Cornell Univf'r^ty MAC CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1 89 1 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE 7^ 5&//^^fe Cornell University Library NAC 265.W32 L 3 1924 024 423 729 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924024423729 Old Towns and New Needs: also thej Town Extension Plan: being the Warburton Lectures for 1^12, Delivered by Paul; Waterhduse, M.A. and Raymond Unwin, F.R.I.B.A. MANCHESTER V AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS MOVIXII^' - ■ ' ONE Shilling net BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF iienrs HI. Sage 1891 tmsM a^jixl/j MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY LECTURES Nos. XIIL and XIV. Old Towns and New Needs AND The Town Extension Plan Sherratt & Hughes Publishers to the Victoria University of Manchester 34 Cross Streetj Manchester. 33 Soho SquarCj London, W. Agents for the United States LoNQMANSj Green & Co. 443-4.49 Fourth Avenue, New York OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS : ALSO THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN : BEING THE WARBURTON LECTURES FOR 19 12 DE- LIVERED BY "PAUL WATERHOUSE M.A. AND RAYMOND UNWIN F.R.I.B.A. MANCHESTER : at the university press MCMXII. E'^' NOTE. These lectures were delivered under the provisions of the "Warburton Trust which is constituted under the Will of the late Mr, Alderman "Warburton, of Manchester, who died in the year 1887, The following lectures were delivered at Man- chester University on January 22nd and 29th, 1912. Contents. PAGE Note, -......-iv List of Illustrations. ...... vii Old Towns and New Needs. By Paul Waterhouse, M.A., F.R.I.B.A. 1—30 The Town Extension Plan. By Raymond Unwin, F.R.I.B.A. 33—62 List of Illustrations. Fig. I. Wren's Plan for rebuilding the City of London after the Fire, placed among the present surroundings of the City. To face page lo Fig. 2. An "over-and-under" or viaduct crossing. A proposed treatment for the intersection of the main avenues, advocated by the Royal Com- mission on London Traffic. To face page 17 Fig. 3. A suggested " gyratory crossing " round All Souls Church, Langham Place, London, in con- nection with one of the Avenues proposed by the London Traffic Commission. The arrows indicate the course of the traffic. To face page 19 Fig. 4. Plan of a City on a river approached by eight main roads. Each road is bifurcated before entering the centre of the town. page 22 Fig. 5. Diagram illustrating a town developed on a definite plan. Between pages 48 and 49 Fig. 6. Diagram showing similar areas each of 10 acres, developed with a larger or smaller number of houses to the acre, together with the cost of development. Between pages 52 and 53 Fig. 7. Diagram illustrating the increased area of land required for building purposes if the whole of the population, in a town having an annual increase of 17,000 people, were provided for (L) at the rate of 34 houses per acre, and (IL) 15 houses per acre. page 55 Fig. 8. Diagram showing how to reduce the pressure of population in the centre of London by one third its present inhabitants. To face page 60 Fig. 9, Diagram illustrating how the population which can be accommodated in a town increases much more rapidly than the average distance of the dwellings from the centre of the town. To face page 60 Old Towns and New Needs Old Towns and New Needs By Paul Waterhouse, M.A., F.R.I, B. A. Every art and every method has some object or end. It was Aristotle who said this, and knowing the authorship we claim the dictum to be beyond controversy true. But what of its converse ? Has every object an art or a method which leads up to it? That is the question which we find before us in our present subject. "Town-planning" is now an accepted expression. What is its meaning ? Can we define it ? Still more, I ask, can we go beyond a mere academic definition and give it practical illustration ? Can we in fact proceed from our definition to the exposition of universal working formulae capable of concrete and uniform issues. In other words while we admit that the expression town- planning at least implies that there are certain human activities which have an object — the creation of perfect towns — can we go the length of stating that those activities and those desires may be formulated into anything re- sembling a science or a method ? I had well nigh begun my essay with the statement that town-planning is as easily defended by logic as it is de- feated by history. What is town-planning ? From the point of view of clearheaded lecture room reasoning it is the application to a town of that process oj 4 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS ordered forethought which we habitually apply to individual buildings. Nothing could be neater as a definition, nothing more reasonable as a proposition. Let us think of it thus : — the social and economic philosopher observes that houses on the whole are successful creations and that towns on the whole are — from his social and economic points of view — ^failures. In fact he might even say that the more important are the towns the greater are the failures. And why? Pure reason leaps to the answer. "The man" she says "who builds a house, even if he only spends three hundred pounds upon it, takes the precaution of spending three hundred shillings on an architect and a plan ; but the town which is worth a hundred thousand times as much, perhaps a million times as much, is built by random accretion, by accident, by whim, by error. So the social economic philosopher brings forth town- planning and makes it as clear as daylight that the new- bom craft is to be the mother of millennium. In short, to go back to our bit of Aristotle, if there is an art and method to which the name town-planning can be applied there is no doubt as to the existence of its aim. The aim is indubitable, but does the inethod, does the craft exist ? Please believe me, I speak in no mockery of town- planning, and if I am about to suggest to you that it is impossible to lay down a general code or science which under that name can be said to have universal application, it is not because I ignore the need of such a science but OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 5 because I have some facts to put before you which show how impossible it is to secure that uniformity of circumstance upon which alone a science can be built. There are three considerations which I wish to present, considerations which have an irresistible influence upon the subject we have met to consider, (1). One is that towns, whether they receive regulated control or not, take and continue their disposition in accord- ance with certain influences which cannot be wholly checked by any laws or for that matter by any by-laws. (2). Another is that for obvious reasons a town of size and importance cannot be planned as such from its birth. (3). The third, and I don't mean to suggest that these three are all the disturbing factors I might catalogue, is that towns however perfect are always changing the units of their formation. Each of these considerations in itself is so complex that I purposely refrain from attempting to give them names. You will have gathered from my title, and from what I have already said, that I am abstaining almost entirely from the study of town-planning in its idealist aspect, the delightful and unusual pastime of pegging out a whole bran new city on a houseless thousand acre field. (This has been done, of course, by Romulus and other Romans, by Alexander and by American pioneers). I am also keeping away from the subject of suburb plotting around existing towns, a fascinating theme on which you will hear Mr. Unwin, a specialist — and, what is more — an expert. 6 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS May I take my last difficulty first ? A traveller, he was an American, was asked what he thought of Rome. "I guess," he answered, " it'll be a nice place when it is finished." This was a trans-Atlantic way of restating the old saying that Rome wasn't built in a day. It certainly was not. Rome had been Rome-building for 25 centuries when this good man made his observation, and it is probable that she will be still hard at work with bricks and mortar (or ferro-concrete) when this poor planet utters the first rumblings of dissolution. Apart from all questions of growth of population, of traffic needs, and of city improvements, there goes on in every town a ceaseless substitution of new for old, which is so persistent that ordinary humanity does not even notice it. Very few folk observe the fact that the show streets of their favourite town are perpetually unfinished. If they do observe it at all, they will assure you that the prevailing scaffold-poles are merely temporary, and that everything will be straight and tidy by next season. They would honestly mean what they say, but you and I know that the time of tidiness will never come unless it is brought about by an age of universal poverty and apathy. So long as there is health there is wealth ; so long as there is wealth there is change. And if things beautiful and old are spared who should complain ? Certainly not an architect. So here, at least, is one factor — perpetual flux — ^that defeats the theoretic town-planner. And here is another, coming under my first heading, that, whatever planners may plan, there are certain laws OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 7 differently operating in different localities which automati- cally affect city growth, I am going, for purposes of illustration, occasionally to take London as an example. In so doing, I do not forget that I am lecturing in Manchester, a city with problems of her own and a history of her own, nor do I forget that I was bom here, but I find several points which make London the most useful field fpr the illustration of the historical phenomena which we desire to study. It is, in the first place, a town of which most Englishmen know something ; it is, with few exceptions, the most interesting town in the world, and as regards the problem of expansion in area and in population it has no rivals on this globe. Lastly, it is easier to secure facts (as to the successive alterations of plan) from London than from other English towns. London, poor thing, is very far from the ideals of the Psalmist. It may be a fair place, and the joy of the whole earth, but it is certainly not built as a city that is at unity in itself. Any plan of London, selected from any period since plahs were made will illustrate the rudimentary element of all city growth. Every town, however small its beginnings, and however large its developments is the subject of its own servants, I mean its roads. In every kingdom certain towns establish themselves early in history as road centres. They may have sprung up at the junction of cross roads already existing as routes to other more important places — or they may as in the case of London be the object, the main and primary object, to which the roads tend. 8 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS At all events there came a time, early in our civilization, when London was a comparatively small centre of a comparatively large road radiation. That centre was no doubt the subject of a certain amount of deliberate town- planning ; the mere fact of fortification which implies, inter alia, concentration within a fixed boundary, must have produced a measure of thoughtful disposition within the boundaricis. But even inside the city walls there probably began a demonstration of the subjection to roads, which is one of the strongest factors that defy the economic occupation of land. Every house must have access, and consequently the houses are so built as to line the roads. As soon as this process is continued outside any town there immediately arises with it a conspicuous hindrance to the profitable distribution of population on the soil. Any suburban plan will illustrate my meaning. Wedge- shaped spaces of unbuilt area are left between the roads, and access to these spaces for further development is barred by the continuity of the dwellings or shops which line the roads. This difficulty is one which a town-planner with a clean sheet of paper to work on would easily foresee and overcome — but historically it is met by expedients of a makeshift nature, with various uncomfortable results. I should take up too much of your time if I were to describe fully the unsatisfactory consequences of this perfectly natural tendency. I need only mention two. One is that the later development of the land in the wedges leads to its occupation being of a different social character from that on the main roads, either better or meaner, the other that OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 9 the subsequent widening of the roads, when required for the increased traffic is rendered costly or impossible. Perhaps the most important considerations which I have to offer you are those which come under my second class. With the best intentions in the world no town-planner could possibly plan a large town as such. Certainly an expert might as an academic study take the needs and the opportunities of our present London and replan the town on its present site. He might say " here is a bit of ground measuring ten miles each way with certain natural features — the Thames for example — ^that must not be disturbed, which piece of ground is occupied by a million houses very badly arranged. I will rearrange them." He sets to work on paper, and let us suppose that on the night when his plans are finished there comes an earthquake and a fire. In the morning all is ready for a start — the expert's new city can be begun. Happily there is no stint of money and no opposition, for his plan is acclaimed by all surviving London as ideal. What then ? It gets built, and we come back to look at it in two centuries' time. It is perfect then ? Probably not, and I will lay before you a rather curious instance in proof. In 1666 the heart of London was destroyed. The moment had come ; and the man came too. Sir Christopher Wren was a combination of artist and scientist without equal since Leonardo da Vinci. He made his ideal plan and as it happened it was never acted upon. But it might have been. And what would have been the result ? Here is an illustra- 10 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS tion of Wren's plan, placed as it might actually be at the present time in present London. (Fig. 1.) What do we notice in regard to it ? First that in spite of the admirable widening of the roads they are not as wide as we to-day should consider necessary ; secondly that Wren's notions of the central requirements of London are in- adequate ; thirdly and this is most strange of all, we see that Wren had not the slightest fore-shadowing in his mind of the possibility that any bridge beside London Bridge might some day be necessary. We could hardly expect him to foretell railways and certainly the horrors of Cannon Street Station and Cannon Street Bridge could never have found a place in such a beauty loving mind, but one might have expected him at least to see the possibility of a reduplication of such a bridge as already existed. As it happens there are four additional bridges all affecting the area which Wren re-planned ; and the Fleet ditch which Wren regarded as a fixed feature in the landscape has been submerged past all discovery except by the sewer men. Moreover Wren was unconscious of the future growth of London and imagined a concentration of functions which subsequent history has proved impossible. We may understand from this illustration that even a supreme mind with a mass of data to work upon cannot form a scheme for a city which will hold its own as long as the buildings he erects endure. The very stones that Wren handled are smiling down on the accumulated facts which would have impaired his scheme in eight generations. No one knows to what size a city will grow. No one OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 11 knows in what direction it will grow, and no one knows what developments will take place in methods of transit. Here are three obscurations casting impenetrable shadow on the clearest of logical forecasts. And now in order that we may get these disheartening considerations out of the way I will deal with some further difficulties which I may put roughly and generally into my last category. I said that towns, however perfect, change the units of of their formation. The constant flux, or change of units applies not merely to the supplanting of old buildings by new, but to the rise, fall, change and development of individual districts under the influence of absorption and of the readjustment of social and commercial equilibrium. The simplest illustration of this is again found in London. In a nice old book on our metropolis, I often read the account given of the habits of that manager of the Bank of England who held office in the lifetime of my great grand- father. Compelled by the duties of his post to sleep always at the Bank, this manager used nevertheless to drive out to dinner so that he might enjoy the country air of his home at — Islington. Three generations ago then Islington was an isolated village becoming a country residence for city men, its next stage was to become a suburb, from that it rapidly became part of outer London, now it is indistinguishable from London itself, but has undergone, like other absorbed