HA^b (15 5 » ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics Cornell University Cornell University Library HA 46.M95 The dictionary of statistics, 3 1924 014 542 637 XI Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014542637 THE DICTIONARY OF STAT I ST I C S ©pfnfons on tbe Hutbor's Morfts. "This admirable dictionary." — Emile de Laveleye. " The quintessence of statistics." — Leroy Beaulieu. "We want an edition in French." — Yves Guyot. " His statistics are most reliable." — Baron Malortie. " Mulhall's history of prices is accurate." — Neumann Spallart. "His figures are remarkably correct." — Report of the U. S. Secretary of Stats. "A German edition of the Dictionary would be useful." — Tech. Blatt. Berlin. "As useful as the Census report." — Graphic. " No books of reference have higher claims." — Globe. " Display a vast amount of research." — Times. " Remarkably well arranged and clear." — Economist. " Inexhaustible treasury of facts." — Economiste Franqais. " This wonderful work stands alone." — Boston Beacon. "An unrivalled arrangement of statistics." — Academy. " Books of reference as trustworthy as they are unique." — Scotsman. " A boon to the student or public writer." — Irish Times. " The result of laborious and skilled research." — Contemporaiy Review. " Compiled in a convenient and intelligible form." — Spectator. " Written with great care and intelligence." — N. Y. Nation. " His works are well known to our readers." — Revue des Deux Mondet. "Clear, accurate, and comprehensive." — Toronto Globe. " They are a mine of facts." — Weekly Register. " No library should be without them." — Colonial Register. " Bring a vast number of facts within small compass." — Daily News. " The model of a statistical work." — Mark Lane Gazetie. THE DICTIONARY OF STATISTICS BY MICHAEL G. MULHALL FELLOW OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL SOCIETY MEMBER OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION HONORARY CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY AUTHOR OF "THE PROGRESS OF THE WORLD," "THE HISTORY OF PRICES," "INDUSTRIES AND WEALTH OF NATIONS," ETC. "Je n'impose rien; je tie propose mime rien; f expose" — Dunoyer FOURTH EDITION, REVISED TO NOVEMBER 1898 REIMPRESSION 1909 ''■■■■■ '^' LONDON '"'^}n,0:. GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, Limited Broadway House, Ludgate Hill 1909 TO THE MOST IMPARTIAL OF CRITICS AND THE BEST OF COUNSELLORS, Mr WIFE, 5 2i)ebfcate tbfs Booft. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. npHE Dictionary in its present form is one of the largest statistical works ever -■- published, and as regards its utility, there is strong proof in the fact that since the first edition was published, in 1884, no fewer than 6000 copies have been disposed of, chiefly among the libraries of Europe, United States, and the British Colonies. The volume is now greatly enlarged, and will be found to consist of two distinct parts, the first comprising all known statistical data from the time of the Emperor Diocletian down to the year '1890, the second embracing so far the final decade of the century. All civilised nations now devote so much attention to statistics that the field of research becomes vaster year by year, and the work of condensation easier. But when a task of such magnitude devolves, as in the present case, upon a single individual, it cannot be accomplished with the same efficiency as if it were confided to an inter- national bureau under a competent head. The nations of Europe have already seen the convenience of establishing at Berne an International Department of Telegraphs, and another for the Postal Union. It is not, therefore, chimerical to hope that an International Statistical Bureau may be one of the earliest institutions of the twentieth century, pub- lishing every year (in English, French, and German) a Conspectus of the World, with comparative tables for each decade since 1850.. I seize this opportunity to thank the various foreign Governments that send me their blue-books, showing thereby the interest which they take in my labours, and their readiness to promote the development of this branch of science. It is to be deplored that the British Government is indifferent to a matter of this kind, as if international statistics were unimportant. The growth of banking business in Great Britain led to the establishment of Clearing-houses, the advantage of which is unquestionable. What we require is a Statistical Clearing-house, in combination with the rest of mankind : the expense would be a mere trifle, while the benefits to be derived would be immeasurable. Meantime the Dictionary of Statistics is a step in the right direction, and the success which has attended it is a good omen. MICHAEL G. MULHALL. Hotel Beau Site, Rome, Feb. 2. 1899. NOTE. Part I., down to page 606, comprehends all sta- tistics from the earliest times to 1890; Part II. since 1890. Money, weights, and measures are in all cases English. Scandinavia includes Sweden, Norway, and Den- mark ; Austria the whole Austrian monarchy ; Acadia all the maritime provinces of Canada, except Quebec. DIAGRAMS. Agriculture Banking Commerce . Education . Food-Supply Iron and Coal Mining Population Steam-Power Wealth to face PAGE 6 76 128 230 284 332 398 442 544 588 DICTIONARY OF STATISTICS. Aerolites Date Locality Weight (lbs.) Remarks 1748 1783 1784 1793 1803 1812 1829 1866 1870 1871 Yenisey . . . Gran Chaco . . Bendego, Brazil Graf Reinet . . Normandy . . Prague . . . Bohnmelitz . . Kuyahinza . . Greenland . . Greenland . . 1,600 32,000 17,000 300 670 49,000 20,000 Near Tucuman. South Africa. 2000 red-hot stones. 200 hot stones. Bohemia. With 1000 smaller. Now at Copenhagen. Now at SU Petersburg. The last two were found in the years expressed, but may have fallen centuries ago. That of Gran Chaco is 95 per cent. iron. The British Museum has an aerolite weighing five tons. AGE The age of various nations in ratios of 1000 was stated by Wappaeus in 1850 thus : — According to the Bulletin Statistique the ratios in 1876 stood thus : — g ■3 .A^ b c rt Age 1 (a be a w ri Under 5 93 116 113 125 13s 126 119 183 5-10 92 loq III 108 114 107 114 144 10-15 88 98 108 9.'? 100 9b 107 122 15-20 88 90 93 95 86 98 10 1 116 20-30 163 166 174 181 174 177 168 169 30-40 148 13s 134 130 136 135 I.S4 106 40-50 125 118 106 lOq 88 100 105 74 50-60 102 78 «2 75 78 "3 78 47 60-70 6.S BS 49 S3 57 SI 51 24 Over 70 36 35 3° 29 32 27 23 IS Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The classification by the Bureau of Statistics in 1864 was as follows : — B "rt = Age 3 U) D a rf c U) ^ ■= Under 10 2^1 186 206 241 249 244 229 10-20 201 16Q 191 185 193 192 189 20-30 169 164 I6S 16S 171 170 168 30-40 130 144 140 142 151 143 142 40-50 103 125 116 115 107 107 112 50-60 71 lOI 94 78 72 79 82 60-70 47 72 55 49 42 44 52 Over 70 28 39 33 22 ^5 21 26 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Age 1 S a T3 C = •i 3 - a e 1 to i s Under \ IS ) 272 302 329 353 323 323 348 315 372 15-60 Over 1 60 f 610 610 591 577 597 595 S90 S9S' 579 118 88 80 70 80 82 62 90 49 Total 1,0001,000 r, 000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1 . 1,0001,000 The following table of age ratios in 1000 of population is from Census reports of the various nations : — Country Date Under SYrs. 5-20 20-40 40-60 Over 60 England . . . 1881 136 326 297 l6q 72 Scotland . . . 1881 137 331 290 i6s 77 Irelixnd . . . 188 1 III 348 263 172 106 United Kingdom 1881 131 331 292 l6q 77 Franee 1881 92 261 295 226 126 Prussia . . . 1880 139 315 290 180 76 Germany . . . 1871 127 308 298 190 77 Austria . . . 1880 132 304 298 19s 71 Russia . . . 1875 1.38 318 3x8 180 46 Finland . 1870 144 299 296 186 75 Italy .... 1871 123 293 306 iq6 82 Spain .... 1866 142 278 343 179 58 Portugal . . . 1864 137 289 310 193 71 Sweden . . . 1870 118 313 312 183 78 Norway . . . 1870 135 299 310 166 90 Denmark . . . 1870 125 297 310 184 84 Belgium . . . 1880 124 304 282 19s 95 Holland . . . 1870 "3 314 309 187 77 Switzerland . . 1880 117 296 289 209 89 Greece .... 1870 144 332 320 148 S6 Brazil .... 1870 108 353 306 146 87 United States . 1880 137 342 310 ISS S6 Average . . 128 308 306 182 76 In the above table it will be observed that the lowest ratios of children are in France, Brazil, and Ireland. This is explained in the case of Ireland by the fact that the marriage rate is Ihe lowest in the world. Moreover, the highest ratios for people over 60 years are in France and Ireland. The countries in which children form the largest ratios are Finland, Greece, and Spain, although the birth-rates in those countries are by no means the highest ; it is explained in the case of G reece and Spain by the short span of life, the proportion of persons passing their sixtieth year, as shown above, being very low- AGE AGE Another distribution is as follows : Age. France Prussia Austria Proper Russia Italy Sweden Belgium Switzer- land United States Average Under TO . . . . I0-20 . 20-30 30-40 ... 40-So . . . . 50-60 Over 60 183 ! 254 170 ; 200 158 162 137 1 128 123 ; loi 103 1 79 126 ; 76 240 196 IS9 139 109 86 71 2S3 X8i 130 99 81 46 226 190 167 139 III 8S 82 234 197 15a 130 119 78 235 192 IS5 127 108 87 95 222 191 153 136 n6 93 89 262 217 183 127 93 62 56 234 195 164 133 109 8S 80 Total .... 1,000 . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Average Age of all Living in each Country Years England 26.0 Scotland 26.0 Irejand 27.5 France 32.6 Holland 28.0 Prussia 27.1 Sweden Aiictria nr^ fi R.i1(tiiiit Austria 27.6 Russia 25 6 Italy . 28.5 Spain 26.9 .„ . 28.3 Belgium , 28.8 Switzerland 29.2 U. States . 25.0 Brazil . . 27.0 Portugal 27.6 Norway 28.0 Denmark 28.0 Greece . 25.2 Average 27.5 Males of Working Age If we assume the working age to be from 20 to 60 years, and count only male workers, the number of population dependent on the earnings of every 100 male adults would be as follows : — France . . 387 1 Belgium . . 418 Spain . . , 388 I Sweden . . 420 Austria . . 413 | Italy . . 424 Germany . . 417 1 England . . 438 U. States . . 440 U. Kingdom 448 Scotland . . 463 Ireland . . 476 The burden on the working population in Ireland is 10 per cent, heavier than in England, 23 percent, heavier than in France. Various Cities 1 _^ Age J in > 3 is 'IE Under 5 130 71 69 83 134 135 139 5-20 297 216 233 2b5 268 312 327 20-40 334 398 301 .365 337 330 310 40-60 177 242 283 202 174 171 168 Over 60 62 73 114 «5 87 52 56 Total 1,000 1,000 i,ooo 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 United Kingdom The ratios for the three kingdoms by Census reports were : — England Scotland Ireland Age 1811 1881 1S41 1881 1841 1881 Under 5 . . . 132 136 130 137 126 m 5-10 . 120 121 118 121 132 120 10-15 108 io8 112 108 124 119 15-20 100 98 104 101 108 108 20-25 97 90 100 92 96 92 25-35 154 146 153 141 145 122 3S-4S 112 112 no 109 106 108 4';-55 80 84 7b 82 75 86 55-65 S3 59 52 59 .54 70 Over 65 44 46 45 5° 34 64 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The composition of fce population of England and Wales as regards sex and age in 1S81 compares with 1841 thu3 : — Per 1000 Inhabitants Age 1841 1881 Males Females Total Males Females Total Under 5 66 66 132 68 68 136 5-15 "5 "3 228 114 "5 229 15-25 94 103 197 92 5^ 188 25-35 74 80 154 70 76 146 35-45 55 57 112 54 58 112 45-55 39 41 80 40 44 84 Over 55 46 51 97 49 56 105 Total 489 5" 1,000 487 513 1,000 The composition of Scotland in the same year was as follows : — 1841 1881 Age Males Females Total Males Females Total Under 5 66 64 130 69 68 137 s-is 117 "3 230 116 113 229 15-25 97 107 204 9b 97 193 25-35 72 81 153 67 74 141 35-45 51 59 no 50 59 109 45-55 35 41 7b 37 45 82 Over 55 42 55 97 46 63 109 Total 480 520 1,000 481 519 1,000 The population of Irelanc was composed as follows : — Per 1000 Inhabitants Age 1841 1881 Males Females Total Males Females Total Under 5 64 62 126 56 55 m S-15 130 126 256 122 117 239 15-25 99 105 204 98 102 200 ., 25-35 69 76 145 57 65 122 35-45 SI 55 106 SI 57 108 45-55 .36 39 75 41 45 86 Over 55 43 45 88 65 69 134 Total 492 508 1,000 490 510 1,000 The composition of the United Kingdom was as follows : — Age 1841 1881 Males Females Total Males Females Total 0-15 15-45 45-55 Over 55 186 221 46 182 23S 40 49 368 459 78 95 182 2r4 40 51 181 229 44 59 363 443 84 no Total 491 509 1,000 1 487 513 1,000 AGE AGE France The effects of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) are visible in the diminished ratio of population of the age I j to 60 in the Census returns of 1872. The following table includes males and females : — Germany (1885) Ag= 1851 1861 1866 1872 1876 1881 Under 15 . . 15-60 . . . Over 60. . . 2S2 618 100 619 106 272 617 III 279 606 272 610 Ii8 266 608 126 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The composition of the population of France as regards sex and age in 1881 compared with 1851 as follows : — Per 1000 I nhabitants Age 1851 1881 Males Females Total Males Females Total Under 5 47 46 93 46 46 92 s-is 92 88 180 88 86 174 IS-2S »5 86 171 88 90 178 2S-3S 78 78 156 70 68 138 35-45 69 68 137 67 65 132 45-55 59 58 117 S6 58 114 Over 5S 67 79 146 84 88 172 Total 497 503 1,000 499 501 1,000 There is a marked decline in men and women of the best age, as shown thus : — Men between 15 and 55 Women between 15 and 43 Ratio per 1000 Inhabitants 1851 291 232 1881 281 223 Years Prussia Bavaria Saxony All Germany 0-5 134 124 13s 131 S-io 119 I'S 117 118 10-15 106 105 105 106 15-20 95 92 96 94 20-30 163 148 171 x6l 30-40 127 123 133 126 40-50 103 III 100 106 50-60 75 86 73 77 60-70 53 62 49 55 Over 70 25 32 21 26 1,000 TjOOO 1,000 1,000 In Prussia in 1 867 the average age of the inhabitants was as follows : — Years Unmarried . . , Married Widowed The -composition of the population of Prussia as to sex and age in 1880 compared with 1843 thus : — Males Females 14.9 44.2 61.5 14-7 40.8 58.2 Per 1000 I nhabitants Age 1843 1880 Males Females Total Males Females Total Under 5 5-15 I5-4S 45-60 Over 60 76 99 242 54 28 74 97 242 58 30 ISO 196 484 112 58 70 1 10 216 60 36 69 109 22s 65 40 139 219 441 Total 499 501 1,000 492 508 1,000 Males (1885) Age Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtemberg Minor States Total o-S 1,880,000 330,000 210,000 125,000 475,000 3,020,000 S-io 1,700,000 310,000 185,000 120,000 455, 000 2,770,000 10-15 1,520,000 280,000 165,000 110,000 420,000 2,495,000 15-20 1,350,000 250,000 150,000 90,000 365,000 2,205,000 20-30 2,260,000 390,000 260,000 130,000 645,000 3,685,000 30-40 1,760,000 330,000 210,000 115,000 485,000 2,900,000 40-50 1,410,000 290,000 150,000 110,000 430,000 2,390,000 50-60 1,005,000 220,000 110,000 7S,ooo 300,000 1,710,000 60-70 700,000 160,000 70,000 SS,ooo 205,000 1,190,000 70-80 270,000 70,000 25,000 25,000 90,000 480,000 Over 80 Total 40,000 10,000 5,000 5, 000 30,000 90,000 i3>89S>oo° 2,640,000 1,540,000 960,000 3,900,000 22,935,000 Females 0-5 1,850,000 335,000 210,000 125,000 490,000 3,010,000 5-10 1,690,000 315,000 190,000 125,000 450,000 2,770,000 lo-is 1,505,000 290,000 170,000 115,000 415,000 2,495,000 15-20 i,3S5.ooo 255,000 155,000 95,000 375,000 2,235,000 20-30 2,370,000 410,000 280,000 145,000 630,000 3,835,000 30-40 1,840,000 350,000 215,000 125,000 515,000 3,045,000 40-50 1,510,000 310,000 165,000 120,000 450,000 2,555, 000 50-60 1,120,000 240,000 125,000 85,000 340,000 1,910,000 60-70 805,000 180,000 85,000 60,000 245,000 1,375,000 70-80 320,000 80,000 3S,ooo 30,000 105,000 570,000 Over 80 Total 55.000 15,000 10,000 5,000 35,000 120,000 14,420,000 2,780,000 1,640,000 1,030,000 4,050,000 23,920,000 AGE AGE Russia The ratios of age, with distinction of sex, were in 1875 as follows : — Age Urban Rural Males j Females Males Females Under 5 S-io 10-20 ZO-40 40-60 Over 60 108 89 228 358 166 SI 114 206 337 182 65 146 120 208 305 176 45 138 "S 194 322 186 45 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Austria The population of Austria (without Hungary) was composed as to age and sex in the Census of 1880 Uius : — Age Per 1000 Inhabitants Males Females Total Under 5 65 66 131 5-15 103 104 207 15-30 125 131 256 30-45 94 lOI 195 45-60 63 70 133 Over 60 39 39 78 Total 489 5" 1,000 The following table shows the actual number of persons of either sex at the different ages. Age Males Females Total o-S r, 450,000 1,465,000 2,9x5,000 S-io I,2IO,OCO X,2I0,000 2,420,000 10-15 1,090,000 1,105,000 2.195,000 15 20 1,020,000 1,065,000 2,085,000 20-30 1,750,000 1,835,000 3,585,000 30-40 1,440,000 X, 530,000 2,970,000 40-50 1,180,000 1,270,000 2,450,000 50-60 865,000 975,000 1,840,000 60-70 570,000 610,000 i,x8o,ooo 70-80 2ro,ooo 220,000 430,000 Over 80 35>ooo 4S,ooo 80,000 Total 10,820,000 ",325,000 22,X45,000 The following table, lilcewise taken from the Census of 18S0, shows the age of married, single, and widowed persons. Age Married Single Widowed Total 0-20 50,000 9,560,000 9,610,000 20-23 405,000 1,535,000 5,000 x,945,ooo 25-30 905,000 720,000 x5,ooo 1,640,000 30-40 2,260,000 625,000 85,000 2,970,000 40-50 x,93S,ooo 330,000 x85,ooo 2.450,000 50-60 X, 305,000 220,000 315,000 x,84o,oco 60-70 670.000 140,000 370,000 i,x8o,ooo ^°"*2 165,000 50,000 215,000 430,000 Over 80 20,000 xo,ooo 50,000 80,000 Total 7,7x5,000 13,190,000 1,240,000 22,145,000 Italy In 1S71 the population was composed as follows: — Per 1000 Inhabitants Age Males Females Total Under 5 62 61 X23 5-15 lOX 99 200 15-25 90 90 x8o 25-35 76 76 152 35-45 64 6x 125 4S-SS 5° 49 99 Over 55 59 62 121 Total 502 498 1,000 In 1879 the of 28,437,000, In 1880 the as follows : — - urban population was 8,824,000, in a total say, 31 per cent. Switzerland population as to age and sex was composed Per 1000 Inhabitants Age Males Females Total Under 5 5-iS 15-30 30-45 Over 60 58 lOI 122 96 71 42 58 lOI X26 X02 77 46 1x6 202 248 198 X48 88 Total 490 5x0 x,ooo Belgium The composition of the population according to age and sex was as follows : — 1816 1880 Year Males Females Total Males Females Total Under x 22 22 22 27 27 27 1-5 95 93 94 98 96 07 S-IO xxo 108 IDQ XX2 xxo XXX 10-15 xoo 96 98 XOX 99 xoo 15-20 ?' 89 90 93 91 92 21-30 167 165 i66 154 154 IS4 31-40 137 133 135 127 X27 X27 41-50 t2X "5 1X8 io8 X06 107 51-60 72 84 78 86 86 86 6X-70 SI 59 55 57 6x 59 Over 70 34 36 35 37 43 40 Total x,ooo X,0CO 1,000 1,000 x,ooo x,ooo SwEIliiN The ratios in this country were as follows : — Age 1750 1735 1810 1835 1860 1875 Under 15 . . 15-60 . . . Over 60 . , . 564 100 313 600 87 318 597 85 332 569 79 335 583 82 323 80 Total. . x,ooo 1,000 i.ooc 1,000 x.ooo 1, 000 AGE AGE Norway Age Urban Rural Rich Poor All Norway Under 5 . 140 135 137 133 136 s-is 207 228 242 220 225 iS-30 278 239 211 256 245 30-4S 206 183 172 190 186 45-60 no 120 130 114 118 Over 60 59 95 108 87 90 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Greece The population in 1879 was composed as follows : — Age Per 1000 Inhabitants Males Females Total Under 5 . . . 78 70 148 S-15 .... 129 in 240 15-20 .... 46 SI 97 20-40 .... 160 149 309 40-60 .... 82 69 151 Over 60 . . . 30 25 55 Total . . . 5=5 475 1,000 United States The ratios in the United States since 1 830 have been : — Ag= 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 Under 5 . . . 180 174 151 154 143 137 5-20 . . . .381 373 373 358 354 342 20-40 . . . 287 297 306 309 304 310 40-60 . . . 112 116 128 134 149 155 Over 60 . . . 40 40 42 45 50 56 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The composition of the sections of the Union as to age and sex in 1880 was as follows : — Age New England Middle Slates Males Females Total Males ! Females Total 0-15 15-60 Over 60 156 288 44 154 309 49 310 597 93 181 281 33 179 292 34 360 573 67 Total 488 512 1,000 495 505 1,000 South West Age Males Females Total Males Females Total 0-15 15-60 Over 60 233 245 23 225 252 22 458 497 45 201 299 27 195 25s 23 396 554 50 Total 501 499 1,000 527 473 1,000 The highest ratio for able-bodied men is in the West, and for women between 15 and 60 is in New England. The great number of German, Irish, and Scandinavian settlers in the Western States explains the high ratio there of able-bodied men. The composition of the population as regards sex and age was as follows : — 1800 1810 1820 Ag= s 242 188 58 488 1 E •3 1 'n B 240 193 59 492 1 0-16 I&-45 Over 45 Total 260 192 60 512 502 380 118 r,ooo 257 191 63 5" 242 189 58 489 499 380 121 1,000 249 196 63 508 489 389 122 1,000 After 1820 the classification according to age was altered by the Census officials : since 1830 the ratios show as follows : — 1830 1840 1850 Age S 1) d "ii S J 13 S 1 *(3 s p2 H f^ (2 H s V H o-S 92 88 180 90 84 174 76 74 150 S-15 138 132 270 134 129 263 135 1^1 266 15-50 23b 231 467 245 234 479 254 240 494 Over 50 42 508 41 492 83 42 5" 42 489 84 1,000 4b 511 44 489 90 Total 1,000 1,000 1860 1870 1880 Age S ■s •3 ■?. i5 "3 s s "i S B ii 73 eS 68 eS 0-5 78 76 154 70 143 66 134 5-iS 125 120 245 124 120 244 120 117 237 15-50 261 244 505 252 250 502 2W 248 507 Over 50 50 4b 96 58 53 493 III I,00C 63 510 59 122 Total 514 486 1,000 5°7 490 1,000 Men in the prime of life (15-50) held the highest ratio in i860 ; womenof child-bearing age (15-50) in 1870. It appears that the preponderance of males is due to immi- gration, the total number of settlers arrived in 42 years down to i860 showing thus : — No. Ratio Males .... 2,951,000 594 Females .... 2,009,000 406 Total 4,960,000 As regards the coloured population, the sexes are almost even, viz. : — Number Ratio Year 1830 1850 Males 1,166,000 1,811,000 Females 1,162,000 1,828,000 Males Females 501 499 498 502 The white population, owing to immigration, had a much higher ratio of persons of working age than the coloured, as shown in the tables for 1850, viz. :— Age Per 1000 Whites Per 1000 Coloured Males Females Total Males Females Total 0-15 15-50 Over 50 208 258 47 201 242 44 409 500 91 223 234 41 223 235 44 446 469 85 Total 513 487 1,000 1 498 502 1,000 AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE This is the most important industry of mankind, for (without coimting India, China, &c. ) it occupies 80,000,000 peasants, represents a capital of 23,000 mil- lions sterling, and has annual products to the value of almost 4000 millions. Capital and product have more than doubled since 1840, but the number of hands engaged has not risen 50 per cent. , viz. : — Year Millions, £, Sterling Agricultural Capital Product Peasants 1840 . i860 . 1887 . 9.036 14.923 23,006 1,824 2.483 3.948 55,080,000 66,000,000 80,050,000 The following tables show approximately how agri- cultural capital was made up at the above dates : — Year 1840. Value in Millions, £ SterUng Land Cattle Sundries Total Europe .... United States . . Colonies, &c. . . 6.471 400 224 873 96 23 820 100 27 8,166 596 274 Total. . . 7.095 994 947 9.036 Year i860. Value in Millions, £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total Europe .... United States . . Colonies, &c. . . 9.957 1,382 523 1,260 226 76 1,227 237 35 12,444 1.845 634 Totel. . . 11,862 1,562 1.499 14.923 Year 18S7. Value in Millions, £. Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total Europe .... United States . . Colonies, &c. . . 13,776 2,560 1.440 1,940 SOI 260 1.737 635 157 17.453 3.696 1.857 Total. . . 17,776 2,701 2.529 23,006 The agricultural capital of Europe has doubled since 1S40; that of the United States has increased sixfold. The average increase has been 197 millions sterling per annum in Europe, and 67 millions in the United States. The value of agricultural products at the above periods was approximately as follows : — Millions, £ Sterling Year j Grain Other Crops Pastoral Products Total 1840 1 70a 1S60 1,130 1887 1,091 538 575 1,445 584 778 1,412 1,824 2,483 3,9+8 The value of grain crops has diminished since 1S60, while that of pastoral products has nearly doiibled, the price of grain having declined very notably, while that of meat, as also of dairy products, has risen. The relative importance of the three great branches of s^icultural industry at the said dates is shown as follows, judged by money values : — 1840 1860 1887 Grain Other crops .... Pastoral produce . . 38.S 29.8 31-7 4S-S 23.2 31-3 27-5 36.8 35-7 Total .... 100.0 lOO.O lOO.O Tillage The area under crops has risen from 492 million acres in 1840 to 807 millions in 1 888, an increase of 315 milliotis, viz. : — In Etirope ,, United States ,, Colonies, &c. Total 131 million acres. 151 .. 33 .. 31s .. In 48 years the area of tillage and planting has risen 65 per cent., but the grain crops have risen 120 per cent. Millions of Bushels Year Europe U. States Colonies Total 1840 i86o 1887 3,212 4,046 S.588 616 1,240 2,586 291 464 948 4,"9 5,750 9,122 Improved implements and machinery have made tillage more productive and grain cheaper. In 1840 each peasant produced about 73 bushels of grain ; in i860 the average was 87, and in 1887 it had risen to 114 ; that is, two men now produce more grain than three did in 1 840. The following table shows the distribution of grain-growing in Millions of Acres Crops, Millions of Bushels Wheat Oats Barley Various Total Wheat Oats Barley Various Total Europe United States Colonies, &c. ... 90 38 46 72 26 3 38 3 7 148 7S 13 348 142 69 1.336 442 465 1,628 640 97 694 58 82 1.930 1,446 304 2,586 948 Total 174 lOI 48 236 559 2,243 2.365 834 3,680 9,12a In the United States 9,000,000 ha^ds raise nearly half as much grain as 66 milUons in Europe. Thus it appears that for want of implements or proper machinery there is a waste of labour in Europe equal to 48 millions of peasants. In other words, one farm labourer in the United States is worth more than three in Europe. Plate I. AGRICULTURE. Value of all agricultural predtuts, in milions ^ sterling. France Germany Austria U. Kingdom Italy Spain Australia Canada Pounds of grain produced per inhabitant. [ "00 j^ 880 j Russia Roumania Spaia Fnnce Sweden 00000©0©©©00 Austria Argentina Algeria Australia Germany Belgium Portugal HollMid Ireland Scotland Italy England Acres under grain per too inhabitants Argentina Denmark Roumania Canada Australia Spain lOO I 87 80 1 74 0®® Greece Austria France Sweden Germany Italy Portugal Belgium Holland Switzerland U. Kingdom BallanLyne, Hanson & C? Edinburgh & London. AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE Pastoral Industry. The production of meat at the same periods was approximately as follows : — Tons Year Europe United States Colonies, ■&c. Total 1840 i860 1887 6,800,000 7,630,000 8,633,000 2,120,000 2,970,000 4,730,000 200,000 400,000 920,000 9, 120,000 11,000,000 14,303,000 The production of meat has risen 57 per cent, since 1840, while that of grain, as we have already seen, has increased 120 per cent. In aliquot parts production of meat showed thus : — 1840 1860 1887 Europe United States , . . Colonies, &c. ... 74-S 23-3 2.2 69.3 27.0 3-7 60.4 Total .... loo.o lOO.O 100. See Cattle and Food. Agricultural Area The area under crops in the various countries was approximately as follows : — Millions of Acres 1820 1840 1860 1880 1888 U. Kingdom . . . 19 22 22 23 21 France .... 48 ss 57 60 61 Germany 37 45 SO 5» 59 Russia . 120 13s I4S i«3 190 Austria . 50 S3 S? 60 65 Italy . . 20 22 26 35 35 Spain . . 25 30 30 32 32 Portugal 3 4 S 5 S Sweden . 2 S 8 12 12 Norway . I 3 4 4 4 Denmark 2 S 6 8 8 Holland . 4 4 S s 5 Belgium . 3 4 5 s s Other countries . 30 40 SO S6 56 Europe .... 364 427 471 S46 SS8 U. States . 30 SO 5° 166 201 Canada .... 2 4 8 10 13 Australia . . . I 2 3 10 '1 Argentina . . . I 3 6 Brazil .... I I 2 2 Algeria . . . 4 S 6 .7 8 Egypt .... 2 4 4 5 S T otal . 402 492 583 749 807 The area has doubled since 1820, the increase during the various periods having been as follows : — Period Millions of Acres Acres fer Ann 1820-40 90 4,500,000 1841-60 91 4,550,000 i86i-8o 166 8,300,000 1881-88 58 7,200,000 It is especially since i860 that improvements in agri- cultural machinery have been attended with a notable extension of cultivated area. Agricultural Population Hands engaged in tillage and pastoral industries were approximately as follows : — 1840 1860 1887 Europe . . . United States . Colonies, &c. . 50,430,000 2,550,000 2,100,000 58, 160,000 4,340,000 3,500,000 66,320,000 9,000,000 4,730,000 Total . . 55,080,000 66,000,000 80,050,000 The ratios of capital and products that corresponded to the agricultural population, that is, to each adult peasant, were : — Capital Product 1840 1887 1840 1887 Europe United States . . Colonies, &c. . . . General average . . £ 162 235 134 164 £ 263 410 390 287 £ 31 72 46 33 £ 43 V' 61 SO Each hand in the United States produces double the annual value that prevails in Europe. Crops The production of grain (excluding rice) was approxi- mately as follows : — Millions of Bushels Bushels per Inhabitant ? A H s XT. Kingdom . 311 240 31 45 286 602 France . . . 729 330 100 IS 338 783 Germany . . . 706 430 100 so 200 780 Ru.csia . . . 1,854 920 280 52 388 1,640 Austria . . . 687 320 100 zo 230 670 Italy . . . . 22s 200 30 4 26 260 Spain . . . . 300 140 40 2 123 30s Portugal . . . 40 32 6 I 6 45 Sweden . . . 104 44 21 6 39 no Norwav . . , 17 16 4 3 7 30 Denmark . . 84 20 10 41 74 Holland . . . 40 40 3 6 14 63 Belgium . . . 75 60 9 10 28 107 Switzerland . . 20 24 3 2 6 3S Greece . . . 20 20 3 I 3 27 Servia. . . . ^S 10 2 I 2 IS Roumania 120 30 18 2 10 60 Turkey, &c. . 27s 86 30 2 127 24s Europe . . . 5,622 2,962 790 225 1,874 5,851 United States . 2,586 360 400 SO i,S90 2,400 Canada . . . 148 32 25 5 5b 118 Australia . . . 51 24 10 3 3 40 Argentina . . SO 15 10 2S India .... 250 183 40 223 Other countries 41S 271 40 154 4bS Total . . 9,122 3,847 1,31s 283 3,677 9,122 The average yield of crops per 100 lbs. of seed is approximately as follows : — Wheat Oats Barley Rye France 800 7SO 800 700 Germany . 780 700 900 600 Russia . . 600 750 700 600 Denmark . 900 800 800 800 Sweden 600 400 400 500 Holland . 1,400 1,400 1,400 1,400 Belgium . 1,200 880 1,310 1,210 AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE The following is a summary of the crops and value since 1874: — Millior of Bushels, Value, Millions per Annum £ 1874-84 1884 1887 1874^84 1887 Wheat . . . 2,068 2,348 2,243 543 412 5''^, • • • • 1 i,i7S 1,226 1,418 235 227 Barley ... 800 795 8s4 153 108 Oats . • . ! 1,936 2.152 2.365 202 i«,S Maize ... 1,890 2,148 1.979 204 186 Sundry . . . 290 289 283 30 25 Tota 1 . . . 8,159 8.958 9,122 1.367 1.143 The values of these crops in 1 887 were thus made up : — Millions, £ Sterling Wheat Oats Barley Maize Rve, &'c. Total Europe . . . United States . India and Japan Colonies, &c. . 261 71 52 28 142 36 ■7 89 7 12 36 124 26 236 5 11 764 243 Total . . 412 18s 108 186 252 1. 143 (Deducting India and Japan, the value will be 1091 millions, as in the table of nations at p. 11.) If the average prices of 1874-84 had been maintained, mankind would have had to pay 1577 millions sterling for the crops of 1887, a sum nearly 40 per cent, in excess of the above value. The following table shows the countries (1886-87) 'tat had surplus grain to export, and those that imported to cover deficits : — Exporters Bushels Importers Bushels Russia 215,000,000 United Kingdom . 286,000,000 Austria . 13,000,000 France .... 54,000,000 Roumania 56,000,000 Germany. . . . 72,000,000 U. States 168,000,000 Scandinavia . . . 18,000,000 Argentina 24,000,000 Holland & Belgium 55,000,000 India . . 27,000,000 Switzerland . . . 15,000,000 Australia . 12,000,000 Spain and Portugal 11,000,000 Canada . 30,000,000 545,000,000 Italy Total . , . 36,000,000 Total . 547,000,000 Mr. Spallart sums up the value of all grain crops in 1884 thus :— Millions, £ Sterling 3 " >. « 2 %i •r ■a rt 6 s n 3 CO ^ United States . 69.S .3.2 6-3, 34.0 1.34-6 1-4 249.0 Russia .... 35.2 7.5.0 11.5' 28.9 1-3 .5-7 157.6 France . . . 69.0 1.3.3 9.1 31.6 .5-8 7-9 136.7 Germany . . . 23.7 38.2 15-4 27.S 0.9 105.7 Italy .... 3.5-1 i-S 1.5 1.7 16.0 II.O 66.8 Austria proper . .■5.3 7-5 4.4 62 1-5 0.8 25.7 Hungary . . . 10.9 3.6 3.6 2.4 8-5 29.0 Spain .... .5.3-8 7-5 18.2, 1.8 9.0 0.9 91.2 Denmark . . . 0.9 2.7 3-3; 3.4 0.1 10.4 Holland . . . 1-4 1.8 0.7. 1.2 0.5 5-6 Other countries . 135-7 11.7 33.6 29.8 11.3 4.8 226.9* Total . . 440.s'i66.o 107.6 168.5 188.0 34.0|1I04.6 * He only gives the total for " Other countries ; " the dis- tribution is mine. According to Mr. Spallart the average values of grain in 1878^81 throughout the world were as in the following table, and if these prices were applied to the average crops for ten years ending 1884, the results would be as follows : — Price, Pence per Bushel Crop, MilUon Bushels Value, Million £ Wheat .... Rye Bariey .... Oats . . . Maize . . . Sundry .... 63 48 46 25 26 25 2.068 1.17s 800 1,936 1,890 290 543 235 153 202 204 30 Total . . 8.IS9 1.367 As near as we can ascertain, the crops and aggregate value were : — Period Million Bushels Value, Millions £ Average Price, Pence per Bushel 1831-40 1851-60 1874-84 1887 4,043 5.563 8.159 9.122 624 » 1,130 1.367 1.143 37 48 40 30 The value of agricultural and pastoral products in 1887 is shown approximately as follows : — Millions, £ Sterling Per Agricultural Labourer Agricultural Pastoral Total U. Kingdom . France . . . Germany . . Russia . . . Poland . . . Finland . Austria . . . Italy. . . . Spain . . . Portugal . . Sweden . . . Norway . . Denmark . . Holland . . Belgium . . Switzerland . Roumania . . Servia . . . Greece . . . Bulgaria . . Turkey . . . 141 322 262 373 34 9 225 126 23 31 9 20 20 41 9 % 14 14 16 no 133 162 190 21 6 106 SI 47 8 18 8 15 19 14 10 20 8 S S 9 251 460 424 563 55 15 331 204 173 31 49 17 35 39 55 19 47 14 19 19 25 71 S2 2S 34 37 31 Ih 35 % 56 ^61 47 60 40 45 Europe . . . United States Canada . . Mexico . . . Australia . . Cape Colony . Argentina . . Uraguay . . Chili. . . . Brazil . . . Algeria . . . Egypt . . . 1.87s 467 35 25 27 2 18 2 9 32 14 30 970 309 21 8 24 8 6 8 12 5 2.845 776 56 11 8 42 lO IS 40 26 35 n 70 98 40 70 100 50 20 3S 4S Total . . 2.536 1,412 3.948 SO The above table includes timber as an agricultural product, although forestry is properly a distinct industry. See Part II. , where timber is excluded. AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE The value of the principal items in 1887 was approxi- mately as follows : — Millions, j^ Sterling 1 gS- V 00 Si 1 s s U. Kingdom 41 85 10 31 ■S'^ 28 2SI France . . . 129 103 30 47 49 60 42 460 Germany . . Q3 117 30 S'; S 6q ';'5 424 Russia . . . Ibi no 32 48 4 63 I2S S63 Poland . . iq 7 3 s ■; 16 ss Finland . . 4 2 I I 3 4 IS Anstria . . 102 61 22 3=; 17 44 5° 331 Italy . . . 40 37 23 14 43 18 29 204 Spam . . . s.s IS <3 9 44 26 IS 173 Portugal . . 7 3 2 2 10 s 2 31 Sweden . . 14 7 2 7 7 12 49 Norway . . 2 2 I 3 6 17 Denmark . . i^ 6 I 6 6 3 3S Holland . . 6 II 3 10 6 3 39 Belgium . . 12 24 S ■; 6 3 ss Switzerland . ^ 3 2 s I 4 I 19 Greece . . . 3 2 4 I 3 3 3 19 Roumania . 17 7 3 =; 3 II I 47 Servia . . . 3 I I 2 I 4 2 14 Bulgaria . . 9 I I 3 4 I 19 Turkey . . II 2 I 3 I S 2 2S Europe . . 764 607 186 297 181 407 403 2,84s United States 241 16^ ,S7 79 2 IS6 74 776 Canada . . i'^ 10 3 8 8 12 S& Mexico . . 20 4 I 2 4 2 33 Australia . . !■; 3 4 9 22 62 Argentina . . tj 7 2 4 I 6 14 42 Urvguay . , I I I I 3 3 10 Cape Colony. 2 I I 2 2 B Algeria . . II I I I 2 6 4 26 Egypt . . . 13 17 I :! 2 3,S Brazil . . . I 30 2 I 2 4 40 Chile . . . 4 2 2 2 I 3 I IS Total . 1,091 859 2S9 401 187 608 S43 3.948 The following table shows approximately the agricul- tural capital in i888 : — Millions, £ Sterling ;^per Land Cattle Isundries Total Inhab. U. Kingdom . 1.873 18S 229 2,287 60 France . . . 2,688 218 323 3,229 84 Germany . . 1,815 262 230 2,307 SO Russia , . . ... Poland . . . 150 30 20 200 25 Finland . , 52 II 7 70 35 Austria . . . 706 106 90 902 38 Hungary . , 651 9b 83 830 52 Bosnia . . . 14 9 2 ZS 18 Italy. . . . 1,182 83 140 1.405 47 Spain . . . 984 95 120 1,199 66 Portugal . . 132 13 16 161 36 Sweden . . . 240 36 30 306 62 Norway , . 100 IS 12 127 63 Denmark . . 217 30 27 274 137 Holland . . 314 28 38 380 85 Belgium . . 377 24 44 445 74 Switzerland . 120 10 14 144 48 Greece . . . 138 24 18 180 90 Roumania . . 254 37 32 323 64 Servia . . . 94 16 12 122 61 Bulgaria , . 90 10 10 no 33 Turkey . . . 280 26 31 337 67 Europe . . . United States . 2,560 SOI 63s 3.696 57 Canada . . , 282 44 -36 362 72 Mexico . . . 103 IS 13 131 13 Chile . . . SO 8 6 64 21 Argentina . . III 49 17 177 44 Uruguay . . 34 14 5 53 80 Brazil . . . 105 7 12 124 10 Cape Colony . 25 13 4 42 40 Australia . . 533 67 37 637 160 Algeria . . . 87 28 13 128 32 Egypt . . . no IS 14 139 20 Total . . ... The following table shows approximately the principal features of agricultural industry in 1840 and 18S7 :— Capital, Vlillion £ Product, Million £ Hands Production per Hand 1840 1887 1840 1887 1840 1887 1840 1887 / £ United Kingdom . 1,968 2.287 218 251 3,400,000 2,560,000 6S 97 France .... 1,743 3,229 269 460 6,950,000 6,450,000 39 71 Germany . . 630 2,307 170 424 6,400,000 8,120,000 27 S3 Russia . . . S17 2,090 248 563 15,000,000 22,700,000 16 25 Austria . . 702 1,732 205 331 7,500,000 10,680,000 27 31 Italy . . . 4S2 1,405 114 204 3,600,000 5,390,000 32 37 Spain . . . 724 1,199 102 173 2,000,000 2,720,000 S? 63 Portugal . . 100 161 i3 31 700,000 870,000 26 3S Sweden . . SI 306 16 49 550,000 850,000 30 58 Norway . . 30 127 8 17 250,000 380,000 32 48 Denmark . , 46 274 16 3S 280,000 420,000 S6 85 Holland . . 24s 380 20 39 600,000 840,000 33 46 Belgium . . 23s 44S 30 SS 900,000 980,000 33 S6 Switzerland . 100 144 12 19 300,000 440,000 40 43 Turkey, &'c. . 623 1,367 98 194 2,000,000 2,900,000 40 S8 Europe . . 8,166 I7,4S3 i,S44 2,845 50,430,000 66,320,000 31 43 United States S96 3,696 184 776 2,550,000 9,000,000 72 85 Canada . . 80 362 12 56 300,000 800,000 40 70 Australia . . 18 637 6 62 100,000 630,000 60 98 Cape Colony 8 42 2 8 50,000 200,000 40 40 Argentina 22 177 S 42 200,000 600,000 25 70 Uruguay . . 6 53 I 10 50,000 100,000 20 TOO Various . . 140 S86 70 149 140,000 2,400,000 S° 62 Total . 9.036 23,006 1,824 3,948 53,820,000 80,050,000 33 SO AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE Europe Area under crops was approximately as follows : — Million Acns 471 558 The production of grain, wine, potatoes, and meat may be set down thus — Year Million Acres Year 1820 364 i860 1840 427 1888 Year Grain, Mil- Wine, Mil- Potatoes, Meat, lion Bushels lion Gallons Million Tons Tons 1820 2,800 2,050 20 5,400,000 1840 3.300 2,150 40 6,800,000 i860 4,200 2.300 50 7,600,000 1880 S.040 2,500 60 8,300,000 1887 5,600 2,600 70 8,630,000 The ratio of the above products to population was as follows : — Per Inhabitant Year Grain, Wine, Potatoes, Meat, Bushels Gallons lbs. lbs. 1820 14 10 224 60 1840 14 9 370 64 i860 15 8 400 61 1880 15 8 430 56 1887 15 S 445 57 The following table shows the rank that European products hold in those of the world, as r^ards value (1888):— Millions , £ Sterling Europe United States Colonies, &c. Total Grain .... Green crops . . Garden crops . . Wine .... Dairy . Meat . . Sundries . . . 754 607 186 181 297 407 403 243 165 57 2 •79 156 74 84 87 18 4 25 45 64 1,091 859 261 187 401 608 541 Total . . . 2,84s 776 327 3.948 70.5 19.2 10.3 Is. u s '5 p .s c Europe . . United States Colonies, &c. 70.0 22.3 7-7 71.2 21.9 6.9 96.8 I.I 2.1 74.0 19.8 6.2 67.0 25.6 7-4 74.5' 72-1 137; 19-0 II.8 8.3 loo.o 100.0 Total . . lOO.O 100. ioo.o|ioo.o 100. 100. The weight and value of European grain crops in iS It appears from the foregoing general summarj' that Europe stands for nearly three-fourths of the value of all the farm products of the world. 17-88 were approximately as follows : — Weight in Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Wheat Oats Barley Rye, &c. Total United Kingdom 2,100,000 2.510,000 1,600,000 350,000 6,560,000 400 France .... 8,200,000 4,200,000 1,200,000 3,300,000 16,900,000 990 Germany .... 2,800,000 4,300,000 2,200,000 5,800,000 15,100,000 700 Russia .... 7,500,000 10,400,000 3,800,000 22,600,000 44,300,000 1,200 Poland .... 400,000 600,000 300,000 1,500,000 2,800,000 800 Austria .... 5,100,000 2,830,000 2,600,000 6,570,000 17,100,000 980 Italy .... 3,000,000 340,000 170,000 1,790,000 5,300,000 400 Spain 3,700,000 350,000 1,700,000 1,950,000 7,700,000 1,000 Portugal .... 270,000 780,000 1,050,000 550 Sweden and Norway 110,000 I, TOO, 000 450,000 840,000 2,500,000 900 Denmark .... 140,000 560,000 520,000 600,000 1,820,000 a, 000 Holland .... 140,000 250,000 100,000 410,000 900,000 Sio Belgium . 450,000 490,000 100,000 580,000 1,620,000 600 Roumania 700,000 330,000 1,820,000 2,850.000 1,150 Various .... 2,410,000 130,000 1,030,000 210,000 3,780,000 800 Europe .... 37,020,000 28,060,000 16,100.000 49,100,000 130,280,000 820 The following is a summary of products approximately in 1888 : — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat Oats Barley Rye, &c 37,020,000 28,060,000 16,100,000 49,100,000 261,000,000 142,000,000 89,000,000 272,000,000 Vegetables .... Wine . ... Timber .... Dairy ... Meat Hides, wool, &c. . Sundries .... 186,000,000 181,000,000 108,000,000 297,000,000 All grain .... Green crops .... 130,280,000 764,000,000 607,000,000 404,000,000 298,000,000 Principal crops 1,371,000,000 1,474,000,000 Making a total of 2845 millions sterling. It is not pretended that the foregoing table of values is mathematically correct. It is the result of the investigations, and in some cases the official valuations, bearing upon each country, as given hereafter in detail. The value of the various grain-crops of Europe, taking the average for 1887-88, is shown approximately in the following table :— AGRICULTURE 13 AGRICULTURE Value, Millions £ Sterling ^g 1 C t II U. Kingdom . 16 15 8 2 41 22 France , , . 71 29 7 22 129 65 Germany- 19 25 '5 34 93 40 Russia 37 35 15 94 181 45 Poland 3 4 2 10 19 50 Austria 37 14 16 35 102 52 Italy . 20 2 I 17 40 27 Spain . 30 2 10 13 ss 63 Portugal 2 5 7 35 Sweden and } ■ Norway . . 6 3 6 16 50 Denmark . . I 4 3 5 13 130 Holland . . . I 2 I 2 6 30 Belgium . . . 4 3 I 4 12 40 Roumania . . 5 2 10 17 70 Various . . . 14 I 5 13 33 SO Total . . 1 261 142 89 272 764 47 M. Block drew up, in 1850, a statement of the agricul- tural products of various countries, thus : — Product Yearly, Tons Value, Millions £ 3 Grain Meat •3 1 1 1 U. Kingdom . 7,650,000 450,000 82 28 154 264 France . . . 12,600,000 605,000 123 22 211 3S6 Prussia 12,200,000 310,000 27 8 102 137 Bavaria 950,000 105,000 8 3 8 19 Saxony 400,000 25,000 3 I 5 9 Austria 10,200,000 740,000 67 19 88 174 Spain . 2,100,000 220,000 21 10 57 88 Belgium 1,300,000 52,000 9 3 9 21 Holland 800,000 55.000 6 2 i^ 21 Sweden and 1 Norway . j 1, 100,000 130,000 4 V 13 Denmark . . 2,000,000 93,000 7 1 3 11 Tot il . . 51,300,000 2,785,000 357 99 647 1,113 The above table omitted Russia, Poland, Italy, Portu- gal, Switzerland, Roumania, Greece, and other countries. The values under the item " Various " were, moreover, too low. The following table shows approximately the value of all agricultural products in Europe at different dates : — Year Millions, £ Sterling Agricultural Pastoral Total 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 18S8 914 I,TI4 1,328 1.444 I.S52 1,87s 341 430 542 620 818 970 1.255 I.S44 1,870 2,064 2,370 2.84s The various classes of live-stock were approximately as follows : — , 1- Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Value, Mill. £ 1830 1850 1870 1887 25,020,000 28,950,000 32,080,000 37,610,000 67,370,000 80, 120,000 89,820,000 101,855,000 169,040,000 183,950,000 209,370,000 197,740,000 44,460,000 38,430,000 43,950,000 48,350,000 73° 1,018 1,496 1,940 The agricultural capital of Europe was made up as follows : — Year Millions, £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total 1840 . . . i860 . . . 1887 . . . 6.471 9.957 13.776 875 1,260 1,940 820 1,227 1.737 8,166 12,444 17.453 The increase of agricultural capital was as follows : — Period Millions, £ Millions, £fer Annum 1840-60 4,278 214 1860-87 'i.009 185 Notwithstanding the fact that the agricultural capital of Europe has more than doubled since 1840, further increase promises to be very questionable, or at least very slow. United Kingdom In the 17th century agriculture was the principal occupation of the people, and made great progress after the expulsion of the Stuarts, but its golden epoch was the reign of George II. (1727-60). We have no reliable statistics till the present century, viz. : — Acres under Crops 1827 1846 1866 1876 1888 England Scotland 11,140,000 13,300,000 13,340,000 13,920,000 13.350,000 2,550,000 3,390,000 3,170,000 3,510,000 3,690,000 Ireland United Kingdom 5,450,000 19,140,000 5,240,00021,930,000 5,250,000,21,760:000 5,210,00022,640,000 4, 145, 00021, 185, 000 Authority Porter M'CulIoch Official In the last sixty years the area under crops has increased by 2,200,000 in England and 1, 140,000 in Scotland, but in Ireland it has diminished by 1,300,000 acres. Principal Crops of England, Acreage 1812, Comber 1820, Middleton 1831, WCiilloch 1846, M'CulIoch Wheat . . Oats . . . Barley, &c. . Roots . . Clover . . Fallow . . 3,160,000 2,870,000 860,000 1,250,000 1,150,000 2,310,000 3,300,000' 3,800,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 900,000^ 900,000 1,200,000 1„ ft_„,.,^ 1,200,000; l^'^SO.ooo 2,400,000 1,650,000 3, 800,00c 2,500,000 1,500,00c 2,700,000 1,300,000 1,500,000 Total . 11,600,000 12,000,000 12,000,000 1 13,300,000 In recent years there has been a marked decline in the area under grain, viz. : — Acreage, United Kingdom 1871-75 1881-85 1888 Wheat . . . 3.740,000 2,830,000 2,670,000 Oats .... 4,230,000 4.300,000 4,180,000 Barley, &c. . . 3,570,000 3,210,000 2,940,000 Potatoes . . . 1,510,000 1,380,000 1,410,000 Turnips, &c. 3,564,000 3,367,000 3,356,000 Flax .... 136,000 115,000 116,000 Hops .... 64,000 68,000 58,000 Clover and grass 29,530,000 31,710,000 32,680.000 Fallow . . . 640,000 760,000 470,000 Total . . 46,984,000 47,740,000 47,880,000 AGRICULTURE 14 AGRICULTURE According to M'CulIoch, the tillage of the United Kingdom in 1851 stood thus : — Grain Other Crops, Acres Total Acres Value of Crops Acres 44 St2 England Scotland Ireland . 7,200,000 1,480,000 2,920,000 200 46 89 1 5,500,00012,700,000 1,110,000 2,590,000 1,880,000 4,800,000 „ £ 80,500,000 14,900,000 26,400,000 United 1 Kingdom i 11,600,000 335 8,490,00020,090,000 121,800,000 ' The average value of crops to the acre in 1851 was 1 10 shillings in Ireland, 1 14 in Scotland, 127 in England. At present the gross product of the United Kingdom averages no shillings per acre. The distribution of crops in the three kingdoms in 1SS8 was thus : — Acreage England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Wheat . . Oats . . . Barley, &c. . 2,510,000 1,885,000 2,485,000 70,000 1,015,000 255,000 90,000 1,280,000 200,000 2,670,000 4,180,000 2,940,000 All grain Potatoes . Turnips . . Vetches, &c. 6,880,000 445,000 1,480,000 905,000 1,340,000 160,000 480,000 20,000 1,570,000 805,000 290,000 145,000 9,790,000 1,410,000 2,250,000 1,070,000 All green 1 crops . I Gardens, &c. Clover, &c. . 2,830,000 53S.OOO 3,105,000 660,000 20,000 1,670,000 1,240,000 125,000 1,205,000 4,730,000 680,000 5,980,000 Total crops Pasture . . 13,350,000 14,590,000 3,690,000 1,190,000 4,140,000 10,920,000 21,180,000 26,700.000 Total . . 27,940,000 4,880,000 15,060,000 47,880,000 The yield per acre has much increased since the last century, when Arthur Young showed the wheat average for a number of years to be 23 bushels. The following estimates have been made : — Yield per Acre, Bushels Wheat Oats Barley Comber, 1810-15 • M'CuUoch, 1840-46 Caird, 1857-77 22 23 32 37 37 The production of grain in the United Kingdom com- pared with population is now less than half what it was in 1830, having steadily declined since then, viz. : — Production, Millions of Bushels Bushels per Inhabitant Wheat Oats, Bar- ley, &c. Total 1830 1876 1887 104 143 98 84 76 304 258 290 270 =35 408 401 388 354 301 17 IS 14 II 8 The consumption has nevertheless risen in quantity 40 per cent., nearly one-half now being imported, viz. : — Consumption of Grain, Millions of Bushels Yearly Period Home- Grown Imported Total Ratio Imported 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1S81-89 408 400 390 388 340 320 8 31 78 126 226 272 416 468 514 566 592 2 per cent. 7 17 24 40 .. 45 .. The production and consumption of wheat show as follows : — Wheat, Millions of Bushels, Yearly Consumption Home- Grown Imported Total Lbs. per Inhabitant Ratio Imported 1811-30 1831-50 1851-70 1871-80 1881-89 97 "3 109 90 80 4 14 116 144 101 127 167 206 224 300 280 345 370 384 4 per cent. 11 >• 35 .. 65 ','. Consumption includes not only food, but also seed, say 8,000,000 bushels, or 12 lbs. per inhabitant. The average yield of the principal crops in 1884-S7 was as follows : — Average Crops, 1884-87 Great Britain Ireland United Kingdom Wheat, bushels . 73,200,000 1,900,000 75,100,000 Barley, 72,500,000 5,800,000 78,300,000 Oats, „ 110,000,000 50,000,000 160,000,000 Beans, &c. „ 15,000,000 150,000 15,150,000 Potatoes, tons . 3,400,000 3,100,000 6,500,000 Turnips, ,, 24,500,000 3,500,000 28,000,000 Mangold, ,, 5,900,000 500,000 6,400,000 Hops, 30,000 30,000 Hay, 8,500,000 4,000,000 12,500,000 Yield per Acre, 1884-87 Great Britain Ireland United Kingdom Wheat, bushels Barley, Oats, Beans, &c. „ Potatoes, cwts. Turnips, Hay, 30 33 37 24 121 240 26 28 34 38 28 78 224 34 30 33^ 374 24 ^1 236 29 Lawes and Gilbert's experiments of the yield of ground manured and unmanured showed as follows : Period 1852-69 1870-79 Bushels per Acre Dung 35-7 29-5 Unmanured 14.8 10.2 Bone-Ash, fi-f. 36.7 31-7 The seed used for wheat-growing is usually 2J bushels per acre, and Jhe yield about eleven-fold for the United Kingdom. AGRICULTURE 15 AGRICULTURE According to Mr. Hermann Voss, the United Kingdom consumes annually 290,000 tons of mineral phosphates (93 per cent, imported) and 110,000 of bones (45 per cent, imported), in all, 400,000 tons, from which are pro- The crops of 1889 were as follows : — duced 800,000 tons of artificial manure, as compared with 200,000 tons in 1 860. The consumption of dung is 79 million tons (see Manure) per annum, that is, about ij tons per acre. England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Acreage Per Acre Wheat, bushels 71,000,000 2,200,000 2,700,000 75,900,000 .•3,540,000 30 Oats, Barley, Beans, &c. ,, 76,200,000 37,200,000 50,600,000 164,000,000 4,130,000 40 59,600,000 7,800,000 7,300,000 74,700,000 2,310,000 32 14,500,000 500,000 200,000 15,200,000 540,000 28 Potatoes, tons 2,570,000 1,010,000 2,850,000 6,430,000 1,370,000 4-7 Turnips, ,, 20,300,000 7,800,000 3,900,000 32,000,000 2,220,000 14.4 Mangolds, ,, 6,100,000 600,000 6,700,000 370,000 18.0 Hay, 10,400,000 1,000,000 4,900,000 16,300,000 9.660,000 1-7 T? — :i *T r (( _;i it 1... _..! r. ,oo« »1 -• _ -o— : i.1. Ensilage or the use of "silos" is increasing, the returns for 1889 showing 2820 in the United Kingdom. Statistics of live-stock are as follows : — Year Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Authority 1688 12,000,000 King '774 ... 2,850,000 12,000,000 Campbell 1812 1,500,000 5,500,000 25,000,000 3,000,000 Colquhoun 1831 1,500,000 5,220.000 4.000,000 M'Culloch 18SS 2,050,000 7,955,000 27,972,000 3,686,000 ,, 1867 ... 8,730,000 33,820,000 4,220,000 Official 1877 1,890,000 9,730,000 32,220,000 3.730,000 ,, 1888 1,940,000 10,270,000 28,940,00c 3,820,000 ■' The figures before 18 12 are for England and Wales, the rest for the United Kingdom. Horses used in towns are not included above. In 1855, according to M'Culloch, the live-stock stood thus : — England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Horses . . 1,309,000 Cattle . . 3,420,000 Sheep . . 18,690,000 Pigs . . . j 2,360,000 185,000 975,000 5,680,000 146,000 556,000 3,560,000 3,602,000 1,180,000 2,050,000 7,955,000 27,972,000 3,686,000 The returns of the three kingdoms for 18 follows : — England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Horses . . Cattle . . Sheep . . Pigs . . . 1,240,000 5,060,000 18,580,000 2,265,000 190,000 1,110,000 6,730,000 iSS.ooo 510,000 4,100,000 3,630,000 1,400,000 1,940,000 10,270,000 28,940,000 3,820,000 The proportion of cattle in England to size of farms in 1885 was : — Number to 100 Acres Acres Horses Cows Sheep Pigs Total Under 5 7 30 3° SO H7 S-So S 29 38 17 89 50-100 i 23 SI 9 83 100-500 4 17 74 6 lOI Over 500 3 ro los 4 122 The production of meat is computed on an annual slaughter of 20 per cent, of all homed cattle, 40 per cent, of sheep, and 100 per cent, of pigs, the average carcase being taken at 600 lbs. beef, 70 lbs. mutton, and 100 lbs." pig. The following table shows the production and consumption : — Tons of Meat Consumed Yearly Lbs. Meat Period Home- Grown Imported Total per In- habitant 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 940,000 980,000 1,000,000 1,020,000 1,050,000 1,030,000 44,000 131,000 288,000 540,000 940.000 980,000 1,044,000 1,151,000 1,338,000 1,570.000 80 80 81 87 87 98 Machinery has introduced great changes in the mode of cultivation since the Waterloo epoch. The Census of 1821 showed 33 per cent, of the classified population of England was engaged in agriculture, that of 1881 only 12 per cent. The following table shows the number engaged in agriculture at various dates, and the approximate gross value of all farming products : — Agricultural Hands and Product, United Kingdom Year Numbers Product, Product per Engaged Millions £ Hand £ 1821 2,930,000 190 65 1831 3,050,000 I9S 6S 1841 3,401,000 200 59 1851 3,519,000 220 63 1861 3,149,000 240 76 1871 2,808,000 250 89 1881 2,561,000 251 98 The numbers engaged before 1841 are estimates as con- cerns Ireland and Scotland, the rest are from Booth'sreports. The earliest estimate of the value of agricul tural products in England was by Gregory King, in 1698, as follows : — Bushels Value, £ Pence per Bushel Wheat .... Barley .... Rye Oats Pease and beans . Vetches. . . . 14,000,000 27,000,000 10,000,000 16,000,000 11,000.000 1,000.000 2,450,000 2,700,000 1,250,000 1.200,000 1.375,000 100.000 42 24 3o 18 30 24 Total . . 79,000,000 9,075,000 27 * Major Craigie computes that 1000 cattle give 67 tons ol beef, and 1000 sheep 12J tons mutton yearly ; my estimate is 54 tons of beef, and 12J tons of mutton. AGRICULTURE i6 AGRICULTURE He computed that 1 6 per cent, was required for seed, leaving the balance for consumption 66 million bushels, equal to 10 bushels per inhabitant. The following esti- mates have since been recorded of the total value of agricultural and pastoral products yearly : — England and Wales United Kingdom Date Author Mills. £ Date Author Mills. £ i8r2 1820 1846 1889 Stevenson Middleton M'CuUoch . Mulhall 131 127 142 158 1812 1834 1846 18S9 Colquhoun, &c. Spackmann M'CuUoch Mulhall 260 250 218 251 Colquhoun's estimate in 18 12 was 194 millions sterling for tillage, omitting pastoral products, which were after- wards valued at 66 millions, thus making a total of z6o millions. This was only 34 millions over Arthur Young's estimate in 1790, which did not include Ireland. We may, therefore, conclude that the value of farm products has been almost stationary for 100 years, except the effects of a passing season of war or scarcity. Colquhoun's table showed thus in 1S12 : — Quantity Value, I Wheat, tons Other grain, tons Potatoes .... Turnips .... Fruit and vegetables . Hay, grass, &c. 1,800,000 5,200,000 ... 32,300,000 41,300,000 14,200,000 14,200,000 ?, 800,000 89,200,000 Total . 194,000,000 Value of Crops, &c., in 18S9 England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Price per Ton Wheat Oats Barley AH grain . Straw Beans, &c. Potatoes , Hay Turnips, &c. Hops Flax Sundries . Total Animal produci Sundries . Total £ 13,100,000 7,200,000 9,600,000 £ 400,000 3,600,000 1,300,000 £ 500,000 4,800,000 1,200,000 £ 14,000,000 15,600,000 12,100,000 5-7 6.6 29,900,000 5,300,000 1,800,000 7,000,000 17,700,000 21,100,000 2,200,000 2,100,000 5,300,000 900,000 100,000 2,700,000 1,700,000 6,aoo,ooo 100,000 6, 500,000 1,100,000 8,000,000 8,000,000 3,600,000 850,000 650,000 41,700,000 7,300,000 1,900,000 17,700,000 27,400,000 30,900,000 2,200,000 850,000 2.750,000 87,100,000 64,400,000 6,700,000 17,000,000 16,000,000 900,000 28,700,000 29,600,000 800,000 132,800,000 110,000,000 8,400,000 158,200,006 33,900,000 59,100,000 251,200,000 i.i S-o 2.7 1.7 0.8 75° 45-0 M*Culloch also made tables for each of the three king- doms in 1846, which compare with the results in 1S89 as ■ follows : — All Farm Products, Millions £ 1846 1889 Agricul- tural Pas- toral Total Agricul- tural Pas- toral Total England . Scotland Ireland . . 80 28 62 9 20 142 28 48 94 18 29 64 16 30 158 34 59 U. Kingdom 127 91 218 ] 141 no '■ 251 The following table shows the profits of farming, out of which the tenant-farmer has to pay his rent and main- tain his family : — Cost I er Acre Number of Acres Amount Labour .... Team Taxes and Tithes . Seed Manure .... Balance for rent, &c. £ s. d. 250 100 084 10 12 t I 3 48,000,000 21,200,000 48,000,000 „ £ 108,000,000 48,000,000 20,000,000 10,600,000 12,700,000 51,900,000 Total value o farm prodt lets . . . 251,200,000 Allowing the tenant one-half of the profits to support his family, the landlord's share would be lo^ shillings per acre. Comparing M'CulIoch's tables with the value of pro- ducts in 1889, we find as follows : — Value of all Farm Products 1831 1846 1889 England England United Kingdom Grain Green crops . . . Hay and straw . . Meat Dairy Poultry and eggs . Foals ... Hides, wool, &c. Timber Vegetables, fruit, &c. £ 53,300,000 15,300,000 .59,430,000 £ 51,500,000 28,500,000 13,000,000 26,200,000 12,000,000 1,400,000 3,000,000 4,300,000 1,800,000 £ 41,700,000 53,600,000 34,700,000 55,200,000 31,200,000 9,100,000 5,800,000 9,200,000 1,400,0(0 9,300,000 Total . . . 128,030,000 j 14 r, 700, 000 251,200,000 Ireland According to Sir W. Petty, th". war of Cromwell re- duced Ireland to a wilderness, three-fourths of the cattle being destroyed : the value of live-stock fell from four millions sterling in 1641 to ^^500,000 in 1652, and such was the scarcity of grain, that a barrel of wheat rose in that interval from 12 to 50 shillings. The areas cultivated and uncultivated at various dates show thus : — AGRICULTURE 17 AGRICULTURE Acreage Year Cultivated Uncultivated Total Authority 1726 11,043,000 9,777,000 20,820,000 Browne 1805 13,440,000 7,380,000 Newenhani 1812 13,454,000 7,366,000 ,, 1837 14,604,000 4,216,000 Official 1874 15,720,000 3,100,000 ,, iS88 15,060,000 3,760,000 ■• Secretary Larcom's statement of the crops in 1847 (ex- cluding hay) compares with the returns for 1887 thus : — Wheat, bushels Oats, ,, . Barley, &c. ,, . Potatoes, tons . Turnips, ,, . Total . . Crop 1847 1887 Value 1847 1887 £ \ £ 24,000,000 1,900,000 6,700,000 320,000 92,000,00043,500,000 11,500,000' 3,630,000 13,000,000 4,8oo,ooo| 2,30O,ooOj 600,000 2,000,000 3,570,000^ 8,200,00010,800,000 5,800,000 3,170,000 3,500,000 1,200,000 132,200,00016,550,000 The acreage of crops, according to Larcom and other official returns, was :- ACKEAGE 1847 1862 1859 1867 1876 1888 Wheat .... 744,000 3S4.000 466,000 281,000 120,000 90,000 Oats . 2,201,000 2,283,000 1,981,000 1,680,000 1,487,000 1,280,000 Barley, &c. 333.000 340,000 205,000 163,000 242,000 200,000 Potatoes . 284,000 877,000 1,203,000 1,026,000 881,000 805,000 Turnips . 384,000 3S7.000 322,000 326,000 34S.OOO 290,000 Flax . 58,000 137,000 218,000 133.000 114,000 Sundries . 95,000 122,000 114,000 130,000 138,000 156,900 Clover, &c. 1,140,000 1,270,000 1,660,000 1,860,000 1,205,000 Total 5,239,000 5,740,000 5,484,000 5,206,000 4,140,000 The Registrar-General for Ireland published recently his estimate of the agricultural products in cycles of five years thus : — Average Annual Value 1851-55 1866-70 1884-88 Crops .... Cattle, &c. . . £ 43,660,000 28,330,000 £ 27,935,000 44,280,000 , £ 16,470,000 37,550,000 Total . . 71,990,000 72,215,000 54,020,000 Since 1870 the annual product of farming has declined 18 millions sterling. The landlords have voluntarily or judicially had their rents reduced about 30 per cent.— say, 3 millions sterling on a rental of 10 millions ; the tenants hj.ve suffered the rest of the loss, 1 5 millions sterling. This loss of 18 millions sterling per annum, recorded by the Registrar-General, is, as he shows, 25 per cent, of the total farm product of Ireland. Iri 1843-45 Sir Richard Griffith valued the crops, ex- clusive of grass and hay, at ;£'43,ooo,ooo. In 1861 Hancock valued all crops at ^34,900,000; and Fisher at ;^36,8oo,ooo. It would appear that in the preceding table hay is counted not with crops, but in the item of cattle products. The decline of agriculture in Ireland has been mainly due to the cause stated by John Stuart Mill : — "Alone among mankind the Irish peasant cannot be better or worse off by any act of his. If industrious or prudent, nobody but the landlord gains, if lazy or intem- perate, it is at the landlord's expense." Nevertheless, the value of live-stock has almost trebled since 1841. The numbers of live-stock in 1S55 compare with those of 1888 thus :— Number Value 1865 1 1888 1866 1888 Horses . . Cattle. . . Sheep. . . Pigs . . . 556,000 1 507,000 3,560,000 4,100,000 3,602,000 3,627,000 1,180,000 1,398,000 £ 4,500,000 23,200,000 3,900,000 1,500,000 £ 15,200,000 32,800,000 4,900,000 2,300,000 Total . . 1 33,100,000 1 55,200,000 Value of Live-Stock 1841 1855 1888 21,100.000 33, 100,000 55,200,000 The increase has been rather in value than in number, viz. : — ■ hi Value In Number Horses . . . 227 per cent. o Cattle . . . 41 ,, 15 per cent. Sheep . . 26 ,, o Pigs . . . 54 ,, 20 per cent. During the eighteenth century 60 per cent, of the Irish exports were meat, the price of which rose from twenty shillings per cwt. in 1776 to fifty shillings in 1800. After the Waterloo epoch almost down to the famine of 1846, England drew twenty million bushels of wheat yearly from Ireland. Of late years the exportation of live-stock to Great Britain has declined, viz. : — Exports to England and Scotland. 1877 1887 Cattle .... 649,000 669,000 Sheep .... 630,000 548,000 Pigs .... 585,000 480,000 Emigration has drained the country so largely of men in the vigour of life that pauperism increased 46 per cent, between 1S77 and 18S7 (see Paupers). For rental, value, and tenure, see Land. Scotland M'Culloch's tables for 18 14 and 1846, with subsequent official returns, are as follows : — AGRICULTURE i8 AGRICULTURE Acreage 1814 1846 1857 1867 1878 1888 Wheat . Oats . Barley, &c. . Turnips Potatoes Sundries Clover, &c. . Total 140,000 1,260,000 398,000 410,000 80,000 48,000 220,000 2,556,000 350,000 1,300,000 500,000 450,000 200,000 40,000 550,000 243,000 930,000 182,000 470,000 145,000 110,000 1,000,000 215,000 480,000 150,000 7S,ooo 1,030,000 290,000 500,000 165,000 25,000 3,390,000 70,000 1,015,000 255,000 480,000 160,000 40,000 1,670,000 3,690,000 M'CuUoch estimated the farming products of 1846 as follows:— Gram 8,100,000 Green crops .... 10,600,000 Pastoral products . . . 9,000,000 Total 27,700,000 He estimated the grain produced at 48 million bushels, against Larcom's estimate same year for Ireland, 129 millions. The numbers of live-stock were :— Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs . 1857 970,000 5,750,000 137,000 1867 960,000 6,070,000 204,000 1878 191,000 1,095,000 7,036,000 140,000 1888 190,000 1,110,000 6,730,000 155,000 For tenure and rental, see Lands. Islands Isle of Man. — Area 145,000 acres, of which 98,000 cultivated, 24,000 under grain, 12,000 green crops, and Jie rest clover, &c. Jersey. — Area 29,000 acres, of which 20,000 culti- vated, half green crops, half clover. Guernsey, 6fc. — Area 20,000 acres, of which 12,000 c altivated ; same mode as Jersey. The products of these islands are included with those of England. United Kingdom Agricultural Capital Millions, £ Sterling jf per Land Cattle Sundries Total Inhabitant 1750 1780 1814 1843 1850 i860 1868 1880 1887* 498 702 1,470 1,677 1.70S 1,748 1.92s 2,086 1.873 25 35 74 94 104 140 170 209 185 11 172 197 201 210 233 255 229 581 812 1,716 1,968 2,010 2,og8 2,328 2,550 2,287 55 65 95 72 72 72 75 72 61 In the above table land is capitalised at 30 years' rental. As for cattle, it was valued by King in 1688 at 25 millions ; the figures for 18 14 and subsequent years are according to the numbers of live-stock at the several dates specified in table. Sundries are estimated at 10 * The actual value of land is supposed to be 1560 millions, the official valuation being 20 per cent, too high. In a paper read at the Surveyors' Institution in January 1890, Mr. H. H. Smith showed a decline of 523 millions sterling since 1880, per cent, of the total, in preference to 14 per cent., adopted by Chaptal and other French economists. There was a steady increase down to 1880, from which date agricultural capital has been declining, viz. : — Period Millions, j^ £ per Annu n 1750-1780 Increase, 231 7,450,000 1781-1814 904 26,600,000 1815-1843 252 8,700,000 1844-1860 130 8, 100,000 1861-1880 452 22,600,000 1881-1889 Decline, 263 29,200,000 Notwithstanding the recent decline, agricultural capital still forms one-fourth of the wealth of the- nation (see Wealth), and is almost three times as great as it was loc years ago. The distribution of this capital among the three king- doms in 1887 was : — Agricultural Capital, Millions £ England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . United Kingdom Land 1,362 213 1.873 Cattle Sundries 104 26 55 185 163 27 39 229 Total 1,629 266 392 2,287 /■per Inhabitant 57 61 80 6i The relation between capital and product in 1887 was as follows ; — Million £ Capital Gross Product Ratio to Capital England .... Scotland . . Ireland .... 1,629 266 392 158 34 59 9-7 per cent. 12.8 15-0 United Kingdom 2,287 251 ii.i Further details will be found under the items Cattle and Land. .^"^Jl^ ™1"^ °i ''"""S^ ^""^ pastoral products compares in the three kingdoms with the number of hands employed as follows : — • t- / " Hands Product, Million £ £ per Head England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland .... 1,341,000 234,000 986,000 158 34 59 118 60 United Kingdom 2,561,000 251 97 AGRICULTURE- IP AGRICULTURE France This is tlie best cultivated country in Europe. The earliest statistics do not give us the total area under grain, being confined to wheat-growing in the last cen- tury, but the estimates of Chaptal, Rubichon, and Moreau, witti the official reports of later times, afford some guide for the last ninety years, and may be summed up thus : — Acres under Grain Crop, Millions of Bushels Year Wheat Oats, Rye, &c. Total 1801-20 1825-35 1840-50 1860-76 1883-86 30,000,000 32,000,000 34,300,000 36,000,000 37,100,000 140 170 220 26s 301 250 310 360 450 439 390 480 580 71S 740 Official returns of wheat-growing, coupled with Moreau's tables since 1700, give the following : — Year Acres Million Bushels Value of Bushels per Acre Crop, £ 1700 12,400,000 83 f-7 12,000,000 1760 11,200,000 90 8.0 29,600,000 1764 12,400,000 97 7.8 28,100,000 1784 14,800,000 no 7.2 28,800,000 1791 11,500,000 130 11.2 37,800,000 1818 12,800,000 142 11.2 49,100,000 1839 13,900,000 19s 14.0 60,800,000 1841 13,900,000 198 14. 1 53,200,000 1851 15,000,000 238 iS-9 49,800,000 1861 16,900,000 207 12.2 73,600,000 1871-80 17,100,000 270 15-7 90,800,000 1881-86 17,400,000 303 17-3 81,800,000 1889 17,600,000 309 ^7-S 74,200,000 Moreau states that 33 per cent, of the population were fed on wheat in the last century, and 60 per cent, in 1839. The average yield of grain was officially stated thus >> a 3.Q $. £ « ^ ^ CQ Wheat . . . Rye. .... 18 14 20 18 23 20 18 18 17 15 19 IS Barley. . . . Oats .... Potatoes, cwts. . 21 24 S8 23 28 76 25 11 25 29 68 23 27 70 22 27 64 Hay, cwts. .. . 18 39 2S 34 44 26 AGRICULTURE 23 AGRICULTURE The following table of live stock is made up of the statements of Malchus, Schnabel, and Brachelli in 1828 and 1850, and official returns since the latter date : — 1828 1850 1867 1873 1883 Horses Cows Sheep Pigs. Goats 2,500,000 9,770,000 17,300,000 4,500,000 700,000 2,500,000 11,270,000 21,330,000 3,920,000 1,300,000 3,190,000 14,900,000 28,020,000 6,460,000 1,820,000 3,350,000 15,780,000 25,000,000 7,120,000 2,320,000 3,520,000 15,790,000 19,200,000 9,210,000 2,640,000 German writers compute the amount of seed to the acre, and the average product as follows : — Wheat Rye . Oats . Barley Seed, lbs. 1S7 ISO 140 133 Product, lbs. 1,260 900 980 1,200 Equiv. in Bushels 20.4 iS-2 25-7 23.0 The quantity of grain retained for seed is usually 82 million bushels, or one-seventh of the whole crop. It is found that 100 lbs. wheat gave 82 lbs. flour, and 100 lbs. barley 78 lbs. malt. The following table shows the live stock of Prussia at various dates : — 1816 1837 1873 1SS3 Horses . . Cattle . . Sheep . . Pigs . . . 1,240,000 4,010,000 8,260,000 1,490,000 1,470,000 4,850,000 15,010,000 1,940,000 2,280,000 8,610,000 19,630,000 4,280,000 2,420,000 8,740,000 14,750,000 5,820,000 The returns for 1873 and 1883, include Hanover and other territories annexed to Prussia in 1867. The distribution of live stock in 1883 was as follows : — Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtemburg Small States All Germany Horses .... Cows Sheep .... Pigs Goats .... 2,420,000 8,740,000 14,750,000 5,820,000 1,680,000 3SS.OOO 3,040,000 1,180,000 1,040,000 220,000 125,000 650,000 150,000 350.000 120,000 9S.OOO 905,000 550,000 290,000 50,000 525,000 2,455,000 2,560,000 1,710,000 570,000 3,520,000 15,790,000 19,190,000 9,210,000 2,640,000 Per 100 Inhabitants Horses .... 6.9 4-7 8.5 S-o 6.6 6.5 Cows .... 25-1 40.0 43-4 46.4 30.7 29.2 Sheep .... 42-3 15- S 9-9 28.2 32.0 35-5 Pigs 16.7 13-7 23-7 iS-o 21.4 17.0 Goats .... 4.8 2.9 7-8 2.8 7-1 4-9 Prussia is above the average in horses and sheep, Bavaria in cows, Saxony in horses, cows, and pigs, Wurtemburg in cows only. The ratios of sheep in Bavaria and Saxony are very low. The value of all kinds of live-stock in 1883 was officially given as follows : — Number Value, £, ^ per Head Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs . Goats 3.532.000 15,787,000 19,190,000 9,206,000 2,645,000 84,000,000 153,700,000 15,300,000 23,800,000 2,000,000 23-7 9-7 0.8 2.6 0.7 Total . . 278,800,000 Prices of live stock have since declined about 6 per cent. ; the value in 1887 would be approximately ;£^262,ooo,cx:o sterling. The production of meat, calculating 500 lbs. per car- ease of beef, 56 lbs. per sheep, 100 lbs. per pig, and 28 lbs. per goat, was as follows : — Yiar Meat, Tons jj^^^^t 1828 760,000 60 1850 890,000 60 1867 1,150,000 67 1885 1,375,000 64 The value of products in 1886 was approximately as follows : — Wheat . Rye . . Barley . Oats. . All grain Straw . Hay. . Potatoes Beet, &c. Principal crops Tons ,600,000 940,000 260,000 340,000 140,000 100,000 900,000 000,000 800,000 £ Sundries 700,000 900,000 700,000 200,000 500,000 100,000 800,000 000,000 400,000 209,800,000 Wine . Vegetables! &c. . Timber . , Dairy , , Meat . - Poultry . Tobacco, flax . Foals . , Hides, wool,&c. Sundries , 5,000,000 30,000,000 13,000,000 55,300,000 68,700,000 14,100,000 4,000,000 9,000,000 15,100,000 214,200,000 Agricultural products , Animal products . . 262,000,000 . 162,000,000 Total 424,000,000 AGRICULTURE 24 AGRICULTURE The value of products at different dates was approxi- mately thus : — Year Millions, £ Sterling .'Vgricultural Pastoral Total Authority 1840 1856 1886 loS 151 262 80 162 231 424 Journ, des Econ. Block, Viebahn The products in 1886 were distributed as follows : — Agriculture Animal Total ;^per Inhab. Prussia . . . Bavaria . . . Saxony . . . Wurtemburg . Small States £ 149,000,000 43,700,000 12,300,000 10,500,000 46,400,000 99,800,000 24,100,000 5,900,000 7,700,000 24,600,000 £ 248,800,000 67,800,000 18,200,000 18,200,000 71,000,000 9.0 12.9 6.0 9-4 9.2 Total . . 261,900,000 162, 100,000 424,000,000 9.4 The number of hands employed was approximately thus: — Year 1840 1856 1886 Hands Product, £ £ per Head 6,400,000 170,000,000 27 7,400,000 231,000,000 31 8,120,000 424,000,000 52 The introduction of machinery has increased production in a striking manner, one man now producing more than two did in 1S40. Land Value In 1837 the valuation of land in Prussia was 305 mil- lions sterling. In 1856 Viebahn valued German lands at 1304 millions, a rise of 170 per cent, in twenty years. Wurtemburg averaged per acre 50 per cent, more value than the rest of Germany. Guided by Wurtemburg values in 1880 (that is, 50 per cent, over the rest), the value of Germany may be put down thus : — Acres Price per Acre Amount, Millions £ Arable .... Meadow . . . Garden, &c. . . Pasture .... Forest .... 44,000,000 14,600,000 2,300,000 35,400,000 30, 100,000 £ 19 28 40 5 10 836 409 92 177 301 Total . . . 126,400,000 1,815 The values of the principal States show thus : — Millions, £ Sterling rt •A g - Oh 1 & E? 1 Q Arable . . . SIS 103 49 35 136 836 Meadow . . . 227 89 25 12 56 409 Gardens . . . 24 12 8 4 44 92 Pasture . . . 127 13 3 3 30 176 Forest . . . 176 5» 20 6 42 302 Total . . 1,067 27s loS 60 308 1,815 Agricultural Capital The amount of capital and product may be put down approximately as follows : — Year Capital, Millions £ Product, Millions £ Ratio to Capital, per Cent. Land Cattle Sundries Total 1837 1856 1886 480 1,304 1,815 88 138 262 63 160 230 631 1,602 2,307 170 231 424 27.0 14.4 18.4 In 1886 the agricultural capital stood approximately thus : — Millions, £ Sterling .a a. 1 > 1 1^ 1 Land .... Cattle. . . . Sundries . . . 1,067 162 135 275 40 35 60 105 12 13 308 39 39 i,8iS 262 230 Total . . 1,364 350 77 130 386 2,307 Capital and product in the above States compare thus : Millions, £ Sterling Capital Product Ratio to Cap. Prussia . . . Bavaria . . . Saxony . . . Wurtemburg . Duchies . . . 1,364 350 77 130 386 249 68 18 18 71 18.0 19.0 23.2 13-8 18.0 Total . . 2,307 424 18.4 The increase of agricultiural capital in Germany was as follows : — Interval £ Average per Annum 1837-56 971,000,000 51,000,000 1856-86 705,000,000 23,500,000 The most rapid increase occurred between 184S and 1858, consequent on the breaking up of large estates among the peasantry. See Lands. Russia The area under grain previously to 1870 is not known, but may be estimated from the table of production, as below, published officially. Grain, Millions of Bushels Yearly Approximate Period Crop 'Exported H°-?oT Area, Millions of Acres 1800-13 1834-40 1841-47 1857-63 1871-80 890 10 1,040 27 1,210 32 1,270 34 1,730 146 880 1,013 1,178 1,236 1,584 100 no 120 130 167 The emancipation of serfs in 1 86 1 was followed by a great increase of grain production. AGRICULTURE 25 AGRICULTURE These statbtics refer to Russia proper, exclusive of Poland, Finland, Caucasus, or Siberia. The distribution of area is shown as follows : — Area, Acres Product in 1872 1881 1887 Tons Grain .... 154,800,000 159,800,000 44,250,000 Potatoes . . . 3,170,000 3,710,000 7,500,000 Flax and hemp . 3,060,000 5,170,000 540,000 Meadow and pasture. . . 144,000 176,000,000 Forest. . . . 500,000 485.000,000 120,000,000 Waste . . 439,000 414,000,000 Total . . 1,244,000,000 1,244,000,000 The grain-crops of 1887 compare with those of 1872 as follows : — Millions ofBushels Area under Grain 1872 1887 1872 1881 Wheat . . Rye . . . Oats . . . Barley . . Maize, &c. . 158 S47 544 11 269 721 599 162 152 28,700,000 66,400,000 32,800,000 15,500,000 11,400,000 28,900,000 64,600,000 34,900,000 12,500,000 18,900,000 Total . . 1,460 1,903 154,800,000 159,800,000 Kaufmann gives the average crops of Russia and Poland in the years 1870-78, and the average value in the years 1878-S1, as follows : — Millions of Bushels Value, £ Russia Poland Total Wheat .... Rye Oats Barley, &c. . 176 446 260 15 47 36 25 igi 603 482 285 44,800,000 98,800,000 50,500,000 38,900,000 Total . . . 1.438 123 1,561 233,000,000 He shows, moreover, that the crops during the ensuing years 1883-84-85 gave an average (for Russia and Poland) as follows — Million Bushels Tons Wheat Ry« Oats Barley, &c 231 67s 503 285 6, 350,000 17,700,000 8,700,000 6,450,000 Total .... 1,694 39,200,000 So great, however, was the fall in prices that the grain crops of 1884 were valued at only ;^i56,400,ooo. A moujik's farm averages 35 acres, which requires three men to cultivate ; the product is estimated thus : — Acres Bushels Crop Food Seed For Sale Wheat ; ; . ; .' ; Oats, &c 10 4 10 100 30 120 70 S 30 17 5 15 13 20 75 All grain . . 24 250 105 37 108 The earliest official returns of live-stock are those of 1850, but we have also Schnabel's and Malchus's esti- mates for 1828 : — 1828 1860 1870 1889 Horses . . 12,000,000 13,500,000 15,600,000 20,020,000 Cattle . . 19,000,000 20,960,000 21,400,000 23,840,000 Sheep . . 36,000,000 37,530,000 45,300,000 47,510,000 Pigs . . . 15,800,000 8,890,000 9,100,000 9,200,000 Goats. . . 1,600,000 1,200,000 1,370,000 The production of meat, at 500 lbs. per beef carcase, 50 lbs. per sheep, and 100 lbs. per pig, was as follows : — year 1828 1850 1870 1889 Tons, Meal 1,430,000 1,670,000 1,760,000 1,885,000 Lbs. per Inhabitant 66 60 SI The value of live-stock was approximately as follows : No. Price, £ Value, £ Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Goats 20,020,000 23,840,000 47,510,000 9,200,000 1,370,000 • 1 See Part II. 619 Total . . . ... 1 ... 1 ... The value of products in 1887 was as follows : Tons Wheat . . Rye . . . Barley . , Oats . . . Buckwheat! &c. . ; All grain . Straw . . Hay . . . Potatoes . Flax, &c. . Principal ) crops . J 7,500,000 18,900,000 3,750,000 10,350,000 3.750.000 44,250,000 44,000,000 60,000,000 7,500,000 540,000 £. Sundries 37, 100,000 Wine . 79, 200, ooO| Beetroot I4,8oo,oooyegetables 35,000,000 Poultry ITobacco 15,000,000 Dairy . iTimber . 181,100,000 Meat 22,000,000 Foals . 60,000,000 Hides, 11,200,000 wool, &c. 16,200,000' Sundries 290,500,000 £ 3,800,000 4,000,000 32,000,000 12,000,000 3,200,000 47,700,000 40,000,000 63,000,000 38,000,000 28,000,000 272,500,000 £ Agricultural products . . . 373,200,000 Animal products .... 189,800,000 Total .... 563,000,000 The values at the following dates were approximately : — Millions, £ Sterling Year Agricultural Animal | Total 1834 .... 1850 .... 1872 .... 1887 . . 1S8 213 287 373 60 82 13s 190 248 29s 422 563 The s^ricultural population in 1S84 was approximately 56,815,000, but the number of adults engaged in tillage and pasture was not over 22,700,000, which gives an average product yearly of ;^25 per head. Land Value Before the Crimean war the ordinary price of land was about;£'i per acre, but when the emancipation of the serfs AGRICULTURE 26 AGRICULTURE was decreed in 1861, the Government paid an indemnity to the nobles averaging 29 shillings per acre. According to the British Ambassador, Sir A. Buchanan, the value in 1869 was doubled by the emancipation, and this is con- firmed by Strebinsky, whose estimate in 1879 was £3 per acre. This applies only to cultivated land, the value of waste and forest being about one-tenth. The following table shows the values : — Year Area, Millions of Acres Value, Millions jQ Sterling Culti- vated Forest, &c. Total Culti- vated Forest Total 1834 1850 1870 183 200 30s 1,061 1,044 939 1,244 1,244 1.244 183 200 610 106 104 188 289 304 798 Agricultural Capital Year Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total 1834 1850 ... 1870 . 289 304 798 176 223 409 52 59 134 517 586 1. 341 The increase of agricultural capital was as follows :— Period Millions £ Sterling Per Annum, £ 1834-50 . 1851-70 . 69 755 4,060,000 37,750,000 The emancipation of the serfs added about 1 200 millions sterling to the rural wealth in 26 years, from i860 to 1886. See Lands, Poland Poland has an area of 32 million acres, of which nearly one-half is cultivated. In 1864 feudalism was abolished, the nobles receiving ;^24,ooo,ooo for 21 million acres, distributed in ten-acre lots among 2,064,000 male serfs of all ages, three-fourths of the amount being advanced by Government and the rest made good by the serfs. The number of serfs is one-tenth of those who were emanci- pated in Russia; the area of the land given them (21 million acres) is one-ninth of the land so expropriated in Russia. According to Kaufmann the average crops of Poland in ine years 1870-78 were as follows : — Million Bushels Value, £ Wheat Rye. . . ■ . . Oats Barley, &c. ... 15 47 36 25 3,600,000 8,100,000 3,600,000 4,000,000 Total .... 123 19,300,000 According to Fisher (Food-Supply, i860) the products of Poland increased as follows : — Tons Produced 1822 1867 Grain 800,000 2,300,000 Potatoes .... 28t),ooo 1,750,000 Meat 8ii,ooo 157.000 The total value of farm products may be set down approximately thus : — £ . 19,300,000 . 14,700,000 . 21,000,000 Grain crops . Other products Cattle farming Total 55,000,000 The value of farms varies from £2 to £8 per acre, and the total agricultural capital is more or less ^200 millions sterling, of which three-fourths are represented by land. The number of J^ricultural male peasants was 1,240,000 in 1867, and is now about 1,600,000; the ratio of agri- cultural products is about £34 per head. Finland This territory is distinct from Russia, and has an area or 92 million acres, viz. : — Estates Class Acres Nobles s.800,000 Peasants 50,200,000 Crown 30,600,000 Waste, &o. 5,600,000 Total . . 92,200,000 Nobles' estates average 3000 acres, peasants 250 acres. Cultivated lands cover 7 million acres, of which 6 millions are meadow, forest comprising 50 million acres, and the remaining 35 millions being waste land or lakes. Grain crop averages 12 million bushels; not enough for home consumption. Neumann Spallart gives the following agricultural statistics for the average of 1875-81 : — Acres Crop, Bushels Value, £ Wheat Rye ... Barley Oats Various .... 7,000 700,000 300,000 300,000 15,000 100,000 10,000,000 5,000 000 7,000,000 500,000 20,000 1,700,000 900,000 900,000 40,000 Total . . 1,322,000 22,600,000 3,560,000 Cattle comprised 1,030,000 homed cattle, 1,030,000 sheep, and 150,000 pigs, which would produce yearly 70,000 tons of meat, worth £-7i, 500,000. The total pro- ducts would be approximately worth 15 millions sterling, and the capital about 70 millions. Agricultural popula- tion about 400,000 male adults. Austria-Hungary Not more than 43 per cent, of the Empire is cultivated, 31 per cent, being forest, and 26 per cent, pasture plains or waste lands. The area under crops, other than meadow, has increased only 120,000 acres per annum in the last fifty years. Year Acres under Crops Grain Crop. Mill. Bush.' Wine, Mill. Gall. Authority 1828 367 590 Malchus 1836 ij8,40o,ooo 364 470 Becker 1846 480 Fisher 1850 55° 500 Brachelll 1862 560 500 Official 1876 37,500,000 480 160 1880 39,600,000 601 92 ,, 1885 44,500,000 676 207 •• AGRICULTURE 27 AGRICULTURE Becker's and other tables for 1836 (excluding the Italian provinces) compare with those of 1887 as follows, the latter not including Bosnia or Herzegovina : — Crop, Million Million Bushels, Bushels, 1836. 1887 a & .3 £• ^ g ^ bo •a < ffi H < a__ h Wheat . . . 17 48 65 SI 141 192 Oats .... 68 48 116 102 60 162 Rye ... . 52 48 100 88 so i?8 Barley, &c. . . 3S 48 83 90 136 226 All grain . . 172 192 364, 331 387 718 Wine, million gallons . . 7S 392 407 103 109 Grain has increased 90 per cent, since 1836, although the area under crops has barely risen 20 per cent. ; this is due to improved methods and machinery since the ex- propriation of the lands in 1848, when they were distri- buted among the peasantry (see Serfs), Wine has declined more than one-half. The production of potatoes has increased as follows : — Year Tons Authority 1846 . 2,300,000 Fisher 1859 • 5,100,000 ,, 1885 . . IT,000,000 Official The acreage of the two kingdoms in 1 887 was thus : — Austria Hungary Total Wheat . . . 2,875,000 6,860,000 9,735,000 Barley .... 2,795,000 2,480,000 5,275,000 Oats. . . 4,630,000 2,580,000 7,210,000 Rye 4,985,000 2,770,000 7,7SS.ooo Maize .... 890,000 4,520,000 5,410,000 Buckwheat, &c. . 1,490,000 605,000 2,095,000 All grain . . . 17,665,000 19,815,000 37,480,000 Potatoes . . . 2,760,000 1,020,000 3,780,000 Beetroot . . . 760,000 340,000 1,100,000 Vineyards . . . 580,000 870,000 1,450,000 Hops .... 3S,ooo 3S,ooo Tobacco . . . S,ooo 135,000 140,000 Clover .... 2,010,000 2,010,000 Gardens . . . 920,000 130,000 1,050,000 Meadow . . . 7,700,000 6,360,000 14,060,000 Pasture . . . 13,015,000 32,015,000 45,030,000 Forest .... 24 150,000 22,515,000 46,665.000 Total . . . 69,600,000 83,200,000 152,800,000 The value of grain crops is stated by Spallart thus :- Millions £ per Annum Years 1850 . 1870 . 1877-80 1881-84 Austria I Hungary Total 40 41 SO S7 60 83 90 98 The ordinary yield of grain is only fivefold ; 1 30 million bushels are required for seed. Becker's and Schnabel's tables of live-stock and subse- quent official returns show : — Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs . Goats 1336 2,060,000 10,010,000 15,990,000 5,500,000 850,000 1860 3,240,000 10,460,000 17,080,010 7,410,000 1870 3,540,000 12,630,000 20,100,000 6,990,000 1,550,000 1880 3,560,000 13,890,000 13,680,000 6,880,000 1,280,000 The numbers respectively for Austria and Hungary in 1880 were : — Austria Hungary Total Percentage •c < bo C 1 Horses . Cattle . Sheep . Pigs . . Goats . 1,480,000 8,580,000 3,840,000 2,720,000 1,010,008 2,080,000 5,310,000 9,840,000 4,160,000 330,000 3,560,000 13,890,000 13,680,000 6,880,800 1,340,000 42 61 28 39 7S S8 39 72 61 25 100 100 100 100 100 The production of meat, taking the carcase of beef at 500 lbs., sheep 56 lbs., and pig 100 lbs., was as follows : — Year 1836 1850 1870 1880 Meat, Tons . 840,000 . 880,000 . 970,000 . 980,000 Lbs. per Inhabitant 67 66 62 S7 Assuming the values of the various kinds of stock to be 20 per cent, per head less than in Germany, we find : — No. Price, £ Value, £ Horses . . . Cattle . . . Sheep . . . Pigs .... Goats . . . 3,560,000 13,890,000 13,680,000 6,880,000 1,340,000 19 8 0.6 2 0.6 67,600,000 111,200,000 8,300,000 13,800,000 800,000 Total . . ... 201,700,000 The value of products in 1887 was approximately thus : — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat . . Oats. . . Rye . . . Barley . . Maize . . Buckwheat) &c. . 1 5,300,000 2,800,000 3,600,000 2,600,000 2,200,000 600,000 17,100,000 17,000,000 14,000,000 11,000,000 6,500,000 37,100,000 14,000,000 19,800,000 15,600,000 12,100,000 3,600,000 Wine . . Vegetables Timber . . Tobacco . Flax, &c. . Dairy . . Poultry . . Meat . . Foals . . Hides, wool,&c. ' Sundries . 17,300,000 22,000,000 18,000,000 1,800,000 2,200,000 34,500,000 7,800,000 44,100,000 10,000,000 10,100,000 167,800,000 All grain . Straw . . Hay. . . Potatoes . Beetroot . 102,200,000 12,800,000 21,000,000 22,000,000 5,000,000 Principal crops 163,000,000 Agricultural products . Animal products . Total £ 224,700,000 106,100,000 330,800.000 AGRICULTURE 28 AGRICULTURF Becker's estimate of products in 1840 compares with later years as follows : — Year 1840 1863 1887 Millions, £ Sterling Agricultural 160 194 225 Pastoral 45 87 106 Total 205 281 33' The shares corresponding to the two kingdoms in 1887 were as follows : — Millions, £ Sterling Austria Hungary Total Agricultural .... Pastoral 120 55 105 SI 225 106 Total . . 175 156 331 Year 1870 1880 Austria 5, 520,000 6,160,000 The number of hands engaged in agriculture in 1870 and 1880 showed thus : — Hungary Total 5,010,000 10,530,000 4,520,000 10,680,000 The result in 1887 shows an average product of £z aJ Q- >«f^ Wheat . . t I, 010,000 2,530,000 32,100,000 4.6 12.7 Maize . . 4,720,000 1,610,000 15,300,000 6.9 9-5 Oats . . . 1,100,000 340,000 1,900,000 6.2 S-S Barley . . 860,000 165,000 1,900,000 4.0 II.O Rye and pulse 2,200,000 370,000 4,800,000 3-3 13- Rice . . . 500,000 290,000 5,400,000 ii.b i«.b Chestnuts . 1,050,000 320,000 3,300,000 6.0 10.2 Potatoes . . 370,000 620,000 1,600,000 .33-.'; 2.6 Hemp . . 300,000 65,000 2,900,000 4-3 45-0 Flax . . . 170,000 13,000 800,000 I..'; 62.0 Wine. . . 7,700,000 7i5,ooo,ooog 42,600,000 93g Oil ... 2,250,000 50,000,000 13,400,000 2.3.i? Tobacco . . g,ooo 2,000 160,000 4-4 80.0 Silk cocoons 44,000 6,200,000 141.0 Oranges . . 225,000 3,000,000 13-3 Total . ... 135,360,000 ... The above values are, however, in many cases too high, and such important items as hay, straw, &c., are omitted. The following table is more in harmony with European prices : — Tons L Sundries £> Wheat . . Maize . . Oats. . . Barley . . Rye, &c. . Rice. . . 2,530,000 1,610,000 340,000 165,000 370,000 290,000 21,500,000 10,700,000 1,900,000 T, 150,000 2,600,000 2,200,000 Oranges . . Vegetables . Hemp and 1 flax . I Chestnuts . Tobacco . . Cocoons . . Timber . . Dairy . , . Poultry . . Meat . . . Foals . . . Hides, ; wool,&c. ;■ Sundries . . 3,000,000 22,500,000 2,800,000 800,000 70,000 6,200,000 4,000,000 14,400,000 6,000,000 18,000,000 3,000,000 4,130,000 All grain . Potatoes . Straw . . Hay . . . Wine . . Oil . . . 5,305,000 620,000 5,000,000 12,000,000 40,050,000 1,250,000 4,000,000 18,000,000 42,600,000 13,400,000 Principal 1 crops 119,300,000 84,900,000 Agricultural products .... 153,000,000 Animal products 51,200,000 Total . . 204,200,000 The distribution of crops in 1870 was said to be as follows : — Grain Wine Chestnuts Hay Venetia Lombardy Piedmont Tuscany, Romagna, &c. . Naples Sicily 6 9 16 21 32 16 5 S 18 22 28 22 2 30 34 34 32 18 20 30 Total . . 100 100 100 100 The official returns of live-stock are of recent date, besides which we have the estimates of Schnabel and Malchus for 1828, and of Spallart for 1852 : — { 1828 1852 1874 1882 Horses . , 1 800,000 800,000 1,070,000 1,120,000 Cattle . . 1 3,500,000 3,660,000 3,490,000 4,780,000 Sheep . . ] 6,500,000 7,000,000 6,980,000 8,595,000 Pigs . . . ' 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,550,000 1,160,000 Goats . . . ' 800,000 1,690,000 2,020,000 The production of meat at 500 lbs. per carcase of beef, 56 lbs. per sheep, and 100 lbs. per pig, was as follows : — Year Meat, Tons 1828 335,000 1874 300,000 1882 .360,000 Lbs. per Inhabitant 44 24 28 AGRICULTURE J^ AGRICULTURE The value of all kinds of live-stock may be set down approximately thus i — Number Value, £ £ per Head Horses .... Cattle .... Sheep .... Pigs Goats .... 1, 120,000 4,780,000 8,600,000 1,160,000 2,020,000 23,500,000 47,800,000 6,900,000 2,900,000 1,400,000 21.0 10. 0.8 2-S 0.7 Total . . . 82,500,000 The value of products at different dates was approxi- mately as follows : — Year Millions, £ Sterling Hands Product Agricultural Pastoral Total Hand, £ 1840 1874 1888 92 146 IS3 22 34 SI 114 180 204 3,600,000 5,100,000 5,400,000 32 35 38 The relation between capital and product was approxi- mately as follows : — Year Millions, £ Sterling Ratio to Capital Product Capital 1840 1874 1888. . . . 452 801 1.40S 114 180 204 2S-3 22.5 14.6 Land Value According to Dr. Bodio's estimate, the value of land is 34 times the assessed rental ; taking the same ratio for 1863 and 1871, and accepting the Foreign Office reports of 1844, which gave ;^ii per acre cultivated and £$ for pasture and woodland, the result is as follows : — Year Assessed Rental, £ ^j-.?,"^^"/"?! ' ■^ Mtlhan Sterling 1840 • . , • . ... ,,. 377 1863 16,000,000 ... 544 1871 19,000,000 ... 661 1885 34,700,000 ... 1,182 The accuracy of Dr. Bodio's estimate for 1885 is borne out by the fact that the prices obtained for Church-lands sold by Government in 1870-77 in all parts of Italy gave a medium oi £i(> per acre, ranging from £?> in Romagna to £">,(> in Piedmont. This average of £i(> for 70 million acres would show a total value of H20 millions. See Lands. Agricultural Capital Year 1840 1863 1871 1885 Millions, £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total 377 S44 661 1,182 30 45 60 83 45 66 80 140 452 655 801 1.405 The increase of capital was as follows : — Period Millions, £ Sterling 1840-63 203 1864-71 146 1872-85 604 46 years 953 £ per Annum 8,500,000 18,300,000 43, 100,000 20,700,000 It may be observed that the assessed rentals of 1863 and 1 87 1 were probably below the reality, in which case the increase of landed values and agricultural capital would be less than appears above. Spain About 37 per cent, of Spain is cultivated, 26 per cent, being pasture or forest, and 37 per cent, barren moun- tains. In former times the cultivated area was said to be much greater. Year Millions of Acres Authority Cultivated Uncultivated Total 1660 1803 1828 1876 43 60 23 32 78 61 98 89 121 121 121 121 Ozorio Registro Malchus Spallart The production of grain and wine has been as fol- lows : — Year Grain, Million Bushels Wine, Million Gallons Authority 1803 1828 1876 18S8 98 136 326 300 170 550 55° Registro Malchus N. Spallart ♦ MoniteurAgricole The distribution of area in 1876 and 1888 was variously stated, as follows : — Acres 1876 1888 Tillage Vineyards .... Olives Pasture, &c. . . . . Forest Waste 28,000,000 3,000,000 1,000,000 28,000,000 7,000,000 55,000,000 40,800,000 4,400,000 1,900,000 24,000,000 7,000,000 42,900,000 Total .... 121,000,000 121,000,000 The following statistics of live-stock are official, except Brachelli's for 1841 : — 1826 1841 1860 1880 Horses . . 900,000 1,000,000 1,080,000 1,830,000 Cattle . . . 2,950,000 3,000,000 1,870,000 3,090,000 Sheep . . . 13,000,000 14,000,000 17,600,000 22,800,000 Pigs . . . 2,730,000 1,000,000 1,610,000 4,465,000 Goats . . . 5,200,000 2,600,000 3,150,000 4,530,000 In the foregoing table horses include also mules and asses, one mule or four asses being equivalent to a horse : thus in 1880 the actual numbers were — horses, 670,000 ; mules, 940,000 ; and asses, 890,000. The production of meat at an average of 450 lbs. per beef carcase, 50 lbs. per sheep, 25 lbs. per goat, and 90 lbs. per pig, was as follows : — year Meat, Tons 1826 405,000 1841 300,000 • ■ . . 310,000 . . . . 525,000 i860 1880 Lbs. per Inhabitant 77 55 45 71 * N. Spallart's estimate was as follows :— Wheat, 168 • barley, 77 ; maize, 36 ; rye, 33 ; oats, 12 million bushels. ' AGRICULTURE 31 AGRICULTURE The fluctuations of live-stock were doubtless the result of civil wars. The value of the stock was approximately as follows ; — No. Value, £ per Head Horses . . . Cattle . . . Sheep . . . Pigs .... Goats . . . 1,830,000 3,090,000 22,800,000 4,465,000 4,530,000 36,600,000 30,900,000 18,200,000 6,700,000 2,300,000 20.0 10.0 0.8 i-S o-S Total . . 94,700,000 The value of products in 1886 was approximately thus: — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat . . Barley . . Maize . . Oats . . . Rye, &o. . 3,800,000 1,700,000 1,050,000 350,000 800,000 30,400,000 10,200,000 6,900,000 2,400,000 5,200,000 Wine . . . Vegetables, 1 Cork oil '. . Dairy . . Poultry . . Meat . Foals. . . Hides. 1 wool, &c. ) Sundries . 44,000,000 9,000,000 3,000,000 9,300,000 4,500,000 26,200,000 3,000,000 4,200,000 All grain Straw . . Hay . . . 7,700,000 8,000,000 6,000,000 55,100,000 6,000,000 9,000,000 70,100,000 Principal crops . 103,200,000 Agricultural products Animal products . . £ 126,100,000 47,200,000 Total 173.300.000 The value of products at various dates was as follows : — Year Millions, £ Sterling Authority Agricultural Pastoral Total 1808 1826 1832 18S6 54 56 86 126 19 21 16 47 73 77 102 173 Official Minano Arguelles Acres Rent, Shil- lings per Acre Value, Million £ Irrigated . . . Ordinary arable . Pasture, &c. . . Waste .... 2,000,000 30,000,000 34,000,000 55,000,000 80 12 4 240 540 204 Total . . 121,000,000 984 Agricultural Capital Millions, £ Sterling Land Catile Sundries Total 1832 . . 614 38 72 724 1888 . . 984 95 120 1,199 Spanish statistics are doubtful, being often official ex- aggerations. Portugal The estimates of Malchus, Brachelli, Tisserand, and the Statistique Agricole give the following : — Grain, Million Wine, Million ""'' Bushels Gallons 1827 21 ... 75 1850 30 1868 31 ... 132 1886 40 ... 125 The cultivated area is less than S million acres, that of waste land 17,600,000, the former being barely 21 per cent, of the kingdom. The crops in 1868 (latest complete returns) were as follows : — The Census of 1871 showed 2,723,000 persons engaged in agriculture ; the product therefore averages £64 per head. Land Value According to the report of the Junta de Medios, the total farming capital in 1832 was 724 millions sterling, between land, cattle, and sundries. The Embassy report of 1869 classified the land under three heads, with the respective rental values. If we capitalise the rental at thirty years, we find the values tlius : — The statistics of Portuguese live-stock were as follows :— Acres Bushels Value of Crops, £ Wheat Maize Barley Rye . Oats . Rice . 620,000 750,000 170,000 980,000 30,000 10,000 5,500,000 15,400,000 2,000,000 7,000,000 500,000 400,000 1,600,000 2,800,000 260,000 770,000 70,000 80,000 All grain Vines . Gardens Olives . Meadow Fallow . Forest . 2,560,000 480,000 200,000 100,000 500,000 750,000 250,000 30,80 132,00 0,000 0,000 5,580,000 8,000,000 1,800,000 500,000 2,120,000 T otal 4,840,000 18,000,000 Neumann Spallart gives the following for 1877 :— Acres Bushels Wheat .... 650,000 650,000 1,300,000 200,000 8,200,000 6,100,000 20,000,000 Barlev. &c 2,700,000 Total 2,800,000 37,000,000 Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs. Goats 1823 650,000 1,200,000 700,000 600,000 1850 120,000 750,000 1,980,000 750,000 1,500,000 1868 130,000 520,000 2,420,000 860,000 1883 140,000 625,000 2,980,000 970,000 940,000 Value in 18B3 £ 2,800,000 6,200,000 2,400,000 1,500,000 400,000 13,300,000 AGRICULTURE 32 AGRICULTURE The production of meat at the same weight of carcase as in Spain was : — Year Meat, Tons Lbs. fer Inhab. 1828 70,000 46 1868 77,000 41 1883 9S.OOO 49 The value of products in 18S6 was approximately thus : — Tons I Sundries I Wheat . . Maize . . Rye, &c. . 270,000 400,000 380,000 2,200,000 2,400,000 2,400,000 Cork . . . Vegetables, 1 &c. . . 1 Poultry . . Dairy . . Meat . . . Hides, &c. . Sundries 600,000 2,200,000 1,100,000 1,900,000 4,700,000 700,000 All grain . Hay and ) straw . ) Wine. . . 1,050,000 2,000,000 7,000,000 3,000,000 10,000,000 11,200,000 Principal 1 crops . ) 20,000,000 Agricultural products Animal products . Total 23,000,000 8,200,000 31,200,000 According to the Census of 1861, the number of persons engaged was 870,000, of whom 310,000 in pasture. Ratio of product j^35 per head. The landed value is approximately as follows : — Area Value, Million £, Per Acre, Cultivated . . . Pasture .... Waste .... 5,000,000 7,000,000 10,450,000 go 42 18 6 Total . . . 22,450,000 132 Agricultural capital is only about £},(> per head of the total population, being made up thus : — Millions £ Land ....... 132 Cattle 13 Sundries 16 Total . . . .161 The value of products is 19 per cent, on the capital. Sweden Agriculture was in its infancy till 18 18, when the nobles (whose estates were heavily encumbered) began to sell their lands to the peasants ; by the yeai 1840 they had sold 16 million acres. As a consequence, we find that the cultivated area increased by 140,000 acres per annum between 18 12 and 1837, and by 165,000 per The following are the returns of live-stock : — annum between the latter year and 1884, as ofBcial returns show : — Year Acres Cultivated Million Bushels Grain Potatoes i8i» . . . 1837 . . . 1859 . . . 1876 . . . 1887 . . . 1,360,000 4,830,000 11,590,000 12,200,000 I 28 39 80 106 16 21 39 . 59 Only 12 per cent, of the kingdom is cultivated, area in 1886 showing : — Acres Cultivated 12,200,000 Forest 44,900,000 Waste 43,200,000 the Total 100,300,000 The principal crops of recent years compare with those of 1837 thus : — 1837 1880 1386 Wheat, bushels . Rye, „ . Barley, Oats, &c., ,, Potatoes, ,, 500,000 4,500,000 3,600,000 5,200,000 8,200,000 3,100,000 18,300,000 14,300,000 54,700,000 55,400,000 3,700,000 19,600,000 15,600,000 63,600,000. 49,100,000- Total . . 22,000,000 145,800,000 151,600,000 The production of meat, at 500 lbs. per beef carcase, 56 lbs. per sheep, and 100 lbs. per pig, was as follows : — Year 1837 1870 1886 Afea/, Tons . 106,000 120,000 140,000 Lbs, per Inhabitant 78 63 62 The yield of grain is poor. Oats and barley, fourfold ; rye, fivefold; and wheat, in good years, sixfold; potatoes give sevenfold. The value of products in 1886 was as follows : — Tons £ Sundries £, Wheat . . Oats . . . Barley . . Rye, &c. . 100,000 950,000 350,000 750,000 800,000 5,700,000 2,200,000 5,000,000 Vegetables . Timber . . Poultry . . Dairy . . Meat . . . Foals . . . Tallow . . Hides, 1 wool, &c. ( Sundries . 2,300,000. 8,000,000. 1,200,000. 7,000,000. All grain Straw . , Hay . . . Potatoes . . 2,150,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 1,200,000 13.700,000 1,500,000 3,000,000 2,400,000 7,000,000 1,200,000 600,000 1,200,000 Principal \ crops . ) 20,600,000 28,500,000 1836 1860 1870 1880 1886 Approximate Value in 1886, £. Horses .... Cattle .... Sheep .... Pigs Goats .... 385,000 1,660,000 1,410,000 500,000 100,000 400,000 1,920,000 1,640,000 460,000 130,000 430,000 1,970,000 1,600,000 350,000 120,000 460,000 2,230,000 1,460,000 450,000 110,000 485,000 2,380,000 1,440,000 550,000 90,000 9,700,000 23,800,000 1,200,000 1,100,000 50.000 35.850,000 *i -_ Besides the foregoing, there are 220,000 reindeer. AGRICULTURE Agricultural products . Pastoral products Total 31,100,000 18,000,000 49,100,000 33 T AGRICULTURE The number of hands engaged in agriculture is 853,000, which gives an average product of ;^57 per head. Landed Value Two ofEcial valuations exist — that of 1836, amounting to 33 millions sterling, and that of 1 880, which reached millions sterling. We can also determine the value in 1818-20, the average price then obtained by the nobles being l8d. per acre — say ;f 8,000,000 for the whole kingdom. Year Agricultural Capital, Millions £, Land Cattle Sundries Total 1818 . . . 1837 . . . 8 33 10 13 2 S 20 SI See Part II., page 622. Norway Agriculture has not made so much progress as in Sweden. We have no statistics earlier than 1835, since The following are the official returns of live-stock : — which date the area under grain and potatoes and the yield have been as follows : — "^ear Acres Million Bushels 1835 360,000 13 1855 31 1865 530,000 32 1875 560,000 36 Not more than 5 per cent, of the country is cultivated, viz. (1880) :— Acres Cultivated 4,060,000 Forest 15,800,000 Waste 58,840,000 Total 78,700,000 The yield per acre has notably improved since 1835, viz. : — Bushels per Acre 1835 1875 \Vheat 13 20 Oats 26 40 Nevertheless the climate is so little suited to cereals that we notice hardly any increase in the quantity pro- duced, except in potatoes, viz. : — 1855 1866 1875 Acreage in 1875 Wheat . . Barley . . Oats . . . Rye, &c. . Potatoes . Bushels 200,000 3,500,000 8,100,000 3,000,000 16,500,000 Bushels 270,000 3,400,000 7,900,000 2,630,000 18,000,000 Bushels 280,000 4,300,000 8,900,000 3,120,000 19,600,000 11,000 138,000 224,000 99.000 86,000 Total 31,300,000 32,200,000 36,200,000 558.000 1836 1845 1855 1865 1875 Approximate Value in 1875, {, Horses Cattle . ... Sheep Pigs Goats Reindeer 110,000 640,000 1,030,000 80,000 180,000 80,000 130,000 840,000 1,450,000 90,000 290,0000 90,000 150,000 950,000 1,600,000 110,000 360,000 120,000 150,000 1 150,000 950,000 1,020,000 1,700,000 1,690,000 100,000 100,000 290,000 , 320,000 100,000 j 100,000 3,000,000 10,200,000 1,400,000 200,000 200,000 150,000 Total ... ... 15,150,000 The production of meat at the same weight of carcase as in Sweden was : — Year Meat, Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant 1835 • ■ 44,000 80 1855 • 64,000 95 1875 . . 67,000 ■/8 The value of products in 1886 was approximately thus: — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat . . . Barley . . . Oats. . . . Rye, &c. . . 7,000 100,000 150,000 73.000 60,000 640,000 900,000 500,000 Vegetables . Timber . . Dairy . . . Pouhry . . Meat 1,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 500,000 3,300,000 400,000 800,000 All grain . . Potatoes . . 330,000 490,000 2,100,000 1,000,000 Foals . . . Hides, &c. . Sundries . . Hay and straw Principal crops 13,000,000 4,000,000 Agricultural products Animal products Total £ 9,000,000 8,000,000 17,000,000 The number of hands employed is about 380,000. See Part II., page 622. AGRICULTURE 34 AGRICULTURE Denmark Malchus estimated the grain product in 1828 at 40 million bushels ; Brachelli, in 1850, at 65 millions. The agricultural area of Denmark and the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein in 1834 was stated thus : — Arable . Meadow Forest . Waste, &c. Total Acres 8,630,000 605,000 538,000 637,000 10,410,000 Acreage Million Bushels 1866 1876 1881 18781886 Wheat . . . 120,000 150,000 140,000 ■; ■; Barley . . . 680,000 760,000 780,000 2S 2.3 Oats . . . 830,000 940,000 990,000 .31 3.3 Rye, &c. . . 750,000 950,000 1,010,000 24 2.'; Potatoes . . 85,000 100,000 110,000 10 14 Turnips, &c. . 42,000 40,000 85,000 i.S 29 Garden . . . 50,000 60,000 Fallow . . . 440,000 610,000 640,000 Grass . . . 2,670,000 3,070,000 3,560,000 Forest . . 400,000 400,000 400,000 Waste . . . 2,553,000 1,500,000 795,000 ... Total . . 8,570,000 8,570,000 8,570,000 From 1866 to 1876 the reclamation of waste lands averaged 100,000 acres yearly, and from 1876 to 1881 no less than 140,000 yearly. Most of it went into meadow and pasture. Wheat averages 28 bushels an acre, and yields ninefold; other grain, eightfold; clover, two tons per acre. Statistics of live-stock (those for 1830 includ- ing Schleswig-Holstein) show as follows : — Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs . 1830 550,000 1,610,000 1,900,000 450,000 1866 1876 1881 Approxi- mate Value in 1881, £ 350,000 350,000^ 350,00011,000,000 1,190,0001,350,0001,470,00016,100,000 1,880,0001,720,0001,550,000 1,500,000 380,000! 500,000' 530,000 1,200,000 29,800,000 The conquest of Schleswig-Holstein by Germany in 1864 caused a great diminution in the live-stock of Denmark. The production of meat, at 560 lbs. per beef carcase, 56 lbs. per sheep, and 1 12 lbs. per pig, was : — Year Meat, Tons ,^na/uant 1850 76,000 130 1866 92,000 120 1881 108,000 120 Official returns regarding Denmark proper show as follows : — Tons £. Sundries £. Wheat . . . Barley . . . Oats. . . . Rye, &o. . . 140,000 520,000 560,000 600,000 1,200,000 3,500,000 3,900,000 4,000,000 Roots . . Vegetables Timber . Poultry . Dairy . . Meat . . Foals . . Hides, &c. Sundries , 1,100,000 1,000,000 200,000 500,000 6,400,000 5,400,000 1,100,000 1,500,000 All grain . . Straw . . . Hay. . . . Potatoes . . 1,820,000 2,000,000 900,000 700,000 12,600,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,400,000 17,200,000 Principal crops ... 17,600,000 Agricultural products Animal products 19,800,000 15,000,000 34,800,000 The values, approximately, of products in 1850 compart with those of i886 thus : — Year Millions, £, Sterling Agricultural Pastoral Total 1850 1886 13 20 9 IS 22 3S Agricultural hands 420,000, showing an average of ;f 84 per head. Landed Value The valuation of 1830 for landed estates amounted to ;^25,6co,ooo. The Embassy report of 1869 gives average prices which would sum up thus : — Acre Per Acre, £ Value, Million £ Arable . . Grass . . . Waste 2,950,000 3,070,000 2,550,000 35 23 103 70 Total . . . 8,570,000 173 At the same valuation per acre as in i S69 the landed value would now stand as follows : — Acres Value, £ Per Acre, £ Arable .... Grass .... Forest .... Waste .... 3,815,000 3,560,000 400,000 795,000 133.500.000 81,900,000 2,000,000 35 23 S Total . . . 8,570,000 217,400,000 ... The Government valuation for 1884 gives real estate 257 millions sterling, but this includes urban house pro- perty as well as lands. Year 1840 1869 1889 Agricultural Capital, Millions £ Land Cattle Sundries Total 26 173 217 16 19 30 21 27 46 213 274 The product in 1889 was 13 per cent, on capital. The increase of capital was as toUows : — Interval Millions, £ Per Annum, £ 1830-69 167 ... 4,200,000 1870-89 61 ... 3,050,000 For Tenure, &c., see Land. Holland Tillage forms a secondary industry in Dutch agricul- ture. The production of grain, according to BracheUi and others, was as follows : — Year 1828 [861 tS85 Bushels 16,000,000 34,000,000 40,000,000 AGRICULTURE 35 AGRICULTURE The reports of 1879 and 1885 compare as follows : — Acres Average for 1871-80 1879 1885 Acres Bushels Grain . Potatoes Beetroot Sundries Grass . Forest 1,570,000 350,000 40,000 130,000 2,940,000 530,000 2,240,000 1,460,000 350,000 60,000 280,000 2,950,000 560,000 2,140,000 Wheat .... Rye Oats Barley .... Buckwheat, &o. , Total . 210,000 500,000 270,000 120,000 280,000 5,200,000 9,500,000 10,500,000 5,000,000 5,800,000 Waste. 1,380,000 36,000,000 Tot il 7,800,000 7,800,000 The statistics of live-stock showed as follows :- 1840 1860 1870 1881 Horses . . 210,000 240,000 250,000 270,000 Cattle . . 1,050,000 1,250,000 1,410,000 1,480,000 Sheep . . 720,000 870,000 900,000 750,000 Pigs . . . 270,000 330,000 430,000 Goats . . 110,000 140,000 160,000 The production of meat, at 700 lbs. per beef carcase, 70 lbs. per sheep, and 120 lbs. per pig, was as follows : — ^""- ^""- ^""^ Int'HiTnt i860 .... 104,000 62 1870 .... 118,000 67 1884 .... 125,000 69 The value of products in Holland in 1886 was approxi- jiately as follows : — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat . . Rye . . . Oats . . . Barley . . Buckwheat, &c. . ■ 140,000 270,000 250,000 100,000 140,000 1,200,000 1,900,000 1,700,000 700,000 900,000 Beetroot . Vegetables Poultry . . Flax . . Meat . . Tallow . . Dairy . . Foals . . Hides, &c. . Sundries . 300,000 3,000,000 1,200,000 300,000 6,200,000 400,000 9,500,000 900,000 1,000,000 All grain Potatoes . . Straw . . Hay . . . 900,000 1,600,000 900,000 3,000,000 6,400,000 3,200,000 900,000 6,000,000 22,800,000 Principal crops . ... 16,500,000 Agricultural products . Animal products . Products of Holland £ 20,100,000 19,200,000 39,300,000 The value of products in 1850 compares with the above thus : — Year Millions, £ Sterling Agricultural Pastoral Total 1850 .... 1886 .... 12 20 10 19 22 39 Agricultural hands, 840,000, showing £^6 per head. Land Value In 1836 the value of the kingdom (excluding waste land) was estimated thus : — Good . Inferior Total . Acres 2,000,000 3,300,000 5,300,000 Per Acre, £ Value, Million £ S4 30 108 99 207 The Bulletin Statistique for 1886 states the value at 314 millions sterling, an increase of 107 millions in 50 years : — Year Agricultural Capital, Million £ Land Cattle Sundries Total 1836 . . . 1886 . . . 207 314 14 28 24 38 24s 380 The increase averaged pf 2, 700,000 per annum. The product in 1885 was only 10 per cent on capital. Belgium The production of grain and potatoes has been, accord- ing to Malchus and the official returns, as follows : — Year Acres Grain, Million Bushels Potatoes, Tons 1828 1846 1856 1866 1880 1886 2,340,000 2,900,000 2,880,000 33 70 7S 74 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,700,000 2,800,000 3,000,000 The distribution of area in Belgium is shown officially as follows : — Acreage Average Product Official 1856 1866 1880 for Years 1871-80 Valuation Grain . Potatoes Beetroot Flax . Grass . } 2,480,000 370,000 20,000 80,000 1,170,000 400,000 2,760,000 2,480,000 420,000 go,ooo 140,000 1,340,000 640,000 1,070,000 1,100,000 2,390,000 490,000 150,000 100,000 1,420,000 420,000 1,210,000 1,100,000 Wheat Rye ... . Oats .... Barley. Buckwheat, &c. . All grain . Potatoes Beetroot Hay ... . Tons 430,000 420,000 390,000 80,000 130,000 £ 5,400,000 3,600,000 3,300,000 700,000 1,200,000 Sundries forest . Waste . 1,450,000 2,490,000 2,050,000 K.saOiOOQ J. 14,200,000 9,200,000 1,600,000 Tota 1 . • 7,280,00c 7,280,000 7,a8o,ooo zo,«Qo,aoo AGRICULTURE 36 AGRICULTURE The average of ten years to 1880 gave the weight of seed and the crop to the acre as follows : — Wheat . Rye . . Oats . . Barley . Seed, lbs. per Acre "3 107 173 123 Crop, lbs. per Acre 1,360 1,300 1,520 1,610 Yield to I lb. Seed 12.0 12.1 8.8 13- 1 The acreage of the principal kinds of grain at various dates was as follows : — 1816 1856 1866 1880 Wheat . . Rye . . . Oats . . . Barley . . 580,000 700,000 500,000 100,000 660,000 720,000 550,000 110,000 700,000 710,000 570,000 110,000 690,000 690,000 620,000 100,000 Total . 1,880,000 2,040,000 2,090,000 2,100,000 Returns of live-stock are as follows : — 1840 1866 1880 Approximate Value in 1880 Horses . Cattle . . Sheep . . Pigs . . Goats . . 246,000 910,000 750,000 420,000 So,ooo 280,000 1,240,000 600,000 630,000 200,000 270,000 1,380,000 370,000 650,000 250,000 £ 5,400,000 16,600,000 300,000 1,300,000 100,000 Year Meat, Tons The production of meat, at 600 lbs. per beef carcase, 70 lbs, per sheep, and 112 lbs. per pig, was : — Lis, per Inhabitant 1840 ^ . . . . 77,000 43 1866 ' . . , . 106,000 54 iSSo .... 110,000 43 The official valuation of products gave the following average for ten years ending 1880 : — £ Grain 21,700,000 Green crops 6,400,000 Hay 10,200,000 Sundries 18,200,000 All crops 56,500,000 Cattle products 9,500,000 Total 66,000,000 The actual values at present are much lower. The value of all products in 1886 was approximately as follows : — Tons j £ Sundries £ Wheat . . Spelt . . . Barley . . Oats . . . Rye, &c. . 450,000 150,000 80,000 490,000 450,000 4,050,000 1,200,000 500,000 3,400,000 3,050,000 Vegetables. Timber . . Beetroot . Flax . . . Turnips Poultry . . Dairy . . Meat . . Hides and foals . ; Sundries . 4,500,000 800,000 1,600,000 2,700,000 1,800,000 1,600,000 5,000,000 5,500,000 2,000,000 All grain Straw . . Hay . . . Potatoes 1,620,00012,200,000 i,6oo,cioo| 1,600,000 5,000,000 10,000,000 3,000,000 6,000,000 Principal 1 crops . \ 29,800,000 25,500,000 Agricultural products Animal products . Total £ 41,200,000 14,100,000 55,300,000 The number of adults engaged in 1880 was 980,000. This gives an average of ;^s6 per head. Landed Value An official report, dated 1886, gives the rental and the selling price of land (under cultivation) at various dates as follows : — Year 1846 1856 1866 1880 Rent, Shillings per Acre . 22.2 . 26.4 ■ 32-S . 36.6 Price, £fer Acre 42 54 66 67 The value of lands in i? follows : — 1 was officially set down as Acres £ £ per Acre Arable .... Meadow . , . Forest .... Waste .... 3,960,000 970,000 1,210,000 1,140,000 271,800,000 64,500,000 39,200,000 1,800,000 67 67 33 1-5 Total . . . 7,280,000 377,300,000 According to the preceding scale Ihe value at various dates was as follows :- Acres Value, Millions, J^ 1846 1366 1866 1880 1846 1856 1866 1880 Cultivated .... Forest Waste 3,930,000 1,400,000 1,950,000 4,520,000 1,300,000 1,460,000 5,110,000 1,070,000 1,100,000 4,970,000 1,210,000 1,100,000 165 29 2 243 35 2 337 35 2 336 39 2 Total 7,280,000 7,280,000 7,280,000 7,280,000 196 280 374 377 Year Agricultural Capital, Millions, £, Land Cattle Sundries Total 1846 . . . 1856 . . . 1866 . . . 1880 . . , . 196 280 374 377 16 18 20 24 23 33 44 44 , 23s 331 438 445 The increase of capital was as follows :- Interval Millions, ^ £ per Annum 1846-56 1856-66 1866-80 34 years . . . . 96 107 7 210 9.600,000 10,700,000 500,000 6,200,000 AGRICULTURE 37 AGRICULTURE Mr. Block estimated the value of all products in 1850 at 21 millions sterling, being about 7 percent, on capital. In l886 it was, as already shown, 55 millions, say 12J per cent, on capital. Switzerland OfiBcial returns are as follows : — Tillage' . Meadow Vineyards Pasture . Forest . Waste . Total area Acres 1,450,000 1,600,000 70,000 1,960,000 1,760,000 2,550,000 9,390,000 Live-stock, according to Schnabel and later authorities, showed thus : — 1830 ; 1842 1 1862 1861 1886 Horses . . 94,000 98,000 Cattle . . 800,000 815,000 950,000 940,000 1,210,000 Sheep . . 500,000 465,000 550,000 430,000 340,000 Pigs . . . 250,000 310,000 280,000 330,000 395,000 Goats . . ... 346,000 370,000 420,000 The production of meat is about 82,000 tons yearly. The value of all products in 1886 was approximately thus : — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat . . . Barley . . . Oats. . . . Rye ... . SS.ooo 4S.OOO 80,000 210,000 500,000 300,000 500,000 1,300,000 Vegetables, 1 Poultry .' . Dairy . . Timber . . Meat. . . Foals . . Hides, &c. . Sundries . 1,500,000 900,000 4,800,000 All grain . . Hay and straw Wine . . . 390,000 1,700,000 2,600,000 2,000,000 1,400,000 4,100,000 300,000 500,000 Principal crops ... 6,000,000 13,300,000 Agricultural products Animal products . £ 9,000,000 10,300,000 Total . . 19,300,000 Agricultural capital is approximately as follows :- £ Land, cultivated .... 93,000,000 Forest, &c 27,000,000 Cattle 10,000,000 Sundries 14,000,000 Total . ,- 144,000,000 The annual product is about 13^ per cent, on capital. Greece The ofEcial report for i8Ss gives the following ; — Acres Sundries Acres Grain .... Olives .... Currants . . . Grapes .... Tobacco . . ) Cotton ... 1 2.000,000 325,000 125,000 250,000 250,000 Fallow . . . Gardens . . . Meadows . . Pasture . . . Forest . . . Waste . . . Sundries . . . 1,000,000 40,000 1,000,000 5,000,000 1,500,000 4,510,000 Principal crops . 2,950,000 13,050,000 Live-stock comprised 160,000 horses, 164,000 cattle, 3,460,000 sheep, 45,000 pigs, and 2,510,000 goats, re- presenting an aggregate value of 24 millions sterling. The value of products in ih&S was approximately as follows : — Tons £ Sundries £■ Wheat . . Barley . . Rye . . . Maize . . 190,000 70,000 20,000 100,000 1,600,000 500,000 130,000 670,000 Wine . . Timber . . Olives . . Vegetables . Dairy and ) poultry ) Meat. . . Foals,hides 1 &c. . f Sundries . 2,500,000 800,000 900,000 1,100,000 All grain . Hay and 1 straw . J Currants 380,000 1,200,000 120,000 2,900,000 2,000,000 3,100,000 1,400,000 2,500,000 1,700,000 Principal crops . 8,000,000 10,900,000 Agricultural products Animal products . Total . 13,700.000 5,200,000 . 18,900,000 In 1836 the Government sold the productive land at ;^3 an acre — say, in all, 15 millions sterling. In 1869 the Embassy report makes the arable land worth about ;^22 an acre, the rest £$, viz. : — Acres Per Acre, £ Value, Millions £ Arable .... Pasture. . . . 1,800,000 3,200,000 22 S 40 16 Total . . 5,000,000 11 S6 The acquisition of Thessaly, in 1881, added 5000 square miles to the area of Greece, and the present landed value, at the prices of the Embassy report of 1869, would be as follows : — Acres Value, £ Cultivated .... Pasture Forest Waste 5,000,000 5,000,000 1,500,000 4,500,000 110,000,000 25,000,000 3,000,000 Total . . . 16,000,000 138,000,000 See Part II., page 624. ROUMANIA The latest returns give the acreage as follows : — Acres Acres Grain . . . Meadow . . Vines . . . 7,500,000 1,400,000 300,000 Pasture . . Forest . . . Waste . . Uncultivated 6,500,000 5,200,000 10,000,000 Cultivated . . • 9,200,000 21,700,000 Spallart says that the production of grain in 1 876 was 20 per cent, greater than ten years before. The weight AGRICULTURE 38 AGRICULTURE oi crops is variously estimated from 100 to no million bushels. The latest returns of live-stock show 600,000 horses, 2,380,000 cattle, 4,650,000 sheep, 2,310,000 pigs, and 190,000 goats, representing an aggregate value of about 37 millions sterling. The production of meat is approximately as follows :— Tons Value, £ Beef. . . . 106,000 4,500,000 Mutton . . . 41,000 1,800,000 Pork . . . 100,000 4,500,000 Total 247,000 10,800,000 The value of all products may be put down approxi- mately thus : — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat . . Barley . . Maize . . Rye, &c. . 700,000 330,000 1,600,000 220,000 5,000,000 2,000,000 9,000,000 1,300,000 Vegetables Meat . . Dairy . . Poultry . . Timber . . Foals . . Tallow . . Hides, 1 wool, &0. ) Sundries 2,500,000 10,800,000 4,800,000 1,100,000 900,000 1,200,000 700,000 1,200,000 AU grain Straw . . Hay . . . Wine, gallons 2,850,000 3,000,000 1,400,000 40,000,000 17,300,000 1,500,000 2,100,000 3, 100,000 Principal ) crops ) - 24,0C0,00O 23,200,000 Agricultural products Animal products Total £ 27,400,000 19,800,000 47,200,000 The value of the land appears to be approximately as follows : — • Acres Value, £ Cultivated .... Forest and pasture . Waste 9,200,000 11,700,000 10,000,000 184,000,000 70,000,000 Total . . . 30,900,000 254,000,000 See Part II., page 624. Servia The total area of this little kingdom is thus dis- tributed : — Acres Acres Grain .... Vines .... Meadow . . . 1,160,000 440,000 600,000 Forest . . . Pasture . . . Waste . . . Uncultivated . 2,200,000 6,170,000 1,430,000 Cultivated . . 2,200,000 9,800,000 An official report for 1887, not trustworthy, gives as follows : — Acres Grain and wine .... 7,030,000 Forest 2,200,000 Waste, &c 2,770,000 fotal 12,000,000 The apparent error in this report is including pasture- land as grain-bearing. The crops have been sometimes said to reach 20 million bushels, but Spallart says 14 millions, and the average weight seems to be 16 millions bushels. The value of product is approximately thus : — Tons £ Sundries £ Wheat . . Barley . . Maize . . Oats, rye, 1 &c. . . ] 100,000 70,000 130,000 100,000 700,000 400,000 700,000 600,000 Vegetables Timber . . Poultry . . Dairy . . Meat . . Foals . . Tallow . . Hides, \ wool, &0. / Sundries . 1,000,000 400,000 400,000 2,000,000 4,000,000 400,000 300,000 500,000 All grain Straw . . Hay . . . Wine, galls. 400,000 400,000 600,000 16,000,000 2,400,000 200,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 9,000,000 Principal 1 crops . ) 4,800,000 Agricultural products . Animal products Total £ 6,200,000 7,600,000 13,800,000 Statistics of live-stock in 1882 were: — Horses, 160,000; cattle, 960,000 ; sheep, 3,600,000; pigs, 1,700,000; and goats, I00,C00 — representing a total value of nearly 16 millions sterling. The production of meat was about 90,000 tons. The value of land was approximately thus : — Acres £ Cultivated .... Pasture Forest Waste 2,200,000 6,200,000 2,200,000 1,400,000 44,000,000 37,000,000 13,000,000 Total . . . 12,000,000 94,000,000 Agricultural capital is approximately as follows : — Millions, £ Land 94 Cattle 16 Sundries 12 Total . . . 122 The product is about iij per cent, on capital, and £2Z per head of adults engaged. Bulgaria The area, including Eastern Roumelia, is somewhat larger than that of Ireland, viz. : — Acres Bulgaria proper .... 16,000,000 Eastern Roumelia .... 8,300,000 Total 24,300,000 The extent under grain in Eastern Roumelia is 1,660,000 acres, and in Bulgaria proper close on 4,000,000 acres. The crops of Bulgaria proper average 44 million bushels, of which 23 millions are wheat. The total grain crop of the Principality must be over 60 million bushels, or approximately 1,500,000 tons, representing a value of 10 millions sterling. Turkey Agriculture is very backward, owing to the despotism of the Pashas and the exactions of money-lenders. Every province, meantime, has its own features and modes of AGRICULTURE 39 AGRICULTURE agriculture. If we include the territories taken from Turkey by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, we find as follows : — Acres Population Acre per Inhabitant Bosnia-Herzegovina Bulgaria .... Turkey proper . . 15,000,000 24,300,000 41,000,000 1,500,000 3,150,000 4.350.000 10 8 94 Turkey in Europe 80,300,000 9,000,000 9 Mr. Spallart compares the average grain crops of 1881- 85 with those of 1868 thus :— 1881-85, Millions of Bushels 1868 Bosnia Bulgaria Eur. Turkey Total Wheat . ; Maize . . Barley . . Rye, &c. . 2 3 2 I 23 7 II 3 22 8 12 IS 47 18 25 19 39 30 25 13 Total . 8 44 57 109 107 Bosnia and Bulgaria have been already described. One of the most productive provinces in Turkey was Bessarabia, which was transferred to Russia by the Berlin Treaty of 1878 : it is rich in corn and wine. The vineyards often yield per acre 300 gallons of wine, worth ;^i8 ; and the grain farms 60 bushels of maize per acre. The serfs were emancipated in 1870, the Boyars or nobles being com- pelled to either give the tenant half his farm gratis or sell the whole for 26s. per acre. Four hundred Boyars pre- ferred the former, and let the remainder of their lands at 5s. an acre. In 1874 there were 350,000 small land- owners whose farms averaged 30 acres each, maize being the chief product. Turkey proper is held partly by Pashas, who let the lands in small farms of 20 acres to Murabas, on the "metayer" system, the tenant giving half the crops in lieu of rent ; partly by peasant proprietors in 50-acre farm- lots, viz. : — Number of Farms Acres Murab^ Peasant landowners . 650,000 600,000 13,000,000 29,700,000 Total . . . 1,250,000 42,700,000 The price of arable land ranges from ;^20 to £(io per acre, and it may be rented from 20s. to 40s. per annum. Waste land sells at £•>, per acre. Live-stock is supposed to comprise 600,000 horses, 1,000,000 cattle, and :o,ooo,ooo sheep, besides numbers of goats, pigs, and poultry. Epirus is backward, the labours of the field devolving mostly on women, and large tracts of good land lying waste for want of hands to cultivate it. The country about Adrianople, on the other hand, is progressive, the use of steam-threshers being general. Oxen and buffaloes are employed for ploughing; wheat and maize are the chief crops. The area under crops is not known ; pro- bably about 8 or 10 million acres. The grain crops may be put down roughly at 80 million bushels. Asia Minor This portion of the Turldsh Empire is sometimes called Anatolia, with an area of 220,000 square miles or 141 million acres, and a population of about 5,000,000 souls About one-third of the area is actually farmed, either as Murabis on the "metayer" system, or by the tenant proprietors, viz. : — Number of Farms Acres Average Farm, Acres Murabas . . Proprietors . . i,39S,ooo 1,284,000 28,000,000 22,000,000 20 18 Total . . 2,679,000 50,000,000 19 Such is the want of roads, that the freight of a ton of grain loo miles would be £,^, or about the value of the grain. Tithes are oppressive, as well as transit custom- dues on products going from one province to another. Most of the lands, moreover, belong to the State or to the Vacouf institutions ; and although the soil is fertile, no progress is made. Smyrna or Ardin is the best part of Asiatic Turkey, with an area of 35,500 square miles or 22 million acres, and a population of 1,000,000, nine-tenths Moslems. Most of the territory consists of Chiftliks or large estates, worked by the peasants on the Murabi system. Some small proprietors have bought their farms at 40s. pet acre, the lowness of price being the result of heavy taxa- tion, viz. : — 1st, one-tenth of all crops and fruit to the State ; 2nd, four per mil, equal to one penny yearly for each £ of selling value of land and houses, or about 4 per cent, on the rental value ; 3rd, a charge of 5 per cent, on every transfer ; 4th, a cattle-tax of 32d. per sheep, and 2 id. per pig or goat yearly. Land is allowed to lie fallow every third year. The ordinary yield of crops is wheat or barley twelve-fold, beans twenty-fold, maize thirty-fold. Vallonia is an important crop, Smyrna exporting 100,000 tons yearly. Egypt The area under tillage has almost trebled in fifty years, the official report published in 1 888 containing the follow- ing table : — Year Acres under Crops Year Acres under Crops 1833 1840 1863 1,930,000 4,020,000 4,570,000 1875 1880 1888 4,890,000 4,960,000 5,080,000 A statement of the crops in 1834 was as follows : — 18 million bushels grain, 22 million lbs. raw cotton, 5000 tons tobacco, 3000 tons flax, and 1 600 tons sugar, re- presenting a total value of ;£'4,ooo,ooo sterling. When Mehemet Ali was dying, in 1848, he could boast that in his reign Egypt had more than doubled the area under crops. Progress was also made under his grandson. Abbas, and still more under Ismail Pacha, from 1863 to 1879, in which period were made 8400 miles of canals, irrigating 1,370,000 acres, the cultivation of cotton being specially stimulated by high prices con- sequent on the American war. The cotton crop is shown for the last sixty-seven years as follows : — Period Million lbs. Yearly Value Price per Lb. I 1821-30 . . . 14 392,000 6.7 1831-40 . . . 18 677,000 9.0 1841-50 . . . 24 504,000 5-0 1851-60 . . . SI 1,120,000 S-3 1861-70 . . . 127 6,860,000 13.0 1871-80 . . . 237 7,580,000 7.7 1881-87 . . . 288 7,490,000 6.2 AGRICULTURE 40 AGRICULTURE The distribution of tillage in 18S8 was as follows :- Acres Crop, Tons Wheat .... Maize .... Barlev .... Peas,'&c 1,290,000 710,000 540,000 1,955,000 500,000 300,000 160,000 900,000 AU grain .... Coiton .... Clover .... 4,495,000 900,000 980,000 1,860,000 130,000 2,000,000 Tot.-il 6,375,000 Some of the land bears double crops, which accounts for the discrepancy between this and the previous fable. There are 3,450,000 date-palms, producing annually 300,000 tons of fruit. There is room for further development, since there are still idle 2,200,000 acres suitable for tillage. More than three-fourths of the lands are State property, the Khedive holding 3,800,000 acres, which he lets to the Fellahs at a yearly rent of 8s. per acre in Upper Egypt and 30s. in the Nile Valley. A statement of tenure in 1879 was as follows : — Farmed by Title Acres Tax, ;^ Shillings per Acre Gentry . . Fellahs . . Do. . . Ouchour Karadji Abadich 1,329,000 3,514,000 620,000 470,000 3,850,000 500,000 7 22 16 Total . 5,463,000 4,828,000 18 An official return of the value of crops in 1884 was : — £ Sundries £ Grain .... Cotton .... Cotton-seed . . 13,300,000 7,900,000 1,400,000 Clover . . . Dates and sugar Lentils, flax, &c. 2,500,000 1,700,000 3,200,000 Principal crops . 22,600,000 Sundries . . . 7,400,000 Making a total of 30 millions sterling. The crop, however, depends so much on the Nile, that a difference The returns for 1886 were as follows : — of one too', in flood-level is worth ;^2,ooo,ooo, the a.verage Nile rising 24 feet. In ordinary years the cost of irrigation is 4s. an acre per annum. The agricultural condition of the country is shown thus : — Lower Egypt Upper Egypt Total Villages . 2,359 1,420 3.779 Inhabitants 3,180,000 2,630,000 5,810,000 Acres cultivated . 2,880,000 2,330,000 5,210,000 Horses and cattle 466,000 284,000 750,000 Sheep and goats 380,000 S5S.O0O 935,000 Date-palms 1,100,000 2,350,000 3,450,000 In Lower Egypt the soil gives four crops in three years ; in Upper Egypt seven crops in six years. Cyprus Area 2,300,000 acres, being 13 acres per inhabitant. The island is held partly by nobles, who have eighty Tchifliks or large estates, the rest being cut up in 70-acre farms belonging to peasant proprietors. The chief pro- ducts are : — Grain, 3 million bushels Wine, 450,000 gallons . Oil, 50,000 gallons Sundries . . . Total Value, £ 500,000 40,000 18,000 82,000 640,000 The farmers have 750,000 sheep, besides cows and horses. There are 600,000 carob or algarroba trees, covering an area of 20,000 acres, yielding 25,000 tons of locust-beans worth ;^7S,ooo, most of which goes to Scot- land to be made into whisky. Algeria The cultivated portion is about 16 per cent, of the total, viz.: — Under crops . Pasture . Forest and waste Total Acres 7,720,000 4,800,000 63,920,066 76,440,000 Acreage Crop, Tons European Arab Total European Arab Total Wheat Barley Oats Maize, &c 620,000 300,000 100,000 40,000 2,500,000 3,300,000 100,000 3,120,000 3,600,000 100,000 140,000 127,000 100,000 50,000 13,000 505,000 850,000 15,000 632,000 950,000 50,000 28,000 All grain 1,060,000 5,900,000 6,960,000 290,000 1,370,000 1,660,000 The European settlers had also 190,000 acres under vines, which produced 36 million gallons of wine in 1886, the yield in 1890 being expected to reach 60 million gallons. The tenure of land in 1886 was as follows :^ Province Acres held by Arabs Jews French Settlers Total Algiers . . Oran . . . Constantine 2,900,000 1,540,000 3,570,000 40,000 40,000 30,000 230,000 160,000 150,000 170,000 230,000 100,000 3,340,000 1,970,000 3,850,000 Total . 8,010,000 110,000 540,000 500,000 9,160,000 The returns of live-stock were : — Owned by Europeans Arabs Total Horses .... 1 51,000 260,000 311,000 Asses . 13,000 270,000 283,000 Camels . 300 275.500 275.800 Cattle . 137,000 1,060,000 1,197,000 Sheep . . j 321,000 9,036,000 9.357.000 Goats . . 1 74,000 4,592,000 4,666,000 Pigs. . 85,000 85,000 AGRICULTURE 41 AGRICULTURE The value of all live-stock was about 28 millions ster- ling ; the production of meat about 160,000 tons yearly. The grain crop has increased 50 per cent in the last twenty years. The value of products in 1886 was ap- proximately thus : — Wheat . . Barley, &c. . Wine . . , Principal ) crops ) 630,000 1,030,000 Tons Sundries 5,000,000 Meat . . . 6,200,000' Dairy and 1 2,200,000' poultry ) j Wool, 1 hides, &c. J 13,400,000 Sundries 6,400,000 2,600,000 3,300,000 12,300,000 United States Tillage was a chief occupation of the first settlers. In 1602 Captain Gosnold grew peas and beans in Massa- chusetts, and in 16 ii wheat was grown in Virginia. The Dutch of Manhattan (New York) sent home some wheat to Holland in 1626. Potatoes, previously unknown in North America, were introduced from England in 1629 and successfully grown in Massachusetts. Stebbins relates that in 1637 there were 100 ploughs at work in Virginia, and 37 in Massachusetts. In 1640 Mr. Endicott of Salem sold 500 fruit-trees for 250 acres of land, and in the pre- ceding year Manhattan apples were sent to Holland. South Carolina exported 700 bushels of potatoes in 1749. New York 70,000 barrels of flour in 1750. The produc- tion of grain in the eighteenth century can only be roughly estimated on the basis of population ; exact returns begin virith the year 1840. Grain Product, Million of Bushels Value of Crop; Year Produc- tion Home Consumption Exported Million £ 1700 S 5 I 1750 20 20 3 177s 60 60 8 1790 120 I20 14 1800 160 160 18 1820 343 336 7 3J 1830 4SS 8 46 1840 616 601 15 62 1850 867 85s 12 97 i860 1,240 1,220 20 173 1870 1,629 1.569 60 198 1880 2,718 2,425 293 276 1889 3.454 243 The production is at present 52 bushels per inhabitant, against 30 in the year 1800. It forms 33 per cent, of the whole grain-crop of the world, and the ratio per inhabitant is only approacned by Denmark, which has 42 bushels per inhabitant. The various crops since ] 840 show as follows : — Millions of Bushels . — Bushels Year SJ Ul s t^ ^ H per rt rt x: •c - ^ Inhabitant s ^ & k H 1840 378 123 85 4 26 616 36 1850 592 147 lOI 23 868 38 i860 840 173 173 16 38 1,240 40 1870 1,094 248 236 26 25 1,629 42 1880 I.7I7 418 499 45 39 2,718 54 1889 2,110 75° 490 64 40 3.454 53 The production of grain in various parts of the Union was as follows : — Millions of Bushels Year New England Middle States Southern Western Total 1840 22 135 280 179 616 1850 20 170 360 318 868 i860 21 204 412 603 1,240 1870 16 216 301 1,096 1,629 1880 18 233 442 2,025 2,718 1887 20 244 605 1.797 2,666 The ratio of bushels produced per inhabitant was follows : — Year New England Middle States Southern Western Union 1840 10 27 44 54 36 1850 7 25 43 57 38 i860 7 25 40 62 40 1870 5 22 27 61 42 1880 4 20 29 106 54 1887 5 18 36 78 44 The aggregate of crops of 1887 was 10 per cent, below the averse of 1884-88. The distribution of the various crops in 1887 compares with that of 1850 as follows : — Millions of Bushels States New England Middle . . Southern . . Western . . Union . , . 1850 1887 592 ! 175 20 170 360 318 868 ■ 456 103 474 870 1.456 108 84 S52 754 244 605 1.797 2,666 The progress of grain-growing in twenty years is shown in the Agricultural Report for 1889 as follows : Acreage Increase of 20 Years Per Cent. 1869 1870-79 1880-88 1889 Wheat Maize Oats. Barley Rye . Buckwhea 19,180,000 37,100,000 9,460,000 1,030,000 1,660,000 1,030,000 25,190,000 43,740,000 11,080,000 1,530,000 1,310,000 550,000 37,280,000 70,540,000 22,000,000 2,480,000 2,120,000 880,000 38,120,000 78,320,000 27,460,000 3,000,000 2,360,000 gio.ooo 18,940,000 41,220,000 18,000,000 1,970,000 700,000 99 III 190 191 42 All grain 69,460,000 83,400,000 135,300,000 150,170,000 80,710,000 116 AGRICULTURE 42 AGRICULTURE Value, £ Sterling , Increase of 20 Years Per Cent 1869 1870-79 1880-88 1889 Wheat Maize Oats. Barley Rye . Buckwhea 51,000,000 135,700,000 28,500,000 4,900,000 4,600,000 3,300,000 68,100,000 104,700,000 23,100,000 5,200,000 2,700,000 1,500,000 77,300,000 138,900,000 37,600,000 6,600,000 3,300,000 1,500,000 71,300,000 123,7*0,000 36,100,000 6,600,000 3,500,000 1,600,000 20,300,000 7,600,000 1,700,000 40 27 35 All grain • 228,000,000 205,300,000 265,200,000 242,800,000 13,200,000 l> Yield, Million Bushels w Per fH it i |8 Cent. Wheat . . . 260 310 450 490 230 88 Maize .... 870 1,180 1,700 2,110 1,240 142 Oats .... 290 310 580 750 460 1S8 Barley . . . 29 34 M 64 35 121 Rye .... 23 18 25 28 5 22 Buckwheat . . 17 10 II 12 All grain . . . 1,489 1,862 2,820 3.454 1,965 131 Average Bushels, per Acre Pence per Bushel 0. 1 ? ? e ? 186 870 rH s i i 1 ■^ ■^ Wheat . . 13s 12.4 12. 1 12.9 47 52 41 35 Maize . , 23.6 27.1 24.1 27.0 ?8 21 20 14 Oats . . 30.4 28.4 26.6 27.4 24 18 15 II Barley . . 27.9 22.0 21.7 21.3 41 .37 29 25 Rye. . . 1.1.5 14.1 11.9 12.0 48 35 31 29 Buckwheat 10.9 17.7 12.8 13.2 45 .30 .32 .32 All grain . 21.4 22.3 20.9 23.0 3b 27 23 17 Cotton Production, Million Lbs. Year Produc- tion Home Use Exported Value of Crop, Million £ 1800 36 16 20 2 1810 "S 20 95 5 1820 160 32 128 6 1830 350 52 298 6 1840 878 134 744 IS 1850 890 225 665 17 i860 1,880 434 1,446 40 1870 1,540 530 1,010 ' 41 1880 2,593 771 1,822 59 1888 3.440 1,060 2,380 61 The average crop is 190 lbs. ginned cotton per acre. The crop of cotton-seed usually reaches 3,000,000 tons, worth 22s. per ton. The production of colton in 1S40 and 1886 was as follovirs : — Millions of Lbs. Ratio 1840 1388 1840 1888 Mississippi 193 524 21.9 i:S-2 Georgia 163 464 18.S 13-5 Louisiana 153 220 17.4 b.4 Alabama 117 457 13-3 13-3 South Carolina .... 62 267 7-1 7.8 North Carolina .... 52 177 5-9 5-2 Arkansas, Tennessee, &c. 138 1,331 15-9 38.6 Total . . . 878 3.440 100. 100.0 Tobacco Production, Million Lbs. Year Produc- tion Home Use Export Value of Crop, £ 1800 107 18 89 1,300,000 i8io 117 25 92 1,200,000 1820 127 34 93 2,100,000 1830 142 46 96 2,600,000 1840 219 78 141 3,900,000 'ol° 250 82 168 5,300,900 i86o 303 110 193 3,700,000 1870 426 238 188 9,400,000 1880 460 243 217 7,500,000 1888 566 224 342 9,100,000 The production of tobacco in 1840 and 1886 was as follows : — Millions of Lbs. Ratio 1840 1886 1840 1 1886 Virginia Kentucky .... Tennessee .... Maryland .... North Carolina . . Other States . . . 75 S3 30 2S 17 19 94 194 32 25 32 152 34-3 24.2 13.8 II.4 7-7 8.6 18.6 36.2 6.0 4-7 6.0 28.5 Total . . . 219 529 100. 100.0 The production of butter and cheese in 1850 and 1880 was as follows : — Millions of Lbs. Milk, Million Butter Cheese Gallons 1850 1880 1850 1880 1880 New York Pennsylvania Ohio . . Illinois Indiana . Vermont . Virginia . Kentucky . Iowa . . Michigan . Wisconsin Missouri . Kansas . Tennessee Maine . . California Texas . . Other States 80 40 34 13 13 12 11 10 2 7 4 8 "s 9 2 60 112 79 67 54 37 25 21 18 SS 39 33 29 22 18 14 14 14 126 50 3 21 I I 9 1 I 1 2 ... '16 84 10 22 10 4 IS I 1 11 4 23 3 5 1 12 26 I 39 232 37 47 45 7 7 2 16 8 25 3 I I 4 12 I 79 Total • 313 777 106 272 530 AGRICULTURE 43 AGRICULTURE The production of other articles was as follows : 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1886 Sugar, million lbs. . . i.'i.S 248 269 166 246 240 Rice, ,, „ . . 8i 21s 187 74 110 Butter, ,, ,, . . .113 460 514 777 960 Cheese, , 106 104 IS3 272 s8o Wool .36 ,S2 112 162 233 320 Hay, tons .... 10 14 10 27 42 Potatoes, bushels . . 108 104 III 143 169 i68 Sugar is grown almost exclusively in Louisiana, rice in South Carolina and Georgia. The following table shows the area under farms : — Year Millions of Acres Improved Unimproved Total 1810. . . . 1850 1870 1880 1888 64 "3 Ifs 343 100 180 220 249 302 164 293 410 534 647 The above figures are official except as regards 1888 : this last is an estimate, adding 21 per cent, to the figures for 1880, as the agricultural report shows similar rise in the area under crops, namely, from 165 million acres in 18S0 to 200 millions in 1886 (see Lamis). The distribution of the wheat, maize, hay, and potato crops in 1888-89 was as follows : — Acres Wheat Maize Hay Potatoes Illinois . . 2,380,000 8,020,000 3,300,000 140,000 Iowa . . . 1,605,000 8,860,000 3,640,000 190,000 Indiana . . 2,800,000 3,680,000 1,450,000 80,000 Kansas . . 1,680,000 6,810,000 1,550,000 140,000 Missouri . . 1,590,000 6,800,000 1,500,000 90,000 Ohio . . . 2,520,000 3,005,000 2,570,000 150,000 Michigan . 1,610,000 970,000 1,400,000 120,000 Wisconsin . 1,190,000 1,080,000 1,730,000 140,000 Pennsylvania 1,350,000 1,380,000 2,720,000 205,000 Tennessee . 1,210,000 3,670,000 40,000 California . 3,290,000 160,000 1,180,000 60,000 Kentucky . 980,000 2,840,000 50,000 New York . 650,000 700,000 4,930,000 370,000 Texas . . 600,000 4,570,000 150,000 Various . . 14,665,000 25,775,000 12,470,000 7SS.O0O Total . . 38,120,000 78,320,000 38,590,000 2,530,000 The increase of farming area between 1850 and 1880 was as follows : — Millions of Acres Rate of Increase, 1850 1880 per Cent. New England . Middle . . . Southern . . . Western . . . 18 43 67 22 S3 227 232 22 23 38 248 Union .... 293 S34 82 The area of improved lands increased in the same interval thus : — States Millions of Acres Rate of Increase, 1850 1880 per Cent. New England . Middle. . . . Southern . Western . . . 11 26 49 27 13 37 82 IS3 28 42 67 467 Union .... "3 285 152 The acreage, product, and value of the principal crops in 1889 were as follows : — h< as; Acres Tons Value, £ S< a, Wheat . 38,120,000 13,200,000 71,300,000 S-40 1.87 Maize , . 78,320,000 52,700,000 123,700,000 2.3s i-5» OaU . . 27,460,000 10,700,000 36,100,000 3-37 1-31 Barley 3,000,000 1,400,000 6,600,000 4.72 2.20 Rye . . 2,360,000 700,000 3,500,000 S.00 i.So Buckwheat 910,000 250,000 1,600,000 6.40 1.76 All grain . 150,170,000 78,950,000 242,800,000 3-07 1.62 Potatoes . 2,530,000 S,o6o,ooo 17,000,000 3-35 6.70 Hay . . 38,590,000 46,600,000 85,000,000 1.82 2.22 Cotton . 19,060,000 1,540,000 60,800,000 39.50 3.20 Tobacco . 750,000 250,000 9,100,000 36.40 12.10 Total . 211,100,000 414,700,000 1.97 The acreage of the principal crops at various dates was approximately as follows : Acres 1850 1860 1870 1880 1889 Wheat Maize Oats Barley Rye, &c 8,000,000 21,000,000 5,200,000 200,000 1,800,000 14,500,000 30,500,000 6,200,000 600,000 2,500,000 18,990,000 38,640,000 8,790,000 1,110,000 1,720,000 37,990,000 62,320,000 16,190,000 1,840,000 2,590,000 38,120,000 78,330,000 27,460,000 3,000,000 3,280,000 All grain Potatoes Cotton Tobacco Sugar Rice Meadow 36,200,000 1,200,000 6,000,000 360,000 250,000 330,000 10,000,000 54,300,000 1,300,000 12,000,000 430,000 270,000 290,000 13,000,000 69,250,000 1,700,000 10,200,000 550,000 170,000 110,000 20,000,000 120,930,000 1,840,000 15,950,000 610,000 230,000 170,000 25,860,000 150,190,000 2,530,000 19,060,000 750,000 230,000 170,000 38,590,000 Total 54,340,000 81,590,000 101,980,000 165.590,000 211,520,000 AGRICULTURE 44 AGRICULTURE There are no returns as to rice and sugar in 1889, but tliey are doubtless the same as in 1880. The maize crop covers an area as large as Great Britain and Ireland, and the total acreage under grain exceeds the dimensions of the German Empire. The cotton covers as much land as the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium in the aggregate. The area under hay is as large as England. The dimensions of the Unite4 States may be briefly expressed thus : — Millions of Acres Ratio Under crops .... Under pasture. Under forest .... Unsettled lands 212 447 176 i.4S6 9.2 19-5 7.6 63-7 Total 2,291 100.0 Cattle were first introduced into Virginia in 1609, and into New England in 1624. They increased sp rapidly that in 1639 the number in the colonies was estimated at 30,000. Dairy-farming prospered in the eighteenth cen- tury, one farmer of Rhode Island in 1750 counting 100 milch-cows, and another in the same year selling six tons of cheese. Nevertheless cattle-farming at first contended with difficulties.. It is recorded that the first hogs, goats, and sheep introduced were killed and eaten by the colonists for want of food. A second supply was brought from the West Indies, and it was made in Virginia punishable with death to kill any of these animals. The records of New York show that in 1627 the price of a cow was- ;^30, of a yoke of oxen ;^40 ; those of Philadelphia, that the city market consumed twenty head of homed cattle weekly, besides sheep and hogs. Sheep were found to thrive in Virginia, but no use was made of the wool ; the sheep were shorn to keep them cool. The following statistics are official :- 1810 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 Horses .... 300,000 4,300,000 4,900,000 6,200,000 7,100,000 10,400,000 14,200,000 Mules .... 1,200,000 1,100,000 1,800,000 2,300,000 Cattle 600,000 14,900,000 17,800,000 25,600,000 23,800,000 35,900,000 52,800,000 Sheep .... 600,000 19.300,000 21,700,000 22,500,000 28,500,000 35,200,000 44,300,000 Pigs 26,300,000 30,350,000 33,500,000 25,100,000 47,700,000 51,600,000 Meat supply may be taken at 500 lbs. per beef carcase, 50 lbs. per sheep, and no lbs. per pig. to 100 lbs. of beef or mutton, and lard 20 to 100 lbs. of pig's meat. The values of cattle in 1870 and 1890 were as follows : — Tallow is as 14 1870 1890 Number Value, £ Per Head, £ Number Value, £ Per Head, £ Horses .... Mules .... Milch-cows Oxen . . , . Sheep .... Swine .... 8,25o,oco 1,180,000 10,100,000 15,400,000 40,850,000 26,750,000 121,000,000 23,400,000 71,000,000 62,000,000 16,800,000 34,000,000 14.9 20.0 7.0 4.0 0.4 1-3 14,210,000 2,330,000 15,950,000 36,850,000 44,340,000 51,600,000 201,900,000 38,100,000 73,400,000 n6,6oo,ooo 20,900,000 50,700,000 14.2 16.3 4.6 3-2 o-S I.O Total . 328,200,000 501,600,000 The distribution of live-stock in the great divisions of the Union in 1890 was as follows :- States Number Value, £ Horses Mules Cattle Sheep Pigs Sterling New England . Middle .... South .... West .... 360,000 1,680,000 1,730,000 10,440,000 60,000 1,200,000 1,070,000 1,502,000 5,170,000 6,980,000 39,148,000 1,220,000 3,280,000 3,440,000 36,400,000 350,000 2,960,000 13,130,000 35,160,000 16,600,000 68,000,000 77,400,000 339,100,000 Total . 14,210,000 2,330,000 52,800,000 44,340,000 51,600,000 501,100,000 The average value in dollars was as follows : — States Horses Mules Cows Oxen Sheep Pigs New England 94 ... 1 28 \ 24 3-0 9.0 Middle . . 91 102 i 28 25 3-4 b.,^ South . . . 71 »S : 18 12 2.0 3-S West . . . 64 71 ! 20 IS 2-3 S-o The Union . 68 7« 1 22 1 16 2-3 4.8 These values, as shown above, are much lower than prevailed in 1870, which in the foregoing table are com- puted in gold, after allowing 13 per cent, discount on greenbacks. If prices had not fallen, the live-stock of 1890 would represent a total value of 591 millions £ sterling. Although the prices in the Western States are lower than in other parts of the Union, the wealth which they possess in cattle is two-thirds of the total, amounting to 339 millions sterling. This sum far exceeds the value of live-stock in any European country except Russia, and is five times as great as that of the cattle of all kinds in Australasia. The increase numerically of stock in the Western States has been as follows ; — Horses Caltle Sheep Pigs . 1860 3,220,000 12,900,000 11,150,000 j 15,200,000 1880 7,030,000 22,700,000 25,200,000 32,050,000 1890 10,440,000 39,148,000 36,400,000 35, 160,000 AGRICULTURE 45 AGRICULTURE The States richest in live-stock were as follows :— Number Horses and Mules Milch-Cows Oxen Sheep Pigs Value, £ Sterling Iowa . Illinois . Texas . New York . Ohio . . . . . 1,140,000 1,330,000 2,580,000 480,000 5,810,000 39,900,000 1,230,000 1,070,000 1,710,000 690,000 5,430,000 37,400,000 1,560,000 840,000 7,170,000 4,750,000 2,320,000 30,400,000 680,000 1,550,000 780,000 1,550,000 690,000 29,300,000 790,000 790,000 990,000 3,940,000 2,610,000 27,600,000 Missouri 1,020,000 770,000 1,520,000 1,200,000 5,100,000 25,600,000 Pennsylvania 630,000 940,000 850,000 950,000 1,190,000 24,300,000 Kansas . 820,000 750,000 1,830,000 440,000 2,730,000 23,700,000 Indiana 720,000 600,000 960,000 1,280,000 2,850,000 22,300,000 Nebraska 590,000 420,000 1,310,000 240,000 2,310,000 17,900,000 Michigan 480,000 450,000 550,000 2,240,000 980,000 16,000,000 Wisconsin 440,000 670,000 810,000 - 810,000 1,090,000 15,000,000 Kentucky 550,000 320,000 520,000 810,000 2,260,000 13,900,000 Tennessee 530,000 380,000 480,000 510,000 2,240,000 12,300,000 California 420,000 270,000 700,000 4,040,000 650,000 11,900,000 Minnesota 410,000 490,000 620,000 330,000 530,000 11,700,000 Dakota . 310,000 250,000 820,000 270,000 480,000 8,900,000 Arkansas 320,000 330,000 590,000 270,000 1,660,000 7,100,000 Colorado 150,000 70,000 1,050,000 1,780,000 30,000 6,600,000 Various 3,750,000 3,660,000 11,010,000 17,760,000 10,640,000 119,300,000 Tot, il • • 16,540,000 15,950,000 36,850,000 44,340,000 51,600,000 501,100,000 Product of Meat and Tallow Tons Value, Million £ Sterling Exported Meat, Tons Year 1 lo- r e2 1 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1886 2,120,000 2,460,000 2,970,000 2,540,000 4,240,000 4,750,000 370,000 440,000 530,000 460,000 760,000 880,000 23 26 52 68 99 140 6 8 16 14 IS 16 29 34 68 82 114 156 30,000 7S.0OO 40,000 46,000 550,000 380,000 The value of all agricultural products since 1840 is shown as follows : — Million £ Sterling 1840 62 15 20 8 4 16 29 14 7 2 7 1850 97 18 29 9 S 22 34 'I I 1860 1870 1880 1886 Grain Cotton Hay Potatoes Tobacco Vegetables and fruit . Meat and tallow . . Dairy products . . . Eggs and poultry . . Wool Hides, &c 173 40 33 10 4 29 68 34 17 16 194 41 40 12 9 36 82 41 20 8 19 276 |5 62 14 8 47 114 57 29 12 25 243 53 It 8 78 16 36 Total. . . . 184 250 429 398 502 435 703 461 776 Official value . 129 208 776 The difference between my statement of values and the official tables (excepting 1886) can only be explained by supposing that meat, dairy products, poultry, vegetables, &C., ■were omitted by Census Commissioners. On the t)ther hand, the Commissioner for Agriculture in 1886 has omitted nothing, and I adopt his figures in every item. There is no allowance for forestry, because the Americans do not regard it as an agricultural pursuit. According to the Census of 1880 it appears that 76 per cent, of all farming hands were males between 16 and 60 years of age. If we suppose the same ratio for previous dates, we find the product per male adult has been as follows : — Year Agricultural Male Product, Product per Hands Adults Million £ Male Adult, ;f 1840 2,550,000 1,935,000 184 95 1850 3,311,000 2,515,000 250 99 i860 4,342,000 3,305,000 429 130 1870 5,923,000 4,500,000 502 III i88o 7,671,000 5,890,000 703 119 1886 9,000,000 6,840,000 776 "3 The number of s^ricultural hands in the above table is based on the Census returns for each date and the Com- missioner's estimate in his agricultural report for 1886 ; but as the Census returns for 1840-60 do not include slaves, I have added for those years 50 per cent, of the adult slaves. It will be seen that the highest product per head was in i860, although improved machinery has rendered farm labour much more productive in later years. The explanation is that wheat, for example, has fallen 60 cents a bushel, and maize in the same ratio. If prices had remained the same, the average product per head in 1886 would have been ;£^i8o. It is not possible to ascertain how the 9,000,000 hands in 1886 were distributed, but if it were in the same ratio as ill 1880, the agricultural power of the great divisions of the country would be thus : — States Agricul- tural Hands Male Adults Product, Millions £ Product per Male Adult, £ New England . Middle . . . Southern . . Western . . 351.000 981,000 4,220,000 3,448,000 267,000 745,000 3,200,000 2,628,000 35 123 206 412 130 164 64 160 Union . . 9,000,000 6,840,000 776 "3 In Massachusetts, according to the Agricultural Report for 1888, the gross product of land per cultivated acre was, in English money, as follows : — Grain . . ^5 I Onions . . ^^29 I Tobacco . . ;^37 Potatoes . II I Cabbage . 36 | Strawberries . 42 AGRICULTURE 46 AGRICULTURE The value of products consumed at home and exported were : — Millions, £ Sterl ng Value Home Year Home Con- sumption Exported Total Consumption £ per Inhab. 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1886 167 367 420 S6i 67s 17 26 62 82 142 lOI 184 250 429 502 10 10 12 II II 13 The principal States in order of production in i886 were : — Value of Product, Million £ Sterling Ratio States In 18S6 E 00 w Z 1880 < 2 1 ■3 1886 New York . Illinois . . . Iowa , , , Ohio . . . Pennsylvania. Indiana . . Texas . . . Missouri , , Kansas . . Michigan . . Wisconsin . Kentucky . . California . . Tennessee Other States . 28 36 30 27 24 24 27 19 IS 14 14 IS 13 14 167 31 22 22 23 23 17 12 14 13 13 II 7 7 6 88 59 S8 52 5° 47 41. 39 33 28 27 25 22 20 20 25s 37 42 28 33 27 24 13 20 II 19 IS 13 13 13 IS3 8.0 9-1 6.1 7.2 5-9 S-3 2.8 4-4 2.4 4-2 3-2 2.8 2.8 2.8 33-0 7.6 6.8 6.4 6.0 5-2 5-0 3-6 3-5 3-2 2.7 Z.6 2.6 32.9 Total . 467 309 776 461 100. 100.0 In the above table for 1886 the agricultural values for each State are as set down in the Agricultural Report with 15 per cent, added for unclassified articles, the total, 467 millions sterling, being as given in the report. The pastoral products for each State are based on a medium of the value of dairy products (1880) and the value of cattle (1886). The values, according to the great divisions of the country, were — Million ^Sterling (1886) Ratio States ■- 2 bilB < 1 ■3 21 1880 1886 New England Middle. . . Southern . . Western . . 18 62 ISO 237 17 61 56 175 35 2oi 412 23 77 131 230 S-o i6-S 28.5 50.0 4.S IS- 7 26.S 53-3 Union . 467 309 776 461 100. 100.0 The product compares with the area of improved lands (1880) thus :— Acres Improved Product, £ Shillings per Acre New England . Middle. . . . Southern . . . Western . . . 13,000,000 37,000,000 82,000,000 153,000,000 35,000,000 123,000,000 206,000,000 412,000,000 It 50 54 Union . . 285,000,000 776,000,000 54 Agricultural Capital, Million £ Inhabi- Year Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total tant 1790 96 4 24 124 31 1810 200 10 40 250 47 1840 400 96 100 S96 3i 1850 662 114 161 937 41 i860 1,382 226 237 1.845 58 1870 1,673 274 294 2,241 ■;8 1880 2,116 340 518 2.974 60 1887 2,560 501 635 3.696 60 The above figures are official except as regards 18 10 and 1840, also excepting the value of land in 1887, which is put down at 21 per cent, over 1880, because the area of crops is shown by the Commissioner to have risen 21 per cent, between 1880 and 1886. The value of farms and cattle (without sundries), accord- ing to Census reports, was : — Million, £ Sterling £ per Inhabitant Year ■a w 0) S 1 'S 5 ^ C zg' w 1 1 1 ID 1850 88 276 245 167 776 32 42 30 30 35 i860 113 423 538 534 1,608 36 SI 52 52 1870 IZ4 570 .318 93S 1,947 35 5« 28 68 50 1880 136 560 426 1.334 2.456 34 44 28 70 49 The increase of agricultural capital was as follows : — Period 1841-60 1861-70 1871-87 47 years tons of tobacco. Coffee was first planted in 1836, and the crop now rea Spain . . . 260 s s 29 I^O 0.3 0.3 1.7 Portugal . . 60 I I 7 12.7 0.2 0.2 I.'; Sweden . . . 2 30 20 II 0.4 6.2 4.2 2.3 Norway . , . 1 10 7 4 0.4 ■;.o l-ii 2.0 Denmark . . I 2S 8 S o.-; 12.1; 4.0 2.S Holland . . 3 40 12 8 0.7 8.8 2.6 1.8 Belgium . . . 4 170 10 14 0.7 28.5 T.6 2.0 Switzerland 30 10 ■; 6 10. 3.3 1-7 2.0 Roumania . . 16 lO 4 S 3.0 1.8 1.0 1.0 Servia . . . 10 4 2 3 S-o 2.0 1.0 i-S Europe . . , 1. 991 2.97S 342 ■;z3 6.0 9.0 I.I T.6 United States . 21 630 76 73 0.4 10.1; T.3 1.2 Canada . . . 3 40 S ■; 0.6 8.0 1.0 1.0 Australia . . 2 40 3 4 0.6 12.0 1.0 1.2 Total . 2,017 3.68s 426 605 5-0 8.8 I.I 1.4 ALCOHOL 59 ALCOHOL The value of liquor consumed may be summed up as follows : — 2,007 million gallons wine (2od.) . 3.685 „ „ beer, &c. (i6d.) 426 „ „ spirits (48d.). Million £ . 167 . 240 . 8s Total 492 Liquor Consumption in United Kingdom per Annum Millions of Gallons Gallons pei Inhabitant ■o c"© ■a e-o S ^ Safe 1^ 1 II s ? .- 1700-20 3 390 3 21 0-3 43 0.3 2.32 1720-50 3 530 6 30 0.3 S3 0.6 3-00 1760-80 4 560 4 31 0.3 51 0.3 2.76 1790-1800 6 370 6 23 0.4 27 0.4 I.6s l8l0-20 5 490 670 10 31 0.3 26 O.S 1.61 1830-50 6 23 47 0.2 26 o.g 1.79 1850-70 II 810 28 57 0-3 27 I.O 1.91 1871-80 16 1,005 34 70 O.S 30 I.O 2.10 1886-88 14 1,020 34 71 0.4 27 0.9 1.88 On this subject G. R. Porter (1843) gives good reasons that the consumption of alcohol affords no evidence as to intemperance. This is confirmed by the fact that, although convictions for drunkenness per 1000 inhabitants are much higher in Ireland than in England, the con- sumption of alcohol is one-third less. The consumption of liquor in 1885 was as follows : — Gallons, Millions Gallons per Inhabitant 1 bo a a c u m XI •a a tA w •a c 1 CO ll Beer . . . 880 48 80 1,008 32 16 16 28 Cider . . . 12 ... 12 0.4 0.3 Spirits . . 23 7 5 35 0.8 1.9 I.O 0.9 Wine . . . 12 I I 14 o.^; o.S 0.2 0.4 Equivalent 1 in alcohol ) S9 6 7 72 2.13 1.60 1.40 2.00 See Beer, Cider, Spirits, Wine, under their proper titles. United States The returns of the Excise Department show consump- tion as follows : — Million Gallons Gallons per Inhabitant So So Year in •c 1 1 11 1 •a to V u 1840 43 S 23 24 2-S 0-3 1.4 X.38 1850 .';2 b 37 29 2.2 0.3 1.6 1.24 i860 QO II lOI 52 2.9 0.4 ,3-2 1.70 1870 80 12 204 so 2.1 0.3 .5-3 1.38 1880 64 28 413 S8 1.2 0.6 8.3 1. 14 1889 81 34 780 87 1-3 o-S 13.0 I.3I The above does not include cider, the consumption of which may reach 20 million gallons yearly, or one-third of a gallon per head. This would make the total con- sumption of alcohol about 1. 34 per inhabitant, against 1.88 in the United Kingdom. France The annual consumption of wine, beer, and spirits has been as follows : — Million Gallons Gallons per Inhabitant c-o 0*0 Year 1 a 1 II W.S g ^ ^ (S (0 11 11 1810-12 447 56 7 52 16 2 0.3 1.80 1830-32 484 62 8 55 16 2 0.3 1.80 1840-42 766 96 II 88 23 3 0.4 2.50 1850-52 8U2 110 14 lOI 25 3 0.4 2.70 1860-62 655 140 iq 83 18 4 o-S 2.10 1870-72 940 155 22 "3 25 ■i 0.6 2.80 1880-82 805 iqo 34 107 21 6 0.9 2.60 1886-88 7SO 200 40 loS 19 6 I.I 2.50 The above does not include cider, of which 200 million gallons are consumed yearly. See Wine, Beer, &c. The French Government publishes the following table of the production and consumption of alcohol : — Year Gallons Produced Value. £ Pence per Gallon Gallons Consumed Gallons per In- habitant 1850 i860 1870 1880 1885 20,700,000 19,100,000 27,300,000 34,800,000 40,900,000 2,150,000 2,870,000 2,840,000 4,480,000 3,580,000 25 36 25 31 21 12,800,000 18,700,000 19,400,000 28,800,000 31,700,000 0.32 0.50 0.80 0.85 Expenditure on Alcoholic Liquors United Kingdom . . France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain and Portugal . Sweden and Norway . Belgium Holland United States . . . Total . . Millions Sterling 177 223 19 10 79 489 Amount per In- habitant £ s. d. I 14 o 5 I 15 1 9 2 7 I 7 I I S o The foregoing values are "in bond," that is, in first hands, and exclusive of duties, which come under the head of taxation. See Wine, Beer, Drunkenness. AMPHITHEATRES The first, of stone, was built by Statilius for the Emperor Augustus, in the Campus Martins, Rome. The Colos- seum, begun by Vespasian, was finished by Titus, A.D. 80, and held 100,000 spectators. The dimensions of the principal amphitheatres were : — Colosseum .... 615 X 510 feet Verona 513 x 410 „ Vienne 508 X 436 ,, Pozzuoli .... 480 X 382 „ Aries 460 X 338 „ Limoges .... 450 x 378 ,, Nismes 437 x 332 ,, Pompeii 430x335 ,, The height ranged from 60 to 100 feet, except the Colosseum, which was 164 feet high. ANATOMY 60 ANATOMY ANATOMY Blood. — An adult has ordinarily 28 lbs. of blood, and at each pulsation the heart sends 10 lbs. through the veins and arteries. The pulsations are 120 per minute in infancy, 80 in manhood, 60 in old age, and rather more in women than in men. The components of human blood are : — Man Woman Water . . . .77.8 79.6 Albumen .... 6.2 6.4 Colour , . . .14.1 12.2 Saline, &c. . , . 1,9 1.8 lOO.O Human blood compares with that of the brute creation as follows : — Man Ox Sheep Dog Pig Chicken Chlor. of sod. .58.S 46.7 .S7.I So-S 41-3 SO- 3 Soda . . . 4.2 21.9 13-3 3.9 7.6 14-3 Potash . . . 12.0 7.0 5-3 17.2 22.2 4.4 Lime , . . 1.7 0.8 1.0 0.4 1.2 1.0 Magnesia . . i.o 0.4 0.^ 2-S 1.2 0.8 Oxide of iron 8.<, 7.0 8.7 10.7 9-1 91 Phosph. acid . 10.2 4.2 S-2 12.8 12.3 13.4 Sulph. . . . 1-7 1.2 1.7 1-4 1.7 4-1 Carbon . , 1.2 6.0 7.0 o-S 0.7 Sundries . . 1.2 4.8 0.4 0.1 2.7 2.6 Total . 100. 100. 100. lOO.O 100. lOO.O The temperature of human blood averages as follows (Fahrenheit) : — Good health .... 98.6 I Strong fever, morning 102.2 Fever 101.3 | ,, ,, afternoon 104.0 The following table shows the temperature of man compared with some of the brute creation : * — Snail . Oyster . Man . Horse . Porpoise Rat . . 76 Cat , . 82 Ox . : 9^ Monkey Sheep . . 100 Hog . . 102 Chicken The quantity of iron in blood is shown thus 102 102 1044 104J loS III Man Ox . Grammes Oz. per per Ton Cwt, . 510 0,91 . 560 1. 00 Pig Frog Grammes Oz. per per Ton Cwt. . S90 1.06 . 420 0.7s According to the Die. Sci. Med., the dimensions of the globules of blood, in parts of a millimetre, are : — Goat . Sheep Horse Ox . Pig . Hare . Goose Dog . 0043 Ape . 0048 Duck. ooSS Man . 0058 Fish . 0063 Elephant . 0070 Tortoise 0070 Frog . 0070 Snake 0071 0074 0077 0084 009S 01 17 0133 0188 A human adult has half an ounce of sugar in his blood, which is proportionately more than a sheep and less than a cow. Brain, — The latest classification of races, according to Bastian and other experts, shows weight of brain as follows : — Oz. Oz. Scotch . 50.0 Pawnees . ■ 47-1 Germans . 49-6 Italians • 46.9 English . 49-5 Hindoo • 45-1 French • 47-9 Gypsy ■ 44-8 Zulus . • 47-5 Bushmen . ■ 44-6 Chinese . 47-2 Esquimaux • 43-9 • For a complete alphat etical list, see An imals. Compared with size of body, the brain of the Esqui- maux is as heavy as the Scotchman's. The measurement of that part of the skull which holds the brain is stated in cubic inches thus : — Anglo-Saxon German Negro . los 96 Ancient Egyptian . . 93 Hottentot . . . 58 Australian native . . 58 In all races the male brain is about 10 per cent, heavier than the female. The highest class of apes has only 16 oz. of brain. After the age of 50 the brain loses an ounce every 10 years. Cuvier's weighed 64, Byron's 79, and Cromwell's 90 ounces, but the last was diseased. Post-mortem examinations in France give an average of 55 '° ^^ ounces for the brains of the worst class of criminals. Hair. — The number of hairs on an adult's head usually ranges from 129,000 to 150,000. Nervous System Infants Youths Adults Aged Persons Idiots Water . . Albumen . Fat . . . Salts, &c. . Phosphorus 82.8 7.0 3.5 0.8 74.3 10,2 5-3 8.6 1.6 72- S ?-'^ 6.1 10.2 1.8 73-9 8.6 4-3 12.2 1.0 70.9 8.4 14.8 0.9 Total . loo.o 100. 100. lOO.O 100. Respiratory System. — The quantity of carbonic acid exhaled in twenty-four hours is as follows : — Oz. Age 19 Exhaled 9 Person Boy . Man . Age 16 28 Person Girl . . Boy . . Woman . The quantity varies according to exertion, viz, Oz. per Hour Sleeping .... 0.6 Walking 2 miles per hr. 2.1 ,, 3 " .. 3-0 Oz. Exhaled 16 17 Oz. per Hour Riding 4.0 Swimming .... 4.4 Treadmill .... 5.5 Sight. — Experiments for the British Association, in 1889, gave the following result : — Judgment of Eye in Dividing a Line into Halves Judgment of Eye in Estimating an Angle of 90 Degrees Males Females Males Females Correct . . Incorrect . 35-6 64.4 4S-S 54-5 63.0 37-0 33-7 66.3 Total 100.0 100. 100. lOO.O The colour of the eyes was as follows : — Light Medium Dark .... Total . Sleep.— 1\ie. Die. Sci. Med. Males 44.6 43-1 12.3 Females 34-2 45-1 20.7 100.0 lOO.O mentions many cases ol forty days and upwards. Sweat. — It has been analysed by Funke and Schottin thus : — Funke Water . . . .98.84 Salt .... 44 Other solids ... 72 Schottin 97-74 70 1.56 Total 100.000 ANIMALS 6[ ANIMALS Krause says an adult perspires 800 grammes, that is, 28 oz. in twenty-four hours. Funke states the quantity of sweat thrown off by an adult as follows : — Tempera- Oz. per Hour Percentage ture, Shade Condition of Solid (Fahr.) Matter 64 Walking in a room . . i.a 2.56 68 Walking in a room . . 1-7 1.70 66 Walking quickly in a room Z.6 1. 17 55 Walking out of doors . . 4-7 0.79 80 Walking in the sun . . 11.3 0.84 77 Running in the sun . . 13-7 0.82 88 Running in the sun . . 18.0 0.86 Urine. — Harley says that the urine of males and females, age 25, weight 154 lbs., will be found to average thus, in grammes : — Men Women Organic matter . . . 36.6 31.5 Inorganic matter . . .16.4 13.5 The temperature is the same as that of the blood. The composition varies with race, viz. : — Grammes French .... 39.5 of solid matter English . % . . S3.0 German .... 67.8 ,, ,, A man in good health, weight 140 lbs., secretes 49 oz. in twenty-four hours ; a woman 35 oz. Children emit 50 per cent, more for their weight than adults. Food has a direct influence. Lehmann says that 100 oz. of animal food, such as eggs, give 97 oz. of urine, and 100 oz. of vegetable food only 74 of urine. Weight. — Banting gives the following scale of normal weights for height : — Lhs. 136 Inches 61 . 62 . 63 . Lbs. 120 126 133 Inches 64 .. 65 •• 66 .. 142 14S Inches 67 .. 68 .. 69 .. Lbs. 148 155 162 Inches Lbs. 70 .. 169 71 .. 174 72 .. 178 Detailed tables on this subject will be found under Anthropometry. ANIMALS The temperature of the animal creation, in Fahrenheit, is as follows : — Ape. . . 104 Bat . . . . 100 Cat . . . . 102 Chicken . . Ill Crow . . . 109 Dog . . . . 102 Donkey . 98 Duck . . . Ill Elephant . . 100 Elk . . . . 103 Fox . . . . 102 Glow-worm • 74 Goat . . . 104 Goose . . • 107 Guinea-fowl . Ill Guinea-pig Hare . . Hen. . . Hog . . Horse . . Jackal . . Jackdaw . Man . . Monkey Ox . . . Oyster . . Panther . Parrot . . Petrel . . Pigeon . . 100 100 108 los 99 lOI 107 99 104 102 82 102 . 106 104 , 109 1 100 lbs. Porpoise . Rabbit . Rat . . . Serpent Shark . . Sheep . . Snail . . Sparrow . Squirrel , Tiger . . Turkey . . Woodcock Wolf . . . 100 . 100 . 102 . 88 . 77 . 104 . 76 . 108 . 102 . 99 . 109 . 108 • 105 A draught horse usually weighs The period of gestation among animals is as follows :- Days Rabbit ■ 30 Cat . - 55 Dog . .6s Wolf . • 90 Pig . Lion Sheep Goat Days . 120 . ISO ■ 150 . 153 Days Bear. . 180 Monkey 210 Cow . . 282 Buffalo . 308 Days Mare , 342 Camel . 365 Ass . . 385 Elephant 730 The longest span of life belongs to whales, say 500 years ; e^les, say 200; alligators about 300, and elephants from 100 upwards. The age of toads is said often to exceed any of the foregoing. Rabbit Dog . Sheep . f% • Lion . Weight Years of {.Us.) Life 5 40 70 160 500 5 IS 40 Weight Years of Cow . Ox . . Horse . Camel . Elephant (Lbs.) 750 900 IjOOO 1,200 6,000 Life 25 25 27 40 100 The limits of animal life are not precisely fixed. Hookei found animal life in thermal springs of 208 Fahr. , that is, 4 degrees below boiling-point ; and again at minus 70° centigrade, equal to 92 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. Afe. — The cranium compares vrith that of man in dimensions as follows (man 100) : — Male gorilla , 35 I Male ourang . 29 I Male chimpanze . 28 Female gorilla 31 | Female ourang 28 1 Female chimpanze 27 Camel. — ^A camel has twice the carrying power of an ox ; with a load of 400 lbs. he can travel twelve or four- teen days without water, going forty miles a day. They are fit to work at five years old, but their strength begins to decline at twenty-five, and they live till forty. The Tartars have herds of 1000 or more. The patriarch Job had 3000. The Timbuctoo or Meharri breed is used only for couriers, going 800 miles in eight days, vrith a meal of dates or grain at nightfall. Napoleon conveyed 1500 infantry on camels across the desert from Cairo to St. Jean d'Acre. The caravans from Berber to Suakim use camels carrying 600 lbs. , which travel three miles an hour, and earn one penny (English) per mile. These camels are sold from £,^ to j^20 each; very fine ones fetch up to ;^40 sterling. Cat. — The number of cats in the United Kingdom isfully seven millions, although a remarkable decrease has been noticed in seaports, owing to exportation. They came into England before the Conquest, for the tariff of indem- nity, in the loth century, valued them at twopence, being equal to two hens or two gallons of beer. Southey men- tions that the first settlers in Brazil paid ;£'3oo for a cat, and for kittens, their weight in gold-dust. An offer ttf £yao for a Persian cat at the Sydenham Cat Show in 1869 was refused. Dogs Number Per 1000 Licensed Inhabitants Great Britain . 1,128,000 38 Ireland .... 368,000 73 France .... 2,864,000 75 Germany . . ■ . 1,432,000 31 Sweden .... 513.000 II The largest known is a St. Bernard dog, Plinlimmon, exhibited at Birmingham 1886 : weight, 214 lbs. ; height, 35 inches at shoulder. Sheep-dogs are not taxed in the United Kingdom, and the total number of dogs in the kingdom is at least 2,000,000, say 55 per 1000 inhabitants, worth ;^8oo,ooo. It is found that 100 male dogs go mad as compared with 14 female. A dog accidentally locked up at Metz passed thirty-nine days without food, and recovered. The number of hunting dogs in the United Kingdom is as follows : — England Ireland Scotland United Kingdom Stag-hounds . Fox-hounds . Harriers . . Beagles . . . 604 12,866 3,258 448 246 1,522 1,516 660 74 850 15,048 4,774 522 Total . 17,176 3,284 '■ 734 21,104 ANTHROPOMETRY 62 ANTHROPOMETRY The weight of brain in drachms is as follows :- Sheep-dog . 29.5 Fox-hound . 39.2 Setter. . .26.1 Mastiff . ,26.1 Greyhound. 23.4 Terrier . .20.0 Spaniel . .18.1 Lapdog, . 18.0 Retriever . .25.7 Collie . . .25.4 Bulldog . .24.0 Newfoundland 24.0 As compared with the above, the wolf has 42, the jackal 15, the fox 13, and some classes of apes 120 drachms. Elephant. — The ivory found on an ordinary elephant is 120 lbs., worth £,(xi, and it is necessary to kill I2,ooo yearly to supply 650 tons of ivory to the English market, of which Sheffield consumes one-third. A tusk weigh- ing 162 lbs. was shown at London in 1851, but Gordon Gumming since got one of 173 lbs. Tame elephants have risen in price in India, from £,A,t, in 1835, ranging at present between ;^I50 and ;^8oo. The demand for ivory threatens to exterminate ele- phants in Africa. Stanley calculates the consumption of ivory at 75,000 lbs. a year in Europe, 13,000 in India, and 7000 in United States ; that is, 95,000 lbs. a year. Kangaroo. — In 1888 the total number in Australia was 1,170,000, having diminished notably in the last ten years. A kangaroo consumes as much grass as six sheep ; for this reason the farmers destroy them. Llamas. — There are four millions in Peru, mostly em- ployed as beasts of burden. The skin weighs 6 lbs., gives 18 feet of leather, and is worth 20s. Reindeer. — Official retiurns are : — Herds Head of Deer Average Finland Norway . Sweden 2,822 2,400 3,200 44.400 101,800 220,800 IS Total . 8,422 367,000 44 They can travel vrith a sleigh 1 30 miles a day, and are worth usually 30s. a head. Squirrels. — There are 25 millions killed annually in Russia for their skins. See Hunting. Turtle. — A good-sized one gives 80 lbs. of tortoise- shell. ANTHROPOMETRY The average height of male adults, according to Topinard, is as follows : — ■ Inches ! 60.7 Laplanders Bushmen Malays . Peruvians Burmese . Fins . . Araucans Chinese . Magyars . Jews . . French . . 62,0 • 63-1 ■ 63.1 • 63-4 . 63.8 . 63-8 . 64,2 . 64.2 . 64.6 . 65.0 Caucasians Hindoos . Esquimaux Berbers . Russians . Kirghese Fuegians Germans Arabs , . Charruas Belgians . Inches . 65.0 . 65.0 . 65.0 • 65.0 . 65.4 ■ 65-4 • 65.4 . 66.2 . 66.2 . 66.2 . 66.2 Danes Irish . . English . Scotch . Swedes . Kaffirs . Iroquois . Polynesians . 69.5 Patagonians 70.3 Average . ,65.6 Inche . 66.2 . 67.0 67.4 67.4 67.4 67.8 68.2 Height and Weight of English, Belgians, AM) Americans A.- Height in Inches B.- -Weight in Lbs. w 4) w 1. is <: Belgian P V < ■ Belgian Age "5 S fa V 1 V E 10 51.8 SI.7 50.1 49.2 67 66 ,56 SI 1.=; 62.2 62.3 S9-b ,58.6 103 105 91 88 20 67. ■; 67.4 65. B 62.0 143 147 131 117 24 67.7 67.9 66.2 62.1 148 147 146 123 3° 67.9 68.1 66.4 62.2 isf ISO 146 122 Height is without shoes, but weight includes clothing. Dr. Gould's measurement of men in the United States army (1863) gave the following table of average : — Age i8-ao . 20-22 . 22-24 . 24-26 . 26-28 . 28-30 . Over 30 Average Natives of 67.0 67.9 68.2 68.2 68.3 68.4 68.4 67.8 U 266.0 066.5 466.8 Sp6.9 S67.0 S67.0 S66-9 166.7 66.365.: 67.066.; nx 67.266.7 67.466.6 67.366.7 67.5,66.7 7 s 67.6166, 67.3J66. 65.966, 66.6I67, 66.967 66.8I67. 66.8'67. 66.8:67. 66.8,67. 66.767. 65.566.1 66.166.8 66.267.1 ,66.367.2 6]66.4 67.2 ,4166.067.2 ,4]66.367.2 366.167.0 The above measurement comprised great numbers of men ; Irish alone 83,000. Averagb Height of Men in European Armies (i860) Italian Spaniard . French . Hungarian Inches . 65.0 ■ 6S.S . 66.0 . 66.1 Austrian , Belgian , Russian , English , Inches^ . 66.5^ . 66.9 . 67.0 • 67.5 Irish . . Scotch . Swede Norwegian Inches . 68.0 ■ 68.5 . 68.9 . 69.0 Height of Children in Various Countries (Inches) Man- chester Brussels Boston Turin Bor- deaux j= Average Age Cowell, i860 S M ^1- (2 Leyet, 1882 tn w in •2 m w V) (A 12 ff s- ■c ti s- •n '^ ■c « w m m 5 m a PQ s ... 39-0 38.2 41.8 -;i-4 38.2 38.2 41.4 ... 40.1 .39.3 6 41.4 40.6 43-9 43-5 41.0 40.2 42.6 42.2 41.4 7 ... 43-3 42.9 45-7 4S-7 44- S 42.9 4S-0 44-6 43-8 8 4.S-7 44.8 47-4 47-4 46- S 45-7 47-4 47.8 46.7 46.4 9 4«-S 48.1 47.8 40.9 49.6 49-2 48.9 47-7 48.9 49-4 48.7 48.3 10 So-S 49. 5 50.0 49.2 51-7 SI- 3 49-7 SO- 1 .50.9 50.9 50.5 50.2 11 SI. 3 Si-7 S2.S 51-3 S3- 2 S3-b Si-3 52-1 .52.1 S2.9 52.1 52.3 12 S3- 2 S3.C S4-4 S3- 2 5.S-2 56.0 .S3-6 54-0 ^4-8 55-2 54-2 54-4 13 .S4-8 SS-b 56.0 53-2 S7.b 58.8 .55-2 .56-4 56.4 58.0 ■;6.o S6.8 14 S6-7 .S7.9 58.0 ^,7.'^ 59- 9 00.3 57- 2 59- 2 ,58.0 60.4 s8.o 5Q.O IS ,W.i .S8.7 .W-S .S8.7 62.2 bl.o 59- 9 bo.3 60.2 59-7 16 62.2 S9-S bi.i sq.q 0[;.o 61.4 b2.2 60.6 ... 62.6 60.^ 17 63.8 60.7 62.6 61. 1 66.2 bi.8 63.0 61.0 63-9 61.2 Length and Weight of New-Born Infants (Duncan) Mother's Length, Inches Weight, Lbs. Age Boys Girls General Boys Girls j General Under 20 . 20 to 30 . . 30 to 40 . . 40 to 45 . . Over 45 . . 19-9 20.1 20.2 20.3 19.7 19.7 199 20.0 20.1 19.8 ig.8 20.0 20.1 20.2 19.8 7-1 7-3 7-4 7.3 6.6 6.8 7-0 7.2 7-3 7.0 7-0 7-2 7.3 7-3 6.8 An infant weighing 7 lbs. at birth will weigh 7J lbs. on the tenth day, and 1 1 lbs. on the 30th day. ANTHROPOMETRY 63 ANTHROPOMETRY Height and Weight of Belgian Infants AND Adults (Quetelet) Height, Ins. Weight, Lbs. Age a 2 to ■3 ■i s C ^ s s £ & % k 6 Under i year . 27.6 27.2 27.4 19.8 18.0 18.9 1-2 . 31. 1 30-7 30-9 24.2 24.2 24.2 2-3 • 33-9 33-5 33-7 27-S 27-3 27.4 3-4 • 36.7 36.3 36.5 30.8 30.6 30-7 4-S • 38.6 38. 2 3«-4 3S-0 33-6 34-3 §i • 41.4 40.6 41.0 39-2 37-0 38.1 6-8 . 4S-8 45° 45-4 47-S 41.8 44-7 8-10. 50.2 49-4 49.8 SS-4 50.8 S3- 1 10-12 . 54-4 53-3 53-8 63.8 63.8 63.8 12-14 • 58.0 57-2 S7-6 81.6 79.8 S0.7 14-16 . 61.2 6ao 60.6 99.9 9S-7 97.8 16-18 . 64.4 61.6 63.0 118.6 109.6 114. 1 18-20 . 66.0 62.0 64.0 ' 130.9 1 17.0 124.0 20-22 . 66.0 62.0 64.0 138.4 H9.6 129.0 22-25 • 66.4 62.4 64.4 145-6 1 19. 6 132.6 25-30. . . . 66.8 62.4 64.6 14S.4 121. 6 I33-S Distinction OF Classes (England) Height, Ins. Weight, Lbs. Age 3 c 1 II i ■g < ss 1 1 10 . . . 52-9 .■;o-7 ■;o-9 ';i.8 69 64 67 67 15 . . . 62.9 61.4 6t.8 62.2 107 96 lOI 103 20 . . 68.3 66.5 66.9 67. ■; 146 136 144 143 24 . . 68.4 66.6 67-,S 67-7 148 143 I,S2 148 30 . . . 68-5 66.8 67.6 67.9 160 149 i,S8 I.0 40 . . 6S.7 67.1 67.6 68.0 170 IS4 161 164 so . . . 68.1 66.6 67.8 67.9 172 149 166 164 60 . . . 68.1 66.S 68.0 67.7 170 138 171 163 Age .1 < 1 S S si il ►J i 1 u p.. .2 V •3 20-25 . . 66..S 65.2 67.2 67.6 1,39 137 150 146 2S-35 • ■ 66.8 65.7 67.5 67.8 147 140 157 152 35-45 ■ • 67.0 65.7 67..S 68.0 154 141 161 164 %^~^^ ,• ; 66.6 65.8 67.8 67.9 149 143 166 164 General 1 average ) 666 65.6 67-5 67.7 147 140 158 158 Rural population is usually taller and heavier than that of towns. In Scotland agricultural males are 4 inches and 36 lbs. over the average of Glasgov? and Edinburgh. The fishing population of Yorkshire exceeds the Sheffield artisans by 3 inches and 24 lbs. On the other hand, London is ij inch and 8 lbs. over the population of Hert- fordshire ; and Quetelet observed the same in Belgium, which he ascribed to better food in the towns. Growth of Male Convicts in English Jails (Danson) Height, Inches Weight, Lbs. 1858 1878 1858 1878 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 64-3 65.2 662 65-9 66.2 66.7 66.4 64.1 65.1 65-7 65.4 65.6 65-7 65-5 122 133 139 142 142 143 142 125 137 142 141 143 144 144 Growth of Bovs and Men (England) The following table is from the Anthropometric Re- port, British Association, 1883, the result of measurement of 10,000 males : — Is 33 li I-" II Average Ann. Increase Age 0)1-1 J- 1 = II 5S 79 27 38 1-5 4.8 0.2 12 57 «5 27 39 2.1 6.2 0.2 i.S 13 .59 92 28 46 1.8 6.7 0.7 6-3 14 61 102 29 .53 2.2 10.6 I.O 7-1 15 64 114 30 60 2.3 12.2 1.2 7-6 16 66 129 32 69 2.6 I.5-2 2.0 8.9 17 68 142 ,34 80 1.6 12.2 1-5 II.O 18 68 146 .34 86 0.4 4-8 0-5 6.0 19 68 148 35 90 0-3 2.0 0.2 2.0 20 69 152 35 94 0.5 .3-9 0.6 .3-9 21 69 153 .35 88 0.4 0.1 22 69 153 .35 93 0.1 4-5 23-50 69 155 36 97 0.1 1.8 °-'5 4-7 Growth of Males in Towns and Rural Districts (England) Age Height, Ins. Weight, Lbs. Rural Excess Town Rural Town Rural Ins. Lbs. 10-13 13-16 16-19 19-22 22-25 5S 63 67 68 67 5 67 69 69 73 101 131 143 139 76 106 134 147 153 I I I 2 3 5 3 4 14 Growth of Telegraph Girls (England) The following results were obtained by the Committee from 3700 girls : — »• m Average Annual Increase n .d . *-* p?j Age ■a P 6 CU bfljg .Sf.S u 3^ 13 56 79 25 182 14 58 85 26 192 2 6 I 10 15 60 90 27 218 2 5 I 26 16 62 108 28 278 2 18 I 60 17 64 116 .30 308 2 8 2 30 18 65 127 30 316 I II 8 19 66 130 30 329 I 3 13 Italian Boys and Girls (Paglioni) Age 10 , 11 , 12 . 13 ■ 14 . 15 . 16 , 17 • 18 , 19 ■ Weight, Lbs. Boys Girls 54 57 63 70 73 87 91 95 98 103 60 62 70 82 95 100 lOI 107 105 Height, Ins. Boys Girls 50 51 53 55 56 59 60 60 61 62 52 53 56 58 61 61 62 62 62 Drawing Power, Lbs. Boys Girls 146 151 174 209 231 261 266 299 312 33° 80 85 "5 129 i;i 152 152 154 ANTHROPOMETRY 64 ANTHROPOMETRY Men and Women of United States The average weight ol 20,000 men and women at Boston in 1864, and of 22,000 weighed at Cincinnati in 1882, was as follows : — Boston , Cincinnati Men 142 lbs. IS4 .. Women 125 lbs. 131 .. There was no account taken of age. The people of the Western States are evidently much heavier than those of New England, properly known as Yankees. It is, moreover, to be observed that the above averages for Boston closely coincide with those of Belgium (p. 62), where Quetelet gives 146 lbs. for men, and 122 for women, aged 30; but the British Association found an average in England of 1 55 lbs. for men over 23 years. English Men and Women (Roberts) The comparison of weight, strength, &c., with stature, shows : — Height, Weight, Lbs. Chest, Ins. Drawing-Bow, Lbs. Inl Men Women Men Women Men Women S8 133 114 31 26 68 41 60 13a n8 32 27 71 43 62 143 122 33 28 73 44 64 147 125 35 29 76 45 66 152 129 36 30 78 47 68 1.S6 133 37 31 80 48 70 161 137 .3» 32 S3 5° 72 166 141 39 33 »S SI British and Irish Males, Stature and Weight The Anthropometric Committee in 1883 measured 8600 men, of ages from 23 to 5° years, and found as follows : — Height Weight Inches English Irish Scotch U. Kingdom Pounds English Irish Scotch U. Kingdom Under 60 0.9 0-3 0.2 0.7 Under 100 0-5 2.0 O.I 0.4 60-62 3-2 I.I 0.9 2.9 100-120 8-5 3-3 2.4 7.0 62-64 13-7 6.4 5-0 12.4 120-140 34-8 40.1 19-5 32.2 64-66 26.1 26.3 19. 1 2S.8 140-160 3S-2 35-2 43.8 37.2 66-68 29.1 39-0 32.2 29.8 160-180 14.4 15.4 24.2 16.3 68-70 19.8 18.8 25-5 19.9 180-200 4-4 3-6 7.5 4.8 Over 70 7.2 8.1 17. 1 8.S Over 200 Total 2.2 0.4 2.5 2.1 Total 100.0 100. 100. 100. 100.0 100. 100. 100. The following summary shows that the Irish are a much lighter race than the English, Welsh, or Scotch, and also that they weigh less per inch of stature : — Average Height, Ins. Average Weight, Lbs. Average, Lbs. per Inch English . . Welsh . . Irish . . . Scotch . . U. Kingdom 67.4 66.7 67.9 68.7 67.7 % 158 2.30 2.38 2.27 2.41 2-33 Height According to Classes Boys II to 12 Years I?is. Eton and Harrow . ■ SS-o Middle schools . . . ■;i.8 Agricultural peasants . S^o Artisans' sons . . . S2.6 Factory Ijoys . . . . 51.6 Military orphans . SI- 2 Industrial schools . . 50.0 Adults 25 to 30 Years Ins, Professional class . . 69. i Commercial class Farmers . Artisans . Criminals Tailors . Insane . 68.0 67-5 66.6 66.0 65-9 65.7 The height and weight of factory children of ten to twelve years in England, have increased in the last half century : — Year 1833 • 1873 ■ Increase Height, Inches Boys S0.5 50-7 0.2 Girls 50-4 SO. 8 0.4 Weight, Lbs. Boys 59 64 5 Girls 57 63 6 Ins. Fellows of the Royal Society average . . 69.5 Members of Athletic Associations , . . . 68.4 PoUcemen and Fire-brigade 70. i Burglars and other convicts 65.6 Lbs. 161 144 i8S 140 The low physical type of criminals and insane is re- markable. Height of Male Adults in Various Countries Inches Jews Saxons Italians Belgians Swedes Dutch United Kingdom Bavaria Town Rural Conscripts Militia Conscripts Conscripts English Irish Scotch Under 62 ... . 62-64 64-66 66-68 Over 68 . . . . 6.4 20.9 34-3 22.8 15-6 15.0 17.8 29.2 22.9 15- 1 14.6 17.6 28.4 23-9 16.5 14.0 20.3 26.2 21.2 18.3 13-6 12. 1 26.7 26.8 20.8 1.8 "•3 14.0 37-1 35-8 5-2 10.5 27.0 26.1 31.2 4-1 13-7 26.1 29.1 27.0 6.4 26.3 39-1 26.9 I.I 5-0 19.1 32.2 42.6 Total . . loo.o 100. 100.0 100. 100. 100. 100. I0O.O lOO.O 100. The Scotch are by far the tallest in the above table, but are surpassed by the Iroquois Indians, measured b> Gould, of whom 54 per cent, exceeded 68 inches. ANTHROPOMETRY 6S ARMS Height and Chest Measurement of British Army (1882) Height Inches Chest Inches Eng- lish Scotch Irish English,Scotch, Irish Under 66 66-70 Over 70 47-3 41. 1 11.6 4S-0 42.6 12.4 8.6 Under 36 Over 38 33-S 41.8 24.7 100. lOO.O lOO.O 100. Inches Under 62 62-64 ■ 54-66 . 66-68 . Over 68 . Total Height of French Conscripts 1837-47 14.0 24.1 33-2 21.9 6.8 1848-67 1858-68 13.6 25.3 32.6 21.8 6.7 100. o 26.6 32.2 22.7 7.0 lOO.O Inches Height of Dutch Conscripts 1866-71 1872-77 1878-83 Under 62 . . . 62-64 .... 64-68 .... Over 68. . . . 9-3 13-9 52.0 24.8 7.6 12.9 S3- 5 26.0 11.6 53-9 28.8 Total . . lOO.O 100. 100. The improvement of stature in Holland is ascribed to better food, resulting from the abolition of the Grist-tax, and to sanitation of cities. It is further observed that in swampy provinces SJ per cent, of the young men drawn for military service are rejected for being under 62 inches, and in the rest of the kingdom only 5 per cent. Period 1841-50 1851-60 Height of Swedish Conscripts Period Average Ins. . 66.0 . 66.2 1861-70 1871-7S Average Ins. 66.6 66.7 The improvement in Sweden is likewise ascribed to better food. Complexion of Persons (United Kingdom) England Scotland Ireland fi, J2 in 0. .a Kair s, c S £ C S i _c i c Id S c id G E a HH (U U U u Light . . . 43 42 44 47 45 49 52 47 52 Red. . . . ■; 4 7 5 3 b 4 7 Dark . . . SI S3 S2 46 5° 48 42 49 41 Total . 100 100 100 lOO 100 100 100 100 100 Eyes Light . . . 66 60 6S 76 67 80 72 67 83 Dark . . . 34 40 35 24 33 20 2b 33 17 Total . 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Difference of Sexes (Europe) Height Size . Weight Male Female 100 100 100 94 V' 84 Female Skull . Brain . Strength Male 100 88 IOC gt 100 67 ARMS Artillery. — The first piece of cannon was invented by Friar Schwartz in 1330, and the Moors used artillery at Cordoba in 1343. The English had four pieces at Crecy in 1346; the Venetian fleet used artillery against the Genoese in 1377. Mortars for bombs were cast in Eng- land in 1543, having been invented at Naples in 1435. Petards were first used by the Huguenots in 1579. The most famous pieces of cannon have been : — Date Name Place Tons Feet Bore, Ins. 1430 DuUe Griete . Holland . 14 1450 Mons Meg . Edinburgh 6 13 20 1464 Mahomet . . Turkey . 20 1540 Carlos Quinto Dover . . 24 1548 Malik Mydan India . . 40 23 1550 Simon . . . Cologne . 19 18 1586 Pooshka . . Moscow . 39 ... 18,6 Horsfall . . Liverpool 22 16 ... 1874 Infant . . , Woolwich So 27 1880 Armstrong . Newcastle 100 12 1889 Krupp . . . Essen . . 130 44 16 The cannon of the Middle Ages was as follows :— Shot, Lbs. 64 52 19 Powder, Lbs. 32 26 15 8 Gun, Cwts. 72 62 40 NaTne Cannon , . Serpentine . Culverin . . Demi-culverin Falcon . . The cannon used at Trafalgar (1805) were Pounder Length, Feet 3 6 12 18 24 32 Inch. 3-9 3'7 4.6 5-3 5-8 6.4 Gun, Cwts. 7 22 34 42 so 52 Powder, Lis. i.o 1-3 4.0 6.0 8.0 10. o None of the above carried over 2000 yards. The artillery now in use (1889) may be classified thus :— Initial Muzzle Penetra- Inches Gun, Shot, Powder, Velocity, Energy, tion, Bore Tons Lbs. Lbs. Feet per Second Foot- Tons Ins. at Muzzle 7 4* 112 22 1,325 1,400 7 8 9 175 35 1.384 2,300 9 9 12 253 50 1,440 3,600 II 10 18 406 70 1.379 S.400 13 II 25 543 85 1,360 7,000 14 12 35 70b 140 1.390 9.500 16 16 80 1,700 450 1.590 29,000 25 16 100 2,000 550 1,700 40,000 27 16 III 1,800 960 2,104 ... 36 16 119 2,028 846 2,000 16 130 2,600 700 The progress of artillery science since 1837 has been as follows : — 1859. Armstrong's breech-loading rifle-gun, charge only 5 lbs., sent a shot 5 miles. 1 86 1. Richard Galling, of North Carolina, patented his gun, firing 200 shots a minute ; it now fires 400. E ARMY 66 ARMY 1862. Armstrong's smooth-bore, charge 40 lbs., sent a 300-lbs. shot through a 5 -inch wrought-iron plate. 1866. Woolwich 9-inch rifle, charge 43 lbs., sent a 250-lbs. Palliser shot through an 8-inch plate. 1872. First Woolwich Infant, 35 tons, shot 700 lbs., powder 120 lbs.. It sent a Palliser shot through 18J inches iron and 12 of teak. 1874. Second Woolwich Infant, 80 tons, shot 1650 lbs., powder 300 lbs. 1876. Third Woolwich Infant, 81 tons, shot 1250 lbs., went through 5a feet of sand. 1876. Armstrong 100-ton guns, broke 22-inch Creusot steel plates. 1879. Shot from 9-inch gun, 75 lbs. powder, unable to pierce a 12-inch plate of iron and steel, alternate layers. 1880. Result of Krupp's experiments at Meppen : — Gun Krupp British Inch Shot, Penetra- Foot- Lbs. tion Tons 348 18. 1 8,630 812 17.9 12,260 Krupp's shot penetrated 18-inch plates; the British did not. 1889. Krupp's cast steel 130-ton gun has a range of 12 miles, and fires two shots per minute ; each shot costs £%oo sterling, and weighs 2600 lbs., going' through 19 inches of armour; charge of powder, 700 lbs. Down to 1876, Mr. Krupp had delivered 15,000 cannons from his factory to different nations. Great Britain some- times manufactures two million shot and shell in a year, weighing 20,000 tons of iron. The cost of heavy guns is as follows (1882), per ton : — Cast iron . Armstrong too Kruop Whitworth £.^7° 175 During the siege of Sebastopol, 1855, the Allies threw 30,000 tons of shot and shell into that place. The cannon in various countries may be summed up thus (those in fortifications, &c., being approximately) : — Great Britain . . . France Germany . . . . Russia Austria Italy Spain Portugal Holland Belgium Denmark . , . . Sweden and Norway Greece Roumania . . , . Turkey Europe . . United States Brazil , , Japan . . The World , Army Navy 701 2,06c 1,486 I.S4C 850 700 416 132 220 204 120 300 120 312 1,1 10,350 100 50 120 10,620 3.087 2,834 S70 836 320 480 52s 178 560 245 672 70 3S 200 10,613 I.05S 166 149 11,983 Forts, &c. Total 2,000 2,800 3,324 2,048 1,000 500 300 no 120 120 170 100 no 94 2,374 15,170 3,000 200 100 18,470 S.789 7,694 S.380 4.424 2,170 i,6So 1,241 420 900 324 535 1,072 300 442 3,762 36,133 4,15s 416 369 41.073 Rifles Maker Weight, Lbs. Calibre Rounds England . , France . . Lee-Mitford Lebel 9-4 9.2 ■303 ■315 8 8 Germany Austria . . Mauser Mannlicher 95 10.2 .310 •315 5 s Italy . . . United States Vetterli Lee 10.6 .409 • 433 s 5 Belgium . . Turkey . . China . . Mauser Mauser Lee 9-5 ... .310 •433 •433 5 The competition for the Elcho Shield in twenty-four years shows the following score : — Average England . . . 1,345 Ireland . . i,S40 Scotland . , . 1,280 Highest 1,642 1,652 1. 510 ARMY Peace Footing (1889) Artillery Guns War Cavalry Infantry Artillery Engineers, &o. Total Footing Great Britain , France . Germany . Russia . , Austria . Italy Spain Portugal . Belgium . Holland . Denmark Sweden and Norwa Switzerland Greece Roumania Servia . . Bulgaria . Turkey . 17,000 77,000 67,000 log, 000 48,000 26,000 14,000 4,000 6,000 2,000 2,000 6,000 3,000 3,000 4,000 1,000 2,000 zo,ooo 140,000 327,000 341,000 579,000 193,000 107,000 116,000 17,000 31,000 21,000 12,000 43,000 96,000 16,000 23,000 14,000 23,000 98,000 34,000 77,000 62,000 62,000 30,000 33,000 11,000 3,000 6,000 5,000 2,000 6,000 18,000 4,000 6,000 2,000 2,000 30,000 19,000 74,000 22,000 50,000 52,000 89,000 4,000 2,000 5,000 1,000 1,000 2,000 9,000 3,000 3,000 1,000 2,000 12,000 2ro,ooo 555,000 492,000 800,000 323,000 255,000 145,000 26,000 48,000 29,000 17,000 57,000 126,000 26,000 36,000 18,000 29,000 160,000 702 2,060 1,486 1,540 850 700 416 132 200 220 120 300 42 120 312 '^ 1,190 606,000 1,315,000 1,492,000 1,720,000 1,150,000 940,000 400,000 150,000 148,000 S5.O0O 60,000 230,000 207,000 105,000 118,000 100,000 100,000 470,000 Europe . United States . South America . apan ndia Persia 411,000 8,000 17,000 3,000 23,000 6.000 2,197,000 15,000 59.000 47,000 114,000 17,000 393,000 2,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 1,000 351.000 1,000 7,000 S,ooo 4,000 1,000 3,352,000 26,000 89,000 60,000 145,000 25,000 10,630 100 200 160 9.36 6,000 Total • 468,000 2,449,000 411,000 369,000 3,697,000 11,110 ARMY 67 ARMY In the war footing of European armies as given above only the first line of reserves is included. If all reserves were included the above numbers might be safely doubled. According to Napoleon Bonaparte, the proportions of m army should be 70 per cent, infantry, 17 per cent. cavalry, and 13 per cent, between artillery, engineers, and train. The proportions of European armies in the above statement are 66 per cent, infantry, 12 per cent, cavalry, and 22 per cent, between artillery, engineers, and train. The standing armies of twelve principal countries of Europe aave been as follows : — Army War Soldiers per 10,000 Footing Inhabitants in 1888 1810 1851 1888-89 1888-89 Peace War Great Britain 307,000 129,000 210,000 606,000 S6 160 France . 570,000 365,000 55S.OOO 1,315,000 138 370 Germany 160,000 346,000 492,000 1,492,000 102 310 Russia . 558,000 644,000 800,000 1,720,000 100 210 Austria . 347,000 282,000 323,000 1,150,000 80 280 Italv . 7S,ooo 142,000 255,000 940,000 85 310 Spain . 54.000 87,000 145,000 400,000 76 230 Portugal 10,000 28,000 26,000 150.000 60 350 Belgium ... 40,000 48,000 148,000 8S 240 Holland 22,000 50,000 29,000 5S.OOO 70 140 Denmark 7S.0OO 25,000 17,000 60,000 90 300 Sweden . 43.000 57.000 57,000 230,000 90 330 Europe . 2,221,000 2,195,000 e,9S7,ooo 8,266,000 91 270 The minimum height in the principal armies is as follows : British French German Austrian Italian Spanish Ins. 63.0 60.7 61.9 61.2 61.5 61.5 Belgian . Swedish American . Prussian Guard Uhlans Infantry Ins. 61.9 63-3 63.0 67,0 65-9 61.9 For average height, see p. 62. The proportion of men drafted to the ranks out of 1000 recruits or conscripts was : — Rejected for Good Nation for Date Under Height Infirmity Service British . . . 670 1844-52 French . . . 61 327 612 1860-68 Prussian . 95 380 525 1831-63 Bavarian . . 16 233 751 1822-53 Saxon . . . 220 380 400 1826-54 Wurtemburger 120 410 470 1834-57 Austrian . . "3 343 544 1857-64 Russian . . 780 1860-61 Swede . . . lOI 180 719 1847-48 Dane . . . ISO 320 530 1852-56 Spaniard . . lOI 7S 824 1857-66 Belgian . . . 121 107 772 1841-60 Hollander . . 160 71 769 1851-61 United States. 720 1863-65 The following table shows the death-rate and ratio invalided : — Per 10,000 Soldiers Yearly Army Date Died Invalided British .... 95 340 1860-68 French . lOI 70 1862-69 Prussian 64 140 1860-63 Belgian 129 90 1868-69 Austrian 116 210 1869 Portuguese 127 170 1861-67 Russian i6s 1858-68 United States . 140 250 1859 Do. Bla cks 180 1859 The dietary of the various armies is as follows : — Weekly Daily Rations, Oz. Rations, Oz. Extras Weekly Army •s i ■2-S ^ u & & s ei °| I to U British . . 16 12 2 8 16 2 4 9 oz. sugar French 22 9 4 II II 6 3 Russian . 16 16 IS 6 2 galls, beer Austrian , 32 8 I 11 9 8 oz. grease Italian. . 27 11 4 4 4 J gall, wine Spanish . 18 8 6 16 3 3 lbs. fish Belgian . 27 9 35 8 3 5 oz. butter Turkish . 32 9 .3 I 3 oz. grease American . 22 20 2 16 1 10 22 oz, beans German . 28 8 3 ... 4 7 oz. sugar The years of service under the colours and in the reserve are : — France . Germany Austria . Italy Colours First Reserve Second Reserve Age at Enrolment IS 12 20 20 The equipment of infantry and cavalry weighs as follows : — Infantry Cavalry British .... 60 lbs, 125 lbs. German .... 60 ,, 122 ,, French .... 72 „ 155 ,, Russian. ... 68 ,, The rate of marching per hour is as follows — English Miles Ordinary Quick Double Quick British .... German French .... 3-0 2.7 3-3 3-0 3-3 50 S-o 50 ARMY 68 ARMY British Army The strength of the regular standing array at various periods has been thus : — Year Men Per 10,000 Inhabitants Year Men Per 10,000 Inhabitants Year Expenditure, £ 1661. . . . 1688. . . . 1730- • • . 1764- . • . 1792- • . • S.200 28,000 17,000 40,000 57.300 9 SI 30 S3 60 1810 .... 1830. . . . 1850 .... i860. . . . 1889. . . . 306,700 108,700 138,800 229,500 212,000 171 46 52 79 58 1780 .... 1810 .... 1830 .... i860 .... 1888 .... 7,800,000 26,700,000 8,600,000 18,000,000 18,400,000 The forces of the United Kingdom, regular or irregular, were : — 1850 1870 1888 Army .... Reserves and militia Volunteers . 139,000 20,000 193,000 122,000 193,000 210,000 174,000 222,000 Total . 159,000 508,000 606,000 If Yeomanry and Royal Irish Constabulary be added, the total for 1888 will reach 630,000 men. The several Arms in 1888 were : — Army Volun- teers Art; Total Infantry . , Cavalry . . Artillery , . Engineers, &c. Total. . 140,000 17,000 34,000 19,000 122,000 18,000 22,000 12,000 174,000 1,000 38,000 9,000 114,000 sso,ooo 23,000 S9,ooo 4,000 98,000 4,000 44,000 210,000 174,000 222,000 145,000 751,000 The total land force of the British Empire is as fol- lows : — British regular army Reserve and militia Volunteers . Yeomanry Irish constabulary Anglo-Indian army Indian police Colonial forces Total . . . 1,016,000 The regular amiy has 9,400 officers, and 16,100 petty officers. The following table shows the garrison of the United Kingdom since 1800, exclusive of the auxiliary forces : — 212,000 205,000 222,000 14,000 13,000 145,000 190,000 15,000 Year Horse Foot Artillery, &c. Total 1800 .... 14,000 49,000 8,000 71,000 1810 . 20,000 74.000 19,000 113,000 1820. 10,000 47,000 4,000 61,000 1830. 8,000 35. 000 5,000 48,000 1840 . 7,000 39,000 4,000 50,000 1850. 8,000 50,000 9,000 67,000 i860. 11,000 62,000 17,000 90,000 1870. 11,000 56,000 17,000 84,000 1880 . 13,000 72,000 22,000 107,000 1889. 13,000 70,000 22,000 105,000 The equipment and distribution of the regular army were as follows :- 1889 1888 Officers and Men Horses Infantry Cavalry Artillery Engineers, &c. Total England Scotland Ireland ngdom Total 74.000 4,000 28,000 9,600 340 3.300 43.000 3.000 21,000 9,000 1,000 3.000 15,000 3.000 16,000 1,000 3.000 83,000 5.000 30,000 United Ki India . Egypt . Colonies 106,000 73,000 3,400 29,400 13.240 11,100 300 710 67,000 S3.000 5,000 15,000 13,000 6,000 18,000 13,000 1,000 4,000 20,000 6,000 118,000 72,000 6,000 25,000 211,800 25.350 140,000 19,000 36,000 26,000 221,000 The Indian establishment * is as follows : — S E w Horse . Foot' . Artillery 6,000 S4.000 13,000 23,000 114,000 8,000 29,000 168,000 21,000 Bengal . . Bombay . Madras, &c. 45,000 13.000 15,000 Total 73,000 145,000 218,000 73,000 * The feudatory States of India have also armies of their own, viz. : — Men Guns Hindoo States . . 275,000 3,372 Mahometan . . . 75,000 865 Total 350,000 4,2^7 The Volunteer force, created in i860, showed as- follows : — Year i860 1865 1870 187s 1880 Roll 160,300 226,700 245,000 238,300 243,500 258,000 E^cient 106,400 133,800 170,700 168,700 196,900 222,000 The composition of the regular army is as follows :- Religion (1889) Nationality (1883) English . Irish . . Scotch . Colonial Total . 100 Age (1883 Under 18 . 2 18-30 . . 74 30-40 . . 20 Over 40 . . 4 Total . 100 Church of England 67 Roman Catholics . 19 Presbyterians . . 8 Dissenters ... 6 Total . . 100 ARMY 69 ARMVT In 1 88 1 there were 93 per cent, of the men able to read and write, against 68 per cent, in i860. _ The health of the army has been greatly improved since Dr. Farr's barrack reform begim in i860, on a basis of 600 cubic feet of air per man in Europe, and 1000 in India, with an allowance of 1600 cubic feet for each horse. In many barracks of Great Britain, down to 1 86 1, the average accommodation only allowed 300 to 400 cubic feet per man. The new barracks at Chelsea are considered a model, the cost being £24$ per man, including cost of site. The death-rate of the garrisons under the old and new systems (exclusive of deaths in war) showed thus : — Per 1000 Men Yearly Great Britain . India 1830-40 16 68 1876-80 7 10 Jamaica . 143 22 Ceylon Canada Sierra Leone 57 21 22 18 The following table shows, moreover, what an improve- ment has taken place in the health of the army, both at home and abroad, since 1861 : — Per 1000 Men Hospital Ad- Deaths missions 1861 1871-BO 1861 1871-80 India 1,768 I.4S4 37 19 Chma 1,492 1,196 28 14 Ceylon 1,440 971 20 IS Bermuda . 461 632 14 9 West Indies 1,002 913 14 11 Mauritius . 608 1.834 12 17 Malta 772 857 II 10 Canada 644 667 8 7 Gibraltar . 927 67s 9 7 United Kingdom 1,025 817 9 8 Death-rate in the United Kingdom ranges from sJ per 1000 in cavalry to 7 J in the engineers, the general average being under 7 per 1000. The saving of life consequent on ihe barrack reforms is equal to 4200 men yearly in India, and 2500 in the rest of the army. In active service the death-rate among officers is heavier than among the rank and file. The Duke of Wellington's army roll from 1811 to 1814 showed : — Killed Wounded . Died of disease . French Army The strength has been at various periods as follows ;— Officers Men 14.5 per cent. 10.2 per cent. 81.0 49-0 „ 13-0 38.0 „ Date Men Horses Expenditure, £, 1783 1812 1836 1848 1869 1880 1888 127,000 743,000 280,000 445,000 426,000 498,000 525,000 30,000 180,000 S4,ooo 90,000 90,000 124,000 122,000 8,700,000 16,800,000 18,400,000 33,000,000 22,200,000 The army list for 1890 shows as follows : — France Algeria Tunis, &o. Total Horse Foot Artillery .... Gendarmes . . . Engineers, &c. . . 67,000 291,000 73,000 22,000 40,000 8,000 29,000 3,000 1,000 9,000 2,000 7,000 1,000 2,000 77,000 327,000 77,000 23,000 51,000 Total . . 493.000 50,000 12,000 SSS.ooo Horses .... 119,000 15,000 4,000 138,000 Deducting sick and absent, the effective force in January 1890 was 511,000 between officers and men, the officers numbering 26,600, reserve 860,000, militia 1,022,000, total 2,337,000. The artillery consists of 2060 field- guns and 99 fortress batteries. Napoleon's army in 1805 consisted of 380,000 infantry, 76,000 cavalry, and 35,000 artillery. The army roll shows that from June 1791 to November 1813 the number enrolled was 4,556,000 men, but the Minister of War in 1814 was of opinion that only 2,022,000 had actually passed under the colours. The following table shows the nominal and actual levies, the numbers rejected by the army doctors, and those drafted to the colours. Years Nominal Levy Actual Levy Rejected for Under Height Other Causes Total Drafted to Colours Percentage Rejected 1813 1816-20 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1887 1,140,000 297,000 283,000 300,000 305,000 306,000 316,000 316,000 143,000 179,000 164,000 12,000 14,000 10,000 7,000 51,000 S7>ooo 54,000 91,000 63,000 71,000 64,000 98,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 80,000 108,000 100,000 218,000 37.7 34-4 3S-I 31.0 The minimum height at various periods was fixed thus: — Year Ins. Year Ins. Year Ins. i6gi . . . 66.1 1813 . . . 60.0 1832 . . . 61.5 1776 . . . 65.0 1818 . . . 61.8 1868 . . . 61.0 1792 . . . 64.0 1830 . . . 60.7 1872 . . . 60.7 For the average height of conscripts at various dates, tee 65, Anthropometry. The number of volunteers who joined the colours was as follows : — 184s 1850 18SS 6,800 8,700 21,900 i860 1865 1869 12,900 IO,IOO 6,100 The average age of officers in 1866 was 37 years 8 months, and of men 26 years 3 months. ARMY 70 ARMY The annual death-rate for ten years ending 1884 averaged 10 per thousand. In 1885 it was only 7.6, which is about the same as in the United Kingdom, the arms varying thus : — Engineers. . 5.1 I Artillery . . 6.7 I Train . . .8.5 Cavalry . . 6.6 | Infantry . . 7.5 | Zouaves . . 9.7 There were in 1885 under the colours 452,000 men, whose segregate of days in hospital was 6,300,000 ; this was equal to nearly 4 per cent. (3.8) of the men being constantly in hospital. The number of courts-martial in 1886 was as follows : — Tried Condemned Officers .... 16 10 Men .... 5.549 4.750 Total . . 5,565 4,760 The numbers condemned in 1886 compared with 1882 thus : — 1882 1886 Shot Galleys Imprisonment .... Reprimand .... 57 135 3.828 289 69 114 4,313 264 Total 4.310 4,760 German Army The strength at various periods has been as follows :- Strength 160,000 Year 1810 . 1831 . . . 331,000 1851 . . 346,000 The army of Prussia at various dates was :- 1740 . . . 76,000 1744 . . . 95. 000 1801 . . . 220,000 1808 . . . 42.000 Year 1865 1 871 1890 1830 1865 1871 1886 Strength 441,000 937,000 492,000 162,000 239.000 750,000 377,000 In 1801 it consisted of 40,000 horse and 180,000 foot. Before the dismemberment of the German Confedera- tion in 1865, the army also included an Austrian con- tingent, which is not included above. For example, the confederate army in 1865 comprised : — Men Horses Prussia Austria Bavaria Small States. . . . 239,000 222,000 67,000 135,000 54,000 31,000 8,000 17,000 Total . . . 663,000 111,000 The forces in campaign against France at the outbreak of the war in August 1870, and their maximum in February 1871, are shown thus :— August 1870 February 1871 Prussians .... Bavarians .... Saxons Wurtemburgers . . Various ... 564.000 98,000 43,000 27.000 49,000 719,000 105,000 44,000 29,000 40,000 Total . . . 781,000 937,000 The recruits annually enrolled, and the proportion unable to read and write, were as follows : — Period Recruits Illiterate, per Cent. Recruits for 1887 1876-80 1881-87 1876 1887 141,000 154,000 140,000 169,000 19 12 24 7 Prussia , . 104,000 Bavaria . . 20,500 Other States 44,500 Total . 169,000 The army in 1890 stands thus : 1890 1886 Officers Men Total Prussia Bavaria Other States Total Horse .... Foot .... Artillery .... Engineers, &c. 2,360 11,200 2,720 3,220 65,000 329,000 59,000 19,500 67,360 340,200 61,720 22.720 51.000 267,000 43,000 16,000 7,000 40,000 6,000 3,000 7,000 38,000 6,000 3.000 65,000 345.000 55.000 22,000 Total Horses .... 19.500 472,500 492,000 377.000 66,000 56,000 9,000 S4.O0O g,ooo 487,000 84,000 The strength of the principal garrisons in iS follows : — Berlin . 17,800 Metz . 14,400 Strasburg g.ooo Mayence . 7,700 Cologne . 7,700 Coblentz . 6,400 Konigsberg 6,400 Potsdam . 6,600 Magdeburg 6, 100 The expenditure for the German army in 1889 amounted to ;,f 18,840,000, equal to ;£'38 per man, of which ;^5,500,ooo was for pay, ;^4,3oo,ooo for food, and ;^i, 200,000 for clothing. Russian Army The strength at various periods was as follows : — Year Force Year Force Year Force \TLZ . . 108,000 1800 . ■ 433.000 1855 . . 888.000 1725 . . 196,000 l8l2 . . 540,000 1869 . . 834.000 1756 ■ . 163,000 1827 . . 870,000 1874 . . 794,000 1765. . 313.000 1846 . . 730,000 1888 . . 770,000 Official returns in 1801 showed that the army then consisted of 234,000 infantry, 180,000 cavalry and Cos- sacks, and 19,000 artillery, in all 433,000 men, but the actual fighting strength was believed hardly to reach 250,000. During the war with Turkey in 1827 the nominal strength was 650,000 infantry, 170,000 cavalry, and 50,000 artillery, in all 870,000, but the real force was probably under 500,000. According to an official statement in 1890 the army is summed up thus : — Peace War Men Guns Men Guns Infantry . . . Cavalry . . . Artillery . . . Engineers, &c. . Cossacks . . . Reserves . . . 386.000 S7.000 62,000 50,000 52.000 193,000 1.540 810.000 156,000 75.000 71,000 138,000 470,000 4.030 240 1,020 Total . . 800.000 I.S40 1,720,000 S.290 ARMY 71 ARMY The peace footing has 170,000 horses. The above does not include the Siberian force of 131,000 men and 200 guns. The Statesman's Year-Book gives the following esti- mated war footing for the whole Empire : — Com- batants Non-Com- batants Horses Guns European Russia Caucasia . . . Siberia, &c. . . 1,770,000 250,000 130,000 85,000 15,000 8,000 340,000 68,000 36,000 3,380 300 196 Total . . 2,150,000 108,000 444,000 3.876 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ArMY The strength at various dates showed thus :- Year 1866 . 1889 . stood thus : — Year Army Year Army 1740 . . 30,000 1809 . . 280,000 1805 . . 220,000 1830 . . 286,000 Army 647,000 323,000 The establishment for i8 Peace Footing War Footing Army Reserves Total Horse .... Foot .... Artillery . . . Engineers, &c. . 48,000 193,000 30,000 52,000 64,000 563,000 91,000 110,000 29,000 737,000 37,000 93,000 1,300,000 91,000 147,000 Total . . 323,000 828,000 803,000 1,631,000 The reserves consist of 350,000 Landwehr and 453,000 Landsturm. The artillery has 850 guns in time of peace, and 2008 on a war footing. There are 49,000 horses in peace, and 217,000 on war footing. Of the standing army in time of peace, Austria contributes 60, Hungary 40 per cent. The strength of the several arms compares thus : — 1830 1889 Ratio 1830 1889 Infantry . Cavalry . Artillery . Engineers 196,000 45,000 31,000 14,000 193,000 48,000 30,000 52,000 68.5 10.8 4-9 59-8 14.8 9-3 16.1 Total 286,000 323,000 100.0 100.0 The proportion of conscripts rejected by the army doctors was much greater in ten years ending 1872 than before, viz. : — Rejected per 1000 Under height . Physical infirmity 1867-64 ■ "3 • 343 1863-72 197 553 Total . 456 750 In the latter period the proportion of Austrians rejected as too short was relatively one-fourth greater than that of Hungarians. Italian Army The strength at various dates of the military forces of the States now forming the kingdom of Italy was : — Army . 190,000 . 215,000 . 255,000 The establishment in 18S9 was composed as follows : — Year Army Year 1810 . 75.000 1869 1830 85,000 1878 1851 . 142,000 1889 Army Reserves War Footing Under Arms On Fur- lough Mobile Terri- torial Total Horse . . Foot . . . Artillery . Rifles . . Carbineers . Engineers, 1 &c. . / 26,000 107,000 33.000 13,000 24,000 52,000 10,000 203,000 60,000 29,000 4,000 81,000 210,000 25,000 22,000 42,000 31,000 567,000 49,000 36,000 9,000 63,000 67,000 1,087,000 167,000 100,000 37,000 238,000 Total . 255,000 387,000 299,000 755.000 1,696,000 There is still another line of reserves, 1,069,000 men, which would bring up the total to 2,765,000. The ratio of conscripts rejected by the army doctors shows thus : — From Rome . 18 per cent. Naples .23 Sicily 30 From Pjedmont 31 per cent. Venetia 34 Lombardy44 According to the Annates de Demog., the above results were obtained from one million conscripts. Spanish Army The strength at various dates was as follows : — Year Army Year Army i8ro . . . 54,000 1851 . . . 87,000 1831 . . . 46,000 1889 . . . 145,000 The actual establishment is as follows : — Peace War Horse Foot .... Artillery Engineers . 14,000 116,000 11,000 4,000 2T,000 343.000 30,000 7,000 Total 145,000 401,000 There are 104,000 men in Spain, 30,000 in Cuba and Porto Rico, and 1 1,000 in the Philippine Islands. Portuguese Army The strength at various dates was as follows : — Year 1810 1830 Arviy 10,000 ■ 26,000 Year 1851 Army 28,000 26,000 Including reserves, the peace and war footings show thus: — Peace War Men 33,000 150,000 Horses .... 4,000 13,000 Guns 132 264 The garrison of Portugal is 17,000; of the colonies, 9000 men. Swedish Army Before the annexation of Norway, the Swedish army in 1805 counted 1 1,000 horse, 24,000 foot, and 4000 artillery, in all 39,000 men. The combined strength of Sweden and Norway in 1830, on peace footing, was 42,000, and in 1851 it amounted to 37,000. The present establishment is as follows : — Peace War Sweden Nor- way Total Sweden Nor- way Jotal Horse . . Foot . . Artillery . Engineers . 5,000 27,500 4,500 1,300 1,300 15,000 1,800 700 6,300 42,500 6,300 2,000 9,000 157,500 13,000 10,500 3,000 34,000 2,000 1,000 12,000 191,500 15,000 11,500 Total . 38,300 18,800 57,100 190,000 40,000 230,000 ARMY Danish Army 72 ARMY In 1805 it comprised the forces of Denmark and Nor- way, viz. : — Denmark Norway Total' Infantry Cavalry Artillery 30,000 7,100 3,100 34,000 3,200 64,000 10,300 3,100 Total 40,200 37,200 77,400 In 1830 the force was only 39,000, Norway having been united to Sweden, and even this must have included irregulars ; the regular army in 1850 amounted only to 25,000 men. In 1889, the forces were approximately as follows : — Peace Reserves War Footing Horse . Foot Artillery, &c. . 2,000 12,000 2,600 2,000 33,600 6,400 4,000 45,600 9,000 Total . 16,600 42,000 58,600 The artillery has 1 20 field-guns in time of peace. Dutch Army The establishment in 18 follows : — was approximately as Peace Reserves War Footing Horse . Foot Artillery Engineers, &o. 2,000 21,000 5,000 1,000 1,000 16,000 9,000 3,000 37,000 14,000 1,000 Total . 29,000 26,000 5S,ooo There is also a militia, numbering 100,000 men ; also a colonial army in Java, comprising 34,000 men, of whom 15,000 are Dutch and 19,000 natives. Belgian Army The establishment is as follows : — Peace Peace War Horse . . . Foot .... Artillery, &c. . 6,000 31,000 10,500 Men . . . Horses . . Guns . . . 47,500 9,000 zoo 148,000 14,000 240 Total . 47.500 ... In time of war the Civic Guard (42,000) could be added, making a total of 1 90,000 men. The death-rate has been as follows per 1000 men yearly : — Year Rate Year Rate Year Rate 1835 ... 80 i860 ... 20 1880 ... 20 1850 ... 40 1870 ... 40 1888 ... 13 The military hosj. ital returns were : — Year Entries Dpaths 1 Deaths per "'=''"'= ! 1000 Admitted Days per Bed 1870 1880 1886 21,380 16,290 17,660 310 15.0 igo 12.4 184 _ lo.s 21 21 22 The levy averages 20,100 men, of whom 13,300 are passed to the colours; those rejected average 34 per cent, of the number drawn, 3i per cent, being rejected as short of the required height. Swiss Army In 1889 the force was as follows : — Line Landwehr Landsturm War Footing Horse . . . Foot. . . . Artillery . . Engineers, &c. 3,000 96,000 18,000 9,000 3,000 65,000 10,000 3,000 260,000 3,000 6,000 421,000 31,000 12,000 Total . 126,000 81,000 1 263,000 470,000 The artillery has 42 guns in peace, and 300 on a war footing. Greek Army The strength in 1889 was as follows : — Horse . . . 3,000 Men Foot , . . 16,000 Horses Artillery, &c. , . 7,000 Total 26,000 Guns 26,000 3.700 120 By calling out the militia, the war footing could be raised to 105,000 men. Roumanian Army In 1889 the establishment was approximately as follows : — Army linitia War Footing Horse . Foot Artillery Engineers, &c. 4,000 23,000 6,000 3,000 4,000 75,000 3,000 8,000 98,000 9,000 3.000 Total 36,000 82,000 118,000 Servian Army The strength in 18S9 was as follows, approximately : — . 18,000 Horse Foot Artillery, &c. . Total 1,000 14,000 3,000 18,000 Men Horses Guns 2,000 144 By calling out the reserves a war footing of 100,000 could be attained. In 18 Bulgarian Army I the strength was approximately thus : — Horse Foot Artillery, &c. 2,000 23,000 4,000 Men Horses Guns 29,000 2,000 96 Total . 29,000 The war footing is estimated at 100,000. Turkish Army The strength at various dates was as follows : — Year Army Year 1810 . , . 297,000 1869 185s . . . 165,000 1889 . The present establishment is as follows : — Hofse Foot Artillery, &c. . Total 20,000 . 98,000 . 42,000 . 160,000 Men Horses Guns Army 220,000 160,000 160,000 25,000 1,190 ARMY 73 ASTRONOMY The reserves and Bashi-Bazouks are variously esti- mated. On paper, Turkey has a war footing of 800,000 men, but the total is generally supposed not to exceed 470,000. United States The number of soldiers at various periods was : — l77S-83> War of Independence, enrolled 231,800 men. 1812, war with England, 68,000 men, of whom 32,400 regulars, the rest volunteers and militia. 1861-63, Federal Government enrolled 2,688,000 men ; Confederate, 300,000, In 1889 the army counted 2200 officers and 26,000 men, viz.: — Horse, 8000; foot, 15,000) artillery, &c., 3000. Two regiments of horse and two of foot are com- posed of negro soldiers, with white officers. Armies of South America The following table shows approximately the disci- plined forces of Spanish America : — Horse Foot Artillery, &o. Total Mexico . . , S.500 19. soo 2,500 27,500 Central America 1,200 S.ooo 800 7,000 Columbia , . . 1,000 4,000 1,000 6,000 Venezuela . . . 1,000 2,500 SCO 4,000 Ecuador , . . Soo 2,000 500 3,000 Peru .... 600 4,800 SOO S.900 Chile .... 1,000 4,000 500 S.Soo Bolivia .... soo 2,000 500 3,000 Paraguay . . . 100 400 100 600 Uruguay . . . 1,000 2,000 500 3.500 Argentina . . . 2,500 3.500 1,000 7,000 Brazil .... 2,500 9.500 4,000 16,000 Total . . 17.400 S9.ZOO 12,400 89,000 In time of war the numbers are doubled, or even quadrupled, by adding raw levies of peasants. Japanese Army The actual strength, according to the Stalesman' s Year- Book, is as follows : — Horse Foot . Artillery, &c Total . 3,000 . 47,000 . 10,500 . 60,500 Men . Horses Guns 60,500 7,200 160 There are also two lines of reserves, together 247,000 men, making up a total war footing of 307, 500 men. Persian Army It may be stated approximately as follows : — Peace Reserves War Footing Hotse Foot Artillery, &c. . . . . 6,000 17,000 2,000 19,200 58,300 3.000 25,200 75.300 5,000 Total . . . 25,000 80,500 105,500 The real strength of the Empire on war footing is believed not to exceed 50,000 men. Armies of Antiquity Date General Number Observation B.C. 480 B.C. 332 A.D. 720 A.D. 1095 Xerxes Darius Abderahman f Godfrey de ) ( Bouillon 1 1,800,000 750,000 300,000 300,000 Invading Greece War with Alexander Battle of Tours First Crusade Army Transport Date Army of Number From To Miles Days 193 Sept. Severus 3S.OOO Pannonia Rome 800 40 1235 Gelaleddin Tiflis Kerman 1,000 17 1805 Napoleon 150,000 Bouloene Germany 450 25 1863 Federals 25,000 Kentucky Vicksburg 1,000 4 1865 Federals 16,000 Eastport New Orleans 1,330 13 1866 Austrians 123,000 Venice Danube 500 10 1877 Americans 400 Atalanta Idaho 4.302 IS ASTRONOMY According to Dr. Gould, there are 6100 stars in the Northern, and 7200 in the Southern Hemisphere dis- tinctly visible to the naked eye. Mr. Proctor estimated the number of stars as follows : — Down to loth magnitude . . . 1,000,000 „ nth „ ... 3,000,000 ,, I2th ,, ... 9,000,000 ,, 13th ,, . . . 27,000,000 According to the Paris Observatory, the number down to 14th magnitude is about 50 millions. Dr. Gould fixed the position of 85,000 stars in the Southern Hemisphere in his Urmiometria Argentina. It seems that the first catalogue of the stars was that by Tycho Brahe, which included 777 fixed stars, and was published about 1 590. A second, embracing 2884 stars, was made in 1725 by the Astronomer Royal at Green- wich, riamsteed. His successor, Bradley, noted the position of 60,000, and the two Herschels, father and son, made catalogues respectively of the northern and southern hemispheres. The second Herschel also made a catalogue of 4000 double stars. The following table shows the number of observatories and the size of the principal telescopes in the world : — Observatories United Kingdom . France . Germany Russia . Italy . Austria . . . Switzerland . Other countries . Europe . . . United States Canada . Spanish America . Asia . . . Africa . . . Australia , . 3 128 Telescopes Inches Aperture Lord Rosse 72 Lassell . 48 HerscheU . 48 Polkova . 30 San Jos6, California 28 Vienna 27 Washington 26 Newcastle 25 Pultowa . 16 Cambridge, U.S. IS Paris 13 Greenwich 12 Cincinnati 12 Munich . 11 Rome 10 Berlin 10 The World . Leyden Observatory was founded 1632, Copenhagen 1637, Greenwich 1675, Paris 1677. ASTRONOMY 74 ATHLETICS Planets Miles Diameter Millions of Miles Ratios of Size , Weight, &c. Mean Dis- tance from Least Dis- tance from Greatest Distance Sire Weight Density Days in Year Sun Earth from Earth Earth . . . a . 7,901 91 100 100 100 365 Mercury 2,962 47 136 S 7 124 83 Venus , 7,Sio 66 23 160 80 79 90 22s Mars . 4,920 139 62 245 14 12 96 687 Jupiter . 85,390 476 409 592 138,700 30,000 20 4,333 Saturn . 71,904 872 831 1,014 74,600 9,000 12 10,759 Uranus . 33,024 1. 753 1,746 1,929 7,200 1,300 18 30,687 Neptune .... 36,620 2,746 2,629 2,863 9,400 1,700 17 60,127 Comets Millions of Miles from Years of Sun Next Revolution Greatest Distance Least Distance Return Halley . . 77 3,200 S6 1910 Mechain 14 1899 Faye . . . 8 603 192 1896 D' Arrest . 7 1890 Biela . . . 7 58S 82 1893 Brorsen . . 6 537 64 1890 Winnecke . 6 1891 De Vico . . 6 475 no 189s Encke . . 3 387 32 1890 Stars according to Magnitude Magnitude No. 1st 18 2nd 55 3rd . 170 4th 500 6th . 6,000 2th 10,000,000 Years for Light to Reach the Earth 3 6 36 All down to the 36th magnitude inclusive, that is, over 8000 in number, are clearly visible to the naked eye. A 9-foot telescope reveals those of the 12th magnitude, an i8-foot one those of the 13th, whose light takes 2700 years reach to us. Down to the 13th inclusive comprises 27,000,000. ATHLETICS Distance Bicycle Tricycle Rider Hours Minutes 1 Seconds Date Rider Hours Minutes ' Seconds Date I mile W. C. Jones . 2 20 1890 G. Gatehouse . 2 ' 4.2 18S7 5 .. S. G. Whittaker 13 46 1888 G. Gatehouse . 14 23 10 „ H. G. Crocker . 27 1 8 J, J. B. King . . 29 10 1888 20 ,, S. G. Whittaker 56 1 32 ,, G. Gatehouse . 59 10 1887 30 .. E. Oxborough . I 28 1 29 ,, F. W. AUard . I 34 25 SO .. W. F. Knapp . 2 29 1 41 ,, F. W. Allard . 2 43 54 100 ,, F. R. Fry . . 5 50 \ 5 1883 A. L. Bower . 6 9 26 " G. P. Mills rode from Land's End to John o' Groats, 861 miles, in 5 days 2 hours; another person, from Tunbridge to Liverpool, 234 miles, in 18 J hours. In 1879, G. Waller rode, at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, 1405 miles in 6 days of 18 hours; in 1880, at the same Cricket The highest individual score on record is 485, by A. E, Stoddart, in 1886, in a match of Ilampstead v. Stoics. The largest gross score is 920, by the Orleans Club, 3rd August 1882. The highest records of throwing the cricket-ball are : — Date Thrcmi Yards Place 1873 W. H. Game 127 Oxford 1888 — Crane 128 Melbourne Mr. Crane, the champion thrower, is an American. Jumps Date Jump Athlete E. A. Johnson P. Davin E. A. Johnson W. Byrd Page Tom Ray Feet Inches 1881 1883 1878 1887 1886 Long standing Long running High standing High running Pole jump 11 23 5 6 II I 2 3 4 6 place, H. Higham, 230 miles in 17 hours, without dis- mounting. In June 1S88, in a six-days' race at Islington, between horse and bicycle, the horse won by 2 miles^ In 1882 there were 9800 bicycle riders in London, and g6,oco in England and Wales. Running and Walking S] !" a Date g Athlete 3 3 s Place K S tfi 1886 I W. S. George 4 13 London 1863 2 W. Lang q II Manchester 1863 s G. White 24 40 188s 10 W. Cummings ■Ji 7 London 1880 20 J. E. Warburton I S6 S8 1881 30 G. Mason 3 IS 9 1881 40 G. Bailey 4 34 27 1887 .50 G. Cartwright 5 ■;5 S 1882 100 C. Rowell 13 26 30 New York The greatest distance walked in one hour was 8 miles 172 yards by W. Griffin in 1881, and in four hours was 27J miles by W. Franks in 1882. The greatest distance run in one hour was 1 1 miles 970 yards by Louis Bennett in 1863. ATHLETICS 75 BANKS Thefollowing pedestrian feats in six days are recorded:- Date Miles Athlete Place 1880 1888. . . . 18B8 1882 SS° 621 623 660 Brown Albert Littlewood Hazel London New York Mr. Hazel was an Englishman, and won ;^4O0O. In 1874, at Bristol, Miss Richards gained £^0 for her aged parents by walking 1000 miles in 1000 consecutive hours. Mr. Weston has walked 5000 miles in 100 days. Skating ^ Athlete 2 1 •3 a Place Q s K .b 1 1889 I A. Pascliin 2 'r? Vienna 1889 I O'Donoghue 2 W ,, 1890 2 Norseng 6 2-; Amsterdam 1884 1 A. Paulsen 10 'M New York 1890 s Norseng 16 48 Amsterdam 1884 10 A. Paulsen 36 37 New York 1884 20 ,, I 14 7 t» 1882 30 S. Montgomery 2 .31 12 l» 1882 40 ,, 3 21 22 ,, 1SS2 50 ■' 4 13 36 >■ Swimming Captain Webb swam from Dover to Calais, August 24, 187s, in 21 hours 45 minutes, but was beaten by William Beckwith in a swimming match for 90 miles in 60 hours. Lord Byron swam across the Dardanelles. Swimmer Distance Miles Time Miss Beckwith . London to Greenwich Miss Parker . . London to Blackwall 7 95 mm. Miss Dicks . . Shoreham to Brighton 6 Miss Saigeman . 6 Fr. Cavil . . . Putney to Blaokwall 16 4hrs. Calais to Dover 23 13 hrs. Miss Beckwith was only 14 years of £^e when she swam irom London to Greenwich (1875). Date Distance Swimmer Hrs. ' Min. Sec. 1884 .... I mile J. Collier o 28 zo 1881 . . . s°° yards J. Finney 077 Boat Races The quickest runs from Putney to Mortlake were : — Year Winner Minutes Seconds 1869 . . . Oxford 20 4 1873 . . . Cambridge 19 35 In 45 years Oxford won 23, Cambridge 21, and one was a dead heat. B. BALLOON The most remarkable ascents on record are : — Date Aeronaut Place of Ascent Height, Yards Distance, Miles 1783 1804 1836 1859 1862 Montgolfier . Gay-Lussac . Holland . . Wise . . . Glaisher . . Lyons . . . Paris . . . London . . New York , Wolverton . 2,000 7,700 12,000 500 1,150 During the siege of Paris, September 1870 to February 1871, there were 64 balloons sent up, containing 91 passengers, 354 pigeons, and 3 million letters (weighing 9 tons). Mr. Glaisher states that in 3500 balloon ascents only fifteen deaths have occurred, that is, about four per thousand. Mr. Godard, who died in November 1890, made over 2000 ascents. Charles Green, who died in 1870, had made 600 ; and Mr. Coxwell, who. is still living, over 700, having attained with Mr. Glaisher a height of seven miles. The results of Professor Glaisher's observations during nine ascents in 1863-64 were as follows : — Elevation, Feet Decrease of Tem- perature, Fahr. Humidity ■ Cloudy Sky Clear Cloudy Sky (74) Clear (59) 1,000 2,000 S.ooo 10,000 15,000 20,000 23,000 30,000 4 8 18 31 42 49 £2 6 II 21 34 44 % 62 76 74 48 59 29 40 6i 70 69 46 44 fi BANKS The banking power of the world has increased in a surprising degree in the last fifty years, viz. : — 1840 1870 1888-90 Millions £ Millions £ Millions £ United Kingdom 132 720 910 United States . 90 440 1,030 France .... 16 64 26S Germany . . . 12 49 231 Australia . . . 5 38 134 Canada. . . . 3 12 40 River Plate . . 2 9 37 Other countries . 48 270 547 Total . . 308 1,602 3>i97 The issues of State banks in England, France, Austria, Germany, Russia, and United States, compared with specie reserve at the subjoined dates as follows : — Issue , Millions £ Specie Reserve, Millions £ 1870 1880 1890 1870 1880 1890 Bank of England 24 27 2S 21 28 21 Bank of France 58 92 120 50 79 103 Bank of Austria 30 33 42 II 17 22 German banks . 43 SO 49 20 31 42 Bank of Russia . lOO 140 123 24 28 33 U. States banks „ Treasury 96 63 73 72 27 181 }28 68 229 Total . . 414 487 567 IS4 251 450 In twenty years the specie reserve was trebled, while the paper issue only rose 33 per cent. The ratio of specie BANKS 76 BANKS to paper money in general was 38 per cent, in 1870, and 79 per cent, in 1890. It appears that the amount of capital employed in banking has almost doubled since 1870, and multiplied nearly tenfold since 1840. Banking power consists of capital, right of issue, and deposits in all banks, viz. : — Millie ns, j^ Sterling £p" Capital, Deposits Total Inhabitant United Kingdom . 284 626 910 24.0 France .... 140 128 268 7.0 Germany . . 8S 146 231 5-0 Russia . . 4a 64 106 1.2 Austria , . 4S 102 147 3.8 Italy . . . 2S 83 108 3.6 Spain , . . 31 16 47 2.3 Portugal . . 6 4 10 2.2 Sweden , . 9 IS 24 S-3 Norway . . S I 6 3.0 Denmark. . 2 21 23 11.6 Belgium . . ir 19 30 S-o Holland . . 14 6 20 4-5 Switzerland , 5 12 17 6.0 Europe . . 704 1.243 1.947 5-5 United States 270 760 1,030 16. 1 Australia . . 26 108 134 37- Canada . . 13 27 40 8.0 Cape Colony 2 7 Q 6.0 Argentina . 12 17 29 8.0 Uruguay . . 3 S 8 12.0 Total 1,030 2,167 3.197 7-5 The issue and specie reserves of the banks of all nations in 1889 were as follows : — £ Sterling Specie Issue Specie in Safe Ratio Per cent. United Kingdom 39,000,000 28,000,000 70 France .... I2r ,400,000 101,000,000 84 Germany . . . 64,000,000 59,000,000 ^l Russia .... 123,000,000 33,000,000 26 Austria .... 43,500,000 21,500,000 SO Italy . . . . 43,000,000 14,000,000 33 Spain . . . . 29,500,000 9,500,000 32 Sweden. . . . 6,300,000 2,700,000 44 Norway . . . 2,400,000 2,500,000 104 Denmark . . . 4,400,000 3,100,000 70 Belgium . . . 15,200,000 4,400,000 29 Holland . . . 17,200,000 10,600,000 60 Switzerland . . 6,200,000 3,900,000 63 Greece .... 3,000,000 1,000,000 33 Europe .... 518,100,000 294,200,006 47 United States . 26,700,000 34,300,000 128 Canada. . . . 6,300,000 1,400,000 22 Australia . . . 5,400,000 19,300,000 357 Cape Colony . . 700,000 1,600,000 230 Argentina . . . 44,000,000 4,500,000 10 Uruguay . . . 3,100,000 600,000 20 India . . . . 12,000,000 12,000,000 100 Total . . 616,300,000 367,900,000 60 The above does not include Government issues (foi which see Moiuy. The specie reserve in Argentina and Uruguay is full of doubt. The statements of the twelve great banks of Europe in December 1889 was as follows : — Bank of Issue, £^ Specie, £^ Deposits, £ Discount, £ Capital, £ England . France Germany . Austria Russia Italy . Spain Netherlands Belgium , Denmark . Sweden Norway . 24,400,000 121,400,000 50,000,000 43,500*000 123,500,000 23,400,000 29,500,000 17,200,000 14,800,000 4,400,000 2,500,000 2,400,000 17,800,000 100,900,000 38,900,000 21,500,000 33,100,000 9,300,000 10,500,000 10,600,000 4,000,000 3, 100,000 1,100,000 2,500,000 28,600,000 27,800,000 17,600,000 10,700,000 5,400,000 6,500,000 16,100,000 1,200,000 2,200,000 800,000 500,000 36,900,000 51,600,000 33,100,000 17,900,000 11,500,000 7,700,000 42,200,000 9,500,000 12,100,000 2,000,000 3,400,000 1,200,000 14,500,000 7,300,000 6,000,000 9,000,000 4,000,000 8,100,000 6,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 1,000,000 2,200,000 700,000- Total 457,000,000 253,300,000 117,400,000 229,100,000 63,700,000 The figures for Spain and Netherlands are those of March 18 Scandinavian banks 1888. )o, the deposits for Austria of 1887, and the The rates of interest* since 1851 have been as fol- lows : — CO tr "? ri O) !?! CO s S! s iH rH < m Great Britain . 4.17 4-23 3.28 3-3° 3.81 3-S5 France . . . 4-3° 3-SS 3.94 3-34 3-84 3.18 Germany . . . 4-OS 4.S6 4-30 4.20 4.28 3-70 Austria . . . 5.26 4-77 4-79 4-71 4.91 4.12 Italy .... S-3S 5-69 4.85 4-74 5. 22 Holland . . . 3.60 S.98 3-40 3-56 3-64 2.50 Belgium . . . 3,62 3-59 3.60 3.66 3.62 3.62 Europe . . . 4.27 4-3° 3-71 3-93 4.12 3-44 * In the Middle Ages lo per cent, was the ordinary rate. Philip Augustus promulgated a law in France in 1222 limit- ing the maximum to 10 per cent. The discounts of the principal banks (according to Spallart, down to 1880), were : — 1868 1880 1889-90 Bank of— £ £ £ England . . . 18,500,000 24,000,000 36,900,000 France . . . 19,700,000 41,000,000 51,600,000 Germany . . 22,800,000 32,400,000 33,100,000 Austria . . . 8,200,000 13,900,000 17,900,000 Belgium . . . 5,800,000 10,100,000 12,100,000 Holland . . . 3,200,000 4,600,000 9,500,000 U. States banks . 131,100,000 217,700,000 378,000,000 Total . . 209,300,000 343,700,000 539,100,000 It has been already shown that the banking power doubled between 1870 and 1888. The above table like- Banking Capital, millions £. PLATE II. BANKING. 1030 910 U. KINGDOM 2B8 231 147 134 106 m FRANCB GBRMANV AUSTRIA AUSTRALIA ITALY RUSSIA SPAIN CANADA Savings-Banks Deposits, Shillings per Inhabitant. 209 158 104 101 80 84 SWITZERLAND U. States Australia 65 62 60 5S 50 46 40 27 ZIH m m AUSTRIA England Sweden France Scotland Italy Belgium Holland Ireland Canada Spain Russia Depositors per looo Inhabitants. 360 240 lao 170 165 135 120 105 102 77 67 SWITZERLAND SCANDINAVIA GERMANY FRANCE AUSTRALIA U. KINGDOM ITALY HOLLAND BELGIUM AUSTRIA U. STATES 8dllanlyne, Hanson & C? Edln^urah & Londoi BANKS 77 BANKS wise shows that discounts more than doubled between 1868 and 1S90. The rates of exchange in London on the principal markets for forty-two years were :— London on Calcutta on London Price of Period Paris ; Hamburg Amster- dam Silver per Oz., Pence 1841-50 1851-60 i86r-70 1871-80 1881-82 1885-89 25.76 25.44 25.46 25.55 25-53 13. 12 13.08 13.09 20,62 20.67 12.1 11.4 II. 6 12.3 12.5 23.1 251 24-3 21.6 19.9 59.8 61.6 60.S 56. 1 Si-7 4S-0 London rates on Paris from i8cx> to I 880 were :— Period Highest Lowest Average Date of Highest Date of Lowest 1800-10 . . 25.2 19.6 22.4 1805 1809 1811-Z0 . , 26.1 17.6 22.0 1816 1811 1821-30 . . 25.9 25.2 25.6 1829 1824 1831-40 . . 25-9 25.2 25-5 1832 1831 1841-50 . . 26.7 24.9 25.8 1848 1850 1851-60 . . 25.5 24.9 25.4 1856 1851 1861-70 . . 25-5 25.0 2S-4 1869 1869 1871-80 . . 26.9 25.2 25.6 1872 i«74 The rates of interest in the United States, according to the New England Mutual Insurance Company, have steadily declined in the last twenty-one years, viz. : — Years Per Cent. 1869-73 6.1 1874-78 5.9 1879-83 ... ... 5.0 1884-89 4.7 Berlin rales on the other gieat cities were as follows : — 1875 1880 18S7 1888 London Paris Amsterdam .... Vienna St. Petersburg . . . 20.60 81.60 174.90 183.50 281.25 20.44 80.9s 169.10 170.70 213.80 20.35 80.70 168.65 160.60 202.80 20.48 81.00 172.60 193.80 The use of cheques compared with money at various dates and places shows thus : — Per Cent. Date Place Cheques Notes and Coin 1839 1859 1881 1859 1872 1881 1881 1881 1881 1881 London Provinces England ar New York Western St United Sta United Sta d'' ate es es Wales s . . Banks 932 96.8 98.9 47-3 68.2 97.0 98.7 81.7 91.6 94.4 6.8 3-2 i.i S2.7 31.8 3.0 x8:i The cheques paid in London and New York in one month aggregate 1270 millions sterling, which is much m excess of all the gold and silver coin in existence. The business of the principal clearing-houses shows thus : — London New York Year 3 S Per Day, £ Year a Per Day, £, 1817 1839 1867-70 1871-80 1881 1889 880 980 3.540 5,210 2,900,000 3,200,000 12,000,000 17,000,000 20,500,000 25,400,000 1873 1881 1886 261 3.486 5.665 7.723 6,750 800,000 11,000,009 18,000,000 25,000,000 21,500,000 The clearing-houses of thirty-six cities in the United States show the following aggregate returns : — 1886 .... 10,240 millions sterling 1889. . . . 11,580 „ The latest annual returns for Continental cities are, in millions sterling, thus: Berlin, 3780; Paris, 2200; Vienna, 498. United Kingdom The banking power has multiplied more than tenfold since 1825, viz. : — Year 1825 1835 1840 1850 1874 1890 Million £, . 89 loi 132 260 782 910 £per Inkabztant 4-1 4.0 5-0 9-3 24.4 24.0 The figures from 1825 to 1840 are taken from the British Almanac, those since 1850 from the Banker's Magazine, viz. : — MilUon £, Banks Capital and Deposit 1850 1874 1890 English Scotch Irish 207 36 17 628 106 48 871 III 56 Total .... 260 782 1,038 In the interval of twenty-four years from 1850 to 1874 the increase of banking power averaged 22 millions ster- ling per annum, and in that of sixteen years down to 1890 it averaged 16 millions per annum. In the whole period of forty years, about ;^i8,soo,ooo per annum. In the above table capital stands for the market value of the stock. English includes foreign and colonial banks domiciled in London, as appears from the follow- ing statement for 1890 : — Paid Capital Reserve Value of Stock Deposits Discounts Assets England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... Colonial .... 53,800,000 9,100,000 7,000,000 43,000,000 / 27,800,000 5,600,000 3,100,000 19,100,000 , £ 165,500,000 22,900,000 17,700,000 77,600,000 , £ 387,700,000 88,300,000 37,800,000 240,700,000 £ 289,800,000 58,000,000 27,600,000 303,100,000 £ 517,100,000 113,400,000 54,800,000 387,000,000 Total . 112,900,000 55,600,000 283,700,000 754,500,000 678,500,000 1,072,300,000 BANKS 78 BANKS The value of stock or share capital along with the deposits makes up a total banking power of 1038 millions sterling ; but this includes 128 millions of deposits belong- ing to the Colonies, deducting which, we find the bank- ing power of the United Kingdom is 910 millions sterling. There are in the United Kingdom 4460 banking offices, representing 175 joint-stock banks, whose stock is held among 90,000 shareholders. The Bank of England was founded in 1694 by Rev. W. Patterson, a Scotchman, who died in poverty. The principal features of its business are indicated below. The capital of the Bank has risen as follows : — Year £ Year / 1694 . 1,200,000 1782. . 11,600,000 1708 . 4,400,000 1816. . 14,500,000 1746 . , 10,800,000 1882. . 14,500,000 Year Yearly Average Issue Deposits Securities Bullion £ £ £ £ 1780 8,400,000 4,700,000 10,900,000 3,600,000 1790 10,000,000 6,200,000 10,300,000 8,600,000 1800 16,800,000 7,100,000 21,400,000 6,100,000 1810 21,000,000 12,500,000 35,400,000 3,500,000 1820 23,500,000 4, 100,000 26,200,000 4,900,000 1830 20, 100,000 10,800,000 24,200,000 9,200,000 1840 16,500,000 6,600,000 21,600,000 4,300,000 1850 20,400,000 18,400,000 26,000,000 16,000,000 i860 21,500,000 18,800,000 29,400,000 14,000,000 1870 24,500,000 24,200,000 29,500,000 22,300,000 1880 27,100,000 33,100,000 34,800,000 27,900,000 1882 25,700,000 28, 800,000 37,100,000 20,400,000 1886 24,400,000 29.400,000 34,100,000 21,900,000 1890 24,600,000 32,300,000 36,600,000 20,800,000 in 1793.* Specie payments were suspended in 1797, consequent on the war with France, and one-pound notes issued. The notes steadily depreciated till 1813, when a £<, note was worth 73s., a loss of 27 per cent., that is to say, gold was at 37 per cent, premium. From 1814 a progressive improvement took place, until specie payments were resumed in 1821. The rate of interest was as follows : — Per Cent. Period Highest Lowest Average 1694-1800 6.0 3-0 4-5 1801-1850 8.0 2.S 4-S 1851-1860 10. 2.0 4-1 1861-1870 10.0 2.0 4.2 1871-1880 9.0 2.0 3-3 1881-1888 S-8 2.0 3-3 The Bank first issued ;^io notes in 1759, and £$ notes The note issue of the United Kingdom was as follows : — The year which had the highest average was 1864, namely, 7j per cent. , although the rate never exceeded 9 in that year; the year with lowest average was 1852, namely, 2\ per cent. The rate has only twice reached 10 per cent. — in the crises of 1857 and 1866. The maxi- mum issue of notes was in March 1879, namely, 31 millions sterling, and the highest bullion reserve in Sep- tember of same year, namely, ;^35, 500,000. In the crisis of 1857 the bullion reserve fell to ;f6,400,oco. Deposits reached a maximum in June 1879, namely, 37 millions. * There had been, nevertheless, issued at earlier dates, as the records show, viz. : — Year £ i-joa . . . 860,000 1710 . . . 600,000 1720 . . . 2,500,000 1730 . . . 4,200,000 Year £ 1740 . . 4,500,000 1750 . , 4,200,000 1760 . . 4,900,000 1770 . . 5,500,000 1844 1864 1864 1874 1S89 England Scotland Ireland ^ 28,400,000 3,000,000 5,900,000 £ 27,900,000 4,100,000 6,400,000 , £ 26,700,000 4,300,000 5,600,000 £ 31,500,000 6,000,000 6,800,000 £ 27,200,000 5,700,000 5,800,000 Total 37,300,000 38,400,000 36,600,000 44,300,000 38,700,000 The issue and specie reserves in 1849 and 1887 were as follows : — 1849 1887 Issue, £ Specie, £ Ratio of Specie Issue, £ Specie, £ Ratio of Specie Bank of England All other banks . 18,300,000 . 13,900,000 14,300,000 2,600,000 • Per Cent. 79 19 24,400,000 14,200,000 21,200,000 6,800,000 Per Cent. 87 48 . Total, United Kingdom 32,200,000 16,900,000 S3 38,600,000 28,000,000 73 France. 1869, Millions, £ 1881, Millions, £^ Banking power seems to have increased seventeen-fold since 1839, viz. : — Capital Deposits Total 32 32 140 128 „ Millions, £fer '^"^^ r Sterling Inhabitant 64 268 1839 .... 16 ... o.s 1869 .... 64 ... 1.7 1881 . . . .268 ... 7.3 According to the Journal des Economisiet, the increase of banking power between 1869 and 1881 was fourfold, The number of joint-stock banks was 20 in 1869, and 192 in 1881. There is no statement of capital and deposits in 1839, but as the turnover of the Bank of France for that year was one-fourth of the same in 1869, it is reasonable to infer that banking business had increased in the same degree. In 1881, on the authority above stated, there were in Paris 51 banks with a paid-up BANKS 79 BANKS capital of £48,200,000.* In 1889 were published the balance-sheets of 46 banks in France with an aggre- gate paid-up capital of £59,000,000. The market value of the stock being £96,000,000, that is, an average premium of 63 per cent. ; the aggregate dividend was £4,600,000, or almost 8 per cent, on capital. The Bank of France was founded in 1803, capital £3,650,000 in shares of £40, with sole right of issue ; no notes to be under £4. In 1857 the capital was doubled, the Bank lending the Government 40 millions sterling and receiving permission to issue £2 notes, the limit of issue being raised to 72 millions sterling. During the Franco-German war of 1870-71 the Government demands reached 260 millions sterling, the Bank being authorised to suspend specie payments and issue small notes down to five fi:ancs. The limit of issue was ultimately raised in 1872 to 128 millions sterling, at which it now stands. The Bank has 90 branches in the Departments. Official returns show as follows : — Year Issue, £ Gold, Reserve, £ Gold and Silver, £ Year's Discounts, £ Bank Rate 1800 640,000 300,000 300,000 3,800,000 6.0 1810 4,000,000 800,000 1,700,000 31,700,000 4.0 1820 6,200,000 7,800,000 12,200,000 4-7 1830 9,000,000 100,000 5,8oo,oco 24,700,000 4.0 1840 9,000,000 800,000 9,900,000 44,200,000 4.0 1850 19,800,000 700,000 18,300,000 46,800,000 4.0 i860 29,400,000 20,600,000 198,600,000 ?.-^ 1870 62,600,000 23,400,000 45,200,000 265,000,000 4.0 1880 92,400,000 27,200,000 81,000,000 348,000,000 2.8 1889 114,800,000 53,300,000 103,800,000 340,000,000 3-2 The share of discounts done at Paris was as follows : 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1887 Paris .... Branches . . 84.3 iS-7 29.2 70.8 32-7 67-3 43-2 56.8 47- 53-0 47.2 52.8 Total . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100. 100.0 In 1887 the average amount per bill was £30 sterling ; 1,600,000 were for sums under £4. Germany If we take the annual turn-over of the Bank of Prussia as a measure of the banking power of Germany, the latter may be set down thus : — Year BanktTig Power, Millions £ Sterling 1840 1850 i860 1870 i883 31 125 231 In 1876 Germany had 195 joint-stock banks with an aggregate capital of £85,000,000. Deposits in 188S reached £146,000,000. This gives a total banking power of 231 millions, but the official return for 1887 gives the total of current discounts at only 164 millions sterling. The discount business is distributed thus : — Imperial Bank .... 25,700,000 Other banks of issue . . . 14,500,000 Joint-stock, &c. . . . 123,800,000 Total 164,000,000 The Almanack de Gotha (1888) compares the aggregate banking returns as follows : — , 1875 1880 1885 1888 Issue .... .... Specie reserve . Current discounts £ 52,500,000 33,800,000 179,000,000 £ 49,200,000 37,000,000 157,000,000 £ 53,000,000 38,200,000 165,000,000 , £ 64,400,000 59,400,000 164,000,000 In 1875 there were thirty-three banks of issue, but the number soon after fell to nineteen, the Reichsbank or Imperial German Bank having bought up several of them. Besides the above banking issue the Government had £6,700,000 of Treasury notes in circulation. The average rate of discount at Berlin for eight years ending 1889 was 3.9 per cent. The Bank of Prussia (now the Imperial Bank) was founded in 1765, capital two millions sterling ; this was doubled in 1856, the Government taking one-fourth of the stock, and giving it a charter to issue notes up to three times the amount of bullion at any time on hand. In 1875 it was reconstructed as the Imperial Bank, capital £6,000,000 in shares of £150 each ; the Government drew out its capital, and the bank agreed to pay £100,000 per annum as royalty to the Imperial Treasury. The books of the old bank down to 1870 showed the turn- over thus :— 1820 1830 1840 £ 11,400,000 35,500,000 45,200,000 1850 , i860 . 1870 , £ 77,100,000 208,000,000 830,000,000 The turn-over of the Imperial Bank in 1877 was 2377 millions sterling. The Bank of Munich, capital £1,700,000, has an issue * Deposits in 1881 were made up thus :- Bank of France 22 large banks 170 small banks Total £ . 34,100,000 . 81,200,000 12,700,000 . 128,000,000 of about one million sterling ; those of Dresden and Stutt- gart less. The aggregate issue of the minor banks in December 1887 amounted to £17,100,000; that of the Imperial Bank to £43,300,000. Russia It appears that the banking capital is as follows : — Imperial Bank . . . 4,000,000 29 great banks .... 15,000,000 347 small banks .... 23,000,000 Total . 42,000,000 The latest complete returns are those of 1878, which showed an aggregate of deposits reaching 64 millions sterling. This makes the total banking power 106 millions. The aggregate of discounts was 82 millions sterling. The Imperial Bank was founded in 1859, ■H-ith sole right of issue. It materially serves the Government by printing inconvertible paper money, the amount of which in circulation is 123 millions sterling, and has twenty-six branches in various parts of the Empire, balance-sheet for December 1889 was as follows : — The Liabilities, £ Assets, £ Issue . . Capital . Deposits . Sundries . 123,000,000 4,000,000 5,400,000 27,600,000 Bullion .... Discounts . . . Government bonds Sundries .... Total . . . 33,100,000 11,500,000 90,500,000 24,900,000 Total . 160,000,000 160,000,000 For Land banks and Mortgage banks, see farther on. BANKS 80 BANKS Austria Official returns of all banks for 1887 were as follows :- Austria Hungary Total Paid capital . . Reserve fund . . Deposits . . . £ 24,200,000 4,000,000 65,000,000 £ 14,000,009 3,200,000 36,600,000 „ £ 38,200,000 7,200,000 101,600,000 Banking power . 93,200,000 53,800,000 147,000,000 The Austro-IIungarian Bank has the exclusive right of issue until December 1897.- It was founded in 1861 ; capital ;^3,ooo,ooo in shares of £(>a each, with authority to issue uncovered notes up to 20 millions sterling, in notes from two shillings upwards. It was remodelled in 1880, the capital being raised to ;^9,ooo,ooo sterling. The balance-sheet for 1887 showed : — Liabilities, J^ Assets, ^ Capital . . . Issue .... Mortgages, &o. 9,000,000 39,100,000 12,900,000 Cash.' . . Discounts . Sundries . Total . 22,400,000 16,000,000 22,600,000 Total . . 61,000,000 61,000,000 The issue and reserve have been :- Year Issue Reserve Ratio of Reserve Premium on Gold 1848 . . . 1870 . . . 1875 ■ • • 1880 . . . 1890 . . . £ 27,600,000 29,700,000 28,600,000 32,900,000 42,500,000 £ 3,100,000 11,200,000 13,400,000 17,300,000 21,400,000 Per Cent. II.2 37.0 47.0 52- S S0.1 Per Cent. 17 21 2S The discounts of this bank during eight years ending 1885 averaged ;^5,900,ooo in Vienna, ;^2,6oo,ooo in Buda-Pesth, and ;^5, 900,000 in the provinces ; total, ;^l4,400,ooo. The specie reserve in July 1890 was composed of ;f5,ooo,ooo gold and ;ifi6,400,ooo silver. There are 52 Austrian and 144 Hungarian joint-stock banks, besides 836 People's IBanks in Hungary, and 1 1 78 in Austria. Italy Banking power in 1881 amounted to 87 millions sterling, Bank of Italy . . 5 chartered banks . 113 joint-stock banks 362 other banks . . Total . . . Capital and Reserve Fund 6,900,000 ] 3,900,000 J 8,200,000 4,200,000 23,200,000 Deposits 8,700,000 17,500,000 37,300,000 63,500,000 Total 19,500,000 25,700,000 41,500,000 86,700,000 In 1889 the capital and deposits of all banks (exclu- sive of Post-Office savings banks) were approximately as follows : — Capital, I Deposits, £ Banking- Power, £ Chartered banks . Joint-stock, &c. . 12,600,000 12,400,000 28,500,000 54, 100,000 41,100,000 66,500,000 Total . . 25,000,000 82,600,000 107,600,000 The current discounts of the six great banks in 1889 amounted to 31 millions sterling, or three-fourths of theii banking power. The oldest chartered bank is that of Naples, founded in 18 1 6, which now occupies the second rank, coming next after the Bank of Italy, founded in 1850. There ai^e four other chartered banks with right of issue. The returns of the chartered banks in 1876 were as follows : — X! % 1 Name Capital and Re- serve, £ Number of Branches Issue, £ 1850 1816 1857 1850 1843 i85o Bank of Italy . ,, ,, Naples ,, ,, Tuscany ,, ,, Rome . „ „ Sicily . Tuscan Credit . Total . . 6,900,000 1,700,000 900,000 700,000 400,000 200,000 68 12 8 I 8 I 16,300,000 5,800,000 2,000,000 1,600,000 1,500,000 6co,ooo 10,800,000 98 27,800,000 The Bank of Italy has a nominal capital of 10 millions sterling, of which 8 millions are paid-up, and a reserve fund of ;^I, 600,000. It has right of issue up to 40 millions sterling, its actual issue in l88g being ;^23, 200,000, and its specie reserve ;f 9,400,000, equal to 40 per cent. Taking the aggregate of discount business of the six chartered banks, the Bank of Italy stands for 40 per cent, of the total, according to returns published for 1875 ^"id 1876, viz. : — Number of Bills Discounted Amount for Twelve Months 1875 1876 1875 1876 Bank of Italy . Other 5 char-^ tered banks ) 546,000 792,000 5S5.000 785,000 51,600,000 84,100,000 ^£ 46, 100,000 72,500,000 Total . 1,338,000 1,340,000 135.700.000 118,600,000 £ Issue . . . , 23,400,000 Specie . . . . 9,300,00c The bills in the Bank of Italy averaged 60, those in the other banks, 36 days. The amount of each bill was ;^90 in the five chartered banks, ^81 in the Bank of Italy, and ;^44 in the joint-stock banks. In December 1889 the Bank of Italy showed : — £ Capital and re-l - serve fund . . 1 9,6oo,ooo Deposits . . . 6,500,000 Spain In June 1890 the Bank of Spain had notes in circulation to the amount of ;£'30,ooo,ooo, against a specie reserve of £^ 1,500,000. The deposits reached ;^l6,20o,oco, and discounts ;,f43,5oo,ooo. The Bank of Madrid has like- wise issue up to ;^i, 000,000. Portugal Banking power is much greater than might be expected, a statement published in 1878 giving the aggregate oi banks as follows : — Capital ,.,.,. 6,000,000 Deposits 3,500,000 Banking power .... 9,500,000 Nevertheless usurers do a large business. In 186 1 they held mortgages for six millions sterling on real estate, interest 1 5 to 20 per cent. BANKS 8i BANKS Switzerland Banking power 17 millions sterling, the returns of all Swiiis banks in i88o showing thus : — £ Capital 4,500,000 Deposits 12,200,000 Banking power 16,700,000 Free banking is the rule, and there are thirty-four banks of issue, which show : — Year Issue Specie Reserve £ £ 1871 . . . 1,000,000 1877 . . . 2,900,000 1,400,000 1885 , . , 5,000,000 3,100,000 1890 . . 6,200,000 3,900,000 The aggregate of discounts or bills in portfolio in 1877 was ;^6,900,ooo. The paid-up capital of the thirty-four banks is ;^4, 900,000. Holland The Netherlands Bank was founded in 1814, with sole right of issue up to 25 millions sterling, provided the specie reserve never fell below 40 per cent., the notes to have forced currency side by side with Government Treasury notes up to ^l, 200,000. The capital was at first ;^I, 280,000 in ;^8o shares, but it has since been raised to two millions sterling. There are fifteen branches through Holland, and the notes are from £z upwards. The statements for 1877 and iSgo showed thus : — 1877 £ 15,800,000 12,800,000 1890 17,200,000 10,600,000 Issue , . Specie reserve Discounts average ;^9,6oo,ooo (or 86 millions yearly), the average term of bills being under forty days. There are 287 other banks and branches, holding deposits to the sum of ;£^4,Soo,ooo. Total banking power about 20 millions sterling. Belgium The Bank of Belgium was founded in 1850, capital two millions sterling, which has since been raised to three millions in ;^40 shares, with sole right of issue. It has forty branches, and circulates notes from 16s. to £^0. The balance-sheets showed as follows : — Year Issue, ^ Bullion, £ Deposits, Discounts, £ Rate 1851 i860 1870 1 880 iBgo 2,000,000 4,800,000 8,100,000 13,600,000 15,200,000 1,200,000 2,500,000 3,800,000 4,000,000 4,400,000 1,000,000 3,300,000 3,300,000 2,900,000 2,700,000 1,800,000 6,200,000 7,800,000 11,400,000 12,800,000 4.0 3-2 3-4 3-6 There are fifty-two other banks, the oldest, that of Flaaders, founded at Ghent in 1836. The aggregate balance-sheets for 1888 showed : — Paid capital . Reserve fund . Deposits, &c. £ 7,600,000 3,200,000 16,400,000 £ Discounts . , . 16,600,000 Loans & advances 8,200,000 Sundries . . . 2,400,000 Liabilities . 27,200,000 Assets . 27,200,000 The total banking power is just 30 millions £. Sweden The Riks-bank or State Bank of Sweden was founded in 1656 by John Palmstruck, having obtained right of issue. It stopped payment four times, viz., in 1745, 1776. 1S08, and 181 3. The creditors received 70 per cent, in 1776, and 37 per cent in 1813. In 1830 the first of the Enskilda or private banks of issue was established, of which there are now 28, vrith 153 branches all over Sweden. They issue notes firom ^5 upwards, their specie reserve never falling below 35 per cent. The shareholders must be Swedes, each bank with a minimum capital of ;if 55,000, and each shareholder individually liable up to the whole of that sum. The stock of the 2S banks in 1876 was held by 9100 persons. The other fifteen joint-stock banks have no right of issue, and the shareholders are liable for no more than the amount of their shares. Returns of all banks in 1S89 showed as follows : — State Bank Joint-Stock, &c. Total Capital .... Reserve fund . . Issue .... Deposits . . . Sundries . . . £ 2,200,000 300,000 2,500,000 800,000 1,700,000 A 4,600,000 900,000 3,800,000 14,100,000 10,400,000 6,800,000 1,200,000 6, 300,000 14,900,000 12,100,000 Liabilities . 7,500,000 33,800,000 41,300,000 Bullion .... Treasury bills Discounts . . . Cash, &c. . . . 1,100,000 1,100,000 3,400,000 1,900,000 1,600,000 2,200,000 17,400,000 12,600,000 2,700,000 3,300,000 20,800,000 14,500,000 Assets . . 7, 500,000 33,800,000 41,300,000 Norway The balance-sheets for 1888 summed up thus :— Norges Joint-Stock, &c. Total Paid capital , , Reserve fund . . Deposits . . . £ 230,000 500,000 £ 800,000 170,000 10,200,000 £ 1,500,000 400,000 10,700,000 Banking power . 1,430,000 11,170,000 12,600,000 The discounts of the Norges or State bank average ;f 1,200,000, that is, ;f9,6oo,ooo in a year, the average term being forty-five days. The Norges was founded in i8i5 with sole right of issue, capital ;^45o,ooo, since raised to ;f 700,000, with a reserve fund of ^230,000. It can issue up tO;^3,ooo,ooo : the actual issue in 1888 was only ;i^2,400,ooo, and the bullion reserve was ;^2, 500,000. Denmark The capital and deposits of all banks in Denmark in 1 886 were as follows : — £ Capital 2,200,000 Deposits 20,800,000 Total 25,000,000 In 18 1 3 the currency was on a bad footing, gold being at 300 per cent, premium, and the notes only worth one- fourth of their written value. In 1814 the Bank of Copenhagen was converted into a Riks-bank, with sole right of issue up to ;^2, 250,000, pro- vided the specie reserve never fell below 50 per cent ; it fell to 40 per cent, in 1865, but the notes remained at par. The charter was enlarged in i860. The balance-sheet for 1888 showed thus: issue, ;£'4,400,ooo ; bullion, ;f 3,100,000; discounts about £2fxx>fxx>. The first joint-stock bank was established at Copenhagen in 1857, with a paid-up capital of ;^7oo,ooo ; in 1876 its discounts averaged ;^i,ooo,ooo. BANKS 82 BANKS Servia There are 37 banks, the principal being the National, with sole right of issue, and a paid-up capital of ;f 800,000 sterling ; the issue in 1889 was ;^ 1,200,000, specie reserve, ;f 180,000. The others are 16 ordinary and 22 savings- banks. Australia The increase of banking power is shown by the follow- ing statement of discounts and deposits : — Year Discounts, £ Deposits, £ 1872 . . . 31.500.°°° 1881 . . . 58,400,000 1890 . . . 134,200,000 32,000,000 59,000,000 108,300,000 The balance-sheets for 1881 and 1890 compare as follows :- Deposits, £ Discounts, £ 1881 1890 1881 1890 New South Wales Victoria . Queensland . South Australia New Zealand . Tasmania Western Australia 18,800,000 20,400,000 3,400,000 4,500,000 9,300,000 2,300,000 300,000 34,600,000 39,300,000 9,900,000 7,300,000 12,200,000 4,100,000 900,000 17,200,000 18,200,000 4,000,000 5,500,000 11,500,000 1,600,000 400,000 39,800,000 48,900,000 17,100,000 9,000,000 14,500,000 3,500,000 1,400,000 Tota 1 • 59,000,000 108,300,000 58,400,000 134,200,000 1890 Issue Bullion Deposits per Inhabitant New South Wales Victoria . . . Queensland . . South Australia . New Zealand . . Tasmania . . . West Australia . £ 1,520,000 1,670,000 670,000 450,000 880,000 160,000 50,000 £ 5,200,000 6,900,000 2,200,000 1,700,000 2,400,000 600,000 300,000 £ s. d. 38 43 25 22 18 10 27 10 22 10 Total . . 5,400,000 19,300,000 29 Canada In 1888 there were 41 banks, an increase of 14 since 1868 ; the balance-sheets summed up as follows : — 1868 1878 1888 Paid capital . . Deposits , . . 6,300,000 6,900,000 £ 13,100,000 15,000,000 £ 12,500,000 26,800,000 Banking power . Issue .... Discounts . . . 13,200,000 1,800,000 28,100,000 4,100,000 39,300,000 6,300,000 31,200,000 The percentages of banking business in the principal provinces were in 1881 as follows : — Quebec Ontario Nova Scotia, &c Total .... 100.0 Bullion reserve in 1888 was only ;^i,400,ooo, or 22 per cent, of issue. Liabilities of all the banks, ;^34,400,ooo ; assets, ;^so,8oo,ooo, being 48 per cent, over liabilities. South Africa Banking power is about nine millions sterling, capital two millions, deposits ;^7,ooo,ooo. The returns of 1887 for the two colonies were : — Issue . . , Deposits . , Specie reserve Discounts . . Cape £ 460,000 5,950,000 1,300,000 6,600,000 Natal 150,000 1,200,000 300,000 1,200,000 Total £ 610,000 7,150,000 1,600,000 7,800,000 In 1888 the issue of Cape Colony reached ;^66o,ooo, and the eleven banks had an aggregate of ;^2, 350,000 in paid-up capital and reserve fund. Assets, ;^io,6oo,ooo. United States In 1783 the total banking capital was only ;^6oo,ooo ; it appears to have multiplied twelve-fold in the ensuing eighteen years. We have regular statistics from 1 80 1, as follows : — Year Number of Banks Capital, £ Deposits, £ Issue, £ Specie Reserve, £ Ratio of Reserve Per Cent. 1801 33 7,000,000 1811 ^f 11,000,000 ... 5,800,000 3,100,000 53 1815 208 , 17,100,000 9,600,000 3,500,000 36 1820 308 28,400,000 7,500,000 9,400,000 4,200,000 45 1830 330 30,200,000 11,600,000 12,700,000 4,600,000 36 1836 689 48,000,000 10,100,000 27,600,000 8,200,000 30 1840 901 74,400,000 15,800,000 24,400,000 6,900,000 28 1845 707 42,800,000 18,400,000 18,700,000 9,200,000 49 1850 872 47,200,000 27,100,000 32,200,000 10,200,000 31 i860 1,562 87,600,000 52,800,000 43,000,000 17,500,000 41 1870 130,000,000 420,000,000 62,800,000 1876 6,611 149,600,000 432,000,000 69,400,000 1882 7.448 149,200,000 604,200,000 65,600,000 21,400,000 33 1887 6,666 167,600,000 684,100,000 34,800,000 34,300,000 1889 6,721 180,100,000 759,400,000 26,700,000 34,300,000 128 BANKS 83 BANKS In the above table it is well to remember that the figures for 1870 are depreciated paper-money at 13 per cent discount, and 10 per cent, m 1876. Discounts in 1879 comprised 3,2oo,cxx3 bills for 700 millions sterling, say ;f 220 each. The first bank was that of Massachusetts, foimded in 1740, the second that of North America in 1781, the third that of New York in 1784. The United States Bank was estabUshed at Philadelphia in 1790 with a capital of Jio,ooo,ooo, having several branches, and col- From information contained in the Statesman's Year- the Union may be summed up thus : — lapsed in the "Wild Cat" crisis of 1837. There were 901 banks in the year 1840, but the land speculation that ensued smashed more than 200, the number falling to 691 in 1843. From the latter year steady progress was made till 1861, when the war for the Union brought a suspension of specie payments. Nevertheless rapid advance was made till 1876, when a new tax on banks caused a contraction of about 10 per cent, in the capital employed in banking, without, however, causing any decline in the amount of deposits or discounts. Book and the official Abstract for 1890, the banking of Banks No. Capital Reserve Fund Deposits Discounts National . State Private . Savings . Total . 3.194 1.403 1.323 £ 125,000,000 32,200,000 19,600,000 3,300,000 £ 41,000,000 11,800,000 10,700,000 27,500,000 £ 317,000,000 85,400,000 73,100,000 283,900,000 , £ 378,000,000 6,721 180,100,000 91,000,000 759,400,000 The above shows a total banking power of 1030 millions sterling. The National banks showed the foUowii^ balance-sheets : — Liabilities Assets 1380 1889 1880 1889 Capital Issue Deposits Sundries £ 130,000,000 66,000,000 185,000,000 57,000,000 166,000,000 26,700,000 317,000,000 114,300,000 Discounts .... Bullion Bonds Sundries Total 216,000,000 1 378,000,000 20,800,000 34,000,000 75,000,000 ; 30,400,000 126,200,000 j 181,600,000 Total 438,000,000 624,000,000 438,000,000 624,000,000 In the above table capital includes also reserve ftmd. The ratio of banking power to population was as follows : — Year Banking Power Population Banking Power per Head 1801 . , 1820 . . 1840 . . i860 . . 1876 . . 1889 . . £ 7,000,000 35,900,000 90,200,000 140,400,000 581,600,000 1,030,500,000 £ 5,300,000 9,600,000 17,100,000 31,400,000 44,400,000 64,000,000 £ 1-3 3.8 S-3 4-4 The distribution of banking power, according to official returns, was : — States MiUion, £ Sterling 1860 1860 1880 New England Middle. Southern Western 18 33 19 4 34 63 33 10 162 274 3S 125 Total 74 140 S96 No other than National banks have right of issue, and they compare with the earlier chartered banks of issue in 1811-30 as follows : — Year Capital Issue Deposit i8ii 1820 1830 1889 £ 5,100,000 13,000,000 19,800,000 125,000,000 £ 2,700,000 5,500,000 8,100,000 26,700,000 £ 4,100,000 6,800,000 317,000,000 In 1880 the shares of the National Banks were held by 208,000 persons, showing an average banking capital of ;£'700 per shareholder, against ;^8oo in Great Britain. Of 7 million shares, only 26,000 were held in Europe, of which 7000 in Great Britain. Mexico The Banco Nacional, founded in 1881, has a nominal capital of 20 million dollars or ;^3,ooo,ooo sterling, of which only 40 per cent, is paid up. Its issue in December 1888 was 14 millions, say ^2, 100,000 sterling, and balance- sheet 48 millions, say ^7,200,000. The Bank of London and Mexico has a capital of ;f 300,000, and no issue j balance-sheet, ;£'i,soo,ooo. There are various land-banks. Chile There are nineteen banks of issue, aggregate capital 23 million dollars, say £z,yKi,ooo; issue, 17 millions, or ;^i,8oo,ooo. The balance-sheets of these banks in December 1886 showed : — Bank of Dollars £ Sterling Valparaiso Chile .... Guarantees Edwards .... Fifteen others . 83,000,000 66,000,000 50,000,000 16,500,000 68,500,000 9,100,000 7,200,000 5,500,000 1,800,000 7,500,000 Total 284,000,000 31,100,000 Brazil In December 1886 there were sixteen banks, whose balance-sheets showed as follows : — BANKS 84 BANKS Bank £. Bank £ Brazil . . 26,900,000 London and Brazil 3,100,000 Rural . . 7,400, 000 English . . 2,200,000 Commercial , 5,500,000 International . 2,000,000 Industrial . . 3,300,000 Nine others . 11,600,000 Summing up a total of 62 millions sterling. The Bank of Brazil was remodelled in 1872, with a paid-up capital of ;^3, 600,000 in shares of ;^22 each ; it has a reserve fund of ;J5oo,ooo, and a right of issue until December 1900 of ;f 3,000,000 sterling ; it must always lend up to 70 -per cent, of its capital to planters, at 6 per cent, annual interest. Japan In December 1889 were published the accounts of 100 National Banks, with an aggregate capital of ;f 7, 100,000, the Tokio Bank standing for ;^3, 500,000. Of the total number, 69 paid dividends ranging from 10 to 20 per cent., and 31 paid less than 10 per cent. Argentina In 1884 there were six banks at Buenos Ayres, with an aggregate banking power of 35 millions sterling, viz, : — - Capital, £ Deposits, £ Total, £ B. of Buenos Ayres National .... Four foreign banlcs 6,600,000 4,100,000 4,400,000 13,400,000 2,800,000 3,600,000 20,000,000 6,900,000 8,000,000 Total . . 15,100,000 19,800,000 34,900,000 In 1885 specie payments were suspended, and a number of banks sprung up issuing forced currency notes. In September 1889 there were 52 banks in Buenos Ayres and the other provinces of Argentina, with an aggregate capital of 185 million dollars, nominally 37 millions ster- ling, but the currency dollar having lost 67 cents of its value, the capital (in July 1890) is only equal to 12 mil- lions sterling. Deposits in like manner were nominally close on 50 millions sterling, equivalent to 1 7 millions in gold. Banking power is therefore about 29 millions. In September 1889 the aggregate balance-sheets of 24 banks (nothing being stated of the other 28) showed as follows : — Capital . , Reserve fund Deposits . . Discounts . Cash . . . Gold, $ 8,500,000 1,600,000 66,300,000 85,200,000 28,700,000 Paper, $ Nominal Value in £ Sterling 149,600,000 31,600,000 2,200,000! 