r"" 
 
MEMORIAL POULTRY LIBRARY 
 
 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY 
 Nfav York Statk Colleges 
 
 OF 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 AT 
 
 Cornell University 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 SF 495.R38 1922 
 
 Artificial incubating and brooding; a com 
 
 3 1924 003 109 570 
 
r 
 
 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003109570 
 
SUITABLE EQUIPMENT IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN SUCCESS IN ARTIFICAL, INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 1 — Turning and cooling eggs — Scene in incubator room, Missouri State Poultry Experiment Statio;n. 2 — Newly 
 hatched chicks, ready tor the brooder. 3 — Growing stock on range — Scene at Purdue University. 4 — Colony hover 
 brooder house on United States Government Poultry Experimental Farm. 5 — Outdoor lamp-heated brooders — Scene on 
 Government Poultry Farm. 
 
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 
 AND BROODING 
 
 A Complete Guide to the Successful Hatching and 
 
 Rearing of Chicks by Modern 
 
 Artificial Methods 
 
 HOMER W. JACKSON, Bditer 
 
 FULLY ILLUSTRATED 
 
 FOURTH EDITION 
 
 PRICE, $1.00 
 
 Copyright, V.n'.K by RELIABLE FOULTRV JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 Copyright, 192.', by RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISIIINC COJFPANY 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 ' DAYTON, OHIO, U. S. A. 
 
 7 
 
/\39 
 
 E 80013 
 CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Selection of Breeding Stock 9 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 Management of Breeding Stock 15 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 The Hen's Egg and How It Is Formed 22 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 The Chick Embryo and Its Development 28 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 Operation of Incubators 34 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 Mistakes in Artificial Incubating 48 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 Day-Old Chicks and Custom Hatching 54 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 Practical Incubator Houses 59 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 The Selection of Brooding Equipment ' 65 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 Care and Management of Brooder Chicks 76 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 Feeding the Brooder Chicks 85 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 Brooder Houses and How To Build Them 94 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 Ailments and Diseases of Chicks 103 
 
 Index Ill 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 1 ^— f I RTIFICIAL hatching and brooding of chicks is a 
 1 ^ 1 1 practice almost as old as history, and methods 
 BH^I substantially the same as those that were in gen- 
 IsUhI eral use before the dawn of the Christian era still 
 are followed in Egypt and other Oriental lands. The 
 secrets of the trade are tegularly handed down from 
 father to son and as jealously guarded, as unchanged ap- 
 parently, and as unaffected by modern ideas as when they 
 were first developed more than 2,000 years ago. 
 
 Crude as these methods and facilities undoubtedly 
 are, they are fairly efficient — at least from an Oriental 
 viewpoint, and in Egypt especially, the community "hatch- 
 eries" still are the almost exclusive source from which 
 native villagers and small farmers secure their annual 
 supply of chicks. They are, in fact, essential to the ex- 
 istence of the poultry industry, as the fowls kept in that 
 country are practically all non-sitters. 
 
 The method of constructing and operating a typical 
 Egyptian hatchery is described in a U. S. Consular report 
 issued by the Government, from which the following ex- 
 tracts are taken: 
 
 "The artificial hatching of eggs has been so long 
 practiced in Egypt that the hens have completely aban- 
 doned that part of their work to man. It is a regular 
 industry and the professors form a very close corpora- 
 tion, handing down their secrets from father to son. For 
 three months of the year their time is completely ab- 
 sorbed by constant attention at the incubatories. 
 
 "The population of Egypt is very dense, about 700 
 per square mile. This agglomeration fosters the use of 
 large incubatories, each turning out from 300,000 to 
 600,000 chicks each season. In some villages there are 
 from three to five of these establishments. They are 
 generally near some important market place, and each 
 one apparently in the center of a district of about 50,000 
 population. That is, each one is the center of a circle 
 having a radius of five miles. It is this density of the 
 population that has allowed this system of artificial 
 hatching to become so very successful. 
 
 "The hatchers do not attempt to rear the young 
 broods. Forty-eight hours after the chicks emerge from 
 the shell they are scattered over the country; overcrowd- 
 ing is thus prevented. This distribution is affected in a 
 very simple manner. As the incubator is near a market 
 place, word is sent there that on such a day there will 
 be so many young chicks. This news is quickly dis- 
 seminated among the villages, and on the appointed day 
 the women arrive with their cages and purchase the young 
 chicks, which are generally sold by the hundred for about 
 $1.50 per hundred. There are also a number of brokers 
 or dealers who take the young chicks to the more dis- 
 tant villages. 
 
 "Once in the village the chicks become the property 
 of the women, who take great care of them during the 
 first week. For two or three days they are kept in cages 
 in lots of twenty or thirty and fed on broken grains slight- 
 ly moistened. At night the cages are taken into the 
 houses and sometimes covered with a bit of cloth. After 
 these first few days the young birds are strong enough 
 to forage for a living; they then are allowed to roam 
 about freely, and at night are kept in a sort of oven 
 placed in the corner of the courtyard. This oven is 
 made of unburnt clay and in shape is like the letter U 
 laid on one side. The top is slightly perforated. The 
 entrance is closed by a heavy stone to keep off foxes and 
 other vermin. 
 
 "It is difficult to get any exact figures as to the 
 number of these incubatories, but judging from those 
 personally known to me, and their distances apart, I 
 should estimate the number at ISO, with an average pro- 
 duction of 300,000 chicks per season. This estimate must 
 be well within the mark, as the population of Egypt is 
 nearly 7,000,000 and fowls form a very large part of the 
 Egyptian diet, so that the production of 45,000,000 table 
 fowls annually would be a short supply. 
 
 "The Egyptian incubatory of today is but a repro- 
 duction of the one of thousands of years ago. The ordi- 
 nary form is an oblong, 100 feet in length by 60 feet in 
 width, the height varying from 12 to IS feet. The illus- 
 tration on page 7, though not drawn exactly to scale, 
 shows the general arrangement. The outer chamber A 
 is divided into three rooms, the middle one masking the 
 entrance to the ovens and thus excluding the outer air. 
 The door leading from A into the central hall is very 
 small. B represents the ovens of the upper tier. C is 
 the manhole; the attendant stands in this and manipu- 
 lates the eggs. D D are spaces in the central hall for 
 the reception of the young chicks. These spaces are 
 marked off by ridges of dried mud about 9 inches in 
 height. Fig. 3 is a door giving access to the interior of 
 the oven. Around the walls and parallel to it runs a 
 raised ridge 6 inches in height; between this and the 
 wall the fires are lighted. In the top of the dome is a 
 small aperture about two inches square for the exit of 
 smoke and for regulating the heat. 
 
 "The outer wall, 4 feet thick, is generally built of 
 sun-dried bricks; the mortar is simply mud. The space 
 contained within the walls is divided as shown in Fig. 1. 
 The circular ovens are built up and the spaces between 
 them and the wall filled in with brick and mortar, the 
 same as the outer wall. Each set of ovens, the upper 
 and the lower, is perfectly independent and is covered by 
 a dome having a very small aperture in the crown. Fig. 2 
 represents the elevation on the line A B of Fig. 1. The 
 height of the lower oven is 4 feet and that of the upper 
 one 9 feet. The interior diameter between the ridges 
 D D is 15 feet. Fig. 3 represents the elevation on the 
 line C D of Fig. 1, and shows the disposition of the cen- 
 tral wall and the doors of the ovens. For this particu- 
 lar incubatory the attendants consist of two men and 
 a boy. 
 
 "In the month of January, about the 10th, fires are 
 lighted in all the ovens and on the floor of the central 
 hall. The entire building is thoroughly warmed to a 
 temperature of 110 degrees Fahrenheit. The fires are at 
 fitst composed of gelleh or dried cow dung, but when 
 the eggs are placed in the oven, coarse broken straw, 
 mostly the joints, and sheep or goat dung is used. The 
 fuel is placed in the trough between the hall and the 
 ridge, and is lighted at one or more places, according to 
 the degrees of heat required. This is the only means of 
 regulating the heat. Thermometers are not used. The 
 attendants endeavor to keep the heat a trifle greater than 
 that of their own skin. While the oven is being warmed, 
 notice is sent out to the villages that the establishment 
 will purchase eggs on such a date. The country people 
 arrive with large crates containing from 1,000 to 2,000. 
 These are purchased outright by the establishment at 
 the rate of $4.00 per 1,000. 
 
 "The floor of the oven is covered with a coarse mat 
 made of palm leaves; on this a little bran is sprinkled te 
 prevent the eggs from rolling. The attendant changes 
 
the position of the eggs twice a day, taking those from 
 near the manhole and placing them on the outer edge of 
 the circle and vice versa. The eggs are tested on the 
 fourth day and again six days later, the infertile and 
 dead germs being removed. After the eggs have been 
 fifteen days in the ovens they are daily examined, and so 
 delicate is the touch of the attendant that he can at once 
 distinguish if the egg is alive by the fact that it should 
 be slightly warmer than his own skin. 
 
 "At the expiration of twenty-one days the chicks 
 commence to emerge from the shells, the attendants con- 
 stantly aiding them. They are. placed in the spaces D D, 
 illustration 1, and left to dry for nearly forty-eight hours, 
 but they are not fed. The sale then commences and in 
 a few hours they are spirited away. The temperature in 
 the central hall is maintained at 98 F., and that of the 
 ovens slightly more." 
 
 Development of the Modern Incubator 
 
 The modern incubator may be said to date from 
 about 1875 when the comparatively crude forerunners of 
 the present type of lamp-heated incubator appeared on 
 the market. To develop the modern incubator, however, 
 with its automatic and exact regulation of heat, its 
 adaptability to a wide variety of conditions, its sim- 
 plicity and its durability, and to do this without making 
 the cost exorbitant, was by no means a simple or easy 
 matter. These problems however, have been solved — 
 unquestionably so, and the standard lamp-heated incuba- 
 tor of the present day is truly remarkable in efficiency, 
 and low cost, and in ease and accuracy of operation. It 
 will bear comparison with any of the modern, high-grade 
 "tools" that have been perfected for the use of those en- 
 gaged in other lines of agricultural production. 
 
 Lamp-heated incubators now are made in various 
 sizes, from SO to 400-egg capacity or more, the latter ap- 
 parently being the practical limit for machines of this 
 type. For larger capacity (500 to 2,500 eggs) there are 
 mcubators heated with oil or gas stoves; and for still 
 larger capacity there are mammoth incubators heated 
 with hot water, supplied from a central coal, oil or gas 
 burning boiler or heater, and furnished in any desired 
 capacity up to many thousands of eggs. These huge 
 machines are in especial demand on extensive poultry 
 farms and in hatcheries, where large capacity must be 
 secured along with low operating cost. There also are 
 several makes of small incubators heated by means of 
 electricity, an entirely practical and economical method 
 where current can be secured at reasonable rates. 
 
 Development of Modern Brooding Devices 
 
 In the development of brooding devices, as great or 
 even greater progress has been made. These artificial 
 mothers are quite simple in construction and operation, 
 are thoroughly practical and efficient, and are moderate 
 in cost. The first lamp-heated brooder that could be 
 said to be really satisfactory was similar to the one illus- 
 trated on page 67, the method of heating which is still 
 utilized in many homemade brooders, though the heating 
 capacity is limited and such brooders are far from safe 
 as regards fire. Various types of brooders and methods 
 of providing heat were devised and used to a limited ex- 
 tent until the introduction of hovers of the Universal and 
 Adaptable types which may be said to have solved the 
 problem of thoroughly safe, convenient, and practical 
 lamp-heated brooders. These hovers are installed in reg- 
 ular brooder cases ready-ma(f6 or homemade, or in small 
 portable houses. They can be operated indoors in mild 
 
 weather with complete success, without case or other 
 enclosure. 
 
 For indoor use, with or without a case, the type of 
 lamp-heated hover known as "portable" is especially con- 
 venient, as it can be placed directly on the floor of the 
 house and requires no holes in wall or floor to adapt 
 the building to its use. Portable hovers have a more 
 limited range of usefulness, nowever, owing to their 
 lower heating power. Small hovers heated by electric 
 current are quite extensively used where conditions are 
 favorable. 
 
 Hot water pipe brooding systems have been in use for 
 many years. This method of brooding is rather expen- 
 sive in first cost, but has no superior where chicks are 
 to be brooded in extremely cold weather. There has been 
 no particular change in this type of brooder for many 
 years, the preference of operators still being divided be- 
 tween the "open-pipe" and the closed pipe systems, the 
 latter with either overhead or underneath installation. 
 For brooding in moderately cold weather, when the great 
 majority of chicks are brought out, there are various 
 types of colony hovers heated with coal, oil or gas. These 
 mammoth hovers brood chicks in flocks of many hun- 
 dreds and have almost completely displaced lamp-heated 
 hovers where chicks are to be brooded in large numbers. 
 
 A Billion Dollar Industry 
 
 While artificial brooding and incubating is, as we 
 have seen, an ancient art, it has only been in compara- 
 tively recent years that, chiefly through the genius of 
 American inventors, the methods have been modernized 
 and made efficient and practical for poultry growers 
 everywhere. And it is chiefly because poultry keepers 
 now have truly automatic, labor-saving equipment for 
 hatching and raising their fowls that the poultry indus- 
 try has reached its present great proportions — has be- 
 come a "billion-dollar industry." Great as the industry 
 now is, the possibilities in the way of still further in- 
 creasing the profitable production of table fowls and 
 eggs are scarcely realized as yet, and will not be until 
 poultry growers generally learn fully to avail themselves 
 of the help that the modern incubator and brooder can 
 give. 
 
 It is freely conceded that chicks can be successfully 
 hatched and reared with hens, and with laborious, pains- 
 taking care high averages in eggs hatched and chicks 
 raised can be secured in this way. It is doubtful, how- 
 ever, whether any one has ever realized a dollar a day 
 for the time spent in raising chicks by the natural 
 method. The number that any one person can hatch and 
 tend with hens is simply too small to make it possible 
 to secure anything like adequate returns for the time 
 spent. Those who follow the natural method must give 
 up the idea of volume, because that method makes vol- 
 ume impossible. Two or three or half-a-dozen broody 
 hens can be handled with comparative ease, but beyond 
 that it becomes real labor — and a serious waste of time. 
 
 If there were any place where the natural method 
 could be successfully adopted it would be on the farm 
 where there is unlimited room, most favorable natural 
 conditions, and where the hens can take care of them- 
 selves with the least possible attention. Most of those 
 who have tried it, however, know that even on the farm 
 it can only be done at the expense of a lot of somebody's 
 time, while the broken eggs, deserted nests, lice-infested 
 fowls, the hens and chicks taken by various enemies, and 
 the many other sources of loss, lay a heavy tax upon 
 the farm flock, which is only endured because the ex- 
 tent of the losses is seldom realized. Without doubt. 
 
the general and intelligent adoption of artificial methods 
 of raising chicks would, within a very few years, make 
 it possible to double the annual income now being real- 
 ized from farm poultry. 
 
 There are no grounds for questioning the statement 
 that incubators and brooders offer extraordinary facili- 
 ties for increasing the earning capacity of those engaged 
 in the work. It is not through a mere notion or through 
 the possession of unlimited funds, that commercial poul- 
 try keepers the country over have come to depend almost 
 exclusively on artificial methods. They know that they 
 cannot realize a profit on their work unless they do so. 
 In the saving of time alone the artificial method com- 
 pletely justifies itself. It is common experience that 
 where chicks can be raised by hundreds with hens, they 
 can be raised by thousands with incubators 
 and brooders, and with no more labor. On a 
 smaller scale the saving in time is just as 
 great, proportionately, and just as important 
 from a practical point of view. 
 
 Why Incubators and Brooders Are 
 Indispensable 
 
 The saving in time is the big thing, of 
 course, but incubators and brooders offer 
 other advantages as well. The person who 
 wishes to raise only a comparatively small 
 number of chicks may not care how much it 
 costs, in point of time, but everyone certainly 
 is interested in raising them the easiest, clean- 
 est, and most pleasant way. To the market- 
 egg producer the ability to bring off his chicks 
 at just the right time to insure a supply of 
 pullets for fall and winter laying, is a most 
 important asset. The great scarcity of eggs 
 at this season (November to February) is due, 
 in large measure, to the limited number of 
 early-hatched pullets, and this condition will 
 continue to exist just as long as hen hatching 
 is generally depended upon to maintain the 
 laying flocks. This is true because hen hatch- 
 ing means late hatching, and late-hatched pul- 
 lets are late layers and hence late sitters, and 
 that means late hatches again, and so this evil 
 perpetuates itself, year after year. Those who 
 have incubators, however, are able to bring off 
 their chicks at early dates, which practically 
 assures them of a profitable fall and winter 
 egg yield. 
 
 There is a double advantage to farmers in 
 being able to have their chicks hatched out 
 early in the season, as this makes it possible 
 ■for them to attend to the work and to carry the chicks 
 along past the delicate stage of their existence before the 
 regular spring farm work begins to crowd. A little later 
 on, plowing, planting, garden making, and an all but im- 
 possible assortment of other jobs come in a heap, taxing 
 the strength and endurance of everyone in the household. 
 But earlier in the season, before it is time to get the 
 crops in, or before the ground is dry enough to work, is 
 just the time for getting the chicks out, and the easiest 
 time, too — if an incubator is used. 
 
 Those who wish to raise a definite number of chicks 
 each year in order to have sufficient pullets to keep the 
 laying flock up to its usual size without having to carry 
 over a lot of old hens, find one of the most important 
 advantages in artificial incubation in the fact that they 
 
 are able thus to shorten the incubation period and get the 
 chicks all off in one or two broods. This brings the work 
 of caring for them within a short period of time, whereas, 
 when hens are used, the hatching must necessarily string 
 along from March to June, as the hens are individually 
 pleased to take over this duty, thus multiplying the trou- 
 ble of caring for the newly hatched chicks. Most of 
 these, of course, will be too late for winter layers, too 
 late for the cockerels to command the best broiler prices, 
 too late for the most favorable season for raising them — 
 too late for about everything that the wide-awake poultry 
 keeper considers worth while. And moreover, with chicks 
 of various ages and sizes, the later hatches always have 
 a struggle for their lives and often lose whatever chance 
 they originally had for amounting to anything, through 
 
 PLAN OF AN EGYPTIAN HATCHERY 
 
 Fig:. 1 — Ground plan: AAA, rooms making- entrance to Incubatory. 
 BBB, ovens where eggs are hatched. CC. manholes admitting attend- 
 ants to upper tier. DD, hallway. Fig. II — Sectional view lengthwise. 
 AAA, upper chamber to ovens. BBB, Icwer chambers. CCC, manholes. 
 DD, fire spaces. • Fig. Ill — Section view lengthwise — same lettering 
 as for Fig. II. 
 
 the merciless trampling and crowding that they receive 
 from the half-grown youngsters of the first hatches. 
 
 Probably no practical poultry keeper would under- 
 take to prove that incubators will hatch more or better 
 chicks than good sitting hens, if unmolested, but there 
 is no question about the fact that properly operated ma- 
 chines will bring off more chicks during the season than 
 will be secured from an equal number of eggs set under 
 "clucks." This is because, when the latter are set in 
 large numbers, it is impossible to give them the time and 
 attention necessary to secure maximum results and, as 
 a consequence, losses are heavy and there is no practical 
 way of preventing them. Even when special hatching 
 rooms are provided and the hens have the best of care, 
 there always will be some deserted nests, some broken 
 
eggs, and some lousy hens, which, in the final summing 
 up, almost invariably give the incubator the lead. 
 
 Another point that deserves attention is the general 
 increase in average egg production which results from 
 keeping the hens laying right along, as they will do if 
 promptly broken up as soon as they become broody, in- 
 stead of allowing them to take two months off for hatch- 
 ing and brooding a flock of chicks just at the season of 
 the year when they should be doing their heaviest and 
 most profitable laying. In spite of the higher prices re- 
 ceived during the winter, the average hen pays a larger 
 net profit in the spring and early summer than at any 
 •other time of the year, if steadily productive. 
 
 It is not claimed that hens can be kept laying all 
 summer long simply by breaking them up as fast as they 
 become broody and putting them back into the laying 
 pen again. Most of them have to take a rest sometime 
 during the season, and it is something of an art to de- 
 termine the right time to let them do this, with the idea 
 of having them resume laying about the time eggs begin 
 to advance in price in late summer. But whenever the 
 time is when they can be given a vacation to best ad- 
 vantage, it certainly is not in the early spring. 
 
 Freedom from lice and mites is another important 
 sdvantage possessed by artificially hatched chicks. There 
 are few persons who realize the annual destruction caused 
 by the ravages of lice among young chicks. The individ- 
 ual poultry keeper is entitled to little sympathy in his 
 losses from these annoying pests if he refuses to adopt 
 the one method that will give him almost complete im- 
 munity from them. But the annual loss to the industry 
 from so unnecessary a cause, certainly is deplorable from 
 an economic viewpoint — a loss that, each year, repre- 
 sents a sum almost sufficient to pay for all the necessary 
 hatching and brooding equipment that would make it a 
 thing of the past. 
 
 Brooders As Important As Incubators 
 
 The value of brooders is even less appreciated than is 
 the case with incubators, for which reason especial em- 
 phasis should be placed on the great help that they are 
 able to render in profitable poultry growing. It is worse 
 than useless to hatch chicks unless proper facilities are 
 provided for raising them after they are hatched. It is 
 little more trouble to raise one hundred chicks in a 
 brooder than ten with a hen; and when they are raised 
 in still larger numbers by the use of colony hovers which 
 brood several hundred in a single flock, the labor cost 
 per chick becomes almost negligible. 
 
 Many complaints made by persons who have bought 
 •ncubators and have not been satisfied with the results 
 secured with them, can be traced to the fact that they 
 did not have sufficient brooding capacity to care for the 
 chicks after they were hatched. This false economy in 
 providing brooders is almost universal, even among ex- 
 
 Ijerienced poultry keepers who certainly ought to know 
 better. With good brooders, chicks can be raised at any 
 season, the losses will be fewer than with hens, chicks 
 will be practically lice-free, can be protected from ene- 
 mies, storms, and cold much better than when running 
 with hens, and can be given about every other advantage 
 that is required for their best and most profitable growth 
 and development. 
 
 Incubators and Brooders Easy to Operate 
 Modern incubators and brooders, especially those of 
 the better sort, are now so well developed and so nearly 
 automatic in action that they require a surprisingly small 
 amount of attention, and are so simple that any average 
 man or women, boy or girl, can operate them successfully, 
 and with ease. In a general way, the directions that are 
 supplied by the manufacturers with every incubator or 
 brooder they sell, contain information sufficient for their 
 operation under ordinary conditions. These directions 
 present, in condensed form, not only the general instruc- 
 tions that are applicable to all incubators alike, but also 
 the special detailed information that is essential to the 
 successful operation of their particular type of machine. 
 "No better advice can be given the beginner than to 
 say with all possible emphasis: Follow the manufacturer's 
 directions; follow them to the letter! If, after one or two 
 trials, results do not seem to be as good as they should, 
 write direct to the manufacturer, giving him all the in- 
 formation needed to enable him to understand the par- 
 ticular conditions under which the machine is being 
 operated, and depend upon it, he will be glad to give 
 whatever additional instructions are required to insure 
 complete success. 
 
 It is not the purpose of this book, therefore, to give 
 directions that will take the place of the instructions of 
 the manufacturer. These must, as far as they go, take 
 precedence over all other advice, written or spoken. The 
 manufacturer's instructions however, are necessarily quite 
 brief and general, and they leave much unsaid that the 
 thoughtful operator wishes to know, and must know if 
 he is to make his poultry work the complete success that 
 it can and should be. It is at this point that this book 
 takes up the subject, supplementing the manufacturer's 
 instructions, but not supplanting them. 
 
 In it we have endeavored to give the most reliable, 
 up-to-date information available on artificial methods of 
 raising chicks and on the allied subjects that are directly 
 associated with such work. Recent literature from our 
 various state experiment stations has been freely drawn 
 upon for much of the experimental data presented, and 
 the latest methods of successful, practical poultry grow- 
 ers have received no less attention. It is hoped that 
 this book will prove interesting and helpful to all chick 
 growers, whether they are using but a single incubator 
 or brooder, or are turning out chicks by the tens of 
 thousands. 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 Selection of Breeding Stock 
 
 Success in Hatching and Raising Chicks is Determined to a Great Extent by the Breeding Stock— Importance of Con- 
 stitutional Vigor and How to Breed for It— How to Select Fowls for the Breeding Pen— How 
 to Care for Them During the Breeding Season and Afterward. 
 
 UCCESS in hatching and brooding chicks, either 
 by artificial or natural means, is determined to 
 a great extent before the eggs are placed in the 
 incubator or under hens. No matter how skillful 
 the care, no one can hope to raise chicks successfully or 
 profitably if they lack their normal inheritance of health 
 and vigor when hatched. And conversely, chicks of the 
 right sort will stand a surprising amount of mishandling — 
 will survive many mistakes on the part of the well-mean- 
 ing but misinformed caretaker, if only they have high 
 constitutional vigor to begin with. This character they 
 can secure through inheritance. In order to begin at the 
 beginning of the subject of 
 "Artificial Incubating and 
 B r o o d i n g," therefore, the 
 fowls from which the hatch- 
 ing eggs are to be secured 
 must have first considera- 
 tion, in order to make cer- 
 tain that these eggs are pro- 
 duced from stock that is 
 suitable for the purpose, and 
 that is being bred under 
 favorable conditions. 
 
 Choice of Breed 
 
 So far as the problems of 
 artificial incubating are di- 
 rectly concerned, it is imma- 
 terial what breed is chosen. 
 The average operator prob- 
 ably gets better hatches from 
 Leghorn eggs than from 
 eggs of the larger breeds, 
 though this is not uniformily 
 
 the case. Both in hatching and in brooding the percent- 
 age of loss is influenced more by the condition of the 
 breeding fowls than by the. particular breed or variety to 
 which they belong. It is probable, however, that the 
 greater natural activity of small fowls, such as Leghorns, 
 results generally in their keeping in better breeding con- 
 dition. This, no doubt, is the explanation for the better 
 results usually secured with Leghorn eggs, and is the 
 basis of the common belief that white-shelled eggs hatch 
 better than those with brown shells. 
 
 Persons who expect to make the sale of eggs for 
 hatching, day-old chicks, and breeding stock, a more or 
 less important source of income, will naturally want to 
 consider the preferences of possible customers in regard 
 to breed, also whether the breed selected can reasonably 
 be expected to produce a liberal supply of eggs at the 
 time when they are most wanted for setting. For exam- 
 ple, if it is the intention to hatch during extremely cold 
 weather, it will hardly be advisable to depend on Leg- 
 horns, as fowls of this breed are apt to lay few eggs un- 
 dei such conditions. It is true that much can be done to 
 collect this by providing comfortable houses for the 
 fowls but, as a rule, more eggs and better fertility will 
 be secured at this time with the so-called general-purpose 
 
 FIG. 1— STRONG, HEALTHY CHICKS ARE HALF RAISED 
 
 Sturdy, vigorous chicks like these do not readily suc- 
 cumb to disease or unfavorable conditions. The first step 
 in securing such chicks is the selection of the right kind 
 of breeding stock. 
 
 breeds. Moreover, early-hatched Leghorn chicks are not 
 paiticularly desirable, as they are not profitable market 
 fowls, and the pullets usually come into laying too early 
 and soon go into the "fall molt," after which they lay 
 few eggs until the approach of spring. 
 
 In all cases, regardless of whether chicks are to be 
 hatched on a large or a small scale and regardless of 
 bleed selected, fowls of standard quality should be made 
 the basis of the breeding flock. It is simply a waste oi 
 time and opportunity to start in any line of poultry keep- 
 ing with inferior stock. Not only will the sales from 
 standard flocks be better and at higher prices, but the 
 
 percentages realized in hatch- 
 ing and brooding operations 
 will be distinctly better, 
 owing to greater uniformity 
 in the eggs set and in the 
 chicks after they are hatched. 
 Irregularity in size and shape 
 of eggs, in color and char- 
 acter of shell, in vitality of 
 germs, etc., are all handi- 
 caps in the successful opera- 
 tion of incubators and 
 brooders, and without doubt 
 uniformity in these respects 
 can be secured only by the 
 use of standard-bred stock. 
 In addition, such fowls, if 
 from the best strains, will be 
 found to be larger in size, 
 higher in vitality, and more 
 productive than those of in- 
 ferior breeding. 
 
 Constitutional Vigor 
 
 In the selection of individual fowls for the breeding 
 pen, constitutional vigor is easily first in importance. As 
 has already been stated, hatching percentages and pro- 
 portion of chicks raised are largely determined by the 
 health and vigor of the breeding fowls. Constitutional 
 vigor is not a mysterious or accidental quality, but is the 
 result of breeding and careful management. The poultry 
 grower who eliminates from his pens every fowl that 
 shows any evidence of low vitality, as determined by 
 close and constant observation right along from chick- 
 hood to the breeding season, and who gives his breeders 
 proper care, will have no difficulty in producing chicks 
 full of vigor and vitality. 
 
 There are a number of indications of high constitu- 
 tional vigor and of the lack of it — some readily distin- 
 guished, and some so deeply hidden that only long ex- 
 perience or constant observation throughout the growing 
 period makes it possible to detect them. The poultry- 
 man who appreciates the importance of having only 
 strong, vigorous birds in his breeding pens will neglect 
 no practical test. In general, breeding fowls should al- 
 ways be full size for the breed to which they belong, and 
 up to Standard requirements in shape and general breed 
 
 e 
 
10 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 i js 
 
 S?^ 
 
 
 M 
 
 cS^Sr^SS'SJ? 
 
 
 iMi^^H 
 
 M 
 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 pn 
 
 ^'ClwW 
 
 W^: 
 
 ■ 
 
 '~**^p^ 
 
 ' - "*. ■ 
 
 
 -■ ■ — — r--' 
 
 '*-' 
 
 -■'' ::.. ;-- : ~ , 
 
 PIG. 2— A HIGH-CLASS BREEDING 
 FEMALE 
 There is every appearance of 
 health and superior breeding value 
 here, but do not depend upon ap- 
 pearances alone; apply the tests for 
 constitutional vigor, as described 
 in text. 
 
 characters. Of course such famihar and conspicuous evi- 
 dences of low vitaHty as poor condition, undersize, flat, 
 narrow breasts, knock knees, long, narrow heads, crow 
 bills, dull eyes, low tails, etc., should eliminate the birds 
 showing them, regardless of any good qualities that they 
 may have, no matter what these may be. Naturally, the 
 
 reverse of these un- 
 desirable qualities 
 will indicate the birds 
 that should be used; 
 such as. broad, well- 
 rounded breasts, 
 broad, full heads (not 
 thick or beefy), 
 strong medium- 
 length beaks, straight 
 legs carried upright 
 under the body and 
 set well apart, an 
 alert carriage, eyes 
 with "snap," and a 
 high degree of activ- 
 ity generally. 
 
 There are other in- 
 dications of physical 
 weakness, aside from 
 outward appearance, 
 that are fully as im- 
 portant, if less obvi- 
 ous. Fowls with cold 
 feet are undesirable. Those individuals that have frosted 
 combs where others similarly exposed escape injury, 
 usually are low in vitality; also males that get out of 
 breath or show dark combs after chasing or treading 
 hens. It should hardly be necessary to say that fowls 
 showing any tendency to diarrhea, having dirty noses 
 (indicating catarrhal trouble) or overgrown toe nails 
 (indicating indolence, if not poor health) must not be 
 bred. 
 
 Even after fowls have passed these superficial tests 
 they should be looked upon merely as likely candidates, 
 but not to be introduced into the breeding flock until 
 they have been kept under observation for some time, 
 their appetites and general conduct watched, and the 
 droppings under the perches inspected frequently to see 
 whether there are any signs of weak digestion. Even after 
 the pen is made up, any birds that develop indications of 
 physical unfitness should at once be removed. It re^ 
 quires a high degree of moral courage to discard a fowl 
 that may develop some seemingly minor weaknesses but 
 which in many other respects is a desirable breeder. 
 There is, however, no indication of low vitality that can 
 be ignored with safety. In the case of standard-bred 
 fowls, the tendency to overlook known deficiences be- 
 cause the birds happen to be especially strong in "fancy" 
 points, cannot be too strongly condemned. No excel- 
 lence in standard requirements offers any compensation 
 for a lack of constitutional vigor. 
 
 At the beginning of the hatching season is not the 
 best time for selecting breeders, as they usually are at 
 the height of their vigor then. Without showing any in- 
 dications of this fact they may possess weaknesses that 
 v/ill make their use in the breeding pen a source of seri- 
 ous loss. This is the reason why the man who raises his 
 own stock and who closely observes the birds during 
 the growing period, is able to make his selections with 
 much greater certainty of getting only desirable 
 breeders. 
 
 Bred-to-Lay Stock 
 
 Probably next in practical importance in the selec- 
 tion of the breeding pen is getting hens with good 
 trap-nest records the previous year, if possible, or pullets 
 from such hens. It is believed to be particularly im- 
 portant to secure males from heavy laying hens, and 
 the more generations of such ancestry represented in the 
 strain from which selections are made, the better the 
 results are apt to be. It is true that there are a good 
 many things that yet remain to be learned about breed- 
 ing for increased egg production. Certainly the develop- 
 ment of a strain that can be depended upon to transmit 
 heavy-laying ability to succeeding generations can be ac- 
 complished only by long-continued and careful selection 
 and is not to be attained as the result of a single season's 
 work. However, where breeding from heavy layers is 
 persistently and intelligently carried out it undoubtedly 
 will bring results, and it is always wise to purchase breed- 
 ing fowls and eggs for hatching from breeders who are 
 known to specialize in such stock. 
 
 Caution should be used here, however, as there are 
 many who have mistakenly come to attach undue im- 
 portance to the laying record, making it the all-in-all, 
 and not hesitating to forego standard qualities and even 
 individual health and vigor in favor of phenomenal egg 
 production. Such a policy is unwise, and must sooner or 
 lotdr lead to complete failure. The best possible means 
 of establishing a strain capable of transmitting heavy 
 laying ability is through the use of standard-bred fowls 
 that, along with good to high egg records, will combine 
 established breed characters and the high constitutional 
 vigor which make heavy laying ability transmissible. If 
 choice must be made between fowls with high records, 
 but of non - standar<I 
 breeding, and others 
 from an established 
 strain, of high consti- 
 tutional vigor but 
 with only good laying 
 records, it usually will 
 be found that better 
 layers will be pro- 
 duced from the lat- 
 ter. This is true 
 probably because 
 heavy laying is de- 
 pendent fully as much 
 upon uniform breed- 
 ing, good health and 
 the ability to digest 
 large quantities of 
 food as it is on an 
 inherited tendency to 
 heavy production. 
 
 Breeding Related 
 Fowls 
 
 FIG. 3— A GOOD MALE FOR 
 THE BREEDING PEN 
 
 A sturdy, upstanding male lilce 
 this one, should head the breed- 
 ing pen. There is no question 
 regarding- the constitutional 
 vigor of fowls of this tvpe. This 
 exhibition-quality breeding male 
 is owned by W. D. Holterman. 
 
 N o t w i t h standing 
 the general and deep- 
 seated prejudice 
 against inbreeding, 
 
 the poultry breeder who selects his fowls carefully, rig- 
 idly excluding every one that shows any sign of physical 
 weakness, need have little fear of unfavorable results 
 from breeding related birds. There is no other method 
 known to breeders that will so quickly and so certainly 
 improve quality and establish uniformity in the poultry 
 flock— provided, of course, that foundation stock of 
 
SELECTION OP^ BREEDING STOCK 
 
 11 
 
 superior merit is used to start with. It is true that close 
 inbreeding of fowls having common physical weaknesses 
 will intensify such characters, causing rapid degenera- 
 tion. On the other hand, strong constitutional vigor is 
 just as certainly intensified in the same way, and if this 
 fact is kept in mind and defective birds regularly dis- 
 carded, nothing but good results need be expected. 
 
 The fact that inbreeding is one of the poultry keep- 
 er's greatest helps in establishing his strain should be con- 
 sidered in connection with the common but mistaken 
 practice of securing new males each year in order to 
 avoid the fancied danger of relationship matings. The 
 most successful poultry breeders will under no considera 
 tion part with either males or females that have proved 
 conspicuously good breeders, but will deliberately breed 
 them back to their offspring in order to fix their good 
 qualities and the power of transmitting them. There is 
 reason for believing that inbreeding is the most effec- 
 tive known means of securing that greatly- 
 desired quality known as prepotency. 
 
 Fertility and "Hatchability" 
 
 When fowls are properly mated, practic- 
 ally all eggs produced by them are fertile, re- 
 gardless of season or other general condi- 
 tions; but not all fertile eggs v»ill hatch. What 
 usually is meant, however, where the term 
 fertility is used, is "hatchability" (for lack of 
 a better word), which is by no means the 
 same thing. The ability to produce hatchable 
 eggs is not possessed equally by all hens, but 
 varies widely in different individuals. It is 
 moreover, a transmissible character, like shape 
 of comb or color of feathers. That is, hens 
 that produce eggs characterized by high or 
 low hatchability will transmit this tendency 
 to their daughters; and by proper selection it 
 is believed to be possible to develop strains 
 regularly distinguished by this quality. This 
 fact is so clearly established that many care- 
 ful breeders believe that it pays to utilize 
 trap-nests in their breeding pens if only for 
 the purpose of detecting the individuals that 
 produce eggs of inferior hatching quality. 
 The losses due to spoiled eggs, wasted incu- 
 bator space and dissatisfied customers more 
 than exceed the labor cost of operating the trap-nests 
 
 gallant one that is constantly on the lookout for the 
 members of his flock, are apt to be up to specifications in 
 all physical requirements. A male whose comb or wat- 
 tles have been injured by fighting or freezing is none the 
 worse for breeding purposes on that account, providing 
 he has fully recovered from the effects of the injury. 
 However, weak birds are more apt to have frosted combs 
 than strong ones, and it is advisable to make sure that 
 such injuries have not resulted from this cause. Scaly 
 leg is not a serious matter unless it has developed to 
 such an extent as to make the bird lame, but it should 
 be treated and thoroughly cured before using the bird 
 in the breeding pen. The male should be fully up to 
 standard size for the breed to which he belongs and good 
 in all breed characters. 
 
 Diseases of the male organs, resulting in partial or 
 confiplete sterility, are more common than is generally 
 realized. There is comparatively little danger of the well- 
 
 FIG. 4 — RAPID, PROFITABLE GROWTH IMPOSSIBLE 
 WITHOUT VIGOR 
 
 These two chicks, like the pair shown in Fig. 9, were hatched and 
 brooded under identical conditions, but the "runt" was of parentage low 
 in constitutional vigor. Courtesy of Missouri State Poul. Exp. Station. 
 
 Selecting the Male 
 
 The male is by all odds the most important individ- 
 ual in the breeding pen, and especial attention must be 
 given to his selection. So far as standard qualities go, 
 there is only one general suggestion that need be given 
 here; get the best male that can be afforded. A high 
 price may be no proof of high quality, but a low price 
 is pretty generally proof of inferiority. The buyer, there- 
 fore, while using due care and business judgment in buy- 
 ing, must be willing to pay a good price if he hopes to 
 get a good male. A poor one is dear at any price. In 
 breeding for increased egg production the male becomes 
 of still greater importance, owing to the now generally 
 accepted belief that it is through the sons of heavy-laying 
 dams rather than through their daughters, that heavy 
 egg-laying ability is transmitted. 
 
 Individually the male should possess every desir- 
 able quality previously mentioned as indicative of high 
 constitutional vigor, adding to these the mascuHne 
 quality of aggressiveness. The "scrappy" male, and the 
 
 developed, "scrappy" male being impotent, but the test 
 of service is the only certain one. For this reason the 
 pen should be mated up sufficiently in advance of the 
 regular breeding season so as to have an opportunity to 
 make a change in males if necessary. In buying males, 
 or females either for that matter, notice whether there 
 is any discharge, foul smelling or otherwise, from the 
 vent, also whether the feathers below it are badly soiled 
 or matted. Diarrhea, or the tendency to it, is transmis- 
 sible, and vent gleet apparently is growing rather com- 
 mon. If fL single individual in the flock has this dis- 
 ease it will quickly spread to all and may prove a source 
 of serious loss. 
 
 Cock or Cockerel 
 
 Whether to buy or use cocks or cockerels will de- 
 pend on circumstances. Cocks can generally be pur- 
 chased at less cost than cockerels of equal quality and 
 may prove much better value for the money. A good 
 male should be serviceable for four or five years, if 
 properly cared for and not overworked. To discard him 
 at the end of his first season is a wasteful practice and is 
 
12 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 uncalled for in any rational system of breeding. Hence 
 ■\f one or two-year-old males can be bought at a marked 
 reduction from the price of cockerels they should prove 
 a good investment, especially if it is possible to secure 
 a favorable report on their previous performance, and if 
 they are in good physical condition. 
 
 Another advantage in buying cocks is that physical 
 w^eaknesses that escape notice in the cockerel are more 
 readily detected in older birds. Males are often sub- 
 jected to brutal neglect and mistreatment out of the 
 breeding season, however, and in buying it is important 
 to be sure that they have received no injuries from this 
 cause. For mating with pullets, cocks are considered es- 
 pecially desirable as they are expected to offset any dis- 
 advantage growing out of immaturity in the females. It , 
 is generally believed that from a mating of cock and pul- 
 lets a larger proportion of pullets will be secured than in 
 <he case of a cockerel-and-pullet, or cock-and-hen mating. 
 
 If cockerels are to be used, select those that are well- 
 iiiatured. Much loss annually results from the use of 
 immature birds in the breeding pen — a frequent cause of 
 poor hatches and weak chicks, especially toward the end 
 of the breeding season when young males are apt to 
 v/eaken, with a marked falling oft" in fertility as a direct 
 consequence. Well-developed young birds may go through 
 the season without serious loss of vigor if mated in com- 
 paratively small flocks and non-forcing conditions are 
 maintained throughout, but immature ones are almost 
 certain to fail before the end of the season. In selecting 
 cockerels avoid those that have plainly been cowed. It 
 is not a mark of inferiority from a breeding viewpoint .'or 
 one cockerel to be whipped by another in a fight. That 
 tost literally applied would eliminate all but one from 
 any flock. But cockerels that are distinctly cowed and 
 willing to accept "peace at any price," are worthless as 
 breeders. 
 
 Selection of Females 
 
 The poultry breeder's problems would be compara- 
 tively simple if males and females of equal quality could 
 
 w 
 
 1 
 
 Hi 
 
 v^^P 
 
 W 
 
 ■n 
 
 ^^^^^BSi^L 
 
 v^ 
 
 ji^j 
 
 f^^^S^^^' 
 
 
 ^^flH 
 
 ^fe.^ 
 
 
 . .Z^^BI 
 
 PIG. 6 — EXHIBITION QUALITY HEN 
 WITH HIGH EGG RECORD 
 
 This S. C. White Leghorn hen 
 made a record of 288 eggs In 
 twelve months and is of a famous 
 show strain in which high egg pro- 
 duction also is demanded. Hens of 
 inferior quality may be good lay- 
 ers, but they have no place in the 
 breeding pen. 
 
 FIG. 5— A STANDARD-BRED LEGHORN COCK 
 This splendid exhibition cock is a good example of 
 the kind of high-vigror males that should head the breed- 
 ing pen. It is NOT necessary to sacrifice standard qual- 
 ities to secure practical values. The cock shown in 
 above illustration is owned by Geo. B. Perns. 
 
 always be mated to- 
 gether, in which 
 case they should 
 transmit their char- 
 a c t e r s uniformily 
 and without change. 
 Unfortunately such 
 matings are not pos- 
 s i b 1 e in practical 
 breeding, and it is 
 necessary to try to 
 strike an average by 
 matching the re- 
 , spective weaknesses 
 and good qualities 
 of the fowls; select- 
 ing females that are 
 strong where the 
 male is weak, or the 
 other way around. 
 For example, if the 
 male is a little un- 
 d e r s i z e for the 
 breed, hens are se- 
 lected for mating with him that are somewhat oversize. 
 If the male's color is not quite what it should be, females 
 mated with him must be especially strong in that re- 
 spect. This method of mating, when properly handled, 
 often produces fowls better in quality — that is, more 
 closely corresponding to the Standard description — than 
 either of their parents, but it has distinct limitations and 
 must not be carried to extremes, as in the mating of vio- 
 lent contrasts, which practice never gives satisfactory 
 results. 
 
 One and two-year-old hens are almost always bet- 
 ter breeders than pullets, and they should be employed 
 for this purpose as far as possible. If there is oppor- 
 tunity to consult trap-nest records made by the hens 
 during the preceding year, all that have made conspicu- 
 ously poor records will, of course, be discarded; also all 
 that lay misshapen eggs or very small or overlarge ones, 
 and those marked by irregular shape or texture of shell. 
 In the absence of trap-nest records, apply the various 
 recognized tests for laying ability, such as the shank 
 color test, spread of pelvic bones, date of ■ molting, etc. 
 All of these are of practical value in determining the pre- 
 vious performance of hens. 
 
 Future egg production may be determined with a 
 fair degree of accuracy by performance in the pullet year. 
 This is not an infallible test, as there will always be some 
 that will make high records in the pullet year that will 
 not "come back" in the second season, while others will 
 prove better layers in their second year than in the first. 
 Speaking generally however, the chances for good egg 
 yields in the second year are always in favor of the hens 
 that have laid well as pullets. 
 
 It has been definitely shown that yellow-skinned 
 fowls rapidly lose the bright color of shanks and beaks 
 when laying heavily, so that pale shanks and beaks in 
 late summer usually are characteristics of the best lay- 
 ers. In applying this test it is necessary to discriminate 
 between hens that have faded shanks as a result of heavy 
 laying, and those that are naturally pale in shank color, 
 or that have become so as the result of ill health or 
 through the action of the soil, some kinds of which will 
 bleach out the shanks regardless of whether the hens 
 have laid well or not. With suitable correction for these 
 exceptions, however, and considering beaks as well as 
 
SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK 
 
 13 
 
 shanks, this test will prove to be fairly reliable, especial- 
 ly if applied about the time the fowls have stopped for 
 the fall molt. The color comes back into the shanks 
 gradually after laying ceases, so that after some time has 
 elapsed the test cannot be applied with any degree of 
 accuracy. Fowls that are good layers also have quite 
 pliable pelvic bones, set wide apart, the position being 
 readily determined by a slight pressure of the fingers on 
 the fowl's body, just below the vent. This test should be 
 applied in connection with the shank-color test. 
 
 It has been found that late molting hens are almost 
 invariably the best layers of the preceding year, while 
 the hens that molt early and have their new coat of feath- 
 ers well in advance of cold weather generally are the 
 poorest layers of the flock. Late molters may be han- 
 dicapped by the necessity for making the change in cold 
 weather, and often need special protection to keep them 
 from suffering. They make short work of the molt when 
 they get at it, however, and almost invariably will lay 
 more winter eggs, in spite of this, than the hens that 
 have molted weeks or months before. 
 
 Care of Breeding Fowls Out of Season 
 
 If in position to do so, it often is desirable to pur- 
 chase breeding fowls for the next season's use, in the 
 summer. They us- 
 ually can be 
 bought at moder- 
 ate prices then, 
 and this is the 
 most favorable 
 time for selection, 
 as they are more 
 likely to show 
 their defects at the 
 end of the breed- 
 ing season, and it 
 is, of course, just 
 the right time to 
 select the best 
 layers. Moreover, 
 the value of old 
 birds as breeders 
 the next season 
 will depend a good 
 deal on the way 
 they are handled 
 during the fall 
 and winter. 
 
 FIG. 7— A POOR LAYER AND 
 BREEDER 
 This hen molted in late summer 
 and only laid 36 egrgs in her pullet 
 year. Avoid early molters for the 
 breeding; pen. Photo from Cornell 
 University. 
 
 The common recommendation to separate males from 
 females out of the breeding season, is of questionable 
 value under average conditions. Whether it is true, as 
 some believe, that this violent change in habits is liable 
 to result in injury to the sexual organs of the males does 
 not appear to have been definitely proved by experi- 
 ments, but there are some good practical reasons for be- 
 lieving that the average person will get better results by 
 letting the males run with the flock or, better still, con- 
 fining them in comfortable, roomy quarters with a small 
 number of females, unless especially favorable conditions 
 can be provided for them elsewhere. It is not necessa- 
 rily so but, as a rule, males that are penned together or 
 singly are almost certain to suffer from neglect, and any- 
 thing that results in their getting out of condition will 
 prove a distinct disadvantage in the long run. 
 
 The practice of penning single males in small coops, 
 such as exhibition coops, with barely room to turn 
 around and without any outdoor runs is probably the 
 
 PIG. 8— ROOSTING CLOSET FOR. 
 
 BREEDERS 
 
 In cold climates fowls with large 
 combs need special protection to pre- 
 vent frost bites, which may destroy 
 their breeding value for many weeks. 
 
 worst plan of all, if such imprisonment is continued for 
 long periods. It often is necessary to do this where the 
 fowls are of exhibition quality or are kept for sale later 
 on in the season, in which case it is not wise to risk the 
 injuries that may result from fighting. It is highly im- 
 portant, however, that during the oS season, the male 
 shall have every facility for regaining his strength and 
 vigor, and he can 
 
 not do this if 
 
 cooped up in close 
 
 quarters, under 
 
 questionable sani- 
 tary conditions or 
 
 where he is liable 
 
 to be neglected 
 
 and poorly" fed. 
 
 Where there are 
 several strange 
 
 males running to- 
 gether either in 
 stag flocks or with 
 
 hens, there is apt to be some fighting, but if there is 
 plenty of range or large yards, and the precaution is 
 taken to trim the toe-nails and the beaks so as to make 
 them blunt and a little sensitive, the birds will establish 
 their "spheres of influence" without serious injury to 
 each other. 
 
 The rations of the breeders, males and females alike, 
 should be non-stimulating during the off season, and may 
 consist mainly of hard grains scattered broadcast or 
 buried in the litter to promote exercise. There should 
 be little meat in the ration and what mash is fed should 
 be given dry in hoppers. Supply all the green feed the 
 birds will eat. 
 
 Cloth-front houses are ideal tor breeders, and close, 
 warm houses should never be used. Except in extremely 
 cold weather the birds should have access to the yards 
 or range all day long. The more time they spend out- 
 doors the better it will be for their general health. Warm 
 houses are debilitating, and experiments have shown that 
 breeding stock confined to them invariably lose in vital- 
 ity and in ability to produce good hatching eggs. There 
 is a wide difference between cuddling and unlimited ex- 
 posure, however, and the breeder will do well to avoid 
 either. Be careful to prevent frosted combs, especially 
 at the opening of winter, but not over-careful. If cold 
 weather comes on gradually the fowls will become ac- 
 customed to it and will stand much lower temperatures 
 
 FIG. 9— EFFECT OF CONSTITUTIONAL WEAKNESS 
 These chicks were hatched in the same incubator 
 and brooded together under identical conditions. The 
 difference in growth is directly due to difference in 
 constitutional vigor. It pays to cull out every breed- 
 ing fowl that is low in vitality. Also see Pig. 4. 
 
14 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 without injury than is possible when the cold sets in early 
 in the winter. 
 
 Males are more liable to injury from frost bites than 
 hens, owing to the larger size of their combs and wat- 
 tles. It often pays to provide a small cloth-covered roost- 
 ing coop where they can be confined on extremely cold 
 nights. The small coop often provided for brooding 
 hens at one end of the perches, will answer nicely for 
 this purpose if the sides are curtained. The male will be 
 safe from injury here while the rest of the flock will 
 have all the advantage of the hardening that comes from 
 continued exposure to low temperatures. Remember, 
 however, that extreme exposure is of no practical ad 
 vantage; fowls are hardened by cold, even severe cold, 
 but they are injured and in no way benefitted by expo- 
 sure to conditions so severe as to cause actual suffering. 
 
 After winter sets in the breeders should have sepa- 
 rate quarters with as much room as possible. It is not 
 at all desirable to have them do any laying until about 
 the opening of the breeding season, and they should be 
 fed accordingly. Do not neglect them at this time, how- 
 ever, simply because they are not producing eggs. While 
 the average one and two-year-old hens are at their best 
 as breeders, if in good physical condition, lack of exer- 
 cise, unsanitary quarters, and feeding for egg production 
 previous to the breeding season, will seriously impair 
 their value. At this time they should be kept in good 
 flesh, but not fat. Overfed fowls and those that are half 
 starved are alike undesirable. 
 
 A good ration for idle breeders is a mixture of equal 
 parts of cracked corn and whole oats, with an equal por- 
 tion of wheat or barley if obtainable. Feed this in 
 plenty of litter so that the fowls will have an abundance 
 of exercise in digging it out. The mash may consist of 
 equal parts, by weight, of bran and middlings, with ten 
 per cent of meat scrap added, feeding it dry in hoppers. 
 With a dry mash formula like this there is little danger 
 of their eating too much, but it should always be kept 
 before them. Plenty of green food should be supplied, 
 of course, sprouted oats being by far the most desirable 
 if they can be provided. 
 
 Care of Young Breeding Stock 
 
 During the growing season chicks that are intended 
 for the breeding pen should have all possible range, and 
 
 plenty of nourishing but non-forcing food. All through 
 the growing season they should be under observation, 
 culling out the ones that develop defects or show any in- 
 dication of low vigor. It is a good plan to mark all the 
 chicks that, at any time during their growth, show un- 
 desirable qualities, doing so by clipping the point of the 
 toe, punching the web of the foot or otherwise marking 
 them in some unmistakable manner so that there will 
 be no chance of their being overlooked and getting into 
 the breeding pen later on. It often happens that birds 
 that at some stage of their growth develop unmistakable 
 signs of weakness, afterward recover and at the breeding 
 season appear to be as good as any of the rest, but are 
 inferior in vigor in spite of their appearance. 
 
 One point that is of great importance in the hand- 
 ling of young stock is to see to it that none that are in- 
 tended for the breeding pen are allowed to crowd in 
 brooders or coops during the growing period. It never 
 pays to permit crowding, but in the case of next year's 
 breeders it is doubly objectionable. Feed a good grow- 
 ing ration, with plenty of oats and succulent green stuff, 
 and a reasonable allowance of meat scraps or other ani- 
 mal food, and give all the liberty possible. 
 
 If pullets and cockerels are to be used they should 
 be selected from those hatched neither too early nor too 
 late. Pullets hatched quite early, so that they begin lay- 
 ing in the fall, are apt to be undesirable as breeders, as 
 they will be more or less exhausted by heavy laying. 
 They can often be used to good advantage in the early 
 part of the season, but should not be depended upon after 
 the season is well advanced. 
 
 It is not wise to attempt to hold back early pullets, 
 however, and prevent their laying, with the idea that in 
 this way their strength and vigor will be conserved for 
 the breeding season. It is much better to let them lay, 
 if they do so naturally, using them early in the season, if 
 necessary, but depending upon hens or later-hatched pul- 
 lets for the major part of the supply of hatching eggs. 
 Pullets that are not fully grown or are just beginning to 
 lay must not be used, as chicks hatched from their eggs 
 will be undersized and weakly, difificult to raise, and not 
 desirable even when grown. If pullets must be placed in 
 the breeding pen, therefore, select those that have come 
 naturally to maturity without any forcing, and that have 
 laid for a short time only before the season opens. 
 
 FTG. 10. — A PiNEr BREEDING PEN OP WHiTE WYANDOTTEH 
 Bred by J. C. Fishel & Sons 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 Management of Breeding Stock 
 
 When to Mate the Breeding Pens — Number of Females to the Male— General Directions for Housing, Feeding, and 
 
 Caring for Breeding Fowls so as to Insure High Fertility and Strong Chicks— Some Common 
 
 Mistakes That Result in Poor Hatches, and How to Avoid Them. 
 
 O FAR as the subject of "Artificial Hatching and 
 Brooding" is concerned, interest in the breeding 
 pen centers in the production of fertile eggs that 
 will hatch strong, vigorous chicks, and the man- 
 agement of the flock is considered here solely from that 
 viewpoint. In general, the breeding pen should have 
 about the same housing conditions as are found most 
 desirable for the laying flock, differ- 
 ing only in the respect that the 
 breeders must have more room, both 
 in and outdoors, and 'In extreme cli- 
 mates the house must be warm 
 enough to afford reasonable protec- 
 tion. The breeding flock must under 
 no conditions be coddled, but hard- 
 ened to the greatest extent possible 
 without exposing them to conditions 
 that will cause actual suffering or 
 injury, which might destroy their 
 breeding value for weeks to come. 
 However, there is no wisdom or 
 practical advantage in exposing fowls 
 to such an extent that their combs 
 will be frozen, and it should be pos- 
 sible to make the house warm 
 enough to prevent such injuries. 
 
 It should be remembered in this 
 connection, that since, breeding fowls 
 have, or should have, more floor 
 space per hen than usually is the 
 case in laying pens, and are kept in 
 much smaller flocks, they will be less 
 able to keep each other warm on the 
 perches at night, and for this rea- 
 son need warmer houses than the 
 layers. As a rule, if the house is well 
 built with the open front provided 
 with muslin-covered frames or cur- 
 tains that can be closed tight in ex- 
 treme weather, nothing more will be 
 
 required, except in the coldest sections, where roosting 
 closets such as the one shown in Fig. 8 will prove 
 desirable. 
 
 The size of the house or pen will be determined by 
 various factors, but it is desirable in all cases to give the 
 breeders plenty of floor space. Not less than six square 
 feet per hen should be provided in all cases, and eight 
 square feet is better for small flocks. For example, if 
 the breeding pen is to consist of about twelve hens, the 
 pen or house should be 8x10, 8x12, or even 10x10 feet. 
 Many poultry plants are equipped with a number of 
 portable houses of about this size and when such are 
 available they should by all means be utilized. 
 
 Extra small breeding pens can be provided for quite 
 cheaply by using portable buildings like the one shown 
 m Fig. 13. There are various inconveniences connected 
 with caring for fowls in extremely small structures, but 
 where the breeding pen is small and is to be kept mated 
 for only a short time, it hardly is practical to provide ex- 
 
 pensive permanent houses and yards. The coop and yard 
 here illustrated can readily be shifted to new ground at 
 frequent intervals, little cleaning will be required and, 
 during the growing season, the supply of green food will 
 be taken care of without trouble. A convenient house, 
 suitable for a single breeding pen, is shown in Fig. 12. 
 It is portable and comparatively low in cost and may be 
 
 FIG. 11— A PERIiIANENT BREEDING HOUSE 
 
 Where the poultry plant is permanently established and the breeding of 
 fowls is to be carried on extensively, a permanent breeding house suitably 
 planned, "with yards of ample size, will prove a profitable investment. The 
 house here shown is excellent for mild climates, but for use in the north it 
 thould have smaller openings in the front, protected by tight-fltting muslin- 
 covered shutters. 
 
 utilized as a colony house for brooder chicks or growing 
 stock when no longer required for the use of breeding 
 fowls. 
 
 A permanent compartment breeding house is shown 
 in Fig. 11. Houses of this type are desirable where special 
 attention is given to systematic breeding, in which case 
 the fowls must necessarily be kept yarded in separate 
 flocks. If regular laying houses are to be used for breed- 
 mg fowls, flock matings usually will be resorted to. A 
 pen 20x20 feet or 16x25 feet will readily accommodate 50 
 to 70 females for which number three to five males must 
 be provided. As a rule it is more practical to follow this 
 plan than to attempt to divide the space into the neces- 
 sary small compartments for single flock matings. 
 
 Whether small or large flocks are kept, the yards 
 should be as large as it is practical to make them. The 
 birds will do better, fertility will be higher, and the chicks 
 will be better and stronger if the fowls can have plenty 
 cf room. Open range for the breeders is the ideal con- 
 
 15 
 
16 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 12— SMALL, COLONY HOUSE FOR BREEDING PEN 
 Colony houses of the above type provide ample room 
 for a medium-sized breeding flock and can be located 
 •wherever convenient for the care of the fowls. When 
 not needed for the breeding pen they afford excellent 
 quarters for growing stock. Photo from U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 dition, of course, but this can seldom be provided, and 
 large yards then become the only practical alternative. A 
 grass sod should be maintained on the yards, if possible, 
 so that the birds can secure their green food in the nat- 
 ural way, and the yards should be located where there is 
 plenty of natural shade, if choice in the matter is possi- 
 ble. There is no question that fowls confined in yards 
 such as are illustrated in Fig. 14 will do better and their 
 chicks will do better, other things being equal, than would 
 be the case with fowls confined in small bare yards like 
 the unfortunates shown in Fig. 16. 
 
 Mating the Breeding Pens 
 
 The exact date at which the breeding pens should be 
 mated will depend to a great extent on the plans of the 
 breeder, also on available houseroom. There are so 
 many advantages in favor of early mating and so little 
 practical objection to it that, if regular breeding houses 
 or laying pens are to be used and are available at this 
 time, it is advisable to place the 
 fowls in their permanent quarters 
 when they are housed for the winter. 
 This will make it possible to give 
 them the special feeding and care that 
 they should receive from this time 
 on, and to do this in the most con- 
 venient manner. It is not meant by 
 this that the fowls are to be mated 
 up for the breeding season at that 
 time; the final adjustments will be 
 made later. But it is just as well to 
 sort and pen the birds carefully so 
 as to have as few changes as possi- 
 ble to make later on. 
 
 Keep the birds under close obser- 
 vation and make notes regarding final 
 combinations but do not keep shift- 
 ing them from pen to pen, as one 
 or two strange birds in a flock are 
 apt to be set upon and abused by 
 the rest. For this reason the shift- 
 ing should all be done at one time 
 if possible. If cockerels are to be 
 used they may be' left running to- 
 gether until the pens are finally 
 
 mated up and there will be little quarreling among them 
 if they are separated from the rest of the flock. Adult 
 males may be left running with small pens of hens or 
 confined separately if desirable, provided they are well 
 cared for (see Chapter 1). 
 
 Whatever the date at which hatching operations are 
 to begin, the pens should always be mated up well m 
 advance of that time. About five weeks may be allowed 
 from the date when the first eggs are saved until the 
 hatch comes off, and then it is wise to allow at least 
 two weeks more to give the birds time to get acquainted, 
 to detect sterility in the male, if it exists, and to make 
 any final adjustments among the females, due to par- 
 tiality on the part of the male or to other causes. After 
 the hatching season begins delays are always unfortu- 
 nate and readjustments in the breeding pen then may 
 cause serious loss. 
 
 Even in the northern states it is practical to bring 
 chicks off as early as the latter part of February, pro- 
 vided there are proper facilities for caring for them, and 
 this means that collecting eggs for hatching must begin 
 about the middle of January. In that case the first of 
 the year is none too soon for mating the pens. Pullets of 
 the Asiatic breeds, or Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans, 
 if hatched by March 1st, should begin laying in October, 
 while the cockerels will be salable as squab broilers the 
 latter part of April, or as regular broilers two weeks to 
 a month later, when they should command the highest 
 prices of the season. 
 
 With some strains and under some conditions as to 
 care and feeding, there is danger that pullets hatched be- 
 fore March will begin laying too early in the fall, result- 
 ing in the objectionable "fall molt" later on, but this 
 does not often happen with the breeds mentioned. If 
 Wyandottes or R. I. Reds are to be hatched it will be 
 better to delay the hatching date until after the middle 
 of March, unless there is sale for the chicks. With the 
 same exception it will be found better, as a rule, to de- 
 lay hatching Leghorns and similar breeds until the first 
 of April or later. 
 
 Size of Breeding Flock 
 
 The size of the breeding flock or the number of fe- 
 
 FIG. 13— PORTABLE COOP AND RUN FOR SMALL BREEDING PEN 
 
 Close confinement for breeding fowls, while not desirable, is often neces- 
 sary. For a small flock, or a few specially mated fowls, this combination port- 
 able outfit can be used to good advantage. The fowls will keep in good con- 
 dition if carefully fed and the coop and run frequently moved to new locations 
 
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 
 
 17 
 
 males that may be mated with one male can not be arbi- 
 trarily fixed, as there are a number of things to be con- 
 sidered. The age and individuality of the male has much 
 to do with determining the number of females with 
 which he should be mated. There are instances on rec- 
 ord of flocks of 40, 60, and even 80 females mated to one 
 male, with excellent fertility resulting, but such matings 
 are too extreme to be considered in practical breeding. 
 Especially with fowls in confinement, poultry breeders 
 have found that the breeding pen must be comparatively 
 small if good results are to be secured throughout the 
 season. It is possible successfully to mate large numbers 
 of fowls with a single male for a limited time, especially 
 if the latter is young, but if long continued the practice 
 will result in the cockerel's exhaustion. 
 
 If the breeder cares to go to the trouble of stud 
 mating (that is, keeping the male confined separately and 
 placing individual hens with him only for service) the 
 number served by one male can be largely increased, es- 
 pecially since it is by no means necessary that the hens 
 be served daily. Many poultry breeders having valuable 
 males that they are desirous of using in the most effici- 
 ent way, are following this plan with good results. Com- 
 paratively few breeders will be in- 
 terested in this method but will want 
 to allow the usual free mating, and 
 where this is done the number of 
 hens' will be found to be limited by 
 the season of the year, the amount of 
 liberty the birds have, the age and 
 vigor of the male, the breed to which 
 the fowls belong, and the length of 
 time that the pen is to be mated. 
 
 In cold weather the fowls are not 
 as active and do not mate as readily 
 as in warmer weather, neither will 
 yarded fowls or those confined to 
 house pens mate as readily as on 
 open range or in large yards. It is 
 hardly necessary to call attention to 
 the fact that there is a wide differ- 
 ence in the mating ability of individ- 
 ual males, and it is common knowledge thsit the larger 
 and heavier fowls do not mate as readily or as freely as 
 the more active breeds, such as Leghorns. Finally, if 
 it is the intention to use eggs from the pen for a long 
 period it will be necessary to conserve the powers of 
 the male to some extent, by keeping the number of fe- 
 males well below the extreme limit. 
 
 With all these factors in mind, the breeder who is 
 anxious to secure the best practical results from his 
 fowls will mate about as follows: With the larger breeds 
 such as Plymouth Rocks, Orpingtons, Brahmas, Wyan- 
 dotte?, etc., and in the winter season, the number of fe- 
 males will be limited to not more than six or eight if a 
 cock is used, or two or three more if mated with a vig- 
 orous cockerel. Later in the season, when the fowls 
 have outside runs, the number may be increased 25 per 
 cent or more. In the case of Leghorns the minimum 
 number need not be below ten and may be increased to 
 as many as 20 to 25, with vigorous young cockerels, and 
 during mild weather. With fowls on open range, in the 
 heiglit of the breeding season, the number may be still 
 further increased. However, since the pens usually are 
 mated up well in advance of the natural breeding season 
 and are kept in more or less close confinement, it seldom 
 is practical to make successive additions to the flock as 
 here described, and it is advisable to keep within the 
 
 general limits of 10 to 20 females to one male, reducing 
 the minimum number if results demand it, and increasing 
 the maximum only under most favorable conditions. 
 
 What are known as flock matmgs, in which large 
 numbers are kept in one flock with males provided in 
 the proportion of 4 to 6 for each hundred females, are 
 quite common and are entirely practical where eggs are 
 to be produced for incubation without regard for indi- 
 vidual breeding. This practice is especially common with 
 Leghorns, and on farms generally. Where flock mating 
 is practiced it is desirable to provide plenty of males in 
 order that if any prove to be undesirable or defective they 
 can be removed without the necessity of putting in addi- 
 tional ones. When males are raised together, or are 
 penned together for a time so that they can get ac- 
 quainted before being put with the hens, there should be 
 little fighting, but if strange males are used or new ones 
 are introduced into the flock after the season opens, 
 fighting is about certain to ensue and may cause serious 
 trouble. 
 
 It is well known that males often develop prefer- 
 ences among the hens in their flock, paying especial at- 
 tention to some while others are almost entirely neg- 
 
 PIG. 14— A WELL-SHADFD YARD IS DESIRABLE FOR THE 
 BREEDING PEN 
 
 lected. This is a common cause of low fertilitj'. The 
 only practical way to correct this in pen matings is to 
 detect the neglected hens, which may readily be done by 
 the use of trap nests, and they may then be removed and 
 placed in other pens, when the fertility of their eggs us- 
 ually will improve at once. This is one of the chief 
 reasons why flock matings often produce better fertility 
 than is secured in single pens. 
 
 In flock matings there is always considerable inter- 
 ference among males, especially wheh the fowls are 
 more or less closely confined, and it is worth while to 
 provide a degree of privacy for the mating birds. Short 
 partitions extending out about midway into the pen, are 
 a help, also large yards. Some breeders find it worth 
 while to provide breeding boards such as the one illus- 
 trated in Fig. IS. 
 
 Rations for Breeding Fowls 
 
 The method of feeding the breeding flock out of 
 season is described in the preceding chapter. As the 
 hatching season approaches and the fowls are to be put 
 into good laying condition, the ration should be changed 
 so that they will get a better laying ration, though forc- 
 ing must be avoided, especially if the breeding season is 
 to be a long one. Poultry rations generally are subject 
 to such modifications as are indicated by market prices 
 
18 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 15— A BREEDING BOARD 
 In flock-mated pens it often is desirable to afford 
 aome privacy for mating^ fowls, to prevent interference 
 from other males. A few inexpensive screens like the 
 one shown above, properly placed, will accomplish this 
 purpose. Photo from McDonald (Que.) College. 
 
 and availability, and it is not always practicable to pro- 
 vide just what is wanted or would be considered essential 
 under more favorable conditions. It is only practical to 
 suggest here what may be called a good all-round ration, 
 leaving it to each feeder to modify this to meet the con- 
 ditions existing in his own feed market. 
 
 It is desirable at all times to provide reasonable va- 
 riety in the ration of the breeding flock, though it also 
 is possible to get along with comparatively limited range 
 of choice in foods if the feeding is carefully done. For 
 the grain part of the ration, equal parts by measure of 
 cracked corn, feeding wheat, heavy oats, and barley will 
 make an excellent mixture. Wheat and barley may be 
 omitted if necessary, making the mixture then about two 
 parts of cracked corn to one of oats, by measure, if oats 
 are used also in the mash and as a source of green food, 
 otherwise use equal parts of corn and oats, provided the 
 oats are plump and heavy. Any other grains that are 
 available may be used in reasonable proportion. 
 