townships a civic revulsion towards independence by promotion to Borough-hood. This process has gone on all round London, and the decentralisation produced by the 12 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS elevation of the old Vestries into Boroughs, is a tribute to the enormity of the process of absorption in spite of the fact that this decentralising is counteracted and neutralised by the over-control of the County Council. The fate of the shop centres is another symptom worth notice. Villages in process of absorption naturally grew. In fact, it was their growth that assisted the absorption by joining the ever increasing village group to the town group. The increased population made increased trade, and the village of Hackney for example turned its High Street into a bustling thoroughfare of shops. Though brought into closer touch with London it nevertheless developed its own trade resources and became a trade centre. But this centre soon had further centres outside it and became more than a mere passage or thoroughfare. For a time the transit of more passengers past the shops increased their notoriety and their trade, until the increasing speed of locomotion and the improvement of large shopping opportunities in central London began in recent days to withdraw custom from fhe Hackney centre. Here we see a series of fairly rapid changes of economic equilibrium producing shifts of trade centre too s^if t and too uncertain to allow any established groundwork for a town-planner's schemes. Parallel with these economic changes is a subtle, social and architectural change equally baffling to scientific study. When land becomes vacant near enough to the town (by the town's advances) to be available for suburban building, it is rapidly occupied by builders and filled with houses of OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 13 the type that lets most readily at the time. As further and more outward land is occupied, the outer houses are erected in a style and with accommodation suited to still newer and" relatively more luxurious needs, and they consequently (thanks to our improving means of transit) supersede the more inward suburb, which thereupon sinks to a lower value, until the increasing needs of the centre again raise its character and supplant its buildings possibly by substituting commercial for domestic houses. There is thus, even in residential property, a fluctuation of character and value which, unless a town-planner is able to prophesy future rates of increase in population and trade, will certainly baffle that town-planner's calculations. AU these foregoing considerations seem to point to the distressing conclusion that as far as large and established towns are concerned town-planning projects are of no value. But I have no wish to sum up in so pessimistic a vein. It may be perfectly true that if Manchester were all destroyed to-night and at once rebuilt on new lines the new city might prove vastly inconvenient and even insani- tary to our grandchildren's grandchildren. But we may relieve our minds with the thought that the entire rebuilding of Manchester or of London is as unlikely as it is undesirable. A physician is not, thank heaven, called upon to invent a new man, but he does keep before his mind's eye a vision of what he believes to be the perfect man and is able, for a fee, to do a good deal of useful work in patching up imperfect humanity. The town-planner's work in old towns is similarly a 14 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS remedial rather than a creative work. It may be surgical at times. He may have to ply the knife, and he may now and then cut away more than he should, but when all is said there is certainly a field for this healing and corrective work. And these academic exercises, even the vision of a replanned London are not really without their uses. The logical result of the considerations we have just been entertaining is undoubtedly that, except for the necessary building of new buildings which should wherever possible be confined to the replacing of old structures that are of no artistic or historic value, it would be better in the case of all old towns to do nothing whatever in the way of innovation except under dire necessity. And that reserva- tion — the possibility of dire necessity — is really the key to the whole situation. Town-planning is a rash game at best, but it is a game that must be played because desperate diseases require desperate remedies. From one cause or another, and most of these causes are reducible ultimately to increase of population and to com- mercial prosperity, crises occur in the lives of cities which require to be met by operation on the city's corpus, I give here as an important instance the urgent facts set forth in the annual reports of the Traffic Branch of the Board of Trade. In fact there come times when it is obvious that something must be done and it is quite clear that however imperfect may be the science of town-planning and however liable it may be to fallibility in its methods of forecasting OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 15 the future, that science must be called in to guide the measures for which necessity is clamorous. This is a self-evident truth, but up to the present it has seldom been evident to the corporations who control the destinies of our towns. Every city should have some professional, I would sooner say some artistic guardian of its architectural interests. I use the word architectural advisedly and apply it consciously to a wider field than is generally allowed to it. A city has a corporate architecture, a cumulative architecture, no less important than the architecture of its component houses though hitherto that architecture has been disregard- ed, the only tribute to its very existence being the coinage of the word town-planning. The nobler word town architect- ure is as yet not come into use. A city is or should be a work of art. The fact that it has been built at different dates and by different minds with different aims and even different ideas of beauty is no bar to its qualification to be so considered. We do not on such grounds bar the claim of a cathedral reared in successive ages; and so when supreme difficulties of traffic, or supreme ugliness, or obvious inconvenience, or manifest social changes call imperatively for some remodelling in the city's features the aid should be sought of some artist who has made a study of the science of town-planning. It is clear, is it not, that no real work of art can be effected, either by a body of lay- men elected mainly on political or economic grounds, or by an expert whose training and skill are directed to problems of a purely engineering nature. Even a corporation whose every alderman was a Michel Angelo or a Raphael would 16 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS realize that works of art are produced by individuals rather than by committees. And what will this artist of plan do when he is called in ? I feel sure that his right course if summoned to prescribe for a city's sickness would be to make up his mind first of all what the ideal disposition of that city would be if planned anew on the same site. That ideal plan if effected might, as I have said, prove in half-a-dozen genera- tions to be in some respects deficient ; but still it is the best aim that can be looked to and it is obviously unwise to undertake partial alteration in a city's plan without an eye to general results. If a man of comprehensive ability and artistic skill sets himself to replan an existing city, reserving as fixed data the main, natural characteristics, such as rivers and hills, and all old buildings of architectural worth, as well as main roads of egress, he will probably be astonished to find how closely the existing conditions and disposition lend them- selves to the possibility of readjustment to fit in with his model scheme, and what very simple changes will suffice to bring the real within reach of the ideal. In any case, that exercise of wit, the replanning, will have served to open his eyes to a hundred points which call for his attention in the effort to work a particular improvement. It is impossible and undesirable that I should attempt to review the whole field of possible city improvements called for by the most urgent needs of modern toAi\ms, but I shall venture to offer a few observations on two of the most a o o M o s 1 d OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 17 apparent. (1) Street improvement for the facilitation of increased traffic, and (2) the provision of open spaces. Overcrowded streets are the commonest affliction of the city which has grown big in growing old. The remedy which occurs most readily to the mind of a corporation is widening, and it is generally to the widening process that they apply their attentions. It is a slow job at best, for it can only be effected by the gradual diminution of the sites which line the thoroughfare affected. It is always very costly, and it may be ruthlessly destructive of architectural beauty. I venture to state that the town-planner consulted by a corporation will always, before sanctioning a widening, consider one or two important alternatives. In the first place, it is a fact that there are many streets in which the obstruction is brought about by causes altogether other than narrowness. Constantly it is due to cross traffic from side streets. In some cases, where they are of importance, it will generally be better boldly to face the possibility of forming a viaduct so that one road may pass over the other. Indeed there are places in our larger towns where the wide- ness of the main thoroughfare is a positive inducement to blocks caused solely by the meeting at right angles of large concourses of vehicles. The congestion and the waste of time, brought about at large centres of cross-traffic by the waiting of east and west for north and south and the returning of the compliment which goes on all day long, is enormous. The simplest device for its cure is the " over-and-under " or viaduct crossing. This of course can seldom be applied as 18 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS a direct remedy because the offending streets are naturally at the point of their offending on an equal level and it becomes necessary either to substitute for one of the offenders another line of route, the levels of which favour the introduction of a viaduct, or to arrange that the crossing shall take place in some position where space is available for the necessary rise and fall of the two roads. As an example I offer an illustration of a scheme of my own for forming an over-and-under crossing for extensive traffic in Russell Square, London. (Fig. 2.) Another device, hitherto but little tried, if at all, is a circus on what may be called the " merry-go-round ' ' principle — otherwise the " gyratory " crossing. The roads, whether four cross roads or junctions of traffic with more radiations than four, meet at a circus like Oxford Circus, but with these important differences — first that vehicles are compelled to circulate in the circus — not to dash straight across it, and second, that in furtherance of this system the centre of the circus instead of being roadway is filled in, either by a pavement with fountain and trees or by a garden space or again with a circular block of buildings. (Fig. 3.) I observed that the town-planner when called in con- sultation would before sanctioning a widening consider whether some other device would not really meet the difficulty better. I might have put the matter in another way by saying that the first duty of a town-planner, when confronted with a problem, is not to see how the proposed remedy can best be applied and devised, but to proceed to the diagnosis of the problem itself. FIG. 3. — A suggested gyratory crossing round All Souls' Church, Langbam Place, London, in connection with one of the avenues proposed by the London Traffic Commission. The arrows indicate the course of the traffic. OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 19 In nine cases out of ten the guardians of our cities and even their advisers (when there are any) spring to the medicine before they have correctly named the disease. They are like doctors who, satisfied with a patient's enunciation of some local symptom, are content to deal with that symptom, instead of making a searching examina- tion of the invalid's whole system. There are, for example, many cases of suggested street widening which should not be met by any dealings with the street in question at all, but rather by an entire relief of that street by the substitution of a parallel route. Particularly is this the case where a street, which has been the high street of an old suburban village, finds itself absorbed into a town. The Vuthless widening of such a highway results as a rule, in much wanton destruction of old-world beauty and in a damage to property and consequent expense, which the adoption of a parallel route would altogether have avoided. Town-planners are too ready to assume as data, facts which should not be so assumed. Indeed it would be a good rule in the logic of the town-planner to be always ready to suspect his major premiss, and in particular to in- crease his suspicion when the major premiss in question is one of long standing and of venerable antiquity. London is full of such ancient superstitions which would vanish before my proposed system of studying London's problem in the light of an ideal whole. Wren's mistake, as we have seen, was that of assuming too readily that London Bridge was the only necessary 20 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS crossing of the Thames, and of treating the reconstruction of the city as all that was necessary. It was many years before the further bridges came and even now we have never got used to the sufficiently obvious fact that Southwark and the Borough are very intimate and very near portions of our town. The sinuosities of the Thames are constantly for- gotten, and it is a perfect marvel to me that hardly anyone recognises the importance of the fact that in crossing Westminster Bridge, though we thereby approach the south side of the Thames, we are travelling due east, so that a continuation of the line of the bridge would produce a road capable of leading almost direct from Westminster to the city. It is now an old hope of my own that a road may be constructed on the Surrey side (preferably as a viaduct cross- ing over other main roads) which shall lead easily and with great dignity from the residential quarters of the west to the heart of the banking centre, thus relieving the great east and west pressure at much less expense than would attend the construction of any relief road on the north side of the Thames. In this connection I may draw attention to another prime essential in the formation of new or enlarged thoroughfares in old towns. The Traffic Commission of 1905 suggested among other things two new main avenues, one east and west, the other north and south. But they laid them down, tentatively, without any regard to the value and beauty of existing ancient buildings. A plan made by me in 1906 shows how these proposed routes could have been modified in such a way as to destroy no buildings of architectural OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 21 value, and, what is more, to insult no such buildings by approaching or passing them at unsightly angles or without due regard to alignment or to view. Before passing to the subject of open spaces, I have a few words to say on the phenomenon of road radiation. In a city well planned from the start, such as certain Roman built towns, the radiation does not penetrate within the main enceinte of the town, but is confined to the outlying quarters. The town of Winchester, will, for example, illus- trate this. In a very large town it is of course important to secure a certain possibility of progressing diagonally, other- wise the joiu-ney from place to place may unduly resemble a knight's move on the chess-board, but if I were planning anew a town of fair size, I would certainly retain a strict parallelogram formation for its central area and start the radiation at a quarter of a mile or half a mile from the focus. Moreover, it will be realised that in a town of the size of Manchester for example, the main, incoming roads carry traffic of a density which increases in ratio to their approach to the centre. Obviously, therefore, it would be theoreti- cally desirable that every such road of ingress should on or near its entrance to the town be bifurcated so that its density of traffic should be approximately halved. I have prepared and now submit a rather strange-looking plan which illustrates my meaning, and you will see that under favourable conditions the bifurcation might be so planned as to work in very effectively with a gridiron central formation in which the traffic difficulties might be further 22 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS eased by the adoption of viaduct crossings. Such a system would lead to an automatic distribution of traffic which would go far to reduce the troubles of congestion. (Fig. 4.) My special object in mentioning this subject here is that Manchester offers a conspicuously successful example of the PUiN or^ ciry a^j\. Kivee jtpsokj'sii bx eight ^MAIM ECMD5. E«:H BCWD 13 BlTUECATnj BEIOEE EINTEEING THE CENTEE OF THE