700,000 166,000,000 46,400,000 253,700,000 68,000,000 28,300,00010,400,000 Approxi- mate Real Value in 1890, £ 10,500,000 200, coo 15,500,000 22,700,000 3,500,000 Paper issue has risen as follows : — Year Million $ Real Value Re- duced to Gold, £ 1836 .... 1840 .... 1B52 .... 1877 .... 1884 .... 1890 .... 15,000,000 5r,ooo,ooo 125,000,000 711,000,000 56,000,000 270,000,000 360,000 300,000 1,250,000 4,500,000 11,200,000 18,000,000 In 1S81 the old currency was called in and converted, one new dollar being given for 25 old ones. Another issue called Cedulas is described under La>id Banks^ p. 85. Uruguay Banking power is about 8 millions sterling, discount* in June 1889 showing more or less as follows : — I National Bank 3,800,000 Four foreign banks .... 4,300,000 Total .... 8,100,000 Issue and reserve of specie were as follows :^ Issue, £ Reserve of Specie, £ 1882 1889 1889 National Bank . All other banks . 1,100,000 1,700,000 1,400,000 1,100,000 1,900,000 Total . . 1,100,000 3,100,000 3,000,000 The National Bank suspended specie payments in June 1890. Land Banks In many countries there are institutions called Land' Banks or Mortgage Banks for lending money or deben- tures on real estate. France. — The Credit Foncier, founded in 1852, capital ;f3, 600,000, has the power to issue debentures up to ;^72,ooo,obo. The issue was as follows : — Year Issue, £ No. of Mortgages Average, £ 1856 3,050,000 1,390 2,100 1866 3T, 170,000 12, r8o 2,500 1873 46,480,000 "20,116 2,300 Deducting the amount redeemed, the actual issue in 1873 was ;£'34,700,ooo. The Credit Agricole, founded in i860, has a paid-up capital of ;^8oo,ooo ; issue out- standing in 1873 about 15 millions sterUng. Germany. — The Bank of Munich has a Mortgage branch,, being compelled by law to keep ^1,200,000 always lent out to agriculturists at 4 per cent, per annum, the mort- gage never to exceed 50 per cent, of the value of the farm. In 1864 it commenced to issue debentures bearing 4i per cent, interest, the borrower having also to pay J per cent, sinking-fiind. The borrower in selling these debentures gets barely 90 per cent. cash. In 1871 the issue had reached ;f 5,000,000. The Bank of Nuremberg also grants loans on mortgage. Saxony has four Land Banks of this description, the borrower paying 5 per cent, for forty-one years, when the loan is extinct. The Ritter's- Bank of Leipzig is a mutual landowner's bank, making advances only to its members, interest 4 per cent. The Wurtemburg Land Bank makes advances to small pro- prietors at 6 per cent., including sinking-fund, the loan becoming extinct in twenty-five years. The Mortgage: Bank of Prussia, founded in 1810, issues 4 per cent, debentures; the issue and the market price were as- follows : — Average- Price 84 104 100 81 Year Issiie, £ Maximum Minimum 1815 183s 1845 1868 9,500,000 14,100,000 r6,5oo,ooo 28,800,000 103 107 105 84 64 lOI 94 78 The above was mainly for impoverished noblemen. The Rent-charge Bank, founded in 181 1, had issued to- peasant proprietors debentures up to 13 millions sterling prior to 1870 ; these bore 4 per cent interest, and sold in the market at 87 per cent of nominal value ; outstanding ;^ii, 500,000. The amount advanced on mortgage by BANKS 8S BANKS banks and private individuals in 1870 was officially stated thus: — Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtemburg Small States Total £ 190,000,000 25,000,000 26,000,000 10,000,000 22,000,000 273,000,000 In 1837 it was found that many of the nobles had mortgaged their estates beyond their value, in some cases *ip to 114 per cent. From 1858 to 1867 the authorities sold off 34,cxx) bankrupt estates, which reduced the sum due by Prussian noblemen to the Land-banks to 25 millions sterling. The Mortgage Bank of Bavaria, distinct from the Munich Bank, was founded in 1848, to enable the peasants to buy their lands. In twenty-two years, down to 1870, the debentures issued by it reached 18J millions sterling, the amount outstanding being ;£■! 5,300,000. In • 1 880 the Land-banks of Germany had an aggregate capital •of 18 millions sterling, and the debentures in circulation summed up 80 millions sterling. Jiussia.— The Imperial Bank as early as 1859 had advanced 30 millions sterling on mortgage to the nobles, who owed altogether 60 millions sterling. Subsequently a separate office or bank was started as a Mortgage-bank, and in December 1889 the amount of existing loans on mortgage was 196 million roubles, nominally ;f 31,000,000, but at the present exchange only ^f 19,600,000. More- over, a Land-bank was founded about 1 861 to help the peasants to buy their lands from the nobles. According to Sir A. Buchanan, the peasants owed 85 millions ster- ling in 1875 ; this was perhaps an error, as the States- man's Year-Book gives the following : — " Up to Decem- ber 1889, the Land-bank lent 58 million roubles (say ^5,800,000) to 234,000 peasants towards purchasing 4,240,000 acres, valued at ^7,300,000, the peasants find- ing the remaining ;^i,500,ooo. The peasants did not buy individually, but in 7240 villages or associations. The above purchases only refer to Beggar's Lots (see Land), as the peasants in ten years, ending 1870, became masters of 35,000,000 acres. Norway. — The Hypothek Bank was founded in 1852 to lend on mortgage ; it belongs to the State, and has a capital of ;,j'6oo,ooo. The outstanding loans in December 1888 reached ;^4,6oo,ooo, and the bonds in circulation ;£4,200,000. Austria.— 'Tor Bank of Vienna in 1878 held mortgages on real estate for ;£'io,30O,ooo, of which ;£'7,900,ooo was on lands. In 1886 the various banks held mortgages to the amount of ;^6s,ooo,ooo. Italy. — The Credito Fondiaro was foimded in 1866 at Naples, with branches at Milan, &c., to make advances an 5 per cent, debentures on real estate, no loan to exceed jf 20,000. nor to be for more than 50 per cent, of the value of the property. The borrower pays also i per cent, sinking-fund ; the debentures usually sell about 80 per cent, of nominal value. Issue averages ;^500,ooo per annum. In 1870 two other Land-banks were founded, the Agricola Italiana and Agricola Nazionale. The amount of all mortgages held by these Land-banks in 1887 was ;£'28,ooo,ocio sterling. Spain ami Portugal. — There are no Land-banks m Spain ; usurers have a free field. Murcia is mortgaged up to 65 per cent, of its value, and the usurers get 10 per cent, of the crops. The Credito Portuguez was founded in 1 866 to rescue Portuguese landovmers from usurers; it lends money at 6 per cent, in debentures, the advances dovm to 1869 reaching ;^i, 100,000 on 1630 estates of distressed noblemen. In 186 1 the mortgages then held in Portugal were : — Loans by Usurers Religious houses . Total Amount, jQ , 6,300,000 1,600,000 Interest 15 per cent. 5 ,. 7,900,000 Sweden. — The General Mortgage Bank, founded in 1861, has 47,000 shareholders, the qualification being the possession of property worth ;^5o, or upwards. In 1877, debentures had been issued to the amount of 13^ millions sterling, of which 2 millions had been redeemed. Borrowers pay 6 per cent, per annum, which cancels the loan in sixty years, the bank reserving J per cent, for expenses, which, however, do not exceed I5d. per ;^ioo. The debentures rarely fall below 100 J the reserve fund is ;£'900,ooo, one-half in Government stock. The House- Mortgsige Bank is on similar principles, applicable to house property. Denmark. — ^The Landman's Bank advances on mort- gages of land in 4 per cent, debentures, which sell in the market at "85 or 90 per cent, of their nominal value. Sinking-fund l per cent. ; borrowers pay altogether 5 per cent. Switzerland. — There are no distinct Land-banks ; mort- gages on land amount to one-fourth the estimated value. Brazil. — The Rural Mortgage Bank was established in 1853 to make loans to planters ; capital p^goo,ooo, reserve fimd ;if400,ooo sterling. The Bank of Brazil is, more- over, by its charter obliged to have always ;f2,6oo,ooo io similar loans at 6 per cent, annual interest Chile. — There are several Mortgage-banks which issue Cedulas on houses and lands. The amount of these Cedulas in 1 888 was 76 millions, say ;^8, 300,000 sterling. Argentina. — The Mortgage Bank of Buenos Ayres was founded in 1873, to make advances in 6 per cent, deben- tures up to half the value of the houses or lands mort- gaged, the Bank charging I per cent, commission, its debentures being, moreover, guaranteed by the State. The National Mortgage Bank was established on like principles in 1886. Similar banks have been founded in Santa Fe and other provinces. The balance-sheets for December 1888 showed as follows : — Issued Redeemed Balance Outstanding Mortgage Bank of ) Buenos Ayres . . ) National Mortgage ) Bank J £ 47,000,000 15,000,000 £ 11,300,000 600,000 £ 35,700,000 14,400,000 Total . . 62,000,000 11,900,000 50,100,000 The above was the nominal amount, but the currency was at 33 per cent, discount. The real value of deben- tures in circulation was about ;^33, 500,000. In December 1889 the actual Cedulas in circulation were approximately : — Millions Nominal Value At Current Exchange National Mortgage Bank Buenos Ayres Mortgage ) Bank ) % 120 280 £ ! £ 24,000,000 10,000,000 56,000,000 23,000,000 Total . . 400 8o,ooo,ooo| 33,000,000 Savings-Banks The first was established at Brunswick in 1765, the second at Hamburg in 1278. Mrs. .Wakefield founded one in England in 1803. The first in France was in 1818 BANKS 86 BANKS at Paris. In 1835 we find the following returns of France, Vienna, and Prague : — Depositors Amount, jQ France . , , , 122,000 2,500,000 Vienna . , . , 57,000 1,400,000 Prague .... 18,000 520,000 From this time they began to grow rapidly in many countries. In the following table, 1889 includes latest information as regards some countries for which we have no particulars for that year : — 1840 1850 1860 18T0 1889 £ £ £ £ £ United Kingdom 03,400,000 30,100,000 41,300,000 53,100,000 107,200,000 France 7,600,000 5,400,000 15,100,000 27,400,000 111,800,000 Prussia 4,000,000 5,500,000 14,500,000 76,600,000 144,600,000 Russia ... 1,100,000 2,400,000 7,200,000 Austria 3,000,000 4,500,000 28,000,000 40,300,000 122,600,000 Italy 700,000 1,600,000 12,400,000 14,800,000 69,200,000 Switzerland 700,000 5,100,000 11,600,000 23,700,000 Spain 200,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 Belgium and Holland ... 1,800,000 2,200,000 4,500,000 16,400,000 Scandinavia 3,100,000 7,200,000 14,600,000 44,100,000 E urope 38,700,000 52,700,000 127,100,000 246,300,000 648,800,000 Number of Depositors Number per 1000 Inhabitants 1860 1870 1882 1850 1872 1882 United Kingdom 1,060,000 2,620,000 3,715,000 40 8S 95 France .... 586,000 2,050,000 4,150,000 16 S7 110 Germany .... 530,000 2,200,000 5,000,000 16 S5 m Russia .... 150,000 200,000 *•. 2 2 Austria .... 160,000 1,300,000 1,850,000 S 37 48 Italy .... 170,000 570,000 1,970,000 3 23 66 Belgium and Holland 40,000 180,000 310,000 5 20 31 Switzerland 52,000 512,000 1,080,000 20 19s 360 Scandinavia 150,000 900,000 1,600,000 25 110 180 Europe . , . , 2,748,000 10,482,000 19,875,000 12 40 67 United Kingdom. — The savings-banks of the United Kingdom have shown as follows : — Year Amount of Deposits, £, Shillings per In- habitant England ; Scotland Ireland 1 Eng- land Scot- land Ire- land 1830 1840 1850 J 860 1870 1880 1888 12,600,000 20,700,000 27,680,000 36,700,000 46,230,000 66,900,000 88,600,000 £ 520,000 1,080,000 2,410,000 4,130,000 7,200,000 10,400,000 £ 910,000 2,200,000 1,360,000 2,140,000 2,690,000 3,700,000 5,300,000 18 25 30 37 40 t 4 7 16 25 39 50 2 5 4 7 10 IS 22 France. — The official returns show as follows : In Year Depositors 1835 .... 80,000 1840 311,000 1850 586,000 i860 1,126,000 1870 2,050,000 18S0 3,508,000 18S6 4,937,000 1888 6,492,000 1888 t he Pos t - Office savings A-niount^ ^ 1,700,000 6,800,000 3,000,000 13,600,000 27,400,000 46,200,000 88,400,000 111,800,000 banks showed ;^i2,ooo,ooo in deposits, the average to each depositor being £<), 4s. ; the private savings-banks ;f99,8oo,ooo, average a 18, 6s. Russia. — In 1888 the Government savings-banks showed ;f82o,ooo at St. Petersburg, ;^640,ooo at Mos- cow, and ;f 7,200,000 for the whole Empire. Italy. — The number of depositors and amount showed : — Year Depositors Amount, £ 1850 . . . , 170,000 2,200,000 1870 . . . . 571,000 14,800,000 i88i . . . . 1,970,000 33,600,000 1888 . . . . 3,510,000 69,200,000 The returns for 1887 make up as follows : — Offices Depositors Deposits, £ Post-office . . . Ordinary . . . Co-operative . . 4,237 39S 619 1,571,000 1,295,000 390,000 9,600,000 40,300,000 13,800,000 Total . . S>25i 3,256,000 63,700,000 Austria. — Depositors and amount are shown approxi- mately as follows : — Year Depositors Amount, £ 1850 .... 160,000 19,600,000 1870 .... 1,300,000 40,300,000 1881 .... 1,850,000 85,100,000 1887 .... 3,017,000 122,600,000 The returns for 188 7 give the following aggregates (taking the florin at 20 pence) : — - Depositors Amount, £ Depositors Amount, £ Austria .... Hungary 2,629,000 584,000 91,300,000 31,300,000 Post-office . Ordinary Total 722,000 2,491,000 5,200,000 117,400,000 Total 3,213,000 122,600,000 3,213,000 122,600,000 BANKS 87 BANKRUPTCY Belgium. — The first was opened in 1835, in which year the deposits reached ;^720,ooo. Subsequent returns are as follows : — Year Depositor! 1840 . . . 38,500 1850 . . . 29,500 i860 . . . 32,400 1870 . . . 52,000 1880 . . . 200,600 1888 . . . 599,000 The above does not include People's Banks, which showed as follows : — Amount, j^ 2,060,000 1,100,000 1,050,000 800,000 5,040,000 10,400,000 Year 1861 1870 1880 1888 Capital, £ 1,400,000 2,700,000 3,200,000 2,800,000 Discounts, £ 300,000 600,000 800,000 900,000 Deposits, £ 200,000 900,000 1,200,000 1,300,000 Holland. — The returns of 1888 for State savings-banks, and of 1885 for private ones, sum up thus : — Depositors Amount, £ State .... Private 202,000 270,000 1,100,000 3,900,000 Total 472,000 5,000,000 In 1888 there were 499,000 depositors, holding a total of ;^S>98o,ooo. Scandinavia. — The returns for 1886-88 were as fol- lows : — Depositors Amount, £ Denmark . Sweden Norway 697,000 1,010,000 452,000 20,900,000 13,700,000 10,400,000 Total 2,159,000 44,100,000 United States. — No distinct returns were kept before 1873 ; the returns since then show as follows : — Year Depositors Amount, £ 1873 • • • 2,190,000 135,200,000 1880 . . . 2,528,000 185,400,000 1884 . . . 3,071,000 227,800,000 1S89 . . . 4,022,000 283,900,000 The following table shows the States where savings banks are most in use (1889) : — i RSri S«^ Depositors Amount, £ Amoi per Inh tant. New York . . 1,363,000 109,000,000 20 16.4 Massachusetts 983,000 65,500,000 42 26.5 Connecticut . 288,000 22,000,000 35 27.0 California . . 114,000 18,100,000 10 15.6 Pennsylvania . 213,000 13,500,000 4 2.4 N. Hampshire 145,000 12,000,000 31 2S-S Rhode Island . 123,000 12,100,000 34 330 Maine . . . 125,000 8,600,000 IS 10. 1 Maryland . . 123,000 7,100,000 10 S-8 New Jersey 115,000 6,400,000 8 4.2 Various . . . 430,000 9,600.000 Total . . 4,022,000 283,900,000 6 4-4 Canada.- -The deposit s were as follow :— Year Sum 1887 1867 1879 1887 300,000 1,900,000 4,060,000 Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia, &c. £. 3,200.000 730,000 130,000 Australia. — In 1888 the returns were as follows : — [2 s8j= si^ Depositors Amount, £ Amou per Inh tant. Q New South Wales 128,000 4,040,000 12 3-7 Victoria . . . 248,000 4,880,000 23 4-5 Queensland . . 43,000 1,610,000 11 4.2 South Austraha . 62,000 1,760,000 20 S-6 New Zealand . . 103,000 2,690,000 17 4-4 Tasmania . . . 23,000 470,000 16 3-2 Western Australia 3,000 30,000 T 0.7 Total . . 610,000 15,480,000 17 4.2 The aggregate of the seven colonies was as follows : — Year Depositors Amount, £ Depositors per 100 Inhabitants Amount per Inhabitant, 1861 1871 1881 1888 28,800 114,000 308,000 610,000 1,360,000 3,660,000 9,420,000 15,480,000 2 6 11 17 1.1 1-9 3-3 4-2 India. — The official returns for 1884 and 18S8 (taking the rupee at 18 pence) were : — Depositors Amount, £ 1884 204,000 3,010,000 1888 332,000 4,940,000 1888 Europeans Natives No. Amount 65,000 267,000 £. 1,100,000 3,840,000 There are 6150 savings-banks, of which 5960 belong to the Post-Office. BANKRUPTCY The averages for the years 1879-81 in five principal countries were : — United Kingdom France . . . Austria . . . United States . Canada . . . No. of Failures 13.720 5.580 1.414 5.715 920 Amount L 31,300,000 10,200,000 1,820,000 16,300,000 2,730,000 Ratio to Commerce Per Cent, 5i 3. United Kingdom Wholesale failures in the years 1880-89 were as fol- lows : — Year London Provinces Scotland Ireland Total 1880 1882 1883 18S9 385 399 377 193 972 823 885 563 99 78 83 51 22 14 16 11 1,478 1. 314 1.361 818 Wholesale and retail for nineteen years in England and Wales showed thus : — Annual Average Average Assets, Percent- Years per Fail- Annual age of Number Sum, ;f ure, £ Average, £ Assets 1870-72 6,039 13,300,000 2,500 4,600,000 30 1873-75 7.766 21,600,000 2,800 6,300,000 29 1876-78 10,077 23,500,000 2.300 7,100,000 30 1879-81 11,052 21,200,000 1.930 6,500,000 31 1882-84 7.263 18,100,000 2,500 5,200,000 29 1885-88 4.587 8,300,000 1,800 2,800,000 33 BANKRUPTCY 88 BANKRUPTCY The ratio of assets for the years 1870 and 18S1 in England and Wales were : — Number Percentage Assets 1870 1 1881 1870 1881 Under 5 per cent. . 5-25 .. 25-40 ,, Over 40 „ 123 833 316 616 963 2,256 349 322 7 44 17 32 25 58 9 8 Total . . 1,888 ! 3,890 100 100 From a judicial report in 1881 are taken the follow- ing: Year No. of Cases Atnount Assets Ratio of Assets 1870 . . . 1880 . . . Average 10 ) years ) S.002 10,298 9.515 £ 17,400,000 16,200,000 20,300,000 £ 5,300,000 4,600,000 6,200,000 Per Cent. 30 28 31 In eight years ending 1888 the bankruptcies averted thus: liabilities, ;^I3, 100,000; assets, ^3,300,000. The cases liquidated in court showed that law-costs absorbed 40 per cent, of assets. In the eighteenth century the number of bankruptcies in England averaged 177 yearly down to 1750, and 460 in the fifty years following. In Scotland the bankruptcies were : — Period Annual Average Average per Failure, £ Percentage No. Amount, £ of Assets 1874-80 1881-84 1885 -88 15 years 603 412 42s 505 1,360,000 6,300,000 1,450,000 2,690,000 2,270 15,200 3,400 'S.300 46 II 46 25 Some of the above were for bankruptcies of previous years, liquidated as above. The aggregate of business in Ireland that passed through the Court of Bankruptcy in five years ending 1880 was as follows : — Liabilities Assets . . £ 2,750,000 805,000 Law-costs . To creditors £ 245,000 560,000 The average dividend, therefore, was 20( per cent, on the liabilities. Law-costs absorbed 30 per cent, of the assets. Irish bankruptcy business from 1880 to 1887 showed : — Number of bankruptcies Liabilities, £ 4,124 9,700,000 J^er Annum 516 1,210,000 This gives an average of £2'ioo per failure. France. — Official returns give the following :- Years Annual Average No of Failures Ratio of Assets 1840-50 . 1860-70 1878-81 1881-84 1885 .... 3.480 5. 120 S.580 7.135 8,024 Per Cent. 31 21 17 25 The following table shows the number of failures com- pared with that of merchants and traders : — Year \ No. of Merchants 1844 . 1854 . 1864 . 1874 . 1,414,000 1,420,000 1,410,000 1,606,000 Failed 3.011 3.691 4,642 5.508 Ratio to Merchants Failures over jQzooo Per Cent. 2.1 2.6 3-3 3-4 Per Cent. 52 48 43 54 Not only has the ratio of failures risen, but also the average amount per failure. The following table is for fourteen years ending 1885 : — Annual Average Period No. of Failures Amount, £ Amount per Failure, £ 1872-75 • ■ • 1876-80 . . . 1881-84 ■ ■ • 1885 .... 5.442 S.832 7.135 8,024 9,200,000 10,600,000 10,700,000 14,200,000 1,700 1,800 1. 500 1.750 Austria.- follows : — -The annual number of bankruptcies was as 1871-75 909 1876-80 1.304 1881-83 1.017 No returns as to liabilities or assets. Germany. — The number of bankruptcies in iS85 was 5912, against 5905 in 1882; amount not stated. Australia. — There are no returns for Western Australia. The aggregate for the other six colonies showed as fol- lows : — Year Failures Liabilities Assets Ratio of Assets 1861 . . . 1871 . . . i88i . . . 1888 . . . 2,037 2.257 3.632 2,769 £ 2,000,000 1,490,000 1,720,000 2,260,000 £ 1,095,000 695,000 1,230,000 1,510,000 Per Cent. SS 47 67 The returns for 1888 were as follows : Failures Liabilities Assets Ratio of Assets N. S. Wales . . Victoria . , . Queensland . . South Australia . New Zealand . . Tasmania . . . 851 479 249 219 881 90 660,000 350,000 260,000 So, 000 865,000 45,000 £ 460,000 185,000 120,000 60,000 670,000 15,000 Percent. 70 53 46 75 77 33 Total . . 2,769 2,260,000 1,510,000 67 United States The annual averages have been as follows since 1857 :- Period Number of Failures Amount, £ Amount per Failure, £ 1857-60 . . . 3,262 23,500,000 7,100 1861-65 1,830 10,600,000 S.800 1866-69 2.425 15,100,000 6,200 1870-75 4,882 30,500,000 6,100 1876-80 7.970 32,400,000 4,100 1881-86 8,823 28,300,000 3,200 1889 . . . 11,719 29,200,000 2,400 BANKRUPTCY 89 BEER Canada Years Number Amount, £ Average, £ 1879-80 . . . 1881-82 . . . 1885 1886 1,060 625 1,246 1,186 3,080,000 1,450,000 1,920,000 2,320,000 3,000 2,300 1,600 2,000 Remarkable Crises 1763. Amsterdam, originating with the house of De Neufville. Failures — 20 in Holland, 20 in England, 37 in Hamburg '773- Failures in Holland exceeding 10 millions 1799. Hamburg, 82 failures, 2 millions. 1 8 14. England, 240 banks suspended 1825. Manchester, failures 2 millions 1 83 1. Calcutta, failures 15 millions. 1S37. United States "Wild Cat" crisis; all banks closed. 1839. Bank of England saved by Bank of France. Severe also in France, vfhere 93 companies failed for 6 millions. 1844. England. State loans to merchants. 1847. England, failures 20 millions ; discount 13 per cent. 1857. United States, 7200 houses failed for iii millions. 1866. London, Overend-Gurney ; failures 100 millions. BANQUET One of the greatest on record was that given at Paris by President Carnot, 19th July 1889, to 15,000 mayors, senators, deputies, and other officials. There were 19S cooks, 1050 waiters, 80,000 plates, 30,000 loaves, 23,000 bottles of wine, 600 gallons soup, 3 tons fish, 32 cwts. beef, and 7200 poultry, with 6 tons ice. BATHS Baths. — The use of baths among the working-classes in London is shown by the receipts thus : 1850, ;^9,8oo ; i860, jf 25,000; i88o, ;^4i,ooo. BATTLES Men Engaged Hors de Combat Per Cent. Aginoourt . . Alma .... Bannockburn Borodino . . . Cannse .... 62,000 103,000 135,000 250,000 146,000 11,400 8,400 38,000 78,000 52,000 18 8 28 31 34 Cressy .... Gravelotte . . . 117,000 396,000 31,200 62,000 27 16 Sadowa . . . Thrasymene . . Waterloo . . . 291,000 65,000 221,000 33,000 17,000 51,000 II 27 23 Went into Action Losses of Per Cent . of Loss Date Battle Won by Lost by Victors Van- quished Victors Van- quished Victors Van- quished 1862. Antietara Federals Confederates 87,000 97,000 11,000 20,000 13 20 1805 . Austerlitz French Austrians 70,000 84,000 12,000 26,000 17 31 1813 . Bautzen French Prussians 150,000 110,000 28,000 24,000 18 21 1863 . Gettysburg Federals Confederates 117,000 68,000 17,000 27,000 14 40 1870 . . . Gravelotte Germans French 270,000 126,000 3S.OOO 27,000 13 22 1806. Jena French Prussians 40,000 70,000 4,000 27,000 10 39 1813 . Leipzig Germans French 300,000 171,000 47,000 60,000 16 36 1859 . Magenta French Austrians 47,000 61,000 5,000 10,000 II 17 1800. Marengo French Austrians 28,000 40,000 7,000 12,000 25 30 1812 . Moscow French Russians 120,000 125,000 23,000 51,000 19 40 1866 . Sadowa Prussians Austrians 141,000 150,000 9,000 24,000 7 17 1870 . Sedan Prussians French 190,000 124,000 9,000 38,000 5 31 1859 . . . Solferino French Austrians 124,000 163,000 15,000 22,000 12 14 1809 . . . Wagram French Austrians 140,000 90,000 32,000 25,000 22 28 1815. . . Waterloo British French 101,000 120,000 22,000 29,000 22 24 BEER Table of yearly production and consumption (1886-89) : Millions of Gallons Breweries Pro- duced Con- sumed Produced, £ U. Kingdom . 16,114 1,040 1,022 69,000,000 France . . . 2,722 186 193 12,000,000 Germany . . 26,458 930 910 62,000,000 Russia . . . I.S92 92 92 6,200,000 Austria . . . 1,962 290 280 19,000,000 Italy .... 13s 4 5 300,000 Switzerland . 417 20 21 1,300,000 Belgium . . 1,248 204 206 14,000,000 Holland . . 560 32 32 2,100,000 Denmark . . 441 2S 25 1,600,000 Sweden . . . 253 21 21 1,400,000 Norway . . . S6 13 13 900,000 Europe . . . 51,958 2,857 2,820 189,800,000 United States . 3.293 753 780 40,000,000 Australia . . 187 18 22 1,200,000 India . . . 24 3 S 200,000 Total . . 55,462 3.531 3.627 231,200,000 The breweries of the world consume yearly 4 million tons of barley (say r6o million bushels), and 70,000 tons of hops. Germany has an annual surplus of 8000 tons of hops, Atistria 3000, but England and France have to import some. British breweries consume 56 million bushels barley, and 70,000 tons sugar. Retrospect of Production Millions of Gallons ^i V g. .s s ■a m f.^ V OJ 1 Is 1 3 <; 5M f2 1840 650 92 500 160 100 23 1.525 1850 710 106 600 180 120 .30 1.752 i860 770 140 700 200 140 100 2,050 1870 980 150 800 220 153 204 2,507 1880 1,020 180 815 240 200 413 2,868 1887 1,040 186 930 290 204 612 3,262 The figures for Germany, Austria, and Belgium pre- vious to 1870 are conjectural. BEER 90 BEES England and Wales The annual consumption in England and Wales has been : — Million Gallons ■ 2SS . 252 Per Inkat. 44 35 32 Period 1801-1830 1831-1860 1861-1880 Million Gallons ■ 33S . 560 . 835 Per Inhai. 30 33 36 Period 1660-1700 1701-1750 1751-1800 The price per gallon during 680 years has ruled thus : — Period Pence Period Pence 1201-1300 3 1701-1800 .... II 1301-1600 s 1801-1880 .... 17 1601-1700 6 1882 20 The above are according to weight of silver, but the nominal price was, for example, in the thirteenth century one penny. The strength varies as follows : — Alcohol Burton ale Bass's ale Edinburgh ale Guinness's ale London porter London beer . Lager beer . 8.2 8.4 4.4 6.8 41 3-9 3-2 Bushels of Malt per Barrel 4-S 4-2 1.8 2.9 1.9 1.7 i.S The annual consumption of malt in England has been as follows : — Period Bushels Duty, Pence Bushels per Inhabitant 1700-20 . . . 19.2 6 3-4 1720-50 26.7 6 4.2 1760-80 27.6 9 3-6 1790-1800 18.0 16 2.1 1810-20 23-7 SO 2.2 1830-50 32.7 31 2.1 1850-70 . . . 39-8 31 1-9 In 1888 the consumption was about 48 million bushels in England, 3 millions in Scotland, and 5 millions in Ireland, total 56 millions, or two bushels per barrel of beer. Germany (1885) Number of Breweries Product, Gal- lons Beer Gallons per Inhabitant Prussia . . , Bavaria , , . Wurtemburg . Other States . 7,691 5.39S 7.381 4.539 540,000,000 277,000,000 66,000,000 47,000,000 ig.2 50.5 33-0 4.3 Total . . 25,006 930,000,000 The statistics of German breweries showed as fol- lows : — Year 1873 . . 1880 . . 1887 . . IS years' 1 average ) Beer, Gal- lons 830,000,000 820,000,000 990,000,000 880,000,000 Tons j Beer per Grain Con-ilnhabitant, sumed Gallons 780,000 770,000 930,000 830,000 18 21 i9i Lbs, Grain per In- habitant 40 37 43 39 In the above years nearly 99 per cent, of the beer pro- duced was consumed in Germany, exports ranging from xo to 18 million gallons. Austria Year Millions of Gallons Number of Austria Hungary Total Breweries 1870 1880 1887 204 231 27s 16 9 IS 220 240 290 2.743 2,247 1,962 United States Year Number of Breweries Capital, £, Gallons 1863 1870 1882 1889 1.269 2.785 2.557 1,964 3,100,000 13,500,000 31,800,000 53,000,000 204,000,000 525,000,000 777,000,000 Statistics of production and consumption were as fol- lows : — Year Product, Gallons Consump- tion, Galls. Consumption per Inhab. 1875 1880 1885 1889 293,000,000 413,000,000 594,000,000 777,000,000 295,000,000 414,000,000 596,000,000 780,000,000 6.S 8.3 9-S 12.0 The principal beer-producing States were as follows : — 1878 1884 1889 New York . . , Pennsylvania . . Ohio .... Illinois .... Wisconsin . . . Missouri . . . New Jersey . , Massachusetts . Various . . . Gallons 109,000,000 31,000,000 30,000,000 18,000,000 16,000,000 17,000,000 16,000,000 19,000,000 60,000,000 Gallons 204,000,000 62,000,000 53,000,000 35,000,000 45,000,000 35,000,000 28,000,000 27,000,000 99,000,000 Gallons 250,000,000 71,000,000 65,000,000 62,000,000 55,000,000 52,000,000 42,000,000 31,000,000 149,000,000 Total . . 316,000,000 588,000,000 777,000,000 BEES A hive of 5000 bees produces about 50 lbs. of honey yearly, and multiplies tenfold in five years. The ordinary value of a hive in Europe is ;^i sterling. Bees eat 20 lbs. honey in making i lb. of wax. Hives Hives 200,000 240,000 90,000 30,000 2,800,000 "The largest bee-owner in the world is Mr. Harbison of California, who has 6000 hives, producing 20o,ochd lbs. honey yearly, worth £&oao. There are in the United States 70,000 bee-growers, but the average which they get from their hives is only 22 lbs., whereas the average m England is 50 lbs. In 1888 there were in Ireland 28,600 hives, of which 9100 in movable frames; annual product 210 tons of honey, worth ;.f 12,000. "The average is only 16 lbs. honey per hive, but in Kildare it reached 37 lbs. In 1889 the product in France was : — France . . 950,000 Belgium Germany . 1,910,000 Holland Russia . 110,000 Denmark Austria . 1,550,000 Greece . Spain . . i,6go,ooo United States Honey Wax Tons 6,600 2,000 Value, £ 370,000 180,000 The ordinary value is lod. per lb. for wax and 6d. fo» honey. BEETROOT 91 BIRTHS In Austria the production of wax averages 2000 tons. The total annual yield of bees in Europe may be estimated thus : — Tons Value, £ Honey .... 40,000 2,200,000 Wax .... 15,000 1,350,000 Total . . 55,000 3,550,000 One hundred bees weigh an ounce. The wing of a bee makes 190 movements a second, of a wasp no, of a fly 330- BEETROOT This is grown both as cattle food and for making sugar. The crop ranges from S tons of roots per acre in Russia, to 9 tons in Germany. In England it has given 12 tons per acre, equivalent for cattle food to 4 tons of hay, and worth 16 shillings per ton ; but it has been found too costly in cultivation. Experimental growing in Canada has proved most successful. It takes about 11 tons of roots in Europe generally per ton of beet sugar, the average of saccharine matter being 9 per cent, as com- pared with 4 per cent, twenty years ago. In Germany 8 tons of roots give a ton of sugar. The acreage and crop of all kinds of beetroot are approximately as follows : — Acres Tons, Beet Sugar, Beet France 1,310,000 13,300,000 5,100,000 Germany . 1,700,000 12,400,000 8,300,000 Russia 1,000,000 5,200,000 5,200,000 Austria 1,100,000 6,500,000 6,500,000 Belgium 145,000 2,100,000 2,100,000 Holland . 60,000 600,000 400,000 Denmark . 30,000 300,000 300,000 Europe . 5,345,000 40,400,000 27,900,000 The Journal de la Soci&ti Stat, of Paris mentions that the production of beet sugar in the United States during five years ending 1884 averaged 337,000 tons per annum, from which must be inferred that the Union grows about 3 million tons of beetroot. The following table shows approximately the growth of all kinds of beetroot at different dates : — 1836 1850 1870 1880 1888 Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons France . 700,000 1,500,000 6,600,000 14,800,000 13,300,000 Germany 40,000 550,000 2,700,000 11,200,000 12,400,000 Russia . 100,000 2,200,000 4,800,000 5,200,000 Austria . 10,000 200,000 1,500,000 5,500,000 6,500,000 Belgium . ... 150,000 800,000 1,800,000 2,100,000 Holland . ... 100,000 440,000 400,000 Denmark 200,000 300,000 300,000 Europe 750,000 2,500,000 14,100,000 38,840,00040,200,000 It appears that two-thirds of the total crop is used for making sugar, the product of which now reaches 2,800,000 tons yearly in all the world. BELLS The largest are the following : — Tons Tons Ton Moscow . . 202 Rouen ... 18 Montreal . . 12 Burmah . .117 Olmutz . . 18 Cologne . . II Pekin ... 53 Vienna. . . 18 Oxford. . . 8 Novgorod . 31 St, Paul's . . 16 St. Peter's . 8 Notre Dame 18 Westminster . 14 Bell-metal should have 77 parts copper and 23 tin. BIRDS In hatching, the number of days that birds sit are :- Pigeon . Canary . Hen . Turkey . Days • 14 . 14 . 21 . 28 Duck Goose Parrot Swan The ages to which birds attain are : — Wren . . Tlirush . Hen . . Robin Blackbird Goldfinch Partridge Pheasant The flight of the following birds per hour is : — Years Years 3 Lark . . 18 Sparrow . . 10 Nightingale . 18 Goose . 10 Pigeon . . 20 Pelican . . 12 Linnet . ■ 23 Parrot . . 12 Canary . • 24 Heron . . IS Crane . . • 24 Crow . • IS Peacock . ■ 24 Swan . . • IS Skylark . ■ 30 Eagle . . Days • 30 • 30 . 40 . 42 Years . 40 • SO . 50 . 60 . 60 . 100 . 100 . 100 Hawk . Eider-duck 150 miles I Rook . 90 ,, I Pigeon. 60 miles 40 ,, Carrier-pigeons from Paris to Versailles, ten miles, usually take twenty minutes. In November 1882 some flew from Canton Vaud to Paris, 160 miles, in 6 J hours. The departure and return of birds of passage from England [Brit. Assoc. Report) are usually on the follow- ing dates :— Cuckoo . Blackcap Martin . Swallow . Leave England August 25th October 10th 12th iSth Return April 14th ,, 22nd ,, 14th „ loth Days Absent - 232 194 184 177 Birds' nests are used in China for making soup; 9,000,000 are imported yearly into Canton, valued at los. per oz., fifty weighing about I lb. BIRTHS The birth-rate per 1000 of population was as follows : — 1821-40 1841-60 1861-80 1881-86 1841-60 1861-80 1881-85 France . 29.7 26.7 25.8 24-7 Belgium 30.2 32.0 31.0 Prussia . 41.0 38.6 39-1 37-2 Denmark 32.8 31-4 32.S Sweden . 33-1 32.0 31-4 29.4 England 33-4 3S-I 33-3 Norway . 313 32.4 30.8 . 30-9 Scotland 35- 1 33.0 Russia . 44.6 45- S 49.6 48.7 Ireland . 26.2 24.0 Saxony . 38.1 39-3 4I-S 41.9 Switzerland 31.0 28.2 Wurtemburg 41.8 37-7 Italy . 37-2 37-8 Austria . 39- S 40.3 39-0 38.3 Spain . ... 37-1 Bavaria . 30-7 33-2 39-2 38.7 Hungary 4S.0 Paris . 33-9 31.8 28.8 26.7 Roumania ... 37.4 Holland . • 34-9 36-3 34.8 Australia 3S-S BIRTHS 92 BIRTHS The following table of birth-rate for various cities is not for any uniform date or period : — Alexandria Amsterdam Barcelona Berlin . . Birmingham Bombay Boston Breslau Brighton Bristol . Brussels Bucharest Buda-Pesth . Buenos Ayres Christiania . Copenhagen . 45- o 36-7 29.2 37-S 37-6 25.6 30.0 37-7 30.6 34- S 34-7 29-S 35.8 31-7 34- S 39-1 Dresden Dublin Edinburgh Geneva Glasgow Hague Hamburg Havana Hull . Leeds . Liverpool London Lyons . Madras Madrid Manchester 3,';-4 Munich . .39.,'; 29.1 Naples 32.0 32.2 New York 39-4 24-3 Nottingham .36.7 S7-4 Pans . . 30..'i 39-7 Philadelphia 36.0 37-5 Rio Janeiro 35- S 21^.4 Rome . . . 27.2 S6.4 Rotterdam 3if.B 36.8 St. Louis . 30.0 37.6 St. Petersbur ?37.« 34-7 Sheffield . 3S.0 26.0 Stockholm 33.0 W-o Turin . . V-'i 37-'; Venice . . 30.2 36-9 Vienna 39.2 The sexes of children born average as follows :— Per 1000 Pet 1000 Males Females Males Females England S" 489 Portugal . SIS 48s Scodand . S14 486 Holland . S13 487 Ireland . . SIS 48s Belgium S14 486 U. Kingdom 512 488 Denmark . S13 487 France . . S13 487 Sweden . . S12 488 Prussia . . SH 486 Norway S14 486 Russia . . SOU 492 Switzerland S12 488 Austria . . ■;i6 484 Greece . . 519 481 Italy . . . 517 483 Roumania . 521 479 Spain . . S16 484 Europe . . S13 487 Births occur according to months as follows : ? V OJ g ^ g t4 a. ill anuary . 100 i°S 103 107 122 114 106 February 93 no 105 114 119 108 "S March . 103 109 103 no pS 112 112 April . . 104 106 100 106 97 102 104 May . . 106 99 97 95 88 100 94 une . . 104 95 9=; 89 8S 89 86 uly . . 102 96 96 91 88 88 86 August . 96 96 98 93 88 91 96 September 9b 97 104 100 94 98 103 October . lOI 9S 100 q8 no 100 99 November 96 97 100 98 "3 97 99 December 99 9S 99 99 98 lOI 100 Total . 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 V 1 1 a 1 B .3 1 _ [anuary ?ebraary March . April . May . June . July . August September October November December 106 106 107 102 98 94 92 91 io3 99 96 lOI i.2db 108 108 107 102 100 97 94 96 III fs 98 104 105 99 106 no. 112 107 in 104I i'07 98; 96 96, 85 98 98 102 94 97, 99 91 1 90 94 97 95 108 136 99 64 105 124 98 107 99 109 95 no 98 92 104 83 102 90 103 90 97 100 92 loS 103 112 104 101 95 96 98 96 97 95 98 107 107 107 103 99 94 93 9S lOX 99 97 98 Tota 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 1.200 The number of births to 100 marriages was as fol- lows : — 1861-80 1881-85 1881-85 England . . 407 420 Germany . . 439 Scotland 447 439 Russia . . . 500 Ireland . . . 520 54° Norway . . 430 France . . . 304 30s Switzerland . 39S Belgium . . 408 418 Italy . . . 440 Holland . . 422 470 Austria . . 419 Denmark . . 360 376 Hungary . . 404 Sweden . . . 414 408 Births according to Hours Between ■ss a b 1^ MM a 1 Midnight and 6 a.m. . 6 a.m. and noon . . Noon and 6 p.m. . . 6 p.m. and midnight . 30.3 25.6 21.4 22.7 29.4 2S-4 23-4 21.8 29.6 23.2 2I.S 25-7 28.5 23.8 21.7 26.0 29-5 24. S 22.0 24.0 Total . . . 100.0 100. 100. 100.0 100. From observations made (1855-74) in various countries, it appears that 1000 maids or widows between the ages of 15 and 50 have the following number of children yearly : — France Prussia . Norway , Italy . , Sweden . The ratio of illegitimate children in various countries is shown as follows from observations in 1865-78 : — Ireland . • 4 Holland . . 10 Switzerland 11 Belgium . • 17 England • 17 . 18 Scotland • 24 . 20 Denmark • 31 . 21 Saxony . ■ 33 . 21 Bavaria . • 42 • 23 Average . . 21 Greece Ireland . Russia . Holland . Switzerland Canada . England . Illegitimates in iooo Births 16 Spain , 23 Portugal 31 Italy . , . 35 United States 48 Belgium £0 Hungary 54 France , . The ratio of still-births in various countries is as fol lows : — Per iooo Births ■ 55 ■ 56 65 • 70 > 71 ■ 71 74 Norway Germany Scotland Sweden . Denmark Austria . 85 87 93 102 III 13s France ... 43 Holland ... 52 Prussia ... 41 Belgium ... 45 Austria ... 22 Sweden ... 32 Italy .... 23 Norway ... 35 The occurrence of still-births according to months, 1861-70, was as follows : — Switzerland . . 46 Denmark . 30 Bavaria ... 34 Average ... 37 c a. 1 £ to 3 B January . . . 109 104 104 129 "5 96 February 105 104 109 84 120 134 March . 102 105 103 "S 88 III April . . 100 103 97 109 93 103 May . . June . . 99 104 91 109 104 109 99 102 95 84 104 76 July . . 97 91 93 100 102 76 August . 96 99 103 90 no 90 September 94 8S 81 102 95 8S go October . 96 102 107 87 72 November 98 99 108 100 104 T3fi December loS 102 109 100 93 94 Totm . . 1.200 1.200 1.200 I 200 1.200 1.200 BIRTHS 93 Still-biiths are more frequent in towns tnan in rural districts, viz. : — Per looo Births Per 1000 Births Urban Rural Urban Rural Italy . . Sweden . Prussia . 31 4S 22 31 40 France Belgium Holland S3 SO S4 39 41 51 Males are oftener still-born than females, because, as Bertillon thinks, the former have larger heads. The fol- lowing table shows the number of males to females : — Still-Bom Males to 100 Females Holland . . 127 Austria . Prussia . . 129 Sweden . Norway . . 121 Denmark 131 133 125 Belgium . Italy . . France . 13s 141 144 Multiple births, from observations in 1851-73, average thus : — .3 01 .S en »& c t; c t: C ^ wCQ ,„ffl inK ■«« c SI II y t-s H HS England . . 112 23 Denmark . . 142 160 Scotland 117 Belgium . . 97 100 Ireland . 176 Holland . . 131 170 France . io3 120 Sweden . . I4S 180 Prussia . 125 150 Norway , . 125 160 Russia . 121 Iceland . . 142 330 Austria . 134 180 Switzerland . 120 Italy . 118 150 Spain . . . 84 IZO Bavaria. 174 310 Wurtemburg . 128 120 In France, Italy, and Bavaria twins are most nunierous in those Departments which furnish the tallest conscripts. The age of the mother has also some influence, as the tables of Lebel and Puech show : — Mother's Age Lebel Puech Medium Under 25 . . . 25-30 .... 30-35 .... Over 35 35 35 20 10 17 41 30 12 26 38 25 II Total 100 100 100 According to Dubois, the mean ratio of multiple births in England, France, and Germany is 13 twins per 1000 births, and 160 triplets and 8 quadruplets per million births. Aristotle mentions a woman who had 5 children at a birth four times successively; Menage one who had 21 children in seven years. The Belgian official returns for 1851-60 give a case of 5 children at a birth, viz., 2 boys and 3 girls, and another case of 4, all boys. The Empress Catherine received a Russian peasant woman in 1757 who had 57 children, all living, having been bom thus : — 16 in 4 confinements 21 in 7 ,, 20 in 10 ,, 57 21 This woman's husband married again, and his second wife had 15 children in 7 confinements. A similar case is that of Fedor Vassileff, of Moscow, 1782, who had 83 children living when pensioned by the Czar. He had 69 children by his first wife at 27 births, and after her death had 18 more by his second in 8 births. BIRTHS The records of Florence also show that Signora Fres- cobaldi, who died in 1570, had 52 children, never less than 3 at a birth. Madrid newspapers in 1883 stated that Lucas Saez returned to Spain from the United States with 37 children, 79 grandchildren, and 81 great- grandchildren, in all 107 males and 90 females, his eldest son being aged 70. T:he Daily Telegraph of London, November 1888, pub- lished the confinement of Mrs. George Hirsch, of Dallas, Texas, of 6 children, 4 being boys and 2 girls. This surpasses all records. Twins give 108 males to 100 females, and triplets show a medium result for France, Germany, and Austria as follows : — Birth of three boys Birth of three girls Two boys and a girl Two girls and a boy 26.0 22.7 27.0 24-3 100. o This gives 156 boys and 144 girls, that is, precisely the same ratio as in the case of twins. The child-bearing age of women rarely passes 5° ! oie mother in 3300 occurs after that age. If a woman has been married 18 years without children, the probabilities are 6000 to I against her having any. The Dublin Evening Post of July 16, 1801, announces that Sarah, wife of Thomas Davis, was confined the previous week of a son, her first child, after 1 1 years of marriage, being in her 53rd year. Men of very advanced age have be- gotten children. Schneider mentions a case at 86, Meade at 89, Ruttell at 92, Plater (his own grandfather) at 100. We know also that Thomas Parr was sued for adultery at 118. There are opposing estimates as to the period of ges- tation : — Depaul . Wallichs Days . 268 . 269 Schvvegel . Schoeder . Days . 270 . 271 Rann Reid Days . 272 . 276 Reid's table is as follows : — Days Ratio z(ia-2(A 12.5 267-273 17.S 274-280 4.5.0 281-287 150 288-294 lo.o Reid and Tourdes agree in fixing 294 days as the maximum, but French law allows 300 as the limit for legitimacy^ The number of children born yearly to 1000 wives is as follows : — France . Norway Prussia . Saxony . 180 284 286 29s Ireland . England Belgium Scotland 298 312 317 339 According to Bertillon and other authorities, the Euro- pean averages show that 100 married women will have in their life 420 children, icx) unmarried 21 ; furthermore, that as regards prostitutes 100 will give birth in their life to 60 duldren. The poorer classes have more children than the rich. BertiUon's observations during ten years, 1851-60, in Norway, show as follows : — 100 rich families have 313 children 100 middle-class families have 360 children 100 poor families have 370 children Drysdale found, in 1888, that 100 women of Mont- martre, the work-people of Paris, have 175 children, while 100 women of the fashionable Champs Elysees quarter have only 86. BIRTHS 94 BIRTHS As regards the sexes of infants, it is observed that young couples are most likely to have boys, middle-aged ones girls. Bertillon says that observations in Denmark, Norway, and Austria give this average : — Males Born to roo Females First-Bom Lawful .... no Illegitimate . . . 104 Salder's table, published in 1830, was as follows : — Subsequent Births lOS 106 Children to 100 Male Infants to Couples 100 Females Husband younger . . 487 87 Even age with wife . 617 95 Husband 4 years older 571 104 8 ,, 547 127 ■ ■ 14 » S58 146 .. 20 „ 45S 163 United Kingdom The surplus of births over deaths, per 1000 of the popu- lation, of late years is greater in England than in Scot- land : — Births and Deaths per 1000 Population in England 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 40 Years Births . . . Deaths . . 32.6 22.4 34-1 22.2 35-3 22.6 3S-S 21-5 34-4 22.2 Surplus births I0.2 11.9 12.7 14.0 12.2 Scotland 1855-60 1861-70 1871-80 26 Years Births Deaths 33-9 20.8 3S-0 22.0 35-2 21.8 34.8 21.6 Surplus births . . . 13. 1 130 134 13-2 Ireland 1864-70 1871-80 17 Years Births . . , . Deaths .... 26.3 16.7 26,2 18. 1 26.2 17.S Surplus births 9.6 8.1 8.7 The percent^e of births, according to Quarter, com- pares in England with other cotmtries thus :— Quarter Ending England Scotland France Germany March . . . June .... September . . December . . 26.2 26.0 24.0 23.8 24.7 26.2 24.4 24.7 27.0 25.0 24.1 23-9 259 24.2 24.9 25.0 Total . 100. 100.0 100.0 lOO.O According to the Die. Medicale, the forceps is less used in lying-in hospitals of London or Dublin than elsewhere, In Dublin London Per 10,000 Births • IS . 18 In Vienna Paris Per 10,000 Births ■ 37 • 39 Illegitimacy is declining in England, as appears thus :- - Period 1841-50 1851-60 Per 1000 Births . (•? . 65 Period 1861-70 1871-80 Per 1000 Births . 6j SI France The birth-rate is declining since 1801, viz. Period France Paris Period France Paris 1801 10 1811-20 1821-30 1831-40 330 31.8 30.6 28.8 35-9 3S-I 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 27-3 26.1 26.0 25.6 31-4 31- S 30.1 27.4 In 1886 there were 10,425,341 families with children thus : — Children Number of Families Ratio None 2,073,205 19.9 I . 2,542,611 24-4 2 . 2.265.337 21.7 3 • 1,512,054 14-5 4 • 936,853 9.0 „ S • 540.693 5-2 Over 5 . 554.588 S-3 10,425,341 100.0 According to a return by the Minister of Finance, there are 148,808 families, each with seven children or more, which have claimed the exemption from certain taxes recently voted by the French Parliament. These families have 1,157.547 children, or as nearly as possible eight each. In 1856 the ratio of married couples that had no children was much lower, only 15.5 per cent. If we compare the number of lawful births with that of marriz^es, we see, moreover, a constant decline since 1830, viz. : — Period Per Marriage 1800-30 3.82 1831-60 ...... 3.20 1861-70 2,09 1871-80 2.98 _ The ratio of illegitimacy has varied little in forty years, viz.: — Period Per 100 Births 1841-50 7.2 1851-60 7.4 1861-70 75 1871-80 7.3 It is a custom common in France for fathers to declare lavrful their illegitimate children. The proportion th'us recognised in the years 1870-74 was 25 per cent., against 21 per cent, in the fifteen years preceding. In ordinary births there are 105 males to 100 females, but in twins only 102 to 100. Births of twins average thus per icoo: — 335 of boys 315 of girls 350 mixed The increase of still-births is an alarming feature, viz. : — Per 1000 Births Male Female Total Lawful .Illegiti- mate Total 1841-50 1853-62 1863-70 39 49 51 29 35 38 34 42 45 32 40 41 66 V- 81 34 4a 4S BIRTHS Germany 95 BIRTHS The annual birth and death rates of all Germany for forty-six years ending 1886 were as follows : — Per 1000 Inhabitants Of 100 Births Period Births I^-*=i'BSl,T Still- born Illegiti- mate 1841-50 . . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . i88i-86 . . . 37-S 36.8 38.7 40.7 38.S 28.2 9.3 27.8 9.0 28.4 10.3 28,7 12.0 27.3 11.2 3-9 4.0 4-1 4.0 3.8 10.8 11.4 8.9 9-3 Birth-rates have been as follows : — Prussia Saxony Period go fe-B Period H_S 4 11 ^1 CL. a< 1748-90 . . 40.6 1831-40 . . 38.1 4.2 1816-40 ^. . 40.8 4-3 1841-50 . . 39-2 4-1 1841-60 . . ^8.6 1851-60 . . 39-4 4-1 1861-70 . . 39- S 4.6 1861-70 . . 40.4 4.0 1871-80 . . 38-7 4-S 1871-80 . . 42.7 4-S 1881-SS . • 37-4 4-7 1881-85 • • 41.9 4-7 Bavaria Wurtemburg 1830-50 . . 30-7 4.6 1815-29 . . 364 S-i 1851-70 , . 3S-S 4-7 1861-68 . . 40.8 S-2 1871-80 . . 40.6 4.8 1876-80 . . 42.7 5-9 1881-85 , . 38.7 S-S 1881-85 . . 37.7 5-9 In Saxony the proportion of still-births was as fol- lows : — Per 1000 Births Period i8oi-ao 1821-40 1841-60 1861-70 1871-75 Lawful 53 47 43 40 44 Illegitimate Total 75 75 71 74 91 S7 ^8 47 S2 The proportion of still-births in Prussia was thus : — Per laaa Jew Per looo Christian Births (1820-64) Births (1865-74) Male .... 22 ... 44 Female .... 19 ... 36 General average . .21 ... 41 The surplus of births over deaths in Prussia from 1822 to 1866 showed more favourably among Jews than in the Christian population, viz. : — Among 1000 Jews Among 1000 Christians 1822-40 1841-66 1822-40 1841-66 Births .... Deaths . . . 3S-S 21.4 34-7 18.9 40.0 29.6 39.S 29.1 Surplus births . 14.1 15.8 10.4 10.4 In sixty years ending 1875 the average number of births yearly was : — To 1000 married women ... 285 To 1000 unmarried women ... 25 In a period of forty-six years ending 1886 the propor- tion of illegitimate births was as follows : — In 1000 Jewish births . . . .24 In 1000 Roman Catholic births . . 58 In 1000 Protestant births . . . .85 The proportion was 98 i)er 1000 in town births, and 72 in rural. The average during fifty-eight years in the large cities was as follows : — Cologne , Berlin The illegitimate ratios in Bavaria and Saxony were : — Per 1000 Per 1000 ■ 105 Breslau . . 180 ■ IS7 Konigsberg . . 189 Bavaria ■ Saxony Period Per 1000 Births Period Per 1000 Births 1850-59 1862-70 1871-78 240 210 130 1821-40 128 1841-50 151 1861-75 j 143 Twins appear to be increasing in Prussia, viz. : — 1821-57 .... 115 in 10,000 births 1858-74. . . .126 „ In Saxony the proportion in 1834-49 was 127 in 10,000. Sexes of twins in Prussia were : 327 of boys, 303 of girls, and 370 mixed, in 1000 cases, being as 105 boys to 100 girls. Holland Birth-rale &om 1840 showed as follows : — Period Per 1000 Inhab, Per Marriage 1841-60 .... 34.9 ... 4,6 1861-80 .... 36.3 ... 4.5 1881-85 .... 34.8 ... 4.8 Sweden The birth-rate from 175 1 was as follows : — Period Per 1000 Pop. Per Marriage 1751-70 . 1771-90 . 1791-1810 1811-30 . 1831-50 . 1851-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-85 • 35- 2 32-5 32.1 34-1 31-4 32.4 30.8 29.4 4.0 4.0 3.8 4-0 4.3 4.6 4-S 4.6 The number of births yearly to 1000 women of 15 to 50 years of age was as follows : — 1776-1820 . . . 122 I 1841-60 . . . 127 1821-40 . . . 130 1 1861-75 • ■ • 123 In 187s of 10,000 births the ages of the mothers were : — Age Rural City Total Under 18 . . . 21 25 22 18-20 . "S 185 125 21-25 . 1.378 i.SSS 1,404 26-35 ■ 4.988 S.326 S.041 3&-4S . 3.31S 2,818 • 3.238 46-50 • 180 88 167 Over 50 3 3 3 , Tota, I 10,000 10,000 10,000 The records of loo years dovra to 1885 showed the average ages of every 10,000 women confined to be thus:— Under 20 194 20-30 4,059 31-40 4.S93 41-45 988 46 and upwards 166 Total 10,000 BIRTHS 96 BIRTHS The number of children born yearly to 1000 women at various ages, married and unmarried, is as follows : — Per 1000 Age Wives Unmarried All Women 15-20 20-25 25-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 477 464 342 251 142 22 3 30 46 32 14 I 9 106 220 203 121 18 From observations during the years-1871-75 it appears that the mothers of every 1000 children bom were as follows : — Mothers Wives Spinsters . Widows . All births Urban Rural All Sweden 773 218 9 1,000 85 7 104 6 Birth-rate was higher in the towns, with reference to population, than in rural districts, viz. : — Per 1000 of Population Period Towns Rural All Sweden 1861-70 .... 1871-75 .... 33-2 31-9 31.2 30. S 31. 5 30.7 In the same periods 1000 married women produced the following number of children : — Period Town Rural All Sweden 1861-70 .... 1871-75 .... 197 184 172 168 174 170 The ratio of women who hadmidwives in their confine- ment was as follows, per cent. : — Period Town Rural All Sweden 1861-70 .... 187J-75 .... 93 92 37 43 45 SO The number of boys bom to 1000 girls was as fol- lows : — Period Town Rural All Sweden 1861-70 .... 1871-75 .... 1,046 1,042 1.052 1.055 1.050 1.052 Bertillon found that the clergy had 108 boys, the nobles only 98 to 100 girls ; the common people 105. The ratio of births to 100 deaths was as follows : — Period Town Rural All Sweden 1861-70 .... 1871-75 .... 126 124 162 178 157 168 Illegitimate births have increased very rapidly : - Period 1771-90 . 1791-1815 1816-40 . Per 1000 Births • 41 ■ • 59 • 72 Period Per 1000 Births 1841-60 97 1861-70 105 1871-75 "5 In the last period the ratio was 90 per 1000 in the rural districts and 220 in the towns. Still-births were as follows : — Period Per 1000 Births 1816-40 27 1841-60 32 Period Per 1000 Births 1861-70 33 1871-75 32 Still-births occur more frequently in town than in country : — Per 1000 Births Urban Rural All Sweden 1861-70 . . . 1871-75 . . . 40 39 32 31 33 32 Twins and triplets occurred as follows : — Period Twins per 10,000 Births Triplets perMillion Births Period Twins per 10,000 Births Triplets perMillion Births 1776-95 . • 1796-1810 . 1811-30 . . 174 165 155 310 260 250 1831-50 1851-70 1871-75 140 141 146 200 195 160 In the years 1871-75 the rate for twins was 150 ia towns and 144 in rural districts among 10,000 births. Norway Birth-rate from the beginning of the century was thus :— Period Per icoo Inhab. Per Marriage Period Per 1000 Inhab. Per Marriage 1801-25 1826-45 1846-60 30.6 31-3 32-4 3-7 4-2 4.2 1861-70 1871-80 1881-85 30.8 30.8 31.1 4-7 4-3 4-7 The number of children born yearly to 1000 women between 20 and 45 years of age was as follows : — Period 1836-45 1846-SS 1856-65 1866-70 Per 1000 Wives 286 305 311 284 Per 1000 Unmarried! 25 32 32 32 Wives and unmarried women had more children in town than in the country, the returns for ten years down to 1870 showing that 1000 women between the ages of 15 and 45 gave birth as follows : — Per 1000 Wives Unmarried Town Rural All Norway .... 311 301 303 33 20 21 The ratio of illegitimates in the same period was 80-. per 1000 births rural, 95 for urban, and 83 per 1000 for all Norway. Still-births were 38 per 1000, against 42 in the decade ending i860. Twins occurred as follows : Period Per 10,000 Births Urban Rural All Norway 1851-60 .... 1861-70 .... 109 117 124 120 121 119 BIRTHS 97 BIRTHS The average of triplets in the above twenty years was l6o per million births. The number of boys born to lOO girls was as follows :— Urban Rural All Norway Lawful .... Illegitimate 1,040 1,090 1,058 1,070 1,053 1,060 Total 1.04s 1,060 I. OSS Married under 7 years ,, 7-12 ,, ,, over 12 ,, The preponderance of males varies with the length of time the parents may be married, thus : — . 116 boys to 100 girls. . 107 ,, ,, . 94 ., The sex of the first-born likewise varies thus : — Both parents under 25 . . 208 boys to 100 girls. Father over 35 92 ,, ,, Both parents over 35 . . . 87 ,, ,, Finland Birth-rate for fifteen years ending 1865 averaged 36.2, gainst 34.3 in the twenty years precediiig; still-births, 29 in 1000 births ; twins, 149 in 10,000 ; illegitimate, 72 per lOOO. Italy In the period from 1862 to 1885 the birth-rate showed : 1862-70 1871-80 1881-85 Per 1000 Inhabitanis ■ 37-5 • 36-9 . 38.0 Per Marriage S-o 4-9 4-7 The ratio of still-births was found in 1872-74 to vary from 15 to 41 per 1000 in various parts of the kingdom, viz. : — Sicily . Naples IS 18 Rome . . Lombardy 41 I Piedmont , ■ 38 I Tuscany , 34 as The ratio for the whole kii^dom was only 29 per 1000. From a census taken in Turin it was found that of 1000 children born in a given year, the ratios were as fol- lows ; — ist born . 231 2nd ,, . 188 3rf ,. . 152 4th „ . 118 cth born . 88 6th „ . . . 67 7th „ . . • SO 8 th, &c. born . 106 Russia The birth-rate has been as follows per 1000 popula- tion : — 39-6 44.6 Years 1846-58 . 1861-65 . 4S-S 50.7 Years 1876-80 . 1881-83 . 48,4 48.7 Years 1801-20 . 1826-45 • From 1861 to 1883 the number of births averi^ed 520 to 100 marriages. The sexes of children bom were : — 1801 to 1830 . . . no males to 100 females 1831 to 1860 . . .105 ,, 100 ,, At St. Petersburg 1000 births occurred as follows :— Quarter Ending March 31st 256 June 30th 260 September 30th 247 December 31st 237 Total . - . 1000 AUSTRIA-H UNO ARY Birth-rates in Austria and Hungary were as follows : Austria Hung ary Period Per 1000 Inhabitants Per Marriage Per 1000 Inhabitants Per Marriage 1830-47 1853-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-85 39-7 40.6 4.9 38.2 4.4 39-7 4-6 38.0 4.8 42.2 43- 45- 2 4.6 4-S 4.0 Illegitimacy has a high ratio in the cities, viz. : — Vienna 402 per 1000 Prague ... . 470 ,, In Prague in 1880 it was found that 1000 married women gave birth to 155 children yearly, and 1000 un- married to 75. The birth-rate of Prague per 1000 in- habitants is 44, that of Vienna 42. Still-births in Vienna are 43 in 1000. The ratio of sexes in Vienna shows that 106 boys are born for 100 girls. Returns for Austria proper during ten years to 1886 gave the following ratios of births : — Male . . . S^S I Legitimate . 856 I Live-bom . . 973 Female . . 485 | Illegitimate . 144 | Still-born . . 27 Total. 1000 1000 1000 Returns for Hungary for six years ending 1886 give the following average : — Live-Born Illegitimate Still-Births Males . Females 295,200 281,700 26,300 25,200 Lawful . . Illegitimate Total . 9.S10 1,620 Total 576,900 51,000 11,130 This gives a ratio of nearly 9 per cent, for illegitimates ; still-births 19 per 1000. The proportion of still-born among bastards was very high, 32 per 1000. In the said interval of six years there were in Hungary the following multiple births : — Number of Births Male Female Total Twins Triplets .... Quadruplets . . . 8,485 104 2 8,620 ISO 3 8,350 162 S 16,970 312 Belgium The annual average of births was as follows : — Period Births Excess over Deaths Birth-rate per 1000 Population Births to 100 Marriages 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 140,000 130,000 137,000 iSS.ooo 172,000 175,000 32,000 26,000 35000 40,000 52,000 S7.000 33-4 30.3 30.0 31.6 32.1 30.7 4S7 4-50 4.08 4.26 4.42 4-43 The above being the total number of births, legitimate and illegitimate, it follows that the number of children G BIRTHS 98 BIRTHS born to each marriage was really less than shown above. The official tables show as follows : — Period Males Born to 100 Female Birtlis Births to lOO Deaths Births to 100 Women of 15 to 45 Years of Age 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1887 105.3 105.2 105.2 104.7 106.0 125 \'^ 143 152 13-4 13. 1 14.4 14. S 13-7 The following is an official table of ratios : — Percentage of Illegiti- mate Births Illegitimate Births to 100 Single Women (IS-4S) Male Births to 100 Female Still-births, Legiti- Illegi- mate 1 timate Percentage I84I -50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1887 7-4 7-9 7-1 7.2 8.8 1.62 1.67 1.76 1.84 2.14 105.5 102.5 105.4 102.5 105.4 ' 103.0 104.9 102.4 105.3 100.9 4-37 4-73 4.81 4.54 4-97 In Brussels the ratio of illegitimacy rises to 285 per 1000 births. Denmark Since 1840 the birth-rate has been as follows : — Period Per 1000 Popu- lation Per Marriage 1840-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-85 32.8 31.0 31-5 32.5 4.0 4-1 4.0 4.2 The number of male children born to 100 females shows thus : — Mother's Age Male Births Under 30 ..... , 108 30 to 35 107 Over 35 106 The ages of 1000 women in their confinement in the years 1861-70 were : — Under 20 14 20 to 30 . . . • . , . 414 30 to 40 461 Over 40 Ill Greece During ten years ending 1878 the birth-rate averaged 120 per 1000 women between 15 and 50 years, and 27.6 per 1000 of the general population. The number of law- ful births per 1000 married women was 1 78 yearly. Switzerland Birth-rate during twenty years showed as follows : — Period Per 1000 Popu- lation Per Marriage 1867-74 1876-80 1881-85 1886 .... 29.8 32.2 Z8.2 27.4 4-3 4.0 4.0 The ratio of illegitimacy is high at Geneva, especially among the foreign population, viz. : — Illegitimacy in 100 Births Period Swiss Foreign 1847-56 . 1857-66 1867-76 6.8 5-8 6.7 11.4 14.8 18.1 Algeria The birth-rate among various classes of the population showed : — Race 1853-56 1873-76 French 41.0 38.0 Spanish 47.S 39- S Italian 38.S 39.0 Maltese 44.0 38.4 Germans 31.0 28.8 Jews .... 56.5 49.0 The number of children to 100 marriages, and the ratio of twins were as follows : — Race Children per TOO Marriages Twins in 10,000 Births French German Italian Spanish 370 480 570 630 102 160 120 40 The average of children to marriages and the ratio of male births have been as follows : — Period Children to 100 Marriages Boys to 100 Girls 1836-53 . 1854-77 ■ 390 440 117 107 Australia The annual birth and death rates of the seven colonies during thirteen years down to 1888 were as follows : — Per 1000 Population Percentage of Illegiti- mates Births Deaths Surplus Births N. S. Wales . . Victoria . . . Queensland . . South Australia . New Zealand . . Tasmania . . . W. Australia . . All Australia . . 37.8 31.6 36-9 36.9 37.2 33-1 347 1 35- S IS- 5 iS-i 17.3 14. 1 il.i 15-8 16.3 15.0 22.3 16.5 19.6 22.8 26.1 17.3 18,4 20.5 4.4 4-S 4.0 2.2 2.7 4.2 4.2 4-3 Argentina The birth-rate of Buenos Ayres is 31 per 1000 of popu- lation. Of 1000 children born the parents were : Argentines igs Italians ..,. Various ....!'. i 398 1000 There were 35 still-births in 1000 births. BOTANY 99 BRIDGES BOTANY The growth of various trees and products stops at the following heights above sea-level : — Feet Feet Feet Oalc . . . 3,350 Pine . . . 6,200 Walnut . . 3,600 Fir . . . 6,700 Vine . Maize , 2,300 . 2,800 The number of leguminous plants in various parts of the world is as follows : — Europe . . 184 S. America Mediterranean 468 Australia . United States 183 China . . Mexico . . 152 East Indies West Indies . 221 Siberia 60s 229 77 452 129 Levant . . 250 N. Africa . . 108 Central Africa 130 S. Africa . . 395 Islands . . 42 The number of seeds in a bushel is 556,000 of wheat, 88S,ooo of rye, 16,400,000 of clover. The quantity of seed to the acre is usually, in bushels, thus: — Wheat . . 1.6 Rye. Barley . . 2.0 Rice Oats . . 3-0 Beans 2.0 Hemp . Flax . Potatoes 1.2 o-S 8.0 Batata. — Better known as the sweet potato, gives a crop of 5 tons per acre. Carob. — Also called algarroba or locust tree ; it flourishes in Cyprus, where there are 600,000 trees, cover- ing 20,000 acres. The yield of beans varies from 10 to 100 lbs. Average crop 25,000 tons, value ;^7S,ooo, the bulk being exported to Scotland to make whiskey. The bean has 66 per cent, sugar and gum. Castor-oil Plant. — Flourishes in Algeria ; average crop 10 cwts. per acre, which gives from 50 to 60 gallons oil, worth los. per gallon. Mulberry. — An ordinary tree produces from 50 to 200 lbs. of leaves yearly, according to age, viz. : — Age, Years 4 9 Lbs. ,, Leaves 2S 106 Age, Years Lbs., Leaves 148 2l8 At the age of 45 the production begins to decline, and the tree dies at 70. Lombardy has 10 millions of these trees, and all Italy probably 40 millions ; France has 6 millions. It is found that 10 lbs. of leaves suffice to yield one ounce of raw silk. BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS One of the most remarkable bridges of the Middle Ages is that built over the Adda in Italy in 1377, which is of stone, and has a single span of 237 feet. Among those of historical interest may be mentioned : — Name Length (Feet) Date Over Ratisbon St. Esprit . Cordoba Verona . Rialto . Prague . Schaffhausen Neuilly . 994 2,690 460 36s 99 1,706 364 740 "35 1285 1301 I3S4 1588 1650 1758 1768 Danube Rhone Guadalquivir Po At Venice Moldau Rhine Seine Those of the greatest height appear to be the follow- ing:— Height (Feet) Brooklyn 210 Annecy 656 Clifton 257 Forth Span (Feet) 1,620 635 703 S.330 Brooklyn bridge has four cables, each of 5000 wires of It inch. Forth is by far the greatest ever constructed (see Engineering); the heaviest train deflection is 4 inches. The first iron bridge in the United Kingdom was at Coalbrookdale in 1779 ; the following table shows the most notable in all parts of the world since then : — Date Bridge Over Length (Feet) Iron (Tons) Cost Builder 1779 . . . . Coalbrookdale . Severn 100 378 £ Darby 1796 Sunderland . Wear . 236 260 27,000 Wilson 1819 Southwark . Thames 800 5.780 800,000 Rennie 1825 Menai Menai Straits 1,050 2,187 212,000 Telford 1849 Newcastle . Tyne . 900 S.050 243,000 Stephenson 1850 Britannia . Menai Straits 1,511 9,600 602,000 Stephenson 18SS Niagara Niagara 850 400 83,000 Roebling 1859 Victoria St. Lawrence 7,200 8,230 1,700,000 Stephenson i860 Pesth-Buda Danube 1,900 7,000 1862 Freyburg . Sarine 1.09s 3,100 100,000 1867 Cincinnati , Ohio . 2,252 Roebling 1868 Clifton Niagara 1,270 40,000 1874 St. Louis . Mississippi . 2,200 4,200 400,000 Eads 187s Wuzerabad . , Piinjaub 9.300 650,000 1877 Oporto Douro 1,160 Eiffel "■ 1878 Annan Solway 5,120 1,600 1879 Empress Sutlej . 6,000 6,650 550,000 1880 . Moerdyk . Maas . 4.850 ... 1880 Pultowa Dnieper 3.550 1S81 . Saratov Volga . 4,872 5.150 695,000 Beleloubski 1882 . Benares Ganges 3,000 425,000 1883 . Brooklyn . Hudson 4,500 30,000 3,100,000 Roebling T889 Forth . Forth . 5.330 48,000 2,550,000 Fowler The Chinese had suspension bridges of iron chains during many centuries. Ogilvy saw one over the Yunnan in 1669, erected by the Emperor Ming, who was con- temporary with Tiberius Csesar. In 1 8 16 Captain Brown built an iron bridge of 112 feet, only for foot-passengers, at Galashiels, for the sum of ;^40, the cheapest bridge on record. The quickest bridge ever built was by Mr. Dredge, in 1846, who in eight days placed an iron bridge, 74 feet span, across the Blackwater, co. Tyrone, Ireland. The greatest number of bridges built by one man was by Mr. Telford, surnamed Pontifex, who erected 1200 bridges in Scotland, between the years 1800 and 1820. BRIDGES CABS London has spent Sj millicns sterling on bridges since 1816, viz. : — Name Length, Feet Cost Per Foot Date London . . Southwark . Waterloo . . Blackfriars . Charing Cross Westminster. Vauxhall . . Hammersmith 900 800 1,326 1,000 1.365 1,220 806 480 £ 2,000,000 800,000 1,060,000 270,000 180,000 480,000 412,000 80,000 £ 2,200 1,000 800 270 130 390 500 170 1831 1819 1817 1869 1862 1816 1827 Total 7,897 5,412,000 680 ... The French Government in 56 years spent 76 millions sterling on bridges, thus : — Years Cost Per Annum 1814-30 1831-47 . 1848-70 £ I3.5o0p00o 22,500,000 40,200,000 £ 800,000 1,330,000 1,800,000 56 years . 76,200,000 1,350,000 The most remarkable viaducts hitherto made are the following : — OJ a 2-5 Cost, Pence per Cubic Yd. Weaver . . 1,484 20 60 84 30 92 Stockport , 1,792 26 63 90 32 91 Dane . . I.7I7 23 63 88 31 75 Rugby . . . 720 13 5° SI 30 88 Tamworth 710 20 30 45 99 Llangollen . i,Soo 19 8s 150 90 Whamcliffe . 8q<; 11 70 83 35 144 Trent . . . 1,286 St 20 33 29 86 Kinzua(N.Y.) 2,050 20 60 30T Cantal(Fr.) . 1,880 413 ... The Kinzua, built by Mr. Barnes, consists of 2000 tons iron and 7000 tons masonry, supported by twenty iron piers, and costing altogether ;^62,ooo. The Cantal, by M. Eiffel, is the highest in the world, being nearly the same height as the top of the great Pyramid. BURIALS The minimum time between death and burial was among the Egyptians 4 days, Romans 6, and Greeks 1 1 days. At present it is 48 hours in England, Germany, and Austria, 36 in Holland, 24 in France. The cemeteries in England and Prance in 1882 were : — England Wales , France No. ".3°4 958 38,041 Per 100,000 Inhabitants 45 71 lor London has 22 cemeteries, with an aggregate of 2210 acres, that is, an acre for 1700 inhabitants. Besides those above stated for England and Wales, there are 141 1 cemeteries that have been closed by Order of Council. The practice of cremation has been recently introduced. A body weighing 140 lbs. produces 3 lbs. aslies ; time for burning, 55 minutes. Mr. Chadwick estimates the cost of funerals in England thus : — Paupers Working-class Middle-class 13s. ,40 £v Gentry Nobility /loo £rooo Average — ;^io for each interment, or 5 millions per annum. The French official classification was as follows : — Funerals of Annual Percentage 1872-74 1878-79 Rich persons . . . Middle-class . . . Working-class . . . 3-2 13.6 83.2 3-5 14-3 82.2 Total . . . 100.0 100. The various analyses : — BUTTER kinds of butter give the following Fat Water Various Total Ratio of Caseiae Devonshire . . 82.7 16.2 I.I 100.0 16.2 Norman . . . 82.4 12.6 S-o 100. 10.6 London . . . 47-1 42.4 lo-S lOO.O 7.8 II ... 67- ■; 24.0 8.5 100.0 6.9 Isle of Wight . 86.3 .3.8 9-9 100.0 3-3 Jersey .... 78. S 10.4 ii.i 100.0 2.5 Oleomargarine . 86.0 lO.O 4.0 100.0 0.6 An English cow giving 1800 quarts milk per annum produces 140 lbs. butter, constuning 4 tons hay, which contain 168 lbs. fat. The price of butter in London since 1 730 has been :^ Pence . 12J . 16 1730-1790 . 1791-1815 . 1816-1840 . See Dairy, ^ence .■if 1841-1860 13 1861-1880 94 1881-1883 18 0. CABS There are 1 1,000 in London, and 6000 in Paris ; the former average 80,000, the latter 50,000 passengers daily. The medium fare earned per passenger is 15 pence in Paris, 18 pence in London. The earnings in London per cab are 19 shillings a day in " the season," 9 the rest of the year, or 12 shillings all the year round. In 18S8 the Societe Generale of Paris averaged 164 francs receipts and 14 francs expenditure daily per cab, being a net profit of 2j francs or 2 shillings ; the expenses included 2 francs a day in taxes per cab. The average earnings of this Company all the year round were 1 5 pence a day per cab over the average earnings in London. The cost of food per horse in Paris in 1888 was 13^ pence, against 18 pence in 1881 daily. Theratio of horses dead or dis- abled during the year in the Societe Generale stables was : — 1858-60 1867-69 1878-88 20 per cent. 18 ■14 CALENDAR CANALS A statement published in 1844 showed that Paris had then 3100 cabs, earning on an average 14 francs (say 11 shillings) each daily, and 340 omnibuses, averaging 60 francs (48 shillings) daily. Cabs kill or disable many thousands of persons yearly in the United Kingdom. Of all males who die in England, one in 260 is killed by a cab or other vehicle, and of all females one in 2550. The ratio of these deaths to the general mortality is as follows : — Per 10,000 Per 10,000 Deaths Deaths Birmingham ... 12 Manchester ... 24 Sheffield .... 17 Dublin 33 Glasgow .... 19 London 37 Liverpool .... 21 Leeds 79 The value of articles left in cabs in London, and handed over to the police at Scotland Yard, averages ;f2l,ooo per annum. CALENDAR 1. Jewish, 383 days; the Jewish year 5650 began on September 26, 1889. 2. Julius Cksar's, 365 days, B.C. 46, commenced in March. 3. Mahometan, 355 days, A.D. 622; the Mahometan year 1300 began March 1, 1883. 4. Charles IX., A.D. 1564, commenced 1st January. 5. Pope Gregory XIIL, a.d. 1582; now used, except in Russia. 6. The Russian year begins on January 13 of our calendar. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in Eng- land in 1752, before which date the year began on March 25, which would now be April 5. For the purpose of finding the day of the week of any event, the student will be facilitated by knowing the day on which the year began. The following table shows since 1601 the day of the week on which the 1st of January fell : — >-. & Jf 1- >* ^ 5 1 1 1 1 1 1601 1602 1603 1604 ... I&JS 1606 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 I6IS 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 163s 1636 ... 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 164s 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 i6S4 i6SS 1656 l6S7 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 167s 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 i68s 1686 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 169s 1696 1697 1698 1699 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 170S 1706 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 171S 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1725 1727 1728 1729 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 173s 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1752 ... •a 1 &■ T3 •& ^ a 1 1 1 1 I7S3* I7S4 I7SS 1756 I7S7 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 177s 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 179s 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 180S 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 181S 1816 18 17 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 183s 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 184s 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1831 1852 1853 1854 I8SS 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 i86s 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 i88i 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 1898 In connection with the preceding calendar, it will be easy by means of the following table to find the day of the week of any event : — January I 8 IS 22 29 February 5 12 19 26 March . S 12 19 26 April . 2 9 16 23 .30 May . 7 14 21 28 June . 4 11 18 25 July . 2 9 16 23 .30 August 6 13 20 27 September 3 10 17 24 October I 8 IS 22 29 November S 12 19 26 December 3 TO 17 24 31 Allowance must be made for February 29 in leap-years, which were those preceding the blank spaces in the pre- vious calendar. CANALS The most remarkable canals are : — Date Name Miles Cost Per Mile Country 1668 Languedoc 160 680,000 4.250 France 1776 Bridgewater 38 360,000 9.050 England 178s Eyder . . 26 510,000 19,500 Denmark 182J Caledonian 60 1,140,000 19,000 Scotland 1825 Helder . . 60 900,000 15,000 Holland 1825 Erie . . . 363 1,820,000 S.ooo U. States 1830 Cincinnati . 306 610,000 2,000 ,, Rideau . . 132 800,000 b,o6o Canada Welland . 41 1,400,000 34.150 j 1832 Burgundy . isa 2,220,000 14,050 France 1854 Bengal . . 900 2,000,000 2,200 India 1869 Suez . . . 92 17,030,000 185,000 Egypt 1874 North Sea . 14 2,030,000 145,000 1 Holland First year of new style, which began September 2, 1752. CANALS CANALS The following table shows the mileage of canals and navigable rivers : — United Kingdom . France .... Germany . . . Russia . , . • Austria .... Italy Spain and Portugal Belgium .... Holland. . . . Scandinavia . . Europe .... United States . . Canada .... Brazil .... Argentina . . . India China .... Total Miles Canals 2.794 2,910 1,320 870 1,710 664 270 S3S 1,830 390 13.293 4.479 S3S 2,240 S.270 25.817 Rivers 1,020 4,820 15.760 33.046 S.490 626 1,285 540 870 300 63.757 47.355 2,820 22,200 2,200 2,600 3,800 144.732 Total 3.814 7.730 17,080 33.916 7,200 1,290 I.55S 1.075 2,700 690 77.050 51.834 3.355 22,200 2,200 4,840 9,070 170,549 The average cost of making canals has been ;,f 9600 in the United Kingdom, ^^7000 in France, ;.f98oo in the United States, and ;£^i 5,500 in Canada, per mile. Among those projected or in construction are the fol- lowing : — Locality Miles Estimated Cost Per Mile Panama Alexandria and Suez . . Manchester and Liverpool Malacca Bordeaux and Narbonne . Corinth Dniester and Vistula . . Black Sea and Caspian . 46 150 44 65 255 4 460 310 , £ 26,500,000 5,200,000 4,000,000 22,000,000 1,200,000 21,000,000 4,000,000 £ 576,000 120,000 60,000 87,000 300,000 45,000 13,000 The Panama Canal was begun in September 1 884, the plans showing excavations of 160 million cubic yards ; this included a tunnel of 4 miles or 7000 yards, 100 feet wide and 160 in height, to cost ;^8oo per lineal yard. The whole was to be finished in 1892, at an estimated cost of 26J millions sterling. In December 1885, Baron Lesseps had at work 10,000 men, 169 locomotives, 12,000 waggons and 7 dredges. Each of the dredges was capable of excavating 100,000 cubic yards monthly. In March 1888, after 42 months of work, the total excava- tions reached only 53 million cubic yards, or one-third of the total, and had cost 40 millions sterling — say 1 5 shil- lings per cubic yard, or five times the estimates. The work remaining to be excavated was 36 million tons of stone and 54 million of clay, in all 82 million cubic yards. The works were suspended in January 1889, the company having expended 60 millions sterling, but this was the nominal amount of stock. It is thought the actual works cost less than 40 millions. Death-rate among the men varied from 3 to 10 per cent, yearly. The Suez Canal is the most remarkable and useful engineering work of ancient or modem times. It shortens the voyage between England and the East by one-third ; that is, it enables two vessels to do the same work that would require three by the Cape of Good Hope, the dis- tance in nautical miles being as follows : — London to By Canal By Cape Saving Miles Bombay . . . Madras . . . Calcutta . . . Singapore . . . 6,330 7,330 7,950 8,345 10,595 10,830 11,450 11,670 4,265 3.500 3.500 3.325 It was begun by Lesseps in 1856, and completed in 869 at a cost of ^ 1 7,000,000 sterling, viz.: — Preliminary expenses .... 3,800,000 Machinery 2,200,000 Excavation 7,700,000 Docks and harbours .... 1,400,000 Transport, buildings, &c. . . . 1,936,000 Total 17,036,000 Length, 92 miles ; depth, 26 feet. Tolls average ;^8oo per vessel, or 8 shillings per ton of net tonnage. Tugs are provided for sailing vessels at a charge of _.^200. The saving to commerce by reason of the canal is above five millions sterling per annum, that is, 2j millions after payment of the fees. The flags of vessels passing through since 1870 have been 77 per cent. British, 8 French, 4 Dutch, and 1 1 per cent, of other nations. The traffic returns show as follows : — Year Ships Tons Average Tonnage Fees, £ 1870 1875 18S0 1S86 1889 486 1,494 2,026 3,100 3.42s 436,000 2,940,000 4,345,000 8,180,000 9,606,000 900 1,960 2,150 2,640 2,800 206,000 1,156,000 1,630,000 2,260,000 2,640,000 The above is the gross tonSi^e, the net being 70 per cent, of same, the tonnage ratio of the various flags in late years showed thus : — 1886 1889 British . 76.4 77-9 French . 8.5 5-7 Italian 2.3 2.9 German . 3-9 4.8 Dutch 3-8 3-8 Various . Total 5-1 4-9 100. 100.0 Electric light is now used for passage by night. The mean duration of passage was 48 hours in 1883, and only 27 hours in 1889. Expenses in 1889 were ;^i, 300,000, leaving a profit of ;^ 1,340,000. The ordinary share capital of the company is only 8 millions sterling, and the dividend ranges from 15 per cent, per annum upwards. The sum due on debentures is ;^8,867,ooo. The nominal capital called up for making the canal and the exact sum realised are shown thus : — Year Issue At Realised i860 .... 1868 .... 1871 .... 1880 .... 9,360,000 6,667,000 600,000 240,000 100 60 80 67 £ 9,360,000 4,000,000 480,000 160,000 Total 16,867,000 83 14,000,000 It appears, therefore, that the real cost was only 14 millions sterling, or ;^i5o,ooo per mile. The British Government owns nearly half the ordinary share capital, having bought 176,602 shares, nominal value ;f 3, 5 30,000, CANALS 103 CANALS from the Khedive in 1876, at a premium of 12 J per cent., the price paid being jf 3,976,600. The coupons had been cut off till 1892, but the Khedive pays interest until then. The proportions of Eastern and Southern trade passing to and from Great Britain through the Suez Canal appear as follows : — British Trade with By Canal By Cape Total Australia . , , China and Japan India, &c. . . . 12,000,000 23,000,000 69,000,000 43,000,000 2,000,000 15,000,000 65,000,000 25,000,000 84,000,000 Total . . 104,000,000 60,000,000 164,000,000 The value of what passes through the canal is equal to one-seventh of the total foreign commerce of Great Britain. Comparing the traffic on canals in the various parts of the world, we find the average of tons per mile as follows : — Germany . 6,000 I England . 8,800 I U. States 10,000 France . . 8,000 | Russia . , 9,000 | Suez . . 102,000 United Kingdom It is stated by Haydn that the first canal in England was made by Henry I. to connect the Trent with the Witham in the year 11 34. The first, however, of any note was that made by the Duke of Bridgewater, James Brindley being engineer ; it was begun in 1759, completed in 1776 between Manchester and Liverpool at a cost of ;f 360,000, length 38 miles. A canal 'rom the Severn to the Thames was completed in 1 789. The first in Scotland was that from the Forth to the Clyde, completed in 1790, after twenty-two years of labour. The Caledonian was begun in 1803 and completed in 1822, being known as Neptune's Staircase, with 28 locks, and so arduous in mjJcing that the cost exceeded ;^ 19,000 a mile. The Grand Canal of Ireland, connecting Dublin with the Shannon, was begun in 1765 and completed in 1788. In 1889 the canals of the United Kingdom were : — Miles Worked by Canals Canalised Rivers Total Railways Canal Cos. England . Scotland . Ireland . . 2,500 150 144 550 470 3.050 150 614 1.025 75 95 2,025 75 518 U. Kingdom 2.794 1,020 3,814 1 1,196 2,618 The annual traffic was estimated as follows : Worked by Miles Tons Carried Tons per Mile Railways .... Companies . . . 1,196 2,618 6,600,000 27,700,000 S.Soo 10,600 Total . . 3.814 34,300,000 9,000 They represent a capital of 36 millions sterling, or £^yio per mile ; annual dividends ranging from 2 to 5 per cent. Some allow vessels of 6 feet draught, others only 3 feet. The canals of the United Kingdom in actual use in 1887 were as follows : — Miles Owned by railways .... 1,421 Independent of railways . . . 1,537 Total 2.958 Nothing is known as to freight charges, but the net earnings do not seem to reach one shilling per ton carried. France The French statistics of canals are as follows : — Date Miles Capital Cost Per Mile 1800 . 1813 . 1830 . 1847 . 1870 . 766 890 1.450 2,6go 3.150 4,600,000 7,700,000 15,100,000 27,800,000 31,400,000 / 6,ioo 8,600 10,400 10,300 10,000 In the interval from 1770 to 1844 the following were constructed : — Date of Works Canal Cost, £ Cost, £ Per Mile Length, Miles Fall, Feet 1770-1837 1775-1832 1784-1843 1785-1834 1806-1841 1808-1841 1821-1838 1822-1838 Somme Burgundy Nivernais J Rhone & ) I Rhine | f Nantes ) \ & Brest ] Berry Ardennes Loire Various Total 520,000 2,200,000 1,300,000 1,100,000 1,800,000 1,100,000 600,000 1,200,000 1,580,000 5,200 14.500 12,000 S.ooo 8,000 S.500 9,000 9,600 7.500 98 158 110 220 230 200 65 124 205 220 1,650 800 1,230 1,810 810 440 350 11,400,000 8,000 1,410 A statement published in 1870 of French canals showed : — Date of Works Miles Cost, £ Cost, £ per Mile 1600-1820 . . . 1821-1840 . . . 1841-1870 . . . 710 1,860 560 > 17,300,000 S.600 Total . . 3.130 The following table shows the length and traffic of canals and canahsed rivers at various dates : — Miles Tons Carried 60 Miles Year Canals Rivers Total Canals Rivers Total 1850 2,425 4,200 6,625 7,300,000 9,400,000 16,700,000 i860 2.750 4.200 6,950 10,400,000 8,600,000 19,000,000 1870 2,850 4,200 7,050 9,000,000 5,500,000 14,500,000 1880 2,720 4,140 6,860 11,000,000 9,100,000 20,100,000 1885 2,910 4,820 7,730 13,300,00011,200,000 24,500,000 It will be observed that there is only a seeming dis- crepancy in the above statements, the first referring merely to canals, the second including canalised rivers. The first constructed in France was the Briare, con- necting the Loire and Seine, 124 miles, begun in 1605 and finished in 1642 at a cost of ;£'l, 300,000 sterling. The Languedoc, one of the finest' works of the kind, was made by Riquet under Louis XIV., being opened for traffic in 1668 ; it is 60 feet wide, 6i deep, and is carried up to a height of 600 feet by means of 114 locks, affiDrding transit for small vessels between the Mediterranean and the Bay of Biscay : length, 160 miles ; cost ;^68o,ooo. The Central Canal connects the Loire and Saone, length 72 miles; it was completed in 1791 at a cost of ;^63oo per mile, being carried to a height of 240 feet by means CANALS 104 CANALS of 81 locks, and navigable for vessels of 5 feet draught. The Burgundy, connecting the Rhone and Seine, was 57 years in construction, length 1 58 miles, and the most costly in France, averaging ;if 14,500 a mile, or three times as much as the Languedoc, being carried to a height of 1650 feet. France has altogether 74 canals, vrith an aggregate length of 2900 miles, the average cost having been ;f 700° "■ mile, and the traffic yearly 8000 tons per mile. Germany The German Empire by latest accounts has 1320 miles of canal and 15,760 of navigable rivers, which differs but slightly from a statement published in 1878, viz. : — Mileage of Canals and Rivers Prussia . , • . . 8,140 Bavaria 1,160 Other States 7,690 Total 16,990 The canals of Prussia in 1S69 had a length of 430 miles, and the total of navigable waters 3800 miles, perhaps only for vessels of large size. The traffic in 1878 in all internal waters of Germany occupied 20,900 canal-boats and 463 steamers, with an aggregate of 1,550,000 tonnage; the goods carried on canals was about 8 million tons ; the principal canal is the Altmuhl, connecting the Rhine and Danube, 107 miles long, 54 feet wide ; vessels drawing 5 feet can go from the German Ocean to the Black Sea. The Elbe and Oder Canal is next in importance. By far the greatest inland water traffic is done by the Rhine, which carried 5,500,000 tons in 1866 and 6,100,000 in 1871 : the Prussian Government, between 1831 and 1871, spent 5 millions sterling on improving its course, reducing the length by one-fourth in point of time : the above traffic included 3 million tons of coal. The Elbe in 1872 was navigated by 11,760 vessels of all kinds, manned by 43,600 men ; the Weser by 3080 vessels, manned by 10,400 men ; the tonnage on the Elbe was 760,000, two- thirds up-stream. Russia Official returns for 1 886 show as follows : — Tons System Miles Open Grain . . . Timber . . . Fuel . -. . . Naphtha . . Sundries . . 2,660,000 7ro,ooo 2,220,000 540,000 2,480,000 Caspian . . Black Sea. . Baltic . . . Azof . . . Various . . Total . 8,880 3.820 S.050 2,100 14,066 Total . 8,610,000 33.916 The total value of goods carried was ;,f 19,400,000. There were 1 507 steamers, with an aggregate of 86,000 horse-power, 61,000 vessels without steam-power, and 74,000 rafts. In 1886 the Volga traffic stood for 86 per cent, of the total. It was completed in 1825 by the opening of the Vishney Canal, forming a direct highway of 1434 miles from St. Petersburg to the Caspian Sea, In 1889 a sum of ;^ 1, 300,000 was set apart to make this route navigable for larger vessels up to 220 feet long. The Volga throws off another canal to Archangel in the North, by which goods are conveyed direct from the White Sea to the Caspian. The Tikwina, opened in 1822, is for empty boats returning from the Baltic to the Volga. The Kubinsko is mo.stly used for carrying timber ; it was opened in 1828 and has 300 vessels. The great centres of the Volga trade are Astrakan, Saratov, Nijni Novgorod, Moscow, and St. Petersburg, the whole system from Astrakan on the Caspian to Archangel on the White Sea being about 2500 miles in length, the Volga running 1900 miles without a rapid, whirlpool, or sandbank ; it is navigated by four steamboat companies with first-class steamers, and such is the traffic by boats and rafts that Nijni Novgorod employs 70,000 Bourlaki or raftsmen, going up or down to Moscow and Astrakan. Boats ascending the Volga usually take ninety days from the Caspian Sea to St. Petersburg. The proposed Dniester- Vistula canal, 460 miles, would connect the Black Sea with Dantzic on the German Ocean. The canal in con- stniction from the Caspian to the Black Sea, 310 miles, is to cost ^£■4,000,000. The inland waters of Russia employ 300,000 boatmen. Canals are open about 200 days of the year in the north, and 270 in the south. One of the eai-liest constructed was that by the Empress Marie at her own expense in 1808. Austria-Hungary A statement published in 1850 gave the Empire 5450 miles of internal navigation. In 1887 the total length of navigable rivers and canals was 7200 miles, including 1 700 of canals. There are, however, only two canals of much traffic, that which connects the Theiss and Danube, 80 miles, and that from Vienna to Neustadt, 33 miles. There is continuous water communication from Vienna down- ward by the Danube to the Black Sea, and upward by the Altmuhl Canal and the Rhine to the German Ocean, in all 1800 miles, of which more than 1000 is by the Danube. Steamboats were introduced on this river in 1850, and it was thrown open to vessels of all flags in 1856. The traffic returns of the Danubian Company in 1880 and 1S87 were as follows :— 1880 1887 Steamers of Company Tugs Passengers Goods, tons .... 193 700 2,600,000 1,350,000 190 729 1,650,000 1,710,000 In summer the part above Vienna is only navigable for vessels of two feet draught. According to a Government report in 1887 Austria proper had : — Miles Miles Navigable rivers . Canals .... 2,440 1,710 Vessels and rafts Rafts only . , Total . . 2.45° 1,700 Total . . 4,150 4,150 Miles . 90 . 66 A sum of ;^230,ooo, say ;^5o a mile, is spent annually on their maintenance. Hungary has 3050 navigable miles. Italy The navigable mileage of Italy is as follows : — Miles Po , . . . 340 Tiber . Adige . . . 130 Arno . to which add 664 miles of navigable canals, making in all 1290 miles. Lombardy has twelve canals, but only two are navigable, the rest being for irrigation, as are likewise those of Pavia, Padua, and Pisa. The Cavour Canal is the most important, pouring 400,000 tons of water hourly from the Po into the Ticino. Duke Torlonia made a canal recently at Lake Fucino. It is proposed to make a canal from Rome to Ostia, 16 miles long, 72 feet wide, 26 feet deep, cost ;£'7,400,ooo. Spain and Portugal Spain has 1085 miles, Portugal 470, of inland naviga- tion. The Imperial Canal of Arragon, begun in the last century, is far from completion. In combination with CANALS i°S CANALS the Canal of Castile it mil connect the Mediterranean with the Bay of Biscay, a length of 405 miles, of which only 17s are now made; it is 60 feet wide and 10 in depth. The other canals are of trifling importance, and sum up 95 miles. The principal watercourses of the Peninsula are : — Miles Tagus Douro Miles 490 Ebro . Guadalquiver 470 300 Not more than half the above mileage is navigable. Holland Without counting rivers, this country has 9 miles of canal for every 100 square miles of area, a proportion not equalled elsewhere, and four times as great as in the United Kingdom. The Dutch canals have an aggregate length of 1830 miles, lie traffic occupying 5600 Trekshuits for conveying passengers, and 15,000 flat boats for cargo ; for the maintenance of these canals the State expends j^50O,0OO yearly. The Helder, begun in 1819 and com- pleted six years later, is 60 miles long, 120 feet wide, and zo deep, allowing two merchantmen to pass abreast, and navigable for the largest vessels; the trafiic in 1877 ex- ceeded 1,500,000 tons. The Y, or North Sea canal, made in 1863-74, is 240 feet wide and 23 deep, and brings Amsterdam within 15 miles of the sea : length, 14 miles, cost ;^2,ooo,ooo. The Maestricht is navigable for vessels up to 800 tons. The water-ways of Holland sum up 2700 miles, irre- spective of canals for irrigation. Belgium This country vrith relation to area possesses double the mileage of internal navigation that Holland can boast, and six times the European average. There are 29 canals, summing up 535 miles, and 540 miles of navi- gable rivers. The chief canal is from Brussels to Char- leroi, 46 miles, the toll amounting to ;f 1,020,000 yearly ; working expenses, ;^46o,ooo. The amount of tonnage carried on all the canals is 7,700,000 tons. Trafiic returns show as follows : — Tons Carried 60 Miles 1880 1886 Coal Other minerals . Agricultural products General merchandise 1,600,000 2,100,000 1,300,000 2,200,000 1,700,000 2,100,000 1,200,000 2,700,000 Total 7,200,000 7,700,000 Scandinavia Sweden has 365 miles of canal, which are open to traffic 210 days in the year, being frozen the rest Over ;£'200,000 was spent on canals between 1840 and i860. The Gotha Canal is the most remarkable; it was at- tempted by various kings without success, and finally commenced by a joint-stock company in 1793, and com- pleted in 1800, at a cost of £-jz,ooo, being only three miles long, but cut through a rock 150 feet high ; it has eight locks, and is navigable for vessels of 6 feet draught, paying a usual dividend of 12 per cent. In later years a canal has been made from Lake Meier, near Stockholm, to the German Ocean. In 1886 there were 69,300 vessels paid canal tolls. Denmark has the Eyder Canal connecting the Baltic and the German Ocean, 26 miles long and 10 feet deep, begun in 1777, and completed in 1784 at a cost of ;if 5 10,000. United States The water-ways of the great Republic were stated in 1880 thus: — Miles 47.355 2,513 Navigable rivers Canals in use Canals abandoned Shore line of lakes 1,964 3,620 Total . ._ . 55,454 In i860 there were 118 canals, with an aggregate of 5460 miles, supposed to have cost 48 millions sterling. This is, however, in excess of an oificial return pubUshed in 1880, viz. : — Miles Tons Carried Earnings per Mile Cost of In Use Abandoned Total Construction £ , £ New York 608 357 965 7,770,000 43° 16,000,000 Pennsylvania . 629 477 1,106 6,100,000 515 11,000,000 Ohio .... 674 205 879 840,000 60 4,000,000 Maryland. 194 194 1,310,000 370 2,000,000 New Jersey 171 171 1,860,000 750 2,000,000 Illinois .... 102 102 750,000 220 1,500,000 Virginia .... 43 197 240 4,045,000 490 2,000,000 Other States . 94 728 822 2,368,000 424 5,500,000 Total 2.515 1,964 4.479 25,043,000 355 44,000,000 The earnings per mile are computed on the canals in use. The first canal was that of Middlesex, from Boston to Concord, 27 miles, completed in 1789 at a cost of ;^I 10,000 sterling. The famous Hudson and Erie, 363 miles long and 40 feet wide, was opened in 1825, after eight years of labour, being carried over a range of hills 690 feet high by means of 83 locks and 18 aqueducts, at a cost of £1,800,000. The Delaware and Chesapeake,_i4 miles long and 10 feet deep, was opened in 1 826, having taken three years to make, and cost ;,f400,ooo. A canal from Lake Champlain to the Hudson, 63 miles, cost £iy 5,000. In 1830 was opened the great Cincinnati and Erie Canal, 306 miles, cost ;^6oo,ooo ; also the Cincinnati and Miami, 70 miles, and a canal connecting the Dismal Swamp and the Ohio. Another grand work was the Chesapeake and Ohio, opened in 1834 after six years of construction, 360 miles long, 60 feet wide, including a tunnel four miles long through the AUeghanies. Various canals were at the same time opened in Pennsylvania, in the aggregate 730 miles. The navigable rivers are officially stated thus : — Miles Mississippi and tributaries . 11,108 Missouri ,, ,, . i 7,830 Ohio ,, „ .1 7,342 Red River ,, ,, . ; 4,924 Miles 3.250 1,210 Arkansas . Texas . . Big Black . . | 1,190 Atlantic rivers 1 10,501 CANALS 1 06 CANOE The traffic of these rivers and the great lakes is enor- mous. In 1880 the Mississippi and tributaries had noo steamboats and 850 flats, with a capacity of 415,000 tons, carrying merchandise worth 400 millions sterling per annum. The tug-boat Ajax, for example, has been known to tow at once 32 flats carrying 21,000 tons, which would have filled 2100 railway waggons. The great lakes have 900 steamers and 1800 sailing vessels, and flats with an aggregate of 590,000 tons, carrying over 9 million tons yearly, of which 2 million tons grain. The ordinary cost of freight in the inland waters of the Republic is 4s. per ton per 100 miles (one cent, per mile), or one-half of what is usual in Europe. Canada There are 7 canals, and these with the navigable rivers make up a total of 3355 miles of water-way. The Rideau, from Kingston to Ottawa, 132 miles, has 47 locks, and was constructed by Great Britain at a cost of ;^8oo,ooo. The Grenville, from Rideau to Montreal, gives a complete system of navigation up to Niagara, 460 miles. The Welland, from Erie to Ontario, 41 miles, cost ;f 1,400,000, width 80 feet, depth 56 feet. The construction of 7 canals cost ^^6,500,000, being an average of ;^l2,ooo per mile ; aggregate length 535 miles. Moreover, the St. Lawrence has been canalised at a cost of 6 millions ster- ling, so that vessels of 4000 tons can ascend to Montreal, which is 1000 miles from the sea, and those of 1500 tons, dravring 14 feet, can proceed from Montreal up to Lake Erie and Chicago : before the canalization no vessels ex- ceeding 400 tons could get up to Montreal from the sea. The traffic showed as follows as regards vessels passing through Canadian canals : — Vessels Tonnage . Passengers 1876 27,400 3,500,000 92,000 1887 22,870 3,410,000 83.000 Tolls paid in 1876 reached ^^84,000. Freight of mer- chandise in 1887 showed 2,820,000 tons. India Canals for navigation were begun in 1854, and the con- struction proceeded so rapidly that in 1862 the following were in traffic : — Name Miles Cost, £ Bengal . ,Iumna Punjaub . Total 900 600 450 2,000,000 500,000 4,000,000 1.95° 6,500,000 Irrigation canals have since been made at an outlay of 17 millions sterling. The maintenance of all canals in India costs 3 millions sterling per annum. The Bengal Canal connects vrith the Ganges, and has a depth of 10 feet. Navigable rivers have an aggregate length of about 2600 miles. China The Imperial Canal of China is the longest in the world, and the greatest in point of traffic : its length is 2100 miles, including river sections (or 825 miles the canal proper), and it connects 41 cities situated on its banks. It was completed A.D. 1350, after 600 years spent in its construction. China has 400 minor canals, of a supposed aggregate of 4450 miles, besides 3800 miles of river navigation. CANOE The Hob Roy, which navigated 3000 miles of European rivers, was 13 feet long, 26 inches wide, and 12 inches deep. CAPITAL In 1882 the following table was published of stocks quoted on the London Exchange : — Millions £ Amount Amount Interest Quoted on Held in Earned in Stock Great Great Exchange Britain Britain National debt . 762 700 21 Colonial debts . 220 200 10 Foreign ,, 2,016 400 22 British railways . 730 700 30 Foreign and ) colonial . . ) 82s 27s 14 Banks .... 272 260 IS Docks, gas, &c. . 125 120 10 Total . . 4.95° 2,655 X22 The amount of new capital called up in twelve years down to 1882 was : — Millions £ Years Loans Companies Total Annual Average 1871-74 . . 1875-78 . . 1879-82 . . 930 520 430 1,230 420 820 2,160 940 1,250 54° 235 312 Total . 1,880 2,470 4,35° 362 Great Britain provided about one-fourth of the total ; some estimates say one-third. The aggregate amount called up in four years, 1879-82, was as follows : — Amount in Amount in Millions A Millions £ Great Britain . 182 Spain . 25 France . . 3°i Portugal II Germany . 38 Switzerland 17 Russia . . 107 Belgium 27 Austria . • 75 Holland 14 Italy . . 40 United State 5 . 210 Mr. Neumann Spallart sums up the new capital called up in England, France, Germany, and Austria during fifteen years thus : — Millions £ Sterling Period Public Loans Railways and Companies Total 1871-75 . . . 1876-80 . . . 1881-85 • • • 942 702 368 863 539 605 1,805 1,241 973 15 years . . . 2,012 2,007 4,019 This is an average of 270 millions sterling per annum, or about 40 per cent, of the wealth annually accumulated in the above four countries. One-half of the above went in public loans. If we consider only joint-stock com- panies Mr. Spallart's figures give an annual average of 135 millions sterling for the four countries, which is in CAPITAL 107 CAPITAL haimony with a statement published in 1882 regarding the money invested in new companies of Europe, America, &c., in twelve years, viz. : — Millions £ Years Amount, Capital Annual Average 1871-74 • 1875-78 . 1879-82 1,230 420 820 308 105 205 Total 2,470 206 It may be assumed that, irrespective of public loans, the amount of new capital absorbed by joint-stock com- panies all over the world reaches 200 millions sterling per annum. The average annual outlay of new capital in the years 1881-85 ^^ approximately as follows : — Railways . Banks Building . £ 102,000,000 22,000,000 15,000,000 Mines , , Electricity , Newspapers 7,000,000 6,000,000 5,000,000 The new companies formed in 1889 were said to repre- sent 203 millions sterling in the United Kingdom. United Kingdom. — According to \h& Investoi^ 5 Manual^ the new capital called up in London in eleven years was as follows : — Years Million £ Per Annum 1879-82 1883-85 . 1886-89 . Zlfl S07 84 82 127 ri years i,oS8 99 The number and capital of joint-stock companies roistered in the United Kingdom in twenty-four years down to 1885 were as follows : — Period Number Capital, Million £ New Capital per Annum, Million £ 1862-70. . . . 1871-80. . . . i88r-8s. . . . 6,179 10,862 8,002 1,010 970 890 112 178 Total . . . 2S.043 2,870 120 The amount of new capital in 1881-85, if all these companies had been successfully carried out, would have been in excess of the annual accumulation of wealth. The new capital called up at Berlin in 1888-89 was :- The result of the above companies down to 1885 was as follows : — ^-^- ^!^£ 2.37S Burst or wound up Existing in 1885 . 15.699 9.344 49S Total 2S.°43 2,870 The actual number of companies existing in the United Kingdom was : — Year Number Capital, £ 1877 . . • , ... 307,200,000 1887 .... 10,894 591,500,000 A return published down to March 1889 showed that in twenty-seven years 30,372 companies had been regis- tered, with an aggregate capital of 3443 millions sterling ; of these, 16S4 had been wound up judicially. The actual number may be taken as 11,000, with a capital of 600 millions. The Investor's Guardian published the following list of new companies registered in the United Kingdom during the year 1889 : — New Companies Capital, £ New Companies Capital, £ Banks . . . Mines . . . Manufactures Breweries . , Land . . . 57,200,000 37,000,000 21,800,000 17,600,000 12,900,000 Railways. . , Shipping. . . Electric , , . Gas and Water Various . . . 10,100,000 5,300,000 5,300,000 2,700,000 52,100,000 making a total of 222 millions sterling ; but nearly half of these companies died still-bom, Messrs. Spackmann showing that the total subscribed was only ;^i25,400,ooo, and the amount actually paid on calls ;^39,300,ooo. France. — New capital called up at Paris in 1889 was : — £ Public loans . , , . 123,500,000 Railways 8,100,000 Banks, mines, &c. . . . 19,800,000 Total . . 151,400,000 Prussia. — Engel gives the joint-stock companies estab- lished in seventy-five years thus : — Period Number 1801-70 .... 418 1871-75 .... 857 75 years . Liquidated Existing in 1875 Capital, Millions £ 171 238 143 409 . 1,132 379 Wenzel adds that from 1875 to 1883 there were estab- lished 567 new companies, vrith an a^regate capital of 28 millions sterling. 1888 1889 1889 Foreign German Public loans Bonds, debentures, &c New companies £ 55,500,000 26,300,000 10,300,000 £ 20,800,000 36,400,000 20,300,000 £ 10,000,000 22,500,000 5,000,000 £ 10,800,000 13,900,000 15,300,000 Total . 92,100,000 77,500,000 37,500,000 40,000,000 New companies were as follows : — Year Capital, £ No. 1888 1889 9,700,000 20,100,000 184 360 Average Capital, £ 52.500 5S.0OO Austria. — The number of joint-stock companies exist- ing at Vienna was as follows : — Year 1840 1850 No. 23 3S Year 1873 No. 154 1,159 CAPITAL io8 CATTLE In the last-mentioned year the aggregate capital was 400 millions sterling. The new companies formed from 1871 to 1880 in Austria-Hungary had an aggregate capital of 393 millions sterling. An official return in 1887 showed the average profits on capital in Austria as follows : — Per Cent. Per Cent. Gas . . . 12.4 Foundries . . 6.5 Insurance . . 10.5 Banks . . . 6.4 Sugar . . . 8.8 Paper-mills , . 5.6 Breweries . . 8.3 Mines . . . 4.8 Textile mills . . 6.6 Steamboats . . 2.0 The general average on all companies was as follows : — 1878-83 . . 7.1 I 1885-87 . . 6.5 The average was only 6.2 for the year 1S87. Italy. — Official returns of the existing joint-stock com- panies showed : — Year 1870 1880 1884 Number 413 644 1,037 Capital, Millions £, 68 80 no India. — In 1888 there were 910 joint-stock companies, with an aggregate paid-up capital of 22 millions sterling ; this included 97 started during the: year with a capital of ;^i,8oo,ooo in the aggregate. The existing companies were : — £ Cotton-mills 8,700,000 Banks 3,Soo,ooo Tea and coffee plantations . . 3,600,000 Sundries 6,200,000 Total 22,000,000 CAREIAOES The number used in Great Britain has increased since 1812 faster than wealth, as appears on comparing the licenses with the number of persons paying income-tax on more than £200 a year : — Year Carriages Over ;^2oo Income Ratio of Carriages Carriages per 1000 Inhabitants 1812 1830 i860 1870 1S80 63.130 85,060 245,000 325,000 463,000 39.765 85,530 130,375 210,430 158-100 287-100 250-100 221-100 5 5 11 12 15 CATTLE In the last 60 years there has been a very great in- crease of the various kinds of live-stock : thus horses have increased 104 per cent., cattle 127, sheep 139, pigs 55 per cent. This is much greater (except as regards pigs) than the increase of population in Europe, United States, and Colonies, which has been just 70 per cent. The following table shows approximately the numbers of each class of live-stock in all countries at various dates :- Horses 1830 1850 1870 1887 United Kingdom Continent United States British Colonies River Plate . . .... 1,500,000 24,020,000 2,500,000 300,000 2,400,000 2,000,000 27,450,000 4,900,000 800,000 3,400,000 1,900,000 31,080,000 9,400,000 1,900,000 4,600,000 1,940,000 36,710,000 15,400,000 2,900,000 5,100,000 Total .... 30,720,000 38,550,000 48,880,000 62,050,000 Cattle 1830 1850 1870 1887 United Kingdom Continent United States British Colonies River Plate 5,200,000 62,170,000 8,100,000 1,400,000 9,200,000 7,950,000 72, 170,000 17,800,000 3,800,000 14,400,000 8,700,000 81,100,000 25,500,000 8,400,000 18,300,000 10,300,000 91,550,000 49,200,000 14,400,000 29,700,000 Total .... 86,070,000 116,120,000 142,000,000 195,150,000 Sheep 1830 1850 1870 1887 United Kingdom Continent .... United States . British Colonies River Plate Total 25,000,000 144,040,000 6,500,000 4,400,000 3,400,000 27,970,000 155,980,000 21,700,000 17,200,000 7,300,000 33,800,000 175,600,000 40,850,000 64,300,000 47,500,000 183,340,000 230,150,000 362,050,000 28,900,000 168,800,000 43,500,000 112,300,000 81,000,000 434,500,000 CATTLE 109 CATTLE Pigs 1830 1850 1870 1887 United Kingdom Continent United States British Colonies River Plate 4,000,000 40,460,000 16,000,000 1,100,000 200,000 3,680,000 34,750,000 30,400,000 1,400,000 200,000 4,200,000 39,700,000 26,700,000 2,200,000 300,000 3,800,000 44,500,000 44,400,000 2,400,000 400,000 Total .... 61,760,000 70,430,000 73,100,000 95,500,000 Value of all Live-Stock, Millions Sterling. The number of live-stock, as we have seen, has a little more than doubled in sixty years : the value, meantime, has more than trebled. It must be borne in mind that the foregoing tables include only Europe, the United States, British colonies (without India), and the River Plate, and in these the value of all descriptions of cattle has risen more than 700 millions sterling since 1870. In that interval the value in the United States and Colonies has almost doubled. Mr. Simmonds has taken great pains to ascertain the number of each class of live stock in the several parts of the world in 1890, and sums up the result as follows : — Year Europe U. States Colonies, &c. Total 1S30 1850 ' 1870 1887 730 1,018 1,496 1,900 70 114 274 SOI 23 48 130 21S 823 1,180 1,900 2,616 Horses Asses and Mules Cattle Sheep Pigs Goats Europe .... Asia .... Africa .... America Australasia 34,865,000 4,443,000 721,000 21,920,000 1,520,000 4,900,000 1,061,000 1,068,000 3,286,000 3,000 104,166,000 70,850,000 8,203,000 117,249,000 9,339,000 214,499,000 71,669,000 60,820,000 143,581,000 98,366,000 46,152,000 840,000 417,000 ~ • S3.974.ooo 1,143,000 21,546,000 24,055,000 9,220,000 4,851,000 299,000 Total 63,469,000 10,318,000 309,807,000 588,935,000 102,526,000 59,971,000 In 1830 the live-stock of various countries in Europe was estimated approximately as follows : — Horses CatUe Sheep Pigs Value, Mill-on £ United Kingdom France Germany . Russia . , Austria Italy .... Spain Portugal . Sweden an4 Norway. Denmark . Holland and Belgium Switzerland Turkey, &c 1,500,000 2,600,000 2,500,000 12,000,000 2,500,000 800,000 1,400,000 100,000 490,000 250,000 500,000 80,000 800,000 S,2OO,O0O 6,700,000 9,770,000 19,000,000 10,500,000 3,500,000 2,950,000 650,000 2,300,000 800,000 2,000,000 800,000 3,200,000 25,000,000 35,200,000 17,300,000 36,000,000 12,000,000 6,500,000 18,700,000 1,200,000 2,440,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 500,000 12,000,000 4,000,000 4,500,000 4,500,000 15,800,000 5,500,000 2,500,000 2,730,000 700,000 580,000 200,000 1,200,000 250,000 2,000,000 Europe 25,520,000 67,370,000 169,040,000 44,460,000 84 96 80 30 38 8 19 16 26 6 63 In 1850 the numbers were approximately as follows — Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Value, Million £ United Kingdom 2,000,000 7,950,000 27,970,000 3,680,000 104 France 3,130,000 12,150,000 33,300,000 5,250,000 166 Germany . 2,500,000 11,270,000 21,330,000 3,920,000 138 Russia 13,500,000 20,960,000 37,530,000 8,890,000 Austria 3,240,000 10,460,000 17,080,000 7,410,000 120 Italy . 800,000 3,660,000 7,000,000 2,000,000 36 Spain 1,500,000 1,400,000 13,800,000 1,300,000 40 Portugal . 120,000 750,000 1,980,000 750,000 10 Sweden 400,000 1,630,000 1,470,000 500,000 20 Norway . 140,000 900,000 1,500,000 100,000 10 Denmark , 300.000 880,000 1,160,000 200,000 17 Holland . 270,000 1,260,000 620,000 500,000 20 Belgium . 260,000 1,100,000 660,000 650,000 16 Switzerland 90,000 950,000 550,000 280,000 8 Turkey, &c. 1,200,000 4,800,000 18,000,000 3,000,000 90 E urop< 29,450,000 80,120,000 183,950,000 38,430,000 CATTLE no CATTLE In 1870 the numbers were approximately : — Value, Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Million £ United Kingdom I, goo, 000 8,700,000 33,800,000 4,200,000 170 France 2,990,000 11,720,000 25,900,000 5,760,000 205 Germany 3,200,000 15,400,000 26,500,000 6,800,000 212 Russia 15,600,000 21,400,000 45,300,000 9,100,000 Austria 3,540,000 12,630,000 20,100,000 6,990,000 178 Italy . 1,020,000 3,490,000 6,980,000 1,550,000 i^ Spain 1,610,000 2,450,000 20,200,000 3,000,000 64 Portugal 130,000 520,000 2,420,000 860,000 10 Sweden 430,000 1,970,000 1,600,000 350,000 2S Norway 150,000 980,000 i,7oo,ooo_ 100,000 14 Denmark 350,000 1,300,000 1,800,000 440,000 20 Holland 250,000 1,410,000 900,000 330,000 24 Belgium 280,000 1,240,000 600,000 630,000 20 Switzerland 100,000 1,010,000 570,000 340,000 10 Turkey, &c. 1,430,000 5,600,000 21,000,000 3,500,000 90 E urop< 32,980,000 89,820,000 209,370,000 43,950,000 The returns for 1887 for the various countries show :- Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Goats Value, Million £ England Scotland Ireland 1,240,000 igo.ooo 510,000 5,060,000 1,110,000 4, 100,000 18,580,000 6,730,000 3,630,000 2,270,000 150,000 1,400,000 } 30S: ,000 295,000 104 26 United Kingdom France . . Germany , Russia , . Austria . • Hungary . Italy . Spain Portugal . . Sweden . . Norway Denmark . Holland . Belgium . Switzerland Finland Greece . . Bosnia . • Roumania . . Servia Turkey 1,940,000 3,200,000 3,520,000 20,020,000 1,480,000 2,080,000 1,120,000 1,840,000 140,000 490, 000 150,000 350.000 270,000 270,000 110,000 100,000 210,000 600,000 160,000 600,000 10,270,000 13,380,000 15,790,000 23,840,000 8,580,000 5,310,000 4,780,000 3,090,000 630,000 2,380,000 1,020,000 1,470,000 1,480,000 1,380,000 1,100,000 1,030,000 260,000 505,000 3,600,000 960,000 1,000,000 28,940,000 22,600,000 19,200,000 47,510,000 3,840,000 9,840,000 8,590,000 22,800,000 3,000,000 1,440,000 1, 690,000 1,550,000 750,000 370,000 700,000 1,030,000 2,300,000 1,310,000 6,180,000 3,600,000 10,500,000 3,820,000 5,850,000 9,210,000 9,200,000 2,720,000 4,160,000 1,160,000 4,470,000 970,000 550,000 100,000 530,000 430,000 650,000 340,000 150,000 30,000 2,310,000 1,700,000 600,000 1,550,000 2,640,000 1,370,000 1,010,000 330,000 2,020,000 4,530,000 940,000 90,000 320,000 140,000 160,000 250,000 370,000 1,860,000 190,000 720,000 185 218 262 106 96 83 13 36 15 30 28 24 9 37 16 26 Europe United States Canada Australia . Cape Colony Algeria Argentina . Uruguay . 38,650,000 15,400,000 1,160,000 1,480,000 260,000 350,000 4,400,000 670,000 101,855,000 49,200,000 4,005,000 9,140,000 1,270,000 1,210,000 22,870,000 6,830,000 197,740,000 43,540,000 2,600,000 96,600,000 13,070,000 8,790,000 70,450,000 10,540,000 48,350,000 44,350,000 1,220,000 1,100,000 140,000 300,000 300,000 100,000 19,090,000 2,790,000 501 44 67 13 28 49 14 Total 62,370,000 196,380,000 443,330,000 95,860,000 21,880,000 If we compare the various kinds of cattle with population in Europe at various dates, we find as follows : Year Numbers Per 1000 Inhabitants Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs 1830 1850 1870 1880 1S07 25,520,000 29,450,000 32,980,000 36,100,000 38,600,000 67,370,000 80,100,000 89,800,000 96,200,000 101,800,000 169,000,000 183,900,000 209,400,000 200,000,000 197,700,000 44,460,000 38,400,000 43,900,000 47,000,000 48,400,000 11 11 11 11 11 31 32 30 30 30 77 72 70 63 S8 20 IS 15 IS IS CATTLE CHARITIES The following table shows the relative figures in Europe for population, horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs at various dates, taking 1830 at 100 : — Population Horses Cattle Sheep - Pigs.. 1830 1850 isro 1880 100 118 134 142 100 116 130 144 IQO 120 IS,-; 144 100 108 123 118 100 86 99 107 1887 150 151 152 117 109 It appears, therefore, that the increase of horses and cattle kept pace with that of population. The value of all kinds of cattle at different dates compared with popu- lation thus, in Europe : — Year Population Value of Cattle, Millions ^ Ratio per Inhabitant 1840 . . . i860 . . . 1887 . . . 236,200,000 275,900,000 333,000,000 ^21 1,260 1,900 £ s. d. 3 14 490 s 14 The following table shows the number of each kind of cattle to every 100 inhabitants in each country in 1850 and in 1887 : — Per 100 Inhabitants Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs 1850 1887 1850 1887 1860 1887 1850 1887 U. Kingdom 6 ■; 28 28 13s 76 15 10 France 9 8 40 36 94 60 15 15 Germany . 7 8 48 35 70 42 16 20 Russia . . 22 20 3S 28 62 SS 15 II Austria . II 9 3=; 37 57 36 25 18 Italy . . 4 4 17 16 33 28 10 4 Spain . . 10 II 16 18 110 140 9 28 Portugal . 3 3 19 14 50 70 19 22 Sweden . II 10 so 52 45 31 11 12 Norway . 10 8 60 50 no 84 7 5 Denmark . 40 18 112 74 13 s 80 33 27 Holland . 8 7 ,6 3S 2S 17 7 10 Belgium . 6 S 27 25 15 7 II 12 Switzerland 4 4 38 40 iS 25 13 12 Greece S 6 20 IS 170 130 14 3 Roumanla 12 40 70 80 "S 19 40 Servia . . 8 60 50 215 18 s 102 90 Europe . II II 34 30 78 58 16 15 United States 20 2.'; 75 75 97 68 130 69 Canada . 25 23 90 80 100 54 50 2S Australia . 10 40 160 250 1,100 2,600 30 3° Cape Colony 33 2S 140 120 1,800 1,300 20 14 Arg. Republic ; 280 120 820 60s 1,200 1,860 10 II Uruguay . . 210 no 1,340 1,140 680 1,800 5 5 The countries relatively richest in horses and homed cattle are the Argentine Republic and Uruguay, while Australia leads in sheep, and pigs are most numerous in Servia and Roumania. Those poorest in horses are Italy and Spain ; in cattle, Portugal ; in sheep, Belgium ; and in pigs, Greece. The highest prices for animals have been recorded in England, a cow called Ouida fetching £hioo in 1880, and a horse called Ormond ;^l4,ooo in I S89. CEMENT The exportation from the United Kingdom showed thus : — Year 1853 . i860 . 1870 . 1B80 . 1888 . Tons 21,000 79,000 150,000 277,000 613,000 Value, £ 64,000 215,000 366,000 690,000 1,160,000 Per Ton, £ 3-0 2.9 2.4 2-5 1-9 CHARITIES The approximate value of property held for charitable purposes in 1880 was : — England France Italy . £ 51,300,000 70,000,000 65,300,000 Per Inhabitant £ ^. d. 210 I 17 O The supposed expenditure for charitable purposes and sources of income are shown thus : — United Kingdom France Italy Endowment . . Annual bequests . Subscription . . State subsidy . . £ 2,490,000 650,000 6,900,000 £ 2,400,000 1,194,000 ) 1,500,000 J 460,000 £ 1,880,000 400,000 Total . . . 10,040,000 5,554,000 2,280,000 In 1889 charitable bequests of the United Kingdom amounted to one million sterling, of which ;^250,ooo fell to London, irrespective of donations by living persons. Hospitals constitute the principal element of charitable institutions. Continental hospitals usually receive large municipal subsidies, viz. : — fe D.^- Rn City Subsidy Si" 1" City Subsidy S.g ajr-i Paris . . . 358,000 42 Nantes £ 15,000 30 Berlin . . . 70,000 16 Florence . . 14,000 21 New York . 34,000 7 Venice . . 14,000 25 Copenhagen . 32,000 36 Stockholm . 11,000 16 Leipsic . . 31,000 SS Toulouse 10,000 i3 Marseilles . . 24,000 16 Turin . . , 10,000 13 Vienna , . . 23,000 5 Buda . . . 9,000 6 Genoa . . . 23,000 27 Christiania . 8,000 22 San Francisco 20,000 21 Rennes . . 8,000 21 Rouen . . . 19,000 44 Havre . . 5,000 II Bordeaux . . 17,000 18 Frankfort 4,000 8 The following table shows the number of beds in various cities and countries : — Beds per Beds per Year Place Beds 10,000 Inha- bitants Year Country Beds 10,000 Inha- bitants 1889 London . . . 7,100 18 1882 U. Kingdom . 16,400 5 ,, Dublin . . . 800 21 1885 France . . . 73,900 19 1880 Paris .... 9,000 41 1886 Austria proper . 32,500 16 ,, New York . . 1,100 9 ,, Wurtemburg . 8.800 47 1876 Rome .... I, coo 50 1880 Spain .... 18,200 10 1872 Rio Janeiro . . 1,100 48 1849 Prussia . . . 8,800 4 CHARITIES CHARITIES In the hospitals of the United Kingdom, New York, ind France the average of days to each patient are : — Dublin . . 27 New York • . 40 Paris . 28 All England . • 31 Glasgow . 30 All France • 35 The death-rate of hospitals in various countries is shown thus :— Per Cent. Per Cent. England . . 8.0 Austria . . 8.0 Scotland . • 9-5 Rome • 7-1 Ireland . . 6.5 Lisbon . • 13-4 France . ■ 9-5 Norway . . 12.0 Next in importance after hospitals are asylums for the aged and infirm or for orphans. Those of the United Kingdom and France are shown thus : — United Kingdom. France Number of beds . . . 104,000 120,300 Cost yearly .... _^2, 600,000 2,760,000 In New York the Children's Aid Society picks up 10,000 yearly, and gives them trades. The orphan asylums of France in 1882 had 61,000 children under trainfng. There are foundling hospitals in France (of which later on), that of Paris receiving 3000 infants yearly, of whom 60 per cent, die under 12 months. At Moscow a similar institute receives 12,000 per annum, the boys being brought up for the navy. For founders of hospitals and asylums see Munificence. United Kingdom The expenditure for charities is estimated thus : — Charity schools .... 4,200,000 Asylums and homes , . . 2,600,000 Bible societies .... 2,040,000 Hospitals 1,200,000 Total . . . 10,040,000 London charities stand for 46 per cent, of the total. They were : — Number Expenditure, £ 1859 1889 1859 1889 Asylums for old, blind, &c. Orphanages and homes . Hospitals and dispensaries Bible missions .... Sundry institutions . . . 13s 181 92 14 60 205 318 209 112 180 113,000 409,000 301,000 460,000 400,000 641,000 835,000 655,000 1,980,000 570,000 Total 482 1,024 1,683,000 4,681,000 London charities averaged 12s. per inhabitant in 1859, and 22s. in 1889. It is to be observed, however, that in 1889 almost half the total was devoted to Bible missions, most of which had no connection with London charities. The collections on Hospital Sunday in 1889 reached ^38,700, those of Hospital Saturday average £,^1300 a year. These collections were distributed in 1889 among 86 hospitals and 35 dispensaries (the total number in London being 93 and 116 respectively), and the report published showed that in the year 1888 the said 121 insti- tutions received and treated 76,900 indoor and 1,470,000 outdoor patients, at an outlay of ;^723,ooo, being ;^27,ooo over income. The London hospitals had alto- gether nominally 9700 beds, but only 7100 in use, the remaining 2600 being kept vacant for want of funds.* * There were also 27 poor-law infirmaries with 11,900 beds, which cost in the year ^^336, 000, say £2^ each. London has in the aggregate 239 institutions for sick relief, which in the year 1887 treated 122,050 indoor and 1,855,000 outdoor patients. The cost per bed varied from ;^I9 in larger to £^7. in smaller hospitals. The principal hospitals of the United Kingdom in 1882 were : — Hospitals Founded A.D. Beds Annual Patients Death- Rate St. Bartholomew's 1547 600 5,500 6.0 St, Thomas's . . 1548 360 3,200 12.0 Guy's .... 1722 620 5,600 9-1 Bristol .... 173s 270 2,600 7.0 Leicester . . . 220 2,000 S-o Edinburgh . . 1736 500 4,500 10.5 Aberdeen . . . 1739 240 2,100 6-5 Manchester . . 1753 330 3,000 10.8 Liverpool . . . 330 3,000 7.2 Leeds .... 1767 330 3,000 7.0 Birmingham . . 1778 300 2,700 8.0 Glasgow . . . 1794 630 5.700 10.7 Misericordia > (Dublin) . / 185s 230 2,100 6-5 London (White- 1 chapel) . . ; ... 790 7,170 There are in the United Kingdom 496 hospitals, with 16,400 beds, relieving 145,000 sick yearly, who are attended by 820 physicians. Total expenditure, ;^ 1, 200, 000, or ;^8 per patient, equal to 5s. a day for each bed occupied. Death-rate is lowest in small hos- pitals, viz. : — Less than 100 beds . . « .6.5 100 to 200 beds . . . . . 7. 1 Over 200 beds 8.0 In the year 1800 there were but 51 hospitals in Great Britain and Ireland. Charitable endowments have not increased much in the last fifty years. The amounts in 1837 and 1S76 compare as follows : — Year Endowments Wealth of U. Kingdom in Millions £ Endowed Sums, per /looo of Wealth 1837 . . 1876 . . 42,600,000 51,300,000 4,100 8,050 £ s d 10 8 680 The income of endowed charities has actually declined since 1876, viz. : — 1837 1,940,000 1876 2,198,000 1888 ...... 2,052,000 The endowments on which income-tax was refunded in 1888 were :^ Hospitals 535,000 Almshouses, &c 588,000 Schools 779,000 Religious purposes . , . 150,000 Total . 2,052,000 The investment and income of endowments in 1876 showed : — Capital, £ Income, £ Real estate .... 31,100,000 1,558,000 Stocks 20,200,000 640,000 Total . . . 51,300,000 2,198,000 The real estate comprises 154,000 acres of land and some house property. ■The above does not include Irish endowed charities, which had in 1S76 an income of ;^27o,ooo per annum. CHARITIES 113 CHARITIES France Hospital returns for 1864 and 1885 compare as fol- lows : — Admitted Average Days Died Deaths Per 100 1864 1885 1864 1885 1864 1885 1864 1885 Men, . Women Children 203,100 81,300 26,800 236,200 124,400 44,50° 30 35 42 32 3o 58 36 16,480 10,430 2,780 22,700 14,700 5>Soo 8.1 12.8 :; 8.7 10.S 10.8 Total 311,200 405,100 29,690 42,900 9-5 The above hospitals in 1864 had a staff as follows : Physicians 2i348 Sisters of Charity .... 8,854 Servants, &c 9.561 Total . 20,763 The expenditure was ;f2,32o,ooo, say £t, ios. per patient ; the income was ;^2,48o,ooo, leaving a surplus of ;^i6o,ooo. In 1845 France had 9244 charitable institutions, with a gross annual outlay of ;^4,620,ooo, viz. : — 1,138 hospitals .... 2,140,000 7,600 soup-kitchens . . 540,000 506 asylums .... 1,940,000 Total, 9,244 Total 4,620,000 The summary of such institutions in 1881 and 1885 was as follows : — Beds Finances 1881 i 1885 1881 1885 Hospitals . Orphanages Asylums, &c 71,900 73,900 17,200 16,700 77,300 79,400 Receipts Expenses * £ 4,320,000 4,120,000 £ 4,320,000 4,360,000 Total . 166,400 170,000 Asylums and orphanages in 1885 showed as follows: — Asylums Orphanages 1 1 1 6 1 xn Admitted Died . . Death- ) rate ) 28,200 3,900 13.8 30,100 3,900 13.0 7,200 410 5.7 65,500 8,210 12.5 34,900 1,390 4.0 31,700 1,350 4-S 66,600 2,740 4.2 The expenses of the orphanages were ^f 680,000, being a little over £\o per child. The statistics of soup-kitchens or relief ofiBccs showed thus : — 1840 1881 1885 Number . . . Persons assisted. Expenditure, £, . 7,600 696,000 540,000 14.033 1,449,000 1,240,000 14.574 1,778,000 1,360,000 The sums received for soup-kitchens were ;f 1,920,000 in 1881, and ;^z,o8o,ooo in 1885. In the latter year ^'840,000 was distributed in food, ;f 320,000 in money, and the management cost ;^20O,O0O, or 15 per cent, of the annual outlay. The number of hospitals and asylums in 1791 wa! 1224, and rose in 1869 to 1557, viz : — For sick .... 415 For aged .... 291 For sick and aged . . . 851 Total . . .1,557 In 1876 the above institutions admitted 438,000 per- sons. A statement published in 1845 showed the amount of charitable bequests as follows : — Period To Hospitals To Clergy To Convents, &c. Total 1801-14 1815-29 1830-45 600,000 2,040,000 2,260,000 £ 7,000 72,000 112,000 8,000 780,000 232,000 £ 615,000 2,892,000 2,604,000 45 years 4,900,000 191,000 1,020,000 6,111,000 In 1881 it was stated that the average number of charitable bequests yearly of all descriptions was 4200, averaging ;^290 each, say ;^I, 220,000. Foundling hos- pitals were established at Paris by St. Vincent de Paul in 1642, the Government giving a subsidy of ^120, which was raised in 1657 to 40,000 livres, or ^l6oo per annum. There was, however, a foundling hospital established at Lyons in 1526, which received in the eighteenth century about 1700 infants yearly. The statistics of the Paris Foundling House were : — Admitted 1760 1860 Legitimate infants . Illegitimate infants . 735 4.297 S94 3.205 Total . 5.°32 3.799 The statistics of Night Refuges and Foundling Asyhims at Paris from 1876 to 1883 showed thus :— Annual Average Night Refuge Foundlings 1876-79. 1880-83 • 3.965 6,660 2,545 2,865 Among the French charities are lying-in hospitals, where 68,000 confinements took place in 1876, at a cost to the State of only ;^ 1 7,000; besides dispensaries, which gave medicine the same year to 660,000 persons, at a cost of ;if 224,000 for the year. The hospitals of Paris, which admitted in 1813 only 32,000 patients, now admit 1 10,000 sick yearly, the deaths averaging 1 1,600 per annum, or \o\ per cent., against 12J per cent, in the years 1861-62. Paris has at present : — 21 hospitals with 9,000 beds 13 asylums ,, 10,000 ,, This is, of course, exclusive of lunatic asylums. The principal hospital is the Hotel Dieu, with 514 beds, which cost for building ;f 1,600,000, say ;^3Cioo per bed, or ten times the ordinary cost. Italy The endowed cj^ital of charitable institutions in 1878 amounted to ;^6s,040,ooo, belonging to 17,870 institu- tions, and yielding a gross revenue of ;f 3, 640,000, but a net income of only ;^i,88o,ooo, distributed as follows : — £ Orphanages 229,000 Marriage-portions . Alms to indigent . Alms to sick poor . Hospitals, prisons, &c. Total 192,000 440,000 120,000 899,000 1,880,000 H CHARITIES 114 Charitable bequests average ;£'i24,ooo per annum. The piincipal hospital at Rome is Santo Spirito, which ad- mitted in 1871-76 an average of 22,600 patients yearly, of whom only 6 per cent. died. The death-rate from July to October was only 3 J per cent, of patients admitted, but in the rest of the year over 9 per cent. The annual death-rate from 1861-70 averaged SJ per cent. In 1878 there were 102 foundling asylums, with endowed property yielding ;^65,ooo yearly ; they admit 40,000 infants yearly. Austria The hospitals of Austria proper in 1886 were as follows : — No. Beds Admitted Died Death- Rate Average Days Public . Private 176 381 21,830 10,660 220,000 75,000 21,980 7.370 10. 9.8 26 25 Total 557 32,490 295,000 29.350 9-9 26 The public charitable institutions in 1886 summed up thus : — Admitted COSt,;^ Per Patient, £ Hospitals .... Lying-in hospitals Foundling houses . , Asylums for old . . Soup-kitchens . . , Orphanages . . . 220,000 16,000 43,000 37,690 228,950 124,030 360,000 32,000 160,000 205,000 360,000 1.6 2.0 3-9 5-2 1.6 The following table shows the number of these insti- tutions, and the numbers admitted according to sex : — Orphanages . Aged persons . Soup-kitchens . Institutes Males Females Total Entries 1,024 1.579 10,64s 64,850 16,460 111,940 59.180 21,230 117,010 124,030 37,690 228,950 The lying-in hospitals had 1557 beds, and admitted 16,605 women for confinement, who gave birth to 15,015 infants ; average of days for each woman under treatment, 18 ; average number of beds occupied, 820 ; average cost, 2 7 pence daily per mother. The number of deaths was : — Mothers .... 155 Infants 911 Per TOO 0.9 6.1 The foundling houses admitted during the year 42,870 children, three-fourths being at once put out to nurse. The year's returns showed : — Infants Died Death-Rate In-door Out-door ._ 9.740 33.130 653 4.962 6.7 15-0 Total 42,870 5.615 ■ 13-5 The asylums for aged and infirm showed an average expenditure of sevenpence per head daily. The only returns published for Hungary are those of orphanages and asylums for 18S6, viz. : — . Males Females Total Cost, I Per Head, ;f Orphanages Asylums 1,015 1.443 1,581 2,060 2.596 3,503 23,000 31,000 9.0 9.0 Total . 2.458 3.641 6,099 54.000 9.0 CHEESE Various Countries Belgium in 1889 had 190,000 acres of land belonging to hospitals and similar institutions. Charitable bequests were as follows : — Year 1882 .... 1887 .... No. Amount, £ 603 188,000 926 105,000 The orphanages in 1887 contained 490 boys, 1213 girls — in all 1703, against 3473 in 1875, a decline of 50 per cent. Norway has 44 hospitals, admitting yearly 8400 sick, of whom 12 per cent. die. Brazil possesses the Misericordia Hospital of Rio Janeiro, one of the largest in the world. The returns for 1861-72 showed per annum : — Admitted Died Per Cent. Sick .... Insane .... Foundlings . 12,698 425 601 2,ogo 296 16.7 12.7 48. 5 Total . . 13.724 2,439 17.8 The New York hospitals in 1882 showed thus :- Subsidies Pay patients Donations . Receipts Expenditure Revenues ;^34.ooo 16,000 38,000 jf88,ooo Free Pay Total Days free Total days Patients 6,945 2,220 9.165 262,000 368,000 ;^92,000 The average was 37 days to each free, and 48 to each paying, patient, and the cost in general ;^lo per patient, or 5s. per day. CHEESE Two analyses are given of the various kinds : — Chester Parma Brie Dutch Gruy&re Water . . Nitrogen . Fat . . . Various . . 30.4 8.0 36.6 25.0 30.3 7-9 3I-I 30.7 34.0 5-1 53-3 7.6 41.4 42.8 8.8 32.1 8.0 41.8 i8.r Total . 100.0 100.0 100.0 roo.o lOO.O ti „ J3 Q 1 £ (3 1 5e 1 Water . . 35-9 27.6 4.5-3 36.1 40.0 51.9 35-6 36.6 Azote . . . 4.1 7.0 2.9 4.8 ■i-o 3.0 4.2 1-3 Fat ... 26.3 16.0 25.7 27.S 24.0 21.1 30.1 40.7 Salt . . . 42 .';.7 5.b b.9 3.0 4-7 5.1 0.5 Sundry . . 29.5 43.7 20.5 24.7 28.0 19-3 25.0 20.9 Total . 100. lOO.O 100.0 100. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 The value of cheese produced yearly by a good cow is estimated in Canada at £t, in Parma at ;^io, in Neuf- chatel at ;^I4, and at Camembert (France) at £z^ sterling. The quantity produced annually in the United Kingdom is i)robably about 40,000 tons, or one-third of the consumption, the importation reaching 82,000 tons yearly. See Dairy, CHURCH 115 CHURCH CHURCH The following table shows the number of churches and ■clergy in various countries (i88o-8z) : — Number of Churches Clergy Inhabitants to each Clergyman England . 3S,9i6 41,320 6ro Ireland 4,S40 4,110 1,270 France 39.314 42.S43 900 ■Germany 37,720 31.910 1,420 Austria 36,180 55,240 700 Russia 42,670 49,330 1,700 Italy . 22,260 40,150 750 Spain . 18,600 42,765 400 United Sta es 92.167 77.230 630 Australia . 6,013 2,15s 1,300 There are 126 Protestant bishops in the British Empire, viz. : — bthops «'*°P= Total England Scotland Ireland .... Colonies 2 2 32 7 10 73 34 7 12 73 Total 4 122 r26 The income of English bishops ranges from ;^3000 upwards, the Archbishop of Canterbury having ;^i5,ooo a year. Since the report published in 1835, the English bishops have been increased from 27 to 34, the Irish reduced from 16 to 12. There are 1263 bishops of the Roman Catholic Church, of whom 130 hold sees in the British Empire : — Arch- bishops Bishops Total United Kingdom . France .... Germany , . , Russia .... Austria . . , . Italy .... Spain .... Portugal Belgium and Holland . Switzerland . Greece .... Turkey .... 7 17 5 2 19 50 9 3 2 3 3 42 69 23 13 2f8 45 15 10 6 6 12 49 86 28 IS 70 268 54 18 12 6 9 15 Europe . United States Spanish America . British America Australia India .... Armenia, Persia, &c. Various missions . 120 12 16 5 2 2 27 510 52 79 25 16 22 47 328 630. 64 95 32 18 24 74 328 Total 184 1.079 1,263 There are goi bishops holding Sees in communion with Rome, besides 362 acting as vicars-apostolic on missions. Rite Archbishops Bishops Total Latin Greek, Armenian, &c. 151 33 674 43 825 76 Total 184 717 901 United Kingdom The report of 1835 regarding the Established Church was as follows : — Clergy, Number Net Tithes, £ England Ireland Total England Ireland Total Rectors .... Vicars .... Canons .... Bishops .... 10,718 4,813 733 27 1,395 833 426 16 12,113 1, S.646 { 1.IS9 I 43 ) 3,055,000 43S.OOO 520,000 214,000 3,575,000 649,000 Total . 16,291 2,670 18,961 3,490,000 734.000 4,224,000 The patronage of the various livings was as follows :- Nominated by England Ireland Total Crown .... Noblemen . . . Bishops, &c. . . 952 S.096 4,694 131 340 924 1.083 S.436 5,618 Total . . 10,742 1,395 12,137 In 1850 the inc land and Wales w ome of the E as as follows stablished Ch urch of Eng- Number Income Average Clergy .... Bishops . . . Chapters . . . 10,478 27 £ 3,005,000 160,000 253,000 285 6,000 Total . . ... 3,418,000 Income Clergy, No. Under ;^ioo 1,926 100-200 2,956 200-500 4,135 Over 500 1,461 Total .... 10,478 A report published in 1880 upon the income of the Established Church in England and Wales, was as fol- lows :— £ Tithes 4,054,000 Committee grants . . . 776,000 Other sources .... 973,000 Total . . . 5,803,000 The above, however, includes £<)(>2.,QKa of tithes that go to laymen, which leaves the real church income at ;£'4,84l,ooo, distributed as follows : — CHURCH ii6 CHURCH Clergy Number Income Per Head Bishops . Canons . Rectors . Curates . xi 11,780 S.050 168,000 240,000 3,830.000 565,000 S,ioo 1,440 330 120 Total 17,029 4,803,000 Besides the above there is an offertory which has been found to range from ;^ioo to £,2.ip a year, and is supposed to average ^120, that is ^2,220,000. At the same time the patronage of livings was as fol- lows : — Proprietor No. Crown . ... 967 Noblemen Si357 Bishops 2,088 Various 4i476 Total .... 12,888 The Ecclesiastical Report for 1880 shows that in 40 years the Commissioners expended 22J millions in creat- ing new endowments to an annual value of ;£'746,ooo in aid of 4700 distressed parishes, say £\(iO each. The Commissioners distribute about ^^700, 000 a year in creat- ing new benefices, to an average amount of ;^23,ooo per annum. Balance still in hand, ;^8,20o,ooo. The above tables do not include collegiate endowments, worth ;£^55o,ooo a year. Total clergy of Church of England, 19,000, including 2000 schoolmasters. The Church of England has, moreover, 232 clergymen in Scotland, 820 in Ireland, and 2700 in colonies and foreign countries, making a grand total of 22,752. The official statement of the Anglican Church in Ireland in 1880 was : — Number of clergy . . 820 Donations , . Xii8,ooo Number of laity. . 635,100 Total income . ]^ 248, 000 Endowment . . ;^i30,ooo Endowed capital ^^3,260,000 There are 12 bishops who receive ;^4i,soo per annum, average ;^36oo each. In November 1880 the residue of property formerly belonging to the Protestant Church in Ireland was valued at 12 millions, producing a revenue of ;^574,ooo, to be devoted to purposes of general utility or beneficence. In 1S89 all had been disposed of, except a surplus of ;if 27,000 per annum. The Presbyterian Church in Ireland comprises 553 chapels, with an income of ;^i68,ooo, of which ;^i02,ooo goes to the pastors. In a report on the Established Church of Scotland in 1890, the annual income was shown as follows : — Period JL ■ Period £ 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 208,000 371,000 1871-80 . . . 1881-90 . . . 515.000 607,000 The number of churches in England and Wales in 1883 was : — Church of England . 14,573 Methodist .... 11,514 Independent . . . 2,603 Baptist 2.243 Calvinist .... 895 Roman Catholic . . 824 Quaker 375 Presbyterian . . . 201 Jewish 60 Various 2,628 Total 35,916 In the above are not included 364 Roman Catholic chapels attached to religious houses, possessing no mar- riage licence. In 1S82 the Roman Empire stood thus : — Catholic Church in the British Bishops Priests Churches Laity England . . . IS 2,112 1,188 1,066,000 Scotland . . . 6 306 295 318,000 Ireland .... 28 3.290 2,760 3,952,000 Canada . . . 24 1,210 1,050 2,150,000 Australia . , . i6 376 787 584,000 India .... 22 1,179 1,318,000 Other colonies . 20 315 240 466,000 Total . 131 8,788 6,520 9,854,000 The average income in the United Kingdom is ^£'400 for a bishop, and ;^8o for a priest. In India it is .if 260 per bishop, and ;f 36 per priest. In Canada and Australia it is higher than in England. United States The Census of 1 880, and the estimates of numbers of congregations from that of pews, showed as follows : — iS 12 >. tl ClliCO ^ c ►J S" U s a, Baptist .... 24,794 15.401 8,532,000 8,400,000 Methodist . . . 28,281 1 6,759 10.944,000 14,100,000 Presbyterian . . 10,474 8,026 3,564,000 10,600,000 Roman Catholic . 5.975 6,366 6,371,000 12,200,000 Lutheran . . . 5.556 3,102 2,740,000 1,200,000 Christian Discip. 4.681 3,658 2,268,000 1,200,000 Congregational . 3.689 3,589 1,334,000 5,100,000 Episcopal . . . 3,104 3.564 1,412,000 7,200,000 United Brethren. 2,573 2.563 1,196,000 400,000 Unitarians . , 342 394 172,000 1,200,000 Quakers . . . 621 876 272,000 800,000 Jews .... 269 202 70,000 1,000,000 Mormons . , . 654 3.906 440,000 200,000 Various . . . 1. 154 8,824 10,841,000 7,200,000 Total . . 92,167 77,230 50,156,000 70.800,000 At the opening of the Washington Catholic University in October 1889, Cardinal Gibbons stated that in 1789 (when Dr. O'CarroU was consecrated first bishop) the total number of Catholics was only 40,000, and that they are now about 9,000,000, with 84 bishops, 8000 priests, 10,500 churches, 520 hospitals and orphan asylums, 677 colleges, and 3100 schools. France The official statistics in i88o were as follows : — Clergy of all ranks .... 55,400 Sisters of charity, &o. . . . 125,400 Church endowed incomes . . /i90,ooo Schools, convents, asylums . . ^Soo.ooo The capital value of endowments for churches, schools, convents, and asylums amounted in 1880 to ;£'23,3oo,ooo The annual State subsidy is ;f 1,740,000, equal to is. per inhabitant, or £d,o a year for each priest. The ordinary income of a cure is ;^8o. Official returns show the number of clergy and of young men ordained priests yearly as follows : — Year Clergy Ordained during *-' Year 1861 . . . 54,400 1,206 1880 . . . 55,400 1,541 1885 . . . 54,500 1,527 This would show that a priest's life averages 36 years from ordination, or a life span of about 63 years. CHURCH 117 CHURCH Italy The Italian Government confiscated properties worth 55 millions sterling, of which nearly half has been sold, viz. : — Capital, £ Income, £ Sold (1868-80) , . . 21,200,000 1,450,000 Held by State , . . 33,900,000 1,240,000 Total , . 5S, 100,000 2,690,000 Out of the above income the Italian Government pays ^^428,000 per annum to 32,590 monks and nuns, say ;f 13 each. The Pope has always refused the allowance of 2i20,ooo a year offered him, and is maintained by Peter's pence from all nations. The amount of Peter's pence in 1889 was said to be as follows : — £ £ 16,000 Ireland . . . 6,000 14,200 Portugal . . . 6,000 12,800 Asia .... 4,000 12,400 Roumania . . 4,000 8,000 England . . . 3,800 7,400 Africa . . . 3,800 7,200 Poland . . . 3,400 6,200 Switzerland , . 2,200 Austria . Italy France . . South America Spain North America ■Germany Belgium , Besides other countries, the whole amounting to ;^i20,ooo sterling. The Vatican records show that there have been 257 Popes, the longest reign being that of Pius XX. , who sat for 32 years, the average being 7i years. The table of duration shows thus : — Over 20 years . ■ ^' | S"'° X^^" • • • S7 10-20 ,, . . .691 Under s years . . 120 The nationality of the various Popes has been as follows : — English . Dutch . Swiss Portuguese African . Austrian . Spanish . German Syrian . Greek . French . Italian . 5 6 8 14 IS 201 The number of parochial clergy in Italy is 20,067, of whom 2236 have less than ;^30 a year income. Austria. There are 98 Roman Catholic bishops, and the Church forests and other properties are valued at 19 millions sterling. Total Church revenue, ;^i,890, 100, the highest income being ;^30,ooo per annum to the Archbishop of Olmutz. Priests average ;^30 a year. The latest returns of the clergy show thus : — Austria Hungary Total Latin priests .... Roman Catholic Greek priests Russian Greek priests . Protestant clergy . Jewish pastors IS.026 2,110 446 232 4,206 2,123 2,900 3,602 740 19,232 4,238 3.3+6 3.834 Total .... 17.814 I3.S76 31,390 Germany. In 1849 the churches and pastors in Prussia were : — Protestant Roman Catholic Jewish Total Churches 9.001 7.238 901 17.140 Pastors 6.139 S.60S ".744 In 1880 the Census showed for all Germany as fol- lows : — Churches .... 37.720 Clergy 31.910 The Protestant Church will probably stand for about 18,000 clergy and 20,000 churches, the Roman Catholic about 12,000 clergy and lS>ooo churches: there are 28 Catholic bishops, including 5 archbishops. Russia According to Government reports published in 1880, we find : — Bishops 40 1 Convents .... 550 Parish priests . . 49,200 1 Churches .... 35,400 The State subsidy is ;^8oo,ooo per annum, besides which the Church lands give a revenue oi £1^ to each priest. In 1801 Russia had 18,300 parish churches, 67,700 clergy, and 554 convents and monasteries, containing 7300 monks and 1300 nuns. In 1839 there were 29,500 churches of all denomina- tions, with : — Clergy Greek ...... 52,300 Roman Catholic .... 10,330 Protestant 1,050 Total .... 63,680 Besides63,ooo deacons and assistants of the Greek Church. Belgium Church properties cover 60,000 acres ; there are 6 bishops, and 5428 churches, being a church for iioo inhabitants, besides 1560 convents. Holland The latest returns show as follows : — Churches Clergy Protestant . , . . Roman Catholic Jews 2,001 1,022 182 2,125 2,371 137 Total 3,205 ! 4,633 Spain. There are 54 bishops, 32,400 priests, 1680 monks, 14,600 nuns, 18,600 churches, including 65 cathedrals. Australia The condition of the various creeds in 1881 was as follows : — 1 .a *5 2 Churches per 100,000 Inhabi- tants Church of England . Roman Catholics . . Methodists .... 1,398 791 1,608 6S9 378 3S9 370 389 1,070,000 615,000 3or,ooo 374,000 382,000 142 136 402 Presbyterians . . . Various 1.046 1,170 28s 218 Total . . * 6,013 2,15s 2,742,000 210 Churches Ministers Sunday Schools New South Wales Victoria. . . . South Australia . New Zealand . . Queensland . . Tasmania . . . West Australia . 1,330 2,843 725 SS3 172 319 71 706 759 165 76 139 33 1,285 I.SS7 570 360 100 112 40 Total • 6,013 2,ISS 4,024 CITIES ii8 CLANS CITIES c Per 1000 Inhabitants Mean Annual Temperature s Per 1000 Inhabitants s .2— , ri 8 F P s 1 i 5 Q i u c 1— ( Mean Annua Tempera Alexandria . . . 232 45- 34-2 10.8 69.0 Lisbon , . . . 244 60.4 Algiers . . 62 30.1 64-3 Liverpool . 600 37.'6 26.7 10.9 50.8 Amsterdam 372 36.7 23-7 13.0 49-9 London . . 4,280 34-7 21.2 13-5 50.8 Antwerp , 20s 24.7 Lyons . . 402 26.0 24.7 1-3 53-0 Baltimore . 332 21. 1 54-9 Madras . . 398 39- 38.8 0.2 81.9. Barcelona . 260 29.2 • •• 61.0 Madrid . . 37.S 37-4 0.1 56.2 Belfast . . 185 28.2 ... 52.1 Manchester . 604 36-9 25-5 11.4 48. » Berlin . . 1.438 37. S 27.6 9.9 48.2 Manilla . , 270 ... 78.4 Birmingham 448 37.6 19.8 17.8 48.2 Marseilles . 360 28.0 57-5 Bombay . 773 25.6 33-7 80.3 Melbourne . 4S8 58.0 Bordeaux . 241 26.7 57- Mexico . . 212 30-9 60.9 Boston . . 363 30.0 23-5 ■fi's 48.4 Milan. . . 321 30.6 55- 1 Boulogne . 123 54 4 Montreal 177 37-0 ... 44.6 Bradford . 184 33-1 21.1 I2.0 Moscow . . 753 . 41.0 Breslau 273 37.7 32-5 5-2 46.7 Munich . . 280 39'S 32.8 6.7 48.4 Brighton . 108 30.6 19.0 II.6 Naples . , 491 32.0 33-1 60.5 Bristol . . 207 34-5 19.6 14.9 Si-7 Newcastle , 145 36.8 21.3 iS-o Brussels . 463 34-7 23-9 10.8 50-7 New Orleans 216 22.7 69.1 Bucharest . 222 29- S 24-5 5-0 46.4 New York . 1.443 34-6 26.2 8.'4 si.a Buda-Pesih 443 35-8 35-2 0.6 51.0 Nottingham 187 36-7 22.4 14-3 Buenos Ayres 4S5 31-7 30.1 1.6 62.8 Oldham . . "5 35-4 22.8 12.6 ... Cairo . . 375 71.2 Palermo . . 245 28.5 ... 63.1 Calcutta . 429 31- 1 78.4 Paris . . . 2,269 30-5 28.6 1.9 Si-S Chicago , S03 20.2 45-9 Philadelphia 1,017 30. 20. s 9-5 52.1 Christiania 136 34-5 .18.8 15-7 41-5 Portsmouth . . 12S 34-4 19.7 14.7 Cincinnati 256 20.2 54-7 Quebec . . 70 22.9 40-3 Constantinopl e 819 56-5 Quito . . . 84 • >> 60.9 Copenhagen 235 39-1 22.1 17.0 46.6 Rio Janeiro . 356 35-5 39.4 74.2 Dresden , 259 35-4 25-4 10. 49.1 Rome . . . 388 27.2 26.8 0.4 60.5 Dublin . 350 29.1 27.1 2.0 50.1 Rotterdam . . 194 38.8 23-3 iS-S 5I.O Edinburgh 263 32.2 20,2 12.0 47-1 Rouen . . . 106 31-3 Florence 168 59.2 Bt. Louis. . 351 30.0 19-3 10.7 5S-0 Frankfort 138 49.6 St. Petersburg . 843 37.8 51.4 39-6 Geneva 69 24.3 21.2 3-1 47.7 San Francisco 234 18.1 ... 55- 3 Genoa . 179 61. 1 Sheffield . . 284 38.0 21.6 16.4 Glasgow S12 37.4 2S-'3 12.1 49.8 Stockholm , , 222 33-0 24.7 8.3 42.3 Hague . 118 39-7 233 16.4 52.0 Sunderland . 117 39-3 20.9 18.4 Hamburg 454 37-5 24.5 13.0 47.0 Sydney . . 382 62.S Havanna 230 25-4 45-7 78.1 Tunis . . . 210 68.8 Hull . 155 36-4 23.8 I'iie Turin .... 241 31-5 2S.6 s-g 53-1 Jerusalem 28 62.'6 Valparaiso . . lOI 64.6 58.0 Leeds . 310 36.'8 21.6 15-2 Venice . . 152 30.2 22.7 7-S 55-4 Leicester 123 38.4 21.8 16.6 Vienna . . •801 39-2 29.0 5I-0 Leipsic . 169 26.1 46.4 Warsaw . . 432 ... 44.2 Lima . 130 73-3 Washington . , 147 22.9 ... 56.2 The density of population of some cities is shown in the following table : — Acres, Area Inhabitants per Acre London 76,600 51 Paris . 19.500 "5 Berlin 16,200 70 Vienna 13,700 55 Florence . 10,500 16 Genoa 7,900 22 Dresden 7,200 31 Buda-Pesth 6,500 55 Milan . 5.500 60 Turin . 4,200 58 CIVIL SERVICE In the United Kingdom there are 29,000 persons, with an aggregate salary of ;^4,ooo,ooo, say ;^I30 each. CLANS For the Pretender in 1715 ; Appin Breadalbane Caithness . Cameron . Carnworth Clanronald Glencoe . Glengary . Glenmoristan Gordon , Hume Kenmore , Keppoch , ■ Linlithgow Lovat M'Donald M'Gregor M'Intosh . M'Lean . M'Pherson 300 2,000 500 1,000 300 1,000 300 500 100 300 500 300 300 300 800 i,ooo 500 1,000 1,000 500 Marshall Marr Montrose . Murray Nairn Nithsdale . Ogilvy Panmure Perth Robertson Seaforth Southesk Stormont Straglas Strathmore TuUibardine Wigtown . Wintoun . Total 500 1,000 s,ooa 300 1,000. 300 500 500- 1,500 500- 3,ooo> 300. 300 100 300 6,000 300 300 31.700- CLANS 119 COAL For King George : — Annandale Argyle . Buccleuch Cassils Douglas . Dumfries . 500 4,000 1,000 500 500 200 Dundonald Kglinton Forbes Glencaim Grant Hamilton 300 300 500 300 1,000 1,000 Kilmarnock Lauderdale M'Leod . M'Neil . Morton . Rae . 300 300 1,000 120 300 Soo Ross Rothes Roxburgh Sutherland Weems Total COAL The total production of coal in the nineteenth century has been approximately as follows : Period Millions of Tons O a 500 500 500 1,000 300 15.420 1801-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851- 60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 89 years 390 420 650 970 1.30S 1,461 18 41 41 69 117 170 190 2S 48 47 122 277 481 662 3 19 37 8 47 SI 82 120 153 160 3 8 14 24 70 13s 184 S 13 44 110 260 510 970 S 10 17 7 14 30 S.406 646 1,662 59 621 438 1,912 32 S3 28 19 20 30 35 37 40 189 277 566 637 1.093 1.873 2.855 3.78s 11,086 Value, Million £ Sterling Period si s 2 .S 3 OS 1 Is 'S s 13 en a 1 1 .3 a d 1 — . 1 1 •3 1 1801-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 105 III 228 370 600 482 II 23 21 31 n 85 10 18 16 34 75 121 165 I 6 12 4 19 18 33 59 I 3 s 7 18 27 31 2 5 18 40 91 167 333 I 2 3 2 3 6 I 3 8 13 I 2 3 4 2 4 3 7 7 10 12 12 la 136 250 253 385 681 1,104 1,209 89 years 2,128 313 439 19 250 92 656 6 11 25 10 6 63 4,018 The following table shows approximately the production and consumption in several countries at various dates :— Production, Tons Great Britain France Germany United States Belgium Austria Various The World 1800 . . . 10, 100,000 800.000 300,000 200,000 200,000 11,600,000 1820 . 12,500,000 1,200,000 1,500,000 500,000 1,000,000 ... 500,000 17,200,000 1840 . 30,000,000 3,300,000 3,400,000 1,800,000 3,900,000 400,000 2,000,000 44,800,000 1850 . 49,000,000 4,400,000 6,700,000 8,000,000 5,800,000 2,000,000 5,500,000 81,400,000 i860 . 82,000,000 8,300,000 16,700,000 15,200,000 9,600,000 3,500,000 7,000,000 142,300,000 1870 . 110,000,000 13,300,000 34,000,000 32,900,000 13,700,000 9,500,000 9,000,000 213,400,000 1880 . 147,000,000 19,400,000 59,100,000 70,500,000 16,900,000 16,100,000 11,000,000 340,000,000 1889 , 177,000,000 24,600,000 84,900,000 142,000,000 19,800,000 24,000,000 12,700,000 485,000,000 Year Consumpi ion. Tons Great Britain France Germany United States Belgium Austria 1830 15,500,000 2,700,000 2,500,000 1,300,000 2,000,000 300,000 1840 . 29,000,000 4,800,000 3,400,000 1,800,000 3,500,000 400,000 1850 . 46,000,000 9,300,000 6,000,000 8,000,000 4,500,000 2,000,000 i860. 75,000,000 14,300,000 15,000,000 15,500,000 6,100,000 3,700,000 1870 . 98,000,000 18,800,000 30,000,000 33,000,000 10,500,000 10,000,000 1880 . 128,000,000 28,800.000 52,000,000 72,000,000 11,500,000 14,500,000 1889 . 148,000,000 34,600,000 75,000,000 143,000,000 14,300,000 22,000,000 COAL COAL The average consumption yearly per inhabitant was approximately as follows : — Cwts . per Inhabitant 1830 1850 1888 United Kingdom . 13 33 72 United Slates 2 7 40 Germany I 4 28 France . 2 S 16 Belgium 10 18 48 Russia . 2 Austria . 2 II Holland 5 16 Spain . 2 Italy . .. 2 Sweden . 6 Norway 6 Denmark 6 Switzerland 5 Europe . 2 S 18 Since 1S30 the consumption in Europe of coal per inhabitant has multiplied ninefold. This is caused partly by manufactures, partly by rail- ways and steamboats, but it is expected that the use of electric power will in future supersede in some manner that of coal. Meantime the consumption of coal increases year by year. The following table shows the extent and estimated contents of some of the coalfields of the world : — Square Miles Tons Great Britain . . . France Germany Russia Belgium, Spain, &c. . United States . . . India China and Japan . . 9,000 1,800 3,600 27,000 1,400 194,000 35.000 200,000 90,000,000,000 39,000,000,000 10,000,000,000 14,000,000,000 150,000,000,000 Total . . 471,800 303,000,000,000 The contents, as estimated above, include nothing beyond a depth of 4000 feet, the deepest colliery at present working being that of Lambert in Belgium, 3500 feet. The deepest in the United Kingdom is the Rose- bridge, 2500 feet. The above five coalfields contain apparently 303,000 millions of tons, which is enough for 700 years, at the present rate of consumption. If to the above be added the contents of coalfields in the United States, Canada, Australia, France, Spain, and Belgium, the supply will be found ample for 1000 years. Improved machinery has greatly increased the yield per miner, and thus produced a fall in price, to the advantage of all industries. The official returns of Great Britain, Belgium, and Austria show as follows : — 1874 1885 Miners Tons Raised Tons per Miner Miners Tons Raised Tons per Miner Great Britain Belgium Austria .... 539,000 110,000 67,000 125,000,000 15,000,000 9,000,000 232 136 13s 485,000 101,000 73.000 160,000,000 17,000,000 18,000,000 330 168 247 In 1889 the coal used for making iron was approxi- mately as follows : — Great Britain United States Germany France, &c. Tons 17,400,000 16,600,000 10,000,000 10,300,000 Total . . . 54,300,000 In 1885 the coal-mining industry of the world approximately as follows : — stood nS s s b,. •ss? S.S, IS 1^ ^ t^ ■e.s "tS 2^0 >U 0. Great Britain . 160 485,000 330 53,700,000 Ill United States . 104 300,000 347 41,600,000 139 Germany . . 74 220,000 ,33b 17,200,000 78 France . . . 20 ro2,ooo iqb 9,000,000 88 Belgium . . . 17 101,000 168 6,400,000 63 Austria . . . 20 73,000 270 4,200,000 W Other countries 20 100,000 200 5,000,000 5° Total . . 415 1,381,000 300 137,100,000 99 The number of tons raised per miner is greater in United States and Germany than in Great Britain. Three English miners, nevertheless, raise as much as five French, and the price of coal in France is always much higher than in England. Current prices at pit's mouth were : — Pence per Ton Period •a s S rt >< ■0 10 *5o % pS ta & < pen 1871-75 . . . 87 190 168 78 108 114 1876-80 . . . 88 120 102 66 66 80 1881-85 • • • 72 108 90 60 63 100 It appears that 9 tons of Massachusetts have as much carbon as 10 tons of Newcastle (English) coal. The percentage of coke obtained is as follows : — Westphalia . Marseilles . Lancashire . 36 per cent. 41 .. S8 .. Pennsylvania . 89 per cent. Mayenne . . • 90 Wales. . . ■ 91 .. The specific gravity and percentage of carbon in different kinds of coal are shown thus : — Weight, Lbs. Percentage Weiaht, Lbs. Percentage per Cubic Yd. Carbon per Cubic Yd. Carbon Rhode Island 3.054 86 Newcastle . 2,160 87 Massachusetts 2,882 97 Peat . , 2,160 57 Pennsylvania 2.71S 89 Marseilles 2,080 63 Mayenne (France) a.293 91 Greek 2,020 6^ Swansea .... 2,266 89 Westphalia • 1,840 63 Lancashire .... 2,240 83 Wood . 1,100 SO COAL 121 COAL United Kingdom The production, consumption, and export since 1820 were as follows : — Year Tons Year Tons Production Consumption Export Production Consumption Export 1820 .... 1830 .... 1840 .... 1850 .... 12,500,000 15,000,000 30,000,000 49,000,000 12,250,000 15,500,000 29,000,000 46,000,000 250,000 500,000 1,000,000 3,000,000 i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1889 . . . 82,000,000 110,000,000 147,000,000 177,000,000 75,000,000 98,000,000 128,000.000 148,000.000 7,000,000 12,000,000 19,000,000 29,000,000 Chisholm's tables of British coal exported in 35 years, ending 1889, show as follows : — Period Tons Exported to France Germany Russia Italy Spain Egypt Various Total 1855-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-89 . . 7,500,000 17,200,000 28,000,000 37,300.000 7,800,000 17,400,000 25,500,000 27,800,000 1,600,000 5,500,000 10,200,000 13,800,000 2,700,000 10,900,000 24,000,000 2,500,000 6,600,000 9,400,000 14,700,000 500,000 3,300,000 5,500,000 10,100,000 19,100,000 43i 300,000 59,500,000 86,300,000 39,000,000 96,000,000 149,000,000 214,000,000 35 years . . 90,000,000 78,500,000 31,100,000 37,600,000 33,200,000 19,400,000 208,200,000 498,000,000 In the above table Holland is included with Germany, and Portugal with Spain. About one-sixth of the coal raised in Great Britain is exported. The existing coal-fields of Great Britain in 1880 were as follows : — Million Contents of Field, Years of Tons Million Tons Supply South Wales . . IS 32,000 2,150 Midland . . . 15 18,000 1,200 Northumberland . 16 10,000 620 Stafford . . . IS 6,000 400 Lancashire . . 22 S.ooo 230 Yorlishire, &c. . 46 9,000 196 Scotland . . . 18 10,000 SSo Total . . 147 90,000 612 Theoutput in the seventeenth centuryaveraged 2,400,000 tons per annum ; in the eighteenth nearly 5,000,000. The production in 1889 was 177 million tons, and the uses to which the coal was devoted were more or less thus: — Tons Factories 55,000,000 Domestic use Railways and steamers Gas and water worlts . Mines .... Export Total 40,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 13,000,000 29,000,000 177,000,000 The price of coal in London since 1730 has averaged as follows : — Period Per Ton Period 1730-SO • ■ ;fi 7 2 1841-50 1751-99 • • I 14 9 1851-60 1800-20 . . 2 13 3 1861-70 1820-30 . . I 12 1871-80 1831-40 . . 140 Per Ton £0 19 o o 18 6 o 18 s o 18 4 The price in England since 1782, at port of shipment, has averaged as follows : — Period 1782-1800 1801-1820 1821-1850 1851-1860 Pence 180 156 I20 "S Period 1861-1870 1871-187S 1876-1880 1881-1889 Pence 122 184 116 108 Loss of life by colliery explosions since 1851 shows thus: — Explo- sions Killed Annual Average Period Killed Tons, Output Tons, per Killed ^?5i-7i 1872-80 1881-89 1.437 3S3 211 4.977 2.387 1.361 238 265 151 82,000,000 131,000.000 160,000,000 344,000 495.000 1,060,000 France The following table shows the production and con- sumption, as officially stated : — Tons per Annum Cwts. per Inhabitant Period Produc- Net Consump- tion Imports tion 1787-89 227,000 233,000 460,000 0.4 1802 844,000 91,000 935.000 0.7 1811-20 895,000 183,000 1,078,000 0.7 1821-30 1,490,000 438,000 1,928,000 1-3 1831-40 2,570,000 894,000 3,464,000 2.0 1841-50 4,100,000 2,048,000 6,148,000 3-5 1851-60 6,900,000 4,550,000 11,450,000 6-5 1861-70 11,700,000 6,800,000 18,500,000 lO.O 1871-80 17,000,000 7,700,000 24,700,000 13-S 1881-86 19,200,000 9,800,000 29,000,000 iS-S 1889 24,600,000 10,000,000 34,600,000 18.0 The first colliery in France was opened in 1722 ; the number working in 1835 was 223, employing 19,000 miners, and steam-engines representing 6000 horse-power. The French collieries in 1879 gave : — Wages Other expenses Net profit Value Amount £ 4,040,000 3,320,000 1,480,000 Per Ton £ ^- d- 048 o 3 II 019 8,840,000 I o 10 4 COAL COAL The most productive mines in the returns of 1842 and 1864 were : — Tons Mines 1842 1864 Valenciennes .... St. Etienne .... Calais Creuzot Others 907,000 1,290,000 290,000 230,000 483,000 3,120,000 2,950,000 1,170,000 680,000 2,880,000 Total 3,200,000 10,800,000 In 1888 there were 100, too miners, average wages 3s. a day, who raised in twelve months 22,500,000 or 225 tons each, value gs. a ton. There were 163 collieries that paid dividends, and 129 were worked at a loss. The Pas de Calais mines yielded 12,200,000 tons, or more than half the total. Germany The production of the last forty years may be summed up thus : — Period Millions of Tons Coal Lignite Total 1850-59 . . . 1860-69 . • ■ 1870-79 . . . 1880-89 • • . 88 200 356 570 27 61 100 148 261 456 718 40 years . . . 1,214 336 1,550 According to " Engineering," Prussia has two coal-beds containing 100,000 millions of tons ; other estimates say 39,000 millions, but even the latter would suffice all Germany for 450 years. Russia The production has grown tenfold in twenty years, viz. : — Year 1866 1876 1887 The principal coalfields are : — Tons 390,000 2,050,000 4,450,000 Don Kielo, Poland Moscow . Tons 2,000,000 2,000,000 450,000 Total . . . 4,450,000 There are about 32,000 miners employed. India The coalfields cover 35,000 square miles, or four times flie area of those of the United Kingdom, but have less cubic capacity, as they are estimated to contain only 14,000 million of tons, or one-sixth of those of Great Britain. In fact, their contents would only last the British consumption for eighty years. The product of the Indian coalfields is increasing. In i860 it was 390,000 tons, rising to 760,000 in 1880, and 1,800,000 in 1890. Canada The official handbook gives the production thus : — Tons Year Nova Scotia British Columbia Total 1874 1880 1886. : . . . 980,000 1,160,000 1,680,000 80,000 270,000 330,000 1,060,000 1,430,000 2,010,000 Canada imports yearly 2, 100,000 tons ; the consump- tion therefore reaches 4,100,000 tons, equal to 16 cwts. per inhabitant Professor Dana says the Nova Scotia coal-bed has an area of 18,000 square miles, Australia Coal was discovered in 1847, and the production has been : — Year New South Wales New Zealand Total i860 1870 1880 1888 370,000 870,000 1,450,000 3,200,000 300,000 620,000 370,000 870,000 1,750,000 3,820,000 The total quantity raised has been approximately thus : — Period New South Wales New Zealand Total 1847-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . 2,020,000 6,700,000 13,100,000 21,330,000 700,000 3,900,000 2,020,000 6,700,000 13,800,000 25,230,000 4:2 years . . . 43,150,000 4,600,000 47,750,000 Small quantities have also been raised in Queensland and Tasmania. The total value of coal raised in forty-two years, according to Mr. Coghlan, was : — New South Wales .... 22,320,000 New Zealand ..... 2,670,000 Queensland 900,000 Tasmania 180,000 Total . . . 26,070,000 The returns for 1888 were as follows : — Miners Tons Raised Value, £ Tons per Miner New South Wales New Zealand . , Queensland, &c. . 9,300 1.750 750 3,200,000 610,000 360,000 1.460.000 340,000 140,000 344 348 480 Total . . 11,800 4,170,000 1,940,000 355 The average pay per miner in New South Wales was £iS per annum, or 43 pence per ton of coal raised. United States Coal was first discovered in 1768 in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. Mining was commenced at Pittsburg in 1784, and in Rhode Island in i8o8, both seams being anthracite. In the course of a few years the industry became of such importance that by 1850 Pennsylvania had already constructed 7 canals and 27 railways expressly for carrying coal. In 1840 the output was as follows : Tons Pennsylvania 1,300,000 Virginia Rhode Island, &c. 400,000 100,000 Total 1,800,000 In that year the number of miners engaged was 7000, showing an average of 260 tons per man. The produc- tion increased very rapidly, but was hardly sufficient for requirements, the Union always importing some coal from COCOA 123 COLONIES Europe. The production, according to Census returns, compares thus vfith population :- Year Tons Cwts. per Inhabitant 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1888 1,800,000 8,000,000 15,200,000 32,900,000 70,500,000 142,000,000 2.1 7.0 9-5 17-5 28. 44.0 The production in 1888 was as follows : Tbns Anthracite Bituminous Total Pennsylvania . . Illinois .... Ohio .... West Virginia . Various . . . 43,900,000 33,800,000 14,700,000 10,900,000 5,500,000 33,200,000 77,700,000 14,700,000 10,900,000 5,500,000 33,200,000 Total . . 43,900,000 98,100,000 142,000,000 The estimated area of the principal fields is : Professor Dana Census Report Bed Sq. MUes Bed Sq. Miles Alleghany . . . Illinois .... Missouri . . . Michigan . . . S9.000 47,000 78,000 7,000 Missouri . . . Illinois . . . Kansas . . . Various . . . Total . . 27,000 37.000 22.000 109,400 Total . . 191,000 195,400 COCOA Year 1831 1841 1851 1B61 1871 1881 1888 Consumption in United Kingdom Lbs. 440,000 1,220,000 5,310,000 4,520,000 7,252,000 10,885,000 18,200,000 Duty, per Lb. Price, per Lb. Pence Pence 6 9 2 7 2 I I I I 5 6 7i Consumption, Oz. per Inhab. 4 S 8 COFFEE In a little over fifly years the crop has eightfold, viz. : — Year Tons 1832 . . . 95.000 1844 . . . 255,000 185s . . . 321.000 increased nearly Year Tons 1865 . . 422,000 187s • . 505,000 1885 . . 718,000 The production by countries is shown as follows : — 1855 1880 188B Brazil . Java Ceylon . West Indies . Spanish America Arabia . India . Manilla, &c. Tons 163,000 70,000 29,000 28,000 16,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 Tons 333.000 90,000 33.000 42,000 70,000 5,000 15,000 20,000 Tons 389,000 92,000 15,000 54.000 123,000 5,000 17,000 23,000 Total 321,000 608,000 718,000 It has been asserted that the total coffee crop of the world in 1820 did not exceed 50,000 tons. Consumption for five years ending 1884 compares with five years ending 1864 as follows : — Tons, per Annum Oz. yearly, per Inhabitant 1860-64 1880-84 1860-64 1880-84 United Kingdom 16,000 15,000 19 14 France 40,000 65,000 37 62 Germany . 70,000 105,000 69 81 Russia 6,000 8,000 3 3 Austria 21,000 36,000 19 32 Italy 12,000 14,000 19 17 Spain and Portugal . 3.000 5,000 s 9 Scandinavia 12,000 25,000 80 no Holland . 14,000 40,000 14s 322 Belgium . 18,000 25,000 131 158 Switzerland . . 7,000 9,000 98 114 United States . 90,000 215,000 90 140 Brazil, &c. 81,000 78,000 Total . 390,000 640,000 ... 1 ... The coffee fields of Brazil cover 2,200,000 acres, with about 900 million trees— that is, 400 per acre, each tree averaging dmost i lb. per annum, the industry employing 800,000 hands. Consumption IN United Kingdom. Millions Oz. per Duty, per Price, per Year Lbs. Inhabitant Lb. Cwt. Pence Shillings 1801 . . . 1 I 6 87 1811 6 S 7 42 1821 7 5 12 102 1831 22 14 6 55 1841 27 16 6 t i8<;i 30 18 6 68 1861 35 21 3 69 1871 30 IS 3 63 1881 31 14 2 78 1888 30 13 2 76 COLONIES Those of the different European Powers show as follows :- British . French . Spanish . Portuguese Dutch Danish Gerraap . Total Population 232,800,000 32,040,000 8,200,000 2,800,000 24,000,000 130,000 385,000 300,355.000 Square Miles 7,946,000 1,080,000 170,000 206,000 660,000 7S.OOO 99,000 10,236,000 Commerce, £ 448,600,000 35.300,000 42,500,000 2,000,000 32,000,000 1,000,000 561,400,000 Revenue, £ 119,400,000 4,600,000 10,000,000 1,000,000 12,000,000 147,000,000 Railways, Miles 38,050 2,290 400 40,740 COLONIES 124 COLONIES British The British colonies are as follows :- - Population Commerce, £ Revenue, £^ Debt, £ Railways, Miles Area, Square Miles Australia .... 3,550,000 107,800,000 24,800,000 157.500.000 9,620 3,160,000 Canada .... S,ozo,ooo 43,900,000 7,600,000 47,300,000 11,780 3,450,000 South Africa . 1,860,000 17,000,000 3,900,000 26,500,000 1,820 230,000 West Africa . 1,560,000 2,500,000 250,000 100,000 33.000 Mauritius .... 370,000 5,200,000 700,000 700,000 i° 700 Ceylon .... 2,770,000 7,200,000 1,100,000 2,200,000 iBo 25,400 Singapore . , 540,000 47,200,000 700,000 1.500 West Indies . 1,570,000 14,900,000 2,100,000 3,100,000 160 127,000 Cyprus .... 220,000 500,000 200,000 3,600 Various .... 740,000 39,400,000 700,000 500,000 20 45.400 Colonies .... 18,200,000 285,600,000 42,050,000 237,900,000 23,670 7,076,600 India .... 214,600,000 163,000,000 77,300,000 185,700,000 14.380 870,000 Total 232,800,000 448,600,000 119,350,000 423,600,000 38.050 7,946,600 The above statement is to the end of 1887. Commerce includes merchandise and precious metals. If we exclude Malta, Gibraltar, Cyprus, and Hong-Kong, for which the statistics are imperfect, we find the growth of the colonies (without India) as follows : — Year Population Commerce, £, Revenue, £ Debt, £, Railways, Miles 1840 i860 1870 1880 1887 5,100,000 9,100,000 11,600,000 14,700,000 17,400,000 27,100,000 116,600,000 145,700,000 214,700,000 247,000,000 2,400,000 12,500,000 19,800,000 30, 100,000 41,300,000 5,300,000 64,700,000 79,100,000 143,400,000 237,700,000 2.330 4.360 13,080 23,650 The official returns show as follows : India Year Population Commerce, £ Revenue, £ Debt, £, Railways, Miles 1814 40,000,000 10,500,000 13,100,000 18,000,000 1820 83,000,000 9,050,000 15,300,000 24,000,000 ... 1830 91,000,000 9,800,000 17,000,000 30,400,000 1850 123,000,000 34,100,000 27,600,000 53,900,000 r86o 143,000,000 69,500,000 39,700,000 98,100,000 840 1870 191,000,000 100,400,000 50,900,000 108,200,000 4.830 1880 199,000,000 122,100,000 68,400,000 160,400,000 9.310 1887 214,600,000 163,000,000 77,300,000 185,700,000 14,380 Australia This group of seven colonies has made great strides : — Year Population Commerce, £^ Revenue, £ Debt, £, Railways, Miles 1800 1820 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1888 10,000 90,000 200,000 240,000 1,264,000 1,980,000 2,880,000 3,680,000 200,000 800,000 3,300,000 6,100,000 49,900,000 57,300,000 94,300,000 121,800,000 70,000 600,000 6,700,000 11,600,000 17,100,000 27,600,000 11,900,000 36,200,000 87,900,000 166,000,000 160 950 4,880 10,430 In 1888 the several colonies stood thus : — Population Commerce, £ Revenue, £ Debt, £ Railways, Miles New South Wales 1,086,000 41,700,000 8,900,000 44,100,000 2,206 Victoria 1,091,000 37,800,000 7,600,000 34,600,000 2,191 South Australia 313,000 12,400,000 2,500,000 19,200,000 1.500 New Zealand 650,000 13.700,000 4,100,000 37,000,000 1,861 Queensland 387,000 11,800,000 3,500,000 25,900,000 1.931 Tasmania 146,000 2,900,000 600,000 4,500,000 48s Western Australia 42,000 1,500,000 400,000 1,300,000 257 Total . 3.715.000 121,800,000 27,600,000 166,600,000 10,431 In the above table commerce includes both merchandise and gold. COLONIES I2S COLONIES Canada The official returns of this colony, including Newfoundland, show thus : — Year Population Commerce, £ \ Revenue, £ Debt, £ Railways, Miles 1820 1830 1840 i860 1870 1880 1887 840,000 910,000 1,690,000 3,360,000 3,830,000 4,500,000 5,020,000 1,000,000 3,300,000 6,200,000 22,700,000 33,600,000 39,000,000 43,900,000 240,000 300,000 500,000 2,400,000 3,600,000 5,100,000 7,600,000 1,200,000 13,200,000 17,000,000 32,100,000 47,300,000 ... 2,170 3,200 6,890 11,788 South Africa Official and other statements give us the following :- Year Population Commerce, £ Revenue, £ Debt, £ Railways, Miles 1840 140,000 1,000,000 200,000 i860 420,000 5,200,000 800,000 600,000 1870 860,000 5,900,000 950,000 1,400,000 40 1880 1,120,000 19,200,000 3,100,000 13,000,000 1,005 1887 1,860,000 17,000,000 4,000,000 26,500,000 1,820 The statistics for the two colonies in 1887 were as follows : — Cape Colony Natal 1 Total Population . . Commerce, £ Revenue, £ . . Debt,;^ . . . Railways, miles . 1,380,000 13,700,000 3,200,000 22,500,000 1,600 480,000 3,300,000 800,000 4,000,000 220 1,860,000 17,000,000 4,000,000 26,500,000 1,820 West Africa Official returns give the following respecting this group :— Year Population Commerce^ j^ Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1850 205,000 800,000 60,000 i860 1,000,000 80,000 1870 550,000 2,500,000 180,000 1880 3,100,000 280,000 90,000 1887 1,560,000 2,500,000 250,000 60,000 Excluding St Helena, the West Coast colonies count only 520 wfites, mostly Government officials or mission- aries. The chief product is palm-oiL The several colonies stood thus in 1887 : Popula- tion Com- meree, £ Revenue, £ Debt, £ Gold Coast . . Lagos .... Sierra Leone . . Gambia . . . St. Helena . . 1,405,000 7S.OOO 60,000 15.000 5,000 700,000 1,000,000 600,000 200,000 120,000 50,000 60,000 10,000 10,000 60,000 Total . . 1,560,000 2,500,000 250,000 60,000 Mauritius We have statistics from 1827 as follows : — Year Popu- lation Com- merce, £ Revenue, £ Debt. £ Railway, MUes 1827 1850 i860 1870 1880 1887 95,000 180,000 310,000 320,000 380,000 370,000 1,000,000 2,300,000 5,000,000 4,200,000 5,900,000 5,200,000 200,000 300,000 600,000 600,000 800,000 700,000 1,100,000 800,000 700,000 70 90 90 The export of sugar, the chief product, rose from 30,000 tons in 1836 to 140,000 tons in 1877, but has now declined to 100,000 tons. The principal items are shown as follows : Ceylon Year Population Commerce, £ Revenue, £ Debt, £ Railway, Mile^ 1850 i860 1870 1880 1887 1,580,000 1,890,000 2,410,000 2,760,000 3,800,000 6,100,000 8,400,000 8,700,000 7,200,000 400,000 800,000 1,100,000 1,200,000 1,100,000 700,000 1,400,000 2,200,000 70 140 180 Coffee-planting began about 1840, the exportation reaching 32,000 tons in i860, and rising to 50,000 tons in 1878, but now it barely reaches 9000 tons. _ Tea is, however, assuming importance, the shipment rising from ;f200O worth in 1878, to a vsJue of ;t7oP.ooo i° '^87. In like manner Clunchona * has risen from jf 90,000 in 1881 to ;^35o,ooo in 1886. • This is often incorrectly called Cinchona. It takes its name from the Marquis of Chinchon, Viceroy of Peru, whose wife was cured by a Jesuit who prescribed this remedy. Singapore Sometimes called the Straits Settlement. Statistics show thus : — Year Population Commerce, £ Revenue, £ i86o .... 1870 .... 1880 .... 1887 .... 280,000 310,000 420,000 540,000 14,500,000 1 100,000 18,700,000 1 300,000 25,700,000 400,000 47,200,000 700,000 COLONIES 126 COLONIES West Indies Under this heading may be comprised all the following colonies, for which the statistics are given for 1887 : — Population Commerce, ^ Revenue, £ Debt, £ Railway, Miles Jamaica .... . . 600,000 2,800,000 600,000 1,600,000 70 Trinidad . 180,000 3,800,000 500,000 600,000 SO Barbados . 170,000 2,100,000 200,000 20 Bahamas . 40,000 300,000 50,000 100,000 Honduras . 30,000 400,000 50,000 British Guiana . 280,000 3,800,000 500,000 600,000 20 Small islands 270,000 1,700,000 200,000 200,000 Total 1,570,000 14,900,000 2,100,000 3,100,000 160 The progress of the group is shown as follows :- - Year Population Com- merce, £ Revenue,;^ Debt, £ Rail- waj's. Miles 18 so i860 1870 1880 1887 900,000 1,090,000 1,280,000 1,490,000 1,570,000 9,100,000 11,900,000 14,600,000 17,800,000 14,900,000 700,000 1,000,000 1,400,000 1,900,000 2,100,000 900,000 1,000,000 1,600,000 1,800,000 3,100,000 30 80 160 Other British Colonies Popula- Com- Revenue, Debt,^ Square tion merce, £ £ Miles Malta . . 160,000 '19,800,000 200,000 80,000 120 Gibraltar . 20,000 5,000,000 50,000 2 Aden . , 40,000 4,000,000 ... 70 Cyprus . . 220,000 500,000 200,000 3,600 Bermudas , 15,000 400,000 30,000 10,000 20 Falklands . 2,000 200,000 10,000 6,500 Hong-Kong 210,000 9,000,000 300,000 200,000 30 Labuan 6,000 200,000 5, 000 30 N. Borneo 150,000 300,000 50,000 31,000 Feegee . . 125,000 500,000 65,000 260,000 7,700 Total . 948,000 39,900,000 910,000 550,000 49,072 The above returns are for 1887, except as regards the commerce of Malta, Gibraltar, and Hong-Kong, the items for which are the latest published, over ten years old. Hong-Kong is a thriving colony, with considerable trade, shipping entries in 188S reaching 6,500,000 tons. Statistics show : — 1879 1889 Saving-bank deposits, £ , . 1,400,000 8,300,000 Joint-stock companies capital, £ . 8,000,000 20,000,000 French Colonies The protected countries are stated to be as follows : — Population Square Miles Tonquin Gambia Madagascar Annam Cambodia . 12,000,000 850,000 1,500,000 5,000,000 1,500,000 34.700 268,000 228,000 106,000 32.400 Total 20,850,000 669,100 The following colonial statistics refer to 1885 : — Births Deaths Acres Tilled Value of Farms, £ Reunion . . . Cochin-China . Martinique . . Guadeloupe . . 4,200 62,000 5.570 4,300 5,200 36,000 4.020 4,720 140,000 2,300,000 90,000 100,000 3,900,000 3,600,000 5,900,000 An official statement in 1885 gives the following returns : — Population Square Miles Imports, £ Exports, £ Railway, Miles Revenue, £ Algeria .... 3,820,000 257,400 9,400,000 7,900,000 1,580 1,700,000 Tunis 1,500,000 45,000 1,300,000 800,000 260 1,000,000 Cochin-China . 1,790,000 23,000 4,400,000 3,400,000 40 1,100,000 Pondicherry 280,000 200 300,000 1,100,000 Nossi-Bi, &c. . 30,000 2,400 200,000 200,000 Reunion . 180,000 800 800,000 600,000 70 200,000 Senegal . 140,000 138,400 1,000,000 700,000 250 100,000 Tahiti 10,000 450 200,000 100,000 New Caledonia 60,000 7,700 300,000 200,000 100,000 Guiana 30,000 46,800 300,000 200,000 Martinique 170,000 380 900,000 800,000 1 700,000 J Guadeloupe 180,000 720 800,000 400,000 Marquesas, &c. 50,000 500 300,000 300,000 Total 8,240,000 523.750 20,200,000 17,000,000 2,320 4,600,000 Algeria This is the best of the French colonies, and its progress is shown by the number of European settlers : 1833 1846 18E6 1866 1876 1886 French Spaniards Italians. . . ... Maltese . . . . St:ndry 3.500 1,300 1,100 1,200 700 46,300 25,300 7,700 8,100 7,900 92,800 42,200 9.500 7,100 9,200 122,100 58.500 16,700 10,600 10,100 155.700 92.500 25,800 14,200 23,300 219,600* 120,100 V- 86,200 Total 7,800 95.300 160,800 218,000 311.500 425.900 * This appears to include 70,000 children born in the colony. COLONIES 127 COLONIES The population of the territory was made up thus in 1876 :— 1,408,000 763,000 156,000 Arabs under military rule Arabs under civil rule . French settlers Foreign settlers Jewish population 155,000 33.000 Total . . 2.5T5,ooo The territory under military law covered 110,000, that tmder civil law 16,000 square miles, total 126,000 square miles, or 78 million acres. The ordinary garrison is 50,000 men, not included above. The work of colonisation from the time of the conquest (1830-36) was slow until 1848, when General Lamoriciire obtained a grant of two millions sterling from the French Legislature for the purpose. In 1863 an agricultural census showed 102,000 Eviropeans living on farms that covered an area of 1,300,000 acres. Further grants of 240,000 acres were made in 187 1 for Alsatian refugees, and in 1877 the area of farms held by settlers was 2,570,000 at^es, distributed among 510 colonies or villages. The 6gures for 1863 and 1877 showed thus : — ' 1863 1877 Men Women .... Children .... 42.300 28,600 30,900 S7,6oo 38,500 47.300 Farming population . 101,800 143.300 Acres .... 1,300,000 2,570,000 Each colony or group of settlers averages 5000 acres, with 60 habitations and 300 inhabitants, the Government having expended ;£^I20 for each family, or ;^6ooo per colony, in all ;^3,ooo,ooo sterling. There are 2,100,000 Arabs, holding 39J million acres. Forests and crown- CuBA AND Porto Rico The principal products of these islands are as follows : — lands cover 35 million acres. The Arabs have nearly 7 mfflion acres under tillage ; their flocks and herds count 8,000,000 head. The French have spent over 20 millions sterling on roads and other pubUc works : the roads over the Atlas and other ranges are excellent. The colony has suffered much from locusts. The first railway was begun in 1863, and there are now 1550 miles in traffic. In 1886 the imports were;£'9,7oo,ooo, exports ;^7, 300,000. Revenue ;^i,8oo,ooo, which is much less than the annual expenditure. Entries of shipping 1,980,000 tons yearly, of which 1,170,000 are French. Tunis This territory can hardly be called a colony : it was annexed by France in 1881, but has few French residents. There are 30,000 Christians and 30,000 Jews ; the former including 10,000 Italians, 8000 Maltese, and the rest a mixture of all nations. Revenue, ;^96o,ooo; debt, ;f 5,700,000. The shipping entries reach 1,600,000 tons yearly. Spanish Colonies Official and other documents give us the Following : — g «- • . SJ ommerc Kailway Miles 1 a, U 1 oi Cuba .... 46,000 1,520,000 28,000,000 930 5,100,000 Porto Rico . . 3,700 650,000 4,300,000 ... 800,000 Canaries . . . 2,700 280,000 ir4, 400 5,600,000 1,500,000 Philippines . . 9,300,000 2,000,000 Fernando Po . 1,500' 50,000 Mariana Islands 400 10,000 Carolinas . . 1,500 40,000 ... Total . . 170,2008,150,000 42,500,000 ... ... Value, £ Tons Cuba Porto Rico Total Cuba Porto Rico Total Sugar .... Tobacco .... Coffee .... Sundries .... ' 9,000,000 5,000,000 1,000,000 3,800,000 800,000 130,000 900,000 300,000 9,800,000 5,130,000 1,900.000 4,100,000 670,000 20,000 20,000 ... 60.000 2,000 20,000 730,000 22,000 40,000 Total . 18,800,000 2,130,000 20,930,000 1 ... 1 Cuba has 930 miles of railway and 2800 of telegraphs. The revenue averages ;^5,ioo,ooo, of which ^2,400,000 are Customs-dues, the rest taxes. The consolidated debt consists of ;£'25,ooo,ooo in 6 per cents., largely held in Germany. Shipping entries at Havana and other ports sum up 1,350,000 tons yearly, 540,000 tons being Spanish, and the remainder 60 per cent foreign flags. Havana has a population of 198,000. The Philippine Islands have 120 miles of railway and 700 of telegraphs. Shipping entries at Manilla do not exceed yearly 300,000 tons. Imports, £4, 100,000 ; ex- ports, /5,200,ooo, viz. :— Sugar 1,800,000 Hemp . Tobacco Coffee . Sundries 1,100,000 500,000 300,000 1,500,000 Total . . . 5,200,000 The revenue reaches ;f 2,000,000, of which ;£'400,ooo are Customs-dues, the rest taxes. Population of Manilla 182,000. Statistics of the Canary Islands and other colonies will be found under the head of Agriculture, p. 58. Portuguese Colonies Official and other documents give us the following : — Square Miles Population '^"J"'^- Madeira . .320 130,000 i Azores , 910 260,000 ... Cape Verd Islands 1,860 105,000 50,000 St. Thomas and Prince 420 20,000 25,000 Angola . 115,000 900,000 130,000 Mozambique . 80,000 500,000 60,000 Goa . 1,300 480,000 110,000 Timor . Macao Total 6,300 4 300,000 70,000 -> 70,000 • 206,114 2,765,000 445,000 COLONIES 128 COMMERCE Madeira and the Azores are not treated as colonial possessions, but as two integral provinces of Portugal, with deputies sitting in the Lisbon Cortes. Dutch Colonies The latest information is to the following effect : — Java . Sumatra' . Bencoolen Borneo Celebes Moluccas . New Guinea Palembang Other islands East Indies Dutch Guiana Curafoa, &c. To' ;al Square Miles 51.300 46,200 9,600 197,000 45. 200 42,400 67,400 61,200 95,200 615.500 46,100 440 662,040 Population 18,100,000 940,000 130,000 1,210,000 350,000 330,000 200,000 480,000 2,160,000 23,900,000 60,000 46,000 24,006,000 The East Indian possessions show an aggregate com- merce of 14 millions sterling imports and 16 millions exports. The gross revenue is ;,f 11,800,000. The Dutch-India Company has a monopoly of Java, which gives a net profit of 3 millions sterling per annum. The population of the East Indian possessions is as follows : — European settlers .... 34,ooo Garrison 14,000 Chinese ...... 310,000 Natives 23,542,000 Danish Colonies Latest information may be summed up thus : — Square Miles Population Iceland Greenland .... Faroe Islands . . . St. Thomas, &c. . . 40,200 34,000 500 140 72,000 10,000 11,000 33,000 Total . . . 74,840 126,000 Total . . 23,900,000 Most of the natives are Mahometans, except those of the Moluccas, who are Christians, The revenue is obtained thus :- Coffee plantations Opium plantations Land-tax, &c. Total ;^4,70o,ooo 1,500,000 5,600,000 11,800,000 Iceland is in reality a republic, under Danish protec- tion. In 1804 the Census showed 4750 farms, "with 47,000 inhabitants ; some grain was then cultivated. At present the island depends mainly on its fisheries. A vessel of 60 tons with twelve men can earn £440 in the cod-fishing season. Greenland also depends on fishing, the annual product averaging 12,000 barrels of blubber and 30C0 of cod-liver. The West Indian possessions comprise the three islands of St. Thomas, Sainte Croix, and St. John, which produce yearly 7000 tons of sugar and one million barrels of rum. Denmark was the first of all countries to abolish slavery, by liberating her West Indian slaves in 1826. German Colonies The extent and population of the new German posses- sion of Cameroons in Africa are not known. The other possessions are : — Square Miles Population New Guinea . . . Bismarck Archipelago Solomon Islands . . Marshall Islands . . 70,000 20,000 9,000 40 107,000 188,000 80,000 10,000 Total . . . 99,040 385,000 COMMERCE International trade has increased fortyfold since the beginning of the eighteenth century. The following table shows approximately the aggregate value of imports and exports for each countiy : — Millions , £ Sterling 1720 17C0 1780 1800 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1889 Great Britain 13 21 23 67 74 83 114 169 375 547 698 740 France . 7 13 22 31 33 41 66 95 167 227 339 311 Germany . 8 15 20 36 40 40 52 70 130 212 294 367 Russia 8 14 17 .30 22 28 33 40 48 103 131 118 Austria . 2 4 6 8 10 IS 22 29 47 83 107 92 Italy 3 5 7 10 IS 20 30 38 52 66 91 94 Spain 10 14 18 12 10 7 10 II 25 41 50 59 Portugal . 2 3 4 4 3 3 4 S 8 10 14 18 Scandinavia . 2 3 5 5 6 8 12 18 27 48 64 237 60 72 310 60 Holland and Belgium Switzerland 4 I 6 2 8 3 15 5 24 6 30 8 45 10 61 20 86 30 136 45 Turkey, &c. . 2 3 4 S 6 7 10 20 29 55 49 72 Europe . 62 103 137 228 249 301 408 576 1,024 I.S73 2.134 2,313 320 United States . 3 17 23 22 41 62 136 16^ 30S Spanish America 10 15 20 25 30 35 48 70 94 135 166 Brhish Colonies a 3 I 2 3 9 21 44 103 128 203 298 India 9 9 10 10 II 10 20 30 52 8'; 108 131 149 Various S 10 ^s 20 25 30 35 SO 80 105 120 The World . • 88 140 186 302 341 407 573 832 1,489 2,191 3.033 3.377 The greatest relative increase was in the decade between 1850 and i860, namely, 80 per cent., that period beine contemporaneous with the introduction of free trade. COMMERCE 129 COMMERCE The trade of all nations from i85i to 1886 was as follows :— Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports 1861-70 1871-80 1881-86 26 Years 1861-70 1871-80 1881-86 26 Years United Kingdom France . Germany Russia . Austria . Italy . Spain and Portugal Belgium Holland . Scandinavia . Other countries 2,701 1,090 950 270 302 361 222 305 319 169 183 3.714 1,560 1,740 490 570 472 253 562 630 348 174 2,348 1,086 921 306 302 319 231 355 517 235 345 8,763 3.736 3.611 1,066 1.174 1,152 706 1,222 1,466 752 702 2,129 1,100 680 280 350 263 164 246 258 151 225 2,778 1.390 1,270 480 505 444 441 432 262 159 1,745 92s 339 360 262 199 307 399 169 3" 6,652 3.296' 2,87s 1,099 I,2IS 969 60s 1,089 Europe . United States Canada . Australia India China and Japan South America Egypt . Java . Other countries 6,872 493 161 289 293 244 528 73 52 223 10,513 988 179 402 368 289 587 52 318 6.965 807 149 366 322 17a 317 49 84 542 24.350 2,288 489 1,057 983 703 l>432 174 227 1,083 S.846 361 132 ^^l 518 233 513 184 93 230 8,403 1,122 151 343 597 271 658 136 165 3" 5,822 946 ^y 282 495 160 359 '^ 602 20,071 2,429 408 816 1,610 664 I.S30 394 354 1.143 Total . 9,228 13.787 9.771 32,786 8,301 12,157 8,961 29,419 Imports, of couise, always sum up a higher value than exports, the former including freight, insurance, com- mission, and other charges, which make up about 6 per cent, on the original value of exports at port of shipment The surplus thus represented by imports has been declining in ratio since 1880, probably owing to cheaper freights and the facilities aJSbrded by tel^aphs. The surplus was as follows : — The surplus of imports has been chiefly among European nations as follows : — Period Millions Sterling Percentage over Exports 1861-70 1871-80 1881-86 . 1887-S8 . 927 1,630 810 94 11.7 13.6 9.0 6.0 United Kingdom , France . Germany Italy Spain and Portugal Belgium . HoUand . Scandinavia . Millions £ Sterling 1861-70 1871-80 1881-86 26 Years 572 270 98 58 59 61 18 936 170 470 28 11 121 198 86 603 280 57 32 48 118 66 440 736 183 101 228 377 170 Percentage over Exports 1861-70 1871-«0 1881-86 26 Years 27 40 37 35 24 23 12 33 12 38 6 5 27 46 32 35 35 16 16 30 40 32 14 26 19 17 23 35 30 The following table shovre the proportions of the world's commerce corresponding to various nations since 1830 :- 1830 1850 1870 1881-86 1889 United Kingdom . 21- S 20.4 25.0 20.8 22.0 France 10.0 "•3 10.4 10.1 9.2 Germany .... 11.2 8.4 9-7 9.8 10.9 Russia 6.8 4-9 4.8 3-4 3-5 Austria •?.6 3-4 3-7 3-5 2.7 Italy 4-9 4.6 30 31 2.7 Spain and Portugal . 3-2 1-9 2-3 2.3 2.3 Belgium 3-5 =■5 2.8 3-0 3-3 Holland 3-8 4-9 3-2 4.8 5-9 Scandinavia . . . 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.1 Other countries . . 3-5 S-o 4-7 3-5 4.0 Europe 74-0 69.4 71.8 67.0 68.6 United States . . . 5-4 7-5 7-5 9-3 9-5 South America . . 8.6 8.3 5-5 3-5 3-4 British colonies . . 4.6 8.9 9-5 10.7 9.0 China, &c. &c. . . 7-4 5-9 5-7 9-5 9-5 Total . . 100. 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 The above comprises only merchandise; specie, bul- lion and gold-dust are excluded. The item of British colonies includes also India. The commerce of the principal nations compared with population thus : — United Kingdom France . . , Germany . . Russia . . , Austria . , . Italy. . . . Spain & Portugal Holland . . Belgium . . Scandinavia , Europe . . , United States, 1830 £ 3 I I o 13 1 3 16 5 14 318 1 12 1 9 2 o 1870 £ 17 6 5 s. d. 7 o 4 o 6 o 1 7 2 7 2 II 2 12 19 8 12 12 6 5 5 18 4 9 1889 £ s. 19 10 8 3 7 16 1 7 2 6 3 3 3 5 45 o 18 10 8 I 7 o 5 o The relative increase in the United States has been much less than in Europe. COMMERCE 130 COMMERCE The following table shows, in millions £ sterling, the average annual trade of each country in the years 1881 to 1886, and also for 1889, or the year last published : — 1881-«6 1889 in m S ."i g f? a a S W H E p3 H United Kingdom 391 291 682 427 313 740 France . . . 181 134 31S 167 144 3" Germany . . . 153 1.14 307 204 163 ,367 Russia . . . SI Sb 107 39 79 nS Austria . . . so 60 no 48 44 92 Italy . . . . S3 44 97 S6 38 94 Spam . . . . 30 27 S7 29 30 59 Portugal . . . 8 6 14 n 7 18 Sweden . . . 17 13 30 16 14 30 Norway . . . 9 6 IS 9 7 16 Denmark . . . 13 9 22 IS n 26 Belgium . . . 59 £1 no 61 SO III Holland . . . 86 66 152 106 93 199 Switzerland . . 24 23 47 33 27 60 Greece . . . S 3 3 4 3 7 Roumania . . 12 9 21 13 10 23 Servia .... a 2 4 2 2 4 Bulgaria . . . 2 2 4 3 3 6 Turkey . . . 17 9 26 20 13 33 Europe . . . 1,163 96S 2,128 1,263 1,051 2.314 The follow ng tab e show s appr Dximat< ;lythe weight 1881-86 1889 m S 'ri s fi ■3 a a. ,0 a 5 E & H E S H United States 134 IS8 292 IS4 166 320 Canada . . 2S 21 4b 23 19 42 Australia . , 61 47 108 68 62 130 South Africa 8 9 17 9 10 19 Mexico . . 6 7 13 8 12 20 Central America 3 4 7 3 4 7 South America . S3 SO 103 57 57 114 West Indies . . 8 8 16 7 8 IS India* . . . 43 66 109 S4 77 131 China. . . . 22 19 41 26 23 49 Japan .... 6 8 14 11 II 22 Java .... 14 16 30 14 16 30 Persia. . . . 4 3 7 5 3 8 Egypt. . . . 8 12 20 7 12 19 Algeria . . . 10 7 17 9 8 17 Cuba .... 10 18 28 10 18 28 Other countries 40 48 88 40 S2 92 The world . . 1,618 1,466 3.084 1,770 1,607 3.377 * In this table 20 per cent is taken off the nominal value of Indian trade because the Government returns compute the rupee at 24 pence. nations : — Tons Merchandise Sea-borne Yearly 1840 1861-70 1871-80 1880 1887 Coal 1,400,000 20,300,000 30,900,000 39,200,000 49,300,000 Iron I,IOO,OCO 4,200,000 6,000,000 8,500,000 11,800,000 Timber . 4,100,000 6,300,000 8,000,000 9,000,000 12,100,000 Grain 1,900,000 4,400,000 11,200,000 16,800,000 19,200,000 Sugar 700,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 2,900,000 4,400,000 Petroleum 240,000 1,400,000 2,100,000 2,700,000 Cotton . 400,000 600,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 Wool 20,000 100,000 250,000 300,000 350,000 Jute 100,000 300,000 400,000 600,000 Meat 100,000 400,000 650,000 700,000 Coffee . 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 Wine . 200,000 500,000 900,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 Salt 800,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,300,000 1,300,000 Sundries . 9,180,000 16,660,000 24,250,000 28,950,000 33,750,000 Tota 20,000,000 56,000,000 88,000,000 113,000,000 140,100,000 The total weight of sea-borne merchandise composing the commerce of 27 years, down to 1887, and the value approximately of same at shipment, are shown as fol- lows : — Millions of Tons Value, Millions Ratio of Weight Value Coal .... 830 410 36.0 1.3 Iron . . 170 480 7-4 1.6 Timber . 220 660 9-5 2.1 Grain . . 180 1,050 7.8 3-4 Sugar . . SS 1,130 2.4 3-7 Petroleum 32 180 1-4 0.6 Cotton . . 27 180 1.2 0.6 Sah. . . 30 18 1-3 Wine . . 23 Sio 1.0 1.6 Coffee . . 11 840 O.S 2.7 Meat . . 10 560 0.4 1.8 Sundries . 712 24,982 31- 1 80.6 Tota I 2,300 31,000 100.0 100.0 If we compare the weight of sea-borne merchandise with the tonnj^e of shipping of all nations at various dates, we find as follows : — Year Tons Tons Tons Carried per Shipping Merchandise Ton of Shipping 1840 9,400,000 20,000,000 2.1 1865 17,000,000 56,000,000 3 3 ^IP 18,000,000 88,000,000 49 1880 20,300,000 113,000,000 S-6 1887 21,200,000 140,000,000 6.6 Each ton of shipping now carries more than three times as much as it did in 1840, which is, of course, due to the use of steam, one ton of steam-shipping being equivalent to four of sailing-ships. The traffic of 1887 was approxi- mately as follows : — Tonnage Register Tons Carried Steamers . . . 8,&o,ooo 102,000,000 Sailing . . . 12,600,000 38,000,000 Total 140,000,000 COMMERCE 131 COMMERCE Great Britain There are non-continuous records of British commerce since the time of Edward III. Year Reign Imports Exports Total Per Inliabitant £ £ £ £ s. d. I3SS Edward III 120,000 294,000 414,000 2 10 1573 Elizabeth . 2,100,000 I, 880,000 3,980,000 15 1614 Tames I. James II. , 2,140,000 2,090,000 4,230,000 16 6 1687 4,200,000 4,080,000 8,280,000 I 10 2 1697 WilUara III. 3,500,000 3,500,000 7,000,000 I 5 6 1701 It f 5,900,000 6,900,000 12,800,000 220 1712 Anne . 5,800,000 6,900,000 12,700,000 200 1726 George I. . 6,700,000 7,700,000 14,400,000 1 18 1736 George II. . 7,300,000 9,700,000 17,000,000 250 1750 II 7,800,000 12,700,000 20,500,000 2 10 1760 George III. 10,700,000 15,800,000 26,500,000 330 1770 ,, 13,400,000 16,000,000 29,400,000 360 1780 11 10,800,000 12,600,000 23,400,000 2 10 1790 ,, 19,100,000 20,100,000 39,200,000 3 18 1800 ^^ 24,100,000 43,200,000 67,300,000 680 1810 jj 30,200,000 58,800,000 89,000,000 500 1820 George IV. 29,700,000 44,200,000 73,900,000 3 10 1830 WiUiam IV. 42,300,000 45,800,000 88,100,000 3 14 1840 Victoria 51,600,000 62,000,000 113,600,000 440 1830 It • 99,000,000 70,000,000 169,000,000 640 i860 II • 210,500,000 164,500,000 375,000,000 12 17 1870 It • 303,300,000 244,100,000 547,400,000 17 7 1880 411,200,000 286,400,000 697,600,000 20 5 1S89 427,200,000 313,000,000 740,200,000 19 10 The expoi t trade of G.Britaj nin 1798 was a sfoU ows :— ■ The trad e of 1889 was as follows : — British Products Woollen goods Cotton goods Linen goods . Iron and steel Coal . . . Sugar . . . Silks . . . Simdries . . Total . Foreign and Colonial 6,200,000 2,300,000 1,200,000 900,000 Coffee . . . Indian textiles Sugar . . , Irish linen 500,000 i Tea . . . 400,000 { Sundries , 300,000 7,900,000 1 Total 19,700,000 I Grand total , S,8oo,ooo 2,400,000 1,300,000 500,000 400,000 3,500,000 13,900,000 33,600,000 The trade for the years 1888 and 1889 was as follows : — Imports, Exports, ym.£, Mill. £ 1888|1889 18881889 Food i';7 171 Textiles. . . . 109 no Textile fibres . . 81 <>i Metals ; . . . SO, 56 Hides, timber, &c. 37 44 Clothing . . . II 11 Manufactures . . 38 64 Chemicals . . . 7j 8 Metals .... 23 22 Sundries . . . 57 1 63 Chemicals . . . 15 16 Sundries .... 16 19 British produce . Colonial. . . . 234 248 641 6S Total . . 387 427 Total . . 298 313 Commerce between France and the United Kingdom since 1831 shows thus : — Millions £ Period Exports to France Imports from France Total Exchanged Annual Trade, £ 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 16 31 84 230 284 209 30 .1 298 421 349 46 86 «47 528 ^5i 4,600,000 8,600,000 24,700,000 52,800,000 70,500,000 62,000,000 59 years 854 1,316 2,170 36,800,000 Imports Exports Total from, £ tO,;^ Trade, £ OS France .... 45,700,000 14,600,000 60,000,000 9.0 Germany . . . 27,100,000 18,400,000 45,500,000 6.8 Russia .... 27,200,000 5,300,000 32,500,000 4-9 Austria. . . . 2,300,000 1,000,000 3,300,000 O.S Italy .... 3,200,000 7,100,000 10,300,000 I- 5 Spain .... 11,500,000 4,200,000 15,700,000 2.2 Portugal . . . 3,100,000 2,500,000 5,600,000 0.8 Sweden and ) Norway . . j 12,700,000 4,500,000 2.S Denmark . . . 7,900,000 2,400,000 10,300,000 i.i; Holland . . . 26,700,000 9,700,000 36,400,000 S-4 Belgium . . . 17,700,000 7,100,000 24,800,000 3-7 Turkey. . ,. . 5,300,000 6,200,000 11,500,000 1.6 Europe. . . . 190,400,000 83,000,000 273,400,000 40.4 United States . 95,300,000 30,300,000 125,600,000 18.8 Spanish America 14,300,000 28,000,000 42,300,000 6.3 China .... 6,200,000 5,000,000 11,200,000 1.6 ,apan . . . . 1,000,000 3,900,000 4,900,000 0.7 Egypt .... 8,500,000 2,900,000 11,400,000 1.6 Various . . . 14,300,000 12,100,000 26,400,000 3-9 Foreign countries 330,000,000 165,200,000 495,200,000 73-3 Australia . . . 26,800,000 22,800,000 49,600,000 7-4 Canada . . . 12,200,000 8,100,000 20,300,000 30 South Africa . . 6,100,000 8,900,000 15,000,000 2.2 East Indies . . 44,400,000 34, 100,000 78,500,000 11.7 West Indies . . 2,200,000 2,200,000 4,400,000 0.6 Various . . . 5,500,000 6,700,000 12,200,000 1.8 British colonies . 97,200,000 82,800,000 180,000,000 26.7 Total . . 427,200,000 248,000,000 675,200,000 100.0 The above Board of Trade returns exclude exports of colonial and foreign merchandise from the United King- dom, namely, ;£6s,ooo,ooo, the total trade for the year having been ;^740, 200,000. Our trade with the United States is much greater than with any other country, India coming second on the list, and France third. * COMMERCE 132 COMMERCE The following table shows the value of merchandise imported from the several foreign countries and colonies since 1854, the earliest date supplied by statistical abstracts of the Board of Trade : — Millions £ Sterling 1864,-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 34 Years Percentage 186t-60 1861-80 1881-87 France . Germany Russia . Austria . Italy . Spain Portugal Belgium , Holland Denmark Sweden and Norway Greece . Roumania Turkey . Europe , United States Brazil . River Plate . Chili . Peru Central America Mexico . Spanish Colonies Java China and Japan Egypt . Various , Foreign countries India Australia Canada . West Indies Singapore Ceylon . South Africa Various . British colonies Grand total 89 88 71 6 17 25 13 23 48 18 24 5 6 17 29S 162 169 10 33 54 23 71 no 20 S6 II 8 54 421 217 200 12 39 94 37 131 17s 40 97 18 9 57 264 171 120 12 22 71 21 102 174 36 76 13 24 33 1,072 638 560 40 III 244 94 327 507 114 253 47 47 161 7-3 7-3 5.8 0.5 1-4 2.0 I.I 1-9 4.0 1-5 2.0 0.4 0-5 1-4 II. 2 S-9 5-8 0.3 I.I 2-3 0.9 31 4-5 0.9 2,4 0.4 °-3 1-7 9-7 6-3 4-4 0.4 0.8 2.& O.S 3.8 6.4 1-3 2.S 0-5 0.9 1-3 450 239 17 13 14 23 5 2 29 I 63 46 32 1,079 360 59 23 33 35 19 II 60 I "3 158 46 1.547 773 63 26 39 45 24 5 SI 14 132 114 57 1. 139 627 37 14 19 14 i6 4 17 22 69 61 35 4.2IS i>999 176 76 105 117 64 22 157 38 377 379 170 37-1 19.7 1-4 I.I 1.2 1-9 0.4 0.2 2.4 0.1 5-2 3.8 2.5 40.8 17.7 1-9 0.8 I.I 1.2 0.7 0.2 1-7 0.2 3-8 4-2 1-7 42.0 23.1 1-3 0-5 0.7 o-S 0.6 0.1 0.6 0.8 2.5 2.2 1-3 934 1.997 2,890 2,074 7.895 77.0 76.0 76.2 105 38 42 45 5 345 103 75 69 21 33 23 35 299 201 108 67 29 36 42 42 241 173 75 32 31 IS 38 31 990 515 300 213 86 95 113 130 8.7 31 3-5 3-7 0.4 0.9 0.8 1-9 10. 1 4.8 2.9 2,1 0.8 I.I i.o 1.2 8.9 6.4 2.8 1-3 1.2 0.6 1-4 1.2 278 704 824 636 2,442 23.0 24.0 23.8 2,701 3,714 2,710 10,337 The exports (including also colonial products) for the same period were :- Millions £ Sterling Percentage 1854^60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 34 Years 1854^60 1861-80 1881-87 France 69 230 283 180 762 7.0 10. S 8.9 Germany 116 261 334 202 913 11.8 12. 1 10. Russia . 26 69 lOI 53 249 2.6 3-S 2,6 Austria . 9 13 14 9 45 0.9 0.6 0-5 Italy 28 41 74 54 197 2.8 2-3 2.7 Spain . 15 33 43 31 122 i-S 1-5 I-S Portugal 12 22 27 17 78 1.2 1.0 o.e Belgium 27 68 123 97 320 2.7 4.0 4.& Holland 57 14s 193 III S06 5-8 6.9 S-5 Denmark 7 14 23 17 61 0.7 0.8 0.8 Sweden and Norway 9 22 53 35 119 0.9 i-S 1-7 Greece . 2 8 10 28 0.2 0.4 0.4 Roumania I 4 9 8 22 0.1 0.3 0.4 Turkey . 31 67 70 48 216 3-1 2.8 2.4 Europe . 409 997 1,362 870 3,638 413 48.2 43-0 United States 146 233 299 254 932 149 10.8 12.6 Brazil , . • 29 55 68 46 198 2:9 2-5 2.3 River Plate . , . 12 29 39 46 126 1.2 1.4 2.3 Chih . 10 18 21 15 64 1.0 0.8 0.7 Peru 7 13 17 7 44 0.7 0.6 0.3 COMMERCE 133 COMMERCE Millions £ Steriing Percentage 1854^60 1861-70 ! 1871-80 1881-87 34 years 1854^60 1861-80 1881-87 Central America . 8 25 1 30 20 83 0.8 I.I 1.0 Mexico Spanish colonies . 4 i6 13 33 10 37 9 28 36 114 0.4 1.6 o-S 1-4 0.4 1.4 Java 6 10 15 13 44 0.6 0.5 0.6 China and Japan . 12 54 78 57 201 1.2 2.7 2.8 Egypt 14 60 40 22 136 1.4 2.0 1.1 Various 24 63 5° 32 171 2.4 2.4 1.6 Foreign countries . 697 1,60s 2,066 1,419 S.787 70.4 74-9 70.1 India 99 197 241 223 760 10.2 8.9 II.O Austraha .... 80 128 188 181 577 8.2 6.4 8.9 Canada 29 60 87 66 242 3-0 3.0 3-3 West Indies .... 16 32 32 22 102 1.6 1.3 i.i Singapore .... 7 is 23 18 64 0.7 0.8 0.9 Ceylon 4 8 10 6 28 0.4 0.4 0.3 South Africa .... 12 18 49 39 118 1.2 1-4 1-9 Various 36 6S 82 51 234 4-3 2.9 2.5 British colonies 283 524 712 606 2,125 29.6 25- 1 29.9 Grand total 980 2,129 2,778 2,025 7,912 lOO.O lOO.O lOO.O The total volume of trade with the various countries was : — Millions £ Sterling Percentage 1854-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 34 Years 1864-60 1861-80 1881-87 France 158 528 704 444 1.834 7.2 10.9 9-4 'Germany .... 204 423 551 373 1,551 9-3 8.6 7-9 Russia 97 238 301 173 809 4-4 4-7 3-6 Austria 15 23 26 21 8S 0.7 0.4 0.4 Italy 45 74 "3 76 308 2.1 1-7 1.6 Spain 40 87 137 102 366 1.8 2.0 2.2 Portugal .... 25 45 64 38 172 I.I I.O 0.8 Belgium 50 139 259 199 647 2-3 3-5 4.2 HoUand 105 255 368 285 1.013 4-8 5-6 6.0 Denmark .... 25 34 63 53 175 I.I 0.9 1.1 Sweden and Norway 33 78 '5? III 372 1-5 2.0 2-3 Greece 7 19 28 21 75 0.3 0.4 0.4 Roumania .... 7 12 18 32 69 0.3 0.3 0.6 Turkey 48 121 127 81 377 2-3 2.2 1-7 Europe 859 2,076 2,909 2,009 7.853 39-2 44.2 42.2 United States 38S 593 1,072 881 2.931 17.6 14.8 i£.6 Brazil 46 114 131 83 374 2.2 2.2 1.8 River Plate . . . . 25 52 65 60 202 1.1 1.1 1.2 Chili 24 51 60 34 169 1.1 1.0 0.7 Peru 30 48 62 21 161 '•1 1.0 0.4 Central America . 13 44 54 36 147 a6 0.9 0.8 Mexico 6 24 15 13 58 0.3 0.3 0.3 Spanish colonies . 45 93 88 45 271 2.1 1.6 1.0 Java 7 II 29 35 82 0.3 0.4 0.7 China and Japan . 75 167 210 126 578 3-4 3-3 2.7 Egypt 60 218 154 83 515 2.7 3-3 1.8 Variotis ..... 56 III 107 67 341 2.6 1.8 1-4 Foreign countries . 1,631 3,612 4.956 3.493 13,682 74-6 75-9 73-6 India 204 542 540 46t 1,750 9-3 9-7 9.8 Australia 118 231 389 354 1,092 5-4 5.6 7-5 -Canada . 71 13s 195 141 542 3-3 30 3-0 West Indies 61 101 99 54 315 2.6 1.8 1.2 Singapore 12 37 s? 49 150 0.6 0.8 1.0 Ceylon . 15 41 46 21 123 0.7 0.8 0.4 South Africa 22 41 91 77 231 1.0 1.2 1.6 Various . 58 100 124 82 364 2-5 2.0 1-9 Sritish colonies . . 561 1,228 1.536 1,242 4,567 25.4 24.1 26.4 Grand total 2,192 4.830 6,492 4.735 18,249 lOO.O 100.0 lOO.O The ratio of our trade with British colonies is increasing, and with European countries declining, except as T^ards Spain, Belgium, Holland, Scandinavia, and Roumania. COMMERCE 134 COMMERCE During the said period of 34 years there was a balance of trade against the United Kingdom, the value of imports exceeding that of exports by 2425 millions, or 72 millions sterling per annum. The countries from which we had the largest excess of imports are seen in the following table :— Surplus Imports, Millions £ From 1854-80 1881-87 Total United States .... 694 373 1,067 Russia 244 67 3" France 226 84 310 Egypt 204 39 243 India 212 18 230 China and Japan. . . 164 12 176 Sweden and Norway 93 41 134 Spain 82 40 122 West Indies .... lOI 10 HI Other countries . . . 287 137 424 Total . . 2,307 821 3,128 At the same time there were twelve countries which showed a balance of trade in favour of Great Britain, the excess of our exports thither being as follows : — To Germany . . Italy .... Australia . . Turkey . . , River Plate. . Brazil . . . Other countries Total Surplus Exports, Millions £ 1854-80 1881-87 244 S4 54 40 18 13 142 S6S 138 Total 31 32 8 275 86 62 IS SS 32 50 9 22 11 IS3 703 The principal articles of merchandise that composed the import trade of the United Kingdom were as fol- lows : — * For example, 22.8 signifies ;^22,8oo,ooo. The quantities of certain articles of imported merchandise retained for consumption were as follows : — Millions Sterling* 1854 1860 1870 1880 1889 Grain . . . Cotton . . . Manufactures Meat . . . Wool . . . Sugar . . . Dairy produce Tea and coffee Timber . . Minerals . . Wines . . . Flax and jute Silk. . . . Sundries . , 22.8 20.2 4.1 3.8 6.S 10.8 3-1 7.2 "■5 31 6.4 5-8 6.4 40.7 32.8 6.4 3-9 II.O 12.8 6.8 9-7 10.7 5.3 6.2 5-6 9-9 53-6 36-7 S3-S 265 7-7 15-8 17.6 11.9 15.4 % 8.0 10.4 8.2 69-S 69. 5 42.8 33-7 26. s 26.4 23.0 21.2 19-3 16.8 iS-S 8.6 10. 1 3-1 94-7 54-1 64-3 31-7 29.7 22.7 21.5 14.4 19.8 22.1 S-9 11.8 80.3 Total 152.4 210.5 303-3 411. 2 427.2 In the above table grain includes also rice and potatoes, wines likewise include spirits, and meat also live cattle and poultry. The above shows the total importation, not only for home use, but also what was re-shipped. The following table shows the value of what was retained for home consumption. Millions £ Sterling 1854 1860 1870 1880 1889 Grain 21.9 32.0 34-6 66.8 52- S Cotton 17.9 30- 4 4.';.4 37-3 39-4 Meat 3-8 3-9 7-7 25-7 31.0- Wool S-o 8.7 10.2 12,0 14-a Sugar 10.3 12.4 17. 1 22.4 21.9. Tea and cofifee . . . 5-9 7-5 9-2 10.9 10. 1 Wines 4-6 4-7 7.1 7-4 7.0 Dairy produce . . . 3,1 6.8 11.9 21.2 21. 5 Timber "•5 10.7 13.2 16.8 19.8: Sundries 49-8 64.9 102.6 127-S 144-7 Total . . 133-8 182.0 [ 259.0 348.0 362.2 1854 1860 1870 1880 1889 Grain, tons Cotton ,, Wool „ Sugar , , Butter ,, Cheese , , Tea and coSee, Meat, tons Minerals ,, Timber, , , Wine, gallons 1,460,000 360,000 36,000 460,000 24,000 19,000 59,000 84,000 120,000 2,650,000 11,900,000 2,630,000 530,000 53,000 475,000 42,000 29,000 63,000 87,000 190,000 2,850,000 12,200,000 3,760,000 510,000 77,000 700,000 38,000 52,000 73,000 140,000 290,000 4,500,000 23,500,000 6,700,000 625,000 101,000 980,000 114,000 87,000 90,000 590,000 3,070,000 6,400,000 24,300,000 7,380,000 735,000 160,000 1,300,000 155,000 92,000 95,000 790,000 5,150,000 7,870,000 23,800,000- Grain includes also potatoes and rice ; wine includes spirits ; meat includes also lard and live animals, and cocoa is comprised with tea and coffee ; sugar also includes molasses. The quantities of the principal exports were as follows ; — 1864 1860 1870 1880 1889 Cotton cloth, million yards 1,700 2,800 3.300 4.500 5,002 Woollen goods. 150. 190 290 260 274 Linen goods, ,, 112 144 226 I6S 181 Jute goods ... 52 183 26s All textiles, statute miles 1,120,000 1,790,000 2,220,000 2,910,000 3,220,000 Iron and steel, tons . 1,200,000 1,400,000 2,800,000 3,800,000 4,200,000 Other metals, „ 40,000 60,000 100,000 100,000 120,00a Coal; ,, . 4,300,000 7,300,000 11,700,000 18,700,000 29,000,000 Chemicals, ,, 50,000 lOO.OOO 200,000 420,000 390,000 Cement, ,, 20,000 80,000 150,000 280,000 630,000 All yarns, million lbs. 184 259 276 274 34S COMMERCE 13s COMMERCE The consumption per head of the population has been of various imported articles as follows : — 1845 1860 1860 1870 1880 1889 Grain, bushels . I.O 1-5 3-7 4-9 7.6 7-7 Sugar, lbs. . . 20 25 36 .■^o 6S 72 Meat „ , . 6 6 10 3S 43 Butter „ . . I 2 3 4 7 9 Cheese „ . . • I 2 2 4 S 6 Tea, oz. . . . 2S 31 43 60 7S 7a Coffee, oz. . . 20 19 20 16 15 12 Wines, gallons . 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.6 Cotton, lbs. . . 20 20 40 35 40 43 Wool „ . . 2 2 4 6 7 10 The principal exports from the United Kingdom * were in value thus : — Millions £ Sterling 1851 I860 1870 1880 1889 Cotton goods . . . Woollen goods . . . Linen and jute . . , Silken, &c 31-7 10.7 1.2 S|.o 16.0 6.6 2.4 71.4 26.6 10.4 2.6 75-6 20.6 9-3 2.7 70-5 25.7 9.8 4.2 Textiles 48.7 77.0 III.O 108.2 1 10. 2 Iron Machinery .... Cutlery Metals 11.7 2.2 4.1 3-8 "1 ii 26. s 5-3 6.4 4-7 29.7 9.2 S-S 4.8 29.2 IS- 3 3-0 8.7 Hardware 21.8 27.1 42.9 49.2 56.2 Coal Sundries 2.1 24.6 M 5-6 40.1 8.4 57-3 14.8 66.9 Total . . 97.2 135-9 199.6 223.1 248.1 Ireland Dobbs gives returns for the 17th century ; the rest are from Blue-books : — Date Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ i66s 336,000 358,000 694,000 1681. 433.000 583,000 1,016,000 1695. 392,000 296,000 688,000 1698. 577,000 996,000 1,573,000 1725 ■ 1,000,000 1,400,000 2,400,000 1750-52 1,900,000 1,600,000 3,500,000 1760-62 2,300,000 1,700,000 4,000,000 1770-72 3,300,000 2,400,000 5,700,000 1780-82 3,100,000 2,700,000 5,800,000 1790-52 5,100,000 4,100,000 9,200,000 1800-2 4,100,000 5,600,000 9,700,000 iSio . 6,500,000 5,300,000 11,800,000 1820 . 6,000,000 6,300,000 12,300,000 1826. 7,500,000 8,500,000 16,000,000 Since 1826 no separate tables of Irish trade have been kept. In 1725 the exports were as follows : — £ Meat 860,000 Linen 470,000 Grain &c. 7°.°°° 1,400,000 In the years 1796 to 1799 the annual average was as follows : — From Imforts, £ Great Britain . , 4,010,000 Other countries . 1,270,000 Total . 5,280,000 To Exports, £ Great Britain , , 4,970,000 Other countries . 810,000 Total . 5,780,000 The trade between Great Britain and Ireland in the same year was : — Imported from Great Britain Exported to Great Britain Woollens . . . Coal Cottons and silk Iron and steel . Fish .... Sundries . . . J 690,000 160,000 130,000 120,000 100,000 2,810,000 Linen . . Meat . . . Butter . . Wheat . . Cattle . . Sundries Total . . . £ 2,490,000 870,000 740,000 440,000 140,000 290,000 Total . 4,010,000 4,970,000 France Official returns date continuously frem 1716, yearly averages being as follows : — Period Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant £ £ £ A s. d. 1716-20 2,600,000 4,200,000 6,800,000 '' t 1721-30 3,200,000 4,600,000 7,800,000 7 6 1731-40 3,600,000 5,200,000 8,800,000 8 1741-50 4,100,000 7,700,000 11,800,000 10 6 1751-60 5,800,000 9,200,000 15,000,000 12 6 1761-70 6,600,000 12,400,000 19,000,000 16 1771-80 8,300,000 10,400,000 18,700,000 15 1781-90 12,100,000 14,200,000 26,300,000 1 I 1791-1800 17,000,000 14,500,000 31,500,000 I 3 1801-10 16,300,000 14,400,000 30,700,000 I 1 1811-20 11,300,000 16,100,000 27,400,000 18 1821-30 20,600,000 20,900,000 41,500,000 I 6 1831-40 28,500,000 30,700,000 59,200,000 1 16 1841-50 33,000,000 40,500,000 73,500,000 2 2 1851-60 62,000,000 65,000,000 127,000,000 3 10 1861-70 110,000,000 110,000,000 220,000,000 6 1871-80 157,000,000 140,000,000 297,000,000 B 1881-86 181,000,000 134,000,000 315,000^000 8 6 1889 167,000,000 144,300,000 311,300,000 8 3 The trade returns of 1800 showed thus : — • This table is exclusive of colonial merchandise. Imports, £ Exports, £ Coffee . . . Raw cotton . Sundries . . 1,500,000 1,400,000 10,100,000 Wine . . . Silks . . . Sundries . . Total . . 2,000,000 1,600,000 7,200,000 Total . . 13,000,000 10,800,000 The weight of merchandise imported and exported yearly averaged thus : — Period Imports, Tons Exports, Tons Total, Tons 1857-66 . . . 1867-76 , . . 1877-89 . . . 9,200,000 12,800,000 20,400,000 2,400,000 4,300,000 4,600,000 11,600,000 17,100,000 25,000,000 COMMERCE 136 COMMERCE The statement of French trade for ten years ending 18S6 shows thus : — Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports Gross from to Trade Great Britain . 248 358 606 19.4 Belgium . 178 179 - 3S7 11.4 Germany . 167 137 304 9-7 United States . 171 114 28s 9-1 Italy . . . . 144 81 225 7.2 Spain 118 62 180 5-8 Russia 99 9 108 3-5 Argentina . 65 37 102 3-3 India 74 3 77 2.5 Turkey S3 19 72 2.3 Austria 41 10 51 1.6 Switzerland 46 91 137 4-4 China and Japan 49 49 i-S Other countries , , 241 IS8 399 12.8 Total foreign . 1,694 1,258 2,952 94-5 French colonies 91 80 171 S-S Total . 1.78s 1.338 3.123 100. The imports according to quantity were as follows :- 1876 1886 1877-86 Wine, million gallons 14 242 1.430 Wool, million lbs. 270 426 3.300 Grain, million bushels 40 57 770 Silk, million lbs. . . 29 29 240 Hides, tons .... 67,000 79,000 720,000 Cotton, million lbs. . 350 302 3,100 Coal, tons .... 7,900,000 9,300,000 92,000,000 Fruit and seeds, tons 420,000 760,000 6,600,000 Coffee, tons . . . 53.000 68,000 620,000 Flax, tons .... 41,000 56,000 710,000 Cheese and butter, tons 17,000 24,000 230,000 Copper, tons . . . 30,000 23,000 260,000 The principal exports were in value thus : — 1876 1886 Average, 1877-86 1889 Woollen fabrics . Silk fabrics Wines . . Raw silk . Raw wool . Sugar . . Hides and ■ leather . Cotton manufac. Clothing . Grain . . Cheese and butter . Raw cotton Eggs . , Jewellery . Fruit . . Metal wares Haber- dashery . Sundries . > 12,700,000 11,800,000 12,600,000 6,900,000 3,000,000 6,400,000 1 11,200,000 ■ 2,600,000 3,600,000 5,800,000 } 4,400,000 3,200,000 1,800,000 2,200,000 1,400,000 29,000,000 } 6,900,000 43,600,000 £ 15,100,000 9,700,000 13,400,000 5,900,000 5,300,000 2,200,000 11,600,000 4,300,000 3,100,000 1,200,000 3,600,000 1,200,000 1,100,000 2,000,000 1,700,000 2,500,000 5,000,000 41,100,000 £ 14,100,000 11,000,009 12,800,000 6,100,000 4,200,000 4,100,000 12,400,000 3,400,000 3,100,000 2,700,000 3,900,000 2,100,000 1,200,000 2,400,000 1,500,000 2,700,000 6,000,000 40, 100,000 £ 13,400,000 9,900,000 12,800,000 5,400,000 6,200,000 4,200,000 12,200,000 4,500,000 3,500,000 3,300,000 4,400,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 2,400,000 1,700,000 5,400,000 5,700,000 47,200,000 Total . 143,000,000 130,000,000 133,800,000 144,300,000 The principal imports were as follows : — 1876 1886 Average, 1877-86 1889 £ £ £ £ Wine . . 1,010,000 20,700,000 11,300,000 15,500,000 Wool . . 11,100,000 15,400,000 12,900,000 15,100,000 Grain . . 9,600,000 10,500,000 18,400,000 17,400,000 Silk . . . 21,800,000 11,700,000 12,100,000 10,800,000 Hides . . 6,800,000 7,000,000 6,900,000 6,500,000 Cotton . . 9,200,000 6,400,000 7,900,000 7,400,000 Timber . 8,100,000 5,800,000 8,400,000 6,200,00a Coal . . 6,900,000 5,000,000 6,300,000 5,400,000 Cattleand 1 meat . f 7,400,000 6,400,000 8,600,000 4,800,000 Fruit and ) seeds . ) Coffee . . 5,900,000 11,600,000 9,600,000 8,400,000 4,300,000 4,100,000 3,800,000 5,100,000 Flax . . 2,000,000 2,200,000 2,600,000 2,400,000 Sundries . 65,390,000 61,500,000 69,700,000 62,100,000 Total . 159,500,000 168,300,000 178,500,000 167,000,000 The exports according to quantity were as follows :- 1876 1886 1877-86 Wines, million gallons 84 64 640 Wool, million lbs. 46 108 730 Grain, million bushels. 23 7 120 Cheese and butter, tons 43.000 34.000 370,000 Eggs, tons .... 33,000 21,000 220,000 Fruit 44,000 64,000 520,000 Hides „ . . . . 24,000 3S.OOO 340,000 Sugar 230,000 140,000 1,520,000 Raw cotton, million lbs. 120 56 770 The net imports averaged for ten years, 1877-86, as follows : — Quantity Value, £ Sterling Wines, gallons . . 79,000,000 6,400,000 Wool, lbs. 257,000,000 8,700,000 Grain, bushels 65,000,000 15,700,000 Silk, raw, lbs. 13,000,000 6,000,000 Hides, tons 38,000 4,000,000 Raw cotton, lbs 233,000,000 5,800,000 Timber . 7,200,000 Coal, tons 9,200,000 6,300,000 Cattle and meat 7,400,000 Fruit and seeds tons 610,000 8,100,000 Coffee, tons 62,000 3,800,000 Sundries . 72,300,000 Total ... 151,700,000 , The French coasting trade in 1889 was 2,360,000 tons. Algeria Trade returns show as follows for 1888 : — From Imports, X3 To Exports, Total Trade, £ France . . Other ) countries ) 7,200,000 2,200,000 France . . Other \ countries J Total . 6,600,000 1,300,000 13 800,000 3,500,000 Total . 9,400,000 7,900,000 17,300.000 COMMERCE 137 COMMERCE Imports, £ Exports, £ Cotton goods . Leather. . . Hardware . . Haberdashery Sundries , , 1,100,000 600,000 300,000 300,000 7,100,000 Grain . . . Wine . . . Cattle . . . Wool . . . Sundries . . . Total . 1,300,000 1,700,000 1,400,000 800,000 2,700,000 Total . 9,400,000 7,900,000 The trade with Great Britain, imports and exports, reaches ;^900,ooo. Germany The R^pertoirt Ginlrale gives the trade for 1822 as follows : — Imports, £ \ Exports, £ Total, £ Prussia .... Other states . . 13,100,000 6,400,000 14,200,000 6,500,000 27,300,000 12,900,000 Total . . 19,500,000 I 20,700,000 40,200,000 In 1850, according to Levi's estimate, the total trade was : — £ Imports 22,000,000 Exports 20,000,000 Total 42,000,000 This was much below the reality. We know that the trade of the ZoUverein in 1856 reached 106 millions sterling, and the increase of six years could hardly have exceeded 50 per cent. The trade seems to have been as follows : — Year Millions £ Steriing Per Inhabi- Imports Exports Total £ s. d. 1822 . . . 19 21 40 I 10 1840 . . . as 27 52 I 14 1850 . . . 34 36 70 220 1872 . . . 163 n6 279 700 1880 . . . 142 152 294 6 II 1888 . . . 172 i63 340 740 1889 . . . 204 163 367 7 16 The statement for German trade for seven years ending l8!i6 was as follows : — ■ Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Gross Trade Ratio Great Britain . 151 167 318 14.9 Austria . . . 151 107 258 12. 1 Russia , . . 125 61 186 8.7 Belgium . , . 89 57 146 6.8 France . . . 84 lOI 185 8.7 Holland. . . 81 83 164 7-7 Switzerland 55 58 "3 S-3 ■United States . 48 61 109 S-i Italy .... 25 26 51 oS Other countries 254 348 602 28.2 Total . i 1,063 1,069 2,132 100. There is not much difference between the total value of imports and that of exports. The trade with Russia and Austria, however, shows a heavy excess of imports, which is counterbalanced by a surplus of exports to Great Britain, France, United States, and other countries. The principal articles of import were as follows : — 1876 18S6 1877-86, Ten Years Net Import £ £ Mill. £ Mill. £ Grain . . 29,800,000 10,300,000 222 133 Wool . . 10,400,000 10,900,000 104 78 Cotton . 10,200,000 8,800,000 93 78 Coffee . . 9,600,000 6,900,000 73 73 Cattle . . 8,000,000 4,700,000 63 6 Hides . . 3,900,000 4,600,000 44 44 Horses 3,500,000 3,500,000 23 16 Petroleum S,200,000 2,800,000 31 28 Silk, raw . 6,600,000 7,500,000 60 60 Tobacco . 4,100,000 3,200,000 33 29 Yarn . . 8,500,000 8,100,000 69 40 Wine . . 2,900,000 1,700,000 24 24 Sundries . 87,400,000 71,400,000 77a 772 Total . 190,100,000 144,400,000 1,616 1,381 The principal exports were : — 1876 1886 1877-86, Ten Years Woollen fabrics Silk fabrics . . . Cotton fabrics . . Sugar Leather goods . . Iron and machinery Cattle Yarn Paper Grain Coal Wool Sundries .... £ 6,300,000 2,800,000 1,900,000 1,900,000 3,400,000 5,500,000 7,000,000 2,700,000 800,000 11,100,000 1,600,000 3,300,000 79,100,000 £ 8,600,000 9,000,000 4,900,000 7,100,000 7,600,000 7,500,000 4,200,000 3,100,000 2,500,000 3,100,000 4,000,000 2,000,000 85,700,000 Mill. £ 81 71 l\ 56 80 57 29 18 89 28 26 859 Total . . . 127,400,000 149,300,000 1,491 The trade returns for 1888 were as follows :- Imports, £ i Exports, £ Textiles . . . Food. . . . Cattle . . . Metals . . . Chemicals . . Tallow, &c. . Sundries . . 51,300,000 37,600,000 7,800,000 15,900,000 12, 100,000 10,800,000 36,300,000 Textiles . . Food . . . Metals . . . Chemicals Leather . , Machinery . Sundries . . Total . . 53,800,000 19,600,000 24,300,000 11,800,000 ii,8oo',ooo 6,800,000 39,500,000 Total . . 171,800,000 167,600,000 Russia The principal imports of European Russia were as follows : — 1876 1886 1877-86, Ten Years, Mil- lions Sterling Net Imports, Millions Steriing £ £ £ £ Cotton . . 5,200,000 7,200,000 74 74 Wool . . . 1,700,000 1,900,000 24 9 Tea . . . 5,200,000 3,600,000 46 46 Iron and steel 5,100,000 1,900,000 34 32 Machinery . 2,700,000 1,400,000 25 25 Coal . . . 1,600,000 1,300,000 17 17 Chemicals . 800,000 1,300,000 19 19 Sundries . . 36,800,000 18,800,000 2S2 282 Total . 59,100,000 37,400,000 521 504 COMMERCE 138 COMMERCE The principal exports of European Russia were as follows ; — 1877-86, Ten 1876 1886 Years, Millions Sterling £ £ £ Wheat . . 14,000,000 9,700,000 162 Rye . 7,600,000 4,800,000 74 Oats . . . 3,300,000 2,600,000 4S Barley, & c. . , 2,200,000 4,600,000 42 All grain . . 27,100,000 21,700,000 323 Flax . . . 5,100,000 4,300,000 70 Hemp . . 1,200,000 1,200,000 18 Linseed . . 3,200,000 1,500,000 31 Timber . . 4,100,000 2,000,000 33 Wool. . . 1,600,000 2,100,000 15 Cattle . . 1,600,000 900,000 13 Sundries . . 6,800,000 10,000,000 87 T Dtal . 50,700,000 43,700,000 590 Exports of the whole Russian Empire at various dates were officially valued thus ; — Year Grain, £ Sundries, £ Total, £ 1830 1840 i860 1870 1880 1886 3,000,000 5,800,000 10,400,000 24,400,000 26,600,000 21,700,000 9,400,000 10,900,000 15,800,000 29,900,000 31,600,000 27,100,000 12,400,000 16,700,000 26,200,000 54,300,000 58,200,000 48,800,000 Official returns, allowing for discount on paper-money at various periods, may be summed up smce 1742 thus : — Date Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant £ £ £ £ J. d. 1742 3,600,000 4,700,000 8,300,000 8 1750 6,900,000 7,200,000 14,100,000 13 1760 7,400,000 9,900,000 17,300,000 15 1770 11,400,000 15,000,000 26,400,000 I 2 1780 15,500,000 19,700,000 35,200,000 1 7 1790 20,800,000 21,800,000 42,600,000 1 10 1802 14,100,000 15,800,000 29,900,000 16 1820-39 10,500,000 12,000,000 22,500,000 10 1840 11,200,000 15,200,000 26,400,000 II 1841-49 15,000,000 18,000,000 33,000,000 12 1850-59 21,000,000 23,000,000 44,000,000 15 i860 21,500,000 26,200,000 47,700,000 IS 1870 48,900,000 54,300,000 103,200,000 I 6 1880 72,600,000 53,200,000 130,800,000 1 II 1886 42,700,000 48,800,000 91,500,000 I I 1888 39,100,000 79,400,000 118,500,000 I 7 The statement for ten years ending 1886 shows as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports Gross Ratio from to Trade Germany .... 201 16s 366 36.2 Great Britain . . . 123 169 292 28.9 Austria 23 31 5-3 France i3 48 66 6-S Turkey 14 10 24 2.4 Italy 9 12 21 2.1 Holland 6 36 42 4-1 Sweden and Norway 4 16 20 2.0 Other countries . . 79 49 128 12.S Total . . 477 536 1,013 100.0 The exports of grain since 1867 averaged in quantity as follows : — Millions of Bushels 1867-76 1877-86 1887 1888 Wheat SO 67 75 122 Oats. 20 46 S9 85 Rye .... 27 46 5° 68 Barley 6 20 34 58 Maize, &c 7 16 28 34 Total no 1 19s 246 367 The trade returns for European Russia in 1888 may be summed up thus : — Imports, £ Exports, £ Raw cotton 6,800,000 Grain . . . 42,200,000 Wool . . . 2,500,000 nax . . . 6,700,000 Tea ... . 1,600,000 Seeds . . . 3,800,000 Machinery . . 1,600,000 Timber . . 3,800,000 Iron wares . . 1,500,000 Hemp . . . 1,700,000 Coal .... 1,300,000 Butter and eggs 1,500,000 Sundries . . 17,900,000 Sundries . . Total . . 13,000,000 Total . . 33,200,000 72,700,000 Austria-Hungary The following are the official returns : — Year Imports Exports Total Per Inhab. ./ £ £ £ s. d. 1831 6,800,000 7,900,000 14,700,000 .0 12 183s 9,ioo,qoo 8,900,000 18,000,000 14 1840 11,000,000 10,800,000 21,800,000 15 6 1851 15,600,000 13,400,000 29,000,000 19 i860 20,900,000 26,500,000 47,400,000 I 10 1870 43,600,000 39,500,000 83,100,000 270 1880 51,100,000 56,300,000 107,400,000 2 16 1889 48,200,000 44,400,000 92,600,000 260 The principal export 3 of Austria- Hungary were : — 1860 1870 1880 1886 Million £, 1877-86 Timber . Grain Fancy goods Cattle Leather goods Textile goods Sugar Sundries . A 1,600,000 2,000,000 1,800,000 800,000 1,100,000 3,100,000 16,100,000 £ 2,400,000 5,200,000 4,400,000 1,000,000 1,400,000 4,200,000 20,900,000 £ 3,700,000 6,700,000 4,300,000 3,000,000 1,500,000 4,200,000 4,900,000 28,000,000 £ 4,200,000 6,300,000 5,200,000 3,300,000 2,100,000 4,400,000 4,000,000 28,700,000 £ 42 81 S6 ■ 37 17 44 47 259 Tota 1 26,500,000 39,500,000 56,300,000 58,200,000 583 COMMERCE 139 COMMERCE Austro-Hungarian Imports 1860 1870 1880 1886 1877-86, Million £ Net Imports, Million £ £ £ £ £ £ £ Raw cotton 2,900,000 3,800,000 3,600,000 3,800,000 37 34 Wool . 1,100,000 1,400,000 3,100,000 2,700,000 30 14 Coffee . 1, 100,000 2,000,000 2,300,000 2,600,000 2S 2S Tobacco 2,300,000 2,800,000 20 20 Hides . 500,600 1,400,000 1,800,000 1,700,000 17 9 Silk, raw 500,000 1,100,000 1,300,000 1,600,000 13 13 tieather 500,000 1,400,000 1,600,000 1,300,000 16 16 Yams . 1,500,000 2,700,000 2,700,000 2,300,000 26 IS Flax and jute 1,000,000 1,500,000 12 12 Sundries 11,700,000 29,800,000 31,400,000 24,600,000 293 Tola 1 ■ 20,900,000 43,600,000 51,100,000 44,900,000 491 Trade returns for 1887 may be summed up thus :- Imports, £ Exports, £ Cotton .... 4,700,000 Grain . . 7,800,000 Wool .... 3,600,000 Timber . . 4,600,000 Coffee .... 2,800,000 Sugar . . 3,700,000 Silk . . 1,600,000 Hardware . 3,000,000 Tobacco . . . 1,500,000 Woollens . 2,100,000 Yam .... 2,600,000 CatUe . . 2,200,000 Hides and leather 2,700,000 Glass . . 1,700,000 Sundries . . . 27,900,000 Sundries . Total . 31,000,000 Total . . 47,400,000 56, 100,000 Imports from Export.s to Total Trade Germany . . . Russia .... Great Britain . . Servia .... Various. . . . £ 30,200,000 2,100,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 12,300,000 £ 33,300,000 1,500,000 900,000 1,000,000 19,400,000 , £ 63,500,000 3,600,000 2,500,000 2,200,000 31,700,000 Total . . 47,400,000 56,100,000 103,500,000 Italy The trade of Genoa increased 80 per cent, from 1835 to 1867.* If we suppose a similar increase for Italy, the trade of the kingdom would have been 35 millions sterling in the former year, but it was doubtless much below that figure. Levi's estimate for 1850 was only 11 millions for imports, and 8 millions for exports, which was certainly too low. We have regular statistics from 1861 : — Year Million £ Sterling Per Inhabi- Imports Exports Total tant £ ^- d- 183s • ■ • 13 11 24 170 1850 . . . 23 IS 38 I i3 1861 . . . 19 52 270 1870 . . . 36 30 66 2 13 1880 . . . 47 44 91 330 1886 . . . 58 41 59 360 1889 . 56 38 94 330 The aggregate for ten years, 1877-86, was : — The above includes the total foreign trade of both Austria and Hungary, in which only a small portion seems to fall to Hungary, since the returns for that kingdom for 1888, including trade with Austria, show : — Imports from Exports to 1 Total Trade Austria .... Foreign countries £ 32,400,000 6,300,000 £ 25,800,000 11,400,000 £ 58,200,000 17.700,000 Total . . 38,700,000 37,200,000 1 75,900,000 Hungary exported grain worth ;^i4,ooo,ooo and cattle ;f 5,000,000: her imports included textiles worth ;£'i6,6oo,coo sterling. Millions £ Sterling Imported Exported Gross Ratio from to Trade France . . . 136 194 330 34-0 -_ Great Britain . 116 36 152 15.6 Austria . . . 84 S8 142 14.4 Germany . . 33 27 60 6.2 Switzerland . 21 44 65 6.7 Russia . . . 24 9 33 3-4 United States . 24 20 44 4-S India . . . 27 8 35 3-6 Other countries 62 48 no 11.6 Total . . S27 444 971 100.0 This table includes bullion both ways. * From ;^8,20o,ooo to ^^14,400,000. Grain Coal Timber . Raw cotton Wool Silk . Machinery Textile goods Hides . Stmdries . Total 1877-86. Net Imports, Italy 18B2 1870 1880 1886 Millions Millions Sterling Sterlmg £ £ £ £ £ £ 3,000,000 3,200,000 3,600,000 8,100,000 49 18 700,000 1,500,000 2,300,000 • 2,700,000 23 23 800,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 2,400,000 15 IS 300,000 1,400,000 3,300,000 3,000,000 30 500,000 500,000 1,200,000 1,300,000 13 13 5,000000 2,200,000 2,100,000 2,000,000 18 200,000 1,600,000 1,700,000 19 19 4,800,000 4,400,000 4,900,000 52 47 . 1 500,000 700,000 1,100,000 1,400,000 14 14 , : 22,400,000 20,300,000 . 26,600,000 30,700,000 280 33,200,000 35,800,000 47,400,000 58,200,000 SOS COMMERCE 140 COMMERCE The jrincipal exports were : — 1862 1870 1880 1886 1877-86, Millions Sterling £ £ £ £ £ Silk 8,200,000 9,200,000 11,600,000 12,600,000 114 Wine 400,000 400,000 2,600,000 3,300,000 20 Oil . 2,600,000 3,400,000 3,400,000 3,100,000 37 Fruit 1,200,000 1,000,000 1,400,000 1,500,000 16 Eggs 60,000 160,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 13 Cattle 500,000 900,000 1,200,000 700,000 13 Hemp 400,000 800,000 900,000 1,000,000 11 Sulphur 1,200,000 1,000,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 12 Sundries 8,540,000 13,340,000 20,300,000 16,400,000 190 Tota 23,100,000 30,200,000 44,100,000 40,800,000 426 The trade of 1888 may be summed up thus : — Imports, £ Exports, £ Grain . Coal . . Cotton . Textiles . Machinery Timber . Sundries 5,900,000 3,600,000 3,400,000 2,500,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 28,800,000 Silk . Oil. . Wine . Fruit . Hemp Sulphur Sundries 11,600,000 2,500,000 2,200,000 1,700,000 1,100,000 900,000 15,600,000 Total 47,000,000 Total 35,600,000 Spain The official returns show as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant £ £ £ £ s. d. I79S 8,800,000 4,800,000 13,600,000 170 1827 3,800,000 2,900,000 6,700,000 12 1850 5,900,000 4,800,000 10,700,000 IS i860 14,500,000 10,700,000 25,200,000 1 11 1872 21,100,000 20,100,000 41,200,000 2 II 1880 24,900,000 25,500,000 50,400,000 330 1885 29,500,000 27,500,000 57,000,000 370 18S8 28,606,000 30,500,000 59,100,000 380 The exports of 1795 were as follows : — Wool ...... 1,500,000 Wine 1,600,000 Sundries 1,700,000 Total , . 4,800,000 The statement for ten years ending December 1885 showed as follows : — Million £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Gross Trade Ratio France ..... Great Britain . , , Germany .... United States . . . Cuba Other countries . . 78 61 20 33 II 72 85 77 3 7 25 47 163 138 23 40 36 119 l6.1 4-4 7-7 7.0 23.0 Total . . 27s 244 S19 loo.o The above table includes bullion both ways. Not- withstanding heavy Import duties, the imports surpassed exports. In 1888, however, there was a surplus of exports. The imports were as follows :- 1860 1872 1880 1885 1876-85, Mil- lions Sterling Net Imports, Millions Steriing £ £ £ £ £ £ Grain 200,000 300,000 900,000 10 4 Brandy . 200,000 200,000 1,700,000 2,200,000 13 13 Cotton . 1,300,000 2,600,000 3,200,000 2,600,000 29 29 Textiles . 1,500,000 1,000,000 1,700,000 2,100,000 19 19 Sugar 1,100,000 1,100,000 900,000 1,200,000 II II Coal 300,000 700,000 800,000 1,000,000 9 9 Fish . 500,000 700,000 700,000 1, 200,000 8 8 Machinery 300,000 700,000 2,000,000 1,400,000 18 18 Sundries . 9,300,000 13,900,000 13,600,000 16,900,000 143 Tota . 14,500,000 21,100,000 24,900,000 29,500,000 260 The above is of merchandise only, excluding bullion. The exports were as follows : — 1860 1872 1880 1886 1876-85, Millions Sterling Wine Minerals Fruit Oil Sundries ..... £ 3,200,000 200,000 7,300,000 6,800,000 3,600,000 2,100,000 600,000 7,000,000 £ 10,000,000 6,400,000 1 ,600,000 500,000 7,000,000 / 12,600,000 4,800,000 1,900,000 1,600,000 6,600,000 £ 92 S3 19 7 70 Total 10,700,000 20,100,000 25,500,000 27,500,000 241 COMMERCE 141 COMMERCE The trade of 1888 may be summed up thus :— Imports, £ \ Exports, £ Cotton . . . 2,300,000 Wine . . . 12,100,000 Grain . . . Coal .... 2,400,000 1,200,000 Metals and 1 minerals J 6,800,000 Textiles . . . 2,000,000 Fruit . . . 2,300,000 Machinery ) and iron . / 1,600,000 Cork . . . Cattle . . . 800,000 700,000 Timber . . . 1,200,000 Wool . . . 600,000 Sugar . . . 1,200,000 Oil ... . 400,000 Sundries . . 16,700,000 Simdries . . 6,800,000 Total 28,600,000 Total . . 30,500,000 Portugal OfGcial returns are as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per Inhabitant £ £ £ £s. d. 1806 7,100,000 j,(ioajcoa 14,700,000 4 IS 1842 2,400,000 1,700,000 4,100,000 I 4 1850 3,100,000 2,200,000 5,300,000 190 1870 5,700,000 4,600,000 10,300,000 2 II 1880 7,900,000 5,600,000 13,500,000 3 I 1886 10,500,000 5,700,000 16,200,000 3 10 1888 10,600,000 7,200,000 17.800,000 400 The trade of 1806 was probably abnormally high on account of the war with Spain. There has been a steady increase since 1842. The returns for imports are as follows : — 1872 1880 1886 1877-86, Average Grain . . . Textile goods Cotton and \ wool . 1 Fish . . . Coal . . , Sundries . . £ 400,000 1,500,000 200,000 300,000 200,000 3,900,000 £ 1,200,000 1,200,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 6,800,000 £ z,\Qa,aoia 1,400,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 6,800,000 £ 1,200,000 1,300,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 4,700,000 Total . 6,500,000 7,900,000 10,500,000 8,100,000 The exports were as follows : — 1872 1880 1886 1877-86 Wine. . . Copper . . Cork . . . Cattle . . Fruit . . . Sundries . . £ 2,000,000 400,000 200,000 300,000 200,000 2,100,000 £ 2,200,000 400,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 1,800,000 £ 3,700,000 500,000 200,000 100,000 1,200,000 £ 2,400,000 300,000 500.000 400,000 200,000 1,400,000 Total . 5,200,000 5,600,000 5,700,000 5,200,000 The statement for ten years ending December 1882 was as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Ratio Imports Exports Total from to Great Britain . , . 34 27 61 48.0 France 10 4 14 II.O Brazil S 10 IS 11.8 United States . . . 7 I 8 6.3 Spain S 3 8 6-3 Other countries . . IS ^ 21 16.6 Total . . . 76 S' 127 100.0 Sweden Official returns of merchandise are as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant £ £ £ £ ^. d. 1801 1,400,000 1,000,000 2,400,000 110 1805 1,500,000 1,700,000 3,200,000 I 6 1831-40 1,300,000 1,600,000 2,900,000 I I 'ol° 3,300,000 3,700,000 7,000,000 210 i860 4,400,000 4,800,000 9,200,000 280 1870 7,800,000 8,400,000 16,200,000 3 18 1880 15,100,000 13,100,000 28,200,000 650 1885 18,700,000 13,700,000 32,400,000 6 10 1887 16,300,000 13,500,000 29.800,000 600 A statement for ten years ending December 1885 shows thus : — Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports Gross Ratio from to Trade Great Britain . . , 44 63 107 37-2 Germany .... 40 9 49 17. 1 Denmark .... 28 13 41 14-3 Norway 9 4 13 4-S France 4 IS 19 6.6 Other countries . . 37 21 S8 20.3 Total . . 162 I2S 287 100.0 The above table includes bullion both ways. The imports were as follows of merchandise : 1875 1886 1876-85 Net Imports Textile goods . Grain .... Cotton, wool. 1 and yams J Coal .... Sundries . . . £ 1,500,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 800,000 10,000,000 £ 2,000,000 2,000,000 1,300,000 900,000 12,500,000 Mill. £ 16 16 II 8 107 Mill. £ IS II 8 Total . . 14,500,000 18,700,000 IS8 The exports were as follows : — 1875 1885 1876-85 Timber. . . . Iron Grain .... Butter .... Sundries . . . £ 4,700,000 2,100,000 1,800,000 400,000 2,300,000 £ 5,100,000 1,900.000 1,500,000 1,100,000 4,100,000 Million £ SO 17 18 6 30 Total . . 11.300,000 13,700,000 121 The trade of 1887 may be summed up thus : — Imports, £ Exports, £ Textiles . . . Grain . . . Fibre . . . Coal. . . . Sundries . . 2,700,000 1,700,000 1,600,000 1,200.000 9,100,000 Timber . . Butter, &c. . Metals . . . Hardware . . Sundries . . Total . . 5,400,000 2,400,000 1,800,000 400,000 3,500,000 Total , . 16.300,000 13,500,000 COMMERCE 142 COMMERCE Norway Previously to 1872 the value of exports was not re- corded, but merely the quantities. The trade has been approximately as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant £ £ £ £ s. rf. 1830 700,000 800,000 1,500,000 I 8 1850 1,600,000 1,800,000 3,400,000 2 9 i860 2,400,000 2,200,000 4,600,000 3 1872 7,600,000 5,800,000 13,400,000 7 10 1880 8,400,000 6, 100,000 14,500,000 7 3 1888 8,800,000 6,800,000 15,600,000 7 IS The imports were as follows :— 1876 1886 1877-86 Grain .... Textile goods . Hardware . . . Sundries , . . £ 2,000,000 800,000 700,000 5,800,000 £ 1,500,000 800,000 500,000 4,700,000 Millions £ 18 8 5 54 Total . . 9,300,000 7,500,000 85 The exports were as follows :— 1876 1886 1877-86 Timber . . . Fish Sundries . . . £ 2,400,000 2,400,000 1,800,000 1,600,000 1,800,000 2,300,000 Millions £ 19 19 22 Total . . 6,600,000 1 5,700,000 60 The statement for ten years ending December 1886 shows : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Gross Trade Ratio Great Britain . Germany . . Sweden . . . Other countries 22 25 9 29 20 8 7 25 42 33 16 54 29.0 . 22.7 II.O 37.3 Total . . 85 60 14s 100.0 The trade of 1888 may be summed up thus :- Imports, £ Exports, £ Grain . . . Textiles . . Hardware . . ^sundries . . 1,700,000 1,000,000 700,000 5,400,000 Fish Timber .... Metals and minerals Sundries .... Total . . . 2,300,000 1,800,000 500,000 2,200,000 Total . . 8,800,000 6,800,000 Denmark OiEcial returns show as follows :- Year Imports Exports Gross Trade Perlnhab. £ £ £ £ '■ d. 1789 950,000 1,020,000 1,970,000 1850 4,700,000 3,100,000 7,800,000 550 1872 10,800,000 8,100,000 18,900,000 10 8 1880 11,500,000 9,800,000 21,300,000 10 15 1888 15,200,000 10,700,000 25,900,000 13 The exports in 1836 were as follows •.^- Wheat, bushels . . Barley and rye, bushels Butter, barrels . . Cattle, No. . . . Sundries .... Quantity 800,000 2,300,000 70,000 40,000 Value, £ 150,000 250,000 400,000 300,000 860,000 Total . 1,960,000 The imports of merchandise in ten years ending 1885 were : — 1876 1885 1876-85 Coal, tons . 500,000 900,000 7,000,000 Grain 6s,oco 145,000 1,150,000 Iron goods, tons . 50,000 S5.000 510,000 Oil ... . 8,000 19,000 16,000 Salt .... 25,000 25,000 240,000 Sugar .... 26,000 20,000 270,000 The exports of Denmark were :— 1875 1885 1876-86 Grain, tons . Cattle, No. . Bacon, tons . Butter ,, . 240,000 340,000 5,000 13,000 150,000 350,000 16,000 18,000 2,100,000 4,200,000 7S.OOO 145,000 It will be observed that the exports of grain much exceeded the imports, the net export for ten years being one million tons, or 40 million bushels. The countries trading with Denmark in the period of ten years ending December 1885 were : — Million £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Germany .... Great Britain . . , Sweden Other countries . . 49 30 16 38 . 31 37 15 IS 80 67 31 53 34-8 29.1 134 22.7 Total . . 133 98 231 100. The trade of 1888 may be summed up thus : — Imforts £ Exports £ Textiles . . . 2,200,000 Butter and eggs . 5,100,000 Grain .... 1,600,000 Cattle .... 1,600,000 Metals .... 1,300,000 Grain .... 900,000 Sundries . . . 10,100,000 Sundries . . . 3,100,000 Total . 15,200,000 Holland Official ;Statements are as follows : — I'otal . 10,700,000 Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant £ £ £ £ s. d. 1843 15,200,000 11,400,000 26,600,000 8 10 1850 22,000,000 18,000,000 40,000,000 II 5 i860 25,300,000 20,200,000 45,500,000 12 10 1870 38,800,000 31,800,000 70,600,000 18 10 1880 69,000,000 52,100,000 121,100,000 30 S 1888 106,000,000 92,900,000 198,900,000 45 More than half the trade is in a manner goods in transit, since we see that the net imports are less than half the gross imports. COMMERCE 143 COMMERCE The imports of Holland were as follows :- 1861 1870 1880 1886 1877-86 Net Import £ £ £ £ Millions £ Millions £ Chinchona 600,000 500,000 2,500,000 8,800,000 46 4 Grain S,ooo,ooo 5,500,000 10,300,000 15,000,000 "S 57 Iron . 1,400,000 2,000,000 7,700,000 8,000,000 78 21 Coal . 1,400,000 1,500,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 26 26 Coffee 2,700,000 3,500,000 3,500,000 3,100,000 37 12 Cotton and yarn 3,800,000 4,000,000 4,200,000 3,800,000 42 IS Wool and yam . 1,600,000 2,200,000 1,700,000 2,900,000 21 s Timber . 800,000 900,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 19 19 Lard 2,300,000 2,400,000 20 17 Sugar 3,300,000 4,600,000 2,800,000 2,500,000 30 7 Petroleum 900,000 1,000,000 1,700,000 12 12 Sundries , 6,700,000 13.200,000 28,700,000 36,400,000 33S Total 27,300,000 38,800,000 69,000,000 89,400,000 781 The exports of Holland were as follows : 1861 1870 1880 1836 1877-86 £ £ £ £ Million £ Chinchona .... 500,000 400,000 2,400,000 9,100,000 42 Iron 900,000 1,400,000 5,700,000 4,800,000 57 Butter . 1,200,000 1,400,000 2,400,006 4,700,000 29 Coffee . 2,300,000 2,900,000 2,400,000 2,700,000 25 Sugar . . 2,700,000 3,800,000 2,200,000 2,500,000 23 Cattle 700,000 800,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 II Cotton and yarn 3,100,000 3,100,000 2,600,000 2,400,000 27 Wool and yarn 1,400,000 1,800,000 1,200,000 2,500,000 16 Grain 1,500,000 2,100,000 5,200,000 7,800,000 58 Sundries . 7,200,000 14,500,000 29,300,000 50,400,000 300 Total 21,000,000 31,800,000 52,100,000 78,900,000 588 The statement for ten years ending December i885 showed : — Million £ Sterlmg Imports from Exports to Total Germany . 227 267 494 35- S Great Britain . 207 140 347 25.0 Belgium . 107 92 199 14-3 'ava. 58 37 95 6.8 United States . 48 17 6S 4-7 Russia S7 6 63 4-5 Other countries 92 34 126 9.2 Total 796 S93 1.389 lOO.O The above includes bullion both ways. The summary for ten years shows that imports exceeded exports by 203 millions sterling. This excess is to be observed in the trade of Holland with all countries ex- cept Germany. The largest excess is in respect of Russia, the imports from which are ten times the exports thither. Trade with the United States is also very unequal. The trade of 1888 may be summed up thus : — Imports, £ Exports, £ Grain . . . Drugs . . . Iron and steel Textiles . . Sundries . . 16,300,600 16,400,000 12,000,000 9,000,000 52,300,000 Drugs .... Textiles . . . Grain .... Butter and cheese Sundries . . . 13,000,000 9,500,000 7,700,000 4,900,000 57,800,000 Total . . 106,000,000 Total . . . 92,900,000 Belgium The values of the principal imports at various dates were as follows : — 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1887 £ £ £ £ £ ./ Grain 400,000 200,000 2,400,000 2,900,000 7,400,000 6,600,000 Wool . 500,000 700,000 2,100,000 3,500,000 7,400,000 3,100,000 Hides . 100,000 200,000 1,900,000 2,400,000 2,600,000 2,900,000 Flax . ... 200,000 600,000 2,200,000 2,800,000 2,000,000 Cattle . 100,000 100,000 600,000 1,100,000 2,300,000 1,800,000 Coffee . 1,000,000 900,000 1,300,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 1,600,000 Meat . 700,000 3,600,000 2,000,000 Eggs . 1,300,000 1,300,000 Cotton . 600,000 700,000 800,000 1,400,000 1,700,000 1,000,000 Sundries 5,500,000 6,400,000 10,900,000 21,400,000 36,300,000 34,900,000 Tota 1 8,200,000 9,400,000 20,600,000 36,800,000 67,200,000 57,200,000 COMMERCE 144 COMMERCE The weight of certain imports was as follows :— Tons 1840 18S0 1860 1870 1880 1887 Coal 21,000 9,000 97,000 229,000 937.000 1,025,000 Ores 1,000 569,000 922,000 1,452,000 Grain 92,000 53.000 243,000 315,000 786,000 1,001,000 Rice 4,000 6,000 27,000 35.000 62,000 76,000 Meat Iron Salt Fla.x Wool 3,000 3,000 22,000 52,000 133,000 95,000 2,000 91,000 251,000 175,000 26,000 32,000 40,000 49,000 100,000 115,000 1,000 4,000 10,000 41,000 41,000 50,000 3,000 4,000 14,000 42,000 49,000 44,000 Cotton 9,000 10,000 15,000 16,000 23,000 23,000 Sugar 25,000 25,000 21,000 24,000 23,000 14,000 Coffee 19,000 17,000 19,000 22,000 23,000 19,000 Wine, gallons 1,700,000 2,100,000 3,200,000 3,100,000 4,500,000 4,200,000 Official reports show as follows :- - Period Imports Exports Gross Trade Per Inhab. Mill. £ Mill. £ Mill. £ £ '■ 'I- 1831-40 . . 8 6 14 400 1841-50 13 12 25 5 15 1851-60 20 17 37 800 1861-70 30 24 54 10 10 1871-80 56 44 100 19 1881-86 59 51 110 20 1850 . 10 II 21 4 14 1B60 . 21 19 40 8 10 1870 . 37 28 65 13 1880 . 67 49 116 21 10 1886 . 53 47 100 18 1888 . 61 50 111 18 10 Exports 1860 1870 1880 1886 £ £ £ £ Yam . . . 1,200,000 2,500,000 5,200,000 5,300,000 Coal . . . 2,200,000 2,400,000 3,300,000 2,800,000 Textile goods 3,100,000 2,500,000 3,100,000 2,600,000 Flax . . . 1,000,000 2,000,000 2,700,000 2,600,000 Iron goods . 1,000,000 2,400,000 3,400,000 3,000,000 Sugar . . . 900,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 Glass . . . 500,000 600,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 Grain . . . 4,800,000 2,200,000 Hides. . . 1,200,000 1,400,000 1,500,000 2,200,000 Stone . . . 2,300,000 2,300,000 .Sundries . . 8,600,000 12,900,000 19,100,000 21,300,000 Total . 18,800,000 27,600,000 48,700,000 47,300,000 The averages of imports and exports for ten years ending 1886 were : — Gross Net Exports, Imports, ^r Imports, £ £ Grain . . . 11,400,000 7,400,000 Yarn . . 4,600,000 Wool . . . 5,000,000 5,000,000 Coal . . 2,800,00a Meat . . . 3,600,000 3,600,000 Textiles . 2,700,000 Timber . . 1,800,000 1,800,000 Flax . . 2,700,000 Flax . . . 3,400,000 700,000 Ironwares 3,800,000 Cotton . . 1,400,000 1,400,000 Sugar 1,400,000 Minerals . . 2,900,000 2,900,000 Glass . . 1,900,000 Textile goods 1,900,000 Grain . , 4,000,000 Coffee . . 1,700,000 1,700,000 Hides . 1,800,000 Hides . . 2,300,000 500,000 Stone . . 2,500,000 Sundries . . 24,700,000 Sundries . Total . 20,900,000 Total . 60,100,000 49,100,000 The statement for ten years ending Dec. 1 886 showed : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Gross Trade Ratio France Great Britain . . . Holland Germany . . United States . . . Argentine Republic . Other countries . . 122 81 84 77 72 19 146 99 66 91 13 4 67 273 180 ISO 168 85 23 213 25.0 16. 5 13.8 15-4 7-7 2.2 19.4 Total . . 601 491 1,092 ■ 100. The weight of exported goods was as follows :— 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1887 Coal, tons Iron Sugar Flax „ . ... Wool 1,000,000 17,000 65,000 6,000 2,000,000 109,000 66,000 11,000 3,400,000 104,000 3S.00O 6,000 17,000 3,800,000 251,000 54,000 5,000 23,000 5,400,000 314,000 88,000 10,000 28,000 5,500,000 416,000 130,000. 41,000- 2,000 The trade of 1888 may be summed up thus : Imports,;^ Exports,^ Grain . . . Fibre . . . Meat and cattle Timber . . . Chemicals . . Sundries . . 10,500,000 7,400,000 3,500,000 2,800,000 2,700,000 34,500,000 Yarn Fibre .... Coal Grain .... Textiles. . . . Iron & machinery Sundries . . . Total . . 5,400,000 3,200,000 3,200,000 2,800,000 2,600,000 4,400,000 28,200,000 Total . . 61,400,000 49,800,000 Switzerland We have returns since 1855, viz. ; — Year 1855 1863 1888 Imports j Exports I Total £ 14,400,000 18,400,000 33, 100,000 19,600,000 16,800,000 26,900,000 £ 34,000,000 35,200,000 60,000,000 COMMERCE 1 45 COMMERCE Imports, £ Exports, £ 1856 1886 1855 1886 Raw silk Grain . Textile goods Cattle . Raw cotton . Sugar . Sundries 6,800,000 2,300,000 1,000,000 600,000 600,000 400,000 2,700,000 5,500,000 3,600,000 1,300,000 1,700,000 1,100,000 1,000,000 17,700,000 Clocks Lace . Silks . Ribbons Cheese Cotton goods Sundries . } i,9CX),ooo 12,100,000 400,000 2,000,000 3,200,000 3,300,000 ( 3,700,000 < 3,000,000 \ I,3CX3,000 1,500,000 2,800,000 II, I(XJ,000 Total • 14,400,000 1 31,900,000 Total • 19,600,000 26,700,000 The returns for 1885 and 18S6 show thus, two years a^regate :— Millions £ Imports from Exports to Gross Trade Ratio France Italy . Great Britain Austria Gerihany . United States Other countries IS 9 t 20 2 6 11 S 8 3 13 7 10 26 14 12 9 33 il 21.8 12.0 10.1 7-S 27.7 7-S 13-4 Total 62 57 119 100.0 Greece Official returns of merchandise show as follows : Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant 1861 1870 1880 1888 £ 1,700,000 3,100,000 4, 100,000 4,000,000 £ 1,000,000 1,400,000 1,500,000 3,400,000 £ 2,700,000 4,500,000 5,600,000 7,4cx>,ooo £ s. d. 210 3 I 360 3 IS The import trade was as follows :— 1861 1870 1875 1888 Grain . , . Textile goods Sundries . . £ 220,000 360,000 1,120,000 £ 650,000 540,000 1,910,000 £ 1,100,000 600,000 2,400,000 £ 1,400,000 800,000 1,800,000 Total . 1,700,000 3,ioo,cxx) 4,100,000 4,000,000 The exports were as follows : — 1861 1 1870 1875 1888 Fniit . . . Oil. . . . Sundries . . 580,000 420,000 £ 720,000 680,000 £ 1,500,000 470,000 730,000 £ I,900,CXX3 100,000 1,400,000 Total . 1,000,000 1,400,000 2,700,000 3,400,000 The countries trading with Greece in thus :— [888 showed Imports from Exports to Total Trade Great Britain . . France .... Austria .... Various . . . £ I,I00,0(X) 400,000 500,000 2,000,000 £ i,4cx>,ooo 600,000 300,000 1,100,000 £ 2,500,000 1,000,000 800,000 3,100,000 Total . . 4,000,000 3,400,000 7,400,000 Turkey Official returns are as follows : — Imports Exports Total 1881 1889 , £ 16,100,000 19,500,000 ,7,600,000 13.500,000 £ 23,700,000 33,000,000 Judging by the proportion of British trade with Turkey, the returns for the Ottoman Empire (excluding Egypt) should have been : — Year £ Sterling Imports Exports Total 1854 . i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1879 . 8,000,000 12,000,000 19,000,000 16,000,000 19,500,000 7,000,000 9,000,000 20,000,000 8,000,000 13,500,000 15,000,000 21,000,000 39,000,000 24,000,000 33,000,000 The trade of 1888 may be summed up thus : Imports, £ Exports, £ Cottons . . . 3,cxxj,ooo Fruit . . . 2,300,000 Linens . . . 800,000 Silk . . 1,200,000 Woollens . . 700,000 Grain . . . 700,000 Sugar . . . 1,200,000 Wool . . . 600,000 Grain . . . 1,400,000 Mohair . . 500,000 Coffee . . . 700,000 Opium . . 400,000 Sundries . . 13,200,000 Sundries . . Total . 7,800,000 Total . 21,000,000 13,500,000 The countries trading with Turkey were : — Imports from Exports to Total Trade Great Britain . . Austria. . . . France .... Russia .... Various . . . „ £ 8, 5oo,(xx) 3,800,000 2,400,000 2,200,000 4,100,000 3,600,000 12,100,000 1,000,000 i 4,800,000 4,200,000 i 6,600,000 200,000 ; 2,400,000 4,500,000 i 8,6oo,cxx) Total . . 21,000,000 13,500,000 34,500,000 ROUMANIA Official returns are as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant 1872 1880 1887 £ 4,400,000 10,200,000 12,600,000 , £ 6,700,000 8,800,000 10,600,000 £ 11,100,000 19,000,000 23,200,000 £ s. d. 240 3 14 3 12 COMMERCE 146 COMMERCE The statement for ten years ending December 1885 showed thus : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Austria . . . Great Britain . 54 20 30 24 84 44 42.4 22.2 Germany . . France . . . 13 9 I 8 14 17 7-1 8.6 Turlcey . . . Other countries 5 lO 7 17 12 27 6.1 13-6 Total . . III 87 198 lOO.O The imports were as follows : — • 1880 1885 1880-85 1887 Textile goods Cotton yarn Shoes and 1 leather J Sundries . . £ 1,600,000 1,000,000 500,000 7,100,000 £ 1,800,000 400,000 800,000 7,700,000 £ 1,700,000 700,000 700,000 6,800,000 £ 5,500,000 700,000 6,400,000 Total . . 10,200,000 10,700,000 9,900,000 12,600,000 The exports were as follows :- 1880 1885 1880-85 1887 Grain . . Sundries , £ 6,000,000 2,800,000 £ 6,800,000 3,100,000 , £ 6,200,000 2,700,000 £ 8,600,000 2,000,000 Total . . 8,800,000 9,900,000 8,900,000 10,600,000 United States Trade with all Countries, Millions Sterling Gross Trade Net Trade w m ifl m Per In- t: "rt t.1 ft •3 habitant a E a H E ^ H £ £ £ £ £ £ £ s. d. 1791-1800 12 10 22 8 6 14 330 1801-10 19 16 35 12 8 20 390 1811-20 17 13 30 14 10 24 2 15 1821-30 15 15 30 12 11 23 220 1831-40 25 21 4b 22 18 40 2 13 1841-50 25 25 50 23 23 46 260 1851-60 59 52 111 56 48 104 3 17 1861-70 69 53 122 66 50 116 360 1871-80 111 124 235 no 121 231 5 16 1881-B6 137 161 298 135 1S6 291 5 10 1790 S 4 9 5 4 9 260 1800 19 15 34 II 6 17 350 iBio 18 14 32 12 9 21 2 18 1820 IS 14 29 12 11 23 280 1830 13 15 28 10 12 22 1 15 1840 20 26 46 18 23 41 260 1850 .16 30 66 34 28 62 2 14 i860 74 70 144 70 66 136 480 1870 90 81 171 «7 78 165 45° 1880 13» 174 312 136 172 308 630 1889 154 166 320 500 The above is of merchandise only, excluding bullion. Official records of gross trade, including re-shipments, and of the net trade of the Union, as well as of the Colonies with Great Britain before Independence, are shown as follows : — Imports Exports Po,- Period from Great Britain to Great Britain Total Inhabitant £ £ £ £ s. d. 1700-10 267,000 266,000 S33.000 16 1711-20 366,000 393,000 759,000 S 1721-30 471,000 579,000 1,050,000 2 1731-40 660,000 670,000 1,330,000 4 1741-50 813,000 709,000 1,522,000 7 1751-60 1,577,000 803,000 2,380,000 10 1761-70 1,763,000 1,045,000 1,808,000 15 1771-80 1,331,000 744,000 2,075,000 14 1785 2,308,000 894,000 3,202,000 I The proportion of trade with Great Britain in the commerce of the United State's since 1790 is shown as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Ratio - a •H-S " !(! S Year ic i-S r- •E !n-C „M "S m •2 c r, '!^S ^3 H Pi Of! H ^0 6 u 1790 .... 5 4 9 ss 45 100 1800 15 19 34 44 56 100 1810 16 16 32 50 5° 100 1820 IS 14 52 48 100 1830 14 14 28 so 50 100 1840 23 28 46 50 SO 100 1850 32 34 66 48 52 100 i860 68 76 144 47 53 100 1870 81 90 171 48 52 100 1880 14s 167 312 46 54 100 1889 117 203 320 37 63 100 The statement for ten years ending 1886 was as follows :— Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Great Britain . . Germany . , . 322 108 137 154 75 66 96 ?3 263 820 123 129 27 73 21 17 20 309 1,142 231 266 181 148 87 113 43 572 41.0 8.3 9.6 6.5 5-3 3-1 4.1 1.6 20.5 Cuba. . . . Canada .... China and Japan . Brazil . Italy Other countries . Total . 1.244 1.539 2.783 lOO.O The values of exports in sixty years ending 1S86 were : — Millions £ Sterling to .1. « CO CO 00 CD s CO CO CO CD D- 1 C- CD m Sixty Years Cotton . Grain . Meat . Petroleum Tobacco Butter and Cotton ma Iron Wooden Sundries ch( luf ;es act lire 81 12 3 'i'3 2 "s 29 114 13 5 15 1 6 2 6 40 181 54 17 20 2 12 S 12 S9 181 88 29 7 40 II 8 9 18 89 346 154 64 SI 20 9 27 34 90 422 381 179 94 SI 33 23 33 43 280 1.32s 702 308 16S 190 67 60 7f 118 S87 T Ota 1 145 202 362 480 870 I.S39 3.598 COMMERCE 147 COMMERCE The values of imports for sixty years ending 1886 were as follows :- Millions £ Sterling 1827-36 1837-M 1847-56 1857-66 1867-76 1877-«6 60 Years Sugar . . . . 15 18 29 69 153 179 463 •Coffee 15 18 27 37 77 102 276 Woollens . 23 21 42 63 108 85 342 Cottons . 23 21 40 37 5° 58 229 ■Silks 21 23 46 43 52 77 262 Linens 10 II 17 21 35 42 136 Iron manufactures 10 8 33 31 69 69 220 Tea . 7 9 12 IS 37 33 "3 Sundries . 46 78 172 272 418 599 1.585 Total . 170 207 418 588 999 1,244 3,626 The imports were as follows : — 1821 1840 1860 1880 1889 £ £ £ £ £ Sugar 1,100,000 1,800,000 7,100,000 17,700,000 19,400,000 Coffee 900,000 1,800,000 4,500,000 12,500,000 15,600,000 Woollen goods ...... 1,600,000 1,900,000 7,800,000 7,100,000 10,900,000 Cotton 1,600,000 1,300,003 1,900,000 6,200,000 5,6oo,oco Silk 900,000 2,000,000 6,200,000 9,200,000 7,300,000 Linen 500,000 l,CXX),OCX) 2,200,000 4,700,000 5,400,000 Iron 400,000 60O,CXX3 3,800,000 11,200,000 8,800,000 Tea 200,000 1,100,000 1,800,000 4,100,000 2,600,000 Sundries 1,900,000 6,400,000 34,600,000 63,700,000 78,500,000 Total 9,100,000 17,900,000 69,900,000 136,400,000 154, 100,000 The exports were as follows : 1821 1840 1860 1880 1889 £ £ £ £ £ Cotton 4,200,000 13,300,000 39,900,000 44,000,000 49,600,000 Grain .••.•.. 1, 100,000 2,500,000 4,600,000 58,200,000 25,800,000 Meat 300,000 400,000 2,100,000 22,900,000 2r,6oo,ooo Petroleum ... 7,500,000 9,400,000 Tobacco 1,100,000 2,100,000 3,900,000 3,800,000 4,700,000 Sundries 2,400,000 4,800,000 15,200,000 35,000,000 54,500,000 Total 9,100,000 23,100,000 65,700,000 171,400,000 165,600,000 The trade of the Colonies before independence was as follows : — 1701 1750 1773 Imports, £ \ Exports, £ Imports, £ Exports, £ Imports, £ Exports, £ New England New York Pennsylvania Carolina Virginia, &c. 33.000 19,000 5,000 17,000 235,000 86,000 32,000 12,000 14,000 199,000 48,000 36,000 28,000 192,000 510,000 344,000 267,000 218,000 133,000 351,000 125,000 76,000 37,000 457,000 675,000 527,000 289,000 426,000 34S.OOO 392,000 Total 309,000 343,000 814,000 1,313,000 1,370,000 1,979,000 The weight of the principal exports was approximately as follows : — Period Tons Cotton Grain Meat Tobacco Butter and Cheese Total 1827-36 . 1837-46 . 1847-56 . 1857-66 . 1867-76. 1877-86 . 1,600,000 3,400,000 4,800,000 4,000,000 4,200,000 8,800,000 1,800,000 2,000,000 6,000,000 11,000,000 18,500,000 47,000,000 60,000 1,000,000 350,000 600,000 1,500,000 3,600,000 450,000 650,000 750,000 900,000 900,000 1,100,000 20,000 40,000 200,000 400,000 700,000 3,910,000 6, 170,000 11,940,000 16,700,000 25,500,000 61,200,000 £0 years. 26,800,000 86,300,000 6,210,000 4,750,000 1,360,000 125,420,000 COMMERCE 148 COMMERCE It appears that whereas the value of exports increased tenfold since the decade ending 1836 the weight increased 32-fold. All the values in the ahove tables are in gold, allowance being made in each year from 1862 to 1878 for the dif- ference between greenbacks and gold. Bullion is not included in either imports or exports. Canada Official returns show as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant £ £ £ £ '■ d. 1832 1,600,000 900,000 2,500,000 2 10 1834 2,490,000 1,100,000 3,590,000 2 15 1839 2,100,000 1,100,000 3,200,000 2 10 1851 7,600,000 5,200,000 12,800,000 520 i860 11,900,000 10,800,000 22,700,000 6 IS 1870 16,100,000 15,000,000 31,100,000 8 I 1880 19,400,000 19,100,000 38,500,000 8 10 1887 24,200,000 19,600,000 43,800,000 8 18 2 1888 23,000,000 18,700,000 41,700,000 8 10 The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports Total Ratio from to United States . 100 74 174 41. 1 Great Britain , 91 95 186 44.0 Germany . . 3 3 0.7 France . . , 4 I S 1.2 Cuba . . . 3 2 S 1.2 Other countries 28 22 SO 1 1.8 Total . . 229 194 423 lOO.O The quantities of exported goods in thirty years showed approximately thus : — Tons 1857-66 1867-76 1877-86 30 Years Grain . . . Timber . . IVleat . . . Cheese and 1 butter . j Fish . . . Coal . . . Ores . . . 3,600,000 12,400,000 130,000 25,000 650,000 45,000 3,900,000 17,900,000 140,000 80,000 900,000 2,500,000 70,000 7,500,000 19,200,000 280,000 320,000 1,220,000 4,300,000 280,000 15,000,000 49,500,000 550,000 425,000 2,770,000 6,800,000 395,000 Total . 16,850,000 25,490,000 33,100,000 75,440,000 The imports were as follows : — 1851 1860 1876 1877-86 188S Textile goods . . , . Iron goods .... Sugar Coal Sundries £ 1,900,000 500,000 200,000 5,000,000 £ 2,400,000 500,000 400,000 100,000 8,500,000 £ 3,700,000 2,200,000 1,000,000 700,000 11,800,000 £ 3,900,000 2,500,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 14,100,000 / 3,800,000- 2,200,000 1,200,000 1,900,000 13,900,000 Total 7,600,000 11,900,000 19,400,000 22,900,000 23,000,000 The exports were as follows :- 1851 1860 1876 1877-86 1888 Grain Meat Cheese Timber Fish Sundries £ 700,000 1,000,000 550,000 2,950,000 £ 2,800,000 300,000 1,800,000 1,000,000 4,900,000 £ 5,100,000 700,000 800,000 3,700,000 1,900,000 4,700,000 4,600,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 3,700,000 1,900,000 6,900,000 £ 3,200,000 2,200,000 1,900,000 4,500,000 1,700,000 5,200,000 Total 5,200,000 10,800,000 16,900,000 19,500,000 18,700,000 In the foregoing tables the whole Canadian Dominion and Newfoundland are included. Meat includes live cattle. Mexico Official reports are as follows : — Imports Exports '^°'='^ Inhrbitant 1880 1889 £ 5,000,000 8,100,000 £ 6,800,000 12,500,000 £ \£ s. d. 11,800,000 12 20,600,000 2 2 The trade of ten years summed up thus : — £ Imports 71,000,000 Exports 87,000,000 Total 158,000,000 The returns for 1889 give only exports in detail, viz. :- Exports Exported to Silver . . . Hemp . . . Coffee . . . Hides . . . Sundries . . £ 5,800,000 1,000,000 600,000 300,000 4,800,000 United States Great Britain France . . Germany . . Various . . Total . , £ 6,100,000 1,900,000 500,000 300,000 3,700,000 Total . 12,500,000 12,500,000 Central America The aggregate trade of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras^, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua in 1888 summed up— imports, $19,600,000 ; exports, $23, 100,000 ; but as these dollars are- worth only three shillings, the amount is only ;^3,ooo,ooO! for imports, and ;^3, 500,000 for exports. COMMERCE 149 COMMERCE South America The latest returns for the various States show as fol- lows : — Imports Exports Total £ £ £ Brazil .... 19,700,000 21,200,000 40,900,000 Argentina 14,300,000 12,500,000 26,800,000 Chili . . 6,600,000 7,500,000 14,100.000 Uruguay 6,300,000 6,200,000 12,500,000 Venezuda 2,500,000 3,300,000 5,800,000 Colombia 2,800,000 1,600,000 4,400,000 Ecuador 2,200,000 2,000,000 4,200,000 Peru. . 1,800,000 1,300,000 3,100,000 Bolivia . 900,000 1,500,000 2,400,000 Paraguay 300,000 200,000 500,000 Tota 1 57,200,000 57,300,000 114,500,000 Brazil Inconvertible paper money has so often been a, dis- turbing element tiat values were at times obscured. Re- duced to gold, the trade showed approximately thus : — Annual Average Imports Exports Total 1836-41 1852-61 1862-74 1882-88 £ 5,200,000 12,000,000 15,500,000 17,200,000 £ 4,700,000 10,800,000 18,300,000 18,000,000 £ 9,900,000 22,800,000 33,800,000 35,200,000 The exports in 188S were as follows :- £ To 1 £ Coffee . . . Sugar . . . Cotton . . . Sundries . . 15,100,000 1,300,000 1,200,000 3,600,000 United States Great Britain France . . Various . . Total . 11,000,000 5,200,000 2,800,000 2,200,000 Total . . 21,200,000 21,200,000 The weight of exports in the years 1880-84 averaged thus: — Coffee Sugar Tons 230,000 217,000 Tobacco . India-rubber Tons 22,000 7,100 Argentina Official records of merchandise are as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per Inhab. £ £ £ £s. d. 179s 510,000 920,000 1,430,000 3 10 1825 1,600,000 1,200,000 2,800,000 400 1837. 1,200,000 1,400,000 2,600,000 300 1S42 1,300,000 1,400,000 2,700,000 330 1850 2,100,000 2,200,000 4,300.000 460 1865 5,400,000 4,400,000 9,800,000 600 1870 9,500,000 5,800,000 15,300,000 800 1880 8,800,000 11,300,000 20,100,000 S 1889 14,300,000 12,500,000 26,800,000 800 The trade of the country was stagna t from the period of Independence down to 1842, but after the latter date numbers of Irish sheep-farmers arrived (now numbering 20,000), to whom, in Consul Cowper's words, " the wealth and progress of Argentina are in a great measure due." The statement for ten years ending December 1886 showed : — Millions £, Sterling Imports from ^1^"^=, Total Ratio Great Britain . . . 38 II i 49 21.8 France 22 31 53 23-4 Belgium 7 23 30 13-7 Germany .... 3 7 IS 6.8 United States . . . 8 6 14 6.4 Uruguay .... 6 4 : 10 4-4 Other countries . . ?8 24 52 23s Total . . . 117 106 223 100. The principal exports appear in the following table :- 1873 1880 1888 1877-86 Wool. . . Hides and ) skins . ) Meat . . . Grain . . , Sundries . . £ 3,900,000 2,800,000 700,000 1,800,000 £ 5,300,000 3,600,000 900,000 150,000 1,350,000 £ 5.900,000 2,700,000 700,000 1,400,000 2,600,000 £ 5,100,000 2,900,000 700,000 700,000 1,200,000 Total . 1 9,200,000 11,300,000 13,300,000 10,600,000 Fuller details of exports will be found under Agj-i- culiure, p. 49. Uruguay Official returns are as follows :— Annual Trade, £ Sterling Per Inha- Imports Exports Total £ s. d. 1841-50 1,300,000 1,200,000 2,500,000 20 10 1851-60 1,800,000 1,700,000 3,500,000 20 5 1861-70 2,700,000 2,400,000 5,100,000 18 10 1871-80 3,500,000 3,300,000 6,800,000 18 12 1881-87 4,500,000 4,600,000 9,100,000 16 10 1888 6,300,000 6,200,000 12,500,000 20 The statement for ten years ending 1886 was as fol- lows : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports 10 Total Ratio Great Britain . . 12 10 22 26.2 France 7 7 14 16.7 United States . . . 3 5 8 9-5 Brazil 4 8 12 14.4 Belgium I 6 7 8.3 Germany .... 3 I 4 4.8 Other countries . . 10 7 17 20. 1 Total . . 40 44 84 100.0 The returns for 1887 were as follows : — Imports Exports Wines . . . Raw material . Textile goods . Groceries - . Sundries . . . £ 700,000 1,000,000 900,000 1,100,000 1,500,000 Wool . . . Meat . . . Hides . . . Sundries . . Total . . £ 1,200,000 1,200,000 700,000 1,400,000 4,500,000 Total . . 5,200,000 COMMERCE 15° COMMERCE Chile Official reports give the following : — Year | Imports Exports Total £ £ £ 1844 . 1,500,000 1,400,000 2,900,000 1854 ■ 3,400,000 3,000,000 6,400,000 1865 . 4,800,000 4,400,000 9,200,000 1875 . 7,600,000 7,200,000 14,800,000 1888 . . . 6,600,000 7,500,000 14,100,000 The statement i or ten years ;nding 1886 showed : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Great Britain . . . Germany .... France Argentine Republic . United States . . . Other countries . . 18 7 7 3 2 n 45 3 4 I 2 12 63 10 II 4 4 23 S4.6 9.0 10.0 19.0 Total . . . 