 For the mash mixture an ideal formula is: Bran, 
 middlings, corn meal and rolled or crushed oats, in equal 
 parts by measure; one-half part each of gluten feed and 
 meat scrap; five to eight per cent of oil meal. This makes 
 a fairly rich mixture, and does not differ materially from 
 the formula that probably will be fed to the regular lay- 
 ing flock. The portion consumed, however, should be 
 below that recommended for layers. If the mash is fed 
 dry in hoppers it is not likely that consumption will ex- 
 ceed the desired proportion and may fall below it. In 
 this case it will be necessary to give the fowls a feed 
 of moist mash daily, as they will lay better and their 
 eggs will hatch better if they get a reasonable amount 
 of this. If the consumption of dry mash is too low and 
 there are objections to feeding it daily in moist condition, 
 the formula may be changed to make it more palatable, 
 usually by adding more meat scrap and coarse corn meal. 
 If the fowls eat too much of the dry mash, however, the 
 proportion of bran should be increased. 
 
 The use of dry mash, giving the fowls access to it at 
 all times during the day, is an important aid to keeping 
 them in good condition and properly nourished, and 
 should not be omitted unless there is some extremely 
 good reason for doing so. If it is not possible to secure 
 ..he mash ingredients here recommended, the feeder will 
 have to do the best he can to replace them with Jocally 
 available substitutes or to get along with less variety. 
 Even if it is necessary to limit the mash to bran, white 
 
 middlings, and meat scrap, it still is possible to get good 
 results, though the fowls may refuse to eat a sufficient 
 amount of it unless fed as a moist mash. Whatever else 
 is used or omitted from the mash, meat scrap, fish meal, 
 fresh butcher's scraps or green cut bone must be liberally 
 supplied— not less than IS to 20 per cent of the total 
 weight of the mixture. Experiments have shown that ra- 
 tions deficient in animal food will certainly cause poor 
 hatches. Reasonably heavy feeding also is essential to 
 strong fertility and hatches are almost always unsatis- 
 factory where the fowls are kept on scant rations. 
 
 Abundant exercise is of the greatest importance in 
 the wellbeing of the breeding flock and to a high hatch- 
 ing percentage in the eggs produced, especially when the 
 fowls are in confinement. For this reason whole corn 
 should not be fed, unless on cold nights, and abundant 
 floor litter must be provided. A variation of 100 per 
 cent in fertility has been observed in experimental pens 
 where the only difference in treatment was the method 
 of feeding, one pen getting its grain in two feeds on a 
 practically bare floor, while the grain ration of the other 
 was fed four or five times a day, and buried in deep 
 litter so that the birds had to dig for it and had to spend 
 practically the entire day hunting for this part of the 
 ration. This extreme method of feeding may not be prac- 
 tical for the average poultry breeder, but he can at least 
 divide the day's grain ration into three separate feeds, 
 giving them morning, noon and evening and always bury- 
 ing the grain in litter, which should be deep enough to 
 hide it thoroughly. 
 
 Where this is done, the evening meal must be given 
 early enough so that the fowls will be able to secure a 
 full feed before dark. No harm will be done if some is 
 left in the litter after the fowls are through feeding for 
 the night, as this will be an incentive to get down from 
 the perches next morning as soon as they can see, and 
 get to work again. Remember that breeding fowls need 
 reasonable variety in the ration and it is not desirable tc 
 feed too heavily on any one grain, no matter how conve- 
 nient it may be to do so, or how cheap in comparison 
 with other grains. True economy in the feeding of fowls 
 consists in supplying the ration that they most need and 
 on which they will give the best returns, even though it 
 may cost a little more per pound than something else less 
 desirable or effective. 
 
 Much has b.een said in regard to the necessity for 
 providing a ration for the breeding stock which shall con- 
 tain everything required, and in just the right propor- 
 
 FIG. 16— ONE CAUSE OF POOR HATCHES 
 constant -"^"--yn^-al|. W^y„a^^^^^^^ .^eak down 
 
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 
 
 i'J 
 
 FIG. 17— PARTS OP HOME-MADE TRAP NEST 
 
 Galvanized iron door, 9x9 inches square. Edges 
 turned to stiffen. Upper edge has No. 9 fence wire 
 inserted in fold, this wire extending about % of 
 an inch at each end beyond sides of the door. 
 B — Wooden trig-ger, %x% of an inch in width and 
 thiclcness, and 2% inches in length. Has notch cut 
 in lower end. Upper end has common Wire staples 
 driven in part way, with an extra staple looped 
 through this one. Is fastened to cross top rail (see 
 Fig 19) so that galvanized iron door will just 
 clear it nicely when raised. C — Top rail % of an 
 inch X 2 X 12 inches. Trigger (B) is to be attached 
 to this rail. D and B — Front and back of nest — 
 duplicates; 121/2 inches wide x 10% inches high. 
 Bottom rail, '/s of an inch x 3 x_12y2 inches. Top 
 rail, % of an inch x 1^4 x 12i^ inches. Side rail, 
 % of an inch x 2 x 6% inches. Strips are % x% 
 of an inch x 10% inches. Back of nest can be made 
 solid if desired. F and I — Sides of nest each H of 
 an inch x 10 14 x 20^/2 inches. G-^Bottom of nest 
 or floor, % of an inch x 12%x20y2 inches. H— Strip 
 % of an inch x 2% x 12 inches. Used mid-way be- 
 tween front and back of nest to hold nest material 
 in place. See Figs. 18 and 19, for nest in operation. 
 
 tions, for egg formation and the development of the 
 chick. There is no reason for thinking that the practical 
 breeder need concern himself about this matter, beyond 
 observing a few general requirements. While the egg 
 contains a bewildering variety of constituents, it is not 
 probable that any of these are deficient in any ration 
 affording reasonable variety, especially if it carries a 
 fair proportion of oats, bran, and meat scrap. The de- 
 sirability of increasing the proportion of phosphorus has 
 
 been widely discussed, but never clearly proved. However, 
 since there is some question on this point and since 
 fowls undoubtedly can and do assimilate both the phos- 
 phorus and lime in bones, it is recommended that some 
 cracked bone or bone meal be added to the ration, unles? 
 the meat scrap carries a liberal proportion of bone. 
 
 Oyster shell and grit will of course, be supplied in 
 hoppers and kept before the fowls all the time. Keep 
 the hoppers clean and free from dirt or litter, as fowls 
 will not eat as much of this material as they really need 
 when laying heavily, if it is mixed with trash from the 
 floor, or if the hopper is clogged with fine particles and 
 dust. Fowls prefer the larger pieces and they want them 
 fresh. Many do not realize that shell and grit will get 
 stale if left standing exposed indefinitely, and in that 
 condition are not relished by the hens. Oyster shell is 
 especially important in the breeding ration as it has 
 been shown that a deficiency in shell-forming material 
 will result in production of much smaller eggs, as well 
 as eggs with thin shells. 
 
 As regards grit it must be admitted that little is 
 known concerning its importance in the ration, or the ex- 
 tent to which the fowls are able to assimilate the in- 
 organic substances which it contains. We do know, 
 however, that fowls normally crave grit, and in liberal 
 quantity, also that they are able to assimilate inorganic 
 lime. Hence it would appear wise to use some of the 
 various brands of limestone grit that are on the market, 
 rather than flinty materials that, so far as is known, 
 have no value aside from their "grinding" properties — a 
 function which probably is just as well served by the 
 softer limestone. 
 
 Use whatever is available at least expense for litter, 
 so long as it answers the purpose. Most persons will find 
 a mixture of planer shavings and oat or wheat straw best 
 and cheapest. Spread a 4-inch layer of shavings on the 
 floor and then cover with 4 to 6 inches of straw. It 
 costs no more to use plenty of litter, which only need be 
 changed occasionally, than to use it sparingly and be 
 compelled to renew it every little while, and it is impos- 
 sible to provide sufficient exercise for fowls in confine- 
 ment without its liberal use. 
 
 Green food is one of the most important parts of the 
 ration of the breeding flock. Almost anything green 
 may be given to advantage, but there is nothing better 
 than sprouted oats if they are properly sprouted and free 
 from mold. This can readily be accomplished by sprout- 
 ing them in a warm room or in one of the special oat- 
 sprouting cabinets that are on the market. With suffi- 
 cient warmth oats will grow quickly and be ready to 
 feed before mold has a chance to form. It helps also to 
 wash and disinfect all sprouting trays, etc., at frequent 
 intervals, for which purpose formaldehyde is especially 
 good, also any good coal-tar disinfecting solution. 
 
 C 
 
 D-i 
 
 PIG. 18— HEN ENTERING TRAP NEST 
 For key to lettering see footnote under Pig. 17. 
 
 FIG. 19— TRAP NEST WITH DOOR CLOSED 
 For key to lettering see footnote under Pig. n 
 
20 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 Pen Hatching Records and Trap Nesting 
 
 Whether the breeder attempts systematic or pedi- 
 gree breeding or not, he certainly will want to keep a 
 record of the results of his matings, and if possible 
 should use trap nests and thus be able to trace the per- 
 formance of individual fowls, not only through the hatch, 
 but through the growth and development of the chicks. 
 The advantages of being able to do this are too great to 
 be overlooked where it is practicable to attend to the 
 details of the work. 
 
 The most elementary form in which it is worth 
 while to keep hatching records is the pen record, where 
 the egg production, hatch, and percentage of chicks raised 
 are followed from day to day. This much, at least, every 
 one who produces eggs for hatching should do. The rec- 
 ord should be kept on a specially prepared sheet mounted 
 on stiff backing (pasteboard will answer as well as any- 
 thing) so that it can be carried at will from pen to incu- 
 bator room or elsewhere. Blank columns should be pro- 
 vided under suitable heads, following the general outlines 
 
 FIG. 20— U. S. GOVERNMENT TRAP NEST READY FOR USE 
 For convenience in handling, trap nests may be made in batteries of three 
 or more, as here shown, using light-weight lumber. Dimensions and method 
 of construction are shown in Pig. 21. 
 
 of the sample hatching sheet shown on page 46, or the 
 more elaborate one on page 47. 
 
 In case the record is to be extended to the individual 
 hen, trap nests and pedigree trays or their equivalent 
 will be needed. For a practical trap nest that will give 
 generally good results with hens of any size and that can 
 be made quite cheaply, the one illustrated in Fig. 17, and 
 shown in operation in Figs. 18 and 19, is recommended. 
 The illustrations and the footnotes that accompany them 
 will be sufficient to enable any one to make the nest suc- 
 cessfully. Another type of nest in use at the poultry ex- 
 periment farm of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, near 
 Washington, is shown in Figs. 20 and 21. Pedigree egg 
 trays such as are in use at the Maine Experiment Sta- 
 tion are shown on page 44, and more inexpensive appli- 
 ances for pedigree hatching is shown on page 45. Where 
 pedigree breeding is practiced, record keeping becomes 
 a rather elaborate matter, and it is useless to attempt 
 this method at all unless it is done right. Almost any 
 State Experiment Station will cheerfully furnish specimen 
 record sheets for use in pedigree breeding, and explain 
 their use. 
 
 Some Reasons for Low Fertility 
 
 With the breeding stock selected, fed, and cared for 
 in the manner just described, there should be no ques- 
 
 tion of low fertility or hatchability. There are, however, 
 a number of ways in which the inexperienced breeder 
 may err in the practical management of his flock, and 
 which will produce unfavorable conditions in the hatch. 
 It may prove helpful to call special attention to some 
 of the more common mistakes of this nature. 
 
 Overfat Hens. Hens that are heavily fed and whose 
 exercise has been neglected, are apt to come to the breed- 
 ing season too fat and more or less out of condition, so 
 that they are not able to produce strongly fertile eggs. 
 It is scarcely possible to place too much emphasis on the 
 importance of taking the best of care of the breeding 
 fowls prior to the breeding season, as well as after 
 hatching operations begin. They should be well-fed but 
 not overfed, and when confined indoors or in yards, 
 special provisions must be made for their exercise. The 
 importance of this may not be so great in the case of 
 Leghorns and other small fowls, as these are naturally 
 active, but fowls of the larger breeds are disposed to take 
 life quite leisurely if supplied with an abundance of easily 
 secured food. The injurious effect of 
 this is found not so much in their 
 getting overfat, as in their being un- 
 derexercised and thus not in good 
 physical condition for breeding. The 
 reader is advised to turn back and 
 read again what is said in this chap- 
 ter in regard to providing exercise, 
 no detail of which can safely be neg- 
 lected in the care of large hens, 
 either during the breeding season or 
 in the months leading up to it. 
 
 Exhausted Hens and Pullets. Early- 
 hatched pullets that have been heavi- 
 ly fed for eggs through the winter, 
 and in some cases one-year-old hens 
 also, will not be in condition for the 
 breeding pen in the spring. Eggs for 
 hatching may be secured from win- 
 ter layers with fairly satisfactory re- 
 sults early in the season, but only 
 then. It is never advisable to depend 
 on pullets or hens that have laid heavily through the 
 winter, for a supply of hatching eggs throughout the sea- 
 son. As far as hens are concerned, it is better to pen 
 them separately and feed them a good nourishing but 
 non-forcing ration and make no effort whatever to get 
 eggs from them until the breeding season has arrived. 
 
 Immature Pullets. The use of young pullets is be- 
 lieved to be a general cause of poor hatches and weak 
 chicks. It is not probable that there is any disadvantage 
 in the use of well-matured pullets that have been laying 
 for a short time so that the eggs are good-sized and 
 normal in development. But immature pullets that are 
 laying their first eggs, especially if they have been more 
 or less forced in their development in order to bring 
 them into laying, are extremely undesirable. 
 
 Males Not in Good Condition. What has been said 
 
 in regard to the management of hens, in and out of the 
 breeding season, also applies to males, although these 
 are not apt to become overfat at any time. They un- 
 doubtedly will be benefitted by compulsory exercise, 
 however. If very gallant they are more apt to be under- 
 fed than overfed and should be watched to avoid any 
 danger of this happening. If necessary, they may have 
 a special supply of grain, provided in a cup or small hop- 
 per hung high enough to be out of the reach of the hens. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK 
 
 21 
 
 Immature Cockerels. The chief objection to the use 
 of cockerels, assuming that they are well developed, is 
 that they are not able to stand service in the breeding 
 pen for long periods, especially when mated to too many 
 females as is almost habitually done. If they must be 
 used singly in large flocks it is a good plan to provide 
 some extra ones so that they can be placed in service 
 alternately, with rest periods between. A better and 
 more practical plan, where it is possible to practice it, 
 is simply to keep the number of females down to a point 
 where the males will not be in danger of being over- 
 worked and thus can be continued in regular service 
 throughout the season. Alternating males is a make- 
 shift practice at best. It is much better that the pen, 
 when once mated, be continued unchanged to the close 
 of the season, unless it is found desirable to make a per- 
 manent change. 
 
 Unsuitable Rations. The rations that the breeders 
 should have are fully outlined in this chapter, and there is 
 no poorer economy than to neglect the provision of what 
 is needed in order to save a few cents on the cost of 
 the ration, if this done at the expense of the nourishment 
 of the breeding stock and the embryo. There is no nec- 
 essity for making the feeding a complicated mathematical 
 or chemical problem, but wholesome food 
 in reasonable variety and properly sup- 
 plied, neither too much nor too little, is 
 imperative. 
 
 Too Long Breeding Season. It fre- 
 quently happens that a breeding pen that 
 has given good results early in the year fails 
 to hold up throughout the breeding season, 
 and fertility and vitality in the chicks drop 
 to a low point. There is no practical way 
 of keeping up the vigor of fowls that are 
 laying heavily for long periods, and this 
 must be taken into account in all plans. 
 Winter-laying pullets may be used in the 
 breeding pen early in the season, but for 
 long periods one and two-year-old hens 
 are better. They should be fed so as to 
 keep the egg yield at a reasonable percent- 
 age, but avoid all tendency to forcing >vj 
 methods. Egg production may be con- > 
 trolled to some extent by rnaking changes ' 
 in the rations as suggested in this chapter, 
 such as by increasing or decreasing the 
 percentage of meat scrap, or by regulating 
 the amount of mash. If the fowls are dis- 
 posed to lay too heavily they may be , | 
 checked by reducing the proportion of dry ^JN 
 mash consumed, doing so by increasing the 
 proportion of bran in the mixture. If the 
 yield falls oflf too greatly it can be brought 
 back by reducing the bran and increasing 
 the meat scrap and, if necessary, by feed- 
 ing a moist mash daily. 
 
 Too Little Animal Food. Experiments 
 have shown that a lack of animal food will seriously af- 
 fect the hatchability of eggs, and this part of the ration 
 should always receive attention. Commercial meat scrap 
 is available almost everywhere and should invariably be 
 supplied to breeding fowls in confinement, unless fresh 
 meat, butcher's scraps or green cut bone is used instead. 
 Meat is apt to stimulate the egg organs to too heavy pro- 
 duction, however, and must not be fed too freely. The 
 proportion cannot be exactly stated, as much depends 
 on the mash fed, and on other conditions, and must 
 be governed to some extent by the performance of the 
 hens. So long as they are not laying too heavily it is 
 safe to assume that the amount is not excessive, if it 
 conforms in a general way to the percentages suggested 
 in this cliapter. 
 
 Too Much Green Food. Where sprouted oats are fed 
 liberally, also where efforts are made to reduce the cost 
 of the ration lay feeding an abundance of green food, 
 there is danger that the eggs will be watery and far from 
 normal in composition. Such eggs cannot be expected 
 to give good results in the incubator. Green food is im- 
 
 portant as a means of keeping the fowls in good physical 
 condition, but there is danger in feeding it too heavily. 
 
 Poor Sanitary Conditions. It is assumed that good 
 sanitary conditions will be maintained in the breeding 
 pens at all times. Cleanliness, from a poultry-keeping 
 viewpoint, does not mean the same thing that it sug- 
 gests to the tidy housekeeper, but it certainly should mean 
 freedom from dampness, foul odors, and filthy litter. The 
 condition of the litter is especially important because of 
 the feeding method recommended, which requires the 
 fowls to keep digging in it pretty much all day long to 
 secure their grain feed. It should take no argument to 
 show the importance of having reasonably clean litter, 
 for this purpose — litter that is dry and free from drop- 
 pings and mustiness. With a dry floor and a well-ven- 
 tilated house, a thick coat of litter will last for some 
 time, especially where the fowls are no rnore crowded 
 than is generally recommended for breeding pens._ If 
 the house is kept dry by adequate ventilation, the litter 
 renewed frequently enough to keep it bright and fresh, 
 and the droppings boards cleaned often enough to keep 
 the house free from offensive odor, the house can be 
 considered clean and sanitary. Less than this should not 
 be tolerated. A filthy house will certainly react on the 
 health and productivity of the fowls. 
 
 FIG. 21— OUTLINE DRAWING OF U. S. GOVERNMENT TRAP NEST 
 
 This drawingr shows method of construction and dimensions of trap 
 nest in, use at the Governmental Poultry Experimental Farm near 
 Washington, D. C. For complete nest see Fig. 20. 
 
 Eggs Chilled or Overheated. Eggs must be pro- 
 tected from extreme temperatures while being held for 
 Hatching. Low temperatures that will chill them, or high 
 temperatures that will start germ development are alike 
 injurious. Under ordinary conditions a reasonably dry 
 cellar is a good place for the eggs, and if there is no 
 dampness they may safely be laid in baskets or trays, 
 piled one on top of the other, and covered with a cloth 
 to prevent evaporation. If the cellar is damp or the tem- 
 perature is liable to fall much below SO degrees it will be 
 better to keep the eggs elsewhere. A closet in the kitchen 
 or living room frequently offers an excellent place for 
 them, but in this case it is necessary to guard against 
 high temperatures during the day and low temperatures 
 at night. Usually the most practical and convenient way 
 to store eggs for hatching is to place them in one dozen 
 cartons, or in regular shipping cases when large numbers 
 are to be accumulated. These packages provide ideal con- 
 ditions, as the eggs are protected from sudden changes in 
 temperature, and from evaporation, also from excess 
 moisture, and are easily turned if this is considered nec- 
 essary. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 The Hen's Egg and How It Is Formed 
 
 Description of the Egg Organs of the Hen — How Eggs Are Developed — Composition of the Egg and How This Ma:» 
 Be Affected by Feeding — How^ Size and Shape of Eggs Arc Determined— Securing Large, Uni- 
 formly Shaped Eggs for Hatching — Defective Eggs and How Prevented. 
 
 a I GOOD degree of success in artificial incubation 
 I may be achieved with only the most limited 
 WISM knowledge regarding the formation of the egg, 
 eU^m its composition, and the growth and development 
 of the chick embryo — that much is readily conceded. The 
 earnest and ambitious poultry keeper, however, who 
 wishes to be well informed generally on matters that 
 directly, relate to his work, will want to know at least the 
 details of this complicated but highly interesting subject. 
 There is no question about the fact that he will find all 
 such information helpful to him in practical everyday 
 work with breeding stock and in hatching operations. 
 This information we have 
 attempted to give in this 
 and the following chapters, 
 though it evidently is im- 
 possible to do little more 
 in the space available, than 
 to outline the subject and to 
 furnish such details as will 
 enable those who are inter- 
 ested, to follow intelligently 
 the development of the chick 
 embryo. It also is impossi- 
 ble to present such a sub- 
 ject in words made familiar 
 by everyday use, though so 
 far as possible this has been 
 done. 
 
 Considering the egg sim- 
 ply as the reproductive body 
 of fowls, it may be described 
 as consisting of a germ, a 
 relatively large amount of 
 
 food stored up for the nourishment of the developing 
 embryo, and protective coverings. The egg has its mic- 
 roscopic beginning in the ovarj' of the female fowl, 
 which organ, bearing a slight general resemblance to a, 
 bunch of grapes (see Fig. 24) is located close to the 
 backbone and in front of the kidneys. The female nor- 
 mally develops only one ovary — the left one — the right 
 ovary becoming atrophied at an early stage in the de- 
 velopment of the embryonic chick. 
 
 In mature laying pullets the ovary contains ova in all 
 stages of development, from full-grown yolks down to 
 minute bodies (oocytes) so small that they cannot be 
 detected without the use of a microscope. The number 
 of these is quite large, as many as 3,600 having been 
 counted in a single ovary, only those being considered 
 that were visible to the naked eye (see Fig. 23). How 
 many more might be revealed by the use of the micro- 
 scope we do not know. Since few hens ever reach a total 
 production of 1,000 eggs, it is clear that the number that 
 any individual may produce is determined by physical 
 limitations, the exhaustion of the supply of ova being a 
 practical impossibility. 
 
 The Oviduct 
 The oviduct (see Figs. 24 and 27) is a whitish tube, 
 located in the abdomer> and attached by means of tough 
 
 PIG. 22 — WELL-FORMED, STANDARD-SIZED EGGS 
 
 membraneous tissue to the upper part of the body wall. 
 In the growing pullet or non-laying hen it is compara- 
 tively small, but as the fowl comes into laying condition 
 it increases in size until it reaches a length of fully two 
 feet, with glandular walls of varying thickness and 
 strongly marked with blood vessels. It may be divided 
 into the following parts or sections: The funnel, de- 
 signed to receive the yolk as it leaves the ruptured yolk 
 sac; the albumen-secreting portion; the isthmus which 
 secretes the shell membrane; the uterus where the hard 
 shell is secreted; the vagina where the coloring matter of 
 the shell and the outer mucilaginous coating are secreted. 
 
 Formation of the Egg 
 
 The ova or yolks develop 
 in groups, about fourteen 
 days being sufficient for the 
 development of a full-sized 
 yolk from the minute ovum. 
 The yellow part of the yolk 
 consists of round cells filled 
 with fat, which are deposited 
 daily in successive layers, 
 each layer being separated 
 from the rest by an extreme- 
 ly thin layer of white yolk. 
 These layers are so distinct 
 in formation that the yolk 
 of a fresh hard-boiled egg 
 can be peeled oflf in layers, 
 like an onion, if carefully 
 done. The yolk is enclosed 
 in a membraneous yolk sac, 
 through which it receives 
 from the blood the materials of which it is composed. 
 When the yolk reaches its full development, the sac is 
 ruptured and the yolk, enclosed in an extremely thin en- 
 velope known as the vitelline membrane (an essential part 
 of the yolk structure) enters the upper end of the ovi- 
 duct. The yolk is not a solid mass, but enclosed in it is 
 a central cavity filled with white yolk and connected with 
 the germinal disk on the upper surface of the yolk by a 
 small canal or tube which also is filled with white yolk. 
 At the time the yolk escapes from the yolk sac, the 
 upper end or mouth of the oviduct opens and more or 
 less envelops it, thus insuring its entrance into the ovi- 
 duct instead of into the body cavity, which latter fre- 
 quently happens, however, when the funnel of the ovi- 
 duct does not function properly. As soon as the yolk 
 enters the oviduct, the glands begin pouring out their 
 secretions of albumen or "white" and as the yolk is 
 gradually pushed along, turning round and round in a 
 spiral manner under the pressure of the muscular walls 
 of the oviduct, it accumulates its share of albumen and, 
 further along, the membranes and the hard shell. 
 
 "In the normal egg of the hen there are certainly 
 three and possibly four different albumen layers which 
 can easily be distinguished on the basis of physical con- 
 sistency. These are: (a) the chalaziferous layer. This 
 
 22 
 
THE HEN'S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED 
 
 23 
 
 is a thin layer of dense albuminous 
 material, which lies immediately out- 
 side the true yolk membrane. It is 
 continuous at the poles of the yolk 
 with the chalazae, and is undoubtedly 
 formed in connection with those 
 structures. It is so thin a layer that 
 it might well be, and often has been 
 taken for the yolk membrane, (b) 
 The inner layer of fluid (thin) albu- 
 men. This layer is extremely thin 
 and there is some doubt as to its ex- 
 istence as a separate layer, (c) The 
 dense albumen. This is the layer 
 which makes up the bulk of the 
 "white" of the egg. It is composed of 
 a mass of dense, closely interlaced 
 albumen fibres with some thin albu- 
 men between the meshes of the fib- 
 rous network. The dense albumen, as 
 a whole, will not flow readily but 
 holds itself together in a flattened 
 
 mass if poured out upon a plate, (d) The outer layer of 
 fluid albumen. This is the principal layer of thin albu- 
 men, which makes up the fluid part of the "white"' ob- 
 served when an egg is broken. 
 
 "Many autopsy records agree in showing that the 
 egg does not receive the outer layer of thin fluid albumen 
 (layer d) during its sojourn in the so-called albumen se- 
 creting portion of the oviduct. A detailed and careful 
 study of the weights of the several parts of the egg 
 (yolk, albumen, shell membranes) in eggs taken from 
 different levels of the oviduct, leads to the following re- 
 sults. When the egg leaves the albumen portion of the 
 oviduct it weighs roughly only about half as much as 
 it does when laid. Nearly all of this difference is in the 
 albumen. Thus these weighings fully confirm the con- 
 clusion reached from different examinations of the eggs, 
 as already described. The evidence shows that the egg 
 gets all of its thin albumen (layer d), which constitutes 
 
 riG. 23— PORTION OF OVARY OF HEN 
 
 TTii<! illustration made from a photograph supplied by Missouri State Poul- 
 
 i.A;^!J«l^tqtirtinn shows about three-fourths of the ovary of a hen, and 
 
 *'■•'' F»?.ml idea (thm.gh bill a faint one) of the great numbers of ova to be 
 
 RX^fl ^^'"fhe ovary of any normal hen, there being many hundreds, possibly 
 
 thoSsarids more than the hens will ever lay. 
 
 FIG. 24— OVARY AND OVIDUCT OF LAYING HEN 
 
 1, ovary with yolks (ova) in different stages of development — one just ready 
 
 to pass into mouth of oviduct. 2, section of oviduct where the albumen is 
 
 secreted. 3, the uterus or shell gland, containing full-sized egg. Compare 
 
 this illustration with Fig. 27. Courtesy of Mo. State Poultry Experiment Station. 
 
 nearly 60 per cent by weight of the total albumen, only 
 after it has left the supposedly only albumen-secreting 
 portion of the oviduct, and the shell is in process of for- 
 mation. 
 
 "The weighings show that in general the farther- 
 down the oviduct the egg proceeds the more albumen it 
 gets. Very nearly one-half the total weight of albumen 
 of the completed egg is added in the uterus, an organ 
 hitherto supposed to be entirely devoted to shell forma- 
 tion. Clearly much more albumen is added to the egg 
 in the uterus than in the isthmus. This, of course, does 
 not necessarily mean any more rapid rate of secretion in 
 the uterus, because of the' time element involved. The 
 egg stays much longer in the uterus than in the isthmus."* 
 The chalazae, to which reference has been made, 
 are attached on opposite sides of the yolk, facing the two 
 ends of the egg, and extend out into the albumen. Their 
 purpose is to hold the yolk in its proper position, allow- 
 ing it to turn around freely the 
 short way of the egg, but preventing- 
 its turning over the long way of the 
 egg. This in connection with the 
 peculiar structure of the yolk, which 
 makes the sides carrying the germi- 
 nal disk lighter than the other half, 
 keeps the yolk always on the upper 
 side of the egg and near the center, 
 viewing it from end to end, and also 
 keeps the germ side of the yolk up- 
 permost and close up to the source 
 of heat regardless of the position in 
 which the egg is placed. 
 
 The covering of the egg consists of 
 two membranes, each a network of 
 fibers, and a hard outer shell. The 
 separation of the inner and outer 
 membranes at the large end forms 
 the air cell with which all incubator 
 operators are familiar. The outer 
 shell is almost pure carbonate of 
 lime and consists of the gelatinous 
 coating, which forms the "bloom" of 
 the egg, an outer porous layer, a mid- 
 dle and denser portion, and an inner 
 
 *B'xtract from Maine Experiment 
 Station Bulletin No. 216. 
 
24 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 or crystalline portion. The shell is quite porous and ad- 
 mits air readily, and bacteria also when kept under un- 
 favorable conditions. The outer gelatinous coating seems 
 to provide some additional protection for the egg, possi- 
 bly retarding evaporation. If this coating is removed, as 
 when the shells are washed on account of being badly 
 soiled, the eggs seldom hatch as well as when unwashed. 
 The following statement in regard to the develop- 
 ment of the different parts of the egg and the length of 
 
 WY 
 
 FIG. 25 — STRUCTURE OF THE EGG. 
 S, shell; M, outer shell membrane; M-1, inner 
 shell membrane: A, air cell; C, outer layer of 
 albumen; W, middle layer of albumen; D, inner or 
 chalaziferous layer of albumen; CH, chalazae; V. 
 vitelline membrane; WY, thin layers of white yolk 
 — also central cavity and tube filled with white 
 yolk; YY, layers of yellow yolk; BL, blastoderm or 
 germinal disk. 
 
 time occupied in the process, is taken from Bulletin 216 
 of the Maine Experiment Station: 
 
 1. After entering the infundibulum the yolk re- 
 mains in the so-called albumen portion of the oviduct 
 about three hours and in this time acquires only about 
 40 to SO per cent by weight of its total albumen, and not 
 all of it as has hitherto been supposed. 
 
 2. During its sojourn in the infundibular and albu- 
 men portions of the duct the egg acquires its chalazae and 
 chalaziferous layer, and the "thick" albumen layer. 
 
 3. Upon entering the isthmus, in passing through 
 which portion of the duct something under an hour's 
 time is occupied instead of three hours as has been pre- 
 viously maintained, the egg receives its shell membrane 
 by a process of discrete deposition. 
 
 4. At the same time, and also during the sojourn of 
 the egg in the uterus, it receives its outer layer of fluid 
 or "thin"' albumen, which is by weight SO to 60 per cent 
 of the total albumen. 
 
 5. This "thin" albumen is taken in as a dilute fluid 
 by osmosis through the shell membranes already formed. 
 The fluid albumen added in this way diffuses into the 
 dense albumen already present, dissolve some of the 
 
 latter and so brings about its dilution in some degree. At 
 the same time the fluid albumen is made more dense in 
 this process of diffusion, and comes to have the consist- 
 ency of the thin albumen layer of the normal fresh laid 
 e^g. The fluid albumen taken into the egg by osmosis is 
 a definite secretion of glands of ihe isthmus and uterus. 
 
 6. The addition of albumen to the egg is completed 
 only after it has been in the uterus from 5 to 7 hours. 
 
 7. Before the acquisition of albumen by the egg isi 
 completed, a fairly considerable amount of shell sub- 
 stance has been deposited on the shell membrane. 
 
 8. For the completion of the shell and the laying of 
 the egg from 12 to 16, or exceptionally even more, hours 
 are required." 
 
 Composition of the Hen's Egg 
 The composition of eggs and the relative proportions 
 of the different substances represented in them vary 
 somewhat in different analyses, but the following aver- 
 ages of a number of tests made at the Kansas Experi- 
 ment Station probably quite closely approximate the gen- 
 eral average: 
 
 Weight of egg 1.88 oz. 
 
 Percentage of white 57.01 
 
 Percentage of yolk 32.75 
 
 Percentage of shell - 9.99 
 
 Percentage of protein in white 12.34 
 
 Percentage of ^vater in white 87.66 
 
 Percentage of protein in yolk 17.58 
 
 Percentage of ether extract (fat) 32.23 
 
 Percentage of water in yolk 48.63 
 
 Percentage of ash in yolk 1-55 
 
 Percentage of protein in total egg 12.83 
 
 Both yolk and albumen are highly complex com- 
 pounds. While many of the substances contained in 
 them are present only in the most limited porportions 
 they are not necessarily unimportant to embryonic de- 
 velopment on that account. The composition of the yolk 
 of the average egg approximates the following per- 
 centages: 
 
 Analysis of Tolk. 
 
 Water 49.32 per cent. 
 
 Solids 50.66 per cent. 
 
 Fats 21.57 per cent. 
 
 Vitellin and other albumens 15.79 per cent. 
 
 Lecithins - 9.58 per cent. 
 
 Cholesterin 1.2 per cent. 
 
 Cerebrin 30 per cent. 
 
 Mineral Salts 3.33 per cent. 
 
 Coloring matter j 55 pg^ cent. 
 
 Glucose i " " 
 
 The mineral salts in the yolk contain sodium, potas- 
 sium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphoric acid, chlorine 
 and silicic acid. The phosphoric acid and calcium form 
 much the greater proportion of the total. 
 
 Analysis of Albumen. 
 
 Water 83.34 per cent 
 
 Solids 16.66 per cent 
 
 Albumens 11.89 per cent 
 
 Glucose 30 per cent 
 
 Extractives 58 per cent 
 
 Fats and soap Traces 
 
 Mineral salts 48 per cent 
 
 Lecithins and cholesterin Traces 
 
 The mineral salts in the albumen contain sodium, 
 potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, phosphorus 
 
 
 fP»-«a(i 
 
 jg^-^ 
 
 B^» 
 
 SD 
 
 »v^ 
 
 B 
 
 ®i--->--~..^. 
 
 ^wtBugBBSJ! 
 
 — ... — «-. 
 
 :...: :'.:i^iMMi^^^ 
 
 ^^HHiBiaiuuL-_^~v — -^.^^y^t.^,.,^ 
 
 M-t:^i^:£aSimt^M 
 
 
 S&faMi^''^ 
 
 ONE 
 
 DAY 
 
 OLD 
 
 ONE WEEK 
 
 OLD 
 
 TWO 
 
 w eTk's 
 
 OLD 
 
 PIG. 26— HOW AGE AFFECTS CONSISTENCY OF TOLK AND ALBUMEN 
 Eggs rapidly lose consistency or firmness with age. Note the firmness of yolk and albumen in the 
 egg one day old as shown by the way of yolk stands up and the albumen holds together. In the 
 egg one week old both have flattened out noticeably, and in the egg two weeks old the albumen is quite 
 watery and the yolk flat, thin, and easily broken. 
 
THE HEN'S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED 
 
 25 
 
 acid, carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, silicic acid and fluorine. 
 Of these, sodium, potassium, and chlorine form the great- 
 er part of the total. 
 
 Variations in Composition of Eggs 
 
 Comparatively little information is available, show- 
 ing the extent to wrhich the composition of the egg may 
 be afifected by the rations fed. It is common knowledge 
 that the color is affected by the food supplied, and there 
 are readily observed differences in the consistency of yolk 
 and albumen, which accompany extreme rations such as 
 those composed mainly of soft food, or which contain 
 large proportions of milk, cabbage, or green food in any 
 form, also kitchen scraps. Eggs produced by hens that 
 have a reasonable proportion of animal food in the ration 
 are noticeably diflferent from eggs produced on a meat- 
 less ration, and eggs produced by well-fed hens are per- 
 ceptibly larger than from underfed fowls, while the 
 flavor is noticeably affected by the character of the food 
 provided. The poultry keeper who produces eggs for 
 hatching will therefore aim to supply a nourishing and 
 well-balanced ration, and in liberal proportions, so that 
 the eggs laid will be of full size and normal in their com- 
 position. 
 
 It is doubtful, however, whether there is any neces- 
 sity for or advantage in trying to provide a ration that 
 will closely follow the chemical composition of the egg, 
 as is often recommended. If there is any advantage in 
 so doing, certainly the proportions have not been suffi- 
 ciently investigated to afford any reliable information as 
 to the amounts required. On the whole, there are good 
 practical reasons for thinking that better results will be 
 secured by the feeder who aims simply to supply a nor- 
 mal ration rather than by one who permits himself to 
 get hopelessly tangled up in the complexities of egg and 
 food analyses. As a matter of fact, such investigations 
 as have been made indicate that the great majority of the 
 elements which enter into the composition of the egg 
 are found largely in excess of the fowl's requirements in 
 any good, practical ration such as poultry feeders gen- 
 erally use. 
 
 Experiments made at Cornell University, for exam- 
 ple, indicate that the relative proportions of fat and pro- 
 tein in the egg vary but little, regardless of the ration 
 fed; that there seems to be no relation between the pro- 
 tein and fat content of the egg and its hatching power 
 or the vitality of the chick; that the phosphorus content 
 of the egg is only slightly modified by the proportions in 
 which thi^ element is present in the ration, and this varia- 
 tion seems to have no bearing on the strength or vitality 
 of the chick; and that the feeding of inorganic phosphorus 
 does not influence the proportion of phosphorus in the 
 egg. If these things are true in regard to phosphorus, 
 which is generally believed to be the element in which 
 the average ration is most likely to be deficient, there can 
 be little reason for anxiety about the other mineral con- 
 stituents, so long as the ration is well balanced and pro- 
 vides some variety. 
 
 The composition of the egg aside from consistency 
 and flavor, appears to vary only in a slight degree as a 
 result of changes in the ration. A conspicuous deficiency 
 in any essential ingredient is much more apt to cause a 
 falling ofif in egg yield than in the production of eggs 
 showing a noticeable reduction in any of their normal 
 constituents. For example, a marked deficiency of lime 
 in the ration does not necessarily result in soft shells, 
 but usually is followed by reduced productiveness and 
 smaller-sized eggs. 
 
 How the Egg Gets Its Oval Shape 
 
 As regards the shaping of the egg, the following ex- 
 tract from Bulletin 228 of the Maine Experiment Station 
 gives practically all that is known on this subject: 
 
 "The shape of the egg is almost certainly due to the 
 interaction of the two layers of muscle fibers in the ovi- 
 duct walls. The inner layer of fibers is circular, that is, 
 they pass around the duct. The outer layer is longitudi- 
 nal and somewhat spiral and extends into both the dorsal 
 and ventral ligaments. Further work on the physiology 
 of these muscles is necessary to determine the exact way 
 in which they act. From their position and from ob- 
 served activities of the duct it seems that the contrac- 
 
 PIG. 27— PHOTOGRAPH OF HEN'S OVIDUCT 
 Oviduct slit open and flattened out, showing the inside 
 surface. Oviduct was cut in two at "B" in order to get 
 it on the photographic plate. A is the funnel shapes 
 mouth; B, B, B, the albumen-secreting section. The 
 albumen portion stops and the isthmus begins at X. 
 
 C, the isthmus where the shell membranes are secreted; 
 
 D, the uterus or shell gland; B, the vagina. Photo from 
 Maine Experiment Station. 
 
 tion of the circular fibers contract the duct and move 
 the egg forward. The contraction of the longitudinal 
 fibers, which have a somewhat spiral course, expand the 
 duct, diminishing the resistance to the passage and also 
 gives the egg a spiral motion. If the resistance is slight, 
 i. e., if the contractions are so timed that the duct ahead 
 of the egg is expanded at the time of the contraction of 
 the circular fibers behind, the egg will be long, narrow 
 and pointed. On the other hand, if the resistance is 
 great the egg will be short and broad. 
 
 "The individuality of the eggs of a bird in respect 
 
26 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 to shape must be 
 due to an individ- 
 uality in the co- 
 ordination of these 
 two sets of mus- 
 cle fibers and sim- 
 ilarly the variation 
 must be due to 
 a variation under 
 different c o n d i- 
 tions in the de- 
 gree of coordina- 
 tion." 
 
 Size and Shape of 
 Eggs 
 
 Since conspicu- 
 ous variations from 
 ideal egg shape 
 
 FIG. 28-DEFORMED EGGS "^ \P' *° \'' ^"' 
 "Wind eggs" (1) usually contain t° abnormal con- 
 albumen but no yolk. Crooked eggs djtions in the ovi- 
 (2) usually result from an inflamed . > ,. . 
 condition of the oviduct. Ridged or ir- duct, it should be 
 regularly shaped eggs (3) and double- -i.-^ tV,ot h p n s 
 yolked eggs (4) also are due to inflam- Clear mat n e n s 
 mation in the oviduct or to "weakness that regularly lay 
 in the muscles of that organ, and most . i, u 
 commonly are produced by overfat hens, such eggs should 
 
 not be used for 
 the production of hatching eggs. Aside from the faot 
 that such irregularities may be inherited, there is the 
 more immediate disadvantage due to low fertility, which 
 usually is a characteristic of odd-shaped eggs. The shape 
 of the egg bears no relation to the sex of the chick 
 hatched from it. 
 
 The eggs of individual hens vary to some extent in 
 size, shape, and color, though conforming more or less 
 closely to certain general breed characteristics. A good 
 degree of uniformity in these respects can be secured in 
 carefully bred strains in any breed. The eggs of any 
 given individual will be found to resemble each other 
 closely in shape and exterior appearance, so that it is 
 possible for the careful observer to identify the hen that 
 laid the egg by its appearance alone, though in a sea- 
 son's production some variation in size, also in color and 
 shape, will be noted. "Egg weight and albumen are about 
 equally variable. They are decidedly less variable than 
 shell weight and yolk weight, and much more variable 
 than either length or breadth."* 
 
 *Maine Station Bulletin No. 228. 
 
 FIG. 29— SELECT NORMAL EGGS FOR THE INCUBATOR 
 (1) This egg is just about perfect in its proportions. 
 The length is practically 1% times the diameter, and it 
 "weighs two and one-sixth ounces. (2) Extra long eggs are 
 not likely to show a high degree of fertility and are much 
 more apt to have defective shells. (3) Eggs of this type 
 usually are undersized and should hp avoided. 
 
 The following list arranges the egg characters in the 
 order of their variability; egg weight; yolk weight; albu- 
 men weight; shell weight; length; breadth. Eggs during 
 the breeding season have larger yolks and a correspond- 
 ingly smaller percentage of albumen than eggs at other 
 seasons. 
 
 In a general way the size of eggs is greater in the 
 middle of the clutch than at the beginning or the end, 
 and in a period of long-continued laying the eggs tend 
 to average smaller. However, pullets habitually lay 
 smaller eggs in the first clutch than in successive ones 
 and their eggs are not apt to reach maximum size until 
 the second year. 
 
 The poultry grower is interested in the variations in 
 size, shape, and composition of eggs for very practical 
 reasons. Regardless of whether eggs are sold by weight 
 or not, size has an important market value. Noticeably 
 small eggs are subject to discount in almost any dis- 
 ci iminating market, while large size is almost imperative 
 in securing premium prices. In incubation it is conceded 
 that the largest and best chicks come from large eggs. 
 Color of shell is definitely inherited within the breed. 
 That is, pullets hatched from white-shelled eggs will al- 
 ways lay white-shelled eggs if they are purebred, and hens 
 belonging to 
 breeds that lay 
 eggs with brown 
 shells will never 
 lay white - shelled 
 eggs, though in 
 some breeds the 
 shade of brown in 
 the eggs may vary 
 widely except in 
 strains that have 
 been carefully 
 bred for uniform- 
 ity in color. Some 
 breeds are much 
 more apt to show 
 uniformity of shell 
 color than others, 
 but a good degree 
 
 of uniformitv ran Eggs with so 
 
 oi umiormity can abnormal shapes, are more or less 
 common, especially in the spring when 
 
 FIG. 30 — DEFORMED EGG WITH 
 SOFT SHELL 
 
 be secured in any 
 
 br( 
 
 by persistent se 
 
 , J • . the fowls are laying heavily and when 
 
 breed or variety they often are suffering from long 
 
 winter confinement. More exercise and 
 
 a less forcing ration are the remedy. 
 
 lection. That the 
 same rule will apply equally to shape and size is prob- 
 able, but not so clearly established. 
 
 Defective Eggs and How Caused 
 
 There are a number of defects that may occur in 
 eggs, some of them unavoidable, and some the result of 
 poor methods of feeding or care. The appearance of 
 serious defects that are known to be the result of im- 
 proper conditions should be a sufficient warning imme- 
 diately to change such conditions, while others that are 
 due to constitutional causes demand the removal of the 
 defective fowls. The following defects may be noticed, 
 in almost any flock during the heavy laying season, and 
 while their occurrence now and then is not a serious 
 matter, an appreciable number means improper condi- 
 tions somewhere along the line, which must be corrected 
 if good hatching eggs are to be produced; 
 
 Small Eggs. Extremely small eggs, sometimes called 
 "wind eggs," are generally supposed to be the last of the 
 clutch, or the last eggs laid by a hen before becoming 
 
THE HEN'S EGG AND HOW IT IS FORMED 
 
 27 
 
 broody. In some cases the wind egg is believed to re- 
 sult from the entrance of the yolk into the oviduct and 
 its later expulsion into the body cavity where it is reab- 
 sorbed. The secretion of the albumen having been be- 
 gun however, the entire process is gone through with, 
 resulting in the formation of a diminutive egg with a, 
 regular shell, containing varying amounts of albumen 
 but no yolk. Eggs normal in shell, albumen, and yolk, 
 but quite small in size, may sirnply be a pullet's first 
 eggs or they may result from rations conspicuously defi- 
 cient in something essential to egg production. 
 
 Overlarge Eggs. Eggs that are conspicuously over- 
 size are generally, but not always, 
 double-yolked eggs, produced by two 
 yolks escaping into the oviduct at the 
 same time, or to a reversal of the 
 muscular action of the oviduct which 
 may result in stopping a yolk at any 
 point in the oviduct, even after it has 
 accumulated most of its albumen, or 
 after a complete shell has been 
 formed, and returning it to the upper 
 part of the oviduct. In the course 
 of this backward movement it meets 
 the following yolk and both then pro- 
 ceed through the oviduct and are 
 enclosed in one shell. Double-yolked 
 eggs indicate irregular functioning of 
 the oviduct and are commonly pro- 
 duced by hens that are overfat, es- 
 pecially if kept in comparative idle- 
 ness. It is probable that the trouble 
 is not due directly to the hens being' 
 overfat, but to a general weakening 
 of the muscles of the oviduct and of 
 the entire abdominal region, as a re- 
 sult of inactivity. At any rate, the 
 remedy lies in providing more exer- 
 cise for the fowls, and a less forcing 
 ration. As a matter of fact, one of 
 the first and most important steps to 
 be taken in the prevention of defec- 
 tive eggs of almost any kind is to 
 see to it that the hens have plenty of 
 exercise. Normal fowls are highly 
 active, and scratching for their food 
 is the natural way to get both food 
 and exercise. This constant scratch- 
 ing tends to keep the abdominal rnus- 
 cles strong and active, and this firm- 
 ness of muscle extends to and is an 
 important feature in the health and 
 activity of the oviduct. 
 
 Soft Shells. These may be due to 
 
 lack of lime or to improper func 
 
 Rough Shells. Rough shells may be due to lack of 
 a suitable supply of lime, but more commonly to an in- 
 flamed condition of the portion of the oviduct where the 
 shell material is secreted. Hens that regularly lay rough- 
 shelled eggs should be removed from the breeding flock. 
 An appreciable number of such indicates something rad- 
 ically wrong with the ration or the condition under which 
 the fowls are kept. 
 
 Crooked or Ridged Shells. Various irregularities in 
 the shape of egg shells will be met with from time to 
 time, and all such should be discarded. It is true that 
 crooked or ridged eggs sometimes hatch well, but the 
 
 Doan 
 □cnn 
 
 nDQD 
 
 tioning of the egg organs, resulting 
 from lack of exercise. In some in- 
 stances the presence of soft-shelled 
 eggs is due to forced feeding in 
 which case the shell glands do not 
 appear to be able to secrete material 
 as fast as is required. This may hap- 
 pen even when there is no lack of 
 lime in the ration. In some instances 
 the cause of soft shells will be found 
 in the inability of the hen to take 
 up lime from the material supplied, 
 or simply to failure to eat enough 
 
 of it. , r , 
 
 Watery Eggs. Eggs that are watery when fresh are 
 generally so as the result of defective rations. "^ 
 that are heavily fed on green stuff, soft food^ 
 scraps, are apt to lay such eggs 
 
 FIG. 31— RATE OF EVAPORATION OF HEN'S EGG 
 1 to 9. Eggs that have been held for one day, one week, two weeks, three 
 weeks, four weeks, five weeks, six weeks, seven weeks, and eight weeks, re- 
 spectivelv. The eggs were kept at a living--room temperature of about 70 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit, in an open pasteboard carton. There was no breeze blowing 
 over the eggs, and each egg illustrated is typical of several eggs that were ex- 
 amined at each stage; therefore this series represents the normal results of 
 such holding. 
 
 10 to 12. Eggs held for twelve weeks, one week, and one-half week re- 
 spectively at a temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Even at twelve weeks 
 of age (10), the egg Is less evaporated than at four weeks of age when held at 
 a living-room temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit (5). Eggs may be held for 
 two weeks at 40 degrees Fahrenheit without much change. Reproduced from 
 Bulletin 353, Cornell University. 
 
 Fowls 
 or kitchen 
 and while they may pass 
 forTable use' they are not desirable for hatching. More 
 grain in the ration will remedy this. 
 
 Pale Color. The color of the yolk is determmed by 
 the presence of a certain coloring matter, which is gen- 
 erally distributed, but is present in especially liberal pro- 
 portions in yellow corn, clover, alfalfa, grass, etc. There 
 are no tests showing that well-colored yolks will hatch 
 any better than pale-colored ones, but it certainly is wise 
 to try to keep the eggs as nearly normal in all respects 
 as possible. For that reason pale yolks should be cor- 
 rected by providing some of the above-mentioned foods 
 to supply color. 
 
 chances are against their doing so, and unless from val- 
 uable stock it is hardly worth while to waste incubator 
 space on them. They are usually caused by an inflam- 
 matory condition in the oviduct, though some hens lay 
 crooked eggs regularly, apparently as the result of some 
 slight organic malformation that does no harm and does 
 not develop into anything serious. 
 
 Transparent Spots in Shells. The exact cause of 
 transparent spots in eggs is not fully understood. It 
 may be characteristic of an individual hen or possibly 
 may occur in hens that generally lay normal eggs. If 
 these eggs can be distinguished either by superficial ex- 
 amination or through the egg tester they should be dis- 
 carded. Some of them may hatch but the percentage 
 generally will bp low. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 The Chick Embryo and Its Development 
 
 Appearance of Fertile and Infertile Eggs— Stage of Development of Germ When Egg is Laid— Ho-w It Is Kept Alive 
 
 But Dormant Before Incubation Begins — What Happens During Incubation — Position in Which 
 
 to Keep Eggs and Length of Time They May Be Held. 
 
 y^^ O GET a clear idea of the normal position of the 
 C ) yolk and the germinal disk which forms the 
 starting point of the chick embryo, the shell of 
 a fresh egg may be carefully broken away as 
 shown in Fig. 32, when the yolk will be seen floating well 
 up in the albumen, with a thin layer of that substance be- 
 tween the yolk and inner surface of the shell membrane. 
 When this insulating layer disappears through the thin- 
 ning of the albumen as a result of age, or because the 
 egg has stood too long in one position, the yolk will 
 come in contact with the inner surface of the shell mem- 
 brane and will adhere to it. The chalazae will be seen 
 opposite each end of the egg, suspended well below the 
 center, sometimes so low as to be almost under the yolk. 
 While the chalazae normally are attached firmly to op- 
 posite sides of the yolk, they are subject to rather wide 
 variations in their development, and one or both will 
 sometimes be found apparently floating in the albumen 
 and with no visible attachment to the yolk. Such eggs 
 are not likely to hatch well. On the upper side of the 
 yolk will be seen the germinal disk — a small, round, 
 light-colored spot not much over an eighth of an inch in 
 diameter. This disk is always uppermost, due to a slight 
 diflference in the weight of the two sides of the yolk 
 caused by the central cavity and the connecting canal, 
 the outer opening of which is always immediately under 
 the germinal disk (see Fig. 25). The disk, properly called 
 the blastoderm, is close up under the outer envelope of 
 the yolk, known as the vitelline membrane. 
 
 When the yolk leaves the ovary, after developing to 
 full size, the germinal disk consists of a small circular 
 spot enclosed in a whitish ring and with the interior pre- 
 senting a whitish or frothy appearance. The union be- 
 tween the female and male germ (the spermatazoon) 
 takes place in the upper end of the oviduct, immediately 
 after the yolk enters it from the ovary. The spermatazoa 
 traverse the entire length of the oviduct after copulation, 
 and at the upper end or mouth of the oviduct they re- 
 main active for some days, suspended in fluid, and await- 
 ing an opportunity to effect a union with a female germ. 
 There is no possibility of such a union until the yolk 
 has entered the upper end of the oviduct, but as the 
 spermatazoa may retain their activity for as long as 
 three weeks in this environment, a single service may 
 result in fertilizing a number of germs, as the successive 
 yolks develop and escape into the oviduct. Experimental 
 tests have shown that hens may continue to lay fertile 
 eggs for weeks after the male has been removed from 
 the flock, though as a rule, fertility is low after six to 
 eight days, and is rare after the fifteenth day. 
 
 Appearance of Fertile and Infertile Eggs 
 
 It usually is an easy matter to distinguish fertile 
 from infertile eggs when the shells are broken. In the 
 latter the germinal disk will be more or less uniformily 
 opaque, or if closely examined will have a sort of frothy 
 appearance. In the fertile egg the center is also opaque 
 but much smaller than in the infertile egg and this cen- 
 ter is surrounded by a transparent ring and this in turn 
 
 28 
 
 is enclosed by a whitish one, giving a concentric ringing 
 that is an unmistakable indication of a fertilized germ. 
 This concentric ringing is more clearly defined in some 
 eggs than in others, but is nearly always sufficiently de- 
 veloped to make it possible to distinguish fertility if it 
 exists. It is not possible to distinguish between fertile 
 and infertile eggs by candling, until the egg has been ex- 
 posed to incubating temperature for at least twenty-four 
 hours, and generally forty-eight hours are required, even 
 with white-shelled eggs. 
 
 From the time the yolk enters the upper end of the 
 oviduct and is fertilized until the egg is completely 
 formed and laid, fully 24 hours must elapse, and under 
 some conditions the egg may then be carried for a num- 
 ber of hours or even for a day or more before it is 
 dropped. Since the bodily temperature of the hen is 
 around 106 degrees it is clear that the fertilized germ 
 will be subjected to an incubating temperature for that 
 time. During this period cell division or growth actually 
 begins and the germ, therefore, has already reached a 
 certain stage of development when the egg is laid. The 
 exact degiee of development attained will depend upon 
 the length of time the egg is retained in the fowl's body 
 after fertilization has taken place, which explains the 
 variation in distinctness of ringing in the germinal disk, 
 as previously noted. The development is slight under 
 any condition, however, and stops instantly after the egg 
 becomes cold, and the germ then remains dormant until 
 again exposed to incubating temperatures. 
 
 In natural incubation the germ receives its heat from 
 the body of the sitting hen, the actual degree of heat 
 varying with the fowl's bodily temperature, the character 
 of the nest, and the egg's position in it. The normal tem- 
 perature of the adult fowl varies with the individual, also 
 with the manner in which it is taken. With a thermom- 
 eter thrust into the fowl's rectum, temperatures as high 
 as 110 degrees have been noted, though it is probable that 
 106 represents a fair average. The common belief that 
 the sitting hen has a "fever" and that her temperature is 
 higher than under normal conditions probably is an error 
 growing out of the fact that it is only when broody or 
 sitting that the hen is subject to much handling and 
 therefore the only time when her naturally high temper- 
 ature is apt to be noticed. If the hen's temperature is 
 taken with a thermometer in contact with the outside of 
 the body the temperature will be lower than given above, 
 running from 103 to 105 on the average. 
 
 There is no practical means of recording the actual 
 temperature of the embryo, but careful observations have 
 shown that it is around 99 to 100 degrees during early 
 stages of incubation, gradually increasing until it is in 
 the neighborhood of 103 or 104 at time of exclusion. 
 
 While fairly exact and uniform heat is essential to 
 successful incubation, the germ will develop to a greater 
 or less extent under a rather wide range of temperature. 
 At low temperatures the germ will remain completely in- 
 active, but cell division will begin at a little above 70 
 degrees. At this temperature development will be slow 
 and will continue for only a limited time when, unless 
 
THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 
 
 29 
 
 the heat is decidedly increased, the germ will die. At 
 higher temperatures cell division or growth proceeds with 
 increasing rapidity, reaching the normal rate of develop- 
 ment at a germ temperature around 99 to 100 degrees. 
 
 If the temperature is raised above this point, cell 
 growth will continue with increasing rapidity for a time. 
 At high temperatures, however, the strain on the deli- 
 cate walls of the embryonic heart and blood vessels be- 
 comes severe and it is only a matter of time until the 
 latter will burst, causing hemorrhages and the death of 
 the embryo. At just what temperature this point will 
 be reached depends to some extent upon the development 
 of the embryo, which is much less able to stand high 
 temperatures in early stages of growth than when well 
 on the way to complete development. Also, an embryo 
 may stand exposure to 110 degrees for a very short time, 
 but will break down at even IDS if held at that tempera- 
 ture for some hours. 
 
 When the egg is exposed to a suitable temperature, 
 cell division begins at the point when it stopped when the 
 egg was laid. The germ will stand comparatively low tem- 
 peratures while in dormant 
 condition, the exact degree 
 of endurance being deter- 
 mined by the strength of the 
 individual germ just as, later 
 on, the endurance of the 
 chick will be determined by 
 its individual strength or 
 constitutional vigor. A tem- 
 perature of around SO to 55 
 degrees is generally regard- 
 ed as most favorable to the 
 dormant germ. 
 
 arises directly from the hindpart of the embryo itself. 
 During the first four days the blastoderm spreads rap- 
 idly so that the greater part of the yolk is covered by 
 the fourth day. 
 
 Position of Eirbryo. The embryo is always in a 
 definite position with reference to the axis of the egg. 
 If this is placed with the large end toward the left of the 
 observer the head of the embryo will always be directed 
 away from him. There are but few exceptions to this 
 rule. At a later stage in its development the embryo 
 turns lengthwise of the egg, so that the head is in the 
 larger end, unless the air cell happens to be in the small 
 end in which case the normal position of the head will 
 be reversed and, as a rule the chick then will not hatch. 
 
 The Amnion. This membrane forms a thin sac com- 
 pletely enclosing the embryo and containing a fluid 
 which appears to act as a cushion, taking up all shocks 
 and jars and thus forming an important protection for 
 the embryo. It also protects the embryo from forming 
 adhesions with the surrounding membranes or with the 
 shell. It has various other functions which need not be 
 
 FIG. 32 — APPEARANCE OP CHICK 
 
 EMBRYO AFTER TWELVE HOURS 
 
 OP INCUBATION 
 
 Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 Development of the Chick 
 Embryo 
 
 It is impossible, within the 
 limits of this chapter, to 
 give a complete description 
 of the complex operations 
 
 involved in the development of the chick embryo. There 
 •\re some general facts, however — some important steps 
 h the process, with which the chick grower should be 
 familiar in order to have a clear understanding of what is 
 going on under the sitting hen or in the incubator. Many 
 of the mistakes which prove common sources of loss to 
 the beginner would be prevented if he clearly understood 
 just how the embryo is produced, and the period of incu- 
 bation at which certain phases of its development take 
 place. Such details regarding embryonic growth as are 
 here given are intended to supply that information. It 
 is earnestly advised, however, that the beginner in artifi- 
 cial incubation make a practice of breaking a few eggs at 
 various stages of the hatch in order to compare them 
 with the descriptions and illustrations here given, so that 
 he may become thoroughly familiar with the normal rate 
 of development. Before attempting to describe briefly 
 the various stages in the development of the embryo a 
 few special details or definition are necessary, these being 
 mainly condensed from an elaborate treatment of the sub- 
 ject in Lillie's "Development of the Chick." 
 
 The Blastoderm. The position of the blastoderm has 
 already been described. The embryo arises within the 
 opaque portion in the center, which becomes pear-shaped 
 as the embryo forms. The embryonic membranes, 
 amnion, chorion, and yolk sac, are parts of the blastoderm 
 but originate outside of the opaque center. The allantois 
 
 FIG. 33 — APPEARANCE OP CHICK 
 
 EMBRYO AFTER TWENTY-POUR 
 
 HOURS OP INCUBATION 
 
 Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 detailed. The amniotic membrane possesses muscular 
 fibers the contraction of which rocks the embryo, the pur- 
 pose of which is believed to be to prevent adhesions. 
 
 The Chorion. This membrane is on the outside of 
 the amnion and encloses it. It is connected with the 
 amnion, and the allantois also connects with it at an 
 early stage in the development of the embryo. 
 
 The Allantois. This membrane is the respiratory 
 organ of the embryo, the blood in its vessels being 
 aerated by air which passes through the porous shell. 
 The allantois, being double-walled, forms a cavity or sac 
 extending entirely around the embryo, with the outer 
 wall coming in contact with the inner shell membrane. 
 The cavity acts as a reservoir for the excretions of the 
 embryo. At the end of the fifth day of incubation the 
 allantois covers more than half of the embryo, and by 
 the end of the sixth day it is entirely covered. By the 
 eighth day the yolk sac is half coverer" and by the 
 twelfth day the yolk is entirely enclosed, along with the 
 remaining albumen which is wrapped in a separate sac 
 by a special development of the chorion and allantois. 
 
 The Yolk Sac. The yolk sac is formed as a mem- 
 brane enclosing the yolk and is connected with the in- 
 testine by means of a yolk-stalk. The material in the 
 yolk is absorbed by the lining of the sac and carried to 
 the embryo as required for its development. The inner 
 surface of the sac is provided with numerous folds (septa") 
 
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 34 — APPEARANCE OP CHICK 
 
 EMBRYO AFTER THIRTY -SIX 
 
 HOURS OF INCUBATION 
 
 Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 which project more and more into the yolk substance as 
 the embryo develops, increasing the absorptive surface. 
 On the nineteenth day of incubation the yolk sac slips into 
 the body cavity through the umbilicus which then closes. 
 The inclusion of the egg is accomplished by the contrac- 
 tion of the inner walls of the allantois and of the amnion 
 which definitely presses it into the abdominal cavity. 
 What is left of the yolk then is rapidly absorbed. Its 
 aveiage weight is about S.34grains at twelve hours after 
 hatching, and this is reduced to about .05 grains by the 
 sixth day. 
 
 Special Conditions Affecting Eggs in Natural Incubation 
 
 The development of the embryo under the hen is af- 
 fected by a number of conditions, and in learning to oper- 
 ate the incubator to the best possible advantage it is de- 
 sirable to have a clear understanding of the practices of 
 the sitting hen because in many details it is to her that 
 we must look for correct methods. If allowed to follow 
 her natural instincts the hen will seek a secluded spot 
 for her nest and will there lay out her clutch and begin 
 sitting. In the selection of a location for a- nest she is 
 by no means exacting, almost any secluded place may 
 strike her fancy, from a comparatively exposed location 
 on the ground to one high up in the barn mow, and she 
 will bring off equally good hatches, apparently, almost 
 regardless of location, under normal weather conditions. 
 In dry locations and in extremely dry weather, eggs do 
 not hatch so well and in natural incubation sprinkling the 
 eggs or providing moist earth bottoms for the nests is 
 believed to be helpful in getting good results. Under 
 ordinary weather conditions 
 no such attention is re- 
 quired. 
 
 The number of eggs that 
 will be laid by hens before 
 they begin sitting will vary 
 widely, owing to the fact that 
 their normal performance 
 has been greatly modified by 
 domestication, breeding, and 
 heavy feeding for egg pro- 
 duction, also by the com- 
 mon practice of removing all 
 eggs from the nest each day 
 so that there is never any 
 accumulation in the nest. 
 From 10 to IS eggs can suc- 
 cessfully be incubated by 
 the average hen, the exact 
 
 number being determined by 
 season, location of nests, 
 size of eggs, etc. 
 
 There are wide differences 
 in the results secured in 
 hatching with hens. Other 
 conditions being similar it 
 would seem that equal num- 
 bers of fertile eggs, placed 
 under good sitting hens, 
 should produce approximate- 
 ly equal numbers of chicks. 
 It is common experience, 
 however, that with hens set 
 under the same conditions 
 and with eggs from the same 
 pens, some hens will bring 
 off many more chicks than 
 others. There may be other 
 factors involved, but it is probable that the temperature 
 of the hens is largely responsible for this difference, 
 some furnishing too little heat from start to finish, to 
 produce good hatches, while others appear to start off 
 at the right bodily temperature, but get out of condition 
 and fall off as much as two or three degrees during the 
 hatch. For illustration, in a series of tests made by the 
 writer, six hens were set at the same time and with all 
 conditions as to eggs, environment, etc., as nearly iden- 
 tical as possible. The temperatures of the hens were 
 carefully taken at the beginning and end of the hatch. 
 
 PIG. 35 — APPEARANCE OP CHICK 
 
 EMBRYO AFTER FORTY-EIGH,T 
 
 HOURS OP INCUBATION 
 
 Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 There were twelv 
 
 e eggs 
 
 in each 
 
 sitting. 
 
 Th 
 
 e hatches 
 
 were as 
 
 follows: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sittine 
 No. 
 
 Eggs 
 Broken 
 
 Eggs 
 Fertile 
 
 No. 
 Chicks 
 
 Temp, at 
 Start 
 
 
 Temp, at 
 
 Close 
 
 1 
 2 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 n 
 
 6 
 10 
 
 7 
 3 
 12 
 9 
 3 
 9 
 
 104 
 
 103 
 
 104% 
 
 1041/3 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 
 104 
 
 101 
 
 104% 
 
 103% 
 
 103% 
 
 104 Vi 
 
 It will be seen that the hens that hatched practically 
 every fertile egg (sittings 1, 5 and 9) were high in tem- 
 perature, except No. 9, which started low, but finished 
 high. No. 6 did well, though she finished a little low, 
 while the two distinctly low-temperature hens made al- 
 most complete failures. Fertility was determined by the 
 use of an ordinary egg tester and not by direct examina- 
 tion of the germ, which probably would have given dif- 
 ferent percentages of fertility, as a deficiency in heat 
 that would result in a poor hatch of eggs known to be 
 fertile would doubtless result in the death of some germs 
 before they could reach a stage of development that 
 
 FIG. 36 — APPEARANCE OP CHICK 
 
 EMBRYO AFTER SIXTY HOURS 
 
 OF INCUBATION 
 
 Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 PIG. 37 — APPEARANCE OP CHICK 
 
 EMBRYO AFTER SEVENTY - TWO 
 
 HOURS OP INCUBATION 
 
 Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 
 
 31 
 
 PIG. 38 — APPEARANCE OP CHICK 
 
 EMYRTO AFTER NINETY - SIX 
 
 HOURS OF INCUBATION 
 
 would be detected 
 by the use of an 
 egg tester. The tem- 
 peratures in this ex- 
 periment were se- 
 cured by placing a 
 thermometer on top 
 of the eggs and in 
 direct contact with 
 the body of the hen. 
 
 How Often Do Sit- 
 ting Hens Turn 
 
 Their Eggs 
 There is reason 
 
 for thinking that 
 sitting hens regularly turn their eggs more frequently 
 than is generally considered necessary in artificial incu- 
 bation, but the frequency no doubt varies with the stage 
 of the hatch and with individuals. There are practical 
 difficulties in the way of determining exactly how often 
 the turning is done, as hens are apt to be suspicious when 
 watched and will make no movement of any sort. Direct 
 examination of the eggs is of no assistance, as it will 
 be found that the hen will turn her eggs as often as she 
 is returned to the nest, if that is every half hour. 
 
 There are several reasons why eggs must be turned 
 n-iore or less regularly during incubation, either natural 
 or artificial. One is that fresh albumen may be brought 
 in contact with the shell membrane and with the allantois, 
 thus providing the necessary supply of oxygen for the 
 blood. Another purpose in turning is to prevent the 
 embryo from adhering to the shell. It is probable that 
 turning also helps the embryo to get into proper posi- 
 tion for normal development. There is also at least one 
 incidental advantage realized in turning the eggs or at 
 least shifting their position, which is the equalization of 
 the temperature in different parts of the nest, thus secur- 
 ing more uniform conditions for the different eggs. There 
 is bound to be a rather wide variation in nest tempera- 
 ture from center to outer edge, but the hen equalizes this 
 by frequently shifting the eggs from the center to the 
 outside and allowing the outer ones to roll to the center, 
 thus giving all an equal chance and maintaining a fairly 
 uniform rate of development in all. 
 
 Natural Cooling of Eggs 
 
 While the practice of hens differs widely, most of 
 them leave the nest every morning with great regularity. 
 In cold weather they absent themselves only long enough 
 to secure necessary food and to evacuate the bowels, and 
 then return at once to their duties. In warmer weather 
 they will stay off for a longer period, sometimes for an 
 hour or so. And it is to be noted that the hens that are 
 most regular in coming off the nest daily are apt to have 
 the best hatches, though no one has ever successfully 
 proved that the cooling that results from their doing this 
 has any direct connection with the better results secured. 
 As regards artificial incubating, regular turning has some 
 incidental advantages which are explained in the fol- 
 lowing chapter. 
 
