regularly lost over the bluff. Now, nothing short of wings would have enabled the animal to escape with life down a perpendicular cliff. At last, a hunter, being determined to discover the means by which the animal baffled them, concealed himself near the bluff. Accordingly, in good time the fox came to the top of the cliff as usual and looked over. He then let himself down the face ■)f the cliff by a movement between a leap and a slide, and landed on a shelf not quite a foot in width about ten feet down the cliff. The fox then disappeared into a hole above the shelf. On ex- amination, the shelf turned out to be the mouth of a wide fissure in the rock, into which the fox always escaped. But how was he t» gee out again ? He might slide down ten feet, but he could never leap ten feet from a ten-inch shelf up the face of a perpen- dicular rock. This impossibility struck the hunter's mind, so he instituted a search, and at length discovered an easier entrance into the cave from the level ground. The fox was too wise to use that entrance when the hounds were behind him, so he was accustomed to cut short the scent by dropping down the rock, and tl er, when all the dogs were at the edge of the cliff, he walked out at his leisure by the other entrance. 7* 78 VERTEBRATES. The Arctic Fox changes ite fur, and becomes wliite during the winter. The Hy^na. — The skin of the common hyaena is striped j its hair long, erect, and coarse; its head broad and flat; and its eyes have a frightful expression of sullen wildness. From the head to the tail, along the top of the back, runs a bristly mane, which greatly adds to the fierceness of its appearance. The tail is shjrt ind bushy. The hyaena carries its head somewhat like a dog w) en s^*in fair summer weather, they quit the woody regions in the daytime, and feed in their progress towards the highest sum- mits, and then gradually descend at the approach of night. The usual season for hunting them is in the month of August and September, but it is a description of sport attended with great danger. KUMINATINO QUADRUPEDS 149 Common Qoat. The Goat ia a quadruped of the gregarious, or flock kind, resembling the sheep in size ; its horns hollow, rather erect, and bending a little backward. It is covered with hair, pale and dun in its color, which in Eastern countries is spun into cloth. It was of cloth of this kind the ancient coverings of the taber- nacle were made. Goats are noted for their long beard, which gives them an appearance ex- ceedingly venerable. They feed on an immense variety of herbs ; even poisonous herbs, which arc destructive to others, are whole- some to them. Their milk is considered healthy and medicinal. They can run on sides of rocks, and with the greatest ease can leap from one rock to another. They feed on the tops of hills and among rugged rocks, in preference to valleys and plains of the richest luxuriance. They find sufficient nourishment in heathy, barren, and uncultivated ground, and carefully avoid moist places, marshy meadows, and rich pastures. Goats go five months with young, and bring fljrth at the beginning of the sixth month ; they suckle the young ones for about a month or five weeks ; so that it may be reckoned about six-and-twenty weeks from the time of their coupling till the time that the young kid begins to eat. The goat generally produces one kid, sometimes two; very rarely three, and never more than four ; and she brings forth young, from a year or eighteen months, to seven years. The knobs in the horns, and their teeth, ascer- tain their age. The number of teeth is not always the same in female goats ; but they have usually fewer than the male goat, which has also the hair rougher, and the beard and the horns longer. These animals, like oxen and sheep, have four stomachs, and chew the cud. This species is more diffused than the sheep; and go its, like ours, are found in several parts of the world, only in Guinea and other warm countries they are smaller, but in Mus- 13* • 150 VEETEBEATBS. covy and other cold climates they are larger. The goate of Angora and of Syria have ears hanging down, but are of the same species "^/A Syrian Ooat. with ours ; they mix and produce together, even in our climate ; the males have horns almost as long as the common goat, but the ciroufliferenoe and directions are very different ; they are extended horizontally on each side of the head, and form spirals, somewhat like a worm. The horns of the female are short, and first turn round backward, then bend down, and turn round before, so much, the they end near the eyes ; and in some their circumference aud direction vary. Sheep. — There are many kinds of Sheep, among which the common sheep, the long-tailed sheep, and the Wallachian sheep are the most conspicuous. Next to thei cow, the sheep ia our most useful animal. England produces better wool than any country, for although the wool of the Spanish sheep is finer than ours, it is much less in quantity. The Merino, as this sheep is called, is annually conducted from one part of the country to an- other, a;nd back again. The distance traversed is upwards of four hundred miles, and the time necessary to complete the journey RUMINATING QUADRUPEDS. 151 about six or seven weeks. The proprietors of the flocks think that these periodical journeys improve'the wool ; but it is in all proba- bility a mistaken notion, as the stationary flocks of Leon and Es- Common Sheep. tramadura produce quite as fine a fleece. Of course such « body of sheep — nearly six millions — do great damage to the lands over whi?h they pass, and many fall victims to fatigue or are destroyed by wolves. The Long-tailed Sheep inhabits Syria and Egypt. Its tail is so large and so loaded with fat, that to prevent it from being in- jured by dragging on the ground, a board is fastened to the under side of it, and wheels are often attached to the board. The pecu- liar fat of the tail is considered a great delicacy, and is so soft as to be fre- quently used as butter. The weight of a large tail is about seventy pounds. The Wallachian or Cretan sheep is found in Crete, Wallachia, Hungary, and Western Asia. Its horns are exceedingly large, and twisted in a manner resembling the horns of the Kudu. It is very strong, and ex- tremely vicious and unruly. In this and several other sheep the Wallacbian Sbeep. 152 VERTEBEATES. fleece is composed of wool and hair mixed. The hair of the Wal- lachian sheep is long and silky like that of a spaniel, and of great length, falling almost to the ground. The Tartar Sheep, found in Tartary and Thibet, is a very prolific animal, the female bringing forth from fhree to five young at a ) irth. It is valuable for its flesh, which is excellent, and of a delicate flavor, but its wool is of little value. S?*^-- ^Ji'''^iji3tM§/ The sheep is indeed absolutely Tartar Sheep Without resource and without deience. The Wether Sheep are still more timorous than Ewes; it is through fear that they gather so often in troops ; the smallest noise, to which they are unaccustomed, is sufficient to make them fly, and get close together. This fear is attended with, the greatest stupidity ; for they know not how to fly the danger, nor do they even seem to feel the inconvenience of their situation ; they continue wherever they are, either in rain or snow; and to oblige them to change their situation, they must have a chief, who is intrusted to walk first, and whom they will follow step by step. This chief will remain with the rest of the flock, without motion, in the same place, if he be not driven from it by the shepherd, or the dog which guards them. The Q-mAFPE is one of the tallest, most beautiful, and most harmless animals in nature. The enormous disproportion of its legs (the fore legs being as long again as the hinder ones) is a great obstacle to the use of its strength ; its motion is waddling and stiff; it can neither fly from its enemies in its free state, nor serve its master in a domestic one. The species is not very nu- merous, and has always been confined to the deserts of Ethiopia, and some other provinces of Africa and India. An African traveller thus describes this animal : " The Giraffe chews the cud, as all horned animals with cloven feet do. Like them, too, it crops the grass ; though seldom, because pasture is scarce in the country which it inhabits. Its ordinary food in RUMINATING QUADRUPEDS. 153 the leaf of a sort of mimosa, called by the natives kaneap, and by the planters kamel doom. The tree being peculiar to the canton, and growing only there, this may be the reason why it takes up its abode in it, and why it is not seen in those regions of the south The Oirnffe. of A frica where the tree does not grow. This, however, is but a vague conjecture, and which the reports of the ancients 3eem to contradict. " Its head is- unquestionably the most beautiful art of its body. Its mouth is small ; its eyes large and animated. Between the eyeS; and above the nose, it has a very distinct and prominent tubercle. This is not a fleshy excrescence, but an enlargement of the bony part, the same as the two little bosses, or protuberances, with which its occiput is armed, and which rise as large as a hen's egg, one on each side of the mane, at its commenoement [ts 154 VERTEBRATES. tongue is rough, and terminates in a point. Each jaw has six grinders on each side, hut the lower jaw only has eight cutting teeth in front, while the upper jaw has none. " The hoof is cloven, has no heel, and much resemhles that of the ox. It may he observed, however, at the first sight, that the hoof of the fore foot is larger than that of the hind foot. The leg is very slender; but the knee is swelled like that of the stumbling horse, because the animal kneels down to sleep. It has also a large callosity in the middle of the sternum, owing to its usually reposing on it. " If I had never killed a Giraffe, I should have thought, with many, other naturalists, that its hind legs were much shorter than the fore ones. This is a mistake : they bear the same pro- portion to each other, as is usual in quadrupeds. I say the same proportion as is usual, because, in this respect, there are variations, even in animals of the same species. Every one knows, for in- stance, that mares are lower before than stallions. What deceives us in the Giraffe, and occasions this apparent difference between the legs, is the height of the withers, which may exceed that of the crupper from sixteen to twenty inches, according to the age of the animal ; and which, when it is seen at a distance in motion, gives the appearance of much greater length to the fore legs. "If the Giraffe stand still, and you view it in the front, the effect is very different. As the fore part of its body is much larger than the hind part, it completely conceals the latter j so that the animal resembles the standing trunk of a deep tree. " Its gait, when it walks, is neither awkward nor unpleasing ; but it is ridiculous enough, when it trots ; for you would then take it for a limping beast, seeing its head, perched at the extremity of a long neck which never bends, swaying backwards and for- wards, the neck and head playing in one piece between the shoul- ders as on an axis. However, as the length of the neck exceeds that of the Isgs at least four inches, it is evident tha* the length of the head, too, taken into the account, it can feed without diffi- culty, and of course is not obliged either to kneel down or to straddle with his feet, as some authors have asserted. BCMINAXINQ QCADRUPEDS. 155 "Its mode of defence, like that of the horse and other Bolidungulous animals, consists in kicking with the heels. But its hind parts are so light, and its jerks so rapid, that the eye can- not follow them. They are even sufficient to defend it against the lion, though they are unable to protect it from the impetuous attack of the tiger." Camel. — The name, camel, with little variation, is the same almost in all languages. According to Linnaeus, it is a distinct genus of animals. It has no horns ; in the lower jaw it has six cutting teeth, but none in the upper; the upper lip is divided like that of the hare ; its hoofs are small, the bottom of the foot tough and pliant, by which, above all other animals, it Is fitted to be ser- viceable to man in crossing sandy, hot, and extensive deserts. The neck and legs of camels are long and slender : when they lift up their heads they are high, and their appearance imposing and noble. Their ears are short, and their tail about a foot long. Their bodies are covered \*ith a fine fur, which falls from them in the spring ; this is considered valuable, and therefore gathered up with great care. The Turks eat the flesh of the young, and the Arabs hold their milk in great estimation. Unlike other animals, the interioi 156 VERTEBRATES. of the Camel is furnished with an additional bag, foiined as a re- servoir to contain a far larger quantity of water than is necessary for immediate use. On this account, he can continue a much longer time without drinking than any other quadruped, and is thus prepared and fitted for being useful to man as a beast of burden, in passing over extensive deserts, where a supply of water is rarely to be found. It seems also that the Camel has the power of closing its nostrils, so that the smallest particle of sand is ex- cluded. This faculty renders it more suited to the life to which it is destined, in carrying merchandise over extensive sandy regions. The Camel, though naturally gentle and docile, is pro- verbially revengeful. No irrational animal remembers an injury longer, or resents it with greater severity. Hence, among the Arabs, " a camel's anger " is a proverb employed to denote deter- mined and deep-rooted enmity. The Arabs regard the Camel as a present from heaven, a sacred animal, without whose aid they could neither subsist, trade, nor travel. It has been emphatically called the ship of the desert Its milk is their common nourishment ; they likewise eat its flesh, especially that of the young ones, which they reckon v^ry good. The hair of these animals, which is fine, and soft, is renewed every year, and serves them to make stufis for their clothing and their furniture. Blessed with their camels, they not only w»nt for nothing, but they even fear nothing. Large and strong camels generally carry a thousand, and even twelve hundred weight; the smaller only six or seven hun- dred. In tjiese commercial journeys, they do not travel quick j and, as the route is often seven or eight hundred miles, they regu- late their stages; they only walk, and go every day ten or twelve miles ; they are disburthened every evening, and are sufiered to feed at liberty. If they are in a part of the country where there is pasture, they eat enough in one hour to serve them twenty-four, and to ruminate on during the whole night; but the^eldom meet with pastures, and this delicate food is not necessary for them : they even seem to prefer wormwood, thistles, nettles, furze, and other thorny vegetables, to the milder herbs ; and so long as they RUMINATING QUADRUPEDS. 157 on 11 find plants to browse on, they very easily live without any drink. The facility with which they abstain so long from drinking, is not pure habit, but rather an effect of their formation. Inde- pendent of the four stomachs which are commonly found in rumi- nating animals, the Camel is possessed of a fifth bag, which serves Lim as a reservoir to retain the water. This fifth stomach is pecu- liar to the Camel. It is of so vast a capacity as to contain a great quantity of liquor, where it remains without corruption, or with out the other aliments being able to mix with it. When the ani- mal is pressed with thirst, or has occasion to dilute the dry food, and to macerate it for rumination, he causes a part of this water to reascend into the stomach, and even to the throat, by a simple contraction of the muscles. This animal bears about him all the marks of slavery and pain ; below the breast, upon the sternum, is a thick and large callosity, as tough as horn ; the like substance appears upon the joiuts of the legs; and although these callosities are to be met with in every animal, yet they plainly prove that they are not natu- ral, but produced by an excessive constraint, and pain, as appearn from their being often found filled with pus. It is therefore evi- dent, that this deformity proceeds from the custom to which these animals are constrained, of forcing them, when quite young, to lie upon their stomach with their legs bent under them, and in that cramped posture to bear not only the weight of their body, but also the burdens with which they are laden. These poor animals must suffer a great deal, as they make lamentable cries, especially when they are overloaded; and, notwithstanding they are con- tinually abused, they have as much spirit as docility. At the first sign they bend their legs under their bodies, and kneeling upon the ground, they are unloaded, without the trouble of lifting up the load to a great height, which must happen, were they to stand upright. A»:Soon as they are loaded, they raise themselves up again without any assistance or support; and the conductor, mounted on one of them, precedes the whole troop, who follow him in the same pace as he leads. They have need of neither 14 158 VERTEBRATES. whip nor spur to excite them : but, when they begin to be fatigued, their conductors support their spirits, or rather charm their weari- ness, by a song, or the sound of some instrument. When they want to prolong the route, or double the day's journey, they give them an hour's rest; after which, renewing their song, they again proceed on their way for many hours more ; and the singing con- tinues until the time they stop. Then the camels again kneel down on the earth, to be relieved from the burden, by the cords being untied, and the bales rolled down on each side. They re- main in this cramped' posture, with their belly couched upon the earth, and sleep in the midst of their baggage, which is tied on again the next morning with as much readiness and facility as it was untied before they went to rest. The Dromedary is the Arabian camel. It is found in the warmer parts of Asia, and in the upper regions of Africa. In The Bromejary. Asia it is not found further than Persia ; and in Africa, not fiir ther than Ethiopia. It is common in most parts of India. RUMINATING QUADRUPEDS. 159 The general height of the Dromedary from the ground to the top of the bunch upon its back is about six feet and a half Its height from the ground to the top of its head, when it elevates it, is nearly nine feet. The head and neck are seldom elevated, but chiefly stretched out in a line with the bunch on its back. The head is small, the neck much elongated, the body of a long and meagre shape, the legs rather slender, and the tail, which is slightly tufted at the end, reaches to the joints of the hind legs. The feet are large. They are peculiarly hoofed, being divided above into two lobes, not reaching through the whole length of the foot. The extremity of the foot is defended by a small hoof. The under part of the hoof is covered with an extremely tough and flexible skin, which enables the animal to travel with peculiar ease and security over dry, stony, and sandy regions. The general color is an uniform dusky brown, more or less tinged with the ferruginous, or irony. Its hair is fine and soft, and serves for the manufacture of several kinds of stuffs. The Llama is about four feet high; its body, compre- hending the neck and head, is five or six feet long; its neck alone is near three feet. The head is small and well proportioned, the eyes large, the nose somewhat long, the lips thick, the upper divided, and the lower a little depending : it wants the incisive and canine teeth in the upper jaw. The ears are four inches long, and move with great agility. The tail is seldom above eight Inches long, small, straight, and a little turned up at the end. It is cloven-footed, like the ox ; but the hoof has a kind of spear-like appendage behind, which assists the animal to move and support itself -over precipices and rugged ways. The back is clothed with a short wool, as is the crupper and tail ; but it is very long on the belly and sides. These animals differ in color ; some are white, others black, but most of them brown. The Llama. ItiO VEBXEBBATES. These useful, and even necessary animals, are attended with no expense to their masters ; for, as they are cloven-footed, they do not require to be shod, nor do they require to be housed, as their wool supplies them with a warm covering. Satisfied with a small portion of vegetables and grass, they want neither corn nor hay to subsist them ; they are still more moderate in what they drink, as their mouths are continually moistened with saliva, which they have in a greater quantity than any other animal. The natives hunt the Chianacos, or Wild Llama, for the sake of its fleece. The dogs have much trouble to follow them. The growth of the Llama is very quick ; and its life is but of short duration. This animal couples at' three years of age, and remains strong and vigorous till twelve; after which it begins to decline, and becomes entirely useless at fifteen. Their nature appears modelled on that of " the Peruvians. They are gentle and phlegmatic, and do everything with the greatest leisure and caution. When they stop on their journeys, they bend their knees very cautiously, in order to lower their bodies without dis- ordering their load. As soon as they hear their driver whistle, they rise up again with the same precaution, and proceed on their journey ; they feed as they go along, on the grass they meet with in their way, but never eat in the night, making use of that time to ruminate. The Llama sleeps, like the camel, with its feet folded under its belly, and ruminates in that posture. When overloaded or fatigued, it falls on its belly, and will not rise, though its driver strike it with his utmost force. The Llama is in general a timid and docile animal. If teased or ill-treated, however, they become spiteful. Their mode of manifesting their anger is singular; it consists in darting their saliva in considerable quantity upon the person who ofiends them. They will cover with it a surface of three or four yards in extent. The Musk Deer, a native of the East Indies, is three feet ■ six inches in length, from the head to the tail ; and the head is above half a foot long. The fore part of the head is like that of a greyhound; and the ears are three inches long, and erect, like those of a rabbit ; but the t^il is not above two inches. It is cloven- RUMINATING QrADRUPEDS. 161 footed, like beasts of the goat kind; the hair on the head and legs is half an inch long, on the belly an inch and a half, and on the back and buttocks three inches, and proportionably thicker than in any other animal. It is brown and white alternately, from the root to the point J on the head and thighs it is brown, but under the belly and tail white, and a little curled, espe- cially on the back and belly. On each side of the lower jaw, under the corners of the mouth, there is a tuft of thick hair, which is short and hard, and about three-quarters of an inch long. The hair, in general, of this animal, is remark- able for its softness and fine texture; but what distinguishes it particularly are the tusks, which are an inch abd a half long, and turned back in the form of a hook ; and more particularly the bag which contains the musk, which is three inches long, two broad, and stands out from the belly an inch and a half. It is a very fearful animal, and, therefore,-it has long ears ; and the sense of hearing is so quick, that it can discover an enemy at a great distance. > The musk is an article of commerce, and is sold in small bags, about the size of a pigeon's egg, which, when cut open, appear to contain a kind of dusky, reddish substance, like coagu- lated blood, and which, in large quantities, has a very strong smell; but, when mixed and diffused, becomes a very agreeable perfume. Indeed, no substance has a stronger or a more permit nent smell. A grain of musk perfumes a whole room; and its odor continues for some days without diminution. The Red Deer, or Stag, common in Europe and America, is one of those mild, tranquil, innocent animals, which seem as if they were created solely to adorn and animate the solitude of the forests, and to occupy, remote from man, the peaceful retreats of Nature. His light and elegant form; his flexible yet nervous limbs ; his head rather adorned, than armed, with a living sub- stance, which, like the branch of a tree is every year renewed; 14* L ' 162 VEETEBRATES. his size, his swiftness, his strength, sufficiently distinguish Lim from the rest of the inhabitants of the forest. The old Stags shed their horns first, which happens about the end of February or the beginning of March. Stags in their seventh year do not undergo this change till the middle or the end of March , nor do those in their sixth year, till the month of stag. April. Aftei they have shed their horns, they separate from each other; the very young ones alone associating together. Thej remain no longer in covert; they seek the beautiful parts of the~ country, the groves, and the open coppices, where they remain all the summer, till they recover the antlers which were wont to adorn their brows ; and, during this season, they carry their heads low, for fear of striking them against the branches ; for they are ex- ceedingly tender till they arrive at perfection. The horns of the oldest Stags are scarcely half repaired by the month of .I'lay ; nor EUMINATING QDADRUPEDS. 163 lo tliey attain their full length and hardness till about the end of- July, The horns of the young Stag are very late shed, and very late recovered ; but when these are completely length- ened, and have become quite hard, they rub them against the trees, in order to clear them from the scurf with which they are lovered. The Hinds, or females, carry their young eight months and I few days. They are not all prolific ; and one sort there is in particular, which is always barren. The Fawn retains this appel- Hind and fawn lation no longer than till it is six months old; then the knobs Dei-in to appear, and it takes the name of a Knobber, which it Dears till these knobs are lengthened to so many points, whence they are termed Prickets, or Brockets. It does not quit its mother early, though it grows fast, but follows her all the summer. In winter, the Hinds, the Knobbers, the Prickets, and the young Stags resort to the herd, forming troops, which are more numerous in proportion as the season is more severe. In spring they divide, the Hinds retiring to bring forth their young; and at this time 164 VERTEBKATKS. there are scarcely aty but the Prickets and the young Stags which go together. In general, the Stags are inclined to remain with each other, and to roam abroad in companies ; it is only firom fear or necessity that they are ever found dispersed or separated. The Roebuck, though a much smaller animal than the stag, is, however, more graceful, vivacious, and courageous. It differs froni the stag, not only in superior cunning, but also in its natural appetites, inclinations, and whole habits of living. Instead of herding together like the latter, the species of the former live in separate families : the sire, the dam, and the young ones, form of themselves a little community, nor do they ever admit a stranger into it. All other animals of the deer kind are inconstant in their affection. The Roebuck never forsakes its mate; and, as they have been generally bred up together, the male and female form for each odier the strongest attachment. The female of this species goes with young five months and a half, and brings forth about the end of April, or the beginning of May. The female separates herself from the male, when she is about to bring forth, retiring into the thickest part of the woods, in order to avoid the wolf, which is her most dangerous enemy. At the expiration of about ten or twelve days, the Fawns, of which there are generally two at a birth, attain strength enough to follow her. When they have attained the age of nine or ten months, she drives them off to do for themselves. The Fallow Deer. — No two animals can be more nearly allied than the Stag and the Fallow Deer; and yet no two animals keep more distinct, or avoid each other with more fixed animosity. They are never seen to herd in the same place ; it is even rare, unless they have been transported thither, to find Fallow Deer in a country where stags are numerous. It frequently happens that a herd of Fallow Deer is seen to divide into parties, and to engage each other with great ardor. Each seems desirous of gaining some favorite spot of the park for pasture, and of driving the vanquished party into the cosirser and more disagreeable parts. Each of these factions has its particular chief, namely, the oldest and the strongest of each herd. These RUMINATING QUADKUPEDS. 165 lead on to the engagement; and the rest follow tinder their direc- tion. Their combats are singular enough, from the disposition and conduct by which their mutual efforts seem to be regulated. They attack with order, and support and assault with courage; they Fallow Been come to the assistance of each other; they retire, they rally, and never yield the victory upon a single defeat. The combat is re- newed every day, till at length the most feeble side is obliged to give way, and is content to escape to the most disagreeable part of the park, where alone they can find safety and protection. From the age of two years till that of fifteen or sixteen, the Fallow Deer is in a condition to produce ; and, in fine, resem- bling the stag in all its natural habits, the greatest difference we find between these two animals, is in the duration of their lives. The Wapiti is one of the largest of the deer tribe, often 166 VERTEBRATES. growing to the height of our largest oxen. It inhabits Canada anj other parts of North America, and has been confounded with the Moose. Its horns are very large, measuring nearly six feet from tip to tip. It is very fierce, and boldly attacks an antagonist. The Axis is of the small number of ruminating animals which wear horns, like the stag. It has the shape and swiftness of the fallow-deer ; but what distinguishes it from the stag and fallow-deer is, that its body is marked with white spots, elegantly disposed, and separated one from another, and that it is a native of hot countries (Hindostan, and particularly Bengal) ; while the stag and deer have their coat of a uniform color, and are to be met with in greater numbers, in cold countries and temperate regions, than in hot climates. The Rein-Deer forms the sole riches of the Laplander, and its care is almost his only occupation. Accord- ing to the season, he mi- grates to the sea shore, the plains, or the mountains. The rich often possess 2000 head; and the poorer sel- dom less than 100. The adult male, in a wild state, is even larger than a stag ; but the domesticated races . are somewhat smaller ; the sight and scent of these creatures are astonishing, and guide them with wonderful precision through the most dangerous passes, and in the darkest stormy nights of an Arctic winter. To this sagacity the Laplander trusts his life with the greatest confidence ; and accidents rarely happen : they draw his sledge with such amazing rapidity, that in twenty-four hours a pair of Eein-deer have been said to perform a journey of 100 miles. In a wild state they are gregarious; and, when domesti- cated, evince an excessive attachment to each other. During summer they are much tormented by a species of gad-fly; but the old account of the glutton falling upon them from a tree, and then The Kein-Deer. T^HICK-SKINNED QUADRUPEDS. 18* devouring them, is now considered fabulous. During life thia useful animal supplies its master witli labor and milk ; and, when dead, every part becomes serviceable, the skin for clothing, and for boots ; the horns to make utensils ; the sinews for thread, and the flesh for food : the intestines are also used ; and the tongue ia a well-known article of commerce. The Elk of Europe is not the same with the Moosc-deei of America : it is found in Europe between latitude 53° and GS'' : in size it is higher than a horse; and, to support the enormous weight of its horns, sometimes nearly fifty pounds, its neck is short, thick, and very strong. Its movements are rather heavy : it does not gallop, but ambles along, the joints cracking so much at every step, that the sound is heard to some distance. During winter it chiefly resides in hilly woods; but in summer it frequents swamps and the borders of lakes ; often going deep into the water, to escape the stings of gnats, etc., and to feed with- out stooping. With its enormous horns it turns down branches of trees, to feed upon the bark, with great dexterity ; and these are also used as shovels, to get at pasture when covered with snow. The Elk. THICK-SKINNED QUADRUPEDS. The Horse. — The characters of the horse, or equus cabal- lus, are, hoofs undivided, and mane and tail, with long, flowing hair. This noble animal has been so much and so long connected with man, that history does not mention a period when horses were un- tamed. Still, however, multitudes of them are found in a wild stat« in many parts of the earth. Large herds are occasionally seen in the southern parts of Siberia, in the great Mongolian deserts, and among the Kalkas, to the north-west of China. At the Cape of Good Hope there are numbers of unreclaimed horses 168 VEKTEBRATES. They are diminutive in their size, very vicious, and difficult to tame. They are found wild in several other parts of the African continent, but the wretched inhabitants are sunk in such ignorance Wild Horse. and indolence, so unacquainted with the services they are calcu- lated to render to man, that they make no more attempt to tame them than to tame lions. In Spanish America there is an abund- ance of wild horses. There is little doubt that they are descended from the Andalusian breed, originally introduced from Spain by the first conquerors. The Arabian horses are of a more slender make, leas showy, bu beautifully limbed, more hardy, and reckoned much fleeter. Of all countries in which the horse runs wild, Arabia produces the most beautiful breed, and also the most generous, swift, ana persevering. They are found in small numbers in the deserts of that country, and are so highly valued by the natives, that they employ every stratagem for obtaining them. It is probable that Arabia was the original country ol' the horse, since there the utmost care is taken not to cioss, but main- THICK-SKINNED QUADU0PEDS. 1G9 tain tlie breed entire. The Arabian race of horses has been diC fused in Barbary, Egypt, and Persia. The Arabs keep their horses in the open air all the year round. Though exposed to the inclemency of the weather at all Arabian HorseR. aeasons, and very little attention paid to its health, it is seldom ill. From the time a colt is first employed for the purpose of riding, the saddle is scarcely ever off its back. In winter a sackcloth is thrown over the saddle, but in summer the horse stands exposed to the mid daj sun. Many of the Arabs use, instead of a saddle, a stuffed sheep-skin, and without stirrups. They ride without a bridle, and employ a halter instead. So attached is it to its mas- ter, and so great the kindness with which it is treated, that it feels itself rather the friend, than the slave of man. The Mule is a mongrel quadruped, showing a resemblance both to the horse and the ass. It is the offspring of a horse and she ass, or an ass and mare. By the immutable law of Nature mules can have no descendants. Mules are of great antiquity, and were knowi in the days of David. In their disposition they are 15 170 VERTEBRATES. rather vicious, intractable, and obstinate. They are remarkably hardy, sure-footed, and able to endure great fatigue. The finest mules are produced in Spain, and in some parts of the United States, and many of them are fifteen or sixteen hands high. It is surprising they are not more used in England, as tbey are much hardier than horses, and even surpass them in strength : they are less subject to disease, and will live and work to twice -the age of a horse. They are particularly useful in mountainous countries, and in rocky, stony ways. Therefore they are much used in the Alps and Pyrenees. From the medals of Julia and Agrippina, it appears that the Roman ladies' had chariots drawn by mules. David and his sons rode upon mules. The Ass. — The humble and hardy Ass is scarcely less ser- viceable to man than the more imposing horse. On the continent of Europe, where it meets with harsh treatment, is scantily fed, and only used for laborious tasks, it is dull and obstinate ; but in the East, where it is employed by the rich nobles and is properly THICK-SKINNED QUADRUPEDS. 171 treated, it is an elegant and spijited animal, with good action and smooth coat. Neither a.» hem into pieces. All the four varieties delight to roll and wallofa THIOK-iSn.rNNED QUADRUPEDS. 187 m mud, with which their rugged hides are encrusted. Both vari- eties of the Blajk Rhinoceros are much smaller and more activfe than the white, and are so swift that a horse with a rider on its back can rarely overtake them. The two varieties of the White Rhinoceros are so similar in habits, that the description of one will serve for both, the principal difference consisting in the length and set of the anterior horn ; that of the common White Rhino- neros averaging from two to three feet in length, and pointing backwards ; while the horn of the long-horned White Rhinoceros often exceeds four feet in length, and inclines forward from the nose. Both these varieties of Rhinoceros attain an enormous rtize, being the animals next in magnitude to the elephant. They feed solely on grass, carry much fat, and their flesh is excellent, being preferable to beef. They are of a much milder and more inoffensive disposition than the Black Rhinoceros, rarely charging their pursuer. Their speed is very inferior to that of the other varieties, and a person well mounted can overtake and shoot them. The Hippopotamus is above seventeen feet long, from the extremity of the snout to the insertion of the tail; sixteen feet in circumference round the body, and seven feet high : the head is four feet long, and nine in circumference. The jaws open about two feet wide, and the cutting-teeth, of which it has four in sach jaw, are over a foot long. Its feet in some measure resemble .hose of the elephant, and are divided into four parts. The tail « (ihort, flat, and pointed ; the hide is amazingly thick, and though •lot capable of turning a musket ball, is impenetrable to the blow of a sabre ; the body is covered over with a few scattered hairs of a whitish color. The whole figure of the animal is a cross between that of an ox and a hog, and its cry is a mixture of the bellowing of the one, and the grunting of the other. It chiefly resides at the bottom of the great rivers and lakes of Africa, the Nile, the Niger, and the Zara ; where it leads an indolent kind of life, and seems seldom disposed for action, except when excited by the calls of hunger. Upon such occasiona. three or four of them are often seen at the bottom of a river, near 188 VERTEB&ATES some cataract, forming a kind of line, and seizing upon such fish as are forced down by the violence of the stream. In that element they pursue their prey with great swiftness and perseverance ; they swim with much force, and remain at the bottom for thirty or forty minutes Without rising to take breath. They traverse the bottom of the stream, as if walking upon land, and make a terrible devas- tation where they find a great plenty of prey But it oftei The Hippopotamna. happens that this animal's fishy food is not supplied in sufficient abundance ; it is then forced to come upon land, where it is an awkward and unwieldy stranger ; it moves but slowly, and, as it seldom forsakes the margin of the river, it sinks at every step it takes. If attacked on land, and incapable of vengeance from the swiftness of its enemy, it immediately returns to the river, plunges in head foremost, and a;fter a short time rises to the sur- face, loudly bellowing, either to invite or intimidate the enemy ; but though the Negroes will venture to attack the shark or the crocodile in their natrral element, and there destroy them, they tfre too well appr?e* of the forne-third of the animal's whole length; and the upper jaw THE WHALE TRIBE. 193 is furnished with harbs, that lie, like the pipes of an organ, the greatest in the middle, and the smallest to the sides. These com- pose the whalebone j the longest spars of which are found to be not less than eighteen feet ; the shortest, being of no value, are thrown away. The tongue is almost immovably fixed to the lower jaw, seeming one great lump of fatj and, in fact, it fills several hogsheads with blubber. The eyes are not larger than those of an ox ; and when the crystalline-humor is dried, it does not appear larger than a pea. They are placed towards the back of the head, being the most convenient situation for enabling them to see both before and behind ; as also to see over them, where their food is principally found. They are guarded by eyelids and eyelashes, as in quadrupeds ; and they seem to be very sharp-sighted. Nor is their sense of hearing in less perfection : for they are warned at great distances, of any danger preparing against them. It would seem as if Nature had designedly given them these ad- vantages, as they multiply little, in order to continue their kind. It is true, indeed, that the external organ of hearing is not per- ceptible, for this might only enibarrass them in their natural element : but as soon as the thin scarf-skin above mentioned is removed, a black spot is discovered behind the eye, and under that is the auditory canal, that leads to a regular apparatus for hearing. In short, the animal hears the smallest sounds at very great distances, and at all times, except when it is spouting water ; which is the time that the fishers approach to strike it. For the capture of this animal, a number of ships leave the United States, England, France, Kussia, etc., reaching the Polar Seas about the end of April. When arrived at their destination, a careful look-out is kept from the mast-head for " fish," which are usually first observed by the column of steam and water that the whale sends into the air from its nostrils. At the welcome sound " There she blows," the whole crew starts into activity; the boats, which are always kept hanging over the side of the ship, furnished ready for action, are instantly manned and lowered into the water, and the boat springs ofi^ in chase of the whale. The harpooner, whose station is in the bow, examines his implements carefully, 17 N i94 , VERTEBRATES tries fhe edge of the harpoon, and sees that the rope is properlj coiled, as the slightest entanglement would upset the boat, or might even drag it below water. It will be as well just to notice the different weapons used in the whale fishery. The first and most important is the harpoon, a kind of spear with a large barbed head, the shape of which is not very unlike the flukes of an anchor. The edges of the baibs are kept very sharp, as otherwise the harpoon would not penetrate beyond the blubber, and the whale would consequently escape. The head of the harpoon is not made of steel, as inexperienced persons would imagine, but of soft iron, so soft that it can be scraped to an edge with a knife. This is fixed to a wooden handle, by which the harpooner holds it. In some vessels, the harpoon is fired at the whale from a small cannon placed in the bow of the boat. There are some very ingenious harpoons, one of which, in- tended to be fired from a gun, has its barbs joined to the head by a hinge, and held apart with a spring, so that when a whale is struck the barbs collapse until the force of the blow is expended, when the spring expands them and holds the whale firmly. The common harpoon, however, is the weapon usually employed. To the harpoon is fastened a long and very tough line, about 4000 feet in length. This line is kept ready coiled in a tub at the head of the boat, and great care is taken to prevent it from being entangled. It runs over a kind of pulley, as the friction is so great when the alarmed whale starts off, that the rope when out of its place has repeatedly set the gunwale of the boat on fire. At Deptford, some years back, might be seen a boat, the head of which had been quite cut off by the rope. A bucket of water is therefore always kept at hand to throw on the rope. When a whale is struck, it sometimes runs out with the whole of the line, in which case the line of another boat is fastened to it, and some- times a whale has carried off three miles of line with it. When the whale begins to slacken the line, it is immediately recoiled in the tub, so as to be always under the command of the pursuers. The use of the harpoon is merely to hold the whale; it does not enter deep, and causes the animal but little inconvenience, THE WHALE TRIBE. 