48 67 "5 100.0 The above amounts for 1S88 are computed at the current rate for the year, 27 pence per dollar. Australia Official reports show as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total Per Inhab. £ £ £ £ s. d. 1824 420,000 120,000 540,000 520 1830 670,000 310,000 980,000 820 1838 2,970,000 1,530,000 4,500,000 22 10 1851 4,300,000 3,700,000 8,000,000 17 10 1861 25,100,000 24,500,000 49,600,000 31 10 1871 30,100,000 34,700,000 64,800,000 24 1881 50,200,000 48,600,000 98,800,090 33 1888 65,300,000 57,600,000 122,900,000 29 5 1889 68,300,000 61,500,000 129,800,000 35 The above exports include gold, the production of which has been as follows : — n ■ J Millions Per Annum P'""^ £, Sterling £ 1851-60 . . . 104 ... 10,400,000 1861-70 ... 82 ... 8,200,000 1871-80 ... 72 ... 7,200,000 1881-88 ... 42 ... 5,200,000 38 years . , . 300 8,000,000 The following table shows the growth of trade since The export of wool during the same period has been, as follows : — Period Million Lbs. Value, Million £ Million Lbs. Yearly Value, £ Yearly 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 560 3,100 48 I02 184 142 56 13s 306 390 4,800,000 10,200,000 18,400,000 17,800,000 38 years 8,070 476 212 12,600,000 It appears that the wool expibrts of 38 years exceeded the product of the goldfields in the same term by 17& millions sterling. At present the clip averages a value of 21 millions sterling, or five times that of the gold product. The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed, in- cluding bullion : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Great Britain .... United States .... France China Other countries . . . 274 18 2 10 77 243 8 2 98 517 2d 4 10 175 Foreign trade .... Intercolonial .... 3^i 178 351 137 732 3tS Total . . S59 488 1.047 The trade of the several colonies in the same period was: — Millions £ Sterling Per Inhab. Imports Exports Total per Annum £ s. d. New South Wales i83 161 349 47 Victoria 171 151 322 37 New Zealand 76 64 140 28 South Australia . 55 52 107 38 Queensland . 49 41 90 42 Tasmania 15 14 29 25 Western Australia 5 5 10 33 Total . 559 488 1.047 38 1861 :- From Imports, £ 1861 1871 1881 1888 Great Britain Foreign nations Intercolonial 13,500,000 5,000,000 6,600,000 12,000,000 4,600,000 13,500,000 25,700,000 7,700,000 16,800,000 30,100,000 9,700,000 25,500,000 Total 25,100,000 30,100,000 50,200,000 63,300,000 To Exports, £ 1861 1871 1881 1888 Great Britain Foreign nations Intercolonial 12,200,000 4,400,000 7,900,000 18,500,000 4,600,000 11,600,000 24,300,000 6,800,000 17,500,000 28,700,000 5,600,000 23,300,000 Total 24,500,000 34,700,000 48,600,000 S7,6oo,ooo COMMERCE 151 COMMERCE With Total Trade, £ 1861 1871 1881 1888 Great Britain Foreign nations Intercolonial 25,700,000 9,400,000 14,500,000 30,500,000 9,200,000 25,100,000 50,000,000 14,500,000 34,300,000 58,800,000 15,300,000 48,800,000 Total 49,600,000 64,800,000 98,800,000 122,900,000 In the above table foreign includes even British colonies outside of Australia, and intercolonial only the traffic between the seven Australasian colonies. Excluding intercolonial traffic, the trade of Australia has risen from 40 millions sterling in 1 87 1 to 74 millions in 1888, an increase of 85 per cent. The following table- of ratios shows that trade with Great Britain is relatively on the decline, probably the result of Protection tariffs. With Ratio of Trade 1861 1871 1881 1888 Great Britain . . . Foreign nations . . Intercolonial . . , S1.8 19.0 29.2 47-1 14.2 38.7 50.6 14-7 34.7 48.2 12.4 39-4 Total . . 100.0 100.0 100.0 lOO.O The trade returns of 1889 were as follows :^ Imports, ;6 Exports, ;6 Total, £ £ per Inhab. N. S. Wales Victoria . . Queensland . S. Australia. New Zealand Tasmania . W. Australia 22,600,000 24,200,000 6,000,000 6,800,000 6,300,000 1,600,000 800,000 23,300,000 12,500,000 6,900,000 7,300,000 9,300,000 1,500,000 700,000 45,900,000 36,700,000 12,900,000 14,100,000 15,600,000 3,100,000 1,500,000 41.7 33-4 32- S 44.7 26.0 21.0 36.0 Total . 68,300,000 61,500,000 129,800,000 35- S The figures for Western Australia are those of 1S88. The foreign and intercolonial trade of the several colonies was distinguished in the returns for 1888 as follows : — Imports Exports Total Foreign Intercolonial £ £ £ £ £ New South Wales 20,900,000 20,900,000 41,800,000 23,400,000 18,400,000 Victoria 24,000,000 13,900,000 37,900,000 25,000,000 12,900,000 Queensland 6,700,000 6,100,000 12,800,000 5,600,000 7,200,000 South Australia 5,400,000 7,000,000 12,400,000 7,400,000 5,000,000 New Zealand 5,900,000 7,800,000 13,700,000 10,900,000 2,800,000 Tasmania 1,600,000 1,300,000 2,900,000 800,000 2,100,000 Western Australia 800,000 700,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 500,000 Total .... 65,300,000 57,700,000 123,000,000 74,100,000 48,900,000 The exports were as follows — aUUTH AtKlUA 1860 1870 1880 1888 1877-86 Wool Diamonds .... Copper Feathers Sundries ■ £ 1,400,000 100,000 20,000 680,000 £ 1,800,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 750,000 £ 2,900,000 3,400,000 300,000 900,000 1,100,000 £ 2,900,000 4,000,000 900,000 300,000 2,200,000 £ 2,500,000 3,000,000 400,000 800,000 1,100,000 Total .... 2,200,000 3,000,000 8,600,000 10,300,000 7,800,000 The foregoing table shows that, although sheep-farming is prosperous, and wool continues to form a staple product of the colony, the first rank as regards value among the exports now belongs to diamonds, of which there seems to be no decline in number or quality. In twelve years ending 1889 the production of diamonds reached a value of nearly 40 millions sterling. At the same time the yield of copper has risen to importance. The only item which shows a decline is ostrich feathers, an industry which gave great promise ten years ago. Official returns, comprising Cape Colony and Natal, show as follows : — Year Imports Exports Total ■ Per In- habitant tBsi i860 1870 1880 1888 i,Soo,ooo 3,000,000 2,800,000 10,000,000 8,400,000 £ 700,000 2,200,000 3,000,000 8,600,000 10,300,000 £ 2,500,000 5,200,000 5,800,000 18,600,000 18,700,000 £ ^- a. S 12 10 700 17 IS Distinguishing Natal from Cape Colony, the trade stood thus : — Imports Exports 1860 1888 1860 1888 Cape Colony Natal . . A 2,600,000 400,000 £ 5,500,000 2,900,000 £ 2,100,000 100,000 „ £ 8,900,000 1,400,000 Total . . 3,000,000 8,400,000 2,200,000 10,300,000 COMMERCE 152 COMMERCE The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed :— Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Great Britain . Other countries 66 19 72 6 138 2S 84.7 15-3 Total . . 8S 78 163 lOO.O Exports for i 888 were as follows : — Cape, £ Natal, £ South Africa, £ Wool. . . . Diamonds . . Sundries . . 2,200,000 4,000,000 2,700,000 700,000 700,000 2,900,000 4,000,000 3,400,000 Total . . 8,900,000 1,400,000 10,300,000 West Africa This group of colonies comprises Lagos, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, and Gambia. Official records show the aggregate trade thus :— Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant 1851 i860 1870 1880 1888 £ 300,000 400,000 1,000,000 1,300,000 1,200,000 £ 300,000 400,000 1,300,000 1,500,000 1,200,000 £ 600,000 800,000 2,300,000 2,800,000 2,400,000 £ s. d. 300 200 4 10 4 14 I 12 The trade of the several colonies in 18 Imports, £ Exports, £ Lasos Gold Coast Sierra Leone Gambia 420,000 360,000 310,000 80,000 490,000 270,000 310,000 90,000 Total 1,170,000 1, 160,000 The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed:— Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Great Britain . Germany . . Other countries 9 2 2 7 2 S 16 4 7 S8.S 14.6 26.9 Total . . 13 14 27 100.0 West Indies Under this term may be comprised the various British possessions, Jamaica, Trinidad, Guiana, Barbadoes, and minor islands. OfEcial records show : — Year Imports Exports Total Per Inhab. £ £ £ £ s. d. 1851 4,600,000 4,500,000 9, 100,000 10 2 i860 5,800,000 6,ioo,oco 11,900,000 10 10 1870 6,800,000 7,500,000 14,300,000 II 1880 8,100,000 8,500,000 16,600,000 II I 1887 6,900,000 8,000,000 14,900,000 9 10 The exports have been nearly stationary in value dur- ing the past twenty years, sugar having fallen greatly in price. Returns show as follows : — S^ 1851 1860 1870 1887 £ I £ £ Sugar . 2,100,000 3,000,000 3,800,000 3,700,000 41 Rum . 300,000 600,000 600,000 400,000 s Coffee . 100,000 100,000 200,000 200,000 2 Cocoa . 100,000 100,000 200,000 400,000 4 Sundries 1,900,000 2,300,000 2,700,000 3,300,000 33 Total . 4,500,000 6,100,000 7,500,000 8,000,000 85 The exports were from the West Indies in 1887 as follows :— Sugar Rum Coffee Cocoa Sundries Total Jamaica Barbadoes Trinidad Guiana Small islands 260,000 800,000 850,000 1,840,000 £ 300,000 140,000 £ 210,000 £ 410,000 £ 740,000 260,000 610,000 210,000 £ 1,510,000 1,060,000 1,870,000 2,190,000 1,370,000 Total .... 8,000,000 The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed :- Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Great Britain . . . United States . . . Canada Other countries . . 36 17 6 2S 49 IS 4 17 8S 32 10 42 50.0 19.0 6.0 24.0 Total . . . 84 85 169 100.0 India Imports of British merchandise in the early part of the eighteenth century averaged to India as follows per annum : — 1709-18 ;^4, 800,000 1719-28 4,400,000 1729-34 5,000,000 The trade, excluding bullion, has been : — Year Imports Exports Total Per In- habitant , £ £ £ £ s. d. 1815 .8,100,000 2,600,000 10,700,000 026 1830 5,700,000 4,100,000 9,800,000 020 1851 11,600,000 18,200,000 29,800,000 050 i860 24,200,000 28,000,000 52,200,000 070 1870 32,900,000 52,500,000 85,400,000 II 1880 41,200,000 67,200,000 108,400,000 12 ♦1889 66,600,000 97,000,000 163,600,000 16 * The Indian Customs still compute rupees at 24 pence, and hence the values here stated are 33 per cent, too much. COMMERCE IS3 COMMERCE Imports of India were as follows :— 1861 1870 1880 1889 1877-86 £ £ £ £ £ Cotton manufactures 3,600,000 13,600,000 16,900,000 31,500,000 19,300,000 Woollen 200,000 600,000 900,000 1,600,000 1,100,000 Silk 100,000 500,000 800,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 Metals . 1,800,000 3,400,000 3,300,000 5,200,000 4,000,000 Machinery 1,800,000 1,600,000 2,300,000 2,200,000 Sugar 700,000 1,100,000 1,800,000 1,200,000 Cotton yarn 1,000,000 2,700,000 2,700,000 3,500,000 3,000,000 Coal 500,000 1,100,000 1,900,000 1,100,000 Sundries . . . 4,900,000 9,100,000 12,800,000 17,300,000 15,100,000 Total 11,600,000 32,900,000 41,200,000 66,600,000 48,000,000 For importation of bullion see Gold and Silver. The exports of India were as follows : — 1851 1870 1880 1889 1877-86 Cotton Opium Grain Jute . Seeds Tea . Cotton goods Dyes. Hides Sundries . 3,500,000 5,500,000 700,000 200,000 300,000 700,000 2,100,000 300,000 4,900,000 19,100,000 11,700,000 3,000,000 2,200,000 2,300,000 1,100,000 1,300,000 3,600,000 1,700,000 6,500,000 IX, 100,000 14,300,000 9,500,000 5,600,000 4,800,000 3,100,000 2,800,000 3,600,000 3,700,000 8,700,000 15,100,000 10,500,000 15,500,000 7,900,000 9,600,000 5,300,000 • 6,400,000 4,700,000 4,800,000 17,200,000 12,200,000 12,300,000 12,800,000 5,400,000 7,300,000 3,400,000 3,300,000 4,500,000 4,100,000 9,700,000 Total 18,200,000 32,500,000 67,200,000 97,000,000 75,000,000 The statement for ten years ending 18S6 showed : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Great Britain Hong-Kong Australia 437 33 10 323 103 6 760 136 16 SS-3 lO.O 1.2 Singapore . Mauritius . 15 10 31 10 46 20 3-3 United States 6 28 34 2.S China . . France , . Other countries i 77 3S 44 71 245 3-2 Tota. I • 603 769 1,372 lOO.O The trade of India has almost doubled since 1870, im- ports having increased 102 per cent., exports 85 per cent, taking the rupee at 24d. Ceylon Official records are as follows : — Year Imports Exports ^°'^ habitant 1851 i860 1870 1880 1888 £ 1,000,000 2,400,000 4,100,000 4,000,000 4,700,000 £ 1,100,000 2,300,000 3,800,000 4,200,000 3,200,000 £ 2,100,000 4,700,000 7,900,000 8,200,000 7,900,000 £ s d. 180 270 360 320 2 15 The imports of Ceylon were as follows : — 1851 1860 1870 1877-86 1888 Grain Cotton Coal Sundries £ 500,000 200,000 300,000 £ 700,000 600,000 200,000 900,000 £ 1,600,000 1,000,000 200,000 1,300,000 £ 1,800,000 400,000 200,000 x,400,ooo £ 2,000,000 400,000 500,000 1,800,000 Total 1,000,000 2,400,000 4,100,000 3,800,000 4,700,000 The exports were as follows — 1851 1860 1870 1877-86 1888 Coffee Chinchona .... Oil Sundries £ 1,000,000 100,000 1,600,000 200,000 500,000 £ 2,800,000 200,000 800,000 £ 1,900,000 200,600 300,000 1,100,000 600,000 150,000 1,900,000 Total 1,100,000 2,300,000 3,800,000 3,500,000 3,200,000 Sundries for 1888 included ;f 1,020,000 for tea, now the principal export of the island. COMMERCE 154 COMMERCE The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed— Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio India . . . Great Britain . Other countries 28 12 3 S 22 8 33 34 II 42-3 43-6 14. 1 Total . . 43 35 78 100.0 Straits Settlement This colony, formerly known as Singapore, shows the following trade : — 1861 1870 1880 1887 Imports, f. 7,900,000 9,700,000 11,700,000 21,500,000 Exports, £ 6,600,000 7,100,000 10,500,000 18,800,000 Total, £ 14,500,000 16,800,000 22,200,000 40,300,000 Singapore is a great emporium for trade between Europe and the East, and hence its trade is out of all proportion to the population of the colony ; average, ;^8o per inhabitant. The imports were as follows : — The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed:— Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports Total Ratio from to Great Britain . 36 28 64 «S India . , . 25 9 34 11.4 Hong-Kong . 18 II 29 9.8 fava .... 27 36 63 21.2 Malacca . . 17 13 30 10. 1 Siam . . . II 10 21 7.1 Other countries 22 34 S6 IS.9 Total . 156 141 297 100.0 The trade of 1888, merchandise and bullion, amounted to— imports, 32 ; exports, 27 millions sterling. Mauritius The trade returns show as follows : — Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1851 900,000 1,200,000 2,100,000 i860 2,300,000 2,300,000 4,600,000 1870 2,000,000 2,100,000 4, 100,000 18B0 1,700,000 3,000,000 4,700,000 1888 1,200,000 2,600,000 3,800,000 1851 1860 1870 1887 1877-86 Grain Textiles Sundries £ 330,000 110,000 460,000 £ 770,000 170,000 1,360,000 660,000 280,000 1,060,000 £ 570,000 170,000 1,660,000 600,000 200,000 1,500,000 Total 900,000 2,300,000 2,000,000 2,400,000 2,300,000 The exports were as follows — 1861 1860 1870 1888 1877-86 Sugar Sundries £ 1,000,000 100,000 £ 2,100,000 200,000 £ 1,900,000 200,000 £ 2,300,000 300,000 £ 3,300,000 300,000 Total . . 1,100,000 2,300,000 2,100,000 2,600,000 3,600,000 China Official returns are as follows : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1876 .... 1880 .... 1888 .... 20,900,000 23,000,000 26,000,000 24,100,000 22,500,000 23,000,000 45,000,000 45,500,000 49,000,000 The statement for ten years ending 1886 showed : — Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Hong-Kong . . . Great Britain . . . India Japan Other countries . . 84 4S 52 II 30 45 63 I S3 IS 114 30.7 25.6 12.S 27.6 Total . . 222 197 419 100.0 The imports were as follows :- 1876 1886 1877-86 1 1888 Opium . . Cotton goods Sundries . . „ £ 8,400,000 6,000,000 6,500,000 , £ 6,200,000 7,200,000 8,500,000 ^ ! / 7,500,000 > 7,600,000 6,600,000 ' 10,500,000 8,200,000 7,900,000 Total . 20,900,000 21,900,000 22,300,000 26,000,000 The exports were as follows : — 1876 1886 1877-86 1888 Tea . . . Silk . . . Sundries . . £ 11,000,000 10,800,000 2,300,000 „ £ 8,500,000 7,200,000 3,600,000 „ £ 8,900,000 6,900,000 3,900,000 £ 7,200,000 7,500,000 8,300,000 Total . 24,100,000 19,300,000 19,700,000 23,000,000 The quantities of tea exported were : — 1876 190 million lbs. 1880 222 „ „ 1888 290 „ ,, COMMERCE iSS CONGRESS Persia The total trade of the Empire in 1881 was said to reach ;,f7,70o,ooo, but the estimates of the Times corre- spondent for 1889 do not exceed ;^6,ooo,ooo, viz.: — Imports, {^ Exports, £, Cottons . . . Silks .... Woollens . . Sugar . . . Sundries . . . 1,800,000 600,000 400,000 300,000 700,000 Opium . . . Silk, raw . . Rice . . . Fruit . . . Sundries . . Total . 500,000 400,000 300,000 100,000 900,000 Total . . 3,800,000 2,200,000 Philippine Islands The exports of these islands were as follows ; 1889 To 1888 Sugar Hemp , Coffee . Tobacco Tons 220,000 115,000 6,000 10,000 £ 2,2CO,000 3,200,000 500,000 700,000 Great Britain . Spain .... Other countries Total . £ 1,700,000 600,000 4,300,000 6,600,000 Total ... 6,600,000 Imports average about ;^2,ooo,ooo, English cotton goods representing ;^90o,ooo. Japan Official returns are as follows : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, ;f 1876 .... 1880 .... 1888 .... 5,000,000 7,600,000 10,900,000 5,700,000 5,700,000 10,800,000 10,700,000 13,300,000 21,700,000 The imports and exports in 1888 were : — Imports, £ Exports, £, Cotton yarn . . Cotton manu- ) facture ) Woollen . . . Sugar .... Sundries . . . 2,300,000 500,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 5,900,000 Silk . . . Tea . . . Copper . . Rice . . . Sundries . . Total . 4,800,000 1,000,000 600,000 1,200,000 3,200,000 10,800,000 Total . . 10,900,000 The statement for seven years ending 1886 showed :— Millions £ Sterling Imports from Exports to Total Ratio Great Britain . . . China United States . . . Other countries . . 20 8 4 13 S 8 20 19 25 16 24 32 25.8 16.5 24.7 33-0 Total . . 45 52 97 100.0 Egypt OflScial returns are as follows : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1824 .... 1874 .... 1880 .... 1889 .... 1,100,000 5,300,000 6,800,000 7,300,000 2, 100,000 14,000,000 13,500,000 12,200,000 3,200,000 19,300,000 20,300,000 19,500,000 The imports of 1889 were as follows : — Textiles, ;f 1, 800,000; coal, ;^450,ooo; iron and machinery, ;^500,ooo; cofiFee, ;£'300,ooo; and sundries, ,^4,250,000. The exports were as follows : — 1876 1886 1877-86 1889 Raw cotton . Cotton seed . Sugar . . . Grain . . , Sundries . . £ 9,200,000 1,500,000 500,000 1,700,000 1,200,000 £ 7,500,000 1,300,000 500,000 700,000 900,000 £ 7,800,000 1,400,000 600,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 8,800,000 1,500,000 500,000 600,000 800,000 Total . 14,100,000 10,900,000 12,400,000 12,200,000 Egyptian exports have been for some years declining in value, which is due rather to a fall in prices than to any decrease of quantities produced. coiraREss The first United States Federal Congress met, 4th March 1789, and the fifty-first on 4th March 1889. The first actual Congress of American delegates took place in 1774, and another was held on Jidy 4, 1776, at which the Act of Independence was signed. Congress now con- sists of 82 Senators and 330 Representatives, all of whom receive a salary of $5000 each per annum, besides 20 cents a mile travelling expenses, and $125 for stationery. There have been nine Statistical Congresses, attended by members as follows : — Date Place British French German Russian Austrian Italian Hungarian Dutch Various Total 1853 Brussels .... 16 II 22 ... I 2 5 96 153 i8ss Paris . . . 22 203 29 ... S 9 2 41 3" l8sq Vienna . . 4 II 37 3 430 8 24 4 16 537 i860 London . . 478 9 25 12 5 1 ... 4 51 585 1863 Berlin . . 13 7 397 13 10 4 2 3 28 477 1867 Florence 16 14 17 14 4 66s 1 20 751 1869 Hague . . 20 15 18 10 5 9 3 372 36 488 1872 Petersburgh 17 S 23 512 15 10 7 4 45 638 1876 Pesth . . 10 12 33 32 42 8 283 3 33 455 Total 596 287 601 596 517 716 318 398 366 4.39S Valuable statistical papers were read at the above meetings. COPPER 156 COTTON COPPER The production of this metal has multiplied fivefold since 1850, shown thus : — Fine Copper , Tons 1860 1860 1870 1880 1888 Great Britain . 11,800 I3.S40 7,220 3.440 1,500 France . . Germany . . Russia . . . 2,300 1,650 6,000 2,500 3,200 S.Soo 4,900 6,850 5.500 5. 100 10,140 6,100 3,000 15.000 5,000 Spain . . . Sweden . . . 200 2,300 300 2,200 I,IC» 2,000 21,300 1,600 53.000 1,000 Austria, &c. . 1,600 I, goo 9,140 S.530 2,000 2,200 2,700 Europe . . . United States . 25,850 2,700 29.570 12,650 49,880 20,260 81,200 I03,cx)0 Chili . . . 14,300 25,100 30,200 36,800 31,000 Australia . . Cape Colony . Venezuela . 2,400 2,000 7,600 2,000 9.700 1,000 3,000 13,100 5,000 4,CXK> 8,000 8,000 4,000 Japan . . . Other countries 3,000 2,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 5,000 5,000 8,000 11,000 15.8CK3 Total . . 52.250 75.37° 94,120 142,040 262,000 In 1889 the production in the United States was 107,000 tons fine copper, and the consumption 75,000 tons. The ratio of copper to copper ore is as follows :- Germany. Austria . France Per Cent, of Pure Copper ■ 3 ■ 4 • S England Australia United States Per Cent, of Pure Coffer ■ 7 . 12 . 18 The British copper trade since 1850 has been as fol- lows : — Tons Value Fine Year Im- 1 Ex- ported ; ported Copper Imports Exports per Ton i £ £ 1850 . 5I,CKX3 11,000 1,412,000 1,080,000 102 1851-60 78,000 26,000 2,254,000 2,531,000 98 i860 . 109,000 1 31,000 3,404,000 3,153,000 107 1861-70 133,000 j 46,000 4,016,000 3,844,000 89 1870 . 137,000 i S2,CXX3 4,039,000 3,772,000 ''f 1871-80 147,000 56,ocx> 5,151,000 4,413,000 78 1881 . 182,000 6s,o 3,100,000 80 Period Tons Value, £ 1801-20. S,88o 720,000 1821-40, 13,220 1,360,000 1841-60. 12,840 1,355,000 1861-80. 8,070 686,cxx> The imports include, besides copper, a quantity of "regulus, or half-smelted ore. The following table shows the annual yield of copper- mines in Great Britain : — Period Tons Value., £ 1725-45- • 560 84,000 1746-65. . 1,030 l60,CX30 1766-85. . 2,020 2gO,CX)0 1786-1800 . 2,710 430,000 The total value of the output for 100 years ending 1880 was 91 millions sterling. In 1888 the total product of copper in the world was valued at 20 millions sterling per annum. The prices of this metal, however, vary exceed- ingly ; ini882itwas;£'67per ton, falling in 1886 to £^Q; whereupon a French " ring " drove up the price to £2o, but it fell afterwards to ;^50. It is remarkable that, although copper-money is no longer in use, the consumption of this metal is more than five times as great as it was forty years ago, This is in great measure explained by the enormous development of telegraph wire, cartridges, and' other things in which copper largely enters. COTTON According to Baines and other authorities, the produc- tion of raw cotton was as follows : — Million Lbs. "SiS •a 3 ^1 Egypt India 3 •c 0] Total SCO > 1791 . . . . 2 102 ..• 130 256 490 1801 48 102 160 210 520 I8II 80 104 170 201 S5S I82I 180 86 6 I7S 183 630 1831 ,385 82 18 180 155 820 1840 878 90 30 212 100 1,310 1850 890 go 45 310 100 I.43S i860 1,880 90 5i 420 100 2.551 1870 1.540 270 240 625 100 2.775 1880 2,593 86 282 540 100 3,601 1888 3.420 85 290 888 100 4.783 Ellison's table and others show the consumption to have been at various dates as follows : — Millions of Lbs. 1830 250 1840 454 1850 1860 1869 1880 1887-8 United Kingdom 588 1,140 1,101 1,404 I.S30 France . . . 68 lib 140 226 220 200 310 Germany . . . 16 26 46 140 147 28b 37S Russia .... 4 14 48 87 97 220 369 Austria. . , . ao S4 5« 94 96 140 235 Italy .... 4 8 lb 26 26 64 152 Spain .... 6 14 ,34 .■i2 50 88 105 Sweden . . . 1 2 8 16 16 25 28 Holland . . . 2 4 5 6 10 20 24 Belgium . . . 8 16 22 29 35 SO 52 Switzerland . . 9 388 18 24 30 39 49 52 Europe . . . 707 988 1.847 1.837 2,546 3y23S United States . 77 135 288 390 4cx> 7b8 1,010 India .... 2b 3S 172 283 Various . . . 5 10 852 10 1,286 10 20 60 100 Total . 470 2,273 2,292 3.S46 4,628 The production and consumption of raw cotton in 67 years ending December 1887 were approximately as follows : — I Production, Tons Aggregate Period 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 67 years United States 1,050, 2,270, 3.950, 6,4S°i 3.750, 8,700, 8,680, India 000 310, 0001 480, 000 950, 000' 1,400, (xn 2,900, ,ooo| 2,630, .ooo| 2,240, coo 000 ,000 000 .CXX3 cxx> 000 34,850,000 10,910,000 Egypt 100, 120, 170, 260, 870, 1.290, 910, ,000 ,CX30 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,cxx> 3,720,000 Brazil, &c. 120,000 I20,CXX} I50,CXX3 150,000 670,000 305,000 230,CXX3 1,685,000 Total 580,000 990,cx}6 220,000 260,000 190,000 925,000 060,000 51,165,000 It appears that the United States have produced two- thirds of the cotton which has been consumed by the factories of the world in the last 67 years, and that the cotton-crop of the world shows a steady increase, the decade ending 1890 showing 400,000 tons a year more than the preceding. Great Britain consumes one-third of all theicotton produced, the United States being the next largest consumer. In this industry France stood ahead of Germany until the war of 1S70. , COTTON 157 COTTON Consumption, Tons A ggregate 1821-40 1841-60 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 Total Great Britain . 2,310,000 2,320,000 3,830,000 3,540,000 5,650,000 4,550,000 22,200.000 France 660,000 610,000 830,000 760,000 950,000 940,000 4,750,000 Germany 190,000 410,000 660,000 650,000 1,140,000 1,220,000 4,270,000 Russia 180,000 240,000 360,000 320,000 820,000 890,000 2,810,000 Austria 160,000 200,000 370,000 330,000 650,000 640,000 2,350,000 Italy 40,000 50,000 90,000 120,000 310,000 410,000 1,020,000 Spain 80,000 110,000 200,000 170,000 340,000 340,000 1,240.000 Sweden 10,000 20,000 50,000 50,000 90,000 90,000 310,000 Holland 10,000 20,000 25,000 20,000 65,000 70,000 210,000 Belgium 150,000 120,000 130,000 120,000 200,000 170,000 890,000 Switzerland • • So,ooo 90,000 120,000 100,000 200,000 160,000 750,000 Europe .... 3,870,000 4,190,000 6,665,000 6,180,000 10,415,000 9,480,000 40,790,000 United States . 650,000 990,000 1,550,000 1,970,000 2,320,000 2,780,000 10,260,000 India .... 40,000 40,000 4S>«» 40,000 130,000 710,000 1,025,000 Total 4,560,000 5,220,000 8,260,000 8,190,000 12,865,000 12,970,000 52,075,000 There is an apparent discrepancy in the above table, the consumption of cotton in the period 1881-87 exceed- ing the production by 910,000 tons, which is explained by the circumstance that cotton yam is often counted with raw cotton. In the said period the cotton-mills of Continental Europe figure above for 4,930,000 tons of raw cotton, but this included 910,000 tons of yam, which was thus counted twice, having been already included as raw cotton in the mills of Great Britain and other countries, that produce more yam than they require. The following table shows approximately the output of cotton cloth in English statute miles : — 1821-^ 1841-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 Total Great Britain . , 9,410,000 27,450,000 16,300,000 29,300,000 23,300,000 105,760,000 France .... 3,800,000 8,000,000 4,300,000 5,500,000 5,500,000 27,100,000 Germany .... 1, 100,000 5,800,000 3,500,000 6,500,000 7,000,000 23,900,000 Russia .... 1,050,000 3,500,000 1,800,000 4,600,000 5,150,000 16,100,000 Austria .... 900,000 3,200,000 1,900,000 3,600,000 3,500,000 13, 100,000 Italy .... 200,000 ■750,000 650,000 1,700,000 2,300,000 5,600,000 Spain .... 400,000 1,700,000 900,000 1,900,000 1,900,000 6,800,000 Sweden .... 50,000 350,000 250,000 500,000 500,000 1,650,000 Holland .... 100,000 200,000 100,000 350,000 400,000 1,150,000 Belgium .... 800,000 1,450,000 700,000 1,100,000 950,000 5,000,000 Switzerland 450,000 1,150,000 550,000 1,100,000 900,000 4,150,000 Europe .... 18,260,000 53,550,000 30,950,000 56,150,000 51,400,000 210,310,000 United States . 3,700,000 14,500,000 11,200,000 13,300,000 16,200,000 58,900,000 India, &c. ... 240,000 600,000 250,000 650,000 3,550,000 5,290,000 Total 22,200,000 68,650,000 42,400,000 70,100,000 71,150,000 274,500,000 The following summary shows the business for 67 The following table shows the latest information of years approximately, viz., 1821-87 : — manufacturing industry as regard i cotton ; the number of operatives in some countries is uncertain :— Value, Millions / Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made No. of Spindles Cotton, Million Lbs. Operativs Cot- ton Manu- factures Net Output, £ U. Kingc om 1,595 4,461 2,866 22,200,000 105,760,000 Great Britain 42,740,000 1.530 504,000 101,400,000 France 355 1.037 682 4,750,000 27,100,000 UnitedStates 13,500,000 1,010 200,000 60,200,000 Germany 317 85i 484 4,270,000 23,900,000 France . . 4,900,000 310 110.000 18.600,000 Russia . S06 530 324 2,810,000 16,100,000 Germany . 5,150,000 378 290,000 23,000.000 Austria 173 443 270 2,350,000 13,100,000 Russia . . 4,000.000 369 180,000 22,200,000 Italy . 75 178 103 1,020,000 5,600,000 Austria . . 2,100,000 235 150,000 14,100,000 Spain . 93 232 139 1,240,000 6,800,000 Italy . . . 1,200,000 152 80,000 9,100,000 Sweden Holland 24 16 56 39 32 23 310,000 220,000 1,650,000 1,150,000 Spain and ) Portugal ) 2,200,000 120 53.000 7,200,000 Belgium 69 193 124 870,000 5,000,000 Belgium . . 800,000 52 20,000 3,100,000 Snitzerla id. 56 153 97 750,000 4,150,000 Holland . . Scandinavia Switzerland 300,000 300,000 1,900,000 24 28 52 10,000 10,000 30,000 1,500,000 1,700,000 3,100.000 Europe . 2,979 8,123 S.144 40,790,000 210,310,000 United St ates 705 1.563 858 10,260,000 58,900,000 India . . . 2,380,000 283 81,000 14.200,000 India, &c . . 60 141 81 1,025,000 5,290,000 Japan . . Total . 500,000 30 10,000 1,600,000 Tota ■ 3.744 9.827 6,083 52,075,000 274,500,000 82,370,000 4-573 1,728,000 281,000,000 COTTON iS8 COTTON Cotton Manufactures of all Nations Value Millions / Tons Miles Cotton Cloth Cot- 1 Manu- Net ton factures 1821-30 1,570,000 7,380,000 113 632 S19 1831-40 2,990,000 14,820,000 220 874 654 1841-50 5,220,000 26,050,000 267 I.05S 788 1851-60 8,260,000 42,600,000 500 1,440 940 1861-70 8,190,000 42,400,000 987 1,810 823 1871-80 12,865,000 70,100,000 gi.-; 2,234 1.319 1881-87 12,970,000 71,150,000 742 1,782 1,040 67 years 52,075,000 274,500,000 3.744 9,827 6,083 The world produces and consumes annually more than 10 million miles of cotton cloth. The cost of production was found in 1880 to be : — Pence fer 100 Yds. British . American Greek . Chinese German French Calico 276 424 353 310 298 312 Prints 384 502 s'lo 408 425 The area under cotton in the principal countries is shown thus : — Acres Crop, Million Lbs. Lbs. per Acre United States , India . Egypt. . . Brazil . Other countries . 18,450,000 14,530,000 1,060,000 150,000 240,000 3.420 888 290 3S SO 186 62 27s 230 203 ♦Total, . 34,260,000 4.733 140 One man can cultivate 12 acres, or, with machinery, 30 acres. Seed-cotton weighs three times as much as ginned cotton or cotton-wool, the seed forming two- thirds. Thus, in the above table, in the United States a yield of 186 lbs. cotton means that before ginned the crop averaged 560 lbs. seed-cotton per acre. The average length of fibre is as follows ; — Sea Island Egyptian . Peruvian . Inches 1.61 1.41 1.30 Brazilian New Orleans East Indian Inches 1. 17 1.02 0.89 The cotton manufacturing industry is shown as follows, according to Spencer's tables (to 1875) : — Spindles 1832 1845 1861 187S 1885 1888 Great Britain United States . Continent .... India, &c 9,000,000 1,200,000 2,800,000 17,500,000 2,500,000 7,500,000 30,300,000 5,000,000 10,000,000 340,000 37,500,000 9,500,000 19,500,000 1,000,000 44,300,000 13,300,000 22,350,000 2,400,000 42,740,000 13.500,000 23,780,000 2,420,000 Total 13,000,000 27,500,000 45,640,000 67,500,000 82,350,000 82,640,000 The number of spindles has increased more than sixfold since 1832, the production of cotton more than sevenfold. Great Britain The principal features of cotton manufacture are shown thus : — it Value, Millions £ Year ^1 .a 13 0'* It 1 1720 2 2 8 ... . 1785 II 10 40 1800 52 47 180 ... 1814 95 86 340 23 2 30 1820 119 108 425 30 3 33 1830 24s 223 795 34 S 39 1840 452 407 1.445 40 8 48 1850 588 529 2,025 43 6 49 i860 1,140 1,027 4.150 71 10 81 1B70 1,101 991 4.647 76 IS 91 1880 1,404 1.258 6,146 86 19 105 18S7 1.499 1,346 6.534 82 19 101 According to Kennedy, Cowell, and others, 10 lbs. raw cotton produce 9 lbs. spun yam. The cotton manufactures of Great Britain are almost equal to the aggregate of all other European nations. They constitute, moreover, one of the most important elements of British industry, the output, as shown above, being valued at more than ;f300,ooo a day. If we measure the production of cotton cloth not by yards, but by English statute miles, we find that the mills of Great Britain turn out daily more than 10,000 miles. The daily consumption of raw cotton averages 5,000,000 lbs., say 2200 tons. Each operative consumes yearly as much cotton as 20 acres can produce, and turns out about 7 miles of cotton cloth. This is irrespective ot yam pro- duced for exportation. If all the yarn spun in Great Britain were made into cotton cloth, the output would be nearly one-fourth more. The quantities ot cotton cloth and yarn consumed in Great Britain and exported were approximately as fol- low : — Cotton Cloth, Million Yards Yarn, Million Lbs. Year Home Use Ex- ported Total Homei Ex- Use 1 ported Total 1814 148 192 340 70 16 86 1820 176 249 425 85 23 108 1830 350 445 795 IS9 64 223 1840 654 791 I.44S 289 118 407 '^1° 677 1.348 2,025 40S 124 529 i860 1.385 2.76s 4.150 830 197 1,027 1870 1,380 3.267 4.647 80s 186 991 1880 1,650 4.496 6,146 1,042 216 1,258 1889 1,630 S,002 6,632 1,125 252 1.377 * Ellison estimates the total crop at 5330 million lbs., including 600 millions in China and 150 millions in Central Africa, which are consumed in those countries, and not counted in the above table. COTTON 159 COTTON The following table is a summaiy of British cotton manii&cturiiig industiy since 1820 : — Tons Cotton Consumed Statute Miles of Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Raw Cotton Manu- factured Yam Exported Total Product Net Product 1821-30 . 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 , 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-87 . 810,000 1,505,000 2,320,000 3,830,000 3,540,000 5,650,000 4,550,000 3,480,000 5,930,000 9,940,000 17,5x0,000 16,300,000 29,300,000 23,300,000 61 109 112 241 430 390 252 301 322 388 597 698 933 563 41 71 81 80 "5 138 133 342 393 469 677 813 1,071 696 281 284 357 436 383 681 444 67 years . • 22,205,000 105,760,000 I.S95 3.802 659 4,461 2,866 The quantities and values of cotton goods exported averaged as follows per annum : — Period Cotton Cloth, Million Yards Yam, Mil- Value, £ Sterling Value of a Mile of Cloth Plain Printed Total Cloth Yarn, &c. Total 1821-30 . 172 168 340 39 13,100,000 4,100,000 17,200,000 70 1831-40 314 27s 589 90 14,300,000 7,100,000 21,400,000 43 1841-50 584 381 96S 136 16,100,000 8,100,000 24,200,000 31 1851-60 1,252 736 1,988 171 30,100,000 7,950,000 38,050,000 27 1861-70 1,606 838 2.444 136 48,100,000 11,500,000 59,600,000 34 1871-80 2.592 1,101 3.693 222 58,100,000 13,800,000 71,900,000 28 1820 114 I3S 249 23 13,200,000 3,300,000 16,500,000 95 1830 24s 200 445 64 14,200,000 5,200,000 19,400,000 57 1840 433 3S8 791 118 16,300,000 8,400,000 24,700,000 36 1850 758 590 1,348 124 21,900,000 6,400,000 28,300,000 29 i860 1.790 975 2.765 ^i? 42,200,000 9,800,000 52,000,000 26 1870 2,294 973 3.267 186 56,700,000 14,700,000 71,400,000 31 1880 3.059 1.437 4.496 216 57,100,000 18,500,000 75,600,000 23 1887 3.473 1.431 4.904 251 51,700,000 19,300,000 71,000,000 19 1888 3,608 1.430 S.038 256 52,600,000 19,400,000 72,000,000 19 The birth of the cotton industry may be said to date from 1793, when Whitney's improved gin was invented in the United States. From that time, as shown above, there was a steady and rapid increase, until the American war of 1 86 1 caused a cotton famine, which was estimated to have caused a loss of 66 millions sterling to Great Britain — more properly 98 millions. The cotton-factories of the United Kingdom advanced thus : — 1 2. a ^3 i 1 ■1 CO B 0.0 . 9J 20 z^ s U C. 1838 I.8I5 259.000 13,000,000 109,000 410 I.S74 1850 I.9S2 331,000 20,900,000 250,000 58S 1,780 i860 2,887 30,400,000 400,000 1,140 1870 2,483 449,000 38,000,000 440,000 1,101 2,420 1880 2,674 487,000 41,900,000 513,000 1,404 2,860 1885 2,63s 504,000 44,400,000 561,000 1,500 2,975 In 1889 Mr. Ellison published the following state- ment: — 1869-61 1887 Products exported . Home consumption . • £ 49,030,000 27.970.000 £ 70,960,000 30,440,000 Total value of products . 77,000,000 101,400,000 Paid for cotton Wages Expenses and profits 29,290,000 20,990,000 26,720,000 34,460,000 29,400,000 37,540,000 Total as above . 77,000,000 101,400,000 In 1869 Mr. For wood, of Liverpool, published the following comparative statement : — 1860 1868 Million Lbs. Million Lbs. Cotton consumed . . 1.079 996 Waste in spinning . . "3 120 Yam produced . . . 966 876 Yam exported . . . 197 169 Yarn manufactured 769 707 £ £ Value of manufactures 70,000,000 76,600,000 Do. home use . . . 24,400,000 19,200,000 Do. exported . . . 46,300,000 57,400,000 Do. yam exported . . 9,900,000 14,700,000 * Total product . . . 80,600,000 91,300,000 Cost of cotton . . . 28,900,000 41,000,000 Wages, &C. . ... 33,600,000 34,900,000 Net profit 18,100,000 15,400,000 The ratios of the four preceding tables may be shown thus : — Forwood Ellison 1860 1868 18B9-61 1887 Cost of cotton Wages, &c. . Net profit . . 35-9 41.7 22.4 44-9 38.2 16.9 Cotton . . Wages . . Balance . Total . 38.0 27-3 34-7 34-0 29.0 37.0 Total . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Although Mr. Forwood estimated the profits of mill- owners at;£^i5,400,ooo per aimum, it is believed that this is above the reality. COTTON i6d COTTON The consumption of British cotton cloth was approxi- mately as follows : — Millions of Yards 1820 1840 1860 1880 1889 United Kingdom United States . Spanish America 176 24 56 128 10 11 3 17 654 32 279 200 75 145 30 30 1.385 227 527 201 358 825 324 303 1,650 78 652 365 589 1,813 632 367 1.630 49 720 370 630 2,363 557 313 Africa .... East Indies . . China .... Various . . . Total 42s 1.445 4.150 6,146 6,632 The customers who took British yarn were as follows : — Exported Yarn, Million Lbs. 1820 1840 1860 1880 1889 Europe East Indies . China and Japan . Various 22 I 92 16 2 9 116 31 9 41 95 47 46 28 133 49 36 34 Total . 23 119 197 216 252 Ellison shows the progress of British cotton-mills as follows : — .2 1 i ■I 1 1 Yarn Produced, Million Lbs. Yarn Consumed, Million Lbs. 1i u .2-3. !3S tff 0) 3^ 1819-21 110,000 250,000 107 81 968 342 1829-31 140,000 275,000 217 142 1,546 521 1844-46 190,000 210.000 523 348 2,754 1,681 1859-61 248,000 203.000 910 651 3.671 3,206 1886-87 245,000 255,000 1,41s 1,162 5.9CO 4.559 He estimates the capital employed in cotton-mills in 1887 at 105 millions sterling. France The earliest mention of cotton factories is in 1688, when the consumption of raw cotton reached 500,000 lbs. yearly. The next is in 1 750, when it was 4 million pounds. The following table shows approximately the principal features of this industry. Tons, Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions Lbs. Period Cotton Manu- factures Net 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 230,000 430,000 610,000 830,000 760,000 950,000 940,000 1,300,000 2,500,000 3,300,000 4,700,000 4,300,000 5,500,000 5,500,000 17 33 33 50 95 71 S6 106 160 136 158 180 165 132 89 127 103 108 85 94 76 67 years 4,750,000 27,100,000 355 1,037 682 The loss of Alsace in 1871 reduced the number of cotton-spindles in France from 6,120,000 to 4,620,000. In 1884 the number had risen to 5,111,000, but this in- cluded 227,000 that were idle. There are 1065 cotton- mills in France, with 108,000 operatives, 75,000 power- looms and 40,000 hand-looms. In ten years ending 1S87 the imports of cotton manufactures averaged ;^2,6oo,ooo, the exports ;£'3, 600,000 per annnm. Germany The consumption of raw cotton and imported yam has grown sixfold in half a century, viz. : — Period Consumption Yearly, Million Lbs. Fibre Number of Spindles Output, £ 1836-40 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1881-87 . . . 62 147 378 600,000 2,260,000 5.150,000 5,600,000 14,700,000 24,000,000 The business of sixty-seven years was approximately as follows : — Tons Cotton Miles Cloth Value Millions £, Period a iS 1 Consumed Made U Net 1821-30 70,000 400,000 s 32 27 1831-40 120,000 700,000 9 42 33 1841-50 410,000 2,300,000 . 23 92 69 1851-60 660,000 3,500,000 40 125 BS 1861-70 650,000 3,500,000 81 147 66 1871-80 1,140,000 6,500,000 86 I9S 109 1881-87 1,220,000 7,000,000 73 168 95 Total 4,270,000 23,900,000 317 801 484 Germany gained 1,450,000 spindles by the annexation of Alsace, The imports of cotton manufactures in ten years down to 1888 averaged ;^9oo,ooo, exports ;£'3,6oo,ooo per annum. Russia In 1824, according to Schubert, the mills consumed 4 million pounds of cotton and yarn yearly. There were then 484 mills, against 129 in 1812. The industry has grown rapidly of late years, viz. : — Year Million Lbs. Fibre Spindles Output, £ 1840 . 1870 . 1887 . 44 369 700,000 2,500,000 4,400,000 4,300,000 9,800,000 21,000,000 The business of 67 years is summed up approximately thus : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 185T-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 50,000 130,000 240,000 360,000 320,000 820,000 890,000 300,000 750,000 1,400,000 2,100,000 1,800,000 4,600,000 5,150,000 4 10 14 22 40 62 54 24 ti 69 123 20 35 42 47 3S 76 69 67 years 2,810,000 16,100,000 206 530 324 In tenyears ending 1887 Russia imported cotton goods worth ;^0,40O,ooo yearly. COTTON i6i COTTON Austria In 1830 the consumption of raw cotton barely reached 20 million lbs. The following table sums up the business approximately : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 60,000 100,000 200,000 370,000 330,000 630,000 640,000 350,000 550,000 1,100,000 2,100,000 1,900,000 3,600,000 3,500,000 S 7 11 22 41 49 38 30 31 84 2S 24 33 47 36 59 46 67 years 2,350,000 13.100,000 173 443 270 Imports and exports of cotton manufactures in the last ten years were even. Italy The aimual consumption of cotton in 1830 was only 4 million lbs. The business of 67 years sums up thus : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1S61-70 1871-80 1881-87 10,000 30,000 50,000 90,000 120,000 310,000 410,000 50,000 150,000 250,000 500,000 650,000 1,700,000 2,300,000 I 2 IS 23 25 6 9 12 i3 27 51 55 5 7 9 12 12 28 30 67 years 1,020,000 5,600,000 75 178 103 A statement published in 1877 showed that the mills had S4,ooo operatives, 14,000 looms, 880,000 spindles, steam-power 3000 horse, water-mills 10,000 horse. In ten years ending 1S87 Italy imported cotton manufactures worth £2, 100,000 yearly. Spain In 1769 the first cotton factory was built in Spain. A statement published in 1833 showed 2840 mills, with Si 0,000 spindles, 60,000 operatives, consuming 11 million lbs. cotton and yarn; product, 55 million yards cloth. The business of 67 years was approximately as follows : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 30,000 50,000 110,000 200,000 170,000 340,000 340,000 150,000 250,000 600,000 1,100,000 900,000 1,900,000 1,900,000 3 4 6 12 21 26 21 15 IS 24 36 39 fa 12 II 18 24 18 31 25 67 years 1,240,000 6,800,000 93 232 139 A statement in 1886 gave 53,000 operatives, 33,000 looms, 1,800,000 spindles, and foods manufactured to the yearly value of ;^ 12, 400,000, that is, at an average of sixpence per yard of calico. The value is absurd, a fictitious one, being the result of enormous import duties. In ten years ending 1 887 Spain imported ;^400,ooo worth of cotton goods yearly, and Portugal ;£^7oo,ooo. As regards Portugal, the consumption is close on lo million lbs. cotton and yarn yearly; output, ;^6oo,ooo; spindles, 140,000. Sweden In 1830 the output of the mills was valued at ;^20o,ooo a year. The business may be summed up thus : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 30,000 50,000 50,000 go, 000 90,000 150,000 250,000 250,000 500,000 500,000 2 I 8 9 II 15 13 6 6 5 8 7 67 years 310,000 1 1,650,000 24 56 32 Denmark and Norway have no cotton factories, but consume imported goods. In ten years ending 1887 the net imports of cotton manufactured goods averaged thus : — ■ £ Denmark 2,200,000 Sweden and Norway . . . 600,000 Total . . 2,800,000 Thus the total consumption of cotton goods in Scan- dinavia approaches a value of S millions sterling per annum. Holland The industry may be briefly summed up as follows : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 30,000 25,000 20,000 65,000 70,000 150,000 150,000 100,000 350,000 400,000 2 2 3 5 4 8 6 5 II 9 6 4 2 6 S 67 years 210,000 1,150,000 16 39 23 Belgium The business of 67 years was approximately as fol- lows : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 40,000 110,000 120,000 130,000 120,000 200,000 170,000 200,000 600,000 700,000 750.000 700,000 1,100,000 950,000 3 8 7 8 IS IS 13 16 28 25 29 26 13 28 21 17 14 18 13 67 years 890,000 5,000,000 69 193 124 The report for 1835 showed that 60,000 operatives turned out goods to the value of ;^3,400,ooo sterling. At present Belgium produces a little more cotton goods than she requires, the net exports for ten years ending 1887 averting ;^200,ooo. L COTTON 162 CRIME Switzerland The business since 1820 sums up approximately thus :- Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 80,000 90,000 120,000 100,000 200,000 160,000 450,000 500,000 650,000 550,000 1,100,000 900,000 6 S 7 13 15 10 33 20 21 24 33 22 27 IS 14 II 18 12 67 years 750,000 4,150,000 56 IS3 97 United States The first cotton-mill was founded at Providence, Rhode The growth of this manufacture is shown as follows :- Island, in 1790, and power-looms were first used at Waltham in 1815. The consumption of raw cotton in 1810 was 5 million lbs. Mr. Atkinson's report on the cotton-mills of Massa- chusetts shows, since 1830, as follows : — Average Yards Cloth Cost of Work, Year Wages per per Pence per Operative Operative 100 Yards ' £ 1830 .... 34 8,300 98 1840 . 36 9,600 91 1850 . 40 12,200 78 i860 . 41 21,800 46 1870 . 49 19,900 59 1880 . 54 28,000 47 1884 . 60 28,000 54 Year No. of Mills Spindles Looms Operatives Cotton, Million Lbs. Capital, MilLStg. Wages, Mill.Stg. Cotton, MillStg. Product, Mill.Stg. £ ' £ £ £ 1830 .... 801 1,240,000 33,000 62,000 77 8 2 8 1840 .... 2,200,000 72,000 135 10 1850 .... 1,094 3,000,000 92,000 288 IS 3 7 14 i860 .... 1.091 5,240,000 126,000 122,000 390 21 5 12 24 1870 .... 956 7,130,000 157,000 135.000 400 25 7 19 30 1880 . 756 10,650,000 226,000 173,000 768 43 9 21 44 1888 .... 13,500,000 ... 1,010 60 The industry in the United States may be summed up thus approximately : — Tons Cotton Consumed Miles Cloth Made Value, Millions £ Period Cot- ton Manu- factures Net 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 160,000 490,000 990,000 1,550,000 1,970,000 2,320,000 2,780,000 900,000 2,800,000 5,700,000 8,800,000 11,200,000 13,300,000 16,200,000 11 31 49 84 223 157 ISO 43 109 160 218 376 337 320 3? 78 III 134 153 180 170 67 years 10,260,000 58,900,000 705 1.563 858 In ten years ending 1 887, the imports of cotton manu- factures averaged ;^5, 800,000, the exports ;.^2,5oo,ooo. The consumption between liome-made and imported goods in 18S7 amounted to ;^S2,300,ooo sterling. The cotton crop proceeds from 1 1 States, and is given by Ellison as follows : — Million Lbs. 1800 1820 1840 1860 1870 1880 1888 North Carolina 4 10 S2 ■;8 ■iS 175 177 South Carolina 16 44 62 141 90 235 267 Georgia . . . 10 40 163 281 190 366 463 Virginia . . , ', 6 10 22 I 26 6 Tennessee . . I 18 27 119 73 149 176 Alabama . . ... 20 117 396 172 315 456 Mississippi . . 10 IQb 481 226 433 524 Louisiana . . 10 ir;2 3" 140 228 220 Texas . . . ... 172 140 362 807 Arkansas . . ... 6 ISI 99 274 297 Florida . . . ... 12 26 16 25 30 Total crop . . 36 160 797 2,158 1,205 2,588 3.423 Exported . . 20 16 128 32 661 1,760 806 1,820 2,385 Consumption . 136 398 399 768 1,038 The above figures from 1840 to 1870 differ somewhat from those of the Agricultural Report, as on page 42. India The first cotton-mill was established at Bombay in 1851 ; there were 51 mills in 1876, with40,ocio operatives and 1,240,000 spindles, since which year 46 mills have been built, besides 10 more now in course of construc- tion. In June 1889 there were 124 mills, with 92,000 operatives, 19,000 looms, 2,760,000 spindles, consum- ing yearly 353 million lbs. The capital employed is about ;f8,8oo,ooo sterling. Cotton-growing covers an area of 14,530,000 acres, of which Sj millions in Bombay and Scinde : about 30 per cent, of the crop is exported, the rest consumed in India. CRIME The following table is from Professor Bodio's inter- national records of crime, mostly for the years 1876-84 : — Number of Crimes, Annual Average Murder Wound- ing Robbery Various Total France . . Germany . Italy . . . Spain . . 701 610 2,go2 1.330 21,404 54.250 48,620 7.310 36,140 31.480 49,860 9.513 3.610 10,550 1.420 245 61.855 96,890 102,802 18,398 Total . S.S43 1 131.584 126,993 15.825 279.94s Number of Criminals Tried, Annual Average Murder Wound- ing Robbery Various Total England . Scotland Ireland . , 294 40 96 902 510 506 59.220 10,840 5,260 642 64 64 61,053 11.454 U. Kingdom France . . Germany . Hungary . Italy . . . Spain . . Belgium . . 430 816 602 1,682 3.712 1,807 117 1,918 25,780 70.502 7.920 59,210 8.985 11,740 75,320 45.940 143,810 14.520 62,910 12,430 770 4.340 7,780 2,452 1. 540 280 925 78.438 76,876 222,694 26,574 127,372 23.502 20,662 Total . 9.166 186,055 362,810 18,087 576,118 CRIME 163 CRIME Number of Criminals Condemned, Annual Average Murder Wound- ing Robbery Various Total England . 148 696 43.100 432 44.376 Scotland . 19 434 10,020 S3 10,526 Ireland . . S4 324 3.410 44 3.832 U. Kingdom 221 I.4S4 56.S30 529 58,734 France . . S82 23,910 41.830 3,880 70,202 Germany . SOS 57,420 102,260 6,364 I66.S49 Austria . . S40 SI. 160 2,060 53.760 Hungary . 1,180 S.26S 10,270 1,210 17.925 Italy . , . 2,720 44,220 47,220 1,160 95.320 Spain . . 1.26s 7,180 9,920 172 i8,S37 Belgium . . 80 9.710 6,110 764 16.664 Total . 7.093 200,319 274,140 16,139 497,691 Criminals Condemned Yearly per VTillion Inhabitants Murder Wound- ing Robbery Various Total England 6 27 r,66s 17 1. 715 Scotland . S 116 2,680 14 2,815 Ireland . . II 62 662 9 744 U. Kingdom 6 40 1.61S IS 1,676 France . . 16 634 1,110 102 1,862 Germany . II 1,26s 2,260 141 3.677 Austria . . 23 2,320 ... 92 2,435 Hungary . 67 298 S86 68 1,019 Italy. . . 95 i.Slo 1,662 41 3.338 Spain . . 83 432 S92 10 1,117 Belgium . . 14 1,760 r,iio 136 3.020 The ratios of criminals in the United Kingdom are over-stated by Professor Bodio : see official returns, p. 164. The number of criminals and ofiendeis in various countries in 1872 per million inhabitants, according to the Bulletin Statistigue, was as follows : — Convictions per Million Inhabitants of each Sex Males Females Both Sexes Detained in all Prisons, per Million Inhabitants of each Sex Males Females Both Sexes England Ireland . France , Prussia . Saxony . Austria . Italy . Sweden . Denmark Holland Belgium 800 323 1,060 1,600 1.S15 915 1,960 1,634 906 858 394 108 "S 174 292 336 153 54 372 256 82 450 216 6l2 952 914 526 1,010 983 575 464 2,020 950 2,440 1,910 S.140 2,180 1,390 1,635 1,207 460 342 422 512 274 267 470 386 207 1,220 639 1,260 I.4SS 1,070 2,710 1,296 879 910 The number of days of imprisonment suffered yearly oS9 2,165 71 1870 1,726 1,099 2,825 83 i883 2,065 1,008 3,073 83 1887 ... ... 2,074 52 The record for 1S87 was composed thus : — Murder 23 Burglary 948 Robbery 11,119 Assault, &C. 61,560 Total • 73,650 The classification of offences and misdemeanours being different from that used in England and Ireland, the number of crimes and offences appears unduly high. The local and convict prisons admitted in 1887 offenders of both sexes to the number of 46, 108 ; the cost of prison maintenance reaching ^127,000, or about £^o per in- mate. Ireland The record for 1887 showed as follows for persons tried : — Murder 51 Shooting, &c. . . . 171 Burglary 135 Assault, &c. ... 856 Crimes . . Offences . . Drunkenness Sundry . . Crimes . . 1,213 Total The following classifications are given :- 1.213 33.765 79.476 105,209 219,663 Per Cent. Men Women Able to read Unable to read. 70 30 S3 47 Total 100 100 There are 4 convict and 26 local prisons, the admissions to which showed : — Per Cent. Men Women New offenders . Convicted up to 10 times . Convicted over 10 times . 47 24 23 S3 Total . 100 100 The maintenance of the prisons in 1887 cost ;^i24,ooa France Official returns since 1826 are as follows ; — Period Convictions Yearly for Crime For Crimes and Offences 1831-40 .... 1841-60 .... 1861-70 .... 1871-80 .... 1883-87 .... 5,486 4,970 3,S72 3,650 3,105 5S.I00 97,200 119,500 132,500 206,400 CRIME 167 CRIME The number of crimes and offences compared with population was as follows : — Period Per Million Inhabitants Convicts in Penal Servitude Crimes Offences Total Number Per Million Inhabitants 1830-40 1841-60 1861-70 1871-80 1883-87 230 , 19s no 120 81 *2,o8o 3,610 3.870 4.320 S.390 2,310 3.80s 3.980 4.440 5.471 16,820 18,330 18,210 16,630 13.380 Sii 489 458 3S2 The annual ratio of some of the graver crimes is shovim as follows : — Period 1826-30 . 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . Arson 87 122 194 225 202 180 Infanti- cide 120 184 247 347 343 296 Assault on Girls 136 196 383 638 744 758 Murder 64 80 116 116 70 Before i860 the law against criminal assaults regarded only girls under eleven, but since that year it was extended to me age of thirteen. The above return of murders only comprises those of the most aggravated character ; the real number is much greater. In 1880, for example, there were 645 murders and homicides, against 808 in the United Kingdom. The following table shows the total number of persons tried : — Tried Con- Per icoo Year Law Courts Police Total demned Population 1831 372,000 105,000 477.000 426,000 13-3 1840 373,000 228,tX>0 601,000 549,000 16. 1 1850 486,000 306,000 792,000 736,000 21.0 i860 431,000 509,000 940,000 894,000 24.2 1870 337,000 234,000 571,000 549,000 14.4 18S0 598,000 424,000 1,022,000 995,000 26.5 1885 675,000 467,cxx3 1,142,000 1,111,000 29. 4 1 The prison population at various dates was thus : — Year Galleys Prisons Refor- matories Total 1852 i860 1870 1880 1884 6,800 3,600 2,600 11,700 13.400 47.000 42,100 33.600 40,600 40,000 6,400 8,600 6,800 9,CXDO 7,000 60,200 S4.300 43,000 61,300 60,400 The prison popul Males Females . ation in S3.299 7.537 885 was :— Prisons . Penal colonies 47,456 13.380 Total . 60,836 I Total . 60,836 In December 1880 there were 13,927 at the galleys. First offenders . . Up to 3 convictions Over 3 convictions . 2,891 = 20.9 per cent. 4.733 = 34-0 6.303 = 45-1 Total 13,927 = loo.o The classification of criminals since 1826 has been as follows : Sexes per Cent. Percentage of Age Per Cent. Per Cent. Males Females Under 21 21-40 Over 40 Married Unmarried Able to Read Unable 1826-30 . . . 81 19 18 58 24 39 61 1831-40 . . . 83 17 17 60 23 42 S8 42 58 1841-50 . . . 83 17 17 57 26 45 55 48 52 1851-60 . . . 82 18 i6 S6 28 47 53 56 44 1861-70 . . . 84 16 16 54 30 46 S4 61 39 1871-80 . . . 83 17 18 54 23 45 SS 67 33 The proportion of " recidivistes " or old offenders has increased as follows : — 1826 1850 10 per cent. 28 „ 1870 . 1880 . 41 per cent. 48 .. The number of criminals to each class in society was as follows : — Per Million Persons Male Female Unmarried .... Married Widowed 400 200 240 90 30 40 In eight years ending 1868 the number to each class was as foUovfS : — Criminals per Million Husband with child . . 186 Wife with child ... 32 Husband without child . 287 Wife without child . . 60 Widower with child . . 237 Widow with child . . 44 Widower without child . 262 Widow vrithout child . 35 Per Million Males Females Unmarried .... Married Widowed 590 200 270 100 35 SO Actp Per Million Males Females Both Sexes 7-21 .... 21-40 .... 41-60 .... Over 60 ... . 230 370 180 100 50 75 35 10 90 240 130 60 The general ratio was 100 criminals in rural population and 220 in towns per million inhabitants. The rank and position of French criminals was : — Men of fortune . . . . 6 per cent. Servants ^3 •• Tradesmen . . . . 14 ,, ArtisanSj &c . . . . 67 ,, CRIME i68 CRIME Criminals under sixteen years of age in 1859 were : Guilty of Boys Girls Total Murder Wounding . Robbery, &c. 6 269 6,887 3 50 1,706 9 319 8.593 Total . 7,162 1.759 8,921 The number of criminals of all ^es tried annually in tiie term of five years ending 1880 was as follows : — Males . . 3,682 = 200 per million of population Females. . 692= 40 ,, ,, Total . 4,374 = 120 ,, ,, In a period of 47 years ending 1 880 sentence of death was passed on 1775 murderers, of whom 205 were women ; they were as follows : — 1833-40 . . . 326 1861-70 1841-50 . . . 485 1871-80 1851-60 . . . 499 48 years The ratio of age of the above murderers was : 193 272 I.77S Number Ratio Under 21 ZI-40 41-60 Over 60 . Total 106 1,182 420 67 6.2 66.2 24.1 3-S 1,775 100,0 Only 1067 were actually executed, 671 being com- muted, and 37 dying in prison, for the most part of suicide. In the year 1885 the number of prisoners sent to hospital was equal to 67 per cent, among the men and 60 per cent, among women. Prison diet consists of 5 oz. of bread and 13 oz. vegetables and potatoes daily, with a meat ration of 4 oz. twice a week. Germany In 1 886 the criminal records of the Empire were ; — Accused Con- demned Under 18 Years of Age Condemned Men Women Murder - . Assault . . Burglary Robbery Fraud . . Perjury . . Embezzle- ) ment ) Various . . 337 56.785 19.325 104,206 17,628 3.330 18,025 213,171 298 42,586 15.983 88,816 13,609 2,948 14.731 174,029 18 720 509 17,266 1.195 345 1.514 9.946 231 31,188 13,880 64,668 10,825 2,425 11,639 156.578 67 11.398 2,103 24,148 2,784 523 3,092 17.451 Total . 432,807 353.000 31.513 291.434 61,566 It appears that women formed less than 18 per cent, of the total number of convicts, but as regards robbery their ratio was much higher, namely, 27 per cent. Convicts under 1 8 years of age were 9 per cent, of the total. The condemned persons belonged to the following States : — Against Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtemburg Baden Duchies Total Person Property Public order 79,839 97,864 39.011 24,147 20,433 5.084 S.786 10,675 3.976 4.968 5.636 3.013 3.891 5.170 1,435 15.388 18.745 7.939 134.019 158.523 60,458 Total 216,714 49,664 20,437 13.617 10,496 42,072 353.000 Of the above offenders 102,800, say 29 per cent., had been previously convicted. The number of persons con- victed compared with the population over twelve years of age gave the following ratios per 10,000 : — Against 1882 1883 1884: 1886 1886 Person Property Order .... 34 53 16 35 51 16 39 SI 17 39 49 17 41 48 18 Total 103 102 107 105 107 The ratios in 1886 were as follows : — Offenders per 10,000 Population over 12 Years Old ; against — Person Property Order Total Prussia . . Bavaria . . Saxony . . Wurtemburg Baden . . Hesse . . Mecklenburg Oldenburg . Brunswick , Hamburg . Bremen . . Alsace . . 40 62 26 35 34 39 20 20 31 28 3S 41 49 53 47 40 45 32 31 34 61 72 32 20 13 18 22 13 12 16 14 15 si 25 109 128 91 97 92 83 67 63 89 114 143 98 In a term of 14 years ending 1852 the number of criminals and offenders in Saxony averaged yearly as follows : — Per Million Persons Age Males Females 16-20 900 180 21-30 2,100 400 31-40 2,300 600 41-50 1,300 250 51-60 800 160 Over 60 . . . 300 60 The number of male criminals and offenders per million male inhabitants rose as follows in Saxony : — Period Per Million 1832-44 1^170 1845-54 1,280 1872 1,515 In a period of 10 years ending 1879, the number of criminals found guilty of wilful murder in Prussia, Bavaria, and Austria was : — Number Per Annum Prussia Bavaria Austria 484 24s 816 48 25 82 Total 1.945 195 CRIME 169 CRIME Only 23 of the above assassins suffered death, namely, 16 in Austria and 7 in Bavaria. In Prussia during a term of 14 years ending 1874 the number of murders yearly committed showed as com- pared with population thus ; — 30 per million . 10 ,, Committed by men Committed by women Russia Statistics for 1887 may be summed up thus : Before Convictions Sentence Senate .... Supreme courts . Divisional . . . Police .... 10,800 172,100 207,000 785.900 Exile .... Penal servitude . Hard labour, &c. Total . . 20,590 58,020 1,097,190 1,175,800 Total . . 1,175,800 The prison population was made up thus : — In Russia . 73,350 Siberia, &c. 33,490 Convicts . 82,570 1 Males , 98,710 Untried . 26,270 Females . 10,130 Total . 108,840 Total . 108,840! Total . 108,840 Austria The criminal records of Austria proper in 1886 showed : — Supreme Court For Police and other Courts For Accused Con- demned Accused Con- demned Murder . Assault . Fraud . Robbery Various . 379 5.702 3.920 17.383 8,750 274 4.787 2,689 15.054 6,902 Fraud . Theft . Assault . Disorder Sundry. Total. 184^182 148,186 130.753 549.952 13.083 124.521 98,843 87,881 234.11S Total. 36.134 29.706 1,038,103 558.443 The sentences passed on the condemned persons were : — Supreme Court Lower Courts Death . Galleys for life S to 20 years . I to s years . Under 12 months . 5 27 574 4.147 24.953 8 to 30 days Over 30 days Fined . Reprimanded Total . 83.663 13.254 368,311 980 Total . 29,706 558.443 The age and condition of the greater criminab were : — Age Males Females Total Under 20 20 to 30 . 30 to 60 . Over 60 . S.287 12,370 11,328 721 Single . Married . Widowed Total . 15.113 9.767 572 2,318 1.553 383 17.431 11,320 955 Total . 29,706 25.452 4.254 29,706 The reformatories contain 3046 boys and 279 girls. The ratios of sex among all persons condemned in i886 were : — Supreme Covirt Lower Courts Males Females 85.7 14.3 81.S 18.5 Total . 100.0 lOO.O Prison population was as foUovrs : — 1882 1886 Males Females . 10,139 1,598 9.785 1.439 Total ",737 11,224 There are 21 penal establishments, of which six are for women. Hungary The records for 1886 show the number of persons con- demned as follows : — Males Females Total Supreme court . Divisional . . . Correctional . . Police .... 17,817 44,113 29,583 220,026 2,393 14,891 6,501 35,032 20,210 59,004 36,084 255,058 Total . . 3",539 58,817 370,356 The crimes tried and sentences passed at the Supreme Court were : — Crimes Murder . 190 Incendiarism 132 Assault . 2,502 Robbery . 4,905 Various . 12,481 Total 20,210 Sentences Death .... 20 Imprisonment over 5 years 771 „ 1 to 5 years 5,119 ,, 6 to 12 months 5,505 ,, under 6 months 8,795 Total 20,210 The convictions in the Divisional and Correctional Courts were as follows : — Divisional Correctional Males Females Total Males Females Total Theft . . Assault . . Disorder . Fraud . . Various 8,830 7,304 9,256 2,552 16,171 2,021 541 1,815 580 9.934 10,851 7,845 11,071 3.132 26,105 7,766 6,114 7,224 1,156 7,323 1.455 406 1,204 224 3,212 9,221 6,520 8,428 1,380 io,53S Total 44,113 14,891 159,004 29,583 6,501 36,084 The sentences passed in the above courts and that of Police were : — Imprisonment Divisional Correctional Police Total Over 6 months I to 6 months . 14 to 30 days . I to 14 days . Fined . . . Reprimanded . 3,340 7,934 24.505 23,225 885 2,656 6,242 26,301 2,230 S,o8o 44,850 134.400 68,498 88s 8,226 19,256 95,656 157,625 68,498 Total . 59.004 36,084 255,058 350,146 Criminals condemned at the Supreme Court and offenders at the Divisional Court were classified thus according to age : — Age Criminals Offenders Males Females Total Males Females Total Under 20 20-30 30-60 Over 60 2,574 7,923 6,950 370 393 925 1,013 62 2,967 8,848 7,963 432 4,592 19,054 19,654 813 1,333 6,129 7,192 237 5,925 25,183 26,846 1,050 Total 17.817! 2,393 20,210| 44,113 14,891 59,004 CRIME 170 CRIME The condition of the criminals was : Males Females Total Prison Population Married . Single. . Widowed 9,412 7.792 613 1,228 825 340 10,640 8,617 953 Males .. Females . Total S.678 600 6,278 Total 17,817 2,393 20,210 Italy Averages for nine years ending 1884 give as follows : — No. of 1 Criminals Crimes | Tried Convicted Per 100,000 Population Murder . . Stabbing, &c. Robbery . . Sundry . . 2,902 3,712 48,620 59,210 49,860 62,910 1,420 1,540 2,720 44,220 47,220 1,160 10 166 4 Total 102,802 1 127,372 95.320 334 In 1887 the convictions and prison population were as follows : — Convictions Prison Population Assize ) court J Minor J courts ) 5. 546 309.813 Males Females Total 63.365 5.473 In Prison Penal ser- 1 vitude i Total 34,264 34.564 Total 315.359 68,828 68,828 Among those in prison are included 5477 children in reformatories, viz. : — 3.633 . 1.844 . Boys Girls Total .... S.477 Murder, or rather homicide in some form, constitutes a principal feature in Italian crime. The number of such crimes was : — Year 1871 . 1872 . 1875. Murders ■ 5,297 • 4,524 • 3,408 In 1875 the prisons of Italy admitted the folloviring criminals : — Number Ratio Age Males Females Total 1 a 1 Under 21 21-30. . 31-40. . Over 40 . 39.15° 54.5°° 37.300 41,250 S,ioo 11,040 8,960 9.400 44.250 65,540 46,260 50,650 22.8 31-7 21.7 23.8 14.8 32.0 25-9 27-3 21-5 31.8 22.4 24-3 Total . 172,200 34.500 206,700 100. lOO.O 100. The cities of Italy stand for 32 per cent, of the popula- tion, and 42 per cent, of the crime. The predominance of crime in towns is therefore notably less than in France. The nature of crimes in 1875 was as follows : — Numler Ratio Against the person . . . 51,000 ... 36.4 Against property . . . 88,000 ... 63.6 Total 139,000 In December 1875 the prisons and reformatories held 53,500 criminals, having admitted 356,500 during the year. The classes of prisoners were : — Per Cent. Agricultural 65 Operatives 30 Tradesmen, &c. 5 In ten years ending 1876 there were 392 murderers sentenced to death, but only 34 were executed. The proportion of convicts who die under sentence is as follows : — 5 years penal servitude . . .29 per cent. 10 „ „ „ ... 42 „ 15 ,, ,, „ or upwards . 80 „ In Italy the average number of crimes in the years 1874-76 was 7085, of which 2470 were murders or homicides, Belgium Judicial records give the following :— - Cases Tried 1836 1860 1870 1887 Civil. Correctional Police 8,463 25,337 19,209 7.896 24.752 49,890 15,482 26,640 70,179 27,136 47.942 132,011 Total 53.009 82,538 112,301 207,089 Sentences Acquitted . Galleys . Imprisonment . Fine. 9.877 137 8,5" 34,484 10,083 134 21,442 50,879 12,662 19,498 80,098 23,28s 72 44.993 138,739 Total 53.009 82,538 112,301 207,089 The following tables show the convictions for crime and the prison population : — V>/T*- Number of Per 10,000 Convicts Inhabitants 1840 . . 9,012 23 1850 . • ",133 25 i860 . . 10,810 23 1876 . . 12,420 24 Year Prison Population Males Females Totals 1840 .... i860 .... 1870 .... 1887 .... 4,365 5.104 4,202 4,162 427 838 499 509 4.792 S.942 4.701 4,671 The above prison population is exclusive of 1040 juvenile offenders detained in reformatories. Servia In 1887 were tried 753S criminals, with this result :— Imprisoned 2,567 Fined .•,,.,. 3 i^o Acquitted 1841 Total . . 7,538 Prison population at end of the year was 1725. CRIME 171 CRIME Scandinavia The convictions for 1881 and 1887 show as follows : — Tried for Sweden Norway 1881 1887 1881 1887 Crimes . . Offences . . 9.608 48.598 9.157 45.404 3.318 25.369 2.932 22,664 Total . 58,206 54.561 28,687 25.596 Males . . Females . . 54.792 3.414 51.491 3.070 26,684 2.003 23.639 1.957 Total . 58,206 S4.561 28,687 25.596 Denmark showed 3525 persons convicted of crime in 1885, including 872 women. Egypt The records for five years are as follows : — 1888 ^^"'t?^ Four Years Crimes . . . 1,144 — 53° Offences. . . 32,236 ... 17,710 Total . 33,380 18,240 The above does not include Upper Egypt Australia Official returns are as follows : — Per 10,000 Pop. Year Arrests 62 a .9- 1 JS . s g-s <->£ U.2 > < "^6 > 1861. . . . 53.570 2,745 1.656 433 22 13 1871. . . . 68,800 2,617 1.557 362 14 8 1881 . . . 117,130 3.361 2,024 432 12 7 1888. . . . 130,250 3,630 2,212 365 10 6 Arrests include all manner of crimes and oflFences ; com- mittals only crimes. The several colonies showed thus in 1888 :— Arrests Com- mittals Convic- tions Convictions per 10,000 Population New South Wales Victoria . . . Queensland . . South Australia . New Zealand . . Tasmania . . . 42.580 37.310 18.430 6,600 19,170 6,160 1,423 873 538 190 499 107 91s 557 275 308 66 8.3 S-i 7.0 2.9 S-i 4-4 Total . . 130,250 3.630 2,212 6.2 Canada The records for l888 may be summed up thus : — Crima Offences Accused Acquitted Convicted S.867 2,120 3.747 Fined Imprisoned Total 31.276 2,626 33.902 The prison population in December 1887 was 3024, say 64 per 100,000 inhabitants. Cape Colony The official returns for 1888 were as follows : — Prison Population Convictions in 1888 Coloured . ) 2,012 White . . 220 Males . . Females . Total . 2,032 200 Crimes . Offences . Total . 1,408 39.172 Total . 2,232 2,232 40.580 The prison population was equal to 150 per 100,000 inhabitants. India The returns for all classes of criminals and offenders in 1887 compare with those for 1881 as follows : — 1881 1887 Tried Acquitted .... 1,172,000 527.000 1,377.000 703,000 Convicted .... Fined Imprisoned .... 645,000 468,000 177,000 674,000 500,000 174,000 The prison follows : — population in the same years was as 1881 1887 Males Females 83.429 3,888 73.940 2.570 Total 87.317 76.510 There were 15,259 criminals whipped in 1887, against 75,200 in 1878. The prison population is orjy 38 per 100,000 inhabitants, or less than half the ratio that pre- vails in the United Kingdom. Algeria In 1886 the records showed as follows : — Convictions Sentence Criminal courts . . 12,408 Police courts . . . 59,981 Total . . 72,389 Imprisonment . . Fine Total . . 17.502 54.887 72.389 Minor Colonies Per Crimes Offences Total Million Inhab. Year Mauritius . . 129 13.707 13.836 381 1888 Jamaica . . 2,412 8,119 10.531 176 1887 Singapore . . 227 36,111 36.338 179 1888 Hong-Kong . 99 9.932 10,031 478 1888 Ceylon . . . 1.330 12,961 14,291 48 1886 United States The number of offenders in prison at the following dates, according to Census returns, was : — Year • Number Per Million Inhabitants 1850 .... i860 .... 1870 .... i88o .... 6,737 19,086 32,901 59.258 292 610 875 1,180 CURIOSITIES 172 CUSTOMS The Census of 1880 classified offenders as follows : — Males . Females Total 54.190 5.068 Americans 46,348 Foreigners 12,910 White . 42,280 Coloured 16,978 59,258 Total 59,258 Total . 59,258 The Chicago Tribune gives the following statistics of murders and executions in the United States since 1884 : — Year Murders Legal Executions Lynchings 1884 . 1885 . 1886 . 1887 . 1888 . 1889 . 3.377 1,808 1.499 2.335 2,184 3.567 103 108 83 79 87 98 219 181 133 123 144 175 Total 14.770 558 975 There are four States in which capital punishment is not allowed : Maine, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, and Michigan. CURIOSITIES Prices paid in recent times have been for — Books. — Mr. Quaritch paid ;^4900 for a Latin Psalter, and £'ypo for a Mazarin Bible at Syston Hall sale. Coins. — In 1889 a silver penny of William the Con- queror fetched ^^32, a half-crown of Elizabeth ;^44, and one of Charles I. ;^3S sterling. /: f. -c s Franklin . . 6 Pope . . 16 p Gibbon . . 6 Quincey • 7 6 Hood . . . 6 Richelieu 8 Hume . . . 5 Schiller . 6 18 Irving, W. . 2 Scott . ■ 17 7 Johnson, S. . 6 Shelley. • 19 4 Kean, E. . . 9 Smollett . 8 S Keats . . • 14 Sterne . . 8 9 Lamb, C. . . 6 Tennyson ■ 7 ■^ Nelson . . . II Thackeray . 6 II Newton . 64 Washington . 10 II Poe, E. . . 6 Letters and Autographs. — In 1889 at public sale in London the following prices were paid : — Addison . . Bolingbroke . Bruce (trav. ) . Burke . . . Burns . . , Byron . . . Carlyle . . . Coleridge . . Dickens . . Disraeli . . Elizabeth, Q. Elliot, G. . . Manuscripts. — That of Burns's poem "Scots Wha Hae " was sold in London in May i8go for ^70 ; that of Wilkie Collins's novel "The Woman in White," on the same occasion, for £^^0. Postage Stamps. — A collection was sold in Paris in 1 880 for £&o sterling ; the purchaser was said to be the Duchess Galiera, otherwise known for her princely dona- tion^ to the poor of Genoa. Violins. — At a sale in Fails in 1887 the following prices were paid : — Date £ Stradivarius .... 1689 760 ,, .... 1691 480 Ruggeri 1650 1,280 A violin bow by Tourte fetched ;^44 sterling. Walking-stick. — That of George IV. was sold at auction in July 1890 for ;^ 1 8 sterling. CUSTOMS The following table shows the customs revenue of nations : — Amount, £ 1871-80 1887 Ratio to Total Commerce 1871-80 1887 Shillings per Inhabitant 1871-80 1887 United Kingdom France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Portugal Belgium Holland Denmark Sweden and Norway Europe United States Canada Australia Brazil India Egypt 20,110,000 10,320,000 8,640,000 10,525,000 2,610,000 5,080,000 4,410,000 1,790,000 780,000 415,000 950,000 2,390,000 19,900,000 13,400,000 12,700,000 10,200,000 3,000,000 10,000,000 3,600,000 3,400,000 1,200,000 400,000 1,200,000 2,600,000 Per Cent 3-36 3-78 3.28 10.02 2.38 5- 80 12.10 15.22 0.87 0.36 542 7-05 Per Cent. 3.10 4-45 4.10 10.20 2,40 II. 10 6.00 41.00 1. 10 0.20 5- 70 6.10 Per Cent. 12-5 5-7 4.0 3-0 1-5 3-6 5-5 8.5 3-1 2.2 10. o 7.6 Pef Cent. 10.5 7.0 4-5 2.2 1.6 6.5 4.2 18.0 4.0 2.0 12.0 8.0 68,020,000 26,030,000 2,715,000 4,250,000 6,680,000 2,220,000 780,000 81,600,000 44,600,000 4,800,000 7,500,000 9,200,000 3,200,000 800,000 3-90 13.10 8.23 6.11 20.32 2-33 4-51 4.10 15.00 11.20 7.50 21.00 2.20 4.00 4-4 12.0 13.0 34-0 13- 1 0.2 4.0 5-5 15.0 18. 5 45- o 15.0 0.3 4.0 The world 110,695,000 151,700,000 5.10 S-6o 3-9 5-2 The British customs revenue is shown as follows : — Year £ Ratio to Shillings per Commerce Inhabitant 1580 . . 14,000 0.42 0.1 1614 178,000 4.22 0.8 1684 530,000 6.70 2.0 1720 1,555,000 10.40 5-1 1800 6,788,000 10.02 13.0 1827 21,009,000 23.10 18.1 1844 24,277,000 20.05 18.0 1866 21,276,000 4-95 14.2 1881 19,184,000 3.36 11.4 1888 20,100,000 2.93 10.5 In 1883 mated : — the incidence of British Customs was esti- Amount Paid by Classes Total Rich Middle Working Amount Spirits Wine. Tea . Coffee Fruits Tobacco, &c. £ 170,000 4S5.0OO 160,000 11,000 3S.OOO 370,000 £ 1,350,000 885,000 1,288,000 90,000 285,000 2,890,000 £ 2,703,000 26,000 2,526,000 212,000 190,000 5,620,000 £ 4,223,000 1,366,000 3.974.000 313.000 510,000 8,890,000 Tota 1 . 1,201,000 6,808,000 11,267,090 19,276,000 CUSTOMS 173 DAIRY The incidence per head on each class was as follows : — Rich Middle Working Total Spirits . . Wine . . . Tea . . . Coffee . . Fruits. . . Tobacco, &c £ s. d. 2 II 7 10 029 002 07 065 £ s. d 2 10 I 10 029 002 007 056 £ s. d. 023 021 002 002 050 £ '■ d- 025 10 023 002 003 OSS Total . 108 13 8 098 II 4 The working classes form 69 per cent., the middle class 28 per cent., and the upper class 3 per cent, of the population of the United Kingdom, as appears from the Probate returns (1877). The duties ad valorem on English cotton goods in foreign countries in 1884 were : — Per Cent, China, Guiana ... 5 India, Queensland . 5 Turkey 7 Cape, Feejee .... 10 Tasmania, S. Australia 10 Uruguay, W. Indies . 12 Newfoundland ... 13 Per Cent. Belgium, Greece . . 15 Holland, New Zealand 15 Austria 18 Canada 20 Victoria, Chili ... 25 Brazil 30 Argentine Republic . 40 The following table shows the British tariff at various epochs : — Duties Expressed in Shillings 1787 1819 1834 1888 Bacon, cwt. . . . 47 56 28 Books „ 20 100 100 Butter ,, A 20 20 Cheese „ ij ID 10 Cocoa „ 240 280 19 9 Coffee „ 224 280 140 14 Cotton „ 9 9 3 Eggs „ 3 6 6 ... Paper „ ? 94 28 Potatoes,, 4 a 2 Rice 7 IS IS ... Soap 44 90 90 Spirits, gallon 6 22 22 10 Sugar, cwt. 27 63 63 ... Tallow „ 3 I Tea 4S 224 240 S6 Tobacco,, 392 448 784 392 Wine, gallon S 14 Si I Wool, cwt. S6 9 Blanks in the above table signify duty-free. Grain was subject to import-dues on a slidmg scale, according to market prices in Great Britain, down to 1846. The customs revenue of China in 1888 reached 6 millions sterling. D. DAIET The subjoined table shows approximately the number of milch cows and the dairy products of various countries. Er^lish cows average 400 gallons of milk yearly, and the butter produce of a good cow is about 140 lbs. In Hol- land each cow gives about 80 lbs. of butter, and 180 lbs. cheese. New York cows average 330 lbs. cheese, Cana- dian 2S0 lbs., and Parma 300 lbs. It takes a gallon of milk to make a pound of cheese. Milch Cows Tons Butter and Cheese Value of But- ter, Cheese, and Milk £ United Kingdom 3,400,000 110,000 31,200,000 France .... 4,800,000 160,000 47,000,000 Germany . . . 6,800,000 200,000 55,300,000 Russia .... 7,900,000 220,000 47,700,000 Austria .... 4,600,000 130,000 34,500,000 Italy .... 1,600,000 50,000 14,400,000 Spain .... 1,000,000 30,000 9,300,000 Portugal . 200,000 6,000 1,900,000 Sweden . . . 800,000 4o,cxx> 7,000,000 Norway . . . 400,000 10,000 3.ooo,coo Denmark . . . 900,000 60,000 6,4cxj,ooo Holland . . . qoo,ooo 80,000 9,500,000 Belgium . . . 600,000 30,000 5,000,000 Switzerland . . 400,000 40,000 4,8oo,ocx5 Roumania . . . 1,200,000 20,000 4,8cx5,ooo Servia .... 300,000 10,000 2,000,CXX> Turkey. . . . 300,000 10,000 2,000,000 Europe. , . . 36,100,000 1,206,000 285,800,000 United States . 15,900,000 610,000 79,000,000 Canada . . . 1,300,000 100,000 7,500,000 Australia . . . 600,000 30,000 4,cx»,ooo Total . . 53,900,000 1,946,000 376,300,000 The following table shows approximately the consump- tion of butter and cheese in various countries : — Consumption, Tons Lbs. per Native Imported Total Inhab. U. Kingdom . 110,000 218,000 328,000 19 France . . 145,000 145,000 8 Germany 185,000 185,000 8 Russia . 210,000 210,000 5 Austria . 130,000 130,000 7 Italy. . 50,000 10,000 6o,cxxj 4 Spain , 30,000 30,000 3 Portugal 6,000 1,000 7,000 3 Sweden , 25,000 25,000 11 Norway 10,000 3,000 13,000 14 Denmark 20,000 20,000 22 Holland 30,000 30,000 IS Belgium 30,000 10,000 40,000 IS Switzerland 15,000 15,000 11 Roumania, &c. 40,000 40,000 9 Europe . . . i,036,cxx> 242,CXX} 1,278,000 9 United States 560,000 560,000 20 Canada. . . 50,000 50,000 22 Australia . . 30,000 30,000 17 Tota i,676,o France, 1856-65 Belgium 1851-60 Holland 1850-59 Average Single Married Single Married Single Married Single Married 15-2° 69 513 64 119 64 121 66 251 20-30 117 75 88 82 106 76 104 78 31-40 124 71 96 80 144 102 121 84 4I-S0 i8o '21 144 118 220 150 181 124 SI-60 288 186 225 197 365 258 293 214 61-70 515 385 430 406 605 46s 517 418 71-80 990 902 840 870 I, no 940 980 903 DEATHS 177 DEATHS Women France, 1856-65 Belgium 1851-60 Holland 1850-59 Average Age Single Married Single Married Single Married Single Married 15-20 75 119 84 132 67 140 75 130 20-30 . 86 95 83 126 78 126 82 lis 31-40 . 104 94 91 117 "5 143 103 118 41-50 . 14s 104 122 119 160 141 142 121 51-60 . 240 167 212 17s 280 200 244 181 61-70 . 490 380 440 355 525 415 485 383 71-80 . 1,150 905 920 750 1,030 870 1.033 842 The general rates for single and married of both sexes showr thus : — Scotland France Belgium Holland Average Age Single Married Single Married Single Married Single Married Single Married 15-20 . 20-30 . 31-40 . 41-50 . 51-60 . 61-70 . 71-80 . 136 160 198 274 524 72 102 228 440 72 lOI 162 264 502 1,070 316 85 82 105 176 382 903 74 86 93 133 218 435 880 126 104 99 irg 186 380 810 65 92 130 190 322 565 1,070 130 lOI 122 145 230 440 905 70 104 124 171 270 506 1,007 191 90 101 131 205 410 873 The above does not include wridowed persons. The deaths according to sex for ten years ending 1874 were : — Deaths of Males to 100 Females England . . 107 Austria . France . . 107 Sweden . Prussia . . 107 Holland . Bavaria . . 107 Belgium . The following table shows the percentage of deaths according to condition for ten yeais ending 1874 : — 107 Hungary 108 104 Switzerland . 108 104 Italy . . . 106 106 Average . . 106 (U cd s ■a c ^ p § ■a >> ^ 2 M "5 % r. 0. m ffi (/3 Single. . . . 50=; 641 594 62S 552 652 Married . . . 305 231 250 232 267 216 Widowed . . 190 128 156 140 181 132 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 According to Dr. Gairdner, overcrowding increases the death-rate notably, viz. : — Population per Deaths per 1000 Square Mile Inhabitants Yearly 100-150 16 150-300 20 Over 300 24 The following table shows death-rate with distinction of sex and age : — Per 10,000 of each Class Age France . 1857-65 Belgium, 1856 Sweden, 1861-70 Males Females Males Females Males Females 1-5 348 344 237 250 235 225 5-10 8'; 89 73 72 54 49 10-20 60 69 77 92 S3 46 20-30 96 91 129 no 75 62 30-40 87 98 168 154 107 90 40-50 123 "5 177 195 162 122 208 186 298 225 280 214 60-70 427 410 660 575 630 530 70-80 1,000 1,000 1,210 1,170 1,310 1,150 The following table was published about 1870, showing the death-rate of clergymen in various countries : — Age 25-45 45-65 25-65 Church of England .... 5-4 15-8 10. 1 Catholic priests, English . . 9-7 26.9 15-7 German Protestant clergy . . 5.8 20.0 11.8 Population of Germany . . . 9-7 25-9 16.8 Austrian Catholic priests . . 8.0 21.8 IS- 2 Austrian Greek clergy . . . 8.7 22.1 15- 1 English male population . . "•5 25.2 18.4 It is observed in most countries that the death-rate among the poor is much heavier than in the classes of easy fortune. Professor Conrad's table is as follows : — Ratio of Deaths Affluent Middle Working Still-bom o-i year 1-5 years s-is iS-20 , 20-30 , 30-60 „ Over 60 years .... 28 118 95 48 35 86 247 343 53 240 192 49 24 63 204 175 2li 220 58 21 64 222 Total . . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 Infant Mortality The annual death-rate of infants under twelve months was in the years 1876 80 as follows : — Per looo Living England France . Prussia 145 163 205 Bavaria 298 Wurtemburg 302 Austria 249 Italy ... 209 Switzerland . 189 Sweden . . 126 M DEATHS 178 DEATHS The influence of season on the death-rate of infants is shown in the ratio of deaths thus : — Deaths under Two Years of Age Holland Belgium Nice Genoa Naples Palermo Algiers Bagdad Spring Summer .... Autumn .... Winter 246 23s 254 265 279 203 216 302 226 307 223 24s 224 242 244 290 230 307 Z09 254 202 318 241 239 20s 278 28s 232 212 353 222 213 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Deaths under Thirty Days Spring Summer Autumn Winter Year Austria . . 250 246 255 249 1,000 Belgium . . 259 193 246 302 1,000 France . . 239 225 267 269 1,000 Florence . 183 182 382 1,000 Geneva . . 280 177 210 333 1,000 Genoa . . 253 169 214 364 1,000 Holland. . 246 212 248 294 1,000 Hungary . 231 ^ 216 271 282 1,000 Levant . . 28S 162 178 375 1,000 Milan . . 231 214 225 330 1,000 Naples . . 263 202 187 348 1,000 Sicily. . . 228 205 240 328 1,000 According to I/Ombard and other authorities, deaths of children under five form the following proportions in 1000 deaths of all ages : — France Switzerland . Sweden Belgium Holland . • 295 Prussia ■ 340 Italy . ■ 349 Austria • 369 Russia . . 448 456 477 485 554 The following table shows how many of 1000 infants born died in each of the first five years of life : — b ^ , ^n Period 1 > !^ jS >> •3 ,0 E*5 S M ih ^ ft ^^ England, 1866-75 . . 154 54 24 16 II 259 741 Italy, „ . . 223 91 38 26 19 397 603 Austria prop. „ . . 259 .0 32 21 17 .385 615 Belgium, „ . . 174 S3 29 17 12 285 715 Prussia, „ . . 218 56 29 18 13 334 666 Sweden, „ . . 137 42 21 15 12 227 773 Scotland, 1876-80. . 123 55 28 19 14 2W 761 Switzerland, „ . . 190 32 14 9 7 2^2 748 Bavaria, 1860-69 • ■ 324 40 19 13 10 406 594 According to the latest tables published, the number of children of 1000 born who live to complete their fifth year is as follows : — * In Russia. . . 425 Spain . . .571 Austria , . 614 Bavaria . . 622 Italy . . .632 In Prussia . . 684 Switzerland . 748 France. . . 751 Denmark . . 755 Belgium . . 756 In England . . 762 Scotland . . 780 Sweden . . 783 Ireland . . 837 Norway . . 838 The death-rate of illegimate children is 55 per cent. extra in Switzerland, and 100 per cent, in France over the normal rate. In Paris it is observed that for 100 children who die if suckled by the mother, 220 die if given out to nurse ; also that 230 spoon-fed children die for 100 * This table, except as regards Ireland and Russia, is for the years 1881-83. Brun makes the number of children in Russia who complete their fifth year 460 per thousand ; later writers only 425' reared at the breast. The death-rate of foundlings in the first year was as follows : Marseilles, 38 j St. Peters- burg, 40 ; Lyons, 42 ; Paris, 57 per cent. The following table from the archives of 1881 shows the deaths of infants at Rome and Berlin during the years 1877-S0 : — Die per 1000 Born At Under 30 Days Under 12 Months Lawful Illegitimate Lawful Illegitimate Rome . . Beriin . . 52 57 164 262 174 133 329 452 The following table is from Sir Lyon Playfair and the Swedish returns, showing how many of 1000 infants born in each class will survive to complete their fifth year : — Condition England Sweden Medium Rich .... Middle class . Poor .... 820 640 450 75° 630 560 785 63s 50s Dr. Bianco gives similar tables for Turin. According to Drysdale, the death-rate of infants in 1889 was 1 1 per cent, in the wealthy parishes of London, and 38 per cent, among the poor of the East End. Deaths from Violence The following table was published in 1840 ; — Per Million Inhabitants Yearly Period Country Suicides Acci- dents, &c. Total Violent Deaths 1810-30 1820-34 1838-39 1839 Sweden . . Prussia . . England . France . . SI 64 81 626 396 682 187 ^2 486 746 268 In or about the year 1880 the number of violent deaths in various countries was as follows : — Number Ratio per 1000 Deaths United Kingdo France . Germany . Russia Austria proper Italy Spain Switzerland Belgium , Denmark . Sweden . Norway . m 23,822 16,373 24.592 18,500 10,150 6,656 4,700 2.55° 2,577 1. 054 2,740 1,290 33-1 19.7 21.4 16.0 8.3 9.6 38.2 22.0 28.1 31.6 37.7 Europe . United States 115,004 22,740 l6.2 41.1 DEATHS 179 DEATHS The following table of violent deaths was published in 1865 :- England Belgium . Norway . Sweden . United States France , Bavaria . . Hanover , Prussia , , Saxony , Period 1850-64 1840-49 1851-55 1856-60 i860 1854-60 1857-61 1852-57 1851-60 1852-58 No. per Million Inhabitants per Annum 692 332 679 420 S75 450 236 396 407 298 Males Per 1000 Deaths Females 28 22 32 60 26 12 27 22 13 General 10 19 7 14 ... 40 9 30 6 21 46 16 4 8 7 17 7 3 15 Females to 100 Males 36 33 27 so 22 32 26 29 25 The following table was published in 1875 : — Period Annual Average Per Million Per 1000 Deaths Accidents Murders Suicides Total England . 1865-73 15.083 413 i.470 16,966 763 34-2 Italy 1865-74 6,704 2,165 8oi 9,670 370 12.3 Prussia , 1865-73 10,430 414 3,211 14.0SS 601 21.4 Bavaria . 1868-74 1,617 157 436 2,210 450 14.4 Austria proper . 1866-74 6.575 698 1,610 8,883 426 13-5 Belgium . 1870-74 1.974 82 364 2,420 466 20.1 Sweden . 1865-73 2,100 88 342 2.530 603 32.0 The ratio of violent deaths was stated to be : England Italy Prussia Bavaria Austria Belgium Sweden Seven Countries Accidents .... Murders Suicides 88.7 2-5 8.8 69.4 22.3 83 74.1 2.9 23.0 73-2 7.0 19.8 7*' 7.8 18.1 81.5 3-4 151 83.0 3-5 135 78.5 7-1 14.4 Total 100. 100.0 100.0 ico.o 100.0 lOO.O 100.0 loo.o If we take the returns of the United Kingdom for 1886 and the latest information regarding other countries, estimating the United States with it;-, actual population at the latest ascertained ratios, we can have a conspectus of all the violent deaths approximately that occur every year. Hungary and Holland are missing, and the number of murders in Russia, Denmark, and Norway is unknown. The table stands thus : — Number Yearly Per Million Per 10,000 Percentage of Males in 100 Inhabitants Accidents Suicides Murders Total Violent Deaths England .... 14,830 2.254 3" 17.414 622 324 72 Scotland .... 2,164 261 19 2,444 614 328 71 Ireland .... 1,611 116 131 1,860 380 207 70 United Kingdom . 18,605 2,631 461 21,718 590 310 71 France .... 13.205 7,070 701 20,976 540 250 75 Germany .... 17,800 8,480 610 26,890 570 224 76 Austria proper . 6,433 3.543 663 10,639 450 163 74 Italy .... 5.430 1.397 2,902 9.729 324 120 75 Russia .... 16,800 2.520 19,320 220 70 Spain .... 3,670 255 1.330 5.255 280 "5 '&> Belgium .... 2,039 441 86 2,566 430 214 82 Sweden .... 2,210 347 105 2,662 602 356 73 Denmark .... 640 516 1.156 578 290 Norway .... 1,360 146 1.506 753 4S0 Switzerland . , 1,400 650 88 2.138 713 356 Europe .... 89.592 27,996 6,946 124.555 410 168 United States . 36,000 2,100 2,462 40,562 620 370 Total 125.592 30,096 9,408 165.117 450 190 DEATHS 180 DEATHS The ratio of accidental deaths yearly per million in- habitants in or about 1880 was as follows : — ^ as Percentage 3 8 w -qH i5 Ratio of Sexes of Accidental c 0^ sS^ Deaths O.I-H iVIale Female Drowned Burnt <- England . 670 74 26 22 9 3°3 France , . 280 7» 22 41 130 Prussia . . 407 76 24 150 Saxony , . 298 76 24 Bavaria 236 75 25 io8 Hanover . 396 79 21 Austria . . 2S8 73 27 q8 Switzerland 60s 40 4 280 Italy . . 181 7.'i 25 85 Spain . . 202 80 20 24 3 70 Belgium . 330 82 18 27 163 Denmarl^ . 232 60 2 116 Sweden 479 73 27 54 S 260 Norway 681 75 4 340 Finland ■;«9 54 Russia . . 201 S3 6 f"> U. States 621 67 33 16 24 340 New Yorlc . 668 270 London 66=; ••• 315 Paris . . 682 240 Deaths from Alcohol The following is a table of deaths from drink : S S t/i S 0-^ ^1 < .^1 < England . . 1,405 2.60 Italy . . . 709 0.85 Scotland , . 230 3-29 Switzerland . 244 3- 81 Ireland . , . 280 2.78 Sweden . . 502 6.2s France . . . 448 0-54 Norway . . 72 2.36 Belgium . . 456 383 New Yorlc . 324 12.08 Lombard's table on deaths from drink will be found under Diseases : — The returns of sickness and death from drink in armies is as follows :— In the French army 33 men per million die yearly of drink. In the American war, 1861-63, deaths from drink were 350 per million, and 15 in 10,000 were sent to hospital for drink. In the British army the sick and deaths from this cause are : — Station United Kingdom Mediterranean Halifax . West Indies . Trinidad , Demerara Sick per 10,000 . 64 . 130 . coo . 400 • 530 . 850 Deaths per 100,000 13 18 70 138 290 560 Death-Rates of Armies Army death-rates per 10,000 men yearly, not including killed in war, are shown as follows : — Per 10,000 67 87 58 147 153 116 107 127 Artny Date British . , 1879-80 French . . 1872-74 German . 1878 Russian . . 1871-74 Austrian . . 1870-73 Italian . . 1870-76 Belgian . . 1870-74 Portuguese . 1861-67 The rates for the United Kingdom in later years com- pare with those of 1830-40 as follows : — Deaths Yearly per 10,000 1887 43 46 1830-1840 1879-80 Cavalry . , .153 5= Infantry . . .155 ^S The death-rate among our troops before Dr. Parr's barrack reforms was enormous, the averages for the years 1818-40 being as follows per 10,000 men : — Great Britain Australia Cape Canada , Gibraltar Corfu . 159 141 155 212 221 283 Mauritius Madras . Ceylon . Bengal . Jamaica Sierra Leone ■ 305 . 520 ■ 570 . 630 1430 4S30 The rates in the United Kingdom in 1879-80 were as follows per 10,000 : — Station Ireland . . England . Scotland . United Kingdom 65 65 78 67 Cavalry Engineers Infantry . Artillery . Arm 52 63 65 72 1858 1875 25 125 54 4 17 56 The improved condition of troops in England is shown by the returns for the foot-guards thus : — Deaths per 10,000 Fever Phthisis Various Total . . 204 77 On foreign service the death-rates have declined per 10,000 thus : — 1818-36 1875 Gibraltar . , , . 214 ... 55 India .... 690 ... 175 of the The death-rates 1872-77 were: — Engineers . Infantry . Zouaves . 60 95 106 French army in the Per 10,000 Men Artillery . . 106 Cavalry Turcos . 114 • 177 Under 20 , 20-26 . . 26-36 . , The French army, according to a report in showed the following ratios : — years • 54 . 103 ■ 71 1867, Years of Service Under i 1-4 . 4-6 . 6-8 . 8-11 11-14 . Over 14 Composition of Force 9.6 193 19.0 16.4 12. s 10-5 12.7 Ratio of Deaths ' Annual Death- ' Rate per 1000 I Men 9-7 21.3 21.0 14.0 9.8 II. o 13.2 10. 1 12.0 II. 2 8.6 7.8 10.4 10.4 lOO.O It appears the mortality is heaviest from the first to the end of the fifth year, and lightest from the sixth to the end of the tenth year. The death-rate has declined,, viz. : — 1862-69 II- S 1872-77 9.5 The ratio in Algeria is usually double what it is in France. The Prussian army in 1872 had a death-rate of 7.2 vex 1000, but in 1878 the rate for the whole German. DEATHS DEATHS army had been brought down to 5.8. The Austrian, moreover, which averaged 15.3 in the years 1870-73, showed only 9 per thousand in 1878. The Italian army likewise shows improvement, viz. : — 1860-70 . 1870-76 . 13-8 11.6 In Russia the army death-rate has been reduced by one-half, viz. : — Arm 1841-62 1857-61 Infantry Cavalry Artillery . General rate 42.0 23.0 27.0 38.0 21.0 14.0 19.0 England and Wales The death-rate of England and WsJes showed thus : — Death-Rate per 1000 Inhabitants per Annum Age 1341-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 Under j 66.2 68.0 68.6 63-5 S-20 - 7-3 7.2 6.3 S-3 20-3S 9.8 9-3 9.0 8.1 3S-SS iS-i 14.6 15.2 15-3 SS-6S 30.1 29.1 30.5 32.0 6S-7S 64.0 62.0 63.0 65.0 Age Males Females 1841-60 1861-80 1881-851841-60 1861-80 1881-85 «>-s 72.0 71.0 59-6 62.1 61. 1 S9S S-io 8.8 7S S-8 8.6 7.1 S-6 10-15 S-O 4-2 3-2 S-2 4-2 3-3 iS-20 6.9 S-8 4.6 7.6 6.2 4-7 20-25 9.2 8.0 6.0 8.8 7-4 S-9 2S-3S 9.8 9.6 8.2 10.2 H 7-9 3S-4S 12.7 137 12.7 12.6 11.8 10.9 4S-SS 18.2 19.4 19.4 iS-7 ^l-S '^? SS-65 31-4 33-9 33.6 27. 8 28.4 27.8 6S-7S 66.5 67.8 68.8 59-9 S9-9 59- S 7S-«S 147.4 147-4 144.6 135-2 134-0 129.4 Period Per 1000 Inhabitants per Annum Male Female Total Pop. 1841-50 . . . 23.1 21.6 22.4 1851-60 . . . 23.1 21.4 22.3 1861-70 . . . 23-7 21-4 22.6 1871-80 . . . 22.6 20.1 21.3 1881-85 . . . 20.4 18.2 19-3 Neison gives the following death-rate per annum for loco persons between the ages of 25 and 65 Ladies' maids . . . 8.0 Protestant clergy . . 10.6 Barristers .... 11.9 Grooms 12.6 Physicians .... 12.9 Valets 16.7 Attorneys . . . 16.8 Catholic priests . . . 18.3 The total of deaths in 18 years ending 1830 was : Males . . . 1,996,200 Females. . . 1,942,300 Coachmen . . . 18.4 Surgeons .... 19.1 Apothecaries . . 19.1 Wine merchants . 25.0 Innkeepers . . . 27.0 Cabdrivers . . . 26.6 All England . . . iS.o Total . . 3.938,500 The annual death-rate from i8i8to 1824 was 2a 3. The ratio of all deaths in England for 1 8 years ending 1830 and that for 1886 were : — Age 1813-1830 0-1 1-4 S-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 SO-S9 60-69 70-79 80 Total 219 ISO 44 S8 72 62 65 72 91 lOI 66 1,000 176 145 41 64 84 73 67 68 92 108 82 Age i-S 198 147 42 5-10 61 10-20 78 I 20-3S 67 I 35-45 66 . 45-5S 70 i 55-65 92 i 65-75 los I 7S-8S 74 Over 85 1886 1,000 ! Total 272 141 28 36 78 66 78 94 no 78 19 229 139 28 40 85 66 70 95 122 96 30 2 o. o o 1,000 251 140 28 38 82 66 74 95 116 86 24 1,000 In 1879 the death-rate of able-bodied males was as follows : — Civilians Soldiers Death-rate per 1000 . 10.02 . 6.66 Death-rate per 1000 Royal navy . . 8.58 Merchant navy . . 19. 10 Of 100 deaths in merchant shipping, 55 are from drowning, 35 from sickness, and 10 from various causes. Dr. Farr shows the influence of town life on the death- rate of the working classes as follows : — Deaths per iooo Yearly Age Rural Urban 35-45 9 12 45-55 12 17 55-65 25 29 65-^5 55 68 75-85 148 174 Over 324 418 The distribution of all deaths in the United Kingdom in quarters of the year is as follows : — Quarter Ending March 31st . June 30th September 30th . December 31st England Scotland 28.0 24-5 22.4 25-1 " 100.0 29-3 25.0 21.8 23-9 100.0 Ireland 30.9 25-9 20.0 23.2 100.0 The death-rate of L,ondon in the early part of the seventeenth century was 70 per thousand, or more than three times what it is at present ; the returns for the healthy years 1606-10 were : — Quarter Ending r^,"'i'"J"'I°°° ^ ^ Inhab. per Annum 31st March 56 30th June 60 30th September 84 31st December 80 Year's average 70 The following table shows the number of deaths in London from 1647 to 1829, and those that were violent : — Period Total Numt)er of Deaths Violent Deaths Ratio per 10,000 Deaths Number of Violent Deaths Yearly 1647-1700 1701-49 1750-99 1800-29 1,054,000 1,223,000 1,044,000 586.000 10,700 12,600 13,600 9,900 102 104 130 170 200 257 272 330 DEATHS 182 DEATHS ; 1647-1700 1741-49 1750-99 1800-29 Suicide . . 85 162 150 186 Murder . . 6S 34 21 17 Executed . 99 S6 90 lOI Drowned . 327 323 S44 520 Burnt . . 40 31 71 96 Various . . 384 394 124 80 Total . I,COO 1,000 1,000 1,000 The following table shows the death-rate of London since 1725 : — 1725-S0 • 1751-99 • 39.9 I 1800-30 . 38.8 I 1840-45 . 33.7 I 1874-78 . 24.5 I 1879-S1 . 22.8 21.7 Violent Deaths in England (1886). Cause Males Females Total Per 100,000 of all Deaths Railways . . . Mines .... Fire Drowned (acci- ) dentally) . J Poisoned . . . Cabs, &c. . . . Fall Suffocation . . Various . . . 736 916 891 2.389 213 I.2S9 1,867 ^U 1.S66 62 990 410 116 213 829 779 619 798 916 i,88i 2.799 329 1.472 2,696 1.754 2,185 149 170 350 521 61 273 502 32s 407 Accidental . . Suicide. . . . Murder . . . Executed . . . 10,812 1,694 181 18 4,018 560 130 I 14.830 2.2S4 3" 19 2.758 420 S8 4 Total . . 12,705 4.709 17.414 3.240 The ratio of sex in violent deaths in late years averaged thus:— Per Cent. England . . Scotland , . Ireland United Kingom Male 72.6 73-7 69.7 72.5 Female 27.4 26.3 30.3 27-5 A return of accidental deaths in England and Wales for the year 1838 showed at follows : — Ratio in 10,000 Deaths of each Class Educated classes . . 29 Tradesmen ... 51 Servants ... 95 Labourers . . . 150 Nature of Accident Fractures . . .32.9 Drowned . Burnt Poisoned . Scalded Various . 20.9 19.2 3-6 4.0 19.4 100.0 The ratios of violent deaths according to age and sex in England were (1871-80) : — Per Million Persons Yearly Age Males Females General Population Under 5 . . 1,300 1,080 1,200 s-is .... 670 260 470 16-45 960 no 540 46-65 1.340 250 800 66-75 .. • 1,560 600 1,060 Over 75 . 2,270 1,740 2,000 The violent deaths of the United Kingdom from 1840 to 1880 were : — Per 1000 Deaths Period England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom 1840-60 1861-70 1871-80 34-2 34-S 34-3 32.3 31.8 35-5 24.1 21. 1 32.7 32.6 Scotland The death-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly was : — 1855-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 20.8 22.0 21.8 The death-rate for various professions of persons between 45 and 55 years of age is stated thus : — Per 1000 Per 1000 Carpenters. . 17 Miners ... 20 Butchers . . 23 Farmers Shoemakers Grocers . . Per 1000 Beersellers . . 28 Scotchmen . . ig Scotchwomen . 16 The rates for age, distinguishing urban from rural, show thus : — Age Deaths Yearly per 1000 of each Class Male Female General Urban Rural o-i . . . 154 126 140 159 96 i-S ^ • . 31.9 30.7 31-3 37.9 15-6 0-5 .. . 58.9 51-8 55-3 65.5 31-9 S-iS- • • 6.2 6.2 6.2 7.2 3-9 15-30 . . 8.5 7-7 8.1 8.7 7-5 30-60 . . 17-5 14.3 iS-9 l3.2 10.9 Over 60 . . 208 210 209 167 256 The ratios of deaths at each age were as follows : Age o-i 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 Under 3 S-io . 10-15. 15-20 . 20-30 . 30-40. 40-50. 50-60. 60-70, 70-80. Over 80 Total . All Scotland 1876-85 Males Females 223 84 37 24 17 385 45 25 34 67 59 68 79 95 91 52 1,000 176 77 36 23 17 329 43 26 33 72 66 64 76 lOI 112 78 1886 Males Females Males Females 226 77 33 20 14 370 41 25 31 66 60 72 84 98 96 57 Scotch Cities, 1886 176 70 31 18 14 309 38 25 33 71 66 66 81 111 116 84 242 99 42 26 17 426 44 23 31 69 70 83 87 87 60 193 89 41 24 IS 362 44 24 31 76 73 76 90 100 82 42 1,000 The death-rate in Scotch cities in 1886 was : — Per 1000 Inhabitants Edinburgh . Glasgow Dundee 19.2 25.1 18.2 Aberdeen Greenock Paisley 19.4 17-3 22.7 DEATHS 183 DEATHS The death-rate at various dates per 1000 of population was : — Scotland Cities Small Towns Rural Year Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females i8SS 21.6 20.0 29-3 25.8 21.6 19.9 i860 23.2 21. 5 31-7 28.0 23.0 21.3 ... 1871 22.9 21.5 30.4 27.9 21.4 20.6 16.7 16.0 1880 21.3 19.6 25.8 22.7 20.7 19.7 16.5 16.0 1886 19.1 i8.3 21.9 20.2 18.3 17.9 iS-9 14.9 The proportion of deaths in cities according to age and season were : — Age Spring Summer Autumn Winter o-S 20-6o Over 60 42.6 10.6 29. 5 17.3 42-3 11.7 28.9 17. 1 43-1 10.6 29.2 17. 1 41.4 9-1 30.2 19.3 Total 100. 100.0 ! loo.o 1 100.0 The number of children of either sex who die in the first five years is as follows :^ Of 1000 Bom of each Class Boys Girls Total istYear . . . 2iid Year . . . 3rd Year . . . 4th Year . . . Sth Year . . . 133 56 27 19 13 "3 55 28 19 14 123 5S 28 19 14 Total . . 248 229 239 Violent deaths in 1886 were as follows : — Cause Number Per Million Inhab. Per 10,000 Deaths Males Females Total Fire . . . Drowned . Suffocated . Poison . . Various . . 116 423 168 ^^ 649 180 116 67 140 20 173 78 232 490 308 54 822 258 S8 123 77 14 206 65 41 7 no 35 Accidents , Suicide . . Murder . . 1.570 188 8 S94 73 II 2,164 261 19 S43 66 S 290 35 3 Total . . 1,766 678 2,444 614 328 Ireland Deaths at various ages in 1886 were as follows :— Age Number Ratio Males Females Total Males Females Total O-I 1-5 S-io lo-is 15-20 20-3S 3S-4S 4S-SS SS-6S 6S-7S Over 8s 5.995 3.620 1,262 939 1.514 4,528 2,478 3,317 4,755 6,436 6,160 2,489 4.765 3,661 1.399 1.257 1,780 4,651 2,816 3,302 4,982 6,677 6,147 2,362 10,760 7,281 2,661 2,196 3,294 9,179 5,294 6,619 9.737 13.113 12,307 4,851 138 83 29 21 3S 104 57 76 no 149 141 57 109 83 32 29 41 107 64 76 112 153 140 54 124 83 31 25 38 105 61 76 III 151 140 55 Total 43,493 43.799 87,292 1,000 1,000 1,000 The death-rate is the lowest rate in Europe, viz. :- 1864-70 1871-80 1877-86 16.7 per 1000 population 18.1 ,, „ 18.4 ,, ,, This is the more remarkable as the cities have very high rates, viz., Dublin, 24 ; Cork, 26 ; Belfast, 28 per 1000. In the year 1886 violent deaths formed the same ratio to population as for the ten years ending 1885, and were made up thus : — Number Per Million Population Per 10,000 Deaths Males Females Total Fire . . 160 184 344 70 38 Drowned . 296 62 358 73 39 Suffocated 82 39 121 25 14 Poison . 26 7 33 7 4 Fracture . 431 171 602 123 68 Various . "3 40 153 30 17 Accidents 1,108 503 1,611 328 180 Suicide . 92 24 116 25 13 Murder . 91 40 131 27 14 Executed . 2 2 Total 1.293 567 1,860 380 207 Under the above item of Murder are included deaths from a^^ravated assault, which in some coimtries are put down as deaths from fracture, also deaths resulting from riot. The Registrar-General classified the Dublin death- rate in 1887 thus : — Affluent . Middle class Poor 15-9 26.0 29.4 The general rate for the city in that year was 23.5 per 1000. Australia The death-rate for thirteen years ending 1888 of the several colonies, and that of the four principal cities, for three years to 1889 was as follows : — Per 1000 Population Yearly N. S. Wales . Victoria . . S. Australia . N. Zealand . 15.5 15. 1 14.1 II. 1 Q-iieensland . 17.3 Tasmania . 15.8 W. Australia 16.3 Melbourne . 21.7 Sydney . . 16.9 Adelaide . . 16.4 Brisbane . . 17.7 All Australia 15.0 There is no part of the world with so low a death-rate as Australia, which is partly explained by the prepon- derance of young people. The ratio of ages m New South Wales by the Census of 1881 compares with the United Kir^dom thus : — Years Under 20 . 20-40 Over 40 . Total U. Kingdom 462 292 246 1,000 N. S. Wales 498 309 193 DEATHS 184 DEATHS Canada The returns for 1886 of deaths in the principal towns were as follow :- Age Montreal Toronto Quebec Hamilton Halifax Ottawa St. John, N.B. Winnipeg t>-5 S-20 . ... 20-40 40-60 . ... Over 60 60s 73 116 87 119 495 112 148 no 135 604 87 82 76 151 408" 123 152 414 119 147 122 198 62s 94 105 66 no 316 137 167 123 257 525 124 224 81 45 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Per 1000 population 28.0 21-5 33-6 20.7 20.5 28.8 21.2 19.8 Various Colonies The rates in some of the colonies for the years 1876-80 were : — St. Helena . 13.2 Singapore . 20.1 Ceylon . .21.6 Jamaica . . 21.9 Bermuda . .24.1 Hong-Kong . 25.6 Mauritius. , 28.3 Trinidad . .34.1 Demerata . 34.5 France The death-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly has been : — 1800-10 1811-20 1821-30 1831-40 27.7 26.0 25.0 24.8 1841-50 1B51-60 1861-70 1871-80 23-3 23-9 23.6 24-3 The rate for various ages in France and at Paris in the years 1874-78 showed thus ; — Per 1000 Persons Age France Paris o-S 64.6 102.0 S-10 6.6 9-5 11-20 S-O 5-7 21-30 8.9 10.0 31-40 9-9 12.6 41-50 12.0 15-8 51-60 19-5 24.6 61-70 '■ 40-3 48.7 The span of life has lengthened much in the last 100 years, the ratio of deaths in France showing thus : — Age 1770 1857-66 Under i . 27,9 20.4 1-3 I3.7 8.6 3-5 5-0 3-4 5-10 5-2 3-4 10-20 4-1 4.7 20-30 6.2 6.5 30-40 7.2 5-8 40-50 7.0 6-5 50-60 7.2 8.5 60-70 7-5 12.7 Over 70 9,0 19-5 100.0 KOO.O French death-rate in the years 1872-75 showed as follows : — Towns 25.1 Rural 21.1 France 22.4 Infant mortality has, nevertheless, increased of late. Period Deaths under Twelve Months of 1000 Born Boys Giris Total 1840-49 . . . 1850-59 . . . 1860-69 . . . 1874-76 . . . 172 185 188 ... 151 158 161 160 172 175 180 In the last period, of 1000 children born, 50 died in the first month, 32 in the two following, 35 between three and six months, and 63 in the second half-year, making in all 180 before reaching the age of twelve months. The following table shows the difference of infant mortality according to conditions : — General Rate 100 Males . . . 107 I Rural . . 92 I Legitimate . 93 Females . . 93 | Urban . . 113 | Illegitimate . 185 The following table shows the death-rate of Paris for sixty years : — Deaths Yearly fer 1000 Inhabitants 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 Deaths according to months, taking the year as 1200, were : — 32.0 1861-70 31-9 1871-74 29.6 1875-77 30.0 1878-80 26.7 21.6 23-7 24-5 France, 1853 | Rural Population Urban Rural i ""'5^'' \ 5 Years S-60 Over 60 January . . February . March . . April . . . May . . . June . . . July . . . August . . September . October . . November . December . 101 113 123 "3 101 91 89 97 97 86 85 104 104 125 134 122 101 91 82 83 88 84 84 102 ^9^ 88 89 96 124 140 106 87 85 112 no 112 109 105 96 90 90 96 97 95 88 "3 107 106 log 100 92 84 87 96 102 101 103 Total . 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 Accidental deaths in France showed the following :- Year 1830. 1840 . 1850. i860. Number 4.478 6,805 9.151 10,298 Year 1870. 1880. 1885. Number . 10,418 . 12,787 • 13.205 DEATHS 185 DE.\THS The causes of violent deaths in ten years ending i860 averaged thus . — Males Females Total Drowned 43-6 4S-0 43-9 Run over 11.7 6.8 10.8 Burnt . 50 22.0 8.1 Hunger 2.1 3-1 2.3 Drink . i-S 2-5 1-7 Machinery 4-3 1.6 3-8 Fall . iS-S 10.2 14.5 Various 16.3 8.8 14.9 100.0 100.0 lOO.O Accidents in Paris in the years 1861-67 showed the following yearly average : — Per Million Persons of each Class Killed j Injured Men Women ChiU Men Women Chil- dren Run over Other ac- ) cidents 118 SS4 16 i 32 82 209 1,180 1.356 317 167 237 26s Total . 672 98 241 2.536 484 502 The general ratio for the whole population, per million inhabitants, was as follows : — KiUed Injured Run over .... Other accidents 62 300 648 666 Total per million 362 1.314 Accidents in French mines showed thus :- - Period Number of Miners Killed Yearly Killed per 10,000 1851-54 ■ . • 1855-59 • • • 1860-63 . . . 72,000 108,000 117,000 19I 228 16 18 20 Deaths at various ages according to season showed : — 2-5 5-10 10-20 20-30 130-60 50-70 ! Spring . . . Summer . , . Autumn . . . Winter . . . 29.0 23.6 22.3 25.1 32.S 23.6 18.6 253 29.7 24.2 20.9 25.2 28.9 23.0 21.8 26.3 293 22.4 21.4 26.9 29.4 20. s 21.3 28.8 Total . lOO.O 100.0 100. 100.0 100.0 100.0 The returns for the Institute of France during 75 years ending 1870 showed the following comparison of death- rate with the general population of France : — Death-Rate Life-Expectation, Years Age Institute General Population Institute General Population 35-^0 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 12 14 21 44 82 13 15 22 47 90 3? 26 18 12 7 29 24 17 II 6i Deaths from lightning in France in ten years ending 1863 averaged 64 men and 24 women yearly. The total number of persons killed on railways in sixteen years was as follows : — No. Per Annum Travellers . . . 324 20 Servants . . . 2,154 I35 Others .... 992 62 Total . 3,470 217 Deaths from drowning were in 1881 as follows : — Men Women Total Accidental . Suicidal 3.263 1.295 679 639 3.942 1.934 Total 4.558 1,318 S.876 The distribution of deaths according to the hours of day or night is shown for France, compared with Que- tetet's observations for Belgium, thus : — France Quetetet, Towns Riual Belgium Midnight (o 6 A.M. . . 6 A.M. to noon . . . Noon to 6 P.M. . . . 6 P.M. to midnight . . 21.9 26.3 30.8 21.0 24-4 27.S 26.3 21.8 26.4 24.Q 22.2 Germany The death-rate of all Germany during eleven years ending 1881 for 1000 persons of each age was as lollows: — 3 4 5 10 IS 20 Males 64.9 33-2 23.1 17.1 13.0 4-7 3-9 7-5 Females Age 63.6 25 . . . 32.6 30 22.5 40 16.9 .50 12.9 60 4.8 70 4.2 80 61 Males 8.5 9-3 13-6 21-5 38.2 81.1 174-5 Females 8.2 9.7 12.2 16.0 32-9 74-7 168.3 The death-rate of Prussia in the years 1868-72 was :- Age Deaths per 1000 Expectations of Life, Years Males Females Males Females 4-5 • 5-10 . 10-15. 15-20. 20-30. 30-40. 40-50. 50-60. 60-70. 70-80. 19.0 10. 1 4.8 6.2 9-5 11. 2 18.0 27.0 49.0 90.0 19-3 10.2 5-2 6.0 8.8 11.6 15-0 25.0 50.0 94.0 51.9 Si-5 48.1 44-1 38.0 30.3 23.0 16.2 10.0 5-7 53-7 53-3 49-8 45- S 39-5 31.3 23.7 16.2 9-9 5.4 The average age of all who died in ten years ending 1876 was : — Males 25.8 Females . . ... 27.6 The death-rate among Jews was much lower than among Christians, as shown thus : — Deaths Yearly per 1000 Period Christians Jews Males Females Males Females 1822-40 . . 1841-66 . . 28.7 30.2 27.0 28.2 22.1 19,8 19. 1 17.9 DEATHS i86 DEATHS The mean death-rate of five principal cities during sixty years down to 1875 was as follows : — 1816-40 .... 33.9 I 1867-71 .... 37.4 1841-66 .... 35.4 I 1872-75 .... 40.6 The mean rate during sixty years was as follows : — Berlin . Breslau . Cologne Konigsberg Males • 36.7 . 36-8 • 30.6 . 38-2 Females 28.5 33-0 28.8 31-9 The mean rate for all Prussia in sixty years was per 1000 inhabitants : — Males 30.2 I Females . . . , 27.7 | Urban population , Rural ,, 30.1 28.4 The general rate for all Prussia during sixty years averaged 29.0 per thousand. The deaths of infants at Berlin show that of 1000 born 237 die in the first year, 80 the second, 36 the third, and 9 the fourth, leaving only 638 surviving to begin their fifth year. Of 100 accidental deaths in Prussia in ten years down to 1874, 78 were of males, 22 of females. Hanoverian statistics show the death-rate of unhealthy trades as follows : — Painters . Varnish ers Per 1000 Yearly . 15.6 I Glass-blowers . . 20.8 ■Dyers .... 25.1 . 18.8 In Saxony the death-rates in 1845-47 were :- Age Per icoo Yearly Males Females General 1-14 .... 14-30 .... 30-60 .... Over 60 . . . 17-5 6.6 16.2 94-4 iS-8 6.6 16.3 94.6 16.6 6.6 16.2 94-5 Distinguishing town-rates from rural, the rates in the year 1863 were : — Age Cities Rural Males Females General Males Females General Under 6 116.0 100. 108.0 roi.o 83.0 92.0 6-14 4.6 4.8 4-7 4-4 4-3 4-4 14-20 4.8 5-5 5- 1 4-3 4-1 4.2 20-30 8.7 8.S 8.6 6.4 6.9 6.7 30-40 11.4 12.9 12.1 8.1 10.3 9.2 40-50 19.0 14.4 16.6 14.2 13-4 13.8 50-60 32.0 25.9 28.8 26.9 24.6 25.7 60-70 62.5 56-9 S9.S 58.8 S7-9 S8.3 70-80 142.0 150.0 146.0 118.0 134.0 126.0 Distinguishing married from single at Leipzig, in ten years ending 1875 the rates were : — Males Females Age General Married Single Married Single 15-^0 3-6 II.O 30 3-4 20-30 9.0 8.2 8.2 6.S 7-5 30-40 12. S 18. 5 11.6 8.8 12. 5 40-50 21.8 31.0 12.2 13-2 18.8 50-60 31.0 31-4 17.4 22.2 26.6 60-70 55-° 56.0 3S-0 S5-0 49-0 Over 70 117.0 III.O 85.0 III.O 123.0 The effect of over-crowding on death-rate is shown thus : — Living in Berlin, 1871 Leipzig, 187s One room . Two rooms Three rooms Over three rooms 48.7 24.9 11.2 15-2 21.4 259 20.2 32- S 100.0 100. It would appear from the foregoing that there is much over-crowding at Berlin and little at Leipzig, nearly half the deaths in the former city occurring in families living in one room, and at Leipzig less than one-fourth. The mortality of infants, however, is much higher at Leipzig in the crowded population than among the other quarters of the city, viz. : — Inhabitants per Room Death-Rate Yearly per 1000 Infants Under Twelve Months Twelve Months to Five Years Over 3 . . . 2-3 . • . • I . . . . Less than i 419 338 25s III 49 45 37 14 The death-rate in Leipzig for all persons over five years was 9.9 per 1000 where the population was less than one per room, and 18.4 in the rest. Infant mortality at Leipzig in ten years ending 1875 showed thus : — Of 1000 born, die under twelve months Males 233 Females 205 General rate . . ... 219 The death-rate of infants is increasing, the rates for all Saxony of 1000 born who die under twelve months showing thus : — Period Boys Girls General Rate 1845-55 ■ ■ • 1856-65 . . . 1866-75 . . . 277 283 293 23s 241 252 257 263 272 Mortality is much higher with illegitimate than with lawful children, averages for six years ending 1870 being thus : — Deaths per 1000 Born Legitimate , Illegitimate . Saxony 256 353 Dresden 250 70s The general death-rate of Saxony was 30. i in ten years ending 1849, and 30.3 in ten years ending 1876. At Munich the death-rate of infants shows that of 1000 bom, the Jews lose 170 in the first year, Protestants 320, and Roman Catholics 400, the last including all the working-classes, who suffer from overcrowding. Switzerland The death-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly for all Swit- zerland for ten years ending 1880 was 24.0. Rates, how- ever, vary much with the cantons. For example, infant mortality at Berne is loi per thousand, and at St. Gall 301. The statistics of Geneva for 25 years ending 1871 showed the annual average death-rate thus : — Swiss 21.7 Foreign residents . . . .15.4 DEATHS 187 DEATHS At Geneva there were loi deaths to 100 births among natives, vsrhereas among foreign residents there were 156 births to ioo_ deaths. Ladame gives the rates of infant mortality, distinguishing legitimate from illegitimate, thus : — Ofioaa Bom Legitimate Illegitimate Die in 30 Days Die in 12 Months 77 ... 180 136 ... 280 Climatic changes have occurred at Geneva since the seventeenth century, August and September, having much lower ratios of deaths than in 1633-1700, viz. : — Of 1200 Deaths Yearly iH IS ri IS 0J> s S3 rS iH anuarv . , 114 114 July . . . 84 86 February . . io5 117 August , . 108 8.3 March . . . i°S 120 Septemljer . loS 90 April . . . 100 III October . . 89 9S May . . . 100 9S November . 9S 96 June . . . 86 92 December . 108 lOI Accidental deaths in the yejirs 1876-81 averaged 1697 per annum, equal to 605 per million inhabitants, or 280 in 10,000 deaths. Sweden Death-rates for age from 1751 to 1875 showed thus : — Age 1751-90 1791-1830 1831-60 1861-70 1871-75 O-IO . . SS-4 45-4 36-S 3S-I 30.0 10-20 . . 7-3 5-8 51 tS 4.0 21-30 . . 9-S 8-5 7-3 6.4 7.0 31-40 • • 12.4 11.6 lo-S 8.3 8.7 41-50 . . 17.2 16.6 IS- 1 12.0 11.4 Si-60 ■ • 24.9 26.6 24. S 20.3 18. 1 Over 60 . 76.5 81.0 74.0 68.8 64.0 The rates for the years 1871 -75 were thus:— 0-20 20-30 31-40 41-60 Over 50 Males . . Females . . 19.1 16.8 7.8 6.3 9-3 8.1 13.0 10.0 42.2 38.9 Distinguishing the sexes, and also urban from rural. the rates for ten years ending 1870 were : — Age Males Females Town Rural Town Rural Under 1 . . 256.0 1590 222.0 1330 i-S ■ S4-0 31.0 S3-0 29.0 S-io . 12.9 9.2 12.9 8.6 10-20 . S-9 4-4 4.8 4.2 20-30 . 10. s 6.6 8.1 S-4 30-40 • 16.7 7-7 10.2 7-4 40-So. 2S-4 I2-S 13-8 10- S So-60. 40.0 22.0 20.0 17.0 60-70 . 66.0 46.0 36.0 390 70-80. 130.0 112.0 96.0 94.0 General rate 29.7 ! 20.5 ''S-S 18.9 The average age at death was in years as follows : — Males Females 1861-65 1866-70 1871-75 |1861-65 1866-70 1871-75 Town 1 23.3 Rural 30.0 Gen. 29.0 243 33-S 32.0 25.8 34-2 32.6 28.4 34-S 33-6 29.9 37.4 36.2 31.3 38.4 37-3 Ratio of Deaths Males Females 1861-70 1871-76 1861-70 1871-75 Unmarried . Married . , Widowed . 59-7 28.4 "-9 57- S 29.8 12.7 S4-3 22.6 23.1 Si-3 24.6 24.1 Total 100.0 100. 100.0 lOO.O The number of females dying to 100 males was : — 1861-70 1871-75 Town Rural Sweden 95-4 96.4 96.2 92.2 97-3 96-3 Ratios of deaths according to months showed thus : — 1749-60 1861-66 1861-72 Sweden Sweden Urban Rural General anuary . . 102 100 107 "5 114 February . 104 116 108 117 116 March . . "3 121 107 119 117 April. . . 124 118 109 117 116 May . . . 12Q 107 103 108 108 June . . . 105 84 95 92 92 July . . . 94 76 96 81 83 August . . 90 82 95 79 81 September . 86 102 95 79 81 October . . 84 93 91 86 87 November . 87 100 92 99 98 December . 91 99 102 108 107 Total I,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 Violent deaths were as follows : — Annual Average Total Ratio Number in IS years 1861-70 1871-75 1861-75 Drowned . . 1,132 1,202 17,268 45-7 Burnt . . . 152 150 2,267 6.0 Suffocated . . 146 102 1.974 5-2 Murdered . . 78 105 1,299 3-4 Crushed . . 461 573 7.482 19.7 Poisonedacci- 1 dentally . ] 20 21 310 0.8 Shot acci- ) dentally . j 29 38 489 1-3 Lightning . . II 14 183 0.5 Frozen . . . 54 64 862 2-3 Various . . . 43 46 68i 1.8 Suicide . . . 328 347 5,068 13-3 Total . 2,454 2,662 37,883 loao Accidental deaths (including also murders) in the above fifteen years, distinguishing urban from rural districts, were per million inhabitants yearly as follows : — Drowned . Burnt . . Lightning . Miurdered . Town Sural Town 436 255 Crushed . • 174 31 37 Choked . 6 3 Shot . . 8 3 2 Poisoned . 10 Rural Norway Death-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly from 1801 to 1875 was as follows : — 1801-15 1816-3S , 25.0 19.2 1836-45 1846-55 18.9 18. 1 I 1856-65 ■ I 1866-75 ■ 17.7 17- 5 DEATHS i88 DEATHS Rates distinguishing age and sex showed as follows : — Males Females Age 1816-40 1841-60 1861-65 1816-40 1841-60 1861-65 Under lo 32.2 27.4 31.2 28.0 24.2 28.8 IO-20 4.7 4-7 5-S 4.2 4.2 S-i 21-30 8.2 8.2 8.4 ('■a 6.0 6.3 31-40 9-S 9.0 8.0 9.0 8.6 »-3 41-50 13.2 12.8 11. 1 11.6 10.8 9-9 51-60 21.7 20.0 17.0 17-3 i.S-B 14.0 61-70 40.0 38.0 35-0 3S.O 330 30.0 71-80 81.0 84.0 81.0 77-0 77- S 72.0 Infant mortality has been as follows : Period Deaths under 12 Months of 1000 Bom Males Females 1836-55 1856-65 1866-73 130 112 109 98 1751-70 . .29.6 I77I-I800 . 26.4 1801-10 . . 32.3 . 26.1 ■ 24-7 . 28.2 1841-50 . . 23.6 1851-60 . .28.6 1S61-65 . . 26.2 Finland Death-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly was as follows 1811-20 1821-30 1831-40 In 1865 the span of life, in years, was as follows : — Males 35.6 Females 38.4 The general span for the whole population was thirty- seven years. Death-rate for age was as follows : — Under 1 . • 139- 10-20 i;-io . . . 25.0 . 8.0 20-30 30-40 . 4.0 .6.5 ■ 7-5 Age 40-50 , 50-60 60-70 "•S 19.0 44.0 Russia In 1867 the following table of death-rate was pub- lished : — Per 1000 Yearly Age 15-30 7-3 8.0 30-60 . Ovei:6o 21-5 121. o Of 1000 boys bom, 254 die, and of girls 231, in their first year. At Nijni Novgorod infant mortality is 360, and in the government of Perm 446 per thousand birtlis. Holland Death-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly was : — 1861-70 24,9 1871-80 24,3 The influence of season on death-rate at various ages is seen as follows : — Age Spring Summer Autumn Winter Year Under 3 months 246 212 248 294 1,000 3-24 247 259 259 235 1,000 2-5 years . . 273 229 23s 263 1,000 5-10 269 259 231 241 1,000 11-20 „ . . . 2b5 261 229 245 1,000 21-30 261 253 232 254 1, 00c 31-50 260 246 226 268 1,000 51-70 M . . . 2S3 223 228 296 1,000 Greece In ten years ending 1878 the death-rate for age was as follows : — Age Males Females General Population Under 5 . . . 50-3 49.0 49-7 S-io. . II. 2 10.8 11. 1 10-20 7-4 7.2 7-3 20-30 9.8 8.5 g.i 30-40 11.3 10.7 II.O 40-50 15-5 14.9 15-2 50-60 28.5 24.4 26.S 60-70 49.0 46.0 47-7 70-80 91.0 105.0 98.0 Belgium The annual average of deaths since 1830 was : — Year Number Per 1000 Population Year Number Per 1000 Population 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 108,000 104,000 102,000 26.7 24.2 22.2 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 115,000 120,000 118,000 23-3 22.5 20.7 The percentage of deaths according to age was as fol- lows : 1841-60 1851-60 1861-66 1878-82 1887 Under 5 34-1 359 37-4 36.4 .33-9 S-io 4-9 4-1 4-7 2.9 2.7 10-20 6.1 5-7 4-7 4.0 3-9 20-30 7-1 6.6 6.4 5-4 S-6 30-40 6-3 6.1 6.2 5.6 5-3 40-50 7.2 6.4 6.4 6.0 6-3 50-60 7.6 8.3 7-7 7-9 7-9 60-70 10.1 10. 1 10.9 11.1 11.9 70-80 10.7 II. 1 10.2 13-6 14.1 Over 80 5.9 5-7 5-4 7-1 8.4 Total 100. 100.0 100. 100. lOO.O Sanitary improvements have done much for public health. For instance, the percentage of deaths between 5 and 20 years of age is now little more than half what it was in the decade of 1841-50 ; that of deaths over 70 years is one-third higher. The mean averages for 35 years, 1846-80, showed as follows : — Unmarried Married Total Population Males Females Males Females Males Females 0-15 73-8 71-3 43-4 40.8 15-20 4-1 5-2 0.2 2.4 3-1 20-30 6-3 7.4 .3-6 9-4 6.6 6.5 30-40 4-2 31 11.4 19.1 5-6 6.5 40-50 3-0 2-3 17.6 19-3 6.9 6.4 50-60 2.7 2.6 21.4 17.9 8.5 7-3 60-70 2.7 3-2 23.6 18.8 10.7 10.5 70-80 2-3 3-3 17.6 12.5 10.8 12.1 Over 80 o.g 1.6 4.8 2.8 5.1 6.8 Total 100. 100. 100. lOO.O 100.0 100.0 Death-rate for age is stated as follows : — Age Per 1000 Age Per 1000 Age Per 1000 O-I . . . 186.0 10-20 . . . 6.2 40-60 . . . 20.6 I-IO . . . 20.1 20-40 . • . 13-4 Over 60 . . 79. 1 DEATHS 189 DEATHS Violent deaths were as follows : — By Annual Average, 1871-80 1881-85 Males Females Total Firearms Fire . . . Fall . . . Railway . . Machinery . Drowning . Vehicles . . Various . . 21 13s 291 161 107 S03 328 3 lOI 42 18 n 100 19 68 24 236 333 179 118 603 ISO 396 23 226 320 17s 103 607 147 384 All accidents Murder . . Suicide . . 1,677 67 373 362 19 68 ''It 441 1,98s 602 Total . 2,117 449 2,566 2,68s Other tables will be found at page 179. The influence of season on death-rate is shown by the following ratios : — Death Ratios Under 3 Months 31024 Months General Population Spring .... Summer Autumn Winter. 264 200 225 3" 293 206 207 294 279 218 220 283 1,000 1,000 1,000 Italy The death-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly has been : — 1861-70. . . . 30.1 1871-80. . . . 29.7 Deaths in Italian cities according to season showed thus : — Genoa Under 5 5-10 10-30 30-60 50-70 Spring . . Summer Autumn . . Winter . . 21.3 26.0 26.3 26.4 21.7 25.7 29.4 23.2 22.5 27.0 29.3 21.2 20.4 26.8 30.0 22.8 22.1 23.9 28.1 25.9 lOO.O lOO.O 100.0 100.0 100. 1 Naples Under 5 5-10 10-30 -30-60 50-70 Spring . . Summer . . Autumn , . Winter . . 23.8 29.5 21.0 25.7 28.6 26.1 18.4 26.9 24.2 25-3 25.0 2S-S 24.6 25.6 23.0 26.8 25.3 20.8 22.3 31.6 100. 100. 100.0 lOO.O loao Spain and Portugal The ratios of ages in deaths for Spain and Lisbon were Age Spain Lisbon 0-20 . 20-40 40-60 Over 60 Total S9-9 10.3 12.0 17.8 SO- 1 10.5 26.4 lOO.O lOO.O Austria-Hungary The death-rates have been as follows : — 1861-70 1871-80 Austria Hungary 30-4 38.7 31.2 40.1 Death-rates for s^e were as follows : — Age Austria, 1860-68 Hungary, 1869-73 Age Austria, 1860-68 Hungary, 1869-73 Under i i-S 5-iS 303.0 40.6 7.3 34-3 10.2 iS-30 30-60 Over 60 8.1 17. 1 84.0 9-3 20.0 Deaths at Vienna, according to season, showed thus : — Under 5 5-15 15-40 40-60 Over 60 Spring .... Summer .... Autumn .... Winter .... 29.7 23s 21.9 24.9 28.8 21.9 22.7 26.6 32-4 22.6 19.0 26.0 30.9 21.1 22.0 26.0 30-3 20.6 21.2 27.9 100.0 100. 100. 100. 100.0 Statistics of Prague show the death-rate thus : — Age Per 1000 Age Per 1000 Under i . . . i-S 5-20 .... 497 85 10 20-40 .... 40-60 .... Over 60 . . . 14 25 71 The general rate for the population was 35 per 1000. Violent deaths in i885 in Austria proper were as follows : — Number In 100,000 Deaths Males Females Total Males Females Total Accidents . Murders . Suicides 4.603 493 3.013 1.830 170 824 6,433 663 3.837 138 IS 90 57 S 25 96 10 57 Total . 8,109 2,824 10,933 243 87 163 In five years ending 1886 the average per 100,000 deaths showed there were 10 murders, SS suicides, and 90 deaths by accident. Algeria There has been a notable decline of death-rate, as the following table shows : — Nationality Deaths per 1000 Persons Yearly 1853-66 1873-76 French 46-3 Spaniards . . . 30.0 Italians 300 Maltese . . • ^ 28.2 Germans 54.° Jews . . 27.9 26.8 27.9 28.9 26.7 36.9 24.4 Deaths in A^eria according to season were :— Spring • 19-5 Summer 29.3 Autumn 28.5 Winter 22.7 DEATHS igo DIET Algerian statistics show that of looo infants bom the following numbers die in the first twelve months : — Parents French . Spanish Italian , Jewish . Mahometan German Death per looo Boys 244 233 245 236 S3° Girls 146 250 184 182 General 207 257 224 213 500 344 Deaths according to months in Algeria, taking the year as 1200, were : — . . 96 . 86 • 91 January February March , First quarter April May June 273 71 72 86 July . August September 127 138 IDS Second quarter . 229 Third quarter October November . December . 367 127 "3 91 Fourth quarter , 331 Japan The returns for 1878-80 showed as follows : Death- Rate per 1000 Ratio of Deaths Under 10 . 25-8 28.0 10-20 . 5-4 4-9 20-30 . 8.6 i-z 30-40. 9.2 8.6 40-50 . 8.9 8.7 50-60. "•5 11.4 60-70 . 13-9 13.8 70-80 . 12. 1 11.6 Over 80 4.8 S-3 General rate 17.0 100.0 In 1000 deaths 527 were of males, 473 females. Brazil Death-rate at Rio Janeiro in 1867-69 averaged 24.4 per 1000, the ratio showing thus : — Under i . 14.8 Quarter ending — 1-7 . . . . 11.6 March 31st . . 284 7-25 ■ 18.4 June 30th 261 25-40 22.9 September 30th 228 Over 40 . . 32.3 December 31st . 227 Year 1,000 In 1000 deaths, 546 were of males, 454 females ; 627 natives, and 373 foreigners. United States The only death-rates published are these ; Age Annual Deaths per 1000 Inhabitants Massachusetts Maryland United States Under s . 65.8 51-7 58.8 S-io . . 10.7 9-5 10. 1 10-15 • • 5-1 5-4 S-3 15-25 • • 5-8 S-4 H 25-45 • • 11.9 10. 1 10.8 45-55 • • 16.4 18.2 17.6 55-65 • • 26.3 28.1 27.2 65-75 • • 46.9 56-5 Si-4 DEPOPULATION The only European country which has suffered depopu- lation in the present century is Ireland. It is the result partly of famine, partly of evictions by the landowners. The official returns show the number of persons evicted thus:— 1849-51 263,000 1852-70 157,000 1871-87 113,000 Total . . . 533,000 This is, however, far short of the reality. The Census of 1861 showed the number of one-room cabins to be 89,400 against 491,300 in the Census of 1841, from which it appears that 402,000 cabins had been pulled down, the abodes of 2,000,000 inhabitants. The official number of emigrants from 1837 to 1888 was 4,338,000, but this did not include 600,000 who went to England or Scotland. The population has fallen from 8,275,000 in 1 845 to 4,716,000 in 1889, a decline of 43 per cent. At present it is but 150 per square mile, against 190 in France, 240 in Germany, and 270 in Italy. The marriage-rate and birth-rate are the lowest in the world. The ratio of able- bodied population, male and female, between the ages of 20 and 55 is much less than in the sister kingdoms, as shown by the Census of 188 1, viz. : — England 432 per 1000 Scotland 424 Ireland 40S ,, The drain upon persons of the able-bodied age has been attended by a remarkable increase of pauperism, as the official returns show : — Year No. of Paupers Per 1000 Inhab, 1874 .... 79,600 15 1880 .... 100,900 19 1888 .... 113,900 24 In the above interval of 14 years the population de- clined by 584,000 souls, and yet the number of paupers increased in the ratio of 43 per cent. DIET The principal components of animal food are as follows : — Fat Nitrogen Water Fat Nitrogen Water Lobster . 1.2 19.2 76.6 Tripe .... 16.4 13.2 68.0 Oyster . 1.5 14.0 80.4 Beef .... 17.1 17.2 6i-5 Turbot . . 1 2.9 18. 1 78.0 Mutton .... 18.1 iS-3 62.5 Rabbit . • i 3-2 13-9 73-2 Cheese .... 41-3 7.0 38.8 Salmon . S-S 16.1 77.0 Pork .... 44.9 9.8 43-0 Milk 7-9 4.5 87.0 Bacon .... 63-3 8.8 25.0 Eggs . 10.S 14.0 74.0 Butter .... 81.0 S-o Il.O DIET The components of vegetable food are : — 191 DIET Starch Nitrogen Water Starch Nitrogen Water Mushroom 3-5 4-7 91.0 Bread .... 49.0 10.0 33-6 Cabbage . 4.0 1.8 92.0 Beans . S2.6 22.0 12.8 Turnip . S-i 1.2 91.0 Peas 52.6 22.3 14.S Carrot , S-S 0.7 87-3 Tea SS-2 28.8 12.0 Beer 9.Z 0.9 89.7 Lentils . 56.0 25.2 ii-S Parsnip . 9.6 I.I 82.0 Coffee . S9-4 26.2 12.0 Beet-root. 11.3 5-0 82.7 Wheat-flour 59- 7 12.6 14- S Asparagus 11.8 1.2 86.0 Oatmeal. 63.8 12.6 15.0 Articholce 14.7 3-1 76.0 Cocoa . 71.0 24.0 4.0 Yam 16.0 2.0 74.0 Maize , 71.2 9-9 13-5 Truffles . 16.6 8.8 72.0 Rye . 73-2 8.0 15.0 Sugar-cane 18.0 S-S 72.0 Barley , 74-3 6.3 iS-o Banana . 19.7 4.8 73-9 Rice 79- S 6.3 130 Potato . 20.2 2-3 7S-9 Buckwheat 79-9 2.6 12.8 The percentage of carbon in food is as follows : — Cabbage Beer . . Carrots . Milk . . Parsnips Fish . . Potatoes. Beef . Bread Cheese Peas , Rice . Maize . 16 ■ 27 - 27 .36 -36 .38 .38 Biscuit . Oatmeal . Sugar Flour . . Bacon . Cocoa . Butter . .42 .42 .42 .46 . S4 .69 ■ 79 The nutritive value of food (taking beef as 100) is ex- pressed thus : — Oysters . Milk . . Lobsters Cream . / Cod-fish. Eggs . . ■ 24 •SO ,68 • 72 Turbot . Mutton. Venison Veal . Fowl . Herring - . 84 Beef. . . - 87 Duck . . . 89 Salmon. - - 92 Pork . ■ • 94 Butter . . . 100 Cheese . 100 104 108 116 124 iSS The following table shows tained per ounce of food : — foot-tons of ene^y con- Foot- Foot- Tons Tons Cabbage . 16 Porter . .42 Carrots . 20 Beef . - SS Milk . • 24 Egg . ■S7 Apples . .25 Ham . .6S Fish . - 30 Bread . -83 Ale . . - 30 Salt . 120 Potatoes .38 Sugar . 130 Rice . . Flour . . Arrowroot Oatmeal . Cheese Butter . . Foot- Tons ■ 14s . 148 • 151 • 152 . 168 . 2S1 The loss of weight in meat in 100 lbs. raw beef = ,, beef = „ mutton = ,, fowl = ,, fowl = „ fish = cooking is as follows : — = 67 lbs, roast = 74 1. boiled = 75 ,, toast = 80 „ roast = 87 „ boiled = 94 ,, boiled Pajm's table gives the following percentages in food t Azote Carbon Fat Water Azote Carbon Fat Water Batata 0.2 9.0 0-3 80.0 Kidneys . 2.7 12.2 2.1 78.2 Beans 3-9 430 2.8 10.0 Lard. 1.2 71.0 71.0 20.0 Beef, raw . 3-° II.O 2.3 78.0 Lentils • . 3-9 43-0 2.6 ii-S Beef, roast. 3-S 11.8 S-2 70.0 Lobsters . 2.9 II.O 1.2 76.6 Beer . 0.1 4-S 90.0 Mackerel . 3-7 19-3 6.8 68.3 Bread i.i 29- S 1.2 3S-0 Maize 1-7 44-0 8.8 12.0 Butter 0.6 •83.0 82.0 14.0 Milk, cow's 0.7 8.0 3-7 85.5 Carrots 0.3 S-S 0.2 88.0 Milk, goat's 0.7 8.6 4.1 83.6 Cheese, Brie 2.9 3S-0 25.8 4S-3 Mushrooms 0.7 4S 0.4 91.0 Chestnuts . 0.6 3SO 4-1 26.0 Oil, olive . 98.0 96.0 2.0 Chestnuts, dry I.O 48.0 6.0 10,0 Oyster. 2.1 7.2 i-S 80.4 Cod, salt . S-o 16.0 0.4 47-0 Potato 0.3 II.O 0.1 74-0 Eel . 4.0 12.7 S-o 80.0 Rice . 1.8 41.0 0.8 13.0 Figs . 0.4 iS-S 0-3 66.0 Rye-flour . 1.8 41.0 2.2 iS-o Figs, dry . 0.9 34-0 03 25.0 1 Salmon 2.1 16.0 4-9 75-7 Flour . 1.6 39-0 1.8 14.0 i Sole , 1-9 12.3 0.2 Herring 1.8 21.0 10. 70.0 Wheat 3-0 41.0 2.1 12.0 Herring, salt 3-1 23.0 12.7 49-0 Wine . 4.0 90.0 The analysis of bread gives conflicting results, the fol- lowing being taken from respectable sources : — A, B. C Nitrogen 6.8 8.1 12.6 Water .... 43-0 37-0 14-6 Starch .... 44-0 47-4 65.6 Sugar .... 3-4 3-6 4.8 Fat ... . 1-3 i-S 1.4 Mineral i-S 2-4 1.0 lOO.O 100. lOO.O In 1862 the bread supplied to the French army was found superior in nitrogen to that of other Continental armies, as follows, French being 100 : — Prussian . . 50 I Austrian . . 7° I Belgian ... 91 Spanish ... 69 | Dutch ... 90 | Italian ... 96 A sack of flour containing 280 lbs. will make 368 lbs. of bread in England, and 420 lbs. in United States, that is, 7 lbs. of American are equal to 8 lbs. of English flour. The ingredients for 368 lbs. of English bread are : — 280 lbs. flour, 3 gallons water, half-gallon yeast, half-gallon alum, and 4 lbs. salt. The following comparison has been made between flour of Odessa wheat and that used at bakeries at Paris : — Odessa Flour Paris Flour Water .... Dry gluten Starch .... Glucose, &c. 12.0 I4-S 66.5 7.0 10.0 10.2 72.8 7.0 100. lOO.O DIET 192 DIET The nutritive value of various kinds of flour is stated thus : — English . . 100 Canadian . . 117 Scotch . . . 134 German , . IIS Essex . 121 United States 145 An analysis of the different kinds of bread supplied to European armies in i860 showed as follows : — French Prussian Bavarian Belgian Dutch Starch . . 42 37 54 44 40 Water . . 34 as 30 31 32 Azote . . 9 S 6 9 9 Various . . IS 23 10 16 19 100 100 100 100 100 The percentage of nitrogen digested in follows : — Lentils Potatoes Peas . Rice . Per Cent. . 60 . 68 • 72 • 7S Bread . Cheese Meat , Eggs . food is as Per Cent. . 81 . . 96 . 97 . . 98 The time required for digestion is : Rice . Eggs, raw. Apples Trout, boiled . Venison, broiled Sago, boiled Milk, boiled Bread, stale Milk, raw . Turkey, boiled . Goose, roast Lamb, broiled . Potatoes, baked Beans, boiled . Parsnips, boiled Oysters, raw Eggs, boiled Hours Min. o 30 3° 30 3S 4S o o IS 25 3"^ 30 30 30 30 SS Hours boiled . 3 Mutton Beef, roast Bread, fresh Carrots, boiled Turnips, boiled Potatoes, boiled Butter Cheese Oysters, stewed Eggs, hard Pork, boiled Fowl, roast Beef, fried Cabbage . Wild-fowl . Pork, roast Veal, roast According to Keleti, the average amount of required per annum is as follows : — Min, o o IS IS 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 15 30 food Lbs. Food Containing Lbs. Albumen Man Woman .... Child 1,600 1,200 900 100 75. . 5° The man's food to be made up thus : — Lbs. Food Lbs. Albumen Animal Vegetable .... 290 1,310 23 72 Total 1,600 100 According to the Diet. Sciences Medic. , a, man's daily food should contain at least f oz. of azote and 1 1 oz. of carbon, the proportions of which contained in the food of certain classes are as follows : — English peasant Irish peasant . French peasant Lombard peasant Per Week Azote, Oz. Carbon, Oz. 7-7 120 4.0 168 6.0 ISO 7.0 175 Animal food constitutes, according to the same authority the following percentage in the weight of all food con- sumed : — Irish peasant French peasant . French sailor English "navvy" I per cent. 7 .. 2S .. 28 The proportions of azote and carbon contained in bread and meat are as follows : — In Percentage of Azote Carbon Bread Meat .... I 3 30 10 The weekly rations in different countries and classes are as follows : — Rations Nitrogenous Carbon Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. British soldiers 25-7 2.46 4.84 British soldiers in India 20.0 2.33 4-52 French soldiers 23.6 2.26 S-8i German soldiers 28.8 1.56 S-2S Dutch soldiers . 25.0 1.67 4.82 Chelsea Hospital 22.6 1.99 5-31 English convicts 22.2 1.38 4-99 Farm labourer . 22.1 1.82 S-ii Workhouse, aged 17.8 1.50 3-96 Chelsea boys . 16.7 0.88 3-93 Field-rations of the various armies are as follows : — Ounces Daily Beef Bread Rice Coffee Sugar Total British . . , French . . . German . . . Russian . . . Austrian . . . American . . 16 7 8 16 5 20 24 25 28 16 26 18 2 3 3 I 2 2 2 I I 2 37! 32 32 44 Ounces Daily Energy, Foot- Tons Nitrogen Fat Carbon Salt Total British . . French . . German Austrian . Standard . 4.1 4.3 4.0 3-7 4.6 1.6 1-3 I.I 1.6 3-0 17.4 18.0 19.6 17.0 14-3 0.8 I.O i-S 1.0 I.I 23-4 24.6 26.2 23.4 23.0 3.552 3.719 3.834 3.590 3,888 The rations in use in the United Kingdom are as follow : — Weight in Lbs. Weekly Bread Cooked Meat Vege- tables Sugar Sundries Soldier . . . 7.0 3-5 7.0 0.7 7.5 Seaman , , 8.8 5-2 3-5 0.9 Convict . . . 10. 2.6 7.5 0.2 1.8 Pauper . , . 7.0 3-0 6.0 0.4 0.8 Female pauper 6.0 2.0 4.0 0.3 0.6 Lunatic. . . 5-4 2.0 5-4 0.2 1.0 Hospitals . , 6.0 3-0 3-5 o-S 2.0 DIET 193 DISEASE The components of the British navy rations give the following analysis : — Ounces Daily Components Energy Foot- Tons Nitrogen Fat Carbon Biscuit . . . Meat . . . Peas, flour, &c. Sugar . . . Cocoa . . , 20 14 7 2 I 2.0 1.8 I.O 0.2 0.2 3-0 8.4 5-4 0.8 0.7 1,720 1. 310 560 240 I2S Total . 44 S-o 3-2 18.3 3.9SS Prison rations in the United Kingdom are as follows : — Ounces Daily Energy, Foot-Tons Hard Light Hard Light Labour Labour Labour Labour Bread . . 24.0 21.0 1,992 1.743 Meat . . . 4-S 3-S 340 270 Milk . . . 2.0 2.0 48 48 Molasses . i.o 1.0 100 100 Oatmeal . . 2.0 2.0 304 304 Cheese . . 0.6 0.6 98 98 Flour . . . 1-3 0.7 19a 104 Salt . . . o-S 0-5 60 60 Cocoa . . °-5 o-S 62 62 Vegetables . 1.0 1.0 10 10 Potatoes. . 14.0 14.0 530 53° Total . Si-4 I 46.8 3.736 3.329 The French navy rations weekly are as follows : Weight, Oz. Azote, Oz. Carbon, Oz. Bread . . . . 190 2.0 ss-s Meat 77 2.3 8.0 Peas . 30 1.2 12.0 Butter 5 3-S Coffee S 1.0 Sugar 6 2-S Wine 120 S-O Brandy IS 4.0 Salt . s Total . . 4S3 S-5 9I-S T-i 1- _ The following table shows approximately the ordinary weekly consumption of food by a male adult between twenty and sixty years : — . C» c5 tn . G bs>t |3 f S to P U. Kingdom . France . . . 9 12 SO 3S 10 4 36 9 9 13 4.030 4.170 Germany II 30 4 9 24 4.920 Russia , II 2S 3 S 4 2,960 Austria 10 30 4 9 13 3.730 Italy . 8 12 2 4 I 1,940 Spain . 10 32 2 3 2,330 Portugal 8 23 2 6 1,950 Sweden 8 30 6 10 12 3.390 Norway 8 35 7 6 12 3.350 Denmark 10 30 11 10 8 3,460 Holland 9 28 7 i6 16 4,090 Belgium II 3° 7 13 25 S.050 Switzerland . II 30 6 12 3 3.170 Europe loA 3° 4 II 10 3,600 U. States 9 75 10 25 3 3.390 Canada 8 43 II 20 14 3.950 Australia • loi 95 9 37 7 4.490 The above does not include fish, eggs, fruit, vegetables, chestnuts, rice, and other articles of much importance. The ^gregate food for a man doing physical or mental work should be equal to at least 3300 foot-tons daily, for a woman 2200, and for a child 1 100 foot-tons. Meat is apparently the most important element of food. Dr. De Renzi states that 4 per cent, of the popu- lation of Naples die of impoverishment of the blood caused by want of meat. At the ironworks of Thorn the opera- tives fed on vegetables, &c., lost fifteen days a year by sickness until meat was introduced in 1833, when the average fell to three days per operative. See Food. DISEASE In 1 883 the deaths per 100,000 inhabitants from certain diseases were as follows :- — E a •a ■5 ■a It a V i3 (U s I^ndon . . 3 24 40 40 SO 61 64 Edinburgh . 25 48 45 39 57 43 Glasgow . . 2 46 557 162 90 139 250 Paris . . . 20 92 30 87 4 47 216 Marseilles 38 139 19 102 6 139 315 Berlin . . . I 18 29 224 68 96 412 Brussels . . 94 28 33 28 4 31 325 St Petersburg 46 153 14 136 75 57 236 Vienna . . 10 21 30 35 17 31 76 Baltimore . . 15s 91 IS 194 82 31 22 The following table shows approximately the ratios of various diseases in 10,000 deaths : — England France Ger- many Russia Italy Switzer- land Belgium Holland Scandi- navia United States Canada Apoplexy .... 270 400 390 210 360 370 310 280 350 140 no Bronchitis 1,150 310 400 1. 500 30 600 480 220 620 130 Cancer . 235 260 ISO 160 300 140 180 330 130 126 Diphtheria SS 360 270 210 360 304 280 130 230 480 114 Erysipelas 36 48 35 1° 40 68 Heart . . 620 290 230 200 580 38S 190 180 220 35° 370 Measles . 184 180 100 80 9S 46 J^5 150 220 Phthisis . 1,100 1,120. 1,270 1,960 900 1,110 1,820 950 1,020 1,420 1,620 Pneumonia 510 720 400 1.150 S40 600 450 570 710 660 Puerperal . 49 100 70 SO SO 100 40 I4S Rheumatism 41 35 25 40 40 59 70 Scarlatina 402 20 160 90 10 146 140 40 360 220 458 Scrofula . 62 130 ... 180 30 90 140 70 70 Small-pox 130 80 8 40 60 54 150 100 120 SS Typhoid . 210 720 4SO 480 240 184 460 460 280 310 ^ Whooping-cough . 250 "5 SO 112 280 180 185 148 260 DISEASE 194 DISEASE Ague. — In 10,000 deaths those from ague were : At London Lisbon , Haarlem Zeeland . 60 70 80 At Amsterdam . . 106 Naples . . . T07 Portuguese army 120 Genoa . . . 133 At Finland . 180 U. States . 240 Athens . . 420 Rome . . 460 Apoplexy. — In 10,000 deaths those from this disease were : — At Amsterdam Athens . Bavaria Belgium Berlin . Berne . Bologna Bordeaux Brussels BudaPesth . Canada . . Chrlstiania . Copenhagen . England . . Frankfort . . French cities . 380 630 370 410 410 420 420 780 310 140 98 220 230 280 380 400 At Geneva . , Gibraltar . , Hamburg . , Holland . Iceland . , Ireland . , Italian cities Lima . . Lisbon . . Malaga . . Malta . . Mantua . Mexico Milan , , Montevideo Munich 400 150 620 280 100 160 360 70 68s 350 600 59° 340 200 430 390 At Naples New Orleans Nova Scotia Paris . . Quebec Rome . . St. Helena St Petersburg 210 Scotland . . 420 Shanghai Spain . Sweden Turin . U. States.Nor. 184 ,, South 96 Zurich . . , 400 370 91 SS 330 loS S30 430 400 S90 610 The occurrence of apoplexy is most frequent in France, Russia, and Holland in winter, and in Canada in summer :- Seasons France Russia Holland Canada Spring . Summer . Autumn , Winter . 27.0 23-7 19-3 30.0 24.0 23-8 21.2 31.0 25.8 20,1 23.6 30-5 2S-3 26.3 22. S 2S-9 Total 100. 100. 100.0 100.0 Its occurrence according to months, taking the year as 1200, was as follows : — London (1840) Den- mark France Calcutta Italian Cities 'anuary . . 123 122 139 108 143 February . 108 no 112 102 135 March , . 104 93 91 III no April . . . 95 99 127 138 95 May . . . 96 ^ 106 97 94 une . . . 76 93 109 64 74 uly . . . 89 98 109 7S 78 August . , 88 77 67 83 74 September . 98 85 67 87 80 October . . 89 103 67 97 90 November . 120 no 97 120 no December . 114 "3 109 118 "7 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 The increase of this disease in England is remarkable, deaths yearly per million inhabitants being as follows : — 1850-66 1867-70 1871-73 457 504 517 1874-80 1886 . 55° 577 In Holland it is found that of 100 patients 46 are males, 54 females. The distribution of this disease according to age in France was : — Of 1000 Cases Age Age Age Under 10 . , 22 3t>-40 • . no 61-70 . . . 229 10-20 . . ■ 3° 41-50 . • 153 Over 70 . • 192, 21-30 . . . 62 51-60 . . 202 Asthma. — Of 10,000 deaths there are from this disease 66 in England, 48 in Scotland, and 33 in Ireland. Deaths according to season show : — Spring . Summer Autumn Winter . 16. 1 23.2 53-7 Brights Disease. — In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease : — At At At Amsterdam . 120 Denmark . . 80 Lisbon . . 30 Berne . . . 100 Frankfort . . 130 Munich . . 30 BrusStels . .

14 in the year (1879). AH very clean. Five married couples; two have children quite healthy, but rest are childless. All the lepers have lost fingers. One woman of 80 has been there fifty years. Measles. — In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease — in England 184, London 265, Scotland 140, Ireland no, and Holland 150. The prevalence of this disease, as shown by the ratio of deaths in the various months, taking the year as 1200, was: — London Saxony London Saxony January . 8S 119 July . . 117 94 February . ss 112 August . 108 120 March 74 84 September 96 64 April . . 80 6S October . 100 64 May . . 82 90 November 119 119 June . . 125 93 December Half year IS9 176 Half year SOI S63 699 637 Meningitis. — In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease : — In Amsterdam . 370 Belgium . . 280 Epidemics of this disease have occurred : we have no returns of the number attacked, but the death-rate per 100 patients is recorded thus : — In In Buda-Pesth . 460 St. Petersburg 500 France . . . 300 United States 190 Versailles . • 41 Sweden and ) Norway . ) ^3 Naples . . .46 Strasburg . • SI Lille ... 6s Orleans . . 70 Metz . . . Aignes Mortes Rochefort . . 70 75 84 The general relative mortality was 63 per cent., most of the above epidemics occurring among garrison troops. Swedish statistics give the following particulars : — Age Under 3 3-10 10-20 . Over 20 Ratio of Cases • 23.0 33-6 31-2 12.2 Death-Rate 42 per cent. 2S 35 30 Mumps. thus : — Age Under 5 . S-io . . Total . . 100. o —Lombard gives the ratio 33 of age 95 243 In 1000 Patients Age 10-15 . . . 256 15-30 . . .230 Age 30-40 . Over 40 of cases 108 68 DISEASE DISEASE The prevalence of cases according to months was as follows, according to Hirsch : — January February March . First quarter . April May June Second quarter 292 97 124 S13 124 27 70 221 July . . . August September . Third quarter October November . December . Fourth quarter 55 27 176 no 370 Neuralgia. — The prevalence of this disease according to sex is variously stated, viz. : — Anstie Valleix Eulenberg Medium Males . . Females . . 32 68 47 53 28 72 36 64 Total . 100 100 100 100 The ratio according to age is stated thus : - Age Valleix Eulenberg Under 20 . 20-30 30-50 Over 50 . Total 8.1 22.9 44.8 24.2 6.0 19.0 SS-o 20.0 lOO.O 100.0 Obesity. — Of 100 patients, 36 are men and 64 women. The disease is hereditary in 49 per cent, of cases. Re- markable instances of obesity are the following : — Name James Mansfield Mr, Bright Dan. Lambert Weight, Lbs. 476 596 739 82 29 40 Residence Debden, Monmouth Maldon, Essex Stamford, Lincoln Ofhthaliitia.—Oiiooo persons in hospitals in Sweden, 48 suffered from this disease. Paralysis. — Of 100 cases of general paralysis 86 are male, 14 female. The ratio of age is thus : — Age Under 30 30-40 41-50 Over 50 Males ■ 7-1 . 40.8 ■ 33-4 . 18.7 Females 32.0 50.0 18.0 Total , . 100. o 100.0 Of 10,000 deaths there are from this disease 260 in England, 280 in Scotland, and 145 in Ireland. Deaths in England according to season : — Spring 24.2 Summer 19.0 Autumn 25.6 Winter 31.2 Total . . . loo.o The ratio of age in cases of spinal paralysis is as fol- lows ; — Under 16 16-20 20-25 25-35 35-45 Over 45 9 5 26.4 18.0 26.4 1.3- 5 6.2 Total .... 100.0 In 100 patients 70 were males and 30 females. Pellagra. — The number of cases yearly, per million inhabitants, is 150 at Lodi, 800 at Cremona, 2400 at Bergamo, and 2900 at Brescia. About 1000 persons die of pellagra yearly in Venetia. In 1879 the sufferers from pellagra were : — Number Per 1000 Inhabitants Lombardy .... Venetia Emilia Other provinces 40,800 29,800 18,700 8,600 31-7 30.5 23-7 Total 97.900 Peritonitis. —The ratios of age of patients stand thus : — Age Per Cent. Under 20 14.0 20-30 ,.•.... 26.0 30-40 27-5 Over 40 32.S Total . 100.0 Phthisis.- -In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease as follows :— - Alabama 630 Flanders . . 2600 Norway , . 1288 Alexandria . 250 Florida . . 570 Nuremberg . 1410 Amsterdam . 870 France . . 1120 Paris . . . 1430 Antwerp . . I WO Frankfort . 1550 Pennsylvania 1420 Archangel . i960 Geneva . . 1250 Philadelphia 1320 Athens . . 1076 Glasgow . . 1580 Riga . . . 300 Augsburg . 1000 Holland . . 950 Rio Janeiro . 1880 Bavaria . . 1010 Iceland . . 5 Rome . . 1140 Belgium . . 182=; Ireland . . 1160 Russia . . i960 Berlin . . 990 Lima . . . 1770 St. Petersburg 1510 Bologna . . 1340 Lisbon . . 1147 S. Francisco 1590 Bordeaux . 1620 London . . 1280 Santa Cruz . 1400 Brussels . . 1750 Louisiana 970 Scotland . . 1050 Buda-Pesth . 1545 Lyons . . 1340 Shanghai . 600 Cairo . . . 1010 Maine 2580 Stockholm . 1600 California . is8o Maryland . 1720 Sweden . . 1340 Canada . . 1610 Massach'setts 2000 Switzerland . 770 Catania . . 450 Melbourne 740 Turin . . . 830 Christiania . 1720 Mexico . 490 Ulm . . 1130 Copenhagen 1270 Milan . . 1320 U. States 1420 Corfu . . . 2190 Missouri . 750 Vienna . . 2080 Drontheim . 1700 Montevideo 1270 Vologda . 2060 England . . lOIO Munich . 1320 Wisconsin . 1320 Finland . . 840 New York 1550 Zeeland . . 640 Height above sea-level has a marked effect on this disease, as shown by the following death-rates from phthisis in Baden and Switzerland : — Feet over Sea Per 10,000 Deaths Baden Switzerland Medium Less than 1,600. 1,600-2,700 2,700-3,200 Over 3,200 1,040 830 750 860 860 730 390 500 950 780 570 680 Similar results are obtained in the Andes. Some occupations predispose to phthisis ; the following table shows among 100 sick persons of each trade the ratio of those suffering from it ; — Ratio of Phthisis to all Sickness Per Per Per Cent. Cent. Cent. Needle-makers 70 Hairdressers . 32 Masons . ■ 13 File-makers . 63 Weavers . . 25 Millers . . II Lithographers 48 Painters . . 25 Brewers . . II Grinders . . 40 Printers . . 22 Tanners . . 9 Tobacconists . 37 Shoemakers . 19 Bakers . 7 Watchmakers 37 Glaziers . . 18 Butchers . . 7 Stonecutters . 36 Hatters . . 16 Charcoal-bur ners a Glassworkers . 35 Carpenters . 14 Miners . . I DISEASE DISEASE The above table has reference only to the United Kingdom, the deaths from phthisis per million inhabi- tants showing as follows yearly : — England 1850-59 1860-69 1870-79 1886 2.730 2.S47 2,205 1,718 Scotland Ireland , London 1876-85 2.183 1886 2,220 1879 2,476 1886 2,010 In Scotland the deaths yearly from phthisis average thus: — Per Million Persons Living Age Age Ratio ■e ■« ^ 1 ^ Males . . Females . Gen. pop. 2,680 2,850 2,760 r:io 1,820 2,370 2,460 2,420 0-20 . 20-40 . Over 40 16.2 Si-4 324 16.8 53.6 29.6 i6.S 52- S 31.0 Total lOO.O lOO.O lOO.O During the years 1830-46, the mean mortality from phthisis in the British army on home service amounted to 7.8 per 1000 of strei^th, the highest mortality being among the Foot Guards, with whom it reached 11. 3 per 1000 of strength. In the Equitable Assurance Company at that time, the average mortality between the ages of thirty and forty, from all diseases of the lungs, amounted to 3.4 per 1000. The army mortality from phthisis was, therefore, three times greater than necessary. The mor- tality of troops from the same cause appeared to be equally great at some foreign stations. Thus at Gibraltar 41 per cent, of the total deaths among the troops were caused by phthisis in the years 1837-46, while in the year 187 s only 23 per cent, of the deaths were due to this cause. At Jamaica the deaths from phthisis in the years 1817-36 amounted to 7.5 per 1000 of strength, whUe in 1859-66 the mortality from this cause had fallen to 1.4 per 1000 of strength. In Trimdad, lung disease killed on an average II. J per 1000 of strength between 1817 and 1836. Among the black troops at Sierra Leone phthisis appears to be the most fetal disorder. In ten years, 1861-70, the deaths were 22. 5 per 1000 of strength, and of these phthisis caused one-third. In the twenty years 1817-36, the deaths in Canada from phthisis were 4.2 per 1000 of strength, whereas in 1859-65 they were but 1. 6 per 1000. In India the annual ratio of deaths and invalided from phthisis were for the years 1863-70 as follows : — Bengal Bombay Madras Died per 1000 1-7 1-4 1.4 Invalided per rooo 3-2 3-4 4.2 Deaths from phthisis in the Royal Navy average 2.6 per 1000 yearly, which is attributed to the foulness of the air. The deaths and invalided from phthisis in the British army at home in the years 1864-70 were per 1000 men yearly thus : — Deaths Invalided Household cavalry . Cavalry of line Foot guards .... Infantry of line 38 1-4 2-3 2.1 8.2 4.0 9S 5-S Among the causes of phthisis the most potent is over- crowding. At the ill-ventilated Leopoldstadt prison of Vienna in 1843-47 no fewer than 51 per 1000 deaths were from phthis^ At the well-ventilated House of Correction in the same city, in the years 1850-54, the deaths from phthisis were only 8 per 1000. Among Bntish garrisons abroad 12 per 1000 in Ceylon are attacked yearly with phthisis, 12 in the Anglo-Indian Mmy, 3 among Sepoys, 6 at Yokohama, and 15 at Hong- Kong. Among hospital patients in Tasmania 7 per cent, suffered from this disease, and in the French hospital at Senegal 8 per cent P/ague.—Mi\T0j gives a list of 196 of the most de- structive plagues since the year 1500, viz. : — s rt 00 1* f ^ iH A J< A ri, CO t- t-t iH •H England .... 15 12 France . 14 11 1 Germany 12 19 4 I Low Countries 2 14 Russia and Scandinavia 2 7 4 2 Italy and Levant . 26 IS Z2 II Spain S 3 3 I Total 76 81 24 IS The most terrible, however, which is recorded was that commonly known as the Black Death, which came from Persia into Europe in 1346. It was preceded by myriads of locusts, which filled the wells and poisoned the water in the countries east of the Caspian Sea. At Bagdad 500,000 persons died in 90 days ; at Cairo the mortality reached 10,000 in 24 hours. In Europe it lasted four years, and was supposed to have carried off 24,000,000 persons, more than 30,000 towns and villages being depopulated. So late as 1350 ships were met at sea with all dead on board. Among the cities which suffered most were : — Avignon Dublin . Florence Genoa . London . Marseilles Naples . Norwich 60,000 14,000 100,000 40,000 100,000 56,000 60,000 50,000 Paris . 50,000 Parma . 40,000 Siena . 70,000 Strasburg 26,000 Valencia . 100,000 Venice . 70,000 Vienna . 40,000 Since the beginning of the seventeenth century the worst plagues have been : — Date Place Deaths Weeks Deaths per Week 1656 Naples . . 380,000 28 13.400 1665 London . . 68,800 33 2,100 1720 Marseilles 39,100 36 1,100 1771 Moscow . . 87,800 32 ■ 2,700 1773 Constantinople 170,000 18 9.500 1798 Cairo . . . 88,000 25 3.500 1812 Constantinople 144,000 13 11,100 1834 Cairo . . . S7.000 18 3,200 183s Alexandria . 14,900 17 900 1871 Buenos Ayres 26,300 11 2,400 The relative mortality in certain plagues was as fol- lows : — Date Place Died, per Cent. Recovered, per Cent. Authority 1793 Cairo . . . 67 33 Genettes 1798 Aboukir . . 25 75 M'Grigor 1813 Malta . . . 50 50 Greaves 1815 Corfu . . . 91 9 White 1834 Cairo . . . 29 71 Gaetani 1835 -Alexandria . 35 65 Clot Bey 1871 Buenos Ayres 40 60 Bosch DISEASE DISEASE Pneumonia. — In disease : — In Amsterdam Athens Bombay . Bordeaux . Brussels . lo.ooo deaths there were of this • 57° . 856 . 26 . 400 • 430 Puerperal Fever.- disease : — • In In Buenos Ayres 400 Ireland . . 220 Copenhagen . 710 London . . 530 Edinburgh . 270 Paris . . . 680 England . 450 Scotland . . 410 Frankfort . . 400 Valparaiso 1,890 Glasgow . . 490 -In 10,000 deaths there were of this In In 1 Amsterdam . 53 Copenhagen , 160 | Athens . no England ■ 37 Austria . 40 France , . 100 Bile . • 90 Geneva ■ 95 Berne . . 80 Holland ■ 5° Brussels . 210 Iceland ■ 70 Canada . 140 Ireland • S2 In London . . . New York . . St. Petersburg Scotland . . Switzerland United States . At the lying-in hospital of St. Petersburg in 32 years down to 1871 there were 39,200 accouchements, and i960 mothers died — ^just 5 per cent. The death-rate per 1000 accouchements according to months was : — January ... 54 May .... 55 September . . 34 February , . 56 June .... 68 October. . . 35 March ... 60 July .... 52 November . . 40 April. ... 59 August ... 29 December . . SS The quarter ending June showed the highest rate, 61, and that ending September only 38. In Prussia during 25 years down to 1866 it was found that 33 per 1000 of married women died of puerperal fever. Lefort states that the average in lying-in hospitals in Europe is 34 per 1000, and only 5 per 1000 in women confined at home. Rheumatism.- disease : — In Bordeaux , Canada . . Copenhagen Denmark . Edinburgh . England . Frankfort . -In 10,000 deaths there were of this 50 70 35 70 23 5° 46 In Germany Glasgow Iceland . Ireland . Italy . . Lisbon . London . In Paris. . . . Scotland . Switzerland United States . Upsala . . . Valparaiso . . Of 1000 cases of sickness the ratio of rheumatism is as follows ; — In Algiers Amoy . Bombay Buda-Pesth Burmah Cape . Corfu . England Gibraltar 12 39 30 65 48 30 35 100 47 In Hong-Kong India Lisbon . London , Lyons . Madras . Malaga . Mauritius Melbourne Natal . In New Zealand Riga. . . Sandwich Isds. 41 32 Shanghai Singapore . Sweden . . Switzerland Tahiti . . Yokohama . 92 60 77 30 41 65 During the war of 1861-63 in the United States the Federals had 5,825,000 men under colours, and of these 254,700 were sent to hospital for rheumatism, being 44 per 1000. The French army at home has usually 30 rheumatic patients yearly per 1000 men, but in Algeria only 12; the garrison at Rome also averaged 12. In 1873 the deaths from this disease in the French army were 3 per 100,000 men. In 14 years ending 1874 the ratio of British seamen on home and foreign stations attacked yearly with rheumatism was : — Per 1000 Seamen U. Kingdom , 56 China ... 84 West Indies . 71 Mediterranean 85 South America 75 East Indies . 87 The general average for the said period was 84. Australia . . 8q Pacific . . • 97 Cape . . . IQ4 The following table shows the distribution of rheu- matism according to months, taking the year as 1200 : — Cases Deaths § ^ 1 <2 ^1 a B ^ Q January . . . 96 83 107 109 25 150 February "5 92 105 79 12 72 March 85 92 105 95 30 180 ^J'"' • 114 109 los 102 7 40 May . 90 104 97 103 21 128 June . n8 112 92 94 6 37 July . 102 120 92 121 22 130 August 77 102 100 97 IS 90 September 91 92 109 no 23 135 October . "5 97 100 107 16 94 November 95 97 95 8q 16 94 December 102 100 93 98 8 5° Year 1,200 1,200 I,Z0O 1,200 17 100 The ratio of age in deaths from rheumatism at Paris (1865-74) was as follows : — In 1000 Deaths from Rheumatism Age Age Age Under 5 . . 11 15-25 . . . 115 40-60 . . . 331 5-15 ... 58 25-40 . . . 279 Over 60 . . 206 There were 102 males to 100 female deaths. Scarlatina. — In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease : — In Amsterdam . Bavaria . . Berlin . . . Brussels . . Copenhagen . In 50 England • 350 236 Germany . 160 60 Holland • 40 140 Ireland . 290 240 London . 480 Paris . . 60 In Rome ... 10 Switzerland . 430 Scotland . .180 St. Petersburg 90 U. States , . 220 The prevalence of this disease in Sweden, Norway, and Saxony, according to months (taking the year as 1200), is shoviTi thus : — Month Sweden Norway Saxony January 106 122 116 February 99 no 102 March . 93 103 78 April 95 92 63 May . 91 90 59 .une . 90 85 59 .uly . 81 80 68 August . 80 76 84 September 91 72 "3 October n8 100 155 November 136 137 151 December 120 133 152 Sciatica. — Arnoldi gives the age of 1000 patients of this disease : — Under 10 • 36 30-40 . . 218 60-70 . . . "■; 10-20 , , . lOI 40-50 . ■ 199 Over 70 . . 28 20-30 . . • 145 50-60 . . 158 Scrofula.— -In 10 000 deaths there we re of this disease : — In In In Amsterdam . 140 England • 56 New York S'? Berlin . . . 100 France . . 130 Norway . . 80 Bordeaux , 67 Glasgow . 60 Paris . . . v Brussels . . 90 Ireland . no Russia . . . tR-> Canada . • 15 Lisbon . . no St. Petersburg 9fif> Copenhagen • 70 London . 60 Scotland . . 1V> Dresden . . go Lyons . . 60 Turin . . . 30 Edinburgh • 95 Munich • 33 United States 70 DISEASE 203 DISEASE In Geiman cities 50 per cent of foundlings die of scrofula. In Buda-Pesth zi per cent, of hospital patients suffer from this disease. In Italy 7 per 1000 of conscripts are rejected for it Scurvy. — In the British navy the returns were : Period Cases Yearly Per 10.000 Seamen 1856-65 ... 28 ... 6 1866-75 ... 4 ... I In the year 1820 the garrison of St. Peters, Iowa, 1000 men, had 500 cases, of whom 168 died. The United States army in 20 years ending 1859 had 26 cases yearly per 1000 men, but only i per cent of the cases proved fatal. The French army in the Crimea had 23,400 cases and 639 deaths, say 3 per cent In the hospital at Con- stantinople, 1855-56, there were 25,200 cases and 2916 deaths, or nearly 12 per cent In the Franco-German war the French prisoners at Ingolstadt had 16 cases per 1000. In Lord Anson's expedition, 1740, the Centurion lost 58 per cent and the Gloucester 78 per cent of her crew from scurvy. Admiral Martin lost 10 per cent, of his men in 1746. Small-Pox. disease: — In Amsterdam . Austria Baltimore . Berlin . . Brussels , Buda-Pesth Canada . Copenhagen . 70 -In 10,000 deaths there were of this 250 620 4 ISO 140 In Denmark , England . Finland . Germany , Glasgow . Ireland Italy . . London , 70 130 60 8 8 41 60 106 In Marseilles . njz Paris ... 80 Rome . . . 290 St Petersburg 40 Scotland . . 14 Sweden Switzerland Vienna 160 54 40 The months in which it is most prevalent are shown in the following table, taking the year as 1200 : — Month Sweden Norway Bavaria London Fanuary , . r20 144 120 50 February . 130 161 152 23 Maix:h . . 129 157 162 45 April . , . 156 142 165 May . . . 152 172 142 65 June . . . 128 133 no 57 July . , . 91 78 70 68 August . . Sa 46 52 80 September . 41 34 46 93 October . . 43 27 45 153 November . 68 40 58 225 December . 90 66 78 303 Year . 1,200 I,200 1,200 1,200 Deaths yearly from this disease in various European armies averaged thus : — Per 100,000 Men 1872-75 187&-81 British . 8 3 German I French . 8 Austrian , • 99 18 In Germany the deaths from this disease averaged in 10,000 deaths as follows : — 1816-70 loi 1871-74 ^55 1875-82 "8 In 1874 a law was passed making re- vaccination com- pulsory on all persons in Germany over twelve years of age. The ratio in 10,000 deaths for Berlin and London was as follows : — 1870-79 1880-83 Berlin . , , . 324 ... 4 London. , , . 230 ... 106 In Austria the ratio per 10,000 deaths showed : — 1872-76 .... 560 1877-81 .... 250 French physicians have instituted a comparison between Paris and Rio Janeiro touching this disease at various seasons and temperatures, viz. : — Quarter ending Mean Tempera- tiu-e, Fahrenheit Ratio of Year's Death P-- jja^o Paris Rio Janeiro 31st March .... 30th June .... 30th Septemljer . . 31st Deceml)er . . . Year . . . 38 SO 65 52 SI 77 72 70 76 74 24.2 22.8 16. 5 36.S 12.6 IS.6 37.7 3+1 100. 100. In the hot season at both places the deaths are fewer. The ratio of ages showed thus : — Age Deaths Paris Rio Janeiro Under 7 7 25 25-40 Over 40 30-3 19.6 34-2 15-9 28.4 34.2 26.9 10.5 100.0 lOO.O The deaths per million inhabitants in the United Kingdom yearly averaged thus : — England London Scotland Irela Date nd Date Deaths Date Deaths Date Deaths Deaths 1760-1800 1840-54 1871-73 1881 3,000 430 178 100 1660-80 1760-90 1840-60 1871-73 1881 4.170 2,260 408 1,040 640 1864 1874-82 30s 28 1844 1864-74 1875-82 403 108 82 In the epidemic of 1 5: 61 the deaths in England were per million : army, 455 ; civilians, 928 ; London, 2420. In that of 1 88 1 the returns showed deaths per million inhabitants as follows : — Vaccinated Unvaccinated Difference London . . . 90 3.350 35toi England . . . 98 .. 44 to I In 10,000 deaths in London at the following periods those from small-pox were as follows : — -P"^ 1^^ 1622-1700 525 1701-1800 808 1801-30 480 1841-60 150 1861-70 105 1871-81 202 DISEASE 204 DISEASE In the epidemic at Leipzig in 1 87 1 the death-rate was 12,700 per million inhabitants, 70 per cent, of whom were unvaccinated. The following table shows the re- lative mortality as affected by vaccination : — Vaccinated, Un vaccinated, Per Cent. Per Cent. London • IS 45 Montreal . i5 54 Boston • IS 5° Philadelphia • 17 64 During the Franco-German war the Germans lost only 263 men from this disease, the French 23,499, the former having been re-vaccinated in barracks. In the war in Paraguay, the Brazilians lost 43,000 men from malignant or black small-pox, that is, 35 per cent, of their army, nine cases in ten proving fatal. In ten years ending 1869 the average number of vacci- nations in France was 587,000 per annum, leaving 405,000 children bom yearly over that number unvaccinated. The cases of small-pox averaged 18,100 yearly, and deaths 2490, or 14 per cent. Deaths in Paris from small- pox averaged yearly as follows : — Period Deaths Yearly Per 10,000 Deaths 1821-30 .... 1831-40 .... 1841-50 .... 1851-60 .... 1861-70 .... 1871-80 .... 465 319 426 1.512 695 180 160 90 85 310 140 In the ratio of sexes, 1 30 males died of this disease to 100 females. Swedish statistics compare vaccinations and deaths from small-pox as follows : — Period Vaccinations per 1000 Binhs Small-Pox, Deaths Yearly per Million Inhab. 1800-9 1810-19 1820-29 1830-39 1840-49 1850-SS . 1861-75 280 520 680 730 720 810 560 190 132 270 160 110 Between 1770 and 1799, when vaccination was not in use, the deaths in Sweden yearly from small-pox averaged zioo per million inhabitants. In Norway vaccination is not compulsory, but persons unvaccinated are not allowed to vote at elections. In Austria the number of vaccinations yearly shows : — Year Vaccinations Per 1000 Births Vaccinated Not Vaccinated 1882 1884 1886 675,000 686,000 692,000 Bro 799 803 190 201 197 In Japan, in 1880, the number of vaccinations was 1,459,000, of which 3 per cent, were unsuccessful. This disease was known in Ireland in 1 241, and in Denmark in 1527. Sunstroke. — In 10,000 deaths in England two are usually from this cause, the annual average of such deaths showing thus : — 1863-70 1871-78 Men 57 88 Women 9 23 Total 66 III This disease is most prevalent at Bassorah in the Persian Gulf, and also in the United States. In 1874 the steamer Liverpool in the Persian Gulf lost in one day 3 officers and 21 seamen by sunstroke. Syphilis. — In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease — In In In Amsterdam . 18 London . . 68 Portugal . . 80 Bordeaux . . 42 Louisiana . . 2^ Riga . . . 16 Brussels . . 42 Lyons . . . 9 St. Petersburg 20 Copenhagen . 34 Massachusetts ■12 Scotland . . 17 Edinburgh . SS Milan . . . ■i Shanghai . . 50 England . . 40 New York . 40 Strasburg . . 14 Genoa . . . 20 Norway . . 8 Sweden . . 10 Ireland 20 Pennsylvania . 9 Turin . . . 30 This disease was unknown in Norway till 17 10, in Italy till 1786, in Canada till 1790, and in Tasmania till 1821. The percentage of patients in various hospitals found to be suffering from it was : — Hospital ^--;,_ Berlin 20 Vienna 15 Stettin .... 10 Brunswick . . . .33 Wo^nen, Per Cent. 25 SI 85 • In Holland 10 per cent, of men in hospital, in Stras- burg 38 per cent., in Malaga 18, in Gibraltar 8, in Amoy 43, in Dantzig 10, in Bremen 7 psr cent, suffered from syphilis. In Hanover 20, and in Magdeburg 30 per cent, of the women in hospital. The prevalence of this disease in 1000 soldiers was as follows : — Prussia . . ■14 France . . . 102 Canada . 160 Austria . . 6,3 Holland . . 105 Bengal . . 167 Russia . . 6S Australia . . 110 Gibraltar . 187 Italy . . . 71 Mauritius . . 122 Cape . • 303 Malta . . . 81 Jamaica . . 123 Algeria • 309 Belgium . . qo Spain . . ■ IIS Java . - 333 Great Britain lOI Portugal . • 13s In Paris 23 per cent, of foundlings, and in Moscow and St. Petersburg 25 per cent, are infected with this disease. In French military hospitals 19 per cent, are syphilitic cases, in Belgian 7, in British 29. Tetanus. — The ratio of wounded soldiers who got tetanus in various campaigns was as follows : — Date Army Per 1000 Wounded 1782 British in India 25 1811 ,, Spain 13 18SS ,, Crimea 2 1798 French in Egypt 3S 1836 Algeria 57 i8SS , , Crimea 3 1859 Italy 7 1870 ,, Strasburg s 1864 German in Denmark 7 1866 Hanoverian at Sadowa 12 1870 German at Strasburg 9 1871 Paris 10 1859 Spanish in Morocco 18 1862 War of United States, Northerns 2 Death-rate in cases of tetanus is stated thus :— Date Per Cent. Observer 1793 • 100 Heurteloup 1834 . 96 Curling 1825-50 86 Guy's Hospital i8SS . 91 English in Crimea 1859 • 92 French in Italy 1861-63 90 Federals in United States 1870 . 70 Glasgow Hospital 1877 . 8S Richter DISEASE 205 DISEASE In the American War, 1863, the rate was 87 per cent, when the wound was in the arm, 90 in the leg, 91 in the body, and 95 in the head or neck. The Lancet (1870) gives the following ratio of mor- tality as to the number of days elapsing before tetanus pronounced itself : — Days Ratio of Cases Death-Rate Recovered Before lo . . . 10 to 22 ... Over 22 . . . 475 450 7-S Per Cent. 78 48 Per Cent. 22 48 S2 Typhoid Fever. — In 10,000 deaths there were of typhoid fever : — In In Algiers 140 England . . 210 Amsterdam 460 France . . . 720 Antwerp . 2go Frankfort . . 420 Astrakan . 870 Geneva • 35° Athens . . 47S Germany . • 4SO Belgium . 460 Glasgow . . 810 Berlin . . 320 Ireland . 210 Brussels . . 220 Italy . . . 290 Catania . . 840 Liege . . . 270 Christiania . 630 London . . 240 Copenhagen . 700 Lubeck . • 370 Denmark . . 400 Lyons . . . 270 Edinburgh . 460 Milan . . . 320 Munich . . 45° In Naples New York Norway . Palermo . Paris . . Rome . . Russia , . Scotland . Strasburg . Sweden Turin . . Vienna . 300 • 350 • 990 . 890 . 680 . 230 . 480 • 23s 230 203 460 560 In Paris hospitals 21 per cent, of typhoid cases prove fatal. In St. Petersburg of 10,000 males between 15 and 20 years of age 38 die yearly of typhoid, and of women of the same age 17. Wolfshugal states the yearly deaths from typhoid per 100,000 inhabitants as follows : — Amsterdam . 39 Hamburg. Berlin ... 96 Leipzig . Birmingham . 54 Lille . . Bristol ... 5 Liverpool . Christiania , 7 London . Dublin ... 79 Manchester Frankfort . . 42 Metz . . Genoa ... 63 Milan . . Hague ... 38 Munich . Naples The ratio of sickness shows 22 typhoid patients in 1000 sick at Bremen, 30 at Stuttgart, 31 at Hamburg and Munich, 34 at Breslau, and 54 at Vienna, during ten years ending 1855. Deaths from typhoid in the French army average 18 per 10,000 yearly, in the Bavarian 28, and in the garrison of Munich 84. The rate of deaths yearly from this disease in the French army, according to years of military service, was thus : — S4 New York 300 Paris . . 40 Pesth . . q2 Rome . . 37 Rotterdam .S8 Strasburg . 48 Turin . . q=; Venice . . 118 Vienna 128 33 S° 96 91 17 33 143 70 59 United States 450 Years of Service 'Pf^=Pr„ , 10,000 Men ist . 2-3. 4-5- 44 42 19 ,, re • ' Deaths per Years of Service, jS^„ 6-7 8-9 10 or over Deaths from typhoid and other fevers, according to months, taking the year as 1200, occurred thus : — Typhoid Other Fevers London Ague London Holland Saxony Switzerland Norway Belgium W. Africa Mauritius Typhus Algeria January . 87 60 102 106 150 62 118 20 135 119 February 62 f 30 95 83 103 95 129 65 108 78 March . 58 54 87 73 64 106 98 208 129 77 April 41 55 81 67 43 <^ los 340 133 50 May 48 54 80 85 38 72 no 275 133 42 Tune 70 55 79 92 32 62 107 III no 60 July . . . 97 36 92 98 57 69 102 71 92 lOI August . 150 78 121 107 95 128 85 34 Bi 121 September 17T 158 131 I3t "7 128 83 25 68 126 October . 165 240 126 126 116 167 78 IS 72 152 November 151 240 105 130 209 "3 84 16 71 146 December 100 140 lOI ro2 176 99 lOI 20 63 128 Year r,200 T,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 r,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 Typhus. — In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease in England 30, Scotland 47, Holland 21, Amsterdam 23. The rate of mortality among persons attacked is 20 per cent, in England. An epidemic of typhus occurred in Ireland in 1817-19, when 800,000 persons were attacked, of whom 4S,ooo died; a second was in 1847, caused by famine, and was still more fatal. Emigrants conveyed it to Quebec, where 8600 sick were at one time under treatment in 1847. The hospitals of Russia had 57,000 typhus patients in 1857. Deaths from typhus in Vienna averaged 734 per annum in the years 1865-71, but since the sanitjuy improvements of 1872 the average has been only 291 per annum. IVhooping-Cough. — In 10,000 deaths there were of this disease : — In Edinburgh England In Belgium . Brussels . Christiania Copenhagen Denmark . 280 70 100 160 160 Glasgow Holland Ireland Italy . 360 250 610 180 250 50 In London Norway Scotland Sweden U. States 370 190 220 igo 148 Of 100 cases in Belgium 64 occur under twelve months, 32 between that age and five years, and four over the age of five years. • Yelhw Fever. — It made its first appearance at Rio Janeiro in December 1849. The oflScial record of deaths from 185 1 to i860 averaged 910 per annum, and in 1870- 74 they were 1245 per annum. This is supposed to represent one-fourth of the real number. An outbreak occurred at Buenos Ayres in January 1 87 1 , which carried off 26,200 persons, or nearly 10 per cent, of the population. At Vera Cruz the deaths from this disease, according to months, taking the year as 1200, stand thus : — January February March . . 26 • 42 • 90 July . . . August . September . . 125 . 109 . 109 First quarter . 158 Third quarter . 343 April . May . June • I2S • 19s . 212 October November December . 34 . 42 . 41 Second quarter • 532 Fourth quarter 167 DISEASE 206 DISEASE At Rio Janeiro, where the seasons are reversed, distribution is : — January , . . 112 July . . . , February . . . 140 August .... March .... 214 September . April May June First quarter 466 243 171 no Third quarter October November December the S2 36 24 23 26 49 Is Second quarter . 524 Fourth quarter England and Wales The following table shovre the deaths from various diseases in England and Wales since 1861 : — Deaths Yearly per Million Ratio Inhabitants m 10,000 Deaths in 1886 1861-70 1871-80 1881-86 1886 Cancer . . . 386 455 545 .S83 302 Cholera . , 107 25 16 19 10 Convulsions . 1,231 1,041 844 821 426 Croup . . . 248 169 162 132 69 Diabetes . . 30 38 51 59 30 Diarrhcea . . 968 916 632 888 461 Diphtheria 188 121 156 147 76 Erysipelas . . 8S 93 83 55 28 Intemperance . 38 40 48 49 26 Liver . . . 417 425 370 335 175 Measles . . 443 379 410 431 224 Nervous system I.S7S 1,760 1,800 1,83s 955 Old age . . 1.315 1,140 1,009 1,021 530 Phthisis . . 2,487 2,130 1,820 1,718 891 Puerperal . . 56 74 92 75 39 Respiratory . 3.357 3.742 3.580 3.595 1,870 Rheumatism . 112 133 132 91 47 Scarlatina . . 971 720 434 215 112 Small-pox . . 156 244 78 10 S Typhoid . . 885 485 272 213 III Venereal . . 84 94 93 91 47 Violent . . . 771 735 663 626 324 Whoop. -cough 53° 513 457 464 241 Various . . . 6,063 S.906 S.S33 5,805 3,001 Total . . 22,503 21,378 19,300 19,278 10,000 The returns may be summed up thus : — Deaths per Million Inhabitants No. of Deaths in 1886 Disease 1871-80 1 1881-82 1883-85 1886 Zymotic . . Constitutional Local . . Various . . Violent . . . 3.724 3.594 9,920 3.404 736 2,874 3.627 9.470 2,566 683 2.747 3.362 9,780 2,814 650 2,648 3,330 9,915 626 73.747 92.751 276,302 77.032 17.444 Total . 21,378 1 19,220 19.353 119,278 537.276 Dr. Fair slated that if zymotic or preventible diseases were unknown in England the span of life would be six years longer. There is some improvement in this direc- tion, as shown by zymotic deaths since 1838, viz.: — Period Annual Per Cent, of Average Deaths 1838-40 .... 61,807 17.7 1848-50 . 88,924 22.1 1858-60 . . 79.930 17.6 i867-«8 . 87,114 I8.3 1871-80 . 90,620 17.4 1881-85 . 75.040 14-5 1886 .... 73.747 13-7 The following table shows the ratio of deaths in i886 according to sex : — Per Million Inhabitants In 10,000 Male Female Total Apoplexy .... 561 592 577 300 Asthma . . 106 70 87 45 Brain . . . 366 303 334 173 Bright's disease 273 219 245 128 Bronchitis . 2,247 2,164 2,208 1,143 Cancer . . 424 733 583 302 Convulsions 951 698 821 426 Croup . . 148 117 132 69 Diarrhcea . 954 823 888 461 Diphtheria . 141 152 147 76 Drink . . 6S 35 49 26 Dropsy . . 10 14 12 6 Epilepsy 123 105 114 59 Erysipelas . 59 SO 55 29 Gout . . . 31 7 19 10 Heart . . 277 289 283 147 Hydrophobia 2 1 Liver. . . 354 317 33S 174 Measles . . 449 414 431 224 Old age . . 906 1,129 1,021 530 Phthisis . . 1,846 1.596 1,718 891 Pneumonia . 1,187 839 1,008 523 Puerperal fever 145 7S 39 Rheumatism 28 34 31 16 Scarlatina . 221 209 215 112 Small-pox . 14 6 10 5 Syphilis . . 86 74 80 42 Typhoid . 197 167 182 95 Typhus . . 10 7 9 5 Whooping-cough 435 492 464 241 Various 7,870 6,470 7.144 3.703 Tota 1 • • 20,341 18,270 19,278 10,000 It will be observed that phthisis and pneumonia are more fatal among males than females, but cancer and apoplexy are more frequent among females. The bills of m ortality in London show as follows : — Deaths per Million In labitants Actual Number of Deaths in 1886 1859 1869 1879 Males Females Total Bronchitis 2,310 2,995 3,622 Measles 1,088 1.003 2,091 Phthisis . 2,850 2.756 2,476 Scarlatina . 368 362 730 Diarrhcea 1,210 1,061 495 Typhoid 321 297 618 Fever . 657 558 249 Whooping-cough 1,289 1.582 2,871 Measles . 488 455 670 Diphtheria . 427 424 851 Scarlatina 1,280 1.325 719 Diarrhoea . 2,074 1,922 3.996 Small-pox 425 86 122 Phthisis 4.884 3.525 8,409 Violent deaths 752 747 774 Cancer 967 1,721 2,688 Whooping-cough . 639 1,178 792 Various 30,739 29.551 60,291 Total • ... 42,157 40,388 82,545 DISEASE 207 DISEASE Scotland The causes of death during ten years ending 1885 were : — Per Million Males of each Age Age Phthisis Bronchitis Pneumonia Diarrhcea Brighfs Apoplexy Cancer Total from all Causes o-S 9S7 8,263 3,108 2,713 134 362 27 49,170 S-io 615 289 293 74 108 74 8 6,090 lo-is 856 93 133 31 67 41 7 4,100 iS-20 2,552 104 276 31 95 47 25 5,650 ao-30 3.624 150 463 42 119 65 53 7,460 30-40 3.308 417 794 69 202 209 144 9,760 40-so 2,741 ^'^l^ 1,346 113 308 488 S54 14,980 50-60 2,415 3,286 I.93S 262 481 1,278 1,401 24.370 60-70 1,925 6,258 2,817 720 756 3.031 2,624 43.930 70-80 1,060 11,418 3,387 1,867 1,022 6,243 3,745 90,770 80-90 445 19,011 4,080 3.413 1,190 9,30s 3,83s 192,420 90-100 177 24,113 4.078 5,142 887 7,447 3,901 407.350 Oeneral average 2.093 2,233 1,158 535 213 538 384 19,050 Per Million Females of each Age o-S 958 7,118 2.567 2,361 92 285 19 43.270 5-10 764 335 282 72 72 66 9 6,100 lo-is 1.459 114 132 37 67 41 13 4,360 15-20 3,434 "S 203 28 73 42 21 6,170 20-30 3.928 17s 254 48 127 66 64 7,650 30-40 3.592 431 433 81 190 146 381 9,780 40-50 2.559 1,121 564 128 233 457 1.158 11,980 50-60 1,694 2.873 874 289 319 1,182 2,162 20,030 60-70 1,192 0,119 1.484 771 388 2,312 3,098 38,760 70-80 707 12,366 2,489 1,977 531 4,462 3.844 79.150 80-90 317 20,072 2,878 3,649 447 6,948 3.959 176,410 90-100 171 26,199 3.425 5,479 171 6.678 2,911 354.760 General average 2,273 2,213 786 498 164 S12 637 18,260 The following classification for 1886 distinguishes urban and rural : — Deaths per 100,000 Persons Living Disease Cities Towns Rural All Scotland Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Zymotic 266 259 197 230 125 140 203 211 Constitutional 417 434 313 371 257 304 342 380 Nervous 284 244 246 214 193 18S 248 220 Respiratory 495 440 363 291 287 239 393 342 Digestive . 152 138 142 134 122 119 139 131 Violent deaths . 100 39 92 32 87 30 93 3t Various 471 464 481 519 504 548 487 508 Total 2.185 2,018 1.834 1.791 1,575 1,565 1.905 1,826 Small-pox .... I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 Measles , 25 22 22 22 9 8 18 17 Scarlatina . 42 35 24 29 IS IS 28 26 Whooping-cough 69 76 33 41 19 20 45 51 Diphtheria . 18 IS 15 15 13 12 14 Typhoid . IS 16 22 25 18 24 18 20 Diarrhcea . 61 54 53 59 28 25 49 46 Ery^pelas . Puerperal . 8 7 7 7 8 7 8 7 13 ... 15 ... 13 Rheumatism 10 13 14 9 13 Cancer 44 72 43 72 42 81 43 74 Phthisis 245 247 172 197 147 158 197 210 Scrofula 24 19 18 18 12 11 18 16 Old age 46 QO 87 133 153 97 150 55 60 56 S9 51 57 53 59 Pandvsis 54 S3 53 SO 55 51 S3 SI 44 3S 27 21 18 IS 32 24 19 18 19 IS 17 10 19 IS Bronchitis . 253 261 X83 177 146 145 200 20s 169 122 109 6S 7! Jl 123 85 Various 983 792 880 759 746 618 877 729 Tota 1 2,185 2,018 1.834 1.791 I.S7S 1.565 1,905 1,836 DISEASE 208 DISEASE The following table was published in 1840, showing the distribution of diseases according to months : — London in 1840 Small-pox Measles Scarlatina Whoop- ing-Cough Typhus Apoplexy Pneu- monia Phthisis General Mortality January February March . April . May fune . Jniy . August . September October November December SO 23 45 38 65 i 80 93 153 225 303 85 55 74 80 82 125 117 108 96 100 119 159 112 103 91 97 57 128 79 123 109 116 86 59 134 95 109 118 99 107 82 74 65 76 81 160 113 95 lOI 107 "3 87 87 95 102 96 100 104 123 108 104 76 89 88 98 89 120 114 "S 72 los 107 94 71 70 |5 62 107 140 198 104 108 102 100 98 105 102 91 93 92 112 108 89 los 99 92 96 97 93 97 103 132 Yea r 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 Deaths in 1886 were as follows : — Ireland Number of Deaths Ratio in 10,000 Males Females Total Males Females Total Zymotic Constitutional Local Violent deaths Various 3.079 7.883 19,221 1.293 12,017 3.579 8,900 17.445 567 13.308 6,658 16,783 36,666 1,860 25.325 708 1,811 4.414 297 2,770 817 2,033 3.984 130 3.036 763 1,922 4,202 213 2,900 Total 43.493 43.799 87,292 10,000 10,000 10,000 The causes of death in 1886 were as follows : — Disease Number of Deaths Males Females Total Ratio in 10,000 Deaths Males Females Total Phthisis .... Bronchitis .... Pneumonia .... Convulsions .... Diarrhoea .... Whooping-cough . . Cancer Old age .... Small-pox .... Measles .... Scarlatina .... Typhus Typhoid .... Diphtheria .... Erysipelas .... Puerperal .... Rheumatism .... Apoplexy .... Croup Various , . . • Total 4.903 4.763 1.793 1.775 734 541 894 8,152 137 401 204 385 156 127 216 607 410 17.295 S.791 5.17s 1,014 1,416 747 678 1.135 9.360 2 147 449 190 387 180 105 332 282 .521 352 15.536 10,694 9.938 2,807 3.191 1,481 1,219 2,029 17.512 2 284 850 394 772 336 232 332 498 1,123 762 32,831 1,127 1.09s 412 408 169 124 20s 1,874 31 92 46 89 34 29 so 140 95 3.980 1.323 1,182 232 323 170 15s 259 3,136 33 102 43 86 41 23 75 64 120 80 3.553 43.493 43.799 87,292 10,000 10,000 I,22S 1,140 322 365 170 140 232 2,005 32 97 45 87 38 26 38 57 130 88 3.763 Deaths from violence were i860, say 207 per 10,000 deaths, or 380 per million of population. The averse of deaths yearly from zymotic diseases for ten years, 1877-86, was as follows : — Per 100,000 Inhabitants Small-pox . 223 Measles. . 1,055 Scarlatina . 1,404 Diphtheria Whooping- cough Fever • 31S I 1.360 • 2,374 France In 10,000 deaths in France the following ratios occur : — Erysipelas 26s Influenza 58 Erysipelas . . 48 Heart . . . 290 Apoplexy . 400 Diarrhoea 1. 754 Puerperal . . 100 Meningitis . 300 Typhoid . 720 Scrofula . . 130 Diphtheria .360 Phthisis . . 1,120 DISEASE 209 DISEASE The returns of Paris hospitals in 1882 showed as follows :- Adults Admitted Died Children Admitted Died Death-Rate per Cent. Adults Children Bronchitis Croup . Diarrhoea and dysentery Erysipelas Fractures, &c. Heart disease Measles Paralysis Phthisis Pleurisy Pneumonia Rheumatism Scarlatina Small-pox Syphihs Typhoid Various Total S.°7o SS 494 1. 175 6,753 2,116 261 421 6.348 i.4°7 2,211 4,416 477 1.985 3.861 3,616 33.944 273 25 49 109 286 659 3 42 3>477 176 722 39 29 395 18 823 a, 212 497 1,207 541 76 240 31 404 163 85 322 67 258 204 "5 470 3.174 53 S21 212 32 I II III 116 6 151 I 31 50 26 83 292 5-4 45-0 10. o 9-1 4-3 31.0 I.I lo.o SS-o 12.6 33-0 0.9 6.2 19.9 0.5 22.8 6.5 10.6 68.0 40.0 42,0 0.4 35-0 27-5 71.0 7.0 47.0 1-5 12.0 24-5 22. s 17-5 9.1 74,610 9.337 7.854 1.997 12-5 25.5 In 10,000 deaths the various diseases stood thus : Bronchitis Croup . . Diarrhoea . Erysipelas Fractures . 292 760 23s 126 258 Heart disease 603 Measles . . 103 PMalysis . . 38 Phthisis . 3.233 Pleurisy . . 164 Pneumonia . 786 Rheumatism Scarlatina Small-pox Syphilis . Typhoid . In 10,000 cases of sickness they stood thus : — Bronchitis . 682 Croup . . 15s Diarrhoea . 127 Erysipelas . 153 Fractures . . 857 Measles . Paralysis . Phthisis . Pleurisy . Pneumonia 81 51 798 182 310 Rheumatism . Scarlatina. . Small-pox . . Syphilis . , typhoid . . 36 54 401 40 81S 550 90 268 487 500 Heart disease 264 Of 10,000 deaths in the city of Paris in 1883 the ratios were: — Male Female Total Scarlatina IS 20 17 Small-pox 78 86 81 Whooping-cougli . 97 146 ^JS Measles 170 212 18S Bronchitis . 310 320 314 Diphtheria and croup . 330 370 345 Typhoid 368 366 367 Violent .... 435 147 301 Pneumonia . 710 750 725 Phthisis 2,110 1,710 1,890 Sundry .... 5.377 S.874 S.660 Total 10,000 10,000 10,000 The reports of reformatories for i88o showed the ratio of inmates who were sick dturing the year as follows : — Per 1000 Deaths Complaint Boys Girls General Average per 100 Cases Digestive disorders . Phthisis Scrofula Typhoid Various 73 12 II 6 220 84 4 48 71 IS 25 S 190 3 40 3 33 3 Total . . 322 227 306 5 The death-rate at various seasons of pulmonary patients in the Paris hospitals was as follows : — Per 100 Patients Quarter Ending Phthisis Pneu- monia Bron- chitis Pleurisy Average March . . SS, 40 6 16 29 June . . . S3 27 4 13 29 September . 50 25 2 9 22 December . 56 39 6 13 33 Year . 54 32 S 13 30 The ratio of age in the Paris hospitals in cases of certain diseases was in 1861-64 as follows : — Age Typhoid Apoplexy Aneurism Cataract Under 20 . 20-30 . . . 30-40. . . Over 40 . . 24-5 S4.2 S-2 6.2 II.O 77.6 1.2 14.0 38.8 46.0 6.0 3.6 86!8 100.0 IC0.0 lOO.O I lOO.O The convict settlement of Cayenne, French Guiana, in 1876-81 gave the following averages : — Sick ■per 1000 Convicts Deaths in 100 Sick Phthisis .... Enteric fever . Ansemia .... Digestive disorders . Various .... 14 170 180 35 681 22 4 10 IS 4 Total 1,080 6 The French garrison at Senegal in 22 years ending 1873 gave the following returns : — Per 1000 Men Relative Mortality Hospital Admissions Deaths Fever. Dysentery and cholera Syphilis Sundry 920 301 119 479 25 22 30 2.7 7.3 6^3 Total 1.819 '< 77 4.2 DISEASE DISEASE The death-rate of the French army in the years 1872-77 showed thus : — Of 1000 Deaths Deaths per 10,000 Men Typhoid .... Phthisis .... Diarrhoea, &c. . Suicide .... Various .... 307 290 76 33 294 33 31 8 4 31 Total I, coo 107 The average number invalided yearly was 50 officers per 1 0,00c, and 220 men in the same number, being over double the death-rate. The military hospital report in 1865 showed among 1000 sick the following ratios : — Phthisis . 18 Rheumatism . 40 Fever . . • 131 Small-pox 20 Dysentery, &c 76 Syphilis . . 137 Pneumonia 31 Bronchitis . 115 Various . ■ 432 The expeditionary troops in Tonquin showed deaths, excluding those killed or wounded in war, made up of the following ratios : — Phthisis Diarrhoea Dysentery Fever . Sundry 3-8 4.8 30.2 45' 6 IS.6 Total Spring Summer . 20.7 . 42.1 Autumn Winter • 23.9 . 133 Total Germany The following table of mortality includes the whole urban population of the Empire, that is, of all towns over 15,000 population : — Number of Deaths Ratio 1877 1877-86 1886 1877 1877-86 1886 SmalKpox .... 42 lOI 49 2 5 2 Measles .... 2,179 2,670 3.981 III 121 155 Scarlatina .... 4.452 4,052 3.187 227 184 124 Diphtheria and croup 7.523 9.360 12,208 384 426 475 Typhoid .... 7.325 3,020 2.589 170 142 lor Puerperal .... 1,115 1,067 57 48 39 Phthisis .... 27,027 29,370 32,981 1.378 1.344 1,283 Respiratory 18,710 22,820 26,984 954 1,040 1,049 Enteritis .... 9.985 11,430 11.979 509 520 466 Diarrhoea .... 8,259 10,210 17.197 421 460 669 Various .... 113.409 125,100 144.977 5.787 5.710 S.637 Total 196,026 219,200 257.130 10,000 10,000 10,000 Population 7,260,000 8,370,000 9,820,000 The urban death-rale of the Empire was 26.2 per 1000 inhabitants during the period of ten years down to 1886. In 10,000 deaths all over Germany the following ratios The distribution of deaths in Saxony from various occur : — diseases according to months, taking the year as 1200, was thus : — Rheumatism . 25 Erysipelas . 35 Scarlatina . 160 Heart . . . 230 Cancer . . 260 Diphtheria . 270 Apoplexy . 390 Typhoid . 450 Phthisis . . 1,270 In 10,000 deaths in Prussia (1843) the ratios showed — small-pox 80, puerperal 1 10, apoplexy and paralysis 690, acute internal disorders 240, and chronic disease 388 ; besides suicide 35, and accidental deaths 140. Deaths in Saxony in the years 1873-76 showed the following diseases thus : — Small-pox Scarlatina Per 100,000 Inhabitants Yearly . 28 • 55 Typhoid Cancer • 39 . 61 81 Diphtheria and croup ... Phthisis . . 232 Of 10,000 deaths in Berlin, Munich, and Frankfort there were : — Scrofula Cancer Diphtheria Typhoid Apoplexy Phthisis Berlin 100 160 320 320 410 990 Munich , Frankfort 33 240 450 390 1,320 370 130 420 380 1.550 ■s bo •So 3 ^ a ;£u ■^, ^ Qg ^" ^ O" January . . . 119 116 13s 88 102 6 February . 112 102 126 85 95 20 March . 84 78 100 99 87 14 April . . 65 63 79 84 81 13 May . . 90 59 75 S3 80 13 June . . 93 59 71 T^ 79 27 July . . 93 68 54 95 92 lOI August . 120 84 50 107 121 367 September 64 "3 91 118 131 352 October .. 64 155 119 124 126 181 November 119 151 155 126 105 73 December 176 152 14s III lOI 33 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 The ratios of various diseases in 10,000 deaths in Bavaria' were as follows : — 372 248 236 Phthisis . . lOIO Apoplexy Dropsy 650 Diphtheria Croup ■ 392 Scarlatina DISEASE DISEASE In Hanover the prevalence of certain diseases among given trades is as follows : — P ercenta ge of Causes of Death j,SS ?s 12 J3 a s. 3| Q a 1 a ■5 Phthisis . . . i8 2S 24 as 22 23 Acute disease , 28 22 19 18 1 30 23 Heart disease . 4 9 s s ; 3 s Stomach disease IS 16 IS 3S 14 19 Rheumatism . II 13 II S 1 8 10 Various . . . 24 IS 26 12 1 23 20 Total . . 100 100 100 100 1 100 100 In Bavaria the prevalence of typhoid fever according tc age was as follows : — Per Million Inhabitants of each Age ■^ffe Age Age Under 10 . 300 21-30 . . . 850 41-50 . . . 6go 10-20 . . . 480 31-40 . . . 650 Over 50 . . 980 And the death-rate according to age was : — j„. Pi'' 100 A "^S' Patients ^S' Under 5 . . .24 41-60 S-iS • • ■ . lo 61-70 16-40 . . .20 Over 70 . Per 100 Patients ■ 29 ■ 46 • 73 At p^e 197 will be found a table from an English medical work showing the predisposition to fever accord- ing to age, which is at variance with the above table for Bavaria. The prevalence of certain diseases in the different seasons was as follows : — Cases of Sickness Season Diarrhoea Cholera Phthisis Pneumonia Liver Breslau Dresden Stuttgart Breslau Breslau Breslau Dresden Spring .... Summer .... Autumn .... Winter .... iS-S 43-9 27.1 I3-S 19.0 29.7 29.1 22.2 10.6 6S-4 15.0 9.0 8.7 S8.S 26. s 6-3 30. 1 22.6 22.8 25- S 20.8 26.8 20.5 33-3 17.3 28.9 100.0 100.0 100. 100.0 100. 100.0 100.0 Deaths from Various Diseases Season Measles Diarrhoea Phthisis Convulsions Diarrhoea Scarlatina • Berlin Dresden Beriin Berlin Berlin Frankfort Frankfort Berlin Spring Summer .... Autumn .... Winter 9-9 SS.6 16.9 17.6 61.0 24.0 8.0 7.0 9.S 68.S 16.7 S-3 27.6 22.6 22.8 27.0 26.2 27.2 22.7 239 27.8 21.4 19.9 30-9 1S.7 49.6 25.1 9.6 21.6 2S-4 37-2 IS- 8 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 lOO.O 100.0 100.0 100. Deaths from Apoplexy Season Beriin Hamburg Dresden Breslau Frankfort Spring . Summer Autumn Winter 2S-S 19.9 22. s 32.1 26.3 22.7 22.7 28.3 28.9 22.7 20.0 2S.4 25-9 23.1 22.9 28.1 26.3 22.7 22.7 28.3 100.0 100. 100.0 100.0 100. Deaths from Pneumonia From Typhoid Season 1 s 1 1 1 P i Spring. , . Summer . . Autumn . . Winter . . 30.0 18.4 17.8 33.8 41.4 iS-4 13- S 29.7 37- S 17-3 iS-7 29s 39-9 17.7 16.7 2S.7 18.2 22.9 35- 5 23-4 19.7 25.2 33-4 21.7 100.0 100.0 100.0 lOO.O 100.0 100.0 It appears from the preceding tables that diarrhcea and cholera are most frequent in summer, phthisis and pneu- monia in spring, apoplexy in winter, and typhoid in autumn. As regards measles and scarlatina, the seasons seem to have litUe effect. Russia The death-rate from various diseases per 10,000 inhabi- tants of each age at St. Petersburg was as follows : — Disease ! I g s I 1 i > Typhoid . . . 12 23 27 i8 17 23 23 30 Pneumonia . . 11 7 9 12 19 37] S7 sq Phthisis . . . 10 27 61 71 72 72! S3 so Various , . . no SS 86 97 14s 248 452 r.iSS Total . . 142 1 112 183 igS 2,';3 380 S8S 1,320 Males .... 146 131 203 227 306 475 702 1,660 Females . . . 133 79 147 IS9 193 297 510 1,160 The aggregate returns of the hospital at Astrakan for 25 years gave the ratio of sick thus : — In 10,000 Patients Cancer SS Rheumatism 1.398 Cholera . 37S Scurvy 147 Dysentery S9I Small-pox 93 Erysipelas "S Syphilis . 1.332 Fever . 2,021 Typhus . 1,498 Leprosy . 173 Various . 1,464 Phthisis . 286 Pleurisy . . 187 Total 10,000 Pneumonia 265 DISEASE DISEASE The death-rate in the same hospital for various diseases was : — In loo Patients . i6 • 42 . 2 • 37 . 12 The annual death-rate in St. Petersburg of children under five years is 182 per 1000, made up as follows : — Cancer , . • 30 Dysentery . Erysipelas . Fever . . • 73 • 41 10 • S Leprosy • 41 Scurvy . Phthisis . . . 60 Small-pox Pleiuisy . . • i,S Syphilis . Pneumonia • ^S Typhus . Rheumatism . I Various . Bowel complaints Pneumonia Meningitis Convulsions Scrofula 60 36 18 13 9 Croup .... 9 Small-pox and scarlatina 8 Bronchitis . . s Sundry .... 24 In 10,000 deaths at St. Petersburg the following ratios occurred : — Small-pox . • 40 Heart . . . 200 Puerperal . • 74 Convulsions . 200 Scarlatina . • 90 Apoplexy . . 210 Cancer . . . 150 Diphtheria . 210 Scrofula Meningitis Phthisis . Bronchitis 260 500 1,510 1,59° The occurrence of certain diseases according to season at St. Petersburg was shown by the ratio of deaths as follows : — Infant Cholera Typhoid Apoplexy Puerperal Fever Spring . . . Summer Autumn . . . Winter . . 33-4 20.6 18.3 27.7 30.8 21.8 16.8 30.6 24.0 23.8 21.2 31.0 29.0 25.2 18.2 27.6 100.0 lOO.O 100. 100,0 The death-rate in St. Petersburg is so high that deaths exceed births. In 125 years, from 1764 to 1888, there were 1,539,000 births and 1,772,000 deaths, being an excess of 233,000 deaths. Austria-Hungary The returns of Austria proper for 1886 showed thus : — Number of Deaths Males Females Total Small-pox . . . 4.340 4.4S4 8,794 133 Measles .... 7,228 6,981 14,209 214 Scarlatina . . . 6,258 S.889 12,147 183 Typhoid .... 8,008 7,882 15.890 240 Diarrhoea . . . 4,89s 4,718 9.613 146 Whooping-cough . 10,409 10,568 20,977 316 Diphtheria . . . 16,231 iS,43S 31,666 477 Respiratory . . . 36.459 32.907 69,366 1,045 Phthisis .... 46,912 44.643 9I.5SS 1,380 Enteritis .... 17,670 15.298 32,968 496 Apoplexy. . . . 8,710 7,069 15.779 237 Cancer .... 4,809 6.313 11,122 168 Various .... 166,850 161,320 328,170 4,965 Total . . 338.779 323.477 662,256 10,000 The returns of Hungary for 1886 showed as follows :— Number of Deaths Males Females Total Unmarried Married Widowed 36,800 59,200 18,300 31,800 46,500 36,200 68,600 105,700 54.500 Over five years . . . Infants under five . . 114,300 134,700 114,500 116,800 228,800 251,500 Total . . 249,000 231,300 480,300 The municipal hospitals of Hungary showed the number of cases and deaths as follows : — Cases Died Death- Rate Ratio Cases Deaths Small-pox . . 16,055 3,740 23-4 268 348 Measles . . . 24,801 1.752 7.0 413 163 Scarlatina . . 6,325 1,221 19-3 106 112 Diphtheria . . 4,189 2,292 54-6 70 214 Diarrhoea . . . 3.211 500 15.6 54 46 Typhoid . . . 771 102 13.2 13 9 Whooping-cough 1,890 147 7-7 32 14 Cholera . . . 1,871 989 530 32 92 Various . . . 710 19 2.7 12 2 Year 1886 . . . 59,823 10,762 17.9 1,000 1,000 Average 1880-85 52,200 9.905 19.1 The hospital returns of Vienna give the following percentages : — Cases of Sickness Deaths i s § •a i5 S'S S to •a C Spring . .38.9 25-7 29.7 39-1 34.1 34.1 18.9 Summer . 33-7 31.6 25.9 17.9 24-5 24.7 26.9 Autumn . 8.7 21.7 20.4 17-3 17.7 17.5 25.8 Winter . 18.7 21.0 24.0 25-7 23-7 23.7 38.4 100.0 100. 100. 100.0 100.0 lOO.O lOO.O In 10,000 deaths at Buda-Pesth 90 were of Bright's disease, 140 apoplexy, 460 meningitis, 730 convulsions, and 1545 phthisis. At Vienna the ratios were: — Puer- peral 40, heart 170, small-pox 40, pneumonia 714, and phthisis 2080. The effects of overcrowding of popula- tion on the death-rate is shown in the returns at Buda- Pesth of deaths among the working classes for the years 1872-75- Deaths Yearly of Work-People, Living Not more than Two in a Room Over Two in a Room Total Small-pox Typhus .... Scarlatina Diphtheria . Various .... 52 45 31 II 19 415 155 141 180 467 200 172 74 199 Contagious diseases Pneumonia . Phthisis. Diarrhoea Various .... 65 194 48 1,052 954 286 704 453 3,900 1,112 351 898 501 4.952 Total 1,517 6,297 7,814 It appears that 80 per cent, of the mortality among working-classes was of people living more than two in a room. Italy Of 10,000 deaths at Rome the ratio showed : — Scarlatina Bronchitis Cancer 29 170 Typhoid . Small-pox Ague . . . 230 . 290 . 460 Apoplexy Digestive Phthisis . 530 1,100 1,140 DISEASE 213 DISEASE At Naples the ratios were in 10,000 : — Ague, 107 ; typhoid, 300; and apoplexy, 370; at Genoa, ague, 133; digestive disorders, 1580. The mean ratios in 10,000 deaths of all Italian cities were : — Blight's . . 40 Measles . . 95 Apoplexy . Whoop. -cough so Dysentery. . 130 Diphtheria Erysipelas . 50 Small-pox . 220 Pneumonia Hepatitis . . 90 Typhoid . . 240 Heart . . The ratios in Turin in 10,000 deaths were : — Scrofula Syphilis Cancer • 30 • 30 . 160 Typhoid Heart . . Convulsions 460 490 560 Apoplexy Phthisis . Digestive . 360 . 360 ■ 54° . S8S 610 830 The prevalence of some diseases according to months, taking the year as 1200, is shown thus : — Deaths from Apoplexy Admis- sion to Deaths Hospital Ague Sciatica Turin Milan Bologna Rome Turin Italy anuary . 147 132 149 38 30 265 February 107 128 169 44 30 78 March . 107 108 114 S6 48 126 April . . 90 99 95 63 78 78 May . . 99 93 91 62 78 76 June . . 77 79 67 6S 30 76 July , . 8i 78 76 122 48 46 August . 80 73 69 299 10 no September 83 84 72 211 270 92 October . 90 93 8S "3 204 76 November 120 112 97 80 114 no December 119 121 116 47 114 67 Year i.aoo I,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 Spain Madrid hospitals publish the following table of propor- tions of deaths from phthisis according to age : — Under 20 13.4 20-30 28.9 30-40 23.8 40-50 18. 1 Over 50 15.8 Total . . . loo.o The prevalence of this disease according to months is shown m the number of deaths at Madrid, taking the year as 1200 : — January February March First quarter. April . May . June . 162 126 131 419 "3 74 40 July . . . August September . Third quarter October November . December . Second quarter . 227 Fourth quarter Portugal Of 10,000 deaths in Lisbon the ratios showed : — 18 27 86 131 92 129 202 423 Bright's . . 30 Rheumatism . 43 Ague ... 60 Scrofula Convulsions Cancer 190 260 Bronchitis Apoplexy Phthisis . 420 . 68s . 1,147 Sweden The deaths per million inhabitants were as follows : — 1861-65 1866-70 1871-78 Diphtheria Scarlatina . Small-pox Typhoid . 2.873 2,292 S4S 1.449 1.497 3.47S 1,189 3.408 1.579 1,899 1.576 2,031 The deaths in hospital in 1878 were as follows : — Diseases 1 Number Per Cent. Respiratory Digestive . Contagious Nervous . Various . Total 4.353 2.177 2.123 1.436 3.78s 31-4 iS-8 15-3 10.3 27.2 13.874 100. _ Hospital mortality in i860 was 15 per cent, of the sick, and in the years 1870-76 only 12 per cent. The relative mortality of Sweden and Norway in diflFerent diseases was per 100 patients as follows : — Croup 52, diphtheria 20, scarlatina i8, pneumonia 15, small-pox 13, typhus 12, diarrhoea 11. The percentage of deaths under and over ten years of age in certain diseases was as follows : — Age Small-pox Scarlatina Diphtheria Typhoid Under 10 . . Over 10 . . . 41.2 S8.8 89.8 10.2 86.4 13.6 13.2 86.8 Total . . 100.0 100.0 loo.o 100. . 16.; Ague . . . 36 . 42 Scarlatina • 15 . 40 Typhus . . 24 ■ 38 Dysentery ■ 7 ■ 37 The hospital returns of sickness showed the following ratio : — Per ro.ooo Inhabitants Diarrhoea . , Small-pox , Whooping-cough Diphtheria . Typhoid The death-rate of various diseases showed thus : Deaths per 1000 Patients of each Disease Ague ... 2 Diarrhoea . . 10 Whoop. -cough 70 Measles . . 83 The effect of town-life on death-rate in Sweden is shown thus : — Typhoid . . no Small-pox • 171 Dysentery ■ 134 Typhus . . 204 Pneumonia . 143 Diphtheria • 2SI Scarlatina • 155 Croup . . ■ 55° Deaths Yearly per 100,000 of each Class Persons Under 10 Years Old Over 10 Years Rural Town Rural Town Typhoid . Diarrhoea, &o. . Small-pox . Whooping-cough Measles . Diphtheria and croup Scarlatina . 18 76 80 292 376 1,276 25 "9 173 425 460 32 d 2 8 II 96 21 56 2 7 II Total, 7 diseases 929 2.S31 82 1 193 Deaths of puerperal fever average 27 per 10,000 births in rural parts, and 74 in towns, the rate for all Sweden being 34. The prevsilence of certain diseases accoitjing to season shows thus : — Spring . Summer . Autumn . Winter . Total Pneumonia ■ 37-9 , 21.2 . 17.2 . 237 . 100. o Ague 31- 1 18.6 25-9 24.4 lOO.C DISEASE 214 DISEASE The prevalence of diseases according to months, taking the year as 1200, shows : — in s a rt X .« ^ 1 ti c a 0. Q (5 1 u (0 •3 E m " anuary . . . 150 41 121 106 120 144 February 160 41 119 99 130 136 March 143 31 99 93 129 130 April . 130 33 93 9S 10 no May . 102 30 85 91 152 88 June . 67 55 72 90 128 64 July . 49 ISO 6q 81 91 45 August 46 292 77 80 52 48 September ■;8 227 86 91 41 76 October . 82 149 112 118 43 108 November 104 94 137 136 68 128 December 109 ■ S4 130 120 90 123 \ ea 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 In 10,000 deaths these ratios occurred : Ague . . . Puerperal . . Rheumatism . Drink . . . Liver . . . Croup . . . 14 38 40 40 90 16s Diarrhoea. , 190 Whoop.-cough 190 Cancer . . 240 Apoplexy . . 59° Bronchitis . 630 Diphtheria . 160 Small-pox . 158 Scarlatina . 190 Pneumonia . 850 Typhoid . 203 Phthisis . . 1,340 Finland Official returns for 1870-71 give the distribution of 10,000 deaths as follows : — Measles , Small-pox. Scarlatina SO Dysentery . 170 Typhus . . 810 60 Croup . . 250 Phthisis . . 2,210 60 Whoop. -cough 510 Various. . 5,880 Deaths of puerperal fever were 96 in 10,000 births ; the rate in towns was 18 per cent, higher than in rural departments. Norway In 1876 among 10,000 deaths the diseases stood thus : — 784 1285 1450 Typhoid . . 220 Diarrhoea 280 Infant con- Apoplexy . 240 Cancer . 41S vulsions Heart. . . 260 Bronchitis 608 Scarlatina Phthisis . The prevalence of certain diseases according to months was as follows : — Bronchitis Pneumonia Diarrhoea Typhoid Diphtheria Scarlatina Small-pox Croup January 160 98 98 150 136 122 144 141 February 152 169 89 103 120 no 161 132 March 132 161 72 64 112 103 157 134 April . 112 160 61 43 89 92 142 loS May . 96 134 6S 38 88 90 172 84 June . 72 77 60 32 79 85 133 64 .uly . S3 SS "3 57 79 80 78 47 August 48 37 190 95 73 76 46 5° September 62 SS 143 117 87 72 34 89 October 82 76 95 116 102 100 27 103 November no 91 109 209 118 137 40 12s December . 121 87 los 176 117 133 66 126 Yea r 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 In 10,000 deaths at Christiania there were: — Whooping . 100 Cancer . Convulsions . no Erysipelas Heart . . . 130 Diphtheria Apoplexy 220 Typhoid . 290 270 440 630 Scarlatina . 670 Diarrhoea . 420 Pneumonia . 680 Phthisis . . 1720 Denmark Of 10,000 deaths at Copenhagen the ratios were : — Rheumatism 35 Scrofula . 70 Drink . . 70 Small-pox 70 Bright's . 100 Diphtheria Whooping Puerperal Apoplexy Scarlatina HL'art Holland 160 160 160 230 240 320 Cancer . Convulsions Typhoid . Pneumonia Phthisis . 360 560 700 710 1270 In 10,000 deaths throughout Holland the principal diseases stood thus : — Typhus Scarlatina Bright's . Puerperal . Diphtheria . Cancer Heart . . . Whooping- \ cough . j 130 180 180 180 Apoplexy Dysentery Phthisis . Various . 280 290 950 7.649 In 10,000 deaths at Amsterdam the ratios were : — Syphilis Typhus Scarlatina . Puerperal , Hepatitis Small-pox Ague . . 18 Bright's ■ ■ 23 Scrofula . . so Measles ■ ■ S3 Diphtheria . . 81 Bronchitis 100 Cancer io6 Heart . 120 140 150 200 220 230 290 Meningitis Apoplexy . Typlioid . Pneumonia Convulsions Phthisis . 370 380 460 570 600 870 Belgium The prevalence of certain diseases according to season is shown thus : — Deaths from .12 a, a < 1 1 E g § .0 5 Spring . . . 27.7 26.9 33-4 26.4 32.6 24.4 Summer . . . 23.2 22.2 12. S 17.3 17.7 31-5 Autumn . . . 24-3 22.3 22.9 21.4 21.4 239 Winter . . 24.8 28.6 31-2 34-9 28.3 20.2 Total . 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 The ages of phthisis and other diseases stand thus : — Deaths from Age [A 'S '0 J3 "a in '.S u i ■9. u § E j3 ,>. s !?=« 3 h < « £ Under 20 . . 25-7 43-3 5.6 60.4 70.0 29.0 20-30 .... 19.2 18.0 2.6 2.0 30 5-4 31-40 .... iS-4 11.2 4.2 1-9 3.0 6.2 41-50 .... 12.2 Q.b 8.1 2.8 4.0 8.1 51-60 . . . "■3 8.9 17.0 5-3 6.0 14.0 Over 60 . . . 16.2 90 62.5 27.6 14.0 37-3 Total . 100.0 100. 100. 100.0 100. 100. DISEASE 215 DISEASE The causes of death were as follows : Annual Averages 1866-60 1871-80 1886-87 Ratio in lo.ooo Deaths 1866-60 1871-80 1886-87 Bronchitis, &c. Phthisis Diarrhoea, &c. Whooping-cough Croup . Meases Typhoid Puerperal Scarlatina Small-pox Accidents Various 10,237 14.523 3.4SI 2,172 3.033 1,062 4.630 654 1,204 i,n6 I.S42 59.033 16,827 17,642 8.552 3.840 3.250 3.452 4,161 1.313 1.963 5.080 2,039 52.279 19.974 16,606 9,107 3.885 3.758 2.943 2,480 1.342 1,146 911 1,964 55.982 997 1,416 336 212 296 10 451 63 117 108 150 5.844 1,402 1.470 713 320 271 288 347 109 164 423 170 4.323 1,664 1.384 759 324 313 245 207 112 95 76 164 4.657 Total 102,657 120,398 120,098 IO,OCO In 10,000 deaths throughout Belgium the ratios of some were : — Erysipelas Cancer Measles . Heart . . 40 140 165 190 Meningitis . Whooping. 1 cough . ) Diphtheria . Diarrhoea . . 280 280 280 370 Pneumonia 450 Typhoid . 460 Convulsions 720 Phthisis. . 1,825 The ratios at Brussels were as follows : — Whooping- 1 cough . ) ' Hepatitis . 81 Scrofula . 90 Scarlatina. . 140 Small-pox . 150 Puerperal . . 210 Typhoid . . 220 Apoplexy . .310 Cancer . . 420 Pneumonia . 430 Diphtheria . 440 Convulsions 450 Bronchitis . 480 Heart . . 685 Phthisis . . 1,750 Digestive 1 ^ disorders ( '^ Switzerland In 10,000 deaths the various diseases stood thus : — Measles . . 46 Puerperal . 50 Small-pox . 54 Whoop, -cough 1 12 Scarlatina Typhoid . Diphtheria Apoplexy . 146 184 304 370 Heart . . 385 Phthisis . .1,110 Bronchitis ) Pneumonia J ^ 1,180 In Berne, of 10,000 deaths, there were of puerperal fever, 80 ; of Bright's disease, 100 ; of cancer, 320 ; of apoplexy, 420. In Geneva the ratios in 10,000 deaths showed : — Bright's . Puerperal , IS I Typhoid . 95 I Apoplexy . 350 400 Cancer . Phthisis . 530 1.250 Greece At Athens the deaths from various diseases occurred in the following ratios according to season :- Quarter Ending Digestive Phthisis Pneumonia Heart Disease Typhoid ■Diphtheria Liver Bronchitis General Mortality March . June September . December . 10.6 31.0 36.1 22.3 25.4 27.0 22.9 24.7 34-5 29.0 14.0 22.5 31-4 21.4 17- S 29.7 6.0 12.0 66.5 15.5 22.8 19.6 42.2 22.2 26.7 28.9 22.2 36.0 29.6 9.6 24.8 23.6 26.1 25-9 2+4 Year 100.0 100.0 I lOO.O 100.0 100. 100. 100.0 100.0 100.0 In 10,000 deaths the averages during the years 1876-82 were as follows : — Liver . . . 124 Heart disease 323 Apoplexy . 630 Whoop. -cough 210 Bronchitis . 391 Pneumonia. 856 Diphtheria . 219 Ague . . . 420 Phthisis . . 1,076 Convulsions . 266 Typhoid . . 475 Digestive dis. 1,658 The returns for ague, apoplexy, convulsions, and whooping-cough are not for the whole period. Fever cases occur mostly from July to September ; if we take the year as 1200, the various months will stand thus : — Cases Cases . 69 September . 168 . 101 October . . 103 . 240 November . 63 . 226 December. . 46 United States Of 10,000 deaths, according to the Census of 1S80, the following ratios occurred : — Convulsions 250 Typhoid . 310 Heart . . 350 Diphtheria . 480 Diarrhoea . 880 Phthisis. . 1,420 Cases anuary . 40 May February . • 41 fune March . . . 50 .uly April . . • 53 August Calculus . . 1 Apoplexy . . 140 Bright's . . 'tS Whooping . 148 Puerperal . . 40 Dysentery . 160 Rheumatism . W Meningitis . 190 Scrofula 70 Scarlatina . 220 Cancer . 130 Ague . . . 240 The prevalence of diarrhoea at New York and of infant cholera at Philadelphia, according to seasons, was thus:— Season Diarrhoea, New York Infant Cholera, Philadelphia Spring .... Summer . . . , Autumn .... Winter 9.2 79.8 7.0 4.0 2.0 92.8 4-5 0.7 i The ratios in New York of 10,000 deaths showed : — Svphilis . . 40 Scrofula . • 83 Typhoid • 350 Puerperal . . 56 Drink . . ■ 70 Phthisis. • 1.550 Cancer . 80 Diphtheria . 300 Canada Rates for phthisis and typhoid in 10,000 deaths are :- Phthisis Typhoid Ontario Quebec . Nova Scotia 1.540 1.380 2.410 417 374 205 DISEASE 216 DISTANCES In 10,000 deaths the various diseases, according to the Diet. Medicate, stand thus : Ague . Apoplejcy . Bowel disease Brain disease Bronchitis . Cancer Convulsions 43 no 320 420 130 126 180 Croup . 182 Diphtheria . 114 Diarrhoea . 410 Dysentery . 107 Epilepsy 30 Erysipelas . 68 Heart disease 370 Hydrocephalus . . 130 Infant cholera , no Liver disease . 140 Measles . 2ZO Paralysis . 210 Phthisis . . 1,620 Pneumonia . 660 Puerperal . Rheumatism Scarlatina . Small-pox . Typhoid . Whooping-cough 14s 70 458 55 364 260 Ague is almost confined to Ontario, showir^ only 10 in 10,000 deaths in the other provinces. The deaths in the principal cities in 1886 were as follows : — Disease Montreal Toronto Quebec Hamilton Halifax Winnipeg Ottawa Seven Cities Phthisis Lung Diarrhoea Brain Diphtheria Throat Heart Debility Various 486 465 687 341 235 200 216 1,014 1.570 236 351 177 127 184 HI 127 978 182 164 257 244 118 129 76 7P 96 98 79 ^6 21 48 68 318 95 102 57 47 39 56 47 39 337 30 51 65 21 23 19 14 15 162 -62 83 248 3? 28 27 40 351 1,187 1.314 1.570 861 721 564 4.454 Total 5,214 2,546 2,143 855 819 400 91s 12,892 Disease Ratio in 10,000 Deaths Montreal Toronto Quebec Hamilton Halifax Winnipeg Ottawa Seven Cities Phthisis Lung Diarrhoea Brain Diphtheria Throat Heart Debility Various 930 891 1.317 652 447 383 415 1.945 3.020 924 1.373 697 497 721 437 497 1,003 3.846 847 766 i,?oo 1,140 551 602 354 1.093 3.447 1,123 1.147 922 S97 886 246- ^\ 796 3.722 1,158 1,244 695 573 475 683 573 475- 4,124 750 1,275 1,625 525 575 475 350 375 4,050 677 905 2,707 328 S02 306 295 437 3,843 920 1,020 1,218 668 560 438 430 1.293 3.453 Total 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 Japan The prevalence of various diseases at certain ages is shown by the ratio of deaths according to age thus : Age Small-pox Diphtheria Cholera Age Typhoid Typhus Dysentery Under 3 3-7 •• . 7-15 15-30 . 30-50 . Over 50 . 29.6 22.0 26.8 .8.7 \ 2.9 34-9 3°-3 18.0 10.4 6.4 1.8 4-9 8-3. 24.0 33-2 27.8 Under 10 lo-is . 15-25 . 25-40 . 40-60 . Over 60 Total 12.1 11.6 26.2 25-7 17.2 7.2 10.2 ir.2 23.9 28.5 18.0 8.2 30.1 13-4 17.2 17.3 13-1 8.9 Total lOO.O loo.o 1 lOO.O lOO.O lOO.O 100. The death-rate among typhoid patients was 32 per cent. The classification of sickness and of deaths was as follows : — Prevalent Diseases Typhoid Dysentery . Small-pox . Typhus Diphtheria . 36.1 30.4 19. 1 9-3 5-1 Total Causes of Death Contagious diseases Nervous , , Digestive ,, Respiratory ,, Sundry ,, 13.7 15-7 20.6 14-7 353 Total DISTANCES The principal ocean routes are as follows in nautical miles, of which six are equal to seven statute miles : — Aden — Mauritius 2,822 Alexandria — Southampton .... 2,960 Amoor River — San Francisco . . . 3,946 Ascension — Cape Horn Auckland — Panama . Azores — Portsmouth . Bahia — Southampton . Batavia — Sydney Behring's Straits — San Francisco Bermuda — Southampton . Bombay — Cape of Good Hope , , Mauritius ,, Melbourne ,, London Boston — Galway Calcutta — London , , Melbourne , , Suez . Cape of Good Hope— Calcutta ,, Bombay „ Java . ,, Liverpool Cape Horn — Ascension ,, Liverpool ,, Sydney , 3,800 6,490 1,390 4.366 3,870 2,720 2,973 4,527 2.503 S.530 6.330 2.385 7.950 5,230 4.580 5,381 4.527 5,025 5,998 3.800 7,325 5.470 DISTANCES !i7 DIVORCE Demerara — London . Fernando Po — Plymouth Galway — Boston . Gibraltar — Southampton Glasgow — New York . Halifax — Galway Havanna— New York . >. Portsmouth Hong-Kong — Honolulu Honolulu — Callao ,, San Francisco „ Tahiti ■■ Valparaiso Jamaica— Portsmouth Java — Cape of Good Hope Liverpool — Cape of Good Hope „ Cape Horn „ Melbourne ,, New York „ Portland „ Quebec Lisbon — Madeira London — Bombay „ Calcutta „ Demerara „ Madras „ Singapore Madeira — Plymouth Madras — London Mauritius — ^Aden , , Bombay ,, Cape of Good Hope „ Melbourne Melbourne — Calcutta . ,, Liverpool ,, Mauritius Montevideo— Falmouth „ Valparaiso New York — Galway , ,, Glasgow . ,, Havanna „ Liverpool „ Portsmouth „ Southampton Pernambuco — ^Tenerilfe Plymouth — Fernando Po , , Madeira . Portsmouth — Azores . „ Havanna „ Jamaica „ New York „ St. Helena „ Tahiti . Quebec — Galway p, Liverpool • Rio Janeiro — Southampton „ Valparaiso St Helena — Portsmouth „ Cape of Good Hope SL Thomas — Southampton St. Vincent — Pernambuco . „ Teneriffe San Francisco — Amoor River „ Behring's Straits „ Honolulu ,, Panama Shanghai — Sydney Singapore — London • Suez — Calcutta . . Sydney — Batavia „ Cape Horn . „ Shanghai „ Valparaiso . Tahiti— Honolulu , „ Portsmouth . Tenerifife — Pernambuco Valparaiso — Honolulu „ Tahiti . „ Sydney . , Panama . 4.030 4.130 2.38s 1,160 3.400 2.16s 1,190 4,029 4.838 S.I4S 2,081 2.378 S.902 4.0S0 S.02S S.998 7.32s ".SSS 2,980 2,770 2.634 S35 6.330 7.9SO 4.030 7.330 8,34S 1,200 7.330 2,822 2,So3 2,400 4.S70 S.230 ".SSS 4.570 2,886 2.SS0 2,731 3.400 1,190 2,980 3.07s 3,080 2.450 4.130 1,200 1.390 4,029 4.050 3.075 4.330 ".530 2,392 2.634 S.060 3.560 4.330 1,800 3.S70 1,608 850 3.946 2,720 2,081 3.150 4.640 8.34S 4.580 3,870 S.470 4,640 6,198 2.378 ".530 2,450 S.902 4,233 6,198 2,700 The following table shows distances from London as the bird flies, in English statute miles : — Algiers Amsterdam Astrakan Azores Barcelona Belgrade Berlin , Bordeaux Boston Bremen Brussels Bucharest Buda-Pesth Buenos Ayres Cadiz . Cairo . . Calcutta . Canton . Cape Town Chicago Colombo , Constantinople Copenhagen Cyprus Dresden Dublin Edinburgh Falklands Florence Frankfort Geneva Genoa Gibraltar Halifax Hamburg HavanuLX Hong-Kong Honolulu Iceland Jamaica Jersey 1,050 210 2,180 1,680 680 1,040 580 460 3.190 390 190 1.270 900 7.260 1,080 2,160 , 4,870 . S.960 5.950 4.050 . 5.370 ' 1.540 600 , 1,980 600 280 300 , 8,150 730 400 460 650 , 1,100 ■ 2,940 450 , 4,700 , 6,040 8,430 , 1,060 4,800 170 Jerusalem Lima . Lisbon Madeira Madras Madrid Malta Manilla Marseilles Mauritius Melbourne , Mexico Montevideo Montreal Moscow Naples Natal. New Orleans New York Palermo Paris . Pekin Philadelphia Quebec Quito . Rio Janeiro Rome San Francisco St. Petersbiu-g Sierra Leone Singapore Stockholm Sydney TeneriflFe Utah . Valparaiso , Vienna Warsaw Washington Yeddo . 2,100 • 6,900 . gSo . 1,600 • 5.170 . 780 . 1,260 . 6,700 620 . 6,010 • 9.990 . 5,800 • 7.150 ■ 3.340 • 1,580 . 1,000 • 5.850 . 4,820 . 3,620 • 1.150 200 . S.400 • 3.700 . 3,200 . 6,500 . 6,000 900 . 6,000 . 1.380 • 3.300 ■ 7.050 910 10,120 . 2, 080 • 5.500 • 7,850 760 910 . 3.800 . 6,60a Distances by railway route from London are : — Antwerp . Berlin Constantinople Copenhagen Hambui^ . Listx>n Madrid . Moscow . Miks 260 ' 733 2,260 854 , 849 1,603 1,191 1,940 Munich Paris . Rome . St. Petersburg Stockholm . Turin. Vienna Warsaw Mila 758 283 1.195 1,748 1,19s 781 963 1,130 DIVORCE BertiUon's and other tables show that the number of divorces compare with marriages in various countries as follows :— Per 10,000 Per 10,000 Marriages Marriages 1867-76 1877-86 1867-76 1877-«6 England . 9 19 Norway 24 30 Scotland . 16 29 Sweden . . ■i6 73 Ireland . . I 2 Holland . SO 91 U. Kingdom 9 18 Belgium . 40 69 France . . 72 127 Roumania . 99 106 Germany . 107 152 Switzerland 468 Russia . . 18 22 Paris . . 297 322 Poland . . 49 55 BerUn . . 420 533 Austria . . 7 10 Vienna . . 210 290 Hungary . 64 Australia . 35 Italy . . . 31 24 U. States . 330 444 Denmark . 353 406 Canada . . 5 12 DIVORCE 218 DIVORCE Rummer's table for five countries covers a period of 50 years ; — Divorces per 10,000 Mam ages Period g 1 P ■a W jA ?, u s i C8 PL, en n m X M 1831-40 49 12 256 70 53 17 1841-50 43 14 252 90 66 27 1851-60 43 24 2SS 33 I.S6 99 44 1861-70 49 29 205 37 229 112 68 1871-80 6S 51 256 48 249 124 78 The folloviring table shows the number of divorces (including judicial separations) in the various countries during twenty years ending December 1886. The figures are mainly from Commissioner Carroll Wright's work (Washington, 1889), compiled from Bertillon's and other returns : — I Actual Number of Divorces Granted 1867-71 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 20 Years England 724 1,050 1,743 1,891 5.408 Scotland . 177 220 337 390 1,124 Ireland . . 4 13 21 17 SS U. Kingdom 90s 1,283 2,101 2,298 6,587 France . . 9.850 11,384 13.132 22,750 57,116 Germany . 18,450 22,085 24,143 29,140 93,818 Russia . . 4.S97 S,09S 5,721 6,563 21,976 Poland . . 809 1.073 1.432 1,725 S.039 Austria . . 690 808 856 Hungary . S.246 4,835 Italy . . . 3.136 3.19s 2,828 Sweden . . 619 9S3 1,053 1,109 3.734 Norway . . 162 19s Denmark . 2,677 3.046 Holland . . 700 810 1,160 1,570 4,240 Switzerland ... 4,811 4r588 Roumania . 1,787 1,900 Belgium . , 620 899 1,189 1,501 4.209 Europe, ap- proximately ■46,600 57,500 69,132 85,100 258,332 Canada . . IS 16 33 52 116 U. States . 53,S74 68,547 89,284 117,311 328,716 Total 100,189 126,063 158,449 202,463 587,164 In the above table Germany is an estimate down to 1881 (see p. 221 ), and in some cases where the record of a The proportions of divorces according to length of marriage were : year is missing, the average for the other four years of the period is added. Kummer also gives the following table of the increase of divorce : — 10 ^ 10 10 ^ 2 T f «7 T 00 to A CO CO 00 iH pH iH pH France . , . 100 128 150 190 163 22s Belgium . . . 100 140 160 190 280 420 Holland . . . 100 100 112 "5 139 151 Saxonv . , . 100 83 7S 72 80 los Sweden . . . 100 98 109 "3 132 161 Classifying the nations according to creed, we find divorces per io,0CX3 marriages : — Among Catholics . . , -41 Among Protestants 123 In countries of mixed creeds the ratios were as fol- lows : — Divorces per 10,000 Marriages Protestant Provinces Catholic Provinces Mixed Provinces Date U. Kingdom . Bavaria . . . Holland . . Switzerland . Hungary . . li 45 S9S 283 1 57 9 128 12 223 505 1871-80 1862-75 1850-64 1876-80 1878-75 As regards cities Kummer gives the following :- Divorces per 10,000 Marriages Antwerp . 26 Liege . "S Augsburg • IS London 40 Beriin . ' . . 103 Munich . , 153 Breslau . • 307 Nuremberg . 77 Brussels . 124 Paris . 250 Bucharest • 443 Prague 18 Christiania , • 17 Ratisbon 6^ Cologne . 64 Rotterdam . 197 Copenhagen . . 292 San Francisco 2233 Frankfort • 171 Stockholm . 281 Ghent . • 17 Vienna 233 Hague . . Ill The above results are for different periods between i860 and 1875, usually averages of five years. Years Married France Saxony Italy Switzerland Sweden Roumania Average Under 5 . S-io .... Over 10 . 21.5 29.6 48.9 35-7 29-3 350 40.9 22.9 36.2 36.0 34-1 39-9 11.2 24.8 64.0 509 37-4 11.7 32.4 29.0 38.6 Total 100.0 100. 100,0 100. 100.0 100. 100.0 Date .... 1876-79 1875-77 1866-79 1876-80 1870-80 1875-77 ... The percentages of marriages dissolved at the petition of husband or of wife showed thus ;- Petition by Scotland Norway Belgium Saxony Italy Roumania Massa- chusetts A-eiage Husband .... Wife 56 44 68 32 56 45 55 34 66 27 73 33 67 42 S8 Total 100 100 100 100 lOO 100 100 100 Date . . . . 1878-81 1875-80 1880 1875 80 1866-79 1875-77 1860-78 DIVORCE 219 DIVORCE , The proportion of marriages dissolved, with or without children, shows thus : — France (1851-80) Italy (1866^9) Holland (1876-78) Switzer- land (1877-80) With children . Without children 62 38 52 48 35 65 63 37 Total . 100 100 lOO 100 In the term of five years ending 1880 the number of children corresponding to 100 divorce couples in Holland was 75, and in Sweden 130. Want of children in Hol- land seems a primary pretext for divorce ; not so much so elsewhere. The ratio of persons divorced per million inhabitants yearly of each class was as follows : — France Switzerland Sweden (1865-75) (1876-80) (1876-80) Learned class I2S 470 130 Merchants . . . 13s 620 21S Farmers . . . 20 190 20 Operatives . . . 133 490 140 Gen. population . ss 370 46 The number of divorced persons married in every 10,000 marriages, according to various returns down to 1S80, averaged thus : — Men Women England 7 ••• S Holland 10 ... 8 Hungary 12 ... 10 Prussia 22 ... 24 Denmark . . . .32 •■■ 3^ Switzerland . . .60 ... 42 There is apparently some relationship between divorce and suicide in the various countries, viz. : — Divorces per io,ooo Marriages Suicides per Million Inhabitants . Divorces per 10,000 Marriages Suicides per Million Inhabitants Ireland . . 2 17 Germany . 210 143 England . 22 67 Denmark . 410 282 Scotland . 29 40 Switzerland 478 202 Italv . . . 22 37 London 40 86 Sweden . . 7S 81 Berlin . . 103 170 Belgium 74 71 Brussels 124 271 Holland 73 96 Vienna . . 233 287 France . . 91 156 Paris . . 250 422 United Kingdom The official report of the working of the Divorce Act in Great Britain during 30 years showed thus : — Period Number of Petitions Granted Annual Average per Million Inhabitants 1858-67 . . . 1868-77 . . . 1878-87 . . . 2,724 1,492 4,199 1.971 S.991 3.832 6 7 13 30 Years . 12,914 : 7.29s 9 The total of divorces and marriages in 20 years was : — Number Ratio of Divorces per zo.ooo Marriages Divorces Marriages England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland .... S.408 1,124 SS 3,881,000 499.000 492,000 14.0 22.5 1.1 U. Kingdom 6,587 4,872,000 The returns for England and Wales showed as fol- lows : — Period Divorces Annual Average Per Million Population 1867-71 . . . 1872-76 . . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-86 . . . 724 1,050 1.743 1,891 14s 210 349 378 6.2 9.0 13.0 14.0 20 Years . 5,408 271 Il.O The returns for Scotland were as follows : — Period Divorces Annual Average Per Million Population 1867-71 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 . 177 220 337 390 35 44 67 78 Il.O 12. 5 iS-3 21.0 20 years . 1,124 ss 15-0 The returns for Ireland were as follows i Period Divorces Annual Average Per Million Population 1867-71 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 4 13 21 17 I 3 4 3 0.2 0.6 0.8 0.6 20 years SS 3 OS The number of divorces compared with marriages thus : — England and Wales Period Marriages _,. _ .1 Divorces per Divorces ; i^^o Marriages 1867-71 . . 1872-76 . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-86. . . 905,000 1,012,000 95S.O0O 1,009,000 724 J 0.8 1,050 1 1.0 1,743 i 1-8 1,891 ; 1.9 20 years . . . 3,881,000 5.408 ! 1.4 Scotland Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 . . . 1872-76 . . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-86 . . . 115,000 131,000 125,000 128,000 177 220 337 390 1-5 1-7 2.7 3-1 490,000 1,124 2.2 DIVORCE DIVORCE Ireland Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 . . . 1872-76 . . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-86 . . . 142,000 126,000 116,000 108,000 4 13 21 17 0.03 0.10 0.18 o.i6 20 years . . . 492,000 55 0.11 United Kingdom Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 1,162,000 1,269,000 1,196,000 1,245,000 90s 1,283 2,101 2,298 0.8 1.0 1.8 2o years 4,872,000 6,587 1-3 France The number of divorces and judicial separations, accord- ing to Bertillon, compares with marriages thus : — Period Divorces Marriages Per 10,000 Marriages Divorce Yearly Per Million Pop. 1802-10 1811-ig 1820-29 1830-40 1841-50 1851-60 1^61-70 1871-80 1881-86 4,853 1,561 2,730 S'^73 7,687 19)884 22,817 20,608 2,029,000 2,136,000 2,411,000 3,013,000 2,800,000 2,878,000 2,942,000 2,952,000 1,704,000 23 7 11 17 27 44 66 76 121 S39 173 273 470 769 1,284 1,988 2,282 3.435 20 6 9 14 22 35 52 60 90 85 years 98,148 22,865,000 43 1.154 38 The following table shows the number of petitions for divorce compared with the divorces granted from 1841 to 1880 :— Period Peti- tions Granted Ratio Granted per Cent. Percentage of Application By Husband By Wife 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 10,620 17,210 26,140 29.550 7.687 12.835 19,884 22,817 72 It 77 7 9 II 13 93 91 89 87 The various causes alleged in petitions for divorce were : — 1841-50 1861-60 1861-70 1871-80 40 Years Cruelty . . Adultery Various . . 9,720 655 245 15,690 1,170 350 24,840 1,005 29s 28,500 735 315 78,750 3.565 1.205 Total 10,620 17,210 26,140 29,550 83.520 In several cases there were double charges and cross- bills, which makes the above classification difficult. Altogether the charges and cross-charges of adultery in forty years were as follows ; — Period Alleged Adultery Committed by Yearly Husband Wife Total Average 1841-50 . . 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 565 910 870 870 525 1,135 1.485 1. 530 1,090 2,045 2,355 2,400 109 204 236 240 40 years . . 3.215 4,675 7,890 197 The occupations of persons applying for divorce were : — 1841-BO 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 40 Years Professions . Merchants . Farmers . . Labourers . Various . . 3.245 2,195 1.840 2,380 960 4,280 3,490 2,690 6,050 700 4,900 S.38S 3.670 10,550 1.635 4,890 3.869 13.01S 2,675 17.315 16,180 12,060 31,995 5,970 Total . 10,620 17,210 26,140 29,550 83,520 The condition of the parents, as to with or without children, was as follows : — Period Had Children Had None Not Known Total Ratio with Children 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 5,910 10,150 16,440 18,750 3.850 6,660 9.610 10,800 860 400 90 10,620 17,210 26,140 29,550 Per Cent. S6 59 63 64 40 years . 51,250 30,920 1,350 83,520 62 The number of marriages and that of divorces com- pared thus : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 . . . 1872-76 . . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-66 . . . 1,391,000 1,569,000 1,403,000 1,422,000 9,850 11,384 13,132 22,750 7,1 7-3 9-4 16.0 20 years . . 5,785,000 57,116 9.9 The French Government published a table of divorces granted in five years ending December 1889, in all 15,521, viz.: — Number Annual Average Paris Towns Rural districts .... 4.607 7.047 3.867 921 1,410 773 Total 15,521 3.104 The ages of the divorced persons in the said five years were : — Age Men Women Total Ratio Under 25 ... . 25-35 35-40 40-50 Over 50 198 3.926 3.669 4,696 3,032 1.313 6,096 3,155 3,331 1,626 1,511 IO,022 6,824 8,027 4,658 4.9 32.2 22.0 25-9 15.0 Total . . 15.521 15.521 31,042 lOO.O DIVORCE DIVORCE Petition by husband Petition by wife . . Total . . 8,621 6,900 15.521 For adultery Other causes Total 6,980 8.541 15.521 The returns for Paris in twenty years to December 1886 were:— Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 . . . 1872-76 . . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-86 . . . 69,000 96,000 96,000 103,000 2,148 2,733 3.177 3.228 3»-' 28.4 330 31-3 20 years . . . 364,000 11,286 30-9 In 1889 there were in France 23 divorces in 10,000 couples, and at Paris 100. The mean duration of the dissolved marriages was 15 years in 1884, and fell to 13 years in 1889. Germany The returns are incomplete, and may be summed up thus : — 1867-71 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 20 Years Prussia . . 17.450 Bavaria . . 1,400 1.170 1,189 Saxony . . 2,342 3.234 3.SSS 4,526 13.637 Wurtemburg 518 593 707 2.427 Baden . . 170 305 396 522 1.393 Hesse . . 159 189 225 321 894 Alsace . . 398 629 Hamburg . ... 1.115 Other States 2,681 ... Total . 29,140 If the ratio for Prussia be supposed to have been the same as regards the whole of Germany in pfevious periods as in the years 1882-86, namely, 60 per cent., and the minor States, for which we have no returns, in like manner, the whole number of divorces for Germany ^\-ill stand thus : — 1867-71 ' 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 20 Years Prussia . . Bavaria . . Saxony . . Wurtemburg Baden . . Small States 11,070 1,400 2.342 518 170 2,950 13.251 1,170 3.234 593 305 3.532 14.486 1.253 3.535 609 396 3.864 17.450 1.189 4.526 707 522 4.746 56.257 5, 012 13.637 2,427 1.393 15,092 Total . 18,450 22,085 24.143 29,140 93,818 According to the Census of 1880, the number and ratio of divorced persons living in the various States was as follows : — Si 2 S3 8 c h Z II z V c Pun Prussia . , 37,162 13s Baden . . 82s 55 Saxony . . 8,121 270 Hesse . . 612 65 Wurtemburg 3,637 184 Brunswick . 558 160 Bavaria . 3,108 60 Weimar . . 589 190 Hamburg . 2,883 634 Various . . 3.208 107 Alsace 1,359 85 All Germany 62,062 13b The comparison between marriages and divorces in the various States during the five years ending 1886 showed thtis : — Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages Prussia . . Bavaria . . Saxony . . Wurtemburg Baden . . . Hesse . . . Alsace . . . Hamburg Various . . 1,126,000 204,000 142,000 64,000 S3,ooo 34.000 52,000 22,000 109,000 17.450 1.189 4.526 707 522 321 629 1,115 2,681 iS-5 5-9 32.0 II.O 9.8 9-4 12.1 50.7 24-5 Total 1,806,000 29,140 16.2 The following table compares marriages and divorces for all Germany : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 .... 1872-76 .... 1877-81 .... 1882-86 .... 1,756,000 1,994,000 1,701,000 1,805,000 18,450 22,085 24.143 29,140 10.5 II.O 14.2 16.2 20 years .... 7,256,000 93.818 130 At Berlin the number of marriages and of divorces in twenty years showed as follows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 .... 1872-76 .... 1877-81 .... i88a-86 .... 42.000 64,000 53,000 66,000 1,988 2,360 2,574 3.830 47.0 36.8 48.S 58.1 20 years .... 225,000 10,752 47-7 Berlin divorces in the five years ending 1884 showed thus : — Catisi Adultery . Desertion . Mutual ) consent j Various . . 533 1,071 817 746 Total . 3,167 H-uslanis Occupation Merchants . 688 Artisans . 1,033 Labourers Various . Total 713 733 3.167 Religion Protestants Catholics . Jews . . . Various . 2.585 64 97 421 Total . 3,167 Of the above couples 45 per cent, had children, 55 P^i cent, had none. Returns for Saxony, covering 14 years down to 1879, give the mean duration of marriages dissolved by divorce as follows : — Years Number Ratio Cause 13 Years Under 5 . . S-io . . . 10-20 . . Over 20 . . 2,737 2,454 2,289 636 33-7 30.2 28.2 7-9 Adultery Desertion Cruelty Various 2. 571 2,273 1,807 774 Total . 8,116 100. Total 7,425 DIVORCE DIVORCE Italy The returns for [4 years ending 1879 may be summed up thus : — Petition by Cause Result Husband . 1,269 Cruelty . 4,462 Granted . 6,056 Wife. . . 4,945 Desertion . 1,835 Withdrawn 4,173 Both . . . 5,217 Adultery , 982 Various . 4,152 Disallowed 1,202 Total . 11,431 Total . 11,431 Total , 11,431 Marriages and divorces compared as follows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1869-73 . . . 1879-81 . . . 1882-85 • • • 1,004,000 640,000 929,000 3. 141 1.917 1,632 3-1 3-0 1-7 12 years . . . 2,573.000 6,690 ' 2.5 Austria Marriages and divorces compared as follows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1872-76. . . . 1877-81. . . . 1882-86. . . . 932,000 839,000 893,000 690 808 856 0.7 1.0 1.0 15 years . . . 2,664,000 2.3S4 0.9 The returns for Vienna showed as follows : Period 1872-76 . 1877-81 . 1882-86 . 15 years Marriages 33,000 27,000 33.000 93,000 Divorces 689 708 1,069 2,466 Divorces per 1000 Marriages 21 26 32 26 Hungary Marriages and divorces compared as follows ; — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1B77-81. . . . 1882-86 . . . 754,000 5,246 825,000 4,835 7.0 5-9 10 years . . . 1,579,000 10,081 6.4 The returns for Buda-Pesth showed thus : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1877-81. . . . 1882-86. . . . 13,000 19,000 91 129 7.0 6.8 10 years . . . 32,000 220 6.9 ROUMANIA The returns are to the following effect : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1871-75. . . . 1876-80. . . . 157,000 182,000 1,560 1.932 5-i 10.6 10 years . . . 339.000 3.492 10.3 Russia The returns of marriages and divorces in the Greek Church were as follows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71. . . . 1872-76. . . . 1877-81 .... 1882-86. . . . 2,832,000 3,031,000 2,846,000 3,111,000 3.910 4.322 4.705 S.474 1-4 1-4 1-7 1.8 20 years . . . 11,820,000 18,411 i-S Those in the Protestant congregations were as fol- lows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71. . . . 1872-76. . . . 1877-81 .... 1882-86. . . . 104,000 116,000 115.000 129,000 687 773 778 870 6.7 6.8 6.7 20 years . . . 464,000 3,108 6.7 The returns for Poland showed as follows : — Period * Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 .... 1872-76. . . . 1877-81. . . . 1882-86, . . . 176,000 208,000 262,000 308,000 809 1.073 1.432 1.725 4.6 5.2 S-S S-6 20 years . . . 954,000 S.039 S-3 The returns for Finland are as follows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1877-81 .... 1S82-86. . . . 76,000 238 81,000 219 3-2 2.7 The gross total for European Russia was as follows ; Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71. . . . 1872-76. . . . 1877-81. . . . 1882-86. . . . 3,112,000 3.3SS.OOO 3,299,000 3,629,000 5.406 6,168 81288 1-7 1.8 2.2 2.3 20 years . . . 13.395.000 27.015 2.0 The causes for divorces granted in the Greek Church were : — 1866-75 1876-85 2o Years Ratio Adultery . . Exile. . . . Disappearance Sterility . . . Consanguinity Bigamy . , . 426 5^872 70 100 223 1,302 2,745 5,606 178 85 304 1,728 4,286 11,478 248 185 527 9-3 23.2 62.3 1-3 I.O 2.9 Total . 8,232 10,220 18,452 lOO.O DIVORCE 223 DIVORCE Marriages and divorces in Poland, accoiding to creed, were : Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-76 1877-86 Total 1867-76 1877-«6 Total 1867-76 1877-86 i Total Roman Catholics . Protestants . . . Jews, &c . . . 343.000 30,000 11,000 501,000 37.000 32,000 844,000 67,000 43.000 330 170 1.382 340 20s 2,612 670 375 3.994 I.O H 125.6 0.7 81.S 0.8 5-6 92.8 Total . . 384,000 570,000 954,000 1,882 3.157 S.039 4-9 5-5 5-3 Denmark The returns are as follows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1871-76 1877-81 89,000 7S.OOO 3.156 3.046 35-3 40.6 II Years 164,000 6,202 37.S Norway The returns of marriages and divorces show thus :— Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per looo Marriages 1872-76 1877-81 1882-84 67,000 65,000 39.000 162 19s 120 2-4 3-0 3-1 13 Years 171,000 477 2.8 Sweden The number of marriages and of divorces was as fol- lows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 1872-76 1S77-81 1S82-86 124,000 154,000 146,000 149,000 619 953 1.053 1,109 1:1 7.2 7-4 20 years 573,000 3.734 . 6-5 The returns for Stockholm were as follows ; Period Marriages | Divorces Divorces per 1000 Msirriags 1867-71 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 4.810 6.930 7.512 9,280 146 190 30.2 27.4 38.0 32.8 20 years 28.532 ' 927 32.S The causes of divor e in Sweden were as follows : — Cattses Numter Adultery .... 537 Desertion .... 2,195 Various .... 1,002 Ratio 14-4 58.6 27.0 Total 3734 The above is the a^r^ate for twenty years ending 1886. Belgium The number of marriages and of divorces was as fol- lows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-S0 1881-86 302,000 290,000 335.000 363,000 389,000 237,000 13s 224 412 866 1.923 1.785 0.4 0.8 1.2 2.4 4-9 7-5 56 years 1,916,000 5.345 2.8 In order to compare Belgium with the other countries in the twenty years ending 1886, the following table will be useful : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 .... 1872-76 .... 1877-81 .... 1882-S6 .... 185,000 198,000 192,000 197,000 620 899 1,189 1,501 3-4 4.5 6.2 7.6 20 years .... 772,000 4,209 5-5 By the Census of 1880 it appeared that 43 persons per 100,000 of the population were divorced, viz., 1028 men and 1347 women. The gro^vth of divorce, especially in cities, appears as follows ; the Belgian cities included below are Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and Li^e : — Cities All Belgium Year 1 1 oroes 1000 riages S .2 s oroes 1000 riages •% S ag ^ u 5 eg 1870 4.735 41 8.9 35.300 81 2.3 1875 5.337 64 12.0 39,050 12b 3-2 1880 5.219 102 19.6 38,900 214 5-5 1885 5.503 129 23.5 39,900 230 5-8 Holland Marriages and divorces during twenty years were thus:— Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 .... 1872-76 .... 1877-81 .... 1S82-86 .... 144,000 157,000 153.000 150,000 699 811 1,161 1.571 4-8 5.2 7-6 10.5 20 years .... 604,000 4,242 7.0 DIVORCE 224 DIVORCE Switzerland The marriages and divorces were as follows : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1877-81 .... 1882-86 .... 101,000 100,000 4.811 4.588 47.6 45-9 10 years .... 201,000 i 9,399 46.7 The returns of ^e were in 1880 as follows : Years Husband Wife Total Ratio Under 30 . . . 30-40 40-50 Over 50 ... . 144 302 211 199 217 287 178 174 361 589 389 373 21.1 34-5 22.7 21.7 Total . . 856 85S 1,712 100.0 The occupations of persons divorced are shown thus :- Per Million Inhabitants Agriculturists 190 Mechanics ...... 510 Merchants 620 The duration of marriage was as follows : — Years Marriages Ratio Under 2 . 2-5 • S-10 10-20 Over 20 . • • . * • • • • Total 81 220 230 23s 90 9.5 2S-4 27.0 27.6 10.5 856 100.0 Youthful marriages seem most exposed to divorce, the ratios being as follows : — Marrying Age lo^Marriages Under 20 620 20-40 330 Over 40 320 United States The following table compares marriages with divorces in the only States in which the former are fully reported, viz. : — Connecticut, District of Columbia, Massachusetts, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Vermont : — Aggregate of Six States Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 . . . 1872-76 . . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-86 . . . 258,000 261,000 263,000 296,000 10.753 12,577 13,929 16,308 48 53 55 20 years* . . 1,078,000 53,567 SO * The ratio of divorces to marriages in the United States mavbe estimated from the above six States, which, during twenty years, had a marriage-rate of 9 per 1000 inhabitants. The several States iii their aggregate returns for twenty years showed as follows : — Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages Connecticut . District of Columbia Massachusetts Ohio Rhode Island . Vermont 97.000 24,000 308,000 544,000 50,000 SS.ooo 8,542 I.IOS 26,367 4,462 3.238 88 45 3o 48 89 S9 Total . 1,078,000! 53,567 SO The number of divorces yearly compared with the mean population of the great sections of the United States was approximately as follows : — States- Divorces Yearly per 100,000 Population 1867-71 1872-76 1877-81 1882-86 20 Years N. England Middle . . South . . West. . . The Union . S2 17 13 43 30 S4 IS 17 SO 32 il 24 35 52 19 31 6S 42 S3 17 ?■* 60 36 The figures for twenty years will, therefore, stand thus : — Period Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71. . . . 1872-76 .... 1877-81 .... 1882-86. . . . 1,710,000 1,980,000 2,210,000 2,430,000 53.574 68.547 89,284 117.311 31-3 34-6 40.4 48.3 20 years . . . 8,330,000 328,716 39-5 The causes for divorces granted were as follows : — Summary of Divorces Granted Cause To Husband To Wife Total Ratio Adultery .... Cruelty .... Desertion . . . Drunkenness . . Neglect .... Various .... 38.184 6,122 S1.485 1.434 7,426 7.889 29,502 45.473 75.191 12.432 40,374 13,204 67,686 51.S9S 126,676 13,866 47,800 21,093 20.6 4-3 14- S 6.4 Total . . 112,540 216,176 328,716 100.0 The averE^e duration of marriage before divorce was :— Years of Marriage before Divorce Cause Granted To Husband To Wife Total Adultery , . . 7.8 9-S 8.6 Cruelty . . 9.8 9.2 9-3 Desertion . 9.8 9.2 9,4 Drunkenness 10.9 11.0 Il.O Neglect . . 87 9-3 9.2 Various . . 7.6 7.2 7-4 All causes . . . 9.0 9-3 9.2 DIVORCE 225 DIVORCE The number of divorces compared with the medium population of each State in 1870-80 thus : — Number of Divorces Yearly 1867-71 1871-76 1877-81 1881-86 Twenty Years Average per 100,000 Pop. Maine 1.948 2,101 2,511 1.852 8,412 67 New Hampshire 781 1. 173 1.392 1.633 4.979 75 Vermont 830 851 798 759 3.238 50 Rhode Island 938 1,030 1. 197 1,297 4,462 89 Connecticut 2.314 2,319 1.923 1,986 8,542 74 Massachusetts ..... 1,781 2.448 2,624 3.000 9.853 30 New England 8,S92 9.922 I0.44S 10,527 39.486 53 New York 3.7SS 3.224 3.617 4.759 1S.35S 16 New Jersey 390 528 652 1,072 2,642 13 Pennsylvania 3.158 3.32s 4. "7 S.420 16,020 21 Delaware 69 43 83 94 289 10 District of Columbia .... 161 318 294 332 1.105 37 Maryland 42s 46s 495 800 2,185 13 Middle 7.958 7.903 9.258 12,477 37.596 17 Virginia (2) 758 932 I.43S 2,065 5. 190 14 North Carolina 130 266 364 578 1.338 S South Carolina 6 92 65 163 I S87 893 I.02S 1.454 3.959 IS Florida 198 340 625 965 2,128 48 Alabama 479 752 1.502 2,471 5.204 23 Mississippi 373 858 1.506 2,303 5,040 25 173 319 446 759 1,697 10 Texas 699 I.S47 3.338 5,888 11,472 48 Arkansas 562 846 1.947 2,686 6,041 48 Kentucky 1,726 2,242 2.84s 3.43s 10,248 3+ Tennessee 1.41S 1.954 2,838 3.418 9.625 34 South 7,106 11,041 17.936 26,022 62,105 24 Ohio 4.729 5.611 7.093 8.934 26,367 46 Illinois ....... S.803 8.516 9.702 12,051 36,072 64 2,281 3,220 4.073 S.704 15.278 38 Indiana. ...... S.741 5.089 6,523 7,840 25.193 67 2,838 3.509 4.614 S.603 16,564 59 Michigan 2.63s 3.783 S.492 6.523 18.433 66 2,006 2,146 2,484 3.352 9,988 42 Minnesota 403 659 918 1.643 3.623 30 725 1.293 1,891 3.282 7. 191 52 Nebraska 151 391 818 1.674 3.034 5° Colorado 80 338 i.oos 2,264 3.687 152 California ...... 1,288 2,553 3.400 4.877 12,118 87 369 448 7S9 1.033 2,609 98 Utah - . 387 1.387 I.S94 710 4.078 170 Nevada, Dakota, &c. . 482 738 1,279 2.795 S.294 29,918 39.681 51.64s 68,285 189,529 60 Total 53.574 68.547 89,284 117.311 j 328,716 36 The number of married couples and that of divorces in certain States and cities were as follows : — Divorces States Estimated Married Couples Divorces per 100,000 Couples 1870 j 1880 - 1870 1880 1870 1880 New York . 828,000; 961,000 731 834 88 87 Pennsylvania. 666,ooO| 809,000 623 9SI 93 114 Massachusetts 27S.O0O| 337,000 404 595 147 178 Illinois . . . 480,000 582,000 1,178 2.139 245 369 Ohio . . . 504,000 60T,000 992 I.5S3 197 259 Maryland . . 148,000' 177,000 84 128 56 72 Louisiana . , 137,000 178,000 30 109 22 61 Missouri . . 325.000 410,000 491 930 152 227 California . . 106,000 163,000 298 683 2B0 410 9 Slates 3,469,000' 4,218,000 4.831 ! 7.922 140 187 Divorces Cities Estimated Married Couples Divorces per 100,000 Couples 1870 1880 1870 1880 1870 1880 New York . 178,000 228,000 265 227 I,lO 100 Philadelphia . 127,000 160,000 124 194 97 121 Boston . . . 51,000 73.000 "3 iSb 223 214 Baltimore . . 51,000 63,000 60 98 118 156 ■Washington . 25,000 34,000 39 66 156 194 New Orleans . 36,000 41,000 !■; 38 42 9.3 St. Louis . . 59,000 66,000 241 263 36S San Francisco 28,000 44,000 87 242 .3" 5,=io Brooklyn . . 79.000 113,000 54 III 68 98 Cleveland . . 25.000 37,000 114 168 456 454 Memphis . . 14,000 15,000 26 6i 186 406 Milwaukee . 17,000 26,000 57 104 335 400 12 cities 690,000 900,000 1,109 1,706 160 190 DOCKS AND HARBOURS 226 DRUGS AND CHEMICALS Canada The number of marriages is not known, but if we assume the medium rate of 8 per 1000 inhabitants (as compared with 74 in Australia and 9 in the United States), the record will stand thus : — i Period ! Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages 1867-71 . . . ■ 31,000 1872-76 . . . 33,000 1877-81 ... 35,000 1882-S6 . . . ' 37,000 15 16 33 52 o-S o-S 0.9 1.4 ao years . . ' 136,000 116 0.9 Australia The returns for five years ending 18 lows : — were as fol- Colony Marriages Divorces Divorces per 1000 Marriages New South Wales . Victoria . Queensland . South Australia New Zealand . Tasmania West Australia 38,400 34,000 12,500 12,400 20,100 5.500 1.500 135 93 8 "5 72 12 2 3-5 2.7 0.6 9-3 3-6 2.2 1-4 Total 124,400 437 3-5 DOCKS AND HARBOURS The sums spent on docks and harbours in recent years are as follows ;^ Alexandria Amsterdam Antwerp Bordeaux Boulogne Bremen , Bristol . Calais . Cette . . Cherbourg Dieppe . Dundee . Dunkirk 2,550,000 2,600,000 6,8oo,cxx> 1,700,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 900,000 i,5cx),ooo 1,800,000 3,500,000 1,200,000 800,000 4,600,000 Glasgow , Hamburg . Havre . , Holyhead . Hull . . Liverpool . London , ■Marseilles . Plymouth . Rotterdam St. Nazaire Trieste , . ^£ 7,600,000 5,500,000 6,400,000 2,000,000 1,200,000 l8,200jOOO 20, 100,000 3,400,000 1,550,000 2,400,000 1,800,000 1,100,000 The area under docks and average dues are : — Dock-Dues on Docks, Acres Vessels of 1000 Tons * London .... 6go ;^i=5 Liverpool .... 560 133 Antwerp .... 105 93 Cardiff .... 113 Trieste .... 86 The largest lock in the world is that of Cardiff, 600 feet long by 80 feet in width ; ordinary depth of water, 36 feet. Dock-dues in Hamburg for a vessel of 1000 tons would be £110, in Amsterdam £&i. As regards length of quay-wall, Marseilles has 8 miles, Amsterdam 7, Antwerp 7, Trieste 3, Rotterdam 3, Genoa 2. As regards warehouses, Marseilles has 20 acres, Trieste 7, Genoa 4. Depth of water in docks, 60 feet at Ant- werp, 36 at Cardiff, 30 at Trieste, 25 at Amsterdam. The new dock at Barry, in the Bristol Channel, covers 70 acres, depth of water 34 feet. The following table shows the depth of water and mileage of quay-wall at the principal French ports : — Feet, Quay, Feet, Quay, Water Miles Water Miles Marseilles . 23 8.3 St. Nazaire 22 2.8 Havre . . 26 8.0 Boulogne . 26 2.0 Cette . . 22 4.8 Bordeaux . 19 2.0 Dunkirk , 20 3-5 Dieppe . . 18 1.8 Rouen . . 17 3-0 Calais . . 25 1-5 The French Government has expended the following sums on the above ports : — Down to 1876 . , , , 24,800,000 1876-90 22,600,000 Total . . 47,400,000 The following are some of the finest breakwaters : — Name Date Yards Long Cost, £ Builder Plymouth. Cherbourg Delaware . Ale.xandria 1812-41 1784-1857 1873-76 1,720 4,100 1,200 2,000 1,550,000 3,200,000 2,550,000 Rennie Greenway The Plymouth breakwater has the same quantity of stone, 3,800,000 tons, as the great pyramid of Cheops, and encloses 1 120 acres of harbour; Cherbourg, 1927 acres ; and Delaware, 420 acres. DRUGS AND CHEMICALS The British trade returns show imports under this head thus : — Value, £ 1860 1870 1880 1888 Bones . , . 300,000 630,000 530,000 390,000 Caoutchouc . 470,000 1,600,000 2,400,000 2,600,000 Chemicals, ' sundry . 530,000 1,140,000 1,300,000 Chinchona . 1,180,000 550,000 Cinnamon . 50,000 250,000 100,000 40,000 Cochineal . 410,000 580,000 430,000 50,000 Cutch . . . 220,000 470,000 660,000 710,000 Drugs, ) various J 310,000 670,000 900,000 Dye-woods and extracts 240,000 280,000 2,030,000 2,120,000 Esparto . . I 640,000 2,300,000 Guano , . 1,560,000 3,480,000 810,000 200,000 Gum . . . 1,120,000 1,140,000 Gutta-percha ! 160,000 500,000 530,000 180,000 Indigo . . j 2,530,000 2,720,000 1.710,000 1,700,000 Madder . . i 690,000 430,000 . Nitre . . . 1 soo.ooo 880,000 700,000 980,000 Opium . . 1 360,000 360,000 Paints . . i 820,000 900,000 Pepper . . 1 240,000 420,000 400,000 920,000 Rosin . . . ' 180,000 370,000 340,000 270,000 Saltpetre . . 1 660,000 380,000 ^00,000 300,000 Shumach 170,000 230 QOO 130,000 140,000 Sulphur . . 500,000 35^,ooo 250,000 170,000 Turpentine . 220,000 130,000 380,000 520,000 Valonia . . 270,000 400,00c 520,000 460,000 Yeast . . . iSo.ooo 290,000 540,000 730,000 Total . 9,550,000 15,270,000 19,710,000 19,930,000 DRUGS AND CHEMICALS «27 DRUGS AND CHEMICALS The exports show as follows : — Value, £ 1860 1870 1880 1888 Alkali .... 960,000 1,490,000 2,400,000 1,640,000 Bleaching materials . 440,000 620,000 Caoutchouc . . 140,000 SSo,ooo 1,060,000 1,340,000 Chemicals, sun- dries . . . 1,330,000 2,380,000 2,400,000 Chinchona . . 210,000 120,000 610,000 340,000 Cinnamon . . . 50,000 170,000 80,000 40,000 Cochineal . . . 300,000 320,000 280,000 30,000 Cutch .... 210,000 250,000 Drugs, sundry . 590,000 170,000 510,000 370,000 Gum .... 630,000 640,000 Gunpowder . . 350,000 430,000 370,000 360,000 Indigo . , . . 1,900,000 1,600,000 1,300,000 1,100,000 Medicine . . . ... 810,000 930,000 Opium .... ... 200,000 190,000 330,000 Paints .... 880,000 1,160,000 1,450,000 Pepper. . . . 170,000 260,000 240,000 590,000 Total . 4,670,000 7,520,000 12,670,000 12,430,000 Alkali. — The annual production in 1882 was as fol- lows : — Tons Great Britain 432,000 France 127,000 Germany 101,000 Austria 40,000 Belgium, United States, &c. . . . 11,000 Total 711,000 The production in Great Britain has quadrupled since .850, when it was 104,000 tons. The exportation from Great Britain showed thefoUowing quantities and prices: — Year Tons Value. £ per Ton 1853 i860 1870 1880 1888 S3.000 102,000 193,000 344,000 317.000 9.0 9-5 8.0 7.0 Arsenic. — In Styria in 1875 two men were seen to eat 30 centigrammes of yellow arsenic without injury. Blacking. — For boots. The consumption in England in 1S80 amounted to a value of ;^56o,ooo. Chinchona or Peruvian Bark. — The annual production was in 1S82 as follows : — Lbs. Peru 8,900,000 India .••••. 2,200,000 Java 110,000 Jamaica 21,000 Total . . 11,231,000 The Indian plantations showed as follows in 1880 : — Planted Locality Trees Crops, Lbs. Bark A.D. i860 . . 1861 . . 1869 . . i87S ■ . Nilghiri .... Darjeeling . . . Ceylon .... Biu-mah .... Total . . 540,000 4,680,000 77,000,000 2,000 180,000 378,000 1,260,000 200 82,222,000 1,818,200 1886 1888 The exports from Ceylon rose very rapidly, viz.: — Lbs. 1880 1,260,000 ..... 11,000,000 15,000,000 11,000,000 Indian bark yields from 4 to 5 per cent, of sulphate of quinine, but the superior quality introduced into Java by Mr. Charles Ledger gives from 6 up to 15 per cent. The plantations in India and Ceylon are valued at 5 millions sterling. Some Germans have planted near La Paz, Bolivia, 600,000 trees of the Ledger or Caupolican species. The quantities of bark imported into Great Britain have been as follows : — Year Tons Value per Ton,;^ Net Imports, Tons 1874 . 1880 . 1888 . 2,100 4,000 7,200 210 300 76 400 1,600 1,000 The manufacture of quinine in 1879 was, according to the Archivio, as follows : — East Indies England . France Lbs. 11,000 26,000 40,000 Germany , Italy America Lbs. S5,ooo 44,000 60,000 Making a total of 236,000 lbs., which was only 2 per cent, on the crop of bark. Cochineal. — Canary Islands exported in 1880 three million lbs., valued at ;£'35o,ooo. Dynamite.- tons yearly. -Messrs. Nobel of Glasgow make 1200 Glycerine. — Production in 1880 ; — England France Germany Holland Tons 300 Russia 4,000 Belgium ii5oo Italy . 900 Spain . Tons . 900 . 800 . 400 200 Guano. — The Peruvian Government exported from the Chincha Islands between 1850 and 1880 more than 12 million tons, worth 1 10 millions sterling. Great Britain paid 55 millions for 5,200,000 tons since 1855. The first quantity exported to Europe was in 1840. The supply is now almost exhausted. The analysis is as follows : — Azote 52.5 Phosphate of lime . . .19.3 Alkali 7.6 Water 15.8 Sundry ., ... 4.8 Total , 100.0 Gunpowder Saltpetre Charcoal Sulphur Total English . . . 75 IS 10 100 French . 75 13 12 100 German 75 11 14 100 Russian 74 14 12 100 Austrian 72 17 II 100 Spanish 76 11 13 100 Swedish 75 16 9 100 Chinese 76 14 10 100 American 75 13 12 100 Sporting 77 13 10 100 DRUGS AND CHEMICALS 228 DRUNKENNESS The quantities exported from Great Britain, and the price per ton were : — Year Tons Value, £ per Ton 1853 .... i860 .... 1870 .... 1880 .... 1888 .... 4,200 5,000 7,800 6,700 6,000 SS 70 55 55 60 India-mbber. — This is mostly obtained from the Serin- gueros of the Amazon, who sell it for sixpence a pound to the merchants of Para, but its value on reaching England or United States is over two shillings a pound. The quantities imported into Great Britain and United States have been as follows : — Into Tons Imported 1860 1870 1880 1887 Great Britain . United States , 2,150 1,610 7,606 4>3i6 8,479 7,529 ir,8oo 1 2, goo Total . 3.760 11,922 16,008 24,700 Value per ton . ;^224 1 ;^2IS £^77 /215 The best rubber-forests in Brazil will ultimately be exhausted, owing to the reckless mode followed by the Seringueros or tappers. The ordinary product of a tapper's work is from 10 to 16 lbs. daily. A tree 15 inches diameter bled 8 feet high will yield 3 pints of milk. There are 120 india-rubber manufacturers in the United States, employing 15,000 operatives, who produce 280,000 tons of goods, valued at 52 millions sterling per annum. Madder. — The best is grown near Avignon, on irrigated lands, for which the tenants pay £t) an acre rent. Aver- age crop, 2 tons per acre, worth £ya, leaving small profit to the cultivator. Official returns of this crop in France are as follows : — Year Acres Tons 1840 .... 36,000 25,000 1862 .... 51,000 54,000 1874 .... 12,500 17,300 It gives 9 per cent, of ashes, of which 4 per cent, soluble salts and 3I per cent, carbonate of lime. Maqui. — This berry is grown in Chili for colouring wine. Exports thus : — Tons 1887 26 1888 431 France takes 75 per cent, of the total. Nitre. — Atacama (Chile) exports 350,000 tons per annum. The nitre is about 2 feet below the surface ; one bed covers 5000 acres, 4 feet in thickness, say 25 million tons, worth 300 millions sterling. The quantities im- ported into Great Britain and the value per ton were : — Year Tons 1853 i860 1870 17,000 37,000 57,000 46,000 103,000 Value, £ per Ton 14 IS IS 10 It is also called nitrate of potash. Chili, in i88g, exported 930,000 tons valued at jf 7,800,000, or £% per ton. Opium. — Annual shipments from India : Years Chests Tons Value Per Ton I £ 1861-65 73.100 4.30s 10,810,000 2,510 1866-70 82,800 4,870 11,240,000 2,290 1871-75 89,200 5,250 11,790,000 2,250 1876-80 102,100 6,005 12,640,000 2,106 1881-86 90,200 S.400 11,800,000 2, 1 So 1887-88 93.000 5,600 10,600,000 1,900 The Chinese impose a duty of ;^S per ton. It is re- tailed at 2s. per ounce, or double the price of native opium. The province of Hankow produces 5300 tons per annum. There are in China 3 million opium-smokers. The average importation yearly into Great Britain shows : — Year Imported Re-Sliipped Home Use 1875-80. . . . 1881-85. ■ . . 1886-88. . . . Tons 220 290 270 Tons IIS 170 185 Tons 105 120 85 The cultivation in India gives an average crop of 30 lbs. per acre, value ;^loo. DRUNKENNESS The returns of insanity caused by drunkenness, and those of suicide from the same cause, in various countries show : — Insanity Suicide England . . 14 per cent. England . 12 per cent Ireland ... 12 ,, France . . 12 „ France ... 14 „ Prussia . . 14 >• Prussia ... 10 „ Oldenburg . 17 >• Denmark . . 11 ,, Saxony . • 9 Finland ... 12 „ Belgium • 8 „ Norway. . . 20 ,, Russia . . 38 ., Holland . . 16 ,, Baden . • 6 Austria ... 14 ,, Europe . . 15 .. Kaspar considers that the official returns are much too low, and estimates that 25 per cent, of suicides in Ger- many are produced by drunkenness. The increase of alcoholic insanity and suicide in France is remarkable, viz. : — Period Ratio of Dipsomaniacs (France) Per 1000 Insane Per 1000 Suicides 1840-49 . 1861-70 , , 1871-80 1881-85 78 108 148 144 67 130 "3 120 In France drunkenness and alcoholic insanity have progressed with the consumption of spirits, the average of which is now three times as much per head as in 1840-42. See Alcohol, p. 59. Drunkenness as a cause of insanity and of suicide is much commoner among men than women, viz. : — Males to Females England . . . 75-25 France . , , 74-26 Prussia . . . 88-12 Belgium . . . 72-28 Males to Females Austria . . . 8g-ii Denmark . . . 82-18 Oldenburg . . 85-15 General average . 80-20 Of insane males in Italy, 12 per cent, are caused by drink ; in United States, 26 per cent. ; and in Scotland^ 28 per cent. DRUNKENNESS 229 EARTH Deaths from Drink Yearly Per 1000 Per Number Deaths of Million Population Inhabitants England . . . 1,082 2.04 40 Scotland . . . 230 3.29 60 Ireland .... 280 2.78 S6 United Kingdom 1.592 2,27 43 France .... 872 1.05 23 Germany . 3.240 2.70 70 Belgium . 456 3-83 80 Sweden . . 502 6.25 106 Norway 72 2.36 40 Switzerland 244 3- 81 85 Italy 709 0.85 24 Deaths from drink in New York are said to average 12 per 1000 of the total, that is, five times more numerous than in the United Kingdom. Years of Intemperance to Produce Death Class Women . Gentlemen . Working class Liquor Beer Spirits . Mixed . 17 16 This shows that the working class can stand drink longest, and that beer is the least deadly form of intem- perance. Ratio of Drunkenness to Population. The number of drunkards fined yearly per 1000 in- habitants in some of the large towns of the United King- dom is as follows (18S0-84) : — Belfast ... 21 I Glasgow , Manchester . 31 { Liverpool . 38 I Dublin. 42 I Cork . 43 56 The prevalence of drunkenness in the rural districts is much less than in towns, the general average of persons fined in England being about 6 per 1000 of the popula- tion,* viz. : — Year i860 1870 iSSi 1888 Persons Fined 88,400 137,200 174.500 166,300 Per 1000 Inhabitants 4-4 6.0 6.7 6.0 * As the same person will be fined probably ten times in the year, it may be assumed that drunkards are not 6 per 1000, but 6 in 10,000 of the population. In 1S80 there were 61,000 persons fined in France for drunkenness, say 1.7 per 1000 inhabitants, or one-fourth of the ratio in England. Drunkenness and Crime According to the Diet, des Sciences Medicales the pro- portion of crime caused by habits of intemperance is as follows : — England Belgium Sweden Per Cent. 43 80 31 Germany . Denmark . General average Per Cent. 44 74 54 In Denmark 23 per cent, of divorces originate in habits of intemperance. Value ok Life, Drunk and Sober Age Expectancy of Years Drank Sober 20 30 40 IS 14 11 44 36 29 In a period of 35 years down to 1874, the United Kingdom Assurance Company issued 25,500 policies in two distinct sections, temperance and general. The number of insured persons who died, compared with those expected to die by the actuaries, were : — Section Temperance General Expected to Die Died zfi^JS, 1,861 4.408 4.339 This would seem to indicate that " teetotallers '■ blue-ribbon men live 17 years longer than others. DWARFS and Name Height (Inches) Date of Birth Birthplace Borowlaski .... Tom Thumb . . . Mrs. T. Thumb . . Che-Mah .... Lucia Zarate . . . General Mite . . . 39 31 32 25 20 21 1739 1838 1842 1838 1863 1864 Warsaw New York China Mexico New York Count Borowlaski was a friend of George III., and one of the most accomplished men in London society. Tom Thumb's real najne was Charles Stratton E. EARTH The area and cubic contents, according to Murray ("Aa//««;f«r expedition), are shown thus : — Area, Square Miles Cubic Miles Land .... Water .... 51,4x0,700 137,199,000 21,923,200 323,722,000 Total 188,609,700 345.645,200 The mean height of the land has been stated thus ; — Feet over Sea-Level Humboldt Lapparent Murray Tillo Europe .... Asia North America South America . . Africa Australia. . . . Mean 672 1,151 748 1,132 1,007 958 2,884 1.952 1,762 I.97S 1,188 2,120 939 3.189 1,888 2,078 2,02I 80s 2,252 1,046 3.160 2,052 2,036 2,020 790 2,290 EARTH 230 EARTHQUAKES The elevation of the various continents is as follows : — Square Miles Mean Under 600 Feet 600 to 1500 Feet 1500 to 3000 Feet Over 3000 Feet Total Height in Feet Europe Asia . Africa . North America South America Australia . Islands 2,040,600 4,049,500 1,410,100 2,466,200 2,725.600 896,300 476.400 991,800 2,603,700 3,859,800 2,450,600 1,842,800 1,935.700 600,000 362,000 3.SS1.900 3,066,200 1,015,900 1,151,000 123,900 611,500 275.700 6,163,400 2,756,700 1,690,400 1,142,000 58,200 1,092,800 3,670,100 16,368,500 11,092,800 7,623,100 6,861,400 3,014,100 2,780,700 939 3,189 2,021 1,888 2,078 80s 2.387 The work 1 14,064,700 14,284,400 9,882,400 13,179,200 51,410,700 2,252 The cubic contents and area of the various oceans and seas, according to Murray's measurement (Challenger expedition), are shown thus : — Depth, Feet Ratio Square Miles Greatest Mean Cubic Measure Area North Atlantic . 27,366 12,810 34,804,000 14,343,000 10.8 10.4 South Atlantic . 18,600 14,250 27,510,000 10,193,000 8.5 7-4 Arctic Ocean . 9,000 3.780 3,418,000 4,781,000 1.1 3-5 Norwegian Sea 12,030 S.448 1,162,000 1,127,000 0.3 0.9 Caribbean Sea . 19.014 7.614 1.675.000 1,161,000 0-5 0.9 Gulf of Mexico . 12,714 4,632 628,000 716,000 0.2 0.6 Mediterranean . 12,900 4,608 710,000 813,000 0.2 0.6 Black Sea . 6,420 2,472 65,000 139,000 0.1 Baltic 2,580 342 13,000 196,000 0.2 North Pacific , 30,000 15.420 77,994,000 26,705,000 24.1 19.4 South Pacific . 19,830 14,208 63,522,000 23,604,000 19.6 17.2 China Sea 13,200 3.228 835,000 1,367,000 0.3 I.O Behring Sea 9,000 3.816 622,000 859,000 0.2 0.6 Indian Ocean . 18,582 13.716 44,377,000 17,084,000 13.7 12.4 Red Sea . 7,200 2,250 68,000 159,000 0.1 Southern Ocean 25,200 12,020 64,875,000 30,592,000 20,1 22.3 Other seas 25,200 4,800 1,434,000 3,360,000 0.4 2.4 1 323,722,000 137,199,000 lOO.O 100.0 According to Tillo, the mean depth of the ocean is 12,550 feet. The area thus : — and cubic contents of the continents show Sq. Miles Cubic Miles Superficial Ratio Cubic Ratio Europe . . Asia . . . Africa . . N. America. S. America . Australia Islands . . 3,670,100 16,368,500 11,092,800 7,623,100 6,861,400 3,014,100 2,780,700 652,800 9,887,000 4.246,400 2,725,500 2,699,900 459,400 1,252,200 7.2 21.6 14.7 13-4 5.8 5-5 3-0 45-2 19-3 12.4 12.3 2.1 5.7 Total . 51,410,700 21,923,200 100.0 100.0 The following table shows the elevation of various places over sea-level, in feet : — Bangalore Berne Bogota DarjeeUng Erzeroum . Friburg . Geneva Gondar . Gratz Guatemala Innspruck Jerusalem Kandy Madrid . 3.015 1.775 8,680 7,460 5.255 2,050 1.250 7,260 1,295 4.705 1,895 2.515 1.69s 2,090 Mexico Milan Moscow . Munich . Quito Rome St. Gall . St. Helena St. Reray . Salzburg . Seringapatam Vevay Zurich , 7.480 420 985 1,740 9.545 150 1,820 1,775 5.265 ii3So 2.390 1.245 1,240 The depth of the minor seas is shown thus : — Average, Maximum Feet Feet Irish Sea . 240 710 English Channel . . 110 300 Levant . 72 Adriatic • 45 ... EABTHQUAKES Since the beginning of the eighteenth century the most destructive have been the following : — Year Place Lives Lost 1703 Yeddo 190,000 1716 Algiers 18,000 1726 Palermo . . - . 6,000 1731 Pekin 95.000 1746 Lima 18,000 1754 Cairo 40,000 '755 Lisbon 35.000 1773 Guatemala . , , , 33,000 1797 Quito 41,000 1822 Aleppo 22,000 1861 Mendoza, South America 12,000 1868 Arica 6,000 1880 Manilla 3,000 1883 Ischia ..... 2,000 Plate IV J^trctmagt of Adults aiU to writt. EDUCATION. 100 100 35 ■-, ^ r ^ 95 90 1 5 S 90 as \ \ 3 no Id 1 1- a 85 eo I ri 5 S 80 75 s £ § § Vl 75 70 § 70 65 !' 65 EO 60 55 i 55 50 i - i 50 U 5 45 40 40 35 35 30 30 25 £ 25 20 < a 20 15 15 ID S 10 5 te. 5 Pircentage ofpopitlaiion atticiidtng school ; average attendance. 2+ 24 23 23 22 22 21 21 20 g < 70 19 S 19 16 t in 17 £ 17 16 S IB 15 15 14 r 1= II 14 13 % 1 < _ a _ ~\ s l|: 13 12 r I < - §-- § s 17 11 o 3 S S i \ ! II 10 3 u a ID 9 a s o < 3 8 . -< Ul ■ \ 8 7 7 6 s •< z I' < . 6 5 3 --i (J 5 4 5 4 3 o 3 2 n ■* n - 2 1 1 " s Ballantyne, Hajison & C? Edinburgh & Loniion. EDUCATION 231 EDUCATION EDUCATION The following is a general view of the educational condition of the various countries according to latest infor- mation : — Country Year Schools Teachers Pupils Expenditure, £ School Children per 1000 Pop. United Kingdom 1888 30,522 85,000 4,605,000 9,690,000 123 France. 1887 85.54s 136,800 6,308,000 6,000,000 170 Germany 1881 57.000 120,000 7, 100,000 4,000,000 140 Russia . 1B89 43.100 ... 2,510,000 3,800,000 25 Austria 1889 35.718 99.200 4,903,000 2.400,000 130 Italy . 1887 70,507 86,400 3,071,000 3,100.000 90 Spain . '!^l 31.880 36,000 1,843,000 1,200,000 io6 Portugal . , i836 S.663 257,000 200,000 54 Switzerland . 1886 6,794 12,720 630,000 400,000 210 Belgium 1887 8,257 10,800 808,000 1,100,000 135 Holland 1888 5.448 19.870 758,000 1,300,000 14s Scandinavia 1886 19.936 ... 1,263,000 1,200,000 140 Roumania . 1883 2,807 134,000 27 Servia . 1888 702 1,650 60,000 200,000 30 Greece . 