 •Moisture m Eggs 
 
 The egg contains 70 to 76 per cent of water when 
 first laid, but this percentage is gradually reduced by 
 evaporation from day to day. This fact is taken advant- 
 -ige of in one common method of determining the fresh- 
 ness of eggs by observing the size of the air cell through 
 a tester or candling device, the air cell increasing in size 
 
 as the moisture evaporates. This method is only rela- 
 tively accurate, as the rate of evaporation is modified 
 greatly by the conditions under which the eggs are kept. 
 However, while eggs that are far from fresh may have 
 small air cells, as in the case of storage eggs, large cells 
 are never associated with strictly fresh eggs. The re- 
 quirements of incubation, either artificial or natural, de- 
 mand that, at the beginning of the hatch, the egg shall 
 be as nearly normal as possible with respect to percent- 
 age of moisture contained. Hence, if they are not set 
 at once it is desirable to keep them where they will not 
 be unnecessarily dried out. 
 
 Loss of Weight During Incubation 
 
 Evaporation of moisture from ecgs during incubation 
 is essential to the proper development of the embryo. 
 If evaporation progresses too rapidly the chick will be 
 deprived of the amount of moisture needed in its devel- 
 opment, and the difficulty of its getting out will be great- 
 ly increased. If on the other hand there is too little 
 evaporation as a result of high humidity in the air, either 
 natural or artificially produced, there will be a "water- 
 logged" chick that will not be normal, even if it suc- 
 ceeds in escaping from the shell. Generally such chicks 
 do not hatch at all, but either drown in the excess mois- 
 ture present at the time they break through into the air 
 cell and begin breathing through their lungs, or the 
 space provided by evaporation and represented by the 
 air cell is so small that there is not room for them to get 
 into right position for breaking out of the shell after 
 pipping. 
 
 The chick embryo developing under a hen appears 
 to be able to accommodate itself to a rather wide range 
 in percentage of moisture present at hatching time, and 
 will get out successfully whether evaporation has reached 
 18 to 20 per cent of the total weight of the eggs, or 
 goes no higher than 10 per cent, and there appears to be 
 no noticeably unfavorable effect produced by either ex- 
 treme. However, chicks that have been dried down ex- 
 cessively are not apt to be as strong as those that have 
 their normal percentage of moisture. Excessive drying 
 down under hens is more or less common in extremely 
 
 PIG. 39— CHICK ETMBRTO AT 72 HOURS 
 Egrg' with embryo at same stag-e as in Fig. 37. 
 emptied into a dish to show the vena terminalis— the 
 "belt line" for the circulatory system. Photo from 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
32 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 40— CHICK EMBRYO AT SEVEN DATS 
 At this stage of development, yolk is almost entirely 
 enclosed in network of blood veins. Embryo at right. 
 Photo from U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 dry weather, but there are few instances in which there is 
 insufificient drying down under such conditions. Methods 
 of exact determining and regulating the rate of evapora- 
 tion in artificial incubation, are given in Chapter V. 
 
 Oiling Hatching Eggs 
 
 Eggs under sitting hens are always coated with a 
 thin film of oil as is shown by their appearance and accu- 
 rately determined by chemical analysis. Whether this 
 coating of oil, which results from long contact with the 
 fowl's body, is an accidental condition with no direct 
 bearing upon the development of the embryo, or whether 
 it plays an essential part in incubation, is not known. The 
 fact that incubators are successfully operated without any 
 substitute for this natural oiling would seem to indicate 
 that it is not important. However, there are some known 
 differences between eggs incubated the natural way and 
 those artificially incubated, which have never been satis- 
 factorily explained, and until these are clearly under- 
 stood there is always the possibility that further refine- 
 ments in methods may bring about still better results or 
 greater certainty in securing them. So far as known, 
 
 eflfcrts to reproduce the oil film artificially have not as 
 yet proved successful. 
 
 Warming Eggs Daily While Holding for Hatching 
 
 Under normal conditions the hen that steals her nest 
 and lays out her clutch and then incubates the eggs, is 
 apt to hatch practically every one, almost regardless of 
 the length of time that may have elapsed between the 
 laying of the first and the last one. There is no evi- 
 dence to show that the oldest eggs are at any disadvant- 
 age, or are any slower in hatching than those that are 
 laid first, or that the chicks are any less strong when 
 hatched. This is altogether different from general ex- 
 perience in artificial incubation where the oldest eggs are 
 always several hours later in hatching, and the chicks 
 from such eggs generally are believed to be less vigorous 
 than those from eggs that have been kept only a short 
 time. 
 
 Under the conditions of natural incubation as just 
 described, the first eggs laid are subject to a daily 
 warming up when the hen returns to lay on successive 
 days, and it would seem that her well-known tendency to 
 remain on the nest for a considerable time each day. 
 either before or after laying, may be something more than 
 incidental to the laying operation. It has previously been 
 explained in this chapter that the germ already has un- 
 dergone some development before the egg is dropped, 
 and there is a possibility that the daily warming the first 
 eggs receive prior to the time the hen begins sitting 
 may, in a manner, vitalize the germs and thus enable them 
 better to maintain their existence during the long wait 
 while the rest of the eggs in the clutch are being laid. 
 
 To determine this point the writer conducted a series 
 of experiments in which eggs, kept for various periods, 
 were subjected to a daily warming. In all such tests, 
 without exception, it was found that eggs warmed for 
 about an hour daily hatched better than eggs kept for the 
 same period without warming. In tests to establish the 
 proper length of time for the warming it was found that 
 one hour gave better results than 30 minutes or two 
 hours. Eggs up to 18 to 20 days old that have been 
 warmed for one hour daily appeared to hatch as prompt- 
 ly as comparatively fresh eggs, and before the egg tester 
 the germs of these warmed eggs were plainly seen to be 
 more active than those that had been held for an equal 
 length of time, without warming. The warmed eggs be- 
 gan hatching before those not warmed, and the oldest 
 were among the first to hatch. There are difficulties in 
 the way of applying this principle to practical hatching 
 operations, but it is important at least as giving addi- 
 
 FIG. 41— EGGS SHOWING DIFFERENT STAGES IN HATCH 
 In the egg on the left pipping has just begun. The second egg shows the normal propre-'^s 
 ck turns itself in the shell, and breaks through the shell near the base of the air cell. In 
 11 is broken away to show the chick m position lor pipping with tlie point of the bill agai 
 ., «^ c>,cll "P>infn« frnm "FCfl.riHns Agricultural Collee'e. 
 
 chick 
 she__ 
 face of shell 
 
 Photos from Kansas Agricultural College. 
 
 of pipping as the 
 the third egg the 
 nst the inner sur- 
 
THE CHICK EMBRYO AND ITS DEVELOPMENT 
 
 33 
 
 tional light on the condition of the germ when the egg 
 IS laid, and its physical requirements during the holding 
 period. 
 
 How Long May Eggs Be Held for Hatching 
 
 The length of time for which eggs may be held with- 
 out injury to their hatching qualities depends upon a 
 number of factors, and no general rule can be given ex- 
 cept the always safe statement that they should be set 
 as soon as possible after they are laid. The writer has 
 kept eggs for 26 to 30 days with a 29 per cent hatch of 
 all eggs set, and at other times has been able to secure 
 practically no chicks at all after the eggs were 18 days 
 old. Much depends upon the season of the year, the 
 temperature at which the eggs are held, and still more, 
 probably, upon the condition of the breedmg stock. 
 Speaking in averages, there will be a marked falling off 
 in fertility after about the 14th day, and the percentage 
 of hatch in eggs over 21 days old usually is too low to 
 
 daily, provided they are not held over 10 to 12 days. If 
 kept for a longer time than this better results will be 
 secured by turning. 
 
 Washing Eggs 
 
 Experiments have shown that washing eggs will af- 
 fect their hatching, the difference between washed and 
 unwashed eggs averaging about 7.5 per cent. However, 
 eggs that have been soiled under hens, also valuable eggs 
 that have much foreign matter on them, doubtless will 
 hatch better if washed than would be the case if incu- 
 bated with the dirt adhering to them. This is especially 
 true in the case of eggs that have been smeared by break- 
 age of other eggs in the nest or during shipment. Since 
 washing definitely reduces the percentage of the hatch, 
 however, special pains should be taken to prevent the 
 eggs from becoming soiled, and if they are only slightly 
 so it is better to let them go without washing. 
 
 u 
 
 **^^- 
 
 
 te 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' , A * ' 
 
 
 
 ■■i^ 
 
 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 H| 
 
 
 2_ 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 H 
 
 
 3: 
 
 m 
 
 
 1 
 
 _^u__— _^k.^„ 
 
 
 ^HIUH^h 
 
 wmmmm^mt 
 
 FIG. 42— SIZE OP- CHICKS IS DETERMINED BY SiZE OF EGGS 
 Eggs weighing- 20 ounces to the Eggs_ weighing 24 ounces to the Eggs weighing 30 ounces to the 
 
 dozen. If normally this size, are ex- 
 
 dozen. Chiciss from them will 
 undersized and weakly. 
 
 be 
 
 dozen. Standard-sized eggs and sat- 
 
 isfactory for hatchin. 
 
 tra desirable. 
 
 make it worth while to waste eggs or space in the incu- 
 bator in testing them out. 
 
 Position in Which to Keep Eggs 
 
 Within the limit of 8 to 12 days it does not appear 
 to matter much what position the eggs are held in, or 
 whether they are turned or not. In a series of tests eggs 
 were held for varying periods up to 30 days, and in dif- 
 ferent positions as follows: 
 
 Flat, without turning. 
 Flat and turned daily. 
 Large end up not turned. 
 Small end up not turned. 
 On end and turned daily. 
 
 Dififerent tests gave slightly contradictory results, but 
 in general there appeared to be no difference due to 
 position, except that the eggs laid flat, whether turned 
 or not, generally hatched a trifle better than those on 
 end. Since the natural position for eggs is flat, that would 
 seem to be the safest way to place them, though the dif- 
 ference is so slight that there can hardly be any prac- 
 tical objection to standing them on end, as in shipping 
 cases, when it is more convenient to do so. Other tests 
 indicated that there is no advantage in turning the eggs 
 
 Resting Eggs After Shipment 
 
 It is commonly believed that resting shipped eggs for 
 a period of 24 hours after they are received is advisable 
 in order to give the yolks time to settle into their normal 
 position. Some recorded experiments indicate that there 
 is no advantage in doing this, but since the loss of time 
 is shght and the general opinion is that such resting is 
 beneficial, it is the part of wisdom to follow custom in 
 this respect until some definite proof is offered one way 
 or the other. 
 
 Size of Eggs to Use 
 
 Other things being equal, large eggs will give better 
 and stronger chicks than small eggs. Whether this is 
 directly due to the size of the eggs or to the fact that 
 the best, most mature, and most vigorous hens and the 
 ones that are best fed usually are the ones that lay the 
 largest eggs, is not clear. Whatever the exact cause may 
 be, it is an established fact that the largest eggs, within 
 the limits of normal size, give the best and strongest 
 chicks, and for this reason all small, under-sized eggs 
 should be discarded. Discrimination in favor of large 
 eggs should not be carried so far as to include double- 
 yolk eggs or those that, while single-yolked, are con- 
 spicuously abnormal in size. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Operation of Incubators 
 
 How to Buy Incubators— What Size to Get— How to Set Up the Incubator and Adjust It— Complete Instructions in All 
 
 Details of Management Throughout the Hatch — Latest Information on Temperature, 
 
 Moisture, Ventilation, and Other Special Problems. 
 
 QUMEROUS styles and grades of incubators are of- 
 fered for the use of poultry keepers, and those 
 nrmj who are not familiar with their respective merits 
 ^■~*-' sometimes find it a difficult matter to select the 
 machine that they really need, or that will most nearly 
 meet their requirements. Naturally many mistakes are 
 made — mistakes that involve serious disappointment and 
 loss and that might readily have been avoided with a 
 clearer understanding- of the subject. Anyone who in- 
 tends to purchase an incubator, large or small, can well 
 afford to give careful thought to its selection, instead of 
 "going it blind," or making price alone the basis of com- 
 parison. 
 
 Among lamp-heated incubators there are two gen- 
 eral classes — those that are 
 heated with hot air, and 
 those heated with hot water. 
 While each method of heat- 
 ing has advantages peculiar 
 to itself, choice between 
 them is based mainly on per- 
 sonal preference. The ad- 
 vantages claimed for hot-air 
 machines generally are great- 
 er durability; more exact 
 regulation under sudden 
 changes of outside tempera- 
 ture; quicker heating up 
 after cooling down; and- as 
 
 ventilation generally is associated with the heating sys- 
 tem, the air circulation is positive and ventilation is ad- 
 justable over a wider range, and therefore has greater 
 adaptability. For hot-water incubators it is claimed that 
 they are less quickly affected by changes in outside tem- 
 perature, and for this reason may give good results in 
 reasonably favorable locations even when built with little 
 insulation, which is impracticable with hot-air machines. 
 This probably is the chief reason why most cheap incu- 
 bators are of the hot-water type. 
 
 The commonly observed fact that hot-water incuba- 
 tors are most in demand in some localities while in oth- 
 ers practically nothing but hot-air machines will be found, 
 appears to be accidental, in part at least, and due to the 
 good impression made locally by the first ones to be 
 successfully used, of whichever type. There is a com- 
 mon belief that hot-water incubators furnish a moister 
 heat than hot-air machines which, in connection with their 
 lower average price appears to explain much of their 
 special popularity in arid and semi-arid sections. While 
 the idea that moisture in the egg chamber is directly af- 
 fected by the nature of the heating medium is erroneous, 
 hot water incubators probably do have less air circulation 
 on the average, than the more adjustable hot-air machines. 
 The practical effect of this is to reduce the evaporation 
 from the egg in hot-water machines, thus giving the im- 
 pression that more moisture is present in them. 
 
 Where gas is available, practically all lamp-heated in- 
 cubators may readily be adapted to the use of this con- 
 venient fuel. Under suitable regulation, gas is entirely 
 
 dependable, it requires little attention, supplies a uniform 
 heat, and as there are no lamps to fill, the labor of caring 
 for the machines is greatly reduced. 
 
 Electric Incubators 
 
 In the last few years electrically heated incubators 
 have been developed to a good degree of efficiency, and 
 where current can be obtained at a reasonable rate they 
 are thoroughly practical and may be used as successfully 
 as lamp-heated machines and much more conveniently. 
 The freedom from fire risk and from lamp fumes makes 
 it practical to operate electrics where lamp-heated ma- 
 chines would not be considered, . and the saving in time 
 required in caring for them will offset a decided increase 
 
 in the cost of the current as 
 
 FIG. 43— A PROFITABLE HATCH 
 
 compared with the cost of 
 oil or gas. A reasonably uni- 
 form current is desirable. 
 No harm will be done by 
 having the current turned off 
 occasionally, even though it 
 may be off for several hours, 
 but electric incubators are 
 not recommended where the 
 current is subject to fre- 
 quent and long- continued 
 interruptions. High-grade 
 electrical machines should 
 give satisfactory service for 
 many years if properly cared for. They are subject to 
 rapid deterioration, however, when exposed to dampness, 
 and for that reason should be thoroughly dried out at the 
 end of the hatching season, and stored in a dry place. 
 
 Mammoth Incubators 
 
 Of late years the use of "Mammoth" incubators has 
 become general where chicks or ducklings are hatched 
 in large numbers. There are several styles of mammoths 
 on the market, but all are more or less alike in their 
 general outlines. They are heated by means of hot water 
 pipes supplied from a furnace or boiler which burns hard 
 coal, as a rule, though gas is used when available. Mam- 
 moths usually are divided into compartments of varying 
 sizes and are- more or less sectional in construction, so 
 that the machines when set up resemble a series of lamp- 
 heated incubators without the lamps. The use of mam- 
 moth incubators saves labor and operating- cost since 
 there are no lamps to fill, and a single furnace or boiler 
 will provide heat for a great number of sections; the 
 cost of fuel also is reduced. They are not adapted to the 
 requirements of small operators, and small-sized mam- 
 moths are not generally regarded as economical, unless 
 bought with the expectation of adding more sections at 
 an early date. The cost of such a mammoth is equal to 
 or greater than the cost of the same egg capacity in 
 lamp-heated machines, and the saving in cost of oper- 
 ation is hardly noticable. Where several thousand eggs 
 are to be incubated at one time, however, mammoths are 
 regarded as indispensable. 
 
OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 
 
 35 
 
 The Cost of a Good Incubator 
 
 Consideration of price ought not to figure too greatly 
 in choice of lamp-heated incubators, and the common 
 tendency to buy the cheapest machine obtainable is the 
 cause of much disappointment and loss. It would not be 
 correct to say that there are no good incubators but high- 
 priced ones, but it should call for no special argument 
 to convince any one that durable machines of the best de- 
 sign and construction cannot be built to sell at extremely 
 low prices. The manufacture of incubators is a plain 
 business matter like the manufacture of any other kind of 
 machinery or equipment. Some incubators cost more, 
 simply for the material and the labor employed in them, 
 than the retail price of others, and if practical, economical 
 buyers in great numbers chose the higher-priced makes 
 in preference to the cheap ones there must be sound busi- 
 ness reasons for their doing so. 
 
 The reasons for the general preference among ex- 
 perienced operators for standard high-priced machines 
 will be found in their greater durability on account of 
 better material and workmanship used in their construc- 
 tion; greater adaptability to conditions generally because 
 of better insulation; more exact regulation and conse- 
 quently greater uniformity of temperature. The plain 
 truth of the matter is that the buyer who wants the 
 most nearly automatic machine — one that will give best 
 results under a wide range of conditions, that will last in- 
 definitely without expensive repairs, and that has the 
 endorsement of expert operators generally, will have to 
 huy one of the higher-priced makes. 
 
 This fact does not, however, eliminate low-cost incu- 
 bators from practical consideration. If the machine is to 
 be operated under favorable conditions; if the buyer 
 wants a hatcher that will give good results for the time 
 being, without asking too much in the way of durability; 
 if the machine is to be used only for hatching in the nat- 
 ural breeding season when vitality in the breeding stock 
 is at its highest, and when climatic conditions are most 
 favorable; if only one or two hatches are to be made each 
 season so that it is not desirable to have much money 
 
 FIG. 
 
 45— POPUI^AR HOT 
 INCUBATOR 
 
 WATER 
 
 In this machine heat is provided 
 by means of hot water which circu- 
 lates through coil of pipe in upper 
 part of the machine. Water is heated 
 by lamp at end. Courtesy of Buckeye 
 Incubator Company. 
 
 PIG 44— HOT AIR INCUBATOR WITH CLOTH 
 DIAPHRAGM 
 
 In this type of incubator the warmed air is diffused 
 through cloth diaphragms, one of which is here dropped 
 below natural position in order to show it. Courtesy 
 Cyphers Incubator Company. 
 
 locked up in equipment, then the purchase of a low- 
 priced machine may be not only permissible, but the 
 most practical thing to do. It is for the individual to 
 consider carefully his own conditions and plans, and see 
 that he gets the 
 machine that will 
 best meet them, 
 chosing it neither 
 because it is 
 cheap, nor be- 
 cause it is high- 
 priced, but be- 
 cause it is what 
 he needs. 
 
 What Size to Get 
 
 Large incuba- 
 tors are cheaper 
 to buy and to 
 operate than an 
 equal capacity in 
 small machines, 
 and for that rea- 
 son it is desirable 
 
 to get as large sizes as can be used to good advantage. 
 There is no serious objection to running a large ma- 
 chine without a full quota of eggs, but there is no way 
 of making a small one hold more than its actual capacity. 
 Therefore, in case of doubt always get the next larger 
 size. Attention, however, should be called to the fact 
 that incubators are designed to be operated approximate- 
 ly at capacity, and when large machines are run with 
 comparatively few eggs in them there may be complica- 
 tions with respect to moisture and ventilation that would 
 not be met with when the machine is operated with full 
 trays. For this reason, also because it takes more oil 
 to heat a large machine than a small one, it is unwise to 
 get incubators that greatly exceed average require- 
 ments. 
 
 The proper size for the incubator is determined 
 chiefly by the size of the breeding flock or the number 
 of eggs produced by it. Eggs should be incubated as 
 soon as possible after they are laid — within 10 to 14 
 days at the outside, and it is better to have two or three 
 small machines that can be filled every 7 to 10 days 
 rather than to have a large one that cannot be filled 
 without holding the eggs for a much longer time in 
 order to get the required number. Where this is done 
 the percentage of the hatch will be greatly reduced on 
 account of the low average of the older eggs. Another 
 indirect disadvantage in the use of unnecessarily large 
 machines is the tendency to set unsuitable eggs, such as 
 would be discarded in filling a small machine, but which 
 are apt to be used in order to make up the full number 
 in the large one. It seldom is desirable to buy a ma- 
 chine smaller than 150-egg capacity, and even that size 
 should not be selected unless the breeding flock is so 
 small as to make this clearly the proper thing to do. 
 
 Where to Place the Incubator 
 
 The best place for the incubator usually is in a 
 well-ventilated cellar. This is true because such a loca- 
 tion provides a more uniform temperature than an above- 
 ground house or room; there is more natural humidity 
 in the air; the ventilating system of the machine works 
 more certainly, especially in warm weather; and there is 
 less danger of the hatch being tampered with by med- 
 dling hands. Of course, a cellar can be a very poor 
 
36 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 place for the incubator if it is not what a cellar ought 
 to be. To be suitable for hatching purposes it must be 
 well ventilated, reasonably uniform in temperature, not 
 wet, or moldy, or otherwise unwholesome. 
 
 Incubators are successfully operated in above- 
 ground rooms of various sorts, but unless especially con- 
 structed for the purpose, machines in them require more 
 attention and are less easily regulated.- Also, in warm 
 weather the room temperature is liable to be so nearly 
 that of the egg chamber that the circulation of air 
 through the machine is sluggish and will require a great 
 deal of helping out by frequently opening the door, cool- 
 ing the eggs for long periods, and other aids to ventila- 
 tion. Wherever it is placed, be sure it is not in a draft 
 or a current of air and that it is not exposed to direct 
 sunlight. For plans for incubator houses and sugges- 
 tions for adapting to incubator use rooms or buildings 
 already constructed, see Chapter VIII. 
 
 Setting Up the Incubator 
 
 It is not wise to take even the best incubator too 
 much for granted, and new ones should be carefully in- 
 spected and tested in every working part to be sure that 
 everything is as it should be before entrusting valuable 
 eggs to them. Examine everything carefully when the 
 machine is uncrated and test with especial care the reg- 
 ulator and all its connections. Do not depend upon thi,- 
 machine coming all set up and ready to fill with eggs 
 as soon as the legs are screwed on and the lamp filled. 
 Presumably that is the way every manufacturer desires 
 to have it delivered to the purchaser, but there necessari- 
 ly is a good deal of handwork about making and assem- 
 bling an incubator, and errors are bound to occur no mat- 
 ter how carefully the machine may be inspected at the 
 factory. Moreover, it is liable to get rough usage in 
 shipment and may be so badly jarred that its working 
 parts will be disarranged or broken. 
 
 Look the machine over carefully, therefore, in set- 
 ting it up, and DONT put the eggs in until it has been 
 successfully operated for some time while empty. This 
 injunction will stand almost any amount of emphasis. It 
 would seem that any one suflficiently in earnest to buy 
 an incubator, would be practical enough to be sure that 
 it is in proper working order before filling it with valua- 
 ble eggs. As a matter of fact, however, one of the most 
 frequent causes of complaints among beginners is their 
 practice of putting eggs in the machine when they 
 
 FIG. 47— LAMP-HEATED INCUBA- 
 TOR WITH ENCLOSED FLUE 
 Courtesy of Reliable Incubator Co. 
 
 FIG. 46— METAL COVERED INCUBATOR 
 Courtesy of M. M. Johnson Company. 
 
 KNOW that it is not properly adjusted. If the operator 
 cannot maintain a uniform temperature before the eggs, 
 are put into the machine, he can depend upon it that he, 
 cannot do so afterward. 
 
 How the Regulator Works 
 
 The regulation of the temperature in practically all 
 lamp-heated incubators is determined by the position of 
 a damper over the 
 heater or lamp flue 
 which determines 
 the temperature of 
 the warmed air or 
 water entering the 
 heating system of 
 the machine. The 
 position of this 
 damper is controlled 
 by a thermostat 
 which is connected 
 with the damper in 
 such a way that, 
 when the heat in- 
 creases beyond a 
 certain point, the 
 damper will be lift- 
 ed and the surplus 
 heat from the lamp 
 
 allowed to escape. If the temperature drops too low, the 
 thermostat releases the damper which then closes down 
 over the flue, thus directing more heat into the machine. 
 There are various types of regulators in use (see Fig. 51), 
 all taking advantage of the fact that metals and liquids 
 expand when heated and contract when cooled. The 
 thermostatic bars and wafers are so made as to utilize 
 this expansion and contraction by operating a regulator 
 arm, on one end of which the damper is carried, and on 
 the other a counterweight to balance the damper. 
 
 The regulator and its correct adjustment are fully 
 described by each manufacturer in his book of directions, 
 and this description should be studied until the operator 
 thoroughly understands its construction and operation. 
 The regulator is the heart of the incubator and if it is 
 not correctly adjusted and kept in proper working order, 
 exact temperature control is out of the question. The reg- 
 ulators used in standard incubators are so sensitive that 
 the correct temperature can be maintained with great ac- 
 curacy, and with remarkably little at- 
 tention from the operator, once the 
 proper adjustment has been secured. It 
 is extremely unwise however, to attempt 
 to operate the machine until the work- 
 ing of the regulator is understood. * 
 
 The Incubator Must Stand Level 
 
 Incubators are built to stand practic- 
 ally level, and unless they are placed in 
 this position there is danger that the 
 hot air or hot water will not circulate 
 properly, especially in the larger-sized 
 machines. Use a spirit level, if possible, 
 and test the machine from side to side 
 and from front to back. If a spirit level ' 
 is not available, proper adjustment can 
 be secured by placing on top of the 
 machine a broad, flat pan or tray with a 
 little water in it, and leveling the ma- 
 chine until the water in the pan stands 
 
OPERATlOiN OF INCUBATORS 
 
 37 
 
 at a uniform depth. See that the machine stands firmly 
 on the floor or on the blocks used in leveling, so that 
 jt will not move or rock when touched. 
 
 As a rule, when the machine is level the temperature 
 in the different parts of the egg chamber will be uni- 
 form. In some cases, however, especially with hot-air 
 machines that are longer than they are wide, it may 
 happen that, after levelling, the end next the lamp will 
 be warmer or colder than the opposite end. If this proves 
 to be the case the machine will have to be readjusted to 
 meet this condition. The right thing to do is first to 
 level exactly and then test the temperature, using two 
 ■or more thermometers of known accuracy, and testing 
 both ends, also front and back. If any difference is noted 
 transpose the thermometers to be sure that the varia- 
 tion is not in them. When certain that there is an actual 
 and constant difference between the ends, or the front 
 •and back, the cold section may be raised sufficiently to 
 equalize the temperature. In the case of machines hav- 
 ing the heat flue enclosed, the difference in temperature 
 between the two ends sometimes is more than it is wise 
 to attempt to take care of by this method, the better 
 plan in such cases being to secure the needed adjustment 
 by raising the cold tray by means of strips of wood on 
 the tray supports. 
 
 The necessity for adjustments of this sort is especi- 
 ally marked in cold weather; later in the season when it 
 grows warm it may be necessary to readjust the ma- 
 chine again. It seldom is desirable to throw hot-water 
 incubators out of level, as tliis is apt to interfere with 
 the circulation of the water. If a serious variation is de- 
 tected in such machines it is better to take care of it 
 by the use of strips under the tray, as above described. 
 If the front is colder than the back, look to the fitting of 
 the door and if necessary tack strips of felt or similar 
 material around the edges so that it will shut tight. 
 
 Care of the Lamp 
 Keep the lamp clean, and fill it and trim the wick 
 strictly according to the directions of the manufacturer. 
 Some machines are provided with large lamp bowls that 
 only require filling now and then. Wicks generally need 
 trimming once a day and when the flame is turned quite 
 Iiigh it may be necessary to trim twice daily. It is never 
 safe to leave a heavy char on the wick; to do so is to in- 
 "vite smoky flames, accumulations of soot in the chimney 
 •or heater, and more serious troubles. Do not trim with 
 shears, however, unless it is found really necessary to do 
 
 so. The easy way is to brush the char ofif with a match 
 and smooth the edge down with the finger. Usually no 
 other treatment will be needed. If this does not give a 
 clear, even flame like the one shown in Fig. 74, then use 
 the shears, but con- 
 fine the trimming to 
 the blackened por- 
 tion of the wick. 
 
 When putting in 
 a new wick, always 
 burn it off instead 
 of trying to trim 
 it with shears. 
 Light the dry wick 
 with a match and 
 burn it until it goes 
 out at the wick 
 tube, which gener- 
 ally will give just 
 the right shape to 
 the flame. If not, 
 the corners may be 
 trimmed slightly 
 (see Fig. 73). In- 
 
 AIR INCU- 
 
 PIG 48— INCUBATOR WITH THERMOMETER 
 
 IN POSITION 
 
 This illustration shows position of standing 
 
 thermometer as usually recommended — hulb about 
 
 on level with top of eggs. Courtesy of Des Moines 
 
 Incubator Company. 
 
 LAMP-HEATED HOT 
 BATOR 
 This popular incubator is heated 
 by a current of warmed air and 
 has a sand tray under the eggs for 
 cnrrect trimmine- supplying moisture. "When the 
 c o r r e c I trimming hatch is coming off, sand tray is 
 will produce irregu- removed, and a burlap screen sub- 
 , , f, stituted, providing a comfortable 
 
 Jar, smoKy names nursery compartment for the chicks. 
 like the one shown Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator 
 . „. -p Company, 
 
 m Fig. 75. 
 
 Keep an old toothbrush handy for brushing off the 
 burner, especially the gauze screen. If this screen gets 
 clogged with dirt the lamp will smoke. In placing the 
 lamp in position under the heater, be sure that it properly 
 engages the heater collar or chimney, whichever is used. 
 Failure to do this may cause serious trouble. After light- 
 ing the lamp leave the flame turned a little low until 
 the burner gets warmed up, and never leave it for the 
 day or the night until certain that it is properly adjusted. 
 Any lamp flame is liable to "creep" up a little after it 
 has burned for a short time and many complaints of 
 smoking lamps are due to this cause. 
 
 Starting the Hatch 
 
 When everything is in proper working order and the 
 temperature can be exactly controlled, the machine may 
 safely be set. The best time to do this is in the morn- 
 ing, when the eggs will have the entire day in which to 
 warm up, thus making certain that the machine will reach 
 the proper temperature and will stay there, before it is 
 necessary to leave it for the night. Frequently, after the 
 machine has been accurately adjusted to the desired tem- 
 perature with the trays empty it will be found that, with 
 the trays full of eggs, the temperature will go up a little, 
 necessitating a slight readjustment of the regulator. The 
 flame also may need a little attention, as there is no 
 advantage in running it higher than is necessary to pro- 
 vide the required amount of heat with enough over for 
 emergencies. 
 
 The eggs with which the trays are to be filled should 
 be carefully selected, discarding every one that has any 
 serious defect. There is no necessity for filling the trays 
 exactly full if there are not enough suitable eggs for the 
 purpose, and it is a wasteful practice to use eggs that 
 cannot reasonably be expected to hatch. In case the trays 
 are not full it is a good plan to have narrow strips of 
 wood that may be laid across the trays confining the 
 eggs to one place and preventing their rolling about. 
 
 In case there are more eggs than the trays will ac- 
 commodate in the regular way, they may be crowded 
 
38 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 somewhat by standing them nearly on end, with the 
 large end up. Repeated tests have shown that the capac- 
 ity of the trays may be increased about 20 per cent by 
 this method, without any unfavorable effect on the hatch. 
 The eggs may safely be left in this position until the 
 third day, when they must be tested and the infertile ones 
 taken out, which will leave sufficient room to lay the 
 rest in their proper position. As it is not possible to 
 test brown-shelled eggs with much accuracy until they 
 have been in the incubator for four or five days, this 
 method is not practical with them. Under no condition 
 should the attempt be made to put a double layer of eggs 
 on the tray. To do so will be to lose all those on top 
 through overheating unless the temperature is adjusted 
 to the top layer, in which case the under ones will suffer 
 on account of too little heat. 
 
 Correct Incubator Temperature 
 
 As has already been pointed out in Chapter IV, 70 
 degrees is about the "physiological zero" of the chick 
 embryo. At temperatures above this point cell division 
 begins, but proceeds very slowly and never progresses 
 beyond an extremely limited stage of development unless 
 normal incubation temperature is approximated. Above 
 this temperature, growth proceeds at an abnormally rapid 
 rate as the temperature rises and places a severe strain 
 upon the embryonic organism that it cannot long endure. 
 For this reason it is highly important that the tempera- 
 ture of the egg chamber be maintained within compara- 
 tively narrow limits, though reasonable variation prob- 
 ably is in no way objectionable. There is little doubt 
 that eggs under the sitting hen are subject to marked 
 variation in temperature — greater in fact, than in any 
 well-managed incubator. 
 
 The exact temperature of the embryo during incuba- 
 tion — that is, the temperature at which it will grow at 
 a normal rate and will reach complete development and 
 hatch out at the exact time intended by nature, is 99 to 
 100 degrees at the beginning, gradually increasing to 
 about 103 at the end of hatch. These temperatures are 
 the same under all conditions and at all seasons. Incu- 
 bator thermometers, however, are more or less affected 
 by outside conditions and in order that the embryo shall 
 receive the exact degree of heat required it is necessary 
 to take into consideration the style of machine used, the 
 position of the thermometer in the machine, the outside 
 temperature, whether cold or warm, the stage of the 
 hatch, etc. It is, therefore, impossible to fix on a cer- 
 
 PIG. 50— ELECTRIC INCUBATOR 
 Courtesy of Reliable Incubator Co. 
 
 FIG. 49 — ELECTROBATOR 
 Courtesy of Cypners Incubator Company. 
 
 tain degree of temperature which is to be maintamed 
 at all times. 
 
 In a general way the manufacturer prescribes the 
 temperature at 
 which his particu- 
 lar type of ma- 
 chine should be 
 operated, and it is 
 unwise to t a k (^ 
 liberties with his in- 
 structions, particu 
 larly in the way of 
 substituting a dif- 
 ferent style of ther- 
 mometer for the 
 one regularly sent 
 out, or changing its 
 position in the ma- 
 chine. There some- 
 
 l.mes are special reasons why certain thermometers and 
 certain temperatures are recommended for particular 
 machines and no changes should be made in these de- 
 tails. However, it should be understood that the manu- 
 facturer's instructions are necessary more or less gen- 
 eral, and because these advise to "run at 103 degrees," it 
 must not be assumed that this temperature is to be ad- 
 hered to under any and all conditions. There are a few 
 general principles that must be kept in mind in operat- 
 ing any machine, and some discrimination must be used 
 in meeting unusual conditions. 
 
 As has already been stated, the correct embryo tem- 
 perature in the first days of incubation is 99-100 degrees. 
 There is no practical way of taking that temperature, 
 however, and in ordinary incubator operation, the ther- 
 mometer may be located at any convenient point, if due 
 allowance is made for the corresponding difference in 
 temperature. This fact has resulted in the adoption of 
 various styles of thermometers, two of which are illus- 
 trated in Figs. 82 and 83. The inovo thermometer (now 
 rarely used) was designed to give the temperature of the 
 interior of the eggs, or the exact embryo temperature, 
 but for various reasons it probably does no more than 
 approximate that ideal, and is not convenient in practical 
 use. Some contact thermometers are mounted so as to 
 lie on the top of the egg almost exactly over the embryo, 
 and in that position will show a temperature somewhat 
 higher than that of the germ itself. A practical objection 
 to this style of thermometer is that if it is placed in con- 
 tact with an infertile egg or one containing a dead or 
 weak germ, after the eighth day of incubation, the tem- 
 perature indicated will be lower than that of live embryos. 
 Owing to the fact that this thermometer easily slips out 
 of position, also because the eggs on which it rests vary 
 more or less in size, the bulb is not always on the same 
 level, leading to slight but undesirable inaccuracies in tem- 
 perature readings. 
 
 Standing thermometers give the temperature at or 
 below the level of the top of the egg, and may or may 
 not touch it. Some standing thermometers locate the 
 bulb half an inch or so above the top of the eggs, giving 
 about the same temperature as would be secured by a 
 suspended thermometer. The latter usually is hung from 
 a wire loop in the top of the machine and is so adjusted 
 as to keep the bulb about half an inch above the eggs, 
 so that it will be practically unaffected by animal heat. 
 
 So far as the hatch is concerned it matters little what 
 style of thermometer is used if the temperature is main- 
 tained at the point necessary to secure the correct embryo 
 
OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 
 
 .i') 
 
 FIG. 51— METAL-BAR REGULATOR FOR INCUBATORS 
 Courtesy of Cyphers Incubator Company. 
 
 temperature. The degree of heat required in incubation 
 depends to some extent upon the stage of the hatch. The 
 following table showing the internal temperature of eggs 
 incubated under hens, for each day of incubation, is from 
 ,Lillie's Development of the Chick; 
 
 Day of incubation 12 3 
 
 Temperature of hen 102.2 103.0 103.0 
 
 Temperature of eggs 98.0 100.2 100.5 
 
 Day of incubation 11 12 13 
 
 Temperature of hen 104.8 105.2 104.5 
 
 Temperature of egg 101.8 102.2 102.0 
 
 In a series of tests by the writer with incubators run- 
 ning at approximately the correct theoretical embryo 
 temperature, the following results were secured — the fig- 
 ures given representing the average temperature recorded 
 by each thermometer, for four S-day periods: 
 
 First Second Third Fourth 
 
 Period Period Period Period 
 
 Inovo 98.89 99.21 99.79 100.91 
 
 Contact Iffl.Se 101.60 101.52 102.42 
 
 Suspended 103.90 104.22 103.64 103.06 
 
 It will be seen by this that the variation between 
 thermometers in different positions is not the same at all 
 stages of the hatch. While the suspended thermometer 
 maintained approximately the same temperature through- 
 out, the inovo and contact thermometers were decidedly 
 lower at the start but gradually approached that of the 
 suspended one. There was a difference of nearly five 
 degrees between the inovo and the suspended thermom- 
 eter during the last period, with the contact thermometer 
 about midway between them. The Indiana Experiment 
 Station definitely recommends a temperature of 101-102- 
 103 degrees for the first, second, and third weeks respec- 
 tively, using a standing thermometer on a level with the 
 top of the egg but not touching them. In the experiments 
 leading to this conclusion it was found that the standing 
 thermometer regularly registered one-half a degree lower 
 than contact thermometer. 
 
 This graduation of the temperature for different 
 periods of the hatch is secured by the occasional adjust- 
 ment of the regulator, in the case of inovo, contact and 
 standing thermometers, but with the suspended type with 
 the incubator temperature maintained at practically the 
 same point throughout the hatch, the animal heat of the 
 growing embryo itself providing the desired increase, as 
 is shown by the experimental data previously quoted. 
 
 How Outside Conditions Affect Incubation Temperatures 
 
 The recommendation to run at any given tempera- 
 ture necessary is subject to some modifications, however, 
 as determined by outside conditions, type of machine, 
 whether or not the eggs are cooled, color of shells, etc. 
 The attempt to run throughout the season at a uniform 
 101-102-103 temperature, for example, will almost certain- 
 ly lead to dissatisfaction. 
 
 Most practical operators allow a difference of nearly 
 a degree between cold and warm weather hatching tem- 
 peratures, this being provided to ofifset the greater cool- 
 ing down that the eggs receive in a cold room, and pos- 
 sibly for other reasons. There is a common belief that 
 
 high altitudes call for a somewhat higher temperature 
 than is generally recommended, though there does not 
 appear to be any actual proof of this. Brown-shelled eggs 
 are supposed to require more heat than white-shelled 
 ones. It is not likely that this is due to any difference in 
 the actual degree of heat registered by brown and white 
 eggs under exactly the same conditions, as some seem 
 to suppose, but it is probable that brown-shelled eggs 
 actualy have a slightly longer incubating period and hence 
 require a higher temperature to bring them out in the 
 time required by white-shelled eggs. Whether it is de- 
 sirable that brown-shelled eggs be given extra time, or 
 instead should receive additional heat in order to bring 
 them ofif earlier, does not seem to have been carefully 
 
 4 
 104.0 
 100.5 
 
 5 
 103.8 
 100.4 
 
 S 
 105.0 
 101.0 
 
 7 
 104.6 
 101.8 
 
 8 
 104.5 
 102.5 
 
 9 
 105.0 
 101.6 
 
 10 
 105.0 
 102.0 
 
 14 
 
 105.0 
 102.5 
 
 15 
 105.2 
 102.0 
 
 16 
 105.0 
 103.0 
 
 17 
 104.6 
 102.4 
 
 18 
 
 104.8 
 103.0 
 
 19 
 
 104.5 
 103.0 
 
 20 
 104.5 
 103.0 
 
 investigated, but in general practice the latter plan usual- 
 ly is followed. 
 
 The normal period of incubation for hen eggs is 
 stated as "21 days," but the actual time required is some- 
 what less than that. The incubation period can be short- 
 ened or increased by several hours without any apparent 
 ill effects. It is general experience that chicks may come 
 out on the 20th day and be quite strong and vigorous, 
 while they may be delayed until the 22nd day without in- 
 jury. The development of the chick is more or less un- 
 der the control of the operator who can hasten or retard 
 progress by the degree of heat supplied, or the length of 
 the cooHng periods. 
 
 Effect of Too Much Heat 
 In considering excess heat it is necessary to distin- 
 guish between short-time exposure to temperatures high 
 enough quickly to endanger the life of the embryo, and 
 longer exposure to temperatures only little above nor- 
 mal. The effect of high temperatures is to quicken cell 
 division and stimulate more rapid growth in the embryo, 
 and if the heat is not too high the embryo will live and 
 develop, but will hatch prematurely or before it has had 
 time to "ripen." At higher temperatures the heart and 
 arteries will 
 b e overtaxed 
 and hemor- 
 rhages will re- 
 s u 1 1, produc- 
 i n g what is 
 com m o n 1 y 
 known as 
 " blood rings " 
 in early stages 
 of develop- 
 ment. Any 
 t e m p e rature 
 above 104 de- 
 grees with a 
 contact t h e r 
 
 FIG. 52- 
 
 -SMALL TRAY, USEFUL IN TURN- 
 ING Eggs 
 Where eggs are turned by shuffling, a 
 small tray holding 15 to 18 eggs should be 
 provided to avoid brealcage. Courtesy of 
 mometer is Buckeye Incubator Company. 
 
 "high" and if 
 
 continued for any length of time will injure or kill the 
 embryo. The further the development of the embryo has 
 piogressed the better able it is to stand excessive heat, 
 so that in late stages of the hatch temperatures as high 
 as 110 degrees can be endured for a very short time. In 
 all cases when eggs have been overheated, they should be 
 removed from the machine at once and cooled in order 
 to reduce the blood pressure as quickly as possible. In 
 
40 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 , addition to the direct injury to the embryo, overheating 
 is believed to bring about unfavorable changes in the 
 yolks, causing one form of "white diarrhea" in the newly 
 hatched chicks. 
 
 Effect of Too Little Heat 
 
 It is not probable that moderately low temperatures, 
 unless too long continued, do any real harm aside from 
 delaying the hatch, which is harm enough of course, but 
 not apt to be so disastrous as overheating. Low tem- 
 peratures during early stages of the hatch can be offset 
 to some extent by operating at a higher temperature 
 later on. Up to a certain point it does not appear to 
 matter whether the heat is maintained at the exact nor- 
 mal temperature throughout the hatch or is subject to 
 moderate fluctuation, provided tha total number of re- 
 quired heat units is supplied. From a practical view- 
 point, however, irregular temperatures greatly increase 
 the difficulty of operating the machine and bringing the 
 
 FIG. 53 — A THREE COMPARTMENT MAMMOTH INCUBATOR 
 Courtesy of Newtown Giant Incubator Corporation. 
 
 hatch off at the right time. It is desirable therefore that 
 the temperature be kept as uniform as possible, that all 
 extremes be avoided, and that every departure from cor- 
 rect temperature be followed by prompt correction. It 
 should be remembered that too much cooling or cooling 
 to too low temperatures, and leaving the eggs out for a 
 long time in warm weather even though they are not 
 cooled down noticeably, will delay the hatch just as cer- 
 tainly as low temperatures in the machine. 
 
 Every one who runs an incubator should keep a daily 
 temperature record or chart like the one shown on page 
 47. A seemingly slight variation, if frequently repeated, 
 may appreciably affect development of the embryo, but 
 with a record of temperature variations from day to day, 
 a tendency to run too low or too high can readily be de- 
 tected and correction made before harm is done. The 
 importance of doing this is all the greater from the fact 
 that the average beginner generally regards whatever 
 temperature is recommended for his machine, as the max- 
 imum rather than the average to be maintained. In other 
 words, if the instruction book says that the temperature 
 should be kept at 103 degrees he is apt to feel that he 
 
 dare not go above that, but that no harm will result if 
 it drops below, now and then. So, to be on the safe side, 
 he runs a little low most of the time, and as a result the 
 hatch is seriously delayed. A daily record should help 
 to overcome this tendency. 
 
 Turning the Eggs 
 
 Turning should begin on the morning of the third 
 day and should be continued thereafter until the chicks 
 begin to pip. Sometimes directions are given to discon- 
 tinue turning on the 18th day, regardless of the stage of 
 development. This is correct only when the chicks come 
 out on schedule time, in which case they will begin 
 pipping on the 20th day. In the case of delayed hatches, 
 however — and there are many such, especially early in the 
 season — much better results will be secured if the turn- 
 ing is continued until pipping actually begins, even 
 though this may not be until the 21st day. 
 
 When the trays have flat bottoms and the sides are 
 of proper height, the eggs may all be turned 
 at the same time, by placing an extra tray 
 over the full one and, holding the trays firmly 
 in the hands, simply flop them over. This 
 cannot be done with trays with sloping bot- 
 toms, and even where it is practicable many 
 operators prefer to turn by shuffling, believ- 
 ing that better results are secured by that 
 method. In turning this way, 12 to 18 eggs 
 are removed from one end of the tray and 
 the rest then are pushed over into the empty 
 space, using the flat of the hand and shifting 
 the eggs about more or less at the same time 
 so as to change their position in the tray, 
 after which the eggs that have been removed 
 are returned to the empty end. This method 
 keeps the eggs shifting about and equalizes 
 any slight irregularity in temperature that 
 may exist at different points on the tray, 
 thus giving all the eggs an equal chance. 
 
 It is a good plan to provide a small tray 
 in which to place the eggs that are taken out, 
 as they are liable to be cracked in laying 
 them on a hard surface, such as the top of 
 the work table or the incubator. Make the 
 tray about SxlS or 18 inches, with a bottom 
 of fine wire or duck, and have the sides ex- 
 tend at least an inch below the bottom so that the latter 
 will not touch whatever the tray may be resting upon 
 One or more of these small trays will be found convenient 
 for a variety of purposes in handling hatching eggs. 
 
 Some extra conscientious persons mark the eggs so 
 that they can be certain that they have been turned com- 
 pletely over each time, but there is no necessity for doing 
 this and it consumes a good deal of time. It is import- 
 ant, however, to see to it that the eggs always lie with 
 the large end up. The experienced operator places a 
 little pressure on the eggs in turning and with slight ef- 
 fort keeps the small end down without paying any special 
 attention to the matter-. In order to be sure that they 
 are in this position, however, it is advisable for the be- 
 ginner to look the trays over, caiefully turning down any 
 eggs found with the small end up. 
 
 It is not meant by this that the eggs are to stand 
 
 on end, but simply that the small end should be lower 
 
 the position they naturally take in the nest. The purpose 
 of doing this is to fix the air cell in the large end of the 
 egg, which is essential to the normal development of the 
 embryo and its successful exclusion. Especially during 
 
OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 
 
 41 
 
 FIG. 54— APPEARANCE OF FERTILE EGG 
 BEFORE TESTER AFTER SEVEN DAYS 
 
 OF INCUBATION 
 
 At this stage of development, the germ 
 
 should be plainly seen toward the upper end, 
 
 and usually will be in motion, appearing and 
 
 disappearing in a regular, pulsating movement. 
 
 the early stages of incubation, permitting the small end 
 to remain uppermost will cause many air cells to form 
 in that end, with serious consequences to the embryo. 
 
 Numerous mechanical egg-turning devices have been 
 introduced from time to time and have enjoyed varying 
 degrees of popular favor, but many operators feel that 
 the advantages of hand turning fully compensate them 
 for the time required in doing it. In all cases, regardless 
 of how the eggs are turned, the position of the trays in 
 the machine should be changed from day to day, turning 
 them end for end, and shifting from side to side if the 
 machine has more than one tray, in order to equalize in- 
 equalities in temperature. 
 
 The frequency with which eggs should be turned is 
 largely a practical question. Twice a day is as often as 
 the average operator feels that he can afiford to do it, 
 though it is probable that the hen turns her eggs much 
 more frequently. Twice a day appears to be sufficient, 
 so far as the actual requirements of the embryo are con- 
 cerned, but under special conditions there is reason to be- 
 lieve that more frequent turning will prove advantageous. 
 Especially in warm weather, when the temperatures of 
 the room and the incubator are so nearly the same that 
 the ventilation of the machine is sluggish and uncertain, 
 it is probable that opening the door and taking the eggs 
 out for an extra turning or two each day will give better 
 ventilation and may prove directly beneficial to the 
 embryo. 
 
 How to Use the Egg Tester 
 
 The object in testing eggs is to remove the infertile 
 ones, to follow the development of the air cell, and to 
 watch the growth of the embryo. While some operators 
 do not remove infertile eggs or do any systematical test- 
 
 ing at all, a good hatch under such conditions is purely 
 a matter of luck, and no one who really wishes to be suc- 
 cessful will follow this slipshod method. The opportuni- 
 ties which testing affords for checking up on fertility of 
 the eggs, and on the temperature, moisture, and ventila- 
 tion of the machine, are invaluable. 
 
 With a good tester the first test for the removal of 
 infertile eggs may be made as early as the third day 
 in the case of white-shelled eggs, while those with brown 
 shells can be tested on the fourth or fifth day. The be- 
 ginner, however, will do well to wait for another day or 
 two, as he will find it much easier to detect fertility then, 
 and there is no practical advantage in extremely early 
 tests. While the careful operator will make it a practice 
 to test a few eggs every day or so after the first few 
 days, two or three general tests are all that are really 
 necessary to the proper operation of the machine. If 
 the rate of evaporation is to checked up by weighing the 
 eggs (see page 43) it will be found convenient to divide 
 the hatching into three 6-day periods, weighing on the 
 sixth, twelfth and eighteenth days, doing the weighing and 
 testing at the same time. 
 
 On the sixth day the germ should be plainly seen, 
 even in brown-shelled eggs. At this time there will be a 
 central opaque spot about a quarter of an inch in diame- 
 ter with blood vessels reaching out from it on all sides, 
 the embryo being sufficiently developed to give the yolk 
 a distinctly different appearance from that of an infertile 
 egg, though the yolk will not be entirely enclosed by 
 the net work of blood vessels until about the 8th day. 
 
 Embryos that die during the first few days usually 
 are "blood-ringed," the germ spot being surrounded by a 
 more or less clearly defined ring the size of which will 
 depend on the stage of development at which the germ 
 died. Sometimes the dead germ will show as a dark 
 
 FIG- 55 — APPEARANCE OF FERTILE EGG 
 BEFORE TESTER AFTER TWO WEEKS 
 
 OP INCUBATION 
 At this stage the egg will be almost en- 
 tirely opaque, showing only a narrow trans- 
 parent edge along the lower side. 
 
42 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 spot with indistinct outlines and no ring. Since a weak 
 or undeveloped germ may have the same general appear- 
 ance, such eggs should be marked and put back for a 
 few days more when, if dead, their development will be 
 so far behind that of the living germs that there will be 
 no danger of confusing them with the latter. 
 
 Infertile eggs will be practically as clear at this test 
 as when they were first placed in the machine. For that 
 matter, they will remain so throughout the hatch if left 
 in. It is not desirable to do this however, if for no other 
 reason than that their presence in the tray adds to the 
 time required to turn the eggs, while in case a contact 
 thermometer is used the correct temperature will not be 
 secured after the first few days, unless the operator is 
 careful to see that the thermometer always rests on a 
 fertile egg. The air cell on the seventh day should be 
 about as shown in Fig. 63. If it is noticeably smaller or 
 larger, the ventilation or moisture, or both, will need at- 
 tention. In determining the extent of evaporation by 
 the size of the air cell, it is important to be sure that a 
 correct average is taken, since when eggs of different ages 
 are set together, or those having shells of varying degrees 
 of porosity, there will be a good deal of irregularity in 
 the size of the cells. 
 
 In testing it is desirable to use as strong a light as 
 is available for the purpose. The small lamp testers that 
 generally are sent out with the machine serve fairly well 
 to determine the presence of the germ and the size of the 
 air cell, but to do early testing and to follow the develop- 
 ment of the germs, strong light is necessary. Sunlight is 
 excellent for testing purposes and there are various ways 
 of utilizing it. As an emergency measure a roll of stifiE 
 paper can be used, simply holding one end to the eye and 
 placing egg at other end and directing it toward the sun. 
 
 PIG. 57— EGG WITH 
 
 SPIRAL SHELL 
 When examined be- 
 fore the tester, eggs 
 frequently will be found 
 in which the shell is 
 marked by dark spiral 
 rings as indicated above. 
 Such eggs rarely hatch. 
 
 FIG. 56 — APPEARANCE OF INFERTILE EGG 
 BEFORE TESTER 
 An infertile egg examined before the tester 
 should be almost clear, the yolk showing but 
 faintly even after having been in the incubator 
 for two weeks, as was the case with egg here 
 shown. 
 
 Different Styles of Testers 
 
 For day testing the incubator room may be ar- 
 ranged so that it can be darkened, and a window facing 
 the sun provided with a covering having one or two 1^- 
 inch holes, in front of which the eggs are held. Sunlight 
 testing is frequently inconvenient and for cloudy days 
 and night work artificial light must be used. Electric 
 light is best, using "Mazda" bulbs. Ordinary incandescent 
 bulbs give a yellow light which 
 is not desirable. If electricity 
 is not available acetylene may 
 be used, also gas, or kerosene — 
 with mantles if possible, to 
 avoid yellow flames. All of 
 these lights (except electricity) 
 generate a great deal of heat 
 which may prove uncomforta- 
 ble in the small, close quar- 
 ters in which eggs often are 
 tested, and the enclosures pro- 
 vided for the lights must be of 
 good size and well ventilated to 
 avoid broken mantles and chim- 
 neys. There are a number of 
 high-grade egg testers on the 
 market and it generally is bet- 
 ter and cheaper to buy these 
 than to experiment with home- 
 made contrivances. 
 
 When the eggs are tested on 
 the twelfth to fourteenth day, any doubtful ones may be 
 removed, also any infertiles that may have been over- 
 looked in the first test. At this time the air cell should 
 be about the size shown in Fig. 63, and proper changes 
 should be made in the ventilation or moisture, if the air 
 cells are not developing normally. The fertile egg will 
 appear as in Fig. SS and the embryo will be more or less 
 active, regularly rising and falling, or appearing and dis- 
 appearing, before the tester. The egg generally will be 
 opaque below the air cell but there may be a bright edge 
 along the undeiside of the egg as shown. This should 
 be of limited extent however. If there is a large bright 
 area, the development of the embryo is not progressing 
 in a normal manner. 
 
 Dead germs may be found in various stages of devel- 
 opment, but they are not easily distinguished unless they 
 have died during the first few days. It is not usual for 
 dead germs to decay in the incubator, but they sometimes 
 do so. In case the odor on opening the machine indicates 
 the presence of rotten eggs they should be removed at 
 once. It usually is not necessary to test all the eggs to 
 find them, as they can be more quickly discovered by 
 their outward appearance, or by holding the nose close 
 to the eggs. 
 
 On the eighteenth day the final test will be made. At 
 this time the embryo should fill the shell with the excep- 
 tion of the air cell and the eggs before the tester will 
 have throughout a plain opaque appearance. The chick 
 may even have broken through the membrane into the air 
 cell, filling it also, though not unless development has been 
 little too rapid. This final test enables the operator to 
 determine whether or not the chicks may be expected to 
 come out on time and whether ventilation and moisture 
 have been correct. It afifords the last chance of making 
 adjustments to correct errors in this respect, also in tem- 
 perature, but such fiinal changes can only be slight. 
 
 Ventilation and Moisture 
 The purpose of ventilation is to provide the growing 
 
OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 
 
 43 
 
 PIG. 
 
 embryo with a constant supply of fresh air, 
 and while its requirements in this respect 
 are limited, they are by no means negligi- 
 ble. As a rule, ventilation and moisture are 
 the manufacturer's problems and he can 
 safely be assumed to have solved them in 
 a general way, so far as his machine is con- 
 cerned, though there is always some oppor- 
 tunity for the operator to help in final ad- 
 justment. Incubators that are intended to 
 meet any and all conditions under which 
 they may be operated, generally are pro- 
 vided with comparatively large adjustable 
 openings so that sufficient ventilation can be 
 secured to meet all requirements of location 
 and season. Some machines permit only the slightest ad- 
 justment in this respect, the 
 amount of ventilation being 
 fixed by the manufacturer at 
 the point where best results 
 will be secured under aver- 
 age conditions and during 
 the natural hatching season. 
 This plan has the advantage 
 of simplifying the manage- 
 ment of the machine and 
 prevents extreme adjust- 
 ments either way (a common 
 mistake among beginners), 
 but does not afford oppor- 
 tunity for meeting extreme 
 or unusual requirements. 
 As has already been ex- 
 FIG. 58 — APPEARANCE plained, the egg contains all 
 °^SEVEn''dats^o?'' the moisture needed for the 
 INCUBATION development of the embryo 
 
 This diagram indicates an^ for successful exclusion, 
 and a liberal additional al- 
 lowance to meet the natural 
 loss from evaporation. It is 
 essential that the normal rate 
 of evaporation be m a i n- 
 tained, and as this depends 
 upon the circulation of air 
 in the machine and the degree of moisture which the air 
 contains, moisture and ventilation are closely associated 
 together. Evaporation dur- 
 ing the hatch varies rather 
 widely with the season, and 
 there is some disagreement 
 among investigators in re- 
 gard to what the normal 
 loss of moisture should be. 
 However, a reduction of 
 about 13 per cent in the 
 weight of the eggs from the 
 first to the eighteenth day, 
 may be taken as a safe aver- 
 age. While the degree of 
 evaporation may be approx- 
 imated by observing the de- 
 velopment of the air cell, as 
 already described, it may be 
 followed much more accu- 
 rately by weighing the eggs 
 at regular intervals. 
 
 The beginner who has a 
 
 reliable set of scales at hand examined through the egg 
 , .... V ,1 , tester. Cornell University 
 
 and will weigh the eggs at Reading Course, Bui. 80. 
 
 ON SIDE 
 
 61— AIR CELL 
 OP EGG 
 
 This frequently occurs where 
 the eggs have not been properly 
 turned. 
 
 PIG. 
 
 62— EGG WITH AIR CELL 
 IN SMALL END 
 
 When the air cell develops in 
 the small end, the chick rarely 
 hatches. 
 
 the appearance of normal 
 embryo after seven days, 
 with outlines of germ cen- 
 ter and blood vessels dis- 
 tinctly brought out. Com- 
 pare with Pig. . Repro- 
 duced from Cornell Uni- 
 versity Reading Course, 
 Bulletin No. 80. 
 
 FIG. 59— DEAD GERM AD- 
 HERING TO SHELL 
 Germs that stick fast to 
 the shell will develop for 
 a short time but soon die, 
 presenting an appearance 
 similar to the above, when 
 
 regular intervals, for example on the 1st, 6th, 12th, and 
 18th days, will find it an easy matter to control the evap- 
 oration and keep it just where it should be, either by ad- 
 justment of ventilation or by supplying moisture. The 
 evaporation from the eggs proceeds a little more rapidly 
 as the hatch progresses, and should average about 3j4 
 per cent the first 6 days, 4 to 4^4 per cent from the 6th 
 to the 12th day, and 5 per cent from the 12th to the 18th 
 day. To get the percentage of evaporation, the net 
 weight of the eggs without the tray should be used, and 
 care must be taken that at the first weighing the tray 
 shall be thoroughly dry, otherwise the evaporation from 
 it will lead to error. The tray should be weighed before 
 being filled with eggs, and its weight regularly deducted 
 from each subsequent weighing. 
 
 By way of illustration, if 100 eggs weigh 200 ounces 
 net, when placed in the machine, their weight at the end 
 of the 6th day should be 192-3 ounces. At this time 
 the eggs probably will be tested and the infertile ones 
 removed after which they should be weighed again. If 
 20 infertiles are taken out this will reduce the net weight 
 to perhaps ISS ounces. At the end of the 12th day the 
 eggs should weigh about 65^ ounces less, leaving the 
 total weight about 148j4 ounces. If no eggs are taken 
 out there will be a further loss of 5 per cent, by the end 
 of the 18th day, or 7j^ ounces, leaving the net weight 
 about 141 ounces. If a few eggs are broken or removed 
 for any cause, deduct their average weight to get the 
 net weight of the remaining eggs, before taking the per- 
 centage. 
 
 How Evaporation May Be 
 
 Controlled 
 
 If at any stage of the 
 hatch the evaporation is 
 found running below the 
 percentages just given, it 
 must be increased by pro- 
 viding more ventilation and, 
 if necessary, a slightly high- 
 er temperature in the ma- 
 chine, also by longer cooling 
 periods. If the evaporation 
 is running too high, it may 
 be checked by reducing the 
 ventilation or, if that is not 
 desirable, by supplying 
 moisture. The easiest and 
 simplest way to do this, 
 when it is possible, is to 
 sprinkle the floor of the cel- 
 lar in which the machine is 
 being operated, or place pans 
 or tubs of water under the 
 
 PIG. 60— A "BLOOD RING' 
 
 Germs that die during 
 the first few days of in- 
 cubation, particularly as 
 the result of overheating, 
 show more or less distinct 
 "blood rings" when tested. 
 Cornell University Read- 
 ing Course. Bui. No. 80. 
 
44 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 63 — DEVELOP- 
 MENT OF AIR 
 CELL DURING 
 INCUBATION 
 
 The average size of 
 air cell at various 
 stages of incubation 
 is indicated in above 
 diagram. Line marked 
 1, indicates average 
 size in fresh eggs. 
 Lines marlced 6, 12 
 and 18 represent aver- 
 age size after a cor- 
 responding number of 
 days of incubation. 
 Size of air cell is con- 
 trolled by ventilation 
 and moisture. 
 
 FIG. 64 — EMBRYO 
 
 READY TO BREAK 
 
 THROUGH INTO 
 
 AIR CELL 
 
 When the embryo 
 has practically com- 
 pleted its develop- 
 ment, or about the 
 19th to 20th day, it 
 breaks through the 
 membrane, separating 
 it from the air cell, 
 and occupies this 
 space. The irregular 
 line here shown is 
 characteristic of ap- 
 pearance of egg be- 
 fore tester Just before 
 this occurs. 
 
 machine, using hot, steaming water if conditions demand 
 it. Be governed in this by the directions of the manu- 
 facturer. If he specifies a particular way in which to 
 supply moisture, be sure that there is a good reason for 
 it and follow directions exactly. One method of regu- 
 lating the evaporation of the eggs is by the use of a 
 hygrometer (see Fig. IT). This instrument is designed 
 to indicate the relative humidity of the air in the machine. 
 
 Ventilation is considered but little in the practical 
 operation of incubators, aside from its influence on evap- 
 oration and moisture. When there is sufficient air circu- 
 lation to dry the eggs down at the normal rate, there is 
 little danger that there will be any deficiency in meeting 
 the needs of the developing embryos for oxygen. Recent 
 investigations at the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station 
 indicate that while the amount of carbon dioxide (which 
 is the usual basis of comparison in determining the purity 
 of the air) is 3 parts in 10,000 volumes of fresh air, it is 
 decidedly higher under the sitting hen and increases to 
 SO to 60 parts toward the end of the hatch. 
 
 In commercial incubators the proportion runs well 
 below that found under hens. Even when the proportion 
 of carbon dioxide is artificially increased much above 
 what is regularly found in incubators or under hens, it 
 does not appear to have any marked influence on the 
 hatch until it reaches about ISO parts, so that the purity 
 of air in the incubator need hardly concern the practical 
 operator. As a matter of fact, the average incubator, in- 
 stead of being deficient in ventilation, is more likely to 
 afford too much, which is the chief reason for supplying 
 moisture, this being done to offset the excessive evapora- 
 tion that naturally accompanies a too rapid change of air. 
 
 As a rule, the danger of excess ventilation in incu- 
 bators applies only to their operation in cold weather. 
 In warm weather or in heated rooms the circulation of 
 air is apt to be quite slow unless the machine is provided 
 with unusually large ventilating openings. 
 
 Cooling An Aid to Ventilation 
 The necessity for cooling the eggs down each day 
 during incubation is a much-debated point about which 
 we have surprisingly little accurate information, consider- 
 
 ing how energetically the subject has been discussed. It 
 is doubtful whether there is any advantage in cooling 
 early in the season, and the practice generally results in 
 a low average temperature, thus delaying the hatch. The 
 general tendency is for early hatches to fall behind the 
 normal rate of development at any rate, and cooling 
 simply means further delay. 
 
 When the eggs are cooled down until they are cold 
 to the touch, which may happen in a very short time in 
 winter hatching, it will take two or three hours to bring 
 them back to the right temperature again, and as a re- 
 sult the embryos will not get the required number of heat 
 units unless the deficiency is made up by running the 
 machine at a higher temperature. Merely turning the 
 eggs probably gives them all the cooling they need under 
 such conditions. 
 
 If cooling is to .be practiced because it is the "nat- 
 ural way," it must be remembered that when the hen re- 
 turns to the nest she can warm the eggs up in a very 
 short time, through the application of contact heat, while 
 the incubator is much slower, taking from one to three 
 hours to do what the hen will do in half an hour or less. 
 For this reason, cooling in artificial incubation must 
 either be for a decidedly shorter time than under natural 
 conditions, or the machine must run at a higher tempera- 
 ture in order to offset the slower heating up after re- 
 turning the trays to the machine. 
 
 In warmer weather or where the machine is operated 
 in a heated room there probably is a distinct advantage in 
 regular daily cooling as a means of improving ventilation. 
 In this case cooling may begin about the 6th or 7th day 
 and should continue until the 18th. In a cool room the 
 rule should be to leave the eggs out until they are luke- 
 warm or neutral to the touch — that is, feeling neither cold 
 nor warm. This rule will not apply in a warm room, 
 however, where it might be necessary to leave the eggs 
 out for an hour or two to bring them down to such a 
 temperature, which is not at all desirable. In this case, 
 cool for a few minutes only, at first, gradually increasing 
 the time until the eggs are out 20 to 30 minutes near the 
 end of the hatch. It seldom is desirable to leave them 
 out for a longer time than this unless they have been 
 overheated or are developing too rapidly as a result of 
 a general high average temperature. In all cases keep 
 the door of the incubator closed while the eggs are out, 
 and do not expose them to drafts or currents of air. 
 Under no condition should eggs be cooled if they are 
 known to be underdeveloped for the stage of the hatch.. 
 
 FIG. 65— PEDIGREE HATCHING BASKETS 
 Courtesv of Maine Fvn fftofirtn 
 
OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 
 
 45 
 
 FIG. 66— MOSQUITO NETTING BAGS FOR PEDIGREE 
 
 HATCHING 
 
 Courtesy of Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 On the other hand, if they have been accidentally over- 
 heated, cool them down at once. 
 
 Bringing Out the Hatch 
 
 After the eighteenth day there is little that can be 
 done by way of favorably influencing results. If at this 
 time it appears that too much ventilation has been given, 
 moisture may be supplied, and in most machines it is 
 customary to use moisture regularly from this time un- 
 til the end, doing this in the exact manner recommended 
 "by the manufacturer. No arhount of supplied moisture 
 ■can restore what has been taken from the eggs, but with 
 plenty of humidity in the machine at hatching time, even 
 chicks that have been dried down too much during the 
 earlier stages of the hatch will have a fair chance to get 
 out. If the eggs have not been dried down sufficiently, 
 more ventilation can be supplied for a short time, but this 
 must be done cautiously and promptly reduced to meet 
 the manufacturer's instructions when the chicks begin to 
 come out, otherwise there is danger that the air in the 
 machine will be lacking in moisture. If the temperature 
 has been too low, resulting in a delayed hatch, more heat 
 may be given, and less if there appears to be danger of 
 the chicks coming off too soon. 
 
 These last-minute adjustments however, offer at 
 best only a choice of evils, and there is strong probability 
 that more harm than good will be done by them. No mat- 
 ter how desirable it may appear to have provided more 
 or less heat, moisture, ventilation, cooling, or whatever 
 detail may have been improperly adjusted, it now is too 
 late to do much by way of correcting conditions. Only 
 slight changes may be made at this time; for the rest, 
 it is necessary to accept the result, whatever it may be, 
 and learn the lesson so well that there will be no danger 
 of making the same mistake again. 
 
 The beginner must learn to keep cool in the face of 
 poor hatches, and not let an obvious error, such as bring- 
 ing off the chicks too soon, drying down too much, or 
 any of the mistakes that may be made, lead him to go to 
 the other extreme in the next hatch. He should remem- 
 ber that he is working with extremely narrow margins 
 all along the line, and the result of any hatch is deter- 
 mined by comparatively slight adjustments or differences 
 continued throughout the hatch. The common tendency 
 to extremes in method must be avoided, whether applied 
 to changes made during a single hatch, or in successive 
 
 hatches. 
 