195 as a whale has often broken its line and escaped with the haipoon sticking in its back, and been afterwards recaptured, apparently none the worse for its adventure. In order to kill the whale the fishermen have another weapon, called a " lance.'' This is a long, slender, steel weapon, with a very sharp head, without barbs, as the men have to withdraw the lance as fast as they can after it has pierced a vital part. With these few and simple weapons the fishers contrive to secure the monster of the waters — a beaudful instance of the superiority of reason over brute strength ; for as the expert angler secures a large and strong fish with a single hair, utterly inadequate to bear half the weight of the creature it holds, so the whale-fisher, with a few small weapons, achieves a task which may be compared to a mouse attacking and killing a wolf with a reel of thread and a crochet needle. The boats always approach the whale from behind, lest the expected prey should see them and escape. When within a few yards the harpooner throws his weapon at the whale, so as to pierce through the mass of blubber, and hold fast in the flesh. The wounded animal instantly dashes off, taking the line with it. When it has been under water for some time, it is forced to come to the surface to breathe. The fishers mark the place where it rises, and thrust their long lances deep into its body, inflicting mortal wounds. Blood mixed with water is now discharged from the whale's nostrils or " blow-holes," a sure sign that it will soon die. Presently streams of blood are thrown up, coloring the sea and frequently drenching the crews of the boats, and after a few violent struggles the whale turns over on its side and dies. The enormous carcass is now joyously towed to the ship and preparations are made for " flensing," or cutting ofi' the useful parts. Strong ropes are attached to the head and tail, and men wearing shoes armed with spikes, to prevent slipping, commence the process by fastening ropes to its head and tail. A strong hook is then fixed into the fat near the neck, called the " kent," as it is used for " kenting," or turning the whale over. In this hook is fastened a rope, passing through a pulley at the mainmast head, and fixed to a windlass on deck. The blubber is then taken 196 VERTEBRATES. off the tipper side by " blubber spades." The blocks of blubber, calle'd "slips," are then hauled up on deck by means of ropes called' "speck tackles," speck being the German word for fat or bacon. When the blubber is all stripped from the upper side, the men turn the whale partly round by hauling at the rope fastened to the " kent." Then then cut out the whalebone with knives made for that purpose. Lastly, the "kent" itself is stripped off, and the whale left to the sharks and gulls, who have been helping themselves very liberally while the flensing was going on. The shovel-nosed shark sometimes scoops out semicircular pieces as large as a man's head. When the crew have time, the blubber, which has been stowed away in a place with a not very polished name, is " made off," that is, carefully stripped of the pieces of skin and muscle adhering to it, cut into moderately sized pieces, and packed in casks until wanted. The oil is extracted by boiling the blubber in large coppers j a most unsavory occupation, but a very pleasant one to the crew, if they take that duty upon themselves. The refuse blubber is used as fuel, so that there is no waste. The Cachalot. — The chase of the Cachalot is similar to that of the Greenland Whale, and need not be described. It is attended with more danger, as the terrific row of teeth with which the lower jaw of the Cachalot is armed, is not unfrequently em- ployed in biting the boat. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is an under jaw-bone of this whale, sixteen and a half feet in length, containing forty-eight huge teeth. Besides this method ' of defence, it has a very unpleasant habit of swimming off to a distance, and then rushing at the boat with its head, thereby knocking it to pieces. One of these whales actually sank a ship by three or four blows from its head. This tribe is not of such enormous size as the whale, pro- perly so called, not being above sixty feet long, and sixteen feet high. In consequence of their being more slender, they are much more . active than the common whale ; they remain a longer time at the bottom ; and afford a smaller quantity of oil. As in the common whale the head was seen to make a third part of its bulk. THE WHALE TEIBE. 197 SO in this species the head is so large as to make one half of the whole. The tongue of this animal is small, but the throat is very formidable ; and with very great ease it could swallow an ex. In the stomach of the Whale scarce anything is to be found ; but in that of the Cachalot there are loads of fish of difierent kinds; some whole, some half-digested, some small, and others eight or nine feet long. The Cachalot is, therefore, as destructive among lesser fishes as the Whale is harmless ; and can at one gulp swal- low a shoal of fishes down its enormous gullet. Linnaeus tells us that this fish pursues and terrifies the dolphins and porpoises so much, as often to drive them on shore. Ambergris, so long a riddle to all inquirers, is now found to be produced in the interior of the Cachalot. This substance is of the consistency of wax, inflammable, and gives , out a kind of musky odor. It was once in great repute as a medicine, but is now only used as a perfume. Spermaceti is obtained from the head of the Cachalot, and it is this substance that causes the im- mense size of the head. When the whale is killed, a hole is made in the upper part of the head, and the spermaceti is baled out with buckets. When just procured it is almost fluid, but is rendered solid and transparent by being first drained of its oil, then boiled in water, and lastly set to cool in wide pans, where it soon assumes the white flaky appearance so well known in this country. The layer of blubber is thin, but yields a fine and valuable oil. The Dolphin is, like the whale, a warm-blooded animal, suckles its young, and is forced to come to the surface in order to breathe. Its snout is very long, and is apparently used for cap- turing such fish, and other animals, as live in the mud. The length is from six to ten feet. The Porpoise. — These animals may be observed in plenty playing their absurd antics off the coasts of the United States. There are numbers of them off the Nore, a place which they fre- quent greatly, as it is the mouth of a river, and they find more food there than in the open sea. They tumble at the surface of the water for the purpose of breaching. The voracity of the Por- poise is very great. It feeds on various fishes, but its great feasta 17* 198 VEETEBRATES. are held when the periodical shoals of herrings, pilchards, and other fish arrive on the coasts. In the pursuit of its prey, it fre- quently ventures some distance up a river, and is then often taken in nets by the fishermen. The teeth of this animal are very nu- merous, and interlock when the jaws are closed, so that the fish when, once seized cannot escape. Its length is about five feet, ita color a rich black, becoming white on the under side. The Narwhal is not so large as the whale, not being above sixty feet long. Its body is slenderer than that of the whale, and its fat not in so great abundance. But this great animal is sufficiently distinguished from all others of the deep by its tooth or teeth, which stand pointing directly forward from the upper jaw, and are from nine to fourteen feet long. In all the variety of weapons with which Nature has armed her various tribes, there is not one so large or so formidable as this. It is as straight as an arrow, about the thickness of the small of a man's leg, wreathed in the manner we sometimes see twisted bars of iron ; it tapers to a sharp point ; and is whiter, heavier, and harder than ivory. It is generally seen to spring from the left side of the head directly forward in a straight line with the body ; and its ' root enters into the socket above a foot and a half. In a skull to be seen at Hamburg there are two teeth, which are each above seven feet long, and are eight inches in circumference. When the animal, possessed of these formidable weapons, is urged to employ them, it drives directly forward against the enemy witL its teeth, that, like protended spears, pierce whatever stands before them. The use of these tusks is not known ; some supposing that they are employed to dig up sea-weeds, etc., on which the Narwhal feeds, and some imagining that the living prey is first transfixed and then eaten. Be this as it may, as a weapon the tusk is not to be despised, as the strength and rapidity of the Narwhal are very great. Instances are on record, of the thick oak timbers of a ship being pierced by the ivory tusk of this creature. The Green- landers employ this ivory in the manufacture of spears, arrows, Vooks, etc. They take the Narwhal by a kind of harpoon attached THE WHALE TRIBE. 199 to a line, with a buoy at its extremity. The use of the buoy is to harass and retard the Narwhal when struck, and to give notice when it is about to rise. The Man ATI is somewhat shaped in the head and the body like a seal ; it has also the fore legs or hands pretty much in the same manner, short and webbed, but with four claws only ; these also are shorter in proportion than in the former animal, and placed nearer the head ; so that they can scarcely assist its mo- tions upon land. But it is in the hinder parts that it chiefly differs from all others of the seal kind ; for the tail is perfectly that of a fish, being spread out broad like a fan, and wanting even the vestiges of those bones which make the legs and feet in others of its kind. The largest of these are about twenty-six feet in length ; the skin is blackish, very tough, and hard ; when cut, as black as ebony ; and there are a few hairs scattered, like bristles, of about an inch long. The eyes are very small, in proportion to the animal's head ; and the ear-holes, for it has no external ears, are so narrow as scarce to admit a pin's head. The tongue is so short, that some have pretended it has none at all ; and the teeth are composed only of two solid white bones, running the whole length of both jaws, and formed merely for chewing, and not tearing its vegetable food. The female has breasts placed forward, like those of a woman ; and she brings forth but one at a time : this she holds with her paws to her bosom j there it sticks, and accompaniis her wherever she goes. This animal can scarcely be called amphibious, as it never entirely leaves the water, only advancing the head out of the stream to reach the grass on the river sides. Its food is entirely upon vegetables ; and, therefore, it is never found far in the open sea, but chiefly in the large rivers of South America ; and often above two thousand miles from the ocean. It is also found in the seas near Kamschatka, and feeds upon the weeds that grow near the shore. These animals, when unmolested, keep together in large companies, and surround their young ones. They bring forth most commonly in autumn ; and it is supposed they go with young eighteen months, for the time of generation is in spring. 200 VERTEBRATES. The Manati has no voice nor cry, for the only noise it makes is by fetching its breath. Its internal parts somewhat resemble those of a horse ; its intestines being longer, in proportion, than those of any other creature, the horse only excepted. CHAPTER VIII. DIVISION I.— VERTEBRATES. CLASS II. — BIRDS. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. Nature has ailapted the organic structure of Birds to the purposes of flight. The long neck is capable of great extent and variety of motion ; and the horny beak which is affixed to the mouth, is destitute of teeth. The breast-bone, which is very large and strong, in order to support the action of the wings, is supplied in front with a large projection, for the attachment of those strong muscles which put the wings in motion The wings, composed of nearly the same number and kinds of bones as the anterior extremities of quadrupeds, are covered with long and wide feathers or quills, which are so arranged as to be capable of acting upon the air, raising the bird from the ground, and conveying it from place to place. The tail is furnished with feathers that may be stretched out in the form of a fan, and serve to balance the animal, as well as to direct its flight. The feet are generally furnished with four claws, but sometimes with only three. The bones of the leg and thigh are very similar to those of quadrupeds. Like the Mammalia, the heart of birds is constructed with four cavities, two auricles, and two ventricles. Their lungs, which are commonly called the sole, are affixed to the sides of the ribs and back, and cannot be dilated or contracted to any great extent ; but, to compensate for this seeming defect, Nature has furnished BIRDS. 20* tliem with membranous air-cells, which occupy a very considerable portion of the chest and abdomen, and have direct and uninter- rupted communication with the lungs. The long cylindrical bones are so many air-tubes, and even the flat bones are occupied by a cellular bony net-work, filled with air. In certain birds, the large bills, even the very quill feathers, are in receipt of more or less air from the lungs, at the pleasure of the animal. Lightness of the body being indispensable, the birds which fly highest and most rapidly, have the largest supply of air-cells. In these particulars, birds pretty much resemble each other in their internal conformation ; but there are some varieties which we should more attentively observe. All birds have, properly speaking, but one stomach ; but this is very different in different kinds. In all the rapacious kinds, that live upon animal food, as well as in some of the fish-feeding tribe, the stomach is peculiarly formed. The oesophagus, or gullet, in them, is found replete with glandulous bodies, which serve to dilate and macerate the food, as it passes into the stomach, which is always very large in proportion to the size of the bird, and generally wrapped round with fat, in order to increase its warmth and powers of digestion. Granivorous birds, or such as live upon fruits, corn, and other vegetables, have their intestines differently formed from those of the rapacious kind. Their gullet dilates just above the breast bone, and forms itself into a pouch or bag, called the crop. This is replete with salivary glands, which serve to moisten and soften the grain and other food which it contains. These glands are very numerous, with longitudinal openings, which emit a whitish and a viscous substance. After the dry food of the bird has been macerated for a convenient time, it then passes into the belly, where, instead of a soft, moist stomach, as in the rapacious kind, it is ground between two pair of muscles, commonly called the gizzard, covered on the one side with a stony, ridgy coat, and almost cartilaginous. These coats rubbing against each other, are capable of bruising and attenuating the hardest substances, their action being often compared to that of the grinding teeth in man and other animals. Thus the organs of digestion are in a manner 202 VERTEBRATES. reversed in birds. Beasts grind their food with their teeth, and then it passes into the stomach, where it is softened and digested. On the contrary, birds of this sort first macerate and soften it in the crop, and then it is ground and comminuted in the stomach or gizzard. Birds are also careful to pick up sand, gravel, and ■ other hard substances, not to grind their food, as has been sup- posed, but to prevent the too violent action of the coats of the stomach against each other. This structure, however, is not fully carried out in all birds. It exists in its most complete state in those which are granivorous, or which live upon fruit, seed, etc. ; but in the carnivorous birds, or those which feed upon flesh or fish, the dilatation, constituting the crop, is very small or altogether wanting ; and the gizzard is a thin and weak organ, hardly to be distinguished from the second or membranous stomach. This is a difi"erence corresponding to that which has been described as existing in the Mammalia; among which those feeding upon vegetable food are provided with powerful and extensive organs of digestion, whilst in those livins; upon animal food they are comparatively weak, and limited in extent. The sight of birds is very perfect. They possess the power of seeing objects distinctly, when very remote. Birds of prey are particularly remarkable for the very great distance at which they perceive their prey, and the accuracy with which they direct their flight towards it. Besides the upper and under eyelids, birds have a third, which is semi-transparent, and serves the purpose ol protecting the eye from the contact of external bcdies, or from too powerful light, whilst, at the same time, it does not prevent them from distinguishing the objects around them. This membrane is "situated at the inner angle of the eye, and is drawn over the globe of it, like a curtain, at will. It is by means of this protection, that the eagle is enabled to look steadily at the sun. The senses of hearing and smelling are also possessed in considerable perfection by birds ; the former more particularly by the nocturnal, and the latter by those feeding principally upon carrion, the scent of which they are thus able to trace to an im- BIRDS. 203 inense distance. Their tongue being chiefly of bone or cartilage, they have little delicacy of taste ; and the sense of touch, judging from the structure of their claws and beak, which would be the organs for its exercise, must be exceedingly imperfect. Most birds construct nests, and some of them with much care, labor, and ingenuity. In these they deposit their eggs, and hatch them by the heat of their own bodies. Some few lay them upon the sand, and leave them to be hatched by the heat of the Bun. Their care and affection for their young are well known, and, in providing for and protecting them, they exhibit many indica- tions of sagacity or of feeling. They are capable of some slight improvements by education and imitation, but are, on the whole, in this respect decidedly inferior to quadrupeds. The class of birds is divided, according to their structure and habits of life, into six orders. Birds shed their feathers at regular periods. This operation is called mouitmg, ana is performed by Nature in the following manner : The quill, or feather, when first protruded from the skin, and come to its full size, grows harder as it grows older, and re- ceives a kind of periosteum or skin round the shaft, by which it seems attached to the animal. In proportion as the quill grows older, its sides, or the bony pen-part, thicken ; but its whole dia- meter shrinks and decreases. Thus, by the thickening of its sides, all nourishment from the body becomes more sparing ; and, by the decrease of its diameter, it becomes more loosely fixed in its socket, till at length it falls out. In the mean time, the rudiments of an incipient quill are beginning below. The skin forms itself into a little bag, which is fed from the body by a small vein and arteiy, and which every day increases in size, till it is protruded. While the one end vegetates into the beard or vane of the feather, that part attached to the skin is still soft, and receives a constant supply of nourishment, which is diffused through the body of the quill by that little light substance which we always find within when we make a pen. This substance, which as yet has received no distinctive name, serves the growing quill as the umbilical artery does an infant in the womb, by supplying it with nourish- 204 VEETEBRATES. ment, and diffusing that nonrishment over the whole frame. When, however, the quill has come to its full growth, and requinss no. further nourishment, the vein and artery become less and less, till at last the little opening by which they communicated with the quill becomes wholly obliterated ; and the quill, thus deprived, continues in its socket for some months, till in the end it shrinks, and leaves room for a repetition of the same process of nature as before. The moulting season commonly obtains from the end of summer to the middle of autumn. The bird continues to struggle with this malady during the winter ; and nature has kindly pro- vided, that when there are the fewest provisions, that then the animal's appetite shall be least craving. At the beginning of spring, when food begins again to be plentiful, the animal's strength and vigor return. It is then that the abundance of provisions, aided by the mildness of the season, incite it to love, and all nature seems teeming with life, and disposed to con- tinue it. OIUBNAL BIESS OF PEDT. 205 CHAPTER IX. DIVISION I.— VERTEBRATES. CLASS II. — BIRDS. ORDER I. — BIRDS OF PREY. These correspond, in many respects, with the camiTorous animals among quadrupeds. They are distinguished by their strong, hooked beaks, and their crooked and powerful talons, by means of which they are enabled to prey upon other birds, and even upon some of the smaller quadrupeds and reptiles. They are divided into the diurnal and the nocturnal. The diurnal include the vultures, eagles, falcons, hawks, buzzards, and kites. The only nocturnal bird of prey is the owl: The vultures are heavy and ferocious birds, feeding principally upon carrion. They are so voracious, and fill themselves to such an extent, that they become quite stupid and inactive, and during digestion a fetid humor distils from their nostrils. The eagles, falcons, etc., prefer living animals for their food, and never prey upon carrion, unless driven to it by hunger. The number of their species is very great, and they are observed to vary considerably in their plumage, according to their age and other circumstances. The females are generally a third part larger than the males, and are likewise superior in beauty of shape and plumage. I. — DIURNAL BIRDS OP PREY. The Condor inhabits the Andes of South America, always choosing its residence on the summit of a solitary rock. It ap- pears that this bird does not build any nest, but lays its two white eggs on the bare rock, after the manner of many sea birds. It is a very large bird, but by no means the gigantic creature some former naturalists relate, with wings twenty feet in length, and 18 2oe VERTEBRATES. The Condor. powerful enough to carry off a horse. The real expanse of wing is about nine or ten feet, and the length of the bird about four feet. It is, however, exceed- ingly strong, and very tena- cious of life. Two condors will attack and kill the llama, or even the puma ; for by their repeated buffeting and pecking they weaiy it so completely that it yields to their perse- verance. The Vulture. — Of this voracious bird there are seve- ral kinds, the Bearded Vul- ture, the Great California Vul- ture, the King Vulture, the Griffon Vulture, and the Egyptian Vulture. There is something unsightly and very for- bidding in their appearance. Their neck is long and almost bare Their legs are covered with feathers to the very feet, each of which has four toes, three before and one behind. They select^ lofty rocks as a place for building their nests. It is believed that their age sometimes extends to a century. Their sight is remarkably quick, and their scent most acute. It is considered that they can detect dead carcasses at the dis- tance of fifty miles. They delight above all to feed upon the dead bodies of human beings, but feed on nothing that has life. The more corrupted and putrefying the carcase, the greater their enjoyment, and the greater the relish with which they devour it. They follow armies, in expectation of feasting upon the bodies of the slain. It is said they are great enemies to serpents. The Bearded Vulture inhabits most mountain ranges, and The Oreat California Vultnre. DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 207 is very common in the Alps of Switzerland, and Germany, where, from its depredations on the kids and lambs, it has earned it^ name of Lammergeyer. Although called the " Bearded " Vulture, it is not strictly a vulture, as its head and neck are feathered, and it rejects putrid flesh, unless Lard pressed by hunger. It destroys hares, and young or sickly sheep ' and goats, nor, when rendered fierce by hunger, does it fear to attack the adult chamois, or even man. It is said to destroy the Bearded Vulture, larger animals by watching until they are near the brink of a precipice, and then suddenly driving them over the rocks by an unexpected swoop. In this manner the strong and swift chamois falls a victim to the craft of its winged foe, and instances are not wanting where the chamois hunter himself has been struck from a narrow ridge into the valley beneath by a blow from this ferocious bird. It is exceedingly bold, and shows but little fear of man. While Bruce was pre- paring his dinner on the summit of a mountain, one of these birds, after scalding its feet in several unavailing attempts to extract some meat out of the boiling water, actually seized a piece from a platter, and went oflF with it. The name of "Bearded" Vulture is given to it on account of the long tuft of hairs with which each nostril is clothed. The length of its body is about four feet, and the expanse of its wings from nine to ten. The King Vulture, which is found among the Andes in South America, is a bird about the size of the turkey-cock, chiefly remarkable for the odd formation of the skin of the head and neck, which is bare. The skin arises from the base of the bill, and is of an orange color ; from whence it stretches on each side of the head ; from thence it proceeds, like an indented comb, and falls on either side, according to the motion of the head. The eyes are surrounded by a red skin, of a scarlet color ; and the iris has the color and lustre of pearl. The head and neck are without 208 Vertebrates. leathers, covered with a flesh-colored skin on the upper part, a fine scarlet behind the head, and a duskier colored skin before ; fur- ther down, behind the head, arises a little tuft of black down, from whence issues and extends beneath the throat, on each side, a wrinkled skin, of a brownish color, mixed with blue, and reddish behind : below, upon the naked • part of the neck, is a collar, formed by soft, longish feathers, of a deep ash color, which surround the neck, and cover the breast before. Into this collar the bird sometimes withdraws its whole neck, and sometimes a part of its head ; so that it looks as if it had withdrawn Those marks are sufficient to distinguish this bird from all others of the vulture kind ; and it cannot be doubted, but that it is the most beautiful of all' this deformed family : however, neither its habits nor instinct vary from the rest of the tribe ; being like them a slow, cowardly bird, living chiefly The King Vultnre. the neck into the body. '>€'' The Orlffon Vultniw. DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 209 upon rats, lizards, and serpents; and upon carrion or excrement, when it happens to be in the waj. The flesh is so bad, that even savages themselves cannot abide it. The Griffon Vulture is found in almost all parts of the ')ld world. It is one of the largest of its group, measuring up- wards of four feet in length. Like most of the vultures, it does not appear to move its wings while flying, but soars on expanded pinions in large circles, apparently gaining the necessary impetus by the movements of its head and body, just as an accomplished skater uses but little force in his various evolutions, an imper- ceptible inclination of the head or sway of the body suflScing to keep up the impetus gained at starting, and to bring him round in any direction he chooses. The Egyptian Vulture The vultures peculiar to Egypt light in great flocks on the lay-stalls near the eity of Cairo. There iSgyptian Vulture. they feed promiscuously with dogs and other beasts on dead car- cases and the most offensive offal. Mr. Hasselquist says, " that they assemble with the kites every morning and evening iu the 18* o 210 VESTEBRATES. square called Rohneli, below the castle, there to receive the alms of fresh meat left them by the legacies of wealthy and great men." This is extraordinary indeed, Mohammedans leaving legacies to vultures ! The appearance of this bird is peculiarly horrid and repul- sive. The face is naked and wrinkled ; the eyes are large and black ; the beak black and hooked ; the talons large and extend- ing ready for prey; and the whole body polluted with filth. These are characteristics calculated to made the beholder shudder with horror. The G-olden Eagle is a bird jaf very considerable size, measuring in length about three feet, and between the extremities Qolden Eagle. of its extended wings seven feet and a half. How poble must be the appearance of this imperial bird, when flying in its stately DIURNAL BIRDS OF PRET. 211 majesty througt the sky, and looking down with apparent disdatin on all sublunary things. It weighs from twelve to fourteen pounds : the bill is deep blue, and the cere yellow : the prevailing color in the head and neck is a dark brown, bordered with tawny; and the hind part of the head is of a bright rust color : the legs are yellow and feathered to the toes ; these are protected by scales : the claws are remarkably large, showing how formidable this bird must be to its prey ; the middle claw is two inches in length. The Golden Eagle is a native of Europe, and has even been found in some of the more wild and mountainous parts of Great Britain. The golden eagles choose for the place of their abode, where they build their nests, elevated rocks, ruinous and solitary castles and towers, and other retired situations, secure from the annoyance and the visits of men. The nest diflFers from the gene- rality of the nests of other birds : they are KOt hollow, but flat. Male and female unite their efforts in rearing their domestic abode, and generally place it between two rocks, in a situation both dry and inaccessible. It is said that the nest of the Golden Eagle lasts him durinp all his lengthened life; and we all know that the length of the life of the Eagle is proverbial.^ In form the nest resembles v floor ; the basis consists of sticks about five or six feet in length, which are supported at each end, and these are covered with layers of rushes and heath. The golden eagles are exceedingly muscular; but their strength appears most conspicuous in their beak, their talons, and their wings. There is scarcely any quadruped able to stand before them. They have been known to strike a man dead with one flap of their wings. They live to a great age; one that died U Vienna had been in confinement above a century. They have also this peculiarity, of bearing abstinence from food for a period of time which would destroy the life of the greatest number of animals. The Bearded Eagle. — The Faleo Barbatus, or Bearded Eagle, has a beak of a purplish flesh color, and hooked only at the point. The head and neck are covered with feathers. It is called 212 VERTEBRATES. the Bearded Eagle, because there is suspended beneath the throat a kind of beard composed of very narrow feathers, like hairs. The legs are covered with feathers even to the toes, which are yellow ; the claws are black ; above, the body is blackish brown ; and beneath, the parts are white, with a tinge of brown. The bearded eagles are inhabitants of the highest, the most formidable and awfully sublime parts of the great chain of snow- Bearded Eagle. ilad Alps that separates Switzerland from Italy. Sometimes they are found of a size truly wonderful : one caught in the Canton of Glarus measured, from the tip of its beak to the extremity of its tail, nearly seven feet, and from the extremities of its extended wings eight feet and a half Even some have been shot much larger. This furnishes some idea of the remarkable duration of their life. Their nests are usually placed in the clefts of rocks, in situations too lofty and inaccessible ever to be reached by man. The food of these formidable and magnificent birds consists of the ehamois, white hares, marmots, kids, and more particularly lambs. DIUBNAL BIRDS OF PBET. 213 Because of their devouring the latter, the Swiss peasants call them by the name of h/mmer-gyer, or lamb-vultures. Mr. Bruce, the traveller, met with an eagle of this species not far from Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia. He considers it the largest bird in creation. The Bald or White-headed Eagle is found in various parts of North America, and was formerly very common in the vicinity of Niagara Falls, These birds breed all the year round. When the eaglets are just co- vered with down, and a sort ^^-^"1 of white woolly feathers, the female eagle lays again. These eggs are left to be hatched by the warmth of the young ones that continue in the nest, so that the flight of one brood makes room for the next that are but just hatched. These Raid Eagle, birds fly very heavily, so that they cannot overtake their prey, like others of the same denomi^ nation. To remedy this, they often attend a sort of fishing-hawk, which they pursue, and strip the plunderer of its prey. This is the more remarkable, as this hawk flies swifter than they. These eagles also generally attend upon fowlers in the winter, and when any birds are wounded, they are sure to be seized by the eaffle, though thoy may fly from the fowler. This bird will often steal young pigs, and carry them alive to the nest, which is composed of twigs, sticks, and rubbish ; it is large enough to fill the body of a cart, and is commonly full of bones half eaten, and putrid flesh, the stench of which is intolerable. The Black Eagle is distinguished from the others by having the feathers of the head and upper part of the neck mixed with red ; the ' tail feathers at the lower part of a blackish color, and above, white, speckled with black. The leg feathers are of a dirty white. It is found along the American Coast from Florida to Brazil. 214 VERTEBBATEB. The Black Kagle, The Sea Eagle, distributed over North America, from the fur regions to Florida, feeds on fish, and is a powerful bird The color of its plumage inclines to white on the back, mixed with iron brown ; the belly is white, interspersed with iron-colored spots; the covert feathers of the tail are whitish, and the tail feathers black at the extremity. The Ospret, or Pishing Hawk, is spread over the whole of Europe, part of Asia, and some portions of North America. As its name imports, its food consists entirely of fish, which it obtains by dashing into the water, and seizing them with its curved talons. The Osprey, although it takes the fish, is not the only bird that has a predilection for that diet, as the bald-headed eagle frequently waits until the osprey has seized the prey, and then deprives him of it. DTlTRNAIi BIRDS OF FRET. 21 !i It resides near water, especially large rivers and lakes ; and it fcp-is principally on fish, which it catches with much greater eagerness than the keen and patient angler. It pounces on its prey with astonishing rapidity, sometimes actually plunging two feet under the surface of the water, when it successfully seizes and carries off its prey to some distance, where it feasts at leisure with greater delight than the most skilful epicure. In the hatch- ing season, it is frequently seen about the lakes of Killaruey, in Ireland. It is to be mot with in most of the countries of Europe, even from Sweden to G-reece. Travellers have seen it in Egypt, Nigritia, Barbary, and Louisiana. In the spring and summer months it is often seen hovering in solemn majesty over the large' American rivers for several minutes at one time, resting on the wing as motionless, when it darts down in a moment, dives into 216 VEKTEBRATEB. the water below, and seldom fails of securing a fish in its ta' ma. It is very striking to see it, immediately after, shaking ofl 'he The Osprey. water from its feathers, which rises up liktf a cloud of va^, and then the bird shapes its course to the neighboring woods. The Secretary Bird derives its name from the tufts of feathers at the back of its head, which bear a fanciful resemblance to pens stuck behind the ear. This extraordinary bird, whose true position in ornithology has been such a stumbling-block to natu- ralists, inhabits South Africa, Senegambia, and the Philippine Islands. Probably a different species inhabits each of these countries. It feeds on snakes and other reptiles, of which it con- sumes an amazing number, and is on that account protected. When battling with a snake, it covers itself with one wing as with a shield, and with the other strikes at the reptile until it falls senseless, when a powerful blow from the beak splits open the snake's head, and the victim is speedily swallowed. The Common Buzzard is varied with brown and ferru- ginous color above, and with white and ferruginous beneath ; the cere and legs are yellow, and the tail banded with brown. The DirilNAL BIRDS OP PRET. 21T female is generally of darker hues than the male. The weight ia about thirty ounces, and measures about twenty-one inches in length, and four feet one inch in extent of wing. The appearance of the Buzzard is exceedingly drowsy and sluggish, on account of its large head, thick body, clumsy legs, and large lifeless eyes. It is too heavy and indolent to hunt by flight, and therefore is com- pelled to adopt another method for obtaining its subsistence. For hours together it will continue motionless on a tree, bush, stone, or even clod of earth, till some game passes within the reach of its spring, when it will dash upon it in a moment, and then devour The CoDimon Buzzard. .t. Its ordinary fare consists of small birds, rabbits; hares, moles, field-mice, lizards, frogs, toads, etc. When the buzzards have their young, they overcome to a great degree their sluggish habits : they become more active, and will soar to a considerable height, ascending in a spiral direction. The female usuallymakes her nest in the fork of a tree with 19 218 YEBTEBR ATES. large sticks, and lines it with wool, hair, or other soft substances, and sometimes takes possession of a deserted crow's nest, which it enlarges, and makes it fit for accommodating her future family of young buzzards. She deposits two or three eggs ; the number seldom amounts to four : they exceed the eggs of a hen a little in size ; the color is a dirty white, a little greenish, and most com- monly spotted with rust-color, chiefly at the larger end. The young, when in the nest, are covered with a yellowish down. In the middle of July they begin to perch upon bushes, when they utter a cry shrill and plaintive. They accompany the old birds some time after quitting the nest. This is very uncommoil with birds of prey, which at a very early period show that parental afiection is extinct in their bosom, and drive off their offspring from them with apparent disgust as soon as they are fledged and able to provide for themselves. The Honey Buzzard is found in the warmer parts of Europe, and in Asia, seldom visiting our shores. Its food does not consist of honey, as its name might seem to indicate, but of bees, wasps, and their larvae. In the stomach of one that was shot in Scotland, a great number of bees and grubs were found, but no honey or wax. It does not, however, refuse small quadrupeds, or sometimes small birds, if pressed by hunger. It is a bird of passage, leaving Europe at the commencement of winter. Its nest is built in high trees, and its eggs are two or three in number, grey, spotted with red at one end, and surrounded with a red band. Its length is about two feet, and the expanse of its wings fifty-two inches. The third primary feather is the longest. The Kite is a native of almost all the countries of P]u rope, and is found ia Siberia, Africa, and in some latitudes of America. Many of those which breed in Europe retire into Egypt and other hot latitudes, during the cold season. They are partial to hilly and woody situations. The nest is built by the female early in the spring : she places it in a fork of a large tree, forming it of Sticks, and lining it with soft materials, such as wool, hair, the inner bark of some tree, or bits of cloth. The appearance of the Kite in the sky is singularly elegant, sailing DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 219 along in ita circling flight, and maintaining its equipoise by the slightest movement of its pinions. From its airy height, it sud- denly darts down upon the object of its prey, such as rabbits, lif-res, game of all kinds, poultry, and birds which cannot fly. The Kite. The Swallow-tailed Falcon is an inhabitant of North America, but has been more than once taken in England. It feeas on the wing, like the swallows, pursuing the large moths ana other insects with an ease and rapidity for which its formation eminently fits it. These insects are, however, not the only food of this bird. Audubon mentions that "their principal food is large grasshoppers, grass caterpillars, small snakes, lizards, and frogs. They sweep close over the fields, sometimes stooping to secure a snake, and holding it fast by the neck, carry it off', and devour it in the air." Its nest is built on the summit of an aged pine or oak, and its eggs are from four to six in number, of a greenish white color, irregularly spotted with brown at the large end. The length of this bird is two feet. The Perigrine, or Common Falcon, is brown above, with 220 VEBTEBRATXB. Tbe Swallow-tailed Falcon. rufous undulations ; the tail marked with dusky bars ; breast and belly whitish, with dusky spots. The male is in length a foot and two inches, and that of the female a foot and four inches, and the expanse of the ■wings three feet and a half. This bird of prey has much elegance of form, and a considerable share of out- ward beauty; all this covering a blood- thirsty, rapacious nature. In this it may be considered a figurative emblem of too many of the human race, who, under an agreeable exterior, cherish the vilest pas- sions and the most hateful vices. . The Falcon is found a native of the different regions of Europe, from the snow-clad mountains of Iceland to the fragrant Common Falcon. DIURNAL BIRDS OF PRET. 22] The Gyr-Falcon. islands of the Mediterranean Sea. It frequents high and rocky eminences, and about the end of February builds its nest in bold, precipitous clifis. There is hardly a part of the British coasts, where the cliflFs rise to the height of three or four hundred feet, in which falcons are not found scattered in the breeding season, and from which they seldom retire, except as occasional migrants. The Gyr-Falcon is extremely rare in England, those intended for hawking being principally brought from Iceland. On the rooky coasts of Norway and Iceland its eggs are laid. These birds are very courageous in defending their young. A pair of them attacked Dr. Richardson while he was climbing near their nest, flying in circles round him, and occasionally dashing at his face with loud screams. The entire length of the Gyr-Falcon is twenty- three inches. The Merlin, the least of the English Falcons, was con- sidered in olden times as the lady's bird, every rank being obliged to content itself with the bird allotted to its peculiar station, royalty alone having the privilege to bear an eagle into the field. The spirited little Merlin seizes with great dexterity small birds, such as buntings, thrushes, and blackbirds, itself really hardly larger than its prey, its entire length being barely eleven inches. Even the partridge falls before a trained bird. Its eggs are four in number, of a reddish mottled brown, laid in a rude nest among the heather. The Kestrel, or Windhover, as it is often called, frequently falls a victim to the mistaken zeal of the British farmer, who takes every opportunity of destroying it, as he confounds it with the sparrow-hawk, of the Kestrel is field-mice, so that the farmer should protect 19* The KestraL The natural food 222 VERTEBRATES. instead of remorselessly murdering his benefactor. These birda are not uncommon. Many live close to Oxford, and especially in Bagley Wood, where they may be seen almost daily. They also live in great numbers among the precipices in Dovedale. Their nest is usually built in the deserted mansion of a crow or magpie. The eggs are four in number, of a dark reddish brown. The length is from thirteen to fifteen inches. The Goshawk is found plentifully in most of the wooded districts of Europe, but is comparatively rare in the British Isles. It seldom breeds south of Scotland, but its nest is not unfre- quently found in that country, built upon lofty trees, principally firs, and containing three eggs of a bluish white color with reddish brown marks. When in pursuit of prey, it strikes its victim to the ground by the force with which it dashes through the air. Should the terrified quarry hide itself, the Goshawk takes up its station on some elevated spot, and there patiently waits until the game takes wing. Its principal food consists of hares, squirrels, pheasants, and other large birds, which its great strength enables it to destroy. Its length is about two feet; the fourth primary feather is the longest. The Common Hawk, or falco-communis, is brown above, with rufous, or reddish undulations; the tail is marked with dusky bars ; the breast and belly whitish, with dusky spots. It is an inhabitant of the colder and temperate parts of Europe, from Iceland to the Mediterranean. About the end of February they build their nests in lofty precipitous «ocks having a southern aspect. The rock on which the castle of Dumbarton stands, has b^en long mentioned as a place famous for the breed of the Common Hawk. The growth of the young is peculiarly rapid. In three months they are equal to their parents in size. The eggs are generally three or four, and white, spotted with brown. Hawks are very courageous birds. They dart suddenly, perpendicularly, and with great rapidity upon their prey. This chiefly consists of partridges, pheasants, quails, wood-pigeons, etc., and the smaller quadrupeds. They also attack the kite, and DIUENAL BIRDS OF PREY 222) oblige it to relinquish its victim, but spare its life, as if in con- tempt of an adversary so inferior to itself. ?