TOWN . FIG. 4. bifurcation principle. Nearly all its main roads of ingress have relief roads parallel to them. I have had no special opportunities of making a historical study of Manchester's growth so that I am unable to tell you, what very likely my audience can tell me, how this has come about. It is quite clear, however, that Manchester OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 23 owes what I may call its open formation first to the irregu- larity of its seventeenth centm-y nucleus, which in its ttim is partly due to the river, and secondly to a very marked element of dignity in the schemes of those who in the eighteenth century controlled the town's rapid develop- ment. The map of 1650 shows an irregular village, approached on the right bank of the Irwell by the roads from Broughton and Preston, which united at the bridge near the collegiate church, and on the other bank by the Altrincham or Chester Road (Deansgate) and those from Rochdale, Oldham, Ashton and London. Clearly, at that date, development was taking the usual historic course of lining the road sides and leaving country spaces between them, for there were gardens between Deansgate and the river and hedge-rows between Shudehill and Millgate. But the advance of a hundred and forty years shows a remarkable change of tactics. The plan of 1793 assures us that so far from con- tinuing the wasteful process of following the main roads with houses and leaving the interstices to the care of them- selves, the citizens of Manchester had boldly grasped the necessities of their case and had set to work so to lay out their land as to afford very complete and general occupation as well as a ready intercommunication. I now come to the subject of open spaces, and on this topic have two things to say. First, and briefly, as to open spaces in the central parts of towns. There can be no question as to the value of these — from the aesthetic and the hygienic point of view. Most corporations appreciate the 24 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS importance of them, and much has been done towards securing such islands of rural relief, both by private generosity and by corporate energy. In fact, the point need not be pressed here — but there is another aspect of the open-space problem which I think deserves a little special thought- Have you ever realised that some foreign towns possess an element of beauty almost unknown in England, and have you ever discovered what that element is ? I allude to the fact that here and there one comes across an ancient township in which the lack of wealth or enter- prise, or the absence of population-pressure has made it unnecessary for the transition between town and country to be marked by a suburb of graduated ugliness. I know one town in England where the shops suddenly end and the country suddenly begins. One sees many such abroad. But in England what do we generally find ? By degrees, as you leave the town you discover that the good, gay shops give way to meaner shops mixed with mean resf- dences. These give way to residences without shops, less mean but more dreary. Then follows a tract of desecrated country waiting to be eaten up in building lots, then a derelict farm, then a hideous market garden, next villas, beyond them a village, once rural, now aping town manners, beyond it, more villas and horrible new-laid roads, and last of all, very shyly and very slowly, with a gradual diminu- tion of the apologetic sale-boards, unrural fences, mutilated hedges, and general sense of town oppression, you are welcomed by that fair and desirable thing, the country. OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 25 Now I am bold enough to ask whether this perfectly horrible state of things need be. I am aware that absolute contiguity between pure country and genuine city is almost impossible. If King Street, for example, were to end abruptly in the kind of landscape in which people hunt foxes and shoot partridges, both elements, the rural and the urban, would suffer from the contact simply because the town folk wouldn't and couldn't put up with the country roads, and the green fields and hedges wouldn't survive the friction, if I may so put it, of the citizens. In other words, a town of a certain density of population necessarily defies and defiles the immediate proximity of the country. I fear that one must acknowledge this in spite of the remarkable success with which the virginity of Epping Forest is preserved in the near neigh- bourhood of London. But I do believe that we might, if we would, get rid of that painful decrescendo, that descending scale of graduated cheerlessness which at present encircles most of our towns, and I believe that the desired result can be obtained in connection with the circuit roads which town-planners are now beginning to look upon as a necessary element in the remodelling of our large cities. I am not wishing to claim originality for this idea, for I know that a girdle of green is a favourite scheme of many of the town-planning experts, and I believe that the bold intentions of Liverpool contain elements of this nature. But I should like to suggest that in towns of great magnitude, such as London, that girdle of green might be brought nearer the centre than the present 26 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS circumference of the town. Practical politicians — such as the writers of the latest report of the Traffic Branch of the Board of Trade — admit that it is necessary to form a circuit road round a considerable portion of London at a distance no greater than five or six miles from the centre. I would urge that this circuit road should be completed so as to form an entire, if somewhat irregular circle. I would advocate such an arrangement of its course as would bring it into touch with all parks and open spaces already existing within reach, and, to complete the scheme, I would go one step further. It will be realised that the district through which such a road as this passes, might, if its course were judiciously chosen, consist very largely of the class of property which, socially, is at its lowest ebb. It might, if its proximity to the centre were rather closer than that proposed by the Board of Trade, lie outside the suburb which has exchanged its resi- dential decadence for commercial importance and inside the district of the better class suburb. It ought ncft, therefore, to be very difficult to devote a good portion of this property to rural development. The land might still have a financial value, for it is more than possible that an enactment restricting the number of houses per acre might lead to the formation of a rural suburb of greater worth than the existing inferior house property. I would not go the length of suggesting that all the land included in the belt of green should be park open to the public — though some would prefer that consummation — but consider that the desired end might be obtained by the mere insistence on the OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 27 presence of trees and grass, and the comparative paucity of houses within the prescribed area. I quite realise that outside and beyond this sacred grove the process of graduated squalor might possibly recommence, but I have faith in the notion that if London were once girdled in with a cheerful and definite garden four or five hundred yards in width, the amenities of street architecture and street life would be maintained up to that limit. The enterprise which keeps a town healthy and bright and gay would not suffer a gradual despair on its outward course, if it could feel that it had on this circumference a region of attractive and residential importance rather than a gradual collapse into the wilderness. Let me briefly summarise the foregoing conclusions : The word town-planning at least implies a certain aim, can it be said also to imply a definite and scientific method? History and facts seem to answer No. For though one may argue that as the building of a house requires the fore- thought of an architect, so, but in a much greater degree, does a city demand a designer. Yet experience shows first that towns tend, whatever their originator or their guardians may prescribe, to take matters into their own hands, secondly that with the utmost forethought no man can plan a large town ab initio, nor can even a large section of a town be replanned with the certainty of acceptance by posterity ; and thirdly that large towns are always changing the units of their formation, old houses give way to new, and one district gives way socially to another. Are we then to conclude that town-planning is merely a 28 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS. useless aspiration, and that its systems, if it has any, are so uncertain of general application as to be nugatory ? Not so. For, to take an analogy from another craft, the system of man patching, which we call medicine, is justified by the dire necessity which says man must be healed or he dies. Similarly the study of ideal perfection in towns so far from being merely visionary, or positively mischievous is actually needful. For crises occur in the life of towns when action must be taken, decisive and costly action. At such times the town's adviser, though he knows that his scheme of perfection may become imperfection to his grandsons, must act upon that scheme, for it is his best, and there is at least a chance that it may have in it the elements of permanent beauty and permanent worth. Put in another way it may be said that the town planner is playing a game of which the rules may in three or four generations be completely changed — but in order to make a move in that game at all, and move he must, he should at least know the rules as they are in his day. Again a city must not on account of its slow growth and many designers be denied that title to artistic worth which we allow to a cathedral that has taken four centuries in building. One of the main duties of the town planner in an old city is to make sure that no disrespect is done to anything which is old and beautiful or historic. And this avoidance of disrespect means, not merely preservation, but such an arrangement of the new surroundings as will insure that these treasures of the past may look their best and may seem at home in their surroundings. OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS 29 Two simple and obvious opportunities for the town planner's skill are the removal or alleviation of traffic difficulties and the provision of open spaces. In the first of these exercises he must always beware of assuming that the problem set before him is the proper subject for his attack. Frequently, a mere symptom is mistaken for the disease, and it is by no means certain that a corporation's idea of its own needs is correct. Moreover, road making and road mending can never in a valuable city be considered as a mere engineering process apart from questions of beauty or questions of historic and archaeo- logical interest. Most roads are of more financial value than many houses, and there is at least as good reason for affording architectural — shall I say artistic — advice in half-a- mile of road as in a thousand pound villa. Yet a man on an income of four hundred a year will engage an architect for his week-end cottage, while a corporation with millions at its disposal would, until recent years, laugh at the idea of taking an artist's advice on a new street. There are many ways of obviating traffic congestion among which road- widening, always costly, is not always the best. In the provision of open spaces, heed should be given to the possibilities connected with the modern idea of circuit roads. Such roads may easily be planned in most cities in such a course, as to combine with the required avenue a broad girdle of almost rural woodland and meadow which would go far to mitigate the unpleasant relapse through gradations of ugliness, which forms the outer ring of most English towns. 30 OLD TOWNS AND NEW NEEDS In conclusion, six axioms on old towns and new needs. Nothing in town-planning is impossible. I temper this by the single observation that there are some gradients which neither horse or motor can climb. To leave alone is best — to do great things is noble, to do little things is wasteful. Nothing is too expensive ; it will be more expensive to-morrow. A hundred guineas spent on advice are better than ten thousand pounds laid out in error. Ugliness is the most expensive luxury. Beauty is the cheapest of necessities. The Town Extension Plan The Town Extension Plan By Raymond Unwin, F.R.I.B.A. There is only one way by which we may be compensated in this country for delaying until now to undertake the proper arrangement of our towns, namely to profit by the experience that has been gained in other countries, and so to avoid their mistakes and improve upon their successes. If we are to do this, we must not only study what other countries have done, but we must base our estimate of the results of what we may propose upon a study of our towns, and that study must be sufficiently thorough to enable us to distinguish between accidental effects, due to some custom which may be modified, and essential effects dependent on economic laws. I do not mean that our customs, our land tenure, or the particular form in which we raise our revenue, for example, are not important factors ; but, that town-planning must as far as possible be based on the essential facts ; for economic laws have a wonderful way of asserting themselves in spite of accidental customs. If it were not so, building and town development must have been brought to a standstill long ago by our custom of raising nearly the whole of the revenue for local administration by means of rates, which are virtually a tax on the rent of buildings. We are 34 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN accustomed to hear alarmist cries whenever it is proposed to raise a small amount of revenue from some particular class of property, whether it be a threatened 2s, duty on the miller's corn or a }4d. tax on undeveloped land values ; but if such taxes could ruin an industry, what are we to say of rates ? By rates we raise in England and Wales sixty-four million pounds per annum, and the tax amounts on the average to 6s, 2^d. in the pound. Even the income tax which is assessed on the whole of the tax-payer's income, irrespective of the class of property, only amounts to about £37,000,000 for the United Kingdom. We are therefore raising in rates from one particular class of property in England and Wales nearly double the amount that we raise by the income tax. If really disastrous effects follow from taxes upon one or other particular class of property, I think you will admit that it is rather wonderful that any of us have houses to live in or factories to work in. I believe that this particular method of raising local revenue does add to the difficulty of adequately housing the people and accommo- dating their industries in suitable buildings ; but the essential fact after all is that the public have to pay for local administration as well as for national administration ; and that, though one way may be better than another way, other things will to a large extent accommodate themselves to the particular method adopted. There can be no doubt, for example, that if we abolished rates, and put the whole of the local government taxes upon ground rents, though the tenant might not have to pay for his house quite as much in additional ground rent as he saved in rates, and though for THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 35 a time many owners of ground rents would be hard hit by the change, still the land-owners would in the long run be able to transfer much of that tax back again upon the tenants in the form of increased ground rent. Let us consider what are the essentials in connection with town development, and in what way the town's growth may be assisted by a proper Extension Plan. If we were planning a new town the matter would be less complicated ; we could begin from first principles ; but in ninety -nine cases out of a hundred what we are called upon to do is to make a plan to provide for the extension of an existing town. Therefore, the town-planner must first be sure that he thoroughly understands the life and needs of the com- munity for whose extension he has to provide : hence, the study of the existing town can hardly be too thorough if the best results are to be attained. Here we may learn something from other countries, notably from Germany, where town-planning has been practised for many years : we may see the grave mistakes that have been made in some of their early town plans for want of this careful study of the existing town and its economic circumstances. That this is now thoroughly appreciated is proved by the wonderful study which has been made of the town of Diisseldorf, and the careful series of plans which have been prepared, embodying the results of this great civic survey, for the purpose of conveying the information in an easily grasped form to town-planners, who have been asked by the municipality of that city to enter a great competition for the preparation of a new Extension Plan for Diisseldorf. 