1884 2,700 3.374 143,000 240,000 72 Europe 406.579 34,393,000 34,830,000 los United States 188S 171,200 272,700 7,850,000 2;,500,oro 130 Canada 1887 15.607 18,942 487,000 1,100,000 100 Australia 1888 9,104 13,200 510,000 1,900,000 140 India . 1888 133.352 ... 3,474,000 2,100,000 17 South Africa 1888 I.S30 ... 56,000 250,000 40 Ceylon . 1888 3.650 131,000 50 Algeria 1888 1,214 ... 110,000 30 Argentina . 1888 3.227 7.300 255,000 500,000 70 Chile . . 1888 1.450 86,000 34 Uruguay 1888 780 1.S30 54,000 120,000 90 Venezuela . 1888 2,042 105,000 30,000 45 Brazil , 1889 7.S0O 300,000 ... 30 Egypt . 1887 6,640 7,240 170,000 25 Japan . 1888 27.550 62,520 2,835,000 70 Total 791.425 50,816,000 The following table shows approximately the spread of education in the last fifty years : — Percentage Average Attendance at School of Adults able to Write 1840 1888 Increase per Cent. 1840 1889 U. Kingdom 2,100,000 4,600,000 118 59 90 France . . 2,900,000 6,300,000 117 47 85 Germany . 3,700,000 7,100,000 92 82 9b Russia . . 460,000 2,510,000 444 2 IS Austria 2,310,000 4,900,000 "3 21 55 Italy . 550,000 3,070,000 458 16 '^l Spain. 450,000 1,840,000 309 14 28 Portugal 50,000 260,000 420 Holland 300,000 760,000 153 70 86 Belgium 320,000 810,000 153 45 80 Scandinavia 550,000 1,260,000 130 80 97 Switzerland . 400,000 630,000 60 80 95 Greece, &c. . 90,000 350,000 290 Europe . . 14,180,000 34,390,000 145 U. States . 1,260,000 7,850,000 520 80 92 India . . . 150,000 3,470,000 2,210 Colonies, &c. 650,000 5,100,000 680 Tota 1 . 16,240,000 50,810,000 217 ... The march of education in Europe has been remark- able, for whereas population has only increased 33 per cent, since 1840, the average number of children attencUng school has risen 145 per cent. The percentage of conscripts who could read was as follows : — 1868 1880 1884 Germany 96 98 99 Holland 82 88 90 France . 76 86 88 Belgium 74 81 8S Austria. 34 61 69 Italy . 32 52 53 Hungary 22 49 55 Sweden 100 Denmark 100 Switzerland 98 Russia . 21 Servia . 21 The following table shows the proportions of men and women able to sign the marriage register, also of con- scripts able to read, at various dates : — Able to Sign Register Able to Read in 100 Con- scripts In 100 Men In 100 Women Year •0 M S c 1 V a G i S a 1 1 1841 1851 1861 1871 1883 67 69 75 81 88 71 75 86 43 SS S5 65 11 55 63 73 23 33 70 80 87 43 S2 EDUC-^-TION 232 EDUCATION As respects superior education, the universities of the world stand thus : — Universities Professors Students United Kingdom . . France Germany .... Russia Austria Italy Spain Portugal .... Belgium Holland Denmark .... Sweden Norway Switzerland .... Greece II I 21 8 10 21 10 I 4 4 1 2 I 4 2 344 180 1,920 701 1,430 600 380 40 120 150 60 173 46 90 40 13.400 10,300 26,680 10,400 18,600 9,000 16,200 1.300 5.900 2,300 1,400 2,710 1,700 2,000 1,800 Europe United States . . . Morocco lOI 360 I 6,274 4,240 40 123,690 60,100 700 Total . . . 462 10.554 184,490 There are also universities in Canada, Australia, and India, of which statistics are wanting. The number of university students compared with population is much greater in Spain and Belgium than in other European countries. Intermediate education embraces a great number of colleges, academies, lyceums, &c., of which details will be found in the various cbuntries. United Kingdom In 1830 the Board of Education was established, with power to spend ;^30,ooo on schools. The returns for Great Britain (excluding Ireland) have been as follows : — Sum Voted, £ Number 1 Accom- Average Year of Schools modation Attend- Inspected for Pupils ance 1850 . . . 180,000 2,613 225,400 i860 . . . 724,000 7.272 1,400,000 884,000 1870 . . . 912,000 10,9-19 2,215,000 1,454,000 1880 . . . 2,854,000 20,670 4,843,000 3.1SS.000 1888 . . . 4,168,000 22,326 6,043,000 4,111,000 The number of schools of all kinds, and the average attendance of school-children in the three kingdoms, showed thus : — Schools Scholars 1846 1883 1846 188S England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland .... 22,200 5.042 9.657 19,221 i:i9l 1,500,000 220,000 330,000 3,615,000 496,000 494,000 Total . . 36.899 30.522 2,050,000 4,605,000 The proportion of adults able to write is shown by those signing the marriage register, viz. : — Per Cent. Men Women General England Scotland Ireland .... United Kingdom . 92 96 78 91 90 92 76 89 91 94 77 90 If we compare the returns of the whole United King- dom for 1888 with those of 1878 we find as follows : — Number of schools Accommodation . Average attend- ) ance . . . ) 1878 26,734 5,543,000 3,219,000 1888 30.522 7,105,000 4,605,000 Ratio of Increase Per Cent. 14 29 44 The returns for the three kingdoms in 1888 were ss follows : — Expendi- ture, £ Number of Schools Accommo- dation Average Attend- ance England Scotland Ireland . . 7,440,000 1,160,000 1,090,000 19,221 3. 105 8,196 5,356,000 687,000 1,062,000 3,615,000 496,000 494,000 U. Kingdom 9,690,000 30,522 7,105,000 4,605,000 The income of the schools in 1888 was made up thus :— England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom State subsidy Rates, &c. . £ 3,600,000 3,840,000 £ 570,000 590,000 £ 900,000 190,000 £ 5,070,000 4,620,000 Total 7,440,000 1,160,000 1,090,000 9,690,000 From 1870 to 1888 the new schools built in England and Wales were : — ■ Schools ,'^ Number Accommodation for Pupils Board .... Voluntary . 4,562 6,738 1,809,000 1,668,000 Total 11,300 3,477,000 In 1888 the schools of England and Wales had 68,683 certified teachers and 29,901 pupil teachers ; the average expenditure yearly was : — £ s. d. Board schools ... 2 4 8 per child Voluntary schools . , i 16 4 ,, ,, Local taxation supplied i8s. per child, fees los., and the subsidy from the State the rest. In London the expenditure was much higher, namely, 6is. in Board Schools, and 44s. in voluntary per child in average attendance. The working of both kinds of schools in England and Wales in 1881 is shown thus : — Schools Average Attendance 1881 1888 1881 1888 Voluntary . Board . . 14.370 3.692 14.659 4.562 2,008,000 856,000 Total . 18,062 19,221 2,864,000 3,615,000 In 1880 the religion of the school-children of the United Kingdom was as follows : — School Children Percentage Church of England . . 1,539,700 42.8 Presbyterian . . . 527,400 14.6 Roman Catholic . , 526,600 14,6 Various .... 1,030,300 28.0 Total 3,624,000 EDUCATION 233 EDUCATION The average attendance of children compared with population thus : — Numbers Per 1000 Inhabitants 1881 1888 1881 1888 England . Scotland . Ireland 2,864,000 410,000 4S4,ooo 3,615,000 496,000 494,000 no 108 88 127 123 104 United Kingdom 3,728,000 4,605,000 106 123 The increase of schools has been accompanied by a decrease of crime. The returns for England, Wales, and Scotland show : — Children Annual School- Children Criminals Period Attending Con- per 100,000 School victions Population Population 1841-S0 220,000 24,300 II 122 1851-60 560,000 21,200 26 96 1861-70 1,170,000 17,010 1^ 68 1871-80 2,300,000 T3.900 82 5? 1887 4,019,000 12,150 125 38 In 1838 Judge Coleridge pointed attention in this direction, and soon afterwards the Committee Report of the House of Commons contained the following testi- mony : — " We find that the neglect of education causes much crime that might be avoided." The growth of crime has been materially checked in late years by industrial schools and reformatories, which were begun in 1857, the first for vagrant or destitute children, the second for youthful criminals, the Police Report showing that in 1856 there were 100,000 children and youths under 17 living as vagabonds or thieves in England only. The returns published in 1888 for these institutions show : — Reforma- tories Industrial Schools Total England . Ireland .... 4,225 923 14,585 7,991 18,810 8,914 Total . 5,148 22,576 27,724 Expenditure, £ • 96,000 433,000 529,000 The average expenditure is ;f 19 per head in the above institutions. The entries in England in 1887 were as follows : — Reforma- tories Industrial Schools Total Boys .... Girls .... 1,048 184 4.952 i,"3 6,000 1.297 Total 1,232 6,065 7,297 The summary of eleven years' working of reformatories, down to 1880, showed as follows : — Admitted 36.232 Put to trades 23.55° Died or removed 5.547 Remaining under instruction . . . 7.13S The good effect of reformatories, since their introduc- tion in 1869, is shown thus : — 1869 1881 Juvenile offenders . , , 10,314 5.579 Per million inhabitants . . 458 215 This gives a decline of S3 per cent, in juvenile crime. The Universities of the Umted Kingdom in 1876 showed as follows : — Students Annual Expenditure Per Student £ £ Oxford 1,860 414,000 220 Cambridge . 1,920 340,000 177 Dublin 810 62,000 78 Edinburgh . 2,320 200,000 87 Glasgow 1,340 90,000 68 Aberdeen . 650 30,000 45 St. Andrew's 300 17,000 56 Besides the above, there are the Universities of London, Durham, Manchester, and the new Royal University of Ireland. The salaries of the first three are as follows : — Fellows and Professors Salaries, £ Average, £ Oxford .... Cambridge . . Trinity, Dublin . 424 483 59 159,000 132,000 31,000 373 274 530 The incomes were derived thus : — Endowments, A, Fees, &c., £ Total, £ Oxford .... Cambridge . , Dublin .... 280,000 235,000 49,000 134,000 115,000 13,000 414,000 340,000 62,000 The register of Cambridge shows that the number of B.A. graduates admitted yearly averaged thus : — 16th century 70 17th 235 19th ,, 326 The ratios of winners at Indian competition examina- tions in 18S0 were : — Per Cent. Oxford students Cambridge students Dublin students Scotch Universities . London, Cork, &c . 24 17 14 17 Ireland In his Progress of the Nation ( 1 843) Mr. Porter says : — "The Commissioners for National Education in Ireland have met with a most determined hostility on the part of the Protestant clergy." In order to prevent Catholics from receivii^ instruction, it was felony for a Catholic (in the last century) to keep a school ; and so late as 1801 the Protestant Bishop of Cork prosecuted a man for this offence, but the Lord Chancellor quashed the suit as con- trary to the spirit of the age. The first system of public schools was started in 181 7 by the Kildare Street Society, but one of the statutes was to read a chapter daily from King James's version of the Bible. The National Schools were begun by Parliament in 1830. The register shows the children on the rolls, and, as the average attendance in Ireland has always EDUCATION 234 EDUCATION been under 46 per cent, of the number on the rolls, we can estimate the latter for those early years : — Year Schools Scholars Enrolled Average Attendance Average Attendance per 1000 Inhabitants 1820 1825 1835 1840 1861 1871 1881 1888 241 1.395 1,106 1,978 7.590 8,196 16,800 102,400 145.500 232,600 803,400 1,021,700 1,066,000 1,060,900 7,600 46,000 65,000 104,000 262,800 363,800 453.600 493.900 I 6 8 13 t 88 104 The annual expenditure is ;^i,ogo,ooo, of which ;£'900,ooo is a State subsidy, the rest made up of rates, fees, &c. As in England, the increase of schools in Ireland has brought a decrease of crime, viz. : — Children Attending School Annual Convic- tions School Children per 1000 Pop. Criminals per 100,000 Pop. 1851-60 220,000 1861-70 310,000 1871-80 405,000 1887 513.000 7.705 2,918 2,492 1,412 77 106 124 S3 47 29 France The best measure of educational progress is the ratio of male and female adults able to sign the marriage register, and of conscripts able to write when enrolled for service, viz. : — „ Conscripts "'"'^ Able to Write 1830 . . .45 per cent. ... 42 185s . . . 66 ,, ... 60 1865 . . . 76 ,, ... 66 1876 . . .84 75 1881 . . . 86 „ ... 82 Adults of Both Sexes Official returns of the Educational Department show as follows :^ Year Schools Average Attendance Average Attendance per 1000 Inhabitants 1840 . 1864 . 1887 . SS.930 64.978 85.545 2,882,000 3,414,000 6,308,000 85 90 170 Public expenditure on education of all kinds and that on primary schools only are shown as follows : — Education Primary Schools Year Amount, £ Year Amount, £, 1840 . 1863 . 1872 1881 . 400,000 1,300,000 2,250,000 3,600,000 1830 I8SS 1870 1888 12,000 240,000 350,000 5,800,000 In 1886 the primary schools showed as follows : Lay Clerical Total Schools .... Teachers . . . Pupils .... 60,865 88,668 3,780,000 i8,8go 46.548 " 1,737,000 79.955 135,216 5,517,000 Male Female Total Teachers . . . Pupils .... 62,796 2,786,000 72,420 2,731,000 135,216 S.S17.000 Of the total number of pupils, 58 per cent, were free, and 42 per cent, paid for their education. In the boys' schools there is one teacher for 45 children ; in the girls' schools one for 38. Clerical schools average 93 pupils, lay 63. In December 1887 the primary and secondary schools stood thus : — Number Pupils Primary Schools Number Teachers Primary Lyc&s, &c Girls' colleges .... 85,087 346 112 6,208,000 89,400 10,400 Lay Clerical Total 67,133 17,954 90,300 46,500 85,087 136,800 Total 85,545 6,307,800 The above is exclusive of schools for adults, which were attended by 156,000 men and 28,000 women. Although France has but one University, that of Paris, it has 1 6 University Colleges. The numbers who graduated in 1885 were : — °°o schools, with 120,000 teachers and 7,100,000 pupils. Superior education shows the following statistics : — Gymnasia Grammar- Schools Total Prussia .... Other States . 231 loS 223 172 454 277 Total 336 395 731 The g3rmnasia are maintained at a cost of ;^220,ooo a year, of which one-half is defrayed by municipal rates. They have 6670 teachers and are as follows : — Gymnasia Pupils Protestants Catholics Mixed 173 53 110 192,500 35.500 28,000 Total 336 256,000 Official statistics for Prussia in 1843 compare with those in 1 87 1 as follows : — Schools Teachers Pupils . 1843 23,100 27,600 2,271,000 1871 34.988 57.936 4.008,000 Ratio of Increase 52 per cent. 110 73 .. Germany has 21 Universities, with 1920 professors and 26,700 students. The following table shows the percen- tage of students according to reugious belief, as compared with the percentage of population according to creed : — General University Population | Students Protestants .... Roman Catholics . Jews 64 34 12 70 20 10 Total 100 100 The Universities stand in this order : — Students Berlin . . . 5,700 Bonn Leipzig . . . 3,100 Gottingen Munich . . . 2,300 Wurzburg Breslau . . . 1,600 Heidelberg Halle . , . 1,600 Konigsberg Tubingen , . 1,400 Ten others Students , 1,200 * 1,100 1,100 1,020 910 7,100 Of the total number of students 89 per cent, are Ger- mans and n per cent, of other nations, Americans being i per cent. The oldest University is that of Heidel- berg, which dates from 1386. Russia The Rousski Kalendar and other semi-official docu- ments give the following statistics : — Year Schools Pupils Pupils per 1000 Population 1804 1824 1838 1875 1889 627 2,118 3.956 32,100 43,100 109,000 263,000 461,000 1,213,000 2,270,000 9 IS 25 The returns for 1875 and 1888 compare as foUovirs :- School-Children Increase per 1875 1888 Cent. Boys .... Girls .... 985,000 228,000 1,726,000 544,000 73 138 Total . . 1,213,000 2,270,000 89 The ratios of children at school were approximately :— 1875 1888 Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total At school . . Not at school . "•5 88. s 2.6 97-4 6.9 93-1 16.7 83.3 5-4 94.6 Il.O 8g.o Total . lOO.O 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100. In 1802 the Czar Alexander I. founded the Univer- sities of SL Petersburg and Moscow. It was not, how- ever, until after the emancipation of the serfs, in 1S61, that great efforts were made to educate the ma-sses, 20,000 new schools being opened in the ensuing ten years. Besides the above primary schools there are gynmasia and middle-schools, as follows : — No. Pupils For boys , . . 622 168,000 For girls . . . 324 62,300 Total 946 230,300 These schools had 7 100 teachers, and half their cost is defrayed by the State. The Russian Government ex- pended ;^3,8oo,ooo on schools m 1889. There were eight Universities in 1884, viz. : — Professors Students State Sub- sidy. £, Moscow St. Petersb Kiev. Dorpat Warsaw Kharkov Kazan Odessa urg 103 99 105 65 79 89 109 52 2,430 2,050 1,470 1,430 1,000 820 780 380 53.000 43.000 46,000 26,000 29,000 37.000 38,000 25,000 Tota 1 701 10,360 297,000 In 1888 the number of University students reached 12,900. The annual subsidy for primary schools is £yx>,ocx>, equal to 8s. per pupil. EDUCATION 236 EDUCATION Austria-Hungary Official returns for the whole Empire were as follows : — Year Schools School-Chil- dren Per 1000 Population 1837 . 1870 . 1878 . 1889 . i6,7S4 31,100 31,740 35.720 2,313,000 3,189,000 3,663,000 4,903,000 83 90 99 130 The amount spent yearly by Government on the above primary schools is £1,500,000, equal to 8s. per pupil. The returns for 1S78 were as follows : — Austria Hungary Total Number of schools Teachers Pupils, boys . Pupils, girls -. Total pupils . 15,166 31,200 1,093,000 1,042,000 2,135,000 16,574 22,300 833,000 695,000 ±,528,000 31,740 53.500 1,926,000 1,737,000 3,663,000 The whole educational system of Austria proper in 1889 is shown thus : — Number Professors Scholars Universities . High schools Middle schools Technical schools Free schools 7 61 318 1,570 16,945 1,092 691 5.850 7.890 57,236 13,680 4,720 79.450 111,200 2,748,300 Total . 18,902 72,759 2,957.350 The statistics of seven Austrian Universities show as follows : — Students ■-.? 2 >. c 1 ■3 1 O. •a a. ^ § s i Vienna 361 217 1,998 2,598 643 S.456 83,000 Gratz . . 139 102 549 490 167 23,000 Innspruck 86 2=;i 26r 202 104 818 21,000 Prague 28,; 269 1,580 1,404 421 3,674 63,000 Lemberg . 6q 361 598 125 1,084 15,000 Cracow . no 89 484 392 129 1,094 29,000 Czernowitz 42 1,092 59 138 52 249 8,000 Total . 1,348 5,608 5,086 1,641 13,683 242,000 The religion of the students showed these ratios : Percentage of Religion of Students a c c Gratz Innspruck 1 1 1 !> Ph ^ u u H Catholic . . 54-9 86.5 99.1 86.2 87.0 83.8 29.3 72.7 Protestant . 7.0 5-4 0.5 1.9 0.3 4-3 4-4 4.8 Jew . . . 33.2 3-8 0.3 II.6 12.7 11.9 21.7 19.6 Greek. . . 3-9 4.3 0. I 0.3 ... ... : 44-6 2.9 100. lOO.O lOO.O 1 1 lOO.O lOO.O lOO.O lOO.OJIOO.O In 1886 the ratios of children of school-age at school * were : — Austria Hungary Attending school . . 85.0 80.4 Not at school . . .15.0 19.6 Total . . . roo.o 100. o Hungary has three Universities, viz. : — Professors Students Buda-Pesth ... 211 3,660 Klausenburg ... 81 525 Agram .... 48 4r5 Total . . . 340 4,600 The whole system of education in Hungary in 1886 stood thus : — is •i 1 1 1 1 Universities . . Middle schools . Primary . . . 3 340 405' 3.140 16,410 23,980 4.600 73.700 1,868,000 4,600 69,200 993,000 4,500 875,000 Total . . . 16,818 27,4601,946,300 r,o66,8oo 879,500 The sum paid yearly in salaries to teachers of primary schools is ;^88o,ooo sterling, or £jf> each. The following table shows the advance of education in Hungary in eight years : — Year Primary Schools All Schools Teachers Pupils Teachers Pupils 1880 . . . 1884 . . . 1888 . . . 21,700 23,100 24,400 1,620,000 1,790,000 1,950,000 24,900 27,100 28,900 r, 670, 000 1,850,200 2,015,000 The languages taught in the primary schools are : — Austria German Czech . Various Total Schools 7,001 4,246 5.698 16,945 Hungary Magyar Various Total Schools 7,938 8,472 16,410 The advance of public instruction among the masses between the years 1868 and 1880 is shown by the ratio of conscripts able to read, viz. : — 1868 1880 Austrian . . . .34 per cent. 61 per cent. Hungarian .... 22 ,, 49 ,, In 1874 the ratios of conscripts able to read and write were : — Galitzia Croatia Tyrol Hungary Per Cent. 15.5 42.3 53-4 60.0 Moravia Styria Bohemia Austria Per Cent, 71-4 73-7 84-7 90,0 In 1880 the ratio of adults able to sign the marriage register were as follows : — Per Cent. Males Females Both Sexes Austria .... Hungary . . . 61 49 S3 30 57 39 * This shows the ratio of children on the school-rolls ; the average attendance was only 65 per cent, of children of school-age. EDUCATION 237 EDUCATION The ratios of children of school-age attending school were ; — Galitzia . lUyria Hungary . Per Cent. • 27 • 47 ■ 76 Styria Moravia Austria Per Cent. . 80 • 90 • 90 The general average for the whole Empire was 70 per cent. Italy Official returns show that the number of children at primary schools has doubled since 1862, viz. : — Year Boys Girls Total Per 1000 Population 1862 1870 1877 1887 627,000 890,000 1,194,000 483,000 683,000 1,059,000 1,110,000 1,573,000 2,082,000 2,253,000 ii 75 75 The returns for 1887 compare with 1877 thus : — 1877 1887 Schools Pupils Schools Pupils Primary , , Superior, . 44,050 13,910 2,082,000 555.000 53.630 16,877 2,253,000 818,000 Total 57,960 [ 2,637,000 70,507 3,071,000 The returns for 1887 showed as follows :- Primary Schools Boys . . . 1,194,000 Girls . . . 1,059,000 Total All Schools, Teachers Primary . . . 55,300 Superior. . , 31,100 2,253,000 Total , . 86,400 The progress of instruction is shown in the following table :— Year Conscripts Able to Read Percentage Signing Marriage Register Per Cent. Men Women 1866 1871 1881 1887 36.0 43-3 523 55-0 40.0 42.3 S1.8 57-2 21.0 233 30.1 37-2 The percentage of persons in Italy, at various ages, who could read was as follows : — Age, Years Towns Only Males 1871 1881 6-18 18-25 25-40 40-60 18711881 Females All Italy Males 18711881 Females 18711881 38 37 27 19 In 1 87 1 the percentage of persons over seven years who could read, in the various provinces, stood thus : — Males Females Total Population Sicily 35 24 3? Naples • • 34 22 28 Tuscany . 49 38 44 Romagna . 49 39 44 Venetia SS 37 46 Lombardy 67 59 63 Piedmont . 73 59 66 The ratio was 35 at Messina, 76 at Florence and Genoa, and 83 per cent, at Turin. There are twenty-one Universities, with 600 professors and 9000 students ; the principal Universities are : — Naples Turin Students ■ 1,450 • 1,230 Padua Rome Students • 970 . 560 The annual Government expenditure for education is ;£ 3,100,000 sterling. Spain The number of schools and scholars was as follows : — Year Public Private Total Pupils Per 1000 Population 1850 1870 1885 13,334 22,711 24.529 4. 100 S.406 7.350 17.434 28,117 31.879 664,000 1,426,000 1,843,000 1^6 The sexes of pupils are said to be sixty males to forty females. The percentage of persons able to read and write was as follows : — 1860 1877 Men Women Total Men Women Total Read and ) write . ) Read only . Ignorant . 31 4 9 20 S 75 34 4 15 4 81 25 3 72 Total . 100 lOO 100 100 100 100 The progress made in middle-class or superior schools has been : — Year Pupils 185S 15,000 1868 25,300 1878 33.500 The total expenditure for schools in 1879 was one million sterling,* besides ;^ioo,ooo for Universities. There are 10 universities, with 380 professors and 16,200 students ; the number in 1865 was only 9700. The oldest University is Salamanca, founded in 1240 ; it has 40 professors and 1300 students. In Spain 35 per cent, of adults can sign the marriage register, against 18 per cent, in 1848. The Census of i860 showed as follows : — Able to Read Ratio to Popu- lation over 7 Years Old Males .... Females .... 2,731,000 1,105,000 40 per cent. 16 .. Total 3,836,000 28 „ Portugal The educational system is as follows : — Number Pupils University .... Colleges Private schools .... Public schools .... I 70 1.935 3.657 1.300 14,200 65,100 176,000 Total 5.663 256,600 ' Of this sum the Government provides only ;^8o,ooo, the rest being supplied by municipal rates. Teachers earn about ;£20 a year. EDUCATION 238 EDUCATION The increase of primary instruction is remarkable : Year Schools Scholars Per 1000 Population 1854 1870 1878 1886 I.3SO 3.000 4.520 5.384 SS.ooo 130,000 198,000 237,000 14 54 The annual outlay for education is ;£'22o,ooo sterling. Holland The scheme of instruction in 188S was : — Number Teachers Pupils Universities .... Colleges Private schools . . . Public schools , . , Infant schools . . . 4 S12 1,204 2,940 1,088 180 2,120 4.767 12,823 2,600 18,700 177,100 449,400 110,000 Total . . 5.448 19,890 757,800 The returns of primary schools showed thus : — Year Schools Scholars Per 1000 Population 1835 1870 1877 1888 2,830 3.6x4 3,821 4.144 304,000 456,000 523,000 627,000 102 120 132 145 In 1887 the expenditure was :- Primary schools Colleges . , Total . £ 1,060,000 240,000 1,300,000 State grant . . . Communal grant . Total . . £ 580,000 720,000 1,300,000 The ratio of conscripts able to read and write was as follows : — Year 1850 i860 1876 Able to Read 77.2 80.2 88.0 To Read and Write 749 78,0 87.0 The sexes of children attending school were boys 54, girls 46. Belgium The whole educational system may be summed up as follows : — Number Pupils Universities .... Colleges Adult schools . . . Primary schools . . Infant schools . . . 4 171 r.644 S.491 947 5.900 33.100 65,300 604,100 99.300 Total . . . 8,257 807,700 The public primary schools of Belgium were as follows : — Year Number of Schools Pupils Male Female Total Free Paying 184s 1857 1869 1878 1887 3.431 3.787 4,260 4.839 5.491 182,900 219,100 267,400 318,500 331.400 143,700 180,500 226,000 279,700 272,600 326,600 399,600 493.400 598,200 604,000 174.400 250,200 339,200 452.300 516,700 152,200 149,400 154,200 145,900 87,400 The income and expenditure of the above schools were as follows ; 1843 1860 1870 1880 1886 Fees Local grants State grants Sundries / 28,000 34.000 8,000 34.000 £ 34,000 74.000 54.000 108,000 46,000 132,000 140,000 289,000 £ 44,000 266,000 376,000 714,000 £ 72,000 375.000 290,000 343.000 Expenditure 104,000 270,000 607,000 1,400,000 1,080,000 There are four Universities, the returns of which show the number of students thus : — 1840 1870 1888 1840 1 1870 1888 Ghent .... Liege .... Brussels .... Louvain .... 396 331 279 490 459 653 496 907 838 1.470 1.795 1,757 Philosophy . Science .... Law .... Medicine Engineering, &c. . Total 344 293 359 272 228 257 350 60s 562 741 657 1,351 1.392 1,484 Total 1.496 2,515 5.860 976 1,496 2,515 S,86o EDUCATION 239 EDUCATION The number of persons able to read and write was as follows : — 1866 1888 Males Females 1,209,000 1,070,000 1,661,000 1,527,000 Total . 2,279,000 3,188,000 The ratio of conscripts able to read and write was as follows : — 1843 1860 1870 1889 Illiterate . . , Read only Read and write . 43-6 7.2 49.2 31.8 7.6 60.6 24.0 5-2 70.8 13- 1 2.9 84.0 100. lOO.O loo.o ! loo.o Sweden Latest returns are to this effect : — Number Papils Universities Colleges .... Primary schools 2 146 10,338 2,700 16,700 708,000 Total 10,486 727,400 In 1859 the primary schools had 2950 teachers, and the ratio of children of school-age attending school was 71 percent. In 1888 there were 12,880 teachers, and the ratio of children at school was 98 per cent. Only three recruits in 1 000 cannot read and write. The ouUay for schools is ;f 600,000 a year, one-fourth &om the Treasury, the rest municipal. The University of Upsal has 1800 students, that of Lund 900. Norway The scheme of instruction in 1886 was as follows : — Number Pupils University. Academies Primary schools I 128 6,340 1,700 12,500 288,700 Total 6,469 302,900 The annual outlay is ;^26o,ooo, mostly raised by muni- cipal rates. The State gives ;^2S,ooo a year to the Univfersity of Christiania. Denmark The returns for 1888 show as follows :— - Number Pupils University. Colleges . Primary schools • I 40 2,940 1,300 232,000 Total 2,981 233,300 The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, has sixty professors. Switzerland The number of Swiss students (exclusive of 630 foreigners) was as follows at the four Universities : — Medicine . . . SS^ Law . . . .219 Divinity . . . 200 Geneva , . 217 Berne . , . 430 Zurich. , . 335 Basel . • . 293 Total 1.27s Science In 1886 the returns showed as follows : — Number Teachers Pupils Universities . Academies . Girls' academies . Primary schools . Other schools 4 882 1,600 4.308 351 3,S43 8,826 1,900 41,000 136,500 461,600 260,500 Total ... 901,500 In 1830 only 78 per cent were able to sign the mar- riage register; in 187 1 the ratio was 88 per cent. The above school total includes 245,000 adults attending night-schools. ROUMANIA In 1883 the official returns were : — Number Pupils Universities Academies . Primary schools . 2 62 2,743 700 8,800 124,100 Total 2,807 133,600 The Universities of Bucharest and Jassy had ninety- seven professors. Servia The educational system in 1888 was as follows : — Number Teachers Pupils University . Academies . Primary schools . I 33 668 31 423 1,194 300 7,200 52,400 Total 702 1 1,648 59,900 The armual expenditure by the State is ;f 100,000, besides municipal subsidies. In 1884 only 10 per cent of the population could read and write, that is, about 15 per cent., excluding infants. Greece The educational system in 1884 showed thus : — Number Teachers Pupils University . Academies . Primary schools . I 418 2,281 98 776 2,500 2,400 22.300 118,000 Total 2,700 3,374 142,700 Total 1.275 The annual expenditure is ;^240,ooo sterling. United States The first educational census was taken in 1840, and the official returns since then show thus : — Scholars Year Schools Revenue, £ Sterling Teachers Scholars per 1000 Pop. 1840 50,700 2,025,000 119 1850 87,300 3,400,000 3,642,000 i860 113,000 7,100,006 148,700 5,693,000 180 1870 141,600 19.400,000 221,040 6,596,000 171 1880 171,200 29,100,000 272,700 9,705,000 194 1888 347,300 11,950,000 196 EDUCATION 240 EDUCATION The number of scholars is that on the rolls, but the averse attendance is about 63 per cent, of same. Year On the Rolls Average Attendance Ratio 1880 . 1885 . . . 1888 . 9,705,000 11,170,000 11,950,000 6,049.000 7,020,000 7,852,000 62 per cent. 63 ,. 6S „ As the population in 1888 was 60 millions, the average attendance was equal to 131 per thousand of population, against 123 in the United Kingdom. Considering the vast extent and scattered population of the United States, this result is admirable. School revenue seems largely to exceed expenditure, the latter in 18S8 being stated at ;^25, 5 10,000, whereas the school revenue of 1880 was said to reach ;^29, 100,000 sterling. The school-children in the various States were as follows :- 1840 1860 1885 Average Attend- ance, 1885 Average Attend- ance per 1000 Population, 1880 Alabama 21,000 98,000 234,000 145,000 116 Arkansas . 3,000 43,000 153.000 93,000* 116 California . 26,000 184,000 116,000 136 Colorado . 34,000 25,000 130 Connecticut 72,000 90,000 126,000 83,000 133 Delaware . 8,000 19,000 31,000 21,000 140 Florida , 2,000 9,000 62,000 46,000 170 Georgia . 24,000 95,000 292,000 195,000 130 Illinois . 37.000 338,000 739,000 491,000 160 Indiana 51,000 336,000 501,000 325,000 162 Iowa 2,000 185,000 473,000 284,000 I7S Kansas . ... 336,000 194,000 194 Kentucky . 31,000 183,000 283,000 179,000 109 Louisiana . 7,000 48,000 100,000 70,000 74 Maine 173,000 189,000 145,000 99,000 151 Maryland . 22,000 80,000 176,000 93,000 100 Massachusetts 178,000 249,000 340,000 254,000 Z40 Michigan . 31,000 205,000 412,000 253,000 152 Minnesot.-i 233,000 119,000 151 Mississippi 11,000 67,000 279,000 184,000 162 Missouri . 19,000 203,000 544,000 372,000 170 Nebraska , ..■ • *• 162,000 81,000 178 Nevada . ... ... 8,000 5,000 166 New Hampshin 90,000 83,000 64,000 45,000 133 New Jersey S9.O0O 119,000 217,000 123,000 110 New York S37.000 806,000 1,025,000 6ii,ooo 120 North Carolina 19,000 117,000 298,000 186,000 133 Ohio 225,000 606,000 775,000 518,000 160 Oregon 46,000 31,000 170 Pennsylvania 198,000 670,000 982,000 657,000 153 Rhode Island 21, GOO 31,000 53.000 34.000 122 South Carolina 17,000 47,000 178,000 122,000 122 Tennessee 31,000 163,000 374,000 192,000 128 Texas ... 63,000 245,000 154,000 97 Vermont . 87,000 80,000 72,000 49,000 ISO Virginia . 47.000 155.000 47S.OOO 286,000 134 Wisconsin 2,000 189,000 322,000 175,000 134 Territories 101,000 195,000 110,000 140 Tota 2,025,000 5,693,000 11,170,000 7,020,000 140 In the preceding table the ratio of school children to population in 1885 is not correct, as the only basis for comparison is the Census of 1880, which figures are on an average 15 per cent, too low. The two Virginias, be it noted, are put together as one State. Taking the four great divisions of the Union, we find:— States Average Attendance Ratio of Increase Per 1000 Population in 1885 1880 1885 New England Middle . . South . . . West . . . 541,000 1,417,000 1,509,000 2,582,000 564,000 1,505,000 1,852,000 3,099,000 4 per cent. 22 ,, 19 .. 140 120 120 164 Total . 6,049,000 7,020,000 17 per cent. 140 The expenditure on primary schools in 1880 was : — States Amount Ratio per Inhabitant Per Pupil, Average Attending New England , Middle .... South .... West .... Pacific .... 1,908,000 4,563,000 1,479,000 7,952,000 683,000 £ s. d. 096 069 020 096 10 9 £ s. d. 3 12 3 S 6 19 6 3 S 8 S 3 The Union . 16,585,000 066 2 IS * Arkansas, Michigan, and Texas give no returns of "average attendance." For the sake of comparison, I assume the general ratio of the Union, that is, 63 per cent, of the children on the rolls. EDUCATION 241 EDUCATION The number of white population over tvirenty years of age who could not read was as follows : — Year Number Percentage of Population 1840 .... 1850 .... i860 .... 550,000 1,053,000 1,218,000 7.8 11.2 9.2 The Census subsequently extended the inquiry to all persons, white or coloured, over ten years of age, with the result : — Year Unable to Read over Ten Years Percentage of Population 1870 .... 1880 .... 4,528,000 3,019,000 16.0 8.1 This shows what progress education has made since 1870, the proportion of illiterate persons over ten years old having been reduced by one-half in a single decade. The greatest relative advancement is in the South, where (as shown above) the average attendance of school children rose 22 per cent, between 1880 and 1885. The number of children on the school rolls in i860 and 1885 compared thus : — States New 'England , Middle . . . South . . West. . . , Total . , Children on Rolls 1860 722,000 1,694,000 1,088,000 2,189,000 1885 801,000 2,431,000 2,973,000 4,965,000 5,693,000 11,170,000 96 per cent. Increase 11 per cent, 44 .. 173 ., 127 ,, The intermediate and superior instruction in 1880 showed thus : — Number Teachers Students University colleges Academies . 1,1^ 4.240 S.960 60,000 183,000 Total 2,224 10,200 243,000 The most celebrated University is Harvard, near Boston, founded in 1 638. The number of universities and colleges in 177s was ten, rising to 21 in 1791. The University students in 1880 were : — Law . Theology . Science . 3.100 S.800 8,900 Medicine Arts 12,000 30,200 Total , 60,000 The records of Indian education for 1888 sum up thus In the preceding tables no account is taken of orphan- ages, &c., which in 1S80 instructed 774,000 children. Number [ Children Orphanages .... Blind, &c Reformatories .... 67 751,000 8,600 14,200 Total S6i 773,800 The grand total of 1888 therefore reaches 13,126,000 persons receiving instruction, or 22 per cent, of the population. Canada In 1850 there were but 1700 schools, and in 1887 the number exceeded 15,600. The returns for 1887 compare with 1879 as follows : — Schools . Teachers , Pupils 1879 12,786 16,297 866,000 1887 15,607 18,942 984,000 The returns for 1887 were as follows : — Province Teachers Pupils on Roll Average Attendance Expen- diture, £ Ontario. . . . Quebec .... Nova Scotia . . New Brunswick . P. Edward I. . . Manitoba, &c. . 7.775 6,121 2,119 1,644 765 504,000 253,000 105,000 69,000 22,000 26,000 248,000 130,000 51.000 34.000 12,000 12,000 700,000 70,000 130,000 80,000 30,000 90,000 Total . 18,942 979.000 487,000 1,100,000 The Universities of Quebec, Montreal, and Toronto are ably conducted and largely attended. Morocco There is a Mahometan university at Fez, attended by 700 students, but the studies are mostly limited to the Koran. India Public instruction may be said to date from 1858; when the East India Company possessions were annexed to the British Crown. The records show as follows : — Year Schools Scholars Expenditure 1857 . 1874 . . . 1878 . 1888 . 43ii88 82,561 133.352 200,000 977.000 2,196,000 3.474,000 200,000 760,000 1,660,000 2,100,000 Schools No. Pupils Schools No. Pupils Schools No. Pupils State .... Private . . . 78,304 55.048 2,959,000 515.000 Males . . . Females . . . Total . 126,298 7,054 3,193,700 280,300 Primary . . . Secondary . . Total . 89,400 i 2,557,000 43,952 1 917,000 Total . 133,352 3.474,000 133,352 3,474,000 133,352 ,3.474,000 The above is the number of children on the rolls, the average attendance being 78 per cent., say 2,710,000 children. The Government subsidy is ;^6oo,ooo, fees and local rates j^i, 500,000. The Universities of Calcutta, Madras. and Bombay have 6000 students. Q EDUCATION 242 EDUCATION Australia The returns for 1880 showed thus :— ■s 1 Pupils En- rolled Average Atten- dance Expendi- ture, £ N. S. Wales . Victoria . . New Zealand . S. Australia . Queensland . Tasmania . W. Australia . 1,910 2,430 836 370 338 171 102 3.393 4,950 2,68i 837 924 323 108 169,000 269,000 84,000 36,000 43,000 12,000 5,000 72,000 120,000 63,000 20,000 24,000 8,000 3,000 475,000 553,000 384,000 87,000 124,000 24,000 10,000 Total . 6,157 13,216 618,000 311,000 1,657,000 The progress of instruction in late years has been very rapid, as these figures show : — Year Schools Pupils Expendi- Boys Girls Total ture, £ 1861 . . 1871 . . 1881 . . 1888 . . 6,157 9,104 6g,ooo 165,000 344,000 401,000 61,000 147,000 327,000 382,000 130,000 312,000 671,000 783,000 1,657,000 1,930,000 The returns for 1888 were as follows : — Pupils Schools Average Public schools . Private schools . 618,000 165,000 6,816 2,288 90 72 Total . 783,000 9,104 86 New South Wales Victoria New Zealand South Australia . Queensland Tasmania . • Western Australia Total Schools Public 2,291 1.930 1,208 530 544 220 93 6,816 Private 659 752 300 293 134 150 2,288 Total 2.950 2,682 1,508 823 678 370 93 9,104 Pupils on Roll 227,000 280,000 130,000 60,000 59,000 22,000 5,000 783,000 Average at Public Schools 112,000 129,000 96,000 28,000 39,000 9,000 4,000 417,000 Expendi- ture, £ 600,000 620,000 380,000 100,000 180,000 40,000 10,000 1,930,000 The number of persons who could read and write in the several colonies, according to Census returns, was as follows : — Census of 1861 Number Percentage Read and Write Read Only Cannot Read Read and Write Read Only |Cannot Read 1 New South Wales .... Victoria Queensland South Australia New Zealand Tasmania Western Australia ... 189,000 328,000 17,000 72,000 68,000 48,000 8,000 46,000 57,000 4,000 19,000 9,000 13.000 2,000 116,000 156,000 9,000 36,000 22,000 29,000 6,000 57 57 68 S3 56 13 11 12 14 9 15 10 33 29 31 29 23 32 34 Total 730,000 150,000 374.000 58 12 30 Census of 1881 New South Wales .... Victoria Queensland South Australia New Zealand Tasmania Western Australia . . . . 507,000 652,000 137,000 200,000 346,000 75.000 20,000 49,000 50,000 14,000 15,000 27,000 10,000 2,000 195,000 161,000 63,000 65,000 116,000 31,000 8,000 68 76 65 72 71 65 67 I 6 8 7 25 18 29 23 23 27 26 Total 1,937,000 167,000 639,000 70 7 23 From the preceding table it appears that in 1881 popular instruction was most general in Victoria, and that, on the other hand, Tasmania and Queensland stood lowest. The percentage of persons able to sign the marriage register in Australasia was as follows : — Year Men. Women Total i86i . 81 69 75 1871 • • ^i 84 87 1881 . . 96 93 95 1888 • 97 97 97 South Africa The colonies of the Cape and Natal in 1888 showed : — Schools Pupils Average Attendance Outlay, £ Cape . . . Natal . . 1,407 124 88,000 11,000 47.000 9,000 220,000 30,000 Total . 1.531 99,000 56,000 250,000 There is a University at Cape Town with 250 students. EDUCATION 243 ELECTORS Ceylon The returns for 1872 and 1888 compare thus :— Schools Pupils 1872 1888 1872 1888 Public . . Private . . 602 36s I.3S7 2,292 36,000 9,000 102,000 • 29,000 Total . 967 3.649 4S.OOO 131,000 The Government subsidy is ^^40,000 yearly. About 5 per cent of the whole population attend school. Cyprus In 1888 the returns were as follovirs : — Schools Pupils ■Christian .... Mahometan 219 86 10,400 3,100 ToUl 30s 13.500 Annual expenditure, £gcxx3, one-third being a State frant. Minor Colonies The latest returns show as follows : — Schools Pupils Public Private Total PubUc Private Total Hong-Kong Singapore . Mauritius . Jamaica, . 97 ISO 144 771 107 32 182 144 771 6,000 7,000 16,000 72,000 2,000 3,000 8,000 10,000 16,000 72,000 There are many private schools at Jamaica, but no returns. Japan Education has lost ground of late years, viz. : — 1882 Schools Teachers , Pupils 30,660 89,600 3,091,000 1888 27.550 62,600 2,830,000 There are sixteen free libraries. The number of new works published was 9550 in the year 1888. There were 470 newspapers and magazines. South America The Argentine Republic has taken the foremost place in the South American continent. The official returns for 1876 and 1888 were : — 1876 1888 Increase Schools. . . . Teachers . . . Pupils .... 1,946 116,200 3.227 7.332 254,600 6s per cent. 23 "9 The returns for 1888 show as follows : — Schools Teachers Scholars State .... Private .... 2,263 964 4.744 2.588 175,200 79.400 Total . . 3.227 7.332 254,600 The ratio of school-children was 70 per 1000 of the population. The above includes 2 universities and 34 colleges, with 13,000 students. Brazil in 1880 had 4 universities, 26 colleges, and 5890 schools, the whole numbering 191,000 pupils, or 16 per 1000 of population. Chile in 1880 had 1650 schools, attended by 98,000 children, equal to 50 per 1000 of population, and a university at Santiago. ELECTORS The numbers of electors and voters in various countries are : — Electors Voters Percentage Per 1000 of Population Electors Voters Year United Kingdom 5,837,000 4,550,000 78 X55 121 1889 United States 10,868,000 176 1888 France . 9,948,000 8,012,000 81 266 220 1880 <3ermany 9,124,000 5,832,000 64 205 130 1880 Spain . 942,000 610,000 63 57 36 1880 Austria . 1,291,000 462,000 36 60 22 1880 Switzerland 639,000 256,000 40 230 92 1880 Portugal 217,000 145,000 67 54 36 ... Belgium 118,000 86,000 72 21 15 1880 Italy . 627,000 370,000 S9 21 13 1880 Sweden 43.000 17,000 40 10 4 1880 The returns for the United Kingdom show the electors for 1889, and the ratio of voters is assumed to be as at the election of 1885, that is, 78 per cent United Kingdom Percentage of Electors Ratio to 100 Inhabitants 1835 1871 1881 1889 1835 1871 1881 1889 England . • . . Ireland Scotland .... 79-S 11.7 8.8 80.8 9.0 10.2 82.4 7-S 10. 1 77.2 130 9.8 4.6 1.2 30 9.0 4-2 7.6 9-7 4-4 8.4 1S.8 16.0 14.2 United Kingdom . lOO.O lOO.O loao 100.0 3-3 8.1 8.9 I5-S ELECTORS 244 ELECTORS Until 1885 Ireland had less than half her fair share of electors for population. The proportion of county and borough electors in the United Kingdom has been as follows : — Electors Ratio 1846 1881 1885 1846 1881 1885 County . , , , Borough .... 622,000 445,000 1,198,000 1,879,000 3,497,000 2,219,000. S8.S 4I-S 39.0 61.0 61.0 39-0 Total 1,067,000 3,077,000 5,716,000 100.0 100.0 100. The franchise has been extended at intervals, and now counts seven times as many electors as in 1835, ^'^- ■ — Year England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom 1835 1846 1871 1881 1889 668,000 845,000 2,066,000 2,538,000 4,502,000 73.000 93,000 260,000 310,000 572,000 98,000 129,000 227,000 229,000 763,000 839,000 1,067,000 2,553,000 3,077,000 5,837,000 The franchise of 1885 exactly reversed the ratios of 18S1. The proportion of members of Parliament to electors in the three kingdoms is as follows : — England 1 to 9100 Scotland 1 ,, 8000 Ireland i ,, 7400 United Kingdom . • i ,, 8700 Of 100 electors, 80 vote in England, 79 in Scotland, 67 in Ireland, the ratio for the whole United Kingdom being. 78 — say 4,500,000 voters. United States The presidential elections since 1824 have been as follows : — Electoral Votes Popular Votes Votes per loo- of Population Winner Other Candidates Total Winner Others Total 1824 1828 1832 1836 1840 1844 1848 1852 1856 i860 1864 1868 1872 1875 1880 1884 1888 99 178 2ig 170 234 170 163 254 180 212 214 286 iSs 214 219 162 67 124 60 105 127 42 122 123 102 103 80 184 iSS 182 261 261 286 294 294 275 290 296 296 303 314 317 366 369 369 401 156,000 647,000 688,000 762,000 1,275,000 1,337,000 1,360,000 1,601,000 1,838,000 1,866,000 2,216,000 3,015,000 3,597,000 4,034,000 4,449,000 4,911,000 5,186,000 196,000 509,000 562,000 737,000 1,136,000 1,361,000 1,511,000 1,542,000 2,217,000 2,811,000 1,809,000 2,710,000 2,870,000 4,375,000 4,761,000 5.145.000 5,682,000 352,000 1,156,000 1,250,000 1,499,000 2,411,000 2,698,000 2,871,000 3,143,000 4,055,000 4,677,000 4,025,000 5,725,000 6,467,000 8,409,000 9,210,000 10,056,000 10,868,000 3 10 10 10 14 14 13 IS IS 15 12 16 16 19 18 19 18 France The most important elections, known as plebiscites, were as follows : — Year For Against Total Per 100 Inhabitants 1793 1803 1815 1852 1870 1,801,000 3,568,000 1,302,000 7,828,000 7,336,060 12,000 9,000 4,000 253,000 1,561,000 1,813,000 3,577,000 1,306,000 8,081,000 8,897,000 7 12 4 23 23 The general election of 1881 showed as follows : — Class Republicans . , Orleanists Bonapartisls . Not voted Total Per Cent. 4.570 000 45-7 1,103 000 11. 1 S3« 000 S-4 3.740. 000 000 37-8 9.9Si< 100.0 Italy The following elections resulted thus :- Year Electors on Voted Voted, Voters per loa Roll Per Cent. Inhabitants 1861 421,000 240,000 57 I.I 1865 504,000 272,000 54 i.i 1870 535.000 241,000 45 0.9 1-3 1-3 1876 607,000 358.000 59 1880 627,000 370,000 59 Germany The members from the various States composing the- Impenal Council are as follows :— . 4 Mecklenburg . 2- . 3 Branswick . . 2 . 3 Small States . ly Prussia Bavaria Saxony 17 6 Wurtemburg Baden . . Hesse . . . Making a total of 58 members of the Bundesrath. ELECTRICITY 245 EMIGRATION The voters and electors of the Empire were as fol- lows: — Year Electors Voters P<:rc«itage Electorsper Voting looo Inhab, 1874 8,523,000 5,292,000 62 200 1880 9,124,000 5,832,000 64 205 Belgium The following table shows the registered electors and numbers that voted : — Year Electors Voted 1841 . . . . 1859 . . . . 1878 . . . . 1884 . . . . 24,900 61,900 125,100 195.700 19,100 45. 100 64,200 146,800 ELECTKICITY Lights. — The following are some of the largest lights in use : — Candle- Pffwer 2,000 3,000 5.000 6,000 24,000 Candle- Power Marseilles, lighthouse 40,000 Palais d'Industrie, ) Paris .... {150,000 Sydney, lighthouse . 180,000 Kensington Museum ■Crystal Palace . . British Museum Liverpool Docks . San Jos6, California The cost varies from lod. an hour at Kensington, to -27d. at Marseilles, both Brush system. The arc light at Liverpool costs I5d., the Siemens at the British Museum 24d. The San Jos^ electric moon stands on a tower 200 feet high, is worked by a 9- horse engine, and shows light for two miles around. The Sydney light is visible 50 miles, being the most powerful yet made. The Marseilles gives six times more light than the old system, at a saving of 9d. per hour. The Ken- sington Museum saves £2.y^ a year by the change. The smallest lights are Swan and Edison's arc lights of 8 candle-power for domestic use. A contract with the Nottingham Municipality in May 1883 was for works and plant for supplying 60,000 Swan lamps of 20 candle- power. The cost of instalment was ;^220,ooo, and after allowing for all expenses and interest on capital, the •electric light would cost 40 per cent, less than gas, and give 40 per cent, more light. In the United States, in 1890, there were 3,230,000 electric lights in use, 90 per cent, of the incandescent kind. Turin is lit witli 73,000 <;andle-power (equal to 6000 gas lamps), at a cost of ^£■5200 per annum. The gas only cost ^3200. In 1885 the Journal of Arts said : — " As regards the electric light, at the present time upwards of 600 djmamos and 20,000 lamps are in use, and the cost of their instal- lation may be estimated at about one million sterling." The Lane-Fox system may be described as follows : — Horse-Power Lights Candle-Power Aggregate Candle-Power 3 20 36 . 30 10 20 25 40 600 1,000 2,400 The Brush system, with an engine 40 horse-power, •serves as follows : — Number of Lights Candle-Power Aggregate Candle-Power I . . . . 12 ... . .40 ... . 400 ... . 150,000 8,000 2,000 150 150,000 96,000 80,000 60,000 One engine of the above power feeds 400 lamps on a line of 30 miles, consuming 1 50 lbs. coal per hour, as com- pared with one ton per hour for gaslight over same length. The Yablochkoff system is said to supply 100 candle- Berlin Hanover Milan . London 73.400 20,000 20,000 6,000 Liverpool . 2,000 S.ooo Schwerin . 3,000 4,000 Rotterdam . 2,500 3,000 Munich . . 2,500 3,000 St. Etienne 4,000 3,000 Strasburg . 2,500 power at a cost of id. per hour, having reduced the cost from 6d. an hour in 1877. The number of Edison lights, underground wires, in use in Europe on the ist January 1889 was as follows : — Hamburg Dresden Liibeck . Turin . Elberfeld besides Brunswick, Stuttgart, Halle, Crefeld, and Darm- stadt, making a total of 1 70,000. According to the Magasin du Louvre the relative cost of lighting is — gas 100, Edison 75, Yablochkoff 55 (in 1884). Motor 1873. At the Vienna Exhibition a pump was worked at a distance of 1400 yards by means of an electric wire. 1879. At Sermaize, La Mame, a field of six acres was ploughed in six hours with a wire attached to a 12-horse engine a mile distant. 1 88 1. At Oisiel a farmer named Meiner ploughed a large field by connecting an electric wire with a waterfall. 1882. Project to tap the force of Niagara by construct- ing turbines, the power of water being estimated at ten million cubic feet per second, or eight million horse-power, and to transmit this force through the United States. Estimated value, ;^300,ooo a day, or 108 millions sterling per annum. A copper wire, half-inch diameter and 300 miles long, would suffice to convey 30,000 horse-power from Niagara to New York. 1883. Four electric locomotives constructed by the New York Railway Company to do the work of 160 ordinary locomotives. Tramcar at Kew, near London, running by electricity at six miles an hour, one accumu- lator of 80 lbs. sufficing for seven hours' work ; cost 6s. per day, against 26s. worked by horses. Electric railway from Portrush to Giant's Causeway, Ireland. Electric screw-boat on the Thames at Greenwich, 9 miles an hour. 1889. City of Buffalo contracts with Niagara Power Company for 10,000 horse-power at ;^3o,ooo per annum, to light the city and drive factories ; cable, 20 miles long. 1890. There are at present 645 miles of street railways operated by electricity in the United States and Canada. At present 45 electric roads are in course of construction, aggregating 512 miles of way, for which 167 cars are being built. In a short time the total number of electric roads will be 854, running 1927 motor and trailing cars, with a mileage of 1158. See Telegraph, Telephones. EMIGRATION Since the battle of Waterloo, no fewer than 27 millions of people in Europe have left their homes, broken up family ties, and sought their futures in new lands : *- — 1816-50 1851-88 Total United Kingdom 2,369.000 7,491,000 9,860,000 France .... 320,000 1,220,000 1,540,000 Germany . , . 1,130,000 4,540,000 5,670,000 Russia .... 50,000 350,000 400,000 Austria .... 130,000 1,160,000 1,290,000 Italy .... 320,000 3,260,000 3,580,000 Switzerland . . 150,000 610,000 760,000 Spain .... 160,000 580,000 740,000 Portugal . . . 90,000 450,000 540,000 Sweden and ) Norway . ) 100,000 970,000 1,070,000 Denmark . . . 40,000 180,000 220,000 Holland . . . 25,000 320,000 345.000 Belgium . . . go,ooo 880,000 970,000 Other countries . 20,000 200,000 220,000 Europe. . . . 4,994,000 22,211,000 27,205.000 * Besides the exodus of Europeans there has been an efflux of Coolies, EMIGRATION The emigration from India averages 22,000 yearly, the aumber registered abroad in 1880 being 335,000, viz. : — 246 EMIGRATION Mauritius Demerara Bourbon . 141,000 54,000 43,000 Trinidad . Natal Jamaica, &c. 26,000 18,000 S3.000 Numbers of Chinese Coolies emigrate to Cuba and Peru, where they are ill-treated. Cuba imported 1 16,000 in the years 1866-73, and refiised to let them return to China on the expiration of their contracts ; 67,000 died. The number imported into Peru in the year 1871 was 38,650, of whom many were put to death. In 1880 in one province 2000 were massacred. The destinations of European emigrants were : — jDown to 1850 1851-88 Total United States . Australia . . . Canada. . . . Argentina . . . Brazil .... Uruguay . . . Algeria .... Cape Colony . . Various countries 2,633,000 140,000 790,000 80,000 90,000 40,000 140,000 30,000 1,051,000 12,330,000 1,710,000 977,000 1,450,000 790,000 170,000 420,000 130,000 4,234,000 14,963,000 1,850,000 1,767,000 1,530,000 880,000 210,000 560,000 160,000 5,285,000 Total . . 4,994,000 22,211,000 27,205,000 The exact proportions of sex and age cannot be given ; the following table is not of uniform importance, some of the countries being classed from observations of ten years, others for a single year. Emigrants from T1? fc-. ■a ti c •^ ^ •ft S S 1 ■s B 3 to Men .... 46 s° .■;2 32 4,'; 51 70 55 ^\'omen . . . 32 2.'; 23 28 S,') 2b 18 22 Children . . 22 25 2S 40 20 23 12 23 Total . 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 If the proportions for the unascertained countries be taken on the basis of the first six countries in the above table, the whole emigration from Europe over the seas for 74 years may be put down thus : — Men 11,550,000 Women ..... 6,730,000 Children 5,120,000 Total . . 23,400,000 The numbers of those who died on sea can never be arrived at even approximately. Kapp says that 20,000 Irish perished of ship-fever in 1846-4.7. Many vessels lost 20 per cent. If we were to adopt the death-rate on Government emigrant-ships to Australia and Cape Colony, namely, 5 per 1000 for men, 6 for women, and 52 for children, the number of the foregoing who died at sea would be as follows : — Men 58,000 Women 40,000 Children 266,000 Total . . 364,000 Births partly compensate for deaths, being about 1 in 200 women carried. The professions of emigrants have not been uniformly classed ; the following conveys a general idea : — Emigrants from United Kingdom Germany Italy Sweden Educated . . Artisans, &c. . Farm labourers Servants . . 7 il 20 17 47 24 12 6 43 39 12 } 35 32 33 Total . 100 100 100 100 The amount of money which the emigrants took to their new homes was found to average as follows : — Per Head £ ^- d. Germans, 1848-52 . . . . 29 10 o 1853-54 . . . . 35 o o British in Canada, 1834 . . ■ 33 S <* New York arrrivals, 1856 . . 14 o o A moderate estimate of £\a per able-bodied man would result as follows : — To £ United States .... 75,000,000 Australia 9,200,000 Canada 8,800,000 River Plate 8,700,000 Brazil 4,400,000 Various countries . . . 9,400,000 Total . . 115,500,000 The great value of the emigrants, meantime, has been in their capacity for work. Dr. Farr valued a man of 2a at ;^234 sterling, Engel at ;^2oo, and other writers at ;^260. In Australia it is found that each immigrant, big and little, increases the revenue by £^ yearly. In the Argen- tine Republic the influx of 800,000 immigrants in twenty- years ending 1 883 was accompanied by a rise of ;^4,8oo,ooo. in the revenue, say £6 per head. But it is in the United States where the value of immigration is most apparent j for example, a group of 200 persons settled in 1858 on the territory now known as the State of Colorado, and in 1880 there were 1220 miles of railway, 14 daily papers, 190,000 inhabitants, real and personal estate valued at 9 millions sterling, agricultural products worth ;^70o,ooo a year; in 1886 the value of property in Colorado had risen to 27 millions sterling. In the Republic of Uruguay in 1884 an official report showed 166,000 European settlers, holding property worth 52 millions. In the city of Buenos Ayres 40,000 Europeans in 1883 held bank-deposits and real property worth ;f 47,600,000, besides Irishand Scotch sheep-farms valued at 21 millions sterling. The Census report of the United States in 1880 showed an increase of wealth since 1850 of 7593 millions sterling, and as immigrants were I2i per cent, of the population, it follows that they stand for 949 millions of the increase. In Canada the agricultural capital rose from 140 mil- lions in 1 86 1 to 343 millions in 1887, and as immigrants formed 30 per cent, of the population, they are entitled to take credit for that share of the increase, say 61 mil- lions. Agricultural constituting only 50 per cent, of the wealth of Canada, the total accumulation due to the immigrants will be 122 millions sterling. There has been, moreover, a notable increase of wealth in the Brazilian provinces of Rio Grande do Sul, San Paulo, &c., where numerous German colonies have con- verted forests into productive lands. The following table is exclusive of Brazil and Cape Colony. EMIGRATION 247 EMIGRATION Country Wealth Accumulated by Immigrants Period Arrivals Mean European Population Wealth, Million £ Yearly Average per Head United States . Australia . Argentine Republic Uruguay . Canada 1850-80 1850-88 1850 84 1850-84 1861-87 8,002,000 1,710,000 880,000 305,000 799,000 4,600,000 1,200,000 300,000 166,000 700,000 949 714 80 52 122 6 17 IS 12 7 14 8 18 6 14 Except in Australia, the annual accumulations have been pretty much on a level, about £7 to ;^8 per annum, this ratio applying equally to men, women, and children. From the foregoing figures we can construct a table of the accumulations of emigrants between 1850 and 1888 as follows : — Emigrants Mean Number Abroad Accumu- lation, Million £ Per Head, English Scotch .... Irish .... Germans Various nations . 1,200,000 250,000 1,520,000 1,700,000 2,296,000 410 95 411 45= 460 342 380 270 266 200 Total 6,966,000 1,828 261 It is a coincidence that each emigrant accumulated in the last 38 years about ^260, and that this is the precise value set by some writers on each able-bodied adult. The strongest impulse to immigration was given by the Homestead Law of the United States and similar mea- siures, giving lands to colonists at nominal or low prices. Down to 1886 the United States Government had thus disposed of 255 million acres, the Australian colonies loi million acres. (See Lamis.) The total number of persons living out of their own country is approximatelyas follows (exclusive of Coolies): — Per 1000 /nAai. In Europe * 2,537,000 10 „ United States 8,510,000 137 ,, Australia 1,200,000 300 ,, River Plate . 1,086,000 240 ,, Canada . 800,000 160 ,, Brazil . 460,000 40 ,, Algeria . igo,ooo 50 .. Egypt . 91,000 14 ,, South Africa . 50,000 33 „ Chile . 40,000 15 „ China and Japan 6,000 „ Other countries 200,000 ... Total . . 15,170,000 Foreign residents in the various countries of Europe are as follows : — 1 Number Number U. Kingdom 1 155.000 Sweden and Norway 26,000 France. . . . 1,115,000 Denmark . . . 61,000 Germany . ,. . 276,000 Holland .... 69,000 Russia .... 148,000 Belgium .... 143,000 Austria . . . 127,000 Switzerland . . . 211,000 Italy .... 60,000 Rouraania . 89,000 Spain .... 37.000 Greece .... 20,000 • The number of foreigners in the various Eiu-opean States being 2,537,000, as shown above, it is made up approximately as follows : — Germans Belgians Austrians Italians . French . Swiss . 540,000 460,000 360,000 330,000 180,000 140,000 Spaniards 120,000 Dutch . 72,000 British . 70,000 Russians 70,000 Swedes . 60,000 Various 135,000 Comparing the above figures with the emigration statistics the result is approximately as follows : — Period Emigrated Now Living Abroad 1815-50 . 1851-80 . 1881-88 . . . 4,994,000 15,868,000 6,343,000 430,000 8,640,000 6,100,000 74 years . 27,205,000 15,170,000 from which it appears that 12,035,000 either died abroad or returned to their own countries. The following table shovre European emigration in 1888, as compared with population : — From Number Per Cent, of Population England .... 171,000 0.60 Scotland . 36,000 0.90 Ireland 73.000 1.60 United Kingdom 280,000 0.74 France 23,000 0.06 Germany . 104,000 0.23 Austria 46,000 0.12 Italy . 297,000 I.OO Spain 71.000 0.40 Portugal . 13,000 0.30 Holland . 18,000 0.40 Belgium . 23,000 0.40 Scandinavia 77,000 0.90 Switzerland 8,000 0.27 Making a total of 960,000 souls, approximately as follows : — Their destination was United States 570,000 South America 280,000 British colonies .... 105,000 Various parts 5,ooo 960,000 Emigrants from Northern Europe still go mostly to the United States ; those from the Mediterranean to South America. The current of emigration to Canada and Australia is chiefly British. United Kingdom Oflicial returns may be sumnied up as follows : — Per Annum 1815-29 . 1830-49 . 1850-69 . 1870-79 . 1880-88 . 314,000 2,164,000 4,278,000 . 2,153,000 3,228,000 21,000 108,000 214,000 215,000 359,000 74 years . . . 12,137,000 164,000 The above, however, includes foreign emigrants, who formed about 22 per cent, of the total. The number of British subjects was a little under ten millions, the follow- ing classification of natives of the three kingdoms being EMIGRATION 248 EMIGRATION as close as can be ascertained, the figures before 1840, as Porter shows, being defective : — Period English Scotch Irish Total Per Annum 1815-34 1835-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 110,000 320,000 640,000 650,000 970,000 1,245,000 30,000 80,000 183,000 158,000 166,000 228,000 420,000 1,409,000 1,231,000 867,000 542,000 612,000 560,000 1,809,000 2,054,000 1,675,000 1,678,000 2,085,000 28,000 113,000 205,000 168,000 168,000 261,000 74 years 3,935,000 845,000 5,081,000 9,861,000 133.000 The destinations were as follows : To 1815-75 1876-88 Total United States . . Canada. . . , Australia . . . Cape, &c. . . . 4,425,000 1,260,000 1,022,000 317,000 1,807,000 317,000 485,000 228,000 6,232,000 1,577,000 1,507,000 545,000 Total . . 7,024,000 2,837,000 9,861,000 The United States took 140,000 a year in the 13 years ending 1888, Canada 25,000, and Australia 37,000 settlers. The returns for the years 18 I were as follows : — Emigrants Destination 1S8S 1889 1888 1889 English .... Scotch Irish 170,000 37,000 73.000 164,000 25,000 65,000 United States . Canada .... Australia .... Various .... Total 196,000 35.000 31,000 18,000 169,000 28,000 28,000 United Kingdom 280,000 254,000 280,000 254,000 At all periods the United States attracted the bulk of the emigration. United States British Colonies, &c. Total U. States Ratios 1815-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 1,308,000 1,257,000 1,185,000 1,088,000 1,394,000 1,061,000 797.000 490,000 590,000 691,000 2,369,000 2,054,000 1,675,000 1,678,000 2,085,000 55-2 61.3 70.7 65.0 66.9 74 years 6,232,000 3,629,000 9,861,000 63.2 The respective destinations of the people of the three kingdoms were approximately as follows : — United States Canada Austra- lia Cape, &o. Total English . . Scotch . . Irish. . . 1,893,000 265,000 4,074,000 872,000 225,000 480,000 820,000 247,000 440,000 350,000 108,000 87,000 3,935,000 845,900 5,081,000 Total . . 6,232,000 1,577,000 1,507,000 545,000 '9,861,000 The number of colonists who survive and are still abroad, and the number of their children (estimated according to result of United States Census in 1880) may be set down approximately as follows : — Settlers in Now Living Children Population United States . Canada . . . Australia . . . Cape, &c. . . . 3,180,000 720,000 1,080,000 360,000 4,310,000 940,000 1,400,000 470,000 7,490,000 1,660,000 2,480,000 830,000 Total . . 5,340,000 7,120,000 12,460,000 In recent years there has been a steady influx of re- turned emigrants, averaging 78,000 for the years 1881-88, or about 30 per cent, of the number of emigrants in that period. The remittances by Irish settlers in the United States to their friends at home, from 1851 to 1887, amounted to ;^32,200,ooo. The accumulations of wealth by British and Irish emigrants since 1850, as already shown, amounted to 916 millions sterling. The number of foreigners residing in the United King- dom has been as follows : — Year Numier Per 1000 Inhab 1841. . 36,000 1-3 1851 62,000 2-3 1861 . 102,000 3.5 1871 . 161,000 S-2 1881 . I5S.0OO FRAN'CE 4-4 In ten years ending 1887 the number of emigrants that left French ports was 460,000, but of these only 55,000 were French, say 5500 per annum. In five years ending 1872 the number of French emigrants from Havre averaged 5100 yearly. The above figures do not include settlers going to Algeria (for which see Colonies, p. 126). Approximately the emigration from France has been as follows : — United States Algeria Argentina Uruguay . Egypt . Europe . Total 1840-58 1,340,000 Per Annum 320,000 6,600 300,000 6,300 190,000 4,000 50,000 1,000 30,000 600 450,000 9.500 28,000 The number of French living abroad in i860 and 1885 compared as follows : — In Belgium . Switzerland United Kingdom Spain Italy Egypt . Algeria United States . South America . Total 1860 1885 35,000 51,000 45,000 59,000 16,000 20,000 11,000 20,000 5,000 11,000 14,000 16,000 72,000 262,000 110,000 107,000 59,000 167,000 367,000 713,000 EMIGRATION 249 EMIGRATION The chief currents of French emigration were : — United States . . Ai^entine Republic Algeria .... Uruguay .... Number 314,000 156,000 300,000 44,000 Period 1820-80 1860-88 1840-88 1860-88 Number now Living 100,000 120,000 160,000 30,000 The influx of foreigners is, meantime, greater than the outflow of emigration. According to Census returns we find:— J, Foreigners Ratio to Pop. in France per 1000 1851 . . . 379,000 ... 11 1861 . , 497,000 ... 13 1872 . , 731,000 ... 20 i886. . . 1,115,000 ... 29 Molinari says that in fifteen years France received (1872-87) able-bodied emigrants equal to an accession of 140 inillions sterling to the national wealth. The foreigners living in France at various dates were as follows : — « 1851 1872 1881 Belgians . 128,000 348,000 432,000 Italians .... 63,000 113,000 241,000 Germans . . . S7.000 39,000 82,000 Swiss . . . . 26,000 43.000 66,000 Spaniards . . . 30,000 53.000 74,000 English. . . . 20,000 26,000 37.000 Various. . . . SS.ooo 109,000 69,000 Total . . 379.000 731,000 1,001,000 Paris has 213,000 foreign residents, being 9 per cent. of the population. In 1888 the Government expelled the following for- eigners from France : — Men Women Total Spaniards . . . I.57S 37 1,612 Belgians . . . 1,296 120 1,416 Germans . . . S04 69 573 Various. . . . S90 58 648 Total . 3.96s 284 4.249 Germany The Archivio fi jures are as follows : — Period Emigrated Per Annum 1820-49 • . 168,000 5, 600 1850-59 . . 660,000 66,000 1860-69 • . 750,000 75,000 1870-79 . 790,000 79,000 1880-86 . . 1,342,000 192,000 66 years . . . 4,710,000 72,000 The Almanack de Golha says that 4,900,000 Germans emigrated between 1820 and December 1887, of which 3,700,000 to the United States. Duval, however, makes the efflux down to 1859 much greater, as follows : — 1820-29 49,600 1830-39 220,900 1840-49 .....* 661,200 1850-59 1,017,100 40 years 1,948,800 Gaebler is of the same opinion, making the number 1,800,000 from 1819 to 1855. It must be observed, meantime, that the Archivio gives only the departures by sea, whereas Gaebler includes the total outflow by sea and land. Official returns give much lower figures. For example, the Prussian Blue-book makes the total for thirty years down to 1871 as 642,000, and the Board of Trade Abstract for eighteen years ending 1888 only 1,771,000, a total of 2,413,000, which is less than half the reality. If we consult the statistics of Germans in United States, Russia, Brazil, River Plate, and various countries in Europe, we may form an approximate table as follows : — Actual Emigration Official Figures Period Number Per Annum Number Per Annum 1821-40 1841-70 1871-80 1881-88 270,000 2,880,000 1,050,000 1,470,000 13.500 96,000 105,000 184,000 642,000 626,000 1,365,000 21,400 62,600 170,000 68 years 5,670,000 84,000 2,633,000 1 39,000 Actual Emigration Official 1821-88 1871-87 United States . Brazil .... Spanish America Australia .... Other parts 4,316,000 84,000 70,000 60,000 1,140,000 1,880,000 31,000 19,000 17,000 44,000 Total • 5,670,000 1,991,000 Dutch . 18,000 English . 11,000 French . . 17,000 Swedes . 10,000 Russians . 15,000 Various • 3S.OOO In official returns only persons going out of Europe are considered emigrants. Imm^ration into Germany is small, the number of resident foreigners being less than one-tenth of that of Germans abroad. The Census of 1880 showed a total of 276,000 resident foreigners, thus : — Austrians 118,000 Swiss . . 28,000 Danes . . 24,000 The total makes up less than 6 in 1000 of population. Russia The United States Census of 1 880 showed 49,000 Poles and 36,000 Russians, but since that year there has been a great influx. In 1888 no fewer than 37,300 Russian settlers arrived. In 1874-78 the severity of mili- tary service drove 40,000 Mennonites from the Empire, who made settlements at Manitoba, San Paulo, and Buenos Ayres, where they have prospered. Jews have also in late years been expelled in large numbers. In a period of 36 years down to 1886, according to police reports, there were 1,733,000 foreigners who settled in Russia, viz. : — Germans 952,000 Austrians 677,000 Various . .... 104,000 Total • i,733,°oo These figures are a mere fiction of the Russian police ; the actual number of foreigners in Russia at the Census of 1880 was only 148,000. Austria-Hungary In 1880 there were 135,000 Austrians and Hungarians in the United States. The official returns for ten years' emigration ending 1886 show as follows : — United States Argentina .... Various 227,000 10,000 37,000 Total 274,000 EMIGRATION 250 EMIGRATION The number of Austrian immigrants who arrived in the United States in 1888 was 42,000. Before 1880 the annual emigration averaged only 7000 yearly. The total for ten years ending 1880 was 71,000, of whom 46,000 were Bohemians. Italy OfEcial returns of the Argentine Republic show that in 28 years ending 1888 there were landed at Buenos Ayres and Rosario 550,000 Italians. In the same period 80,000 landed at Montevideo. There were 73,000 who emi- grated to the United States in sixty years, of whom 44,000 were living in 1880. Official returns, much below the reality, give the following for nine years down to December 1887 : — River Plate 261,000 United States 153,000 Brazil 98,000 North Africa 37,000 Various 68,000 Total 617,000 Carpi shows that the official returns are much less than the real number, because they fail to include Italians who go to the other parts of Europe. An official report pub- lished in 1883 showed the number of Italians living abroad as follows : — Argentina Brazil and Peru Uruguay . France Austria Switzerland United States . Levant, &c. Total 1873 BB.OOO 28,000 32,000 118,000 27,000 18,000 70,000 9S,ooo 476,000 1883 254,000 115,000 40,000 241,000 44,000 42,000 170,000 127,000 i,°33>°oo The following table shows approximately the currents of emigration : — 1821-40 1841-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 67 years United States 3,000 11,000 13,000 46,000 153,000 226,000 South America 30,000 180,000 430,000 365,000 1,015,000 Other Countries 150,000 400,000 460,000 700,000 629,000 2,329,000 Total Annual Average 163,000 441,000 653,000 1,176,000 1,147,000 3,580,000 8,100 22,000 6Si30O 117,600 164,000 S4,ooo According to the Archivio the emigration in the years 1882-86 summed up 803,000, whereas the official figures for the same years do not exceed 363,000. In the pre- ceding decade Professor Carpi made the average about 110,000 yearly, and estimated the number of returned emigrants at 60 per cent, of those who leave in any year. This is about double the proportion of the stream of emigration from Buenos Ayres to Italy, compared with the number of Italians arriving there. It may be there- fore assumed that 33 per cent, of the above emigrants returned to Italy. The account may be put down thus : — Settled in River Plate . „ Brazil „ United States ,, other countries Died .... Returned to Italy . 560,000 70,000 170,000 1,050,000 540,000 1,190,000 Total emigrated 3,580,000 The number of foreign residents in Italy is only 60,000, including 16,000 Austrians, 12,000 Swiss, 11,000 French, 7000 English, and 5000 Germans, the whole being as 2 per 1000 of the population. Switzerland The returns for ten years ending 1887 are as follows :— United States 70,000 South America 11,000 Total 81,000 By the Census of iSSo it appears there were 89,000 Swiss in the United States. There are 15,000 in the Argentine Republic. A large number of foreigners reside in Switzerland, and the number steadily increases : — 1870 1880 French Germans Italians Various 62,000 S7.000 18,000 14,000 S4.00O 95,000 42,000 , 20,000 Total 151,000 211,000 This is more than 7 per cent, of the population. The principal centre of foreign residents is Geneva, viz. : — Number of Inhab. Percentage 1850 1870 1850 1870 Swiss . . . Foreign . . 18,400 13.300 17,600 28,800 58 42 38 62 Total . 31,700 1 46,400 100 100 Spain Official returns at Buenos Ayres show that in 32 years down to 1888 there were landed in the Argentine Republic 172,000 Spaniards. In the same interval those landed at Montevideo were about 80,000. The United States report shows only 29,000 in 60 years down to 1880, the actual number of Spanish settlers in the said year being 5 100, but in the ensuing years there was a notable increase, 9000 having arrived between 1880 and 1888. Spain also sends out numbers- to Cuba and her other colonies. The currents of emigration have been approximately : — Period River Plate Other Countries Total Per Annum 1861-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . 160,000 92,000 180,000 50,000 340,000 142,000 17,000 18,000 28 years . . . 252,000 230,000 482,000 17,200 The annual outflow at present is little over i per 1000 of the population. About 5 per cent, of those who emigrate return to Spain. In 1888 there were Spaniards residing abroad as fol- lows : — Algeria, 114,000; River Plate, 99,000; France, 74,000 ; and others in various countries, the total reach- ing 346,500. The number of foreigners residing in Spain is only 37,000, including 18,000 French, 8000 Portuguese, and 5000 English, the total being barely as 2 per 1000 of the population in 1877. EMIGRATION 251 EMIGRATION Portugal Brazil is the principal destination of Portuguese emi- grants, of whom more than 300,000 landed at Brazilian ports since 1855, viz. : — 1855-65 81,000 1866-75 6z,ooo 1876-88 ..,.,. 172,000 34 years 315,000 The Census of 1880 in the United States showed only Sooo Portuguese. A small number go to the Portuguese colonies in Africa, the average for the last ten years being under 400. The total yearly emigration is about 13,000, or 3 per 1000 of the population. Sweden Official returns for 1851 show as follows : — Period To United States Other Countries Total Per Annum 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-86 . . 15,000 88.000 98,000 174,000 2,000 34.000 51,000 34.000 17,000 122,000 149,000 208,000 1,700 12,200 14.900 34.700 36 years . . 375.000 121,000 496,000 13.700 It seems that in thirty years down to 1S80 there were 201,000 Swedes who emigrated to the United States, and the American Census for that year showed 194,000 Swedish settlers then living. The number at present in the United States is doubtless near 300,000. There is also a current of emigration to Denmark, where the Census of 1S80 showed 24,000 Swedish settlers. The number of foreigners residing in Sweden is only 18,000, of whom 5000 are Danes, 4000 Norwegians, and 3000 Germans. The total is equal to 4 per 1000 of the population. Norway Emigration has been almost exclusively to the United States. We have no returns before 1856. Eviigrants Per Annum 1856-65 . . S4,ooo ... 5i400 1870-74 . . 56,000 ... 11,200 1876-87 . . 182,000 ... 15,200 The United States Census showed 182,000 Norwegian settlers, and sincethat year 142,000 have gone thither (to December 1S87), so that the present number cannot fall short of 240,000. There are also 3000 Norwegians settled in Denmark. The number of foreigners residing in Norway is 8000, being 4 per 1000 of the population. Denmark Official returns are to the following effect : — Period To United States Other Countries Total Per Annum 1868-70 1S71-S0 1881-87 7.300 32.800 51,600 1.400 S.800 2,100 8.700 38,600 53.700 2,900 3.900 7.700 20 years 91,700 9.300 101,000 S.ooo The United States Census of 1880 showed 64,000 Danish residents, and, with the influx of later years, the number must now reach 90,000. Since 1870 more than 3500 Danes have gone to Australia. The current of emigration at present averages 4 per looo of population. Denmark has 61,000 foreign residents, including 33,000 Germans and 24,000 Swedes, the total being equal to 3 per cent of population. Holland Official returns show as follows : — Period To United States Other Countries Total Per Annum 1875-80 1881-86 84,200 113,000 1,100 1,200 85,300 114,200 14.200 19,000 12 years 197.200 2,300 199.500 16,600 The United States Census of 1880 showed 71,000 Dutch settlers ; the present number cannot fall short of 170,000. The numerous Dutch colonies seem to have no attraction for emigrants. The present rate of emigration is equal to 5 per 1000 of the population. There are in Holland 69,000 foreigners, including 42,000 Germans, 19,000 Belgians, and 2000 English ; in all equal to 15 per 1000 of the population. Belgium The currents of immigration and emigration would appear to be about equal, according to official records from 1 84 1 to 1886. Those of the year 1846 are lost, but allowing the average in that decade, we find as follows : — Period Immigrants Emigrants 1841-50 .... 1851-60 .... 1861-70 .... 1871-80 .... i88i-86 .... 37,000 60,000 94.000 . 150,000 108,000 51,000 89,000 110,000 119,000 90,000 46 years .... 449,000 4S9.000 These figures represent only the arrivals and departures at ports. The actual number of emigrants in 1841-86 must have reached a million, the Census of 1885 showing the following number of Belgians abroad France Holland . United States . Germany . United Kingdom Various . making in all 530.000 souls. 482,300 18,800 15.500 9,200 2,600 1,300 In 57 years ending 1887 there were 2553 foreigners naturalised as Belgians, viz. : — Germans . . 933 I French . . . 622 Dutch . . . 640 1 Various . . 358 Notwithstanding the great influx of foreigners, the number of foreign residents at the last Census was only 143,000, including 49,000 Dutch, 51,000 French, 34,000 Germans, and 4000 English, in all 24 per thousand of the population. United States The emigration to the United States before 1830* can only be approximately estimated ; since that year minute returns have been kept. Period Immigrants Per Annum 1654-1701 .... 134.000 2,800 1702-1750 . 182,000 3.700 1751-1800 . 310,000 6,200 1801-20 . 178,000 8,900 1821-30 . 264,000 26,400 1831-40 . S99.O0O 59.900 1841-50 . 1,713,000 171,300 1851-60 . 2,590,000 259,000 1861-70 . 2,455,000 245.500 1871-80 . 3,042,000 304,200 1881-89 . 4,792,000 532,000 236 years . 16,259,000 * The official returns for 1820-30 are admittedly defective and valueless. EMIGRATION 252 EMIGRATION The official returns are as follows — 1821-40 1841-50 1851 60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 69 Years English Scotch Irish 95,000 6,000 258,000 263,000 4,000 781,000 388,000 38,000 908,000 615,000 45,000 445,000 449,000 88,000 440,000 602,000 137,000 602,000 2,412,000 318,000 3,434,000 United Kingdom French Germans Scandinavians Various 359,000 54,000 159,000 2,000 168,000 1,048,000 77,000 435.000 14,000 139,000 1,334,000 74,000 947,000 22,000 213,000 1,105,000 38,000 817,000 136,000 359.000 977,000 73.000 755,000 255,000 982,000 1,341,000 44,000 1,362,000 362,000 1,683,000 6,164,000 360,000 4,475,000 791,000 3,544,000 Total 742,000 1,713,000 2,sgo,ooo 2,455,000 3,042,000 4,792,000 15,334,000 In the above returns the number of English is made to appear 459,000 in excess of, and that of Irish fully 600,000 less than the reality, as shown on p. 248, which is accounted for by the fact that many of the Irish were in earlier years classified as English or British. More- over, the Census of 1 880 showed that Irish settlers were more than double the number of English and Scotch collectively {1,855,000 to 917,000), whereas the above classification down to 1S80 would make the ratio as 140 to 100. The total immigration of 69 years may be cor- rectly summed up as follows : — Number Ratio EngUsh Scotch Irish 1,963,000 318,000 4,140,000 12.8 2.8 27.0 United Kingdom Germans Scandinavians .... French Various 6,421,000 4,475,000 791,000 360,000 3,287,000 41.8 29.2 5.2 2.4 21.4 Total 15,334,000 100. During 31 years the record of ages was kept; and if we suppose the ratios to apply to the whole 69 years, the ages of immigrants showed as follows : — Number Ratio Under 10 .... 10-20 20-30 30-40 Over 40 2,300,000 3,220,000 5,670,000 2,450,000 1,694,000 15.0 21.0 37- 16.0 II.O Total 15,334,000 100. The returns of the Census of 1880, and the estimates resultimj from the immigration since then as to the actual number of foreigners, are : — Census, Arrivals, Estimated 1880 1881-88 Residents, 1888 Germans 1,967,000 1,104,000 2,450,000 Irisli .... 1,855,000 536,000 1,920,000 British .... 917,000 658,000 1,260,000 Scandinavians 376,000 412,000 630,000 Italians 44,000 201,000 190,000 French .... 107,000 20,000 100,000 Dutch .... 58,000 151,000 170,000 Swiss .... 89,000 68.000 130,000 Austrians & Hungarians 135,000 266,000 320,000 Russians and Poles 85,000 160,000 190,000 Various 693,000 744,000 1,150,000 Total 6,326,000 4,320,000 8,510,000 In the last fifty years the United States received nearly 15,000,000 settlers, and the Census of 1880 showed that every 100 settlers had the following number of children living: — German, 148; Irish, 144; British, 122; general average, 1 24. The foreign population in December 1 888 stood approximately thus : — Immigrants Cliildren Total German . . . Irish Briush .... Various. . . . 2,450,000 1,920,000 1,260,000 2,880,000 3,650,000 2,760,000 1,550,000 2,670,000 6,100,000 4,680,000 2,810,000 5,550,000 Total foreign . 8,510,000 10,630,000 19,140,000 The numbers and proportion of resident foreigners in the whole population have been as follows : — Year Population Foreign Residents Percentage 1820 9,634,000 177,000 1.8 1840 17,069,000 859,000 S-o 1850 23,192,000 2,241,000 9-7 i860 31,443,000 4,136,000 13. 1 1870 38,558,000 5,566,000 14-5 1880 50,410,000 6,326,000 12.5 1888 60,000,000 8,510,000 14.2 In the above table "foreign residents'' of course in- clude naturalised American citizens. Foreigners and their children, as shown in a previous table, constitute almost one-third of the population. Canada The net increase of population by settlers may be estimated on comparing the several Census returns ; and allowing for natural increase, the figures result approxi- mately thus : — Natural Net Net Year Population Increase Immigration Immigration of Decade of Decade, per Annum 1831 1,158,000 1841 1,690,000 230,000 302,000 30,200 1851 2,482,000 305,000 487,000 48,700 1861 3,030,000 370,000 178,000 17,800 1871 3,833,000 420,000 383,000 38,300 i88i 4,504,000 460,000 211,000 21,100 1887 5,019,000 310,000 205,000 34.200 56 years 2,095,000 1,766,000 31.500 The number of British and Irish emigrants who went to Canada from 1815 to 1888 amounted (see p. 248) to 1,577.000, or 90 per cent, of the above total. ^ Only a portion of the European emigrants who landed m the colony settled there, the rest proceeding to the EMIGRATION 253 EMIGRATION United States. An ofEcial statement published in 1877 showed as follows : — Period Arrived Proceeded to United States Remained 1851-71 1872-76 1,051,000 3SI.00O 595,000 179,000 456,000 172,000 26 years 1,402,000 774.000 628,000 Australia The current of emigration since 1820 has been approxi- mately thus : — Period j Number Per Annum 1S21-40 .... 40,000 1841-50 . . , 90,000 1851-60 . . , . 710,000 1861-70 . . . .1 320,000 1871-80 . . , . : 340,000 1881-88 . ... 1 350,000 2,000 9,000 71,000 32,000 34,000 44,000 68 years .... 1,850,000 27,000 We have already seen (page 248) that 1,505,000 British subjects emigrated to Australia, or 81 per cent, of the above total. In 1 87 1 there were 34,000 German residents. The Australian colonies have expended 8J millions in promoting immigration, viz. : — Expended Immigrants Per Head New Zealand . . . Victoria Queensland, &c. , &c. . £ 1,950,000 2,880,000 3,600,000 101,000 167,000 202,000 £ 17 18 Total . . 8,430,000 470,000 18 Assisted passages are still provided by some of the colonies. Cape Colony The white population in 27 years, ending 1875, rose from 87,000 to 237,000, and as the natural increase was 24 per cent, per decade, we find that the total immigra- tion must have been 70,000, say 2600 per annum. This includes 15,000 Government immigrants introduced from 1847 to 1872. The discovery of diamonds in 1867, and construction of railways, have stimulated European immigration, which now may be estimated at 5000 yearly. There are also more than 10,000 settlers at Natal. Brazil The number of European settlers has been as follows : — Per Annum 1855-64 . 1866-74 , 1875-84 . 1885-88 . Total . 730,000 21,500 In the year 1825 the Emperor Pedro I. founded the first German colony, 909 souls, at San Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul. In 1854 the little settlement counted 11,172 Germans, including 3680 bom in the country. Each family had received on arrival a free land-grant of 130 acres. In 1866 the colonists numbered 25,000, in- cluding children, and in 1871 the product of the farms was valued officially at one million sterling, or nearly ;^200 per family. Meantime the influx of more Germans, and the increasing number of the San Leopoldo com- 120,000 12,000 116,000 11,600 228,000 22,800 266,000 66,000 munity, led to the establishment of 42 other German settlements in Rio Grande, for the most part between the years 1849 and 1S60: the whole in 1871 counted 70,000 Germans, one half bom in the country, their farms being valued at six millions sterling. German colonies were introduced into the neighbouring province of Santa Catha- rina in 1849, and about the same time into San Paulo ; in later years into Minas Geraes, Parana, and other pro- vinces. In 1871 there were the following colonies : — Rio Grande do Sul 43 San Paulo 12 Other provinces .... 21 Total . . .76 The agricultural settlements had about 90,000 Euro- peans, more than half being Germans, the rest Swiss, Italians, &c. Since 1880 a great influx of Italians has taken place in San Paulo, and these settlers have begun planting vines on a large scale : in 18S8 no fewer than 92,000 immigrants settled in that province, the total immigration that year reaching 131,000. The Govern- ment devotes ;£'550,000 per annum to free passages. In 1872 the number of Europeans in Brazil was 243,000, at present it is probably about 460,000. Argentina The official returns are as follows : — 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 28 years 185,000 4S3.O0O 766,000 1,404,000 Per Annum 18,500 45.300 96,000 50,000 The number of immigrants in 18S8 was 181,000, which shows that this countiy comes next after the United States as a field for European emigration. The returns from 1871 to 1888 show nationalities thus : — Italians . 550,000 Spaniards 122,000 French British 100,000 20,000 15,000 Germans Unascer- \ tained }4i2,ooo The bulk of those unascertained were Italians, who formed 65 per cent, of the whole number. Before the year i860 the average immigration was 5000 yearly, one third being Italians. Agricultural colonies were begun in Santa Fi in 1856, and in 1884 there were 78 of these settlements, counting in all 66,000 inhabitants, who cultivated 940,000 acres, and possessed properties to the value of ;/^8,400,ooo. The first settlers were Swiss, but at present Italians, Swiss, Germans, and French are almost equal in numbers. The growth of the Santa F^ colonies is shown thus :— Year Acres Population 1871 1879 1884 140,000 404,000 940,000 13,600 40,700 66,000 In 1884 there were also ten colonies in Entre Rios j in 1856 they had 9900 inhabitants, mostly Italians and Germans, who cultivated 170,000 acres. Two colonies in Cordoba had 3000 settlers. The Welsh settlement in Patagonia had 1300 souls, whose farms were valued at ;^i22,ooo, having 17,000 acres under wheat, the crop averaging 200,000 bushels. It was founded in 1865. The total area under crops in 1887 held by agricul- tural colonies was estimated at 2,200,000 acres, cultivated by 140,000 settlers, and producing 20 million bushels of grain. These colonies account for only 10 per cent, of the immigration since i860, most of the Italians having preferred to settle about Buenos Ayres in every variety of calling. The official returns of money in bank and EMIGRATION 254 ENGINEERING real estate, in the city of Buenos Ayres, in 1883, were as follows : — Number of Deposits, in Real Estate, Depositors £ Sterling £ Sterling Italians .... 10,090 2,800,000 6,600,000 Argentines . . 7.056 2,860,000 22,100,000 Spaniards . . . 3,008 1,100,000 1,800,000 French .... 2,022 620,000 2,200,000 English. . . . 801 450,000 1,200,000 Germans . . . 4S.I 250,000 600,000 Various. . . . 1,291 1,200,000 3,800,000 Total . . 24.719 9,280,000 38,300,000 The above returns are only for the city, and have no reference to the thriving Irish and Scotch communities in the province of Buenos Ayres. The Scotch made their first settlement at Monte Grande in 1826, the Irish at various places in 1840. Their numbers and possessions in 1884 stood thus : — Population Area of Lands, Square Miles Number of Sheep Value of Property, £ Sterling Irish . . . Scotch . . 22,000 3,600 4,900 2,500 9,200,000 3,000,000 15,200,000 6,100,000 Total . 25,600 7.400 12,200,000 21,300,000 According to the census of 1869 there were 212,000 European residents, since which year 1,260,000 emigrants have arrived, of whom 29 per cent, returned. Allowing for deaths the number of foreign population would be as follows : — Number in 1869 Arrivals, 1870-88 Present Number Population Including Children Italians . Spaniards French . British and Irish , German and Swiss . Various . 71,000 34,000 32,000 n.ooo 11,000 53.000 820,000 180,000 150,000 30,000 30,000 50,000 530,000 140,000 120,000 30,000 30,000 70,000 1,320,000 310,000 250,000 70,000 70,000 150,000 Total . 212,000 1,260,000 920,000 2,170,000 The population of the Republic in January 1888 was estimated at 3,930,000, from which it appears that foreigners form 23 per cent. , and with their children 55 per cent, of the total. Buenos Ayres is the chief centre of European settlers, 72 per cent, of the children born in that city being of foreign parents. Uruguay Official returns as to immigrants landed at Monte Video are : — Period Number Per Annum 1835-52 • . • 1853-62 . 1863-72 . 1873-87 . 36,600 28,000 143,000 156,000 2,000 2,800 14.300 10,400 53 years . 363,600 6,800 the records, the actual immigrants since 1863 may be set down as follows : — It is, however, beyond doubt that one-half proceeded to Buenos Ayres, the number of settlers remaining in the country averaging about 6000 yearly in the last twenty- five years. Taking the ratio of nationality as entered in Italians . Spaniards French . British . Various 81,000 33.000 8,000 S.ooo 23,000 Total 150,000 In 1SS4 there were eight agricultural colonies, Swiss and Italian, with 6200 settlers, who cultivated 110,000 acres, and raised 900,000 bushels of grain, valued at ;^I40,000 sterling. The farms of these settlers were assessed at ;£'78o,ooo sterling. An official report in 1884 showed the number of European settlers in the Republic, and the amount of property paying tax held by those of each nation. Number Wealth, £ Steiling £ per Head Spaniards . . . Italians . . . Brazilians . . . French .... British .... Various . . . 44,000 39,000 22,000 16,000 3,000 42,000 12,500,000 11,200,000 14,700,000 5,700,000 3,100,000 4,800,000 280 286 660 350 1,030 "5 Foreign settlers . 166,000 52,000,000 315 Foreigners were 27 per cent, of the population, and held 58 per cent, of the assessed wealth of the Republic. Algeria Complete statistics of immigration from 1883 to 1886 will be found under the title Colonies, page 126. ENGINEERING Some of the most remarkable works carried out in ancient or modern times, as well as those projected, will be found in the following list : — Aqueducts. — Those of Rome under the Caesars supplied 320 million gallons water daily, and were 249 miles long in the aggregate. The Incas of Peru had one 360 miles long. Blasting. — ^At Dover, in 1873, the South Eastern Rail- way Company removed at one blast 800,000 tons of the granite cliff, using eight tons of powder in three charges. At Loch Fyne, near Glasgow, 13th December 1888, Mr. Gardiner's electric battery displaced at a single blast 75,000 tons of granite. Boring. — The greatest depth yet reached is 5200 feet, at Schladerbach, near Halle. The cost of boring with diamond-drill in the Barrow ironstone district, England, varies from 32 to 44 pence per foot. Bridges.— TiaH. of Forth, Scotland, finished in 1889, employed 48,000 tons of steel, and 125,000 cubic yards of masonry, has three spans of 1700 feet each, total length S330 feet. It rests on four cylindrical pillars of masonry, 70 feet diameter, built on rocks 90 feet under water : it can support safely a weight of 84,000 tons ; the cost was ;£'2,ocio,ooo. In 1867 De Gamond proposed a metal tubular bridge, 30 by 24 feet, from Calais to Dover, to cost ;if 7,200,000, and be completed in seven years. This scheme was revived in 1889, at a proposed cost of 34i millions sterling, the bridge to be 200 feet above water, and consist of 74 spans of 550 yards each, resting on masonry pillars, averaging 200 feet down into the sea, the superstructure to employ one million tons of steel, the whole to be completed in ten years ; masonry, ,£'1 5,200,000 ; superstructure, ;^i9,200,ooo. See Bridges. ENGINEERING 255 FACTORIES Canal. — That of China, 2100 miles long, was com- pleted in 1350, after 600 years of labour. That of Suez, opened in 1869 after thirteen years' work, is 92 miles long, and cost 17 millions sterling. Earthworks England Suez Canal . Cost, Cubic Yd. , 21 pence Panama Canal Cyprus . . . Cost, Cubic Yd. 15 pence 6 „ The work of the Thames Embankment, completed after eight years, in sisted as follows : — 9, at a cost of ;^I,7I0,000, con- Brickwork . Concrete . Cubic Yards 80,000 140,000 Granite . . Earthwork Cubic Yards 650,000 970,000 The Hercules Ditcher, Michigan, removes 700 tons of clay per hour. Harbours. — That of Cherbourg, completed by Napoleon III. in 1857, was 74 years in construction, and cost ;^3>500.ooo- That of Holyhead, finished in 1880, has a pier consisting of seven million tons of granite, length 7860 feet, vddth varying from 250 to 400 feet. Plymouth breakwn.ter, begun in 1812, finished in 1841, has 3,800,000 tons of stone, length 5300 feet, cost ;£'i,55o,cioo. Pumps. — Those employed at Zegedin, Hungary, in 1879, pumped out 500,000 tons or no,ooo,ooo gallons water daily. Those of the Severn Tunnel in 1880 pumped out each 150,000 gallons an hour. The Haarlem Pumps lifted 109 tons of water 10 feet at each stroke ; they drained Lake Haarlem, pumping out 1 100 million tons water in eleven years, say 400,000 tons daily. Pyramid. — That of Cheops, near Cairo, contains four million tons of stone, and cost 40 millions sterling. It would now cost only 4 millions. Removal. — The Pelham Hotel, Boston, stone-built, 96 feet high, weight 10,000 tons, was moved by engineers, to widen the street, a distance of 14 feet in 70 hours. Tower. — That of Babel, according to Herodotus, was 610 feet high. The Eiffel Tower, at Paris, built in six months, 1889, is 990 feet high, of iron. Tunnel. — The longest yet made is the St. Gothard, 16,400 yards, begun in 1873, completed in 1881, at a cost of ;^152 per yard. Wall. — That of China contains 6350 million cubic feet of material, or 160 times as much as the Great Pyramid of Egypt. EXHIBITIONS Date Place « Visitors Receipts Exhi- bitors 1851 i8S5 1862 1867 1873 1876 1878 1889 London , . Paris . . . London . . Paris . . . Vienna . . Philadelphia Paris . . . Paris . . . 21 24 23 37 48 ss 60 6,200,000 4,500,000 6,200,000 9,300,000 7,300,000 10,200,000 16,100,000 25,000,000 141 200 171 217 186 194 180 424,000 128,000 408,000 420,000 206,000 800,000 974.000 1,980,000 17,000 24,000 29,000 50,000 43,000 60,000 5S,ooo The exhibitors and winners of prizes at Exhibition of 185 1 were as follows : — th B London Exhibitors Prizes British .... French .... German .... Austrian .... United States . Various .... 9,970 I.7SO 1.450 750 600 2,880 2,089 1,050 482 236 152 1.177 Total 17,400 S.186 At the Paris Exhibition of 1889 the following prizes were given : — Grand prizes 890 Gold medals S.599 Silver medals ir,io4 Bronze medals 10,980 Total • 28,573 The London Exhibition of 1851 left a net profit of ;£'i04,ooo; that of Paris in 1878, a loss of ;^i, 270,060 ; and that of Paris in 1889, a net profit of ;,f 320,000. At the last-mentioned the police estimated 5 million French and 1,500,000 foreign visitors, the latter includ- ing 380,000 English, 225,000 Belgians, 160,000 Germans, 56,000 Spaniards, 52,000 Swiss, 38,000 Italians, 32,000 Austrians, 7000 Russieins, 90,000 North Americans, and 25,000 South Americans. The balance-sheet of the Exhibition of 1889 showed thus : — r Tickets 980,000 Paris subsidy .... 320,000 State subsidy . , . 680,000 Receipts Expenses 1,980,000 1,660,000 Surplus 320,000 The largest number of visitors in one day was 400,000. F. FACTORIES Some countries have precise statistics only touching textile factories, others include every industrial establish- ment in which more than a dozen hands are employed. The following table shows approximately the number of factory operatives of various nations : — United Kingdom 1,703,000 France .... 1,783,000 Germany . . . 1,527,000 Russia .... 955,000 Austria .... 490,000 Italy 382,000 Spain . , . . 200,000 Switzerland . 300,000 Belgium . . . 400,000 Sweden . . . S3.000 United States . • 2,739,000 Canada . . . . 25S.O0O The textile factories of the United Kingdom show as follows : — Year 183s 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1885 Number of Factories 3,160 4.213 4,601 6.378 6,258 7.105 7.46s Spindles 31,000,000 36,000,000 42,000,000 47,000,000 47,800,000 Power Looms 117,000 302,000 499,000 606,000 725,000 774,000 Steam, Horse- power 69,000 108,000 375,000 473,000 570,000 Operatives 355.000 424,000 596,000 776,000 907,000 976,000 1,034,000 FACTORIES 256 FAMINES The following table shows British textile factories at three dates :- Factories Hands Horse- Power Power Looms, Number 1838 1856 1885 1838 1856 1886 1838 1856 1885 Cotton . Woollen Linen, &c. . Silk . . . 259,000 86,000 44,000 34,000 379,000 167,000 80,000 56,000 504,000 282,000 164,000 43,000 60,000 28,000 11,000 3,000 97,000 41,000 i8,ooo 5.000 356,000 122,000 73.000 10,000 109,000 5,000 2,000 299,000 S3.000 9,000 8,000 560,000 140,000 60,000 12,000 Total 423,000 682,000 993.000 102,000 161,000 561,000 116,000 369,000 772,000 Besides the foregoing there are factories of hosiery, lace, &c. The hands employed in textile factories of the United Kingdom were made up thus : 1870 1885 Males Females Total Males Females Total England Scotland Ireland 304,000 34,000 21,000 414,000 93,000 41,000 718,000 127,000 6z,ooo 338,000 45,000 22,000 476,000 107,000 46,000 814,000 152,000 68,000 Total .... 3S9.000 548,000 907,000 405,000 629,000 1,034,000 Factory legislation as to the minimum age for children being employed, and their hours of labour, is shown thus :— < Maximum of Hours Daily for E £ H C4 CO ■* 10 . »o § H E 2 S S5 Si a a T3 •V •a G c c a Uo ^ D D & ! & France . 10 6 6 12 12 12 T2 Germany 12 6 6 10 10 Russia . 10 6 6 12 12 12 12 Austria . 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 Italy 9 8 10 10 10 10 Spain . 10 5 5 S 8 8 8 Switzerland . 10 g 5 12 12 12 12 Denmark 10 4 4 4 4 12 1 12 The minimum in Belgium is 10 years, in Holland 12. In all cases the children are to have Sunday free. At the Berlin Congress in 1890 it was recommended that children should not be admitted to work in any industry under 12 years of age, and then only for 6 hours per day till they were 14 ; that young persons from 14 to 16 years of age should not work more than 10 hours per day, and that women should in no case work more than 1 1 hours per day. In India, however, children of 7 years of age are employed in the cotton-mills for 9 hours a day. The average of working hours and of wages weekly in 1840 and 1880 were as follows : — Hours Wages, Shil- Pence per Weekly lings Weekly Hour 1840 1880 1840 1880 1840 1880 Great Britain . 69 52 12 24 2.1 s-s France . . . 7« 60 6 19 0.9 3-8 Germany . . . «1 60 4 16 0.6 3.2 United States . 78 60 IS 28 2.3 s.fi Belgium . . . 62 20 3-9 Italy .... 72 IS 2-S The working hours average 72 per week in Russia, 64 in Holland, 66 in Switzerland and Austria. Wages average 1 6s. in Spain. The cost of erecting and equipping a factory was esti- mated by M'CuUoch at ;f 100 per operative. Port Dundaa factory, near Glasgow, has a chimney 454 feet high, sup- posed to be the highest in the world. FAIRS In that of Leipzig the annual average of sales is four millions sterling, comprising 20,000 tons of merchandise, of which 8000 tons are books. The fair of Nijni-Novgorod is the greatest in the world, the returns showing : — Year Goods Offered Goods Sold 1841 i8S7 1876 „ £ 8,000,000 13,000,000 30,000,000 £ 7,000,000 12,000,000 28,000,000 This fair is attended by 150,000 dealers from all parts of the world, and the goods sold in 1876 were : — Cottons, linens, &c. Furs, leather, &c. Ural metals . Flour, fish, brandy Tea and luxuries . Total FAMINES £ 8,000,000 7,000,000 7,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 28,000,000 Walford mentions 160 since the eleventh century^ viz. : — England Ireland S7 34 Scotland France . 12 I Germany . 10 I Italy, &c. , 3S The worst in modem times have been : In Date Victims France Ireland Ireland India India China 1770 1816-17 1846-47 1866 1877 1878 48,000 737.000 1,009,000 1,450,000 500,000 9,500,000 FASTING 257 FINANCE The number of victims in Ireland in 1816-17 was stated by Murchison and Kennedy as above. The Commissioners' report for 1846-47 reduced the number of victims to 6oo,coo by supposing " that 500,000 Irish went into Great Britain, and that the ordinary death- rate of Irish population is 22 per thousand yearly." Neither supposition was correct, the Census of 185 1 show- ing that only 314,000 Irish had removed to England and Scotland, and the Registrar-General's report for 16 years ending 1880 showing that the normal death-rate of Ire- land is 17 per 1000. In 1851 the number of persons missing in Ireland was 3,157,000, accounted for in this manner : — Official Report Real Figures Emigrated .... Went to Great Britain Natural deaths Died of famine .... 1,079,000 500,000 978,000 600,000 1,079,000 314,000 7SS.0OO r,oo9,ooo Accounted for . 3.157,000 3,157,000 Deaths from hunger and destitution in the United Kingdom average more than 500 per annum, and are most frequent in London. In 1879 the deaths recorded from this cause were : — Number Per 1000 L'eaths 1.2 0.6 37-6 0-3 London .... loi England .... 312 Ireland 3,789 France ..... 260 In England there were 60 male to 40 female victims ; in France 85 to 15. In London the real number of victims was much greater, many of the suicides resulting from hunger. In 1880 Mr. Forster said the Irish death- rate was 10 per cent, over the average of five years. In 1879-80 there were 17,200 extra deaths, apparently caused by destitution, in Ireland. FASTING 1684. Four men taken alive out of a mine in England, after 24 days without food. 1880. Dr. Tanner, New York, lived on water 40 days, losing 36 lbs. weight. On December 14, 1810, a pig was buried alive by fall of a cliff at Dover, and on May 23, 181 1, it was dug out alive, after 160 days. In 1870, during the siege of Metz, a dog that was accidentally locked in a room passed 39 days without food and recovered. FINANCE The revenue of the principal countries was approximately as follows :- 16S0 1760 1810 1850 1889 £ I £ £ £ United Kingdom 2,120,000 9,200,000 55,800,000 58,200,000 88,500,000 France 4,800,000 14,200,000 40,000,000 51,000,000 121,800,000 Germany . 2,000,000 7,000,000 11,500,000 23,800,000 154,700,000 Russia 400,000 1,600,000 11,000,000 39,000,000 88,800,000 Austria 4,000,000 10,400,000 20,000,000 74,800,000 Italy . 1,500,000 4,600,000 12,000,000 72.000,000 Spain 1,930,000 3,320,000 6,000,000 11,500,000 35,400,000 Portugal . ... 1,200,000 3,200,000 8,400,000 Sweden ... ... 1,000,000 1, 500,000 4,800,000 Norway . .*. 800,000 2,400,000 Denmark . •.■ 1,100,000 1,500,000 3,000,000 Holland . ... 2,200,000 4,Soo,ooo 5.800,000 10, 100,000 Belgium . ... 4,700,000 12,900,000 Switzerland 1,000,000 2,900,000 Greece ... 1,000,000 <3, 100,000 Turkey, &c. 3,000.000 9,000,000 23,200,000 Europe . 15,000,000 35,000,000 150,400,000 244,000,000 706,800,000 United States 1,900,000 9,200,000 80,600,000 Australia . 900,000 27,600,000 Canada . ... 1,100,000 7,800,000 India 15,600,000 27,600,000 69,100,000 South Africa ... .. 500,000 4,000,000 Argentina . ... .. 200,000 900.000 5,400,000 Brazil ... _ 1,800,000 4,000,000 14,100,000 Chile ... 1,000,000 5,000,000 Peru. ... .. 2,000,000 1,500,000 Venezuela ... .. ... 500,000 1,000,000 Colombia . ... ... 500,000 1,000,000 Mexico ... .. 3,000.000 5,400,000 Egypt ... 4,000,000 9,700,000 Persia ... 1,500,000 1,700,000 Japan ... 5,000,000 13, 100,000 China 18,000,000 26,000,000 Cuba 1,500,000 2,500,000 The world • 18,000,000 40,000,000 180,000,000 325,200,000 982,300,000 The revenue of nations has trebled since 1850, multiplied sJ times since 1810, and 55 times since 1680. The various blanks in the above table from 1680 to 1810 show that the revenue cannot be stated for those countries ; approximate totals are nevertheless given, for comparison. FINANCE 258 FINANCE The revenue of the various nations since 1820 is shown approximately in million £ annual averages, as follows : — ! CO c- °? ri< A rl< OD 00 00 iH iH U. Kingdom . 64 61 68 71 77 88 France . . , 40 5° 60 78 lo.S 140 Germany , . 16 21 34 40 73 no Russia 22 33 ,8 46 60 74 Austria . . . 13 18 28 44 61 68 Italy .... 9 II 20 43 53 63 Spain .... 8 10 12 20 30 33 Portugal . . . 2 3 4 s 6 8 Sweden and Norway . 2 3 4 7 7 Denmark . . I 2 2 2 3 3 Holland . . . 3 S 7 8 9 10 Belgium . . . 3 4 S 7 9 13 Turkey . . . S 7 9 II 14 16 Other countries I 2 3 S 8 II Europe . . . I8q 229 293 384 SIS 644 United States . 6 12 37 62 76 Egypt. . . . 3 4 S 7 8 9 India .... 19 24 33 46 S6 73 British Colonies I 2 7 IS 23 36 Other countries 20 24 33 42 60 72 The world . . 237 289 383 S3I 724 gio If we take the year 1840 for point of departure, we find the expenditure per inhabitant in the principal countries has risen as follows : — 1840 1860 1860 1870 1881 1881-88 U. Kingdom . 100 100 I2S 113 118 120 France . . , 100 103 13s 147 200 247 Germany . . 100 "3 120 167 267 360 Russia . . . 100 130 ISO 190 200 180 Austria . . 100 130 140 170 200 21S Italy . . . 100 ISS 190 170 200 240 Spain . . . 100 121 ISO 242 242 230 United Slates 100 117 133 500 3SI 333 Australia . . 100 90 37S S60 424 S70 Canada . . 100 114 128 142 192 285 The average annual revenues from different sources in the decade 1871-80 were as follows : — • Customs Property- Tax Various Total £ £ £ £ U. Kingdom 20,100,000 6,600,000 50,600,000 77,300,000 France . . 10,300,000 8,700,000 85,500,000 104,500,000 Germany . 8,600,000 10,500,000 53,500,000 72,600,000 Russia . . 8,500,000 10,300,000 41,500,000 60,300,000 Austria . . 2,600,000 9,400,000 44,000,000 56,000,000 Italy . . . 5,000,000 13,000,000 35,400,000 53,400,000 Spain . . 4,400,000 9,600,000 15,800,000 29,800,000 Portugal 1,800,000 800,000 3,200,000 5,800,000 Holland. . 400,000 1,800,000 6,500,000 8,700,000 Belgium . . 800,000 1,500,000 7,000,000 9,300,000 Denmark . 1,000,000 500,000 1,200,000 2,700,000 Sweden and \ 2,400,000 Norway 500,000 4,000,000 6,900,000 Europe . . 65,900,000 73,200,000 348,200,000 487,300,000 U. States . 26,000,000 36,200,000 62,200,000 Canada . . 2,700,000 2,200,000 4,900,000 Australia . 4, 100,000 10,100,000 14,200,000 Brazil . . 6,700,000 400,000. 2,200,000 9,300,000 Egypt . . 800,000 5,000,000 2,300,000 8,100,000 India . . . 2,200,000 21,100,000 31,800,000 SS, 100,000 The world . 108,400,000 99,700,000 430,000,000 641,100,000 The expenditure of the principal nations in 1887 ap- peared under the principal heads as follows : — Govern- nient Debt Army and Navy Total £ £. £. £ U.Kingdom 30,200,000 27,900,000 31,900,000 90,000,000 France . , 41,000,000 52,800,000 31,400,000 125,200,000 Germany . 82,300,000 16,700,000 31,000,000 130,000,000 Russia . . 30,500,000 28,100,000 25,000,000 83,600,000 Austria , . 44,200,000 16,200,000 13,600,000 74,000,000 Italy . . 34,700,000 20,700,000 14,200,000 69,600,000 Spam . . 15,800,000 10,900,000 7,300,000 34,000,000 Portugal . Sweden and Norway 4,000,000 \ 5,100,000 3,600,000 1,400,000 9,000,000 700,000 1,400,000 7,200,000 Denmark . 1,300,000 500,000 1,200,000 3,000,000 Holland . 5,500,000 3,100,000 2,800,000 11,400,000 Belgium . 7,900,000 3,900,000 2,000,000 13,800,000 Switzerland 1,600,000 800,000 2,400,000 Greece . . 1,700,000 1,500,000 600,000 3,800,000 Roumania . 1,200,000 2,700,000 1,300,000 5,200,000 Servia . . 700,000 500,000 600,000 1,800,000 Europe 307,700,000 189,800,000 166,500,000 664,000,000 U. States . 34,700,000 9,900,000 11,200,000 55,800,000 Total . 342,400,000 199,700,000 177,700,000 719,800,000 The above does not include Turkey, whose expenditure is about 16 millions sterling. National expenditure at various dates since 1830 was as follows : — Millions Sterling rH H rH 1 rH 00 a I f United Kingdom . France . . . . Germany Russia . . . . Austria .... Italy . . . . Spain . . . . Portugal Holland Belgium Denmark Sweden and Norway Greece . . . . Roumania Turkey .... Europe .... United States Mexico .... S. American Republics . Brazil . . . . Canada .... Australia Cape Colony Egypt . . . . India . . . . Java . . . , Japan . . . . SS 16 23 18 12 9 2 3 3 2 2 I 4 191 3 3 2 2 I I I 2 22 2 S2 S7 22 30 28 19 11 3 S S 2 2 I "6 243 5 3 2 3 I I I 2 2S 4 SS 60 28 42 39 31 14 4 7 6 2 2 I "s 299 7 4 3 S 2 I I 3 28 S 73 83 32 S6 4S 37 21 4 7 6 2 3 I 13 383 12 6 4 6 3 8 I S S2 6 70 90 % 59 41 33 5 8 7 3 5 2 21 464 58 S 8 8 4 12 2 14 55 8 83 121 90 80 75 56 'I 10 II 2 7 4 S 13 598 54 4 n II 6 20 5 8 76 II II 88 160 127 93 82 72 36 9 II 14 3 8 3 16 729 SS s IS IS 10 'I 9 77 II II The world . 230 290 3S8 486 638 81S 976 In the above table the expenditure for Germany in- cludes the budgets of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and the minor States. It does not include State expenditure in the United States, nor local taxes in any country. FINANCE 259 FINANCE The following table shows approximately the chief sources of revenue in 1890 (or latest year), how much is raised by taxation, how much for public services : — Amount, £ Shillings per Direct Taxes Customs Other Taxes Public Services Total Inhabitant United Kingdom 15,300,000 20,000,000 38,200,000 15,000,000 88,500,000 46 France 17,900,000 15,000,000 69,100,000 19,800,000 121,800,000 64 ■Germany . 12,500,000 13,500,000 38,900,000 89,800,000 154,700,000 6S Russia 8,200,000 12,100,000 40,900,000 27,600,000 88,800,000 20 Austria . IT,700,000 3,900,000 34,500,000 24,700,000 74,800,000 39 Italy . . 16,200,000 10,600,000 27,000,000 18,200,000 72,000,000 48 Spain 12,400,000 6,900,000 12,600,000 3,500,000 35,400,000 38 Portugal . 1,000,000 3,100,000 2,500,000 1,800,000 8,400,000 38 Sweden . 600,000 2,100,000 1,000,000 1,100,000 4,800,000 20 Norway , 1,100,000 400,000 900,000 2,400,000 24 Denmark . 500,000 1,400,000 600,000 500,000 3,000,000 30 Holland . 2,300,000 400,000 5,600,000 1,800,000 10,100,000 44 Belyium . 2,100.000 1,100,000 3,600,000 6,100,000 12,900,000 43 Switzerland 1,200,000 600,000 1,100,000 2,900,000 20 •Greece 900,000 700,000 800,000 700,000 3,100,000 31 Europe 101,600,000 93,100,000 276,300,000 212,600,000 683,600,000 4S United States ... 46,600,000 27,200,000 6,800,000 80,600,000 26 Canada . ... 4,500,000 1,300,000 2,000,000 7,800,000 31 Australia . 8,200,000 2,500,000 16,900,000 27,600,000 150 India 19,500,000 1,200,000 26,800,000 21,600,000 69,100,000 7 Argentina 800,000 3,900,000 400,000 300,000 5,400,000 30 Tota 1 • • 121,900,000 157.500.000 334,500,000 260,200,000 874,100,000 Expenditure compared with population at the above date thus : — Shillings per Inhabitant i-i 00 CO CD t* 00 a H s s a a CD S United Kingdom . 46 40 40 50 45 47 48 France . . . . 25 .34 ,35 4b 5° 68 84 Germany 12 I.'; 17 lU 25 40 .54 Russia . . . . 9 10 13 15 19 20 18 Austria .... i.S 20 26 28 ,34 40 43 Italy . . . . IS 20 31 .38 34 40 48 Spain . . . . 16 18 20 27 40 40 42 Portugal II 17 20 20 24 36 40 Holland 24 ,34 4b 44 46 so .S2 Belgium 18 as 27 25 28 42 SO Denmark 36 .35 .33 31 34 24 ,30 Sweden and Norway 10 10 10 12 17 22 25 Greece .... 20 20 20 16 34 45 40 Roumania 19 20 Turkey .... 7 10 13 18 27 bo 70 Europe .... 16 20 22 28 31 39 45 United States 4 b 7 8 30 21 20 Brazil . . . . 7 9 12 15 18 23 2b Canada .... 10 14 lb 18 20 27 40 Australia 40 33 30 125 120 141 188 Cape Colony . 30 28 49 27 90 100 India . . . . S 5 5 7 7 8 8 Java .... Egypt .... 7 10 10 10 10 12 12 12 12 27 40 .56 .30 33 Argentme Republic 10 10 10 IS 34 40 44 ChiU . . . . 7 7 15 13 21 35 38 The world . II 13 14 18 22 25 23 It appears that since 1830 the annual public expendi- ture in Europe per head of population has trebled, but that in the United Kingdom there has been no sensible increase. The ratio per inhabitant has, meantime, risen more in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Argentina than in Europe. The revenue and expenditure of the principal countries since 1870 have been as follows : — 1871-88 Amount in Million £ Revenue Expenditure Surplus Expenditure United Kingdom 1.474 1.467 France Germany . Russia 2,170 1,610 1,192 2,935 1,880 1,606 765 270 414 Austria 1.154 1,342 188 Italy . . . Spain . United States . 'lit 1,228 1,161 784 964 127 220 Australia , Canada India . Other countries . 333 109 1,152 2,500 464 139 1,230 2.792 131 30 78 292 Total . 14.520 16.764 2,244 The revenue and expenditure of Europe were approxi- mately as follows : — 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861 -70 1871-80 1881-88 68 years Millions Sterling £ Revenue 3,780 2,290 2,930 3,840 S.080 5.150 23.070 Expenditure 3,840 2.320 3.400 4,760 6,030 6,110 26,460 Surplus Expenditure 60 30 470 920 950 960 3.390 In 38 years, from 1851 to 1888, the expenditure sur- passed income by 3300 millions sterling, say 87 millions yearly, which went mostly in wars and armaments. FINANCE 260 FINANCE The public debt, stated in millions £ sterling, was as follows : — 1713 1763 1793 1816 1848 1870 1889 Great Britain . ';4 147 370 900 773 801 698 France . . . 48 no 32 140 260 504 1,269 Germany . . 39 6q 148 43S Russia . . . 47 14.S 90 .342 756 Austria , . . 10 I'! 42 99 125 340 580 Italy .... 25 36 333 460 Spain .... 7 II 20 117 "3 28s 260 Portugal . . . I 7 22 59 "3 Holland . . . 70 no 114 76 89 Belgium . . . 25 28 77 Denmark . . 2 12 12 '3 II Sweden and Norway . 6 Greece . , , 10 18 23 Turkey . . . 92 180 Roumania . . 36 Servia . . . 13 Europe . . . 119 283 S84 1.594 1.651 3.°4S 5.020 United States . 17 26 10 485 221 Spanish America 17 135 333 Canada . . . 5 17 49 Australia , , 37 171 India .... 9 29 51 108 186 Japan . . . 2 10 50 Rgypt . . . 37 103 South Africa . 2 27 The world . 119 283 610 1,649 1.736 3.876 6,160 Debt has multiplied tenfold in ninety-six years. The annual increase since 1870 has averaged 118 millions sterling. The increase from the date of the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, to the present is shown in successive stages thus : — Period Millions, £ Per Annum 1713-63 .... 1764-93 .... 1794-1816. 1817-1848 .... 1849-70 .... 1871-89 .... 164 327 1.039 87 2,140 2,244 £ 3,300,000 10,900,000 45,200,000 2,700,000 97,300,000 n8,ioo,ooo 176 years . . , . 6,001 34,100,000 The origin of the debt may be approximately summed up thus : — War and armaments . . . 3,610 millions Railways and telegraph . . . 1,450 ,, Roads and bridges . . . 780 ,, Sundries 161 ,, 6,001 In 1889 the interest which bondholders received, the various loans of nations at the prices current market, were as follows per ;£'loo per annum. £ 2.7 31 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-5 3.6 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-7 3-8 3-9 United Kingdom United States Belgium Holland New South Wales Canada . Switzerland . France . Victoria . Cape Colony . Prussia . Norway . Sweden . New Zealand . Austria Chile Russia Brazil Spain Portugal Argentina Egypt . China . Buenos Ayres Hawaii . Santa F6 Japan . Uruguay taking in the £ 4-3 4-3 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.0 5-1 5- 1 5-4 S-9 6.0 6.0 6.3 6.6 The following table shows approximately the wealth and debt of the principal nations in 1S88 : — Mil ions £ Sterling .Wealth Debt Ratio of Debt United Kingdom . 9.4"o 698 7-7 France . . , . 8.558 1,269 14-7 Germany 6,437 435 6.8 Russia . . . . 5,089 756 14.8 Austria .... 3.85s 580 I5-0 Italy . . . . 2,963 460 15- S Spain , . . . 2,516 260 10.3 Portugal 408 "3 27. 5 Sweden and Norway 880 20 2.2 Denmark 404 11 2.8 Holland 980 89 9-1 Belgium 1,007 77 7.6 Switzerland . 494 17 3-5 Greece .... 300 23 7-7 Roumania 593 36 6.1 Servia . . . . 217 13 6.0 Turkey .... 593 180 30.3 Europe .... 44,734 5.037 11.2 United States 12,824 221 1-7 Canada. 980 49 5-0 Australia 1.373 171 12.5 South Africa . 13s 27 20.0 Argentina 509 no 21.6 Total 6o,5S5 S,6i5 9-3 For local finances see Local Taxation. United Kingdom The financial year ends March 31. The various prin- cipal items of revenue and expenditure for 52 years to date are shown as follows : — Rbvenue in Millions £ Sterling H 1-1 rt rt Ol S I qI, ^ ri. gj, ^ t- CO m Customs . . . 324 237 221 199 159 1,140 Excise . . . 216 181 204 268 210 1,079 Stamps . . . lOI 78 94 no 95 478 Income-tax . . 55 102 78 71 103 409 Post-office . . 25 30 45 74 79 253 Sundries . . . 66 50 69 77 58 320 Total . . 787 678 711 799 704 3,679 Expenditure in Millions £ Sterling Millions £ Years Govern- ment Debt Army and Navy Total 1837-51 .... 1852-61 .... 1862-71 . . . 1872-81 .... 1882-89 .... 139 136 164 233 238 395 285 265 281 222 219 288 263 280 247 753 709 692 794 707 52 years .... 910 1,448 1,297 3,655 Expenditure includes sums paid for redemption of national debt, and as this has been reduced 94 millions during the present reign, the net expenditure may be set down thus : — Revenue of 52 years Reduction of debt Millions £ ■ ■ 3.679 ■ • 94 Per Annum, £ 70,700,000 1,800,000 Real expenditure .... 3,585 68,900,000 FINANCE 261 FINANCE The following table shows approximately t\. the present time : — revenue and expenditiure from the accession of William III. to Reign Date Millions £ Revenue Expenditure Annual Average, jQ Revenue Expenditure Public Debt, Millions £ William III. Anne George I. George II. George III. George IV. William IV. Victoria . 1689-1702 59 1702-14 62 1714-27 77 1727-60 217 1760-1820 1,666 1820-30 648 1830-37 439 1837-51 787 1852-61 678 1862-71 711 1872-81 799 1882-89 704 72 122 80 276 2,252* 608 753 709 692 794 707 4,500,000 5,200,000 5.900,000 6,600,000 27,800,000 64,800,000 62,400,000 60,500,000 67,800,000 71,100,000 79,900,000 88,000,000 5,500.000 10.200,000 6,100,000 8,400,000 37,500,000 60.800,000 61,300,000 57,900,000 70,900,000 69,200,000 79,400,000 88,400,000 13 73 76 135 900 800 792 787 819 798 772 698 The following table shovre the revenue of England down to 1707, of Great Britain from 1713 to 1810, and of the United Kingdom from the last-mentioned year down to date. The groat, 4d., from William the Con- queror down to Edward III. , had more than three times as much silver as our shilling of to-day ; hence the real amount in silver must be distinguished from the nominal. The purchasing power of £1 sterling has also varied, and in the following table this is likewise given : — Shillings Pur- per Reign Nominal In Silver chasing Inhab. Value In Silver £ £ £ 1080 William I. 400,000 1,320,000 4,010,000 12 logo Rufiis 350,000 1,150,000 3,520,000 lO 1120 Henry I. 300,000 990,000 3,005,000 9 1150 Stephen 250,000 830,000 2,510,000 8 IlbO Henry II. 200,000 660,000 2,005,000 6 I2XO John 100,000 330,000 1,000,000 3 1250 Henrv III. 80,000 264,000 800,000 =J 1300 Edward I. 150,000 495,000 1,502,000 4 1350 Edward III. 154,000 460,000 1,360,000 4 1400 Henry IV. 100,000 264,000 900,000 2 1480 Edward IV. 100,000 162,000 530,000 I 1500 Henry VI!. 400,000 650,000 2,100,000 3 I.S40 Henry VIII. 800,000 1,300,000 2,600,000 6 1600 Elizabeth 500,000 550,000 1,000,000 2 1620 James I. 600,000 640,000 1,000,000 zi 1640 Cliarles I. 896,000 950,000 1,300,000 4I 1662 Charles II. 1,800.000 1,910,000 2,300,000 7 1686 James II. 2,002,000 2,120,000 2,300,000 8 1700 William III. 3,895.000 4.135.000 IS 1713 Anne 5,692,000 6,030,000 18 1716 George I. 6,763,000 7,160,000 21 1728 George II. 8.523,000 9,030,000 25 1780 George III. 8,880,000 9,420,000 20 1790 ,, 13,745,000 14,540,000 29 1800 ,, 37,520,000 39,700,000 76 1810 ,, 52,672,000 55,810,000 93 1820 George IV. 61.634.000 61,634,000 62 1830 WilHam IV. 59,365,000 59,365,000 SO 1840 Victoria 52,916,000 52,916,000 40 1850 • > 58,205,000 58,205,000 43 i860 M 71,090,000 71,090,000 49 1870 ,, 75,434,000 75,434,000 49 1880 ,, 81,265,000 81,265,000 47 1889 •• 88,470,000 88,470,000 49 The value of the £ sterling in gold and silver coin was unaltered from the time of James II. until the year 1817, when the currency was debased 5 per cent. , the same quantity of metal serving for izis. as previously for 20s. The following table shows the incidence of revenue and expenditure per inhabitant during the present reign : — Shillings per Inhabitant Yearly Revenue Expenditure B 1 .2 ■V c 3 03 (2 E < S Q c e c > 1837-sr 16.7 11.2 14.1 42.0 11.9 21-3 7-S 40.7 1852-61 16.9 12.8 i8.,S 48.2 20.5 20.3 i 9.7 so- a 1862-71 14-7 13.'; 18.9 47-1 ^7-5 17.7 1 10.9 46.1 1872-81 12.2 16.2 20.2 48.6 16.9 17.0 j 14.2 48.1 1882-89 Il.O 14.5 23.1 48.6 17.0 is-2 ; 16.3 48.5 The following table shows the outlay compared with population over the whole period of 52 years, taking the mean population at 32 million souls : — Expenditure, Millions £ Average. £ Yearly Shillings per Inhabi- tant Yearly Army and navy , Debt .... Redemption of) debt . . . / Government . . 1,297 1.354 94 910 24,940,000 26,040,000 1,810,000 17,500,000 iS-7 16.3 1.1 II.O Total . . 3.6SS 70,290,000 44-1 The followdng table shows how the three kingdoms contribute to the national revenue ( 1 888) : — • ' Economist " Estimates England, A, Scotland, £ Ireland, £ U. King- dom, ^ Stamps . . Customs Excise . . Income-tax . Land, &c. . 7,440,000 840,000 16,130,000 1,640,000 16,680,000! 4,680.000 12,500,000' 1,180,000 2,790,000 160,000 440,000 2,020,000 4,260,000 600,000 8,720,000 19,790,000 25,620,000 14,280,000 2,950,000 Total . 55,540.000 8,500,000 7,320,000 71,360,000 * Loans amounting nominally to 733 millions sterling were emitted, the net product of which was 526 millions, which helped to meet deficit, there being also 60 millions of floating debt, which brings up the total expenditure to 2252 milirdhs. FINANCE 262 FINANCE The above compare with the Treasury estimates thus : Economist, Treasury, Ratio Economist Treasury England . . Scotland . Ireland . . 55,540,000 8,500,000 7,320,000 58,860,000 7,790,000 6,080,000 77.8 11.9 10.3 81.0 10.7 8.3 Total . 71,360,000 72,730,000 100. lOO.O If we compare the income-tax assessments with the share of revenue raised in each of the three kingdoms, we find, taking the latter at a medium between the " Economist" and the Treasury estimates, as follows : — Assessed Incomes Revenue Ratio of Latter to Income, England . . Scotland . . Ireland . . . £ 542,500,000 57,200,000 36,600,00^ £ 57,200,000 8,200,000 6,700,000 £, 10.6 18.0 Total . 636,300,000 72,100,000 "•3 It would appear that England bears much less than her share, and the sister kingdoms a great deal too much. Dei/. — The National Debt began with William III., and reached its maximum in 1816, after the overthrow of Bonaparte, when the amount was variously estimated. Doubleday Porter M'CuUoch £ . 944,152,000 . 885,186,000 . 840,850,000 The last mentioned appears to have regarded only the funded debt, the total, according to Whittaker, having stood thus in January 1816 : — Funded 816,312,000 Unfunded 44,727,000 Terminable annuities . . . 39,397,000 Tot.il . 900,436,000 The estimated wealth of the nation, according to the best authorities, may be placed side by side with the debt to show the relative magnitude of the latter at different epochs : — Date Millions £ Stg. Ratio of Debt £ per Inhab. Obs. Wealth Debt Wealth Debt 1702 1763 490 1,100 13 147 2.7 13-4 72 156 2 21 England G. Britain 1797 I8t6 1837 i860 1870 1,800 2,400 3.900 5.560 7,080 413 900 788 826 801 22.9 37-5 20.2 14.9 "•3 177 120 158 193 230 41 45 32 29 26 u."k. 1889 9,400 698 7-4 250 19 ■• The history of the National Debt may be briefly ex plained thus : — Millions £ Wars of William and Anne . . 73 Conquest of Canada American war , Campaigns against Bonaparte Malversation in Ireland . Total in 1816 62 121 S8i 63 900 Date 1689-1712 1759-61 1775-80 1793-1815 1802-16 The war loans negotiated by George II. and George III. amounted to 794 millions sterling, but produced in reality only 585 millions, or 73 per cent, of the written value, viz. : — Yparq Nominal ^^"= ! Amount ! Realised Annual Charge Actual Interest 1756-63 1776-84 1785-1816 £ 60,670,000 114,687,000 618,404,000 £ 59,500,000 92,700,000 433,000,000 £ 2,315,000 5,012,000 23,387,000 3-90 5-40 5-40 60 years 793,761,000 585,200,000 30,714,000 5-25 The principal conversions of debt were the following : — Date Minister Sum, ;^ Annual Saving, £ 1716 Walpole 32,500,000 325,000 1749 Pelham 56,500,000 565,000 1822 Vansittart 153,000,000 1 530,000 1824 Robinson 76,000,000 380,000 1830 Goulburn 153,000,000 760,000 1844 ,, 248,000,000 1,240,000 1860-74 Gladstone 59,000,000 330,000 1884 ,, 79,000,000 1888 Goschen 549,100,000 1,400,000 Walpole and Vansittart converted 5 into 4 per cents., Pelham 4 into 3 per cents., Robinson 4 into 3^ per cents. The conversions effected by Gladstone were connected with sums held in the Court of Chancery and Savings- bank funds. Goschen's conversion reduced the 3 per cents, into new stock bearing 2| per cent for a number of years, after which to be reduced to 2 J per cents., which latter will lead to an annual saving of ;^2,8oo,ocio, as compared with the interest payable in 1887. In March 18S9 the debt was made up thus : — Funded 607,058.000 Terminable ^nuities . . . 75,279,000 Unfunded debt .... 16,093,000 Total . . . 698,430,000 The following table shows the quotations of Consols : — Quotations Year of g S Period o; OS a E c 1 1 s S < iS '"' 1740-60 . . . 78 104 82 93- S 1749 1761-80 . . . 1.39 91 61 82.1 1780 1781-1800 . . 240 97 47 67.2 1798 l80I-20 . . . 841 84 64.9 1817 1803 1821-40 . . . 781 97 69 85.8 1824 I82I 1841-60 . . . 786 102 79 93-4 1852 1847 1861-81 . . . 776 103 84 93-1 1867 1866 1882-88 . . . 740 103 96 100.8 1883 1885 The following table shows the number of holders of Consols at various dates : — Average, £ 1830 1848 1880 100,000 50,000 10,000 3.000 500 172 1,810 22,189 124,014 132,960 177 20,561 120,487 141.352 283 1,892 19,140 112,077 103,122 Total 281,14s 284,137 236,514 Unclaimed dividends in March 1882 amounted to ;^3,027,000. FINANCE 263 FINANCE When Mr. Goschen converted the debt in 1889, no fewer than 12,700 notices were returned by the Post-Office as "not known." After every inquiry, ;f 7,850,000 was unclaimed, and credited to 10,900 accounts in the Bank of England ; most were probably dead or gone away. Scotland Official returns of Scottish revenue show as follows : — Period Annual Average Per Inhabitant 1804-09 1810-15 £ 3,500,000 4,950,000 £ s. d. 210 2 15 In the estimate ahready given for 1 881 the revenue of Scotland appears as ;f 9,990,000, or 54s. per inhabitant, almost the same as the ratio of 75 years ago. * Ireland Ware says that the revenue of the royal palace at Kincora was 5100 homed cattle, 100 horses, and 4800 swine, contributed yearly by the various chieftains. Noy states that Edward III. drew ;^3o,ooo from Ireland for the campaigns of the Black Prince. Henry VII. levied a duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem on all Irish imports and exports, which would probably produce ;^io,ooo a year. Regular records were kept under William III. and sub- sequent monarchs, which show as follows : — Period . Annual Average, £ Per Inhab. £ s. d. 1690-1700 .... 640,000 076 1730-60 . 620,000 063 1761-70 . 890,000 068 1771-80 . 1,340,000 096 1790 2,162,000 11 1802-10 . 5,480,000 102 1811-16 . 7,400,000 I 5 1817-20 5,850,000 17 1821-30 .... 4,930,000 14 In 1801 the Act of Union ordained the revenues and debt of Ireland to be kept distinct. The debt was : — Year £ 1784 1,997,000 1793 2,220,000 1801 31,950,000 1809 77,445,000 The finances got into very bad hands after the Union. The Budgets of Ireland from 1802 to 18 16 summed up as follows : — Period 1802-10 1811-16 15 years Revenue £ 49,400,000 44,200,000 Expenditure £ 89,500,000 90,300,000 93,600,000 179,800,000 Deficit £ 40,100,000 46,100,000 86,200,000 In 181 7 Great Britain took over the Irish debt and amalgamated the finances of the two countries, but separate statements of revenue were published down to 1 83 1, from which date none have been kept. The revenue from 1821 to 1830 was made up thus : — Annual Average, £ Customs 1,920,000 Excise 1,940,000 Sundries 1,070,000 Total . . 4,930,000 France The revenue at various periods has been as follows : — Date Reign Amount Per Inha- National Debt, Millions £ £ yC J. d. 1252 Louis IX. . . 140,000 4 ... 1380 Charles V. . 120,000 4 ... 1460 Charles VII. . 150,000 4 ... 1546 Francis I. . . 640,000 I ... 1607 Henry IV. . 1,300,000* 2 1661 Louis XIV. . 3,400,000 4 1683 ,1 4,800,000 S 6 48 1742 Louis XV. . 13,700,000 i^ no 1775 Louis XVI. . 14,800,000 12 129 1786 t, • 20,800,000 16 200 1791 ,, 27,800,000 2 468 1814 Napoleon I. . 40,000,000 7 50 1830 Charles X. . 36,300,000 2 6 187 1846 Louis Philippe 46,400,000 7 260 1850 Republic . . 51,000,000 9 248 i860 Napoleon III. 68,500,000 16 410 1870 ,, 87,600,000 2 6 504 1880 Republic . . 135,700,000 3 10 1,060 18S9 • • 121,800,000 3 5 1,269 • The gross revenue, including tithes and local taxes, was ;f3,8oo,ooo ; the royal revenue as here given. The following is an official statement of national revenue and expenditure during 71 years to 1885 : — Millions £ Sterling Period Revenue Expenditure Excess of Latter 1815-20 . 1821-30 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 1871-80 . 1881-85 . 211 384 419 504 619 781 1,151 687 257 402 458 610 762 926 1,301 814 46 18 39 106 143 145 150 127 71 years . 4,756 5.530 774 Some extraordinary items, such as the indemnity to Germany in 1872, are omitted. The above may be also stated according to the successive forms of government as follows : — Reign Date Millions £ Annual Average, £ Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure Debt, Millions £ Bourbons . Louis Philippe Republic . Empire Republic . 74 years 1815-30 1831-48 1848-52 1853-70 1871-80 1881-88 595 749 220 1.354 1.151 1,118 S.187 659 979 280 1.497 1,301 1,280 S.996 36,800,000 47,800,000 55,000,000 74,500,000 115,100,000 139,700,000 41,100,000 50,600,000 70,000,000 82,200,000 130,100,000 160,000,000 177 230 290 468 1,060 1,269 FINANCE 264 FINANCE During the decade 1S71-80 loans were emitted to the nominal sum of 410 millions sterling, producing 329 millions, besides which about 65 millions were added to floating debt. The following table shows the expenditure at different dates : — 1830 1861 1869 1877 1885 Debt Army Navy Public works .... Government .... £ 14,500,000 7,500,000 2,600,000 1,600,000 10,300,000 £ 16,600,000 11,800,000 4,200,000 4,900,000 13,500,000 £ 21,400,000 16,800,000 7,200,000 5,200,000 35,200,000 47,600,000 21,600,000 7,700,000 9,200,000 38,900,000 52,800,000 24,000,000 12,400,000 16,800,000 51,700,000 Total 36,500,000 51,000,000 85,800,000 125,000,000 iS7.7°o.ooo The increase in items of revenue is as follows ; 1869 1875 1885 Ratio of Increase 1869 1875 1885 Customs Excise .... Stamps Taxes Post-office .... Sundries £ 5,800,000 25,100,000 18,200,000 23,000,000 3,800,000 8,300,000 £ 10,700,000 42,300,000 24,300,000 27,400,000 4,800,000 14,500,000 £ 16,800,000 42,600,000 27,000,000 30,300,000 6,600,000 18,300,000 100 100 100 100 100 100 184 169 134 119 126 175 290 170 149 132 173 220 Total 84,200,000 124,000,000 141,600,000 100 148 170 The total revenue and expenditure in the decade 1871- 80 were as follows : — Millions £ Sterling ■ Revenue Franco-German war Army and navy. . Debt and pensions . Justice and schools . Public works . . Gen. administration Total . . Expenditure Customs . . Excise . . . Stamps . . . Direct taxes . Post-(»Hice . . Sundries . . 109 386 240 271 44 101 304 305 466 60 90 380 Total . . 1,151 1,605 1269 millions sterling, exclusive of municipal debts, official returns are as follows : — The Year Mr. Yves Guyot compares the rise of revenue since the Bonaparte epoch * thus :— 1800-10 1822 1840 1860 1870 1880 Customs . . Stamps . . . Property-tax . Value of land 100 100 100 100 154 92 85 140 198 130 85 190 203 92 370 171 223 102 400 408 400 112 366 Debt. — This began with Louis XIV., who spent great sums in war and in building Versailles. It increased with John Law's state-bank, and rose in the latter years of Louis XVI. to 468 millions sterling. It was re- pudiated by the RejDublic, some creditors getting 33 per cent., the rest nothing, and thus reduced to about 30 millions sterling. At the fall of Bonaparte it was only 50 millions. Of late years the accounts published are incomplete, but M. Leroy Beaulieu estimates it now at * The Budget for 1802 was made up thus : — Revenue Expenditure Land-tax . . Forests . . . Customs, &c. . £ 8,800,000 7,600,000 6,400,000 Army . . . Navy , , , Government . Total . £ 9,7oo,»oo 5,100,000 6,200,000 Total . 22,800,000 21,000,000 1814 1830 1848 1852 1869 1880 1886 Millions £ Sterling Funded Floating SO 177 238 221 468 794 789 27 36 61 40 Total 187 260 248 504 855 829 These returns are misleading, as it would appear from them that the debt declined 26 millions between 18S0 and ifiSe, whereas it increased. Even the Budget returns show a deficit of 93 millions sterling in those six years, the aggregate revenue being 834 millions, expenditure 927 millions. The floating debt in 1888 was officially stated at 118 millions sterling. The following table shows the funded debt at various dates : — Millions £ Sterling Year 5 per Cent. trj 4 per Cent. 3 per Cent. Total 1814 1830 1848 1852 1871 1880 1887 SI 131 117 146 276 I 1 33 33 301 3 26 2 42 94 72 465 485 527 SI 177 238 221 498 794 828 The floating debt at different dates was stated thus :— Year i860 1869 1880 Millions £ Sterling Exchequer Bills S-7 4.6 6.2 59- 1 Savings Banks 9.2 10.2 23- S 38.4 Sundries Total 17.5 17.0 31-5 21.0 32-4 318 61. 2 118.3 FINANCE 265 FINANCE Taking the total debt at M. Leroy Beaulieu's estimate of 1269 millions, it may be said approximately to repre- sent the following extraordinary outlay : — Millions £ Bonaparte's wars 51 Restoration indemnities ... 60 Conquest of Algeria .... 38 Crimean war 53 Wars in Italy, Mexico, &c. . . . 33 Franco-German 316 Sundries 678 Total . . 1269 There was a loss of 200 millions on the issue of loans, and an expenditure of 260 millions on public works, which leaves a balance of 218 millions for sundries un- accounted for. The loans issued between 18 16 and 1881 were as foUows : — Period Number of Loans Issue, £ Realised, £ Per Cent. 1816-30 1831-48 1849-69 1870-81 11 13 1 80,000,000 95,000,000 200,000,000 410,000,000 57,500,000 70,400,000 134,600,000 329,000,000 72 74 67 80 Total 44 785,000,000 591,500,000 75 The interest paid yearly on the above loans was as follows : — Period Sum Realised,;^ Interest, £ Rate 1816-30 . . 1831-48 . . 1849-69 . . 1870-81 57,500,000 70,400,000 134,600,000 329,000,000 3,970.000 3,850,000 6,240,000 18,140,000 6.9 5-5 4.6 S-S The total issues of 65 years are summed up thus : — Millions £ 6 per cent 10 S, 400 44 16 4 II 3 _348 Total 785 If we compare the debt of France with the estimated wealth at various dates, we find thus : — Year Millions £ Sterling Wealth 1830 1848 i86g 1889 -I- 3.480 5,000 i 7,000 I 8,600 Debt 187 260 S04 1,269 Ratio of Debt 5-3 7.2 14-7 The burden of debt is almost double what it is in the United Kingdom. See also Local Taxation. Germany The revenue and debt of Prussia singly, and also of Prussia and the other States now composing the German Empire, were at various dates approximately as follows : — Pr ussia Germany Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1752 1,800,000 ... 1786 5,400,000 1801 4,700,000 4,500,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 i8io 2,700,000 10,000,000 11,500,000 20,000,000 1822 7,000,000 14,000,000 14,400,000 39,000,000 1850 13,300,000 27,000,000 23,800,000 69,000,000 1865 21,800,000 42,200,000 36,000,000 138,300,000 187s 34,700,000 65,000,000 85,000,000 215,000,000 1890 79,300,000 207,300,000 154,700,000 434,800,000 The revenue and expenditure of Germany since 1850 may be stated approximately as foUows : — Millions £ Yearly Average Period Revenue Expen- diture Revenue, £ Expen- diture, £ 1851-70 1871-80 1881-89 740 72s 1,050 850 840 1,170 37,000,000 72,500,000 117,000,000 64,500,000 42,500,000 84,000,000 130,000,000 39 years 2.513 2,860 73,300,000 Revenue, £ 1822 1850 1867 1882 1887 Prussia Bavaria Wurtemburg .... Saxony Other States .... 7,000,000 2,500,000 1,000,000 900,000 3,000,000 13,300,000 4,000,000 1,100,000 1,400,000 4,000,000 25,300,000 5,900,000 1,300,000 2,200,000 5,800,000 39,coo,ooo 11,100,000 2,500,000 3,200,000 10,700,000 64,400,000 12,000,000 2,700,000 3,800,000 11,200,000 Total 14,400,000 23,800,000 40,500,000 66,500,000 94,100,000 The total for i88z and 1887 do not include the Imperial revenue. The revenue of Prussia from 1822 to 1833 averaged thus :— Customs Land-tax Sundries Total £ 3,200,000 2,700,000 1,900,000 7,800,000 The total revenue of Germany is made up approximately as follows : — Customs Income-tax . Excise . Stamps, &c. Railways Post-office, domains, &c. Total £ 13,500,000 12,500,000 22,100,000 16,800,000 55,000,000 34,^00,000 154,700,000 FINANCE 266 FINANCE It may also be classified thus : — Imperial taxes Direct State taxes Indirect State taxes Railways Post-office, domains, &c. Total £ 27,700,000 13,700,000 23,500,000 55,000,000 34,800,000 154,700,000 Besides the Imperial taxes the Empire receives " matri- cular quotas " from the several States in this order (1890):— £ , 500,000 . 500,000 . 260,000 . 940,000 Making a total of;^i3, 500,000 sterling. These matricular quotas are included in the revenue of the several States. The total Budgets for 1890 may be summed up thus : — £ Prussia . 7,800,000 Baden Bavaria . 1,900,000 Alsace Saxony 900,000 Hesse Wurtemburg 700,000 Otliers Imperial revenue . Prussian budget . Bavaria, Saxony, &c. , Total . Deduct repetitions . Total revenue 60,400,000 79,300,000 28,500,000 168,200,000 13,500,000 154,700,000 The reason for deducting repetitions is that the " matri- cular quotas " are counted in the State Budgets and also in that of the Empire. The civil list of the Emperor is defrayed solely by Prussia, and reaches ;^786,ooQ, of which ;^386,ooo arises from crown forests, the rest from ordinary revenue. As near as we can ascertain the debts of the several States at different periods, they stood thus : — 1820-22 1819-60 1889 £ £ £ Prussia .... 14,000,000 27,000,000 222,500,000 Bavaria. . . . 9,200,000 10,700,000 67,100,000 Saxony .... 3,700,000 7,000,000 32,700,000 Wurtemburg . , 2,000,000 4,800,000 21,700,000 Baden .... 2,000,000 3,300,000 19,400,000 Hamburg . . . 1,200,000 1,600,000 11,800,000 Brunswick . . . 1,000,000 1,500,000 3,600,000 Small States . . 6,000,000 13,100,000 10,800,000 Total . . 39,100,000 69,000,000 389,600,000 The debt of Germany in 1 887 stood as follows ; — Class Amount, Million £ Interest, £ 4 per cents. 3i per cents. . Various .... 310 SO 59 12,400,000 1,750,000 2,550,000 Total 419 16,700,000 The total for 1889 does not include the Imperial debt, which is ;^45,20o,ooo, bringing up the whole debt of the nation to nearly 435 millions sterling. The items of Russian revenue and expenditure have been as follows, reduced to gold values : There are 20,000 miles of State railways, representing a value of 410 millions sterling, that is, practically the whole sum of public debt. Hence it would be in a manner justifiable to say that Germany has no public debt. Russia Revenue and debt have been so violently affected by the fluctuation of currency, that they can only be taken approximately at the various dates, thus : — Reign Revenue, £ Millions £ Year Funded Total Debt Debt 1620 Michael . . 160,000 1725 Peter I. . . 1,600,000 ... 1799 1806 Paul . . . Alexander I. . 3,900,000 9,500,000 7 7 47 95 1810 1840 1861 Nicholas . . Alexanderll. . 11,200,000 17,600,000 54,000,000 7 40 90 146 150 200 1875 1889 Alexander III. 74,400,000 89,900,000 240 624 370 756 In 1799 the revenue was made up thus : — Customs ..... 700,000 Serf-tax ...... 1,500,000 Liquor- tax 700,000 Sundries 1,000,000 Total . . 3,900,000 The finances since 1850 may be summed up approxi- mately thus : — Millions £ Annual Average Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure 1851-70 1871-80 1881-87 840 603 S18 1,050 903 42,000,000 60,300,000 74,000,000 53,000,000 52,500,000 90,300,000 95,400,000 37 years 1,961 2,621 70,800,000 Revenue Expenditure 1875 1889 1875 1889 Customs .... Excise Poll-tax .... Post-office .... Crown lands Sundries .... „ £ 8,300,000 29,700,000 16,000,000 2,100,000 3,200,000 15,100,000 £ 14,100,000 31,100,000 8,200,000 2,900,000 3,300,000 30,300,000 Debt Army .... Navy .... Interior .... Schools .... Sundries .... Total £ 14,400,000 23,300,000 3,500,000 7,000,000 1,900,000 22,300,000 £ 27,900,000 21,200,000 4,100,000 7,200,000 2,100,000 25,700,000 Total . 74,400,000 89,900,000 72,400,000 88,200,000 FINANCE 267 FINANCE The above includes extraordinary expenditure. New railways, for example, took 19 millions sterling during the interval of 1884-87. Debt. — It commenced with the issue of inconvertible notes, which rose as follows : — Exchange Year £ Sterling per 100 Gold Roubles 1774 .... 3,250,000 103 1796 25,600,000 190 1800 34,600,000 220 1810 93,800,000 300 1815 145,000,000 418 1823 96,800,000 360 1843 27,000,000 100 1850 49,000,000 100 1864 113.000,000 105 1873 130,000,000 116 1880 190,000,000 170 1888 .... 174,500,000 170 In 1843 the Empire was declared bankrupt, the Treasury calling in the paper issue of 97 millions ster- ling, and giving the holders new notes of 2 roubles for 7 of the old currency. The new issue began to lose value in 1864, and has now depreciated 40 per cent, a paper rouble being worth only 60 kopecks silver, that is to say, a silver rouble is worth 1 70 kopecks of paper-money. The first foreign loan was in 1818, which was followed by another in 1820. The growth of debt since 1842 is shown as follows : — Millions £ Year Foreign Internal Paper- Money Tota] 1842 . . . 1852 . . . 1862 . , . 1872 . . . 1882 . . . 1888 . . . 6 12 41 los 189 216 23 61 99 133 273 408 8 22 61 104 161 13a 37 9S 202 LI 7S6 In the above table only "uncovered" paper-money is counted under that heading. Most of the debt being payable in paper-money worth 2s. per rouble, the debt may be properly put down thus : Foreign 216, internal 324, tot^ 540 millions sterling. The origin of the debt may be approximately set down thus : — Millions £ Redemption of serfs 85 Railways and telegraphs .... 170 Crimean war 142 Turkish war 133 Sundries 226 Total . . 756 In 1887 the existing railway loans amounted to 143 millions sterling. Austria-Hungary The revenue and expenditure since 1831 were approxi- mately : — Millions £ Yearly Average, £ Period Revenue Expendi- ture Revenue Expenditure 1831-50 1851-70 1871-80 i88i-«8 340 720 560 544 440 940 630 652 17,000,000 36,000,000 56,000,000 68,000,000 37,300,000 22,000,000 47,000,000 63,000,000 81,500,000 58 years 2,164 2,662 46,000,000 The revenue and debt are shown approximately thus: — Year Millions £ Year Millions £ Revenue Debt Revenue \ Debt 1740 1793 1815 1840 4 8 12 16 12 42 83 125 1862 1872 1880 1889 3S 252 SI 324 62 ] 420 78 1 580 The general revenue and expenditure are made up thus (1889):— Revenue, £ Expendi- ture, £ Customs . . . Austrian quota . Hungarian quota 3,300,000 5,800,000 2,700,000 Army . . Navy . . Sundries . Total . 9,500,000 900,000 600,000 Total . . 11,800,000 11,000,000 The special budgets of Austria and Hungary may be stated thus : — Revenue, £ Expenditure, £ Austria .... Hungary .... 45,300,000 29,500,000 45,000,000 29,600,000 Total 74,800,000 74,600,000 These Budgets include the quotas previously mentioned for the joint or general revenue. The total outlay, there- fore, of the whole monarchy is ;£'78, 100,000, at the current rate of exchange in 1889, that is, 2od. to the florin. The finances of Austria proper in 1889 were : — Revenue, Expendi- £ ture, £ Customs . . . 3,100,000 Imperial quota . 5,800,000 Excise .... 16,800,000 Debt .... 12,000,000 Property-tax . . 8,500,000 Army and navy . 8,500,000 Stamps. . . . 1,600,000 Schools . . . 1,000,000 Lottery . . . 1,800,000 Board of Trade. 4,700,000 Post-o£Bce and ) railways ) 6,200,000 Justice . . . 1,700,000 Government . . 11,400,000 7,300,000 Total . . 45,100,000 Total . . 45,300,000 The Hungariai budget foi 1889 was as follows : — Revenue, £ Expendi- ture, £ Trade items . . Agricultural . . Financial . , . Sundries . . . 5,300,000 1,000,000 22,200,000 1,200,000 Imperial quota . Debt .... Army .... Government, &c. Total . . 2,700,000 11,000,000 900,000 15,100,000 Total . . 29,700,000 29,700,000 The whole debt of the Empire was as follows : 1876 1889 General .... Austrian .... Hungarian £ 300,800,000 33,200,000 72,000,000 £ 320,000,000 105,900,000 154,500,000 Total 406,000,000 580,400,000 FINANCE 268 FINANCE Italy Estimates were made in 1810, in 1830, and again in 1850 of the revenue and debt of the various States, ex- cepting those provinces held by Austria. Since 1861 the kingdom of Italy publishes official returns : — Year Revenue, jQ Funded Debt, £ Total Debt, £ 1810 4,600,000 1830 8,300,000 48,300,000 1850 12,000,000 1861 38,000,000 85,000,000 97,000,000 1870 48,000,000 242,000,000 333,000,000 1880 55,000,000 322,000,000 393,000,000 1890 72,000,000 363,000,000 460,000,000 Revenue and expenditure since i860 have been ap- proximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Revenue Expenditure 1861-70 1871-80 . 1881-87 • 430 534 440 660 S94 SOS 27 years 1,404 I.7S9 The annual excess of expenditure over revenue since 1 86 1 has been about 13 millions sterling. The revenue and debt of the various States in 1830 showed as follows :- Population Revenue, £ Debt, £ Per Head, £ Revenue Debt Naples Sardinia Church Tuscany Parma and Modena 7,420,000 4,160,000 2,590,000 1,280,000 790,000 3,400,000 2,600,000 1,200,000 700,000 400,000 20,000,000 4,000,000 24,000,000 ... 300,000 0.4s 0.63 0-45 o-SS 0.50 0.51 2.70 0.98 9.20 0.40 Total 16,240,000 8,300,000 48,300,000 S-So The items of ordinary revenue at various dates were : — Ratio 1871 1880 1888 1871 18SS £ £ £ Customs . . 3,200,000 5,000,000 9,800,000 100 300 Excise . . . 5,900,000 7,400,000 9,800,000 100 16b Property-tax . 13,400,000 14,400,000 15,800,000 100 118 Grist-tax . . 1,700,000 2,200,000 Lottery . . 3,400,000 2,900,000 3,400,000 100 100 Stamps . . 1,200,000 1,600,000 1,500,000 100 12.'; Post-office 1,100,000 1,500,000 2,400,000 100 218 Sundries . . 11,400,000 17,300,000 20,900,000, 100 i«3 Total . 41,300,000 52,300,000 63,600,000 100 IS4 The expenditure was made up as follows : 1871 1880 1888 Debt .... Army Navy .... Public works . . Schools .... Government . . £ 15,200,000 6,400,000 1,200,000 4,800,000 600,000 22,900,000 £ 17,400,000 8,300,000 1,700,000 5,300,000 1,100,000 21,600,000 £ 20,700,000 12,900,000 4.900,000 14,600,000 1,500,000 26,000,000 Total . . 51,100,000 55,400,000 80,600,000 Debt. — This has grown very rapidly, the increase since 1861 being 363 millions sterling, say 14 millions per annum. It may be approximately accounted for as follows : — Millions £ Railways 80 War and military expenditure . . . 270 Sundries no Total . . . 460 Communal and provincial finances in 1S85 showed : — £ Revenues 27,200,000 Debts 41,400,000 The incidence of debt and interest on population showed thus : — Year Debt, Millions £ Interest, £ Debt per Inhabitant,;^ Interest per Inhabitant, Shillings 1850 1861 1870 1880 1887 40 97 333 393 460 2,000,000 4,600,000 16,600,000 19,700,000 20,700,000 2.0 4-4 13.0 14.0 15.0 2 4 13 14 14 Spain From official and other statements we find as fol- lows : — Year Reign Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1610 Philip III. 1,320,000 40,000,000 1670 Charles II. 1,930,000 1750 Ferdinand VI. 3,320,000 11,000,000 1780 Charles III. 6,400,000 20,000,000 1808 Ferdinand VII. 6,000,000 69,000,000 1817 ,, 7,130,000 117,000,000 1836 Isabella II. 8,500,000 276,000,000 1850 ,, 11,500,000 113,000,000 1868 ,, 21,000,000 221,000,000 1878 Alfonso XII. 29,500,000 550,000,000 1888 Alfonso XIII. 35,400,000 260,000,000 Revenue and expenditure since 1831 have been approximately as follows : — Millions £ | Annual Average, £ Period Revenue ^Tre''- "Revenue Expenditure 1831-50 1851-70 1871-80 1881^88 210 320 298 264 320 1 10,500,000 410 1 16,000,000 450 { 29,800,000 284 33,000,000 16,000,000 20,500,000 45,000,000 35,500,000 58 years 1,092 i 1,464 19,000,000 25,400,000 FINANCE 269 FINANCE The finances of Spain for 1887 showed as follows :- I Revenue, Customs . . Direct taxes . Indirect taxes Sundries . . Total . 6,900,000' Debt . . . . 12,400,000' Army and navy 12,600,000 Public works . 2,100,000 Sundries . . 34,000,000 Total Expendi- ture, £ 10,900,000 7,300,000 4,000,000 11,800,000 34,000,000 pe/'f.—lt amounted in 1556 to one million sterling, rising to 40 millions under Philip III., after whose reign it was repudiated. A new debt arose vrith the War of Succession, which reached eight millions sterling in 17 13, and went on increasing till Ferdinand repudiated the most of it. A third debt was caused by the wars of Isabella II. and the Carlists, which reached 276 millions, and was likewise repudiated, holders getting new scrip for about 30 per cent, of the old stock. The fourth debt amounted to 550 millions, when Spain again compounded in 1882, giving bondholders about 40 per cent, in new scrip. The actual debt stands thus : — Amount, j^ Interest, £ 4 per cent, foreign . . . 78,800,000 3,100,000 Home debt, 4 and4i per cent. 143,200,000 5,700,000 Floating, &c 38,000,000 1,200,000 Total 260,000,000 10,000,000 Portugal Various statements since 1810 show revenue and debt as follows : — Year 1810 1825 1840 1850 1878 1888 Revenue, £ 1,200,000 2,200,000 2,700,000 3,200,000 5,700,000 8,400,000 Debt, £ 7,000,000 17,000,000 22,000,000 94,000,000 113,000,000 The finances in 1887 were as follows : — Revenue, £ Expendi- ture, £ Customs . . . Property-tax . . Sundries . . , 4,000,000 700,000 3,700,000 Debt .... Army and navy . Government . . Total . . 3,600,000 1,400, -m 4,ooo,foo Total . . 8,400,000 9,000,000 Since 1850 expenditure has exceeded revenue by 80 millions, say two millions per annum. Revenue and expenditure since 1 831 were approxi- mately as follows : — Period Millions £ Annual Average, £ Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure 1831-50 1851-70 1871-80 1881-88 S4 80 58 60 74 120 87 72 2,700,000 4,000,000 5,800,000 7,500,000 4,300,000 3,700,000 6,000,000 8,700,000 9,000,000 58 years 252 3S3 6,000,000 Z)ebt. — This dates from 1500, but was small in amount till the middle of the present century. It consists at present of 51 millions foreign 3 per cents., 58 millions home 3 per cents., and four millions of floating debt. Sweden and Norway The revenue ol these two kingdoms showed as fol- lows : — Year Sweden, £ Norway, £ Total, £ 1810 1,000,000 1822 1,300,000 300,000 1,600,000 1850 1.500,000 800,000 2,300,000 1878 4,100,000 2,400,000 6,500,000 1888 4,800,000 2,400,000 7,200,000 Before the annexation of Norway the finances of Sweden showed thus : — 1772 1784 Crown lands . Sundries .... £ 330,000 730,000 £ 330,000 920,000 Total 1,060,000 1,250,000 The Swedish debt in 1784 amounted to ;^8,8oo,ooo sterling. The items composing the revenue of the two kingdoms in 1887 were : — Sweden, £ Norway, £ Total, £ Customs . . . Excise .... Property-tax . . Railways . . . Post-oiBce . . . Sundries . . . 2,000,000 840,000 440,000 330,000 330,000 860,000 1,100,000 230,000 330,000 170,000 570,000 3,100,000 1,070,000 440,000 660,000 500,000 1,430,000 Total . . 4,800,000 2,400,000 7,200,000 The expenditure in 1887 showed as follows : Sweden, £ Norway, £ Total, £ Debt .... Army and navy . Schools. . . . Government . . 500,000 1,100,000 600,000 2,600,000 200,000 350,000 240,000 1.610,000 700,000 1,450,000 840,000 4,210,000 Total . . 4,800,000 2,400,000 7,200,000 Revenue and expenditure for the two kingdoms collec- tively may be stated approximately since 1S31 as fol- lows : — Millions £ Annual Average, £ Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure 1831-50 1851-70 1871-80 1881-88 42 66 69 S6 42 74 2,100,000 3,300,000 6,900,000 7,000,000 3,800,000 2,100,000 3,700,000 7,400,000 7,600,000 58 years 233 251 4,200,000 Debt. — The amount at various dates is shown thus : — Year 1784. 1840 . 1876. 1888 . Sweden, £ 8,800,000 1,200,000 9,800,000 13,700,000 Norway, £ 300,000 3.900,000 5,900,000 Total, £ 8,800,000 1,500,000 13,700,000 19,600,000 State railways represent an outlay of ;^l9,8oo,ooo, so that it may be said that the public debt of Sweden and Norway is merely a nominal one. FINANCE 270 FINANCE Denmark Revenue and debt since 1771 are shown thus : — Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1771 1,060,000 3,000,000 1786 1,580,000 5,800,000 1810 1,100,000 10,000,000 1835 1,560,000 14,100,000 1850 1,500,000 11,800,000 1866 2,000,000 14,800,000 1882 3,000,000 11,100,000 1889 3,040,000 10,800,000 Before the French revolution Denmark comprised not only that kingdom and the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, but also Norway; and the Budget of 1786 showed as follows : — Revenue, £ From Denmark . 900,000 ,, Duchies. . 300,000 ,, Norway. . 380,000 Total . 1,580,000 Expenditure, £ Army and navy . 600,000 Debt 260,000 Civil service . . 670,000 Total , 1,530,000 XUUtl . ±,^OU,OUU XULcLl . X,^^0 The Budgets of 1872 and 1890 compare thus : — The revenue of Denmark in the eighteenth century consisted partly of a land-tax, averaging is. per acre. The Budget of 1835 was made up as follows : — Expenditure, £ Army .... 300,000 Debt 530,000 Government , . 750,000 Revenue, £ Land and forests . 520,000 Customs . . . 390,000 Sundries . . . 650,000 Total . . 1,560,000 Total . . 1,580,000 Denmark contributed ;^i,o6o,ooo, the duchies £yio,aoo to the revenue. The revenue and expenditure from 1831 were approxi- mately as follows : — Millions £ Annual Average, £ Revenue Expendi- ture Revenue Expendi- ture 1831-50 1851-70 1871-80 1881-87 z8 36 27 21 28 40 23 21 1,400,000 1,800,000 2,700,000 3,000,000 i,goo,ooo 1,400,000 2,000,000 2,300,000 3,000,000 57 years 112 112 1,900,000 Revenue, £ Expenditxire, £ 1872 1890 1872 1890 Customs Property-tax . Stamps .... Railways Sundries 900,000 400,000 100,000 60,000 610,000 1,400,000 500,000 150,000 210,000 780,000 Debt .... Army and navy , Schools Public works Sundries . Total 530,000 710,000 40,000 100,000 650,000 390,000 920,000 110,000 170,000 1,610,000 Total 2,070,000 3,040,000 2,030,000 3,200,000 In 1856 Denmark received ;,^3,6oo,ooo from the European Powers for abolition of the Sound Dues. Schleswig-Holstein, on joining Prussia, took over ;^3,300,ooo of the Danish debt. In 1864 Holland Revenue and debt at various dates stood thus : Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1770 . 1786 . 1810 . 2,200,000 3,300,000 4,800,000 1828 . 1850 . 1879 . 1888 . 6,400,000 5,800,000 9,400,000 . 10,000,000 152,000,000 98,000,000 80,500,000 89,200,000 The sources of revenue were as follows : — 1879 1883 Customs Excise Property-tax .... Post-office .... Sundries / 380,000 3,220,000 1,700,000 420,000 3,680,000 £ 400,000 2,000,000 1,900,000 450,000 5,250,000 Total 9,400,000 10,000,000 The expenditure was as follows : — 1879 1883 Debt Army Navy Goven ment Total . • £ 2,400,000 1,800,000 1,100,000 4,600,000 £ 3,100,000 1,700,000 1,100,000 5,500,000 9,900,000 11,400,000 Holland had no public debt till its conquest by the French in 1793, but when Louis Bonaparte was made king in 1806 the debt was 83 millions sterling, and it rapidly rose to 152 millions. At present there is a set-off to the amount of 21 millions for State railways, so that the debt may be properly stated at 68 millions sterling. When Belgium separated from Holland in 1830 it caused a decline of revenue, as shown above. The revenue and expenditure since 1830 were approximately as follows : — Period Millions £ Annual Average, £ Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure 1831-50 1851-80 i88i-88 94 240 76 94 220 85 4,700,000 8,000,000 9,500,000 4,700,000 7,300,000 10,600,000 Total 410 399 Belgium When Belgium formed part of the kingdom of the Netherlands, ner contribution to the national exchequer averaged, says Kolb, ;^3,50o,ooo per annum, or half the total revenue. On attaining her independence she took over ;f 8,800,000 of the Dutch debt, involving an annual burden of ;£'440,ooo. The revenue and debt at various dates show thus : — Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1832 . 3,500,000 8,800,000 1850 . 4,700,000 25,100,000 1870 . 7,600,000 27,300,000 1878 . . 10,200,000 42,000,000 1890 . . 12,900,000 77,400,000 FINANCE 271 FINANCE The revenue and expenditure have been approximately as follows : — Millions £ Annual Average, £ Period Revenue Expendi- ture Revenue Expenditure 1831-S0 1851-70 i87i-«7 82 124 186 5? 126 236 4,100,000 6,200,000 11,000,000 4,900,000 6,300,000 14,000,000 Total 392 460 1 The revenue was made up as follows : — 183S 1860 1870 1890 Customs . . Income-tax . Railways Sundries . . £ 300,000 1,000,000 2,300,000 £ 500,000 1,100,000 600,000 2,500,000 £ 900,000 1,200,000 1,700,000 3,800,000 £ 1,100,000 1,800,000 4,200,000 5,800,000 Total . 3,600,000 4,700,000 7,600,000 12,900,000 The items of expenditure were : — 1835 1850 1870 1890 Army . . . Debt . . . Government 1,600,000 400,000 1,400,000 £ 1,000,000 1,400,000 2,200,000 £ 2,400,000 1,700,000 3,600,000 £ 1,800,000 4,000,000 7,000,000 Total . 3,400,000 4,600,000 7,700,000 12,800,000 There are 2000 miles of State lailways, which cost 29 millions sterling, representing nearly 40 per cent, of the public debt. Switzerland The Almanac de Gotha for 1810 puts the revenue at only ;^ioo,ooo for that year. The Repertoire Economiqru puts it for 1822 at ;^8oo,ooo, whereas a statement pub- lished in 1850 makes it for the last-mentioned year only ;fSoo,ooo. Official figures give us the following for later years: — Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1868 . . . 1,700,000 200,000 1877 . . . 1,700,000 1,300,000 1889 . . . 2,400,000 1,200,000 The above debt is that of the Confederation, besides which the various Cantons have their own, which Kauff- mann says amounted in 1876 to 16 millions sterling. The sources of Federal revenue were : — 1877 1888 Customs . Sundries . £ 650,000 1,050,000 £ 1,200,000 1,200,000 Total 1,700,000 2,400,000 The expenditure was as follows : — 1877 1888 Army Government £ 600,000 1,100,000 £ 800,000 1,600,000 Total 1,700,000 2,400,000 These tables do nol include the Cantonal revenues or expenditure. Greece The kingdom dates from 1832, but the finances for some years were obscure. The following shows approxi- mately revenue and debt : — Year 1840 1879 1889 Revenue, £ 800,000 1,600,000 3,400,000 Deit, £ 10,000,000 19,400,000 22,700,000 Revenue and expenditure were approximately as fol- lows : — Period Millions £ Annual Average, £ Revenue Expenditure Revenue Expenditure 1833-S0 1851-70 1871-80 1881-87 16 24 14 18 25 30 18 22 900,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 2,600,000 1,300,000 1,400,000 1,500,000 1,800,000 3,100,000 55 years 72 9S 1,700,000 The finances for 1887 showed as follows : — Revenue, £ Expenditure, £ Direct taxes . Indirect taxes . Sundries . . 900,000 1,900,000 1,000,000 Debt . . Army . . Government Total . 1,500,000 600,000 1,700,000 Total . 3,800,000 3,800,000 The debt is mostly internal, and includes ;^3, 200,000 of bank-notes. ROUMANIA AND SeRVIA The finances of these two kingdoms in 1889 showed thus: — Roumania, £ Servia, £ , Revenue — Customs Excise .... Taxes .... 900,000 1,700,000 3,600,000 200,000 800,000 800,000 Total Expenditure — Debt .... Army .... Government . 6,200,000 1,800,000 2,600,000 1,400,000 2,500,000 460,000 640.000 700,000 Total 6,500,000 1,800,000 The Roumanian debt is 36 millions sterling, that of Servia 13 millions, one-half of the amount in each case having its origin in State railways. Bulgaria Revenue, ;^2,900,ooo. A loan for ;£■!, 200,000 in 6 per cents, was effected at Vienna in January 1890. The estimates for 1890 are — Army, ;£'l, 200,000 ; debt, ;^250,ooo; public works, ^^400,000; government, ;^i, 150,000, making 1 total of three millions sterling. Deficit, ;f 100,000. Turkey Revenue and debt are shown approximately thus : — Year Revenue, £ Deit, £ 1810 . 3,000,000 1830 . 4,000,000 8,000,000 1854 . 9,000,000 12,000,000 1870 . . 12,000,000 92,000,000 1878 . . 15,000,000 245,000,000 i88? . , 16,200,000 180,000,000 FINANCE 272 FINANCE The debt has been reduced by compounding with the bond-holders. It now comprises 105 millions foreign consols, over 40 millions of internal debt, and 32 millions war indemnity due to Russia. Revenue and expenditure since 1851 were approximately as follows : — Period Mill onS;£ Annual Average, £ Revenue Expenditure Revenue j Expenditure 1851-70 1871-80 1881-87 210 140 no 300 240 lip 10,500,000 14,000,000 16,000,000 12,400,000 15,000,000 24,000,000 16,000,000 37 years 460 650 17,600,000 The Budget for 1889 showed — Revenue, ;^i6,700,ooo ; expenditure, ;^i9,3oo,ooo. Since the composition of 1882 the bond-holders receive l per cent, annual interest. The taxes set apart for this purpose gave as follows in 1888 :— Tobacco Salt £ 680,000 620,000 Excise . Sundries £ 200,000 480,000 These taxes also provide a sinking-fund. Egypt The finances may be approximately set down thus ;- Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1833 • 1863 . 1870 . 1878 . 1889 . 2,520,000 6,000,000 7,000,000 7,400,000 9,700,000 3,300,000 37,000,000 .85,000,000 103,400,000 Revenue and expenditure were approximately as follows : — Millions £ 1 Annual Average, £ Period Revenue ^r^^'-j Revenue ;EXP^'- 1841-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 6^ 11 90 ' 4,500,000 1 4,500,000 100 1 6,500,000 ' 10,000,000 13s i 7,500,000 13,500,000 68 I 8,500,000 8,500,000 48 years 298 393 . 6,200,000 8,200,000 Revenue and expenditure for 1889 showed as follows : — Expenditure^ £ Revenue, £ Land-tax . . . 4,890,000 Customs Railways Sundries 1,030,000 1,300,000 2,375,000 9,595,000 Debt charge Police , . Khedive . Government Total 4,090,000 740,000 270,000 4,300,000 9,400,000 /?«*/.— Before i860 there was no debt, although large sums had been expended in irrigation works. The debt , reached 120 millions sterling in 1880, and was thus accounted for : — Railways . . . 13,360,000 Suez Canal . . 6,770,000 Nile Canal . . 12,600,000 Sugar-mills . . 6,100,000 Alexandria harbour 2,540,000 Bridges,schooIs,&c. 4,890,000 Loss on £ Goschen loans . 1,900,000 Oppenheim do. . 18,900,000 Bischoifsheim do. 2,100,000 Rothschild do. . 2,500,000 Various do. . . 1,000,000 Ballet-dancers,&c 47,340,000 Public works 46,260,000 Unproductive 73,740,000 The nine loans effected between 1862 and 1880 repre- sented nominally ;,f77,ooo,ooo, but produced only ;£'5o,s89,ooo, the difference being lost in discounts and other unavoidable drawbacks. United States Official returns for 100 years show as follows : — Year Revenue, £ Expendi- ture, £ Debt, £ 1790 . 900,000 600,000 15,700,000 1800 . 2,200,000 2,200,000 17,200,000 1810 . 1,900,000 1,800,000 11,000,000 1820 . 3,500,000 3,800,000 19,000,000 1830 . 5,100,000 3,100,000 9,000,000 1840 . 4,100,000 5,000,000 1,100,000 1850 . 9,200,000 8,600,000 13,200,000 i860 . 11,600,000 13,100,000 13,500,000 1870 . 71,500,000 53,700,000 485,000,000 1880 . 69,200,000 55,000,000 399,000,000 1889 . 80,600,000 68,600,000 22T,00O,000 The total revenue and expenditure of 100 years were : — Period Millions £ Steriing Annual Average, £ Revenue Expen- diture Revenue Expenditure 1 1790-1809 1810-1829 1830-1849 1850-1859 1860-1869 1870-1879 1880-1889 40 8S "S 123 370 596 7S7 31 82 112 120 713 S17 S4S 2,000,000 4,250,000 5,750,000 12,300,000 37,000,000 59,600,000 75,700,000 20,860,000 1,550,000 4,100,000 5,600,000 12,000,000 71,300,000 51,700,000 54,500,000 100 years 2,086 2,120 21,200,000 Total The sources of American revenue have been as follows :- If we compare revenue with population we find : — „ . , Shillings P'""^ terlnhai. 1831-50 7 1851-60 8 1861-70 22 1871-80 26 1881-88 28 Period 1790-1809 1810-29 1830-59 1860-69 1870-79 1880-89 100 years Millions £ Sterling C"='°'"= Revenue Sundries Total 35 73 201 165 316 426 1,216 183 236 266 4 9 37 22 44 6S 181 40 85 238 370 757 2,086 Annual Average, £ Customs 1,750,000 3,650,000 6,700,000 16,500,000 31,600,000 42,600,000 12,160,000 Internal Sundries 50,000 150,000 18,300,000 23,600,000 26,600,000 6,890,000 200,000 450,000 1,230,000 2,200,000 4,400,000 6,500,00c 1,810, 00c FINANCE 273 FINANCE The items of sxpenditure were as follows :— Millions £ Sterling Period 1 1, 1 n C 2 & c 1790-1809 . . 6 12 13 31 1810-29 • 12 47 2 4 17 82 1830-49 as 63 8 8 3 112 1850-59 . 48 SS 7 3 7 120 1860-69 57 .■;27 .1 17 107 713 1870-79 . I2S "5 II 57 209 517 1880-89 • • • 151 117 14 136 127 545 100 years . 424 941 47 225 483 2,120 Debt. — There was hardly any (except local debts) previous to the war of 186 1. It reached its maximum in August 1865, namely, 572 millions sterling (2756 million dollars), being ;£i6 per inhabitant, and fell in 1889 to 221 millions sterling, or less than £\ per inhabitant. Debt and wealth compared thus : — Year Millions £ Sterling Ratio of Debt Wealth Debt 1865 . 1889 . . . 4,180 12,824 572 221 13.6 per cent. 1.7 .. .. Australia The aggregate revenue and debt of the seven colonies • which form Australia are shown thus : — Ratio per Inhabitant Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1825 72,000 0.8 •■• 1840 680,000 2.2 ... 1850 930,000 2.0 i860 6,700,000 11,900,000 5-3 9-5 1870 11,600,000 36,200,000 S.8 18. 1 1880 17,100,000 87,900,000 6.0 31.0 1888 27,600,000 166,500,000 7.5 450 The revenue and expenditure since 1850 may be summed up approximately as follows : — Millions £ Period 1 Revenue Expenditure 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 . 38 1 92 i 147 i 186 ^2 116 199 26s 38 years . 463 630 The income and expenditure of the several colonies in the last eight years, 1881-88, were : — Millions £ Revenue Expenditure Surplus Expenditure New South Wales . Victoria . Queensland . South Australia West Australia Tasmania New Zealand. 60 50 22 17 2 4 31 89 64 26 41 29 14 14 9 I 2 10 Total 186 1 265 79 The aggregate of customs revenue in the last eight years compares with trade and population as follows : — Customs II Popula- tion Ratio of Customs Per cent, of Trade Per In- habitant Yearly N. S. Wales Victoria . . Queensland S. Australia W. Australia Tasmania . New Zealand 1 13,760,000 16,050,000 7,270,000 4,330,000 1,110,000 2,220,000 11,160,000 309 269 87 88 9 24 113 900,000 950,000 290,000 300,000 3S.OOO 130,000 590,000 4-5 1:^ 5-0 12. 1 9-3 9.8 6.2 £ ^- d. I 19 220 330 I 16 400 230 280 Total . 55,900,000 899 3.i9S>ooo 240 The revenue of New South Wales in 1889 reached ;^9, 100,000. The revenue of the several colonies in 1888 was made up thus : — Customs Railways, &c. Lands Sundries Total £ £ £ £ £ New South Wales 2,140,000 3,660,000 2,270,000 820,000 8,890,000 Victoria . 2,350,000 3,230,000 660,000 1,370,000 7,610,000 Queensland 1,350,000 1,000,000 640,000 470,000 3,460,000 South Australia 530,000 1,170,000 320,000 470,000 2,490,000 West Australia . 180,000 60,000 80,000 40,000 360,000 Tasmania .... 300,000 110,000 80,000 150,000 640,000 New Zealand . 1,390,000 1,330,000 300,000 1,090,000 4,110,000 Total 8,240,000 10,560,000 4,350,000 4,410,000 27,560,000 Debt. — In June 1889 it amounted to 171 millions ster- ling, having risen almost 160 millions since i860. The money has been expended thus : — Railways . Waterworks Immigration Sundries . Total 99,300,000 13,000,0*0 5,500,000 48,700,000 166,500,000 The railways in 1889 showed gross receipts ;^8, 160,000, working expenses ;^s, 110,000, leaving a net profit of ;f 3,050,000, equal to 3 per cent, on cost of construction. The annual interest on debt is ;f 7,000,000; hence the railways pay nearly half the annual charge on the country for debt. If we deduct the value of railways and water- works, the public debt will be only 54 millions sterling, or 4 per cent, of the wealth of Australia, against ']\ per cent, in the United Kingdom. FINANCE 274 FINANCE The increase of public debt has been accompanied by an enormous increase of wealth, as we see by comparing the two items : — Year Millions £ Sterling Wealth Debt i860 . 1870 . 1888 . 180 320 1.373 12 36 166 6.6 per cent. 11.2 .• 12. 1 ,, The wealth and debt of the several colonies in 1888 were as follows : — Millions ^ Dpht Ratio Wealth Debt New South Wales . 483 44 91 Victoria 370 3S 9-5 Queensland 132 26 19-5 South Australia . 131 19 14-5 Western Australia 13 I 7-7 Tasmania . 36 4 11.2 New Zealand 208 37 17.8 Total 1.373 166 IZ.I The increase of debt since 1870 has averaged in the aggregate 7 millions sterling per annum, that of wealth 58 millions. Debt is equal to six years of revenue, the same as in Canada. The debt and annual charge in the several colonies in December 1889 stood as follows :— Debt, £ Interest, £ Debt per Inhab.,;^ New South Wales . Victoria . Queensland . South Australia New Zealand . Tasmania Western Australia . 46,800,000 37,400,000 25,800,000 20,500,000 37,000,000 5,300,000 1,300,000 1,810,000 1,520,000 1,035,000 820,000 1,530,000 210,000 50,000 43 34 60 36 30 Total 174,100,000 6,975,000 48 Canada Official returns show revenue and debt as follows : — Year Amount, £ Per Inhabitant Revenue Debt Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1840 i860 1870 1880 1889 500,000 2,400,000 3,600,000 5,100,000 7,760,000 1,200,000 14,100,000 16,700,000 32,100,000 49,200,000 0.3 0.7 I.O I.I i.S 0.7 4.0 4.6 7.0 9-9 The revenue and expenditure since 1840 may be ap- proximately summed up as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Period Revenue Expenditure Surplus Expenditure 1841-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881 -89 30 33 49 66 ^1 13 3 IS 17 49 years 178 226 48 Customs revenue averages 60 per cent, of total revenue, and is about 12 per cent, as compared with the value of trade. Debt has been largely caused by expenditure for railways. If we compare it with an approximate of public wealth, the account stands thus : — Year Millions £ Sterling Debt Ratio Per Inhabitant Wealth Debt Wealth, £ Debt, £ i860 1888 392 980 14 49 3-6 S-o 120 196 4.2 9-9 The incidence of debt is less than ;i^io per inhabitant, against ;^48 in Australia ; but, compared with revenue, it is equal, being six times the revenue in both cases. In 1889 the debt consisted of ;,f39,ooo,ooo due in London and ;^io,ooo,ooo internal debt. When the Dominion was constituted in 1867 the total debt was ;f 15,600,000 ; the subsequent increase of ;^33,6oo,ooo was caused thus : — £ Pacific Railway .... 13,000,000 Other railways .... 8,300,000 Canals 6,800,000 Other public works . . . 5,500,000 Total 33,600,000 The total cost of the Pacific Railway was ;^ 2 1,600,000. The annual interest on the public debt of Canada is ;^2,040,000. India Revenue and debt according to official returns were : — Year Revenue, £ Debi, £ 1810 . . 15,600,000 31,900,000 1820 . . 19,500,000 39,800,000 1830 . . 19,600,000 36,400,000 1840 . 19,400,000 32,500,000 1850 . . 27,600,000 53,900,000 i860 . . 39,700,000 98,100,000 1870 . . 50,900,000 108,200,000 1880 . . 69,700,000 160,400,000 1890 . . 82,900,000 191,900,000 Revenue and expenditure may be summed up approxi- mately thus : — Period Millions £ Sterling Revenue 1 Expenditure 1810-40 .... 1841-60 .... 1861-70 .... 1871-80 .... 1881-87 .... 565 S72 473 S64 S14 : 56s ] 638 483 616 540 77 years .... 2,688 2,842 In the foregoing tables the rupee is taken at the official value of 2s. Revenue and expenditure in 1890 stood thus : — Revenue, £ Expenditure, £ Land-tax . . Railways . . Opium . . . Salt-tax . . . Post-office . . Irrigation . . Sundries . . 23,400,000 i6,',fOO,ooo 8,300,000 8,000,000 2,300,000 1,900,000 22,300,000 Army . , Railways . Post-office . Roads . . Irrigation . Debt . . Sundries . Total . 22,100,000 18,700,000 13,300,000 5,500,000 2,600,000 4,400,000 16,200,000 Total . 82,900,000 82,800,000 FINANCE 275 FINANCE South Africa Revenue and debt were as follows : Year Revenue, £ 200,000 800,000 950,000 . 3,100,000 1840 i860 1870 1880 1887 Debt, £ 600,000 1,400,000 13,000,000 26,500,000 . 4,000,000 Revenue and expenditure are approximately summed up thus : — Period Millions £ Revenue Expenditure 1841-60 .... 1861-70 .... 1871-80 .... 1881-87 .... 10 9 19 27 II 10 31 40 47 years . . . . 6S 92 West Indies Revenue and debt were as follows :- Year Revenue, £ 1850 . . . 700,000 i860 1870 1880 1887 1,000,000 1,400,000 1,900,000 2,100,000 Debt, £ 900,000 1,000,000 1,600,000 1,800,000 3,100,000 Argentina Official returns are to the following effect : — Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1864 . . . 1,400,000 5,100,000 1870 . . . 3,000,000 10,100,000 1880 . , 3,900,000 23,000.000 1888 . . . 5,440,000 46,500,000 Revenue and expenditure seem therefore to have been 5 follows : — Millions £ Sterling Period Revenue Expenditure Surplus Expenditure 1864-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . IS 38 20 48 62 S 13 24 25 years . . . 88 130 42 The Budgets for 1884 and 1889 compared as follows: — Revenue • 1884 1889 Import dues Railways .... Stamps .... Sundries .... £ 4,230,000 410,000 420,000 1,440,000 £ 3,880,000 80,000 350,000 1,130,000 Total 6,500,000 5,440,000 Expenditure 1884 1889 Exchequer. . . . Interior .... Army and navy Schools, &c. . . . £ 2,720,000 1,200,000 1,680,000 900,000 £ 2,470,000 1,480,000 1,090,000 960,000 Total 6,500,000 6,000,000 Interest on debt takes ;if2,400,ooo, or 40 per cent, of the total revenue. The statement of debt omits inconvertible paper-money issued by Government banks, and Cedulas or mortgage debentures guaranteed by Government (see Banks). On the other hand, the Government claims to have assets worth 71 millions sterling, viz. : — Treasury department . . . 27,260,000 Interior Schools War and Marine . Sundries . Total 37,560,000 2,920,000 2,850,000 220,000 70,810,000* Real estate consisting of lands and public buildings stands for 41 millions, bank and railway shares and Treasury balances for 26 millions, and sundries four millions. Each of the fourteen Argentine provinces, as well as the capital, Buenos Ayres, has its own revenue and debt, distinct from those of the Federal Government. Latest returns were as follows : — Province Revenue Debt £ £ Capital . . . . 1,500,000 2,400,000 Buenos Ayres 2,400,000 17,400,000 Santa F^ . 600,000 9,400,000 Cordoba . 300,000 4,000,000 Entre Rios 300,000 4,000,000 Corrientes . 160,000 1,100,000 Santiago . 80,000 1,100,000 Mendoza . 120,000 1,000,000 Salta . 80,000 1,000,000 Rioja . 40,000 1,000,000 Tucuman . 100,000 600,000 Catamarca 40,000 600,000 San Luis . 60,000 600,000 San Juan . 50,000 400,000 Jujuy. 20,000 Tota 1 5,850,000 44,600,000 The consolidated debt, federal and provincial, may be summed up thus : — Foreign Home Debt Total Federal . Provincial . £ 25,800,000 38,700,000 S £ 207,300,000=20,700,000 44,100,000= 4,400,000 , £ 46,500,000 43,roo,oco Total . 64,500,000 251,400,000=25,100,000 89,600,000 If we add 20 millions sterling for 300 million dollars of forced issue, it makes the total debt 1 10 millions sterling, without counting 400 millions of Cedulas worth about 30 millions sterling (see Banks). Wealth and debt at various dates were approximately as follows : — Year Millions £ Sterling Debt Ratio Wealth Debt 1857 .... 1864 .... 1884 .... 1890 .... 74 139 37S S09 2 S 43 110 2.7 3-6 11.4 21.6 * This valuation does not merit confidence, since it magnifies certain items exceedingly. No impartial person would put the total at more than 10 or 12 millions sterling. FINANCE 276 FIRE Uruguay Official records since 1831 show thus : — Period Millions £ Sterling Revenue Expenditure Debt 1831-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . 1881-88 . 4 4 6 13 20 S 7 10 16 24 I 4 8 II IS 58 years. 47 62 '5 The value of real estate and cattle in 1886 amounted to 282 million gold doUars, or 59 millions sterling. The total wealth of the Republic is approximately 100 millions. The debt is therefore 1 5 per cent, against 22 per cent, in Argentina. Brazil Official returns give as follows : — Year Revenue, £, Debt, ^ 1864 1874 1888 6,100,000 11,200,000 14,100,000 18,700,000 72,100,000 107,200,000 The finances since 1850 may be summed up approxi- mately thus : — Millions £ Period Revenue Expenditure 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 . 45 65 "5 105 5° 130 13s 122 Total 330 437 The origin of the debt is shown thus : — I 48,000,000 Paraguayan war Railways Sundries 29,000,000 30,200,000 Total . . . 107,200,000 Mexico Official returns give the following : — Debt, 1889 Revenue 1889 Foreign Home £ 12,700,000 18,500,000 31,200,000 1870 1880 1889 £ 2,800,000 3,400,000 5,000,000 Customs Sundries Total £ 3,000,000 2,000,000 Total 5,000,000 In 18 China I the revenue was stated thus ; Land-tax . Customs Salt-tax . Sundries . Total £ 4,800,000 5,500,000 2,300,000 6,400,000 19,000,000 FINES The following were in force in the Middle Ages in France and England : — Ofince £ ' d Drawing a knife to any one . . o 10 o Wounding a person . . . 200 Calling a woman a prostitute . 200 FIRE The Journal des Economistes (1883) published the following table of property annually destroyed by fire, except the countries in italics, the figures for which are doubtful : — United Kingdom France . Germany , Russia . . Austria Italy . . Japan The revenue in 1889 was ^13,400,000, and the debt stood thus : — £ Funded 41,100,000 Forced currency . . . 9,000,000 Total 50,100,000 £ 9,100,000 3,200,000 6,100,000 21,000,000 3,500,000 1,000,000 £ Spain . 500,000 Holland . . 400,000 Belgium . . 500,000 Scandinavia . . 1,000,000 United States . 22,500,000 Canada . . . 4,100,000 The total reaches 73 milUons sterling. In twelve years ending 1883 the average for Austria proper was ;f 1,800,000 per annum, exclusive of Hungary. Losses in the principal cities are shown thus : — Number of Fires Number per 100,000 Inhabs. Loss, £ Per Inhabitant, Pence London . . . 2.338 S6 1,100,000 66 Paris. . . . 270,000 34 New York . . 1,783 144 780,000 150 Mancliester . 328 S9 120,000 55 San Francisco. 112,000 122 Philadelphia . 6SS 76 460,000 130 Chicago . . , 490 98 360,000 180 Boston . . . 389 117 130,000 95 Baltimore . . 172 52 70,000 SS Cincinnati . . 213 85 144,000 144 St. Louis . . 197 49 160,000 98 Vienna . . . 365 36 100,000 24 The record of London fires since 1840 has been as follows : — Annual Average Years Number of Fires Houses to a Fire Inhabitants to a Fire 1840-49 1850-59 . 1860-69 . 1870-80 . 1881-89 768 977 1.430 1.795 2,160 362 Ii8 264 260 2,731 2,570 2,390 2,150 1,780 Fires on Saturday are 5 per cent, more numerous than on any other day in London ; but in Paris Friday has 20 per cent, over the average. France Official returns for the whole of France show thus : — Annual Average Years Number of Fires Houses to a Fire Inhabitants to a Fire 1845-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 8,260 10,556 13.865 873 715 562 4,120 3.43S 2,720 FIRE 277 FISH Russia The number of houses burnt yearly from i860 to 1864 was only 10,600, representing a value of barely two millions sterling. Police estimates seem to have a cipher too much. United States. Down to 1880 the annual losses from fire averaged only 17 millions sterling. Possibly the figure given above includes Canada, a lai^e portion ra Canadian property being insured at New York. The Chronicle (N.Y.) gives the losses in United States as follows : — Period £ Sterling per Annum 1875-80 . . 14,800,000 1881-85 I9>90o,ooo This was only i per cent, of the property insured, which exceeded 2100 millions sterling, or one-fifth of the total wealth of the United States. Loss of Life. — ^The following table shows the deaths by fire per million inhabitants in various cities : — Munich. Glasgow Berlin . Paris Naples . Hanover Cologne London The loss of life in England and Wales from fire averages 1490 persons yearly, of whom 42 per cent, are males and 58 per cent females. The London firemen save 1 10 lives yearly. Three persons in England per 1000 die by fire. Remarkable Fires. — ^The worst recorded in history have been : — Year 1570 1666 1812 1824 1831 183s 1842 1851 1863 1871 1872 Place Moscow London Moscow Cairo . Constantinople New York Hamburg San Francisco Santiago Chicago Boston . Loss 200,000 victims 13,200 bouses 15,500 houses 4000 victims 18,000 houses j^6, 000,000 ^7.200,000 2500 bloclcs 1800 victims ,000,000 000,000 See also Theatres, in which some fires caused great loss of life. Fire- Brigades. — The first in London was established in 1791. The various brigades in 1882 stood thus : — Firemen Cost of Fire- Engines Fire- men Cost of Brigade per 100,000 Inhabi- tants Brigade, Pence per Inhab. London . . 38 .ws ;f8o,ooo 13 5 Paris . . . 203 i.Soo 98,000 68 II St Petersburg 37 1.150 127 Hamburg . . S3 790 305 ... New York. . 38 690 250,000 55 48 Philadelphia . 27 404 103,000 49 29 Chicago . . 27 200 94,000 40 48 Boston . . 26 472 110,000 138 79 Cincinnati . . 18 155 62,000 62 64 St Louis . 17 100 40,000 26 24 Baltimore . . 18 140 40,000 43 30 San Francisco 14 200 82 Berlin . . 50 1,090 ... 96 Lyons . . . 48 475 ... 98 The expenditure on fire-brigades compared with the number of fires shows the following average per fire : — London . Sydney New York £ 40 88 138 Philadelphia. Chicago . . St Louis . , £ 153 188 201 Baltimore . Boston . . Cincinnati £ 230 280 295 The London fire-br^de uses 17 million gallons water yearly, that is, 4J gallons per inhabitant, or 8500 gallons for each fire. The New York brigade consumes 32 million gallons, that is, 25 gallons per inhabitant, or 18,000 gallons per fire. FISH Ancturvy. — The fishermen of Finisterre, France, take 700 tons yearly, value ;f 10,000. Cod. — The average take is as follows : — Million Fish Tons Value, £ Great Britain . . France .... Norway . . . Canada . . 8 21 65 28 13,000 34,000 no.ooo 45.000 200,000 340,000 1,050,000 520,000 Total . . 122 202,000 2,110,000 The production of cod-liver oil averages 900,000 gallons yearly, chiefly in Norway and Canada, 100 livers yielding one gallon of oil. Herring Fishers Tons Herrings Value, £, Scotch .... English .... Irish. French .... Norwegian Canadian . ■ • . 140,000 80,000 20,000 42,000 60,000 48,000 1,700,000 950,000 240,000 550,000 700,000 600,000 Total . 390,000 4,740,000 About 10,000 herrings go to a ton, a British barrel containing 1000, a Norwegian 500 fish. The number of men engaged in herring-fishing is 180,000, who catch on an average 22,000 fish each. Mussels, — In 1850 there were 300 mussel-beds, and now there are 3000, in the Bay of Aguillon, France, extending seven miles along the shore. The industry was introduced by an Irish settler, and these beds pro- duce annually 350,000 bushels, valued at £sS, and the skins were valued at 35s. each. FISHERIES United Kingdom The Report for 1888 gave the following : — Tons Fish Value, £ England . Scotland . Ireland . Total 317,000 238,000 20,000 4,210,000 1,690,000 510,000 57S.OOO 6,410,000 The above would seem to be the value of the fish when first caught. Some estimates place the value much higher : hence apparent discrepancies on this point. According to a previous statement, the strength of the fishing marine and the take of herrings were : — Vessels ' Men Barrels Herrings English .... Scotch .... Irish 14,420 14.650 5,830 44,200 47,100 21,300 845,000 1,580,000 210,000 Total . . 34.900 112,600 2,635,000 The above vessels take other fish besides herrings, but the latter form 70 per cent, of the total value of our sea- fishing. Including fresh- water _ fish, the value in 1885 was estimated at ;Js, 100,000, viz.: — Kind Tons Value, £ Salmon Cod Whale Herrings Pilchards Lobsters, &c 3,600 13,000 260,000 3,000 390,000 200,000 700,000 2,900,000 '30,000 900,000 Total 5,120,000 The take of salmon is 45 per cent. Scotch, 50 per cent. Irish, and 6 per cent. English. A barrel of herrings contains 1000; of pilchards, 3000 fish. About half of the herrings and two-thirds of the pilchards are exported. The railways in 1887 carried 341,000 tons of fish, against 278,000 in 1882, viz.: — 1882 1887 England . Scotland . Ireland . Total 215,000 57,000 6,000 250,000 84,000 7,000 278,000 341,000 The value of fish taken in England and Wales in 18 was : — Kind Tons Value, £ Value per Ton,;^ Turbot .... Sole .... Haddock Herrings Cod ... . Mackerel Pilchards Plaice .... Salmon .... Various. 2,700 3,600 77,000 86,000 12,000 16,000 8,000 35.000 360 76.340 170,000 380,000 600,000 490,000 160,000 250,000 40,000 610,000 40,000 1,200,000 63 106 8 6 13 IS 18 no 16 Total . Oysters (million) . Lobsters, &c. (million) . 317,000 29 5i 3,940,000 100,000 170,000 12 Total 4,210,000 In 1888 there were 298 fishermen drowned at sea, equal to 9 per 1000 of those constantly engaged in English and Welsh waters in fishing, or 6 per 1000 if casuals be included. In that year London took 180,000 tons, or nearly 60 per cent, of all fish caught in England, equal to 100 lbs. of fish per inhabitant for yearly consumption. The Scotch fisheries have multi- FISHERIES 279 FISHERIES plied fourteen-fold since the time of the Napoleon wars, viz. : — 1805-10. — Cured . . 90,000 barrels fish per annum 1881-83. — Cured . 1,250,000 ,, „ The imports and exports of fish at various dates were; — Imports Exports Tons Value, £ Tons Value, £ 1853 . . . 10.000 170,000 43.000 450,000 i860 . 22,000 370,000 42,000 580,000 1870 . 38,000 770,000 7S.OOO 910,000 1880 . 67,000 1,670,000 134,000 1,780,000 1888 95,000 2,320,000 136,000 1,570,000 The quantities exported can only be given approxi- mately, the weight only of herrings, the value of other kinds being stated in the Customs. Herrings are about three-fourths of the total of fish exports. France The product in i88o was as follows :— Kind Tons Value, £ Cod ... . Herring and mackerel Sardines . Various 34,000 48,000 38,000 10,000 310,000 680,000 1,650,000 840,000 Total 130,000 3,480,000 The difference between deep-sea and coast fishing was as follows : — Men . Tons, fish Value, £ Deep-Sea Coast 13,000 72,000 34,000 96,000 350,000 3,130,000 Total 85,000 130,000 3,480,000 Being an average of ;^26 per deep-sea, and £44 per coast fisherman. The following report was published in 1886 : — Class 1874 1885 Fishermen Tons Fish Fishermen Tons Fish Cod . . . Various . 11,700 101,300 31,000 71,000 12,300 131,700 40,000 113,000 Total 113,000 102,000 144,000 153.000 The take of oysters and sardines was as follows : — Year 1874 1885 The French oyster-beds showed the following pro- duct : — Oysters, Sardines Aiilliim Million S2 611 127 494 Millions Year Arca- chon Roche- fort Auray Gran- ville Can- cale Total T862 . . . 1 8 I 13 18 40 1868 . • 8 3 3 I IS 1872 . . . , 10 I 7 1 4 23 1874 . . • 42 2 10 I 9 64 1876 . . • i 197 30 22 I 9 2S9 The Cancale beds produced 70 millions in 1843, the Granville 46 millions in 1857. The total French product was valued at ;^34,ooo in 1869, at ;f74,ooo in 1874. The value of all fish taken in 1885 was jf 3,700,000, against ;f 2,900,000 in 1874. The exportation of sardines was as follows : — Year Tons Million Fish 1880 . . , 10,300 260 1889 .... 12,400 310 In 1888 France exported 19,000 tons of dried codfish ; the fish bounty paid that year by Government was ;f 160,000 sterling. Nevertheless, the deep-sea fishery is not progressing; the returns of sixty years ago (1830) showed 441 vessels of 67,000 tons burflien, manned by 12,100 fishermen, the same number as at present. Holland Such was the importance of Dutch fisheries 300 years ago, that Amsterdam was said to be built of herring- bones. In the sixteenth century the Dutch had 1500 vessels in the Shetland herring-fisheries, and 260 Arctic whalers, manned by 14,000 seamen. Injudicious restric- tions and heavy taxes brought down this industry, till, in 1854, Holland had only 80 busses. The returns of herring-fishery in recent years show thus : — Busses 1 Value Taken, £ Year Deep- Sea Coast Total Deep- Sea Coast Total 1874 . . 1880 . . 1882 . . 114 133 145 218 284 261 332 417 416 110,000 150,000 190,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 150,000 210,000 270,000 50,000 100,000 150,000 Value, £ 3S.OOO 60,000 80,000 Deep-sea fishing showed annual averages as follows : Period Bttsses Tons Fish Value, £ 1858-67. . 86 4,000 1868-77. . no 7,200 1878-82. . 134 15,000 Coast-fishing was as follows : — Year Busses Barrels Fish 1874 . . 218 27,600 1880 . . 284 56,700 1882 . . 261 51,100 The oyster-fishery produced as follows : — Year Xmnber Tons 1876 ... * 36,600,000 2,900 1880 .... 16,500,000 1,200 1882 .... 15,600,000 1,100 It appears that 14,000 oysters go to a ton. The con- sumption was as follows : — Tons Holland 154 Germany 346 England, &c 600 Total 1,100 Russia In 1800 Hermann valued the fisheries at ;f 1,500,000 per annum. In 1880 the take was estimated at 220,000 tons, worth ;^2, 200,000. Sweden In 1800 the annual take was 600 million fish, or 600,000 barrels, of which three-fourths were consumed at home. The exports have been as follows : — Year Tons Value, £ 1800 .... 15,000 150,000 1830 .... 30,000 300,000 1886 .... 25,000 280,000 FISHERIES 280 FLAX AND LINEN In l88o there were 29,000 fishermen ; the annual take would probably exceed 60,000 tons. Norway In 1883 the returns showed as follows : — Class Fishermen Fish, Millions Value, £ Cod . . . Herring . 58,000 S3.000 65 410 920,000 640,000 Total 111,000 47S 1,560,000 Besides the above, the Norwegians take 350 whales, 80,000 seals, and in fresh waters a quantity of salmon. United States In 1880 there were 131,400 fishermen, with 51,400 boats of all sizes, and the annual take was valued at ;£'8,6io,ooo. Canada According to a statement in 1883 we find : — J'isA Value, £ Cod, tons . . . 45,000 520,000 Herring, tons . 48,000 580,000 Seals, number . . 460,000 280,000 Whales, &c 1,070,000 Total . . . 2,450,000 In 1889 there were 31,600 vessels, manned by 59,800 fishermen, whose take was valued at ;f 3,800,000 yearly. The fisheries of the principal nations may be summed up thus, approximately : — Vessels Men Tons Fish Value, £ Value Man,^ England 14,400 47.300 320,000 4,200,000 95 Scotland . 14,600 50,000 240,000 1,700,000 34 Ireland . . 5,800 21,800 25,000 500,000 23 U. Kingdom 34,800 129,100 585,000 6,400,000 SO France . . 23,900 r44,ooo 153,000 3,700,000 26 Germany 8,100 17,000 40,000 400,000 24 Russia . . 13.500 68,000 220,000 2,200,000 32 Austria . . 2,800 7,000 15,000 150,000 22 Italy . . . 18,200 61,000 100,000 1,000,000 17 Spain . , 10,200 38,000 50,000 500,060 13 Sweden . . 7,000 29,000 60,000 600,000 21 Norway . . 31,600 111,000 160,000 1,600,000 IS Holland . . 500 8,000 20,000 270,000 34 Europe , . 150,600 612,100 1,403,000 16,820,000 27 U. States . 51.400 131,400 600,000 8,600,000 65 Canada . . 31,600 59,800 300,000 3,800,000 63 Total . 233,600 803,300 2,303,000 29,220,000 36 FLAX AND LINEN. Flax-growing received an abnormal impulse by the American War of 1861-64 and ensuing cotton-famine, but has been on the decline in most countries, except Russia, during the last ten years. The production in the United Kingdom was as follows : — Year 1830 1850 1870 Tons 15.500 21,000 32.500 20,000 Value of Crop, £ 1,240,000 760,000 1,700,000 680,000 Neumann-Spallart's table for 1885 and some latei figures show flax -growing as follows : — Acres Tons Flax Lbs. per Acre United Kingdom . . 116,000 21,000 400 France .... 109,000 28,000 570 Germany 270,000 44,000 36s Russia . 3,000,000 330,000 240 Austria . 240,000 47,000 440 Italy . . 170,000 20,000 265 Belgium . 98,000 21,000 470 HolUnd . 38,000 8,000 460 Sweden . 28,000 3.000 230 Other countries * . 46,000 4,000 200 United States . . 400,000 42,000 230 Total . . . 4.51S.000 568,000 320 Linen Mi mt ifacture . — The latest information may be summed up thus, the consumption of flax and value of product bemg given approximately : — Number of Power- Tons Flax Value of Spindles Looms Consumed Manufacture £ U. Kingdom 1,160,000 47,600 85,000 8,500,000 France . . 500,000 23,000 90,000 9,000,000 Germany . 318,000 8,000 64,000 7,000,000 Russia . . 150,000 2,500 120,000 9,000,000 Austria , . 399,000 500 57,000 5,700,000 Italy . . . 59,000 800 27,000 2,700,000 Spain . . 1,000 10,000 1,000,000 Sweden . . 4,000 100 3.000 300,000 Holland . . 8,000 1,200 5.000 500,000 Belgium . . 289,000 4,800 50,000 5,000,000 Switzerland. g,ooo 3,000 300,000 U. States . 13.000 ■7,000 42,000 4,200,000 Total . . 2,909,000 96,500 556,000 53,200,000 United Kingdom. The production of linen from 1700 to 1 830 was re- corded for the purpose of bounties ; since the latter year it is estimated according to the consumption of flax. The production in the three kingdoms was approximately as follows : — Millions of Yards per Annum Period England Scotland Ireland t Total 1701-50 . . . 5 8 13 1751-99 • 8 14 31 53 1800-10 . 15 25 46 86 1811-20 . 20 60 "3 1821-30 . 24 60 90 174 1831-40 . 35 90 125 250 1841-50 . 50 100 160 310 1851-60 . 50 100 150 300 1861-70 . 50 110 190 350 1871-80 . 50 100 150 300 1881-90 . . . 45 95 140 280 * New Zealand exports yearly 1500 tons of a fibre which yields 17 per cent. flax. t The production and export of Irish linen in the i8th century were approximately as follows : — Year Yards Made Yards Exported Home Use 1710 . 1740 . 1800 . 4,500,000 12,000,000 44,000,000 2,000,000 7,000,000 36,000,000 2,500,000 5,000,000 8,000,000 FLAX AND LINEN 281 FLAX AND LINEN The following table shows the consumption of flax and the domestic and foreign trade in linen since 1806 : — V.U.* Flax, Tons Millions of Yards Linen Export Yarn, Value of Manu- aww facture, £, Made Exported Home Use 1806 S2,000 86 40 46 ... 3,800,000 1820 . 40,000 14s 50 95 5,800,000 1830 . 62,000 223 62 161 7,600,000 1840 . 94.000 290 87 203 16 10,800,000 1850 . 110,000 340 105 23s 18 12,600,000 i860 . 102,000 270 144 126 31 11,400,000 1870 . 130,000 360 226 134 3Z 13,500,000 1881 . 102,000 310 174 136 18 11,700,000 1888 . 85,000 260 177 83 15 8,500,000 The total value represented by the linen industry since l8zi is approximately as follows : — Millions ^ Sterling Period Home Exported Exported Total Use Linens Yam 1821-30 . . Sa 21 ... 73 1831-40 . . 60 25 3 88 1841-50 . . 63 34 6 103 1851-60 . . 56 44 13 113 1861-70 . . 52 71 24 147 1871-80 . . 50 66 16 13a 1881-88 . . 36 44 8 88 68 years . . 369 305 70 744 The following table shows approximately the output of linen in English statute miles, the amount paid for flax in 68 years, and the product of this industry : — MUesof Linen Amount in Millions ^ Price of Period Flax Manu- factures Net Product Linen per Mae,;f 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 990,000 1,420,000 1,760,000 1,700,000 2,000,000 1,700,000 1,300.000 41 58 4^ % 29 73 88 103 "3 147 32 30 % 88 76 59 70 60 ss ss 45 68 years 10,870,000 343 744 401 SS The factory statistics of this industry are as follows : — Year Factories Operatives Spindles 1840 1870 1885 392 502 388 43.o°o 125,000 112,000 1,480,000 1,160,000 In 1879 the industry stood thus : — No. of Factories Spindles Power- Looms Operatives England . . Scodand . . Ireland . . . 101 iSS 144 191,000 265,000 809,000 4,100 t6,8oo 19,600 15,000 37.000 56,000 U. Kingdom . 400 1,265,000 40.500 108,000 Francs In 1839 the linen manufactures were estimated by Berghus at ;f 10,400,000, which would be equivalent to 280 million yards, and indicate a consumption of 70,000 tons of flax. They were valued by Tolosan in the pre- vious century, 1788, at about five millions sterling. France consumes three times as much flax as she produces, the import of this fibre showing thus : — Year Tons 1872 56,000 1880 67.000 1887 60.000 In this branch of manufacture she is ahead of the United Kingdom, and turns out about 360 million yards per annum. In five years ending 1888 France exported ;^3,20O,000 of linens yearly. Germany In 1805 Oddy valued the linen manufactures of Prussia at ;f 1, 800,000; and in 1843 the value had risen to ;f 2,800,000. At the latter date Prussia stood for three- fourths of the linen manufactures of the ZoUverein. Germany in 1838 counted 13,000 spindles and 283,000 looms, showing an increase of 30 per cent, since 1822, but it was not until after the land-reform of 1848 and the introduction of railways that this industry notably ex- panded. In 1855 there were 74,000 flax-spindles, and 189,000 in 1865. The home production of flax is 44,000 tons. "Hie net imports are as follows : — Year Torts 1873 24.000 1880 13,000 1887 20,000 The consumption, therefore, seems to average 64,000 tons yearly, winch is equivalent to a make of 260 million yards of linen. Russia In 1828 there were 214 linen-factories, which turned out 20 million yards, valued at ;f 800,000 ; this was exclusive of Poland, which made two million yards yearly. In 1864 there were 599 factories, with 44,000 operatives, the production being estimated by Bushen at ;^5,3oo,ooo. Accordii^ to Mr. Spallart and the official report, an enormous increase took place recently in flax-growing, the area under this crop reaching 3,785,000 acres, and being supposed to yield 400,000 tons of flax; a pure delusion, for we see that the exports of flax have diminished. The area under flax in 1872 was 2,250,000 acres, the crop 242,000 tons ; the real figures are pro- bably still the same. During ten years ending 1887 Russia imported hnen manufactures worth ;f400,ooo a year. The exports of flax were : — Period Tons Yearly 1861-63 65,000 1870-71 162,000 1885-87 140,000 Austria An official return published in 182S showed that the production of linen since 1824 averaged 92 million yards per annum. In 1840 there were 869 factories, with FLAX AND LINEN 282 FOOD Period 280,000 hands. Most of the industry is situate in Bohemia, where it has flourished since the fourteenth century. The production of flax averages 5000 tons in Hungary, 8000 in Bohemia, and amounts altogether to 47,000 tons, besides which the Empire imports ic.ooo tons. The factories may, therefore, be estimated to produce 230 million yards linen per annum. In ten years ending 1887 Austria exported ;^6oo,ooo per annum of linen goods. Italy The official report of 1877 showed linen-factories with an aggregate of 13,000 operatives, and 59,000 spindles worked by 3000 horse-power, of which 2500 water and 500 steam. About 20,000 tons of flax are grown, and linen yam is imported, the imports showing thus : — Tons Yam Yearly 1862-64 3000 1872-73 4000 1885-87 .... . 6600 The actual product of linen is about 120 million yards yearly. Spain A statement published about 1870 gives the linen- factories a total of 6000 operatives and 5000 looms, the annual product being valued at ;^i, 100,000 sterling. This indicates a consumption of 10,000 tons flax and an output of 40 million yards. At that time the average importation of flax and linen yam was 5000 tons yearly, from which it would appear that Spain produces 5°°° tons of her own. The import of linen yam yearly was as follows : — Period Tons 1863-66 7500 1873-7S 5500 1883-87 3800 This shows a very steady decline of the industry, notwithstanding the enormous import dues on foreign linen goods In ten years ending 1887 the import of linens averaged ;^400,ooo yearly. Belgium The industry has been almost stationary for 50 years. Thus in 1835 there were I0i,ooo acres under flax, pro- ducing 21,000 tons, and the factories turned out 90 million yards linen, valued at four millions sterling. At present the flax area is 98,000 acres, and the mills turn out about 120 million yards linen. The output has always been, as in the United Kingdom, largely in excess of the requirements for home consumption. The export of linen fabrics and yam has been : — Period Annual Average^ £ 1860-62 1,700,000 1870-72 2,600.000 1885-87 4,100,000 This includes 13,000 tons of linen yam. Belgium imports about 30,000 tons of flax, the mills consuming altogether about 50,000 tons. In ten years ending 1887 the export of linens averaged ;^8oo, 000 yearly. United States The industry is of no magnitude, counting only 13,000 spindles and 7000 looms, which appear to consume native flax only, the crop being estimated at 42,000 tons. The Americans, meantime, consume imported linens largely, the value averaging thus : — Period £ 1841-43 800,000 1861-63 1,400,000 1871-73 3,800,000 1881-83 3,700,000 The consumption of linen is about 300 million yards, of which one-half is made in the country. Approximate Production of Linen Million Million Yards Yards United Kingdom 300 Spain ■ 40 France 320 Sweden . 10 Germany . 260 Holland . 20 Russia 360 Belgium . . 120 Austria . 230 United States . . 160 Italy 120 Switzerland 10 The whole makes up nearly 2000 million yards, worth about 50 millions sterling. Loss 300,000 lives 110,000 lives ;^I5, 000,000 100,000 lives f 8, 500,000 6,000,000 In the last-mentioned the area of country under water was 260 square miles, equal to the extent of the Lake of Constance. FODDER In feeding animals it is found that 10 lbs. hay are equivalent to : — FLOODS Date Place 1642 . China . 1646 . Holland . 1875 . Toulouse. 1876 . Bengal . 1879 . Zegedin . 1883 . Rhine Valley . Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Oil-cake . ■ 3 Wheat . . 6 Mangel-wurzel 33 Beans . . . 4 Potatoes . . 22 Straw . . 45 Oats . ■ 5 Cabbage • 2S Turnips . . 47 Maize . 6 Carrots . 30 Clover . 50 A horse will eat in a year nine times his own weight, a cow nine times, an ox six times, a sheep six times. FOOD The food supply of the civilised nations, that is, Europe, United States, British Colonies, &c., has increased (except as regards meat) during the nineteenth century much faster than population, which shows that the material welfare of mankind has advanced in its most important particular. The following table shows approximately the quantities of food produced and the population subsisting thereon : — Period Tons Produced Yearly Grain Meat Sugar Coffee and Tea Population 1831-40 1851-60 1875-84 1888 101,000,000 139,000,000 204,000,000 241,000,000 8,700,000 10,490,000 13,260,000 14,430,000 530,000 1,100,000 3,670,000 5,260,000 210,000 390,000 745,000 920,000 251,000,000 300,000,000 370,000,000 404,000,000 FOOD 283 In the above table grain includes what is used both for man and beast. The averages per head of population were : — Lbs. per Inhabitant Period Grain Meat Sugar Coffee and Tea 1831-40 .... 1851-60 .... 1874-84 .... 1887 900 1,040 1,240 1.330 79 79 72 79 i 22 29 2 5 The production of wheat, as shown already when treating of Agriculture, has averaged as follows : — Tons Yearly Period Europe United States Colonies, &c Total 1831-40 1851-60 1871-80 1881-S7 1888 17,800,000 21,420,000 28,150,000 30,770,000 32,400,000 1,950,000 3,430,000 8,450,000 11,000,000 10,370,000 2,900,000 5,120,000 8,250,000 11,230,000 14,050,000 22,650,000 29,970,000 44,850,000 53,000,000 56,820,000 In the period ending 1840 Europe produced 80 per cent, of the wheat of the world, as compared with 56 per cent, at present In the interval the production in the United States and in the Colonies has quintupled. FOOD The production of other grain during the same period was approximately as follows : — Tons Yearly Period Europe United States Colonics, &c. Total 1831-40 1851-60 1871-80 1881-87 1888 62,500,000 79,730,000 86,850,000 101,230,000 105,800,000 11,550,000 22,920,000 49,500,000 56,500,000 68,710,000 4,300,000 6,380,000 7,150,000 10,270,000 9,450,000 78,350,000 109,030,000 143,500,000 168,000,000 183,960,000 The total grain production since 1830 has been ap- proximately : — Tons Yearly Period Europe United States Colonies, &c. Total 1831-40 1851-60 1871-80 1881-87 1838 80,300,000 101,150,000 115,000,000 132,000,000 138,200,000 13,500,000 26,350,000 57,950,000 67,500,000 79,080,000 7,200,000 11,500,000 15,400,000 21,500,000 23,500,000 101,000,000 139,000,000 188,350,000 221,000,000 240,780,000 The ratio of increase in production of grain was thus : 1831-40 1851-60 1871-80 1888 Europe United States . . . Colonies, &c. . . . 100 100 100 126 160 144 430 214 172 326 Total . . . 100 138 186 238 The weight and value of grain used for human food in 1887 are shown approximately in the following table :- Tons Value, Wheat Rye Oats, &c. Total Millions £ United Kingdom . 6,200,000 200,000 6,400,000 46 France 8,200,000 900,000 9,100,000 77 Germany . 3,000,000 6,000,000 2,200,000 11,200,000 68 Russia 4,200,000 14,500,000 4,300,000 23,000,000 97 Austria . 4,300,000 3,300,000 800,000 8,400,000 52 Italy 3,000,000 400,000 1,900,000 5,300,000 39 Spain* 3,000,000 400,000 400,000 3,800,000 28 Portugal . 300,000 300,000 300,000 900,000 6 Sweden . 300,000 700,000 200,000 1,200,000 8 Norway . 100,000 200,000 100,000 400,000 3 Denmark , 200,000 300,000 500,000 4 Holland . 500,000 400,000 200,000 1,100,000 8 Belgium . 800,000 600,000 200,000 1,600,000 12 Switzerland 300,000 200,000 100,000 600,000 4 Roumania 300,000 200,000 300,000 800,000 4 Servia 100,000 100,000 100,000 300,000 2 Europe . 34,800,000 28,500,000 11,300,000 74,600,000 458 United States 7,300,000 600,000 2,100,000 10,000,000 48 Canada . 800,000 100,000 900,000 6 Australia . 700,000 700,000 5 Total 43,600,000 29,000,000 13,500,000 86,200,000 517 The different kinds of meat produced were as follows :- Period Tons Yearly Beef 1 Mutton Pork Total 1831-40 1851-60 1874-84 1887 3,821,000 ! 2,050,000 4,950,000 1 2,203,000 6,303,000 2,470,000 7,205,000 2,709,000 2,830,000 3,340,000 4,490,000 4,479,000 8,701,000 10,493,000 13,263,000 14,393,000 ' Spanish statistics, as a rule, bear the impress of exag- geration, and hence the production and consumption of grian and the numbers of live-stock must be doubtful The consumption of meat in Europe at present averages I lbs. yearly per inhabitant, against 64 lbs. in the decade oding 1840, viz. : — ending 1840, viz. : — Lbs. per nhabitant 1840 1888 United Kingdom France .... Germany .... Russia .... Austria .... Belgium .... 87 76 50 109 77 64 51 61 65 FOOD 284 FOOD Meantime there has been an increased consumption per head in towns. About 60,000 tons of frozen mutton are imported into Europe annually from Australia and the River Plate. An engine of 70-horse power serves to refrigerate a chamber containing 250 tons of meat, and consumes 50 tons of coal in a voyage of forty days. The production of meat was approximately as fol- lows : — Tons Yearly 1831-10 18S1-60 1874-84 1887 U. Kingdom 980,000 1,047,000 1,100,000 1,105,000 France . . 670,000 940,000 1,155,000 1,200,000 Germany . 900,000 1,246,000 1,300,000 1,375.000 Russia . . 1,430,000 1,670,000 1,800,000 1,885,000 Austria . . 990,000 980,000 1, 080,000 1,080,000 Italy . .. . 300,000 300,000 330,000 360,000 Spain . . . 405,000 350,000 470,000 525,000 Portugal . . 70,000 77,000 90,000 95,000 Sweden . . 106,000 120,000 135,000 140,000 Norway . . 44,000 64,000 67,000 67,000 Denmark . 100,000 115,000 110,000 115,000 Holland . . 96,000 104,000 120,000 125,000 Belgium . . 70,000 90,000 106,000 110,000 Other ) countries ) 310,000 360,000 440,000 451,000 Europe . . 6,471,000 7,463,000 8,303,000 8,633,000 U. States . 3,050,000 2,650,000 4,120,000 4,750,000 Canada . . 90,000 140,000 240,000 260,000 Australia 40,000 140,000 300,000 450,000 Argentine ) Republic ) 50,000 100,000 300,000 300,000 Total . 8,701,000 10,493,000 13,263,000 14,393,000 The annual production in tons was as follows : — Beef Period United Kingdom Continent United States Colonies, &c. Total 300,000 410,000 520,000 S4S.OOO 2,790,000 3,420,000 3,843,000 4,029,000 630,000 920,000 1,540,000 2, igo,ooo 100,000 200,000 400,000 441,000 3,820,000 4,950,000 6,303,000 7,205,000 1831-40, 1851-60' 1874-84' 1887 Mutton. 480,000 1,320,000 170,000 80,000 430,000 1,390,000 220,000 163,000 390,000 1,420,000 310,000 350,000 365,000 1,480,000 390,000 474,000 Pork. 1831-40 200,000 1,380,000 1,250,000 1851-60 aio,ooo 1,600,000 1,510,000 20,000 1874-84 190,000 1,940,000 2,270,000 90,000 1887 195,000 2,019,000 2,170,000 9S.O0O 2,050,000 2,203,000 2,470,000 2,709,000 2,830,000 3,340,000 4,490,000 4,479,000 1831-40 1851-60 1874-84 1887 980,000 1,050,000 1,100,000 1,105,000 Total 5,490,000 6,410,000 7,203,000 7,528,000 of Meat. 2,050,000 2,650,000 4,120,000 4,750,000 170,000 340,000 840,000 920,000 8,700,000 10,493,000 13,263,000 14,393,000 The relative increase of each kind of meat since 1840 is shown in the following table : — 1831-10 1851-60 1887 Beef .... Mutton Pork .... All meat 100 100 100 100 130 108 118 120 188 132 158 166 The production in the various countries in 1887 was approximately as follows : — Tons Produced Consumption Beef Mutton Pork Total United Kingdom 545,000 365,000 195,000 1,105,000 1,783,000 France . 660,000 250,000 290,000 1,200,000 1,320,000 Germany . 710,000 210,000 4SS.00O I.37S.OOO 1,385,000 Russia 1,050,000 415,000 420,000 1,885,000 1,854,000 Austria . 640,000 120,000 320,000 1,080,000 1,050,000 Italy 220,000 85,000 5S.00O 360,000 330,000 Spain 125,000 220,000 180,000 525,000 525,000 Portugal . 25,000 25,000 4S.OOO 95,000 94,000 Sweden . 103,000 14,000 23,000 140,000 140,000 Norway . 48,000 15,000 4,000 67,000 73,000 Denmark . 74,000 15,000 26,000 115,000 S7,ooo HoUand . 93,000 9,000 23,000 125,000 105,000 Belgium . 74000 S,ooo 31,000 110,000 166,000 Switzerland 48,000 6,000 14,000 68,000 83,000 Roumauia IZO.OOO 40,000 80,000 240,000 210,000 Servia 27,000 23,000 50,000 100,000 75,000 Greece 12,000 28,000 3,000 43,000 47,000 Europe . 4,574,000 1,845,000 2,214,000 8,633,000 9,297,000 United States 2,190,000 390,000 2,170,000 4,750,000 4,100,000 Canada . 176,000 24,000 60,000 260,000 200,000 Australia . 115,000 300,000 35.000 450,000 420,000 Argentina • 150,000 150,000 300,000 250,000 Total . 7,205,000 2,709,000 4,479,000 14,393,000 14,267,000 There is a surplus production of 126,000 tons, which is consumed in the West Indies, Brazil, and other countries. At present Europe imports 660,000 tons yearly, and large supplies may in future be obtained from the United States, Australia, and the River Plate. Taking the slaughter as usual in Europe, viz. , 20 per cent yearly of homed cattle, 40 per cent, of sheep, and 100 per cent of pigs, and the average carcase at 500 lbs. of beef, £0 lbs. of mutton, and 100 lbs. pork, the annual production and the available surplus for exportation would be : — FOOD-SUPPLY. Production of Meat, lbs. yearly per Inhabitant. PLATE V. \ 128 UL >i«,.k-/j iJ.- dbnhakk r." — ^ JK*" \i- ^/ "\ 64 H. 1)1 „ u tf._ ^^^ ROUMANIA NORWAY Spain Frahcb HOXXAND GERHANV AUSTRIA SWEDEN SWITZERLAND G. BRITAIN RUSSIA BELGIUM ITALY Consumption of Meat ^ lbs. yearly per Inhabitant, j^ •^ 160 ROUUANIA NORWAY FRANCE SPAIN BELGIUM GERUAMY DENMARK &S-.S_.m SWEDEN SWrrZBRLAND AUSTRIA HOLLAND IRELAND RUSSIA BaiUfltvne, Hanson & C? tdinburah & London FOOD 285 FOOD Tons Production Tons Consumption Tons Beef Mutton Pork Total for Export United States . Australia . River Plate . . \ 2,190,000 400,000 1, 1 20,000 390,000 870,000 900,000 2,170,000 30,000 10,000 4,750,000 1,300,000 2,030,000 4,140,000 420,000 260,000 610,000 880,000 1,770,000 Total . 3,710,000 a,i6o,ooo 2,210,000 8,080,000 4,820,000 3,260,000 The available surplus of the above three countries will be equal to 34 per cent, of the annual meat consumption of Europe, say four months' supply. At present, however, the beefof the River Plate is out of the question, owing to the poor quality of the beasts. The importation of frozen mutton into England from the Southern Hemisphere has increased rapidly of late years. In 18S9 the following quantities were received : — From Tons Value, ;f j Per Ton, ;f Australia . . . Argentina . . , Falklands, &c . 30,600 19.700 7,100 1,290,000 750,000 360,000 43 38 so Total . . S7.400 2,400,000 ! 42 New Zealand sheep average 70 lbs., Argentine 40 lbs., and the approximate cost of the mutton delivered in London is as follows : — In London the apparent consumption is only 230,000 tons, or 128 lbs. per inhabitant, but this does not include tinned meats, sudi as corned beef. In 1 86 1 the consumption per head was estimated at 172 lbs. in London, 138 in Paris, 119 in Berlin, and 103 in Madrid. The consumption of food is approximately : — Pence per Lb. £ per Ton First cost of meat Freezing process Freight and charges . 2-S o-S I.O =3.3 4.7 94 Total 4-0 37-4 The production of beef-extract has also increased, as the slai^hter at Liebig's factory at Fray Bentos, Uruguay, rose from 200,000 head of cattle in 1881 to 580,000 in 1884. Block gave the average annual consumption of meat in the following cities in ten years down to 1 877 as follows : — Pounds Meat per Inhabitant Paris . Vienna Dresden Turin . 207 150 140 I2S Milan Berlin . Naples Boston 106 90 75 306 Lbs. per Inhabitant ■si s 1 p (9 1 (0 1 1 4 U. Kingdom . . ,^8 109 19 7S s8o 40 91 France . . !A° 77 8 20 570 20 66 Germany . Sso 64 8 18 1,020 17 7« Russia . . 635 SI S II 180 19 6 Austria . . 460 61 7 18 S6o 14 28 Italy. . 400 26 4 8 SO 18 20 Spain . 480 71 3 6 20 17 6 Portugal • 500 49 a 12 40 17 18 Sweden . Sbo 62 II 22 500 28 112 Norway. 440 78 14 13 Soo 40 144 Denmark Sbo 64 22 22 410 2S 140 Holland 560 .S7 i.S .3S 820 20 240 Belgium 590 6S IS 27 1.050 142 Switzerland 440 62 11 26 140 no Roumania 400 82 9 4 80 8 Servia . 400 84 9 4 80 8 Europe . . 480 61 9 22 420 20 21 United States 370 ISO 20 S3 170 39 162 Canada . . 400 90 22 4S 600 40 72 Australia . 440 276 21 77 310 134 General avf !ra! ;e . 440 72 II 23 380 64 The quantities of food consumed by mankind in the various countries in 1887 were approximately as follows :- Tons Grain Meat Butter and Cheese Sugar Potatoes Coffee and Tea United Kingdom 6,400,000 1,783,000 328,000 1,300,000 6,300,000 92,000 France . 9,100,000 1,320,000 145,000 400,000 10,000,000 70,000 Germany 11,200,000 1,385,000 185,000 410,000 22,000,000 110,000 Russia . 23,000,000 1,854,000 210,000 412,000 6,700,000 15,000 Austria . 8,400,000 1,050,000 130,000 305,000 10,000,000 33.000 Italy . 5,300,000 330,000 60,000 98,000 600,000 16,000 Spain . 3,800,000 525,000 30,000 S3.0OO 200,000 7,000 Portugal 900,000 94,000 7,000 24,000 100,000 3,000 Sweden 1,200,000 140,000 2S.0OO 47,000 1,100,000 iS.ooo Norway 400,000 73.000 13,000 11,000 500,000 7,000 Denmark 500,000 57.000 20,000 21,000 300,000 9,000 Holland 1,100,000 105,000 30,000 63,000 1,400,000 27,000 Belgium Switzerland . 1,600,000 166,000 40,000 70,000 2,700,000 24,000 600,000 83,000 15,000 34.000 200,000 9,000 Roumania . 800,000 210,000 20,000 10,000 300,000 1,000 Senia . 300,000 7S.0OO 10,000 4.000 100,000 Europe . United States 74,600,000 9,250,000 1,268,000 3,262,000 62,500,000 438,000 10,000,000 4,100,000 560,000 1,440,000 3,800,000 280,000 Canada . 900,000 200,000 50,000 100,000 1,300,000 10,000 Australia 700,000 420,000 36,000 110,000 500,000 16,000 Tota 1 86,200,000 13,970,000 1,914,000 4,912,000 68,100,000 744.000 FOOD 286 FOOD The annual value of food consumed in various countries is approximately as follows ; Expenditure, Millions £ Sterling * Per In- Grain Meat Sugar Dairy and Poultry Potatoes Coffee, &c. Liquor Sundries Total habitant £ s. d. United Kingdom 46 87 23 61 19 9 79 48 372 9 12 6 France 77 66 6 S9 22 7 92 32 361 980 Germany . 68 69 6 69 S6 II 81 40 400 880 Russia 97 60 6 60 II 2 42 82 360 4 12 Austria 52 44 S 41 22 3 40 28 23s 610 Italy . . 39 17 2 19 I 2 41 23 144 4 16 Spam 28 26 I 14 I 30 12 112 6 10 Portugal . 6 5 3 6 3 24 5 10 Sweden . 8 7 I 7 2 2 7 3 37 7 13 Norway 3 3 ... 3 I I 3 I IS 7 10 Denmark . 4 3 4 I I 2 18 900 Holland . 8 S I S 3 3 6 S -36 800 Belgium . 12 8 I 7 6 3 14 s S6 970 Switzerland 4 5 I 3 3 20 6 12 Roumania 4 8 6 3 3 25 500 Servia 2 3 ... 2 I I 10 500 Europe 458 416 .S3 363 146 47 481 261 2,225 6 10 United States 48 123 21 "5 16 24 66 42 455 7 12 Canada . 6 6 2 7 4 I 3 3 32 6 10 Australia . S S 2 S I I 3 3 28 850 Tota I • S17 SS3 78 490 167 73 SS3 309 2,740 700 The above represents the values in first hands, to which must be added 30 per cent, for distribution in retail. As regards liquor, the excise duties are not included, these being comprised under Taxes. Professor Keleti estimates the expenditure for food in Austria- Hungary at £9 per man, £^ per woman, and £,^ per child, or £,"] per inhabitant, which would be 266 millions sterling, being 20 per cent, over the estimate in the above table : his calculation is probably at retail prices. * The blanks in the table stand for fractions, the amount of which is included at foot United Kingdom The home production of wheat and meat is as follows : — Wheat, Bushels Beef, Tons Mutton, Tons Pork, Tons Total Meat, Tons England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... 77,000,000 2,000,000 1,900,000 268,000 58,000 218,000 234,000 88,000 44,000 113,000 8,000 70,000 615,000 154.000 332,000 United Kingdom . 79,900,000 544,000 366,000 191,000 1,101,000 Food-supply has improved in late years, and the people of this country are the best fed in Europe. The con- sumption per inhabitant has been Approximately as fol- lows : — Wlieat Meat Sugar Tea Salt Beer Rice Eggs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Oz. Lbs. Galls. Lbs. No. 1811-30 270 80 19 18 16 22 I 40 1831-50 25s «7 20 23 2.'! 24 I 48 1851-70 320 90 3S 44 45 28 3 60 1871-80 334 93 60 67 72 29 II 6S 1881-88 370 102 70 n 72 27 11 70 I8B9 3S4 109 75 78 72 27 11 7b The consumption of meat in Great Britain and Ireland differs considerably, viz, : — Tons Consumed Lbs. Meat per Inhab. Great Britain Ireland Great Britain Ireland British . . Irish . . . Foreign . . 769,000 237,000 712,000 95,000 30,000 49 43 13 Total . 1,718,000 125,000 118 56 The actual amount of salt consumed for food is pro- bably no more than 36 lbs. per inhabitant, as one-half is supposed to be used in manufactures. The following table shows how our bread-supply and meat are pro- vided : — Period Wheat, Million Bushels per Annum Meat, Tons per Annum Native Im- ported Total Native Im- ported Total 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 i88i- 88 1889 108 103 102 77 72 70 14 47 73 114 144 154 122 150 I7S 191 216 224 1,014,000 1,047,000 1,078,000 1,091,000 1,105,000 1,100,000 44,000 131,000 288,000 540,000 742,000 1,014,000 1,091,000 1,209,000 1,379,000 1,645,000 1,842,000 In 1889 Ireland exported to Great Britain the following cattle : — 717,000 cows = 193,000 tons meat. 636,000 sheep = 20,000 ,, S45,ooo pigs = 24,000 ,, Total 237,000 FOOD 287 FOOD The annual slaughter in the United Kingdom was approximately as follows :— Period Homed Cattle Sheep Pigs Tons Meat Beef Mutton Pork 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 i88i-S8 1,140,000 ° 1,350,000 1,540,000 1,730,000 1,920,000 3,040,000 15,200,000 14,400,000 13,600,000 13,000,000 12,400,000 11,800,000 2,700,000 2,700,000 2,800,000 3,800,000 3,500,000 3,600,000 305,000 364,000 412,000 462,000 S14.000 544,000 47S.OOO 450,000 425,000 406,000 387,000 366,000 200,000 300,000 210,000 210,000 190,000 195,000 The weight and yalue of all kinds of meat imported in 1889 were as follows : — Tons Value, £ £ per Ton Live cattle Bacon . Beef . . 300,000 I7S.OOO 127,000 61,000 50,000 19,000 60,000 10,000 6,000 10,400,000 7,300,000 5,200,000 2,600,000 2,500,000 700,000 2,200,000 500,000 300,000 35 41 41 42 50 SO Mutton . Hams . Pork. . Lard . Poultry . RabbiU Tota 1 . . 808,000 31,700,000 39 As r^ards live cattle, the above is an estimate of their equivalent in dead meat, on the assumption that £35 sterling stands for a ton of meat Deducting lard, poultry, and rabbits, the importation of meat was 742,cxx) tons. Full-grown animals in England average as follows : — Total, Lis. 1,120 152 Cows give from 70 to 160 lbs. tallow. The importation of articles of food is shown in the foUowir^ tables, that is, the quantities and values of what were retained for consumption. Meat I'at.&v. ffide Cattle . 680 356 84 Sheep . 91 43 18 1860 1870 1880 1889 Wheat, tons 1,370,000 1,550,000 2,760,000 3,850,000 Sugar, 470,000 740,000 980,000 1,300,000 Meat, 87,000 140,000 590,000 742,000 Butter, ,, 37.000 52,000 104,000 136,000 Cheese, „ 26,000 46,000 79.000 82,000 Rice, 18,000 90,000 390,000 180,000 Tea & cof-) fee, tons ) 63,000 73.000 90,000 96,000 Potatoes, ) tons J Eggs. mill. 28,000 39.000 490,000 90,000 168 431 747 1,130 Fish, tons 33,000 38,000 67,000 9S.OOO Fruit, „ 80,000 110,000 280,000 370,000 Spirits, gall. 7,000,000 13,800,000 7,000,000 9,600,000 Wine, „ 10,200,000 16,100,000 16,000,000 14,200,000 Values OF Food Imports. I860 1870 1880 1889 £ £ £ £ Wheat 20,900,000 19,700,000 39,300,000 31,100,000 Sugar. 12,400,000 17,600,000 22,200,000 22,600,000 Meat . 4,400,000 7,700,000 26,600,000 31,600,000 Butter. • 4,100,000 6,800,000 12,100,000 13,900,000 Cheese , 1,600,000 3,300,000 5,100,000 4,500,000 Tea . 5,900,000 9,000,000 8,8oo,ooO| 8,400,000 Coffee. 1,200,000 800,000 1,300,000 1,100,000 Rice . 400,000 900,000 2,100,000 1,500,000 Eggs . 500,000 1,100,000 2,200,000, 3,100,000 Potatoes 140,000 350,000 2,800,000 700,000 Fish . 400,000 800,000 1,700,000 3,600,000 Fruit . 1,900,000 3,200,000 5,500,000 6,100,000 Spirits. 1,300,000 3,800,000 1,500,000^ 1,700,000 Wine . } 3,400,000 4,300,000 5,900,000 5,000,000 Human food 58,540,000 77,250,000 137,100,000 133.900,000 OatSibai^ ley,&c. I 10,800,000 14,500,000 23,600,000 19,700,000 Total 69,340,000 91,750,000 160,700,000 153,600,000 The weight of all food imports at the above dates was: — Human Food All Food Tons Lbs. per Inhab. Tons Lbs. per Inhab. i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1889 . . . 2,202,000 3,062,000 5,901,000 7,160,000 170 218 380 420 3,560,000 5,270,000 9,840,000 10,910,000 280 •630 640 The nimiber of days in each year in which the popu- lation subsisted on native and on imported food was as follows : — Wheat Meat 1860 1870 1880 1889 1860 1870 1880 1889 Native .... Imported .... 244 122 210 15s 142 224 114 251 340 26 323 42 236 130 223 142 Total . . 366 36s 366 36s 366 365 366 36s The number of people fed in those years on native and on imported food were : Year Wheat I Meat Native I Imported Native Imported Total i860 1870 1880 1889 ... 19,000,000 ; 9,500,000 17,900,000 13,300,000 13,500,000 i 21,000,000 11,800,000 26,000,000 26,500,000 27,600,000 22,100,000 23,100,000 2,000,000 3,600,000 12,400,000 14,700,000 28,500,000 31,200,000 34,500,000 37,800,000 FOOD 288 FOOD The importation of food from foreign countries has greatly diminished the expenditure of the nation in this regard, and thus enabled the masses to procure more food than before. Hence we find that, while the people are better fed, the annual outlay for the principal articles of food, per inhabitant, is much less than it has been for 30 years back. The more largely we import food the cheaper and more abundant the supply, which, moreover, accounts partly for the increasing span of life. The following table shows approximately the annual expenditure on certain articles of food since 1830 : — Millions £ Sterling Wheat Meat Tea and Sugar Total habitant £ s- d. 1831-40 41 40 8 89 3 12 1841-50 40 42 9 91 370 1851-60 SI SO IS 116 420 1861-70 S7 S9 26 142 4 IS 1871-80 58 83 32 173 S S 1881-85 102 30 187 5 4° 1888 46 80 31 IS7 4 S If we consider collectively all the food, of whatever kind, for man and beast (except wines, liquors, and tobacco), the annual outlay for ten years ending 1885 averaged thus : — Millions £ Sterling Home- Grown Imported Total Grain .... Meat . . Dairy products Sundries Tea, sugar, &c. . 68 79 % 59 16 i8 40 127 104 55 87 40 Total 2SS 158 413 The following table shows the net imports of grain for 130 years : — 1 ll hJ a ^1 Jo 1760-90 I79I-I8IO 1811-30 1831-50 25,000 110,000 115,000 480,000 5 16 12 45 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 1,950,000 3,200,000 5,720,000 6,800,000 238 374 420 France The production of wheat and meat has been as fol- lows : — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Wheat Meat Wheat Meat 1840 . i860 . 1880 . 1888 . 4,900,000 S,200,000 7,200,000 7,200,000 670,000 942,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 326 314 440 417 73 70 The percentage of people fed on wheat, comparing Moreau s tables with our own time, appears as follows : — Year Percentage Fed on Year Percentage Fed on Wheat Rye, &c. Wheat Ryf , &c 1700 1764 1791 39 67 61 1818 1839 188S 86 SS 40 14 The net annual importations of grain averaged approxi- mately as follows : — Period Tons per Annum Lbs. per Inhabitant 1801-40 .... 1841-60 .... 1861-70 .... 1871-S0 .... 1881-87 .... 14,000 35.000 79,000 260,000 1,460,000 I 2 4 8^ The weight and value of grain used for food in 1887 were approximately as follows : — Tons Value, t. Wheat . Rye . Total . 8,200,000 900,000 71,000,000 6,000,000 9,100,000 77,000,000 Mr. Neumann-Spallart estimated the meat-supply as follows : — The meat consumption of London (exclusive of tinned meats) was estimated at 100,000 tons in 1842, and 210,000 tons in 1882, being as H2 and 128 lbs. respectively per inhabitant. French economists seem to over-estimate the production of pork, which they put at 140 lbs. yearly per pig. Adopting their figures for the past, and putting pigs m 1888 at 1 12 lbs., the production of meat was as follows :— Year Tons 1 Lbs. per Native Imported „ , 1 Inhabitant Xotal 1856 . . . 1867 . . . 1877 . . . 835.000 1,053,000 1,200,000 38,000 85,000 117,000 873.000 1 54 1,138,000! 67 1,317,000 78 Tons Per Inhabitant, Lbs. 1840 1860 1880 1888 1840 1860 1880 1888 Beef Mutton Pork 299,000 82,000 290,000 450,000 114,000 378,000 640,000 210,000 305,000 660,000 250,000 290,000 19 S 19 27 7 23 37 12 18 37 14 16 Total 671,000 942,000 1,155,000 1,200,000 43 57 67 67 FOOD 289 FOOD The average weight of animals in 1885 was nearly 50 per cent, greater than in 1847, viz. : — Weight in Lbs. 1817 1886 Oxen. 700 1,030 Cows .... Soo 740 Sheep SO 80 Goats. SO 70 Pigs . 200 224 In 1859 M. Lavergne compared the food with what it was in 1789 thus : — consumption Consumption Lbs. per Head 1789 1859 Meat .... Wheat Rye. &c. . 39 210 280 61 330 160 The food consumption of Paris, according to a state- ment published in 1838, was as follows : — Population Per Inhabitant Year Meat, Lbs. Wine, Bottles Beer, Bottles Brandy, Bottles 1789 1817 1827 1837 600,000 714,000 802,000 842,000 179 ISO 146 123 120 Hi in 9 II 20 13 4 6 5 II The consumption in Paris in 1880 was as follows : Meat Fish Fowl Per Inhai. Lis. . . 187 . 29 . 24 Per Inhab. Lbs. Butter and cheese . 18 Vegetables and fruit . 660 Coal .... 960 Also 127 eggs, 48 gallons wine, and \\ gallon spirits. The consumption of bread per inhabitant in Paris has declined as follows : — Year Us. 1833-35 • • .392 1856-59 . . .34s The consumption of game in Paris in 1SS8 was as follows : — Year Lbs. 860-69 . 361 879 . • 331 Native Imported Total Partridges . . 160,000 421,000 581,000 Pheasants . . . 8,000 85,000 93,000 Larks .... 153,000 110,000 263,000 Wild ducks . , 10,000 40,000 50,000 Pigeons, &o. . . 375,100 626,700 1,001,800 Deer .... 2,800 10,500 13.300 Wild boars . . 300 1,400 1,700 Total . . 709,200 1,294,600 2,003,800 The urban population is much better fed than the rural, notwithstanding the fact that food is dearest in to\vns. The consumption of meat in French cities avenges three times as much per head as in the rural departments. In 1885 he consumption of food in French cities was as follows :— Tons Gallons, Millions Lbs. per Head Gallons per Head Population Bread Meat Wine Beer Bread Meat Wine Beer Paris .... 2,260,000 3SS.O0O 171,000 97.0 6.0 343 167 43 2-4 Lyons . 350,000 S5.000 25,000 1.4 a6 348 176 42 1.8 Marseilles 270,000 58,000 18,000 I.I 0.6 464 143 43 2.0 Bordeaux 220,000 38,000 17,000 I.O 0.4 380 170 46 i-S Line . 150,000 32,000 7,100 0.9 9.0 480 106 6 60.0 Toulouse 130,000 28,000 7,700 S-o 0.2 498 132 38 2.2 Nantes . 120,000 34.000 S.600 4.0 627 104 33 0.7 St Etienne 110,000 18,000 S.700 4-0 0.4 348 110 41 1-3 Havre . 110,000 20,000 S.S00 0.9 0.4 411 114 8 4-0 Rouen . no,ooo 19,000 6,600 I.I 0.3 400 136 10 2.6 Nice 50,000 12,000 3,600 30 0.3 480 38s 145 154 58 31 2.4 Tota I 3,880,000 669,000 272,800 1 19. 4 18.2 S-o Meat in the above table does not include live cattle 300,000 homed cattle, 1,900,000 sheep, and 250,000 pigs, totjd to 301,000 tons, say 295 lbs. per head. There was, moreover, the following consumption of cider in certain cities, per head : — Rouen Paris . Galls. • 33-0 • 3-5 Havre Nantes Galls. . 21.0 • 3-5 The a^;i^;ate of 25 French cities, including those in the above table, showed as follows (pop. 4,780,000) : — Bread, tons . . . 839,000 Bread, lbs. per head . . 387 Meat, „ ... 331,400 Meat, , 154 Wine, gallons 178,000,000 .Wine, gallons .... 38 Beer, „ 26,400,000 Beer, „ . . . • Si The average in the same cities in 1880 was : bread 449 lbs., meat 127, wine 35, beer 5 gallons per head. There has been, therefore, a decrease in bread, but an increase of meat and wine. introduced for consumption. Thus Paris also consumed equal to 130,000 tons of meat, which would bring up the The quantity of horse-flesh used for human food at Paris was only 400' tons in 1867,' rising to 994 in 1872. The slaughter of horses for the city market was 4680 animals in 1874, and 9830 in 1883. The principal food imports into France since i860 have been as fol- lows : — Annual Average of Value 1861-70 1871-80 18S1-87 Grain .... Cattle and meat . Sugar .... Wine .... , £ 6,300,000 3.800,000 4,800,000 £ 15,800,000 6,600,000 4,200,000 2,600,000 £ 14,300.000 7,300,000 3,700,000 15,700,000 FOOD 290 FOOD The meat-supply since 1850 has been approximately thus ; — Period Tons Yearly Pounds Native Imported Total Per Inhab. 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 • • 840,000 1,020,000 1,100,000 1,200,000 40,000 76,000 110,000 120,000 880,000 1,096,000 1,210,000 1,320,000 is 74 80 The consumption of coffee, sugar, wine, and beer per inhabitant was as follows, per annum : — Coffee, oz. . Sugar, lbs. . Wine, galls. . Beer 1860-64 37 12 18 4 1870-71 40 IS 2S 4 1880-84 62 23 21 S 1887 64 20 19 S Professor Boch makes the consumption of sugar in 1860-64 only 8 lbs. per inhabitant yearly, but the French estimates of production and consumption make it 12 lbs. Germany The production of grain and meat, the former including what was used both for man and beast, has been approxi- mately as follows : — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1816 1837 1852 1875 1887 5,000,000 7,500,000 11,200,000 14,300,000 16,000,000 600,000 760,000 890,000 1,280,000 1,375,000 440 560 75° 740 74S 60 64 A statement published in Saxony in 1876 gave the meat consumption per head as follows : — • Period Beef and Mutton Pork i Total, Lbs. 1836-55 1856-65 1866-75 187s 14 18 21 26 18 26 30 34 32 44 ^6^ The average in 1875 for all the towns of Saxony collectively was 68 lbs., for rural districts 47 lbs. per inhabitant. In 1870 the consumption in various cities was as follows : — Pounds per Inhabitant Cologne . , 104 Hamburg. . 92 Dresden . . 104 Leipzig . . 164 Dusseldorf , 104 Magdeburg . 102 Frankfort . . 171 Munich . . 166 The net imports of grain and meat into Germany were: — Berlin . . 99 Bremen 113 Breslau . 94 Coblenz . 104 Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1873 1880 1887 800,000 700,000 1,900,000 30,000 10,000 40 35 90 2 The weight and value of grain used for food were in 1887 approximately as follows : — Tons Value, £ Wheat . . . 3,000,000 21,000,000 Rye .... 6,000,000 34,000,000 Oats, &c. . . . 1,200,000 7,000,000 The consumption of potatoes is large, averaging 1020 lbs. yearly per inhabitant. The consumption of grain according to Spallart in the years 1881-84 averaged thus : — Millions of Bushels Lbs. per Native Imported Total Inhabitant Wheat . . Rye . . . Barley . . Oats . . . 81 193 76 138 21 29 14 II 102 222 90 149 132 290 120 200 Total . 488 7S 563 742 The consumption of secondary articles was as fol- lows : — Consumption per Inhabitant Year Sugar, Lbs. Coffee, Lbs. Foreign Fish, Lbs. Tobacco, Oz. Beer, Gallons 1873 1880 1887 14 14 18 S-o 4.8 4.6 4 4 7 72 as S6 18 18 i8 The only articles of which Germany has a surplus for exportation are sugar and butter, viz. : — Year Tons Exported Value, £ Butter Sugar Butter Sugar 1873 • • • 1880 . . . 1887 . . . iz,ooo 12,000 15,000 13,000 250,000 620,000 1,200,000 1,050,000 1,100,000 440,000 5,500,000 9,050,000 The net importation of wine averages 10 million gallons, and the exportation of beer 30 million gallons yearly. The following table shows the consumption of imported food since 1836 : — Total 10,200,000 62,000,000 Period Tons Yearly Barrels Fish Lbs. per Inhabitant Coffee Rice Coffee Rice Fish 1836-40 27,000 5,000 190,000 2.2 0.4 2.4 1841-50 37,000 11,000 265,000 2.8 0.8 3-1 1851-60 54,000 30,000 295,000 3-7 2.1 3-1 1861-70 74,000 36,000 460,000 4.4 2.2 4.2 1871-80 97,000 68,000 690,000 S-o 3-5 5-3 1881-85 111,000 83,000 915,000 5' 4 4.0 6.6 1887 102,000 83,000 1,095,000 5-3 3.« 8.0 Russia. This is a great food-producing country, with a constant surplus for exportation. The production of all kinds of grain and of meat has been approximately as follows ; — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhab. Grain Meat Grain Meat 1835- • ■ • 1850 .... 1870 .... 1887. . . . 26,000,000 31,000,000 36,000,000 47,500,000 1,430,000 1,670,000 1,760,000 1,885,000 1,210 1,270 1,220 1,260 67 60 51 FOOD Exports of grain and meat have been as follows, per annum: — Tons Period Value, £ Grain Meat 1810-13 . . . 250,000 ... 2,000,000 1834-40 . . . 700,000 ... 4,200,000 1841-47 . . • 800,000 4,800,000 1861 1,400,000 4,000 9,200,000 1870 3,050,000 16,000 20,800,000 1887 6,100,000 31,000 31,700,000 291 FOOD The average consumption of grain and meat has steadily decreased per head, but that of potatoes has increased, the last crop reaching 7,500,000 tons, or 3J bushels per inhabitant. The production and consumption of grain has been as follows : — The exports of grain, taken from ofScial returns, were : — Period Millions of Bushels Yearly Value, £ Wheat Rye Barley Oats,&c. Total 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-87 ■ 20 36 59 70 7 10 43 40 3 4 12 24 6 9 43 60 36 59 157 194 5,500,000 10,100,000 27,700,000 29,000,000 It would seem that the home consumption has only kept pace with population. For human food, wheat and rye are mainly used. The consumption per head was as follows : — Year Pounds per Head Wheat Rye, &c. Total 1861 . 1870 . 1880 . 1887 . 124 118 122 110 556 552 538 530 680 670 660 640 Year Millions of Bushels Crop Seed Exported Food Cattle, &c. Total 183s • 1850 . 1870 . 1887 . 1,040 1,240 1.450 1,900 160 190 220 290 28 32 122 244 670 750 800 926 182 268 308 440 1.040 1,240 1,450 1,900 The production and consumption of wheat are shown approximately thus : — Year 1861 1870 1880 1887 Millions of Bushels Crop Seed Exported Food Total 180 217 220 270 30 36 37 45 29 55 35 75 121 126 148 150 180 217 220 270 The quantities of wheat, rye, oats, &c., retained for home consumption have been approximately as follows : — Year 1861 1870 1880 1887 Millions of Bushels Wheat 121 126 150 Rye 454 475 505 550 Oats 442 450 475 460 Maize, &o. 43 57 112 206 Total 1, 060 1,108 1,240 1,366 Bushels per In- habitant 18 17 i6i 16 The consumption of secondary articles was as follows : — Year Tons Sugar CofiFee Tea Foreign Salt, Lbs. Per Inhabitant Sugar, Lbs. Coffee, Oz. Tea, Oz. Foreign Salt, Lbs. i860 1870 1880 146,000 200,000 250,000 1887 410,000 6,000 7.000 8,000 5,000 4,000 9,000 18,000 10,000 150,000 170,000 150,000 150,000 Russia produces more sugar than she needs, and exports 60,000 tons. Her consumption of vrine averages 30 million gallons, of which 25 millions are grown at home. The quantity and value of grain used for food in 1887 were as follows : — Tons Value, £ Wheat .... Rye Oats, &c . 4,200,000 14,500,000 4,300,000 21,000,000 61,000,000 15,000,000 Total 23,000,000 97,000,000 Austria-Hungary. The production of grain and meat was as follows : Million Tons Lbs. per Inhab. Grain Meat Grain Meat 1836. . . . 1850 .... 1870 .... 1887. . . . 9,100,000 13,700,000 12,500.000 18,000,000 990,000 980,000 1,080,000 1,080.000 750 840 780 1,040 79 73 68 63 The exports of grain, meat, and sugar were as follows :- Year Tons Value, £ Grain Meat Sugar i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1B87 . . . 400,000 620,000 900,000 800,000 15,000 20,000 72.000 40,000 64,000 240,000 220,000 3,400.000 7,900,000 20, 100,000 12,200,000 The dispos a.1 approxim atelyofa J grain was as follows : — Year Millions of Bushels Crop Seed Exported Consumption Total 1870 . . . i88o . . . 1887 . . . 500 600 717 70 85 102 25 36 32 405 479 583 500 600 717 The weight and value of grain consumed for food it 1887 were approximately as follows : — Tons Value, £ Wheat . . . 4,300,000 30,000,000 Rye .... 3,300,000 18,000,000 Other grain . . 800,000 4,000,000 Total 8.400,000 52,000,000 FOOD 292 FOOD The production and consumption of wine were as follows : — 1876-85 . 1887 . . Millions of Gallons Yearly Vintage Exported Consumed 198 212 8 14 190 Gallons per Inhab. The consumption of sugar and coffee was approxi- mately as follows : — Year Tons Per Inhab. Sugar Coffee Sugar,Lbs. Coffee, Oz. i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1887 . . . 60,000 100,000 230,000 305,000 20,000 27,000 31,000 32,000 i It 20 26 29 28 Austria consumes only 60 per cent, of the sugar she produces, exporting over 200,000 tons yearly. The exports of food from Italy were as follows :- Italy Notwithstanding her fertile soil, Italy produces an in- sufficient food-supply, except as regards wine and fruit. The production of grain and meat was approximately as follows :— Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1828 1840 1874 1886 2,900,000 3,200,000 5,100,000 5,600,000 330,000 300,000 300,000 360,000 380 385 403 426 44 3S 24 28 The net imports of sundry articles of food was follows : — Grain Sugar Fish . Cheese Coffee Per Annum, Tons 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 252,000 61,000 25,000 5,000 11,000 160,000 78,000 39,000 7,000 13,000 390,000 98,000 43.000 10,000 16,000 Lbs. per Inhabitant 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 22 S 2 7 OE. 15 OZ. 14 7 34 9 OZ. 17 OZ. 30 8 3h 12 OZ. 20 OZ, Per Annum Value, £ 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 1861-70 1871-«0 1881-87 Meat, tons Rice „ ... Fruit Eggs, millions . Oil, million gallons . Wine 16,000 61,000 75.000 71 13 6 38,000 68,000 96,000 320 17 14 30,000 73.000 165,000 480 16 48 800,000 960,000 1,500,000 110,000 3,100,000 480,000 1,900,000 840,000 1,400,000 680,000 4,300,000 900,000 1,520,000 1,020,000 1,800,000 1,300,000 3,200,000 a, 800,000 Total ... 6,950,000 10,020,000 11,640,000 The consumption of wine, grain, and meat was: — Yearly per Inhabitant 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 Wine, gallons .... Grain, lbs Meat, ,, 16 420 23 20 424 24 18 455 26 The weight and value of grain consumed for food in 1887 were approximately as follows : — Wheat Rye . Maize, &c. Tons 3,000,000 400,000 1,900,000 Value, £ 24,000,000 3,000,000 12,000,000 5,300,000 Spain 39,000,000 Total The production of grain and meat was apparently thus : — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1826 1886 3,400,000 7,500,000 405,000 525,000 560 1,050 77 71 This is supposing official figures to be correct, but it is remarkable that in recent years Spain has largely im- ported grain, which would be apparently unnecessary if each inhabitant produced half a ton, as above. The net imports of grain have averaged yearly as follows : — Period 1880-82 1883-85 1886-87 Tons 73,000 122,000 208,000 Uis. fer Inhab, 10 16 28 Before 1880 there was always a surplus of grain foi exportation, viz. : — Period 1863-68 1872-75 1876-79 Tons Yearly , 72,000 . 144,000 . 26,000 Value, £ 900,000 1,550,000 300,000 The imports of minor articles were as follows : — 1860 1872 1880 1887 Cocoa, tons Sugar „ Fish Value, £ 4,000 32,000 20,000 2,000,000 6,000 3S,ooo 34.000 2,000,000 8,000 44,000 28,000 2,200,000 7,000 53.000 46,000 2,900,000 The imports and exports of live cattle in recent years were equal. The food exports were as follows : — 1860 1872 1880 1887 Wine, mill, galls. , 22 Oil „ I Fruit, tons . . i Salt „ . . Aggreg. value, £ 3,400,000 44 5 120,000 220,000 9,600,000 13B 4 150,000 320,000 12,400,000 183 3 160,000 220,000 13,800,000 FOOD 293 FOOD Portugal The production of grain and meat was as follows : — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1828 520,000 1868 770,000 1886 1,000,000 70,000 77,000 95,000 340 410 510 46 41 49 There is a constant deficit of grain, but a small surplus of meat for exportation. The imported food averaged thus : — Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhabitant 1872-75 1884-87 1872-75 1884^7 Grain . . Rice . . . Sugar , . Coffee , . Fish . . . 42,000 8,500 16,000 2,000 16,000 135,000 14,000 24,000 2,500 22,000 22 4 8 IS oz. 8 lbs. 69 7 12 18 oz. II lbs. Exports of food averaged as follows : Yearly 1872-76 1884-87 Wine, gallons . Oil Fruit, tons Meat „ ... Salt 11,200,000 900,000 440,000 4,000 230,000 31,400,000 230,000 130,000 1,300 120,000 The consumption of imported articles shows thus :- The consumption of food per inhabitant is about 500 lbs. grain, 48 lbs. meat, 11 lbs. fish, 12 lbs. sugar, and 14 gallons of wine. The weight and value of grain consumed for food in 1887 were : — Tons Value, £ Wheat . . . 300,000 2,400,000 Rye , . . • 300,000 1,800,000 Other grain . . 300,000 1,700,000 Total 5,900,000 900,000 Sweden The production of grain and meat was as follows : — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain 1 Meat Grain Meat 1837 1886 350,000 io6,ooi 2,510,000 140,000 280 1,100 62 There is a surplus of grain, the net exports averaging as follows per annum : — Period Tons 1860-64 205,000 1876-80 290,000 1882-86 140,000 The meat-supply is sufficient and no more, the export of live cattle being equivalent to 10,000 tons of meat yearly, which is just the quantity of pork ordinarily imported. There is a constant surplus of butter, the export of which has increased of late years, the annual average showing : — Period Tons 1876-80 4,000 1883-86 10,500 Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhabitant i i-i CO H 1 iH Coffee . 7,000 8,500 15,000 4 4 7 Rice . , 1,400 2,200 9,200 I I 4 Sugar . . 18,000 21,000 47,000 10 11 22 Salt . . 40,000 SS.ooo 64,000 22 30 28 The weight and value of grain used for food in 1887 were approximately as follows : — Tons 1 Value, £ Wheat .... Rye Other grain . . 300,000 700,000 200,000 2,100,000 4,600,000 1,200,000 Total 1,200,000 7,900,000 Norway The production of grain and meat was as follows :- Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain j Meat Grain Meat 1835 • • . 1855 . . . 1875 . • • 170,000 370,000 400,000 44,000 64,000 67,000 320 540 470 80 95 78 The net importation of grain has been as follows : — Period 1861-70 1871-80 1881-S7 The only food exported is fish, the average showing thus: — P«^ Y^ly ^"^"'^ £ , 124,000 Tons Lis. per Yearly Inhabitant 145,000 200 205,000 245 220,000 240 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 123,000 135,000 1,900,000 1,950,000 The consumption of some articles of importation was: — Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhabitant 1860-62 1885-87 1860-62 1885-87 Coffee . . Sugar. . . Meat . . . Salt . . . 5,000 S.SOO 400 69,000 7,300 11,000 6,000 80,000 7 7 84 9 13 7 92 Potatoes are much used, the consumption averaging 500 lbs. per inhabitant, all home-grown. The weight and value of grain consumed in 1887 were approximately : — Wheat . Rye Other grain . Total Tons 100,000 200,000 100,000 400,000 Value, £ 800,000 1,300,000 600,000 2,700,000 FOOD 294 FOOD Denmark. The production of grain and meat was as follows : — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhab. Grain Meat Grain Meat 1866 . . . 1886 . . . 1,750,000 2,150,000 98,000 2,280 115,000 2,400 127 128 The net exports of grain and meat averaged thus : — Period Tons Yearly j Grain Meat 1865-70 1875-80 1883-87 • 263,000 185,000 17,000 38,000 58,000 In the last period of five years there was an average importation of 10,000 tons grain yearly over and above exports. Instead of growing more than her needs, Denmark has now to rely partly on imported grain. Butter is largely exported, viz. : — Year Tons 1S74 13,000 1887 24,000 So far back as 1830 Denmark exported 5000 tons of butter and 9000 tons of cheese. The consumption of imported articles was as follows : — Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhab, 1865-67 1885-87 1865-67 1885-87 Coffee . . Sugar . . Rice . . . Salt . . . 6,300 16,400 4,000 14,500 8,500 21,000 14,000 25,000 9 22 5 19 9 22 14 25 The consumption of potatoes averages 410 lbs. per inhabitant. The weight and value of grain used for food in 1887 were approximately thus :— Tons Value, £ Wheat .... 200,000 1,600,000 Rye .... 400,000 2,400,000 Holland The production of grain and meat was approximately as follows : — Year 1828 i860 Tons Grain 400,000 600,000 1,000,000 Meat 96,000 104,000 125,000 Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain 290 360 55° Meat 70 62 69 Holland has never grown enough grain for her require- ments, the net imports averaging yearly as follows : — Tons Value, £ 1861-70 .... 180,000 2,400,000 1871-80 .... 370.000 3,400,000 1881-B7 .... 460,000 4,400,000 The other food imports show as follows, net, per annum : — Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant 1861-63 1885-87 1861-63 1885-87 Coffee . . Sugar . . . Rice . . . Lard . . . 13,000 17,000 24,000 27,000 18,000 75,000 62,00? 9 12 17 IS 10 40 34 Holland produces about 45,000 tons of beet-sugar per annum, so that the consumption of sugar is about 63,000 tons, or 35 lbs. per inhabitant. The consumption of lard is supposed to be in great measure for making butter or oleo-margarine. The exports of food are as follows : — Tons Yearly Value, £ 1861-63 1885-^7 1861-63 1885-87 Meat . . . Butter . . Cheese . . 14,000 16,000 28,000 20,000 71,000 32,000 700,000 1,050,000 800,000 1,050,000 4,500,000 900,000 The consumption of potatoes is 820 lbs. per inhabitant yearly. The weight and value of grain used for food in 1887 were approximately thus : — Tons Value, £ Wheat. . . . 500,000 4,000,000 Rye .... 400,000 2,800,000 Other grain , . , 200,000 1,200,000 Total 1,100,000 8,000,000 Belgium The production of grain and meat was approximately thus :— Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1828 1856 1866 1886 820,000 1,720,000 1,750,000 1,850,000 70,000 90,000 106,000 110,000 S30 970 890 75° 4S SI 54 43 The net imports of grain have averaged thus : Period Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhatitant 1861-70 270,000 140 1871-80 860,000 380 1881-87 . 1,230,000 505 It appears that 40 per cent, of the grain consumed is imported from other countries. The imports of meat averaged thus : — Period Tons Yearly Lis. per Inhabitant 1861-70 . 12,000 7 1871-80 . 61,000 27 1881-87 . 56,000 32 Minor articles of import are as follows : — • Quantity Yearly Per Inhabitant 1860-62 1885-87 1860-62 1886-87 Coffee, tons Wine, galls. 20,000 2,600,000 24,000 8,700,000 12 lbs. 0.6 9 lbs. i-S Butter and sugar are exported, the averages shovring thus :— 1860-62 1870-73 1885-87 Butter, tons . . Sugar ,, . . 1,700 4.500 56,000 4,200 62,000 The production of beet-sugar is 130,000 tons yearly, the consumption about 70,000 tons, or 27 lbs. per inhabi- tant. Potatoes are largely used, the average being 1050 Ibt;. vearly per inhabitant. FOOD The weight and value of grain used for food in 1887 were approximately thus : — 29s FOOD Wheat . Rye Other grain Total Tons , 800,000 . . 600.000 , . 200,000 • . 1,600,000 Switzerland Value, £ 6,800,000 4,200,000 1,200,000 12,200,000 The consumption of grain and meat in the years 1883- 87 averaged as follows : — Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Native Im- ported Total Native Im- ported Total Grain . Meat . 450,000 68,000 390,000 15,000 840,000 83,000 330 SI 300 II 630 62 The importation of grain is more than treble what it was before 1855, viz. : — Period Tons per Lis. fer Annum Inhabitant 1851-55 , . . 120,000 103 1876-80 . . . 320,000 231 1883-87 . . . 390,000 300 Three-fourths of the imported grain is wheat, the re- mainder maize and oats. Other imported articles in the same years averaged : — Quantity Lis. per Inhai, Coifee, tons 9,200 7 Sugar. „ . 34,000 26 Rice „ . 6,800 5 Wine, gallons . 12,000,000 galls. 4 Cheese and condensed milk are exported, the average being : — Cheese . . . 26,000 1,600,000 Milk . , . 13,000 480,000 The consumption of wine averaged 14 gallons yearly per inhabitant. Greece The consumption of grain and meat averaged thus :— Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Native Im- ported Total Native Im- ported Total Grain . Meat . 450,000 43.000 130,000 4.000 580,000 47,000 S6o SO 170 S 730 SS The ordinary consumption of sugar is 4000 tons, and of coffee 800 tons yearly, being respectively as 5 lbs. and I lb. per inhabitant. The only food exports are : — Quantity Value, £ Fruit, tons . 140,000 1,520,000 Oil, gallons . 2.100.000 210,000 Wne, „ . 1.500,000 50,000 The consumption of wine averages 18 gallons per inhabitant. ROUMANIA The production of grain and meat is approximately thus : — Tons ^^^' f"" Inhabitant Grain , 3,000,000 1,250 Meat .... 280,000 no The average export of grain in the years 1S82-86 was :— Tons Yearly Value, £ Wheat .... Barley .... Rye Maize .... 360,000 240,000 85.000 640,000 2,500,000 850,000 400,000 2,600,000 Total 1,325.000 6,350,000 The exportation of cattle is not known, but may be estimated as equal to one-fourth of the meat product, say 70,000 tons yearly. This would leave the consumption thus: — ~, Lbs. per -""" Inhabitant Grain . • . . . 1,680,000 650 Meat .... 210,000 82 These ratios seem very high, but they are based on the tables of the Statistique Agricole. The consumption of sugar is only 4 lbs. , and of coffee 8 oz. yearly per inhabi- tant. Servia The production of grain and meat is approximately thus : — Lbs. per Inhabitant Tons Grain Meat 370,000 100,000 420 112 The export of grain, says Spallart, averages 40,000 tons ; the meat surplus is probably 215,000 tons per annum. Egypt The average food exports in the years 1883-87 were: — ' ^ Approximately Grain . . . 1,010,000 200,000 Sugar , . . 460,000 33.000 The imports and exports of rice are about equal. United States The production of the principal articles of food was : — Year Tons Grain Meat Sugar Rice Potatoes Butter Cheese 1840 .... 1850 .... i860 .... 1870 .... 1880 .... 1886 .... 15.400,000 21,700,000 31,000,000 34,700,000 67,500,000 71,100,000 2,050,000 2,390,000 2,890,000 2,480,000 4,120,000 4,750,000 70,000 110,000 120,000 74.000 110,000 110,000 36,000 96,000 83,000 33.000 50,000 50,000 2,700,000 2,600,000 2,800,000 3,600,000 4.200,000 4,200,000 140.000 205.000 230,000 350,000 430,000 74.000 47.000 68,000 120,000 170,000 FOOD 296 FOOD Some of the above articles were produced in excess of requirements for home use, the quantities and values exported being thus : — Tons Yearly Value, £ Period Grain Meat Butter and Cheese Grain Meat Butter and Cheese 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 18S1-87 150,000 160,000 370,000 710,000 1,200,000 3,700,000 5,020,000 10,000 14,000 40,000 60,000 100,000 390,000 510,000 1,000 1,000 6,000 8,000 40,000 60,000 72,000 1,200,000 1,060,000 3,120,000 6,100,000 9,400,000 27,100,000 38,100,000 300,000 420,000 1,040,000 1,800,000 3,300,000 12,600,000 20,200,000 40,000 40,000 210,000 300,000 1,550,000 2,800,000 3,900,000 The disposal of the grain crops since 1840 wras approxi- mately as foUovps : — Period Millions of Bushels Yearly Crop Seed Exported Home Use Total 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 740 1,050 1,210 1,980 2,700 74 loS 121 198 270 15 29 148 200 652 916 1,041 1.634 2,230 740 1,050 1,210 1,980 2,700 The disposal of wheat crop was as follows approxi- mately : — Period Millions of Bushels Yearly Crop Seed Exported Home Use Total 1841-50 93 9 10 *4 93 1851-60 137 14 24 99 137 1861-70 194 20 38 136 194 1871-80 333 34 85 219 338 1881-87 44° 44 134 262 440 The disposal of the maize crop was approximately thus : — Millions of Bushels Yearly Period Crop Seed Exported Home Use Total 1841-50 485 48 S 432 48s 1851-60 71S 72 S 638 71S 1861-70 965 97 10 858 965 1871-80 1,400 140 54 1,206 1,400 1881-87 1,602 160 S3 1.389 1,602 The disposal of oats, rye, barley, buckwheat, &c., was as follows : — Period Millions of Bushels Yeariy Crop Seed Exported Home Use Total 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 162 198 SI 242 658 16 20 S 24 66 9 13 146 178 46 209 579 162 198 SI 242 658 The consumption of food compared with population was as follows : — Lbs. per Inhabitant Year Wheat Other Grain Meat 1 Sugar Potatoes Butter and Cheese 1840 . . 1850 . . i860 . . 1870 . . 1880 . , 1887 . . 240 220 260 244 320 250 1,400 1. 510 1,620 1,870 1,610 260 224 202 140 ^S7 19 20 34 41 40 S3 360 26s 200 202 190 170 20 18 14 18 20 Native sugar only forms 7 per cent, of what is con- sumed. The importation of coffee and tea has been as follows : — Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhabitant 1861-63 1871-73 1885-87 1861-631871-731885-87 i 1 Coffee Tea . 58,000 11,000 134,000 27,000 250,000 36,000 4.0 0.8 7-4 i-S 9-3 1.4 The meat product of the United States was approxi- mately as follows : — Tons Lbs. per Year Inhabi- tant Beef Mutton Pork Total 1840 662,000 172,000 1,286,000 2,120,000 280 1850 790,000 193,000 1,477,000 2,460,000 240 i860 1,140,000 200,000 1,630,000 2,970,000 ais 1870 1,060,000 253,000 1,230,000 2,540,000 ISO 1880 1,590,000 312,000 2,338,000 4,240,000 190 1888 2,190,000 390,000 2,190,000 4,750,000 178 It may be seen that the rapid increase of population causes the surplus of meat to diminish. As soon as the production falls to 120 lbs. per inhabitant, there will be no meat to export. The Americans are the best fed people in the world, and contribute in a great measure to the abundance and cheapness of food in other countries, their share of pro- duction being shown thus : — Tons Grain Grown Yearly Tons of Meat Produced Yearly 1841-60 1861-70 1881-87 1841-50 1861-70 1881-87 United States . Europe .... Colonies, &c. . 18,500,000 90,500,000 9,200,000 30,300,000 111,000,000 15,700,000 67,700,000 132,000,000 22,500,000 2,200,000 6,380,000 220,000 2,680,000 6,950,000 390,000 4,400,000 7,740,000 920,000 Total 117,200,000 157,000,000 222,200,000 8,800,000 10,020,000 13,060,000 It appears, therefore, that the United States produce 30 per cent, of the grain, and 33 per cent, of the meat of the world. FOOD 297 FORESTS Canada The production of grain and meat was approximately as follows : — Year Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1852 1873 1887 1,120,000 1,850,000 3,720,000 140,000 220,000 260,000 1,020 1,030 1,680 128 126 116 There has been of late years a smrplus of grain and other articles, the net exports averaging yearly as fol- lows : — 187&-78 1882-84 1886-87 Grain, tons . . I7S.OOO 405.000 410,000 Meat „ . . 21,000 42,000 57.000 Butter „ . . 5.500 4.800 3.100 Cheese ,, . . 16.500 31,000 39.000 Fish „ . . 64,000 77,000 71,000 Potatoes „ . . 2r,ooo 58,000 39.000 Eggs, millions . 53 142 153 The consumption of imported food was thus : — Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhabitant 1875-77 i 1885-87 1876-77 1885-87 Sugar . . Tea . . . Salt . . . 68,000 6,000 72,000 102,000 9,000 87,000 37-0 3-4 39-0 4S-0 38.0 The ordinary consumption of wheat is 35^ ^^ P^ inhabitant, and of meat 90 lbs., per annum. Australia The production of grain and meat was approximately thus: — Period Tons Yearly Lbs, per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1831-40 . . 1851-60 . . 1881-87 . . 60,000 250,000 1,550,000 40,000 1 440 140,000 500 450,000 1 1,100 300 300 300 Food exports have averaged yearly as follows : — 1875-77 1886-87 Grain, tons . . 125,000 150,000 Meat, „ . . 9.000 34.000 According to Mr. Coghlan, Government statist, the consumption of food averages as follows : — ■ T.bs, Yearly per Inhabitant i 8 1 m 1 1 New South Wales . 40-; 12 215 94 8.2 249 .3-4 Victoria . 184 !■> 282 100 7.2 265 2.7 New Zealand 9 412 78 6.7 2.0 Tasmania S7I p 389 86 6.4 ... 1.8 South Australia S 195 87 6.4 ... 2.1 Queensland . .'?66 24 250 59 8.7 370 3-5 Australasia . 374 13 279 89 7-5 276 2.8 New South Wales Victoria New Zealand Tasmania South Australia Queensland . Australasia . Gallons Yearly per 100 Inhabitants Wine Beer 80 no 20 20 160 60 80 1,170 1,940 770 970 1,410 980 1,230 Snirits Equivalent 1 in Alcohol no 120 80 60 SO 180 290 410 180 igo 280 320 290 The consumption of imported articles was as follows :— Tons Yearly Lbs. per Inhabitant 1875-77 1885-87 1875-77 1885-87 Tea . . . Sugar . . . 8,200 82,000 11,500 110,000 7-5 750 8.1 77.0 The sugar was not imported wholly from abroad, Queeiisland supplying 5 per cent in the first, and 36 per cent in the second period. Argentina The production of grain and meat was approximately thus : — Period Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Grain Meat Grain Meat 1831-40 . . 1851-60 . . 1881-87 • • 1889 . . . 50,000 120,000 850,000 1,510,000 50,000 100,000 300,000 320,000 200 280 600 910 200 220 220 200 The surplus food for exportation was as follows :- Year Tons Grain Meat 1873 .... 1883 .... 1889 ... . 2,300 108,400 350,000 35.000 39.000 60,000 The Republic grows 80,000 tons sugar and 6 million gallons of wine, which is about half the quantity con- sumed of the former and one-fiith of the latter. FORESTS Forests cover about 10 per cent, of the earth's landed area, and 25 per cent of Europe. The highest yield is in the United Kingdom, namely, 60 cubic feet of timber per acre, whereas in Brazil it is about one cubic foot. The terms used in measurement are : — Load, 50 cubic feet. Stfere, 35 cubic feet. Klafter, 2 tons or 200 fagots. Cord, 2J tons or 125 cubic feet. The ordinary cutting in Europe (except Russia) is 5 acres per 100 of forest An acre of forest, if cut down, would produce about 1000 cubic feet of timber. The annual felling of timber is hardly half what it might be, without reducing the forest resources of the world. The average shown above is only 17 cubic feet per acre, the ordinary yield available being from 30 to 40 cubic feet It appears, however, that forests within easy reach are sufficiently developed, while those more remote of Canada, Brazil, and Gran Chaco have not yet been brought into much use. FORESTS 298 FORESTS The forests of the world may be summed up approxi- mately thus :— Millions Product, Million Cubic Feet per Acre Value of of Acres Cubic Feet Product, £ Russia .... 426 6,200 IS 40,800,000 United States . 466 9.300 20 112,000,000 Brazil .... 135 150 I 1,000,000 Canada . . . 64 650 S 8,200,000 Sweden and ) Norway . . ) 61 900 IS Austria-Hungary 46 2,000 45 18,000,000 Gran Chaco . . 37 40 I 500,000 Germany . , , 32 1,300 40 13,000,000 France .... 21 1,100 SO 10,000,000 Italy .... 10 440 44 4,000,000 Algeria .... 6 120 20 1,000,000 Switzerland . . 2 140 70 1,200,000 United Kingdom 2 120 60 2,000,000 Total . . 1,308 22,460 17 223,700,000 The following table shows the average yield of firewood per acre of forest, according to the age of the trees : — Age of Trees, Years Cubic Feet Age of Trees, Years Cubic Feet Age of Trees, Years Cubic Feet 10 20 30 40 700 1,800 3.300 4.900 SO 60 80 100 6,200 7.500 9,200 10,000 150 200 250 300 12,800 13.400 12,000 11,000 The following tables refer to the principal kinds of forest trees : — Density Cohesion Strength Acacia . . . . 0.717 7-93 Alder 0.601 4-54 Ash 0.697 6.78 983 Aspen 0.602 7.20 Beech 0.823 3-57 Birch 0.812 4-30 672 Fir 0.493 4.18 585 Maple 0.674 3.58 Oak 0.808 6.49 1,000 Pine O.S59 2.48 565 Poplar 0.477 1.97 538 Sycamore 0.692 6.16 744 The following scale serves to ascertain the age of trees : — Inches Diameter Age, Years Oak Larch Elm Spruce Yew 10 . . . S 4 I 4 I 20 . 10 9 5 8 a 30 • 14 14 10 12 3 50 • 23 24 ^1 19 4 70 . 32 33 36 24 6 100 . 41 40 50 27 9 150 . S4 50 61 36 14 200 . 64 58 71 44 20 250 • 74 67 83 52 25 300 . 84 75 94 60 30 Eucalyptus or Australian gum-tree sometimes grows 24 feet in three months ; bamboo, 2 feet in twenty-four hours. The maximum age to which trees of different kinds arrive is shown as follows : — Palm . Elm . Cypress Ivy Maple Larch Years Years 250 Lemon . 