 In the case of pedigree hatching or where the chicks 
 from different pens are to be hatched separately, the 
 eggs, properly marked, may be mixed indiscriminately in 
 the tray during incubation, but at the last turning they 
 should be separated and placed in pedigree egg trays such 
 as are supplied by the manufacturer, of the incubator, or 
 
 in small wire baskets such as are shown in Figs. 65 and 
 67. A still cheaper way is to use small bags of "mos- 
 quito bar" like those shown in Fig. 66. With any of these 
 appliances the eggs must not be crowded, but must have 
 plenty of room — much more than is necessary in regular 
 hatchings, or the chicks will not be able to get out prop- 
 erly or will smother after they are out. If the trays are 
 full of fertile eggs to be divided into different lots in 
 this way, it will be necessary to have an empty machine 
 warmed up and ready to help out at this time. It is use- 
 less to attempt subdividing eggs in full trays unless this 
 is done. Where pedigree hatching is practiced it is not 
 possible to use the nursery of course, and more careful 
 attention must be given to the chicks, removing and 
 marking them when they are well dried, and transferring 
 them to baskets or other warm comfortable quarters. 
 They must not be kept too long in the close quarters in 
 which they were hatched. 
 
 When the eggs begin to pip or when the chicks are 
 heard, which may be before pipping is observed, the ma- 
 chine must be put in order for the hatch and arranged so 
 that it will not need to be opened again until the hatch 
 is over, or practically so. If it has. a nursery compart- 
 ment the trays should have the trap side turned to the 
 front, though the trap is to be left closed until the hatch 
 is well underway. If the thermometer is of the contact 
 type or is fastened to a loose stand it should be perma- 
 nently fastened in place so that it cannot be knocked 
 over. If the machine is regulated properly there will be 
 little danger of the temperature getting far out of the 
 way at this time, but it always is desirable to have the 
 thermometer in position to refer to. With the chicks 
 coming out lively, the temperature may run up to 104 or 
 105 degrees, but this will do no harm, and the regulator 
 should not be interfered with unless the temperature 
 goes above 105 degrees. 
 
 In incubators with nursery compartments the chicks 
 may be allowed to drop down after about one-third of 
 them are out, but until then they should be kept up on 
 the trays. Nurseries are always lower in temperature 
 than the egg trays, and the chicks are liable to get chilled 
 if they are allowed to drop down before they are dry, 
 and before there are enough of them out to keep each 
 other warm. Many epidemics of so-called "white diarrhea" 
 are caused by the chicks getting chilled in the nursery. 
 Always keep them up, therefore, until the hatch is at 
 least one-third over, then open the trap and let them find 
 their way down gradually. 
 
 Avoid Overcrowding in the Nursery 
 
 It seldom is necessary or desirable to disturb the 
 chicks while they are coming off, and opening the door 
 and fussing with them should be avoided. In case the 
 hatch is extra good, however, it may be necessary to re- 
 move some of the first chicks hatched, after they are 
 thoroughly dry, in order to give the later ones a chance, 
 
 FIG. 67— CORN POPPERS USED IN PEDIGREE 
 
 HATCHING 
 
 Courtesy of American School of Poultry Husbandry. 
 
46 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 also to avoid injury to those that are out. If the machine 
 IS plainly overcrowded and the chicks are panting seri- 
 ously (a little panting need not cause uneasiness), pro- 
 vide a vifarmly lined basket or tray such as is shown in 
 Fig. 80, and remove enough to relieve the congestion. If 
 the chicks are carefully covered and placed in a warm 
 place they will in no way be injured, and the conditions 
 in the machine will be much better for the chicks that are 
 left and for those that are not yet out. Where this is 
 done however, it should be remembered that removing a 
 large number of chicks is liable to result in lowering the 
 temperature, and the regulator may need to be readjusted 
 to keep it up to normal. 
 
 In extra-good hatches, if none of the chicks are re- 
 moved it will be necessary to throw the ventilators wide 
 open, and possibly wedge the front door slightly open 
 also, in order to supply sufficient air. It should be re- 
 membered that the requirements of chicks are greatly 
 in excess of unhatched embryos. This extra ventilation 
 will save those that are already hatched, but may make it 
 increasingly difficult for the later ones to get out, as 
 it will lower the temperature and dry the air, causing 
 the chicks to stick in the shell. It is a good deal better 
 to relieve the situation by taking out some of the strong- 
 
 When the incubator can be spared, it is better to 
 leave the chicks in it for 24 hours, removing the trays as 
 soon as hatching is over, to give the chicks more room 
 and better air. At this time it generally is wise to give 
 all the ventilation that the machine can supply. If the 
 incubator must be reset at once the chicks can be taken 
 out as soon as they are thoroughly dry and placed in 
 baskets, trays, or day-old-chick shipping boxes, where 
 they should remain for about 24 hours, or they can be 
 taken directly from the incubator to the brooder if it is 
 ready, thoroughly warmed, and regulated. 
 
 Burn or bury all dead chicks, kill the cripples, if any, 
 and include them in the burning, also the eggs that did 
 not hatch. The empty shells, however, may be pounded 
 up and fed to the laying hens. Clean and disinfect the 
 machine thoroughly before resetting it. Brush out all 
 dust and down, scrub the trays and burlap frames, if 
 any, using a good disinfecting solution, with which also 
 the entire inner surface of the machine should be sprayed 
 or scrubbed. Any good coal tar disinfectant may be 
 used for this purpose, or a home-made preparation if 
 preferred. The regulator must be reset and the machine 
 operated long enough to be sure that it is correctly ad- 
 justed before it can be considered ready for next hatch. 
 
 PURDUE UNIVERSITY EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRV 
 INCUBATOR REPORT 
 
 Experiment No-_ 
 
 
 Dale 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J4«ke_ 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 JJam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 be. 
 
 D«U 
 
 H.» 
 
 of 
 Km. 
 
 kin: U> 
 or D«WB 
 
 Clinia 
 
 IUU>d 
 
 •r 
 l..«ad 
 
 Tetter. 
 
 «tara 
 •1 ■••■ 
 
 ■•klin 
 HaaiditT 
 
 Oil 
 
 C«- u 
 »»1 ' 
 
 V 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 < 
 
 : 1 
 
 i \ 
 
 > < 
 
 > • 
 
 1 i 
 
 , ,.11.1.. 
 )'■'<• AM.1 
 
 'tMn 
 
 W.I. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PIG. 68— A WELL, PLANNED RECORD BLANK FOR THE INCUBATOR OPERATOR 
 The temperature record on the sheet is kept by drawing- a line from reading to reading-, giving a "curve" that 
 shows in the plainest manner the fluctuations of temperature. The sheet — only a part of which is here shown pro- 
 vides for 23 numbers, three lines being allowed to each number. After figure 6 are the words "Test eggs first 
 time," after 13, "Test eggs second time," after 20, "Note hour when first chick hatched," after 21, "Note hour when 
 through hatching." after 23, "Date and hour when chicks were removed from machine." Beloiv- that are blanks for 
 final report, as follows: 
 
 FINAL RE-PORT 
 
 No. eggs put in 
 
 No. eggs infertile 
 
 No. eggs with dead germs 
 
 No. eggs broken 
 
 No. chicks dead in shell 
 
 No. crippled chicks 
 
 No. vigorous chicks 
 
 Remarks: 
 
 est, doing this as quickly as possible, however, without 
 keeping the incubator door open long or permitting the 
 chicks that are removed to get chilled. Those that are 
 taken out in advance of the rest of the hatch must be 
 kept covered (not too closely) and in a warm place. As 
 a rule they will do better if treated in this way than 
 when placed directly in a brooder, no matter how com- 
 fortably it may be heated. 
 
 Cleaning Up the Hatch 
 When the hatch is about over the eggs should be ex- 
 amined, and if any are covered by large sections of 
 empty shells these should be removed to be sure that 
 no chicks are thus imprisoned and prevented from get- 
 ting out. If a few are stuck in the shells, they may be 
 helped out. Chicks that are not able to get out without 
 assistance seldom are worth bothering with, but there 
 are sufficient exceptions to the rule to encourage some 
 to give the little extra attention which may be suf- 
 ficient to save them. The best way to help chicks out of 
 the shell is first to raise the temperature, which nearly 
 always drops below normal when the chicks are practical- 
 ly all out and down in the nursery. Then get the "stick- 
 ers" together and cover them with a flannel cloth wrung 
 out of water about as hot as the hands will stand it. Do 
 not cover the eggs tightly, but lay a single thickness of 
 cloth over them. If they have stuck on account of a 
 lack of humidity in the machine this will enable them to 
 get out. If their failure to hatch is due to actual weak- 
 ness it is not worth while to do anything more for them, 
 as they will not live even if they do get out. 
 
 -Per cent fertile eggs to total eggs - 
 
 -Per cent dead germs to fertile eggs — 
 
 -Per cent dead-in-shell to fertile eggs — 
 
 -Per cent crippled chicks to fertile eggs - 
 
 -Per cent vigorous chicks to fertile eggs — 
 
 -Per cent vigorous chicks to total eggs — 
 
 -Per cent vigorous chicks to egg in machine 
 after second test — 
 
 Day-to-Day Details of Incubator Operation 
 By way of putting the everyday details of incubator 
 management in simple consecutive order, the following 
 daily schedule is suggested. With such a definite schedule 
 before him the beginner will be able to plan ahead a lit- 
 tle and to know what is coming before he reaches it. In 
 this schedule it is assumed that the hatch will be so 
 handled as to have it come off on the morning of the 
 twenty-first day. If for any reason the hatch is earlier 
 or later than this the details of operation must be modi- 
 fied accordingly. 
 
 First Day— Set the machine in the forenoon, adjusting 
 the ventilation exactly as directed by the manufacturer. 
 Always test new thermometers before using them, and 
 old ones at the beginning of each season. If a suspended 
 thermometer is used, measure the distance between the 
 bulb and the bottom of the tgg tray, and if this is not 
 as the manufacturer says it should be, stop right there 
 until the error is corrected. Do not go to bed the first 
 night_ until certain that the temperature is stationary at 
 the right point. Sometimes the thermometer will regis- 
 ter accurately for days with the machine running empty, 
 but when the eggs are put in it may run up a little. 
 
 Second Day— Look at the thermometer a few times 
 and fill and trim the lamp in the evening, doing this, if 
 possible, about six or seven o'clock, so that when the 
 last inspection for the day is made at bedtime the final 
 adjustment of the flame can be safely made for the night. 
 If there is reason to believe that the room temperature 
 will drop much, turn the flame a little higher than would 
 
OPERATION OF INCUBATORS 
 
 47 
 
 be necessary to maintain the temperature at time of 
 adjustment, depending on the regulator to take care of 
 the surplus heat until it is needed along towards morning. 
 
 Third Day — Turn the eggs in the morning, and put 
 them back into the machine without any unnecessary de- 
 lay. From this time on turn regularly morning and night 
 till the chicks begin to pip. 
 
 Fourth and Fifth Days — No special attention required 
 on these days aside from the regular daily care. 
 
 Sixth Day — This is the best tim^ for testing when the 
 machine is filled in the regular way with either white 
 or brown-shelled eggs, especially if the eggs are to be 
 weighed to determine the percentage of evaporation. 
 Eggs with rings around the embryos are dead, the cause 
 being either weak germs, or too high temperature in the 
 machine. Take out the infertiles and feed them to young 
 
 INCUBATOR 
 
 Incubator No Make Size 
 
 rect mistakes along these lines if not too serious. If the 
 hatch is progressing as it should, it will do no harm to 
 begin cooling down once a day, even if the weather is 
 cool, unless there is reason to believe that the germs are 
 a little behind in development, in which case do no cool- 
 ing at all. Never cool more than once a day under ordi- 
 nary conditions. 
 
 Thirteenth to Seventeenth Days — Nothing but regu- 
 lar duties for these days, but watch for the temperature 
 to creep up as animal heat increases and readjust the 
 regulator accordingly. Test a few eggs every day to 
 keep in touch with the development of the embryos. 
 
 Eighteenth Day — This is about the last chance to 
 correct any conditions that may need attention. Test 
 the eggs again, unless the chicks can be heard peeping in 
 the shell or some of the eggs are pipped. If appearance 
 
 F?ECORD 
 
 OllSEBVI- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TEMPERATURE 
 
 OF INCUBATOR 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Date 
 
 Day of 
 incubatio.n 
 
 ■. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11. 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 .17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 MORNIN.G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Noon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 '. ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Evening 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 rEMPE 
 
 RATU 
 
 RE OF ROOM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Morning 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Noon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Evenino 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 ....... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HUMIDITY O 
 
 ' INCUBATOR 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Morning 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■- ■■■ 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ElENlVO '..' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HUMIDITY 
 
 .OF ROOM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Morning . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ,. 1... 
 
 
 
 Noon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Evening — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EGGS COOLED— MINUTES 
 
 Morning 
 
 
 
 
 
 FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY 
 
 
 
 
 
 NO. SET 
 
 INF. 
 
 FERT. 
 
 V" FEHT.. 
 
 DEAD 
 1ST TEST 
 
 DEAD 
 2ND TEST 
 
 DEAD 
 3HD TEST 
 
 DEAD 
 HATCH 
 
 CRIPPLED 
 CHICKS 
 
 EGGS 
 BROKEN 
 
 STRONG ' 
 CHICKS 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FIG. 69— COMPLETE HATCHING AND BREEDING RECORD AS USED AT OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 
 Incubator operators who keep accurate records as are provided for on this sample blanlt, will have at the end 
 of the hatching season information in regard to their hatching and brooding operations that should prove Invaluable 
 to them. Record keeping requires some time and attention, but the operator will be amply repaid for his pains by the 
 better and more certain results that he will be able to secure. 
 
 chicks or adult hens. They are just as good for the 
 fowls as so much meat scrap. 
 
 Seventh Day — In mild weather begin cooling now, 
 leaving the eggs out until they are lukewarm — that is, 
 neither warm nor cold to the touch. In warm weather 
 leave them out about 10 minutes and then return them to 
 the machine whether they are lukewarm or not. 
 
 Eighth and Ninth Days — No special attention aside 
 from cooling and regular daily care. 
 
 Tenth and Eleventh Days — About this time, if the 
 embryos are developing as they should, look for the tem- 
 perature to run up a little. This is due to the increasing 
 animal heat in the egg, and the regulator must be changed 
 to take care of it. Turning the flame a little lower will 
 not answer. From this time on it will be necessary to 
 be on the watch for rising temperature and readjust the 
 regulator from time to time to take care of it. 
 
 Twelfth Day — Weigh the eggs or test them, to de- 
 termine wiiether they are drying down as they should; 
 also note whether the germs are developing properly. If 
 too much ventilation has been given, begin supplying 
 moisture according to the book of directions that accom- 
 panies the machine. If the air cells are too small, give 
 more ventilation, and if the germs are a little behind in 
 development, increase the heat. There is time yet to cor- 
 
 of the embryos as observed through the tester, indicates 
 that the temperature or ventilation has not been cor- 
 rect, a little can be done to remedy matters, but not 
 much. It is unwise to attempt to make any marked 
 change at this time. 
 
 Nineteenth Day — Turn as usual, if there are no chicks 
 pipping, but do no more cooling. Turn the eggs and get 
 them back into the machine as quickly as possible. If 
 pipping has begun, do not disturb the eggs at all, but be 
 sure that the trap in the egg tray is next the door. 
 
 Twentieth Day — The chicks should be coming out 
 briskly about the end of the twentieth day. Keep the 
 flame up to normal and don't worry about the tempera- 
 ture. If the machine has a nursery compartment do not 
 open the trap to let the chicks down until at least a 
 third of them are out. 
 
 Twenty-First Day — The chicks should be all out and 
 down in the nursery dry, before the end of the 21st day. 
 If they are a little late coming out give them more time. 
 Chicks may be lively and strong even if a day late, though 
 generally they are not. As soon as the chicks are all 
 out remove the trays to give them more room. Clean up 
 the incubator as soon as the chicks are taken out and 
 thoroughly disinfect it, whether it is to be reset at 
 once or not. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Mistakes m Artificial Incubating 
 
 Common Mistakes Made in Buying, Setting Up and Operating Incubators— Mistakes Made in Taking Off the Hatch- 
 Special Details of Operation That Should Prove Helpful to All Incubator Users 
 in Preventing Serious Errors and the Losses Occasioned by Them 
 
 UCCESSFUL operation of incubators is a com- 
 paratively simple and easy matter as long as the 
 beginner confines himself to the general direc- 
 tions accompanying his machine, coupling with 
 these a careful consideration of the detailed information 
 in Chapter V. of this book, which is designed to meet 
 special conditions and to make it possible for the operator, 
 however inexperienced, to have an intelligent under- 
 standing of the reasons for doing or not doing certain 
 thing!, rather than blindly to "follow directions.'' As a 
 rule, trouble is experienced only when the operator com- 
 mences to experiment, to listen to the suggestions of 
 local advisers who have had little or no experience with 
 his particular type of machine, or to indulge in the com- 
 mon practice of "taking chances" and "cutting corners.'' 
 It is not the purpose of this chapter to try to point 
 out all the mistakes that the beginner may make, when 
 he embarks upon this course. That would be an endless 
 task. It is much simpler and easier to learn the few, 
 essential details of correct operation than to attempt to 
 learn the innumerable incorrect practices that must be 
 avoided. Experience has shown however, that there are 
 some particular errors into which the beginner is very 
 apt to fall, even when trying hard to do things right, 
 and to these it seems that some special attention should 
 be paid or added emphasis be given regarding their dan- 
 ger, even though they may already have been mentioned 
 briefly in the preceding chapter. 
 
 Getting the Incubator Too Late in the Season 
 The best and most profitable chicks, and generally 
 the easiest ones to raise, are those that are hatched 
 early. For this reason the incubator should be on hand 
 well in advance of the time when it will be needed. There 
 aie almost certain to be delays in getting the incubator 
 if it is ordered direct from the manufacturer during the 
 busy season. If bought from an agent he may not have 
 the right kind or size in stock unless arrangements have 
 been made well in advance. There may be some missing 
 or broken parts when the machine is uncrated, or vari- 
 ous things may happen to interfere with getting it set 
 up and properly adjusted. 
 
 All of these possible sources of delay should be con- 
 
 sidered, and discounted by ordering in ample time. One 
 of the commonest causes of disappointment and loss 
 among beginners is this delay in getting the machine and 
 tl.e consequent haste to get it started which results in 
 setting it before it is properly adjusted, or without giving 
 it a thorough preliminary tryout. Keeping the eggs wait- 
 ing while the empty machine is being tested and adjusted, 
 appears to be too much for the average person's self- 
 control. Avoid this danger by getting the machine early. 
 
 Failure to Set Up and Adjust Correctly 
 
 A surprisingly large number of persons fail to meet 
 the conditions of success in this obviously important de- 
 tail. Some do not read the instructions in regard to set- 
 ting up, and try to "puzzle out" for themselves the use 
 and location of parts, the assembling of which is fully 
 explained in the directions that accompany the machine 
 and on whose exact adjustments its proper working de- 
 pends. Many do not read the description of the machine 
 with sufficient care to know whether it is set up right or 
 not. And others may even know that it is not correctly 
 adjusted but blindly hope to operate it successfully 
 any way. 
 
 The various parts of the incubator MUST be con- 
 nected up properly and adjusted to work exactly as they 
 should, or trouble is bound to ensue. This is not a thing 
 that should call for argument or explanation; it is an 
 imperative requirement. It is not necessary to take 
 chances or to guess, and there is no excuse for doing so. 
 The operator can readily know whether his machine is 
 set up correctly or not, and unless he does know this be- 
 fore placing eggs in it he has only himself to blame if 
 results are not satisfactory. 
 
 Locating Incubator Where Ventilation is Poor 
 
 It is useless to expect good results if the machine is 
 located where ventilation is deficient and where lamp 
 fumes cannot be got rid of. A cellar with tightly closed 
 doors and with the windows banked to keep things from 
 freezing, also rooms that are small and close, are not 
 suitable locations for incubators. The actual require- 
 ments of the embryos for fresh air are quite small, but 
 the incubator lamp uses a great deal of oxygen in a day's 
 
 •^f 
 
 I \.l ;. 
 
 ^^aWjii J i W I H^IW igw«i ^>' ' j- > ijjww > lJMA^W.W l< B ' Mww ' * ; tt» i>' i i su^.^ . 
 
 PIG. 70— A "FAIR" HATCH 
 
 The difference between a fair hatch and a 
 first-class one, .such as is illustrated in Fig. 71, 
 is chiefly a matter of careful attention to details 
 all along- the line from the selection of the fowls 
 in the breeding pen to the management of the 
 incubator. 
 
 f< 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' •■ -^ 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 * ■" **'' 
 
 -Y 
 
 -V- 
 
 
 ?• 
 
 *- 
 
 -"^ 
 
 ■ i ;, 
 
 '^\ ^ 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 *" -N 
 > 
 
 
 FIG. 71— AN EXCELLENT HATCH 
 
 There is no mystery and but little "luck" 
 about getting good hatches. The careful, pains- 
 taking operator with a standard machine and 
 good eggs can refjularly get large hatches, and 
 his profits will be much greater than with the 
 merely "fair" kind such as shown in Fig. 70. 
 
 18 
 
M1STAK1-:S ]N ARTIFICIAL INC-UBATING 
 
 49 
 
 FIG. 72. 
 
 A SIMPLE EGG 
 
 TESTER 
 
 time and gives off a large volume of poisonous fumes 
 which are certain to cause trouble unless ventilation is 
 free enough to reduce the proportion of lamp fumes to a 
 harmless percentage. Incubators can be operated in com- 
 paratively small rooms or where there is only a limited 
 amount of ventilation if the lamp 
 fumes are conducted out of the room 
 by means of suitable pipes. 
 
 Operating Without Instructions 
 
 This mistake is especially common 
 among those who purchase used or 
 second-hand incubators with which 
 they have had no previous experi- 
 ence, and attempt to run them with- 
 out the manufacturer's book of direc- 
 tions. No matter how successful the 
 operator may have been with other 
 makes he needs the manufacturer's in- 
 structions for each type of machine used, and it is sim- 
 ply inviting trouble to attempt to operate without them. 
 No one need hesitate to write to the manufacurer for 
 directions, when these are missing for any reason, and if 
 a charge is made for supplying them the sum demanded 
 will be but a small one and should be cheerfully paid. 
 
 Irregular Hours for the Work 
 
 There should be regular hours for caring for the 
 machine, morning and evening, and these should be rig- 
 idly adhered to. The two peiiods should divide the day 
 as evenly as possible without interfering with other 
 duties. A good time in the evening is just before or 
 after supper. At this time the eggs should be turned and 
 the lamp filled and trimmed, giving time for the eggs to 
 get warmed up before the last visit at bedtime, when the 
 flame can be finally adjusted for the night. In the morn- 
 ing there will be nothing to do but turn the eggs, as a 
 rule, and if the thermometer is looked at again at noon 
 there will be little danger of the temperature getting 
 much out of the way between times. 
 
 Lack of Conveniences for the Work 
 
 Wherever the machine is located, it pays to fix things 
 up conveniently for doing the work. The chief function 
 of the incubator is to save time, either directly or in 
 directly, and the practical operator will try to save all 
 he can by installing suitable facilities for tending it. If 
 the machine is of the type that does not have a clear top 
 
 on which to place the trays, provide a table or large box 
 of proper height. If the eggs are turned by shuffling, the 
 small tray illustrated in Fig. 52 will be found a real nec- 
 essity. Arrange a convenient place for the oil can and 
 a funnel for filling the lamp, and do this work over a 
 small box or pan containing planer shavings or other ab- 
 sorbent material so that if any oil is spilled it will not 
 soil anything or saturate the floor. It is much more 
 convenient to use an oil can with a faucet in the bottom, 
 than one from which the oil must be poured. 
 
 Using Undesirable Eggs 
 
 One of the reasons why the sitting hen often has 
 more chicks to her credit proportionately than the incu- 
 bator is that when there are only a few eggs to be set 
 they are carefully selected and only the ones that are 
 most suitable for the purpose are used. In filling incu- 
 bators however, especially when there is room in the 
 machine for the entire available supply, many eggs are 
 used that cannot possibly hatch. All eggs that are ab- 
 normally large or small, or that are rough, thin-shelled 
 or otherwise defective, such as those having spiral marks 
 (see Fig. 57), transparent spots, etc., should be discarded, 
 even if it is necessary to operate the machine with the 
 trays partially filled. It is better to waste space than eggs. 
 
 Flame Too High 
 
 When leaving the machine for the night the flame 
 ordinarily should be *urned high enough to provide an 
 excess of heat that will hold the damper open a little — 
 usually about one-eighth of an inch, though this will de- 
 pend somewhat on the style of inachine. With this ex- 
 cess heat the regulator can take care of a sudden drop 
 in the temperature or if it should get warmer instead, 
 will still be able to dispose of the extra heat without 
 trouble. Too much should not be demanded of any reg- 
 ulator, however. This delicate device as made for prac- 
 tically all standard machines is remarkably efficient, but 
 should not be expected to control wide extremes in tem- 
 perature. When the flame is turned entirely too high 
 the surplus heat will exceed the regulator's capacity to 
 divert or waste it, resulting in the egg chamber becom- 
 ing overheated, and this may happen with the finest reg- 
 ulator made. Another objection to an extremely high 
 flame is that it is a wasteful use of fuel, adding unneces- 
 sarily to the cost of operating the machine; also, with 
 a high flame the danger of a smoking or overheated lamp 
 is greatly increased. 
 
 FIG. 73— HOW TO TRIM 
 LAMP WICKS 
 The corners of the wick must 
 he rounded off as here indi- 
 cated, to get an ideal flame. 
 Wicks will burn this way nat- 
 urally with a little attention. 
 
 FIG. 74 — IDEAL LAMP FLAME 
 Flame shaped as here illus- 
 trated will give the greatest 
 amount of heat and may be 
 turned quite high without dan- 
 ger of smoking. Such a flame 
 is secured by trimming the 
 wick as shown in Fig. 73. 
 
 U '\ 
 
 1^^^^ 
 
 ^^'^"^f^H-^u^r"^^' • 
 
 
 ■■ Xc-^-^J 
 
 FIG. 75— IMPROPER TRIM- 
 MING OF WICKS 
 
 If the corners of the wicks 
 are not properly rounded off, 
 the flame will be sharp cor- 
 nered and will smoke and form 
 dangerous deposits of soot. 
 Such a flame will supply com- 
 paratively little heat. 
 
50 
 
 ARTIFICIA'L INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 Flame Too I^ow 
 
 With a low flame there will not be sufficient heat to 
 keep the temperature up to the desired point if there 
 should be a marked drop in the room temperature, which 
 is especially apt to occur during the night. Unless there 
 is a certainty of ?. rising 
 temperature there should al- 
 ways be some surplus heat. 
 In a good cellar, and with a 
 well -insulated machine, it 
 often is possible to run 
 through an entire hatch 
 without any special adjust- 
 ment of the flame, the reg- 
 ulator being depended on to 
 take care of all variations in 
 temperature that may arise. 
 In above-ground rooms 
 where the temperature fluc- 
 tuates widely from day to 
 day, and with imperfectly in- 
 sulated machines, frequent 
 readjustments of the flame 
 will be required. 
 
 Making Changes in Equip- 
 ment of Incubator 
 
 A good deal of trouble 
 grows out of the too com- 
 mon practice of making 
 changes in the equipment of 
 the machine, or using non- 
 standard parts, such as ther- 
 mometers, lamps, burners, 
 diaphragms, etc. Sometimes 
 this is done as a matter of 
 convenience, the regular 
 parts not being at hand, and 
 sometimes merely to save a 
 few pennies when the stand- 
 ard parts happen to cost a 
 trifle more than substitutes. 
 
 This practice is usually a most short-sighted kind of 
 economy, the losses in a single hatch often amounting to 
 more than the entire cost of every regular part needing 
 replacement. 
 
 It is safe to assume that the manufacturer has chosen 
 
 ,the equipment for his machine with the greatest care, and 
 
 after most expensive tests. He often has good reasons 
 
 for using certain articles, and it is the part of wisdom 
 
 to take advant- 
 age of the other 
 fellow's experi- 
 ence. Especially 
 in the case of 
 incubators using 
 d i a p h ragms, it 
 ought not to be 
 necessary to 
 explain that 
 the manufacturer 
 uses certain ma- 
 terials because he 
 finds it import- 
 ant to do so, 
 FIG. 77— HYGROMETER j ., , ,.^ 
 
 „, . . ^ . . , . and the substitu- 
 
 This instrument is used m measur- 
 ing the degree of humidity in the egg tion of other 
 chamber. Courtesy of Taylor Instru- f.t,_- t,,,,;„„ j;f 
 ment Companies. tabric navmg dit- 
 
 FIG. 
 
 Anyone who has a small handlamp can readily ar- 
 range a homemade tester in the manner here indicated. 
 Provide a good-sized opening in the lid (on the back) to 
 admit air to lamp, and at top to let hot air escape. Re- 
 produced from Bui. 172 of Oregon Exp. Station. 
 
 ferent properties, may result in highly unsatisfactory 
 
 results. 
 
 Using Untested Thermometers 
 The average incubator thermometer is accurate and 
 
 reliable, but there are enough of the other sort to make 
 _ it important that every one 
 
 be tested before being placed 
 in active service. Once in a 
 while a defective thermome- 
 ter may get past the in- 
 spector; still more frequent- 
 ly they are damaged in ship- 
 ment through the breaking 
 or separating of the mer- 
 cury column in the tubes, 
 and any thermometer that 
 has stood for some months 
 is apt to change through the 
 seasoning of the glass. Take 
 no chances, but be sure that 
 the thermometer registers 
 correctly before starting the 
 hatch. 
 
 Thermometer Not in Correct 
 Position 
 A great deal depends up- 
 on having the thermometer 
 in the position in which it is 
 designed to be operated, and 
 as there are several types 
 with directions necessarily 
 modified for each, there is 
 more or less confusion here. 
 A suspended thermometer is 
 intended to hang with the 
 bulb at a certain specified 
 distance from the bottom of 
 the egg tray. If the wrong 
 hanger is used or it is not 
 hooked properly in place the 
 bulb may be too low or too 
 high, the wrong temperature at the egg level being se- 
 cured in either case. Such thermometers are apt to be 
 pushed up when the trays are removed or replaced, and 
 if they do not swing freely may remain in this position 
 and, of course, will 
 not then register 
 correctly. It is im- 
 material what style 
 is used, provided 
 the thermometer 
 is operated in the 
 position intended 
 and the tempera- 
 ture adjusted ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 Contact ther- 
 mometers can be 
 placed with the 
 bulb on top of an 
 egg, but are more 
 apt to slip down 
 so that they rest 
 between two eggs piQ. 78-electric LIGHt" AND 
 and touching both, PASTEBOARD BOX USED AS 
 
 with a correspond- AN EGG TESTER 
 
 ing difference in Reproduced from Bui. 172 of Oregon 
 
 Experiment Station 
 
 76— KEROSENE LAMP AND PASTEBOARD 
 BOX FOR EGG TESTING 
 
MISTAKES IN ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 
 
 51 
 
 temperature. There also are three distinct positions for 
 standing thermometers; between and touching two eggs; 
 on a level with top of egg but not touching; half an 
 inch above top of egg. There may be as much as two 
 degrees difference in the reading of the thermometers in 
 these different positions — which fact ought to make it 
 clear that the manufacturer's directions and the partic- 
 ular style of thermometer for which the directions are 
 given, should be rigidly adhered to. 
 
 Too High Temperature At Start 
 
 It is quite important to avoid too high temperatures 
 at the beginning of the incubation period. The practice 
 of starting at a relatively low temperature and gradually 
 increasing as the hatch progresses, has the indorsement 
 of most practical operators, where contact or low stand- 
 ing thermometers are used. There is no question about 
 the fact that the embryo is much more apt to be injured 
 by high temperatures during the first few days, and if the 
 incubator cannot be depended upon to maintain exactly 
 the desired temperature it is better to be on the safe 
 side by running a trifle low. But do not forget that any 
 departure from the correct temperature, either high or 
 
 low, must be offset by an 
 equivalent increase or de- 
 crease later on. 
 
 Failure to Average the 
 Temperature 
 
 Attention has been called 
 in the preceding chapter to 
 the error that the careful 
 operator is liable to fall in- 
 to, of regarding the normal 
 incubation temperature a s 
 the maximum rather than 
 the average which he should 
 secure. This results in many 
 persons habitually running a 
 little below the proper tem- 
 perature, or while they may 
 hold to the exact tempera- 
 ture, as a rule (103 degrees for example), they are slower 
 about correcting the temperature when it falls below that 
 point than when it happens to exceed it, and in any case 
 they fail to offset low temperatures by running corres- 
 pondingly higher later on. Either way the practical re- 
 sult is an average temperature just that much below the 
 correct one, which means a delayed hatch. This is one 
 of the principal reasons why most hatches made by be- 
 ginners are slow in coming off, often disastrously so. 
 There is danger in high temperatures, it is true, but the 
 cumulative effect of running a trifle below normal for 
 long periods, may prove to be just as unfavorable in 
 the final result. 
 
 Failure to Adjust for Animal Heat 
 
 If there were no animal heat generated by the de- 
 veloping embryo, any good incubator favorably located 
 and properly adjusted should run through the hatch 
 without the shghtest variation. As the embryo develops 
 however, it begins to generate heat, and about the tenth 
 day the thermometer is liable to take a jump upward as 
 a result of this. This rise is not as sudden as it appears, 
 but it takes close watching to detect it at first and the 
 average operator is apt to be conscious of it for the 
 first time when he finds the thermometer running a de- 
 gree or so above what it should be. The animal heat will 
 continue to increase in a normal hatch right up to the 
 
 > FIG. 79 — EGG CARTON 
 SUTTABLE FOR 
 KEEPING HATCH- 
 ING EGGS 
 
 FIG. 80— BOX FOR MOVING CHICKS FROM INCU- 
 
 CUBATOR 
 
 Photo from Cornell University. 
 
 end, and must be taken care of by readjusting the regu- 
 lator as often as necessary. 
 
 Failure to Test the Eggs 
 
 The beginner may find it difficult to learn much at 
 first about the development of the embryo, but if he will 
 persist in using the tester, examining all the eggs at reg- 
 ular periods as directed in the previous chapter, and mak- 
 ing almost daily tests with a few. he will find that it is 
 possible to follow the growth of the embryos with a good 
 degree of certainty, and the ability to do this will prove 
 of great value to him if he is going to produce chicks in 
 large numbers. It is scarcely worth while to go through 
 the motions of being a chick raiser if such opportunities 
 for making oneself proficient in the work are to be 
 ignored or neglected. 
 
 Failure to Examine Eggs During the Hatch 
 
 The beginner can make no better use of some of the 
 eggs in his first hatches than to break a few for exam- 
 ination from time to time during the hatch, after first 
 having examined them through the tester. Do this not 
 only with infertile eggs and dead germs, but with some 
 containing live germs also. It may be possible to get 
 good hatches without having a clear understanding of 
 how normal incubation progresses, but the chances of uni- 
 form success are greatly improved by such knowledge, 
 and no earnest operator will neglect any reasonable op- 
 portunity to learn 
 all that he can. 
 A few living 
 embryos s a c r i - 
 ficed in this way 
 will be repaid a 
 hundred times 
 over in the bet- 
 ter hatches real- 
 ized later on. It 
 will prove espec- 
 ially helpful if, 
 in doing this, a 
 careful record is 
 kept of the ap- 
 pearance of the 
 embryos at dif- 
 ferent stages of 
 incubation, both 
 before the tester 
 and when the 
 shells are broken. 
 
 Neglecting the 
 Lamp 
 
 FIG. 
 
 HATCHING 
 
 CASE OF 
 EGGS 
 Whiere eggs in large number are to 
 be held for hatching-, about the most 
 When the lamp convenient way of handling- them is 
 , , .to put them in regular shipping cases, 
 
 has been runnmg So packed they will be protected from 
 ainncr fr,r c«.,roro1 evaporation, mold, etc., and can readily 
 along tor several i,e curned if necessary. 
 
52 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 days without any irregularity, as incubator lamps often 
 will do, the beginner is apt to feel that he can safely take 
 some liberties with it, such as letting it run an extra 
 day without filling, omitting to trim the wick, neglect 
 ing to wipe the oil off the top of the lamp bowl, etc. It 
 is just this slacking up in care that makes nine-tenths of 
 all lamp troubles. The work of caring for the lamp 
 
 .should be arranged 
 in a regular sched- 
 ule, to be followed 
 day after day with 
 unfailing regularity. 
 With a lamp bowl 
 
 of sufficient size it 
 -SUSPEXDED THERMOM- .,, , , 
 
 jj,r[,£j^ will not be neces- 
 
 Designed to be suspended by a sary to fill it every 
 
 wire loop and as a rule is located d^y gr even every 
 
 with the bulb about one-half inch , 
 
 above the top of the eggs. Courtesy other day; but there 
 
 FIG. S2 
 
 of Taylor Instrument Companies. 
 
 must be some reg- 
 
 ular period for doir-g so, otherwise it is only a matter of 
 time until it will be neglected one day too long and a- 
 spoiled hatch may be the result. 
 
 Importance of Daily Trimming 
 
 With practically all oil-burning lamps, the wick must 
 be trimmed every day, and in cold weather it often is 
 necessary to trim twice a day. It is never safe to let 
 the wick get covered with a heavy scale. Especially 
 where low-grade oil is used, a heavy scale or char will 
 cover the end of the wick and the air tube in a com- 
 paratively short time, and an attempt to adjust the flame 
 with the wick in this condition is liable to result in a 
 smoking flame. It does not require much attention to 
 keep the wick clean and the flame burning brightly, and 
 failure to do this is inexcusable. 
 
 Using Defective Burners 
 
 The average brass burner is made of pretty thin ma- 
 terial and is easily bent out of shape. It requires but 
 a small dent in the top of the burner or in the wick tube, 
 to make the flame burn unevenly or to have the wick 
 stick or drag on one side. Do not try to repair burners 
 
 PIG. S3 — STANDING INCUB.^TOR 
 THERMOMETER 
 Thi.'? thermometer is arranged to 
 hold the bulb at the level of the top 
 of the egg. Courte.«!y of Taylor In- 
 strument Companies. 
 
 that are seriously damaged. They are not expensi\e, and 
 it is cheaper to buy new ones than to take chances with 
 an old one that is not working right. In all cases of 
 smoky lamps the burner should be carefully examined. 
 
 Extra Parts Should Be Kept On Hand 
 
 One of the most common and least excusable mis- 
 takes made by beginners is failure to keep a supply of 
 extra parts on hand for emergencies. It costs only a 
 small sum to provide an extra thermometer, a burner, a 
 lamp bowl, a few wicks, and an extra set of cloth dia- 
 phragms for machines requiring them. It is a good 
 plan to have an extra connecting rod for the regulator, 
 
 also, and a v/afer for the thermostat if the machine uses 
 that type of regulator. With these extras on hand there 
 will be no danger of spoiling a hatch while waiting for 
 a new part to replace one that has been accidentally 
 broken or otherwise damaged. 
 
 Turning the Eggs Must Not Be Neglected 
 
 From the time turning begins until it is discontinued 
 the eggs should be turned twice daily. Not once, nor 
 three times, nor now and then, but twice, and at regular 
 hours. Nothing should be allowed to interfere with this. 
 More frequent turning will do no harm, it is true, and 
 in warm weather, when the circulation of air in the 
 machine is liable to be sluggish it may prove decidedly 
 helpful. But under all ordinary conditions twice a day 
 is sufficient, and regularity is about as important as the 
 turning itself. 
 
 Turning Eggs With Oily Fingers 
 
 A very little kerosene on the shell will kill the 
 embryo and fingers that are oily from handling the lamp 
 will soon supply enough to do this. It usually is most 
 convenient to turn the eggs in the evening at the time 
 
 mm 11 ^ 
 
 FIG. 84— INCREASING CAPACITY OF EGG TRAYS 
 The special tray shown above, which is in regular use on 
 Hollywood Poultry Farm, Washington, illustrates a practical 
 method of increasing incubator capacity by keeping the 
 eggs at an incline of about forty degrees instead of laying 
 them flat on the tray. Bj' doing this the number of eggs 
 that can be placed in the tray is increased nearly twentj' 
 per cent. The eggs are kept in this position until the last 
 turning, when they are transferred to the regular wire- 
 bottom trays for the hatch. Eggs in these special trays are 
 quickly turned, simply slanting them in the other direction. 
 
 the lamp is filled and trimmed, and to be on the safe side 
 it is advisable to make it a rule always to turn the eggs 
 before the lamp is touched. 
 
 Too Much Cooling of Eggs 
 
 Many operators seriously reduce the percentage of 
 their hatch by overcooling the eggs. It does not seem to 
 matter greatly whether eggs are cooled or not during in- 
 cubation when the proper temperature is maintained. With- 
 out doubt however, cooling is an advantage where the eggs 
 have been exposed to too high temperatures or where the 
 average temperature is running above normal, thus caus- 
 ing the embryo to develop too rapidly. Be very careful 
 however not to overcool, but return the eggs to the ma- 
 chine just as soon as they feci lukewarm. 
 
 Neglecting to Turn and Shift the Trays 
 
 The trays should be turned end for end each day 
 and if there are two trays in the machine they should be 
 shifted from side to side daily. There is no machine 
 made that will not show some variation in temperature 
 in different parts of the egg chamber, and some of them 
 show a good deal. If this variation is not too great, and 
 if the trays are turned and shifted as suggested, the in- 
 equality will be equalized and the eggs should hatch uni- 
 formily in all parts of the machine. 
 
 Opening the Door After the Chicks Begin to Hatch 
 
 Opening the incubator door causes changes in tem- 
 perature, moisture, etc., in the egg «liamber, and should 
 be avoided as far as possible. With a little forethought 
 
MISTAKES IN ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING 
 
 53 
 
 FIG. 85— STANDARD-BRED PEN OP WHITE 
 WTANDOTTES 
 To secure hatching- eggs of uniform character— an im- 
 portant factor in successful incubation— the fowls that lay 
 «V»^J?f5/v."l"/'^^''^, "'^U'"""}^*" br^eding. With high-class 
 r»«??fA "I'Jf ^"^ fowls like the pen illustrated above, good 
 results are practically insured. This pen of White Vyan- 
 dottes won first prize at Madison Square in 1919, and is the 
 property of J. S. Martin. , » u *= 
 
 everything that will need to be done from the time the 
 chicks begin to pip until they are practically all out 
 can be attended to at the last turning. At this time, 
 if the machine has a nursery the trays should be placed 
 with the traps next the door. If moisture is to be sup- 
 plied during the hatch, the thermometer fastened in posi- 
 tion so that it cannot be overturned by the chicks, or any 
 other changes made, now is the time to attend to it. Then 
 when the chicks begin to pip the door can be shut and 
 the chicks left alone. 
 
 Get the Chicks All Out 
 
 As contrasted with the person who is so anxious to 
 help that he does much harm by untimely interference, 
 there is the other extreme in the operator who leaves 
 the chicks entirely to themselves, in the belief that any 
 that cannot get out without help are not worth saving. 
 This is true when the inability to get out is due to in- 
 herent weakness, but not when the chick sticks for some 
 purely accidental reason. It often happens that some fail 
 to get out for some simple reason, though they would 
 live and grow as well as any of their fellows if they could 
 have a little timely assistance. The practical incubator 
 operator will s'ee to it that if any are stuck in the shell 
 toward the end of the hatch, they have a chance for their 
 lives, supplying some added moisture or heat or possibly 
 helping them to break the shells. 
 
 Overcrowding in the Incubator 
 The average incubator does not have sufficient room 
 for all the chicks that can be hatched in it if the trays 
 are practically full of fertile eggs and they nearly all 
 hatch. A chick requires more room than the egg from 
 which it comes and when an extra good hatch is secured 
 they are liable to be overcrowded. It is highly injurious 
 for chicks to be packed in the incubator to the point 
 where they become overheated, and half suffocated, and 
 when there is danger of this condition existing it is nec- 
 essary to remove some of the first arrivals. It is better 
 
 to do this than to try to afiford relief by excessive venti- 
 lation which will dry out the air and make it impossible 
 for the last chicks to hatch at all. 
 
 Taking Chicks Out Too Soon 
 
 Removing the chicks from the incubator as soon as 
 hatched may be necessary for the reasons already sug- 
 gested, but this step should be regarded as the lesser 
 of two evils and should be taken with great care. Never 
 do it unless it is clearly necessary. There is no better 
 place for chicks the first day after hatching than in the 
 nursery of the incubator, in any event, never take chicks 
 from the machine that are not thoroughly dry, and do not 
 remove too many at one time. As soon as the hatch is 
 over and the chicks dry the trays should be removed, 
 which will give the chicks more room and better air, and 
 then supply all the ventilation possible. If the regular 
 ventilation of the machine is not sufficient to keep the 
 chicks from panting, wedge the door open — but be gov- 
 erned in this by the instructions of the manufacturer. 
 Some machines are apt to be drafty with the door open. 
 
 Letting the Chicks Get Chilled in Moving Them 
 
 In removing chicks from the incubator, extreme pre- 
 cautions must be taken to prevent their getting chilled, 
 v/hich may happen even in comparatively warm weather. 
 Directions for taking ofif the hatch are given in the pre- 
 ceding chapter and these instructions should be carefully 
 followed. In cold rooms, only a few should be taken out 
 at one time, not only for their own sake but for the pro- 
 tection of those left in the machine, as the temperature 
 will drop quickly when the door is open. If the brooder 
 IS not ready, or if it does not have a reliable regulator, it 
 will be better to leave the chicks in a basket or in day- 
 cld-chick boxes for a day or so. If they are kept in a 
 warm place they will be comfortable and will get hard- 
 ened a little before they are transferred to the brooder. 
 
 Leaving the Machine Without Cleaning 
 
 Immediately after the hatch is taken ofif the machine 
 should be thoroughly cleaned, whether another hatch is 
 to be started at once or not. Never store a machine away 
 at the end of the season until it is cleaned and disinfected. 
 Empty the lamp bowl, throw away the old wick and put 
 a new one in the burner, and if there are any parts on 
 top of the machine that are liable to be disturbed, such 
 as regulator arm, connecting rod, etc., these should be 
 removed and placed inside the machine. Then it will be 
 in condition to go over to the next season without suffer- 
 ing any injury, and be ready for use again on short notice. 
 
 The Biggest Mistake of All 
 
 Right here, after all serious mistakes of the incuba- 
 tion period have been successively avoided and a big 
 hatch of sturdy, vigorous chicks secured, the biggest 
 mistake of all often is made. This is the failure to pro- 
 vide suitable brooding facilities for the chicks. By "suit- 
 able" is meant a brooder that is well made, that will sup- 
 ply enough heat to keep the chicks warm under any con- 
 dition that must be met, that can be regulated with a 
 good degree of accuracy, and that provides sufficient 
 capacity to brood the chicks without crowding. It is use- 
 less to hatch chicks at all unless they can be kept under 
 reasonably favorable conditions afterwards. Poor brood- 
 ers, or not enough of them, cause the loss of enormous 
 numbers of chicks every season. Whatever other mis- 
 takes are made, at least let somebody else make this one. 
 
 FIG. «6.— EGGS OP NORMAL, SIZE ARE BEST POR HATCHING 
 
 Eggs that are of good average size, weighing two ounces each or over, and of idea' egg shape, will 
 hatch much better than eggs that are abnormal, either in size or shape. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Day-Old Chicks and Custom Hatching 
 
 Origin and Development of This Unique Industry— Who Should Hatch Day-Old Chicks and Who Should Buy Them 
 — Hatching With Lamp-Heated Incubators Profitable as Well as With Mammoth Machines — How to Build , 
 
 Up a Profitable Business in Custom Hatching. 
 
 — IRODUCTION of day-old chicks has developed in- 
 I to a great industry within a comparatively short 
 
 njj space of time, and countless "hatcheries" have been 
 
 MB established in all parts of the country, ranging in 
 size from the modest and inexpensive home "plant" of a 
 few lamp-heated incubators in the house cellar, to cor- 
 porations operating batteries of huge mammoth incuba- 
 tors, each with a capacity of many thousands of eggs. 
 
 The following historical summary of the development 
 of this industry was prepared by Herbert H. Knapp, 
 president of the International Baby Chick Association. 
 Writing in 1918, he says: 
 
 "It has been just twenty-six years since Joseph D. 
 Wilson, of Stockton, N. J., sent SO baby chicks from 
 Stockton to Chicago. After he was satisfied that chicks 
 could be sent successfully on long trips without being fed, 
 he undertook to advertise this fact and solicited business, 
 believing he had made a . 
 
 great discovery, though his 
 hopes fell somewhat, when 
 he was visited by a post- 
 ofifice inspector and accused 
 of using the mails for fradu- 
 lent purposes. 
 
 "Mr. Wilson, however, 
 continued his experiments 
 undaunted. He shipped to 
 nearby points, gradually 
 reaching out and extending 
 his business until no one 
 could accuse him of adver- 
 tising a fraud. His cus- 
 tomers were living witnesses 
 that the shipping of baby 
 chicks was a success. They 
 bought from h i m season 
 after season. They didn't 
 want to hatch their own 
 chicks. Wilson's chicks grew 
 
 even better than the ones they hatched themselves. They 
 didn't know why, but the fact remained. Now we know 
 that it was because they did not get that dose of wet 
 cornmeal the day they were hatched. While they were 
 absorbing the food nature had provided for the first two 
 or three days (the yolk of the egg) they could be car- 
 ried many miles from the place of birth. In truth, every 
 hour of the trip they were getting larger and stronger. 
 "While they were resting comfortably in a well- 
 ventilated box they could not be pampered and overfed 
 by an over-solicitious owner during those first two or 
 three important days of their lives. The hen that steals 
 her nest, hatches chicks and is not discovered for two or 
 three days invariably raises more and hardier chicks than 
 the one carefully attended and whose chicks are promptly 
 fed as soon as they hatch out. 
 
 "Mr. Wilson had the field to himself for practically 
 ten years. Then a few more took it up. Possibly Howard 
 Davis, also of New Jersey, was the second man to begin 
 shipping. Now New Jersey is one of the great centers 
 
 PIG. 87.— A SHIPMENT OF DAY-OLD CHICKS 
 
 of the industry with numerous plants ranging in capacity 
 from fifty to two hundred and fifty thousand eggs. 
 
 "The industry was started in Ohio by Michael Uhl, 
 of New Washington, 18 years ago. Michael was a young 
 man of about 2S years at that time who — it is said — re- 
 fused to become interested in his father's farming opera- 
 tions. He would not do anything but 'fuss with hens.' 
 His chief delight seemed to be setting the hens and see- 
 ing how many chickens he could raise on his father's 
 supply of grain. This did not suit the elder Uhl, so he 
 set 'young Mike' off on a piece of land by himself, where 
 he could raise chickens .to his heart's content. He saw 
 the necessity of getting some revenue before the chicks 
 grew to marketable age and began to sell baby chicks to 
 his neighbors, sending them farther away each year, until 
 he ventured to put them into wooden boxes and send 
 by express to neighboring towns, and thus the day-old 
 
 chick business in Ohio was 
 started. 
 
 "Both Mr. Wilson and Mr. 
 Uhl began with very crude 
 hatching machines. Mr. Wil- 
 son used machines in which 
 the eggs were placed on 
 sawdust and heated with 
 pans overhead, filled twice 
 daily with hot water. These 
 were followed by lamp ma- 
 chines until hundreds were 
 in use, and every lamp had 
 to be filled and trimmed 
 daily. Mr. Wilson at one 
 time had 135 Cyphers Model 
 incubators of 360-egg capac- 
 ity each. Later he began to 
 build 'mammoth' hot water 
 machines, using Candee coal 
 burning heaters, continuing 
 this style of machines to his 
 present capacity of one hundred and twenty-five thou- 
 sand eggs. 
 
 "Mr. Uhl built small, lamp machines of 200-egg 
 capacity until he had 250 in one cellar. He saw the nec- 
 essity of larger units and about eleven years ago con- 
 structed his first mammoth machine. His entire plant 
 is now equipped with this type and has a capacity of 
 200,000 eggs. Lawrence and George Uhl, who are broth- 
 ers of Michael, also operate large hatching plants. The 
 Uhls were closely followed in Ohio by Dr. S. B. Smith, 
 who has invented several types of machines, his present 
 hatchery being a novel heated-room system having a 
 capacity of 665,000 eggs. 
 
 "The one feature that has been responsible more 
 than any other for the development of the day-old chick 
 industry is the recent great improvement in brooding 
 systems. The old type of mammoth hot water brooders 
 was expensive to install and lately has given way to the 
 coal and oil burning brooders — this style being more 
 efficient and requiring comparatively small space. Brood- 
 
 s' 
 
DAY-OLD CHICKS AND CUSTOM HATCHHnG 
 
 55 
 
 ers with rated capacities of 300 to 1200 chicks are being 
 purchased very generally by farmers, who find it to their 
 advantage to be able to buy a sufficient number of chicks 
 to arrive in one shipment to run the brooder at full 
 capacity. 
 
 "We hereby warn amateurs not to place too many 
 chicks under one hover. Five hundred should be the 
 limit for the best success. A thousand or more chicks 
 might get along very nicely for a few days in open 
 weather, but remember that the chicles should grow, and 
 they need plenty of room in which to thrive. If you wish 
 to start a thousand chicks you would better buy two or 
 three colony brooders. Those who wish to purchase only 
 twenty-five to one hundred chicks may purchase small 
 lamp-heated brooders that are easy to operate, thus mak- 
 ing it practical for all classes of poultrymen to buy their 
 chicks already hatched — doing away with the bother and 
 inconvenience of incubating by hens." 
 
 Both Lamp-Heated and Mammoth Incubators Used 
 
 This branch of the poultry industry is especially at- 
 tractive to persons with 
 limited capital, since it 
 can be started profit- 
 ably even on an ex- 
 tremely small scale. 
 The large operators 
 with their huge mam- 
 moth machines have 
 important advantages 
 over the small pro- 
 ducer with his few 
 lamp-heated incubators, 
 but the latter also has 
 some advantages over 
 the former and need 
 have no fear that he is 
 going to be crowded 
 out of the business. 
 The person who hatch- 
 es chicks by the hun- 
 dred only can sell his 
 total production local- 
 ly at good prices and 
 with little expense for 
 advertising and ship- 
 ping. And he has the 
 
 satisfaction of knowing that as his reputation grows (and 
 the man who can uniformily supply first-class, livable 
 chicks to his customers does not have to wait long for a 
 "reputation") he can rapidly build up his plant until he 
 too may be turning chicks out by the tens of thousands. 
 
 It is not necessary, therefore, to have a mammoth 
 incubator to engage successfully in the production of day- 
 old chicks. Many persons, both men and women, have 
 found that with a few lamp-heated machines in the house 
 cellar they could turn out large numbers of chicks in a 
 season, in this manner marketing at good prices the eggs 
 produced by their flocks, and laying the foundation for 
 increasing trade in following years. Where the hatching 
 is on a large scale, mammoth incubators are conceded to 
 be a necessity, as they are more economical in operation 
 and require much less time in attendance. Each operator 
 must determine for himself which type he needs. 
 
 Mammoth incubators now are made in comparatively 
 small sizes though, for the average operator, there is lit- 
 tle advantage in buying these. In starting on a small 
 scale it usually will be better to buy lamp-heated ma- 
 chines which can be operated fully as efficiently and eco- 
 
 nomically as "baby" mammoths, changing over to a large 
 mammoth after sales have reached the point where it is 
 desirable to do this. It may be necessary to take some 
 loss in making this change but there is always a demand 
 for second-hand machines in good condition, so that the 
 loss is not great, and a good portion of it should fairly 
 be charged off as rental. In starting with lamp-heated 
 machines however, it is important to get standard makes. 
 These are easier operated and require much less atten- 
 tion than second-class machines and will soon repay their 
 extra cost in the economy in labor which they will ef-- 
 feet. Moreover, high-grade incubators have a definite re- 
 placement value or can readily be sold as "used machines," 
 while inferior makes are practically worthless after a 
 few years' use. 
 
 Who Should Buy Day-Old Chicks 
 
 Day-old chicks can be secured in almost any desired 
 grade or quality, with respect to breeding, and nearly 
 every one engaged in poultry production, from the back- 
 yard grower to the larger breeder and the commercial 
 
 FIG. 88- 
 
 -TTPB OF MAMMOTH INCUBATOR EXTENSIVELY USED 
 
 HATCHERIES 
 
 IN DAY -OLD CHICK 
 
 While great numbers of chicks are hatched in lamp-heated incubators, mammoths are al- 
 most invariably installed when large hatching' capacity is desired. Their use results in great- 
 ly decreased labor, and fuel cost is lower. Courtesy of Candee Incubator Company. 
 
 egg producer who count their fowls by the thousands, 
 finds it desirable from time to time to purchase chicks. 
 The person who wishes to start in poultry keeping in the 
 spring, doing so on a small scale and at little expense for 
 equipment, usually finds day-old chicks the cheapest and 
 most convenient way of securing his stock. Those who 
 require great numbers of chicks either for smarting large 
 plants or in order to replace their old flocTcs, find that 
 by ordering baby chicks from some large hatchery they 
 are able to get all they need, of the desired grade and! 
 at just the date when they want them, without providing' 
 expensive incubating equipment, and without any trouble 
 or uncertainty about hatching. 
 
 The purchase of chicks would seem to offer special 
 advantages to beginners, or persons who wish to try 
 things out before investing extensively in any sort of 
 equipment, also those who are only taking up poultry 
 keeping in a small way. Speaking generally, the poultry 
 keeper who is trying to breed up his flock, to improve 
 the laying qualities of his fowls or their standard value 
 must, it would seem, do his own hatching, using eggs 
 from his own fowls. Even the commercial poultry keeper 
 
56 
 
 ARTIFICIAL IXCUBATIXG AXD RROODING 
 
 usually will find that he will have better stock and will 
 secure it at less expense if he utilizes the pick of his 
 flock in the production of eggs for hatching. 
 
 However, there are numerous exceptions to this gen- 
 eral rule. Some who would naturally be expected to do 
 their own hatching may not have sufficient help to operate 
 a good-sized poultry plant and look after the added work 
 involved in the production of good hatching eggs and 
 their incubation. Others on account of limited funds 
 may find it necessary to purchase chicks instead of pro- 
 viding their own hatching facilities. The commercial egg 
 farmer who wishes to raise each year a certain number 
 of pullets to keep up his flock can place his order with 
 a responsible hatchery with the certainty that the entire 
 number of chicks needed will be deliveied to him on 
 the date which will insure the pullets coming into laying 
 at the right time in the fall. This also greatly simplifies 
 the work of caring for the chicks since they can be 
 brooded in large flocks with colony hovers — the saving in 
 brooding cost possibly covering the extra expense of buy- 
 ing the chicks instead of hatching them in numerous 
 small broods at home. 
 
 FIG. 89— CHICK BOXES WITH WOODEN STRIPS TO 
 INSURE VENTILATION 
 
 Shipping boxes provided with narrow wooden strips 
 on top and sides cannot be piled togeiber clo^iely emugh 
 to interfere with the air supply o( chicks in inside boxes. 
 
 Who Should Produce Day-Old Chicks 
 
 Almost any person who has a moderate-sized breed- 
 ing flock and a suitable place for a few incubators, can 
 embark in this branch of the industry with excellent 
 prospects of success, almost regardless of location. There 
 is no fixed limit in equipment required for profitable 
 operation, or in size of breeding flocks. The thing to 
 do is to start with whatever good-quality stock is on 
 hand or may readily be obtained, providing as many 
 lamp-heated machmes as are needed to take care of the 
 eggs produced, doing this with the assurance that any 
 volume of production, no matter how small, may readily 
 be disposed of at a profit. 
 
 While the advantages possessed by large operators 
 are important, there are distinct limits as to distance or 
 time required for delivery which make it impossible for 
 the large concerns to reach out for trade beyond a certain 
 radius, no matter how low they may make the price with- 
 in their natural territory. Moreover, there will always 
 be many who will prefer to buy near home; who will 
 want to buy from breeders whom they know and trust; 
 who will want the better stock that it is reasonable to 
 expect from the small operators who hatch only the eggs 
 produced by their own carefully mated breeding pens; 
 and there is not the slightest doubt that, other things 
 
 being equal, the shorter the distance the chicks have to 
 travel the greater the certainty that they will arrive at 
 their destination in prime condition. For these and other 
 equally good reasons there is scarcely a locality in thi.s 
 country where it is not practicable for a competent 
 breeder or incubator operator to develop a profitable 
 trade in baby chicks. 
 
 In many instances hatcheries are operated by per- 
 sons who have little or no breeding stock, but who de- 
 pend upon getting their hatching eggs from other breed- 
 ers or from farmers who have flocks of standard fowls 
 from which they are willing to sell hatching eggs at only 
 a slight advance over the market price. This practice is 
 especially common where large numbers of eggs are re- 
 quired and where the operation of the hatchery alone de- 
 mands all the owner's time and attention. It has provei 
 entirely practicable to maintain hatcheries in this way, 
 and the farmers in the surrounding territory, with a lit- 
 tle encouragement and expert advice, develop well-bred 
 flocks and come to take a good deal of pride in them. It 
 is generally conceded that there is no better source of 
 hatching eggs than a flock of fowls having the range of 
 a farm, where their health and vigor can be maintained 
 at a high level by free range and the generally favorable 
 conditions under which they are kept. Sometimes the 
 hatchery operator reserves the right to provide the males 
 for these farm flocks, selling them to the owner usually 
 at only nominal prices. He can well afford to do this in 
 view of the improvement in the quality of the chicks that 
 may thus be secured, and the consequently .better prices 
 that may be realized for them. 
 
 Keeping faith with the customer is important in the 
 day-old chick industry at all times and, under all condi- 
 tions, but it is imperative in the case of the small pro- 
 ducer with a local market. The opportunity of dealing 
 more or less personally with customers, of establishing a 
 positive reputation for competency as a breeder and for 
 fair dealing, is the small producer's greatest asset, and 
 one that the distant, impersonal large concern cannot 
 take from him. This reputation ought to cover the breed- 
 ing of the chicks, their strength and vigor as determined 
 both by the character of the breeding stock and the skill- 
 ful management of the incubator, also the delivery of 
 chicks exactly when promised, and in prime condition. 
 The wise operator will lose no opportunity to win and 
 keep a reputation for doing all this. It is betraying no 
 secret to say that not every one who attempts to fur- 
 nish day-old chicks is successful in producing strong, vig- 
 orous stock; and a sickly lot of chicks is the poorest ad- 
 vertisement that the seller can have. On the other hand 
 the person who supplies strong, lively chicks that thrive 
 and grow, and show that they are of good breeding as 
 they develop, need have no fear of not being able to sell 
 all that he can produce, and at profitable prices. 
 
 What Breet?s to Keep 
 
 With a comparatively small plant, chicks of any of 
 the popular breeds and varieties will find ready sale. If 
 larger numbers are to be produced it is wise to consider 
 the local demand thoroughly before determining what 
 kind of fowls to keep. It is better to sell people what 
 they want than to try to influence their choice. By all 
 means avoid comparatively unknown breeds or varieties. 
 No matter how desirable a particular breed may appear 
 to the producer, it is not his preference but the cus- 
 tomer's that is going to determine sales, and the day- 
 old chick business is largely limited to a few popular 
 breeds such as White Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks, Wyan- 
 dottes, R. I. Reds, Orpingtons, etc. 
 
DAY-OLD CHICKS AND CUSTOM HATCHING 
 
 57 
 
 Leghorn chicks generally are produced more cheaply 
 than others, owing to the fact that the average operator 
 is able to get better hatches and better chicks from Leg- 
 horn eggs than from eggs of the larger breeds. If sales 
 are to be made mainly to farmers, it usually is necessary 
 to supply chicks of the general-purpose breeds mentioned 
 in the preceding paragraph, as there are many agricul- 
 tural communities where Leghorns are not considered 
 desirable. The latter, however, usually are demanded by 
 commercial egg producers. Much that is said in regard 
 to choice of breeds in Chapter I applies with full force 
 to selection for the day-old chick trade. 
 
 Prices That May Be Realized 
 
 It is an unfortunate fact that the day-old chick busi- 
 ness was started on a scale of too low prices, and the ef- 
 fect of this is still felt, though much has been done lately 
 to raise the general average of the chicks sold, and to 
 educate the public to pay the better prices which must be 
 realized if well-bred stock is to be furnished. It is safe 
 to assume that hatcheries that sell chicks at a price low 
 enough to enable the S and 10 cent stores to retail them 
 at ten cents apiece, are not losing money, but the buyer 
 who expects to get anything but "just chickens" at, that 
 price is about certain to be disappointed. The average 
 hatchery, especially when operating on a large scale, at 
 minimum cost for both fuel and labor, can make out very 
 well if it can sell chicks at an advance of $4.00 per hun- 
 dred over the cost of the eggs. This means that with 
 chicks selling at 10 cents from the incubator, the eggs 
 must be bought at around 4 cents apiece, assuming that 
 the two-thirds of all eggs set will hatch saleable chicks. 
 
 This illustration is given for the double purpose of 
 showing the buyer how unexacting he must be regard- 
 ing the quality of chicks purchased so cheaply that they 
 necessarily are hatched from eggs but one degree moved 
 from ordinary market eggs; also of showing the small 
 operator that he cannot afford to cater to this low-priced 
 trade. This is true not only because he is bound to 
 suffer disproportionately in reputation from the sale of 
 inferior stock, but because he must, with his small hatch- 
 ing capacity and correspondingly increased cost of pro- 
 duction, get a greater margin of profit than would sat- 
 isfy the large-scale operators — either this, or he must 
 place a valuation on his own time too low to make the 
 business really attractive. It is true that educating the 
 public to pay higher prices is a task that calls for a good 
 degree of salesmanship. The individual operator must 
 decide for himself just how far he can afford to go in 
 meeting the demand for cheap chicks, and how strong a 
 stand he wishes to take in holding prices at a point that 
 will make it possible to hatch eggs produced by genuinely 
 good breeding fowls. But there should be an especial ef- 
 fort to have a clear understanding regarding the stock 
 that is supplied at the price, whatever that may be. 
 
 In making prices on stock of better quality the opera- 
 tor must learn to figure for himself, but he should learn 
 to figure accurately. If the eggs are produced by fairly 
 good breeding stock and are valued as low as $10.00 per 
 hundred, then in hatching operations that should be con- 
 sidered the cost price, and the operator cannot afford to 
 sell chicks from such e-ggs unless he gets this "cost price," 
 plus an additional sum that will cover labor, interest on 
 the investment, overhead charges, and a reasonable profit. 
 A price for chicks that does not provide such a margin 
 simply means that the operator is underselling himself. 
 And absurd as it may seem, there is reason to believe 
 that a good many are doing just that thing. In a gen- 
 eral way most operators charge about double as much 
 
 for chicks as they would be willing to accept for the 
 eggs, though where fertility runs high this margin can be 
 reduced somewhat, if it is found desirable to do so. 
 
 How Day-Old Chicks Are Handled 
 
 Owing to the peculiar provision of nature by which 
 the newly hatched chicks are supplied with a store of food 
 in the form of unabsorbed yolk which enables them to go 
 for several days, if necessary, without drawing on any 
 other source of supply, it is practicable to ship them over 
 considerable distances. The U. S. Post Office Depart- 
 ment will accept parcel post shipments of chicks that can 
 be delivered within 72 hours after they are received at the 
 postoffice. A great many instances are on record where 
 chicks have been on the way for a longer time than this, 
 without suffering any apparent injury. 
 
 Chicks generally are shipped as soon as possible after 
 they are dry, and in order to avoid delay, every detail 
 of their shipment is attended to in advance of their hatch- 
 ing. The shipping boxes, which are bought flat or knock- 
 down, are set up, labels pasted on, and the bottom of the 
 box covered with suitable litter. The shipping tags also 
 are made out and the number for each order is marked 
 on the tags, so that when the chicks are ready to be 
 
 FIG. 90— PASTEBOARD CKICK BOXES 
 
 Packed in these substantial but light-weight 
 boxes, chicks may be shipped by express or parcel 
 post and will travel comfortably and arrive in prac- 
 tically as good condition as If hatched right at home. 
 
 taken from the incubator, there will be no necessity for 
 referring to the original order, or the correspondence. 
 The chicks are simply removed from the machine, counted 
 into boxes, the tops tied on with stout cord or sealed 
 with a strip of gummed paper, and they are ready for 
 the express or mail train. 
 
 Shipments usually are made in corrugated pasteboard 
 boxes, which are quite light in weight, and their construc- 
 tion affords fair insulation so that the chicks' bodily 
 warmth keeps them comfortable under all ordinary con- 
 ditions, and they suffer no ill effects whatever from two 
 or three days' confinement if adequate ventilation is pro- 
 vided. This is done by cutting or punching holes in the 
 top and sides of the box, the number and location being 
 left to the judgment of the shipper, who is guided in these 
 respects by his knowledge of the conditions under which 
 the chicks are to travel, the weather, etc. Shipments in 
 cold weather, or over routes which involve long, cold 
 waits at junction points, should have less ventilation than 
 those made in warm weather or where they are to go 
 through without delay and will be kept in heated cars 
 or offices most of the time. 
 
 After careful deliveration thv; International Baby 
 Chick Association, in 1918, decided upon a standard style 
 and sizes for boxes to be used in the shipment of chicks, 
 which boxes are illustrated in Figs. 89 and 90. These 
 
ARTIFICIAL INCUUATl.XG AND BROODING 
 
 boxes are of double-faced, waterproof corrugated board, 
 and the sizes are as follows; 
 
 100 chick box, 22x18 in. x 5 '4 
 
 60 chick box, 18x11 in. x SVz 
 
 25 chick box, 9x11 in. x 6 V2 
 
 12 chicle box, Cx 8 in. x 5 
 
 in. deep — 4 coiTipartments 
 
 in. deep — 2 compailmenls 
 
 in. deep — 1 cur.ipartnient 
 
 in. deep — 1 compartment 
 
 Extreme delays due to neglect, freight congestion, or 
 bad connections, and chilling through excess ventilation 
 or exposure to severe cold, are the most serious dangers 
 that have to be considered in day-old chick shipments, 
 and it is unavoidable that there should be some disappoint- 
 ments and some injured, weakened chicks. Every possi- 
 ble precaution should be taken to prevent these misfor- 
 tunes or to minimize their effects. There should be the 
 clearest possible understanding between shipper and pur- 
 chaser as to when the chicks are to be shipped and how, 
 so that the latter can be on hand to receive them as soon 
 as they arrive. The seller must give safe delivery his 
 careful attention, as a single lot of dead or weakly chicks 
 may mark the end of his business relations with the cus- 
 
 FIG. 91 — A FINE LOT OF SIX-WBEK-OLD CHICKS 
 The trade in partially grown chicks is increasing rapidly and 
 seems to be capable of indefinite extension. At this size, sex can be 
 determined with a good degree of accuracy. The demand, of course, 
 is chiefly for pullets, and good prices are paid for them at this age, 
 when they no longer require brooding. 
 
 tomer or the entire community. He can afford to do 
 everything in reason and a few things out of reason to 
 insure complete satisfaction. 
 