^'. V _i^- The Gommou Hawk. The Night-Hawk. — By some naturalists this bird is con- sidered as the itrix orientalis. Hasselquist thus describes it: " It is of the size of the common owl, and lodges in the Is^rge buildings, or ruins of Egypt and Syria, and even in dwelling- houses. The Arabs settled in Egypt call it masasa, and the Syrians, hanu. It is extremely voracious in Syria; to such a degree, that if care is not taken to shut the windows at the coming on of night, it enters the house and kills the children. The women, therefore, are very much afraid of it." This voracious bird and nightly robber was pronounced unclean, and forbidden to be eaten by the law of Moses. The Sparrow-Hawk is common throughout Europe. It displays great pertinacity in pursuit of its prey, which it will chase for a long while, skimming along a few feet above the ground. One of these hawks was known to dash through a win- dow in pursuit of a small bird. When taken young it is easily 224 VEETEBRATES The Night-Hawk. tamed, and will then associate with the most incongruous com- panions. A gentleman had a young Sparrow-Hawk which used to live in his dovecote among his pigeons, would accompany them in their flights, and was uneasy if separated from its strange friends. Although a brave little bird in its wild state, it some- times becomes sadly degenerate when domesticated. The Hawk Lannarius. — Lannarius, in ornithology, is a bird of the long-winged hawk kind. In English it is called the latmer, and the male the lanneret. Its beak and legs are blue ; its head and neck are variegated with large streaks of black and white ; its back, wings, and tail are not variegated, unless with a few small white spots ; and its wings, when extended, are speckled underneath with small round white spots ; its neck and legs are very short. This species is very common in France, remains the whole year without migrating like other hawks ; is very docile, and is trained up for all the purposes of the ancient and animating amusement of falconry. The same species is found in the southern climate of Italy, but differs in the following respects : it has much of a yellowish brown about the shoulders, and is so indocile, that it is of no use in sporting. It is also found in Ireland, and is thus NOOTUENAL BIRDS OF PREY. 225 described by Mr. Pennant : " It is less than the buzzard ; the ear is of a pale greenish yellow ; above each eye, to the hind part of the head, passes a broad white line, and beneath each, a black mark pointing downward; the throat white; the breast tinged The Hawk Lannsrins. with dull yellow, and marked with- brown spots pointing down- ward ; the thighs spotted in the same manner j the quill-feathera dusky; and the tail spotted like the wings." II NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. Under the sub-order owl, there are no less than twenty-six species, or varieties. Owls are nocturnal birds of prey; their head is large in proportion to the rest of their body ; their eyes,^ too, are large and prominent; their skull is thick, light, with nu- merous cavities ; their outer toe may be directed forward or back- p 226 TEBTEBRATE8. ward at pleasurQ ; and from the softness of their feathers, they make little or no noise during their flight : their eyes are so con- structed, that they can see more clearly in the dusk of the evening than in the bright glare of day ; they have the power of shutting out or admitting the light, by the contraction or dilation of the pupil of the eye. It is a singular fact, that though none of the nocturnal birds of prey are materially injurious to man, yet almost in every country and age they have been looked upon by the vulgar and superstitious as creatures of evil omen, and as the heralds of death I The principal characters of the Owl are the following : they are bill-hooked; nostrils oblong, covered with recumbent, seta- ceous, that is, strong and bristly feathers; head, eyes, and ears large; the tongue bifid, or divided into two, and the outer toe movable backwards or forwards. There is evidently an adaptation of body in birds of night by which they are fitted for their nocturnal pursuits. This proves that their habits are not the result of caprice, or accident, or even instinct uninfluenced by natural causes. The formation of the owl is not suited to the full light of day ; it is so formed, that it can only live in partial darkness. It cannot properly exercise its sight, except in the dusk of the evening or the grey of the morning. On account of the unusual largeness of the disk of the pupil of the eye, the brightness of the noonday sun would dazzle and blind it by an overwhelming entrance of light. But what renders it unfit for vision by day qualifies it for seeing objects by night. From the uncommon largeness of the pupil of its eye, the rays of light, which are more widely diffused, that is, fewer in number and more apart, are admitted in greater quantities into the eyes of owls than into those of other birds whose eyes are differently formed. The owl makes very little noise in its flight, not even so much as would awake those birds which are the objects of its plunder. The G-Reat-eared Owl, or Eagh Owl, is the largest of the family. This powerful bird, not satisfied with the " rats and mice and such small deer," which content the English owls, boldly NOCTURNAL BIRDS OP PREY. 227 attacks young fawns, hares, and rabbits, together with small birds It inhabits the north of Europe, but has been several times ob- served in Great Britain. It lays its eggs in the clefts of rocks or in ruined buildings. The length of this bird is upwards of two feet. The Eagle Owl. The Hawk or Canada Owl inhabits the Arctic portion* of Asia and America. Its head is not so round, nor is its face so broad, as those of the other owls, from which it is also distin- guished by its habit of hunting by day. In face it bears some resemblance to the harriers. It builds in trees, and lays two eggs — white, as are those of all owls. The eggs of owls are easily distinguished from other white eggs by a peculiar roughness of surface, which cannot be mistaken. The length of the Hawk Owl is from fifteen to eighteen inches. The Snowy Owl is properly an inhabitant of the north of Europe, but has more than once been discovered in Great Britain Z28 VERTEBRATES. It is also found in North America. Wilson relates that it is a good fisher, snatching its prey from the water by a sudden grasp of the foot. It also preys on lemmings, hares, ptarmigans, etc., chasing and striking at them with its feet. It makes its nest on the ground, and lays three or four white eggs, of which more than two are seldom hatched. Its length is from twenty-two to twenty- seven inches, the expanse of wing four feet ; the third primary feather is the longest. The Burrowing Owl accompanies the prairie dog of North America, and wherever that animal chooses to live, there is the Burrowing Owl. This singular little bird finds that to take possession of the ready-made burrows of the prairie'dog is much more agreeable than to dig a hole for itself; so it takes unfurnished lodgings in a deserted dwelling, undisturbed by anything except a casual lizard or rattlesnake. So numerous are these little owls, that they may be seen in small flocks seated on the tops of the mounds in which the en- trance of the burrows is formed. It is said that the owls, mar- mots (or prairie dogs), lizards, and snakes, all live harmoniously in one happy family. Such, however, is not really the case, as the burrowing owls prefer holes unoccupied by any other tenant, and have been seen with something most suspiciously like a young snake struggling in their mouths. The bottom of its hole is gene- rally comfortably filled with dried hay and roots. The legs of this bird are longer than those of other owls. It is by no means large, measuring but ten inches in length. The Barn Otvl afibrds another instance of mistaken per- secution. This beautiful and most useful bird, whose carcase we so often see triumphantly nailed to the barn, actually feeds upon and destroys in incalculable numbers the rats and mice which bear it company ip its undeserved punishment. Waterton remarks : " When farmers complain that the barn owl destroys the eggs of their pigeons, they lay the saddle on the wrong horse. They ought to put it on the rat. Formerly I could get very few young pigeons till the rats were excluded from the dovecote. Since that took place, it has produced a great abundance every year, although the NOOTUENAIi BIRDS OF PREY. 229 barn owls frequent it, and are encouraged all around it. The barr owl merely resorts to it for repose and concealment. If it wer«. really an enemy to the dovecote, we should see the pigeons it commotion as soon as it begins its evening flight, but the pigeons heed it not, whereas if the sparrow-hawk or hobby should make its appearance, the whole community would be up at once. ... I am amply repaid for the pains I have taken to protect and encou- rage the barn owl ; it pays me an hundred fold by the enormous quantity of mice which it destroys throughout the year." It also devours great numbers of beetles and other insects. It is possible that it may, also, destroy young birds, but not pro- bable, as feathers and birds' bones are never found among the rejectamenta. It will, however, when domesticated, devour a dead sparrow or linnet when presented to it. Few people know what a little bird this owl really is. The Egyptian Owl. 20 230 VERTEBRATES. thick loose plumage is so deceptive, that no one unacquainted with the structure of the bird would imagine that it is hardly so large as a pigeon. The head, too, when deprived of ite feathery cover- ing, completely loses its previous aspect, being long and narrow, like that of a hawk. In fact, few creatures look more contemptible than an owl stripped of its feathers. The Short-crested Owl is also called the Egyptian Owl, because it prevails in Egypt as well as in other parts of Africa. It is one-fourth longer than the common species, and like it, yellow, dotted with brown, and vermiculated, that is, adorned with a variety of beautiful colors on the back The belly is striped across with narrow lines, and the crests very short. This bird is not only met with in Egypt, but also in Asia Minor and in Persia. Pennant, who is a great authority, tells ns, that it is found in all the central countries of Enrope, and also in Scotland. It feeds on moles, rats, mice, bats, on smaU birds, and insecta. THE OONE-BILLED PEBOHERS. 231 CHAPTEK X. DlVISIOUr I. —VERTEBRATES. CLASS II. — BIRDS. ORDER II. — PERCHING BIRDS. The most numerous and varied of all the families of Birds lb the Insessores or Perching Birds, which comprises all those having their habitations in trees, excepting only the climbers and birds of prey. Their feet are fitted for perching on branches, having three toes in front and one behind, on the same level with the others ; each toe being armed with long and partially curved claws. This order is divided into Cone-billed, Tooth-billed, Slen- der-billed, and Gaping-billed birds. THE CONE-BILLED PER C HERS. _ii: Jay, so well known for the beautiful blue markings on its wings, is rather a shy bird, preferring to reside in the thickest woods, and seldom coming into the open country. It is easily tamed when young, and is very amusing when domesticated. This bird possesses, like several others of the same family, considerable talents for mimicry. It has been known to imitate the sound of a saw, the bleat of a lamb, or even the neighing of a horse, ■«itb the most perfect accuracy. Nor do its powers cease here, for although its natural voice is harsh and grating, yet it can imitate the sweet notes of singing birds, such as the green- finch, with wonderful fidelity. It has also frequently been taught to articulate words. ■ The Jay feeds on vegetable productions, such as acoms, etc., more than the true crows. It is also partial to friits, especially ripe cherries, and is consequently persecuted by the gardener. It is also said to devour eggs and young birds. Its nest is built 232 VERTEBRATES. about twenty feet from the ground, the upper part of a thick bush being preferred. The eggs are five or six in number, of a yel- lowish white, thickly speckled with brown. The length of the bird is nearly fourteen inches. The Magpie, which seems to rival the parrot in the proud title of the monkey of the birds (the raven being the ornitholo- gical baboon), is a well-known inhabitant of England " Ita thieving and hiding propensities," says Mr. Wood, " have been frequently told ; but I must still venture to give a few anecdotes or a tame magpie that resided in Wiltshire. This bird found a malicious enjoyment in pecking the unprotected ankles of little boys not yet arrived at manly habiliments, and was such a terror to the female servants that they were forced to pass his lurking- place armed with a broom. One of the servants having neglected this precaution, was actually found sitting down on the stones to protect her ankles, the magpie triumphantly pacing round her, until aid was brought, and the bird driven away. But to little boys and girls the magpie showed no mercy, springing out of its hiding-place and chasing them completely along the garden walk." George Le Roy states that a magpie having stolen some game, it was resolved to shoot it. A man hid himself in a hut near its nest for this purpose. The bird flew away when he en- tered, nor would return. The next day two men entered and one came out. Mag was not to be cheated ; she waited till the second left also. Three went in and two came out, with the same result. Four then entered, and three came away. The bird went back and was shot. So magpies, says George Le Roy, can count three but not four. The nest of the Magpie is built on a high tree, and curiously defended with thorns, having only a small hole just large enough to admit the owners, so that the liberal use of a pocket knife is frequently requisite in order to obtain the eggs. The nest ia covered with a dome of thorns. The Raven is found on the continent of America, and in most parts of Europe and Asia. It lives principally on carrion of various kinds, such as dead sheep »r lambs, whose death the THE CONE-BILLED PEBOHEBS. 233 Raven is accused with some justice of hastening, and on fishes at cetaceous animals which have been cast on shore by the waves. In these cases the Raven conducts itself much in the manner of the vulture. It commences by taking out the eye and tongue, and then proceeds to tear open the abdomen, operations for which its sharp and powerful bill seems quite as well fitted as the hooked beak of the rapacious birds. It is a very crafty bird, and can with difficulty be approached, but by laying a dead carcase near its haunts, and being carefully concealed, it may be seen cautiously approaching; first perching on an eminence, it looks carefully round; then, advancing with a sidelong step, it examines its ex pectfid prey. When fully satisfied, it pecks out the eyes and proceeds to satiate itself with food. The Raven seems to fear no storms, and to be deterred by no inclemency of weather from seeking its prey. Although formerly so plentiful in England that innumerable omens wore drawn from its (roaking, flight, etc., it 20* 234 VERTEBRATES. lias almost become extinct, much to the discomfiture of omen- seekers. No incantation and no dance of witches seemed to be considered complete, without a black cat, a toad or two, a bat, and a raven. Certainly the extraordinary gravity which marks the demeanor of the Eaven has something almost preternatural in it. The manner in which he sets about a piece of mischief, as if ho considered it a moral duty, b most absurd, and the pertinacity with which he prosecutes a great work, such as the feat of Charles Dickens's raven, who " new pointed the greater part of the garden wall, by digging out the mortar, and tore up and swallowed in splinters the greater part of a wooden staircase of six steps and a landing," is perfectly astounding. Of this bird, Mr. Wood says : " A raven in our possession used to watch the gardener taking particular pains to prop up and secure a valuable plant. His labor was always in vain, for the raven^ with a sidelong step and an unconcerned air, as if he were thinking of anything but the plant, would sidle by it, when one wrench of his iron bill laid the unfortunate plant on the earth, and the raven moved off with a most provoking air of innocence. The lady to whom the garden belonged was quite afraid of the bird, and declared that she almost believed that it was possessed by some evil spirit. It used to walk behind her, so that she could never see it ; for when she turned round, the raven hopped round too, and kept himself completely out of her sight. At last it became BO very mischievous that it was sent away, much to my regret. "Wot long ago, I was visiting a small collection of living birds, among which was a raven, whose wings were clipped, and who was permitted to have the free range of the yard. He gained considerable benefit from his freedom, for he could steal the pro- visions of the other birds, unless they were very quick. When I weni .-c his residence, I took the back of a letter, and was reading the address, when I saw the raven watching my proceedings with great curiosity. The paper was of no consequence, so I let it fall, and walked on as if it had been an accident. The raven waited until I had left the paper some few paces behind, when he, took a sidelong kind of a walk towards it, tore it into Bcraps, and ran THE CONE-BILLXD PERGHERS. 233 away with the largest piece under a water-butt, where he kept watch over it." It has a great capacity for imitating sounds, and can be taught to pronounce whole sentences, or sing songs with wonderful accuracy. The Book inhabits almost every part of Europe, and is very common in England, where it lives in a kind of semi-domes- tication, usually inhabiting a grove of trees near a house, or in a park, where it is protected by the owner, although he makes it pay for this accommodation by shooting the young once every year. Apparently in consequence of this annual persecution, the Book has an intense horror of guns, perceiving them at a great distance. While feeding in flocks in the fields, or following the ploughman in his course, and devouring the worms and grubs turned up by the share, the Book has always a sentinel planted in a neighboring tree, who instantly gives the alarm at the sight of a gun, or of a suspicious-looking object. The good which the Book does by devouring the grubs of the cockchaffer, and the tipulas or daddy-long-legs, both of which are exceedingly injurious to the crops, more than compensates for the damage it sometimes causes, by pulling up young corn, or newly-set potato cuttings ; in the latter case more, I believe, to get at the wireworms, which crowd to the slices of potato, than to eat the vegetable itself. In the fruit season, the Book, like most other birds, likes to have his share of the cherries, pears, and waln-jts but may be easily kept away by the occasional sight of a gun. Bound the base of the Book's beak is a whitish looking skin, denuded of feathers, the reason or cause of which is not very obvicu-. The eggs of this bird are five in number, similar to those of the raven in color, but much smaller. The length of the bird is nineteen inches. . Ths Jackdaw is another well-known bird. It does not build in the branches of trees like the rook, to which it is very similar in many respects, but prefers holes in decayed trees or old buildings, particularly frequenting church towers and steeples. The Jackdaw feeds upon almost any substance that it can find. 236 VERTEBRATES. It kills mice with a single blow of its beak, and then derouni them piecemeal. Grasshoppers, beetles, etc., are also killed by a squeeze across the thorax, and the head, wings, and legs are twisted off before the bird begins to eat them. It treats bees, wasps, and other stinged insects, with much more caution. The feathers upon the crown of its head are of a greyish white color, a peculiarity instantly distinguishing it from the rook. It is fre- quently kept tame, and is very amusing in captivity. The Crow, or Carrion Grow, as it is erroneously called, seldom feeds on carrion, for poor indeed would be his meals were he dependent on dead sheep or horses for a livelihood. Possibly the name was given as a distinction between it and the rook. Waterton states that the flesh of the Carrion Crow is just as good as that of the rook, and relates how he once served up a pie of these birds to some friends, who thought them pigeons. It will also eat cherries and walnuts like the rook, and when the supply of insects has Crow. . . . failed, it will then turn its attention to the duck-pond and farm-yard, and carry off a young duckling or chicken. Sometimes he approaches the farm-house by stealth, in the search of young chickens, which he is in the habit of snatching off, when he can elude the vigilance of tl e mother hen, who often proves too formidable for him. It also carries off eggs, by pouncing upon them, and driving its bill through the shell. It will be seen, from the following anecdote, that mice and rats are not unaccustomed food. " In a field near a gentleman's house, about a mile from Caernarvon, in Wales, there are some out-buildings much infested with rats. Four or five traps are set on the premises every night, and it is the business of a servant-man to go to the spot between five and six in the morning. He is always punctually met by a company of crows, that station themselves at a little distance, and most narrowly watch all his proceedings. No sooner does he THE OONE-BILLED PEROHERS. 23' remove his captives from the traps and throw them into the field, than the carnival begins. The crows seize upon their booty, scien- tifically perforate the integuments, and scoop out and devour every particle of flesh, even in the head. In a very short time the skins are turned inside out, and a few clean picked bones are the only memorials of the banquet." The nests of this bird are placed on the summit of some tall tree, and contain about five eggs, closely resembling those of the rook. The length of the bird is eighteen inches. The Hooded Crow, otherwise called the Koyston Crow or the Grey Crow, is one of the winter visitors to Great Britain, gene- rally leaving there about April, although it sometimes remains during the summer, and brings up a brood of young. Like most of its congeners, it builds its nest on the tops of very tall trees, such as the pine, but is al§io known to build on precipitous rocks. It is said to use these rocks in the stead of an oyster-knife, for as it is very fond of oysters, and does not possess a knife to open them with, it must discover some other method of getting at the enclosed animal. To attain this purpose, it is said to seize the oyster in its beak, soar up to a great height in the air, and then let it drop from that elevation upon the hard rock, when the shell is dashed to pieces, and the Crow is enabled to pick out the animal with ease. There is but little of the usual corvine black hue about this bird, only the head, throat, wings, arid tail being so decorated, the remainder of the bird being of an ashy grey. The length of the bird is about twenty-two inches. The Chough is rather larger than the jackdaw, and is principally distinguished by the red hue of its bill and legs. It inhabits the counties of the western coast of England, and is, per- haps, more common in Cornwall than in any other county. When tame, it shows a very inquisitive disposition, examining every novelty with the greatest attention. It builds ita nest in the cavities of high cliffs, and lays four or five eggs of a yellowish white color, spotted with light brown. The length o^ the bird is seventeen inches. 238 VEBTEBRAT£S. Emerald Bird of Faradiee. Emerald Bird of Paradise. — This most gorgeous and elegant bird was once the subject of much discussion between naturalists. The natives of New Guinea were accustomed to dry them, having first cut off their legs, and then to offer them for sale. In this footless state they reached Europe, where it was im- mediately stated that the bird lived always -in the air, buoyed up by the lightness of its feathery covering ; that the shoulders were used as its nest; that the only rest it took was by suspending itself from a branch by the fila^ mentary feathers of the tail ; that its food was the morning dew ; together with many other conjectures not -less ingenious than amusing. This bird appears about the size of a jay. Its body, breast, and lower parts are of a deep rich brown ; the front set close with black feathers shot with green; the throat is of a rich golden green; the head yellow; the sides of the tail are clothed with a splendid plume of long downy feathers of a soft yellow color. By these are placed two long filamen- tous shafts, which extend nearly two feet in length. Of these beautiful fear thers the "bird is so proud that it will not suffer the least speck of dirt to remain upon them, and it is constantly examining its plumage to see that there are no spots on it. When in its wild state it always flies and sits with its face to the wind, lest its elegant filmy plumes should be disarranged. So far from living exclusively on dew, it eats no small amount of insects, such as grasshoppers, which it will not touch Six-shafted Bird of Paradise THE CONE -BILLED PERCHERS. 239 if dead, and commences its repast by stripping off the legs and wings. When in confinement, it also eats boiled rice, plantains, etc., but in the wild state it seems to feed mostly on the seeds of the teak-tree, and a kind of fig. The Satin Bower-Bird. — It is a singular thing to find a bird building a kind of playground, without reference to its nest, but merely for amusement. The Bower-Bird has this curious habit. It builds a kind of bower of thin twigs, interwoven so as to meet above, forming a kind of tunnel. The entrance of this bower is decorated with any brilliant article that the bird can find, such as shells, bones, and feathers of several parrots ; some feathers being stuck in among the twigs, and others strewn at the entrance. Mr. Gould, who first brought this curious bird before the public, says : " The propensity of these birds to pick up and fly off with any attractive object, is so well known to the natives (of Australia), that they always search the runs for any small missing article, as the bowl of a pipe, etc., that may have been accidentally dropped in the brush. I, myself, found at the entrance of one of these a small neatly worked stone tomahawk, of an inch and a half in length, together with some slips of blue cotton rags, which the birds had doubtless picked up at a deserted encampment of the natives. For what purpose these curious bowers are made, is not yet, perhaps, fully understood : they are certainly not used as a nest, but as a place of resort for many individuals of both sexes, which, when there assembled, run through and around the bower in a sportive and playful manner, and that so frequently, that it is seldom entirely deserted." The Starlings comprise many genera, among which the Pensile Oriole of America, commonly known as the Baltimore Oriole, is the most interesting. These birds build, or rather weave, a fabric not unlike loose cloth, composed of hemp or flax. This nest is of the singular form represented in the engraving, and the entrance is at the side. In all probability this singular formation is for the purpose of keeping out the black snake, who is constantly on the lookout for young birds. The parent orioleii often attack the snake, and compel him to retreat. 240 VERTEBRATES. Baltimore Oriole. The plumage of the male when full grown is very brilliant. The head, throat, and back are black, the under parts are orange, the breast vermilion. A band of orange passes over the shoulders, and the tail is orange and black. The length of the bird is almost eight inches. This is not the only bird that constructs pensile nests; the weaver birds also form these nests, but of a different form. They look like great pistols hung up by the butt, the entrance being at the muzzle, and the nest in the butt. 29. The Common Starung is a bird well known both for its beauty and the HUgular method of flight. When a flock of Starlings begin to settle for the night, they wheel round the place selected with great accuracy. Suddenly, as if by word of command, the whole flock turn their sides to the spectator, and with a great whirring of wings, the whole front and shape of the flock is altered. No body of soldiers could be better wheeled or countermarched than are these flocks of starlings, except, perhaps, an iinfortunate few, who are usually thrown out at each change, and whom we must chari- tably suppose to be recruits. 80. The Starling lives principally among old buildings, and is very fond of gaining admittance into dovecotes, where it is a harmless visitor, and may be suffered to remain without detriment to the pigeons oi their eggs. Its nest is made usually in a hole in a wall, sometimes in a decayed tree, and contains five eggs of a veiy delicate uniformly pale blue. 31. There is never any difficulty in dis- covering the nest of the Starling, for if it builds in a hole of a wall it generally leaves several straws sticking out, as if to indi- cate the locality ; and when it goes to take food to its young, both Gommon Starling. THE GONE-BILLED PERCHERS. 241 parent and children set up such an outcry, that it may be heard a long way off. . The Grosbeak is not a very rare bird, although it is but seldom seen. This fact is accounted for by its great shyness and dread of mankind ; so that, although it remains in this country throughout the year, it seldom ventures out of the thick woods in which it delights to dwell. The nest of this bird is very shallow, and slightly put together,, being hardly superior to that of the wood-pigeon. The eggs are from four ^^ Grosbeak, to six in number, of a greenish white, covered with dark marks and spots. The length of the Grosoeas is seven inches. The Goldfinch, or Thistlefinch, so called on account of its fondness for the down of the thistle, is one of our most beau- tiful birds. Where thistles abound, small flocks of goldfinches may be seen flying from hedge to hedge, and occasionally pecking the white tops of the thistles. The tufted seed, of the dandelion gr')undsel, and other plants, is also eaten by the Goldfinch. In captivity it is very tame, and can be trained to perform a multitude of tricks, the most common of which are, drawing its own food and water with a chain and bucket, or firing a gun when com- manded. The nest is very beautiful, being mostly made of wool and down from various plants, and is usually placed on the ex- tremity of a spray. The eggs are small, of a whitish tint, spotted with orange brown. The Common Linnet frequents commons and neglected pastures. Its song is very sweet, and many bird-fanciers suppose that the mixed breed of a canary and a linnet has a sweeter song than either bird. Its nest is usually built in the centre of a large and dense bush. The eggs are five in number, greyish white, speckled with red. The Greenfinch, or Green Linnet, is larger than the common linnet. It frequents gardens, shrubberies, and cultivated 21 O 242 VERTEBEATES. lands, and feeds on insects or seeds. The notes of this bird are not peculiarly melodious, nor has it many qualifications to entitle it to notice. The Canary ^In its native islands, the Canary-bird is of a dusky grey color, and so different from those usually seen in the United States, that some have even doubted whether it be of the same species. With us, they have that variety of coloring usual in all domestic fowls; some white, some mottfed, some beautifully shaded with green; but they are more esteemed for their not(\ than their beauty, having a high piercing pipe, as indeed all those of the finch tribe have, continuing for some time in one breath without intermission, then raising it higher and higher by degrees, with great variety. In choosing the Canary-bird, those are best that appear with life and boldness, standing upright upon the perch, like a sparrow- hawk, and not apt to be frighted at everything that stirs. If its eyes look oheerfvd and not drowsy, it is a sign of health ; but, on the contrary, if it hides its head under the wing, gathers its body up, these are symptoms of its being out of order.- In choosing them, the melody of the song should also be minded : some will open with the notes of the nightingale, and running through a varieiy of modulations, end like the tit-lark. Others will begii like the sky-lark, and, by a soft melodious turn, fall into the notes of the nightingale. These are lessons taught this bird in its do- mestic state, and generally taught it by others ; but its native note is loud, shrill, piercing, and enough to deafen the hearers. There are persons who admire each of these songs, but the second is in the most general estimation. Canary-birds sometimes breed all the year round ; but they most usually begin to pair in April, and to breed in June and August. Those are said to be the best breeders that are produced between the English and the French. The Canary-bird, by being kept in company with the linnet or the goldfinch, pairs and produces a mixed breed, more like tlie Canary-bird, and resembling it chiefly in its song. Indeed, all this tribe, with strong bills and piercing notes, and feeding upon CHE OONE-BILLED PEROHEBS. 243 grain, uave the most strong similitude to each other, and may juAtly be supposed, as Mr. Buffou imagines, to come from the same original. The Sparrow has a conical, straight, and sharp-pointed bill. Under this genus there are more than a hundred species, chiefly distinguished by their color. The chief feathers of the wing and tail are brown, those of the breast dark, and those of the body grey and black. They have three broods in the year. They delight to live near the habitations of men. They build iheii nests about houses, wherever they can find admittance. Their nests are built slovenly, generally consisting of a little hay lined well with feathers, where they lay five or six eggs of a reddish- white color, spotted with brown. Sometimes they expel the mar- tins from their nests, to save the trouble of building one of their own. There is an instance upon record of the martins having shut the door of one of their nests with clay, which a sparrow had unjustly taken possession of, and thus the usurper was im mured in da-k and solitary confinement. In spite of eveiy pi* 244 TBRTEBEATEB. caution, sparro-ws will mingle with domesticated fo^Is, ind paitake freely and confidently of the food thrown out to them. The Yellow Hammer, or TeUow Bunting, is a very deli- cately marked little bird, very common in our hedges, where it flits before the traveller, always keeping about twenty yards in front. It makes its nest on the ground, and lays five eggs curiously scribbled over with dark chocolate lines, just as if a child had been trying to write Arabic on the eggs. ■ The nest is made on the ground, frequently in the print of a horse's foot, and contains five eggs of a greenish-white, thickly spotted with brown. There are generally two broods in the year, one in May, and the other in July or August. The Bullfinch is a singular instance of the power of art on the song of birds. The natural note of the Bullfinch is low, and can only be heard at a short distance ; but when well trained the bird whistles, or " pipes," as it is called, any melody which has been taught it, in a fine flute-like tone. A good piping Bull- finch sells at a very high price. The method of teaching is to confine the birds in a dark room, and, before their food is given, to play the air that they have to learn, on an instrument called a bird-organ. The birds soon begin to imitate the notes, and by degrees the whole tune is learned. Some trainers substitute a small clarionet for the bird-organ. When in captivity the Bullfinch is very sociable, and soon learns to know his owners, and to come to them if called. The nest is built on the branches of a fir-tree. The eggs are bluish; white, spotted with red. A lady opening her window, saw a bullfinch sitting on the gill. To her surprise the bird did not fly away, but suffered itself to be taken and carried into the room. When placed on the table it still sat quiet, but looked as if it were suffering from illness. On examination, a seed was found to be fixed in the bird's throat. This was quickly removed with a needle, and the bird became quite lively. It, however, soon met with a tragical end, for while a cage was being prepared for its reception, it escaped from the THE OONE-BILLED FEROBERS. 24£> hands of its benefactress, flew against a window pane, and instantly fell dead on the floor. The Crossbill is instantly known by the crossed points of the beak, and the horny scoop at the tip of the tongue. It uses these tools to open the fir-cones, on the seeds of which it feeds. The bird inserts both its mandibles under the scales of the cone, then by separating them the scale is raised up, while the seed is scooped out by the horny tip of the tongue. This singular structure of the beak enables the bird to divide an apple in halves, so as to get at the pips. Although the crossed mandibles appear rather a barrier rrosebni to picking up small objects, yet the Cross- bill can pick up and husk the smallest seeds, or shell almonds, which latter feat is accomplished by picking a hole in it and then wrenching it open, just as an idle schoolboy opens a nut with his penknife when he ought to be using that instrument in the more legitimate operation of mending his pen. Mr. Yarrell gives an amusing account of a pair of crossbills, who amused themselves by twisting out the wires of their cage. They actually succeeded in pulling out a flat-headed nail usM to confine the network, but the bird lost the point of his bill in his efibrts. They were at last banished on account of their unceasing destruction of cages. The Khinoceros Hornbill. — This singular and almost startling family comprises but few species, which are all natives of India and Africa. The enormous bill, with its incomprehensible appendage, although of course heavy, is really much lighter than it looks ; being composed of a kind of light honeycombed struc- ture. The upper protuberance is hollow, and the only conjecture formed of its use, is that it serves as a sounding-board to increase tbe reverberations of the air, while the bird is uttering its peculiar roaring cry. In spite of the apparently unwieldy bill, the bind is very 21* 246 VERTEBRATES. active, and hops about the branches of the trees with much ease. The appendage to the upper mandible is small when the bird is young, and only attains its enormous size when the Hornbill has reached its full growth. The bill of the hoopoes presents a somewhat analogous peculiarity, as when the bird is young the bill is short and pointed, and increases with the size of the bird. From this circum- stance, together with some other resem- blances, some naturalists imagine that there is an affinity between the hornbilis and hoopoes. The Hornbilis seem to be omnivorous, fruits, eggs, birds, reptiles, etc., forming their food. The African Hornbilis are ex- tremely fond of nutmegs, and are, on that account, said to be peculiarly delicate eating, reminding one of the Barmecide's memorable lamb fed on pistachio nuts. The Rhino- ceros Hornbill is a native of India, and the Indian islands. The length of its bill is usually about ten inches. llhinoceroa Hornbill. THE TOOTH-BILLED FEROHERS. The NiGHTiNOAiiE. — ^In the beginning of May, the Night- ingale prepares to make its nest, which is formed of the leaves of trees, straw, and moss. The nest being very eagerly sought after, IS as cunningly secreted ; so that but very few of them are found by the boys when they go upon these pursuits. It is built at the bottom of hedges, where the bushes are thickest and best covered; While the female continues sitting, the male at a good distance, but always within hearing, cheers the patient hour with his voice, and, by the short interruption of his song, often gives her warning of approaching danger. She lays four or five eggs ; of which but a part in our cold climate come to maturity. The delicacy, or rather the fame, of this bird'p music, has induced many to abridge its liberty to be secured jf its song. Indeed, the greatest pait of what has been written concerning it in every country, consists in direction* how to manage it for domestic THE TOOTH-BILLED PEROHERS. 247 singing; while the history of the bird is confined to dry receipts for ^tting it to the cage. Its song, however, in captivity, is not BO very alluring ; and the tyranny of taking it from those hedges where only it is most pleasing, still more depreciates its imprisoned efforts. The Redbreast, or Rohin Redbreast, as it is affectionately termed, has, by its fearless conduct, earned itself golden opini )ns from all kinds of men. Every nation seems to protect it. In the winter, when the berries are gone, insects dead, aijd the worms hidden under the hard frozen soil, then the Robin flies for refuge to the habitations of man for shelter and food. It is very amusing to see the half trusting, half fearful look with which it hops to the window-sill for the first time. After a while, it becomes bold, and taps at the window, if the expected crumbs are not thrown out. Before very long, it ventures to enter the room, hops about jn the table, and quite seems to consider as a right what was first merely a favor. When once established, it is very jealous, and will not suffer a friend to be partaker of the same comforts, but attacks him with the greatest fury; so the unfortunate second comer has to wait shivering outside the window, with his feathers puffed up, and his little bright eye glancing from the depths of the plumage. The nest of this bird is built in a crevise of an old ivied wall, in a bank, sheltered by the roots of trees, or in a mass of ivy clinging to an old tree. The eggs are five in number, of a pale grey color, profusely marked with reddish spots. The GrREAT Titmouse is common in England, frequenting gardens, orchards, copses, etc. During the spring it is very active in the capture of insects, but in autumn and winter it is forced to content itself with grains and seeds of various descriptions. Gil- bert White, in his " Selborne," mentions that he has seen the Great Tit " while it hung with its back downwards, to my no small delight and admiration, draw straws lengthwise from the eaves of thatched houses, in order to pull out the files that were concealed among them, and that in such numbers that they quite defaced the thatch, and gave it a ragged appearance." 248 VERTEBRATE!^. 