640 355 Plane . . 720 388 Cedar . 800 448 Chestnut . 860 516 Walnut . 900 576 Lime . .1,076 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,880 5,100 5.900 The Crown forests of various countries are as follows : — Spruce . Oak . Olive . Yew . Baobab Dragon Yean Area, Acres Product, £ Pence per Acre Russia 180,000,000 10,000,000 13 India 35,500,000 Sweden and Norway 10,300,000 1,500,000 35 Germany . 9,400,000 3,700,000 95 Austria 7,500,000 1,500,000 48 France 2,110,000 1,700,000 180 Italy .... 500,000 200,000 96 Belgium . 100,000 40,000 96 Besides the foregoing, there are communal forests, the area of which is not easily ascertained. The following table shows approximately the consump- tion of all kinds of timber and firewood in the various countries, and the quantities of timber imported or ex- ported. Millions of Cubic Ft ^■S Millions of Consumed Yearly •§1 Cubic Ft 1 ^ ! E 1-4 & m U 3 m U. Kingdom . 60 470 530 14 390 France . . . 800 500 1,300 35 200 Germany. . . 700 600 1,300 28 Russia . . . 4,500 1,600 6,100 70 120 Austria . . . 1,200 700 1,900 SO ... 100 Italy .... 240 240 480 18 40 ... Spain and ) Portugal . ) Belgium and ) Holland . J 110 150 260 13 .60 ... 20 90 no 12 40 Sweden and Norway . 320 300 620 92 200 United States . 3,000 6,000 9,000 ISO ... 160 Canada . . . 300 200 500 100 150 Total . . 11,250 10,850 22,100 40 730 730 United Kingdom The consumption of timber has been as follows : — Year Millions of Cubic Ft Cubic Ft. per Inhabi- tant Per Load (SO Cubic Ft) British Imported Total Duty Price 1790 106 II 117 8 s, 7 s. 70 1803 no 12 122 8 25 90 1811 110 14 124 7 55 185 1820 115 22 137 7 65 160 1830 "5 28 143 6 55 ISO 1840 "S 41 156 6 55 150 1850 120 8S 205 8 7 70 i860 120 145 26s 9 4 68 1870 130 252 382 12 65 1880 140 290 430 12 50 1889 140 392 532 14 42 FORESTS 299 FORESTS The most remarkable planters in the United Kingdom are :^ Planter Locality Xo. of Trees Area, Acres Duke of Athol . Earl of Seafield . Lord Powerscourt Dunkeld Inverness Wicklow 28,000,000 60,000,000 3,000,000 16,600 40,000 1,000 The last-mentioned began in 1869, and his outlay has averaged 66s. per acre; he expects after 1894 to get a return of 8s. per acre, and that in 1915 the plantation will be worth £s'^ ^^ acre. The largest forests in England are New Forest, 67,000 acres, and Dean Forest, 23,000. France France has been steadily increasing her forests in the last forty years, their area being now 7 million acres more than in 1848. In that interval no less than 9 million acres of waste mountain lands have been planted, the increase of urbam population causing a great demand for firewood, the consumption of which averages 23 cubic feet per inhabitant. In 1 868 the area and product of forests was as follows : — Acres Product, £ State Private .... 2,110.000 15,950,000 1,720,000 8,580,000 Total 18.060,000 10,300,000 The product was made up approximately thus : — £ 800 million cubic feet firewood , . 4,000,000 300 ,, ,, ,, timber . , . 6,300,000 Paris requires one million acres for her supply of fire- wood, as she consumes the equivalent of 50,000 acres yearly, say 1000 acres each week. France is obliged to import 200 million cubic feet of timber yearly, her forests being insufficient for her requirements. The Government has planted largely in Algeria : at Lake Fetzara, on an area of 130,000 acres, 12,700,000 Australian gum-trees. Germany The forest area is as follows : — Prussia Rivaria Other States Acres 17,800,000 5,900,000 8,600,000 Total . . 32,300,000 German forests produce 40 cubic feet per acre, those beloi^ng to the Crown forming 30 per cent, of the total. In Prussia the average jrield is only 30 cubic feet, but in Bavaria it rises to 45 feet per acre. The consumption of firewood for the whole of Germany averages IS cubic feet per inhabitant. The value of product is : — 700 million cubic feet firewood . . 3,000,000 600 ,, „ ,, timber . . . 10,000,000 The forest area has been reduced by two million acres in Prussia since the breaking up of the nobles' estates in 1850-59. Russia Forests are steadily diminishing with the increase of population, and especially since the emancipation of the serfs. No less than loi million acres of forest have been cleared since 1872 according to official returns, being at the rate of 7 million acres yearly. In i860 the Cro\vn forests covered 333 million acres, and in 1878 according to Strebinski they comprised only iSo million acres ; but of course the emancipation transferred (see Lands) several millions to the serfe. The Czar has 27,000 wood-police, who cut each 150 fagots, or i^ ton of wood (mostly firewood) daily ; say 450 tons per policeman yearly, the product per man being valued at ;^45 sterling. These men, for example, felled 670 million cubic feet in 1872, and 540 million in 1878 ; we have no later dates. The foregoing applies merely to 30 million acres of forest, the personal property of the Czar, besides which the Crown or Exchequer owns 150 million acres, the yield of which may be estimated at 2000 milUon cubic feet. The product of Crown forests averages only is. per acre yearly, that of private or communal forests 3od., viz. : — Million Acres Product ^ £ Crown forests . . , 180 10,000,000 Private and communal . 246 30,800,000 426 40,800,000 Bushen estimated the product of Russian forests in 1864 at ;f 24,000,000 sterling. The consumption of firewood is estimated at one ton or 50 cubic feet per inhabitant, a ton being composed of 100 fagots, and worth about a silver rouble or 3s. per ton. At St Petersburg, according to Simmonds, the con- sumption is much greater, reaching 3,000,000 tons yearly, or nearly 200 cubic feet per inhabitant. In 1882 the value of all wood and timber was approximately : — Tons Value, £ Firewood Exported by land and water . ) Used for building, &c. . . . ) 90,000,000 34,000,000 13,600,000 ( 5,600,000 I 21,600,000 Total . . . 124,000,000 j 40,800,000 In 1878 the forests were held approximately thus : — Million Acres Crown 180 Nobles, &C. 284 Peasants 21 Total . . .485 In 1881 the total area was estimated at 426 million acres. Austria-Hungary In Austria-Hungary nearly one-fourth of the forests belongs either to the Crown or the Church, the clergy of Hungary holding 1,500,000 acres. The yield varies from one to two st^es ; average 45 cubic feet per acre. Value of product approximately as follows : — £ 1200 million cubic feet firewood . . 4,000,000 800 ,, ,, „ timber . . 14,000,000 About one-eighth of the timber is exported. The forest area of Austria is 46, 100,000 acres, viz, ; — Acres Acres Hungary . . 13,420,000 Bohemia . . . 3,240,000 Transylvania 6,550,000 Tyrol .... 2,200,000 Galitzia . . . S.730.000 Other provinces 14,960 000 Italy Italian forests show an average product of 44 cubic feet per acre, more than half of which goes in firewood, the rest to the carpenters, viz. : — 240 million cubic feet firewood . . 1,000,000 200 ,, ,, ,, timber . . 4,000,000 The price of forest land averages ;^I3 per acre. The consumption of firewood is 8 cubic feet per inhabi- tant. The supply of timber is short, Italy having to import 40 million cubic feet yearly. FORESTS Sweden and Norway Sweden and Norway produce about 900 million cubic feet, the felling of which employs 40,000 woodcutters. One-third is used for firewood, the rest made into timber for building, &c., of which 200 million cubic feet are exported. Of the total production, two-thirds correspond to Sweden, one-third to Norway. Belgium The total forest area is 1,220,000 acres, including 80,000 that belong to the State, and 340,000 to Com- mimes, the rest being private estates. Annual product 70 millions cubic feet, which yields about 7s. an acre. United States The value of timber and firewood consumed yearly is shown approximately as follows : — 300 FREIGHT the Paris fortifications is 3900 acres, and was valued in 1840 at ;if 140 an acre ; it is now about to be sold for ;^7oo an acre, on the levelling of the forts. FREIGHT The carrpng trade of the world has been prodigiously developed since the introduction of railways and steam- boats. Down to the year 1850, when the Continent of Europe had only 7600 miles of railway, the ordinary cost of land-carriage for goods was £3 a ton per 100 miles, or six times what it is at present. Freight by sea then averaged over 40s. a ton, or more than double what it is now. The following table shows approximately the ton- nage borne by rail and shipping at various dates : — Value, £ 1870 1880 Firewood .... Fences .... Sleepers, furniture, &c. Export .... 15,000,000 30,000,000 28,000,000 4,000,000 20,000,000 40,000,000 48,000,000 4,000,000 Total 77,000,000 112,000,000 About 30,000 acres of timber are felled daily, the saw- mills of Maine consuming 50 million feet, those of Michigan 80 million feet monthly. In 1880 the Union counted 25,700 sawmills, with 141,600 hands, whose wages reached ;f6,7OO,0OO yearly, turning out 18,000 million linear feet of boards, valued at ;£'48,ooo,ooo sterling. The consumption of wood for manufactures is enormous. Even trifling articles of use enter largely into the annual consumption. For example, the Harbour Springs factory turns out 8,000,000 wooden toothpicks daily. Minnea- polis requires 2,000,000 barrels yearly for its flour-mills. The forest area is distributed as follows : — States Acres States Acres New England . 19,000,000 Southern , . . 233,000,000 Middle . . . . 18,000,000 West . . . . 196,000,000 Making up a total of 466 million acres. Canada The annual production averages 70 million logs, equal to 560 million cubic feet, and 190,000 masts. The total value is ;^8,20o,ooo, home use ;iJ4,ooo,ooo, exportation ;f 4, 200,000. India Excluding Bengal and Upper Burmah, there are 45 million acres of forest (see p. 56). Australia According to Simmonds, the forest area is : — Acres New South Wales .... 3,760,000 Tasmania 4,000,000 Western Australia . , . , 19,200,000 Victoria 25,600,000 New Zealand 12,100,000 Total . . 64,660,000 He adds that in New Zealand it is being rapidly diminished. FORTIFICATIONS Louis Philippe spent 16 millions sterling on forts, especially the enceinte of Paris. Lord Palmerston spent 7J millions on the coast fortifications begun by him in i860. The German Government has spent 2j millions in militaiy works around Strasburg. The site occupied by Millions of Tons Rail Shipping Total 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1875 1880 1887 3 16 97 193 602 715 893 I.3S8 24 30 37 48 64 80 112 139 27 46 134 241 666 795 1,005 1.497 The saving to the people of Prussia alone, in having their merchandise carried by rail, was estimated in 1878 at 120 millions sterling per annum ; this would imply that the saving in 1887 for all nations (per annum) was as follows : — Tons Millions £ Saved Europe .... 752 ... 1,128 United States . . 552 ... 828 Colonies ... 54 ... 81 Total . . 1,358 2,037 This saving may be considered approximately correct, and is equal to 80 per cent, of the total annual expendi- ture for food (see Food) by the nations comprised above. Nevertheless, the cost of railway carriage for goods is by no means uniform ; the averages in 1885 showed thus : — Cost per 100 Miles, Pence per Ton U. States , Belgium . Germany . In 1888 the railways of the United Kingdom carried about 260 million tons of merchandise, the average haulage being supposed to be 30 miles : the freight charged was ;J38,8oo,ooo, equal to I20d. per 100 miles. This is precisely the rate charged on the London and North- western line for carrying meat from Liverpool to London. American railways have reduced their charges more than 50 per cent, in twenty years, viz. : — Railways of United States, Charge per Ton 100 Miles d. Year £ s. d. 1880 . . .074 1885 . . .054 The cost of sending a ton of grain from Chicago to Liverpool viA New York was as follows : — 6s Italy . . . 108 G. Britain 70 Austria . . Ill France . 84 Holland . . 118 Sweden . 13s IS4 160 Year £ s. 1865 . . 17 1870 . . 11 Year Chicago to New York New York to Liverpool Chicago to Liverpool, Water- Route By Water By Rail 1868 . . . 1873 ■ . . 1880 . . . 1884 . . . £ s. d. 220 I 12 110 12 £ s. d 3 10 2 16 1 12 I I £ s. d 130 I 15 100 12 £ s. d. 3 5° 370 210 1 4 FREIGHT 301 FRUIT The above charge for 1884 was equal to 7d. per bushel, and even lower rates have prevailed since then. The charge from Chicago to Liverpool fell 63 per cent, in the above interval of sixteen years. In 1S88 the charges from Chicago to European ports per ton were as follows : — Chicago to Shillings per Ton Bacon Flour Liverpool .... London .... Hamburg .... Antwerp .... 37 33 44 43 31 32 37 36 The freights current for ocean routes in 188S i were : — Route Shillings per Ton Miles Pence per 1000 Miles London to Singapore . . London to Australia . . London to San Francisco . London to Cape Town , Newcastle to Bombay . . Antwerp to Rio Janeiro , China to New York. . . 25 27 30 40 22 36 45 8,400 11,000 14,000 6,000 6,500 5,400 14,000 36 26 80 39 This gives a general average of 37d. per thousand miles of ocean freight, against 903. by railway ; that is, the latter costs thirty times the former. The President of Civil Engineers in his inaugmral speech for 1890 stated that in 1870 it cost £z^ to send a ton of merchandise from London to Sydney, which now costs only 30s., a fall of 94 per cent He added that in 1S20 the con- veyance of cotton bales from Liverpool to Manchester, thirty miles, cost 40s. a ton, which is now done at 7s., a fall of 82 per cent. With reference to the Manchester ship-canal, it was stated in 1889 that the railway charges between Manchester and Liverpool were still excessive, the freight on a ton of merchandise being as follows : — Liverpool to Bombay . Liverpool to Manchester 10 shillings 12 ,, The ordinary expense of carrying goods in 1884 in all countries was estimated thus : — Shillings per Ton, 1000 Miles By sea . . . . 5 I % railway . . . 100 ,, canal . . . 20 | ,, highroad . . 300 There is not much diiference between the freight paid by waggon on highroads in France and that charged by caravans across Central Africa. Thus, a camel-load of 600 lbs. from Berber to Suakim (280 miles) costs 25s., which is equal to 33s. a ton per 100 miles, 10 per cent, over the ordinary charge by waggon in Evurope. The effects of freight on prices are shown by the fact that Athens imports wheat from Odessa because land-carriage in the interior of Greece is ;^io a ton per 100 miles, and consequently it is cheaper to consume Russian wheat. Brazilian railways still charge enormous freights — coffee, for example, paying S50d. per 100 miles, or nine times as much as in the United States. Even freight by water in Brazil is dear, the Brazilian steamers charging ;^i6 a ton from Montevideo to Matto Grosso, the distance being 2500 miles. In Australia the construction of railways has been attended with the following reduction of freight charges : — Haulage of One Ton Ten Miles Year Pence 1864 75 1872 36 1878 24 1887 18 During the gold fever extravagant sums were paid for freight, the ordinary chaise in 1851 from Melbourne to Bendigo being ^£^150 per ton. FRUIT The d^rees of sugar in various fhuts are : — Apple Peach . Raspberry Strawberry Currant Gooseberry 1.6 4.0 5-7 6.1 7.2 Mulberry Pear . Cherry . Grape . 7-9 9.2 9-4 10.8 14.9 The countries which import fruit are the following :— Tons Value, I 1860 1880 1887 1860 1880 1887 United Kingdom . France .... United States . 79.000 13,000 107,000 32,000 40,000 320,000 195,000 ^,000 1,800,000 800,000 3,300,000 3,900,000 2,700,000 6,200,000 3,000,000 4,300,000 The covmtries which export fruit are the following :— Tons Value. £, 1862 1875 1887 1862 1875 1887 Italy .... Spain .... Portugal .... Greece .... 48,000 34.000 42,000 99,000 72,000 24,000 87,000 240,000 160,000 17,000 107,000 1,200,000 700,000 540,000 1,600,000 1,500,000 i6o,coo 1,470,000 2,200,000 2,200,000 140,000 1,900,000 The price of fruit in most countries has fallen notably in the last thirty years, which is due to the great increase of production, and to improved facilities for bringing fiiiit to ports for shipment. Mr. Loring, ex-Commissioner of Agriculture, valued the fruit crop of the United States in 1^0 at ;^42,ooo,ooo sterling, and the annual consuraiption of fruit at 12s. English, per inhabitant of the Union, and 24s. in New Vork. The Royal Agricultural Journal of England states the acreage under ijruit-trees in the United King- dom, and the importation of apples from abroad, to be thus : — Fruit Acreage Apples Imported Year Acres Year Tons 1839 1872 1889 90,000 172,000 214,000 1839 1869 1888 1,800 12,300 95.000 FRUIT 302 FRUIT The annual consumption of fruit and vegetables in London and Paris is stated by the Farming World thus : — Fruit, Lbs. per Inhab. Vegetables, Lbs. per Inhab. London Paris London Paris Apples . . Cherries . . Pears . . . Plums . . Raspberries . Strawberries 6S 2 40 I 4 145 20 170 183 2 13 Carrots . . Celery . . Onions . , Peas . . . Potatoes . Tomatoes . 7 I 34 3 173 57 'I S 7 49 17 Almonds. — The exportation from Italy was as follows: — Year Tons Value, £ Value per Ton,;^ 1862 . 1870 . 1887 . 2,500 3,100 11,100 190,000 240,000 600,000 7f 78 54 And from .Spain as follows : Year Tons Value, £ Value per Ton,^ 1872 . 1882 . 1887 . 3,800 4,100 4,400 180,000 180,000 220,000 47 44 50 The almond flourishes between 27 and 45 N. lat., and requires a medium annual temperature of 58° F. In France the yield averages 12 lbs., in California 20 lbs. per tree. The fniit usually sells at ;^I00 per ton. The crop in California averages a value of ;^ 100 sterling per acre. Apple. — The apple crop in Great Britain averages 85,000 tons, valued at £\o per ton ; about 12 million gallons of cider are made yearly. The production of cider in France averages 230 million gallons. Apples in France are worth ;^5 per ton, ordinary crop 1,600,000 tons. The orchards of Great Britain cover 1 80,000 acres : a ton of ordinary good apples will produce from 100 to 200 gallons of cider. Great Britain imports 900,000 barrels of apples yearly from the United States and Canada. The imports show thus : — Tons 1839 1,800 1869 12,300 1888 95,000 The annual consumption in the United Kingdom averages 1 1 lbs. per inhabitant. Banana. — The most prolific of all fruits of the earth, being 44 times more productive than potatoes, and 13 1 times more than wheat. Chestnuts form an important item of food in France and Italy. Returns for 1886-88 were : — France Italy Acres , . 1,220,000 1,010,000 Bushels , . 19,000,000 14,000,000 The yield of a good tree averages two bushels. The French crop is valued at ;^I, 600,000, the Italian at ;£'i,200,ooo sterling ; the average yield in France is ij, in Italy 14 bushels per acre. Italy exports 500,000 bushels. Currants. — The exportation from Greece shows : — Period Annual Average Value per Tons Value. ^ Ton,^ 1867-70 1871-75 iBSo 1889 52,000 67,000 54,000 56,000 600,000 1,200,000 840,000 900,000 12 18 16 16 Greece produces annually 100,000 tons, the home con- sumption averaging 40,000 tons. Imports into the United Kingdom were as follows : — Period Anntml Average Value per Tons Value, £ Ton,;^ 1866-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . 4S.OOO 54,000 53.000 910,000 1,450,000 1,420,000 20 27 27 Date-Palm Number of Yield of Trees Sugar, Tons India « , 13,000,000 26,000 Egypt . . 4,500,000 Figs. — The exportation by Greece and Portugal is as follows : — Greece Portugal Year Tons Value, £ Year Tons Value, £ 1867 1888 7,000 8,000 65,000 90,000 1877 1887 5,000 13,000 52,000 110,000 Oranges and Lemons flourish in Italy, Spain, and Portugal. The orange was introduced into Europe by the Moors in the eleventh century, and first brought to England by Sir Walter Raleigh in the sixteenth. It was first planted in Australia, near Sydney, in 1788, and has thrived there. The cost of clearing and planting an orange-farm in New South Wales is ^30 per acre, and the product begins in the fourth year, rising as follows : — 4th year . , ^10 per acre I 6th year . . ;^2S per acre Sth „ . . IS I. „ I 7th ,, . 40 „ „ Sometimes the product reaches ;^ioo per acre, a single tree often giving from 1500 to 2000 oranges, worth 4s. per hundred. In Italy the ordinary yield is 250 lemons and 300 oranges per tree, but a single tree will often give in Sicily as many as 3000. The average in Seville is Coo, in Paraguay 700 oranges per tree. The island of St. Michael, Azores, has 210 acres mostly under oranges, of which it exports 250 millions yearly. The number of trees and fruit in Italy are : — Trees Millions Fruit Yearly Orange . . . 5,400,000 1,600 Lenion . . . 4,800,000 1,200 Italy exports about 2500 millions oranges and lemons yearly, Spain 1400 millions, Portugal 80 millions, worth ;f 40,000 ; Paraguay 60 millions, worth ;f 20,000. The Argentine provinces also grow largely, and- export 7 mil- lions yearly to Bolivia, value ;^20O0. Dundee consumes yearly 6000 chests of bitter oranges, and exports 1 500 tons of marmalade. In Sicily it is found that 1000 lemons give 17 gallons of juice. The number approximately of oranges imported into the United Kingdom has been : — Year Millions Per Inhabi- Price, Shillings tant per 1000 1854 .... 244 9 30 1861 .... 390 13 36 1871 .... 712 23 20 1881 .... 1,152 33 23 1889 .... 1,760 46 20 The consumption of oranges per inhabitant represents IS. yearly or about 2S. by retail. FUEL 303 FURNITURE The weight, value, and approximate number of oranges ) and lemons exported in 1888 by Italy and Spain were : — TOTIS 165,000 9S,ooo Millions of Fruit 2.470 1.430 Value, £ 1,200,000 800,000 £P»- Ton 7-3 8.4 Italy Spain A box contains 226, a chest 340 oranges. Raisins. — The exportation from Spain was as fol- lows: — Annual Average Period Tons Vn^lu,! V^l^'Pir 1872-80 . 1881-87 • 37.000 36.500 Value, £ 100,030 900,000 Ton,£ 30 25 Imports into the United Kingdom have been yearly thus : — Period Tons Value, £ ^f"^f'^ 1866-70. . , 20.000 640,000 32 1871-80. . . 25,000 880,000 35 FUEL The annual consumption is approximately as follows : — Millions Per Inhabitant Coal, Firewood, Coal, Firewood, Tons Cubic Feet Cwts. Cubic Feet United Kingdom . . 140 60 74 2 France 27 800 14 21 Germany .... SS 700 24 IS Russia 9 4,000 2 45 Austria 16 1,200 9 32 Italy 3 240 2 8 Spain and Portugal . 2 no 2 6 Bdgium 12 44 Holland 3 20 14 5 Sweden and Norway 2 320 S 17 45 Europe 269 7,45° 20 United States . . . iSS 3,000 28 50 Canada 2 140 9 18 28 Total . . . 426 10,590 24 Pounds of water evaporated by i lb. of fiiel as follows :- Straw . . . .1.9 Wood. . . .31 Peat . . . ■3-8 Coke or charcoal Coal . Petroleum 6.4 7-9 14.6 To make a ton of charcoal will be required of wood as follows : — Tons 0?k . . • 4-4 Beech Chestnut . • 4-5 Elm Tons ■ S-i • 5-2 Birch Pine Tons . 5-9 , 6.0 For heating power 12 lbs. charcoal are equal to 10 lbs. coal or 13 lbs. coke. It is much used in America, France, and Italy. The ironworks of the United States consume 6oo,oco tons charcoal yearly, the yield of 50,000 acres, the average being 12 tons per acre. At Noirmoutiers, in France, 200 furnaces are constantly at work making charcoal from seaweed, 20 tons of fresh weed or 4 tons of dry producing I ton of charcoal, value los. In Ireland it is often made from peat, varies as follows : — Bog of Allen, Ireland. 100 Hartz Mountains . 61 Konigsbrunn . . 57 The heating power of peat Passy, France Ham, ,, Troyes, ,, 52 49 32 The production in France is declining, not exceeding 300,000 tons per annum. Some years ago an estimate was made of the area and contents of peat bogs in the United Kingdom, and the value of the peat at 6d. per ton, viz. : — Acres Millions of Tons Value at 6d. per Ton, £ Ireland .... Great Britain . . 2,831,000 3,505,000 33.972 42,060 850,000,000 1,050,000,000 United Kingdom 6,336,000 76.032 1,900,000,000 The average depth of peat is 12 feet, equal to a yield per acre of 12,000 tons of dried turf. FURNITURE Instance agents say that furniture usually represents a value equal to half that of the house in which it is, in- cluding carriages, clothing, jewellery, and works of art On this basis the value at various dates of fiimiture in the United Kingdom would be thus : — Year Millions £ Per House, £ Per Inl.ab., £ 1802 190 70 12 1830 270 75 13 1850 440 95 16 i860 580 118 20 1870 740 131 24 1880 1,030 158 29 1888 1,320 186 34 In 1880 this value was approximately distributed among five classes of householders, as follows : — Qass Houses, Thousands Furniture, Millions £ Average, £ Per House Per Inhab. ist . . 2nd . . 3rd . . 4th . . Sth . . J3 261 563 1.423 4.175 136 274 172 186 262 5.900 1,050 307 130 1,080 190 55 6,211 Total 6.445 1,030 158 29 The above does not include churches and other public buildings. In 1883 Professor Leone Levi found 79,000 cabinet- makers in the United Kingdom, whose wages reached ;£'4,6oo,ooo. The output of fiirniture represents a value of nearly 40 millions sterling per annum, almost wholly for home use. The export of fiirniture has been : — £ £ I8SS • . 180,000 187s • , 390,000 186S . . 290,000 1888 . . 750,000 The annual expenditure on furniture in the United Kingdom is about £1 sterling per inhabitant. GAMES 304 GAS G. GAMES Billiards. — At billiards the greatest " break '' on record is 2413, scored by W. J. Peall, November s. 1886, at the Aquarium, London. The same player made the greatest number of spot hazards in succession, 633, in the year 1888. Bull- Fighting. — In 1866 the balance-sheet of ninety- nine bull-rings then in Spain contained the following items No. Cost, £ Average, £ Bulls killed . 2.375 61,000 26 Horses killed . 3.561 70,000 20 Bull-rings, rent 99 130,000 1.310 Total 261,000 The number of bull-rings in 1878 was still the same. The above does not include the pay of Matadores, Ban- dilleros, &c. GAS The following table shows the cost of street lighting in 1880 in various cities : — London Paris . Rome Vienna Berlin New York . San Francisco Glasgow Bucharest . Palermo Liverpool . Turin . . Florence Manchester Buda-Pesth Cost per Annum, Price per 1000 Feet, Pence 460,000 620,000 24,000 43,000 53.000 59,000 20,000 20,000 18,000 14,000 16,000 45 68 45 51 120 ,48 42 3b Cost per Inhab., Pence 30 70 20 10 13 67 24 23 Candle- Power 12 13 IS 16 16 23 The consumption in London and Paris was as fol- lows : — London Paris 1860 1880 1888 1860 1880 1889 Millions cubic ft. Per inhab. ,, „ 8,200 2,930 18,100 4,750 24,700 5,400 2,660 1,610 8,470 3.940 11,010 4,800 Paris has 49,000 street lamps, the other French towns 190,000. London has 7 1) 100. The following table shows various analyses of gas :— The consumption in the United Kingdom in 1880 was as follows : — ^"'''" t',^s ^o'^' Millions cubic feet . . , 18,100 53, 500 71,600 Per inhabitant, cubic feet 4,750 3,100 3i4oo The avers^e expenditure for gas is 21s. per inhabitant per annum in London, and los. in other towns. A ton of coal gives 9000 cubic feet of gas. The London Gas Company showed in 1880 as fol- lows: — Capital, ;^i3,026,ooo; receipts, ;f 3,993,000; expenses, ^2,610,000; net earnings, ^ 1,383,000. In 1888 London consumed as follows : — Millions of Cuiic Feet Private lights 23,300 Public lights 1,400 Total 24,700 The paid-up capital of London gas companies in 1 888 was p^i4, 100,000, including ;£'3,ooo,ooo loan capital. The statistics of gas companies in the United Kingdom, including those belonging to municipal bodies, are as follows : — 1885 1888 Capital, £ , . 55,100,000 59,100,000 Tons coal used . . 8,400,000 9,300,000 Millions cubic feet gas 85,600 94, 700 Number of consumers 2,100,000 2,200,000 The returns for 18 municipal ones were :- of joint-stock companies and Joint-Stock Municipal Total Capital, £ . . . . 37,750,000 21,350,000 59,100,000 Tons coal used . . 6,100,000 3,200,000 9,300,000 Millions cubic feet gas 62,300,000 32,400,000 94,700,000 Number of consumers 1,100,000 1,100,000 2,200,000 Receipts, £ . . . , 10,500,000 4,800,000 15,300,000 Expenditure, £ , . 7,100,000 3,400,000 10,500,000 Net profit, £ . . . 3,400,000 1,400,000 4,800,000 The consumption in London on one day of thick fog, 14th January 1889, reached 105 million cubic feet, representing a cost of ;^i8,ooo. The largest gasometer in England is that of Liverpool, which can hold 3, 100,000 cubic feet. The balance-sheet of the Paris Gas Company for 1889 showed thus : — Consumption, cubic feet Paid for coal, £ . Total expenditure, £ , Receipts, £ Net profit, £ Dividend . , 11,010,000 840,000 2,600,000 4,200,000 1,600,000 31 per cent. London Paris Bonn Gas from Wood From Peat From Rock-Oil From Petroleum Hydrogen . . . Gas de marais . Oxide of carbon Various .... 46.0 39-5 75 7.0 50.2 32.8 12.9 4-1 39-8 43.1 4-7 12.4 31.8 35-3 25.6 7-3 27-5 42.7 20.3 9-5 3-1 64.8 6.7 25-4 32.7 4S-7 21.6 Total lOO.O 100.0 100. 100. 100. lOO.O 100. GEOLOGY 305 GOATS GEOLOGY Professor Philips in 1836 published the following table of strata, and number of organic forms to each stratum : — Tertiary . Cretaceous . Oolitic Saliferous . Carboniferous Primary . Fat Thick 2,000 1,100 2,500 2,000 10,000 20,000 Fossil Remains Organic Forms fer 100 Feet 141 71 46 8 S a Mammalia . 144 Reptiles . . 71 Fishes. . . 183 Insects . . 74 Conchifera . 2,026 Gasteropoda 880 Kephalopoda 788 Crustacea, &c. 1,970 Total . 6,136 Terrestrial plants . ,, animals Marine plants . . ,, animals Fresh-water plants ,, animals Total . Soo 330 40 6,065 40 260 7.23s The distribution of France is as follows ; — Tertiary Jurassic . Primitive Cretaceous . Transitionary Triassic Porphyry and coal Volcanic, &c. Total The experiments of Schubler and Schleiden give the power of absorbing water in an area of 50 square inches as follows, per 1000 grains of soil : — Acres Ratio . 38,900,000 30 . 25,900,000 20 . 24,000,000 18 . 15,400,000 11 . 13,000,000 10 6,500,000 S 1,300,000 1 4,600,000 5 . 129,600,000 100 Grains Absorbed in 12 Hours 24 Hours 48 Hours 72 Hours Gypsum . . . 1 I I I Limestone sand . s 3 3 3 Loam clay . . 21 26 23 28 Muddy .... 25 30 3+ 35 Calcareous clay . 26 31 3S 3S Field .... 16 22 23 23 Slaty marl . . . 24 29 32 33 Garden mould . 35 45 SO 52 Humus, . . . 80 97 ' 110 120 Geological Surveys Various geological surveys of cotmtries have been made, viz. : — ss °^ Country One in Country One in U. Kingdom 63,000 100 Spain . . 50,000 127 France . . 80,000 79 Portugal . 100,000 63 Prussia . . 25,000 253 Sweden 200,000 32 Austrian ) Empire 84 HoUand . 200,000 32 7S.OOO Belgium . 20,000 320 Russia . . 420,000 IS Finland . 200,000 32 Italy . . . 100,000 63 , GIANTS Name Place Height, Feet Period Goliath .... Galbara . . . Funnani . . . De Vallemont . Count Bucart . . Theutobochus . Unknown . . . .ohn Middleton . '. Trederic's Swede Cujanus . . . Gilly Patrick Cotter . Chang Gow . . Palestine . Rome . . Scotland . Rouen . . Dauphiny . Palermo England . Sweden . , Finland . . Tyrol . . Cork . . Pekin . . II. 10. "S 17.0 22.6 25-5 30.0 i-3 8.4 8.1 8.7 7.8 B.C. 1063 Claudius Caesar Eugene II. 14th century i6th ., i6th „ 15th ,, A.D. 1578 1806 1880 GLASS Consumption in United Kingdom as follows : — TOTIS 1801 ,.,,... 16,300 1833 18,200 In 1834 M'CuUoch estimated that the glass factories of the United Kingdom employed 50,000 men, and pro- duced thus : — England 1,850,000 Scotland 100,000 Ireland S°>°°° Total . . 2,000,000 In 1880 the consumption of plate glass in Great Britain amounted to six million square feet, of which one-sixth was imported, the rest native manufacture. The imports and exports of all kinds of glass showed thus : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ 1874 . . . 1,600,000 1,200,000 1880 . . . 1,800,000 920,000 1888 . . . 1,900,000 1, 100,000 The total glass manufactures of the United Kingdom may be estimated at about three millions sterling per annum. GLOVES Great Britain imports annually (1887-89) no less than 19 million pair, valued at ;^i, 900,000. France makes 30 million, and exports about two-thirds, the industry representing a yearly value of ;f3,ooo,ooo. Austria ex- ported 100 tons of gloves in 1885, being twenty times the quantity exported in i86o ; there are numerous factories at Prague, which city turns out five million pair yearly, valued at ;^400,ooo. Italy exports approximately 20 million pair, the value being staled at A 1,800,000; and, accoimng to Mr. Simmonds, the factories in the United States produce gloves to the value of nearly ;^4,ooo,ooo sterhng, besides which the Americans in 1887 consumed ;f 830,000 worth of European gloves. GOATS The numbers in the various countries mentioned under Cattle will be found at p. 1 10. There are also 720,000 in Turkey, 2,790,000 in South Africa, and 19,000,000 in India. An ordinary goal gives a quart of milk daily, and lives ten years. The Turkish breed known as Angora pro- duces a fine hair worth 2s. per lb., say 2 lbs. per goat per annum. One-third of the goats in South Africa are of Angora or mixed breed, the first having been intro- duced from Smyrna in i860. U GOLD AND SILVER 306 GOLD AND SILVER Date B.C. 520. 323- B.C. GOLD AND SILVER The quantity of precious metals at remote dates of antiquity has been often discussed. The following facts are worthy of note : — £ Cyrus s booty from Asia . . 8,000,000 Alexander's from Persia was 351,000 1 „ ^^ ^^ talents, equal to . . . . J o'.ooo.ooo Julius Csesar seized in the Roman ■! treasury 520 tons gold and 700 > 75,000,000 tons silver, together worth , . J Accordii^ to Jacob, the Roman Empire in time of Augustus, A.D. 14, possessed 358 millions sterling of gold and silver. Jacob, Tooke, Newmarch, &c., esti- mated the stock of precious metals in the world at various dates, the result of their views being contained in the following table, with later information added : — B.C. 44, Tons Millions £ Gold Silver Gold Silver Total 1600 1700 1800 1850 1880 1888 1890 830 1,310 2,730 3,620 7,800 8,600 8,820 23,000 4S.OOO 88,000 113,000 145,000 160,000 165,000 116 183 382 507 1,092 1,204 1,235 276 450 760 976 1,090 1,010 1. 213 392 633 1.142 1.483 2,182 2,214 2,448 But for the sudden rise of 15 per cent, in the price of silver in 1890, the stock of that metal, at prices of 1889, would stand for no more than 1040 millions sterling. Several eminent statists have published estimates of the production of precious metals since Columbus dis- covered the New World. Soetbeer's table of the production of gold and silver is as follows : — Period Tons Value, Million £, Annual Average of Total, £, Gold Silver Gold Silver Total 1493-1520 1521-1600 1601-1700 1701-40 1741-80 1781-1800 1801-20 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 162 593 911 638 906 356 292 142 548 2,018 1,88s 1.71S 1,067 1,316 21,519 37,234 15,736 23.718 17.581 14,350 4,606 5.965 7.804 8,956 12,20Z 22,347 21,960 ?3 83 128 90 127 50 41 20 28 77 282 264 241 148 14 258 372 140 213 151 125 37 52 67 78 105 178 154 37 341 500 230 340 201 166 360 369 419 302 1,300,000 4,300,000 5,000,000 5,700,000 8,500,000 10,500,000 8,300,000 5,700,000 8,000,000 14,400,000 36,000,000 36,900,000 41,900,000 37,700,000 396 years ".436 215,293 1,602 1,944 3,546 9,000,000 The values were as follows :- Tons Gold Period United States Spanish America Russia Aus- tralia Various Total 1493-1850 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 8^30 713 620 373 3,045 SO 60 60 310 256 271 380 280 772 741 260 1,366 110 100 85 94 4,751 2,018 1,885 1.715 1,067 396 years 2,566 3,320 1.497 2,298 1,755 11,436 Value, Milliom £ 1493-1850 4 429 43 - 191 667 1851-60 116 7 36 108 IS 282 1861-70 100 8 38 104 14 264 1871-80 87 15 h?, 74 12 241 1881-88 52 8 39 36 13 148 396 years 359 467 1 209 322 245 1,602 Tons Silver - P 1 2 >. 1 1 1493-1850 1851-60 1861-70 1871-so 1881-88 7 2,375 63,480 4,570 4,970 6,360 5,800 61,500 2,04s 2,105 3,620 2,800 5,800 SSO 790 1.530 2,100 19,049 1,784 1,961 3.087 2,400 149.829 8,9S6 12,201 22,347 21,960 396 years 18,992 85,180 72,070 10,770 28,281 215.293 Value, Millions j^ 1493-1850 606 586 55 182 1,429 1851-60 40 18 S 15 78 1861-70 20 43 18 7 17 105 1871-80 62 51 29 12 24 178 1881-88 62 41 20 15 16 154 396 years 144 781 671 94 254 1.944 The value of gold is taken at ;^i40,oooper ton, that of silver at the current market price. Jacob estimated the production of precious metals from I492{date of the discovery of America) to 1829 asfoUows: — Period America Old World Total Annual Average 1492-1545 1546-1600 1601-1700 1701-1809 1810-29 £ 17,200,000 111,400,000 307,000,000 786,000,000 84,000,000 £ 5,400,000 7,600,000 30,000,000 94,000,000 19,000,000 £ 22,600,000 119,000,000 337,000,000 880,000,000 103,000,000 £ 420,000 2,200,000 3,370,000 8,150,000 5,150,000 337 years 1,305,600,000 156,000,000 1,461,600,000 4,400,000 He estimated the total stock of gold and silver in Europe in 1492 at no more than ;f 33,400,000, and accounted for the stock and production down to 1829 as follows : — Production, £, * Consumption Balance India and China Manufactures Mint I492-I600 .... 160I-I700 .... I70I-I809 .... 1810-29 .... 141,600,000 337,000,000 880,000,000 103,000,000 14,000,000 33,000,000 352,000,000 40,000,000 28,000,000 60,000,000 352,000,000 112,000,000 5,000,000 77,000,000 93,000,000 18,000,000 94,600,000 167,000,000 83,000,000 Total 1,461,600,000 439,000,000 552,000,000 193,000,000 GOLD AND SILVER 307 GOLD AND SILVER Messedaglia's table of precious metals for 383 years is as follows from 1493 to 1875 • — Tons Produced Value, Mill. £ Stg. Gold Silver Gold Silver Total Russia Cfermany .... Austria 1.033 460 2,400 7.900 7,800 142 "64 22 70 70 164 70 134 Europe 18,100 206 162 368 Africa Australia .... United States . . . 732 1,812 2,026 S.300 101 250 280 47 lOI 250 327 Mexico Peru Chile Brazil 265 164 27 1,037 76.200 31.200 2,600 37.700 36 22 4 143 40 168 677 280 23 336 713 302 27 168 Potosi Columbia .... 291 1,214 Spanish America . . 2,998 147,700 413 1,316 1,729 Various 392 9,400 S2 79 131 Total . . 9.4S3 180,500 1.302 1,604 2,906 Tooke's table comparing the production of precious metals in 1848 with 1800 was as follows : — Gold Silver 1800 1848 1800 1848 Russia . . Rest of) Europe J Africa . . India, &c. . £ 100,000 150,000 280,000 830,000 £ 4,100,000 360,000 550,000 3,000,000 £ 200,000 1,320,000 1,000,000 £ 200,000 560,000 100,000 Old World . 1,360,000 8,010,000 2,520,000 860.000 Mexico . . N. Grenada Peru . . . Bolivia . . Chili . . . Brazil . . U. States . 220,000 650,000 100,000 70,000 380,000 510,000 500,000 680,000 100,000 60,000 140.000 340,000 240.000 4,080,000 40,000 1,330,000 460,000 290,000 4,800.000 1.250,000 980,000 180,000 America. . 1,930,000 2,060,000 6,200,000 7,210,000 The world . 3,290,000 10,070,000 8,720,000 8,070,000 He estimated the production in Russia and Siberia as follows : — Period Gold Silver Total Annual Product 1704-1809 . 1810-24 • • 1825-47 . . 1848-50 . . 1851-54. . £ 17,100,000 2,200,000 31,000,000 10,100,000 12,300,000 9,760,000 1,680,000 3,940,000 480,000 610,000 £ 26,860,000 3,880,000 34,940,000 10,580,000 12,910,000 £ 250,000 260,000 1,520,000 3,530,000 3,230,000 150 years . 72,700,000 16,470,000 89,170,000 590,000 He estimated the production in the rest of Asia as follows : — Period Gold Silver Total Annual Average 1492-1809 . 1810-24 • • 1825-47 . . 1848-50 . . 1851-54 . . £ 127,000,000 12,040,000 37,000,000 8,000,000 14,400,000 , £ 16,900,000 1,600,000 8,200,000 2,900,000 3,920,000 £ 143,900,000 13,640,000 45,200,000 10,900,000 18,320,000 460,000 920,000 1,970,000 3,670,000 4,580,000 362 years . 198,440,000 33,520,000 231,960,000 640,000 It is worthy of remark, as shown in Soetbeer's table on the preceding page, that from 1851 to 1888 the annual production of precious metals averaged from 37 to 41 millions sterling. At present it is close on 40 millions, and there is no indication of any future decline. The production of silver in the last ten years, accord- ing to the United States Mint Report, was as fol- lovrs: — Ounces Fine Silver Price, Average Year United States Other Countries The World Pence perOz. i88o 30,300,000 44,500,000 74,800,000 S2 1881 33,300,000 45,600,000 78,900,000 52 1882 36,200,000 50,300,000 86,500,000 54 1883 35,700,000 53,400,000 89,100,000 51 1884 37,800,000 43,800,000 81,600,000 So-1 1885 39,900,000 51,700,000 91,600,000 484 1886 39,400,000 53,800,000 93,200,000 4si 1887 41,300,000 54.900.000 96,200,000 45 1888 45,800,000 64,200,000 110,000,000 43, 1889 50,000,000 76,000,000 126,000,000 424 10 years 389,700,000 538,200,000 927,900,000 484 The production of gold in eight years ending December 1888 was as follows : Year Ounces Fine Gold Value of United States Australia Russia Total Product, £ 1881 1,880,000 1,250,000 2,030,000 5,160,000 21,000,000 1882 1,600,000 1,150,000 1,820,000 4,570,000 17,600,000 1883 1,450,000 1,050,000 1,900,000 4,400,000 16,900,000 1884 1,490,000 1,000,000 1,900,000 4,390,000 16,900,000 188s 1,540,000 1,100,000 1,850,000 4,490,000 17,300,000 1886 1,880.000 1,040,000 1,840,000 4.760,000 18,300,000 1887 1,600.000 1,150,000 1,860,000 4,610,000 17,800,000 i838 1,600.000 1,500,000 1,850,000 4,950.000 19,200,000 8 years • 13,040,000 9,240,000 15,050,000 37,330,000 145,000,000 GOLD AND SILVER 308 GOLD AND SILVER The production of precious metals in the tJnited States b officially estimated as follows : — Period Gold, Oz. Silver, Oz. Value, £ 1845-50 . . . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 5,200,000 28,500,000 24,700,000 20,500,000 13,100,000 300,000 500,000 80,000,000 310,000,000 310,000,000 21,000,000 114,000,000 120,000,000 163,000,000 129,000,000 44 years . . . 92,000,000 700,800,000 547,000,000 In the above table, however, silver is valued at 6od. per oz. — much above the market price. The gold pro- duced from 1851 to 1888 amounts to 2486 tons, the silver to 20,300 tons, which latter is about S per cent, over Soetbeer's estimate. The relative quantities of the two metals, as shown above, and the price of silver per oz. , as well as its value in exchange for gold, are given in the following table, which shows conclusively that it is a fallacy to suppose that the world is being flooded with silver. If the production were, as compared witli gold, to be of the same magnitude as in the eighteenth century, we should require double the present quantity to be produced yearly. It appears, meantime, that silver is relatively much less used in manufactures than gold, the annual consumption under this head being 45 per cent, of the gold produced, and 27 per cent, of silver : — Period 1600-20 1700-20 1800-20 1821-40 1841-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-82 1883-84 1885-86 1887-88 1890 . . Tons of Silver to 1 of Gold 27.7 34-3 32.2 33.I 31.0 22.6 18.6 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.6 18.7 Price of Silver, Pence per Oz. 77.0 62.0 61.0 60.0 60.0 60.0 56.0 53-0 50.7 47.0 44.0 Ounces of Silver for i of Gold 12.1 IS- 1 iS-3 15.6 iS-6 16.7 17.6 18.4 19.9 21.2 18.3 The uses to which the precious metals were put in fifty years down to 18S8 are stated by Soetbeer to be :- Period Gold, Tons Silver, Tons Coinage Manufactures The East Total Coinage Manufactures The East Total 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 5° 350 1.633 1,008 849 180 200 280 840 10 28 100 300 120 240 578 2,013 1,878 1,809 2,700 4,800 1,200 2,000 2,200 2,700 3,100 4,500 2,200 2,400 11,300 12,300 10,800 6,900 9,400 14,000 15.400 16,500 50 years . 3,890 2,070 558 6,518 8,700 14.500 39,000 62,200 The stock of silver is relatively much lower now, as compared with gold, than in the early years of the pre- sent century, when there were 33 tons of silver in the world for i ton of gold. If the price of silver were ruled by ratio it would have been as follows : — „ . , Ratio of Silver Pence -^'""'^ to Stock of Gold fsrOz. 1821-40 .... 33.1 ... 60 1881-88 .... 18.6 ... 107 If the foregoing estimates be correct, there has been a dearth of both gold and silver, the production falling short of the consumption, viz. : — 1831-80 Gold, Tons Silver, Tons Production Consumption . 6,358 6,518 57.273 62,200 Deficit .... 160 4.927 The deficit was probably met by melting down old plate. The current of bullion (coined or uncoined) between nations since 1861 was as follows : — Gold, Millions £ Sterling Imported Period Great Britain France United States Various Total 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . l88i-88 . , 171 180 96 189 63 31 a: 121 131 144 512 504 367 Total . 447 403 137 396 1.383 Gold Exported, Millions £ Period II 1 < 1 t2 •3 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . 112 172 96 119 i° 67 "3 74 35 108 76 34 60 92 13s 512 504 367 Total . . 380 276 222 218 287 1.383 Silver Imported, Millions £ Period H 5M ^1 1 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . 93 92 111 62 12 18 23 233 126 116 44 40 36 474 427 303 Total . . 291 265 S3 475 120 1,204 Silver Exported, Millions £ Period il 1 Is DOT II en 1 "3 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . 91 119 68 78 48 49 22 73 41 37 209 "i 108 474 427 303 Total . . 278 175 136 179 436 1,204 GOLD AND SILVER 309 GOLD AND SILVER Period 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-88 . Total Gold and Silver, Millions £ Imported ■-B 264 312 162 738 Ci< 281 262 125 668 503 43 60 87 190 233 126 12S 487 ,0 i6S 171 168 504 986 931 670 2.587 Period 1861-70 1871-80 t88i-8S Total Gold and Silver Exported, Millions £ ^ a 203 291 164 658 197 138 116 13s 147 76 4SI I 358 108 76 34 218 •a a IS 81 75 41 197 ^ 262 204 239 70s 986 931 670 2.587 The current of bullion in the last eight years is more clearly shown as follows : — Imports, Millions £ Exports, Millions £ 1881-88 Gold Silver Total Gold Silver Total U. Kingdom . 96 66 162 96 68 164 France . . . 63 62 125 67 49 116 United States . 64 23 «7 35 41 76 Spanish America 20 20 4 37 41 The East . . . 12 116 128 2 19 21 Australia . . . 2 2 34 34 Various . . . no 36 146 129 89 218 Total . 367 303 670 367 303 670 Since 1881 Great Britain appears to have neither increased nor diminished her stodc of gold, but to have exported a small quantity of silver. France has lost gold and gained silver : the United States has done exactly the reverse. India has absorbed both gold and silver. The total current to and from the United States for sixty-e^ht years is stated thus : — Period Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports 1821-40 .... 1841-60 .... 1861-88 .... 36 34 190 3 93 358 68 years .... 260 454 According to Mr. O'Conor, India received in thirty years (1860-89) and retained no less than : — £ Gold 113,200,000 Silver 227,000,000 Total 340,200,000 To which he adds 102 millions for the preceding twenty- 'five years, making altogether 442 millions sterling in fifty-five years. He considers that the gold has been ^practically withdrawn from circulation, to be hoarded or converted into ornaments. Another writer says that in 280 years ending 1830 India absorbed S5,ooo tons of silver, worth 490 millions sterling. Official tables give the net imports as follows : — Period Millions £ Sterling Gold ! Silver Total 1850-59 . . . 1860-69 • . ■ 1870-79 . . . 1880-86 . . . 18 ^i 18 28 52 lOI 50 50 70 160 63 78 37 years . . . 123 ! 253 376 Mr. N. Spallart summed up the production and con- sumption of precious metals m fifty years down to 18S0 as follows : — Value Millions £ Sterling Gold Silver Total Coinage . . . The East . . . Manufactures 543 78 294 38 351 131 S8i 429 425 Total . . Production . . 915 915 520 520 1,435 1,435 In the above, "coinage" does not include what was minted in the East. The weight of precious metals used in forty years in the various mints (including re-coinage) from 1850 to December 1889 was : — Tons Aggregate Value, Millions £ Gold Silver Great Britain . . . France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain and Portugal . Scandinavia .... HoUand Belgium 1,301 2,159 894 1,102 137 123 220 170 2,620 S.I3S 6,420 2,580 S.360 2.530 1,480 230 3.290 2,060 207 349 183 178 67 40 43 7 37 42 Europe United States . . . Australia. .... India Japan Spanish America . . 6,189 2,096 644 15 no 140 31.705 11,460 29,270 1,100 7,700 1,153 397 90 26s 25 90 Total . . 9.194 81.235 2,020 The total is made up of 1227 millions sterling of gold, and 793 millions of silver money. The stocks of coined and uncoined bullion appear to have been at various dates approximately as follows : — Gold, Millions £ Silver, Millions £ Coined Uncoined Total Coined Uncoined Total 1600 29 87 116 102 174 276 1700 75 108 183 225 225 450 1800 126 256 382 360 400 760 1848 157 343 500 388 580 968 1880 735 357 1,092 556 534 1,090 1890 790 445 1.235 642 571 1,213 GOLD AND SILVER 310 GRAIN The above table will be clearer if given in tons , viz. :— Gold, Tons Coined, Silver, Tons Coined, A.D. Ratio per Ratio per Coined Uncoined Total Cent. Coined Uncoined Total Cent. 1600 208 622 830 25 8,500 14.500 23,000 37 1700 S37 773 1,310 41 22,500 22,500 45,000 50 1800 908 1,822 2,730 33 42,000 46,000 88,000 48 1848 I,I2S 2.450 3.575 45.200 67,800 113,000 40 1880 5.250 2,550 7.800 67 73,700 71.300 145,000 SI 1890 5.640 3.180 8,820 64 88,100 76,900 i 165,000 53 It appears that coinage now absorbs nearly two-thirds of the total stock of gold, and more than halJF the silver, whereas forty years ago it took only 32 per cent, of gold, and 40 per cent, of silver. The actual bulk of gold and silver coin in various countries, according to Spallart, in 1885 was as follows :— Great Britain . . France .... Germany .... Russia .... Austria .... Italy Spain Portugal . . Scandinavia . , . Switzerland . . Holland .... Belgium .... Roumania . . . Turkey, &c. . . . Europe .... United States . . Australia. . . . Japan Cliina Java India Singapore . . . Cape Colony . . Cuba Canada .... Algeria .... Spanish America, &c. r The world Tons Gold Coin 915 1,335 915 293 60 16S 143 67 52 22 37 82 8 "3 4,207 1,058 I6S 143 52 30 23 15 232 5,925 Silver Coin 2,420 16,500 4,950 1.540 2,100 1,210 2,640 220 220 330 1,430 1,210 330 990 36,090 9.570 220 990 16,500 1,980 17,600 2,640 110 330 2,070 88,100 Aggregate Value, Millions ^ Sterling 144 328 167 53 27 33 43 11 9 6 18 22 4 24 889 228 24 28 150 18 160 24 7 4 4 5 SO 1,591 The total value is made up of 790 millions sterling in gold coin and silver money nominally representing 801 millions, but worth only 642 millions. In 1886 Spallart estimated the annual consumption for manufactures as follows : — Per 1000 Population Gold, Oz. Silver, Oz. Gold, Oz. Silver, Oz. U. States . 683,000 4,020,000 12 70 G. Britain . 600,000 2,520,000 16 66 France . . 59S.OOO 2,600,000 IS 65 Germany . 420,000 2,870,000 9 60 Switzerland, 370,000 840,000 125 285 Austria . . 84,000 1,120,000 2 28 Italy . . . 155.000 665,000 5 22 Russia . . 85,000 1,100,000 I 12 Holland & ) Belgium } 102,000 840,000 10 84 Various . . 56,000 1,445,000 ... Total . 3,150,000 18,020,000 The total makes up go tons gold and 515 tons silver yearly, which is in harmony with Soetbeer's estimate. Besides the consumption for manufactures, gold coin loses I per cent, of its weight in fifty years, silver i per cent, in ten years. This means a yearly loss of ij tons- of gold, and 88 tons of silver. The following table shows the amount of gold and silver plate stamped yearly in the United Kingdom and France : — Date United Kingdom, Oz. Yearly Date France, Oz. Yearly Gold Silver Gold Silver i8or-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 6,080 6,640 7,333 38,415 29,204 42,190 1,072,000 1,130,000 1,007,000 930,000 875,000 790,000 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1878 101,000 164,000 169,000 288,000 380,000 409,000 1,740,000 2,290,000 1,840,000 2,290,000 2,380,000 2,460,000 GRAIN The average yield per acre in various countries, mostly from 1880 to 1887, was in bushels as follows : — Wheat Barley Oats Rye Maize General Average U. Kingdom 28 33 37 30 France . , 18 20 26 16 19 19 Germany . . 22 20 18 16 18 Russia . . 8 Q 15 10 15 10 Austria . . 16 18 22 16 20 iS Hungary . . 18 19 22 i.S iS iS Italy . . . 12 15 19 20 14 Spain . . . 12 18 20 18 15 Portugal . . 12 15 IS ... 14 Sweden . . 23 26 30 25 30 Norway . . 21 27 36 24 *•• 33 Denmark .36 30 33 25 ... 30 Finland . . IS 17 23 IS ... 17 Holland . . 27 40 42 21 ... 28 Belgium . . 25 33 36 20 28 Switzerland . 16 12 12 15 Roumania . 16 20 30 iS Greece . . 10 12 15 12 Turkey . . 10 12 ... IS 12 Europe . . 14 17 22 14 20 United States 12 22 26 11 23 21 Canada . . 16 27 48 63 22 Australia . . 12 20 23 30 15 Cape Colony 10 IS 10 ... 10 II India . . . 10 ... 10. Egypt. . . 13 14 ... ... 18 16 Algeria . . 13 IS ... ... ... 14 Argentina . 10 ... ... 20 IS Tables showing the acreage and production of the various kinds of grain will be found under Agriculture^ p. 8. For consumption, see Food. In the manufacture of grain it is found that 100 lbs. of wheat produce 82 lbs. of flour, and loo lbs. of barley 7& of malt. GRAVITY 3" HEMP GRAVITY, SPECIFIC A. — Compared with Water Liq-uids Water . . Sea-water Dead Sea Alcohol . Olive-oil . Turpentine Wine . . Urine . . Cider . . Beer . . Woman's milk 102 Cow's „ 103 Goat's ,, 104 Porter . . 104 103 124 84 92 99 100 lOI 102 102 Timber Cork . . . 24 Poplar . •(8 Fir . . SS Cedar . 61 Pear . . 66 Walnut . 67 Cherry . 72 Maple . 7S Apple . 79 Ash . . 84 Beech . SS Mahogany . 106 Oak . . . "7 Ebony . • 133 Metals Zinc , . , Cast iron . Tin . . . Bar iron Steel . . . Copper . . Brass . . Silver . . Lead , . . Mercury Gold. . . Platina . . A gallon of wine or water weighs 10 lbs. Precious Stones Emerald . Crystal . 277 I Diamond 265 I Topaz . Indigo . . Ice . . . Gunpowder . Butter . . Clay . . . Co^ . • • 77 92 93 94 120 130 Sundries Peat . • 133 Opium • 134 Honey . I4S Ivory . . 183 Brick. . 200 Sulphur - . 203 3S3 I Garnet 401 I Ruby . Porcelain Stone . . Marble . Granite . Chalk . Glass . , 719 721 729 779 783 869 840 1.051 1.13s 1.357 1,926 I.9SO 406 428 226 252 270 278 279 289 B. — Weight in Cubic Feet Lbs. per Cubic Cubic Feet Feet per Ton Cork 15 150.0 Cedar 36 62.0 Beech SI 44.0 Butter S6 40.0 Ice . S7 39.0 Water 62 36.0 Mahogany 66 34-0 Oak . 70 32.0 Clay , 72 31.0 Coal . 80 28.0 Peat . 80 28.0 Brick 120 19.0 Stone ISO 15.0 Granite 166 I3-S Glass. 172 13.0 Iron . 470 4.8 Copper S20 4-3 Silver 630 3-6 Lead 680 3-3 Gold. i.iSS 2.0 GYPSIES The number in Europe reaches 712,000, viz. : — Great Britain . Russia . Scandinavia Spain 18,000 15,000 7,000 40,000 Austria . Roumania • Turkey Germany, &c. 197,000 193,000 200,000 42,000 H. HATS In 1835 M'CuUoch estimated the value of hats made yearly in the United Kingdom at ;f2,40O,O00. In 1882 there were 12,000,000 men's hats made, worth ;S'4,ooo,ooo. The hat industry flourished in New Ei^land in the eighteenth century ; more than 10,000 beaver hats were made in 1 731, and some exported, but in 1732 Great Britain prohibited the exportation. HAY AND STRAW The production is approximately as follows ; — The production in the United States has been as follows : — Hay, Straw, Collective Year Tons Tons Value. £, 1840 . 10,000,000 12,000,000 26,000.000 1850 . 14,000,000 17,000,000 37,000,000 i860 . 19,000.000 25,000,000 45/x»,ooo 1870 . . 27,000,000 28,000,000 54,000,000 1880 . 35,000,000 54,000,000 89,000,000 1886 . 42,000,000 60,000,000 104,000,000 Hay, Tons Straw, Collective Tons Value, £, Great Britain . . 8,500,000 6,500,000 25,600,000 Ireland, , . . 4,000,000 1,500,000 France .... 25,000,000 17,000,000 74,000,000 Germany . . . 16,000.000 15,000,000 47,000,000 Russia .... 60,000,000 45,000,000 82,000,000 14,000,000 17,000,000 33,800,000 Italy .... 12,000,000 5,000,000 22,000,000 Spain and 1 Portugal . ) Sweden and \ Norway. . J Denmark . . . 6,500,000 9,500,000 18,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 5,400,000 3,600,000 Holland . . . 3,000,000 1,000,000 Belgium . . . 5,000,000 T, 600,000 11,600,000 Roumania and 1 Servia . . J 2,000,000 3,400,000 4,800,000 Europe. . . . 159,000,000 127,500,000 343,700,000 United States . 42.000,000 60,000,000 104,000,000 Total . . 201,000,000 187,500,000 447,700,000 Official returns give only the quantity of hay ; that of straw is estimated above at i ton per 50 bushels of grain. In the United Kingdom the hay crop averages 30 cwt. per acre, in Prussia 33, in France 30, in Italy 30 on irrigated and 16 on unirrigated land, in the United States 24. Italy has 3 millions irrigated and 10 millions unirri- gated producing hay. Three tons of grass usually give one ton of hay. The weekly consumption of hay is — 160 lbs. for a horse, 100 for a cow, 30 for a pig, 10 for a sheep, 8 for a goat HEMP The world's crop is worth about 10 millions sterling, and the value of the manufactured goods is between 25 and 30 millions; the statistics are in many countries mixed with those of flax. The Factory Report for the United Kingdom gives the hemp industry thus : — Year 1870 1878 1885 Factories ■ 35 . 58 . 107 Sfindles 32,000 25,000 39,000 Hands 3,100 4,800 9.900 HOLIDAY 312 HOUSES The production and consumption of hemp, as given by N. Spallart in 1885 were :— Tons Produced Tons Consumed Russia 120,000 56,000 Austria 90,000 90,000 Italy . , . . 96,000 56,000 France 50,000 68,000 Germany , 10,000 30,000 United States . 13,000 16,000 Other countries* 16,000 79,000 Total 39S,ooo 395.000 The imports of hemp into the United Kingdom are the only guide to extent of manufacture, the value of which is approximately as below : — Year Consumed, Tons Price per Ton, £ Value of Manu- factures, £ 1810 . . . 48,000 58 8,600,000 1830 26,000 25 2,000,000 1840 30,000 27 2,400,000 1850 S4.000 30 4,900,000 i860 3S.OOO 30 1,900,000 1870 71,000 38 7,100,000 1880 73,000 29 5,400,000 1888 58,000 31 4,500,000 HOLIDAY On Bank-holiday, 5th August 1889, in London the number of visitors to museums, &c., was as follows : — British Museum . . 5,200 National Gallery . . 8,400 Kensington Museum 18,100 besides 11,000 Windsor Castle. Zoological Gardens . 21,000 Crystal Palace . . 40,000 Kew Gardens . . . 64,000 to Tussaud's waxworks and 7000 to HOPS Acres Crop, Tons Value, £ England . . . Germany . . France .... United States . . 65,000 62,000 9,000 10,000 26,000 19,000 4.500 5,000 3,120,000 2,340,000 550,000 600,000 Germany consumes only three-fourths of her crop, but England has to import annually 7000 tons, her consump- tion averaging 33,000 tons. Returns for the United Kingdom show thus : — Period Acres Under Crop Crop, Tons Import, Tons Annual Con- sumption, Tons 1869-75 1888-89 63,000 65,000 24,600 25,400 8,400 8,400 33.000 33.800 HORIZON Objects at sea are visible at the following distances :- Elevation, Feet Miles Elevation, Feet Miles S ■ 3 200 . 18 10 • 4 300 • 23 20 . 6 500 . 30 5° ■ 9 800 • 37 lOO • 13 1,000 ■ 42 * This table seems to omit Manilla, where there were 360,000 acres under hemp in 1880. HORSES The number in each country will be found under Cattle, p. 109. A horse lives 25 years, but a tramway horse lasts only five years : horse-flesh is eaten in France, the carcase yielding 450 lbs. meat. Napoleon in 1812 crossed the Niemen with 100,000 horses, of which 95,000 died before he reached Moscow. HOTELS On a given day in each year the number of guests in hotels at Paris was as follows : — Year Number of Hotels French Guests Foreign Guests Total 1875 1879 1883 9,207 10,189 ".753 114,000 140,000 196,000 19,000 41,000 44,000 133,000 181,000 240,000 The hotels at Vienna admitted 240,000 guests during the whole year 1888. The hotels of Svidtzerland in 1889 were 1000 in number, making up 58,000 beds, employing 16,000 servants ; the invested capital was ;^I, 600,000, receipts ;^l,68o,ooo, expenditure ^1,150,000, and profit ;^530,ooo. HOUSES The number of houses, inhabitants per house, and approximate value may be set down thus. We have no value as regards Portugal, which is estimated at the same ratio per inhabitant as in Spain : — S? OJ ? oT 2 MS Mrt U.O Houses •^■§ 2;^^ ^,= ^ •S'^ ^§ zi ooo The classification of houses in 1868 was as follovre : — Class Gentry Commercial, &c. Tradesmen Operatives, &c. Total Houses 158,000 583,000 2,167,000 4,453,000 Ratio 2.2 7-9 29.4 60.5 100.0 7,361,600 The growth of house property in Paris was as follows : — Per !'«'■ Millions £ j^^itant,£ 1848 .... 81 82 i860 .... 188 109 1870 1883 223 286 122 138 HOUSES 316 HOUSES The number of houses compared with population at two periods thus : — Year Houses Population ^„ ^ouse 1817 . . . 28,800 714,000 25 1880 . . . 76,100 2,240,000 30 Each house represents nine logements or residences, owing to the custom of flats, and in 1882 these were 685,000 in number, and were let as follows : — Rent, £, Over 500 160 to 500 40 to 160 IS to 40 . Under 15 Total . Number ; Rental, £ 1,920 13,100 65,250 135.400 469,000 1,100,000 4,200,000 6,300,000 2,800,000 4,700,000 684,670 19,100,000 Value, Millions £ 17 63 94 42 70 286 Ratio 6.0 22.0 32.7 14.8 24-5 In 1882 a sum of p^^i, 100,000 was expended in build- ings for the working-classes, to accommodate 3000 fami- lies or 10,000 souls, say ;^ilo per head, each logement being supplied with gas and water, the rent 8s. a week : total rent ;^6o,ooo a year, or SJ per cent, on first outlay. In 1879 the official estimated rental of all houses in France was 74 millions sterling, from which, for purposes of taxation, the Government allowed an abatement of 20 per cent, for repairs, &c., making the net rental 59 mil- lions. In 1884 the Finance Minister estimated the gross rental at 88 millions sterling, which would represent a capital value of 1600 millions. The tax-collector's valua- tion the same year, after deducting one-fifth for repairs, was 1280 millions sterling, which confirms the Minister's estimate as above. Building sites in Paris, according to Yves Guyot, have quintupled in value in sixty years, the highest price in 1826 being ^18 per square metre, and in 1883 ranging from ;^8o to ;^I20 : the maximum may therefore be taken as ^10 per square foot, against £,20 in London (even ^£30 having been paid in the latter city). In 1887 there were 250,000 persons in Paris living in furnished apartments, say 1 1 per cent, of the population : — Ordinary Rent per Annum Unfurnished 1 room, suburbs . 2 rooms, suburbs . 2 rooms, Passy . . 3 rooms, Madeleine 3 rooms. Rue Rivoli 3 rooms, Rue Rivoli IS 20 30 Furnished (Boulevards') 3 rooms, sth flat . . . 3 rooms, 4th flat . . . 3 rooms, 3rd flat . . . 3 rooms, 2nd flat . . . 4 rooms. Rue Rivoli . . 5 rooms, Rue Rivoli . . 160 200 250 300 400 600 Germany An official report for Prussia in 1869 gave the number and rental of houses. In the following table the value is capitalised at 18 times the rental : — Number Rental, £ Value, Millions £ Urban .... Rural .... 467,000 1,701,000 8,400,000 S, 100,000 151 92 Total . . 2,168,000 13,500,000 243 In the same year the urban house property of Saxony was valued at 70 millions sterling, that of rural being apparently no more than 10 millions. These two king- doms form exactly two-thirds of the German Empire as regards population, and we may conclude that the total house property of Germany in 1869 was of the value of 485 m&ions sterling. Official returns for Berlin show as' follows (except that the capitalisation at 18 years' rent is mine) : — Year Number of Houses Rent, £ Value, £ Value per House, £ 1867 1872 1882 14.100 15.050 19,700 3,390,000 5,370,000 8,800,000 61,100,000 96,700,000 158,400,000 4,400 6,500 8,000 The total value of house property in 18 estimated thus : — may be Population Houses, Millions £ £ per Head Berlin .... 114 cities . . . Rural districts . 1,460,000 6,900,000 38,200,000 158 310 764 108 45 20 Total . . 46,560,000 1,232 26 In four years ending 1886 Hamburg put up new suburbs and houses worth ;£'3, 350,000, say ;^840,ooo per annum, the value of the sites being 60, and the buildings 40 per cent, of the total. Overcrowding in the large cities is as bad as in England, official returns showing the ratio of population living in one room as follows : — City Year Per 1000 Inhab. City Year Per 1000 Inhab. Konigsberg Chemnitz . Frankfort . 1864 1S71 1871 560 702 225 Leipzig . Hamburg Leipzig . 1871 1875 1875 471 356 214 There was a marked improvement in Leipzig between 1871 and 1875 > in tl^^ former year 108 per 1000 of the population lived in cellars. In 187s Leipzig had 3455 houses (comprising probably 18,000 flats or residences), which contained 140,000 souls, viz.: — Class of House Inhabitants per House Number of Houses Approximate Population ist . . . 2nd . 3rd . . . 4th . Up to 10 11-20 21-40 Over 40 481 661 1,138 1. 175 4,000 10,000 36,000 90,000 Total ... 3.45S 140,000 Russia There are 11,436,000 houses, but no returns of valua- tion. Strebinsky estimated the poorest kind of rural dwellings at j^T."] sterling, and a general average of ;^40 may be taken. As regards the 787,000 houses in cities, they may_ be estimated at 10 per cent, per inhabitant less than in Germany. The account will stand thus : — Houses Population Per In- habitant,;^ Value, Mill. £ St Petersburg 1 87 cities . . J Rural . . . 787,000 10,649,000 810,000 4,900,000 78,200,000 97 40 Si 79 196 426 Total . 11,436,000 83,910,000 7i 701 Of the houses in St. Petersburg and 87 other cities there were 127,000 of stone and 660,000 of wood ; per- haps the term stone also includes brick. In 1867 Buschen estimated the value of all buildings in Russia at 270 millions sterling, that is, dwelling-houses 150 millions, factories, &c., 120 millions. HOUSES 317 HOUSES Austria-Hungary The last Census does not give the number of houses in Hungary, which may, however, be estimated at 2,000,000. The number in Austria has increased in the same ratio as population : — 1S40 1880 Austria , , 2,364,000 2,996,000 Hungary . . 1,732,000 2.000,000 Total , 4,096.000 4.996.000 In Austria the houses in 1S80 were as follows : — Number Approximate Value, £ Per House, £ Wenna .... Towns .... Rural .... Total . . 183.900 388,100 2,424,000 102.000.000 77.600.000 121. 200.000 S4S 200 50 2,996,000 300,800,000 100 The house property of Hungary, at the same general ratio of jf 100 per house, would amount to 200 millions sterling, making a total of 501 millions for the whole Empire. In 1883 Roschmann valued the -houses of Austria (without Hungary) at 256 mUlions sterling ; but this seems 15 per cent, too low. In 1886 the annual rental of Vienna showed as fol- lows: — Rent Houses Gross Rental, £ Ratio of Houses Under ;^20 . . 20-50 .... SO-IOO .... Over 100 , . . 89,192 68.993 17.736 7.98s 1.200.000 2.200,000 1.200.000 1,100.000 48.S 37-5 9-7 4-3 Total . . 183.906 5,700,000 100. Italy Neumann Spallart estimates the house property of Italy at 360 millions sterling, although the official value in 1881 was only 240 millions, but the latter was con- fessedly one-third too low. The Archivio gives the value in 1880 as 380 millions sterling. Approximately the house property may be estimated thus : — Houses Population Rental, £ Value, Millions £ Inh^ Urban. Rural . 650,000 3,770.000 5,100,000 24,100,000 8,400,000 13,400,000 IS3 241 30 10 Total 4,420,000 29,200,000 21,800,000 394 13 The house property of Rome is estimated at 14 millions sterling, or about £^$ per inhabitant Holland The official returns of house property show number and rental : — „ Houses ^«^ Taxed 1877 • 372.400 1883 . 398,900 Rental, £ 6,060,000 6,660,000 Value, £ 109,000,000 120,000,000 This represents only the houses above a certain letting value, as the Census of 1879 showed 729,000 inhabited houses, of which 379,000 were subject to house-duty, and 350,000 were exempted, as follows : — Over £So rental Under ^32 The assessment of 1880 showed 13.673 30.558 313,218 rotal • 357.449 We may add 10 per cent, to the official valuation, say 12 millions sterling, as the value of the untaxed houses, which is equal to ^34 per house. This makes the total house property of Holland worth 132 millions sterling. Spain In 1832 the Junta de Medios valued all buildings at 243 miUions sterling, of which 68 millions were for public buildings and factories, the rest for dwelling-houses : the average was ;£'20 per head of the population, and at the same rate Spain would now have 340 millions worth of house property distributed approximately as foUo\vs : — Houses Population Rental, £ Value, Millions £ Inhab. 28 cities Rural . 380,000 2,600,000 2,100.000 14,800.000 5.000.000 14.000,000 90 250 45 17 Total 2.980,000 16.900.000 19.000.000 340 20 Scandinavia Official valuations of house property in Sweden dis- tinguish urban from rural ; in Norway, give only urban, and in Denmark, confuse the same with landed property. The values are approximately as follows : — House Property, Millions £ ;^Per Inhabitant Urban Rural ' Total Urban Rural Total Sweden . . Norway. . Denmark . 64 10 31 16 80 7 17 9 40 72 63 4 4 6 5 17 9 20 Total . los 32 ' 137 16 In Sweden 9 per cent, of house property stood for schools, &C. Belgium The Census retimis of Belgium show :— Year Number of Population Inhabited Houses per House 1846 799.000 5-42 1856 834.000 S-43 1866 930,000 S19 1880 . 1.061.000 5-20 The official rental valuation in 1884 was ;fs,9oo,ooo, equal to a capital value of 106 millions sterling. United States The Census of 1880 showed 8,956,000 houses. Com- pared with the numbers at previous Censuses, the ex- isting houses in 1880 would appear approximately as follows : — Built before 1840 „ 1840-1850 . „ 1850-1860 . „ 1860-1870 . „ 1870-1880 . . 2,430,000 932,000 . 1,608,000 . 2,073.000 . r,9i3,ooo Ratio 27-4 9-4 18.2 234 21.6 Total 8,956,000 HOUSES 3x8 HOUSES The first settlers lived in wooden houses, the ordinary cost of which, in 1684, was estimated at ;^5 sterling, a clergyman's house costing £3$- Fires were frequent. The first brick-kiln was at Salem, Massachusetts, in 1629, and Mr. Coddington built the first brick house at Boston in 1638, the number reaching 1000 by the year 1700. The house which W. Penn built at Philadelphia was of bricks brought from England, and cost ;^S°oo- The earliest estimate of house property was in 1790, when there was found to be 277,000 houses, valued ^•t ;£^29,200,ooo Sterling, being ;^I05 per house. The number of houses at the following dates was : — Year 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 Houses 2,430,000 3,362,000 4,970,000 7,043,000 8,956,000 Population 17,069,000 23,192,000 31,443,000 38,558,000 50,410,000 Inhabitant ter House 7-1 6.9 6.3 S-S s-s According to the Census of 1840, there were 54,100 houses built during the year, namely, 45,700 of wood, and 8400 of brick or stone, representing a total value of ;^8,8oo,ooo, say ;^i6o per house, viz. : — State Houses Built Value, £, Value per House, £, New York . . . Pennsylvania . . Illinois .... Ohio .... Massachusetts . Other States . . 6,400 4,400 4,400 3,800 1,600 33.500 1,520,000 1,100,000 440,000 790,000 580,000 4,370,000 240 250 100 210 360 130 Total . . 54. 100 8,800,000 160 The number of new houses built yearly in the Union since 1840 is shown officially as follows : — 1841-50 93.200 1851-60 161,000 1861-80 199,000 1887 303,000 In 1880 the Census showed 156,000 men engaged in building, the annual value of new houses being put down at 35 millions sterling, but in 1887 it was estimated at 86 millions sterling; the average cost of city houses was estimated at ^940, and of rural at ;^2io each. The following annual returns of city buildings are given : — City New Houses Value, £ Value per House, £ Years New York . Philadelphia Kansas City 1.950 8,202 4.510 6,400,000 6,240,000 2,040,000 3.240 760 440 1886-88 1888 1886-88 The value of house property in some cities was as follows : — Year p,.^ t Value, ''"y |Millions £ Population £v'^'' Head 1888 1888 1880 1880 1880 New York Boston . . . Philadelphia . Brooklyn . . St. Louis . . 271 117 119 45 32 1,500,000 500,000 850,000 570,000 350,000 180 234 140 80 92 Total 584 3,770,000 iSS The increase of value in New York from 1880 to 1888 was 49 millions sterling, that is, 7 millions per annum. There is no city in England equal in valuation per inhabitant to Boston or New York, but the Australian cities are higher, Melbourne being £2^ higher than New York, and Sydney £\i over Boston. Year Houses Millions, £ Inhab. i.SSo 2,160 2,850 40 The average value of each house built in 1840 was £\(iO, and in 1887 it was ^^285. The total value of house property in the Union may be estimated for various dates thus : — Average Value, £ 1870 . . 7,043,000 220 i38o . . 8,956,000 240 1890 . , 11,400,000 250 This shows an average value per head much below what it is in England, namely, ;^73. Canada In Montreal the years 1887-88 averaged 1005 new houses, valued at ;if86o,ooo, say ;^86o each, or ;^ioo higher than in Philadelphia. The value of houses built at Toronto during the year 1880 was ;£'320,ooo. In 1887 Upper Canada had, by official returns, a value of ;^38, 500,000 in farm-buildings exclusive of towns. The total value of house property in the Dominion may be estimated thus : — Population House, Value £ per Head Millions £ Urban Rural . 460,000 4,560,000 60 22 27 100 Total 5,020,000 25 127 Australia House property is much more valuable compared with population than it is in Europe. In 18S8, for example, Sydney and Melbourne showed thus : — Sydney . , Melbourne , Population 367,000 438,000 Rental, £ 5,220,000 5,320,000 Value, £ 78,300,000 79,800,000 £v^^ Inhabitant 211 181 There is at Melbourne a block of houses valued at ;f 494,000, the site of which was bought in 1838 for ;^45, and close to it is Menzies' Hotel, recently sold for ;^i 50,000, the site of which cost £\a in 1840. The following table shows approximately the value of all house property in the seven colonies : — Value, Millions £ £ per Inhabitant Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total N. S. Wales . 78 14 92 211 21 83 Victoria . . , 80 11 91 181 18 81 New Zealand . 20 5 25 100 10 40 South Australia 11 2 13 100 10 40 Queensland . . 9 3 12 100 10 30 Tasmania . . 4 I 5 100 10 33 W. Australia . 1 I 100 170 10 IS 25 Total . . 203 36 239 67 Cape Colony In 1883 the house property of the principal towns was officially valued thus : — Population Value, £ ;f per Inhabitant Cape Town . . Port Elizabeth . Kimberley . . . 45,000 13,000 14,000 4,980,000 1,950,000 1,710,000 no ISO 122 Total . . 72,000 8,640,000 120 HUNTING 319 HUNTING Hong-Kong In 1889 the best bviilding sites fetched £3 per square ftxjt, or ;^i3o,ooo per acre. Argentine Republic The classification of houses at Buenos Ayres in 1889 was as follows : — Yearly Rent Houses Approximate Value, £ Under ;f SO /So-^ioo. £i-£2oo Z200-X300 . . . Over^3oo 3.067 10,320 12,506 6,512 4.83s 1,600,000 9,500,000 23,600,000 21,100,000 28,700,000 Total 37.248 84,500,000 The increase in eight years was exceedingly rapid, the official returns for 1881 having shown 22,700 houses valued at ;f 39,800,000 and owned as follows : — yalue, £ By Argentines 22,800,000 Italians 6,800,000 Other fordgners 10,200,000 Total . . 39,800,000 In eight years there were built 14,500 new houses, and the average annual increase of house property was j^S, 500,000 sterling. The average value of each house was £i'Joo in iSSi and ;£'2,300 in 1889. The province of Buenos Ayres, outside the city, had 106,000 houses in 1881, valued at jf 12,300,000, say ;^I20 per house or ;^22 per inhabitant. The houses in the other 13 provinces were estimated at 35 millions sterling, or ;^I7 per inha- bitant. The total for the Republic, including public buildings, was ;^94, 500,000. Uruguay In 1884 the value of house property was 28 millions sterling, about ^^45 per inhabitant New houses at Monte- Video show an average of ;f 230,000 per annum. HUNTING United Kingdom The annual shooting is estimated thus : — Hares and rabbits Grouse . Partridges Pheasants, &c Deer Total Kumier 30,000,000 500,000 400,000 900,000 10,500 Value, £ 2,200.000 50,000 30,000 90,000 50,000 3,420,000 Belgium The ntmiber of shooting licenses issued was 12,900 in 1888, against 10,600 in i860, and 6100 in 1840. The value of game killed yearly in the forests is 14 francs per hectare or 5s. an acre. France The State pays £'i for each wolf killed. The numbers killed were : — 1882 .... 1,225 I 1886 .... 760 1885 .... 900 f 1887 . . . 701 Game licenses average 350,000 yearly. French writers estimate the number of rabbits killed yearly in France at 70 millions. Germany Game licenses, 146,000; slaughter, ao,ooo foxes, 30,000 deer, 2,000,000 hares, 3,000,000 partridges. The Ermine . 160,000 Fox . 180.000 Skunk . . 950,000 Squirrel, &a . 4,850,000 annual fair at Leipzig shows a sale of several million skins. In 1880 there were sold : — Bear . . 6,000 Sable . . . S4,ooo Otter . . . 66000 Beaver . . , 80,000 Wild cat . . . 125,000 The forests of Prussia in 1869 contained 6000 wild boars and 151,000 deer. Russia In Russia and Siberia the annual slaughter of fur- bearing animals is as follows : 50,000 martens, 3 million ermines, 15 million marmots, 25 million squirrels. The Russian forests contained in 1880 over 170,000 wolves, which devoured 200 children or travellers per annnTn. In 1889 Russian peasants killed or captured 318 boars, 85 wolves, 503 foxes, 14,834 hares, 71,960 squirrels, 539 martens, &c On the oSier hand, bears and wolves destroyed between them 500 horses, more than 1000 oxen, and over 4000 other domestic animals. Austria The slaughter of large game in the whole Empire averages thus : — Bears .... 160 1 \^'olves . . . 1,200 Lynxes .... 200 | Foxes . . . 8,000 Besides 3000 tiger-cats and various other kinds. The returns of game killed in Austria proper showed in 1SS5 thus : — Bears Wolves Lynxes Foxes Martens Deer Chamois "3 24 26,400 9,700 7-2. 500 7,700 Wild boars Hares . Woodcock Pheasants Partridges Snipe . Wild duck 3,000 r, 430,000 12,500 103,000 1,336,000 99,000 50,300 Sweden The annual slaughter averaged as follows : — 1827-36 1850-59 1867-76 Bears .... Lynxes. Wolves. Foxes .... 135 243 542 7,832 1x8 no 140 91 162 53 S.3915 i About 5000 eagles and ^^lltures are shot yearly in Sweden: in 186S the number killed was 27,000. Lap- landers sometimes follow a wolf 200 miles to kill him. Of foxes about 10,000 are killed yearly, 5000 skins being annually exported: in 1867 there were 18,000 killed. The annual killing of martens reaches 1000, and of ermines and otters 300a Finland In Finland wolves destroy 5500 homed cattle yearly. The average of wild beasts killed in the decade ending 1870, per annum, was : — Bears . . . 104 1 Lynxes . . 42 I Gluttons . . 3c Wolves . . 393 I Foxes . . 2,046 1 Martens . . 5 East Indies In Java there are 270 persons killed by tigers, and iSo by crocodiles, yearly. In India 23,000 persons and 68,000 cattle are killed yearly by tigers, snakes, &c The Indian Government pays ;f 16,000 per annum for killing 20,000 wild beasts and 560,000 snakes. In Cochin-China the French killed in 18S2 no fewer than 109 tigers and 25 panthers. United States were kUled. ICE 320 INCOME ICE The consumption in the United Kingdom exceeds 500,000 tons yearly, the quantity imported averaging 300,000 tons, mostly from Norway. The ice-crop of the United States, according to Simmonds, averages 12 million tons, of vfhich the Hudson supplies 2,400,000. The capital employed in this trade in the United States has been estimated at 8 millions sterling : the ice, when cut, is valued at 4s. a ton, but is retailed at 12s. Some of the cities of the world consume as follows : — Tons Lbs, per Inhab, London Paris . New York . , 200,000 60,000 . 700,000 102 60 1,300 Boston . . 100,000 700 Russia consumes enormous quantities, St. Petersburg alone counting 10,000 ice-houses. National Earnings INCOME The subjoined table shows approximately the annual earnings or income of nations. It is compiled thus : 90 per cent, of agricultural values, go per cent, of mining, 60 per cent, of manufactures. Transport is computed at 10 per cent, on the gross value of agriculture, mining, and manufactures ; house-rent, according to the assessed valuation or the nearest estimate ; commerce, 10 per cent, on imports and exports ; shipping, 30s. per ton yearly of carrying power ; banking, 5 per cent, on banking power ; and furthermore an allowance of 10 per cent, on the total of the preceding eight items, to cover the earnings of domestic servants, learned professions, army, police, civil service, &c. This is, of course, a conventional method for estimating the earnings of nations, but will answer fairly well for the sake of com- parison. FROM Various Sources Millions £ Steeling Per Agri- culture Mining Manu- factures Internal Transport House Rent Com- merce Shipping Banking Profes- sions Total Inhab. , £ U. Kingdom 226 S3 492 "3 135 74 30 45 117 1,28s 33-7 France 414 9 291 96 93 31 4 13 9S 1,046 27.S Germany . 382 22 35° 103 68 37 4 12 98 1,076 22.2 Russia 507 14 218 94 34 12 2 5 89 975 "■5 Austria 298 7 152 59 27 9 I 7 56 616 15-5 Italy . 184 2 73 33 22 9 2 5 33 363 12.2 Spain . 156 4 SI 27 18 6 2 2 27 293 •16.S Portugal 23 I 10 5 4 2 5 55 12. 1 Sweden 44 I 30 10 4 3 I I 10 104 22.0 Norway IS I 12 4 I 1 3 4 41 20. s Denmark . 31 16 6 2 3 I I 6 66 32.S Holland . 35 21 8 7 20 I I 9 102 22.6 Belgium 5° 6 61 17 6 11 I IS 167 28.0 Switzerland . 17 19 S 2 " I S 55 19.0 Europe 2,387 120 1,796 580 423 224 51 94 569 6,244 19.4 United States 698 96 856 231 157 32 12 52 214 2,358 39.0 Canada SO 2 39 12 7 4 2 2 12 130 26.0 Australia . S6 7 25 10 13 12 I 7 13 144 40.2 Argentina , 38 24 8 5 3 I 8 87 24.0 Total 3.229 22s 2.75° 841 605 27s 66 156 816 8,963 20.8 United Kingdom The income of the nation has been estimated thus :- Year Millions £ Per Inhabi- tant, £ Kingdom 1664 1688 1770 1800 1822 1840 i860 1889 42 45 122 230 280 504 760 1,285 7.8 8.2 16.3 26.0 19.8 19.2 26.2 33.6 England and Wales It Great Britain United Kingdom King's classification in 1688 compares with later dates : A.D. 1688 Class Families Average Income, £ Amount, £ Gentry Middle Trades Working . 16,500 114,000 310,000 759.500 360 105 SO IS 37 6,000,000 12,000,000 15,500,000 11,500,000 Total 1,200,000 45,000,000 A.D. 1800 Class Families Average Income, £ Amount, £ Gentry Middle Trades , Working . 36,000 181,000 446,000 1,117,000 770 31s 150 70 127 28,000,000 57,000,000 67,000,000 78,000,000 Total 1,780,000 230,000,000 Gentry Middle Trades Working . 222,000 604,000 1,220,000 4,774,000 1,500 400 200 97 188 333,000,000 Z4i,cfao,ooo 244,000,000 467,000,000 Total , 6,820,000 1,285,000,000 England . , Scotland . Ireland 5,200,000 740,000 880,000 203 173 84 IS8 1,084,000,000 128,000,000 73,000,000 United Kingdom 6,820,000 1,285,000,00a INCOME 321 INCOME Professor Leone Levi in 1884 estimated the earnings of the people as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Yearly England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom Upper class . . Middle class . . Working class . 477 98 401 S9 14 62 42 572 120 505 Total . . 976 13s 85 1. 197 He estimated the wage-earners in 1884 as follows : — Number Millions £ £ per Head Professional . . Domestic . . . Commercial . . Agricultural . . Industrial . . . 300,000 2,400,000 900,000 1,900,000 6,700,000 16 86 n 307 11 50 35 40 Total . . 12,200,000 521 43 Workers Millions £ £ per Head England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland .... Undefined . . . 8,600,000 1,500.000 1,800,000 300,000 401 62 16 47 41 23 53 Total . . 12,200,000 521 43 Number Millions £ £ per Head Males under 20 . „ 20-6S . . Females under 20 20-65 • 1,650,000 6,530,000 1,300,000 2,720,000 29- 363 30 99 18 56 23 37 Total . . 12,200,000 S2X 43 According to income-tax assessments, the number of persons in the United Kingdom since 1860, and Great Britain before that date, having an income of ;£'200 or upwards yearly, was as follovre : — Year 1813 1850 i860 1870 1880 Number 39.765 65,389 85.530 130.375 210,430 Per Million Populatiin 3.314 3."S 2.949 4,206 6.313 The number of persons enjoying great wealth has by no means increased in the same ratio. Assessments over ;f 5000 a year showed as follows : — Year 1812 1850 i860 1870 1880 Nvmier 409 1,181 1.558 a,o8o 2,954 Per Million Population 34 56 S3 67 Taking the relative numbers of each class to the whole population, we find : — Persons of Per Million Inhabitants 1860 I 1880 Great wealth . Easy fortune . 53 2,949 88 6.313 Rate of Increase 66 per cent. 112 ,, the common ii&pression that " the rich are getting richer every day." The classification of incomes in 1877 was as follows : — Over j^IOjOOO jf 1000 to ;^IO.OOO ;£iooo Total England , . Scotland . . Ireland . . 975 147 35 18,622 2,191 878 275.733 27.642 14.473 295.330 29,980 IS.386 U. Kingdom 1. 157 21,691 317,848 340,696 The earnings of the classes which pay income-tax are supposed to reach just one-half those of the nation. Levi made the earnings of the working-classes in 1S83 amount to 521 millions, and Jeans in 1884 to 535 milUons sterling. The assessments to income-tax have more than doubled since 1850, the following table including an estimate of 18 millions for Ireland in 1850 (in which year that country was exempt from this lax) : — Annual Income, Millions £ Year Houses Lands Profes- sions, &c. Total 1850 . . . i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 47 61 77 "S 135 58 65 70 61 171 2l6 303 392 440 274 335 445 577 636 Year \ England i Scotland Ireland United Kingdom i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 282 379 486 543 30 40 56 57 1 335 445 578 636 The relative increase of the several items of income since 1850 showed thus : — This shows a greater difiiision of wealth, contrary to Year Houses Lands Railways Professions Total 1850 . . . 100 100 100 100 100 i860 . . . 130 104 143 125 122 1870 . . . 164 116 228 174 162 1880 . . . 238 123 295 22B 211 1888 . . . 280 107 351 252 232 The relative increase of each of the three kingdoms since i S6o was ; — Year England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom i860 . . . 1870 . . . 188S . . . 100 134 193 100 1 100 133 ' 113 190 156 100 133 191 France The income has been estimated as follows :- Year Millions £ £. per Inhab. Population 1780 iBoo 160 6.1 26.300,000 216 7-7 27,400,000 1820 31S ia4 30,300,000 1840 480 14.1 34,000,000 1868 806 21.6 37,500,000 1888 . ' 1,046 27.8 38,500,000 INCOME 322 INCOME The distribution of income, according to house valua- tion, seems to be approximately as follows : — Class Number of Families Average Income, £ Amount, Millions £ Rich . Middle Working . 160,000 1,700,000 6,000,000 800 260 79 133 128 442 476 Total 7,860,000 1,046 Germany In 1 885 Soetbeer and others estimated the earnings of the people of Prussia, Saxony, and Baden at 517 millions sterling, to which adding pro rata for the rest of Germany, the table stands thus : — Population Earnings, £ Per Head, £ Prussia .... Saxony .... Baden .... Bavaria, &c. . . 28,300,000 3,180,000 1,600,000 13,770,000 438,000,000 57,100,000 22,400,000 220,000,000 ^1-5 18.0 14.0 16.0 Total . . 46,850,000 737.500.000 iS-8 The above, perhaps, has reference only to the classes liable to income-tax, the total being manifestly too low to include also the working-classes. The income-tax assessments of Prussia in 1881 and 1886 were as follows : — Income, Families Assessed 1881 1886 j/[i5o to /^2I0 . /210 to ^480 . Over ^480 79,000 71,700 21,800 89,600 82,400 26,800 Total 172,500 198,800 The above comprises only families with incomes over ;^i5o a year. In 1883 there were 7,800,000 persons paying a poll-tax whose incomes were under ;^iSo. In Saxony the income assessments were : — Year Number £ 1875 . . . 972,000 50,900,000 1884 . . . 1,213,000 57,100,000 The annual earnings of the whole Empire would seem to be distributed approximately as follows : — Class Families Average, £ Total, Millions £ Rich Middle .... Working . . . 150,000 1,200,000 8,050,000 1,230 240 75 185 28S 603 Total . . 9,400,000 114 1,076 According to the scheme laid down in page 320, the Aus' Mr. Coghlan, Government statist, estimates the fruits gross earnings of the German people in 1889 amounted to 1076 milliDns sterling, or ;^22 4s. per inhabitant, against ;^28 in France, and jf 34 in the United Kingdom. Austria Neumann Spallart estimated the national earnings at 600 millions sterling in 1874, as compared with 430 millions in 1868, and 336 millions in 1859, this last being Czemig's estimate. If we take the florin at its nominal value of 24d., the estimate of Roschmam for 1883 will be 650 millions sterling; but if we allow for the depreciation of the currency, it will not exceed 610 millions. My estimate for 1888 is 616 millions sterling, as shown in the table. ITAIY Oflicial returns published in 1881 give a very inadequate idea of the earnings of the nation ; the first two columns are official, the last is the apparent result : — Income, Number Assessed Gross Result, £ Under ;^40. jf 40 to ^200 ^200 to ;^400 Over ;^40o . 559.000 71,000 5.300 3, zoo 8,400,000 7,100,000 1,600,000 11,300,000 Total 638,500 28,400,000 As already shown, the earnings of the Italian nation are about 364 millions sterling, or ;^12 per inhabitant, which is less than half the average per head in P ranee. United States In 1840 Tucker's estimate of the earnings of the American people was 1066 millions dollars, or 22 1 millions £ sterling, made up thus : — Product of farms . . . 137,200,000 Manufactures, &c, . , . 83,600,000 Total 220,800,000 The above estimate was too low, seeing that agricul- tural products were worth 184 millions sterling (as already shown). The national earnings at various dates are shown approximately thus : — Millions £ 18B0 1870 1886-89 Agriculture . 225 452 698 Manufactures 127 444 866 Mines . 40 60 96 Transport . 50 130 231 Commerce . 7 17 32 Shipping 7 10 12 Banking 5 19 52 Sundries . 109 218 371 Tota S70 I.3SO 2,358 I'RALIA of all industries as follows : — Farming Mining 1 Manufactures, &c. Total Per Inhabitant New South Wales Victoria Queensland. South Australia . New Zealand Tasmania . Western Australia £ 17,200,000 13,600,000 8,300,000 7,700,000 12,600,000 1,900,000 900,000 £ 3,800,000 2,700,000 2,100,000 400,000 1,200,000 500,000 200,000 6,600,000 7,100,000 2,300,000 1,600,000 3,300,000 900,000 300,000 27,600,000 23,400,000 12,700,000 9,700,000 17,100,000 3.300,000 1,400,000 £ 25.1 21.3 32.0 31-0 28.S 22.0 330 Total 62,200,000 10,900.000 32, 100,000 95,200,000 26.4 INDIANS 323 INDUSTRIES The above takes no account of transport, shipping, banking, commerce, &c., which brings up the total eamii^ to 144 millions sterlii^. INDIANS The number in the United States in 1830 and in 1880 was : — East of Rocky Mountains West 1830 1880 213,100 188,400 100,000 143,700 313,100 332,100 In 1830 some of the States had the followii^ Indian population : — Mississippi , . . 23,400 Missouri . . . , Alabama . . , 19,200 New York, . . , Michigan , . 9,400 Indiana , . . , Arkansas , . . . 7,200 Florida . . . . Illinois .... 5,900 In 1837 the principal tribes were as follows : — East of Mississippi S.600 4,800 4,100 4,000 Cherokees . Chippewas , Seminoles . Blackfeet. Sioux . . Creeks Apaches . Camanches Choctaws 22,000 6,Soo S.ooo Winnebagos Various . . Total West of Mississippi Pawnees Eutaws , Crows 30,000 21,600 20.437 20,280 Various, 4.S00 11.365 49.36s 12,500 19,200 7,200 117,710 . 19,200 . 15,000 In 1880 the principal tribes were : — Cherokees, Choctaws , • . Esquimaux, &c. .... Shoshones, Snakes . . . . Dacotah, Sioux , . . . Crow, Flathead , . • . Pawnee, Fox . , • « . Apaches, Navajas . . . . Oregon, Arizona, &c. , , . Total =5. 383,127 ,800 400 300 100 400 100 100 000 Total . 332,100 Civilised Half- Civilised Savage Total Population . . 104,800 144.300 83,000 332,100 Acres tilled . . 273,000 157,000 430,000 Grain, bushels , 2,780,000 1,070,000 3,850,000 Hay, tons . . 177.000 48,000 225,000 Vegetables, tons 8,500 9.800 ... 18,300 Churches . . 117 ■■■ ^ ... 117 Schools . . . 344 344 Pupils . . . 13.350 13.350 Horses . . . 301,000 301,000 Cows. , . . 311,000 311,000 Sheep . . . 447,000 ... 447,000 Pigs 214,000 214,000 The number of Indians who vote as American citizens is 24,600. That of Indians paying tax was as follows : — State 1870 1880 Increase ■Califoniia 7.241 16,277 9.036 New Mexico . 1.309 9.772 8.463 Michigan 4,926 7.249 2.323 Washington Territory . 1.319 4.40s 3.086 Arizona 31 3.493 3.462 Wisconsin . 1,206 3,161 I..95S -Various 9.699 22,050 I2.3SI Total . 25.731 66,407 40,676 In Canada a reporr on Indians in 1880 was as follows : — Number Property, £ ' £ per Head Ontario . , , . Quebec .... Manitoba, &c. . . 16,000 11,000 75.400 1,968,000 363,000 123 33 Total . . 102,400 ... 1 ... INDUSTRIES The following table shows approximately the value yearly of the chief occupations of mankind :— Millions ;^SterUng« V u ta 3ji ■ to S2 a i E 6 2 ^1 ^- ^M 2 1 H U. Kingdom 251 820 60 113 740 1,984 52 France . , 460 485 10 310 1,361 36 Germany , , 424 ,S83 25 103 370 1.505 32 Russia . , .S63 .363 15 94 120 1.155 13 Austria , . 331 2.53 b .59 95 744 19 Italy . . . 204 121 2 33 95 4.55 IS Spain . , , 173 85 4 27 60 349 20 Portugal , , 31 16 I 5 20 73 16 Sweden , . 49 .50 1 10 30 140 30 Norway . . 17 19 I 4 10 SI 25 Denmark . • 3S 26 6 25 92 46 Holland . , 39 35 ... 8 200 282 61 Belgium . . 55 102 7 17 110 291 48 Switzerland . 19 32 S 60 116 39 Various . , 194 40 ... 23 72 329 22 Europe . . 2.845 3.030 132 603 2,317 8,927 27 United States 776 1.443 X07 2^1 320 2,877 46 Canada . . S6 64 'i 12 40 175 Australia . . 62 41 8 10 120 241 66 Argentina . 42 40 8 30 120 32 Total . 3.781 4.618 250 864 2,827 12,340 30 The value of the above industries in the above countries at various dates was approximately as follows in millions £ sterling :— Year Agricul- ture Manu- factures Mining Trans- port Com- merce Total 1820 1840 i860 1838 1.405 1.750 2,380 3.781 865 1.314 2,404 4,618 19 35 108 250 229 310 490 864 287 48s 1.305 2,827 2,805 3,894 6,687 12,340 The relative increase of the principal industries is shown approximately as follows : — 1820 1840 1860 1888 Agriculture . . , , Manufactures , . , Mining Transport . . , , Commerce . . , , 100 100 100 100 100 124 153 183 135 166 170 280 567 213 450 270 536 1.320 376 990 Total . . 100 152 336 440 • The values here given represent the gross amounts without any deduction. For net values see /neorne, p, 320. INFIRM 324 INFIRM The ratios of the various industries in forming the aggregate were as follows : — 1820 1840 1860 1888 Agriculture .... Manufactures . . . Mining Transport .... Commerce .... So.t 30.8 0.7 8.2 10.2 44.8 33-8 0.9 8.0 12-5 35-6 36.0 1.6 7-3 19-5 30-5 37-6 2.1 7.0 22.8 Total . . lOO.O 100.0 100. lOO.O If we take the first four items as the direct fruits of human industry in the aggregate, and compare with population, we find as follows : — Year Population Industries, Millions £^ ^ per Head 1820 . 1840 . i860 . 1888 208,000,000 256,000,000 313,000,000 416,000,000 2,518 3.409 5.382 9.513 12.1 13-3 17.2 22.8 The population and industries are those of Europe, United States, Canada, Australia, and Argentina. It appears that, owing to improved machinery, the product of a man's labour represents at present double the value that it did in 1820. But as prices have fallen in the interval about 33 per cent., it follows that the average in 1888 was equal to ;^34 per head measured by prices of 1 820. Thus one man now, in whatever industry, produces as much as 3 did in 1820, or 2\ in 1840, or 2 in i860. INFIRM The principal classes of infirm of body are blind and deaf-mutes, whose numbers by latest returns were as follows : — Blind Deaf- Mutes Total Per Million Population England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... 22,800 3,200 6,100 13.300 2,200 4,000 36,100 S.400 10,100 1.390 1.455 . 1.940 United Kingdom . France .... Germany .... Russia Austria proper . . Hungary .... Italy Spain Scandinavia , . . Belgium and Hol- land ..... Switzerland . . . 32,100 32,060 39,000 178,500 15.800 20,600 28,200 20,300 7,900 6,700 2,100 19.500 21,100 45.000 53.500 26.800 15.000 19,800 10,700 7,800 4,200 6,800 51,600 53.160 84,000 232,000 42,600 35.600 48,000 31,000 15.700 10,900 8,900 1.475 1.390 1.830 2,730 1.940 2.35° 1,610 1,700 1,840 1.050 3.200 Europe .... United States . . 383,260 48,900 230,200 33.900 613,460 82,800 1,840 1.650 Total . . 432,160 264,100 696,260 1,760 In 1881 Professor Haltkenhoff of Geneva said that there were 311,000 blind persons in Europe, mostly the result of fevers, and that 75 per cent, of them could have kept their sight if they had been properly treated. The proportion of sexes shows thus : — France Belgium Females Blind to 100 Males 76 I Prussia . . 88 | Sweden 89 I Norway 108 118 United States 82 The following table is by Principal Campbell :- Blind per Million Persons of Each Sex Male Female Male Female England . 953 809 Austria . . 1,280 1,183 Scotland . 86S 827 Italy . . . 1,106 S'^i Ireland , , 1,141 1. 219 Spain . . 1.242 1,011 France . . 948 726 Norway 1.313 1,411 Germany . 884 881 Holland . 499 394 Sweden 767 843 Belgium 982 641 Denmark . 776 793 Finland . I.514 2.938 The number of blind institutions and of pupils were : — United Kingdom . France . , Germany . Austria . Italy . . . Spain . . . Russia . . . Scandinavia Belgium and Holland United States . Canada . Total Institutions Inmates 80 23 35 15 10 14 36 3 261 2,830 1,210 1,810 680 670 650 400 330 500 2,500 200 11,780 The number of deaf-mutes in most countries increases faster than population, as the following table shows : — Number Per Million Inhab. 1831 1871 1831 1871 United Kingd om . 14,328 19,237 597 611 France . . 20,189 21,130 630 603 Germany . 20,470 30,900 724 770 Russia . . 27,834 631 Austria . . 21,684 34.45° 802 980 Italy . . 12,618 19.800 628 702 Spain . . . 7,255 10,700 633 6SS Switzerland . 3.967 6,820 1,996 2,620 Denmark 1,260 1,114 Sweden and N orway 2,397 S.540 60, 920 480 ' United States 6,030 18,150 460 Sex ratio is in most countries 55 male deaf-mutes to 45 females, but in Italy 58 to 42. Colour-blindness, which usually takes the form of in- ability to distinguish red from green, is found to prevail thus : — Per 1000 Persons Male Female General Population. England Scotland France . Sweden . Switzerland United States Boston . Holland Belgium Russia . London 47 30 70 32 47 40 40 34 40 26 9 10 17 44 29 28 26 30 ^l 26 80 Of French marines 82 per 1000, of British sailors 45. INFIRM 325 INFIRM United Kingdom The number and ratios of blind were as follows : — Year Number of Blind U. Kingdom England Scotland Ireland 1851 . i86i . 1871 . 1881 . 18,306 19.352 21.590 22,832 3.010 2,820 3.019 3.158 7.587 6.879 6.347 6,111 28,903 29.051 30,956 32,101 Year Number of Population to one Blind Person England Scotland Ireland U. Kmgdom 1851 . i86i . 1871 . 1881 . 979 1.037 1.052 : 1.138 1,065 864 1,090 843 1,112 ^ 852 1,182 1 847 948 1,002 1,022 1,094 The number of blind in England per million persons of each age was in 1 881 as follows : — Years Per Million o-s 166 S-iS 288 15-20 388 20-25 ••••••• 422 25-45 . 641 45-65 1.625 Over 65 6,915 General average 877 The number of deaf-mutes in the United Kingdom rose from 14,328 in 1831 to 19,237 in 187 1. The number per million inhabitants was as follows : — 1831 1861 1871 England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom . 545 552 664 597 581 753 975 701 1,028 6ii The number of short-sighted people is not known, but Ware found at Oxford, in 18 13, that 26 per cent, of those in the University used glasses. France The returns for 1866 showed jis follows : — Cause B':ind Deaf-Mutes Total From b-nh . Accident or illness 4,726 27,242 15.296 5.918 20,022 33.160 Total . 31.968 21.214 53.182 The ratios of blind and deaf-mutes per million persons of each sex were : — 1 Blind Deaf-Mutes Total ] Male Female Male Female Male Female Under 15 . 270 210 Married. . 1 900 520 Widowed . 3,810 2,180 470 1,480 18S 386 380 1.250 120 223 740 2,580 1.085 4,196 590 2,400 640 2.403 In 1876 the number of afflicted persons was :— Blind 1 Deaf-Mutes Total Males .... Females 15.526 12,965 11,460 9.935 26,986 22,900 Total 28,491 21.395 49,886 In 1883 there were 32,056 blind, of whom 2548 were under 21 years of age. Germany In 1843 the kingdom of Prussia showed as follows : — Male Female Total 1 Per Million Population Blind. . . Deaf-mutes . 5.222 6.460 4.930 5.037 10,152 11.497 680 770 Total . 11,682 9,967 21,649 1.450 In 1880 the German Empire had 37,800 blind, of whom l8lo were receiving instruction in Blind schools. In 1888 there were 28 Blind institutions, vrith 2139 pupils, the total number of blind in the Empire being estimated at 39,000. The numbers of deaf-mutes in Prussia in 1871 and 1880 were :- Number Per Million Population 1871 1880 1871 1880 Males .... Females . . . 13.118 11.197 15,168 12,026 1,080 900 1,130 910 Total . . 24.315 27.194 990 1,020 Livonia . . 5,020 Esthonia . . 4,110 Finland . . 2, 140 The number of persons bom blind was 65 in a million of male population, 35 in a million of the female. The rate was 990 per million among Protestants, 1040 among Catholics, and 1440 among Jews. There are in Prussia 96 schools for deaf-mutes, with 331 teachers and 3991 pupils. Russia The total number of blind is estimated at about 180,000, the rate per million inhabitants varying in the dififerent provinces for which there are returns, viz. : — Kieff . . . 1,960 Pultowa . . . 1,780 Kazan . . 5,700 In the city of SL Petersbuig the rate is only 890 per million, the total number of blind being 771, namely, 320 males and 451 females; only 17 per cent of the whole number were bom blind. There are 21 Blind asylums in the Empire. Finland The ratio of blind in 1875 was : 214 per 100,000 males, 438 for females, and 328 for the general popula- tion ; this is nearly 24 times as much as in Norway, four times as much as in France. Smoky huts are one of the causes. Finland has 233 deaf-mutes per million. Algeria There are 6666 blind persons, of whom 5330 are adult. The above number compared with population shows 175° per million, which k 50 per cent, over the European average. Austria Official returns for 18S6 showed as follows for Austria, without Hungary : — Males Females Total Per Million Population Blind. . . Deaf-mutes . 8,480 15.041 7,282 11,752 15,762 26,793 710 1,220 Total . 23.521 19.034 42,555 1.930 INFIRM ?26 INFIRM The institutions contained the following : Males Females Total Blind .... Deaf-mutes . . 403 807 281 621 684 1,428 Total . . 1,210 902 2,112 Born so Became so Total Blind .... Deaf-mutes . . lOI 469 583 959 684 1,428 Total . . 570 1.542 2,112 In 1884 there were 26,245 deaf-mutes, of whom 22,319, say 92 per cent., were born so. Hungary The number of blind was as follows : — Number Per Million Population 1870 1880 1870 1880 Males .... Females . . 9,800 8,723 10,242 10,597 127 "3 120 128 132 Total . . 18,523 20,639 130 The number of deaf-mutes in 1880 was 15,000, or 960 per million population. Italy The ratios of blind and of deaf-mutes in 1 872 showed : — Per Million Inhabitants Blind Deaf-Mutes Total Sicily Central Italy . Lombardy . Sardinia, &c. Italy .... 1,282 1,000 795 1,929 1.050 687 744 I.IS3 719 738 1,969 1.744 1,948 2,648 1,788 j: « c „11«,.,^ . The distribution according to sexes was as follows :• 1 Males Females Total Blind . . . 1 15,946 Deaf-mutes . . j 11,615 12,181 8,164 28,127 19.779 Total . . 1 27,561 20,345 47.906 The Census of 1881 showed 21,718 blind and 15,300 deaf-mutes, but the authorities believe the real numbers to be much greater. Belgium and Holland In Belgium the asylums for the blind and for deaf- mutes contained in 1885 : — Males 729 Females 540 Total 1,269 The ratio of blind in Belgium was 874 per million inhabitants in i860, and has now declined to 810. Deaf- mutes were 450 per million in 1835, ^"<^ hsxe declined to 404. As regards Holland, there are no returns since 1869, when there were 1593 blind, or 450 per million of population. Norway T he ratios of blind and of deaf-mutes at various dates Year Blind per 100,000 Inhab. Deaf-Mutes per 100,000 Inhabitants Total Town Rural Norway 1835 ■ • 1845 . . 1855 ■ ■ 1865 . . 1875 . . 123 127 119 90 79 183 218 195 145 148 177 209 186 136 136 91 83 83 92 86 268 292 269 22S 222 The actual numbers of deaf-mutes were as follows : — Year Males Females Total Per 100,000 Population 1835. • . • 1855. . . • 1875. . . • 598 650 819 493 592 752 1,091 1,242 1. 571 91 83 86 Sweden and Denmark The numbers in these countries are : — Number Per Million Blind Deaf-Mutes Blind Deaf-Mutes Sweden . . Denmark . 3.723 1,249 4.834 810 705 1.050 United States The classification in 1880 was as follows : — Males Females Total Blind .... Deaf-mutes . . 26,748 18.567 22,180 15.311 48,928 33.878 Total . . 4S.315 37.491 82,806 American Foreign Total Blind .... Deaf-mutes . . 40.509 30,507 8,419 3.371 48,928 33.878 Total . . 71,016 11,790 82,806 White Coloured Total Blind .... Deaf-mutes , . 41.278 30,661 7,650 3.217 48,928 33.878 Total . . 71,939 10,867 82,806 The returns of deaf-mutes at various dates showed : — Year Number Per Million Inhabitants Ratio of Sex Males Females 1830 . . . 6,106 470 1840 . . . 7,706 453 ... 1850 . . 9.803 427 SS 45 1S60 . . . 12,820 413 ss 45 1870 . . . 16,205 422 SS 45 1880 . . . 33.880 678 S6 44 Deaf-mutes and blind have risen in numbers much faster than population. The ratio per million inhabitants rises at each successive census, perhaps because the ratio of urban population is at each period higher. INQUESTS 327 INSANE The number and ratio of blind at various dates were : — Year Number Per Million Population Ratio of Sex Males Females 1830 . . . 5.444 420 1840 . . . 6,916 407 1850 . . . 9.790 426 SS 4S i860 . . . 12,660 410 S8 42 1870 . . . 20,320 53° S6 44 1880 . . . 48,928 970 SS 4S Canada The general ratios are not published. In 18S6 Mani- toba had per million inhabitants 147 blind and 73S deaf- mutes, being a very low ratio for blindness. INQUESTS In 1SS7 there were 30,030 held in England and Wales, viz. : — Cause of Death, Natural causes 11.231 Suicide 2,227 Drink .372 Murder ....•• 35° Hunger 250 Various causes 15,600 Total . . . 30,030 INSANE The following table shows the number of insane, in- cluding idiots, in the various countries, about 1880-84 (except Italy, 1872) :— ^ >« m U 1 3 Z Oj3 rt I, c sr OS .2 §62 C rt oJ Per Per Cent. Cent. England . 81,600 32 39 '2 1 Scotland 11,600 3a 42 \\ 81 Ireland . 19.500 37 48 8j France • 93.900 25 33 15 no Germany . 108,100 24 31 8 130 Russia 80,000 II ... 74 Austria . 44.500 20 12 28 Italv. . 44.100 17 33 Spain and Porti igal . 13,000 7 II Belgium and H alland 10,400 12 32 14 68 Swiuerland 3,100 II ... 42 Scandinavia 18,100 29 16 33 12 27 Europe . . 518,400 604 United States . 168,900 .33 47 10 ... Canada . 7.300 18 ... Australia . 4.900 17 45 7 ... Tota 1 . 695,500 19 36 II The ratios of sex in various countries show thus : — As r^ards the causes of insanity, not including idiots, the average returns for England, France, Denmark, and United States combined give this result : — Hereditary Drink Business . Per Cent. 24 . 24 12 Per Cent. Loss of friends . 11 Sickness. . . 10 Various . . .19 Inmates of Asyl urns Ma'es Females Total England 47 S3 100 Scotland 48 S2 100 Ireland .... S2 48 100 France .... 48 52 100 Italy .... S6 44 100 United States SI 49 100 Even in countries where the number of insane females exceeds that of males, it is found that men are more liable than women to insanity, but die faster. Thus in France there are annually admitted 1 10 males to 100 females, though the existing number of the latter is greater. The percentage of insanity caused by drink is stated thus: — Italy 2, Austria 15, France 20, England 32, Sweden 50. The relative numbers of insane persons cured is : — Per 100 of each Class Males Females | Total France .... England Scotland 40 32 42 44 33 39 42 Taking the existing numbers of mad people lowing countries, the sexes stood thus : — Males to England and Wales . . . 100 France 100 Italy 100 United Kingdom The returns for 18S3 showed as follows : — in the fol- Females 118 no 73 England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Pauper insane . . Private insane . . 65,400 16,200 8.000 3.600 12,200 7,300 85,600 27,100 Total . . 81,600 11,600 19.500 112,700 Lunatics .... Idiots Unclassified . . . 39.600 29,500 12,500 6,800 4.600 200 9,800 6,700 3.000 56,200 40,800 15,700 Total . . 81,600 11,600 19.S00 112,700 There has been >• notable increase of insane paupers since 1861, viz.: — Paupers Insane per Million Inhab. Period England and Wales Scotland 1861-65 . 1871-7S . 1880 .... 2,080 2,581 2,792 2,050 2,290 2,580 Insanity varies with locality, as shown thus : — Pauper Insane per 100,000 Inhabitants Shetland . . 96 Edinburgh . 172 Argyll . . .259 Orkney . . 107 Sheffield . . 179 Manchester . 270 Bradford . . 121 Newcastle . 191 Birmingham. 301 Durham . . 129 Swansea . . 202 O-xford . . 312 Cornwall . . 158 Liverpool. . 219 Notungham . 342 Leeds ... 160 Perth ... 233 London . . 361 INSANE 328 INSANE France Year Number Per 100,000 Inhabitants Caused by Drink, per Cent. 1851 1856 1866 1869 1879 46,400 59.800 90,100 94,800 93.970 129 166 238 247 252 8 9 14 IS IS The returns of lunatic asylums showed as follows : — Year Males Females Total 1871 .... 1880 .... 1886 .... 18,020 22,100 24,990 19,700 22,960 27,880 37,720 45,060 52,870 The returns for 1885 were as follows : — Males Females Total Old patients . New patients • 24,400 8,100 27,400 7,300 51,800 15.400 Total Cured .... Died .... 32,500 i,6S5 3,326 34,700 1,519 2,785 67,200 3,174 6,111 The death-rate was 10.2 for males, 8.2 for females, and 9. 1 for all. The expenditure during the year was £■780,000, of which the families defrayed only ^56,000, the rest being borne by the State. The number of patients treated during the year was : — Asylums Males Females Total Public .... Private .... 20,100 12,400 21,400 13.300 41,500 25,700 Total 32.500 34,700 67,200 The death-rate was much lower in private than in public asylums, viz. ; — Asylums Deaths Per Males Females Total Cent. Public Private 2.263 1,063 1,802 983 4.065 2,046 9-7 7-9 Total 3.326 2.785 6,111 9-1 The statistics published by the Prefecture of Police in Paris indicate a very rapid increase in the number of in- sane persons admitted into the special infirmary of the capital, viz. : — Year Males Females Total 1872 .... 1880 .... 1888 .... 1,69s 1,932 2.549 1,389 1,552 1,900 3,084 3,484 4,449 The form of insanity known as folie alcoolique is twice as frequent now as it was fifteen years ago, and the number of persons placed under restraint on account of it has increased by 25 per cent, in the last three years. This is ascribed to the increased consumption of alcohol. The returns for 1866 were as follows : — Insane Idiots Total In asylums . . In families . . . 31.992 18.734 3.980 35.973 35.972 54.707 Total . . 50,726 39.953 90,679 Of lunatics there were 91 males to 100 females, and of idiots 132 males to 100 females: taken collectively, the proportion was 107 males to 100 females. According to Limier (1856) the number of persons who go mad yearly in a million of each class is as follows : — Peasants Tradesmen Capitalists 52 180 275 Learned professions . 525 Soldiers , • . 590 Officers . . . 1,300 Germany The returns for Prussia showed as follows : — Year Males Females Total Per 100,000 Inhabitants 1871 . . 1880 . . 28,002 34.309 27,041 32.036 55.043 66.345 221 243 Mayr's tables for Bavaria showed a stronger tendency to insanity among Jews than Christiajg, viz., 620 Protes- tants, 840 Catholics, and 1190 Jews per million. He also found that 30 per cent, of lunatics had hereditary taint, and that in 1877 there were 34 insane for every 1000 lawsuits. Russia In i860 there were 41 asylums, containing 3100 insane. In 1882 the number of asylums had risen to 74 ; that of inmates was not stated. It was roughly supposed that the total number of insane and idiots in asyhmis and their own houses might reach 80,000, but nothing is really known. In Finland the ratio of insane persons is 170 per 100,000 inhabitants. Austria The returns do not include Hungary, and show thus for 1886 :— Males Females Total In asylums . . In families , . . 4,394 10,991 3.715 8.958 8,109 19.949 Lunatics . . . Idiots .... 15.385 9.507 12,673 6.913 28,058 16,420 Total . . 24,892 19.586 44.478 The average cost was l6d. daily, or ;^24 a year, for each inmate of asylums. Belgium The number of insane at various dates was as follows : 1868 1868 1878 1888 Males . . Females . . 3.481 2.994 4,287 3.953 5.283 4.732 S.200 S.080 Total . 6.475 8,240 10,020 10,280 INSANE 329 INSECTS The returns for i888 comprise only those in asylums ; the statistics for previous dates showed thus : — In 1858 1868 1878 Asylums Families 4.420 2.05s 6,032 2,208 7,886 2.134 Total 6.475 8,240 10,020 Age Under 30 . . . 30-50 .... Over 50 . 2.658 2,504 1,660 3.382 3.198 1.903 4.186 3.931 Total 6,475 8,240 10,020 Married men . Married women , Unmarried men . Unmarried women Widowers . Widows . . 499 468 2,809 2.184 173 342 639 685 3.453 2,806 195 462 821 813 4.244 3,394 223 525 Total . 6,475 8,240 10,020 Deaths .... Per cent. . Cured .... 503 7.7 520 557 6.7 626 882 8.8 617 Of 100 persons who become insane, 16 will be under 20 years of s^e, 24 between 20 and 30 years, 22 in the ensuing decade, 16 between 40 and 50, ^^d 22 over 50 years. Italy Between 1872 and 1877 the number of pauper lunatics increased 24 per cent., namely, from 12,210 to 15,173, but the total number of insane in the latter year was unknown. The returns for 1872 showed thus : — Males Females Total In asylums . . In families . . . 6,476 19,140 5-734 12,752 12,210 31,892 Total . . 25,616 18,486 44,102 Naples . Ill Rome . . ■ 157 Venice . . • 174 Insane per 100,000 Inhabitants Tuscany . . 185 Lombardy . 230 Piedmont . . 222 Italy . . . 171 Liguria . . 226 The ratio of insanity according to condition, that is, married or unmarried, was as follows : — 100 unmarried males to 52 married 100 „ females to 58 married The ratio of population is 100 unmarried to 60 married ; it appears, therefore, that insanity is more prevalent among unmarried than married persons. The returns for 1877 refer only to pauper lunatics, vit : — Males . . .... 8,oio Females 7,163 Total . . . 15,173 Pauper lunatics compared with population thus : — Per 100,000 Inhabitants Sardinia Naples . Sicily 18 19 23 Venice . Piedmont . Genoa . 61 62 68 Lombardy Rome . . 76 8S Insanity was most prevalent between forty and sixty years of age, the number per million of each class showing thus:— Under 20 20-40 93 944 41 to 60 Over 60 1,098 557 In 100,000 Christians there were 58 pauper lunatics ; in 100,000 Jews there were 260. The prevalence of Insanity among Jews has already been noted in Germany. Norway The ratios of idiots and insane persons showed thus : — Per ioo, 440 448 168 136 172 184 136 112 128 616 604 520 544 Besso considers that 8,500,000 persons in Europe have their lives insured, say 2\ per cent, of the population. The latest returns show as follows : — Year Country Amount, £ Premiums, £ 1889 . U. Kingdom 545,000,000 17,400,000 1888 Germany . 170,300,000 14,680,000 188.; Austria . . 45,200,000 7,800,000 1885 Russia . . 10,000,000 1886 France . . 117,600,000 6,050,000 1885 Scandinavia 11,200,000 188 s Switzerland 8,100,000 188.; U. States . 420,000,000 21,900,000 1880 Canada . . 17,000,000 The above does not include the Industrial Life Assur- ances of Great Britain, of which later on. According to the Archivio, the aggregate insurance business of Germany, Austria and Switzerland multiplied 15-fold in the period of 25 years down to 1877, viz. : — Year Existing Policies Amount, £ 1852 , . , 46,980 8,600,000 1865 . , . 280,500 41,600,000 1877 . . . 753,400 116,900,000 The following table shows how the aggregate for 1877 was made up, and also the new business for that year : — New Business, 1877 Total on Books, 1B77 Policies Amount, £ Policies Amount, £ Germany . Austria . . Switzerland 78,030 21,800 2,300 15,100,000 2,900,000 550,000 552,200 178,900 22,200 92,400,000 19,300,000 5,100,000 Total . 102, 130 18, 550, coo 753.300 116,800,000 In 1 880 the new business done m various countries was : — Great Britain . United States . Germany . . France . . . New Policies 44.900 123,000 47,600 47,800 Amount, £ 20,900,000 37,500,000 13,800,000 17,700,000 Policies Paid, £ 11,200,000 1,900,000 1,200,000 The life insurance of the principal countries in 1880 compared with the returns for 1870 as follows : — Existing Policies Amount 1870 1880 1870 1880 Great Britain 688,000 879,000 £ 338,000,000 £ 422,000,000 U. States . Germany France . . 748,000 456,000 129,000 725,000 797,000 208,000 405,000,000 64,000,000 51,000,000 312,000,000 127,000,000 87,000,000 Austria . . 90,000 170,000 ... 20,000j000 Canada . . 40,000 48,000 14,000,000 17,000,000 Besides the ordinary system in England of companies charging an annual premium for a policy payable only on death, there is anomer mode of insurance, whereby the insured person on reaching a certain age receives an annuity for life. In Denmark any person who pays in at the age of 21 a sum of £(> 10s. will be entitled to an annuity of £1'^ on reaching the age of 65 ; if he die meantime, the sum is forfeit. In Germany, whoever pays 20d. a week during three years, beginning at the age of 18, will receive an annuity oi £\'>, on arriving at that of 65. The German system of compulsory insurance divides the annual premium into three equal parts, one paid by the workman, one by his employer, one by the State. In England, by payment of ;^ioo to any of the first- class insurance companies the following annuity may be secured, varying with the age of the person who buys the aimuify : — Age Annuity for ^^loo Man Woman g: : : : £ s. d 770 900 £ s. d. 6 13 800 United Kingdom There are 95 principal companies, which showed the following aggregate of business for life insurance : — • Policies . . . Amount, £ , Premiums, £ . Assets, £ . . 1877 779,000 384,000,000 11,700,000 124,000,000 1886 902,000 421,000,000 12,800,000 143,000,000 1889 545,000,000 13,930,000 165,700,000 There are also industrial life insurances of the working classes, which showed thus : — Number of policies . Amount, £ Annual premiums, £ , 1880 5,440,000 49,000,000 1,940,000 1885 9,132,000 83,000,000 3,550,000 The average annual premium in British companies, per ;^ioo of policy, varies with age thus : — Age 25 30 35 £ s. d. 2 8 2 15 40 45 55 £ 3 3 5 d. o INSURANCE 33 » INSURANCE The business of 95 companies in 1889 compared with 1884 thus :— 1884 1889 Premiums .... Other receipts . £ 12,300,000 6,600,000 £ 13,930,000 7,710,000 Total income 18,900,000 21,640,000 Paid claims Expenses .... 10,600,000 5,600,000 11,000,000 5,640,000 Total payments 16,200,000 16,640,000 The assets amount to 166 millions sterling, and include ;f 1 1,300,000 paid-up capital. France In 1886 there were life policies running to the amount of ;fi 1 7,600,000, the premiums reaching ;f 6,050,000 per annum ; assets or reserve fund ;^35,8oo,ooo. The number and amount of policies for life insurance issued in twenty years down to 1 880 were : — Period Number Amount, £ Average, £ 1861-70 . . 128,700 51,000,000 396 1871-80 . . 250,400 104,500,000 418 379,100 155,500,000 410 There were 26,600 new policies issued during the year 1885. The foregoing are payable at the death of the insured person. As regards the purchase of annuities, the annuity fiind in 188 1 amounted to 16 millions sterling, and the new annuities purchased yearly average a capital value of ;^900,ooa The annuities now running average as follows : — Military officers Naval officers . Men of property Civil service . Per Annum £ • 95 • 90 . 62 . 60 Physicians . Farmers . Workmen . Servants . Per A7inu7n £ ■ 56 . 40 • 36 There is, moreover, a special life insurance against accidental deaths, which showed in 1886 premiums re- ceived ;^440,ooo, payments for peisons killed ;f 240,00a Germany Amount, Policies Year Policies £ Paid. ^ 1850 . 40,900 7,400,000 150,000 i860 . 129,600 21,200,000 350,000 1870 . 456,200 64,000,000 1,020,000 1880 . 797,100 127,300,000 1,870,000 1888 . 816,300 170,300,000 The above table shows the total number of existing policies and the a^egate amounts at the various dates. The increase of business in ten years appears on com- paring the figures for 1S88 with those of 187S : — 1878 1888 £ £ Amount of policies . 97,700,000 170,300,000 Amount of assets . . 28,000,000 52,300,000 Austria The returns of 1885 compare with those of previous years thus : — Year 1876 1880 18S; Amount of Policies, £ 2S>S<».°<» 31,200,000 45.200,000 Amount of Premiums, £ 3,000,000 6,500,000 7,800,000 United States According to Bradstreet's, the income of American life companies rose from ;f 1,300,000 in l86l to ;£'2i, 900,000 in 1885. The assets in 1880 amounted to 84 millions sterling. A statement in 1 860 showed 47 life companies, 60,000 persons insured, aggregate amount 37 millions sterling. Fire Insurance In 1887 a statement was published in London that the insvurance companies of the United Kingdom covered pro- perties to the amount of 5500 millions sterling, the annual premiums on the policies amounting to ;£ 14, 500,000. The Journal des Economists published in 1883 a table of fire insurance for other countries. The result is as follows : — Country Property' Insured, Millions £ Annual Premium, 0.0 V Annual Loss by Fire, £ -31 U. Kingdom 5.S00 14,500,000 2S 9,100,000 60 France . . 4.056 3,760,000 1.0 3,200,000 20 Germany . 3.170 6,500.000 2.0 6,100,000 32 Russia . . 180 900,000 S-o 9,000,000 26 Belgium . . 400 400,000 1.0 500,000' 22 Scandinavia "5 300,000 2.7 1,000,000 S8 U. States . 2,180 19,600.000 90 21,400,000 78 Canada . . 140 1,550,000 II.O 4,100,000 220 Total . 15.741 47,510,000 3-0 S4,400,ooo| ... The figures for the United States are taken from the Journal of Commerce, 1887. United Kingdom Official returns were published down to 1868, when the insurance duty was abolished ; they showed thus : — Amount. Millions £ Per In- Year England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom habitant, 1801 220 4 9 233 15 1810 325 12 17 354 20 1830 482 34 19 535 22 1850 680 43 34 757 28 1868 921 99 52 1.072 36 The assets of fire companies in iSSi amounted to 24 millions sterling. France The following table shows fire insurance : — Amount Insured Premium, Losses Paid.;f Year MiUions £ Inhabitant 1851 . . . 1856 . . . 1868 . . . 187s • • . 1881 . . . 1.318 1.810 3.09a 3.190 4.056 41 54 88 90 112 1,140,000 1.566,000 2,440,000 3,030,000 3,855,000 560,000 774,000 1,460,000 2,390.000 2,430,000 The balance-sheet for 1 886 showed as follows : Receipts, £ Fire premiums . 3,650,000 Investments , . 270,000 Total 3,920,000 Payments, £ Fire losses . . . 2,040,000 Expenses . . . 1,360,000 Total 3,400,000 INSURANCE 33* IRON This left a profit of ;f 520,000, say about 6 per cent, on a capital of ;^8, 500,000 sterling. The following is an official record of all payments by insiurance companies for losses by fire or other calamity : — ■ 1871 1885 Fire Hail Frost .... Cattle-plague . Phylloxera Sundries .... £ 1,560,000 1,920,000 4,500,000 1,800,000 220,000 £ 2,280,000 5,100,000 1,400,000 1,500,000 6,640,000 880,000 Total 10,000,000 17,800,000 The total payments in 1881 were ;^i6,ooo,ooo, in- cluding ;£'S, 700,000 for phylloxera. Germany The returns of fire insurance show as follows : — Amount Insured Premium, Losses Paid, I Year Millions £ £v^^ Inhabitant 1850 . . . i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 81S 1450 2,030 3.I2S 27 40 % 1,650,000 3,000,000 4,160,000 6,370,000 1,200,000 2,000,000 2,900,000 4,400,000 Russia Official estimates for 1884-85 show an average loss of property yearly amounting to ;^9, 100,000 sterling, of which ^3, 300,000 covered by insurance. The loss com- pared with population is estimated at 4s. per head in towns, and 2s. in the rural population yearly. Austria Policies paid on losses caused on farms in 1886 amounted in Austria to ;^2,900,ooo, of which ;^i, 800,000 by fire, the rest by hail. Losses paid on farms in Hungary for fire were ^ 1, 100,000, being 20 per cent, over the average of six preceding years. United States The Journal of Commerce (New York) gives the fol- lowing : — The above table shows the total loss by fire, insured and uninsured. The latter shows the amounts paid by the companies for losses : — Year Amount Insured, £, Premium, £ Losses Paid, £ 1856 1862 1876 1S81 175,000,000 365,000,000 1,310,000,000 1,290,000,000 1,440,000 3,100,000 11,800,000 11,630,000 880,000 1,900,000 8,800,000 8,950,000 Marine Insurance In 1880 the amount of marine insurance was estimated at 887 millions sterling, viz. : — Millions £ Lloyds 480 Hamburg 105 French, &o 302 In 1888 the aggregate returns of seven Liverpool com- panies showed an average premium on all insurances during three years of only 7 per 1000, viz.: Average annual insurances, 137 millions sterling; premium, ;^95o,ooo; damages settled, ^400,000; expenses of management, ;£^ 100,000; armual dividend, 14 per cent. on a paid-up capital of ;£^840,ooo. The losses, therefore, of ships and cargoes were only 3 per 1000 of value. The Hamburg Company showed as follows : — Year 1803 1820 1840 i860 1878 Insured, £ 400,000 11,000,000 20,000,000 47,000,000 105,000,000 Rate per 1000 17 IS 14 12 The French marine insurance returns were : — 1884 1886 Policies issued . Premiums .... Rate per ;^iooo Losses paid £ 200,100,000 740,000 3-7 530,000 £ 175,100,000 710,000 4.1 460,000 The losses, therefore, averaged 53s. per ;^iooo. Year Insurances in Loss by Fire, IRON Force, £ £ The production of pig iron, which amou tons in the year 1500, advanced very s nted to 60,000 1875 .... 1880 1,260 000 000 16 200 000 owly until the 1,494,000,000 15,600,000 21,400,000 nineteenth century. The following table shows the quan- 1885 .... 2,180,000,000 tities approximately : — Tons Great Britain France Germany United States Various Total 1500 .... 6,000 12000 5,000 37.000 60,000 1700 12,000 22,000 10,000 60,000 104,000 1740 20,000 26,000 18,000 1,000 92,000 157,000 1790 68,000 40,000 30,000 30,000 110,000 278,000 1800 190,000 60,000 40,000 40,000 130,000 460,000 1810 250,000 85,000 46,000 SS.ooo 180,000 616,000 1820 400,000 140,000 90,000 110,000 270,000 1,010,000 1830 680,000 220,000 120,000 180,000 385,000 1,585,000 1840 Ii390,ooo 350,000 170,000 290,000 480,000 2,680,000 xSep 2,250,000 570,000 402,000 560,000 640,000 4,422,000 i860 3,830,000 900,000 530,000 820,000 1,100,000 7,180,000 1870 5,960,000 1,180,000 1,390,000 1,670,000 1,710,000 11,910,000 1880 7,750,000 1,730,000 2,730,000 3,840,000 2,090,000 18,140,000 1885 7,420,000 1,630,000 3,690,000 4,050,000 2,310,000 19,100,000 1889 8,250,000 1,720,000 4,530,000 7,600,000 3,060,000 25,160,000 The figures from 1500 to 1740 are those given by Seaman IRON 333 IRON The production among minor countries since 1830 has been approximately thus : — Tons 1830 1860 1860 1870 1880 1 1889 Belgium Austria .... Russia .... Sweden .... Spain .... Various .... 3S,ooo 80,000 120,000 105,000 20,000 25,000 73.000 140,000 220,000 130,000 40,000 37.000 220,000 310,000 290,000 180,000 50,000 50,000 520,000 400,000 350,000 290,000 70,000 80,000 490,000 1 850,000 470,000 j 760,000 450,000 1 600,000 400.000 ! 460,000 160,000 230,000 120,000 160,000 Total . 385,000 640,000 1,100,000 1,710,000 2,090,000 3,060,000 The percentage of iron contained in ironstone is as follows : — France. . . 31 Germany . . 36 England . . 41 The number of blast-furnaces was : — United States 4" Canada . . 60 Australia . . ■;s Russia . . • 44 Algeria . . S8 Sweden . • S2 Total Number Working in 1886 Average Product Tons Iron per Furnace 1875 1886 United Kingdom 959 891 429 17,400 United States . 713 S9I 276 14,700 France. . . . 270 7,000 Germany . . . 4S6 252 17.500 Russia .... ... 206 2,400 Austria . . . 180 137 80 8,900 Sweden . . . 224 1,800 Belgium . . . 61 32 23,000 capacity of 16,900,000 tons, the actual production having been only 7,510,000: it would appear that the furnaces of Europe and America could produce at least 40 million tons of uron yearly. The production in 1885 was as follows : — Tons Pig ■Wrought Steel Great Britair United State Germany.' France . Belgium . Austria . Russia Sweden . Spain, &C. s 7,510,000 4,040,000 3,700,000 1,600,000 700,000 700,000 500,000 400,000 290,000 1,940,000 1,640,000 1,460,000 770,000 460,000 300,000 290.000 50,000 190,000 r,920,ooc 1,600,000 1,140,000 530.000 160,000 200,000 250,000 40,000 310,000 T Ota 1 • 19,440,000 7,100,000 1 6,150,000 The liimaces of Great Britain in 1885 had a productive The following table shows approximately the consumption in the principal countries : — United Kingdom France . Germany Russia . . Austria . Italy Spain . . Sweden . . Belgium . . Various , . Europe . United States Colonies, &c, . Total Tons 1830 560,000 350,000 130,000 120,000 100,000 20,000 40,000 80,000 95,000 30,000 1,415,000 200,000 70,000 1,685,000 1860 1,970,000 600,000 420,000 300,000 160,000 50,000 80,000 100,000 170,000 60,000 3,910,000 600,000 133,000 4,643,000 1870 4,260,000 1,350,000 1,340,000 655,000 430,000 100,000 150,000 310,000 550,000 140,000 9,285,000 1,730,000 335,000 11,340,000 1888 6,700,000 1,900,000 4,340,000 730,000 770,000 290,000 300,000 380,000 830,000 310,000 16,450,000 7,900,000 590,000 24,940,000 Lbs. per Inhabitant 1830 S3 17 10 6 9 3 8 60 63 6 14 as 1850 1870 170 37 27 II 13 6 13 63 90 9 3S 56 310 80 74 20 28 9 23 165 242 15 70 100 1888 400 112 2. There were in 1889 in India twenty-five factories, with 160,000 spindles, 8000 power-looms, and 61,000 opera- tives, consnming annually 190,000 tons of jute, and turning out 100 million sacks, of which Odifomia took 20 and China 15 millions. Jute Victories in the United Kingdom have increased as foUows : — 1870 1886 Number ... 63 120 Spindles . . . 115.000 264,000 Power-looms . . 4.300. 12,000 Operatives . . . 18,000 42,000 * The nominal value was ^^8,600,000, taking the rupee at 24d. The manufacture in the United Kingdom showed approximately thus : — Year Con- sumed, Tons Make, Million Yards Export, Million Yards Export Yarn, Million Lbs. Manu- factures, Value, £ 1850 i860 1870 1880 1889 19,000 38,000 98,000 178,000 268,000 63 126 300 560 810 52 183 265 13 17 34 900,000 1,900,000 4,700,000 7,200,000 9,100,000 The output avers^es at present only ;f 215 per operative yearly, against £2.(10 in 1870, the price having fallen &om 3653. to 2l6d. per 100 yards. The number of yards produced per operative is about 19,000 yards, or 1 1 miles yearly. The jute manufactvne since 1850 may be summed up approximately thus : — Period 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 Total Great Britain 500,000 1,200,000 2,500,000 Other Coun- tries 100,000 400,000 1,500,000 2,700,0003,200,000 Total 600,000 1,600,000 4,000,000 5,900,000 6,900,000 5,200,000 12,100,000 Value of Manufac- ture, Mil- lions £ 17 43 96 118 274 Price of Cloth, j^per Mile 29 27 24 23 The value of manufactured goods produced in thirty- e%ht years was shared approximately as follows : — Million £ Great Britain 160 India 21 Other countries 93 Total ... 274 The profit of this industry to Great Britain appears thus: — Millions £ Sterling Period Raw Jute Manu- ' Net factured | Product 1851-60. 1861-70 .... 1871-80. 1881-88. 2 7 20 24 14 12 32 j 25 60 40 54 30 38 years. S3 160 107 This industry enriched the United Kingdom by over three millions sterlii^ per annum in the last thirty years, of which apparently about ;^ 1,500, 000 a year went in wages. The above, moreover, does not include exported yam, the total value of which in thirty-eight years amounted to five millions sterling, thus bringing up the total net product to 1 12 millions sterling. KANGAROO 340 LAND K. KANGAROO These animals will soon be extinct, as the squatters kill them wholesale. The export of kangaroo skins from Melbourne was as follows : — Year 1883 1888 No. 20,000 260,000 Value, £ 1,500 54>oa> Kangaroos can jump a fence 11 feet h^h. KOUMISS Extracted by the Tartars from mares' milk, a gallon of milk giving three ounces of Koumiss brandy. KiNas There are 22 kings or emperors. The number who have ruled in various countries since the battle of Hast- ings, A.D. 1066, has been as follows : — Average No. England France . Germany Russia . 3S 34 39 SO Reign y Years 23 24 Spain . . Denmark Sweden . Turkey . Average No. Reign, Years 32 39 S3 as 26 IS i5 Turkey • . 35 17 The Turkish dynasty dates only from 1299. The average reign of the above 317 monarchs was just twenty years. L. LABOURER Dr. Farr estimates the value of an agricultural labourer to the commonwealth as follows : — Age 10 . IS 25 • Value, £ ■ "7 . 192 234 . 246 Age 30 35 40 SO Value, £ ■ 241 . 228 . 212 . i68 5S 60 6S 70 Value, £ . 138 • 97 ■ 46 o These figures of Dr. Farr have been often called in question as being too high, but the best authorities in the United States and Australia set even a higher value on able-bodied immigrants. LACE This industry employs in Great Britain 9000 men and 41,000 women, who produce lace annually to the value of 6 millions sterling. It is stated that more than 500,000 women on the Continent make lace worth 30 millions yearly, or £60 each, but this seems a high average. LAKES The follo\\'ing table is merely intended as a comparison of some of the most remarkable lakes in the world : — Square Miles Depth, Feet Area Equal to Superior i 32,100 688 Ireland Victoria Nyanza . 1 26,900 Aral . 23,300 731* Holland Huron 20,400 600 Greece Baikal 14,800 580 Denmark Michigan 12,900 690 Belgium Erie . 9,600 84 Sardinia Island Ontario 7,650 510 Ladoga 6,250 Wurtemburg Onega 3,350 Corsica Wenner 2,130 294* Devonshire Wetter 733 410 Oxfordshire Constance 180 1,027* Isle of Man Neagh IS3 42 Malta Maggiore 130 700 Zurich 40 600 St. Helena Maximum depth ; the rest show the average depth. LAND The following conspectus shows at a glance the distri- bution and tenure of land in various countries, the number of owners, the approximate value, the cultivated area, and other important features. The "data" do not correspond to any particular year, but represent the latest information : — Area, Millions of Acres •s §SJ T3 Jc 3 ^1 •a ^1 1° 8iw 1^ o-e Is U. Kingdom 48 30 78 180,000 390 1.544 France . . 90 41 131 3,226,000 32 2,688 Germany 65 68 133 2,436,000 37 1,815 Russia . . .345 899 1,244 11,336,000 31 1.507 Austria . . 73 80 1.53 6,150,000 20 1.371 Italy . 27 44 71 1,265,000 36 1,182 Spam . 22 99 121 596,000 95 984 Portugal . . S 17 22 419,000 30 132 Sweden . . 12 89 lOI 194,000 300 240 Norway . . 3 74 77 7S,ooo 200 100 Denmark 7 2 9 71,000 "5 217 Holland . . S 3 8 154,000 45 314 Belgium . . 5 2 7 315.000 18 377 Greece . . 2 9 II 163,000 30 138 Europe . . 709 I.4S7 2,166 26,580,000 48 12,609 United States 20s 2,086 2,291 4,005,000 134 2,560 Canada . . 16 1,902 1,918 408,000 120 282 Australia . . 12 1,846 1,858 168,000 380 535 Argentina . 7 770 777 ... III Total . 949 8,o6i 9,010 31,161,000 70 16,097 Colbert in his letter to Louis XIV. estimated the value of land in France, England, and Holland in the seven- teenth century (1660) as follows : — France . England . HoUand . Value Rental £ 122,000,000 135,000,000 46,000,000 £ 15,000,000 8,500,000 4,000,000 Per Acre Value Rental J. 24 3 90 6 180 i 15 LAND 341 L.\ND United Kingdom The rental of the three kingdoms has been at various dates as follows : — A.D. England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Authority £ £ £ £ 1544 • • • • 1,500,000 Haydn 1600 6,000,000 ... ,, 1660 8,500,000 Colbert 1688 10,000,000 900,000 King, Petty 1729 ... 2,025,000 Browne 1750 12,700,000 800,000 3,100,000 16,600,000 1776 16,000,000 1,100,000 5,340,000 22,440,000 Young 1800 22,500,000 3,100,000 8,000,000 32,600,000 f M'Culloch, I Newenhara 1815 34,330,000 5,075.000 7,100,000 46,505,000 M-Cullocb 1843 40,170,000 5,590,000 8,630,000 54,390,000 Official i860 42,990,000 6,280,000 8,990,000 58,260,000 '» 1870 47,800,000 7,190,0^.0 9,140,000 64,130,000 ,, 1880 51,800,000 7,770,100 9,980,000 69,550,000 ,, 1888 44,470,000 6,820,000 9,960,000 61,250,000 " Since 1880 the Taluation of England has been reduced 14 per cent, that of Scotland 13 per cent., that of Ireland nothing. The Local Government Board estimated the real land rental of ihe three kingdoms in 1878 thus : — Rental, £ Extent, Acres Number of Proprietors Average Estate Sliillings Acres Rental, £ per Acre England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... 70,240,000 12,900,000 12,050,000 32,860,000 18,920,000 20,150,000 262,850 19,225 32,610 980 620 230 266 670 370 310 44 14 12 United Kingdom 95,190,000 71,930,000 314.685 36 If we exclude owners of less than ten acres, we find the landed property of the three kingdoms, according to the Local Government Report, is held thus : — 10 to 100 Acres Over 100 Total No. of Owners Rental, ;f Aver- age, ;S England . . Scotland . Ireland . . 99.000 4,700 11,200 42,100 5,020 14,500 141,100 9.720 25.700 63,800,000 11,470,000 11,550,000 450 1,180 450 U. Kingdom 114,900 61,620 176,520 86,820,000 495 England The estate-owners in Ei^land of more than one acre are as follows (Local Government Board Report) : — „ ,,. 'Number Holding Qf I A"es Owners Under 50 50-100 100-500 Over 500 Acres Owned j Annual Shillings \ Rental, £ per Acre Percent- age of Area 194,620 25,840 32,320 10,070 2,230,000' 12,950,000 116 1,790,000 4,300,000 48 6,830,000 13,680,000 40 22,010,000 39,310,000 36 Total ' 262,850 32,86o,ooo| 70,240,000 44 Scotland Under 50 50-100 100-500 Over 500 12,940 1,210 2,370 2,705 110,000 90,000 560,000 18,160,000 2,270,000 380,000 1,680,000 8,570,000 413 84 60 9 0.6 0.5 96.0 Total 19,225 18,920,000 12,900,000 14 lOOlO Ireland Holding Owners Acres Rental, £ |j p.Acre|PerCent. Under 50 50-100 100-500 Over 500 14,600 3.500 8,010 6,500 224,000 250,000 1,956,000 17,720,000 98o,ooo| 310,000 1,770,000. 8,990,000' 88 25 18 10 i I-^ 1 9-7 88.0 Total 32,610 20,150,000 12,050,000 13 100.0 United Kingdom nil 222,160 30,550 42,700 19.275 2,564,000 2,130,000 9,346,000 57,890,000 16,200,000 4,990,000 17,130,000 56,870,000 122 ! 3.6 47 j 3-0 38 ! 13- 1 20 80.3 Total 314,685 1 71,930,000 95,190,000 26 loao The number of farmers in the United Kingdom was : — Holding Acres England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Per- centage Under 5 . S-50 . . 50-100 . 100-500 . Over 500 . 114,000 200,000 55.000 79,000 i 5,000 21,000 33.000 10,000 15.000 1,000 62,000 365,000 56,000 31,000 1,000 197,000 598,000 121,000 125,000 7,000 18.7 57.2 11.5 11.9 0.7 Total . 4S3.000 80,000 515.000 1,048,000 100.0 Acres Per- Area of Farms, Acres centage Under 50 50-100 . Over 100 4,100,000 700,000 3,900,000 70(^000 19,600,0003,400,000 7,8oo,oo< 4,400,oo( 3,ioo,oo( 5 12,600,000 26kS 3 9,ooo^ooo| 18.8 326,100,000 54.7 Total 27,6oo,ooo'4,8oo,ooo 15,300,001 347,700^000! 100.0 LAND The above refers only to the cultivated area. In all these tables properties or holdings of less than an acre are excluded. In some parts of England rent has quadrupled in 120 years. For example, the farm of One Ash Grange, on the Duke of Devonshire's property, Derbyshire, has been let as follows : — ^610 700 900 The average rental valuation of land in the three kingdoms was as follows : — 342 LAND As regards tenants, the number has been as follows : — 1769 at • jfigo 185s at 1788 „ 242 1876 ,, 1810 ,, . 440 i883 ,, Shillings per Acre Cultivated A.D. England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Area, Acres 1760 11 6 5 10 37,100,000 1776 14 8 9 11 38,600,000 1800 iS 12 13 16 40,320,000 1815 28 25 15 24 42,500,000 'oJ3 32 28 12 24 43,800,000 i860 34 30 12 25 44,000,000 1870 35 33 13 28 46,000,000 1880 36 34 14 28 47,600,000 1888 32 29 14 26 47,880,000 The official rental valuation in England in l8io for various counties was : — Shillings per Acre Leicester Somerset Worcester Warwick Lancashire Stafford Kent . Bedford 19 Lincoln Surrey . Devonshire Cornwall Monmouth Durham Cardigan 18 17 16 15 14 9 6 In 120 years more than 10 million acres of waste land in the United Kingdom have been enclosed, viz. : — Period Acres Quantity Per Annum 1760-1800 .... 1801-1829 .... 1830-1869 .... 1870-1879 .... 3,221,000 3,380,000 2,217,000 1,687,000 81,000 116,000 S5.O0O 169,000 Total 10,505,000 88,000 It is doubtful whether the reclaimed lands are now worth what they have cost. Ireland According to a report quoted by Mr. Molinari in 1880 the estated property of Ireland was held thus : — Proprietors Number Acres Owned Assessed Rental Percentage of Area Resident on estate Resident in Dublin Absentees . . . 3.966 4.465 1,623 9,733,000 4,362,000 4,514,000 £ 5,090,000 2,130,000 2,140,000 52.4 23.2 24.4 Total . . 10,054 18,609,000 9,360^000 100. The above seems to exclude all estate-owners of less than 100 acres, the number of whom (as already shown) is 18,000. See preceding page. Holding Acres 1841 1851 1861 1871 1878 1-5 • S-15 ■ ■ • Over 15 . . 310,000 253,000 128,000 88,000 192,000 290,000 86,000 184,000 299,000 75,000 171,000 298,000 66,000 163,000 298,000 Total . 691,000 570,000 569.000 544,000 527,000 The amount of rental drawn by absentee landlords has been : — Date Rental of Ireland Drawn by Absentees Absentee Ratio Authority 1729 1776 1880 £ 2,025,000 5,340,000 9,360,000 ,£ 627,000 1,610,000 2,140,000 Per Cent. 31 30 23 Browne, Prior Young Molinari The progressive rise of rent in Ireland is shown in Dr. Todd's evidence (July 1890) at the House of Commons respecting a certain estate in that country : — Yiar ^ P"- ^ Annum, £ 1609 1,800 1635 2,200 1697 9,150 1758 20,000 1858 131,000 1882 ....... 160,000 The landed property of Ireland changed masters three times in 100 years, — first confiscation under Elizabeth, A.D. 1590-1600; second under Cromwell, 1650-52; third under William III., 1690-92. The following re- cent changes of tenure are remarkable : — I. Encumbered Estates Court (established 1850). — Sold in thirty years down to 1880, estates covering 4,930,000 acres for ;^52,7oo,ooo, say ;^ii per acre, in 12,400 lots, averaging 400 acres each. The purchase-money repre- sented 85 per cent, by Irish, 15 per cent. Scotch or English buyers. II. Bright's Act— From 1870 to 1880 the tenants bought 49,000 acres for ;£'86o,ooo, of which the Govern- ment advanced 60 per cent. (;^si6,ooo). Average price paid, £l^ per acre. III. Church Act.— From 1870 to 1885 about 6000 tenants bought their farms, covering acres, for ;f 1,674,000, the Government advancing ;^i,20o,ooo, say 75 per cent. Price paid was 22J years' rental. Of the sums advanced by Government, only ;^6ooo was due by the purchasers in 1888 (Official Report, November 1888). IV. Gladstone's Act, August l88i. — In seven years ending August 1888 the Land Court altered the rents of 243,490 farms, viz. : — £ Old rent 3,852,000 New rent 3,094,000 This was a reduction of 20 per cent. There were also 61,300 cases pendilig inquiry. V. The Ashbourne Act, passed in 1885, regarding which an official report in 1890 was as follows : — Year Farms Bought Price, £ Sum Lent,;^ Years of Rental Net Rental, £ 1886 1887 1888 1889 2,426 4,636 4,384 2,574 1,095,000 1,925,000 1,776,000 1,170,000 1,065,000 1,903,000 1,750,000 1,155,000 18.0 17.6 17.0 16.4 61,000 110,000 104,000 71,000 4 years 14,020 5,966,000 5,873,000; 17.3 346,000 In four years the tenants were enabled to purchase nearly 3 per cent, of Ireland as measured by rental ; thus LAND 343 LAND in 132 years the Ashbourne Act would settle the agrarian question. France The official valuation of lands (which appeals high) gave the following summary in 1S81 : — Quality Acres Value per Acre,^ Value, Millions £ Orchards Vineyards . Meadows . Arable . . Pasture, &c Forest . . Waste . . 1,783,000 5,445,000 6,170,000 41,319,000 23,010,000 21,288,000 17,516,000 81 44 SS 3t 18 12 6 144 239 340 1,488 414 256 loS Total . . 116,531,000 26 2,986 The rise in the value of land from 1852 to 1881 appears in the official valuation thus : — £ per Acre Arable Meadow Vineyards 1862 24 36 32 1881 36 SS 44 According to the Government inquiry of 1815, France comprised 1,854,000 farms (exclusive of 1,952,000 under five acres), classified as follows : — Average Number Area, Acres Ratio of Area Ratio of Holdings 10 . . . 20 . . . 30 . . . SS • • • 150 . . 2200 . . 930,000 259,000 259,000 218,000 169,000 21,400 8,750,000 5,900,000 7,450,000 11,920,000 26,040,000 47,500,000 8.1 S-S 7.0 II. I 24.2 44.1 50.2 14. 1 13-9 II. 7 9-1 I.I Total . 1,854,400 107,560,000 100. 100. The number of Cotes Foncieres and the probable number of owners above five acres was : — Year C6tes Landmanen 1826 . 10,300,000 1,300,000 183s 10,900,000 1,400,000 1851 . . 12,400,000 1,500,000 1861 . . 13,700,000 1,700,000 1871 . . 13,800,000 1,700,000 1885 . . 14,075,000 1,825,000 The returns for 18S5 showed the owners of less than five acres to be 10,426,000 in number. Of the remainder, it is believed by French economists that the number of cStes is double that of actual owners, by reason of repetition, one person holdii^ two or three properties. The real number of landowners, therefore, in 1^5 was as follows : — Acres j C6tes 1 Land Owners Acres Acres per Owner 5-15 . . 2,174,000 15-125. . 1,352,000 125-500 . 106,000 Over 500 . 18,000 1,087,000 676,000 53.000 9,000 18,860,000 48,040,000 23,890,000 20,050,000 17 72 450 2,200 Total . 1 3,650,000 1,825,000 110,840,000 60 The number of Cotes Foncieres over 12 acres in 1862 was 1,411,000 by the Government returns, whereas the number over 15 acres in 1885 was 1,476,000, which shows a marked increase. The tenure of land in 1 862 and in 1873 was as follows: — Number Acres Held in 1873 Ratio of Area in 1873 Ratio of Cultiva- tion in 1873 1862 1873 Owners . Tenants . Metayers* 1,813,000 1,035,000 405,000 2,826,000 832,000 319,000 42,530,000 29,900,000 11,920,000 S0.1 3S-2 14-7 71.0 21. 8.0 Total . 3,253,000 3,977,000 84,350,000 loo.o 1 lOO.O The &rms cultivated by owners averaged 15 acres in extent, those of tenants and metayers 35 acres. In 1882 the area cultivated by metayer had declined, viz. : — Tilled by owner . Tilled by tenant . Tilled by metayer Total Acres 50,500,000 22,800,000 11,100,000 84,400,000 In eight years ending 1887 there were 39,300,000 acres sold in France, in lots aver^ng 44 acres, that is, nearly five million acres yearly. Germany The German Empire comprises 5,276,000 ferms, viz. :— Cultivated by owner Cultivated by tenants . Farms of mixed character Total 2,953.000 829,000 1,494,000 5,276,000 It appeals, therefore, that about 85 per cent of the £ums are cultivated wholly or in part by their owners, as compared with 71 per cent, in France. * System by which landlord receives share of the crops instead of a fixed rent. If we exclude all farms under 24 acres, we find the total in Germany reduced to 2,953,000, held as foUows :— Number of Farms Held Area, Acres Ratio of Area • Size, Acres By Owner By Tenant Total Cultivated Wood and Pasture Total 3|-12 .... 12-50 .... 50-125 .... Over 125 .... Total 1,613,000 911,000 234,000 58,000 107,000 16,000 6,000 8,000 1,720,000 927,000 240,000 66,000 10,600,000 22,900,000 17,900,000 26,300,000 2,100,000 5,800,000 4,800,000 7,800,000 12,700,000 28,700,000 22.700,000 34,100,000 12.9 29.3 232 34-6 2,816,000 137,000 1 2,953,000 77,700,000 20,500,000 98,200,000 ; 100.0 LAND 344 LAND The number of land-owners is of course less than that of farms, the returns for 1869 showing as follows : — Owners Extent, Acres Average, Acres Prussia . . Bavaria. . Saxony . . Wurtemburg Baden . . Darmstadt , Small States 1,033,000 456,000 S4.000 152,000 111,000 140,000 490,000 49,000,000 11,000,000 2,500,000 2,500,000 1,700,000 1,400,000 19,500,000 48 IS 10 40 Total • 2,436,000 87,600,000 36 Prussia The total area of Prussia is 86 million acres, but this includes 23 millions of mountain and forest. The tenure in 1869 was as follows : — Held by Number of Estates Acres Average, Acres Crown Nobles Farmers Cottiers 22,470 1,503,000 1,087,000 11,200,000 21,200,000 44,800,000 3,100,000 95° 30 3 Total . 2,612,470 80,300,000 26 In 1859 the nobles held 37,900,000 acres, but in the ensuing ten years their possessions were reduced by 16,700,000 acres, broken up into farms for the peasantry. The farmers alluded to in the above table, excluding princes and cottiers, held their land thus : — Estate of, Acres j Number Acres Average 5-20 . 20-200 Over 200 . . 1,100,000 390,000 13,000 11,000,000 28,000,000 6,000,000 10 72 460 Total 1,503,000 45,000,000 30 The owners, as already shown, numbering 1,033,000, it appears that for two owners there are three estates. In Saxony the Crown owns 1,077,000 acres, and the rest is held thus : — By Number Acres Average Nobles Farmers Cottiers 440 S3.000 33,000 490,000 1,440,000 160,000 r,ioo 27 S Total 86,440 2,090,000 24 In Bavaria the Crown owns 3,430,000 acres, and the rest is held thus : — By Number Acres Average Nobles Farmers Cottiers 1,100 226,000 290,000 400,000 11,700,000 1,500,000 370 50 S Total 517, 100 13,600,000 26 In Wurtemburg the Crown owns 1,100,000 acres, and the rest is held as follows : — By Number Acres Average Nobles Farmers . . Cottiers 718 85,000 246,000 650,000 1,900,000 750,000 840 22 3 Total . 331.718 3,300,000 10 The Stein law transferred nearly the half of Germany from the nobles to the peasantry. The nobles received Consols equal to eighteen years' rental of the lands taken from them. The peasants were compelled to pay a land- tax equal to 5 per cent, during forty-seven years, the land to be free to them after that period. Russia Down to i860 the land was almost equally held by the Crown and the nobles, the former possessing 26,200,000 serfs, the latter 21,800,000, by whom the soil was culti- vated. Crown-serfs were in reality tenants, who paid 6d. an acre yearly rent, the farm of each family averaging 35 acres. They were emancipated in 1861, receiving their lands in fee on condition of paying 12s. a year for each male serf (three usually going to a family) during forty years. The other serfs were also tenants, although bought and sold like cattle, each family holding a farm of about 30 acres, subject to a rent of £6, or else the obli- gation to work two days each week for their masters. Lavish expenditure had so much encumbered the estates of nobles that in 1859 they had mortgaged 7,107,000 serfs and 102 million acres of land for sums in the aggre- gate reaching 60 millions sterling. Between i85i and 1870 the Government bought up from the nobles 40,954 estates, covering 35,000,000 acres, at an average cost of 35s. an acre, the Crown pay- ing five-sixths, the serfs one-sixth of the amount, which was ;^6i, 100,000. The assessment, however, was made according to the number of serfs, the owners receiving £^ per head for 20,700,000; but the option was left to the serfs of receiving "beggar lots" of 10 acres free, in which case the noble received no indemnity. About 610,000 families preferred these lots, which they re- ceived free of conditions, the lands thus ceded to them covering 6,440,000 acres. The rest received farms of about 30 acres each, subject to a Crown-rent of 2s. an acre for forty-nine years. In 1870 the arable land was held as follows : — Otviters Nobles Peasants . Crown, merchants, &c. Total Acres 83,500,000 88,700,000 133,000,000 305,000,000 Strebinsky's report in 1879 showed that 19,700,000 male serfs (6,600,000 families) possessed 68 million dessia- tines or 186 million acres, that is, an average of 27 acres per family. He made a catastral survey of eight pro- vinces, viz., Koursk, Tula, Voroneja, Tambow, Penza, Oral, Riazan, and Kalonga, with an acreage of 142,600 square miles, say 91 million acres, and a population of 13 millions. The tenure of the eight provinces was as follows : — Acres Value, £ Average Farm, Acres 1,770,000 peasant 1 families . . . ) 24,740 nobles . . . 10,870 citizens, &c.i . Crown-lands, &c. ,' . 49,740,000 25,100,000 4,070,000 12,090,000 158,300,000 59,200,000 8,900,000 28 1,020 370 Total . . 91,000,000 226,400,000 430 The aggregate value of 78 million acres was 226J millions sterling, a fraction imder £3 per acre ; the average was 45s. for lands held by citizens, 48s. for that of nobles, and 64s. an acre for what is held by peasants. LAND 345 LAND The proportions of land under crops in the estates of aobles and peasants were (1879) : — Acres Percentage Owners Under Crops Pasture 1 -r...i and Forest] ^°'^' under Crops Peasants . . Nobles and ) citizens j 38,400,000 21,200,000 11,040,000 7,970,000 49,440,000 29,170,000 77 73 Total . 59,600,000 19,010,000 78,610,000 75 In the said eight provinces no less than 96 per cent, of the land held by peasants was in communes or villages. There were 26,456 villages, with 1,893,000 houses and 1,713,000 families, averaging 72 houses per village, with 447 inhabitants, the a^^egate population being 1 1,840,000^ of which 5,830,000 were males ; the communal lands being valued at 154 millions sterling, and coverii^ an area oi 47,800,000 acres, and the houses valued at ;6i8,ooo,ooo, say ;^ii each. There were also 57,000 peasant pro- prietors, holding in their own right an aggregate area of 1,930,000 acres, an average of 35 acres each, valued at j^4,300,ooo. Strebinsky also found that agriculture pre- vailed most where the population per square mile was highest, viz. : — Section First . Second Third . Total Area, jPopulation,Area under Square ; per Square Crops, Miles Mile Acres 54,000 65,000 23,000 112 81 63 27,600,000 26,900,000 S,ioo,ooo 142,000 I go 1 59,600,000 Cultivated Ratio Per Cent. 80 6S 35 67 In 1878, according to Strebinsky, the tenure of all descriptions of land was as follows : — Millions of Acres Ratio A-b.e :Jr-L; Forest Total Arable Pasture and Waste Forest Total Crown Peasants .... Nobles, &c S 94 : 180 115 50 21 206 1 289 284 279 186 779 1-5 35.2 21.8 11.6 66.6 37.1 4-3 58.6 22.4 iS-o 62.6 Total 326 433 485 1.244 100. 100.0 loo.o ; 100.0 1 The character of the land in possession of the three classes appears in the following table : — Crown Peasants Nobles, &c. Total Arable . . Pasture, &c. Forest . . 1.7 33-6 64.7 6i-5 36.8 II. 7 26.4 37.1 36.S 26.3 35-0 38.7 Total . 100.0 loao 100.0 lOO.O Of the area comprised under the item "pasture and waste " 201 million acres are considered worthless. Austria Down to 1849 the tenure of land was similar to that in Russia, the nobles of Bohemia and Hungary holding vast estates, with sometimes as many as 10,000 serfs. Each serf had to work two days a wei for his master, besides giving him 11 per cent, of all products in lieu of rent In 1819 the number of serfs was 7,000,000, of whom 1,427,000 were male adults. In 1832 the Bohemian nobles resident at Vienna possessed lands valued at 45 millions sterling. The laigest estates in Austria proper are the following : — Of Acres Prince Schwarzenbuig .... 510,000 Prince Lichtenstein .... 460.000 Archduke Albert 305,000 There are in Bohemia 63 nobles holding estates, none of which is less than 12,000 acres. The Grand-Duchy of Austria counts 292 nobles and squires holding between them 2,900,000 acres. The proportions of land stHl held by this class in 1888 were : — In Bohemia Duchy of Austria Styr;a . Galitzia Tyrol . Moravia Other provinces Acres 4,300,000 1,600,000 1,100,000 7,500,000 700,000 2,100,000 3,300,000 Of which utider Forest 2,800,000 1,100,000 900,000 4,200,000 600,000 1,200,000 2,500,000 The emancipation law of 1849 chained the ownership of one-half the Empire. According to an official return in 1869, the peasant properties in Austria proper covered 25 million acres, in farms averaging 17 acres, viz.: — Province Peasant Properties Area of Same, Acres Total Area of Province, Acres Ratio held by Peasants, per Cent. Gd.-Duchy ) of Austria J Styria . . Bohemia GaUtzia . . Tyrol. . . Moravia . . Dalmatia . Other 1 provinces ) 189,000 134.000 199,000 496,000 113,000 98,000 47.000 231,000 3,020,000 1,240,000 5,470,000 8,440,000 890,000 2,720,000 1,450,000 1,950,000 16 9 27 17 8 28 31 8 7,700,000 5,600,000 12,800,060 19,200,000 7,000,000 5,500,000 5,000,000 13,200,000 40 22 43 44 12 49 29 15 Total . 1,507,000 25,180,000 i 17 76,000,000 33 The tenure of Hungary and Transylvania in 1880 was as follows : — Holding Acres Number of Owners Hungary Transylvania 71042 . 42 to 280 .... Over 280 .... 1,815,700 91,100 16,030 532,900 27,900 2,650 Total 1,922,830 563.450 The whole Empire counts 6,150,000 landowners, viz.: — Class Peasants . Farmers . . Gently Nobles Number Land-Tax 4,673,000 Under £,/^ 1,259.000 162,200 £a to jf 20 ;f 20 to £40 56.500 Over ;^40 LAND 346 LAND Italy The tenure of land in the whole kingdom is as follows (1870) :- Number of Farms held by m 2 Province Pro. prietors Tenants Metayer Total Piedmont . . Lombardy . . Parma and 1 Modena J Tuscany . . Papal States . Naples . . . Sicily . . . Island of Sar- ' dinia . . 608,000 160,000 69,000 56,000 80,000 224,000 52,000 16,000 25,000 S3.000 17,000 10,000 3,000 194,000 8,000 81,000 236,000 102,000 227,000 S73.00O 24,000 5,000 714,000 449,000 188,000 293,000 656,000 442,000 65,000 16,000 14 II IS 17 8 42 go 360 Total . 1,265,000 310,000 1,248,000 2,823,000 2S The total is made up thus : — Class Number Farms, Acres Average, Acres Proprietors . . Metayers . . . Tenants 1,265,000 1,248,000 310,000 33,000,000 18,000,000 20,000,000 26 - 15 66 Total 2,823,000 71,000,000 2S The various quality and value of the land in different parts of Italy are shown in the following oiHcial table of 1882 :— Province Area, Acres Rental Value, Shillings Price per Acre, £ Value, Millions £ per Acre Sardinia , . 9,840,000 IS 26.1 260 Lombardy . 4,800,000 22 37.4 180 Parma . . 1,280,000 13 22.1 28 Modena . . i,i;8o,ooo IS 25.2 39 Papal States 10,840,000 7 11. 117 Tuscany . . 5,020,000 10 18.3 92 Naples . . 18,740,000 II 19.0 3S6 Sicily . . . 6,170,000 II 18.8 Ii5 Total . 58,270,000 13 22,1 1,188 Switzerland The land rental in 1880 was 191 million francs, or ;f 7,600,000 sterling per annum. This would indicate a selling value of 228 millions sterling, or nearly double my estimate at page 37, which was evidently too low. Spain The report of the Cortes in 1808 was as follows : — Estates of Acres Crown, churches, and hospitals . . 10,000,000 Nobles and grandees 30,500,000 Citizens and peasants 19,500,000 Mountain and waste . . . 60,900,000 Total 120,900,000 The Registro Catastral for 1877 gives the total number of landowners (exclusive of urban house-owners) as 596,000, whose estates covered 65 million acres, averaging no acres each. There were but 3900 whose rent-roll reached ;f 400 a year. Portugal The kingdom comprises 559,000 farms by official report, viz. : — Class Number Area, Acres Average Farm, Acres Nobles Proprietors . Tenants 62,000 3S7.000 140,000 12,450,000 5,950,000 2,800,000 200 17 20 Total SS9.000 21,200,000 38 Sweden In 1810 the kingdom was held by 1200 noblemen, who owned 65,300 farms let to tenants ; each farm covered a quarter of a "mantal," or 400 acres. Between 1818 and 1840 the peasants bought from the nobles 16 million acres, at an average price of is. Sd. per acre. In 1876 the tenure was as follows : — Number Millions of Acres Average Culti- vated Forest, &c. Total Farm, Acres Landowners Tenants . . Crown . . 194,000 40,000 10 2 60 14 9 70 16 9 360 400 Total . 234,000 12 83 9S 370 Each farm averages 18 acres under crops, 32 meadow, and the remainder forest or waste. The uncultivated por- tion of the kingdom, as shown above, covers 83 million acres, of which (according to Government Report of 1885) the forests comprise 45 million acres, the remaining 38 millions being mountain waste. The landowners com- prise two classes, viz. : — Class No. ^r""- Average Acres Area Nobles . . . 2,650 38,000,000 14,000 Freeholders . . 191,000 48,000,000 250 The latter class includes 10,000 forest-owners, devoted to felling timber. Norway The number of farms in 1870 was 110,000,, of which 75,000 were cultivated by their owners, 35,000 by tenants. An ordinary farm of 300 acres may be rented at ;^50 a year, or purchased for ;^looo sterling, comprising about 30 acres cultivated, 180 of forest, and 90 acres pasture. Denmark In 1801 the kingdom belonged to 614 nobles, who possessed until 1788 the right to buy and sell the tenantry the same as cattle. In 1840 the tenants had bought from the landlords 3,500,000 acres, that is, half the kingdom, at prices averaging £(1 per acre, representing a gross value of 21 millions sterling. The tenure of land in 1870 was as follows : — Number Acres Average Farm, Acres Nobles Freeholders Huusmen . SSo 70,300 137,000 1,380,000 4,560,000 570,000 2,500 65 4 Total 207,850 6,510,000 33 Holland There are 100,000 farms, of about 80 acres each, culti- vated by their owners. The province of Groeningen has some tenant-farmers called meejers. The landlord can never raise the rent nor disturb the tenant. LAND 347 LAND Belgium Excluding holdings of less than 2j acres, the tenure of land has been ; Number of Holdings Holdings in 1880 Acres 1846 1866 1880 Cultivated by Owners By Tenants Total 2^12 .... 12-50 . Over so . 166,000 69,000 19,000 220,000 82,000 22,000 226,000 74.000 15,000 152,000 51,000 8,000 74,000 23,000 7,000 226,000 74,000 15,000 Total 254,000 324,000 315,000 211,000 104,000 315,000 In 1866, according to Consul Grattan's report, only 34 per cent, of the land was cultivated by proprietors ; in 1880, by the oflScial returns, the proportion was 60 per cent. Greece In 1836 the State sold farm-lots of 30 acres each to a large number of agricultural families at 47s. per acre, say £70 per farm. In 1862 there were 147,500 peasant proprietors, who held 5,600,000 acres, an average of 38 acres, one-third being under crops; also 16,100 landed gentry with large farms, who usually let their lands to tenants at 22s. per acre. The area of the kingdom was as follows : — Acres Under crops 1,920,000 Capable of cultivation . , . 3,700,000 Woods 1,440,000 Mountain and pasture , . . 4,700,000 Total 11,760,000 Algeria The land grants ceded to settlers were : — Acres 1840-70 2,110,000 1871-80 1,120,000 Total 3,230,000 The tenure is described at p. 40. Only 4 per cent, of the landed area is held by European settlers, the Arabs holding 52 per cent, in farms of 100 acres per family, and the remainder (44 per cent.) being under forest or Crown- lands. United States The area of the United States and the portion under cultivation appear as follows : — Date Total Area, Millions of Acres Under Farms, Millions Acres S e o..° Ratio under Farms, per Cent. Ratio of Improved, per Cent. 1776 1810 1850 i860 1870 1880 1888 269 1,018 1,902 2,291 2,291 2,291 2,291 80 164 293 407 410 534 III 190 28s 356 11 16 18 18 23 II 6 6 7 8 12 IS The above are ofiScial returns except for 1888 (see fourth paragraph on p. 43, Agriculture), and estimate of farms in 1776 based on Census of 1790. Sales of public lands in United States were as follows :- Period Acres Amount Received, £ Annual Average Acres Sold 1787-1810 . . . 1811-20 . . . 1821-30 . , , 1831-40 . . . 1841-60 . . . 1861-80 . . . 4,700,000 15,300,000 10, 100,000 62,300,000 68,500,000 94,100,000 1,800,000 8,600,000 2,800,000 14,100,000 12,700,000 9,500,000 200,000 1,530,000 1,010,000 6,230,000 3,430,000 4,710,000 Total . . 255,000,000 49,500,000 2,700,000 1881-88 . . . 99,400,000 ... 12,400,000 Grand total . 354,400,000 ... 3,500,000 The sales of lands during ten years ending 1889 showed thus:— Dakota . . Kansas , Nebraska . Wasliington California , Colorado Acres 41,300,000 23,200,000 21,000,000 12,900,000 11,400,000 10,900,000 Minnesota Florida . Montana . Louisiana . Various Total The disposal of public lands in 102 years w mately as follows : — Acres 9,000,000 7,300,000 6,700,000 4,300,000 39,500,000 187,500,000 as approxi- Millions of Acres 1787-1860 1861-1888 Tot.al Sold School grants . . Railway grants . Military grants . Homestead grants Sundry grants . 154 68 26 44 45 68 9 166 18 125 18 222 77 192 62 125 63 Total 337 404 741 In this last table Homestead grants are distinguished, but in the preceding one they are included among lands sold. In eight years ending 1887 the lands taken up by settlers comprised 124 million acres of Government lan<& and 18 millions belonging to railway companies, in all averaging 18 million acres yearly, say 120,000 farms of 150 acres each. The Homestead Law of 1862 has had a powerful influence in promoting agriculture, the area of improved lands being now apparently 356 million acres against 163 millions in i860, an increase of 118 per cent., the area newly improved each year averaging 7,100,000 acres. By tins law any immigrant family can obtain a farm-lot of 160 acres, on condition of five years occu- pation, without other cost than £z for the title-deeds. From 1862 to 1886 no fewer than 690,000 families re- ceived farm-lots of this kind, covering III million acres, or one-fifth of the total area under farms. LAND 348 LAND According to the agricultural product of 1886 for the Union, the average for these Homestead farms would be products of an annual value of 155 millions sterling, or ;^220 per family, and the farms would represent a capital value of 816 millions sterling, or nearly ^1200 per farm. Compared with the total earnings of the nation, these Homestead farmers appear to earn almost 8 per cent., and the value of their farms and stock stands for 7 per cent, of the aggregate wealth of the United States. The number and area of farms in the great divisions of the country, according to Census reports, were as fol- lowj ; — States Number of Farms Millions of Acres 1850 1860 1870 1880 1860 1860 1870 1880 New England Middle Southern .... Western 167,000 351,000 488,000 444.000 185,000 413,000 640,000 716,000 182,000 456,000 849,000 1,167,000 207,000 539,000 1,481,000 1,778,000 18 43 67 20 47 220 120 21 18s 15s 22 53 227 232 Total 1,450,000 i,9S4,ooo 2,654,000 4,005,00c 293 407 410 534 The proportion of farms over 100 acres is increasing :— Acres Number of Farms Ratio 1860 1870 1880 1860 1870 1880 Under 20 .... 20-50 50-100 100-500 Over 500 .... 306,000 617,000 609,000 487,000 25,000 467,000 848,000 754,000 565,000 20,000 390,000 781,000 1,033,000 1,696,000 • 105,000 15-0 30.1 29.8 239 1.2 17.6 32.0 28.4 21.3 0.7 9.8 19-5 25-7 42.4 2.6 Total 2,844,000 2,654,000 4,005,000 100. 100. 100. The size of farms in the Union is, however, diminish- ing, as appears from the following Census reports, viz. : — Census Number of Farms 1850 i860 1870 1880 1,450,000 2,044,000 2,654,000 4,005,000 Area, Acres 293,000,000 407,000,000 410,000,000 534,000,000 Average Acres per Farm 202 200 154 134 It may be noted that farms over 100 acres constituted only 22 per cent, of the total in 1870, and rose to 45 per cent, in 1880. Although most of the farms are cultivated by the owners, the three forms of tenure known in France and Italy exist in the United States, namely, owners, tenants, and "metayers," the last-mentioned giving the landlord half or other portion of the crops in lieu of rent. The Census of 1880 showed as follows : — Farms Held by New England Middle States Southern Western Total Proprietors Tenants . Metayers . 190,000 10,000 7,000 510,000 56,000 88,000 690,000 141,000 306,000 i,S94,ooo 115,000 302,000 2,984,000 322,000 703,000 Total . 207,000 654,000 1,137,000 2,011,000 4,009,000 The proportion of these holdings is shown as follows : — Held by New England Middle States Southern Western Total Proprietors Tenants . Metayers . 91.8 4.8 3.4 78.0 8.5 13- S 60.6 12.4 27.0 79.2 5-7 15- 1 74-5 8.0 Total . 100.0 100.0 100. 100.0 100. It will be observed that the metayer or share system is twice as common as that of tenants paying rent in money. The above table refers merely to the number of farms. The classification according to size of farms in 1880 was : — Acres Number of Farms held by Total Owner Tenant Metayer Under 10 . 10-50 . . . 50-100 . . 100-500 . , Over 500 . . 88,000 583,000 805,000 1,416,000 92,000 24,000 138,000 70,000 85,000 5,000 27,000 314,000 159,000 196,000 7,000 139,000 1,035,000 1,034,000 1,697,000 104,000 Total . 2,984,000 322,000 703,000 4,009,000 The value of land per acre is highest in New Jersey, the Agricultural Report for table of averages : — Dollars per Acre ■ 65 • 50 . 46 ■ 44 888 showing the following State New Jersey Massachusetts . Ohio New York State Vermont . Maryland Illinois Wisconsin Dollars per Acre 36 32 32 23 In some of the Western States it is less than five dollars or ;^I sterling per acre. The following table shows the areas of lands improved and unimproved, the number of hands engaged in seri- culture, and the value of the farms : — Millions of Acres States Improved Unimproved 1860 1860 1870 1880 1860 1860 1870 1880 New England . . Middle .... Southern .... Western .... Total . . II 26 49 27 "3 12 .30 65 56 163 12 P 87 190 13 37 82 153 285 /6 117 40 180 8 16 65 244 8 16 126 70 220 8 IS 147 79 249 LAND 349 LAND States Hands Employed Value of Farms, Millions £ 1860 1870 1880 1850 1860 1870 1880 New England . Middle .... Southern .... Western .... 293,000 721,000 860,000 1,346,000 316,000 793,000 2,669,000 2,144,000 301,000 847,000 3,626,000 2,896,000 77 248 198 158 99 380 458 107 S08 2S3 818 121 S06 347 1,148 Total 3,220,000 5,922,000 7,670,000 681 1,382 1,686 2,122 In the above table of "hands employed" are omitted for i860 the able-bodied slaves of the Southern States. Assuming that one-half of such slaves were engaged in agriculture (say 1,122,000), the number of persons so employed in i860 would be 4,342,000 for the whole Union, and 1,982,000 for the Southern States. The value of farms (without live-stock, crops, or implements) was as follows to the number of hands engaged in agri- culture '. — Per Head 186b £3x6 1870 286 1880 276 The ratio of improved acres to the number of hands engaged was : — Acres Improved per Head States 1860 1870 1880 New England Middle .... Southern • \\festern AveiMge 41 41 33 42 36 38 41 22 41 32 43 43 23 S3 39 It appears that agricultural skill has made most progress in the Western States, where three men in 1S80 culti- vated as much land as four in 1870. Canada At the beginning of the present centiiry agriculture was in the hands of the old French " habitatis" who had a chain of farms 400 miles long on the banks of the St. Lawrence. These farms comprised, besides pastures, about 500,000 acres under crops, the quantity of grain produced being over 5 million bushels. According to a statement published in 1830, the average annual export of wheat to England since 1S05 had been a trifle over one million bushels. Free grants of 200-acre farms were given by the British Government to militaTy and other settlers down to 1826, on condition of building a hut and bam (cost ;^72) and getting four acres under crops. In 1S26 these land grants were abolished, and farm lots were sold by auction at prices payable in four annual instalments without interest, the average for backwood lands being Ss. an acre. A rash of settlers ensued. In 1834 the area covered by farms in the colony was 12,640,000 acres, of which 4,910,000 were cultivated. In 1842 Upper Canada, now called Ontario, counted 100,000 agricultural families, who had under tillage an area of 1,928,000 acres, and in 1S52 there were 190,000 families, with 3,698,000 acres under plough. The grain crop of Ontario and Quebec in 1852 exceeded 45 million bushels. In 1S70 the Government of Canada passed a Hoine- stead Law similar to that of the United States, granting farm lots of 200 acres to each head of a family and 100 to each male adult free, on condition of building a log- hut not less than 16 x 20 feet, cultivating 15 acres m every 100, and residing six months in each year during five years on the farm ; these grants to be limited to Manitoba. In all other parts of Canada public lands cost about 4s. an acre. The usual cost of felling timber to clear the land is £'i an acre. In 1874 Canada proper, that is, Ontario and Quebec, had 368,000 farms covering an area of 34 million acres, the Government having still 167 million acres of public lands undisposed of. The tenure of the said farms was as follows : — Acres Number of Farms Area, Acres Under 10 . 10-100 .... Over 100 .... 40,300 220,700 107,400 250,000 12,000,000 22,000,000 Total 368,400 34,250,000 Of the above farms, 322,400 were cultivated by their owners, and 44,000 by tenants. The average size of each farm was 93 acres. The returns for 1881 showed 588,970 farms, against 57,890 in 1831 ; the area under farms in 1 88 1 was 67,650,000 acres, that is, an average of 115 acres, against 134 in the United States. The increase of grain from 1874 to 1886 was 102 per cent.; of cattle, 35 per cent. Australia Farming land first came into use near Sydney about 1790. It was not until 1813 that two farmers crossed the Blue Mountains, from which time squatters began to settle on Government lands. Some obtained free grants, others a squatter's privilege for lots of 6400 acres at a nominal rent of ;f 10 a year. In 1831 free grants were abolished, the British Government fixmg the price at 5s. an acre, which was raised to 12s. in 1838, and to 20s. in 1842. Between 1831 and 1842 the Govenmient sold two million acres, the half of the money so obtained being given as a bonus to shipowners to bring out settlers from England. In 1850 Jlr. Palmer wrote, "There are men who landed here without a guinea who have farms of 20,000 acres or more, stocked with 4000 cattle or 40,000 sheep." In 1887 the lands sold and those unalienated in the seven colonies were : — Millions of Acres Percentage Colony Sold Undis- Total of Lands Sold posed of Area New South Wales . 42 154 196 21 Victoria .... 15 42 57 26 South Australia 9 234 243 4 Western Australia . 2 676 678 Queensland . . . 9 419 428 2 Tasmania . . . 5 11 16 30 New Zealand 19 48 67 29 Total 1.5S4 1, 68s LAND 35° LAND The sales in the several colonies were as follows : Acres, Freehold Price, £ Shillings per 1831-75 1876-87 Total Acre New South Wales . Victoria . South Australia Western Australia . Queensland Tasmania . New Zealand , 13,600,000 10,400,000 5,600,000 1,500,000 1,800,000 4,000,000 13,600,000 28,500,000 4,800,000 3,800,000 400,000 7,200,000 600,000 5,300,000 50,600,000 42,100,000 15,200,000 9,400,000 1,900,000 9,000,000 4,600,000 18,900,000 42,000,000 23,300,000 10,000,000 1,000,000 5,800,000 4,000,000 12,000,000 20 31 23 10 13 18 12 Total 50,500,000 101,100,000 98,100,000 19 The sums received for lands in New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand are not known precisely. The above are estimates based on the ordinary prices. The number of landowners and of squatters in 1880, and the lands held by them, were as follows : — Number of Acres Acres to Average Farm Landowners Squatters Freehold Sheep Runs Freehold Sheep Run New South Wales Victoria . South Australia Western Australia Queensland Tasmania . New Zealand . 39,900 49,600 31,000 1,800 9.S00 12,000 24,100 4.330 612 1,472 . 4.500 6,600 500 997 25,500,000 14,800,000 9,200,000 1,700,000 4,600,000 4,200,000 4,100,000 133,200,000 14,300,000 115,000,000 24,000,000 239,000,000 1,800,000 12,100,000 634 321 296 95° 478 353 167 30,700 23,300 78,000 5.300 36,000 3.S00 12,050 Total 167,900 19,011 64,100,000 539,400,000 384 28,300 .200,000 1,450,000 4,220,000 The average freehold farm in 1880 was 384 acres, against 93 in Canada and 134 in the United States. The area of freehold farms in 1887, as shown in preceding table, was loi million acres. The sales of land were as follows : — Period A cres So Id A ores per Annum 1831-42 . . 2,100,000 1843-75 . . 48,400,000 1876-87 . . 50,600,000 The number of freehold landowners in 1880 was equal to S per cent, of the population, against 8 per cent, in the United States and 9 per cent, in Canada. Cape Colony When this colony was taken from the Dutch in 1806, it comprised 10,000 families, mostly following pastoral pursuits. In 1826 a small Scotch colony was sent out by the British Government. The area is 212,000 square miles, or 135 million acres, viz. :— Acres Per Annum Sold from 1806 to 1875 • 67,400,000 960,000 1876 to 1887 . 22,200,000 1,850,000 . 45,400,000 Still unsold Total . 135,000,000 The nominal price was is. per acre, but the amount received has not averaged more than 6d, Sheep farms vary from 3000 to 10,000 acres, being much smaller than in Australia or the Argentine Republic. The number of farms is unknown, probably about 40,000, averaging 2200 acres each. India The tenure of land is as follows : — Nobles Farmers . Ryots Total Number 130,000 ■ 724,000 9,750,000 10,604,000 Annual Payment to Government, £ 13,000,000 7,300,000 970,000 21,270,000 Other Coloniai, Crown-Lands Ceylon. — This island has an area of 16 million acres. The Government has sold down to December 1887 only 1,150,000, the public lands still undisposed of reaching 12,040,000 acres. Usual price, 30s. per acre. The estates of English settlers, mostly under coffee, chin- chona, and tea, cover 300,000 acres, and were valued in 1 880 at 9 millions sterling. Natal. — This colony has an area of 12,100,000 acres, having been separated from Cape Colony in 1S56 : — Acres Per Annum Lands sold from 1856 to 1875 8,000,000 400,000 Lands sold from 1876 to 1887 300,000 25,000 Lands still undisposed of . . 3,800,000 The Kaffirs own nine- Total . . 12 The usual price is 3s. per acre, tenths of the total area. Jamaica. — This island has an area of 2,600,000 acres, which have been sold to planters at prices varying from 4s. to 20s. per acre. The Government has still 100,000 acres unsold. 7 rinidad.—Aiea. i, 100,000 acres. It was taken from the Spaniards in 1797, but two-thirds of the island are still in the hands of the British Government. Sales of Crown-lands show : — Sold from 1797 to 1875 • Sold from 1876 to 1887 . Still undisposed of . . . Total . The average price is 25s. mostly under cocoa and sugar, Argentina The tenure and value of land vary exceedingly. In such provinces as Buenos Ayres and Santa F^, where great numbers of the inhabitants are landowners, and the Acres 290,000 90,000 740,000 Per Annum 3.500 8,000 . 1, 120,000 per acre. The farms are LAND-TAXES 3SI LAND-TAXES soil is subdivided, the prices are high ; while in other provinces, where a few families possess great tracts of land, the value is low. The following table is taken from the River Plate Handbook (1885) : — Acres Value per Square Mile (640 Acres) Pasture Tillage Total Pasture, £ Tillage, £, Bnenos Avres .... 53,800,000 2,300,000 56,100,000 600 3,000 Santa Fe . 20,100,000 1,500,000 21,600,000 300 1,200 Cordoba . 44,000,000 200,000 44,200,000 150 1,000 San Luis . 25,600,000 100,000 25,700,000 100 1,000 Mendoza . 32,000,000 500,000 32,500,000 80 2,000 San Juan . 28,800,000 300,000 29,100,000 80 1,500 Salta 30,700,000 200,000 30,900,000 SO 1,000 Tucuman . 10,200,000 200,000 10,400,000 ISO 4,000 . "]"y 14,100,000 100,000 14,200,000 SO 1,000 R.ioja 22,400,000 100,000 22,500,000 SO 1,000 Catamarca 49,600,000 100,000 49,700,000 SP 1,000 SantiajTO . 22,300,000 100,000 22,400,000 50 1,000 Entre Rios 23,000,000 200,000 23,200,000 300 1,200 Corrientes . 25,600,000 100,000 25,700,000 200 130 I,O0O Tota I • 402,200,000 6,000,000 1 408,200,000 1,800 The above refers merely to the inhabited portion of the Republic, besides which there are the following territories, for the most part public lands, with a scanty population, viz. : — Acres Gran Chaco .... 102,400,000 Misiones 6,400,000 Pampas 96,000,000 Patagonia 192,000,000 Total 396,800,000 The unsettled portion covers nearly as much area as that which is inhabited ; the total is 805 million acres, or one-third of the extent of the United States. The number of landowners is about 100,000, mostly Argentines. There aie in Buenos Ayres 4000 Irish and Scotch sheep-farmers, whose land and stock in 1882 was worth 33 millions sterling. In Santa F^ 16,000 grdn-growers, Italians, S^viss, French, and Germans, possess farms worth 12 millions sterling. There are also 10,000 grain-growers, mostly Italians, in the province of Buenos Ayres. At least 70,000 Argentines have sheep and cattle farms in Buenos Ayres and the upper provinces. Land usually carries 2000 sheep and 100 cattle to the square mile. LAND-TAXES The total burthens on agriculture in various countries, by latest accounts, were approximately as follows :— Taxes, £, Agricultural Tax, Per- Product, £, centage England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland .... 16,200,000 1,900,000 2,700,000 157,000,000 40,000,000 54,000,000 10.3 4-8 S-o United Kingdom France .... Germany . . . Austria proper . Italy Belgium . . . Holland . . . S : : : : 20,800,000 21,800,000 12,700,000 8,600,000 14,200,000 1,530,000 1,080,000 4,890,090 23,400,000 251,000,000 460,000,000 424,000,000 175,000,000 204,000,000 55,000,000 39,000,000 35,000,000 400,000,000 8.3 4-8 3.0 4-9 7.0 2.8 2.8 14,0 5-8 Total . . 109,000,000 2,043,000,000 5-4 United Kingdom The taxes on agrarian industry in the United Kingdom may be set down approximately thus : — England Scotland T , , 1 United Ireland ! kingdom Tithes . . Rates , . Income-tax . Land-tax . Duties and stamps £ 4,050,000 8,300,000 1,200,000 1,050,000 1,600,000 L 1,400,000 200,000 50,000 250,000 £ 2,100,000 250,000 350,000 £ 4,050,000 11,800,000 1,650,000 1,100,000 2,200,000 Total . 16,200,000 1,900,000 2,700,000 20,800,00c France Councillor Tisserand enumerates the agrarian taxes as follows : — £ " National 4,800,000 Departmental .... 4,800,000 Indirect 8,600,000 Roads, &c 3,600,000 Total 21,800,000 Mr. Yves Guyot published the following table of rental and land-tax down to 1874 : — Year 1791 1821 1862 1874 Land Rental^ £ 57,600,000 63,200,000 124,000,000 158,000,000 Land- Tax^ £ 9,600,000 6,200,000 6,400,000 6,700,000 Per Cent, 17 10 S 4 The ratios of properties according to tax assessment were : — Taxes 1835 Under 5 francs . . .47.8 S-io 10-20 20-50 Over so Total 16. 1 13.9 13- 1 9-1 100.0 1853 S'.o 1S.4 13-3 12.1 8.2 100.0 Those under five francs may be considered pauper holdings, being mostly exempted from tax on the plea of extreme poverty. LAND-TAXES 352 LANGUAGE Austria In Austria (without Hungary) the agricultural taxes in 1882 were : — £ Land-tax , . , . , 2,600,000 Local rates 2,400,000 Stamp-duties, &c 3,600,000 Total . . 8,600,000 Germany Professor Meitzen shows that the taxes on agriculture are as follows : — ■ Per Cent. Per Cent. Taxes on Rental on Real Valuation Rental State .... 17.4 7.0 Communal ... 17. i 6.8 Special . . . .9.3 Total 43-8 3-7 17- S Italy The taxes levied on landed property in 1883 were as follows : — £ National 5,020,000 Provincial 2,060,000 Communal 3,130,000 Total . . 10,210,000 Farmers have also to pay a cattle-tax, legacy-duty, and other imposts, thus bringing up the total, as Professor Sbrojavacca shows, to ;tl4,240,cxx3 per annum. The land-tax proper was in 1882 as follows : — £ Pence per Acre Percentage of Land Product Sardinia Lombardy . Parma Modena Papal States Tuscany Naples Sicily . 820,000 960,000 150,000 145,000 480,000 230,000 1,420,000 360,000 20 48 28 22 22 II 18 14 20 11 18 18 13 14 9 13 II Total 4,565,000 13 Holland In 1884 the agrarian imposts were :- Land-tax Local rates . Stamp-duties, &c. £ 560,000 140,000 380,000 Total 1,080,000 Belgium According to Professor Leemans the agricultural taxes in 1884 were : — Land-tax Indirect taxes Roads, &c. . Total Egypt £ 790,000 560,000 180,000 1,530,000 The land-tax in 1833 was ;^i, 120,000, and had risen in 1889 to ;£'4,890,ooo sterling. China In 1889 the land-tax was ;^4,8oo,ooo. LANGUAGE The numbers of persons speaking the various languages in 1801 and in 1890 were as follows : — Ratio 1801 1890 1801 1890 English 20,520,000 111,100,000 12.7 27.7 French . , 31,450,000 51,200,000 19.4 12.7 German 30,320,000 75,200,000 18.7 18.7 Russian 30,770,000 75,000,000 19.0 18.7 Spanish 26,190,000 42,800,000 16.2 10.7 Italian 15,070,000 33,400,000 9-3 8-3 Portuguese 7,480,000 13,000,000 4-7 3-2 Total 161,800,000 401,700,000 100. 100. It will be observed what a wonderful advance the English language has made in ninety years. The follow- ing table shows in detail the distribution of the various principal languages in 1801 and in 1890. In the United States many speak both English and German. Spoken in 1801 In English French Italian Spanish German Europe United States Other parts Total ■ i 14,540,000 ■ i 5.250.000 . - 730,000 30,155,000 230,000 1,065,000 14,840,000 5,000 225,000 10,265,000 5,000 15,920,000 30,005,000 280,000 35.000 20,520,000 31,450,000 15,070,000 26,190,000 30,320,000 Spoken in i8go Europe United States . Other parts Total 38,600,000 58,000,000 14,500,000 111,100,000 45,200,000 1,100,000 4,900,000 51,200,000 31,100,000 400,000 1,900,000 33,400,000 17,300,000 650,000 24,850,000 42,800,000 67,600,000 7,100,000 500,000 75,200,000 The number of persons speaking Gaelic in the United Kingdom is said to reach nearly 4 per cent, of the popu- lation, including 660,000 in Ireland, 350,000 in Wales, and 230,000 in Scotland. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 353 LAW The proportion of letters in the various languages in prose works is found to be as follows : — A B C D E F G H I L M N O P Q R S T U V \V X Y Z 78 80 99 23 8 2 25 30 40 39 3S 42 n» 184 131 18 8 12 19 12 20 46 2 11 68 76 103 2 2 4 47 19 78 70 21 3 S9 64 88 37 10 19 47 37 73 41 33 8 73 99 70 I 58 17 5 2 71 12 71 96 28 9 S2 74 SS 47 IS Total \ 1,000 1,000 I 1,000 48 SS 14s 6 37 8 "'61 26 SS 107 24 IS 69 69 48 46 10 29 62 44 SO 32 II 77 79 66 106 18 64 71 178 14 31 40 86 6 9 29 22 no 27 84 SS 48 40 9 20 Where blsinks occur, it shows either that the letter is not used, or that the use does not reach I in 1000, such as "z" in English or "x" in Spanish. The Spanish N, of which 55 are used, includes three "n,'" equivalent to "gn" '" TtoHan ' in Italian. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE Algiers Amsterdam Antwerp . Archangel . Azores Baltimore . Belfast Berlin Bombay . Bordeaux . Boston Brussels . Bucharest . Buda-Pesth Buenos Ayres Cadiz Cairo Calcutta . Canton Cape Town Caracas . Chicago . Cincinnati . Constantinople Copenhagen Demerara . Dresden . Dublin Edinburgh Falkland Islands Faroe Islands Florence . Frankfort . Geneva Genoa Latitude 36.46 N. 51.21 ,, 51-13 .. 65.40 .. 28.0 ,, 33- 20 ,, 39-15 .. 54-36 ,, 52-33 .. 19.2 ,, 4S-0 „ 42.20 ,, 50.52 ., 44-28 „ 47-31 „ 34-36 s. 36.32 N. 30- S .. 22.40 ,, 23.10 ,, 34-30 s. 10.30 N. 42.0 ,, 390 >. 41.1 ,, SS-42 „ 5-30 .. S1.6 „, 53-21 „ 55-57 w 51-30 S. 62.0 N. 43-45 .. 50.8 „ 46.2 ,, 44-30 .. Longitude 3-6 E. 4-58 „ 4-25 ., 43-0 „ 26.0 W. 44.24 E. 76.30 W. s-ss .. 13-25 E. 72-50 >. 0.20W. 71-9 .. 3-21 E. 26.9 ,, 19-1 .. 58.22 W. 6.18 ,, 31-45 E. 88.25 „ "3-9 .. 18.0 ,, 67.ioW, 83-31 .. 84- IS .. 28.58 K 12.34 .. 58.20W. 13.36 E. 6.17W. 3-12 .. S9-0 „ 7-0 „ 11.16 E. 8.33 .. 6.9 „ 0.0 ,, Gibraltar , Glasgow , Guatemala Halifax Hamburg . Havanna . Hobart . Jersey Jerusalem . Lima Lisbon Liverpool . London . Madeira . Madras Madrid Malta Manchester Manilla Marseilles . Mauritius , Melbourne Mexico , Milan Montreal . Moscow . Munich Naples New Orleans New York . Palermo . Paris Pekin Philadelphia Prague , Quebec Quito Rio Janeiro Rome Rotterdam St, Louis . St. Petersburg San Francisco Sierra Leone Singapore Stockholm Sydney Tenerifife . Toronto . Trinidad . Tunis Turin Valparaiso Venice Vera Cruz Vienna , Warsaw . Washington The length of a degree as follows : — Latitude 10 15 20 25 30 35 Latitude 36.8 N. 55-52 „ 140 ,, 44-30 „ 53-34 .. 23-7 ., 42.54 S. 49-15 N. 31-48 „ 12.0 S. 38.44 N. 53-24 .. SI-31 >. 33-0 ,, 13-12 ,> 40.28 ,, 35-54 .. 53-29 .. 14-35 .. 43-18 ,, 20.15 s. 37.52 ,, 19.30 N. 4S-40 „ 45- 30 .. 55-40 „ 48-7 „ 40.52 ,, 30.7 ,> 40.40 ,, 38.6 ,, 48-52 ,, 40.0 ,, 39-52 „ So-5 .. 46-50 ., 0.7 S. 23.0 ,, 41-53 M- 51-55 .. 38. 40 ,. 59-40 „ 37-59 .. 8-45 .. 1-27 ,, S9-20 ,, 34.0 S. 28.30 N. 43-47 .. 10.50 „ 36.44 .. 45-5 .. 33.02 S. 45.27 N. 19-30 .. 48.9 .. 52-15 .. 38-55 .. Longitude 5.20 W. 4.8 „ 88,0 ,, 63-55 .. 10.3 E. 82.28 W. 147.27 E. 2.5 W. 35.10 E. 77.0 W. 9.6 „ 2.58 ,, 0.5 ,. 18.0 ,, 80.21 E. 3.40 W. 14.27 E. 2.14W. 120.48 E. S-28 ,, 570 ,, I4S-0 ,, 99.2 W. 9. 10 E. 73.30 W. 37.28 E. 11-35 .. 14-15 .. 90.0 W. 74-0 ,. 13.23 E. 2.21 ,, 116.23 <' 77.30W. 14.25 E. 72.0 W, 78.49 .. 43-20 „ 12.28 E. 4.29 .. 90. 12 W. 31.0 E. 121. 59 W. 13.10 ,, 103.48 E. 18.0 ,, 151.12 ,. 17.0 W. 79-25 .. 61.15 .. 10. S E. 7-44 .. 71.4s W. 12.25 E. 96.40 W. 16.24 E. 21.0 ,, 77-5 W. of longitude varies with latitude Miles 54 SO 45 35 24 Miles Latitude . 6Sh 40 . . . • 67I 45 - • • . . 65i SO . - . . . 63! 60 . . . • 593 70 . . . • S7 80 LAW The ordinary number of civil lawsuits in a year is as follows : — Lawsuits Per 1000 Inhtibitants England . 1,150,000 42 Scotland . 75,000 20 Germany • 3,239,000 70 Italy . • 1,390,000 52 France . 708,000 19 Belgium 94,000 18 LEAD 354 LEGACY AND PROBATE The Queen's Bench in England in 1887 disposed of 80,000 suits ; the upper courts in Scotland, 1 1 ,000. There is an arbitration tribunal between employers and workmen called " Prudhommes," which settles 52,000 cases yearly in France and 4000 in Belgium. There are 14,000 solicilors or attorneys in England, 17,000 in France, without counting barristers. In 1866 the English law reports comprised 1308 volumes, con- taining 60,000 law and 28,000 equity cases ; about 30 volumes are added yearly. In 1873 statute law com- prised 18,000 statutes. The Russian edicts down to Alexander I. were 31,900 in number. When Tribonian compiled the Pandects, A.D. 530, he condensed 3,000,000 sentences and 2000 volumes into 150 volumes. LEAD The production . of metallic lead in tons has been approximately as follows : — 1830 1860 1880 1888 Great Britain France . , Germany . Italy . . . Spain . . . Austria . . Greece, Bel-1 gium, &C.J" 48,000 1,100 9,500 8,000 23,000 7,000 4,000 5S>ooo 7,000 16,000 12,000 27,000 11,000 6,500 51,000 32,000 58,600 33,000 92,300 8,900 14,400 . 36,000 30,000 92,000 30,000 84,000 10,000 15,000 Europe . . United States 100,600 3.700 134,500 36,000 290,200 89,000 297,000 160,000 Total . 104,000 170,500 379,200 457,000 Good lead ore gives 70 per cent, of lead, and in smelt- ing it takes two tons of coal to produce three tons of lead. The Cordoba mines in Spain are said to be the richest in the world. The Missouri lead-field, near Chicago, is ij miles in length, the ore giving 70 per cent. lead. The importation of lead into the United States fell from 42,000 tons in 1870 to 4000 in 1880. The production in the United States has been as fol- lows : — 1880 ,1889 Colorado .... Missouri .... Various .... Tons 36,000 28,000 25,000 Tons 70,000 34,000 87,000 Total 89,000 191,000 LEATHER The annual consumption in the United Kingdom, and the value of manufactured articles, were approximately: — Millions Lbs. Leather I Manufactured Value Year ^ Home, £ ! '^"P?"' 1 ft Total, I 1805 27 27 8,000,000; 15,000 8,015,000 1820 .St. 12 48 10,000,0001 40,000 10,040,000 1830 40 30 70 12,600,0001 Bo,ooo 12,680,000 1840 45 37 82 14,200,000 170,000 14,370,000 1850 SO 70 120 19,700,000 610,000 20,310,000 i860 55 «7 142 22,300,000' 2,130,000 24,430,000 1870 60 132 192 28,600,000 2,640,000 31,240,000 i88i 65 144 209 30,100,000' 3,930,000 34,030,000 1888 6b 164 230 38,000,000; 4,100,000 42,100,000 In 1835 M'CuUoch estimated the manufactures thus : — Boots and shoes .... 7,500,000 Saddlery, &c. . . . 6,000,000 Total . . 13,500,000 There was an estimate in the Parlia>nenlary Gazetteer of 1806 which put down the leather manufactures at ;^io,ooo,ooo ; this was less than Eden's valuation in 1803, namely, ;f 12,000,000. That of M'Pherson in 1783 was ;£'l0, 500,000 (see Manufactures). LEGACY AND PROBATE The following table shows the amount of property changing hands by death, the amount under the head of Succession before 1870 being an estimate as one-third of the amount paying legacy-duiy : — Period Annual Average, £ Ratio to Pop. per Inhabitant Legacy Succession Total 1811-20 1841-50 1861-70 1876-S0 1885-89 25,500,000 8,500,000 43,900,000 14,600,000 73,600,000 24,500,000 113,000,000 41,000,000 143,200,000 44,800,000 34,000,000 58,500,000 98, 100,000 154,000,000 188,000,000 £s. d. 1 18 240 360 4 10 520 The exact amount of all property passing through the Probate Court in 1840 was ascertained by Porter to be ;£'54, 700,000, and if we compare his statement with those fo subsequent years from the Statistical Abstract, we find : — England . Scotland . Ireland . United \ Kingdom > Total Legacy and Succession Property 1840 £ 47,100,000 3,100,000 4,500,000 54,700,000 1875 £ 119,900,000 14,500,000 10,000,000 1889 161,700,000 17,200,000 10,900,000 I44,400,ooo'i89,8oo,ooo Ratio 1840 1889 86.0 5.7 8.3 85.2 9-1 5.7 100.0 The returns for Scotland in 1840 did not include mort- gages, and if these were added, the amount, it is thought, would have reached ;^4, 000,000, or about 74 per cent, of the total. Even allowing for this, the increase of wealth in Scotland since 1840 has been prodigious, namely, 330 per cent, against 244 per cent, in England. The estates proved in the United Kingdom for legacy- duty, exclusive of succession estates, were as follows : — Estates Over ;^ioo,ooo ;^5o,ooa-;^ioo,ooo ^10,000-^50,000 j^iooo-/io,ooo . Under ^looo Total . . Number, Annual Average 1883-84 1888-89 149 242 2,019 10,771 27.594 40.775 172 261 2,045 11,285 31.047 Amount, Annual Average, £ 1883-84 32,700,000 16,800,000 41,300,000 34,700,000 8,800,000 44,oTo '134,300,000 1888-89 43,500,000 18,200,000 43.500.000 36,000,000 10,600,000 151,800,000 Ratio as to Value Estates 1883-84 1888-89 Over ;^ioo,ooo .... /[io,ooo-;^ioo,ooo . . . ^1000-/10,000 .... Under ^looo 24.0 43-5 26.0 6-5 28.6 40.6 23.8 7.0 Total . . . 100. loo.o LIBRARIES 3SS LIFE The number of estates proved in the three kingdoms for legacy-duty only in 1877 was as follows : — Amount England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Over j^20,ooo . . /S000-/[20,000 . Z1000-Z5000 . . Under j^iooo . . 945 2,784 7.625 21,913 12s 356 1,262 2,567 59 199 800 2,271 1,129 3.339 9.687 26,751 Total . . 33267 1 4.310 3.329 40,906 Further details on this subject as regards the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Belgium will be found under the title Wealth. Holland The legacy and succession returns for the years 1880-83 gave the following averages : — • Estates Over ;^4o, 000 58 jf40oo-;^4o,ooo 356 2iooo-/;4ooo 2,722 Under jjiooo 6,280 Total LIBBABIES 9,416 Libraries Volumes 1848 1880 1848 1880 United Kingdom . . 28 202 1,542,000 3,770,000 France 107 505 3,975,000 7,298,000 Germany . . . 80 S94 3,053,000 4,070,000 Russia 12 145 451,000 950,000 Austria 41 577 2,193,000 5,476,000 Italy 45 493 2,274,000 4,349,000 Spain and Portugal . 24 90 963,000 1,200,000 Switzerland .... 13 1.654 465,000 1,819,000 Bdgium 10 105 400,000 610,000 Holland 10 220 330,000 800,000 Scandinavia . . . 13 94 968,000 1,250,000 Europe 383 4.679 16,614,000 31,592,000 United States . . . 20 59 600,000 2,263,000 Total . . 403 4,738 117.214,000 33,855,000 The above does not include any libraries with less than 10,000 volumes (except possibly those of Switzerland). The principal libraries of the world are : — British Museum Imperial, Paris St. Petersburg Berlin . Municli . Vienna . Dresden Vatican . Copenhagen Gottingen Oxford . Brussels St. Genevieve, Washington Boston . Astor, New York Paris Volumes 1,120,000 2,078,000 1,045,000 740,000 810,000 420,000 500,000 340,000 410,000 400,000 300,000 210,000 250,000 230,000 202,000 160,000 MSS. 41,000 86,000 34,000 15,000 24,000 21,000 4,000 32,000 5.000 5.000 22,000 20,000 30,000 The library of the British Museum has 32 miles of shelves filled with books, and is visited by 91,000 readere yearly. The Bibliothique Imperiale of Paris has 18 miles of books and 37,000 readers yearly. The libraries in the United States were as follows : Year 1850 i860 1870 Nujnber 15.615 19.581 56.01S Volumes 4,640,000 8,550,000 19,460,000 In 1880 there were 23,000 school libraries containing 45,000,000 volumes, and 314 large public libraries, ex- clusive of all containing less than 10,000 volumes. LIFE The following table shows the expectation of life in various countries at different ages : — Years to Live Age Eng- land United States Belgium Holland Saxony Sweden 10 49.2 48.7 44-3 46.5 47.0 48.0 20 41.0 42.2 37-1 38.9 39-3 40.1 30 33-6 35-3 31.2 32.1 32.1 33-2 40 26.7 28.2 25.5 26.2 25.0 25-9 SO 20.2 20.9 19.6 20.0 18,0 19. 1 60 139 14. 1 13.2 13.3 11.7 12.9 70 8.9 8.5 8.2 8.0 6.9 8.0 80 5.5 4-4 5-3 4.6 3-9 4-1 The expectation of life is always longer with females than males, viz. : — Years to Live Age England Holland Sweden Belgium ii .2 •a OJ S ■3 s s u! s ^ S fci Birth . . 41.9 4.5-2 .34-1 36.4 41-3 45-6 5 years . 51-5 S3-6 48.7 49.2 49-4 .S3.0 10 „ 48.2 ';o.3 45-9 46.5 46.5 50.0 43.8 44-8 20 „ .39-9 42.1 .38.3 39-2 38.6 42.1 36.4 37.7 30 „ .33.2 .34-1 31.8 32-4 31.2 34-5 30.5 3'-9 40 „ 2b. S 27.5 25.0 26.4 24.3 27.2 24.8 26.1 50 „ 19.9 20.8 18.5 19.7 18.0 1 20. 1 18.9 20.3 60 „ . 13.6 14-5 12.8 1.3.3 12-3 ! 13.5 12.4 13.9 70 „ 8.6 9.1 7.9 8.1 7.4 8.0 8.1 8.3 80 „ . .5.2 .5-6 4.4 4-5 3-9 4-3 5.2 5-4 90 „ 2.8 3.1 2.4 2-7 2-4 2.8 2.9 3.1 It will be observed that the mean expectation at five years of age is greater than at birth, but after five years it diminishes. Finlayson's table of expectation for English ladies of fortune coincides closely with the result of widows in France in receipt of pensions : — Years of Life Age English Ladies French Widows French Male 40 50 60 70 80 29.9 23.0 16.2 10. 1 5-7 29-3 22.8 16.0 10. 1 59 18.7 14-3 8.7 4-4 Kasper gives the percentage of persons of various professions who reach 70 years thus: — Per Per Per Cent. Cent. Cent. Physicians ■ 24 Lawyers . ■ 29 Merchants • 33 Teachers . • 27 Clerks . • 32 Farmers . . 40 Artists . . . 28 Soldiers . • 32 Clergy. . - 42 LIFE 356 LIFE Expectation of life varies as follows in England with condition : — Years to Live Age Gentry Farm Labourers Sober Intemperate 20 . . , 30 . . . 40 . . . io : : : 38 31 24 18 12 48 41 33 18 40 34 27 20 14 14 13 10 8 6 In the United States the span of life for various pro- fessions is as follows : — Shopmen . Waggoners Labourers Seamen Years 41.8 43-6 44.6 46.1 Mechanics Merchants Lawyers . Farmers . Years 47-3 48.4 52.6 64.2 Madden's table of famous men, and Neuville's average for professions at Frankfort, give the following spans of life :— Madden s Famous Men Years Clergymen . . .67 Physicians . . .68 Lawyers . . .69 Artists . . .70 Naturalists . . 71 Netiville's Frankfort Years Physicians , . -52 Lawyers Merchants Teachers Clergy S4 57 66 Many remarkable cases of longevity are recorded in all countries and all ranks of life. I. Countess of Desmond, killed by falling from a cherry-tree in her 146th year. 2. Thomas Parr, died after a dinner-party at Lord Arundel's, aged 152. 3. Cardinal de Salis, who recommended daily exercise in all weathers, aged 1 10. 4. John Riva, of Venice, who chewed citron bark daily, died aged 116, leaving a son of 14 years. 5. Henry Jenkins, died aged 1 16, at Bolton-on- Swale in 1670. 6. Mme. Roviro, aged 164, who died in 1741, leaving a son aged 116. 7. Peter Garden, died at Edinburgh in 1775, aged 131. Bertherand's death-roll of slaves at Carthage showed S per cent, over So, and I per cent, over 100 years. The Third Legion of Augustus had a death-record which showed that 17 per cent, passed 70 years. Moreover, Pliny says— "The year of our Lord 76 is memorable, for in that year there was a Census from which it appears that in the part of Italy lying between the Apennines and the River Po, there were found fifty-four persons 103 years old; fifty-seven IIO years ; two 120 years ; four 130 years ; four 135 years ; and three 140 years each." In the eighteenth century Sejoncourt published a list of 49 persons who had died between the ages of 130 and 175 years. Among centenarians of recent date were Mrs. Anne Butler, daughter of Admiral Winn, died at Portsmouth, January 1883, aged 103, and Mrs. Betty Lloyd, at Ruabon, Wales, March 1883, aged 107. According to Dr. Farr's tables, of one million male and female persons born, 77 males and 147 females will reach 100 years ; but the newer tables of Dr. Ogle give only 41 males and 112 females. A meeting of 2000 persons over 70 years of age is annually held at Leicester, and of these 400 die before the next anniversary. Table of Survivals of a Thousand Born Age England France Prussia Austria Italy Spain Sweden Norway Belgium Switzerland 1881-82 1880-82 1881-83 1880-82 1881-83 1880-84 1881-82 1881-82 1881-83 1881-83 Number born 1,000 1,000 1,000 1, 000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 S years . 762 751 684 614 632 571 783 838 756 747 10 ,, 736 724 648 569 591 530 746 803 732 721 IS ,. 723 706 632 SSI 572 514 727 783 718 707 20 ,, 706 68s 616 532 554 496 711 760 699 689 25 ,. 68s 657 S95 506 S3I 476 691 733 67s 66s 30 >> 660 627 571 477 S08 457 669 704 648 639 40 ., S97 566 514 423 462 412 621 644 589 578 5° .. S16 499 452 357 407 358 560 58S S17 502 60 „ 405 408 351 267 328 292 473 494 419 393 70 .. 2SS 268 205 ISO 203 184 330 338 271 231 80 ,, 96 104 65 44 6S 69 139 161 101 69 The following table distinguishes the sexes in certain countries, but the figures are not so recent as those above : — Age France Belgium Italy Denmark Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Number born . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 S years . 716 744 720 741 596 60S 741 769 10 ,, 693 719 684 699 552 567 711 737 20 ,, 660 680 640 650 518 528 676 698 3° .. 602 626 566 576 466 478 624 630 40 .. 543 567 484 499 418 424 S69 590 5° .. 476 507 ■403 415 357 368 488 522 60 „ 383 425 319 337 279 294 376 429 70 ,, 24s 291 179 221 170 180 238 289 Bo „ 86 "3 60 76 58 62 84 114 Kasper's table of rich and poor shows survivals thus : — Age Rich Poor Number born . 1,000 1,000 S years . 20 ,, 40 70 ,, . • 943 . 886 . 695 . 235 655 S66 396 65 Korbsi shows that poverty and overcrowding shorten the span of life at Buda-Pesth : in healthy quarters it is 47 years, in the workmen's tenement dwellings only 32 to37- Evidence to the same effect will be found in other parts of this book ; the reader has only to turn to the Index for the items Infant-mortality and Overcrowding. LIFE United Kingdom The Registrar-General's returns show the expectation of life is now about three years longer than for the period of 17 years ending 1854, which is probably due to abolishing the duty on soap and the window- tax, as well as to water supply, drainage, &c. 357 LIGHT Russia In 1867 the span of life was estimated thus : Persons Male Female Ages 18S8-54 1876-80 1838-54 1876-80 1838-64 1 1876-80 vears . 40.86 4356 39-91 41.92 41.85 45-25 5 .. • 50.02 52-56 49.71 51-47 50-33 53-65 10 „ . 47-36 49.24 47-05 48.16 47-67 50-32 15 .. • 43-54 45-05 43-18 43-94 43-90 46- IS 20 ,, . 39.88 40.98 39-48 39.86 40-29 42.10 25 .. • 36.57 37.21 36.12 36-05 37-04 38.36 35 .. ■ 29.99 30.01 29.40 28.88 30.59 31.12 45 .. • 23-41 23.29 22.76 22.34 24,06 24.21 S5 .. • 16.94 i6-7S 16.45 16.09 17-43 17.37 6s „ . 11.17 II. 19 10.82 10.79 II. 51 "•55 75 .. • 6.72 6.81 6.49 6.52 6.93 7.04 Dr. Humphrey's table of survivals for England, for the periods ending 1854 and 1880, and a table compiled for Scotland' in 1879-81, compare as follows, being in favour of Scotland : — England Scot- Males Females General Pop. land Age ■9 s S s ? ^ ^ 0^ 00 £ 5? 00 ■^ I-l iH No. born 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 S years 724 7.36 751 766 737 7SI 780 10 „ 690 712 716 742 223 727 748 IS .. 673 700 697 729 685 71S 729 20 ,, 6:^2 68.; 674 714 663 699 706 25 » 624 664 644 692 634 678 679 35 .. 564 608 580 639 572 623 620 45 .. 496 531 510 571 503 SSI 550 55 .. 410 435 433 490 421 462 460 6s „ 29s 304 324 364 309 333 335 75 .. 148 152 175 10 161 173 176 France There has been a steady improvement in the span of life, which Duvillard estimated in the last centiuy at 26 years and 2 months, and Lombard at 40 years in 1868. The tables of survivals are as foUovre : — 1750 1789 1817-32 1856-65 1880-82 Age St. Duvil- Mont- Bertillon Stat. 1 Maur lard ferrand Gen. Number bori 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 S vears . . S40 583 Z2Z 710 751 10 ,, 484 SSI 668 681 724 15 .. 472 529 647 664 706 20 „ 449 502 624 642 685 30 .. 388 438 560 584 627 40 ,, 314 369 510 533 566 SO „ 242 ^97 449 473 499 60 .. 168 213 365 389 ■*?? 70 .. 90 118 229 249 268 80 „ ; ^3 35 76 89 104 Levasseur gives a table of 1474 centenarians in, 20 years ending 1885, from which it appears that 28 men and 46 women die yearly over 100 years of age. Among Years Among Years Males Females Males Females Greeks . Catholics Protestants 22.1 28.0 32-9 23.6 29.7 36.2 Jews , . . Mussulmen. General pop. 29.4 26. 5 23.0 3I-I 27.1 24.6 Germany The German official returns for 11 years, 1871-81, give the following table of survivals : — Of 1000 Born I . 3 • 5 • 10 . IS • 20 . Holland and Sweden Tables of survivals show a great improvement in both these countries, as compared with former periods : — Males Females Age Males Females 747 783 30 . ■ 545 576 676 709 40 . . 488 516 649 681 50 . . 412 452 621 652 60 . ■ 3" 363 60Q 639 70 . . 178 219 593 623 80 . • 50 66 Holland Sweden Age 1840-51 1870-80 1757-6S 1861-70 1881-82 Baum- Von Var- Berg Stat. hauer Pesch gentin Gen. No. born , 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 10 yeais . . 644 654 611 737 746 20 ,, . . 630 620 570 703 711 30 ,. • . 568 S66 519 656 669 40 .. ■ . 502 S15 459 593 621 50 ., . . 434 494 385 5" 560 60 „ . . 310 357 293 401 473 70 ,, . ■ 182 224 175 246 330 80 „ . . 58 76 56 78 139 Persons dying over eighty years of age in Sweden formed the following ratio of all deaths : — Period Per 1000 181T-30 47 1831-50 S3 1851-60 46 1861-75 38 LIGHT It requires Jo lbs. of tallow candles to produce as much light as 1000 cubic feet of gas. Dr. Frankland's table (1866) of the cost of l^ht was as follows : — Cost for Ten One gallon paraffin oil . Equivalent amount of gas Thirty-three tallow candles Sixteen parafBn ,, Twenty sperm , , Twenty-four wax ,, Hours of Light 6 pence • 3 • 32 . 46 . 84 . 87 A light of 100 candle-power, says Mr. Fischer, throws out the following degrees of heat : — Petroleum, flat . 100 wax candles 100 stearine candles Electric, arc 100 „ incandescent 410 Gas, Siemens 1,500 Petroleum, round 3.360 Gas, argand 4.860 Colza. 6,800 Paraffin lamps 100 tallow candles 7,200 7,960 8,940 9.200 9,700 Manchester gas-bumeri2, 150 Light travels 185,000 miles per second. LIGHTHOUSES 358 LIVING, COST OF LIGHTHOUSES The number in various countries at different dates was approximately : — 1830 1860 1886 England 244 396 Scotland 130 193 Ireland .... 90 138 United Kingdom . 260 464 727 France . . . . 63 228 422 Germany . . . 20 40 183 Russia . . . . i3 77 194 Austria .... s 10 63 Italy . . . . 10 91 263 Spain . . . . II SO 178 Portugal 4 IS 30 Sweden and Norway . no 120 337 Denmark 70 77 63 Holland 10 S8 102 Belgium 4 8 2S Greece . . . . 58 Turkey .... 10 IS 134 Europe .... S9S I.2S3 2.779 United States 130 379 1.991 Canada. 38 92 6SI Australia 10 47 343 India . . . . IS 49 96 China . . . . 2 S 68 Japan . . . . S9 Brazil . . . . s 16 S7 West Indies . 40 74 no Spanish America . IS 27 S4 Total 850 1,942 6,208 See Sir James Douglas's report to the British Associa- tion in 1886. The cost of lighting Smeaton's Eddystone lighthouse in 1 759, with a light of 67 candle-power, was i8d. per hour, a sum now sufficient to provide a light of 160,000 candle-power. Canada uses 100,000 gallons of petroleum for lighting yearly, at a cost of ;^4000. Dunge- ness first adopted the electric light in 1862, and the French lighthouses followed in 1863. LIGHTNING According to Mr. Preece, there are 500,000 lightning conductors in the United Kingdom. The number of houses burnt yearly by lightning in Bavaria was : — 1833-43 32 1880-82 134 The number of persons killed by lightning averages 23 in England, 92 in France, 165 in Germany, 908 in Russia. LIVING, COST OF The cost of a workman's food in various countries in 1880 was : — Shillings per Week Percentage Food Wages Cost Great Britain 14 31 4S France .... 12 21 S7 Germany 10 16 62 Belgium 12 20 60 Italy . . . . 9 15 60 Spain . . . . 10 16 62 United States i5 48 33 Australia 11 40 28 The following table shows approximately the expendi- ture of the principal nations in the ordinary items that make up the cost of living. Food is at wholesale price in first hands (retail price being 30 per cent, higher), and taxes include all duties, tolls, and rates, direct or indirect, that go towards national or local revenues : — Millions £ Yearly Food Clothing House Rent Taxes Transport Fodder, &c. Sundries Total United Kingdom . 372 66 13s 119 113 89 242 1. 136 France . 361 64 93 144 96 74 98 930 Germany . 400 S3 68 109 103 87 160 980 Russia . 360 SI 34 72 94 128 190 929 Austria . 23s 30 27 SS S9 44 121 S7I Italy 144 24 22 81 33 22 24 3SO Spain 112 16 18 37 27 IS SO 27s Portugal . 24 3 4 8 S I « 8 S3 Sweden . 37 6 4 7 10 4 30 98 Norway . IS 2 I 3 4 I 12 38 Denmark 18 3 2 4 6 6 21 60 Holland . 36 6 7 IS 8 7 17 96 Belgium . 56 12 6 II 17 12 41 iSS Switzerland zo 3 2 3 S 2 19 54 Europe . 2,190 339 423 668 580 492 1.033 S.72S United States 4SS 98 127 i6S 231 228 746 2,050 Canada . 32 8 7 10 12 8 40 117 Australia. 28 7 13 12 10 14 40 124 Argentina 2S 6 s 14 8 7 20 8S Tota 1 2,730 4S8 S7S 869 841 749 1.879 8,101 It is hardly necessary to say that the foregoing table is merely intended to shew comprehensively in round numbers the annual outlay of each nation under the principal headings and in the aggregate. Nothing like mathe- matical accuracy is to be expected, for it would be impossible. The figures, however, are not set down at random, but are estimates based on the observations of well-known writers and whatever is available in the way -of ofificial or semi-official statements. It is true that the cost of food, and indeed the outlay under any of the above heads, is likely to vary remarkably from one year to another, from which some persons may feel disposed to think that the table is of no value whatever. But this is an objection that might be made to many tables of a Similar kind, whether in the present work or in those of other writers. LIVING, COST OF 359 LIVING, COST OF A statement was published in Paris in 1882 of the cost of maintenance of an artisan's family, and another by Miss Octavia Hill of a similar femily in London in 1888, Weekly Expenditure, Pence Paris London Rent 30 69 Clothing . ^ S6 Coal and light . 10 I6 Bread 90 40 Meat . 63 48 Vegetables and fruit 21 36 Milk, butter, &c. 39 23 Tea and coffee . 14 16 Sugar 7 10 Wine and liquor 35 10 Total • ;fi 7 9 ;^i 7 The earnings in both cases are supposed to reach 30s. a week. The London artisan has to pay, moreover, 2od. a week to his insurance club : his surplus therefore is only l6d. a week. The retail prices paid by workmen for food in 1 880 were (pence) : — XI c bo 8 E •3- 1 Z 1 S £ V ■0 *-* Beef, lb.. . . 10.0 9-S 9.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 Bread, ,, . 2.0 1.6 2.0 3-0 2.0 2.0 Butter,,, . 17.0 13.0 11.0 14.0 14.0 12.0 Eggs, dozen II.O 9.0 10. 9.0 14.0 9.0 Milk, quart 4.0 2.0 4.0 .S-o 3-0 Sugar, lb. 4.0 5° S-o 4.0 50 5-0 Coffee, ,, 150 15.0 17.0 16.0 130 14.0 Rice, ,, 30 4.0 3-0 S-o S-° Pork, „ 7.0 7.0 8.0 7.0 S-o 30 Potatoes, cw . . 6.0 4.0 4.0 8.0 II.O 6.0 Great Britain The cost of living at various epochs, from estimates at the respective dates, is shown thus : — Gentleman! s Family in London 1792 1823 1845 1883 £ £. I £ Rent .... 60 90 100 120 Taxes 18 40 30 40 Servants (2) 18 24 30 40 Clothing . 60 70 80 100 Bread 25 26 25 20 Meat. 25 30 50 80 Groceries . 22 35 40 60 Wines 23 39 40 40 Dairy 50 70 70 90 Coal and light . 30 38 30 25 Washing . 16 22 30 40 Sundries . 58 81 95 no Total 405 56s 620 765 Family of five persons, besides two servants. The period between 1792 and 1823 shows a rise of 40 per cent, in 31 years ; that from 1845 to 18S3 one of 23 per cent, in 38 years. Tradesman's Family [Bristol) 1792 1823 1845 1883 £ £ £ £ Rent. 10 IS 18 20 Clothing . 10 12 13 15 Bread 20 21 20 16 Meat. 10 14 20 28 Groceries . . 10 15 20 22 Sundries . 10 13 15 19 Total 70 90 loS 120 English Labourer and Mechanic Labourer Mechanic 1792 1823 1883 1792 1823 1883 Bread, meat, &c. Groceries . . Rent .... Clothing, &c . 2 2 7 £ 17 3 £ 20 5 4 8 £ 18 4 3 17 £ 20 6 4 22 £ 22 8 6 24 Total . . 27 31 37 42 52 60 In 1881 Professor Leone Levi estimated the annual expenditure of the people of the United Kingdom thus : — Quantity £ Per Inhabitant £ s. d. Meat, tons . 1,400,000 99,800,000 2 17 Fish 300,000 14,500,000 082 Sugar, ,, . 1,000,000 27,000,000 15 4 Potatoes, tons . 4,600,000 32,200,000 18 3 Bread, „ . 6,300,000 77,500,000 240 Butter and cheese, tons 350,000 36,000,000 106 Milk and eggs . 42,000,000 I 4 Fruit and vegetables . 28,100,000 16 Tea and coffee . 18,300,000 10 Wine and liquor 124,000,000 3 II Food. 499,400,000 14 4 9 House-rent 77,000,000 240 Coal and light , • 28,700,000 16 Taxes 47,500,000 I 7 Textiles and clothing 142,800,000 420 Science and books 12,000,000 070 Amusements 12,600,000 074 Education . 11,000,000 066 Tobacco . 13,100,000 078 Furniture and plate . 16,000,000 090 Churches . 12,000,000 070 Water-supply . 5,900,000 036 Total 878,000,000 25 I 9 France The cost of maintaining a small family of the middle class has been at various dates as follows : — Per Annum, £ . ' s Year France Paris 1789 15 29 1840 19 48 i860 44 "4 1880 51 135 In the seventeenth century the maintenance of a noble family cost £600 per annum, but 10 firancs at that time contained as much silver as 19 at present, and £6co was therefore in reality £1100, irrespective of the superior purchasing power at that period. In 1679 Madame de Maintenon writes to her sister, whose family consisted of LIVING, COST OF 360 LOCAL TAXATION her husband, herself, seven male and three female ser- vants, "You can live like a princess on £600 a year," viz. : — Meat Bread Wine Butter Sundries House Expenses £44 20 20 36 120 Food, &c. Rent Wages Opera, &c. Dress, &c. Per Annum ■ £^A° 40 40 120 160 Total , . 240 Total . . 600 The expenditure of the population of Paris in 1826 Per Inhabitant Amount f. s. d. £ Food 14 2 12,350,000 Taxes . 5 4,760,000 Rent , 4 II ■^ 4,000,000 Clothing 2 16 S 2,470,000 Furniture . 2 14 6 2,400,000 Fuel and light 2 14 2,380,000 Servants I 16 8 1,610,000 Cabs and horses . I 1^ 6 1,540,000 Instruction , I II S 1,370,000 Washing I 8 1,260,000 Sundries I 9 S 1,290,000 Total • 40 8 9 35,430,000 The chief items of food were : Bread, lbs. Wine, gallons Maat, lbs. Dairy Sugar, lbs. Sundries , Total Per Inhabitant 400 25 16s '26 2 12 3 2 3 19 I o 1 o 2 8 14 2 The Industrial Committee of Mulhouse reported that of every 100 francs earned by a workman, 20 went for bread, 15 for groceries, 18 for milk, &c., 8 for meat, 15 for rent, and 16 for clothes, leaving 8 francs for sundries. Germany In 1850 the annual maintenance of a peasant family of five persons in Prussia cost as follows : — £ s. d. Food . . . . , . , 16 o o Clothing 580 Rent Coal and light .... Taxes i Sundries 3 14 14 S 9 Total . 31 10 o Engel estimates the annual cost of maintenance for a peasant family in Germany thus : — Man iq Wife 16 Three children 21 Family of five persons . . 56 He considers that a child of 10 years represents an out- lay of ;i^8o, a youth of 15 one of ;^I40. Roth estimates that a child of 10 has cost £iy,, and one of 13 no less than ;^i86. Engel's figures are preferable. The students of Heidelberg University in 187 1 were able to maintain themselves at an average outlay of £'i\ per annum, but this rose to ;^58 in 1875, ^""i to £^^ in 1878. Russia The income and expenditure of a fisherman's family yearly is as follows : — ■ Income Game, 200 lbs. Caviar, 200 lbs. Fish .... Woodcutting . Total . £ ^. d. 2 10 o 2 10 o 500 2 10 O 12 10 u Expenditure Rye, I ton . . . Taxes . . . . Clothing . . . Sundries . . . Total . . £ s. 7 o 2 6 2 10 o 14 As regards the income and expenditure of the ordinary Moujik or peasant, Strebinski writes as follows : " The surplus grain which he has for sale brings him in ;^I0 sterling, which goes thus : — £ s. d. Rent 3 12 o Taxes o 16 o Clothing 2 10 o Sundries 320 Total . . . 10 o o "His agricultural capital is (exclusive of cattle) about £11 sterling, viz. :— £ s. d. House 18 o o Barn 700 Carts and harness . . . .300 Implements, &c. ... 580 Total 33 8 o Italy The Piedmontese peasant, who earns i8s. a week, spends 13s. on food ; the labourer of the island of Sar- dinia earns only gs., and spends 7s. on food, viz. : — Piedmont, Pence Weekly Island of Sardinia, Pence Weekly Bread .... Meat Wine .... Sundries .... 16 42 40 58 26 S 6 47 Total 156 1 84 LOCAL TAXATION The amount annually levied by local authorities in taxes, tolls, &c. , was approximately in the various coun- tries as follows, 1886-87 '■ — £ England . . . 38,010,000 Russia Scotland . . . 4,440,000 Austria , Ireland . . . 3,330,000 Italy . United Kingdom 45,780,000 Holland , France . . . 40,800,000 Belgium Germany. . . 44,000,000 United States £ 11,200,000 5,300,000 27,200,000 2,100,000 2,250,000 84,206,000 Local taxation of the United Kingdom and France compare as follows : — United Kingdom, £ France, £ Shillings per Inhab. Year United Kingdom France 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1882 1887 . 10,820,000 10,240,000 11,050,000 14,950,000 24,300,000 38,100,000 45,800,000 7,100,000 a, Boo, 000 11,700,000 18,100,000 21,300,000 32,400,000 40,800,000 9 8 8 10 16 22 24 4 S 7 10 12 17 21 LOCAL TAXATION 361 LOCAL TAXATION The finances of various cities in : S80-S i showed thus :- Annual £ per Inhabitant Expendi- Debt, ture, £ Expen- Debt £ diture Antwerp . . . 376,000 2.1 ... Berlin . . . 2,200,000 5,610,000 2.0 S-i Birmingham . 1,610,000 6,no,ooo 4.0 15.0 Boston . . 6,200,000 16. 5 Bradford . 1,100,000 3,400,000 6.0 19.0 Breslau . . 361,000 1,270,000 i-S S-3 Brighton . , 210,000 700,000 1.6 SS Bristol . . . 405,000 600,000 2.0 2.9 Brooklyn , . 7,900,000 ... 14.9 Bucharest . , 337,000 570,000 i-S 1.8 Buda-Pesth , 672,000 1,280,000 2.2 4-3 Christiania 250,000 345,000 3-3 4-S Copenhagen 325,000 850,000 1.6 4.1 Florence . 950,000 5,540,000 S-7 33-S Frankfort . 422,000 1,460,000 3-S 12.1 Genoa . . 466,000 1,600,000 2.6 9.0 Leeds . . 1,300,000 3,500,000 4-2 "•3 Leipzig . 312,000 740,000 2-3 SS Lifege . . 309,000 1,500,000 2.7 13- S Liverpool . 3,200,000 21,600.000 S-9 39-6 London . 11,300,000 20,600,000 2.9 S-3 Manchester 1,900,000 6,200,000 3-3 10.9 Milan . . 3,050,000 9-3 Munich . 395.000 1,500,000 1.8 7.0 Naples 4,860,000 9-9 Newcastle 400,000 700,000 2.7 4-8 New York 23,100,000 19.1 Palermo . 320,000 540,000 1-3 2.2 Paris . . 10,440,000 85,300,000 4-7 34-2 Philadelphia 3,400,000 ^l Rome . . 820,000 2,340,000 2.7 7.8 San Francisa 970.000 750,000 4.1 3-2 St. Louis . 4,800,000 14.0 ShefBeld . 410,000 500,000 1-4 1.8 Stockholm 360,000 480,000 2-3 30 Stuttgart . 120,000 400,000 i.i 3-7 Trieste. . 373.000 500,000 3-7 4-9 Turin . . 520,000 510,000 2.7 2.7 Venice. . 182,000 430,000 1.4 3-3 Vienna 2,700,000 8,470,000 2-S 7.8 The following is a synopsis of local revenues : England 1 1868 1880 1887 Rates . . . - ToUs .... L.oans .... Government subsidy Sundries , £ 16,400,000 4,350,000 5,520,000 950,000 3,220,000 £ 25.700,000 4,600,000 13,720,000 2,700,000 6,290,000 £ 32,800,000 5,250,000 6,940,000 3,980,000 3,940,000 Total 30,440.000 53,010,000 54,910,000 Scotland Rates . . . - Tolls .... Loans . . ^ • Government subsidy Sundries 1,500,000 500,000 250,000 200,000 550,000 2,600,000 1,060,000 1,120.000 550,000 740,000 3,400,000 1,030,000 1,800,000 710,000 370,000 Total 3,000,000 6,070,000 7,310,000 Ireland Rates .... Tolls .... Loans .... Government subsidy Sundries 2,280,000 280,000 240,000 80,000 180,000 2,650,000 510,000 260,000 100,000 350,000 2,840,000 490,000 480,000 120,000 285,000 Total 3,060,000 3,870,000 4,215,000 United Kingdom 1868 1880 1887 Rates .... Tolls .... Loans .... Government subsidy Sundries £ 20,180,000 5,130,000 6,010,000 1,230,000 3,950,000 £ 30,950,000 6, 170,000 15,100,000 3,350,000 7,380,000 £ 39,040,000 6,770,000 11,220,000 4,810,000 4,595,000 Total 36,500,000 62,950,000 '66,435,000 Local expenditure was as follows : — England 1868 1880 1887 Poor relief . Police and works . Schools. Roads and bridges Harbouis and lights Sundries £ 7,500,000 15.350.000 2,600,000 2,700,000 2,300,000 , £ 8,040,000 32,200,000 3,650,000 2,200,000 3,200,000 2,200,000 , £ 8,200,000 32,200,000 5,400,000 2,100,000 3,800,000 2,700.000 Toul 30,450,000 '51,490.000 54.400,000 Scotland Poor relief . 870,000 880,000 880,000 Police and works . 970,000 2,300,000 3,100,000 Schools. 1,200,000 1,400,000 Roads and bridges 320,000 350,000 690,000 Harbouis and lights 240,000 1,000,000 1,060,000 Sundries 180,000 190,000 150,000 Total 2,580,000 5,920,000 7,280,000 Ireland Poor relief . Roads and bridges Harbours and lights Sundries 840,000 1,120,000 460,000 680,000 1,000,000 1,140,000 530,000 1,090,000 1,100,000 1,180,000 520,000 1,490,000 Total 3,100,000 3,760,000 4,290,000 United Kingdom Poor relief . 9,210,000 9,920,000 10,180,000 Police and works . 16,320,000 34,500,000 35,300,000 Schools. ... 4,850,000 6,800,000 Roads and bridges 4,040,000 3,690,000 3,970,000 Harbours and lights 3,400,000 4,730,000 5,380,000 Sundries 3,160,000 3,480,000 4,340,000 Total 36,130,000 ,61,170,000 65,970,000 Schools and police in Ireland, as weU as other items, are de&ayed out of the Imperial Treasury at a cost ot ;f 3,01 5,000, of which ;f 1, 600,000 are for police and ;f 900,000 for schools, bringing up all local expenditure in Irdand to £t, 100,00a Local taxation in England and Wales was as fol- lows: — Year £ Year £ 1688 . 780,000 1S40 8,020,000 1730 . . 1,380,000 1850 8,910,000 1770 . . 1,690,000 1862 . 12,210,000 1790 . . 2,420,000 1868 . 16,100,000 1803 . . 5.350.000 1880 . 31,060,000 1813 . . 8,650,000 1886 • 37.300.0ca LOCAL TAXATION 362 LOCAL TAXATION The expenditure in England and Wales for support of the poor was as follows : — Annual Rental Poor-Rate 1 Poor-Rato Period Average, Valuation, Per^ perlnhab,, £ £* Pence Pence 1702-14 . 910,000 r4,20o,ooo 16 41 1760-75 . 1,520,000 24,900,000 15 58 1783-93 ■ 2,050,000 30,300,000 16 66 1803 . . 4,080,000 35,roo,ooo 27 107 1815 . . 6,100,000 53,800,000 27 133 1816-20 . 7,310,000 58,200,000 30 152 1830-35 . 6,742,000 75,900,000 22 116 1842-50 . 5,290,000 90,400,000 14 74 1851-60 . 5,510,000 109,600,000 12 69 1861-70 . 6,740,000 134,300,000 12 77 i87r-8o . 7,710,000 167,200,000 II 7S 1880 . . 8,015,000 191,150,000 10 74 The above shows only the rates expended on the poor, but the poor-rate often rose 50 per cent, higher, as it * This table must not be confused with poor-law assess- ment, which was always less ; for instance, in 1880 the assessed gross rental was only ;f 158,000,000, aud the taxable rental ^£'134, 000,000. included police and other items. The valuation included many items of real estate not liable to poor-rate, and in 1880 was made up thus : — £ Houses 96,500,000 Lands 51,700,000 Railways 24,500,000 Mines 10,300,000 Gasworks, &c 8,150,000 Tota . . . 191,150,000 Local debts in Great Britain in 1880 were as follows : — , £ Sanitary 56,700,000 Docks 23,200,000 Sundry 57,000,000 Scotch 16,300,000 Total , . . 153,200,000 In 1888 the local debts were known to exceed 200 millions sterling. Those of England and Wales rose as follows : — Year London, £ Provinces, £ Total, £ 1882. . 32,200,000 119,500,000 151,700,000 1885. • 3S.9o°.ooo 137,300,000 173,200,000 1888. • 39,700,000 152,500,000 192,200,000 France The local taxes at various dates stood thus : — 1806 1837 1864 1882 1886 Paris Thirty cities Communes .... • 736,000 490,000 800,000 2,760,000 1,490,000 4,030,000 £ 5,370,000 2,460,000 12,300,000 £ 9,805,000 4,230,000 18,405,000 £ 10,200,000 >■ 30,600,000 Total . . 2,026,000 8,290,000 20,130,000 32,440,000 40,800,000 The following statement of Octroi for all France was published in 1886 : — Year Towns Taxed Amount, £ Liquor Food Fuel Fodder Sundries Total 1831 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1885 1,467 1.435 1,436 1,460 1,516 1,541 1,529 880,000 1,280,000 1,680,000 2,300,000 3,200,000 4,900,000 4,900,000 700,000 880,000 1,150,000 1,640,000 1,800,000 3,000,000 3,100,000 300,000 400,000 450,000 700,000 650,000 1,200,000 1,300,000 120,000 160,000 200,000 300,000 300,000 600,000 600,000 200,000 380,000 320,000 860,000 750,000 1,340,000 1,150,000 2,200,000 3, 100,000 3,800,000 5,800,000 6,700,000 11,040,000 11,050,000 Octroi is the principal municipal tax, smd presses most heavily on the working-classes, as it augments the cost of food, fuel, and other necessaries. In sixty years this tax increased five-fold, while the population of the cities so taxed had only doubled, the ratio per inhabitant being now 20 shillings yearly as compared vidth 8 shillings in 1823. The following table shows the aggregate amount collected for Octroi in French towns at various dates : — Year Amount, Population Perlnhab., £ Taxed Shillings 1823 . 2,470,000 5,998,000 8 1833 • 2,640,000 6,306,000 8 1843 . 3,302,000 7,297,000 9 1853 • 3,617,000 7,330,000 10 1863 . . .. 6,298,000 9,582,000 13 1873 ■ 8,451,000 10,517,000 16 1880 . 11,040,000 11,255,000 20 The Octroi of Paris contributes one-half of the total, that is, it is equal to the aggregate of all other French cities. It was at various dates as follows : — Year Amount, £ Population Per Head, Shillings 1801 . 1821 . 1845 . 1867 . 1880 . 1889 . 441,000 1,040,000 1,370,000 4,030,000 5,640,000 6,030,000 553,000 724,000 986,000 1,732,000 2,180,000 2,400,000 16 29 28 46 52 50 In all French cities this tax has grown faster than population. The figures of all four cities in 1880 com- pare with 1867 thus : — Octroi, £ 1867 Paris . . . 4,030,000 Marseilles . 307,000 Lyons . . j 244,000 Rouen . . I 102,000 1880 5,640,000 490,000 480,000 155,000 Shillings per Inhab. 1867 46 21 16 1880 52 28 25 29 LOCAL TAXATION 363 LOCAL TAXATION The a^regate population of the 1529 towns and cities was 12,000,000, and the amount paid in Octroi in 1885 showed thus : — Amount, £ Pence per Head Wine .... 2,840,000 57 Alcohol, &c 1,000,000 20 Oil 240,000 5 Food . 3,100,000 62 Fuel . 1,300,000 26 Fodder 600,000 12 Bricks, &C. 1,000,000 20 Sundries 970,000 20 Tota 1 11,050,000 212 The above is for all, including Paris ; but the Octroi of Paris was much above the average, namely, 60 francs or 48s. per head, the average for the other 1528 towns being 14 francs or i Is. per head. Germany Local expenditure in Prussia was as follows : — Schools Streets Interest on debt Poor . Police, &c. 1869 £ 1,900,000 1,700,000 2,500,000 2,300,000 3,400,000 1876 3,500,000 3,000,000 4,800,000 2,700,000 5,900,000 Total 11,800,000 19,900,000 Municipal expenditure in 1876 at Berlin, Breslau, and Cologne was as follows : — Berlin Breslau Cologne Schools Streets Interest on debt . Poor . Police, &c . £ 230,000 400,000 300,000 270,000 420,000 £ SS.ooo 27,000 80,000 13,000 65,000 £ 32,000 10,000 70,000 25,000 23,000 Total 1,620,000 240,000 160,000 The average municipal expenditure was as follows : — Year 1869 1876 Shillings per Inhabitant Berlin Breslau Cologne Frankfort IS 27 18 18 20 All local taxation in Germany may be estimated at l8s. per inhabitant, say 44 millions sterling. Austria-Hungary The municipal finances of Prague in 18 i showed : — Receipts, £ House-tax . . 47,000 Tolls . . . 60,000 Sundries . . 88,000 Total Expenses, £ Water supply . . 40,000 Schools and hospitals 41,000 Sundries . . . 164,000 Total 195,000 Belgium The district finances in 1887 showed thus : — Receipts, £ Tobacco, &c . 70,000 Dog-tax . . 50,000 Sundries . . 170,000 State subsidy . 250,000 245,000 Total 540,000 Expenditure, £ Schools. . . 100,000 Roads . . . 110,000 Sundries . . 240,000 Total 450,000 The above does not include city finances. Those of Brussels in 1S84 showed : — Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Gas and water rates 280,000 Schools Municipal properties 190,000 Debt Tolls . , . 160,000 Police, &c. . Sundries , , 170,000 Sundries Total 800,000 Italy Total 50,000 40,000 560,000 120,000 770,000 Year Local taxation, according to official returns, showed thus : — /• Shillings per ^ Inhabitant 1867 , . . 12,900,000 10.0 1877 , . . 20,100,000 15.0 1885 , . . 27,200,000 18.0 The average per inhabitant, distinguishing urban from rural communes, was as follows : — Shillings per Inhatitant , • ^ Year Urban Rural 1867 .... 18 ... 6 1877 .... 27 ... 9 Urban taxes in 1877 comprised : Octroi, ;^5, 100,000 ; legacy dues, ;^i, 700,000 ; sundries, ;f 5,200,000 ; making a totsJ of ;f 12,000,000. The average Octroi per head in 1877 was : — Shillings i)er Inhabitant Naples Turin . Venice . 14 Milan . . . 14 Rome . . . 22 Palermo . . 16 Florence . . 24 Leghorn . . 16 Genoa . . . 26 Local debts in 1885 amounted to ;f4i, 500,000 sterling. United States The taxes in the several States for local purposes (not municipal) were in 1889 as follows : — Tax.;^ Population in 1890 Shillings per Head New England . Middle States . Southern States . Western States . 1,660,000 4,060,000 3,640,000 5,740,000 4,690,000 14,110,000 18,280,000 25,400,000 7.0 S.9 4-0 4-5 Total . . 15,200,000 62,480,000 4-9 In some of the principal States the taxes were in 18S9 thus:— Tax.^ Population Shillings per Head New York . . . Pennsylvania . . Massachusetts . Ohio .... Illinois .... Kentucky . . . Various. . , . 1,900,000 1,740,000 1,050,000 1,040,000 780,000 780,000 7,910,000 5,980,000 5,250,000 2,230,000 3,^,000 3,820,000 1,850,000 39,680,000 6.2 6.7 9.6 5-7 4.1 8.4 4.0 Total . . 15,200,000 62,480,000 4-9 Municipal taxes ranged ordinarily from 2 to 3 per cent on all assessed properties, making up a total of about 37 millions sterling, or ;^3 per inhabitant yearly. These added to state taxes made up altogether ^52,200,000 of local taxation, or 17s. per head of the total population. Compared with l8£o we find : — .^ Local ^""- Taxes. £ i860 . . . 19,600,000 31,400,000 13 1889 . , . 52,200,000 62,480,000 17 Population ^^J^ LONDON 364 LOTTERIES The aggregate of state and municipal debts at various dates was as follows :- 1850 1870 1880 £ per Inhabitant 1850 1870 1880 New York .... £ 4,800,000 £ 29,100,000 £ 45,500,000 1.6 6-5 9.0 Pennsylvania 8,800,000 16,200,000 22,100,000 3-9 4-S 5- 1 Massachusetts . 1,200,000 12,700,000 19,000,000 1.2 8.0 10.5 Maryland .... 3,100,000 5,400,000 2,300,000 S-3 7.0 2.4 Virginia .... 2,900,000 10,200,000 9,000,000 2.1 6.0 4-3 Ohio 3,300,000 4,000,000 10,200,000 1-7 i-S 3-3 Various .... 15,800,000 80,600,000 109,500,000 1-3 3-3 3.3 Total 39,900,000 158,200,000 217,600,000 1.8 4-1 4-3 The local debts of 1880 were made up thus : — State City, &c. Total New York . . . £ 1,600,000 £ 43,900,000 £ 45,500,000 Pennsylvania . . 2,600,000 19,500,000 22,100,000 Massachusetts 4,200,000 14,800,000 19,000,000 Maryland . . . 1,600,000 700,000 2,300,000 Virginia . . . 6,100,000 2,900,000 9,000,000 Ohio .... 1,200,000 9,000,000 10,200,000 Missouri . , . 3,400,000 8,400,000 11,800,000 New Jersey . . 100,000 10,200,000 10,300,000 Louisiana . . . 4,900,000 4,100,000 9,000,000 Illinois .... 9,400,000 9,400,000 Tennessee . . . 5,700,000 2,100,000 7,800,000 Various. . . . 15,700,000 45,500,000 61,200,000 Total . . 47,100,000 170,500,000 217,600,000 The amount of state debt, exclusive of city and county debts, in 1888 was as follows : — Debt, £ Shillings per Inhabitant New York .... 1,400,000 5-0 Pennsylvania 3,100,000 12.0 Massachusetts 6,500,000 3-1 Virginia . 6,400,000 3-0 Tennessee . 3,600,000 2.0 Louisiana . 2,500,000 2.1 North Carolina 3,000,000 1.8 Various 19,700,000 10. Tota . 46,200,000 15-0 In 1883 the public debt of 138 cities and towns summed up 99 millions sterling. LONDON In 1885 London had 555,000 houses, with 4,120,000 inhabitants, covering an area of 1 17 square miles or 75,000 acres, that is 56 persons per acre. There were 400,000 foot-passengers and 80,000 vehicles passing daily over the bridges, and 370,000 passengers in the Underground Railway. There were 1830 miles of streets, and 2300 miles of sewers, the latter ranging from I foot to 12 feet in diameter. The sewage reservoirs (12 miles below London) discharged 150 million gallons daily into the Thames at ebb-tide. Water supply was 140 million gallons daily, or 34 per inhabitant, for which the com- panies charged ;^i, 500,000, or ijd. (1.60) per ton. Gas consumption amounted to 20 milliards of cubic feet, at 3s. per 1000 feet, say ;^3,ooo,ooo per annum, consuming 2 millions tons coal, and conveyed by 2500 miles of pipes some 4 feet in diameter. Fire-brigade had 58 engines, 124 escapes, 580 firemen, costing ;Jioo,ooo per annum, and using 17 million gallons water. Police, 13,000 men, or I in 316 inhabitants. Parks, 42, covering 4490 acres. Markets, 14, covering 1 5 acres ; the meat consumption including 330,000 oxen, 2,100,000 sheep, and amotmting altogether to 210,000 tons per annum. There are 220 deaths and 360 births daily, being a natural increase of 140 persons, but the increase of population averages 200 daily, the difference being caused by immigration. Of all deaths, 2 1 per cent, occur in hospital, and almost 4 per cent. (3.7) are violent deaths, say ten daily. There are 5550 coroners' inquests yearly, and 3580 persons killed or wounded by cabs. About 120 adults are miss- ing every year, and 50 dead bodies are not identified. The number of stray dogs taken up is 29,500 per annum. The foreign trade of London, that is, imports and exports, exceeds 200 millions sterling per annum. There are 11,000 cabs and 2000 omnibuses, which carry 78 million passengers yearly. The growth of the Metropolis has been as follows : — Year rPopulation 1801 . 1 821 . 1841 . 1861 . 1885 . 959,000 1,379,000 1,948,000 2,804,000 4,120,000 Houses Miles of Streets Valuation, £ 130,000 170,000 256,000 369,000 5SS.00O 470 610 90s 1,290 1,830 i 3,700,000 I 5,300,000 I 9,600,000 I 16,800,000 I 35,600,000 Municipal expenditure in 1881 was ;,f 11,000,000, and debt;^2i,ooo,ooo. Paris, with half the population, spends the same amount yearly, and has a debt of ,^90,000,000 sterling. The rental valuation of London in 1SS8 was ;f 38, 100,000. LOTTERIES The Spanish lottery gave a net profit of ;^403,ooo in 1882. The Italian and Austrian lotteries produced as fol- lows : — i Italy Austria ' 1868 1877 1868 1877 Receipts . Expenses 1 £ ! 2,420,000 ] 1,670,000 £ 2,705,000 1,713,000 1,380,000 850,000 £ 2,172,000 1,160,000 Profit j 750,000 992,000 530,000 1,012,000 AIACHINERY 365 MANUFACTURES M. MACHINERY The following examples show the economy of labour resulting from machinery : — • 1. Axkwright's spinnir^-jenny enabled one operative in 18 1 5 to produce as much yarn as 200 could a few years before. 2. The crane of Cologne Cathedral in 1870, with two men, did the same work in one hour, in lifting stone, as required 60 men to work 12 hours in the Middle Ages ; that is, one man now is equal to 180 of the olden time. 3. The American boot-making machine enables one man to turn out 300 pair of boots daily ; one factory near Boston makes as many boots as 32,000 bootmakers in Paris. In 1880 there were 3100 of these machines at work, producing 150 million pair of boots yearly. 4. Altmann's American reaper cuts and binds grain at 45 minutes per acre. D. Glynn of California cuts, threshes, winnows, and bags with each of his machines 60 acres of grain daily. 5. The United States in 1888 produced 600,000 sewing-machines, which could do the work of 7,200,000 women. 6. In the Western States of America one man can raise as much wheat as will feed 1000 persons for 12 months; a second can thresh, winnow, and bag it, and a third convey it to market. 7. A girl 12 years of age in a Lancashire mill can turn out 35 yards of printed calico daily, her work in one year sufficing to clothe yearly 1200 persons in the East The export of machinery from Great Britain is large. In 1S88 Russia look 300 steam-threshers and 250 portable steam-engines. The Trade Returns show the value of British machinery exported thus : — . 2,000,000 ■ . 3,800,000 1853 i860 1870 , 1888 . £ 5,300,000 13,000,000 MAIZE The crop of 1887 was stated thus :- Acres Bushels France 1,480,000 26,000,000 Russia 1,360,000 13,000,000 Austria 5,410,000 90,000,000 Italy .... 4,680,000 75,000,000 Spain 2,000,000 40,000,000 Portugal . 200,000 4,000,000 Roumania, &c. . 2,000,000 40,000,000 Europe 27,130,000 288,000,000 United States . 72,390,000 1,412,000,000 Canada 180,000 9,000,000 Australia . 250,000 7,000.000 Egypt 680,000 10,000,000 Algeria 400,000 10,000,000 Argentina . 1,700,000 17,000,000 Total 102,730,000 1,753,000,000 The United States crop in 1S88 reached 1988 million bushels, or 49,700,000 tons. Spallart estimated the crop for the whole world thus : — Year Millions of Bushels 1871-80 1.528 1S83-84 2,035 1887 1.979 MANUFACTURES The following table shows approximately the value of all manufactures in 1888 : — MilUon jr^ Sterling Yearly Per 3 11 c 1^ 2:= -a c 1 Inhab- itant, £ U. Kingdom 170 ISS 66 73 42 312 820 2I-S France . . 108 42 64 21 52 iq8 485 12.7 Germany . , 82 Qi .S3 71 53 233 S83 12.3 Russia . . S^ 14 SI 20 51 17s 393 4-3 Austria . . 36 i.S 30 23 39 110 253 S-i Italy . . . 21 4 24 4 17 51 121 4.1 Spain . . . 16 4 lb I 12 39 85 5-0 Portugal . . 2 I 3 3 7 16 3.6 Sweden . . 2 6 6 6 8 22 50 10.5 Norway . . 1 I 2 3 4 8 19 9-5 Denmark I I 3 4 6 II 26 13.0 Holland . . 3 I 6 S 6 14 35 8.0 Belgium . , 16 17 12 13 6 38 102 17.0 Switzerland . II 2 3 2 2 12 32 II.O Europe . . S2I 3';4 339 248 301 1,227 2,990 9.0 U. States . 112 104 98 61 104 874 1.443 24.0 Australia . . 7 15 4 3 6 6 41 "•S Total . 640 S63 441 312 411 2,107 4.474 11.2 The latest official return of the manufactures of Canada gives a total of 64 millionis sterling. The following table shows approximately the value of manufactures produced yearly in the several countries at various dates : — Millions £ Sterling 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1888 U. Kingdom . 177 230 290 387 577 820 France , . . 147 190 220 264 3«o 485 Germany . 50 60 85 150 310 583 Russia . 10 15 20 40 155 .393 Austria . 30 5° 80 142 200 253 Italy . . 10 15 25 40 80 121 Spain . . 10 20 30 45 60 85 Belgium . ... 60 90 102 U. States 15 25 55 96 392 1.443 Various . 31 45 60 90 160 363 Total • 480 650 86s 1,314 2,404 4,618 Hardware. — The hardware manufactures of the world may be approximately summed up thus : — Millions £ Sterling Iron Steel Copper Lead Tin Zinc Total U. Kingdom. 50 84 10 3 5 3 155 France . . . 20 16 3 I I I 42 Germany 40 38 3 3 I 6 91 Russia . S 7 I I 14 Austria. 6 8 I 15 Italy . 3 I ... ... 4 Spain , 3 I ... 4 Sweden 4 2 6 Belgium 8 6 I I I 17 United Sutes 72 95 14 7 4 2 194 Various . . 17 20 3 1 I t 43 Tota 1 . 228 278 j 35 18 13 13 585 MANUFACTURES 366 MANUFACTURES For details regarding the above metals, see each under its own title, various dates was approximately as follows : — The total value of hardware manufactures at Year Millions £ Sterling U. Kingdom France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Sweden Belgium U. States Various Total 1780 . . . IS 8 3 2 2 I I I 2 2 37 1800 . . . 20 9 4 3 3 I I I 3 3 48 1820 . . . 30 10 6 4 4 2 2 2 7 S 72 1840. . . 40 12 7 S 5 2 2 3 2 10 7 9S i860. . . 8S 30 40 II 12 3 3 4 9 29 17 243 1888 . . . ^SS 42 91 14 IS 4 4 6 17 194 43 5«S' The production of the principal metals at various dates was approximately as follows : — Tons Year Iron Copper Lead Tin Zinc Total 1780 . 270,000 6,000 50,000 2,000 2,000 330,000 1800 . 460,000 8,000 60,000 3,000 3,000 534.000 1820 . 1,010,000 10,000 70,000 4,000 3,000 1,097,000 1840 . 2,680,000 25,000120,000 6,000 12,000 2,843,000 i860 . 7,180,000 70,000 220,000 8,000 65,000 7,543,000 1888 . 24,800,000 190,000 4io,ooO|35,ooo>40,ooo!2S,675,ooo It appears that the production of metals has multiplied fifty-fold since 1800. Textile Manufactures. — The consumption of fibre by all nations has been approximately as follows : — Millions of Lbs. Year Cotton Wool Flax Hemp Jute Silk Total 1780 . 220 440 500 3SO 30 I.S40 1800 . 3°3 460 600 400 30 1.793 1820 . 402 520 700 4SO 33 2,105 1840 . 1,210 694 800 500 SS 3.239 1850 . I.33S 886 900 600 60 37 3.818 i86o . 2,4Si 1,074 92s 700 130 40 S.320 1870 . 2,67s I.S79 I,ZOO 7SO 410 42 6,656 1880 . 3.S01 1.91S 1,120 820 900 4S 8,301 1887 . 4.433 2,242 1,230 ] 880 ii3io SO IO.I4S Reducing to tons the total weight of fibre consumed in 100 years down to 1880, we find it was approximately as follows : — Tons Aggregate Cotton Wool Flax Hemp Jute Silk Total 1781-1800 1801-20 . 1821-40 , 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871 80 . 2,200,000 2,500,000 4,560,000 5,220,000 8,260,000 8,190,000 12,860,000 4,100,000 4,400,000 5,500,000 3,600,000 4,400,000 5,900,000 7,700,000 4,900,000 5,800,000 6,700,000 3,700,000 4,100,000 4,800,000 5,200,000 3,400,000 3,800,000 4,200,000 2,500,000 2,900,000 3,200,000 3,400,000 200,000 600,000 2,000,000 3,500,000 270,000 270,000 300,000 160,000- 170,000 170,000 180,000 14,870,000 16,770,000 21,260,000 15,380,000 20,430,000 24,260,000 32,840,000 100 years . 43,790,000 35,600,000 35,200,000 23,400,000 6,300,000 1,520,000 145,810,000 The total output of textile manufactures in 107 years was approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Period U. Kingdom France Germany Russia Austria Italy Spain Belgium Various U. States Total 1781-1800 . 620 480 160 70 100 SO 90 no 50 1.730 1801-20 980 680 210 90 140 70 120 160 80 2.530 1821-40 . 1.S38 921 334 172 243 lOI 172 60 192 208 3.941 1841-50 970 634 318 250 199 74 94 S4 101 261 2.955 1851-60 1,265 740 31^ 294 24a 94 "5 59 126 375 3.706 1861-70 1.S46 958 486 352 279 128 134 108 163 628 4.782 1871-80 1,872 945 607 486 331 156 i-i8 151 198 706 5,610 1881-87 1,218 672 520 361 256 131 no 106 214 651 4.239 107 years 10,009 6,030 3.031 2.07s 1,790 804 993 538 1,264 2.^59 29.493 1781 1800 1801-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1 18 71-80 1881-87 Total Cottons 140 660 1,506 I.05S 1.440 1,810 2 234 1,782 10,627 Woollens . 1,040 1,100 1,280 1,064 1.243 1,661 I 921 1,366 10,675 Linens . 2SS 370 550 372 431 544 575 397 3.494 Silks . 265 340 480 3" 406 522 559 475 3.358 Sundries 30 60 125 IS3 186 24s 321 219 1.339 Total . 1.730 2.530 3.941 2.9SS 3.706 4,782 S 610 4.239 29.493 MANUFACTURES 367 MANUFACTURES The value of all textile manufactures in each country at various dates from 1780 was as follows, approximately : — Millions £ Sterling 1780 1800ll820 18401860 1860 1870 18801887 U. Kingdom . 26 36 67 92 io8 143 174 184 170 France . . , 21 27 42 S2 70 88 109 no 108 Germany 7 9 12 22 30 39 S3 72 82 Russia . 3 4 5 14 22 29 40 49 S2 Austria . 4 6 9 18 20 24 29 34 36 Italy. . 2 3 4 6 9 13 IS 20 21 Spam . 4 .S 7 11 12 14 IS 17 16 Belgium 8 11 12 17 17 16 Switzerland,&c. S 6 7 8 10 13 IS 17 IS Europe . . . 72 96 153 231 292 375 467 S20 S16 United States . 2 3 ! 5 IS 2b 45 70 98 112 Total . 74 99 ' 158 246 320 420 537 618 628 The value of fibre consumed by various nations since 1840 was approximately as follows : — United Kingdom Millions £ Sterling Period Cotton Wool Silk Flax, Hemp, &c Total 1841-S0 . . 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871 80. . 1881-87. . 112 241 430 390 252 91 119 140 1S6 97 6S 68 SS 32 16 73 66 91 108 60 341 494 716 686 425 47 years. . 1.42s 603 236 398 2,662 France 1841-50 . . 33 86 86 63 268 1851-60 . . 5° 96 120 S3 319 1861-70 . . 95 III i66 62 434 1871-80 . . 71 113 I2S 70 379 1881-87 . . S6 72 72 40 240 47 years. . 30S 478 569 288 1,640 Germany 1841-50 . . 23 S3 13 31 120 1851-60 . . 40 65 18 29 152 1861-70 . . 81 73 23 33 210 1871-80 . . 86 81 40 40 247 1881-87 . . 73 57 38 25 193 47 years. . 303 329 132 158 922 Russia 1841-50 . . 14 49 1 30 94 1851-60 . . 22 54 2 33 III 1861-70 . . 40 56 4 42 142 I87I-S0 . . 62 72 6 S3 193 1881-87 . . 54 41 S 37 137 47 years. . 192 272 18 195 677 Austria 1841-50 . . II 33 6 28 78 1851-60 . . 22 35 8 26 ^l 1861-70 . . 41 34 II 30 116 1871-80 . . 49 .3b 14 36 13s 1881-87 . . 38 25 10 24 97 47 yeais . . 161 163 49 144 517 Italy Period Millions £ Sterling Cotton Wool ' Sillc Flax, Hemp, &c. Total 1841-50 . . 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 • . 15 23 25 13 , 6 IS 7 17 1 II 20 1 9 12 1 5 10 11 14 17 12 32 39 54 47 years . . 72 77 38 64 251 Spain 1841-50 . . 6 17 2 9 34 1851-60 . . 12 22 3 7 44 1861-70 . . 21 24 3 7 55 1871-80 . . 26 26 4 7 63 1881-S7 . . 21 14 3 5 43 47yeais. . 86 103 15 35 239 Belgium 1841-50 . . 7 5 6 18 1851-60 , . 8 6 I 7 22 1861-70 . . IS 18 I 11 45 1871-80 . . 15 29 3 16 63 I8SI-87 . . 13 IS 2 13 43 47 years. . 58 73 7 53 191 Scandinavia, Switzerland, &c 1841-50 . . 9 19 7 7 42 1851-60 . . 15 23 9 7 54 1861-70 . . 26 29 3 10 68 1871-80 . . 36 29 6 10 81 1881-87 . . 60 •18 4 7 89 47 years . . 146 118 29 41 334 United States 1841-50 . . 49 30 2 7 88 1851-60 . . 84 4 12 138 1861-70 . . 223 62 14 17 316 1871-80 . . 157 101 IS 24 297 1881-87 ■ • 150 83 20 16 269 47 years . . 663 314 55 76 1,108 The World 1841-50 . . 267 396 188 264 1.115 1851-60 . . 500 473 240 251 1,464 1861-70 . . 987 291 317 2,159 1871-80 . . 915 663 254 381 2,213 188I-S7 . . 742 434 175 239 I.S90 47 years. . 3.411 2,530 1,148 1.452 8,541 The value of goods manufactured from the above fibres in 47 years was approximately, in millions sterling : — Period in B d en a 1 a E Total 1841-50 . . 1,055 1.064 372 311 153 2,955 1851-60 . . 1,440 1.243 431 406 186 3.706 1861-70 . . 1,810 1.661 544 522 245 4,782 1871-80 . . 2.234 1,921 575 559 321 5,610 1881-S7 . . 1,782 1,366 397 475 219 4.239 47 years . . 8,321 1 7,25s 2.319 2,273 1,124 21,292 MANUFACTURES 368 MANUFACTURES Millions £ Aggregate d a g S w =a ■2 OJ ^ D. Total d 1 3 m E U. Kingdom 3.726 1,768 572 435 370 6,871 France . . . 771 1,368 50s 1,132 173 3.949 Germany . . 727 948 290 280 82 2,327 Russia . . . 461 780 260 37 205 1.743 Austria . . 382 484 217 99 125 1,307 Italy . . . 163 195 90 72 63 583 Spain . . . 202 293 58 32 26 611 Belgium . . 141 190 "5 17 IS 478 Scandinavia . 52 126 178 U. States . . 1,411 911 132 "5 52 2,621 Various . , 285 192 80 54 13 624 Total . 8,321 7.2SS 2,319 2,273 1,124 21,292 The following table shows approximately the value of goods manufactured in each decade : — United Kingdom Mill ons £ h ggregate Period Cottons Woollens Linens Silks Hemp, Jute, &c. Total i84r-5o 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 469 677 813 1,071 696 249 3" 412 476 320 103 "3 147 132 77 108 "5 96 71 45 41 49 78 122 80 970 1,265 1,546 1,872 1,218 47 years 3.726 1,768 572 435 370 6,871 France 1841-50 136 233 105 140 20 634 1851-60 158 252 los 200 25 740 1861-70 180 32s 120 298 35 958 1871-80 165 328 no 288 54 945 1881-87 132 230 65 206 39 672 47 years 771 1,368 505 1,132 173 3,949 Germany 1841-50 92 142 SO 22 12 318 1851-60 125 171 55 30 IS 396 1861-70 147 215 65 41 18 486 i87r-8o 195 23s 70 85 22 607 1881-87 168 185 •SO 102 IS 520 47 years 727 948 290 280 82 2,327 Russia 1841-50 56 132 25 2 35 250 1851-60 69 141 40 4 40 294 1861-70 75 166 60 6 45 352 1871-80 138 211 75 12 50 486 1881-87 123 130 60 13 35 361 47 years 461 780 260 37 205 1.743 Austria 1841-50 44 90 35 10 20 199 1851-60 69 93 40 IS 25 242 1861-70 77 107 45 20 30 279 1871-80 108 no 55 28 30 331 1881-87 84 84 42 26 20 256 47 years 382 484 217 99 125 1,307 Italy Millions £ Aggregate Period Cottons Woollens Linens Silks Hemp, Jute, &c. Total 1841-50 12 32 10 10 10 74 1851-60 18 34 IS IS 12 94 1861-70 27 46 20 20 IS 128 1871-80 51 49 25 16 15 iSb 1881-87 55 34 20 II 11 131 47 years 163 195 90 72 63 583 Spain 1841-50 24 47 14 4 5 94 1851-60 36 S6 13 5 5 115 1861-70 39 71 12 6 6 134 1871-80 57 75 11 9 6 158 1881-87 46 44 8 8 4 no 47 years 202 293 58 32 26 611 Belgium 1841-50 28 11 10 3 2 54 1851-60 25 13 15 3 3 59 1861-70 29 47 25 4 3 108 1871-so 33 75 35 4 4 151 1881-87 26 44 30 3 3 106 47 years 141 190 "5 17 15 478 United States 1841-50 r6o 81 10 5 S 261 1851-60 218 117 20 10 10 375 1861-70 37b 190 30 20 12 628 1871-80 337 282 42 30 15 706 1881-87 320 241 30 50 10 651 47 years 1,411 911 132 IIS 52 2,621 The net product of these manufactures in 47 years was approximately thus : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Product Cotton .... Wool .... Flax Silk Hemp and jute . 3,411 2,530 963 1,148 489 8,321 7,255 2,319 2,273 1,124 4,910 4.725 1.356 1,125 6ps Total . . 8,541 21,292 12,751 The net product to the several countries was as fol- lows : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Product United Kingdom 2,662 6,871 4,209 France .... 1,640 3,949 2,309 Germany 922 2,327 1,405 Russia . 677 1,743 1,066 Austria . 517 1,307 790 Italy. . 251 583 332 Spain . 239 611 372 Belgium 191 478 287 United States 1,108 2,621 1,513 Various . . 334 802 468 Tota 1 • 8,541 21,292 12,751 MANUFACTURES 369 MANUFACTURES The weight of fibre consumed in i 888 was approximately as follows : — Millions of Lbs. Lbs. per Cotton Wool Flax Silk Hemp and Jute Total Inhabitant United Kingdom I.S30 412 191 3 690 2,826 75 France 310 421 203 IS 246 I.I9S 41 Germany . 378 349 143 7 90 967 20 Russia . 369 I4S 240 I 140 89s II Austria . 23s 90 127 a 130 S84 16 Italy 152 60 I 120 38s 13 Spain 120 60 22 I 20 223 13 Belgium . 52 100 112 20 284 48 Switzerland, &c 76 7S 40 I 30 222 12 Europe ... , 3.222 1,704 1,138 31 1,486 7,s8i 24 United States . 1,010 434 92 4 330 1,870 30 India. &c. ... 313 104 IS 374 806 Tola 1 4.S4S 2,242 1,230 SO 2,190 10,257 ... The value of textiles produced in 1887 was approxi- mately as follows ; — Millions j^ Sterling C 2 in M B M TJ •3 d ^ J to ^ E- U. Kingdom . lOI 43 9 6 II 170 France . . . 19 46 9 29 s 108 Germany . . . 23 3S 7 IS 2 82 Russia . . . 22 14 9 2 s S2 Austria . . . 14 9 6 4 3 36 Italy .... 9 S 3 2 2 21 Spain .... 7 6 I I I 16 Scandinavia . . 2 2 I 5 Belgium . . . 3 6 5 I 1 16 Switzerland . . 3 I 6 10 Europe . . . 203 167 49 66 31 S16 United States . 60 39 4 7 2 112 India, &c. . . 16 I 23 8 48 Total . . 279 207 S3 96 41 676 The consumption of textile manufactures in 1888 was approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling CO a a n 1 i 3 1„ 1 U. Kingdom . Fiance . . . Germany . . . Russia . . . Austria . . . Italy .... Spain .... Scandinavia . . Holland . . . Belgium . . . Other countries. 32 18 20 28 14 II I 3 3 3 27 31 25 14 9 I 5 I 6 S IS 22 6 2 4 2 a I I I I 3 6 7 9 S 3 I I I I 2 9 4 a t 2 I I I I S 81 60 57 34 25 18 13 6 12 X6 Europe . . . United States . Other countries . 140 66 73 137 44 36 S7 14 2S 6 32 ! 405 6 136 Total . . 279 207 96 S3 43 : 678 United Kingdom The value of British manufactures, that is, of the gross annual product, without deducting raw material or any- thing else, has been estimated as follows at various epochs : — Year Millions £ Writers 1783 . 57 M'Pherson 1803-10 105 Eden, Stevenson, &c. 183s ■ 149 Lavergne 1850 . 180 Poole 1888 . 820 Mulhall The earlier estimates were too low, as they omitted beer, flour, clothing, and other large items. If we study the consumption of raw material, and the prices current at the several periods, we may construct the following approximate table : — Millions £ Sterling 1780 1810 1840 1860 1888 Woollens . 17 18 22 34 43 Cottons 2 20 48 81 lOI Linens, jute, &c. 4 13 13 16 20 Silks . 3 5 9 12 6 Leather II 14 18 30 42 Clothing 20 30 40 SS 66 Liquor and food 55 60 87 94 116 Hardware . IS 25 40 85 15s Furniture . 5 7 10 IS 20 Printing I a 3 9 16 Sundries 44 66 97 146 23s Total • 177 260 387 577 820 The textile manufactures have been greatly developed in the present century, the consumption of fibre in the United Kingdom shovfing thus : — Millions of Lbs. Weight Year Cotton Wool Flax Hemp; Jute Total i8oi . . . 54 117 48 82 301 1810 114 123 60 107 404 1820 123 125 87 95 430 1830 246 150 138 S9 593 1840 448 173 210 67 898 1850 565 18S 249 122 42 1,163 i860 1,140 234 228 78 86 1,766 1870 1,101 309 291 160 324 2,185 1880 1,404 338 ! 227 lbs 404 2,538 1887 1.499 378 ' 190 196 [ 494 2,757 2 A MANUFACTURES 370 MANUFACTURES The following table shows the approximate value of all British and Irish textile industries diuring the past 100 years at various dates : — Millions £, Sterling Year Cottons Woollens Linens Silks Jute, &C. Total 1780 2 17 2 3 2 26 1800 8 18 4 4 2 36 1810 20 18 S 8 1820 33 19 6 7 2 67 1830 39 20 8 8 2 77 1840 48 22 II 9 2 92 1850 49 28 13 12 6 108 i860 81 34 12 12 4 143 1870 91 48 14 9 12 174 1880 loS 48 12 7 12 184 1887 lOI 43 9 6 II 170 The total consumption of fibre, excluding silk, in the factories during forty-five years, down to 1885, was as follows : — Tons 1841-70 1871-85 , Total Cotton .... Wool .... Flax and hemp . Jute 9,650,000 3,150,000 4,600,000 1,300,000 8,950,000 2,430,000 2,700,000 2,700,000 18,600,000 5,580,000 7,300,000 4,000,000 Total . . 18,700,000 16,780,000 35,480,000 The output of stuffs and cloths in English statute miles was approximately as follows : — 1841-70 1871-86 Total Cottons. . . . Woollens . . . Linens .... Jute 43,750,000 3,420,000 5,460,000 1,700,000 45,620,000 2,860,000 2,500,000 2,100,000 89,370,000 6,280,000 7,960,000 3,800,000 Total . , 54,330,000 53,080,000 107,410,000 The output of fifteen years ending 1885 was almost equal to that of thirty years ending 1870. In the following table are shown the cost of fibre, and value of the manvifactures :— Period Millions £ Sterling Raw Fibre Manufactures Net Result 1841-50 . . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . 341 494 716 686 425 970 1,26s 1.546 1,872 1,218 629 771 830 1,186 793 47 years . . . 2,662 6,871 4,209 Millions;^ Sterling Raw fibre Manufactures Net Result Cotton .... Wool .... Silk Flax Hemp, jute . . 1.425 236 240 158 3.726 1,768 435 572 370 2,301 1,165 199 332 212 Total . . 2,662 6,871 4,209 The annual product of each operative, as well in the gross as the net result, after deducting cost of raw material, are shown as follows ; — Gross, £ Net, £ Cotton .... 178 loi Woollen . . . 155 108 Linen . . '95 60 Jute ... .230 154 Silk 161 99 In the preceding tables, the value of manufactures includes not only stuffs, but also yarns exported to other countries. The export of yarn showed thus : — Millions of Lbs Yarn Year Cotton Woollen Linen Jute Total 1841 . . 119 4 18 141 1851 . . 144 14 19 ... 177 1861 . . 178 28 26 2 234 1871 . . 194 44 36 14 288 1885 . . 246 44 17 31 338 1889 . . 252 45 14 34 345 Aggregate in Tons Yarn Cotton Woollen Linen Jute Total 1841-50 580,000 40,000 80,000 700,000 1851-60 710,000 90,000 100,000 900,000 1861-70 830,000 160,000 135,000 40,000 1,165,000 1871-80 990,000 180,000 120,000 70,000 1,360,000 1881-89 1,010,000 175,000 70,000 105,000 1,360,000 49 years 4,120,000 645,000 505,000 215,000 5,485,000 The following table shows the consumption of fibre in the United Kingdom, and in the whole world in 1840 and 1887. 1840 1887 Millions of Lbs. Millions of Lbs. United Kingdom The World United Kingdom The World Cotton. . . . Wool .... Flax .... Hemp .... Jute .... 448 173 210 67 1,210 694 800 500 190 196 494 4.433 2,242 1,230 880 1,310 Total . . 898 3,204 2,757 10,095 In 1840 the United Kingdom consumed 28 per cent., and in 1883 27 J per cent, of all the fibre in the world. As regards iron, leather, timber, &c., details of these industries will be found under their respective titles. The gross value of British manufactures has increased in far greater ratio than the number of hands employed, as we see by comparing the Factory Returns, and Booth's Digest of the Censuses, with the approximate values already stated, viz. : — Year Engaged in Manufactures Manu- factures, Millions £ Value per Ope- rative,;^ In Mills Artisans Total 1840 . . i860. . 1888 . . 424,0002,713,000 776,0003,388,000 1,034,0003,501,000 3,137,000 4, 164,000 4,535,000 400 583 820 127 140 181 Owing to machinery, two workpeople can now produce manufactures to the same value as three could in 1841 ; but if the volume, instead of the value of merchandise were considered, we should find that two now produce more than five did fifty years ago. MANUFACTURES 371 MANUFACTURES In 183s the textile factories had 355,000 hands : Cotton Woollen Silk Flax,&c Total England . Scotland . Ireland . , 183,000 33.000 4,000 66,000 3,000 a,ooo 30,000 1,000 16,000 13,000 4,000 295,000 50,000 10,000 V. Kingdom 220,000 71,000 31,000 33.000 355,000 Males . . Females . . 101,000 119,000 37,000 34.000 10,000 21,000 10,000 23,000 158,000 197,000 Total . 220,000 71,000 31,000 33,000 3S5.O0O In 1885 the fectories had 1,034,000 hands, as follows :- Men Women Children Total England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... 301,000 41,000 19,000 437,000 101,000 44,000 76,000 10,000 S.ooo 814,000 152.000 68,000 United Kingdom . 361,000 582,000 91,000 1,034,000 Cotton . . Woollen . . Flax and hemp Jute . . . 172,000 113,000 33.000 11,000 12,000 20,000 282,000 146,000 80,000 26,000 28,000 20,000 50,000 23,000 9,000 5.000 3.000 1,000 504,000 282,000 122,000 42,000 43.000 41,000 Silk . . . Hosiery, &a Total • 361,000 582,000 91,000 1,034,000 The value of hardware manufactures may he estimated approximately as follows : — Tons i Value, jf Pig iron exported . 1,200,000 1 3,000,000 Iron wares, home use 1,800,000 ! 27,000,000 Steel exported .... 300,000 j 3,000,000 Steel, home manufactures 2,700,000 81,000,000 Iron wares exported 2,000,000 20,000,000 Lead manufactures . 100,000 3,000,000 Copper 100,000 10,000,000 Tin 20,000 5,000,000 Zinc 70,000 2,800,000 Total 154,800,000 France The value of manufectures produced annually has heen estimated as follows : — Year 1788 1819 183s 1878 1888 Millions £ Sterling 37 73 158 390 485 Writer Tolosan Chaptal Kolb" Mulhall Several items seem to have been omitted in the early estimates. The following is an approximate table : — Millions £ Sterling 1788 1835 1868 1888 Textiles . 21 47 96 108 Hardware . 8 10 31 42 Food 5= 82 112 114 Clothing . 22 44 56 64 Leather . 20 =4 40 S2 Sundries . 24 57 92 105 Total 147 264 427 48s The tables of Tolosan and Chaptal showed as fol- lows : — 1788 1819 Textiles . Hardware . Jewellery . Skins .... Sundries . £ 17,400,000 1,400,000 4,500,000 2,600,000 11,300,000 £ 27,000,000 8,400,000 5,000,000 5,700,000 26,700,000 Total 37,200,000 72,800,000 The following estimate of French manufactures was published in 1835 : — j Number Value, £ Mills . . ^ 82,900 49,800,000 Factories . , 38,300 76,600,000 Foundries . . 4,425 10,600,000 Steam-engines . 1,448 2,900,000 Workshops and f waggons . 17,700,000 Total 157,600,000 Silks Woollens Cottons . Linens Iron . . Sundries . Total Product, £ 9,600,000 16,100,000 16,600,000 12,000,000 14,000,000 89,300,000 157,600,000 Balance-sheet, £ Raw material . 56,100,000 Wages . . . 60,800,000 Wear and tear . 20,900,000 Interest on capital 13,100,000 Net profit . . 6,700,000 Total 157,600,000 An incomplete official report in 1854 showed the fol- lowing averages for seven previous years : — Factories Engines Opera- tives Manu- factures, £ Textiles . Food . . Sundries . 12,858 41,762 4.687 934 429 426 695,000 136,000 118,000 65,600,000 62,800,000 9,800,000 Total. 59307 1.789 949.000 138,200,000 Another report in 1866 gave the average for five pre- ceding years thus : — Factories | Engines Textiles Food . Sundries Total 12,480 52,84s 8,553 777 2,131 1.369 73.878 4.277 Opera- tives Manu- factures, £ 685,000 93,300,000 174,000 112,100,000 179,000 j 22,200,000 1,038,000 227,600,000 Kolb mentions a report in 1878 showing 123,000 fac- tories employing 1,783,000 operatives, turning out pro- ducts to the value of 390 millions sterling per annum, of which textiles stood for 105 millions sterling. Respecting these factories we find : — Worked by Number Horse-Power Steam . . ,1 16,500 Water . . . ! 52,700 Wmd . . . 11,300 220,000 298,000 40.000 Total . . 80,500 55S,coo MANUFACTURES 372 MANUFACTURES The Statesman's Year-Book for 1890 gives the foUovifing :- Factories Operatives Horse- Power Spindles Power-Looms Hand-Looms Cotton .... Wool .... Silk 1,000 1,926 1,172 119,000 115,000 110,000 62,400 42,800 5,100,000 3,300,000 1,100,000 72,000 46,000 51,000 30,000 28,000 56,000 Total 4,098 344,000 105,200 9,500,000 169,000 114,000 There are also 365 flax, hemp, and jute factories, consuming 310,000 tons fibre yearly. The metallic industries may be estimated approximately thus :— In 1875 ^" estimate of French manufactures vi^as pub- lished, differing but slightly from the figures given by Kolb ; it was as follows : — Hands Product, £ Textiles . 770,000 137,000,000 Flour-mills . 120,000 80,000,000 Clothing . 156,000 52,000,000 Leather 300,000 36,000,000 Metals and minerals , 330,000 36,000,000 Soap, candles, &c. 100,000 30,000,000 Sugar, beer, &c. 70,000 26,000,000 Fancy goods 90,000 19,000,000 Total 1,936,000 416,000,000 The value of textile manufactures was approximately as follows, in millions £ sterling : — 1810 1840 1860 1880 Woollens . Cottons . Silks. Linens, &c. 16 4^ 5 7 17 12 9 12 ?6 24 14 45 16 29 17 Total 32 50 85 107 The balance-sheet of textile industries for forty-seven years, ending 1887, may be summed up thus : — Millions £ Fibre Manufactures Net Product Silk . Cotton Wool . Flax, &c. . 569 305 478 288 1.132 771 1,368 678 563 466 890 390 Total 1,640 3.949 2,309 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 268 319 434 379 240 634 740 958 945 672 366 421 524 566 432 47 years 1,640 3.949 ! 2,309 Production and consumption in 1887 compared thus : — Millions £ Production Consumption Cottons .... Woollens .... Silks Linens .... Sundries .... 19 46 29 9 5 18 31 22 6 4 Total . 108 81 Steel . Iron . . Copper Lead, &c. . Total Tons Consumed- 530,000 1,300,000 35.000 Germany Value of Product, £ 15,900,000- 19,500,000 3,500,00a 3, 100,000 42,000,000 In 1805 the manufactures of Prussia were estimated by Oddy as follows : — £ I Woollens . . 1,700,000 ' Linens . . 1,800,000 Silks Cottons All textiles . 700,000 500,000 Hardware Furniture Leather Sundry L 1,300,000 1,000,000 400,000 200,000 4,700,000 Miscellaneous . 2,900,000 This made a grand total of only ^£'7,600,000, but it omitted beer, food, clothing, and other large items. In 1843 the following estimate, likewise for Prussia, was published : — Cottons . Woollens . Silks This summed up 36 millions sterling, but was also very defective. The Census returns show the number of hands em- ployed in manufactures in 1846 was 842,000, and in 1861 amounted to 1,093,000. That of 1869 for all Germany was as follows : — £ £ 5,000,000 Linens . 2,800,000 7,400,000 Tobacco . . 