 Whether he should guarantee safe arrival and re- 
 place damaged shipments free or at a reduced price, must 
 be determined individuallj'; practice varies in this re- 
 spect. Guaranteed shipments undoubtedly contributed to 
 the purchaser's satisfaction, but complaints are always 
 much more frequent under guarantees than where chicks 
 are shipped at customer's risk. Whatever plan is adopted 
 in this respect there should be a clear understanding in 
 regard to it, and both seller and buyer must fairly meet 
 the terms of the agreement, the obligations of which rest 
 with equal weight on each. One thing that the buyer 
 can and should do is to place his order with the nearest 
 hatchery that can fill it acceptably. The shoiter the dis- 
 tance the chicks have to be transported and the fewer 
 changes they must make en route, the better chance the> 
 will have to come through in first-class condition. 
 
 The provision that the customei makes for the re- 
 ception and care of the chicks may be no direct concern 
 of the seller, but it is common knowledge that great 
 numbers of chicks are lost each year through improper 
 brooding, and this always reacts more or less seriously 
 upon the person who supplied them. The average inex- 
 perienced buyer of chicks often fails at this point, either 
 through not providing adequate brooding facilities, re- 
 sulting in overcrowding, or through employing cheap, un- 
 reliable brooders, particularly the "fireless" kind, the use 
 of which in cold weather, by persons inexperienced in the 
 handling of chicks, is almost certain to result in heavy 
 looses aad epidemics of so-called "white diarrhea." 
 
 The hnyer ni day-old chicks must keep in mind that 
 
 this industry is conducted mainly on the basis of advance 
 orders, and if he sends in his orders, especially during 
 the busy season, expecting immediate delivery, he is apt 
 to be disappointed. The only way to insure delivery of 
 chicks at a certain time is by getting the order in early 
 enough to insure one's "turn" coming on that date. Most 
 operators will file orders and hold them for delivery on a 
 specified date if a reasonable deposit is made, the balance 
 of the purchase price to be forwarded about the time the 
 chicks are to be shipped. To insure delivery exactly when 
 wanted however, it usually is necessary to file orders 
 weeks or even months in advance. 
 
 What to Do With Surplus Chicks 
 
 After chicks have reached the age where feeding and 
 watering must begin (2 to 3 days), they cannot then be 
 safely shipped, but must be held until they no longer re- 
 quire artilicial heat and can be handled in the same man- 
 ner as adult fowls. Since there often are hatches or 
 parts of hatches for which there are no advance orders, 
 every hatchery must be equipped to brood chicks 
 so that any surplus may be properly cared for 
 and the chicks raised to a saleable age. Do not 
 attempt to do this by the use of lampless brood- 
 ers. It can be done, but the labor cost will be 
 out of all proportion to the value of the chicks. 
 For large numbers there is nothing better than 
 coal, oil or gasoline-heated colony hovers (see 
 Chapter IX). For small lots the average operator 
 will find good lamp-heated hovers more satis- 
 factory, hence brooders of both types should be 
 provided and held in reserve for emergencies. 
 The exclusive use of colony hovers is apt to 
 lead to putting chicks of different ages into the 
 same flock, which is not practical and will re- 
 sult in heavy losses. 
 
 One feature of the chick business that is de- 
 veloping rapidly is the sale of "six-weeks-old" 
 chicks, meaning chicks that have been raised to 
 the point where they no longer need artificial 
 heat or brooding and where the sex may be de- 
 termined, the demand of course being almost ex- 
 clusively for pullets. Just as there are many 
 persons who do not want to do any hatching, 
 so there are many others who wish to be spared 
 the further expense of providing brooding facili- 
 ties for raising young chicks, or the trouble of 
 caring for them. The}' prefer to secure their 
 stock after all the difficult work has been done, 
 when few further losses are to be expected, and 
 when only the slightest skill and experience are 
 sufficient to insure raising the chicks to adult 
 size. The day-old chick producer is in position to meet 
 this demand to good advantage, using all chicks for which 
 there may not happen to be a market at the time they 
 come from the machine, and raising them to this age at 
 comparatively little cost. , 
 
 Custom Hatching 
 
 Custom hatching, by which is meant operating incu- 
 bators on a rental basis, or hiring space in machines to 
 persons who furnish the eggs to be incubated, is becom- 
 ing increasingly popular, especially among those who keep 
 fowls and who wish to have chicks hatched from their 
 own stock but do not want to go to the expense or trou- 
 ble of providing their own hatching facilities. Where 
 this is done the charge is based either on chicks hatched, 
 or on a 100-egg rate. 
 
 The satisfaction realized in this branch of the indus- 
 try depends upon the fertility of the eggs and the skill 
 of the operator, both of which should be good if com- 
 plaints are to be avoided. Persons who furnish eggs for 
 this purpose often have extreme notions as to the num- 
 ber of chicks that should be delivered to them, and poor 
 hatches are a source of great dissatisfaction and may 
 cause much more trouble than the business is worth. 
 Experienced operators who are uniformily successful in 
 the work, however, find it quite profitable. 
 
 The usual charge made where large hatching capacity 
 is available, is about 4 cents per chick or $3.00 per hun- 
 dred eggs. There would appear to be especially good op- 
 portuniti'es for the development of a profitable business 
 in custom hatching in agricultural communities where 
 there are large numbers of good-sized flocks of fowls, 
 and where the home use nf inculjatnrs is limited. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Practical Incubator Houses 
 
 Convenience and Economy of Having a Practical, Well-Planned House for Incubators— Building to Sa^'e Time and 
 
 Labor— Best Location and How to Build— How to Insure Thorough Ventilation — Plans 
 
 for Houses Underground and Aboveground. 
 
 v^^ HE poultry keeper who has a good-sized house 
 ^^ cellar in which suitable conditions can be main- 
 mat tained, and who does not expect to operate more 
 BSa than a few machines, may not find it necessary 
 to provide special quarters for them. There are a num- 
 ber of practical advantages in having a separate, special- 
 ly designed house for incubator use, however, and in the 
 long run it usually pays to provide such where many 
 chicks are to be hatched. Some insurance companies re- 
 fuse to permit the operation of incubators in houses in- 
 sured by them, and this may have a bearing on the deci- 
 sion regarding special quarters. However, as there are 
 a number of companies that make no objection to the use 
 of the better grades of incubators, which are practically 
 fireproof, there usually is no difficulty about arranging 
 for the transfer of the insurance to a company with a 
 more liberal policy, if that is the only serious obstacle to 
 be considered. 
 
 The usual practical difficulty met in utilizing the 
 house cellar is that ventilation is nearly always inade- 
 quate, and special provision must be made for this. 
 Neither is it desirable to operate incubators in cellars 
 that smell musty, or that are used for the storage of 
 vegetables or fruit, either fresh or canned, as a suitable 
 temperature for the incubator makes the cellar too warm 
 for such purposes. Extremely cold cellars are not desir- 
 able and if heated by the house furnace, some means will 
 have to be provided for overcoming the dryness of the 
 air which is a regular accompaniment of artificially heated 
 rooms, either below or aboveground. 
 
 Where a number of incubators are operated in a 
 cellar of ordinary construction, ventilation may be se- 
 cured by installing flues of the type illustrated in Fig. 
 95. These, in connection with such windows as usually 
 are provided should supply ample ventilation. If the ex- 
 pense of installing flues is considered out of the ques- 
 tion it may be possible to pipe the fumes directly out of 
 the room. Some machines are especially constructed to 
 meet this requirement. 
 
 Incubators are used in various aboveground build- 
 ings and rooms and often with a good degree of success, 
 though the difficulties in the way of securing satisfac- 
 tory hatches under such conditions unquestionably are 
 
 loure.re.cC, „ 
 
 ventilai-ion IB xaV 
 
 •^Qrrf f/uS, 
 
 
 
 Tl . 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 FIG. 93— INCUBATOR HOUSE ON 
 SLOPING GROUND 
 This probably is the most de- 
 sirable location for the Incubator 
 house, where the slope of the 
 ground makes it possible to build 
 in this way. Reproduced from 
 Reading- Course Bui. No. 80, Cor- 
 nell University. 
 
 FIG. 92— END ELEVATION OF INCUBATOR HOUSE 
 
 greater than in houses especially planned for the purpose. 
 Incubators are capable of remarkably exact regulation 
 within reasonable limits, but a room in which the tem- 
 perature fluctuates 20 degrees or more from day to day 
 adds greatly to the difficulty of operation. To be re- 
 lieved of the necessity for watching the incubator closely, 
 it is necessary to have the machines in a room where the 
 temperature does not vary greatly, a condition which it 
 is practically impossible to secure in a house or room of 
 ordinary construction. Where such rooms must be used, 
 much can be done to reduce temperature variations by 
 closing with wood- 
 en shutters all win- 
 d o w s facing the 
 south, and shading 
 any through which 
 the sun can shine 
 directly, also by 
 looking carefully 
 after the ventilation. 
 In severely cold 
 weather the room 
 should be heated to 
 50 to 60 degrees, 
 the most desirable 
 temperature in 
 which to operate in- 
 cubators. The moist- 
 ure problem gener- 
 ally is much more troublesome in such rooms than in 
 cellars. 
 
 Location for Incubator House 
 
 With an incubator house properly designed and con- 
 structed, and with the conveniences and labor-saving 
 facilities that can there be provided and which it seldom 
 is practical to supply in other locations, the work of car- 
 ing for the machines may be greatly reduced and most 
 desirable conditions as to temperature, moisture, and ven- 
 tilation can constantly and uniformily be maintained. 
 
 The best location for the permanent incubator house 
 in most sections is partially underground in order to 
 secure uniformity of temperature, but not so much be- 
 low the ground level as to interfere with ventilation. 
 Other reasons for placing incubator houses partially un- 
 derground are that they usually are more economical to 
 build than aboveground houses affording similarly favor- 
 able conditions; they are warmer in winter and cooler in 
 summer; a more uniform degree of humidity can be 
 maintained the season through. The house may be built 
 entirely aboveground where it is necessary to do so, but 
 such construction usually is more expensive if the build- 
 ing is planned so as to secure reasonable uniformity in 
 temperature. 
 
 To meet average requirements the building should 
 be four or five feet underground, and the rest above, 
 though something depends upon the slope of the land 
 where the house is to be located. With sufficient slope 
 an ideal arrangement is to have all the back part of the 
 house underground up to the eaves, and the side with the 
 
60 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 entrance at or near the ground level, as in Fig. 93. On 
 level ground the general outlines of the house shown in 
 Figs. 92, 94, 95, and 96, will be found most desirable. The 
 length and width should be proportioned to the size of 
 the incubators to be used, always allowing for a passage- 
 way of ample width between the machines — seldom less 
 than four feet. A narrower passage can be used if test- 
 ing and most other work is to be done in a separate 
 workroom, but the convenience of the wider passage will 
 amply repay the slight additional cost. Making the ceil- 
 ing of the incubator room so low that only comfortable 
 headroom is afforded is a grave mistake. To secure 
 proper ventilation it should be fully 8 feet high, and it 
 will be better still if higher. 
 
 The incubator house should have a gable roof with 
 plenty of space between the ceiling and rafters. The roof 
 is the point which, after the windows, is apt to cause 
 most variation in room temperature, and if this is entire- 
 ly cut off by a tight ceiling and the gable ventilated by 
 large openings that permit free passage of air, heat from 
 the roof will make little trouble. Gable ventilation should 
 be adjustable, or the openings should be more or less 
 tightly closed in cold weather by covering with muslin 
 or burlap to conserve heat. 
 
 The floor and the underground walls should always 
 be of concrete. This not only gives greater permanence, 
 but wood used underground is apt to be quickly covered 
 with mold on exposed surfaces, which may prove a source 
 of trouble. If possible, the floor should have a drain so 
 that the room can be conveniently flus'hed and scrubbed. 
 Do not neglect providing a trap in the drain even though 
 the latter may have an open outlet. 
 
 All walls that are above the ground level should be 
 doubled, with dead air spaces or packed with insulating 
 material. Ordinarily the walls above ground level should 
 be boarded on the outside with matched siding, using 
 ceiling boards or a heavy coat of wall plaster on the 
 inside walls and ceiling. The best grades of waterproof 
 plasterboard would seem to be well adapted to this use, 
 as they afford little chance for the accumulation of dust, 
 and can be washed down when necessary. Good wooden 
 shingles make the best roofing, as these do not absorb 
 heat like ordinary prepared roofing. The latter, how- 
 ever, is cheaper and for that reason is most generally used. 
 
 Every incubator cellar of whatever size should have 
 a separate vestibule and workroom where the trays are 
 filled, the eggs tested and weighed, the lamps filled, and 
 where all desirable conveniences for doing the work can 
 be provided. A good workbench should be installed at 
 a convenient height. The oil supply should be kept in 
 a tank or barrel on the outside of the building and piped 
 into the workroom. A cupboard or shelves- should be 
 provided for the storage of burners, thermometers and all 
 extra parts and accessories. If large numbers of lamps 
 are to be filled it may be well to have a sink under the 
 oil faucet, to carry off any oil that may be spilled, and 
 
 vejit flue- 
 
 Jhin^let Or ^refi^fea 
 
 Sufl^p^p-smei Infi-orttOi y/irjdowi Noi Sha\ 
 
 B^IB 
 
 ^^roun^Line • 
 
 PIG. 94— SIDE ELEVATION OP INCUBATOR HOUSE 
 
 Enlarged Dtci.il-Il!ii>r UenHl^rorSlidr Pcrtlj/Ollnt. 
 FIG. 95— CROSS SECTION OP INCUBATOR HOUSE 
 
 with a water tap for flushing if possible. For the small 
 cellar, a more practical plan is to have a box or tray of 
 suitable size to be kept under the drip and partially filled 
 with shavings or other absorbent material which can be 
 emptied from time to time, thus preventing the floor from 
 becoming saturated with oil. These oil-soaked shavings 
 make excellent kindling for fires. 
 
 If available, running water should be piped into the 
 workroom. If this cannot be done there should be a 
 water tank with a faucet, or at least a good-sized bucket, 
 so that there will always be a supply of water on hand 
 for various uses. A convenient place for washing hands 
 is desirable. In one end of the workroom provision may 
 be made for storing eggs while awaiting their turn in 
 the incubators. 
 
 If the eggs are to be tested in daylight the work- 
 room should be provided with shutters or tight curtains 
 so that it can be made dark for the purpose. It often is 
 possible to arrange for one or two holes in one of the 
 window shutters or curtains so that the eggs can be 
 tested by direct sunlight. It is desirable to have electric 
 light in the workroom if possible; if not, a perm.anent 
 light of some other kind should be installed, if only to 
 discourage the tendency to keep the incubator lamps 
 burning while they are being filled, which is more or 
 less dangerous, and fills the room with smoke. 
 
 Incubator House for Lamp-Heated Incubators 
 
 The house illustrated in Figs. 92, 94, 95 and 96, will 
 accommodate eight good-sized machines, and can readily 
 be changed to meet larger or smaller requirements, sim- 
 ply increasing or reducing the length. There seldom is 
 any necessity for changing the width. The outside dimen- 
 sions of the house are 13 feet, 4 inches, by 26 feet, 2 
 inches, or 12 by 25 feet, inside measurements. The ceil- 
 ing is 9 feet, 4 inches high. 
 
 This house has a S-foot concrete 
 wall, extending 3 feet below ground 
 level and windows in the framed wall 
 as indicated. With these windows so 
 located and protected by outside 
 burlap screens, also by wide eaves, 
 they will admit little direct sunlight, 
 and all incubators will be equally well 
 located as to ventilation, provided 
 proper attention is given to the ad- 
 justment of windows, those on the 
 side from which the wind comes al- 
 ways being closed, or practically so. 
 
 Csncre^e ^reps 
 
PRACTICAL INCUBATOR HOUSES 
 
 61 
 
 PIG. 
 
 INCUBATOR HOUSE 
 
 except in warm weather. If the house is built with the 
 door facing- in the direction from which severe storms 
 are to be expected, it will be necessary to protect the 
 steps with a. vestibule, hood, or sloping doors. 
 
 As will be seen. in Fig. 95, this house is to be pro- 
 vided with ventilating flues. These may be made of 
 galvanized iron as indicated in the plan, or heavy sewer 
 pipe may be used. Many prefer to build the flue into 
 the concrete wall, which in most cases is the better and 
 cheaper way. These flues are to be 8 inches in diameter 
 or must provide an equivalent amount of flue space if 
 made in some other shape. There should be one flue 
 for every 100 square feet of floor space and in connec 
 tion with the windows in the upper part of the wall these 
 will supply adequate ventilation for the room under 
 practically any condition. A damper or check must al- 
 ways be provided so that the air circulation will be un- 
 der control. 
 
 If this system of ventilation is not installed it will 
 be necessary to provide some means for piping the lamp 
 fumes out of the room, though it is difficult to do this 
 with most machines. The circulation of air in such pipes 
 is a somewhat uncertain factor in windy weather when 
 back drafts often are set up which return the fumes to 
 the room unless the outlet pipe is connected with 
 a flue in which forced air circulation is main- 
 tained by heat. In general, it is much better and 
 simpler to provide for the removal of the lamp 
 fumes and the renewal of the air in the room by 
 the use of correctly designed ventilation. 
 
 In building this house remember that the 
 forms for a five-foot concrete wall require heavy 
 bracing. Whatever the thickness of the wall, it 
 is desirable to have the bottom extended for 
 footing, as shown in Fig. 95. If soft spots are 
 found in the ground at this depth, which is not 
 probable, the excavation at these points must 
 be carried down to solid ground to prevent crack- 
 ing and settling of the walls. The side walls at 
 the steps may be four to six inches thick, and 
 the steps should be solid. 
 
 The frame of this house is to be of 2x6-inch 
 timbers, with the sills anchored to the founda- 
 tion wall. The walls above the ground are to be 
 double-boarded with heavy sheathing paper 
 nailed to each side of the studs and the boards 
 laid over this. The ceiling of the room should 
 also have an insulating covering of sheathing 
 paper tacked to the lower face of the joists be- 
 fore the boards are nailed on. 
 
 Note that burlap frames are to be 
 provided outside of all windows, 
 screening the windows from the sun 
 and preventing direct air currents, 
 when the windows are open. In warm 
 weather or when the wind is not 
 blowing, the burlap screens may be 
 opened outward admitting more air^ 
 but still screening the windows from 
 direct sunlight which, if unobstruct- 
 ed, is liable to raise the room tem- 
 perature several degrees in a short 
 time, and interfere with the regula- 
 tion of the machines. A shingle roof 
 is recommended for this building as 
 shingles give a more even tempera- 
 ture than prepared roofing. Both 
 gables should have louvered ventila- 
 tors, as shown. 
 
 BILL OF MATERrAI, FOR INCUBATOR HOUSE 
 
 TT=» Size Length No. of -p .„,,!,. 
 
 ^^' Inches Felt Pieces . Remarks, 
 
 Sills, side 2x6 
 
 Sills, end 2x6 
 
 Plates, side 2x6 
 
 Plates, end 2x6 
 
 Studs, front & back 2x6 
 
 Studs, ends 2x6 
 
 Rafters 2x6 
 
 Ties 1x6 
 
 Partition studs 2x4 
 
 Ridge pole 1x7 
 
 Roof boards 1x10 
 
 T & G siding- %x6 
 
 Ceiling-, partition, 
 
 shelves, etc %x4 
 
 Frame for doors 
 
 and windoTirs %x6 
 
 Frame for burlap 
 
 shutter '%x2 
 
 Trim lumber %x4 
 
 Barge boards %x8 
 
 5M. shingles. 
 
 2 doors, 2 feet, 10 inches x 6 feet, 6 inches. 
 
 6 sash, 6-light 12xl2-inch glass. 
 
 6 metal sash adjusters. 
 36 sq. ft. burlap. 
 
 6 bolts '^xl2-inch with 2-lnoh washers. 
 
 1 pr. 5-)nch butt hinges. 
 12 pr. 2-inch butt hinges for windows and screens. 
 
 1 metal ventilator slide 5 inches x 2 feet 3 inches. 
 
 1 door lock. 
 
 4 8-inch ventilator flues with dampers, cords and pulleys. 
 
 Nails, tacks and paint. 
 
 MATERIAL FOR FOUNDATIOiV AND FLOOR 
 70 bags of Portland cement; 162 cu. ft. of sand; 325 cu. 
 ft. of crushed stone or gravel. 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 . 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 T pice cuts 2 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 Cut to fit 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 BOO 
 
 ft. board measure 
 
 
 325 
 
 ft. board measure 
 
 
 1000 
 
 ft. board measure 
 
 
 100 
 
 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides 
 
 
 70 
 
 1-n ft. Surfaced 4 sides 
 
 
 150 
 
 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides 
 
 
 100 
 
 lin ft. Surfaced 4 sides. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 OC 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 PIG. 97— FLOOR PLAN OF ABOVBGROUND INCUBATOR HOUSET 
 The principal feature to be secured In an aboveground house 
 is insulation, to avoid Irregular room temperatures. Note how 
 this is provided by means of a double wall with 2-foot passage- 
 way between outer and inner walls. Reproduced from Bulletin. 
 4, Western Washington Experiment Station. 
 
62 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 98— A SUCCESSFUL ABOVEGROUND INCUBATOR 
 Photo from Oregon State Agricultural College. 
 
 A Small Incubator House 
 
 Where there are practical objections to building the 
 incubator house partially underground as suggested in 
 the preceding plan, it may be built entirely aboveground 
 and, if properly designed, will give excellent service. Such 
 a house has been built at the Western Washington Ex- 
 periment Station and has been in successful use there for 
 several years. It is illustrated in Fig. 'il . This house 
 can be built at comparatively slight cost where cheap 
 lumber is available, and is large enough to meet the re- 
 quirements of farmers and small producers generally. It 
 can be located wherever convenient and requires no ex- 
 cavation whatever. The following description is con- 
 densed from Bui. No. 4 of the West. Washington Station: 
 
 "The house is 16 feet wide, 20 feet long, and 9 feet 
 to the eaves, finished with No. 1 rustic, with a one-third 
 slope, and has a shingled roof. The door is in the north 
 end. There are two windows in each side. The south 
 end of the building is built solid, with the exception of 
 the small ventilator in the end near the peak, as seen in 
 the north end above the door and just below the peak. 
 The house was painted red and trimmed in white, giving 
 it a neat appearance. To construct an incubator house 
 like the one illustrated above, the following bill of lum- 
 ber is required: 
 
 "The main and outer portion of the 
 building requires: 
 
 3 pieces 4x4-in., 20 ft. long, for sills. 
 2 pieces 2x4-in., 20 ft. long, plates. 
 
 11 pieces 2x4-in., 16 feet long, floor 
 
 joists. 
 SO pieces 2x4-in., 9 ft. long, studding. 
 11 pieces 2x4-in., 16 feet long, ceil- 
 ing joists. 
 22 pieces 2x4-in., 12 ft. long, rafters. 
 750 board feet of matched siding. 
 600 board feet of lx6-inch sheathing 
 (also used for corner boards and 
 other finish lumber). 
 4M cedar shingles. 
 320 board feet of matched flooring. 
 330 board feet of matched ceiling. 
 1 door 2 ft. 8 in. X 6 ft. 8 in. 
 
 4 window sash 12xl6-in., 4-light. 
 
 To construct the inner hatching room 
 
 provide: 
 
 22 pieces 2x3-in., 9 ft. long. 
 1200 board feet of matched ceiling. 
 1 door 2 ft. 8 in. X 6 ft. 8 in. 
 
 "The building is constructed on the 
 ground with a wooden floor and 
 stands on cedar blocks resting on flat 
 rocks projecting above the surface of 
 the ground. The three pieces, 4 inch 
 
 HOUSE 
 
 X 4 inch x 20 feet, provided in the 
 bill of materials, are used as sills, 
 one on either side and one in the 
 middle. Eleven pieces, 2 inch x 4 inch 
 X 16 feet, are nailed on their edges 
 two feet apart to the sills and cov- 
 ered with I inch x 6 inch tongue- 
 and-groove flooring. For studding 
 for the outer walls use 2 inch x 4 
 inch X 9 feet, set two feet apart, cen- 
 ter to center. For plates use 2 inch 
 X 4 inch x 20 feet. For ceihng joist, 
 use eleven pieces 2 inch x 4 inch x 16 
 feet, and for rafters 22 pieces 2 inch 
 X 4 inch x 12 feet. Ceil with 1 inch 
 X 4 inch tongue-and-groove ceiling. 
 Enclose the building with 1 inch x 
 10 inch shiplap. Cover the rafters 
 with 1 inch x 6 inch sheathing laid 
 and nailed two inches apart, and shin- 
 gle. Put in on either side two 3 ft. 
 x 3 ft. windows, placed five feet above 
 the floor. Build the frame for the window to admit open- 
 ing them by sliding. These windows cannot be hung on 
 hinges, since the inner room would interfere in opening 
 them. Now draw a line around the entire room two feet 
 from the wall. On this line at intervals of four feet place 
 2 inch X 3 inch x 9 feet studding. Ceil both sides of 
 the studding with 1 inch x 4 inch ceiling. Put in two 
 ventilator windows 2 feet x 2 feet S inch in each side 
 directly opposite the outer windows and close them with 
 doors made of matched ceiling. Hang these ventilators 
 with 4-inch strap hinges at the lower edge. To open 
 them, tip them back from the top by the means of a cord. 
 "In the floor plan here shown the door in the north 
 end leads into an air space (A) two feet in width extend- 
 ing around the inner room (D), which is entered through 
 the door (F), which is directly opposite the outer door. 
 The inner room (D) contains six 2S0-egg incubators 
 (FEE). CC are the windows in the outer wall and are 
 directly opposite and at the same height as the ventilator 
 windows (BBB) in the inner double wall. 
 
 "As originally constructed the house proved to be 
 too warm when all machines were running but this trou- 
 ble was eliminated by the installation of a King Ventilat- 
 ing System and we now regard it as quite satisfactory, 
 securing as it does an even temperature and pure air. 
 
 FIG. 99— BRICK INCUBATOR HOUSE 
 
 Brick houses are desirable, but rather expensive. This house has venti- 
 lating flues running above the roof, and chimney for stove in the workroom 
 It would be improved by addition of louvered ventilators in front and rear 
 gables. Is in use at Penn.sylvania Experiment Station. 
 
PRACTICAL INCUBATOR HOUSES 
 
 63 
 
 both of which are indispensable in 
 the hatching of chicks or turkeys by 
 artificial methods." 
 
 It will be noticed that this house 
 IS described as being 16 feet by 20 
 feet, though in the floor plan the 
 width is indicated as 18 feet, which 
 no doubt is an oversight, as the pro- 
 portions correspond to the printed 
 descriptions. In the bill of material 
 the amount of flooring, ceiling, etc., 
 as specified, represents only the sur- 
 face to be covered, and about one- 
 fourth should be added to the esti- 
 mates to cover matching and other 
 shrinkage. 
 
 In considering this plan it should 
 be remembered that the climate of 
 Western Washington is comparative- 
 ly mild and less provision need be made for warmth than 
 will be found in many other sections of the country. In 
 warm climates the plan of having the entrance door on 
 the north side will be found desirable, but where severe 
 winters are the rule it will be better to have it on the 
 south side. Under such conditions, also, building the 
 house with a single board floor will not be satisfactory. 
 If a board floor is used at all it should be doubled, with 
 heavy insulating material between the top floor and the 
 subfloor, and the space between floor and ground should 
 be tightly enclosed by banking up around the building 
 with earth. A concrete floor however, will be much 
 better, particularly for use in cold climates, and prob- 
 ably will be no more expensive than a properly con- 
 structed board floor. With these and possibly other 
 minor changes in detail to meet special conditions, this 
 house should prove satisfactory almost anywhere. 
 
 Other Types of Incubator Houses 
 
 Other incubator houses are shown in Figs. 98, 99 
 and 100, their special features being readily understood 
 
 FIG. 100— CONCRETE INCUBATOR CEL,I..AR 
 For incubator houses built mostly underground, solid concrete construc- 
 tion to the square is very satisfactory. The incubator room should be ceiled 
 overhead and gable well ventilated sc that the sun shining- on the roof will 
 not affect room temperature. 
 
 FIG. 101 — INTERIOR OF INCUBATOR HOUSE AT PENNA. EXP. STATION 
 
 with but little detail description. The aboveground in- 
 cubator house shown in Fig. 98 has been in use for 
 some years at the Oregon Experiment Station, where it 
 has given satisfactory results. This is a frame building, 
 shingled on the outside and ceiled on the inside with 
 tongue-and-groove boards. It is 20ji:30 feet, with 6-inch 
 foundation walls 12 inches in the ground, on a 10-inch 
 footing, and extending about 8 inches above the top of 
 the floor. It is provided with a 4-inch concrete floor. 
 The incubator room is 9 feet high in the clear. 
 
 There are three double windows on each side, the 
 sashes being 30x24 inches, hinged at the bottom to swing 
 in. All window openings are covered with shutters hav- 
 ing adjustable wooden slats, and there are 6 metal air- 
 intakes, which discharge air into the room near the floor 
 level. As will be noted, the windows are high up on 
 the sides and the building has wide eaves which shade 
 the windows and help to prevent the sun from heating 
 up the interior. A double door is provided in front for 
 ease in taking incubators in or out, and the gable has 
 louvered ventilators. 
 
 The house shown in Figs. 99 and 
 101 is in use at the Pennsylvania Ex- 
 periment Station. It is built of brick, 
 with a stone foundation and concrete 
 floor, and is provided with built-in 
 ventilator flues in opposite corners of 
 the room,- with openings both at 
 floor and ceiling. These flues dis- 
 charge through brick chimneys ex- 
 tending above the roof as shown. 
 One corner is cut off for use as a ves- 
 tibule and workroom, and the en- 
 trance to the incubator room is 
 through this. The large door shown 
 as one side of the front opens direct- 
 ly into the incubator room, but is 
 only used when incubators are to be 
 removed, or in cleaning and sunning 
 the room. The entrance door com- 
 monly used is at the left of the dou- 
 ble door, being hidden by a tree in 
 illustration. This door opens into 
 the workroom which is provided with 
 a small stove that not only keeps it 
 at a comfortable temperature but, by 
 leaving the door open into the incu- 
 bator roorrv, it will also warm that 
 to some extent — a most desirable 
 feature for winter use. There' are 
 
64 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 windows on all sides of this house 
 except the south and wooden shut- 
 ters are provided to prevent fluctua- 
 tion of temperature due to direct 
 sunlight. An interior view of this 
 house is shown in Fig. 101. 
 
 The concrete incubator house 
 shown in Fig. 101 is similar to the 
 one shown in Figs. 92, 94 and 96, 
 except that the walls are of concrete 
 to the square. In place of the side 
 ventilator flues, a center flue is pro- 
 vided which opens above the ridge 
 
 and extends down to within a foot of the floor. This 
 flue is sawed off just below the ceiling and hinged so 
 that it can be hooked up out of the way when desirable. 
 The photo from which this illustration was made was 
 taken before the steps and banking up were completed. 
 The house is 12x12 feet, inside measure, and furnishes 
 ample room for the average small operator. Where gravel 
 and sand are readily available and the work can be done 
 without hired help, the cost of such a building will be 
 comparatively slight. 
 
 Incubator House Floors 
 
 The statement on page 60 to the effect that incubator 
 house floors should always be of concrete, is subject 
 to modification under some conditions. Many opera- 
 tors prefer to lay concrete floors only in the passage- 
 ways, the balance of the floor being left bare to insure 
 greater humidity. There is no practical objection to do- 
 ing this where the soil is sandy or gravelly. Even where 
 the soil is clay, but where the site can be well drained, 
 it is practical to follow the same plan, excavating the 
 floor deep enough so that the unfloored sections can be 
 filled in with four to six inches of sand. This arrange- 
 ment materially increases the moisture naturally present 
 in the air in the incubator room and when more is re- 
 quired the floor can be wet down at intervals. Supplying 
 needed moisture to the air before it enters the incubator 
 is the most natural way of doing so. Under ordinary 
 conditions excellent results are secured by the above 
 method, though it is much more difficult to keep the floor 
 clean and sanitary. 
 
 Houses for Mammoth Incubators 
 
 Plans for mammoth incubator houses generally are 
 .futnished by the manufacturers of the machines pur- 
 
 V-c 
 
 FIG. 103 — SINGLE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR CELLAR PLAN 
 This floor plan can be adapted to any style of mammoth. In case of 
 doubt as to dimensions, always build a little larger than seems necessary. 
 Crowded quarters in the incubator house are annoying and add to the labor. 
 Courtesy of Candee Incubator Company. 
 
 chased. However, the plans for a house for lamp-heated 
 machines, shown in Figs. 92, 94, 95 and 96, will prove 
 helpful in many cases, as they suggest some general de- 
 tails of practical value in any house, regardless of what 
 make of incubator is used. Dimensions will depend on 
 the size of the machine to be accommodated, and on 
 whether the sections can be set up facing each other or 
 must be tended from both sides, thus requiring a pas- 
 sageway all round the machine. The house illustrated 
 in Fig. 102 is built after the general plan of the one de- 
 signed for lamp-heated machines, but as there will be 
 only one or at most two coal-burning heaters in opera- 
 tion and no lamp fumes discharged into the room, there 
 is less need for special ventilators,' which some omit en- 
 tirely, though a few flues certainly will prove desirable. 
 The windows should be installed as shown in Fig. 95, 
 and provided with burlap screens in the same way. 
 
 The ventilated gables shown in Fig. 102 will answer 
 very well for houses under 50 feet in length, but if lon- 
 ger, ridge ventilators should be provided. These may be 
 of the familiar wooden louvered type spacing them 25 
 to 30 feet apart, or special galvanized iron ventilators may 
 be obtained. 
 
 The floor plan in Fig. 103 shows the usual method 
 of installing a single mammoth of the type having doors 
 on both sides. In all cases, make the room wide enougli 
 to give a roomy passageway — a feature of much import- 
 ance in the daily care of the machine. A great conveni- 
 ence in all large incubator rooms is a work-table mounted 
 on easy-running, rubber-faced castors or small wheels, 
 so that when machines or sections are to be set or 
 hatches taken off, the table can readily be wheeled just 
 where it is needed, and much inconvenience and loss of 
 time avoided. 
 
 FIG. 102— HOUSE FOR MAIWMOTH INCUBATOR 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 The Selection of Brooding Equipment 
 
 Complete Description of Practical Types of Brooding Equipment— Fireless Brooders and How to Build Tliem— I amp 
 Heated Hovers— Portable Hovers— Outdoor Brooders— Colony Hovers— Hot Water Systems, Etc.— 
 How to Select the Kind Best Suited to Individual Use. 
 
 ©I ROODING chicks by the natural method, while 
 practical with small flocks and as an emergency 
 ag^ measure, is entitled to scant consideration where 
 aS^a large numbers are to be raised, or where it is 
 desirable to do the work in a thoroughly efficient man- 
 ner. This is true largely because the labor involved in 
 hen brooding is out of all proportion to the results se- 
 cured, though there are other important objections, such 
 as the impossibility of securing a sufficient number of 
 broody hens when they are wanted, the inevitable heavy 
 losses due to enemies and to a variety of accidental 
 causes, the necessity for keeping up an everlasting fight 
 with lice, etc. In sharp contrast with this laborious and 
 unpleasant method is the ease and comparative certainty 
 of artificial brooding. With proper equipment the chick 
 raiser is practically independent of season and weather, 
 and the number of chicks that he can successfully care 
 for is increasing indefinitely. 
 
 Unquestionably chick raising is the most difficult 
 part of the poultry keeper's work. To bring newly 
 hatched broods through the danger period in good 
 health and with minimum losses calls for some degree 
 of skill and experience in meeting their exacting require- 
 ments. This is true without regard to the method of 
 brooding followed. It also is true that well-selected 
 equipment will greatly reduce these difficulties and will 
 almost entirely eliminate the element of chance. As a 
 matter of fact, many of the difficulties experienced in 
 raising chicks are self-imposed, growing directly out of 
 failure to provide the right kind of brooders or enough 
 of them, or to slackness in methods of general care. The 
 chick raiser now has available for his use practical, re- 
 liable, thoroughly tested brooding de- 
 vices that are exactly adapted to his' 
 requirements, whether he is raising 
 chicks on a small or a large scale, in 
 cold or in warm weather, and so 
 nearly automatic that even the inex- 
 perienced can operate them with 
 practical certainty of good results. 
 
 Available brooding equipment in- 
 cludes the humble "fireless," which is 
 only one remove from the natural 
 method in point of labor, cost, and 
 uncertainty of results. There are in- 
 dependent lamp-heated hovers that 
 may be attached to almost any goods 
 box, brooder case, or any sort of 
 suitable building; various complete 
 lamp-heated brooders for either in- 
 door or outdoor use. Still more con- 
 venient are the portable lamp-heated 
 hovers that can be used anywhere in- 
 doors without direct connection with 
 the building where operated. Then 
 there are electrically heated brood- 
 ers, and colony hovers brooding hun- 
 dreds of chicks in single flocks, using 
 either coal, oil, gas, or gasoline for 
 
 fuel. And finally, for those who wish to brood chicks 
 under most trying winter conditions, up-to-date hot-water 
 brooding systems are available. 
 
 These various devices are manufactured by reliable 
 concerns and are sold at prices that bring them within 
 the reach of every one who broods chicks. Not aU of 
 these are equally desirable under given conditions, but 
 just as in the purchase of incubators, if the buyer will 
 confine his patronage to reputable concerns, purchasing 
 standard, high-grade appliances such as he can secure at 
 reasonable but not extremely low prices, he need have 
 no difficulty in obtaining thoroughly satisfactory equip- 
 ment. The only place where he is liable to make a seri- 
 ous mistake is in choosing from the assortment of avail- 
 able styles the one best suited to his conditions. 
 
 It is quite important that this feature be carefully 
 considered. Decision as to what to buy should in all 
 cases be based on the adaptation of the appliance to one's 
 particular requirements rather than on its general popu- 
 larity. For example, colony hovers are in great favor at 
 present and for the purpose of brooding large flocks of 
 chicks they are indispensable. Many persons however, 
 are buying these whose needs would be better served by 
 an altogether different type of brooder about which per- 
 haps comparatively little is heard. In this chapter prac- 
 tically all kinds of standard brooding equipment are de- 
 scribed, and their respective merits explained in sufficient 
 detail to enable the inexperienced to select just the kind 
 and the size required to give him the service best suited 
 to his conditions. 
 
 "Fireless" Brooders 
 
 Almost every one with practical experience in raising 
 
 FIG. 104— CHICKS LIKE THESE ARE ENTITLED TO A GOOD COMPORT- 
 ABLE BROODER 
 
 t,5 
 
60 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 chicks has had occasion at some time or other to keep 
 small broods in baskets or boxes, without any source of 
 warmth other than that afforded by the chicks them- 
 selves. If the box is warmly lined, and bedded with 
 fine absorbent material like short-cut alfalfa, is located 
 in a warm place, and the chicks covered over with a light 
 blanket or cloth except when taken out for feeding or 
 exercise, their bodily warmth is sufficient to keep them 
 quite comfortable and contented. 
 
 Fireless brooders are simply these old familiar boxes 
 or baskets made a little (and ONLY a little) more con- 
 venient for use. When they are properly designed, so 
 that the chicks are kept snug and warm with sufficient 
 ventilation to meet their rather limited requirements, and 
 when used in warm weather, or at least in a warm place, 
 and given the painstaking care and attention which brood- 
 ing by this method demands, it is possible to raise chicks 
 quite successfully in them. They represent the extreme 
 limit in simplicity and low cost in brooding devices, but 
 have distinct limitations. As emergency brooders or for 
 small lots of chicks not regularly provided for, also in 
 warm weather when the chicks require practically no 
 brooding during the day, they serve a practical purpose, 
 and everyone who raises chicks in numbers should keep 
 a few on hand for such use. It is not wise to employ 
 them in cold weather however, unless they can be kept 
 in a heated room, and it is doubtful if they should ever 
 be employed for anything but emergency service or where 
 labor cost is a matter of indifference. 
 
 There are good fireless brooders on the market, or 
 they can readily be made at home if desired. A practi- 
 cal, easily built brooder is shown in Fig. 106. It can be 
 made any size from 15x15 inches (for about 25 chicks), 
 to 24x24 inches, the latter size readily accommodating 50 
 to 60 chicks. The sides of the hover should be about 12 
 inches high and the entire top is to be covered with mus- 
 lin as shown. This feature insures good ventilation. The 
 hover may be made in various ways as convenient, the 
 underside, next the chicks, usually being a single thick- 
 ness of muslin. Over this may be placed pads of cotton 
 batting, covered with cheese cloth to protect it and keep 
 it from getting soiled. Use one or more pads as may 
 be required to keep the chicks warm. A cheaper plan is 
 
 FIG. 105— ANOTHER TYPE OP PIRET.ESS BROODER 
 
 This illustration snows the simple, easily made fireless brooder In u.S9 
 on Poultry Plant at Wisconsin University. 
 
 FIG. 106— A HOMEMADE FIRELESS BROODER 
 This brooder can be made from any suitable box. If 
 new lumber is bought set light-weight material. Par- 
 tition between hover and exercising compartment is of 
 muslin. Box should be about 12 inches high with top 
 covered with muslin taciced to movable frame. 
 
 to place one to three inches of clover chaff, planer shav- 
 ings or similar material on top of the muslin, as 
 in illustration. 
 
 The hover here is shown raised up, but when in use 
 it rests upon the hover support, which consists of a strip 
 of board extending around three sides of the enclosure. 
 This hover support should be five to six inches wide so 
 that when the floor is bedded down with two to three 
 inches of fine litter, the chicks' backs will be against the 
 underside of the pad. Pieces of board or wire cloth (not 
 shown in illustration) should be fitted into the corners to 
 round them out so as to prevent crowding. After the 
 first day or two the chicks can be let out into the front 
 or exercising compartment for feeding and exercise and 
 after a few days, depending upon the outside temperature, 
 they may be allowed to run out in a small pen in front 
 of the brooder. 
 
 Chick doors should be about an inch from the floor 
 (not at floor level as shown in illustration) in order to 
 retain the Ijtter with which the floor is to be kept cov- 
 ered at all times. In this brooder no pro- 
 vision is made for adjusting the height of the 
 hover, the proper distance between it and the 
 floor being maintained by varying the thick- 
 ness of the mat of litter previously mentioned. 
 As the chicks grow larger and require more 
 room, less and less litter will be used, in this 
 way increasing the height of the hover 
 chamber. 
 
 Another type of fireless brooder that can 
 readily be made by any person is shown in 
 Fig. 105. In this brooder the sides of the 
 hover compartment are heavily padded, ex- 
 cept the front which is protected by a double 
 thickness of felt. The hover consists of a 
 light wooden frame, covered with felt to 
 Mjj. ^ J which can be added a light covering of cotton 
 tlv<v!. " batting, planer shavings, or other material, if 
 
 necessary. 
 
 How to Use Fireless Brooders 
 
 Owing to the danger of chicks crowding 
 for warmth, which is especially liable to oc- 
 cur among those that have no source of arti- 
 ficial heat, it is never advisable to brood them 
 
THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 
 
 67 
 
 FIG. 107— ONE OP THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL LAMP- 
 HEATED BROODERS 
 This brooder has a lamp box underneath the brood- 
 ing- compartment, and was for years a popular type of 
 brooder, until the introduction of independent hovers 
 euch as shown in Pigs. 108 and 109. 
 
 in flocks larger than about SO to 60, and as there must 
 always be enough to keep each other warm, the flocks 
 should not number less than about 20. The principal dif- 
 ficulty in the use of these brooders is to get the chicks 
 tiained to return to the hover for warmth, and this can 
 only be done by giving them the closest attention for 
 the first few days, letting them out just long enough 
 to eat and then pushing them back under the hover and 
 keeping them there. Later, a few minutes at a time, they 
 may be allowed to run out in the exercising compartment 
 if a hover like the one shown in Fig. 106 is used. If the 
 brooder has only a single compartment, the chicks should 
 have a run in front of the brooder not over a foot wide 
 at first, and must be watched and pushed back under the 
 hover at the slightest sign of discomfort, and at frequent 
 intervals whether they appear uncomfortable or not. 
 
 Since the dark, heatless hover space does not offer 
 any special attraction to chicks, the difficulty of making 
 them "hoverwise" is greatly increased. Even after they 
 appear to have become accustomed to the use of the 
 hover they never can be entirely trusted, as they are more 
 or less liable to take to huddling outside at any time, 
 and hence must receive more or less attention during 
 practically the entire brooding period. 
 
 Owing to the lack of artificial heat, hovers in fireless 
 brooders quickly get damp and it is important to have 
 them taken out daily and sunned or dried before a stove 
 or otherwise. If this is neglected the hover will not 
 only be unsanitary and unhealthful, but the dampness and 
 cold will add to the difficulty of training the chicks. The 
 floor should always be heavily covered with suitable litter 
 and cleaned often enough to keep it dry and free from 
 odor. General methods of care and feeding for the chicks 
 are the same as for those kept in any other style of 
 brooder, and are given in detail in Chapters X and XI. 
 
 Lamp-Heated Hovers 
 
 Various styles of lamp-heated brooding devices are 
 on the market, belonging, as a rule, to one of two gen- 
 eral types— independent hovers, or complete brooders. 
 The former consist simply of a brooding compartment 
 having a metal or wooden top (usually round) supported 
 on legs at a suitable height and with the space under- 
 neath enclosed by means of a slashed hover curtain of 
 felt or similar material. To the hover is attached a heat- 
 ing system, with the lamp enclosed in a separate com- 
 partment. The whole device is self-contained and more 
 
 or less independent of the brooder, coop, or house in 
 which it is to be operated. In "'portable'' hovers the 
 brooding compartment and lamp box are built together 
 and may be moved about at will. These hovers rest 
 directly on the floor of the house or apartment in which 
 they are operated. They have no connection with the 
 enclosure and require no alterations of any kind to fit 
 the building for their use. 
 
 Lamp-heated hovers of the type designated by such 
 trade names as "Adaptable," "Universal," etc. (see Figs. 
 108 and 109), are in great favor among successful chick 
 raisers, especially where chicks are to be brooded in mod- 
 erate-sized flocks. Hovers of this type have a detach- 
 able lamp box, the bottom of which is several inches be- 
 low the floor on which the hover stands. The lamp box 
 is intended to be located on the outside of the house or 
 compartment in which the chicks are confined, and re- 
 quires an opening of suitable size in the brooder case or 
 house wall to admit the heat pipe. These hovers may be 
 operated indoors if desired, in which case an elevated 
 floor must be provided for the hovers, the height being 
 adjusted to the particular make of hover used. 
 
 Hovers of this type may be used in connection with 
 regular indoor or outdoor brooder cases, ready-made or 
 homemade, or they may be attached to any suitable coop 
 or house. They are moderate in cost and afford almost 
 ideal conditions for brooding chicks in flocks of 100 or 
 less. Equipped with regulators, a reasonably uniform 
 temperature can be maintained, and they probably are as 
 safe from fire as any lamp-heated device can be made. 
 No matter how small the compartment in which the hover 
 is confined the chicks are always sure of a constant sup- 
 ply of fresh air which is drawn from the outside and pass- 
 es through the heater where it is thoroughly warmed, 
 afterward being forced gradually down among the chicks 
 and finally out through the slits in the hover curtain. 
 
 Since the lamp discharges its fumes on the outside, 
 as the hovers are regularly installed, the air in the brooder 
 is kept pure at all times. When the lamp box is located 
 inside the house, the fumes must be discharged indoors 
 but this is not a serious matter in a room of good size. 
 Lamp-heated hovers are used extensively in compartment 
 
 FIG. 108— HOVER WITH OUTDOOR LAMP BOX 
 This hover is designed to be attached to any suitable 
 brooder case, coop, or house. The lamp box is located 
 outside the house and the lamp fumes are discharged on 
 the outside through a specially designed fume pipe which 
 keeps the lamp flame from blowing out. Courtesy of 
 Prairie State Incubator Company. 
 
68 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 brooder houses, with or without auxiliary heat. Where 
 this method is followed each brood has separate pen or 
 compartment and may be given just the temperature re- 
 quired for best results, regardless of the others. A long 
 
 FIG. 109 — HOVER WITH MUSLIN. COVERED 
 ENCLOSURE 
 With lamp-heated hovers of usual size this en- 
 closure should he about 3 feet square and 18 
 inches high. This enclosure confines the chicks 
 near the hover and prevents floor drafts from 
 striking them. The muslin-covered top will keep 
 the chicks warm under the hover even when the 
 outside temperature drops quite low. 
 
 brooder house equipped with hovers of this type is illus- 
 trated and described in Chapter XII. 
 
 Hover Enclosure for Cold Weather 
 
 For cold weather use it frequently is desirable to en- 
 close these hovers, using the convenient form of enclo- 
 sure shown in Fig. 109. At the Maine Experiment Station 
 where more or less cold weather is regularly experienced 
 at the brooding season, a special type of enclosure has 
 been developed. This is illustrated in Figs. Ill and 113, 
 and is described as follows in Bulletin 471 of that in- 
 stitution: 
 
 "In planning this brooder the primary point aimed at 
 was to make a "fresh air and pure air" brooder. With 
 this idea in mind it was thought advisable to make the 
 walls of the brooder in some degree permeable to air. 
 To meet this requirement the walls and cover of the 
 brooder are made of cloth. Essentially the brooder is a 
 cloth box containing a hover, of the type in which the 
 lamp fumes are conducted outside of the building by an 
 exhaust pipe. 
 
 "These brooders are built as a constituent part of the 
 house which they occupy. Two brooders are placed in 
 each colony house, one in each of the back corners of 
 the building. In this way one end wall and the back 
 wall of the building form two of the sides of each brooder. 
 The remaining side and cover are made of cloth tacked 
 on light wooden frames as shown in the working 
 drawings. 
 
 "The floor of the brooder stands 10 inches above the 
 floor of the house. From the front of the brooder a 
 'sloping walk extends down to the house floor, reaching 
 in width clear across the front of the brooder. The cloth 
 front and side of the brooder are not permanently fixed in 
 position but are removable panels held together and to 
 the frame work by hooks and eyes. The cover is hinged 
 in the middle in such a way that it can either be half 
 opened, or entirely opened and folded back out of the 
 way. In consequence of this arrangement it is possible 
 to regulate with great nicety the amount of air which 
 shall be admitted to the brooder. Either the front or the 
 side panel may be tilted out as much as desired at the 
 
 base, thus admitting air there. Furthermore, by partly 
 opening a panel and the cover it is possible to insure that 
 there shall be a circulation of air through the brooder at 
 all times. 
 
 "The hover used in this brooder is the "Universal," 
 modified for present use so that the lamp is inside the 
 house underneath the brooder rather than in a box out- 
 side the house, as in the usual arrangement of this hover. 
 The reason for this modification is that in this climate, 
 where bad weather is likely to be experienced during the 
 early part of the hatching season, with heavy winds, snow, 
 and rain, it is much easier and more satisfactory to take 
 care of the lamp inside the house than from a small box 
 outside. Another modification is that in the hovers which 
 are installed in these brooders an especially heavy insula- 
 tion is put on top of the drum to reduce the loss of heat 
 by radiation in extremely cold weather early in the 
 spring. 
 
 "One of the essential points about the brooder is 
 its compactness in storage, and the fact that all the parts 
 may be stored in the base of the brooder itself. In this 
 way the labor expense of carrying parts back and forth 
 from a storage house each year is avoided. To bring 
 about this result the size of the base is so calculated that 
 all parts of the brooder may be enclosed in it. It will be 
 seen that the end of the brooder base containing door is 
 removable, being held in place by buttons at the top. 
 When the end of the brooding season is reached and there 
 is no further use for the brooder that year, the side and 
 front end panel of the brooder are removed, the canvas 
 cover folded back and tacked to the wall of the building 
 and the hover dismantled. All of the parts are then shoved 
 under the brooder floor and the end put back in place 
 again. The floor of the brooder is removable so that it 
 and the floor underneath may be cleaned and disinfected. 
 By removing its legs the hover may be stored in the 
 brooder base along with the other parts, or if one does 
 not desire to do this the hover may be suspended close 
 up to the roof of the building. In that position it will 
 be imoossible for the birds to roost on it. Of course, all 
 
 PIG. 110 — LAMP HEATED HOVERS IN COMPART- 
 MENT BROODER HOUSE 
 These lamp-heated hovers are the same as the one 
 shown in Fig. 108, modified to permit placing the 
 lamp under an elevated hover floor. For plan of com- 
 partment house equipped with ten hovers, see Chapter 
 XII. Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Company. 
 
 movable parts should be taken from the hover before it 
 is hung up in this way. These parts may be stored in 
 the brooder base." 
 
 Portable Lamp-Heated Hovers 
 
 Portable hovers are quite similar to the lamp-heated 
 hovers previously described, but are so designed that the 
 
THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 
 
 69 
 
 lamp box rests directly upon the brooder or house floor 
 and hence can be set up in any kind of house or apart- 
 ment where it is practicable to brood chicks, and without 
 the necessity for cutting holes for the heat pipe, provid- 
 ing raised floors, or making any other alterations. Hovers 
 
 FIG. Ill — MAINE STATION INDOOR BROODER 
 This Illustration shows how hovers like the ones 
 shown in Pig-s. 108 and 109 may be enclosed, for use 
 where the chicks are to be brooded in cold weather and 
 where unprotected hovers would not afford sufficient 
 warmth without turning the flame extremely higrh. 
 Courtesy of Maine Experiment Station. 
 
 of this type are intended strictly for indoor use and give 
 excellent service under reasonably favorable conditions. 
 The lamps however, are rather closely confined, and when 
 the flame is turned high there is danger of the lamp 
 smoking or becoming overheated. For this reason porta- 
 ble hovers are not recommended for use in severe weather 
 unless they are operated in warmed rooms or are pro- 
 vided with heat-retaining enclosures. A brooder house 
 with auxiliary heat is a most desirable place in which to 
 operate them, and if it is the intention to use these ap- 
 pliances early in the season such a house should by all 
 means be provided. 
 
 In moderately cold weather portable hovers may be 
 enclosed in muslin-covered cases as 
 shown in Fig. 124 (illustrated with- 
 out top in order to show hover in 
 position). .This enclosure consists of 
 four frames, which should be about 
 18 inches wide and 36 inches long, 
 for hovers of average size. Use inch 
 or inch-and-a-half strips of white 
 pine, spruce, or similar h?ht-weight 
 wood that does not 
 split readily, and 
 cover with a good 
 grade of muslin. 
 The panels thus 
 formed are hinged 
 together at three 
 
 corners, the fourth ^jq 112— PORTABLE HOVER WITH ENCLOSED LAMP BOX 
 
 having a hook in- This illustration shows a small lamp-heated portable hover with the lamp box 
 iidvuig 1 xnis "'"«" ^ tjie hover. Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Co. 
 
 stead, so that the 
 framecanbe 
 
 folded compactly for storage when not m use. A small 
 door should be provided in the front panel. The top 
 may be a simple frame covered with muslin, with a hole 
 for the waste-heat pipe from the hover, or better still 
 m.ay be made as shown in Fig. 109. 
 
 As long as the temperature of the house or room is 
 60 degrees or over, it will not be necessary to enclose 
 the hover, but when it goes below that point it is better 
 to do so, especially for newly hatched broods. Even 
 though the hover may be able to furnish sufficient heat 
 to keep the chicks comfortable at lower temperatures, it 
 will be necessary to keep a high flame in order to do it, 
 involving the risk of overheating the lamps and also 
 using a great deal more oil than would be required with 
 the hover suitably enclosed. If it is desired to make this 
 enclosure ratproof it may be done by covering the panels 
 on the inside with wire cloth. Placing the wire on the 
 inside also protects the muslin from the chicks which are 
 apt to pick holes through it. 
 
 While it is practicable to brood chicks successfully 
 where there are wide extremes between hover and room 
 temperatures this cannot be considered a favorable con- 
 dition. It unquestionably increases the attendant's trou- 
 bles, and the chicks are apt to be stunted and injured by 
 the alternate chilling and overheating. They also are 
 liable to spend more time under the hovers than is good 
 for them when they cannot go outside without instant 
 discomfort. In continuous cold weather much better re- 
 sults will be secured if portable hovers are operated in a 
 house with some form of auxiliary heat. A good-sized 
 room may be warmed to a fairly comfortable tempera- 
 ture with a coal stove or water boiler, doing so at com- 
 paratively little expense, and greatly reducing the con- 
 sumption of oil in brooder lamps. It may not be neces- 
 sary to provide a hover enclosure under such conditions 
 and it is much more convenient to care for the chicks 
 without it. However, it always is desirable to surround 
 the hover with some sort of guard for the first few days. 
 It will be clear from the illustrations of portable 
 hovers here shown, that they regularly discharge their 
 lamp fumes inside the apartment in which they are 
 operated. So long as the room or house is of good size 
 and well ventilated,' no harm will be done. When the 
 hover is installed in a small building however, such as 
 the average portable colony house, some provision must 
 be made for conducting the fumes outdoors. A practi- 
 cal way of doing this is to provide a galvanized iron pipe 
 about 2 inches in diameter running it straight up or out 
 through the side wal l. The lower end 
 of the pipe shoulBbe funnel-shaped 
 and must be held Securely in place 
 an inch or two above the waste-pipe 
 of the hover so that wind will not 
 affect the lamp, and so that the in- 
 creased draft caused by the long pipe 
 will not "draw" the flame. Do not 
 a T on the outer 
 end as in Fig. 108; 
 it helps greatly in 
 keeping the wind 
 from blowing out 
 the flame. 
 
 The 'lamp in a 
 
 portable hover 
 
 should be tended 
 
 regularly and kept 
 
 scrupulously clean. 
 
 The lamp bowl 
 
 should not be filled more than about two-thirds full and 
 
 should never be allowed to burn empty. A lamp either 
 
 full or almost empty is more liable to smoke than one 
 
 moderately full. If the lamp bowl is of limited capacity 
 
 it is desirable to fill it at least once a day, and when the 
 
70 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 flame is turned high it may be necessary to do this twice 
 daily. The flame usually gets its supply of air through 
 screen-covered openings and it is highly important that 
 these be kept clean and free from dust which otherwise 
 will clog the screen and cause the lamp to smoke. As 
 to capacity, the rule given on page 80 applies regularly 
 to all sizes of portable hovers. Those most generally in 
 use, such as are shown in Figs. 112, 114 and 124, are de- 
 signed to accommodate about 100 newly hatched chicks 
 t>T 65 to 7S older ones. 
 
 Hovers Installed in Colony Houses 
 
 While the cheapest method of providing comforta- 
 ble brooding accommodations for small or medium-sized 
 flocks is by the use of hovers installed in homemade 
 brooder cases, the most satisfactory method for general 
 use, especially for early hatches, is to install them in 
 small colony houses, or houses especially designed for 
 the purpose, such as those illustrated and described in 
 Chapter XII. Where this is done the chicks will have 
 plenty of floor space and when they must be confined 
 indoors for days at a time, as is often necessary early in 
 the season, they will continue to grow and thrive almost 
 as well as when able to be outdoors all the time. Such 
 houses may be built in various sizes to meet the needs 
 of the individual chick grower, providing for one or more 
 hovers as preferred. 
 
 In a colony house 6x6 feet, which is about as small 
 as it is practical to build them, it seldom is desirable to 
 install more than one hover, but two can be used quite 
 conveniently in houses 6x8 feet or larger. When operated 
 in compartment brooder houses each hover should have a 
 space 4 to 5 feet wide and 8 to 10 feet long. In perma- 
 nent houses the hovers can either be located on a raised 
 floor or the floor of the passageway may be sunk 6 to 
 S inches below the main floor. With colony houses the 
 usual plan is to set the house on runners, or block it up 
 
 FIG. 113— MAINE STATION BROODER ENCLOSURE 
 PARTIALLY DISMANTLED 
 
 This illustration shows enclosure dismantled. Hover 
 and parts are in lamp box. Top of enclosure is folded 
 back ag-ainst rear wall of house and fastened by 
 wooden buttons. Courtesy of Maine Experiment Station. 
 
 a few inches off the ground so that the hover can rest 
 
 directly on the house floor. 
 
 Indoor and Outdoor Brooders 
 
 Complete brooders, to be operated either indoors or 
 outdoors, have been in use for many years. Indoor brood- 
 
 ers are not now in much demand, as their place is large- 
 ly filled by the independent hovers already described, 
 used either with or without enclosures or cases, which, 
 if required, usually are of homemade construction. Out- 
 door brooders, however, are used in great numbers, par- 
 ticularly where colony houses or permanent brooder 
 houses are- not available. 
 
 FIG. 114— PORT AB1..S] nOVER WITH OUTSIDE 
 LAMP BOX 
 This portable hover is similar to the one shown 
 in Pig. 112, except that the lamp box is entirely 
 outside of the hover whereas in the other it is 
 underneath. Courtesy of "Watson Manufacturing 
 Company. 
 
 One of the first really successful brooders adapted to 
 outdoor use is illustrated in Fig. 107. In brooders of this 
 type the lamp was located underneath the brooder. The 
 floor occupied by the chicks was about ten inches from 
 the ground, and reached by means of an incline in front 
 of the brooder. The lamp or brooder stove used to pro- 
 vide heat had a chimney which came up close to, but did 
 not touch, the underside of a metal sheet which was thus 
 made quite hot and in turn warmed a current of air 
 which was introduced from the outside, passing over the 
 top surface of the metal and beneath the brooder floor. 
 After being warmed the air passed up through a flue or 
 pipe and was discharged under a hover, and forced down 
 around the chicks afterward passing out through slits in 
 the hover curtain, substantially as in the present type of 
 hovers. 
 
 This style of heater warmed the brooder floor as 
 ■well as the air, and when the lamp was turned up strong, 
 often gave so much bottom heat as to cause leg weak- 
 ness. The elevated floor was another objectionable feat- 
 ure, but the chief defect was the danger of overheating 
 the lamp, especially in brooding chicks in cold weather 
 when it was necessary to have a high flame. Brooders 
 made by standard concerns now-a-days are practically 
 fireproof, btit many of the extremely cheap brooders of- 
 fered for sale leave' much to be desired in this respect, 
 and if used at all should be located where they will not 
 endanger valuable property. It is better to avoid all such 
 brooders however, and buy only those that are known 
 to be safe and reliable. Nowhere is it more true than 
 in the purchase of brooder equipment, that "it is better to 
 be safe than sorry." 
 
 Some outdoor brooders have built-in heating systems, 
 such as the one shown in Fig. 117. Others consist of a 
 comparatively simple case equipped with an independent 
 hover as in Fig. 115. A well-built brooder should give 
 good satisfaction when used under reasonably favorable 
 conditions, and will last for many years if stored in a dry 
 place when not in service. It is always better to buy 
 first-class brooders and take care of them, than to pur- 
 chase cheap, flimsy ones that may not give good service 
 
THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 
 
 71 
 
 even when new, and whose limited usefulness at best is 
 of only short duration. 
 
 If necessary to economize in first cost, a practical 
 plan IS to secure a hover and build the case at home, 
 which can readily be done by any one handy with tools. 
 As usually built, outdoor brooders are about 3x6 feet, 
 which makes them large enough for 100 newly hatched 
 chicks or 75 after they are two or three weeks old. It 
 is not considered practical to build brooders of larger 
 size than the dimensions just given, and it is extremely 
 unwise to attempt to crowd into any brooder more chicks 
 than it is designed to accommodate. In buying brooders, 
 or hovers for homemade brooders, be sure to get those 
 that have sufficient heating capacity to keep the chicks 
 warm in severe weather. 
 
 An outdoor brooder should have at least three com- 
 partments, which give the chicks some opportunity to 
 choose the temperature best suited to their requirements. 
 These conditions are best secured by a hover compart- 
 ment about three feet square, where the temperature un- 
 der the hover can be kept in the neighborhood of 100 
 degrees at first, lowering it as the chicks grow older. 
 Around or in front of the hover, depending upon its 
 shape, there should be a space large enough to accom- 
 modate all the chicks without crowding. To this space 
 they can escape if the hover becomes too warm and in it 
 they are to be fed for the first few days. Connected with 
 this should be an exercising compartment, also three feet 
 square. This will be warmed somewhat from the heating 
 system in the hover end, but can be opened up as de- 
 sired to give the chicks air and gradually to harden them 
 oS before turning them outdoors. 
 
 If the brooder is to be used outdoors in stormy 
 weather it is desirable to provide covered runs as shown 
 in Fig,, lis, where the chicks can get out to scratch and 
 exercise without being exposed to wind, rain, or cold. 
 This run may be any convenient size, but should seldom 
 be smaller than 3x6 or 8 feet. If a covered run is not 
 provided there must be some sort of an enclosure to keep 
 the chicks within bounds at first, to prevent their straying 
 away and getting lost, and under many conditions this en- 
 closure is required to protect them from enemies of vari- 
 ous kinds. Such enclosure may take the form of the one 
 shown in Fig. IIS, which is covered on top as well as 
 sides, or may be like the one illustrated in Fig. 131. 
 
 Location for Outdoor Brooder 
 
 The brooder and its covered run or yard should have 
 as dry a location as possible. There is no better place 
 for them than a smooth, closely clipped lawn, if such is 
 available. If the brooder is moved frequently to a new 
 location the chicks will do no harm to the grass, and this 
 will provide much of the green feed that is so essential 
 a part of their ration. An additional advantage in brood- 
 ing newly hatched chicks on the lawn is that they are 
 within easy reach and can be kept under observation all 
 the time, which is highly important during the first few 
 weeks of their lives. When they are past the danger 
 point and need no longer be confined to small runs, they 
 may be moved to some other location where they can 
 have more room. Fields covered with high grass or 
 weeds should be avoided but a few clumps of weeds or 
 bushes to which the chicks can have access for protection 
 from the hot sun, also from hawks, crows, and other 
 enemies, are desirable. 
 
 Protection for the brooder and the chicks often does 
 not receive the attention that should be given to this im- 
 portant detail. Not only is it easier to operate the 
 
 brooder when suitably sheltered, but the chicks will do 
 better. Early in the season the brooder should be 
 placed in the shelter of a building or other substantial 
 windbreak and, if necessary, the sides of the run should 
 be covered with burlap. Still cold will not harm the 
 chicks seriously after they become hoverwise, but a run 
 swept by a raw, cold wind will cause great discomfort 
 and generally results in their staying indoors much 'jf 
 the time, to their great disadvantage. 
 
 It may be worth mentioning in this connection that 
 outdoor brooders can be conveniently operated indoors 
 early in the season, if there is a building or even an open 
 shed in which they can be placed. In such a location a 
 small pen or run can be provided for the chicks so that 
 they can get out for exercise regardless of the weather, 
 whereas, if the brooder is out in the open, the chicks 
 may have to be confined to its narrow limits for days at 
 a time. The added convenience and comfort to the at- 
 tendant, who will be able to care for the brooder and the 
 chicks without being exposed to storms, are in them- 
 selves a sufficient reason for keeping the brooder in- 
 
 FIG. 115— OUTDOOK BROODER AND COVERED RUN 
 Outdoor brooders are used by many, especially after 
 settled weather has arrived. Covered runs are highly 
 desirable for additional protection after the chicks are 
 old enough to run outdoors. The brooder alone will not 
 afford sufficient room for them, when confined on ac- 
 count of sudden cold snaps, rain, etc. 
 
 doors at this season, if possible. In summer the brooder 
 should be placed in the shade, as it is apt to become over- 
 heated if exposed to the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 Who Should Use Lamp-Heated Hovers and Brooders 
 
 While the better grades of brooders and hovers such 
 as have just been described, have been brought to a high 
 degree of efficiency, and leave scarcely anything to be 
 desired in the way of practical, convenient, and reason- 
 ably automatic brooding devices, they all are open to the 
 important objection that they are capable of brooding 
 flocks of only moderate size. Where chicks are to be 
 raised in large numbers it is highly desirable to brood 
 them in as large flocks as are practicable, in order to 
 reduce the labor cost. To meet this demand and to keep 
 as low as possible the cost of equipment and houses, col- 
 ony hovers, each with a brooding capacity of many hun- 
 dreds of chicks, have been introduced and have in a 
 short time attained a hign degree of popularity. While 
 these huge brooders have been an unqualified success 
 and are now regarded as indispensable wherever chicks 
 are extensively raised, it is not probable that they can 
 or should entirely displace lamp-heated brooders. Each 
 has a distinct place to fill in practical and economical 
 brooding. 
 
72 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 T<Wi«CI^^4-/flf J ij^ 
 
 ss-^j ffi^-^iee^^^H^-w 
 
 No one questions the fact that the person who is 
 operating on a small scale will find lamp-heated brooders 
 better adapted to his requirements. As his plant, devel- 
 ops and his flocks grow larger there will come a time 
 when, in the interest of economy and efficiency, he clear- 
 ly should change over to colony hovers. Just when that 
 point is reached will depend upon a number of considera- 
 
 ^^_^__^^___^__^ tions and is a 
 
 matter for indi- 
 vidual decision. 
 
 One of the 
 most important 
 advantages p o s- 
 sessed by lamp- 
 heated brooding 
 devices is that 
 chicks in the 
 c o mp a r a tively 
 
 small flocks made 
 
 PIG. 116— NONCROWDING PARTITION necessary by this 
 DOOR FOR BROODERS , method ofbrood- 
 
 With these noncrowding doors in • -i, j rnnrh 
 
 the partition between hover and ex- '"& *"' <1° ^^'^^ 
 ercising compartments there will be better, as a rufe, 
 no corners on either side for the , , , 
 
 chicks to crowd Into. than when they 
 
 are herded to- 
 gether in great numbers. The death rate will be lower 
 and the chicks will have better individual opportunities 
 for growth and development. While remarkably good 
 results often are reported in colony hover brooding, the 
 general accuracy of the above comparison has never 
 been seriously questioned. It follows that those who 
 wish to grow valuable chicks with small loss, and with 
 the best opportunities for individual growth and develop- 
 ment, will continue to use lamp-heated hovers in spite 
 of the admittedly greater cost of brooding them in this 
 way. 
 