36 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN It is only necessary to study their diagrams to realise the thoroughness with which this work has been done. The city of Diisseldorf began seriously to plan for its extension in 1888, and has therefore had some twenty -four years experience of this work. As a result of previous extra- vagance in the width and number of roads, the cost of the development of land has so increased that it is becoming less and less possible to build self-contained houses within the city f oi^^people of moderate means ; and there has resulted a tendency for the people to be crowded into huge blocks of tenement and flat dwellings. This tendency has not gone nearly so far in Diisseldorf as it has in other German towns, Berlin for example ; but the citizens are anxious now to check the tendency, and hence the care devoted to the subject in the survey. It is very remark- able that our country, which has for a century and a half watched the wonderful economies and the great progress which have resulted from the application of proper organ; isation and foresight to the carrying on of great industrial concerns, is only now beginning to realise that there may be some need to apply similar principles of foresight and organisation to the development of our great industrial centres, our towns and cities. It is difficult to see how we can have imagined in the past that it was safe to leave our towns to grow haphazard, the owner of each bit of land not only free to develop it just as he liked, without any central control, but even powerless if he wished to effect anything outside his own immediate boundary. What wonder that a hopeless jumble has resulted ? But for the few old THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 37 country highways leading into the town, matters would have been ten times worse ; as it is, except where such highways have saved the situation, it is usually impossible to get a direct route within our towns from anywhere to anywhere. No provision whatever has been made for expansion ; roads that must obviously at an early date need to be widened to accommodate growing traffic, have been allowed to be lined on each side with property built close up to the road. Railways have been allowed to hem in the town without any effort having been made to forecast its development and provide for the necessary bridges and other requirements for expansion, thus throttling the town and its traffic in many directions. Cottage property has been allowed to spring up along the margins of railways and canals. Factories and workshops have been dotted about wherever a bit of land could be obtained for the purpose, often dumped down to the ruin of some good residential district, and always so scattered as to involve much needless carting to and fro of the materials of industry, adding greatly to the cost of production, to the congestion of traffic, and to the expense of street-making, widening, and main- tenance, thus directly crippling the efficiency of the industry, and by destroying the amenities of the homes of those engaged upon the industry, indirectly crippling this efficiency still further. Not only is the industrial life of the community hampered ; but the cost of administration is increased ; and the development of the town is restricted. This leads to the congestion of buildings upon the ground, to the creation of slums, the destruction alike of the health, 38 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN comfort, and happiness of the people, and to the enormous increase of their death-rate. It is impossible to estimate the increase in expense of administration ; but I am told that in your city on three separate occasions since the year 1833 has it been necessary to widen some part of Cross Street to provide for increased traffic ; and that the value of the land which has had to be purchased for this purpose has risen from the date of the first of these widenings to the present time by 1,300 per cent. : that is, the amount of widening which at that time would have cost £1,000 must now cost £13,000. This sort of thing has been going on in nearly all our growing towns for want of the Town Extension Plan ; and most of this confusion and loss to the community can be avoided by such a plan. It is true that you cannot foresee exactly what the development of a town will be; that you may possibly provide for a wider street than will be required ; that you may reserve an open space for a park on a site where as it turns out only a sparse population will settle ; that, on the other hand, you may not reserve quite enough open space, enough sites for schools, police, fire, and other administra- tive buildings, in other parts where the population becomes denser than was foreseen. But put these errors of judg- ment at their very worst and compare them with what happens now. Is the town likely to suffer severely in pocket or in any other way from having bought up a little open space, beyond what is actually necessary, at slightly more than agricultural value ; or for having made a road a little wider than actual requirements, at a time when the THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 39 land probably cost little or nothing and was free from buildings? At any rate, compare this with the way in which the public now has to pay for every site for a school or other building it requires, for every strip of road widening, for every scrap of open space, play ground or park, just because it does not look ahead and provide for development, but waits until the ground is covered with buildings and has reached almost its maximum value before it makes these provisions. The town plan will not only provide for future extension, but, by the very fact of doing so, will control and guide development along just those lines which will fall in with this provision ; and, therefore, it is really possible by the combination of such reasonable foresight as a town plan can embody, with such control and guidance as those enforcing it will exercise, to adjust the provision to the future needs with a very fair degree of accuracy, A town plan can assist industry by reserving definite areas for industrial purposes, by arranging for the provision adjacent to these areas, of all the required facilities, such as railway carriage, water carriage, ample siding accommoda- tion, space for needful warehouses, bonded stores, etc., and finally by securing, within easy access, adequate areas upon which those engaged in the industries can live under circum- stances which will make for health, amenity, and the greatest efficiency. This is being secured by the city plan in many places, some examples of which I will show you shortly, but before doing so, let me ask you to consider what the city of Manchester might have been if its development had been carefully planned and guided by an enlightened Local 40 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN Authority since the year 1795, when, as the City Surveyor, Mr, Mead, recently described it, "the open country was within a few minutes' walk from any part of the town. The inhabitants had the green fields and rural lanes of Hulmei Strangeways, and Ancoats almost at their doors," and, as you will see from a map of the period, kindly lent by Mr. Mead, Manchester consisted of a little town lying between the Cathedral and the present Town Hall ; there were hardly any buildings North and West of the Cathedral, and the town had not at any point reached the river Medlock. If at that time a plan for the growth of the city had been laid down, preserving some of the beautiful valleys along the water courses as permanent open spaces, providing for main radial roads leading out in different directions and allotting definite areas for manufacturing purposes, what a different place Manchester might now have been ! Even the fine, straight Deansgate which figures on the old plan has not been carried forward, and anyone wanting to trav^ further in that direction must dodge about round corners and up side streets before he can again reach anything like a through road. Since that date Manchester has grown almost beyond recognition. The different periods of the enlargement of its boundaries are shown by the different colours and dates on the slide. Very much has been done, of course, to improve Manchester both before and since the able survey of the city conditions made by the Citizens Association in 1904. From their plan the enormous growth which has taken place may be judged, and the haphazard development of the streets and the overcrowding of THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 41 buildings which has been permitted is only too evident. By a very efficient and complete system of tramways following such direct routes as are available, much has been done to relieve the pressure of population in the centre of the town, and to make it possible for a large proportion of the inhabitants to live nearer the fresh air and green fields outside; but the want of good highways has hampered this development ; and you will see that there are still large areas within the city boundaries not served by this means of locomotion, and not properly accessible by any suitable roads from the centre of the town. Our munici- palities have only just been given Town Planning powers. In many cases, as in Manchester, they have done much with- out those powers. "We are to-night considering what further can be done by the aid of Town Planning. We will take as our first example the town of Frankfort, situated on a tributary of the Rhine, 500 miles from the sea. Owing to the foresight of the German nation in providing for the maintenance of a navigable condition, and of the towns adjacent to the river in providing adequate connection with the industrial quarters and sufficient dock and harbour space, the Rhine is becoming the most important traffic highway in the country. Frankfort has recently laid out and is constructing on the east side of the town something like seven miles of additional wharf space for the loading and unloading of barges; it has set aside an enormous area of ground provided with siding accommodation, giving connection alike with the railways and the wharves, with other conveniences both for warehousing and manufacturing 42 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN purposes. It has provided immediately adjacent to this area a splendid park, containing playing fields, boating lake, pavilions, and many acres of beautifully-planted pleasure ground ; and, immediately on the other side of this belt of park, a large area has been laid out, upon which are to be built the necessary homes for those who will be employed in connection with those docks and industries. You find the same thing on perhaps a smaller scale being carried out at Cologne, Diisseldorf and many other towns. The interesting little town of Crefeld situated a few miles from the Rhine has extended its boundaries to include a small piece of the Rhine bank, has laid out railways and wide roads connecting with large harbours and docks which it has made adjacent to the Rhine, has planned a detached Garden City, adjacent to the docks, and is becoming a growing and thriving industrial town instead of being left in the backwater of development. This shows how largely a town may control its own. destiny by means of its City Plan. Take the town of Cologne as another example. In 1880 it was practically a mediseval town, consisting of narrow and irregular streets hemmed in within the lines of fortifications. By an Ex- tension Plan it secured that when the fortifications were abolished, a wide avenue or Ring Strasse surrounding the town should be created, and that the whole of the land lying between the old fortifications and the new line of entrench- ments outside should be laid out in an orderly and convenient manner, giving the best possible communication from place to place and providing for an adequate number both of THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 43 radial streets of good width leading out into the country in all directions and of cross roads linking these together ; and providing, in addition, parks, open spaces and play grounds, not only in this belt but to a greater extent in different directions far outside this belt. Here also adequate harbours were provided and areas set aside on the East of the town, away from the prevailing winds, for the development of factories and industries of all kinds. Outside they have reserved sites for public buildings, schools, etc. and by grouping these in suitable connection with the parks, open spaces, radial roads, railway stations, and other matters provided for, they have been able practically to control the development, because, by grouping all these conveniences at certain points, they can provide that those points shall be the most attractive for residents to settle around. It is true they have made mistakes, but not the mistakes of buying land in the wrong places or omitting to arrange for develop- ment at points where it has taken place. They have actually constructed roads in some cases too far ahead of development and have planned out the areas in too great detail, making all the roads too wide. The German cities have power to take from the owner the land necessary for roads up to a maximum proportion which varies in different places from 30 per cent, to 40 pef cent, of the total area of a man's land ; but the owner has been able to throw the cost of this land and of the making of these roads upon the community, by charging such high prices for the remain- ing land as to recoup himself ; thus we see that mistakes or needless extravagance in the kind of development must be 44 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN borne by the community in one way or another, whoever in the first instance provides the land and money. It is therefore equally to the interest of the owner and the public to ensure the best type of development. Let us contrast the growth of Cologne with what has taken place in Chicago where a town of two million people has been developed at such a rapid rate that some still living can remember when there was only a settlement of a few hundred people there. This town has grown on a simple gridiron plan, if such can rightly be called a plan, dividing up the land into rect- angular building blocks, of much the same size whether the land is wanted for factories or shops, palaces or cottages. At first no provision was made for open spaces, main wide roads were not then thought of, and the result has been perhaps the greatest aggregation of disorganised units of population that have ever been brought together. Chicago, which contains within itself a wonderful amount of public spirit backed by true American energy, is now seeking at enormous cost to rectify these mistakes and has indeed done great things already. It has secured a number of fine parks, and recovered and preserved long stretches of lake front ; it has made and planted miles of magnificent boulevards and avenues, " park ways " as they are called in America. You may ride in a motor hour after hour round Chicago and the whole of the time be travelling along its park-ways and through the parks and hardly leave them. This Green Girdle is indeed, a wonderful creation. They have, too, bought here and there one or more of these building blocks, and have laid them out as playgrounds for the children. Unfor- THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 45 tunately in the past, they have allowed the building blocks to be so covered with building that there is not enough space for air or light to reach to the rooms, much less for any garden space in which the children could play. They have now set themselves the task of providing a play ground of some sort within half a mile of every child's home in the city. Perhaps the most interesting point about these play-grounds is that they are becoming local civic centres ; they are be- ginning to provide for Chicago that grouping and organisation of its mass of humanity which hitherto it has wanted. In connection with these play grounds a large building called "a field house" is usually built, containing Gymnasia, Refreshment Rooms, Reading Rooms, Baths and Swimming Baths, a Concert and Dance Hall and different rooms for the use of Trade Unions, Friendly Societies, and other similar bodies requiring a meeting place. The "field house " with the numerous activities centred there, is becoming the focus of the neighbourhood in which it exists; and the amorphous mass of humanity around it is beginning to take on a definite relation to the centre, is beginning to group itself, as particles of a chemical solution group themselves into a beautiful crystalline form about some central point of attraction. This brings us to consider what is the sociological reason which impels men to come together in villages, towns, or great cities. Is it not largely the fact, well expressed recently by an American, that 10 people working together can do more than 15 people working separately, that 100 working together can do more than 1,000 working separately. 