2,400,000 3,600,000 Beer, &c. . . 4,8oo,ooO' Factory Hands Artisans Total Number of Factories Prussia . . Hanover . . Bavaria . . Saxony . . Wurtemberg Baden . . Small States 680,000 46,000 164,000 214,000 86,000 63,000 168,000 1,794,000 170,000 512,000 413,000 235,000 156,000 500,000 2,474,000 216,000 676,000 627,000 321,000 219,000 668,000 79.529 6,949 37.967 ".357 19.231 28,803 Total . 1,421,000 3,780,000 5,201,000 190,600 The hands and horse-power in 1880 were as follows: — Textiles . Clothing . Food . Wood Machinery Metals Building . Sundries . Total Hands 910,000 1,260,000 744,000 470,000 356,000 460,000 534,000 983,000 5,717,000 Horse-Power 391,000 21,000 176,000 52,000 195,000 106,000 22,000 320,000 1,283,000 MANUFACTURES 373 MANUFACTURES The Census of 8So gave the following tables — Hands Engaged in Factories Manufacturing Population Males Females Total Textiles . Hardware Food Printing , Various . 195,000 312,000 219,000 29,000 444,000 190,000 15,000 46,000 7,000 70,000 385,000 327,000 265,000 36,000 514,000 Prussia .... 9,394,000 Bavaria .... 1,492,000 Saxony .... 1,696,000 Wurtemburg . . . 674,000 Small States . . . 2,802,000 Total 1,199,000 328,000 1,527,000 Total . . 16,058,000 In 1876 Engel found 28,985 factories had steam-power with an aggregate of 888,000 horse-power. The number of persons engaged in certain industries in 1880 was as follows : — Textiles Iron Machinery Leather Wood Paper Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtemburg Small States 452,000 65,000 166,000 36,000 191,000 201,000 37.000 27,000 18,000 101,000 194,000 18,000 42,000 17,000 83,000 67,000 11,000 9,000 7,000 28,000 243,000 S7,ooo 41,000 26,000 103,000 49,000 8,000 18,000 6,000 20,000 Total .... 910,000 384000 3S4,ooo 122,000 470,000 101,000 The production and consumption of textile goods in Germany in 1887 represented approximately the follow- dng values : — Millions £ Sterling Spindles in Manufacture Consumption Factories Cottons . . . Woollens . . . Linens .... Silks Sundries . . . 23 3S 7 IS 2 20 2S 7 2 4,900,000 2,000,000 300,000 900,000 100,000 Total . . 82 ' 60 8,200,000 The follovnng table gives approximately the value of all textiles manufactured at various dates, in millions £ sterling : — 1810 1840 1860 1880 1887 Woollens . 3 8 16 28 35 ■Cottons . . I 5 9 20 23 Silks . . . I 2 4 II IS Linens, &c. 4 6 8 9 9 Total . 9 21 37 68 82 The balance-sheet of textile industries for 47 years to a 887 may be summed up thus : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Product Cotton .... Wool .... Silk Flax, &c. . . . 303 329 132 158 727 948 280 372 424 %l 214 Total . . 922 2,327 1.40S .1841-50 . . . •1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . 120 152 210 247 193 3'! 396 486 607 520 198 244 276 360 327 -47 years . . . 922 2,327 1.40S Hardware manufactures in 1 ! were estimated thus : — ■ Tons Manufactures, Value, £ Steel .... Iron .... Copper Lead, zinc, &c. . 1,400,000 37,800,000 3,000,000 40,500,000 32,000 3,200,000 250,000 9,500,000 Total 3,682,000 91,000,000 Russia The number of factories at various dates was : — 1812 1824 1839 1864 Tanneries . 1,150 1,784 1,918 Tallow 181 1,023 998 1,254 Cotton 129 484 467 423 Woollen 136 324 616 536 Linen 170 214 267 599 Silk . loS 184 227 326 Iron . 33 170 486 ... Sundries 423 1.103 1,876 12,31s Tota 1 2,327 5,286 6,855 15.453 Year Number of Factories Operatives Product, £ l8l2 . 2,327 69,000 ... 1824 . 5,286 250,000 5,100,000 1839 • 6,85s 413,000 12,400,000 1851 . 9,256 457,000 15,700,000 1864 . 15.453 465,000 52,000,000 1879 • 27,927 685,000 90,900,000 1882 56.905 9SS,ooo 112,600,000 1888 . 83,182 1,134,000 136,000,000 1824 1835 Woollens .... Cottons .... Linens .... Silks 2,600,000 1,600,000 500,000 400,000 £ 3,800,000 2,500,000 700,000 700,000 All textiles 5,100,000 7,700,000 MANUFACTURES 374 MANUFACTURES Schubert's tables for 1828 give the output of the fac- tories thus : — i Yards 1 Tons Cottons . . Linens . . Woollens . 60,000,000 20,000,000 16,000,000 Tobacco . . . Sugar .... Soap and potash Total . . 28,000 17,000 22,000 Total . 96,000,000 67,000 Moreover, the tanneries turned out 3,S00,cxx) tanned hides. There were 100 steam-engines at work in the Empire. In 1835 it was estimated that the factories contained 280,000 hands, and that 800,000 artisans worked on their own account, making a total manufacturing strength of 1,080,000 persons. In 1839 the seats of factories were : — Factories Operatives Moscow Vladimir Perm Kaluga Tula Various 1.058 315 35a 164 124 4,842 83,000 84,000 37,000 20,000 17,000 172,000 Total 6,855 413,000 In 1864 the following table was published : — Woollens Cottons Linens Silks . All textiles Sugar . Tallow Liquor Sawmills Sundries Tola: Factories 536 423 599 326 1,884 432 1,254 1,446 2,508 7.929 15.453 Operatives 92,000 58,000 44,000 9,000 203,000 5S.OOO 7,000 31,000 12,000 157,000 465,000 Output, £ 5,900,000 6,100,000 5,300,000 900,000 18,200,000 4,900,000 2,100,000 8,300,000 2,600,000 15,900,000 52,000,000 At the same time Buschen valued all the manufactures of Russia at 136 millions sterling, viz. : — Textiles £ Miscellaneous £ Linens . . . Cottons . . . Woollens . . Hemp . , . Silks .... 18,200,000 15,800,000 7,100,000 6,300,000 2,300,000 Hardware Liquor . . Leather . . Tallow . . Sundries . . Total . 10,800,000 52,000,000 8,900,000 3,200,000 11,600,000 Total . 49,700,000 86,500,000 The above of course includes not only factories but also the product of the labours of artisans. An official statement in 1882 shows that the output of the mills had more than doubled since 1864, viz. : — 1864 1882 Textiles .... Sugar .... Liquor .... Sundries .... „ £ 18,200,000 4,900,000 8,300,000 20,600,000 £ 31,300,000 14, 100,000 19,500,000 47,700,000 Total 52,000,000 112,600,000 The manufacture of liquor stands officially thus :- Factories Gallons Value, £ Whisky . Beer . 2,377 1,870 91,000,000 75,500,000 13,800,000 5,700,000 Total . 4.=47 166,500,000 19,500,000 It is believed that the illicit distillation of vifhisky i» large, and that in reality Russians consume 160 million gallons of whisky yearly. The above is irrespective of Poland, whose manufactures in 1 882 reached ;f 14,700,000, and Finland ;^i, 500,000. If these were added, the grand total of factory products would be ;^i28,8oo,ooo. The following table shows approximately the value of textile manufactures at stated periods, in millions sterling : — 1820 1810 1860 1870 1880 Woollens . 3 S 8 10 14 Cottons I 4 7 12 14 Linens. I 2 5 7 a Silks, &c . . . 4 S 6 6 Total . . 5 15 2S as 42 The balance-sheet of textile industries for 47 years may be summed up thus : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Cotton .... Wool .... Silk Flax, &c. . . . 192 272 18 19s 461 780 46s 269 S08 19 270 Total . . 677 1.743 1,066 1841-50 . . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 • ■ ■ 94 111 142 193 137 250 294 352 486 361 156 183 210 293 224 47 years . . . 677 1.743 1,066 The production and consumption of textiles in 1887 was approximately as follows, in millions sterling : — Production Consumption Cottons Woollens . Linens SUks, &c. . 22 14 9 7 28 14 9 6 Total 52 57 The hardware industry may be estimated thus : — Tons Manufactures, Value, £ Iron .... Steel .... Copper, lead, &o. 400,000 260,000 26,000 5,400,000 7,000,00a 1,100,000 Total 686,000 13,500,000 The above is 50 per cent, over the Government valua- tion for metallic manufactures in 1886, namely, 86 millioa roubles ; these industries employ 85,400 hands. MANUFACTURES 375 MANUFACTURES Austria In 1805 the textile factories employed 170,000 hands. Becher's table in 1834 was as follows : — Factories No. Factories No. Factories No. Leather . . 580 Chemicals . 82 Iron . . . 700 Flax and hemp 869 Spirits . . ■ 250 Steel . . . 210 Cotton. . . 298 Glass . . . 210 Copper . 185 Wool ... 165 Pottery . . 165 Sundry 8,432 He summed up the whole manufacturing industry thus : — Number of factories .... 11,064 Operatives . . ... 2,330,000 Product, ^, . ... 142,000,000 There was a rapid increase of textile industry after Becher's time, as shown by the number of looms in fac- tories : — Year Steam-Looms Hand-Looms 1850 , . . 1,140 ... 100,000 i860 . . . 10,360 ... 80,000 1870 . . . 16,650 ... 70,000 1S7S . . . 23,000 ... SS.ooo In the last-mentioned year there were in Austria pro- per, without Hungary, 6400 factories, using 1 1,400 steam- engines. In 1887 the principal manufacturing companies in Vienna had the following capital : — £. I Mining .... 7,200,000 Paper-mills . . 1,500,000 Textiles . . . 2,300,000 Breweries . . . 1,400,000 Sugar .... 2,300,000 Ironworks . . . 1,200,000 In 1888 the principal textile industries showed thus Factories Operatives Spindles Power- Looms Cotton . . Wool. . . Linen . . 1,900 2,707 348 96,000 59.000 60,000 2,350,000 650,000 400,000 42,000 17.500 S.ooo Total . 4.9SS i 215.000 3,400,000 64,500 At the same time Hungary had 988 mills, with 90,000 operatives and 63,000 hoise-power. The foUovring table shovps the production of textiles (excluding Lombardy) in the Empire at various dates, in millions ^ sterling : — 1830 1850 I860 1870 1880 Woollens . 4 6 7 8 9 Cottons . . 3 5 6 8 10 Linens . . 3 4 4 S 6 Silks, &c . 3 3 S 5 6 Total . 13 18 22 26 31 The balance-sheet of textile industries for 47 years may be summed up thus : — Millions £, Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Cotton . . . Wool. . . . Silk ... . Flax, &c. . . 161 163 49 144 382 484 99 343 221 321 198 Total . . 517 1,307 790 1841-50 . . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . 78 116 135 97 199 279 256 121 151 ^^ 159 47 years . . , 517 1,307 790 The production and consumption in 1887 were approxi- mately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Production Consumption Cottons .... Woollens .... Linens .... Silks, &c . ^ 14 % 7 14 9 5 6 Total 36 34 The number of hands engaged in manufactures in 1880, and that of the manufacturing population, are shown thus : — Principals Dependents Total Austria .... Hungary . . . 576,000 381,000 4,134,000 408,000 4,710,000 789,000 Total . . 957,000 4,542,000 5,499,000 Hardware manufactures may be estimated thus :- Tons 1 Ma nufactures, Consumed ! Value £ Iron Steel Copper, &c. 460,000 280,000 6,200,000 7,600,000 1,200,000 Total ... 15,000,000 Italy In the 1 8th century the woollen factories of Florence had 30,000 operatives. After a loi^ period of depression, industry began to revive, and in 1840 the kingdom of Sardinia had : — Factories Workmen Women Total Cottons . . Silks . . . Woollens . 312 S90 62 7,900 4.900 3.400 9,000 10,000 2,000 16,900 14,900 5.400 Total . 964 16,200 21,000 1 37,200 In 1877 the official report was as follows : — Men Women and Children All Hands Spindles Silk . . . Cotton Woollen . Linen and hemp Paper Leather . Sundries . 16,000 16,000 12,000 11,000 7,000 10,000 32,000 184,000 38,000 13,000 11,000 10,000 1,000 21,000 200,000 54.000 25,000 22,000 17,000 11,000 53.000 2,083,000 880,000 305,000 60,000 Total . 104,000 278,000 382,000 ... Number of Spindles Cotton Silk Wool 1 Linen' Total Piedmont . Lombardy . Liguria . . Venice . . Other pro- ) vinces . j 312,000 220,000 104,000 39.000 205,000 357,000 1,638,000 13,000 54.000 21,000 135.000 10,000 12,000 69,000 79,000 2,000 806,000 32,000 1,900,000 3,000; 132,000 4,000, 166,000 i8,oooi 323,000 Total . 880,000 2,083,000 305,000 59,ooo|3,327,ooo MANUFACTURES 376 MANUFACTURES The distribution of power was as follows : — Horse- Power Number of Power- Looms Steam Water Total Cotton . Wool . Linen . Paper , Silk, &c. 3,000 ; 10,000 1,100 6,200 500 1 2,500 300 13,700 10,000 ' 7,000 13,000 7.300 3,000 14,000 17,000 42,000 6,600 800 1,500 Total . 14,900 1 39,400 S4.300 50,900 The increase of steam-power since 1878 has been re- markable, the consumption of coal having trebled in nine years, viz. : — Year Tons 1862 446,000 1878 1,325,000 1887 3,580,000 The following table shows approximately the produc- tion of textile industries in millions £ sterling : — 1850 1860 1870 1880 Woollens . Cottons . Silks, &c. . 3 2 3 4 3 5 4 4 6 5 6 7 Total . 8 12 14 18 The production and consumption in 1887 were approxi- mately : — Millions £ Sterling Production Consumption Cottons .... Woollens. Linens .... Silks, &c 9 S 3 4 II 7 3 4 Total . 21 25 The balance-sheet of textile industries for 47 years may be summed up thus : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Cotton Wool . Silk . Flax, &c. . 72 77 163 195 72 153 91 118 n Total . 251 583 332 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 32 39 57 69 54 74 ^i 128 156 131 42 ss V- 87 77 47 years . 251 583 332 Hardware manufactures may be summed up thus :- Tons Consumed Manufactures, Value, £ Iron .... Steel. Lead, &c. . 260,000 20,000 3,500,000 600,000 200,000 Total . ... 4,300,000 Italy has a manufacturing population of 4,494,000 souls, the number of operatives and artisans being ap- proximately 2,281,000. Spain Manufacturing industry has progressed but little, if it has not positively declined. Seville had 16,000 silk- looms in the sixteenth century ; at present there are only 3000 in all Spain. Toledo, so famous for its swords, has stiU one small factory with 300 workmen. Cotton- mills were introduced so far back as 1769, yet the whole number of operatives in this industry does not exceed 53,000. According to a Government report, in 1826 the value of textile and other manufactures produced yearly was ;^I4, 700,000 sterling; much too low an estimate. A semi-official statement published in 1873 showed 563 textile factories in the kingdom, vrith an aggregate capitsd of ;^2 1, 000,000 sterlii^, counting 48,000100ms, 1,220,000 spindles, 93,000 operatives, and 17,000 horse-power. By placing a fictitious value on the articles manufactured, the output of the mills was raised to ;£'2i, 000,000 sterling, which was 50 per cent, over the reality. The statement was as follows : — , Operatives Looms Output, £ Cottons Woollens . Silks . Linens S3.000 25,000 9,000 6,000 33.000 7,000 3,000 5.000 12,400,000 4,300,000 2,800,006 1,100,000 Total . 93.000 48,000 1 20,600,000 The production and consumption of textiles in 1887 were approximately as follows : — Millions £ Production Consumption Cottons Woollens .... Linens, silks, &c. . 7 6 3 7 7 4 Total 16 18 The balance-sheet of textile industries for 47 years may be summed up thus : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Cotton . . . Wool .... Silk .... Flax, &c . . 86 103 15 35 202 116 293 190 32 17 84 1 49 Total . . 239 611 \ 372 1841-50 . . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . 34 44 43 94 "5 158 no 60 71 79 95 67 47 years . . , 239 611 372 Hardware manufacture may be estimated thus : — Tons Consumed Manufactures, Value, £ Iron .... Steel .... Copper, &c. 210,000 30,000 s,8oo,ooo 900,000 300,000 Total 4,000,000 MANUFACTURES 377 MANUFACTURES In 1S73 the Government estimated all Spanish manu- fectures at ;^6o,ooo,cioo sterling : much too low a figure. Scandinavia In 1 765 the Government of Sweden, finding the nobles unable to keep up agriculture, passed a law to close most of the factories, which caused the skilled workmen in steel-works and silk-mills to migrate into Russia. The law was repealed in 1785, but the mischief was done. The factory statistics show thus : — Year Factories Product, £ 700,000 1,200,000 2,100,000 4,200,000 9,600,000 A statement published in 1837 was as follows : — Woollens Cottons, b-c. All Textiles Factories . . 109 1.940 2,049 Operatives . . 3,000 10,300 13,300 Output, £ , . 300,000 760,000 1,060,000 The statement for 1865 was as follows : — 1830 . • 1,857 1840 . . 2,176 1850 . • 2.SI3 1865 . ■ 2.315 1876 . . 2,825 Textiles £ 1 Miscellaneous £ Cottons . . Woollens . . Silks, linens, &c. 490,000 N 480,000 470,000 Sugar . . . Tobacco . . Hardware,&c. Total . 730,000 360,000 1,680,000 All textiles . . 1,440,000 2,770,000 According to Knut Bonde, the factories represented about half the manufactures produced, the total value having been ;^i,400,ooo in 1824, and ;f4,8oo,ooo in 1850. The hands employed in factories were 13,300 in 1837, and 53,000 in 1876. In the latter year the fectories were as follows : — Woriediy N-umter Horse-Power Steam 684 a8,ooo Water . • 637 Animals . • I004 Total 2,82s In later years a valuable industry has sprung up at Jonkoping in the manufacture of wooden matches, of which 450 millions are exported yearly, weighing 15,000 tons. In 1880 Denmark had 720 factories, v?ith 25,000 opera- tives and 10,000 horse-power. The textile products of aU Scandinavia hardly reach four millions sterling per annum. Hardware manufactures in Sweden may be estimated thus:— Tons Manufactures, Consumed Value £ Iron . . . 300,000 4,100,000 Steel . . . 80,000 2,200,000 Total . 380,000 6,300,000 Those of Norway are about ;^40O,000, and of Denmark ;^6oo,ooo. Belgium In 1830, when Belgium threw off the Dutch yoke, her factories were already flourishing, for they counted 12,000 steam-engines, with an a^r^te of 20,000 horse-power. Since then her steam-power in fixed engines for factories and mines has grown prodigiously, ^-iz. : — Year Horse-Power 1830 20,000 1838 25,300 i860 162,000 1880 209.000 In 1S38 the following table was published : — Textile Factories Capital, £ Operatives j Product, £ Cotton WooUen . Hosiery 2,400,000 3,000,000 122,000 40,000 50,000 3,400,000 1,000,000 Besides the foregoing, the linen factories turned out 750,000 pieces yearly, and the production of lace was valued at ;£^350,ooo. There were also 175 foundries, vrith 14,000 operatives, turning out 150,000 tons pig iron. The production of textiles was approximately as fol- lows : — Year MilUons £ Woollens Cottons Linens,&c. Total 1840 . i860 . 1880 . 2 3 6 3 3 3 1 ] 6 2 1 8 8 1 17 Production and consumption in 1887 were approxi- mately : — Millions £ Production Consumption Cottons .... Woollens .... Linens .... Silks, &c 3 6 5 2 3 6 I 1 Total 16 II The following table combines the official reports of 1846 and 1880 : — 1846 1880 Opera- tives Horse- power Opera- tives Horse- Power Product, [Value. £ Coal-mines . Ironworks . Potteries. . Cotton-mills WooUen- ) miUs . ; Flax, &c.. 1 mills . J Food. . . Sundries . . 46,200 42,300 35.800 14,700 18,200 60,700 29,900 67,000 22,500 5.700 1,200 1,600 1,600 r.ioo 2,000 1.300 97,700 70,000 51,500 17,500 25,000 50,900 57.600 58,600 87,400 38,500 7,700 9,900 13,100 9,800 54,700 21,300 6,200,000 14,100,000 3,800,000 2.700,000 6,000,000 5,400,000 31,600,000 17,200,000 Total . . 314,800 37,000 428,800 242,400 87,000,000 Motive power in 1880 was as follows : — By Factories Steam Water Wind 8,433 2.436 2,158 Horse-Power 209,500 19,600 13,300 Total 13.027 242,400 In 1880 the ratio of horse-power was 56 to every 100 operatives, whereas in 1846 it was less than 12. Horse- power grew seven-fold in thirty-four years. MANUFACTURES 378 MANUFACTURES The balance-sheet of textile industries for 47 years may be summed up thus : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Cotton .... Wool .... Silk Flax, &c. . . . 58 73 7 S3 141 190 17 130 83 117 10 77 Total . . 191 478 287 1841-50 . . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 • ■ . 18 22 i^ 63 43 54 Si 108 106 36 37 63 88 63 47 years . . . 191 478 287 The hardware industries may be estimated thus : — Tons Consumed Manufactures, Value, £ Iron . ... Steel Zinc, copper, &c. 600,000 230,000 8,100,000 6,200,000 2,200,000 Total 16,500,000 According to the Census of 1880 there were 953,000 persons engaged in manufactures, and the gross value of their products was 87 millions sterling. The statement at page 365 gives 102 millions for 1888. Switzerland In 1887 the Factory Report showed thus : — Cotton Silk . Wool, flax, &c. Lace . Watches . Sundries . Factories 398 246 77 1,240 201 925 Operatives 36,400 26,500 4,200 23,300 11,100 49,200 The total was 3087 factories with 151,000 operatives. The manufactures, between the above factories and the work done outside, represented approximately the follow- ing values : — £ Miscellaneous £ 5,800,000 Hardware . . , 1,600,000 3,100,000 Watches . , . 3,800,000 1,400,000 Lace .... 4,200,000 15.400,000 Textiles Silks . . . Cottons . . Woollens, &c. Total . 10,300,000 Miscellaneous Hardware . . Watches . . Lace . . . Sundries . . Total . 25,000,000 United States Reduced to English money, the principal manufactures may be summed up thus : — 1 Census Values, Millions of £ Sterling Approximate Value in 18101840 1 1860 1870 1880 1888 Textiles . . 10 14 ^8 55 80 112 Hardware 4 10 29 92 129 194 Food . . . 8 18 64 no 168 202 Clothing . . 3 8 15 27 SO 98 Leather . . 4 7 34 ■i6 8^ 104 Lumber , . I ?. 20 42 49 63 Sundries . . Total . 1 36 192 323 558 670 31 96 39a 70s 1,117 1.443 The principal manufactures were as follows, in millions of dollars. The paper value of 1870 is reduced to its proper equivalent in gold : — Millions of Dollars 18101840 1 1860 1860 1870 1880 Flour 21 71 ic,6 224 3'i6 50s Iron 17 37 49 71 287 336 Leather . 18 33 92 162 271 397 Lumber . 6 IS 59 P6 202 233 Cottons . 30 46 66 "5 142 211 Machinery 11 28 47 111 214 Clothing . 36 48 70 130 242 Sugar 10 38 q6 IS5 Woollens . 17 21 48 6q 121 161 Liquor . 16 1^ 22 43 75 144 Cabinet-work . 18 18 24 55 83 Printing . 12 42 46 91 Implements 7 18 42 69 Paper 10 18 39 55 Soap and candles . 10 17 18 27 Sundries . 27 iSS 404 832 I.39S 2.447 Total . 152 '458 1,019 1,886 3.386 S.370 There was no Census of manufactures in 1820 ; that of 1830 took only the number of hands engs^ed. The Census of 1810 gave the following; the values being reduced to English money : — States Textile Goods Sundries Total Ratio New England Middle . . South . . . West . . . £ 2,600,000 3,500,000 3,560,000 40,000 £ 4,900,000 12,300,000 4,640,000 60,000 £ 7,500,000 15,800,000 8,200,000 100,000 23.8 50.0 25-9 3 Total . 9,700,000 21,900,000 31,600,000 100. The Census of 1840 gave the following : — Hands Value, ^ Product per Hand, £ Cottons . 72,100 9,700,000 136 Woollens 21,300 4,300,000 256 Mixed . 38,400 9,700,000 247 Hardware 44,100 7,700,000 17s Machinery 13,000 2,300,000 177 Flour . 60,800 14,800,000 244 Houses . 85.500 8,700,000 102 Carpentry 39,900 3,900,000 98 Timber . 22,100 3,200,000 14s Liquor . 12,200 3,100,000 245 Leather . 26,100 6,900,000 263 Sundries 160,000 20,900,000 130 Total . 595.500 95,200,000 160 States Manufactures Capital New England . 3 £ [,800,000 18,000,000 Middle .... 4 ,600,000 22,400,000 South .... 1 ,900,000 8,600,000 West c ),90o,ooo 6,600,000 To al • 9. ;, 200,000 55,600,000 Since 1840 there has been a steady increase in the average product per operative, which was then only ;^i6o, and in 1880 exceeded ;^40O. This is mainly due to improved machinery, enabling two men now to pro- duce as much as five did in 1840. MANUFACTURES 379 MANUFACTURES The Census of 1850 showed as follows : Opera- tives Millions £ Sterling Product Capital Wages Product Hand,;^ N. England Middle . . South . . West. . . 313.000 418,000 104,000 122,000 34 49 13 14 16 21 4 8 98 20 35 186 233 192 288 Total . 957,000 no 49 212 220 The Census of i860 showed as follows : — States Opera- tives Millions £ Sterling Product Capital Wages Product Hand,;^ N. England Middle . . South . . West . . . 390,000 542,000 126,000 253,000 54 89 23 42 22 31 7 20 98 166 39 91 250 306 310 360 Total . 1,311,000 208 80 394 301 That of 1870, reduced to gold values, showed : — States Opera- tives Millions £ Sterling Product Capital Wages Product Hand. £ N. England Middle . . South . . West. . . 526^000 801,000 187,000 540,000 85 156 24 102 37 34 167 295 47 196 317 370 250 Total . 2,054,000 367 135 705 344 That of 1880 showed as follows :- States Opera- tives Millions £ Sterling Product Capital Wages Product Hand,;^ N. England Middle .- . South . . West. . . 645.000 1,102,000 228,000 758,000 130 243 40 168 48 83 II 56 231 462 70 354 358 420 307 470 Total . 2,733,000 581 198 I.II7 408 The value of manufactures was artificially heightened by protective customs duties. My estimate for 18S8, at page 378, is 1443 millions sterling. The results of the last five Censuses may be summed up thus :— Year Opera- tives 596,000 957,000 1,311,000 2,054,000 2,733,000 Millions £ Sterling Capital Wages Product no 208 367 S8i 1840 . 1850 i860 1870 1880 The numbers for 1870 and 1880 seem to include only factory hands, as the Censuses for those years give the The principal manufacturing States have been as follows •■ — 49 80 13s 198 Product per Hand,;^ 95 212 394 705 1,117 160 220 301 344 408 numbers employed in manufactures throughout the Union as 2,707,000 and 3,837,000 respectively. See Occupation. The production and consumption of textile goods in 1888 were approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Production 1 Consumption Cottons .... Woollens .... Silks Linens, &o. 60 39 7 6 63 44 14 13 Total . 112 134 The value of all textile manufactures at various dates, was approximately : — Millions £ Sterling Year Woollens Cottons Silks Linens.&c. Total 1810 4 6 10 1840 4 9 ... I 14 1850 10 13 I 24 i860 13 22 I 2 38 1870 23 26 2 4 55 1880 30 38 7 5 80 1888 39 60 8 5 112 The balance-sheet of textile industries for 47 years was approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Fibre Manufactures Net Product Cotton Wool . Silk . Flax, &c . 663 314 1,411 911 "5 184 748 597 60 108 Total . 1,108 1 2,621 1.513 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 . 88 316 297 269 261 628 706 651 173 237 312 409 382 47 years . 1,108 2,621 1.513 The value>of hardware manufactures may be estimated for 1888 as follows :— Tons Constmied Manufactures, Value, £ Iron . . . • Steel .... E^^ : : : Tin, zinc, &c. . 4,800,000 3,150,000 110,000 180,000 70,000 ' 72,000,000 94,500,000 14,000,000 6,700,000 6,300,000 Total 8.310,000 193.500,000 States New York Pennsylvania . Massachusetts Other States . Total Operatives 1850 199,000 147,000 178,000 433.000 957.000 1860 230,000 222,000 217,000 642.000 1,311,000 1870 351.000 319,000 279,000 1,105,000 2,054,000 1880 501,000 387,000 352,000 1,493,000 2,733,000 Product. Millions £ 1850 1860 ! 1870 SO 32 33 97 79 60 S3 202 394 131 119 93 362 1880 224 155 131 607 70s 1. 117 MANUFACTURES 380 MANUFACTURES States 186018601870 New York Pennsylvania . Massachusetts Ohio Illinois . New Jersey . Connecticut . Other States . General average Ratio per Operative Wages, j^ 1880 1860 Product, £ 1860 250 220 1 80 ^SS 250 210 ig6 225 220 18701880 -I . 340 267 240 334 500 270 270 316 300 373 372 332 330 409 373 300 317 344 448 400 370 39S 593 420 344 384 408 The motive-power in 1880 compared with l870thus : — Factories Year Steam Water 1870 1880 140,191 !56>483 51,018 55.400 Total 91,209 111,883 Horse-Power Steam Water Total J. 1,216,000 1,130,000 2,l86,OOo!l,225,000 2,346,000 3,411,000 The distribution of motive-power and that of operatives were as follows : — Factories Horse-Power Hands 1870 1880 1870 1880 Cotton Woollen . Flour . Lumber Iron . Paper. Implements, &c. 146,000 93,000 577,000 642,000 171,000 S3,ooo 664,000 276,000 123,000 771,000 822,000 397,000 124,000 898,000 136,000 90,000 58,000 150,000 78,000 18,000 2, 177,000 186,000 105,000 58,000 148,000 141,000 24,000 2,175,000 Sundries . 2,346,000 3,411,000 2,707,000 3,837,000 Ratio of Power in 1880 Steam Steam and Water Hands Pennsylvania New York . Ohio . Massachusetts . Michigan . Illinois Other States 18.4 10.7 10.2 7.8 6.0 5-8 41. 1 15.0 13-3 7-7 4.8 4.2 45-9 13.8 16.4 6-3 9.6 3-4 5-4 45-1 Total 100.0 10( 3.0 lOO.O Canada The earliest record of manufactures was published in 1830, as follows : —Domestic looms 1300, turning out 4,ooo,ocx) yards of woollens and linens yearly ; saw-mills 1580, with an aggregate capital of ;^ 1,250,000 ; export of timber ;£■!, 000,000 sterling. There were also 1086 mills of various other kinds, and seven foundries. The industrial Census of 1881 compared with 1871 as follows : — Year Capital, Product, £ Operatives Average Wages, £ 1871 . 1881 . 16,200,000 34,400,000 46,000,000 64,400,000 188,000 255,000 48U The average product per operative was ^£'244 in 187 1, and ;^253in 1881. Australia Only three of the Australian colonies publish detailed statistics of manufactures, which are given for 1886-89 in Mr. Coghlan's OfEcial Report for New South Wales. These three Colonies, however, comprise three-fourths of the population, and if we suppose the others have manu- factures in the same ratio, the account will stand thus :— Factories Hands Value of Machinery, £ New South Wales . Victoria New Zealand Four other Colonies . 3,106 2.974 1,946 2,680 45,600 54.500 22,100 40,700 5,740,000 5,490,000 2,110,000 4.450.000 Total 10,706 162,900 1 17,790,000 In New South Wales the value of land and buildings occupied by factories in 1888 was ;^9, 350,000, making a total of ;£'i5, 100,000 invested in this branch of industry. Supposing the ratio to be the same in the other Colonies as compared with value of machinery, the result is : — Manufactures, ' £ per Inhabi- Capital, £ , tant New South Wales . Victoria .... New Zealand . Four other Colonies . 15,100,000 i 13.6 14,400,000 13.0 5,500,000 ! 9.0 11,500,000 12.7 Total 46,500,000 12.8 The principal industries of Australia as regards number of hands employed were : — Textiles Hardware [ Food Sundries Total New South Wales . Victoria New Zealand .... S.700 9,600 4,100 16,700 20,600 8,100 7.400 5,800 3,200 15.800 18,500 6,700 45.600 54.500 22, too Total 19,400 45,400 16,400 41,000 122,200 The average product per operative being ;^253 in Canada and ^297 in the United States, we may fairly suppose ^£'250 for Australia, in which case the result would be : — Value Produced, £ New South Wales 11,400,000 Victoria .... 13,600,000 New Zealand . 5.5°°.°°° Fourother Colonies 10,200,000 Textiles Hardware Value Produced, £ . 6,500,000 15,100,000 Food .... 5,500,000 Sundries . . . 13,600,000 Total . , 40,700,000 Total , . 40,700,000 The above is the output of factories, the total value of manufactures being probably about 64 millions sterling, as already stated. The growth of manufactures has been very rapid, the number of hands in New South Wales, for example, having risen thus : — 1878 1388 Males .... Females .... 21,500 3,200 41.300 4.300 Total 24,700 45.600 This shows a rise of 80 per cent, in ten years. MANURE 381 MARRIAGE MANURE The following table gives the annual yield of animal manure according to the scale of French ofiScial estimates and its value approximately : — Tons Value, £ United Kingdom 79,000,000 31,600,000 France .... 84,000,000 33,600,000 Germany .... 113,000,000 45,200,000 Russia .... 213,000,000 85,200,000 Austria 100,000,000 40,000.000 Italv 23,000,000 10,000,000 Spain and Portugal . 39,000,000 15,600,000 Belgium and Holland 17,000,000 6,800,000 Scandinavia 30,000,000 12,000,000 Turkey, &c. . 32,000,000 12,800,000 Europe .... 732,000,000 292,800,000 United States . 385,000,000 154,000,000 Total 1,117,000,000 446,800,000 Animal manure forms the chief ingredient of farm- yard dung, mixed with straw, Slc. In England about 1 3 tons of dung go to the acre ; in Belgium 45 ; in Russia 7 on the Moujiks' farms, and 14 on those of the nobility. In France fish is often used, as also in Norfolk ; it costs 16s. a ton, and is mixed with mould as l to 40, pro- ducitg hea\-y turnip crops. Nitrate potash and bone-ash are also much used in England. The results obtained on a ferm in Oxfordshire in 1888 were : — Tons per Acre , -* X Grass Hay Unmanured .... 5.0 ■ 1.3 Manured 12.0 2.5 The manure consisted of 6 cwt of nitrate and potash per acre. The production of animal manure yearly is 10 cwt. for a goat, 14 a sheep, 30 a pig, 5 tons for a horse, and 6 tons a cow ; but a portion of th& is lost. Artificial manures imported into Great Britain were : — Year Tons Value, £ Guano Nitrate Guano Nitrate 3860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1889 . . . 140,000 280,000 80,000 28,000 37.000 56,000 46,000 118,000 1,560,000 3,480,000 810,000 200,000 500,000 880,000 700,000 1,100,000 Great Brit ain also im [)orted in li 589 the foU owing: — Tons I Value, £ Phosphates Bones .... Various .... 30S.000 62,000 90,000 700,000 310,000 125,000 Total 457,000 1,135,000 Makin" a total of 603,000 tons of artificial manure, worth /2',soo,ooo. . , ^ -^ In the United States the producUon of phosphates is 430,000 tons, of which 270,000 for home-nse, 160,000 tons being exported. Canada exported 22,000 tons in 1887, against 3000 in 1877. MAB .-RT.'R Is worth about £\ per ton, Italy exporting anually 105,000 tons, valued at ;^400,ooo. It is 7 per cent, heavier than stone, and 5 per cent lighter than granite. One cubic foot weighs 160 lbs., that is, 14 cubic feet per ton. MARRIAGE The proper age for marriage, as laid down by the ancients, was as follows : — According to Years Husband Wife Hesiod .... Plato .... Aristotle .... 30 30 37 IS 20 18 The minimum age fixed by law was as follows : — Years Law of 1 Husband Wife Sparta Roman Empire Canon Law 30 14 20 20 12 England . France 16 18 IS IS Saxony Prussia 21 18 18 14 Austria 14 14 The Emperor Tiberius made an edict against marriage by women over fifty or men over sixty, but it was soon repealed. The medium marrying age in various nations is as follows : — Years Years Man Woman Man Woman England . 27.7 ^s-h Sweden . . 31.1 28.3 Scotland . 28.6 2S-7 Norway 31-1 27.1 Ireland . . 29.9 25.2 Belgium . 31-3 28.S France . . 30.2 24.9 Holland . 30-9 28.0 Prussia . . 29.7 27.1 Jews . . . 30.1 26.3 Russia 2^2 21-5 Vienna . . 32.0 27.0 Italy . . . 30.2 25-4 Leipzig . . 28.9 26.2 The relative numbers in 1000 persons of either sex marrying at different ages are shown thus : — Mm Under20 20-30 30--40 40-BO Over 60 Total England . as ; 731 144 S2 38 1,000 Scotland . 32 684 189 62 33 1,000 Ireland . . 26 , 600 269 67 38 1,000 France . . 23 1 607 262 &■; 43 1,000 Italy . . II i 623 2S9 68 39 1,000 Prussia . . 8 1 663 231 64 34 1,000 Russia . . 373 1 428 122 56 21 1,000 Norway 8 572 291 83 46 1,000 Sweden . . I S74 299 81 45 1,000 Belgium . 9 S48 307 91 45 1,000 Holland . 23 562 281 87 47 1,000 Jews . . . 22 664 174 74 66 1,000 Women England . 149 680 III 41 19 1,000 Scotland . 134 686 134 37 9 1,000 Ireland . . 137 713 111 27 12 l,OCO France . . 204 14s 40 18 1,000 Italy. . . 171 657 125 .34 13 1,000 Prussia . . III 686 152 41 10 1,000 Russia . . 573 ?.-?A «>4 23 6 1,000 Norway . 93 657 i8S 53 12 1,000 Sweden . . 51 643 232 59 15 I.OOO Belgium , 63 625 222 66 24 1,000 Holland . 99 607 212 61 21 1,000 Jews . . . 235 585 9« S4 28 1,000 MARRIAGE 382 MARRIAGE The distribution of marriages according lo months in the various countries is as follows :— - Scotland France Russia Austria Belgium Italy HoUand Scandinavia Greece Vienna Berlin Hungary anuary 160 126 232 167 lOS no 67 61 148 78 69 16S February 70 I2S 270 205 114 Ib7 90 57 121 237 71 267 March . 71 ss 12 57 39 46 59 76 21 18 83 56 April 78 127 43 87 130 ^l^ 136 108 '3| 78 i68 36 May. . 49 91 90 80 149 84 •254 102 98 143 112 114 June . . 174 112 62 70 107 86 101 "5 "3 94 82 81 July. . 124 89 62 62 9S 64 76 96 «7 77 91 37 August . 73 91 20 52 87 73 86 54 68 104 71 40 September 74 91 41 60 100 95 73 68 89 88 103 54 October 74 98 185 86 lOI III 83 141 161 90 14b 86 November 114 120 174 241 120 139 116 166 I4S 180 III 234 December 139 7S 9 33 53 106 59 156 64 13 93 30 Year I,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 From observations made in England and France (1858-67) and in Prussia (1844-61) the relation between the ages of husband and wife was ascertained to be as follows : — When the Age That of the Wife will be of Husband is In England In France In Prussia Under 20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . Over 50 20.0 23.2 28.9 36-8 44.3 22.7 23.3 27.8 35-5 39-8 24.4 25-4 28.0 33-6 42.3 The condition of persons marrying in the various countries is shown as follows : — Husband Wife Bachelor Widower Total Maid Widow Total England . 861 139 1,000 902 98 1,000 France . 881 119 1,000 922 78 1,000 Prussia . 847 153 1,000 98 1,000 Russia . 808 192 1,000 864 136 1,000 Austria . 819 181 1,000 886 114 1,000 Hungary . 811 189 1,000 864 136 1,000 Italy . . 863 137 1,000 924 76 1,000 Spain . . 851 149 1,000 912 88 1,000 Belgium . 878 122 1,000 913 87 1,000 Holland . 848 152 1,000 898 102 1,000 Denmark. 865 135 1,000 914 86 1,000 Sweden . 883 117 1,000 940 60 1,000 Norway . 883 117 1,000 941 59 1,000 Greece . 899 lOI 1,000 926 74 1,000 Roumania 880 120 1,000 912 88 1,000 Bache or with Widower with Total Children Maid Widow Maid Widow Marriage England . 816 45 86 S3 1,000 4.16 France . 840 41 82 37 1,000 2.98 Prussia . 794 53 108 45 1,000 4.12 Bavaria . 823 54 106 17 1,000 Russia . 762 46 102 90 1,000 4.8s Austria . 755 64 131 50 1,000 4.04 Hungary 771 40 93 96 1,000 Italy . . 825 .38 99 .38 1,000 4.49 Spain . 811 40 101 48 1,000 4.66 Belgium . 827 51 86 36 1,000 4.21 Holland. 794 54 104 48 1,000 4-34 Denmark 813 52 lOI 34 1,000 3-55 Sweden . 847 36 93 24 1,000 4.01 Norway . 845 38 96 21 1,000 3.8s Greece . 858 41 68 33 1,000 Roumania 850 30 62 58 1,000 The above tables are mostly from observations of la years down to 1875. Earlier observations are embodied in the following table : — Period of Bachelor with Widower with Obser- vation Total Maid Widow Maid Widow France . . 1856-65 841 ,36 89 34 1,000 England . . 1845-51 823 42 89 46 1,000 Bavaria . . 1851-60 777 64 141 18 I,000 Belgium . . 1851-60 821 49 lOI 29 1,000 Denmark . 1843-49 765 86 127 22 1,000 Spain . . . 1858-62 780 48 116 56 1,000 Scotland . 1846-50 836 37 97 34 1,000 Greece . . 1861-65 868 26 66 40 1,000 Holland. . 1850-59 786 49 120 43 1,000 Italy . . . 1863-66 799 44 III 46 1,000 Norway . . 1846-55 834 SI 90 25 1,000 Sweden . . 1861-65 847 41 90 22 1,000 Switzerland . 1856-60 834 46 96 24 1,000 Austria . . 1855-63 728 58 132 32 1,000 Hungary . 1852-59 665 56 140 139 1,000 The ratios of married, unmarried, and widowed persons in the various countries, as derived from Census returns, show : — Unmarried Married Widowed Total England . , , 602 345 53 1,000 France , . S18 402 80 1,000 Prussia . 600 340 60 1,000 Wurtemburg 623 319 58 1,000 Austria . 596 348 56 1,000 Hungary . 532 407 61 1,000 Italy . . 582 352 66 1,000 Switzerland 609 319 72 1,000 Spain . . 572 360 68 1,000 Portugal . 308 66 1,000 Holland . 6n 328 61 1,000 Belgium . 624 317 59 1,000 Scandinavia 618 330 52 1,000 Chile . . 688 260 52 1,000 The above comprises the whole population. Considering only the women of child-bearing age, which is usually counted from 15 to 45 years, the married ratio (per 1000) will be found as follows ; — England . . 496 Scotland . . 444 Ireland . . 401 France. . . 531 Germany . . 463 Italy . . . 520 Sweden . . 420 Norway . . 437 Denmark . . 450 Belgium . . 409 Holland . . 439 Switzerland . 421 The lowest ratio is in Ireland ; this is the strongest proof of the wretched condition of the Irish people, and offers no hope of improvement. MARRIAGE 383 MARRIAGE The foUowii^ table from the Dcmografia gives the dis- tribution of adults (1879) : — Males over 18 Females over 15 Years Years ■a „ •a E 5 ■0 u ■n 1 1 1 8 B ■s ■fc 1 % 1 France . . . 322 603 7S 1,000 326 ,S42 1.32 1,000 England . . 319 617 64 1,000 361 522 117 1,000 Bavana . . . 440 502 S« 1,000 440 4';7 103 1,000 Belgium . . 42b So^ 71 1,000 427 463 no 1,000 Denmark . . a-ift sas S9 1,000 37-; S07 118 1,000 Scotland . . aw 582 63 1,000 414 4S3 133 1,000 Norway . . 3.S« .S«i 61 1,000 400 4U8 112 1,000 Holland . . 37« 5^6 66 1,000 401; 476 "9 1,000 Portugal . . 440 ■><» ■iS 1,000 4^7 43'i 128 1,000 Prussia. . . 361 ,S83 ,S6 1,000 368 512 120 1,000 Sweden . . . Sb.S 573 62 1,000 403 472 125 1,000 Switzerland . 413 S12 75 1,000 426 449 125 1,000 The married population in various countries has been found to be made up as follows : — Not before Was Married Married before Husband Wife Husband | Wife Total England . . 43a 4,')2 68 48 1,000 France . . . 440 461 60 39 1,000 Prussia . . . 421 4SI 79 49 1,000 Austria . . . 411 442 89 58 1,000 Italy . . . 430 461 70 39 1,000 Holland . . 419 4.SI 81 49 1,000 Sweden . . 443 472 57. 28 1,000 The average age at which widowers and widows re- enter matrimony, and the ratio of second marriages, are as follows : — Marrying Age of Second Marriages in 1000 Widowers Widows Husband Wife England . . . France .... Belgium . . . HoUand . . . 42.2 42-4 42-5 41.6 39-0 38.0 4ao 40-3 139 119 122 152 9| 78 87 102 The average duration of marriages is as follows : — Years England . 27 Fiance . . 26 Germany . 26 Years Rnssia . . 30 Norway . . 24 Sweden . . 23 Years Holland . . 23 Belgium . . 23 Jews ... 25 In England, if the mother die first, the father survives 9i years, but if the fether die first, the mother survives II J years. In the English Census of 1871, the married people living had an average age of 42 years, and had been maiiied 15 years. An enimieration of the inhabi- tants of A^erhus, Norway, in 1763, showed that 150 couples had been over eighty years married. Thde are at least two cases on record of persons married over a dozen times; James Gay, who died at Bordeaux in 1772, aged loi, was married 16 times, having no children by any of his wives ; Margaret M'Dowal, Scotland, died in 1768, having survived 13 husbands, aged 106. Consanguineous marriages, that is, of nndes, meces, aunts, nephews, and cousins, appear to be of a deteriorat- ing tendency. Bertillon, indeed, says that they do not originate any new infirmity, while they multiply any hereditary defect, but most other writers show that they are a ferdle source of new ills. Bemiss says 27 per cent, of such marriages prove barren ; Lent, that 35 per cent, of the children are deaf mutes ; Boudin, that 28 per cent. of deaf mutes in France are children of marriages within the fourth d^ree; Darwin, that 35 per 1000 of blind deaf mutes and lunatics in England are children of cousins- german ; and Poucet, that 20 per cent, of such marriages in Mexico are childless. Boudin says that for one deaf mute of ordinary marriages there vrill be 18 if the parents are cousins, 37 if imcle and niece, and 70 if nephew and aunt Marriages of cousins are commoner among Pro- testants than Catholics, and still more so among Jews : hence it is found at Berlin that there are — 3 deaf mutes among 10,000 Catholics 6 ,, ,, lo.ooo Protestants 27 ,, „ 10,000 Jews Of 1549 marriages contracted in Prussia in 18S9 between blood relations, 1422 were between cousins, no between uncles and nieces, and 16 between aunts and nephews. The ratio of consanguineous among 10,000 marriages, in the various countries, is as follows : — Prussia . . 67 I England . . 75 I France . . . 126 Italy ... 69 1 Alsace . . . 107 1 Jews . . . 230 These marriages are increasing in France, but diminish- ing in Alsace and Italy, viz. : — Date Na per 10,000 Date No. per 10,000 France . Alsace Italy . . 1853-60 1858-65 1868-71 97 1 1861-71 143 1872-75 84 1872 75 126 107 69 They are always more frequent in rural districts than in towns : — Per 10,000 Marriages Rural j Urban 1 General England France .... Alsace .... 79 71 75 130 115 126 121 41 107 Darwin says that 450 per 10,000 marriages among the nobility of England are consanguineous, being six times the average of such marriages in England ; and it appears that 19 per cent of the English nobility are childless, which is more than three times the averages for England. It appears, however, that in Fiance the ratio of children to a marriage is highest where consanguineous marriages are most frequent ; and that the blind, deaf mutes, and insane are decidedly increased by such marriages. The returns of all France for five years ending 1865 show the eighty-nine departments thus : — Depart- nsangmneous !Coi I per 10,000 Marriages 69 103 124 133 195 Children to 100 Marriages 303 300 320 312 329 Blind, Insane, &c , per 100,000 Population =54 275 282 348 345 89 119 308 290 Furthermore, the increase ui France of blind, deaf MARRIAGE 384 MARRIAGE mutes, and insane has .been simultaneous with a rise in this kind of marriages : — Period Consanguineous per 10,000 Marriages Blind, Insane,&c., per 100,000 Population 1856-60 . 1861-65 • 1S66-71 . 93 100 119 126 224 279 290 292 The above table seems to show that consanquineous marriages increase the number of blind, insane, &c. The ratio of these marriages of 100,000 in France, during fifteen years ending 1875, was as follows : — Towns Rural All France Nephew and aunt . Uncle and niece . Cousins. 16 60 960 24 1,190 21 58 1,131 Total . 1,036 1,270 1,212 The marriages with deceased wife's sister or husband's brother averaged 355 per 100,000 marriages. In Italy in 1872-75 the ratio of consanguineous in 10,000 marriages was as follows : — Venice . Naples 24 I Lombardy 30 I Sicily . . 100 I Piedmont . 117 I Liguria . 131 183 Men Women England . . 69 62 France. . . 55 59 Holland , . 54 51 The ratio of the whole kingdom was 69, as already shown. In seven years ending 1874, of all consanguineous marriages 92 per cent, were of cousins, and 8 per cent, of uncles or aunts with nieces or nephews. Regarding barrenness in marriages, it is commonly believed that S per cent of marriages in Great Britain are sterile, and that sterility among women is half again more frequent than among men. A census taken in Prussia on this subject in 1842 showed 11 per 1000 males, 29 per 1000 females, and 34 per 1000 marriages were sterile. United Kingdom In ■1S71 the married and unmarried of the three kingdoms stood in the following ratios : — The marris^e-rate per 1000 inhabitants yearly in various countries was as follows : — Persons Married Yearly per 1000 1841-50 1871-80 1841 -SO 1871-80 England 16. 1 16.3 Sweden . 15.0 13.6 France . IS- 8 ^S-9 Holland . 14.4 16. 1 Germany 17-4 17.7 Belgium . 13.8 14.6 Austria . 17. 1 Denmark . iS-8 15.6 Hungary 20.6 Spain , . IS- 1 Italy . . ... IS' 3 Switzerland ... IS.3 From the above it appears that notwithstanding the improved condition of the working-classes, and the re- duced price of food in all countries since 1850, the marriage-rate has not risen perceptibly. In Sweden and Denmark it has fallen. The following table, from observa- tions in 1857-66, shows the marriage-rate among adults at various ages : — Married Yearly among 1000 of Each Class Age England France Belgium Men Women Men 1 Women Men Women 20-25 121 131 S8 108 34 63 25-30 143 104 114 no «3 89 30-3S 104 64 114 80 84 78 3S-40 81 45 88 49 71 59 40-4S 55 27 47 21 46 31 4S-SO 32 3 25 2 19 2 The marriage-rate yearly per 1000 persons of either sex between the ages of 15 and 60 was as follows : — Men Women Belgium , . 41 44 Denmark . . 60 61 Norway . . 56 52 Observations in 1866-72 showed that the annual marriage-rate of 1000 unmarried persons, male and female, between 15 and 60 years of age was as follows : — England . . 65 Prussia . 71 Belgium , m France , . . 64 Italy . . . 58 Switzerland Sa England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Married .... Unmarried .... Widowed .... 35-1 61.3 3.6 33-9 58.6 7-S 3-3 28.8 62.8 8.4 29-5 66.8 3-7 28,4 62.1 9-5 33.6 62.8 3-6 32.6 59-4 8.0 Total lOO.O 100. 100.0 lOO.O 100. 100. lOO.O lOO.O The married ratio in Ireland is remarkably low. The variations of condition in England since 1851 have been as follows : — Males Females 1851 1 1861 1871 1861 1861 1871 Married . . . Unmarried . . Widowed . . 33-7 3S.O 62.6 61.3 3-7 3.7 3-6 32.9 59-8 7-3 33-9 58.8 7-3 33-9 58.6 7-5 Total . . 100. 100.0 lOO.O 100.0 100.0 100.0 The variations in Scotland showed an increase of married people from 1851 to 1871, viz.: — Males Females 1861 1861 1871 1861 1861 1871 Married . . . Unmarried . . Widowed . . 29.9 66.8 3-3 lit 3-3 30-7 66.0 3' 3 27.8 28.6 28.8 62. S 8.4 Total . . 100.0 100. lOO.O 100.0 loao 100.0 MARRIAGE 38s MARRIAGE The figures for Ireland in 1S81 show a rapid decline of the married ratio since 1871, viz. : — Males Females 1871 1681 1871 1881 Married . . Unmarried . Widowed . 29.5 66.8 3-7 27.6 68.5 3-9 28.4 62.1 9-5 27-0 63.4 9.6 Total . 100.0 100.0 lOO.O 100.0 The marriage rate per 1000 population in the three kingdoms showed thus : — England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom Year Per 1000 Year Per 1000 Year Per 1000 Year Per 1000 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 i88i-«9 16.1 16.9 16.7 16.3 14.8 1855-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 13-7 14.1 14-S 13a 1864-70 1871-80 1881-89 10.5 9-3 8.7 1861-70 i87r-8o 1881-89 15-3 13-8 The ratios of marryii^ age in England in 1871-80 compare with those of 1838 as follows : — Age 1838 1871-80 Men Women Men Women Under 20 . ao-30 . . 30-40 . . Over 40 . . 7P 127 82 142 697 los 56 35 731 144 90 149 680 111 60 Total . 1,000 1,000 I.OOO 1,000 France The ratios of married and uimiarried in the whole population were at various dates as follows : — Males Females ■0 1 •a Year 0} 1 ■a V 1 3 ■0 V t •a c S ■a H b a 3 s ^ H 1806 .... S88 366 46 1,000 S6o 364 86 1,000 1836 .... ws .377 45 1,000 542 363 95 1,000 1856 .... .^W .396 49 1,000 519 : 386 53 1,000 1866 . . . S4.S 403 .52 1,000 498 404 9« 1,000 1876 .... 533 413 54 1,000 482 409 109 1,000 The marriage rate per 1000 population was as follows : Period Period 15.6 1831-40 . . 15.9 1861-70 . . 15.8 15.8 1841-50 . . 15.9 1871-80 . . 15.9 ™ j_ . .155 1851-60 . . 15.8 80 years . . 15.8 The Demografia of 1880 gives a table of the ages in France at which men or women become widowed, in ratios thus : — Period 1801-10 . 1811-20 . 1821-30 . Age at Loss of Town Rural Spouse Men Women Men Women Under 25 . 25-30 30^40 40-50 Over so . 22 91 206 450 78 198 220 469 14 56 178 171 S81 22 46 158 190 584 Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 There is a notable difference between town and country population as to the distributiun of marriages in months. TaJdng the year's total as 1200, we find thus for the years 1861-65 • — 1 - ?, £ « fi L. c h Bi H. h 0^ £ anuary . . 114 135 128 July . . . 99 91 94 February . . J.3.S 164 IS2 August . . 83 63 72 March . . . .H 49 S2 September . 99 8s go April . . . ii,"! 109 111 October . . 107 98 101 May . . . 99 95 97 November . 120 139 131 June . no 120 ii6 December . 60 52 56 Half year. . 627 672 656 Half year . 573 528 544 Germany The marriage rate of Prussia for sixty years down to 1876 averaged 18. 1 per thousand. After the wars of 1815 and 1871 it rose 10 per cent in the following year, and after the cholera visitations of 1831, 1848, 1S56, 1866, and 1873, there was a rise of I per cent. Observations for eighteen years ending 1861 showed the marriage rate among the population over fourteen years of age was as follows : — Among Per 1000 Yearly Males Females Christians .... Jews 54-0 49.0 52-5 44-9 In the same period it was found that the adult male and female popi^ation of Prussia showed thus : — Marrying Age Men Women Under 20 ... . 20-30 30-40 40-50 Over 50 Never many .... 8 487 178 51 24 252 87 187 Total 1,000 1,000 Of lOCO men who marry, it is found that — 332 many younger women 579 .F women of same age 89 ,, older women Of 1000 Catholics who marry, the ratios show — In Married 10 Catholics Protestants ■ Total Towns Rural parts All Prussia 863 965 935 137 35 65 ■ 1,000 l,OCO 1,000 In Bavaria, it appears that of icxx) marriages 681 are Roman Catholics, 254 Protestants, and 65 mixed. The duration of marriage in Leipzig, until death of husband and wife, shows the following ratios : — Years Ratio Less than 5 186 S-10. 10-20 20-30 30^0 Over 40 163 243 198 143 67 Total . 1,000 2 B MARRIAGE 386 MARRIAGE The Census of 1885 gave the numbers of married and unmarried as follows :- Prussia Germany Males Females Total Males Females Total Unmarried Married .... Widowed 8,670,000 4,775,000 450,000 8,355,000 4,795,000 1,270,000 17,025,000 9,570,000 1,720,000 14,250,000 7,910,000 775,000 13,895,000 7,945,000 2,080,000 28,145,000 15,855,000 2,855,000 Total 13,895,000 14,420,000 28,315,000 22,935,000 23,920,000 46,855,000 Austria-Hungary In Vienna the observations for 1872-76 showed : — Husband older . Wife older . Both same age . Total 503 129 368 Catholics . Jews . , Protestants 873 ^^ 50 Total The marrying age for men averaged 32, women 27 years ; and the mean duration of marriage was 16 years. In Hungary, in 1874, the conditions of the people were : — Males Females Unmarried , Married Widowed . 556 412 32 503 407 90 Total 1,000 1,000 The marrying age in Sweden was as follows ; — Italy Observations for 1875-77 showed the marriage rate as follows : — Naples . . 18.4 I Lombardy Sicily . . 17.4 I Piedmont The general rate for the kingdom was 16.2. Sweden In 1870 the male and female population over 15 years of age showed thus : — 17.0 I Tuscany 16.6 Venice . 15-8 15-4 Men Women Unmarried Married Widowed . 422 521 57 403 472 125 Total 1,000 1,000 Taking the year as 1200, the marriages according to months were : — May ... 84 September . 66 June . . . 102 October . . 158 July ... 66 November . 173 August . . 47 December. . 213 anuary . ""ebruary . Marcii . . ■ SO ■ 59 . 80 April . . . 102 Years Men Women Men and Women Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total Nobles Citizens Peasants Under 26 . . . =6-35 36-50 Over 50 ... . 169 601 199 31 216 564 173 47 208 570 177 45 289 529 171 11 385 471 129 15 370 480 136 14 95 68 143 599 220 38 289 556 126 29 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Norway The marriage-rate was per icxDO inhabitants as fol- lows : — Period Period 1836-45 . .14.5 1846-ss . .15.5 The condition of the adult population, men and women, between the ages of 15 and 60 was in 1875 ^ follows : — Period 1801-25 1826-35 16.2 15-0 1856-65 1866-75 14.4 137 Men Women Town Rural j Total | Town Rural Total Unmarried . . Married . . . Widowed . . 480 492 28 470 S06 24 472 : 474 504 , 456 24 1 70 446 507 47 451 498 51 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The marrying age for men is rising, for women falling : — Average Age at Marriage Period 1841-50 . 1861-70 . Men. 3°-4 30-9 Women 28.1 27.9 Taking the year as 1200, the marriages according to months stood thus : — January . . 75 May ... 77 February . . 48 June . . . 158 March ... 65 July . . . 146 April . . . no August . . 54 Belgium In Belgium the different Censuses showed as follows : — Males September . 72 October . . 132 November . 144 December . 118 1846 1866 1880 Unmarried . . Married . . . Widowed . . . 1,417,000 662,000 85,000 1,546,000 766,000 108,000 1,761,000 879,000 118,000 Total . , 2,164,000 2,420,000 2,758,000 Females Unmarried . . Married . . . Widowed . . . 1,355.000 661,000 158,000 1,466,000 763,000 180,000 1,681,000 876,000 205,000 Total . . 2,174,000 2,409,000 2,762,000 MARRIAGE 387 MEDICINE Unmarried Married Widowed . Total Both Sexes 1816 2,772,000 1.323,000 243,000 4,338,000 1866 3,012,000 z. 529.000 288,000 4,829,000 1880 3,442,000 1,755,000 323,000 5,520,000 Of males over 18 years of age the conditions were : — 1846 1866 1880 Unmarried . . Married . . . Widowed . . . 582,000 662,000 85,000 646,000 766,000 108.000 672,000 879,000 118,000 Total . . 1.329,000 1.520.000 1,669,000 Of females over 18 the returns showed thus : — 1846 i 1866 1880 Unmarried , . Married . . . Widowed . . . MS.ooo 660,000 158,000 576.000 761.000 180.000 611,000 874,000 205,000 Total . . 1,363,000 1 1,517,000 1,690,000 The condition of persons marryii^ showed these ratios : — 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 Bachelor and maid . Bachelor and widow Widower and maid . Widower and widow 80.8 5-0 "•S 2.7 82.1 4.9 10.1 2-9 82.6 4-9 9-1 3-4 83-7 3-4 Total . . lOO.O 100.0 100.0 100.0 The ages of the parties manying showed as follows : — Men Women 1841-50 1871-80 1841-60 1871-80 Under 25 . 19-3 21.6 , 35-6 "^i-^ 25-30 • 33- S 34-3 29.6 28.0 30-40 32-9 30-4 25.2 21.8 40-50 10.3 9-1 7.6 6.8 50-60 2.8 3-4 1-7 1.8 60-70 1.0 1.0 0-3 O.S Over 70 0.2 O.Z 0.0 0.0 Total . 100.0 100. 100.0 100.0 Switzerland Of 1000 men married at Geneva there were : — 1872-76 30s Genevans Foreigners 1847-51 641 • 359 69s Total . . 1,000 1,000 The children to 100 foreign fathers were 263 ; to Gene- vans, 242. Russia The manying rate per 1000 inhabitants in 1875 was 20.2 among Greeks, 16.2 among Roman Catholics, 18.0 among Armenians, and 14.6 among Protestants. Portugal In i860 the marriage rate was 12.2 per looo, and in 1864 the population was composed thus : — Male Unmarried . . . 635 Married 321 Widowed .... 44 FemaU 617 296 87 1,000 Total 626 308 66 1,000 Total . . 1,000 Algeria In 1872 the European population of the colony was : — MaU Female Unmarried .... 621 Married 342 Widowed 37 504 384 112 Total . . 1,000 1,000 Finland The marriage rate averaged 16.0 &om 1812 to 1840, and only 15.5 &om ^851 to 1865. MATCHES Sweden and Norway export 20,000 tons of wooden matches yearly, being nearly one-third of the quantity consumed in Europe per annum. The tax on matches in France averages 4d. per inhabitant. MEDICINE The number of physicians and surgeons in various countries is stated as follows : — Number Per Million Population England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... 15.090 3.455 550 850 630 United Kingdom Russia .... Spain .... France .... Germany .... Austria .... Italy Holland .... Belgium .... Norway .... 22,105 13.47s 5,zoo 14.380 16.270 10.690 8,580 1,860 2,i6o 502 578 iSS 305 380 355 27s 280 410 390 275 The above is exclusive of army and navy doctors, of which there are these returns : — French navy 666 Russian navy 413 German navy 50 United States navy 221 Dispensaries are maintained in the United Kingdom to give relief gratis to the poor. In England 972,000 persons received medical attendance and medicines gratis. In Ireland the cost of these institutions is ;^i5o,ooo a year. In France 230,000 persons annually receive medi* cine free at a cost of ;f 58,000. The number of medical students in London in October 1882 was 949. The Italian Universities turn out 630 physicians and suj^eons yearly. The French Universities made 33,000 M.D.'s in eighty-two years, viz. : — Years 1801-14 1815-30 1831-48 No. 3.178 6.423 8.468 Years 1849-69 1870-82 82 vears No. 9.14s S.901 33. "S The ratio of physicians in France is declining : in 1847 it was 510 per million, the prc^ess of sanitary science MENSTRUATION 388 METEOROLOGY causing this decline, or perhaps the heavy tax on doctors, which Leroy-Beaulieu says produces ;f 500,000 a year. The progress of medicine in Austria proper is shown thus :— 1840 1886 Physicians, &c. . . . 9,440 13,228 Midwives .... 14,100 16,940 Total , . 23,540 The returns for Belgium show thus : — 1850 Physicians, &c. . . . 2,786 Midwives 1,128 30,168 1880 3,189 2,176 Total . . 3,914 5,363 In the above returns apothecaries are counted with physicians. In Holland there are 803 graduated M.D.'s, 950 sur- geons, 106 pensioned army doctors, 66 dentists, 750 mid- wives, and 752 apothecaries. The death-rate of physicians is very high. The French army in the Crimea lost 7 per cent, of officers and 18 per cent, of surgeons. The death-rate in England of physicians and civilians differs as follows : — Age 20-54 Civilians 12 per 1000 Married doctors . . . . 19 ,, Unmarried doctors . . . . 26 ,, During the typhus plague in Ireland in 1843-47, no fewer than 66 per thousand of physicians died. Among the people 9 per cent, of deaths were from typhus, but among physicians 32 per cent. MENSTRUATION The medium age at which it commences is stated in the Die. des Sciences Midicale as follows : — Years Years Marseilles , • 13.9 Manchester • iS-S Corfu . 14.0 Lyons • '^S-S Hungary . . 14. 1 Vienna ■ 15.7 London . . 15.1 Halle 16.0 Paris . . 15.2 Copenhagen . 16.8 Despine and Boismont give the following results re- specting 8600 girls in France as the average ages at which it begins : — Years Months Days Under 5 feet . Over s Dark eyes Blue 14 14 14 14 7 9 5 II 14 21 8 24 According to Guy and Murphy the average ages in England are : — Years Months Days London Manchester . . Rural population . Urban .... 14 It IS 11 10 I 4 6 9 24 9 In Calcutta and Bombay the averages are as follow : Years Under 12 12-14 14-16 Over 16 . Tota' Calcutta ■ 29-4 . 47.8 . 18.9 • 3-9 Bombay IS-2 48.2 24.9 11.7 100.0 Dubois gives the age at which it stops as follows; — Java . India France Years 30.0 32-5 4S-S Poland Norway Portugal Yean 47.1 48.1 50.0 METALS The production is stated under Mining. • Conductors of Heat i Electricity Gold. Platinum Silver Copper Iron . Zinc . Tin . Lead 100 98 97 90 36 18 94 16 74 100 16 29 IS A wire 0.84 of a line in diameter will sustain the following weights : — Lead ... 28 lbs. 35 Tin Zinc Gold no 150 Silver . Platinum Copper . Iron 187 lbs. 274 .. 302 ,, S49 •> The fluid density is as follows : — Zinc . . . 6.48 Copper . Iron . . . 6.88 Silver . Tin . . 7.03 Lead METEOROLOGY Air. — In its pure state it is composed thus : — Nitrogen 77 8.22 9-51 10.37 Oxygen Other compounds The percentage of oxygen varies as follows : — Locality Percentage Mines 20.50 When candles go out 18.50 Locality Percentage Sea-shore .... 21.00 Confined houses . . 20.75 The following table shows how oxygen varies vrith climate : — Ben Lomond . . . 20.940 Atlantic 20.942 Lyons 20.942 Mediterranean . , 20.947 Madrid 20.949 Berlin 20.953 Paris. ... . 20.956 Geneva 20.956 Andes .... 20.963 Air travels in England in healthy years about 4J miles an hour, and 3i in unhealthy. The percentage of carbonic acid ranges thus : — In country 03 ,. town 04 „ hospitals 05 In fogs .... ,, crowded lanes ,, theatres. . . •07 •13 .30 Each adult inhales a gallon of air per minute, and consumes daily 30 oz. of oxygen. For the conversion of this oxygen a. certain amount of food is required — say 13 • oz. of carbon for a male, and 1 1 oz. for a female, equiva- lent to 3 lbs. bread and 2J lbs. respectively. The proper allowance of air in barracks is 600 cubic feet per man in Europe, and 1000 in India: for hospitals, 1200 cubic feet per bed in Europe, and 1800 in India. Horses require in England 1600 cubic feet each, or nearly as much as three men. The Scottish Meteorological Society report on the presence of ozone as follows: — May, 6.2; November, 5.3 ; annual average, 6.0. METEOROLOGY 389 METEOROLOGY The atmosphere of Paris shows the prevalence of ozone and bacteria m the various months as follows : — Ozone at Mont Souris per 1000 Cubic Metres Air January . February March April . May . June . July . August September October . November December Average. 3 9 8 7 7 9 12 8 8 8 12 6 8 Bacteria per Cubic Metre Air Mont Souris Rue Rivoli 380 2SS 380 380 420 400 81S 670 630 480 290 230 444 2,200 1,850 4,600 6,400 6,900 6,45° 6.370 6.350 6,400 S.ioo 3,800 2.520 4,910 The foregoing is taken from the Die, des Sciences Medicales, but M. Miguel gives other results for 1S82-83 as follows : — Microbes per Cubic Metre Mont Souris Rue RivoU Spring .... Summer .... Autumn .... Winter .... Yearly average . SSo IIS "S 1,900 3.960 2,060 2,040 2,490 He adds that at a height of 6000 feet in the Swiss mountains no bacteria were found, and gives this table : — 3- 4- S- & M. Bacteria in Ten Cubic Metres of Air. At a height of 2000 metres On the Lake of Thun (560 metres) Near the Hotel Bellevue, Thun . In a room of the hotel . In the park at Mont Souris . In the Rue de Rivoli, Paris . o 8 600 7,600 SS.ooo Miguel's researches on the air of the wards of hospitals were carried out at the Hotel Dieu and the Hospital Notre Dame, and with the result that for the whole year the hospital air contained on an average 11,000 bacteria per cubic metre, as against 850 bacteria per cubic metre of the air of the Rue de Rivoli. The hospital bacteria reached their minimum at the time when the windows could be kept open, in June, July, and Ai^st — average, 55°° — ^ *• ^i™^ when the bacteria in the street had attained a maximum of about 13,000, or 50 per cent, in excess of the average. The maximum of the hospital (28,000) was reached in January, when the weather was cold and the windows shut, and the average in the street had &llen to 160. Microbes multiply so fast that one may become 16 millions in twenty-four hours. Barometer. — In London it usually ranges between .■^.700 and 30.700, but it has exceeded the latter figure Jiree times on record : — In 1778 ... ... 30.93s February 11, 1849 30.895 January 18, 1882 30.9S3 The lowest reading in London was on Christmas Day, 1821, namely, 28.016. The lowest reading known in the British Islands was at Ochtertyre, near Ciieff, Jan. 26, 18S4 : 27.332. The highest readii^ known also occurred in Scotland, Jan. 8-9, 1820, near Lath, when the reading was 31.063. The highest reading recorded in England was at St Leonards, Hastrngs, Jan. 18, 1882 : 30.99a Mr. Glaisher's barometer in his various balloon ascents marked as follows : — Miles High Miles High 4 S Inches 137 11.3 Inches 1 . . . 24.7 2 . . . 20.3 3 . . . 16.7 He therefore estimates for 10 miles 4.2 and for 15 miles 1.6 inches. The mean height of barometer varies according to latitude, and in the northern hemisphere averages as follows : — Degree of Latitude 30 40 Barometer . 29.98 . 30.06 . 3°^" . 30.02 Degree of Latitude 4S SO . 60 . 67 Barometer . 30.00 . 29.81 . 29.80 29.67 But in latitudes south of 25° S. the decrease is very much more rapid, the mean elevation in 55° S. being about 29.30. It also varies according to elevation, the reading diminishing approximately at the rate of I inch for 1000 feet. The actual mean readily at different places are as follows : — Place Feet over Mean Height Boiling-point Sea of Barometer (Fahrenheit). Sea-level . 30.00 212.0 * Rome . 151 29.76 211.6 Milan. 420 29-45 2H.I Moscow 984 28.82 210.2 Geneva 1,221 28.54 209s Munich 1.76s 27.95 208.6 Madrid I.99S 27.72 208.0 Brianfon . 4.285 2539 203.9 St. Remo . S.265 24- 4S 202.1 St. Gothard 6,808 23.07 199.2 Mexico 7.471 22.52 198. 1 Bogota 8,731 21.42 195.6 Quito . 9.541 20-7S 194.2 Antisana 13.455 17.87 187.4 Atmospheric pressure, moreover, varies at the same place with the season. For example, at Ben Nevis, height 4300 feet, the mean pressure marks thus : — January . Februar)' . March April May June The mean pressure for the year was 25.37, or nearly the same as that of Brianjon, which is 4300 feet oversea-level. Martin publishes the following table of the average number of monthly oscillations of the barometer at various towns in France : — 25.16 Jiiy. - • 25.43 25-49 August ■ 25.42 2539 September - 2536 25-38 October . • 25-4S 25-47 November 25.09 25.68 December - 25.09 Summer Winter Year Bordeaux . . . 14 29 22 Dijon . . 11 26 19 Marseilles . 17 23 20 Metz . . 14 26 20 Montpellier 13 23 18 Mulhouse . 13 27 20 Nantes . . 15 29 22 Paris . . 17 31 24 Rochelle . 16 32 24 Strasbuig . IS 29 22 Clouds.— The University of Upsala has (1884-85) de- termined the average height of clouds thus : — Yards Stratus Nimbus Cumulus 685 i,68o 2,040 Strato-cumulus Cino-cumulus Cirrus Yards 2,560 7,110 9.760 METEOROLOGY 39° METEOROLOGY Evaporation. — Gasparim's table estimates 25 inches for the level parts of France, 27 for the western coast, 35 for the hilly country, and 90 for the Southern Departments. He also gives twelve cities thus : — Inches Inches Inches Aries ... 90 Marseilles . 96 Rome. . . 98 Bordeaux . 82 Paris ... 24 Rotterdam . 27 Geneva . . 48 Poitiers , . 32 Toulouse . 26 Lille ... 36 Rochelle . . 25 Troyes . . 33 Hail. — 1656, July 20th, Norwich, wrecked houses and killed many persons. 1697, May 4th, killed sheep in many parts of England. 1775, May 13th, Murcia, Spain, hailstones like oranges, weighing 20 oz. 1844, in Languedoc, pieces of ice fell weighing 11 lbs. 1874, New Jersey, U.S., hailstones like turkey eggs. Damage to crops in France by hail since 1850 has averaged ;^i, 420,000 per annum. Magnetic Observations. — At Paris the magnetic de- clension was recorded thus : — Year 1580. 1618. 1663. Year Year 11.30 E. 1700 . 8.10 W. IBS'; 8.0 „ 1780 • I9-SS .. 1851 1805 • 2S-S .. i86i 22.4 w. 20.25 tl ig.6 ,, The variations of the needle at Paris showed the fol- lowing angle of inclination : — Year 1671 1754 1780 750 72-15 71.48 Year 1798 1806 1820 69.51 69.12 68.20 Year 1831 1851 1861 67.40 66.3s 66.7 The following table firom Humboldt : — of magnetic intensity is chiefly Peruvian Andes Carthegena . Naples .... Lyons .... Paris .... St. Petersburg , Berlin . . . , Christiania Brussels .... BafSn's Bay . Spitzbergen . New York Meteors.— '^ov^rrHott 27, 1885, the Greenwich Obser- vatory counted 3000 between 6 and 11 p.m. : first hour at intervals 40 per minute ; at 9 P.M. about 20. On November 14, 1868, the Observatory at Phila- delphia counted 4800 between 12.20 and 5 A.M. Mineral Heat. — The temperature of water being taken as 100, that of the various minerals is as follows : — North Latitude ■ 10.25 . 40.50 ■ 45-46 . 48-52 • 59-46 • 52-51 • 59-55 . 50-52 ■ 12.43 ■ 79-40 - 40.43 Magnetic Intensity 1,087 1,294 1,274 1.333 1.348 1,410 1,366 1,419 1.374 1. 590 1,562 1,803 Lead Mercury Silver . Zinc Copper Iron Glass . Sulphur 95 no 117 The average rainfall is heaviest near the Equator, and diminishes as the latitude rises, viz. : — Latitude 30 40 50 60 70 80 Inches Rainfall 100 80 60 40 30 20 10 5 Rainfall. — The rainfall according to seasons (Gasparim). is as follows, in inches ; — Spring Summer Autumn Winter Year England . 6 8 10 8 .32 Scandinavia 3 7 6 3 19 Russia 2 7 4 4 17 France 6 7 5 27 Germany . 5 8 6 5 24 Italy . 5 5 7 20 37 Europe 4 7 7 5 23 United States . II II 12 11 45 Atlantic States . 11 II II 3 36 Southern . 13 17 II 14 55 Western . 6 II 6 3 26 Pacific 12 7 18 25 62 Australia . 8 9 12 6 35 West Indies 31 22 27 8 88 Sierra Leone 12 65 46 2 125 Patagonia . 3 3 6 3 IS The heaviest r linfalls recorde( in the United Ki ngdom have been :- 7 inches at Ardrishaig, Argyle, on 7th Dec. 4J inches at London on 13th April 1878. 1863. It is stated that 24 inches have fallen at Bombay in 24 hours, also 30 inches at the Khasi Hills, India, 30 at Genoa, and 33 at Gibraltar. The wettest place in England is Seathwaite, 145 inches; and in the world Cherrapungi, in South- Western Assam, where the average for 15 years is 493 inches, reaching in 1 86 1 up to 905 inches. The rainfall of the United Kingdom (54 stations), European Continent (45 stations), and the United States {34 stations), from 1824 to 1S67, was : — Inches per Annum Period United Kingdom European Continent United States 1824-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-67 29 29 31 33 38 25 29 26 25 44 40 42 40 The rainfall of various countries power is valued as follows : — Horse-power United Kingdom 9,300,000 France . . 12,000,000 Germany . . 11,800,000 reduced to horse- Horse-power Russia , . 77,700,000 Italy . . 8,500,000 United States . 430,200,000 The average in inches is as follows, yearly : — Inches Aberdeen ■ 30 Adelaide . 20 Agen , • 27 Agra . ■ 23 Alexandria . 10 Algiers . - 32 Alicante • 71 Allahabad • 27 Ancona • 29 Apulia . . 22 Aries . • 23 Armagh • 36 Asuncion . 82 Auckland • 44 Augsburg - 41 Aurillac . 46 Auzerre . 26 Azores . • 30 Bag. Bigo re 54 Baku . . 14 Baltimore . Barcelona Barbadoes Bath . . Bayonne . . Batavia . . Baton Rouge Belfast. .' . Beauvais . . Bergen Berlin . . . Bermuda . . Benares . , Bengal . . Berne . . . Besan9on . , Beziers . , Birmingham , Black Sea . , Blois . . , Inches • 41 17 58 30 52 78 61 32 22 89 24 55 42 36 46 25 17 24 61 25 Bologna Bombay . . Bordeaux . . Boston . . Bourbon . . Brescia . . Brest . . . Brighton . . Brisbane . . Bristol . . . Brussels , , Buda-Pesth . Buenos Ayres Bushire , . Cairo . . . Calais . . . Calcutta . . Cambray . . Cambridge Inches 8S 29 45 47 50 36 31 43 23 29 17 33 13 Canaijr Islands 83 METEOROLOGY 391 METEOROLOGY Inches Cannes . . 36 Canton . . 39 Capetown . 23 Caracas , . 155 Carcasonne . 30 Carlsruhe . . 27 Castille . . 12 Catania . 28 Cayenne . . 116 Chalons . . 25 Chambery . 41 Charleston . 54 Cincinnati . 46 Clermont . . 21 Coblenz . 22 Coimbra , , 173 Colombo . . 73 Comorin, C. . 28 Constantinople 41 Copenhagen . 22 Copiapo . . I Cordoba, S. ) America . \^^ Corfu ... 54 Cork ... 40 Coromandel . 54 Corrientes . 58 Cracow . . 13 Crimea . . 15 Cura9oa . . 27 Cyprus . . 13 Daijeeling . 104 Delhi ... 24 Demerara. . 126 Detroit . . 30 Dijon ... 29 Dover ... 48 Dovrefeld Mt 90 Dublin . . 30 Dumfries . . 37 Dunedin . . 29 Durban . . 42 Inches Edinburgh . 31 Elgin ... 24 Erfurth . . 14 Feejee Islands 50 Fernando Po 102 Florence Friburg Galveston Geneva Genoa . Ghauts Mtns. 173 Gibraltar , . 44 Gironde . . 23 Glasgow . . 44 Gondar . . 37 Goree ... 21 Grahamstovvn 25 Grenada, W.I. 105 38 48 52 33 50 Grenoble Grimsel . Guadaloupe Guatemala Havana . Hayti . . Himalaya, S. 622 Hobart . Hong-Kong Hyderabad Iceland Isle of Man 37 93 129 49 77 56 Isle of Wight 31 Jamaica Jerusalem . Kandy. . Key West Konigsberg Lausanne Leeds . LiUe . Lima . Limerick Limoges Inches Lisbon. . . 27 Liverpool . . 35 London . . 25 Louisville . . 49 Lucca ... 55 Lucknow . . 37 Lyons ... 28 Macao ... 71 Macori. . . 30 Madeira , . 25 Madias . . 46 Madrid . . 12 MagellanStraits 15 Majorca . . 14 Malabar . . 82 Malaga . . 20 Malta ... 20 Manchester . 36 Manilla . . 87 Mannheim . 22 Mantua . . 31 Maranham . 280 Marseilles . . 21 Matamoros . 36 Mauritius . . 36 Meerut. . . 32 Melbourne . 27 Memphis, U.S. 42 Mendoza . . 6 Messina . 26 Metz ... 28 Middleburg . 26 Milan ... 38 Milwaukee . 30 Mogador . . 50 Montevideo . 44 Montpelier . 34 Mooltan . . 7 Nagpoor . . 45 Namur . . 21 Nancy ... 28 Nantes. . . 52 Inches Naples. . . 31 Nashville . . 51 Natchez . . 58 New Brunswick 51 Newfoundland 58 New Orleans . 51 New York New Zealand Nice . . Nismes Nilgherries Norfolk, U.S. Norwich . Nottingham Oporto. . Oran Orleans . Oxfotd. . Padua . . Palermo . Para . . Paris . . Parana. . Parma . . Pau . . . Pekin . . Penzance . Pernambuco Perpignan Perth, W.A. Peshawur . Philadelphia Pisa . . Pittsburg . Poitiers . Poona . . Port Said . Port Elizabeth 24 Potsdam . Prague. . Provence . Quetta . Rangoon Ratisbon Reikjavik Rheims Rio Janeiro Inches . 8 • 173 ■ 23 • 30 ■ 19 S3 Rhone Valley 38 25 36 23 30 27 60 Rochelle Rohilcund Rotterdam Rome , . Rouen . . St. Bernard St. Domingo . 108 St. Etienne . 53 St. Gothard 73 St. John's. . 58 St. Petersburg 17 St. Helena . 45 St. Louis . . 42 Salt Lake . . 18 San Francisco 23 San. Luis, Ar-I gentlne Re- ^22 public . . j Santiago, Chile 11 Savannah . . 55 Seville ... 22 Sienna ... 38 Sierra Leone . 125 Simla Simplon . Singapore. Sitka . . Smyrna . Splugen . Stockholm Strasburg . Stuttgart . Sumatra . Sydney 71 41 ISO 91 24 73 20 27 2S 189 43 Texas . Ticino . Tifiis . Toronto Toulon Toulouse Tours . Trieste . Trinidad Truro . Tubingen Tucuman Tunis . Turin . Udine . Ulm . Upsal . Utah . Utrecht Valdivia Valence Valparaiso Venice . Vera Cruz Verona Vevay . Vicenza Vienna . Viviers. Vosges . Washington Wellington Wilmington Windermere Wiiizburg Yakutsk . Yokohama York . . Ziirich . . Zambesi . Zanzibar . Inches 12 67 . 20 38 24 25 22 43 64 44 26 42 12 32 68 27 19 24 29 106 37 14 34 183 38 47 44 20 36 27 41 S2 S9 140 14 II 71 24 34 61 S8 The rainfall iccor ding to months in various parts of the world is : — Inches i 1 1 < c s 2. 1 en 1 I .Q E 1 E s Q Ben Nevis .... 17.8 133 S-9 7-S 4.0 7-S II-5 8.7 II. 12.2 9.0 17.6 126.0 Bourbon 8.8 11.2 S-3 4.8 30 0.6 0-3 1-7 0.8 1-7 3-2 S-3 46.7 Cannes . 3-2 2-S 3-7 2.7 2.2 1-4 0.6 0.9 31 6-3 4-S 4-9 36.0 Canton. 0.8 0.6 3-6 8.2 8.S 2.7 7-7 6.1 0.6 0-3 39-1 Chambery . 30 2.4 s's 2.8 3-3 3.2 2.9 4-3 4.0 4-2 3-9 3-4 41.0 Colombo 3-0 2.1 2.1 75 I3-S 6.9 3-4 2.8 S-3 11.4 10.8 4-S 73-4 Copenhagen , 1.4 1.2 1-3 1.2 i-S 2.3 2.6 2.4 2.7 2.2 2.0 1-7 22.4 Fernando Po I.O 3-7 9.2 8.4 8.S ii.i 6.S II-3 16.8 iS-6 8-9 I.I 102. 1 Hayti (P. Prince) 0.9 2.9 3-1 S-4 11.9 3-7 3-7 6.2 7-3 S-8 3-6 1-4 SS-9 Hong-Kong . 0.6 1.6 2-3 6.4 ''■% 21. 1 16.4 13-9 15-3 6.4 7.0 3-0 101.6 Macao . 0.6 1-7 2-5 S.6 11.8 II.I 7-7 9.9 II.I S-S 2-4 0.9 70.8 Magellan Straits 1.4 1.0 2.0 3-3 1.0 I.I 0.4 1-5 0.6 0.9 I.I 1.0 15-3 Natal . 4.2 S-2 4-1 2.3 o-S 0.1 0.2 0.7 1-7 2.6 S-7 4-S 31-8 Paris . 1.4 1-4 1-3 1.8 1-4 2.S 2.0 2.2 2.1 2-3 2.2 1.8 22.4 Pekin . 3-4 S-6 4-4 0.4 I.I 2.4 4.2 S.8 7-7 1-3 0-3 4-8 41-4 Perpignan . 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.6 1-4 0.8 1-3 2.1 2.0 2.2 1-9 21. 1 Sebastopol . 2.9 2.6 2.2 3-8 0.9 6.2 4-7 1-7 1-3 1.6 3-2 3-7 34-8 Senegal (St. Louis) 0.3 0.8 o-S 0.4 30 6-S S-i 0.4 17.0 Sierra Leone. o-S 0-3 0.6 3.2 8.2 14-7 2S-8 28.6 30.0 14-7 S-I 1-4 133- 1 Rainfall of United Kingdom The average annual rainfall of Great Britain since 1815 has been as follows : — Years 1815-24 . 1825-34 . 1833-44 . Inches Years Iruhes 29.0 1845-54 . . 28.6 28. s 1855-64 . . 26.6 28.3 i86s-Sa . . ao.3 The average rainfall is equal to 630,000 gallons (almost 3000 tons) per acre per annum, of which 2000 tons are required to feed the rivers and crops, and 1000 tons per acre are lost, being allowed to run off. The above does not include Ireland, where the rainfall averages 35 inches. Scotland appears to have less rainfall than England or Ireland. METEOROLOGY 392 METEOROLOGY The rainfall of the United Kingdom is shown in months thus : — '^England U. Kingdom (181S-48) (1850-59) Scotland Ireland Inches Inches Inches Inches fanuary 1-7 3-4 3-3 4.0 February . 1.6 2,2 2.2 2.8 March 1.6 2.0 2.1 2-3 April . 1-7 2.1 1.9 2.8 May . 2.0 1.8 1.6 2.1 June . 1.8 2-S 2.2 2.7 July . . . 2-4 2.9 2.6 30 August 2.4 3-0 2.6 3-2 September . 2.4 2.7 2-5 2-5 October 2.7 3-S 3-1 30 November . 2-S 3-0 2.9 3-0 December . 2.0 3-0 30 3-6 Year . 24.8 32.1 30.0 35-0 The quantity of ammonia in rain differs greatly with locality, viz. : — Valentia, Kerry . . i.oo Scotland, West Coast . 2.69 ,, mountains . 2.96 „ East Coast . 5.51 England, East Coast . 5.94 ,, West Coast. 10.55 Germany . London Scotland , Liverpool . Manchester Glasgow . 16.61 19.17 21.22 29.89 36-54 5°-S8 The average rainfall in London for seventy years has been : — Summer, half-year Winter ,, 12.87 12.03 Annual rainfall . , .24.90 Taking the above figures as par, the variations of seventy years have been as follows : — Summer Winter Year Summer Winter Year 1813-22 97 no 103 1853-62 105 85 95 1823-32 108 93 101 1863-72 93 107 100 1833-42 92 99 95 1873-82 no 106 108 1843-52 95 101 98 Rainfall of France. Raulins states the rainfall according to seasons in France and Geneva thus : — Inches Spring Summer Autumn Winter Year Agen .... 7.6 6.4 7-4 6.2 27.6 Aries . . . . S-4 3-2 8.0 S-S 22.1 Auxerre . . . s-a 8.7 6.2 S'O 2S-7 B. Bigorre . . 18.6 10.2 13.2 11.7 53-7 Bayonne . . , 12.5 10.4 16.1 12.7 51-7 Beauvais . . . S-i 6.1 6.3 4.8 22.3 Besanpon . . . s-s 10. 1 6.8 2.6 25.3 Blois .... 7-1 5-9 7-1 S-3 25-4 Bordeaux . . . 6.8 7.0 9-1 8.8 31-7 Calais .... 6.5 S-o 9-3 8.6 29.4 Cambray . . . 3-2 6.7 4-7 1.9 16.5 Carcassonne . . 9.2 5-2 7.6 7-4 29.4 Chalons, Saone . S-i 7-4 7.8 4.6 24.9 Clermont . . . S.2 6.S S-9 3-6 21.2 Dijon . . . . 6-3 7-1 8.7 S.8 27.9 Geneva . . . 7-4 9.2 lo-S 6-S 33-6 Grenoble . . . 9.2 9-7 11.8 8.2 38.9 Lille . . . . 5-6 7-5 7.6 6.0 26.7 Limoges , . . 8.2 8.7 10.0 8.4 3S-3 Lyons . , , . b.9 7.8 8.S 4.1 27-3 Marseilles . . 4.2 2.0 8.2 4-7 19.1 Metz . . . . 6.1 8.2 7.0 S-6 26.9 Montpellier . . 8.0 4-3 13-2 9-3 .34.8 Nancy .... 6.7 8.2 7-4 6.2 28.5 Nice . . . . 7.2 3-2 12.4 8.8 31.6 Spring Summer Autumn Winter Year Nismes Orleans Pau. . Poitiers Rheims Rochelle Rouen . Strasburg Toulon Toulouse Tours . Valence Average Inches 6.2 6.4 16.2 S-3 4.0 4.6 6.0 7.0 6.4 6.9 5-2 8.7 7.0 4.0 6.9 9.0 S-o S-9 3-7 7-S 9-S 1.8 S-9 S-6 7-4 6.6 9.1 7.0 12.0 7.0 S-4 8-5 7-7 6.7 12.2 5-9 7.0 14.9 8.7 S-S S-i 10.4 s.8 35 6.9 6.2 4-3 8-5 4-7 . 4-6 6.0 6.4 24.8 2S-4 47.6 23.1 18.8 23-7 27-4 27.S 28.9 23-4 22.4 370 28.7 The annual rainfall of Paris has been as follows : — Period 1689-1747 1748-1788 Ins. . 18 . 21 Period 1789-1818 1819-1848 Ins. . 18 Period 1849-1872 1873-1882 Ins. 23 The total rainfall of France is as follows : — Million Tons per Annum Tons per Second Outflow by Rhone . . . ,, Gironde. . . Loire . . . ,, Seine . . . Other rivers Absorbed for crops, &c. . S4.O0O 37.000 31,000 22,000 36,000 195,000 1,718 1,178 985 694 1,146 6,180 Total . . 37S.00O 11,901 France loses nearly half her rainfall, England more than one-third. Snow. — The average number of days on which snow falls in a year is as follows : — Aberdeen . Brussels . . Charleston . Copenhagen . Dublin. Florence Geneva Greenland Grenoble Halifax Hamburg . Iceland Lisbon . Macon Madrid . . Milan . . . Moscow . . Newfoundland Odessa . . . Ostend . . . Oxford. . . Paris . . . Quebec . . Rome . . . St. Gothard . St. Louis . . St. Petersburg Saragossa . Sebastopol Sienna . Strasburg Trieste. Turin . Upsal . Vancouver Vienna. Warsaw Winnipeg Yakutsk 62 S la 6 16 6 9 61 7 33 4S 54 55 The most remarkable snovvfalls in England have been in the foUoviring years : — 1 141 1606 1674 1683 1709 1762 1784 1799 1812 1814 1820 1836 The earliest snow of the season was that of October 7th, 1829, in the present century. There was no snow from November 1862 till February 1864. The line of perpetual snow varies with latitude, and is as follows in feet above sea-level : — Lat. o . 20 30 Norway . . Iceland . Straits of Magellan Siberia Alps . Pyrenees . Caucasus , S. Nevada Feet . 15,260 • 14.764 - 13.478 . 11,484 Feet 2,400 3.090 4,700 4,800 8,940 9,000 11,100 tl,200 Lat. 40 . 50 . 60 . 70 Himalayas, S. Abyssinia . Ararat Mexico Andes, E. . Chilian do. Himalayas, N. Andes, W. Feet 9.000 6.334 3.818 1,278 Feet 13,100 14,200 14.300 14,800 15,800 15.900 16,700 18,600 METEOROLOGY 393 METEOROLOGY Storms, — The most destructive in the United Kingdom have been : — 1 703, November 27th. — Damage in London, ;^2,ocio,cxxj. On the coast twelve war-ships sunk and 1 800 men lost. I775> October 29th. — Almost equal to the above. Houses blown down and ships sunk. 1839, January 6th. — Many houses blown down at Uiverpool and Dublin, and 200 persons killed at Liver- pool. 1859, October 2Sth. — Great loss of shipping, including the " Royal Charter" near Holyhead. 1879, December 28th. — ^Tay Bridge blown down ; loss «f 90 Uves. See Wind-pressure. Suimarine Temperature. — ^The decrease of temperature with depth varies according to latitude : thus 500 fathoms at the Equator make a difference of 39 degrees Fahr. from the surface, while abreast of Lisbon it would be only 23 degrees, and at the Parol Islands little over 10 degrees. The following table shows the variations thus : — Degrees Fahrenheit Equator Off Lisbon Surface 100 fathoms .... Soo 1,000 „ .... 1,500 ,, .... 2.700 „ .... 78 56 39 37 36 3S 64 47 38 37 3S The average depth of the Mediterranean is 800 fathoms, and the temperature at the bottom is fpund to average 54° Fahr. The Red Sea, with surface temperature of 90 , was found to have 70° Fahr. at the bottom — a depth of 400 fathoms — which is rather more than the difference quoted above at the Equator. Subterranean Temperature. — Subterranean temperature seems the same in the southern as in the northern hemi- sphere, a well at Buenos Ayres showing (in winter) 97° Fahr. at a depth of 2000 ft. The variations of a well in Yorkshire, 350 ft. deep, accordit^ to season, have been recorded thus : — At 100 Feet At 350 Feet April .... 45 42 June .... 6s 46 December ... 41 43 The following table shows a variety of mines and borings, and the average increase of temperature per 1000 feet : — Depths Increase, Fahr. t Feet per 1000 Feet Flint 1. 041 Kentish Town Whitehaven Crenelle Schemnitz . Bootle . Monkwearmouth Seraing Przibrau Lincoln Rosebridge . Ashton Moss Speremberg . Bohemian Mine Mont Cenis . St. Gothard The temperature at various Speremberg, and the Bohem: was as follows : — 12- S 18.0 1,100 1,250 2Z.O 1,312 17.3 1,368 13.3 1.392 7-7 1,584 14.3 1,657 20.0 x,900 8,0 2,000 14.5 2,443 i8-4 2,790 13.0 3,500 19.4 4,600 16.5 5,280 12.6 5,578 12.2 depths in the Rosebridge, lan mine above mentioned Bohemian Speremberg Rosebridge Depth, Ft. Fahr. Depth, Ft. Fahr. Depth, Ft. Fahr. 300 49 720 71 480 65 600 SI 1. 130 80 600 66 1,200 58 1.55° 84 1,800 80 1.650 61 2,160 97 2,200 89 4,600 120 3.S00 116 2.450 94 Sun Spots.- follows : — -Wolf's table for sixty-six years showed as Period Maximum Year Number cfSpots Minimum Year Number of Spots 1811-20 . 1821-30 . 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-77 . 1816 1829 1837 1848 i860 1870 1871 47 136 125 95 132 114 1811 1823 1833 1843 1856 1867 1877 2 3 .9 13 5 9 7 Thunder. — The average number of days of thunder yearly in France is :- 26 Marseilles . II Toulouse . . 16 Poitiers Paris . . • 14 Strasburg . • 17 Nancy . Rouen . . . 15 Metz . . . 18 Mulhouse Thermometer.— Th e mear temperature of the various cities Df the world in degrees Fahrenheit is: — >> 1 >. 1 1 t < & S g S >> ■§ 0) 1 0. 1 U 1 e I 1 1 8, c OS Al>erdeen . 37 38 41 45 52 56 59 58 55 48 42 40 48 12 Adelaide . 74 74 70 65 58 54 52 54 57 63 67 71 63 22 Agra . 60 65 76 88 94 95 87 86 84 80 70 62 79 35 Aiaccio 50 52 .54 .5« 62 70 76 78 72 64 56 SI 62 28 Albany . 24 25 35 47 59 68 72 70 61 49 39 28 48 48 Alexandria 5S S8 61 66 72 76 78 81 78 75 69 61 69 25 Algiers 54 55 .57 61 66 72 76 77 74 68 60 SS 65 23 Amsterdam 33 37 41 4« 55 62 65 63 61 SI 42 37 5° 32 Ancona 42 46 .50 57 67 73 80 78 73 62 53 • . 46 61 38 Archangel . 6 9 21 31 40 ss 61 57 47 35 23 12 33 55 Arica. 72 71 70 68 66 65 64 03 63 66 69 72 67 9 Astrakan . 20 21 31 49 64 73 78 74 64 51 37 26 49 58 Asuncion . 80 83 82 74 68 60 70 74 78 «3 82 81 76 23 Athens 47 52 59 68 76 81 80 74 66 57 SO 63 34 Auckland . 68 68 66 62 57 52 52 .55 58 61 66 60 16 Ava . 65 73 75 93 84 86 82 82 82 81 74 68 77 28 METEOROLOGY 394 METEOROLOGY a 1 — 1 J3 1 1 a )— 1 (A < Si 1 .a S 1 a. Azores 57 56 57 59 62 65 71 71 69 65 61 58 62 16 Bagdad 52 53 64- 72 87 91 95 94 86 76 62 53 74 43 Barcelona 48 51 S3 62 70 77 78 72 65 55 48 61 30 Batavia 78 78 79 80 80 80 79 79 80 79 79 78 79 2 Benares 61 66 77 88 91 90 84 84 83 79 68 60 78 31 Ben Nevis 25 27 24 26 32 45 41 40 37 28 26 23 31 22 Bergen 34 36 37 44 52 61 59 54 48 41 37 47 27 Berlin 31 34 38 47 56 64 66 65 58 50 39 48 35 Bermuda 64 64 63 67 72 77 81 83 80 75 71 66 72 20 Berne 26 32 38 46 54 59 62 61 55 47 37 31 46 36 Biskra 50 54 57 66 76 84 90 88 80 68 53 51 69 40 Bogota 60 61 59 59 59 59 57 62 61 59 59 59 60 5 Bombay 74 75 79 83 85 83 81 80 80 81 79 76 80 II Bordeaux 41 45 SI 56 61 67 73 73 67 58 48 43 57 32 Boston 28 28 36 46 57 66 72 70 62 52 41 33 49 44 Brest . 44 45 46 52 56 60 64 64 61 54 47 43 53 21 Brisbane 79 77 76 71 66 60 60 63 68 72 77 78 70 19 Brussels 36 39 42 5° 56 61 66 63 S9 5° 42 37 50 30 Euda-Pesth 28 33 39 64 68 71 71 62 SI 40 32 51 43 Buenos Ayres 76 74 70 62 57 52 50 S3 57 62 68 73 63 26 Burlington, U.S 21 21 31 42 55 65 70 ■68 59 48 36 25 45 49 Bushire 57 57 63 72 81 84 83 89 85 78 69 61 74 32 Cadiz 52 55 55 60 64 70 70 73 70 67 59 54 63 21 Cagliari 48 52 SI 58 66 71 76 78 71 67 59 53 62 30 Cairo . 56 56 65 71 80 83 85 84 79 74 65 59 71 29 Calcutta 65 71 79 84 85 85 83 82 82 80 73 65 78 20 Canton 53 58 63 70 77 81 83 82 80 73 65 57 71 30 Capetown 70 70 67 . 63 58 56 55 56 58 61 64 68 62 IS Carlsruhe 33 37 42 51 60 64 67 66 60 SI 42 36 51 34 Cashmere 17 20 31 41 47 56 62 60 52 40 30 23 40 39 Cawnpore 64 70 72 89 97 91 87 88 85 80 7S 68 80 33 Cayenne 79 79 79 80 80 80 81 81 82 82 81 79 80 3 Charleston 51 53 58 65 73 81 83 82 76 63 58 51 66 32 Christiania 24 26 30 37 48 58 62 61 52 41 34 24 41 38 Cincinnati . 33 34 44 54 63 72 77 74 66 55 44 34 54 44 Colombo . 80 81 82 83 83 82 81 81 81 81 80 80 81 3 Constantinople 40 41 46 51 59 67 72 73 67 60 52 44 56 33 Copenhagen 30 25 32 41 50 60 66 62 59 49 38 34 46 40 Copiapo . 70 71 69 64 60 57 57 56 61 65 67 71 64 IS Cordoba, Arg. F .ep. ; 73 70 65 58 53 5° 47 54 60 62 68 73 61 26 Corfu SO 51 53 60 67 74 79 79 73 68 59 53 64 29 Cyprus 53 50 57 63 72 81 84 85 82 73 61 52 68 35 Darjeeling 39 41 48 54 56 60 61 61 59 SS 43 42 S2 22 Delhi . 58 62 74 85 90 94 87 87 85 79 68 60 77 36 Dieppe 39 43 42 52 S8 63 66 64 61 52 46 41 52 27 Drontheim 19 26 21 34 SI 59 6S 59 54 39 27 25 40 46 Dublin 39 41 43 48 54 60 61 61 56 51 44 42 50 22 Dunedin 58 58 55 52 47 44 43 43 47 51 53 56 51 IS Durban 74 76 72 66 60 56 55 56 60 64 69 71 65 21 Edinburgh 37 38 41 44 50 56 58 57 54 48 41 40 47 21 Erfurt 30 34 37 48 57 64 67 65 61 47 39 30 48 37 Erzeroum 28 36 48 65 68 83 89 90 78 65 44 30 60 62 Etna Mountain 16 15 22 23 34 38 46 47 39 30 23 18 29 31 Feejee Islands 81 81 81 80 79 78 77 77 78 79 80 82 /9 S Fernando Po 81 82 81 .79 76 75 76 75 74 76 78 80 78 8 Florence . 41 45 51 60 65 71 77 76 69 60 SO 46 59 36 Frankfort . 31 36 42 49 58 64 66 65 59 SO 41 35 50 35 Friburg 24 30 39 46 55 59 62 61 54 45 36 30 45 38 Galveston . 53 58 64 69 78 83 84 83 79 72 62 56 70 31 Geneva 31 33 40 47 54 63 65 64 58 50 42 34 48 34 Gondar 67 70 71 72 72 68 62 62 62 64 65 65 16 Grahamstown 74 73 72 67 65 63 63 66 67 68 69 70 68 II Gratz . 25 31 37 47 S8 66 68 66 60 48 42 28 48 43 Grenoble . 31 39 47 51 57 64 68 67 60 51 41 32 SI 37 Guatemala 61 62 67 68 69 68 66 66 66 65 6S 62 65 8 Hague 35 40 44 SI 57 62 66 67 61 S4 43 40 52 32 Hamburg . 31 34 37 45 54 59 64 64 58 50 40 33 47 33 Havana . ■ 72 72 74 78 80 82 82 82 81 79 75 73 78 10 Havre 41 44 43 53 59 64 68 66 62 54 46 43 54 27 Helsingfore 18 18 23 34 44 56 61 60 52 42 34 23 39 43 Hobart 63 62 60 55 SI 47 46 49 51 54 58 61 55 17 Hong-Kong 61 62 63 71 79 82 83 82 81 73 71 66 73 22 Honolulu . 72 72 72 74 76 78 80 79 78 76 74 74 75 8 Hydrabad . 63 66 78 86 91 91 88 85 86 83 71 63 79 23 Iceland 30 28 30 37 44 52 SS SI 47 38 30 28 39 27 METEOROLOGY 395 METEOROLOGY 5 JO •c a < E e Innspruck ... 28 Isle of Man . . 42 Jamaica ... 76 Jersey ... 41 erusalera ... 47 Kandy ... 74 Kazan ... 6 Konigsberg . . 25 Lausanne ... 33 Lille .... 37 Lisbon . . . s^ London ... 37 Lucknow ... 61 Lyons ... 36 Macao ... 62 Maqon ... 31 Madeira ... 61 Madras ... 76 Madrid ... 41 Magellan Straits . 55 Majorca ... 52 Malaga . . . SS Malta ... 56 Manilla • ■ • 75 Mannheim. , . 34 Marseilles ... 43 Mauritius ... 79 Melbourne. . . 67 Messina ... 54 Mexico • • • SS Milan • • • 33 Mogador . . . fe Montevideo . . 73 Montgomery, U.S. . 49 Montpelier . . 39 Montreal ... 15 Mooltan ... 54 Moscow ... II Munich ... 29 Muscat ... 68 Nagasaki ... 41 Nagpoor ... 69 Naples ... 47 Nashville ... 39 New Caledonia . . 79 New Orleans . . SS Nice . . . . 4S Norfolk, U.S. . . 40 North Cape . . 22 Odessa . .- . 25 Oporto . . . S° Oran . . . ■ S° Orenburg ... 2 Palermo . . . S^ Para .... 80 Paris. ... 36 Pau .... 44 Pekin ... 24 Penzance ... 42 Perth, W. Australia . 76 Peshawur ... 5° Port Darwin . . 83 Prague ... 28 Pultowa ... IS Quetta ... 41 Quito ... 58 Ratisbon ... 28 Rio Janeiro . • 80 Rome ... 45 St. Bernard . . 15 St Gall ... 29 St. Helena . 64 St. Louis ... 33 St. Petersburg . . 15 Salta .... 69 34 41 76 44 49 76 9 27 36 37 52 40 66 40 55 40 61 77 42 52 53 57 55 77 36 47 79 66 54 57 38 63 72 53 42 17 58 IS 31 70 43 74 48 44 79 SS 47 43 23 28 52 52 10 51 80 40 47 29 44 76 52 82 32 18 41 61 32 80 48 18 34 66 35 18 70 37 43 76 45 58 79 20 31 40 41 54 42 77 44 64 47 6i 81 47 52 56 59 57 78 41 SI 78 64 57 61 46 65 69 58 49 29 70 23 38 73 49 82 SI 50 79 61 SI 48 25 33 S3 55 19 54 80 45 52 41 45 72 63 84 38 28 SI 60 39 78 SI 21 40 67 44 26 6S 48 47 78 SI 60 79 38 41 48 48 58 47 87 S3 71 49 62 85 55 45 60 64 61 81 51 56 77 59 61 68 SS 68 64 65 57 43 80 37 48 85 S8 89 57 56 77 68 56 57 3? 46 60 59 39 58 79 5° 59 57 48 66 71 84 5° 42 59 60 SO 75 57 26 49 66 58 36 62 58 52 78 57 68 79 53 52 S7 55 62 53 92 61 78 56 65 87 61 39 65 68 67 82 60 61 73 53 67 68 64 69 58 76 65 58 89 53 58 92 65 93 64 74 75 72 60 69 34 57 63 65 57 65 80 SS 62 68 54 60 82 80 60 54 68 61 58 71 65 35 56 63 66 48 55 6S 57 80 61 73 76 62 57 64 61 67 58 92 66 82 63 69 88 69 36 73 76 73 82 66 67 70 5° 74 66 71 72 S3 81 72 68 94 62 64 93 71 86 71 78 73 79 57 76 40 66 69 71 66 71 81 63 69 76 59 56 90 77 66 63 74 59 63 69 72 42 61 60 74 S8 59 65 60 82 63 75 76 67 62 63 64 70 62 86 70 82 65 70 86 76 35 79 81 78 80 68 72 69 48 78 64 75 72 52 83 76 73 92 67 65 93 79 79 76 82 68 81 72 80 46 73 70 76 71 76 81 66 73 79 62 SS 89 76 69 68 77 59 65 67 77 43 65 58 78 62 SS 62 59 81 63 76 76 62 61 66 64 71 62 86 68 83 68 73 85 7S 39 81 81 79 80 67 72 69 50 79 62 74 72 52 80 73 71 89 65 65 87 81 79 76 79 65 80 72 77 44 70 70 76 67 76 81 65 74 76 61 56 87 79 69 66 75 61 65 70 76 43 68 57 77 61 58 58 56 82 60 72 76 51 54 60 60 68 57 85 63 81 60 72 84 66 43 75 76 76 80 60 65 70 53 76 62 66 71 S6 75 67 61 87 54 59 87 76 79 71 69 72 77 64 71 37 59 67 71 55 73 81 60 69 68 57 60 81 82 62 55 67 61 59 71 70 38 58 57 68 SI 64 S3 SI 79 55 72 76 42 44 50 52 62 51 79 53 76 48 69 81 56 47 68 69 71 79 50 59 73 57 69 60 57 70 61 66 57 46 77 40 48 80 65 77 63 62 75 69 59 62 32 52 61 65 37 67 81 52 61 55 53 64 71 84 50 43 56 60 48 73 61 31 49 58 55 40 65 37 46 77 48 61 75 24 36 40 42 56 44 69 42 74 42 65 78 47 49 59 61 63 78 39 50 75 61 63 58 47 66 65 55 48 33 66 27 37 76 55 71 54 48 78 58 5° 50 26 40 55 58 24 59 82 44 50 39 47 69 58 86 41 33 45 60 37 74 52 23 39 60 41 30 68 29 43 77 45 50 75 8 27 32 38 5° 40 61 37 74 34 62 76 41 52 52 55 58 76 34 44 78 64 56 5+ 37 62 70 SO 40 19 56 17 29 71 45 67 49 41 79 57 44 42 26 29 SI 52 8 55 82 37 45 28 45 71 51 89 30 22 41 61 30 77 46 19 34 62 34 22 70 48 SO 78 53 63 76 37 44 49 SO 60 5° 78 S3 75 SO 66 82 56 45 64 67 66 79 51 57 74 58 66 60 55 68 62 66 57 44 76 41 48 81 61 79 61 60 7S 69 58 59 32 48 60 62 38 63 81 51 59 53 52 65 70 82 50 42 58 60 48 74 60 30 48 62 55 39 63 METEOROLOGY 396 METEOROLOGY 1 1- 1 1 3 3 1 1 i 1 a % E 1 1 E ■ 1 tU) a Salt Lake . 29 32 40 48 57 69 77 75 64 52 40 30 52 48 Salzburg . 29 31 35 48 S3 61 62 61 57 49 41 33 46 33 San Francisco 51 55 57 59 S8 S8 60 60 57 52 56 9 Santiago, Chili 63 66 62 55 49 46 45 47 52 56 62 67 56 23 Saratov 14 16 25 41 57 66 72 68 58 43 32 21 42 58 Savannah . 52 55 60 66 74 81 83 82 75 68 69 53 67 31 Sebastopol 3S 36 41 50 59 68 72 72 64 SS 47 26 S3 46 Senegal 68 68 69 69 71 77 81 82 82 82 77 79 75 14 Seringapatam 71 77 80 84 85 79 77 73 77 77 74 72 77 14 Seville 52 56 60 64 70 77 86 82 80 69 60 52 67 34 Shanghai . 38 40 47 55 65 73 83 81 73 63 51 42 59 45 Sierra Leone 82 82 84 84 82 80 79 79 78 80 82 81 80 6 Simla. 40 41 49 64 67 64 63 61 56 49 45 55 27 Smyrna SI 51 57 62 71 78 83 82 77 69 60 54 60 32 Stockholm. 24 25 28 38 48 59 64 62 53 43 34 28 42 40 Strasburg . 32 37 42 48 59 61 65 64 58 5° 41 35 50 33 Sumatra . 80 80 80 81 81 81 80 80 80 79 79 79 80 2 Surinam . 77 77 77 78 78 77 78 78 78 79 78 78 78 2 Sydney 71 71 69 65 58 52 54 59 63 66 63 19 Teneriffe . 56 55 56 59 62 66 69 76 74 69 62 58 64 21 Tiflis . 33 35 44 53 64 70 76 76 67 57 46 37 55 43 Tobolsk . 12 iS 23 32 41 49 52 48 42 33 23 15 32 40 Toulon 46 50 49 55 62 69 73 71 68 59 SI 46 58 27 Trieste 38 39 44 62 69 72 72 65 57 48 50 34 Tucuman . 74 74 71 68 58 S3 54 61 66 67 74 77 66 24 Tunis. 52 55 59 64 72 77 85 86 80 71 61 57 68 34 Turin 31 36 44 62 68 73 73 64 54 43 53 42 Upsal 27 28 30 36 41 47 49 48 43 38 32 28 37 22 Valdivia 62 61 57 53 5° 46 45 46 49 52 56 59 52 17 • Valparaiso . 63 63 61 58 56 54 53 S3 54 57 59 63 58 10 Venice 3S 39 46 55 63 70 7S 74 66 57 45 40 55 40 Vera Cruz . 71 72 74 78 82 82 82 82 82 79 75 72 77 II Vevay 33 36 43 5° 58 64 68 64 S9 53 40 38 51 35 Vienna 29 33 41 51 60 67 70 7° 6r 51 40 34 51 41 Vologda . 21 20 25 31 42 48 51 49 42 34 27 23 35 31 Warsaw . 22 26 32 44 55 62 65 64 60 45 35 26 44 43 Washington 34 36 45 55 66 74 78 76 68 56 44 37 56 44 Wilmington 47 50 55 61 70 76 80 78 73 65 55 48 63 33 Wiirzburg . 33 34 41 52 62 68 69 67 62 51 38 33 ■51 36 Yakutsk . 10 4 9 23 35 45 49 46 36 22 4 7 21 59 Yarkand . 29 41 55 77 83 89 95 88 79 67 44 30 65 66 Yokohama . 39 42 46 55 65 72 79 79 70 60 50 48 58 40 Zanzibar . 83 83 83 82 80 79 77 77 78 79 81 82 80 6 Zurich 27 33 40 46 60 61 65 65 58 SO 39 30 48 38 The mean temperature of the United States is as follows : — State 1 S3 E i a E 1 l-i d s ^ MO Alabama 67 79 66 52 66 82 42 Arkansas 6i 78 60 40 60 84 25 California 61 72 64 ■52 62 76 46 Carolina, N. . 64 Uo 67 ■^I 66 83 40 Carohna, S. . 66 81 68 52 66 84 40 Connecticut . 46 6q « 30 50 76 20 Delaware S2 76 W 34 54 80 22 Florida . 71 81 73 61 72 8'; S2 Georgia . 64 80 63 48 64 85 39 Illinois . .';2 75 54 26 52 78 24 Indiana . 59 77 55 38 57 79 34 Iowa 47 69 46 21 46 74 8 Kansas . .54 81 .W 29 53 83 10 Kentucky 75 56 34 80 18 Louisiana . 69 82 70 5S 68 87 40 Maine . 41 64 46 20 43 68 14 Maryland 53 75 57 ,34 55 80 .24 Massachusetts 45 68 50 26 47 74 20 Michigan 40 64 46 22 43 73 10 Minnesota 46 71 46 16 44 82 2 Mississippi . 68 81 67 52 67 81 52 State c •c eg- E E c 1 < 1 two Missouri ■^S 75 S'? 33 55 83 21 New Hampshire . 43 65 48 24 45 67 23 New Jersey . 49 71 'i2 32 51 73 31 New Mexico . 49 70 50 30 50 75 24 New York 45 6q 50 27 48 74 16 Ohio . .50 72 53 31 51 74 28 Oregon . ,53 71 ,53 36 53 76 22 Pennsylvania . 50 73 54 32 52 80 21 Rhode Island 46 69 S3 30 50 73 24 Tennessee 58 74 59 41 S8 77 36 Texas . 75 82 73 63 74 86 52 Utah . 52 76 53 32 S3 Vermont 40 64 44 19 42 67 18 Virginia . 56 76 59 39 58 80 31 Washington Terr. . 49 63 51 42 50 67 35 Wisconsin 46 70 47 20 46 80 7 The States of highest and lowest mean annual tempe- rature are: — Highest Fahr. Lowest Fahr. Texas . • 74 Vermont . 43 Florida . . 72 Maine . • 43 Louisiana . 68 Michigan . . 43 METEOROLOGY 397 METEOROLOGY The following table shows the greatest degrees of cold on record : — Place Year Lati- Degrees Maximum tude Fahr. Recorded Turin . . . 1864 4S-50 In Italy London . . 1796 51-31 16 In England Paris . . . 1879 48.52 13 At Paris Frankfort . . 1789 50.10 23 In Germany Pontarlier . . 1846 25 In France Stockholm . ... S9.20 27 By Nicander Prague . . . 50-50 28 By Strandt St. Petersburg 1733 59-56 34 Basle . . . 1789 36 In Switzerland Sweden . . 178 1 40 In Sweden Moscow . . 1809 55-45 48 In Russia Fort Enterprise 64.30 50 By Flranklin* Fort Elizabeth 70.00 51 By Ross Fort Reliance 1835 62.46 57 By Back Yakutsk . . 1829 73 In the World Besides the foregoing we find 27° below zero at Wash- ington, 37° at Montresd, and 51° by Captain Parry in his Arctic voyage. Among the highest readings recorded are : — Degrees Fahrenheit in the Shade London, July 15, 1881 .... 95.5 Naples, July 25, 1881 .... 96.2 Paris, August 26, 1765 .... 104.0 Orange, July 1830 104.0 Rio Janeiro, December 1S80 . . . 103.0 Adelaide, South Australia, January 1881 114.0 Mourzuk, India 133- o The mean temperature of Great Britain, as registered for each month at Greenvrich during 107 years, seems to have risen very notably since 1841, viz. : — Months Greenwich Scotland, 1771-1841 1842-79 Rise 1855-64 January . . . February . . . March .... AprU .... May .... June .... July August. . . . September . . October . . . November . . December . . . Annual mean 3|-S 38.3 4a8 45-5 52.4 60.6 56.3 49-3 41.6 38.6 48.1 38.7 39-4 41.6 47.2 52-7 59-0 62.2 61.5 57-1 Sa2 43-5 40.0 49-4 3-2 I.I 0.8 1-7 0-3 1.3 0.9 0.9 0-9 0.9 1-9 1-4 1-3 37-2 37-4 39-8 44.1 49-5 57-6 57-3 52.8 47-2 40.2 38.6 46.7 This rise of temperature in England has been coinci- dent with a diminution of frost in Canada and Labrador. The mean temperature of France is stated as follows : — Authority Spring Summer Autumn Winter Year Cotte . . . Fuster . . 52 SI 68 67 54 53 3i 38 S3 52 The mean temperature of Paris has risen since the last century, viz. : — Quarter Ending 1734r-40 1806-70 March 31 . June 30 .... September 30 . December 31 . . . Yearly average . 40 is 43 SI 40 57 64 * Cold appears to diminish in Canada with the increase of population, the average number of days in each year (hat Hudson's Bay is closed by frost showing thus : — i8a8-37 . . 184 days | 1871-80 . . 179 days The greatest variations observed between days in the same month in i866 were : — M u g s 4] 0) w ■2 J ■^ t a> S z m H 7 (Si 10 January .... 12 10 11 13 2 February 12 12 7 12 II 12 4 t6 March. 12 9 s 17 12 I'? 4 4 ^J"'" • 16 18 16 21 14 13 4 6 May . 14 II 16 19 14 IS IS 19 June . 15 14 18 18 17 I'^ 14 17 uly . 14 13 17 18 17 13 29 Q August 14 13 14 14 16 IS I^ 23 September 12 II 8 9 13 12 10 i8 October . 10 1^ 14 14 10 II 13 17 November II 11 IS 16 11 16 12 9 December 16 II 6 7 8 14 10 7 Maximum i6 18 18 21 17 16 29 23 Thermmneter Centi- grade Reaumur Fahrenheit Centi- grade Reaumur Fahrenheit 100 80 212 40 32-0 104.0 98 78.4 208.4 38 30-4 100.4 96 76.8 204. 8 36 28.8 96.8 94 75-2 201.2 34 27.2 93-2 92 73.6 197-6 32 25.6 89.6 90 72.0 194.0 30 24.0 86.0 88 70-4 190.4 28 22.4 82.4 86 68.8 186.8 26 20.8 78.8 84 67-2 183-2 24 19.2 75-2 82 65.6 179.6 22 17.6 71.6 80 64.0 176.0 20 16.0 68.0 78 62.4 172-4 18 14-4 64-4 76 60.8 168.8 16 12.8 60.8 74 59-2 165.2 14 11.2 57-2 72 57-6 161.6 12 9.6 53-6 70 56-0 158.0 10 8.0 50-0 68 54-4 iSI^ 8 6.4 46.4 66 52-8 150.8 6 4-8 42.8 64 SI-2 147.2 4 3-2 39.2 62 49-6 143.6 2 1.6 3S-6 60 48.0 14a 0.0 32.0 58 46.4 136.4 2 1.6 28.4 56 44-8 132.8 4 3-2 24.8 54 43-2 129.2 6 4-8 21.2 52 41.6 125.6 8 6.4 17.6 50 4ao 122.0 10 8.0 14.0 48 38-4 118.4 12 9-6 10.4 46 36.8 114.8 ^1 11.2 6.8 44 35-2 111.2 16 12.8 3-2 42 33.6 107.6 18 14.4 ao Range in Degrees Fahrenheit Degrees Ice melts ... 32 Temperature of globe 50 Blood-heat . . 98 Alcohol boils . . 174 Water boils . . 212 Degrees Lead melts . . 594 Heat of common fire 1,140 Brass melts , . 2,233 Iron melts . . 3,479 Wind. — ^Velocity and pressure are shown as follows : — Feet per Second Miles Pressure, per Lbs. per Hour Sq. Foot Feet per Second Miles per Hour Pressure, Lbs. per Sq. Foot 10 20 40 60 7 i 40Z. 14 ! lib 27 4 lbs. 41 9 .. 80 100 120 150 82 102 16 lbs. 25 „ 36 .. 56 .. METEOROLOGY 398 MINING According to a register kept in London for 18 years, down to 1830, the prevalent winds were westerly, viz. : — Days N.toE. E. to S. S. to W. W. to N. ■ anuary . 6.0 S-6 7-1 lO.O February 4.2 5-0 7.8 95 March 5-8 4.9 8.3 10. s April 6.S 6.5 6.4 9.2 May. 7-9 6.8 6.8 7-9 une. July . 7.2 4-3 6.7 10.5 4.4 3-6 8.8 12.6 August S-2 3-S 8.6 13.0 September 6.3 S-S 8.8 8.3 October . 5-5 6.6 8.4 9-5 November 4-S 4-4 9-3 10.7 December 5-4 S-S 9-S 9-3 Tola 1 • 68.9 62.2 106. s 121.0 At Plymouth in the years 1841-42, the mean velocity of wind in the several months, that is, feet per second, was as follows : — Feet per Second January . . February . March . . April . . . ist Quarter, znd ,, 12.76 13-97 14-63 13.00 May . . June . . July . . August . - 13-80 I . 11.80 . 11.60 . 10.90 . 9.00 . 12.87 3rd Quarter 4th ,, September . October . . November . December . 15.42 iS-29 14.96 12- S4 12.40 14.30 The mean amount of wind at i'lymouth was : — Wind Spring Summer Autumn Winter Total N.E . 143 2 133 278 E.N.E 134 13 102 134 383 E. . 321 124 130 25 600 S.E. . 6 6 S.S.E. 19 3 7 29 S. . 6^7 86 798 545 2,086 S.S.W. 72s 689 476 275 2,165 S.W. 34 34 W.N.W. SO 6S 128 99 342 N.W. 59 46 17 122 iSI.N.W. S8 58 Tota 1 2,108 1.083 1,688 1,224 6,103 In 1889 the Meteorological Council gave a summary of gales in the United Elingdom for 15 years. Gales January . . 171 February . 115 March . . 117 April ... 40 From N.E. „ S.E. „ N.W. „ S.W. May . June . July . August Gales II 32 September - October . . November . December , . . 96 . . 165 - 279 . 448 Gales 55 133 158 134 The record at Athens for twelve years to 1870 showed as follows : — Spring Summer Autumn Winter Year N. and N.E. . E. and S.E. . . S. and S.W. . W. and N.W. . 28.3 4.8 48.8 18. 1 42. S 3-9 39-3 14-3 41.0 4-7 41- S .12.8 40.2 6.4 34-7 18.7 38.0 4-9 41. 1 16.0 Total . 100. 100.0 lOO.O lOO.O 100. Observations in the Crimea gave this result in quarters of the year : — N.-E. E.-S. S.-W. W.-N. Year March 31 . . June 30 . . . September 30 December 31 62 70 86 62 76 42 IS S2 62 lOI 74 62 5| 56 66 56 258 269 241 232 Total 280 I8S 299 236 1,000 MILE The analysis shows as follows :- Woman Cow Ass Goat Ewe Fat . Caseine . . . Sugar Water . 2.5 ^^ 89-3 4.0 7.2 2.8 86.0 I.I 6.1 90.9 3-3 4.0 5-9 86.8 4.2 4-S 5-7 85.6 Total 100. 100. 100. 100. lOO.O See Dairy. MILLIONAIRES This gives an average of 66 gales a year. The mining products of the nineteenth century may be Name Profession Estim. Wealth, ;£ Residence Died Seneca . . Philosopher 3,400,000 Rome 65 Fugger . . Banker 6,500,000 Augsburg 1506 Goldsmid . J, 10,000,000 London Astor . . Furrier 6,000,000 New York 1843 Stewart . . Haberdasher 16,000,000 ,, Vanderbilt Railroad director 36,000,000 ,, 1877 Overstone . Banker 4,000,000 London 1883 Rothschild ,, 3,500,000 ,, 1879 Brassey . . Contractor 5,000,000 ,, 1870 Krupp . . Founder 3,000,000 Essen MINING In the early years of the present century the total out- put of the mines of the world was barely a million tons daily, and in the eight years ending 188S it averaged over 12 million tons daily. In the former period minerals extracted stood for a value of 9 millions sterling per annum ; at present the value at the pit's mouth is ;^2 10,000,000 yearly. summed up approximately thus : — Tons Gold Silver j Copper Ore Lead Ore Zinc Ore Tin Ore Iron Ore Coal 1801-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 B8 years 292 34S 548 2,018 1,886 1.703 1.150 7.942 14.350 10,571 7,804 8,956 12,201 22,347 19.330 2,100,000 4,100,000 4,300,000 9,100,000 13,500,000 19,400,000 32,400,000 2,000,000 3,100,000 2,700,000 5,100,000 7,000,000 7,600,000 7,100,000 240,000 400,000 1,300,000 2,400,000 5,200,000 9,600,000 12,360,000 90,000 130,000 90,000 100,000 150,000 450,000 420,000 35,000,000 82,000,000 96,000,000 150,000,000 205,000,000 338,000,000 367,000,000 277,000,000 566,000,000 637,000,000 1,093,000,000 1,873,000,000 2,855,000,000 3,300,000,000 95.559 I 84,900.000 34,600,000 31,500,000 1,430,000 1,273,000,000 10,601,000,000 Plate VII. MINING JIfUltens of tons raised yearly. Total) jyo million tons. Minerals rcdseiin igth century, 1801 -88. Simons of Tons. Total, JSJOO million tons. BaJUatyne, Hanson £ C? EiHHni^h & London. MINING 399 MINING Value Millions £ Sterling ■0 1 in s. a I c H c s 1 1 i8oi-ao 41 12.S 4 10 4 13 1,6 333 1821-40 48 89 8 IS ,S 26 250 441 1841-S0 77 67 9 14 I ■; 30 2S3 450 1851-60 282 7a 18 2S 2 ■; 48 38'; »43 1861-70 264 lo.s as 29 4 8 70 681 I.I86 1871-80 241 178 3.S •io 11 23 no 1,104 1.732 1881-88 148 154 S° 28 14 21 "5 1.050 1,580 88 years 1,101 796 149 151 32 71 412 3.859 6.S7I The foregoing table of tonnage gives only the metal of gold and silver, the quantities of ore being unknovm. It has been, however, stated that the average was in California 70,000 tons for one ton of gold, and in Australia 94,000 tons for one.* As r^;aids silver, the ordinary yidd in Spanish America is 80 oz. to the ton. At these rates we can estimate the amount of ore raised. The account of all mining will then stand thus : — Millions of Tons Raised Gold Quartz Silver Ore Iron Ore Lead. &c. Coal Total i8oi-ao . 23 7 35 4 277 346 1821-40 . 28 S 82 8 566 689 1841-50 . 44 4 96 8 637 789 1851-60 . 162 5 150 17 1,093 1,427 1861-70 . 142 7 20s 26 1.873 2,253 1871-80 . 127 12 338 37 2,85s 3,369 1881-88 . 86 9 367 52 3,300 3,814 88 years . 612 49 1.273 152 10,601 12,687 As regards quantity, coal stood for nearly 85 per cent of all minerals extracted. The total mining product may be summed up thus : — Miliums £ Sterling . 1,897 . . . 81S ■ 3.859 Precious metals Metallic ores Coal . Total 6,571 The shares corresponding to the several countries were: — Millions £ Sterling ^ •il 6 !■§£ 1 "° u United Kingdom ... 168 33 24 36 2,072 2.333 France 37; 7 4 ... 303 351 Germany 40 51 31 II 15 419 S67 Russia . 222 s b 17 250 Austria 60 II 2 I 89 ib3 Belgium 8 ... 7 243 258 United States 508 67 42 44 b 612 1.279 Australia 322 13 23 .3.S8 Various 745 6S 36 46 39 81 1,012 Total 1.897 1 412 151 149 103 3.859 1 6.571 * The quartz raised by the gold mines of California and Australia would suffice to build 150 pyramids like that of Cheops. The gold extracted would fit in a room 40 by 20 feet, and 15 high. Excluding precious metals, the values of mining pro ducts were, in order of time, as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Period e U g E E "En i 3 a 1^ is ^ •»3 D ^ H 1801-20 . . . 123 13 12 I 4 4 10 167 1821-40 . . . 204 27 23 4 19 7 20 304 1841-SO . . . 194 2b 22 6 iq 2S 20 312 1851-60 . . . 267 37 4S 8 36 S4 36 483 1861-70 . . . 416 61 96 20 S6 113 ss 817 1871-80 . . . 658 lOI I SI 31 b8 201; 99 1.313 1881-88 . 471 86 178 33 56 1 357 97 1,278 88 years . . . 2.333 351 527 103 258 765 337 4.674 Iron- mining may be summed up approximately as follows : — Million Tons Ore Period 5S ■a m DM c Gd i u a 8 n 1 73 3 "3 1 1801-20 17 3 4 6 5 35 1821-40 44 9 6 12 1 10 82 1841-50 49 10 7 14 I IS q6 1851-60 90 IS II 12 2 20 150 1861-70 lOI 27 31 17 4 25 205 1871-80 160 S8 54 26 10 30 338 1881-88 116 90 72 22 37 30 367 88 years 577 212 185 109 55 135 1.273 The extraction of other minerals in 88 years was approximately as follows : — Tons Lead Copper Tin Great Britain France . . Germany . Russia . . Austria . . Italy . . . Spain . . United States Australia . Various . . 6,800,000 1,600,000 6,000,000 1,400,000 1,300,000 7,500.000 9,600,000 400,000 11,200,000 1,600,000 9,700,000 5,100,000 600,000 11,400,000 29,300,000 4,500,000 11,500,000 800,000 360,000 270,000 Total • 34,600,000 84,900,000 1,430,000 The number of persons employed in mining at various dates was approximately as follows : — Year DM 1 1 g 1 "3 1820 165,000 10,000, 20,000 30,000 25,000 250,000 1840 245,000 i5,oooj 40,000 50,000 92,000 442,000 i860 497,000 7o,ooO| 70,000 159,000220,000 1,016,000 1870 561,000 152,000 100,000 217,000275,000 1,305,000 1880 654,000 234,000 120,000 300,000 450,000 1,758,000 1888 593,(K0 550,000 112,000337,000440,000 2,032,000 MINING 400 MINING The weight of minerals raised compares with miners approximately, thus : — Year No. of Miners Tons Raised Tons per Man 1820 . . . 1840 i860 . 1870 . . . 1888 . . . 250,000 442,000 1,016,000 1,305,000 2,032,000 27,000,000 71,000,000 198,000,000 290,000,000 565,000,000 108 160 194 222 270 was 330 tons The ratio for British miners in li per man. The superiority of English miners is stated by the Iron and Steel Institute to be shown in the proportion of iron ore extracted by each miner yearly as follows : — England France Algeria Tons Tons 923 393 323 Spain . Germany . Belgium . 292 . 283 . 127 This, however, appears to be exaggerated as regard* English miners, for we find (see p. 401) that the annual product of all minerals in Great Britain in 1888 did not exceed 301 tons per miner. In 1884 the deepest mines in the world were : — Mine Country Mineral Depth, Feet Lambert Belgium Coal 3.490 Birkenberg Austria Silver 3,280 Zwickau Saxony Coal 2,637 St. Andre Prussia Silver 2,532 Rosebridge England Coal 2,Sio Duckinfield ,, 2,448 Magdala Australia Gold 1,990 Chaumont France Coal 1,876 Kongsberg Norway Silver 1,869 Schemnitz Hungary 1,771 La Huerta Spain i> 1,548 The production of metals in the present century has been approximately as follows : — Tons Pig Iron Copper Lead Tin Zinc Total 1801-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 88 years 13,200,000 32,800,000 33,500,000 57,100,000 93,600,000 142,100,000 176,000,000 170,000 370,000 335,000 585.000 780,000 1,200,000 1,540,000 1,400,000 1,900,000 1,600,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 4,400,000 4,100,000 60,000 90,000 60,000 70,000 100,000 300,000 280,000 40,000 70,000 210,000 370,000 950,000 1,470,000 1,910,000 548,300,000 4,980,000 20,400,000 960,000 5,020,000 14,870,000 35,230,000 35,555,000 60,125,000 97,880,000 148,170,000 183,030,000 574,860,000 1801-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 88 years Value, Millions £ Sterling Pig Iron Copper Lead Tin Zinc Total 97 209 151 188 301 425 446 1,817 17 37 34 58 70 94 105 415 42 38 29 43 49 62 SO 313 S 6 6 8 12 33 25 95 4 7 18 24 28 83 162 291 224 304 450 638 654 2,723 Pig Iron Copper Lead 1 Tin Zinc Total Great Britain France . Germany Russia . Austria . Belgium . U. States Various . Total Value, Millions £ Sterling 723 181 24s 70 66 72 380 80 1,817 162 19 36 20 10 10 60 98 41S 82 16 65 5 IS •16 ss 59 61 5 16 313 95 29 I 36 83 1.057 222 387 99 94 102 507 25s 2,723 United Kingdom The progress of British mining may be approximately shown thus : — Tons Raised Coal Iron Ore Copper Ore Lead Ore Zinc Ore Tin Ore Total 1780 . 8,500,000 200,000 30,000 40,000 S,ooo 5.000 8,780,000 1800. 10,100,000 500,000 50,000 50,000 5,000 S.ooo 10,710,000 1820 14,000,000 1,000,000 100,000 Bo,ooo 5,000 S.ooo 15,170,000 1830 16,100,000 1,700,000 150,000 70,000 5,000 5,000 18,080,000 1840 35,000,000 3,500,000 150,000 80,000 10,000 5.000 38,795,000 1850 49,000,000 5,500,000 180,000 80,000 15,000 10,000 54,785,000 i860 80,000,000 8,000,000 240,000 100,000 15,000 10,000 88,285,000 1870 110,000,000 14,400,000 110,000 110,000 15,000 15,000 124,650,000 1880 147,000,000 18,000,000 SS.ooo 90,000 30.000 15,000 165,190,000 1888 170,000,000 14,600,000 20,000 60,000 40,000 15,000 184,735,000 About 100 years ago the weight of minerals raised daily in Great Britain was 25,000 tons, and in 1888 it rose to 600,000. Improved machinery has effected a great economy of labour, one man in 1888 raising as much as four could do in 1800. This has caused a notable fall in the price of minerals. Thus it happens that although the weight of minerals raised has increased twenty-one-fold since 1780, the value of same has only risen ten-fold. MINING 401 MINING The total value of British mining in 88 years vfas ap- proximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Coal Ironstone Lead Copper Tin, &c. Total i8oi-2o . 105 6 5 3 4 123 1821-40 . 17.S 13 6 6 4 204 1841-50 . 168 14 4 4 4 194 1851-60 . 228 25 S 4 S 267 1861-70 . 370 31 5 4 6 416 1871-80 . 600 44 S 2 7 658 1881-88 . 426 3S 3 I 6 471 88 years. 2,07a 168 33 24 36 2,333 The weight of mineral raised compares with the number of miners approximately as follows : — Year Miners Tons Raised Tons per Man 1820 . . 165,000 15,200,000 92 1840 . . 245,000 38,800,000 160 i860 . . 497,000 88,300,000 180 1870 . . 561,000 122,300,000 218 1880 . . . 654,000 161,200,000 247 1888 . . . 593.000 184,600,000 301 The value of British mining per head of the population is shown in the following table : — Coal Metallic Ores Total Per Inhabitant 1780 4,600,000 £ 1,010,000 5,610,000 £ ^. d. II 1800 S.soo.ooo 1,210,000 6,7io;ooo 090 1820 7,000,000 1,510,000 8,510,000 086 1830 6,500,000 2,010,000 8,510,000 076 1840 12,200,000 2,720,000 14,920,000 II 6 1850 i860 16,500,000 26,600,000 3.430,000 4,230,000 19,930,000 30.830,000 15 120 1870 1880 1888 45,000,000 49,000,000 53,600,000 6,630,000 6,560,000 5,180,000 51.630,000 55.560.000 58.780,000 I 14 I 13 I 10 6 The official valuation for 1889 is as follows : — Tons Value, £ Coal .... 176,900,000 56,200,000 Iron ore 14,550.000 3,850,000 Tin ore 14,000 730,000 Lead ore . 50.000 430,000 Copper ore 15.000 60,000 Zinc ore 25,000 100,000 Salt . 1,950,000 890,000 Oil shale . 2.010.000 500,000 Clays . 3.040.000 830,000 Slate . 460,000 1,050,000 Total 199,014,000 64,640,000 The above is exclusive of stone, to the value of ;f 8, 700,000, say 11,000,000 tons, which brings up the total to 210 million tons, representing an aggregate value of 73i millions sterling. The quantity and value of metals extracted &om the forgoing minerals may be summed up as follows : — Tons Value, £ Iron .... Lead .... Tin . Copper Zinc .... Silver. 5,180,000 36,000 9.000 1.500 10,000 10 12.700,000 460,000 860,000 120,000 190,000 70,000 Total 5,236,510 14,400,000 The number of persons employed in mines in 1888 was as follows : — Underground . . . 465,000 Overground . . . 127,700 Total . . . 592,700 Among those ove^ound were 5700 women. number of miners killed was as follows : — The In the above estimate of value, coal is taken at 25 per cent, under the price at port of shipment. The value of metals produced from British ores at various dates was approximately as follows :- Year Killed Per 10,000 Miners One Killed in Tons Raised per Miner Killed 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1888 10,018 10,626 11.349 41 33 23 21 245 300 425 484 57.000 104,000 140,000 198,000 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1889 Iron Tin ... Lead, &c. . . . £ 400,000 500,000 800,000 £ 700,000 400,000 1,200,000 £ 1,000,000 400,000 2,000,000 £ 3,500,000 400,000 3,100,000 £ 7,500,000 700,000 3,000,000 £ 12,700,000 900,000 800,000 Total 1,700,000 2,300,000 3,400,000 7,000,000 11,200,000 14.400,000 France The products of mines may be approximately summed up thus : — Tons Value, £ Coal Iron Ore 1800 800,000 200,000 600,000 1830 1,800,000 700,000 1,000,000 1850 S.000,000 900,000 2,800,000 1870 1(3,300,000 2,600,000 6,600,000 1888 23,000,000 2,600,000 9,600,000 The above is irrespective of salt and some minor items. An official return in 1883 of the coal-mines showed thus : — Year 1 Miners Tons Raised Value, £ i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1883 . . . 59.000 83,000 107,000 113,000 8,300,000 13,300,000 19,400,000 21,300,000 2,400,000 6,200,000 9,900,000 10,700,000 Detailed statistics of coal-mining in France vrill be found at pages 121 and 122. 2 C MINING 402 MINING The statement for all mining in 1886 showed thus : Miners Tons Raised Value, £ Coal .... Iron ore . . . Salt 102,000 6,000 4,000 19,500,000 2,300,000 640,000 9,200,000 400,000 500,000 Total . . 112,000 22,440,000 10,100,000 The quarries, moreover, employed 111,000 men, and their annual yield was about 8 million tons, valued at ;f6,6oo,ooo. The slate quarries of Ardenne, Bretagne, yield 1 20 million slates yearly. The total value of French mining in 88 years was approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Period Coal Iron- stone Lead and Copper Total 1801-20 1821-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 II 23 21 31 7S 2 4 4 S 6 9 7 I I 3 3 4 13 27 26 lOI 86 88 years 303 37 II SSI The production of metals was approximately as fol- lows : — Year Tons Total Iron Lead Copper Value, £ 1830 . 1850 . 1880 . 220,000 570,000 1,720,000 1,000 7,000 32,000 1,000 2,000 5,000 1,600,000 3,700,000 6,200,000 Germany The mining industry is shown approximately thus : — Tons Value, £ Coal Iron Ore Sundries Total 1800 300,000 100,000 200,000 600,000 200,000 1830 2,000,000 300,000 500,000 2,800,000 900,000 1850 6,600,000 800,000 800,000 8,100,000 2,600,000 1870 33,600,000 3,800,0001,400,000 38,800,000 12,400,000 1888 82,000,000 10,700,000 3, 100,000 95,800,000 24,700,000 At the beginning of the 19th century the quantity of minerals raised averaged only 2000 tons daily, but in 1888 it rose to 300,000 daily. Von Decken's and official tables of mining in Germany show as follows : — Tons Year Coal Lignite Iron Ore Lead Ore Zinc Ore Copper Ore Salt Total 1850 5,100,000 1,500,000 800,000 170,000 150,000 50,000 300,000 8,070,000 i860 12,300,000 4,400,000 1,400,000 150,000 310,000 90,000 400,000 19,050,000 1870 26,400,000 7,600,000 3,800,000 100,000 370,000 200,000 500,000 38,970,000 1880 47,000,000 12, 100,000 7,200,000 130,000 500,000 380,000 670,000 67,980,000 1888 65,400,000 16,600,000 10,700,000 160,000 670,000 530,000 950,000 95,010,000 Value, £ 1850 i860 1870 1880 1888 1,500,000 4,000,000 8,200,000 12,100,000 16,500,000 200,000 700,000 1,100,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 200,000 400,000 1,200,000 1,700,000 2,000,000 300,000 600,000 800,000 600,000 800,000 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 700,000 50,000 150,000 250,000 300,000 800,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 500,000 2,650,000 6,350,000 12,350,000 17,700,000 23,800,000 Year 1850 i860 1870 1875 1886 Number of Miners Coal Iron Lead.&c Total 47,300 102,100 145,800 209,000 247,000 16,000 18,500 27,300 26,400 32,000 25,500 38,500 44,200 41,800 58,000 88,800 159,100 217,300 277,300 337,000 Tons Raised 8,100,000 19,100,000 39,000,000 52,600,000 85,200,000 Tons per Miner 91 119 180 190 2S3 The total value of German mining in 88 years was approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Period Coal Ironstone Lead Copper Zinc Total 1801-20 , 10" I I 12 1821-40 . 18 2 2 ... I 23 1841-50 . 16 2 3 ... I 22 1851-60 . 34 3 S I 3 4S X861-70 . 75 9 7 2 3 9b 1871-80 . 121 16 7 3 4 151 1881-88 . I4S 18 6 S 4 178 88 years . 419 SI 31 11 IS 527 Prussia has the lion's share of the mining industry, as appears from the returns for 1888, viz. ; — Coal Raised, Tons Value of all Minerals, £ Ratio Pig Iron, Tons Prussia . . Saxony . . Other States 72,700,000 5,200,000 4,100,000 20,600,000 2,200,000 1,900,000 83.0 9.0 8.0 3,100,000 300,000 940,000 Total . 82,000,000 24,700,000 100.0 4,340,000 There are 77 zinc mines in Prussia, which produce half the zinc of the world. The production of metals was approximately as fol lows : — Year Tons Total Iron Lead Copper Zinc Value, £ 1850 i860 1870 1880 i838 400,000 900,000 1,340,000 2,800,000 4,400,000 16,000 30,000 54,000 86,000 92,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 14,000 18,000 30,000 59.000 65,000 100,000 130,000 4,400,000 7,500,000 12,000,000 14,400,000 18,500,000 MINING 403 MINING Official statements of the production and consumption of the following metals show thus : — Production, Tons Consumption, Tons 1871 1886 1871 1886 Lead. . . Copper . . Zinc . . . Tin . . . S4.000 4,600 65,000 100 92,000 18,200 130,000 100 39.000 15.500 29,000 2,500 56,000 23.500 yo,ooo 6,500 Total . 123,700 240,300 86,000 { 156,000 Russia The mining product is shown approximately thus : — Tons Year Coal Iron Ore Copper Ore Salt Naphtha 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1888 10,000 50,000 130,000 700,000 4,100,000 5,000,000 110,000 160,000 180,000 250,000 650,000 800,000 60,000 80,000 90,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 440,000 400,000 420,000 450,000 780,000 1,200,000 350,000 2,000,000 All the above are, however, of minor value compared ■with the gold-fields, which are mostly situated in Siberia, the product of precious metals showing as follows : — Pferiod Tons Value, £ Gold Silver Gold Silver Total 1821-30 33 200 4,600,000 1,600,000 6,200,000 1831-40 69 250 9,800,000 2,200,000 12,000,000 ^841-50 217 230 30,400,000 2,500,000 32,900,000 1851-60 256 170 35,800,000 1,500,000 37,300,000 T861-70 271 ISO 38,000,000 1,300,000 39,300,000 1871-ao 380 130 53,200,000 1,000,000 54,200,000 1S81-88 280 90 39,200,000 600,000 39,800,000 €8 years 1.506 1.220 211,000,000 10,700,000 221,700,000 The regular mining of precious metals began in Siberia in 1704, silver being the first metal found. Gold was discovered in the Ural Mountains in 1745, near Eka- terinenbei^, and in 1810 these mines were producing io,ocx> oz., worth ^^40,000 per annum. From 1814 to 1880 the yield of the various gold mines was : — Tons I Value, £ Ural . East Siberia. West Siberia 330 790 80 ' 46,200,000 i 110,600,000 11,200,000 Total 1,200 168,000,000 The total mining product of Russia in the nineteenth century may be summed up approximately thus : — Millions Sterling Period Gold and Silver Copper, Coal, &c. Total 1801-20 . . 3 1 4 1821-40 . . 18 2 20 1841-50 . . 33 3 36 1851-60 . . 37 3 40 1861-70 . . 39 S 44 1871-80 . . 5+ 12 66 1881-S8 . . 40 16 56 88 years . . 224 42 266 The production of base metals in 1 886 was as follows :- Tons Approximate Value, £ Iron Copper Zinc 530,000 4,500 4,100 1,600,000 400,000 60,000 Total 538,600 2,060,000 The annual value of all mining and metallic industries is about 15 millions sterling. They occupy 290,000 persons and 3450 steam-engines, wiUi an ablegate of 100,000 horse-power. Austria Mining industry is summed up approximately thus : — Year Tons Coal Iron Ore iCopperOre Lead Ore 1840 . . i860 . . 1880 . . 1888 . . 400,000 3,500,000 16,100,000 20,000,000 180,000 500,000 1,100,000 1,800,000 S.ooo 10,000 15,000 15.000 10,000 15.000 15,000 15.000 In 1834 the following report was published : — Mining Output, Tons Austria Hungary Total Coal . . Iron, pig . Salt . Lead ore . Copper ore. 170,000 70,000 160,000 4,000 200 20,000 15.000 100,000 1,000 2,000 190,000 85,000 260,000 5,000 2,200 Total . 404,200 138,000 542,200 In 1850 the mines of the Empire were estimated to yield as follows : — Tons Coal 2,000,000 Iron ore 280,000 Salt 600,000 Lead, &a 24,000 An official report of mining for Austria proper in 1887 showed : — 2,904,000 Tons Value, ;^ Bohemia Other Provinces Total Bohemia Other Provinces Total Coal. . . . Lignite Iron ore . Salt .... Lead, &c . 3,500,000 8,900,000 300,000 200,000 4,300,000 2,700,000 540,000 280,000 120,000 7,800,000 11,600,000 840,000 280,000 320,000 800,000 900,000 40,000 300,000 1,000,000 600,000 120,000 280,000 500,000 1,800,000 1,500,000 160,000 280,000 800,000 Total . 12,900,000 7,940,000 20,840,000 2,040,000 2,500,000 4,540,000 MINING 404 MINING The hands employed in the above mines in 1887 were : — Men Women Total Coal .... Lignite, . . Iron .... Salt, &c. . . . 36,600 30,000 4,000 22,200 6,000 2,500 100 3.300 4i2,6oo 32.500 4,100 25.500 Total . 92,800 11,900 104,700 Bohemia Silesia .... Galitzia Styria, &c . . . 42,000 13,600 12,200 25,000 4.S00 2,800 1,000 3,600 46,500 16,400 13,200 28,600 Total 92,800 11,900 104,700 A report on the production of minerals and metals in Hungary showed thus : — 1861 1871 1883 Coal . Lignite Pig iron SaT: : : Tons 350,000 250,000 120,000 2,200 1,500 Tons 620,000 780,000 170,000 1,000 1,500 Tons 900,000 1,500,000 180,000 1,000 2,000 Total 723,700 1,572,500 2,583,000 There was also a yield of ;^20o,ooo worth of gold and ;f 100,000 of silver. The mining values in 18S6 were stated thus : — Austria Hungary Total Coal . Lignite Pig iron Lead, &c. . £ 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,400,000 £ 400,000 400,000 800,000 600,000 £ 2,200,000 2,200,000 2,600,000 2,000,000 . Total 6,800,000 2,200,000 9,000,000 This table confuses the values of minerals and metals ; the actual value was — minerals ;£'5,400,ooo, metals ;f3,6oo,ooo. Italy The production of iron ore is recorded as follows : — Year 1850 . i860 . 1870 . 1887. Tons 64,000 71,000 74,000 230,000 Value, £ 36,000 40,000 42,000 100,000 The returns for 1877 and 1887 compare as follows : — Tons Value, £ 1877 1887 1877 1887 Sulphur . . Iron ore . . Zinc ore . . Lead ore . Sundries. . 130,000 110,000 45,000 18,000 21,000 340,000 230,000 90,000 40,000 470,000 1,050,000 110,000 180,000 440,000 260,000 950,000 100,000 250,000 280,000 420,000 Total . . 324,000 1,170,000 2,040,000 2,000,000 In 1877 the number of miners was 41,000, and in 1887 it was 47,000. This is exclusive of marble quarries, which employ 20,000 men, and have an annual output of a million sterling. Spain An official report of mining products in 1780 was as follows : — Tons Valve, £ Iron Lead .... Quicksilver Antimony, &c. . 9,000 1,600 900 500 70,000 30,000 180,000 30,000 Total . 12,000 310,000 A report published in 1863 was as follows : Coal . Salt . Copper ore. Lead ore . Tons 320,000 3,800,000 140,000 310,000 Ironstone Zinc ore Sulphur, Quicksilver Tons 170,000 110,000 23,000 1,000 In 1887 the export of minerals showed : — Tons Value, £ Iron Ore .... Copper Ore Quicksilver . . Sundries .... 5,200,000 800,000 63,000 1,300 300,000 1,800,000 1,200,000 900,000 300,000 500,000 Total . 6,364,000 4,700,000 The mines employed SI, 000 hands in 1887. There has been of late years a great increase in the production of coal, ironstone and copper, but a decline m lead. The mining industry of Spain in the last 28 years may be summed up approximately as follows : — Period Coal Ironstone Copper Ore Lead Ore Zinc Ore Quicksilver Total 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-88 . 3,000,000 6,000,000 8,600,000 2,000,000 10,400,000 37,100,000 1,500,000 3,800,000 5,300,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 800,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,010,000 23,210,000 53,310,000 28 years . 17,600,000 49,500,000 10,600,000 6,000,000 2,800,000 30,000 86,530,000 Value, £ 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . 1881-88 . 1,000,000 2,000,000 2,800,000 800,000 4,200,000 13,000,000 2,400,000 6,000,000 8,400,000 7,500,000 6,000,000 4,500,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 1,600,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 15,700,000 22,200,000 32,300,000 28 years . 5,800,000 18,000,000 16,800,000 18,000,000 5,600,000 6,000,000 70,200,000 MINING 40s MINING Belgium The ofiSdal records for 48 years show as follows : Year Tons Raised Value, £ Miners Tons Coal per Collier Coal Iron Total Coal Iron Total ia4o . 1850 . i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1887 . 3,900,000 5,800,000 9,600,000 13,700,000 16,900,000 18,400,000 200,000 300,000 800,000 700,000 300,000 200,000 4,100,000 6,100,000 10,400,000 14,400,000 17,200,000 18,600,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 4,300,000 6,000,000 6,800,000 5,950,000 100,000 100,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 50,000 1,900,000 1,900,000 4,600,000 6,200,000 6,900,000 6,000,000 42,100 71,100 79.800 81,400 77,000 121 123 149 164 182 There are, moreover, stone quarries, whose product is valued at ;^l, 300,000 per annum. Sweden and Norway The mining products of Sweden may be summed up as 900,000 tons of iron ore and 300,000 tons of coal ; the mines employ 29,000 persons. The production of iron ore has trebled since 1850. Norway has 28 mines, employing 2000 hands, the output averaging ;f 180,000 per annum. The mining returns of Sweden for 1870 and 1887 compare thus : — • Tons Ore 1870 1887 Iron Copper .... Zinc . ... 700,000 2,000 33.000 900,000 1,000 50,000 Of precious metals Sweden raised in 1870 gold to the value of;£'i5o,ooo and silver worth ;£'io,ooo; in 1887 silver represented ;^40,ooo sterling. Greece The lead mines of Laurimn have been worked for many years by a French company, producing 1,200,000 tons ore in twelve years ending 1888, one half of which was smelted near the mines. Small quantities of zinc ore are also raised in Greece. The total value of mineral pro- ducts is about ;^6oo,ooo yearly. United States The following table shows the date of discovery and the commencement of mining of certain minerals : — Place Dis- Began covered Mining Iron Virginia 1610 1663 Copper Massachusetts 1632 1648 Coal . Pennsylvania 1768 1784 Lead . ... 1823 1829 Petroleum Pennsylvania 1826 184s Gold . California 1849 1849 Silver . Nevada 1858 1859 Quicksilver ■ California i860 i860 The first iron-foundry was at Lynn, Massachusetts, the first copper smelting-works at Salem in the same State. In 1660 the Dutch worked copper mines in New Jersey, and about the same time the French Jesuits ^t Lake Superior. A ca^o of ninety tons of copper was shipped from New York in 1766, but little progress was made until 1843, wfifi" ^^ United States Government bought the Lake Superior copper-fields &om the Chippeway Indians. The production of lead in 1829 was 7200 tons. The first regular oil-wells were found near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1845 (see Oil). Gold was discovered at Sutoi's Mill, California, in 1849, silver by J. H. Corn- stock and James Phinney at Storey Co., Nevada, in 1858 ; small quantities of gold had been found in the Southern States previously. The following table shows approximately the principal mining products (except gold and silver) at various dates : — Year 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1889 Tons Coal 1,300,000 1,800,000 8,000,000 15,000,000 33,000,000 70,500,000 142,000,000 T„„ ,-,„ Copper Lead Iron Ore ^^^ q^^ 400,000 600,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 3,200,000 8,000,000 13,300,000 S.ooo 40,000 80,000 120,000 600,000 7,000 10,000 50,000 80,000 100,000 150,000 250,000 Total 1,707,000 2,410,000 9,255,000 16,720,000 36,380,000 78,770,000 156,150,000 The production of precious metals is shown as lows: — fol- Period Tons Value, Millions £ Sterling Gold Silver Gold Silver Total 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-88 . . 830 713 620 373 7 2.37S 7.75° 8,860 1x6 100 87 52 20 62 62 116 120 149 114 38 years . . 2.536 18.992 355 144 502 The total value of mining products in 8S years was approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Period 2 i i s 0. a 1 a 1 •3 u .8 5 1801-40 . . I .1 1 7 12 1841-50 . . 8 3 I 3 18 33 1851-60 lib S 3 6 3 40 173 1861-70 . . 100 20 9 5 8 17 qi 2 252 1871-80 . . 87 62 18 q 11 33 167 4 391 1881-88 . . 52 62 29 26 13 37 289 5 S13 88 years . . 364 144 67 44 42 1 90 612 11 1.374 The production of metallic copper and lead, according to Keller, was as follows : — Copfer Lead Year Tons Year Tons 1845 . . . 100 1832 . . . 9,100 1S50 . . . 650 I 1842 , . , 21,800 185s . . . 3,000 j 1852 . . . 14,300 i860 . . . 7,300 1862 . . . 12,900 1865 . . . 8,600 1872 . , . 23,500 1870 . . . 12,800 1875 . . . 54,100 1875 . . . 18,300 1878 . . . 82,600 1880 . . 27,400 1880 . . . 88,700 1882 . . . 41,600 1882 . . . 120,000 About 60 per cent, of the copper comes firom the Lake Superior fields above mentioned, which produced 190,000 tons of metallic copper in the ten years ending 1882. MINING 406 MINING Official returns for 1888 ire as follows :- - Metallic Products Non-Metallic Tons Value, £ Tons Value, £ Pig iron EeaT. Zinc . Gold, oz. Silver, oz. Sundries 6,500,000 105,000 160,000 50,000 1,600,000 45,800,000 22,200,000 7,100,000 3,300,000 1,100,000 6,800,000 12,300,000 300,000 Coal Stone .... Lime Cement .... Salt Petroleum .... Sundries .... Total . . 142,040,000 4,500,000 900,000 1,050,000 5,500,000 47,100,000 5,300,000 5,100,000 900,000 900,000 5,100,000 7,000,000 Tota 1 53,100,000 71,400,000 Mining and metallic industries together represent 125 millions sterling, but this allows an excessive value for silver, from which a deduction of ;£'2,ooo,cxx5 sfiould be made. Australia The official report by Mr. Coghlan shows the total value of minerals extracted in thirty-eight years down to 1888 was as follows : — £ Sterling Gold Silver Copper Tin Coal Total New South Wales Victoria . Queensland South Australia New Zealand . Tasmania Western Australia 37,200,000 222,500,000 21,300,000 900,000 44,800,000 2,000,000 200,000 2,900,000 100,000 400,000 100,000 300,000 5,400,000 200,000 1,700,000 19,200,000 500,000 8,500,000 700,000 5,100,000 4,400,000 22,300,000 900,000 2,700,000 200,000 76,300,000 223,500,000 29,400,000 20,100,000 47,600,000 6,600,000 1,000,000 Total 328,900,000 3,800,000 26,000,000 18,700,000 26, 100,000 404,500,000 The quantities of gold extracted were as follows :- Colony Gold Found Ounces Extracted Value, £ New South Wales . Victoria South Australia . Tasmania . Queensland New Zealand . Western Australia . 1851 1851 1852 1852 1858 1858 1886 9,973,000 55,636,000 248,000 533.000 6,089,000 11,422,000 5S,ooo 37,200,000 222,500,000 900,000 2,000,000 21,300,000 44,800,000 200,000 Total . 83,955,000 328,900,000 The values of gold produced and exported were as follows : — Period Produced, £ Exported, £ 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-88 . 118,000,000 95,000,000 81,000,000 35,000,000 97,500,000 97,900,000 65,200,000 33,200,000 38 years . 329,000,000* 293,800,000 Copper was first found in South Australia in 1843, tin in New South Wales in 1872, and silver in the latter colony in 1S81. The first coal was raised in New South Wales in 1847, namely, 40,000 tons, the product now reaching 4,200,000 tons. * In the article on gold and silver (p. 306), it will be seen that the gold yield of Australia for the said tliirty-eight years is put down at 322 millions sterling. Liversidge makes the yield of coal 44 million tons to 1888. The yield of gold-fields in 1888 was as follows :- Gold, Oz. Value, £ No. of Miners Oz. per Man New South Wales Victoria . . . Queensland . . South Australia . Tasmania . . . New Zealand . . WesternAustralia 88,000 625,000 482,000 17.000 40,000 201,000 50,000 320,000 2,500,000 1,700,000 70,000 150,000 800,000 200,000 8,300 25,100 9,300 400 900 9,400 800 10.6 25.0 52.0 39-0 44.0 62.0 Total . . 1,502,000 5,740,000 54,200 27.5 The largest nuggets on record are : — Name Locality Oz. Value, £ Date Welcome Stranger Ballarat 2,020 2,280 8,380 9,460 9th June 1858 9th Feb. 1869 The deepest mines are Magdala, Stawell, 2409 feet, and Lansell's, Sandhurst, 2640 feet. South Africa The Transvaal gold-fields, recently discovered, promise to be very productive, the value extracted in 18S9 reach- ing ;^i,300,ooo sterling. Bolivia In 1883 the extraction of silver was as follows : — Oz. Value, £ Huanchaca Potosi .... Oruro .... AuUagas .... Guadelupe, &c. 5,600,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 3,200,000 4,800,000 900,000 200,000 200,000 500,000 800,000 Total 16,000,000 2,600,000 MINING 407 MONEY The Potosi mines yielded 600 millions sterling in 320 years. Canada The mining products in 1887 were : — Tons Value, £ Coal Gold Sundries .... 2,100,000 1,000,000 200,000 1,800,000 Total . 3,000,000 Mexico There are 350 mines, which are said to occupy 100,000 men. In sixty years ending 18S0 were raised 180 millions sterling worth of silver, and nearly one million sterling of gold. The mines are supposed at present to stand for a capital of 6 millions sterling. According to Messdaglia, the mines yielded in 383 years, to 1875, as follows : — Tons Value, £ Gold Silver .... 26s 76,200 36,000,000 677,000,000 Total . 76,465 713,000,000 Argentina lUckard's report in 1869 showed 2700 men employed in various mines. The product was 3000 oz. gold, 44,000 oz. silver, 700 tons copper, and looo tons lead ; total value ;^7o,ooo per annum, the capital employed being ;^30o,ooo. In 1885 the yield of the mines was estimated thus : — Catamaroa Copper San Juan Silver Mendoza ■, Cordoba and Rioja . . . ,, £. 70,000 40,000 40,000 64,000 Total . . . 214,000 The actual yield is supposed at present to barely reach ;f 150,000. Chile Copper is the most important mineral, and the ores extracted since 1850 are supposed to be equivalent to the following quantities of fine copper : — Period 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 38 years Tons 190,000 270,000 330,000 300,000 1,090,000 Value, £ 15,200,000 20,500,000 20,300,000 18,000,000 74,000,000 In late years nitrate has obtained importance, ship- ments rising from 350,000 tons in 1885 to 800,000 in 1888. The coal-fields are supposed to yield 10 million tons yearly ; and the silver mines 5 million oz. of that metal, worth ;^8oo,ooo. Venezuela The latest reports show as follows : — Oz. Value, £ Gold .... Copper .... 250,000 900,000 150,000 Total 1,050,000 MONEY The amount of money in use among nations at various dates was (excluding copper and nickel, which are of trifling value) approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Gold Silver Paper Total 1600 .... 1700 .... 1800 .... 1848. i860. 1890 .... 29 ili 157 340 830 102 225 360 388 480 801 I 82 260 360 771 131 301 568 805 1,180 2,402 The above includes the paper-money only of Europe, United States, the British Colonies, and the Colonies of France and Spain. No account is taken of the depre- ciated currency of South America, the value of which is merely conventional, and for the most part ideal. The money now in use is approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Gold Silver Paper Total ;f per In- habitant Great Britain . 102 22 39 163 4.4 France . 178 I'^O "5 443 11.8 Germany . IZ2 45 71 238 S-o Russia 39 14 123 17b 2.1 Austria . 8 19 76 103 2.6 Italy 22 II 57 90 3.0 Spain 19 24 30 73 4.2 Portugal . 9 2 I 12 2.7 Scandinavia 6 2 13 21 2.8 Holland . 5 13 17 35 7.7 Belgium . II II 15 37 6.1 Switzerland 3 3 6 12 4.0 Turkey, &o. 17 12 9 3« 3-4 Europe . 541 328 572 1. 441 4.0 United States 141 87 208 436 7.0 Canada . 3 I 6 10 2.0 Australia . 22 2 6 30 8.2 Japan 19 9 26 54 1.4 China ISO 150 0-5 India 10 170 12 192 I.O Java ... 18 18 0.9 Cape Colony 7 I 8 6.0 Egypt 27 4 ... 31 6.2 Algeria 2 3 3 8 2.0 Cuba 4 12 16 10.0 Various . 14 29 ... 43 Total 790 801 846 2.437 ... For the amounts of gold and silver coined between 1850 and 1890 see Gold. The amount of uncovered paper-money, according to Spallart, was as follows : — Millions £ Sterling 1850 1870 1885 United Kingdom . 15 12 12 France . 3 8 27 Germany 2 22 25 Russia . 31 91 • 67 Austria . 18 58 40 Italy . 36 I'* United States IS 130 65 Various 4 32 72 Total 88 390 342 MONEY 408 MONEY The following table shows approximately the amounts of paper-money at various dates : — Millions £ Sterling 1810 1860 1880 1890 United Kingdom 35 39 4S 39 France 9 33 90 "S Germany . 8 25 S7 71 Russia 70 loS "S 123 Austria 43 60 65 76 Italy. 2 6 6S 57 Various '. 18 36 64 91 Europe 18s 304 501 572 United States . zo 41 144 133 Colonies, &c. . I IS 65 69 Total 205 360 711 771 The above is exclusive of the paper-money of South America, which has a very doubtful value. Money was first coined by King Pheidon of Argos, 800 B.C., of silver only. Crcesus was the first, says Herodotus, to coin gold. Darius coined gold and silver at 1 3 J units of silver to one of gold. The principal coins at present in use are : — Gold Country Name Weight Fineness Value Oz. £ -f. a. Austria . . . Ducat . . o.ri2 986 096 II ... Crown . . 0.3S7 900 I 7 8 Bolivia . . . Doubloon . 0.867 870 350 Brazil . . . 20-Milrei . 0-575 917 256 Chili . . . Condor . . 0.492 900 I 18 2 Denmark . . lo-Thaler . 0.427 895 I 13 France . . . 20-Francs . 0.207 899 16 Germany . . lO-Thaler . 0.427 903 I 13 4 Great Britain . Sovereign . 0.257 916 100 Greece . . . 20-Drachms 0.185 900 14 4 Holland . . lo-Guilder . 0.215 899 16 8 India . . . Mohur . . 0-374 9t6 196 apan . . . Cobang 0.362 568 18 6 i'ersia . . . 1 Oman . . 88s 053 Russia . . . S-Rouble . o.2ro 916 16 8 Spain . . . Alfonso 0.268 896 108 Sweden . . Ducat . . O.III 975 094 Turkey . . . loo-Piastres 0.231 915 r8 2 Silver Country Name Weight Fineness Value Oz. /; J. d. Austria . . . Florin . . 0-397 900 2 ... Dollar . . 0.596 900 3 Bolivia . . . Half-dollar 0.432 667 I 8 Brazil . . . Milrei . . 0.410 918 2 2 Chili . . . Dollar . . 0.801 900 4 I China . . . Tael. . . 6 Denmark . . 2-Rigsdaler 0.927 877 4 7 France . . . 5-Francs . 0.800 900 4 Germany . . Thaler . . 0.595 900 3 Great Britain . Shilling . . 0.182 925 I Greece . . . 5-Drachms 0.719 900 3 8 Holland . . 2i-Guilder. 0.804 944 4 2 India . . . Rupee . . 0.374 916 I 10 fapan . . . Itzebu . . 0.279 890 I S ?ersia . . . Kran . . • •• 6 Russia . . . Rouble . . 0.667 87s 3 4 Spain . . . Peseta . . 0.166 899 10 Sweden . . . Rixdaler . 1.092 750 4 8 Turkey . . . 20-Piastres . 0.770 830 3 7 Some African tribes use cowrie-shells, 2CX3 being value for id. United Kingdom According to the best economists, the amount of money at various dates was approximately as follows : — Millions £ Steriing Gold Silver Paper Total ;^ per In- habitant 1600 . . . 1700 . . . 1800 . . . 1848 . . . 1890 . . . I 12 37 55 102 2 4 8 II 22 I 25 34 39 3 17 70 100 163 0.6 3-0 4.4 3-7 4-4 The following table shows the principal gold coins in use from the fourteenth century to date : — Name Date Nominal Value In Present Money £ s. d. I s. d. Noble . . 1345 068 r 1 10 Angel 1465 068 II 9 Crown 1530 050 076 Sovereign . 1551 I 10 180 Noble 1600 15 16 Sovereign . 1626 100 I I 4 The amount of gold and silver coined from Henry III, to December 1889 was as follows : — Reign Gold Silver Total Per Annum £, £ £ £ Henry III. . 3.898 3,898 Edward I. . 38.603 38,603 1,100 Edward II. 45.751 45.751 2,300 Edward III. 11.344 85.703 97.047 1,960 Richard II. 3.988 2,228 6,216 300 Henry IV.. 396 315 711 Henry V. . 19.746 6,924 26,670 3.000 Henry VI.. 318.444 579.225 897.669 22,000 Edward IV. 10,248 47.843 58.091 2,700 Henry VII. 8.399 116,100 124,499 5.000 Henry VIII. 675,400 642,810 1,318,210 34.500 Mary . . 6,500 6,500 Elizabeth . 795.135 4,836,802 5.631.937 125,000 James I. , 3,666,400 1,807,300 5.473.700 248,000 Charles I. . 3,319,700 8,776,545 12,096,245 502,000 Cromwell . 154.512 1,000,000 I. 154.512 115,000 Charles II. 4.177.254 3,722,180 7.899.434 320,000 James II. . 2,113,639 2,115,600 4,229,239 1,410,000 William III. 3,418,060 7,094,080 10,512,140 820,000 Anne . . 2,485,100 618,200 3,103,300 255,000 George I. . 8,492,900 223,050 8.71S.950 670,000 George II. . 11,662,200 304.360 11,966,560 360,000 George III. 75,447,489 6,827,800 82,275,289 1,370,000 George IV. 36,395,100 2,216,168 38,611,263 3,860,000 WiUiam IV. 10,920,035 1,122,100 12,042,135 1,720,000 Victoria . 312,300,000 231,800,000 544,100,000 10,300,000 Total . 476,390,489 274,040,085 750,430,574 Henry III. coined at Canterbury, Edward III. at York and Calais, Edward IV. at Bristol, the rest mostly at London. The coinage, however, of the present reign has been as follows ; — At Gold,;^ Silver, £ Total, I London Sydney Melbourne . India , . 207,000,000 61,300,000 42,000,000 2,000,000 25,800,000 206,000,000 232,800,000 61,300,000 42,000,000 208,000,000 Total 312,300,000 231,800,000 544,100,000 MONEY 409 MONEY It appears that Queen Victoria has coined 65 per cent, of the gold and 84 per cent, of the silver struck by British monarchs in 600 years. Shillings were first coined by Henry VIII. in 1544; crowns, half-crowns, sixpences, and threepennies by Edward VI. The per- centage of alloy in British coins was as follows : — Reigns Henry IIlAo Henry VII. Henry VIII. . Edward VI. Per Cent. . 8 33 • 2S Queen Elizabeth improved the character of the coinage, but reduced the size of all coins : thus 3s. of her money had only the same quality of silver as is. of Edward I. The following table shows how much money was coined out of 12 oz. troy weight of either metal in successive reigns : — Date Gold, 12 oz. (24 carats) Silver, 12 oz. Reign £ s. d. £ J- d- 1280 . 12 10 103 Edward I. 1370 . IS 150 Edward III. 1420 . 16 13 4 I 10 Henry V. 1470 . 22 10 I 17 6 Edward IV. 1540 . 30 280 Henry VIII. 1550 • 36 3 12 Edward VI. 1590 • 33 3 12 Elizabeth 1640 . 44 10 320 Charles I. The total amount of currency called in by Queen Elizabeth and re-minted was : — Oi. Value, £ Gold . 360,000 1,080,000 Silver . . 4,800,000 1,200,000 No change was made in the weight or value of coins from 1640 until 18 16, in which latter year the pound of silver (12 oz. troy) was ordered to be made into 66s. instead of 62s. as before. The Mint thus established a seignorage or profit of 4s. an ounce on silver, but no charge is made on gold ; the expense of coining gold is los. per ;£^ioo. Silver money is legal tender only up to 40s. ; gold to any amount. The paper-money of the United Kingdom has been stationary since 1830, viz. : — 1830 1890 Bank of England Other English banks. Scotch banks . Irish banks £ 20,100,000 10,100,000 4,000,000 4,200,000 24,600,000 3,000,000 5,700,000 5,800,000 Total 38,400,000 39,100,000 For details of the Bank of England see Banks. The suspension of specie payments caused by the war against Bonaparte began in 1797 and lasted till 1821, the value of a £s Bank of England note varying as follows : — Shillings 73 80 84 96 98 97 100 Gold Value of Bank of England £t, Note Years Shillings Years 1797-99 . 100 1813 1800-1 92 1814 1802-3 96 1815 1804-8 97 1816 1809 91 1817 iBio 87 1818-19 1811 83 1820 1812 79 In 1878 the currency of the Bank of England was found to be composed as follows : — Value of Note Number Amount Ratio per Cent. Aio .... 2[2O-5O-I0O /[200-300-500 . jJlOOO 2,208,000 507,000 160,000 7,000 2,000 ;^ii,040,ooo 5,070,000 8,030,000 2,120,000 2,000,000 32 18 28 8 7 Total 2,884,000 ;^28, 260,000 100 The notes cost one halfpenny each. The life of a bank- note in 1880 was under seventy days, the number issued during the year having been 15,260,000 for an aggregate amount of 338 millions, say £22 each. The average in the above table for 1878 is only ;^io each. According to the Mint report for 1890, the gold currency of the United Kingdom consists of about 80 million sovereigns and 45 million half-sovereigns, to- gether ;^I02, 500,000. France The following is a table of old French coins :- - Date Name Value Date Name Value £ -f- d- £ s. d. 1226 Angel 11 3 1507 Porcupine 090 1258 Tournois 009 1539 Salamander 090 1289 Esterlin 003 1550 Henri 09s 1294 Royal 19 IS7S Franc 023 1346 Couronne IS 1640 Louis 16 8 1458 Mouton 056 1652 ,, silver 4 8 1430 Royal 10 4 165s Lily, gold 10 6 I43S Ecu 084 1656 ,, silver I S The average value of the mark of silver and that of the livre are shown as follows from the thirteenth century : — Livres in One Francs in One - Mark of Silver Livre 1280-1300 3 19.00 1301-50 . 4 14.00 I351-I400 . 6 950 1401-50 . 8 7.00 145I-I500 . 11 5. 20 1501-50 . 13 4-5° 1551-1600 18 3.20 1601-50 . 28 2.00 I65I-1700 33 1.70 1701-20 . 40 I- 50 1726-89 . 55 1.00 The output of the French Mint in ninety-five years has been as follows : — Date Gold, £ Silver, £, Total, I Government 1795-181S 1816-30 . 1831-48 . 1849-52 . 1853-70 . 1871-89 . 21,200,000 17,600,000 8,600,000 17,000,000 246,000,000 40,100,000 39,800,000 49,900,000 70,300,000 18,400,000 25,200,000 17,200,000 61,000,000 67,500,000 78,900,000 35,400,000 271,200,000 57,300,000 Bonaparte Bourbons LouisPhilippe Republic Napoleon III, RepubUc 95 years . 350,500,000 220,800,000 571,300,000 The amount of currency at various dates was estimated as follows : — Year Gold, £ Silver, £, Paper, £ Total, I 1805 1840 1889 3,000,000 4,000,000 178,000,000 99,000,000 111,000,000 150,000,000 2,000,000 9,000,000 115,000,000 104,000,000 124,000,000 443,000,000 MONEY 410 MONEY Paper-money was first issued by John Law : the amount of his notes in 1719 reached 3000 million livres, or about 1 20 millions sterling. The issue of assignats under the first Republic reached its maximum in 1790, namely, 9000 millions, or about 360 millions sterling. They fell to less than one-hundredth part of their nominal value : thus, a pair of boots cost 7500, and a pound of butter 750 of these notes. The currency of the Bank of France in 1883 was as follows : — Notes, Francs Number Amount, £ s 20 2S so 100 200 500 1,000 S,ooo 175,000 198,000 28,000 4,725,000 10,812,000 3,000 625,000 1,263,300 5 35.000 158,000 28,000 9,450,000 43,248,000 24,000 12,496,000 50,532,000 1,000 Tota 17,829,305 115,972,000 Germany On the reconstitution of the German Empire the currency was remodelled, and the following amounts of coin issued from the Mint : — ■ Period Gold Silver Nickel, &c. Total 1872-80 1881-89 „ £ 87,400,000 34,100,000 £ 21,600,000 1,600,000 £ 2,300,000 £ 111,300,000 35,700,000 18 years 121,500,000 23,200,000 2,300,000 147,000,000 The total currency in 1889 was approximately thus : — £ Gold 122,000,000 Silver 45,000,000 Bank-notes .... 64,300,000 Treasury notes .... 6,500,000 Total . . 237,800,000 The above, however, includes 22 millions sterling of old silver money no longer in circulation. Scandinavia The total currency may be summed up thus : — Sweden Norway Denmark Total Gold . . . Silver. . . Bank-notes . £ 2,800,000 900,000 6,200,000 £ 900,000 300,000 2,400,000 £ 1,900,000 1,000,000 4,400,000 5,600,000 2,200,000 13,000,000 Total . . 9,900,000 3,600,000 7,300,000 20,800,000 Russia The Mint issued in forty years down to 1890 as follows :— Tons Value, £ Gold Silver .... 1,102 2,580 154,100,000 23,500,000 Total 3.682 177,600,000 Notvrithstanding the Siberian gold mines, which have produced 1500 tons of gold, worth 210 millions sterling, since 1 820, Russia has been a prey to inconvertible notes. These are the result of unscrupulous finances, the Govern- ment printing millions of roubles at will. The following table shows the issue : — Year Issue, Value, Year Issue, Value, Millions Pence Millions Pence 1774 20 38 1843 600 12 1786 100 36 1844 180 35 1796 160 24 1850 310 33 1800 210 18 i860 690 30 1810 580 12 1870 720 28 1817 870 9 18S0 1,180 24 1823 605 10 1888 1,046 22 The conversion of 1843 consisted in calling in the old notes, and giving 30 new roubles for 100 old ones. The currency rose in 1890 to 26d. the paper rouble. Austria This country, like Russia, although producing gold, has been afflicted with inconvertible currency owing to reckless issues of paper-money. The amounts and the rate of exchange were approximately as follows : — Date Currency, Exchange, Gold Premium Million Florins Pence per Cent. 1788 .... 20 24 1802 237 10 140 1811 1,060 4 500 1812 212 24 1816 639 6 300 1838 200 10 140 1876 63s 20 20 1889 762 20 20 In 181 1, the Empire being bankrupt, the notes were "converted," the holders getting one new note for five old ones, that is, losing 80 per cent. In 1816 the new notes had fallen to 25 per cent, of their nominal value, and a second conversion was made, holders getting two new notes for seven old ones. Thus the holders of 100 florins of currency in 1810 found themselves with six florins in 1817. The value of the currency in the last twenty-two years has been as follows : — Period Florin, Pence Gold Premium per Cent. 1867-70 1871-75 1876-80 1881-89 19.7 21.2 20.2 19-5 22 13 19 23 The paper-money in 1889 was as follows : — Florins £ Nominal Bank issue . Treasury notes . 435,000,000 327,000,000 43,500,000 32,700,000 Total 762,000,000 76,200,000 The current of bullion during twenty-five years was as follows : — Period Imported, £ Exported, £ 1863-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-87 • 23,500,000 35,300,000 10,300,000 27,000,000 26,200,000 6,500,000 25 years . 69,100,000 59,700,000 MONEY 411 MONEY The Hungarian Mint turned out in twenty years as follows : — Period Gold, jf Silver, £ Total, £ 1867-80 , . . 1881-86 . 3,100,000 1,500,000 7,000,000 2,900,000 10,100,000 4,400,000 20 years . . . 4,600,000 9,900,000 14,500,000 The total coinage of the Empire from 1850 to 1890 was as follows : — Tons Value, £ Gold .... 137 19,200,000 Silver . . . 5,360 48,200,000 Total 67,400,000 Italy In consequence of the war mth Austria in 1866, forced currency was given by the Government to Treasury notes and those of six chartered banks, with the following results : — Year Aggregate Specie Reserve, £ Gold, Premium per Cent 1870 .... 1874 .... 1877 .... 1880 .... 1885 .... 1888 . . . 22,000,000 35,000,000 37,600,000 65,000,000 51,000,000 56,800,000 3,000,000 25,000,000 11,100,000 13 10 10 The currency in December 1884 was composed thus: — Note, Lire Number Value, Lire £ Sterling i. . . 7,600,000 3,800,000 152,000 1 . 33,300,000 33,300,000 1.332,000 2 . 27,300,000 54,600,000 2,184,000 5 • 35,400,000 177,000,000 7,080.000 10 . 23,500,000 235,000,000 9.400.000 20 . 2,160.000 43,200,000 1,700.000 100 . 525,000 52,500,000 2,100,000 250 . 266,000 66,500,000 2,660,000 1,000 . 127,000 127,000,000 5,080,000 Tota 130,178,000 792,900,000 31,688,000 In 1888 the total paper issue was : — Treasury notes . Bank-notes . ... £ 13,800,000 43,000,000 Total . . . 56,800,000 Italy resumed specie payments on April 12, 1883, afler a suspension of sixteen years. The total of gold and silver minted in forty years to 1890 was as follows : — 1 Tons Value. £ Gold 1 123 Silver .... 2,530 17,200,000 22,800,000 Total • • 1 40,000,000 Belgium The Jlint returns for fifty-eight years show as follows :- Period Gold, ;f SUver, £ Total, £ 1832-60 . 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 600,000 7,000,000 16,000,000 400,000 6,400,000 8,100,000 7,400,000 300,000 7,000,000 15,100,000 23,400,000 700,000 58 years . 24,000,000 22,200,000 46,200,000 Copper and nickel money were also issued to ;f 640,000 worth. Holland The total currency in 1889 was as follows : — £ In Bank, £ Gold Silver .... Bank-notes Treasury notes . 5,000,000 13,000,000 17,300,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 5,000,000 Total 36,300,000 The coinage lows: — of forty years down to 1890 was as fol. Tons Value, £ Gold Silver .... 48 3,290 6,700,000 29,700,000 Total 36,400,000 Spatn and Portugal In 1888 the currency of these kingdoms was estimated thus : — Spain, £ Portugal, £ Total, £ Gold . Silver . Bank-notes . 19,000,000 24,000,000 29,000,000 9,000,000 2,000,000 1,300,000 28,000,000 26,000,000 30,300,000 Total . 72,000,000 12,300,000 ] 84,300,000 The total coinage from 1850 to 1881 was : — Gold.^ Silver, £ Total. £ Spain . Portugal . 17,000,000 13,000,000 10,000,000 2,000,000 27,000,000 15,000,000 Total 30,000,000 12,000,000 42,000,000 United States The currency, according to American writers, was estimated at various dates &us : — Year Coin, £ Paper, £ \ Total, £ 1820 . 1849 . . 1854 . • 1880 . . 1889 . . 7,400,000 29,300,000 50,900,000 104,000,000 228,000,000 9,400,000 25,000,000 37,500,000 153,000,000 208,000,000 16,800,000 54,300,000 88,400,000 257,000,000 436,000,000 The components in 1880 and 1889 were as follows in American currency : — Millions of Dollars Treasury Banks and PubUc Total 1880 1889 1880 1889 1880 1889 Gold. Silver Bank-notes Treasury notes . 126 304 74 ; 31S 40 89 226 75 338 349 376 106 207 699 352 149 345 389 680 421 211 788 Total . 247 712 988 1.388 1.23s 2,100 MONEY 412 MONUMENTS The above may be converted into English money at $4.80 per £. The output of the Mint, computed in £ sterling, was as follows : — Period Gold, £ Silver, £ Total, £ 1792-1820 1,300,000 2,200,000 3,500,000 1821-40 . 1,900,000 8,900,000 10,800,000 1841-50 . 19,800,000 4,500,000 24,300,000 1851-60 . 66,000,000 9,300,000 75,300,000 1861-70 . 60,400,000 4,600,000 65,000,000 1871-80 . 85,200,000 35,600,000 120,800,000 1881-89 • 73,200,000 58,900,000 132,100,000 98 years . 307,800,000 124,000,000 431,800,000 The Silver Law, passed by Congress in July 1890, obliges Government to coin $4,500,000 of silver monthly, equal to ;£^i 1,300,000 sterling per annum. The war for the Union in 186 1 caused a suspension of specie payments, which lasted nineteen years. The quotations of paper-money were as follows ; — Value compared with Gold Year Maximum Minimum Average Value of $100 1862 . 1863 . 1864 1865 . 1866 . 1867 . 1868 . 1869 . 1870 . 1871 . 1872 1873 . 1874 . 187s . 1876 . 1877 1878 . 1879 . 98 79 64 74 79 74 74 82 90 92 92 92 % 93 97 100 62 39 70 69 72 82 87 87 85 88 8S 87 94 100 88 69 49 64 71 72 72 Z^ 87 90 89 88 90 87 90 96 98 100 £ s. d. 18 6 14 6 6 10 4 13 6 4 14 IS 14 19 14 19 15 12 18 2 18 14 18 10 18 6 18 14 18 2 18 14 19 19 20 7 20 16 The average for ten years ending 1870 was 75, and for the following decade 93. Feksia The currency has been depreciated since 1875 by increasing the alloy in gold and silver coins. The kran has now but 71 grains of silver, against 83 in the year 1875, and the alloy of gold has been raised from 109 to 115 per 1000. The kran has fallen from a value of lod. to 6 Jd. , and the gold is at 45 per cent, premium. Baron Reuter has a concession to issue bank-notes up to ;f 800,000, with bullion reserve 50 per cent. In 18 Japan I the currency was as follows : — £ Gold 19,000,000 Silver 9,000,000 Bank-notes 15,500,000 Treasury notes .... 10,500,000 Total . , 54,000,000 Paper-money is at a discotmt, gold being 25 per cent, premium. Argentina The currency consists wholly of paper-money notes, ranging from one halfpenny up to ;^20 sterling. The halfpenny notes are nominally for 5 cents, the dollar being worth about 1 2d. In December 1884 the paper dollar was worth 48d., but specie payments were suspended in January 1885, and the quotations since then have been : — Value of Dollar, Pence ' 1886 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 January . . . 39- S 33-2 38.S 33-0 31.8 21.3 February . . . ?,7-S 32.6 .37-2 32.2 31.0 21.3 March . . . 36.2 .31- S 36.3 31. « 30.2 19.0 April .... 32.8 31.0 3S.6 330 30.2 17.8 May .... .35-8 31.0 3S-0 32.8 30-4 20.4 June .... 36.8 32.2 3b. I 32.0 29.2 17.0 July .... .36..S S-S-o %(>.?, 31. 1 28.1 16.5 August . . . 33- S 36.8 37-2 32.0 27.4 19.2 September . . 34-0 40.1 36.0 32.,'; 23-7 19.0 October . . . 33-2 41.0 336 32.3 22.7 18.0 November . . 32.4 37..'! .33-0 33-2 21.8 170 December . . 33-S 37.0 32-9 33-6 20.4 iS-S Average . . . 3SO 34-2 36.0 32. S 27.0 18. 5 MONUMENTS According to Strabo, the Tower of Babel was 600 feet high. The following are remarkable monuments and obelisks : — Name Locality Height, Feet Weight,Tons Wellington . Dublin . . . 20s 1,000 Monument . London . . 202 1,800 Nelson . . London . . 177 1,500 Nelson . . Dublin . . . I2S 1,000 *Lateran . . Rome . . . 105 445 Alexander . St. Petersburg 84 200 •Vatican . . Rome . . . 83 220 *Luxor . . . Paris . . . 76 240 *Cleopatra . London . . 63 140 *Meidan . . Constantinople 50 60 *Quirinal . . Rome . . . 48 60 In the foregoing table those marked with an asterisk are Egyptian monoliths, or real obelisks, of extreme antiquity. There is also a fine obelisk at Heliopolis, still standing. The second of Cleopatra's Needles has been removed to the United States, for erection in New York. The height of certain edifices is as follows : — Feet Eiffel Tower, Paris . 990 Cologne Cathedral . . 528 St. Nicholas, Hamburg 475 St. Peter's, Rome . . 472 Strasburg Cathedral . 468 Pyramid of Cheops . 452 St. Stephen's, Vienna . 445 Amiens Cathedral . . 440 Freyburg Cathedral Sahsbury Cathedral Florence Cathedral . St. Paul's, London . Milan Cathedral Brussels Townhall . Invalides, Paris . . Feet 412 406 393 366 360 35S 346 The diameter of the following domes and arches is : — Milan Cathedral . Pantheon, Paris . Invalides, Paris . Achmet's Mosque Feet ■ 55 • 67 . 80 . 92 St. Paul's, London . St. Sophia . . . Sta. Maria, Florence St. Peter's, Rome . Feet 112 "5 139 139 The cost of certain buildings is stated to have been : — Opera House, Paris . . . ;^i,6oo,ooo Law Courts, Brussels .... 1,200,000 Cathedral, Cologne .... 2,100,000 Parliament, Westminster . . , 3,500,000 St. Peter's, Rome 3,500,000 The Great Pyramid of Cheops has 85 million cubic feet of material, the Wall of China 6350 millions. The Pyramids are supposed to have been built 1500 B.C., the Wall of China 202 B.C. Next in antiquity are the Round Towers of Ireland, probably of the 6th century or earlier: there are 45, the highest at Kilmacduagh, Galway, 108 ft., diameter i8i ft. MOORS 413 MUNIFICENCE MOORS The Moors built in Cordoba 4437 mosques, 4300 towers, 900 public baths, 28 squares, 80,400 shops, 60,000 palaces and hotels, and 2:3,000 houses. At Granada they built 1030 towers and 70,000 houses. MORTGAGES United Kingdom. — Lord Reay estimates the mort- gages at 58 per cent, in England of the value of real estate. In Ireland, according to Commissioner Greene, they amount to 40 per cent., say 120 millions sterling. France. — New mortgages average 30 millions sterling per annum : on December 31, 1876, all existing mort- gages were o£5cially estimated at 575 millions sterling. Germany. — In 1870 the mortgages in Prussia reached 190, and in all Germany 273, millions sterling. Professor Meitzen, however, considers that 41 per cent, of all real estate in the Empire is mortgaged. Aji ofiBcial return for 1883 shows that the houses of Berlin were mortgaged for 105 millions sterling, being 67 per cent, of their assessed value. Russia. — Mortgages on land are known to reach 148 millions sterling, but probably amount to much more. Austria. — In i860 the amount on mortgage was 165 millions sterling, average interest 5 per cent. : in 1884 the amount was 320 millions sterling. The new mort- gages registered in the years 1876 and 1884 were : — 1876 1884 Austria Hungary . £ 4,400,000 5,600,000 £ 2,400,000 6,400,000 Total . 10,000,000 8,800,000 Belgium. — The registration of mortgages was as fol- lows: — Year Amount, £ i860 3,400,000 1870 , . . . 4,400,000 1886 8,200,000 Holland. — In 1883 the existing mortgages were 77 millions sterling, as against j£^37,SOO,ooo in 1869. Spain. — Estimated amount, 172 millions sterling; annual average of new mortgages, ;f 8,500,000. Italy. — The total reaches 580 millions sterling, but of this sum only 288 millions bear interest Norway. — The amount of mortgage bonds is ;f 4,600,000 sterling. New Zealand. — New mortgages average ;^9,ooo,ooo per annum ; releases, one-third of that amount Australia. — The colony of New South Wales had new mortgages for 1 13 millions sterling between 1876 and 1888. Argetitina. — Cedulas or mortgage -bonds in 1890 amounted to 450 million dollars, nominally 90 millions sterling. Egypt. — Newmortgagesaverage;^i,300,ooo per annum. Ca7iada.—%\i R. Cartwright ascertained in 1889 that Ontario had mortgages to the amount of 42 millions sterling. United States. — Commissioner Loring summed up the mortgages during thirty-eight years in one of the Western States, and found : — No. of mortgages .... 200,000 .Amount ;f36,ooo,ooo Paid off . ... 20,400,000 Still due .... 15,600,000 The name of the State is not given. MOUNTAINS Some of the most remarkable are : — Fut Gibraltar Snowdon Vesuvius . Ben Nevis Puy-Dome Olympus . Sinai Kosciusko Ankaratra Lebanon Etna St. Bernard Pelermann Egmont . Teneriffe . Cook 1.432 3.571 3.978 4.358 4.7SO 6,500 7.500 7,176 8,887 9.520 10,963 11,006 11,400 ".433 12,036 12,400 Morrison Fuziyama Big Horn Blanc Ararat Orizaba . Kaa Mowna Elburz . Kilimanjaro Cotopaxi Wrangel . Schopenhauer Cbimborazo Illimani . Sorata . Everest . Feet 12,847 14,180 14.430 15.781 17,266 17.371 18,400 18,514 18,800 19,620 20,000 20,073 21,440 24.450 25,250 2g,ooz Everest is the highest of the Himalayas, Schopenhauer is in New Guinea, Wrangel in North America, Morrison in Formosa, Petermann in Greenland, Ankaratra in Madagascar, and Kosciusko in Australia. The greatest height attained by Humboldt was 19,510 feet, in the Andes, but Mr. Whymper, in 1880, ascended Cotopaxi to 19,620 feet, and Chimborazo to 20,545 ^^^'j ^nd W. Graham in 1883 the Kabru peak of the Himalayas to 23,500 feet, the greatest height yet attained by any individual. The passes of the Alps and the Andes are : — Alps St. Gothard . Simplon . St Bernard . Little St Bernard Mont Cenis . Madelaine Col di Tenda . There are carriage-roads over all the above Alpine passes except the St Gothard and St. Bernard. There are none over the Andes, but a railway is in construction over the Uspallata Pass. MUNIFICENCE Feet aver Sea Andes Feet over Sea 6,848 Bariloche . 2,770 6.616 Antuco . . 6,930 8,158 Planchon • 8,225 6.576 Uspallata . 12,870 6,818 Patos . . 13,200 6,584 Humahuaca . 14,060 S.925 PortiUo . • 13.860 Donor £ Locality Object Astor 100,000 New York Library Baird . 500,000 Aberdeen Church Berridge . 200,000 London Schools Cooper . 160,000 New York Schools Crossley . 100,000 Yorkshire Orphanage Day 100,000 London Blind Firth . 100,000 Sheffield Asylum Galignani 100,000 Paris Asylum Galliera . 400,000 Genoa Hospitals Gardner . 300,000 London Blind Guinness . 150,000 Dublin Church Guinness 200,000 London Lodging-house Guy 240,000 London Hospital Holloway 350.000 London Hospital Teejeebhoy 500,000 Bombay Schools Lick . 200,000 California Observatory Mason . 430,000 Birmingham Orphanage M'Calmont . 100,000 London Hospital M'Kellar 100,000 London Schools Peabody . 500,000 ' London Lodging-house Quinn . 200,000 Newry Aged Robinson 100,000 New York Schools Ross 200,000 Glasgow Hospitals Rossini . 100,000 Paris Asylum Rowe 120,000 Dublin Church Rylands . 200,000 Birmingham Asylum Salt ... 100,000 Yorkshire Hospital Stewart . 150,000 New York Hospital Sturge . 300,000 London Asylum Urquijo . 180,000 Madrid Orphanage Vanderbilt . 200,000 New York Asylum Whitworth 100,000 Msmchester Schools MURDER 414 NATIONS MURDER According to Professor Bodio (see p. 162), the number of criminals tried for murder in the years 1876-84 averaged as follows : — United Kingdom France Germany . Hungary . Italy , Spain . Number Yearly 4SO 816 602 1,682 3.712 1,807 Per Million Population 12 23 14 107 134 los MUSIC In 1890, at an auction in London, the following prices were obtained for copyrights of songs : — Song Wild Winds . In the Gloaming . The Old Way Jolly Smiths . Kathleen Mavourneen The price of on record. Composer Mattel Lady Hill Roeckel Leslie Crouch Price, £, 611 286 2S3 26s 400 Wild Winds" (Odi tu) is the highest The ratio in England per 1000 shows : — Mary William . John Eliza . N. NAMES 68 Thomas . 66 George . 62 Sarah . 61 Anne 39 36 36 33 James . Charles , Henry , Alice 19 Joseph Jane EUen 18 17 16 NATIONS Square Miles Population Steam-Power Millions £ Sterling Revenue Commerce Wealth United Kingdom France Germany . Russia Austria Italy . Spain . . . Portugal Sweden Norway Denmark . Holland . Belgium Switzerland Greece Roumania . Servia . Bulgaria Turkey , Europe . United States Canada Mexico Central America Venezuela . Peru . Ecuador Columbia . Chili . Bolivia Argentina . Uruguay Brazil . Australia . South Africa Algeria . . Egypt. India , . . Siberia China . Persia . . . Java . Japan . Total 121,000 201,000 2r2,ooo 2,262,000 269,000 114,000 183,000 37,000 171,000 122,000 15,000 2r,ooo 11,000 16,000 20,000 48,000 21,000 39,000 67,000 3,950,000 3,604,000 3,372,000 751,000 169,000 567,000 405,000 248,000 331.000 257,000 472,000 1,095,000 72,000 3,288,000 3,104,000 230,000 123,000 494,000 870,000 6,179,000 3,925,000 636,000 51,000 148,000 38,000,000 38,500,000 48,000,000 92,000,000 40,000,000 30,000,000 18,000,000 4,700,000 4,800,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 4,500,000 6, 100,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 5,500,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,700,000 9,200,000 4,520,000 6,200,000 2,240,000 2,150,000 830,000 740,000 80,000 300,000 180,000 150,000 340,000 810,000 290,000 600,000 348,300,000 62, 500,000 5,100,000 10,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 1,100,000 4,000,000 2,600,000 2,300,000 3,600,000 600,000 12,400,000 3,700,000 1,900,000 3,800,000 6,800,000 215,000,000 9,400,000 320,000,000 7,600,000 18,000,000 38,000,000 28,630,000 14,400,000 89 122 I5S 89 75 72 35 8 3 10 13 3 3 6 3 16 711 81 8 I I I 3 S I 5 2 14 28 10 83 "26 2 10 13 740 3" 367 118 92 94 59 18 30 16 26 199 111 60 7 23 4 6 33 34,341,000 1,085,700,000 50,150,000 1,018 2.314 320 42 20 7 6 3 4 4 14 2 27 12 41 130 19 17 19 131 8 49 8 30 9,400 8,598 6.437 5.089 3.85s 2,963 2,516 408 637 243 404 980 1,007 494 300 593 217 205 593 44.939 12,824 980 . 638 509 100 1.373 13s 3.249 NAVY NAVY The iollowing is a table of the principal navies : 415 NAVY The following comparison of navies was published in the Daily News, 1890 : — 1810 1810 1889 Ships 1 Guns Ships Guns Ships Guns G. Britain . France . . Germany . Russia . . Austria . . Italy . . . Spain . , Holland . Turkey , . U. Slates Various . . 450 212 346 ■36 301 76 42 24,800 6,000 4.450 200 8,000 1,600 1,700 526 1.300 392 146 83 57 30 57 16,310 7,600 5.460 1,200 1,640 2,440 3.250 2.779 373 348 lOI 391 106 140 '3S 147 90 75 38S 1,460 1.450 519 942 29s 318 492 560 200 542 1,60s Total . 1,681 1 48,576 858 40,679 2,291 8,383 The average of guns to a vessel was 29 in 18 10, rising to 46 in 1840, and declining to less than 4 in 1889. Modem naval warfare has been changed by the invention of armour-plated ships, the first of which were built for the Crimean war, 4-inch plates perfectly shot- proof, in 1853. The Merrimacs and Monitors of the United Stales in 1862 marked a great advance. Finally, the Italians used plates 36 inches thick for the Lepanto. The ironclad fleets of the world stand at present approxi- mately as follows : — Vessels Tons Max. Plating, Inches Guns Tonnage of Guns Great Britain 66 460,000 24 610 9,100 " France . . 52 310,000 22 470 6,500 Germany . 27 104,000 12 160 2,200 Russia . . 40 160,000 16 421 4,600 Austria . . 10 5S.OOO 14 137 1,500 Italy . . . 14 82,000 36 110 2,200 Spain . . 13 35.000 20 2.S4 900 Portugal . I 2,000 8 3 30 Sweden . . 15 8,000 12 24 90 Norway . . 4 2,000 12 50 Denmark . 8 25,000 * 12 107 900 Holland . . 24 4S.OOO 8 72 800 Greece . . 4 7,000 24 Turkey . . IS 61,000 12 134 1.340 United States 13 , 40,000 12 74 Brazil . . 12 15,000 12 60 Argentina . 3 8,000 9 IS Chili . . . 3 9,000 9 22 220 China . . 9 38,000 14 .SO Japan . . I 4,000 9 6 60 Total . 334 1,470,000 36 2,765 30,490 The average cost of building ironclads has been, per ton: British ;^48, French ^^55, Italian £,$1, German £fio. Including guns and equipment, an ordinary iron- clad now costs ^8o per ton. The largest war-vessels now are : — Name Flag Tons Horse- Power ItaUa .... Itahan . . . 13.900 18,000 Trafalgar . . . British . . . 12,000 12,000 Formidable . . French . . . 11,400 8,300 Catherine . . . Russian . . 10,200 9,000 Pelayo .... Spanish . . 10,000 8,000 Wilhelm . . . German . . 9,800 8,000 Mesoudiy^. . . Turkish . . 8,800 6,800 Tegethoff . . . Austrian . . 7.400 S,ooo Ting .... Chinese . . 7,300 6,000 Maine .... United States 6,600 8,600 Heligoland . . Danish . . 5,400 4,000 Koenig .... Holland . . S.400 4.500 w a 9, S- It. Sea-going ironclads . ■;6 33 13 22 21 Cruisers (16 knots) . . 28 17 7 2 3 Coast ironclads . . . 6 21 12 13 Gunboats 95 45 12 36 15 Various i«S 190 131 188 124 Total . . . 370 306 175 261 163 The same paper says: "In ships we are well ahead of any competitor. It is in the matter of guns that our weakness Ues. We have afloat or ready to go afloat 1065 modern heavy guns ; France has 1447, Russia has 423, Italy has 180, and Germany has 508. When all our war-diips are armed, we shall have afloat of guns that can pierce 13 in. of armour and upwards 104, while France will have 124, Russia 38, Italy 40, and Germany 61." The torpedo fleets of the various flags are as follows :— Great Britain 16'; France 175 Germany 135 Russia !«■; Italy . 116 Spain . 26 Sweden 19 Denmark 42 Austria . 42 Holland • 31 Brazil . . 18 Chili . • 25 Turkey . ■ 52 China . ■ 31 Portugal . 6 Argentina • 9 The number of seamen and annual cost of the navies Men Annual Expenditure, £^ Per Man,;f Great Britain . 65,000 13,700,000 211 France . 54.000 9,000,000 165 Germany 16,600 2,000,000 120 Russia , 29,000 4,000,000 140 Austria . 8,500 900,000 106 Italy 13,000 5,000,000 386 Spain . 14,000 1,600,000 114 HoUand 8,000 1,100,000 138 Turkey . 39.500 800,000 20 United States 10,000 3,000,000 300 Total 257,600 41,100,000 160 Great Britain The statistics of the Royal Navy may be summed up as follows : — Year Vessels Tons Guns Men Cost per Annum, £ 1603 . . 1685 . . 1760 . . 1803 . . 1850 . . 1890 . . 42 179 32s % 373 17,000 104,000 321,000 461,000 570,000 680,000 6,930 10,600 24,800 17,200 1,460 10,000 51,000 180,000 48,000 65,000 180,000 390,000 5,611,000 12,037,000 6,438,000 13,700,000 When Philip II. sent the Armada in 1588 for the conquest of England it comprised : — Ships . . . 132 1 Seamen . . . 10,854 Cannon . . . 3,165 | Soldiers . . . 23,200 The British fleet under Lord Howard, supported by Drake and Hawkins, consisted of : — Ships . Tonnage Seamen Royal Navy Vessels Hired 41 135 176 16,000 18,500 34.500 8,200 6,600 14,800 Total NAVY 41O NAVY The Spaniards lost 35 ships and 13,600 men. During the wars with Bonaparte, according to Haydn, the British navy captured or destroyed the following : — Ships of the Une Frigates . Corvettes . Total . . 1,110 Total The above is exclusive of 1396 brigs and small vessels. In 1888 the Channel Fleet consisted as follows : — 207 French . 683 351 Spanish . 213 5S2 Various . 214 Tons Guns Broadsides, Lbs. Men Inflexible . Northumberland . Agincourt Benbow Rodney 64 others 11,880 10,780 10,690 10,600 10,300 185.750 4 27 17 12 10 3S4 3.400 2,630 2,150 2,300 2,300 32.720 460 710 710 500 500 12,120 Total . 240,000 424 45.500 15,100 The Channel Fleet represents nearly one-third of the strength of the British navy. The strength of the navy in 1889 was as follows: — Number In Commission Number Guns Ironclads Steamers SaiHng .... Torpedo-boats 66 293 212 146 32 172 63 13 310 790 380 Total 716 280 1,480 The cost of the effective ships afloat has been as follows : — Number £ Ironclads .... 66 24,000,000 Torpedo-boats . . . 146 1,500,000 Steamers, &c. . . . 161 11,100,000 Total . 373 36,600,000 There are in construction 11 ironclads and 128 other vessels, to be completed before 1894, at a cost of 22 millions sterling. In 1889 there were 26 war-vessels launched, besides 23 new torpedo-boats, and the most remarkable were : — Name Tons Horse- Power Cost, £ Speed, Knots per Hour Blake . . . Vulcan . . . Barham . . Blanche . . 9,000 6,600 1,800 1,600 20,000 12,000 6,000 3,000 440,000 300,000 100,000 100,000 22 20 19 16 The Blaie is 400 ft. long, 65 ft. beam, and carries two 24-ton guns and 10 smaller : the hull cost ;f 213,000, the engines ;^i34,ooo, the guns ;^25,ooo (;£^3io per ton), and the fittings ;^68,ooo. Lord Armstrong, comparing the new ship Victoria with Nelson's ship Victory, says : — "Nelson's heaviest shot was 68 lbs., but the Victories weighs 1800 lbs. ; his broadside consumed 325 lbs. of powder, that of the Victoria 3000 lbs. He required one man to every 4 tons, but now we can do with one man for 17 tons." A first-class ironclad, built of steel, has this weight : — Tons Hull . . . . . 3.400 Plating . 2,800 Machinery 1,400 Guns, &c 1,100 Coal, &c. ... . 1,370 Total 10,070 The navy counts 65,000 seamen, including 14,000 marines and 5300 coastguards, the cost of vessels built was as follows : — In fifteen years ending 1880 Built by Tons Cost, £ Iron Wooden Total Iron Wooden Total Government .... Contractors .... 123,000 55.000 85,000 41,000 208,000 96,000 5,466,000 2,709,000 3,964,000 2,321,000 9,430,000 5,030,000 Total 178,000 126,000 304,000 8,175,000 6,285,000 14,460,000 The cost of construction per ton of displacement was less in Government yards, but less per ton of hull in contractors' yards, viz. : — Per ton displacement . Per ton of hull . . , Dockyard £ s. d. 45 7 o 43 8 o Contractors' 52 41 s. d. 8 o The cost of French ironclads built in State dockyards has been 30 per cent, more than those built by con- tractors. Lord Brassey gives the cost of vessels built for the British and French fighting navies since 1864 thus : — Period England, £ France, £ 1864-70 1871-80 1881-90 9,900,000 15,700,000 24,200,000 5,700,000 9,900,000 16,100,000 27 years 49,800,000 31,700,000 France The strength at various dates has been as follows : — Year Vessels Guns Men 1780 . 266 13.300 78,000 1810 212 6,000 94,000 1840 . 146 7,600 24.500 1868 . 480 2,750 43.100 1889 . 348 1.450 54.000 The expenditure has averaged yearly approximately thus : — Period £ 1831-50 3,400,000 1851-70 5,700,000 1871-88 9,400,000 In 1889 the navy comprised 52 ironclads and 296 smaller vessels, the total valued at ^{^20, 100,000, and NAVY 417 NAVY carrying ag.ocxj blue-jackets, 25,000 marines, and 1450 guns. Some of the heaviest vessels are : — Tons Armour, Inches Guns Horse- Power Knots perHour Formidable . Duperrfe . . Baudin . . . Duquesne . . Courbet . . 11,400 10,500 11,200 S.700 9.500 22 22 22 i"s IS 19 IS 21 14 8,300 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 IS IS IS 17 IS In 1882 the following comparative table of the French and British ironclad fleets was published : — Vessels Tonnage of Guns Per Ship British . French . SI S9 7.030 S.960 138 lOI In 1869 the largest vessel in the French navy was the Magenta, 1000 horse-power, being one-eighth of that of the present fiist-class ironclads. Germany In 1888 the fleet was composed thus : — Num- ber Guns Tons Horse- Power Men Ironclads . Frigates . Corvettes, &c. . 27 el 160 122 237 104,000 28,000 50,000 84,000 28,000 56,000 7.300 3.700 S,6oo Total lOI 519 182,000 168,000 16,600 The heaviest ships are the following — Tons Horse- Power Guns Armour, Inches WUhelm . Kaiser 9,800 7,700 8,000 8,000 29 IS 12 10 The navy costs ;^2,ooo,ooo per annum. Russia The strength of the Russian navy at various dates was : — Year 1779 . . . • 1791 .... 1810 .... 1840 .... 1868 .... Ships Guns SO 3.400 94 S.200 346 4.4SO as 5.4^0 292 3.690 391 942 The heaviest ships are : — The navy in 1889 was as follows : — Fleets Ironclads Other Vessels Total Baltic . Black Sea Caspian . Siberian, &c. . 26 S 9 209 67 14 6r 23s 72 23 61 Total . 40 3SI 391 Guns Tons Horse-Power Ironclads Steamers, &o. 421 S2I 160,000 126,000 17,000 32,000 Total . 942 286,000 49,000 The whole manned by 29,000 officers and men. Name Tons Horse- Power Guns Armour, Inches Knots perHour Sinope . . . Catherine . . 10,200 10,200 9,000 9,000 13 13 16 16 16 16 The navy costs ^^4,000,000 per annum. Holland In 1888 the navy comprised 24 ironclads and 123 corvettes and smaller vessels, carrying 560 guns and 8000 men, the heaviest ship being the King of Holland, 5400 tons, 4500 horse-power, 8 guns, 8-inch armour, speed 1 2 knots. The navy costs ^\, 100,000 a year. Austria The actual strength is as follows : — Num- ber Tons Horse- Power Guns Men Ironclads . . . Corvettes, &c. . 10 96 SS.ooo 69,000 11,000 13,000 137 158 4,000 7,000 Total . . 106 124,000 24,000 29s 11,000 The heaviest vessels are : — Tons Horse- Power Guns Armour, Inches Knots per Hour Tegethoff . . Custozza . , . 7.400 7,000 5,000 4.S00 6 8 14 9 14 14 The navy costs ^^900,000 per annum, and is manned by 8500 men. Italy The navy is composed as follows : — Vessels Guns Tons Horse- power Men Ironclads . . . Corvettes, &c. . Small vessels . 14 23 103 110 117 91 82,000 34.000 34.000 64,000 41,000 3S.OOO 6,000 4,000 3,000 Total . . 140 318 150,000 140,000 13,000 The heaviest ships ire : — Tons Horse- Power Guns Armour, Inches Knots per Hour Italia . . Lepanto . Humberto . 13,900 13,600 13.300 18,000 18,000 15,200 12 12 12 36 18 18 18 There are 1 7,000 officers and seamen, the navy costing ;^5,ooo,ooo sterling per annum. Spain In 1889 the naval strength was as follows : — Number Guns ,H orse- Power Ironclads . Other vessels . 13 123 238 i 19,000 46,000 Total . 13s 493 65,000 The fleet is manned by 14,000 men. The largest ship is the Pelayo, 10,000 tons, 8000 horse-power, armour 20 inches, carrying 17 guns. The navy in 170S was one of the greatest in Europe, manned by 16,400 seamen. 2 D NAVY 418 NAVY Portugal The actual strength is as follows :- Number Guns Horse-Power Steam , Sail .... 38 IS 139 42 20,000 Total . S3 i8i 20,000 There are 3000 seamen. The only ironclad is the Vasco da Gama, 2400 tons, 3200 horse-power, 8-inch armour, speed 13 knots. The navy costs ;^25o,O0O a year. Sweden The navy is composed thus : — Number Horse-Poweri Guns Ironclads . Corvettes, &o. . IS S3 6,000 22,000 24 127 Total . 68 28,000 151 The heaviest ship is the Scea, 12-inch armour, 2900 tons, 6 guns, and 3100 horse-power. The fleet has 4000 seamen, and costs ;f 350,000 a year. NoRvyAY The fleet counts as follows : — Number Horse-Power Guns Ironclads . Corvettes, &c. . Small boats 4 17 27 1,800 8,000 4,200 12 IS7 23 total . 48 14,000 192 They are manned by 1 100 men ; naval reserve, 27,000. The cost of the navy is ;^ 110,000 a year. Denmark The navy before its destruction by Nelson consisted in 1805 of 35 vessels, carrying 2350 guns. In 1850 it counted 25 vessels with 940 guns. The present strength is: — Number Horse-Power Guns Ironclads . Corvettes, &o. . 8 31 19,000 18,000 107 122 Total . 39 37,000 229 The heaviest vessel is the Heligoland, 1 2-inch armour, 5400 tons, 4000 horse-power, 5 guns, speed 14 knots. The navy costs ;^6oo,ooo a year. Greece The actual strength is ■■— Number Tons Guns Ironclads Brigs, &c. . 4 31 7,000 24 176 Total 3S 200 The whole is manned by 2900 men. The heaviest ship is the Olga, 2000 tons, 6 guns, 10 knots. The navy costs ;^ 1 60,000 a year. Turkey The navy comprises 15 ironclads, 15 corvettes, 60 gunboats, &c., the whole carrying 200 guns, and supposed to be manned by 30,000 blue-jackets, and 9500 marines. The Turkish navy has been repeatedly almost annihilated. At Lepanto in 1571, Ali Pacha's fleet counted 372 vessels, manned by 120,000 men ; that of Don John of Austria, 208 vessels with 80,000 men. The Turks lost 175 cap- tured and 129 sunk or burnt, only 68 escaping. Aigain, at Navarino in 1827, the English and French destroyed 30 Turkish war- vessels, and in 1853 the Russians at Sinope destroyed an Ottoman fleet of II vessels with 4000 men. At present the heaviest ships are : — Tons Horse- Power Guns Armour, Inches Knots per Hour Mesoudiyi . . Hamidieh . , 8,800 6,500 6,800 4.S00 12 9 12 9 14 13 The navy costs ;^8oo,ooo a year. Brazil The fleet comprises 12 ironclads and 30 war-steamers, carrying 222 guns and 6000 men. The heaviest vessel is the Jaoari, 3500 tons, 2200 horse-power, 4 guns, 12-inch armour. The navy costs ;^i, 100,000 a year. Argentina The actual strength is 3 ironclads and 16 gunboats, carrying 58 guns and 1500 men. The Admiral Brown is 4200 tons, 5400 horse-power, 8 guns, 9-inch armour. The navy costs ;f 300,000 a year. Chili There are 3 ironclads and 18 smaller vessels, carrying 55 guns and 2000 men. The Cochrane is 3500 tons, 2900 horse-power, 9-inch armour, 3 guns, speed 12 knots. A steel ironclad of 6000 tons is in construction. United States The strength of the navy at various dates was : — Vessels Guns 1812 158 526 1815 276 1,636 1840 60 3,250 1865 684 4,477 18S8 75 542 Americans are fairly entitled to claim the invention of ironclad war-vessels. In 181 1 Robert Stevens of New Jersey, a youth of twenty-two years, proposed iron-plating for ships, and in 1842 made a contract with the Navy Department for ironclad floating batteries. Ericcson invented turret-ships in i860 with plates 8-inch thick, carrying a pair of 15-inch guns. The actual fleet comprises 13 ironclads, 37 corvettes, and 25 small vessels, manned by 8000 blue-jackets, and 2000 marines. The sums spent on the navy have averaged yearly thus : — Period £ 1801-40 700,000 1841-60 1,900,000 1861-70 7,500,000 1871-80 4,000,000 1881-88 3,100,000 Congress has recently ordered the construction of ic ironclads and 18 other vessels. The Puritan, Maine, and Texas will be each over 6000 tons, 8000 horse-power, 12-inch armour, speed 17 knots. The new corvette Baltimore, 10,000 horse-power, goes 20 knots. NIGHT 419 OCCUPATION Japan. The navy is as follows : — Num- ber Guns Tons Horse- power Knots Ironclad . . . Corvettes, &c. . I 24 6 169 3.700 3S.400 3.500 31,000 13 Total . . 2S 17s 39.100 34.SOO The vessels are manned by 5000 blue-jackets, and cost ;^8oo,cioo a year. China In 1888 the navy comprised 9 ironclads and 121 small vessels. The heaviest vessels were the Ting and Chen, each 7300 tons, 6000 horse-power, 14-inch plating, with 4 Krupp guns of 12-inch bore. NIGHT The following table shows the longest and shortest nights, according to latitude : — Latitude Longest Shortest Hours Minutes Hours Minutes S ■ IS • 2S • 35 • 45 • 50 • 'd. : 65 . 12 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 21 17 53 34 22 26 9 7 30 10 II II 10 7 6 5 2 43 7 26 38 34 51 53 30 50 At 66i north or south the midnight sun is visible in summer. The above table is equally true of the length of days. NOBLES In Austria-Hungary the number declines, viz. : — 1840 1865 Austria .... Hungary .... 140,000 260,000 87,000 163,400 Total 400,000 250,400 In Spain they are as follows : — Grandees Only Titular Total Dukes . Marquises . Counts Barons 79 60 60 4 2 615 480 156 81 675 540 160 Total 203 I.2S3 1.456 The British House of Lords comprises 4 princes, 23 dukes, 19 marquises, 139 earls, 32 viscounts, 26 bishops, and 272 barons ; in all, 515 members. The total nobility of the United Kingdom is as fol- lows : — % "5 ^. J2 cn B a 5 j> ^ England . 27 21 120 28 294 490 Scotland . 8 4 43 5 25 «■; Ireland 2 II 64 36 64 177 Total 37 36 227 69 383 752 There are also 26 English bishops who rank as peers. o. OCCUPATION The following table shows approximately the number of persons supported by the principal industries in the several countries : — England Scotland Ireland . . U. Kingdom France . Germany Russia . Austria . Italy . . Spain Portugal Sweden . Norway . Denmark Belgium . Holland . Switzerland Greece . Europe , U. States Australia Total Agriculture 3,435,000 523,000 2,562,000 6,520, 18,249, 18,841, 56,815, 16,710, 9.169. 8,170, 3,200, 2,130, 903. 940. 1,200, 2,600, 1,140, 940, Manu- factures 7,313,000 1,155,000 640,000 16 ,000 000 ,000 ,ooolio, ,000! 5, ,000 4, ,000! 3, ,000' ,000; ,000, ,000' pOOo| lOOOJ ,ooo| ,000, ,108,000 , 194,000 ,058,000 520,000 ,499,000 ,494,000 ,490,000 700,000 850,000 306,000 560,000 ,910,000 900,000 970,000 260,000 147.527 23,010, 1,200, 00063,819,000 000)11,520,000 ,oooj 950,000 ^- 171,737,000 76,289,000 Commerce, &c. 15,226,000 2,058,000 1, 808,000 19,182,000 10,035,000 10,323,000 8,965,000 12,252,000 12,007,000 5,040,000 300,000 1,520,000 598,000 450,000 2,390,000 800,000 730,000 440,000 85,032,000 15,620,000 1,450,000 102,102,000 Total 25,974,000 3,736,000 5,100,000 34,810,000 36,478,000 45,222,000 76,300,000 34,461,000 25,670,000 16,700,000 4,200,000 4,500,000 1,807,000 1,950,000 5,500,000 4,300,000 2,840,000 1,640,000 296,378,000 50,150,000 3,600,000 350,128,000 As the Census returns of different countries adopt no uniform classification, some including children and de- pendents, the tables cannot be followed unreservedly. The actual number of persons engaged in the various industries is approximately as follows : — Agri- culture Manu- factures Commerce, &c. Total England . . 1,341,000 4,161,000 6,210,000 11,712,000 Scotland . . 234,000 641,000 773,000 1,648,000 Ireland . . 986,000 387,000 1,002,000 2,375,000 U. Kingdom 2,561,000 5,189,000 7,985,000 15,735,000 France . . 6,455,000 4,443,000 5,210,000 16,108,000 Germany 8,120,000 5,350,000 5,910,000 19,380,000 Russia . . 22,700,000 4,760,000 3,600,000 31,060,000 Austria . . 10,682,000 3,090,000 2,438,000 16,210,000 Italy . . . 5,397,000 2,281,000 2,200,000 9,878,000 Spain . , . 2,723,000 1,167,000 1,200,000 5,090,000 Portugal . . 873,000 300,000 100,000 1,273,000 Sweden . . 853,000 400,000 350,000 1,603,000 Norway . , 380,000 170,000 150,000 700,000 Denmark . • 420,000 250,000 160,000 830,000 Belgium . . 980,000 953.000 280,000 2,213,000 Holland . . 840,000 400,000 360,000 1,600,000 Switzerland . 440,000 370,000 290,000 1,100,000 Greece . . 187,000 52,000 91,000 330,000 Europe . . 63,611,000 29,175,000 30,324,000 123,110,000 U. States . 7,671,000 3,837,000 5,884,000 17,392,000 Australia 398,000 327,000 563,000 1,288,000 Total . 71,680,000 33.339.000 36,771,000 141,790,000 OCCUPATION 420 OCCUPATION The following table shows the number of persons in 1000 of the population dedicated to each industry : — Per 1000 of Population Agricul- Manu- Commerce, ture factures &c. England 52 160 238 45° Scotland 61 168 202 431 Ireland . 195 76 196 467 United Kingdom . 73 148 229 4SO France . 170 117 , 137 424 Germany 178 118 130 426 Russia . 298 6S 47 410 Austria . 280 81 64 42s Italy . 190 80 77 347 Spain . 160 70 72 302 Portugal 220 70 23 313 Sweden 190 90 80 360 Per 1000 of Population Agricul- Manu- Commerce, Total ture facture &c. Norway 190 85 75 35° Denmark 210 120 80 410 Holland 200 93 8S 378 Belgium 166 160 46 372 Switzerland . 150- I2S 100 375 Greece . "S 55 202 Europe . 187 80 90 357 United States IS3 n 117 347 Australia no 88 154 352 The number of persons occupied is no test of industry or the reverse. In some countries women and children are engaged in manufacture, which swells the ratio of workers ; in others, the children are at school, the women prudently employed at home. United Kingdom In his Resources of Nations (1835) M'Gregor gives the following : — England, Families Great Britain, Families Ireland, Adults 1811 1811 1821 1831 1823 Agriculture Trade, manufactures, &c. ... 697,000 1,315,000 896,000 1,648,000 979,000 1,963,000 961,000 2,453,000 1,138,000 1,699,000 Total 2,012,000 2,544,000 2,942,000 3,414,000 2,837,000 Booth's digest of the Census returns 1841-81 shows the principal occupations of the United Kingdom as follows : — 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 Agriculture .... 3,401,000 3,519,000 3,149,000 2,808,000 2,561,000 Manufactures 3,137,000 3,922,000 4,164,000 4,377,000 4,535,000 Commerce' 684,000 1,165,000 1,418,000 1,712,000 1,946,000 Mines 245,000 299,000 497,000 561,000 654,000 Building , 485,000 588,000 687,000 817,000 964,000 Professions 223,000 320,000 363,000 422,000 524,000 Domestics 1,555.000 1,542,000 1,914,000 2,233,000 2,448,000 Various . 1,632,000 1,406,000 1,368,000 1,754,000 2,103,000 Tota 1 11,362,000 12,761,000 13,560,000 14,684,000 15.735.000 Agriculture England Scotland Ireland 1,297,000 260,000 1,844,000 1,760,000 299,000 1,460,000 1,700,000 276,000 1,173,000 1,504,000 258,000 1,046,000 1,341,000 234,000 986,000 United Kingdom . 3,401,000 3,519,000 3,149,000 2,808,000 2,561,000 Manufactures England Scotland Ireland 1,798,000 350,000 989,000 2,755,000 480,000 687,000 3,117,000 481,000 566,000 3,359,000 518,000 500,000 3,599,000 SS7.000 379,000 United Kingdom . 3.137.000 3,922,000 4,164,000 4,377,000 4,535,000 Commerce England .... Scotland Ireland 499,000 74,000 111,000 892,000 121,000 152,000 1,110,000 145.000 163,000 1,362,000 179,000 171,000 1,578,000 208,000 160,000 United Kingdom 684,000 1,165,000 1,418,000 1,712,000 1,946,000 OCCUPATION 421 OCCUPATION Mines 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 England Scotland Ireland 210,000 26,000 9,000 235,000 52,000 12,000 425,000 62,000 10,000 47S.OOO 77,000 9,000 562,000 84,000 S,ooo United Kingdom . 24S.OOO 299,000 497,000 561,000 654,000 Building England Scotland Ireland 353.000 60,000 72,000 461.000 69,000 58.000 539,000 82,000 66,000 664,000 95.000 58,000 797,000 111,000 56,000 United Kingdom . 485.000 588,000 687,000 817,000 964,000 Learned Professions England Scotland Ireland 159,000 24,000 40,000 246,000 30,000 44,000 284,000 34.000 45.000 337.000 36.000 49,000 423,000 49.000 52,000 United Kingdom 223,000 320,000 363,000 422,000 524,000 Domestic Servants England Scotland Ireland 1,078,000 135,000 342,000 1,121,000 138,000 283,000 1,384,000 165,000 365,000 1,684,000 160,000 389,000 1,838,000 183,000 427.000 United Kingdom . i.55S,ooo 1,542,000 1,914,000 2,233,000 2,448,000 Total Employed Population England Scotland Ireland 6,631,000 1,107,000 3,624,000 8,429,000 1,317,000 3,015,000 9,452,000 1,374,000 2,734,000 10,623,000 1,494,000 2,567,000 11,712,000 1,648,000 2,375,000 United Kingdom . 11,362,000 12,761,000 13,560,000 14,684,000 15,735,000 The useless classes in the three kingdoms were : — England Scotland 1861 1871 1881 1861 1871 1881 Paupers .... Insane .... Prisoners .... 843,000 40,000 26,000 977.000 S7.O0O 29,000 758,000 73.000 28,000 117,000 9,000 2,000 124,000 11,000 3.000 99.000 14.000 3,000 Total 909,000 1,063,000 859,000 128,000 138,000 116,000 Ireland United Kingdom Paupers . Insane Prisoners . . j 217,000 . 1 14,000 . 1 4.000 282,000 17,000 4,000 590,000 17,000 3.000 1,177.000 63,000 32,000 1,383,000 85,000 36,000 1,447,000 104,000 34,000 Total 235.000 303,000 610,000 1,272,000 1,504,000 1,585,000 The following table shows manufacturing industries : — 1841 1861 1861 1871 1881 Chemicals 7,000 21,000 31,000 46,000 55.000 Paper. . 15,000 28,000 32,000 44.000 61,000 Leather . 44,000 63,000 65,000 70,000 72.000 Pottery . 34.000 51,000 61,000 73.000 78,000 Food . . 119.000 170,000 190,000 206,000 230,000 Carpentry 197,000 235,000 265,000 280,000 286,000 Metals . 250,000 362.000I 451,000 522,000 572,000 Clothing . 795,00011,150,000^1,230,000 1,210,000 1,223,000 Textiles . i,48i,ooo'i, 605, 000,1,457,000 1,400,000 1,283,000 Various . 195,000 237,000 3,137,0003,922,000 382,000 526,000 675,000 Total . 4,164,000 4.377.000 4.535.000 The learned professions in the United Kingd almost twice as great a relative increase as the tion in general. The numbers were : — om show popula- 1841 1851 , 1861 1871 1881 Divinity , . Law . . . Medicine . Arts and ) science f Education . Total . 30,000 39.000 56,000 22,000 76,000 44.000 45,000 75.000 33.000 123,000 56,000 45.000 76,000 38,000 148,000 64,000 50,000 87,000 52,000 169,000 78,000 56,000 102,000 64,000 224,000 223,000 320,000 363,000 422,000 524.000 OCCUPATION 422 OCCUPATION Ratio of Persons Employed in the United Kingdom 1811 1861 1861 1871 1881 Agriculture . 298 276 233 192 162 Manufactures 277 307 307 298 288 Commerce . 60 92 104 116 124 Mines . 22 24 37 38 41 Building 43 46 51 5S 61 Professions , 19 25 26 28 33 Domestics . 137 120 141 IS3 156 Various 144 110 lOI 120 13s Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The occupations according to sexes were as follows : — Agriculture Manufactures Commerce . Professions . Domestics . Various . . Total . Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Professions . Domestics . Various . , Total . Agriculture Manufactures Commerce Professions Domestics Various . Total 1841 Males 3,151,000 1,823,000 577,000 162,000 325,000 1,989,000 Females 250,000 1,314,000 107,000 61,000 1,230,000 373,000 8,027,000 3,335,000 11,362,000 Total 3,401,000 3,137,000 684,000 223,000 I.S5S.OOO 2,362,000 707293 1,000 1851 Males 3,123,000 2,262,000 977,000 207,000 197,000 2,086,000 Females 396,000 1,660,000 188,000 113,000 1.345.000 207,000 8,852,000 3,909,000 12,761,000 Total 3,519,000 3,922,000 1,165,000 320,000 1,542,000 2,293,000 1861 Males 2,885,000 2,427,000 1,196,000 224,000 229,000 2,363,000 9,324,000 Females 264,000 1,737,000 222,000 139,000 1,685,000 189,000 4,236,000 Total 3,149,000 4,164,000 1,418,000 363,000 1,914,000 2,552,000 13,560,000 Ratio 277 60 19 137 209 Ratio h 276 307 92 25 120 i8o 694306 1,000 Ratio 688 312 233 307 104 26 141 189 Agriculture Manufactiu-es Commerce , Professions . Domestics . Various . . Total . Agriculture Manufactures Commerce Professions Domestics Various . Total 1871 Males 2,569,000 2,583,000 1,436,000 253,000 248,000 2,875,000 Females Total 239,000 1 794,000 276,000 169,000 1,985,000' 257,000 9,964,000 4,720,000 14,684,000 2,808,000 4,377,000 1,712,000 422,000 2,233,000 3,132,000 681319 1,000 1881 Males 2,348,000 2,740,000 1,650,000 299,000 359,000 3,424,000 Females 213,000 1,795,000 296,000 225,000 2,089,000 297,000 Total 2,561,000 4,535,000 1,946,000 524,000 2,448,000 3,721,000 10,820,0004,915,000 15,735,000 688312 1,000 Ratio 176 176 98 17 17 197 h 192 298 ti6 28 152 214 Ratio to 149 13 174 114 los 19 19{ 14 23,133 218 19 162 288 124 33 156 237 The number of adults and that of actual workers are shown as follows : — Over 15 years of Age Workers 1841 1881 1841 1881 England Scotland . Ireland . , 4,940,000 7,961,000 778,000 1,106,000 2,444,000 1,609,000 4,797,000 764,000 2,466,000 8,108,000 1,130,000 1,582,000 U. Kingdom 8,162,000 10,676,000 8,027,000 10,820,000 Females England Scotland Ireland . . 5,325,000 898,000 2,624,000 8,613,000 1,263,000 1,741,000 1,834,000 343.000 1,158,000 3,604,000 518,000 793,000 U. Kingdom 8,847,000 11,617,000 3.33S.OOO 4,915,000 Total England Scotland Ireland . . 10,265,000 1,676,000 5,068,000 16,574,000 2,369,000 3,350,000 6,631,000 1,107,000 3,624,000 11,712,000 1,648,000 2,375,000 U. Kingdom 17,009,000 22,293,000 11,362,000 15.735.000 It appears that the number of males employed in i8i was greater than that of male adults in the population. Males are classified thus according to age : — Age Agriculture 1861 1871 1881 Manufacture 1861 1871 1881 0-15 1S-6S Over 65 177,000 2,458,000 250,000 158,000 2,141,000 270,000 95,000 i,cio8,ooo 245,000 178,000 2,131,000 118,000 166,000 2,289,000 123,000 126,000 2,496,000 118,000 Total 2,885,000 2,569,000 2,348,000 2,427,000 2,583,000 2,740,000 Various Total 0-15 15-65 Over 65 184,000 3,581,000 247,000 Total 4,012,000 209,000 4,278,000 325,000 4,812,000 173,000 5,149,000 410,000 539,000 8,170,000 615,000 5,732,000 9,324,000 533,000 8,708,000 723,000 9,964,000 394,000 9,653,000 773,000 10,820,000 OCCUPATION 423 OCCUPATION Agriculture 1851 1861 j 1871 1881 Men . . . Women . . Boys . . . 2,930,000 2,708,000 396,000 264,000 193,000 177,000 2,411,000 239,000 158,000 2,253,000 213,000 9S.OOO Total . 3,519,000 3,149,000 2,808,000 2,561,000 Manufactura * Men . . , Women . . Boys . . . 2,083,000' 2,249,000 1,660,000 1,737,000 179,000 178,000 2,417,000 1,794,000 166,000 2,614,000 1,795,000 126,000 Total . 3,922,000^ 4,164,000 4,377,000 4.53S.OOO Various 1861 1861 1871 1881 Men . . . Women . . Boys . . . 3,318,000 1,853,000 149,000 3,828,000 2,235,000 184,000 5,559,000 2,907,000 173,000 Total . 5,320,000 6,247,000 7,499,000 8,639,000 All Occupations Men . . . Women . . Boys , . . 8,331,000 3,909,000 521,000 8,785,000 4,236,000 S39.O0O 9,431,000 4,720,000 533.000 10,426,000 4,915,000 394.000 Total . 12,761,000 13,560,000 14,684,000 15,735.000 If we compare the total number of peisons of all occupations in 1881 with that in iSji, we find an increase of 25 per cent in the men and 57 per cent, in the women, but a decrease of 25 per cent, in boys, which latter is doubtless due to the Board Schools. The number of persons supported or making a living out of the several occupations is shown by Booth as follows : — England 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 Agriculture .... 3,875,000 4,247,000 4,194.000 3,746,000 3,435,000 Manufacture 4,006,000 5,263,000 5,940,000 6,553,000 7,313.000 Transport 474,000 868,000 1,177,000 1,406,000 1,799,000 Dealing . 973,000 1,385,000 1,684,000 2,054,000 2,334,000 Mines 564,000 828,000 1,065,000 1,231,000 1,553,000 Building . 1,126,000 1,381,000 1,633,000 1,984,000 2,464,000 Domestics 1,I1I,000 1,211,000 1,523,000 1,859,000 2,230.000 Sundry . 3,783,000 2,745,000 2,850,000 3,879,000 4,846,000 Total 15,912,000 17,928,000 20,066,000 22,712,000 25,974,000 Scotland Agriculture .... 669,000 688,000 663,000 604,000 523.000 Manufacture 726,000 925,000 940,000 1,040,000 1,155,000 Transport 84,000 141,000 173.000 215,000 252,000 Dealing . 129,000 180,000 214,000 248,000 287,000 Mines 74,000 142,000 176,000 217,000 239,000 Building , aoo.ooo 225,000 254,000 293,000 347,000 Domestics 146,000 147,000 184,000 igojooo 242,000 Sundry . 592,000 440,000 458,000 553.000 691,000 Tola 1 2,620,000 2,888,000 3,062,000 3,360,000 3,736,000 Ireland Agriculture .... 5,074,000 3,650,000 3,020,000 2,635,00a 3,562,000 Manufacture 1,498,000 1,059,000 879,000 777,000 640,000 Transport 60,000 122,000 137,000 154,000 148,000 Dealing . 195,000 214,000 227,000 237,000 234,000 Mines . 27,000 33.000 29,000 25,000 23,000 Building . 229,000 171,000 192,000 172,000 176,000 Domestics 346,000 286,000 371,000 409,000 457.000 Sundry . 746,000 1,017,000 944.000 1,004,000 93S.OOO Tota 1 8,175,000 6,552,000 5,799,000 5,413,000 5,175,000 United Kingdom Agriculture .... 9,618,000 8,585,000 7,877,000 6,985,000 6,520,000 Manufacture 6,230,000 7,247,000 7.759.000 8,370.000 9, 108,000 Transport 618,000 1,131,000 1,487,000 1,775,000 2,199,000 Dealing . 1,297,000 1,779,000 2,125,000 2,539,000 2,855,000 Mines 665,000 1,003,000 1,270,000 1,473,000 1,815,000 Building . I.SS5.000 1,777,000 2,079,000 2,449,000 2,987,000 Domestics 1,603,000 1,644,000 2,078,000 2,458,000 2,929,000 Sundry . 5,121,000 4,202,000 4,252,000 5,436,000 6,472,090 Tota 1 26,707,000 27,368,000 28,927,000 31,485,000 34,885,000 OCCUPATION 424" OCCUPATION Ratios for the United Kingdom 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 Agriculture . 360 314 272 223 187 Manufactures 233 26^ 268 267 261 Domestics . 60 60 73 n 84 Building ■;8 6S 73 17 86 Dealing 48 6,S 74 80 81 Mines . 2S 36 44 47 S2 Transport . 23 41 51 56 S3 Sundry 193 154 I4S 173 186 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 England and Wales The following are the ofScial classifications :- Agricul- Trade and Percentage Year Manu- Various Total of Total factures Population 1811 896,000 1,129,000 519,000 2,544,000 25.0 1821 979,000 1,350,000 612,000 2,941,000 24-3 1831 961,000 1,435,000 1,018,000 3,414,000 24.4 1841 1,499,000 3,111,000 2,180,000 3,990,000 24.9 1851 2,029,000 3,692,000 5,927,000 11,648,000 64.0 1861 2,011,000 4,829,000 6,234,000 13,074,000 ^4-7 1871 1,657,000 5,953,000 7,153,000 14,763,000 64.8 1881 1,383,000 7.353.000 ... Booth's digest of the Censuses from 1841 is as follows for England and Wales : 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 Agriculture Manufactures Commerce Professions Domestics Various . 1,297,000 1,798,000 499,000 159,000 1,078,000 1,800,000 1,760,000 2,755,000 892,000 246,000 1,121,000 1,655,000 1,700,000 3,117,000 1,110,000 284,000 1,384,000 1,857,000 1,504,000 3,359,000 1,362,000 337,000 1,684,000 2,377,000 1,341,000 3,599.000 1,578,000 423,000 1,838,000 2.933.000 Total 6.631.000 8.429.000 9,452.000 10.623.000 11.712,000 Agriculture Manufactures Commerce Professions Domestics Various . Total 1841 Males 1,239.000 1.306,000 439,000 112.000 234,000 1,467.000 4,797,000 Females 58.000 492,000 60,000 47,000 843,000 334,000 1,834,000 Total 1,297.000 1.798,000 499,000 159.000 1,077.000 I. 801. 000 6,631,000 Ratio per 1000 724 276 196 272 7S 24 162 271 1851 Agriculture . 1.591,000 169.000 1,760,000 189 20 209 Manufactures 1.720.000 1.035,000 2,75S.ooo 205 122 .327 Commerce . 772,000 120,000 892,000 92 14 106 Professions . 149.000 97,000 246,000 17 12 29 Domestics . 150.000 971,000 1.121,000 17 "S 132 Various . . 1,494.000 161,000 1.655,000 178 19 197 Total . 5,876.000 2,553,000 8,429,000 698 302 1,000 Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Professions . Domestics , Various . . Total . 1881 Males 1,275,000 2,236.000 1,360,000 234,000 292,000 2,711.000 8.108,000 Females 66,000 1,363,000 218.000 189.000 1,546,000 222,000 3,604,000 Total 1,341.000 3,599,000 1.578,000 423,000 1,838,000 2,933.000 11,712.000 Ratio per 1000 109 igr 116 20 zS 233 694 \^ 6 116 18 IS 132 19 ,306 3 "S 307 134 35 IS7 2<;2 1,000 The following table shows the relative increase or decrease of the number of hands in each decade for each industry : — Males 1861 Agriculture . 1.584.000 116,000 1,700,000 167 12 179 Manufactures 1.916,000 1,201,000 3,117.000 204 127 331 Commerce . 962.000 148.000 1.110,000 102 16 n8 Professions . 167,000 117,000 284,000 18 12 30 Domestics . 169,000 1,215,000 1,384,000 18 128 146 Various . , 1,720,000 137,000 1,857.000 182 14 196 Total . 6.518,000 2,934,000 9.452,000 691 309 1,000 1871 Agriculture . 1,419,000 8i;,ooo 1,504,000 133 8 141 Manufactures 2.079,000 1,280,000 3,359,000 19b 120 31b Commerce . 1.169,000 193,000 1,362,000 no 18 128 Professions . 196,000 141,000 337.000 18 13 31 Domestics . 197,000 1,^87,000 1,684,000 18 141 159 Various . . 2,190,000 187,000 2,377.000 207 18 225 Total . 7,250,000 3.373.000 10,623,000 682 318 1,000 Year Agri- Manu- Com- Profes- Domes- Total culture factures merce sions tics 1841 100 100 100 100 100 100 1851 128 132 175 133 64 122 1861 128 147 219 149 72 13s 1871 115 159 266 175 84 '^' 1881 103 171 309 209 125 Ib7 Females I84I 100 100 100 100 100 100 1851 291 211 162 206 "5 140 I86I 200 245 247 248 144 160 I87I 146 261 322 300 177 183 I88I 114 278 363 402 184 196 Total 1841 100 100 100 100 100 100 I85I 13s 153 178 154 104 127 1861 130 173 222 179 127 142 I87I 116 187 272 210 15s 160 I88I 103 201 316 264 170 176 OCCUPATION 425 OCCUPATION Males are classified according to ige:— 1 1 Agriculture Agriculture 1361 1 1861 1 1871 1881 Age 1851 1861 1871 1881 Men . . . Women . . Boys . . . Total . 1,48 c, 000 169,000 110,000 1,461,000 116,000 123,000 1,316,000 85,000 103,000 1,203,000 O-IS • . • 15-65 . . . 110,000 1,352,000 129,000 123,000 1,311,000 150,000 103,000 1,164,000 152,000 72,000 1,083,000 120,000 66,000 72,000 Over 65 . . 1,760,000 1,700,000 1,504,000 1,341,000 Total . 1,591,000 1,584,000 1,419,000 1,275,000 Manufactures Manufactures Men . , , Women . . Boys . . . Total . 1,581,000 1,035,000 139,000 1,769,000 1,201,000 147,000 1,942,000 1,280,000 137,000 2,129,000 1,363,000 107,000 O-IS • • • iS-65. . . Over 65 . . 139,000 1,498,000 83,000 147,000 1,678,000 91,000 137.000 1,840,000 102,000 107,000 2,035,000 94,000 2,755,000 3,117,000 3.359.000 3,599,000 Total . 1,720,000 1,916,000 2,079,000 2,236,000 Commerce Commerce Men . , . Women . , Boys . . . Total . 715,000 120,000 S7.000 908,000 148,000 54,000 1,100,000 193,000 69,000 1,286,000 218,000* 74.000 O-IS . . . 15-65- . • Over 65 . . 57.000 675,000 40,000 S4.O0O 858,000 50,000 69,000 1,036,000 64,000 74,000 1,228,000 58,000 892,000 1,110,000 1,362,000 1,578,000 Total . 772,000 062.000 1,169,000 1,360,000 Domestics Domestics Men . . . Women . . Boys . . . Total . 142,000 971,000 8,000 159,000 1,215,000 10,000 187,000 1,487,000 10,000 O-IS • ■ ■ 15-65. . . Over 6s . . 8,000 138,000 4,000 10,000 153,000 6,000 10,000 iSo,ooo 7,000 10,000 269,000 13,000 282,000 1,546,000 10,000 1,121,000 1,384,000 1,684,000 Total . 150,000 169,000 197,000 292,000 1,838,000 Various Various O-IS . . . 15-^5 ■ • • Over 65 . . 60,000 80,000 1,463,000 1,681,000 120,000 j 126,000 85,000 2,136,000 165,000 58,000 2,636,000 251,000 Men . . . Women . . Boys . . . Total . 1,583,000 258,000 60,000 1,807,000 254,000 80,000 2,301,000 328,000 85,000 2,887,000 411,000 58,000 Total . 1,643,000 1,887,000 2,386,000 2,945,000 1,901,000 2,141,000 2,714,000 3,356,000 Total of Males Total O-IS • • • 15-65 . . . Over6s . . 374.000 5,126,000 376,000 414,000 5,681,000 423,000 404,000 6,356,000 490,000 321,000 7,251,000 536,000 Men . . . Women . . Boys . . . Total . 5,502,000 2.S53.000 374,000 6,104,000 2,934,000 414,000 6,846,000 3,373,000 404,000 7,787,000 3,604,000 321,000 Total . 5,876,000 ! 6,518,000 7,250,000 8, 108,000 8,429,000 9,452,000 10,623,000 11,712,000 Scotland Booth's digest of the Censuses classifies as follows : — 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 Agriculture .... Manufactures .... Commerce .... Professions .... Domestics .... Various 260,000 350,000 74,000 24,000 135.000 264,000 299,000 480,000 121,000 30,000 138,000 249,000 276,000 481,000 145.000 34.000 165,000 273,000 258,000 518,000 179,000 36,000 160,000 343.000 234.000 SS7.000 208,000 49.000 183,000 417,000 Total 1,107,000 ! 1,317,000 1,374,000 1,494,000 1,648,000 1841 Ratio per 1000 1851 Ratio per 1000 Males Females Total S 1 H Males Females Total a Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Professions . Domestics . Various . . 213,000 214,000 60,000 20,000 20,000 237,000 47,000 136,000 14,000 4,000 115,000 27,000 260,000 350,000 74,000 24,000 135.000 264,000 192 192 54 18 18 214 43 123 13 4 104 25 235 31S 67 22 122 Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Professions . Domestics . Various . . 239,000 285,000 99,000 26,000 12,000 220,000 60,000 195,000 22,000 4,000 126,000 29,000 299,000 480,000 121,000 30,000 138,000 249,000 181 217 75 20 9 167 4| 148 96 22 226 365 92 23 105 l8g Total . 764,000 \ • grants . J 9,878,000 1,308,000 73.000 6,237,000 4,999,000 56,000 1,095,000 2,150,000 5,000 17,210,000 8,457,000 134,000 Total . . 11,259,000 11,292,000 3,250,000 25,801,000 The total population was 28,460,000, including 2,659,000 infants under 9 years, of whom the Census took no cognisance. Children in the above table are all over 9 and imder 14 years. Spain The Census of 1877 showed as follows : — Agriculture Manufactures . Commerce, &c. . Vagrants, smugglers, &c. Xotal Women and children Total population Ratio 2,723,000 1,167,000 213,000 1,630,000 475 203 37 285 5,736,000 11,018,000 16,754,000 Sweden The classification of the people down to 1855 was as follows : — 1806 1830 1866 Families in 1855 Nobles . . Clergy . . Citizens . . Peasants . . Various . . 9.503 15.145 65.4" 1.759,000 563.641 10,458 14.153 66,693 2,169,000 627,796 11,742 15.362 81,408 2,378.000 1,152,788 1,666 2,232 13.366 394,610 180,429 Total . 2,412,700 2,888,100 3,639,300 592.303 The Census of 1870 showed as follows : — Principals Principals and Dependents, Ratio Males Fe- males Total 1 s 1 Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Various . . 414,000 62,000 22,000 190,000 33,000 6,000 2,000 214,000 447,000 68,000 24,000 404,000 270 52 17 145 271 47 17 181 541 99 34 326 Total . 688,000 255,000 943,000 484 516 1,000 The Census of Sweden for 1880 gave the following results : — Principals Families Males Females Total Males Females Total Agriculture Manufactures . Commerce . , • Various .... 641,000 157.000 68,000 66,OQO 212,000 17,000 5.000 8,000 853,000 174,000 73,000 174,000 434.000 134.000 41,000 840,000 243,000 8i,ooo 1,274,000 377,000 122,000 Total Unoccupied 932,000 270,000 242,000 214,000 1,174,000 484,000 664,000 237,000 1,265,000 428,000 1,929,000 665,000 Total population 1,202,000 456,000 1,658,000 901,000 1,693,000 2,594,000 Total Population Ratio Agriculture Manufactures . Commerce , • Various .... Unoccupied 1,172,000 297,000 113,000 125,000 509,000 1,173,000 280,000 109,000 128,000 660,000 2,345,000 577,000 222,000 253,000 1,169,000 25 27 112 257 62 24 27 145 514 126 49 54 257 Total 2,216,000 2,350,000 4,566,000 485 515 1,000 OCCUPATION 431 OCCUPATION Norway The Censuses of 1865 and 1875 gave these results : — Principals, 1875 Total Population, 1875 Total Popula- Males Females Males Females Total tion, 1865 Agriculture Manufactures , Commerce Various .... 106,000 39,000 12,000 7S.O0O 9.000 26,000 2,000 4,000 437,000 I5S.OOO 96,000 189,000 466,000 151,000 99,000 214,000 903,000 306,000 195,000 403,000 1,035,000 343.000 149,000 175.000 Total 232,000 41,000 877,000 930,000 1,807,000 1,702,000 There was a further classification in 1875 as follows : — Principals Families Servants Total Agriculture . . Manufactures . Commerce . . Various , , , 115,000 65,000 14,000 79,000 523,000 91,000 39,000 86,000 265,000 150,000 142,000 238,000 903,000 306,000 195,000 403.000 Total . . 273,000 739,000 1 79S,ooo 1,807,000 Denmark The official tables give the occupations of the people thus : — 1860 1880 No. in 1880 Agriculture Manufactures . Commerce Various .... 39S 228 S3 324 469 229) est 234 931,000 590,000 459.000 Total 1,000 1,000 1,980,000 The numbers in 18S0 include children, and are double the real numbers. Finland The Census of 1865 showed the following ratios : — Males Females Total Population Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Various 834 SS 20 91 7SS 43 12 190 793 49 16 142 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 Belgium The Census of 1856 was as follows : — Males Females Total Agriculture . . 709,000 3S3.000 1,062,000 Manufactures 466,000 326,000 792,000 Commerce . . . 80,000 49,000 129,000 Transport . . . 26,OCX3 1,000 27,000 Domestics . . . 19,000 68,000 87,000 Mines .... 63,000 10,000 73,000 Capitalists . . . 22,000 28,000 50,000 Various . . . 8S,ooo 19,000 107,000 Total . . 1,473,000 854,000 2,327,000 Children, &c. . . 799,000 1,404,000 2,203,000 Population . . 2,272,000 2,258,000 4,530,000 That of 1880 for Belgium was as follows : — Males Females Total Mines .... Manufactures Commerce . . . Agriculture . . Various . . . 226,000 467,000 143,000 530,000 433.000 18,000 242,000 101,000 452,000 148,000 244,000 709,000 244,000 982,000 581,000 Total . . Children, &c. . . 1,799,000 1,010,000 961,000 1,825,000 2,760,000 2,835,000 Population . . 2,809,000 2,786,000 5,595,000 Greece The principal occupations in 186 1 were : — Agriculture Manufactures . Commerce, &c. 187,000 52,000 91,000 Ratio $66 276 Total . 330,000 1,000 The above is exclusive of 1,003,000 women and children. Switzerland The Census of 1880 gave as follows :- Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce Transport Various . Total Satio 1,139,000 971,000 206,000 112,000 418,000 401 341 72 39 147 2,846,000 1,000 Ratio S43.000 492,000 49,000 233,000 414 374 37 ■^75 1,317,000 1,000 That of 1870 was as follows :- Agricijlture .... Manufactures Commerce .... Various .... Total The latter is apparently only of adults, that of 1880 of the whole population. In 1S60 the number of hands employed in manufactures was 330,000. Portugal The Census of 186 1 gave as follows : — Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Various Total The above is exclusive of 2,650,000 women and children. Ratio 873,000 770 210,000 185 30,000 27 20,000 18 1,133,000 1,000 OCCUPATION 432 OCCUPATION United States The first Census as to occupation was taken in 1820, the second in 1840, since which latter date they have been decennial, viz. :— Year Agriculture Manufactures Commerce, &c. Total 1820 2,071,000 350,000 72,000 2,493,000 1S40 3,718,000 792,000 287,000 4,797,000 1850 2,401,000 958,000 2,013,000 5,372,000 i860 3,220,000 1,311,000 3,756,000 8,287,000 1870 5,923,000 2,054,000 4,529,000 12,506,000 1880 7,671,000 2,707,000 7,014,000 17,392,000 The returns for 1820 and 1840 include all ages and colours, but those for 1850 and i860 are only for free male adults. Assuming that in these years 50 per cent, of negro adults were engaged in agriculture, and 50 per cent, in commerce, &c., the real number of workers would be : — Year Agriculture Manufactures Commerce, &c. Total 1820 2,071,000 350,000 72,000 2,493,000 1840 3,718,000 792,000 287,000 4,797,000 1850 3,329,000 958,000 2,950,000 7,237,000 i860 4,342,000 1,311,000 4,878,000 10,531,000 1870 5,923,000 2,054,000 4,529,000 12,506,000 1880 7,671,000 2,707,000 7,014,000 17,392,000 Adopting the second table as more correct, and com- paring the numbers of persons occupied with that of all inhabitants, male and female, between 16 and 60 years of age, we find as follows :— Workers Persons of Ratio of Working Age Workers 1820 .... 2,493,000 4,816,000 Si-7 1840 .... 4,797,000 8,887,000 53-9 1850 .... 7,237,000 12,596,000 57-4 i860 .... 10,531,000 17,301,000 60.7 1870 .... 12,506,000 21,561,000 58.2 1880 .... 17,392,000 27,307,000 63.6 The Census for 1820 showed as follows : — States Agricul- ture Manufac- tures Commerce: &c. Total New England Middle . . South . . . West . . . 285,000 523,000 1,064,000 199,000 82,000 160,000 83,000 25,000 22,000 23,000 22,000 5,000 389,000 706,000 1,169,000 , 229,000 Total . 2,071,000 350,000 72,000 2,493,000 That of 1840 was as follows : — States Agricul- ture Manufac- tures Commerce, &c. Total New England Middle . . South . . . West . . . 415,000 810,000 1,790,000 703,000 187,000 334,000 149,000 122,000 74,000 108,000 63,000 42,000 676,000 1,252,000 2,002,000 867,000 Total . 3,718,000 792,000 287,000 4,797,000 The minor industries of 1840 were in detail thus : — States Com- merce Navi- gation Profes- sions Mining Total New England Middle . . South. . . West. . , 18,000 50,000 31,000 19,000 44,000 27,000 11,000 7,000 11,000 24,000 17,000 13,000 1,000 7,000 4,000 3,000 74.000 108,000 63,000 42,000 Total . 118,000 89,000 65,000 15,000 287,000 The Census of 1850 excluded the slave population, as already observed, and showed as follows : — States Agricul- ture Manufac- tures Commerce, &c. Total New England Middle . . South. , . West . . . 269,000 592,000 736.000 804.000 313,000 418,000 104,000 123,000 230,000 780,000 360,000 643,000 812,000 1,790,000 1,200,000 1,570,000 Total . 2,401,000 958,000 2,013,000 S. 372,000 The Census of i860 also excluded the slave population, and showed thus : — States Occupied Persons of Working Age {16-60) OS Males Females Total «^ New England Middle . . South . . . West . . . 1,104,000 2,684,000 1,645,000 2,854,000 915,000 2,357,000 2,548,000 3,098,000 968.000 2,406,000 2,463,000 2,554,000 1,883,000 4,763,000 5,011,000 5,652,000 58.7 56.4 33- 50.5 Total . 8,287,000 9,918,000 8,391,000 17,309,000 47.8 States Agricul- ture Manufac- tures Commerce, &c. Total New England Middle . . South. . . West . . . 293,000 721,000 860,000 1,346,000 390,000 542,000 126,000 253,000 421,000 1,421,000 659,000 1,255,000 1,104,000 2,684,000 1,645,000 2,854,000 Total . 3,220,000 1,311,000 3,756,000 8,287,000 That of 1 870 included the entire population, and gave the following results : — States New England Middle . South . . West . . Total Males Females . Total Agricul- ture 316,000 793,000 2,669,000 2,145,000 5,923,000 Manufac- tures Commerce, &c. 555,000 1,012,000 283,000 857,000 2,707,000 5,526,000 397,000 5,923,000 2,353,000 354,000 428, 1,302, 792, 1.354, ,000 000 ,000 ,000 3,876,000 2,790, 1,086, ,000 000 2,707,000 3,876,000 Total 1,299,000 3,107,000 3,744,000 4,356,000 12,506,000 10,670,000 1,836,000 12,506,000 In 1870 Americans Irish Germans British Various Total Agriculture Manufactures , Commerce, &c. Total 5,303,000 1,778,000 2,721,000 9,802,000 138,000 265,000 544,000 947,000 225,000 308,000 303,000 836,000 95,000 176,000 103,000 374,000 162,000 180,000 205,000 547,000 5,923,000 2,707,000 3,876,000 12,506,000 OCCUPATION 433 OIL That of i8So gave the following : States Agricul- ture Manufac- tures Commerce, &c. Total New England M;ddle . . South. . . West . . . 301,000 847,000 3.626,000 2,897,000 709,000 1,425,000 392,000 1,311,000 562,000 1,912,000 1,236,000 2,174,000 1,572,000 4,184,000 5,254,000 6,382,000 Total . 7,671,000 3,837,000 5,884,000 17,392,000 Males Females Total Ratio States S New England Middle . . South . . West. . . 1,239,000 3,453,000 4,253,000 5,800,000 333.000 731,000 1,001,000 582,000 1,572,000 4,184,000 5,254,000 6,382,000 72 iq8 24s 333 19 42 57 34 91 240 302 367 Total . 14,745,000 2,647,000 17,392,000 848 1 15211,000 Some of the principal States showed as follows : — Agricul- ture Manu- factures Com- merce, &C. Total og 11 New York . 377.00c 630,000 878,000 1,885,000 10.9 Pennsylvania 301,00c 528,000 627,000 1,456,000 8.4 Illinois . . 436,000 206,000 357,000 999,000 5.8 Ohio . . . 397,000 242,000 3S5.000 994,000 5.8 Massachusetts 65,000 370,000 286,000 721,000 41 Missouri . . 3SS,ooo 110,000 228,000 693,000 4.0 Indiana . . 331,000 110,000 194,000 635,000 ,3.6 Georgia . . 432,000 36,000 130,000 598,000 .3-5 Michigan 240,000 131,000 198,000 154,000 569,000 3-3 Iowa . . . 304,000 70,000 528,000 30 Texas . . . 359,000 30,000 133,000 522,000 3.0 Kentucky . 321,000 61,000 138,000 520,000 3.0 Various . . 3.753,000 1,313,000 2,206,000 7,272,000 41.5 Total . 7,671,000 3,837,000 5,884,000 17,392,000 100.0 The classification of nationality (counting sons of foreigners as Americans) was in 1 880 as follows : — Kalio Americans . ■ 13,897,000 802 Germans 1,033,000 59 Irish . 979,000 56 British . 467,000 26 Various 1,016,000 57 Total . 17,392,000 1,000 Age and sex are classified in the following manner : — Males Under 16 16 to 60 Over 60 Tot.al Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Various . . 585.000 87,000 26,000 128,000 5,888,000 2,978,000 1,672,000 2,447,000 603,000 140,000 53.000 138,000 7,076.000 3,205.000 1,751,000 2. 713. coo Total . 826,000 12,985,000 934.000 14,745-oto Females Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Various . . 136,000 47,000 3.000 .108,000 436,000 577,000 54.000 1,215,000 23,000 8,000 2,000 38,000 595,000 632.000 59.000 1,361,000 Total . 294,000 2,282,000 71,000 2,647,000 Total Agriculture . Manufactures Commerce . Various . . 721,000 134,000 29,000 236,000 6,320,000 3.555.000 1,726,000 3,666,000 626,000 148,000 5S.OOO 176,000 7,671,000 3,837,000 1,810,000 4,074,000 Total . 1,120,000 15,267,000 1,005,000 17,392,000 Of the total number of workers 80 per cent, were men, 13 per cent women, 5 per cent, boys, 2 per cent, girls. The Census of 188 1 showed as follows :- Australia Agriculture Commerce Mining Various Children and Servants Total New South Wales Victoria . Queensland . South Australia New Zealand. Tasmania Western Australia 113,000 124,000 33,000 35.000 SS.ooo 19,000 5,000 28,000 21,000 6,000 8,000 14,000 3,000 1,000 18,000 36,000 11, 000 2,000 14,000 3.000 165,000 177,000 42,000 60,000 90,000 22,000 6,000 427,000 504,000 122.000 175,000 317.000 69,000 18,000 751,000 862,000 214,000 280,000 490,000 116,000 30,000 Tota 1 • 384,000 81,000 84,000 562,000 1,632,000 2,743,000 Under agriculture are included both tillage and pastoral puisuits. It is probable that the real number employed in such occupations in 1881 was larger than appears, say 50 per cent, more, as the numbers under " Servants" and " Various " are large. The ratios show : — .S > ^1 II Agriculture Mining. . Sundries , 15.0 2.4 82.6 14.4 4-2 81.4 15.6 S-4 79.0 12.4 II. I 0.8 2.9 86.8 86.0 16.8 2.7 80.S 16.0 0.3 83-7 Total . 100.0 100.0 100. 100.0! 100.0 100.0 100. on. There are three principal kinds of oil — vegetable, marine, and mineral. The annual product, in gallons, is approximately as follows : vegetable, 140 millions ; marine, 6 millions ; mineial, 1800 millions. The yield of oil from v^etable products is as follows : — Pounds of Oil from laa Lbs. of Horse-chestnuts Beech-mast . Hempseed , European linseed Indian linseed Olives . 2 E . 6 Rape . • 33 . 16 Colza . • 40 . 18 Almonds . . 48 • 25 Poppy . . . 58 • 29 Walnuts . 60 . 33 Castor-oil seed . 62 OIL 434 ORDERS The ordinary product of olive-oil is approximately as follows : — France Italy . Spain . Portugal Greece Tons Olives Gallons Oil 170,000 720,000 300,000 90,000 50,000 12,000,000 50,000,000 21,000,000 6,000,000 3,500,000 Value, £ 3,300,000 13,400,000 5,800,000 1,700,000 1,000,000 The production of colza in 1884 was as follows : — Acres Bushels Oil, Gallons France Belgium Denmark . 284,000 17,000 2,500 5,800,000 380,000 70,000 14,000,000 1,000,000 200,000 The imports into Great Britain of palm-oil and cocoa- nut-oil have been as follows : — Tons Year Palm Cocoa-nut Total 1840 . 15,800 2,100 17,900 1850 . 22,400 4,900 27,300 i860 . 40,200 9,700 49,900 1870 . 43.400 9,900 53.300 1880 . 51,600 15,900 67,500 1889 . 54,600 10,700 65,300 These figures are by Mr. Simmouds, author of Science and Commerce. The annual production of marine oil is approximately as follows : — Annual Slaughter Gallons Oil Gallons per Carcass Whales Seals . Penguins 1,500 550,000 1,300,000 3,300,000 2,600,000 130,000 2,200 S ^ i-ioth About 300 gallons of oil will suffice in twenty minutes to smooth the roughest sea (Admiralty experiments, Aber- deen, December 3, 1882). The production of mineral oil is shown as follows : — United States Two men boring for salt, 25 miles from Pittsburg, in 184s, struck an oil spring, which gave 40 gallons in 24 hours. The first oil company was formed at New York in 1854. A well sunk at Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, in 1859, gave 1000 gallons daily, and in a week others were sunk 600 feet, which gave 3000 gallons each in 24 hours. An oil fever ensued, and in i860 there were 2000 wells at Oil Creek, 74 of which gave collectively 50,000 gallons daily. Down to 18S9 more than 53,000 wells had been dug, the depth varying from 400 to 1200 feet, each bore costing about £,Zao. One well in five strikes oil, and the number now working is about 6000. The total product since their discovery in 1859 has been approxi- mately : — Period Millions of Gallons Price, Cents per Gallon Value at Pit's Mouth, £ Raised Ex- ported Home Use Pit's Mouth Re- fined 1859-^3 1864-73 1874-80 1881-88 240 2,250 4,760 8,630 24 900 2,400 3.740 168 900 1,400 3,160 10 44 22 10 9 5,000,000 23,500,000 24,000,000 37,300,000 30 years 15,880 7,064 5,628 89,800,000 The cost of boring wells, good and bad, was 42 millions sterling, or about 46 per cent, of the value of crude oil extracted. The market value of the refined petroleum exported or consumed in the United States was 330 millions sterling. The ordinary yield of refined oil is 80 gallons to 100 of crude petroleum. Russia The Baku oil springs began to yield in 1 863, and 363 wells have been sunk, of which 207 are working. The average depth is 550 feet, but some are only 190, others 1000 feet deep. At first the yield averaged 35 gallons of refined to 100 of crude oil, but it has since fallen to 28 gallons. The production has been approximately as follows : — Millions of Gallons Value at Pit, £ Crude Refined 1863-73 . 1874-80 . 1881-89 ■ 120 550 4.510 42 1,300 2,500,000 5,500,000 18,000,000 27 years . 5,180 i 1,507 26,000,000 Austria Ozokerit is a mineral oil from layers of wax found at Borislav, Galitzia. The mines are about 250 feet deep. Year Mines Miners Tons Raised Value, £ 1883 . 1887 1,292 560 3,800 4,800 4.500 3.000 210,000 210,000 Germany The consumption of petroleum has increased very notably, viz. Year 1861-70 1871-80 Tons per Annum 70,000 195,000 Year 1881-S5 1887 . Tons per Annum 390,000 510,000 OEDEES The principal religious Orders are the following : — Benedictines Carthusians Carmelites . Franciscans Founded A.D. • 543 . 1084 1156 1209 Founded A.D. Dominicans . . 1215 Augustinians . . 1256 Jesuits . . 1534 Sisters of Charity 1634 Chamber^ s Encyclofadia (1891) has the following re- garding the Jesuits : " In 1634 the Order comprised 13,112 members, distributed all over the world in 32 ' provinces.' In 1 773 it counted 22, 589 members, who had 930 colleges and 610 residences or missionary stations." The Jesuit Missions of Paraguay, in the territory now called Misiones, counted in 1732 an Indian population of 30,362 families, or 141,242 souls, possessing 788,000 cows, 225,000 sheep, and 111,400 horses. The annual tribute to the King of Spain was ;^300o sterling. The value of exports, such as yerba-mkte, hides and timber, averaged a^SiOOO yearly. For militaiy service against the Portuguese, the Indians, whenever required, had to furnish the Viceroy with a force of 3000 men, 4000 horses, and 5000 draught oxen. The Jesuit Order counted in 1S82 the following members : — Great Britain and United States Spain and South America . China, India, Africa, &c. . Total 1.933 7,222 11,049 ORDERS 435 ORDERS Respecting the other Orders the Catltolic Times says : ■"During the last 600 years the Order of St. Francis has given to the Church 247 saints, 1500 martyrs, 10 popes, and 4000 archbishops and bishops; the Order of St. Dominic, 4 popes, 80 cardinals, and 2000 bishops; the Order of St. Benedict, 43 popes, 200 cardinals, 256 patriarchs, 600 archbishops, and 40,000 bishops, besides 25 emperors, kings, and queens who left their thrones for the cloisters of the celebrated Order." England At the Dissolution Hemy VIII. confiscated 608 abbeys, ■with an aggregate income of ;^l4l,ooo, equal to the rent of 720,000 acres. The number of religious houses in the United Kingdom in 1873 was : — For men 86 For women 286 Total . , . 372 Of this total there were 256 in Ireland and 116 in Great Britain, mostly devoted to teaching the poor or carii^ the sick. France The numbers of rel^ous of both sexes were as fol- lows: — 181S 1842 12,200 25,000 1861 1871 108,120 97.400 The composition of the houses in i86l was : — Men ■Women Total Hospitals . . . Schools. . . . Contemplative . 389 12.845 4.542 20,292 S8.883 11,169 20,681 71,728 1S.711 Total . . 17,776 90.344 108,120 Houses Endowed Capital, £, Approximate Income, £ Friars .... Nuns .... 2,026 12,004 100,000 4,100,000 5.000 205,000 Total . . 14,030 4,200,000 1 210,000 The estates of religious houses consist of ;f 3,200,000 in house property and ;f 1,000,000 in lands. The total number of religious in 187 1 was 13,000 men and 84,300 women. Russia The religions houses of the Greek Church are : — Houses Religious Aspirants Men ■Women . . . 484 198 6,800 6.037 3.470 16,018 Total . . 682 12.837 19,488 Austria In 1880 the Orders stood thus : — Austria Hungary Houses Religious Houses Religious Men . . . Women . . 475 429 7.127 8,727 186 64 2,243 91S Total . 904 IS.854 250 3.158 The above communities possessed houses and lands valued at ,^4,680,000. The abbeys and convents sup- pressed in 1790 by Joseph II. were 359 in number. Italy In 1867 the Government suppressed 4254 religious houses, containing 31,000 men and 28,250 women, whose endowed estates gave an annual income of ;f97o,ooo, equal to ;^l6 per religious. The estates were sold for ;f 17,510,000, averaging ;^I3 per acre. In ten years ending 1876, the Government paid to friars and nuns pensions which made up an aggregate of ;<^6,840,ooo sterling. In 1840 Rome counted 1560 priests, 2140 friars, and 1500 nuns, besides 440 ecclesiastical students. In 1830 the kingdom of Naples had 8500 friars and 8200 nuns. Spain There are four military Orders : — Name Commanderies Income, £, Calatrava . Santiago . Alcantara . Montesa . 37 193 64,000 73.000 37.000 196,000 Total 373 370,000 In 1803 there were 2923 religious houses, but in 1884, after numerous suppressions, the number had fallen to II 88, including 161 of friars, and 1027 of nuns. The numbers of religious at varioiB dates compared thus : — 1 1788 1803 1881 Friars . . . 49.270 Nuns , . . 1 22,230 69,700 38,400 1,684 14.592 Total . . \ 71,500 108,100 16,276 In 1820 the Government confiscated monastic properties to the value of ;^3,20o,ooo. Belgium In 1789 there were 631 houses with 12,000 religiotis. The numbers in later times have been : — 1846 1866 Houses Religious Houses Religious Men . . . ■Women . . 137 642 2,051 9.917 178 1. 144 2.991 15.205 Total . 779 11,968 1,322 18,196 The houses in 1866 were composed thus :- Occupation Men Women Total Teaching . . . Hospitals . . . ■Various . . . 975 797 1,219 7.249 5.527 2,429 8,224 6,324 3.648 Total . . 2,991 15.205 18,196 Houses and lands held by the above communities re- presented a total value of ;^940,ooo, including ;^640,ooo of charitable bequests by 2615 benefactors since 1838. According to the Census of 1880 there were : — Friars Nuns Total Houses 213 1,346 1,559 Religious 4,027 20,645 24,672 ORGANS 436 PAPER Germany The Orders in 1873 stood thus :- Prussia Bavaria Other states Total Houses 958 620 450 2,028 Religious 9,048 6,148 4.238 19.434 Prussia Bavaria Other States Men Women . . , 1.037 8,011 1,094 5.054 3.781 Total . . 9,048 1 6,148 4.238 Holland In 1862 the Orders stood thus :^ Friars Nuns Houses Religious 38 820 137 2,187 Total 175 3.007 Portugal In 1834 the Government suppressed 750 religious houses, and seized the revenues. Switzerland In 1 87 1 there were : — Houses Religious Men ■ • • • ■ 33 54^ Women 55 2,020 Total 2,566 These houses held real estate valued at ^480,000, producing an income of about £10 a year for each religious. The Capuchins numbered 235, other friars 311. The most numerous Order of nuns was Theodo- sians, who were 417, the Sisters of St. Francis coming next. Greece There are 161 religious houses of the Greek Church, containing 2620 monks and 485 nuns. United States According to a Catholic paper there are in the United States 7000 nuns in charge of schools and orphans, 3000 Sisters of Charity tending the sick, and 3000 clergy of monastic Orders doing missionary work or in colleges. ORGANS Benches of Keys Stops Pipes Hamburg 4 70 LUbeck . 4 82 Cologne 4 104 Ulm . 4 100 6,564 Meresburg 4 81 5,866 Frankfort 3 75 Prague . 4 71 Stuttgart 4 70 Seville . no 5.300 Rotterdam 4 75 5.700 Haarlem 60 4,088 San Sulpice, Paris s 100 6,700 Albert Hall, London . 4 III Alexandra Palace . 4 88 ...■ Town-Hall, Leeds 100 6,500 St. George's Hall, Liverpool . 4 Doncaster 94 Glasgow 4 64 Boston Music-Hail 4 89 Riga .... 7,000 That of Haarlem, built in 173S, cost ;^i2,ooo ; that of Liverpool, ;^lo,ooo. The proposed new organ for St, Peter s at Rome is to have 124 stops, some 32 ft. long. OSTRICHES The production of ostrich feathers averages as follows : — Lis. Feathers Value, £ Cape Colony . . . 260,000 Tripoli Egypt . Morocco . Buenos Ayres 20,000 4,000 2,000 160,000 1,040,000 200,000 40,000 20,000 32,000 About 3S,ooo birds are plucked annually at the Cape, averaging 3 lbs. per bird. In Buenos Ayres they are slaughtered, and the race is dying out. According to Simmonds, the Buenos Ayres "rhea" is not really an ostrich at all, and the feathers are sold as "vulture feathers." He gives the exports of Cape feathers and the imports of ostrich feathers from all quarters into Great Britain thus : — Year Cape Ex- port, Lbs. Year Great Britain Import, Lbs. Value, £ 1875 ■ . 1880 . . 1885 . . 1889 . . 50,000 160,000 250,000 230,000 i860 . . 1870 . . 1880 . . 1889 . . 25,000 65,000 190,000 150,000 80,000 175,000 1,010,000 400,000 P. PALMS The number of cocoa-nut palms given by Simmonds is : — New Caledonia .... 45,000,000 Ceylon 30,000,000 Madras 11,000,000 Feejee Islands . . . 500,000 Brazil has probably 100 millions. The betel-nut palm is also cultivated in India ; the area under this tree in Ceylon is 50,000 acres. As for the date-palm, Tunis has 2,500,000, Egypt 4,500,000, and India 13,000,000. Even in the oases of Sahara there are 16,000. See Fruit. PAPER The consumption in 1882 was estimated as follows : Printing . Schools and offices Account-books Letter-paper . Wall-paper Sundry manufactures Total Tons 4SS.O0O 160,000 55.000 100,000 200,000 80,000 1,050,000 Ini88i there were 3960 paper-mills, employing 90 000 men and 180,000 women : there were 2780 mills worked PAPER 437 PARKS by steam-power. The capital employed in the industry exceeded 62 millions sterling. The paper industry of the world sums up thus : — Rag, jutfl, &c. . .Chemicals. Wages ■ . , . Coal Profit, interest on capital, &c. Value of paper ;/Ji4,ooo,ocio 8,500,000 9,000,000 3,400,000 3,600,000 ;^38, 500,000 In 1882 the production and consumption in the several countries was stated as follows (the consumption in 1890 being probably one-fourth more) : — Millions Lbs. Consump- tion, Lbs. Production Consumption per Inhab. United Kingdom 470 430 12. 1 France* . . . 380 330 8.4 Germany . 4SO 410 9-1 Russia . . 80 90 1.2 Austria . . 160 120 3-3 Italy . . 105 no 3-9 Spain . . 20 32 2.0 Portugal . 10 10 2.2 Belgium . 70 40 7.2 Holland . 16 16 4.0 Scandinavia 38 30 3-S Switzerland 20 18 6.8 Turlfey and Greece 12 1.2 Europe .... 1,819 1,648 S-i United States . . 53° 54° 10.2 Canada. . . . 14 18 4.1 Spanish America 2 44 1-3 Australia . . . ... 17 6.1 Other countries . 98 ... Tota 1 . 2.365 2.36s The above total was equivalent to 1,050,000 tons, which were supposed to be produced from the following materials : — In 18S0-85 the paper-mills in various countries were : — ■ Ratio of Paper Material Tons Used Tons, Paper to Material, per Cent. Woollen rags . . 670,000 390,000 59 Cotton rag . . 450,000 280,000 62 Linen, &c., rags . 100,000 50,000 50 Jute and sparta . 300,000 50,000 17 Wood and straw 400,000 40,000 10 Sundries . . . 2,400,000 240,000 10 Total . . 4,300,000 1,050,000 as In 181 3 Stevenson estimated the value of paper made yearly in Great Britain at one million sterling; in 1835, M'CuUoch at ;f 1,300,000. The consumption has risen twelvefold since 1840, viz. : — Year Tons Press Sundries Total 1840 . .- . 1864 . . . 1885 . 3,000 31,000 95,000 13,000 52,000 100,000 16,000 83,000 195,000 * The quantity of paper which paid excise in France in 1885 was only 217,000 tons. Num- ber Hands Steam, Horse- Power Water, Horse- Power Product, Tons Great Britain . France . . , Germany . . 3S4 512 446 28,000 31,000 54.000 27,000 7,000 24,000 8,000 13,000 30.000 200,00.> i7o,oo.> 200,000 The consumption of paper for books is relatively small, only 6 per cent, of the total ; the annual issue being sup- posed to reach 85 million volumes, which take 65,000 tons of paper, an average of 14 oz. per volume. The first paper-mill in America was at Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 1693. There were 63 in 1787, which turned out 250 tons yearly. In 1870 one factory in Massachusetts produced 25,000 tons of writing-paper yearly, and another loo miles a day of wall-paper. PARIS In 1887 this city had 82,500 houses and 2,261,000 population, including 180,000 foreigners. The streets had a length of exactly 600 miles. Total area, 18,700 acres, of which 14,500 are covered by houses, the rest being streets and squares. In the parish of the Temple there are 290 persons per acre, in that of Passy only 42 ; general averj^e 116. There are 440 miles of sewers, the construction of which cost 4 millions sterling ; they vary from 5 ft to 18 ft. diameter. Water-supply averages 90 million gallons daily, there being 66,000 subscribers who pay water-rate. Gas-supply in 1888 reached 8800 million cubic feet, of which 900 millions were used for streets and public buildings. Vital statistics showed 57,000 deaths and 60,000 births, 28 per cent, of the latter being illegitimate. The hospitals admitted 131,000 patients, of whom 13,900 died, say loj per cent. There are 6000 police, 500 steamboats, 8000 cabs, and 1200 busses or tramcars. Food consumption was 350,000 tons of bread, 175,000 tons of meat, 24,000 tons of poultry, 5500 tons of cheese, 400 million eggs, and 104 million gallons of wine and liquors. PARKS The area of park to the principal cities of the United Kingdom is shown in the following table : — Inhabitants to an Acre Area, Acres Park, Acres Cities Municipal Park Area Area Birmingham , . 8,400 211 46 1.736 Bradford . 7,200 215 26 889 Brighton . 2,400 106 45 996 Bristol . . 4.500 442 47 47S Dublm . . 10,100 1.753 31 I7S Edinburgh 4,200 407 54 410 Glasgow . 6,roo 447 96 1.Z93 HuU . . 3,600 26 40 4.721 Leeds . . 21,600 350 14 681 Leicester . 3.200 65 39 1,256 Liverpool . S.200 52s 103 1,025 London . 75.400 1,790 48 1,114 Manchester 9.500 191 77 2,846 Newcastle 5.400 91 27 4.199 Norwich . 7,500 7 II i2,i7S Nottingham 9,900 150 17 1,129 Oldham . 4,700 60 24 I.85S Plymouth . 1,400 22 53 3.377 Portsmouth 4.500 31 29 8.239 Sheffield . 19,700 49 15 3.761 Sunderland 2,800 24 41 4.774 Wolverhampton 3.400 50 22 1. 510 PARLIAMENT 438 PATENTS The most remarkable are :- Name Place Acres Regent's . . London 450 Hyde . . London 400 Bois de Boulogne . Paris . 2,100 Phoenix . Dublin . 1,760 Prater . Vienna . 2,300 Royal . . Munich . 1,300 Queen's . Edinburgh 407 PARLIAMENT That of the United Kingdom made 27,010 laws in eighty-two years, as follows : — Period 1801-10 1811-20 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-68 1869-82 82 vears Acts of Parliament Public 1,322 1,487 986 1.038 1,129 1,158 1,010 1,283 9,413 Private 2.514 2,233 1.979 1,706 2,140 2,057 2,140 2,828 17,597 Total 3,836 3,720 2,965 2,744 3,269 3.215 3.150 4.111 27,010 The following M nisters have held power Period Premier 1801-4 . Addington 1804-6 . Pitt . 1806-7 . Grenville . 1807-10 . Portland . 1810-12 , Perceval . 1812-27 . Liverpool 1827 . . Canning , 1827-28 . Goderich . 1828-30 . Wellington 1830-34 . Grey 1834 . . Melbourne 1834-35 . Peel 1835-41 . Melbourne 1841-46 . Peel 1846-52 . Russell . 1852 . . Derby 1852-55 . Aberdeen 1855-58 . Palmerston 1858-59 . . Derby 1859-65 . Palmerston 1865-66 . Russell . 1866-68 . Derby . 1868 . . Disraeli . 1868-74 . Gladstone 1874-80 . Disraeli . 1880-85 . Gladstone 1885-86 . Salisbury 1886 . . Gladstone 1886 . . Salisbury since 1801: — Months 38 20 14 39 24 178 4 S 34 44 S 4 77 58 68 25 37 16 76 8 9 62 74 62 7 6 Parliament consists of 515 Lords and 670 Commons. The composition of the latter House was greatly changed in 1885 under the new Reform Act, viz. : — County Borough University Total 1884 1885 1884 1885 1884: 1886 1884 1885 England . . . Wales .... Scotland . . . Ireland .... 172 15 f- 64 234 19 39 85 282 15 26 37 226 11 ?6 5 2 2 5 2 2 459 30 60 103 465 30 72 103 United Kingdom 283 377 360 284 9 9 652 670 The French Chamber contained 97 noblemen, 116 lawyers, 57 manufacturers, 92 farmers, 48 doctors, 40 journalists, 14 engineers, 23 soldiers, 12 bankers, and 123 of various occupations in 1888. PASSENGERS In 1885 it was computed that 80,000 vehicles and 400,000 foot-passengers crossed the bridges of London daily. The number of persons who crossed Waterloo Bridge in a year was as follows : — 1820 1830 1840 1,821,000 2,423,000 2,486,000 1850 i860 1863 4,295,000 4,873,000 5,145,000 At present the number will probably reach 8,000,000. In 1875 tl^sfs were 7,300,000 vehicles and 38,500,000 persons that crossed London Bridge. In 18S2 the ferryboats between Liverpool and Birkenhead carried 22,000,000 passengers. London has 12,000 cabs, Paris 8000 ; the former carry 90,000, the latter 60,000 passengers daily, the average fare earned being I5d. per passenger in Paris, i8d. in London. The daily earnings of a cab in London are 19s. in the season, 95. the rest, and 12s. all the year round. The London Omnit'is Company carried as follows : — Passengers Receipts, £, Expenses . 1888 61,200,000 400,000 375,000 1889 69,300,000 430,000 395,000 The local passenger trafEc of London has grown as follows : — Millions of Passengers Yearly 1864 1874 1884 Underground Omnibus Tramway 42 II 42 lis 75 119 Total 53 155 309 The Underground Railway now carries 150 million persons yearly. As regards Paris, the trafiSc shows thus : — Year Passengers Year i860 . . 72,000,000 1880 1870 . . 108,000,000 1888 The traffic of 1880 and of 1888 Passengers . 234,000,000 . 279,000,000 was computed thus : — 1880 1888 Tramcars and busses . . Steamboats, &c 209,000,000 25,000,000 241,000,000 38,000,000 Total . . . 234,000,000 279,000,000 The above does not include about 22,000,000 persons carried in cabs in 1888. The average fare paid in 1880 was about three halfpence (1.6). The passenger traffic between the various ports of the United Kingdom is not ascertained, but it is found that between domestic and foreign traffic 10,000 persons leave the ports of the United Kingdom daily. The number of pilgrims yearly to Mecca is not known, but 3S,ooo pass through Suez. PATENTS The number applied for, and that of those granted, in the United Kingdom were as follows : — Period Applications Granted 1860-69 .... 1870-79 .... 1880-87 .... 34.870 44.950 91,940 21,910 30,360 53.040 28 years .... 171,760 105,310 PATENTS 439 PAUPERS France ^ The number granted in various years was as follows : — Year Patents Year Patents 1844 . . . 625 1870 . . . 3,029 1850 . . . 1,687 1880 . . . 6,057 i860 . . . 4,606 1885 . . . 7,060 Austria The total number granted in the Empire was : — Period Patents 1852-69 . .... 10,480 1870-84 ...... 24,090 33 years 34,570 Belgium The returns for forty-eight years showed as follows : — Period Inventions Improvements Total 1841-60 . , . 1861-70 . . . 1871-88 , . . S.879 7.57a 30,600 10,651 25',68o 16,530 17.927 56,280 48 years . , . 44.051 46,686 90.737 United States The records show as follows : — Year Applications Granted Fees, £, 1840 . 735 473 8,000 1850 . 2.193 993 18,000 i860 . 7.653 4.778 53.000 1870 , 19,171 13.333 120,000 1880 . 23,021 13.917 156,000 i88g . 40,575 24,158 266,000 PAUPERS It is difficult to compare the numbers in diffisrent couiitries. England, for example, counts the number receiving relief on 1st January ; France the total of persons succoured during the year, the latter being a repetition of persons who needed relief The following may be taken as an estimate of pauperism in 1888 : — Paupers Per 100 Population Annual Outlay, ^ England . . . ' 810,000 2.8 8,400,000 Scotland 96,000 2.4 900,000 Ireland , 109,000 2.3 1,400,000 France . 290,000 0.8 1,500,000 Germany 320,000 0.7 4,600,000 Russia . 350,000 0.4 Austria . 290,000 0.7 400,000 Italy. . 270,000 0.9 1,900,000 Holland 88,000 2.0 510,000 In 1884 the number of paupers relieved at various capitals was as follows : — Paris . , . St. Petereburg Berlin . , . Vienna . . . Paupers 490,000 215,000 310,000 286,600 Outlay, £ 800,000 140,000 370,000 530,000 Per Head, £, 1.6 0.7 1.2 1.8 For some years back the average number of paupers receiving relief in London has been 102,000, at an outlay of more than a million sterling per aimum. Official returns show as follows : — United Kingdom Year England Scotland Ireland u ir,-T,>r/4^.r. Ratio to Population England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom 1850 .... i860 .... 1870 .... 1880 .... 1S89 .... 921,000 851,000 1,079,000 803,000 810,000 79,000 77.000 126,000 99,000 96,000 308,000 4S.O0O 74,000 115,000 109,000 1,308,000 973.000 1,279,000 1,016,000 1,015,000 5.11 4.26 4.69 3-09 2.80 2.72 2.50 3-78 2.66 2.40 4.61 0.77 1.38 2.21 2.30 4.75 4.06 2.90 2.65 Expenditure : — 1860 1860 1870 1880 1888 England Scotland Ireland £ 5,400,000 580,000 1,830,000 5,450,000 660,000 530.000 7,650,000 910,000 810,000 8,020,000 850,000 1,190,000 , £. 8,440,000 890,000 1,390,000 United Kingdom . 7,810,000 6,640,000 9,370,000 10,060,000 10,720,000 The average outlay yearly on each pauper, and the cost per inhabitant, as regards the three kingdoms, are shown as follows : — Outlay per Pauper, £ Cost per Inhabitant, Pence Year land and 1 1 •g « 8 ^ g 1 u tn w to 1850 . . S-9 7.3 6.0 72 48 65 i860 . . 6.4 8.6 11.6 66 22 1870 . . 7.1 7.4 II.O So 66 36 1880 . . 10.0 8.5 10.4 74 5S 54 1889 . . 10.4 9.3 12.7 72 54 70 The amount spent annually on poor-relief in England and Wales has been at various dates as follows : — Annual Ex- Per In- National Percentage of Burden Period penditure, habitant, Pence Income, MiUions £, 1702-14 . . 910,000 41 65 1.40 1760-75 . . 1,520,000 58 122 1.24 1783-93 • ■ 2,050,000 66 145 1.41 1801-5 . . 5,100,000 78 180 2.80 1815-20 . . 7,106,000 152 220 323 1830 3S ■ . 6,742,000 114 38S 1-75 1841-50 . . 5,250,000 74 490 1.07 1851-60 . . 5,510,000 69 580 0.9s 1861-70 . . 6,740,000 77 720 0.94 1871-S0 . . 7,710,000 75 935 0.82 1884-88 . . 8,400,000 73 1,084 0.78 PAUPERS 440 PEPPER In the period just after Waterloo the burden was five times as great as it has been in the past five years. In 1886 the condition of the poor in the east part of Xondon was found by school-agents to be thus : — Weekly Wages, Class Indigent . Struggling . Well to do . Total Number 314,000 498,000 80,000 •Shillings 10 to 21 22 to 50 The above is the estimated population of the poorer parishes of London. France In 1886 the number of persons who received relief during the year was 1,440,000, but as the same persons probably were relieved at least five times, the actual number of such paupers would not exceed 290,000. There was much distress in 1847, when 6,000,000 were relieved — that is to say, about 1,200,000 in reality ; the sum so expended reaching 8 millions sterling, of which p^4,6oo,ooo passed through public officials and ;^3,400,ooo was given by St. Vincent de Paul societies and other charitable associations. In 1884 the sum officially ex- pended' was as follows : — In Paris . Departments £ 800,000 660,000 In Food . Money, &c. £ 520,000 940,000 Total , 1,460,000 Total . 1,460,000 There are 15,000 offices all over France for poor-relief, the funds being mainly derived from a tax of 10 per cent. on tickets for theatres, and averaging ;^2, 100,000 per annum. Germany In 1885 the sum of ^^4,560,000 was expended in poor- relief, viz. : — Paupers Outlay, £ Per Head, £ Prussia 9S3.000 2,670,000 2.8 Bavaria 152,000 550,000 3-5 Saxony 89,000 270,000 31 Alsace 73,000 220,000 3-0 Baden 68,000 170,000 2.5 Wurtemburg 63,000 180,000 2.8 Various 194,000 500,000 2.6 Total 1,592,000 4,560,000 2.9 The number of paupers relieved in cities per 1000 of the population was as follows : — Strasburg . . . 102 Berlin . , . .61 Konigsberg. . . 84 Leipzig. . . ,59 Bremen ... 76 Dresden . , .56 Frankfort ... 70 Stuttgart . . . 51 Russia In 1884 the number of registered mendicants was 350,000; that of persons relieved in St. Petersburg 215,000, at an average of 14s. each, Austria The system of poor-relief resembles that in France, for which purpose there are 10,650 offices. In 1886 were relieved 290,000 paupers at a cost of ;^400,ooo, say 27s. each. Italy According to the Statesman's Year-Book, there are 21,800 offices for poor-relief, endowed with funds repre- senting a capital value of 80 millions sterling, with an annual income of ;^3, 500,000 ; expenses of management, &c., ;,Ji, 600,000 ; balance for the poor, ;^i, 900,000. In 1881 there were 1,365,000 persons relieved ; the same remark applies as in France, and the actual number of paupers may be set down at about 270,000. The number of small, viz. : — Belgium paupers receiving indoor relief Year Paupers Outlay, £ Per Head, £ 1835 • 1850 . 1870 . 1888 . 2,260 3.478 1,925 4.399 11,000 21,000 20,000 48,000 4-9 6.0 10.4 10.8 The above is the mean number in each year, the number of paupers passing through the dep6ts being four times as great. Holland The number of persons relieved in the year was : — Permanent paupers .... 88,300 Temporary „ . . . . 128,300 1881 Total . . . 216,600 The total expenditure was j^5 10,000, or about £2, 8s. per pauper, religious communities provided ;£270,ooo, and the civil authorities ^240,000. Sweden The number of paupers compared with population thus :— Year Paupers Per 100 Pop. i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1887 . . 133,000 204,000 220,000 230,000 3-5 4.8 S.o 4.8 There are 2300 workhouses, capable of admitting 40,000 persons. PAWN-OFFICES The number of these offices increases in Great Britain faster than population, viz. : — No. 1.873 2,578 Per Million Inhab. 89 HI Year 1871 1881 No. Per Million iTikab, 3,450 132 4,372 146 Year 1851 1861 The number of pledges is said to reach 190 millions per annum. In 1882 the loans of similar institutions, called Monts de Pi^t^, were : — Borrowers Amount France . . . 2,970,000 ;^2,30o,ooo Spain .... 235,000 985,000 Holland . . . 602,000 260,000 The French returns for 1885 showed thus : — Under 8s 2,187,000 "-, to 40s 715,000 8s. ;£2 to ^4 Over £^ Total 136,000 71,000 3,109,000 PEPPER The annual production averages ; — Tons Sumatra 13,000 Siam 3,500 Malacca, &c 6,500 Total 23,000 PICTURES 441 POPULATION PICTURES Raphael's " Holy Family," from the Blenheim Gallery, was sold to the National Gallery for ;^7o,ooo. Millet's '' Angelas " was sold at Paris for ;^24,ooo in 18S9, Millet havmg painted it for £^2 sterling. PINS In 1888 the production was as follows ; — „ . Millions Weekly England .... . . 280 France 120 Holland and Germany .... 120 Total . . . .520 Birmingham stands for 180 millions of those made in England. In 1850 the anmial output in England was 1250 tons, valued at ;^ 1,100, 000. PLACARDS The largest use on record was prior to the Paris election of 27th January 18S9. General Boulanger had 15,000 billstickers, who put up 45,000 daily, in sdl 900,000, at a cost of ;^8ooo sterling. Jacques had 10,000 men, who put up 25,000 daily, in all 500,000, at a cost of ^^5000. In some places, when they were torn down after the election, there were found sixty layers alternating of the rival placards, POLICE In 1 88 1 the maintenance of police in various cities cost as follows : — London Paris . Vienna Berlin . . S. Francisco Buda-Pesth Rome . . Leipsic . Bucharest Stockholm £ I, 060,000 1,160,000 390,000 70,000 48,000 38,000 30,000 24,000 22, 000 21,000 Per Inhab,, Pence 68 122 Copenhagen 20,000 99 i6 52 27 -4 49 26 33 24 Genoa , . Florence . Turin . , Antwerp Trieste . . Christiania . Frankfort . Liege . . Venice . . Palermo Stuttgart . £ ''" Prrir iS.ooo 21 14,000 20 13,000 I8 13,000 19 12,000 27 11,000 ■P 7,000 14 6,000 12 6,000 12 6,000 6 14,000 28 The following comparison between the police of London and Paris was published in 1881 : — Number of men Arrests made . London 10,940 79.49° Paris i Per 10,000 Inhab. I London Paris 8,250 j 231,140 I 29 210 39 1,065 The London police cost £^'} a year, the Paris ;^I40, per man. The London man arrests seven persons ; the Paris, twenty-nine persons, per annum. For each offender (including drunkenness and misdemeanours), the police expenditure is ;^13 in London, and £$ in Paris. The number of London police in 18S8 was 13,900. In the United Kingdom the number of police was as follows : — Number Per 10,000 Pop. 1878 18S8 1878 1888 England . Scotland . Ireland . 30,700 3.400 12,300 37,300 4,000 13,900 12 10 24 13 10 29 United Kingdom . 46,400 5S.200 14 IS The expenditure in 1887 was as follows : — A-"™-^''^, Policeman, i: Pence per Inhabitant England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland. . . . 3,700,000 380,000 1,570,000 98 92 "5 31 23 80 United Kingdom 5,650,000 102 36 In India the police number 144,000 men, of whom 46,000 carry swords, and 55,000 firearms. POPULATION The population of the Roman Empire at the death of Augustus, 14 B.&, was little more than that of the present German Empire, being estimated by Bodio thus : — Italy 6, coo, 000 Spain .,..,, 6,000,000 Greece 3,000,000 Gaul .... 1 , 3,400,000 Other countries . '. . . 4,600,000 Europe . , . , , 23,000,000 Asia 19,500,000 Africa 11,500,000 Total 54,000,000 The population of Europe hardly exceeded 50 millions before the 15th century. The growth of the great European Powers in the last 400 years is shown as follows : — 1480 1580 1680 1780 1880 England France Pnissia . Russia Austria . ... Italy Spain 3,700,000 12,600,000 800,000 2,100,000 9,500,000 9,200,000 8,800,000 4,600,000 14,300,000 1,000,000 4,300,000 16,500,000 10,400,000 8,150,000 5,532,000 18,800,000 1,400,000 12,600,000 14,000,000 11,500,000 9,200,000 9,561,000 25,100,000 5,460,000 26,800,000 20,200,000 12,800,000 9,960,000 35,004,000 37,400,000 45,260,000 84,440,000 37,830,000 28,910,000 16.250,000 Total . . 46,700,000 59,250,000 73,032,000 109,881,000 1 285,134,000 In the above, England at present stands for the United Kingdom, and Prussia for the German Empire. The population of the world has been estimated as follows : — Date Author Millions 1804 Malte-Brun . 640 1828 Balbi . . . 847 1845 Michelot . , 1,009 Date Author Millions 1874 Behm-Wagner 1,391 1878 Levasseur . . 1,439 1883 Behm-Wagner 1,433 The population of Europe, according to tlie best autho- rities, has been as follows : — Date Author 1762 Expilly . 1778 Moheau . 1800 Levasseur 1828 Balbi . . 1841 Berg-Loua Population 130,000,000 150,000,000 175,000,000 214,000,000 233.700,000 Date Author Population 1850 Confront!. 255,000,000 i86i Hausner . 283,900,000 1871 Berg-Loua 293,000,000 1882 B.-\Vagner 327,800,000 1886 Le^•asseur 345,700,000 POPULATION 442 POPULATION The distribution of the population of the world was as follows : — Millions 1810 1828 1845 1874 1886 Gotha Balbi Miohelot Behm- Wagner Levas- seur Eimjpe . . America . . Asia . . . Africa . . Australia . 180 21 380 99 2 214 40 481 109 3 24s 620 90 4 301 8s 798 203 4 347 112 822 197 S Total . 682 847 1,009 1.391 1.483 Michelot's and Levasseur's estimates divide Asia and Australia differently from what is usual, including all the Malay Archipelago as Australian. Thus Levasseur would make Australia in 1886 have a population of 38,000,000 ; but if we follow the ordinary distribution, it will be as above. The population per square mile in 1820 and 1880 stood thus : — U. Kingdom France Germany Russia Austria Italy . Spain . Portugal 1820 172 148 124 20 99 138 S8 92 1880 290 180 217 40 158 247 82 124 1820 1880 Sweden . 15 27 Norway . 8 15 Denmark . 71 127 Holland . I9S 312 Belgium . 287 480 Switzerland 127 175 Greece 40 84 Europe . 54 85 Levasseur's tables and the various estimates for 1890 show the population of Europe as follows : — 1800 1830 1860 1880 1890 United Kingdom 16,200,000 24,400,000 29,100,000 3S.300.000 38,200,000 France 27,350,000 32,500,000 36,700,000 37,600,000 38,800,000 Germany , 23,180,000 29,700,000 38,100,000 45,200,000 48,600,000 Russia 35,000,000 45,500,000 68,700,000 84,900,000 92,000,000 Austria , 25,000,000 29,900,000 34,700,000 37,600,000 40,100,000 Italy 17,240,000 21,210,000 25,000,000 28,500,000 30,300,000 Spain 10,540,000 11,200,000 15,600,000 16,700,000 17,600,000 Portugal . 2,930,000 3,100,000 3,600,000 4,200,000 4,700,000 Sweden . 2,350,000 2,800,000 3,800,000 4,600,000 4,800,000 Norway . 880,000 1,100,000 1,600,000 1,900,000 2,000,000 Denmark . 930,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 2,000,000 2,100,000 Holland . 2,100,000 2,600,000 3,300,000 4,000,000 4,600,000 Belgium . 3,800,000 4,700,000 5,500,000 6,100,000 Switzerland 1,800,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 2,800,000 3,000,000 Turkey . 9,500,000 9,500,000 15,500,000 8,600,000 4,500,000 Greece ... 600,000 1,100,000 1,600,000 2,200,000 Roumania ... 1,300,000 4,000,000 5,300,000 5,500,000 Servia 400,000 1,000,000 1,700,000 2,000,000 Bulgaria and E. R. 2,000,000 3,100,000 Tola 1 175,000,000 222,810,000 290,600,000 330,000,000 350,200,000 In the eighty years that have elapsed since 1810 the ratio of increase in each decade, including estimates for i8go, in the various countries is shown as follows : — Increase per 1000 Inhabitants in Decade ending 1820ll8301840 IRBO 1860 18701880 1890 United Kingdom . 171 150 "3 25 .56 88 108 109 France . 47 69 51 45 27 7 II .37 Germany 148 , 112 III 80 64 78 137 74 Russia . ... 70 72 SO 40 105 130 140 Austria . 15 10 75 85 52 50 Italy S° 95 72 74 44 72 00 60 Spain 45 65 100 77 35 .54 Sweden . 80 120 8b 108 lOQ 80 96 55 Norway . 90 i 15s 118 112 130 100 88 70 Denmark 90 80 qs 140 111 lOI 65 Holland . q6 68 81 80 118 135 Belgium . 60 88 68 75 84 "5 Switzerland 1 ... 95 90 46 64 67 bo The increase would have been much greater but for the tide of emigration, which took 23,400,000 i)ersons out of Europe between the years 1816 and 1888, viz. : — The above emigration may be divided into two periods, thus : — Period Emigrants Average Yearly 1816-50 . . 4,309,000 123,000 1851-88 . . 19,091,000 503,000 The above does not include about 4,800,000 peisons who, without leaving Europe, migrated from their own to another country, as appears from the fact that in 1880-8 1 there were, according to Census returns, 3,429,000 for- eigners then living in the various countries. The relative loss or gain by emigration or immigration in recent years, as compared with the number of inhabi- tants, is shown as follows : — Countries that Gained To United States. To British Colonies To South America To other parts Total 14,963,000 3,767,000 2,620,000 2,050,000 23,400,000 'Increase Yearly per 10,000 Pop. Natural Gain by Im- Period migration France . . . 21 32 II 1882-86 Russia . . . 133 146 13 1871-82 Finland . . . 149 iSS 6 1871-80 Greece . . . 83 159 76 1870-79 Roumania . . 68 73 5 1860-84 Servia . . . 184 222 38 1879-84 United States . 206 274 68 1871-80 Australia . . 207 430 223 1876-88 Canada . . . 120 180 60 1871-80 Argentina . . 130 450 320 1880-88 PLATE VIII. POPULATION. Inhabitants ptr square milt in iSzo and iSgo — Red for 1820, Green far iSgo. 2q7 68 • 135 • '■\yk^M W^M 287 =C-=S=i =53.0;-?! ZIZ ::(*? 172 IR9LAHD 20; : ■« : : ;9a; ::16B:;;; 138 ^60. 127 ;^;:190;;;:;; .40: :88- :54- ■■ ■ ;:?p;; SWITZERLAND i:148:-: ;;;1W;;!!! U. Kingdom iii": ;;5?:;;; 15 • 28 ■ ■ b' IE 71 135 19S 350=-! i;.l36:i::- 2S BaJlantynB, Hanson & C? Edinborab & London. POPULATION 443 POPULATION Countries that Lost "Increase per 10,000 Population Loss by Emigration Period Natural Actual Yearly England . . . 140 13a 8 1871-80 Scotland . . . 134 98 36 1871-80 Ireland . . . 81 lis 1871-80 U. Kingdom . 131 108 23 1871-80 Gennany . . "S 74 41 1881-85 Austria . . . 87 70 17 1870-80 Hungary. . . 29 16 13 1870-80 Italy .... 72 54 18 1871-81 Spain. . . . 7S 34 41 1860-77 Portugal . . . 73 60 13 1864-77 Sweden . . . 119 87 32 1871-80 Norway . . . 122 80 42 1865-75 Denmark . . 119 92 27 1871-80 Holland . . . 119 106 13 1871-80 Belgium . . . 96 77 19 1871-80 S)vitzerland . . 73 61 12 1871-80 The number of men capable of bearing arms, say from 15-55, ^^'^ t^^t °f women of child-bearing age, say 15-45 years of s^e, are shown for the various countries approxi- mately as follows : — Men Capable of Bear- Women of Child- ing Arms Bearing Age 1860 1890 1860 1890 U. Kingdom 7,530,000 9,730,000 6,960,000 8,766,000 France . . 10,890,000 10,844,000 8,700,000 8,586,000 Germany . ,iOiS55.ooo 112,460,000 9,140,000 10,930,000 Russia . . 117,700,000 ,25,200,000 16,500,000 23,200,000 Austria . . 9,135,000 10,440,000 8,490,000 9,680,000 Italy . . . 7,020,000 8,480,000 5,670,000 6,850,000 Spain . . . 4,060,000 4,510,000 3,740,000 4,130,000 Portugal . . 860,000 1,120,000 830,000 1,080,000 Sweden . . 1,050,000 1,315,000 930.000 1,170,000 Norway . . 420,000 505,000 370,000 465,000 Denmark . 420,000 530,000 370,000 490,000 Holland. . 880,000 1,220,000 770,000 1,070,000 Belgium . . 1 1,230,000 1,585,000 1,030,000 1,340,000 Switzerland . 