 Similarly those who may be raising comparatively 
 large numbers of chicks but whose seperate broods are 
 small, will find lamp-heated hovers well suited to their 
 use. For illustration, the person who has incubators of 
 2S0-egg capacity or less, and who has only a single ma- 
 chine hatching at a time, will find that he can brood his 
 chicks to much better advantage in lamp-heated hovers 
 than with colony hovers. In making a choice of brood- 
 ing equipment it is worth considering that the best lamp- 
 heated hovers have been brought to a degree of mechan- 
 ical perfection which makes it possible to operate them 
 with the slightest of attention. A further advantage is 
 that while fuel for colony hovers sometimes is difficult 
 to secure, kerosene can be obtained in practically every 
 section of the country. 
 
 Colony Hovers 
 
 Colony hovers, while of comparatively recent intro- 
 duction, have been developed to a good degree of effi- 
 ciency and are in high favor among those who have 
 large numbers of chicks to brood and who wish to do 
 this in the cheapest and easiest manner. With these 
 hovers chicks may be brooding in flocks of many hun- 
 dreds and without much more labor than would be re- 
 quired in caring for one small lamp-heated brooder. Sin- 
 gle flocks of 1,000 chicks or more having been brooded 
 successfully with colony hovers, though the present ten- 
 dency is to discount extreme claims as to brooding capac- 
 ity. Under ordinary conditions 500 chicks are considered 
 enough even for the largest hovers, and many prefer not 
 to exceed 300 or 350. 
 
 Various types of colony hovers have been developed 
 
 and are offered for sale, the chief differences between 
 them being due to the nature of the fuel employed. They 
 all provide a warm brooding room, in any part of which 
 the chicks will be fairly comfortable, and with a circle 
 or zone near the stove or heater where a uniform brood- 
 ing temperature is to be maintained by the action of a 
 regulator controlling drafts or fuel supply. This brood- 
 ing zone usually is at a little distance from the heater 
 and its diameter is determined by the size and elevation 
 of the canopy or dome. In some instances, as in the case 
 of the heater shown in Fig. 119, no hover is used, but 
 only a comparatively small heat deflector, the tempera- 
 ture about the heater being maintained at a point suffi- 
 ciently above the brooding temperature so that the chicks 
 will not collect here, but will gather in a circle outside 
 the too-warm zone. 
 
 During the day the chicks scatter all over the room, 
 exercising and scratching for food in the litter and read- 
 ily finding their way back to the vicinity of the heater 
 when in need of warmth, provided they have been prop- 
 erly trained. There is, however, the same necessity of 
 teaching them to find their way to the source of heat as 
 in the case of lamp-heated hovers — greater in fact, owing 
 to the much more serious consequences that are apt to 
 ensue if a flock of several hundred chicks should begin 
 huddling in some corner instead of spreading out con- 
 tentedly in an open ring in the comfortable temperature 
 near the stove or heater. 
 
 The colony hover was developed, or at any rate at- 
 tained its first popularity, on the Pacific Coast, where oil 
 or distillate-burning heaters have been in general use for 
 a number of years. These hovers are installed in suitable 
 rooms with the oil supply on the outside, or at least at 
 a distance from the burners. With suitable thermostatic 
 control of fuel they will maintain a fairly uniform tem- 
 perature in the brooding zone and throughout the room, 
 and are easily regulated and controlled. 
 
 The number of chicks that can be brooded with a 
 colony hover is determined as much by the size of the 
 room in which it is operated as by the capacity of the 
 
 FIG. 117— HOT AIR OUTDOOR BROODER 
 This brooder has an enclosed lamp and a "built- 
 in" heating- system, and affords a comfortable home 
 for outdoor chicks. Courtesy of Des Moines Incuba- 
 tor Co. 
 
 heater. By regulating fuel consumption and adjusting 
 height of canopy or hover, the brooding temperature can 
 be extended far enough beyond the heater to give a cir- 
 cle sufficiently large to accommodate many hundreds of 
 chicks. Regardless of heating capacity however, there 
 is a practical limit to the number that can be kept in a 
 room of given size and it is just as objectionable to over- 
 crowd in a brooding room as to do so under a lamp- 
 heated hover. It is difficult to give a general rule gov- 
 erning colony hover capacity, since something depends 
 upon the type of hover, and more perhaps upon the 
 
THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 
 
 73 
 
 FIG. 118 — CHOOSE A PROTECTED LOCATION FOR OUTDOOR BROODERS 
 
 A southern expose with a windbreak of trees on the west and north is extra 
 
 desirable for early season brooding^. 
 
 weather and whether the chicks have an opportunity to 
 get outdoors or not, also the care and attention that they 
 receive. In general, it may be said that a house providing 
 100 square feet of floor space will afford sufficient room 
 for a flock of 400 to 500 chicks for the first 10 to IS days, 
 after which they should have additional floor space for 
 exercise, unless the weather is mild and they can spend 
 most of the day outdoors. 
 
 In sections where hard coal is obtainable, colony 
 hovers with stoves for burning this fuel are quite popu- 
 lar. Several such hovers installed in a long brooder 
 house, are shown in Fig. 122. They are low in cost, the 
 fuel is comparatively inexpensive, and they give excel- 
 lent service. They are not so easy to operate as the oil 
 or distillate-burning hovers, nor are they as desirable 
 as the latter in the south where the extremes between 
 night and day temperature are wide, and where it is diffi- 
 cult to check a coal fire sufficiently to keep the room 
 temperature within the proper limits during the day, 
 without having it go out. Efforts to operate coal-burning 
 hovers with soft coal have been made with but limited 
 success, as their fuel capacity is too small to carry a 
 good fire through a cold night. If hard coal or coke is 
 not readily obtainable it usually will be better to pur- 
 chase kerosene or distillate-burning heaters instead. An- 
 other type of brooder suitable for large flocks, and one 
 that has been in successful use for a number of years, 
 is the Cornell gasoline brooder. This brooder was de- 
 veloped by the Poultry Department of Cornell University. 
 Gasoline is far from being popular as fuel but it has 
 some advantages, and if properly handled is safe. 
 
 As poultry keepers have begun to favor colony flocks 
 of more conservative size, manufact- 
 urers have made an effort to effect 
 a compromise between the small 
 lamp-heated hovers and the require- 
 ments of colony brooding, retaining 
 kerosene as fuel. The hover shown 
 in Fig. 120 is one of this type. If not 
 operated under too extreme condi- 
 tions, they give good results. 
 
 How to Use Colony Hovers 
 
 Colony hovers can be used success- 
 fully at almost any season, though 
 if operated in cold weather it is nec- 
 essary to provide especially warmi 
 quarters. The average coal-burning 
 
 struction in severe winter weather, 
 and in the case of oil or gasoline- 
 heated hovers the fuel cost in such 
 houses is practically prohibitive. Al- 
 most invariably it is true economy to 
 build with double walls so as to re- 
 tain heat and reduce fuel consump- 
 tion. 
 
 Flocks of 300 to SOO chicks can be 
 successfully brooded in a house lOx 
 10 feet or 12x12 feet, provided the 
 chicks can spend most of the day out- 
 doors after they are a couple. of weeks 
 old. For use early in the season how- 
 ever, more floor space should be pro- 
 vided, doing so either by making the 
 room larger, say 16x16 feet, or by 
 providing a two-room house. There are several reasons 
 why the latter is much better than having the floor space 
 all in one large room. In the first place if the room is 
 large enough to provide comfortably for the growing 
 chicks it will be unnecessarily large for newly hatched 
 broods, and since these must have a comfortable tem- 
 perature more or less all over the room, the cost of 
 heating will be much greater than is necessary. Another 
 important objection to rooms of large size is the danger 
 from floor drafts which are almost unavoidable in cola 
 weather, and as a result of which epidemics of colds and 
 roup are liable to break out, often causing great losses. 
 These difficulties are largely overcome by the 
 use of a two-room house such as is illustrated and de- 
 scribed in Chapter XII. The brooding room affords com- 
 fortable quarters for the chicks during the first two 
 weeks, after which they are allowed access to an ad- 
 joining room of about the same size, which will be 
 warmer than outdoors, but decidedly cooler than the 
 brooding room. This arrangement affords an opportunity 
 for the chicks to get hardened off before they are turned 
 out, and provides ample floor space for them if they 
 must be confined indoors on account of cold or stormy 
 weather. The hover room is practically free from floor 
 drafts, and it will cost only about half as much to heat 
 it as would be the case if the entire space were in one 
 room. The brooding room should be built with double 
 walls and windows that can be made tight, but the ex- 
 ercising room need only have single walls, and the front 
 should be arranged so that it can be thrown open when 
 weather conditions permit, thus giving the chicks prac- 
 tically outdoor temperature without exposing them to 
 
 FIG. 119— OIL, BURNING COLONY HOVER 
 
 t„,,ror Hnpa tint have sufficient fuel No hover at all is used with this colony brooder, which is readily regulated 
 
 hover does not nave sunicient luci ^^ ^^ ^^ maintain a "zone" of correct brooding temperature at a reasonable 
 
 caoacity to heat a large house with distance from the heater. This is indicated by the position of the chicks in 
 
 . , „ J ,„ii„ ohoor, ,-r,n illustration. Heater burns kerosene or distillate and will successfully brood 
 
 single walls and generally cheap con- several hundred chicks at one time. 
 
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 storms, rain, snow, or high winds, and without cooling 
 down the brooding room. 
 
 Colony hovers usually are located in the center of 
 the blooding room. They should be fired up and thorough- 
 ly tested so that the operator can be certain that he will 
 be able to maintain a fairly uniform temperature before 
 entrusting chicks to them. When the chicks are first 
 placed under the hover they should be confined by a strip 
 of galvanized wire cloth. This should be about 18 inches 
 wide, and long enough to form a complete circle about 
 the hover at a distance of at least three feet. This guard 
 should be drawn up at first, so that the circle does not 
 extend more than about a foot or so beyond the hover, 
 but aftfer the chicks become familiar with their sur- 
 roundings and have learned where to go for warmth the 
 circle can be enlarged. 
 
 When certain that the chicks can be trusted to return 
 to the hover promptly when uncomfortable, the guard 
 may be entirely removed, though it is a wise precaution 
 
 FIG. 120 — OIL. HEATED COLONY HOVER 
 This brooding' device is provided with a hover under 
 chicks gather for warmth. It does not heat the room to 
 temperature as the brooder shown in Pig. 119, and is, 
 more economical in the use of fuel. 
 
 to continue to draw it up around the hover at night, so 
 that the chicks cannot stray off into corners and huddle 
 there as they sometimes do even after they seem to be 
 thoroughly trained. It is important to give these large 
 flocks careful attention, and the greatest pains must be 
 taken never to let the fire go out in cold weather or to 
 permit the temperature to drop too low at night, either 
 of which is liable to start the crowding that is so great- 
 ly to be feared. As a further precaution it is wise to 
 round out the corners of the brooding room using wire 
 netting, pieces of prepared roofing, or anything else that 
 will answer the purpose. 
 
 Hot Water Brooding Systems 
 Where large numbers of chicks are to be brooded in 
 cold weather many persons prefer to use hot water pipe 
 systems. These have the disadvantages of exceeding all 
 others in first cost, and their operating season is com- 
 paratively short, as it seldom is desirable to brood chicks 
 by this method in warm weather. Hot water brooding 
 systems are fairly easy to operate however, when proper- 
 ly installed, and the advantage of having many hundreds 
 of chicks in comparatively small flocks under one roof 
 with one heater or furnace for all, is especially import- 
 ant in cold weather. 
 
 There are two general systems of pipe-heated brood- 
 
 ers, each with its own advantages. The method most 
 commonly used in New England is what is known as the 
 open-pipe system where the pipes are entirely exposed 
 or covered only with a cloth-covered frame which is laid 
 over the pipes, this being done in the case of newly 
 hatched chicks or when it is desirable to raise the tem- 
 perature for any given pen. No hover cloths are pro- 
 vided and the temperature is kept fairly high throughout 
 the room, the chicks getting up close to the pipes for 
 added warmth at night and as needed during the day. A 
 full description of such a brooder house is given in 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 The covered-pipe system has various forms, from 
 overhead pipes with a tight hover over the top, to pipes 
 placed under the floor and confined in a box in order to 
 heat air, which then is discharged under a round or square 
 hover, adjustable in height and provided with hover cloths 
 to confine the heat, the chicks being warmed by a hot- 
 air circulating system very much as in lamp-heated hovers. 
 Both systems give good results when 
 properly managed, the open system being 
 the cheaper to install, probably a little 
 more expensive to operate, and calling for 
 pretty exact control of room temperature. 
 It is not practical to install pipe-heated 
 systems in small houses. Colony hovers or 
 lamp hovers with auxiliary heat are more 
 desirable as well as much cheaper. 
 
 Electrically Heated Brooders 
 
 Electrically heated brooders probably are 
 the most convenient type of brooding equip- 
 ment available. Such brooders are easy to 
 operate and when of correct design and pro- 
 vided with reliable regulators require prac- 
 tically no attention. As usually made they 
 may be attached to an ordinary lamp socket, 
 and have a regulator which automatically 
 turns the current on and of? as necessary to 
 maintain the desired temperature. No at- 
 tention whatever is needed aside from ad- 
 justing the regulator for more or less heat 
 as occasion requires. Reliable appliances of 
 this sort will maintain an almost uniform temperature 
 under ordinary conditions, and as the current is only on 
 when the heat falls below the point for which the regu- 
 lator is set, there is no waste of current. If favorable 
 rates can be obtained it is possible to brood chicks in 
 this convenient, labor-saving way as economically as with 
 oil or gas. Since there are no lamps to fill or clean, no 
 coal or ashes to handle, no danger from fire, and no 
 lamp or stove to taint the air, it is possible to operate 
 electric brooders where it would not be desirable to use 
 any other kind. A brooder of this type is illustrated 
 in Fig. 121. 
 
 Homemade Brooders 
 
 There is little demand for plans for homemade brood- 
 ers nowadays and still less excuse for them. It is pos- 
 sible for any one who wishes to do so to build a brooder 
 of the general type as the one shown in Fig. 107, using 
 a similar heating method, but such brooders are so in- 
 ferior to those now made by reliable manufacturers, and 
 so unsafe as regards fire, that there is no good reason for 
 giving them any consideration. 
 
 Most manufacturers furnish complete heating and 
 brooding systems or independent hovers for installation 
 in homemade brooder cases, for either indoor or outdoor 
 use, and it is entirely practical to use them in this way. 
 
 which the 
 as high a 
 therefore. 
 
THE SELECTION OF BROODING EQUIPMENT 
 
 75 
 
 J 
 
 PIG. 121— HOVER HEATED BY 
 EH-iECTRICITY 
 This hover has a heating plane in 
 the top and is a most convenient 
 brooding- device where current can 
 be obtained at a reasonable rate. 
 It IS equipped with a regulator 
 which automatically cuts out the 
 current when the temperature goes 
 abo-ve the desired point. 
 
 Local tinsmiths cannot make tliem as cheaply nor as well 
 as those regularly manufactured, and the use of a make- 
 shift heating system is unwise. With no other purpose 
 in view than to safeguard the interests of the chick 
 
 grower, we most 
 earnestly advise 
 against wasting time 
 or money on home- 
 made brooding out- 
 fits, other than out- 
 door or indoor 
 cases to be equipped 
 with hovers or 
 brooder heaters es- 
 pecially designed for 
 such use. There is 
 too much at stake 
 both in the chicks 
 that are brooded 
 and in the danger 
 to valuable property 
 which results from 
 the use of lamp- 
 heated brooders of 
 the usual homemade construction, to warrant any one in 
 experimenting with such devices. 
 
 No Economy in Skimping On Brooder Equipment 
 
 It is scarcely possible to overemphasize the import- 
 ance of providing sufficient brooding capacity for the 
 chicks that are to be raised. The average chick raiser 
 almost invariably is short on brooders at the time when 
 he needs them most, which is false economy in about its 
 worst form. There is no disputing the fact that millions 
 of chicks die from exposure every season — chicks that 
 would have lived and returned to their owners a substan- 
 tial profit, if only they had been properly brooded. The 
 incubator often is unjustly blamed for hatching out 
 weakly chicks that could not be raised when, as a 
 matter of fact, they were sturdy and vigorous when 
 hatched but were sacrificed to their owner's neglect 
 to provide suitable brooders for them — none at all 
 in some instances, and in others cheap, inferior 
 makes with inadequate heating capacity, resulting in 
 the chicks being exposed to low or irregular tem- 
 peratures that they could not possibly endure. 
 
 Tn still other cases first-class brooders may be 
 provided but not in sufficient numbers, so that the 
 chicks are injuriously crowded, and perhaps are re- 
 moved from the brooder to make room for younger 
 lots weeks before they should be deprived of arti- 
 ficial heat. Overcrowding of brooders is a most 
 common practice, and while a little slower in action, 
 is about as serious in its final effect as havmg no 
 brooders at all. The wise chick raiser will learn 
 the actual capacity of his brooders and will then 
 either limit his hatching to that number, or will 
 provide the additional equipment needed in good 
 time, even though to do so may necessitate spend- 
 ing more money for the purpose than is convenient. 
 Skimping on brooders is in no sense economical or 
 practical, though it is extraordinarily difficult to get be- 
 ginners, and even many experienced growers, to realize 
 how much they lose and how seriously they imperil their 
 whole poultry enterprise, by such a pennywise policy. 
 
 How to Estimate Brooding Capacity Required 
 
 So far as the beginner is concerned, it is possible 
 that a good deal of this deficiency in brooding equip- 
 ment is due to the fact that he does not understand just 
 what his requirements are going to be, nor what is a 
 reasonable number of chicks to place in a brooder. 
 Speaking generally, hover capacity may be figured on 
 the basis of floor space following the rules for doing 
 this which will be found on page 80. The capacity of 
 the average round hover, measuring 20 to 24 inches in 
 diameter, is in the neighborhood of 65 to 75 chicks at 
 three weeks old. With these rules or estimates for gen- 
 ■ eral guidance, it should be a simple matter for the most 
 inexperienced to determine the amount of hover space 
 he will need for a given incubator capacity. Counting 
 the average hatch at about two-thirds of the egg capacity 
 of the machine, which is a reasonable basis on which to 
 figure, a 100-egg incubator will require one good lamp- 
 heated hover to take care of a hatch. For a ISO to 200- 
 egg machine two such hovers will be needed, and for a 
 350 to 400-egg machine three hovers, or one colony hover 
 will be required, the latter being large enough to take 
 the entire hatch from two such incubators when neces- 
 sary. These estimates apply to a single hatch in 
 each case. 
 
 Chicks can seldom be weaned from artificial heat un- 
 til they are over four weeks old, and in early spring will 
 need to be brooded for six weeks or more. Hence, if the 
 incubators are being run continuously there must be 
 brooder capacity for two successive hatches, or double 
 the number required for one hatch. This is where a 
 great many chick growers make a most serious mistake, 
 laiHng, as they do, to provide brooders for the second 
 lot. This makes it necessary to put the first chicks into 
 cold brooders when only aboiit three weeks old — a step 
 that is practically certain to result in heavy losses, es- 
 
 FIG. 122— COLONY HOVERS IN LONG POULTRY HOUSE 
 Illustration shows several coal-burning hovers installed in a 
 long house. For this purpose a regular brooder house may be 
 used or a laying house divided by means of suitable temporary 
 partitions. 
 
 pecially in the early part of the season. Either provide 
 the extra brooders or hovers needed, or delay the second 
 hatch until the first lot of chicks can be removed to cold 
 brooders without injury. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 Care and Management of Brooder Chicks 
 
 When to Take the Chicks From the Incubator— How to Determine Capacity of Any Brooder — Teaching Chicks to 
 
 Use the Hover — tloyv to Make and Use Cold Brooders— Importance of Litter and 
 
 What Kind to Use — Labor-Saving Methods. 
 
 XiT IS assumed in this chapter that the chick grower 
 has selected the brooding- equipment best suited 
 vggK to his requirements, and that he has looked ahead 
 &^^ and has purchased it well in advance of the time 
 when it will be needed, so that there will be ample time 
 in which to set it up and test it out before entrusting 
 valuable chicks to its care. That is assuming a good deal 
 too much in many instances, for unpreparedness is the 
 average poultry keeper's besetting sin, and he frequent- 
 ly pays dearly for it. The beginner especially, and all 
 who are trying out new equipment, should realize the 
 importance of thorough testing in order to learn just 
 what results can reasonably be expected, doing this in 
 ample time so that any adjustments that may be needed 
 can be made before the brooder or the hover, as the 
 case may be, must be put into active service. The too 
 common plan of placing 
 chicks in a brooder whose 
 limitations are not known, 
 expecting to be able to 
 meet conditions as they 
 arise, is responsible for 
 enormous losses each year 
 — losses that might readily 
 be prevented with a little 
 forethought and timely 
 preparation. 
 
 In testing out a new 
 brooder or hover it is not 
 enough to be sure that it 
 is in good general working 
 order, that the lamp burns 
 steadily and evenly, and 
 that it heats up readily. 
 All this is important; but 
 it is even more important, from a practical point of view, 
 to learn what the brooder will NOT do. Every brooding 
 device, of whatever kind, is capable of supplying just so 
 much heat, and when the outside temperature drops below 
 a certain limit it is impossible for it to maintain the proper 
 brooding temperature. Just what that limit is will de- 
 pend not only upon the capacity of the heating system, but 
 also upon the conditions under which it is used. This in- 
 formation each operator must secure himself, and it can 
 not be too plainly stated that until he has done this he is 
 not ready to begin brooding chicks. The operator has only 
 himself to blame for the trouble and losses that he is 
 about certain to meet if this precaution is neglected. 
 
 The importance of learning the limitations of what- 
 ever brooding devices are used is all the greater because 
 average expectations regarding them are entirely too 
 high; that is, more is expected and demanded of them 
 than is reasonable or possible. The conditions that the 
 brooder must meet, especially early in the season, are 
 hard enough at best, what with the cold, raw winds, sud- 
 den and extreme cold snaps, belated snow storms, and 
 days of continuous rain that then are to be expected in 
 most sections of the country. Winter fires may have to 
 be resorted to in dwellings, but still it is expected that a 
 
 %\ 
 
 FIG. 123— PORTABLE HOVER WITH WIRE GUARD 
 Enclosed within a circular wire guard chicks cannot 
 istray away from hover and get chilled. If one-half or 
 three-fourth-inch mesh netting- cannot be secured it will 
 be safer to use galvanized wire cloth. Courtesy of Buck- 
 eye Incubator Company. 
 
 little, one-inch lamp flame will furnish sufficient heat to 
 maintain a temperature of approximately 100 degrees un- 
 der a hover that has only a thin board wall for protec- 
 tion against storms and perhaps almost zero tempera- 
 tures. The better class of brooding devices are marvel- 
 ously efficient in the use of the comparatively small 
 amount of heat available, but there is always a limit 
 beyond which they cannot reasonably be expected to go 
 in supplying warmth, especially in the case of broods of 
 newly hatched chicks which require much higher tempera- 
 tures under the hover than those that are several weeks 
 old. 
 
 All brooder tests should be made with a thermome- 
 ter in the room as well as under the hover, and a written 
 record should be kept of the temperature in both loca- 
 tions. If this is done the brooder's natural limits will 
 
 quickly be learned and 
 there need be no uncertain- 
 ty then as to just what 
 may reasonably be expect- 
 ed in the future. With the 
 flame turned as high as it 
 is desirable to have it, if 
 the hover heat can be kept 
 up to 100 only when the 
 room or outside tempera- 
 ture is at or above SO, 
 then that must be accepted 
 as the brooder's limit, and 
 if it is to be operated at 
 lower temperatures some 
 means of conserving the 
 heat must be provided. The 
 worst thing that can be 
 done is to risk chicks in 
 the brooder when it is known that the temperature to 
 which it is to be exposed will go well below its limit — 
 "taking a chance'' on their coming, through alive. The 
 operator can depend upon it that if his brooder, in a 
 definite test, fails to maintain sufficient heat when the 
 outside or room temperature drops below a certain point, 
 whether that is 40, 30 or 20 degrees, it will always fall 
 short thereafter at about that point. 
 
 What to Do When the Brooder Does Not Heat Up 
 
 Most complaints in regard to the brooder's failing to 
 heat up are due to unreasonable demands — to expecting 
 it to maintain brooding temperatures under impossible 
 conditions. There are, however, various measures that 
 may be taken to help out in emergencies, and there are 
 some things that must not be done. The heating system, 
 whether it is oil, gas, or coal, can never be forced with 
 safety. If the lamp or heater, working at a safe limit, 
 will not furnish enough heat to meet necessary require- 
 ments, then there is only one thing to do, and that is to 
 find some way to save more of the heat. NEVER take 
 chances on a smoking or overheated lamp by turning the 
 flame beyond what is known to be the safety point. 
 
 The simplest way to handle an outdoor brooder that 
 
 76 
 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 
 
 17 
 
 is not furnishing sufficient heat is to get it indoors where 
 it will be warmer and where it will be protected from 
 wind. If that cannot be done it may be possible to put 
 it in a more sheltered place such as setting it close to a 
 building or other windbreak, banking up around it with 
 leave:, rtraw. planer shavings, or anything that will stop 
 tne circulation of the air around it and conserve heat. 
 Practically all ventilation in the brooder compartment can 
 be cut ofi under such conditions, as there will still be a 
 sufficient circulation of air to meet all necessary require- 
 ments. If there are two or more flocks of the same age 
 to be protected, it may be practical to put them both to- 
 gether in one brooder so that their bodily heat may rein- 
 force that from the lamp. If nothing else can be done, 
 the brooder can at least be covered with blankets, rugs 
 or pieces of carpet. 
 
 Where hovers are used it always is wise to have a 
 few cloth-covered enclosures such as the one shown in 
 Fig. 109 in order to be prepared for emergencies, and 
 these enclosures also can be helped out under extreme 
 conditions by banking up with planer shavings, etc., as 
 shown in Fig. 128. In banking up or blanketing any sort 
 
 FIG. 124 — MUSLIN COVERED HOVER ENCLOSURE 
 Where there is danger of floor drafts, a hover 
 enclosure for newly hatched chicks like the above 
 is better than open wire as shown in Fig. 123. 
 
 of brooder or hover there is danger of cutting off the 
 supply of air needed by the lamp, or reducing the free cir- 
 culation of air required to keep it cool, and pains should 
 always be taken to see that this does not occur. Many 
 smoked and overheated lamps result from this cause. 
 
 All such precautions as have been here suggested are 
 merely makeshifts intended to meet sudden and unex- 
 pected emergencies, and must not be relied upon regu- 
 larly. They add greatly to the labor of caring for the 
 chicks and are only fairly satisfactory at best. If the 
 brooder is going to require frequent helping out in this 
 way it will be much more practical to set it aside for 
 warmer weather and provide some other appliance that 
 will supply enough heat to meet the requirements. 
 
 Under all ordinary conditions the thing to do where 
 chicks are to be brooded early in the season, is to have 
 a permanent brooder house, warmly built and equipped 
 with some source of anxiliary heat if necessary. Regu- 
 lar hot-water heating systems are best and cheapest in 
 large houses, but in small ones a coal-burning stove will 
 give good satisfaction. This will keep the room fairly 
 comfortable and make it comparatively easy for the hover 
 or brooder lamp to keep up the brooding temperature, 
 and will aflford much more favorable conditions for the 
 chicks when out of the hover. 
 
 When to Take the Chicks 0£f 
 
 If the incubator can be spared for the purpose and 
 the chicks are not too much crowded, it is desirable to 
 leave them in the nursery for about 24 hours after they 
 are all out. If 
 
 ♦ As A\ 
 
 5 As A^ 
 
 « A^ A 
 
 » A\ A 
 
 » A A 
 
 FIG. 125- 
 
 it IS necessary to 
 reset the machine 
 at once they may 
 be taken out as 
 soon as they are 
 all dry, but 
 where this is 
 done, careful at- 
 tention must be 
 given to prevent 
 their chilling. 
 When chicks 
 must be taken 
 from the ma- 
 chine at this 
 
 4\ 
 
 As 
 Ai- 
 
 As 
 
 A^ 
 
 There are 15 different combinations 
 to put possible, as shown in this illustration. 
 
 -METHOD OF MARKING 
 CHICKS 
 A hole punched in the web of th& 
 chick's foot is a convenient way of 
 permanently marking the chick. The 
 hole will never grow over, and chicks; 
 time, the best so marked can always be identified. 
 
 plan is 
 
 them in warmly 
 lined baskets or boxes and keep them covered up and in 
 a warm place for a day or so. If it is not practicable to 
 do this, especial pains must be taken to have a reliable 
 brooder or hover ready for them, thoroughly warmed up 
 and accurately regulated to incubator temperature. If 
 possible, the brooder should be in a warm 
 room where the chicks will not be ex- 
 posed to cold the instant they get outside 
 the hover. 
 
 Whenever they are moved, the chicks 
 must be carefully protected against chill- 
 ing. A warmly lined basket or a tray such 
 as is shown in Fig. 80 should be provided. 
 The top of the box should be covered with 
 a cloth frame, and two light partitions, put 
 together in the form of a cross, should be 
 provided to divide the chicks into four 
 lots and prevent crowding when the tray 
 is filled, or to keep them together in one 
 or two compartments if only a few are to 
 be handled. Fasten the partitions together 
 but leave them loose in the box so that 
 they can readily be taken out for cleaning 
 and disinfecting, which should be done for 
 each brood. Do not try to move too many 
 chicks at a time if the room is cold, but 
 take out a few and then close the machine 
 and dispose of these before removing any 
 more. 
 
 Record Marking for Chicks 
 
 When the chicks are taken from the 
 incubator is the time to mark them, if any 
 sort of breeding or hatching record is to be 
 kept. One way of doing this is by the use of 
 leg bands as shown in Fig. 129. As there 
 is more or less trouble with leg bands, 
 however, owing to the necessity for chang- 
 ing them as the chicks grow, the system of 
 marking them by means of a band in the wing is re- 
 garded as more satisfactory. A leg band is employed 
 until the chicks are about a month old and then it is 
 transferred to the wing as shown in Fig. 130. 
 
 A simpler way where flock or hatching records only 
 are to be kept and not individual numbers, is by the 
 
 FIG. 126— 
 BROODER 
 THERMOM- 
 ETER. 
 
78 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 12-7— A BROODER TEMPERATURE REGULATOR 
 While regulators are not as essential on brooders as 
 on incubators, they will be found well worth the extra 
 cost — particularly during the first few days when the 
 hover temperature should be fairly uniform. The regu- 
 lator illustrated above has a wafer thermostat. Courtesy 
 of Prairie State Incubator Company. 
 
 familiar toe-punching method. This is illustrated in Fig. 
 125. A record is kept of the significance of each com- 
 bination of punched webs and chicks so marked can read- 
 ily be identified ever after, as the holes in the web will 
 never grow over. A more systematic method of identify- 
 ing by toe-marking is described by Prof. F. C. Hare, of 
 Clemson College, S. C, as follows: 
 
 "In the system that I am using at Clemson College, 
 the toe punches are always known by number, and not by 
 inside or outside, left or right, or any location term. Four 
 valuations are given to the webs between the six toes 
 thus: The outside web of the left foot is 1; the inside 
 web of the left foot is 2; the inside web of the right foot 
 is 4; and the outside web of the right foot is 8. These 
 marks must be memorized, but if you will say them over 
 a few times that will readily be accomplished. Just re- 
 member that the series is 1, 2, 4, 8, with the 1 at the 
 left or PROPER UNIT place. 
 
 "Now, let us see how we will punch that chick frorr 
 pen three so that every time we catch him, 
 or any of his brothers or sisters, we will 
 know at once that the youngster is a progeny 
 of pen three. The outside left web is 1, and 
 inside left is 2. Three (3) is made by punch- 
 ing both 1 and 2 (both webs on the left foot). 
 So that we have this rule: Always add the 
 value of the punched webs and the result is 
 the number of the chick. For example, 4 is 
 one punch, the inside right; 5 is 4 plus 1, or 
 inside right and outside left, and so on up 
 to IS — 8 and 4 and 2 and 1, or every web 
 punched. When you catch any bird, examine 
 his feet and add up the value of his punched 
 webs. You've got his number at once. I like 
 to associate the bird's number with the pen 
 from which he was bred, as that saves all the 
 annoyance and trouble of looking up his 
 number in a note book. 
 
 "We have been using this method here, and 
 it is so much more satisfactory than the ordi- 
 nary way that I want others to profit by it. 
 The students can read the number of a chick 
 from his feet without error, and tell to which 
 pen he belongs. They have never heard the 
 terms "inside left" or "outside right," and are 
 not bothered with a complicated system of 
 identification that is impossible to keep in 
 mind." 
 
 Teaching the Chicks to Use the Hover 
 
 Place the chicks under the hover and keep them 
 there for at least several hours before feeding or water- 
 ing. A wire guard such as is illustrated in Fig. 123 is 
 indispensable at this time, setting it up just far enough 
 from the hover so that the chicks can get outside the 
 curtain, which should be pinned up here and there so that 
 there will be no possible chance for them to lose their 
 way. If the hover is square or oblong and open on only 
 one or two sides, make suitable wire-covered frames in- 
 stead, and set them up in front of the hover, moving them 
 back as the chicks learn how to use the additional space. 
 After they are once settled under the hover they should 
 not be confined to it but should have an opportunity to 
 run in and out, thus learning the source and location of 
 heat and how to find their way to it. Keep them under 
 constant observation at this time and push them back 
 under the hover at frequent intervals not only to prevent 
 any possibility of their getting chilled, but to make cer- 
 tain that they do not form the habit of huddling together 
 for warmth outside the hover, which habit, once formed, 
 will be a source of continual trouble during the entire 
 brooding period. 
 
 Gradually give the chicks more liberty, moving the 
 guard farther back from the hover, but never leaving 
 them for long at a time until certain that they will volun- 
 tarily go in when cold or uncomfortable. 
 
 Different broods of chicks vary more or less in the 
 promptness with which they become hoverwise. A single 
 day may be sufficient in some cases, but usually it takes 
 at least two or three days, and sometimes longer. Bear 
 in mind that every increase in liberty, such as removing 
 the guard, giving the chicks the run of the entire brooder 
 or house pen, letting them out into yards, and increasing 
 the size or shape of these, is a danger point. Chicks 
 readily get confused and lost in unfamiliar surroundings, 
 and every such change should be made gradually and the 
 chicks kept under observation until certain that they 
 
 FTG. 128— INDOOR BROODER INSULATED WITH PLANER SHAVINGS 
 This illustration shows measures taken to save heat in cold- 
 weather brooding. The indoor brooder case is placed a few inches from 
 the house wall and the space between is packed with planer shavings. 
 Courtesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 
 
 79 
 
 thoroughly know their way back. This trouble is es- 
 pecially liable to occur during the first week or two, 
 when the operator is impatient to get rid of guards, etc., 
 which are somewhat troublesome, but without which 
 heavy losses may result. If the chicks have been prop- 
 erly trained they will be thoroughly familiar with their 
 surroundings by the time they are two weeks old and 
 thereafter they may be allowed to go and come at will. 
 
 Correct Brooder Temperature 
 
 The temperature to be maintained under the hover 
 will vary with the style of brooder used, the kind and 
 position of thermometer, the outside temperature, and the 
 age and development of the chicks. For this reason an 
 exact schedule of hover temperatures cannot be given, 
 though it can be approximated. The conduct of the 
 chicks themselves is a fairly accurate indication as to 
 whether the heat is right, but is not to be entirely relied 
 upon, as it is possible to ac- 
 custom young chicks to a 
 higher temperature than is 
 good for them by continual- 
 ly keeping the brooder a lit- 
 tle too warm. 
 
 Whatever the theoretically 
 correct temperature may be 
 at any given time, it is only 
 correct in practice when the 
 chicks themselves have put 
 their O. K. upon it. If they 
 are restless and dissatisfied 
 the tempers ture must be 
 raised suftici :ntly to make 
 them comfortable, whatever 
 the increase may be. How- 
 ever, any marked variation 
 from normal requirements is 
 good ground for. suspecting 
 that something else is wrong. 
 Possibly the thermometer is 
 inaccurate — that is a matter 
 of frequent occurrence with 
 the low-priced ones common- 
 ly used in brooders. Some- 
 times the chicks are weakly, 
 due to inferior breeding 
 
 stock or to injuries received during incubation; and some- 
 times there is a defect in the brooder itself that needs 
 correction. Remember that a somewhat higher tempera- 
 ture than normal is always required in cold or windy 
 weather. 
 
 Because of the various conditions that may modify 
 temperature requirements and because the chicks them- 
 selves must be the court of last resort, many operators 
 discard the thermometer entirely and depend solely on 
 the chicks and the "feel" when the hand is thrust under 
 the hover. This method may prove satisfactory for opera- 
 tors of experience but it would seem unwise to recom- 
 mend it for general adoption, especially during the first 
 few weeks of the chicks' lives when there are other things 
 besides low temperatures that- may cause discomfort and 
 restlessness among them and when, without a thermom- 
 eter, the inexperienced operator may be completely mis- 
 led as to actual conditions under the hover. 
 
 Brooding Temperature for First Four Weeks 
 In general, it is wise to start with the temperature 
 at 100 when the chicks are all under the hover, reducing' 
 
 FIG. 129— CHICK WITH LEG BAND 
 
 it at the rate of about S degrees each week until the 
 chicks are four weeks old, when the temperature should 
 be about 80. These temperatures are to be taken with 
 a thermometer so placed that the bulb will be about on a 
 level with the chicks' backs and well inside the hover 
 curtain but not necessarily in the warmest spot. The 
 schedule here given represents a fair average of tempera- 
 ture requirements at all times during the first four weeks, 
 but may safely be varied 5 degrees either way as weather 
 conditions and the conduct of the chicks dictate. 
 
 Chicks when settled for the night should not be hud- 
 dled together in a buncTi under the hover — that means 
 too little heat; neither should they collect outside the 
 hover curtain — a sure indication that it is too warm. In- 
 stead, they should all be under the hover but spread out 
 loosely with a few heads sticking out around the curtain. 
 As the temperature drops during the night the chicks 
 will gradually draw back toward the warm center. The 
 
 caretaker must see to it that 
 there is plenty of surplus 
 heat when the temperature is 
 liable to drop low during the 
 night. If the hover has a 
 regulator, as it should, this 
 surplus heat will be allowed 
 to escape until it is needed. 
 If not, the chicks will have 
 to get away from it by keep- 
 ing close to the hover cur- 
 tain in the evening. In warm 
 weather when it sometimes is 
 almost impossible to supply 
 any heat at all during the 
 day without having too much 
 when the chicks gather un- 
 der the hover, it is a good 
 plan to raise part of the 
 hover curtain. It is much 
 better to do this than to let 
 the lamp go out, in which 
 case there will be no reserve 
 
 Numbered leg bands must be provided where each 
 chick is to have a separate number. At the Kansas Ex- 
 periment Station the newly hatched chicles are banded 
 on the leg with pigeon bands. When they are three or 
 four weeks old the bands are transferred to the wing. 
 See Fig. 130. 
 
 heat at all in case of a sud- 
 den change. 
 
 After the chicks are large 
 enough to run out more or 
 less during the day, it still is 
 well to keep up a good temperature under the hover so 
 that any that get chifled can warm up quickly. In brood- 
 ers that have square or oblong hovers and in which one 
 side or end is noticeably warmer than the rest of the 
 hover space, the temperature must always be high enough 
 so that the chicks will keep away from the warm end. 
 If it gets cold enough so that they crowd to the warm 
 spot there is likely to be trouble. 
 
 From the time the chicks are hatched until they no 
 longer need artificial heat, they must be protected against 
 getting chilled. It is expensive and unnecessary to have 
 a great excess of heat, but it is always better to err on 
 the side of too much rather than too little. The chicks 
 can get away from too much heat, but they have no re- 
 course when there is too little. Great losses occur an- 
 nually on account of brooders being operated at too low 
 temperatures, either through carelessness or on account 
 of inadequate heating systems. Many operators persist 
 year after year in using brooders that are known to be 
 unequal to the demands that will be placed upon them — 
 that cannot supply the heat needed or cannot be relied 
 on to keep it uniform over night, though they well know 
 
so 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 that a single chilling is certain to cause serious trouble 
 and may result in the loss of the entire flock. 
 
 How Many Chicks to the Brooder 
 
 One of the most common sources of disease and loss 
 among brooder chicks is overcrowding in the brooder or 
 house pen, and it is important that the actual capacity of 
 the brooder, hover, or pen be clearly understood. There 
 are no definite standards for estimating brooder capacity, 
 but as the average egg occupies approximately 3.S square 
 inches in the incubator it is clear that the chicks should 
 each have at least 4 square inches of floor space under 
 the hover. This means that to accommodate 100 newly 
 hatched chicks the hover must be not less than 20 inches 
 square, or about 23 inches in diameter if round. By the 
 time the chicks are two or three weeks old they will be 
 badly crowded if allowed no more space than this, and 
 the number should be reduced to 65, or 75 at the most. 
 Since the claims of various manufacturers as to the 
 capacity of their brooders 
 are based on different stand- 
 ards, it will prevent confu- 
 sion and disappointment if 
 the following general rule is 
 applied to all: Learn the 
 number of square inches en- 
 closed under the hover and 
 divide this by 4 to get the 
 capacity in newly hatched 
 chicks; divide by 6 to learn 
 the number of chicks that 
 can be accommodated when 
 3 weeks old; and by 8 to get 
 the capacity in chicks 5 
 weeks old. If there are any 
 lamp boxes or heat drums 
 occupying floor space under 
 the hovers, this must be de- 
 ducted before making the 
 division. If the weather is 
 quite warm so that it does 
 not matter whether the 
 chicks can all get under the 
 hover or not, these limits 
 may be somewhat exceeded. 
 On the other hand, the reg- 
 ular estimated capacity 
 should always be discounted 
 in cold weather. 
 
 Inasmuch as there are few instances where it is prac- 
 ticable to divide or reapportion broods at the end of the 
 third week when additional room is imperative if the 
 brooders have been filled to capacity at first, the most 
 practical plan is to base all estimates on the number of 
 three-week-old chicks the brooder can accommodate, and 
 limit the original flocks to about that number. Where the 
 maximum capacity of the brooder is required at the 
 start, the chicks usually are left in it indefinitely, with the 
 result that they are badly overcrowded as they reach 
 larger size. 
 
 Do not guess at the dimensions of the hover or in 
 regard to the proper number of chicks to be brooded in 
 it. Learn just what its capacity is, and never exceed it. 
 If there are more chicks than there is brooder capacity 
 for, and it is impossible to provide additional space in 
 any other way, at least make some fireless brooders and 
 put the surplus in these. It is useless to hatch out good 
 chicks simply to kill them oflf in overcrowded brooders 
 
 PIG. 130 — CHICK WITH WING BAND 
 
 Many persons who keep a pedigreed record of their 
 chicks prefer to remove the leg band after the chick 
 is a few weeks old and transfer it to the wing. A little 
 slit is made in ^he web, using a sharp penknife, and the 
 band is slipped through and bent into place. It remains 
 here without further attention during the life of the 
 chick. Photo from Kansas Experiment Station. 
 
 where they do not have sufiEicient liberty of movement, 
 are apt to get overheated when the brooder is too warm, 
 or where they cannot all get under the hover when it is 
 cold. Even though no direct losses should result, there 
 will be a general lack of thrift, and the chicks will be 
 weakened and made increasingly liable to ailments which 
 they probably would have entirely escaped if they had 
 had a fair chance in the brooder. 
 
 The amount of houseroom that should be provided 
 for chicks will depend to some extent upon the climate. 
 Comparatively little room outside the hover will be suf- 
 ficient for the first week, after which it should be in- 
 creased as rapidly as is found to be safe. Where the 
 chicks must be confined indoors most of the time it is 
 usual to provide a pen about 4x10 feet for the use of a 
 flock of 100 after they are about three weeks old — an 
 average of about 2.6 chicks to each square foot of floor 
 space. Naturally, if the chicks can be outdoors most of 
 the time during the day less floor space will be needed. 
 
 Much less space than this 
 usually is allowed to colony- 
 hover chicks, a room 10x10 
 or 12x12 feet being consid- 
 ered sufificient for a flock of 
 300 to 500 chicks. The lat- 
 ter number however, will be 
 badly crowded in even a 
 12xl2-foot room, after the 
 chicks are a few weeks old, 
 unless the weather is so 
 mild that they can be out- 
 doors most of the time. A 
 portable colony house 8x8 
 feet is recommended by the 
 Poultry Department of Cor- 
 nell University, for a flock 
 of 250 newly hatched chicks, 
 which allows one square foot 
 to four chicks. 
 
 Providing Ventilation 
 
 Ventilation, so far as the 
 hover space itself is con- 
 cerned, generally is taken 
 care of by the heating sys- 
 tem which in most brooders 
 is designed to furnish a sup- 
 ply of fresh, warmed air un- 
 der the hover, making any 
 point unnecessary except in 
 
 especial attention to this 
 warm weather when little heat is supplied and the move- 
 ment of the air is slow and uncertain. If the hover is 
 one of the indoor type the lamp fumes must either be 
 piped out of the house or special ventilation provided to 
 get rid of them. This is not necessary in a large room 
 which can be freely ventilated, but in small or tightly 
 closed houses, also where a number of hovers are being 
 operated in one room, it will pay to provide a direct out- 
 let for the fumes. After the chicks are far enough along 
 so that they do not require artificial heat, ventilation be- 
 comes more important. 
 
 As a rule, it is desirable to leave the chicks under 
 the hover for some time after heat is no longer required, 
 opening up the curtain sufficiently to provide some cir- 
 culation of air. 
 
 Just how long the chicks should have heat will de- 
 pend on season and breed, also on the condition of par- 
 ticular broods. In quite warm weather the chicks may 
 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 
 
 81 
 
 be able to supply sufficient bodily heat without using the 
 lamp at all. Usually they need heat for three to four 
 weeks in mild weather, and for as long as 7 or 8 weeks 
 in the case of extra-early broods. The conduct of the 
 chicks themselves should be the guide in deciding this. 
 As long as they require heat in order to be comfortable 
 it should be supplied, no matter how long that may be. 
 Great harm will be done by cutting off the heat too soon. 
 This practice is of common occurrence where not enough 
 brooding equipment is provided, making it necessary to 
 take the brooders for new flocks before the older chicks 
 are sufficiently developed to get along without them. 
 There is no economy whatever in doing this. It is 
 always better to have a little more brooder equipment 
 than is needed, rather than less. The man who has one 
 or two hovers that he never has to unpack will raise more 
 chicks and will raise them more successfully than the 
 one who must continually push his chicks along into cold 
 brooders before they are ready for them. 
 
 In the changeable weather of early spring it is wise 
 to leave the hovers in position for some time after the 
 lamp is permitted to go out, since a sudden 
 cold snap may necessitate firing up again. 
 However, as soon as it is reasonably certain 
 that no more heat will be required, it is ad- 
 visable to substitute cheap, homemade cold 
 brooders or hovers. These will answer the 
 purpose as well as the manufactured ones and 
 will add many years of usefulness to the lat- 
 ter. Allowing chicks to continue using the 
 regular hovers after they no longer need 
 artificial heat results in rapid deterioration 
 of equipment. 
 
 The Use of Cold Brooders 
 
 A cold brooder that may be made quite 
 cheaply, and is easily substituted for heated 
 hovers, is shown in Figs. 133 and 134. This 
 cold hover originated at the Poultry Depart- 
 ment of Wisconsin Experiment Station, and 
 has been in successful use there for some 
 years. An open, four-sided wooden frame on 
 an elevated floor is provided for the circu- 
 lar lamp-heated hovers that are used as long as the chicks 
 need artificial heat. Afterwards the "cold frame" is sub- 
 stituted for the hover, the method of doing this being 
 thus described in Wisconsin Bulletin 261: 
 
 "On a mild night remove the hover from the brooder 
 box and insert a 'cold frame.' A cold frame is made 
 twenty-seven inches square with eight-inch plain boards 
 on three sides, the fourth side being open, except for a 
 slitted curtain of soft, warm cloth of the same color, if 
 possible, as the curtain around the hover. The top of the 
 cold frame is made of strips an inch thick and three 
 inches wide, nailed together at the ends to form a frame 
 which fits inside of the side pieces and rests on blocks 
 nailed in each corner. This frame is covered with single- 
 faced eiderdown or other warm cloth tacked loosely so 
 that it sags in the center and rests on the chicks' backs 
 when they go into the frame to sleep at night or warm 
 up during the day. The open side is placed against the 
 south side of the hover box through which the chicks 
 enter The chicks are accustomed to go through this 
 opening in search of warmth and usually take to the 
 new home without trouble. If they do not go in, put 
 them in carefully. The corners of the frame must be 
 well banked with litter (planer shavings) so that center 
 of frame is the lowest, with a gradual rise to each corner, 
 
 "The cold frame boxes are about six inches smaller 
 than the brooder box. This space is banked full with lit- 
 ter so that chicks cannot fly on top of the brooder box 
 and get into this narrow space. This packing of litter 
 helps to make the cold frame warmer. On cold nights if 
 the chicks seem inclined to huddle together, cover the 
 top with two or three burlap sacks for additional protec- 
 tion. As the chicks get older and no longer need the 
 protection of the cold frame, they begin to stay outside 
 or just inside near the opening. Do not disturb them 
 and in a few more nights practically all will be inclined 
 to stay outside. Then the cold frame can be removed, 
 disinfected, and dried for the next lot. While it is in 
 use the cloth top should be carefully sunned or dried 
 each day and the litter should be frequently changed if 
 Oest results are to be secured." 
 
 In warmer weather it is sufficient to replace the 
 round heated hovers with wooden ones a few inches 
 greater in diameter, enclosed in the usual way with 
 slashed hover curtains and supported on legs so that 
 the hover space will be about 8 inches high. It is a sim- 
 
 PIG. 131— OUTSIDE BROODER WITH ENCLOSED RUN 
 Outdoor brooders should be provided with some sort of enclosed 
 run to which newly hatched chicks can be confined. If the covered run 
 shown in Pig. 115 is considered too expensive, at least have one like 
 this. It will pay for itself in a short time. 
 
 pie matter to take out the regular hovers and set these 
 cheap, simple substitutes in their places, and if this is 
 done in mild weather the chicks will not notice the 
 change. Do not make the mistake of doing this right at 
 the beginning of a cold spell however, nor should the 
 preparation of these hovers be postponed until the need 
 for them is pressing. The brooder season on the poultry 
 • farm is the busiest of all the year and there is never 
 time enough for doing the things that need to be done 
 then. 
 
 Chicks do not readily take to changes, and it will 
 simplify this part of the work greatly if the lamp-heated 
 and cold hovers do not differ greatly in appearance. By 
 all means avoid moving the chicks to new quarters and 
 changing the hover at the same time. The almost in- 
 evitable result is to have them crowd together in some 
 corner, smothering and sweating and laying the founda- 
 tion for sore eyes, colds, diarrhea, and other ailments. 
 
 Transferring chicks from brooders or brooder houses 
 to colony houses is always a danger period. Even though 
 they may be accustomed to cold brooders or none at all, 
 when they are moved to strange quarters they are apt 
 to crowd in some corner, and serious injury may occur. 
 There should always be some means provided for round- 
 ing out the corners of the house such as by the use of 
 
82 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 boards, a strip of prepared roofing, a piece of netting, 
 etc. These can be lightly tacked or hooked in place and 
 removed when no longer needed. 
 
 Cleanliness and Disinfection 
 
 Cleanliness, as applied to brooders, means that they 
 shall be dry and free from unpleasant odors, and that 
 the litter shall be removed frequently enough to prevent 
 an undue accumulation of droppings. This does not nec- 
 essarily mean that there is to be no accumulation at all, 
 but there must be no dampness or foul smell. 
 
 Whether the floor under the hover should be cleaned 
 every day will depend on the number of chicks and the 
 thickness of the litter, also on the kind of litter used. 
 The ideal way perhaps, is to clean out under the hover 
 once a day, but in practical poultry keeping much time 
 
 FIG. 132— GET THE CHICKS OUTDOORS AS SOON AS POSSIBLE 
 Chicks that can get down on the ground in direct sunlight will do much 
 better than when shut indoors. Keep them confined close to the door until they 
 can readily find their way back and forth. 
 
 and labor may be saved by using plenty of litter and 
 cleaning less frequently. A deep bed of litter with a 
 liberal percentage of dry, odorless droppings mixed in 
 it may actually be more sanitary — may be "cleaner" — 
 than a floor laboriously cleaned every day, but so spar- 
 ingly littered that the brooder is always smelly and the 
 chicks' feet continually soiled with fresh droppings. 
 Whatever may be done elsewhere it will pay to use litter 
 freely in and about brooders and hovers. Keeping chicks 
 on practically bare floors cannot be excused on the ground 
 of economy or any other. The floor of the house pen or 
 brooder need only be cleaned infrequently if litter is 
 freely used. For example, where deep litter feeding is 
 adopted (see Chapter XI) it is not necessary to remove 
 the litter for weeks at a time. However, if it gets notice- 
 ably damp from any cause it must be removed at once. 
 The need for disinfection depends somewhat on con- 
 ditions. If there is any reason to suspect that there is 
 disease in the flock, more frequent disinfection will be 
 called for than would be the case where the chicks are 
 
 all healthy. However, the brooder should at least be dis- 
 infected for each new brood. For this purpose formalde- 
 hyde or a good coal-tar disinfectant can be used, apply- 
 ing it with a spray pump or, in case of the hover floor, 
 with a scrub broom or brush. Always have the brooder 
 thoroughly dry before using for the next brood of chicks 
 and if it is to be disinfected during occupancy, let the 
 work be done on a warm, sunny day, and have the 
 brooder thoroughly dry before turning the chicks back in. 
 If they are too young to stay out for the time necessary 
 to do this, transfer them to another brooder or put them 
 in clean fireless brooders or the chick trays used in 
 transferring them from the incubator. 
 
 These steps will be about all that will be required 
 under ordinary conditions but it will be found a wise 
 precaution to keep some disinfecting solution on hand at 
 all times. Use it in washing the 
 water founts and feeding vessels at 
 frequent intervals, especially if milk 
 or soft feeds are supplied. 
 
 Under the head of cleanliness 
 comes the injunction to see to it that 
 the litter is kept dry and reasonably 
 free from droppings. Extremely dusty 
 litter also is highly objectionable and 
 it must be renewed frequently 
 enough to prevent its becoming so. 
 If feed, especially moist mash, is 
 scratched into the litter it should 
 promptly be removed and replaced 
 with new. Also, when the water 
 fount is left standing in one place, 
 the litter frequently becomes water- 
 soaked and in this condition is a 
 menace to the health of the flock. 
 Always remove litter that gets wet 
 from any cause, and shift the location 
 of the fount frequently, unless an 
 elevated platform is provided for it 
 and the feed hoppers, which is by 
 far the better plan. 
 
 The runs or yards also should re- 
 ceive regular attention. When out- 
 door coops or brooders are used they 
 must be moved frequently to new 
 ground, and if for any reason the cov- 
 ered runs or yards are allowed to 
 stand in one place until the ground 
 becomes bare it should be well covered with a coat of 
 air-slacked lime. As a rule, the yards should not be per- 
 mitted to get into this condition however, but should 
 be moved frequently enough to avoid it. If bare yards 
 must be used they should be kept clean either by scrap- 
 ing and sweeping them every week or so, or by spading. 
 The latter method will aerate the soil and the chicks will 
 derive additional advantage from having loose earth to 
 scratch in. If the soil is sandy or the yard is filled in 
 as described in Chapter XII, probably nothing will be 
 necessary aside from renewing the surface material every 
 year, but clay soils require extreme cleanliness to keep 
 them sanitary and free from disease germs. 
 
 Litter for the Brooder 
 
 Short-cut alfalfa hay is by far the best material gen- 
 eially available for litter. If it cannot be secured or if 
 the price is too high to make its use practical, there are 
 other materials that can be employed. Mow chaff or 
 "shatterings"' are good if free from mold, but if from 
 
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF BROODER CHICKS 
 
 83 
 
 FIG. 133— A HEAT SAVING COLD BROODER 
 The brooder here illustrated serves as an enclosure for lamp- 
 heated hovers until artificial heat is no longer required, after which 
 the hover is removed and the brooder arranged to operate as a cold 
 brooder. Courtesy of Wisconsin Bxneriment Station. 
 
 clover hay, examine them carefully for this. Dusty mow 
 chaff is a frequent source of an epidemic disease affect- 
 ing brooder chicks. Clover hay or shredded corn fodder 
 or stover run through a feed cutter and reduced to short 
 lengths will answer fairly well, also dried lawn clippings 
 if free from mold. After chicks are two or three weeks 
 old, coarse sawdust or planer shavings may be used, but 
 are not recommended for newly hatched chicks. Coarse 
 bran often is recommended for litter for young chicks, 
 but shortcut alfalfa is much better and usually is cheaper. 
 
 In the absence of anything else, coarse, clean sand 
 may be used. It will keep the droppings from sticking 
 to the floor and will absorb moisture, but cannot be re- 
 garded as htter or even as a substitute for it. The prac- 
 tice of placing paper on the floor of brooders, 
 especially under hovers, is objectionable un- 
 less well-covered with litter. A bare paper 
 surface is too smooth, does not afford a foot- 
 hold for the chicks, and may cause cripples. 
 
 Getting the Chicks Outdoors 
 
 The age at which chicks should be given 
 access to outdoor yards depends upon the 
 season and the method of brooding. Many 
 chick growers insist on the chicks being out 
 on the ground by the time they are a week 
 old, letting them out for at least a few min- 
 utes daily even though it may be quite cold. 
 Coddling the chicks will make them weakly 
 and hard to raise, it is true, but it is doubt- 
 ful whether there is any advantage in expos- 
 ing them to severe cold at an extremely early 
 age. The general practice is to keep chicks 
 indoors until they are at least two or three 
 weete old in cold weather, provided there is 
 plenty of room for them. With outdoor 
 brooders, where the floor space is necessarily 
 quite limited, the chicks must get out about 
 as soon as they becom.e hoverwise. In per- 
 manent brooder houses, also in colony houses 
 of sufficient size, the chicks will suffer no in- 
 
 jury if kept indoors for two or three weeks, 
 if properly cared for. If on hard floors how- 
 ever, with little or no litter to scratch in, a 
 number of difficulties will quickly develop, 
 such as toe picking, leg weakness, etc., and in 
 addition there will be a general lack of 
 thrift which, while less noticeable, may cause 
 even more serious loss in the long run. 
 
 No matter how comfortably the chicks 
 may be housed and brooded, there seldom is 
 any condition that will make it desirable to 
 keep them indoors longer than three weeks, 
 and to keep them in for even that time with- 
 out injury necessitates ample floor space, 
 plenty of litter, and careful feeding. In mild 
 weather chicks may be out much sooner — 
 usually within 10 days. Let them out for 
 only a short time at first and in the warmest 
 part of the day, increasing the length of the 
 period as conditions and the conduct of the 
 chicks suggest. If the yards or runs are cov- 
 ered with tall grass, weeds, or growing crops, 
 do not let the chicks out until the dew has 
 dried off. 
 
 In introducing the chicks to their outdoor 
 run, they should be confined close to the 
 brooder or house door at first. A convenient 
 way of doing this is to use a strip of one-inch mesh net- 
 ting with wire supports, or panels of netting, both of 
 which are illustrated and described in Chapter XII. If 
 the door of the brooder or house is above the ground 
 level, take pains to see that the approach to it is made 
 flush with the doorstep or sill, and is not too steep, so 
 that the chicks will have no trouble in getting into the 
 house. 
 
 After they have become thoroughly familiar with 
 their small yard, its size can safely be increased to in- 
 clude whatever space is available. By the time the chicks 
 are four weeks' old they should be spending most of their 
 time outdoors, and the more room they have thereafter 
 the better it will be for them. When the chicks are fair- 
 
 FIG. 134— COLD BROODER READY FOR USE 
 This is the brooder shown in V\g. 133, made ready for use with the 
 hover in place. This brooder is built to retain as much as possible of 
 the bodily heat of the chicks, but the operator should not depend too 
 much upon this. Leave the lamp-heated hovers in place as long aa 
 there is need for them. Courtesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
 
i,^ 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 ly well feathered out, they may be given free range it 
 available. Chicks can be successfully grown to adult 
 size in quite limited space if they receive the needed 
 extra care and attention, but when they can have free 
 range, that is by all odds the cheapest and best way in 
 which to raise them. 
 
 Teaching Chicks to Use Perches 
 
 There is no advantage in, and no necessity for hav- 
 ing the chicks perch at too early an age. As long as 
 they are satisfied under the cold hover or on the floor 
 it is wise to let well enough alone, at least until they 
 are eight to ten weeks old or thereabouts, after which 
 no doubt, they will be better off on perches. There sel- 
 dom is any trouble in getting Leghorn chicks and those 
 of similar breeds to use perches, most of them doing so 
 before it is really desirable, but chicks of the larger 
 breeds often are extremely slow in learning. It is not 
 
 FIG. 135— CHICKS BROODED IN COLONY HOUSE 
 As soon as settled weather arrives chicks can be brooded from the start in 
 portable colony houses like the above. For suggestions in regard to making 
 portable fence panels such as are shown herewith, see Chapter XII. Photo from 
 United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 difficult to teach them however, when they are old 
 enough, if they are handled properly. 
 
 A week or two before the cold hover is to be taken 
 away, a perching board should be put in place in the house 
 near the hover. This board should not be over a foot 
 above the floor and should be eight to ten inches wide. 
 It should be placed back against the wall, moving the 
 hover forward, if necessary, so that it will not be under 
 the board. The chicks will take to the perching board 
 and will enjoy using it in the daytime even though they 
 may abandon it for the hover in the evening. As they 
 grow familiar with it however, some will remain on it 
 at night, the number gradually increasing until all or 
 nearly all will voluntarily perch there. Until they do 
 this the cold hover should be left in place. After the 
 chicks have become accustomed to the board, a perch 
 may be installed, placing it a little above the board and 
 in front of it, so the chicks on the board will not be 
 soiled by the droppings from those on the perch, but 
 so that they will all be close together, the board serving 
 
 as a sort of step to the perch. The chicks will not be 
 long in passing over from the one to the other, and when 
 they do so the board may be removed, and the perch 
 put back and raised to a height of 18 inches to 2 feet. 
 The essential point in this as in other advance steps 
 that the chicks are required to take all along the line 
 from the incubator to adult size,, is to make no abrupt 
 changes. Let them pass gradually from one thing to the 
 next, giving them time to become accustomed to each 
 successive step. 
 
 Care of Brooding Equipment When Not in Use 
 
 The better makes of brooders and hovers contain so 
 good materials and are so well made that they are to ba 
 regarded as permanent assets. If they are properly cared 
 for when not in use, they" will last for many years. As 
 a rule, it is not legitimate use but neglect, rust, and de- 
 cay that cause these articles to wear out. Just as soon 
 as they have served their purpose for 
 the season, they should be removed 
 from the houses where they have 
 been in use, or brought in from out- 
 doors in the case of brooders, and 
 thoroughly cleaned, disinfected, and 
 stored in a dry place where they will 
 be safe from rats. Wooden surfaces 
 on which the paint is getting dull, 
 should be repainted, and if the 
 brooder has been standing on the 
 ground it should be turned up so that 
 the bottom will dry out thoroughly, 
 after which it also should have a good 
 coat of paint. Metal surfaces that are 
 liable to rust, should be oiled or 
 painted, and hover curtains that are 
 badly soiled should be washed and 
 then put back in place. Lamp bowls 
 should be emptied, cleaned, and 
 dried. Any repairs that may be 
 needed should also be attended to at 
 this time, and loose articles of equip- 
 ment such as thermometers, regu- 
 lator parts, etc., should be collected 
 and carefully stored in a convenient 
 place. These attentions and repairs 
 take only a little time, but they 
 will more than double the effective life of the appliances. 
 
 The Growing Stock 
 
 After the chicks no longer need brooders, either 
 heated or otherwise, their treatment will be determined 
 mainly by the future use to be made of them. Surplus 
 stock to be marketed as squab broilers will be ready for 
 special fattening almost as soon as they leave the brooder, 
 or very shortly thereafter. If to be sold as regular broil- 
 ers or frys, they should have a few weeks on range and 
 then be penned or put in fattening crates for special feed- 
 ing. If intended for next season's breeding pens, they 
 will receive the general care and management outlined 
 in Chapter II. Pullets intended for winter layers should,, 
 as a rule, be separated from the cockerels, placed in col- 
 ony houses, and given all the liberty possible. The vari- 
 ous details of care and feeding beyond brooding age do 
 not properly come within the scope of this book, but will 
 be found quite fully treated in "The Chick Book" — see 
 page 112. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 Feeding the Brooder Chicks 
 
 When to Begin Feeding Newly Hatched Chicks and the Special Feeds That Should Be Provided— Rations That Secura 
 Rapid Growth-Practical Methods of Saving Labor— How to Economize in Feed Cost-The Advantages of 
 Hopper Feeding, and Its Limitations— Formulas for Home-Mixed Rations- 
 How to Feed After the Chicks Are Out on Range. 
 
 Vw^ HILE the embryo has drawn upon the yolk for 
 ^J_7 foo^ practically throughout the developing period, 
 nc^ a large portion of it still is unabsorbed, and it 
 iSSBa forms approximately one-sixth of the entire 
 weight of the chick when hatched. This left-over yolk 
 is drawn into the abdomen just before hatching. It is 
 connected with the intestine about midway between the 
 gizzard and the anus, by means of a "stalk" through 
 which it is rapidly assimilated. Only a trace of it should 
 be left on the sixth day. 
 
 The chick's digestive organs are not fully developed 
 at hatching time and the 
 overzealous caretaker who 
 promptly places food before 
 them is inviting trouble of 
 the most serious kind. Care- 
 ful investigations have shown 
 that the chick's stomach is 
 not fully developed until the 
 second day after hatching, 
 while the pancreatic fer- 
 ments are not normally de- 
 veloped until the seventh 
 day. Because of this fact, 
 when newly hatched chicks 
 are fed too soon or too 
 heavily, the food cannot be 
 digested, but remains undi- 
 gested in the crop, gizzard 
 or intestines, where it fer- 
 ments and causes one of the 
 commonest forms of so- 
 called '"white diarrhea." 
 
 Too early feeding also in- 
 terferes with the prompt ab- 
 sorption of the yolk which 
 is believed to result in un- 
 favorable changes in its 
 
 composition that further complicate the situation and in- 
 crease the difficulty of successfully raising the chicks. It 
 is not necessary nor desirable that the yolk should be en- 
 tirely absorbed before feeding begins, but it clearly 
 should form the chick's sole means of subsistence for the 
 first two days at least. After that, in gradually decreas- 
 ing proportions, it serves to reinforce the food obtained 
 from outside sources and appears to have some influence 
 in regulating the chick's bowels at this critical time, start- 
 ing them to function in the natural way. 
 
 Normally developed chicks usually demand some food 
 by the end of the second day, and while they apparently 
 are not seriously inconvenienced by going without for a 
 day or two longer, the general practice is to begin feed- 
 ing them lightly at this time. Chicks will live for many 
 days without any supplied food. The United States Post 
 Office Department accepts parcel post shipments of day- 
 old chicks that can be delivered within seventy-two hours, 
 or three days, and there are numerous reports of ship- 
 ments that have been on the road for five days without 
 any apparent injury. 
 
 FIG. 136— FEED THE CHICKS OUTSIDE' THE 
 BROODER 
 As soon as the chicks can find their way back to the 
 hover readily, all feeding and watering should be out- 
 side the brooder. Doing this saves work and litter. 
 
 When to Begin Feeding 
 
 In determining when the first feed should be given, 
 the beginner sometimes is. confused by irregular hatch- 
 ing which may extend over an entire day or longer, leav- 
 ing him uncertain as to just when the two-day period 
 begins or ends. In a general way, it may be said that 
 the hatch is assumed to have begun when the chicks 
 commence to come out freely — not when the first few 
 make their appearance, which may be several hours in 
 advance of the general movement. 
 
 While the two-day period is a convenient approxi- 
 mate guide in determining 
 when to begin feeding, the 
 conduct of the chicks should 
 also be considered. If they 
 do not appear particularly 
 hungry after the two days 
 are up it will be wise to de- 
 lay feeding a little longer. 
 If on the other hand they 
 clearly are ready for food it 
 is safe to supply it a little in 
 advance of the regular time. 
 However, when the chicks 
 become dissatisfied and noisy 
 on the second day the cause 
 is apt to be thirst rather than 
 hunger. If they have been 
 dried down a little too much 
 in the incubator, or are kept 
 close under the hover, as 
 usually is necessary for the 
 first day or two while they 
 are learning where to go for 
 warmth, they will need water 
 before food, and it is well to 
 supply it regularly after the 
 first day, using for the pur- 
 pose small founts similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 138. 
 Place these where the chicks can get at them readily, 
 and provide enough of them so that the thirsty ones 
 will have room to drink without crowding, and there will 
 be no danger of their getting wet. If the chicks become 
 very thirsty however, and must all drink from a single 
 fount they are apt to pile up about it, dripping and splash- 
 ing the water over each other until they are thoroughly 
 soaked and chilled — thus laying the foundation for intes- 
 tinal disorders and an epidemic of diarrhea. 
 
 In order to avoid this danger, also to make it easy 
 for the chicks to find the water and learn to drink, it is 
 practical to use ordinary pie pans for water dishes for the 
 first two or three days, putting just a little water in 
 each. In this way the chicks can get at the water read- 
 ily, and there need be no crowding. If the water is 
 lukewarm, as it should be, getting into it with their feet 
 will do them no harm, and they will keep drier than 
 when ordinary founts are used. Some prefer to fill the 
 pans with coarse gravel so that the chicks can get at 
 the water without standing in it. In either case the pans 
 
 85 
 
86 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 must be emptied and refilled often enough to keep the 
 v.-ater ciean. After the chicks have learned to drink, 
 founts are entirely satisfactory and more convenient. 
 