56. The nest of this bird is built in a nole of a wall, or a de< cayed tree, and in it are placed six or eight eggs, of a white color, spotted with reddish brown. The length of the bird is about six inches The Little Blue Titmouse is most amusingly courageous, and from the strenuous resistance it oflFers to its capturer, has ac- quired from rustic boys the name of " Billy-biter." The angry hiss of the female has frequently caused an intruding hand to be rapidly withdrawn, for the sound is so exceedingly like the hiss of an irritated snake, and the little beak is so sharp, that few have the courage to proceed with their investigations. A pair of these birds built their nest in the coping of the Great Western Kailway, at the Shrivenham station, England, not two feet from the fiery and noisy engines, which were constantly passing. The men respected the courage of the little birds, and this whole brood was hatched, and suffered to fly at liberty. The Long-tailed Titmouse, unlike the other Tits, does not frequent human habitations during the winter, but may be seen in great numbers twisting and creeping about the branches of hedge-rows and field trees. In the summer they are quite as bold as their relations, and especially favor apple-trees, for the sake of the diseased buds, which they pick off and devour, thereby drawing upon themselves the vengeance of the gardener, who prepares his gun, fires at the supposed depredators, and possibly succeeds in killing them ; but he has also succeeded in doing more damage to the healthy buds by his spare shot, than a score of tits would injure during the entire season. The Wagtails, so named from the almost incessant vibra- tion of their tails, are exclusively confined to the Old World. The Pied Wagtail is the most common of its race. We often see it pass rapidly, with its peculiar dipping flight; it settles on the ground and wags its tail ; it runs a few paces, and wags its tail again ; pecks at an insect, and its tail again vibrates, etc. It does not hop, like the warblers, finches, etc., but runs with great rapidity, and altogether looks very like a diminutive magpie. Sand banks by the sides r>f rivers are the usual resort of these THE TOOTH-BILLED PBRCHEK8. 249 birds, where they may almost always be seen, running about by the water's edge, sometimes snatching at an incautious may-fly, some- times wading into the water after a caddis-worm or a stray grub, — nor is it quite safe for a minnow to come too near the surface, — and then flying off to another spot to repeat the same manoeuvres. This bird also greatly frequents pas- tures, and may be seen running ' ^l,. about among the cows in the most nonchalant manner imaginable, , , . , „. , Wagtail. catching the flies that torment those animals in the summer, or flying off to its unfinished nest with a beak full of hairs. Their nests are built near the water, in crevices among stones, or in the hole of a wall. Frequently when stones are piled by a wet quarry, several nests may be found in one heap of stones. The eggs are four or five in number, of a dusky white color, spotted with ashy brown. The length of the bird is seven inches and a half. The Meadow Pipit, more commonly called the Titlark, resembles the true larks in the long hind claw and peculiar olumage, but is pointed out as distinct, from the different color of the bill. Like the skylark, it sings while in the air, but some- times also pours forth its musical strains while settled upon the ground. It feeds principally on slugs, worms, and insects, which it chases with much activity, after the manner of the wagtails, even vibrating its tail like them. Hilly grounds, commons, and meadows are, its chief resort in summer, but during September and October flocks of these birds may be seen congregated in turnip fields, and in the winter they seek the protection of the warm hedge-rows. The nest of the Titlark is made on the ground, concealed bj a tuft of grass. There are usually five or six eggs, light brown in color, spotted with a darker tint. The length of the bird is uiz inches. The Misseltoe Thrush, or Stormcock, according to War terton, " surpasses all other thrushes in size, and is decidedly the 250 VEETEBRATBB. largest songster of tihe European birds. He remains with us the whole of the ypiir, and he is one of three birds which charn: us ^•ith their melody during the dreary months of winter, when the throstle and lark are silent, and all the migratory birds have left us, to sojourn in warmer cli- mates. He appears to be gre- garious in the months of August and September." It is very fond of the her ries of the misseltoe, but when they fail it turns its attention to those of the mountain ash, which are almost certain to attract this beautiful and powerful songster. In the summer it devours all kinds of garden fruita, especially cherries and raspberries. During the breeding season it is very pugnacious, attacking and driving away not only small birds, but the crow, the magpie, or even a prowling cat. The nest is very large, always built in a tree, and containing about five reddish spotted eggs. The length of the bird is eleven inches. The Sonq-Thrdsh, Throstle, or Mavis, is deservedly con- pidered one of the best of the English singing birds. Its pow- erful and rich notes may be heard even during the month of January, when most of the other singing birds are either silent, or have departed. Its nest is built almost before any other bii-d has commenced, and may often be seen conspicuously placed in a bush, some time before the leaves have begun to sprout. In order to defend the callow young from the cold winds of the season when they are hatched, the nest is more substantial than birds aro accustomed to build, being thickly plastered within with a coating of mud, eflFectually keeping out the chilly blasts. The Blackbird is another delightful English songster, whose jetty hue and orange-tawny bill are too well known to need description. It is a very shy bird, and if disturbed in a hedge, has a habit of darting through it, and then escaping on the other side, uttering a sharp cry of alarm. The habits of this bird arc THE TOOTp-BILLED PEROHERS. 251 Bot unlike those of the thrush, especially in its zeal for unearthing the cockchaflFer-grubs, and possibly for eating cherries when they are ripe. Its nest is built usually at the foot of a hedge, frequently in the very centre of a holly bush, safe from most enemies but weasels, etc. The Mocking Bird, or Polyglot Thrush, is a native of most parts of America. This wonderful bird stands pre-eminent in powers of song. Not only are its natural notes bold and spirited, but it has the faculty of imitating with deceptive fidelity every sound it hears. To its flexible organs, the harsh setting of a saw, the song of a nightingale, the creaking of a wheel, the whis- tled tune of a passer-by, the full and mellow notes of the thrush, the barking of a dog, the crowing of a cock, and the savage scream of the bald eagle, are each equally easy of execution, and follow one „ , , „. ^ •' ' - Mocking Biid. another with such marvellous rapidity that few can believe that the insignificant brown bird before them is the sole author of these varied sounds. The Vir- ginian nightingale and the canary hear their exquisite modulations performed with such superior execution, that the vanquished songsters are silent from mere mortification, while the triumphant Mocking-bird only redoubles his efibrts. Wilson, whose animated description of this bird has never been surpassed, says : " His ex- panded wings and tail glistening with white, and the buoyant gaiety of his action arresting the eye, as his song does most irre- sistibly the ear, he sweeps round with enthusiastic ecstacy, and mounts and descends as his song swells or dies away. He often deceives the sportsman, and sends him in search of birds that are not perhaps within miles of him, but whose notes he exactly imi- tates : even birds themselves are frequently imposed upon by this admirable mimic, and are decoyed by the fancied calls of their mates, or dive with precipitation into the depth of thickets at tho scream of what they suppose to be the sparrow-hawk" '^52 VERTEBRATES. While its eggs are hatching it is an exceedingly courageoua bird, attacking without discrimination man, dogs, or any animal who may approach too near the nest. But the black inake is the special object of its vengeance. The snake, which has perhaps just arrived at the vicinity of the nest, and is contemplating a pleasant breakfast on the young or eggs, is violently attacked by the enraged Mocking-bird, who, by repeated blows on the head, generally destroys its enemy, and then mounting upon a bush, pours forth a triumphant song of victory. The nest is made generally in a bush or apple-tree, fre- quently close to houses, as the bird is protected by the inhabitants. The Mocking-bird is often kept tame, in which case, so far from its imitative powers showing any decrease, the variety of domestic sounds heard about the house is often very perplexing. The Golden Oriole is a very shy bird, frequenting the skirts of woods, especially copses that border on larger woods. In the fruit season it leaves the woods for the orchards, and makes no small havoc among the fruit, par- ticularly the figs, grapes, and cher- ries. The nest is made of wood and fine hay ; it is generally placed on the fork of a bouerh. The eggs Golden Oriole. j. • , » , are five m number, of a purplish white, spotted with reddish marks. The length of the hird is rather more than ten inches. The Spotted Flycatcher may be considered as the type of the entire family. It may be constantly seen in gardens and orchards, going through the evolutions that have given it tht names of Flycatcher, Post-bird, Beam-bird, etc. It takes its sta- tion on some elevated spot, such as the overhanging bough of a tree, a post, or a rail, and from thence watches for a passing insect, on seeing which it darts from its post, secures the insect in the air, and returns to the same spot by a short circular flight. It is not a timid bird, and will permit an observer to stand quite close to it, provided that he does not disturb it THE TOOTH-BILLED PERCHERS. 258 " I have seen," says Mr. "Wood, " one of these birds ongaged in the pursuit of flies in a garden at Headington. It perched on a balustrade close to a window from which several persons were watching it, and continued its evolutions perfectly undis- turbed by their proximity. On another occasion I was keeping watch in a gig in Nuneham Park, and to pass away the time, amused myself with cutting off the heads of the white clover with the lash. While so engaged, a spotted flycatcher came and took up its station on a bough gj,„tt,a mj«Mh«T. close by the gig, from which it made excursions among the flies and other insects that were driven from the grass and flowers by the whip." It is a summer visitor to England, arriving in May and de- parting about the beginning of October. The note of this bird is a weak chirp, and even that is not often heard. The nest is built usually in holes of trees or walls, or sometimes between a branch of a wall-fruit tree and the wall itself. The eggs are five in num- ber, spotted with reddish brown on a grey ground. The length of the bird is about five inches. The Great Grey Shrike feeds upon mice, birds, frogs, and other small animals. After pouncing upon its prey, the Shrike, by a few blows on the head from its powerful bill, destroys it. The unfortunate animal is then carried to the nearest hedge, impaled on a thorn, and the Shrike devours it at his leisure. Large insects are treated in the same manner. The object of this impalement is apparently that the creatures thus suspended should become tender or "high," so that the modern epicure, who hangs up his venison until no one with an unsophisticated taste would venture to touch it, has but borrowed his custom from the Shrike. The bird, after hanging a lizard or a mouse in this fashion, gene- rally goes off and fetches another, always preferring ttf eat those which have remained longest on the thorn^ and which are as it wer ^ cooked in the sun ''•2 254 VEETEBRATES. There is a strong bodily resemblance between this Shrike and the Mocking-bird, the distinction lying generally in the out- line, while the plumage is fo i>^ similar that many persons have actually confused the two birds, giving to one the habits of the other, Moro- over, the resemblance is not „ ^ , „. ., merely in outward form. The Head of Shrike. •' Grey Shrike can also imitate the notes of other birds, and often does so. Audubon, in his work on the American birds, has this passage : " This valiant little warrior possesses the faculty of imitating the notes of other birds, especially such as are indicative of p&in. Thus it will often mimic the cries of sparrows and other small birds, so as to make you believe you hear them screaming in the claws of a hawk ; and I strongly suspect this is done for the pur- pose of inducing others to come out from their coverts to the rescue of their suflFering brethren. On several occasions I have seen it in the act of screaming in this manner, when it would suddenly dart from its perch into a thicket, from which there wou'd imme- diately issue the real cries of a bird on which it had seized. On the banks of the Mississippi, I saw one which for several days in succession had regularly taken its stand on the top of a tall tree, where it from time to time imitated the cries of the swamp and song-sparrows, and shortly afterwards would pitch down like a hawk, with its wings close to its body, seldom failing to obtain the object of its pursuit, which it would sometimes follow even through the briars and brambles among which it had sought refuge. When unable to secure its prey, it would reascend to its perch, and emit loud and discordant notes of anger. Whenever I could see it strike its victim, it appeared to alight on its back, and instantly strike its head, which on such occasions I have several times found torn open. If not disturbed, the Shrike would then tear up the body, and swallow fti large pieces, not well cleaned of the feathers, THE TOOTH-BILLED PBROHERS. 2i)5 every part excepting the wings. It now and then pursues bird to equal it in loveliness, none to equal it in abomi- nable habits It has upon its head a beautiful crest, which it can THE SLENDER-BILLED PERCHERS. 257 erect or depress at pleasure. The length of the bird is fifteen inches ; the bill is two inches and a half long, slender and incur- vated. Its noble crest consists of two rows of feathers, the highest about two inches long; the tips are black, the lower part of a pale orange color ; the neck is of a pale reddish brown ; the breast and belly white ; the lesser coverts of the wing are of a light brown ; the back and wings crossed with broad bars of white and black ; the rump is snow-white ; and the tail consists of ten white feathers, marked with black in the form of a crescent. The legs are short and black. This beautiful, yet filthy bird, was forbidden to be eaten by the Levitical law. Humming Birds. — ^These little living gems are exclusively found in the New World, especially about the tropics, becoming gradually scarcer as we recede in either direction. Only two species are known to exist in the northern pai't of the Continent, but in the central portions and in the islands about Florida they absolutely swarm. They glance about in the sunshine, looking like streaks of brilliant light, and so rapid is the vibration of their fine and elastic wings, that when hovering over a flower, a hum- 22* R 258 VEETEBKATEB. ming or buzzing sound is produced, from which peculiarity tha name of Humming Bird has been given them in almost every language. The smallest Humming Bird is about the size of a hazel-nut. The feathers on its wings and tail are black; but those on its body, and under its wings, are of a greenish brown, with a fin 3 red cast, or gloss, which no silk or velvet can imitate. It has a small crest on its head, green at the bottom, and, as it were, gilded at the top ; and which sparkles in the sun like a little star in the middle of its forehead. The bill is black, straight, slender, and of the length of a small pin. The larger Hum- nuraming Bird. ^:^^^ gj^.^ j^ ^^^^^j^ j^^j^ ^ ^^^ ^ the common wren, and without a crest on its head ; but, to make amends, it is covered, from the throat half way down the belly, with changeable crimson-colored feathers, that, in different lights change to a variety of beautiful colors, much like an opal. The heads of both are small, with very little round eyes as black as jet. Mr. Wilson says of it : " This little bird is extremely sus- ceptible of cold, and if long deprived of the animating influence of the sunbeams, droops, and soon dies. A very beautiful male was brought me this season, which I put into a wire cage, and placed in a retired shaded part of the room. After fluttering about for some time, the weather being uncommonly cool, it clung by the wires, and hung in a seemingly torpid state for a whole forenoon. No motion whatever of the lungs could be perceived on the closest inspection,; though at other times this is remark- ably observable ; the eyes were shut, and when touched by the finger it gave no signs of life or motion. I carried it out to the open air, and placed it directly in the rays of the sun in a sheltered situation. In a few seconds respiration became very apparent; the bird breathed faster and faster, opened its eyes, and began to look about with as much seeming vivacity as ever. After it had completely recovered I restored it to liberty ; and it flew off to THE SLENDER-BILLED PERCHERB. 259 the withered top of a pear-tree, where it sat for some time, dressing its disordered plumage, and then shot off like a meteor." Fear will also produce the same effect, as they have repeat- edly died when caught in a common gauze net, which does not injure eyen the delicate scales of the butterfly's wing. They are very quarrelsome little creatures, and frequently fight with ex- panded crests and ruffled feathers, until they fall exhausted to the ground. The nests are very neat and beautiful, and, as may be im- agined from the diminutive size of the little architect, exceedingly small. They are composed of down, cotton, etc., and are some- times covered on the outside with mosses and lichens. Waterton relates a' curious formation of the nest of one particular species, whose habitations are built at the extremity of thin branches. " Instinct teaches one species, which builds its nest on the slender branches which hang over the rivers, to make a rim round the mouth of the nest, turned inwards, so as to prevent the eggs from rolling out. , . The trees on the river's bank are particularly exposed to violent gusts of wind, and when I have been sitting in the canoe and looking on, I have seen the slender branch of the tree which held the humming-bird's nest so violently shaken, that the bottom of the inside of the nest has appeared, and had there been nothing at the rim to stop the eggs, they must inevitably have been jerked out into the water." The Wren shares with the robin some immunity from juvenile sportsmen. Although it may be fearlessly hopping about in the hedge, jerking its funny little tail, and playing its antics just at the muzzle of the gun, few boys will fire at it. A singular anecdote is related of this bird : " In the end of June, 1835, a person was shooting in the neighborhood of Bandrakehead, in the parish of Colton, Westmoreland, England : he killed a brace of blue titmice, which some time before had been observed to be constructing a nest, in the end of a house belonging to a Mr. Innes, of the same place. In the course of the day, it was ascertained that the titmice had completed the time of incubation, and that their death had consequently left 260 VERTEBRATES their ofiFspring in a state of utter destitution. This, however, wm not long permitted to continue, for the chirping of the young birds attracted the attention, and excited the compassion of a wren ; which, since that period, adopted the nestlings, and was daily en- gaged in rearing and feeding them, with the affectionate kindness and unremitting assiduity of a parent bird." The nest of the Wren is built in any convenient cranny ; an ivy-covered tree, the thatch of a barn, or a warm scarecrow, are all used by this fearless little bird. The nest is usually of an oven-like shape, always covered on the outside with some material resembling the color of the objects round it, such as green moss if built among ivy, or brown lichen if built on a rock or in the fork of a withered branch. The eggs are six or eight in number, white, speckled with reddish brown. THE GAPING-BILLED PERGHERS. The Swallow. — There are thirty-seven species, chiefly distinguished by their color. The voice is a peeping sound, the The SwaUow. predominant color black, the sight quick, and in its flight very unequal. It builds its nest of clay. Often a considerable number THi: OAPINa-BILLES PEROHEBS 26J will assist in repairing a nest if it has unfortunately sustained any injury. Swallows resemble sparrows in discovering a strong attachment to the dwellings of human beings, where they build their nests in the corners of windows, under the eaves, and in old chimneys. From year to year they will build in the same place. It is striking, that though they migrate to distant nations, they will return next season exactly to the same spot they had leftj thus discovering on the one hand a remarkable instinct, and on the other a strong attachment to the place of their nativity. In spring and summer they take up their abode in temperate climates, and in harvest and winter they retire to warmer, and are said to breed in both. It appears an authenticated fact, that great num- bers of them continue in cold countries during the winter in a beniunbed state. They have been found in such circumstances in clusters in holes of walls, banks of rivers, and even under water in marshes and lakes. The Chimney Martin or Swallow is the most common of its family, and too well known to need much description. When skimming over ponds or rivers in search of insects, the snap with which it closes its bill may easily be heard. It also dashes up the water with its wings, which action gave rise to the opinion that swallows passed the winter under water, and rose in the spring. It may be easily caught with a rod and line baited with a fly, after the manner of anglers. It breeds twice in the year, building a nest of mud against a wall or other convenient situation, and lay- ing five very pale pink eggs, spotted with reddish brown, the pink of which vanishes when the egg is emptied of its contents, as it is caused by the light passing through the yolk, and has to be re- newed by artificial means if the egg is placed in a collection. The same is the" case with most small light-colored eggs. The bird appears regularly to return, year by year, to its old nest. The whole of its upper surface is a deep purplish black, its forehead and throat chestnut. The Sea Swallow The characteristic marks of the Sea Swallow are as follows : The bill is straight, slender, and pointed ; the wings are of a very considerable length ; the tail is forked ; 262 VERTEBRATES. the toes are four in number, as in other swallows, three before and one behind, and there is a little web or membrane filling half the space betwixt the toes. In addition to this, it may be stated that the bill is smooth, without any provision for breaking or grinding, as the French would say, sans dentelu/res, and flattened alpng the J J and the feet are short and small. Like other aquatic birds, The Sea Swallow. there is a small portion of the legs naked and without feathers, by which tiiey are enabled to propel themselves with greater ease through the watery element. The body is covered with down, abundant and close. The family of the Sea Swallow is found both in Europe and Asia, and also in the islands of the Pacific. In flying their cry is acute and piercing ; in calm weather they sometimes elevate them- gelves to an astonishing height, and before their migratory flights, they assemble together in great multitudes. It is remarked, that they are never so noisy and restless as at the time of building their nests. They live on little fish and winged insects. The Esculent Swallow, whose nests are considered such a delicacy among the-Chinese, builds its singular habitation iu the THE QAFING -BILLED PEROHERS. 263 sides of almost inaccessible cliffs, so that tte business of procuring them is a most dangerous task. The nature of the jelly-like trans- parent material of which the nests are made is not yet known. The nests are found in Java. The Eoller is plentifully found in most parts of Europe, but has seldom been seen in England. Its mouth is slightly fur- nished with vibrissas or long bristly hairs, like those of the night- jar. It is a very shy bird, frequenting the depths of the forests. r t builds its nest in hollow trees — some say in banks — and layE from four to seven white eggs, very like those of the kingfisher. Its legs are short, and the upper mandible is bent over the lower at the extremity. The coloring is brilliant, shades of blue and green prevailing. Its length is about thirteen inches. The Trogon. — The magnificent family of the Trogons stands pre-eminent in beauty and brilliancy of plumage, the usual tint being a metallic golden green, boldly contrasted with scarlet, black, and brown. The toes are placed two be- hind and two before, like those of the woodpeckers. The Resplendent Trogon is the most gorgeous of all this gorgeous family. Its long and grace- fully curved tail, nearly three feet long ; the whole of the upper surface, and the throat, are a glowing green ; the breast and under parts are bright crimson ; the middle feathers of the tail black, and the outer feathers white. This splendid bird is an inhabitant of Mexico, and was used by the Mexican nobles as an ornament Jo their head-dress. The Common Kingfisher is found in most parts of England. Scarcely anything more beautiful can be conceived than the metallic glitter of its plumage as it glides along the banks of the river, or darts into the water after its struggling prey. Its usual method of fishing is by placing itself on a stump or stone 264 VERTEBRATES. Common Kingfisher, Crested Eingfieher. overhanging the water, from which spot it watches foi the unsus- pecting fish beneath. After a fish is caught, the bird kills it by beating it several times against its resting-place, and then swallows it, head foremost. It lays its eggs in holes bored in the banks of rivers or ponds, and appears to build no nest. A pair of kingfishers, for two successive years, inhabited a bank of a very small stream, little more than a drain, at Little Hinton, Wiltshire, England, where no fish lived, nor were there any to be found within a considerable distance. The eggs are from four to seven in number, of a pearly whiteness, and remarkably globular in shape. The Bee-eater is common on the Continent of Europe. In appearance it is not very unlike the kingfisher, both in shape and its brilliant colors. It has long been celebrated for the havoc it causes among the inha^ bitants of the hive, although it does not restrict itself to those insects, but pursues wasps, but- terflies, etc., on the wing, with Be»'Eater. great activity. Like the king- fisher, it lays its eggs in holes bored in banks. The eggs are white, and from four to seven in number. Its length is eleven inches OLIMBEBS. 260 CHAPTER XI. DIVISION I.— VERTEBRATES. CLASS II. — BIRDS. CLIMBERS, SCRATCHERS, AND RUNNERS. ORDER III. — CLIMBERS. Under the Scomsores, or Climbers, we have those birds which have the external toe upon each side turned backwards, enabling them to grasp substances more firmly with their claws, and affording them a more sure support than other birds. This formation adapts them for climbing, as they can cling with consi- derable force to the rough bark and branches of trees. Of this order are the Toucans, the Parrots, the Woodpeckers, and the Cuckoos. The Toucans are all natives of tropical America. Their enormous bill is rendered light in the same way as that of the hornbills, by being chiefly composed of a honeycomb structure. It seems to be very sensitive, and well supplied with nerves, as the bird not only appears to enjoy holding meat or fruits with the tip of its bill, but has been seen to scratch that organ with its foot, plainly proving that there must be sensation. It seems to be omnivorous, but is particularly fond of mice, and small birds, which it kills by a poweriul squeeze, then strips, and finally pulls to pieces and devours, having previously reduced its prey to a shapeless mass by repeated lateral wrenches with its enor- mous and saw-like bill. Waterton in his Wanderings describes the usual haunts of the Toucan. 23 266 VERTEBRATES. " Heedless and bankrupt in all curiosity must he be who can journey on without stopping to take a view of the towering mora. Its topmost branch, when naked with age or dead by accident, is the favorite resort of the Toucan. Many a time has this singular bird felt the shot faintly strike him from the gun of the fcwlcr beneath, and owed his life to the distance betwixt them." In the same interesting and amusing work, he remarks a strange habit of the Toucan, called the Houtou by .the natives. " This bird (the Houtou) seems to suppose that its beauty can be increased by trimming the tail, which undergoes the same operation as our hair in a barber's shop, only with this difference, that it uses its own beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair of scissors. As soon as his tail is full grown he begins about an inch from the extremi^ of the two longest feathers in it, and cuts away the web on both sides of the shaft, making a gap about an inch long : both male and female adorn their tails in this manner, which gives them a remarkable appearance amongst all other birds." The Macaws are natives of South America. The blue and yellow Macaw inhabits Brazil, Gruiana, and Surinam, living prin- cipally on the banks of rivers. Of one of the Macaws, the Caro- lina Parrot, or Parrakeet, as Wilson calls it, the following anecdote is told by that enterprising naturalist : — "Having shot down a number, some of which were only wounded, the whole flock swept repeatedly round their prostrate companions, and again settled on a low tree, within twenty yards of the spot where I stood. At each successive discharge, though showers of them fell, yet the affection of the survivors seemed rather to increase, for after a few circuits round the place they again alighted near me, looking down on their slaughtered com- panions with such manifest symptoms of sympathy and concern, as entirely disarmed me." The Ringed Parrakeet is frequently seen domesticated in this country, where its pleasing manners and gentle disposition render it a great favorite. It seems to be exceedingly fond of ripe walnuts, divided in halves, and while it is picking out the CLIMBERS. 267 kernel, continually utters a short clucking sound, indicative of pleasure. It soon learns to repeat ■words and short sentences, and to speak with tolerable distinctness. Some- times when excited it utters most ear- piercing screams, and always appears to practice any new accomplishment when it thinks that no one is within hearing. The color of the bird is green, and a rose- colored band round its neck gives it the name of the Rose-ringed Parrakeet. The bill is red. The Cockatoos are remarkable for the powdery surface of their wings, and the crest on the head, which can be raised or depressed at pleasure. The Sulphur- crested Cockatoo is an inhabitant of New Guinea. Its color is white, and the crest is of a sulphur yellow. Its white plumage glancing among the dense dark foliage of its native forests, imparts a wonderful beauty to the scene, and as Sir Thomas Mitchell re- marks, " amidst the umbrageous foliage, forming dense masses of shade, the white cockatoos sported like spirits of light." This Cockatoo is easily tamed, and is of a very affectionate dispo- sition. When in captivity it has been known to live to the age of 120 years. Its nest is built in hollow trees and the crevices of rocks. The eggs are white. The length of the bird is about' eighteen inches. The Woodpeckers, whose name indicates their habits, ,are widely spread, being found in all quarters of the globe except Australia. They subsist on insects and grubs, which they dig out of trees, or discover under the bark. For this purpose, Ringed Parrakeet. Sulp1iUF«re8ted Cockatoo. 268 VERTEBRATES. their whole structure is admirably adapted. The bill is long, sharp, and powerful, and the formation of the feet and legs is such that the bird is able to grasp the tree firmly irith the feet, wlile swinging with the force of his whole body against it. Another most singular point in the Woodpeckers, is the method by which they are enabled to thrust the tongue deep into the cre- vices, and bring out^any insects that may hap- pen to be there. The tongue is connected with two elastic ligaments, which are inserted near the juncture of the upper mandible with the Woodpecker skull. From thence they sweep round the back of the head, and passing under the lower mandible, enable the tongue to be thrust out a considerable dis- tance. The tip of the tongue is sharp, and barbed with several filaments, and more firmly to secure the prey, a kind of gummy secretion causes those insects to adhere, that would be too small to be impaled. It appears to be an erroneous opinion that these birds injure trees. Their only object in pecking away the wood and bark, is to get at the insects which they know are hidden within. Now insects seldom or never bore into healthy wood, but a decayed branch or stump is always full of .them, as is well known to the entomologist. So the winged entomologist, when he perceives a decayed branch, or finds an unsoimd spot in the trunk, immedi- ately sets to work industriously, and is rewarded by finding plenty of insects, which he draws out and demolishes, with more benefit to himself, and possibly more good to others, than many human entomologists can boast. . The Green Woodpecker, by far the most common, may be often seen in woods, tapping the trees with wonderful rapidity, the blows following each other something like the sound of a watchman's rattle. It generally runs up the trunk of the tree in a spiral direction, occasionally striking off large pieces of diy bark. When it descends it still keeps its head uppermost. The Cuckoo. — The characteristic marks are these : the CLIMBERS. 269 bill is smooth, or more or less bending; the nostrils aie bounded by a small rim ; the tongue is short and pointed ; and the feet and toes are formed for climbing. There are forty-six species. Our limits will only allow us to give some description of cucvlus canorus, or the common cuckoo. It weighs about five ounces ; is in length fourteen inches ; and in breadth, from tip to tip of extended wings, The Cuckoo. twenty-five inches. The bill is black, and about two-thirds of an inch in length. It is generally of a dove-color. The legs are short, and the toes four in number, two backwards, and two for- wards, like those of the woodpecker. It departs from Europe in the end of harvest and returns in the spring. Summer is con- sidered fairly commenced when the monotonous notes of this bird are first heard. And monotonous as its notes are, thej are uni- 23* 270 VEETEBRATES. versally welcomed. The Cuckoo is silent some time after his arrival ; and his note is considered as a love-call to his mate. It is very singular that this bird never builds a nest for herself, nor hatches her own eggs. She lays her eggs in the nest of another, and leaves her offspring to be nourished and brought up by a parent not their own. Unlike the generality of birds, cuckoos do uot pair. The nests in which they generally deposit their eggs are those of the hedge-sparrow, the water-wagtail, the tit-lark, the yellow-hammer, the green-linnet, and the whinchat. The eggs of the Cuckoo are hatched about the same time with the eggs of these birds. And what is extraordinary, as soon as the young cuckoos are liberated from the shells, though blind, they immediately com- mence turning out all the young of the natural owner of the nest, and they continue their effort till they have removed them all, and thus retain fall possession of the nest which their own unfeeling parent had usurped. The celebrated Dr. Jenner relates several facts connected with this strange procedure of the young cuckoos, which leave the matter without the shadow of a doubt. In mi- grating the greater part of these birds are supposed to go into Africa, as they are observed to visit Malta twice a year. This bird was forbidden to be eaten by the Levitical law. ORDER IV. SCRATCHERS. Of this order are the peacock, the turkey, the common fowl, the pheasant, the partridge, the quail, the pigeon, etc. Among them are nearly all those birds which have been domesti- cated, and are raised in poultry yards. Their wings are short and weak, and of course they are not constructed for long-continued flight ; but they are capable of running with considerable rapidity. They Lave a large crop and a very powerful gizzard, their food consisting principally of hard grain. Their flesh in general fur- nishes excellent food. The males are distinguished by a stately gait, and frequently by a tail ornamented with long feathers. They do not live in pairs ; their eggs are very numerous, and are laid in nests built of chaff or straw upon the ground. Their young are generally able to run about as soon as hatrhed. SOBATGHERS. 271 The Turtle Dove is a native of India It is in length about twelve inches and a half; its breadth from tip to tip of winga ex tended, twenty-one inches ; and its weight about four ounces. The iris of the eye is of a fine yellow color, and the eyelids encom- passei with a beautiful crimson circle ; the chin and forehead are wht lish ; the top of the head ash-colored and mixed wUh olive. The Turtle Bore. On each side of the neck is a spot of black feathers, prettily tipt with white ; the back is ash-colored, bordered with -olive-brown. The breast is of a light purplish red, having the verge of each feather yellow ; and the belly white. The tail is three inches acd a half in length; the two middle feathers of a dusky brown; the others black, with white tips ; and the end and the exterior or outmost feathers all white. On the whole, it is a bird of remark- able elegance and beauty, ranking high nmong the numerous tribes 272 VERTEBRATES. of winged creatures which the hand of God has so profusely adorned with the richest plumage and the most elegant form. The Carrier Dove. — Linnaeus calls this most interesting, faa-famed, gifted bird, by the name of colwmha tabeUaria. The name is derived from a word signifying a letter. This dove is of a larger size than the greater part of pigeons, being fifteen inches in length, and sometimes weighing twenty ounces. The symmetry of its form is most superior and complete. Those which are of a Carrier DoTe. blue, or of a blue piebald color, are most esteemed by pigeon- ianciers. We know not the country to which the carrier originally belonged. It is said to have been imported from Bussorah into Great Britain and the United States, where it is now completely naturalized. If carrier pigeons -are hoodwinked, and in this' state con- veyed from twenty to a hundred miles, they will find their way back to the place of their nativity. They are regularly trained to this service in Turkey and Persia. They are carried first, while young, short flights of half a mile, afterwards the distance is gradually increased, till at length they will return from the far- 8CRAT0HER8. 273 thest part of the kingdom, and even from foreign lands across the' sea. The Domestic Dove. — ^Doves of this species when unve- claimed have only two broods in the year, and lay their eggs in nc«ts rudely formed in the holes of rocks and ruined towers. Do- Domestic Dore. meaticated, and allowed the rich supplies of the farmyard, they are surprisingly prolific, and produce a succession of broods from three to twelve times in the year. The usual number of eggs laid and hatched are two, one of which is commonly a male, and the other a female bird. The bird sits upon her eggs during the period of incubation, from fourteen to seventeen days. Domestic doves are kept almost in every part of the civilized world, as fhe 8 274 VERTEBRATES, young are reckoned a description of food remarkably delit>ate and palatable. The varieties of the domestic pigeon are numerous. The most remarkable are the following : the crested pigeon, with hairy feathers on the feet, and a crest on the head, giving it an air of royal dignity; the shaker, with an erect, open tail of many feathers ; the titimhler, that turns over in its flight ; and the pouter, witl the breast inflated. The King Dove, which is also known as the cushat and wood pigeon, is found almost in every country in Europe, and in Syria and Palestine. Though it is most partial to the warmer climates, still in summer it is found in Sweden, Russia, and even Siberia. There is no doubt that it is a native of Britain ; but SCRATOUERS. 275 in England, as in France, it is in some degree a bird of passage, shifting from the northern to the southern parts of the island. Its prevailing color is grey, the tips of the tail dark, and the neck white on each side. This species is large, measuring in length seventeen inches and a half, and twenty-nine inches in extent of wing. Though very shy, some pairs have fixed their nests in the lofty trees of the gardens of the Tuileries and Luxembourg at Paris. They show the same sense of security as domestic pigeons, and as undismayed by the crowds of human beings which are constantly passing under their eye. There they rear their young without discovering any marks of uneasiness or fear. When, however, they repair to the neighboring fields for food, they show all the timidity which is so characteristic of the species. Their food chiefly consists of acorns, beech-mast, and various berries and grains If these cannot be obtained, under the influence of the Th; SmkooK 276 VERTEBRATES. cravings of hunger they will crop the tender shoots of clover green corn, or turnips. The Peacock. — Its head is adorned with a most imposing ornament of feathers reversed, in the form of a plume. Indeed^ this is a natural crown, which adds exceedingly to the nobleness of its appearance. It has a long tail, diversified with several colors, and adorned with marks at equal distances, having the form of eyes. The golden glowing beauty of these marks, par- ticularly when they reflect the bright beams of the sun, defy the pen of the poet and the pencil of the most accomplished artist. Its wings are mixed with the colors of azure and of gold. While it has the loveliest colors, it has the most disagreeable, harsh, and discordant voice. It is described by some as having the head of a serpent, train of an angel, and the voice of a demon. Peacocks were first brought from India, where they are still found in the wild state in immense flocks, and also in the islands of Java and Ceylon. They were imported from India to Greece, and being the bird sacred to Juno, were preserved about the temple of this deity at Samos. Or THE Pheasant, as of all other domestic fowls, there are many varieties. There are white pheasants, horned pheasants, crested pheasants, spotted phea^ sants; but, of all others, the silver and golden pheasants of China- are the most beautiful. It is a doubt whether the pea- cock itself can bear the com- parison. However, the natives of China would not have us consider it as their most beau- tiful bird, though covered all over with eyes, resembling in mini- ature those of the peacock. By their accounts, it is far exceeded by the fongwang, an imaginary bird, -of which they give a most fantastic description. It is thus that the people of every country, though possessed of the greatest advantages, have still others that Horned Pheasant. SOAATOHERS. 