670,000 805,000 580,000 690,000 Greece . . 300,000 590,000 250,000 490,000 Ronmania . 1,040,000 1,430,000 920,000 1,260,000 Servia . . 260,000 510,000 230,000 450.000 Europe . . I74, 020,000 91,274,000 65,480,000 80,647,000 It is worthy of notice that France is the only country which has fewer men and women than thirty years ago of the able-bodied ages. The following table shows the ratios of men and women of the above ages to population in the several countries : — Per 1000 Population Men, Women, Men, Women ^h-$s iS-45 is-s."; IS-4S England. . 256 230 Spain. . . 260 240 Scotland . 250 230 Portugal. . 240 230 Ireland . . 247 224 Sweden . • 274 24s U. Kingdom 254 228 Norway . . 252 233 France . . 281 223 Denmark . 260 232 Germany . 256 225 Holland. . 267 233 Russia . 2 ^9 240 Belgium . . 260 220 Austria . . 261 242 Switzerland . 268 230 Italy ... 280 227 Greece . . 270 225 1,047 Holland . I,022 Canada . 976 1,004 Belgium 1,001 Brazil . 938 1,039 Switzerland 1,040 Argentina 942 1,027 Servia , . 957 Chili. . 1,004 1.034 Bulgaria . 952 Peru. . 986 995 Roumania . 937 Venezuela 1,063 1.045 Greece . . 906 Uruguay 934 1,084 Egypt . . 1.025 Colombia 1.058 1,064 Cape. . . 972 Greenland 1,134 1.049 India . . 944 Europe . 1,019 1.03s Japan . . 973 America 970 1,042 U. States . 905 Australia 843 The Almanach de Gotha gives the ratio of sexes in 1884 in the various countries thus : — Females to 1000 Males U. Kingdom : France . Germany Russia . Austria , Italy . . Spain Portugal Sweden . Norway . Denmark Finland . The latest Census returns show the ratio of foreigners in various coimtries thus : — Per 1000 of Population U. Kingdom France . Germany Austria . Hungary Italy . . The ratio of foreigners to population is 21 per thousand in London, 90 in Paris, 13 in Berlin, 14 in Buda-Pesth, 210 in Monte Video, and 360 in Buenos Ayres. The population of the great cities of the world is shown as follows : — m . 4 Spain . • 3 Belgiiun . 26 • • 29 Sweden . 4 Switzerland • 74 6 Norway . . 20 Servia . . 21 . . 16 Denmark • 32 Greece . . ■ iq • • 15 . . 2 Holland • 17 United States 133 Ireland and Portugal are lowest as regards the ratio of able-bodied men. 1831 18E8 Amsterdam 201,000 372,000 Antwerp . 65,000 205,000 Belfast . 53.000 230,000 Berlin 220,000 1,438,000 Birmingham 142,000 448,000 Bombay , 229,000 773,000 Bordeaux . 94.000 241,000 Boston 61,000 363,000 Brussels . 102,000 462,000 Buda-Pesth 67,000 443.000 Buenos Ayres 81,000 45S.OOO Cairo 333.000 375.000 Calcutta . 280,000 433.000 Constantinople 590,000 874,000 Copenhagen 109,000 300,000 Christiania 21,000 136,000 Dresden . 70,000 259,000 Dublin . 227,000 353.000 Edinburgh 130,000 263,000 Florence . 82,000 168,000 Genoa 83,000 179,000 Glasgow . 164,000 526,000 Hamburg . 112,000 306,000 Havana . 111,000 230,000 Leipsic . 42,000 170,000 Lisbon 202,000 243.000 Liverpool . 165,000 600,000 London . 1,655,000 4,283,000 Lyons . . 146,000 402,000 Madrid . 205,000 387,000 Manchester 238,000 604,000 Manilla . 134.000 270,000 Marseilles. 116,000 376,000 Milan 125,000 321,000 Moscow . 308,000 7S3.000 Munich 65,000 275,000 Naples , 354.000 491,000 New Orleans 46,000 216,000 New York 203,000 1,493,000 Palermo . 168,000 245,000 Philadelphia 167,000 1,017,000 Prague 85,000 296,000 Rio Janeiro 145,000 356,000 POPULATION 444 POPULATION I 1831 Rome Rotterdam St. Petersburg Smyrna Stockholm Stuttgart Turin Tunis Venice Vienna Warsaw 128,000 66.000 324,000 115,000 79,000 32,000 114,000 108,000 110,000 280,000 151,000 1888 388,000 194,000 843,000 187,000 222,000 126,000 241,000 210,000 151,000 801,000 432,000 Dr. Beloch gives the population of ancient cities thus: City Rome Thebes Tyre . Palermo Athens Alexandria Date A.D. 14 B-C. 335 » 332 » 254 ,, 350 „ 60 Population Area, Acres 900,000 50,000 40,000 27,000 150,000 500,000 2,950 500 18S "5 145 230 Population per Acre 306 100 210 230 103 21B The density of population in modern cities is shown thus, according to figures for 1881 •— Population Acres Population per Acre London Paris .... Berlin .... Vienna .... Rome .... 3,893,000 2,240,000 1,192,000 724,000 273,000 75,000 14,500 4,500 2,800 800 52 258 341 The ratios of urban and rural population are not ascer- tained in all countries, nor determined alike in many. Some include in the former villages and small towns. If we consider only towns of 20,000 or more inhabitants, we find as follows {1881) : — Number of Towns Aggregate Percentage of Total Population Population Urban Rural England . lOI 11,420,000 44 56 Scotland . 10 1,310,000 35 65 Ireland 9 820,000 16 84 United Kingdom 120 13,550,000 39 61 France 91 6,810,000 18 82 Germany . 114 7,420,000 16 84 Russia 128 8,220,000 10 90 Austria 37 2,550,009 7 93 Italy . 76 4,570,000 16 84 Spain . 28 1,940,000 12 88 Portugal . 3 420,000 10 90 Belgium 24 1,510,000 27 73 Holland . 19 1,140,000 28 72 Denmark . 2 260,000 13 87 Sweden 6 350,000 8 92 Norway S 210,000 11 89 Switzerland 6 230,000 8 92 Greece 4 100,000 6 94 Roumania . 12 620,000 11 89 Servia I 270,000 6 94 Turkey 4 960,000 12 83 Europe 680 51,130,000 15 85 United States . 102 9,160,000 18 82 Canada 9 370,000 9 91 Australia . .16 710,000 25 75 Total 807 61,370,000 15 85 The city of greatest density in the United Kingdom is Liverpool, with 106 inhabitants to the acre. United Kingdom The kingdoms now composing the United Kingdom, according to the most reliable estimates and official returns at various periods, had the following population : — Inhabitants per Square Mile Year England Scotland Ireland Total England Scotland Ireland 1066 . . . . 2,150,000 350,000 1,000,000 3,500,000 37 11 32 1381 2,360,000 400,000 1,100,000 3,860,000 41 13 35 1528 4,356,000 550,000 770,000 5,676,000 75 17 24 1672 5,500,000 900,000 1,320,000 7,720,000 96 29 41 1712 6,280,000 1,050,000 2,099,000 9,429,000 no 34 66 1754 7,020,000 1,265,000 2,373,000 10,658,000 120 40 74 1780 8,080,000 1,430,000 3,050,000 12,560,000 140 47 1 96 1801 8,893,000 1,608,000 5,216,000 15,717,000 155 53 1 163 1811 10,164,000 1,806,000 5,957,000 17,927,000 17s 60 : 189 1821 12,090,000 2,092,000 6,802,000 20,984,000 207 68 1 212 1B31 14,001,000 2,364,000 7,768,000 24,133,000 241 77 i 243 1841 16,038,000 2,620,000 8,197,000 26,855,000 275 86 1 256 1851 18,071,000 2,889,000 6,574,000 27,534,000 310 94 205 1861 . 20,209,000 3,062,000 5,799,000 29,070,000 347 100 181 1871 22,857,000 3,360,000 5,412,000 31,629,000 391 no 169 1881 . 26,109,000 3,734,000 5,160,000 35,003,000 443 122 161 1889 29,016,000 4,077,000 4,716,000 37,809,000 500 133 150 Meantime it must be observed that the estimates for Ireland in 1754 and 1780 were much too low, since it is impossible to suppose an increase of 70 per cent, between 1780 and 1801. It is clear that the above table should be amended thus : — Year England Scotland Ireland Total 1754 • • • 17S0 . . . 7,020,000 8,080,000 1,265,000 1,430,000 3,200,000 4,200,000 11,485,000 13,710,000 The ratio of sexes at each Census stood for the United Kingdom thus : — 1821 1831 1841 18B1 1861 1871 1881 Males . Females . 487 513 486 514 488 512 489 5" 485 515 486 48s SIS Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 This shows an increasing preponderance of females. POPULATION 445 POPULATION The population according to sexes since 1821 has been as follo\vs : — Year 1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1 871 1881 Males England 5,850,000 6.770,000 7,770.000 8,780,000 9,801,000 11.059.000 12,625,000 Scotland Ireland 980,000 1,110,000 1,240,000 1,370,000 1,453,000 1,603,000 1,793,000 3,340,000 3,790,000 4,010,000 3,190.000 2,832,000 2,640,000 2,523,000 U, Kingdom 10,170,000 11,672,000 13,020,000 13,340.000 14,086,000 15,302,000 16,946,000 182 1 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 Females 6,140,000 7,120,000 8,130,000 9.140,000 10,318,000 11,653,000 13,343,000 1,100,000 1,240,000 1,370,000 1,510,000 1,616,000 1,757,000 1,937,000 3,450,000 3,970,000 4,150,000 3,360.000 2,957,000 2,773,000 2,637,000 10,690,000 12,330.000 13,650,000 14,010,000 14,891,000 16,183,000 17,917,000 The ratios of males of working age, 15 to 55, were as follows : — Per 1000 Inhabitants 1841 1881 England Scotland Ireland 262 25s 255 256 250 247 Women of child-bearing age, 15 to 45, were as fol- lows : — Per 1000 Inhabitants 1841 1881 England . Scotland Ireland 240 247 236 230 230 224 Ireland stands lowest in men and women of the most useiiil and productive ages, which is the result of emigra- tion. The principal towns of England in the 14th century (1377) were supposed to have the following popula- tion: — London 55,200 Norwich 6,300 Newcastle . 4.300 York . . 11,400 Lincoln . . 5.500 Oxford . . 3,800 Bristol . . 9,200 Lynn . . 5,200 Gloucester . 3.400 Plymouth , 7.300 Canterbury 4.700 Leicester . 3,200 Coventry . 7,100 Colchester . 4.500 Shrewsbury 3,000 The twelve great towns of England have grown in this manner :^ 1801 1 1821 1 1841 1861 1887 London . . Liverpool . Manchester Binningham Leeds . . Sheffield. . Bristol . . Nottingham Bradford . Hull . . . Newcastle . Brighton , 959,000; i,379,ooo'i,948,ooo 82,000 138,000' 286,000 77,000' 129,000' 243,000 71,000' I02.000| 183,000 53,000 84,000 152,000 46,000 65,000 111,000 61,000 85,000! 125,000 29,000 40,000 52,000 13,000 26,000' 67,000 30,000 4S,ooo 67,000 33,000' 42,000 70,000 7,000 25,000 49,000 2,804,000 444.000 358,000 296,000 207,000 185,000 154,000 75.000 106,000 97,000 109,000 87,000 4,215,000 593.000 378,000 441,000 345.000 316,000 224,000 224,000 224,000 199.000 157,000 118,000 Total , 1,461,000 2,160,000 3,353,000 4,922,000 7,434,000 The urban and rural population have been as follows :— 1851 . 1861 . 1871 . 1881 . Rural 8.772.000 9.133.000 9,802,000 10,523,000 Urban Total 9,156,000 17, 10.933.000 20, 12,911.000 22.713.000j 15.445.000 25,968,000 928,000. 066,000 Rural, Ratio per Cent. 49.0 45-5 43-2 404 According showed : — England and] Vales Natives 24,856,000 Irish . 562,000 Scotch . 254,000 Foreign . 303,000 to the Census of 188 1 the population Ireland Natives 5.064.000 English . 69,000 Scotch . 22,000 Foreign, 20,000 Scotland Natives 3,398,000 English , 92,000 Irish . 219,000 Foreign . 27,000 Total 25,975,000 Total 5,175,000 Total 3,736.000 The density of to^vns in England (that is, the popula- tion per acre) is shown thus : — Norwich . , Leeds . . Sheffield . Nottingham Oldham . 15 16 18 26 Bradford . . Portsmouth . Leicester . . Hull . . . Birmingham . Bristol . . London . Plymouth . Manchester Liverpool . 49 49 54 85 106 Franxe According to respectable authorities and Census re- turns, the population was at various dates as follows : — Year Population Year Populaiion Year Population 1328 . 10,000,000 1791 . 26,303.000 1851 . 35,783.000 1515 . 14,000,000 1801 . 27,350,000 1861 . 36.746,000 1599 . 16,000,000 1811 . 29,090,000 1866 38,067,000 1698 . 19.670,000 1821 . 30,462,000 1872 . 37,013.000 1762 . 21,770,000 1831 . 32,569,000 1881 , 37.406.000 1778 . 23,665,000 1841 . 34,230,000 1886 . 38.219,000 The area varied often from the 14th century downwards ; but comparing it with population, we find at different dates the inhabitants per square mile were as follows : — Year 1515 1600 PerSq. Alile . . 80 . . 88 Year PerSq. Mite 1754 ... 96 1778 . . . 112 The ratio of sexes to population showed as follows Males to 1000 Females Year 1800 1881 PerSq. Mile ■ 13s . 180 Year 1801 , 1821 , Males ■ 950 ■ 945 Year 1841 1851 Males ■ 976 . 982 Year 1866 . 1876 . Males ■ 1,005 • 993 Urban and rural population stood in these ratios : 1846 1851 1861 1872 Urban . . Rural . . . 244 756 2SS 745 289 711 1^9 Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The nine principal cities of France had the following population : — 1801 Paris . . Lyons Marseilles Bordeaux Lille . . Toulouse Nantes . Rouen . Havre Total 1835 1881 1886 553,000 881.000 2,226,000 2,345,000 110,000 162,000 377,000 402.000 111,000 125,000 360,000 376,000 91,000 110,000 212,000 241,000 5S.OOO 77,000 178,000 188,000 50,000 62,000 140,000 148,000 42,000 78,000 124,000 127,000 48,000 91,000 106,000 107,000 16,000 24,000 106,000 112,000 1,076,000 1,610,000 3,829,000 4,046,000 POPULATION 446 POPULATION The population of Paris has been as follows : — Year Population 1675 • • S40.000 1700 . . 720,000 1762 . . 600,000 1789 . . 525,000 Year Population 1800 . . 547,000 1811 . . 623,000 1831 . . 786,000 1841 . . 935,000 Germany Levasseur gives the following : — Year Population 1816 . 24,830,000 1822 . 27,040,000 1831 . 29,768,000 Year 1840 . 1852 , 1861 . Population 32,786,000 35,960,000 38, 140,000 Year Population 1851 . 1,053,000 1861 . 1,697,000 1872 . 1,852,000 1886 . 2,345,000 Year Population 1871 . 41,060,000 1880 . 45,234,000 1885 . 46,856,000 The German Confederation at various dates, down to its dissolution at the battle of Koniggratz in 1866, showed as follows : — Area, Sq. Miles Population States 1786 1866 1786 1815 1866 Austria . . 84,500 76,400 10,930,000 9,180,000 13,250,000 Prussia . . 46,500 72,000 4,110,000 7,920,000 14,720,000 Bavaria . . 22,600 29,600 2,100,000 3,560,000 4,810,000 Saxony . . 15,600 5,800 1,870,000 1,200,000 2,340,000 Brunswick . 2,000 1,400 185,000 210,000 290,000 Wurtemburg 4.300 7.500 585,000 1,400,000 1,750,000 Hanover, . 14.900 1,310,000 1,920,000 Baden . . S.900 1,000,000 1,430,000 Various . . 92,200 30,roo 6,485,000 4,380,000 5,900,000 Total . 267,700 243,600 26,265,000 30,160,000 46,410,000 Kolb gives the population according to sexes since 1855 as follows : — 18B5 1864 1871 1886 Males . . Females . . 16,185,000 17,785,000 16,535,000' 18,095,000 20,250,000 21,005,000 22,934,000 23,922,000 Total . 32,700,000 35,880,000 41,255,000 46,856,000 Ratio Males . . Females . . 495 505 495 505 491 509 489 5" Total . I,O0O 1,000 1,000 1,000 The Census of 1885 may be condensed thus : — Males Females Total No. per Sq. Mile Prussia . . 13,894,000 14,425,000 28,319,000 216 Bavaria , . 2,639,000 2,781,000 5,420,000 192 Saxony . . 1,542,000 1,640,000 3,182,000 560 Wurtemburg 961,000 1,034,000 1,995,000 272 Baden . . 782,000 819,000 1,601,000 280 Alsace- 1 Lorraine j 771,000 793,000 1,564,000 288 Small ) Duchies J 2,345,000 2,430,000 4,775,000 Total . 22,934,000 23,922,000 46, 856,000 230 Official records of Prussia give the population thus :- Year Population i8oi . 8,020,000 1816 . 10,349,000 1831 . 13,039,000 Year Population 1840 , 14,929,000 1850 . 16,608,000 1861 . 18,497,000 Year Population 1875 . 25,742,000 1880 . 27,251,000 1885 . 28,319,000 The Census of 1843 for Prussia showed as follows :- Married . Unmarried Total 5,133,000 10,388,000 15,471,000 Urban Rural . 4,263,000 11,208,000 Total 15,471,000 The ratio of sexes in Prussia has been as follows : 1810 1820 1840 1880 Males Females . 495 505 495 505 499 501 492 508 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The effects of the Franco-German war are visible in the increased preponderance of women in 1880. The composition of the population of Prussia as to sex and age in isao compa red with 1S43 th us: — ■^^ter 1000 Inhabitants Age 1843 1880 Males Females Total ksOgj Females Total Under 5 . 5-iS ■ • • IS-4S • • 45-60 . . Over 60. . 76 99 242 54 28 74 97 242 58 30 ISO 196 484 112 S8 70 no 216 i 69 /109 40 139 219 441 125 76 Total . 499 501 1,000 ;i 508 1,000 The records of Bavaria, thus : — y, and Hanover show Bavaria ^Saxony Hanover Year Population ,*¥ear Population, Year Population 1818 1843 1861 187s 1885 3,708,0010 4,440,0^0 4,69o,cx)o 5,022,000 5,420,000 1815 1841 1861 1875 1885 1,179,000 j 1822 1,687,000 1 1836 2,225,000 1 1852 2,761,000 j 1862 3,182,000 ! 1880 1,464,000 1,688,000 1,819,000 1,958,000 2,118,000 Since 1866 Hanover has formed a province of Prussia. The ratio of sexes in Saxony has been as follows : — In 1815 there were 1080 females to 1000 males In 1832 ,, 1058 ,, 1000 „ In 18-5 „ 1041 „ 1000 „ The Census of 1885 showed the chief cities of Germany thus : — Berlin Hamburg Breslau Munich Dresden Leipzig Cologne Frankfort 1,315,000 306,000 300,000 262,000 246,000 170,000 161,000 155,000 Konigsberg Magdeburg Hanover Stuttgart Bremen . Nuremberg Dantzig Strasburg 151,000 143,000 140,000 126,000 118,000 115,000 115,000 112,000 The records of Berlin give the population as follows :- Year Population 1602 . . 8,000 1700 . . 55,000 1787 , . 147,000 Year 1819 . 1831. 1852. Population . 185,000 . 249,000 . 433,000 Year Population i86r . . 548,000 1871 . . 826,000 1885 . 1,315,000 In 1875 the population of Berlin was made up thus : 399,100 560,100 Males . Females Total 481,500 477,700 959,200 Born in Berlin „ elsewhere Total 959,200 There were 213,900 families, of whom 43,600 kept servants, the rest none. POPULATION 447 POPULATION The number of foreign residents in Germany was as follows : — In 1871 1885 Prussia .... Bavaria .... Saxony .... Other States . 87,000 39,000 24,000 S7.O0O 157,000 62,000 S3.000 101,000 Total 207,000 373.000 Russia M'Gregor's tables for the 17th and i8th centuries, along with later estimates for Russia and Poland, show popula- tion thus : — Year Population 1689 . 15,000,000 1762 . 25,000,000 1801 . 40,170,000 Year 1820 . 1840 . 1858 . Population 51,500,000 59,134,000 64,096,000 Year Population 1871 . 72,233,000 1885 . 89,680,000 Kolb, however, gives the bllowing table : — Year Sq. Miles Population Year Sq. Miles Population 1722 1742 1762 1782 1803 1 1 5,953,000 14,000,000 6,889,000 16,000,000 „ j 19,000,000' 7.123,000 27,500,000 ,, i 36,000,000 1811 1829 1838 1851 1870 7,123,000 >j 7,867,000 42,000,000 50,500,000 59,000,000 65,000,000 78,000,000 The preponderance of females is not so great as it was forty years ago, the official returns shovring : — Year Males Females Females to Males 1840 1882 28,896,000 ■ 42,289,000 30,238,000 43,007,000 1,04s to 1,000 1,016 to 1,000 In 1867, on the other hand, the males preponderated in all the large cities except Warsaw, viz. : — Females to 100 Males Moscow . . 56 Saratov . . 87 Kazan ... 92 St Petersburg 72 Riga ... 88 Warsaw . . 112 Kiev ... 76 Odessa . . gr The principal cities in 1882 showed the following population : — St. Petersburg Moscow Warsaw Odessa . Riga . Kharkofif 843,000 7S3.00O 432,000 240,000 169,000 167,000 Kazan . Kichinev Kiev . Lodz Saratov Tiflis . 141,000 130,000 127,000 113,000 112,000 104,000 In 1882 the total urban population amovmted to 13,800,000 : — 4 first-class cities .... 2,354,000 9 second-class .... 1,163,000 23 third-class 1,610,000 93 fourth-class .... 3,100,000 164 fifth-class .... 2,190,000 690 villages 3.383.000 Total . . . 13,800,000 The population in 1888 was made up thus : — Russia proper .... 81,700.000 Poland 7.980,000 Total . . . 89,680,000 This gave for Poland an average of 170 per square mile against 125 in 1865, in which year there were 107 females to 100 males, and the urban population was 20 per cent, of the total. Asiatic Russia in 1801 had 3,600,000 inhabitants, and in 1883 the number was 16,400,000. Finland is not strictly a part of the Russian Empire : its population in 1885 was 2,200,000. The ratio of sexes and of urban population in Finland was as follows :- _ Males to 1000 Females Percentage of Urban Potulation Year Males Year Urban 1751 • ■ 917 1815 . ■ 47 1800 . 949 1840 . , • 59 1820 . • 929 1850 . . 64 1840 . ■ 940 i860 . . 63 i860 . • 947 1870 . ■ 77 The advance of population in the Russian Empire since 1858 is shown as follows : — 1858 1870 1885 Russia .... Poland .... Finland. . . . Caucasus . . . Siberia .... Tartary. . . . 59,331,000 4,765,000 1,636,000 4,309,000 2,936,000 1,295,000 65,705,000 6,026,000 1,774,000 4,763,000 3,405,000 3,357,000 81,725,000 7,960,000 2,176,000 7,285,000 4,314,000 5,327,000 Total . . 74,272,000 85,030,000 108,787,000 The distribution of sexes was in 1880 as follows : — Males Females Total Females to 100 Males Russia and ) Poland \ Finland . . Caucasus . Siberia . . Tartary . . 40,925,000 1,019,000 3,352,000 2,044,000 2,631,000 42,051,000 1,063,000 2,939,000 1,904,000 2,445.000 82.976,000 2,082,000 6.291,000 3,948,000 5,076,000 103 104 88 93 93 Total . 49,971,000 50.402.000 100,373,000 lOI Austria The population of the Empire, exclusive of the Italian provinces, was as follows : — Year 1789. 1810. 1840 , Population 18,000,000 22,420,000 32,835,000 Year Population 1857 . . 31,994,000 1869 . . 35,811,000 1880 . . 37.882,000 Year Austria Hungary Total 1840 . 1857 • 1869 . 1880 . 17.455.000 18,225,000 20,395,000 22,144,000 15,380,000 13,769,000 15,416,000 15,738,000 32,835,000 31,994,000 35,811,000 37,882,000 As regards sex, the Census of 1880 compares with that of 1840 as follows : — 18i0 Population Ratio Austria Hungary Total Austria I lungary ^ Males . Females 8,850,000 8,605,000 7,560,000 16.410.000 7.820.000' 16.425.000 507; 4911 500 493' 509 500 Total 17.4SS.000 15.380.000 32.835.000 1,0001,0001,000 1880 Males . Females 10,820,000 11,324.000 7,703,000 8,035.000 18,523.000 489 19.359.000 511 491 509 490 510 Total 22,144.000 15,738.000 37.882,0001.0001,000 1,000 POPULATION 448 POPULATION In iSSo the various nationalities that made up the Empire were : — Austria Germans . Bohemians . . Poles .... Ruthenians . . Various . . . 8,009,000 5,181,000 3,239,000 2,793,000 2,922,000 Total . . 22,144,000 The principal cities in i8i Magyars Germans . Slovacs Wallacks Croats, &c. Hungary 6,165,000 1,798,000 I ,790,000 2,324,000 3,661,000 15.738.000 showed as follows : — 801,000 1 Prague .... 296,000 443,000 I Lemberg. . . . 110,000 The population of Vienna, including the suburbs, has been : — Vienna Buda-Pesth Year 1754 Population . 175,000 1800 . . 231,000 Year 1830 . 1840 . Population ■ 333.000 . 357.000 Italy Year Population i860 . 608,000 1880 . 1,104,000 Estimates before i860, and Census returns since then, gave : — Year Population Year Population 1800 . 13,380,000 1840 . 18,610,000 1820 . 15,790,000 1858 . 24,860,000 The principal cities in 18S1 were as Naples Milan . Rome. 463,000 320,000 273,000 Turin, . 230,000 Palermo . 206,000 Genoa . 138,000 Year Population 1871 . 26,801,000 1888 . 30,565,000 follows : — Florence. 135,000 Venice . 129,000 Bologna . 104,000 The population and sexes of Rome were as follows :— Period Males Females Total Males to 100 Females 1716 . . 1777 . . 1872 . . 79.900 89,800 105,200 58,100 73.300 139,200 138,000 163,200 244,400 . 138 123 76 The population of Italy, according to sexes, was as follows : — Number Ratio 1871 1881 1871 1881 Males , . Females . . 13,472,000 13,329,000 14,265,000 14,195,000 502 498 501 499 Total . 26,801,000 28,460,000 1,000 1,000 The population of Milan has grown as follows : — 1780 . . . 133,000 I 1871 . . 261,000 1848 . . . 195,000 1 1884 . . , 349,000 Its great development has been since the expulsion of the Austrians in 1867. Spain Official reports gave the population as follows : Year Population Year Population Year 1681 7,500,000 1797 10,514,000 i860 1723 7,625,000 1803 10,351,000 1870 1769 9,302,000 1821 11,248,000 1877 1788 10,140,000 1837 13,195,000 1887 Population 15,664,000 16,799,000 16,754,000 17.550.000 The Census of 1788 showed as follows : — Male Female Total Unmarried . . Married . . . Widowed . . . 2,926,000 1,947,000 282,000 2,754,000 1,943,000 470,000 5,680,000 3,890,000 752,000 Total . . 5,155,000 5,167,000- 10,322,000 The Census of 1877' showed the sexes thus :- Males 8,253,000 Females .... 8,501,000 Total . . 16,754,000 The principal cities were in 1885 as follows : Madrid . Barcelona 387,000 243,000 Valencia Seville . Ratio 492 508 140,000 131,000 Portugal Official returns are as follows : — Year Population Year Population Year Population 1732 . 1,770,000 1850 . 3,471,000 1878 . 4,551,000 1805 . 3,630,000 i860 . 3,608,000 The population of Lisbon in 1878 was 243,000, and of Oporto 106,000. The sexes stood thus : — Ratio Males 2,176,000 478 Females .... 2,375,000 522 Total . . 4,55 Sweden The Census reports show as follows 1,000 1,000 Year Males Females Total Males to 1000 Females 1751 • ■ 841,000 945.000 1,786,000 889 1772 . . 968,000 1,057,000 2,025,000 915 1790 . . 1,033,000 1,126,000 2,159,000 918 1810 . . 1,134,000 1,244,000 2,378,000 913 1830 . . 1,391,000 1,407,000 2,888,000 928 1850 . . 1,687,000 1,795.000 3,482,000 940 i860 . . 1,874,000 1,985,000 3,859,000 944 1870 2,047,000 2,152,000 4,169,000 936 1888 . . 2,301,000 2,447,000 4,748,000 941 The ratios of urban and rural population were :— 1810 1830 1850 1875 1888 Urban . . Rural . . 906 97 903 101 899 140 860 181 819 Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The principal cities in 1888 showed thus : — Stockholm . . . 235,000 | Gothenburg . . . 100,000 Norway Official returns give the following population : — Year Populatiod 1865 . 1,702,000 1875 • 1,807,000 1885 . 1,947,000 The ratio of sexes was at various dates as follows : — Year Population Year Population 1665 . . 460,000 1825 . 1,051,000 1769 . . 746,000 184s . 1,328,000 1801 . . 884,000 1855 . 1,490,000 1 1801 1825 1845 1875 Males . . Females . . 482 518 485 515 491 509 488 512 Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Urban and rural population had the following ratios : — 1666 1801 1 1825 1845 1865 1875 Urban . . . Rural. . . . 80 920 90 113 910 1 8S7 123 877 156 844 181 819 Total . . 1,000 1,000 ; 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 POPULATION 449 POPULATION The foreign population comprises 37,000, of whom 29,000 are Swedes. Christiania has 130,000 inhabitants. Denmark The population of Denmark proper was as follows :- Ytjr Population Year Population Year Population I7b9 . 786,000 1834 . 1,226,000 1870 . 1,785,000 1787 . 840,000 1850 . 1,408,000 i88o . 1,969,000 1801 . 926,000 i860 . 1,608,000 1886 . 2,097,000 Previous to 1 806 Norway was a province of the Danish monarchy, with 950,000 inhabitants. In 1 866 Denmark was stripped of Sleswig-Holstein, with 900,000 inhabitants. Iceland remains with 6o,oco souls, but will soon be depopulated, the inhabitants going to Canada. The distribution of sexes in Denmark in 1880 was as follows : — Katio Males .... 967,000 492 Females . . . 1,002,000 508 1,969,000 1,000 Belgium Since the Independence the Census returns show : — Yetrr Population Year Papulation 1830 . . . 3,780,000 1870 . . . 5,088,000 i860 . . . 4,732,000 1886 . . . 5,910,000 In 1830 the population was distinguished thus : — Ratio Urban .... 998,000 245 Rural .... 3,066.000 755 4,064,000 In 1886 the languages spoken were :- Only Flemish „ French . French and Flemish German and French Walloon, &c Inhabitants 2,485,000 2,230,000 424,000 38,000 733,000 Total . . . s>9'o,coo The principal cities in 1886 were as follows : — Brussels . . 430,000 1 Ghent . . . 145,000 Antwerp . . 205,000 1 Liege . . . 138,000 The population of Brussels has more than trebled since 1830, official returns showing : — 1830 . . . 121,000 1 1863 . . . 301,000 1850 . . ■ 222,000 1 1884 . . . 421,000 The sexes in Belgium compared as follows : — 1846 1866 1887 Ratio 1846 1866 1887 Males . Females . 2,164,000 2,173,000 2,420,000 2,408,000 2,983,000 2,992,000 499 SOI 501 499 499 501 Total . 4.337.000 4,828,000 5,975,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The composition of the population of Belgium in 1880 was as follows : — Age Per 1000 Inhabitants Males Females Total Under 5 5-15 • 15-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-^ • Over 60 Total 499 501 1,000 Holland Official returns show population as follows (the figure for 1 785 apparently including Belgium) : — Year 1785 1829 , 1839 , 1849 Population , 2,760,000 , 2,613,009 , 2,861,000 . 3.057.000 Year 1859 1869 1879 , 1886 Population • 3.309,000 . 3,580,000 , 4,013,000 , 4,391,000 Sexes compared as follows in 1879 and 1886 :- 1879 1886 Ratio 1879 1886 Males . . Females . . 1,983,000 2,030,000 2,174,000 2,217,000 495 505 495 505 Total . 4,013,000 4,391,000 1,000 1,000 In 1886 Amsterdam had 372,000 inhabitants, Rotter- dam 174,000, and Hague 139,000. Switzerland Census returns show as follows : — 1850 . . . 2,393,000 1 1880 . , , 2,846,000 1870 . . . 2,669,000 1 1888 . . . 2,934,000 In i860 and 1880 the ratios of sexes were as follows : — Number Ratio 1860 1880 1860 1880 Males . . Females . . 1,255,000 1,280,000 1,395.000 1,451,000 495 50s 490 510 Total . 2,535,000 2,846,000 1,000 1,000 The languages spoken in i88o were as follows : — Ratio . 2,031,000 71.4 608,000 21.3 207,000 7.3 German French . Italian . Total . 2,846,000 100. o Greece According to Beloch, the population of Greece in the year 432 B.C. was as follows : — Free Slaves Total Attica . Sparta Thessaly . Macedon . Other States 235,000 , 230,000 460,000 400,000 721,000 100,000 i75>ooo 250,000 25,000 455,000 335,000 405,000 710,000 425,000 1,176,000 Total 1 2,046,000 1,005,000 3,051,000 Since the Independence the population of modem Greece shows : — Year 183s . 1853 . 1861 . Population , 690,000 . 1,042,000 , 1,097,000 Year 1870 . 1879 , 1889 . Population , 1,458,000 . 1,980,000 , 3,187,000 The sexes in 1879 and i 889 stood thus :— 1879 1889 Ratio 1879 1889 Males . . Females . . 881,000 799.000 1,133,000 1,054,000 525 475 48s Total . 1,680,000 2,187,000 1,000 1,000 2 F POPULATION 45° POPULATION Turkey In 1840 the population and area of the component States were : — Square Miles Population Inhabitants per Square Mile Turkey Proper . Moldavia and Wallachia . ' Servia . , , , 130,000 44,000 12,000 7,100,000 1,420,000 380,000 55 32 European Turkey Asia Minor . , Tripoli .... Egypt .... 186,000 710,000 360,000 480,000 8,900,000 16,100,000 1,000,000 3, 100,000 48 23 i Total . . 1,736,000 29, 100,000 Since 1840 Turkey has lost Moldavia, Wallachia, Egypt, Servia, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Roumelia, &c. , and is at present reduced to : — Square Miles Poptlation Turkey in Europe . . 61,000 4,490,000 Asia Minor . . . 710,000 16,133,000 Total . 771,000 20,623,000 In 1880 the principal cities were the following : — Constantinople . Smyrna . . . 874,000 I Damascus 187,000 I Bagdad . . 150,000 . 100,000 In 1888 European Turkey was supposed to have only 4,500,000 inhabitants. Egypt Without including the outlying dominions, the popula- tion of Egypt proper has been officially stated thus : — 1840 3,100,000 1872 5,210,000 1882 6,818,000 The last Census showed 499 males to 501 females. Number Per 1000 Males Females Total Males Females Egyptians . Bedouins . Foreigners . 3,222,000 131,000 49,000 3,258,000 116,000 42,000 6,480,000 247,000 91,000 497 53° 538 503 470 462 Total . 3,402,000 3,416,000 6,818,000 499 SOI The population of Cairo and of Alexandria was in 1882 as follows : — Cairo Alexandria Natives .... Foreigners 353.000 22,000 178,000 49,000 Total 375.000 227,000 United States The population of the country now known as the United States was estimated at various periods before Independence, and has been regularly taken in decennial Census since 1790. Year Population Year Population Year Population 1673 160,000 1800 . 5,308,000 1850 23,192,000 1701 297,000 1810 . 7,240,000 1B60 31.443.000 1750 . 1,161,000 1820 . 9,655,000 1870 38,558,000 177'! . 2,803,000 1830 . 12.866,000 1B80 5o,n;6,ooo 1790 . 3,930,000 1840 . 17,063,000 1890 62,481,000 The earliest detailed records of population are its follows : — 1701 1749 177B 1790 Massachusetts . . . Connecticut .... Rhode Island . . . New Hampshire . . 70,000 30,000 10,000 10,000 220,000 100,000 35,000 30,000 352,000 262,000 58,000 102,000 47S.OOO 238,000 69,000 228,000 New England . . . 120,000 385,000 774,000 1,010,000 New York . . . . New Jersey .... Pennsylvania and 1 Delaware . . . ) Maryland ..... Virginia Carolinas, &c. . , . 30,000 15.000 20,000 25,000 75,000 12,000 100,000 60,000 250,000 85,000 200,000 81,000 260,000 150,000 401,000 255,000 516,000 447,000 340,000 184,000 494,000 320,000 748,000 834,000 Middle and South . . 177,000 776,000 2,029,000 2,920,000 Total . . 297,000 1,161,000 2,803,000 3,930,000 Dr. Currie's tables published in 1798 are complete as regards the i8th century, and besides the above he gives figures for the New England States in the pre- ceding century, showing a population of 24,100 souls in 1654, and of 68,400 in 1673. It is to be observed that in the above table the column for 1775 includes 500,000 slaves, and in 1795 lil^ewise 698,000. The population, according to Tucker and the Census returns, was composed as follows : — Year Wliite, Native Coloured Foreigners Total 1800 4,262,000 1,002,000 44,000 5,308,000 1810 5,770,000 1,377,000 93,000 7,240,000 1820 7,684,000 1,772,000 177,000 9,633,000 1830 10,178,000 2,328,000 360,000 12,866,000 1840 13,336,000 2,874,000 859,000 17,069,000 1850 17,308,000 3,639,000 2,245,000 23,192,000 i860 22,801,000 4,486,000 4,139,000 31,426,000 1870 28,085,000 4,906,000 5,567,000 38,558,000 1880 36,829,000 6,647,000 6,680,000 50,156,000 The increase of population chiefly arose from the surplus of births over deaths, but was materially swelled by the number of European settlers. Tucker's tables down to 1820, and the Census returns since that year, show as follows : — Period Natural In- crease Immigration Increase Total Ratio of In- crease per 1000 Pop. 1801-10 1,883,000 49,000 1,932,000 365 1811-20 2,309,000 84,000 2,393,000 330 1821-30 3,050,000 183,000 3,233,000 335 1831-40 3,602,000 595.000 4,197.000 327 1841-50 4,473,000 1,656,000 6,129,000 359 1851-60 5,624,000 2,627,000 8,251.000 356 1861-70 4,820,000 2,295,000 7.115.000 226 1871-80 8,783,000 2,815.000 11,598,000 301 1881-90 7,078.000 5.247,000 12,325,000 246 90 years 41,622,000 15,551,000 57,173,000 The Census Commissioner believes that the Census re- turns for 1870 were defective, esi)ecially in the Southern States, and that the real returns since i860 should be read thus : — Period 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 Natural In- crease 6,262,000 7,341,000 7,078,000 Immigration ; Total 2,295.000 I 8,557,000 2,815,000 I 10,156,000 S. 247.000 j 12,325,000 Periooo 272 254 246 POPULATION 45 1 POPULATION Allowing this amendment, ss recommended by Commissioner Porter, the ratio of increase in each decade per looo inhabitants was as follows : — 1801-10 1811-20 1821-30 1831-40 1841-BO 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 Natural .... Immigration . , 3S6 9 318 12 316 19 280 47 262 97 242 114 200 72 181 73 141 105 Total . . 36s 330 335 327 359 356 272 254 246 The various nationalities that composed nearly 15 millions of settlers from 1820 to 1888 stood thus : — 1821-50 1861-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 Total Germans .... 682,000 951,000 820,000 759,000 1,104,000 4,316,000 Irish 1,352,000 1,013,000 723,000 450,000 536,000 4,074,000 British 49.000 325,000 385,000 542,000 658,000 1,959,000 Scandinavians 5,000 25,000 136,000 261,000 412,000 839,000 Italians . 9,000 13.000 61,000 201,000 284.000 French 125,000 76,000 38,000 75,000 36,000 350,000 Dutch 5,000 11,000 10,000 18,000 151,000 195,000 Swiss 4,000 25,000 24,000 31,000 68,000 152,000 Various . 3S4.000 163,000 318,000 748,000 1,154,000 2,737,000 Total • • 2,576,000 2,598,000 2,467,000 2,945.000 4,320,000 14,906,000 There is -a, very marked decline of natural increase, which is now only two-thirds of the ratio that prevailed early in the century. The total immigration may be summed up thus : — Period Number Per Annum 1654-1701. 1702-1800. 1801-20 .... 1821-50 .... 1851-80 .... 1881-90 .... 134,000 492,000 178,000 2,576,000 8,010,000 5,247,000 2,800 4,950 8,900 86,000 267,000 540,000 237 years .... 16,637,000 The number of foreign residents at each Census, and the number of those who died or left the country, are shown in the following table : — Census Year Number Enrolled Immi- grants of Decade 1 Number Total at End of Decade Missing 1850 i860 1870 1880 2,245,000 4,139,000 5,567,000 6,680,000 2,S98,oooj 4,843,000; 4,139,000 2,467,000' 6,606,000' 5,567,000 2,945,000 8,512,000' 6,680,000 704,000 1,039,000 1,832,000 1 - 3.575,000 The foreign residents found living in the United States at each Census since 1850 were as follows : — 1850 1860 1870 1880 Germans . . . 584,000 1,276,000 1,691,000 1,967,000 Irish . . . . 962,000 1,611,000 1,856,000 1,855,000 British .... 380,000 588,000 766,000 916,000 Scandinavians . 18,000 73.000 242,000 440,000 Italians . . . 4,000 11,000 17,000 44,000 French. . . . S4.000 110,000 116,000 107,000 Dutch . . , . 10,000 28,000 47,000 58,000 Swiss . . . . 13,000 53,000 75.000 89,000 Various . . . 220,000 389,000 757.000 1.204,000 Total . . 2,245,000 4,139,000 5,367.000 6,680,000 The losses among Germans in the several decades were : — Census Resident Immi- gration Total Number at End of Decade Missing 1850 i860 1870 1880 584,000 1,276,000 1,691,000 1,967,000 951,000 820,000 759.000 1,535,000 2,096,000 2,450,000 1,276,000 1,691,000 1,967,000 259,000 405,000 483,000 ... 1, 147,000 The number missing at the end of each decade ranged The percentage of loss was less than among Irish, as from 15 to 21 per cent. appears from the subjoined table of all nationalities. The loss by death or leaving the country in thirty years ending 1880 is shown as follows : — Germans Irish British Various Total Number in 1850 Arrived, 1851-80 . 584,000 2,530,000 962,000 2,186,000 380,000 1,252,000 319,000 2,042,000 2,245,000 8,010,000 Total Number in 1880 3,114,000 1,967,000 3,148,000 1,855,000 1,632,000 916,000 2,361,000 1,942,000 10,255,000 6,680,000 Loss 1,147,000 1,293,000 716,000 419,000 3,575,000 In thirty years 35 per cent, of the total either died or left the country. POPULATION 452 POPULATION The loss in the first decade ending i860 Vfas 17 per cent., and in the subsequent decades almost 20 per cent. The tables as regard Irish settlers show as fol- lows : — Census Resident Immi- gration Total Number at End of Decade Missing 1850 i860 1870 1880 962,000 1,611,000 1,856,000 1,855,000 1,013,000 723,000 450,000 1,975,000 2,334,000 2,306,000 1,611,000 1,856,000 1,855,000 364,000 478,000 451,000 ... ... 1,293,000 The loss among Irish settlers in the first decade was 18 per cent., in the secopd 20, and in the third 19 per cent. The war of 1861-65 apparently cost the Union 53,000 German, and 48,000 Irish settlers. According to the Census of iS8o,,it appeared that for every 100 foreign settlers, of whatever age, there were 124 children bom in the country of foreign parents, whereas in 1870 there were only 96. It appears, moreover, that foreign settlers comprise a larger ratio of people of working age than they do of the general population, viz. : — Population of all Ages 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 Americans . . Foreigners . . 972 28 95° 5° 903 97 868 132 856 144 867 133 Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Population between 15 and 60 Americans . . Foreigners . . 960 40 928 72 866 134 821 179 807 193 8t7 183 Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 AVhen the American native population would have 100 persons of working age, foreigners have 145. The percentages of persons of working age in Ameri- The growth of the white American and of the coloured population, in intervals of twenty years, is shown thus :- can and in foreign population are shown at each decade thus : — Persons between 15 and 60 Years of Age Year Of 1000 Of 1000 Of 1000 Americans Settlers General Pop, 1830 . 504 750 S" 1840 . 509 751 S2I 1850 . 520 748 543 i860 . 520 748 551 1870 . 527 752 559 1880 . 513 750 544 There was a steady rise until 1870, notwithstanding the war of 1 86 [-65, but the last decade showed a fall, which is explained by the greater number of persons over sixty years of age, who were 56 per 1000 in 1880, against 50 in 1870. It is, nevertheless, surprising to find that the able-bodied ratio among foreign settlers is precisely the same as it was fifty years ago, and has not sensibly varied in the whole period. It has improved remarkably among the American population. If we compare the growth of the three great elements of population between 1850 and 1880, counting the children born of foreign parents as foreigners, and assuming their ratio in 1850 to have been as in 1870 — that is, 96 per 100 settlers — we find as follows : — 18B0 1880 Ratio of Increase, per Cent. American whites . Coloured population Foreign .... 15,152,000 3,639,000 4,401,000 28,553,000 6,647,000 14,956,000 88 83 240 Total . . 23,192,000 50,156,000 116 The aliquot parts of the population, always counting children of foreign parents as foreign, show as follows ; 1800 1820 1840 18G0 1830 Americans Coloured population . Foreign 794 190 16 781 184 35 '98 602 141 257 570 132 298 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Number Increase Rate of Increase Year American Coloured American Coloured American, per Cent. Coloured, per Cent. 1800 .... 1820 .... 1840 .... i860 .... 1880 .... 4,220,000 7,514,000 12,511,000 18,827,000 28,553,000 1,002,000 1,772,000 2,874,000 4,486,000 6,647,000 3,294,000 4,997,000 6,316,000 9,726,000 770,000 1, 102, coo 1,612,000 2,161,000 78 67 , SI 52 11 62 56 48 The white American race increased faster than the coloured, except during the interval of 1841-60. The total increase during eighty years was : — American whites . . . 576 per cent. Coloured population . . 564 per cent. The difference is small, but the figures show conclu- sively that the white Ainerican race has no tendency to die out, as often stated. The rate of increase has, however, declined very notably since 1 820, both among whites and blacks, especially the latter, that among whites having been nearly stationary since 1840. In considering the ratios of the sexes, we find the pre- ponderance of males was very great in i860, the year before the war, and the lowest in 1870. If the ratio in the latter year were the same as in i860, there would have been 19,900,000 males, instead of 19,550,000. This shows a loss of 350,000 males, which may be set down as the blood-cost of the war. It vnll be seen from the preceding tables that the white American population in 1880 was 28,553,000, or 57 per cent, of the total. This, however, supposes the grandchildren of European settlers to be of Americas race, which is not strictly true. POPULATION 453 POPULATION The Census returns give the sexes since 1790, but only for the white population down to 18 10. The returns from 1820 are complete : — Census Males Females Per 1000 Population Males Females 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1,615,000 2,204,000 2,988,000 4,896,000 6,521,000 8,693,000 11,837,000 16,061,000 19,550,000 25,519,000 1,557,000 2,100,000 2,874,000 4,738,000 6,333,000 8,381,000 11,355,000 15,365,000 19,008,000 24,637,000 S09 512 508 508 S°9 511 S" S07 491 488 490 492 492 491 489 489 493 490 It is remarkable that the relative numbers of the sexes have varied little since 1790. Meantime the ratio of females was highest in 1870, being the census year next following the war for the Union. If there had been no war, and the ratio of males in 1870 were the same as in i860, the population for 1870 would have shown thus : — Males ... . . 19,827,000 Females 19,008,000 Total . . 38,835,000 , The actual number of males was 277,000 less, which is not surprising, since the Northern army lost 227,300 men killed or who died in hospital. The preponderance of males has increased since 1870, due to immigration, but is still much less than in Aus- tralia, Argentina, Brazil, India or Greece (see p. 443). The sexes will probably be nearly even in 1920. The distribution of the coloured population was at various dates thus :- States Number Ratio 1860 1860 1870 1880 i 1850 1860 1870 1880 New England . Middle . South West 24,000 326,000 3.IS3.000 136,000 25,000 338,000 3,890,000 233,000 31,000 388,000 4,173,000 314,000 40,000 ' 483,000 1 5,658,000 466,000 7 90 866 37 5 7S 868 52 6 80 850 64 6 70 Total 3,639,000 4,486,000 4,906,000 6,647,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 This shows that the coloured population has not migrated to any extent since the emancipation of the slaves in 1861, but continues mostly in the Southern States. The distribution of the foreign population is shown thus : — Gerfrmns States Number Ratio 1850 1860 1870 1880 1850 1860 1870 1880 New England . Middle . South West 6,000 236,000 S3.000 289,000 23,000 476,000 101,000 676,000 27,000 584,000 103,000 977,000 37,000 640,000 115,000 1,175,000 11 404 91 494 18 373 79 530 16 344 61 579 19 325 58 598 Total 584,000 1,276,000 1,691,000 1,967,000 1,000 1 1,000 j 1,000 1,000 /risA New England . Middle . South West 197,000 552,000 65,000 148,000 306,000 801,000 107,000 397,000 361,000 890,000 81,000 524,000 371,000 865,000 74,000 545.09° 20s 67 154 190 496 66 248 194 480 44 282 200 467 40 293 Total 962,000 1,611,000 1,856,000 1,855,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 All Foreigners New England . Middle . South West 299,000 1,068.000 176,000 702,000 469,000 1,652,000 292,000 1,726,000 648.000 1,980,000 290,000 2,649,000 793,000 2,130,000 341.000 3,416,000 133 475 78 314 "3 400 71 416 116 356 476 Ii3 320 51 5" Total 2,245,000 4,139,000 5,567/xio 6,680,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 This shows considerable and constant movement westward among all classes of foreignere. The percentages of native Americans and of foreigners (the children of these being counted as American) were :— 18B0 1880 New England Middle South West New England Middle South West Americans Foreigners 890 no 833 162 979 21 874 126 802 198 820 180 978 22 820 180 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 l.OCO POPULATION 454 POPULATION The following table shows the population of each State at three distinct periods : — New York . . Pennsylvania Ohio . . . Illinois . . Missouri Indiana . . Massachusetts Kentucky . Michigan . Iowa . . . Texas . . Tennessee . Georgia . , Virginia , . North Carolina Wisconsin , Alabama Mississippi . New Jersey Kansas . . South Carolina Louisiana . Maryland , California . Arkansas . Minnesota . Maine . . Connecticut West Virginia Nebraska . New Hampshire Vermont Rhode Island Delaware . Florida . . Colorado . Oregon . . Utah . . . Dakota , . Territories . The Union . 1800 1840 589,000'! 2, 602,000 45,000 6,000 423,000 106,000 163,000 880,000 478,000 9,000 211,000 346,000 342,000 152,000 251,000 184,000 154,000 69,000 64,000 13,000 5,308,000 429,000 724,000 ,519,000 476,000 384,000 686,000 738,000 780,000 212,000 43,000 829,000 691,000 :, 240,000 753.000 31,000 591,000 376,000 373,000 594,000 352,000 470,000 98,000 502,000 310,000 285,000 292,000 109,000 78,000 54,000 50,000 1880 17,069,000 ,083,000 283,000 ,198,000 ,078,000 ,168, oco ,978,000 ,783,000 ,649,000 ,637,000 ,625,000 ,592,000 ,542,000 ,542,000 ,513,000 ,399,000 ,315,000 ,263,000 ,132,000 ,131,000 996,000 996,000 940,000 935,000 865,000 803,000 781,000 649,000 623,000 618,000 452,000 347,000 332,000 277,000 147,000 269,000 194,000 175,000 144,000 135,000 564,000 1890 5,982,000 5,249,000 3,667,000 3,819,000 2,677,000 2,189,000 2,233,000 1,855,000 2,090,000 1,907,000 2,232,000 1,764,000 1,834,000 1,649,000 1,617,000 1,684,000 1,508,000 1,285,000 1,441,000 1,423,000 1,147,000 1,117,000 1,040,000 1,204,000 1,125,000 1,300,000 660,000 746,000 760,000 1,057,000 376,000 332,000 345,000 168, coo 390,000 411,000 312,000 206,000 510,000 1,169,000 Dividing the Union into four great sections, the popu- lation stood thus at each Census : — Year 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 i8go New England 1,010,000 1,233,000 1,472,000 1,659,000 1,954,000 2,236,000 2,724,000 3,145,000 3,506,000 4,010,000 4,691,000 Middle States 342,000 807,000 ,479,000 194,000 138,000 088,000 593,000 294,000 770,000 7S7,ooo 110,000 South I,S80; 2,214, 2.997i 3.932- 5,164. 6,367. 8,288. 10,297, ",330. 15,254, 18,283, ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 West 54: 292 849. l,6io 3.378. S.587. 9.707. 13.952, 19.135. ,000 25,396, ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 000 000 000 Total 932,000 ,308,000 240,000 634,000 866,000 069,000 192,000 443,000 558,000 156,000 480,000 At the beginning of the century there were only four towns that had more than 20,000 inhabitants : in 1880 there were 102, viz. : — Populntion 1800 . 1820 1 1840 1860 1880 Over 100,000 .... 50 to 100,000 .... 20 to 50,000 . . 2 2 2 I 2 4 1 16 9 9 25 20 16 66 Total . . 4 i 5 21 43 102 The aggregate of urban compared with total population in the United States was as follows : — 50,153,000 62,480,000 Urban Total Ratio of Urban 1800 . 1820 1840 . . . i860 .... 1880 .... 340,000 460,000 1,550,000 4,240,000 9,160,000 5,310,000 9,640,000 17,070,000 31,440,000 50,310,000 6.4 4.8 9-1 13-5 1S.2 The urban class comprises only towns over 20,000 population. The principal cities showed at various dates thus : — Vear New York Philadelphia Boston Baltimore New Orleans Cincinnati Chicago 1730 8,600 12,000 11,500 ... 1750 10,000 18,000 14,000 1790 33,000 44,000 18,000 13,800 ... i8tio 60,000 69,000 25,000 26,000 ... ... 1810 96,000 95,000 33,000 36,000 17,000 3,000 ... 1820 124,000 113,000 43.000 63,000 27,000 10,000 1830 203,000 161,000 61,000 81,000 46,000 25,000 1840 313,000 220,000 93,000 102,000 102,000 46,000 4.500 1850 516,000 340,000 137,000 169,000 116,000 115,000 30,000 i860 814,000 568,000 178,000 214,000 171,000 160,000 109,000 1870 942,000 674,000 251,000 267,000 191,000 216,000 299,000 1880 1,207,000 847,000 363,000 332,000 216,000 256,000 503,000 1883 1,493,000 1,017,000 ... ... ... Australia The population was at various dates as follows :— 1800 1820 1840 1850 6,500 35>6oo 257,000 510,000 i860 1870 1880 i883 1,224,000 1,900,000 2,725,000 3,672,000 The ratio of increase was : — 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 140 per cent, 55 43 33 The several Colonies since 1850 stood thus :— 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888 N. S. Wales 189,000 349,000 499,000 742,000 1,086,000 Victoria. . 76,000 538,000 727,000 860,000 1,091,000 S. Australia 99,000 124,000 184,000 268,000 313,000 Tasmania . 70,000 88,000 101,000 115,000 146,000 NewZealand 63,000 79,000 248,000 485,000 607,000 Queensland 28,000 n6,ooo 226,000 387,000 W. Australia 13,000 16,000 25,000 29,000 42,ono Total . 510,000 1,222,000 1,900,000 2,725,000 3,672,000 POPULATION 455 POPULATION Mr. Coghlan compares i860 and 1888, to show the natural increase from excess of births over deaths, and the net immigration into each Colony in that interval, viz. : — 1860-1888 Natural Immigra- Total Increase tion Increase New South Wales . . 415,000 322,000 737,000 Victoria . . . 431,000 122,000 SS3>ooo South Australia . 150,000 39,000 189,000 Tasmania . . . 53,000 5,000 58,000 New Zealand . . 262,000 266,000 528,000 Queensland . . 103,000 256,000 3S9.000 West Australia . 13.000 13,000 26,000 Total I, <( 27,000 1,023,000 2,450,000 The Census of iS pared thus : — !i showed the population to be com- •3 1 Victoria South Australia Tas- mania New Zealand II ^1 Australian 60.8 62.2 S7-9; 59- 8 69.1 4.').6 40.4 .S9-8 English . 18.2 14.7 17. 1 21. t 15.0 24.7i I7-.S 22.8 Irish . . <,.6 9.2 IO.I 6.5 6.2 10. 1 IS- 3 10. Scotch . . S-S 3-^ ■i.6 S.8 3-2 10.8, 4.6 2..S Various . 5-9; 10.6 9-3 8.8 6-5 8.8 24.2 4-9 Total . 100.0J100.0 100. o[ 100. 100. lOO.O 100. 100. The ratio of sexes since l86r showed as follows : — Number j Ratio 1861 1871 ! 1S87 1 1861 1871 1887 Males . Females . 731,000 536,000 1,094,0001,929,000 576 885,000 1,622,000 424 448 543 457 Total . 1,267,000 i,979,ooo'3,55i,ooo] 1,000 1,000 1,000 The disparity of the sexes is diminishing year by year. It is nevertheless more remarkable in some of the Colonies than in others, the figures for 1887 being as follows :— Males Females Females to 100 Males New South Wales Victoria South Australia . Western Australia Tasmania New Zealand Queensland . 574,000 550,000 165,000 24,000 76,000 325,000 215,000 469,000 486,000 152,000 17,000 66,000 279,000 153.000 82 88 92 71 88 86 74 Total 1,929,000 ; 1,622,000 84 Mr. Coghlan gives the male population of working age (20 to 60) in the seven Colonies as follows : — Victoria . New South Wales New Zealand . South Australia Queensland Tasmania Western Australia Total 211,000 200,000 i35'000 74,000 69,000 26,000 9,000 724,000 Ratio 29.2 27.6 18.6 10.2 9-S 3-6 1-3 100. o The population of the cities has been as follows :- 1841 1861 1871 1881 1889 Melbourne 4,000 140,000 207,000 283,000 458,000 Sydney 39.000 94,000 135,000 224,000 382,000 Adelaide . S.ooo 18,000 60,000 104,000 I22,COO Brisbane . 6,000 15,000 31,000 87,000 Auckland . 10,000 30,000 50,000 62,000 Wellington 5,000 I0,O0O< 21,000 33,000 Hobart . 10,000 19,000 19,000 21,000 35.000 Perth . . 2,000 3,000 5,000 6,000 9,000 Total . 60,000 295,000 481,000 740,000 1,188,000 There are twenty minor tovms, with an aggregate popu- lation of 355,000 souls, making a total urban population of 1,543,000, or 40 per cent, of the total. Canada The population of Canada, including Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, &c., has been as follows : — Year Population 1665 . . 3,200 1695 . . 13,700 1726 . . 29,400 1736 . ■ 39.000 The Census of i? thus : — Year 1800 1820 1830 1S40 Population 476,000 840,000 910,000 , 1,690,000 Year i860 1870 i83o 1887 Population . 3,360,000 , 3,830,000 , 4,500,000 , 5,020,000 3i showed the population of Canada French Canadians Irish . English Scotch . Germans Indians Various Total Niimber 1,299,000 957,000 881,000 700,000 254,000 109,000 125,000 4,325,000 Males . Females Total 2,189,000 2,136,000 4,325,000 Ratio 30.0 22.2 20,4 16.2 5-9 2-S 30 100.0 506 494 Mexico The Census of 1882 showed as follows : — Sex Males . 5,070,000 Females. 5,375,000 Ratio 48s 515 Total 10,445,000 1,000 Race Ratio White . . 1,980,000 18.9 Indian, &c. 8,465,000 81. i Total . 10,445,000 100.0 The city of Mexico has 350,000, Puebia 112,000 inhabitants. An official return in 1837 gave the popula- tion of Mexico as 7,557,ooo, and another in 1857 as 7,995,000. Chile According to Census returns the population was : — 1865 1,811,000 187s • 1885 ... The Census of 1885 was as follows : — 2,076,000 2,548,000 Males . Females . 1,284,000 1,264,000 Ratio 504 496 Total 2,548,000 1,000 Santiago had 189,000, Valparaiso 105,000 inhabitants. There were 87,000 foreign residents, including 3S,Oi.o Peruvians, 13,000 Bolivians, 7000 Germans, and 4000 Italians. POPULATION 456 POST-OFFICE Brazil The Census of 1883 compares with that of 1872 thus : 1872 1883 Free Slaves .... 8,420,000 1,511,000 10,684,000 1,319,000 Total 9,931,000 12,003,000 The sexes in 187 2 stood as follows :— Free Slaves Total Ratio Free Slaves Total Males . Females . 4,319,000 4,101,000 805,000 706,000 5,124,000 4,807,000 S03 497 533 467 S16 484 Total . 8,420,000 1,511,000 9,931,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 In 1872 there were 244,000 foreign residents, including 121,000 Portuguese, 46,000 Germans, besides Italians, French, &c. The population was classified thus : — Ratio Europeans . White Brazilians . Mulattoes . Negroes Indians . 244,000 . 3.543.000 . 3.802,000 . i,9S4,o.jO 388,000 2-5 38.2 19.6 4.0 Total . 9,931,000 100.0 Argentina The population has trebled in thirty years, viz. : — 1857 1869 1886 Buenos Ayres Upper Provinces . 277,000 883,000 495,000 1,342,000 1,085,000 2,009,000 Total 1,160,000 1,837,000 3,094,000 Estimates for 18 of 1869 as follows: compare with the Census returns Number Ratio 1859 1886 1869 1886 Italians French Spaniards .... British and Irish . . Germans, Swiss, &c. . Argentines .... 71,000 32,000 34,000 11,000 64,000 1,625,000 530,000 120,000 140,000 30,000 100,000 2,174,000 3-! 1.8 8i:^ 17.1 3-9 4-S I.O 3-2 70.3 Total . . 1,837,000 3,094,000 100.0 100. In 1 869 the sexes stood thus : — Ratio Males 898,000 515 Females 846,000 485 Total . . 1,744,000 1,000 the population appears to have been composed In I as follows : — Europeans Children of settlers Argentines .... 3,094,000 A Census taken in the city of Buenos Ayres in 1887 showed 435,000 inhabitants, against 178,000 in 1869. Ratio 920,000 29.7 1,250,000 40.6 924,000 29.7 100. o China According to different authorities we find as follows ; — Year 1736 1792 Population 125,046,000 307,467,000 Year 1812 1877 Population 360,280,000 381,600,000 Probably the figures for 1736 were much too low, or applied only to a part of the Empire. The population of eight cities in 1877 was stated thus : — Pekin . . . 1,600,000 Shanghai . . 355,000 Canton . . 1,600,000 Ningpo. . . 240,000 Tientsin . . 950,000 Takao . . . 235,000 Hankow . . 750,000 Tchinkiang . . 135,000 Fooohoo . . 630,000 The number of foreign residents is only 6000, of whom 2500 are British, 800 Americans, 600 Germans, and 400 French. The occupations of the natives are as follows : — Per i.aoa of the Population Agriculture . 100 I Bricklayers . 10 I Blacksmiths . 7 Washing . . 10 | Carpenters . . 10 | Sundry. . . 863 Japan The Census of 1888 showed as follows : — Males .... 20,008,000 Females .... 19,599,000 Ratio 505 495 39,607,000 1,000 There were 7,803,000 houses, and 7,420,000 married couples. The principal cities are as follows : — Tokio . Osaka Population . 903,000 . 353,000 Kioto . Nagoya Population • 255,000 . 127,000 There are 3000 foreign residents including 1400 British and 600 Americans. POST-OFFICE The total traffic in 1888 may be approximately summed up thus : — Millions Postal Letters and Cards Papers, Total Revenue, United Kingdom Continent . . . United States . South America . British Colonies . Various . . . 1.759 3.727 2,300 125 146 542 3.147 4,728 105 210 27 2,363 6,874 7,028 230 780 173 11,200,000 31,200,000 11,700,000 1,100,000 3,200,000 700,000 Total . . 8,569 8.759 17.448 59,100,000 In the above postal revenue are included, moreover, the receipts for telegraphic service, except in the case of the United States and those other countries where the telegraphs are mostly owned by companies. Postal traffic increased 95 per cent, in seven years, viz. : — Millions of Letters, Papers, &c. 1881 1888 United Kingdom Continental . . United States . British Colonies South America . • 1,682 4,536 2,243 2B7 6:i7^ 7,028 780 230 173 Total • 8,888 17,448 POST-OFFICE 457 POST-OFFICE The following table gives a general view of the traffic in l88S, or latest year published : — Millions In StS Postal !S ^ C ■H "3 Sf^ Revenue, 9* "S U-B £ ^ U (S ^ H <- U. Kingdom 1,558' 201 152 4S2 2,363 60 11,200,000 France . . 672; 41 402 408 1.523', 39 6,500,000 Germany . 956 296 725 S" 2,4881 53 11,400,000 Russia . . 153 18 lob 49 326: 4 2,600,000 Austria . . 611 122 147 80 960 24 4,000,000 Italy . . . 178' 48 181 69 476 16 2,300,000 Spain . . . 102; I 21 124 7 Portugal . . 20 3 17 40 9 ... Sweden . . 60 46 ... 106 22 340,000 Norway . . 18 I 16 3 38 19 190,000 Denmarli . 42] ... 4 4 5° 2S 380,000 Holland . . 66! 27 83 4 180 40 600,000 Belgium . . 107 27 96 60 290 49 750,000 Switzerland , 105 17 80 19 221 74 Greece . , 6 6 12 6 30,000 Roumania . 16 3 6 25 ■> 180,000 Servia . . 8 I 9 4 30,000 Bulgaria . . 3 a I 6 2 20,000 Europe . . 4,681 80s 2,091 1,660 9.237 25 U. States . 2,300 1,500 3.228 7,028|no 11,700,000 Canada , . 93! 19 66 21 199 40 620,000 Mexico . . 13! - a.S ... 38 4 Venezuela , 4I ... 4 2 Peru . . . 2 ... >•> 2 I Chili . . . 41J ". 41 14 ... Argentina . 40i ... ,37 77 20 Uruguay 6; ... 14 20 ,30 Brazil. . . 18, I 29 48 4 200,000 America . . 2.517 20 1,671 3.249 7.457 75 Australia . 17s 95 24 294 82 1,200,000 India . . . 274 ... 274 1 1,200,000 Japan . . 77 40 18 2 137 4 400,000 Java . . . s' ••■ 3 8 Persia . . 2 ... 2 Egypt . . 13 ... 4 17 3 90,000 Algeria . . 10 ... 10 3 Cape Colony 8l... 4 12 II 150,000 The World 7,762; 865 3,886 4.935 17,448 25 In the preceding table post-cards are in many cases in- cluded virith letters. As regards the United States, the official table gives no more than the total of letters, papers, and parcels, but the figures given above may be taken as a feir estimate, the returns for 18S1 having shown 1155 million letters and cards and 761 million newspapers. A summary of postal traffic in Europe in 1883 was published at Florence in 18S5, which compares with the figures given above for 188S as follows : — Year Millions Postal Letters Cards Papers Sundries Total Revenue,;^ moo CO 03 H H 3,683 546 4,681 80s 1,672 2,091 1,046 1,660 6.947 9.237 38, 150,000 42,500,000 In 1S83 there were in Europe 65,500 post-offices, 41,150 telegraph offices, and 225,000 letter-boxes. The postal service employed 356,000 men, and carried (Europe only) 800,000 tons of letters, papers, &c., according to the Florentine vmter. In 1879 there were, says Fischer, 70 regular lines <5f mail-steamers, 26 British, 11 German, 11 French, 6 Dutch, 6 American, 5 Italian, and 5 Austrian. The amount represented by money orders transmitted through countries of the Postal Union in 1887 was 480 millions sterling; the value of goods sent through the parcel-post, 540 millions sterling. Telegraphs have increased in late years with great rapidity, as shown thus : — 1858 Miles Messages, Millions 1870 1888 1870 1888 United Kingdom 10,000 24,000 30,700 10 S8 France . . . 8,000 25,600 58,500 6 28 Germany . . . 9.500 20,400 57,700 9 24 Russia. . . . S.ooo 29,200 92,700 3 11 Austria . . . 6,500 22,000 38,200 5 13 Italy . . . . 2,500 11,100 21,100 2 9 Spain & Portugal 1,000 9,000 14,700 2 5 Scandinavia . . 2,400 9,000 14,500 2 5 Holland . . . 700 1,700 5,100 2 4 Belgium . . . 900 2,700 4,200 2 7 Switzerland . . 1,600 3,200 4,400 2 3 Roumania, &c. . 300 8,400 28,200 I 3 Europe . . . 48,400 166,300 368,000 46 170 United States . 35.000 54, 100 200,000 9 57 Canada . , . S,ooo 8,000 29,500 I 4 South America . S.ooo 17,000 61,500 3 11 Australia , . . 1,600 15,000 39,200 2 11 India . . . . 4,800 14.500 31,900 I 3 Japan . . . . 0,200 3 Java . . . . ... 6,600 I Persia . . . . 3,800 I Egypt. . . . ... 3.100 6,500 1 Algeria , . . •>. 2,000 6,700 2 Cape Colony . 600 4.400 I Various . . . 400 3.S00 ... I The World . . 99,800 281,000 767,800 62 266 The following is the summary of a report published in 1886 on the progress of telegraphs in Europe only, from i860 to 1885:— Year Miles Offices Messages i860 . 78,000 3.500 9,000,000 1865 . 110,000 7,800 21,000,000 1870 . 170,000 13.400 39,000,000 1875 • 210,000 26,100 79,000,000 1880 . 260,000 34.000 90,000,000 1885 . . . 315.000 4S.OOO 118,000,000 The number of messages for 1870 is too low ; perhaps official messages were not counted ; but even this would not wholly explain the deficit. According to Mr. Preece, the telegraph system of the world in 1886 was summed up thus : — Miles Cost, £ Land lines Company cables .... Government cables . . . 714,000 107,550 12,520 51,700,000 36,000,000 3,700,000 Total . . . 834,070 91,400,000 In 18S8 the mileage was considerably higher, and at the value expressed above would stand thus : — Miles Cost,^ I^nd lines 950 cables 768,000 132,000 55,500,000 44,000,000 Total 900,000 99,500,000 POST-OFFICE 458 POST-OFFICE Mr. Pteece shows that the maximum speed of trans- mission has been thus : — Year Words fsr Minute 1870 80 1880 200 1885 350 1887 600 Six messages can now go on one wire simultaneously. The time occupied in sending a message from London to various parts of the world is as follows : — To Minutes To Minutes Egypt . , . .20 China .... 120 Bombay . . .50 Australia . . . 160 The following table shows the number of post and telegraph offices, of employees, the average receipt on each telegram, and on every 100 letters or papers sent : — Post- Telegraph Em- Tele- Per 100 Letters. &c. Offices Offices ployees grams 1888 1888 1881 Pence Pence U. Kingdom 17,800 7.030 74,000 8 88 France . . 6,930 8,QOO 49,000 9 88 Germany . 20,660 13.400 79,000 12 82 Russia . . S.430 3,780 15,000 22 III Austria . . 8,670 5.240 19,000 12 87 Italy . . . 5.300 4,060 16,000 16 86 Spain . . . 3.070 950 7,400 16 ... Portugal. . 1,640 275 1,300 10 Scandinavia 3.770 1,560 S.700 II 67 Holland . . 1,650 600 4,100 6 66 Belgium . . 8zo 1.530 4,400 4 Sa Switzerland. 815 1.330 5,700 10 Greece . . 250 170 200 9 66 Roumania . 300 360 1,400 122 Bulgaria . . no 106 400 80 Servia . . 90 118 400 ... 77 Turkey . . 1,150 670 Europe . . 79.455 49.179 283,000 II 82 U. States . 59.000 19.700 19 40 Canada . . 7,840 2,230 72 Australia . 5,610 1.750 i.S SO India . . . 16,970 750 7 no Japan . . 4,800 230 12 55 Total . 173.675 73.839 ... United Kingdom The importance of the post-office at successive dates may be judged by its receipts, viz. :- Year Receipts, £ Pence per Inhabitant 1663 1685 1707 1744 1790 1835 1889 22,000 65,000 111,000 235,000 480,000 2,353,000 10,340,000 I 3 5 7 12 22 66 The following were the charges on letters at three distinct epochs :— London to Pence 1615 1835 1889 York .... Edinburgh . Dublin .... Madrid. New York . Rio Janeiro . 6 8 II 13 16 26 26 42 I I % 4 The inland postal tariff from 1710 to 1840 was as follows : — Pence Miles 1710 1783 1812-40 Under 15 , 3 2 4 iS-30 3 3 S 30-So 3 4 7 50-80 3 4 8 80-120 4 9 Over 120 . 4 6 10-16 The number of letters yearly passing through the United Kingdom was :— Year Millions Yearly Average England Scotland Ireland Total 1839 . . . 65 8 9 82 1841-45 . 179 24 24 227 1851-55 • 330 41 39 410 1861-65 ■ 534 61 53 648 1871-75 • 772 85 68 926 1881-85 ■ 1,082 116 85 1,283 1889 . . . . 1.327 136 95 1.558 The annual number of letters was about 1,500,000 under Charles II., 8,000,000 under George II., and 20,000,000 at the beginning of the wars with Bonaparte. In i88j the number of letters, papers, &c., which passed through the British post-office was 1682 millions, viz. : — Millions of Letters, Papers, &c. Ratio Received from Sent to Total United Kingdom . America .... European Continent The East .... Australia .... Africa 1,526 22 37 4 4 2 1,526 22 44 % 6 1,526 44 81 13 10 8 90.7 2.6 4-8 0.8 0.6 o-S Total . . I.S9S 1.613 1,682 100. The following table, comparing the number of letters in the United Kingdom and France, was published in 1882 :— Period Annual Average, Millions Number per Inha- bitant U. Kingdom France U.Kingdom France 1841-50 . . 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1881 .... 277 466 724 1,299 122 210 340 595 10 17 24 37 4 6 9 16 The letters and papers despatched from the United Kingdom in 18S8 showed this ratio ; — To France 21.3 United States 19.4 Germany 16.7 Colonies 16.4 Various 26. 2 Total .... loo.o POST-OFFICE 459 POST-OFFICE In nine years the postal traflSc rose 50 per cent., viz. : 1880 1889 Millions Millions In 1889 the British post-office left a net profit of ;f3,ooo,ooo, against ;f400,ooo in 1855 and ;f 1,800,000 in 1875. The telegraphs showed as follows : — Year Miles of Wire, Stations Messages 1851 . 1862 . 1872 . 1881 1889 . 7,303 1 198 57.879 1,616 87.719 5.179 121,052 5,637 183.500 7,030 48,000 2,676,000 15,502,000 31,345,000 58,000,000 The following table shows the increase, in ten years, in letters and telegrams for the three kingdoms : — Letters, Millions Letters per Inhab. 1879 1889 1879 1889 England . Scotland . Ireland • 922 1.327 136 95 37 27 14 46 33 20 United Kingdom 1.097 1.558 32 41 Telegrams ; Per Inhab. 1879 1 1889 1879 1889 England . Scotland . Ireland 20,400,000 2,500,000 1,600,000 48,500,000 6,000,000 3,200,000 a8 0.7 0.3 1-7 0.7 U. Kingdom 24,500,000 57,700,000 0.7 1-5 The number and amount of postal and money orders issued in the United Kingdom were as follows : — Year Number Amount, £, 1880 .... 1889 .... 17,300,000 50,800,000 26,400,000 42,700,000 The parcel post, begun in 1883, showed a< follows : — 1 Year j Number Weight, Tons Receipts, Ton Paid to Railways, £, 1884 22,100,000 1888 38,800,000 19,700 40,900 490,000 860,000 2S 21 250,000 425,000 Official returns of postal revenue and expenditiure show as follows : — Period Revenue, £, Expenditure, ;fj Profit, £ 1865-^ . . 1870-74 . . 1875-79 • • 1880-84 . . 1885-89 . . 22,200,000 28,000,000 36,400,000 43,200,000 51,700,000 15,400,000 , 6,800,000 21,000,000 1 7,000,000 25,400,000 1 11,000,000 29,100,000 ; 14,100,000 38,800,000 j 12,900,000 as years . . 181,500,000 129,700,000 51,800,000 In 1889 the accounts stood thus : Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Profit, £ Post-office . . . Telegraphs . . 9,100,000 2,100,000 6,300,000 1,950,000 2,800,000 150,000 Total . . 11,200,000 j 8,250,000 2,950,000 France The official returns are as follows : — Year Millions Receipts, £, Letters Papers, &c. Total 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1887 64 94 160 264 281 531 671 40 53 94 179 348 700 852 104 147 254 443 629 1,231 1.523 1,200,000 1,600,000 1,500,000 2,400,000 2,600,000 4,300,000 6,500,000 The receipts of course include the telegraph depart- ment, of which we have the following : — Year Miles Messages .Receipts,^ Pence per Message 1,200 j 9, 000 : 3,000 80 14,700 720,000 I 168,000 : 56 25,600 ' 5,660,000 I 380,000 ! 16 40,200 ■ 17,100,000 I 930,000 ' 13 58,500 . 27,900,000 ' 1,060,000 9 The above does not include railway telegraphic service. In 18S5 the railways had 21,000 miles of telegraphs, which carried 6,500,000 messages. This makes the total 80,000 miles, 34,500,000 messages. The parcel-post was instituted in 1880, in which year 4,000,000 parcels were carried ; in 1888 more than 21 millions. In nine years the total carried was 131 million parcels, which paid ;^3,S50,ooo, averaging 6d. each. Money orders in 1887 were issued to the number of 22,600,000, the aggregate amount being ;^28, 500,000, being an average of 25s. each. France has 6932 post- offices and 58,500 letter-boxes. Germany Official returns give the number of letters thus :— Year Millions Per Inhabitant 1871 .... 1877 .... 1888 .... 339 717 956 I! 160 200 The total traffic of ig as follows : — compares with that of 1881 1881 1888 Millions Millions Letters and cards Newspapers Sundries .... 721 452 126 1,252 725 5" Total 1.299 2,488 In 1888 the amount transmitted in 74 million money orders was ;^933,6oo,ooo, or about 3 millions sterling daily. The postal and telegraph services earned ;(f 1 1, 350,000; expenditure ;^9,8oo,ooo ; net profit POST-OFFICE 460 POST-OFFICE ^1,550,000. Telegraphic service has grown as follows, viz. : — Miles 1870 1880 1888 20,400 44,100 57.700 Messages Receipts, jf 8,600,000 17,200,000 24,100,000 390,000 850,000 1,200,000 Pence per The number of postal and telegraph servants in 1886 was 98,000, the weight of goods carried by parcel-post 404,000 tons. Russia The returns for iS thus : — compare with those for 1881 1881 1887 Letters .... Newspapers Sundries .... 110,000,000 75,000,000 7,000,000 152,600,000 106,200,000 66,900,000 Total 192,000,000 325,700,000 Besides the railways and canals, there are 110,000 miles of mail-coach roads, on which the State maintains 47,000 horses at various posting-stations. The post- ofSce in 18S7 transmitted money orders to the number of 11,300,000, and value of 390 millions sterling, an average of ^^34 each. The growth of telegraphs has been as follows : — Year Miles Messages Receipts,;^ Pence per Message 1870 . . 1880 . . 1887 . . . 29,200 58,800 92,700 2,700,000 7,300,000 10,500,000 300,000 770,000 950,000 26 25 22 There are 3780 telegraph offices. In the years 1884-87 the annual averages for postal and telegraph services were : — £ Receipts 2,550,000 Expenditure 2,470,000 Leaving a net profit of ;if 80,000 a year. Austria Official returns are as follows : — Year Letters and Papers, Millions Austria Hungary Total 1850 . i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1888 . 42 60 194 399 730 57 135 230 251 534 960 The figures for the whole Empire were made up thus in 1888 :— Austria Hungary Total Letters Cards . Newspapers Books, &o. . 484,400,000 91,200,000 93,400,000 59,900,000 126,600,000 30,800,000 53,500.000 20,500,000 611,000,000 122,000,000 146,900,000 80,400,000 Total 728,900,000 231,400,000 960,300,000 In 1886 there were 29,200,000 postal orders trans- mitted, for a total value of ;^7o,6oo,ooo, averaging 48s. each. The progress of telegraphs is shown as follows :- Year Miles Messages Receipts,;^' Pence per Message 187s • . . 1880 . . . 1887 . . . 29,300 30,800 38,200 6,800,000 8,300,000 13,200,000 320,000 410,000 11 12 The returns for 1887 showed thus : — Miles . OflSoes Messages Austria 26,700 3.690 9,520,000 Hungary 11,500 I.S50 3,720,000 Total 38,200 5.240 13,240,000 The total postal and telegraph receipts and outlay were : — Receipts, £ Outlay, £ Austria Hungary . 2,800,000 1,230,000 2,410,000 860,000 Total 4,030,000 3,270,000 Italy The post-office traffic at various dates showed thus : — Year Letters Papers, &o. Total Per Inhab. 1862 1871 1881 1887 72,000,000 99,000,000 169,000,000 252,000,000 40,000,000 96,000,000 107,000,000 199,200,000 112,000,000 195,000,000 276,000,000 452,800,000 10 15 There are 5300 post-offices and 4060 telegraph offices. Receipts and expenses were in 1888 as follows : — Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Mails .... Telegraphs 1,700,000 600,000 1,400,000 520,000 Total 2,300,000 1,920,000 In 1885 there were 4,300,000 postal orders trans- mitted, showing an aggregate of 22 millions sterling, say £^ each. Telegraph service has grown as follows : — Year Miles Messages Receipts,^ Pence per Message 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1887 . . . 11,100 16,200 21,100 2,200,000 6,100,000 8,800,000 200,000 420,000 560,000 22 16 16 Government line? exceed 20,000 miles, the rest be- longing to companies. Spain Official returns show the number of letters thus ; — Year Letters Per Inhabitant 1846 .... 1880 .... 1887 .... 15,200,000 71,400,000 102,600,000 1.2 4-4 6.0 There are 3070 post-offices and 952 telegraph offices. There were 90,000 postal orders in 1887, representing a POST-OFFICE 461 POST-OFFICE total of 7 millions sterling, averaging ;^78 each. Tele- graph lines have growB as follows : — Year Miles Messages Receipts.^! ^Salt' 18SS .... i860 .... 1870 .... 1880 .... 1887 .... 440 4.500 7,200 10,010 11,510 3,000 310,000 1,040,000 2,290,000 3,550.000 5,000 60,000 60,000 160,000 240,000 400 4S 14 17 16 Down to 1886 the construction of telegraphs had cost ;f 700,000 sterling. Portugal The number of letters carried was as follows : — Year Letters Per Inhabitant 1878 .... 1887 .... 12,200,000 20,200,000 3-0 4-4 Telegraphs show as follows : — Year Miles Messages Receipts.j^ Pence per Message 1875 .... 1880 .... 1885 .... 2,200 2,700 3,200 1,300,000 1,600,000 1,730,000 45,000 SS.ooo 70,000 8 8 10 There are 1640 post-ofiSces and 275 for telegraphs. Sweden and Norway The aggregate post-o£5ce traffic of the two kingdoms was as follows : — Year Letters and Papers' Per Inhabitant 1881. 1887. 81,000,000 12 142,000,000 ' 21 The telegraph returns for 1888 showed thus :— Miles Messages Sweden .... Norway .... 5.120 S.640 1,430,000 1,310,000 Total 10,760 2,740,000 In 1886 the Norwegian post-office transmitted money orders worth 1 1 millions sterling. The postal finances showed thus for the two kingdoms :— Sweden Norway | Total Receipts Expenses 340,000 ] 185,000 335,000 ] 195.000 £ 525,000 530,000 If we take collectively the whole telegraph system of the two countries, we find as follows :— Year Miles Messages Receipts,;^ Pence per Message 185s .... i860. . . . 1870 .... 1880 .... 1888 .... 1.900 4,700 7.800 9,800 10,760 80,000 290,000 1,060,000 1,770,000 2,740,000 9,000 40,000 70,000 120,000 130,000 27 16 II The above does not include Government tel^arams. Denmark The total business in 1887 comprised : — Letters 42,000,000 Papers, &c. . 45,000,000 Total . . 87,000,000 Total post-office income ;^38o,ooo, expenses ;f 470,000, Telegraphic service shows as follows : — Miles 1870 1880 1887 1,210 2,200 3.670 Messages 520,000 1,170,000 1,500,000 No separate accounts of receipts are kept, being in- cluded in those of the post-office. There are 360 telegraph offices, of which 200 belong to the railway companies. Holland Postal traffic was as follows :— 1884 18S8 Letters and cards Papers, &c. . . . 84,300,000 73,600,000 92,700,000 86,200,000 Total 157.900,000 178,900,000 Telegraphic service has progressed as follows :- Year Miles Messages Receipts,;^ Pence per Message 1855. • . • 1865. . . . 1875. . . . 1880 .... 1888. . . . 620 1,220 2,140 2,370 3.100 140,000 970,000 2,200,000 3,100,000 4,100,000 13,000 43,000 62,000 85,000 lOO.OCO 23 II 7 7 6 t The above comprises only the State lines, besides which there are twenty-nine companies, but their busi- ness is small. In 1888 the finances of the post-office and telegraph service were : — Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Post-office Telegraphs 500,000 100,000 380,000 120,000 Total 600,000 500,000 Belgium The official tables show as follows : — Year I Letters 1880 I 85,000,000 1888 106,900,000 Papers, &c. Total 12,000,000 25,000,000 33,000,0001 61,000,000 1850 ^ 13,000,000 i860 I 28,000,000 1870 I 53,000,000 67,ooo,ooo'i2o,ooo,ooo Per Inhab. 131,000,000 216,000,0001 183,300,000 290,200,000! 6 13 24 39 49 Receipts, 120,000 200,000 280,000 480,000 620,000 Tel^raphic statistics are summed up thus :- Year Miles Messages Receipts, jf 1850 . i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1888 . 250 920 : 2,700 I 3.500 ; 4.200 14,000 330,000 2,400,000 6,200,000 7,300,000 4,000 20,000 60,000 100,000 130,000 Pence per Message 68 IS 6 4 4 POST-OFFICE 462 POST-OFFICE The aggregate income in 1 888 from mails and telegraphs '"^ ;^750,ooo; expenditure ^£'505,000; leaving a net profit of ;^245,ooo. Switzerland Postal traffic showed as follows : — 1881 1888 Letters and cards . ^. Papers, &c. 65,000,000 65,000,000 121,800,000 99,400,000 Total . . 130,000,000 221,200,000 Postal orders in 1888 amounted t0;^l3,200,ooo sterling. The telegraphic service was as follows : — Year Miles Messages Receipts,;^ Pence per Message ll'd : : : 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1887 . 1.350 1,790 3,200 4,070 4.400 160,000 300,000 1,600,000 2.800,000 3,200,000 12,000 20,000 50,000 95,000 140,000 18 16 8 8 10 Down to 1887 the cost of construction was ;^200,ooo sterling. United States OflScial returns for 100 years show as follows : — Year Routes, Miles Post- Offices Revenue, j^ Expenditure, £ 1790 1.875 75 8,000 7,000 1800 20,800 903 60,000 45,000 1810 36,400 2,300 110,000 100,000 1820 72,400 4,500 220,000 240,000 1830 115,200 8,450 390,000 395.000 1840 155.700 13.470 950,000 980,000 1850 178,700 18,420 1,150,000 1,120,000 i860 240,600 28,500 1,770,000 3,950,000 1870 231,200 28,500 3,680,000 4,400,000 1880 343.900 42,990 6,920,000 7,600,000 1889 416,200 59,000 11,700,000 12,800,000 The railroad postal service is shown as fo lows : — Year Miles of Railway Miles Run with Mails Cost, £ 1844 . 1850 . i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1889 . 4.380 9,020 30,640 52,910 93,350 156,080 5,750,000 6,520,000 27,600,000 47,600,000 96,500,000 204,200,000 110,000 170,000 700,000 940,000 2,240,000 4,500,000 The number of letters and papers, &c., that passed through the post-office was : — Year Millions Per Inhah, 1885 .... 4,96s 90 1889 .... 7,028 no In 1889 there were issued 17,760,000 money orders, to a value of ;^29,400,ooo, averaging 34s. each. The postal traffic of the United States, as already shown (at p. 457). constitutes 40 per cent, of that of the world, and exceeds the aggregate of all the nations of Continental Europe. As compared with population, the ratio in the. United States is almost double what it is in the United Kingdom, or three times that of France. Postal revenue in the above table does not include tele- graph receipts, which belong to companies ; but if these were added, the total would be ;if 16,500,000, or a little over 5s. per head, against 63. in the United Kingdom. The Western Union Telegraph has most of the busi- ness of the United States, possessing in 1889 a mileage of 179,000 out of a total of 200,000 miles. The Western Company showed as follows : — Year Miles Offices Messages Receipts, Pence per Message 1867 1870 1880 1889 46,300 54, 100 85,600 178,800 2,560 3,970 9,080 18,470 5,880,000 9,200,000 29,200,000 54,100,000 1,360,000 1,400,000 2,660,000 4,320,000 54 36 23 19 If the other lines, which sum up 21,000 miles, be credited with half the mileage traffic of the Western Union, this would add 2,900,000 messages, bringing up the total to 57 millions and the receipts to ;i^4,8oo,ooo per annum. Canada The Handbook gives the following statistics : — Year Post- Offices 1870 1880 1888 3,820 5,770 7,840 Letters 24,500,000 45,800,000 Papers, &c. Total 20,200,000 44,700,000 58,400,000 104,200,000 92,700,000 106,400,000 199,100,000 Postal Reve- nue,^ 340,000 620,000 The expenditure in 18S8 was ;^i6o,ooo over the receipts, caused by the fact that many post-offices are in remote, thinly-settled districts. In 1888 the mails were carried over 25,760,000 miles, against 10,600,000 miles in 1868. The " dead-letter " office in 1887 showed 830,000 letters and papers, say 5 per 1000 of total traffic, against 592,000, or 6 per 1000, in 1880. The money order office showed as follows : — Year Orders Amount, £ Average, £ 1870 . 1880 . 1888 . 110,000 306,000 674,000 820,000 1,500,000 2,360,000 7-5 4-9 3-5 Telegraph lines mostly belong to companies, traffic in 1887 was as follows : — The Miles Offices Messages Pacific Railroad Co. . North- Western Co. . Western 5,000 17,660 2,920 550 1,502 176 500,000 3,100,000 400,000 Total . . . 25,580 2,228 4,000,000 The returns for l888 compare with 18S0 as follows : 1880 1888 Miles 11,300 29,460 Messages 1,200,000 4,050,000 In 188S the mileage included 2900 miles of Govern- ment lines. Australia ^ Coghlan's table shows as follows for Australasia : — Year 1851 1861 1871 188 1 1888 Letters 2,100,000 14,600,000 31,300,000 99,020,000 174,500,000 Papers, &c. 2,200,000 11,500,000 Total Per Inhab. 4,300,000 26,100,000 17,600,000 1 48,900,000 53,440,000 1152,460,000 119,200,000 293,700,000 26 82 POST-OFFICE 463 POTATOES In 18S8 the several Colonies stood thus :— New South Wales Victoria . Queensland South Australia New Zealand . Tasmania Western Australia Total Post-Offices Letters Papers, &c. Total Per Inhab. Receipts, £ Expenses, £ 1,203 49,000,000 40,400,000 89,400,000 8r 370,000 420,000 I.S44 47,700,000 30,800,000 78,500,000 71 766 12,900,000 12,200,000 25,100,000 62 130,000 200,000 S94 17,000,000 8,700,000 25.700,000 82 IIO,GOO 180,000 1. 145 42,100,000 20,900,000 63,000,000 103 210,000 160,000 278 4,700,000 4,800,000 9,500,000 64 3S.OOO 40,000 78 1,100,000 I,4JX3,000 2,500,000 60 15.000 • S.608 174,500,000 119,200,000 293,700,000 82 The telegraph service was introduced at Sydney in 1851, and a line was opened from that city to Melbourne and Adelaide in 1858. A cable from Melbourne to Tas- mania was laid in 1869, and communication by cable with Europe commenced in 1872. Connection was estab- lished with New Zealand in 1876, and finally in 1877 Western Australia was joined to the other colonies. The line between London and Adelaide consists of 9146 miles of cable and 3424 of land line. The cable from Australia to New Zealand is 1 191 miles long. The land lines of the Colonies had the following : — Year Miles Messages 1861 .... 1880 .... 1888 .... 2.385 26,900 39.200 5,100,000 10,580,000 In 18S8 the telegraphs of the several Colonies showed : Miles Messages Receipts,;^ i-ence per Message N. S. Wales . 10,690 3,4ro,ooo t85,ooo 13 Victoria . . . 4.190 2,740,000 125,000 II Queensland . . 9.170 1,440,000 105.000 17 South Australia 5. 510 990,000 105,000 25 New Zealand . 4.790 r, 550,000 90,000 14 Tasmania . . 1,900 270,000 20,000 18 W. Australia . 2,960 180,000 10,000 13 Total . 39,210 ro, 580, 000 640,000 IS India Postal development dates from the overthrow of the East India Company in 1856, when there were only 750 post-ofEces. The traffic in 1884 and 1888 showed : — Year Post- Offices ""Pa^r' '^™>^ Expendi- ture, £ 1884 . . 1888 . . 14,30s 16,970 203,300,000 1,100,000 274,400,000 1,200,000 1,010,000 1,370,000 The mileage of mails carried was as follows :- By 1870 1888 Rail . Boat. Horse 4,200 14? 040 I 40,600 I 48,900 I 5,500 I 4,000 Total • 1 50,300 66,940 The tel^iaph service shows as follows : — Year Miles Messages Receipts,;^ Pence per Message 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 22,200 31,900 1, 600, coo 2,800,000 76,000 7 The above does not include Government messages, nor those of the Indo-European cable. Argentina Official returns give the following : — Letters and Papers 410,000 990,000 6,920,000 9,880,000 76,810,000 Per Inhabitant 0.3 0.6 3-0 3-6 21.2 There are 14,700 miles of telegraph, of which 7300 belong to the State. In 1889 the number of messages was 3,510,000. POTATOES Spallart's table down to 1884 is included in the fol- lowing : — tion. Tons Value, £ Year 1887 0. V 1880-84, Average Tons Acres ^< G. Britain 3,300,000 9,900,000 3,560,000 560,000 6.4 Ireland . 3,590,000 9,700,000 3,570,000 800,000 4-'? France . 11,300,000 22,600,000 11,290,000 3,570,000 3.2 Germany 21,860,000 44,000,000 25,140,000 7,250,000 3.5 Russia . 12,110,000 18,200,000 7,500,000 3,700,000 2.0 Austria . 7,210,000 14,400,000 8,200,000 2,760,000 3.0 Hungary 2,390,000 4,800,000 2,200,000 1,020.000 2.2 Italy . . 700,000 1,400,000 620,000 370,000 1-7 Spain. . 1,590,000 3,200,000 1,590,000 800,000 2.0 Portugal 280,000 600,000 280,000 140,000 2.0 Sweden . 1,610,000 3,200,000 1,500.000 390,000 %<> Norway . 630,000 1,300,000 500,000 90,000 ■^-S Denmark 360,000 700,000 360,000 110,000 ^-3 Finland . 380,000 750,000 380,000 100,000 3-8 Holland . 1,490,000 3,000,000 1,550,000 350,000 4.4 Belgium . 2,490,000 5,000,000 3,000,000 490,000 6.1 Switzer- land 1,250,000 2,500,000 1,250,000 400,000 3-1 Roumania 500,000 1,000,000 500,000 200,000 2-5 Servia . 250,000 500,000 250,000 100,000 2-S Greece . 250,000 500,000 250,000 100,000 2.5 Europe . ^3,540,000 147,250,000 73,490,000 23,300,000 3.2 U. States 4,590,000 16,000,000 5,060,000 2,530,000] 2,0 Canada . 1,200,000 2,400,000 1,200,000 430,000' 2.8 Australia 400,000 800,000 430,000 110,000 3.9 Total . ! 79.730,000 166,450,000 80,180,000 26,370,000 3-1 We have nothing later than 1884 as regards Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Roumania, Servia, and Greece. Four bushels of potatoes contain as much food as one bushel of wheat. They were first introduced into Germany in 1710, into Russia in 1769, and into Scotland about POULTRY 464 PRESS 1775 : the man who sowed the first field of potatoes in Scotland died in 1850. The production in various countries at different dates was approximately as follows : — France Germany Russia Years ! Tons Year Tons Year 1 Tons 1 1815-20 1,950,000 1861-80 6,500,000 1887 11,300,000 1861 1879 1B87 15,200,000 18,900,000 25,100,000 1849 i 2,550,000 1870 ! 8,000,000 1887 ' 7,500,000 Austria Holland Belgium 1846 1859 1887 2,300,000 5,020,000 8,200,000 1851 i86i 1887 700,000 850,000 1,550,000 1846 1856 1887 1,800,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 Sweden 1837 1859 400,000 510,000 1,500,000 United States 1840 1850 i860 2,700,000 2,600,000 2,800,000 1870 3,600,000 1880 4,200,000 1887 5,060,000 For consumption of potatoes see Food. POULTRY. The numbers are not known. The following is an approximate estimate : — Poultry, Number Eggs Millions Yearly Con- sumption per In- habitant Pro- duction Con- sumption United Kingdom France .... Germany . . . Belgium . . . Denmark . . . Italy .... Canada . . . United States . 30,000,000 50,000,000 50,000,000 4,500,000 4,000,000 25,000,000 10,000,000 80,000,000 2,100 3.500 3.500 320 280 1,800 700 5,600 3,230 3,000 3,500 420 160 1,400 45° 5,600 85 78 75 70 80 47 §5 In the United Kingdom it is believed that 5 per cent, of eggs are hatched, and the gross product yearly is set down thus :— £ 160 million dozen eggs . . . 5,300,000 80 miUion birds .... 4,000,000 Total . . . 9,300,000 The countries which have a surplus for exportation, and the quantities exported, appear as follows : — Millions Eggs Exported Value, £ 1 8 t 1 c c France Italy Canada Den- mark 1861264 1870499 1880428 1888500 42 129 502 420 12 31 109 220 23 III 710,000 1,250,000 1,202,000 1,100,000 67,000 206,000 1,450,000 1,000,000 19,000 65,000 230,000 450,000 60,000 260,000 Importation into the United Kingdom has been as follows : — Year Millions Eggs per Inhabitant 1853 .... 1865 .... 1875 .... 1889 .... 123 364 741 1,131 4 12 23 30 The ordinary weight of hen-eggs is seven to i lb. in Spain, eight in England and France, nine in Poland, and ten in Germany. Frankland says that 100 oz. of eggs contain as much nutriment as 104 oz. of beef, but 100 oz. of the yolk of eggs contain as much as 230 oz. of beef. Mr. Baker, of New York, the "chicken-king," hatches 250,000 chickens yearly by steam. France has 1,800,000 turkeys, the United Kingdom 1,500,000. POWER The working-power of an able-bodied adult is equal to 300 foot-tons daily, that of a horse 3000, and of steam horse-power 4000. In the following table the number of horses in Russia is supposed to be only half that recorded oflScially, as it is probable that not more than half are available for labour : — Foot- Millions of Foot-Tons Daily Tons per Hand Horse Steam Total Inhab. U. Kingdom . 2,310 8,700 36,800 47,810 i,z6o France . . . 2,970 9,600 18,100 30,670 770 Germany . . 3.330 10,500 24,800 38,630 790 Russia . . . 6,300 30,000 9,000 45.300 520 Austria . . . 2,850 11,300 8,600 22,750 550 Italy . . . 2,160 3,300 3.300 8,760 290 Spain . . . 1,260 S.Soo 3,000 9,760 550 Portugal . . 360 400 300 1,060 280 Switzerland . 210 330 1,200 1,740 580 Belgium . . 420 850 3,200 4.470 760 Holland . . 300 840 1,400 2,540 550 Scandinavia . 630 2,900 2,500 6,030 660 Europe . ' . 23,100 84,220 112,200 219,520 700 United States 4,400 46,200 57,600 108,200 700 Total . 27,500 130,420 169,800 327,720 900 In Spain and Italy mules are counted the same as horses. The above table excludes water-power, as it is impossible to make any comparison of how much is available in the various countries. PRESS The number of newspapers has multiplied nearly ten- fold since 1840, viz. ; — Approximate Date of 1810 1890 Issue Monthly First Paper United Kingdom 493 1,840 150,000,000 1622 France. . . . 776 4,100 120,000,000 1605 Germany 305 5.500 140,000,000 1524 Russia . 204 667 12,000,000 1714 Austria 132 2,233 40,000,000 1560 Italy . 210 1,606 36,000,000 1562 Spain . 74 1,161 11,000,000 1704 Portugal 18 42 3,000,000 Belgium 52 872 13,000,000 1764 Holland 23 300 6,000,000 1757 Scandinavia . . 104 250 9,000,000 1644 Switzerland . . 54 45° 6,000,000 Greece, &c. . . 10 ICO 1,000,000 Europe . . . 2,460 19,121 547,000,000 United States . 1,210 15.392 230,000,000 1704 Spanish America 99 1,170 14,000,000 1728 Australia . . . 43 408 13,000,000 1803 Canada . . a 88 565 9,000,000 1765 India . . 63 644 1781 Japan . . . I 470 ... Africa . . . . 14 200 ... West Indies, &c. 38 66 Tota 1 . . 4,016 38,036 813,000,000 PRESS 465 PRESS This means an average circulation in the world of about 33,000,000 newspapers daily. The number of books printed yearly cannot be ascertained ; a certain London publisher sells a million. Great Britain exports annually over 10 millions. According to Hubbard's American Newspaper Directory for 1880, there were in : — 1 Dailies Periodicals Total Europe .... Nonh America . South America . Africa .... Asia Australasia . . 2,403 1. 136 208 25 154 94 10,730 9.656 427 125 337 471 13.133 10,792 63s ISO 491 565 Total . 4,020 21,746 26,766 Mr. F. L. Simmonds, an old journalist, firom a carefiil investigation, gives the following result, excluding the papers published at intervals longer than a week : — Europe 17,000 North America 12,794 South America 1,260 Africa 210 Asia 692 Australasia 56S West Indies 181 Total . . 32,705 summary of the papers published in the English lan- guage :— United Kingdom .... 2,100 North America 12,700 South America and the West Indies . 60 Australasia 575 European Continent .... 20 Africa . .... 114 Asia ... ... 203 15.772 The average number of works published yearly has been as follows : — 1828-32 1 1866-69 1878-80 Great Britain . . France .... Germany . . . United States. . 1,060 4,640 5,530 1,013 3,220 7,350 9,095 2,165 5,771 7,000 14,560 2,500 Total . . 12,243 21,830 29,831 Mr. Simmonds also gives the following as a rough United Kingdom The advance of the newspaper press is shown thus : — No book has been so often printed as the Bible. No fewer than 1326 editions of the Bible were published in the 1 6th century. In the 17th and i8th centuries it was translated and published in many languages by the polyglot press of the Propaganda Fide at Rome. Rev. Dr. Ginsburg, British Museum, has more than 4000 editions of the Bible, one of the most interesting being the polyglot version printed by Cardinal Ximenes at the University of Alcaic Down to 1870 there were printed 55,000,000 copies of Webster's Spelling-book, and the sale of his Dictionary is said to average 300,000 yearly. There were two million copies of Uncle Tom's Cabin sold in ten years down to 1870. Average Monthly Issue Per 1000 Inhabitants 1801 1831 1864 1882 1831 1882 England Scotland Ireland . ... 1,330,000 80,000 160,000 2,750,000 160,000 330,000 40,200,000 2,300,000 3,000,000 112,500,000 11,700,000 10,800,000 190 70 43 4,270 3.130 2,120 United Kingdom . 1,570,000 3,240,000 45,500,000 135,000,000 137 3,700 The new works issued in 1888, and iS Economy . History and travels Theology . Medicine . Poetry Fiction Sundries . New . Reprints 1888 III 601 743 136 163 929 2,277 4,960 1,631 Total 6,591 1889 no 513 630 133 133 1,040 2,135 4,694 1,375 6,069 In 18S5 the newspapers of the United Kingdom were : — London . . ■ Provinces . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . United Kingdom Dailies Weeklies,&c. IS 116 22 16 169 360 987 161 140 1,648 Total 375 1,103 183 156 1,817 France In 181 1 the news in the Paris papers took the fol- lowing number of dajrs to reach Paris : — Prom Days From Days From Days Strasburg . . 6 Brest ... 6 Rome . . . n Lyons ... 6 Antwerp , 7 Madrid . . 21 The average speed was 70 miles a day. In 1882 the French daily papers issued as follows : — Daily" Copies per 1000 Inhab. Paris .... Lyons .... Marseilles .... Bordeaux .... Other towns 1,470,000 73,000 70,000 40,000 647,000 630 190 194 188 France .... 2,300,000 60 In 1840 the daily issue of all the Paris journals summed up only go,ooo copies. The number of new works pub- lished yearly in Fiance exceeds 7000. Germany The first steam printing-press was put up in 1848. At present about 11,000,000 books are printed yearly, 2 G PRESS 466 PRESS of which 5,000,000 are exported. At the annual fair of I^eipzig 8000 tons of books are sold, valued at ;^ 1,600,000 sterling. Germany had 2350 newspapers in 1882, the oldest being the Allgemeine Zeitung of Augsburg, dating from 1794. The new works published yearly average 1 7, 500 on the following subjects : — Annual Average 1884^85 1888-89 Theology Trade, economy, &c. . . Romance and poetry . . School-books . . . ; . Medicine Classics History and geography Sundries 1.42s 1,475 1,320 2,100 91S 1,190 1,270 6.2SS 1,605 1.520 1.570 2,020 1,180 1.185 1.390 7.030 Total .... 15.950 17.500 Russia In 1882 this immense Empire had only 360 printing offices, and 1543 book-shops. The importation of books from France and elsewhere averages two million volumes yearly. The press turned out in 1882 the following : — Newspapers Books St. Petersburg . Moscow .... Provinces .... 123 164 714 Total 318 2,092 The total number of works published down to 1839 was : — Period Number 1750-1807 4.000 1808-21 9,250 1822-39 13.750 In 18 lished :- Total . . 27,000 the following number of books was pub- Language Russian Polish Hebrew German Various Number S.318 716 343 3" 739 Copies 17,400,000 1,890,000 1,005,000 515,000 2,295,000 Total 7,427 23,105,000 The aggregate daily issue of newspapers in St. Peters- burg in 1880 was 125,000 copies. There were in the Empire 318 newspapers — 264 Russian, 29 German, 6 French, 19 in various provincial tongues. According to the Statesman's Yearbook there were in 1889 no fewer than 667 papers and magazines : — Russian 493 Polish 76 German 49 Various 49 Total 667 Austria The first paper was the Wiener Blatt, 1671. The number of newspapers (excluding Hungary) was as follows : — 1847 1862 79 345 1873 1886 866 1. 47.1 In twenty-five years down to 1873 there were 193 1 papers started, of which — Died under twelve months . . , 910 Between first and fifth year . . . 781 Survived fifth year .... 240 Total The age of papers in 1873 was — Over 20 years 3 to 20 years Under 3 years Total In 1 886 the press of Austria counted — German Bohemian Italian . Polish . Various 1.931 51 409 406 866 Papers ■ 96s 263 54 84 107 Total • 1.473 There were 100 dailies, 450 weeklies, and 923 reviews, &c. In 1887 Hungary had 760 newspapers. Italy The number of_newspapers has been as follows : — 1840 ....... 210 1875 914 1887 1,606 In 1875 the press stood thus : — Milan . Florence Turin . Rome . Naples Various 104 82 68 67 52 541 Total 914 Dailies Weeklies, &c. Total 20 years old 5 to 20 Under 5 Total In 1887 the papers were as follows : 127 787 914 80 235 598 914 Dailies Weeklies Reviews, &c. 135 667 804 Political Agricultural Various Total . . 1,606 Total . . 1,606 All were in Italian except twelve French and five English. The book-press issued in 1888 the following works : — Religious 992 History and geography . . . 1,141 Agriculture and industries . . . 1,133 Various 7.597 10,863 Total Spain In 1889 there were 1 161 papers and magazines, with an aggregate issue of 1,250,000, or about iioo copies each, viz. : — Madrid Barcelona . Seville Various . Total Political Scientific Religious Various . I,i6i Belgium In 1888 the press stood thus :- Total Dailies Weeklies . Reviews, &o. Total 81 594 197 872 Political Scientific Various 496 237 "3 315 1,161 365 90 417 872 PRESS 467 PRESS In 1878, excluding reviews, there were 180 papers, of which 124 were in French and 56 in Flemish. United States The first printing-press was brought from Amsterdam ■with 49 lbs. of type, and set up at Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, A.D. 1639, where Harvard University now stands. Another was started byW. Penn at Philadelphia in 1686. The "Hoe" press was invented by Robert Hoe at New York in 1833, and improved by his sons, who have made lo-cylinder presses for many of the great journals of America and Great Britain. The first news- paper was at Boston in 1690, and was at once suppressed by the Governor. The Boston Newsletter was founded in 1704; the Mercury of Philadelphia in 1719. Franklin began the New England Cottrant in 1721. The New York Gasette appeared in 1725. The number of papers at various dates, and the aggre- gate issue of copies monthly, were as follows : — Year Dailies Weeklies Reviews, &c Total Issue Monthly 1788 37 330,000 1810 364 1,850,000 1828 ... 892 6,100,000 1840 130 1.304 200 1.634 1850 254 1,902 370 2,526 34,400,000 i860 387 3.173 491 4,051 74,600,000 1870 574 4,296 i,oor S.871 119,600,000 1880 980 8,718 1.70S 11.403 186,100,000 1890 IS.392 230,000,000 The monthly issue for 1890 is only an estimate. The circulation was as follows : — 1850 \ 1860 1870 1880 Dailies . . Weeklies . Reviews, &c. 760,000 2,940,000 1,440,000 1,480,000 2,602,000 7,580,000 io,594,oco 4,605,000 7,646,000 3,640,000 19,460,000 8,080,000 Total . 5,140,000 13,665,000 20,842,000 31,180,000 The aggregate number of copies issued monthly in the above years was approximately as follows ; — Dailies . . Weeklies Reviews, &c. Total . 1850 1860 1870 19,000,000 14,000,000 1,400,000 37,000,000 33,000,000 47,000,000 4,600,000 34,400,000 74,600,000119,600,000 65,000,000 7,600,000 1880 90,000,000 88,000,000 8,100,000 186^100,000 Census returns give the following daily issues : — States Number of Papers Issue 1870 1880 1870 1 1880 1 New England Middle . . South . . . West . . . 1 60 . 171 82 . 261 84 ZS9 122 497 3to,ooo 1,369,000 146,000 776,000 403,000 1,799,000 174,000 1,264,000 Total . . S74 962 2,601,000 j 3,640,000 In 1880 there were 10,515 papers in English, 641 in ■German, 49 in Swedish or Danish, 41 in French, and 26 in Spanish. No fewer than 57 were edited by women. Japan In 1888 there were 470 newspapers and magazines, ■the principal journal bei^ the Osoka-Nipfo, which issues 10,000 copies daily. The Jafan Mail and Hiogo Times .are in English^ The a^regate issue of newspapers is Number Per Inhat. 2,150,000 17,580,000 93,410,000 4-7 9-3 2S-9 about two millions monthly. The Life of Washington was published in 1880 in 42 quarto volumes. China The Pekin Court Gazette celebrated in 1884 the com- pletion of its loth century : it was 640 years old when the first newspaper was printed in Europe in 1524. Secretary Ho has published a translation of Shakespeare, and a Pekin publisher has also issued Blackstone's Com- mentaries in Chinese. Australia The first paper was printed at Sydney in 1803. There were 43 in Australasia in 1840, and the number rose to 270 in 1882. The returns at present are incomplete, but may be taken approximately thus : — Dailies . . .... 156 Weeklies, &c. . ... 252 Total . . 408 The number of newspapers sent through the post compared with population thus : — Year 1851 . 1871 . 1888 . The above shows an average postal circulation of 300,000 copies daily : the total issue, therefore, can hardly fall short of half-a-million copies, say 13 millions monthly, or one-tenth of that of the United Kingdom in 1882. Canada In 1765 tJ^^ firs' paper was printed at Quebec. There were 88 in 1840, and the latest report showed 565. The number of newspapers sent through the post was : — Year Numier Per Inhab. 1870 .... 20,200,000 5.5 1887 .... 64,300,000 13.2 The total issue is approximately 350,000 copies daily. South Ajierica The first printing-press introduced into the New World was that established by the Jesuits at Cordoba, in the province of Tucuman, about 1 610. Another was estab- lished at Misiones, in Paraguay, about 1680, and some books of this press are in the British Museum, dated 1705-24. General Auchmuty, after the capture of Monte Video, founded a paper called the Southern Star in 1806, which lasted only three months. In 1826 Mr. Love founded at Buenos Ayres a weekly called the British Packet, which died in 1858. A well-known weekly paper called the Panama Star, was founded by Archibald Boyd in 1849, which still flourishes. The first daily paper in the English language which appeared in Spanish America was the Buenos Ayres Standard, founded by the author of this Dictionary, ist May 1 86 1, which is now the best known joumail of South America. The press of Argentina in 1886 was as follows : — Dailies Weeklies,&c.! Total Buenos Ayres . Provinces . 25 13 57 lOI 82 114 Total . 38 158 ! 196 There are 4 English, 3 French, 3 Italian, 2 German, and 184 Spanish newspapers, which issue 3,600,000 copies monthly. India In 1880 there were 644 ne^wspapers, of which forty were in English, the rest in Bengali, Marathi, jind other native tongues. In 1S86 there were published 8900 works, of which nine-tenths were in native languages. PRICES 468 PRICES PRICES The earliest table of prices is that fixed by the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 303, for the whole Roman Empire, viz. : — Prices in English Pence and English Measure Wines, &'c, Falernian Sorrento Sabine , Ordinary ' Inferior ^Rustic . 'Vinegar : Beer . 'Small do. ■ Oil, ist ' •! 2nd » 3rd Groceries Tallow . Cheese . Butter . Lard . Honey , Beans . Peas Lentils . Per Pint IS IS IS 10 8 4 3 2 Per Lb. Meat, ^c. Beef . . Mutton . Lamb . . Pork . Ham . Per Lb. Venison Boar . Sea-fish River-fish Salted „ Snails, dozen . 47 101 y 4t 7 Game Grouse . Dove . . Pigeon . Wood do. Partridge Duck . . ■J,Jlabbit . 9/i Fowl . 142^ Goose Fat do. . 4 •] Pheasant I TTHare . . Per Head • 1534 . 12 2« . i8ii . iS»-< . 24*-/ • 30^ . 30'''' ■ 4S77 ■ 7S'>- ■ IS**, . 801. . no '. ■ J u ugga- 20 oysters 20 figs . ./r 9 y^. 12 i s •1- s Per Vegetables,ii'c. 20 Apples . . ^ Cherries . Almonds . Walnuts . Chestnuts . Onions , Turnips ? 2 tit 8 8 Cucumbers/^ I Lettuce .S>bis Caulifiowers)-{> 15 Melons . SJ 30 Artichokes jTj, 30 Clothing, &'c, fence Socks. . ■^ 3 Tunic .»P 12 Breeches . >il> 15 Cloak. .JT/ 30 Boots. <»'JI/oo Shoes . 3,oJi20 Slippers . ,V^So Clogs. .4,840 Saddle 4.9^ 400 Bridle /, J-J 80 Whip. .%ft 12 Bath ...32 According to Landrin and Rosvr:^, the quantity of wheat that could be bought at various epochs for an ounce of silver, say 4s. of present money, was as follows : — Period Lbs. of Wheat foif4S. Price per Ton I s- d. B.C. 600 . 430) 360' I I 6 ,. 300- I S „ 200. 346^ 160 ,. SO • 330 I 7 A.D. 50-300 324 176 „ 301-SOO 320 180 ,, SOI-800 314 I 8 6 ,, 801-1400 307 190 . ,, 1401-1500 314 186 u ,, 1501-1600 250 I 16 ] ,, 1601-1650 200 2 4 & ,, 1651-1700 iSt a 18 ,, 1701-1750 124 3 12 ,, 1751-1800 7S 600 ,, 1801-1850 37 12 „ 185I-1880 34 ■ 13 S From the above it would appear that from the time of Alexander the Great down to that of Columbus the price of wheat averaged 28s. per ton ; but the discovery of America, in 1492, was followed by such an influx of gold and silver into Europe that prices of all commodities rose in succeeding centuries, and the price of wheat from 175 1 to 1800 averaged four times as much as in the time of Columbus, The tables of Sir Morton Eden and Marquis Gamier firom 1401 to 1756, with continuation to the present date, show the price of wheat reduced to English money as follows : — Period England, per Ton Year of Price France, per Ton Year of Price Highest Lowest Average Highest Lowest Highest Lowest Average Highest Lowest £ '■ £ s. £ s. ^^i £ s. £ s. 1401-10 . 2 IS 13 I 8 1401 1404 3 18 2 7 3 2 1410 1406 141 1-20 . . . 3 3 1 I 18 .1416 1411 2 10 I 3 I 17 1411 1413 1421-30 . 2 2 1 1 10 1429 1427 9 I I 4 I 1430 1428 1431-40 . . . 6 13 1 2 2 IS 1434 1437 13 4 I IS 6 IS 1437 143s 1441-SO • I 13 1 I 7 1442 1450 s 14 14 2 I 1443 1448 1451-60 . I IS 11 I 5 1451 I4S4 2 7 19 I IS 1457 1452 1461-70 . I 13 18 1 6 1464 1463 2 12 12 I 4 1466 1464 1471-80 2 I 18 I 1 8 1478 1472 1481-90 . 4 2 18 1 12 i486 1489 318 I 7 2 7 14S2 1489 1491-1500 S 18 1 12 1497 149s 2 S 18 I 10 1499 1495 1501-10 . I IS 18 I 9 1501 1509 2 12 IS I IS 1501 1510 1511-20 4 13 1 10 2 8 1512 ISIS s 14 16 2 s 1515 IS" 1521-30 . s 17 I 7 3 10 1521 1530 6 17 1 10 3 19 1521 1526 1531-40 • 4 7 1 18 3 S 1538 IS34 8 14 2 11 4 IS 1539 IS34 1541-50 . 6 7 I 13 4 S IS44 1548 4 12 2 IS 3 16 1544 1541 1551-60 . 617 2 8 3 13 1556 iSSS 7 19 4 6 4 6 1556 1558 1561-70 5 3 3 7 4 4 1561 1568 ^l 3 4.19 7 IS 1563 1564 1571-80 . 8 4 4 S 10 1573 1576 18 13 S 7 9 S IS74 IS77 1581-90 . 8 3 II S 7 1586 1588 12 12 S 12 717 1590 1581 1591-1600 IS 9 4 3 9 10 1597 IS92 31 19 7 10 17 6 1591 1600. 1601-10 . 12 13 6 1 8 1608 1604 10 IS s 14 7 6 1608 1602 1611-20 . 10 16 6 2 8 IS 1617 1620 12 17 s 17 7 6 1618 1620. 1621-30 . 13 I 6 S 9 IS 1622 1628 14 19 6 IS 9 II 1626 1624 1631-40 . 15 2 9 10 11 10 1631 1639 17 16 7 4 9 18 1631 1639 1641-50 . 18 18 7 16 13 S 1648 1644 19 18 7 11 10 1650 1646 1651-60 . 13 IS 5 12 10 5 1651 1654 19 s 7 13 11 II 1651 1657 1661-70 . 16 5 6 7 10 10 1662 1666 20 2 5 19 11 17 1662 1668 1671-80 . IS S 7 IS 10 8 1674 1676 12 7 S18 8 14 1679 1673 1681-90 . 10 1 S IS 8 S 1681 1688 12 I S S 8 7 1685 1688 1691-1700 14 19 7 10 12 1698 1691 24 s 6 II 13 3 1694 1691 1701-10 . 17 S 12 9 S 1709 1706 22 4 7 9 19 1709 1707 1711-20 . II IS 7 IS 9 10 1711 1719 16 4 3 II 8 10 1714 1718 X721-30 . 12 S 7 6 9 2 1728 1723 14 8 S I 2'l 1725 1728 1731-40 . 12 I S IS 8 1 1740 1732 10 18 * 6 8 1740 1733 1741-50 . 8 S S 9 7 S 1746 1743 10 I 4 8 7 2 1741 1744 1751-60 . . . 14 S 7 10 9 10 1757 I7SS 9 IS 4 7 6 12 1752 I7S9 Period PRICES England, per Ton Highest Lowest Average 469 Years of Price Highest Lowest PRICES France, per Ton Highest Lowest Average Years of Price Highest Lowest 1761-70 . 1771-S0 . 1781-90 . 1791-1800 1801-10 . 1811-20 , 1821-30 . 1831-40 . 1841-S0 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-So . 1881-89 . £ s. 15 1 13 II 13 14 28 9 29 18 31 13 17 2 17 13 ^7 S 18 14 16 2 14 14 n 7 £ s. 6 6 8 13 10 o 10 IS 14 14 16 8 11 3 9 17 10 1 9 13 10 I 11 o 7 14 £ s. 10 12 11 9 12 o IS 18 21 o SI 18 14 17 14 4 13 7 13 17 13 o II 17 9 S 1767 1774 1790 1800 1801 1812 182s 1839 1847 1855 1867 1873 1881 1761 1779 1786 1792 1803 181S 1822 183s 1850 1851 1864 1879 1889 £ s. 10 15 10 12 12 14 11 16 14 s 21 O 13 2 12 17 16 17 17 O 15 10 14 18 12 18 £ s. S 8 7 6 7 16 9 8 8 12 10 S 9 o 8 17 8 6 8 13 9 II 11 S 9 IS £ ^• 7 s 8 13 9 S 10 12 11 12 14 7 10 13 11 I 11 9 13 o 12 10 13 3 10 IS 1770 1771 1789 1800 1803 1817 1829 1839 1847 I8SS 1868 1871 1881 1763 1780 1781 1799 1809 1814 1822 1834 1850 i8si i86s 187s i88s The average prices of wheat in periods in England, France, Italy, Rtissia, and United States were as follows, per ton : — 1771-80 . 1781-90 . 1791-1800 1801-10 . 1811-1S . 1816-20 1821-25 . 1826-30. . 1831-35 1836-40 . 1841-45 . 1846-50 . 18S1-SS • 1 i -S t 11 s i^ OS SCO £ s. £ s. £ '■ £ s. £ s. II 10 8 IS 8 S 12 9 S 8 16 16 10 10 11 S 21 II 10 13 23 10 14 14 20 5 14 IS 9 s 12 4 12 14 s 9 10 4 10 S 8 7 12 IS 10 II 10 6 8 14 7 11 13 s 10 10 6 S 7 14 8 8 IS s II 10 6 10 8 7 9 16 13 IS II S 7 10 8 3 7 4 13 II IS 8 S 10 S 9 4 14 13 S II 12 6 912 £ s. 9 10 10 o 12 12 IS 3 17 3 13 12 8 S 9 18 9 4 10 6 9 12 10 10 12 I In iSSi was published the following table of average prices of wheat in various countries during sixty years, per ton : — w a ^ & d d •a ui 11 Period 11 C 1 13 1 as ■5 s aw £ s- £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. f, s. A s. 1821-30 IS 10 10 « 3 7 17 6 10 10 10 2 1831-40 14 b II 7 14 7 7 s 17 II 7 9 12 1841-50*113 7 11 10 9 7 7 7 10 9 14 9 IS 1851-60 ' 13 17 13 11 13 10 16 11 7 13 3 12 6 1861-70 ! 13 12 10 II 7 II 7 13 12 10 12 6 1871-S0 II 17 13 3 13 13 II 3jii 13 10 16 12 I * The price of wheat in 1846, was as follows in various parts Alexandria . Amsterdam Ancona . . Bilbao . . Brussels Christiania . Copenhagen Dantzic . . Dublin . . / s. 1 . . . S 16 1 20 6 9 18 . II . IS 8 • IS 2 . II 12 • 13 7 19 14 I, the year of the Irish famine, of the world, per ton : — £ s. 14 10 13 18 15 14 Edinburgh . . Genoa . . . London. . . Malaga 13 7 Milan . . . . 13 7 New Yorlc .... 9 18 Odessa 82 St Petersburg . 10 8 Trieste ... . 11 o Commendatore Bodio gives the followii^ prices of wheat per ton in ten difiFerent markets, from 1869 to 1884 : — Year London Paris Berlin Brussels Amster- dam Rome Vienna Buda- Pesth Algiers New Yorlc £ ^■ £ s. £ ^- £ ^■ £ s. '^ 'l 4^;. £ s. £ s. ^ 'I 1869 1870 1871 . . . • • 1872 II 8 10 18 10 II 8 II 10 9 18 8 6 10 2 10 8 11 4 12 4 9 18 II 18 II 18 10 12 9 S 10 9 9 6 12 16 14 IS 10 IS ^s ° 13 4 II 18 10 18 10 II 18 12 6 12 15 12 7 II 18 13 8 12 17 12 I II 12 10 18 II 10 12 2 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 . < . • • 13 6 14 4 12 10 14 7 14 I ^3 I 13 13 S 12 16 12 12 12 18 13 3 II 12 13 16 II 12 '3 I 10 6 ^l ^5 12 6 II 7 10 10 9 18 9 12 10 18 10 17 10 8 7 12 8 14 9 14 9 14 10 19 II 10 6 II 10 12 3 10 18 Z ^? 9 I 9 12 9 19 12 12 12 16 11 7 13 4 14 16 12 10 8 16 10 12 6 II 18 12 6 12 10 9 14 11 10 II 12 11 IS 8 8 8 12 3 9 7 11 10 II 12 9 12 II 10 II II 10 8 8 9 6 10 2 9 6 12 6 12 S 10 16 II 12 10 12 12 1 9 2 10 12 10 10 10 1881 10 18 12 I 10 15 11 11 10 15 10 12 9 3 10 18 II 16 ^0 i 1882 10 12 10 18 10 3 10 12 9 12 10 4 ^ 1 9 9 10 7 8 16 1883 1884 average 16 years . 1889 10 I 10 6 8 16 9 18 9 8 9 10 7 8 8 10 ■ 10 4 9 I 9 I 9 S 8 16 8 17 8 8 18 6 10 7 12 8 12 7 10 II II 6 18 11 18 9 6 10 8 9 6 11 18 II 8 6 12 11 4 8 12 9 18 10 18 10 5 6 12 The Wfihest average of prices for sixteen years was at Paris, namely j^li, l8s. ; the lowest at Vienna, namely /8 I2s ^e highest price for a year was at Brussels, ;^IS in 1871 ; the lowest at Vienna, £6, 10s. in 1884. The ^^test" variation of price vras at Vienna, faUing from ;^I3 in 1873 to half that sum in 1884 ; the least vanation was at Berlin. PRICES 470 PRICES Mr. Newmarch gives the following table of prices at Melbourne during the gold fever : — Barlev, bushel Beef.'lb. . Beer, hhd. . . Brandy, gallon Bricks, 1000 Candles, lb. Coffee, cwt. Ducks, pair Flour, cwt. . Goose . . Hay, cwt. . Hens, pair . Oats, bushel Ox . . . Potatoes, cwt. Rice, cwt. . Sheep . . Sugar, cwt. Tea, che^t . Tobacco,*b. Wheat, bushel Wine, gallon s. d. 4 c o S 160 3 o 1852 120 2 70 9 33 7 16 8 S 120 14 9 S 21 63 2 8 3 1853 160 13 235 2 76 IS 30 18 29 IS 8 i6S 13 19 96 2 9 3 1854 9 o 200 10 17s I S6 24 33 23 30 14 10 220 23 16 22 23 102 2 14 3 1855 1856 1852-56 200 12 80 I SI 20 41 20 IS IS 8 220 10 IS 18 28 83 2 IS 4 o 182 13 6S I 90 18 27 19 8 IS I9S 10 14 18 82" s" 3 d. o 6 o 2 o I 10 69 o 17 o 33 17 19 13 8 8 o 180 9! 12 0I13S 7i o' o| 184 o 16 He also gives the prices of food at San Francisco under similar circumstances in 1854 as follows : — s. d. s. d. s. d. Beef, lb. . I 7 Duck . 4 3 Cauliflower . 2 Butter, lb. 4 2 Hen . II Milk, quart . I Eggs, doz. S 3 Cabbage I Potatoes, cwt. 13 Neumann Spallart ascertained the prices of all kinds of grain in 1884 in the principal countries of the world to be as follows : — Per Ton Wheat Rye Barley Oats Maize f, s. ^ ^■ £ s. £ s- £ ^■ England 8 2 8 I 7 S s 14 Russia 4 16 4 b 3 19 3 8 France 7 16 7 7 3 7 10 7 12 Germany 7 16 7 7 6 I Italy . 8 II s 17 b 13 4 17 t> 7 Austria 4 10 3 19 3 IS 3 8 3 10 Hungary 3 12 3 10 2 17 2 13 3 3 Denmark 7 7 6 14 7 6 IS Holland 8 II 6 14 6 P 6 6 United States S 2 4 10 S 4 8 3 3 Average 6 12 S 8 s 14 S 6 S 6 The prices of various commodities in different countries in 1888 were as follows : — G. Britain France Germany Austria Sweden Norway Belgium Switzerland U. States £ •>■ £ ^■ £ s. £ - £ - £ s. £ - £ '■ £ s. Bacon, ton . 44 IS 40 39 Barley . , s 14 7 6 II 7 10 S 2 S 6 6 18 9 6 6 16 Butter . 107 S3 67 61 los 70 85 Cheese . 47 SS 56 63 61 70 47 Coffee . 75 ° 82 102 91 72 65 84 61 Fish . . 24 7 7 19 22 Lard . . 41 2 33 28 36 Maize . S 3 7 S 6 10 s 19 4 II Oats . . 4 18 7 10 7 10 418 4 19 4 16 S 18 6 12 613 Pork. . 37 10 58 44 38 10 39 3S Potatoes 6 14 2 16 I 14 3 IS 2 16 3 II 3 2 3 14 Raisins . 30 7 17 10 33 21 28 18 S 19 Rice . . 7 9 10 S 16 II 10 10 IS 13 10 8 8 Spirits, 100 Sa s. . 8 3 II 13 8 II IS Sugar, ton 17 II ••■ 30 17 29 21 23 21 20 10 29 Tea . . 102 268 168 118 280 198 73 Tobacco 70 56 90 59 65 47 39 Wheat . 7 14 10 9 8 6 17 8 4 7 18 718 9 I 6 10 Wine, 100 gals. . 36 10 18 IS 16 7 5 II 14 2 Great Britain The prices of various commodities during the last 690 years, according to Arthur Young, Shuckburgh, and other writers, were as follows : — •Nominal Price 1201-99 1300-99 1400-99 1600-99 1600-99 1700-99 1800-86 £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ '■ d. £ s. d. £ s- d. £ s. d. Ox 13 16 100 I II 500 800 14 Sheep 010 016 020 030 070 18 I S Pig . . 020 030 030 040 080 120 I 10 Goose 0, 3 004 006 008 010 020 040 Rabbit . 002 002 003 003 006 008 010 Hen. 001 002 003 004 008 010 016 003 004 200 06 3_ ^ It; __20— 0— Pigeons, doz. 009 010 016 030 Eggs, „ I 2 003 003 004 008 010 Butter; lb. 001 001 002 004, ^S" a I a Beef, 8 lbs. 002 004 005 006 020 030 070 Wheat, ton I 10 .0 I 10 400 10 10 12 10 14- Wine, gallon 010 010 010 030 050 16 16 Beer, „ 001 2 002 003 004 008 016 PRICES 471 PRICES Prices According to Weight of Silver 1201-99 1300-99 1400-99 1600-99 1600-99 1700-99 1800-85 £ s. d. I s. d. £> s. d. £ ^. d. £ s. d. £ s. J. £ s. d. Ox . 330 250 2 a 200 560 8 10 14 Sheep 030 046 040 040 080 19 ISO Pig. . 060 090 060 060 090 130 I 10 Goose cog 010 010 II 010 2 1 040 Rabbit . 006 006 006 004 006 008 I c Hen. 003 006 006 005 009 010 016 Horse •*• 440 400 560 IS IS 30 Pigeons, do* 009 010 I ■ 010 oil 016 030 Eggs, „ 003 006 006 004 004 008 010 Butter, lb. 003 002 003 004 005 010 Beef, 8 lbs. 006 010 10 008 021 032 070 Wheat, ton 400 300 S S II 5 13 S 14 Wine, gallon 030 030 020 040 060 17 16 Beer 003 005 004 004 004 008 .016 The following tables of prices from 1782 to 1859 are from Tooke's History of Prices :- - 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1782-90 s. d. s. d. J. d. J. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. s. d s. d^ 78 s. d. Coffee, cwt. . 70 66 6s 69 78 91 92 9S 78 Copper, ,, 8s 8s 8s 80 82 81 80 82 84 83 Cotton, ,, 330 28s 20s 203 252 242 225 i8s 170 233 Flax, ,, 43 46 44 44 4S 43 44 46 46 44 6 Hemp, , , 34 32 28 23 25 36 36 28 27 30 Hops, „ 8s ISO 95 98 75 140 260 140 90 126 Indigo, lb. S S 6 4 4 3 6 4 6 4 6 3 .4 4 Iron, cwt. 6 9 S 9 4 9 4 9 4 9 4 6 S S S S I Oil, gallon 3 6 3 8 3 10 3 10 3 8 3 2 3 I 3 S 3 4 3 6 Pepper, cwt. . 205 19s 170 140 122 130 121 130 140 150 2 Rice, 26 28 24 16 19 18 17 17 16 20 I Rum, gallon 4 7 3 I 3 S 2 II 2 6 2 9 \ "• 2 9 3 4 3 3 Silk, lb. 19 19 19 22 31 31 26 20 20 23 Sugar, cwt. . 4S 34 32 32 38 36 38 39 42 37 6 Tea, lb. 5 4 9 S I 4 I 4 9 4 4 6 3 9 3 7 4 4 Timber, load 68 SI 42 40 37 33 33 29 37 41 Tin, cwt. . 83 83 83 85 85 85 81 74 77 82 Tobacco, cwt. 140 65 so 37 33 36 33 33 33 SI Wheat, quarter . S4 54 54 48 42 46 49 56 56 ■51 Wool, lb. . 3 4 3 6 3 5 3 5 3 3 3 3 3 7 3 7 3 7 3 S 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1791-1800 J. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. J. d. s. d. J. d. Coffee, cwt . . 78 90 83 So 95 no 118 139 141 117 105 Copper, ,, 87 96 no 109 109 IIS 120 120 130 150 114 Cotton, „ 19s 233 22s 186 176 230 270 305 330 270 242 Flax, 38 34 35 35 47 55 SI 52 61 67 47 Hemp, ,, 23 25 26 28 39 55 45 37 41 64 38 4 Hops, ,, no 78 143 151 95 80 135 13s 295 297 152 Indigo, lb. . Iron, cwt. . 6 6 7 9 S 9 S 6 S 9 S 6 4 I 6 10 7 6 3 6 I 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 6 Oil, gallon . 3 2 3 S 4 2 4 7 4 8 4 9 S S 6 5 II 5 2 4 7 Pepper, cwt. 168 190 130 128 130 127 128 122 168 170 14s 4 Rice, 16 17 17 39 31 17 17 28 39 38 26 Rum, gallon 3 9 4 I 4 8 3 7 6 7 9 6 3 6 3 4 3 6 5 4 Silk, lb. . . 21 22 18 17 18 20 20 24 25 24. 21 Sugar, cwt. . S6 58 57 SO 59 69 64 71 58 SI 59 4 Tea, lb. . . 3 10 4 3 9 3 4 3 9 1 ^ ? ■* § 5 3 I 3 3 3 8 Timber, load 46 46 SI 58 56 62 S8 84 IIS 63 Tin, cwt. . 82 98 104 102 100 102 103 100 103 107 100 I Tobacco, cwt. 30 32 35 33 SI S9 8s 113 88 58 58 4 Wheat, quarter . 49 47 SO 54 82 80 62 54 76 127 68 Wool, lb. . . . 3 9 4 2 4 2 3 9 3 9 4 4 I 41 40 4 8 4 I .1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1801-10 s. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. .5. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Coffee, cwt. . . 9S 78 108 133 145 IIS 100 88 93 93 los Copper, ,, . 160 14s 13s IS3 182 191 155 174 160 160 161 6 Cotton, ,, 260 234 112 130 130 129 112 177 130 132 155 Flax, ,, 68 71 81 82 76 68 72 e 109 120 84 83 Hemp, „ • 65 41 S3 50 S3 55 62 93 93 66 63 6 PRICES 472 PRICES 1801 1802 1803 1801 1806 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1801-10 s. d. .f. d. s. d. i. d J. d s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d s. d s. d. Hops, cwt. . . 181; 164 160 9S no 120 119 100 98 108 136 Indigo, lb. . 6 10 7 6 8 7 9 8 3 9 6 7 6 3 6 4 7 7 6 Iron, cwt. . 7 3 7 3 7 3 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 7 9 Oil, gallon . .■; I 4 10 S I S 2 6 5 10 5 7 6 5 5 10 5 2 S 6 Pepper, cwt. 140 13a 121 95 93 77 75 85 102 95 102 Rice, 3S 3.5 34 35 3a 36 .30 49 49 28 37 3 Rum, gallon 6 3 5 I S 3 4 7 4 II 3 II 3 II S 2 5 3 5 7 S Silk, lb. . . 23 2.S 22 23 25 30 29 32 32 41 28 3 Sugar, cwt. . .S4 .39 4S 56 53 43 .34 40 43 4a 45 6 Tea, lb. . . 3 3 3 4 3 I 3 I 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 4 Timber, load 102 69 97 70 70 lOI 125 235 260 200 133 Tin, cwt. III 114 116 116 118 126 128 119 124 151 122 Tobacco, cwt. 54 47 49 58 54 56 56 128 126 74 70 Wheat, quarter . 128 67 60 69 6 88 88 78 8s 106 112 88 Wool, lb. . . . S 6 6 6 2 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 8 6 19 10 6 8 3 The above prices were in Bank of England notes, but the values in gold were as follows :- - Gold 1801 1802 1803 1804 1806 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1801-10 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d J. d. s. d. s. d. Coffee, cwt. . . 87 73 105 129 140 112 97 85 6 85 81 99 6 Copper, „ 147 135 131 148 176 i«5 1.50 169 145 140 152 6 Cotton, ,, 240 218 109 126 126 125 109 172 118 116 146 Flax, 63 66 78 79 6 74 66 70 106 loq 73 78 6 Hemp, ,, 60 38 51 48 6 51 6 .53 6 60 90 86 .58 59 9 Hops, ,, 170 153 15s 92 107 116 "5 97 89 94 119 Indigo, lb. . 6 3 7 7 8 7 s 7 " 9 2 6 9 6 5 9 6 2 7 Iron, cwt. . 6 8 6 9 7 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 4 7 7 4 Oil, gallon . 4 8 4 6 4 10 5 S 9 5 8 5 5 6 2 5 4 4 6 5 3 Pepper, cwt. 129 128 117 92 90 75 73 82 6 93 83 96 4 Rice, ,, 35 .32 33 .34 37 .35 29 47 6 44 b 25 35 3 Rum, gallon 5 9 4 9 5 I 4 5 4 9 3 9 3 9 5 4 10 S 4 9 Silk, lb. . . 21 23 21 6 22 3 24 3 29 28 31 29 .36 26 6 Sugar, cwt. . 50 36 43 6 54 b SI 6 41 6 33 38 6 39 42 43 2 Tea, lb. . . 3 3 I 3 3 3 2 2 II 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 I Timber, load 94 64 94 68 68 98 121 228 237 175 124 6 Tm, cwt. . 102 106 112 112 114 122 124 115 113 132 115 3 Tobacco, cwt. SO 44 47 6 55 4 52 6 54 6 54 6 124 115 65 66 4 Wheat, quarter . 118 62 58 67 6 8s 6 85 6 76 82 6 96 98 83 Wool, lb. . • S 6 5 7 5 II 6 5 6 5 * 5 6 5 8 2 17 9 3 7 8 Notes 1811 1812 1813 1814 1816 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1811-20 J. d. s. d s. d. s. d s. d J. d s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d Coffee, cwt. . . .50 45 75 87 78 65 75 "5 113 109 81 3 Copper, ,, 148 138 133 130 130 108 119 123 133 115 128 Cotton, ,, 97 116 196 242 177 160 186 177 140 102 159 Flax, 88 102 89 76 73 .56 61 68 56 52 72 Hemp, „ 77 92 80 57 42 .33 33 38 35 33 52 Hops, ,, 146 200 310 170 220 240 490 .370 128 91 236 6 Indigo, lb. . 9 10 3 12 9 13 6 10 6 9 10 10 8 7 8 7 3 10 I Iron, cwt. . 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 n 8 5 8 2 Oil, gallon 5 5 7 2 7 6 6 2 6 2 6 6 II 6 6 6 2 5 6 4 Pepper, cwt. 71 77 112 154 97 77 79 85 70 61 88 4 Rice, 32 bi 6b 43 .34 .39 43 47 32 ,37 43 6 Rum, gallon 5 3 5 4 6 9 6 3 4 9 3 10 4 I 4 5 3 3 3 10 4 10 Silk, lb. . . 43 31 25 21 20 I 17 22 24 23 22 24 10 Sugar, cwt. . 40 4S 63 76 67 52 49 51 43 36 52 3 Tea, lb. . . 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 7 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 II 2 II 3 3 3 Timber, load 22s 185 145 122 88 60 63 70 60 55 107 4 Tin, cwt. . 165 135 140 170 144 Ilq 100 95 79 79 122 6 Tobacco, cwt. .56 48 140 ,305 177 117 88 93 74 65 116 4 Wheat, quarter . 108 118 120 85 76 82 116 98 78 76 95 6 Wool, lb. . . . 8 3 9 3 8 9 ** 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 4 4 7 The prices in the above decade as above given were in paper-money ; the gold value was as follows : — Gold 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1811-20 Coffee, cwt. . . Copper, ,, . . Cotton, ,, s. d. 42 123 81 s. d. 36 no 92 s. d 56 100 146 s. d. 70 104 194 s. d 6$ 108 148 s. d. 62 104 154 s. d. 73 6 116 6 186 s. d 112 119 172 s. d. 109 128 134 s. d. 109 115 102 s. d. 7S 6 118 141 PRICES 473 PRICES Gold Flax, cwt. . Hemp, „ Hops, „ . Indigo, lb. , Iron, cwt. . Oil, gallon . Pepper, cwt. Rice „ Rum, gallon Silk, lb. . . Sugar, cwt. . Tea, lb. . . Timber, load Tin, cwt. . Tobacco, cwt. . Wheat, quarter Wool, lb. . . 1811 73 64 X22 I 4 S9 =7 4 36 33 3 188 138 47 90 7 1812 82 74 160 8 6 S 63 49 4 as 36 2 148 loS 38 94 7 1813 67 60 232 9 6 5 84 49 S 18 47 2 109 los los 90 6 1814 1816 s. d. 61 o 45 o 136 o 10 8 6 4 4 10 123 o 34 o 5 o 17 o 61 o 2 10 98 O 136 O 244 O 68 o 6 4 s. d. 61 o 3S o 183 o 8 9 6 8 S 2 81 o 28 o 4 o 16 8 56 o 2 9 73 o 120 o 147 o 63 o 5 10 1816 s. S4 31 230 9 7 S 74 37 3 16 SO 3 S7 114 112 78 6 1817 S9 32 480 9 7 10 6 9 77 o 42 o 4 o 48 3 61 98 86 "3 6 1818 1819 s. 66 37 3S9 8 7 6 82 45 4 23 49 2 10 68 o 92 o 90 o 95 o 6 4 54 33 123 7 8 S " 67 o 31 o 3 I 22 o 41 o 2 10 57 6 76 o 71 o 75 o S a 1820 1811-20 52 33 91 7 8 5 o 61 o 37 o 3 10 22 o 36 o 3 o 55 o 79 o 65 o 76 o 4 o s. d. 63 o 44 6 212 o 8 8 7 3 5 8 77 o 38 o 4 3 22 O 45 8 2 10 91 6 106 s 100 6 84 4 6 I In 1820 gold and paper money were of equal value. 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1823 1829 1830 1821-30 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. Coffee, cwt. 102 94 80 64 63 52 46 P 41 36 34 61 3 Copper, ,, 99 loi 105 los 100 115 "5 no 97 89 103 6 Cotton, ,, 84 83 80 75 IZO 77 58 57 57 60 75 Flax. SO 48 54 46 46 37 37 35 36 42 43 Hemp, „ 34 35 33 36 42 41 41 39 42 41 38 6 Hops, ,, 86 86 lOS 242 260 250 112 107 165 228 164 Indigo, lb. . 9 10 9 6 10 I 13 II II 10 10 4 8 6 8 9 10 3 Iron, cwt. . 6 10 6 6 6 3 8 6 10 10 8 3 7 3 6 6 5 9 s 2 7 3 Oil, gallon A " 3 9 3 9 3 9 3 7 3 4 3 10 3 5 3 6 3 II 3 8 Pepper, cwt. 66 67 60 52 6S SI 38 33 33 36 SO I Rice, ,, 33 33 38 34 37 35 39 36 35 34 35 6 Rum, gallon 2 10 2 5 2 6 2 3 2 9 3 5 3 10 4 3 6 2 10 3 Silk, lb. . . 20 21 19 32 18 32 16 Q 20 21 15 28 14 23 18 6 32 Sugar, cwt. . 32 31 32 37 35 34 35 Tea, lb. . . 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 2 10 2 10 2 8 2 9 2 9 49 6 Timber, load 60 50 52 SI 58 48 46 42 46 41 Tin, cwt. . 79 89 lOI 89 100 86 81 76 79 77 85 6 Tobacco, cwt. 48 55 SO 47 56 56 48 47 48 49 4 Wheat, quarter 71 S3 57 72 84 73 58 6 60 6 66 64 66 Wool, lb. . . . 3 6 4 4 2 3 8 3 10 3 6 3 2 9 2 6 2 4 3 4 1831 1832 1833 1834 1836 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1831-40 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. J. d. Coffee, cwt. . . 56 76 78 68 75 81 81 78 90 86 77 ° Copper, „ 87 91 99 94 los 92 90 94 98 95 Cotton, ,, 58 58 80 79 95 93 84 63 70 56 73 6 Flax, 48 47 39 48 55 46 40 37 41 39 44 Hemp, ,, 40 32 26 P 25 29 31 35 41 38 32 3 Hops, „ 197 i6s 167 161 132 140 132 130 no 148 3 Indigo, lb, . 6 6 S S 6 5 6 6 6 I 6 7 7 3 7 6 8 I e" I 6 8 Iron, cwt. . S 5 2 5 6 5 3 S 3 7 2 5 6 6 I 6 9 2 6 Oil, gallon . 3 5 1 ^ 3 II 4 4 9 4 10 4 2 4 7 4 9 5 2 4 4 Pepper, cwt. . 37 36 36 38 42 43 35 35 39 40 38 6 Rice, 34 37 35 32 31 31 32 36 41 34 6 Rum, gallon 2 9 2 10 3 3 I 3 2 3 10 4 I 4 3 S 4 5 I 3 9 Silk, lb. . . . IS 14 18 18 20 23 19 21 24 25 19 8 Sugar, cwt. . . 24 27 28 32 34 42 35 37 38 47 34 6 Tea, lb. . . . 2 9 2 7 2 6 2 10 2 4 2 I 9 2 2 I 10 2 8 2 4 Timber, load . 31 46 49 49 49 55 54 52 ... 106 55 6 Tin, cwt. . . 77 76 75 78 85 116 90 90 83 82 85 Tobacco, cwt. . 37 37 41 47 51 61 52 55 78 6s 52 6 Wheat, quarter . 66 3 59 S3 46 39 49 6 56 65 71 66 57 Wool, lb. . . . 2 8 2 6 2 7 3 3 2 9 3 2 8 2 5 2 7 2 4 2 7 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1841-60 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d s. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. Coffee, cwt. . . 99 93 83 81 72 70 70 74 60 65 76 6 Copper, „ . . 98 91 84 84 88 91 93 89 84 86 89 Cotton 60 47 45 47 38 43 61 47 48 6S SO 3 Flax 39 34 43 37 40 39 PRICES 474 PRICES 1841 1E42 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1841-50 J. d. s. rf. s. d. J. <;. s. rf. s. d. s. d. s. A J. d. s. d. s. d. Hemp, cwt. . . .38 34 30 .30 29 33 39 32 30 31 32 6 Indigo, lb. . .■; 6 4 9 S 4 4 2 3 10 3 10 3 3 4 4 2 4 3 Iron, cwt. 7 6 6 2 4 10 ,■; 6 8 9 9 6 9 10 7 9 6 5 5 9 7 3 Oil, gallon . 6 2 S 4 4 I 3 10 3 6 3 6 4 2 3 8 3 5 3 7 4 I Pepper, cwt. 37 3t' 37 33 .30 30 28 28 28 .34 32 Rum, gallon 4 b 4 I 2 8 2 7 2 10 4 2 3 4 2 6 2 S 3 3 Silk, lb. . . 21 20 19 20 18 16 14 14 16 18 17 6 Sugar, cwt. . 4.3 37 33 33 .34 35 28 23 26 28 32 Tea, lb. . . 2 ■^ 2 2 I 7 I 8 1 7 I 6 I II I 2 I 3 I 3 1 8 Timber, load 104 9^ 89 83 83 85 85 7"; 68 63 83 Tin, cwt. . 82 72 6s 73 «7 99 93 80 82 78 81 Tobacco, cwt. 47 38 36 34 32 36 37 38 42 6'; 40 6 Wheat, quarter . 64 57 50 51 SI 55 70 51 44 D 40 53 3 Wool, lb. . 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 I 2 S 2 I 10 I 9 I 5 I 5 2 1851 1852 1863 1854 1865 1856 1857 1858 1859 1851-69 Coffee, cwt. Copper, ,, Cotton, ,, Flax. Hemp, >, Indigo, lb. . Iron, cwt. . Oil, gallon . Pepper, cwt. Butter, Rum, gallon Silk, lb. . . Sugar, cwt. . Tea, lb. . . Timber, load Tin, cwt. Tobacco, cwt. Wheat, quarter Wool, lb. . 68 86 6i 40 31 4 S 3 28 76 2 18 27 1 63 84 39 .S8 68 95 112 ,54 S3 48 49 34 38 4 4 4 b 4 9 4 5 32 37 74 92 2 2 3 17 19 24 25 I I I 61 78 91 113 56 65 41 53 J. d. s. d. 68 o 126 o 52 o 47 o 56 o 4 9 10 o 4 7 42 o loi o 3 10 14 o 25 o I 4 83 o 124 o 65 o 72 o s. d. 67 o 126 o £2 O 56 O SI o 4 3 8 6 4 6 42 o 103 o 3 II 14 o 35 o I 6 80 o 117 o 70 o 75 o s. d. 67 o 117 o 58 o S3 o 38 o 4 3 9 o 4 2 SO o 107 o 3 6 17 o 36 o 73 o 133 o 71 o 69 o 2 O 74 117 75 S7 3S 4 8 4 100 4 23 42 I 69 143 90 56 I 56 107 S7 57 29 6 7 4 64 65 57 29 4 7 3 10 18 o 25 o I I 71 o 109 o 82 o 44 o 3 II 105 o 3 2 16 o 24 o O II 63 o 124 Q 70 O 44 o 65 110 53 SI 38 4 3 4 38 96 3 17 29 I 71 TiS 74 55 Prices of British Imports and Exports, 1854-88. There are ninety-five principal articles of British com- merce, and these attained their highest and lowest prices in the years stated below : — ^ Years •fei » Years ^ S ffi J a: >i 1854-55 . . . . 12 II Brought forward 75 2'? 1856-57 . . 19 1874-75 ■ • ■ 6 1858-59 . . I 2 1876-77 2 1860-61 . , I 1878-79 2 7 1862-63 . . 3 4 1880-81 I 1864-65 . . 12 3 1882-83 3 I 1866-67 . , 9 I 1884-85 2 7 1868-69 . . 7 3 1886-87 2 30 1870-71 . . 2 I 1888 . 16 1872^3 . . 9 7S 25 1889 . 2 9 Total • T Ota 95 ! 95 The highest and lowest prices recorded, and the years in which these prices occurred, are given as follows : — Year of Price Average Highest Lowest Price for Highest Lowest 36 Years Is. d. Is. d. £. s- d. Bacon, cwt. 360 I 15 1869 1862 276 Barley, ,, 10 2 053 1868 ■ 1887 081 Beef, „ 2 13 190 1883 1863 226 Brandy, gall 13 S I '?5Z 1866 083 Butter, cwt. S 17 380 1876 1854 4 17 6 Highest Cheese, cwt. Cigars, lb. . Cochinealjlb. Cocoa, cwt. Coffee, „ Copper ) ore, cwt. j Cotton, cwt. Eggs (120) . Flax, cwt. . Flour, ,, . Guano, cwt. Hemp, ,, Hides „ Hops, ,, Indigo, lb. . Jute, cwt. . Lard, ,, IMaize, cwt. MolasseSjCwt. Nitre, cwt. Oats, „ Oil, olive, tun Oranges, ) bushel ( Pepper, cwt. Pork, Potatoes Raisins , . Rice . . . Rum . . . 340 o 14 3 041 4 13 6 5 I o 12 IS o 8 7 1 4 o 13 2 14 4 3 9 S 6 1 5 3 13 o II O 18 Q 67 O o 13 76 o 3 2 o 8 2 8 o 14 8 o 3 Lowest Year of Price Highest Lowest £s. d. 23c 064 I c 1 8 c 230 o 6 10 10 4 14 7 5 3 II 14 4 6 o 4 10 3S 15 o S II 33 o o 1 II 4 030 I S o 076 o I 6 1866 1882 1857 1879 1874 1856 1864 1874 iSv-ie 1855 1857 1854 1873 1882 1868 1863 1869 18SS 1857 1857 1868 1868 1862 1887 1870 1889 1856 1867 1857 Average Price for 36 Years 1879 1869 1884 1854 1858 1886 1886 1854 1888 1887 1889 1879 1854 1859 1889 i885 1879 1889 1888 1889 1888 1889 1864 1879 1854 1862 1886 1886 £s. d. 2 13 o O II 9 027 330 380 o 14 o 410 067 276 O 16 2 II O 1 14 O 380 506 052 o 16 4 2 II O 072 o 10 6 o 14 o 077 41 5 o 9 6 48 o o S 1 14 O 10 O 2 PRICES 475 PRICES Wier !.....» Lowest Year of Price Average Price for Year of Price Average nigucaL Highest: Lowest 36 Years Highest! Lowest 1 1 1 Price for 36 Years £s. d. Is. d. £,s. d. Saltpetre . 2 O O 3 17 o 290 I 7 260 16 10 2 10 1 II 12 3 IS 8 i860 1856 1878 1866 1857 i88s 1886 1868 i888' 1887 160 2 13 216 126 I II Seed, clover Sheep, each Silk, lb. . . Sugar, cwt. Cordage, cwt. . Cottons, 100 yds. , , printed, 1 100 yds. . . J Firearms, each . Flannel, doz. yds. Glass, flint, cwt. ,, bottles, ton Gunpowder, cwt. Hats, dozen . . 3 3 2 8 d. 4 £s. 2 I iS d. 1854 1864 1886 1886 £s. d. 2 12 3 I 6 3 Tallow, ,, 330 140 i8S4 1887 230 2 12 6 I s 1864 1889 I 15 8 Tea, „ Tobacco, cwt. Wheat, „ Wine, gall. Wood, load Wool, cwt. . 960 720 16 10 14 9 3 16 10 4 4 iS 320 076 3 10 1 iS 4 5° i86s 1863 i8S4 i8s6 i8S4 i8S7 1887 1878 18B6 1864 1887 1886 780 3 19 II 3 079 a 17 6 780 2 I I 3 13 II 10 3 12 I 19 18 11 2 2 9 S 2 14 19 187s 1864 i8ss 1854 1859 186s 1854 1888 188s 1883 1868 1886 190 16 3 2 IS 10 4 310 199 Herrings, barrel Horses . . . 0^ ^s 81 I I 1881 1887 1870 170 58 The highest and lowest prices for exports. and the 35 1876 years in which they occurred. ire shown as follows : — Iron, pig, ton . ,, hoop, ton. 6 S 13 5 14 12 2 3 4 " 6 I 1873 1873 1873 1888 1887 1887 316 7 16 Year of Price 10 5 c Highest Lov fest Average Price for 36 Years ,, wire, ,, . Jute, 100 yards . Lead, ton . . 23 10 2 10 25 12 10 17 12 S 1873 i8S4 1856 1885 1886 188S 17 IS J3 u I 12 19 18 c M q Leather, cwt . " S 6 17 1866 1879 8 14 S i-I Linens, 100 yds. 3 " 2 6 1864 1888 2 18 g ,, printed, ,, Oil-seed, ton . . Jt n g 2 9 18 7 1866 1888 3 4 ic 27 S c I -f- A £. J . d. £. ^- d. 34 10 1866 1886 Alkali, ton . . 12 7 s 3 ° 1873 1888 850 Paper, cwt. . . 4 16 I 13 i8S4 1888 3 2 c Bags, gross . . 900 2 6 1864 1886 4 18 Sailcloth, 100 yds. s 17 4 8 1874 1888 S 4 c Beer, barrel . . 480 3 6 1874 i8S4 3 16 Salt, ton . . . 19 9 1873 1863 II g Books, cwt. . . IS 8 7 18SS 1889 II IS Soap, cwt . . I 8 19 1869 1888 I 4 g Boots, doz. pair 3 12 2 I 4 1864 1888 320 Silk, doz. yds. . 2 10 I 17 1887 1889 2 I 3 Brass, cwt. . . 6 II 3 I S i8S7 1886 5 3 6 Spirits, gallon . 7 2 5 1889 1865 044 Butter 700 4 1 2 1884 1854 S 12 Steel bar, ton . 38 6 IS 7 1874 1889 30 10 c Candles, cwt. . 8 13 2 I i8S7 1888 426 Sugar, cwt. . . 3 13 i8S7 1887 I 13 E Carpet, doz. yds. 200 I 4 1867 1887 I II 6 Tin, „ . . 7 10 3 6 1872 1878 5 7 c Cement, ton, 3 16 I I 8 1856 1888 2 II 3 Wool II 4 4 9 c 186s 1885 7 15 c Cheese, cwt. . . 480 3 I 6 1870 i8S4 423 Yam, cotton, cwt. 13 10 S I 1864 1886 6 17 c Cloth, doz. yds. 210 I 4 1884 i8S4 I 14 6 ,, linen, ,, 8 8 S 12 1864 I8SS 6 17 ! Coal, ton . . . I I 8 4 1873 1887 9 10 ,, woollen,,. 19 10 10 12 1866 1888 14 II c Copper, cwt. 600 2 4 i8S7 1886 446 Zinc, ton . . . 32 13 6 c i8S7 1885 21 2 C British Imports from 1854 to i860 : — 1854 1856 1856 1857 1868 1869 1860 Bacon, cwt. Barley, , , Beans, ,, Beef, Brandy, gallon Butter, cwt. Cheese, ,, Cigars, lb. . Cochineal, lb. Cocoa, cwt. Coffee, „ Copper ore, cwt. Cotton, ,, Eggs (120) Flax, cwt. . Flour, cwt. . Guano, ,, . Hams, , , . Hemp, ,, . Hides, dry, cwt ,, wet, ,, Indigo, lb. . Lard, cwt. . Linseed, cwt Maize, ,, Molasses, ,, Nitre, Oats, Oil, olive, gallon „ palm, cwt Oranges, bushel s. d. 40 o 9 o 10 2 38 O 8 68 51 10 4 32 45 24 S3 4 SI 21 II 60 59 56 49 4 51 IS 10 II 17 8 4 46 9 48 9 7 41 6 9 9 70 o 52 10 II 6 3 II 40 46 21 55 5 51 24 II 66 43 67 56 5 52 16 s. d. 55 o 9 6 8 2 37 6 10 2 72 6 53 o s. d. 55 o 8 9 9 o SI o 12 10 80 O 47 II 3 10 50 o 46 9 23 o 60 8 8 o 4 I 80 o 48 8 17 73 6 46 o 7 9 8 4 39 o 7 7 73 6 45 3 II I 3 10 50 o 42 6 18 10 67 o 48 7 8 41 7 71 SI II 3 50 5° 19 74 8 S 6 13 8 16 6 8 10 4 4 43 6 10 10 62 12 8 15 17 3 6 o 6 o 6 4 I 43 o 13 o 35 8 17 o 13 o 68 9 32 2 95 9 80 6 6 o 66 9 14 o 8 10 19 4 20 o 8 3 4 3 43 9 12 10 5 46 15 12 59 28 65 63 6 o 8 o 9 4 6s 10 S s 52 4 14 o 12 o 56 7 S3 o 9 6 9 9 31 4 9 6 84 8 S6 10 II 7 3 4 62 o 58 6 18 10 60 4 27 10 74 5 55 12 8 7S 5 S6 II 7 10 7 9 9 10 16 IS 7 8 7 4 3 9 4 38 10 45 I II S II 9 7 SO 16 12 68 30 75 72 6 o 59 3 12 I 8 4 12 3 13 6 8 o 4 8 44 8 10 6 PRICES 476 PRICES 1864 1865 1866 1857 1868 1869 1860 1864-«0 s. d. J. d. s. d. X. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Peas, cwt II 8 12 10 8 9 7 10 2 9 4 10 10 6 Pepper, cwt. 47 49 47 46 45 42 42 45 6 Pork, 45 44 6 45 6 47 6 41 4 41 4 43 5 44 Potatoes, ,, 3 3 6 3 6 3 8 3 10 3 2 4 6 3 7 Raisins, , , 32 6 33 ° 47 8 44 8 27 3 37 2 33 10 36 6 Rice, 14 14 6 10 6 " 3 8 10 10 9 13 II 10 Rum, gallon 3 8 3 4 3 2 3 8 3 2 3 2 3 3 4 Saltpetre, cwt. 27 6 28 8 35 39 8 38 8 37 4 40 4 35 4 Seeds, clover, cwt 52 3 68 77 4 71 6 57 8 67 10 62 3 65 3 Sheep, each 30 35 6 37 48 6 46 42 4 43 40 4 Silk, lb. 21 6 22 9 32 6 35 10 28 32 34 7 29 6 Sugar raw, cwt. . 26 30 33 42 6 33 30 4 31 3 32 4 „ refined, cwt. 29 34 3 36 45 8 39 7 36 4 34 3 36 6 Tallow, cwt. 63 57 52 6 53 9 49 54 9 56 2 55 2 Tea 145 140 135 164 154 173 173 155 Tobacco, ,, 51 58 82 88 70 61 58 67 Wheat ,, . 16 6 15 15 3 12 10 10 7 10 7 13 8 13 s Wine, gallon 12 4 13 4 14 9 12 4 10 4 8 6 6 I II 2 Wood, load 76 73 62 60 9 54 58 4 63 64 ,, staves, load 140 148 120 128 105 96 120 122 6 Wool, cwt. . 168 172 196 210 191 192 20s 191 British imports firom 1861 to 1870 :- 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1861-70 J. d. s. d. 5. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. A J. if. 5. d. Bacon, cwt. . . 48 2 35 I 37 39 9 54 10 54 2 51 8 55 5 65 6 62 2 50 6 Barley, „ 9 4 8 8 8 6 8 6 6 8 10 10 10 2 8 4 7 9 8 8 Beans, ,, . . 8 8 7 6 7 6 7 7 9 7 8 2 Beef, 32 6 35 7 28 8 29 9 33 45 3 50 5 44 10 36" 2 42 9 38 Brandy, gallon . 9 I 9 I 7 6 6 3 5 5 5 I 5 8 6 5 6 4 5 S 6 6 Butter, cwt. . . 90 4 86 81 lOI 105 2 97 103 116 no 117 loi Cheese 45 10 42 I 48 3 52 58 6 66 8 56 59 63 63 5^ \ Cigars, lb. . . . 13 13 13 12 4 12 12 7 10 7 9 6 4 8 2 10 6 Cochineal, lb. . . 2 8 2 8 3 I 3 2 3 4 3 6 3 2 II 2 6 2 2 2 II Cocoa, cwt. . . 58 54 46 8 46 . 42 6 60 6 65 55 55 56 6 54 Coffee, ,, 55 6 66 4 69 2 66 63 6 56 2 71 63 63 61 6 63 6 Copper ore, cwt. . 17 8 17 2 16 8 16 8 18 2 16 6 II 9 12 6 II S II 10 15 Cotton, cwt. . . 72 5 141 206 255 176 151 92 93 104 90 138 Eggs (120) . . . 6 5 6 I 6 I 6 6 I 6 6 6 4 6 2 6 2 6 2 Fish, cwt. . . . 21 3 24 10 22 I 20 5 20 20 21 6 Flax 48" 5 56 53" 7 53" 3 52 55 4 59 57 8 56 6 SI 10 54 4 Flour 15 5 14 4 12 8 II 10 12 6 15 19 6 18 4 14 14 I 14 9 Glass 16 16 16 16 14 14 15 4 Guano, cwt. 12 12 7 12 4 12 12 12 II II 2 12 6 12 S 12 Hams, ,, 47 35 5 33 2 43 5 51 4 57 4 51 4 59 7 68 9 66 7 51 6 Hemp, ,, . . 30 7 35 6 40 5 33 2 31 I 31 I 37 6 39 3 37 3 37 8 35 4 Hides, dry, cwt. . 71 7 70 69 4 74 74 69 64 70 69 6 70 6 70 3 ,, wet, ,, 60 4 58 4 51 4 54 4 48 3 48 9 ... ■ 53 9 Indigo, lb. . . . 6 8 6 6 5 5 6 5 7 5 7 e" 6 8 e" 6 e' 2 6 Jute, cwt. . . . Lard, 25 16 9 18 2 17 9 17 8 17 4 19 6 19 53 42 I 38 3 44 6 63 4 69 51 64 72 7 66 9 56 6 Linseed, cwt. . . 13 2 14 15 13 2 13 6 IS 15 13 6 13 4 13 6 14 Maize 7 10 7 6 9 7 2 6 II 6 9 9 8 5 6 9 6 II 7 5 Molasses 9 II 9 5 9 2 13 3 12 I 13 3 14 12 3 12 8 9 6 II 6 Nitre, ,, . . 13 13 7 14 3 15 3 13 II 6 II 13 15 6 15 6 13 8 Oats, „ . . 8 1 8 2 6 10 6 6 7 2 8 2 9 2 9 6 8 4 8 8 Oil, olive, gallon . 4 8 4 6 4 8 4 8 4 2 4 6 5 5 4 4 3 4 2 4 7 ,, palm, cwt. 42 8 39 10 35 10 33 7 36 4 40 2 38 7 39 5 38 10 36 6 38 Oranges, bushel . II 3 13 3 12 6 12 I 12 I 12 I 10 2 9 7 9 6 6 8 10 10 Paper, cwt. . . . 51 4 SI 4 SI 4 51 4 SI 4 SI 4 5« 4 Pepper, cwt. . . 40 37 34" 6 33 33 34 32 6 33 42 48 36 9 Petroleum, gallon . 3 I 10 I 4 I 6 I 8 I 7 I 10 Pork, cwt. . . . 45" 3 33 31 5 39 3 41 6 50 46 8 5° 6 60 4 62 3 46 Potatoes, cwt. . . 5 4 4 I 3 5 3 4 3 7 4 4 5 9 4 9 4 9 6 4 4 7 Rags, ,, . . 20 6 21 9 19 18 17 >3 17 4 19 Raisins, ,, . . 28" 6 25 27 3 30 32 4 28 2 28 9 32 10 35 8 32 6 30 Rice, „ . . 12 8 II 10 II II II 2 12 4 13 I 14 8 12 4 10 8 10 7 12 I Rum, gallon . . 2 7 2 2 2 2 3 2 8 2 6 2 2 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 Saltpetre, cwt. . . 32 6 34 8 36 9 32 6 24 9 20 6 18 6 20 s 22 I 26 26 9 Seeds, clover, cwt. 53 53 52 9 ^\ i 67 5 64 3 55 54 54 8 56 5 56 6 Sheep, each . . 45 42 7 35 36 8 50 50 35 31 34 34 39 6 Sheep-skins, each . I I 2 I 3 I I I I I 3 I 2 Silk, lb 28 3 27" 5 25 4 27 II 28 II 29 4 25 9 24 9 24 6 26 26 9 Sugar, raw, cwt, . 30 10 28 26 2 33 I 27 I 27 3 21 10 22 7 24 6 22 6 26 4 PRICES 477 PRICES 1861 1862 1863 I 1864 1 1866 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1861-70 J. d. J. d. .r. d. s. i. i. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Sugar refined, c wt. 35 34 34 5 3S 9 31 4 31 I 31 6 31 8 33 32 33 Sulphur, cwt. 7 4 6 10 6 6 6 9 7 8 7 3 7 Tallow, ,, ■ 5°' 9 4S 9 42 4 41 48 3 44 9 44 48 45 4 43 4 45 3 Tea, • IS9 190 172 168 196 196 176 180 166 160 176 Tobacco. „ . 108 140 142 132 126 88 70 80 80 82 105 Wheat, ,, . 13 6 II 10 9 9 9 I 9 4 II 7 14 S 13 6 10 4 10 6 li 6 Wine, gallon 7 3 4 8 4 4 3 10 1 4 2 7 5 6 3 6 S 6 2 5 5 5 7 Wood, load . 66 66 66 72 6s 54 58 60 65 65 63 6 staves . 126 152 149 146 161 192 194 191 178 184 167 Wool, cwt. . . 180 180 174 201 180 193 152 133 127 134 165 Yeast, ,, . i 40 6 41 41 6 40 41 44 6 41 6 British im ports from 1871 to 188 0: — • 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1871-80 f. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 5. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Bacon, cwt. • • 49 3 41 40 10 45 9 52 4 S3 S 47 10 38 7 34 4 40 44 6 Barley, „ . 80 8 3 8 8 9 4 8 S 7 8 8 4 7 10 8 4 8 6 8 4 Beef, „ . . . 42 I 36 9 40 40 42 2 45 8 49 9 48 5 47 9 47 8 44 Brandy, gallon 7 3 7 6 7 4 8 8 7 9 6 7 8 6 8 8 6 8 10 7 II Butter, cwt. . . 104 106 109 112 116 117 117 III I02 105 no Cheese, „ . • • SS S7 60 60 6 58 55 6 58 SO 4 43 57 55 6 Cigars, lb. . . . 13 14 2 13 9 13 9 13 9 14 3 12 3 12 9 12 13 9 13 4 Cochineal, lb. 24 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 I 2 4 2 8 2 3 Cocoa, cwt. . . . 51 70 70 67 61 62 73 86 93 6 82 71 6 Coffee, „ . . . 63 71 88 lOI 95 94 97 93 88 89 88 Copper ore, c\ vt. . 13 8 17 3 16 6 14 10 13 9 12 4 10 I 8 8 8 8 9 4 12 6 Cotton, cwt. . . 70 8S 80 72 6 69 60 6 58 6 56 55 59 66 6 Eggs (120) . 7 7 8 8 7 8 7 8 4 8 4 8 7 8 7 2 7 2 8 Fish, cwt. . 23 6 25 7 28 29 8 30 2 30 3 30 7 31 28 6 24 10 28 3 Flax, „ . . . 47 52 3 SO 48 9 S3 55 3 49 3 48 45 3 46 2 49 6 Flour, ,, . . . 17 6 18 8 18 10 18 15 9 IS 10 18 6 17 4 IS 10 16 6 17 3 Glass, .. . . . IS 17 3 18 9 17 6 16 9 IS 9 14 7 13 8 14 2 14 4 IS 9 Guano, „ . . . 12 10 2 II "s 12 II 4 II 6 10 10 10 2 9 2 10 10 10 Hams, ,, . . . 60 52 SS 55 59 6 59 9 54 S 48 ''I 9 46 6 S3 6 Hemp, ,, . • • 36 S 37 9 37 I 35 5 33 6 33 4 33 3 30 9 28 28 6 33 6 Hides, „ . . . 70 80 83 73 70 63 62 59 58 62 68 Hops, „ . 80 100 98 127 93 91 94 75 93 92 94 4 Indigo, lb. . 50 S I S 4 6 4 10 4 3 4 10 4 4 4 2 5 3 4 9 Jute, cwt. . . . 21 8 19 6 IS 8 16 8 15 14 8 16 IS 3 13 8 17 4 16 6 Leather, cwt. 182 167 168 IS8 146 170 168 166 Lard. • • ss" 45 44 47 60 56 SO 39 33 9 40 47 Linseed, ., . . 14 IS 14 3 14 13 12 S 13 3 12 4 12 4 13 13 4 Maize, ,, . . 78 7 I 7 6 8 6 8 6 4 6 6 6 I 5 S 6 7 Molasses, ,, . . 9 10 10 I 9 S 10 9 II 9 4 9 6 8 8 7 S 8 2 9 4 Nitre, . . IS 6 IS 4 14 8 12 12 II 6 13 6 14 10 14 IS 4 14 Oats, . . 78 7 3 8 9 8 9 8 3 7 9 7 2 6 8 7 2 7 10 Oil, olive, gall on . 3 10 4 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 7 3 9 4 3 7 3 7 3 7 ,. palm, cwt • ■ 34 9 35 10 33 8 33 7 33 4 34 9 35 7 34 9 30 6 29 5 33 7 Opium, lb. . 22 I 21 iq 8 19 3 IS 6 15 2 17 10 18 9 Oranges, bush el ; 8" s 9" 8 9 9 9 8 9 4 8 S 8 9 8 3 7 8 8 8 6 Paper, cwt. . . SI 3 56 4 60 10 S3 48 48 8 SO 49 6 37 s 36 7 49 4 Pepper. ,. . . 50 6 61 70 65 50 6 40 40 34 S 34 8 43 46 9 Petroleum, ga Ion I 4 I S I 2 II 10 I 2 I I 10 8 8 I Pork, cwt. . . . 46 10 41 44 S 43 8 44 3 42 10 40 33 10 31 4 33 5 40 3 Potatoes, cwt. S 4 S 5 S 8 5 3 4 6 S 9 S 10 S 6. S 9 5 10 S & Rags, cwt. . . . 16 6 16 9 17 8 17 17 4 16 6 IS IS 2 IS 4 IS 3 16 4 Raisins, cwt. • ■ 33 2 37 3 35 3 36 3 37 9 36 3 34 3 31 8 34 4 36 10 35 3 Rice. 10 2 10 9 10 10 4 9 9 10 6 10 6 10 2 9 6 9 II Rum. gallon . . 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 I 2 I 10 I 8 I 9 2 Saltpetre, cwt. . . ■^s S 26 I 26 4 22 10 20 4 18 3 22 3 21 19 22 2 22 5 Seeds, clover. cwt. 54 6 SI 4 47 9 46 47 SI 9 SI 10 47 6 43 9 43 3 48 6 Sheep, each . . 39 41 43 42 44 43 48 49 48 48 44 6 Sheep-skin, ea ch . 22 2 10 3 2 2 9 2 10 2 7 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 10 2 S Silk, lb. . . . . 21 7 21 S 21 16 9 IS 4 19 2 20 17 8 17 5 17 18 9 Sugar, raw, cv VI. . 25 I 26 2 24 22 5 21 2 21 25 9 21 6 20 3 21 9 22 9 ,, refined cwt. 36 2 36 4 33 10 30 9 30 4 29 6 33 9 29 3 27 4 29 3 31 8 Sulphur, cwt. . . 6 6 6 9 6 7 6 9 6 10 6 S 5 1° 5 6 5 5 S 6 2 Tallow. ,. . . 42 42 10 41 3 40 4 42 4 42 9 42 39 4 35 10 35 2 40 5 Tea. . . 152 IS5 154 IS7 155 152 148 142 13s 125 147 6 Tobacco, ,. . • 7S 77 72 77 80 77 75 62 67 6s 72 9 Wheat. .. . . II 10 12 S 13 12 2 10 7 10 S 12 6 II 10 6 II I II 6 Wine, gallon 7 9 7 10 7 8 7 6 7 4 I ° 7 4 7 3 7 I 7 5 7 S Wood, load . . S^ ° 58 65 6S 57 58 56 49 42 SO 55 7 .. staves . ■ 144 188 199 149 133 133 133 98 97 91 136 6 Wool, cwt. . . . 124 13s 137 137 144 134 133 129 12s 126 132 6 Yeast. ., . . . 50 SO SI 52 49 49 49 52 52 52 SO 6 PRICES 478 PRICES British imports from 1881 to 1889 : — 1881 1882 1883 1881 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1881-S9 s. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. s. rf. J. d. s. • ;e ^• £ '■ £ '■ Butter, cwt S S 4 S 8 4 17 S 2 S 6 S 10 5 S Candles, S iS 4 18 S 3 S 8 S 8 S 6 4 18 S 4 Carpet, 12 yards . I II I 16 1 18 2 i 16 I 16 I 16 I 17 Cement, ton 2 17 2 II 2 12 2 10 2 9 2 9 2 9 2 10 Cheese, cwt. 4 I 4 2 4 7 4 6 4 2 4 6 4 8 4 S Cloth, 12 yards . I 7 I 18 I 19 2 I I 17 I 16 I IS I 17 Coal, ton . 19 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Copper, cwt. S 10 4 9 4 10 4 I 4 I 4 3 IS 4 3 Cordage, ,, 2 IS 2 9 2 IS 2 17 2 17 2 17 2 16 2 IS Cottons, plain, 100 yards I s 2 2 2 2 I 14 I 11 I 12 I 10 I IS ,, printed, ,, I 14 2 8 2 9 2 4 2 2 I 2 2 4 Firearms, each . I s I 9 I 7 I 10 I 13 I 4 I IS I 10 Flannel, 12 yards 16 I 19 19 18 18 17 18 Glass, f.int, cwt. . 3 4 3 I 2 IS 2 14 2 12 2 13 2 14 2 IS bottles, ton 10 16 10 10 3 10 9 19 9 18 10 10 Gunpowder, cwt. . 3 10 3 I 3 2 18 2 13 2 14 2 IS 2 17 Hats, dozen. 1 18 I 19 I 17 I 18 I 14 I II I II I IS Herrings, barrel . 1 S I 8 I 8 I 8 I 8 I 9 I s I 8 Horses, each 58 42 41 43 49 61 3S 45 Iron pig. ton 3 7 2 18 3 2 2 18 2 17 2 18 2 19 2 19 ,, rails, ,, 8 6 8 4 8 8 8 7 8 8 3 8 S 8 4 ,, hoops, ton . 13 2 10 s 10 9 12 8 18 9 9 6 9 10 ,, wire. ,, 20 Q 19 12 20 II 19 14 19 7 18 16 18 15 19 9 Jute, 100 yards . 2 4 2 I 17 I 14 I 13 I 10 I 10 I 14 Lead, ton 24 21 I 21 15 21 I 20 3 20 3 19 16 20 14 Leather, cwt. 8 16 9 12 II S 9 II 9 8 8 8 4 9 7 Linens, plain, 100 yards 2 18 3 7 3 9 3 S 3 3 2 19 3 3 S printed, „ 3 3 3 17 4 2 4 I 3 18 3 IS 3 8 3 18 Oil-seed, ton 30 S 30 S 34 16 34 9 31 S 28 28 12 31 S Paper, cwt. . 4 8 3 4 3 2 2 18 2 19 2 16 3 3 Sailcloth, 100 yards S 5 6 S 6 S 7 S 12 S 18 S S S 8 Salt, ton II 9 12 12 12 10 10 II Soap, cwt. . I 6 1 6 I 7 I 6 I 6 I 8 I 8 I 7 Silks, 12 yards I 18 2 6 2 8 2 9 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 7 Spirits, hhd. II 16 7 12 8 3 8 7 16 8 8 718 Steel, ton . 35 32 IS 32 14 32 12 32 4 31 31 12 32 3 Sugar, cwt. . 2 13 I 10 I 10 I II I IS I 16 I 12 I 12 Tin 6 416 4 9 4 II 4 14 S 16 6 S S 2 Wool. „ . . . 7 8 II 4 10 4 9 IS 8 12 8 6 7 3 9 4 Worsted stuffs, 12 yards 10 14 14 14 14 IS 14 14 Yarn, cotton, cwt. 5 12 II 4 II I 9 16 9 8 9 6 8 17 9 19 ,, linen, ,, 6 I 7 12 718 8 7 17 7 10 6 14 7 12 ,, woollen, „ 14 18 12 19 I 17 4 16 S 16 13 IS 12 17 S Zinc, ton 28 21 4 24 22 21 16 20 10 19 S 21 9 British exports from 1871 to 1880 ') 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1871-80 £s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ -■ ;^ ^• Alkali, ton ... . 8 7 II 3 12 6 10 9 9 3 8 3 7 IS 7 6 7 6 19 8 IS Bags, gross .... S S 6 S 3 4 9 4 2 3 12 3 14 3 12 3 8 3 9 4 4 Beer, barrel .... 3 17 4 4 3 4 8 4 3 3 19 4 3 4 6 4 S 4 S 4 3 Books, cwt II II 10 17 10 18 10 15 10 14 10 IS 10 13 10 7 10 10 10 13 Boots, dozen pair . 3 2 18 3 S 3 7 3 6 3 3 3 I 3 I 3 I 3 I 3 2 Brass, cwt. .... 4 10 5 9 6 6 6 5 9 5 4 416 4 3 3 18 4 S 5 ° Butter S 16 5 12 S18 6 2 6 2 6 S 613 6 12 6 8 6 8 6 4 Candles, cwt 3 13 3 14 3 IS 3 17 3 IS 3 12 3 II 3 II 3 3 3 3 3 II Carpet, 12 yards . I 16 I 19 I 19 I 19 I 17 I IS I 12 I 10 I 9 I 9 I 14 Cement, ton .... 2 9 2 9 3 3 2 12 2 II 2 12 2 II 2 10 2 10 2 12 Cheese, cwt. .... 4 6 4 S 4 6 4 7 4 3 4 I 4 3 4 3 17 4 S 4 3 Cloth, 12 yards . . I 18 2 I 2 I 2 I 19 I 18 I 16 I IS I 12 I 12 I 17 Coal, ton .... 10 16 I I 17 13 II 10 9 9 9 12 Copper ingot, cwt. . 316 4 16 4 14 4 8 4 8 4 3 3 16 3 10 3 3 3 8 4 Cordage, cwt. 2 16 2 18 3 2 16 2 IS 2 IS 2 IS 2 13 2 6 2 10 2 14 Cottons, 100 yards . I 8 I 9 I 9 I 7 I 6 I 4 I 4 I 3 I 2 I 3 I S ,, printed, 100 yards . I 19 2 I 2 I 19 2 I 17 I 16 I 15 I 13 I 11 I 17 Firearms, each . • • I 19 I 4 I 9 I 12 2 I I 7 I I I I 19 I 3 I 7 Flannel, 12 yards . 18 18 18 I 18 18 18 17 17 16 18 Flour, ton .... 16 10 17 10 19 18 3 14 18 14 19 17 9 IS 5 14 I 13 17 16 3 Glass, flint, cwt. . 2 8 2 13 2 18 3 3 2 19 2 16 2 12 2 12 2 2 2 14 bottles, ton . 9 14 9 16 10 4 10 8 II 2 II 3 II 10 14 10 4 10 2 10 9 Gunpowder, cwt. . 2 14 2 IS 2 19 3 2 2 19 2 16 2 14 2 14 2 17 2 i6 2 17 Hats, dozen .... I lo I 9 I 9 I 10 I 8 I 6 I S I 4 I 3 I 2 I 6 Herrings, barrel . . I 7 I 8 I 8 I 8 I 8 I 14 I 13 I 8 I 13 I 7 I 9 Horses, each .... 38 S3 63 67 77 81 74 69 59 61 64 Iron, bar, ton 8 7 II 12 13 2 II 16 9 18 8 II 7 IS 7 3 613 7 16 9 5 PRICES 480 PRICES 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1871-80 £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ '■ 4 '■ £ s. £ s. £ ^• £ s. £ s. Iron, cast, ton 14 15 17 14 19 8 19 19 18 2 16 II 14 7 14 13 3 13 IS 16 4 ,, gal van., ton , 20 12 26 2 26 19 25 II 24 9 22 16 20 7 18 18 16 16 18 7 22 2 „ hoop, ,, 9 8 13 14 12 13 6 II 3 9 12 8 II 7 17 7 4 8 9 10 7 ,. old, „ . 4 16 6 2 6 12 s 14 4 IS 4 S 4 6 3 17 3 8 4 16 4 17 „ plates, „ II 16 IS II 18 17 8 IS 4 14 6 12 16 II 16 9 7 10 13 13 1+ ,. pig. .. . 3 I S I 6 S 4 IS 3 13 3 2 2 17 2 14 2 12 3 4 3 14 „ rail. 8 S 10 16 13 S 12 6 10 8 18 7 IS 7 10 6 4 7 6 9 5 ,, wire, ,, 17 20 I 23 lO 21 18 10 16 8 14 14 14 9 13 8 13 18 17 6 Jute, 100 yards I 13 I 15 I 13 I 10 I 8 I 6 I 7 I 6 I 4 I S I 9 Lead, ton 19 S 20 9 23 IS 22 12 23 3 22 II 21 10 18 IS IS 8 17 8 20 10 Leather, cwt. . 8 3 8 16 9 8 18 8 18 8 2 8 2 7 6 6 17 7 17 8 4 Linens, loo yards 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 S 3 3 3 2 18 3 2 19 3 2 3 I ,, printed, io< 5yarc Is '. 3 7 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 8 3 8 3 S 3 I 3 I 3 3 4 Oil-seed, ton . 28 10 30 S 28 2S 13 24 23 10 2S IS 24 IS 24 4 24 10 25 iS Paper, cwt. 2 19 2 18 3 I 3 2 2 19 3 2 16 2 13 2 9 2 7 2 17 Sailcloth, 100 yards S 8 s 19 S 16 6 6 6 S 14 S 8 4 18 S 3 s 13 Salt, ton . 10 14 19 16 IS 12 II 12 12 II 13 Silk, 12 yards . 2 I 18 2 2 2 I 17 I 19 I 18 2 2 I I 19 I 19. Soap, cwt. I 7 I 6 I 6 I 5 I S I S I 4 I 4 I 2 I 2 I S Spirits, hhd. . 7 18 7 18 7 18 7 18 IS IS IS 6 IS 8 17 3 16 16 16 12 12 17- Steel bars, ton 30 12 32 18 37 2 38 6 36 6 34 3 33 II 31 19 27 18 28 s 33 ^ Sugar, cwt. I 12 I 12 I 10 I 7 I 4 I 3 I 8 I 4 I 2 I 3 I 7 Thread, 12 lbs. 2 2 2 4 2 4 I 19 I 18 I 18 I 18 2 cv Tin, cwt. 6 14 7 9 6'i7 S 5 4 12 3 19 3 14 3 6 3 12 4 10 S Tinplates, ton 24 S 32 5 32 IS 30 4 26 13 21 16 19 16 17 12 17 16 20 10 24 7 Wheat, 13 2 12 16 13 9 13 7 II S 10 II 13 10 14 9 17 10 6 II 17 Wool, cwt. . 7 14 9 6 9 17 10 4 9 16 8 12 8 S 9 6 613 7 12 8 IS Yarn, cotton, cwt. 8 14 8 16 8 6 7 8 6 16 6 3 s 19 S 18 S IS 6 3 7 ., jute, ,, 2 2 2 6 I 17 I IS I 12 I 10 I 13 I 13 I 13 I n I IS ,, linen, 615 8 12 8 13 7 I 7 8 7 S 7 9 7 6 6 18 6 12 7 8 „ woollen, ,, IS 10 17 5 17 7 17 13 17 17 IS 17 14 16 14 12 10 14 IS 13 Zinc, ton 17 18 20 3 24 18 24 18 23 16 23 20 14 18 IS 3 16 IS 20 10 British exports from 1881 to 1889 : — 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1881-89' £ ^■ £ s. £ s. £ ^■ £ ^■ ;f -f. £ '■ £ ^■ £ -f- £ ^■ Alkali, ton . 6 3 6 3 6 2 6 7 Si8 S IS s 13 S 3 s s S16 Bags, gross . 3 6 3 S 3 2 2 18 2 12 2 6 2 8 2 13 3 2 17 Beer, barrel . 4 2 4 S 4 3 16 3 IS 3 IS 3 16 3 i5 3 IS 3 iS Books, cwt. . 10 9 12 9 II 9 9 9 13 9 2 8 16 8 14 8 7 9 S Boots, dozen pair 2 17 2 19 3 3 2 18 2 18 2 18 2 14 2 14 2 18 Brass, cwt. 1 3 4 9 4 9 4 S 4 3 15 3 IS 418 4 10 4 S Butter, ,, 6 4 6 19 7 7 6 2 s 13 s 13 s 14 S IS 6 S, Candles, ,, 3 I 3 I 3 2 3 2 2 17 2 10 2 3 2 I 2 I 2 13 Carpet, 12 yards I 9 I 8 I 8 I 6 I 6 I S I 4 I s 1 S I 6 Cement, ton 2 7 2 7 2 6 2 S a 4 2 I 19 I 18 I 19 2 3 Cheese, cwt. 4 3 4 I 4 4 4 4 4 2 3 19 3 19 3 19 3 17 4 I Cloth, 12 yards I 13 I 14 I 18 2 I 2 I 19 2 I 19 2 I I i8 Coal, ton 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 10 9. Copper, ingot, cwt. 3 6 3 II 3 7 2 19 2 8 2 4 2 S 3 18 2 7 2 18 Cordage, cwt. 2 II 2 12 2 II 2 S 2 3 2 I 2 6 2 6 2 II 2 7 Cottons, 100 yards I 2 I 3 I 2 I I 18 19 19 19 I ,, printed, 100 yards I II I II I 10 I 10 I 9 I 6 I 6 I S I S I 8 Firearms, each . I S I 8 I 7 I 6 I 10 I 17 I IS I 12 I 8 I 10 Flannel, 12 yards IS IS IS 14 13 12 12 II 12 13. Flour, ton . 14 I 14 IS 13 10 12 s 10 8 10 s 10 8 10 s 10 16 II 17 Glass, flint, cwt. 2 2 2 7 2 S 2 7 2 3 2 8 2 9 2 4 2 S 2 6. ,, bottles, tor I . 9 18 9 II 9 S 9 6 9 II 9 8 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 9 Gunpowder, cwt. 2 I8 2 17 3 IS 2 IS 2 16 2 16 3 3 2 18 2 17 Hats, dozen I 2 I 2 I I I I I I 19 19 19 I I Herrings, barrel / ^s I lO I 10 I S I s I 4 I 1 I 3 I 2 I 6 Horses, 62 63 S6 58 60 $6 S8 66 69 61 Iron, bar, ton 617 7 7 7 I 6 II 6 3 s 13 S 10 S II 6 9 6 6 „ cast, ,, 13 12 13 17 13 12 3 II II 10 18 II 3 II 8 II 14 12 3. ,, galvan., „ 16 II 16 7 IS 4 14 6 13 8 12 2 II IS 12 IS 12 13 13 18 ,, hoops, „ 7 10 7 18 7 IS 7 S 6 14 6 2 6 I 6 I 6 IS 6 18 „ old. 3 19 3 17 3 9 3 6 3 I 2 14 2 17 2 IS 2 19 3 4 „ plates, ,, 9 IS 10 S 10 2 9 8 8 3 10 6 9 I 8 13 9 4 9 8 „ pig. 2 IS 2 16 2 12 2 6 2 4 a 3 2 7 2 3 2 10 2 8 ,, rail, „ 6 18 6 16 6 4 s 14 S 9 S 4 II 4 12 418 S lo- ,, wire, ,, 13 6 IS 7 14 16 13 2 12 10 13 17 13 12 13 9 14 18 13 18 ute, 100 yards I 3 I 3 I 2 I 18 17 17 18 I I I 0. ^ead, ton . IS 14 IS 9 14 I 12 12 12 S 13 17 13 IS IS ° 14 II 14 3 Leather, cwt. 8 I 8 IS 9 7 9 9 9 S 8 19 816 8 IS 9 4 8 19 PRICES 481 PRICES 18S1 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1881-89 f,s. f.s. /,s. As. /: ^. £ s- /■ s. /■-■• /: s. £ s. Linens, 100 yards .... 2 18 2 17 2 18 2 15 2 13 2 10 2 II 2 6 2 6 2 12 , , printed, 100 yards 2 18 3 8 3 S 2 14 2 17 2 12 2 II 2 9 2 13 2 17 Oil-seed, ton 24 22 10 20 4 20 20 4 18 7 21 20 9 21 14 20 19 Paper, cwt. . 2 5 2 5 2 3 2 I I 19 I 17 I IS I 13 I 14 I 19 Sailcloth, 100 yards S S 4 4 17 4 12 4 II 4 12 4 12 4 8 4 12 4 IS Salt, ton 12 12 13 13 15 ° IS 13 II 16 13 Silks, 12 yards I 19 2 I 19 I 19 2 5 2 8 2 10 2 6 I 17 2 2 Soap, cwt. . I 2 I 2 I 3 I 3 I 4 I I I 19 I I 2 Spirits, hhd. 17 14 18 II 18 14 19 3 19 12 21 3 21 3 21 lO 22 19 19 Steel bars, ton . 27 10 27 S 25 23 5 22 18 9 18 I 16 S IS 7 21 10 Sugar, cwt. . I 4 I 3 I I 18 15 14 13 15 16 iS Thread, 12 lbs. . I 16 I 17 I 19 2 I 18 I 16 I IS I IS I 17 I 17 Tin, cwt. 4 16 s s 4 19 4 5 4 9 S S 10 S 16 4 16 S Tinplates, ton 17 2 17 10 17 9 16 9 14 17 14 3 13 II 14 3 14 IS 9 Wheat, 10 4 10 I 10 14 8 II 8 6 7 IS 8 6 8 IS 7 17 8 18 Wool, cwt. . 7 3 7 3 5 IS S I 4 9 4 13 5 S 4 16 S S 10 Yarn, cotton, cwt. .S 10 6 I s 14 s 14 ,S « S I S I S 2 S 3 S 8 .. jute. 1 10 I 9 I 8 I 6 I I I 2 I 3 I 7 I 5 ,, linen. 6 10 6 8 6 13 6 10 6 13 6 12 6 8 6 IS 6 IS 6 II ,, woollen, ,, 12 2 II 18 10 19 II 2 II 6 10 16 II 2 10 12 10 14 II 4 Zinc, ton IS 3 14 13 13 18 13 12 13 6 13 II 13 I IS 14 IS 13 14 7 The prices of English grain per ton were :- Year Wheat Barley Oats Year Wheat Barley Oats 1786 1787 17B8 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1790 1797 1798 1799 i8oo 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1S07 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1814 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 183s 1836 1837 1838 £ s. 10 o 10 12 11 12 13 4 13 14 12 4 10 15 12 6 13 2 18 16 19 14 13 9 12 19 17 s 28 10 29 18 17 10 14 14 15 II 22 9 19 IS 18 17 20 7 24 7 26 12 23 16 31 13 18 12 19 13 24 S 21 II 18 13 16 19 14 o 11 3 13 7 16 o 17 3 14 14 14 13 15 2 16 II 16 I 16 12 14 14 13 5 11 II 9 17 12 3 14 o 16 3 £ 6 S 4 S 6 6 6 7 IS 7 19 9 7 8 17 6 16 7 S 9 I 14 19 17 3 10 17 11 IS 12 o 10 II 16 14 9 7 8 10 12 7 13 5 11 9 8 10 6 10 S 10 9 3 9 2 10 o 8 12 9 8 19 4 13 4 6 4 ° 4 3 4 18 4 10 4 2 5 3 5 6 6 2 5 10 4 I 4 18 6 18 9 17 9 S 5 2 5 8 6 I 7 2 6 18 7 I 8 7 7 18 7 3 6 18 II 3 6 9 6 16 7 6 7 7 S 6 6 6 7 S S 6 6 S 4 S S S IS S IS S 12 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 184s 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 185s 1856 1857 1858 i8S9 i860 1861 1862 1863 1864 186s 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1 871 1872 1873 1874 187s 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 188s 1886 1887 1888 £ ^■ 17 14 16 12 16 2 14 6 12 10 12 16 12 IS 13 14 17 9 12 13 II I 10 I 9 13 10 4 13 I 18 2 18 14 17 6 14 2 11 I II o 13 6 13 17 13 17 11 4 10 I 10 S 12 10 16 2 16 o 12 I 11 IS 14 4 14 S 14 14 14 9 II S II II 14 4 II 12 II o II 2 II 7 II S 10 8 8 19 8 S 7 IS 8 3 9 o 7 14 18 2 s 18 8 9 19 8 4 II I 7 18 7 ° 5 18 6 4 7 3 8 6 .9 o 8 14 10 S 10 10 8 14 8 8 9 12 16 12 3 13 19 4 3 8 2 13 IS s o 17 6 S 3 16 The preceding table gives the following averages :- Years Wheat Barley Oats £ s. £ s. £ s. 1786-90 . . II 16 5 17 4 8 1791-1800 . . . IS 18 8 II s 13 1801-10 . 21 10 10 7 1811-20 21 18 II 7 7 12 1S21-30 . 14 18 8 6 6 8 1831-40 . . . 14 s 8 4 s 14 1841-SO . 13 7 7 18 5 S 1851-60 13 13 813 S 18 1861-70 12 IS 9 S 18 1871-80 . . 12 16 9 10 6 7 1881-89 . . 9 S 6 17 S The prices of meat at Smithfield Market, London, averaged as follows, per ton, from 1835 to date : — 9 3 i . 9 ° 5 19 8 IS s 13 8 9 S 6 7 10 S ° 7 9 S 10 9 7 6 3 10 6 10 10 IS 7 9 17 6 10 8 13 S IS 9 I 6 6 9 6 S 16 10 2 6 12 II S 7 S 9 12 7 4 8 16 6 II 9 19 6 10 10 I 6 2 8 10 S 9 8 S S IS 8 S 9 716 S 10 8 S 7 7 14 S I 7 10 S 3 613 4 IS 6 7 4 2 4 14 4 14 4 17 4 17 yi!, • 1589J 18 .1 IP • • IW8 2 6 Sheepskin . 1327 014 Fagots, 1000 . 1560 2 2 Shoes, pair . 1SC4 O.IO ,, ,1 1600 I 10 Slates, 1000 . 1518 10 6 Fleece . . . 1 341 2 Steel, ton . 1307,20 Gunpowder,cwt. IW4 13 8 ,, ,, • • I.S42 800 Hay, ton . . . IS*)? I 7 Sugar, lb. . 1372 040 Herrings, 1000 . 1426 I 4 ,, ,, • 1^98 020 , ,, • IW'! 2 16 Thread, lb. . 1322 012 Horse-shoe . . 1307 ■; Tiles, 1000 . 1 341 II Iron, ton . . . 1S36 8 c ft >» • 107 I 12 Lead 1312 20 Wax, lb. . . 1434 oil n;i8 8 Wine, gallon 137=; 010 ti ,( • • • 1S42 4 16 ,, 1, 1560 013 Oil, gallon . . 1375 1589 S 8 c „ Bur-\ gundy . . / 'iS77 1 026 The prices of various kinds of grain, according to Broch, in twenty years ending 1883 were as follows per ton : — The prices of some articles of food in French cities at various dates were : — Year Bread, Ton Milk, 10 gallons Eggs, 10 dozen £ s. d. £ ^- d. £ s- d. ■1830 . . 16 053 2 10 1840 . . 9 12 053 040 1850 . . 940 06s 04s i860 . . 10 8 071 4 10 T870 . . 12 076 058 11880 . . 14 8 084 060 1886 . . 12 096 058 Prices of cattle and meat at Paris were : Year Per Head Per Ton Oxen Cows Sheep Beef Mutton T820 . . 1830 . 1840 . . . £ ^■ 9 14 14 4 15 4 £^- 6 16 7 12 8 4 16 1 I £ s. 44 49 52 £ ^- 52 54 54 Prices of rural products in 1888-89 averaged thus : 1 Ton Bushel Ton Bushel £ ^■ J. d. .. d. s. d. Wheat . 10 10 5 3 Barley . 6 8 3 3 Oats . . 4 16 2 5 Potatoes . 2 2 I I Maize . . 6 14 3 5 Chestnuts 3 8 I 8 Rye . . 6 12 3 4 Apples . 3 6 I 7 Prices of meat were as follows per ton : — Year Beef Veal Mutton Pork Average 1880 . . . 3884 . . . j888 . . . £ s. 64 10 67 57 £ s. 68 71 61 £ - 71 76 66 67 65 58 67 12 69 IS 60 10 Wheat Rye Barley Oats £ s. £ s. ^^• £s. 1864. . . . 10 5 7 8 6 IS 4 18 1865 . 9 II 7 6 9 4 17 1866 . II 9 7 8 7 9 5 S 1867 . IS 4 9 16 8 3 6 I 1868 . 15 8 10 14 8 18 6 9 1869 . II 17 7 14 7 2 S 12 1870 . II 18 9 6 7 7 5 17 1871 . 14 12 8 17 8 5 6 8 1872 . 13 10 718 6 8 4 17 1873 • 14 12 9 4 7 14 5 II 1874. 14 7 10 I 8 15 6 12 1875 • II 2 7 17 7 2 6 4 1876 . 12 3 8 3 7 6 6 8 1877. 13 13 8 18 7 14 6 I 1878 . 13 9 8 10 7 17 5 16 1879 . 12 15 8 17 7 9 5 10 1880 . 13 7 9 6 7 II 516 1881 . 12 18 8 12 7 3 5 12 1882 . 12 II 8 2 7 6 s 14 1883 . II 4 7 10 6 14 S 7 Germany The average prices of grain at Konigsberg, from 1815 to 1886, were as follows, per ton : — Years Wheat Rye Years Wheat Rye £ s- /, s. £ s. f, s. 1815-16 . . 8 4 5 10 1851-52. . 8 4 6 9 1817-18 . . 12 I 7 10 1853-54 . . II 13 8 13 1819-20 . . 615 4 12 1855-56. . IS 4 II 4 1821-22 . . 5 5 3 II 1857-58. . 9 6 6 2 1823-24 . . 4 I 2 18 1859-60 . . 9 2 5 13 1825-26 . . 3 14 2.16 1861-62 . . 10 7 6 IS 1827-28 . . S 12 3 16 1863-64 . , 7 12 5 4 1829-30 . . 7 9 3 II 1865-66 . . 8 7 S 16 1831-32 . . 7 19 S 1867-68 . . 12 13 9 5 1833-34 . • 5 7 4 4 1869-70 . . 9 9 6 14 1835-36. • 4 12 3 14 1871-72 . . II II 7 2 1837-38 . . s 13 4 I 1873-74 • • II 17 8 2 1835-40 . . 8 6 4 4 1875-76 . . 9 12 7 I 1841-42 . . 8 12 5 4 1877-78 . . 10 10 61.S 1843-44 . . 6 2 4 6 1879-80 . . 9 19 7 10 1845-46 . . 8 6 6 17 1881-82 . . 10 3 8 1847-48. . 9 6 6 14 1883-84 . . 8 13 6 12 1849-50 . . 6 19 3 12 1885-86 . . 7 16 6 5 The prices of grain at Hamburg were as follows, per ton :— Year Wheat Rye Barley Oats £s. £ ^■ £ s. £ '■ 1826 .... 4 19 3 3 2 8 I 10 1827 . 6 18 6 10 4 4 4 2 1828 . 6 8 S II 3 6 2 2 1829 . 12 14 s 19 4 14 2 16 1830 . 7 14 4 16 3 3 2 9 1831 . II 10 7 7 4 14 3 I 1832 . 9 2 7 4 4 2 9 1833 ■ 6 6 5 I 3 8 2 3 1834 . 5 14 4 13 2 17 I 18 183s • 5 7 5 3 5 2 3 1836. 5 6 4 12 3 8 I 18 1837 • 6 18 5 12 318 2 14 1838 . 6 14 5 4 3 2 2 3 1839 • 13 7 13 4 19 3 5 1840 . 10 6 6 4 17 3 2 1841 . 8 2 8 8 3 17 2 19 1842 , II 3 7 3 16 2 II 1843 . 8 7 7 4 I 2 16 PRICES 484 PRICES Year Wheat Rye Barley I s. £ s- £ ^■ 1844 . 8 IS 6 2 4 I 1845 7 S S 4 7 1846 10 10 7 14 4 9 1847 12 6 10 13 7 3 1848 10 17 6 ig 4 16 1849 8 2 4 10 4 1850 8 2 4 10 3 12 1851 8 3 6 5 4 6 1852 S 15 8 8 S 4 ly.w 9 12 7 4 S 8 1854 14 18 12 8 7 13 la.s.'i 14 2 9 16 6 10 1856 i6 18 13 13 8 3 i8S7 II 12 7 11 6 10 i8=;8 9 10 7 S 2 1859 10 7 7 S I i860 10 17 8 2 7 1861 12 16 8 7 8 2 1862 14 9 17 6 S 186,3 II 6 8 S S " 1864 9 6 8 s 17 1865 8 8 s 17 s s 1866 II 10 7 IS 8 1867 14 6 9 12 9 9 1868 16 13 7 9 I 1869 II 14 9 17 9 18 1870 10 S 7 9 7 12 1871 12 8 8 18 7 14 1872 13 16 9 10 9 10 187.3 14 5 II 6 10 S 1874 10 14 9 8 9 8 187s 10 14 9 S 9 6 1876 . 11 7 9 3 7 IS 1877 12 16 10 7 7 14 1878 12 S 9 I 9 7 1879 9 16 7 8 18 18S0 12 19 9 16 9 S Oats 3 o 2 14 3 6 4 8 3 S 2 I 3 19 The foregoing table is summed up as follows : — Period 1826-30 1831-40 1841-S0 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 Wheat £ '■ 7 14 8 o 9 6 IS 17 12 9 Rye £ s. S s 5 16 6 IS 8 IS 8 IS 9 9 Barley £^- 3 II 3 17 4 8 6 4 7 9 9 3 Oats £s. 2 12 2 10 2 18 4 3 4 13 5 8 The prices of twenty-one principal articles of consump- tion were as follows, per ton : — 1880 1887 1880 1887 £ s. £ s. £ ^■ ^ ^. Barley. . 9 2 7 10 Pork . . SS 44 Beef . . 49 46 Potatoes . 1 16 I 8 Coal . . s 4 Rice . . 13 10 Coffee . . 63 78 Rye . . 7 4 6 10 Copper . 63 47 Silk . . 136 108 Cotton . SS 52 Sugar. . 33 23 Herring . 12 7 Tin . . 79 120 Iron . . 2 12 2 10 Tobacco . S3 Mutton . SI 44 Wheat . II 14 8 10 Oats . . 6 14 S 12 Wool . . 167 140 Petroleum 8 6- Zmc . . 160 I4S The prices of live stock in 18S3 were as follows : — Horses Oxen Milch Cows £ ^■ £ ^■ £ s. Prussia 23 6 13 16 II 6 Bavaria 22 8 13 12 10 8 Saxony 33 ° 13 12 2 Wurtemburg 20 10 14 12 II 10 All Germany 23 18 14 II 8 The prices of four principal articles in Germany in late years were as follows, per ton : — Year Cotton Wool Lead Iron £ '■ £ ^- £ ^■ £ s. 1879 . 62 167 IS 2 12 188s . SS 134 11 2 3 1886 49 133 13 2 3 1887 . 52 116 12 10 2 10 1888 S3 130 14 2 12 Austria The prices of grain in fifteen years, taking the gulden at 20 pence, wer^ as follows, per ton : — Wheat Rye Barley Oats Maize £ s. £ s. £ s. £ s. £ ^■ 1874 . . . II 14 9 9 9 7 2 7 2 187s 9 7 7 S 7 II 7 9 S 1876 9 16 8 7 IS 7 2 S 3 1877 10 IS . 8 8 18 6 18 6 II 1878 9 14 6 9 8 S IS S 18 1879 10 16 7 S 9 IS S 18 S 9 1880 II 14 9 8 S 6 2 6 II I88I 10 17 8 10 8 IS 6 S s 14 1882 9 18 7 7 8 10 6 S 6 14 1883 8 17 7 9 6 s 14 1884 8 6 10 8 17 6 S18 188.; 7 7 6 S 7 2 s 17 S 7 1886 7 14 6 7 18 S II S S 1887 7 10 S IS 7 14 S 7 S II 1888 6 17 S 7 7 10 S S 3 The averages, in periods of five years, were as fol- lows : — Period Wheat Rye Barley Oats Maize 1874-78 . . 1879-83 . . 1884-88 . . Gen. average £ ^. 10 S 10 3 7 10 9 7 £ s. 7 17 7 16 6 7 4 £ s. 8 S 3 17 7 16 3 6 I/7 6 2 5 II 6 3 £ s. s 19 6 S 9 S 16 The prices of some other commodities were as fol- lows : — 1 1882 1887 1882 1887 i, s- /, s. /C s. /: ^• Butter, ton . . 72 S3 Rice, ton . . 13 IS 16 Cheese, ,, S4 SS Straw, „ . . I i3 Coffee, „ 80 102 Sugar, ref., ton 35 29 Hay, „ . 2 16 Tea, ton . . 233 268 Potatoes, ton . 3 7 3 IS Tobacco, ton 90 90 Raisins, ,, . 17 10 17 10 Wine, 100 gal. 18 15 Hungary The prices of rural products were as follows, per ton : 1884 1886 £ ^• d. £ '■ d. Barley .... 614 7 S Beef. 42 Hemp 29 4 26 14 Maize 5 4 500 Mutton 31 10 Oats. S 12 520 Pork. 33 10 Potatoes 3 7 2 10 Rye . 6 14 S 8 Wheat 8 6 14 Wool 9S 79 Wine, 40 gallons 2' 14 PRICES Italy 485 The prices of wheat per ton in the Udine market from J 606 to 1875 were as follows : — Period 1606-10 . 161 1-20 . 1621-30 . 1631-40 . 1641-50 . 1651-60 . 1661-70 . 1671-80 . 1681-90 . 1691-1700 1701-10 . 1711-20 . 1721-30 . 1731-40 . 1741-50 . 1751-60 . 1761-70 . 1771-80 . 1781-90 . X791-1800 1801-10 . 1811-20 . 1821-30 . 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1B71-75 . Highest £ s. 7 14 6 II 12 6 8 1 12 II 6 10 S 6 S 7 8 6 S 7 7 8 9 14 10 17 10 13 19 2 19 12 23 2 9 14 9 12 12 o 14 12 11 18 15 o Lowest 3 17 4 5 2 4 3 3 3 2 18 15 4 3 4 3 3 4 5 4 6 8 7 7 7 IS 8 5 7 7 5 o 7 I 6 10 8 13 8 7 10 3 Average S II 16 16 s 5 7 S 7 S 4 S 4 S 5 S 4 5 6 6 6 8 S 8 16 S o 3 II IS 8 9 7 13 3 S 18 II 13 13 7 I 8 o 9 4 II 14 10 7 13 6 Year of Highest Lowest 1601 1618 1628 1631 1649 1656 1664 1677 1685 1696 1709 1717 1729 173s 1747 17S1 1766 1774 1788 1800 1801 1816 1828 1839 1846 I8SS 1867 1873 1610 1611 1625 1639 1645 i6S9 1666 1673 1688 1691 1702 1720 1727 1731 174s I7S4 1762 1776 1781 1791 1808 1819 1824 1834 1844 1851 1864 1875 The prices of maize in the Udine market from 1626 to 187s were per ton as follows : — Year of Period Highest Lowest Average Highest Lowest £ '■ £ ^■ £ ^■ 1626-30 . . 9 'S , 6 S 10 1628 1626 1631-40 . . I 12 2 8 1633 1639 1641-50 . . 8 10 1 18 318 1649 164s 1651-60 . . 3 16 z 2 11 1656 1659 1661-70 . . 3 II I 10 2 2 1663 1669 1671-80 . . 4 10 I 18 2 12 1675 1678 1681-90 . . 4 I I 10 2 4 1685 1682 1691-1700 . 418 2 S 3 6 169s 1700 1701-10 . . 3 16 I 14 2 17 1709 1703 171 1-20 . . 4 4 1 14 3 S 1717 1720 1721-30 . . 3 2 I 13 2 7 1724 1727 1731-40 . . 4 II 2 6 3 S 1739 1734 1741-50 . . 4 9 2 8 3 4 1750 1748 1751-60 . . 6 I 2 3 3 13 I7SI I7S3 1761-70 . . 6 7 2 16 4 S 1763 1761 1771-80 . . 7 I 3 IS S 2 1772 I77S 1781-90 . . 8 10 3 12 S 7 1782 1790 1791-1800 . 16 2 4 19 7 17 1800 1791 1801-10 . . IS 4 S 9 8 IS 1802 1808 1811-20 . . 16 18 3 S 8 14 1816 1819 1821-30 . . 8 3 13 S 8 1830 1823 1831-40 . . 8 4 3 19 5 10 1839 1831 1841-50 . . 8 7 4 18 S18 1846 1844 1851-60 . . 10 II 1 s 14 7 4 '!|3 1858 1861-70 . . 8 3 5 6 4 1861 1868 1871-75 . . 9 12 6 S 8 1871 187s Nothing is more surprising than the great difference of pnces of grain in Italian cities. For instance, wheat in 1865 was £2 per ton dearer in Florence than in Cenoa, and in 1877 it was £3 dearer in Genoa than in Florence, as shown in the following table : — Year 1862 . 1863 . 1864 . 1865 . 1866 . 1867 . 1868 . i86g . 1870 . 1871 . 1872 . 1873 • 1874 . 187s ■ 1876 . 1877 . 1878 . 1879 . 1880 . 1881 . 1882 . 1883 . 1884 . 1885 . PRICES Wheat Genoa Florence £ s. 13 o 12 10 12 10 15 14 16 O 12 16 13 18 14 11 14 6 15 14 14 o 12 o 12 14 17 8 14 8 12 9 13 12 II S II 4 10 10 9 7 9 o £ ^- 14 16 14 7 13 19 13 o 12 15 14 18 15 16 13 18 13 10 14 16 15 9 16 4 15 IS 12 II 13 6 2 4 o 4 8 II 4 10 16 10 6 10 7 14 13 13 13 II Maize Verona £ s. 9 8 6 14 6 IS 6 6 7 2 7 14 6 17 5 10 6 14 10 10 10 13 3 14 11 S 7 3 7 4 8 16 8 15 8 4 9 12 7 16 9 2 7 3 6 10 6 9 Florence £ 7 5 6 6 6 7 15 7 II 5 6 s 19 7 18 9 I 8 II 9 6 6 1 5 14 7 12 3 8 7 8 8 IS 7 4 7 8 6 IS 6 6 6 2 In the above tables the depreciated paper money of the years 1866 to 1882 is converted into gold at the average rates for each year, the premium on gold vary- ing from 4 to 14 per cent. The prices of rice, wine, and olive-oil were as follows : — « Year Rice, Ton Wine, 100 Gallons Olive-Oil, 100 Gallons Milan Rome Rome £ s. £s. £ -■ 1862 13 9 16 22 1863 12 7 f -^ 18 8 1864 13 7 8 2 17 12 1865 13 2 8 10 17 1866 13 8 6 8 18 1867 14 4 6 10 22 16 1868 13 12 8 S 21 12 1869 12 16 9 8 17 1870 10 14 8 13 16 4 1871 12 15 4 16 16 12 1872 14 12 S 12 18 8 1873 IS 4 7 20 4 1874 IS ° 6 16 187s IS 4 6 4 17 12 1876 15 12 S 8 16 12 1877 IS 8 12 4 19 10 1878 13 4 12 6 23 4 1879 14 4 7 7 17 4 1880 14 5 17 22 1881 12 12 7 4 19 10 1882 13 9 8 17 1883 IS 8 8 10 18 1884 14 4 8 5 20 4 1885 12 10 10 8 18 8 1862-65 . 1866-70 . I87I-7S ■ 1876-80 . 1881-85 . Greneral average 12 19 8 13 18 15 12 19 7 17 19 2 14 11 6 2 18 4 14 9 8 12 19 14 13 II 8 15 18 12 13 18 8 18 17 Rice ranged from ;^io 14s. in 1870 to £1$ 12s. in 1876; wine from £4 i6s. in 1871 to ;^I2 6s. in 1878; and oil from ;f 16 4s. in 1870 to £23 4s. in 1878. It would seem, therefore, that wine is subject to much more violent fluctuations of price than either rice or oiL PRICES 486 PRICES The prices of best beef per ton were as follows : — Year Milan Naples Florence £ s. £ ^■ £ s. 1862 42 10 52 8 50 ^l^ 47 10 51 4 52 1864 45 12 61 4 53 4 ^l^J 46 57 4 5t 1866 43 53 5 52 1867 44 8 51 4 54 1868 45 60 8 54 1869 48 15 63 10 56 1870 50 8 63 12 54 1871 SO 16 60 45 12 1872 52 15 63 4 48 2 1873 66 8 78 51 ° 1874 60 4 82 61 187s 58 16 69 10 62 10 1876 55 4 69 5 63 6 1877 53 12 67 4 63 14 1878 53 16 62 16 69 1879 53 16 59 12 68 1880 53 12 6y 68 s 1881 55 16 74 10 76 4 1882 51 4 76 80 1883 54 79 4 85 12 1884 56 82 8 91 10 1885 60 79 4 87 The price thus : — Switzerland. of meat per ton from 1845 to 1881 averages- Period Beef Mutton Pork Average 1845-51 . 1852-61 . 1862-71 . 1872-81 . £ s. 32 39 52 62 £ s. 32 41 52 64 £ s. 33 42 43 54 0. £ s. 32 7 40 13, 49 o- 60 The prices of other commodities were : 1885 1888 1885 1888 /, s. /C s. £ '■ £ ^■ Barley, ton 8 10 9 6 Spirits, 1 100 gall. ) 9 1 3 II Butter, „ 54 70 Cheese, ,, 74 70 Sugar, ton 27 19 10 Coffee, „ 52 84 Tea, „ 204 204 Oats, „ 617 6 12 Tobacco , , 65 41 o- Potatoes,, 2 3 2 Wheat, ,, 8 10 9 I Raisins ,, 18 18 10 Wine, 100 1 gallons ) 8 3 ^ T- Rice, „ 15 16 13 10 5" Mr. Secretary Miihlemann , of Berne, gives the following able of prices per ton :— - Year Wheat Rye Barley Year Wheat Rye Barley Year Wheat Rye Barley £ s. £ '■ ^ s. /; s. £ s. £ ^- £ s. £ s. £ ^. 1784 .... 9 4 6 10 5 14 1812. . . . 18 7 12 3 9 16 1854. . . . 20 18 14 17 10 o- 1785 13 8 8 2 6 16 1813. J 16 4 9 9 S 1855- 18 8 II 13 8 14. 1786 II 14 6 12 5 6 1814. 12 2 7 13 6 10 1856. 17 14 10 3 8 1 1787 II 8 6 12 5 6 1815. 12 18 8 6 6 14 1857. IS 6 10 II 8 15 1788 13 8 8 16 6 14 1816. 23 17 15 10 12 5 1858. 9 16 6 2 5 14 1789 14 10 8 2 1817. 32 IS 20 12 16 14 1859. 10 12 6 7 5 17 1790 15 10 9 12 7 12 1832* 9 17 7 13 i860. 14 18 10 12 8 7 1791 12 7 6 1833- 7 I 6 10 1861. 14 14 9 17 7 7 1792 12 7 6 1834. 5 4 5 b 1862. 12 17 7 14 6 i3 1793 15 13 9 18 8 10 1835- 5 4 5 7 1863. 12 10 6 10 6 8 1794 20 12 14 12 12 2 1836. 518 s 14 1864. 6 14 6 17 1795 26 4 16 9 13 1837. 5 19 S 5 1865. 7 4 6 18 1796 16 8 10 I 8 II 1838. 6 7 5 14 1866. 7 17 7 fr 1797 13 I 6 7 5 18 1839. 7 11 6 7 1867. II 4 8 7 1798 14 18 S 12 5 16 1840. 7 II b 9 1868. 9 17 8 6 1799 IS 7 12 6 15 1841. 6 7 5 1869. b 8 6 i6- 1800 17 2 11 2 9 I 1842. 7 5 10 1870. 7 2 7 a 1801 15 3 10 7 8 II 1843. 9 12 7 5 1871. 13 e 8 12 8 12 1802 19 6 11 12 81^ 1844. 8 10 8 1872. 13 14 8 3 8 5- 1803 18 6 II 3 8 14 1845- 8 3 617 1873. 14 10 9 3 8 19, 1804 . . 12 6 7 6 6 16 1846. 12 8 10 1874. 14 9 17 9 19, 1805 15 10 7 17 6 6 1847. 22 i6 10 II 17 1875- 10 15 8 3 8 19 1806 17 IS 10 10 8 14 1848. 12 6 16 5 12 1876. II 8 8 IS 9 S 1807 12 17 8 6 8 1849. 10 2 6 10 5 1877. 13 9 14 10 3 1808 II 16 6 16 6 I 1850. 10 13 6 17 5 9 1878. II 18 8 16 9 10 1809 9 18 6 8 6 I 1851. II 8 7 16 6 4 1879. II I 9 4 8 15 1810 10 18 6 14 5 17 1852. 13 2 9 2 6 10 1880. 12 8 9 4 9 4 1811 .... IS 17 8 II 7 1853- • ■ • IS 4 10 I 6 10 1881. . . . II II « 15 9 » The price of ;ommon bread at Berne per 10 lbs was as follows, in pence :- - "i a; K • 1837 . 12 3 8 4 66 55 1846 . . . S 16 19 I 183S . 10 4 7 2 48 43 1847 . 6 S 17 18 1839 • II 13 7 II 68 SI 1848 . 5 10 16 9 13 1840 . 7 6 418 40 S3 1849 . 4 IS 14 I II 4 1841 . 7 6 418 48 47 1850 . 4 6 12 8 10 ... 1842 . 8 12 416 37 39 1851 . 4 9 II 8 9 II 1843 . 6 11 3 9 28 10 36 1852 . 4 14 12 4 10 1844 . 6 19 4 2 37 35 10 1853 • 7 10 17 7 16 2 1845 . 6 12 4 2 27 10 38 1854 ■ 7 13 19 16 13 1846 . 8 S 8 36 44 10 1855 • 5 IS 15 10 13 2 1847 . 10 13 7 7 47 37 1856 . 5 12 IS 6 13 8 1848 . 10 3 S 10 35 ° 35 1857 • 5 10 14 IS 13 8 ... 1849 . 8 16 S 30 31 1858 . 4 12 13 10 8 1850 . 8 3 4 18 57 48 1859 • 418 12 10 10 S 1851 . 7 14 4 S 56 10 38 i860 . 4 IS 12 5 10 1852 . 7 6 4 17 37 10 33 1861 . 4 4 12 i'3 8 17 1853 . 8 12 5 I 46 33 1862 . 4 7 12 10 7 II i8S4 . 12 6 6 4S ° 35 10 1863 . 5 2 13 S II '!^l ■ 12 17 7 9 40 35 ° 1864 . 6 S 15 5 13 2 1856 . 14 16 6 S 45 41 1865 . 6 2 14 2 13 2 1857 . 11 14 S 16 59 54 10 1866 . 7 14 16 12 IS 1858 . 7 16 5 ^ 54 10 57 1867 . 613 13 12 IS 25 1859 • 7 6 6 8 54 10 45 1868 . S I 12 15 12 2 24 i860 . 7 II 6 2 SI 42 1869 . 6 6 12 13 12 I 20 10 r86i . 9 12 S 8 52 41 1870 . 6 I 14 8 13 18 10 1862 . 7 IS 4 94 41 1871 . 6 II 14 13 13 I 18 5 1863 . 7 3 IS 186 37 1872 . 8 IS 17 18 IS 14 20 10 1864 . S 3 3 6 188 33 10 1873 . 7 16 IS IS 13 16 22 1865 . 9 10 7 7 233 60 1874 - 5 13 12 IS II 14 I* 1866 . 7 IS S ° 140 52 1875 • 4 13 II 813 12 10 1867 . 7 S 18 102 32 1876 . 4 3 9 14 7 14 II 2 1868 . 10 16 6 14 6s 47 1877 . 3 IS 9 2 7 9 I 1869 . 8 2 S18 84 52 1878 . 3 II 9 6 17 813 1870 . 8 16 6 14 9S SI 10 1879 . 4 9 10 15 8 12 10 I 1871 . 9 3 S16 60 56 1880 . 5 18 12 10 10 S 14 I 1872 . 10 4 S S 78 SI 10 1881 . S 5 12 9 16 12 IS 1873 . 8 16 S 8 74 47 1882 . 5 7 12 14 9 8 10 2 1874 . 10 4 S 9 65 45 1883 . 4 13 10 9 7 17 1875 . 7 12 6 S 60 45 1884 . 4 3 9 3 6 8 1876 . 8 12 S ° SS 45 10 188s . 3 15 8 8 ... 5 18 1877 813 4 10 S3 S3 1886 . 3 18 9 ... 7 3 1878 . 10 4 4 II SO 47 1887 . . 4 7 10 6 7 14 1879 . 8 4 3 18 47 39 1888 . 3 19 9 15 6 I 1880 . 9 13 4 10 S3 42 1889 . . . 3 14 8 17 s 14 The American Almanac gives the following prices from 1825 to 1886 (reduced to English gold) : — 1825-30 1831-40 1841-60 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-«6 £ '■ £ ^■ £ '■ £ s. £ ^- £ ^- £ X Beef, ton . 22 25 22 23 22 22 27 16 Butter, ton 70 80 61 10 89 106 104 I02 Cheese, „ 33 37 29 38 46 52 47 Coal, „ I 13 I 14 I 5 I S 1 6 19 16 Coffee, „ 6s SS 36 49 71 77 50 Cotton, ,, 56 58 39 SO 170 65 52 Fish, „ 13 20 10 26 37 34 30 44 Flour, ,, 13 17 13 14 12 10 12 ID 6 Hams, „ 47 49 35 46 45 42 65 Iron, „ 10 18 9 7 6 13 6 I 6 2 6 II 4 11 PRICES 490 PRICES 1825-30 1831-40 1841-50 1861-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-86 £ s- £ '■ £ s- £ s. £ s- £■ '■ £ ^. Leather, ton . 98 89 73 102 104 no 107 Maize, ,, S 6 13 5 14 6 13 6 7 4 13 S 2 Pork, 30 39 25 39 40 34 34 Rice, ,, 14 17 21 19 33 32 25 Sugar, 35 32 29 29 39 33 28 Tobacco, ,, 19 33 27 42 58 40 37 Wheat, „ 8 10 10 10 9 12 3 II 13 10 8 2 Wool, „ I2S 152 125 162 176 181 172 Prices at New York, reduced to English gold, from 1855101889:— Year Flour, Leather, Bacon, Lard, Pork, Beef, Butter, Cheese, Tobacco, Petroleum, Eggs barrel cwt. cwt. cwt. cwt. cwt. cwt. cwt. cwt. 100 gallons (120) J. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1855. . . . 38 90 39 48 34 41 84 50 1856. 35 121 43 48 48 41 35 92 48 1857- 29 130 60 47 35 6 88 47 • - 1858. 23 113 44 53 41 40 6 83 42 ... .. 1859. 25 113 49 53 37 33 76 42 6 i860. 25 107 41 52 35 30 70 47 6 1861. 24 95 ° 45 46 6 40 30 6 71 48 6 1862. 20 84 30 35 ■27 30 64 33 95 1863. 19 93 28 33 22 24 62 33 S3 1864. 15 80 26 27 22 20 68 28 108 1865. 28 120 70 60 49 36 100 66 198 1866. 24 95 56 65 54 47 114 56 52 165 9 1867. 27 115 42 49 47 41 82 50 36 loS II 1868. 31 80 42 49 38 41 94 47 38 87 9 a 1869. 24 52 63 49 31 T26 56 40 120 1870. 22 112 65 6s 53 30 119 65 46 III 14 1871 . 24 107 47 54 46 37 92 58 38 95 10 1872 . 26 98 36 42 30 30 80 49 43 93 7 6 1873- 27 102 36 37 32 32 90 52 44 90 9 1B74. 26 107 41 40 34 34 104 54 41 65 8 1875. 22 106 46 57 41 35 ° 98 56 46 SI 9 1876. 23 III 50 55 45 36 loi S3 44 52 10 1877. 26 108 49 49 40 34 92 S3 46 84 i ^ 1878. 25 100 39 40 32 36 82 52 39 59 6 6 1879. 22 95 32 33 27 29 65 41 36 4S 6 6 1880. 24 109 31 35 28 30 79 45 35 6 35 7 1881. 23 103 38 44 35 30 92 52 39 43 7 1882. 25 98 47 54 42 39 89 52 39 6 37 8 1883. 25 99 S3 56 46 41 87 53 40 36 8 6 1884. 23 96 48 45 37 35 85 48 42 6 38 I 5 1885. 20 93 44 37 34 35 78 4S 47 36 8 9 1886. 19 6 93 35 33 28 28 72 38 36 36 7 6 1887. 18 6 88 37 34 31 25 73 45 40 32 ^ ? 1888. 19 81 39 36 35 24 6 8s 47 39 32 6 6 6 1889. 20 77 39 39 35 25 6 76 45 ° 41 32 5 9 Retail prices in 1870 were as follows : — ■a 1% W 1 s c 0) 1 1 5 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. J. d. Beef, lb. . 10 9 ° 5 6 7 Butter, lb. . I 10 I 8 I 5 I 3 I 7 Coal, ton . 46 31 40 32 44 Cheese, lb. . 10 I I I I I Coffee, „ . I 4 I 3 I 2 I 2 I 3 Eggs, dozen I 5 I 2 I II I 2 Flour, barrel 40 30 36 25 30 Lard, lb. I 10 I II II Mutton, ,, 8 7 5 S 7 Milk, gallon I 2 I 6 2 I 2 I 6 Molasses, gallon 4 2 4 4 2 4 4 4 2 Pork, lb. . 9 7 6 6 7 Potatoes, bushel 2 10 3 5 4 b 2 2 3 Petroleum, gallon 2 2 3 3 2 4 2 6 Rice, cwt. . 60 60 60 60 60 Soap, ,, 56 47 ^l ° 47 50 Sugar, ,, 6s 70 78 74 70 Tea, lb. 4 10 5 6 8 6 8 5 10 PRICE-LEVELS. Mr. Jevons constructed several price-levels from 1782 to 1869, as follows : — Taile cj Forty Classified Articles. _. (A Years jn % •i .S3 g-3 rt bjQ s fa Sfi <3< 1782 .... 100 100 100 100 100 1783-90 95 102 109 88 91 1791-1800 116 119 13s 86 112 1801-10 150 157 170 71 133 1811-20 124 134 166 72 IIS 1821-30 102 97 135 SO 88 1831-40 91 96 134 S3 83 1841-50 88 76 127 42 73 1851-60 97 84 132 39 79 1B61-69 93 loS 128 40 77 PRICES 491 PRICES General Table at Intervals of Ten Years. Year Number 1 Year 1789 . . 100 1819 1799 '• . 151 1829 1809 . . 184 I 1839 Number ■ 131 • 93 . 108 Year 1849 1859 1869 Number ■ 75 • 90 ■ 89 Year 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 Table of Price-Level from 1846 to 1869. Number 100 106 89 85 87 87 89 106 Year 1854 I8SS 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 1861 Numier "5 112 117 123 108 110 112 no Year 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 Number 108 107 106 los III 102 104 103 According to the prices given by Arthur Young, the following is a general price level from a.d. 1301 down to his time, and continued to 1884 : — g CO t -T J, A ^ Cattle . . 100 PS 80 160 246 350 Soo Beer . . . 100 80 80 80 160 280 35° Butter . . ICO 7S 75 100 125 250 350 Grain . . 100 95 133 270 330 35° 240 Horses . . 100 105 100 132 346 700 800 Wine. . . 100 70 130 200 500 600 700 Eggs. . . 100 100 70 70 135 ibo 270 Meat. . . 100 85 b5 200 300 400 55° Total . . 800 70s 733 1.2XZ 2142 3090 3760 The following price-levels embrace a period of forty years to 1884 : — Years Jevons Econo- mist Ham- burg Soetbeer Average 1845-50 . . 100 100 100 100 100 1851-55 • ■ 107 112 114 III 1856-60 . . 120 127 121 125 123 1861-65 • • 123 124 127 125 1866-70 . . 121 140 124 125 127 1871-75 • ■ 127 133 136 132 1876-80 . . "S 123 127 122 1881-84 • • 105 118 124 116 Sauerbeck's and other index-numbers for late years are as follows : — Sauerbeck Year No. 1867-77 1873 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 Kial Year iNo. 1861-70 1 100 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883-84 98 107 112 109 106 lOI 100 94 93 97 94 96 90 Exonomist Year ;No. 1845-50 1871-77 1878 1879 1880 1881 1S82 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 Hamburg Year No. 1847-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-75 1876-80 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 100 116 124 133 123 121 122 122 114 109 104 103 The Economist index -numbers for twenty principal articles of merchandise showed as follows : — 1845-50 1857 1870 ; 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1881-90 Calico . . . 100 "3 135 95 101 99 92 88 ! ii 85 85 86 89 91 90 Coffee . 100 151 134 151 122 ' 100 . 82 106 i i9 84 153 199 166 186 129 Copper 100 133 83 81 75 86 80 71 i7 49 48 88 71 64 69 Cotton 100 95 173 no 105 102 89 92 ! P So 85 88 93 92 92 Flax . 100 121 116 78 71 75 68 76 ; '9 78 7b b4 ^ 64 72 Indigo 100 121 151 205 197 195 190 151 11 5 141 131 129 126 120 153 Iron . 100 121 88 92 79 86 78 69 ; ?2 07 62 b7 70 109 76 Lead . 100 143 109 112 87 88 83 70 ( >8 75 72 82 74 82 78 Leather 100 150 128 144 144 139 139 139 i; 3 141 13s 132 130 130 137 Meat . 100 105 123 119 14b 125 145 123 IS <7 ^53 no 114 108 123 123 Oil. . 100 141 126 106 95 94 100 no i i9 83 75 74 78 82 88 Silk . 100 204 174 135 130 139 126 117 f i8 98 129 "3 no 114 116 Sugar . 100 123 83 70 60 67 . 60 54 ' 4 4b 37 4b 61 42 52 Tallow 100 147 105 102 8q 103 III 113 i is 68 64 77 87 75 87 Tea . 100 162 102 141 100 89 76 92 i to 93 V 81 64 62 81 Timber 100 103 99 105 106 no 108 100 ( n 5? 89 85 no "5 101 Tin. . 100 166 138 109 110 134 114 104 IC » 118 122 140 "5 120 118 Wheat. 100 118 80 88 82 84 77 73 ( » 58 66 58 5S 56 67 Wool . 100 146 96 117 120 108 106 98 < )i 92 114 107 108 120 106 Total . 2,000 2,563 2.243 2,160 2,019 2,023 1.924 1,846 i,6i is 1,661 1.730 1.830 1,782 1,847 1.83s jrding to Board of Trade prices for IS follows : — 18fi 4-60 If 61-70 L871-80 1881-8{ 1889 Index-numbers acc< British imports were s Coffee . Copper . Cotton . 100 131 73 222 181 61 106 149 43 90 169 35 87 18 54-601861-70 1871-80|l881-88 1889 100 .. 58 109 75 142 75 124 67 120 Bacon . 100 96 88 91 81 Eggs . 100 Barley . 100 102 98 76 66 Flax . 100 "5 105 83 76 Beef . 100 95 no 120 102 Flour . 100 «3 94 72 b4 Brandy . 100 71 84 98 98 Gloves . 100 130 125 112 108 Butter . 100 120 131 125 126 Guano . 100 102 92 7b 58 Cheese . 100 108 108 99 93 Hemp . 100 9b 92 84 95 Cigars . 100 93 123 104 102 Hides . 100 94 90 80 75 Cochineal 100 76 62 30 28 Hops . 100 87 88 98 67 Cocoa . 100 104 137 158 144, Indigo . 100 108 85 76 "S PRICES 492 1854-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 1889 PRICES Jute "Lard Maize Molasses Nitre Oats Oil Oil-seeds Oranges Oxen Pepper Pork Potatoes Raisins Rice Rum Saltpetre Seeds Sheep Silk Sugar Tallow Tea Tobacco Wheat Wine Wood Wool Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 S.ooo 98 85 88 82 98 108 no 92 112 80 104 128 81 103 70 75 88 90 Si 81 "3 157 85 50 99 87 4.921 91 82 80 70 84 96 84 107 73 130 104 91 157 96 83 60 63 74 no 62 70 74 95 log 85 67 83 69 4.727 72 76 66 58 70 76 70 82 61 125 142 84 180 92 68 5° 53 67 104 50 51 59 71 105 66 65 72 55 4.252 Index-numbers of British exports : 77 64 55 57 60 68 68 79 50 "5 142 80 228 87 68 50 5° 64 85 48 49 48 66 98 57 67 73 48 4,026 1854^0 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 1889 Alkali . 100 90 92 61 54 Bags . TOO ^l 64 43 45 Beer . 100 106 120 "3 no Books . 100 93 75 67 59 Boots . 100 "3 103 97 90 Brass . 100 92 83 70 75 Butter ICO 97 124 126 "5 Candles 100 74 61 47 36 Carpets 100 "3 no 84 80 Cement 100 93 91 75 68 Cheese 100 103 103 100 95 Cloth . 100 133 137 140 151 Coal . 100 104 133 95 III Copper 100 80 73 55 43 Cordage 100 96 98 H-^ 92 Cottons 100 Z40 103 80 76 ,, printed . 100 127 no 82 73 Firearms 100 136 112 120 112 Flannel 100 "3 "3 82 75 Glass . 100 88 85 72 70 ,, bottle 100 92 97 87 87 Gunpowder 100 85 81 81 83 Hats . 100 92 68 52 52 Herrings 100 108 116 104 88 Horses 100 88 no 104 120 Iron, pig 100 85 III 72 75 ,, rails . 100 96 in 67 60 ,, hoops 100 80 78 53 52 Jute . 100 79 64 45 47 Lead . 100 88 83 58 60 Leather 100 106 93 lOI 104 Linen . 100 no 104 91 80 ,, printed 100 118 lOI 91 83 Oilseed 100 106 88 69 70 Paper . 100 71 6^ 45 39 Sailcloth 100 108 "3 95 92 Salt . 100 91 118 118 145 Soap . 100 100 96 84 77 Silks . 100 118 102 113 98 Spirits 100 67 108 173 188 Steel . 100 91 94 65 44 Sugar . 100 70 51 34 30 Tin . 100 89 83 83 80 1854-60 Wire . Wool . Worsted Yarn, cotton ,, linen . ,, woollen Zinc Total . 1861-70 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 5,000 1871-80 1881-88 100 125 140 167 123 123 79 5,077 87 116 no 125 123 112 74 4.872 68 74 92 97 108 82 51 4.151 1889 74 ■ 65 88 92 112 77 55 4.047 The summary of import and export numbers is : — 1854-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 Imports Exports Total 5,000 4.921 4.727 4.252 4,026 5.000 5.077 4,872 4.151 4.047 10,000 9.998 9.599 8.403 8,073 The foregoing method, however, has the disadvantage that all articles are treated as of equal importance, wheat the same as gunpowder in affecting the level of prices. The British Association appointed a committee under Professor Edgeworth to frame a more suitable method of price-level, and the committee adopted one similar to that of Mr. Jevons. The following are the various scales that have been proposed : — V) c OJ S # ^ rC 1 — . s a § M ^ s < Butter* . 35 75 75 30 45 80 57 Sugar . 35 25 25 55 45 15 33 Wine . 35 25 25 70 45 40 Wool . 35 25 25 75 20 20 33 Silk . . 35 25 25 10 20 15 22 Tea and 1 coffee j 35 25 25 20 20 15 23 Wheat . 35 65 50 no 45 100 67 Barley . 35 65 50 55 45 35 47 Oats . . 3,5 65 50 60 20 50 47 Metals . 70 5° 50 IS 40 80 51 Coal. . 100 40 70 Indigo . 35 I 10 5 20 I 12 Flax . . 35 3 30 10 20 5 17 Palm-oil 35 I 10 20 I 13 Timber . 70 30 30 20 70 60 47 Leather . 70 25 25 20 70 40 62 Meat. . no 100 100 155 90 120 "3 Cotton . no 30 25 100 20 20 51 Sundries 150 365 370 260 320 258 195 Total . 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 * Butter includes also cheese and milk. In the foregoing scales it will be observed that four writers took no account of coal, and one omitted wine. There seems to have been no good reason for inserting indigo and palm-oil, which are items of trifling value, while fish, lard, rice, potatoes, and other important articles, are omitted. Another feature that seems inexplicable is, that four of the above writers give barley the same rela- tive importance as wheat, whereas the latter, (see page 12) ought to be three times greater than the former. A similar remark applies to oats, which should stand for only half the value of wheat. PRICES 493 PRICES A general price-level for the principal countries from 1860-62 to 1883 is taken as follows from my History of Prices (Longmans, 1885) : — Ratio of Values Year ■aS 9 £ ffn 2 a 3 C9 ■5 3 2 < 1860-62 100 100 100 100 100 \QO 1863 . 121 10^ roi 94 90 IQ9 1864 . I3» 107 100 96 106 J'ZO 1865 . 126 102 107 92 104 113 1866 . 127 98 98 97 170 ir6 1S67 . 11.=; 86 107 90 99 102 1868 . no 87 10,'; 87 107 lOI 1869 . 109 87 106 8i 125 lOI 1870 . 100 80 io,S 85 108 95 Average 118 94 104 90 114 107 1871 . 100 83 106 97 112 97 1872 . lob 87 118 105 125 102 1873 . no 89 122 103 100 103 1874 . 104 83 107 99 102 97 1875 . 99 7« 96 97 96 92 1876 . 93 80 109 93 85 89 1877 . 94 77 100 97 lOI 91 1878 . «7 76 92 92 83 84 1879 . 84 80 97 89 90 85 1880 . 86 81 90 96 96 88 Average qb 81 104 97 99 92 1881 . as 78 87 95 94 8b 1882 . as 76 82 83 98 85 1883 . 84 71 77 78 91 81 Average 85 75 82 85 94 84 The manner in which the above price-levels were arrived at was this. The trade of each country, imports and exports, was set down for each year side by side with what the amount would have been (seeing the quan- tities imported and exported) if the prices of 1860-62 had been maintained. As regards Great Britain, the exports of foreign and colonial merchandise are not included. Actual trade returns (millions £ sterling) :— ^1 S >v E a "Sif! S Year il ^ £ 2 So < 1860-62 . . . 346 180 54 41 101 722 1863 . 396 203 61 46 59 7b5 1864 . 435 218 62 51 46 812 1865 . 437 229 61 54 47 828 1866 . 484 239 59 50 82 920 1867 . 456 234 t>5 55 99 909 1868 . 475 244 t'7 61 92 939 1869 . 485 249 69 64 106 973 1870 . 503 227 66 94 144 1,004 Average 428 216 61 52 89 847 1871 . 554 258 81 87 17s 1.155 1872 . 611 293 94 93 193 1,284 1873 . 626 294 9b 103 207 1,326 1874 . 610 288 91 9b 210 1.295 1875 . 598 296 89 96 184 1.203 1876 . 576 303 lOI 101 182 1,263 1877 . 593 284 83 100 206 1,266 1878 . S62 294 82 103 225 1,266 1879 . 555 313 93 109 23b 1,306 1880 . 634 340 91 116 308 1,489 Average 592 296 90 100 213 1,291 1881 . 631 337 9" 117 314 I.49S 1882 . 655 336 95 117 300 i.5°3 1883 . 667 33° 99 116 312 1.524 At prices Ofl 860-62 (millions £ sterling :— ^^ OJ E T3 w 0) Year a-a It c 1— t t t b/] txo < 1863 . . . . 328 197 60 49 e-; 699 1864 . . 315 204 62 S3 43 677 '!!'5 ■ • 347 22s 57 58 45 7; 2 1866 . . 381 244 60 58 48 791 1867 . . 39b 273 61 61 100 891 1868 . . 432 280 64 70 86 932 1869 . . 445 286 6S 79 85 960 1870 . . 503 283 63 75 133 1.057 Average 393 249 61 63 76 S42 1871 . . 554 310 77 90 156 1,187 1872 . . 599 .338 80 88 154 1.259 1873 - . 570 330 78 100 207 1.28s 1874 ■ . 586 348 85 97 206 1,322 1875 . . 604 380 93 99 192 1,368 1876 . . 618 379 93 109 214 1.413 1877 . . 631 368 83 103 204 1,389 1878 . . 648 387 8q 112 271 1.507 '=^5 ■ 657 391 96 122 262 1,528 1880 . . 737 420 101 121 321 1,700 Average 620 36b 87 104 219 1.396 1881 . . 742 431 110 123 334 1.740 1882 . . 770 442 116 141 306 I.77S 1883 . . 794 463 129 149 343 1.883 Average . . . 769 445 118 138 328 1.798 The following price-level for twelve principal items of international consumption is taken from the same work (to which the late Professor Neumann Spallart alludes in his UebersUhten Ueber Production, 1 886) : — Price-Levels of the World for 100 Years. Years 1782-90 . 1791-1800 1801-10 . 1811-20 . 1821-30 , 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-S4 . Years 1782-90 . 1791-1800 1801-10 , 1811-20 . 1821-30 . 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-84 . Agricultural 100 133 165 175 118 no los 128 123 "5 98 >» ^ a t- cd s s P ^ 6 M 100 100 100 100 100 141 131 121 no 170 188 167 259 75 138 208 190 206 75 165 157 153 90 46 "3 173 144 75 41 no 165 155 60 26 no 184 175 ,54 28 104 194 198 46 61 no 220 218 36 ,34 88 244 222 30 29 64 132 166 172 "3 109 102 118 123 119 "3 Industrial u t "3 R -a E E h u 100 100 100 100 124 138 109 107 159 263 85 82 181 238 91 82 144 108 91 58 124 127 71 54 82 182 .57 42 75 144 61 .36 72 144 61 52 85 128 61 ,37 55 116 48 32 ! H 100 112 199 161 92 84 73 68 103 78 ' 108 100 ! 100 128 116 173 138 168 136 90 100 in 75 62 96 94 95 87 75 69 75 70 57 It appears from the above that agricultural products have risen 13 per cent., manufactures fallen 43 per cent., in price-level since 1782-90. PROSTITUTION 494 PUBLIC WORKS Beginning from 1841, we have in the following table a retrospect of values for 44 years ; that is to say, if the same quantity of merchandise produced and consumed yearly from 1881 to 1884 were bought and sold at prices ruling in the four preceding decades, the amounts would be approximately as follows : — Millions, £ Sterling 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-84 Grain . . . . 1,419 1.724 1,658 1.547 1,326 Meat . . . . S6o 628 661 747 830 Hardware . . . 576 525 504 593 ^84 Dairy products . 236 266 303 333 340 Cotton goods . . 386 33S 484 346 302 Woollen goods . 263 24s 280 268 223 Timber .... 428 338 338 301 273 Coal 224 241 241 241 189 Leather .... 218 202 212 188 184 Potatoes . . . "S 125 154 164 181 Wine . . . . 86 105 III III 130 Raw cotton . . 76 85 183 101 87 Wool . . . . 160 14s 125 97 83 Books . . . . 120 "5 105 87 79 Silks 68 82 104 88 73 Linens, &c. . . 77 74 78 74 70 Sugar . . . . 106 100 106 84 61 Coffee . . . . 23 30 38 50 42 Tobacco . . . 29 44 53 38 37 Tea 16 20 24 21 16 Total . . S.186 5,429 5,762 5,479 4,910 The above twenty items comprise 90 per cent, of all human industries as regards products or manufactures, and therefore enable us to arrive at the variations of price- level for the whole world — that is, the rise or fall in the purchasing power of gold since 1850. The result is as follows : — Years 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 lOO.O 104.7 lll.l 105.7 94-7 PROSTITUTION Prostitutes P"; f'??° Inhab. London .... 31,800 83 Paris 26,990 122 Berlin 27,300 248 Lyons 5,520 145 Marseilles .... 4,080 112 Bordeaux .... 2,610 125 The Paris police reports show that 89 per cent, are French, 11 per cent, foreign. According to the Diet, des Sciences Med., 100 prostitutes may be expected in their lives to give birth to 60 infants ; 100 married women to 480. PROTECTION In order to promote certain local products or manu- factures, which in some cases could not be profitably cultivated otherwise, ' ' protection " is given either by means of bounties or by heavy import dues on foreign goods. United Kingdom. Between the years 1690 and 1830 Great Britain paid the inhabitants of Belfast and Dundee 28 millions sterling to enable them to sell and export Irish and Scotch linen at less than cost. The export of linen has quadrupled since the bounties were abolished in 1830, the average bounty before that year having been ;^lS0,(X)O per annum. Bounties on the exportation of grain in England aver- aged ;^l6o,ooo per annum for some years, until their abolition in 1805. France In i860, by virtue of the Cobden Treaty, it was stipu- lated that no duties on foreign imports should exceed 25 per cent, ad valorem. The treaty has since lapsed. In 1880 a system of shipping bounties was established as follows : — 48 shillings per ton for building iron vessels, and 16 shillings for wooden ; 15 pence per ton per 1000 miles run on French-built vessels entering French ports ; 74 pence per ton for French vessels not built in France. . The amounts paid for these bounties were : — Year Building Navigation Total 1881 1884 1S86 ^^38,000 179,000 120,000 ^39,000 344,000 303,000 ;.f 77.000 523,000 423,000 There are also fishing bounties, which in some years reach ;^20o,ooo, and sugar bounties, ;£'6oo,ooo. The effect of the shipping bounties has certainly been to pro- mote French shipping, viz. : — Entries French Foreign 1880 3,614,000 8,750,000 1887 4,770,000 8,710,000 Increase 33 per cent. In 1889 the duties were increased on imported food to protect the French farmers : cattle now pay 32 shillings, sheep 4 shillings per head, and wheat 50 shillings per ton. This causes bread to be at times so dear that muni- cipal bakeries are established to sell cheap bread to the poor. Belgium. Sugar bounties average ;^i7o,ooo a year in Belgium, and ;6iSo,ooo in Holland. United States. Protective duties in 1885 compelled San Francisco to pay £<) a ton for American made rails, when as good could be landed from England at ;^S a ton. Iron ore at Pittsburg cost 40 shillings per ton, when Bilbao ores could be landed in New York at 12 shillings. PUBLIC WORKS There is no means of ascertaining the value or cost of these in the various countries. In France a sum of 402 millions sterling was expended in 80 years, down to 1880, on roads, bridges, harbours, and canals. In England about 200 millions have been spent on sanitary works and schools. The United States Government in 90 years, down to 1880, spent 93 millions sterling on public edifices, arsenals, lighthouses, &c. The system of dykes in Hol- land represents an outlay of 300 millions sterling. The following table shows the amount of loans for public works in the United Kingdom from 18 1 7 to i88r : — Advanced Balance Due Great Britain Ireland ;^44,700,ooo 31,800,000 ;^26,020,000 6,100,000 Total .... ;^76,5oo,ooo ;^32, 120,000 The total account of public works loans from 1792 to 1890 for the whole United Kingdom showed thus : — Sums advanced . . . ^^115,324,000 Repaid by borrowers . . . 63,979,000 Bad debts, &c 12,685,000 Balance due in 1890 . . . 38,660,000 QUAKERS 495 RAILWAYS Q. QUAKERS There are 18,000 in the United Kingdom. They have a longer span of life than the general population, their death-rate during twenty years averagmg only 18 per thousand as compared with 22 per thousand, probably the result of temperate habits. They have, however, one-fifth more insane than the rest of the population, namely, 33 per 10,000 against 28, which perhaps arises from inter-marriage. QUICKSILVER The Times published the following estimate of pro- duction : — Year Tons United States Spain, &c. Total 1880 1889 Average ten ' years . 2005 880 1360 199s 2500 2280 4000 3380 3640 The Almaden mines in Spain were worked by the Romans: they still employ 4000 miners, who suffer a tremendous death-rate. In 1888 the value exported from Spain was ^^500,000. A flask of quicksilver weighs 76 lbs. According to Kolb, the production in California was as follows : — Year Flasks Tons Value Value per Flask 1859 ■ i860 . 1865 . 1870 . 1876 . 3.400 9.45° 42.S00 13.800 41,100 "3 31S 1,420 460 1.370 ;^26,000 66,000 232,000 96,000 342,000 7.6 7.0 5-5 7.0 8.3 It appears that the production has now fallen to 26,000 flasks or 880 tons yearly, being about equal to one-third of what is produced annually in Spain. The annual production and consumption averj^e : — Production Tons CoHSumftion Tons California 900 Great Britain . 1600 Spain 1100 United States . 600 Austria . 300 China 500 Various . 1000 Various 600 Total 3300 Total . 3300 R. RABBITS The annual slaughter is supposed to reach 20 millions in Great Britain, 70 millions in France.* The annual exportation from Belgium averages S millions; the im- portation into Great Britain, 3 millions. The consump- tion in Melbourne market is one million yearly. Rabbits were introduced into Australia a few years ago for food, but multiplied so rapidly as to become a pest. A single pair of rabbits can become multiplied in four years into 1,250,000. The Sydney Cabinet in the year 1887 destroyed 25,300,000 rabbits, having spent £joo,oiX) in four years to mitigate the pest. Mr. Coghlan says that 100 million acres of land have been more or less injured by them. To check their onward march a fence of 290 miles between the Macquarie and Darling rivers was made at a cost of ;^24,O0O ; another of 346 miles from the Murray River north ; another of 260 miles on the southern line of Queensland ; another of 340 miles from Albury to the Macquarie ; but the rabbits broke through. The number of rabbit-skins exported averages yearly :— New South Wales New Zealand Victoria 15,000,000 6,000,000 3,000,000 besides 1000 bales yearly from South Australia. The Cabinet of Victoria spends ;^i5,ooo a year in killing rabbits. RAILWAYS The Almanac de Gotha gives the total mileage at various dates as follows : — Year 1830 1840 1850 i860 Miles Year 210 S.420 23,960 67.350 1870 1875 1880 188s Miles 139,860 177,600 224,900 307,400 * De Foville questions the number of rabbits in France. The Actual mileage, however, was as follows :- - 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888 U. Kingdom 838 6,62D 10,430 13.540 17.930 19,810 France . . . 360 1,890 5.880 9.770 14.500 20,900 Germany 341 3.640 6,980 ",730 20,690 24,270 Russia . . 16 310 990 7,100 14,020 17.700 Austria 90 960 2,810 5.950 11,500 15.610 Italy . 13 270 1,120 3.830 5.340 7.830 Spain . 80 1,190 3,200 4. 550 S.930 Portugal ... 40 440 710 1,190 Sweden 375 1,090 3.650 4,670 Norway 40 170 690 970 Denmark 20 70 470 830 1,220 Holland II no 200 7«o 1,440 1,700 Belgium 210 55° 1,070 1,800 2,400 2,760 Switzerland . 15 650 890 1,600 1,870 Roumania . ... 150 860 1.530 Servia . . . 100 340 Bulgaria . . ... 200 430 Greece . . . ... 10 370 Turkey . . 40 390 700 900 Europe . . i 1,679 14,465 3i,88.s 63,300 101,720 130,000 U. States . . 2,820 9,020 30,630 53.400 93,670 156,080 Canada . . 16 70 2,090 2,500 6,890 12,700 Mexico . . 220 660 5.010 Peru . . . ... .50 250 1,180 1,630 ChiU . . . Z20 450 1,100 I.7SO Brazil . . . 1.35 505 2,17s 5.580 Argentina 15 640 1,540 S.550 Uruguay . . 60 270 450 /apan . . . 75 9T0 India . . . 840 4.830 9.310 15.250 Australia . . 250 1,230 5.390 10,140 South Africa . ... 1,010 2,010 Algeria . . ... 780 1,840 Egypt . . . Z75 550 1,120 1,260 West Indies . 100 650 1,280 Various . . 1 200 900 2,870 The Wori d . 4,515 23,55s 66,290 1^8,235 228,440 354,310 1 RAILWAYS 496 RAILWAYS The following table shows the condition of railways actually working, mostly for the years 1887-88 : — Miles Cost, Millions £ Passengers, Millions Goods, Tons, Millions Receipts, £ Expenses,;^ Net,;^ England . . . . 13,980 714 720 239 62,000,000 32,400,000 29,600,000 Soodand . 3,100 114 74 39 8,000,000 3,800,000 4,200,000 Ireland . 2,730 37 22 4 2,900,000 1,500,000 1,400,000 United Kingdom 19,810 865 816 282 72,900,000 37,700,000 35,200,000 France , 20,900 570 218 78 42,400,000 22,400,000 20,000,000 Germany . 24,270 495 316 179 54,600,000 29,300,000 25,300,000 Russia 17,700 314 38 5° 25,300,000 14,400,000 10,900,000 Austria . 15,610 307 65 79 20,800,000 11,700,000 9,100,000 Italy 7.830 138 46 15 9,400,000 6,200,000 3,200,000 Spain S.930 94 15 8 5,600,000 2,500,000 3,100,000 Portugal . 1,190 19 3 I 900,000 400,000 500,000 Sweden , 4.670 28 10 8 2,100,000 1,300,000 800,000 Norway . 970 7 3 I 400,000 300,000 100,000 Denmark . 1,220 10 9 3 800,000 680,000 120,000 Holland . 1,700 35 18 8 2,300,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 Belgium . 2,760 71 73 41 6,800,000 3,500,000 3,300,000 Switzerland 1,870 37 27 9 3,300,000 1,800,000 1,500,000 Roumania I.S30 29 2 2 1,100,000 650,000 450,000 Servia 340 6 I 200,000 100,000 100,000 Bulgaria , 430 8 I 300,000 150,000 150,000 Greece . 370 6 I 200,000 100,000 100,000 Turkey . 900 16 I I 600,000 300,000 300,000 Europe . 130,000 3.055 1,663 765 250,000,000 134,780,000 115,220,000 United States 156,080 1.949 451 590 198,000,000 138,000,000 60,000,000 Canada . 12,700 151 12 18 8,400,000 6,200,000 2,200,000 Mexico . 5,010 62 13 I 1,000,000 700,000 300,000 Peru 1,630 41 Chili I -750 14 2,000,000 1,200,000 800,000 Brazil S,S8o 49 7 2 3,800,000 2,500,000 1,300,000 Argentina 5.550 48 8 3 2,800,000 1,700,000 1,100,000 Uruguay . 450 S I 300,000 200,000 100,000 Japan 910 II 12 I 600,000 250,000 350,000 India 15.250 145 103 23 15,000,000 7,500,000 7,500,000 Australia . 10, 140 94 81 17 8,200,000 5,100,000 3,100,000 South Africa 2,010 18 3 I 1,700,000 900,000 800,000 Algeria . 1,840 26 4 2 1,400,000 900,000 500,000 Egypt . 1,260 18 4 1 1,300,000 600,000 700,000 West Indies 1,280 16 Java 790 7 Various . 2,080 27 ... Total 354.310 S.736 2,362 1.424 494,500,000 300,530,000 193.970.000 There are no particulars, except length of line, known as regards Servia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey : it is assumed in the above table that the ratios per mile are the same as in Roumania. The cost of construction in Mexico, being unknown, is assumed to be the same as in the United States. In some cases the traffic is not for the same year as the mileage. Tables of traffic per mile are given farther on. In the preceding table there are blanks as regards traffic for 5780 miles, or 14 per cent, of the total. Allowing for these blanks, the whole railway business of the world is summed up as follows : — Miles Cost, Mil- lions £ Millions Millions £ ^f , 2 ii a. W g 1 Europe . America . Africa , . Asia . . Australia . 130,000 191,010 S.530 17,630 10,140 3.055 '•% 172 94 1,663 507 12 121 81 76S 619 s 25 17 250 219 5 17 8 13s 153 3 9 5 305 "5 66 2 8 3 194 3.8 2.8 30 4.6 3-3 The World 354.310 S.736 2.384 1.431 499 3-4 The total mileage and cost of construction for Europe and the world at various dates were approximately as. follows : — Europe The World Year Miles Mil- lions £ ifl^ Miles Mil- lions £ i^e^ 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1888 1,679 14.465 31.885 63,300 101,720 130,000 52 404 797 1.476 2,411 3.055 30,900 27,800 25,000 23,300 23,700 23,300 4.515 23.555 66,290 128,235 228,440 354.310 2' 46s 1,079 2,097 3.938 5.736 15,800 19,800 16,300 16,400- 17,200 16,100 A French scientific journal in 1890 summed up existing railways thus : — Miles Europe 135,200 Asia . Africa Australia America Total 17,900 5.300 10 500 191,200 360,100 RAILWAYS 497 RAILWAYS The amount of capital invested in railways at various The progress of railway construction is shown as Ibl- dates was as follows : — lows : - 1840 Millions j_ 18S0 1860 f Sterling 1870 1880 1888 Miles Built Yearly Capital Su 1841-70 nk Yearly, £, 1841-70 1871-88 1871-«8 United Kingdom 28 240 348 530 728 865 U. Kingdo n . 490 240 16,700,000 18,400,000 France . . . II 57 171 274 392 570 France . 310 610 8,800,000 16,300,000 Germany . . . 6 61 116 204 431 495 Germany . 380 700 6,600,000 16,100,000 Russia . . . 5 17 119 234 314 Russia . 23s 600 4,000,000 10,900,000 Austria . . . 2 20 57 120 255 307 Austria . 196 530 4,000,000 10,500,000 Italy .... S 22 75 105 138 Italy . . 130 220 2,500,000 3,500,000 Spain .... I 19 51 72 94 Spain . los 150 1,700,000 2,400,000 Portugal . . . 7 II 19 Portugal IS 40 250,000 650,000 Sweden . . . 2 7 23 28 Sweden . 36 200 250,000 1,200,000 Norway . . . 2 4 7 Norway . 6 45 70,000 270,000 Denmark . . . I 4 7 10 Denmarlt 16 42 130,000 330,000 Holland . . . 2 4 13 25 35 Holland 26 52 430,000 1,200,000 Belgium . . . s 13 26 43 5« 71 Belgium S3 54 1,300,000 1,500,000 Switzerland . . 13 18 32 37 Switzerland 30 55 600,000 1,000,000 Roumania, &c. . I 9 34 65 Roumania, Europe . &c. 18 166 300,000 3,100,000 Europe . . . 52 404 797 1.476 2,411 3,055 . 2,046 3.704 47,630,000 86.350,000 United States . 19 60 239 497 1,171 1,949 United Stat es . 2,690 S-6+0 15,900,000 80,700,000 Canada . . . I 25 30 «4 151 Canada . 83 560 1,000,000 6,800,000 Spanish America 4 25 81 228 Spanish Am enca 74 1,030 800,000 11,300,000 apan .... I II Japan India -SO 600,000 India . . . 8 46 88 145 160 570 1,500,000 5.500,000 Australia . . . 2 12 51 94 Australia 41 484 400,000 4,550,000 South Africa 9 18 South Afric a . III 1,000,000 Algeria . . . II 26 Algeria . 1 02 1,500,000 hgypt. . . . 4 8 16 18 Egypt . 18 40 270,000 550,000 West Indies . . I 8 16 West Indie 3 • 3 65 30,000 900,000 Various 2 7 25 Various . Tota 7 105 70,000 1,400,000 The World . 71 465 1.079 2,097 3.938 5.736 1 . S,022 12,461 67,600,000 201,150,000 The following (mostly for 1887-8; table shows the average cost of construction per mile, and also the latest traffic returns per mile is? s" s? 1 a o» bain bo d 0^ m cT •ss? gs? *J- ■i"3g si J4 a G jin. a'= /a & z f2c5 Wo Exp Perc |c3 United Kingdom 43,600 3,680 1,910 1,770 41,200 14,200 52 4.1 France . 27,000 2,110 1,090 1,020 11,000 4,000 52 38 Germany 20,400 2,250 1,210 1,040 13,000 7,400 54 5- 1 Russia . 17.700 1,380 790 590 2,100 2,700 57 3-3 Austria . 19,700 1,390 780 610 4,600 5,100 3-1 Italy . . 17,800 1,290 850 440 6,200 2,100 6S 2-S Spam . 15,800 1,220 540 680 3.300 1,800 44 4-4 Portugal 15,800 900 390 Sio 2,700 l.OOO 43 3-3 Sweden . 6,100 470 290 180 2,200 1,700 62 2.9 Norway 7,100 430 300 130 3.400 1,200 70 1.8 Denmark 8,000 700 600 100 7,800 2,700 86 1.2 Holland 20,600 I.3SO 750 600 10,900 4,800 54 2.9 Belgium 25,800 2.450 1,280 1,170 26,700 14,800 S2 4.6 Switzerland . 20,500 1,780 940 840 14,500 4,600 S3 4-1 Roumania, &c. 15,700 1,080 650 430 60 2.7 Europe . 23,400 1,940 1,050 890 12,800 S.900 54 3-7 United States 12,500 1,290 900 390 2,900 3,800 70 31 Canada . 11,900 700 490 21&-' 900 1,400 70 1-7 Spanish America 10,900 Sio 340 170 1,800 400 67 1.6 . apan . 12,400 660 280 380 13,200 1,100 43 3-1 India 9.S00 1,050 525 525 7,100 1,500 SO S-2 Australia 9,300 820 SIO 310 8,100 1,700 63 3-3 South Africa . 8,900 800 420 380 1,500 500 52 4-3 Algeria . 14,000 730 510 220 2,200 1,100 70 1.6 Egypt . 14,100 1,050 480 570 3,200 800 46 4.1 TheWorid . 16,100 1.350 830 520 6,600 3,800 6a 3-2 English lines are the most costly, Swedish the cheapest, the difference being as 7 to i. Only India and Germany earn over 5 per cent, on capital, the average for the world being 3^ per cent. There are 13 countries earning ov( r the average, and 1 1 less than the average. 2 I RAILWAYS 498 RAILWAYS The passenger and goods traffic at various dates were approximately as follows : — Millions of Passengers Goods, Millions Tons 1S60 1870 1882 1888 1860 1870 1882 1888 U. Kingdom . i8o .S63 721 816 82 170 2S6 282 France . . . S7 lOT 180 218 22 SZ qo 78 Germany . . 4« 136 210 316 24 q8 IS7 179 Russia . . . ,■> 14 38 38 3 8 3'; ■^o Austria . . . 12 21 44 6S 7 2'^ 57 79 Italy .... fa 24 ^4 46 I 6 10 15 Spain & Portugal S 10 17 18 2 4 7 9 Scandinavia I 8 IS 22 S 8 12 Holland. . . 2 6 18 t8 I 2 4 8 Belgium . . . 17 41 S6 73 7 27 37 41 SwitEerland 6 1'^ 22 27 I 4 6 9 Roumania, &c. I 4 6 2 3 Europe . . . ^39 742 i,3W 1.663 I -JO 401 66q 76^ United States . 60 no 37 ■; 4';i 70 ic;o S6i 59° Canada . . . 2 3 12 2 4 II 18 SpanishAmerica 1 4 14 36 I S 9 India. . . . 4 20 64 103 3 12 23 Australia . . 6 18 44 81 2 17 Various . . . I 3 10 ■38 I 3 8 The World . . 413 900 1.874 2,384 222 S62 1,070 1.430 The rates for passeng ers and goods in 1883 in various countries, according to the /our. des Economistes, were : — Pence per Ten Miles Ton Goods, ist Class 2nd Class 3rd Class Miles U. Kingdom 21 16 10 140 France . . 20 IS 10 no Germany IS II 8 82 Russia . . 18 14 3 120 Austria . . 19 14 9 IIS Italy . . . 18 13 9 I2S Spain . . . 21 16 10 Portugal . . 18 14 10 Sweden . . IS II 8 160 Norway . . 8 S 2i 120 Denmarli 16 II 8 144 Holland . . 16 13 8 78 Belgium . . 12 9 6 80 Switzerland . 19 13 10 i6S Greece . . 14 9 7 Roumania . 36 14 10 78 Turkey . . 29 26 14 In the United States in 1888 the average compared with the rates on the Canadian Pacific line thus : — Pence per 100 Miles Passenger Ton Goods United States . Canada .... 112 90 52 51 The passenger rates are those of first class, and are lower than in Europe. The speed on some of the principal railways is : — Miles Hours Minutes Miles per Hour London to Grantham los I 57 54 Paris to Poitiers . . 209 5 20 39 Berlin to M inden . . 202 5 35 37 Vienna to Pilsen . . 220 6 45 33 Rome to Pisa . . . 211 7 30 Madrid to Saragossa. 214 9 2b 23 Lisbon to Oporto . . 212 II 19 N. York to Washington 230 5 18 44 The distribution of passengers in 1884 was as follows :— Percentage of Passengers First Second Third Total England . 6 10 84 100 Scotland . 7 6 87 100 Ireland 7 16 77 100 United Kingdom 6 10 84 100 France 7 34 59 100 Germany . I 13 86 100 Russia 2 9 89 100 Austria I 13 86 100 Italy .... 6 28 66 100 Sweden 4 10 86 100 Norway . 8 92 100 Denmark . I 14 8S 100 Holland . 9 25 66 100 Belgium . 5 14 8i 100 Switzerland 2 17 81 100 Roumania . 5 22 73 100 India I 2 97 100 In European countries the highest ratio of first-class passengers is in Holland, of second class in France, and of third class in Norway. The following table shows the earnings and expenses per mile run by locomotives in various countries in 1887- Pence per S u Miles Run MileR un §0 n ^i a 1 ^ „ & -I ^ .2 United States . . 688,800,000 6q 48 21 24,000 Germany .... 171,400,000 77 41 36 14,000 France . . 158,800,000 64 33 31 18,000 Italy . . 46,600,000 48 32 16 24,000 Austria 66,100,000 76 42 34 16,000 Switzerland 13,100,000 61 33 28 22,000 Sweden . 10,500,000 48 30 18 15,000 Holland . 15,500,000 37 21 16 26,000 Belgium 32,700,000 50 26 24 14,000 The mileage run by locomotives in the United States far exceeds the aggregate mileage for the Continent of Europe. The cost of running in the United States is higher per mile than in Europe. An ordinary locomotive has 300 horse-power, and bums one ton of coke for 40 miles of goods train, or 80 miles of passenger train. The life of a locomotive is usually fifteen years, during which it will run 240,000 miles, and earn ;^6o,ooo. The price is usually ;^2OO0 ; and according to Engineering, Europe could turn out 6400 locomotives yearly, viz.. Great Britain, 2200; Germany, 2000; France, 1000; Belgium, 500; Austria, 400; and other countries, 300. Boesig's factory at Berlin could make 300 yearly. Each locomotive has 5416 pieces. The first in use from Liverpool to Manchester in 1830 was of 8 tons, and had a speed of 20 miles an hour. In 1872 the largest in the United Kingdom were of 27 tons, rising in 1889 to 45 tons. There are many 60-ton locomotives in the United States, and some in Canada of 70 tons. The weight of an empty passenger train in England is : locomotive, 35 ; tender, 25; two trucks, 12; eight carriages, 64; in all, 136 tons. If there be 60 passengers, their weight will be 3 tons, against 136 tons dead- weight. The engine of an express train consumes 10 gallons of water per mile ; some of the American locomotives have tenders with a capacity of 3000 gallons. RAILWAYS 499 RAILWAYS Jeans's table of rolling-stock in 1885 compares with mileage and traffic as follows : — pi §1 €3 §8 sis -SS g of Goods ried per aggon r^ 6^ ^^ q S3 Sti U. Kingdom 15,200 33.700 464,000 76 41 610 France . . 8,800 19,700 223,000 44 90 340 Germany . 12,200 22,200 250,000 5° 71 720 Russia . . 5,800 7>ooo 116.000 33 180 440 Austria . , 4,200 8.200 96,000 27 126 820 Italy. . . 1,900 5,600 32,000 25 122 460 Spam . . 1,200 3-700 22,000 20 24s ,60 Scandinavia 1,000 2,600 23,000 IS 123 510 Holland . 600 1,600 8,000 90 1,000 Belgium 2,300 5,000 56,000 84 68 740 Switzerland 600 1,800 9,000 33 67 Rouma- ) nia, &c. J 2,700 5.400 61,000 72 Europe . . 56,500 116,500 1,360,000 44 70 S6o U. States . 28,600 18,000 804,000 18 40 740 Canada . . 1,500 1,300 38,000 12 105 480 Spanish ) America J 3,000 1,800 82,000 14 55 Australia . 2,300 2,100 69,000 23 26 250 India . . 3,000 1,900 82,000 20 18 270 Various . . 4,100 8,400 75.000 44 Total . 99,000 150,000 2,510,000 28 63 57° A French scientific journal in 1890 states that Europe has 61,000 locomotives, and the rest of the world 43,000, making a total of 104,000; it adds that England has 80 per 100 miles of railway, Germany 53, and France 47. The increase of rolling-stock in ten years was very great : — Europe The Worid 1875 1885 1875 1885 Locomotives Carriages . Waggons . 42,000 90,000 1,000,000 56.500 116,500 1,360,000 62,000 112,000 1,470,000 99.000 150,000 2,510,000 Jeans adds that the above rolling-stock in 1875 car- ried 137 1 million passengers and 715 million tons of goods. The following table shows the steepest gradients in some of the most difficult railways : — Mont Cenis Genoa-Turin . Darjeeling Tiflis Einsiedlen The Righi is in one part as steep as a staircase, the Vesuvius as a ladder. Resistance increases with gradient, and if the normal figure be adopted of 8 lbs. per ton on level way, the resistance at various gradients will be : — Per Cent. Per Cer,t ■ 3-0 Oroya . . 6.0 • 3-5 Utliberg 7.0 . 4.0 Cantagallo . • 9-5 ■ 4-5 Righi . . 28.0 ■ 5.0 Vesuvius . 63.0 Gradient Us. per Ton Gradient Lbs.ferTon 1 m 100 . 15 5 m 100 . 45 3 .. 30 10 ., 83 Resistance likewise increases with speed as follows, on level way : — Miles fer Hour 10 2o 30 Lbs. per Ton . 8 ■ 14 • 17 Milesper Hour 40 50 60 Lis. fer Ton . 26 • 33 • 51 The resistance on a railway is only one-third of what it is on an ordinary highroad. The standard gauge of the world may be said to be 4 ft 8 J inches. In 1885 the lines were summed up tiius : — Gauge Miles Ratio 4 ft. 8| in. ... Under 4 ft. 8| in. Over 4 ft. 8J in. 224,000 42.400 36,600 74.0 14.0 12.0 Total 303,000 100.0 Steel rails average 130 tons per mile of way, iron 145 tons. The consumption of iron and steel for railways has been approximately as follows ; — Period 1825-40 1841-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 Total Europe, Tons The World, Tons 400,000 8,500,000 10,100,000 13,200,000 12,800,000 45,000,000 800,000 12,500,000 14,000,000 23,400,000 32,300,000 83,000,000 The weight of rail in England varies from 28 to 76 lbs. per yard. In 1882 the tonnage of rails in various countries was as follows (an estimate for 1888 is added) :— Tons of Rails Tons per Mile of Rail Tons Estimate Iron Steel Total in 1888 United Kmgdom France Germany Russia Austria Belgium Various 1,980,000 1,570,000 2,550,000 820,000 930,000 265,000 2,215,000 2,410,000 1,715,000 1,570,000 920,000 700,000 255,000 1,620,000 4,390,000 3,285,000 4,120,000 1,740,000 1,630,000 520,000 3,835,000 240 202 195 126 128 210 150 4,750,000 4,000,000 4,650,000 2,200,000 2,100,000 600,000 4,400,000 Europe United States Colonies, &c 10,330,000 7,200,000 3,200,000 9,190,000 5,200,000 3,100,000 19,520,000 12,400,000 6,300,000 182 118 110 22,700,000 18,600,000 7,800,000 Total 20,730,000 17,490,000 38,220,000 152 49,100,000 RAILWAYS 500 RAILWAYS The railways of greatest elevation are the following : — Line Over the Feet Over Sea-Level Date of Con- struction Semniering . . . Alps . . . . 2,970 1854 Santos — San Paulo Serra Cubaton . 3,5oo 1866 St. Gothard . . . Alps . . . . 3.780 1882 Mont Cenis . Alps . . 4,290 1871 Aarlberg . . Alps . . . 4.320 1884 Bremer . . Alps . . . . 4,450 1867 Union Pacific Rocky Mountns. 8.573 1869 Uspallata . Andes .... 10.570 1890 Mollendo Andes. . . . 14,610 1878 Lima-Oroya Andes .... 15,840 1874 All the above are working except Clark's line over the Uspallata Pass, which will establish direct transit from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso, and approaches com- The following table, according to latest returns, shows pletion. The Union Pacific has a length of 1780 miles, of which 300 are through mountains. The cost was ;£^38,8oo,ooo, including a subsidy of ;£^i 1,000,000 from Congress : it was begim in 1862, and the first train ran from Chicago on May 1, 1869, for the terminus on the Pacific at San Francisco. The company received, more- over, a grant of 34,000 square miles of land, or 23 million acres, in alternate lots 20 miles deep on either side of the line. The cost of construction was ;^22,ooo per mile, varying from ;^I 1,000 in level country to ^36,000 a mile in the Rocky Mountains. The saving which railways have effected for the public welfare in the matter of freight charges has been computed in different countries. In Prussia, in 1878, it was esti- mated at ;£^630O a mile for goods and passengers ; in Great Britain, in 1848, at £iSoo for passengers only. It may be roughly estimated that railways as a rule have caused a saving to the public of each country equal to at least 10 per cent, per annum on the cost of construction. the number of persons killed or wounded by railways : — Killed Wounded Killed or Wounded Per Million Passengers Passengers Others Total Passengers Others Total United Kingdom . , . . 183 956 1. 139 1,829 2,944 4.773 5,912 7.2 France . 39 336 375 131 498 629 1,004 4.6 Germany 27 436 463 107 1,227 1,334 1.797 S-7 Russia . 19 425 444 88 609 697 1,141 30.0 Austria . 5 241 246 16 569 585 831 13-0 Italy S 116 12 r 62 1,109 1,171 1.292 28.0 Spain 22 80 102 130 124 254 356 24.0 Portugal I 7 8 7 16 23 31 10.3 Sweden . 3 26 29 42 42 71 7-1 Norway 8 8 I I 9 30 Denmark II 56 67 7-4 Holland . 4 37 41 4 31 35 76 4-2 Belgium . 7 145 152 60 640 700 852 11.6 Switzerland 8 34 42 6 194 200 242 9.0 Europe . 323 2,847 3. 181 2,440 8,004 10,500 13,681 8.2 The railways of the United ICingdom pay ;^l4O0 a day compensation, of which 60 per cent, for damage to passengers, 40 per cent to goods. In other countries the amount is unknown. United Kingdom The first regular railway for carrying passengers was opened from Stockton to Darlington, 27th September 1825. The following table shows the development of rail- ways : — Year Miles Open Cost, £ 1843 1846 1850 1855 i860 1,950 3.040 6,620 8,280 10,430 1870 ,i5>54o 529,900,000 Tfifin l-r.- ^^^ ^nQ nn» »^ 1880 17,930 65,500,000 126,300,000 240,300,000 297,600,000 348,100,000 728,300,000 1888 'i9,8ie 1864,700,000 Receipts, 4,540,000 7,570,000 13,200,000 21,500,000 27,800,000 43,400,000 63,000,000 72,900,000 Expenses, 10,300,000 13.200,000 21,700,000 33,600,000 37,800,000 Passengers Carried 43,800,000 72,900,000 118,600,000 163,500,000 330,200,000 603,900,000 742,500,000 Holders of season-tickets are not counted cent, for them. add 10 per The mileage and traffic of the three kingdoms showed as follows : — The earnings and expenditure of thirty-four years are summed up thus : — Earnings, Millions £ Expenses, Millions £ Net Revenue, Millions £ Period Passengers' G°f=' Total 1855-59 • 1860-69 • 1870-79 . 1880-88 . 58 159 242 26s 61 185 312 336 119 344 554 601 64 169 275 302 55 175 279 299 34 years . 724 ! 894 1618 810 808 In the first period, ending 1859, the passenger earnings were 49 per cent, of the total; in the second, ending 1869, they fell to 46 per cent. ; in the third, ending 1879. to 44 per cent.; and in the fourth, ending 1888, they were likewise 44 per cent. Miles Cost, £ Receipts, £ per Mile Expenses, £ per Mile 1860 1888 1860 1888 1860 1888 1860 1888 England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... 7,580 1,490 1,360 13.980 3,100 2,730 289,000,000 39,000,000 20,100,000 714,000,000 114,100,000 36,600,000 3,090 1,990 1,030 4,430 2,580 1,060 1,490 905 440 2,310 1,240 560 United Kingdom . 10,430 19,810 348,100,000 864,700,000 2,670 3,680 1,270 1,910 RAILWAYS 501 RAILWAYS The following table (allowing mean average for missing years) shows the traffic during the same period, adding 10 per cent, for holders of season-tickets to the number of passengers : — Passen- gers, Millions Goods, Millions Tons Earnings, Pence Period Per Passenger Per Ton 1855-59 • • 1860-69 • • 1870-79 . . 1880-88 . . 740 2,620 S.270 6,780 348 1,160 1.923 2.328 18 IS II 9 42 38 39 35 34 years . . 1S.410 j 5,759 II 37 The aggregate traffic for ten years ending December 1888 showed the three kingdoms as follows : — Mean g KnB oj -•1 11 1 Ten Years, Millions £ Capital, Millions Miles Passen Millie Carri a, c '5 1 0. 1 England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . 660 loi 35 13,300 6,580 3,000 601 2,500 205 2,165 344 37 588 75 27 308 38 15 280 37 12 U. Kingdom . 796 18,800 7,386 2.546 690 361 329 From the above we derive the following averages : — Cost per Mile, £ Yearly Traffic per Mile Annual Mileage Interest on Capital per Cent. Passengers Goods, Tons Earnings, £ Expenses, £ Profit, £ England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... United Kingdom 49,600 33.700 14,000 42,200 49,400 20,000 8,200 39.300 16,200 11,500 1,500 13.500 4,410 2,500 1,080 3.670 2,310 1,270 600 1,920 2,100 1,230 480 1.750 4-2 3-7 3-4 4-1 The cost, traffic, and mileage earnings for the whole United Kingdom at various dates showed thus :— Year Cost, £ Passengers Tons, Goods Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Profit, £ Interest on Capital per Cent. 1855 .... i860 .... 1870 .... 1880 .... 1S88 35.900 33.400 34.200 40,700 43.600 15.700 17.300 23,400 37,100 41,200 8,500 10,300 13,100 14,200 2.S90 2,670 2,800 3.520 3,680 1.240 1,270 1,400 1,880 1,910 1.350 1,400 1,400 1,640 1,770 3-7 4.2 4-1 4.0 41 The goods traffic retmns for 1870 were lost : the above mileage is the medium between the preceding and suc- ceeding years. The number of passengers killed or injured at various dates in the United Kingdom was as follows : — Year Passengers Carried Killed or Injured Per Million 1846 . 1855 • 1864 . 1873 ■ 1888 . 48,200,000 130,400,000 252,000,000 501,000,000 816,000,000 151 321 711 1.542 1. 515 3-2 2.5 2.8 3-1 1-9 In the above table 10 per cent, for season-ticket holders is added. The number of killed or injured on railways, including servants and trespassers, is much greater than that given above, which applies only to passengers. The last four years show thus : — Year Killed 1 Injured Total 1886 1887 .... 1S88 .... 1889 . 938 3.539 919 3.590 905 3.826 1,076 4,836 4.477 4.S09 4.731 5.912 The returns for 1889 were made up thus :- Killed Injured Total Passengers . Railway servants . Trespassers . Various 183 435 351 170 1,829 2,769 122 53 2,012 3.204 473 223 Towl 1.139 4.773 S.912 The block system, which is considered a safeguard against collisions, is used as follows : — Miles Ratio of Total England .... Scotland .... Ireland .... 12,160 2,310 570 94 per cent. 82 21 United Kingdom 15,040 76 „ The number of passengers by the several classes in the United Kingdom were as follows in 1889 : — Class i»t 2nd , 3rd , Total Number 30,100,000 62,700,000 682,4co,ooo 775,200,000 Ratio 3-9 8.1 88.0 The above, however, counts 1,271,000 season-ticket holders for only one journey each, whereas it is believed they should stand for 77,500,000, or 10 per cent, extra added to the traffic. Dividing them evenly between 1st and 2nd class (by which such subscribers usually travel) the result is as follows : — Class ist . 2nd , 3rd . Total Number 69,000,000 101,500,000 682,500,000 853,000,000 Ratio 8.1 11.9 80.0 The above estimate, as already stated, allows for holders of season-tickets sixty journeys yearly, which is, doubtless, below the reality. RAILWAYS 502 RAILWAYS France The length of lines at various dates was as follows : — Miles 1841 1860 1860 1 1870 1880 1888 State . . Companies 360 1,890 5,880 9.770 1,400 14,880 I.S50 19,210 Total . 360 1,890 S,88o 9.770 16,280 20,760 The first line was opened to traffic in 1828, the first Government line constructed in 1878. In the following returns of traffic since 1841 the number of miles working in 1880 appears to have been less than that of lines completed. Goods, Tons Average per Mile Year Miles Passengers Passengers Goods 1841 360 6,400,000 1,100,000 17,500 3,000 1850 1,890 18,700,000 4 300,000 9,900 2,300 i860 5, 880 56,500,000 23,000,000 9,600 4,000 1870 9,770 102,600,000 37,100,000 10,500 3,800 1880 14,500 165,000,000 80,800,000 11,400 5,500 1887 19,700 218,400,000 78,100,000 11,000 4,000 The mileage statistics were as follows :- - Per Mile Pence, per Mile Per- centage Year Earn- pen^S,^!^™^'.^ Pas- Ton, of Ex- ings, I senger Goods penses 1843 1,810 970 840 1.08 1.71 53-6 1850 2,080 990 1,090 1.01 I..56 47.6 i860 2,890 1.300 1,590 0.90 1. 10 45-0 1S70 2,550 1,230 1,320 0.78 0.97 48.2 1880 2,830 1,410 1,420 0.80 0.9S 49.8 1887 2,110 1,090 1,020 0.70 0.95 51.6 Counting the goods traffic by kilometric tons, that is, the number of tons carried one kilometer, and reducing it to English form by the number of tons carried 100 miles, we find as follows : — Year Millions of Tons Carried Kilometric Tons 100 Miles 1843 59 378,000 1850 314 1,980,000 i860 3,"9 19,700,000 1870 5,057 31,900,000 1880 10,350 65,200,000 1885 9,790 61,700,000 As the actual number of tons carried in 1885 was 75,200,000, it appears that the average haulage of each ton of goods was 83 miles, against 80 miles in 1880. Passenger traffic in 1885 showed as follows : — Class Number Ratio 1st ... 16,200,000 7.5 2nd .... 73,000,000 34.0 3rd . . . 125,200,000 58.0 Total . . 214,400,000 loo.o When railways were first made, in 1845, the cost of construction averz^ed thus per mile : — Land .... 2,540 Earthworks . . . 11,430 Rails, engines, cars . . 12,700 Stations, &c. . . . 5,080 Ratio 8.0 36.0 40.0 16.0 Total . . 31,750 100.0 Subsequently, however, the cost diminished (being the reverse of what occurred in England), and the average on 31st December 1885 for all railways then running in France was exactly ;^27,ooo per mile. The number of railway servants at that date was 232,000. The following table shows approximately the number of passengers and that of tons of goods carried from 1841 to 1887 : — Period Millions Passengers Tons 1841-49 .... 1850-59 .... 1860-69 .... 1870-79 .... 1880-87 .... 90 320 810 1,320 1,608 18 no 330 560 650 47 years .... 4,148 1,668 The earnings and expenses in thirty-nine years were approximately as follows : — Period Earnings, Millions £ Expenses, Millions £ Profit, Millions £ 1850-59 . 1860-69 1870-79 . 1880-88 97 211 327 374 45 98 161 194 52 "3 166 180 39 years 1,009 498 5" Germany The statistics for Prussia and other States show thus : Miles Open Year 1 1 C 1 II c 1 •3 1840 106 42 79 16 98 341 1850 1,770 370 290 160 170 880 3.640 i860 3.450 1,130 470 210 220 1,500 6,980 1870 6,860 1,690 710 650 600 1,220 11,730 1880 12,640 3,000 1,300 840 820 2,090 20,690 1888 15.255 3.320 1.585 985 860 2,265 24,270 Hanoverian railways, which were included in the column "Various" down to i860, were amalgamated vnth those of Prussia after the conquest in 1866. The returns for the whole German Empire show : — Year Miles Open is? Receipts, A, Expenses, Profit, £ Interest on Capital, Per Cent. 1868 1870 1880 1888 10,600 ",730 20,690 24,270 169 204 431 495 22,300,000 25,300,000 43,300,000 54,600,000 11,200,000 I2,£00,000 25,200,000 29,300,000 11,100,000 12,500,000 18,100,000 25,300,000 6-5 6.1 4.2 5-1 The traffic and rolling-stock are shown below, kilo- metric passengers and tons being reduced to English form as passengers travelling 10 miles, goods 100 miles average. Kilometric, Millions Millions of Passengers, 10 Miles Millions of Tons, 100 Miles ■a S J S Year •^1 10 0^ 1 1 1868 1870 187s 1880 1887 3.213 4.372 5.994 6,149 8.38s 5,042 S.336 10,392 12,224 16,516 203 275 378 389 527 32 34 66 77 104 4,640 5.460 9.940 10,840 12,750 8,920 10,430 17,520 19,800 23,440 98,440 113.500 206,000 220,000 256,000 RAILWAYS 503 RAILWAYS The value of rolling-stock in 1887 was ;f 75,800,000 ; it had a capacity for carrying 1,020,000 passengers, and 2,750,000 tons of merchandise. Prussian railways showed as follows from 1844 to 1878 :— Year Kilometrio Millions Passengers, 10 Miles Tons, 100 Passengers Goods, Tons Miles 1844. . 1850. . i860. . 1870 . . 1878. . 130 420 870 3,020 3.740 20 190 926 4>044 8,033 8,000,000 26,000,000 55,000,000 196,000,000 235,000,000 130,000 1,200,000 5,830,000 25,700,000 50,600,000 The total carried in thirty-five years was as follows : Period Kilometric Millions Millions of Passengers, 10 Miles Millions of Tons, 100 Miles Passengers Goods, Tons <^H H HI 00000000 M M M HI 1.730 6,100 16,530 28,710 611 6,297 24,412 SS.767 109 384 1,040 1,810 4 40 153 351 35 years 53.070 87,087 3.3+3 548 In 1879 the following statement was published, showing the saving of fre^ht charges and passengers fares eflFected by the railways of Prussia in the above period, estimating the old charges at 27 silbergroschen for a ton of goods carried 10 kilometers, and a passenger at 40 silbergroschen the same distance : — Waggon Fares, Railway Fares, Mm Millions £, Millions L Period . Ul '> .2 S Ul ■o is, a, I 1^ ^ „.g 1844-50 8 5 13 3 4 7 6 1851-60 84 16 100 25 14 39 61 1861-70 326 44 370 71 31 102 268 1871-78 744 77 821 136 52 188 633 35 years 1,162 142 1,304 235 lOI 336 968 Traffic returns for Russia showed as follows : At that time (1878) the cost of construction had reached 240 millions sterling; the saving which the railways effected to the benefit of the Prussian people was there- fore four times what the lines had cost to make. If it be supposed that the traffic per mile on the other German lines was the same as on the Prussian, the business of all Germany since 1844 would be approximately as follows : — ■ Period Millions of Passengers, 10 Miles Millions of Tons Goods, 100 Miles •53 Big g§ a— Net Earnings, Millions £ 1844-50 . . 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 . . 229 776 1.890 3.720 3,220 9 82 281 726 630 IS ■ 80 186 398 341 236 193 162 148 44 years . . 9.835 1,728 1,020 ... The distinction between State and Companies' lines is shown as follows in English miles : — State Companies Total 1875 1888 1875 1888 1875 1888 Prussia . . Bavaria . . Saxony . . Wurtemberg Baden . . Hesse, &c. . 4.280 1,580 740 790 650 590 14,120 2,890 1.520 970 800 800 5,590 1,13s 880 i 430 360 65 10 15 60 60 1,490 1,465 9,870 2,460 1,100 800 710 2,080 15.25s 3.320 1.585 985 860 . 2,265 Total . 8,630 21,100 8,390 1 3,070 17,020 24,270 The total mileage in i88g was 25,450, representing a cost of about 527 millions sterling. Kailway employees numbered 343,000. Russia The first line, 16 miles, was opened from St. Peters- burg to Charsko-Selo in 1837, the second in 1844, the mileage increasing as follows : — Year Miles 1840 .... 16 1850 . . . 310 i860 . . . 990 Year Milei 1870 7,ioo 1880 . 14,020 1887 . 18,380 Year 1870 1880 1887 Miles 7,100 14,020 18,380 Passengers 14,400,000 33,700,000 38,200,000 Goods, Tons 7,700,000 37,500,000 50,400,000 Receipts, £, 19,300,000 25,300,000 Expenses, £ 15,200.000 14,400,000 Net,;^ 4,100,000 10,900,000 Passengers Goods, tons Receipts, ^ Expenses, £, Net, £. . Per Mile 1870 2,030 1,090 1880 2,400 2,690 1,380 1,090 290 1887 2,080 2,740 1,380 790 590 The total mileage in 1887 was made up thus : — Miles European Russia .... 16,760 Finland 960 Central Asia 660 Total 18,380 The respective mileages of Government lines and those belonging to companies are shown thus : — 1870 18S6 Government Companies 730 6,370 2,250 14,000 Total 7, 100 16,250 All the companies' lines enjoy concessions or guaran- tees. The rolling-stock in 1884 comprised 5810 locomo- tives and 121,000 carriages and waggons. In the same year there were 420 persons killed and 654 injured, of whom passengers were 25 and 85 respectively. RAILWAYS SO'* RAILWAYS Austria Official tables give the following mileage :- Year Austria Hungary Total State Lines Compa- nies' Lines 1840 , . 1850 . . i860 . . 1870 . . 1880 . . 1888 820 1,810 3.790 7,080 9,260 140 1,000 2,i6o 4.420 6,350 90 960 2,810 S.950 11,500 15,610 640 230 2,240 7,020 90 320 2,810 5,720 9,260 8,590 In the last-mentioned year ,^40 miles of Bosnian lines are counted as Austrian. The traffic for the whole Empire at various dates was as follows : — Year Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, A, Per Mile Passengers Tons 1863 1870 1880 1887 15,000,000 21,500,000 40,500,000 65,400,000 24,500,000 54,400,000 78,600,000 7,400,000 13,200,000 21,100,000 20,800,000 4,700 3,600 3.500 4,600 4,100 4,700 5,100 The receipts in 1889 rose to ^^23, 300,000, being at the rate of A 1 500 a mile. Capital, earnings, and expen- diture at various dates compare as follows : — Year Miles Cost, Millions £ Per Mile, £ Cost Earnings Expense Net 1870 1880 1887 5,950 11,500 15.050 120 255 298 20,200 22,200 19,800 2,220 1,840 1.390 1,280 1,470 780 940 370 610 The net return or capital invested was as follows : — Year Cost, £ Net Earn- ings. £ Percentage 1870 1880 1887 120,000,000 255,000,000 298,000,000 5,600,000 4,200,000 g, 100,000 4.7 1.6 3-1 Excluding 340 miles of Bosnian lines, the mileage in 888 was made up thus : — Austria Hungary Total State lines . Company lines 3.650 3,370 5,270 2,980 7,020 8,250 Total 8,920 6,350 15,270 Italy The official returns of mileage show thus : Vear 1870 . Year 1840 1850 i860 The mileage of State lines and those of companies' lines were as follows : — Miles 13 270 1,120 Miles 3.830 5,340 8,130 1870 1380 1887 State .... Companies . 500 3.330 2,380 2,960 5.030 2,300 Total 3,830 5.340 7,330 Traffic returns on the railways of Italy at various dates compare as follows : — Year 1875. 1880 1887 Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Net,;£ 4.770 5.340 7,330 28,000,000 32,500,000 45,500,000 7,200,000 9,300,000 15,400,000 5,800,000 7,200,000 9,400,000 3,900,000 4,300,000 6,200,000 1,900.000 2,900,000 3,200,000 Averages per mile were as follows :— 1 s S5 - ^S? bj3 to" in t s? Year OT Q c 0. Ss? §■2 rS^ a a z U Oh a! w 1875 .... 19,300 5.900 1,500 1,220 820 400 1880 .... 19,600 6,100 1,700 1,350 800 550 1887 . . 17,800 6,200 2,100 1,290 850 440 Returns on capital showed as follows : — "^«^'" Millions;^ Net Earnings, £ Percentage 1875 1880 . 1887 . 92 105 122 1,900,000 2,900,000 3,200,000 2.1 2.8 2.6 Passenger and goods traffic showed the following earnings :— Pas- sengers, £ Goods, £ Pence Year Per Passenger Per Ton 1875 . . . 1880 . . . 1887 . . . 2,700,000 3,000,000 3,800,000 3, 100,00c 4,200,000 5,600,000 23 22 20 103 108 87 Spain In 1848 the first railway was opened from Barcelona to Matar6, 18 miles. Progress is shown as follows : — Year 1848 1855 i860 Miles 18 300 1,190 Year 1870. Allies 3,200 4.550 5,920 Traffic and earnings were as follows :- Year Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts,/ Expenses, 1873 1880 3,310 4,550 10,800,000 14,800,000 3,900,000 8,100,000 3,530,000 5,570,000 2,450,000 Averages per mile were as follows :— Construc- tion, £ Passengers Goods, Tons Re- ceipts, £ Ex- penses,;^ 1873 1880 15,800 3.300 3.300 1,200 I, Boo 1,070 1,220 540 The cost of construction down to 1S80 was officially stated thus : — State subsidies . Outlay by companies Total . ;^28, 000,000 44,000,000 . j^72, 000,000 RAILWAYS 50s RAILWAYS If the existing lines in 1888 be taken at the same mile^e cost, they will represent an outlay of ;^98,7oo,ooo. The ratio of working expenses is the lowest in the world, only 43 per cent of earnings. The net earnings in i88o were about 4^ per cent. (4.4) on the cost of construction. Later information is wanting. All the lines in Spain are owned by companies. Portugal The first line was in 1854, from Lisbon to Carregado, twenty-two miles. Official returns of mileage are as follows : — Year Miles 187s . . .640 i88q . . . 710 1888 . . . 1190 I and 1885 showed thus :— Year Miles i8ss ... 22 iSibo ... 42 1870 . . . 440 The ofiScial returns for iS Year Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, Expenses, 1881 . 1885 . 760 95° 2,200,000 2,600,000 740,000 960,000 750,000 860,000 310,000 370,000 Averages per mile were as follows : — Year IPassengers ^°°^^ 1 Receipts, Expenses, Net, 1881 . 1 2,900 1885 . 2,700 970 1,010 990 900 410 390 580 Sio If we suppose the cost of construction (which is un- known) to have been the same as in Spain, say ;f I5,8cxj per mile, the cost and net percentage on capital of Portu- guese lines vfill have been thus : — Year Cost. I Net Earnings, £ Percentage 1881 . . . 1885 . . . 12,600,000 15,800,000 440,000 490,000 ■ 3-5 3-1 The receipt s in 1885 were as follows : — £ Average Pence Passengers Goods . 360,000 500,000 34 each 125 per ton Total 860,000 1 The average fare for each passenger and ton of goods carried is much higher than in other countries. The lines belong to companies which receive State subsidies. Sweden Official statement of mileage is as follows : — Year State Companies Total i860. 1870 .... 1880 .... 1888. 187 700 1,210 1,580 188 390 2,440 3,120 375 1,090 3.650 4,700 Traffic returns on the railways of Sweden were as follows : — Year Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Net,^ 187s 1880 1887 2,170 3.650 4.580 6,500,000 7,000,000 10,100,000 5,100,000 5,900,000 7,600,000 1,390,000 1,800,000 2,090,000 870,000 1,000,000 1,310,000 520,000 800,000 780,000 Averages per mile were as follows : — Year 187s 1880 1887 Construc- tion, £ 6,300 6,400 6,100 Passen- gers 3,000 1,900 2,200 Goods, Tons 2,400 1,600 1,700 Receipts, £ 640 500 470 Expenses, 400 270 290 Earnings showed the following returns for capital : — Year Cost, £ Net Receipts, £ Percentage 187s . . . 1880 . . . 1887 . . . 13,800,000 23,300,000 27,900,000 520,000 800,000 800,000 3-8 2.8 Mileage and traffic of Swedish railwasrs in 1887 were made up thus : — Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Net,;^ State Companies 1.550 3.030 4,000,000 6,100,000 2,500,000 5,100,000 1,030,000 1,060,000 730,000 580,000 300,000 480,000 Total 4,580 10,100,000 7,600,000 2,090,000 1,310,000 780,000 3-3 4.1 The average percentage which net earnings gave on capital during five years ending 1886 was as foUows :— State lines Company lines The average cost of construction down to 1886 was ;f 8690 per mile on Government lines and ;^4700 on companies' lines. Norway The first line was opened in 1855, and the miles open since have besa as follows :— Year State Companies Total i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1889 . 182 650 973 42 42 42 42 42 224 692 1015 Tra ffic returns in Norway showed as "oUows :- - I in a C 1§ •L i s" > s 1 <§H iS a. 3 1872 256 840,000 540,000 130,000 85,000 4S.O0O 1880 690 1,650,000 600,000 240,000 180,000 60,000 1888 970 '3,300,000 1,200,000 420,000 290,000 130,000 Net returns compared with cost of construction as foUows : — Year Cost. £ Net Earnings Percentage 1872 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 2,000,000 4,450,000 7,100,000 45.000 60.000 130.000 2.3 1-4 1.8 RAILWAYS 506 RAILWAYS Averages per mile in Norway were as follows ■ Year Construc- tion, £ Passen- gers Goods, Tons Receipts, Expenses, ;6 Net, A> 1872 1880 1888 7,800 6.400 7,100 3.300 2,400 3.400 2,100 900 1,200 Sio 340 430 340 250 300 170 90 130 All are State railways except a short line of forty-two miles. Denmark The number of miles open was as follows ; — Year State Companies Total 1850 . 20 20 i860 . 70 70 1870 300 170 470 1880 . 770 210 980 1888 . 970 250 1,220 Traffic returns were as follows :- Year Miles Pas- sengers Goods, Tons Receipts, Ex- penses, j^ Net,^ 1875 1880 1888 780 830 1,220 S,6oo,ooo 5,900,000 8,800,000 1,800,000 560,000 2,OOO,O0O| 590,000 2,900,000. 780,000 340,000 370,000 680,000 220,000 220,000 100,000 The returns of traffic are exclusive of 100 miles of com- pany's line in Jutland. The mileage traffic on Danish railways showed thus : — Per Mile Year Pas- sengers Goods, Tons Receipts, Ex- penses,^ Net.;f 187s . • ■ 1880 . . , 1888 . . . 7,200 7,100 7,900 2,300 2,400 2,700 720 710 700 430 445 600 290 265 100 In 1889 the State lines had a length of 1000 miles, having cost exactly eight millions sterling. At this rate the total outlay on the existing 1210 miles would be ;£'9,7CHD,ooo. The net earnings in 1888 being ^^loo per mile, would represent only ij per cent, on the cost of construction, against 3.7 in 1875 and 3.3 in 1880. Holland The first line was opened in 1839. Government lines were not begun until 1863. The mileage grew thus : — Year State Companies Total 1840 . II II 1850 . no no i860 . 200 200 1870 500 280 780 1880 . 670 770 1,440 1888 . 930 770 1,700 Traffic returns on railways in Holland were as follows : — Year Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Net,;^ 1873 . 1880 . 1888 . 830 1,440 1,700 9,300,000 16,000,000 18,500,000 1,700,000 4,400,000 8,100,000 1,130,000 1,860,000 2,290,000 880,000 930,000 1,280,000 250,000 930,000 1,010,000 In 1 888 the traffic was as follows : Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Net,;f State . Companies' . 930 770 5,900,000 12,600,000 4,600,000 3,500,000 1,120,000 1,170,000 640,000 640,000 480,000 530,000 Total . 1,700 18,500,000 8, 100,000 2,290,000 1,280,000 1,010,000 The averages per mile were as follows : Year Pas- sengers Goods, Tons Re- 1 Ex- ceipts, £ penses,^ Net,;^ 1873 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 11,200 11,100 10,900 2,050 3.050 4,800 1,360 1,300 1.350 1,050 650 750 310 650 600 The return on capital was as follows in 1885 : — Construction, Net Earnings, ;6 Percentage State . . . 15,900,000 Companies , 10,400,000 390,000 520,000 2-5 S.O In four years ending 1886 the average was 36 persons kUled and 35 injured, but of passengers only i killed and 4 injured per annum. Belgium A line from Brussels to Malines, opened in 1835, was the first of any importance on the European Continent, although the Lyons and St. Etienne preceded it by seven years. The growth of mileage is shown as follows : — Year State Companies Total 1840 . 210 210 1850 . 390 160 550 i860 . 460 610 1,070 1870 . 540 1,260 1,800 1880 . 1,730 670 2,400 1888 . 1.990 770 2,760 The balance-sheet of the State lines was : Period Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Profit, £ 1835-60. . . . 1861-70 .... 1871-80. . . . 1881-87. • • • 14,700,000 15,400,000 35,600,000 33,400,000 8,200,000 8,200,000 22,300,000 19,800,000 6,500,000 7,200,000 13,300,000 13,600,000 S3 years. . . . 99,100,000 58,500,000 40,600,000 The number of passengers on all lines carried, and that of those killed, were • — RAILWAYS 507 RAILWAYS 1835-87. Period Number Killed One in 183S-50 . 1851-70 1871-80 . 1881-87 . 45,000,000 232,000,000 465,000,000 445,000,000 IS 34 77 60 3.000,000 6,600,000 6,100,000 7,400,000 The return on capital of Belgian lines in 1888 was : — Cost, £ Net Product, £ State Companies Total 55,300,000 16,200,000 2,460,000 780,000 Percentage 4-5 4.8 71,500,000 3,240,000 4.6 The traffic returns on all the railways of Belgium in 1888 were as follows : 1 Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ j Expenses, £ Net,^ State .... 1,990 Companies . . ,1 770 57,900,000 15,500,000 25,500,000 15,300,000 5,260,000 2,800,000 1,520,000 740,000 2,460,000 780,000 Total . , 2,760 73,400,000 40,800,000 6,780,000 ! 3,540,000 3,240,000 Averages per mile were as follows :- State . . . Companies . Total . . Pas- sengers 29,000 20,100 26,700 Goods, Tons Receipts, 12,800 19,900 14,800 2,630 1,980 2,450 Ex- ! penses,;^! Net,;^ 1,400 960 1,280 1,230 1,020 1,170 The average cost of construction was ; came from the State. The Oroya line, with many tunnels, cost ;^29,ooo per mile, say ;£'4,20o,ooo ; that from Tacua to Bolivia ;f34,ooo a mile, say ;f 3, 700,000. Chili Mr. Wheelwright began railways in 1 85 1, making a line from Copiapo to Caldera. Mileage progressed as follows : — Year i860 1870 Miles Year 120 1880 450 1889 Miles 1,100 1,750 Companies own 1000 miles, the State 750, the latter having cost ;£'6,ooo,ooo, and the total about 14 millions sterling. The earnings of State lines in 1887 amounted to ;^8oo,ooo, and expenses ;^520,ooo, leaving a net gain of ;^28o,ooo, say 4. 7 per cent, on the cost. Brazil The first line was made by Baron Maua to the Organ Mountains, near Rio Janeiro, in 185 1. The progress of mileage was as follows ; — Year Miles Year i860 . 13s 1880 1870 . . 505 Miles 2.175 5.580 The Pedro Segundo is one of the finest in the New World, with a length of 520 miles, mostly through a difficult country, having sixteen great tunnels. It cost ^12,200,000 and earns Sj per cent, net on the outlay. Most of the railways are 5 feet 4 inch gauge, but there are 40-inch gauge in Rio Grande and some other parts. The total traffic returns on Argentine railways were as follows : — The San Paulo line crosses the Serra Cubaton by foul successive inclined planes, up which the train is drawn, till attaining a height of 3500 feet over sea-level. The total cost of railways down to 1888 was : — £ Miles £ per Mile State lines . Companies' . 16,100,000 32,700,000 900 4,400 18,000 7.400 Total . 48,800,000 5,300 9,200 Traffic returns in 1887 showed 7,300,000 passengers and 1,820,000 tons merchandise; receipts, ;f 3,820,000 ; expenses, ;^2,S40,ooo; net profit, ;^i,28o,ooo, being a little over 2J per cent. (2. 6) on the total outlay of capital. Argentina The first line from Buenos Ayres to Flores, six miles, was opened in 1857. Official records of mileage show thus : — Year i860 . 1870 . Miles IS 540 Year Miles 1880 . . 1,54° 1889 . • S.550 The mileage at various dates was composed thus :- 1875 1881 1886 1889 State. Companies IS 1,520 1,520 1,710 2,070 5.55° Total 1,170 3.040 3.780 5.550 Year Miles Cost, £ Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ j Expenses, £ Net,^ Interest on Cost 1872 .... 1876 .... 1886 .... 1888 .... 600 1.370 3.780 4.440 5,300,000 11,400,000 32,700,000 38,500,000 2,300,000 ! 330,000 2,700,000 1 680,000 680,000 920,000 3,060,000 2,800,000 400,000 630,000 1,740,000 1,650,000 280,000 290,000 1,320,000 1,150,000 S3 2.6 4-1 30 In 1889 there were 5550 miles, representing an outlay of about 48 millions sterling. All the lines now belong to companies, the State lines having been recently sold. The number of train-miles run in 1889 was 1,200,000, the Great Southern of Buenos Ayres occupying the first place. The rolling-stock on all the lines comprised 12,000 waggons, capable of carrying 2,400,000 tons yearly. Uruguay Mileage progressed as follows :— Year 1870 1875 Miles 60 190 Year 1880 . 1889 . Miles 270 450 Traffic returns were as follows : — Year Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts,,^ Receipts per Mile, £ 1877 1883 1887 230 300 400 270,000 290,000 405,000 77,000 160,000 95,000 170,000 410 570 The system which Mr. Robert Crawford is pushing forward will, when completed, have a total length of 700 miles. There are no State railways. Japan Mileage records are as follows : — Year Miles Year 1875 .... 40 1885 1880 75 Traffic receipts in Japan were as follows : — CiJ 1 2 as. Goods, Tons Re- ceipts, £ S3 - No. 1 Receipts, £ Each, Pence Passengers Goods, tons . . 103,200,000 ' 6,440,000 22,400,000 j 13,320,000 IS 14 Total . . . ! 19,760,000 The return on capital in 1 888 was over 5 per cent., viz., 5.2, being the highest average in the World for any country. * These returns being on the fictitious basis of 24 pence the rupee, it is necessary to take off at least one-fourth ; thus mile-earnings were really ^^1050, expenses ^^525. Australia The first line was opened in 1854 from Melbourne to Hobson's Bay, and the growth of mileage has been as follows : — 1861 1871 ; 1881 1888 New South Wales 73 358 1,041 2,206 Victoria .... 214 329 1.247 2,Ol8 Queensland. 218 800 1. 931 South Australia . ■;6 134 832 1,518 New Zealand 145 1.333 1,86s Tasmania .... 45 168 327 West Australia . 122 272 Total 343 1,229 S.S43 10,137 The gauge is 42 inches in all the Colonies except New South Wales, S6J, and Victoria, 63 inches. The traffic returns in New South Wales showed thus : — Year Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Per Mile Passengers Goods, Tons 1856 1888 23 2,206 350,000 15,900,000 2,500 3,200,000 15.000 7.300 110 1.450 The cost of construction down to 1888 and traffic in that year were as follows : — Cost. £ Cost, £ per Mile Receipts, £ Expenses, £ M., r 1 Interest on ^^'' £ i Capital New South Wales Victoria . Queensland . South Australia New Zealand . Tasmania West Australia 26,600,000 27,500,000 13,100,000 9,700,000 13,500,000 2,400,000 900,000 12,500 13,600 6,800 6,400 7,600 8,400 4,400 2,510,000 2,750,000 780,000 950,000 1,000,000 135,000 40,000 1,580,000 1,750,000 510,000 450,000 650,000 130,000 45,000 930,000 1,000,000 270,000 500,000 350,000 5,000 li 2.1 1:1 ... Total • 93,700,000 9.500 8,165,000 5,115,000 3,050,000 3.2 The traffic returns for three of the Colonies in i 888 compare thus : — Miles Passengers Goods, Tons Per Mile Passengers Tons Receipts, £ Expenses, £ New South Wales . Victoria . New Zealand . 2,206 2,018 1,865 15,900,000 56,000,000 3,100,000 3,200,000 3,560,000 1,920,000 7.300 27,700 1,650 1.450 1.750 1,030 1.150 1,360 540 720 865 350 Mr. Coghlan shows that the saving of fteight charges in New South Wales in twenty-five years down to 1888 by railways was ;^4,670,ooo. This is equal to ;^240 a mile per annum, and, applied to all Australia, would give the following result : — Saving in Freight Charges Period New South Wales Victoria Queensland South Australia New Zealand Tasmania Western Australia Total 1855-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . £ 450,000 1,220,000 2,880,000 £ 680,000 1,390,000 2,800,000 £ 200,000 850,000 2,400,000 £ 350,000 800,000 2,100,000 £ 100,000 1,200,000 2,800,000 £ 30,000 240,000 600,000 £ 60,000 400,00c £ 1,810,000 5,760,000 13,980,000 Total , . 4,550,000 4,870,000 3,450,000 3,250,000 4,100,000 870,000 460,000 21,550,000 RAILWAYS 512 RELIGION The above estimate shows that, speaking approxi- mately, the railways of Australia have already in saving of freight charges paid nearly one-fourth of the cost of construction ; also that they cause an annual saving to the people of ;£'r,6oo,cxx) sterling. South Africa Mileage returns show as follows : — Year Cape Colony Natal Total 1874 . 1880 .... 1888 .... 64 910 1,780 100 230 64 1,010 2,010 All the lines helong to the State, except one of 180 miles in Cape Colony. Cape lines in 1880 carried 2,700,000 passengers and 420,000 tons goods, being 1500 passengers and 230 tons per mile. The average cost of construction was ;f 8900. This would give a total outlay of 16 millions sterling. Receipts ^i, 450,000, expenses ;^76o,coo, leaving a net profit of ;^690,ooo, say 4. 3 on the cost of construction. The first line was from Cape Town to Wellington, 58 miles, opened in i860; cost ;^soo,ooo. The line to Kimberley diamond fields was opened in 1885. In 1888 there were three principal lines : the Western 720, the Midland 590, and the Eastern 290 miles. Algeria The official returns are as follows : — Year Miles Cost, £ Passengers Goods, Tons Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Net,i- 1877 1885 1887 410 1,160 1,580 7,700,000 16,000,000 1,020,000 2,350,000 260,000 1,080,000 270,000 850,000 840,000 230,000 605,000 40,000 245,000 Goods tons, as given above, averaged a haulage of 100 under the form of kilometric tons. Including the Tunis length of 1840 miles, representing an approximate outlay of Egypt The first line was opened in 1856, from Alexandria to Cairo, 130 miles ; t;ost of construction, ;^8oco per mile. Records of mileage show thus : — Year i860 1879 1885 1889 Details of receipts and expenditure showed thus : — Miles Net Product, £ ^IS 920 750,000 950 930,000 956 730,000 Year Receipts, £ 1 Per Mile Receipts, £ Expenses, £ 1885 1889 1,540,000 1,330,000 610,000 I 1,620 600,000 I 1,400 640 630 In 1888 the lines carried 3,600,000 passengers. The actual length of railways is 1260 miles, but some are not working. The earnings on the total mileage would not exceed ,;f 1050, expenses ;^48o per mile. Ismail Pacha, during his reign, expended a sum of ;f 13,300,000 in the construction of railways, one line extending along the Nile valley to Siout, in Upper Egypt. Net earnings are 4 per cent, on cost. kilometres, or 63 miles : official returns give this item lines, 260 miles, the whole system in 1889 reached a 26 millions sterling. West Indies The principal railways in this part of the world are : — Miles Cuba . . .... 930 Jamaica, &c. 160 Santo Domingo 70 Martinique .... . 120 1,280 The traffic and earnings of these lines are unknown. Various Countries The latest returns of mileage in the following countries Asia Minor Bourbon . Central America Ceylon China Cochin-China Malta Making a toi traffic returns. Miles 360 70 570 180 86 40 Mauritius . Newfoundland . Paraguay . Persia Sandwich Islands Senegal Venezuela . Miles go 90 90 10 $6 250 180 ;al of 2082 miles for which we have no RANSOM In 1360 that of King John of France was fixed at p^l, 200,000 sterling. In 1521 that of Francis I. of France was fixed by Charles V. the Emperor at ^^800,000 sterling. RELIGION The following are the latest numbers as well as can be ascertained : — England . Scotland . Ireland United Kingdom France Germany . Russia . . Austria Hungary . Ita'y . Spain . Roman Catholics Protestants 1,066,000 318,000 3,952,000 5,336,000 29,202.000 16,789,000 8,300,000 20,227,000 9,410,000 28,360,000 17,542,000 24,858,000 3,371,000 1,169,000 29,398,000 693,000 29,370,000 2,950,000 400,000 3,174,000 62,000 7,600 Greeks 65,549,000 493,000 2,447,000 Jews 44,000 6,000 1,000 51,000 S3.000 563,000 3,000,000 1,005,000 641,000 38,000 400 Mahometans 2,600,000 Total ■25,968,000 3,695,000 5,122,000 34,785,000 29,948,000 46,722,000 82,399,000 22,125,000 15,672,000 28,460,000 17,550,000 RELIGION 513 RELIGION Roman Catholics Protestants Greeks Jews Mahometans Total Portugal 4,707,500 500 4,708,000 Sweden 1,000 4,561,000 3,000 ... 4,565,000 Norway 500 1,806,500 ... 1,807,000 Denmark . 3,000 1,973,000 4,000 ... 1,980,000 Holland . 1,440,000 2,491,000 82,000 4,013,000 Belgium 6,016,000 10,000 4,000 ... 6,030,000 Switzerland 1,190,000 1,724,000 8,000 2,922,000 Greece 14,000 1,000 1,903,000 6,000 24,000 1,948,000 Roumania . 114,000 14,000 4,529,000 400,000 2,000 5,059,000 Servia 8,000 1,000 1,874,000 4,000 15,000 1,902,000 Bulgaria . 19,000 ... 2,432,000 24,000 668,000 3,143,000 Turkey 280,000 45,000 788,000 51,000 3,626,000 4,790,000 Europe 148,959,000 78,681,600 80,015,000 5,937,400 6,935,000 320,528,000 United States . 9,000,000 50,890,000 110,000 60,000,000 Canada 1,792,000 2,440,000 ... 4,232,000 Spanish America 33,340,000 115,000 47,000 ... 33.502,000 Australia . 845,000 2,880,000 1,000 ... 3,726,000 West Indies 2,480,000 1,030,000 3,510,000 Total 196,416,000 136,036,600 80,015,000 6,095,400 6,935,000 425,498,000 The creeds of the world may be briefly stated thus : — Roman Catholics Protestants 1 Greeks | Jews Mahometans Various Total Europe America Australia Asia and Africa 148,900,000 44,100,000 850,000 6,600,000 78,700,000 55,300,000 2,900,000 3,100,000 80,000,000 ' 6,000,000 100,000 670,000 6,900,000 194,000,000 440,000,000 320,500,000 91,500,000 3,750,000 644.370.000 Total 200,450,000 140,000,000 I 80,000,000 1 6,770,000 200,900,000 440,000,000 1,060,120,000 The 440 millions of pagans in the above table marked ' ' various " are made up, in almost equal proportions, of Buddhists, Brahmans, and followers of Confucius. United Kingdom In 1881 the classification was as follows : — Anglicans Roman Catholics Presbyterians All Others Total England Scotland Ireland 18,798,000 99,000 636,000 1,066,000 318,000 3,952,000 114,000 5,990,000 2,997,000 281,000 486,000 48,000 25,968,000 3,695,000 5,122,000 United Kingdom 19,533,000 S.336.000 3,597,000 j 6,319,000 34,785,000 In 1 87 1 the estimated numbers were : — Anglicans Roman Catholics Dissen- ters Jews Total England Scotland Ireland . 17,781,000 73,000 683,000 1,058,000 320,000 4,142,000 3,971,000 2,959,000 577.000 39,000 6,000 1,000 22,849,000 3,358,000 5,403,000 U.Kingd. 18,537,000 S.520,000 7,507,000 46,000 31,610,000 No census as to religion is taken in England or Scot- land. The above estimates are according to the ratios resulting from the marriages solemnised yearly in the different churches. In 1882 a private census of people attending church on Sundays was taken, showing percentage to population as follows : — Sheffield . 23 Southampton . . 38 Nottingham Hull . 41 Liverpool . 26 Portsmouth 41 Bristol 31 Bath . 52 The above was, however, much in excess of the real percentage, many persons going to church twice. Only 37 per cent, of the total worshippers attended the Church of England, 8 per cent, being Roman Catholics and 55 per cent. Dissenters. United States. The number of churches at various dates was : — 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1885 Baptist . Methodist Presby- 1 terian ) R. Catholic Various . 4.384 2,253 210 3.170 7,900 2,800 512 3.450 9.600 13,300 4,800 1,200 9,200 12,100 19,900 6,400 2,600 13,020 13.900 21,300 7,100 3,800 17,000 31.350 29,000 10,940 6,755 30,100 Total . 38,100 54,020 63,100 ' 108,145 The value of church property was as follows :— 1850 1 1870 Number of Believers £. £ 1835 1 1880 Methodists . Baptists . . Presbyterians R. Catholics Various . . 3,100,000 2,300,000 3,100,000 1,900,000 7,800,000 i4,6oo,00O| 1,240,000 8,700,000 2,929,000 11,000,000' 2,102,000 i2,700,ooo| 555,000 27,200,000, 7,532,000 14,667,000 10,464,000 6,478,000 6,143,000 12,407,000 Total . . 18,200,000 74,200,00014,358,000 50,159,000 In 1888 the Roman Catholics possessed 7424 churches, 650 colleges, 3100 schools, and 520 hospitals and asylums. 2 K RELIGION S14 RICE The American Almanac gives the following statistics for 1883-85 :— Churches Clergy Sittings Baptists Episcopal Methodists Other Methodists . . Presbyterians , . . Roman Catholics . . Various 31.350 17.935 10,940 6.75S 30,240 16,190 11,676 10,770 9.050 7.370 29, 100 2,572,000 1,660,000 2,050,000 1,020,000 3,650,000 Total . . . 97,220 84.156 In 1 8S3 the number of Roman Catholics was 6,832,900, but the number of sittings was not known. In 1889 Cardinal Gibbon stated their number at 9,000,000. Germany The Census of 1885 compares with 1871 as follows : — 1871 1885 Protestants Roman Catholics Jews Undefined. 25,582,000 14,868,000 512,000 99,000 29,370,000 16,789,000 563,000 137,000 Total 41,061,000 46,859,000 In 1885 the distribution was as follows : Percentage Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtem- berg All Ger- many Protestants . R. Catholics Jews . . . Undefined . 64.4 34.0 1-3 0.3 28.1 70.8 I.O 0.1 96.6 2.8 0.2 0.4 69.1 30.0 0.7 0.2 62.7 3S-8 1.2 0.3 Total . 100. j 100.0 lOO.O 100. 100. Canada Number Ratio Roman Catholics Anglicans .... Presbyterians . Methodists Various .... 1,792,000 575,000 676,000 743.000 446,000 42.2 13-6 16.0 17.6 10.6 Total 4,232,000 100,0 Roman Catholics count 1,170,000 in Lower Canada, 320,000 in Ontario, and 302,000 in the other provinces, about 1,100,000 being French and 700,000 Irish. Australia In 1889 the various congregations stood as follows : — Anglicans R. Catholics Presbyterians Methodists Various Total New South Wales . 503,000 306,000 107,000 95,000 95,000 1,106,000 Victoria .... 399.000 261,000 170,000 139,000 135,000 1,104,000 Queensland 139,000 95,000 46,000 31,000 86,000 397.000 South Australia 85,000 48,000 20,000 59.000 103,000 315,000 New Zealand . 246,000 85,000 138,000 58,000 85,000 612,000 Tasmania 6o,oco 38,000 19,000 16,000 15,000 148,000 Western Australia . 23,000 12,000 1,000 3,000 4,000 43,000 Total 1,455,000 845,000 1 501,000 401,000 523,000 3,725,000 India The Census of 1881 showed as follows : — Christians Hindoos Mahometans Buddhists Various Total Assam 7,000 3,062,000 1,317,000 6,000 489,000 4,881,000 Bengal . 128,000 45,453,000 21,705,000 156,000 2,095,000 69,537,000 Bombay . 145,000 17,835,000 3,774,000 1,642,000 23,396,000 Burmah . 84,000 88,000 169,000 3,252,000 144,000 3,737,000 Madras . 711,000 28,498,000 1,934,000 2,000 26,000 31,171,000 Punjaub . 34,000 9,252,000 11,662,000 3,000 1,761,000 22,712,000 Travancore 499,000 1,756,000 147,000 2,402,000 Various . 255,000 81,993,000 9,414,000 4,393,000 96,055,000 Total 1,863,000 187,937,000 50,122,000 3,419,000 10,550,000 253,891,000 "Christians" included 963,000 Roman Catholics, RIBBONS The value manufactured was estimated as follows : — 1872 1881 £ £ France 4,920,000 S, 01 6, 000 Germany . 2,810,000 2,420,000 Switzerland 2,590,000 2,230,000 Austria 920,000 710,000 Great Britain . 800,000 800,000 United States . 100,000 3,430,000 Other countries . 400,000 900,000 Total 12,540,000 15,506,000 432,000 Protestants, and 568,000 Syrians, Greeks, &c. BICE The ordinary production is approximately as follows : — Acres Crop, Tons Consumption Surplus India . . . 22,600,000 16,800,000 15,400,000 1,400,000 Burmah 3,800,000 2,700,000 1,700,000 1,000,000 I^p*!;, 6,580,000 4,800,000 4,600,000 200,000 Manilla 3,140,000 1,800,000 1,750,000 50,000 Java . 5,000,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 500,000 Ceylon 600,000 400,000 350,000 50,000 Italy . 500,000 400,000 360,000 40,000 Spam 50,000 40,000 40,000 U. States . 120,000 90,000 160,000 RIVERS 515 ROADS There are also 1,870,000 acres in Cochin-China, and 500,000 in Siam under this product; no return as to crops. The consumption in Europe has doubled since 1870, and now exceeds two million tons yearly. Consumption in the United Kingdom has been as follows : — Year i86o 1870 1880 1889 Tons 18,100 95,200 221,000 178,000 Lbs. per Inhai. 7 14 loj It has been grown successfully in the Thames valley near Windsor. RIVERS The magnitude of rivers is best judged by their out- iiow, which is as follows : — Amazon La Plata . Mississippi . St. Lawrence •Obi . Volga . Yang-tse-kiang Congo Danube Ganges I>lile . Cubic Feet per Second . 1,030,000 850,000 570,000 470,000 . 330,000 310,000 300,000 250,000 250,000 200,000 160,000 Dnieper Don . Euphrates Rhine . Rhone. Po Vistula Loire . Elbe . Seine . Thames Cubic Feet per Second 120,000 115,000 110,000 65,000 60,000 60,000 45,000 3S.O0O 30,000 20,000 10,000 The following table shows the length of the more important rivers : — * MiUs Amazon , 3.270 Amoor 2,240 Bramaputra 1,560 Columbia . 1,090 Congo 2,700 Danube . 1,340 Darling . 2,345 Dnieper . 1,070 Don . 98s Douro • 490 Ebro 470 Elbe . 615 Euphrates 1,360 Ganges . i>35o •Garonne . 400 Guadiana . 320 Hoang-ho 2,400 Hudson . 280 Indus 1,720 Irrawaddy 900 enisei 2,100 Kiang-ku . 1,050 Lena 2,500 Loire Mackenzie 1,600 Magdalena 820 Mississippi Murray Niger Nile. Norte Obi . Orange Orinoco Oxus Plata Po . Rhine Rhone St. Lawrence Seine Senegal Severn Shannon Tagus Thames Tiber Vistula Volga Yang-tse-kiang Zambesi . Miles 2,250 1,703 2,300 2,750 1,250 2,800 1,000 1,150 1,300 2,130 356 715 450 1,930 429 850 210 220 570 204 210 601 1,990 2,700 950 The basins drained by the great rivers are as follows :- Amazon La Plata . Obi . Congo Mississippi . "Yang-tse-kiang Nile . Volga. -Ganges Sq. Miles 1,920,000 1,560,000 1,370,000 1,300,000 1,170,000 740,000 St. Lawrence Danube Euphrates Don . Dnieper Rhine /.^«,«w ^ ^^ ^ . 710,000 Vistula 650,000 . Elbe . 