 As a rule there will be no difficulty in teaching^ chicks 
 CO drink. The brightest ones will learn quickly when the 
 opportunity is afforded, and the rest will promptly imi- 
 
 PIG. 137 — FEEDING TRAY FOR SOFT FEED 
 This tray is imade from a smooth board of suitable 
 size, with strips of lath around the edge. These should 
 extend about half an inch above the board. Soft feed 
 should never be thrown upon the floor or into the 
 litter. 
 
 tate them. There is no danger of their drinking more 
 water than is good for them if it is regularly provided 
 after the first day and they are never allowed to get ex- 
 tremely thirsty. The water vessels should be placed di- 
 rectly upon the brooder floor at first, close to the hover, 
 but after the chicks have become hoverwise it is advis- 
 able to put them on boards or slightly raised platforms 
 so that litter will not be scratched into them. Drinking 
 vessels filled with litter and dirt are a constant menace 
 to the health of the flock. 
 
 Founts manufactured for this special purpose are best 
 and cheapest for ordinary use but, in an emergency, a 
 homemade fount can readily be extemporized from a one- 
 quart vegetable can and a small dish or pan (see Fig. 
 139.) Punch one or two holes in the can so that they 
 will be a little below the top of the dish when in use; 
 fill can with water, place dish over it and invert. If the 
 hole is properly located the water will stand a little 
 below the top of dish and will be renewed from the can 
 as the chicks drink it. The dish should be only one to 
 one and one-half inches larger in diameter than the can, 
 for best results. 
 
 It is important for the chicks to have some grit from 
 the start, and many experienced chick raisers place this 
 
 before them a few hours in 
 advance of the first feed. In 
 order to be certain that they 
 all get their share of this 
 highly important part of the 
 ration it should regularly be 
 mixed with each soft feed 
 until certain that the chicks 
 will voluntarily help them- 
 selves to it from the hopper. 
 Use a good grade of com- 
 mercial chick grit if obtain- 
 lable. In the absence of this, 
 Isupply clean, sharp sand. 
 
 Importance of Careful 
 Feeding 
 
 The exact character of the 
 
 ration that is fed to chicks is 
 
 of less importance than the 
 
 way in which it is fed — but still highly important. Strong, 
 
 vigorous chicks will do well on rations that are far from 
 
 being correct, provided they are carefully fed; but they 
 
 FIG. 13»— DRINKING 
 FOUNT 
 
 There is no better way 
 of supplying drinking 
 water for chicks than by 
 the use of a two-piece 
 fount similar to this one. 
 
 will only make their best growth and development when 
 their rations are properly adapted to their needs. If 
 some chick raisers realize a measure of success with dis- 
 tinctly inferior rations, that does not affect the fact that 
 the more suitable the feed provided, the easier it is to 
 raise the chicks, and the better they will develop. No 
 ration however, can be made up thac will relieve the 
 feeder of the necessity for exercising care and judgment 
 in supplying it. Many a watchful, earnest farmer's wife 
 with painstaking skill, and with the added advantage of 
 farm conditions generally, is able to raise a larger per- 
 centage of chicks on cornmeal dough (which is about 
 the worst feed to give them) than other persons who use 
 the best of "balanced rations," but who feed them care- 
 lessly. 
 
 It is not meant by the foregoing to imply that there 
 is any one method of feeding, or any one ration, that is 
 to be recommended above all others. On the contrary, 
 the well-informed chick raiser has a rather wide range 
 of choice in both respects, being able readily to adapt 
 the ration to available supplies and to modify methods 
 of feeding to suit personal convenience. The beginner 
 however, should not presume too much upon this fact. 
 Lacking in the exact knowledge required to make such 
 adjustments successfully, and quite apt to underestimate 
 the importance of 
 seemingly minor de- 
 fails, he almost in- 
 variably finds that 
 he is more success- 
 ful when he adopts 
 a definite ration and 
 method of feeding, 
 each of proved value 
 and then adheres 
 strictly to them. 
 Other methods may 
 seem simpler or 
 less laborious; other 
 rations may be 
 cheaper or more 
 easily provided; but 
 without personal knowledge and skill, changes are almost 
 invariably unsatisfactory and often disastrous. It is for 
 this reason that in the latter part of this chapter some 
 definite methods of chick feeding are given in detail. 
 Unless there is a good reason for doing otherwise, the 
 beginner should adopt one of these and follow it ex- 
 actly. It will be time enough to simplify or cheapen it, 
 when there is a substantial foundation of experience up- 
 on which to base the changes. 
 
 Nursery Feeds 
 
 During the first few days the food should be quite 
 limited in quantity and of an easily digested nature. 
 Cooked feeds are considered extra desirable and many 
 experienced feeders depend almost exclusively upon 
 bread crumbs at this time, moistening these with milk 
 if obtainable, otherwise with water. Some add to the 
 bread crumbs a limited amount of hard-boiled egg, using 
 for this purpose infertile eggs tested out of the incu- 
 bator. These are boiled for half an hour and then crushed 
 or run through a food chopper, shells and all, and mixed 
 with bread crumbs in the proportion of about six parts 
 of the latter to one of the former. In view of the fact 
 that chicks frequently have difficulty in assimilating the 
 original unabsorbed yolk, the advisability of adding hard- 
 boiled eggs to the nursery food appears questionable. 
 
 FIG. 139 — A HOMEMADE DRINK- 
 ING FOUNT 
 A one-quart can inverted over a 
 saucer makes a good fount for 
 emergency use, but the regular 
 manufactured ones are more sub- 
 stantial, less easily upset, and the 
 chicks are not so apt to get wet. 
 
FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 
 
 87 
 
 After the chicks are a week old there will be no objec- 
 tion to using them, but for the first few days the need 
 for animal feed can be much better supplied in the form 
 of skim milk, either sweet or sour, or a very limited 
 amount of finely cut fresh meat. 
 
 In place of bread crumbs many use commercial "chick 
 starters," or prepared nursery foods, several of which are 
 excellent for the purpose and much more convenient than 
 bread crumbs. Johnnycake is another nursery food in 
 common use. In Farmers' Bulletin 624, of the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, directions for making 
 johnnycake are given as follows: "To one dozen infertile 
 eggs or one pound of sifted beef scrap add ten pounds 
 of cornmeal and one tablespoonful of baking soda, and 
 mix with enough milk to make a pasty mash." This mix- 
 ture can be baked on a griddle or skillet, or in the oven, 
 as. convenient. Whatever feeds are used, no pains should 
 be spared to insure their being thoroughly wholesome 
 and untainted. Nothing that has heated or that is moldy 
 or sour should be fed under any condition. It does not 
 seem to matter whether the milk given to chicks is sweet 
 or sour. 
 
 It is not possible to give exact directions in regard 
 to the amount of feed to supply during the first few days, 
 but the quantity should be limited. The feeder must learn 
 to be governed by the condition and conduct of his 
 chicks, following the general rule to "feed often, but keep 
 them hungry." The usual plan is to let them have all 
 the moist mash they will eat in three to five minutes, 
 after which the surplus is promptly removed. Three 
 feeds will be sufficient the first day, but thereafter it is 
 advisable to feed four or five times, at regular intervals. 
 
 Great harm is done by leaving soft feed before the 
 chicks so that, after eating what they need and running 
 back under the hover to warm up, they can come out 
 later and stuff themselves with what they do NOT need. 
 If the chicks are slow about learning, it may be advis- 
 able to give them a little more time for the first feed 
 or two, to be certain that all have had a chance, but do 
 not be overanxious about this. Some chicks will be near- 
 ly a day younger than others and these will be better 
 off if they do not eat at all. After the first two days 
 however, the rule should be "every chick out at feeding 
 time," whether they eat much or little. 
 
 Probably the best way to give soft feed is to pro- 
 vide a sufficient number of wooden trays, such as the 
 one shown in Fig. 137. This consists simply of a smooth 
 half-inch board (six inches in width by twelve inches in 
 length is a practical and convenient size for a small 
 flock) with a strip around the edge about the width of 
 an ordinary plastering lath, to prevent the contents from 
 being scratched out. Use nothing but smooth, surfaced 
 lumber in making them, and provide enough so that all 
 the chicks can get to the feed at the same time, without 
 crowding. Keep these trays clean and free from taint 
 by daily scalding or sunning. 
 
 For reasons already given the chicks' food, during 
 the first few days of their lives, should be chosen with 
 care, but thereafter their feeding offers no peculiar prob- 
 lems. Chicks should be regarded simply as fowls— quite 
 small, it is true, but fowls just the same. So far as feed- 
 ing is concerned, their appetites and needs differ from 
 those of adult fowls only as modified by their smaller 
 size. The same grains that are good for adult fowls are 
 good for chicks, and they may be fed in about the same 
 proportions. If some feeds are provided for the chicks 
 that ordinarly are not given to adults, that usually is be- 
 cause they are too expensive to be fed to the latter, but 
 
 are required in so small quantities for chicks that the 
 slight additional cost is unimportant compared with the 
 desirability of giving them the best possible start. 
 
 Whatever the nursery feed may be, the general prac- 
 tice is to begin the use of a mixture of finely cracked 
 grains, generally called chick' feed, about the third to 
 the sixth day of feeding, also' adding a limited amount 
 of some good mash mixture to the nursery feed. Grad- 
 ually increase the proportions of both chick feed and 
 mash so that by the beginning of the second week, or 
 shortly thereafter, the nursery feed can be entirely 
 omitted, and the chicks placed on the ration which they 
 are to receive regularly for the next three or four weeks. 
 
 What to Feed Up to the Fourth Week 
 
 Just what this ration shall be will depend a good 
 deal upon available supplies, and. the personal prefer- 
 ences of the feeder. The simplest and easiest way is to 
 use the ready-mixed commercial chick feeds and mashes 
 that are for sale in practically all markets. These special 
 
 Tl 
 
 ^^^V 5^^^Wff ' M 
 
 
 rj 
 
 ^^ msSBB 
 
 ^^H^H 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^^^W^ 
 
 
 
 ^^1 
 
 pMli&^^-.^ 
 
 
 15^,^ 
 
 J^^^^ 
 
 FIG. 140- 
 
 -CONVENIENT MASH FEEDERS FOR 
 TOUNG CHICKS 
 
 These flat troughs with strips of wire cloth over the 
 tops are Just the thing for providing dry mash for 
 chicks. The wire cloth should be cut to fit inside the 
 trough. It rests on the mash and follows it down as the 
 chicks consume it. So protected the mash is always read- 
 ily accessible but the chicks cannot scratch it out. Cour- 
 tesy of Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station. 
 
 feeds, if the buyer is careful to secure the best brands, 
 are wholesome, nutritious, and well balanced, containing 
 practically everything that the chicks need with the ex- 
 ception of green feed. Some chick feed mixtures contain 
 grit and charcoal but, except when buying in quite small 
 quantities, it is better to purchase these materials sepa- 
 rate!}' and feed them in hoppers rather than to scatter 
 them in the litter. If the mash mixture does not con- 
 tain meat scrap this should be added in proper proportion. 
 Ready-mixed mashes are available in which pow- 
 dered milk is used in place of meat scrap and this ma- 
 terial is believed by many to be especially good for 
 chicks. Where skim milk or powdered milk is fed, only 
 a limited amount of meat scrap, if any, need be sup- 
 plied, though an occasionally feed of fresh meat or finely 
 ground butcher scraps are always a desirable addition to 
 the ration. As a rule, the poultryman can buy ready- 
 mixed feeds cheaper than he can make up good mixtures 
 at home, unless he is using large quantities. Careful tests 
 at state experiment stations, and the general experience 
 
88 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 of practical chick raisers, indicate clearly that chicks will 
 do better on a ration affording reasonable variety and 
 consisting- of about equal proportions of cracked grains 
 and mashes. 
 
 FIG. 141— FEEDING COOP FOR YOUNG CHICKS 
 In order to protect the young- chicks from being 
 trampled by the larg-er ones at feeding- time, an enclo- 
 sure similar to the one sho-wn above -w-ill be found very 
 convenient. It -will also protect, the food from rain in -wet 
 ■sveather, if the top is covered with prepared roofing. 
 
 Chicks Must Be Kept Busy 
 
 Almost any method of feeding that makes the chicks 
 •work for their ration most of the day is a good one. The 
 problem of keeping them busy is quite simple if the 
 chicks can run at large, as their natural activity will keep 
 them on the move practically all the time. If in confine- 
 ment however, either indoors or in small yards, it is 
 scarcely possible to maintain them in good thrifty con- 
 dition without the liberal use of litter on the floor of 
 the brooder or pen. As has already been pointed out in 
 Chapter X, the best litter for chicks is short-cut alfalfa 
 hay. The chicks will eat some of the leaves and finer 
 particles, and will be the better for doing so. The mater- 
 ial is just fine enough and light enough to make good 
 scratching, and if the hay is properly cured it will be 
 reasonably free from dust. Short-cut alfalfa may seem 
 rather expensive but, in the long run, it is the cheapest 
 litter that can be used for the first three weeks, results 
 considered. 
 
 Persons who have clean clover hay, free from mold, 
 and can have it cut into short lengths at little cost, will 
 find it desirable and less expensive than alfalfa. In the 
 absence of either of these, clean oat or wheat straw, 
 chopped as fine as possible will answer fairly well, but 
 there is no other material generally available that is so 
 desirable as alfalfa or clover. By the seventh day the 
 chicks should be able to handle about two inches of litter 
 and thereafter the amount should be increased as they 
 grow, aiming always to have enough so that they will 
 have to spend a good part of the day digging for the 
 grain part of their ration. 
 
 Chicks need some form of animal matter by the end 
 of the first week. Finely chopped hard-boiled eggs it 
 available, may be added to the soft feed, and fresh meat 
 cut in very small pieces is excellent. As a matter of con- 
 venience however, most chick raisers use a good grade 
 of commercial meat scrap, sifting out the coarse parti- 
 cles until the chicks are large enough to eat it without 
 waste as it comes from the bag. Start with not over five 
 per cent in the mash, gradually increasing to fifteen per 
 cent, beyond which it is not considered advisable to go 
 until the chicks are out on range. 
 
 After the chicks are two or three weeks old it is 
 practical to feed meat scrap alone in hoppers, provided 
 the ration as a whole is satisfactory. If the chicks are 
 dissatisfied with the rest of the ration however, there is 
 danger that they will eat more meat scrap than is good 
 for them, and overconsumption of this highly concen- 
 trated food will result promptly in digestive disorders. 
 
 Any danger of its being too freely consum.ed will be 
 avoided when added to the mash, and it also will make 
 the mash more appetizing, which usually is desirable. 
 
 Skim milk is especially good for chicks, and may 
 be supplied with safety in any desired quantity. Use it 
 for mixing all moist mashes, and supply it for drinking 
 in water founts. Where it is freely used it is not neces- 
 sary to provide any form of meat. It may be given 
 either sweet or sour, though it is not generally believed 
 to be desirable to give sweet and sour milk alternately. 
 It is important to observe strict cleanliness in the ves- 
 sels used in feeding milk, washing and scalding them 
 thoroughly at frequent intervals. 
 
 The chicks need green feed, practically from the 
 start, and should have it regularly at least once a day. 
 It should be fed sparingly at first until the chicks be- 
 come accustomed to it, after which they may be given 
 all they will clean up. Use any succulent material avail- 
 able, such as cabbage or lettuce leaves, mangels, pota- 
 toes, etc. Feed the latter sparingly, however, as they 
 are apt to cause diarrhea if too freely used. Tough, 
 stringy green feed such as grass, overgrown oat sprouts, 
 etc., cannot be safely fed unless chopped into quite small- 
 pieces. The more tender the material provided the bet- , 
 ter it will be for the chicks. If sprouted oats are pro- 
 vided, sprout them in a warm place so that they will 
 grow quickly, and feed when the sprouts are not over, 
 two inches long, to insure their being tender. At thi^ 
 stage the chicks will eat both sprouts and roots, and also 
 will find a good deal of healthful exercise in picking at 
 the kernels. Be careful never to feed moldy sprouted 
 oats, however. 
 
 The supply of grit must never be neglected. Prob- 
 ably a good limestone grit is most suitable for the pur- 
 pose. It should be kept in hoppers where the chicks can 
 help themselves to it at all times and, in addition, should 
 also be mixed with the regular mash feeds as already 
 suggested. Use fine chick grit at first, changing to a 
 larger or intermediate size after the chicks are a few 
 weeks old. 
 
 Young chicks like charcoal and will eat it greedily. 
 As it appears to be quite helpful in preventing certain 
 
 1 
 
 ■i: 
 
 SSs.'y^ 
 
 " v- 
 
 jir^^^V^^^ 
 
 ^^^^?^ 
 
 p 
 
 ^^^S^^l 
 
 
 ^Sl^^^W 
 
 F 
 
 ^^^P 
 
 iri^vl 
 
 ^^^M 
 
 i 
 
 ff^^ 
 
 ^' "/rM 
 
 ^^M 
 
 FIG. 142— DEEP LITTER FEEDING 
 
 Several weeks' supply of cracked grains is 
 buried in a thick coat of litter as illustrated above, 
 and the chicks get plenty of exercise digging for 
 it. There is little leg weakness among deep-litter 
 fed chicks. 
 
 digestive disorders, it should always be supplied. Get 
 granulated charcoal, with the fine dust sifted out, and 
 feed it in hoppers. 
 
 Careful experiments, particularly those made at the 
 N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station, indicate that it is 
 desirable for the chick ration to have a larger propor- 
 tion of mineral matter f^ash) than V? regularly provided 
 
FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 
 
 89 
 
 by the ordinary feeds used. Meat scrap contains a suf- 
 ficient amount of bone to meet most requirements, but 
 the particles usually are entirely too large for small 
 chicks. Until they are big enough to eat meat scrap as 
 it comes from the bag, the best way of supplying this' 
 deficiency in the ration is to add about five per cent of 
 bone meal to the mash mixture. 
 
 Home-Mixed Rations 
 
 While ready-mixed chick feeds and mashes are much 
 more convenient for the average chick raiser than home 
 mixtures, these may often be employed at a marked 
 saving in cost, particularly on farms and in grain-grow- 
 ing sections generally, provided they are used in quanti- 
 ties sufficient to make it worth while to give proper at- 
 tention to their preparation. Home mixtures are apt to 
 be variable in quality or in composition, lacking in vari- 
 ety, and poorly milled. Grains cracked at local mills 
 always contain a large proportion of particles either too 
 coarse or too fine, representing a serious waste in either 
 case unless screened out. Home-mixed mashes also are 
 
 apt to be poorly 
 balanced unless 
 the feeder follows 
 a definite formula. 
 If home mixing 
 is practiced, see to 
 it that the cracked 
 grains are careful- 
 ly screened to re- 
 move meal and 
 particles too large' 
 to be fed safely. 
 Provide reason- 
 able, but not ex- 
 treme variety, and 
 follow a formula 
 of proved value, 
 which calls for 
 grains and meals 
 that are obtainable 
 in the local mar- 
 ket, if possible to 
 do so. While some 
 grains are gener- 
 ally regarded as 
 more desirable 
 than others, there 
 are none that are indispensable, and the practical thing 
 to do in any case is to use the cheapest and most avail- 
 able feeds, avoiding too great dependence on any one 
 kind and making sure that the total ration is reasonably 
 well balanced. 
 
 Since corn, wheat and oats are obtainable by most 
 persons, a practical formula for the cracked grain or chick 
 feed mixture is; 
 
 100 pounds of cracked wheat. 
 
 100 pounds of fine cracked corn. 
 
 100 pounds of pinhead or steel-cut oats. 
 
 If the latter cannot be obtained, use fifty pounds of rolled 
 oats instead. It is not advisable to use the latter freely 
 however, as the particles are large and too easily found. 
 With a mixture containing these three grains, it does not 
 matter greatly whether anything else is included, though 
 cracked kafir corn, milo, hulled barley, etc., may be used 
 freely, if obtainable at reasonable cost. Such seeds as 
 hemp, millet, etc., if used at all, should be added only 
 in limited quantities. 
 
 A good mash to be fed either dry or moist in con- 
 
 FIG. 143— CROSS SECTION OF MASH 
 AND GRAIN HOPPER 
 This illustration gives all necessary 
 dimensions for hopper illustrated in 
 Fig:. 146. Can be made in any desired 
 length. 
 
 
 PIG. 144— A SIMPLE SHADE FOR THE WATER 
 FOUNT 
 
 The outdoor water fount should always be protected 
 from the sun in hot weather. If natural shade is not 
 available, put the fount in an open box of suitable size, 
 with the open side turned toward the north or northeast. 
 
 nection with the above cracked-grain mixture is made 
 after the following formula: 
 
 100 pounds of cornmeal. 
 
 100 pounds of coarse brown middlings. 
 
 50 pounds of white middlings or low-grade flour. 
 
 50 pounds of rolled oats or oat flour, 
 
 15 to SO lbs. of meat scrap (increase gradually to maximum). 
 
 After the chicks are two weeks old, substitute bran 
 for brown middlings and increase the meat scrap gradual- 
 ly to forty pounds. The physical condition of the mash 
 lias a good deal to do with its palatability, and since the 
 meals mentioned vary in degree of fineness, this formula 
 should be considered as more or less tentative, changing 
 the proportions a little, if necessary, in order to get a 
 satisfactory mixture — that is, one that the chicks will eat 
 readily and that will not be too sticky or gummy when 
 moistened. 
 
 A Successful Feeding Method 
 
 The general principles of chick feeding both as to 
 rations and methods, have been briefly covered in the 
 foregoing treatment of the subject. There are many how- 
 ever, who require a specific method and more detailed in- 
 structions and for their benefit the following schedule has 
 
 FIG. 145— GROWING CHICKS ON RANGE 
 View on poultry plant at Wisconsin Experiment Sta- 
 tion. Chicks with good houses, plenty of range, and 
 plenty of shade in warm weather should grow without 
 a check, and there should be few losses among them. 
 
90 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 WH 
 
 m 
 
 f -j 
 
 B^^ 
 
 ^n^^^ 
 
 ^■ifl 
 
 ■"^wJse j^ 
 
 til ^^kk'-SI^I 
 
 ^^BPS^^^cwiy 
 
 Hk^*jMV^^I 
 
 ^M 
 
 ^^ 
 
 H^^ 
 
 l^K^B^Bk^MmTS^Sl^. 
 
 l^^^yy^y^J^ial^^H^Kaff^UffS 
 
 ^^^S 
 
 FIG. 146 — MASH AND GRAIN HOPPER FOR GROWING 
 CHICKS 
 When the chicks are a couple of months old and can 
 have practically free range, they may be hopper fed on 
 both mash and grain, if desired. The two-compartment 
 hopper here illustrated, will hold several days' supply. It 
 is provided with a rainproof top so that it can be placed 
 outdoors. 
 
 been prepared. It is by no means the only way in which 
 chicks can be successfully fed, but that it is a practical 
 and successful one, the experience of countless chick rais- 
 ers has abundantly proved. 
 
 First Day. Supply neither feed nor water. Allow the 
 chicks to come out from under the hover, but give them 
 only a limited amount of room and watch them carefully 
 to see that at no time during the day do they become 
 chilled, or even uncomfortable while out, and that the 
 hover temperature is maintained at about 100 degrees at 
 the level of the chicks' back and a short distance inside 
 the hover curtain. 
 
 Second Day. The chicks are to have no feed during 
 this period, but should be supplied with lukewarm drink- 
 ing water. If they appear to be dissatisfied, sprinkle chick 
 grit over a feeding tray and let them have all they want 
 of this. 
 
 Third Day. Assuming that the hatch has begun dur- 
 ing the night or in the morning, the first feed may be 
 given on the morning of the third day — not too early 
 however, if the house is cold. Give a light feed of bread 
 crumbs moistened with milk, or 
 water if milk is not available. Moisten 
 the bread crumbs just enough to 
 make them soft but not pasty. 
 Sprinkle fine chick grit or sharp 
 sand over the bread crumbs to make 
 certain that the chicks will get the 
 necessary amount of this highly im- 
 portant part of their ration. See that 
 they all come out from under the 
 hover for this first feed, but if there 
 are any of the late-hatched ones that 
 are not hungry or are still a little 
 weak, let them go back under the 
 hover at once or return them by 
 hand. Give the others three to five 
 minutes at the feeding trays, if they 
 want that much time, but the instant 
 their hunger is satisfied, put them 
 back under the hover, unless they re- 
 turn voluntarily, and remove the feed- 
 ing trays. Feed again at noon and 
 early in the evening. Provide water 
 in drinking founts and place these 
 
 where the chicks can get at them whenever they come 
 out from under the hover, but watch them closely and 
 see that none get wet, and that they do not spend much 
 time about the founts. 
 
 Fourth and Fifth Days. Feed moistened bread crumbs 
 five times, or morning, noon, and evening, and middle of 
 forenoon and afternoon. Give them about three minutes 
 in which to satisfy their hunger and then remove the 
 trays. Whatever feed is left on the trays should be 
 scraped off and added to the ration given to the larger 
 fowls. Mix a fresh batch for the chicks each time. Al- 
 ways sprinkle chick grit or sharp sand over the feed 
 when putting it before the chicks, and continue to do 
 this until they are ten days to two weeks old. Chicks ap- 
 parently cannot be trusted to eat as much grit as they 
 really need when it is supplied only in hoppers. 
 
 Sixth and Seventh Days. Give the chicks five feeds 
 as on the preceding day, but limit the quantity and, after 
 removing the surplus, sprinkle a little chick feed on the 
 litter where the chicks can readily find it. Use only a 
 small amount and provide an extra fine mixture for the 
 purpose. The best way to secure this fine-cracked feed 
 is to run some of the regular chick feed mixture through 
 a hand mill or coffee grinder. A limited amount of a 
 good mash mixture may also be mixed with the bread 
 crumbs, gradually increasing the proportion of the mash 
 and decreasing the bread crumbs until the latter can be 
 entirely omitted early in the second week if it is desir- 
 able to do so. If bread crumbs are available at low cost 
 however, they may continue to form a part of the mash 
 mixture for an indefinite time. Sprinkle a little chick 
 feed over the litter after each light feeding of moist feed 
 as on the previous day. 
 
 Eighth Day. If the directions for preceding days 
 have been properly carried out the, chicks now will be 
 ready for the alternate feeds of moist mash and chick 
 feed which will form their regular ration for the next two 
 or three weeks. Continue to feed the moist mash morn- 
 ing, noon, and evening, and feed the cracked grains 
 lightly in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon. Some 
 of this should be buried in the litter so that the chicks 
 will have to dig for it. If they are healthy, vigorous 
 chicks and only a limited amount of litter is used, they 
 will soon learn to hunt for. it, and will enjoy doing so. 
 
 FIG. 147— OUTDOOR FEEDING FRAME 
 
 This illustration shows a cheap enclosure for small chicks, where they may 
 be fed without interference from the larger members of the flock. Photo from 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 
 
 91 
 
 PJG 148 — QUICK GROWING 
 BROILERS 
 The two chicks shown in above 
 illustration were deep-litter fed, 
 by the method described in this 
 chapter. When 8 w^eelis old they 
 reached a. net weight of 4 lbs. 
 
 At first it is necessary to use a good deal of care as to 
 the amount of chick feed that is supplied and the depth 
 of litter in which it is buried, but the latter may be in- 
 creased rapidly, and by the end of the second week they 
 should be able to negotiate several inches of fine, light 
 
 material such as 
 short- cut alfalfa. 
 Thereafter, until they 
 can be outdoors most 
 of the time, they 
 should be compelled 
 to spend several 
 hours daily searching 
 in the litter for the 
 cracked-grain portion 
 of the ration. It is 
 not advisable to try 
 to make the chicks 
 clean up every par- 
 ticle of the chick feed 
 in the litter. There 
 should always be a 
 little that they can 
 get by hunting for it, 
 but do not supply it 
 so liberally that they 
 can find it without 
 effort. 
 
 Second to Fourth 
 Week. The method 
 of feeding as out- 
 lined for the eighth day may be continued practically 
 without change until the chicks are about four weeks old, 
 when they will begin to tire of chick feed and will show 
 a marked preference for larger grains. The mixture then 
 should be changed to supply the regular scratch grains 
 provided for adult fowls, or make up a special mixture to 
 consist of equal parts by weight of coarse cracked corn, 
 whole wheat and clipped oats. A double portion of corn 
 may be used if price makes it an object, and if clipped 
 oats are not available, whole oats may be fed after soak- 
 ing them several hours or boiling for one hour. 
 
 Never feed dry whole oats to young chicks, as the 
 sharp points are liable to cause serious trouble. Oats 
 that have been boiled or soaked may be used with entire 
 safety however, and if desirable they may form SO per 
 cent of the total grain ration after the chicks are several 
 weeks old. The mash mixture also should be changed 
 about the same time, using 100 pounds of corn meal, SO 
 pounds of bran, 50 pounds of white middlings or low- 
 grade flour, SO pounds of ground whole oats and SO 
 pounds of meat scrap. The number of daily feeds may 
 now be reduced to three, and this modified ration may be 
 continued without change until the chicks are practically 
 full grown. Two of these feeds should be cracked grains 
 in litter or scattered broadcast over the range, with one 
 feed of moist mash, and a hopper of dry mash always 
 available: Chicks fed by this method and with the ration 
 here suggested should make rapid growth and escape 
 many of the ailments and losses that result from less 
 suitable rations or improper methods of feeding. 
 Simplified Feeding Methods 
 While the method that has just been described, and 
 others of a similar nature, will produce results that can- 
 not be equalled by "easy" methods, it must be conceded 
 that they involve a good deal of labor and almost con- 
 stant attendance, which many chick raisers are not able 
 or willing to give. To meet such conditions there are 
 
 various modifications that may be introduced, chiefly in 
 the way of hopper feeding, that will materially reduce the 
 time and labor required. If these changes are wisely made 
 and if the caretaker does not pursue labor-saving methods 
 and "efficiency" to the point where the well-being of his 
 flock is sacrificed, reasonably good results may be secured. 
 
 It should be clearly understood that the exact num- 
 ber of feeds to be given daily is important only in so far 
 as it assists in keeping the chicks busy. But the average 
 chick raiser finds that in proportion as he reduces the 
 number of feeds the difficulty of maintaining healthful 
 activity increases. For this reason, it is not advisable 
 for the beginner to attempt too much in the way of sim- 
 plified feeding methods. It is much wiser for him to 
 follow practices that are known to be safe and effective, 
 rather than to endanger the thrift or the lives of his 
 chicks merely to avoid a little labor. 
 
 In dry-mash feeding, the mash is placed in hoppers, 
 or feeding troughs similar to the ones shown in Fig. 140, 
 and the chicks are given access to it at all times. If care 
 is taken in the preparation of the mash, making it suf- 
 ficiently palatable so that the chicks will eat enough of 
 it, and avoiding making it so appetizing that they will 
 depend mainly upon it instead of scratching in the litter 
 for grain, it is entirely practical to feed in this way. The 
 chick feed, also, instead of being given in installments 
 through the day can be supplied at one time, morning or 
 evening as convenient, after the chicks are a couple of 
 weeks old, provided sufficient litter is used. 
 
 Deep Litter Feeding Method 
 
 A method of feeding that has been adopted by many 
 with good results, and which represents the practical 
 minimum in labor required, is known as the deep litter 
 method, which the chicks, during the first four to six 
 
 FIG. 149— A CORN FIELD IS EXTRA GOOD AS A 
 
 RANGE FOR GROWING CHICKS IN HOT 
 
 WEATHER 
 
92 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 weeks, are fed exclusively on chick feed and meat scrap. 
 The entire amount of chick feed required for this length 
 of time is buried in the litter when the chicks are about 
 one week old, and mea^ scrap is supplied in hoppers, al- 
 lowing them to help themselves to it at will. 
 
 Assuming that the flock is to consist of 75 to 100 
 chicks, and will occupy an indoor pen measuring about 
 SxlO feet, the procedure is as follows: Spread on the 
 floor of the pen a layer of about two inches of short-cut 
 alfalfa and sprinkle over it ten to fifteen pounds of chick 
 feed. Follow with alternate layers of litter and feed 
 until the material is eight inches deep all over the floor 
 and SO pounds of chick feed has been buried. This amount 
 should last the chicks about four weeks, and nothing else 
 is fed except meat scrap as noted, also a liberal allow- 
 ance of green feed daily. Since the chicks must scratch 
 for practically every bit of feed they get, they will be 
 found busily digging in the litter most of the time. 
 
 A modification of this plan, as adopted by many, con- 
 sists in supplying a good dry-mash mixture in hoppers, 
 
 FIG. 150 — PROFITABLE RAPID GROWING CHICKS 
 When chicks have reached this size the "danger period" is past and with 
 proper feeding and care they should grow rapidly to market size or maturity. 
 
 moistened with sour skimmed milk, and shredded green 
 food, fine grit, and charcoal are to be scattered over the 
 food. In addition to this moist feed, a shallow tray con- 
 taining cracked grains (Mixture No. 2) is kept before the 
 chicks. To this grain mixture is to be added a small 
 amount of dry mash (Mixture No. 3). After the first 
 five days feed cracked grains (Mixture No. 2) in light lit- 
 ter twice a day. The nursery feed (Mixture No. 1) is dis- 
 continued after five days, and a mash (Mixture No. 3) is 
 moistened with sour skimmed milk, and fed three times 
 a day. This mash mixture also is kept before the chicks 
 in shallow trays. 
 
 This feeding is continued to the end of the fourth 
 week except that after the second week the moist mash is 
 given only twice a day. From the fourth to the sixth 
 week, or until the chicks are on range, one feed of moist 
 mash is given daily, dry mash is always available in hop- 
 pers or trays, and cracked grains (Mixture No. 4) are 
 fed in litter twice a day. From the sixth week to ma- 
 turity, dry mash (Mixture No. 3) and grains (Mixture 
 No. 5) are hopper fed, with one meal 
 a day of moist mash if it is desirable 
 to hasten development. 
 
 Cornell Chick-Feeding Mixtures 
 
 Mixture No. 1 
 
 8 lbs. rolled oats. 
 
 8 lbs. bread crumbs or cracker waste. 
 
 2 lbs. sifted beef scrap (best grade.) 
 
 1 lb. bone meal. 
 
 Mixture No. 2 
 
 3 lbs. wheat (cracked.) 
 
 2 lbs. cracked corn (fine.) 
 1 lb. bone meal. 
 
 Mixture No. 3 
 
 3 lbs. wheat bran. 
 3 lbs. corn meal. 
 3 lbs. wheat middlings. 
 3 lbs. beef scrap (best grade.) 
 
 1 lb. bone meal. 
 
 Mixture No. 4 
 
 3 lbs. wheat (whole) 
 
 2 lbs. cracked corn. 
 1 lb. hulled oats. 
 
 Mixture No. 5 
 
 3 lbs. wheat. 
 3 lbs. cracked corn. 
 
 adding to it the proper proportion of meat scrap. As 
 this plan removes all danger of the chicks eating more 
 meat scrap than is good for them, it probably is a safer 
 method for the average feeder than the regular chick 
 feed and meat scrap ration. 
 
 Whatever feeding method may be followed during the 
 first month or six weeks, after the chicks are well grown 
 and can be out on free range it is entirely practical to 
 feed both mash and grain in hoppers, though the chicks 
 undoubtedly will grow more rapidly if a little hand-feed- 
 ing is practiced right along up to maturity. Many suc- 
 cessful chick raisers make a practice of providing hop- 
 pers containing dry mash and cracked corn for growing 
 stock on range, but continue to give mixed grains in the 
 morning when the chicks are turned out, and a good 
 moist mash in the evening. By doing this they undoubt- 
 edly secure more rapid growth and earlier maturity then 
 can be expected where exclusive hopper feeding is 
 practiced. 
 
 Cornell Rations and Methods for Chick Feeding 
 
 The approved method of chick feeding at Cornell Uni- 
 versity, as given in Bulletin 327, is as follows: 
 
 For the first five days feed the chicks five times a 
 day with nursery feed (Mixture No. 1). This is to be 
 
 Iowa Station Method of Feeding Chicks 
 
 (Condensed from Iowa Experiment Station Circular No. 17.) 
 
 The chicks generally are taken to the brooder when 
 24 to 36 hours old. They may be given water with the 
 • chill removed, and limited amounts of bone, charcoal, and 
 grit. After they are 48 to 60 hours old, they are given 
 limited amounts of moist mash (Mixture C) and cracked 
 grains, (Mixture A). No more is given than the chicks 
 will clean up in 10 or IS minutes, but they are fed moist 
 mash five times a day for the first three or four days then 
 reduced to four feeds, and at the end of the first week 
 reduced to three feeds a day. 
 
 The first feeds of crack grains are fed in shallow lit- 
 ter. The amount of this feed as well as the depth of the 
 litter increases as the chicks grow older. At the end of 
 the first week the litter is two inches deep. A dish of 
 bran or hopper of dry mash is kept before the chicks, 
 also bone, grit, and charcoal. By the end of the second 
 week the number of feeds of moist mash is reduced to 
 two, and the depth of the litter increased to three or four 
 inches. As the number of feeds of moist mash decrease 
 the amount of cracked grain is increased. 
 
 During the third week the mash (Mixture D) is 
 gradually substitutfed for the mixture C and is fed moist 
 two times a day until the end of the four weeks. The 
 
FEEDING THE BROODER CHICKS 
 
 93 
 
 litter IS now five or six inches deep. From the fifth to 
 the eighth week only one feed of moist mash is given 
 daily and the same mash is kept before them in hoppers. 
 Grain mixture B now is substituted for mixture A and 
 is fed in the litter once a day. 
 
 Ration II 
 
 Grain Ration «A>' 
 
 Fed First 8 Weeks 
 Cracked corn 2 
 Cracked wheat 1 
 Steel cut oat meal 1 
 
 Grain Ration "B" 
 
 Fed After the 8th Week 
 Coarsely cracked corn 2 
 Wheat 1 
 Oats 1 
 
 Ground Feed 
 
 Masli Ration "C" 
 
 Fed First Two Weeks 
 Stale bread 3 
 Oat meal 3 
 Eggs (tested from incuba' 
 
 tor) 4 
 Bran 1% 
 Corn meal 1% 
 Ground bone % 
 
 Blasli Ration "D" 
 
 Fed After the Second Week 
 
 Corn meal 3 
 
 Wheat middlings or high 
 
 grade shorts 2 
 Wheat bran 1 
 Beef scrap 1 
 Ground oats 1 
 Ground bone \i 
 Salt 1-10 
 
 Ground feed made moist with sour milk, and beef scrap 
 or meat meal fed in hoppers. All numerals in above rations 
 refer to proportions by weight. 
 
 Method of Feeding Chicks Recommended By U. S. 
 
 Department of Agriculture 
 
 (Condensed from Farmers' Bulletin 624.) 
 
 Young chicks should be fed from three to five times 
 daily. Undoubtedly chicks can be grown faster by feed- 
 ing five times, than by feeding three times daily, but it 
 should be born in mind that more harm can be done by 
 overfeeding than by underfeeding, and at no time should 
 they be fed more than enough merely to satisfy their ap- 
 petites and to ke«p them exercising, except in the even- 
 ing when they should be given all they will eat. The 
 first feed given after the chicks are 36 to 48 hours old 
 may consist of johnnycake, bread crumbs, or pinhead or 
 rolled oats. Feed either of these as convenient, giving' 
 five feeds daily for the first week, then gradually substi- 
 tute for one or two feeds of the nursery feed, finely 
 cracked grains, consisting of equal parts by weight of 
 cracked wheat, finely cracked corn and pinhead oatmeal 
 or hulled oats, to which about five per cent of cracked 
 peas or broken rice, and two per cent of charcoal, also 
 millet or rape seed, may be added. The above ration can 
 be fed until the chicks are ten days to two weeks old, 
 when the nursery feed may be discontinued, supplying in 
 place of it a good growing mash mixture composed of 
 two pounds of bran, two pounds of middlings, one pound 
 of corn meal, one pound of low-grade flour or red-dog, 
 and ten per cent of sifted beef scrap. This may be placed 
 in hoppers and left before them at all times. If fed wet 
 use only enough milk or water to make the mash crumbly, 
 but in no sense sloppy. As soon as the chicks will eat 
 whole wheat, cracked corn and other grains, the small- 
 size chick feed can be eliminated. Growing chicks on a 
 good range may be hopper fed, providing in one hopper 
 a mixture composed of two pounds by weight of cracked 
 corn and one pound of wheat, or equal parts of cracked 
 corn, wheat and oats. For the dry mash hopper the mix- 
 ture previously described may be used. 
 
 Feeding Growing Stock 
 
 As the scope of this book only includes the manage- 
 ment of chicks up to the end of the brooding period, their 
 subsequent feeding and care has been described but brief- 
 ly and in the most general way. Those who are inter- 
 ested in detailed methods of feeding and care of growing 
 stock, whether intended for market or for the laying pen, 
 are referred to "The Chick Book" (see page 112) in which 
 these subjects receive due attention. 
 
 What Not To Do 
 
 So long as the chick raiser keeps to a definite ap- 
 proved method of feeding, there will be no special dan- 
 ger of his getting into serious difficulties, but where 
 changes are made in the ration or method, there are vari- 
 ous mistakes that the beginner is apt to make. There 
 also are certain errors in feeding into which every one 
 is liable to fall at times, and in regard to which a special 
 warning should be given. Among the most common of 
 these are the following: , , . ^ i,- , 
 
 S'oppy Mashes. The moist mash fed to young chicks 
 should be mixed with sufficient water or milk to make 
 
 it crumbly, but never sloppy or pasty. In the latter con- 
 dition it is positively unwholesome and in a short time 
 will certainly cause serious digestive disorders. 
 
 Sour Mashes. Moist food should never be allowed 
 to stand for any length of time after mixing, especially 
 when intended for newly hatched chicks. A fresh batch 
 should be mixed for each feed. Mashes that have be- 
 gun to sour are thoroughly unwholesome. In this con- 
 nection a warning should be given against providing too 
 large quantities of cooked or baked foods, such as johnny- 
 cake, which often sours very quickly in warm weather. 
 
 Moldy Feeds. Nothing about which there is the 
 slightest suspicion of mold, should be fed. This includes 
 grains that have heated, corn meal that has caked, cracked 
 corn with discolored hearts — anything in short that is 
 "off" in condition. 
 
 Dirty Feed. A good many economical feeders gather 
 up the surplus after the chicks have been fed and after 
 they have trampled over it and mixed litter and drop- 
 pings with it, and keep it for the next feeding. This is 
 the poorest of economy, it may do no harm to give this 
 material to larger chicks, or to adult fowls, but it should 
 never under any conditions be fed to brooder chicks. 
 
 Indigestible Feeds. Certain seeds such as hemp and 
 millet have very hard shells which little chicks are not 
 able readily to grind, and if used at all should be sup- 
 plied only in most limited proportions. Along with these 
 may be included feeds carrying high proportions of hulls 
 or crude fibre. A comparatively small percentage of 
 fibre will seriously irritate the intestines even of adult 
 fowls, and such material should never be forced upon 
 chicks. For this reason, it is not desirable to load the 
 mash down with excessive quantities of bran, oat hulls, 
 corn hulls, or similar material. 
 
 Frozen Vegetables. Vegetables in a frozen condition 
 or that have been frozen and subsequently thawed out, 
 should never be fed to chicks, as they will quickly cause 
 intestinal disorders. It is a good deal better to let them 
 go without green feed rather than to use such material. 
 
 Feeding Whole Oats. As oats usually are obtainable 
 at a lower price per pound than any other grain, many 
 persons attempt to use them in feeding young chicks and 
 nearly always with disastrous results. The sharp points 
 of the hulls may cause direct injury while the excess of 
 crude fibre will irritate the intestines. There is no ob- 
 jection to the use of whole oats if they are sprouted, 
 boiled, or soaked for several hours before feeding. In 
 this condition the chicks will be able to pick out the ker- 
 nels and discard the hulls. 
 
 Sudden Changes in Rations. Sudden changes in the 
 rations supplied to chicks frequently cause indigestion, 
 even though the feeds supplied may be entirely whole- 
 some. If for any reason it is desirable to make a radical 
 change in the feeding, give the chicks an opportunity to 
 become accustomed to the new ration gradually. 
 
 Lack of Variety. Where home mixtures are used, 
 there often is a lack of variety which, while it may cause 
 no serious trouble, usually results in slower growth and 
 a noticeable lack of thrift. Numerous experiments have 
 shown that a reasonable degree of variety is essential to 
 best results, and it is worth while to go to some little 
 trouble to provide it, even though it may somewhat in- 
 crease the cost of the ration. 
 
 Ice Cold Water. Cold drinking water for young 
 chicks is highly objectionable. It should never be more 
 than moderately cool for small chicks, and if the water 
 vessels must be kept in a cold place they should be re- 
 filled with warm water at frequent intervals. 
 
 Insufficient Number of Water Vessels. One of the 
 commonest sources of trouble, particularly where large 
 flocks are kept, is failure to provide a sufficient number 
 of water vessels, so that the chicks when thirsty have to 
 struggle and crowd around the only available drinking 
 place, under such conditions often get soaked and chilled. 
 Supply water vessels enough so that the chicks will never 
 have any occasion for crowding to get to the water. 
 
 Feeding Whole Grains Too Soon. The use of fine- 
 cracked grains should be continued for three to four 
 weeks. Then whole wheat and hulled oats can safely be 
 fed, but do not feed whole corn until the chicks are half 
 grown. They will eat whole grains at earlier ages than 
 here recommended, but it is not wise to supply them. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 Brooder Houses and How to Build Them 
 
 Essential Requirements in Brooder Houses— Where to Locate Such Houses and How to Build Them— Plans and Bills 
 of Material for Desirable Portable and Permanent Houses for Lamp-Heated Hovers, Colony 
 Hovers, Etc.— Yards, Fences and Fixtures. 
 
 ® 
 
 HETHER brooder houses should be of the per- 
 manent or portable type will depend on the 
 brooding system used, the location of the plant, 
 and the season of the year when chicks are to be 
 raised. There can be no advantage in building portable 
 
 houses for winter 
 
 brooding and, for 
 the most part, per- 
 manent houses are 
 not desirable for 
 warm weather 
 b r o oding, except 
 up to the age of 
 three or four 
 weeks. Where ear- 
 ly chicks are to be 
 raised however, it 
 will pay to build 
 a permanent house 
 of suitable size. If 
 lamp - heated hov- 
 ers or brooders 
 are to be used, 
 the house should 
 be provided with 
 auxiliary heat in 
 the form of a hot- 
 water system, or 
 even a large coal- 
 burning stove, by 
 means of which 
 
 FIG. 151- 
 
 FBNCE 
 
 -PORTABLE WIRE 
 FOR CHICKS 
 
 l'°'"on^"/°°L°?"\?^ f"^^® ^'i® '''■°^ the room tempera 
 rods 30 to 32 inches long- and point 
 them so that they can readily be 
 pushed in by hand. Rods can be 
 passed through the meshes to hold 
 them in place but should be fastened 
 securely to lower edge of netting so 
 it will be held tight against the 
 ground, preventing the chicks from 
 getting out under it. 
 
 ture can be made 
 comfortable. This 
 will be much bet- 
 ter for the chicks, 
 will prevent hav- 
 ing to force the 
 hover lamps, and will save fuel. A permanent house can 
 be equipped with many conveniences such as oil tank, 
 work table, feed bins, storage for extra parts or equip- 
 ment, etc., which would not be possible in a portable 
 house. If the soil is heavy and inclined to be wet and 
 cold special provision can be made for drainage, in this 
 way making the yards much more serviceable and less 
 liable to become contaminated with disease germs. 
 
 Portable houses, as a rule, are more economically 
 built than permanent houses, and as they may be moved 
 to any part of the plant or farm where they may be de- 
 sired, they are especially convenient where the plant is 
 a large one, or on a farm where there 
 are outlying fields over which the 
 chicks can range and from which 
 they can pick up a good part of their 
 living after they are large enough to 
 be safe from hawks and other ene- 
 mies. If there is only limited range 
 available so that the chicks must be 
 raised practically on the same ground, 
 year after year, it is probable that 
 
 better results will be realized by building permanent 
 houses, planning them so as to secure every practical con- 
 venience in carrying on the work. 
 
 Location of Brooder Houses 
 
 Chicks are especially liable to injury from being 
 cooped or yarded on wet soil or in damp locations, ana 
 whether the house is permanent or portable this point 
 must receive careful consideration. It also is important 
 that the house should be so located that the chicks will 
 not be exposed to severe winds when outdoors. For this 
 reason, advantage should be taken of available natural or 
 artificial protection such as groves, hedges, or buildings. 
 If there is no natural protection it must be provided by 
 erecting windbreaks, etc. In most sections a house 
 shielded on the north and the west, will be much easier 
 kept warm and the chicks can be out in the yard at an 
 earlier age and in colder weather than would otherwise be 
 permissible. 
 
 The size of the house must be governed by the brood- 
 ing equipment to be used, but the tendency to build small 
 and cheap should be avoided. Too cheap houses are not 
 economical in the long run, and as they rarely are as 
 convenient or as well equipped as first-class houses, they 
 are harder to care for, take more time for the work, and 
 require more fuel to keep the chicks warm. In portable 
 houses there is a tendency on the part of many to build 
 too small, making the house difficult to care for, increas- 
 ing the inconvenience of tending the chicks, and prevent- 
 ing its utilization for other purposes. If to be used ex- 
 clusively for brooding, a portable house built on the 
 plan shown in Fig. 166 will be found to offer some es- 
 pecial advantages. Such a house encloses less air 
 space than one with a high roof, and for that rea- 
 son is warmer. Ventilation is secured without 
 exposing the chicks to drafts, and the cost is com- 
 paratively low. Portable houses of this type 
 usually are built 6x6, 6x8, or 8x8 feet in size — 
 
 □ 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 FIG. 152— BROODER HOUSE REARRANGED FOR LAYING PEN 
 
 Brooder houses with raised hover floors can readily be adapted for use as 
 laying pens if partitions, hover platform, etc.. are made movable. This illus- 
 tration shows platform moved back against the house wall and provided with 
 perches on trestles, for use of adult fowls. Board along the front edge of 
 platform is to keep droppings out of the litter. 
 
 94 
 
BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 
 
 95 
 
 rarely larger — and for that reason seldom are employed 
 for any other purpose, but stand idle when not used for 
 brooding. A more practical house for general use is 
 8x10 or 8x12 feet, built with gable or shed roof, which 
 will provide room for two or three hovers instead of one, 
 
 thus reducing the 
 labor of caring for 
 the chicks, and giv- 
 ^ ing a house large 
 
 enough for a laying 
 
 FIG. 153— LOCKING ENDS OF t, j- ri i jr 
 
 PORTABLE PENCE PANELS °^ ^^^drng flock of 
 
 This drawing- shows manner in ^^ *° ^^ hens, a 
 
 ^il'S^ ^o"*^^ S' , PS'''^*'ll *®"'='' good-sized fattening 
 panels are locked. Also see ° 
 
 Fig-. 155. flock, or the many 
 
 other uses to which 
 such houses can be put on the poultry plant more or less 
 the year around. Whatever style of roof is adopted, the 
 side walls should be high enough to provide plenty of 
 headroom. It never is advisable to sacrifice this or any 
 other practical convenience for a slight saving in cost. 
 Piano-box brooder houses are quite popular with many, 
 but are open to the objection just noted, that they usual- 
 ly are too small for any other use, and too low for 
 comfort. 
 
 Permanent compartment brooder houses usually 
 
 1-K.OtJM-O ft-OOK. 
 
 FIG. 154 — CHICK INCLINE FOR BROODER OR 
 HOUSE ENTRANCE 
 This three-sided incline, made of ordinary plaster- 
 ing- lath, offers no opportunity for the chicks to get 
 underneath or to huddle in corners. All sides slope to 
 the brooder or house entrance. 
 
 should be designed so that they can be used for other 
 purposes. The partitions may be made movable so that 
 the house can be utilized by a winter-laying pen, or for 
 fattening crates, surplus males, exhibition stock, or in 
 any other way that may be desirable. If an elevated hover 
 floor is provided it need not be nailed to the house floor, 
 but can be loose so that it may be pushed back against 
 the wall and the entire floor space utilized, simply set- 
 ting trestles for perches on the platform, with an 8 or 
 10-inch board along the edge to keep the droppings out 
 of the litter, as shown in Fig. 152. 
 
 Brooder House Construction 
 
 The brooder house should be warmly built and usual- 
 ly it should have double walls, though if not to be used 
 in winter this may not be necessary. In order to reduce 
 the enclosed air space and make the house easier to heat, 
 the roof generally is sloped toward the south which makes 
 it uncomfortably warm in the summer unless it is ceiled 
 overhead and provided with gable ventilators. 
 
 The floor of the brooder house generally should be 
 of concrete, if for no other reason than to make it rat- 
 proof. Throughout the north the most serious enemy the 
 chick raiser has to contend with is rats, and unless the 
 house is made proof against them, they may be expected 
 to take heavy toll from the brooder flocks. The house 
 should have a solid foundation reaching well down into 
 the ground and the floor should be 6 to 12 inches above 
 
 the ground level 
 so that it will al- 
 ways be dry. If a 
 board floor is used 
 it should be dou- 
 ble - boarded, with 
 building paper be- 
 tween to make it 
 warmer, and with 
 one-inch netting to 
 exclude rats. If 
 rats are allowed 
 to harbor under 
 the house they will 
 get the chicks 
 sooner or later, in 
 spite of all pre- 
 cautions, for which 
 reason houses with 
 board floors should 
 be high enough so 
 that cats and dogs 
 can get under. 
 
 Especial atten- 
 tion must be given 
 to ventilation so 
 that the chicks will 
 not be exposed to 
 drafts or direct air 
 currents, but the 
 .windows should 
 
 not be too high above the floor. As a rule, it will be 
 found most satisfactory to hinge the windows at the bot- 
 tom so that they will swing in at the top. The front eave 
 should be wide enough to protect the windows when open. 
 Whether the rest of the house is spouted or not, there 
 should be a trough along the front so that there will be 
 no danger of the chicks being caught in the drip from 
 the eave as they gather in front of the yard doors dur- 
 ing a storm. 
 
 In compartment brooder houses the passageway 
 should be wide enough for convenience — at least three 
 feet, and four is better, especially if there are lamps in it 
 as shown in Fig. 164. Young chicks soon develop marked 
 
 FIG. 155— END OF PORTABLE 
 PENCE PANEL 
 Portable fence panels are indis- 
 nensablu on all poultry plants. Two 
 and three feet are the most popular 
 widths. Make them any convenient 
 length, usually 10 to 16 feet, with 
 one upright piece of furring- In 
 middle of panel to strengthen the 
 rails. If ends are made as shown, 
 they will lock, and when tied top 
 and bottom with stout cord, will 
 stand without posts. Use 1-inch 
 mesh netting and lx2-inch furring. 
 
 PIG. 156— CftNCRETE INCLINE FOR PERMANENT 
 BROODER HOUSES 
 Concrete inclines cannot be trampled down or 
 washed away by the rain, and will last as long as the 
 house itself. 
 
96 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 157— YARD FOR TWO PEN BROODER HOUSE 
 Where two broods are kept in one house, the 
 yards may be conveniently arranged as shown. Use 
 panels made as in Pig. 155, and provide a few short 
 lengths for the ends. Reproduced from Bulletin 261, 
 Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
 
 ability in flying over partitions and it is desirable to have 
 these reasonably high. A width of four feet will answer 
 in most cases. The base of the partitions should be of 
 solid boards to a height of 18 to 24 inches, to prevent 
 floor drafts, and the wire above should be 1-inch mesh. 
 Pen doors should be strongly constructed and well braced 
 or they will be a source of continual trouble. Double- 
 acting spring hinges are desirable on 
 such doors. 
 
 Auxiliary heat can be supplied in 
 the form of a hot-water heater and 
 a coil of pipe, or by means of an or- 
 dinary stove. Hot water gives a more 
 uniform temperature and a compara- 
 tively simple outfit will answer the 
 purpose, but if this is considered too 
 expensive, a stove will answer, 
 though it will be impossible to main- 
 tain as uniform heat during the night 
 as with a hot-water system. 
 
 Yards for permanent houses should 
 be built to meet adult requirements 
 so that there will be no difficulty in 
 
 putting the house to other uses when it is desirable to do 
 so. Where the soil is heavy or not well drained it will 
 pay to provide special drainage for the runs by filling in 
 with sand and gravel where this material can be secured 
 without too great expense. This can readily be done by 
 setting 12-inch planks around the base of the outside 
 fence and filling in to a depth of six inches with gravel, 
 with a few inches of coarse sand on top. A yard filled 
 in this way will be dry and much warmer than one on 
 the ground level, and will be practically free from infec- 
 
 tion with gapes which otherwise are liable to play havoc 
 with young chicks raised on clay soil. Use durable posts 
 and planks or better still, provide a concrete wall or lay 
 up field stones in mortar. Do not provide a loose stone 
 wall, as the sand will work out and also will push the 
 wall out of place. In order to protect the chicks from 
 hard winds, the yard should be surrounded by a tight 
 board base two feet high, and in exposed locations there 
 should be board bases for the partition fences also, using 
 one-inch-mesh netting four feet wide above the boards. 
 
 Yards and Fences 
 
 Wherever chicks are grown there is need for more 
 or less portable fencing. A plain strip of netting may 
 be used, this being held upright by means of heavy wire 
 rods pushed into the ground — see Fig. 151. A more dur- 
 able and more generally desirable method is to provide 
 fence panels such as are shown in Figs. 153 and 155. Al- 
 most innumerable uses will be found for such panels, if 
 available, and as they can be cheaply made and will last 
 many years when properly cared for, there is no economy 
 in doing without them. For most purposes the panels 
 should be of 1-inch netting 2 or 3 feet wide and ten to 
 16 feet long. The frames should consist of 1x2 or 1x3- 
 inch furring of some kind of wood that does not split too 
 
 L 
 
 'A 
 
 [ 
 
 -> 1^4. 
 
 1— ^~^;5r^ 
 
 Y 
 
 A 
 
 
 w 
 
 VJL 
 
 "- %J 
 
 T c!L^ ilr"'^'' — in — 
 
 FIG. 158— ARTIFICIAL SHADE FOB CHICKS 
 
 Where fhere is no natural shade in the yards it must 
 be provided in some such way as this. The air will cir- 
 culate more freely underneath if the cover is supported 
 well up off the ground. 
 
 FIG. 159— ENLARGING YARDS FOR TWO PEN BROODER HOUSE 
 After the chicks have outgrown the first yards (see Fig. 157) these may be 
 enlarged in the manner here indicated, without obstructing the entrance to the 
 house door. Reproduced from Bulletin 261, Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
 
 easily. Make these frames about two inches wider than 
 the netting so that the selvage will not lap over the edge. 
 This will add a couple of inches to the height without 
 cost, and the netting will last longer. Stretch the wire 
 tightly and staple with plenty of double-pointed tacks. 
 Netting staples are apt to split the frames and should 
 not be used unless the wood is quite soft. Before put- 
 ting on the wire, give the frames a double coat of paint. 
 
 The panel frames should be made by cutting the end 
 pieces 2 feet 2 inches long for 2-foot netting or 3 feet 
 2 inches for 3-foot netting, laying these on top of the 
 side pieces or rails and nailing with wire nails long 
 enough to go through and clinch. Provide a middle cross- 
 piece for long panels. Use box nails if obtainable in order 
 to lessen the danger of splitting. When the panels are 
 done they should all be exactly alike, but by turning them 
 with the wire side out and in alternately the end pieces 
 win engage each other as in Fig. 153 and if fastened to- 
 gether with a stout piece of cord or light wire, two or 
 three panels will stand up without any other support, 
 when properly connected by end panels. It costs com- 
 paratively little to make a supply of these panels, but in 
 a term of years they will be found more economical than 
 loose wire, which soon gets bent out of shape and is 
 quickly destroyed, and in point of convenience there is 
 no comparison between the two. 
 
 There are various methods of building inclines from 
 
BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 
 
 91 
 
 the house to the ground. With portable houses, inclines 
 like the one shown in Fig. 154 are convenient, and being 
 enclosed on the sides the chicks cannot gather under 
 Ihem. As this incline slopes to the door on all three 
 sides, it prevents the losses that are apt to result from 
 the chicks huddling in corners on either side of a straight 
 runway. This incline is made of ordinary plastering lath 
 nailed to four 2x2-inch pieces, the ends of which are cut 
 to fit snugly against the brooder at the top and to rest 
 securely on the ground or house floor at the bottom. 
 This incline, properly made, requires no fastenings to 
 hold it in place. For permanent houses earth may be 
 banked up close to the door sill as in Fig. 132, or better 
 still a concrete incline may be provided, as shown in Fig. 
 156, which cannot be scratched down or washed away 
 by rain or the drip from the roof, and will last as long 
 as the house. 
 
 Chicks are especially in need of protection from the 
 sun in the summer. Even if the house is cool, which is 
 not always the case, the chicks will be the better for out- 
 door shade, and if this is not provided naturally by trees, 
 etc., the lack must be made up in some other way. Shade 
 for yards may be supplied by clumps of corn, sunflowers, 
 etc., or by quick-growing vines planted outside the yards 
 and supported by the fences. For cheap, temporary shel- 
 ters use some such device as is shown in Fig. 158, which 
 will not only protect the chicks from the sun, but from 
 rain if they happen to get caught out in a sudden shower, 
 and will also afiford a hiding place from hawks and crows. 
 Such shelters may be made in any convenient size, and 
 
 for large flocks are conveniently made with a gable roof 
 high enough, so that the enclosed space may readily be 
 kept clean. 
 
 The preceding comments on house construction, 
 yards, etc., will be found to apply quite generally to 
 brooder houses of whatever type, and under practically 
 all conditions where they are to be used. In the follow- 
 ing pages some practical brooder houses are illustrated 
 and described in detail. These will be found to conform 
 closely to preceding statements as to what is desirable 
 in such houses, and they are well adapted to the needs 
 of chick raisers wherever located, or may be made so 
 with slight changes. Persons desiring further information 
 on this subject, are referred to "Poultry Houses and 
 Fixtures" (see page 112) in which many additional plans 
 for both permanent and portable brooder houses will be 
 found. Plans for houses designed expressly for brood- 
 ing ducklings are given in "Ducks and Geese" (see 
 page 112). 
 
 Colony House for One Hover 
 
 The house illustrated in the plans in Fig. 160 is a good 
 small house, and is designed for a single lamp-heated 
 hover accommodating 50 to 100 chicks. If the cockerels 
 are culled out as they reach market size the pullets can 
 remain here until they are fully grown and are ready to 
 go to the laying pens. The house is 6x6 feet with a win- 
 dow and muslin-covered opening on the south side and an 
 opening for additional ventilation in the rear when needed. 
 The siding should be of tongue-and-groove boards and it 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLCSC 
 
 atfr QT POULTftY HU3BAH0RY. 
 
 COLONY BROODER HOUSE 
 
 JULY. I 111 s; 
 
 iM 
 
 r 
 
 a oxd 
 
 Fij. J 
 
 F,9. 1 
 
 Fiqd 
 
 
 c 
 
 = ] 
 
 f 
 
 FiQ 4. 
 
 fij.S 
 
 Fi3 6. 
 
 FIG. 160— PL,AN FOR COLONY HOUSE FOR BROODER CHICKS 
 This Dlan prepared by Massachusetts Agricultural College, gives complete details for a 6x6-foot portable house suit- 
 able for one lamp-heated brooder or hover. Will comfortably accommodate a flock of 75 to 100 chicks as long as thej 
 need brooding. 
 
98 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 IS roofed with a good grade of pre- 
 pared roofing. This house is pro- 
 vided with a board floor, and no run- 
 ners are indicated as the object with 
 this house is to keep it close to the 
 ground for convenience in teaching 
 the chicks to run back and forth. 
 This plan is safe however, only where 
 there is no danger from rats. If the 
 house must be blocked up to prevent 
 rats harboring underneath, it will be 
 better to provide runners which add 
 greatly to the convenience of mov- 
 ing it. 
 
 House for Two Brooders 
 
 Having two or three hovers in one 
 house reduces the amount of travel 
 between the broods when small, and 
 after the chicks no longer need arti- 
 ficial heat the hovers and partitions 
 can be removed and all broods al- 
 lowed to run together in one flock, which sav^s time and 
 trouble all through the growing season. Such a house 
 is shown in Fig. 162 which illustrates the kind in use 
 at the Maine Experiment Station. It is described in Maine 
 Bulletin 471 as follows: 
 
 "The houses are built on two 16-foot pieces of 4 by 
 6-inch timbeis, which serve as runners. The ends of the 
 timbers, which project beyond the house, are chamfered 
 on the underside to facilitate moving. The houses are 
 12 feet long; some of them are 6 feet and others 7 feet 
 wide; 7 feet is the better width. They are 6 feet high 
 in front and 4 feet high at the back. The frame is of 
 2x3-inch lumber; the floor is double boarded, and the 
 building is boarded and covered with a good quality of 
 heavy roofing paper. Formerly shingles were used for 
 the outside covering, but paper is preferred and is now 
 used exclusively. This kind of covering for the wall is 
 not so likely to be injured in moving as shingles. A door 
 2 feet wide is in the center of the front and a 6-light 
 window, hinged at the top, is on each side of it. Two 
 brooders are placed in each of these houses and SO to 60 
 chicks are put with each brooder. A low partition sepa- 
 rates the flocks while they are young. The houses are 
 large enough so that a person can go in and do the work 
 comfortably, and each one accommodates 100 chicks un- 
 til the cockerels are large enough to be removed. 
 
 FIG. 161— OPEN FRONT BROODER HOUSE 
 A cheap, simple house like this can be used to excellent advantage on many 
 poultry farms. It is too open for portable hovers, but enclosed brooders, either 
 indoor or outdoor, can be operated conveniently here early in the season when it 
 would not be practical to have the chicles outdoors. 
 
 FIG. 162— A CONVENIENT TWO-PEN BROODER HOUSE 
 This house is 7x12 feet and accommodates two brooders of the Icind shown in 
 Pig. lOS. After the hovers are no longer needed the yard partition (not shown 
 in this illustration) is removed, and the two broods run together. Photo from 
 Maine Experiment Station. 
 
 "An improvement has recently been made in these 
 brooder houses by providing for better ventilation. When 
 the weather is very hot there is no movement of air with- 
 in one of these houses, even though the door and win- 
 dows are open. The air within the house is practically 
 stagnant and, on account of its relatively small volume, 
 becomes intensely hot and stifling when the temperature 
 outside gets high. The effect on the chicks under such 
 circumstances is bad. They retreat to the houses to get 
 shade, only to be injured if not killed by the hot, stifling 
 air of the house. To remedy this difficulty a slot 2 feet 
 long and 1 foot wide has been cut in the back of each 
 house high up under the eaves. This slot is closed with a 
 wooden slide running in grooves which are put on the 
 outside of the house. The opening is covered on the in- 
 side with 2-inch mesh chicken wire. On very hot days 
 the slide is pulled out completely so as to expose the 
 whole opening of the slot. At night or during a period 
 of wet, cold weather the size of the opening is regulated 
 to suit the conditions. It enables one to keep a current 
 of fresh air through the house in the warmest weather. 
 The effect on the well-being of the chicks during a period 
 of hot weather is most marked and satisfactory." 
 
 Yarding is something of a problem where two or 
 three flocks are kept together, especially where it is de- 
 sired to make certain that the two lots do not mix. They 
 may be yarded as in Fig. 162, using 
 a middle partition which is not shown 
 here, or as in Figs. 158 and 159, the 
 method employed at Wisconsin Sta- 
 tion. Portable panels such as have 
 previously been described are most 
 convenient for making yards, short 
 length panels being provided to make 
 the yard narrow. If the short panels 
 are 3 feet long the yards can be cov- 
 ered by using a regular 3-foot panel. 
 Later on the yards may be enlarged 
 ,as shown in Fig. 160, without ob- 
 structing the door. 
 
 At the Wisconsin Station a partic- 
 ularly good feature in use on colony 
 houses for growing stock is a snrall 
 door located about three feet above 
 the floor, as shown in Fig. 165. This 
 is left open at night so that the 
 chicks can get out on the range at 
 
BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD TFIEM 
 
 99 
 
 daybreak instead of having to await 
 the convenience of the caretaker 
 who may have too many duties to 
 get round to all houses as early 
 as is desirable. This door should 
 not be used until the chicks are 
 pretty well grown, nor should it be 
 left open in stormy or cold weather. 
 The illustration shows how the 
 space below the door is protected 
 by means of a piece of sheet iron, 
 making it impossible for rats to climb 
 up. A small platform is provided on 
 the inside for the chicks to alight 
 upon when they fly up, and they are 
 never long in learning the use of 
 the door. 
 
 Open Front Compartment Brooder 
 House 
 
 For use with indoor brooders, fire- 
 less brooders, and for sheltering out- 
 door brooders early in the season, the brooder house 
 shown in Fig. 161 will be found quite convenient and low 
 in cost. It is not intended for use in extremely cold 
 weather, but is designed simply to provide shelter for 
 brooders and chicks when it is not convenient or desir- 
 able to have them out, and it contributes greatly to the 
 comfort of the attendant in the uncertain, stormy weather 
 that often is encountered early in the spring. It is not 
 recommended for the use of lamp-heated hovers unless 
 these are suitably enclosed, or the front of the pens pro- 
 vided with a cloth curtain. 
 
 The house is of the simplest and most economical con- 
 struction. The size of the pens can be adapted to the 
 particular type of brooder used, but should never be less 
 than 6x6 feet, and 8x8 will be much better. For small 
 flocks such as usually are placed in lamp-heated brooders, 
 there is no advantage in making the house more than 10 
 feet deep. Good-sized doors are provided in the front 
 
 
 FIG. 163— CROSS SECTION OF PERMANENT BROODER HOUSE 
 
 of each pen, making them large enough so that brooders 
 can be moved in or out without difficulty, and alternate 
 partitions should be solid so that there will be no drafts 
 sweeping through the house in windy weather. The open 
 front is enclosed with small-mesh netting. Where spar- 
 rows are liable to be a nuisance, it will pay to use yi or 
 ?4-inch mesh netting, as they readily pass through 1-inch 
 meshes. 
 