277 Greeted Pheasant. they would persuade strangers ttey enjoy, which have existence only in the imagination. The Common Pheasant was origin- ally brought from Georgia, and has com- plstely naturalized itself in England. It is a hardy bird, and bears the cold months very well. Although it can be tamed, and will come to be fed with the poultry, yet an innate timidity prevents it from being tho- roug'hly domesticated. Young pheasants that have been hatched under a hen, scam- per oflf in terror if an unexpected intruder maizes his appearance among them, although the remainder of the poultry remain per- fectly unconcerned. This bird loves to perch at night on trees, especially on the spreading branches of the larch. Poachers are so well aware of this habit, that they always visit the larches first, while on their marauding excursions. A few spruce-firs surround- ed by dense and tall holly hedges form an excellent place of refuge for the birds, who can Did the poacher defiance from ihiu stronghold. Silver Pheasant. Golden Pheasant 24 2V8 VERTEBBATES. Thi. Domestic Fowls are too well known to need much desb/iption. There are many varieties, the most conspicuous oi which are the Cochin-China, Crested, and Batitam. The Game Poni was formerly in great request for the cruel sport of cock- fighting, an amusement which, though hap- pily now almost extinct, was in great vogue but a few years since. The Java Fowl, of which the enormous Cochin-China bird it a variety, is supposed to he the origin of the barn-door fowl. The cock has beer long celebrated for his warlike propensities, and his habit of greeting the approach of morn by his " shrill clarion." The Bantam is a very little bird in- deed, but exceedingly courageous, and does not hesitate to attack a turkey or such large bird with most amusing pompousness of manner. Some Bantams have their legs thickly feathered down to the very toes. The Tailless Cock. SORATCHERS. •279 hackles or long neck feathers of this and the preceding bird are much used by anglers for making artificial .flies The Crested Fowl. The celebrated Jungle Fowl of India belongs to this race, and is by many supposed to be the origin of our domestic game fowl. The Chinese, who are greatly addicted to the sport of cock- fighting, prefer this bird, for their cruel amusement. The Dorking Fowl is a large and delicate species. The chief peculiarity in this bird is the dou- ble hind toe, so that it has five toes instead of four. The Turkey is an inhabi- tant of America, and appears to have been imported into Europe about the year 1600. Its habits in a state of domestication need no description, but when wild in its native woods are rather inte- resting. It is partly migratory in its habits, and before the settlement of the country, it moved annually from the parts Bantam Cock. 2)*0 VERTEBRATES, ' ■' -ic —-■- Hen and Chickena. about Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, towards the Ohio and Mississippi. The march was usually performed on foot in large flocks, the birds seldom using their wings except when attacked, or in order to cross a river. The powerful birds can easily cross a river of a mile in breadth, but the weaker frequently fall into the water, and then paddle to shore with some ra- pidity. This migration was performed about the end of October. Audu- bon, in his splendid work on the American Ornithology, gives the following account of the ingenious way in which the turkeys escape the insidious attacks of their enemies. "These birds are guardians of each other, and the first who sees a hawk or eagle gives a note of alarm, on which all within hearing lie close to the ground. As Wild Turkey. SCRATCH EBS. 281 Ihey usually roost in flocks, perched on the naked branches of trees, they ave easily discovered by the large owls, and when attacked by these prowling birds, often escape by a somewhat re- markable manoeuvre. The owl sails round the spot to select his prey, but notwithstanding the almost inaudible action of his pinions, the quick ear of one of the slumberers perceives the danger, which is immediately announced to the whole party by u cluck: thus alarmed, they rise on their legs, and watch the mo- tions of the owl, who, darting like an arrow, would inevitably Bomestie Turkey. secure the individual at which he aimed, did not the latter sud dcnly drop his head, squat, and spread his tail over his back j the owl then glances over without inflicting any injury, at the very instant that the turkey suffers himself to fall headlong towards the earth, where he is secure from his dreaded enemy." The Guinea Fowl, or' Pintado, was originally brought from Africa, and was anciently confounded with the turkey. From its peculiar cry it has gained the name of " Come-back." In its wild state it is gregarious, assembling in large flocks in some marshy situation At night the birds roost on the trees in com- 2-1 * 282 VERTEBRATES. pany, lite the turkey. It is of a restless, wandering disposition, which does not leave it in captivity, the bird frequently wandering foi several miles from its home. Like the turkey, the Pintado lays its eggs in the closest concealment it can find. The eggs are rathdr smaller than those of the hen, the shell is very thick, and the oolor is a yellowish red, profusely spotted with dark brown. This is the bird that was called Meleagris by the ancients. The sisters of Meleager were said to have been metamorphosed into birds, whose feathers were sprinkled with the tears shed for his death. The Common Partridge. — The bill is convex, strong, and short ; the nostrils are covered above with a callous prominent rim; The Common Partridge. the orbits arc papillose ; the feet naked ; and most of the genus are furnished with spurs. Their flesh is good to eat; their flight is low and of a small compass ; and they run almost as soon aa hatched. Partridges are found almost in every country, and in every clime, from the torrid tracts tinder the equator, to the frozen regions of the pole. It is very striking how, by the Vind arrange- BORATOHERS, 283 ments of the Creator, this interesting bird becc mes assimilated and adapted to the climate of Greenland in winter. As soon as the icy winter sets in, it is clothed with a warm down beneath, and its outward feathers become as white as the snow among which it seeks its food. In warmer climates near the equator, they are long-legged, much swifter of feet, and choose for their residence the highest rocks and precipices. It is said, that on the lofty Alps the partridges are white, and their feet protected by hair. Tnii RED-LEoaED Partridge. — The leading characters of the Red-legged Partridge are the same as those of the Common Partridge. The perdix rubra, the common Red-legged Partridge, The Ked-legged Partridse- is abundant in France and Italy, rare in Switzerland, and still more seldom found in Holland and Grermany. It is met with in Japan, identical in form and color of plumage. The Red-legged Partridge is known by the name of Greek Partridge, or harta- vella; and it is the opinion of most judicious writers, that this is the bird to which allusion is made in the Holy Scriptures. This bird is introduced into the -preserves in England. In the coun- ^84 VERTEBRATES. tries of which it is a native, it keeps ordinarily among rocks, while it has the instinct to descend into the plains to make its nest, in order that the young, when they are hatched, may find a sufficiency of subsistence. Red-legged partridges are most determined run- ners, and few birds are so able to puzzle a well-bred and a well- broken pointer. Quails are found nearly in every country of Europe, also in Asia, and are very common in China. The males are much given to fighting, and were anciently exhibited in regular combat* both by the Greeks and Romans. The practice of quail-fighting is still cherished in China, Sumatra, and some districts of Italy. •Quails are capable of receiving a considerable quantity of fat : *^heir meat is delicate, pleasant to the taste, and therefore they are killed in great numbers for the table. They hatch four times a year, from fifteen to twenty in number. Sometimes they under- take extensive migrations in immense flocks, passing in autumn from the colder to the warmer regions. With wind and weather in their favor, they have been known to perform a flight of fifty leagues across the Black Sea in one night. An hundred thousand SCRATCH E RS. 285 of them have been caught in Italy each day for a whole month, within the space of five miles. The Black Gkotjse, or Black Cock, is still found on the moors of Scotland and some parts of England, and with the red grouse, tempts innumerable sportsmen annually to spend their lei- sure months on the moors. The Eed Grouse has never been found wild on the Con- tinent of Europe, but seems to confine itself exclusively to the heaths of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. In these places it is very numerous, associating in flocks or "packs," and, together with the black grouse, is eagerly pursued by sportsmen, who are fre- quently bafiled by the shy and wary habits of the birds. The nest of the Red Grouse is formed of heath and „ ^ „ Red Grouse, grass carelessly heaped together on the ground under the shelter of some low shrub. The young are fully fledged by August. The Brush Turkey is principally found in the thick brushwood of New South Wales. Mr. Gould, who first brought it before the public, gives this curious account of their nests : — " The mode in which the materials composing these mounds are accumulated is equally singular, the bird never using its bill, but always grasping a quantity in its foot, throwing it backwards to one nommon centre, and thus clearing the surface of the ground for a considerable distance so completely that scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left. The heap being accumulated, and time allow sd for a sufficient heat to be engendered, the eggs are depo- sited, not side by side as is ordinarily the case, but planted -at the distance of nine or twelve inches from each other, and buried at nearly an arm's depth, perfectly upright, with the large end upwards. They are covered up as they are laid, and allowed to remain until hatched. I am credibly informed, both by natives ^nd settlers living near their haunts, that it is not an unusual event to obtain nearly a bushel of eggs at one time from a single 28e VEUTEBRATES. heap ; and as they aje delicious eating, they are eagerly sought after." When the Brush Turkey is disturbed, it either runs through the tangled underwood with singular rapidity, or springs upon a low branch of some tree, and reaches the summit by a succession of leaps from branch to branch. This latter peculiarity renders it an easy prey to the sportsman. The Ptarmigan. — The legs and feet of the Ptarmigans are thickly covered with hair-like feathers, reaching as far as the claws. Their plumage bears a singular analogy to the fur of the ermine and some other quadrupeds, as it changes in winter from a rich tor- toise-shell color to a pure white. The common Ptarmigan inhabits the north- ern parts of Europe and America, and is also found in the north of Scotland, -=-^^as»— - ^ ■»- principally among the mountains. The ' " ^^*«^ ■ color of the bird is so similar to that of the mossy and lichen-covered rock among which it dwells, that a whole covey easily eludes an un- practised eye. Enormous numbers of Ptarmigans are annually imported from the north of Europe, especially from Norway and Sweden, to the London market. One poulterer has purchased fifteen thou- sand of these birds ; and twenty-four thuusand have been exported in one ship from one place. Like that of the . grouse, the Ptarmigan's nest is a loosely- constructed heap of twigs and grass, and contains from ten to fourteen eggs, of a reddish white spotted with brown. ORDER V. — RUNNERS. To this order belong those birds with very long legs, which, though they have strong wings, yet are incapable of flight, though they run with great rapidity. The Ostrich is an inhabitant of Africa and Arabia. Its beak is of a conical shape, its legs long and naked . it has only RUNNERS. 287 two toes on a foot, both turned forward ; and its wings, being short, rather serve for sails than for flight, so that the movement of thif bird at full speed has more the appearance of sailing than running. It is the tallest of birds, being seven or eight feet feet high when it stands erect. Its neck is about four or five spans in length, Assisted by its wings the swiftest horse is unable to overtake it. The ostrich is peculiarly valuable on account -A its feathers, which are used as ornaments for hats, beds, and canopies. Of the purest white, they are used by those who fre- quent the courts of princes ; and dyed black as jet, they are em- ployed to decorate hearses and horses in the funeral processions of the wealthy and great. Its foolishness is proverbial, being most easily deceived. When it hides its head in a thicket, though the rest of its body is completely exposed, it imagines all is safe. It is said, that if a man dress himself in an os- trich's skin and hold out seeds to it, it is easily taken. The noise of the female ostricl is most hideous and doleful. They lay their eggs in the sand to be hatched in the sun. This is wisely ordered by Providence, for if they sat upon them, such is their weight, that they would break them to pieces. It is said, that the male and female watch the eggs by turns. If they chance to be driven away, such is their stupidity, that .they seldom find them again. This animal is singularly voracious. Leather, grass, hair, .jtones, metals, it will greedily and indiscriminately devour. "^iS great height above the water, and from that elevation pounces down on fish, especially the poor persecuted flying-fish. A-Ccording to some authors, the name of Man-of-War Bird was 312 VERTEBRATES. given to it because its appearance was said to foretell the coioing of a ship; probably because the Frigate Pelican and ships are equally averse to storms, and both like to come into harbor if the weather threatens. Under the throat of the Frigate Pelican is a large pouch, of a deep red color, which can be distended with air at the pleasure of the bird. The pouch is larger and of a more brilliant red in the male than in his consort, and the general plumage of the female is not so bright as that of the male. Although its swiftness of wing and general activity enable it to snatch a fish from the surface of the water, or to pounce apon the flying-fish before it can again seek the protection of its native element, yet it too often uses its powers in robbing other birds of their lawful prey. It is enabled in some mysterious manner to find its way home by night, even though it may be four or five hundred miles from land. The length of the male bird is three feet, and the expanse of wing eight feet LIZARDS 813 CHAPTER XIII. DIVISION I.— VERTEBRATES. CLASS III.— REPTILES. This class, whicli includes lizards, serpents, tortoises, toads, and frogs, have cold blood, and a circulation less perfect than those of the preceding classes. Only a portion of the blood re- ceived from the body by the heart is sent to the lungs to be sub- jected to the influence of air, whilst the remainder, mixed with a part of that which has undergone the change produced in respi- ration, is returned again into the circulation. The majority of the animals of this class have two auricles to the heart, but only one ventricle ; the red blood from the lungs is poured into the left auricle, while the black blood from the body passes into the right. The two kinds of blood are immediately transferred from the auricles to the ventricle, where they mingle together, and, by the contraction of the ventricle, are forced to the lungs and the body through two distinct vessels. Unlike the Mammalia and Birds, the vessels of Reptiles are filled with an imperfect fluid, which is not adapted to impart a high degree of life and vigor ; and, therefore, as the animal heat is always proportioned to the amount of respiration, they are cold- blooded. Their lungs being small, and the circulation slow, they consume but little air, and are able to live for a considerable time without it. In general they are sluggish and indolent, have but little sensitiveness, and digest their food very slowly. The brain is small, and the nervous system imperfect ; and, although they in- crease their species by means of eggs, they take no pains to hatch them. I. — LIZARDS. This order includes a very considerable variety, and is com- posed of the true lizards, the chameleon, the dragons, the croco 27 3U VERTEBEAT ES. dile, and the" alligator. The majority of them have four ieet, but a few have only two. Their skin is covered with scales, and they have nails and teeth. Lacerta Agilis, or the nimlle lizard, is a species found in Britain. Its length, from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, is about six inches and a half. The upper part of the head is light brown, and the back and tail are variously striped and spotted with light brown, black, white, and dark brown ; the under part of the body is of a dirty white color. The Nimbla Liz»rd. This beautiful little creature, found in almost every part of the temperate regions of Europe, has this peculiarity, that it is the most gentle and inoffensive of all the lizard family. Though fond of basking in the sun's rays, it cannot bear excessive heat, and therefore in the hottest weather it seeks for shelter. The nimble lizard may sometimes be seen in beautiful spring weather, stretched out on a sloping green bank, or extending itself on a wall exposed to the sun. The warmth greatly revives LIZARDS. 315 it; and it shows the great delight which it enjoys under the influ- ence of the sun, by the gentle agitation of its slender tail, and by the animating pleasure which sparkles in its lively, brilliant eyes. As it subsists on animals of a very minute size, if any of them come within its reach, it will dart upon them with astonishing rapidity : and if any danger is near, with equal quickness it will escape into some safe place of retreat. It is on account of its very rapid movements, which are most remarkable in warm cli- mates, that it receives the well-merited name of the nimble lizard. In May it deposits its eggs, which are very small and spher- ical, in some warm situation, often at the bottom of a wall fronting the south, where they are hatched by the heat of the sun- The Salamander Lizard. The Salamander Lizard is in length from seven to eight inches, though in some cases much longer. It differs from other 316 VERTEBRATJSS. lizards by its short cylindrical tail and deep shining black colar, variegated with large oblong irregular patches of bright orange- yellow. The Blind-worm is not a snake, as generally supposed, but a lizard of the Skink family. It is perfectly harmless, its small mouth and very minute teeth precluding all attempts to injurle, even if it had the will. When alarmed it snaps asunder at the slightest blow, like the tail of the common lizard, and from that peculiarity has derived its name of " fragilis." It feeds almost entirely on small slugs, its jaws not being capable of admitting any larger prey. It is very common in most parts of England, and may be seen basking in the sun in hedgerows or under old walls. Its eyes are very small, but brilliant. The GtECKOS are nocturnal- lizards, remaining hidden in crevices during the day, but wandering forth at night in search of their insect prey. They run about on the smooth walls and ceilings with the greatest ease, as their feet are furnished with an apparatus exactly resembling a boy's sucker, by means of which they are able to adhere to the wall, or even to the roof. They labor under precisely the same imputations that the toad does, namely, of being venomous creatures, producing horrible diseases when touched, together with many similar tales. Geckos are spread over every quarter of the globe, but are most numerous in Southern Asia. The species represented is common in India. The Iguana is a very large family, comprising about one hundred and fifty species. The length of the Common Iguana is from four to five feet. The tail is long and round, the back ser- rated, and the crest denticulated. Individuals of this species vary very much in color, but the prevailing color is brownish green. What gives it a very formidable appearance, it has under the chin a pouch capable of being greatly enlarged. It feeds on insects and vegetables. Th6ugh it is frightful to look upon, it is exceed- ingly gentle and harmless. It is striking in nature, that there are some creatures lovely to the eye, which, in their dispositions and habits, are dangerous and destructive; and others repulsive in their appearance, which have the innocence of the lamb and LIZARDS. 317 the gentleness of the dove. Such is the lizard known by the name of the common iguana. However, when this otherwise harmless creature is agitated and irritated either by fear or anger, Its ^yes seem flashing with fire ; it hisses like a serpent, greatly The Common Iguana. inflates the pouch under its throat, it lashes about its tail with . great violence, the scales upon its back rise erect, and its head, covered with tubercles, it raises in a most threatening attitude. We can scarcely conceive any creature to look more dreadful or forbidding. Its usual places of habitation and retreat are the clefts of Toek^i o: the hollows of trees. Though it is not commonly a tenant of the watery element, yet, in cases of danger, it will plunge itself beneath the surface, and there remain some time concealed. It shows great agility in its motions ; it climbs trees with astonishing ease, and with great quickness it will reach the loftiest branches ; it will fold its body with the branches, and thus hide itself/ watching in secure ambush. About two months after winter, the females leave the woods and proceed to the sea-shore to lay their 27* 318 VERTBBEATES eggs among the sand, which are in number from thirteen to twenty-five ; they are very small in proportion to the size of the animal, being a little longer, and about the same thickness as pigeons' eggs. The Flying Dragon is a harmless little lizard, bearing small resemblance to the terrific animal so graphically depicted by Retsch. . This curious little lizard lives on trees, and feeds on insects instead of devouring pilgrims bound to the Gnadenbilde. The peculiar structure of its body bears a lingular resemblance to that of the flying squirrel. The TheXi^Tnragon. ^^st six false ribs are greatly elongated, and support a wing- like expansion of skin, which, when stretched, serves to bear them up as they skim through the air from one tree to another. While running about on the branches, the so-called wings are folded to the side, but when it wishes to throw itself from the tree^ the ribs are raised, and the wings expanded. It is common in Java, India, and Borneo. The Common Chameleon is plentifully found in North- ern Africa, the south of Spain, and Sicily. It lives on trees, but exhibits lione of the activity usually found in arboreal reptiles. On the contrary, its movements are absurdly grave and solemn. The whole activity of the animal seems to be centered in its tocgue, by means of which organ it secures flies and other insecta with such marvellous rapidity, that the ancients may be well par- doned for their assertion that the air formed the only food of the Chameleon. There is something very peculiar in the structure and form ' of the eyes. They are almost an inch in diameter. They are of a globulous figure, and stand out considerably; and they move much, and in a contrary direction. Each eye has only one eyelid, with a small hole in the middle, through which the sight of the eye appears no larger than a pin's head. The four feet are of LIZARDS. 319 equal length ; those before are turned backward, and those behind are turned forward. The Chameleon has the remarkable power of changing color. Its natural color, when at rest and in the shade, is a bluish grey, which, when exposed to the sun, becomes a deeper grey , while those parts which have least light ixpon them are changed The Champl'»on. into spots of various colors. Sometimes, when handled, it disco- vers dark spots inclining to green. When placed on a black hat, it appears of the color of violet; and sometimes," if wrapped up in linen, it looks white. This creature has the most remarkable power of enlarging and contracting itself; at one time appearing long, fat, and plump ; and at another, short and emaciated, like a skeleton. The Chameleon lays eggs, many at once, of an oval shape, and covered with a white" skin, somewhat like parchment. This species is chiefly found in Africa and Asia ; also in Spain, the isles of Bourbon, France, and Madagascar, in Fernando Po, and New South Wales. 320 VERTEBRATES The Crocodile is an inhabitant of the Old World, the Alligator of the New, and the two animals are best distinguished by the construction of the jaws. In the Crocodiles the lower canine teeth fit into a Tiotch in the edge of the upper jaw, and there is in consequence a contraction of the muzzle just behind the nostrils. The lower canine teeth of the Alligators fit into a 2nt in the edge of the upper jaw, and in consequence no contrac- tion is needed. At the hack of the throat is a valve completely shutting out water, but leaving the passage to the nostrils free, so The Crocodile. •fiat the Crocodile can keep his mouth open when beneath the surface, without swallowing the water, or can hold his prey to drown under the water while he himself breathes at ease with his nostrils at thejurface. There is no true tongue. The Crocodile lays eggs of the size of those of a goose, to the number of about sixty, which she covers over with sand, leaving them, like the ostrich, to be hatched by the heat of the sun. They are to be met with in the rivers Nile, Niger, and Ganges, and in many other large rivers in the southern parts of LIZARDS. 321 Asia, Africa, and America. It is of enormous voracity and strength; is amphibious, swims with amazing fleetness, attacks mankind and the largest animals with most daring impetuosity. Of all monsters it has the largest mouth, and moves both its jaws equally. The Negroes of some parts of Africa are sufficiently bold and skilful to attack the Crocodile in his own element. They fearlessly plunge into the water, and diving beneath the Crocodile plunge the dagger with which they are armed into the creature's belly, which is not protected by the coat of mail that guards the other parts of its body. The usual plan is to lie in wait near the spot where the Crocodile is accustomed to repose. This is usually a sandy bank, and the hunter digs a hole in the sand, and armed with a sharp harpoon patiently awaits the coming of his expected prey. The Crocodile comes to its accustomed spot, and is soon asleep, when it is suddenly roused by the harpoon, which pene- trates completely through its scaly covering. The hunter imme- diately retreats to a canoe, and hauls at the line attached to the harpoon until the Crocodile is at the surface, when a second har- poon is darted. The struggling animal is soon wearied out, dragged to shore, and dispatched by dividing the spinal cord. In order to prevent the infuriated reptile from biting the cord asun- der, it is composed of about thirty small lines, not twisted, but only bound together at intervals of two feet. The Alligatok, or Cayman, is an inhabitant of the New World, and is unpleasantly common in the rivers of North Ame- rica. It pursues fish with exceeding dexterity, by driving a shoal of them into a creek, and then plunging amid the terrified mass, and devouring its victims at its pleasure. It also catches pigs, dogs, and other animals that venture too close to the river. In that casOj as the animal is too large to be swallowed entire, the Alligator conceals it in some hole in the bank until it begins to putrefy, when it is dragged out, and devoured under the conceal- ment of the rank herbage fringing the river. The usual method of taking this creature is by baiting a most formidable four-pointed hook, composed of wooden spikes V 322 VERTEBRATES. artistically arranged, and suffering it to float in the river. When an alligator has swallowed it, he is hauled on shore by the rope, and slaughtered. Waterton gives a very amusing account of catching a cayman. The reptile had swallowed the hook, and was being towed ashore. Waterton was waiting for him, armed with the mast of the boat, to force it down the throat of the cayman Alligator. should he prove restive. "By this time the cayman was within two yards of mc ; I saw he was in a state of fear and perturbation. I instantly dropped the mast, sprang up, and jumped on his back, turning half round as I vaulted, so that I gained my seat with my face in a right position. I immediately seized his fore legSj and by main force twisted them on his back j thus they served me for a bridle. " He now seemed to have recovered from his surprise, and probably fancying himself in hostile company, he began to plunge furiously, and lashed the sand with his long and powerful tail. I was out of reach of the strokes of it, by being near his head. He continued to plunge and strike, and made my seat very uncomfortable." BEKl'ENTS. 828 II. SERPENTS. The serpents are distinguished by their long and slender bodies without limbs, and by the great expansibility of their jaws, mouth, and throat, which frequently enables them to swallow ani mals of greater thickness than themselves. They are always pro- vided with teeth, which are sharp, and bent backwards. Serpents are divided into the venomous, and those which are not venomous. The latter are the most numerous, and include the largest animals, .as the Boa Constrictor and the Anaconda. The former are gene- rally armed with fangs, with which they infuse poison into the wounds they inflict. The largest and most celebrated of these animals is the rattlesnake. The Kattlesnake is a native of America. Its name ia derived from the loose bony struc- ture at the extreinity of its tail, called the rattle, and which by the sound of its movements gives timely intimation of the vicinity of this terrible reptile. Fortu- nately, its disposition is exceed- ingly sluggish, and it invariably sounds its rattle when irritated or disturbed. Its bite is inevitably mortal, and death always ensues within a few hours after. The deadly weapons with which the venomous serpents are armed, are two long curved fangs belonging to the upper jaw, and moving on a hinge by which they lie flat in the mouth, when not wanted. An aperture exists in the point of the fang, by which a poisonous fluid, secreted in a gland at the base of the tooth, is poured into the wound, and, mixing with the blood, rapidly carries its deadly influence throughout the entire system. A short time uuce an American physician was exhibiting a caged rattlesnake to Rattlesnake, Head of Rattlesnake. 824 VERTEBRATBS. his friends. He approached his hand too near the irritated reptile, who instantaneously inflicted a wound, and although every pre- caution was taken, the bite proved fatal in a few hours. The Cerastes is a well-known snake in Egypt, and derives its name from the horny scale over each eyebrow. Bruce men- tions that the Cerastes can spring several feet in any direction ; but his description of the stratagems employed by it, " to surprise any one who is too far from it," is probably more fanciful than correct, as snakes do not attack unless suddenly surprised or irri- tated. The size of the Cerastes is by no means great, as its average length is only eighteen inches. The snake charmers of Egypt employ these reptiles precisely as their brethren of India employ the Cobra de Capello. The Viper is a species of serpent which is, of all creatures upon the face of the earth, the most venomous. Vipers vary in ^,^1 The TIpcT. Bize and length. In G-reat Britain they are generally short and thick, while in foreign lands and warm 'climates they are found three feet in length. Their head is flat, and their mouth some- SERPENTS. 325 what resemDles the snout of a pig. Some kinds of serpents have two rows of teeth in each jaw, while vipers have but one row, consisting of sixteen small ones in each. The male vipers have two large teeth, which they can project considerably when they are angry; behind these teeth there is a bag of deadly venom, which is distilled through an opening in the tooth, almost invisible, and thus introduced into the object of their attack by the bite. Their „ ^ - „. ■' •' Head of Viper. body is of an ash or yellow color, and the scales under their belly are of the appearance of well-polished . steel. It is remarkable, that though their venom is of the most deadly description, their flesh is good for food ; even broth may be made of it,, and prove an excellent medicine for the cure of dangerous maladies. The females do not bring forth their young all at once ; but they bring forth about twenty in twenty successive days. They are covered with small bags which open about the third day, when the young viper^ discovers its malignant nature, and is actually disposed and fitted so soon for entering on its deadly career. The Asp is thus defined by Linnaeus : " Nose terminated by an erect wart; body tawny, with figured streaks, alternately distinct and confluent; beneath, steel-blue, dotted with yellow." It is about a foot in length, and nearly half an inch in thickness : it is oviparous ; and in a very little while after it bites and injects its venom death is the consequence. After the wound is inflicted slumber takes place, then a deep sleep, then death ! Galen, the ancient and celebrated physician, says he witnessed the activity of the poison. It was in the case of a criminal in Alexandria, condemned to die, whose sufferings were to be easily and speedily tflrminated. An asp was applied to his breast, and after it crawled there for a short time he expired. The Boa-constrictor The enormous Boa-constrictor inhabits tropical America. It is not venomous, but is not the less dano'erous, as the tremendous power of its muscles enables it to crush its prey in the coils of its huge body In order to procurf 28 8:26 V £ R I £ Ji R A I £ B . The Asp. ita food, the Boa-constrictor lies in wait ly the side of some river or pool, Tirhere animals of all kinds are likely to come to quench their thirst. It patiently waits until some animal draws within reach, when, with one spring, the Boa fixes its teeth in the crea- ture's head, coils its body round its victim, and crushes it to death. After the unfortunate animal has been reduced almost to a shape- less mass by the pressure of the snake, its destroyer makes prepa- rations for swallowing it entire, a task which it accomplishes, although the slaughtered animal is usually very much larger than the dimensions of the serpent. At last, the snake succeeds in swallowing its prey, and then lies torpid for nearly a month, until its enormous meal is digested, when it again sallies forth in search of another. The Cobra de Capello is a native of India. It mast not be confounded with several other hooded snakes, such as the Haje of Egypt, the snake so frequently depicted on the hiero- elyphical monuments. The serpent charmers invariably use this formidable reptile THE TORTOISES. •617 for their performances. The exhibitors possess several Cobras shut up in baskets, and when commencing their performances, the lid of the basket is opened, and the snake creeps out. Its course is arrested by the sound of the rude fife that the charmer always carries, and it immediately ex- pands its beautiful though threat- ening hood, erects its neck, and commences a series of undulatory movements, which are continued until the sound of the fife ceases, when the snake instantly drops, and is replaced in its basket by its master. The charmers appear to be able to discover snakes, and to induce them to leave their retreats. Indeed, it is rather a singular fact, that those travellers who most strongly insist that the snakes thus caught are tame and divested of their fangs, appear to forget that even in that case the creatures must have been previously caught in order to deprive them of their weapons. The length of this snake is about five or six feet. Cobra de Gapello. III. — THE TO'tTOISES. The whole of this order is characterized by the complete Bui: of bony armor with which the aniaiaiS are protected. The so-called " shell" is in fact a development of various bones, and not a mere horny appendage, like the coverings of the armadillo and manis. The upper shield is called the " carapace," and is united to the under shield, or " plastron," by certain bones, leaving orifices for the protrusion of the head and limbs. Most species are able to withdraw their head and limbs completely within the shell, and' in some few the orifices are closed by a kind of hinge joint. The tortoise-shell of commerce is a series of horny plates that cover the exterior of the shield, and is in great request on S28 V E R T E B E A T E S . Land TortoiBe. account of the beautiful wa'^ markings that ait so familiar to oui eyes. The Tortoises and Turtles possess no teeth, but the sides of their jaws are very hard and sharp, enabling them to crop vegetable substances, or to inflict a severe bite. The family ia divided into Land Tortoises, Marsh Tortoises, Kiver Tortoises, and Marine Tortoises, or Turtles. The Common Land Tortoise is found in abundance in almost every country, — in the wilds of America, as well as in the most thickly populated states of Europe. It is very long lived, individuals being known to have exceeded two hundred years. Its movements are very slow, but it can ex- cavate a burrow with unexpected rapidity. Secure in an impenetrable covering, it bids defiance to any ordinary enemy, except, as Sidney Smith wittily observes, " man and the boa-constrictor. Man, however, takes him home and roasts him, and the boarconstrictor swallows him whole, shell and all, and consumes him slowly in the interior." The Common G-reen Turtle. — Tl^e feet of the Marine Tortoises, or Turtles, are modified into fins or flippers just as are the feet of the seals, and conse- quently, although the Turtles are active in the water, on land their walk is nothing but an awkward shuffle. The flippers, however, are admirable instruments for scooping out the sand, in which the eggs are laid, and afterwards covered over. Nearly two hun- dred eggs are laid in one nest. The eggs are held in great esti- mation, but the albumen, or " white," does not become hard by boiling. The Common Green Turtle, whose flesh is considered such a luxury, is 'K)mmon in Jamaica, and most of the islands of the Qreen Turtle. F R o a 8 . 329 East and West Indies. The turtles are captured by turning them on their.backs ; for the carapace is so flat, and their legs are so short, that they are forced to lie helpless until their captors have leisure to drag them away. The Grreen Turtle has been known to reach the weight of five or six hundred pounds. The tortoise-shell of commerce is almost entirely obtained from the Hawksbill Turtle. IV. — FROGS. The appearance and habits of the Frog and the Toad are so familiar as to require but little description. A short account, however, is necessary, of the peculiarities common to both Frogs and Toads. In the early stage of their existence, these animals are termed tadpoles. They at first appear to be nothing but head and tail, but after several days have passed, four legs are observed to become developed. These rapidly increase, and the little creature closely resembles a small eft. In due time, however, the tail is lost, and the creature becomes a perfect frog. Another important change also takes place. In its tadpole state the creature was essentially a water animal, but after its change has taken place it is not able to exist under water for any great length of time, and is forced to come to the surface to breathe. The tongue of the Frog is curiously fixed almost at the entrance of the mouth, and when at rest points backwards down the throat. When, however, the Frog comes within reach of a slug or insect, the tongue is darted out with exceeding rapidity, the slug secured, carried to the back of the throat, and awallowed. Both frogs and toads hibernate, the former congregating in multitudes in the mud at the bottoms of ponds and marshes, while the latter choose a hole in the ground, frequently at the roots of a tree, and pass the winter in solitary dignity. The skin of .these animals has the property of imbibing water, so that if an apparently emaciated frog is placed in a damp place, it will soon look quite plump. The Common Frog is a well-known frequenter of marshy places and the banks of rivers. , It is an admirable swimmer, and 28* 330 VERTEBRATES. from tha peculiar construction of its lungs can remain for some time under water, but is forced periodically to come to the surface for the purpose of breathing. The Common Fi-o!;. The Bull-Frog is an inhabitant of North America. It is very voracious, feeding upon fishes, molluscs, and even young fowl. Its powers of leaping are so great, that an Indian was not able to overtake an irritated bull-frog after it had sprung three hops in advance. It is very large, measuring about seven inches in length. The Tree Frogs are very peculiar animals. The con- • struction of their feet, something resembling that of the geckos, enables them to traverse the branches, and even to hang on the under surface of a pendent leaf, which it so resembles in color that the unwary insect passes by and is instantly seized by the watch- ful frog. The Green Tree Frog is the most common, and is plen- tifully found in Southern Europe and Northern Africa. There are several specimens in the Zoological Gardens, which present a FROGS. 331 most absurd appearance as they stick against the pane of glass forming the front of their cage. The Common Toad has had its full share of marvellous tales. Its poisonous properties are celebrated in many an ancient chronicle, as are also the virtues of the jewel contained in its head. Its skin certainly does secrete an acrid humor, which at all events defends it from dogs, who can never be induced to bite a toad a second time ; but, of course, such absurd notions as the romantic story of the _. _ „ ^ •' The Common Toad. death of a young lady and her lover, who each ate a leaf of a shrub at the root of which a tcad had made its habitation, need no refutation. The Newts are separated from the lizards on account of their changes while young. Like the frogs, they are first tadpoles, and do not assume their perfect shape until six weeks after their exclusion from the eggs. The Common Newt is a beautiful inha- bitant :[ the ponds, ditches, and still waters. It feeds principally on tadpoles and worms, which it eats with a peculiar rapid snap. The male Newt is distinguished by a beautiful crimson- tipped wavy crest of loose skin, that extends along the whole course of the back and tail, and which, together with the rich orange-colored belly, makes it a most beautiful creature. The female has a singular habit of laying her eggs upon long leaves of water-plants, and actually tying them in the leaf by a regular knot. The Proteus is an extraordinary animal, which has been found in dark subterranean lakes, many hundred feet below the surface of the earth, where no ray of light can possibly enter The eyes of this singular creature are mere points covered with skin, and useless for vision ; indeed, when in captivity, it always chooses the darkest parts of the vessel in which it is confined. The Proteus breathes in two ways — by lungs and by gills, the latter organs appearing in the form of two tufts, one on each 332 VERTEBKATES. side of the neck, just above the fore limbs. The circulation of the blood in these branchial tufts can easily be seen with a micro- scope of moderate power. These tufts are of a rather deeper pink tinge than the remainder of the body, which is of a very pale flesh-color. Exposure to light darkens the tints both of gills and body. It bears some resemblance to the young of the twens, which are furnished with branchial tufts, which they lose upon attaining maturity, and was therefore for some time thought to be the young of some unknown reptile. It has, however, been proved to be a perfect animal, and has been found of all sizes. The blood discs of this animal are exceedingly large ; so large, indeed, as almost to be distinguished by the naked eye. When in captivity, its movements are slow and eel-like, nor does it seem to make much use of its almost rudimentary limbs. It has usually been found' on the soft mud of a small lake in the grotto of Maddalena. It is not always present, and has been conjectured to be the inhabitant of some unknown subter- ranean body of water, and to have been forced through the crevices of the rocks. Besides the grotto of Maddalena at Adelsburg, they have also been found at Sittich, thirty miles distant, thrown up from a subterranean cavity. FISHES. 333 CHAPTER XIV. DIVISION I. -VERTEBRATES. CLASS IV. — FISHES. . Being destined to pass their lives in the water only, fishes ATe provided with a structure and organs adapted to the element in which they reside. The heart has hut one auricle and one ventricle, and the blood passes from the body into the first, whence, by means of the ventricle, it is conveyed to the gills, which perform the functions of lungs. Situated upon each side of the posterior part of the head, the gills consist of semicircular arches of bony or cartilaginous substance, to which are attached membranes, divided into little fibrils or fringes, to which the blood, after it comes from the heart, is distributed in very minute vessels. By the action of the mouth a constant current of water is passed over the gills, and the air contained in this water exerts an influ- ence on the blood circulating through them, producing changes similar to those effected in the lungs of other animals by inhaled air. The blood does not return to the heart from the gills, but, being collected into one large artery, is passed down along the spine, to be distributed to the different parts of the body, and again returned to the heart through the veins. The covering of fishes is a strong, thick skin, in addition to which most of them have scales, arranged one over another like shingles on the roof of a house. A thin coating of slime or mucus spread over their bodies protects them from immediate contact with the water. Fishes have the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch ; the latter very imperfectly, as they possess no organ which seems adapted for its exercise, except the snout and mouth, and a sort of feelers, which some species have growing around the mouth. The skeleton is constructed of bones, com- i!34 ' VERTEBRATES. monly softer and less earthy than those of other animals, and in some they are entirely cartilaginous. The stomach and intestines Skeleton of Perch, showing the Bony Structure. are formed in a manner similar to those of other vertebrates, and digestion is conducted in the same general way. Their food con- sists principally of other fish, worms, and shell-fish. Most fish possess a singular organ called the "swimming- bladder." This is a membranous pouch, varying exceedingly in size and shape, situated close under the spine, and filled by some means with gas, mostly found to be nitrogen, but in deep-sea-fishes, an excess of oxygen is discovered to exist. The fish seems to be able to rise or sink by means of compressing or expanding this pouch, without being forced to make use of its tail or fins. The smooth scaly covering with which most fish are fur- nished, is admirably fitted both for defence against the water, and for enabling the fish to glide easily through places where a rough covering would have held it prisoner. Many valuable character- istics are derived from the shape of the scales in difiierent fish. There are four principal varieties, called, 1. Placoid, or flat scales; 2. Granoid, or polished Scales ; 3. Ctenoid, or toothed scales ; and 4. Cycloid, or circular scales. I. BONY FISHES. The Common Perch is well known to anglers both as a " bold biting fish," and as a fish that does not yield up its life without endangering the person of its captor ; for the formidable BONY FISHES. 