46 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN and that there is no limit to what a million people working together can accomplish ? But there is this vital distinction between a small group and the large town : in the small group there is an intimate personal touch and personal understanding between all the different members of the community, whereas the larger the community becomes, the more attenuated must be the amount of personal contact, until, at quite an early stage, the members must cease even to recognise one another at sight. Now in all large associa- tions a definite scheme of organisation is introduced to meet this difficulty. Groups of individuals, large enough to become definite centres of influence, but not too large to permit a considerable degree of personal intercourse between the members, are formed. These groups, for purposes affecting the district, appoint representatives to put forward the group point of view at district meetings, and these district meetings again, if necessary, appoint a National Council to represent the whole movement, whatever it may be. Jn this way the whole movement is kept in touch, and its power can be focused upon any object. You have a similar type of organisation in the army, where the soldiers are grouped in companies of 100 with their immediate officers through whom they are kept in proper relation with the other companies in the regiment. The group of companies forming the regiment again have their regimental officers through whom they are kept in proper relation with the general officer commanding the division ; the generals of division are in immediate contact with the commander-in- chief and his staff ; and so the whole force of the army, the THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 47 force, that is, not only of the material weapons of war, but of the more essential spirit of bravery, can be concentrated upon any purpose by the general, in a manner that would be quite impossible if the whole army consisted of indi- viduals each having an infinitesimal direct connection with the general. Our towns in the past have tended too much to resemble this latter unorganised condition, and it is largely to this fact that we owe the squalor, ugliness and haphazard character of their development ; for there is no doubt that the town must represent the character of the social life of the people composing it, and that it will express by its form the social organisation upon which it is based. I venture to suggest that the ideal form of town to which we should aim will consist of a central nucleus surrounded by suburbs each grouped around some subsidiary centre representing the common suburban life of the district ; and the suburb in turn will consist of groups of dwellings, workshops, and what not, developing some co-operative activity either in connection with the building and owning of the houses, or in connection with the common enjoyment of open spaces, playing fields, and so forth. To emphasise this ideal development of the town, first of all each individual suburb should be provided with its suitable centre around which should be located its local municipal or administrative buildings, its places of worship, its educational, recreational, and social institutions; and not only should this centre or heart of each district give expression to its unity, leading naturally to the grouping of the district around and in relation to this centre, but between 48 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN each of these suburbs there might well be reserved some belt of open space, park land, wood land, agricultural, or meadow land, which would at once define one suburb from another, and keep the whole of the inhabitants in intimate touch with ample open space. This form of city organization, Mr, Howard's Garden City idea applied to town development, would simplify all the problems of town planning, and the provision of the many services, water, telephone, light, etc, associated with modern town life. Everything would be taken direct to each centre and thence distributed to the individuals grouped round that centre. Reservation of the necessary sites for schools, playgrounds, and other public requirements would become easy; and the very fact that these were located beforehand in the places best adapted for them, and at the focus of the various roads forming part of the scheme, would lead to the natural development of the suburb around this centre. Moreover, the low-lyipg meadows and valleys following the rivers and watercourses, just the part of the land which is least healthy for building purposes, and the most expensive to provide with sewers, would be most suitable to preserve as open spaces, play- grounds, and pleasure walks which often need not be wide in extent ; and so naturally the dwelling suburbs would be located on the high and healthy grounds. The tops of the higher hills to which water cannot often without special expense be supplied could again be reserved as open tracts of country for common enjoyment. It would be natural to group the factories and railways in conjunction with the to be growing up around their own subsidiary centres in various directions adjacent and is preserved for recreational enjoyment along the remainder of its course, THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 49 canals and rivers where they exist, placing them, if possible, on the east of the town so that the prevailing wind would carry away such smoke, noise, and smell as improved methods of production may still leave as necessary accompaniments of a manufacturing area. Such an industrial district would be intimately connected by direct highways, provided with suitable means of locomotion, with the different residential suburbs ; and in close proximity to the factory area there would be provided accommodation for those who must needs live very near their work, a belt of open space sufficient to secure the amenities of the area, being, however, preserved between the two. In the heart of the town would be the main public buildings, surrounding a central square, or otherwise grouped to produce a dignified civic centre, and including the cathedral or what- ever other building may in the future most suitably represent the spiritual aspirations of the community. But I must not discuss the civic centre to-day. We are dealing with the town extension plan, and it is perhaps time to leave the consideration of the ideal town extension and see how far Mr, Burns' Town Planning Act will enable us to approach this ideal. We shall find that is further than at first we think, and that the obstacles, based on real economic difficulties, are less than at first they seem. The definite powers given by the Act are not many, but they are far reaching. The community is em- powered, through its municipal council, to make a plan laying down the lines upon which all land surrounding it, not yet built upon and likely in the future to be built upon. 50 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN shall be developed. Such plan may define the direction, position, and width of roads. The scheme which accom- panies the plan may provide for the making of any of these roads that are urgently required for the public need. Any by-laws or other statutory enactments may be varied by the town planning scheme so far as may be necessary to its proper execution, with a view to securing proper sanitary conditions, amenity and convenience. The scheme may make restrictions on the number of buildings which may be erected on each acre of ground and the height and character of these, and may prescribe the space about buildings. Finally, land may be purchased for open spaces or other purposes in connection with the Town Planning scheme. If these powers are considered carefully, it will be found that there is little of what I have been sketching as the ideal development of a growing town, which cannot be secured under one or other of these headings. One of the special functions of the Act is to empower the local authority to make agree- ments with the owners of land on any subject bearing upon its development. The local authority is put in a favourable position for making such agreements, because it has not only power to restrict within certain limits the use to which the owner may put his land, but it has the power very greatly to facilitate development by the suitable laying out of roads, by prohibiting objectionable buildings on adjacent property, and by modifying many existing restrictive by-laws which have been made to suit other conditions of development. I am glad to know that in Manchester already consider- able progress has been made with these negotiations, that THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 51 your energetic Town Planning Committee, aided by their tactful surveyor have already established a good under- standing with many of the chief owners of property, and that these owners realise that it is in the common interest of all that the land should be developed on right lines. It is for you as citizens loyally to support the action of your representatives, and to give them hearty and enlightened encouragenient to carry forward town-planning schemes for the area around Manchester, to a degree which will secure for you the utmost benefits which it is possible to obtain under the present Town Planning Act ; and when we have exhausted these we will go to Mr. Burns and ask for more ! ft is, alas, true that a vast area in Manchester has been ruined by the want of any proper co-operation in develop- ment, by the selfish and short-sighted overcrowding of dwellings upon some areas of land and the waste of others. But we must not think that it is too late now to move ; that is not so : Manchester is still growing rapidly. There is around it much country which would lend itself to more successful development. It is evident from what has already been accomplished that your snrveyor will be able to secure many roads leading out of Manchester in different directions. The next point of vital interest is that we shall secure proper homes for the people. Until town planning has done this, until the people of a city have homes fit to inhabit, in surroundings which will provide health, comfort and beauty, it is too soon to consider ambitious schemes for remodelling the central area of the town. Let us once secure a well-housed city, and well-housed citizens will E 52 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN soon see that their civic centre is worthy of them. Now what is it that stands in the way of this proper housing? It is nothing but the idea that it is necessary for the benefit of some person or some class that the maximum number of houses possible shall be crowded upon every acre of land. If this is not done, we are told that building will not pay. It seems so obvious that the more houses you put upon an acre of land, the more economical use are you making of the land that few consider the question further ; and, if you asked people genercdly what would be the effect of halving the number of houses allowed to be built on any acre of ground, they would tell you that you would ruin the builder, and divide the landowners' returns by two. Both builders and landowners have been very much disturbed by the powers given in the Town Planning Act to limit the number and character of the buildings which may be put upon each acre of ground ; I think it can be shown that these fears are not justified, but on the contrary t^at the greater the number of houses crowded upon the land, the less economical is the use being made of it, the higher rate must the occupier pay for every available yard of his plot, and the smaller will be the total return to the owners of land in increment value due to building operations. That we may have some definite figures let us compare two actual schemes of development, each covering 10 acres of ground. (Fig. 6.) No. 1 we will develop with approximately the maximum number of houses of a frontage of 16 feet each, which can be built to comply with the present Manchester By-laws. We will take the cost of the front roads to be SCHEME I lO ACR.ES SCHEME 11. - lo ACIIE5. 340 HOUSES AVERAGE SIZE Of PLOT 83i So, Yds COST Of RO/05 /9.747- 10. COST OF LAfsD /3,ooo TOTAL COST PER. HOUSE /43-7-6 EQUIVALENT GROUND RENT PER. WEEK- &a PRJCE OF PIDT PER. Sq^Yo IOs.4i(x SCHEME 1 ONE ACRI. SCHEME II. oNEACR£. GARDtNi WCR£ATION OSXIND CAR.OENi ROADWAY [^M 1 1 1 wm IH ■ ROADWAY 132 HOUSES AVERAGE SIZE Of PLOT 26li So. Yd*. COST OF ROADS {4A&0 - lOs. COST OF LAND _ /^.OOO. TOTAL COST PER. HOUSE ./"62-7-3 EOyiVALENT GROUND RENT PER. WEEK. 11*0 PRJCE OF PLOT PER. 5»- ■\ORAL LAA/Q "^f^ POPULATION -•ANNUAL rNCREASE- 17000 PEOPLE 5^WON5 PER HO - 3400 HOUJEi 34 riiSySES PER. />CR£- lOO ACRES SCHEME II. 1^ »a\fii.faii 22/ ACRES BUILDING \ LAND ®/X» A 113.500 LESS 227, ACRES" ACRi LAND ® /so. • INCREMENT INCREMT AS 5CH™ I INCREASE 'SCHEME ^1 L TO GIVE 'THE SAM^ TOTAL INCREMENT 227 /^RB AGR^ LANDiS/50. Il.i50 IKlCf' - ■■ - ICREMENT AS IN,itHEME I. ^^56.550 -i- 227 ACRES ' ■ /'246-4-9 PER- ACRE. 43.000 J6.3JO FIG. 7. — Diagram illustrating the increased area of land required for building purposes if the whole of the population^ in a town having an annual increase of 17,000 people, were provided for, in the upper half at the rate of 34 houses per acre as in Scheme I., in the lower half at the rate of 15 houses per acre approximately as in Scheme II. The figures show the increased increment of land values and the possible reduction in the price of land which might result therefrom. Now let us see what would be the result if the whole of the building ground around Manchester were developed in 56 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN accordance with our No. 2 scheme instead of our No 1, and we can take for our purpose the even figure of 15 houses to the acre as representing our No. 2 scheme. We find then that to supply 34,000 houses, instead of 100 acres we shall need 227 acres and in this way, the account for increment will work out as follows : — 227 acres at £500 = £113,500 Less 227 acres of agricultural land at £50 = 11,350 Total Increment = £102,150 Increment as ... scheme 1 == £45,000 Increased increment = £57,150 And yet the owners of land are afraid of Town Planning! "Why the Town Planning Act may prove to be the hand- somest gift this country has made to its land-owners for a very long time! I do not suppose, however, that the economic effect of limiting the number of houses to the acre will be to benefit the owners of land to this extent. I think it is probable that the reduction of the number of houses to the acre will be followed by some reduction in the price of land. But the figures show that even if there were no reduction in the price of land the tenant would be infinitely better off paying 11 ^d, for a good big plot than he is at present paying 8d. for a little plot, always assuming that THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 57 he does only pay 8d, for that little plot. When I said that the overcrowding of land is uneconomical and unprofitable to the owners of land as a whole, I did not say that nobody made profit out of it. What really happens is that the land speculator develops the land on the lines laid out in scheme No, 1, but instead of letting it at 8d. per week per plot, he lets it at 9d. or lOd. per week per plot, and the greater the number of houses, the greater the number of pennies and twopences per week which falls to his share of profit. But, assuming that we always get our plots after paying the landlord for the land at the nett cost price of the plot, then I say, even so, the tenant would be better off paying ll^^d, for the big plot shown in scheme No. 2 than paying 8d. for the little plot shown in scheme No. 1. But supposing that the economic conditions should work out in the opposite extreme and that the owners of land as a body only receive under the new system to be brought in by Town Planning the same total increment that they would have received under the old overcrowding system : let us see what the result would be, again basing our calculations on the increase of Manchester. With 15 houses to the acre we shall now absorb : 227 acres of agricultural land at £50 per acre = £11,350 Add the same increment as before 45,000 The landlords must therefore receive ... £56,350 £56,350 -r 227 acres = ... £248 10 per acre 58 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN That is, that owing to the increased area of land required for building purposes by reducing the number of houses to the acre from 34 to 15, the owners of land as a whole would receive the same return in increment after allowing for the loss of agricultural value on a larger area, if the land were sold at £248, 8s. Od. per acre instead of £500 as taken in our figures. If this value were substituted in our scheme 2 calculations, we should find that the ground rent per week would be reduced from ll^d to 8)4 d. per week or only one halfpenny more than the cost under the old scheme. This is not a picked example. I have tried it with dearer and cheaper land, with more costly roads and less costly ones, and though of course the exact relation varies, the general results come substantially to the same thing. In other words, our over-crowding system of develop- ment is so absolutely uneconomical, it wastes so much of the land in roads, that actually it would be possible, giving the landlord the same total return in increment from every house that is built and paying exactly the same for the streets, to provide the plot of land of 261 square yards for S^^d. per week in place of a plot of 83 square yards which costs 8d, per week. If you compare the two diagrams illustrating the space occupied on every acre of ground by roads, by building, and by garden, in each case, you will see somewhat how this remarkable result comes about ; how in the one case such a large proportion of the acre is