 No provision was made in the house here illustrated 
 for protecting the front under any condition, but if 
 located where rain or snow is apt to beat in, a hood ex- 
 tending forward three or four feet will assist greatly in 
 keeping the floor dry. For convenience in caring for the 
 chicks it is important to leave the front unobstructed by 
 fences. If the chicks are not to be kept in the pens more 
 than three weeks no yards at all need be- provided, but 
 as this house furnishes excellent summer quarters and 
 probably will be in use most of the time, yards should be 
 
 h/all Bracksf-A 
 
 IS'-O " ^ -r- 7'- &■ H i 
 
 Msfer Bo ilsr 
 
 .i.±^% 
 
 FIG. 164— FLOOR PLAN OF PERMANENT BROODER HOUSE 
 
100 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 FIG. 165— ELEVATED CHICK DOOR 
 After the chicks are a couple of months old they 
 should be let out of their houses at daybreak in good 
 weather. This can be done without inconvenience by 
 providing- an elevated door for the colony house, which 
 can be left open all the time. Rata and other enemies 
 are prevented from gaining access by the strip of sheet 
 iron or tin nailed over the siding below the door. Cour- 
 tesy of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
 
 warm; 60 to 65 degrees is warm enough, as a rule. The 
 individual hovers can be depended upon to provide the 
 necessary additional heat vifithout at any time having the 
 lamps turned dangerously high. 
 
 As this house is intended for cold vi^eather brooding 
 it is ceiled with f^-inch ceiling boards. The additional 
 cost of doing this will be amply repaid by the smaller 
 amount of fuel required. Lath and plaster may be used 
 if preferred, but, under ordinary conditions, ceiling is 
 much better suited to poultry-house construction. Build- 
 ing paper should always be tacked to the studs before 
 siding or ceiling is put in place. A layer of sheathing 
 paper should also be nailed to the lower side of the ceil- 
 ing joists or rafter ties before the ceiling is nailed on. 
 Ventilation openings should be provided in the ceiling, as 
 shown in Fig. 163. In small houses it is sufficient to 
 have louvered ventilators in each gable, but in houses SO 
 feet or more in length it is necessary to provide roof 
 ventilators also. The ground should be graded up to the 
 front sill so that the chicks will have easy access to the 
 yards. The siding should be carried up close to the roof 
 boards, notching the top board carefully for the rafters. 
 For cold climates, storm doors for all outside doors are 
 advisable. 
 
 The cross section indicates adjustment of windows, 
 etc., also construction of partitions. These are to be 
 built up of flooring or any other tongue-and-groove lum- 
 ber, to a height of 21 inches above the brooder house 
 floor, with three-foot wire netting above. Note location 
 of ceiling ventilator. This is hung flush with the lower 
 face of the ceiling, making the opening wide enough so 
 that the door will swing freely. It may be conveniently 
 swung on a J4-i"cli iron rod, stapling it tightly to the 
 door and letting it turn in staples driven into the ceiling 
 on each side. This, rod should be stapled to the door 
 just enough off center so that it will swing shut when 
 
 built at the back. With the house 
 facing south this will locate the 
 yards on the north side where the 
 chicks will be more comfortable in 
 warm weather than in south yards. 
 
 A Permanent Brooder House 
 
 Floor plan and cross section for a 
 permanent brooder house are shown 
 in Figs. 164 and 163. As here shown 
 the house is designed for lamp-heated 
 hovers and is equipped with an aux- 
 iliary hot water heating system. If 
 preferred, either coal or oil-burning 
 colony hovers may be installed in- 
 stead, no change in plans being re- 
 quired aside from omitting the hover 
 floor and adapting the partitions to 
 individual requirements. Equipped 
 with lamp-heated hovers this house 
 will accommodate six pens, each with 
 a capacity of about 100 chicks. The 
 number of pens may be reduced to 
 five if preferred, and made five feet 
 wide, which is a more convenient 
 width for the caretaker. The heater 
 is located at the farther end, where 
 it is out of the way but easily cared 
 for. A heater with a 12-inch grate 
 should provide ample heat for a 
 house of this size. Do not make the 
 mistake of keeping the house too 
 
 
 
 PIG. 166— A-SHAPED PORTABLE BROODER HOUSE 
 Houses of this type are easier heated than those with higher roofs, since 
 less space is enclosed. They are not so drafty in windy weather as houses with 
 higher roofs and windows. Are especially well adapted to use with lamp-heated 
 hovers or small-sized colony hovers. Photo from Iowa State College of Agri- 
 culture. 
 
BROODER HOUSES AND HOW TO BUILD THEM 
 
 101 
 
 ^>vf9h^ /fytgm 
 
 PIG. 167 — FRONT ELEVATION OF SINGLE PEN 
 COLONY HOVER HOUSE 
 From blue print furnished by Poultry Division of 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 not fastened open. A couple of small blocks, nailed to 
 the upper side of the ceiling at either end of the door, 
 act as stops. The door may be held open by a weight, 
 or by attaching the cord to stud or partition. These ven- 
 tilators should be approximately under the highest point 
 in the roof, providing two in this 30-foot house and spac- 
 ing them 20 feet apart in long houses. 
 
 Where the brooding pens are five feet wide or more, 
 it is desirable to have the pen doors hung on double- 
 acting spring hinges, but this cannot be done with four- 
 foot pens as in these narrow pens the door cannot swing 
 in without striking the hover. 
 
 BILL OF 3IATERIALS FOR 16x30 FOOT BROODER HOUSE 
 
 Use Size Length No. of Remarks 
 
 Inches Feet Pieces 
 
 Sills, side 2x4 16 4 
 
 Sills, ends 2x4 16 2 
 
 Joists for hover plat.;....2x4 12 6 
 
 Plates 2x4 16 4 
 
 Studs, front 2x4 10 9 1 piece cuts 2 
 
 Studs, rear 2x4 12 8 1 piece cuts 2 
 
 Studs, ends and misc 2x4 12 12 
 
 Studs, partition 2x2 12 10 1 piece cuts 2 
 
 Rafters 2x6 14 16 
 
 Rafters 2x6 12 8 1 piece cuts 2 
 
 Ties for rafters 2x4 12 15 
 
 Braces for rafters 1x6 8 15 
 
 Sheathing- for roof 660 ft. bd. meas. Sfcd. 
 
 T & G siding 625 ft. bd. meas. 
 
 Matched flooring' for 
 hover platform, parti- 
 tions, etc 260 ft. bd. meas. 
 
 %-inch ceilinir boards for 
 
 walls and ceiling 1250 ft. bd. meas. 
 
 %x6-inch boards for 
 ridge pole, door and 
 
 window frames 125 lin. feet. Surfaced 
 
 Trim lumber, ventila- ._„ _ „ , , 
 
 tors etc ...%x4 430 lin. feet. Surfaced 
 
 Door and window sills.. 2x8 40 lin. feet. Milled 
 
 Strips for inside win- 
 dow sills, and facing 
 for front partition 
 
 studs %xl% 75 lin. feet. Surfaced 
 
 Strips for window stops „ . , 
 
 and chick runway %xl 150 in. feet. Surfaced 
 
 Drip cap ■■ 2" !'"• feet. Surfaced 
 
 6 squares prepared roofing. 
 12 squares building paper. , . ■, , ^■^■ 
 
 266 so ft 1-inch mesh netting for windows and partitions. 
 11 sashes, 1 %-inch, 4-light, 10xl2-inch glass. 
 
 1 4-panel door. 
 
 1 pr. 4-inch butt hinges. 
 
 6 pr™3-?nch butt hinges for partition doors. 
 11 pr. 2-inch butt hinges for windows. 
 18 2-inch screw hooks and eyes. 
 14 ft. of sash chain. . . ^ ^ t. j 
 
 6 anchor bolts y2Xl2 in., with 2-in, washers for each end. 
 
 2 iron rods, %x20-inch, for swinging ventilator doors in 
 ceiling. . ^^. ., 
 
 1 6-inch chimney thimble. 
 350 bricks for chimney. 
 
 MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE FLOOR 
 
 50 bags of cement. 
 120 cu. ft. sand. 
 
 200 cu. ft. cinders or crushed stone. 
 160 cu. ft. cinders or stone for filling. 
 
 EQUIPMENT FOB AUXILIARY HEAT 
 
 Water boiler, 12-inch grate. 
 
 5 gal. expansion tank. 
 
 6 feet of 2-inch pipe. 
 100 feet of 1 %-inch pipe. 
 
 Necessary manifolds, unions, elbows, etc. 
 4 wall brackets for supporting pipe. 
 2 joints of 6-inch stove pipe. 
 2 stove pipe elbows. 
 
 Portable Colony Brooder House 
 
 Brooding with colony hovers heated by means of oil 
 or coal-burning stoves is a comparatively new method, 
 but one that has become extremely popular wherever 
 chicks are raised in large numbers, and that has practic- 
 ally revolutionized general brooding practice. As a rule, 
 these hovers are placed in any buildings that happen to 
 be available, and usually with good results, though speci- 
 ally designed houses are more convenient. Wher^ a port- 
 able house for use with colony hover is desired, the plans 
 shown in Figs. 167 and 168 will be found practical and 
 economical. These plans were prepared by the Poultry- 
 Division of U. S. Department of Agriculture, and houses 
 so constructed are in use on the Government Experiment 
 Farm at Beltsville, near Washington, D. C. 
 
 The plans provide for a lOxlO-foot house, on run- 
 ners for convenient moving, and its general outlines are 
 easily understood from the drawings. All dimensions are 
 indicated. The floor is of tongue-and-groove flooring, 
 laid on 2x6-inch joists set 2 feet apart. Rafters are 2 feet 
 apart, and corners and runners are thoroughly braced. 
 
 BILL OP MATERIAL FOR PORTABLE COLONY BROODER 
 HOUSE 
 
 125 sq. ft. T & G flooring %x2% in. X 10 ft. 
 325 sq. ft. T & G flooring %x2% in. x 12 ft. 
 
 6 pes. 2x6 inch x 10 ft. for Joists. 
 
 2 pes. 4x6 inch x 12 ft. for runners. 
 
 6 pes. 2x4 inch x 14 ft., for rafters. 
 16 pes. 2x4 inch x 12 ft., for braces and studs. 
 150 sq. ft. sheathing %xl2 in. x 12 ft., surfaced 1 side. 
 
 1% rolls roofing paper. 
 
 4 sashes, 2 ft. square. 
 
 2 sashes, 18x24 inches. 
 
 Nails, screws, hinges and paint. 
 
 FIG. 168— FLOOR PLAN OF SINGLE PEN HOUSE FOR 
 COLONY HOVER 
 Prom blue print furnished by Poultry Division of U. 
 S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
102 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 ^t^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 PIG. 
 
 169— FRONT ELEVATION OF TWO-COMPARTMENT HOUSE FOR 
 COLONY HOVER 
 
 Permanent House for Colony Hover 
 
 Large brooder flocks necessarily require much greater 
 floor space than is provided for flocks of 50 to 100, and 
 larger houses or rooms, combined with the method of 
 heating employed, frequently develop floor drafts to some 
 extent. These must be reckoned vv^ith, especially in cold- 
 weather brooding. One of the best ways of preventing 
 this trouble is to build the house so that it can be divided 
 into two parts of about equal dimensions, placing the 
 hover in one section which is built quite warm but well 
 lighted, the other section being used as an exercising 
 compartment and generally built with a curtain front. 
 
 The house illustrated in Figs. 169 and 170 has been 
 carefully designed to meet the special requirements of 
 colony brooding and will be found suitable for the use 
 of the great majority of those who are raising chicks by 
 this time and labor-saving method. Fig. 170 shows floor 
 plan of house, which is 10x24 feet, with a 10-foot hover 
 section paititioned off at one end. When the chicks are 
 first placed under the hover they are to be confined to 
 this room. It is large enough for several hundred during 
 the first week or two, but not so large as to invite floor 
 drafts, and it can be comfortably heated with less fuel 
 than would be required to maintain the correct tempera- 
 ture if the entire house were in one room. 
 
 The bill of material for this house provides for a 
 double-boarded floor, the subfloor be- 
 ing of ordinary 10-inch sheathing, with 
 a top floor of tongue - and - groove 
 boards, and waterproofed sheathing 
 paper between the two. Single board 
 floors are almost certain to be drafty 
 and cold. Under average conditions 
 concrete floors are better for brooder 
 houses than boards, because warmer, 
 absolutely ratproof, and practically 
 indestructible. Concrete floors must 
 be well drained and insulated against 
 dampness, and chicks must never be 
 allowed to run on the bare surface, 
 a common cause of leg weakness and 
 rheumatism. Where there is no dan- 
 ger from rats an ideal plan is to pro- 
 vide a concrete floor in the brooding 
 room and a plain dirt floor in the ex- 
 ercising compartment. 
 
 When the chicks are ten days to 
 two weeks old, or when only a few 
 days old in mild weather, they should 
 be given access to the exercising 
 compartment, which is provided with 
 a muslin shutter for ventilation. In 
 order to be able to graduate the ven- 
 tilation, a double shutter is provided 
 so that the upper part may be opened 
 without disturbing the lower section, 
 thus affording fresh air without ex- 
 posing the chicks to direct drafts 
 from the opening, as would be the 
 case if the entire shutter were to be 
 opened in severe or stormy weather. 
 In mild weather or when the chicks 
 are older and have become somewhat 
 hardened, the entire shutter may be 
 hooked up, thus giving the chicks practically outdoor con- 
 ditions without exposure. 
 
 BIIiL. OF MATERIALS FOR PERMANENT COLONY HOVER 
 HOUSE 
 
 1 
 
 W" 
 
 Use 
 
 Size Length 
 Inches Feet 
 
 Sills, 
 Sills, 
 Sills, 
 
 sides 2x8 
 
 ends 2x8 
 
 half width 2x4 
 
 12 
 10 
 12 
 
 10 
 12 
 8 
 10 
 16 
 12 
 10 
 
 Rcmarksj 
 
 Spike to Inside 
 face of side sill 
 
 1 piece cuts 2 
 Cut to fit 
 
 Joists 2x6 
 
 Plates 2x4 
 
 Studs, front 2x4 
 
 Studs, rear 2x4 
 
 Studs, ends 2x4 
 
 Rafters 2x5 
 
 Window sills 2x5 
 
 Roof boards 1x10 
 
 T & G siding- '/sxe 
 
 Flooring- % x4 
 
 Subfloor 7/8 xlO 
 
 Ceiling 9-16x4 
 
 Door & window frames-%x6 
 
 Trim boards %x4 
 
 Frame for shutter %:x.SV2 
 
 Fraine for top shutter.... %x2 
 
 Strip under shutter %^2V2 
 
 Strip under window %x2% 
 
 31/2 squares prepared roofing-. 
 
 3 squares sheathing paper for floor 
 
 60 square feet wire netting for curtain front 
 
 4 4-light sashes, 10 in. x 12 in. glass 
 
 2 4-light sashes 9 in. x 12 in. glass (for doors) 
 
 3 pair 8-inch T-strap hinges 
 
 3 hasps 
 
 4 pair 2-inch butt hinges for windows 
 
 1 pair 2%-inch butt hinges for shutters 
 1 pair 3-inch butt hinges for shutters 
 4 2-inch screw hooks and eyes 
 Nails, tacks and paint 
 
 No. of 
 Pieces 
 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 
 11 
 4 
 10 
 6 
 4 
 13 
 2 
 325 ft. bd. meas. Surf'd. 
 450 ft. bd. meas. 
 300 ft. bd. meas. 
 265 ft. bd. meas. 
 350 ft. bd. meas. 
 150 lin. ft. Surtd. 4 sides 
 60 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides 
 25 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides 
 20 lin. ft. Surfd. 4 sides 
 
 6 lin. ft. Surfd 
 10 lin. ft. Surfd, 
 
 4 sides 
 4 sides 
 
 FIG. 170 — FLOOR PLAN FOR TWO-COMPARTMENT COLONY HOVER HOUSE 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Ailments and Diseases of Chicks 
 
 Importance of Being Able Promptly to Identify Ailments and Correct Conditions Before Serious Diseases Develop- How to Make 
 Post-Mortem Examinations-BaciUary White Diarrhea and the Diseases With Which It Often Is Confused- 
 How to Prevent and Cure All Common Ailments— Parasites and Enemies of Chicks. 
 
 n^Y HICK troubles are of the poultry keeper's own 
 JV_X making for the most part— the direct result of 
 B|^p abuse or mismanagement. If there were no care- 
 BMiH lessness or neglect there would be comparatively 
 little disease and few losses of chicks. The appearance of 
 any considerable number of sick individuals in a brooder 
 flock is positive proof that someone has not done his 
 part. Nature is not a blunderer; chicks are hatched to 
 live and grow, not to sicken and die. 
 
 k Do not make the mistake of thinking of young 
 chicks as weak. They are delicate organisms, it is true, 
 but never weak unless mistreated. A watch is a delicate 
 piece of machinery, but a good watch 
 is not weak. If it is treated as a 
 watch should be it will keep in good 
 running order many years, doing 
 more work and showing greater en- 
 durance, relatively, than most other 
 pieces of machinery in common use. 
 So a chick, if it is a good chick and 
 treated properly, will live, keep 
 healthy, and grow to adult size just 
 in the way that nature intended. If 
 it fails to do this, it is because some- 
 one abused or mistreated it or its 
 parents. Chick troubles when they 
 appear, can almost invariably be 
 traced directly to low vigor in the 
 breeding flock, weakened vitality due 
 to improper methods with incuba- 
 tors or brooders, or to failure to sup- 
 ply well-selected and nourishing food. 
 It is to be expected, of course, 
 that the beginner, with a new science 
 
 to learn, a multitude of details to master, and a living to 
 make, will find more or less difificulty in providing just 
 the right conditions for his chicks at all times, and in 
 avoiding mistakes. Sooner or later, he will have to 
 reckon with various disorders in his flocks, and it is of 
 the utmost importance that when disease does appear he 
 shall be able to recognize it promptly in order to get the 
 situation in hand at the earliest moment, before derange- 
 ment becomes chronic — before simple ailments become 
 incurable diseases. 
 
 To an extent that few realize, the difference between 
 a nominal loss of S to 10 per cent and a loss of SO per 
 cent is determined by the promptness with which the 
 caretaker recognizes the first appearance of trouble, and 
 applies suitable correctives. One person sees that some- 
 thing has gone wrong— that his chicks are a little 
 "dumpy," and he investigates the matter promptly, cor- 
 rects the fault, and has no serious consequences to meet. 
 Another, careless, thoughtless, or inexperienced, sees 
 nothing wrong until the next day, which often is just one 
 day too late. Twenty-four hours is a long time to a 
 delicate young chick and twenty-four hours of neglect, 
 discomfort, or disease may mean heavy losses that can- 
 not be prevented by any subsequent care or treatment. 
 One of the most important factors in the successful rear- 
 
 ing of chicks, then, is the ability to recognize unfavorable 
 conditions before they have a chance to produce serious 
 results. 
 
 Chick's troubles usually are not diseases — not at first, 
 anyway. They are simply ailments or slight derange- 
 ments of the vital organs which, if noticed in time and 
 their causes understood, can be corrected without seri- 
 ous loss. As a rule there is little to be gained in doc- 
 toring sick chicks. When the trouble has reached the 
 stage where that becomes necessary there is little hope 
 for them. Even if cured they will almost certainly be 
 weakened and stunted, and about the worst thing that 
 
 FIG. 172— A HEALTHFUL. LOCATION FOR THE GROWING CHICKS 
 
 can happen is to have such chicks recover, grow to ma- 
 turity, and go into the breeding pen to pass on to the 
 next generation, in increasing proportion, their weakness 
 and liability to disease. 
 
 Methods of Sanitation 
 
 More attention should be given to sanitation in chick 
 raising than is usually the case. Efforts to raise chicks 
 with the smallest expenditure of time and money often 
 result in providing makeshift coops and buildings, and in 
 crowding the chicks into such inadequate quarters that 
 injury inevitably results. While chicks apparently will 
 do well under quite unfavorable conditions in warm, 
 sunshiny weather, they lose ground rapidly whenever a 
 cold, rainy spell occurs. There is no reason why this 
 should happen if their brooders and coops are what they 
 should be, and if these are kept clean. Overcrowding, 
 foul hovers, poor ventilation, damp floors, and accumu- 
 lated droppings reeking with ammonia fumes are not 
 conditions under which any chicks can thrive, and it is 
 only when they are raised during the most favorable sea- 
 son of the year that they are able to withstand such 
 mistreatment. 
 
 Cleanliness ought not to be neglected at any time, 
 and is especially important during the danger period — the 
 
 103 
 
104 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 first four weeks of the chicks' lives. It is not practical to 
 lay down definite rules for cleaning coops and brooders, 
 renewal of litter, disinfection, etc., since much depends 
 upon the season, size of brooder, and number of chicks, 
 but there are two rules that are of general application, 
 and these are to renew the litter before it becomes damp 
 and foul-smelling, and to apply some good disinfectant 
 every time the coop or brooder is cleaned. When brood 
 coops and outdoor brooders are used, with or without 
 chick shelters, they should be moved to fresh ground 
 every few days. Coops without floors should not be left 
 standing in one spot until the ground becomes soaked 
 with filth. 
 
 Some of the most serious diseases that afifect young 
 chicks are germ diseases, and the poultryman who is 
 careless and slovenly in regard to the quarters in which 
 the chicks are confined, is simply multiplying infection 
 
 to repeat here what has already been said regarding this 
 matter, but the beginner especially is urged to turn again 
 to Chapter I on Selection of Breeding Stock, and review 
 what will there be found on this vitally important sub- 
 ject. There is little that can be done to prevent losses 
 due to lack of constitutional vigor, after the chicks are 
 hatched, or to remedy the effects of mistakes in artificial 
 incubation, though careful brooding and feeding will help. 
 
 First Symptoms of Disease 
 
 In many chick disorders the symptoms are similar, 
 though not so much so but that the caretaker can detect 
 shades of difference pointing toward specific causes. The 
 successful chick raiser does not feel easy in regard to 
 any brood so long as there is one mopy chick in it. It 
 may be constitutional weakness or some other matter 
 affecting a single individual (not all chicks will live under 
 even the most favorable conditions) but if 
 there is one weakly member of the flock 
 there is reason to suspect that in another 
 hour there may be two; and in a few hours 
 there may be a dozen. 
 
 When chicks are noisy, when they huddle 
 in corners or in the sunlight, when they stay 
 under the hover for hours at a time, when 
 they refuse to go out at mealtime and do not 
 eat when they are out, there is every reason 
 to fear serious trouble. Such conduct indi- 
 cates weakness at least. It may not mean 
 anything more serious than that, but study 
 the chicks and review everything that has 
 been done. Is the temperature of the brooder 
 what it ought to be? Does the thermometer 
 register correctly? Has the feeding been prop- 
 el ly done? Have the foods been wholesome 
 and pure? Has provision been made for plenty 
 of healthful exercise? 
 
 PIG. 173— IT PAYS TO SPADE BARB RUNS 
 Spading the bare runs will sweeten the soil, help to keep them free 
 from disease germs, and the chiclts will greatly enjoy digrging: in the 
 loose earth. If «ome oats or other grains are scattered broadcast over 
 the ground before spading, so much the better. Courtesy of "Wisconsin 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 and cannot long escape the consequences of his indiffer- 
 ence. Disinfectants should be used freely about all coops, 
 brooders and runways where chicks are confined. Air- 
 slaked lime is good for bare spots and general outdoor 
 use, but is too caustic to be used where young chicks are 
 liable to get into it with their feet. It should not be 
 employed indoors, as the dust arising from it may cause 
 serious inflammation of nostrils, throat or eyes. 
 
 Whitewash is an excellent disinfectant and may be 
 used freely without any danger of ill effects. Most per- 
 sons however, find the use of a good commercial disin- 
 fectant more convenient and more effective. Most of 
 these are readily prepared for use at any time simply by 
 adding water to the disinfectant in the proper proportion, 
 and requiring no heating, straining or other preparation 
 for use. They may be applied with a brush, whisk broom, 
 sprinkling can, or spray pump, as convenient. Where 
 liquid disinfectants are used, the brooders, coops, etc., 
 should be dry before the chicks are turned back into them. 
 
 Constitutional Vigor 
 
 Constitutional vigor is the foundation of all success- 
 ful chick raising, and it is useless to hope for success if 
 this fundamental has been neglected. It is not necessary 
 
 Why Chicks Are Noisy 
 
 Chicks peep and are noisy because they are 
 uncomfortable. Whether the cause of this 
 discomfort is hunger or thirst or the first 
 stage of disease the poultryman must deter- 
 mine for himself, and if he is a true poultry- 
 man he will not leave the chicks until he knows. Often 
 this indication of uneasiness is the first warning of seri- 
 ous trouble, and if the caretaker is unable otherwise to 
 reach a definite conclusion as to the cause he will find 
 it worth while to take out a few of the weakest individ- 
 uals and kill them and carefully examine their internal 
 organs. Many an epidemic could have been arrested at 
 the start by such a step. After a number have died it 
 may be too late; by that time the whole flock may be 
 seriously infected. 
 
 If with all conditions as nearly correct as the opera- 
 tor knows how to make them, the chicks do not promptly 
 brighten up, it usually is wise to add a little pepper, gin- 
 ger or mustard to their feed. One of these mild stimu- 
 lants, especially during the latter part of the first week 
 when the young chick is completing the absorption of 
 the yolk and coming to depend entirely upon supplied 
 foods, may prevent serious derangements. The use of 
 digestive stimulants is better than resorting to drugs, 
 but be careful! Use only enough to make the mash 
 slightly warm to the taste and discontinue it as soon as 
 it is no longer needed. Chicks that are regularly given 
 highly seasoned food are apt to be injured, liver dis- 
 orders being extremely common under such conditions. 
 
AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS 
 
 105 
 
 Milk Feeding for Young Chicks 
 
 In cases of weakness from any cause it will pay to 
 provide a supply of milk for the chicks to drink if it 
 can be secured at reasonable cost. It does not seem to 
 matter much whether the milk is sweet or sour, but it 
 is not considered desirable to give sweet milk at one 
 time and sour at another. As it generally is difficult to 
 keep milk sweet until the chicks have consumed it, usual- 
 ly the more practical plan is to supply it sour all the time. 
 Probably the most convenient and sanitary method 
 of feeding milk is to use one of the commercial two-piece 
 drinking founts, or a good' homemade substitute may be 
 made by using a saucer or similar dish with a one-quart 
 can inverted in it, as illustrated in Fig. 139. Whatever is 
 used, it should be thoroughly cleaned and scalded at fre- 
 quent intervals. The milk feeder should be placed where 
 the chicks cannot scratch litter into it. If the milk should 
 become foul in any way, throw it away, clean the vessel 
 thoroughly, and provide a fresh supply. Milk 
 is a highly favorable medium for the develop- 
 ment of disease germs of various kinds, there- 
 fore it must be kept free from contamination. 
 The Storrs (Connecticut) Experiment Sta- 
 tion has carefully investigated the value of 
 milk, both sweet and sour, in the diet of 
 chicks, particularly those that are infected, or 
 that are liable to become infected with bacil- 
 lary white diarrhea. The results secured in 
 an extensive series of such experiments are 
 announced in the following conclusions, quoted 
 from Bulletin 80 of that institution: 
 
 "The feeding of milk to young chicks has 
 a most favorable influence on the growth and 
 on the lessening of mortality of the chicks. It 
 tends to prevent mortality from all causes, 
 and if fed soon enough and for a sufficiently 
 long period, greatly reduces the death-rate 
 caused by bacillary white diarrhea. 
 
 "Sweet and sour milk are apparently of 
 equal value in their relation to growth and 
 mortality. Furthermore, different degrees of 
 souring do not alter the results of milk 
 feeding. 
 
 "The value of milk as a food for chicks Storrs Bkperiment"'Station, 
 does not depend upon any acids that may be 
 present, nor upon any particular types of micro-organ- 
 isms; but upon one or more of the natural constituents 
 of the milk. 
 
 "When milk is supplied freely to chicks, it becomes 
 all the more important that they have abundant exercise. 
 This applies more particularly to early hatched chicks 
 that are brooded wholly or for the most part indoors. 
 
 "The feeding of sweet or sour milk to young chicks 
 has in no instance been found to be in any way injurious 
 to the chicks employed in our numerous experiments. If 
 the milk is clean, and not too old, none but thp most 
 favorable results should accompany its use as a food 
 for chicks. There is no preference in the choice of sweet 
 or of sour milk, except from the standpoint of conveni- 
 ence. The use of the one or the other should be deter 
 mined by the circumstances. However, it seems very de- 
 sirable that the same kind of milk be supplied throughout 
 the milk feeding period. If the choice is that of sour 
 milk, sour milk should be fed to the end." 
 
 General Treatment for Diarrhea in Chicks 
 The chick's digestive organs are peculiarly delicate 
 during the first few weeks of its life and almost any 
 
 unfavorable influence is liable to result in some affection 
 of these organs. A chick that has been kept in an insuf- 
 ficiently ventilated nursery chamber in the incubator, that 
 has been chilled either in the incubator or in the brooder, 
 that has been fed too much, deprived of some needed ele- 
 ment such as grit or green feed, given cold water to 
 drink, permitted to get wet, crowded in the brooder, kept 
 confined to the brooder too long, or exposed to any one 
 of a number of possible resources of bacterial infection, 
 will almost certainly have digestive disorders, generally 
 accompanied with some form of diarrhea. 
 
 Since diarrheal discharges in chicks usually are 
 "white," the tendency on the part of most persons is to 
 jump to the conclusion that chicks so affected have that 
 much-dreaded disease known as bacillary white diarrhea. 
 As a matter of fact, however, cases of bacillary white 
 diarrhea are few in number as compared with the other 
 causes producing similar symptoms, and it is much safer 
 
 FIG. 174— INFECTED EGG ORGANS OF HEN 
 Illustration made from photograph of ovary and oviduct of hen badly 
 infected with bacterium pullorum. 1. Ovary with many of the ova 
 showing' discoloration. 2. Large-size, infected ovum, showing' decided- 
 ed discoloration. As a rule will be found more or less cheesy in texture. 
 3. Oviduct showing indications of disease. 4. Clocaca. Photo from 
 
 to assume that the trouble is NOT bacillary infection, 
 until all the more probable causes have been eliminated 
 by thorough diagnosis. 
 
 The careful observer finds that the character of 
 diarrheal discharges accompanying different forms of ail- 
 ments or diseases vary more or less. Generally speaking, 
 a frothy condition of the contents of the bowels indi- 
 cates intestinal catarrh resulting from chilling in or out 
 of the brooder, exposure to floor drafts, rain, chilling 
 winds, etc., though they sometimes indicate inflammation 
 of the bowels, such as may accompany any form of acute 
 indigestion. The presence of reddish mucus in the drop- 
 pings also indicates inflammation. Watery droppings, 
 when associated with extreme thirst, indicate aspergillosis 
 — a disease acquired by inhaling mold spores from moldy 
 grain, clover, etc., or picking them up with food. White, 
 pasty droppings may indicate bacillary white diarrhea, 
 but are much more apt to be the result of catarrhal or 
 digestive disorders. 
 
 It hardly needs to be said that for the cure of 
 diarrhea and the prevention of its spread throughout the 
 flock, the cause must be discovered and removed. Often 
 where this is done and a few simple measures taken to 
 
106 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 relieve the suffering resulting from diarrhea, the chicks may 
 be restored to good health without any other treatment. 
 In the earliest stages of the trouble it may be sufficient to 
 use something that will act as a tonic and stimulant to the 
 digestive organs, such as cayenne pepper, ground ginger, 
 or mustard, used sparingly. An excellent soothing food 
 for chicks suffering from bowel trouble in any form is 
 boiled rice, which should be cooked thoroughly and boiled 
 as dry as possible, taking up all surplus moisture at feed- 
 ing time by stirring in sufficient brown wheat middlings, 
 or wheat bran with all coarse particles sifted out. Let 
 the chicks have all the boiled milk they will drink. 
 
 In order to avoid spread of infection, it is always 
 desirable to use a disinfectant in the drinking water. For 
 this purpose potassium permanganate generally is recom- 
 mended. It loses its virtue quickly in exposed solutions, 
 but if the supply of water is renewed several times a day, 
 as should always be done when there are sick chicks in 
 the flock, it will prove effective, and it is quite cheap, 
 besides being simple and easy to use. The best way to 
 provide it is to make a stock solution by dissolving in a 
 large bottle or jar of water, all the crystals that the 
 water will take up, and each time the chicks are watered 
 
 FIG. 175— CHICKS INFECTED WITH BACILLARY DIARRHEA 
 
 These chicks are of the same lot as those shown in Fig-. 175, but 
 have bacillary white diarrhea. They probably inherit the infection from 
 the hens that laid the eggs from which they were hatched. 
 
 pour enough of the solution into the water to give it a 
 reddish color. 
 
 Charcoal is an excellent corrective in intestinal dis- 
 orders and should be kept before the chicks all the time, 
 placing it in any convenient, waste-preventing hopper. 
 They will eat it more readily if supplied in granulated 
 form with the fine dust screened out. It is taken for 
 granted that the chicks will always have a supply of grit 
 crushed to suitable size. Clean, coarse sand will answer 
 at first, but a good grade of commercial grit is better. 
 
 In all digestive troubles with chicks a liberal supply 
 of green food is important. This should be tender and 
 succulent however, and if the chicks are not accustomed 
 to having all they want of it, only a limited quantity 
 should be fed at first, increasing the amount as the chicks 
 get used to it and can be trusted not to overeat. 
 
 For the treatment of chicks affected with diarrhea in 
 any form there are good commercial remedies on the 
 market that are thoroughly reliable and effective, and 
 they are much more convenient for use than home rem- 
 edies. One of these should be secured and kept on hand 
 ready for use at the first appearance of trouble. If none 
 is immediately available in case of emergency, try 
 bichloride of mercury. Get this in tablets of 1-1000 of a 
 grain and dissolve twelve in each quart of drinking water. 
 
 Proper Dosage for Chicks 
 
 In administering medicines of any sort, chicks 1 to 
 S weeks old should have one-sixth to one-eighth of the 
 dose given to an adult fowl; chicks S to 10 weeks old, 
 one-fourth to one-fifth the adult dose; chicks 10 to IS 
 weeks old, one-third the adult dose; chicks IS to 26 weeks 
 old, one-half the adult dose. However, where remedies 
 are added to the drinking water, practically the same 
 proportions should be used for both adult fowls and 
 chicks, since the latter will drink proportionately less and 
 so will get no more than the proper dose. 
 
 In giving Epsom salts, apply the following rule: For 
 chicks 1 to S weeks old, give 1 level teaspoonful to 8 
 chicks; 5 to 10 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 5 chicks; 
 10 to IS weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 3 chicks; 15 
 to 26 weeks old, 1 level teaspoonful to 2 chicks. Salts 
 may be given most conveniently when dissolved in water 
 and mixed with a little wet mash, and the best time to 
 give the treatment is in the morning before the chicks 
 have had access to any other food. 
 
 Importance of Post-Mortem Examinations 
 
 There are few external symptoms that can be relied 
 upon in distinguishing between different chick 
 diseases, and careful examination of the in- 
 ternal organs of dead chicks is the only re- 
 liable means of doing this in many instances. 
 The poultryman therefore, must overcome his 
 dislike for this work and by repeated exami- 
 nations thoroughly familiarize himself with 
 the appearance of the organs of both normal 
 and diseased chicks or he will never be able 
 to identify diseases with certainty. It will 
 prove a good investment for the beginner to 
 sacrifice a few healthy chicks in order to learn 
 exactly how their internal organs appear when 
 in normal condition. 
 
 A good way to make the examination is as 
 follows: Procure a shingle or board of white 
 pine or other soft wood, into which tacks or 
 pushpins can be easily pushed. Place the chick 
 on the board, breast uppermost, and stretch 
 out the wings and legs, tacking them in this 
 Slit the skin covering breast and abdomen and 
 peel it back sufficiently to expose the breast and the mus- 
 cular wall of the abdomen. With shears or a knife make 
 an incision below each side of the breast bone and re- 
 move the entire breast. This exposes the internal organs 
 without disturbing them. 
 
 Liver Disorders 
 
 After removing the breast bone the liver will be in 
 plain sight and should be carefully examined. The 
 healthy liver has a uniform, dark chocolate color and is 
 firm in texture. If it is abnormally dark in color, or 
 pale with bright red edges or spots, or if the gall bladder 
 is enlarged, sometimes discoloring the parts of the liver 
 lying next to it, suspect congestion or inflammation. A 
 pale liver with streaks and patches of red is a symptom 
 in bacillary white diarrhea but is observed frequently 
 when no trace of bacillary infection can be detected. 
 
 Congested livers frequently are due to a lack of 
 green feed. Serious epidemics of diarrhea have been 
 checked by correcting the ration in this respect. When 
 the gall bladder is distended and the adjacent parts are 
 discolored, the ration probably is lacking in animal mat- 
 ter. Congestion of the liver may be caused by feeding 
 overstimulating foods or too much mash, or by the ex- 
 
 position. 
 
AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS 
 
 107 
 
 cessive use of cayenne pepper and ginger. Congestion of 
 the liver may or may not be accompanied by diarrhea. It 
 often causes heavy losses and there is no doubt that 
 many epidemics of so-called "white diarrhea" arise from 
 this simple, easily prevented cause. If suitable foods are 
 used and proper methods of feeding are adopted as out- 
 lined in Chapter XI, it should be comparatively easy to 
 prevent losses from this source. 
 
 Aspergillosis and Congestion of Lungs 
 
 After removing the liver, carefully examine the lungs. 
 These should be light pink in color. If diseased they may 
 be covered or filled with white cheesy nodules the size 
 of a pinhead or smaller, or the lungs may be discolored 
 and dark. If nodules are present the trouble is aspergil- 
 losis, sometimes called brooder pneumonia. Aspergillosis 
 is caused by the growth of mold in the lung tissue — ^jus 
 the same kind of mold that comes on bread when it ib 
 kept too long in a can or box; the mold that is found 
 in closets, cellars and damp, dark places generally. This 
 mold usually forms in small, round nodules, white or 
 yellow in color, cheesy in texture, and easily recognized 
 wherever they exist. In another form of 
 aspergillosis, small yellowish nodules are 
 found all over the walls of the air sacs and 
 various abdominal membranes, instead of be- 
 ing limited to the lung tissue. The kidneys 
 are often a mass of these nodules. This dis- 
 ease sometimes occurs without noticeable de- 
 velopment of nodules, when it closely resem- 
 bles inflammation or congestion of the lungs. 
 The most common cause of infection is the 
 use of moldy hay or straw for brooder litter. 
 The general use of "shatterings" or chafif from 
 the stable or haymow is responsible for a 
 great deal of this trouble. Dusty shatterings 
 often are quite full of mold spores and the 
 chicks breathing this dust are rapidly infected. 
 The disease may also be caused by moldy 
 food. While it has never been completely 
 proved, it is probable that infection may take 
 place through the egg shells which, when 
 damp, furnish conditions peculiarly favorable to the de 
 velopment of mold. Since the shells are quite porous it 
 is possible for infection to penetrate the shell in this way. 
 To prevent such infection eggs kept for hatching should 
 be stored where mold will not form, and as an additional 
 precaution they should be dipped in alcohol before being 
 placed in the incubator. Since mold forms readily on eggs 
 where they come in contact with each other, those that 
 are kept for hatching should not touch, especially where 
 there is any dampness. 
 
 While epidemics of aspergillosis are almost invariably 
 reported as ''white diarrhea," this disease seldom if ever 
 produces characteristic "white" discharges. As a rule, 
 they are quite watery, probably due to the fact that 
 chicks affected with this disorder are feverish and drink 
 excessive quantities of water. There is no known cure 
 for aspergillosis. If its presence is promptly discovered 
 much may be done to prevent serious losses by at once 
 removing the source of infection. Use- nothing but mold- 
 free litter and feed, disinfect the brooder every time a 
 new lot of chicks is placed in it, and be sure that it is 
 absolutely free from mold. If these simple precautions 
 are taken the disease will seldom be a source of seri- 
 ous loss. . , „ r J 1 
 
 When the lungs, instead of bemg full of nodules, are 
 discolored and dark, and appear to be filled with frothy 
 
 mucus when cut open, the trouble is congestion or inflam- 
 mation. This disease sometimes is called brooder pneu- 
 monia, and frequently occurs in epidemic form. It is 
 caused by improper brooding, impure air, also by allow- 
 ing the chicks to become wet, chilled, or overheated. 
 Many heavy losses from this cause are reported by per- 
 sons brooding chicks in fireless brooders, especially in 
 cold or changeable spring weather. Inflammation of the 
 lungs is practically incurable but readily prevented. Use 
 a brooder that provides an abundance of heat with a 
 forced circulation of pure, warm air, prevent chilling or 
 overheating, and losses from this source will be few 
 in number. 
 
 Sour Crop and Gastritis 
 
 The crop, gizzard, and intestines should next be ex- 
 amined. Chicks often suffer from sour crop and gastritis 
 or inflammation of the stomach. These ailments fre- 
 quently occur together and both result from improper 
 feeding or the use of unsuitable foods. The chief symp- 
 tom is an accumulation of gas and liquid in the crop, 
 causing distension and sometimes vomiting and gasping 
 for breath, the latter symptom occasionally being mis- 
 
 PIG. 176— HEALTHY NONINFBCTED CHICKS 
 
 These ten-day old White Leg-horn chicks are free from infection 
 with bacillary white diarrhea, and present a strong- contrast with in- 
 fected chicks of the same age on opposite page. 
 
 taken for gapes. These ailments may be almost wholly 
 prevented by using due care in feeding, and by keeping 
 the chicks liberally supplied with charcoal. When the 
 symptoms are first noted give Epsom salts and change 
 the ration. It is a good plan also to give bicarbonate of 
 soda (common baking soda) in the drinking water, mak- 
 ing the solution as strong as the chicks will drink it 
 readily. 
 
 Coccidiosis 
 
 The intestines of healthy chicks are pinkish white. 
 In some forms of bacillary infection they probably will 
 be a dirty or blackish white. Their contents should be of 
 a creamy consistency and light in color unless charcoal 
 is fed. If hard, frothy or badly discolored, suspect in- 
 digestion, due to the feed or the method of feeding. 
 
 Near the lower end of the intestines are the ceca or 
 blind guts. Carefully examine these. They should be 
 about the size and color of the intestines, with walls of 
 about the same thickness. The contents should be some- 
 what firmer. If solid and lumpy it is an indication of in- 
 flammation which probably originated in the intestines. 
 If the ceca are enlarged, the walls thick, and the contents 
 cheesy or resembling mucus, the trouble probably is 
 coccidiosis, a bacterial disease. Chicks affected with this 
 disorder usually die between the second and fifth week. 
 
108 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 The symptoms are dullness and weakness accompanied by 
 a white, pasty discharge. The presence of the disease is 
 readily detected by examining the ceca, which will show 
 symptoms as above described. There is little use in at- 
 tempting to treat chicks that have coccidiosis, and pre- 
 ventive measures must be depended upon for protection. 
 Careful disinfection of the incubator, dipping the eggs 
 in alcohol before placing them in the machines, disinfect- 
 ing the brooder, and keeping the chicks on clean ground, 
 all are advised where serious infec- 
 tion exists. This organism is widely 
 disseminated however, being found in 
 practically all members of the bird 
 family and in other animals as well, 
 and it is doubtful whether it causes 
 serious trouble where strong, vigor- 
 ous breeding stock is used and wher'.- 
 the chicks' general he^Jth has not 
 been weakened or injured by mis- 
 management. 
 
 A — Mai e. 
 B — Female. 
 
 Bacillary White Diarrhea 
 
 Bacillary white diarrhea is one of 
 the most difficult chick diseases to 
 combat successfully, though fortu 
 nately it is by no means as common 
 as it generally is believed to be. Of 
 the reported cases of white diarrhea, 
 apparently only a comparatively small 
 percentage is correctly identified. The 
 general failure properly to diagnose 
 
 FIG. 177 PAIR OF the various affections that are con- 
 
 GAPB WORMS fused with bacillary white diarrhea is 
 unfortunate, as it leaves the real 
 cause undetected and thus permits 
 the spread of the disease and increases the losses. In 
 all cases where the chicks have diarrhea, the first ones 
 to die should be carefully examined, applying the tests 
 already described, and if it is impossible to locate the 
 trouble elsewhere, then (and not until then) bacillary in- 
 fection may be considered probable. 
 
 In chicks that have died from this disease the intes- 
 tines are pale, showing a dirty white color and usually 
 are empty, but may contain a small amount of gray or 
 brown matter. Unabsorbed yolk generally is present 
 and has a stale odor but is not necessarily putrid. In 
 bad cases of infection the first deaths may occur before 
 the chicks are taken from the incubator. Affected chicks 
 are chilly, listless, and with little or no appetite and are 
 "short backed." 
 
 The heaviest death rate is from the fifth to the twen- 
 tieth day, but infection is believed to occur within the 
 first few days after hatching if it does not exist when 
 the chick is hatched. If infection does not occur before 
 the chick is a week old it is likely to escape altogether. 
 Infection has been clearly traced to the hens that lay the 
 eggs from which the affected chicks are hatched, and it 
 has been found possible practically to eliminate the dis- 
 ease from certain flocks by testing the hens and remov- 
 ing all infected ones from the breeding pens. However, 
 many chicks that are not infected when hatched become 
 so through picking at the droppings from diseased chicks 
 and for this reason it often is recommended that glass 
 doors in incubators be covered at the time the chicks are 
 coming out, to make the interior dark and discourage any 
 tendency to pick at the droppings. 
 
 In all cases where there is reason to believe that the 
 chicks are suffering from bacillary white diarrhea, ar- 
 
 rangements should be made with the state experiment 
 station to have some of the affected individuals examined. 
 It is not desirable to forward dead chicks without pre- 
 vious arrangement, however, as the person who is to 
 make the examination may wish to give some special 
 directions regarding their shipment so that they may 
 arrive in good condition. 
 
 There is no cure for bacillary white diarrhea so far 
 as is now known. The only thing that can be done is to 
 try to hatch chicks free from infection and then start 
 them under the most favorable conditions, so that they 
 will be strong enough to throw off infection if it occurs. 
 Feeding milk — all the chicks will drink, is especially de- 
 sirable, and the incubator and brooder should be thorough- 
 ly disinfected for each hatch or brood. Fine absorbent 
 litter that will take up all moist discharges so that the 
 chicks cannot pick at them so readily, is recommended. 
 
 Catarrhal Disorders 
 
 Chicks exposed to unfavorable conditions in or out 
 of the brooders, such as chilling, overheating, impure air, 
 etc., are more liable to develop catarrh of the bowels than 
 the various forms of nasal catarrh. Under some condi- 
 tions however, they may develop nasal discharges and 
 "sore eyes" — forms of catarrhal inflammation. Keep the 
 , brooders clean and dry and at the proper temperature, 
 and do not expose the chicks unduly to cold winds or 
 rain. Whenever either symptom appears give potassium 
 permanganate in the drinking water as previously 
 directed. 
 
 Gapes 
 
 Gapes is due to the presence of gapeworms in the 
 windpipe of the chick. The characteristic gasping for 
 breath is caused in part by the presence of gapeworms 
 and in part by mucus secreted as a result of irritation of 
 the lining of the windpipe, to which the worms attach 
 themselves. The 
 adult worms are 
 small, seldom 
 over three- 
 fourths of an 
 inch long, and are 
 found in pairs in 
 the windpipe. 
 This disease is 
 c o mp a r a tively 
 unknown on 
 sandy soils, but 
 is so common on 
 clay or limestone 
 land that it is 
 scarcely possible 
 to escape it un- 
 less special pre- 
 cautions are 
 taken. Earth- 
 worms are known 
 to be instru- 
 mental in the 
 
 spread of infection, though they do not, of course, give 
 gapes to chicks unless the worms are from infected soil. 
 
 In the case of gapes as in most other diseases, pre- 
 vention is better and easier than cure and when there is 
 sufficient room to do so, a good plan is to raise all chicks 
 on land that has not been occupied by poultry for at 
 least a year, and thus is free from infection. If it is 
 possible to provide two nursery plots on which the chicks 
 may be raised on alternate years, there will be practic- 
 
 FIG. 178— CHICK WITH GAPES 
 Treatment of chicks affected with 
 gapes is difficult and only practially 
 successful, at best. The most practi- 
 cal plan is to prevent infection. 
 
AILMENTS AND DISEASES OF CHICKS 
 
 109 
 
 ally no trouble from this cause. The following extracts 
 from Circular 30 of West Virginia Experiment Station, 
 by Horace Atwood and Dr. C. A. Lueder, give a sum- 
 mary of the results of some recent investigations on this 
 subject at that institution, and are of unusual interest: 
 "During her lifetime no eggs are laid by the female, 
 but these eggs develop in the ovary and accumulate in 
 her body by the thousands. When the worm becomes 
 fully mature and dies and is expelled from the windpipe 
 the eggs which have accumulated in large numbers may 
 be scattered about in various ways and thus perpetuate 
 the disease. 
 
 "At room temperature, gape eggs freshly removed 
 from a mature female and kept moist, hatched in four- 
 teen days, and about the same length of time was re- 
 quired for the worms to mature after becoming attached 
 to the upper part of the windpipe. Eggs buried in the 
 ground between two watch glasses, in a cool, shady loca- 
 tion, retained their vitality and hatched the following 
 spring, but this period seems to be about the limit of 
 their endurance, as they were found dead and disin- 
 tegrated the second spring. 
 
 "It is probable that under natural conditions, such as 
 prevail in spring and early summer, the eggs will hatch 
 in from two to four weeks, depending on the tempera- 
 ture. The young gape worms when placed on a vertical 
 surface covered with moisture always tend to travel up- 
 ward. In this way they ascend grass blades, and the 
 chickens,' picking off the dew drops and tender blades, 
 take the young worms into their mouths. From the mouth 
 the worms make their way to the sinuses of the head, 
 and their movement causes an irritation which brings 
 about a discharge and makes the chicken sneeze. After 
 being taken into the mouth of the chicken the worms are 
 soon paired and attached to the upper portion of the 
 windpipe. 
 
 "In 1900 the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment 
 Station purchased a farm for general experimental work, 
 on which gapes were present. The practice was adopted 
 of burning all chickens that died of disease and of keep- 
 ing the young chickens shut up until after the dew had 
 dried off in the morning. This 
 practice, without further proce- 
 dure of any sort, thoroughly erad- 
 icated the disease from the prem- 
 ises in two or three years. Since 
 that time chickens have been 
 raised on this farm by thousands 
 and not a single case of gapes has 
 been present there for the past 
 twelve or fif«-»en years. 
 
 "While studying recently 
 hatched gape worms, the junior 
 author observed that they were 
 extremely susceptible to a very 
 dilute solution of creolin or car- 
 bolic acid. A solution of three 
 drops of creolin in a pint of water 
 killed the newly hatched worms in from 30 to 60 seconds, 
 and it was found that cieolin added to the drinking water 
 was an effective remedy, this medicated water flushing 
 the surfaces to which the worms had just become at- 
 tached and so killing them. Creolin should be added to 
 the drinking water furnished the chickens, at the rate of 
 three drops to each pint of water." 
 Leg Weakness 
 Leg weakness frequently occurs among chicks that 
 are from one to four months of age. There are various 
 
 FIG. 179 — COMMON 
 HEN LOUSE 
 
 causes for the trouble, such as lack of vigor in the breed- 
 ing stock, bottom heat in brooders, overheating and 
 crowding in brooders, poor ventilation, special feeding for 
 rapid growth, lack of bone-forming material in the feed, 
 etc. Constant confinement on board or concrete floors 
 frequently causes leg weakness. Common symptoms are 
 unsteadiness of gait, lack of activity due to inability to 
 stand up, lameness, lying with legs stretched out behind 
 or at side, etc. 
 
 The common practice of confining chicks indoors for 
 long periods before they are allowed to run out, with 
 little litter on the brooder or house floor and indiffer- 
 ence to providing exer- 
 cise, is the cause of three- 
 fourths of all cases of leg 
 weakness. Medical treat- 
 ment is useless. Correct 
 the conditions that cause 
 the trouble and the chicks 
 will soon recover. The 
 weakest, however, should 
 be removed and be given 
 
 a separate brooder where jj M^M^kaii. ' 
 
 they will not be trampled ^ MWm^ 'Ji»:aN 
 and abused by the healthy 
 members of the flock. 
 
 Limberneck and Vertigo ^jq iso—red or "Spider" 
 
 Young chicks frequent- MITE 
 
 ly suffer from limberneck, 
 
 caused by eating decayed animal matter, or the mag- 
 gots that grow in such material. Do not confuse the 
 symptoms of limberneck with those of vertigo. In vertigo 
 (congestion of the brain), the chick's neck is drawn back 
 over the shoulder or twisted to one side and the neck 
 may be turned so that the chick looks directly upward. 
 Affected birds will stagger, run backward, and make other 
 peculiar motions, or may lie on one side. Congestion is 
 caused by digestive disorders, sometimes by worms, and 
 occasionally by injury. In well-developed cases of lim- 
 berneck, the muscles of the neck are relaxed allowing 
 the chick's head to droop until it often touches the 
 ground, though in early stages the symptoms may resem- 
 ble those associated with congestion. In either disease 
 give the chicks a dose of Epsom salts and see to it that 
 the cause is promptly removed. 
 
 Overgrown Wings 
 
 Young chicks, particularly Leghorns, frequently are 
 found trailing their wings which appear to be out of all 
 proportion to the size of the chick. This trouble oc- 
 curs, occasionally, as a result of too high brooder tem- 
 perature, but, as a rule, it indicates a lack of strength 
 which may lesult from a number of causes. In many 
 instances the wings really are not overgrown but are 
 normal in length and only appear overlarge because of 
 the relaxed position. When chicks are so affected it is a 
 good plan to clip the wings, and relieve them of the 
 extra weight. Then restore the chick's health by proper 
 feeding and brooding, and there will be no further trouble. 
 
 Lack of Feathers 
 
 In many flocks there are found partially grown 
 chicks that have failed to feather out properly, sometimes 
 having no feathers at all except a few on the wings. This 
 condition may be due to a lack of constitutional vigor or 
 improper feeding, but more frequently to crowding in 
 the brooder at night. Generally it is found that if these 
 chicks are removed from the regular flock, warmly 
 
no 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING 
 
 brooded in small numbers and well fed, they will prompt- 
 ly feather out and make fair growth. Such chicks how- 
 ever, should be sold as soon as they reach market size 
 and should never be retained in the flock either as lay- 
 ers or breeders. 
 
 Stunted Growth 
 
 _ This condition generally is the result of weak consti- 
 tutions, insufficient heat in brooders, or crowding and 
 poor ventilation in brooders or coops. The general ten- 
 dency to discontinue supplying artificial heat before the 
 chicks are properly feathered out is responsible for much 
 lack of thrift. With hen-brooded chicks it usually is 
 the result of overcrowding. Coops that appear to be 
 amply large when the broods are first placed in them, 
 become badly crowded as the chicks increase in size. 
 Confining growing chicks at night to hot, stuffy quarters 
 in which they scarcely have standing room — a condition 
 altogether too common in late summer and early fall, can 
 have no other effect than to stunt their growth and im- 
 pair their health. 
 
 Toe Picking and Cannibalism 
 
 Young chicks, especially Leghorns, are quite liable 
 to form the habit of picking at each other when kept in 
 close confinement, the toes being the usual point of at- 
 tack. This sometimes goes so far as to result in the loss 
 of a number of the weaker chicks that are literally torn 
 to pieces by the stronger members of the brood. As 
 a rule this vicious practice is the result of idleness, 
 though a lack of suitable animal food sometimes appears 
 to be partially responsible for it 
 
 There is little danger of chicks forming bad habits 
 if they are kept busy all day long, and for this reason 
 there are few instances of toe picking reported by those 
 who give especial attention to providing exercise. Where 
 there is a special tendency to this trouble it often is a 
 help to supply a little fresh meat, hanging it a few 
 inches above the floor so that the chicks will have to 
 work to get it, thus not only satisfying their craving, 
 but at the same time inducing more exercise. It is stated 
 that^ dipping the injured toes in pine tar will afford pro- 
 tection, provided this is done at once, before the chicks 
 have become too familiar with the taste of blood. 
 
 Lice and Mites 
 
 Lice and mites cause heavy losses among chicks, es- 
 pecially when hen-hatched and brooded. Frequently their 
 presence is not suspected and the chicks are believed to 
 be dying from various diseases, when as a matter of 
 fact, they are infested with lice and their coops and brood- 
 ers are overrun with mites. Chicks that are hatched in 
 incubators and raised in brooders will rarely have lice, 
 unless they are kept in infested houses or where the 
 parasites may be acquired from adult fowls. Chicks that 
 are hatched under hens almost invariably are affected 
 with head lice when taken from the nest, and should re- 
 ceive prompt treatment. Lice are readily killed by 
 grease in any form, and a simple method of eradicating 
 them is to grease the chicks' heads with a little unsalted 
 lard, vaseline, olive oil, or something of a similar na- 
 ture. If the chicks are badly infested it will be neces- 
 sary to apply a little grease under the wings and below 
 the vent as well as on the head. There are several prepa- 
 rations on the market which serve a similar purpose, and 
 as they are more convenient and often much more ef- 
 fective, the use of home remedies is only to be recom- 
 mended in case of emergency. 
 
 Red mites feed upon the chicks at night but remain 
 hidden about the perches, brooders or elsewhere during 
 the day. They rarely are found upon either chicks or 
 fowls in the daytime, unless the sleeping quarters are 
 completely overrun with them. Artificially raised chicks 
 that are kept in clean brooders or colony houses, should 
 never be infested with these pests, but if the mites are 
 present on the premises, as they usually are to some 
 extent in all houses occupied by adult fowls, there is 
 always danger that they will be carried to the quarters 
 
 occupied by the chicks. For this reason, coops, brooders, 
 and colony houses should be sprayed with a good disin- 
 fecting solution and this, if frequently and thoroughly 
 done, will prevent all trouble of this sort. 
 
 Enemies of Chicks 
 
 Chicks have a number of natural enemies, and to 
 raise them without serious loss from this cause often is 
 a matter of great difficulty. The provision of proper 
 equipment for brooding chicks however, would prevent a 
 large proportion of such depredations. On thousands 
 of farms, enough chicks are lost each year from the de- 
 predations of minks, foxes, hawks, etc., to pay for all 
 the permanent equipment that would be needed to pro- 
 tect them. 
 
 Cats. Cats can be trained to let chicks alone, and 
 with proper attention there will be few losses from this 
 source. In many cases they learn to take chicks by eat- 
 ing dead ones that have been left lying around instead 
 of being picked up promptly as should always be done. 
 Then they get to taking mopy ones that are not yet dead, 
 and from this it is only a step to catching them as they 
 run at large. As a rule, cats that have once learned to 
 take chicks cannot be broken of the habit and should 
 be shot at sight. Where losses occur from this source, 
 covered runs are especially serviceable. Chicks can be 
 kept in them for the first three or four weeks of their 
 lives and will do well if the shelters are moved to fresh 
 ground frequently. Portable fence panels also are used 
 in making small enclosures within which the chicks are 
 confined until they are large enough to take care of 
 themselves. 
 
 Rats. Rats are extremely cunning, and where they 
 are numerous it is almost impossible to protect chicks 
 from them except by providing thoroughly ' ratproof 
 coops and houses. Coops should have floors of inch 
 boards, and all openings should be covered with one- 
 inch wire netting. They should be raised off the ground 
 and be moved frequently enough to prevent rats harbor- 
 ing under them. Chicks should not be brooded near build- 
 ings or rubbish piles where rats may hide, no tall grass 
 or weeds should be permitted to grow near the coops or 
 brooders, and if colony houses are used they should al- 
 ways be blocked up off the ground so that rats will not 
 burrow under them. Permanent poultry houses with 
 board floors should always be raised at least a foot off 
 the ground for the same reason. When all grain and 
 poultry feeds are kept in ratproof houses or bins, it is 
 not a difficult matter to keep rats from becoming estab- 
 lished on the premises. When they appear, a relentless 
 war should be waged against them. 
 
 Minks, Skunks, Foxes, and Wolves. In some sec- 
 tions these animals cause heavy losses. Minks are es- 
 pecially dangerous as one mink may kill several dozens 
 of chickens in a night. If the coops and houses areprop- 
 erly constructed, all openings covered with one-inch mesh 
 netting and the doors regularly closed at night, there 
 will be few losses. Where the chickens are liable to be 
 attacked during the day, there often is no practical way 
 to protect them when small, except by providing large 
 yards enclosed with wire netting and keeping them con- 
 fined thereto. 
 
 Hawks and Crows. These enemies are especially 
 hard to combat, and when they get started on a flock 
 will take many chicks. Crows are afraid of firearms, 
 and shooting a few sometimes affords complete protec- 
 tion, especially if the dead birds are hung on poles located 
 near the brooders. The plan of keeping brood hens con- 
 fined to small coops or covered runs, which proves so 
 satisfactory under ordinary conditions, is frequently im- 
 practicable where crows and hawks are numerous, as 
 the chicks are thus deprived of the hen's protection. 
 When these enemies are numerous it is advisable to con- 
 fine the broods to a plot of suitable size, within which 
 both hens and chicks may be given full liberty. This will 
 enable the hens to warn the chicks of approaching dan- 
 ger and give battle when they are attacked. 
 
I N DEIX 
 
 Air Cell, Development of the 42 
 
 Albumen, Analysis of 24 
 
 Albumen, Formation of 24 
 
 Allantois, The 29 
 
 Amnion, The '. 29 
 
 Animal Heat, Failure to Readjust for 51 
 
 Aspergillosis 107 
 
 Blastoderm, The 29 
 
 Bacillary White Diarrhea 108 
 
 Breed, Choice of 9 
 
 Breeding Board 18 
 
 Flocks, Size of 16 
 
 Fowls, Care of 13 
 
 Fowls, Rations for 17 
 
 Pen, Exercise for 18 
 
 Pens, Mating the 16 
 
 Stock, Care of Young 14 
 
 Bred-to-Lay Stock 10 
 
 Brooder, Cleanliness in 82 
 
 Does Not Heat, What to Do When 76 
 
 Electric 74 
 
 Equipment, Skimping On 75 
 
 How Many Chicks to the 80 
 
 Litter for the 82 
 
 Location for Outdoor 71 
 
 Providing Ventilation in 80 
 
 Related Fowls 10 
 
 Temperature, Correct 79 
 
 Use of Cold 81 
 
 Brooder House, A-Shaped Portable 100 
 
 Construction of 95 
 
 Location of 94 
 
 Permanent Colony 102 
 
 Portable Colony 101 
 
 Brooders, Fireless 65 
 
 Homemade 74 
 
 Indoor and Outdoor 70 
 
 Brooding Capacity Required, 
 
 How to Estimate 75 
 
 Equipment, Care of 84 
 
 System, Hot Water 74 
 
 Catarrhal Disorders 108 
 
 Chalazae, The 23 
 
 Chicks All Out, Getting the S3 
 
 Must Be Kept Busy 88 
 
 Outdoors, Getting the 83 
 
 Record Marking Tl 
 
 Selling Six-Week-Old '. 58 
 
 When to Take Off 77 
 
 Chorion, The 29 
 
 Coccidiosis 107 
 
 Colony Hover, Permanent House for 102 
 
 Colony Hover, Portable House for 101 
 
 Colony Hovers 72 
 
 Colony Hovers, How to Use 73 
 
 Congestion of Lungs 107 
 
 Constitutional Vigor 9 
 
 Cooling an Aid to Ventilation 44 
 
 Custom Hatching 58 
 
 Day-Old Chick Industry, History of 54 
 
 Day-Old Chicks, 
 
 Incubators Used in Hatching 55 
 
 Prices Realized for 57 
 
 Shipping Boxes for 57 
 
 What \' uo With Surplus 58 
 
 Who Should Buy 55 
 
 Who Should Produce 56 
 
 Diarrhea in Chicks 105 
 
 Disease, First Symptoms of 104 
 
 Door, Elevated Chick 100 
 
 Dosage for Chicks, Proper 106 
 
 Egg, Composition of Hen's 24 
 
 Formation of the 22 
 
 Structure of the 24 
 
 Eggs After Shipment, Resting 33 
 
 Appearance of Fertile and Infertile 28 
 
 Cooling 31, 44 
 
 Defective and How Caused 26 
 
 Failure to Test 51 
 
 for Hatching, Undesirable 49 
 
 Held for Hatching 32 
 
 How Long to Hold 33 
 
 How Often Do Hens Turn 31 
 
 Loss of Weight During Incubation 31 
 
 Moisture in 31 
 
 Position in Which to Keep 33 
 
 Shape of 25 
 
 Size of 26 
 
 Size to Use 33 
 
 Testing 41, 51 
 
 Turning 40, 52 
 
 Variation in Composition of 25 
 
 Washing 33 
 
 When Fertilized 28 
 
 Embryo, Development of Chick 29 
 
 Embryo, Position of 29 
 
 Enemies of Chicks 110 
 
 Epsom Salts for Chicks 106 
 
 Evaporation, Control of 43 
 
 Evaporation, Percentage of 43 
 
 Feathers, Lack of 109 
 
 Feed Hoppers 91 
 
 Feed, Unwholesome 93 
 
 Feeding Chicks, 
 
 Cornell Rations and Methods for... 92 
 
 Importance of Careful 86 
 
 Growing f ♦ock 93 
 
 Iowa Station Method of 92 
 
 Method, A Successful , 89 
 
 Method, Deep Litter 91 
 
 Method Recommended by U. S.' D. A.. 93 
 
 Methods, Simplified 91 
 
 Milk for 105 
 
 Trays 87 
 
 What Not to Do in 93 
 
 When to Begin 85 
 
 Feeding Coop 88 
 
 Feeds, Nursery 86 
 
 Females for Breeding, Selection of 12 
 
 Fertility and Hatchability 11 
 
 Fertility, Reasons for Low 20 
 
 Flock Matings 17 
 
 Floor Space per Fowl 15 
 
 Gapes 108 
 
 Germinal Disc, Location of 28 
 
 Growing Stock, The 84 
 
 Growth, Stunted 110 
 
 Hatch, Bringing Out the 45 
 
 Cleaning Up the 46 
 
 Starting the 37 
 
 Hatching Records 20, 46, 47 
 
 Hen, Bodily Temperature of 28, 39 
 
 House, A Permanent Brooder 100 
 
 for Breeding Pen, Small Portable 15 
 
 for Colony Hover, Permanent 102 
 
 for One Hover, Colony 97 
 
 for Single Breeding Pen IS 
 
 for Two Brooders 98 
 
 Open Front Compartment Brooder 99 
 
 Permanent Breeding IS 
 
 Hover, Cloth-Covered Enclosure for.... 68, 77 
 
 Installed in Colony House 70 
 
 Teaching Chicks to Use the 78 
 
 Hovers and Brooders, 
 
 Who Should Use Lamp-Heated 71 
 
 Hovers, Colony 72 
 
 Lamp-Heated &7 
 
 Portable Lamp-Heated 68 
 
 Hygrometer 50 
 
 Inbreeding 10 
 
 Inclines for Brooders and Houses 97 
 
 Incubation, Loss of Weight During 31 
 
 Incubator, Changes in Equipment of 50 
 
 Buying Too Late 48 
 
 Cleaning the 53 
 
 Correct Temperature for 38 
 
 Details of Operation 46 
 
 Location of 35, 48 
 
 Operating Without Instructions 49 
 
 Overcrowding in the 53 
 
 Incubator, Regulator 36 
 
 Setting Up the 36, 48 
 
 The Cost of a Good 35 
 
 What Size to Get 35 
 
 Incubator House, A Small Aboveground. . 62 
 
 at Oregon Experiment Station 63 
 
 at Pennsylvania Experiment Station.... 63 
 
 Concrete 64 
 
 Details of Construction of 60 
 
 Floors 64 
 
 for Lamp-Heated Incubators 60 
 
 for Mammoth Incubators 64 
 
 Location for 59 
 
 Incubators, Electric 34 
 
 Hot Air 34 
 
 Hot Water 34 
 
 Mammoth 34 
 
 Lamp Burners, Using Defective 52 
 
 Lamp, Care of the 37 
 
 Flame, Ideal 49 
 
 Flame Too High 49 
 
 Flame Too Low 50 
 
 Neglecting the 51 
 
 Trimming the 52 
 
 Layers, Selecting the 12 
 
 Leg Weakness 109 
 
 Lice and Mites 110 
 
 Limberneck and Vertigo 109 
 
 Liver Disorders 106 
 
 Males, Selecting the Breeding 11 
 
 Marking Chicks, Methods of 77 
 
 Milk Feeding for Chicks 105 
 
 Moisture and Ventilation 42 
 
 Nursery, Overcrowding in 45 
 
 Ovary of Hen 22 
 
 Oviduct of Hen 22 
 
 Pedigree Hatching 45 
 
 Perches, Teaching Chicks to Use 84 
 
 Post-Mortem Examinations , . 106 
 
 Rations for Breeding Fowls 17 
 
 Home-mixed 89 
 
 Sudden Changes in 93 . 
 
 Records, Hatching 20, 46, 47 
 
 in Use At Purdue University 46 
 
 In Use at Ohio State University 47 
 
 Regulator of Incubator 36 
 
 Roosting Closet for Breeders 13 
 
 Sanitation, Methods of 103 
 
 Shade for Chicks 97 
 
 Sour Crop and Gastritis 107 
 
 Temperature, Correct Incubator 38 
 
 Too High 51 
 
 Correct Incubator 38 
 
 Failure to Average the 51 
 
 Temperature of Eggs 39 
 
 with Contact Thermometer 39 
 
 with Inovo Thermometer 39 
 
 with Suspended Thermometer 39 
 
 Temperature of Sitting Hens 30, 39 
 
 Tester, How to Use the 41 
 
 Tester, Magic Egg 52 
 
 Testers, Different Styles of 42 
 
 Thermometer Not in Correct Position.... 50 
 
 Thermometers, Incubator 38 
 
 Thermometers, Using Untested 50 
 
 Toe Picking and Cannibalism 110 
 
 Trap-Nesting 20 
 
 Trays, Shifting the 52 
 
 Turning Eggs 52 
 
 Ventilation and Moisture 42 
 
 Vertigo, Limberneck and 109 
 
 Water Founts 86 
 
 Water Vessels 93 
 
 White Diarrhea, Bacillary 108 
 
 Wings, Overgrown l09 
 
 Yards and Fences 96 
 
 Yolk, Analysis of 24 
 
 Yolk Sac, The 29 
 
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