335 row of spinous rays belonging to the first dorsal fin have wounded the hands of many an incautious angler. It is extremely voracious, so much so that after all the legiti- mate bait has been exhausted, it is a common practice for the fish- erman td place on his hook the eyes of the perch already taken, which are as eagerly bitten at as the worms were formerly. An anecdote is related of a gentleman who struck at a perch, but anfortunately missed it, the hook tearing out the eye of the poor creature. He adjusted the eye on the hook, and replaced the line in the water, where it had hardly been a few minutes before the float was violently jerked under the surface. The angler of course struck, and found he had captured a fine perch. This, when landed, was disco- vered to be the very ,-/yv-A,-^. ^ fish which had just been mutilated, and which had actually lost its life by de- vouring its own eye. It is quaintly ob- Pereh. served in Izaak Wal- ton, that " if there be twenty or forty in a hole, they may be at one standing all caught one after another, they being like the wicked of the world, not afraid though their fellows and compan- ions perish in their sight." The Perch seldom exceeds two pounds and a half in weight, and a perch weighing a pound and a half is considered a very fine fish. The Mackarel. — The elegant shape and resplendent colors of the Mackarel point it out as one of the most beautiful fishes known. Nor is it only valuable for its beauty, as it is highly prized as an article of food in most parts of the world. When the fishermen employ the line for the capture of the Mackarel, the hook is baited with a strip cut from a dead mack- arel, and is suffered to trail overboard. The fish bite eagerly at 336 VEETEBRATES. this cannibal kind of bait, and are frequently taken by baiting the hook with a strip of scarlet leather or cloth. Vast numbers are annually taken on the coasts of New foundland, which fishermen from the United States, England and France visit every year. They are salted and barrelled at the fishery, and transported thence to difierent parts of the world for Ba'ie. The Sword-pish inhabits every part of the Mediterranean Sea, and has several times been seen near the shores of England and Scotland. The " sword" for which this fish is so famous, is an elongation of the upper jaw, of great strength, and capable of doing considerable injury to any object against which it directs its attacks. In the British Museum is a portion of the bottom of a ship, pierced completely through by the " sword" of one of these fish. Its unfortunate owner must have instantly perished by the shock, for the sword was imbedded almost to its base, and broken short off. In one instance, a Sword-fish attacked a whaling-ship, and drove its weapon " through the copper sheathing, an inch- board sheathing, a three-inch plank of hard wood, the solid white oak timber of the ship twelve inches thick, through another two- and-a-half-inch hard oak ceiling plank, and lastly, perforated the head of an oil cask, where it still remained immovably fixed, so that not a single drop of oil escaped. In the Mediterranean, the fishermen eagerly chase the Sword-fish. The harpoon and line are used much in the same manner as in the whale fishery. The Sicilian fishermen have a strange superstition that if the Sword-fish were to hear a word of Italian, it would instantly dive and escape them. They therefore restrict their vocal sounds to an unintelligible chant. It is said that the whale is an object of particular enmity to the Sword-fish, and that ships are struck by it, being mistaken for whales. . . The length of this fish is usually from twelve to fifteen feet It is said to feed principally on tunnies, pursuing the shoals, and transfixing the fish with its sword. The Sea-horse has often been found off the southern coasts of England. The habits of this fish are very singular and BONY FlhUES. 337 interesting. A pair were kept alive for some time in a glass vessel, and exhibited considerable activity and intelligence. They swam about with an undulating kind of movement, and frequently twined their tails raund the weeds placed in their prison. Their eyes The Sea-horee. moved independently of each other, like those of the chameleon, and the changeable tints of the head closely resemble that animal. More than once, these curious fish have been seen curled up in oyster shells. The singular creaturea called Pipe-fish also belong to the Syngnathidae. The Eemora, or Sucking-fish, is remarkable for the pecu- liar apparatus situated on the upper part of its head. By this it can adhere to any object so firmly that it is a difficult matter to make it loose its hold. It is often found adhering to large fish or to the bottoms of ships, probably in both instances for the sake of the fragments of food rejected by the one, or thrown overboard from the other. The older writers on Natural History fully believed that one Remora had the power of arresting the swiftest ship in its course, and fixing it firmly in the same spot in spite of spread canvas and swift gales. As the Remora is about the same size as a herring, our ancestors naturally considered this a very curious circumstance, and wrote no few poems on the subject. The fol- lowing true account of this fish is extracted from Macgillivray's Voyage of the Rattlesnake : " Small fish appeared to abound at this anchorage (the Calvados group of islands). I had never before seen the Sucking- fish (^Echeneis remora) so plentiful as at that place ; they caused much annoyance to our fishermen by carrying oflF baits and hooks, and appeared always on the alert, darting out in a body of twenty or more from under the ship's bottom when any ofial was thrown overboard. Being quite a nuisance, and useless as food, Jack often treated them as he would a shark, by sprit-sail yarding, or some less refined mode of torture. One day, some of us while walking the poop had our attention directed to a sucking-fish "id w 338 VERTEBRATES. about two and a half feet in length, which had been made fast bj the tail to a billet of wood by a fathom or so of spun yarn, and so turned adrift. An immense striped shark, apparently about four- teen feet in length, which had been cruising about the ship a)l the morning, sailed slowly up, and turning Slightly on one side, at- tempted to seize the apparently helpless fish, but the sucker with great dexterity made himself fast in a moment to the shark's back. Off darted the monster at full speed, the sucker holding fast as a limpet to a rock, and the billet towing astern. He then rolled over and over, tumbling about; when, wearied with his efforts, he lay quiet for a little. Seeing the float, the shark got it into his mouth, and disengaging the sucker by a tug on the line, made a bolt at the fish ; but his puny antagonist was again too quick, and, fixing himself close behind the dorsal fin, defied the efforts of the shark to disengage him, although he rolled over and over, lashing the water with his tail until it foamed all around^ What the final result was, we could not clearly make out." The Common Carp is a well-known inhabitant of ponds, lakes, and sluggish rivers of England and the continent of Europe. It is a very shy and wary fish, rejecting one day a bait which had been freely taken the day previous. It lives to a great age, and when very old its scales turn grey just as human hairs do. In several places in France numbers of Carp were kept until they attained an enormous size. These great sluggish fish were accustomed to come to the water's edge in order to be fed at the call of their keeper. Feeding the Carp was almost a hereditary amusement of the latter kings of France. Very few fish are so tenacious of life as the Carp. It is the custom in Holland to keep these fish in nets filled with wet moss. They are fed with bread and milk, and are preserved in health by frequent immersion in water, in order to keep the moss thoroughly wet. The Gold-fish, or Golden Carp, is another species of the genus Cyprinus. It was originally brought from China, about two hundred years since, when it was considered a great curiosity • BONY FISHES. 339 now, however, it is quite common, and is found to live in ponds even when the surface of the water is thickly covered with ice. The Tench especially delights in muddy banks of ponds, where the weeds grow thickly. Roget gives an account of a tench that had been taken out of a pond almost filled up with stones and rubbish, and which had actually grown into the shape of the hole where it had been confined, evidently for many years. The weight of that fish was eleven pounds nine ounces. Four hun- dred tench and as many perch were also taken out of the same pond. This fish is even more tenacious of life than the carp. The Roach is very common in most rivers of England, and is generally spread over the temperate parts of Europe. It is by no means a large fish, rarely exceeding two pounds in weight, and but seldom attaining that size. These fish usually live in small shoals, and pass from one part of the river to another. The Roach is not unlike the Dace, but may be easily dis- tinguished by its bright red ventral fins, those of the dace being silvery white. It is rather a favorite with anglers, as it bites or rather nibbles at the bait in such a dainty and delicate manner, that the disappointed fisherman not unfrequently finds the bait gone without the movement of his float betraying the theft. A quick eye and a dexterous hand are required for this sport. The float is so balanced as barely to appear above the surface of the water, for, unlike the perch, that dashes at the bait and boldly jerks the float at once under water, the Roach does little more than swim under the bait as far as it can, and then just gives a gentle nibble, repeating the process until the bait has entirely left the hook. The Dace is usually found wherever the roach resides, and, like that fish, swims in shoals. It makes an excellent bait for trolling, as the silvery •^*^^^®''" whiteness of its scales renders _. _ Tne Dace. it a conspicuous object, and serves to attract the pike. It seldom exceeds nine or ten inches in lenzth J4C VEETEBRATES The Loach. The Bleak and the Minnow both belong to the genna Leuciscus. The former fish is remarkable for the use made of its scales, which when washed in water deposit a powder much used in the manufacture of artificial pearls. In some counties the Loach goes by the name of " Beardie," in allusion to the little fleshy particles that hang from its lips. It has also the name of G-ronndling, on account of its habit of living close to the bottom of the water. It is a common fish, and may be taken in most streams, especially if the bait is drawn over the bed of the stream. The principal peculiarity about the fish, is the comparatively great breadth of the tail where.it joins the spine. This formation, together with the generally pellucid appearance of its body, at once distinguish it from any other fish. The Pike affords much sport to anglers, who generally employ a method of fishing called " trolling." A gudgeon, roach, or large minnow is so fixed to a number of formidable hooks, that when drawn through the water, it spins rapidly round, and attracts the notice of the watchful Pike, who dashes at the glittering bait with a violence that jars the rod down to the very butt. Off Bwims the pike to his place of concealment, leisurely turns the head of the bait downwards, and swallows it. Now, to swallow Lhe fish is easy enough, but the array of barbed hooks proves an effectual obstacle to the endeavors of the Pike to get rid of the unwelcome morsel as soon as the angler jerks the line, and gives the Pike to understand that hooks have points. The deluded Pike now endeavors to break the line, but a good fisherman foils all his efforts, arid at last lands him, wearied and bleeding, but ferocious (o the last. The method of fishing for Pike called " trimming" is hardly worth mention. A line baited with living fish is fastened to a Ihe Pike. BONY FISHES. 341 float, and suffered to lie on the surface of the water. The Pike, seeing the bait swimming about, dashes at it and hooks itself in the effort. This fish varies in size from two or three pounds' weight to twenty or thirty, but a Pike weighing fifteen pounds is consi- dered a very fine fish. Above that weight they are almost useless for the table. A Pike weighing less than two pounds is called a jack. The appetite of this fish is almost insatiable. Mr. Jesse threw to one Pike of five pounds' weight, fourroach, each about ' four inches in length, which it devoured instantly, and swallowed a fifth within a quarter of an hour. Moor-hens, ducks, and even swans have been known to fall a prey to this voracious fish, its long teeth effectually keeping them prisoners under water until drowned. The Flying-fish. — This fish, so celebrated in most books of voyages, is found in the warmer latitudes, but has several times been seen off our coasts. The so-called " flight" is very similar to that of the flying squirrels and draigons, the fish merely springing out of the water with a violent impetus, and sustaining itself in the air by means of its enormous pectoral fins. It is not able to alter its course while in the air, nor to rise a second time without repeating its course through the water. The reader will notice the remarkable fact, that individuals of three wingless classes, the Mammalia, the Reptiles, and the Fishes, have each the power af sustaining themselves in the air. The "flight" of this fish seldom exceeds two hundred yards. The unfortunate creatures are pursued in the water by " Dorados," erroneously called dolphins, and other fishes of prey. To escape their finny tyrants, they spring into the air, and for a while escape. But the gulls and albatrosses are on the watch, and pounce on the Flying-fish from above, so that the persecuted crea- tures are tolerably sure to fall a prey to one or the other of their foes. The usual height of flight is about two or three feet above the surface of the water, but it has frequently been known to 29* 342 VEETBBRATES. exceed fourteen feet, and in one instance a Flying-fish came skim- ming into the ports of a large man-of-war, nearly twenty feet ahove the water. The Salmon is a migratory fish, annually leaving the sea, its proper residence, and proceeding for many miles up rivers for the purpose of depositing its spawn. This duty having been accomplished, it returns to the sea in the spring. The perse- verance of this fish in working its way up the stream is perfectly wonderful. No stream is rapid Salmon. , , , enough to daunt it, nor is it even cheeked by falls. These it surmounts by springing out of the water, fairly passing over the fall. Heights of fourteen or fifteen feet are constantly leaped by this powerful fish, and when it has arrived at the higher and shallower parts of the river, it scoops furrows in the gravelly bottom, and there deposits its spawn. The young, called " fry," are hatched about March, and immediately commence their retreat to the sea. By the end of May the young Salmon, now called " smolts," have almost entirely deserted the rivers, and in June not one is to be found in fresh water. Small Salmon weighing less than two pounds are termed " salmon peel," - all above that weight are called " grilse." The havoc wrought among Salmon by foes of every descrip- tion is so enormous, that notwithstanding the great fecundity of the fish, it is a matter of surprise that so many escape destruction ; for although the fish are preserved from their human foes by many stringent regulations, yet other foes, such as otters, who devour the large fish, and other fish who devour the spawn, have but little respect for laws and regulations. While in the rivers, multitudes of Salmon ^re annually caught, usually by stake nets, which are capable of confining an immense number of fish at one time. Salmon spearing is a fa- vorite amusement. This animated and exciting sport is usually carried on by torch-light. The torches, when- held close to the surface of the water, illumine the depths of the river, and render BONY FISHES, 343 every fish within its influence perfectly visible. The watchful spearman, guided by slight indications bearing no meaning to an unpractised eye, darts his unerring spear, and brings up in triumph the glittering captive, writhing in vain among the barbed points. In the northern rivers this destructive pursuit is carried on to a great extent, more than a hundred salmon being frequently taken in an evening. Anglers also find considerable sport in using the fly for this beautiful and active fish, whose strength makes it nc mean antagonist. The Trout is found in rapid, shallow, sparkling streams, especially if there should be little falls at intervals. The usual method of fishing for trout is with a fly, but trolling with a minnow is often successfully used, nor does the trout reject a well-selected and properly ^^-gS^ffi^HBfeg—^ arranged worm. ^*« the „ „jj . herring, in large seines, made for the purpose, and it is not uncommon for one haul of a seine to bring in from two thousand to fivo thoucand fish, averaging from twelve to twenty-two inches each in length, and weighing from three to ten pounds. Large quantities are salted and dried, and thus furnish a profitable article 'ji commerce. The Cod. — In this sub-order the bones of the ventral fins are placed under, and support the bones of the shoulder. The well- known Cod-fish is principally found on the coasts of Newfoundland, but is taken in great numbers on the British shores. The hook is generally employed for the capture of this fine fish. An immense number of hooks, each baited with a whelk or - limpet, and attached to short lines, are fastened at intervals along a rope, which is stretched, or shot, as it is termed, across the tide, in order to prevent the hooks from getting entangled. Such is the voracity of the fish, that nearly five hundred have been taken by one man in the course of ten hours. The intense cold renders the Cod fishery a service of great hardship. BONY FISHES. 845 Several successful experiments have been made to preserve this fish in salt water ponds, in which it appears to thrive well. The fecundity of this fish is almost incredible, the roe of one fish having been ascertained to eantain nine million eggs. The Whiting belongs to this family. In the Flat-fish we see a most extraordinary instance of adaptation of structure to peculiar circumstances. We have all seen Flat-fish, and all know that the upper side is dark, and the under side nearly white. The word 'side' is used advisedly, as these curious fish actually lie on their sides at the bottom of the water while undisturbed, or merely feeding. When, however, they are alarmed, they rapidly assume the vertical position, and dart off with great speed. The dark upper surface serves to protect them from becoming too visible to enemies above. The two eyes are also placed on the upper side of the head for obvious reasons. In fact, the whole fish appears as if it had been laid on its side, and rolled flat, the head also being twisted round, and the lower eye removed to the upper surface. The Turbot is found on the coasts of most parts of England, but is mostly confined to the southern coasts of Ireland. The fishery is conducted both by nets and lines. The net, called the haul-net, drags from the bottom not only turbots but other flat fish, such as soles and plaice. The line, used when the bottom of the sea is too deep or rocky for the net, is armed with many hooks, baited with smelts and other small fish. The lampern, or river lamprey, was formerly in very great use as a bait, as its brilliant silvery appearance, and its great tenacity of life, rendered it peculiarly fit for the capture of the voracious but dainty turbot, who, rejecting all stale or discolored baits, eagerly devours them if bright colored and moving. The fishermen state that the turbot will not touch a bait that has been bitten by any other fish. ,0n the Englisi coasts one turbot-line frequently extends for three miles in length, and is furnished with 2500 hooks, which are at. ^46 VERTEBRATES. tached to the main line by small horse-hair lines, each twenty- seven inches in length. This enormous line is "shot" across the GUI rent at the turn of the tide. Each boat possesses a double set of lines, so that one line is "shot" and another "hauled" every turn of the tide. The little star-like bones imbedded in the upper part of the skin of this fish are very curious. The dark side of the turbot is the left, on which the eyes are also placed. Reversed turbots, and even turbots dark on both sides, are not at all uncommon. The Eels form the sub-order of the Apoda, or footless fish, so called from the absence of ventral fins. These fish assume a form very similar to the serpents. Although on a hasty examina- tion they seem to be devoid of scales, yet when the skin is dried, very minute scales may be seen through the semi-transparent outer skin, and may be easily detected by carefully separating the two skins. Eels inhabit muddy ponds and rivers, and are common in many canals. They are sus- ceptible of cold, and con- stantly descend the rivers to The Common Eel. , ., , . . , deposit their spawn in the sea, after which, the young when hatched work their way up the rivers, thereby precisely reversing the habits of the salmon. They are capable of living out of water for a long time, and often make voluntary land excursions, either for the purpose of avoiding an insurmountable fall, or in search of frogs or worms, on which they feed. In the winter, while they are lying torpid in the mud, mul- titudes are taken by eel-spears- — ^many-pronged instruments, whose prongs are feathered with recurved barbs, which, when pushed into the mud, entangle the eels, and efiectually prevent their escape. The Conger Eel is found in all the rocky parts of the British coasts, and is exceedingly common on the coasts of Corn- wall. It is usually caught with a hook, the best bait of which is a sand-launce, a little fish belonging to the same family as the eels, and which buries itself five or six inches deep in the sand when the tide ebbs, and releases itself on the next flood tide. The BONY FISHES. 347 fishermen rake it out of the sand with iron hsoks. A pilchard is a common bait for the' Conger. The size of this fish is sometimes very great. Yarrell mentions, in his " British Fishes," that " specimens weighing eighty-six pounds, one hun- dred and four pounds, and even ono hundred and thirty pounds, have been recorded, some of them measuring more than ten feet long and eighteen inches in circumference. They possess great strength, and often form very formida- ble antagonists if assailed among rocks, Conger Eei. or when drawn into a boat with a line." The Electric Eel, or Gymnotus This curious fish, which exhibits the singular phenomenon of voluntary electric power residing in a living animal, is an inhabitant of the fresh- water rivers and ponds of Surinam, and other parts of South Ame- rica, where it was first discovered in the year 1677. This power of emitting an electric shock is apparently given it in order to enable the creature to kill its prey. Captain Stedman, in his account of Surinam, describes an adventure with the electric eel, which he, of course, had many op- portunities of seeing. He attempted, for a trifling wager, to lift up a gymnotus in his hands, but according to his own words : — "I tried about twenty different times to grasp it with my hand, but all without effect, receiving just as many electrical shocks, which I felt even to the top of my shoulder. It has been said that this animal must be touched with both hands before it gives the shock, but this I must take the liberty of contradicting, having expe- rienced the contrary effect.'' The eel mentioned was a small one, otly two feet long ; but one that had arrived at its full growth would have given a very much stronger shock. An English sailor was fairly knocked down by a shock from .one of these eels, nor did he recover his senses for some time. It is said that the shock can pass up a stick, and strike the person holding it. Mr. Bryant 348 VEBTEBBATES. and a companion were both struck while pouring off the water from a tub in which an electric eel had been placed. II OAKTILAGINOTJS FISHES. The Stuegeon. — The remaining fishes belong to the Car- tilaginous sub-class ; that is, their skeletons are composed of carti- li ge, and not of true bone. The first sub-order possess free gill-covers, like those of all the preceding fish ; but the remainder breathe by means either of slits, as in the sharks, or holes, as in the lampreys. The Sturgeon is remarkable for the rows of bony plates ex- tending along the body. It is exceedingly common in the United sturgeon. States, and in the northern parts of Europe, where regular fisheries are organized for its capture. Almost every part of it is used. Isinglass is obtained by drying and shredding the air-bladder; caviare is made of the roe of the female, and the flesh is exten- sively preserved both by pickling and salting, besides the large quantities that are consumed fresh. The flavor of its flesh is said not to be unlike veal. It is frequently taken in our rivers, usually by entan- glinsr itself in the nets, and although it then does some injury to the nets by its violent struggles to release itself, it is otherwise perfectly harmless. Yarrell mentions that a sturgeon measuring eight feet six inches in length, and weighing two hundred and three pounds, was taken in a stake net near Findhon in 1833. A specimen was once caught in the Esk, weighing four hundred and sixty pounds. The female always deposita her eggs in fresh water, and the young, when hatched, descend to the sea, and are supposed not to return again until, in their turn, they seek the fresh water in order to deposit their spawn. CARTILAQINOUS J I S H E S . 349 Head of White Shark. The White Shark is a well-known scourge of the Medi- terranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. This is the creature so detested by sailors, who, when they have caught a " shirk," sub- ject it to every possible indignity. This voracious creature has been known to swallow an entire man, and as it is in the habit of lurking about ships for the sake of the scraps thrown overboard, and almost invariably swallows whatever is cast over the side, the con- tents of its stomach are often of a most heterogeneous description. The sailors always amuse themselves by seeing what the shark had " stowed away," and the substances thus brought to light have been most curious. The entire contents of a lady's work-basket, down to the scissors, were found in the interior of one shark, and another had actually swal- lowed an entire bull's hide — a circumstance which led ,the operating sailor to remark that the shark had swallowed a bull, but could not ■" digest" the hide. The amphibious South Sea Islanders stand in great dread of the Shark, and with good reason, for not a year elapses without several victims being offered to the rapacity of this terrific animal. Nearly thirty of the natives of the Society Islands were destroyed at one time by the sharks. A storm had so injured the canoe in which they were passing from one island to another, that they were forced to take refuge on a raft hastily formed of the fragments of their canoe. Their weight sunk the raft a foot or two below the surface of the water, and, dreadful to say, the sharks surrounded them and dragged them off the raft one by one, until the lightened raft rose above the water and preserved the few survivors. The Hammer-headed Shark inhabits the same latitudes. This curiously constructed fish closely resembles the white shark in all respects but the head, which is widened out at each side, exactly like a double-headed hammer or mallet. The eyes, being 30 350 VERTEBRATES. placed at each extremity of the head, must of course possess a very extended power of vision. The Thresher, a fish which has a curious habit of spring- ing out of the water and inflicting a violent blow with its tail on any object that annoys it, belongs to the Shark tribe. The Sawfish is found in the greatest perfection in the tropical seas, although it also inhabits the Mediterranean. The weapon from which the fiou derives its name, is a flat, long pro- longation of the head, on each edge of which are set hard tooth- like projections, curiously inserted into the bone. This fish has been known to employ its saw in the attack of the whale, burying the apparently inappropriate weapon to the very root in the body of the whale; nor are instances wanting where the saw has been found firmly imbedded in the hull of a ship. The strength of the Sawfish is very great. Captain Wilson gives an account of the capture of a Sawfish, measuring twenty- two feet in length, and weighing nearly five tons. After the fish had been entangled in a net for several hours, making violent efibrts to escape, Captain Wilson got a rope firmly fixed round its saw, and set thirty men to haul at the rope. The whole thirty could not move it one inch, nor was it until one hundred men had been pulling at the rope for nearly the whole of the day, that they succeeded in dragging it on shore. Even then it made such vio- lent strokes with its saw, that they were forced to fasten strong guy ropes to prevent it from cutting them to pieces. It was finally disabled by a Spaniard, who cut through the joint of the tail. The Torpedo afibrds a se- cond instance of the electric power residing in a fish. The organs that produce the electric shock are shown externally by two elevations extending from the eyes about half down the body. Although it has once or twice been caught on our coasts, it is usually found in the Mediterranean, where its powers are well known, and held in some awe. The shock that the Torpedo gives, of course, varies according to the size of the fish and its state of CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. 351 health, but a tolerably large fish in good health, can, for the time, disable a strong man. From the effects of its shook, it is in some parts called the Cramp-fish. Colonel Montagu notices a Torpedo caught on a turbot line, at Tucky. It weighed about one hundred pounds, and completely puzzled the fisherman, who found it hanging dead on the hooks, and had never seen such a creature before. Colonel Montacu quaintly remarks, that had it not been dead, the fisherman would certainly have had a shock that would have made him remember the species again. A section of the out shows the batteries of the fish, which are composed of a large number of tubes pressed together like the cells of a honey-comb, and filled with a very thick fluid. By means of a nerve branching out from the brain to the battery, the animal can work it whenever it pleases. The Thornback Skate derives its name from the spiny armature of the tail, with which the fish defends itself most vigor- ously by bending itself almost into a semicircle and lashing about with its tail. The female of the Thornback Skate is termed a Maid. It often attains to a large size, the largest known being twelve feet in length, and nearly ten in width. The Lamprey. — These curious fishes, in many respects the lowest in organization of the vertebrate animals, are chiefly remark- able for the singular construction of the mouth, which, formed like that of the leech, enables the Lampreys to hold firmly to any object by suction. The breathing apparatus appears externally to consist of fourteen small apertures, seven on each side of the neck. Their progress through the water is accomplished by a rapid undulating movement. The Marine Lamprey is found in the Mediterranean, and in most of the northern European rivers. It has also been disco- vered in America. Like many other fishes, it travels for many miles up rivers for the purpose of depositing its spawn, at which time it is considered to be in the highest perfection. The spawn is deposited in furrows, some excavated by the parent Lampreys, who. by the help of their sucker-like mouths, rapidly remove even large stones. 352 INVEBTEBRATSB. CHAPTER XV. DIVISION II.— INVERTEBRATES. CLASS v. — INSECTS. The Invertebrates haye no such skeleton as the Verte- brates, but, instead thereof, a collection of organs, more or less distinct, and generally composed of a soft, yielding texture j though occasionally protected by an external covering of shell, or other hard substance. The animals of this division, having no skeleton, are, of course, without any vertebral column, and are hence deno- minated Invertebral. The brain and nervous system are less dis- tinct and less important than those of the Vertebrates, and do not resemble the corresponding organs of that division ; while, with a few exceptions, the blood of the Invertebrates is white. Insects have no heart, but, in Ijeu of that organ, they arc supplied with a vessel, or reservoir, situated along the back, and extending from head to tail, which is filled with a transparent, viscous fluid, and undergoes irregular contractions. This reservoir contains the blood or nutritious fluid of the animal, which, by absorption, is conveyed gradually to the various organs. The bodies of insects are supplied with air by means of tubes, called tracheae, which convey it to every part. These tubes communicate externally by means of openings called stigmata ; and, therefore, tliroughout its entire circulation the blood undergoes the changes ■w rought upon it by the air. Two knotted cords, running the length of their bodies, take the place of the brain, and perform the same functions. No organs of hearing have yet been discovered, but they are known to possess the senses of sight, smell, taste, and feeling. A hard external covering serves to support the motions, and protect the organs, of insects. In some species it is merely a tough, muscular coating, which surrounds the body in the form SHEATH- WINGED INSECTS. 363 of rings, while others are provided with a complete horny or shell- like case. Most insects have wings, and such undergo certain metamor- phoses, or changes of form. Those which are unsupplied with wings continue during life of the same form and structure as at birth. They are all furnished with six legs, with the exception of the millepedes, which always have more, and the number of which also increases with their age. Linnasus forms seven orders of Insects, and his classification is founded upon the presence or absence of wings, their number, texture, arrangement and the nature of their surface, and also upon the presence or absence of a sting. These orders are — I. Coleoptera, or sheath-winged insects ; II. Hemiptera, or half-winged ; III. Lepidoptera, or scale-winged ; IV. Neuroptera, or nerve- winged ; V. Hymenoptera, or membrane-winged ; VI. Diptera, or two- winged; and VII. Aptera, or wingless insects. I. — SHEATH-WIXGED INSECTS. In the Coleopterous Insects the upper pair of wings consists of a crustaceous or horny sub- stance ; and these cover or defend thfi other pair, which, being of a more soft and flexible texture, are folded beneath them. This species of insects is very numerous and well known, and many of them are very remarkable for the singularity of their forms and the beauty of their colors. It includes the beetles, winged bugs, etc., all of which un- dergo a complete metamorphosis, or change of form. The Elephant Beetle is the largest of this kind hitherto known, and is found in South America, particularly Guiana and Surinam, 80* X DigeBtivf Apparatus of tho Bi^L'tle 354 INVEUTEBKATES. as well as about the river Oroonoko. It is of a black color, and the whole body is covered with a very hard shell, full as thick and a« Beetle. .Strong as that of a small crab. Its length, from the hinder part to the eyes, is almost four inches, and from the same part to the end of the proboscis, or trunk, four inches and three quarters. The transverse diameter of the body is two inches and a quarter, and the breadth of each elytron, or case for the wings, is an inch and three-tenths. The antennae, or feelers, are quite horny ; for which reason the proboscis, or trunk, is movable at its insertion into the head, and seems to supply the place of feelers. The horns are eight-tenths of an inch long, and terminate in points. The pro- boscis is an inch and a quarter long, and turns upwards, making a crooked line, terminating in two horns, each of which is near a quarter of an inch long, but they are not perforated at the end likf the proboscis of other insects. About four-tenths of an inch above the head, or that side next the body, is a prominence or small horn, which, if the rest of the trunk were away, would cause this part to resemble the horn of a rhinoceros. There is indeed a SHEATH-WINGED INSECTS. 355 beetle, so called, but then the horns or trunk has no fork at the end, though the lower horn resembles this. The feet are all forked at the end, but not like lobsters' claws. The Green Tiger Beetle. — The exceeding beauty of this insect is beyond all description. The upper surface of the body is a deep, dead green, changing under the microscope to a glossy gold, shot with red and green, the surface of the abdomen covered by the wings, and the entire under surface of the body, brilliaat emerald green, and when the insect is on the wing it sparkles in the sun like a .flying gem. Nor is this the last of its attractions, for when handled it gives forth a scent closely resembling that of the verbena. It is indeed as beautiful among insects as the tiger is among beasts, and is, perhaps, the more ferocious of the two. It runs and flies with great activity, and takes to the wing as easily as a bee or fly, and is in consequence rather difficult to capture without a net. Its jaws are long, sharp, curved like a sickle, and armed with several teeth. Its eyes are large and prominent, en- abling it to see on all sides. Its length is rather more than half an inch. The Hercules Beetle is worthy of its noble name. It sometimes measures not less than five or six inches in length. The wing-sheaths are smooth, of a bluish or brownish-grey color, and sometimes nearly black. The head and limbs are coal-black. From the upper part of the breast proceeds a horn of enormous length in proportion to the size of the body. From the front of the head proceeds another strong horn about two-thirds of the length of the former. This species is a native of South America. There great num- bers are seen on the tree called mammsBa. They rasp off the rind of the slender branches, by working nimbly round them with their horns, which are most useful instruments to them in this opera- tion. Thus they cause the juices to flow from the tree, which they drink till they are quite intoxicated, when, like other drunkards, they become unable to manage themselves, and then fall senseless from the tree. This species, from the largeness of its size, affords an admirable example of the characters of the genus. 800 inVEBTEBBAIES. The Ilerculos Beetle. The Stag Beetle is nearly three inches in length. It is of a dark-brown color, except the jaws, which are sometimes as red as coral, and which adds very much to its beauty. These resemble the horns of a stag, by which it is easily distinguished from other species, and on account of which it receives its name. This insect is called by the French, " le grand cerf-volant." The antennas of this species are club-shaped in the extre- mity divided into short comb-like leaves; the jaws are provided with teeth, and project so far beyond the head as to resemble horns, and thus give the animal somewhat of the resemblance of a stag ;" the two feelers, which are under the lip, are so thickly co- vered with hair, as to. appear like tufts. The usual residence and the favorite haunts of this species, the king, or rather giant of British insects, are hollow places in rotten and half-decayed wood, and under the bark of trees. In the south of England these insects are often found in oak and SHEATH-WINaED INStlOTS. 35/ willow-trees. They conceal themselves' during the day; in the evening they open the immense cases with which the upper part of their body is covered and defended, and then unfold their beautiful wings of the finest texture, and fly abroad, and feed on those leaves which afford both enjoyment and support. The Musk-Beetle — The beautiful beetles, of which the common Musk-Beetle is an excellent example, vary considerably in size ; some being several inches in length, while soaie are hardly one-guarter of an inch long. The extreme length of their antennae is the most conspicuous property, and from that peculiarity they are at once recognized. The Musk-beetle is a large insect, common in most parts of England. Its peculiar scent, something resembling that of roses, often betrays its presence, when its green color would have kept it concealed. When touched, it emits a curious sound, not unlike that of a bat, but more resembling the faint scratching of a per- pendicularly-held slate-pencil. Its larva bores deep holes in the trees, which are often quite honeycombed by them. Cabrion-Beetles. — Tiiese insects are found chiefly b'>'^h The Carrion Beetle. 358 INVERTEBRATES. as larvae and in a perfect state, choosing as their residence the half decayed and putrid bodies of animals. What is most repul- Bive and disgusting to us, is the most inviting and delightful to them. Their chief enjoyment lies in luxuriating on corruption and death. This furnishes a striking emblem of man estranged from God, avoiding the loveliness of holiness, and wallowing in the putridity of pollution and sin The Burting-Beetle. — This curious beetle derires its name from its habit of burying any small dead animal left on the surface of the ground. With such rapidity does it work, that two beetles have been known to cover up a sparrow within a few hours ; and so unwearied are they, that if several Burying-beetles are placed in a vessel filled with earth, and kept constantly supplied with dead frogs, mice, etc., they will continue to bury them as long as the supply is kept up. The object of this remarkable instinct, so beneficial in its effects, is to furnish food for the young who are hatched from eggs laid in the body of the animal during its burial. In this way innumerable carcasses which would pollute the atmo- sphere are removed, and made beneficial to the soil. The wing-cases and body of the burying-sylph are black ; the clubs of the antennae are red. The habits and economy of this species of insects are exceedingly striking, and cannot fail deeply to interest the reflecting and inquiring reader. The account is taken from a very intelligent writer on natural history, namely, M. Gleditech ; he was much surprised at seeing moles which were left dead upon the ground suddenly disappear ; he was therefore de- termined to make himself acquainted with the cause of this sin- gular occuirence. On the 25th day of the month of May, he placed a dead mole on the moist, soft earth of his garden ; in two days he found it sunk to the depth of four fingers' breadth into the earth. It was in the same position in which he had placed it, and its grave corresponded exactly with the dimensions of its body, both as to length and breadth. The day following the grave was half filled up : he cautiously drew out the mole, which exhaled the most pestiferous and offensive odor, and found directly under it little holes, in which were four species of the burying-sylph SHEATH-WINGED INSECIS. 