occupied by roads, and you must remember that roads constitute the most expensive form of open space which it is possible to have, and the least satisfactory. THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 59 You will, I think, be able to see that not only is there no real economic difficulty in reducing the over-crowding of houses upon the land, but there is equally no economic difficulty in providing all the open space that is desirable, not only around the town, but within the town ; because, even from the point of view of the owner of land, very much the same increment value arises from a given population whatever the exact arrangement of it ; and if you reserve a belt of park, two or three hundred yards wide, between the town and the adjacent suburb, it simply means that you have extended the area of land which benefits by building increment as much farther out as is represented by the land which you have reserved unbuilt-upon nearer in. One other objection to the wider distribution of the population may be raised, namely, that we shall so largely increase the size of our towns as to add very greatly to the problem of locomotion. Here again the difficulty is much less than at first sight appears, for we find on examining towns and comparing the average total population per acre with the population per acre in the congested districts, that, in many cases, it is not the average that is seriously wrong, but that there is acute local congestion. Town planning can provide for the better distribution of the population and the more economical use of land. Just as it will avoid overcrowding in some directions, it will avoid the useless waste of land which often takes place in other directions, because areas, otherwise available for dwellings, are ruined by adjacent factories, or because con- siderable areas are constantly being left without proper 60 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN facilities of access. Not only is this the case, but owing to the fact that the area of the circle increases much more rapidly than the diameter (in proportion to the square of the diameter in fact), as a town grows a constantly diminishing addition has to be made to its diameter to enable it to provide for a given increase of its population. Let me just put this in the form of figures for you, taking the increase of population that we have been already dealing with, and assuming that the whole of the dwell- ings under the present arrangement are built at 34 to the acre, which mercifully is not true. The present area of the borough of Manchester is 21,643 acres, but the area actually built upon is only 10,081 acres, that is 15^ square miles, equivalent to a circle having a diameter of 4)^ miles or a radius of 2^ miles. I find that in Manchester supposing only half the circumference of the town is available for growth for one reason or another, 10 years development at the rate of 100 acres for dwellings per year, which we saw to be the required amount under scheme No. 1 of congested development, would increase this radius to 2J^ miles. Under scheme No. 2 if, for the same ten years, we needed 227 acres per year, the radius would be increased to 2^ miles. That is, the extreme distance to be travelled in one case would only be ]^ mile further after ten years of whole- some development, and the average distance would show considerably less increase. (Figs. 8 and 9.) There is only one other aspect of this great question that I can touch upon to-night. We have been considering almost exclusively the practical utility and the economic FIG. 8. — Diagram showing how it would be possible to reduce the pressure of population in the centre of London by one-third its present inhabitants^ and yet find accommodation at an average of only 25 people to the acre for over 12,000,000 people within the present area of greater London and within a radius of less than 15 miles from the centre. FIG. 9. — Diagram illustrating how the population which can be accommodated in a town increases much more rapidly than the average distance of the dwellings from the centre of the town. In this diagram the whole of the population is assumed to average 25 people to the acre. THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN 61 facility of regulating our town development on better lines than in the past ; but the purpose of all this is to make of our towns dwelling places more fitting for a race of beings who do not live by bread alone, but who require also mental culture and an outlet for the expression of their spiritual aspirations. When you want to erect a new municipal building or a new cathedral, having settled the requirements, practical or hygienic, that the building must serve, you call in the artist to give form to the building, that it may express by its beauty something more, some- thing which throughout the ages every race of man has felt to be necessary to the completion of his work ; and so must it be in our city building. When sociologists and surveyors have settled the requirements, and economists and engineers have settled the possibilities, then we, as our forefathers did, must call in the man of imagination, the artist, to clothe these requirements in some beautiful form. The Greeks and Romans did this as you may see from the beautiful re-creation of Ephesus and others of their cities. The mediaeval builders succeeded also, though on quite different lines, as is evident in Rothenburg, Nuremburg, or any city where mediaeval remains to any extent exist. The town planners of the Renaissance in like manner gave order and beauty to their cities, and their works, as being nearer our own time, we should study with special care, such examples for instance as may be seen in Paris, Karlsruhe, Turin, or Copenhagen. Your Manchester Society of Architects have already made sketches for a plan of a Manchester suburb which are 62 THE TOWN EXTENSION PLAN no doubt known to many of you, showing the breadth of treatment, the careful consideration of the grouping of the buildings and their placing on the ground which must form part of the final stages of town planning, if the town is to become once more a beautiful place to dwell in ; and it is as necessary for mental and spiritual health that man should live in beautiful surroundings as it is for his bodily health that he should dwell under sanitary conditions. Town Planning, then, calls for a great co-operative effort to re- create in our cities worthy dwelling places for our social life. The individual must find his reward for sometimes sacrificing his immediate interests and predilections in the far wider opportunities which a co-ordinated development would afford, and above all, might I say here, he must learn to consume his OMfn smoke literally and metaphorically. The engineer and the surveyor must be willing to co-operate with the artist, guiding him on sound and practical lines, but giving him the freest possible hand in dealing with the forms of expression ; and the architect must cease to regard each building he erects as a unit in itself, of which he may make what he likes, and must learn to consider it as a detail in the greater street picture, and must accept as his first duty the subordination of that detail to a total effect of ordered beauty which the citizens must learn to require and appreciate, that each may in this way do his share towards the creation of a beautiful city. SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. "Th ANATOMICAL SERIES. No. I. STUDIES IN ANATOMY from the Anatomical Department of the University of Manchester. Vol. iii. Edited by Alfred H. Young, M.B. (Edin.), F.B.C.S., Professor of Anatomy. Demy 8vo, pp. iz, 289, 23 plates. 10s.net. (Publication No. 10, 1906.) rhis forms the third volume of the Studies in Anatomy issued by the Council, and contains contributions of considerable interest. The volume is well printed and bound. It speaks well for the activity of investigation at Manchester." — Lancet. " The volume is well got up and is evidence of the continuation of the excellent work which has been carried on for so long a period, under Professor A. H. Young's supervision, and has been encouraged and stimulated by his own work." — British Medical Journal. BIOLOGICAL SERIES. No. I. THE HOUSE FLY. Miucttdomestica{Lia.nasxis). A Study of its Structure, Development, Bionomics and Economy. By C. 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" The book is notable as extending the lines of investigation, chiefly directed upon Old Irish, with which we have grown familiar in the last ten or twelve years." — Manchester Guard-um. CLASSICAL SERIES. No. I. A STUDY OF THE BACCHAE OF EUEIPIDES. By G. Norwood, M.A , Assistant Leotarer in Classics. Demy 8vo, pp. xx, 188. 5s. net. (Publication No. 31, 1908.) " The interest of Mr. Norwood's book, which ... is a very welcome addition to the bibliography of Euripidas, and a scholarly and interesting 84, Cross Street, Manchester SH£RRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. CLASSICAL SERIES. 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"Professor Dewsnup's book on the housing problem consists of three distinct parts, each of which is a valuable contribution to economic science. In Part I, Professor Dewsnup tries to give a clear and definite account of the evil with which authorities in England are called upon to cope. Avoiding all special pleading and all evidence of the sensational kind whi&h is apt to give a false idea of the extent and intensity of the evil of overcrowding, he does not on the other hand fall into the error of minimizing the evil. "In Part II, Professor Dewsnup gives a most excellent and well- digested summary of the legislation which has been passed by Parlia- ment since 1851 to cope with the evils of overcrowded houses, and of overcrowded areas. "In Part III, the strictly informational and statistical work of the previous parts is utilized by the author to support his own conclusions as to the best methods of dealing with the problem of overcrowding. "Whether or not the reader agrees with Professor Dewsnup in the conclusions he draws from his data, every student of economics must be grateful to him for the accuracy and care which have gone into the collection and arrangement of his material." — The American Political Science Review, vol. iii, No. 1, February, 1909. 33, Soho Square, London, W. s SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. ECONOMIC SERIES. (Oabtsidb Report, No. 5.) No. VIII. AMERICAN BUSINESS ENTERPRISE. By Dotjolas Knoof, M. a., Gartside Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. viii. 128. le. 6d. net. (Publication No. 30, 1907.) " The book is calculated to give a clear and accurate description, "essentially intended for the general reader," and the author has quite rightly eliminated everything of a technical character, giving his theme both the simplicity and the interest that are required. . . . The work might well have been doubled in length without any loss of interest. . . . Invaluable as a text-book." — The Economic Journals " Should on no account be missed, for it is a very good attempt at a survey of the enoroious field of American business in the true and judicial spirit." — Pall MoM Gazette. (Gabtsidb Rbfobt, No. 6.) No. IX. THE ARGENTINE AS A MARKET. By N. L. Watson, M.A., Gartside Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. viii. 64. Is. net. (Publication No. 33, 1908.) "A valuable and thorough examination of the conditions and future of Argentine commerce." — Morning Leader. (Gaetsidb Repoet, No. 7.) No. X. SOME ELECTRO-CHEMICAL CENTRES. By J. N. Peing, M.Sc, Gartside Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. xiv. 137. Is. 6d. net. (Publication No. 41, 1908.) " Concise, business-like, and furnished with some valuable papers of statistics, the report will prove well worthy of the study of anyone specially interested in this subject." — Scotsman. " The reviewer says unhesitatingly that this Gartside Report is the best all-round book on industrial electro- chemistry that has so far come to his notice." — ElectrO'chemical and Metallurgical Industry, May, 1909. (Gaetbide Repoet, No. 8.) No. XI. CHEMICAL INDUSTRY ON THE CONTINENT. By Harold Baron, B.Sc, Gartside Scholar. Demy 8vo, pp. xi. 71. Is. 6d. net. (Publication No. 44, 1909.) "Well informed, well systematised, and written with businesslike precision, it deserves the attention of everyone interested in its subject." — Scotsman. "For a good general account of the chemical industry on the Con- tinent we think this report, so far as it goes, to be an excellent one and is, moreover, unlike many works on the subject, interesting to read." — Chemical Trades Journal. " Clearly and intelligently handled." — The Times. 6 34, Cross Street, Manchester SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. ECONOMIC SERIES. No. XII. UNEMPLOYMENT. By Prof. S. J. Chapman, M.A., M.Com., and H. M. Hallsworth, M.A., B.Sc. Demy 8vo, pp. xvi. 164. 2s. net, paper, 28. 6d. net, cloth. (Publication No. 45, 1909.) " On the whole, the authors oSei a solid contribution, both as regards facts and reasoning, to the solution of a peculiarly difficult and pressing social problem." — Cotton Factory Timet. "... reproduces in amplified form a valuable set of articles, giving the results of an investigation made in Lancashire, which lately appeared in the Manchester Guardian. By way of Introduction we have an examina- tion, not previously published, of the Report of the Poor-law Commission on Unemployment. There is a large accompaniment of Charts and Tables, and indeed the whole work bears the mark of thoroughness." — Cruardian. (Gabtsidb Bbfort, No. 9.) No. XIII. THE COTTON INDUSTEiY IN SWITZERLAND, VORALBERG AND ITALY. A Technical and Economic Study. By S. L. Besso, LL.B. Demy 8vo, pp. xv. 229. 3s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 54, 1910.) " The large amount of information gathered has been carefully arranged. . . . The work is a worthy one, interesting to the general reader, and valuable to the captain of commerce, and inevitably suggests the desirability of having the remaining countries of the Continent similarly surveyed .... this volume, which is well worth careful study by all who are interested in the social and economic conditions of textile workers abroad." — The Cotton Factory Times. " This volume may be heartily commended to the attention of all persons interested in every phase of cotton mill economics, and we congratulate Mr. Besso on the admirable manner in which he has set forth the results of his painstaking investigations. In these days of international comparisons, a series of volumes dealing in this way with every industrial country would be of considerable value to students of industrial and commercial affairs." — The Textile Mercury. ". . . . the facts and statistics the author marshals so clearly .... a skilled investigator. For the rest, this volume dods infinite credit alike to the author and to his University." — Morning Leader. 33, Soho Square, London, W. SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. EDUCATIONAL SERIES. No. I. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND & ELSEWHERE. Their place in the Educational System of an Industrial and Com- mercial State. By Michael E. Sadlgb, M.A., LL.D., Professor of the History and Administration of Education. Demy 8vo, pp. xzvi. 779. 8s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 29, 1907.) This work is largely based on an enquiry made by past and present Students of the Educational Department of the UniTersity of Manchester. Chapters on Continuation Schools in the German Empire, Switzerland, Denmark, and France, have been contributed by other writers. " gives a record of what the principal nations are doing in the prolongation of school work. It is invaluable as a corpus of material from which to estimate the present position of the world — so far as its analogies touch Britain — ^in 'further education,' as the phrase is." —The Outlook. "The most comprehensive book on continuation schools that has yet been issued in this country " — Scottish Review. " The whole question is discussed with an elaboration, an insistence on detail, and a wisdom that mark this volume as the most important contribution to educational effort that has yet been made." — Conttm/porary Seview. "The subject of the work is one that goes to the very heart of national education, and the treatise itself lays bare with a scientific but humane hand the evils that beset our educational system, the waste of life and national energy which that system has been unable in any sufficient degree to check." — The Spectator. " It is a treasure of facts and judicious opinions in the domain of the history and administration of education." — The Athenceum. No. II. THE DEMONSTRATION SCHOOLS RECORD. No. I. Being Contributions to the Study of Education from the Department of Education in the University of Manchester. By J. J. Findlas, M.A., Ph.D. Sarah Fielden Professor of Education. Demy 8vo, pp. viii. 126. Is. 6d. net. (Publication No 32, 1908j) " Professor Findlay and his skilled and experienced collaborators give an interesting account of the uses of the demonstration classes, the nature and scope of the work done in them, and the methods adopted (as well as the underlying principles) in some of the courses of instruc- tion." — The Athenceum. "The book gives an instructive account of the attempts made to correlate the subjects of school instruction, not only with each other, but also with the children's pursuits out of school hours. . . . The problem Professor Findlay has set himself to work out in the Demonstration School is, How far is it possible by working with the children through successive culture epochs of the human race to form within their minds not only a truer conception of human history, but also eventually a deeper comprehension of the underlying purpose and oneness of all human activities?" — Morning Post. 34, Cross Street, Manchester SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. EDUCATIONAL SERIES. No. III. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY IN GIELS' SCHOOLS IN NORTH AND CENTRAL GERMANY. A Report by Eva DoDQE, M.A., Gilchrist Student. Demy 8vo, pp. x. 149. Is. 6d. net. (Publication No. 34, 1908.) "We cordially recommend this most workmanlike, and extremely valuable addition to pedagogic literature." — Education. " Miss Dodge has much of interest to say on the limitations and defects of history-teaching in girls' schools, but the real contribution of this book is its revelation of how the history lesson can be made a living thing. "—Cflasgow Bercid. "Gives a clear and detailed account of two well-organised schemes of historical teaching in Germany." — School World. No. IV. THE DEPARTMENT OP EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER, 1890-1911. Demy 8vo, 146 pp. Is. 6d. net, paper ; 2s. 6d. net, cloth. (Publication No. 58, 1911.) This book, published in commemoration of the twenty-first anniversary of the education department, includes an article nearly 50' pages long by Prof Sadler on University Training Colleges, their origin, growth and influence, a history by Mr. W. T. Goode of the department of education in the University, a register of past and present students and a record of the pubUcations issued from the department. It is illustrated by photographs of the University and some of the leading persons connected with the education department. No. V. OUTLINES OF EDUCATION COURSES IN MAN CHESTER UNIVERSITY. Demy 8vo, pp. viii., 190. 3s. net. [Publication No. 61, 1911. No. VI. THE STORY OF THE MANCHESTER HIGH SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, 1871—1911. By Saea A. Buestall, M.A. Demy 8vo., pp. XX. 214, with 18 Plates. 5s. net. (Publication No. 63, 1911.) ENGLISH SERIES. No. I. THE LITERARY PROFESSION IN THE ELIZABETHAN AGE. By Ph. Shbavtn, M.A.,D.Lit., Special Lecturer in English Literature and Tutor for Women Students; Warden of the Hall of Residence for Women Students. A series of brief studies dealing with the conditions amidst which the profession of literature was pursued under Elizabeth and James I. It treats of their relations with patrons, publishers, and reading public, and with various authorities exercising legal control over the press; and discusses the possibility of earning a sufficient livelihood, in this period. by the proceeds of literary work. Demy 8vo, pp. xii. 221. 5s. net. (Publication No. 49, 1909.) " . . . . scholarly and illuminating book. It opens a new series ir the Manchester University publications, and opens it with distinction. A more elaborately documented or more carefully indexed work need not be desired. The subject is an engrossing one; and, although the author has aimed rather at accuracy and completeness than at the arts of entertainment, the result remains eminently readable." — Manchester Guardian. 3, Soho Square, London, W. SHERBATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS ENGUSH SERIES. No, 11. BEOWULF : Edited, with Introduction, Notes, and Glossary, by W. J. Sedqefield, Litt.D., Lectnrer in English Language. Demy 8vo, pp. xii. 300. 9s. net. (Publication No. 55, 1910.) " It is his oarefulnoss in this matter of the text that will win' Mr. Sedgefield the chief thanks of students. This record of variants is full and accurate, and the fuller notes which follow the text itself should be very helpful both to the pupil and the expert. In the glossarial index Mr. Sedgefield has accomplished a task hitherto unattempted in England. . . . Mr. Sedgefield's edition of "Beowulf "maintains admirably the standard of seholarliness which Miss Sheavyn's recent volume set her followers in the new English series of Manchester University studies, and we need no longer reproach ourselves with the necessity of going to Germany for a fully edited text of the greatest monument of our early literature. All scholars must be grateful." — Manchester Guardian. " Too often, the philologist and the man of letters find themselves at variance, and it is rare indeed to find the two combined in one personality, but, brief as Mr. Sedgefield's introductory essays necessarily are, they suffice to show that the poem appeals to him in its literary as well as in its linguistic aspect. His criticisms are admirably sugges- tive, and his notes on the metre, origin, authorship and date are models of clearness and condensation. The Bibliography and Glossary are admirably full." — Ouardtan. "... His hope that it will find acceptance with a larger public, if not already fulfilled, certainly will be, for the edition is incomparably better than any yet produced in England, and so complete in glossary, bibliography, and other explanatory matter as to stand in no fear of a rival." — Journal of Education. "It is a scholarly piece of work, embodying the results of the latest researches and containing an excellent bibliography. The introduction provides an admirable analysis of the composition and structure of the poem. It is the best English edition available of ths oldest extant epic of the English tongue." — ScoUmcm. "Mr. W. J. Sedgefield's new edition of "Beowulf" is a great step forward in the study of Beowulf in particular and the general popularisa- tion of the study of Anglo-Saxon in general. It may be said that in each of its various sections the introduction, the notes, the glossary, and the appendices, this work is much more complete than any other English edition which has hitherto been published, and it should prove the greatest help to students of this grand old epic poem-. . . a work which essentially conforms to the spirit of modern science." — Corrumen tator. "The notes handle all the chief difficulties frankly." — Edueationait Times. "The Bibliography deserves high praise." — The Athenceum. No. III. PATIENCE : A West Midland Poem of the Fourteenth Century. With an Introduction, Notes, and Glossary, by Hartley Bateson, M.A. [In the Press. 10 84, Crosa Street, Manchester SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. HISTORICAL SERIES. No. I. MEDIiEVAL MANCHESTER AND THE BEGINNINGS OF LANCASHIRE. By James Taii, M.A., Professor of Ancient and Mediaeval History. Demy 8vo, pp. x. 211. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 3, 1904.) "Patient and enlightened scholarship and a sense of style and pro- portion have enabled the writer to produce a work at once solid and readable." — English Historical Review. "A welcome addition to the literature of English local history, not merely because it adds much to our knowledge of Manchester and Lancashire, but also because it displays a scientific method of treatment which is rare in this field of study in England." — Dr. Gross in American Historical Eeview. " La collection ne pouvait debuter plus significativement et plus heure- usement que par un ouvrage d'histoire du Moyen Age du k M. Tait, car I'enseignement medieviste est un de ceuz qui font le plus d'honneur ^ la jeune Universite de Manchester, et c'est £ M. le Professeur Tait qu'il faut attribuer une bonne part de ce succ^s." — Revue de Synthise historique. No. II. INITIA OPERUM LATINORUM QUAE SAECULIS XIII., XIV., XV. ATTRIBUUNTUR. By A. G. Little, M. A., Lecturer in PalEBOgraphy. Demy 8vo, pp. xiii. 273 (interleaved). (Out of print.) (Publication No. 5, 1904.) "Whoever has attempted to ascertain the contents of a Mediaeval miscellany in manuscript must often have been annoyed by the occurrence of a blank space where the title of the treatise ought to be. Mr. Little has therefore earned the gratitude of all such persons by making public a collection of some 6,000 incipits, which he arranged in the first instance for his private use, in compiling a catalogue of Franciscan MSS." — English Historical Review. No. III. THE OLD COLONIAL SYSTEM. By Geeald Bbekblby Hbbtz, M.A., B.C.L., Lecturer in Constitutional Law. Demy 8vo, pp. li. 232. 5s net. (Publication No. 7, 1905.) " Mr. Hertz gives us an elaborate historical study of the old colonial system, which disappeared with the American Bievolution He shows a remarkable knowledge of contemporary literature, and his book may claim to be a true history of popular opinion." — Spectator. " Mr. Hertz's book is one which no student of imperial developments can neglect. It is lucid, fair, thorough, and convincmg." — Glasgow Herald. "Mr. Hertz's 'Old Colonial System' is based on a careful study of contemporary documents, with the result that several points of no small importance are put in a new light .... it is careful, honest work .... The story which he tells has its lesson for us." — The Times. "Both the ordinary reader and the academic mind will get benefit from this well-informed and well-written book." — Scotsman. "Mr. Hertz has made excellent use of contemporary literature, and has given us a very valuable and thorough critique. The book is in- teresting and very well written." — American Political Science Review. S3, Soho Square. London, W. H SHEBRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. HISTORICAL SERIES. No. IV. STUDIES OF ROMAN IMPERIALISM, By W. T. Arnold, M.A. Edited by Edward Fiddes, M.A., Lecturer in Ancient History, with Memoir of the Author by Mrs. Humphry Ward and C. E. Montague. With a Photogravure of W. T. Arnold. Demy 8vo, pp. czxiii. 281. 7s. 6d. net (Publication No. 16, 1906.) "Mrs. Humphry Ward has used all her delicate and subtle art to draw a picture of her beloved brother; and his friend Mr. Montague's account of his middle life is also remarkable for its literary excellence." — Athenceum. "The memoir .... tenderly and skilfully written by the 'sister and friend,' tells a story, which well deserved to be told, of a life tich in aspiration, interests, and friendships, and not without its measure of actual achievement." — Tribune. " This geographical sense and his feeling for politics give colour to all he wrote." — Times. " Anyone who desires a general account of the Empire under Augustus which is freshly and clearly written and based on wide reading will find it here." — Manchester Guardian. " Nothing could be better than the sympathetic tribute which Mrs. Humphry Ward pays to her brother, or the analysis of his work and method by his colleague Mr. Montague. The two together have more stuff in them than many big books of recent biogilaphy." — Westminster Gazette. The Memoir may be had separately, price 2s. 6d net. No. V. CANON PIETRO CASOLA'S PILGRIMAGE TO JERUSALEM IN THE YEAR 1494. By M. M. Newett, B.A., formerly Jones Fellow. Demy 8vo, pp. viii. 427. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 26, 1907.) "Tra mezzo ai tanti libri esteri di semplici divulgazione su fatti e figure della storia italiana, questo emerge piacevalmente e si legge volontieri. E diverso di carattere e di trattazione. Esume .... dalla polvere degli archivi e delle bibliote3he qualche cosa che ha un valore fresco ed interessante, un valore storico e un valore umano." — A.A.B. in the Archivio Storico Italiario. " L'introduotion se termine par toute une dissertation du plus grand int^rSt documentee k I'aide des archives venitiennes, sur le caractere commercial des pelerinages, dont les armateurs de Venise assumerent, jusqu 'au XVIIe si^cle I'entreprise." — J.B. in the Revue de Synthise historique. " Miss Newett has performed her task admirably, preserving much of the racy humour and shrewd phrasing which mark the original, and adding, in the introduction, a general treatise on the Venetian pilgrim industry, and in the notes copious illustrations of the text." — Horatio Brown in the English Historical Review. 12 84, Cross Street, Manchester SHEBBATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. HISTORICAL SERIES. CANON PIETBO CASOLA'S PILGRIMAGE TO JERUSALEM IN THE YEAR 1494.— Continued. "Miss Newett's introduction is an admirable bit of work. She has studied carefully what the archives of Venice have to say about pilgrim ships and shipping laws, and her pages are a mine of information on such subjects." — ^Dr. Thomas Lindsay in the Scottish Historical Review. " This is a deeply interestiog record, not merely of a Syrian pilgrim- age,_ but of Mediterranean life and of the experiences of an intelligent Italian gentleman at the close of the Middle Ages — two years after the discovery of America: It would not be easy to find a more graphic picture, in old days, of a voyage from Venice to the Levant." — American Historical Review. No. VI HISTORICAL ESSAYS. Edited by T. F. Tour, M.A., Professor of Mediaeval and Modern History, and James Tait, M.A., Professor of Ancient and Mediaeval History. Demy 8vO, pp. xv. 557. 6s. net. Reissue of the Edition of 1902 with index and New Preface (Publication No. 27, 1907.) "Diese zwanzig chronologisch geordneten Aufaatze heissen in der Vorrede der Herausgeber Festchrift, behandeln zur Halfte ausser-englische Themata, benutzen reichlich festlandische Literatur und verraten iiberall neben weiten Ansblickeu eine methodische Sohulung die der dortigen Facultat hohe Ehre macht." — Professor Liebermaun in Deutsche Literaturzeitung. " Imperial history, local history, ecclesiastical history, economic history and the methods of historical teaching — all these are in one way or another touched upon by scholars who have collaborated in this volume. Men and women alike have devoted their time and pains to working out problems of importance and often of no slight difficulty. The result is one of whiph the university and city may be justly proud." — The late Professor York Powell in the Manchester Guardiaii. " Esso contiene venti lavori storici dettati, quattro da prof essori e sedici da licenziati del CoUegio, e sono tutto scritti appositamente e condotti secondo le piu rigorose norme della critica e su documenti." — R. Predelli in Nuovo Archivio Veneto. "Le variete des sujets et I'^rudition avec laquelle ils sont traites font grand honneur 4 la maniere dont i'histoire est enseigne k Owens College." — Revue Historique. " Par nature, c'est un recueil savant, qui temoigne du respect et de I'^mulation que sait exercer pour les etudes historiques la jeune et dej^ celebre universite." — Revue d'histoire eccUsiastique (Louvain). " All these essays reach a high level ; they avoid the besetting sm of most of our present historical writing, which consists of serving up a hash of what other historians have written flavoured with an original spice of error They are all based on original research and written by specialists." — Professor A. F. Pollard in the English Historical Review. " Sie bilden einen schonen Beweis fur die rationelle Art, mit der dort dieses Studium betrieben wird." — Professor 0. Weber in Historische Zeitechrift. The index can be purchased separately, price 6d. net. 83, Soho Square, London, W. 13 SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. HISTORICAL SERIES. No. VII. STUDIES SUPPLEMENTARY TO STUBBS" CONSTI- TUTIONAL HISTORY. Vol. i. By Ch. Pbtit-Dtjtaillis, Litt.D., rector of the University of Grenoble. Translated from the French by W. E. Rhodes, M.A., and edited by Prof. James Tait, M.A. Demy 8vo, pp. xiv. 152. 4s. net. (Publication No. 38, 1908. Second Edition, 1911). "The volume will be virtually indispensable to teachers and students of history." — Athenceum. " This task has been carefully and well performed, under the supervi- sion of Professor Tait, who has written a short but adequate introduc- tion. This little book, ought, without delay, to be added to every public or private library that contains a copy of the classic work to which it forms an indispensable supplement." — Dr. W. S. McKechnie in the Scottish Historical Review. "These supplementary studies impress one as a discreet and learned attempt to safeguard a public, which is likely to learn all that it will know of a great subject from a single book, against the shortcomings of that book."— Professor A. B. White in the American Historiccd Review. " C'est un complement indispensable de I'ouvrage de Stubbs, et Ton saura gr6 a I'Umversite de Manchester d'avoir pris I'initiative de oette publication." — M. Charles Bemont in Revue Historique. " Ce sont des modeles de critique ing^niense et sobre, une mise au point remarquable des questions les plus importantes traitces jadis par Stubbs." — M. Louis Halphen in Revue de Synthise historique. " Zu der englischen Ubersetzung dieser Excurse, durch einen verdienten jungeren Historiker, die durchaus leicht wie Originalstil fliesst, hat Tait die Vorrede geliefert und manche Note die noch die Literatur von 1908 beriicksichtigt. Die historische Schule der Universitat, Manchester, an Rtihrigkeit und strenger Methode von keiner in England vibertroSen, bietet mit der Verofientlichung der werthvollen Arbeit des Franzosen ein treffliches Lehrmittel." — Professor F. Liebermann, in Deutsche No. VIII. MALARIA AND GREEK HISTORY. By W. H. S. Jones, M.A. To which is added the History of Greek Therapeutics and the Malaria Theory by E. T. Withington, M.A., M.B. Demy 8vo, pp. xii. 176. 