359 epecies ; discovering at this time nothing but these beetles, he put them into the hollow, and they speedily hid themselves in the earth; he then replaced the mole where he found it; he placed a little soft earth over it, and left it, without looking at it for the space of six days. On the 12th of June he again took up the same carcass, which he found in the highest state of corruption, swarming with small, thick, whitish worms, which appeared evi- dently to be the family of the beetles. These circumstances in- duced him to believe that it was the beetles which had thus buried the molej and that they had done this for the sake of a lodging for their offspring. This same philosopher found, that in the course of fifty days, four beetles interred the bodies of four frogs, three small birds, two grasshoppers, and one mole, besides the entrails of a fish and two small pieces of the lungs of an ox. The Pellet Beetle This beetle is all over of a dusky black, rounder than those animals are generally found to be, and so strong, though not much larger than the common black beetle, that if one of them be put under a brass candlestick, it will cause it to move backwards and forwards, as if it were by an invisible hand, to the admiration of those who are not accustomed to the sight; but this strength is given it for much more useful purposes than those of exciting human curiosity, for there is no creature more laborious, either in seeking subsistence, or in. providing a proper retreat for its young. They are endowed with sagacity to discover subsistence, by their excellent smelling, which directs them in flights to excrements just fallen from xoMa. or beast, on which they instantly drop, and fall unanimously to work in form- ing round balls or pellets thereof, in the middle of which they lay an egg. These pellets, in September, they convey three feet deep in the earth, where they lie till the approach of spring ; when the eggs are hatched the nests burst, and the insects find their way out of the earth. Thcj assist each other with indefatigable in- dustry, in rolling these globular pellets to the place where they are to be buried This they perform with the tail foremost, by raising up their hinder part, and shoving along' the ball with their hind- feot. 360 INVERT EBKATES. The Death-Watch is now generally known to be m.T£S The Grasshopper. This insect may be divided into three parts; the head, the corslet, and the belly. The head is long, pointing down to the earth. Every one is struck with the resemblance which it bears tu the head of a horse. Its mouth is covered by something similar to a buckler ; this juts over it ; is armed with teeth of a brown color and hooked at the points. The tongue is large, reddish, and fixed to the upper jaw. The antennae are long and tapering to a point. The eyes are like two black spots, and very prominent ; the corslet is elevated, narrow, and armed above and below by two serrated spines. The back is defended by a strong buckler. To this the legs are firmly bound. What is very singular, round these muscles are seen the vessels by which the animal breathes, as white as snow. It is provided with four wings. The hinder wings are much finer and more expansive than the foremost, and are chiefly employed in its flight through the air. A short time after the wings are brought to maturity, the grass- hopper fills the meadows with its notes. Like the music of birds, it is a call to courtship. The male only is vocal. It is toward the latter end of autumn the female deposit." her eggs, sometimes HALF-WINQED INSECTS. 367 amounting to the amazing number of one hundred and fifty. She is provided with an instrument resembling a two-edged sword, by which she pierces the earth as deep as she can, and thus prepares a suitable place for depositing her eggs. This operation she sur- vives only for a short time. On the approach of winter she dries up, and then dies like a shrivelled old man, with complete decay. The Cricket is so well known as not to need description One sp-bcies, however, the Mole Cricket, which is, the pest of farmers and gardeners, burrows in the ground, and depositing from two hundred to four hundred eggs at a time, may require mention. When full grown, the Mole Cricket measures nearly two inches in length, and four lines in breadth. Its color is dark brown ; head oval, small and longish; two bristle-shaped and strong feelers; thorax covered with fine woolly hair; wings very broad and tri- angular, when expanded ; abdomen soft ; the two fore feet propor- tionally short, but broad and strong, adapted to dig in the earth. The Cockroach {Blatta orientalis) belongs to the family Blattidae. It was originally brought from abroad, and has com- pletely domesticated itself, just as the brown rat has done, so that few houses are free from it. Plant Lice. — These insects are usually found upon the leaves and stems of plants ; and the weaker the leaves and buds Plant Lice. are, these insects swarm upon them in greater abundance. Some plants are covered over with them, though they are not the cause 368 INVERTEBRATES. of the plant's weakness, but the sign ; however, by wounding and sucking the leaf, they increase the disease. They generally assume their color from the plant on which they reside. Those that feed upon pot-herbs and plum-trees, are of an ash-color, only they are greenish when they are young : those that belong to the alder and cherry-tree are black ; as also those upon beans, and some other plants: those on the leaves of apples and rose-trees are white, bat as they leap, like grasshoppers, some place them in the number of the flea kind. The most uncommon color' is reddish, and liee of this sort may be found on the leaves of tansey ; and their juice, when rubbed in the hands, tinges them with no disagreeable red. All these live upon their respective plant, and are often engendered within the very substance of the leaf. The Scale Insect is also very injurious to plants, living on the sap, and depositing its eggs on the bark. The cochineal of commerce is a scale insect. The vine-scale insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale. In old age, the scale ■ becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled. The eggs, which are laid under the body of the female, are covered with long white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. The Scale Insect. III. — SCALE-WINGED INSECTS. This order is divided into butterflies and moths ; the first of which fly in the daytime, and the latter only at night. They are all provided with four wings, and all pass through a complete series of metamorphoses. Their larvae, known under the name of worms or caterpillars, spin webs for their covering while in the chrysalis state. The silk of commerce is prepared from the web spun by the silkworm for its residence during this dormant state of existence. SCALE-WINGED INSEOFS. 370 INVEKTEBRATES. The Papilio, or Butterfly, in zoology, is a genus of insects belonging to the order of lepidoptera. It has four wings, imbri- cated with a kind of downy scales ; the tongue is convoluted in a spiral form, and the body is covered with the. finest hair. There are two hundred and seventy-three species, principally distinguished by the color of their wings. The caterpillar state is that through which every butterfly must pass before it arrives at its perfection and beauty. What a difierence betwixt the creeping,, loathsome caterpillar, which many OnterpiUarH. shudder even to touch, and the butterfly, with its lovely expandca wings, adorned with colors which almost vie with those of the rainbow ! The Large White Butterfly is a species with which we are well acquainted, and which even attracts the attention of little children. How often do we see them highly amused, pur- suing in the meadow those beautifully-adorned insects ! In the SCALE-WINGED INSECTS. 871. White Butterfly. caterpillar-state it is an insect very destructive to cabbages and cauli- flower-plants. "What a difference betwixt its appearance as a loath- some worm and its future appear- ance, whei provided with wings, and in som; measure an inhabitant of the aerial regions ! The Purple Emperor is the most beautiful of all the butterflies met with in Europe : it is not only the most lovely, but in its manners most interesting. Mi llaneworth, a celebrated naturalist, says, " That in its manners, as well as in the varying lustre of its purple plumes, it possesses the strongest claim to our attention. He commences his aerial movements from ten till twelve o'clock in the morning, ana at noon reaches his loftiest elevation." The Swallow-Tailed Butterfly moves with exceeding rapidity, nearly in a straight line, and is very difficult to capture. The color of the wings is black, variegated most beautifully with yellow markings, and near the ex- tremity of each hinder wing is a circular red spot, surmounted by a crescent of blue, and the whole surrounded by a black ring Moths. — The antennae are cetaceous, that is, bristly, gra- dually lessening from base to tip : when sitting the wings are deflex; and its flight is nocturnal. What the owl is among birds, the moth is among insects : it is a night-insect, carrying on its pursuits, and exercising all its activity amid the gloom of darkness. This genus, containing a vast number of species, is divided into assortments, according to the different habits of the animal. So numerous is the variety of moths, th^t there are actually four hundred and sixty species. All the creatures of these numerous species' are q-iiet by Swallow-Tailed Butterfly. S72 IMV£RT£BRdr£S. day, remaining fixed to the stalks or leaves of plants. As soon m night approaches they revive from their daily slumbers, and may be seen flying about in all their sportive liveliness. This disposi- tion is very deeply implanted in their nature. It even shows itself when they are confined in boxes. During the day they are dor- mant and motionless, without changing their place in the slighte;t degree; but as soon as the sun is about setting, they begin to awake, and flutter about and fly as much as the limits of their narrow prison will allow. The largest and most splendid of all the moths is the pTialsena aths. It is a magnificent insect. When its wings are extended, it is in measurement no less than eight inches and a half. It is beautified with a proportionate splendor of ornamental coloring. The ground-color is of a fine, deep, orange-brown. In the middle of each wing there is a large transparent spot, resembling a pieo» SCALE-WINGED INSECTS. 373 of Muscovy tale : each of these transparent spots is followed by a blajk border ; and across all the wings run lighter and darker bars, exhibiting a very fine assortment of varying shades. The lower wings are edged with a border of black spots on a pale buff-colorod ground. The antennae have a most elegant appearance. This kingly moth is a native of both the Indies, occasionally differing, however, in size and color. There is a very beautiful specimen of moth belonging to the assortment geometrx. Towards the middle of summer it is often seen upon the elder. It is called pTialaena sambucaria. It is of a pale sulphur color ; the wings are angular, and marked by narrow, transverse lines. It proceeds from a green caterpillar, and walks in a very peculiar manner, by raising up the body at each pro- gressive movement into the form of an arch, or loop, the two ex- tremities nearly meeting each other. In June or July it comes out a beautiful moth from a black chrysalis. The Death's-head Moth is the largest of the British Le- pidoptera, as it not unAequently measures nearly six inches across the wings. Its rather ominous name is derived from the singular marking in the thorax, ^hich does not require much imagination to represent a skull and i-ross-bones. Some naturalists have asserted that this moth makes its way into bee-hives, and robs the inhabitants of their honey, dis- arming their resentment by a curious squeaking noise which it his the power of producing. The uneducated rustics have a great horror of this insect, and consider its appearance as a most disastrous omen. In a small villao-e removed from the influence of railways, on one Sunday morning, as the inhabitants were going through the churchyard, a Death's-head Moth appeared on the patt. Every one recoiled in dismay, and no one dared approach the dreaded object. Sundry heads were shaken at the evil omen, and various prophetic remarks made. At last, the blacksmith summoned up courage, and with a great jump, came down on the unfortunate moth, and happily d& stroyed it. The people were in blissful ignorance that as there were several fields near planted with potatoes, on which vegetable 374 INVEETEBE AT B.S . the caterpillar gentl illy feeds, there were probably a few hundred of Death's-head Moths in the vicinity. In common with many other nocturnal insects, the eyes of the Death's-head Moth shine at night like two stars, which adds considerably to the terror inspired by its appearance. The Beown-tailed Moths emerge from . the chrysalis about the beginning of July. Then they are found flying about The Brown-tailed Moth. slowly in the evening, and depositing their eggs on the foliage of thsse favorite trees mentioned before. The caterpillars are hatched Cdfly in the autumn. They no sooner quit the egg, than they com- mence spinning a web; when they have completed a small web, they proceed to feed on the foliage, by eating the upper part of- the leaf, and leaving the under part untouched. This work of destruc- tion they prosecute with remarkable order. Every day they pro- ceed in the enlargement of their web, which affords them protec- tion in bad weather and at night. If they are not checked in operations, they succeed in doing very serious injury; but if gar- SCALE-'WINaEU INSECTS. 375 doners are diligent in the use of the pruning-knife, or a sharp hook, or a pair of shears, for separating their nests from the thrubs and plants, they will efiFectually put a stop to their ravages. No other method will serve the purpose. The Seeatella Moth is a small insect, which, like the owl, roams abroad during the night. It is furnished with its share of ornament. Its color is brown, and the upper wings, which are beautifully fringed, are marked with numerous black dots and stripes, The under wings are much smaller than the upper, and fringed at the edge. The hind legs are nearly twice the length of the body, and fringed at their articulations, or joints. The eggs from which the larvae, or worms, of this moth come forth, are .generally attached to the leaves of the pear-tree, but more seldom to those of the apple and plum in the month of May. These are succeeded by small, downy, fawn-colored cylin- ders J they contain a small yellowish caterpillar with a black head ; when its cell becomes too small, it is guided by instinct to divide it lengthways, by means of its jaws, and then, very nicely and completely, closes up the opening with new and suitable materials. The activity of this insect in making for itself a comfortable habi- tation, should teach us to seek after a title to a comfortable and secure abode beyond the skies, even a house not made with hands, etern£\l in the heavens. The mode which this caterpillar adopts in feeding is sin- gular. It does not quit its cell while it feeds j the cell is fixed to the leaf by silken threads ; the insect has the power of stretching out its body to a considerable extent; it gradually devours all within its reach, forming a complete circle; when this is effected, it cuts the threads which attach the cell to the spot, and crawls to another part of the leaf, to which it fixes its little humble abode. The period of its caterpillar life contiiiues fourteen days from the time it was hatched from the egg; then it becomes a torpid, mo- tionless chrysalis, in which state it continues about ten days. It is in the months of May or June these moths come forth in immense swarms. The females only deposit one egg at once and seldom more than one on the same leaf. These insects arc 376 INVERTEBEATEB.. small, yet, from their numbers and voracious appetite, they occ« sionally commit great devastation in our orchards. In some yearn the leaves of pear-trees have been completely destroyed, and in the summer season have been as completely denuded and stripped as in the middle of winter. The Clothes Moth is of a white, shining, silvery color. ■When the caterpillar-moth-worm comes from the egg, it imme< The Clotbes Moth. dkteiy commeneos preparing a suitable covering for its feeble frame. It spins a coating of silk, which is extracted from its own body, to which covering it very ingeniously attaches little pieces of nap, which it cuts with its curiously formed jaws, which resemble a pair of scissors. Unless it is compelled by the most urgent necessity, it never quits its warm, comfortable habitation. When it wishes to feed, it puts out its head at either end of its little mansion, as best suits its convenience. As its body enlarges, it adds to the size of its abode, and all the additions partake of the color of the different substances out of which they arc formed NERVE-WINGED INSECTS. 377 It has not only the art of lengthening, but also of widening, its little tenement. It actually makes a slit from end to end, which it fills up, and makes it as complete and secure as it was before the opening was made. Three weeks after it becomes a chrysalis, it comes forth a moth of silvery grey color. CHAPTER XVI. DIVISION II.— INVERTEBRATES. CLASS v. — INSECTS. ORDER IV. — NERVE -WINGED INSECTS. This order also has four wings, membranous, naked, and so interspersed with delicate veins, that they have the appearance of a beautiful network. The tail is not furnished with a sting, but that of the male has frequently a kind of forceps or pincers. They comprise the Ephemera, the Dragon Fly, the Ant-lion, White Ants, etc. Some undergo a complete metamorphosis, others only a partial change of form. Ephemerae, or Day-Flies — It is remarkable, that the larvx of the ephemerae flies live in the waters for the space of three years. When the regular time of their change arrives, it is effected in a few moments. Then it rises to the surface of the water, and becomes a winged chrysalis. It flies to the nearest resting-place, and in a moment it undergoes a second change, anc becomes a perfect ephemera. In this state it continues no long'ji than half an hour. It flutters and dances during its short exiht^ ence in the sunbeams, and after enjoying a few minutes of gaif »y and pleasure, its exintence is brought to a close. 32* ■■:■ Ephemerae, or Day-Flies. Tub Dbaqon-Fly. — There are twenty-one species, chiefly distinguished by their color. The characters are the following: — The mouth is furnished with jaws ; the fe,elers are shorter than the breast; and the tail of the male terminates in a kind of hooked forceps. All the species are provided with two very large and reticulated eyes, covering the whole surface of the head. They fly very swiftly, and prey while upon the wing, clearing the air of innumerable little flies. Their voracious appetite, and the mul- titude of lesser winged insects which, they destroy and devour, fully entitle them to the name vulgarly, but correctly, given to them, dragorirfly. In their own insect grade, they are indeed dfaffoiis. In the months of August and September they are found in our fields and gardens, especially near places where there are stagnant waters. The eggs from which they are produced are deposited in the waters, where they are hatched by the warmth of the temperature, and from which they come fully formed and provided with all their furious and voracious instincts. The great ones usually live all their time about waters ; but the smaller among NERVE-WINGED INSECTS. 379 The Dragon-Fly. hedges, and the smallest of all frequent gardens. The smaler kind often settle upon bushes, or upon the ground ; but the largo ones are almost always upon the wing, so that it is very difficult to take them. The eyes of the dragon-fly are remarkably curious, and by means of the microscope, present an astonishing assemblage of wonders. The colors with which this species is adorned are most bril- liant and various, consisting of green, blue, crimson, scarlet, and white In some cases all these colors are beautifully blended in the same individual. The wings are of the most delicate texture, admit of very considerable expansion, and cannot be looked upon by the careful student of Grod's works without admiration and delight. 380 INViiETEBRATES. Tkey are exceedingly ravenous ; they fall witn the greatest fury on all their fellow-insects, and indiscriminately devour them. Their tail is cloven, which has led many to believe they are pro- vided with a sting. Hence, too, they have received the name of Iwrse-stingers. The great dragon-fly is remarkable for the celerity and vigor of its flight. On one occasion a great dragon-fly was seen gently flying near a pond in search of its prey, when, on seeing a butter- fly, it suddenly caught it, and then sat down composedly on a twig and eat it piecemeal. The Caddis-fly. — This fly is well known to every angler both in its larva and in its perfect state. The larva is a soft white worm, of which fishes are exceedingly fond, and it therefore re- quires some means of defence. It accordingly actually makes foi itself a movable house of sand, small stones, straws, bits of shells, or even small living shells, in which it lives in perfect security, and crawls about in search of food, dragging its house after it. When it is about to become a pupa, it spins a strong silk grating over the entrance of its case, so that the water necessary for its respiration can pass through, but at the same time all enemies are kept out. When the time for its change has arrived, the pupa bites through the grating, rises to the surface, and crawls out of the reach of the water, which would soon be fatal to it. The skin then splits down the back, and the perfect insect emerges. The Ant-lion. — This insect, in its perfect form, although it is very elegant, exhibits no peculiarity worthy of notice, but in its larva state its habits are so extraordinary as to have excited general attention. As it is slow and awkward in its movements, it has recourse to stratagem for capturing the agile insects on which it feeds. Choosing a light sandy soil, it digs for itself a conical pit, at the bottom of which it conceals itself, leaving only its jaws ex- posed. When an unwary insect approaches too near the edge of the pit, the sand gives way, and down rolls the insect into the very teeth of the concealed Ant-lion, who instantly pierces its prey with its calliper-shaped fangs, and sucks out its juices through the jaws, which are hollow. Should, however, the Ant-lion miss its prey, NERVE-WINGED INSECTS. 381 and the insect endeavor to escape, its captor instantly makes such a turmoil by tossing up the sand with its closed jaws, and covering each side of the pit with the moving grains, that the insect is tolerably certain to be brought down to the bottom, and is seized by the Ant-lion, who immediately drags it below the sand. When the insect is very strong and struggles hard to escape, the Ant-lion shakes it about as a dog does a rat, and beats it against the ground until it is disabled. The Termites, or White Ants, as they are very erroneously called, belong to this order. These insects live in large societies, and build edifices, sometimes of enor- mous size, and almost as hard as stone. Twelve feet in height is quite common, so that were we to compare our works with theirs, St. Peter's in Rome, and St. Paul's in London, fall infinitely short of the edifices - constructed by these little creatures. The common Termes hellicosus, or warlike Termite, inhabits Africa. Not only does it build thcst White Anta. Habitationp of White Ants. ooa INVERTEBRATES. houses, but runs galleries underground, as, curiously enough, al- though blind, it always works either at night or in darkness. In each house or community, there are five different kinds of Termites : 1. The single male, or king, whose life is very short j 2. The sin- gle female or queen : these are the perfect insects, and have had wings, but have lost them soon after their admission into their cell ; they also have eyes ; 3. The soldiers or fighting men : these possess large jaws, do no work, but repel adversaries and watch as sentinels ; 4. The pupae, who resemble the workers, except that they possess the rudiments of wings ; and, 5. The larvaa, or workers. These do all the work, i. e. they collect food, attend to the queen, and watch over the eggs and young, and build and repair their castle. These are more numerous than all the other kinds. On the approach of the rainy season, the pupae obtain wings and issue forth in swarms. Few, however, survive. Myriads are devoured by birds, reptiles, and even by man ; and many are car- ried out to sea, and perish there. Those that do escape are speedily found by the laborers, who enclose a pair in a clay cell from which they never emerge. The male soon dies, but the female, after rapidly increasing to nearly three inches in length and one in breadth, continues to lay eggs unceasingly for a very long time. This cell becomes the nucleus of the hive, and round it all the other cells and galleries are built. These insects are terribly destructive, as they eat through wooden beams, furniture, etc., leaving only a thin shell, which is broken down with the least extra weight, and many are the occasions when an unsuspecting individual, on seating himself on an apparently sound sofa or chair, finds himself, like Belzoni in the Pyramid, reposing among a heap of dust and splinters. ORDER V. — MEMBRANE-WINGED INSECTS. These have four naked membranaceous wings, but they have not that delicate, netted structure, which belongs to the last order. The bodies of the females are terminated by a borer or perfoi-ator, or by a sting. These insects all undergo a complete metamorphosis. The ant, wasp, and bee, belong to this order MEMBRANE-WINGED INSECTS. 383 They live in societies. In some of the tribes of insects of this kind, there is, beside the males and females, a third sort, called neuters, as among the ants and bees. Sometimes the neuter, and sometimes the female, is without wings, and sometimes without a sting. Bees. — Everything connected with the history of bees is full of interest, calculated to excite our wonder, and to promote our improvement. When they begin to work in theii hives, they divide themselves into four companies. One company roves in the fields, and provides materials for the structure of the honeycomb ; another company employs the wax provided by the first, and lays out the bottom and partition of the cells ; a third company is en- gaged in making the inside smooth from the corners and the angles ; and the fourth company brings food for the rest, or relieves those who return with their respective loads. What is surprising, the companies change their employments by mutual consent, and 384 INVERTEBRATES. perform the different parts most amicably by turns. Such is their diligence, that in one day they can build and complete cell? foi three thousand bees. Observe and admire their sagacity in the formation of their cells. As the compass is very limited within which their cells are formed, they use the smallest possible quantity of materials, so Queen Bee. Working Bee. Drone. that there is no unnecessary thickness in the partition-walls. Theii edifice too is so formed, that they have the greatest degree of ac- commodation in the smallest space. And they employ the spot in such a way that no room whatever is lost. The shape of thp cells is hexagonal, that is, six equal sides. By this shape there is an economy of wax, as the partition of one cell makes the partition of the next. Thus no material is lost. Then these cells joined together, there is no loss of space, as there is no void. And there is, by this shape, greater capacity or room within the cell, than by any other form. The mouth of each cell is made considerably thicker and stronger than any other part, as it is most exposed. The combs lie parallel to each other. Between each of them ther J is a space left, which serves as a' street, and is of sufficient tjrcadth to allow two bees to pass each other without inconvenience. There are also holes which go quite through the combs, and serve as lanes for the bees to pass from one comb to another, without being obliged to go a great way about. The royal cells are much larger than any others, and are of an ovalshape. When a worker larva is placed, in a royal cell, and fed in a royal manner, it imbibes the principles of royalty, and becomes a queen accordingly. This practice is adopted if the queen bee should die and there be no other queen to take her place. ME MnRANE-WlNGED INSECTS. 385 The Queen Bee is lady paramount in her own hive, and Buffers no other queen to divide rule with her. Should a strange queen gain admittanee, there is a battle at once, which ceases not until one has been destroyed. At the swarming time, the old queen is sadly put out by the en- croachments of various young queens, who each ^""g °f ^''' '''b'^'s' "agnifi"*- wish for the throne, and at last is so agitated that she rushes out of the hive, attended by a large body of subjects, and thus the Recs SwanniDg. first swarm is formed. In seven or eight days, the queen next in age also departs, taking with her another supply of subjects. When 33 z 386 INVERTEBRATES. all the swarms have left the original hive, the remaining queens fight until one gains the throne. The old method of destroying bees for the sake of the honey was not only cruel but wasteful, as by burning some dry " puff- ball" the bees are stupefied', and shortly return to consciousness. The employment of a "cap" on the hive is an excellent plan, as the bees deposit honey alone in these caps, without any admixture of grubs or bee-bread. Extra hives at the side, with a communi- cation from the original hive, are also useful. The queen bee lays about eighteen thousand eggs. Of these about eight hundred are males or drones, and four or five queens, the remainder being workers. Wasps — The mouth of the wasp has maxillae without any proboscis, and thus differing from the bee, which is provided with a proboscis, which it can introduce into the bosom of flowers and extract the delicious nectar. The upper wings of the wasp are plicated; the sting is pointed and concealed; the eyes are lunar; and the body naked and smooth. It is said there are twenty-eight species. Of thecommon wasps there are three sorts : this is no doubt applicable to the other species. There are the queens, or females, the males, and the common laboring wasps, called mules, which are neither male nor female, and therefore barren. The queens are much larger than the other wasps, and the great size of their body corresponds to the prodigious quantity of eggs with which they are charged. The males are less than the queens, and have nc stings, with which both the queens ana ttie mules are furnished. In one nest there are two or three hundred males, and as many females; but of course the number depends on the size of the nest The mules are a very serviceable part of the community. They are the laborers and the domestic servants belonging to the nest. Even toasps can furnish an example of a well-regulated domestic establishment. These muks procure materials for the nest, and make use of the materials for its structure. They also fiirnish the other wasps and their young with provision. Hovi M KM BBANE-WINOED INSEOTB. 387 Common Wasp. amazing to think of the instinct by which they are guided in thesa necessary and useful operations ! A wasp's nest is commonly round, and made of a substance resembling fine paper; the common covering consists of several leaves, or layers; it is pierced by two holes at a distance; the one is used for going in, and the other for going out; the cells are arranged in combs, after the manner of bees. ' Hornets. — The dreaded Hornet is usually found in woods, where it builds its nest in the hollows of trees. A deserted hut is a favorite spot, and when occupied by a full nest of hornets, is not particularly safe to enter, as the sting of this insect is peculiarly B88 INVERTEBRATES. severe. " In 1847," says Mr. Wood, " while on an cntomologii.al excursion in Bagley Wood, I saw five hornets sitting in a row, gnawing a dead branch. I was rather fearful of disturbing them, The Hornet. lut at the same time, they were much wanted for a museum. I hey were all secured by tapping , each in succession with a twig, and receiving it in my net as it flew off. Each bit a hole in the net, which had to be repaired before it could be used again with Bafety." The Wood-ant is the largest of the American or European species. It is found principally in woods, and builds a large nest, which looks like a hillock of sand and earth, intermixed with bits of stick, leaves, etc. The interior of this hill is chambered out into a variety of apartments, and is traversed by passages. The so-called ants' eggs are not eggs at all, bnt the pujia cases of the insect ; and if opened, the perfect insect is seen curled up inside. In the autumn, the ants burst forth by thousands, and may be seen hovering in clouds above the nest. Their beautiful wings do not last long, for when a female ant escapes, and founds an infant colony, her wings are soon lost. Few do escape, as the birds find these living clouds a most agreeable and plentiful repast. MEMBRANE- WINGED INSECTS. 389 Aiits do not, as has been so frequently said, lay up stores of corn for the winter, for they are in a state of torpidity during the cold months, and require no food. Moreover, an ant would find as much difficulty in eating or digesting a grain of corn as we should in devouring a truss of straw. The Ichneumons form a very large section. They are most-useful to mankind, as one ichneumon will destroy more cater- pillars than a man could kill in his lifetime. They do not, as most other insects, deposit their eggs upon vegetable or dead animal substances, but they actually bore holes in other insects while they are still in the larva state, and leave the eggs to hatch in their living receptacle. The most common ichneumon is a very small insect, not so large as an ordinary gnat. This little creature may be seen searching for caterpillars. It generally selects the common cabbage caterpillar, and sitting upon it, pierces with its sting, or ovipositor as it is called, the skin of the caterpillar, and deposits an egg. After repeating this operation many times, it flies off, arid the caterpillar proceeds as before in the great business of its life, that is, eating, and continues in apparently perfect health until the time for its change into the chrysalis state occurs. The good condition of it, however, is merely deception, for the offspring of the little ichneumon have all this while been silently increasing in size, and feeding on the fat, etc., of the caterpillar, but cautiously avoiding any vital part, so that the plump appear- ance of the caterpillar is merely produced by the young ichneu- mons Mng snugly under the skin. Just as the caterpillar com- mences its change, out come all the ichneumons, looking like little white maggots, and immediately each spins for itself a yellow oval case, frequently enveloping the form of the now emaciated cater- pillar In a few days a little lid on the top of each case is pushed open, and the perfect flies issue forth, and immediately coiumenco their own work of destruction. .33 * 890 INVERTEBRATES. ORDER VI. — TWO -WINGED INSECTS. Insects of this order have only two wings, but beneath them are balancers or poisers. Their mouths are frequently armed with lancets and suckers, by means of which they pierce the skin of animals, and feed upon their blood. To this order belong some of the most troublesome and annoying of the whole animal crea- tion, yiz., the various species of gnat and gad-fly, the mosquito, the common house-fly, the horse-fly, etc. They attack both men and other animals, and are found in almost every part of the globe. Their larvse are deposited in the skins and intestines of brute animals, sometimes even in those of men, in putrid meat, in cheese, mud, and water. They pass through a complete meta- morphosis. The Gnat. — The mouth is furnished with a fleshy pro- boscis and two lateral lips. There are no less than one hundred The Qnat. and twenty-nine species, which arc chiefly distinguished by their feelers. TWO-WIiJGED INSECTS. 391 There is no species of insects so troublesome to man as the gnat. Others give occasional annoyance, like the wasp; but the gnats thirst for human blood, and follow us in companies with the most persevering constancy, till they have succeeded in satiating their desires. In many marshy places in our country they swarm in myriads. There, the legs and arms of individuals are swelled to an enormous size, by the bitings of these voracious and insolent insects. In many other countries they are much more troublesome than in ours. There is something very singular in the trunk of the gnat, or that instrument with which it is provided, and by which it inflicts such pain on others, and obtains so much gratification for itself. This instrument is a kind of sheath, which contains several piercers. These issue, at the pleasure of the insect, from a very narrow aperture. They are darted, in a moment, into the flesh of the object on which it lights. Gnats are careful in the choice of the particular place on the skin where they inflict the wound. It will try several before it sends out its cruel piercers. The place must have two properties : first, it must be easily pierced ; and, secondly, there must be a vessel underneath con- taining as much blood as it may have occasion to suck, to satisfy its craving desires. The wings of a gnat are a very curious structure, and worthy of attentive observation. By a close examination it is found that these wings are covered with what seems at first a beautifully-colored powder. By the help of the microscope, this powder consists of regularly organized bodies resembling scales and feathers. Though they are bestowed much more sparingly than upon the butterfly, yet they are arranged with the utmost regularity. The Gadfly has, from the most ancient times, been known as the terror of the herd. At the sound of its approach, the cattle are driven almost mad with terror. The young gadflies are nourished under the skin, where they remain until they are fit to pass into the pupa state, when they bury themselves in the ground, and, after a few days spent under the earth, issue forth in their perfect state. 392 INVERTEBRiTES. HoRSE-BOT The Horse-bot is the larva of a Hy rescmb/ing a humble-bee, with two wings. The female lays her eggs on the shoulders, manes, and knees of horses, which they lick oflF and swallow. They hatch in the stomach, feed in the larva state all the winter on the mucilage, and in spring are found in the horse's stomach, sometimes in great numbers. They resemble, in size and form, a date-stone, having two hooks at the fore end, with which they adhere to the inner coat of the stomach, often penetrating from one-fourth to half an inch deep into the white insensible tissue, and become as if dis- torted by it. If numerous, they cause violent pain ; and, as they irritate the stomach, and extract a great deal of nourishment from the animal, they necessarily injure digestion. Flies. — Of the Musca, or Flies, there are one hundred and twenty-nine species, chiefly distinguished by the peculiiirity of their feelers. The large Btiick Fly. wiNQLESS INSECTS. 393 The scientific name of the large black fly is Musca Cho/- melton. It proceeds from an aquatic larva, that is, larva which exists in the water in its embryo state. The size of the larva is considerable, measuring two inches and a half in length. The shape is flattened and the color brown. This larva is common in stagnant waters during the summer months. It passes into the chrysalis state without casting its skin, which dries over it, so as to preserve the original appearance of the animal, only in a move contracted state. ORDER VII. — WINGLESS INSECTS. A great variety of insects that have no wings are included in this order. Among them are found the flea, the millipede, the louse, the spider, the scorpion, etc. The Flea The strength and agility of this curious but annoying little insect is perfectly wonderful. Many of my readers have doubtless seen the exhibition of the Indus- trious Fleas, who drew little carriages, and car- ried comparatively heavy weights with the greatest ease. The apparatus with which it extracts the blood of its victims is very curious, and forms a beautiful object under a micro- °'^ scope of low power. Its leap is tremendous in proportion to its size. This property it enjoys in common with many other insects, among which the common G-rasshopper, the Frog-hopper, and thf Halticas, or Turnip-flies, are conspicuous. In all these insects the hinder pair of legs are very long and powerful. The MilXipede. — Those of the East Indies, whore they grow to the largest size, are about six inches long, of a ruddy color, and as thick as a man's finger. They consist" of many joints, and from each joint is a leg on each side : they are covered with hair, and seem to have no eyes; but there are two feelers on the head, which they make use of to find out the way they are to pass : the head is very round, with two small sharp teeth, with which they inflict wounds that are very painful and dangerous. A sailor that was bit by one on board a ship, felt an excessive 3&4 INVERTEBRATES. pain, and his life was supposed to be in danger ; however, he reco- vered by the application of roasted onions to the part, and was «oon quite well. Of this animal there are different kinds ; some living, like worms, in holes in the earth ; others under stones an;? among rotten wood; so that nothing is more dangerous than* removing those substances, in the places where they breed. The Louse has neither beak, teeth, nor any kind of mouth, as Dr. Hooke described it, for the entrance into the gullet is abso- lutely closed. In the place of all these, it has a proboscis oi trunk, or, as it may be otherwise called, a pointed, hollow sucker, with which it pierces the skin, and sucks the human blood, taking that for food only. The stomach is lodged partly in the breast and back; but the greatest portion of it is in the abdomen. When swollen with blood, it appears of a dark brown color, which is visible through the skin, and is either a faint red, or a full or bright brown, as the contents of the stomach are more or less changed. When it is empty it is colorless; but when filled it is plainly discernible, and its motion seems very extraordinary. It then appears working with very strong agitations, and somewhat resembles an animal within an animal. Superficial observers are apt to take this for the pulsation of the heart; but if the animal be observed when it is sucking, it will then be found that the food lakes a direct passage from the trunk to the stomach, where the remainder of the old aliment will be seen mixing with, the new, and agitated up and down on every side. If this animal be kept from food two or three days, and then placed on the back of the hand, or any soft part of the body, it will immediately seek for food ; which it will the more readily find, if the hand be rubbed till it grows red. The animal then turns its head, which lies between the two fore legs, to the skin, and diligently searches for some pore. When found, it fixes the trunk therein, and soon the microscope discovers the blood ascending through the head, in a very rapid and even frightful stream. The louse has, at that time, sufficient appetite to feed in any posture — it is then seen sucking, with its head downward and its tail elevated. If, during this operation, the skin be drawn WINGLESS INSECTS. 395 tight, the trunk is bound fast, and the animal it incapable of dis- engaging itself ; but it more frequently suffers i.'om its gluttony, since it gorges to such a degree that it is crushed to pieces by the slightest impression. The Spider. — The aranea, or spider, is a genus of apterous insects. The mouth is furnished with short horny jaws; lip rounded at the apex.; ' feelers two, curved, jointed, and sharp at the tip. The eyes are eight, rarely six ; no antennae : its feet are eight; and behind, it is furnished with teats for spinning. They fix the ends of the threads by applying these nipples to any sub- stance, and the thread lengthens in proportion as the animal re- cedes from the place. They are able, by means of their claws, to reascend the threads, with great ease and rapidity, much in the same manner as sailors warp up a rope. Spiders differ much in their appearance, size, and habits. Some are smooth, and others are covered with hair. It is said that in America there is a kind more than forty times larger than those of Britain. Many spiders are exceedingly venomous. Their bite is small, is not only dangerous, but in some cases mortal. Spiders lay from five to six hundred eggs. It is astonishing the instinctive ingenuity they employ for ensnaring flies, the objects of their prey. When a fly is caught in the web, the spider, ■which was before concealed in ambush, in a moment rushes from its hiding-place, darts upon it, firmly fixes its claws upon it, and then sucks out all its juice, which soon terminates its life. The Bied Spidee is a native of Surinam, and was brought into notice by that indefatigable naturalist, Madame Merian. Her account of it is very short. She relates that it carries about with it a habitation, resembling the cocoon of some of the moths, and that it is armed with sharp fangs and inflicts dangerous wounds, at the same time injecting into the wound a poisonous liquid. She also tells us that it feeds principally upwn ants, but that in their absence it drags little birds out of their nests, and then, as she pathetically observes, " sucks all the blood out of their poor little bodies." Here, however, it is generally supposed that Madame Merian has been imposed upon, as is evidently the case in another 396 INVERTEBRATES. portion of her work, where she has drawn a curious insect, com pounded of the head of a lantern-fly, and the body of a cicada. She seems to have had her doubts on the subject, for she takes care to say, " The Indians told me." The common Garden, or Geometrical Spider, as it is called from the mathematical regularity of its net, is an excellent Qarden Spider. example of the Spiders. The net .is formed from a gummy snb- stance secreted in an apparatus called the spinneret, through the holes of which the gummy secretion is drawn, and becomes h ird when exposed to the air. Each thread is composed of many thou- sand lines. When the web is completed, the Spider generally hides itself under a leaf or other convenient lurking-place, and from thence pounces upon any unwary fly that has entangled itself in the slender meshes. Should the fly be a large one, the Spider rapidly encircles it with fresh threads until it has bound its wmga and legs to the body, and then breaking off the few threads that hold it to the net, bears it off triumphantly to its hiding-place Frequently, the Geometrical Spider sits in the centre of the web WINGLES.* INSECTS. 397 apparently enjoying the air, and if disturbed shakes the net ao violently that its shape is completely obscured by the rapidity of the vibrations. The House Spidee makes a thicker and irregular web, and hides itself at the bottom o^f a silken tunnel communicating with the web. An acquaintance of mine had so far tamed a huge house spider, that it would come and take a fly out of his hand. He states, that as it sat at the bottom of its den, its eyes gleamed like diamonds. Several endeavors have been made to procure silk froui spiders, but although a sufficient quantity has been obtained to weave gloves from, yet spiders are so pugnacious that they cannot be kept together. The eggs of the Spiders are enclosed in a silken bag, and when hatched, the young keep closely together, and when dispersed by an alarm, soon reassemble. The Tarantula, whose bite was fabled to produce convul- sions which could only be appeased by music, is a spider of con- siderable size, inhabiting the south of Europe. It lives in holes •vbout four inches deep in the ground. 34 Th« Soorpton. 898 INVERTEBRATES. The Scorpion. — These formidable creatares inhabi. most of the hotter parts of the globe. They are quite as pugnacious as the spiders, and if several are placed in one box, they will fight until few survive, who immediately devour their fallen foes. The maxillae of the Scorpion are developed into large claws, like those of the lobster. With these, the Scorpion seizes its prey, and while holding it pierces it with its sting, which is situated at the extremity of its tail. The tail is composed of six joints, ren- dering it very flexible. The sting of this creature is exceedingly painful, and with some persons dangerous"; indeed, the sting of the large black Scorpion of Ceylon is said to cause death. CHAPTER XVII. DIVISION II.— INVERTEBRATES. CLASS VI.— CRUSTACEOUS ANIMALS. CLASS VII.— MOLLUSKS. The Crustacea have articulated limbs, antennae and jaws, very similar to those of insects, among which they have sometimes been included; but they differ from the latter in their respiratory apparatus — breathing by means of gills, and hav-lMg a regular double circulation. After passing through the gills, the blood is collected into one large vessel, which distributes it through the entire body. Returning, it is collected into another vessel situated near the back, performing in some respects the ofSce of a ventricle, and is thence again sent to the gills. The animals of this class are enveloped in a tolerably thick, firm shell, which shelters and protects the soft parts from injury, besides serving as instruments of motion. This shell being inca- pable of growth, it is occasionally changed, to accommodate the' increasing size of the animal ; at which times the body being in a soft and defencolcss state, the animal usually conceals itself until ORUSTACEOUS ANIMALS. 399 the shell is restored, which is effected by a deposition of calcareous matter on the external membrane of the skin. They all also pos- sess the curious power of reproducing a lost or injured limb. In the former case, a fresh limb supplies the place of that lost; and in the latter case, the animal itself shakes off the injured joint, and a new one soon takes its place. Lobsters, when alarmed, fre- quently throw off their claws. In some of the Crustacea, near the lower end of the stomach, where it begins to narrow, are situated a number of teeth, or sub- stances of a bony nature resembling teeth, usually five in number, placed upon the opposite sides of the organ. These, being moved by muscles attached to them, thoroughly grind the food passing between them, which is then discharged through an orifice into the intestines. Ordinarily the animals of this class reside in the water, though some few are found upon the land. Upon being taken from the water, the former do not immediately die, but live for some time thereafter. Their flesh furnishes a very delicious food, but it is heavy and very diificult of digestion. The Common Crab is abundantly taken on our coasts by fishermen, who employ for its cap- ture a wicker basket called a " creel " or crab- pot. The crab-pots are made each with an aper- ture which permits the animal to enter, but for- bids its egress — just like a common wire mouse- trap. A piece of a fish is fastened at the bottom of the creel, and the whole apparatus let down to the bottom of the water, guarded by a line connected with a float, by means of which the fishermen draw it up and then remove its contents. Crab. 400 INVEKTEBRATIB. The Hermit Crab is not so well protected as most of his relations, for his tail has no shelly armor. He is therefore foreea to protect his undefended tail hy putting it into an empty shell, usually that of a whelk, and then walks about, dragging his curious house after him. Sometimes, two hermit crabs wish to obtain possession of the same shell, and then there is a battle royal. When the crab grows larger, he only has to change his old shell for a new one, and it is very amusing to see them slipping their tails first into one shell and then into another, until they have pleased themselves with a good fit. The Land Crabs make annual excursions to the sea in large armies. They go straight forward, and nothing except a house, or such insurmountable barrier, can stop them. Those of Jamaica are particularly celebrated. The Kiver Cray-fish is common in most of the rivers and brooks of England. It resides in holes in the bank, sometimes excavated by itself, but more often the deserted habitations of water-rats. In rocky situations it lives under and among the stones. The excellence and delicacy of its flesh causes it to be much sought after. The usual method of catching these animals is by lowering a net to the bottom of the water, baited with a piece of meat. The cray-fish soon discover this, and come in numbers to the bait, when the net is suddenly hauled up, and most of the cray-fish secured. Some, however, escape by darting off backwards, a movement produced by the violent bending of their tails. It is a favorite amusement with boys to search for them in their holes, and drag them from their concealment. The -Common Lobster is found in great abundance on our coasts, usually in the clear rocky waters. The fishermen take great numbers of lobsters in baskets made on the same principle as those used for the capture of the crab. The powerful tail of the lobsters enables them to spring through a great distance if alarmed, and tfiey have been seen to pass nearly thirty feet. They direct their course with wonderful accuracy, and can throw them- selves through apertures hardly larger than the size of their bodice Of course they spring tail foremost. M0LLUSK8 401 Lobster. The grasp of the lobster's claw is so tight that to break off the claws is often the only method of disengaging its hold. Shrimps are taken in nets swept along the sandy bottom of the sea. The chief distinction in the appearance of these two creatures is the serrated or toothed ridge which runs along the back of the head, or rather carapace. When in their natural state, they are of a brown color, and only assume the pinkish hiie when boiled. Spirits of wine has the same effect. MOLLUSKS. This is a large and extensive class, embracing a great variety of animals, whose structure, residence, and habits, are but obscurely and imperfectly known. Among them are the cuttle, fish, squid, oyster, clam, muscle, snail, and, in short, nearly all the testaceous animals, or shell-fish, as they are usually called, although they have no resemblance to fishes, and do not all inhabit the water. As it respects their internal structure and organization, they are undoubtedly superior to the two classes last described ; but in regard to intelligence and instinct, they are, upon the whole, inferior, -and are not subjects of so much interest. The MoUusca are destitute of bones and of artieullfted limbs. Their bodies are generally of a soft texture, and fre- quently, at first sight, appear to be little else than a simple mucous 34* 2 a 402 ' INVERTEBRATES. mass, without parts, and almost without organization. Their muscles are fix^ into the ^kin, which is naked, very sensible, and constantly moistened by a fluid furnished by its pores. The con- tractions of these muscles produce certain obscure and indistinct motions of their whole bodies, by means of which they are enabled to swim and crawl, or even seize those objects which are adapted to their nourishment. But as no part is supported by any solid foundation, like the bones of vertebral animals, their motions are generally slow, awkward, and limited. Their bodies are generally covered by a fold or reflection of the skin, which envelops them completely, and is called their mantle. In some species, the two folds of the mantle are united at their edges, so as to form a complete bag, in which the body of the animal is contained, opening only at one end by a sort of canal or snout : in some, it extends in two opposite directions, so as to answer the purpose of fins or oars. Sometimes there is only this simple membranous covering j but more frequently there is a hard external shell, which serves as a retreat into which the animal may withdraw itself, and which it can carry about upon its back in all its changes of place. These shells difiier a good deal in shape, color, and texture, in different species ; and among them are found some whose form, polish, and splendid tints, place them among the most beautiful objects in nature. The MoUusca have no brain nor spinal marrow. Their ner- vous system consists merely of a number of nervous masses, dis- tributed in different parts of their bodies, from which are sent out a great many sinall branches, that mutually unite with each other. The principal of these, which is sometimes called the brain, ,is situated round the oesophagus, and envelops it like a collar. In a few species it is contained in a cartilaginous case. Their respira- tion is not uniform. It is generally carried on by organs resem- bling the gills of fishes, which are acted upon either by fresh or salt water ; but, in some cases, air is respired directly from the atmosphere. The circulation is always double; that is to say, there is a passage of the blood through the respiratory organs, distinct from that through the rest of the body. This circulation is car- MOLLUSKB 403 Shells. ried on by either one or more hearts. When there is only one, it is situated so as to receive the blood from the gills, and circulate it through the body. When there are two, the second is situated so as to circulate through the gills the blood coming from the body. In some species, there are three hearts ; and in this case, as there are two sets of gills, a distinct heart is devoted to each. The blood in the Mollusca is thin, of a bluish white, and always cold. The organs of digestion vary very much. Sometimes there are organs for mastication, and sometimes not. Some species have only a single stomach, and others have several ; the structure of this organ, in some species^ very much resembling that of the gizzard of birds. In some species there are four stomachs, which bear a great analogy to those of the ruminating animals, and have been supposed to answer a similar purpose. In the intestines there is as great a variety. Mollusks are divided into the Cephalous, (those which have heads), and the Acephalous, (or those which are destitute of heads). The first are subdivided into the Cephalopods, naked and 404 INVERTEBRATES. testaceous, having feet arranged in a circular manner around the heads ; the Pteropods, or wing-footed mollusks ; and the Gastero- poda, or belly-footed. The Acephalous mollusks comprise the Conchiferous, or shell-bearing, and the Tunicated, which are co- vered with a leathery or membranous tunic. The Common Cuttle-fish is an example of a naked ce- phalopodous moUusk. This repulsive-looking creature is common on most shores, and is, in spite of its unpleasant appearance, often used for food. Its eight long and flexible arms are covered with suckers of various sizes, enabling their owner not only to fix itself firmly to the rocks on which it dwells, but to seize and retain with the greatest tenacity any unfortunate fish or shell that may happen to come within its reach. Its powerful parrot-like beak enables it not only to devour fishes, but even to crush the shells and Crustacea that are entangled in its deadly embraces. In England the Cuttle does not grow to any great size, but in the Indian Seas it is abso- lutely dangerous, and the crews of boats are forced to be armed with a hatchet, to cut ofi' the arms of the cuttle-fish. There are few who have not heard of the color called " sepia." This is, or ought to be, prepared from a black pigment, secreted by the Cuttle-fish, and used in order to escape its foes, by blacken- ing the water with the ink, and hurrying oflf under shelter of the dense cloud of its own creating. Dr. Buckland actually drew a portrait of a fossil Cuttle-fish with some of its own ink that still remained in its body. The substance sold in the shops as cuttle-fish bone is a chalky substance secreted from the mouth of the fish, and com- posed of an infinite number of plates, joined by myriads of little pillars. The entire body is soft, and encased in a coarse, leather-like skin, unprotected by any shell. The Argonaut, or Nautilus, is an example of the Testa- ceous Mollusks. This curious creature, about which so many marvellous and poetical tales have been told, is very abundant in the Mediterranean. It has been clearly proved that the Nautilus does not rrg« MOLIiUBKS. 40ft itsell along the surface of the water by the expanded arms used as sails. These arms are in fact used to cover the shell, and it is from these that the beautiful shell is secreted. The Argonaut propels itself through the water by violently ejecting water from the tube with which it, as well as the cuttle-fish, is furnished for that purpose. The colors of the living animal of the Nautilus are exceedingly beautiful. The arms of this creature are furnished with suckers. Its shell, when the creature is living, is flexible and semi-transparent. Slugs and Snails are the terrestrial Gasteropods. The Slugs are well-known invaders of our gardens, and, together with the Snail, the Caterpillar, and the mysterious " Blight," are objects of the gardener's most intense hatred. The Black Slug is usually found by hedge-banks, and in grassy mea^ dows. It seldom ventures out by day, especially if the day be bright ; but at night, when the dew is on the ground, it may be seen trailing its dark length through the herbage. The Snail. — There are several species of the Snail, among which the Edible Snail {Helix pomatia), the Belted Snail {Helix 406 INVERTEBRATES. Tiemoralis), and the common Garden Snail (^Utlix aspersd), are the most conspicuous. The Edible Snail was imported into Eng- land by the Romans, who prized them highly, and fattened them in a building erected .for that express purpose, as indeed they are now in some parts of the Continent. This snail grows to a large size, nearly attaining the magnitude of an ordinary closed fist. The eyes of the Snail are placed at the extremity of the tentacula, or " horijs," as they are usually called. The common Garden Snail is so well known that no descrip- tion of it is needed. It lays eggs very large in comparison with the size of the parent; they are about the size of small peas, round, soft, and semi-transparent. They are deposited about two inches below the surface of the earth. This creature is very tenacious of life. A living snail was exhibited, at the Ashmolean Society at Oxford, which had made a long sea voyage, packed up in cotton wool. An immersion in water soon brought the inhabitant to view, and when it was exhi- bited it was crawling about a box in perfect health. The Eoyal Staircase Wentletrap, an example of the marine Gasteropoda, is a native of the Chinese and Indian seas, and was formerly so scarce that a specimen two inches in length would sell for a hundred pounds, in England. Even now, a very fine specimen cannot be obtained under six or seven pounds. For this reason, the specific name "pretiosa" was afSxed to it by Lamarck. The Monet Cowry and the Whelk. — The Cowries are not less celebrated for the elegance of their form, and the beauty of their markings, than for the curious circumstance that one species is used as current coin in Guinea and Bengal, thus being employed for the same purpose by two entirely distinct races of men, situated in different quarters of the globe. Their value is of course small in proportion to gold or silver. At the present time a rupee in Bengal is worth 3200 Cowries, the value of the rupee being about 52 cents. The Limpets are spread over every latitude, except the Arctic regions. The common Limpet is to be found on every rock M0LLU8KS. 407 and large stone at the seorside. The variety of its attachment to the rocks is very curious, and well repays a careful .examination. Every one who has seen a living limpet knows how firmly it fixes itself to the rock. This is done by the inhabitant creating a vacuum on the under surface of its body, which causes the pres- sure of the atmosphere to keep it so tightly fixed to the rockS; that a blade of a strong knife is required to detach it. Frequently the margin of the shell adapts itself to the shape of the substance to which it adheres, proving that it must remain fixed in the same spot for a long time, and rendering it difficult to imagine from whence it can obtain sufficient nourishment to support life. Sometimes a large shell may be picked up covered with limpets, that adhere firmly to it in spite of the rolling of the waves, and the tossings about to which it must necessarily be subjected. The Bivalves do not enjoy such powers of locomotion as the Univalves, yet some, as the fresh-water mussel, can urge them- selves along by means of a fleshy organ called the foot; and so powerful in some is this organ, that by means of it the animal can not only burrow in the sand, but actually leap out of a boat. The rapid opening and shutting of the valves is used by some, as the scallop, as a means of progression. It is believed that the Bivalves have no visual organs. The Scallop is peculiar to the seas of Europe. It is a singular fact, that in the stomach of the common Scallop is found an earthy deposit, which, when boiled in nitric acid in order to dissolve the animal and other portions, exhibits under a powerful microscope animalcules precisely similar to those which, in a fossil state, form the earth on which the town of Eichmond in America is built. The Common Oyster has been for many ages considered as a delicacy for the table. In the times of the ancient Romans, we find that Oysters were exported to Eome from the coasts of Britain, and there placed in the Lucrine Lake, where they were fattened. On our coasts the oysters breed in large beds. During the 4U8 INVEUTEBBATES. months of June, July, and August, the oysters- breed, and are considered unfit for food. At this time the young, called " spat," are deposited in enormous numbers. They instantly adhere to the substance among which they fallj and this, -whatever it be, is called « culteh." ^ The oysters are taken in the proper season by the " dredge," a kind of small net fastened round an iron frame-work, which scoops up the oysters and many other marine animals. The part of the oyster called the " beard," is in reality the respiratory apparatus. The Pearl Oyster is the animal from which those highly- valued ornaments, pearls, are extracted. The pearl is nothing Pearl Oyeter. more than " nacre," deposited in the shape of globular drops in- stead of being spread over the inner surface of the shell, in which case it is known as Mother-of-pearl. These valuable shells are found both in the Old and New World. Ceylon is very famous for its pearl fisheries. The fisher- men are trained to remain a long time under water, and assisted MOLLUSKS. i(X) in their descent to the bottom of the sea by a heavy weight tied to their feet. They rapidly gather all the Pearl Oysters in their way into a basket, and when in want of air, give a signal to their friends above, who draw them to the surface by a rope. The oysters are then left to putrefy for some weeks, when they are carefully washed, and the pearls extracted. The Sea Mussels are usually fixed where the tide leaves them alternately wet and dry, and it is worthy of notice that those " shell-fish" which are exposed to variations of this kind are en- abled to close their shells so firmly as to prevent any evaporation. One species is extensively used as an article of food. The river mussels occasionally produce pearls of some value. The nacre of these mussels is of a beautiful azure blue. The Bernicle At first sight, the Bernicle bears a close resemblance to a mussel-shell fixed to a long stem. On a closer examination, however, the difference is at once apparent. The shell is in fact composed of five pieces, and through the aperture of the shell are thrust two rows of arms, or " cirrhi," as they are more properly called. These cirrhi serve to entangle the small Crustacea or moUusks which pass near their sphere of action, and which are then carried to the mouth and speedily devoured. The Bernicle is always feund adhering to some larger ob- ject, usually floating wood, and is very common on the hulls of ships. Although the perfect animal is permanently fixed, it has been discovered that the young are free and capable of locomotion ; nor is it until a week or two has passed, thkt they finally settle themselves. S5 tlO tNVERXEBRATEB CHAPTEB XVIIl. DIVISION II.— INVERTEBRATES. CLASS VIII. — WORMS. CLASS IX. — ZOOPHYTE S. The term Vermes or Worms, says Dr. Ware, in his Intro- duction to " Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History," has been used with great vagueness in natural history, and employed to designate animals to which the name was not appropriate. It is now, however, more restricted in its application, and is made to include only a small class of animals, which have some circum- stances in common with each of the three classes last described, but still not exactly resembling any. They are sometimes called, by way of distinction, Worms with red blood, as they are the only invertebral animals which have red blood ; and sometimes Anne- liJes, from the structure of their body, which is of a cylindrical, elongated shape, divided into a great number of rings. Their nervous system resembles that of the Insects and Crustacea. Their organs of sense consist merely in some fleshy tentacula, which surround the mouth, and answer the purpose of feeling and touching. In some species, certain black points appear around the head, which have been supposed to be eyes, but this is doubtful. Their blood is nearly of the color of that of the ver- tebral animals, but not of so bright a red. It circulates, in a double system of vessels, but there is no distinct, fleshy heart to give it motion. They breathe by means of branchisB, which are sometimes within and sometimes without their bodies. They have no limbs, but on each of the rings, of which their bodies are com- posed, are little bristly projections, which answer in some sort the purpose of feet. Their mouths are sometimes armed with jaws, and sometimes consist in a mere tube or sucker. Their bodies are soft and compressible. All, except the earth-worm, inhabit the water. Many of them bury themselves WORMS. 411 in the sand ; others form themselves a sort of tube or habitation of sand, bits of dirt, gravel, or other materials ; and others exude from their surfaces a calcareous matter, which produces a sheli around them. Among the animals belonging to this class are the earth- worm, the leech, and the hair-worm. Earth-worms are familiar to all. They attain sometimes to the length of a foot, and have as many as a hundred and ■si^SS^- Earth-wormB. twenty rings, each of which is furnished with the little bristles or spines above mentioned. They emit through certain pores a slimy fluid, which lubricates their bodies, and thus gives them an easier passage through the earth, which they traverse in every direction. They feed upon roots, woody fibres, and the remains of animal and vegetable matter. They swallow earth also in considerable- 412 IN VERTEBRATES. quantitj, but this is probably on account of the animal or vegetable matter, in a state of decomposition, which it may con- tain. When cut through the middle, each portion becomes a distinct individual. And in some worms nearly resembling the earth-worm, but residing in the water, the power of reproduction is nearly equal to that of the polypes. The Leech has three jaws, or rather lancets, with which it pierces the skin of animals, in order to suck their blood. Ita tail The Horse-leech. is furnished with a shallow cup or disk, by which it is able to fix itself firmly to different objects, while obtaining its nourishment in this manner; and by means of the same organ, it moves from place to place. There are several species of the Leech, of which the medicinal Leech is the most valuable, from the use made of it in local blood-letting. The Horse-leech has the same power of drawing blood, but the wounds which it makes are sometimes poisoned, and followed by bad effects. The Gordius, or Hair-wobm, is Ipng, shaped like a thread or hair, nearly smooth and round. It is a vulgar notion that the ZOOPHYTES. 413 hair of the humau head, or of a horse's tail, if thrown into the water, acquires life, and is converted into a worm. A species of the Hair-worm, in Africa and the Indies, is extremely noxious. It is of a pale, yellowish color, and is frequently met with among the grass, especially when covered with dew. It often insinuates itself into the naked feet or limbs of children and unwary per- sons, where it produces an inflammation that is sometimes fatal. Great care and attention are required in extracting it ; for if it be broken during the operation, the part which remains in the flesh continues to live, and is quite as troublesome as the whole. Some naturalists consider these worms as properly belonging to the next clasp ZOOPHYTES. The class of Zoophytes is the last division of the animal kingdom, and the lowest in the scale of the animated creation. It includes an immense number of individuals but obscurely and imperfectly known, and which have but few points of resemblance and connection with one another. In general they have no nervous system, no complete vascular circulation, no distinct appa- ratus for respiration, and no sense but that of feeling, and perhaps that of tasting. This is not true, however,^ without exception ; for, in some instances, traces of a nervous system, of a circulation, ind of respiratory organs, may be detected, as is particularly the case in the Echinodermata, the first order of Zoophytes. They ire covered with a well-organized skin, and often with a sort of shell with points or spines. They have an internal cavity, in which are lodged several distinct intestines, and vessels which maintain an imperfect circulation. There are also distinct organs for respiration, and many filaments which probably perform im- perfectly the functions of a nervous system. To this order belong the sea-urchin, the common star-fish, the sea^egg, etc. They are the most perfect of Zoophytes in their structure, and are endowed with a curious set of organs for the purpose of motion. Their shells are pierced with a large number of holes, regularly arranged, ohrough which project the feet of the animal, or rather the instru- 35* 414 INVERTEBRATES ments answering the purpose of feet. These are little hollow cylinders, composed of a membranous substance, and ending in a kind of knob, which is also hollow. They are filled with a liquid, which is furnished to them by reservoirs situated within the body. The animal; at will, can either lengthen these cylinders and dis- tend their extremities, by forcing this liquid into them, or exhaust it, and thus shorten and contract them. When it is exhausted, the i;nob or disk is drawn into a cuplike form, and thus may be firmly fixed to whatever object it is applied, like a cupping-glass; and when the liquid is again thrown into it, it is again loosened. By this arrangement, which enables it to fix and loosen, and at the same time to lengthen and shorten these organs of motion, the animal is enabled to move itself from place to place. Some of the animals of this order are composed of several branches united together in one common centre, like the spokes of a wheel ; and hence they are called star-fish, or more commonly five-fingers. Their mouth is in the centre, where the several branches meet. Others are globular, and others oblong, like the sea-urchin and sea-egg. The Intestinal Worms belong also to the class of Zoo- phytes. Those which inhabit the bowels of children are well known. But there is scarce any animal which is not infested by one or more kinds of them. They can exist only within the bodies of the animals to which they beiung, and it is seldom that the same species infests more than one kind of animal. They have no visi- ble organs of respiration or circulation, and those of digestion are viry imperfect and indistinct. They are not confined to the intes- tines, but are found in other canals and passages of the body, and even in the substance of parts, as in the liver, brain, and eye. The difficulty of accounting for their existence in these parts, has given rise to the opinion of some naturalists, that they are spon- taneously engendered ; but it is known, with regard to many ol them, that they produce eggs, and a living oflFspring; and it is con trary to all the analogy of nature to ascribe, in these obscure cases. to chance and the spontaneous operations of matter, the produc- ZOOPHYTES. 410 Animalcules. tion of eflFects, which, in all other instances, are the result of a perfect and wonderful adaptation of organs to the end in view. The Sea-Nettles, or Sea-Anemones, are still less per- fect. Their bodies are circular, and in their centre is the mouth, which leads to several rude and imperfect cavities in the substance of the animal, answering the purposes of stomach and intestines. They are generally found attached by their base to some rook or marine substance ; but this attachment is voluntary, for they can at will disengage themselves. Generally, however, they perform no other motion than that of opening and closing their mouths, and extending the tentacula with which they are surrounded. With these they grasp animals coming within their reach, such as small fish, mollnsca, worms, etc. These they swallow, and after having digested their flesh, throw out their bones, shells, and other refuse matter by tiae same opening, which is their only one. The MeduSjE do not difier much from these, except that they are merely of a gelatinous, slimy consistence, and are never 116 INVERTEBRATES. Found fixed by their base. They are common, and are often seen in immense shoals. One species of them is vulgarly known by the name of sun-fish. The Polypes have a hollow, cylindrical, or conical "body, with one extremity open, which serves for their mouth, and is surrounded by a number of tentacula. The simple cavity thus formed constitutes their only organ, and performs all the functions of which they are capable. They seize their prey and convey it to their mouths with the tentacula, and, as their bodies are gela- tinous and semi-transparent, the operation of digestion may be seen going on within. Many of the polypes have been celebrated on account of the fact, that when one is divided into several pieces, each piece becomes a distinct animal, perfect in all its parts. The immense beds of coral, and the different kinds of sponge, are no- thing but the habitations of infinite numbers of these little animals, and are produced by their labor. The Antmalcules are animals still more minute, and are scarcely discernible except by the assistance of the microscope. Thousands of them are in this way brought to our view, of various shapes, sizes, and appearances. Most of them offer to the view merely a gelatinous mass, capable of an imperfect sort of motion. Some, however, present appearances of a structure which might give them a claim to a higher rank in the scale of beings, did not their minuteness prevent a proper examination. These animals are principally found in some animal and vegetable fluids and in- fusions, and hence have sometimes received the name of Infusoria. INDEX. Abtssinian, 22 Adjutant, 296 African Elephant, 176 Agouti, 112 Albatros, Wandering, 308 Alcidee, 306 Alligator, 321 Alpine Spaniel, 62 Amboyna Locust, 364 American Indian, 22 Anemone, Sea, 415 Animalcules, 416 Ant-eater, 124 " Little, 124 Antelope, 142 " Harnessed, 142 Ant, Wood, 388 Apteryx, 289 Arabian Horse, 169 Argonaut, 404 Armadillo, 124 Asp, 325 A ss, 170 •' Domestic, 171 " Wild, 172 Auk, 306 Australian, 26 Axis, 166 Baboon, 33 " Dog-faced, 35 , " Ursine, 36 Babyroussa, 181 Badger, 90 Bald-headed Eagle, 213 Baltimore Oriole, 240 Bantam Cock, 279 Earn Owl, 228 Bat, 41 " Spectre, 43 "~ Vampyre, 42 Beagle, 67 Bear, 85 " Black, 85 " Brown, 87 " Polar, 88 Bearded Eagle, 211 " "Vulture, 206 Beaver, 109 Bee-Eater, 264 Bee, 383 " Queen, 384 " Working, 384 Berniole, 409 Berniele Qoose, 301 Beetle, Burying, 358 " Carrion, 357 " Dor, 361 " Great Rove, 361 " Green Tiger, 355 " Ground, 361 " Hercules, 355 " Musk, 357 " Pellet, 359 " Stog, 356 Bird of Paradise, Emerald, 233 " " Six-shafted, 2l» Bird Spider, 395 Bison, 138 Bittern, 294 Bivalves, 407 Black Bear, 85 Blackbird, 250 Black Eagle, 214 Black Grouse, 285 Black Bat, 102 Bleak, 340 Blindworm, 316 Bloodhound, 67 Boa Constrictor, 325 Boar, 181 " Wild, 179 Bohemian Waxwing, 256 Bot, Horse, 392 Bottle-Nosed Seal, 94 Brown Bear, 87 Brown Rat, 103 Brown-Tailed Moth, 374 Brush Turkey, 285 Buffalo, 136 " Cape, 137 Bull, 139 2 B (417) 418 INDEX. BuII-dog, 70 Bullfinch, 244 Bullfrog, 330 Bull Terrier, 70 Burrowing Owl, 2^28. Burying Beetle, 358 Bustard, Great. 290 Butterfly, Purple Emperor, 371 " Large White, 370 " Swallow-tailed, 371 Buzzard, 216 " Honey, 218 Cachalot, 196 Caddis Fly, 330 California Vulture, 206 Camel, 155 Canada Lynx, 56 " Owl, 227 Canary, 242 Canvass-back Duck, 305 Capo Buffalo, 137 Cape Penguin, 307 Capybara, 113 Caracal, 55 Carp, 338 Carrion Beetle, 357 Carrier Dove, 272 Cassowary, 288 Cat, 54 " Wild, 54 Caterpillar, 370 CaucasiaD, 18 Cerastes, 324 Cetacea, 190 Chameleon, 318 Chamois, 146 Chetah, 67 Chimney Marten, 2 Chimpanzee, 31 Chinchilla, 117 Chough, 237 Civet, 58 '' Javanese, 58 Clothes Moth, 376 Coaita, 36 Cobra de Capello, 326 Cook, 278 « Bantam, 2fP « Tailless, 278 Cockatoo, 267 CockchafTer, 360 Cockroach, 367 Cod, 344 Collared Tee -tee, 3» Condor, 205 Conger Gel, 346 Constrictor, Boa, 32!i I Cormorant, 309 Cougar, 50 Cowry, Money, 406 Crab, 399 " Hermit, 400 " Land, 400 Crane, 291 Crayfish, River, 400 Crested Fowl, 279 Crested Pheasant, 277 Cricket, 367 Crocodile, 320 Crossbill, 245 Crow, 236 " Hooded, 237 Crustacea, 398 Cuckoo, 268 Ciittle-fish, 404 Dace, 339 Death's-head Moth, 37S Death-Wateh, 360 Deer, Fallow, 164 " Musk, 160 " Ked, 161 Dingo, 61 Dodo, 289 Dog, 60 Dog-faced Baboon, 35 Dolphin, 197 Dor-beetle, 361 Dorking Fowl, 279 Dormouse, 120 Double-horned Khlnoceros, 186 Dove, Carrier, 272 " Domestic, 273 " Ring, 274 " Turtle, 271 Dragon-Fly, 378 " Flying, 318 Dromedary, 168 Drone, 384 Duck, 306 " Canvass-back, 306 " Eider, 306 " Muscovy, 305 " Wild, 304 Dzigguetai, 172 Eagle, Bald-headed, 213 " Bearded, 206 Black, 214 " Golden, 210 " Owl, 227 Sea, 214 Earth-worm, 411 Eel, 346 Egyptian Owl, 229 INDEX, 4]9 Egyptian Vulture, 209 Eider Duck, 30fi Eland, 142 Electric Bel, 347 Elephant, 175 " African, 176 " Beetle, 353 " Seal, 93 Ellc, 167 Emerald Bird of Paradise, 238 Ephemerae, or Day Flies, 377 Ermine, or Stoat, 81 Esculent Swallow, 262 Esquimaux, 65 Ethiopian, 21, 25 Falcon, Gyp, 221 " Swallow-tailed, 219 Fallow Deer, 164 Ferret, 81 " Weasel, 80 Field-mouse, Long-tailed, 107 " " Short-tailed, 108 Flamingo, 300 Flatfish, 345 Flea, 393 Fly, Caddis, 380 Fly-catcher, Spotted, 252 " Dragon, 378 " Large Black, 392 Flying Dragon, 318 " Fish, 341 " Squirrel, 119 Fowl, Crested, 279 " Dorking, 279 " Guinea, 281 Fox, 76 Foxhound, 66 Frigate Pelican, 311 Frog. 329 " Tree, 330 Gadfly, 391 Gannet, 309 Garden Spider, 396 Gazelle, 145 Gecko, 316 Genet, 59 Gibbon, Long-armed, 32 Giraffe, 152 Glow-worm, 361 Gnat, 390 Gnu, 140 Goat, 149 " Syrian, 150 Golden Eagle, 210 " Oriole, 252 " Pheasant, 277 Goldfinch, 241 Gold Fish, 338 Goose, Domestic, 302 " Wild, 302 Gordius, or Hair Worm, 412 Goshawk, 222 Grasshopper, 365 Great Auk, 396 Great Bustard, 290 Great-eared Owl, 226 Great Kangaroo, 126 •Great Greenland Whale, 191 Great Grey Shrike, 253 Great Titmouse, 247 Great Rove Beetle, 361 Greenfinch, 241 Greenland Whale, 192 Green Tiger-beetle, 355 Green Turtle, 328 Greyhound, 61 Griffin Vulture, 208 Grizzly Bear, 86 Grosbeak, 241 Ground Beetle, 361 Ground Squirrel, 120 Grouse, Black, 285 " Red, 285 Guinea Fowl, 281 Guinea Pig, 173 Gyr-Falcon, 221 Hahu£r-headed Share, 34V Hamster Rat, 105 Hare, 114 Harnessed Antelope, 142 Hawk, 222 " Lannarius, 224 " . Night, 223 " Sparrow, 223 Hedgehog, 97 Hen, 280 Hercules Beetle, 355 Hermit Crab, 400 Heron, 292 Herring, 343 Highland Greyhound, 61 Hind, 163 Hippopotamus, 187 Hooded Crow, 237 Honey Buzzard, 218 Horned Pheasant, 276 Hornets, 387 Horse, l67 " Arabian, 169 Horse-bot, 392 Horse-leeoh, 412 Horse, Sea, 336 Horse, Wild, 168 420 INDEX. Hottentot, 24 House Spider, 397 Howler, 37 Humming-Bird, 258 Hyaena, 78 " Spotted, 76 " Striped, 78 Ibex, 147 Ibis, 297 Ichneumon, 57 lohneumon-Fly, 389 Iguana, 316 Indian, American, 22 Intestinal Worms, 414 Jackal, 75 Jackdaw, 235 Jaguar, 52 Javanese Civet, 58 Jay, 231 Jerboa, 120 Kahac, 32 Kamscbatkadale, 23 Kangaroo, Great, 126 Kestrel, 221 King Charles Spaniel, 62 Kingfisher, 263 King Vulture, 207 Kinkajou, 89 Kite, 218 Kudu, 140 Laoerta Aoilis, 314 Lamprey, 351 ' " Marine, 351 La'nd Crab, 400 " Tortoise, 328 Lapwing, 256 Large Black Fly, 392 " White Butterfly, 370 Leeoh, 412 " Horse, 412 Lomurs, 39 Lenneret, 241 Leopard, 51 Limpet, 406 Lion, 44 Lioness, 47 Little Ant-eater, 124 " Blue Titmouse, 248 Ljzard, 318 " Salamander, 315 Llama, 159 Loach, 340 Lobster, 400 Looust, 363 Locust, Amboyna, 364 Long-armed Oibbon, 32 Long-tailed Field-Mouse, 107 Long-tailed Titmouse, 248 Loris, Slo'nder, 39 Louse, 394 Lynx, 55 " Canada, 56 Macaw, 266 Mackarel, 335 Magpie, 232 Maimon, 36 Malay, 21 Man, 14 Manati, 199 Mandrill, 33 Marine Lamprey, J51 Marmoset, 39 Marten, 82 " Chimney, 261 " Pine, 82 Mastiff, 69 Meadow Pipit, 249 Medusae, 415 Merlin, 221 Millipedes, 393 Misseltoe Thrush, 249 Mocking-bird, 251 Mole, 100 " Rat, 105 Money Cowry, 406 Mongol, 20 Monkey, Red, 38 Moth, 373 " Clothes, 376 " Brown-tailed, 374 " Death's-head, 373 " Seratella, 376 Mouse. 106 " Long-tailed Field, 107 " Short-tailed Field, 108 " Shrew, 99 Mule, 169 Mule Wasp, 386 Muscovy Duck, 305 Musk Beetle, 357 " Deer, 160 " Ox, 140 Mussel, Sea, 409 Narwhal, 198 Negro, 25 Newfoundland Dog, 64 Newt, 331 Night-hawk, 22.? Nightingale, 246 Nylghau, 141 INDEX. 421 Ocelot, 63 Opossum, 128 Orang-outan, 29 Oriole, Baltimore, 240 OrnithorynGhus, 130 Oryx, 143 Oaprey, 214 Ostrich, 286 Otter, 83 Ottoman, 19 Ounce, 52 Owl, Barn, 228 " Burrowing, 228 " Canada, 221 " Eagle, 229 " Egyptian, 229 " Great-eared, 226 " Sliort-crested, 230 " Snowy, 227 Ox, Musk, 140 Oyster, 407 " Pearl, 408 PiNGOLIN, 123 Papilio, 370 Parralieet, Ringed, 266 Partridge, 282 ■ " Red-legged, 283 Peacock, 275 Pearl Oyster, 408 Peccary, 183 Pelican, 310 « Frigate, 311 Pellet Beetle, 359 Penguin, 219 " Cape, 307 Perch, 334 Petrel, Stormy, 307 Pheasant, Crested, 277 " Golden, 277 « Horned, 276 " Silver, 277 Pig, Guinea, 173 Pike, 340 Pine Marten, 82 Pipit, Meadow, 249 Plant Ijice, 367 Plover, 291 Pointer, Spanish, 68 Polar Bear, 88 Polecat, 83 Polypus, 416 Porcupine, 111 Porpoise, 197 Proteus, 331 Ptarmigan, 286 Puma, 53 Purple Emperor Butterfly, 371 QuAGOA, 174 Quail, 284 Queen Bee, 384 Rabbit, 115 Racoon, 89 Rat, Black, 102 " Brown, 103 " Mole, 105 " Water, 104 Rattlesnake, 323 Raven, 232 Red-backed Shrike, 255 Redbreast, 247 Red Deer, 161 " Grouse, 285 " Legged Partridge, 283 " Monkey, 38 Reindeer, 166 Rhinoceros, 183 " Bicornis, 184 " Unicornis, 184 " Horn bill, 245 Ring Dove, 274 Ringed Parrakeot, 266 River Crayfish, 400 Roach, 339 Rodontia, 96 Roebuck, 164 Roller, 263 Rook, 235 Rove Beetle, 361 Royal Staircase Wentletrap, 406 Buff, 299 Sable, 83 Salamander Lizard, 315 Salmon, 342 Satin-bower Bird, 239 Sawfish, 360 Scale Insect, 368 Scallop, 407 Scorpion, 397 Scotch Terrier, 71 Sea Anemone, 415 " Eagle, 214 " Horse, 336 Seal, 92 " Bottle-nosed Elephant, 93 Sea Mussel, 409 " Swallow, 261 Secretary Bird, 215 Seratella Moth, 375 Setter, 68 Shad, 344 Shark, 349 " Hammer-headed, 349 " White, 349 422 INDEX. Sheep, 150 " Dog, 66 " Tartar, 152 " Wallachiaa, 349 Ehook Dog, 72 Bhort-orested Owl, 230 Short-tailed Field Mouse, 108 Bhrew Mouse, 99 " Water, 100 Bbrike, Great Grey, 253 " Eed-baeked, 255 Bhrimp, 401 Bilk-worm, 369 Silver Pheasant, 277 Bingle-horned Rhinoceros, 184 Bix-shafted Bird of Paradise, 238 Skate, Thornback, 351 Blender Loris, 39 Slugs, 405 Snails, 405 Snipe, 299 Snowy Owl, 227 Song Thrush, 250 Sow, 180 Spaniel, Alpine, 62 " King Charles, 62 " Water, 62 Spanish Pointer, 68 Sparrow, 243 " hawk, 223 Spectre-Bat, 43 Spider, 395 • Bird, 395 " Garden, 398 " House, 397 Spotted Fly-catcher, 252 " Hyaena, 79 Springbok, 143 Squirrel, 117 " Flying, 119 " Ground, 120 Stag, 162 " Beetle, 356 Starling, 239 St. Bernard Dog, 63 Stork, 296 Stormy Petrel, 307 Striped Hysena, 78 Sturgeon, 348 Swallow, 260 " Esculent, 262 " Sea, 261 " tailed Butterfly, 371 " tailed Falcon, 219 Sword6sh, 336 Syrian Goat, 160 Tailless Cock, 278 Tame Swan, 303 Tapir, 178 Tarantula, 397 Tartar Sheep, 152 Tee-tee, Collared, 3» Termites, 381 Tern, 309 Terrier, 70 " Bull, 70 " Scotch, 71 Thornback Skate, 361 Thresher, 350 Thrush, Misseltoe, 24V " Song, 250 Tiger, 48 - " Beetle, Green, 355 Titmouse, Great, 247 " Little Blue, 248 " Long-tailed, 248 Toad, 331 Torpedo, 350 Tortoise, Land, 328 Toucan, 265 Tree Frog, 330 Trogon, 263 Trout, 343 Turbot, 345 Turkey, 279 " Brush, 285 " Domestic, 281 " WUd, 280 Turtle Dove, 271 " Green, 328 UiisiNE Baboon, 36 Vampipe Bat, 42 Viper, 324 Vulture, 206 " Bearded, 206 " California, 206 " Egyptian, 209 " Griffin, 208 " King, 207 Wagtail, 248 Wallachian Sheep, 151 Walrus, 94 Wandering Albatros, 308 Wapiti, 165 Wasp, 386 " Mule, 286 Water Rat, 104 " Shrew, 100 " Spaniel, 62 Waxwing, Bohemian, 25£ Weasel, 80 " Ferret, 80 INDEX. 423 Wentletrap, Royal Staircase, 406 Whale, Greenland, 192 Whistling Swan, 302 White. Shark, 349 Wild Ass, 172 " Boar, 179 " Cat, 64 " Duck, 304 " Goose, 302 " Horse, 168 " Ox, 133 " Turkey, 28b Wolf, 73 Wolverine, 91 Wood Ant, 383 Woodcock, 298 Woodpecker, 267 Working Bee, 384 Worm, Earth, 411 " Glow, 361 " Intestinal, 414 Wren, 259 Yak, 140 Yellow Hammer, 214 Zebra, 173 Zebn, 13&