5s. net. (Publication No 43, 1909.) " Mr. W. H. S. Jones is to be congratulated on the success with which he has conducted what may be described as a pioneering expedition into a practically unexplored field of history .... the publishers are to be congratulated on the admirable way in which the book has been turned out— a joy to handle and to read." — Manchester Guardian. " This interesting volume is an endeavour to show that the decline of the Greeks as a people for several centuries before and after the Christian era was largely due to the prevalence of malaria in its various forms." — Olatgow Herdd. "[The author] .... has amassed a considerable store of valuable information from the Greek classics and other sources which will prove extremely useful to all who are interested in his theory." — Birmingham, Daily Post. 14 84. Cross Street, Manchester SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS HISTORICAL SERIES. No. IX. HANES GRUFFYDD AP CYNAN. The Welsh text with translation, introduction, and notes by Aethtje Jones, M.A., Jones Fellow in History. Demy 8vo, pp. viii. 204. 6s. net. (Publication No. 50, 1910.) " No Welsh historian of the future can anord to neglect this scholarly attempt to give the work of Griffith ap Cynan a true historical setting. The introduction is an ideally well-balanced estimate of a singularly quaint and beautiful piece of history." — Glasgow Herald. " The Editor has prefaced his text with a comprehensive and nearly always convincing introduction of more than 100 pages, besides copious notes. Nearly every page of both contains matter of Irish history, sometimes really new, since taken from the document never deeply studied before, and always valuable from the new light thrown by the collation of independent, ' international ' testimonies. ... It will at once be seen that we have here a document of the first interest to ourselves ; the University and the Editor have put us in their debt for a valuable contribution to our history." — Freeman's Journal. "Mr. Jones prints the Welsh text in a scholarly recension, and accompanies it page by page with a faithful version into English, explains its obscurities and personal and local aiHusions in notes always concise and to the point, and brings it in with an interesting introduction, which treats fully of the transmission of the text, of its value as an historical document, and of its relation to other remaining original authorities for the history of the Norman Conquest. "^ — Scotsman. " Mr. Jones's enterprise is the result of the happy union in the University of Celtic and of historical studies. . . The textual editing, the annotations, and the translation have all been admirably done, and the work is a credit aliks to the author, the University, and to the Press." — Manchester Guardian. " Hearty thanks are due for a most useful and satisfactory edition." — Archcedogia Comhrensis. No. X. THE CIVIL WAR IN LANCASHIRE. By Ernest Bboxap, M.A. Demy 8vo, pp. xv. 226. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. &1, 1910.) "By a judicious use of it he has produced an eminently readable and informing work. . . . The University of Manchester, which, but for the pressure of the political situation, would have been founded in 1642, is to be congratulated upon its choice of an historian of the war in Lancashire." — Atherweum "Mr. Broxap's monograph must be welcomed as the most important of those hitherto given to history to illuminate the county aspect of the Civil War The whole book is very carefuuy _ revised and accurate in its details, full and satisfactory, and the order in which the story is told is excellent The index is also sufficient, and the whole study is amply annotated. Altogether, both the author and the Manchester University Press are to be thoroughly congratulated upon the volume." — Morning Post. 83, Soho Square, London, W. 15 SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. HISTORICAL SERIESi THE CIVIL WAR IN LANCASHIRE (continued). " It is clear that Mr. Broxap has minutely studied all available original materials and that he uses them with care and discrimination. . . the highest praise that can be given to the author of u historical monograph is that he set out to produce a book that vras wanted, does that extremely well, and does nothing else, and to this praise Mr. Broxap is fully entitled." — Westminater Gazette. No. XI. A BIOGRAPHY OF THOMAS DEACON, THE MAN- CHESTER NON-JUROR. By Henry Broxap, M.A. Demy 8vo, pp. ziz. 215, 2 plates, ^s. 6d, net. (Publication No. 59, 1911.) "It has the signal merit, as history, of dealing with real historical questions and bringing research and historical methods i^o bear upon them. The author's motive has never been to concoct a book for the circulating library, but to illustrate by a single instance the strong and noble characteristics of a sect which Johnson and Macaulay despised." — Manchester Onardian. " The materials for a biography of Thomas Deacon are not too plentiful, but Mr. Broxap has made the best possible use of the available sources, and weaves into his story many interesting glimpses of the social and religious life of the period." — Glasgow Herald. No. XII. THE EJECTED OF 1662: Their Predecessors and Successors in Cumberland and Westmorland. By B. Nightingale, M.A. In two volumes, demy 8vo, pp. xxiv. 1490. 28s. net. (Publication No. 62, 1911.) No. XIII. GERMANY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Lectures by J. Holland Rose, Litt.D., C. H. Herfoed, Litt.D., E. C. K. GoNNEE, M.A., and M. E. Sadlee, M.A., LL,D. With an Introductory Note by Viscount Haldane. Demy 8vo, pp. xxi. 142. 28. 6d. net. (Publication No. 65, 1912.) No. XIV. A HISTORY OF PRESTON IN AMOUNDERNESS. By H. W. Clemesha, M. A. Demy 8vo., 7s. 6d. net. '(Publication No. 67, 1912.) THE LOSS OF NORMANDY, 1189—1204. By F, M. Powickb.M.A., Professor of History in the University of Belfast. [In the Press. DOCUMENTS RELATING TO IRELAND UNDER THE COM- MONWEALTH. By Robert Dunlop, M.A., Lecturer on Irish History. In 2 volumes, demy 8vo. This work will consist of a. series of unpublished documents relating to the History of Ireland from 1651 to 1659, arranged, modernized, and edited, with introduction, notes, etc., by Mr. Dunlop. [In Preparation. 16 84, Cross Street, Manchester 8HERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS- MEDICAL SERIES. No. I. SKETCHES OF THE MVES AND WORK OF THE HONORARY MEDICAL STAFF OF THE ROYAL INFIRMARY. From its foundation in 1752 to 1830, when it became the Royal Infirmary. By Edwabd MANsriELD Beookbank, M.D., M.R.C.P; Crown 4to. (illustrated), pp. vii. 311. 15s. net. (Publication No. 1, 1904.) "Dr. Brockbank's is a book of varied interest. It also deserves a welcome as one of the earliest of the ' Publications of the University of Manchester. ' " — Manchester Ouardian. No. II. PRACTICAL PRESCRIBING AND DISPENSING. For Medical Students. By William Kibkby, sometime Lecturer in Pharmacognosy in the Owens College, Manchester. Crown 8vo, pp. iv. 194. 5s. net. (Publication No. 2, 1904, Second Edition, 1906.) "The whole of the matter bears the impress of that technical skill and thoroughness with which Mr. Kirkby s name must invariably be associated, and the book must be welcomed as one of the most useful recent additions to the working library of prescribers and dispensers." — Pharmaceutical Journal. " Thoroughly practical text-books on the subject are so rare, that we welcome with pleasure Mr. William Kirkby's ' Practical Prescribing and Dispensing.' The book is written by a pharmacist expressly for medical students, and the author has been most happy in conceiving its scope and arrangement." — British Medical Journal. No. III. HANDBOOK OP SURGICAL ANATOMY. By G. A. Weight, B.A., M.B. (Oxon.), F.R.C.S., Professor of Systematic Surgery, and C. H. 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"It more truly reflects modern ideas of heart disease than any book we are acquainted with, and therefore may be heartily recommended to our readers." — Treatment. " We regard this volume as an extremely useful guide to the study of diseases of the heart, and consider that no better introduction to the subject could possibly have been written." — Medical Times and Hospital Gazette. No. VIII. JULIUS DRESCHFELD. IN MEMORIAM. Medical Studies by his colleagues and pupils at the Manchester University and the Royal Infirmary. Imperial 8vo, pp. vi. 246. With a Photogravure and 43 Plates. IDs. 6d. net. "(Publication No. 35, 1908.) " A worthy memorial of one who left no small mark upon the study of clinical pathology in this country." — British Medical Journal. " The papers which compose the bulk of the volume have been re- printed from the 'Manchester Chronicle,' vol. xiv, and they are of both mterest and permanent value." — Scottish Medical Journal. "The editor. Dr. Brockbank, can be congratulated upon editing a volume that will fitly perpetuate the memory of his eminent colleague." — Medical Eeview, 18 84. Cross Street, Manchester SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. MEDICAL SERIES. No. IX. HANDBOOK OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES. By R. W. Mabsden, M.D. Crown 8vo, pp. vi. 296. 5s. net (Publication No. 39, 1908.) "This book aims at giving a practical account of the various infectious diseases, suitable for ready reference in everyday work, and the author has, on the whole, succeeded admirably in his attempt." — The Lancet. "Throughout the book the information given seems thoroughly adequate, and especial attention is paid to diagnosis." — Scottish Medical Journal. "The subject matter is well arranged and easy of reference." —The Mediial Officer. No. X. LECTURES ON THE PATHOLOGY OF CANCER. By Chaeles Powell White, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.S. Imperial 8vo, pp. X. 83, 33 plates. 3s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 42, 1908) "The volume is a model of scientific self-restraint. In four chapters the author covers in simple language much that is of main interest in the present phase of investigation of cancer . . . "The volume ... is well illustrated with statistical charts and photomicrographs, and its perusal must prove profitable to all who wish to be brought up-to-dite in the biology of cancer." — Nature. "Full of scholarly information and illustrated with a number of excellent black-and-white plates." — Medical Press. " These lectures give a short resume of recent work on the subject in an easily assimilable form." — St. Bartholomew's Hospital JoumA. No. XI. SEMMELWEIS : HIS LIFE AND HIS DOCTRINE. A chapter in the history of Medicine. By Sir William J. Sinclaie, M.A., M.D., Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology in the Univer- sity of Manchester. Imperial 8vo, pp. x. 369, 2 plates. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 46, 1909.) 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"A most instructive and interesting biography of the discoverer of the cause of puerperal fever. . . . The book is well printed and bound." — Medical Beview. 88, Soho Square, Londoa, W. 19 SHERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS- MEDICAL SERIES. No. XII. MODERN PROBLEMS IN PSYCHIATRY. By. E. Ltjgako, Professor of Nervoas and Mental Diseases in the University of Modena. Translated from the Italian by David Ore, M.D., Assistant Medical Officer and Pathologist to the County Asylum, Prestwich; and R. Gr. Rows, M.D., Assistant Medical Officer and Pathologist to the County Asylum, Lancaster. With an introduction by T. S. Clouston, M.D., Physician Superintendent, Royal Asylum, Morningside, and Lecturer on Mental Diseases in Edinburgh University. Imperial 8vo, pp. viii. 305, 8 plates. 7s. 6d. net. (Publication No. 47, 1909.) " Professor Lugaro is to be congratulated upon the masterly and judicious survey of his subject which he has given to the world in this work. 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(Publication No. 57, 1911.) "There is indeed much of practical interest in the book, which is well printed at the Manchester University Press and is admirably illustrated and got up." — British Medical Journal. "It will be thus seen that the author covers much ground and it is surprising how much interesting information is included. Taken as a whole the book is excellent and will, we feel sure, meet with a ready sale We cordially welcome this volume as an admirable con- tribution to the literature of the subject." — Medical Times "We consider these objects have been achieved. The book is a clear and accurate short account of the characteristics of feebleminded children, which cannot fail to be of service to those for whoiti it is intended. . . . The Appendix contributed by Miss Dendy is, as we should expect, clear and practical, and is a valuable addition to the book." — British Journal of Children's Diseases. No, XIV. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By Judson S. Bury, M.D, (Lond.), F.R.C.P. Demy 8vo., pp. xx. 788. 15/- net. (Publication No. 66, 1912.) 20 84, Cross Street, Mancheater 8HERRATT & HUGHES MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS. PHYSICAL SERIES. No. I. THE PHYSICAL LABORATORIES OF THE UNIVER- SITY OF MANCHESTER. A record of 25 years' work. DemySvo, pp. viii. 142, wita a Photogravure, 10 Plates, and 4 Plans. 5b. net. (Publication No. 13, 1906.) This volume contains an illustrated description of the Physical, Electrical Engineering, and Electro-Chemistry Laboratories of the Manchester University, also a complete Biographical and Biblio- graphical Record of those who have worked in the Physios Depart- ment of the University during the past 25 years. 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Included are probably the earliest known text of the " Nicene Creed," and one of the earliest known vellum codices, containing a considerable fragment of the " Odyssey," possibly of the third century a.d. CATALOGUE OF THE GREEK PAPYRI IN THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY. By Arthur S. Hunt. Vols. 2 and 3 : Non-literary documents. [In Preparation. THE JOHN RYLANDS FACSIMILES : A series of reproductions of unique and rare books in the possession of the John Rylands Library. The volumes consist of mmutely accurate facsimile productions of the works selected, preceded by short bibliographical introduc- tions. The issue of each work is limited to five hundred copies, of which three hundred are offered for sale, at a price calculated to cover the cost of reproduction. '^ 84, Cross Street, Manchester SHERRATT & HUGHES 1. PBOPOSITIO JOHANNIS RUSSELL, printed by William Caxton, circa a.d. 1476. Beproduced from the copy preserved in the John Bylands Library. . . . With an introduction by Henry Guppy. 1909. 8vo, pp. 36, 8. 3s. 6d. net. This "proposition" is an oration, pronomiced by John Bussell, Garter King of Arms, on the investiture of Charles, Duke of Burgundy, with the Order of the Garter, in February, 1469, at Ghent. The tract consists of four printed leaves, without title-page, printer's name, date, or place of printing. It is printed in the type which is known as Caxton's type " No. 2," but whether printed at Bruges or at Westminster has yet to be determined. For many years the copy now in the John Bylands Library was considered to be unique. Indeed, until the year 1807 it lay buried and unnoticed in the heart of a volume of manuscripts, with which it had evidently been bound up by mistake. Since then, another copy has been discovered in the library at Holkham Hall, the seal of the Earl of Leicester. 2. A BOOKE IN ENGLYSH METBE, of the Great Marohaunt man called "Dives Fragmaticus ". . . . 1563. Beproduced in facsimile from the copy in the John Bylands Library. With an introduction by Percy E. Newbery; and remarks on the vocabulary and dialect, with a glossary by Henry C. Wyld. 1910. 4to, pp. xxxviii. 16. Ss. net. The tract here reproduced is believed to be the sole surviving copy of a quaint little primer which had the laudable object of instructing the yoaig in the names of trades, professions, ranks, and common objects of daily life in their own tongue. The lists are rhymed, and therefore easy to commit to memory, and they are pervaded by a certain vein of humour. 3. A LITIL BOKE the whiche traytied and reherced many gode thinges necessaries for the . . . Pestilence . . . made by the . . . Bisshop of Arusiens. . . [London], [1485 ?]. Beproduced in facsimile from the copy in the John Bylands Library. With an introduction by Guthrie Vine. 1910. 4to, i)p. xxxvi. 18. 5s. net. Of this little tract, consisting of nine leaves, written by Benedict Kanuti, Bishop of Vasteras, three separate editions are known, but only one copy of each, and an odd leaf are known to have survived. There is no indication in any edition of the ^lace of printing, date, or name of printer, but they are all printed in one of the four type employed by William de Machlinia, who printed first in partnership with John Lettou, and afterwards alone, in the city of London, at the time when William Caxton was at the most active period of his career at Westminster. THE ELLESMERE CHAUCEB : Reproduced in Facsimile. Price £50 net. LE PELERIN DE VIE HUMAINE. (Privately printed for the Roxburghe Club). 33, Soho Square, London, W. 27 SHERRATT & HUGHES TEANSACTIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CO OPERATION IN SOLAR RESEARCH (Vol. i., First and Second Conferences). Demy 8vo, 260 pp. and plate, ,7s. 6d. net. 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