440,000 ■ Rhone. Sq. Mile, 340,000 310,000 240,000 220,000 170,000 90,000 75.000 50,000 4S,ooo • The navigable length of rivers has been already given 4mder the heading of Canals. The outflow of European rivers is estimated as fol- lows : — Cubic Feet per Second Into North Sea Baltic . Atlantic Into Mediterranean Caspian Black Sea . 310,000 365,000 603,000 336,000 273,000 285,000 Making a total of 2,172,000 cubic feet per second, or more than eight times the outflow of the Danube. The current of certain rivers in ordinary times is as follows : — Feet per Feet per Minute Minute Seine .... 135 Garonne . . . 230 Thames . . . 180 Rhone . . . 390 Tiber .... 200 Durance . . . 510 Danube . . . 210 Rhine . . . 540 Loire . . . 220 Amazon . . . 780 The Amazon falls 2 ft., the Elbe 10 ft, the Parani 22 ft. per 100 miles. The Danube falls 264 ft. from Vieima to Buda-Pesth, and 216 ft. from the latter place to the sea. There have been some remarkable floods of the Seine at Paris and the Tiber at Rome, when the height over ordinary level was as follows : — Date 1658 1740 1802 River Seine Seine Seine Feet ■ 29 . 26 • 24 Bate Eiver Feet 1530 . . Tiber . ■ 45 1686 , . Tiber . • 35 1742 . . Tiber . • 31 The outflow of all Italian rivers is estimated thus, in cubic feet per second : — C-ubic Feet Basin, Sq. Miles Po ... 60,000 28,000 Tiber . . . 10,000 6,000 Other rivers , . 45,000 Si'°°o Total . 115,000 85,000 The basin and outflow of French rivers are as fol lows : — Basin, Cubic Feet Sq. Miles per Second Rhone 48,000 60,000 Gironde . 50,000 40,000 Loire . S4,ooo 35.000 Seine 32,000 20,000 Various 15,000 40,000 Total 199,000 195,000 The outflow of the Nile varies from 16,000 cubic feet per second in June to 400,000 in September, the yearly average being at the rate of 160,000 cubic feet per second ; Sir John Fowler makes it only 120,000. The ordinary rise of the Nile is shown in the averages for thirteen years thus : — Ft. In. 1866-70 25 2 1871-78 24 o The ordinary discharge of the Nile is sixteen times that of the Thames. ROADS The following is a table of resistance for waggon- draughts per ton : — Lbs. per Ton Gradients of Description Level Road I per Cent. 3 per Cent. Cent 8 per Cent Pavement . . . Macadam .... Stone and clay . . Thick gravel . . . 65 147 63 87 123 280 123 170 245 55° 185 255 368 82s 278 382 1,238 ROADS Si6 ROADS M'Neill's mail-coach dynamometer is as follows : — Speed, Miles per Force Required Level 2j per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. Hour Road Gradient Gradient Gradient Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 6 . . Ill i6o 213 268 8 . . 120 i66 219 296 lo 128 172 22s 318 There are practically three kinds of roads — ordinary highways, railways, and rivers or canals. The total length is approximately as follows : — Miles Miles of Way per High- Rail- Rivers Total 100 Sq. ways ways Miles U. Kingdom 118,000 19,800 3.800 141,600 120 France . . 320,000 20,900 7,700 348,600 170 Germany . 265,000 24,300 17,100 306,400 150 Russia . . 65,000 17,700 33.900 116,600 S Austria . . 81,000 15,600 7,200 103,800 37 Italy . . . 51,000 7,800 1,300 60,100 54 Spain. . . 14,000 5.900 1,100 21,000 II Portugal . 2,000 1,200 500 3.700 10 Sweden . . 36,200 4,700 Soo 41,400 24 Norway . , 14,800 1,000 100 15.900 12 Denmark . 2,000 1,200 100 3.300 22 Holland. . 7,600 1,700 2,700 12,000 60 Belgium . . 5.700 2,800 1,200 9,700 85 Switzerland 1,900 500 2,400 16 Rouraania, 1 &c. . ; 3,600 1,100 4.700 3 Europe . . 982,300 130,100 78,800 1,191,200 35 V. States . 260,100 161,200 51,800 473,100 15 Canada . . 6,000 13.300 4, coo 23.300 I India . . . 58,000 15.300 5,000 78,300 6 Australia 10,600 3,800 14,400 I Argentina . 5,600 2,200 7,800 I Br.izil . . 700 5,600 24,300 30,700 I Total . 1,307,100 341,600 169,900 1,818,700 10 In Switzerland, lake routes are counted as navigable rivers. The term "highways" includes also byways practicable for wheeled vehicles. The ordinary cost of making a road is ;if8oo a mile in England, ^1200 in France, £600 in Italy. The cost of maintenance is ;^i8 a mile in England, ^33 in France, £;i8 in Austria. Macadamised roads are called after a Scotch engineer who began his labours in 1818. United Kingdom The mileage of roads in England and Wales increased until the introduction of railways, and then began to decline, viz. : — Year Miles Main Ordinary [ Total 1813 . 1839 • 1870 . 1889 . 19,700 21,960 15.125 17.745 9S.100 104,770 102,615 93."5 114,800 126,730 117,740 110,860 Expenditure in 18 I was as follows : — £ Main . Ordinary Average per Mile, £ 802,000 45 1,222,000 13 The Romans had roads from Brighton to York ; these were repaired by Edward I. and subsequent monarchs. In the 1 8th century Arthur Young wrote of the turnpike road from Preston to Wigan : " This infernal road hsis ruts four feet deep; in 18 miles I counted three carts broken down. " Scotland had no regular roads, at least in the northern parts, before 1745, when General Wade's soldiers made them. Telford resumed the work in 1800, and made 900 miles of road and 1200 bridges in twenty years. In 1887 Scotland had 2530 miles of main and ordinary highways. As for Ireland, it was customary in the i8th century to travel on horseback, Colonel Knox Gore stating recently in the House of Commons that he was the iirst man who travelled by coach from Connaught to Dublin. France Expenditure in 1885 was as follows : — Total 2,024,000 IS Roads Miles £ £ per Mile National Departmental . • . Local .... 23,700 18,900 277,400 1,280,000 880,000 8,360,000 S4 47 30 Total 320,000 10,520,000 33 In 183s the mileage and value of routes was as fol- lows : — Miles £ £ per Mile Canals .... Highroads . Byroads . • Bridges, No. 2,300 21,500 24,000 1.75° 18,000,000 21,000,000 15,000,000 7,000,000 7,800 9,800 6,200 Total value . 61,000,000 There are four classes of roads in France, viz. : — Class Width, Feet Cost, ;^per Mile 1st .... 2nd .... 3rd ... . 4th .... 50 40 33 25 1,900 1,200 Soo 400 In fifty years ending i88o France spent i8o millions sterling on highroads ; those now existing are worth about 240 millions sterling. Germany The main roads of the Empire in 1878 were as fol- lows : — Miles Prussia 25,300 Bavaria 6,200 Other Stales 33.700 Total .... 65,200 There were also 200,000 miles of byroads. Austria After the peace of 18 15 the Government began to make roads, and in sixty years, down to 1875, no less than 60,000 miles of macadamised roads were laid down, besides sixty passes made over the Alps, with casemates for travellers. The grand trunk road from Verona (then Austrian Italy) to Bukowina was 1000 miles in length. Road-making is still carried on at the rate of 1000 miles- yearly. ROADS S17 SALT The returns of Austria proper, without Hungary, show as follows : — Mileage 1878 1887 Highroads Byroads .... 9.700 42,300 9,800 52.300 Total 52,000 62,100 Highroads are kept in repair by the State at a cost of ;f 38 per mile per annum, bjroads by the local communes. Hungary had 18,800 miles of road in 1886, of which 4,400 were maintained by the State, and 14,400 of minor importance by the communes. Italy In the last thirty years no less than 28,000 miles of road have been constructed, at an outlay of 17 millions sterling, being an average of ;^6oo per mile. There are at present 5800 miles of main routes maintained by the State, and 45,000 of local roads by the communes. Spain The length of highroads at various dates was : Year 1808 . 1827 Miles 1,860 3.300 Year 1869 . 1880 . Miles 9,980 13.970 In 1827 waggons paid a toll of twopence every 10 miles, and the State expended ;^9i,ooo on the mainten- ance of 3300 miles and thirty-five bridges. The rest of Spain had only mule-tracks. When Church properties were confiscated, a part of the spoil was devoted to mak- ing roads, and in this way j^7,ooo,ooo were expended between 1846 and 1858. In 1S80 there were 12,420 miles of good carriage roads maintained by the State, and 1550 by the local authorities. Portugal In 1840 there were neither roads nor mail-coaches ; men travelled on mules, ladies in sedan-chairs borne by hand. At present there are about 2000 miles of road, including the great northern route, 300 miles, to Valenza on the Minho, and the great eastern to Badajoz. Belgium The mileage of roads has nearly trebled since 1830 : — Year Highroads Byroads Total 1830 . 1850 .... 1S70 .... 1887 .... 1,620 2.550 3.360 4.350 430 1,360 1,280 I.3SO 2,050 3.910 4.640 5.700 Miles Miles 12,300 North Carolina . 6.500 9,800 Kentucky 5,600 9.500 Tennessee . 5.50a 8,100 Vermont 4,700 In 1879 tl'fi waggons used on the above roads had a carrying power of 470,000 tons. United States The length of mail-coach roads at various dates was : — Year Miles 1800 20,820 1850 169,700 1889 260,100 At the period of independence there were not 1000 miles of highroad, the colonies of New England, Vir- ginia, &c., having little other means of communication than by sea. In 1834 the mail-coach roads of the principal States were as follows : — New York Pennsylvania Virginia Ohio . The other States having an aggregate of 42,500 miles, and thus making up a total of 104,500 for the Union. Canada In 1826 there was such a want of roads that Major Strickland described a journey of fifty miles near Toronto, which took him three days to accomplish. In 1878 there were 5500 miles of regular mail-coach road. Brazil The interior is still destitute of good roads, but there are some admirable ones in the Maritime provinces. Those of Tijuca and Petropolis, near Rio Janeiro, are chefs d'auvre, besides which those in the provinces of San Paulo and Rio Grande are worth mention. Waggon- tracks from Rio Janeiro to Matto Grosso and Goyaz, are in use for freight, the journey taking six months. Argentina Except the routes over the Andes to Chili, roads are almost unknown. President Sarmiento bri<^ed many of the rivers in 1868-74. Railways have meantime rendered roads superfluous. In i860 the bullock- wagons between Tucuman and Rosario, 600 miles, usually took twelve months on the round trip, going ten miles a day, and making long halts. The distance is now done in one day by rail. s. The following table various seas : — SALT shows the percentage of salt in Sea Percentage Salt per Ton of or Salt Water, lbs. Caspian .... o-S II Black 1.2 26 Baltic 1-3 28 English Channi 1 3 3 72 Red . 4-3 93 Dead 8.5 ^V Mediterranean 3-9 |5 Atlantic . 3-7 81 Salt Lake. 20.0 440 In the Dead Sea the percentage of salt increases with depth, viz. : — Depth, Feet 66 400 Salt Watet 93 907 204 79b 263 737 278 722 The production of salt in Europe and the United States has been approximately as follows, in tons : — 1830 1889 Great Britain Continent . United States . 400,000 1,700,000 100,000 1,900,000 4,350,000 1,050,000 Total 2,200,000 7,300,000 SALT 518 SALT The following table shows approximately the present production and consumption yearly : — Tons Lbs. Con- sumed per Production Consumption Inhabitant United Kingdom 1,950,000 1,050,000 62 France 640,000 640,000 36 Germany . 910,000 7SS,ooo 3S Russia 1,200,000 1,310,000 33 Austria 340,000 340,000 18 Italy .... 600,000 350,000 2S Spain and Portugal . 600,000 190,000 19 Scandinavia 190,000 44 United States . 1,050,000 1,360,000 48 Canada 5S,ooo 105,000 45 India .... 700,000 1,100,000 12 Various 7SS,ooo 1,130,000 Total 8,800,000 8,520,000 ... Whenever the consumption falls below 20 lbs. per inhabitant, it is bad for public health. During the Para- guayan War of 1864-70, it was observed that the men who had been without salt for three months, when wounded, however slightly, died, as their wounds would not heal. United Kingdom Average Pro- 1 Period auction,Tons Ton rrice per Ton sumed per per Annum Inhabitant 1800-06 . . 203,000 £zo ;^32 16 1807-15 . . 230,000 30 32 16 1816-23 • ■ 257,000 30 32 16 1824-40 . . 410,000 I 19 1841-60 . . 880,000 i&f. 32 1861-70 . . 1,540,000 14J. 58 1871-80 . . 2,020,000 12J. 72 The consumption in the United Kingdom averages 40 lbs. per inhabitant for cooking or condiment, the rest being used for chemicals, manure, &c. Reduced death- rate and higher efBciency of workmen are in some manner the result of increased consumption of salt. The exportation at various dates has been as follows : — Year Tons Value, £ Shillings per Ton 1830 . 1853 . i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 188B . 220,000 520,000 700,000 760,000 1,050,000 900,000 270,000 360,000 380,000 600,000 490,000 10.4 10.3 10,0 11.4 10.9 The number of saltpans in the United Kingdom rose from 752 in 1867 to 131 1 in 1876, the production in the latter year including 1,780,000 tons of white salt made from brine, and 190,000 of rock-salt from Cheshire and Carrickfergus. France Production at various dates was approximately as follows : — Year 1830. 1840 , 1850. 1868 . 1886. Tons 300,000 400,000 600,000 600,000 640,000 Lbs. per Inhabitant 25 3S 34 36 The quantity made in 1886 was officially valued at ;^48o,ooo, say 15 shillings a ton. The surplus for ex- portation is insignificant. The saltworks employ 4000 hands. The amount of salt which paid excise in 1885 was only 330,000 tons, being for cookery and table use f what is used in manufactures is untaxed. Germany Official returns show as follows : — Year Tons Production Export Consumption 1870 1880 1887 430,000 660,000 910,000 40,000 100,000 155,000 390,000 560,000 755,000 Consumption compared with population showed : — Year Lbs. per Inhabitant Table Use Manufactures Total 1870 .... 1880 .... 1887 .... 17 17 17 8 13 18 25 30 35 In 1887 Prussia produced 470,000 tons, Wurtemberg 180,000, and the other states 260,000 tons. Russia Production and consumption at various dates were : — Year Tons Lbs. per Production Imports Consumption Inhabitant 1840 . i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1888 . 440,000 420,000 450,000 780,000 1,200,000 150,000 180,000 150,000 110,000 440,000 570,000 630,000 930,000 1,310,000 18 20 20 24 33 Austria The salt-mine of Wiellezka in Galitzia, at the base of the Carpathians, is the greatest in the world, extending 600 miles, and seeming inexhaustible. For six centuries it has_ given prodigious quantities of salt, and it still occupies 9000 miners. The total tonnage production of the Empire for the years given was estimated thus : — 1834 , 260,000 1850 600,000 1887 340,000 If the estimate in 1S50 was correct, this shows that the industry is declining apace, perhaps owing to the heavy salt-tax, the Government selling it at ;^i per ton for ex- portation, but at £10 per ton for home use. Holland In 1880-83 the average consumption was as follows : — Tons Tot food 39,000 Manufactures 19,000 Total £8,000 The consumption for food averaged 20 lbs. per head. The salt-tax yields ;£'300,ooo per annum, say 18 pence per inhabitant. Spain and Portugal In 1850 Spain was estimated to produce 800,000; Portugal, 520,000 tons. An official report in 1863 gave the production in Spain as 3,800,000 tons, probably tea times the real quantity. Exports were as follows : — Year Tons Total Spain Portugal Total Value, £ 1872 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 220,000 320,000 240,000 180,000 190,000 170,000 400,000 510,000 410,000 410,000 320,000 200,000 SALT 519 SANITATION The production of the two countries is not thought to exceed 6oo,cxxD tons. Scandinavia Imports of salt were as follows :^ Year Tons Sweden Norway Denmark Total i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 18B8 . . . 40,000 60,000 60,000 70,000 65,000 100,000 70,000 90,000 10,000 20,0CO 20,000 30,000 115,000 180,000 150,000 190,000 The large consumption in Norway is explained by the fisheries. United States Production and consumption at various dates were : — Year Tons Lbs. per Production | Imports Consumption Inhabitant 1840 1870 1880 1888 150,000 400,000 670,000 1,050,000 430,000 310,000 1,100,000 1,360,000 48 48 Saltworks were established at Cape Charles, Virginia, in 1620, and the French began working salt-springs in Illinois in 1720. The principal works in 1850 were at Syracuse, New York, producing 250,000 tons yearly. The method of solar evaporation is by tanks six inches deep, with an area of 300 square feet, each tank pro- ducing one ton per aimum, worth 8s. Boiling is also practised at Syracuse in kettles of 100 gallons ; the con- sumption of coal being one ton for each ton of salt. The production in 1870 and 18S0 was as follows : — j Saltworks Tons Produced 1870 1880 1870 1880 Michigan . . New York . Virginia . . Ohio . . . Various . . . 6S 93 29 40 55 86 69 II 73 90,000 110,000 100,000 65,000 3S.OOO 280,000 200,000 70,000 60,000 60,000 Total . . j 282 ] 264 400,000 670,000 Canada The importation has been as follows : — Year Tons Value, £ 1874 1887 .... 60,000 50,000 90,000 65,000 Salt-springs were discovered at Goderich, Ontario, in 1865, and a bore of 960 feet was sunk in 1876. The production in 1S86 was S5,ooo tons, valued at ;f 45,000. The consumption is, therefore, 105,000 tons, equal to 45 lbs. per inhabitant yearly. India About 500,000 tons are made yearly, besides which the importation has been as follows : — Year Tons Value, £ 1873 .... 280,000 830,000 1880 .... 350,000 760,000 1S88 .... 430,000 800,000 The salt-tax is enormous, and weighs heavily on the lyots. In 1876 it was six millions sterling, rising in 1890 to eight millions sterling. Consumption of salt barely averages 10 lbs. per inhabitant, which tends still further to debilitate the inhabitants. SANITATION In 1880 the amoimt of outstanding loans in Great Britain for sanitary works, such as water-supply, drainage, &c., exceeded 56 millions sterling. In 1888 it was stated that the total outlay on these works in the last thirty years reached 100 millions sterling. The following table of sewage was published in 1882 : — Tons of Sewage discharged Weekly 770,000 140,000 5,500,000 150,000 The system of sewage-farms requires an acre for 500 inhabitants, say 1000 acres for a city like Manchester or Liverpool. Sewage is supposed to have a market value of id. per ton. In 1876 Uiere were 65 towns in England with sewage-farms. The length of drains or sewers in various cities in 1882 was as follows : — Sewers, Cost per Mile Manchester . . j£l,240 Preston . 2,000 London . • S.550 Blackburn • 4,700 London Paris New York Miles 2300 440 200 Bordeaux Lille . Rheims Miles ■ 34 • 33 The Romans tmderstood the importance of sewers, and in the year 184 B.C. we find that the Senate spent 1000 talents, say ^120,000 sterling, on enlarging the drains. Paris under Louis XIV. had nearly two miles of sewers, and under Bonaparte about sixteen miles. Dry refuse in English towns, which is thrown into dust-bins, is found to average 10 lbs. a week per inhabitant. The result of sanitation is shown in the reduced death-rate, by com- paring the average for seven years before and seven years after the introduction of water-supply and drainage. Deaths per 10,000 Pop. Deaths from Typhoid Before After Before After Cardiff . . 330 230 17 II Croydon . . 240 190 IS S Dover . . 230 210 14 9 Leicester 260 250 IS 8 Merthyr . 260 180 21 9 Salisbury . 280 220 Warwick . 230 210 19 9 Deaths from typhoid in various towns showed a similar decline, both here and on the Continent, after the intro- duction of sanitary works : — Per 100,000 Inhabitants Before After Brussels Hamburg Dantzig Frankfort Bristol Cheltenham .... 22 48 99 63 100 80 IS 22 27 24 65 47 Buchanan shows that the annual death-rate for twenty- four towns in England fell firom 24.7 per thousand inhabitants to 21.9 after the adoption of water-supply and sewers. SCIENCE 520 SHIPPING SCIENCE The learned societies of the United Kingdom in 1880 were 118 in number and counted 66,200 members; but as many of these were repetitions, it is not likely that the cultivators of science were more than 44,000. The aggregate of 1 5 principal societies at various dates was : — Year Members 1830 . ■ . . . 2,201 1850 . . . 15,769 i88o ... ... 29,061 In 1882 the principal societies showed as follows : — Royal 552 Pharmaceutical 3.250 Statistical . 807 Law I.S30 Arcliasological . 580 Arts. 3.340 Geological 850 Agricultural . 7.9SO Antiquaries 640 Zoological 2,000 Geographical • 3.430 British Association . 2.400 Botanical. . 1,660 Social Science . 1.550 In 1881 the United Kingdom had 1355 schools of science, with 66,600 pupils; annual cost jf 295,000, or 89 shillings per pupil. In the same year the number of visitors to the different museums was as follows : — British Museum . 790,000 South Kensington 1,017,000 Bethnal Green . 451,000 Patent Office . 266,000 SEAMEN The number of seafaring men in all countries was in 1882 as follows : — National Gallery 958,000 Kew Gardens 612,000 Edinburgh . 350,000 Dublin 192,000 to rt . )5 'as >i oi „°u % J3 E ^ s § .2 a u r- U. Kingdom 45,000 193,000 167,000 405,000 I. II France . . 43,000 3S,ooo 94 000 172,000 0.45 Germany , . 8,000 40,000 27,000 75,000 0.16 Russia . . 26,000 23,000 74,000 123,000 o.is Austria . . 10,000 7,000 9,000 26,000 0.07 Italy . . . 15,000 52,000 74,000 141,000 0.50 Spain . . . 7,000 23,000 44,000 74,000 0-43 Portugal . . 4,000 5,000 4,000 13,000 0.30 Holland . . 7,000 18,000 13,000 38,000 0.95 0.70 Denmark . . 1,000 7,000 5,000 13,000 Sweden and ) Norway ) 9,000 79,000 143.000 231,000 3.55 Greece r,ooo 11,000 15,000 27,000 1.52 Turkey . . 4,000 10,000 3,000 17,000 0.22 Europe . . 180,000 503,000 672,000 1,355,000 0.42 United States 8,000 120,000 S4.000 182,000 0.35 2-54 Canada . . 50,000 65,000 115,000 Brazil . . . 2,000 6,000 8,000 16,600 0.18 Argentine 1 Republic J 2,000 8,000 11,000 0.5s Australia . . 11,000 3,000 14,000 0.48 Total . . 191,000 692,000 810,000 1,693,000 0.45 If marines and coastguards were added, the total would fall little short of two millions of men, or nearly 3 per cent, of the able-bodied men of the Christian world. SEASONS For medical purposes the seasons are supposed to begin on the following dates : — Spring . Summer Autumn Winter Northern Hemisphere March ist June ist September ist December ist Southern Hemisphere September ist December ist March 1st June ist The mean temperature of the seasons in various countries is as follows, in degrees Fahrenheit : — Spring Summer Autumn Winter England . 47 61 SI 40 France 54 68 56 41 Germany 48 65 48 33 Italy 59 75 61 45 Spain 61 79 67 51 Canada 43 71 47 17 Jamaica 77 81 79 76 New South Wales . 63 70 64 54 Cape Colony . 61 6q 63 : Brazil 73 79 75 69 SERVANTS Of 1000 families at Berlin there were 194 which kept servants in 1864, and only 173 in 1871. Professor Leone Levi in 1883 computed 1,951,000 domestic servants in the United Kingdom, earning £68,500,000 per annum, say ;^35 each. SHIPPING The following is Mr. Kiaer's table of the shipping of the world, with a column added for carrying power, in which steamers are counted as four times the power of sailing-vessels : — Year Steam, Tons Sail, Tons Total, Tons Carrying Power 1816 . . 1820 . . 1830 . . 1840 . . 1850 . . i860 . . 1870 . . 1880 . . 1886 . . 1,500 6,200 30,200 97,000 217,000 764,000 1,710,000 4,650,000 7,400,000 3,420,000 3,160,000 3,020,000 4,560,000 6,380,000 10,710,000 12,350,000 13,270.000 12,000,000 3,421,500 3,166,200 3,050,200 4,657,000 6,597,000 11,474,000 14,060,000 17,920,000 19,400,000 3,426,000 3,185,000 3,140,000 4,950,000 7,250,000 13,770,000 19,190,000 31,870,000 41,600,000 Mr. Kiaer's figures doubtless apply only to vessels of "long cours," as they are less than the total shipping. For example, Lloyd's list in 1842 shows for Europe only, no fewer than 88, 100 vessels of 6,547,000 tons. The following is an approximate table of shipping at various dates, the British flag including colonial vessels : — 1800 1820 1842 1860 1888 British French German American .... Various 1,856,000 250,000 150,000 970,000 800,000 2,654,000 350,000 250,000 1,280,000 1,300,000 3,311,000 634,000 550,000 2,180,000 2,705,000 5,713,000 930,000 700,000 5,350,000 3,777,000 9,050,000 960,000 1,230,000 4,310,000 6, 100,000 Total 4,026,000 5,834,000 9,380,000 16,470,000 21,650,000 SHIPPING S2I SHIPPING The nominal tonnage of the various flags was approximately as follows (see Lloyd's List for 1842) ; — 1842 1860 1888 All Vessels All Vessels Steam Sail Total United Kingdom Colonies . • 2,570,000 741.000 4,660,000 1,053,000 4,350,000 265,000 3,115,000 1,320,000 7,465,000 1,585,000 British . French . German . Russian . Austrian . Italian . Spanish . Portuguese Scandinavian Dutch . Belgium . Turkish . Greek United States Various . 3,311,000 634,000 550,000 240,000 210,000 460,000 280,000 80,000 620,000 270,000 30,000 182,000 186,000 2,180,000 147,000 5,713,000 1,010,000 700,000 400,000 250,000 550,000 470,000 90,000 970,000 300,000 30,000 180,000 200,000 5,350,000 387,000 4,615,000 510,000 500,000 140,000 90,000 175.000 395.000 15.000 355,000 105,000 73.000 64,000 31,000 1,770,000 202,000 4.435.000 450,000 730,000 610,000 130,000 ^5,000 205,000 63,000 1,950,000 140,000 4,000 153.000 227,000 2,540,000 330,000 9,050,000 960,000 1,230,000 750,000 220,000 850,000 600,000 78,000 8,305,000 245,000 77,000 217,000 258,000 4,310,000 532,000 Tota 9,380,000 16,600,000 9,040,000 12,642,000 21,682,000 The carrying power of the principal flags in 18 as follows : — Carrying Power, Tons Nuni- .= b S Flag berof £^|> . 1 Steam Sail Total U.Kingdom 1 17,400,000 3,115,000 20,515,000 2i,8g6i 930 Colonies . 1,060,000 1,320,000 2,380,000 6,010" 400 British . . 18,460,000 4,435,000 22,895,000 27,906 820 French . 2,040,000 450,000 2,490,000 15.278, 165 German . 2,000,000 730,000 2,730,000 3.635 750 Russian . 560,000 610,000 1,170,000 4,4061 270 Austrian . 360,000 130,000 490,000 3671 1.320 Italian . . 700,000 675,000 1,375,000 6,810, 200 Spanish 1,580,000 205,000 1,785,000 1,698 1,050 Portuguese 60,000 63,000 123,000 443; 270 Swedish . 500,000 375.000 875,000 3,844! 230 Norwegian 540,000 1,400,000 1,940,000 7.233 270 Danish . . 380,000 175,000 555,000 3.344; 165 Dutch . . 420,000 140,000 560,000 609; 920 Belgian. . 290,000 4,000 294,000 59 s,ooo Turkish . 260,000 153,000 413,000 87S1 480 Greek . . 120,000 227,000 347,000 5.157 65 U. States . 7,080,000 2,540,000 9,620,000 22,623 42s ChiU . . 80,000 58,000 138,000 166 820 Japan . . 290,000 60,000 350,000 1,284 270 Brazil . . 240,000 70,000 310,000 495 630 China* . 100,000 10,000 110,000 135 810 Various . 100,000 132,000 232,000 770 300 TheWorld 36,160,000 12,642,000 48,802,000 io7,i37j 4S3 * Exclusive of junks and canal-boats. Mr. Kiaer's table of vessels over loo tons, in 18S1, was as follows : — Flag of Number Total Steamers Sailing Total Tonnage Great Britain . 2,869 11,893 14,762 7,010,000 France. . . . 335 2,772 3,107 840,000 Germany . . . 277 3.113 3.390 1,150,000 United States . 548 5.958 6,506 2,370,000 Nor\vay . . . 148 4,160 4,308 1,460,000 Sweden . . . 258 1,979 2,237 470,000 Denmark . . . 109 1,172 1,281 230,000 Italy . . . . 103 2,936 3.039 1,070,000 Spain .... 226 1.578 1,804 450,000 Holland . . . III 1,112 1,223 420,000 Greece .... 20 1,672 1,692 330,000 Canada . . . 918 6,4^9 7.377 1,140,000 Various . 470 3.780 4.250 1,385,000 TheWorld . . 6,392 48,584 54.976 18,325,000 It would appear, therefore, that the whole shipping of the world may be summed up as follows, for 1888 : — Number Tons Register Carrying Power Carrying Power per Vessel Steamers . . Sailing-vessels Small craft . 19,740 25.197 62,200 9,040,000 11,510,000 1,132,000 36,160,000 11,510,000 1,132,000 1,820 Is Total . . 107.137 21,682,000 48,802,000 453 Hence it may be said that, excluding 62,200 small craft, the commerce of the world is carried on by 45,000 vessels, of 20,500,000 tons register, with a carrying power of 48 million tons. The relative amounts of carrying power that corresponded to steam and sail at various dates were as follows : — Year Nominal Tonnage Carrying Power Percentage Steam Sail Total Steam Sail Total Steam ! Sail 1820 1840 i860 1870 1880 1888 20,000 368,000 1,710,000 3,040,000 5,880,000 9,040,000 5,814,000 9,012,000 14,890,000 12,900,000 14,400,000 12,640,000 5,834,000 9,380,000 16,600,000 15,940,000 20,280,000 21,680,000 80,000 5,814,000 1,470,000 9,012,000 6,840,000 ' 14,890,000 12,200,000 12,900,000 23,500,000 14,400,000 36,160,000 12,640,000 5,894,000 10,482,000 21,730,000 25, 100,000 37,900,000 48,800,000 1.4 I 98.6 14.0 86.0 31.S ! 68.5 48.8 51.2 61-5 : 38. S 74.0 j 26.0 SHIPPING 522 SHIPPING The following table shows approximately the merchant steam-navies of the world at various dates : — Nominal Tonnage of Steamers 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888 British .... 95,000 iB8,ooo 502,000 1,203,000 3,105,000 4,355,000 American 198,000 481,000 870,000 1,075,000 1,211,000 1,765,000 French , 10,000 27,000 84,000 170,000 278,000 510,000 German , 10,000 20,000 50,000 82,000 216,000 503,000 Russian . 10,000 20,000 40,000 70,000 100,000 142,000 Austrian . 10,000 20,000 30,000 50,000 60,000 90,000 Italian . 10,000 15,000 20,000 35.000 77,000 175,000 Spanish . 5,000 10,000 13,000 4S.OOO 230,000 39S.OOO Scandinavian 5,000 10,000 25,000 88,000 190,000 3S5.000 Dutch . 5,000 10,000 20,000 30,000 65,000 105,000 Various . 10,000 20,000 60,000 190,000 350,000 645,000 Tota 1 368,000 821,000 1,714,000 3,038,000 5,882,000 9,040,000 The carrying power of the principal flags at various dates was approximately as follows : Tons Flag 1820 1840 1860 1880 1888 United Kingdom . 2,440,000 2,840,000 6,025,000 14,750,000 20,515,000 Colonies 210,000 756,000 1,194,000 2,060,000 2,380,000 British 2,650,000 3,596,000 7,219,000 16,810,000 22,895,000 American .... 1,340,000 2,780,000 7,960,000 7,700,000 9,620,000 French 450,000 664,000 1,265,000 1,753,000 2,491,000 German 300,000 580,000 850,000 1,830,000 2,743,000 Russian 150,000 270,000 520,000 1,040,000 1,170,000 Spanish 120,000 295,000 510,000 1,250,000 1,785,000 Italian 200,000 490,000 610,000 1,230,000 1,375,000 Norwegian • . . , 110,000 260,000 850,000 1,690,000 1,940,000 Dutch ..,.'. 140, oco 275,000 400,000 525,000 560,000 Various 434,000 1,272,000 1,546,000 4,072,000 4,221,000 Total 5,894,000 10,482,000 21,730,000 37,900,000 48,800,000 The increase of nominal tonnage and of effective carrying power in various periods was approximately as follows : — Annual Average of Increase Tons Register Tons Carrying Power 1841-60 1861-88 1841-60 1861-88 British . American French German . Italian . Spanish . Norwegian Russian . Dutch . Various . 120,000 160,000 19,000 7,500 4.500 9.500 29,000 8,000 1,500 1,000 119,000 19,000 10,500 5,000 25,000 12,200 180,000 259,000 30,000 14,000 6,000 11,000 29,000 12,500 6,000 14.500 560,000 60,000 45,000 68,000 27,000 45,000 40,000 23,000 5,600 94,400 Total . . 360,000 179,000 562,000 968,000 The net increase of nominal tonnage from 1861 to 1888 was 179,000 per annum; but this is not the sum of the above column, as several countries showed a decline. Great as has been the growth of carrying power in the last 30 years it is much less than the increase in the tonnage of port entries, which has been 34-fold, while the carrying power has little more than doubled, viz. : — Year Nom. Tonnage Carrying Power Port Entries i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1888. . . 16,600,000 15,940,000 20,280,000 21,680,000 21,730,000 25,109,000 37,906,000 48,800,000 64, 100,000 95,400,000 166,300,000 225,200,000 The tonnage of port entries of sea-going vessels at various dates was approximately as follows (the item marked "various" not being accurately knovra) : — 1860 1870 1880 1888 U. Kingdom 12,350,000 18,120,000 29,360,000 33,950,000 France . . 4,230,000 6,800,000 12,370,000 14,030,000 Germany . . 3,730,000 6,200,000 6,530,000 9,440,000 Russia . . 2,110,000 3,520,000 5,020,000 7,410,000 Austria . , 2,600,000 3,430,000 4,820,000 7,540,000 Italy . 2,400,000 3,790,000 4,690,000 6,670,000 Spain . . . 1,350,000 2,500,000 5,700,000 11,440,000 Sweden and 1 Norway ) 2,100,000 3,790,000 5,400,000 7,320,000 Denmark . . 600,000 710,000 2,230,000 3,380,000 Holland . . 1,660,000 2,310,000 3,450,000 5,110,000 Belgium . , 670,000 1,580,000 3,570,000 4,910,000 Greece . . 930.000 1,270,000 1,790,000 2,370,000 United States British Col- 1 onies . ) 5,005,000 10,880,000 6,270,000 15,200,000 15,250,000 28,260,000 15,390,000 41,300,000 Suez Canal . 440,000 4,350,000 9,440,000 Various . . 13,500,000 19,500,000 33,500,000 45,500,000 Total . . 64,115,000 95,430,000 166,290,000 225,200,000 SHIPPING 523 SHIPPING Entries in ballast, which are included in the above table, showed tonnage and ratio to total entries thus : — 1870 1880 1888 1870 1880'l888 1 Tons Tons Tons % % % U. Kingdom 3,200,000 5,roo,ooo 6,900,000 17 17 21 France . . 200,000 400,000 460,000 ?. ">. Germany 810,000 370,000 700,000 i^ 6 8 Russia . . 1,820,000 1,860,000 4,800,000 'i2 l6 64 Austria . . 840,000 820,000 700,000 2'^ 17 <3 Italy . . . 380,000 450,000 570,000 10 10 8 Spain . . . 600,000 1,900,000 3,800,000 24 13 ■^^ Sweden . . 1,400,000 1,900,000 2,900,000 M ■;'; ^8 Norway . , 1,040,000 980,000 850,000 66 ■;o s.-; Denmark . 920,000 1,480,000 4'i 44 Holland . . 100,000 210,000 s 4 Belgium . . 40,000 110,000 700,000 2 3 14 U. States . 3,140,000 21 It would seem from the above that as regards Euro- pean ports the aggregate of entries in ballast has not materially varied, in proportion, since 1870, the ratio being as 21 per cent, of all entries. The following table shows the ratio of entries in each country belonging to the flag of that country, and the ratio corresponding to other or foreign flags : — National Foreign Flags 1870 1880 1887 1870 1880 1887 United Kingdom 68.4 70.4 73-6 31.6 29.6 26.4 Russia 11.2 II. 4 7-9 88.8 88.6 92.1 Norway 70.0 68.2 6v5 30.0 .31.8 .34..^ Sweden 31.8 37-2 3=;.s 68.2 62.8 64.2 Germany 3'i-9 39-1 43-3 64.1 60.9 .0-7 Holland 28.3 30.9 30-9 71.7 6q.I 69.1 France 31- S 30.0 36.2 68.5 70.0 63.8 Spain . 36-9 26.6 39- 6.3.1 73-4 61.0 Italy . 36. s 34.8 , 23.6 63. ,S 65.2 76.4 United States 38.2 18.9 21.0 61.8 81. 1 79.0 The principal commercial ports of the world showed the tonnage of sea-going entries in 1 888 as follows London New York Liverpool . Hamburg . Antwerp . Marseilles . Hong-Kong Cardiff . . Rotterdam Sydney . . Melbourne Newcastle Hull . . Tons 7,470,000 5,470,000 5,370,000 4,410,000 3,660,000 3,360,000 3.330.0°° 2,930,000 2,530,000 2,380,000 2,150,000 1,900,000 1,900,000 Havre . . , Buenos Ayres Alexandria Montevideo Athens . . Genoa . , Bremen Boston . . San Francisco Bordeaux . Stettin . . Philadelphia Glasgow . Tons 1,810,000 1,590,000 1,590,000 1,620,000 1,550,000 1,480,000 1,180,000 1,100,000 1,050,000 1,050,000 1,040,000 1,030,000 990,000 The above sums up a total of 64 million tons, which is nearly one- third of the commerce of the world, minor ports making up more than two-thirds. If we compare the value of the imports of all nations with the tonnage of port entries (excluding ballast entries) at various dates, we find : — Year i860 1870 1880 1888 Imports, Millions £ 707 1,040 1,440 1,502 Port Entries, Tons 51,000,000 76,000,000 133,000,000 180,000,000 Value, £ per Ton 139 13-8 10.8 8.3 This appears to show that coal, iron, and articles of less value, form every succeeding year a larger ratio of sea-borne merchandise. The registered shipping belonging to the various ports in I S82 was as follows : — Sail Steam Total Carrying Power Liverpool . . 1,080,000 520,000 1,600,000 3,160,000 London . 620,000 570,000 1,190,000 2,900,000 Glasgow , 3S0.O0O 380,000 730,000 1,870,000 New York 530,000 210,000 740,000 1,370,000 Marseilles 60,000 160,000 220,000 700,000 Hull . . 40,000 150,000 190,000 640,000 Newcastle 60,000 140,000 200,000 620,000 Sunderland 110,000 110,000 220,000 550,000 Hamburg 140,000 70,000 210,000 420,000 Bremen . 160,000 60,000 220,000 400,000 Greenock 170,000 40,000 210,000 330,000 San Francisco . 110,000 50,000 160,000 310,000 Philadelphia . 110,000 50.000 160,000 310,000 Trieste . . . 30,000 60,000 90,000 270,000 Leith .... 20,000 60,000 80,000 260,000 Havre .... 70,000 50,000 120,000 270,000 New Branswick 270,000 10,000 280,000 310,000 Barcelona . . 100,000 40,000 140,000 260,000 Genoa . . . 120,000 30,000 150,000 240,000 Odessa . . . 20,000 50,000 70,000 220,000 Amsterdam . . 60,000 40,000 100,000 220,000 Copenhagen 40,000 40,000 80,000 200,000 Southampton . 30,000 40,000 70,000 190,000 Antwerp . . . 10,000 40,000 50,000 170,000 Aberdeen 100,000 20,000 120,000 180,000 Bergen . 60,000 20,000 80,000 140,000 Yarmouth 160,000 160,000 160,000 Other ports • 10,372,000 2,634,000 13,006,000 20,910,000 The world . 15,002,000 5,644,000 20,646,000 37,580,000 Italian vessels seem to be worked cheaper than others. The following statement was published in 1881 as the monthly average expense of a vessel of 1000 tons with a crew of twenty men : — Italian Austrian . French The percentage of vessels lost yearly, and the average life of shipping of various flags, as shown by Mr. Kiaer, are: — f. £ 9S German • 13s I2S British • 14s 135 American . . 200 Annual Loss Years of a Steamer Sailing Ship's Life American 4.06 S-4S 18 French .... 2.47 4.04 20 Dutch .... 384 4-49 22 German 2.77 4.04 23 British .... 2.94 3-93 26 Italian .... 1-74 2.94 28 Scandinavian 1.96 3.20 30 The weight of anchors and chain-cables for vessels is as follows ; — Vessel, Tons 200 500 1,000 2,000 Anchors, Tons 3 6 9k 18 Heaviest in Cwts. 13 25 42 77 Cable, Inches i.o i-S 1-9 2.1 Cable, Length in Fathoms 180 270 300 300 It is usual for vessels to carry seven anchors, four of the maximum weight prescribed above. The value of shippii^ and cargoes lost yearly at sea carmot be ascertained precisely. The Annual Register SHIPPING 524 SHIPPING for 1 88 1 published the following statement, but it seems very much exaggerated : — Vessels Lost Value of Ships and Cargo,;^ 1879 1880 1879 1880 British . . Foreign . . 913 767 19,230,000 6,270,000 47,495,000 20,832,000 Total . 1,688 1,680 25,500,000 68,327,000 Lloyd's Register gave the following summary of vessels lost in fifteen years, ending 1880 : — Missing . Sunk by collision Burnt Stranded . Waterlogged, &o. Total Number 1.403 2.753 2,903 17.502 8,026 32.587 Anmtal Average 94 183 194 1,166 533 2,172 At Mr. Kiaer's rate of loss of shipping, the total annual loss by shipwreck would be as follows : — Shipping, Tons Value of Steam Sail Total Vessels, £ Cargo, £, Total, £ British .... 135,000 175,000 310,000 5,600,000 3,000,000 8,600,000 French 12,000 18,000 30,000 500,000 300,000 800,000 German . 14,000 29,000 43,000 650,000 400,000 1,050,000 Italian 3,000 20,000 23,000 300,000 200,000 500,000 Dutch . 4,000 6,000 10,000 170,000 100,000 270,000 American . 70,000 140,000 210,000 3,400,000 2,000,000 5,400,000 Scandinavian 7,000 60,000 67,000 700,000 400,000 1,100,000 Various . 23,000 62,000 87,000 1,300,000 800,000 2,100,000 Tola 1 270,000 510,000 780,000 12,620,000 7,200,000 19,820,000 The loss of life among seamen is stated by Mr. Plim- soU, on various official returns, to average thus yearly : — Britain Germany Holland . Per 10,000 152 81 43 Norway Italy . Average Per 10,000 36 22 66 United Kingdom British and Colonial shipping showed as follows ; — Tons per Year Vessels Tons j Sailors Reign Ship Sailor 1588 470 37.400: ... 80 Elizabeth 1610 910 83,000, qo James I. 1666 1,320 120,000 90 Charles II. 1688 2,620 210,000 80 James II. 1702 3,260 261,000' 80 Anne 1760 5.730 487,000' 8.; George III. 1800 17,410 i,856,ooO| 140,000 106 14 George III. 1810 23,703 2,426,000 162,000 102 15 George III. 1820 25.374 2,654,000 175,000 105 15 George IV. 1830 23,721 2,533,000 155,000 107 16 William IV. 1840 28,962 3,311,000 201,000 114 17 Victoria 1850 34,288 4,233,000' 239,000 124 18 Victoria i860 29,469 5,713,000 230,000 193 25 Victoria 1870 32,920 7,150,000 261,000 216 27 Victoria 1881 30.531 8,535,000 270,000 280 31 Victoria 1887 28,212 8,936,000 280,000 320 32 Victoria The shipping of the United Kingdom, excluding colo- nial, has been as follows : — Year Vessels Tons Seamen Tons per Vessel Seaman 1810 1830 1850 1870 1881 1888 20,253 19.174 25,984 26,367 24,830 21,896 2,211,000 2,202,000 3.565.000 5,691,000 6,490,000 7,465,000 145,000 131,000 148,000 196,000 193,000 224,000 105 114 138 215 260 341 IS 17 24 29 33 33 In 20 years succeeding the war with France our ship- ping declined in number and tonnage, and in number of men. In 1808, at the outbreak of the Peninsular War, the merchant navy of the British Empire was composed thus : — Vessels Tons Sailors England Scotland Ireland .... Colonies 15.705 2,615 1,098 2,917 1,822,000 217,000 57,000 185,000 123,400 15,700 5.200 13,600 Total 22,335 2,281,000 1 157,900 If we discriminate steamers from sailing-vessels, allowing the former a carrying power of four to one, we find as follows : — United Kingdom British Empire Year Nominal Tonnage Total Carrying Power Nominal Tonnage Total Carrying Sail Steam Sail Steam Power 1840 1850 i860 1870 1881 1887 1888 2,480,000 2,990,000 4,205,000 4,580,000 3,690,000 3,250,000 3,115,000 90,000 110,000 455.000 1,110,000 3,005,000 4,090,000 4,350,000 2,840,000 3,430,000 6,025,000 9,020,000 15,710,000 19,610,000 20,515,000 3,216,000 4,045,000 S,2II,000 5,947,000 5,430,000 4,581,000 95,000 188,000 502,000 1,203,000 3,105,000 4,355,000 3,596,000 4,797,000 7,219,000 10,759,000 17,850,000 22,005,000 SHIPPING 525 SHIPPING The Navigation Laws were repealed in 1849, and since that date our shipping traffic has increased seven times faster than population. The sea-going entries into ports of the United ICingdom were as follows : — Tons British Year Per- 1 British Foreign Total centage 1840 3,245,000 1,475,000 4,720,000 69 1850 4,720,000 2,530,000 7,250,000 65 i860 6,960,000 5,390,000 12,350,000 56 1870 12,540,000 5,780,000 18,320,000 69 1880 20,670,000 8,690,000 29,360,000 70 1888 24,945,000 9,005,000 33,950.000 73 Coasting entries with cargoes only were as follows :- Tons Year British Foreign Total 1854. 15,320,000 50,000 15,370,000 i860 .... 16,900,000 100,000 17,000,000 1870 .... 18,210,000 90,000 18,300,000 1880 .... 25,920,000 100,000 26,020,000 1888 .... 29,000,000 80,000 29,080,000 The flags of foreign vessels entering British ports in 1878 and 1888 showed as follows : — Tons Flag 1878 1888 Norwegian .... 1,830,000 2,050,000 German 1,370,000 1,790,000 Dutch . 530,000 1,040,000 French . 740,000 990,000 Danish 620,000 770,000 Swedish 670,000 710,000 Spanish 230,000 505,000 Italian . 630,000 280,000 Various 1,350,000 870,000 Total 7,970,000 9,005,000 The sea-going tonnage entered and cleared at the principal ports in the United Kingdom was as follows :— Entered Cleared 1878 1888 1878 { 1888 London . 5,340,000 7,470,000 4,390,000 5,470,000 Liverpool 4,400,000 5,370,000 4,390,000 4,940,000 Cardiff . 1,480,000 2,930,000 2,800,000 5,150,000 Newcastle 1,500,000 1,900,000 2,570,000 3,320,000 Hull . . 1,470,000 1,900,000 1,310,000 1,500,000 Newport 420,000 960,000 640,000 1,470,000 Shields . 480,000 920,000 450,000 1,070,000 Southampto n 905,000 870,000 750,000 790,000 Sunderland 590,000 740,000 780,000 Middles- brough 310,000 680,000 290,000 560,000 Grimsby. j 400,000 590,000 410,000 Bristol . , i 440,000 580,000 230,000 180,000 Glasgow ■ 550.000 990,000 910,000 1,550,000 Greenock 290,000 280,000 200,000 180,000 Dublin . 1 330,000 210,000 190,000 Belfast . ' 210,000 190,000 140,000 ;ti,ooo Various . 6,175,000 7,370,000 5,850,000 6,720,000 The tonnage of vessels entered at various iates was : — Year Sea-going Coasting Total i8oi . 1,720,000 6,000,000 7,720,000 1810 . 2,070,000 7,000,000 9,070,000 1820 . 2,110,000 8,000,000 10,110,000 1830 . 2,940,000 8,240,000 11,180,000 1840 . 4,720,000 12,600,000 17,320,000 1850 . 7,250,000 21,510,000 28,760,000 i860 . 12,340,000 24,400,000 36,740,000 1870 . 18,320,000 28,850,000 47,170,000 1880 . 29,070,000 36,140,000 65,210,000 1888 . 33,950,000 47,570,000 81,520,000 The service of pilot-boats in 1882 stood thus Boats Pilots England Scotland Ireland 692 226 132 2,066 432 395 United Kingdom . 1.050 2.893 Total . . 25,290,000 33,950,000 26,300.000 34,570,000 Some of the merchant steamboat companies are equal in importance to the navies of some European Powers. The Cunard Co., for example, employs io,ocx) men. The vessels, moreover, of the first-class companies are unsurpassed. At a recent meeting of the Society of Engineers the chairman said, " The Teutonic, 582 feet long, with a gross tonnage of 9680, can carry 1200 passengers, and in time of war twelve five-inch guns, with a range of five miles. The City of Paris runs twenty- four miles an hour, is 10,500 tons burthen, and has 18,000 horse-power. The Pacific and Oriental Steamers now use pressure at 1 60 lbs. with greater safety than they did fifty lbs. thirty years ago." As regards speed, British vessels beat all others. The City of Paris has run firom Queenstown to New York in S days 20 hours, and from New York to Queenstown in S days 23 hours : on one day her run of 24 hours reached 511 miles, the highest on record. The Roslyn Castle has run from Cape Town to London in 17 days 13 hours. The Stiriing Castle from Hankow (China) to London in 29 days 22 hours. The fastest steamer in the world appears to be the Prince of Wales, which averages twenty-four knots, or twenty-seven statute miles per hour (being three miles faster than the City of Parts'), plying between Liverpool and Isle of Man, The greatest speed of sailing ships was as follows : — James Baines, 420 miles. Flying Cloud, i^i^ miles in 24 hours, being over seventeen miles an hour. The Red Jacket ran 2280 miles in seven days, averagii^ 325 miles a day. Shipbuilding is carried on more extensively in the United Kingdom than elsewhere ; in fact, more than 80 per cent of the world's shipping is built here. At a meeting in 1890 Mr. Palmer stated that " we were building in this country at the present time about a million tons of gjiipping, and the normal waste or loss was about 400,000 tons, leaving a surplus of 600,000 tons as an addition to mercantile marine." The toimage built in the United Kingdom was : — Period Sail Steam Total Carrying Power 1801-10 520,000 520,000 520,000 1811-20 840,000 10,000 850,000 880,000 1821-30 800,000 40,000 840,000 960,000 1831-40 885,000 75.000 960,000 1,185,000 1841-50 990,000 160,000 1,150,000 1,630,000 1851-60 1,530,000 810,000 2,340,000 4,770,000 1861-70 2,100,000 1,490,000 3,590,000 8,100,000 1871-80 1,390,000 3,190,000 4,580,000 14,200,000 1881-89 1,265,000 4,555,000 5,820,000 19,500,000 89 years 10,320,000 10,330,000 20,650.000 51,745,000 SHIPPING 526 SHIPPING From 185s the distinction of vessels built for British from those for foreign flags was as follows : — Nominal Tonnage British Nominal Tonnage Foreign Steam Sail Total Steam Sail Total 1855-59 1860-69 1870-79 1880-88 283,000 1,080,000 2,590,000 3,210,000 930,000 2,060,000 1,390,000 1,130,000 1,213,000 3,140,000 ' 3,980,000 4,340,000 144,000 243,000 474,000 670,000 8,000 34,000 40,000 40,000 152,000 277,000 514,000 710,000 34 years 7,163,000 5,510,000 12,673,000 1,531,000 122,000 1,653,000 In ten years ending December 1889 there were built 5,932,000 tons of merchant shipping, of which 930,000 tons were for foreign flags, the rest for the British. The Clyde is one of the principal seats of this industry : — Year Vessels Built, Tons Clyde Other Places Total 1880 . 1882 . 1889 237.000 389,000 33S.OOO 469,000 391,000 875,000 706,000 780,000 1,210,000 Vessels on the stocks on December 31, 1889, were : — Steam Sail Total No. Tons No. Tons No. Tons Steel. . . Iron . . . Wood . . 382 57 7 745,000 21,000 1,000 54 8 3S 87,000 6,000 3,000 435 65 42 832,000 27,000 4,000 Total . 446 767,000 97 96,000 543 863,000 Builtfor U. Kingdom Colonies Germany . Norway France . , Various . . 309 16 16 12 8 85 560,000 32,000 46,000 12,000 13,000 104,000 S3 4 2 38 58,000 7,000 7,000 24,000 362 16 20 12 10 123 618,000 32,000 S3.000 12,000 20,000 128,000 Total . 446 767,000 97 96,000 543 863,000 The use of steel in shipbuilding was begun in 1879, when the tonnage of steamers built of it was 18,000 : at present, as shown above, 96 per cent, of all vessels built are of steel. It is found that a steel vessel can carry 20 per cent, more than an iron one. Improvements in machinery cause a great saving in coal, the average con- sumption now being ij lbs. per indicated horse-power hourly, as compared with 6 lbs. in the year 1837. Lloyd's estimate of shipping value in 1882 was ;^30 a ton for steamers, including fittings and furniture, and ;^io a ton for sailing vessels. The cost of building has, however, since fallen, and at present a fair valuation of our merchant navy would be as follows : — Tons Value, £, £ per Ton Sailing Steam . 3,115,000 4,350,000 24,920,000 108,750,000 8 25 Total 7,465,000 133.670,000 18 The tonnage of British vessels lost or broken up in nine years (1880-88) was as follows : — Period Steam Sail Total Carrying Power 1880-84 • • 1885-88 . . 810,000 580,000 1,338,000 854,000 2,148,000 1,434,000 4,578,000 3,174,000 9 years . . 1,390,000 2,192,000 3,582,000 7,752,000 The death-rate of vessels (that is, the percentage lost or broken up in the same nine years) was : — Steam 4.2 per annum Sail 7.0 per annum According to Mr. Kiaer, the losses of British vessels on sea average 3 per cent, of steamers and 4 per cent, of sailing vessels : on this basis the decease of shipping in 1880-89 would be made up thus : — Steam Sail Total, Tons Lost at sea . . Broken up . . . 990,000 400,000 1,224,000 968,000 2,214,000 1,368,000 Total decease . 1,390,000 2,192,000 3,582,000 The loss of life in British vessels was as follows : — Year Crews Passengers Total Yearly Average 1871-75 • . 1876-80 . . 1881-83 . . 9.715 7.965 7.376 2,037 772 382 ".752 8,737 7.758 2,350 1.747 2.586 Total . 25,056 3,191 1 28,247 2.173 Lifeboats were established on the British coasts in 1824, which in sixty-three years down to 18S7 were the means of saving 34,043 lives, an average of 550 yearly. There are at present 272, manned by 12,000 volunteer seamen, the coxswain alone being paid to mind the boat. They are supported by voluntary donations, which average Aj.ooo yearly. France In 1669 the merchant navy comprised 600 vessels, the number rising to 800 in 1720, of 150,000 tons aggre- gate, and to 1000 in 1788, with an aggregate of 250,000 tons. French Shipping in Number Tons Carrying Power Steam Sail Total Steam Sail Total 1840 .... 94 14.354 14,448 10, coo 624,000 634,000 664,000 1850 .... 164 14.300 14.464 27,000 733.000 760,000 841,000 i860 .... 346 14.823 15,169 84,000 929,000 1,013,000 1,265,000 1870 .... 486 15,020 15.506 170,000 886,000 1,056,000 1,566,000 1880 .... 652 14,406 15.058 278,000 641,000 919,000 1,753,000 1888 .... 1.013 14.263 15.278 510,000 451,000 961,000 2,491,000 SHIPPING 527 SHIPPING The total tonnage entered and cleared at French ports since 1837 showed the following averages : Annual Average. Tons Steam Sail Total In Ballast French Foreign 1837-46 .... 680.000 3,390,000 4,070,000 920,000 1,470,000 2,600,000 337,000 1847-56 .... 1,270,000 4,370,000 5,640,000 1 1,260,000 2,230,000 3,410.000 443.000 1857-66 .... 3,310,000 6,220,000 9,530,000 1 1,920.000 3,820,000 5,710,000 662.000 1867-76 .... 8,050,000 6,850,000 14,900,000 ' 3,080.000 4,950,000 9,950,000 868,000 1877-86 .... 17,820,000 6,610,000 24,430,000 1 5.330,000 8,010,000 16,420,000 1,070.000 1886 .... 22,480,000 4,270,000 26,750,000 5,030,000 9,600,000 17,150,000 1,096,000 Crew and tonnage are doubled in the above table, as it includes vessels both entered and cleared. The following table shows the tonns^e of entries only. The great difference between tonnage of vessels at that is, the annual average : — Marseilles £ind weight of cargo handled probably arises from the fact that the passenger traffic forms the principal share. The shipping registered at the various ports in 1885 was as follows : — Period Vessels Tons Tons per Ship Per Seaman 1837-46 . i 18,496 1847-56 . . ) 22,323 1857-66 . 30,590 1867-76 . . 34,529 1877-S6 . 34,800 1886 . . 30,463 2,040,000 2,800,000 4,710,000 7,380,000 12,100,000 13,100,000 no 125 154 214 345 430 12 13 14 17 23 24 The percentage of steam, sail, ballast, French and foreign vessels entered and cleared since 1 837 was as follows : — Period In every 100 Tons of Shipping French Foreign Steam Sail Ballast 1837-46 . . 1847-56 . . 1857-66 . . 18^-76 . . 1877-86 . . 1886 . . . 36 40 40 33 11 64 60 60 67 67 64 17 22 35 S4 73 84 83 78 65 46 % 23 22 20 21 21 19 The cabotage or coasting trade of France since 1837 was as follows : — Period Annual Average Vessels Tonnage Men Tons Cargo 1837-46 . . 1847-56 . . 1837-66 . . 1867-76 . . 1877-86 . . 77.300 73.400 ■ 75.700 60,100 S7.600 2,480,000 2,680,000 3,060,000 2,930,000 3,730,000 310,000 312,000 291,000 237,000 271,000 2,010,000 2,250,000 2,340,000 2,030,000 2,035.000 In 1SS6 the coasting trade was made up thus : — j Vessels 1 Tonnage ; Men Tons Cargo Ocean . . . 47.030 Mediterranean 8,870 Total 2,460,000 181,500 1,980,000 112,800 1.530.000 700,000 55,900 4,440,000 294,300 ! 2,230,000 The foUoviring table shovfs the total sea-going and coasting tonnage entered and cleared at aU ports in 1886:— Tonnage Tons Cargo Marseilles . Havre Bordeaux . Dunkirk Various Total 8,300,000 4,030,000 2,930.000 1,550,000 13,800,000 1,190,000 2,350,000 2,360,000 1,760,000 12,800.000 30,610,000 20,460,000 Port Tonnage Carrying Sail Steam Total Power Havre . Bordeaux Marseilles Varioiis . 40,000 58,000 29,000 365,000 147,000 25,000 245,000 84,000 187,000 83,000 274,000 449.000 630.000 158,000 1,009,000 701,000 Total . 492,000 501,000 993,000 2,498,000 The Empress Eugenie introduced lifeboat stations in 1866, of which in 1882 there were 37, at exposed points of the coast The French merchant navy in 1886 had 93,800 seamen, viz. : — Vessels of Tonnage Crew Tons per Man Under 100 tons 100-300 300-500 Over 500 197,000 165,000 100,000 531,000 61,300 12,100 3.700 16,700 3 14 27 32 Total 993,000 I 93,800 The total tonnage entered and cleared at all ports in 18S8 was as follows : — Tons Entered Cleared Total French Foreign . 10,980,000 7,150,000 11,260,000 9,300,000 22,240,000 16,450,000 Total . 18,130,000 20,560,000 38,690,000 Ballast . Cargo . . 1,470,000 16,660,000 6,080,000 14,480,000 7,550,000 31,140,000 Total . 18,130,000 20,560,000 38,690,000 Most of the French merchant navy is of small tonnage, there being only 2475 vessels over 5° tons, and 12,803 below that standard. Germany The merchant navy in 1842 consisted of 8200 vessels, with an aggr^ate of 551,000 tons. Later statistics are as follow : — Year Vessels, Number Tons Steam Sail Total Steam Sail Total 1871 1880 1888 147 414 750 4.372 4,246 2,885 4.S19 4,660 3.63s 82.000 216,000 503.000 900,000 966,000 731,000 982,000 1,182,000 1,234,000 SHIPPING 528 SHIPPING The size and carrying power of the vessels have grown as follows : — The ratio of carrying power per seaman has more than doubled in twelve years. It is now 75 tons per man, E^ainst 91 in the British merchant-navy. But in spite of the increased efficiency of German seamen, the cariying Vessels Tons Carrying Power Per Vessel Tons Carrying Power trade of German ports is passing into the hands of other maritime nations, the ratio of German entries being less than it was thirty years ago. 1842 1871 1888 8,200 4,519 3,635 551,000 982,000 1,234,000 551.000 1,228,000 2,743,000 67 218 338 67 270 751 The tonnage of entries into all German ports was as follows : — The carrying power compares with the number of sea- men as follows : — Year German Foreign Total German Ratio per Cent. Year Seamen Carrying Power Tons per Man i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 1,740,000 2,705,000 2,560,000 3,910,000 1,990,000 3,500,000 3,970,000 5,530,000 3.730.000 6,205,000 6,530,000 9,440,000 47 43 39 42 1871 1877 . 1889 39.500 53,400 36,300 1,228,000 1,830,000 2,743,000 31 35 75 Entries in the ports of the German Empire in 1886 were as follows :- From Vessels j Tons Flag Vessels Tons German ports Great Britain .... Denmark .... Sweden and Norway , . United States .... Various 28,320 7,042 4,330 3.238 869 4.057 1,520,000 3.420,000 520,000 560,000 1,170,000 2,030,000 German .... British Danish ..... Russian .... Sweden and Norway . Various .... Total 6,967 4.193 4.032 457 3.054 29,203 3,740,000 2,710,000 570,000 120,000 800,000 1,280,000 Total 47.856 ! 9,220,000 1 47.856 9,220,000 Entries and clearances in 1 were as follows : — Ports Entered, Tons Cleared, Tons Total Hamburg . . . Bremen . . . Stettin .... Dantzig . . . Various . . . 4,410,000 1,180,000 1,040,000 630,000 2,180,000 4.440,000 1,190.000 1,060,000 640,000 2,105,000 8,850,000 2,370,000 2,100,000 1,270,000 4,285,000 Total . . 9,440,000 9,435,000 18,875,000 The trade of Hamburg has grown nearly tenfold since 1846, when the entries were 460,000 tons. The coasting trade in 1885 showed the following entries : — Vessels Tons Hamburg. Bremen .... Other ports 6,489 2,426 52,270 3.633.000 976,000 5,615,000 Total 61,185 10,234,000 Vessels with cargo formed 92, in ballast 8 per cent, of the above tonnage. Russia and Finland show : In 1842 the merchant navy comprised 1000 vessels with 240,000 tons aggregate. In recent years the returns Year Vessels Tons Carrying Steam Sail Total Steam Sail Total Power 1876 .... 1880 .... 1886 .... 356 529 594 3.975 5,776 3,982 4,331 6,305 4,576 82,000 100,000 142,000 600,000 640,000 605,000 682,000 740,000 747,000 930,000 1,040,000 1,170,000. The tonnage of vessels entered into Russian ports was: — Year Russian Foreign Total 1837 • 1866 . 1871 . 1880 . 1888 . 47,000 540,000 595,000 580,000 510,000 888,000 2,036,000 3,400,000 4,440,000 6,900,000 935,000 2,576,000 3,995,000 5,020,000 7,410,000 The internal navigation in 1880 employed 385 steamers and 13,000 canal-boats. The sea-going and coast traffic in 1888 showed entries as follows : — Vessels Tons Sea-going. Coast .... 12,575 23.978 7,410,000 4.753.000 Total 36.553 12,163,000 SHIPPING 529 SHIPPING Sea-going entries were distributed thus : Vessels Tons Baltic Black Sea . Other seas 6,966 4,921 688 3,090,000 3,730,000 590,000 Total I2.S7S 7,410,000 Austria The first impulse given to Austrian shipping was the establishment of the Austrian Lloyd's Company to trade in the Levant in 1833 ; the second, the Danube Naviga- tion Company, founded in 1850. The latter has steamers which carry 1,200,000 passengers and 1,400,000 tons of merchandise yearly. The merchant navy of the Empire in 1849 comprised 6083 vessels of 260,000 tons aggregate, manned by 27,000 seamen. In later years we find as follows : — Vessels Tons Year Steam Sail i ■5 Carrying Power 1870 1880 1888 91 702 80 1526 98 1269 793 606 367 50,000 60,000 90,000 280,000 230,000 130,000 330,000 i 480,000 290,000 j 470,000 220,000 ■ 490,000 The tonnage of entries was as follows : — Year Austrian Foreign Total 1861 . 1870 . 1880 . 1888 . 2,400,000 2,840,000 4,190,000 6,740,000 420,000 590,000 630,000 805,000 2,820,000 3,430,000 4,820,000 7,545,000 In 1889 the toimage of sea-going vessels that entered the Danube was as follows : — Tons British 1,001,000 Greek 128,000 Various ...... 285,000 Total . . 1,414,000 This table, howeyer, applied only to that part of the Danube outside the Austrian dominions. The total shipping of the Austrian Empire of all sizes in 1886 was as follows : — Vessels Tons Seamen Sea-going . Coasting „393 8,975 250,000 62,000 5,400 23,400 Total 9.368 312,000 28,800 The aggregate horse-power of merchant steamers was 23,000. Italy In 1842 the merchant shipping of all the Italian States summed up 14,680 vessels, with an aggregate of 462,000 tons. In 1850 the marine of the three principal States was as follows : — Vessels Tons Naples .... Sardinia .... Tuscany .... 3,600 6,300 800 168,000 167,000 34,000 Total 10,700 369,000 In later years the returns of shipping of the kingdom of Italy show as follows :- Vessels Tons Steam Sail Total Steam Sail Total 1872 . 1880 . 1888 . 118 158 266 10,951 7,822 6,544 11,069 7,980 6,810 38,000 77,000 175,000 993,000 922,000 675,000 1,031,000 999,000 850,000 1 1,145,000 1 1,230,000 1,375,000 Port entries since 1861 have risen as follows in ton- nage: — Year 1861 1870 1880 1888 Italian 820,000 1,340,000 1,700,000 1,720,000 Foreign Total Sea-going 1,700,000 2,450,000 2,990,000 4,950,000 Coasting 2,520,000 3,790,000 5,930,000 4,690,000' 8,400,000 6,670,00013,380,000 Total Entries 9,720,000 13,090,000 20,050,000 The above figures show that since 1870 the sea-going trade has risen 75 per cent., and coasting trade 125 per cent. The total of entries and clearances in 1888 was as fol- lows: — Entries, Tons Cleared.Tons Total Sea-going . . . Coasting . . . 6,670,000 13,380,000 6,400,000 12,790,000 13,070,000 26,170,000 Total . . 20,050,000 19,190,000 39,240,000 The ^gregate of vessels' tonnage entered and cleared was as follows : — Year Sea-going Coasting Total 1861 . 1870 . 1888 . 5,080,000 7,620,000 11,070,000 8,000,000 9,680,000 26,170,000 13,080,000 17,300,000 39,240,000 This shows that the shipping business of Italy has more than doubled since 1870. The trade of the principal ports in 1888 was as follows :— TonsEntered Tons Cleared Total Genoa .... 2,810,000 2,850,000 5,660,000 Naples . 1,750,000 1,750,000 3,500,000 Palermo 1,390,000 1,390,000 2,780,000 Leghorn 1,300,000 1,290 000 2,590,000 Messma 1,080,000 1,070,000 2,150,000 Venice . 890,000 890,000 1,780,000 Various 10,830,000 9,950,000 20,780.000 Tota 1 20,050,000 19,190,000 39,240,000 2 L SHIPPING 53° SHIPPING Spain At the death of Charles II., in 1700, the merchant navy had an aggregate of 27,000 tons. In recent years the tonnage was : — Ye.ir Steam SaiL Total ^Carrying Power 1842 1859 1872 1880 1888 13.000 45,000 230,000 395,000 280,000 460,000 340,000 330,000 205,000 280,000 473,000 385,000 560,000 600,000 280,000 512,000 520,000 1,250,000 1,785,000 Port entries of sea-going vessels showed the following tonnage : — Year Spanish Foreign Total i860 . 1872 . 1880 . 1S88 . 420,000 890,000 1,300,000 4,600,000 930,000 1,960,000 4,400,000 6,850,000 1,350,000 2,850,000 5,700,000 11,450,000 The total port traffic in 18 nage : — was as follows in ton- Entered Cleared Total Sea-going . . . Coasting . . . 11,450,000 5,660,000 10,880,000 5,240,000 22,330,000 10,900,000 Total . . 17,110,000 16,120,000 33,230,000 The returns of coast traffic are for 1885 > no later published. Portugal In 1 842 the merchant navy counted 798 vessels, with an aggregate of 81,000 tons; in 1889 it comprised only 443 vessels, with an aggregate of 78,000 tons. The tonnage of vessels entered and cleared was as follows : — Flag Entered Cleared 1878 1888 1878 1888 Portuguese . Foreign . . 170,000 2,330,000 210,000 3,750,000 160,000 2,250,000 190,000 3,730,000 Total . . 2,500,000 3,960,000 2,410,000 3,920,000 Of the foreign entries in 1S88, British vessels stood for 2,140,000 tons, or considerably more than half the trade of Portugal. Sweden The merchant navy at various dates stood thus ; — Year [ Steam Sail Total Carrying Power 1800 1837 1872 1880 1888 48,000 81,000 125,000 64.000 120,000 340,000 460,000 375,000 64,000 120,000 388,000 541,000 500,000 64,000 120,000 530,000 780,000 875,000 The tonnage of port entries was as follows : — Year Swedish Foreign Total 1830 . 1866 . 1870 . 1880 1888 . 163,000 495,000 680,000 1,270,000 1,760,000 170,000 1,135,000 1,480,000 2,170,000 3,260,000 333.000 1,630,000 2,160,000 3,440,000 5,020,000 The entries in 8S8 were as follows : — i With Cargo In Ballast ■ Total Swedish . . . Foreign . . . 1,060,000 1,010,000 700,000 2,250,000 1,760,000 3,260,000 Total . . 2,070,000 2,950,000 5,020,000 Steamers Sailing Total Swedish . . , Foreign . . . 1,110,000 2,295,000 650,000 965,000 1,760,000 3,260,000 Total . . 3,405,000 1,615,000 5,020,000 Norway In 1836 the merchant navy was one of the most considerable in the world, comprising 2430 vessels, with an aggregate of 212,000 tons, and 13,000 seamen. The tonnage at various dates was as follows : — 1836 1872 1880 Sail Steam 212,000 1,090,000 1,460,000 1,400,000 30,000 58,000 135,000 Total 212,000 1,120,000 1,518,000 1.535.000 Carrying Power 212,000 1,210,000 1,690,000 1,940,000 Tonnage of port entries at various dates showed thus :- Year Norwegian Foreign Total i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1888 . 700,000 1,120,000 1,340,000 1,450,000 260,000 480,000 630,000 850,000 960,000 1,600,000 1,970,000 2,300,000 The sea-going trade in 1887 showed the ports thus :- Tons Entered Tons Cleared Christiania Bergen . . • . Drontheim Various .... 740,000 270,000 110,000 1,210,000 560,000 240,000 120,000 1,500,000 Total 2,330,000 2,420,000 In 1876 the merchant navy of Norway had 56,200 seamen, of whom 43, 700 in sea-going vessels, the rest in coasters. Denmark In 1748 the Danish merchant navy counted 1800 vessels ; in I7?9 it exceeded 4000, declining in 1S25 to 3870, and in 1835 to 3700. The tonnage at various dates showed : — Year Steam Sail Total Carrying Power 1825 . . . 1835 • • ■ 1850 . . . 1872 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 15.000 52,000 95,000 118,000 144,000 153,000 175,000 198,000 175,000 118,000 144,000 153,000 190,000 250,000 270,000 118,000 144,000 153,000 235,000 405,000 55S.OOO Tonnage of port entries was as follows : — Year Danisii Foreign Total i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 1888 . 260,000 310,000 1,200,000 VSO.ooo 340,000 400,000 1,030,000 1,630,000 600,000 710,000 2,230,000 3,380,000 ♦ SHIPPING 531 SHIPPING The shipping trade of i SS8 was as follows in tonnage : — Steam Sail Total Entered . . . Cleared . . . 2,670,000 2,650,000 710,000 720,000 3.380,000 3,370,000 Total . . 5,320,000 1,430,000 6,750,000 The Sound dues during fourteen years down to 1799 averaged ;^i50,cxx) a year from 10,000 vessels, that is, j^l5 each. In later years we find as follows : — Year Dues Paid by Number of British JOther Vessels 1 Total, £ Vessels 1821 . . 1830 . . 1837 . . 67.000 51.000 54,000 100,000 IIO.OOO 160,000 167,000 161,000 214,000 9,200 13.300 13,100 The dues were i per cent on the value of the ca^o, and were abolished in 1S57, when Great Britain paid Denmark ;^i,200,ooo and other nations ;^2,400,ooo as indemnity. Holland The tonnage of merchant shipping of the Dutch flag was as follows : — Year Steam Sail Total Carrying Power 1826 . . . 1842 . . . 1872 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 34.000 65,000 105,000 148,000 275,000. 350,000 265,000 140,000 148,000 275,000 384,000 330,000 245,000 148,000 275,000 490,000 525.000 560,000 Tonnage of port entries was as follows : — Year Dutch Foreign Total 1828 284,000 439.000 723.000 1837 327,000 449.000 776,000 i860 650,000 1,005.000 1,655,000 1870 660,000 1,650,000 2,310,000 1880 1,055.000 2,390,000 3.445.000 1888 1,600,000 3,510,000 5,110,000 The trade of 1888 showed as follows : 1 With Cargo In Ballast Total Entered . . . Cleared . . . 4,900,000 2,960,000 210,000 2,080,000 5,110,000 5,040,000 Total . . 7.860,000 2,290,000 10,150,000 The principal ports showed as follows, cargo only :- Entered Cleared Total Rotterdam . . Amsterdam . . Flashing . . . Various . . . 2,525.000 940.000 630,000 805.000 1,420,000 570,000 650,000 320,000 3,945,000 1,510,000 1,280,000 1,125,000 Total . . 4,900.000 2,960,000 7,860,000 In 1670 Sir William Petty estimated that the Dutch possessed one-half the shipping of the world : at present they have less than I J per cent of the total. Belgium The merchant navy was as follows, in tonnage :- Year Steam Sail Total Carrying Power 1842 . . . 27,000 27,000 27,000 1870 . . , ' IO,CXX) 20,000 30.000 60,000 1880 . . . : 65.000 10,000 75.000 270,000 1888 . . . I 73.000 4,000 77,000 295,000 Tonnage of port entries was as follows : — Year Steam Sail Total 1840 . 237.000 237,000 1850 . ... 315.000 315.000 i860 . 176,000 491,000 667,000 1870 . 839,000 736.000 1,575,000 1880 . 2,813,000 758.000 3.571.000 1887 . 4.080,000 492,000 4.572,000 The countries from which the tonnage came were :— ISiO 1860 1887 Great Britain . . 60,000 240.000 1,740,000 United States . 30.000 40.000 620,000 Germany . . . 30,000 75.000 370,000 Russia .... 35.000 90.000 315.000 France .... 10,000 20.000 190,000 Argentina . . . 20.000 190,000 Various. . . . 72,000 182.000 1,147,000 Total . . 237.000 667,000 4,572,000 Antwerp stands for 80 per cent of the shipping trade of the kingdom, viz. : — 1840 1860 1887 Antwerp . . . Other ports . . 180,000 S7.O0O 512,000 155.000 3,665,000 907,000 Total . . 237,000 667,000 4,572,000 Gkbecb The mercantile marine at various dates had the follow- ing tonnage : — Steam SaU Total Carrying Power 1842 . . . 1872 . . . 1887 . . . 186,000 1 186,000 1 186,000 6,000 234,000 ! 240,000 1 258,000 31,000 227,000 258,000 i 350,000 Tonnage of port entries was as follows : — Year Greek Foreign Total i860 . 1870 . 1888 . 430,000 420.000 330,000 500,000 850,000 2,040,000 930,000 1,270.000 2,370,000 Piraeus (Athens) stood for 1,550,000 tons, or 66 per cent of the total. The merchant navy of Greece in 1880 had 26,800 sailors. Turkey The tonnage, of the merchant navy at various dates was as follows : — Sail Steam Total I Carrying Power 182.000 ... I 182,000 I 182,000 170,000 10,000 I 180,000 j 210,000 153.000 64,000 I 217,000 I 410,000 SHIPPING 532 SHIPPING Port entries in 1888 were as follows : — At Tons 1 Flag Tons Constantinople . . Levant and Black Sea Red Sea . . . . Persian Gulf . . . 8,790,000 18,790,000 540,000 160,000 British . . Turkish . . Austrian . . Various . . Total . 9,270,000 4,810,000 3,720,000 10,480,000 Total . . 28,280,000 28,280,000 In 188S no fewer than 15,820 vessels entered the Dardanelles, with an aggregate of 10,460,000 tons, the share of British vessels being 7,030,000 tons. Egypt The trade returns of the Suez Canal since 1870 will be found under the head of Canals, p. 102. The tonnage of arrivals at Alexandria and that of vessels passing through the Suez Canal in 1888 showed thus :— Alexandria.Tons Canal, Tons British . 690,000 7,340,000 Turkish 250,000 30,000 French . 250,000 580,000 Austrian 160,000 170,000 Russian . 120,000 50,000 Italian . 60,000 400.000 Various . 60,000 870,000 Total 1,590,000 9,440,000 United States The merchant shipping of the Union at various dates was in tonnage as follows : Year High Seas Coasting, &c. Total Sail Steam Carrying Power 17S9 124,000 78,000 202,000 202,000 ... 202,000 179s 530,000 218,000 748,000 748,000 748,000 1800 670,000 300,000 970,000 970,000 ... 970,000 1810 980,000 440,000 1,420,000 1,420,000 1,420,000 1820 580,000 700,000 1,280,000 1,260,000 20,000 1,340,000 1830 540,000 650,000 1,190,000 1,125,000 65,000 1,385,000 1840 760,000 1,420,000 2,180,000 1,980,000 200,000 2,780,000 1850 1,440,000 2,095,000 3,535,000 3,010,000 525,000 5,110,000 i860 2,380,000 2,970,000 5,350,000 4,480,000 870,000 7,960,000 1870 1,450,000 2,800,000 4,250,000 3,175,000 1,075,000 7,475,000- 1880 1,3x0,000 2,760,000 4,070,000 2,860,000 1,210,000 7,700,00a 1889 1,000,000 3,310,000 4,310,000 2,540,000 1,770,000 9,620,000 American shipping differs from that of other nations, inasmuch as less than one-fourth is engaged on the high seas : coasting and internal traffic take 77 P^r cent, of the total merchant-navy. The carrying-power has risen only 20 in the last thirty years. It was less in 18S0 than twenty years before, but has since recovered. The tonnage of vessels built since l8i2 was as fol- lows : — Period Sail Steam Total Carrying Power Do. per Annum 1812-20 1821-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-89 730,oooJ 25,000 830,000 65,000 1,010,000 175,000 1,480,000^ 370,000 2,930,000' 730,000 2,110,000; 910,000 i,770,ooO| 760,000 930,000 970,000 755.000 895,000 1,185,000 1,850,000 3,660,000 3,020,000 2,530,000 1,900,000 830,000 1,090,000 1,710,000 2,960,000 5,850,000 5,750,000 4,810,000 4,810,000 92,000 109,000 171,000 296,000 585,000 575.000 481,000 534.000 78 years 11,790,000 4,005,000 15,795,000 27,810,000 356,000 If we suppose that the vessels which have disappeared from the register in the last nine years were either lost or broken up (since very few have been sold to other flags), we find the death-rate of American vessels as follows : — Lost, &c.. Tons Yearly Tonnage of Shipping Annual Loss per Cent. Sail . Steam . 140,000 45,000 2,700,000 1,500,000 5-2 3-0 Total 185,000 4,200,000 4-4 The principal maritime states showed tonnage of vessels belonging to citizens of same in 1850 and 188& thus : — State Tons 1860 1886 New York . Massachusetts . Maine Pennsylvania Louisiana . Maryland . Various 944,000 685,000 501,000 258,000 250,000 193,000 704,000 1,220,000 440,000 490,000 280,000 70,000 150,000 1,620,000 Total 3.53S.OOO 4,270,000 The proportions of trade — that is, of imports and exports combined — done on American and on foreign bottoms since 1821 are shown as follows : — Trade, £ Percentage Year United g U & States Foreign Total SI a Flag 1 S, 1821 23,600,000 3,100,000 26,700,000 8q n 1830 27,300,000 3,100,000 30,400,000 90 10 1840 41,900,000 8,500,000 50,400,000 83 17 1850 50,000,000 19,000,000 69,000,000 72 28 i860 105,500,000 53,000,000 158,500,000 66 34 1870 62,000,000 132,000,000 194,000,000 32 68 1880 58,200,000 272,000,000 330,800,000 17 81 1889 54,000,000 253,000,000 307,000,000 17 83 SHIPPING 53.^ SHIPPING The tonnage of entries into United States ports under various flags wai : Tonnage Ratio 1860 1810 1889 1860 1870 1889 American. . . , j 3,302,000 2,452,000 3,130,000 66.0 39-a aS-S British . 1 1,263,000 2,792,000 6,820,000 25.2 44-4 51-3 German . 1 231,000 679,000 1,130,000 4-6 10.9 8.S Scandinavian : 32,000 108,000 725,000 0.6 1.7 5-4 Italian . 32,000 48,000 290,000 0.6 0.8 2.2 French . 24,000 81,000 320,000 o-S 1.3 2.4 Spanish . 63.000 31,000 260,000 1-3 0.5 1-9 Various . 56,000 79,000 635,000 1.2 1.2 4.8 Tota 1 5,003,000 6,270,000 13,310.000 100.0 100.0 100.0 The tonnage entered and cleared at the principal ports was :^ State Entered Cleared 1865 1875 1889 1865 1876 1 1889 New York Boston .... Philadelphia . San Francisco . New Orleans . Various .... 2,080,000 660,000 160,000 320,000 50,000 560,000 4,420,000 5,600,000 770,000 1,400,000 580,000 1.100,000 720,000 1,050.000 450,000 770,000 2,200,000 3,390,000 2,100,000 670,000 140,000 400.000 70,000 780.000 4,310,000 630.000 620,000 750,000 520,000 2,510,000 5,450,000 1,220,000 870,000 1,060,000 770,000 4,300,000 Total 3,830,000 9,140,000 13,310,000 4,160,000 9,340,000 13.670,000 The following table of steamboat traffic was published in 188 1 for the preceding year : — Steamers 1 Tonnage Passengers Goods, Tons Earnings, £ 1 W.nges, £ Lakes Mississippi .... Ohio New England . Middle Sutes . Gnlf 947 681 473 463 1.459 1,116 222,000 1,420,000 132,000 2,710,000 107,000 ! 4,030,000 119,000 1 15,470,000 433,000 i 135,720,000 208,000 9,160,000 4,380,000 4,820,000 2,410,000 2,630,000 7,190,000 4,110,000 2,520,000 2,460,000 1,580,000 1,620,000 6,660,000 2,870,000 690,000 790.000 585,000 560,000 1,830,000 965,000 Total S.139 1,221,000 j 168,510,000 25,540,000 17,710,000 5,420,000 The crews mustered 57, 100 men, their wages avenging £8$- Tts steamers carried merchandise 21 times their own tonnage, besides passengers. Each steamer carried in the year 33,000 passengers and 5000 tons of merchandise. One tug on the Mississippi can convey in six days, from St. Louis to New Orleans, boats carrying 10,000 tons of grain, which would require 70 railway trains of 15 waggons each. ■ The official return of wrecks and casualties shows :- Tonnage of Vessels Lost Damaged 1880 1889 1880 1889 Atlantic . lakes Various . 31,000 11,000 68,000 50,000 13,000 63,000 207,000 111,000 187,000 266,000 146,000 178,000 Total IIO.OOO 126,000 505,000 590,000 Loss, £ Sterling Loss of Lives 1880 1889 1880 1889 Atlantic Lakes Various Total 600,000 980,000 no I 144 I 250,000 250,000 29 j 9 1,050,0001,13(^000 330 459 1,900,0002,360,000 469 ! 612 Canada The merchant navy has grown in tonnage very rapidly, VIZ. : — Year Steam Sail Total Carrying Power 1841 1866 1877 1888 5,000 28,000 77,000 207,000 345.000 727,000 i 1,233,000 j 880,000 350,000 75S.OOO 1,310.000 1,087,000 365.000 840,000 1,540,000 1,710,000 Although there has been a decline of 220,000 nominal tonnage in the last eleven years, there is an actual increase of 170,000 tons in carrying power owing to steamers taking the place of sailing vessels. Port entries of the high seas show the following tonnage : — Year 1829 . i860 . 1870 . Of the ballast. Tons 430,000 2,650,000 3,150,000 Year 1880 1885 1888 entries in 1888 there were Tons , 3,690,000 . 3,840,000 4,620,000 35 per cent, in SHIPPING 534 SHIPPING The provinces which owned the shipping of the [ Dominion in i8S8 were : — Vessels Tons Nova Scotia . New Brunswick Quebec .... Ontario .... Various .... 2,851 1,009 1,498 1.330 4S4 486,000 240,000 180,000 140,000 44,000 Total 7.142 1,090,000 Australia The tonnage of entries at various dates was as fol- lows : — Year Sydney Melbourne Various Total 1822 . . . 57,000 17,000 74,000 1841 . . 178,000 98,000 276,000 1851 . 146,000 120,000 278,000 544,000 1861 . . . 373,000 S45.0OO 528,000 1,446,000 1871 . . . 750,000 678,000 770,000 2,198,000 1888 . . . 2,383,000 2,154,000 2,808,000 7,350,000 The average size of vessels has increased very notably, viz. ;— Year Vessels Tons Tons per Vessel 184 1 . 1851 . 1861 . 1871 . 1881 . 1888 . 1,288 2,670 S.383 6,866 8,35° 9.306 276 000 544,000 1,446,000 2,198,000 4,752,000 7,345,000 214 204 269 320 S70 790 The tonnage of port entries for the several Colonies was : — 1860 1871 1888 New South Wales 430,000 750,000 2,380,000 Victoria 590,000 680,000 2,150,000 South Australia 105,000 190,000 990,000 New Zealand 140,000 270,000 530,000 Queensland . 40,000 140,000 500,000 Tasmania 115,000 110,000 390,000 Western Australia 60,000 60,000 410,000 Total 1,480,000 2,200,000 7,350,000 Other Colonies Port entries at various dates showed tonnage approxi- mately thus : — 1860 1870 1880 1887 India . . . 1,470,000 2,005,000 2,850,000 3,580,000 Singapore . 680,000 820,000 2,400,000 4,180,000 Ceylon . . 400,000 710,000 1,450,000 2,070,000 Mauritius . 300,000 230,000 270,000 310,000 Hong-Kong 780,000 1,320,000 3,040,000 4,580,000 South Africa 290,000 210,000 1,005,000 1,070,000 West Indies 540,000 770,000 1,785,000 3,130,000 Gibraltar . 980,000 1,480,000 3,220,000 5,250,000 Malta . . 930,000 1,490,000 3,070,000 3,410,000 Various . . 410,000 920,000 1,190,000 1,760,000 Total . 6,780,000 9,955,000 20,280,000 29,340,000 Chili The merchant navy is made up thus : — Vessels Tons Steam .... Sail 38 139 19,000 58,000 Total 177 77,000 Tonnage of entries was as follows : — Year Chilian Foreign Total 1878 . 1888 . 150,000 250,000 1,070,000 1,820,000 1,220,000 2,070,000 There is a very large coasting trade, the entries of which amount to 6,700,000 tons yearly. Argentina Port entries showed tonnz^e as follows : — Flag 1872 1882 1886 Argentine . . . 159,000 240,000 1,150,000 British .... 36t,ooo 342,000 960,000 French .... 146,000 202,000 430,000 Italian .... 131,000 125,000 215,000 German . . . 57,000 90,000 240,000 Spanish . . . 9,000 40,000 30,000 Various. . . . 251,000 174,000 490,000 Total . . 1,114,000 1,213,000 3,515,000 The total sea-going and coast entries in 1886 had tonnage thus : — At Sea-Going Coast Total Buenos Ayres . . Rosario. . . . Concordia . . . Concepcion . . Gualeguaychu . Various . . . 1,590,000 410,000 220,000 180,000 170,000 945,000 810,000 580,000 25,000 65,000 10,000 620,000 2,400,000 990,000 245,000 245,000 180,000 1,565,000 Total . . 3.S15.000 2,110,000 5,625,000 The high-seas entries in, 1 888 were as follows :- With Cargo In Ballast Total Sail Steam .... 1,160,000 2,640,000 40,000 1,040,000 1,200,000 3,680,000 - Total . . 3,800,000 1,080,000 4,880,000 Tonnage of vessels cleared showed thus :- - With Cargo In Ballast Total Sail Steam .... 270,000 2,280,000 730,000 1,030,000 1,000,000 3,310,000 Total . . 2,550,000 1,760,000 4,310,000 Uruguay Tonnage of port entries was as follows : — Year Uruguayan Foreign Total 1876 . 1888 . 2,000 1,000 I, 080,00c 1,620,000 1,082,000 1,621,000 SHIPPING 535 SICKNESS In 1 888 the returns of entrie? showed :- At Vessels Tons Montevideo Other ports 1.357 3.540 1,620,000 1,550,000 Total 4.897 3,170,000 All the trade of the high seas was done at Montevideo ; tlie other ports had only coast traffic. China Port entries had the following tonnage : — Year Chinese Foreign | Total 1878 . 1888 . 3.000 93.000 1,540,000 1,543,000 2,737,000 2,830,000 The above was the traffic of the high seas : the total of tonnage entered and cleared, including coast trade, in 1888 was as follows : — Vessels Tons British Chinese German . . , Various i5."S 9.054 2,762 1,230 14,070,000 5,740,000 1,570.000 928,000 Total 28,161 22,308,000 Of the total tonnage, 95 per cent, was steam. The tonnage of entries only in 1889 (sea-going and coast trade) showed as follows : — British 7,500,000 Chinese ..... 3,000,000 Various 1,300,000 Total . 11,800,000 Japan The tonnage of the merchant navy was as follows :- Year Steam Sail Total Carrying Power 1878 1887 44,000 72,000 20,000 6i,ooo 64,000 133,000 196,000 350,000 Port entries showed tonnage as follows :— Year Japanese Foreign Total 1881 . 1888 . 130,000 230,000 470,000 1,100,000 600,000 1,330,000 Entries in 1888 were as follows : — Port Tons Flag 1 Tons Nagasaki . . . Yokohama . . Kobi .... Various . . . 640,000 420,000 260,000 10,000 British . . German . . American Various . . Total . . 1 590,000 . ! 220,000 . ' 130,000 . j 390,000 Total . . 1,330,000 . j 1,330,000 Algeria In 1886 the port entries were as follows : Flag Vessels Tons Crew Ft«nch .... British .... Spanish . . . Various . . . 2,001 580 1,581 800 1,170,000 510,000 150,000 150,000 63.300 12,200 17,800 7.500 Total . . 4,962 1,980,000 100,800 In l888 the entries reached 2,170,000 tons. SICKNESS Nelson and Finlayson (contributions to Vital Statistics) find that two persons are constantly sick for one death during the year. The Board of Health of Massachusetts finds that each inhabitant loses 13 days yearly by sickness. According to Dr. Farr at the State Congress of 1S60, you may expect to find 2 per cent, of people aged 30, and 10 per cent, of those aged 75 constantly sick any day of the year. Sir William Wilde found 2\ per cent, of the people of Dublin confined to bed. International statistics of sick- ness are only to be found in the armies of the different powers. The following table, published in 1875, is for various years, showing the annual averages thus : — British . . French . . German . Austrian . Italian . . Portuguese Belgian United States Do. coloured Russian . , . Loss of Days Men in Hos- Invalided per ■ per Soldier pital per 1000 icoo 18 18 IS 13 IS 13 18 19 23 SO 47 41 36 40 34 SI 58 S3 78 36 7 23 9 2S In the Crimean war the hospital entries of British and French were : — Cause Number Ratio British French British French Wounds . Fever, &c 18,300 144,400 116,000 320,000 "•3 88.7 26.7 73.3 Total . 162,700 436,000 100.0 100.0 At the siege of Metz the French in hospital averaged 17,000 men, being more than 10 per cent., the garrison numbering 168,000. Towards the close of the si^e, when the garrison was only 105,000, there were 21,000 in hospital. In the American war of 1861-65, the Federal army enrolled 2,252,000 men, of whom 179,000 were coloured, and the average strength was 431,000 men : the average number in hospital was 37,000 or 9 per cent. The following table shows the distribution of sickness according to months in various places as judged by hospital entries : — Paris Rome Algiers Geneva January . 101 99 6S 116 February . 102 114 48 112 March 132 85 49 121 April 125 71 71 108 May . 114 60 70 110 June . 97 48 "3 95 July . . 85 81 170 93 August 80 150 138 98 September 102 139 134 89 October . 91 121 164 83 November 86 128 107 88 December , 85 104 71 87 Year • 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200 United Kingdom Finlr.j^on's tables as regards the sick ratios at various ages in England give the following residts, that is, the percentage who become sick during the year, the duration SICKNESS 536 SILK of sickness, and the loss in days on the whole number of workpeople at each age : — Age Per Cent. Sick Days of Illness Loss of Days on Whole Number Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Indoor Outdoor 20 24.6 26.2 27 25 6.6 7.0 25 22.5 23-7 29 28 6.4 6.7 30 21.0 22.7 31 30 6.5 6.8 35 21.2 22.3 32 31 6.8 6.9 40 21. 9 23-S 35 36 7.6 8.0 45 22.8 23-7 39 39 8.9 9.1 .50 25-6 25.0 44 46 "•3 11.3 55 28. s 26.S 52 47 14.9 12.S 60 30.8 29.1 61 55 18.7 16. s 65 35- 5 32-5 75 76 26.6 24,8 The ratio of sick has naturally declined with death- rate, the tables published in 1870 for England and Wales comparing with those of 1845 ^ follows : — Days of Sickness per Inhabitant. Urban Rural All England Scotland Age 18^5 1870 1845 1870 1845 1870 1846 21-30 . . 6.3 5.6 6.0 5-4 6.1 •■i-S 6.0 31-40 . . 11.4 7-1 b.4 7.1 8.9 7.1 6.2 41-50 • • 1.3-4 11.2 9.0 10.4 II. 2 10.8 9.5 51-60 . . 23.2 20.3 17.8 20.1 20.5 20.2 19.9 40 years i3-« ii.i 9.8 10.7 11.7 10.9 10.4 The Census returns taken of sickness in Ireland show thus : — Diseases Sick per 10,000 Inhabitants 1851 1861 1871 Medium Zymotic . Brain Respiratory . . Various . 53 16 S3 17 50 16 48 si 17 48 26 48 16 SO Total 159 131 132 140 France A report was published in 1856 showing the working during three years of friendly societies among workmen, that is, the percentage falling sick during the year, the duration of illness, and the loss in days on the whole number of workers of each age, viz. : — Age Sick Per- centage Days of Illness Loss of Days on Whole Number 16-35 ■ 36-SS • 56-75 • 29.0 30.0 33-0 17 21 27 4-9 6.2 9.2 Another report in 1886 for fifteen .years gave the following averages, that is, the ratio falling sick during each year, and the average duration of illness:— Period Percentage Sick Days of Illness Men Women Men Women 1871-80 . 1881-85 . 15 years . 26.0 26.0 26.0 29.0 27.0 28.3 20 18 19 14 13 13I The numb'r of convicts sent to hospital daily in ten years ending 1880, that is, the ratio per 100,000 of each class, was as follows : — Year in Prison Per 100,000 Male Female First Second .... Third .... Fourth .... Fifth Over fifth .... IS4 170 190 220 190 160 136 154 I go 172 220 150 Germany Mr. He)mi's investigations during twenty years down to 1870 at Leipzig, resulted in the following percentage of persons sick during the year, the average length of illness, and the loss of days in each year from illness, to the whole population of each age : — Age Per Cent. Sick in Year Days of Illness Loss of Days in Whole Number Men Women Men Women Men Women iS-24 25-34 3S-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 ^ General \ average f 26.5 21.4 22.0 21.4 26.5 32.7 22.1 18.8 17.7 18.0 17. 5 20.0 18.0 18. 1 23 25 32 38 58 31 27 36 41 43 57 48 39 6.0 5.1 5.4 6.4 7.0 7.4 8.1 7.6 14.4 14.6 19.0 8.6 6.8 8.7 The associated clubs of workmen and others in Germany showed the number of sick during the year and other particulars as follows : — 1883 1886 Associates. Sick in year Constantly sick . 4,294,000 1,805,000 69,400 4,570,000 1,713,000 71,400 The loss by sickness was less than six days on the whole number, namely, 5.9 in 1885, and 5.7 in 1886, which is much less than the average in Dr. Heym's table ; but his probably includes older people. SILK The consumption of silk and *the approximate value of manufactures are shown as follows : — Annual Average, Value of Manufac- Lbs. Silk tures, ^ 1861-70 1881-87 1861-70 1881-87 U. Kingdom 4,900,000 3,200,000 9,600,000 6,400,000 France . . 15,000,000 14,800,000 29,800,000 29,400,000 Germany . 2,100,000 6,800,000 4,100,000 14,500,000 Russia . . 300,000 900,000 600,000 1,800,000 Austria . . 1,100,000 1,800,000 2,000,000 3,700,000 Italy . . . 1,000,000 800,000 2,100,000 1,600,000 Spain. . . 300,000 600,000 600,000 1,200,000 Switzerland 1,600,000 3,100,000 3,300,000 6,000,000 Europe . , 26,300,000 32,000,000 52,100,000 64,600,000 U. States . 1,200,000 3,500,000 2,500,000 7,200,000 China . . 12,000,000 12,000,000 18,000,000 18,000,000 Japan . . Other ) countries / 3,300,000 3,300,000 7,000,000 6,000,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 2,400,000 2,200,000 Total . 44,000,000 52,000,000 82,000,000 98,000,000 SILK 537 SILK The annual production is estimated at 300,000 tons of cocoons or 52,000,000 lbs. raw silk, viz. :— Lbs. China • . . . . 21,000,000 Japan . . ... 6,800,000 Italy 10,600,000 FVance, Turkey, &c. . . . 13,600,000 Total . , 52,000,000 United Kingdom Silk has been manufactured since the time of Edward III., the industry having been introduced by some French prkoners after the battle of Crecy. The consumption of caw silk since 1 770 has been as follows : — Period Lbs. per Annum Value of Manu- factures, £ 1770-90 1800-20 1836-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-88 790,000 1,280,000 5,500,000 6,100,000 4,900,000 3,500,000 3,200,000 3,400,000 4,500,000 10,800,000 11,500,000 9,600,000 7,100,000 6,400,000 The imports and exports of silk manufactures were as follows : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Surplus Imports, £ H n H H M iff Is 2,280,000 3,200,000 15,250,000 13,320,000 10,470,000 1,440,000 1,690,000 1,700,000 2,300,000 3,400,000 840,000 1,510,000 13,550,000 11,020,000 7,070,000 The value of silk goods consumed in thirty-five years ■was as follows : — Period Millions £ Sterling Aggregate Shillings Yearly per In- habitant British Foreign Total 1854-60 .... 1861-70 .... 1871-80 .... 1881-88 .... 70 79 SI 32 18 91 114 88 88 170 i6S 120 10 11 10 8 35 years .... 232 311 S43 ... The balance-sheet since 1840 shovre the silk industry thus: — Millions £ Sterling Period Raw Silk Manu- factiures Net Result 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-88 . 65 68 SS 32 18 108 71 50 43 47 41 39 32 48 years . 238 4.JO 202 The silV-factories of the United iows : — Kingdom were as fol- Year Factories Operatives Spindles Looms 1838 . . . 1856 . . 1870 . . . 188s . . . 268 696 691 34.000 56,000 48,000 43.000 1,130,000 1,060,000 8,000 12,400 12,000 The Census returns show still more emphatically the decline of this industry, viz. : — Silk Operatives in England and Wales Year Number Year Number 1841 . . S4.0OO 1871 . 77.000 1851 . . 117,000 1881 64,000 The use of silk decreases notwithstanding the increase of wealth. France The consumption of silk has been approximately as follows : — Raw Silk, Lbs. Yearly Value of Period Manu- factures, £ French Imported Total 1830-32 1,620,000 1,140,000 2,760,000 5,200,000 1842-46 2,770,000 4,070,000 6,840,000 12,700,000 1850-52 3,830,000 6,370,000 10,200,000 18,200,000 1868-73 1,200,000 15,400,000 16,600,000 34,600,000 1881-87 1,200,000 13,600,000 14,800,000 29,400,000 The output of the factories was approximately as fol- lows : — Period Millions £ Sterling Aggregate Exported Home Use Total 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 , 1871-80 . 1881-87 • 33 70 no 168 138 70 47 70 90 130 ISO 136 80 140 200 298 288 206 57 years . S89 623 1,212 The value of silk manufactures consumed in France was approximately as follows : — Period Millions £ Sterling Aggregate Shillings Yearly per Inhabitant French Imported Total 1831-40 . . 1841-50 . . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-S7 . . . 47 70 90 130 136 10 IS 14 47 70 90 1^5 150 3 4 S 8 9 11 57 years , . 623 39 662 About the year 1620 the mulberry tree was first culti- vated for the rearing of silkworms, and in 1780 the cocoons weighed 6600 tons, valued at ;^66o,ooo sterling. The farmers have recently been cutting down the mul- berry trees for fuel, as the following table shows : — Year Mulberry Trees Cocoons, Tons Lbs. Silk Pro- duced 1810 . . . 1820 . . . 183s •. • • 1853 . . . 1884 . . . 9,632,000 14,880,000 6,100,000 3,900 5,230 9,010 26,100 9,700 770,000 1,010,000 1,950,000 4,300,000 1,600,000 The price of cocoons was is. per lb. in the iSth century, and rose to 2s. about 1850. A few years latei a disease carried ofiF two-thirds of the silkworms, which were badly housed and overcrowded, causing the cocoons to rise to 4s. ; but the price fell owing to large importa- tions, and is now hardly remunerative. In 1884 th« total yield of cocoons sold for ;^i, 500,000, and was divided among 141,400 cultivators, giving a little over ;^io to each. SILK 538 The balacce-sheet of the silk industry since 1830 was approximately as follows : — SILK Period Millions £ Sterling Aggregate Raw Silk Manufactures Net Result 1831-40 . . 1841-50 . . 1851-60 . . 1 861-70 . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 • • • 48 86 120 166 72 80 140 200 298 288 206 32 54 80 132 163 134 57 years . . . 617 1,212 595 In the 18th century Lyons counted 15,000 silk-factories, but the industry suffered so much during the Revolution that in 1800 there were only 3500 left. It revived in later years, Lyons consuming one-sixth of the silk crop of the world, or 50,000 tons of cocoons, one-half of which was imported from Italy until the recent rapture of com- mercial relations. In 1840 the silk-factories had 1790 steam-engines, of 36,000 aggregate horse-power. In 1866 France had 1 172 mills, with 1 10,000 operatives, 1,080,000 spindles, and 50,000 power-looms, turning out silks to the value of 29 millions sterling. Germany In 1800 Oddy valued the silk manufactures of Prussia at ;^7oo,ooo a year, and in 1840 the factories had 14,000 operatives with 12,000 looms, consuming 700,000 lbs. of raw silk per annum, the output being valued at ;^I, 600,000 sterling. The consumption of raw silk in all Germany was approximately as follows : — Period Lbs. Yearly Value of Manu- factures, £ 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 . 1881-87 . 1,100,000 1,500,000 2, 100,000 4,200,000 6,800,000 2,200,000 3,000,000 4,100,000 8,500,000 14,500,000 The consumption and export were approximately thus :— Period Average per Annum Home Use Exported Total Make 1873-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . £ 4,900,000 5,800,000 £ 3,600,000 8,700,000 , £ 3,500,000 14,500,000 The balance-sheet of the industry was approximately as follows : — Period Millions £ Sterling Aggregate Raw Silk Manufactures Net Result 1841-50 . . 1851-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . 13 18 - 23 40 38 22 30 41 85 102 9 12 18 45 64 47 years . . . 132 280 148 In 1884 the silk-factories counted 87,000 operatives, the chief seat of this industry being Crefeld, in Prassia. Russia In 1828 Schubert found 184 silk-factories, the output of which he estimated much too high, at ;£8oo.ooo. In 1864 Buschen counted 326 factories, with 9000 operatives. The consumption of silk was as follows : — Period Lbs. Value of Manu- factures, £ 1861-70 .... 1871-80 .... 1881-87 .... 330,000 580,000 900,000 600,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 The consumption of silk manufactures was as follows :- Period Yearly Average Pence per [n- liabitant Russian Imported Total 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-87 ■ i £ 600,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 £ 500,000 400,000 200,000 £ 1,100,000 1,600,000 2,000,000 4 S 6 The balance-sheet of the industry was approximately as follows : — Period Millions £ Slerling Aggregate Raw Silk Manufactures Net Result 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1S81-87 . 4 6 5 6 12 13 2 6 8 27 years . 15 31 16 According to the Bulletin Statistique for 1884, Russia had 20,000 operatives engaged in silk-factories, turning out goods to the value of three millions sterling per annum ; but this estimate is too high ; probably paper roubles were mistaken for silver. Austria In 1834 the Empire counted 3990 silk - factories, with 160,000 operatives, producing manufactures worth ;^3,ooo,ooo per annum ; but this included the Italian provinces. The consumption of silk since i860 has been as follows : — Period Lbs. Yearly Value of Manufac- tures, £ Imporied Native Total 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 . . 800,000 ! 300,000 1,100,000 ' 300,000 1,540,000 300,000 1,100,000 1,400,000 1,840,000 2,000,000 2,800,000 3,700,000 The consumption of silk manufactures was as follows : — Period Yearly Average, £ Pence per In- habitant Austrian Imporied Total 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 . . 2,000,000 2,800,000 3,700,000 300,000 1,100,000 300,000 2,300,000 3,900,000 4,000,000 17 26 2S The balance-sheet of the industry may be summed up thus : — ■ Period Millions £ Aggregate Raw Silk ; Manufactures Total 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-87 ■ II 14 10 20 28 26 9 14 i6 27 years . 35 ! 74 39 In 1884 the factories had 15,000 operatives engaged in this industry. SILK 539 SILK Italy Silk is one of the most valuable of Italian products, the exportation averaging lo millions sterling per annum. Lombardy is the chief seat of silk-growing, and until recently 90 per cent, of the quantity was from Japanese eggs imported on cards from Japan. These cards are worth 7s. jjer ounce, or ;^i2,ooo a ton, about ten tons being now imported yearly. Formerly the eggs yielded 50 lbs. cocoons per ounce, but latterly only 35 lbs., representing a value of Sos., or seven times the original cost of the eggs. The province of Lombardy raises yearly 1 1 ,000 tons of cocoons, worth ;£'20o a ton. There are factories for throwing silk at Milan and Turin, and some of the fibre is consumed at home for velvets and damasks, but the greatest part is usually exported to France for the Lyons factories. The produc- tion and export of silk approximated yearly as follows : — Period Production, Lbs. Export, Lbs. Home Use, Lbs. 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . S,6oo,ooo 7,400,000 10,600,000 4,600,000 6,600,000 9,800,000 1,000,000 800,000 800,000 The import and export of manufactured silks were as follows : — Yearly Average Period Import, £, Export, £, Surplus Im- ports, I 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 • • • 400,000 880,000 960,000 220,000 600,000 600,000 180,000 280,000 360,000 The consumption of silk manufactures was as follows :- Period Yearly Average Pence per In- habitant Italian Imported Total 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 . . £ 2,000,000 1,600,000 1,600,000 £ 180,000 280,000 360,000 £ 2,180,000 1,880,000 1,960,000 23 20 18 The value of silk industry to Italy may be summed up thus : — Millions £, Sterling Aggregate Period Cost of Japan Eggs ^ II o-a H a 3 M Id bo II 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . 10 8 2 84 122 80 20 16 II 104 138 91 10 8 2 94 130 89 27 years . . . 20 1 286 1 47 333 20 313 In 1S78 Italy had 2030 silk-factories, with 2,100,000 spindles, giving pmployment to 16,000 men ; there were also 120,000 women and 76,000 children engaged in attending to the silk-worms. In 1S40 the kingdom of Sardinia had several silk- factories, with an aggregate of i4>9oo operatives. The cocoon crop of Italy f:r the years i88i-88 averaged 86 million pounds. Spain Silk manufacture flourished under the Moors for some centuries before the industry was known in France. It even survived their expulsion, for Seville had 16,000 silk- looms in 1550, but a hundred years later there were only sixty. Coming down to our own time, we find that in 1870 Spain had silk-factories with an aggregate of 3000 looms and 9000 operatives ; the number of the latter in 1884 was only 8000, and the output was valued at ;^i,ooo,ooo in the Bulletin Statistique, although Spanish writers (prone to exaggerate) claim a value of 2^2, 800,000 sterling. The silkworm thrives in the south, the pro- duction of native silk averaging 300,000 lbs. yearly. The consumption in the factories averaged as follows : — Period Silk, Lbs. Yearly Value of Manufac- i tures, £ Spanish Imported Total 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 • ■ 300,000 300,000 300,000 140,000 290,000 300,000 440,000 590,000 i 600,000 900,000 1,200,000 The consumption of silk manufactures was as follows : — Period Yearly Average Pence per In- habitant Spanish Imported Total 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 • . 600,000 900,000 1,200,000 £ 300,000 200,000 400,000 £ 900,000 I, TOO, 000 1,600,000 15 22 The balance-sheet of the industry was approximately as follows : — Period Millions {, Aggregate Raw Silk Manufactures Net Product 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 • • ■ 3 4 3 6 9 8 3 5 5 27 years . . . 10 23 13 Belgium Silk manufacture is declining, the average consumption since 1880 being only 400,000 lbs. raw silk yearly, and the output of the mills ;f8oo,ooo. Belgium, moreover, consumes imported silk goods to the value of ;^400,ooo a year. Switzerland Silk manufacture holds the foremost rank in Switzer- land, the output averaging six millions sterling, nearly all of which is exported. United States The Census returns show as follows : — Year Factories Operatives | Capital, £ Manufactures, £ 1850 1870 1880 67 2,000 86 ; 7,000 382 ; 31,000 200,000 1,000,000 4,000,000 400,000 2,000,000 7,300,000 The consumption of silk was as follows : — Period Lbs. Yearly Value of Textures, is 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-37 . 1,200,000 1,400,000 3,500,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 7,200,000 SILK 54° SLAVE-TRADE The value of all silk manufactures consumed was :- Yearly Average Shillings Period American, Imported, Total, £ per Inhabitant 1861-70 2,500,000 1871-80 3,000,000 1881-87 7,200,000 3,100,000 S,ioo,ooo 6,800,000 S,6oo,ooo 8,100,000 14,000,000 3 4 S The balance-sheet was approximately as follows : — Period Millions £ Aggregate Raw Silk ; Manufactures Net Result 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881-87 • ■ ■ 14 IS 20 25 30 5° II IS 30 37 years . . . 49 1 -S 56 China Silk is known to have been cultivated for 3000 years, the best coming from the province of ICwantung. The ordinary crop is 21,000,000 lbs., of which 60 per cent, is consumed in China. The quantities exported have been : — Period Annual Average, Lbs, 1873-80 9,300,000 1881-87 8,100,000 The values of all silk exports have been as follows : — Period Raw Silk 1 Manufactures Total ;^ Yearly | ;f Yearly £ Yearly 1873-80 . . . 1881-87 . . . 3,900,000 i 700,000 3,100,000 j 800,000 4,600,000 3,900,000 About 60 per cent, of the raw silk exported is from Shanghai, and 50 per cent, of manufactured silks from Canton. Japan Official returns for the years 1884-87 show an average production of 6,800,000 lbs. raw silk, disposed of in this Lbs. Value, £ Home manufacture . Exported raw . . . 3,300,000 3,500,000 6,000,000 2,400,000 Total . . 6,800,000 8,400,000 Of the silk goods manufactured in the country, about ^250,000 worth is exported yearly, the rest consumed in Japan. Turkey The annual production of silk averages about 1,200,000, lbs. , of which five-sixths are exported. The value of silk and cocoons exported in 1888 was £1, 100,000 sterling. Local manufactures probably attain a value of ;£^350,ooo per annum. India The imports and exports of raw silk have been ; — Annual Average, Lbs. Period Imports Exports Surplus Imports Surplus Exports 1867-70 . . 1871-7S . . 1876-80 . . 1881-88 . . 1,800,000 2,300,000 2,100,000 2,200,000 2,000,000 1,600,000 2,100,000 1,600,000 400,000 500,000 500,000 100,000 The value of silk manufactures mported and exported was as follows : — Annual Average Period Imports, £ Exports Surplus Imports, £ 1867-70 . , . 1871-80 . . . 1881-88 . . . 450,000 660,000 1,300,000 120,000 210,000 320,000 330.000 450,000 980,000 The value of Indian silk manufactures is unknown. SLAVERY In ancient Greece and Rome the ordinary wages of a slave and his market value were as follows : — Greece Da:^s Wage, Value, Pence £ Labourer . . . 6 56 Farmer 10 103 Cutler . 8 77 Boatman 6 60 Rome Day's Wage, Value, Pence £ Gardener 8 6? Carpenter . 20 148 Blacksmith . 20 14s Shepherd 6 SI Baker . 19 140 Cook . 430 Actress 820 Physician . 1,100 Some of the wealthy Romans had 10,000 slaves. After great victories they could often be bought for a few shillings on the battle-fi eld. SLAVE-TRADE The Journal des Economistes gives the following table of the number of slaves shipped from Africa in sixty years ending 1847 : — Period Shipped Died Landed in America 1788-98 . . . 1798-1805 . . . 1805-15 . . . 1815-30 . . . 1830-40 . . . 1840-47 . . . 100,000 85,000 178,000 441,000 214,000 444,000 14,000 12,000 25,000 110,000 54,000 112,000 86,coo 73.000 153,000 331,000 160,000 332,000 60 years . . . 1,462,000 327,000 1,135,000 About 22 per cent, perished on the voyage. There are no records of the number of slaves carried by English and other dealers in the 1 6th, 17th, and 18th centuries to America, but it is believed to exceed 3,000,000, the Treaty of Utrecht securing great advan- tages in 1713 to the British flag in this trade. The records for the year 1787 showed the number of African slaves landed alive in America as follows : — Carried by Number British 38,000 French 31,000 Portuguese 25,000 Dutch, Danes, &c 6,500 Total . . 100,500 The Danes were the first to abolish slavery in their West Indian islands. The emancipation of slaves in the SLAVE-TRADE S4I SLAVERY British West Indies and other colonies in 1834 gave liberty to 780,000, viz. : — Number Indemnity, £ Per Head, £ Jamaica .... 311,700 6,152,000 20 Barbadoes . . . 83,000 1,721,000 21 Trinidad .... 22,300 1,039,000 5° Antigua, &c. . . . 172,093 3,421,000 20 Guiana .... 84,900 4,297,000 S3 Mauritius .... 68,600 2,113,000 31 Cape of Good Hope 38,400 1,247,000 33 Total . . 780,993 20,000,000 26 The difference paid per head in the above colonies is very remarkable. The French freed their West Indian slaves in 1848, the Dutch in 1863, the latter emancipating 46,000 at £,y^ per head paid to their masters. Slavery was abolished in the United States in 1 861, the number of slaves in that country having been as follows : — Year Number Year Number 1790 . . . 697,900 1830 . . . 2,009,030 1800 . . . 893,040 1840 . . . 2,487,500 1810 . . 1,191,400 1850 . . . 3,204,300 1820 . . . 1,538,100 i860 . . . 3,979,700 The number of slaves in the several States was as fol- lows : — 1790 1820 1840 Virginia .... 293,000 425,000 449,000 South Carolina . . 107,000 258,000 327,000 North Carolina . . 101,000 205,000 246,000 Maryland .... 103,000 107,000 90,000 Georgia . 29,000 150,000 281,000 Kentucky . 11,000 127,000 182,000 Tennessee ... 80,000 183,000 Louisiana . 69,000 168,000 Alabama . ... 47,000 254,000 Mississippi 33.000 195,000 Various . 54.000 37,000 111,000 Total • • 698,000 1,538,000 2,486,000 The proportion of slaves in the total coloured popu- lation was as follows : — Year Coloured Population Slaves Slave Ratio per Cent. 1790 . 1820 . 1840 . 1850 . i860 . 7S7.000 1,772,000 2,874,000 3,639,000 4,486,000 698,000 1,538,000 2,486,000 3,204,000 3,980,000 92 86 87 88 89 The slave ratio was steadily increasing for forty years until the war of emancipation in i860, which (besides 655,000 men killed) cost an outlay of 555 millions ster- ling, equal to ;^I40 per slave. In the French island_ of Guadaloupe slaves formed two-thirds of the population just before the emancipation in 1S48, viz. : — 1781 1833 1847 Free Slaves .... 14,800 83,900 23,800 98,600 38,800 91.500 Total . . 98,700 122,400 130,300 From 1833 to 1847 the masters had voluntarily manu- mitted 18,600 slaves, being at the rate of 4 per cent, male, and 7 per cent female slaves yearly, llie annual birth-rate and death-rate of slaves per 1000 compared with that of the French settlers thus : — French Settlers Birth-rate . Death-rate Increase of population 33-2 31-4 1.8 Slaves 24.9 23.6 1-3 Slavery was abolished in Cuba in 1880, in Brazil in 1889. In the latter country, by a previous enumeration, there were found to be 805,000 male and 706,000 female slaves, held by 41,000 owners, the average price being from ;^8o to ^loo. t Serfs The condition of European serfs was a mild form of slavery. In the 18th century Danish noblemen gave their coachmen permission to flog women ; the peasants were bought and sold with the estates like cattle. As regards other countries, the conditions, &c., may be summed up thus : — Austria In 1840 the value of servitude to the nobility was estimated at ;^5i, 200,000 a year thus : — Labour (two days per week) Tithe of crops, &c. Male tribute, timber . Female tribute, spun wool . Fowls, eggs, butter Value, £ 35,000,000 12,000,000 1,400,000 1,800,000 1,000,000 51,200,000 There were 7,000,000 serfs. Some Bohemian nobles had as many as 10,000. The redemption was effected by giving the nobles 5 per cent. Government scrip, and land then rose 50 per cent, in value. Germany In 1848 the State took 60 million acres from the nobles, leaving them still 25 million acres, and gave the former among the serfs. Indemnity as follows : — 1. Government scrip, ;^i8o for each serf family, to nobleman. 2. Land-tax, £3 per annum, transferred to peasant. 3. Interest, £7 per annum for forty-seven years, to be paid by peasant to the State, being 4 per cent, on cost of redemption. France The Corvfe, which prevailed during the Middle Ages, was as follows : — Each man gave one day's work with a waggon, or two days if he had no wa^on, yearly, unpaid, to the State ; each woman one day. The man could commute by paying 2s., the woman is. Russia Previous to the emancipation of 1861 the number of serfs was as follows : — Male Female Total Crown serfs . . Appanage . . . Held by nobles . 11,168,000 1,624,000 10,674,000 11,683,000 1,702,000 IT,08l,000 22,851,000 3,326,000 21,755,000 Total . . 23,466,000 24,466,000 47,932,000 There were 103,000 noblemen holding 22 million serfs in this manner : — Nobles 23,100 36,150 43.800 103,050 Serfs 18,575,000 2,520,000 660,000 21,755,000 Average 802 70 IS SMUGGLERS 542 SOCIETIES The cost of emancipating these serfs was 65 millions sterling, but as the nobles had already mortgaged them vip to 30 millions sterling in the Imperial Bank, the Government deducted this sum. The account was made up thus : — Mortgages remitted . . . 30,400,000 Russian stock .... 20,230,000 Paid by serfs .... 10,470,000 Balance due .... 3,900,000 Total . . . 65,000,000 The lands are mortgaged to the State until 1912 as security for the advances by Government, viz., ;^5o,630,ooo sterling. In 1879 the serfs were holders of 186 millions acres, viz. : — Title Holders Acres Crown-gift .... Appanage .... Purchase Beggar-lots .... 6,117,000 1,625,000 10,137,000 1,840,000 84,200,000 30,200,000 65,500,000 6,440,000 Total . . 19,719,000 186,340,000 In return for crown-gift the holders have to pay 50 per cent, extra poll-tax till 1902. Beggar-lots are lands given gratis by the nobles to the peasants, rather than sell farm-lots at ;^I per acre to them. ROUMANIA The emancipation law of 1870 compelled the Boyars either to give the peasant half his farm gratis or to sell the whole at 26s. per acre : 400 Boyars preferred the former. Previously the conditions of servitude were : to work twelve days in the year for the Boyar, to give him one-tenth of the crops, and to buy groceries at the Boyar's store. Egypt Corvee, or compulsory labour, was imposed in 1883 on 202,000 Fellahs, who had to work 100 days unpaid, and in 18S8 on 59,000 for the same term. SMUGGLERS In 1830 there were 100,000 contrabandistas in Spain, -without counting their wives, &c., the total of persons living by smuggling being calculated at 300,000. SOAP The production and consumption in the United King- dom were approximately as follows, the exact consump- tion not being known since 1853, when the duty was abolished : — Million Lbs. §c" S c ■" a (H H Year nufac- ure sump ion a. U 8 1" i s U 0" 3 Q £ 1791 . . . 48 1 46 2 3-J £^^ ;^76 1801 . . . 57 1 54 3 3-6 2r 74 1811 . . . 76 1 73 3 4.2 2r 73 1821 . . . 98 1 94 4 4.6 28 68 1831 . . . 123 107 16 1-S 28 52 1841 . . . 199 1 170 29 6.4 14 48 1851 . . . 217 i 19s 22 l-° 14 40 1861 . . . 254 1 232 22 8.0 ... 27 1871 . . . ... 1 ... 17 ... 27 J83i . . . 39 22 It is believed that the average consumption of soap per inhabitant has doubled since the duty was removed, and now reaches 14 lbs. The quantity manufactured yearly would, therefore, appear to be 260,000 tons, of which 235,000 are consumed in the United Kingdom, and 25,000 exported. The export of soap in recent years has been as follows : — Year Tons Value, £ ;^ per Ton 1875 1880 1885 1889 12,500 19.500 20,100 25,000 3T0,000 440,000 470,000 505.000 25 22 23 20 In 1881 France manufactured 255 million lbs., the consumption in that coimtry averaging 6 lbs. per inha- bitant SOCIETIES The following table shows approximately the principal features of friendly societies of all descriptions : — Societies Members Capital, £ Great Britain . 22,000 7,000,000 58,000,000 France 8,000 1,250,000 5,200,000 Germany . 24,000 7,400,000 23,000,000 Russia Soo 3S.OOO 300,000 Austria 1,900 870,000 17,000,000 Italy . 2,200 330,000 900,000 Switzerland 630 100,000 300,000 Belgium . 210 30,000 250,000 Denmark . 720 90,000 Canada . 40 80,000 5,100,000 Australia . 900 100,000 . . ■ These societies may be said to have sprung up in the last thirty years, possessing at present a paid-up capital of nearly 120 millions sterling. United Kingdom The number of friendly societies registered in 92 years was as follows : — Period Number Yearly Average 1793-1855. 1856-73 .... 1874-84 .... 26,034 20,058 7,436 412 1,114 676 92 years .... 53,528 582 The above is exclusive of building societies and co- operative associations. The advance of friendly societies in late years is shown thus : — 1873 1880 Members .... Assets, £ ... 1,787,000 8,630,000 4,802,000 13,003,000 The progress of co-operative societies is shown thus : — Year Societies Members Capital, ;£ Sales, £ 1861 . . . 1871 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 66 749 1,182 1.363 38,000 249,000 604,000 935,000 365.000 2,530,000 6,200,000 12,800,000 1,100,000 8,200,000 23,200,000 36,700,000 The above figures do not include 115 societies in 18S8, which failed to publish particulars. SOCIETIES 543 SOCIETIES The returns published for 1888 were as follows : Societies Members Capital, £ Sales, £ Profits, £ England . . . . Scotland 1,020 323 786,000 148,000 10,800,000 1,800,000 28,800,000 7,100,000 2,650,000 640,000 Total 1.343 934.000 12,600,000 35,900,008 3,290,000 There are twenty societies in Ireland, but the business done is small. The summary of transactions in Great Britain shows that in twenty-five years down to December 1888, the co-operative societies made sales exceeding 471 millions sterling, leaving a profit of ;^39, 800,000, out of which the societies had made investments which amounted in December 1888 to a value of ;£'5, 300,000. Building societies show the following progress in fourteen years ; — Year Societies Members Receipts, £ Assets, £ Liabilities, £ Net Assets, £ 1874 .... 1888 .... 474 2.S4S 270,000 604,000 15,900,000 20,400,000 38,800,000 53,200,000 13,500,000 15,200,000 25,300,000 38,000,000 The returns for 1888 show as follows : — Societies Members Receipts, £ Assets, £ Liabilities, £ Net Assets, £ England . Scotland . Ireland 2.444 50 51 582,900 9,000 12,300 19,500,000 400,000 530,000 51,200,000 1,010,000 990,000 14,700,000 240,000 250,000 36,500,000 770,000 740,000 United Kingdom 2.545 604,200 20,430,000 53,200,000 15,190,000 38,010,000 France OfScial returns are to the following effect : Year Societies Members Capital, £ 1853 .... i860 .... 1870 .... 1880 . . . - . 1885 .... 2,695 4,252 5,788 6,777 7,960 318,000 358,000 849,000 1,066,000 1,252,000 500,000 1,000,000 2,100,000 3,800,000 5,200,000 The above returns for 18S5 include 182,000 honorary members. The sick ratio showed thus : — Members Sick Sick Ratio Men .... Women . 899,000 171,000 232,000 44,000 25.8 25.8 Total 1,070,000 276,000 25.8 The women who were sick showed an average duration of 13 days' illness, the men 18. The death-rate in 1885 was 13.S per 1000. Receipts, ;^i,ooo,ooo; expenditure, ;iJ88o,ooo; surplus, ;^i20,ooo. Each sick person cost 36 shillings, or 25 pence per day. Germany Official returns for 1886 show as follows :— Societies Members Prussia .... Bavaria .... Saxony .... Other States 8.529 4.271 2,188 4.250 2,445,000 397.000 571,000 1,157,000 Total 19.238 4,570,000 Some of the principal trades represented were : — Textiles Ironworks Building 543,000 345.000 590,000 Pottery . Sugar . Carpentry 223,000 127,000 125,000 The total income of the above societies in 1885 was ;^3,3oo,ooo, and their expenditure ;f2,6oo,ooo. Co-operative societies were begun about i860, and re- ceived a great impulse from Mr. Schultz-Delitsch. Dr. Schenck published a report in 1888 which compares these societies with previous years : — Year \ Societies Members Paid Capital, £ i860 ... 133 1870 ... 740 1880 . . . 4,920 1888 . . . 5,000 31,600 314,700 1,710,000 2,000,000 80,000 2,200,000 8,650,000 15,000,000 The ratio of shareholders from the different classes of society in these companies, and in Schultz's popular banks, showed as follows : — Co-operative Companies Popular Banks Farmers .... Artisans .... Merchants 27.0 29.0 44.0 30.0 34-0 36.0 Total 100. lOO.O In December 1888 the Schultz-Delitsch companies comprised 2200 popular banks and 2620 co-operative societies. The progress of the popular banks appears as follows : — Year Shareholders Capital, £ Advances, £ 1859 . 1887 . 18,700 456,300 370,000 5,030,000 620,000 39,400,000 Deposits in 1887 amounted to ;£'2 1,400,006 sterling. The Journeyman's Union, for the support of widows and orphans, had 270,000 members in 1882, with an income of ;^I, 100,000 yearly. Austria In 1889 there were 1916 friendly societies, numbering 609,000 male and 262,000 female members. Only 1064 SOCIETIES 544 SPONGES of these societies published statements, the aggregate of which showed : — Capital and reserve . . . 17.000,000 Deposits 37,100,000 Italy Official returns give the following particulars : — Year Societies Members Assets, £ 1862 . 1873 • 1880 . 443 1.447 2,188 111,600 217,900 332,000 108,000 396,000 845,000 Days lost by sickness in the year average on the whole number of members 4.4, that is, 6.3 on women and 4.1 on men. Average duration of illness, 20 days. Belgium Official returns are to the following effect : — Year Societies Members Income, £ i860 . 1880 . 1886 . 36 179 211 6,300 25,800 31,700 17,000 39,000 44,000 SPIKITS The consumption in the principal countries at previous dates was as follows : — United Kingdom France . . Germany . Russia . . Sweden Denmark . Belgium . United States Gallons per Inhabitant 1830 1840 1850 1860 1 1870 1881 1888 0-9S 0.26 S.00 8.80 0.96 S.5S 0.80 0-33 0,60 8.00 7.20 3.10 0.88 0.39 3.70 8.40 1,26 2.50 0-9S 0.51 1.08 4.80 6.00 5.80 2,10 l.OI 0.60 4.60 1.90 1.62 1.06 0.90 1.33 2.20 4.25 4.30 2.40 1.50 0.96 1. 10 1.40 1. 10 4.20 4-30 2.40 1.20 The consumption in Russia in 1 881 was estimated at 174 million gallons, but the official returns for 1886 only give 91 millions; perhaps illicit distilling may account for the difference. The manufacture of spirits in England and Wales was as follows : — There are seven building societies, which have built 1093 houses, containing 5400 rooms, accommodating 8430 persons, at an average rent of £,2 yearly per head, or 63s. per room. Income £11,000, expenses ;if76oo, net rental ;^940O. Australia In 1873 Victoria had 682 societies with 50,000 mem- bers, whose death-rate reached 10 per 1000. Income ;^l52,coo, reserve ;,f 262,000. The consumption in the three kingdoms of British and imported spirits was approximately as follows ; — Year Gallons Duty, Pence Gallons per Inhabitant 1700 1,210,000 4 0.22 1720 2,530,000 4 0.42 1740 6,715,000 4 1.10 1760 2,320,000 30 0.33 1780 2,330,000 30 0-3S 1800 4,410,000 60 0.50 1S20 4,315,000 120 0.36 1830 7,680,000 90 o-SS 1850 9,620,000 90 0.54 i860 12,910,000 90 0.65 1870 11,220,000 120 0.48 1881 16,930,000 120 0.65 Gallons Gallons per Inhabitant Year England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom 1800 . 1810 . 1820 . 1830 . 1840 . 1850 . i860 . 1870 . 1881 . 1888 . 4,350,000 4,790,000 4,280,000 7,730,000 8,280,000 9,330,000 12,910,000 14,630,000 21,600,000 22,400,000 1,280,000 1,750,000 1,860,000 6,010,000 6,180,000 7,120,000 7,890,000 8,580,000 8,800,000 8,400,000 1,330,000 4,730,000 3,300,000 9,005,000 7,402,000 7,410,000 6,400,000 8,300,000 6,610,000 6,300,000 6,960,000 11,260,000 9,450,000 22,745,000 21,862,000 23,860,000 27,200,000 31,510,000 37,010,000 37,100,000 0.51 0.4S 0.3S O.SS 0.5a 0.52 0.65 0.67 0.84 0.77 0.74 0.97 0.92 2.60 2.40 2.43 2.62 2.56 2-33 2.10 0.26 0.80 0.49 ego 1. 12 1. 10 i-SS 1.29 1-33 0.45 0.62. 0.4s 0.9s 0.80 0.88 0-9S I.OI 1.06 0.96 The consumption of alcohol per head in French cities in 1885 was: — Gallons Gallons per Inhabitant Paris . . 3,100,000 1.40 Marseilles . 440,000 1.40 Lyons 440,000 1. 10 Bordeaux . 220,000 1. 00 Rouen 300,000 2.70 Havre 350,000 3-30 For further details see Alcohol, p. 58. It is found that one bushel of grain will make 44 gallons of spirits or 27 gallons of beer, and that 4 bushels of malt are equal to 5 bushels of grain. Thus, a ton of grain produces 180 gallons of spirits, a ton of malt 225 gallons. SPONGES On the coast of Syria 300 boats vidth 1500 divers pick up annually sponges worth ;^25,ooo; best worth 40s., inferior, 4s. per lb. Depth, 30 to 150 ft Simmonds states the sponge-fisheries as follows : — Value, £ West Indies 120,000 Mediterranean 150,000 The quantities imported into Great Britain were : — Lts. 1840 78,000 185s 474.000 1870 840,000 No returns since 1870. Plate IX. STEAM-POWER. Aggregate horse-powcr if the ^vorld at various dates, in millions. ® © 1S40 iSso i860 1870 1880 1888 Horse-porwer of nations, in millions, in t8S8. 92 06 08 0-7 u. Kingdom Germany France Russia Austria Italy beix;iuu Spain Scandinavia Horse-povier per 1000 inhabitants. 250 24-0 France Switzerland Europe Norway holxand Sweden Austria Spain Italy Russia Portugal Bdianlyne. Hanson & C? Edinbui^h & London. SQUARES 545 STEAM SQUARES Name City Acres Grosvenor Parade . Schloss .... Bellecour .... St. Stephen's . London Vienna Berlin Lyons Dublin lO 15 16 3C 40 STATISTICS. The library of the Royal Statistical Society comprises 27,000 volumes, and is far from complete. There are at least 50,000 statistical vf orks extant, and if a student vf ere able to examine three of them daily he would require S" years to get through them. More than 500 new works on statistics are published yearly. STEAM The following table shows approximately the steam-power of all nations at various dates :— Horse-Power Per 100 In- habitants in 1840 1860 1860 1870 1880 1888 1888 United Kingdom . 620,000 1,290,000 2,450,000 4,040,000 7,600,000 9,200,000 25 France . go.ooo 370,000 1,120,000 1,850,000 3,070,000 4,520,000 11 Germany . 40,000 260,000 850,000 2,480,000 5,120,000 6,200,000 13 Russia 20,000 70,000 200,000 920,000 1,740,000 2,240,000 3 Austria . zo,ooo 100,000 330,000 800,000 1,560,000 2,150,000 S Italy 10,000 40,000 50.000 330,000 500,000 830,000 3 Spain 10,000 20,000 100,000 210,000 470,000 740,000 4 Portugal . ... 10,000 30,000 60,000 80,000 2 Sweden . ... ... 20,000 100,000 220,000 300,000 7 Norway . ... ... 10,000 40,000 90,000 180,000 9 Denmark 10,000 30,000 90,000 150,000 8 Holland . ... 10,000 30,000 130,000 250,000 340,000 8 Belgium . 40,000 70,000 160,000 350,000 610,000 810,000 14 Switzerland 90,000 140,000 230,000 290,000 10 Various . 10,000 10,000 80,000 120,000 390,000 600,000 6 Europe . 860,000 2,240,000 5,540,000 11,570,000 22,000,000 28,630,000 9 United States . 760,000 1,680,000 3,470,000 5,590,000 9,110,000 14,400,000 24 Colonies, &c. . 30,000 70,000 400,000 1,300,000 3,040,000 7,120,000 Total 1,650,000 3,990,000 9,380,000 18,460,000 34,150,000 50,150,000 The distribution of fixed steam-power was approximately as foUovre : — 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1688 United Kingdom . Continent United States . Colonies, &c. . 350,000 100,000 360,000 20,000 500,000 220,000 600,000 40,000 700,000 650,000 800,000 70,000 900,000 1,860,000 1,220,000 120,000 2,000,000 3,270,000 2,200,000 200,000 2,200,000 4,150,000 3,300,000 400,000 Total 830,000 1,360,000 2,220,000 4,100,000 7,670,000 10,050,000 The distribution of railway steam-power was approximately thus : — 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888 United Kingdom Continent United States . Colonies, &c. . 200,000 90,000 200,000 700,000 630,000 600,000 10,000 1,400,000 2,210,000 1,800,000 300,000 2,140,000 5,200,000 3,300,000 1,100,000 3,200,000 9,640,000 5,700,000 2,700,000 3,500,000 12,780,000 9,300,000 6,400,000 Total 490,000 1,940,000 5,710,000 11,740,000 21,240,000 31,980,000 The distribution of shipping steam-power was approximately thus : — 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888 United Kingdom . Continent United States . Colonies, &c. . 70,000 50,000 200,000 10,000 90,000 100,000 480,000 20,000 350,000 200,000 870,000 30,000 1,000,000 470,000 1,070,000 80,000 2,400,000 1,490,000 1,210,000 140,000 3,500,000 2,670,000 1,770,000 180,000 Total 330,000 690,000 1,450,000 2,620,000 5,240,000 8,120,000 2 M STEAM 540 STEAM Summing up the table, we find as follows : — 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888 Fixed .... Locomotives . Shipping .... 830,000 490,000 330,000 1,360,000 1,940,000 690,000 2,220,000 5,710,000 1,450,000 4,100,000 11,740,000 2,620,000 7.670,000 21,240,000 5,240,000 10,050,000 31,980,000 8,120,000 Total 1,650,000 3,990,000 9,380,000 18,460,000 34,150,000 50,150,000 The following table shows approximately the number of fixed engines in 1880, and of locomotives and steam- boats in 1888 :— Number Steamers Fixed Engines Locomotives Mercantile War U. Kingdc m . 110,000 16,000 6,870 200 France . 37.800 9,600 1,020 200 Germany 55. 100 13,000 7SO 60 Russia . 8,950 6,000 650 280 Austria 9.150 4.500 100 50 Italy . 4.450 2,000 270 150 Spain . 2,300 1,300 420 as Portugal 140 250 40 30 Sweden 1,500 700 960 ^0 Norway 700 200 S40 20 Denmark 800 200 290 20 Holland S.750 650 no so Belgium 11.750 2,400 50 Switzerlan i . 1,500 650 30 Various 500 3,000 140 60 Europe 250,390 60,450 12,240 1,1'!'; United Sta tes 60,300 31,000 5.920 70 Colonies, 6 kc. 15,000 15.700 600 80 Tota 325,690 107,150 18,760 1,305 Steam being measured by horse-power, it is well to bear in mind the following facts ; — One horse-power will raise 10 tons per minute a height of 12 inches, working 8 hours a day. This is about 5000 foot-tons daily, or 12 times a man's work. (i.) Mail-coach horses : Four will draw a coach, say 2 tons, at the rate of 10 miles an hour, for 6 days every week, and last S years. (2. ) Canal horses : One will draw a barge of 25 tons, resistance 108 lbs., at 24 miles per hour. (3.) Waggoners' horses : One will easily draw a ton 30 miles in a day of 1 2 hours. Sims mentions a Devonshire cart-horse, 15 hands, 1200 lbs., which gave an average of 8000 foot-tons daily. The horse-power of Niagara is 3J millions nominal, equal to 10 million horses effective, valued at ;£'i5, 000,000 per annum, if conveyed by electricity to New York. The measurement of hori=.j;-power, that is, of raising a certain weight 12 inches per minute during 8 hours daily, is variously given by the best authorities, viz. : — Lis. Smeaton . Sims Tredgold 22,000 23,400 27,500 Us. Desaguliers . 27.500 Watt . 32,000 Saussure . . 34.000 In 1880 Mr. Engel showed that the value of industries dependent on steam was 6275 millions sterling ; his table for 1880 may compare with one for 1888 as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Increase 1880 188S Railways Factories, &c. Steamers . 4,000 2,000 275 5.700 2,600 410 1,700 600 13s Total 6,275 8,710 2.435 This shows that in eight years about 300 millions sterling per annum of new capital went into industries worked by steam. Mr. Engel finds that the maintenance of a 300-horse locomotive costs ;£'9C0 a year, or £3 per horse-power, whereas the food of a live horse costs ^ 30 per annum. Stationary engines, he says, cost £1$ per annum per horse-power. A water-wheel of 100 horse- power costs only £y per annum, or less than i8d. per horse. He shows that during twelve years ending 1878 each locomotive in Prussia drew yearly 17 10 tons a distance of 6 miles per horse-power ; that is, a 300-horse engine drew nearly the above weight daily 10 kilometres or 6 miles. He shows further that a live horse draws about 92 tons in the year a distance of 6 miles, and that on comparing the cost of maintenance, the locomotive does its work at one halfpenny per ton, whereas the live horse costs 7s. for the same, that it, one ton for 6 miles. In other words, horse-draught costs 168 times as much as that done by locomotive. In simple form it may be stated thus : — Locomotive draws daily 100 tons a length of 100 miles for 50S. , say 6d. per ton per 100 miles. Horse draws one ton two miles daily for 2od., being at the rate of 84s. per ton per 100 miles. In 1880 the average power of locomotives was 250 horse in England, 290 in Germany, 350 in France, and 420 in Switzerland. United Kingdom In 1775 England had 20 steam-engines, with an aggre- gate of 300 horse-power. The use of steam in textile factories rose as follows : — year Horse-Power 1835 41,000 1850 108,000 i860. 375.000 1870 478,000 According to Fairbairn, in 1 860 the steam-engines, fixed and movable, amounted to an aggregate of 3,650,000 horse-power. Engel made the aggregate in 1880 no less than 6,986,000. The following table shows approximately the growth of the various classes of steam-power : — Horse-Power Year Fixed Locomotives Steamboats Total 1840 350,000 180,000 70,000 600,000 1850 500,000 700,000 90,000 1,290,000 i860 700,000 1,350,000 350,000 2,400,000 1870 940,000 2,100,000 1,000,000 4,040,000 1880 2,000,000 3,200,000 2,400,000 7,600,000 1888 2,200,000 3,500,000 3,500,000 9,200,000 Engel seems to have under-estimated the horse-power of steamers, his estimate for the United Kingdom in 18S0 being as follows : — Fixed 2,000,000 Locomotives 3,240,000 Steamboats 1,746,000 6,986,000 In the preceding table steamboats, of course, include both merchant vessels and the royal navy. Actual horse- power is double the nominal. STEAM 547 STEAM The power of locomotives in England is variously estimated at 220 to 250 horse-power. From the above table it appears that the steam force of the United King- dom has grown 15-fold in 48 years. In 1886 there were 1 34,000 factories in the United Kingdom, nearly all driven by steam. France Engel's tables down to 1878 are included in the follovring : — Engines, Number Horse-Power Year Total Fbced Locomotives Steamboats Fixed Locomotives Steamboats 1840 . 2.591 142 263 34,000 42,000 11,000 87,000 1850 . S.322 973 537 67,000 29T,000 22,000 380,000 i860 . 14.936 3.i°i 681 181,000 930,000 37.000 1,148,000 1870 27.958 4.83s 973 341,000 1,452,000 60,000 1,853,000 1878 . 38.880 6,669 1,183 492,000 2,363,000 169,000 3,024,000 1885 . 50.980 9.1SS 4.290 695,000 3,290,000 530,000 4,515,000 The earliest record of steam-power is for 1835, when there were 1450 engines, with 19,000 horse-power. The distribution of steam, as officially reported, was in 1885 as follows : — Number Horse-Power Average Mines Foundries . Textne factories Flour-mills Farms Various 4.140 7.050 6,470 8,620 11,940 12,760 102,000 147,000 147,000 Q2,000 66,000 141,000 25 20 22 ir 6 11 Total fixed LocomoUves Steamboats 50,980 9.1SS 937 695,000 3,290,000 530,000 14 360 560 Total 61,072 4,515,000 74 In this table the number of steamboats is given; in the preceding that of engines. Germany The following contains Engel's table for Prussia down to 1878 :— I Horse- Power Year Fixed Locomotives Steamers Total 1840 11.700 300 200 12,200 1852 43.000 40,200 9.200 92,400 1861 143,000 206,000 16,000 365.000 1878 958,000 2,033,000 50,000 3.041,000 1888 1,500,000 2,600,000 120,000 4,220,000 The number of engines in Prussia was as follows : — 1840 1862 1861 1878 Fixed . . Locomotives SteamtKjats 61S 13 2,124 607 102 7.000 1.450 198 35.430 6,990 623 Total . 634 2,833 8,648 43.043 Mr. Engel's locomotive steam-power for 1852 seems low, as Prussia had then 2000 miles of railway ; it is only 20 horse-power per mile. The distribution of steam-power of stationary engines in Prussia in 1878 was as follows : — Class Engines Horse-Power 4-horse 15-horee Various 1.990 10,140 23,300 8,000 156,000 794,000 Total 35.430 958,000 The total steam-power of Prussia in 1S78 showed thus : — Engines Horse-Power Stationary . locomotives Steamboats 35.430 6,990 623 958,000 2,033,000 50,000 Total 43.043 3,041.000 The steam-power of Germany at various dates was approximately as foUows : Horse-Power 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1888 Fixed Locomotives Steamers .... 20,000 20,000 40,000 200,000 20,000 200,000 600,000 50,000 900,000 1,500,000 80,000 1,680,000 3,020,000 420,000 2,000,0C0 3,700,000 500,000 Total 40,000 260,000 850,000 2,480,000 5,120,000 6,200,000 Accordi fH England . 407 155 66 218 70 84 1,000 France 4b8 254 139 35 15 89 1,000 Prussia 645 131 1.33 40 20 31 1,000 Saxony 701 134 104 20 ifa 25 1,000 Wurtemburg 73b 1.57 33 .53 11 10 1,000 Austria .loS 208 172 6b 49 1,000 Italy .... I6b 3,50 163 63 53 205 1,000 Sweden i;io 193 116 95 79 7 1,000 Norway bb4 184 .54 47 51 1,000 Denmark . 727 142 37 18 60 16 1,000 Belgium . 563 iq8 139 42 15 43 1,000 Switzerland 458 228 186 70 25 33 1,000 Women England . 281 324 I "5 155 124 1,000 France 3" 423 10 28 37 191 1,000 Prussia 440 326 81 .36 70 47 1,000 Saxony 4bi 440 5 25 45 24 1,000 Wurtemburg . 458 441 60 21 20 1,000 Austria 324 410 38 176 52 1,000 Italy .... 175 491 31 54 79 170 1,000 Sweden 404 ,324 1 87 179 5 1,000 Norway 557 332 5 9 97 1,000 Denmark . . 583 359 I 2b 31 1,000 Belgium . 447 395 2 26 70 60 1,000 Switzerland 228 516 45 45 91 75 1,000 According to Bulgarin, 73 per cent, of male suicides in Russia are by hanging. The Austrian classification does not distinguish those by the knife ; hence the blanks. It is a painful fact that in all armies suicide is much more frequent than among civilians of same age. The rates per million in the several countries show thus, age 20 to 60 years, for the years i?59-73 : — Soldiers Civilians British French German Austrian Italian Belgian Swedish 380 510 640 860 300 460 450 no 205 250 120 80 70 120 In 1882 the rates in the British army were : — Age U. Kingdom Colonies India 20-25 . 25-30 . 30-35 • 35-40 . 200 390 Sio 710 210 330 450 810 130 390 840 1,030 The rates in the United Kingdom were 3 10 for infantry, 340 for artillery, and 500 for cavalry, per million. United Kingdom Dr. Ogle's paper for England and Wales shows 42,630 suicides in 26 years ending 1883. Some of these were of children under 10 years old, but not sufficient to adopt a rate. He therefore classifies age thus : — Rates per Million Persons Male Female 10-15 .... 4 4 3 15-20 . 28 26 30 20-25 . 47 62 34 25-35 ■ 69 99 42 35-45 ■ 116 175 62 45-SS • 184 271 103 55-65 • 251 396 119 65-7S • 243 394 "3 75-85 • 183 306 85 Over 85 116 226 46 All ages 72 104 41 It ynW be seen that suicide is much more frequent among males than females, the ratio being as follows : — Age Female Male 10-15 100 133 25-35 ..... 100 236 55-65 100 333 Over 85 100 491 Suicides among males of 25-65 years of age were per million as follows : — Miner Clergyman Fisherman Gardener Mason . Labourer Policeman Carpenter Carter Grocer . Smith . 74 139 157 160 175 177 20I 213 214 218 222 Painter . Weaver . Miller . Tanner . Shoemaker Tailor . Printer . Farmer . Schoolmaster 290 Cabman . . 303 Watchmaker 315 224 229 239 249 252 256 262 270 Baker . . Clerk . . . Broker . . Milkman Hairdresser . Butcher . . Lawyer . . Physician . Beer-seller . Soldier 328 329 346 353 364 407 408 472 474 1,149 Gen. average 222 SUICIDE 553 SUICIDE The method of suicide i^shown in the following table : Method Persons Males Females Hanging 3S5 417 240 Drowning 18s 152 264 Cut or stab Poison . Gunshot -. 184 207 67 21 129 145 ump from height 25 36 Railway train . 19 24 8 Otherwise 75 33 176 All method. > 1,000 1,000 1,000 The ratio of methods, however, varies with age, as shown thus : — Males Females 25-35 56-«B 25-35 55-65 Gun .... Cut . Poison Drowning. Hanging . Various . lOl 219 III 282 102 45 202 58 132 500 63 2 146 206 295 167 1 138 83 200 30s 273 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The following table shows the suicide mortality at different ages in various occupations : — Per Million Per Million 25-45 45-65 25-45 45-65 Lawyer . . . 324 S62 Baker . . . 16, 632 Physician . . 381 639 Hairdresser . 270 536 Schoolmaster . 156 S36 Printer. . . IS6 4S8 Broker . . . 271 48s Tailor . . . 147 457 Clerk . . . 249 475 Shoemaker . 203 341 Farmer . . . 160 473 Mason . . . 90 330 Miller . . . 68 555 Carpenter. . 122 381 Gardener . . 98 274 Policeman . 82 421 Beer-seller . . 402 606 Cabman . . 193 ^06 Druggist . . ,380 S6s Soldier. . . 506 2,336 Grocer . . . 160 326 Fisherman . 43 367 Butcher. . . 243 708 Labourer . . 114 292 There has been a steady decline of suicide in London compared with population, viz. : — Annual Average Period Number Per Million In- habitants 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 231 2i 305 107 100 88 85 This is contrary to the result in nearly all other cities. In Scotland the rates per million persons at various ages are stated as follows : — Per Million Persons Age Male Female General Population 20-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 128 128 180 162 ISO 11 42 57 52 26 84 93 "5 101 93 20 Scotland is the only country in the world where the rate of suicide in urban population is less than among the rural. France From whatever cause, the increase of suicide has been terrific ; the official returns show thus : — Year Number Per Million Inhabitants 1830 1,756 51 1840 2,752 82 1850 3,596 103 i860 4,050 113 1870 4,957 133 1880 6,638 178 1885 7,902 205 Legoyt gives the annual average during fifty-three years as follows : — Period 1827-30 1831-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-79 Number 1.739 2,345 3,200 3.830 4.935 5.818 Per Million Inhabitants 50 70 90 lOS 130 157 He shows the difference between persons with children and those without as follows : — Per Million With Children Without Children Husband . Widower . Wife .... Widow 20s 526 45 104 470 1,004 238 He classes married and single persons as follows : — Per Million Married ... ... 272 Unmarried 422 Widowed . .... 737 Guerry classifies the ratios for days of the week, 100 being the average, as follows : — Sunday . 96 Monday . 106 Tuesday . . 110 Wednesday . . 104 Thursday . . no Friday . 96 Saturday . . 78 In five years ending 1880 no fewer than 238 children under fifteen years of age committed suicide. Germany In Prussia the official returns show the annual suicides per million inhabitants as follows :— 1816-20 1821 -30 1831-40 In Saxony and Frankfort the rates per million were :- 70 1841-50 . . los 86 1851-60 . . 126 99 1861-7S . • . 130 1836-50 1851-70 1871-77 Saxony 191 264 299 1852-59 1860-69 1870-77 Frankfort 349 365 344 The rates for Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Baden were as follows : — Bavaria . Wurtemburg Baden , 1841-45 1871-76 55 107 68 90 162 156 SUICIDE 554 SUICIDE In Bavaria the lowest rates were from November to January inclusive, the highest in May and June. As regards condition, the rates per million in Bavaria were : — Married 98 Unmarried ...... 115 Widowed 197 These rates apply only to adults, the rate for all ages, as shown above, having been only 90. As regards condition in Prussia, the annual average number of suicides in three years ending 1875 was as follows : — Men ', Women Total Divorced Single . Married Widowed Total 796 1,130 351 i 8 1 224 I 215 1 118 SI 1,020 1-345 469 2,320 \ 565 2,885 Austria Official returns show that for Austria, without Hungary, the rates rose thus, per million inhabitants : — 1864-72 72 1873-77 122 The rate in Hungary for 1864-65 was only 52. The records of Vienna for 1876-78 showed yearly 1 10 suicides of children under 14. Italy The following table is for all Italy from 1865, but previous rates are only for the kingdom of Sardinia : — „ . , Suicides Per Million P"-^'^ Yearly 1824 1838 1865-74 1874-77 1880 . 498 990 1,260 Inhabitants 10 IS 20 37 45 Those recorded in ten years ending 1874 were : — Men Women 3,955 1,028 Total . . . 4,983 Various cities and provinces had the follovring rates recorded at different dates, per million inhabitants : 1828 1835 187s Naples Lomhardy 56 88 60 1821-25 1831-35 1876 . Milan Turin 52 S8 133 1825-39 1855-59 1860-64 60 90 110 1817-27 1865 1874 The rate of suicide per million inhabitants was five times higher in Piedmont and Lombardy than in Naples and Sicily, the ratio of persons able to read and write being twice as high in the former as in the latter pro- vinces, from which Italian writers deduce (and Dr. Ogle favours the theory) that education is a predisposing cause. Perhaps climate or race has some effect, the northern Italians being a very different race from the southern. The rates as to condition for all Italy in the years 1866-70 were as follows, per million : — . 24-S . 19.0 . • S6.S Suicide was nearly three times more numerous in May than in October, as 280 to 100. Men Married Unmarried . Widowed ■ 41 • 44 • IS Firearms Drowning Various The occupations of those yho committed suicide in 1874-75 were :— JVumier Yearly Ratio Farmers . , . 252 26.0 Operatives , . 206 21.2 Proprietors , . 83 8.6 Merchants , ■ ii S-7 Soldiers . . 60 6.3 Various . • 3" 32.3 Total . 967 lOO.O Sweden Official records are quoted by Morselli, which may be condensed as follows ; this table shows the rate of suicide yearly per million inhabitants : — Sweden ■ Stockholm Period Rate Period Rate 1749-80 . 17S1-1830. 1831-50 . 1851-65 . 1866-75 • 12 39 66 82 1831-40 . 1841-50 . 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-75 . 149 177 210 363 Z72 The rates for all Sweden in the last fifteen years of Morselli's tables showed as follows : — Urban Rural All Sweden 1861-70 205 63 80 1871-75 167 68 81 The percentages as-T2garded sex showed this varia- tion : — ' '■ 1861-70 1871-75 Males . • J ' • Females .... 78.1 21.9 76-3 23-7 T<5tal lOO.O 100.0 Norway and Denmark These two countries peopled by the same race present as great a contrast as England and Ireland. The rates of suicide per million inhabitants were : — Period Norway Denmark 1831-40 .... 1841-50 .... 1851-60 .... 1861-70 . 1871-75 . 103 108 100 81 73 213 245 274 282 258 In Norway a law was passed in 1850 restricting the sale of liquor, which is supposed to have had some effect in diminishing suicide. Switzerland Official returns for six years ending 1881 show the rates of suicide yearly per million inhabitants thus : — Cantons Catholics Protestants p^^^,';^,':^' Population Catholics Protestant . Mixed .... 20 127 116 205 81 602 262 360 280 It would appear that in Catholic cantons the Protes- tants are much less prone to suicide than where their own religion is dominant. For like reason Catholics are much SUICIDE sss SUHGERY more liable to suicide in Protestant or mixed cantons than in their own. Belgium OiBcial returns give the annual rate per million inhabi- tants as follows : — 1831-40 ... 43 1841-50 . . . 6i 1851-65 . . 49 The returns for the years i 1000 suicides as follows : — 1866-75 1881-85 1887 . 67 130 Si -85 showed the ratios of Method Men Women Total Hanging Drowning Firearms 42s 205 118 S3 72 3 478 277 121 Dagger. Poison .... 32 8 3 13 as 21 Various 52 16 68 Total 840 160 1,000 The returns for 1887 show age ratios as follows : — Age Men Women Total 0-16 .... 19 S 24 16-25 . 98 3S 133 25-40 . 197 38 23s 40-So • 180 32 212 50-60 . 179 24 203 60-70 J "3 19 132 Over 70 44 17 61 Tota 1 830 170 1,000 Ratio United States The New York Chronicle in 1888 published tables covering four years for the whole of the Union, but these cannot be regarded as complete. They summed up 6283 suicides, being less than 30 per million inhabitants yearly, whereas the actual rate will hardly fall short of 60. The tables meanwhile enable us to form averages as to age and other particulars : — Age, Annual Years Suicides 0-15 15-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 Over 60 Total . . 1,531 100.0 The condition showed the following figures : — 12 0.8 88 5-7 205 133 213 13-9 231 IS- 1 175 11.S bo7 39-7 Men ■Women Total Ratio Married . . Single . . Widowed . Divorced . S13 330 72 16 ISO 118 32 10 663 448 104 26 S3.3 36.2 8.4 2.1 Total . 931 310 1,241 100.0 Th e principal professions of suicides were — Number Ratio Farmers . 19s I5.B Labourers , 5° 4.0 Courtesans . 33 2.6 Innkeepers 30 2.4 Various . . 933 75-2 Total , 1,241 loo.o Some of those in the first table were not classified as to condition or profession. Australia Coghlan's tables for thirteen years ending iS the rates per million inhabitants yearly thus : — Tasmania South Australia . New South Wales SI 87 88 New Zealand Victoria Queensland give 9S "3 135 General rate for Australia was as follows : — 1871 1888 86 "S SULPHUR The quantities exported from Sicily and those imported into Great Britain were as follows : — Year Export from Sicily, Tons Import into Great Britain, Tons Value per Ton, £ 1820 . 18,500 4,600 10 1830 . 38,100 12,100 8 1840 . 77,800 34.400 5 1850 . 85,000 33.S00 8 i860 . 140,000 50,200 9 1870 . 173,000 S3.300 6 1880 . 287,000 46,400 5 1888 . 324,000 40,000 4 There are 1 8,000 miners engaged at the sulphur de- posits in Sicily. SURGERY The mortality after amputation in various hospitals was stated to be in 1880 thus : — Deaths per 100 London . . . 37.8 Edinburgh . . . 43.3 Paris .... 60.0 Glasgow . . . 36.0 Zurich . . .46.0 English rural . .17.8 In such German hospitals as have adopted the Listerian method, invented by Professor Lister of Glasgow, the death-rate after amputation has fallen to 4.7. Some English hospitals showed the following : — Death-Rate per Cent. London Rural University . • 25.7 Tewkesbury . ^.8 St. Bartholomew's . 36.6 St. Leonard's 10.0 Guy's . . 38.2 St. Alban's. . 14.3 St. George's . 38.8 Ashford 20.0 Whitechapel • 47-3 Stockton . . 25.0 Death-Rate per Cent Amputa- tion English Rural Glas- gow Glasgow Guy's University College, Lon- don 1859-78 18B0-74 1795-1838 1854-61 1871 Arm . . Leg . . Thigh. . General . 8.1 IS-S 33-3 17.8 340 4S-0 52.0 36.0 48.0 68.0 92.0 Si.o 20.0 39-0 50.0 38.2 Fore-arm, 5.0 Leg, 22.6 Shoulder,37,4 Hip, 40.0 The following tables refer to various campaigns : — Death-Rate per Cent. Arm Leg or Thigh Peninsula .... Waterloo .... Crimea .... United States (1863) . 12.9 11.6 iS-S 21.2 20.8 26.8 SO. 2 64.0 SURGERY SS6 TALLOW The amputation death-rates of the Crimean and Ameri- can campaigns may be compared (Erichsen) thus : — Crimea United States Hand Arm . Shoulder Foot. Leg . Knee Thigh Hip . 19.0 35- o 16.0 37- o 57-0 64.0 100. o 1.6 21.2 39-2 9.2 26.0 S5-0 64.4 85.7 Schede compares the results of Lister's with other systems thus : — Percentage of Deaths Old System Kronlein's Lister's Arm .... Leg ... . Thigh .... Shoulder General 10 33 41 52 30 14 18 36 20 20 2 7 II 4 Bugnot compares the general mortality of divers systems thus : Lister, 1 1 ; Kronlein, 1 7 ; Simpson, 33 ; Trelat, 46 ; old method, 53 per cent. In previous records the average mortality of amputa- tions was estimated per cent, thus : Lawrie, 37 ; Mal- gaigne, 39; Le Fort, 43; Trelat, 46; Churchill, 49. There were 790 cases at the Paris Hospital in 1841-46, of whom 320 died, say 40 per cent. The Diet. Set. Med. records 5000 amputations, of which 1900 proved fatal, say 38 per cent., the respective rates of mortality being: — Fore-arm Arm . 134 Si-S Leg . Thigh 50.6 84.8 Hall observed in the Crimea that the mortality after wounds and amputations was much greater in summer and autumn than in winter. In the ligature of arteries, Philippe and Inman recog- nise a death-rate of 33 per cent, j Norrit, 38 per cent. In cases of hernia : Textor, 43 ; Cooper, 47 ; London hospitals, 51 ; and Malgaigne, 60, Sir Spencer Wells gives the age and death-rate of cases of ovariotomy thus : — Age Ratio of Cases Deaths per 100 Under 30 . 30-40 .... 40-50 .... Over so .... 27.6 26.4 24.6 21.4 25 27 23 29 Total lOO.O 26 The above is the result of 500 cases. He shows also that in 1000 operations for tliis disease the death-rate has been diminishing thus : — Deaths Deaths 1st hundred . . ' • 34 6th hundred . . . 28 2nd ,, . . . . 28 7th „ . • • 24 3rd „ . . • • 23 8th . . 24 4th ,. . . . . 22 9th „ . • 17 Sth .. . . . . 20 loth „ . . II T. TALLOW The production of tallow (including lard) averages 18 per cent, of that of meat, and is shown approximately as follows : — Tons Consump- tion, Lbs. ftoduction Consumption per Inhab. United Kingdom 200,000 290,000 18 France 215,000 265,000 16 Germany . 250,000 270,000 12 Russia 340,000 335.000 8 Austria 200,000 190,000 11 Italy .... 65,000 65,000 4 Spain . , 9S.OOO 95,000 22 Portugal , 15,000 15,000 8 Sweden 25,000 27,000 12 Norway . 12,000 12,000 11 Denmark . 20,000 20,000 22 Holland . 20,000 90,000 48 Belgium . 20,000 25,000 9 Various 80,000 80,000 Europe 1,557,000 1,779,000 12 United States . 880,000 700,000 25 Canada , 40,000 40,000 18 Australia . 90,000 60,000 36 Argentina . 50,000 35.000 22 Total 2,617,000 2,614,000 ... The use of tallow candles has greatly declined since the introduction of gas, petroleum, and electric light, but the consumption of tallow has, nevertheless, steadily in- creased, as well as that of lard. The countries with a surplus of tallow and lard ex- ported thus : — Tons Exported 1830 1860 1870 1880 1888 Russia . . U. States . Argentina . Australia . 66,400 2,200 8,600 40,300 34.000 45.300 6,200 21,100 32,000 62,400 25,300 10,400 220,000 23,300 32,100 3,000 180,000 15.000 30,500 The production and consumption of tallow and lard in the United Kingdom were approximately as follows : — Tons Consump- tion, Lbs. Produced Consumed Imported per Inhab. 1830 . . . 170,000 226,600 56,600 21 1840 . . . 175.000 231,300 56.300 21 1850 . . . 180,000 242,200 62,200 21 i860 . . . 185,000 265,100 80,100 22 1870 . . . 195,000 283,000 88,000 ' 21 1880 . . . 200,000 299,000 99,000 19 1888 . . . 200,000 287,000 87,000 18 The produ ction and c onsumptio 1 in the Ur lited States were approximately as follows : — Year Tons Consump- tion, Lbs. per Inhab, Produced Consumed Exported i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1888 . . . 530,000 460,000 760,000 880,000 496,000 428,000 540,000 700,000 34,000 32,000 220,000 180,000 33 24 24 25 TAXES 557 TAXES TAXES Omitting public services, such as the post-office and revenues from crown lands and forests, the amount levied by taxation yearly (1888-90) was about as follows : — * Amount, £ bjoca c ^ -1 National Local Total aw U. Kingdom 73,440,000 45,780,000 119,220,000 63 9-3 France . . 102,000,000 40,800,000 142,800,000 74 i.3t> Germany 64,900,000 44,000,000 108,900,000 45 10.4 Russia . . 61,200,000 11,200,000 72,400,000 16 7-4 Austria . . 50,100,000 5,300.000 55,400,000 28 9S Italy . . . 53,800,000 27,200,000 81,000,000 M 22.0 Spain . . . 31,900,000 5,000,000 36,900,000 41 r2.3 Portugal . . 6,600,000 1,000,000 7,600,000 .33 14.0 Sweden . . 3,670,000 3,300,000 6,970,000 28 b.7 Norway . . 1,480,000 950,000 2,430,000 24 6.0 Denmark 2,530,000 1,000,000 3,530,000 3'! .S-.S Holland . . 8,300,000 6,300,000 14,600,000 64 i.S-i Belgium . . 6,800,000 3,900,000 10,700,000 36 6.0 Greece . . 2,400,000 ... 2,400,000 24 R'oumania . 4,200,000 4,200,000 17 Servia . . . 1,400,000 1,400,000 14 Europe . . 474,720,000 19S.730.000 670,450,000 44 II. * The taxes of Prussia, Bavaria, &c., are included as national in Germany, but those of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, &c., are included among local in the United States. Local taxes of Canada and some other countries are in blemk, because they cannot be ascertained. The following table, by Professor Bochk in 1885, shows U. States Australia . Canada . Argentina India . . Total Amount, £ National 73,800,000 10,700,000 6,000,000 9,700,000 47.500,000 Local 52,200,000 Total P-9 bog :§•§ ,622,420,000 247,930,000 870,350,000 126,000,000 10,700,000 6,000,000 9,700,000 47,500,000 cu o S-4 7.2 4.6 11.2 Block's estimate of the percentage of direct taxes in the total amount raised by taxation in the several coun- tries in 1872 compares with the percentage in 1889 as follows : — Percentage of Direct Taxation 1872 1889 1872 1889 U. Kingdom . IS 21 Sweden . . 24 17 France . . . 2S 18 Norway . . Germany . . 34 19 Denmark . . 28 20 Russia . . . 20 13 Holland . . 33 27 Austria . . , 46 24 Belgium . . 31 31 Italy . . . SI 30 Switzerland . 34 Spain . . . 44 39 Greece . . . 48 37 Portugal . . 30 IS U. States . . Except in the countries of the United Kingdom and Belgium, the ratio of direct taxation has declined very notably. the sums levied on the principal articles of consumption : — Amount, £ Pence per Inhabitant Liquor Coffee, &c. Sugar Tobacco Total Liquor Coffee, &c. Sugar Tobacco Total U. Kingdom . 19,000,000 4,400,000 8,600,000 32,000,000 130 30 60 220 France . . . 10,300,000 4,600,000 6,200,000 11,800,000 32,900,000 6S 30 40 7S 210 Germany 2,600,000 2,300,000 2,300,000 1,400,000 8,600,000 14 12 12 7 45 Russia . . . 22,800,000 1,800,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 27,400,000 10 9 7 SO 7b Austria . 1,600,000 1,400,000 1,100,000 8,200,000 12,300,000 6S S 3 S 78 Italy . . 800,000 900,000 2,300,000 4,000,000 8,000,000 40 10 24 7 81 Spain 300,000 300,000 200,000 3,200,000 4,000,000 27 20 23 IS 90 Sweden . 800,000 200,000 500,000 100,000 1,600,000 112 a 2 116 Norway . 200,000 200,000 200,000 100,000 700,000 SO 6 16 6 7« Denmark 200,000 100,000 300,000 600,000 20 10 3S S 70 HoUand. 2,100.000 600,000 2,700,000 26 8 34 Belgium . 1,100,000 100,000 400,000 100,000 1,700,000 6 7 20 34 67 Switzerland . 300,000 100,000 400,000 4 S 3 48 60 Europe . 62,100,000 16,300,000 15,400,000 39,100,000 132,900,000 48 12 II 31 104 In some countries the salt-tax is not distinguished, and hence the blanks under that column in the following table which shows as nearly as possible, by latest accounts, the sums paid as taxes on articles of consumption : Sugar, Liquor, Salt, Tobacco, Sundries, Total, Shillings £. I £, L £ £ per Inhab. United Kingdom 27,200,000 8,900,000 4,800,000 40,900,000 21 France 7,100,000 17,000,000 1,300,000 14,900,000 4,600,000 44,900,000 23 Germany . 2,600,000 13,700,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 2,300,000 22,100,000 9 Russia 1,700,000 25,700,000 1,300,000 2,600,000 1,800,000 33,100,000 7 2,800,000 4,900,000 2,900,000 10,200,000 1,400,000 22,200,000 11 Italy . 2,300,000 800,000 2,500,000 7,600,000 1,000,000 14,200,000 9 Spain . Portugal . Sweden 200,000 300,000 6,400,000 300,000 7,200,000 8 200,000 900,000 100,000 1,200,000 S 500,000 800,000 100,000 200,000 1,600,000 7 Norway 200,000 300,000 100,000 200,000 800,000 8 Denmark . 300,000 200,000 ... 100,000 600,000 6 Holland . 600,000 2,100,000 300,000 600,000 3,600,000 16 Belgium 200.000 1,400,000 100,000 100,000 1,800,000 6 Europe 18,500,000 94,600,000 10,300,000 53,300,000 17,500,000 194,200,000 13 United States . 11,700,000 22,200,000 100,000 8,900,000 1,400,000 44,300,000 14 Total 30.200,000 116,800,000 10,400,000 62,200,000 18,900,000 238,500,000 13 TAXES 558 TAXES A simple classification of the national taxes in various countries is as follows ; customs, excise, stamps and deatli duties, property and income, viz. : — £ Sterling Customs Excise Stamps, &c. Property Sundries Total United Kingdom . 20,000,000 25,500,000 12,700,000 15,300,000 73,500,000 France . 15,000,000 39,000,000 26,000,000 14,300,000 7,700,000 102,000,000 Germany . 13,500,000 22,100,000 9,000,000 12,500,000 7,800,000 64,900,000 Russia . 12,100,000 30,000,000 3,300,000 8,200,000 7,600,000 61,200,000 Austria . 3,900,000 22,200,000 6,600,000 11,700,000 5,700,000 50, 100,000 Italy 10,600,000 13,400,000 7,900,000 16,200,000 5,700,000 53,800,000 Spain 6,900,000 7,200,000 3,600,000 6,600,000 7,600,000 31,900,000 Portugal . 3,100,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 200,000 6,600,000 Sweden . 2,100,000 800,000 200,000 600,000 ... 3,700,000 Norway . 1,100,000 300,000 100,000 1,500,000 Denmark 1,400,000 300,000 500,000 300,000 2,500,000 Holland . 400,000 3,600,000 1,800,000 1,900,000 600,000 8,300,000 Belgium . 1,100,000 1,400,000 2,000,000 r, 800,000 500,000 6,800,000 Europe . 91,200,000 166,800,000 74,500,000 90,600,000 43,700,000 466,800,000 United States 46,600,000 27,200,000 73,800,000 Canada . 4,500,000 1,300,000 5,800,000 Australia . 8,200,000 2,500,000 10,700,000 India 1,200,000 17,500,000 3,300,000 19,500,000 6,000,000 47,500,000 Egypt . 1,100,000 600,000 5,200,000 600,000 7,500,000 Tota 152,800,000 215,900,000 77,800,000 115,300,000 50,300,000 612,100,000 Few articles of consumption are more generally or more heavily taxed than coffee. In 1889 the import duty on this article in various countries was as follows : — Dutyp er Ton £ /; United Kingdom ■ 14 Sweden . 20 France . . 62 Norway 22 Germany . 20 Denmarit . . 9 Russia . • IS Belgium , . 4 Austria . • 4° Switzerland . 2 Italy . . S6 Greece . 19 Spain . . 20 Roumania . 8 Portugal ■ 25 United States Holland is the only country of Europe which admits coffee free of duty. British cotton manufactures are heavily taxed in many countries, the rates "ad valorem" according to tariffs in 1884 showing in the various countries thus : — Per Per Per Cent. Cent. Cent. Argentina . ■3,0 China ... 5 S. Australia 10 Austria . 18 Greece. . . 15 Tasmania . 10 Belgium . !■; Guiana . . 5 Turkey 7 Brazil . . ^0 Holland . . 15 Uruguay . 12 Canada . 20 India ... 5 Victoria . '^'\ Cape . . 10 New Zealand 15 West Indies 12 Chili . . 25 Queensland . 5 While the ratio of import dues is being reduced by Great Britain, it has increased in the rest of the world by more than one-fourth in the last ten years. The customs dues of various nations compare with the value of merchandise imported (such dues being, as a rule, levied on imports, and not on exports) as follows :— Customs Dues, £ Imports, £ Duty, Percentage Average 1871-80 1889 1871-80 1889 1871-80 1889 United Kingdom 20,100,000 20,000,000 371,400,000 427,000,000 5-4 4-7 France 10,300,000 15,000,000 157,000,000 167,000,000 6.6 9.0 Germany . 8,600,000 13,500,000 174,000,000 204,000,000 5-0 6.7 Russia 10,500,000 12,100,000 49,000,000 39,000,000 21.4 31.0 Austria 2,600,000 3,900,000 57,000,000 48,000,000 4-5 8.1 Italy . 5,100,000 10,600,000 47,200,000 56,000,000 10.9 18.8 Spain . 4,400,000 6,900,000 18,300,000 29,000,000 24.0 23.8 Portugal 1,800,000 3,100,000 7,000,000 11,000,000 25-7 28.2 Belgium 800,000 1,100,000 56,200,000 61,000,000 1.4 1.8 Holland . 400,000 400,000 63,000,000 106,000,000 0.6 0.4 Denmark . 900,000 1,400,000 13,000,000 15,000,000 7.0 9-3 Sweden 1,600,000 2,100,000 14,000,000 16,000,000 11.5 13.2 Norway 800,000 1,100,000 7,800,000 9,000,000 10.3 12.2 Europe 67,900,000 91,200,000 1,034,900,000 1,188,000,000 6.5 7-7 United States 26,050,000 46,600,000 98,800,000 154,000,000 26.3 3°-3 Canada 2,700,000 4,500,000 17,900,000 23,000,000 15.0 19.6 Australia 4,300,000 8,200,000 40,200,000 68,000,000 10.7 12.1 India . 2,000,000 1,200,000 36,800,000 54,000,000 5-5 2.2 Egypt 800,000 1,100,000 5,200,000 7,000,000 15.4 15-7 Tota 103,750,000 152,800,000 1,233,800,000 1,494,000,000 8.3 10.2 TAXES SS9 TAXES If the commerce of the United Kingdom be sub- tracted, the account will stand thus for the rest of the world : — Period Customs, £ Imports, j^ Dutv per Cent. 1871-80 . . . 1889 83,600,000 1 863,000,000 132,800,000 1,067,000,000 9.8 12. s Property and income or personal taxes are approxi- mately as follows : — Land-Tax House-Tax Income- Tax Total U. Kingdom France . . Germany Russia . . Austria . . Italy . . . Spain . . Portugal Sweden . . Denmark . Holland . . Belgium . . £ 1,020,000 4,800,000 4,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 4,300,000 6,600,000 700,000 400,000 400,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 £ 1,940,000 4,500,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 2,700,000 100,000 100,000 £ 12,700,000 5,000,000 6,500,000 9,200,000 3,400,000 9,200,000 200,000 200,000 900,000 800,000 £ 15,660,000 14,300,000 12,500,000 13,200,000 11,400,000 16,200,000 6,600,000 1,000,000 600,000 500,000 1,900,000 1,800,000 Europe . . 33,220,000 14,340,000 48,100,000 95,660,000 The income-tax collected in the United Kingdom includes ;^I, 200,000 from land and ^^2,500,000 from house property, for which reason the above items ought more correctly to read thus : — Land-tax 2,220,000 House-tax 4,440,000 Income-tax 9,000,000 * Total . . . 15,660,000 Taxes on land in various countries are described at length under Land-taxes. United Kingdom The Financial Reform Almanack sums up from par- liamentary blue-books the taxation and expenditure of the United Kingdom in eighty-nine years as follows : — Millions ^ Sterling Revenue Expenditure Period .8 F ^ -3 a XI 2 ■« bi r^ ■a ■^ 3 M H Q < Z c 3 H U to m 1801-10 123 215 206 .'544 216 230 148 72 666 1811-20 i.So 272 252 674 292 290 152 91 a25 1821-30 175 252 172 ■■igg 297 96 60 lOI %S\ 1831-40 204 163 14b 313 290 «3 48 103 .■;24 1841-50 227 145 186 S3» 291 93 69 100 .333 1851-60 2.37 181 244 662 290 151 107 124 672 1861-70 237 204 289 730 264 ib2 112 i';7 693 1871-80 217 271 313 801 276 176 106 212 770 1881-89 178 215 408 801 260 167 109 254 790 Sgyrs. 1,748 1,918 2,216 5,882 2,476 1,448 911 1,214 6,049 The above table, however, includes not only taxes, but likewise public services, such as the Post-OSlce. principal items of taxation have been in recent years as follows : — The 1853 1860 1870 1880 1889 Customs Excise Income-tax .... Stamps ... Land-tax, &c . £ 22,140,000 15,790,000 5,510,000 6,920,000 3,380,000 £ 24,390,000 20,240,000 9,600,000 8,040,000 3,230,000 £ 21,500,000 21,880,000 10,040,000 9,290,000 4,500,000 £ 19,170,000 25,220,000 9,230,000 11,310,000 2,670,000 £ 19,970,000 25,470,000 12,700,000 12,340,000 2,960,000 Total 53,740,000 65,500,000 67,210,000 67,600,000 73,440,000 The following is a synopsis of the import tariff at four dates of distinct fiscal policy : — Duties Expressed in Shillings 1787 1819 1834 1890 Bacon, cwt. 47 S6 28 Books, „ 20 100 100 Butter, „ 2^ 20 20 ... Cheese, „ 1^ 10 10 Cocoa, „ 240 280 19 2 Coffee, „ 224 280 140 14 Cotton, „ 9 9 3 Eggs, „ 3 6 6 Paper, „ ? 94 28 Potatoes, „ 4 2 2 Rice, „ 7 IS IS ... Soap, „ 44 90 90 Spirits, gallon 6 22 22 10 Sugar, cwt. 27 63 63 Tallow, ,, 3 I ... Tea, 4S 224 240 37 Tobacco,,, 392 448 784 3S6 Wine, gallon 5 14 Si I Wool, cwt. 56 9 Blanks in the above table signify duty-free. Grain was subject to import dues on a sliding scale, according to market prices in Great Britain, down to 1846. Customs dues are levied on fewer articles than formerly, the ratio of import duties to the value of all imported merchandise showing as follows : — Year Per Cent. Year Per Cent. Year Per Cent. 1580 . . . 1 1720 . . . 21 1844 . . . 40 1614 . . . 8 1800 . . . 20 1866 . . . 10 1684 . 13 1827 . . 46 1889 . • • S The amount of customs dues per inhabitant at various dates was as follows : — Year 1684 1720 1800 1844 1889 The amount per head is greater than in European countries (except Portugal, Denmark, and Norway), but less than in the United States, Canada, or Austraha. Customs, j£ Shillings /er Inhabitant 530,000 2.0 • I.SS5.°°o S-i 6,788,000 13.0 . 24,277,000 18.0 . 19,970,000 lO-S TAXES 560 TAXES The principal items paying duty in recent years were :- 1853 1860 1870 ISSO 1889 Sugar .... Tea Coffee Spirits Wine Tobacco Grain Sundries £ 4,050,000 5,980,000 440,000 2,580,000 1,790,000 4,540,000 400,000 2,360,000 , £ 6,010,000 5,400,000 44^,000 2,520,000 1,630,000 5,600,000 500,000 2,290,000 £ 5,400,000 2,640,000 350,000 4,190,000 1,480,000 6,610,000 100,000 730,000 £ 3,700,000 210,000 4,680,000 1,390,000 8,560,000 630,000 £ 4,630,000 180,000 4,300,000 1,210,000 8,860,000 790,000 Total 22,140,000 24,390,000 21,500,000 19,170,000 19,970,000 Excise is the tax which produces the largest sum to the exchequer, were as follows : — The articles on which this tax is levied 1853 1860 1870 1880 1889 Spirits Malt . ... Licenses Sundries ^ £ 6,230,000 5,320,000 1,180,000 3,060,000 £ 9,780,000 6,650,000 1,460,000 2,350,000 £ 10,970,000 6,480,000 3,700,000 730,000 £ 13,630,000 6,730,000 3,500,000 1,360,000 £ 12,880,000 8,770,000 3,510,000 310,000 Total 15,790,000 20,240,000 21,880,000 25,220,000 25,470,000 If we sum up all the liquor-duties we find as follows : — 1853 1860 1870 1880 1888 British spirits .... Imported spirits Wines Malt , £ 6,230,000 2,580,000 1,790,000 5,320,000 £ 9,780,000 2,520,000 1,630,000 6,650,000 £ 10,970,000 4,190,000 1,480,000 6,480,000 £ 13,630,000 4,680,000 1,390,000 6,730,000 £ 12,880,000 4,300,000 1,210,000 8,770,000 Total 15,920,000 20,580,000 23,120,000 26,430,000 27,160,000 Since 1881 the malt-tax is termed beer-tax. The receipts from the excise at various dates have been : — Year Amount, £^ Year Amount, £ Year Amount, £ Year 1744- . 3,750,000 1830. . 18,640,000 1800 . . 3,130,000 1850 1786 . 5,540,000 1850 . . 15,280,000 1820 . . 6,560,000 1870 1808 . . 19,870,000 1889 . . 25,470,000 1840 . . 6,730,000 1889 Stamp-duties were invented by Charles II. ; the revenue derived from them showed as follows : — Amount, £ 6,560,000 9,290,000 . 12,340,000 Stamp-duties show as follows since 1853 : — 1863 1860 1870 1880 1839 Legacies . Insurance Deeds Bills Receipts . Sundries . Total £ 2,420,000 1,350,000 1,380,000 610,000 180,000 980,000 £ 3,340,000 1,760,000 1,380,000 580,000 390,000 590,000 £ 4,720,000 520,000 1,690,000 850,000 580,000 930,000 £ 6,230,000 120,000 2,080,000 840,000 810,000 1,230,000 ^ £ 6,560,000 170,000 3,150,000 820,000 1,040,000 600,000 6,920,000 8,040,000 9,290,000 11,310,000 12,340,000 Among the minor taxes included above under excise or stamp-duties, the product of some in 1889 was as follows : — Dogs . . Guns , . Game Servants . Carriages Number 980,000 170,000 62,000 184,000 492,000 Amount, £ 370,000 85,000 160,000 138,000 500,000 Medicines Plate . . Railways Crests Cards Amount, £ 200,000 78,000 310,000 75,000 17,000 Income-tax. — This was introduced by Pitt as a war-tax in 1798. The rate and product at various dates have been : — Year Pence per £ Product, £ Per Penny, £ 1803 .... 12 4,700,000 400,000 1808 , . . . 24 16,500,000 700,000 1844 ... . I 5,190,000 740,000 1856 .... 16 15,070,000 960,000 '?7S .... 2 4,310,000 2,150,000 1889 .... 6 12,700,000 2,100,000 TAXES 561 The tax was repealed in 181 6, revived in 1842, ex- tended to Ireland in 1853. The principal features since I S42 were : — Years Average Rate Annual Pro- Product Product (Pence) duct per Penny perlnhab. £ £, d. 1842-51 7.0 5,467,000 782,000 65 1852-61 9.8 10,224,000 1,041,000 89 1862-71 5-S 7,764,000 1,408,000 62 1872-81 3-8 7,062,000 1,868,000 52 40 years 6.0 7,625,000 1,275,000 66 1882-89 6.S 12,800,000 1,970,000 ^* 1889 6.0 12,700,000 2,100,000 80 The proportions of this tax collected in each of the three kingdoms were as follows : — 1860 1870 1880 1888 England . Scotland . Ireland 84.0 9.0 7.0 85.2 9.0 S-S 84.2 9.6 6.2 8S-4 9.0 S-6 United Kingdom lOO.O 100.0 100. 100. The various kinds of property or income which pro- duced it were in the following ratio : — 1860 1870 1880 1888 Houses . Lands Professions, &c. 18.3 17.4 643 17-3 T4.6 68.1 20.0 12. 1 67.9 21.2 69.2 Total lOO.O 100. 100. lOO.O Conscience-motiey. — Between the years 1870 and 18S0, the average sum receit'ed yearly by the Chancellor of the Exchequer for unpaid taxes was^/fgioo, in most cases for evasion of the income-tax. Land-tax. — This tax is said to have produced ;f 80,000 a year in the time of Edward the Confessor, which would be equivalent in weight of silver to ;^250,ooo of present money, and in purchasing value to one million sterling. Under William III. in 1692 it produced ;£■ 500,000, which was supposed to be equal to 20 per cent, or 4s. in the pound of the rental value. Pitt also fixed it at 4s. The following table shows the sum it has actually produced at various dates in this century, and what it ought to have produced at 4s. in the pound of assessed rental : — Product, £ Rental, £ Tax at 4s. 1810 . 1,420,000 41,910,000 „ £ 8,400,000 1840 . 1,300,000 47,700,000 9,500,000 1850 . 1,150,000 48,400,000 9,700,000 1876 . 1, 090,000 57,700,000 11,500,000 1880 . 1,050,000 59,500,000 11,900,000 1889 . 1,020,000 51,300,000 10,300,000 House-tax. — This was originally a window-tax, but converted into a house-duty in 185 1. Under either form the product is shovm thus : — Amount, £ Year 1850 r876 1,749,000 1,410,000 1,940,000 The house-duty does not extend to Ireland. In 1887 the house-rental of Great Britain was ;^ 129, 800,000, whence the actual product seems to be under 4d. in the pound, or about \\ per cent, on the assessed rental, but TAXES it is in reality much more, as houses under ;^20 aie ex- empted. The product in 1888 was : — Valuation, £ Tax,;^ Houses .... Shops, &c. 44,100,000 18,900,000 1,650,000 290,000 Total 63,000,000 1,940,000 This gives an average all round of Sd. in the pound, say 3i per cent. The window-tax was introduced by William III. in 1695, and increased by the Georges, but repealed in 185 1. The number of windows taxed in 1801 and 1850 was as follows : — Year Houses Windows Windows per House 1801 . 1850 . 1,781,000 3,648,000 10,300,000 21,900,000 S-8 6.0 The returns of this tax in 1850 showed as follows : — Houses Tax,^ Per House Liverpool . , Manchester . . Bath .... 11,500 7,900 3,800 3,600 5.400 4,700 2,500 33.000 22,000 22,000 18,000 16,000 15,000 8,100 £s. d. 2 18 2 15 5 18 S I 2 19 340 350 Brighton . . Birmingham . Bristol . . . Leeds . . . It was not extended to Ireland, and the proceeds from Great Britain in 1 850 were as follows : — Windows 8-10 . . 11-20 21-30 . Over 30 , Total . Houses Eng- land Scot- land 156,000,15,000 2i6,ooO|i5,ooo 48,0001 4,000 30,000 1,600 450,00035,600 Great Britain 171,000 231,000 52,000 31,600 3s,6oo Duty, £ England 167,000 687,000 366,000 Scot- [ Great land I Britain 15,000 182,000 48,000' 735,000 25,000 391,000 404,000 37,000 441,000 1,624,000 125,000 1,749,000 The tax was graduated thus according to the number of windows : — Windows 10 IS Tax £ s. d o 16 o 180 3 10 o Windows 50 100 Tax £s. d. 5 12 o 17 S o 29 8 o Nemspaper-diily was invented by Queen Anne, a penny on each sheet, which George III. raised ultimately to 4d. The tax was reduced to one penny per sheet in 1836, and abolished in 1855. The circulation of newspapers was as follows at various dates : — Year Tax, Pence Circulation 1753 .... 1790 .... 1810 .... 1820 .... 1843 .... 1 2 3i 4 1 7,400,000 14,100,000 20,200,000 24,900,000 56,400,000 Advertisement-duty. — This was another of Queen Anne's taxes, and was fixed for many years at 3s. 6d. per advertisement in England and 2s. 6d. in Ireland. It was 2 N TAXES 562 TAXES reduced by one-half in 1833 and abolished in 1853. In 1 85 1 the number of advertisements that paid duty was ; — England 1,770,000 Scotland . . . , ■ 250,000 Ireland .,.,,. 240,000 United Kingdom .... 2,260,000 Soap-duty. — Another of Queen Anne's taxes, dating from 171 1. It was at first £,2% per ton, and produced approximately as follows : — Year Tons, Soap Duty, £ 1801 25,000 500,000 1811 34,000 700,000 1821 43,000 900,000 1831 5S.OOO 1,200,000 1840 88,000 900,000 1852 97,000 1,130,000 Paper-duty. — Invented by William III. in 1694. It acted as an effectual check on knowledge, so much so that Charles Knight had to pay ;^20,ooo on the paper consumed in his Penny Cyclopcedia of 1830, which caused him to lose money in so useful a work. Porter gives the consumption of paper and amount of duty as follows : — Year Tons Tax,;^ £ per Ton 1803 1811 1821 1831 1841 i860 14,000 17,000 22,000 28,000 44,000 400,000 480,000 580,000 730,000 640,000 1,350,000 28 28 28 28 14 The duty was repealed by Mr. Gladstone in 1861. Salt-duty. — Invented by Queen Anne in 1702. During the French war it was raised to ;^30 per ton, being fifteen times the value of the salt. The consumption then averaged 210,000 tons, or 16 lbs. per inhabitant, and when the tax was abolished in 1825 it rose very rapidly. Carriage-duty. — The number of persons assessed to this tax at various dates was as follows : — Year Number Per 10,000 Pop. 1812 63,100 52 1830 85,100 SI i860 245,000 112 1870 325,000 125 1880 463,000 1S4 i883 492,000 ISO The carriages paying duty in 1888 were : — Hackney carriages 53, 600 Private ,, one horse . . , 358,000 ,, ,, two 80,600 Total 492,200 Servant-duty. — This was invented by George III. dur- ing the American war, and the number of servants taxed at various dates was as follows : — Year 1812 1831 Numher 86,100 101,800 Year 1876 1888 Number 220,000 184,000 This tax is only on male servants in Great Britain, that on female servants having been repealed in 1792. Legacy Duties.— These began in 1796, and comprise legacy, succes,sion, and probate duties ; they range from 1 to I ij per cent, according to relationship. The amount of property on which these duties were paid was : — 1840 1873 1883 England . . , Scotland . . , Ireland . . £ 47,100,000 3,100,000 4,500,000 106,800,000 14,200,000 8,400,000 £ 170,500,000 19,000,000 12,100,000 United Kingdom 54,700,000 129,400,000 201,600,000 Excluding the property falling under succession-duty, that which came under probate-duty in the United Kingdom in 1888 was as follows : — Estates of Number Value, £ Under /'looo . ;^iooo-/[400o . X40oo-jjio,ooo . 2io,ooo-;£5o,ooo Over ^'50,000 . 31.079 8.343 2,982 2,079 433 10,600,000 17,200,000 19,200,000 44,100,000 67,000,000 Total 44.91S 158,100,000 For local rates and taxes see Zocal Taxation. France Some of the principal taxes are shown as follows : — Amount, £ Shillings per Inhabitant 1880 1890 1880 1890 Customs . . . 12,400,000 15,000,000 6.6 8.0 Property . 7,000,000 7,300,000 .3-6 .3-8 Sugar . , 4,400,000 7,100,000 2.3 3-7 Windows . 1,700,000 a, 000,000 0.9 i.i Liquor . . 17,300,000 17,000,000 9.2 9.2 Licenses . 4,000,000 4,200,000 2.1 2.2 Registration 19,500,000 20,400,000 10.4 Il.O Stamps . . 5,600,000 6,400,000 3-0 3-5 Tobacco . 13,700,000 14,900,000 7.2 8.0 Sundries . 7,400,000 7,700,000 3-9 4.2 Total • 93,000,000 102,000,000 49.2 S4-7 The increase of taxation, national and local, has been very great in the past sixty years, viz. : — Shillings Year National, ^^ Local, £ Total, £ per In- habitant 1830 37,600,000 7,100,000 44,700,000 28 1840 44,200,000 8,800,000 53,000,000 31 1850 52,200,000 11,700,000 63,900,000 35 i860 65,700,000 18,100,000 83,800,000 4S 1870 68,500,000 21,300,000 89,800,000 48 1880 93,000,000 32,400,000 125,400,000 66 i8go 102,000,000 40,800,000 142,800,000 7S Tobacco. — This is one of the principal taxes, and shows as follows : — Year 1815 1830 Amount, £ . 2,000,000 . 2,700,000 Year i860 1890 Amount, £ , 7,800,000 , 14,900,000 Registration. — ^This is mostly on transfer of property, and shows thus : — Year 1830 1850 . i860 Amount, £ , 6,100,000 , 8,100,000 . 11,000,000 Year 1871 . 1880 , 1890 . Amount, £ 15,000,000 19,500,000 20,400,000 TAXES 563 TAXES Liquor-duties were as follows : — Year Amount, £ Year 1830 , , . 4,100,000 1870 1850 . . . 4,300,000 1886 Amount, £ . 9,100,000 , 17,000,000 The octroi and other local taxes are fully described under Zoca! Taxation. Germany Apart from the taxes levied in each particular State, there are the following imperial ones : — Amount, £ Shillings per Inhabitant 1886 1890 1885 1890 Customs . . . Salt Sugar .... Tobacco . . . Liquor .... Stamps .... 10,400,000 1,900,000 1,600,000 400,000 2,900,000 r, 100,000 13,500,000 2,000,000 2,600,000 500,000 7,700,000 1,400,000 4-7 0.9 0.7 0.2 1-3 0.5 5-6 0.8 I.I 0.2 3-3 0.6 Total . . 18,300,000 27,700,000 8.3 11.6 In 1S87 was published the following statement of the customs dues collected throughout Germany since 1835: — Year Sum, £ Period Average, £ Shillings per Inhab. 183s 1850 i860 1870 1880 1887 2,400,000 3,400,000 3,500,000 4,300,000 7,100,000 12,700,000 1835-40 1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-87 2,700,000 3,800,000 3,700,000 3,700,000 6,500,000 11,200,000 2.1 2.6 2-3 2.1 4.8 The duty on spirits was raised in 18S7, and now pro- duces ;£^6,7oo,ooo. The import dues collected on grain in 1889 were as follows : — Tons Duty,;^ Shillings per Ton Wheat . Rye . . . Oats Barley . Various . 370,000 750,000 260,000 630,000 600,000 930,000 1,870,000 520,000 710,000 680,000 SO SO 40 23 23 Total 2,610,000 4,710,000 38 The principal taxes (not local or municipal) levied in the several States of Germany may be summed up Rpproximately thus : — Direct, £ Indirect, £ ' Total, £ Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtemburg Baden Small States 8,300,000 1,300,000 1,100,000 600,000 600,000 1,800,000 14,100,000 4,500,000 400,000 600,000 600,000 3,300,000 22,400,000 5,800,000 1,500,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 S, 100,000 Total 13,700,000 23,500,000 37,200,000 These, added to the imperial taxes before mentioned, sum up a total of ;£'64,900,ooo. Prussia has income-tax, land-tax, house-tax, and trade- tax, the aggregate of which has been as follows : — Shillings per Inhabitant S-S Year 1880 1888 Amount, £ 7j 600, 000 8,300,000 S.6 The assessments to income-tax in Prussia and Saxony will be found under the head of Income. Russia The principal taxes are shown as follows : — Amount, £ Pence per Inhab. 1879 1889 1879 1889 Customs , . 9,200,000 12,100,000 27 32 PoU-tax . . 11,700,000 8,200,000 34 21 Liquor . . 22,800,000 25,700,000 66 68 Salt . . . 1,300,000 4 Tobacco . 1,300,000 2,600,000 4 7 Sugar . . 500,000 1,700,000 I 4 Stamps . . 1,400,000 2,000,000 4 5 Registration 900,000 1,000,000 2 2 Passports . 300,000 300,000 I I Sundries 2,400,000 7,600,000 7 20 Total . 51,800,000 61,200,000 ISO 160 The above does not include revenue from crovim domains or departments of public service, such as post- office. The poll-tax in 1882 was as follows : — No. Taxed Amount Pence per Head Proprietors . Cossacks, &c. Serfs . 693,000 1,347,000 21,502,000 140,000 350,000 5,203,000 48 60 57 Total 23,542,000 5,693,000 58 Austria The principal taxes of Austria proper were as follows : Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1878 1887 1878 1887 Land-tax . . 3,700,000 2,900,000 3-3 2.5 House-tax . . 2,400,000 2,400,000 2.2 2.1 Income-tax . 2,000,000 2,000,000 1.8 1.7 Licences . . 900,000 900,000 0.8 0.8 Customs 1,900,000 3,600,000 1-7 3-2 Salt. . . . 1,900,000 1,700,000 1-7 i-S Sugar . . . 1,400,000 2,800,000 1-3 2.4 Cattle . . . 500,000 500,000 0.5 o-S Tobacco . . 6,000,000 6,300,000 5-4 S-8 Liquor . . . 2,600,000 3,200,000 2.3 2.8 Stamps . . . 1,700,000 1,500,000 i-S 1-3 Lotteries, &c. . 3,200,000 3,300,000 2.9 2.9 Total . . a8,2oo,ooo 31,100,000 25.4 27-5 In the above table florins are taken at 24d. for 1878, and 2od. for 1887. There are also some taxes common to the whole monarchy not included above. In Hungary the principal taxes were : — Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1882 1889 1882 1889 Land-tax . . 2,300,000 2,100,000 3-0 2.8 House-tax . . 500,000 600,000 0.7 0.8 Licences . , 1,000,000 1,100,000 1-3 1-4 Income-tax . 800,000 1,400,000 1.0 1.8 Excise . , . 1,500,000 3,300,000 2.0 4-4 Tobacco . . 3,200,000 3,900,000 4-2 S.2 Lotteries . . 2,500,000 a,ioo,ooo 3-3 2.8 Salt .... 1,200,000 1,200,000 1.6 1.6 Registration,&c, 2,300,000 3,300,000 3-1 4-4 Total . . 15,300,000 19,000,000 20.2 25.2 TAXES Tncomes from crown domains and public services are not included. Italy The principal taxes are shown as follows : — 564 TAXES Sweden The principal taxes were as follows : — Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1881 1890 1881 1890 Property-tax . 7,600,000 7,000,000 5-3 4-7 Income-tax . 7,400,000 9,200,000 5-2 6.2 Grist-tax . . 1,900,000 1-3 Registration . 2,400,000 2,800,000 1-7 1.8 Legacy dues . 1,200,000 1,500,000 0.8 I.O Stamps . . . 1,700,000 2,900,000 I.I 1.9 Octroi . . . 3,300,000 3,300,000 2.2 2.? Customs . . 6,200,000 10,600,000 4.2 7.2 Tobacco . . 4,200,000 7,600,000 2.8 S-i Salt ... . 3,300,000 2,500,000 2.2 1-7 Lotteries . . 2,900,000 3,100,000 2.0 2.1 Railway-tax . 600,000 700,000 0.4 o-S Sundries . . 2,600,000 ... 1-7 Total . . 42,700,000 53,800,000 S9.2 36.1 The above is exclusive of state properties and public services. It is to be observed that octroi is here national, in other countries a provincial tax. The grist-tax was abolished in 1884. Property- tax was made up thus : — Year Land^Tax, House- Tax, ;^ Total, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1870 . . . 1876 . . . 1890 . . . 2,320,000 2,840,000 4,250,000 880,000 1,220,000 2,750,000 3,200,000 4,060,000 7,000,000 2.S 3-0 4-7 Local taxes in 1885 amounted to 27 millions sterling : see Local Taxation. Spain The principal taxes in 1887 were as follows : — y- Shillings fer ^ Inhabitant Land-tax . . . 6,600,000 7.2 Tobacco .... 6,400,000 7.0 Stamps, &c. . . . 5,600,000 6.4 Customs .... 6,900,000 7.6 Excise .... 6,400,000 7.0 Total 31,900,000 3SO Portugal The principal taxes were as follows : — Amount, £ Shillings p 1881 sr Inhab. 1881 1890 1890 Land-tax . , 700,000 700,000 3-1 30 House-tax . . 80,000 100,000 0.3 0.4 Licences . . 250,000 250,000 i.i 1.0 Tobacco . . 750,000 900,000 3-3 3.8 Customs . . 1,800,000 3,100,000 8.0 13.0 Octroi . . . 300,000 450,000 1-3 2.0 Income-tax . 180,000 200,000 0.8 0.9 Registration,&c 950,000 900,000 4.2 4.0 Total . . j 5,010,000 6,600,000 22.1 28.1 Finland This is the least taxed country in Europe: total taxes ;f 1,400,000, or 13s. per inhabitant. Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1880 1890 1880 1890 Land-tax . . Customs . . Liquor . . . Stamps . . . Income-tax , 250,000 1,350,000 830,000 170,000 300,000 440,000 2,060,000 750,000 200,000 220,000 I.I 6.0 0.8 1-4 1.8 8.4 30 0.8 0.9 Total . . 2,900,000 3,670,000 13.0 14.9 Norway The principal taxes were as follows : — Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1879 1890 1879 1890 Customs . . Liquor . . . Stamps, &c. . 990,000 320,000 lOOjOOO 1,100,000 280,000 100,000 lO.O 3.2 1.0 II.O 2.8 1.0 Total . 1,410,000 1,480,000 14.2 1 14.8 Denmark The following were the principal taxes : — Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1880 1889 1880 1889 Land-tax . . House-tax . . Customs , . Stamps, &c. . 370,000 110,000 1,100,000 480,000 370,000 140,000 1,400,000 620,000 3-7 I.I II.O 4-8 3-S 1-3 13-3 S-9 Total . 2,060,000 2,530,000 20.6 24.0 Holland The principal taxes were the following ;- Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1879 1890 1879 1890 Land-tax Poll-tax . Liquor . Customs Stamps, &c Excise . Sundries 880,000 810,000 i,goo,ooo 380,000 1,960,000 1,300,000 400,000 1,000,000 900,000 2,200,000 400,000 1,800,000 1,400,000 600,000 4-2 3-9 9.0 1.8 9-3 6.2 1-9 4-4 4.0 9-7 1.8 8.0 6.1 2.6 Tota 1 . 7,630,000 8,300,000 36.3 36.6 Excise was made up in 1883 as follows (exclusive of the liquor-tax) : — Tons Duty. £ ;S per Ton Sugar .... Salt .... Soap .... Beef .... 120,000 40,000 18,000 520,000 300,000 150,000 250,000 4.4 The number of cattle killed for market was 280,000, say about 90,000 tons, and the tax averaged, therefore^, nearly ;£^3 per ton. TAXES Belgium The principal taxes were as follows : S6S Amount, £ Shillings per Inhab. 1879 1890 1879 1890 Land-tax . . Income-tax Customs . . Liquor . . . Registration,&c. 890,000 620,000 740,000 1,100,000 2,500,000 960,000 800,000 1,090,000 1,400,000 2,560,000 3-3 2.4 2.8 4.2 9.0 3-2 2.7 3-6 4-7 8.S Total . 5,850,000 6,810,000 21.7 22.7 Greece The principal taxes were as follows : — Amount, £^ Shillings per Inhab. 1881 1890 1881 1890 Land-tax , . Cattle-tax . . House-tax . . Licences . , Customs . . Stamps . . . Sundries . . 220,000 70,000 40,000 50,000 670,000 180,000 380,000 90,000 80,000 100,000 760,000 330,000 650,000 2.5 0.8 0.4 0.5 7-S 2.0 4.2 I.O 0.9 I.I 8.4 3-6 71 Total . 1,230,000 2,390,000 13-7 26.3 Sundries include ;^70,ooo from salt, ;^i40,ooo from the Government monopoly of petroleum, and ;^240,CXJ0 ftom tobacco. ROUMANIA AND SeRVIA The principal taxes are as follows (1888) : — Amount, ^ Shillings per Inhab. Roumania Servia; Roumania Servia Customs . . Excise . . . Sundries . . 900,000 1,600,000 1,700,000 200,000 800,000 400,000 3.5 6.4 6.8 2.0 8.0 4.0 Total . 4,200,000 1,400,000 16.8 14.0 TAXES Turkey The only taxes of which much is known are those on salt and tobacco (mortgaged to bondholders), which see under the section of Finance. Egypt The taxes in this country are likewise set forth undei the title of Finance. United States The principal taxes have been as follows : — Amount, £ Shillings per Inhabitant Year 1 "rt _^ Customs Internal Total I 1790 900,000 900,000 4.5 4-5 1800 1,870,000 170,000 2,040,000 7.0 0.7 7-7 1810 1,780,000 2,000 1,782,000 5.0 .';.o 1820 3,120,000 20,000 3,140,000 6.6 6.6 1830 4,590,000 3,000 4,593,000 7.0 7.0 1840 2,800,000 2,800,000 3-3 3-3 1850 8,300,000 8,300,000 7.2 7.2 i860 11,050,000 11,050,000 7-1 7-1 1870 34,500,000 32,500,000 67,000,000 17.8 16.8 ,34-6 1880 38,800,000 25,800,000 64,600,000 15.6 10.3 2.S.9 1889 46,600,000 27,200,000 73,800,000 iS-o «.7 23-7 Internal revenue was made up thus : — 1865 1875 1889 Spirits , , . , Tobacco . . . Beer Sundries . . . 2,600,000 1,600,000 500,000 23,500,000 A 9,600,000 6,800,000 1,600,000 2,400,000 £, 15,400,000 6,600,000 5,000,000 200,000 Total . . 28,200,000 20,400,000 27,200,000 The principal States producing internal revenue are : — State Amount^ £ State ATnount^ £ New York . . 3,200,000 Ohio .... 2,400,000 Illinois. . . . 6,400,000 Pennsylvania. . 1,800,000 Kentucky . . . 3,500,000 Missouri . . . 1,600,000 The above six States produce 70 per cent, of the totaL The items which composed customs revenue in the United States were as follows :- Value, £ Duty, £ Percentage 1880 1889 1880 1889 1880 1889 Sugar .... 16,100,000 17,400,000 8,800,000 11,700,000 55 67 Woollens . 6,700,000 10,900,000 4,600,000 7,400,000 68 68 Silks 6,500,000 7,300,000 3,900,000 3,700,000 60 SO Cottons . 5,300,000 5,600,000 2, 100,000 2,200,000 40 40 Linens, &c 4,900,000 5,400,000 1,700,000 1,900,000 35 35 Iron . 12,900,000 9,000,000 4,800,000 3,600,000 37 40 Tobacco . 1,300,000 2,800,000 1,000,000 2,300,000 75 80 Liquor 1,700,000 2,300,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 72 70 Leather . 2,400,000 2,300,000 700,000 700,000 30 30 Glass 1,100,000 1,600,000 600,000 900,000 55 55 China 1,200,000 1,300,000 500,000 700.000 42 52 Fruit 2,500,000 2,700,000 700,000 800,000 28 30 Drugs 2,800,000 2,700,000 800,000 1,000,000 28 36 Sundries . 22,000,000 29,500,000 6,700,000 8,100,000 30 27 Total . 87,400,000 100,800,000 38,100,000 46,600,000 44 46 TEA 566 TELEPHONES The aggregate of national and local taxation was ap- proximately as follows : — Amount, £ 1860 National . Local , , Total 11,050,000 19,600,000 30,650,000 1889 73,800,000 52,200,000 126,000,000 Shillings per Inhabitant 1860 1889 7.0 12.6 19.6 23-7 16.7 40.4 State taxes are set forth at length under the title of Local Taxation. Canada The principal taxes have been as follows : — Year Amount, £ Shillings per In- habitant Customs Excise Total 1868. . . . 1872 .... 1876. . . . 1880 .... 1884 .... 1887. . . . 1,700,000 2,600,000 2,600,000 2,900,000 4,100,000 4,500,000 600,000 900,000 1,200,000 800,000 1,100,000 1,300,000 2,300,000 3,500,000 3,800,000 3,700,000 5,200,000 S,8oo,ooo 14 20 20 i8 23 24 The taxation in iS Australia !8 of the several colonies was : Customs,;^ Internal,;^ Total, £ Inhab, N. S. Wales . Victoria . . Queensland . S. Australia . W. Australia . Tasmania . . New Zealand , 2,140,000 2,350,000 1,350,000 530,000 180,000 300,000 1,390,000 540,000 720,000 230,000 210,000 110,000 640,000 2,680,000 3,070,000 1,580,000 740,000 180,000 410,000 2,030,000 2-S 2.9 4.2 2.4 4-3 2.8 3-4 Total . 8,240,000 2,450,000 10,690,000 3-0 India The principal taxes show as follows : — 1865 1875 1890 Pence per Inhabitant 18651875 1890 Land-tax Opium . Salt . . Customs , Excise . Stamps . Sundries . 20,400,000 8,500,000 5,300,000 2,300,000 2,200,000 2,000,000 4,500 000 20,500,000 9,200,000 6,000,000 2,600,000 2,400,000 2,500,000 4,000,000 19,500,000 6,900,000 6,700,000 1,200,000 3,900,000 3,300,000 6,000,000 2S 10 6 2 2 2 s 25 II 7 2 2 2 4 23 8 8 I 3 3 7 Total . 45,200,000 47,200,000 47,500,000 Sa j S3 S3 In 1865 and 1875 the rupee is taken at 24d., in 1890 at 20d. TEA The consumption at present averages as follows : — Lbs. Os. per Inkab. United Kingdom United States . Russia Australia . Canada . Various . . 184,500,000 80,000,000 ■ 37>ooo,ooo 20,000,000 22,000,000 . 106,500,000 80 20 7 83 70 Europe America Asia Africa Australia Total . 450,000,000 Tea is mostly grown in China, the plants being 4 feet apart, that is, 2700 to the acre. Plants seven years old will give 700 lbs. tea to the acre, or 4 oz. per plant The average exportation from tea-growing countries ii shovim thus : — Millions of Lbs. 1880-83 1884-85 1887-88 China .... 284 290 290 India .... S3 66 90 Japan .... 37 3S 40 Java S 6 7 Paraguay 10 10 10 Ceylon .... I 8 19 Total 390 41S 456 The consumption in the United States, compared with population, has not varied in fifteen yeais, being about 20 oz. per inhabitant. In the United Kingdom it steadily increases, and Indian tea, which is said to contain much more body than Chines«e (as 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. ), is rapidly supplanting that of China. In 1888 the consumption in the United Kingdom was as follows : — Lbs. Chinese 78,500,000 Indian and Ceylon . , . 105,800,000 Total . , . 184,300,000 In 1878 India supplied only 17 per cent, of the tea consumed in Great Britain. The follovring table shows the consumption since 1711 : — Year Lbs Oz. per In- Duty per Price per habitant Lb., Pence Lb., Pence 1711 . . 142,000 i 66 216 1725 . . 370,000 I 66 200 1740 . . 1,003,000 3 66 200 1750 . . 2,568,000 6 40 ISO 1760 . . 4,072,000 9 36 120 1770 . . 7,149,000 14 30 100 1780 . . 5,152,000 9 40 no 1790 . . 14,693,000 24 7 6S 1800 . . 20,359,000 21 18 70 1810 . . 19,093,000 17 46 80 1820 . . 22,452,000 18 38 70 1830 . . 30,047,000 20 30 60 1840 . . 32,253,000 20 2S SO 1850 . . 49,572,000 29 26 48 i860 . . 78,340,000 43 18 40 1870 . . 118,200,000 61 6 30 1881 . . 167,700,000 73 6 2S 1888 . . 184,300,000 80 6 20 In 1890 the duty was reduced to 4d., and as the price now averages i8d., it is probable the consumption will reach this year (1891) about 200 million pounds, or Jj lbs. per inhabitant. TELEPHONES In 1876 there were 200 working in Europe, and 380 in the United States. In 1883 there were nearly 79,000 working in 303 towns, viz. : — Total ^owns Telephones 161 30,100 126 47,200 7 420 4 240 S 900 303 78,800 THEATRES sc; THERMAL SPRINGS The numbers in use in various countries in 1885 and 1888 were :— 1885 188S 1885 1888 U. Kingdom . 12,000 20,400 Italy . . . 7,000 9,200 France . . . 10,000 10,000 Switzerland . 7,600 Germany . . 17,000 33,000 Spain . . . 1,000 2,200 Russia . . . 3,000 7,600 Sweden . . 10,000 Denmark . . 1,900 Holland . . 4,000 Austria . . . 2,S0O 4,000 Belgium . . 4,000 S,20O In 1888 the numbers in various cities were : — Berlin New York Paris Stockholm Buenos Ayres Montevideo Rn'-e Ha ..mrg. Geneva 8,600 6,900 S.300 3,800 2,800 2,200 2,IOO I, goo 1,500 St. Petersburg Milan Manchester Vienna Liverpool , Glasgow Zurich Naples Moscow 1,500 1,200 1,200 1,200 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,000 800 The total number of telephones in use in the United States in 1885 was 325,000, and in Canada 18,000. The number of messages transmitted daily averages 100,000 in Berlin, 90,000 in London, 26,000 in Belgium, 16,000 in Austria. The United Kingdom in 1887 had 30,000 miles of telephone wire in use, Belgium 7000, Austria 7000, Germany 51,000, and the whole of Europe 330,000 miles. The longest lines in Europe are Berlin-Hanover 225 miles, Vienna-Budapesth 150 miles. THEATRES The following table (1882) shows the number in each country, and how many have been burnt from 1880 to 1882 :— Number Burnt Period Burnt Great Britain 152 68 1800-10 16 France. . . . 337 63 1811-20 14 Italy .... 348 4S 1821-30 31 Spain .... 160 17 1831-40 33 Germany . . . 191 49 1841-50 44 Russia .... 44 2S 1851-60 74 Austria . . . 152 26 1861-70 98 United States . S50 176 1871-82 83 years 159 Total . . 1.934 469 469 In 18S2 the gross receipts of London theatres were ;f 1,320,000, being an average of 7s. per inhabitant. The expenditure was : — Pay to actors . Pay to authors . . Rent Sundries and profits . £ . 725,000 . 79,000 , 119,000 . 397.000 1,320,000 The gross receipts of Paris theatres were as follows : — Year 1850 i860 1867 1878 1889 £ 330,000 580,000 840,000 1,200,000 1,280,000 In 1889 Opera . Hippodrome Franpais Comique Various £ 160,000 113,000 94,000 77,000 836,000 The sum paid to authors for plays in 1888 was ,,£■75,000 sterling. The number of actors employed was about 3200. The loss of life by fires at theatres was as follows : — Year Theatre 1772 Amsterdam . 1778 Saragossa . . 1794 Capo d'Istria . 1811 Richmond. . 1836 St. Petersburg 1845 Canton . . . 1846 Quebec. . . THERMAL SPRINGS The nature of some of the principal is thus shown : — Victims Year Theatre Victims 48 1847 Carlsruhe . 63 137 1857 Leghorn . 102 945 1867 Philadelphia 13 78 1876 Brooklyn . 283 770 t88o Nice . . 790 1,660 1881 Vienna . . 1,460 3SS 1883 Smolensk . 380 Carbonates Sulphates ■a E Soda Lime Soda Lime 2^ < Aix-les-Bains 148 096 016 008 430 Aix-la-Chapelle . 650 IS9 283 2;639 4.102 Baden-Baden . 166 300 1.600 2.314 Bath . . . , 126 274 1-143 180 2.060 Bigorre . . . 142 400 i.goo 040 2. goo Bilin . . . . 3-009 402 827 382 4.960 Bourboule . . 2.272 196 279 3-346 6.519 Bussang . . . 789 054 no 078 1. 123 Buxton . , . III ... 052 034 294 Castellamare . . 82s 391 625 5.851 9-794 Cauterets . . . 024 072 260 Cheltenham . . I2S ... 1.678 146 3.081 5- 520 Clifton. , . . 252 043 141 084 628 Dax .... 092 043 3S9. 301 1.022 Eaux Chaudes . 03s 042 105 "5 309 Ems . . . . 1.979 216 034 983 3-S19 Friedrichshal . oiS ,5-4.34 1.463 8.381 24-933 Gastein . . . 020 204 047 3.39 Harrogate . . ... 342 204 008 "-3S4 13.664 Huny. Janos. . 796 933 1S-91S 1-305 34-8SS Lisbon . . . S7I 48s 15.428 20.507 Leamington . . ... 3-993 3-424 II-SI3 Malvern , . . 027 076 Neuenahr . . . I- OSS 305 250 ISO 2.313 Ofen . . . . 029 122 21.196 7.066 2-7S3 56.816 Pfeffers . . . 142 009 007 052 291 Royat . . . . 349 I.OOO 183 1.728 5- 586 St. Galmier . . 238 079 180 216 1.886 St. Moritz . . 191 726 272 039 1-446 Schwalbach . . 188 439 00s ... 007 1. 189 Seltzer. . . . 1.021 550 ISO 2.040 4.092 Spa 127 173 020 ... 026 658 Tarasp . . . 3-S4S 1. 619 2-ISS ... 3.828 12.251 The temperature, in Fahrenheit, of the principal springs, is shown thus : — Bilin ... 66 Thermopylae 113 Ischia . . . 140 St. Didier . 70 Vichy. . . 113 Ofen . . . 144 Mallow . . 72 Bath . . . IIS Aries . . . I4S Bristol . . 74 Gastein . . 117 Baden-Baden 147 Yverdun . . 76 Bigorre . . up Plombiires . 147 Buxton . . 82 Toplitz . . 121 Viseu . . . Kreuznach . 86 Lucca . . 124 Wisbaden . 158 Patras . . 97 Cauterets , 130 Balkan . . 16^ Wildbad . 98 Ems . . . 131 Acqui . . . 167 Pfeffers . . loi Aachen . . 13s Carlsbad . . 167 Alicante . . 104 Guimaraens 138 Chaudes-Aigues 174 Pisa . . .106 Luchon . . 140 Baths of Nero 182 In 1882 an ofEcial report of the re" suit of some French springs was as fol lows : — Bariges Amelie Vichy Bour- bonne General Average Cured . . Improved . No effect . Worse . . 12 S2 33 3 9 4S 36 10 22 61 14 3 16 62 17 s IS SS 2S S Total . 100 100 100 ] 100 100 TIDES S68 TOBACCO TIDES The height of ordinary tides at various places is :- Bantry . Belfast . Bergen Bordeaux Boulogne Brest . Calais . Cherbourg Dieppe Dover . Drontheim Dundee Dunkirk Fundy Bay Galway Glasgow Feet Granville . Greenock . Harwich , Havre . . Holyhead . Hull . . Isle of Man Inverness . Jersey . . Kingstown Kinsale . Leith . . Limerick . Liverpool . London . Pembroke Feet . 21 • 9 • 9 • 13 . 12 • IS • 19 . 12 • 17 ■ 9 . IS . 12 • 17 . 19 . 16 . IS Feet Penzance . . 16 Portsmouth . 10 Queenstown , 9 Ramsgate IS St. Nazare . St. Malo . . 19 Scarborough . 12 Shields . . 9 Sligo . . . 8 Sunderland . 10 Thurso . . 9 Ushant . . 20 Waterford . 9 Weston-S.-M. 27 Westport . . 13 Whitehaven . 24 Toulon has a tide of 4 inches, which is about the average of the Mediterranean. TIME At London, Noon Forenoon Boston , . 7.15 j Buenos Ayres 8.o5 j Caracas . Chicago Demerara . Dublin . . Edinburgh . Falkland \. Gibraltar . Glasgow Halifax . . Adelaide . Alexandria . Algiers . . Amsterdam Athens . . Berlin . . Bombay Brussels Buda-Pesth Cairo . . Calcutta Capetown Constanti- '7-32 6.26 8.06 11-35 11-47 8.04 11.38 11.44 7-44 9.14 2.00 12.13 12.20 1-35 12.54 4-Si 12.17 1. 16 2.07 S-S4 1. 12 nople . } 1-S6 Havanna . Lima . . Lisbon . . Madeira Madrid . Mexico . . Montreal . New Orleans New York . Panama Philadelphia Afternoon ' Copenhagen Dresden Florence Geneva . . Jerusalem . Lyons . . Madras . . Malta . . Manilla . . Mauritius . Melbourne . Moscow Munich . . Naples . . 6.30 6.52 11.24 10.48 11.46 S-24 7.06 6.00 7- OS 6.42 6.50 Quebec . . 7.12 Quito . . 6.45 Rio Janeiro 9.07 San Francisco 3.52 Sandwich 1 , „d Islands \ '•=« SierraLeone 11.07 Teneriffe . 10.52 Trinidad . 7.55 Valparaiso . 7. 13 Washington 6.52 12.50 12.54 12-45 12.25 2.21 12.20 5-21 12.58 8.03 348 9-40 2.30 12.46 12.57 Paris Pekin Prague Rome St. Peters- ) burg . J Singapore . Stockholm . Suez . . . Sydney . . Tunis . . Venice . . Vienna . , Yokohama . 12.10 7.46 12.58 12.50 2.04 6-55 1.12 2.10 10.05 12.40 12.50 1.06 9.20 TIN The average yearly consumption of tin metal in Great Britain was : — Tons, Tin Metal Value Years British Net Import Total Ton,^- 1800-20 average 2,510 2,510 76 1821-40 „ 4,180 4,180 70 1841-60 S.910 45° 6,360 107 1861 . 7.45° 7,450 122 1871 . 10,900 810 11,710 136 1880 . 9,200 6,5So 15.750 91 1888 . 9,200 22,000 31,200 117 * Dresden, for example, 12.54, signifies 54 minutes past noon. The production in 1882 was as follows : Tons Value of Ore,;^ Metal Ratio percent. Tin Ore Tin Metal Great Britain Australia . . . Java .... 13,700 24,000 15.000 9,200 17.500 9,000 670,000 1,250,000 700,000 66 74 60 Total . . 52,700 35.700 2,620,000 69 In iS TOBACCO . the production was as follows : — United States West Indies Brazil Japan Java India Russia Austria Turkey Germany France . Manilla, &c, Acres 610,000 50,000 105,000 100,000 110,000 580,000 110,000 140,000 go,ooo 52,000 26,000 54,000 Tons 210,000 22,000 38,000 40,000 46,000 170,000 75.000 65,000 35.000 32,000 15,000 20,000 Total . 2,029,000 768,000 The following table shows the consumption in 1883 Tons approximately : — Oz. per Inhabitant United Kingdom France . Germany . Russia Austria . . Italy Spain and Portugal . Belgium and Holland Scandinavia Turkey . Switzerland Europe . United States , India Japan Brazil Colonies, &c. The World 23,000 23 32,000 29 61,000 48 54,000 24 48,000 42 18,000 22 18,000 32 23,000 84 10,000 40 22,000 70 7,000 82 383,000 44 85,000 59 165,000 30 38,000 39 20,000 70 77,000 768,000 The consumption per inhabitant has increased much more rapidly in France than in the United Kingdom, viz. : — Million Lbs. Oz. per In- habitant Duty, Pence per Lb. United Kingdom France United Kingdom France United Kingdom France I80I 17 16 20 I8II 21 20 18 II 27 6 I82I 16 22 12 12 48 6 I83I 20 24 13 12 36 13 I84I 22 .36 13 17 36 12 I85I 31 44 18 20 36 24 I86I 35 .■ib 19 24 36 30 1872 44 61 22 26 36 40 I88I 51 70 23 29 42 40 1888 57 80 23 33 42 40 De Foville estimates the consumption as follows : — France Belgium . Holland . Germany . Oz. per Inhabitant . 28 - ,87 • 70 • S3 Austria . Norway . Denmark ■ Russia Oz. per Inhabitant . 42 - 3S ■ 35 . 28 TOBACCO 569 TOBACCO Professor Bochk estimates the annual consumption per head at two epochs as follows : — Oz. per Inhab. 1 Oz. per Inhab. 1870-74 1880-84 1 1870-74 1880-84 U. Kingdom France . . Germany . Sweden . . 23 32 23 Norway . 33 Holland . 48 Belgium . 31 Italy. . . 40 85 4S 29 37 no SI 21 Newmann Spallart's estimate (1885) is as follows : France Germany , Russia Austria Italy Switzerland Os. per Inhabitant ■ 33 . 69 • 32 • 70 . 24 . 80 Sweden . Denmark . Norway . Holland , Belgium , United States Oz. per Inhabitant ■ 41 . S6 . 40 . 98 . 88 . 106 The market value of various kinds of tobacco in 1884 was as follows : — Cuba . Manilla Algeria United States Brazil , Java . Turkey £per Ton . 400 • 90 • 45 • 5° • 70 . 63 . 63 Value of Crop, £ 4,800,000 1,800,000 300,000 10,000,000 2,800,000 1,200,000 2,200,000 The percentage of nicotine was as follows : — Syria . Havana Maryland Alsace . 0,0 2.0 2-3 30 California Kentucky Virginia France , 4.0 6.1 6.9 7-5 Snuff contains 2J per cent., Brazilian tobacco 10 per cent. In most countries there are heavy taxes on tobacco, for which see Taxes. France The tobacco monopoly dates from 1816; the proceeds in 1889 amounted to ^14,900,000, and it is believed that the Government makes a profit of 12 millions sterlmg per annum. The largust factory is that of Lille, which turns out 600,000 tons yearly. Not quite half the tobacco consumed is grown in France, the crop averaging 16,000 tons, imported tobacco 20,000 tons. About 20,000 persons are employed by Government in the manufacture or sale. Cigars and cigarettes form 13 per cent., tobacco for pipes 87 per cent. ; the sale of cigars has been as follows : — Year 1839 . 1859 . 1883 . Most of the imported tobacco comes from the United States. The tobacco grown in France covers 25,000 acres, the average number of plants being 10,000 to the acre. Germany The cultivation has been as follows : — Tons Xatio of Total 226 1-5 2,210 9.0 4,800 13.0 Year Acres Crop, Tonsj Value, £, £ per Ton 1871 . . . 1877 . . . 1887 . . . 56,000 54,000 S4.000 35.900 31,700 38.600 890,000 580,000 820,000 25-5 20.5 21. 5 The production is short of requirements, imports averaging 25,000 tons yearly. Russia The production according to N. Spallart has been : Year Acres Tons Cwts. per Acre 1875 . 1885 . 140,000 130,000 49.000 51,000 7.0 7.8 Spallart estimates the consumption at 80,000 tons, which implies an importation of about 30,000 tons, but the trade returns show less than one-tenth of that quantity. Austria The production has been approximately as follows : — Year Tons Austria Hungary Total 1835 • • 1877 . 1885 . 7,000 6,000 4,000 15,000 50,000 60,000 22,000 56,000 64,000 Besides the above crop, Austria consumes yearly about 15,000 tons imported. Italy The consumption according to Spallart was as fol- lows : — Year Tons Italian Imported Total 1879 . 1885 . 4.300 5, 200 12,100 14,600 16,400 19,800 Cuba The quantity of tobacco raised is comparatively small, exports seldom exceeding 8000 tons, including 500 tons of cigars. The quality, however, is so fine that the unmanufactured tobacco ranges from ;^20O to ;f 800 a ton, and cigars from ;^iooo to ;^50oo a ton. Newmann Spallart gives the exportation as follows : — Year Tobacco, Tons Cigars, Tons Total 1875 . 1884 . 7,100 6,200 700 500 7,800 6,700 In 1888 Cuba exported 220 million cigars and 300,000 bales of tobacco. Porto Rico exports 2500 tons of tobacco. Manilla The Compafiia General, with a capital of three millions sterling, owns large estates, employs 10,000 hands, and turns out yearly 80 million cigars, 400 million cigarettes, and 2500 tons of cut tobacco. The island of Luzon has 60,000 acres imder tobacco. In 1889 there were 112 million cigars exported, of which 26 millions went to Spain, 18 millions to England. United States The United States exported the following quantities : — Tons Value, £ £ per Ton 1800 . 40,000 1,100,000 27-5 1820 41,000 1,500,000 37-0 1840 62,000 1,900,000 32.0 i860 86,000 2,500,000 28.8 1870 84,000 4,300,000 Si-S 1880 97000 3,400,000 3S-0 1889 100,000 4,700,000 47.0 TOYS 570 TRADE UNIONS Full details of the tobacco crop of the United States are given under the title of Agriculture. TOYS France exported the following in 18 To Tons Value, £ Great Britain Other countries . 1,325 6.33S 500,000 2,300,000 Total 7.660 2,800,000 Berlin papers in 1890 give statistics of Christmas trees, viz. : — Berlin takes .... 400,000 Dresden takes 200,000 Those of 3 feet sell for a shilling, 10 feet 2s., and 20 feet I OS. to 15s., including the flower-pot. TRADE UNIONS According to Mr. George Howell, there are about 8000 trade unions in Great Britain, counting 1,200,000 members, with an segregate revenue of ;^2,ooo,ooo. He publishes the following balance-sheet for 30 years down to 1 881 :— Payments Sick operatives .... ^1,004,000 Out of work operatives On strike operatives , Pensions Funerals Accidents . Loans 1,979,000 274,000 330,000 319,000 120,000 67,000 Total . . . ;^4,093,ooo Forty-four principal unions showed as follows : — 1871 1883 Members .... Income, £ < . . Reserve, £ . . . (0 M to Q -1^ to 253,000 293,000 431,000 The following were the most important trade unions in the United Kingdom in 1887 :— Number Funds, £ Number •Funds, £ Engineers .... Carpenters .... Boiler-makers Cotton-spinners . 51,900 25.500 25.IDO 15,400 125,100 40,000 10,200 51.700 Ironfounders . . Printers . Bricklayers Rail-porters • 11,700 8,100 7,200 10,800 10,400 20,200 26,100 62,200 Mr. Philips Bevan in 1880 compiled the following table of strikes in the United Kingdom in ten preceding years : — Trades Districts Towns Builders . 59B Scotland . . . 473 London . . 56 Colliers . 339 York .... 338 Manchester . 44 Textile . 277 Lancashire . . 149 Leeds. . . 73 Carpenters 187 Northumberland 138 Sheffield. . 66 Masons . 151 South-West . . 13s Glasgow . . 85 Various . 800 Various . . . 1,119 Edinburgh . 65 Newcastle . 63 Total . 2,352 Total . . 2,352 Italy In five years ending 1876 there were 206 strikes : — Masters gained 124 Operatives gained 82 Total . . .206 There were 137 for higher wages, and 69 for other causes. United States Commissioner Wadlin, chief of the Bureau of Statistics for Massachusetts, published in 1888 a report on strikes . from 1S25 to 1886 ; with a vast amount of detail on all the strikes by operatives and lockouts by employers during the six years ending December 1886. These latter may be summed up thus : — Strikes Hands after Strike Lockouts, Hands Employed Hands on Strike Hands Involved Massachusetts Illinois . . . New York. . Pennsylvania Ohio . . . Various . . 114,000 214,000 376,600 361,600 132,700 461,400 81,100 191,900 329,900 283,400 109,700 327.200 109,300 213,300 374.100 358,100 130,200 450,000 14.300 21,400 71,200 16,700 7.500 29.700 Total . 1,660,300 1,323,200 1,635,000 160,800 The trades in which the strikes in these States occurred were (1881-86) as follows : — Hands on Strike Trade Massachusetts Illinois New York Pennsylvania Ohio Various Total Mining. ... 30,200 118,400 50,700 59,600 258,900 Metals . 4,200 22,000 11,400 90,400 27,100 38.300 193,400 Transport 2,500 17,900 51,200 2,700 3.500 50.100 127,900 Building 7,600 9,700 57.100 4,200 1,900 19,400 99,900 Tobacco 1,000 1,800 74.100 2,500 2,600 15.400 97.400 Clothing 2,500 3.900 47,200 10,800 200 9.800 74.400 Cottons 17, 100 6,300 1,900 500 17,800 43.600 Shoes . 22,900 900 3.500 1,200 4.500 7,800 40,800 Food . 33.000 4,700 100 100 2,100 40,000 Timber. 12,000 22,900 34.900 Furniture 900 9.300 S.900 1,100 2.500 5.400 25,100 Machinery 300 4.300 4.500 2,200 2,700 8,300 22,300 Brick . S.ooo 6,500 900 600 7.300 20,300 Various • 22,100 41,900 57.500 47,000 12,800 63,000 244,300 Tota I • 81,100 191,900 329,900 283,400 109,700 327,200 1,323,200 TRADE UNIONS 571 TRAMWAYS The trades affected by lockouts by masters were (l88i-86) as follows : — Hands Locked Out Tobacco Clothing Shoes Food Metals Various Total Massachusetts . Illinois .... New York Pennsylvania . Ohio .... Various .... "500 23,900 800 1,700 3,600 '600 23,100 1,400 1,900 11,100 500 4,000 2,000 300 700 16,000 1,700 4>5oo 5.900 1,000 3.500 2,500 2,600 19,200 4,600 2,800 20,400 14,300 21,400 71,200 16,700 7.500 29,700 Total 30,500 27,000 17,900 16,700 16,600 52,100 160,800 The following is a general summary of all strikes in the State of Massachusetts between 1825 and i886 : — Trade Textiles . Shoemakers Builders . Various . Total Number ■ 59 ■ 34 10 ■ J! • 159 Locality Boston Lynn Lowell Various Total The causes and results were as follows : For Better wages Shorter hours Various causes Total 118 24 17 1S9 Result Successful . Unsuccessful Compromised Number ■ as . 14 10 ■ ^ • IS9 24 109 26 IS9 The loss caused in Massachusetts by strikes to em- ployers and operatives in the several trades during the said six years (1881-86) was as follows : — Trade To Employers To Operatives Total Shoes .... Woollen-mills . Cotton-mills . . Building . . . Indiarubber . . Sundries . , . £ 100,000 105,000 15,000 90,000 30,000 70,000 £ 330,000 170,000 130,000 50,000 30,000 160,000 £ 430,000 275,000 145,000 140,000 60,000 230,000 Total . . 410,000 870,000 1,280,000 If the losses in Massachusetts be on a par with those of the other States according to the number of hands on strike and of those involved in lockouts, the total for the Union would be as follows : — Aggregate Loss in Strikes of Six Years Loss in To Em- ployers Operatives Total Lockouts Massachusetts Illinois , . . New York. . Pennsylvania . Ohio . . . Other States . £ 410,000 950,000 1,650,000 1,400,000 540,000 1,630,000 £ 870,000 2,060,000 3,560,000 3,070,000 1,160,000 3,530,000 / 1,280,000 3,010,000 5,210,000 4,470,000 1,700,000 S, 160,000 £ 315.000 470,000 1,580,000 360,000 170,000 650,000 Total . 6,580,000 14,250,000 20,830,000 3.S4S,ooo This shows a total supposed loss of 24 millions sterling, 01 4 millions a year, in disputes between employers and operatives. The loss caused by lockouts in the same six years was: — Trade To Employers To Operatives . Total Shoes .... Building . . . Leather. . , . Sundries . . . £ 27,000 63,000 12,000 13.000 £ 110,000 5,000 75.000 10,000 £ 137,000 68,000 87,000 23,000 Total . . 115,000 200,000 315,000 TRAMWAYS Statistics are wanting as regards most countries. United Kingdom The mileage and cost have been as follows : — 1880,1889 England Scotland Ireland Miles 269 1 758 50] 81 48 110 Cost, £ 1880 I 1889 4,200,000! 11,200,000 800,000' 1,300,000 700,000, 1,200,000 £ per Mile 1880 1889 15.550 14.700 16,900' 15,500 13,500 11,000 U. Kingdom 367 I 949 5,700,000 13,700,000 15.400 14,400 Traffic returns in 1889 showed as follows : — Million Passen- gers Passen- gers per Mile Receipts, £ Net,;C Ratio to Capital England . Scotland . Ireland . . 380 71 27 501,000 871,000 249,000 2,370,000 400,000 211,000 S43.000 119,000 51,000 4-9 9-3 4.2 U. Kingdom 478 1 503,000 2,981,000 713,000 5-2 According to Scott Russell, the cost of working tram- ways by compressed air (as at Nantes) is 5d. per mile, by steam 39d., and by horse 56d. per mile. He also says that a tramcar drawn by two horses on the level will require the following number, according to gradients : — Gradient Horses I in 75 4 I in 37 6 I in 25 8 The above returns show that the average fare in pence is 1.5 in England, 1.3 in Scotland, and 1.8 in Ireland. Germany Berlin has 80 miles of tramway, which carried 5a million passengers in 1888. TRAMWAYS 572 TRANSPORT France In 1889 there were 455 miles of tramway in use. The cost of construction was ;^5, 650,000, or ;ifi2,ooo per mile, and the traffic in 1888 showed : — Earnings 1,430,000 Expenses 1,160,000 Net product . . 270,000 This was equal to 4I per cent, on the capital cost. The Omnibus Co. of Paris has 13,700 horses, of which to, 200 are used for busses and 3500 for tramcars, being 15 for each bus and 14 for each tramcar. United States The United States and Canada showed tramways thus : — 1882 1890 Lines 415 957 Miles 3,020 8,820 The lines running in 1882 employed 35,000 men and 100,000 horses, carrying loi million passengers monthly. The horses drew 18,000 cars, and consumed yearly 150,000 tons hay and 300,000 tons grain: they last four years. The value of tramways in 1890 was : — £ Horse trams .... 12,200,000 Steam and cable . . . . 11,600,000 Electric 10,200,000 Total 34,000,000 Belgium In 1888 there were 42 miles of tramway ; traffic of year, i4,8oo,ocxj passengers; receipts, ;f 199,000; net earnings, ;£'6i,oooj cost of construction, ;Jl,030,ooa Holland In 1882 the returns were : — Miles Passengers Receipts, £ Amsterdam . Rotterdam Hague . Various , 38 12 20 190 8,400,000 4,100,000 2,350,000 4,050,000 85,000 31,000 27,000 57.000 Total 260 18,900,000 210,000 Returns for later years show : — 1881 1888 Miles. Horses Locomotives Passengers . Receipts, £ 380 20,100,000 267,000 S5S 1,023 214 30,900,000 282,000 Switzerland In 1888 there were 22 miles of tramway, worked by 5 locomotives and 260 horses, carrying yearly 6,300,000 passengers ; receipts, ;^37,ooo ; net receipts, ^8200 ; cost of construction, ^169,000, or ;£^76oo per mile. TRANSPORT The following table shows approximately the weight of sea-borne merchandise yearly : — Tons Yearly Ratio in 1888 1861-70 1871-80 1880 1888 Grain 4,375,000 10,072,000 10,530,000 13,600,000 9-3 Cotton 486,000 995.000 1,170,000 1,450,000 1.0 Wool . 121,000 252,000 301,000 440,000 0.3 Meat . 125,000 380,000 660,000 730,000 o-S Coal . 14,200,000 22,100,000 30,400,000 38,200,000 26.2 Iron . 1,920,000 3,490,000 4,588,000 4,700,000 3-2 Sugar . 1,260,000 2,086,000 2,350,000 2,600,000 1.8 Clothing 1,410,000 2,520,000 2,815,000 3,100,000 2.1 Coffee . 346,000 452,000 527,000 630,000 0.4 Timber 1 16,170,000 21,215,000 23,550,000 25,400,000 17-3 Sundries ■ 13,807,000 26,778,000 35,875,000 55,550,000 37-9 1 otal^ 54,220,000 90,340,000 112,766,000 146,400,000 100. The weight and value of sea-borne merchandise at various dates were approximately as follows : — Year Tons, Millions Value, Million £ Value per Ton 1830 .... 10 193 £^9 1840 . . • . IS 287 19 1850 .... 25 438 17 i860 .... 41 701 17 1870 .... 71 99S 14 1880 .... 117 1,360 12 1888 .... 146 1,490 10 The weight borne on canals and rivers was approxi- mately thus : — U. Kingdom France . Germany Russia . Belgium . Tons 34,300,000 24,500,000 8,000,000 8,600,000 7,700,000 Canada . UnUed States . Total Tons 3,400,000 51,000,000 137,500,000 Theforegoing is an estimate as regards the United States, based on the fact that in 1880 the steamboats alone carried 2S> 500,000 tons merchandise, without counting flat-boats drawn by tugs. The weight of merchandise carried by railways was approximately as follows : — Millions of Tons 1860 1870 . 1880 1888 United Kingdom . . Continent .... United States . . . Colonies, &c . . . 82 68 70 2 170 231 150 II 256 361 40 282 483 590 7S The World .... 222 1 562 1,070 1.430 * These totals are equal to 65 per cent, of the aggregate annual tonnage of the port-entries of the world at the various periods (see p. 522). TRAVELLERS 573 TUNNELS It appears, therefore, that the annua! goods traffic of the world daily, counting 310 days to the year, is as fol- low ■ : — Tons By rail 4,610,000 On sea 470.000 By canal ..... 440,000 Total . 5,520,000 But as each sea-voyage may be assumed to last ten days, during which the merchandise is being carried, the real goods traffic of the world (allowii^ three days for canal traffic) averages gaily as follows : — Tons By rail 4,610,000 By sea 4,700,000 By canal 1,320,000 Total . . . 10,630,000 As regards passenger traffic, the following table shows approximately the principal sea-routes and their number yearly : — Between Passengers Europe and United States . . . 900,000 England and France .... 650,000 Mediterranean and South America . 450,000 France and Algeria .... 240,000 Danube ports 1,650,000 Adriatic and Levant . . . 280,000 The traffic between England and the Continent has been as follows : — Year Passengers 1842 109,000 1848 124,000 1889 730,000 Dover and Calais boats carry 360,000 ; Newhaven and Dieppe, 190,000; Folkestone and Boulc^e, 115,000; Dover and C^tend, 56,000. As r^ards railway passengers, see Railways. TEAVELLERS In 1870 there were 398,000 in Russia, including 237,000 Germans and 123,000 Austiians. In 1879 there were 947,000 persons who visited Switzerlsind, of whom 350,000 were Germans, 210,000 Americans, and 160,000 Russians. See Passengers and Transport. TRUFFLES Peiigord produces 1500 tons per annum, worth £1000 per ton ; 90 per cent are consumed in France. TULIPS One root of the "Viceroy" sold at Amsterdam for ;^26oo, and when a law was passed against paying over £yx) for a root, a " Semper Augustus " fetched ;^46o, with a carriage and pair of horses. Holland has 600 acres under tulips, and exports the value of ;^l 10,000 per atmum. TUITNELS Herodotus mentions a tunnel 8x8 feet, with a length of iioo yards, to supply Samos with water; remains discovered in 1882. The Schemnitz tunnel, completed in 1S88, was b^;un in the 18th century, at a height of 3000 feet over sea-level : the original contract was for £j a lineal yard, but the works were suspended firom 1795 to 1825, and again from 1835 to 1855 ; the cost has been one million sterling. The Channel tunnel was first proposed by De Gramond in 1867, in the form of a metal telescope 30 x 24 feet, to cost 7 millions sterling, and be completed in seven years. Hawkshaw took up the project in 1869, Bateman and Revy being associated in the plans. A company was formed in 1874; esti- mated cost, 3 millions sterling ; length, 30 miles ; open- ing, 14 X 14 feet ; trains to go 40 miles an hour, each having 12 carriages with 400 passengers, and 20 waggons with 100 tons goods ; estimated yearly traffic, 6,000,000 passengers and 1,500,000 tons goods. Parliament op- posed the project, and the works were suspended in 1S83. The most remarkable tunnels are the following : — Date Tunnel Length, Yards Cost per Yard, £ Maker Aper- ture, Feet 1827 Harecastle . 2,926 Telford . . s 14x16 i8c|5 Kilsby . . 2,070 I'H Stephenson 27x24 1843 Thames 560 1,100 Brunei . . II 38x22 1870 Mont Cenis 13.540 201 Grattoni . 13 10x8 1879 Baltimore . 10,800 ... 1881 St. Gothard 16,390 152 Favre . . 8 9x8 1884 Aarlberg , 6,720 220 Favre . . 20 1884 Hudson 1.833 r,ioo Richardson 4 18x18 1885 Mersey . . 2,700 200 Favre . . 4 27x20 188s Severn . . Richardson 12 1886 Hoosac . . 7,900 16 24x9 1888 Schemnitz . 19,400 s* ... 106 9x7 The following engines have been used for tunnels : — Strokes Strokes Date Inventor .per Minute Date Inventor per Minute 1813 Trevethick 1873 Darlington 500 1853 Bartlett. . 1873 Ferroux . 1857 Sommeiller 400 1873 Ingersoll . 400 1863 Sachs . . 400 187s B^ow . . 1868 Dubois . . 300 1875 Ullathome 1868 Francois . 300 1876 Beamnont . 1869 Burleigh . 400 1876 Geach . . 500 1869 Ostercamp 220 1877 Jordan . . 1872 M-Kean . 500 1877 Schramm . 500 Brunton's borer has been found in late years to make 49 inches of tunnel per hour, with 7 feet diameter. The following table shows various methods : — U) "-rr Tunnel ' Engine i Pressu Lbs. S Inch Tons Excavated Tons Daily Thames . . 800 1 Bnmel . . 4S.O0O 12 Mont Cenis 81 . Sommeiller 90 240,000 60 Airolo . . 70 i M'Kean . 90 Scheomitz . 60 1 Sachs . . 60 4S.o«> IS Comstock . 140 Burleigh . 70 ISS Hudson . . 324 ... 52,000 80 Ronchamps 52 ; Dubois . . 67 Belmore . . 27 1 Darlington 50 ... 3 St. Gothard 72 ! Ferroux 90 265,000 102 The Channel and Mersey tunnels employed Beau- mont's compressed-air borer. The cost of excavation was £1^ per ton of clay in the Thames tunnel, ;£'ii per ton of rock in Mont Cenis, and £g per ton in S' Gothard. UMBRELLAS 574 VITAL STATISTICS U. AND V. UMBRELLAS In France the value of those made yearly is known, and if four francs be taken as the averi^e price, the account will stand thus : — Year Makers Umbrellas Value, £ 1830 1847 . 1882 160 1,800,000 2,500,000 7,500,000 280,000 405,000 1,180,000 The value of British umbrellas exported from the United Kingdom was : — Year £ 1875 360,000 1889 610,000 London imports about 3,000,000 umbrellas from the United Kingdom, and one million from other countries. China exports a large number of paper-covered umbrellas. VITAL STATISTICS The following is a conspectus of births, deaths, and marriages in various countries, showing the average for ten years ending 1888, or the latest available group of years : — Births Deaths Surplus of Births Marriages England , . 890,000 521,000 369,000 202,000 Scotland . . 125,000 74,000 51,000 26,000 Ireland . . 117,000 90,000 27,000 21,000 U. Kingdom 1,132,000 685,000 447.000 249,000 France . . 923,000 844,000 79,000 282,000 Germany 1,722,000 1,177,000 S4S.OOO 3S7.00O Russia . . 3,790,000 2,733,000 1,057,000 695,000 Austria . . 862,000 674,000 188,000 I7S.00O Hungary. . 713,000 556,000 157.000 159,000 Italy . . . 1,074,000 813,000 261,000 224,000 Spam . . . SlS.ooo 514,000 61,000 118,000 Portugal . . 155.000 110,000 45,000 33.300 Sweden . . 137,000 79,000 58,000 29.500 Norway . . 60,000 32,000 28,000 12,700 Denmark 65.500 38,500 27,000 15,200 Holland . . 147,000 91,000 56,000 30,300 Belgium . . 175,000 119,000 56,000 39,800 Switzerland . 82,500 61,000 21,500 19,900 Roumania . 198,000 137,000 61,000 41,600 Servia . . 90,500 52,000 38,500 21,200 Greece . . 46,000 32,500 13.500 10,200 Europe . . 11,947,500 8,748,000 3,199,500 2,512,700 Australia 121,500 48,000 73.SOO 25,800 Uruguay 23,600 10,300 13,300 3.400 Japan . . . 981,000 739,000 242,000 305,000 Under the title oiBirths,JDeaths,andMarriages,die\s.{\td. statistics will be found, showing the birth-rate, death- rate, and other important considerations bearing on vital statistics. The above table shows that there are in Europe 33,000 births and 24,000 deaths daily, or 16 births and 12 deaths a minute. It shows also that the ordinary excess of births over deaths in Europe is 3,200,000 yearly ; but the increase of population is not more than 2,400,000, as the ordinary emigration is 960,000, the number of emigrants returning to Europe being under 200,000. United Kingdom The number of births, deaths, and marriages was 3» follows : — Births Year England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom 1870 . . 793.000 115,000 150,000 1,058,000 1871 . . 797,000 116,000 152,000 1,065,000 1872 . . 826,000 119,000 149,000 1,094,000 1873 . . 830,000 120,000 144,000 1,094,000 1874 . . 855,000 124,000 141,000 1,120,000 187s . . 851,000 124,000 138,000 1,113,000 1876 . . 888,000 127,000 140,000 1,155,000 1877 . . 888,000 127,000 140,000 1,155,000 1878 . . 892,000 127,000 134,000 1,153,000 1879 . . 883,000 126,000 135,000 1,144,000 Average , 850,000 124,000 142,000 1,116,000 1880 . . 882,000 125,000 128,000 1,135,000 1881 . . 884,000 126,000 126,000 1,136,006 1882 . . 889,000 126,000 123,000 1,138,000 1883 . . 891,000 124,000 118,000 1,133,000 1884 . . 907,000 129,000 119,000 1,155,000 1885 . . 894,000 126,000 116,000 1,136,000 1886 . . 904,000 128,000 114,000 1,146,000 1887 . . 886,000 124,000 112,000 1,122,000 1888 . . 880,000 123,000 110,000 1,113,000 1889 . . 885,000 123,000 108,000 1,116,000 Average . 890,000 125,000 117,000 1,132,000 Deaths Year England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom 1870 , . 515,000 74,000 91,000 680,000 1871 . . 515,000 75,000 89,000 679,000 1872 . . 492,000 76,000 98,000 666,000 1873 . . 493,000 77,000 98,000 668,000 1874 . . 527,000 81,000 92,000 700,000 187s . • 546,000 82,000 98,000 726,000 1876 . . 510,000 74.000 92,000 676,000 1877 . . 500,000 74,000 94,000 668,000 1878 . . 540,000 77,000 100,000 717,000 1879 . . 528,000 73.000 105,000 706,000 Average . 517,000 76,000 96,000 689,000 1880 . . 529,000 76,000 103,000 708,000 1881 492,000 72,000 90,000 654,000 1882 517,000 73.000 89,000 679,000 1883 523,000 77,000 96,000 696,000 1884 531.000 75,000 87,000 693,000 1885 523,000 75.000 91,000 689,000 1886 537,000 74,000 87,000 698,000 1887 531,000 75,000 89,000 695,000 1888 511,000 71,000 86,000 668,000 1889 517,000 73.000 83,000 673,000 Average . 521,000 74.000 90,000 685,000 Surplus of Births mer Deaths 1870 . . 278,000 41,000 S9,ooo 378,000 1871 . . 282,000 41,000 63,000 386,000 1872 . . 334.000 43,000 51,000 428,000 1873 . . 337.000 43.000 46,000 426,000 1874 . . 328,000 43,000 49.000 420,000 187s . ■ 305,000 42,000 40,000 387,000 1876 . . 378.000 S3.000 48,000 479.000 1877 . . 388,000 S3.00O 46,000 487,000 1878 , . 352,000 50.000 34.000 436,000 1879 . . 355.000 53.000 30,000 438,000 Average . 334,000 46,000 47.000 427,000 VITAL STATISTICS 575 VITAL STATISTICS Surflus of Births mer Deaths. Year England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom 1880 . . 353.000 49,000 25,000 427,000 1881 . . 392,000 S4.O0O 36,000 482,000 1882 . . 372,000 S3.0OO 34.000 459.000 1883 . . 368,000 47,000 22,000 437.000 1884 . . 376,000 S4.000 32,000 462,000 1885 . . 371.000 51,000 25,000 451,000 1886 . . 367,000 S4.000 27,000 448,000 1887 . . 3SS.OOO 49.000 23,000 427,000 1888 . . 369,000 52,000 24,000 445.000 1889 . . 368,000 50,000 25,000 443.000 Average . 369,000 51,000 27,000 447.000 Marriages 1870 . . 182,000 24,000 29,000 235,000 1871 . . igo.ooo 24,000 29,000 243,000 1872 . . 201,000 26,000 27,000 254,000 1873 . . 206,000 27,000 26,000 259,000 1874 . . 202,000 26,000 24,000 252,000 187s • • 201,000 ?6,ooo 24,000 251,000 1876 . . 202,000 27,000 26,000 255,000 1877 . . 194,000 26,000 25,000 245,000 1878 . . 190,000 24,000 25,000 239,000 1879 . . 182,000 23,000 23,000 228,000 Average . 195,000 25,000 26,000 246,000 1880 . . 192,000 25,000 20,000 237,000 1881 . . 197,000 26,000 22,000 245,000 1882 . . 204,000 27,000 22,000 253,000 1883 . . 206,000 27,000 21,000 254,000 1884 . . 205,000 26,000 23,000 254,000 1885 . . 198,000 25,000 21,000 244,000 1886 . . 196,000 25,000 21,000 242,000 1887 . . 201,000 25,000 21,000 247,000 1888 . . 204,000 25,000 2O,O0O 249,000 1889 . . 214,000 26,000 21,000 261,000 Average . 202,000 26,000 21,000 249,000 India In 1887 the birth-rates and death-rates per 1000 of population were :- Bengal . North-West and Oude Punjaub Central Provinces Lower Burmah Assam . Madras. Bombay Mysore . Births 24.7 41.2 38.8 45-4 25-5 28.0 29-3 34-8 24.1 Deaths 22.7 32.0 26.9 34-2 19.9 27.9 21.8 28.8 »5-9 France Births Year Males Females Total 1810 . 481,000 451,000 932,000 1820 . 49S.OOO 465,000 960,000 1830 . 497,000 471,000 968,000 1840 . 489,000 463,000 952,000 1850 . 490,000 464,000 954.000 i860 . 490,000 467,000 957.000 1870 . 483,000 461,000 944,000 1880 . 469,000 451.000 920,000 1885 . 474,000 450,000 924,000 Deaths Year Males Females Total i8io . 379,000 351.000 730,000 1820 . 367,000 402,000 769,000 1830 . 407,000 401,000 808,000 1840 . 406,000 403,000 809,000 1850 . 381,000 381,000 762,000 i860 . 393.000 389,000 782,000 1870 . 5S3.000 494.000 1,047,000 1880 . 443.000 415,000 858,000 1885 . 435.000 402,000 837,000 Surplus of Births oruer Deaths iSio , 102,000 100,000 202,000 1820 . 128,000 63,000 191,000 1830 . 90,000 70;ooo 160,000 1840 . 83,000 60,000 143.000 1850 . 109,000 83,000 192,000 i860 . 1870 . 1880 . 97.000 78,000 175.000 26,000 36,000 62,000 1885 . 39.000 48,000 87,000 In 1870 the deaths exceeded the births by 103,00a The sterility of the French people in late years is ominous, the surplus of births over deaths being much less than half what it was seventy years ago. Marriages Year Number Year Number Year Number 1810 . . 233,000 1840 . . 283,000 1870 . . 224,000 1820 . . 209,000 1850 . . 298,000 1880 . . 279,000 1830 . . 270,000 i860 . . 289,000 1885 . . 283,000 The returns for the latest years were as follows : — Year Births Deaths Marriages Still-buths i885 . . . 1887 . . . 1888 . . . 1879-88 . . 913,000 899,000 883,000 923.000 860,000 843,000 838,000 844,000 283,000 277,000 277,000 282,000 43.600 42,900 42,100 43.500 OfiScial returns are as follow : — Germany Births Year Prussia Bavaria Saxony Wurtemburg Duchies, &c. Empire 1879 .... 1,052,000 208,000 125,000 81,000 270,000 1,736,000 1880 1,029,000 203,000 123,000 78,000 263,000 1,696,000 1881 1,013,000 204,000 125,000 77.000 263,000 1,682,000 1882 1,036,000 202,000 127,000 76,000 261,000 1,702,000 1883 1,029,000 197,000 127,000 73.000 258,000 1,684,000 1884 1,051,000 204,000 133.000 74.000 264,000 1,726,000 1885 1,065,000 200,000 133.000 72,000 260,000 1,730,000 1886 1,074,000 200,000 137.000 71,000 264,000 1,746,000 1887 1,085,000 200,000 137.000 70,000 265,000 1,757,000 1888 1,091,000 197,000 140,000 69,000 264,000 1,761,000 Average . 1,052,000 202,000 131,000 74.000 263,000 1,722,000 VITAL STATISTICS 576 VITAL STATISTICS Deaths Year , Prussia Bavaria Saxony WurtemlHirg Duchies, &c. Empire 1879 .... 667,000 155.000 81,000 58,000 183,000 1,144,000 i83o 693,000 152,000 87,000 56,000 185,000 1,173,000 1881 682,000 152,000 8s,ooo 54.000 185,000 1,156,000 1882 700,000 153,000 86,000 S4.000 184,000 1,177,000 1883 711,000 155.000 90,000 51,000 183,000 1,190,000 1884 718,000 154,000 95,000 S3.000 183,000 1,203,000 1885 717,000 153.000 91,000 53.000 i85,ooo 1,200,000 1886 743,000 154,000 96,000 50,000 191,000 1,234,000 1887 686,000 151,000 88,000 46,000 181,000 1,152,000 1888 665,000 156,000 87,000 50,000 185,000 1,143,000 Average 698,000 154,000 88,000 S3.0OO 184,000 1,177,000 Surplus of Births truer Deaths 1879 .... 385,000 53.000 44,000 23,000 87,000 592,000 1880 336,000 51,000 36,000 22,000 78,000 523,000 I88I 331,000 52,000 42,000 23,000 78,000 526,000 1882 336,000 49,000 41,000 22,000 77,000 525,000 1883 318,000 42,000 37.000 22,000 75,000 494,000 1884 333.000 50,000 38,000 21,000 81,000 523,000 1885 348,000 47.000 42,000 19,000 74.000 530,000 1886 331,000 46,000 41,000 21,000 73.000 512,000 1887 399,000 49,000 49,000 24,000 84,000 605,000 1888 426,000 41,000 53.000 19,000 79.000 618,000 Average 3S4.00O 48,000 43.000 21,000 79,000 S4S.OOO Marriages 1879 .... 207,000 3S.OOO 25,000 13,000 S5.O0O 335.000 1880 208,000 3S.OOO 26,000 13,000 S5.0OO 337.000 1881 210,000 • 36,000 26,000 12,000 55.000 339.000 1882 217,000 38,000 27,000 13,000 SS.ooo 350,000 1883 221,000 36,000 27,000 12,000 S7.000 353,000 1884 226,000 37,000 29,000 12,000 59.000 363,000 1885 231,000 36,000 29,000 13,000 60,000 369,000 1886 232,000 37,000 30,000 13,000 60,000 372,000 1887 230,000 37.000 30,000 14,000 60,000 371,000 1888 233,000 38,000 30,000 13,000 63,000 377.000 Average 221,000 37,000 28,000 13,000 58,000 357.000 Stilt-Births 1879 .... 45,000 7,200 S.300 3,100 10,400 71,000 1880 43,000 7.000 5.100 3,100 9,800 68,000 I88I 42,000 6,900 5,000 2,900 10,200 67,000 1882 43,000 7,000 5.000 2,800 9,200 67,000 1883 42,000 6,900 4,900 2,700 9.500 66,000 1884 43.000 7,200 5, 100 2,900 9,800 6S,ooo 1885 4/ ooo 7,000 5,100 2,800 10, too 69,000 1886 44,000 6,800 5.300 2,800 9,100 68,000 1887 44,000 6,900 S.300 2,500 9.300 68,000 1888 43,000 6,600 S.500 2,500 9,400 67,000 Average 43,000 7,000 5,ioo 2,800 9.700 68,000 Russia Official returns are as follows :- Year Births Deaths Marriages Surplus of Births 1856 . . . 2,706,900 2,146,900 557.100 560,000 1863 3,045,000 2,308,000 577.300 737.000 1876 3,549,000 2,443,000 590,000 1,106,000 1877 3,531,000 2,451,000 527,000 1,080,000 1878 3,418,000 2,760,000 665,000 658,000 1879 3,662,000 2,541,000 743,000 1,121,000 1880 3,669,000 2,658,000 702,000 1,011,000 1881 3,678,000 2,633,000 769,000 1,045,000 1882 3,906,000 3,034,000 716,000 872,000 T883 3,881,000 2,879,000 733.000 1,002,000 1884 4,336,000 2,857,000 754,000 1,479,000 1885 4,266,000 3,071,000 747,000 1,195,000 l876-£ 5 3,790,000 2,733,000 695,000 1,057,000 The above is only European Russia, exclusive of Poland, Finland, &c. The foUovfing table shows the births and deaths of the whole Empire in 1887 : — Births Deaths Surplus of Births Russia Poland Finland (1886) . Siberia Caucasus . Turkestan . 3,942,000 329,000 79,000 212,000 268,000 52,000 2,742,000 202,000 50.000 150,000 172,000 42,000 1,200,000 127,000 29,000 62,000 96,000 10,000 Total 4,882,000 3,358,000 1,524,000 Exclusive of the Asiatic provinces, Russia has an in- crease of 1,300,000 souls yearly. VITAL STATISTICS 577 VITAL STATISTICS Austria The oflScial returns for ten years ending 1887 were :- Births Year Austria Hungary Total 1878 855,000 665,000 1,520,000 1879 . 857.000 714,000 1,571,000 1880 . 829,000 672,000 1,501,000 1881 . 833,000 677,000 1,510,000 1882 874,000 697,000 1,571,000 1883 . 859,000 719,000 1,578,000 1884 . 878,000 741,000 1,619,000 1885 . 861,000 737,000 1,598,000 1886 . 876,000 760,000 1,636,000 1887 . 889,000 744,000 1,633,000 Average 862,000 713,000 1,575,000 Deaths 1878 . 684,000 586,000 1,270,000 1879 . 652,000 566,000 1,218,000 1880 . 654,000 S93.O0O 1,247,000 1881 . 677,000 5S3.000 1,230,000 1882 . 687,000 572,000 1,259,000 1883 677,000 527,000 1,204,000 1884 . 667,000 515.000 1,182,000 1885 . 689,000 536,000 1,225,000 1886 . 678,000 540,000 1,218,000 1887 . 672,000 569,000 1,241,000 Average 674,000 556,000 1,230,000 Surplus of Births over Deaths 1878 . 171,000 79.000 250,000 1879 205,000 148,000 3S3.00O 1880 . 175,000 79,000 254,000 1881 156,000 124,000 280,000 1882 187,000 125,000 312,000 1883 182,000 192,000 374.000 1884 2II,000 226,000 437,000 1885 187,000 201,000 • 388,000 1886 198,000 220,000 418,000 1887 217,000 175,000 392,000 Average j 188,000 157,000 34S.OOO MmTiazes 1878 164,000 147,000 311,000 1879 . 169,000 162,000 331,000 1880 167,000 144,000 311,000 1881 177,000 158,000 335.000 1882 . 183,000 164,000 347,000 1883 . 176,000 168,000 344.000 1884 . 179,000 167,000 346,000 1885 . 175,000 165,000 340.000 1886 . 180,000 161,000 341,000 1887 . 182,000 152,000 334,000 Average 175,000 159,000 334.000 Still-Births \irjZ . 21,500 9,400 30,900 1879 . 22,500 10,800 33.300 1880 . 22,000 10,400 32,400 1881 . 22,500 io,goo 33.400 1882 . 24,000 11,300 35.300 1883 . 23,800 12,300 36,100 1884 . 24,500 12,700 37,200 1885 . 24,500 13,100 37,600 1886 . • 24.900 13,600 3S.S00 1887 . 26,100 13,800 39.900 Average 23,600 11,800 35.400 Italy Official returns come dowrn to 1887, and show thus fof ten years : — Year Births Deaths Surplus , Mar- of Births' riages Still- Births 1878 . . 1,012,000 814,000 198,000 ' 200,000 31.300 'oZ9 ■ • 1,064,000 837,000 227,000 213,000 33.600 1880 . . 958,000 870,000 88,000 197,000 30,400 i88i . . 1,081,000 784,000 297,000 230,000 35.300 1882 . . 1,061,000 787,000 274,000 224,000 35.400 1883 . . 1,071,000 794,000 277,000 232,000 37.200 ^?^4 • • 1,131,000 780,000 351.000 240,000 38.300 188s . . 1,126,000 787,000 339,000 234,000 39.300 1886 . . 1,087,000 845,000 242,000 233,000 39.200 1887 . . 1,153,000 829,000 324,000 236,000 42,500 Average . 1,074,000 813,000 261,000 224,000 36,300 Spain Vital statistics are neglected and much in arrear :- Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Marriages 1868 . . . 1869 . . . 1870 . . . 1884 . . . Average . . 580,000 602,000 600,000 518,000 575.000 549,000 551.000 510,000 444,000 514.000 31,000 51,000 90,000 74.000 61,000 112,000 137.000 106,000 118,000 Portugal According to the official returns we find : — Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Marriages 1873 ■ • . 1874 . . . 1875 . • 1886 . . . 1887 . . . Average . . 148,000 153,000 154,000 156,000 166,000 155.000 116,000 117,000 107,000 99,000 109,000 110,000 32,000 36.000 47,000 57.000 57,000 4S,ooo 32,100 33.300 33,100 33.700 34.300 33.300 Sweden Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Mar- riages Still- Births 1879 . . 139,000 77,000 62,000 28,600 4,200 1880 . . 134,000 83,000 51,000 28,900 4,000 1881 . . 133,000 81,000 52,000 28,300 3.900 1882 . . 134.000 79,000 SS.ooo 29,000 3.800 1883 . . 133.000 79.000 54.000 29,400 3.700 1884 . . 139,000 81,000 58,000 30,200 3.800 1885 . . 137,000 83,000 54,000 30,900 4,000 1886 . . 140,000 78,000 62,000 30,100 4,000 1887 . . 140,000 76,000 64,000 29,500 3.900 1888 . . 136,000 76,000 60,000 28,100 3.800 Average . 137.000 79,000 58,000 29,500 3.900 Norway 1879 . . 61,000 29,000 32,000 12,900 2,200 1880 . . 59.000 31,000 28,000 12,800 2,I0O 1881 . . 58,000 32,000 26,000 12,300 2,000 1882 . . S9.000 35.000 24,000 12,900 1,900 1883 59.000 33.000 26,000 12,700 1,800 1884 . . 60,000 32,000 28,000 13.300 1,800 1885 6i,ooo 32,000 29,000 13,000 1,800 1886 . . 61,000 32,000 29,000 12,800 1,800 1887 . . 61,000 32,000 29,000 12,500 1,700 1888 . . 61,000 34.000 27,000 12,200 1,800 Average . 60,000 32,000 28,000 12,700 1,900 2 O VITAL STATISTICS 578 VITAL STATISTICS Denmark Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Mar- riages Still- Births 1879 . . 62,000 39,000 23,000 14.300 1,900 1880 . . 63,000 40,000 23,000 15,000 1,900 1881 . . 64,000 36,000 28,000 15.500 2,000 1882 65,000 39,000 26,000 1,900 ^11^ ■ ■ 64,000 37,000 27,000 15.600 1,900 1884 . . 68,000 38,000 30,000 16,000 1,900 '!^l • • 67,000 37.000 30,000 15,600 2,100 1886 68,000 38,000 30,000 14,800 2,000 1887 . . 67,000 39,000 28,000 14,700 2,000 1888 . . 67,000 42,000 25,000 15,100 1,800 Average . 65.500 38,500 27,000 15.200 1,940 Holland 1879 147,000 90,000 57.000 30,700 8,100 1880 . . 144,000 9S,ooo 49,000 30,300 7.500 1881 143,000 88,000 55.000 29,800 7,700 1882 . . 146,000 86,000 60,000 29,600 7.400 ^11^ ■ ■ 144,000 92,000 52,000 29,800 7,700 1884 . . 148,000 94,000 S4.000 30.500 7,600 1885 148,000 90,000 58,000 29,900 7,800 1886 . . 151,000 95.000 56,000 30.300 7,800 1887 . . 149,000 87,000 62,000 30,900 7,700 1888 . . 151,000 91,000 60,000 30,900 7,800 Average . 147,000 91,000 56,000 30,300 7,710 Belgium Official returns from 1831 to 1887 show as follows :- Period Births Deaths Surplus of Births Marriages 1831-40 . . 1841-50 . . 1851-60 . . 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-87 . . 140,000 130,000 137,000 155.000 172,000 175,000 108,000 104,000 102,000 114,000 120,000 118,000 32,000 26,000 3S.O0O 41,000 52,000 57.000 30,200 29,000 33.600 36,100 38,900 39.900 Switzerland Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Mar- riages Still- Births 1879 . . 86,000 64,000 22,000 19.500 3.500 t8So 84,000 62,000 22,000 19,400 3,200 1881 85,000 64,000 21,000 19,400 3.400 1882 83,000 63,000 20,000 19,400 3.300 1883 82,000 59.000 23,000 19,700 3,200 1884 82,000 58,000 24,000 19,800 3,200 1885 80,000 62,000 18,000 20,100 3,200 1886 81,000 60,000 21,000 20,100 3.400 1887 81,000 59.000 22,000 20,600 3.400 1888 81,000 58,000 23,000 20,700 3.300 Average . 82,500 61,000 21,500 19,900 3.300 ROUMANIA 1879 . . 168,000 132,000 36,000 46,000 1,900 1880 . . 171,000 163,000 8,000 40,000 2,300 1881 . . 192,000 123,000 69,000 42,000 1,900 1882 189,000 132,000 S7.000 44,000 2,200 1883 . . 204,000 124,000 80,000 47,000 2,000 1884 . . 201,000 124,000 77,000 41,000 2,300 1885 . . 214,000 124,000 90,000 40,000 2,200 1886 . . 213,000 135,000 78,000 39.000 2,400 1887 . . 210,000 156,000 54,000 39,000 2,500 1888 . . 220,000 159,000 61,000 38,000 2,500 Average . 198,000 137,000 61,000 41,600 2,200 Servia Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Mar- riages Still- Births 1884 . . go.ooo 48,000 42,000 20,400 1,100 1885 . . 91,000 52,000 39.O0O 17,100 1,300 1886 . . 83,000 59,000 24,000 23,300 1,400 1887 . . 94.000 50,000 44,000 22,600 1,400 1888 . . 95,000 51,000 44,000 22,800 1,500 Average . 90,500 52,000 38,500 21,200 1.340 1868-77 • 56,100 44,700 11,400 14,700 Greece Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Marriages 1864-73 ■ • 1880 . . . 1881 . . . 1882 . . . 1884 . . . 1880-84 . . 41,000 41,300 41,700 43,200 58,000 46,000 30,700 30,300 32,200 32,200 35.900 32.S00 10,300 11,000 9.500 11,000 22,100 13,500 8,900 8,500 7,800 11,200 13.700 10,200 Uruguay 1882 . . . 21,700 9,100 12,600 3.300 1883 22,300 8,500 13,800 3.400 1884 21,800 9,700 12, 100 3.S00 1885 23,800 9.700 14,100 3.700 1886 24,700 11, 100 13.600 3,100 1887 25,100 12,000 13,100 3.400 1888 25,800 11,600 14,200 4,000 Average 23,600 10,300 13.300 3.400 Australia (i8 « Births Deaths Surplus of Births Mar- riages New South Wales . Victoria . Queensland South Australia New Zealand . Tasmania . Western Australia . 38.500 34.500 14,200 10,500 18,900 4,800 1,500 14,400 16,300 5.500 3,800 5.700 2,000 700 24,100 18,200 8,700 6,700 13,200 2,800 800 7,80s 8,500 3.300 2,100 3,600 950 300 Total 122,900 48,400 74.500 26,550 1861 1871 1881 1887 52,300 74,200 98,700 120, 100 21,200 24,800 38,800 47,600 31,100 49,400 S9.900 72,500 10,900 13.500 20,500 25,100 Japan Year Births Deaths Surplus of Births Marriages 1879 . . . 877,000 721,000 156,000 1880 884,000 603,000 281,000 i88i 941,000 686,000 255,000 ... 1882 923,000 668,000 255,000 1883 1,005,000 676,000 329,000 • •* 1884 975,000 705,000 270,000 288,000 1885 1,025,000 887,000 138,000 259,000 1886 1,051,000 938,000 113,000 315.000 1887 1,058,000 753.000 303,000 334.000 1888 1,073,000 7S3.000 320,000 330,000 Average 981,000 739,000 242,000 305,000 WAGES 579 WAGES w. WAGES The earliest scale of wages is that fixed by the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 303, for the whole Roman Empire, viz. : — IVa^a Daily without Food, Pence English Shepherd . . 10 Labourer . . 10 Painter . . • 30 Ass-driver . . 10 Mason . . . 20 Smith . . . 20 Baker . . . 20 Carpenter . . 20 Stonecutter • 2S The pay to a brickmaker was I2d. per 100 ; to a sheep- shearer, Sod. per 100; to a common schoolmaster, 3od. per month ; to one who taught Greek or geometry, lood. per month for each pupil ; and a lawyer's fee was 6cxDd. The following is a table of international wages at three periods of the present century, reduced to English money (see Embassy Reports, 1869) : — Day Labour, Pence Indoor Labour, £ per Annum Female Labour, £^ per Annum 1835 1865 1880 1835 1880 1836 , 1880 1 England . . . 20 26 30 12 20 6 9 Scotland . 16 25 28 Q 18 S 8 Ireland 8 14 18 10 3 S France. . IS 20 2'; 8 12 3 6 Germany . 8 16 i8 4 10 2 3« 48 57 Plumber 40 38 53 57 Slater , 48 48 57 Smith . 48 48 48 62 67 Stonemason 32 33 48 53 53 The Revue cT Economique in 1887 publis5)ed the fol- lowing retrospect of wages : — Year Pence Daily Rural Operative 1768 6 9 1789 8 14 1825 12 17 1852 14 20 1872 19 29 1880 22 33 Another French economist gives the following table : — Average Daily Wages , Pence 1700 1750 1790 1810 1850 1880 Printer . . . 18 20 25 30 25 35 Painter . IS 18 20 35 22 33 Carpenter IS 18 20 35 22 3| Tailor . . 10 15 18 30 20 28 Blacksmith IS 18 20 30 25 3S Builder . IS 18 20 35 22 35 Bootmaker 10 IS 18 30 21 28 Plumber . IS 18 20 35 22 33 Baker . . 10 15 18 30 20 33 Milliner . 6 8 9 10 13 20 Laundress 5 6 8 10 13 18 Farm-labourer . 8 10 12 18 20 25 Woman ,, 4 S 6 9 10 IS Boy 2 2 3 4 5 7 Wages of Women in France, Pence Daily 1844 1863 1860 1872 Dressmakers . . . 12 17 19 19 Flowermakers IS 24 22 28 Shirtmakers 9 15 17 19 Staymakers 10 15 19 19 Embroiderers IS 19 19 28 Closers . . IS 24 19 28 Lacemakers IS 22 24 28 Laundresses 19 24 24 28 Wag es of M 'ners W eek s. d. i860 ^ II 1875 • 1865 II 6 1880 • 1870 • 13 6 1886 • s. d. 16 6 16 o 15 6 Wages at Paris and in the departmental towns of France averted as follows (without food) in 1885 : — Pence Daily Pence Daily Paris Depart- ments Paris Depart- ments Baker . . . 67 3S Hatter . . 62 35 Binder . , 53 30 Laundress . 38 18 Blacksmith . 67 37 Painter . . 72 36 Brewer . . 48 33 Plumber . . 57 36 Bricklayer . 77 3S Printer . . 62 37 Cabinetmaker 74 35 Saddler . . 43 33 Carpenter . 82 38 Sawyer . . 67 35 Confectioner 48 28 Shoemaker . 34 29 Cooper . . 48 33 Stonecutter . 82 38 Cutler . . . 57 31 Tailor . , 48 33 Dressmaker . 19 17 Tanner . . 48 32 Dyer . . . 43 31 Tinsmith . 48 33 Fireman . . 57 34 Turner . . 48 34 Founder . . 67 37 Waggoner . 48 35 Glazier . . S3 31 Watchmaker 57 40 Hairdresser . 29 27 Weaver . . 36 2S Other occupations showed the following ; early wages; — £, per Annum Paris Departments Clerks . 48 37 Lady-clerks 32 25 Shop-girls . 20 20 Footmen . 24 18 Housemaids 20 12 Germany Yves Guyot gives the daily wages at Mulhouse in the spinning trade from 1835 to 1880 thus : — Pence Daily 1835 1846 1855 1866 1880 Overseers . 28 34 42 44 60 Knginemen . 18 22 30 27 34 Oilers . . IS 18 16 24 30 Scutchers . 9 10 10 13 17 Cardmenders 13 14 27 22 26 Throstlers . 15 15 16 17 23 Piecers . . 6 7 12 14 22 Dofifers . . ... 9 10 16 The wages at Guebwiller silk-factory were as follows :— Pence Daily 1818 1880 Weavers .... Warpers .... Fluters .... Winders .... Folders .... 26 19 7 II 11 30 23 18 18 23 Belgium Agricultural wages in Belgium at various dates were; Pence Daily Year Men Women With Food Without With Food Without 1830 . . . 1840 . . . 1850 . . . 1874 . . . 1880 . . . "(5 II 12 10 II 11 19 23 7 6 7 7 12 12 WAGES 583 WAGES Italy Bodio's table of wages for certain trades, reduced to English money, gives the following : — Shillings per Week Trade 1817 1869 1866 1874 Iron mines 6 6 6 8 Marble mines 10 II II 19 Chalk mines 6 6 9 10 Cotton-mill 7 7 8 10 Flax-mill . 8 10 10 12 Wool-mill 6 7 7 8 Silk-mill . 6 8 8 10 Dyeing . 9 10 II 12 Tanning . 6 7 8 10 Stone-cutting 9 10 12 13 Foundry . 8 3 8 10 Masons . 7 8 10 14 Mechanics 7 9 II 17 Carpenters 10 13 16 19 Wheelwrights 8 8 9 II Glass-blowers 18 i8 22 22 Papermakers S S 6 6 Compositors 7 7 8 II Tailors . 6 8 10 12 Brewers . 7 8 9 II The aggregate weekly earnings of 20 operatives in the alx>ve occupations compared as follows : — Year Shillings Average 1847 156 7.8 i8S9 174 8.7 1866 . . ... 199 lo.o 1874 24s 12.3 Thus in 15 years, from 1859 to 1874, wages rose 41 per cent., but it would appear from the subjoined table that there has been hardly any perceptible rise since 1874. Wages for a Vorking Day of loj Hours, in English Pence. Year Spinners Weavers Carpenters Masons 1862 . . . 10.9 12.3 18.2 IS- 3 1863 . . . U.4 12.7 18.2 15-3 1864 . . . 11.4 13.6 18.2 IS- 3 i86s . . . II. 8 14-5 18.2 iS-3 1866 . . . 12.3 iS-4 18.2 IS- 3 1867 . . . 12.7 iS-4 18.2 iS-3 1868 . . . 12.7 IS- 9 18.2 iS-3 1869 . . . 132 16.4 18.2 IS-3 1870 . . . 13-6 16.8 22.7 18.2 1871 . . . I4-S 17-3 22.7 18.2 1872 . . . 16.4 17.7 22.7 18.2 1873 • ■ • 18.2 19.1 22.7 20.S 1874 . 20.4 21.8 22.7 20.S 187s . . . 20.4 21.8 22.7 20. s 1876 . . . 20.4 21.8 22.7 20. s 1877 . . . 20.4 21.8 22.7 20. s 1878 . . . 20.4 21.8 22.7 20.S 1879 . . . 20.4 21.8 22.7 22.7 l88o . . . 20.4 22.7 22.7 22.7 1881 . . . 20.9 22.7 22.7 22.7 1882 . . . 20.9 22.7 24,2 24.2 1883 . 20.9 22.7 24.2 24.2 1884 . . . 20.9 22.7 24.2 24.2 The ratio of increase is shown as follows : — Year Spinner Weaver Carpenter j Mason 1864 . . . 1874 . . . 1884 . . . 100 180 184 100 160 167 100 I2S 133 100 134 1S8 Professor Bodio's tables, comparing prices of wheat and maize witii the average earnings of twenty-seven trades, and reducing these earnings to pounds of grain, may be summed up thus : — Day of Ten Hours Days to Earn One Year Wheat, Maize, Total, Ton of Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Grain 1862 . . . 6.2 6.2 12.4 181 1863 . 7.3 7-S 15.0 148 1864 . 7.7 7.7 15-4 146 1865 . 8.0 8.0 16.0 140 1866 . 7.2 7.2 14.4 IS4 1867 . 6.2 6.2 12.4 181 1868 . 6.4 6.4 12.3 176 1869 . 8.6 8.6 17.2 130 1870 . 8.2 8.2 16.4 136 1871 . 7.0 7.0 14.0 158 1872 . 6.7 6.7 13-4 166 1873 • 6.8 6.8 13.6 163 1874 . 6-4 6.4 12.8 176 187s ■ 9.6 9.6 19.2 Ii5 1876 . 9.6 9-6 19.2 116 1877 . 8.2 8.2 16.4 136 1878 . 8.S 8.S 17.0 132 1879 . 8.8 8.8 17.6 127 1880 . 8-S 8.S 17.0 132 1881 . i°S lo-S 21.0 106 1882 . 10- S lo-S 21.0 106 1883 . 12. 1 12. 1 24.2 93 1884 . 13-S 13-S 27.0 84 i88s . 13-7 13-7 27.4 82 United States Commissioner Carroll Wright, chief of the Washii^ton Bureau of Statistics, has published a retrospect ot wages, which may be condensed thus : — Pence Daily Trade ^ ^ S ? S A s s 00 00 f iH rH Blacksmith . . 35 42 63 79 114 96 Bookbinder 46 72 96 75 Brewer . lOI 107 122 Butcher . 17 31 46 lOI 68 Carpenter 30 SS 74 85 121 120 Carriages 67 «5 120 114 Clocks . ... S6 65 80 IIS Clothing .SO S4 70 96 100 Cordage ... 58 46 7b ... Cottons •■■ 33 49 70 b4 Glass . ... 68 13s 90 100 Harness ••• 44 60 77 Hats . •*> "S 98 84 Jewellery 49 75 77 160 Labourers 24 43 42 46 74 66 Machinery 68 95 124 "3 Masons . 42 73 bS 72 140 107 Metals . S3 69 70 108 100 MiUwrights 5S 57 65 76 132 127 Nailers . 24 50 56 90 120 92 Painters . 62 64 8S 116 98 Paper . . .W 35 50 85 8S Printers . S7 66 73 109 107 Shipbuilders 4S 63 68 125 125 162 Shoemakers 37 48 70 88 94 Stonecutters 6S 71 117 100 Tanners . ..• SO 6S 70 104 93 Teachers . 70 9S ... "S Teamsters 58 68 72 88 Turners . • •> 46 6S 70 100 114 Woollens ... S3 44 66 62 WAGES 584 WAGES Commissioner Carroll Wright compares the average wages in Massachusetts and Great Britain, from i860 to 18S3, in various trades as follows : — Shillings ShiUings Weekly Trade Weekly Trade • iS S5'3 si S'S 5| Agricultural ' implements 43 37 Hats . . . 46 25 Boots . . . 48 21 Hosiery . . 28 20 Bricks . 36 17 Linen . . , 27 13 Building 62 32 Liquor . . . 53 80 Carpets 25 17 Machines . . 49 33 Carriages 57 35 Metals. . . 47 37 Clothing 42 30 Printing . . 48 28 Cottons 27 24 Printworks . 23 Food . 41 16 Stone . . . 60 42 Furniture 46 34 Woollens . . 29 23 Glass . ; SI 1 36 Worsted . . 30 18 lie compares the wages of men only, as follows : — Shillings Shillings Weekly Trade Weekly Trade diS w.Ci el V «_. c « 0& s-s OS Agricultural ) implements ) 44 37 Hats . . . 59 34 Boots . . . 57 30 Hosiery . . ,38 27 Bricks . 36 23 Linen . . . 36 28 Building 62 33 Liquor . . 54 80 Carpets 33 25 Machines . . 50 33 Carriages 58 35 Metals. . . 51 44 Clothing 72 37 Printing . . 64 38 Cottons 40 31 Printworks . 42 33 Food . 46 23 Stone . . . 60 42 Furniture 34 Woollens . . 32 31 Glass . 62 40 Worsteds . . 36 25 The wages of women and children in 1860-83 "C compared thus : — Shillings Wages Weekly Women Children Massa- Great Massa- Great chusetts Britain chusetts Britain Boots .... 36 15 19 II Carpets . 23 15 17 12 Carriages . 23 10 Clothing . 31 36 16 19 Cottons . 25 19 18 12 Food 24 10 23 6 Furniture . 25 23 Hats. 31 14 19 10 Hosiery . 25 16 23 : 9 Metals . 22 12 19 10 Printing . 26 12 19 10 Printworks 22 14 19 12 Woollens . 27 13 20 9 Linens 21 11 16 6 Worsteds . 25 14 16 II The average was for women 15^ shillings a week in Great Britain and 26 in the United States, and for children loj and 19 shillings respectively. The following is a general average scale of wages at various dates : — Wages Shillings Weekly Trade Massachusetts Great Britain 1872 1878 1883 1872 1878 1883 Boots. . . . 61 5° 48 23 19 18 Building . 64 52 62 27 23 30 Carriage . 70 58 .57 27 30 20 Clothing . 51 40 42 24 IS 26 Cottons . 33 32 27 22 20 19 Food . . 40 46 41 19 32 II Glass . . 47 44 SI 29 25 29 Linen . . 32 22 27 13 15 12 Machinery 56 42 48 28 20 29 Metals . 64 48 47 28 27 31 Printing . 53 56 47 28 27 23 Printworks 40 36 25 22 20 Shipbuilding 66 49 84 28 25 33 Woollens . . 30 28 33 19 23 20 Atkinson gives the following wages for Massachusetts : — Shillings per Week 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 Carder 18 21 21 28 31 Dresser 29 41 46 64 55 Dyer . 26 26 26 ,38 37 Labourer 12 18 21 26 25 Mechanic 25 31 38 38 40 Spinner 21 28 31 42 40 Weaver ! 18 21 18 27 31 The following table by Commissioner Wadlin, for Massachusetts in 1885, shows the percentage that wages stand for in cost of production in various articles : — Per Cent. Per Cent. Agricult. implements 38 Hosiery . • 32 Arms , . .30 Ink . • 25 Boots • 25 Ivoryware . 22 Bricks • 57 Leather . • 14 Brooms . • 33 Linen • 33 Building . • 34 Liquor • 13 Buttons . • 27 Lumber . • 25 Carpets . . 21 Machines . • 47 Carnages . . 46 Metals . • 3S Cement . • 32 Paints • 17 Chemicals • 9 Paper . 18 Clocks . • 77 Printing . • 39 Clothing . • 23 Rubber . • 25 Cordage . • 14 Salt . • 52 Cottons . • 30 Silks • 30 Drugs • 23 Stone • 56 Dye-stuflfe . 21 Tobacco . ■ 35 Earthenware . 66 Toys • 52 Electroplating . 28 Trunks . . 22 Furniture . • 37 Woollens . . 21 Glass . 62 Worsteds . 21 Commissioner Wadlin's report gives in a classified form the wages of 248,000 operatives, which in English money show as follows : — Weekly Number Ratio Shillings Male Female Total Male Female Total Under 21 21-29 • • 29-37 • • 37-50 • • Over 50 . 15.700 20,300 27,300 43.600 67,900 25,400 28,200 12,300 5.500 2,000 41,100 48,500 39,600 49,100 69,900 9.0 II. 6 15.6 25.0 38.8 34-6 38.3 16.8 7-5 2.8 16.5 19-5 16.0 19.8 28.2 Total . 174,800 73.400 248,200 lOO.O 100. 100. WAGES 585 WAGES The following is a summary of the principal trades in 1875 ^"<1 '^^5 ™ Massachusetts; that is, the number of hands and the amount of wages (in gold) reduced to English money : — Average, £ per Hand 187S 1885 Boots . Building Clothing Cottons . Food . Furniture Leather , Machines Metals . Paper . Printing Printworks Rubber . Woollens Worsteds Various . Total Hands 1875 48,000 24,000 13,700 60,200 4,700 6,700 6,600 9,600 17,600 6,500 S.Soo 3,200 1,100 19,000 1,500 69,140 297,040 188S 64,900 27,900 18,300 60,100 11,500 8,200 9,200 14,600 24,200 8,600 9,900 8,600 6,500 19,000 8,000 79,830 379.330 Wages Paid, £ 1875 3,700,000 1,900,000 1,000,000 3,500,000 500,000 650,000 700,000 1,300,000 2,200,000 500,000 550,000 40,000 80,000 1,200,000 100,000 5,480,000 23,400,000 1886 5,600,000 2,700,000 1,200,000 3,500,000 1,000,000 750,000 900,000 1,500,000 2,400,000 650,000 950,000 600,000 450,000 1,200,000 500,000 6,700,000 30,600,000 77 80 73 58 106 97 105 13s 125 77 100 125 73 63 67 79 80 86 97 66 58 86 91 98 103 99 74 96 70 70 63 62 84 81 The following table shows the average earnings per hour, and the number of hours of work, in the period 1860-83 : — Pence per Hour Hours ^ Massa- Weekly Trade Massa- Great Great chusetts Britain chusetts Britain Agricultural imple- 1 ments . . ) 8.5 8.2 60 S4 Boots 9.8 4.2 60 S2 Bricks 6.7 64 Building . 12.5 7.0 60 52 Carriages . "■S 4-S 60 54 Clothing . 8.6 6.3 f 54 Cottons . 5-4 4.2 60 s^ Food 8.2 2.4 60 S6 Furniture . 9-3 7.6 60 52 Glass 10.2 60 ... Hats . 9.2 S-i 60 54 Hosiery . S-4 4-3 60 54 Linen S-4 2.6 60 54 Machinery 9.8 6.6 60 52 Metals . 9-S 6.9 60 54 Printing . 9.8 5-1 58 S4 Printworks 7.2 4.6 60 54 Woollens . 5.8 4-3 60 ^% Worsteds . 6.1 3-2 60 56 The last four Census reports, down to 1880, give the following returns as to amount of wages paid (in gold) in all kinds of manufacturing industries :— Million Dollars Per Operative, in £ Sterling 1850 1860 1870 1880 1850 1860 1870 1880 Maine 7 8 14 14 SI 47 52 53 New Hampshire . 6 8 14 15 4b ?r bo <^S Vermont .... 2 3 b 5 52 65 61 58 Rhode Island . . 5 9 19 21 50 57 bb 67 Connecticut . . . 12 19 .39 44 51 bo 75 78 Massachusetts . . 42 57 118 128 49 55 70 72 New England . 74 104 2TO 227 49 55 72 70 New York . . . 49 65 142 199 52 59 72 79 New Jersey . . . 9 16 33 4b 49 5? 80 73 Pennsylvania . . 37 60 128 134 52 ?" 74 70 Delaware .... I 2 4 4 .50 bo 70 62 Maryland .... 7 7 13 19 5° 52 58 72 54 Middle . . . 103 150 320 402 1 SI 58 76 Million Dollars 1850 18601870 Virginia . Georgia . Kentucky . Tennessee Louisiana, Various . South . Ohio . . Illinois . Michigan , Wisconsin Missouri . Indiana . Iowa . . Minnesota Various . West . . The Union 8 J8 23s 1880 34 38 94 382 45 210 78s 1860 52 270 951 Per Operative, in £ Sterling 18601870 50 58 1880 57 45 64 69 41 42 60 47 60 50 47 75 77 67 70 70 66 70 70 70 73 We learn from the preceding table that the average wages for operatives have been increasing every decade. Three operatives in 1880 earned more than four did in 1850 : they also produced more (see p. 379). The ratio which wages bore to the value of goods manufactured was : — States 1860 1860 1870 1880 Average per Cent. New England . 26 22 21 21 22 Middle . 22 19 18 18 19 South 21 18 16 16 i8 West 21 17 17 16 18 Union 24 19 18 18 20 During the gold fever at San Francisco, daily wages were as follows : — s. d. . 16 8 . 29 2 ■ 33 4 . 41 o s. d. Bricklayer ■ 41 8 Tailor . Stonecutter • 41 8 Hatter . Plasterer . • 37 6 Watchmaker Glazier . • 2S Carpenter WARS S86 WARS Mr. Young published in 1870 the following scale of wages current in various States of the Union : — Wages Reduced to English Money, Shillings Weekly c h !S 55 '0 "5 ^ ^ J3 V i> ^ 3 "rt Z h-1 u Blacksmith . . . 68 72 68 60 70 Si 68 too Bricklayer . . . 81 P4 88 7-; 81 q8 87 no Cabinetmaker , . 66 68 68 ■so 68 68 &■; qs Carpenter . . . 60 81 74 ■io 76 94 68 100 Cooper .... 6s 78 &•; 63 7r. 7^ 63 93 Painter . ". . . 67 70 y; 63 7'? 82 68 100 Plasterer .... 81 qa qo 78 80 94 80 114 Shoemaker . . . 61 6^. 60 6^ 64 70 60 95 Stonecutter . . . 84 P8 P4 81 los 100 87 no Tailor 66 61 62 SO 64 70 60 93 Tanner .... 66 63 68 SO 68 Ti 6S 98 Tinsmith .... 63 6^ 68 =;2 72 72 66 99 Wheelwright . . . 68 Tf, 72 ss 70 90 75 100 Farm labourer . . 38 40 42 41 32 42 40 58 Wages Reduced to English Money, Shillings Weekly ■a is •2 I ■3S, Blacksmith . 70 60 67 72 68 Bricklayer . 87 83 76 91 85 Cabinetmaker 72 61 65 69 67 Carpenter . 70 56 74 75 68 Cooper 71 63 64 67 66 Painter 72 66 70 74 71 Plasterer 85 79 79 89 83 Shoemaker . 61 55 60 64 60 Stone-cutter 88 80 87 86 Tailor . 6=; 58 61 65 62 Tanner 68 59 6S 68 65 Tinsmith 69 61 65 68 66 Wheelwright 72 63 72 75 71 Farm labourer 42 37 29 41 37 Note. — ^The above wages were in paper money at 13 per cent, discount as compared with gold ; thus 80s. were in reality only 70s. WARS The wars of ninety years down to 1880 involved an expenditure of 3047 millions sterling, besides the loss of 4,470,000 lives, viz. : — Expendi- Date BelUgerents ture, Million £ Men 1793-1815 England and France . 1,250 1,900,000 1828 . . Russia and Turkey . . 20 120,000 1830- 40 . Spain and Portugal (civil) 50 160,000 1830-47 . France and Algeria . . 38 110,000 1848 . . Europe (civil) . . . 10 60,000 1854-56 . England,France, Russia 305 485.000 1859 . . France and Austria . . 45 63,000 1863-65 . United States (civil) . 740 656,000 1866 . . Prussia and Austria . 20 51,000 I865 . . France and Mexico IS 65,000 1864-70 . Brazil and Paraguay . 48 330,000 1870-71 . France and Germany . 316 290,000 1876-77 • Russia and Turkey . . 190 180,000 3.047 4,470,000 Summary Period Expendi- ture, Million £ Loss of Life Per Annum Million £ LossofLife 1790-1820 1821-1850 1851-1860 1861-1880 1,250 118 350 1,329 1,900,000 450,000 548,000 1,572,000 42 4 63,000 15,000 55,000 79,000 3.047 4,470,000 British Wars. — In less than 300 years, Great Britain has expended 1359 millions sterling in war, viz. : — ^ s? Date Locality Isl Commander W g 1599 ■ • Ireland . 4 Essex 1642-48 . England and Ireland 57 Cromwell 1688-97 . Ireland and Holland 33 William IIL 1702-63 . Germany, Spain &c. 182 Marlborough,&c. 1759 • ■ Canada . 62 Wolfe 1775-80 . United States . 121 Cornwallis 1793-1815 France, &c, . 831 Wellington 1854-56 . Crimea . 69 Raglan 1 ,359 In the Crimean War, 97,860 men took the field, of whom 2755 were killed in action ; 18,280 were wounded, and of these 1847 died in hospital, and 17,580 died of. disease; total deaths 22,182, or 22^ per cent, of the total strength. French Wars. — In 218 years France spent 993 millions sterling in war, viz. : — i ^ Date Reign Locality oj g Commander 1654-1713 Louis XIV. . Flanders,&c. 154 Turenne.&c. 1733-63 Louis XV. . ,, 82 Saxe 1778-83 Louis XVI. . U. States . 22 Lafayette 1791-1815 Napoleon . . Europe, &c. 255 Bonaparte 1830-47 Louis Philippe Algeria . , 38 Bugeaud,&c. 1854-56 Napoleon III. Crimea . . 93 Pellissier 1859 ,, Italy . . . 18 MacMahon 1866 , Mexico . . 15 Bazaine 1870-71 " Rhine . . 316 Lebeuf 993 In the Crimean war 309,400 men took the field, of whom 8490 were killed in action ; 39,870 were wounded, and of these 11,750 died in hospital, and 75,375 died of disease; total deaths 95,615, or 31 per cent, of total strength. It is remarkable that 29 per cent, of the wounded died, and 30 per cent, of men admitted to hospital for disease, whereas the British lost only 10 per cent, of wounded and 12 per cent, of men admitted for disease. At the same time only 71 per cent, of the French army were admitted to hospital for disease, namely 225,000 ; whereas 147 per cent, of the British were so admitted, that is, the whole army nearly twice over during the campaign, such admission reaching 144,400, or 46,000 more than the total strength. The casualties of the WARS 587 WARS French compare with those of the other belligerents in the Crimea thus : — English French Turk Russian Total Took field . . 98,100 309.400 165,000 888,000 1,460,500 Killed in battle Died of wounds Died of sickness 2.755 1,847 17.580 8.490 ".750 75.375 10,100 10,800 24.500 30,600 42,000 374.000 51.945 66,397 491.455 Total loss . 22,182 95.615 45,400 446,600 609,797 Shots Fired By Millions Killed Shots to Kill English , . French . , Russians . . 15 29 45 21,000 Russians , 51,000 „ 48,000 Allies . . 700 590 910 Total . 89 120,000 men . . 740 In the Franco-Italian war 128,000 French took the field, of whom 2536 were killed in action ; 17,054 were wounded, and of these 2962 died in hospital, besides 2040 who died of disease ; total deaths 7538, or 6 per cent. In the Mexican war of 1862-66 there were 35,000 French landed in Mexico, of whom 11 80 were killed in action ; 2559 were wounded, and of these 549 died ; deaths from disease were 4925, making a total of 6654, or 19 per cent, of total strength. In the Franco-German war of 1870-71, 710,000 French took the field, and of these no fewer than 138,870 were killed in action or died in hospital, including 2977 ofiicers. The death-roll of the French was, of men killed in action or died in hospital, as follows : — In France ..... 119,929 In Germany 17.240 In Switzerland 1.701 Total . . 138,870 This includes 45,000 deaths from disease, but it is believed that many not recorded died of wounds, having gone to their homes. Deaths were at least 20 per cent. German Wars. — The campaign of Sadowa, between Prussia and Austria, in 1866, showed as follows : — Prussians Austrians Total Took field . . . 309,000 330,000 639,000 Killed .... Wounded . . . Missing . . . 2,650 14,820 3.304 II.IOO 29,310 43.750 13.750 44.130 47.054 Hors-de-combat . Returned home . 20,774 288,226 84,160 245,840 104.934 534.066 The Prussians had one officer killed or wounded for 21 men, the Austrians one for 18 men. In the Franco-German war of 1870-71 the casualties were as shown in the following table : — French Germans Total Took field . . . Reinforced . . 420,000 290,000 780,000 223,000 1,200,000 513.000 Total . . 710,000 1,003,000 1,713,000 Killed .... Died of wounds . Died of sickness . Disabled . . . Prisoners . . . 41,000 36,000 4S.OOO 116,000 446,000 19,782 10,710 14.259 89.000 60,782 46,710 59.259 205,000 446,000 Hors-de-combat . 684,000 133.751 817.751 Killed and Wounded French Germans Total Woerth . . . Mars-le-Tour . . Gravelotte . . . Paris .... Orleans, &o. . . 32,000 26,000 28,500 30,000 76,500 11,000 . 16,200 20,I00 13.300 57.400 43,000 42,200 48,600 43.300 133.900 Total . . 193,000 118,000 311.000 The number of Germans killed includes 4010 missing, who are supposed to have been slain in action. The hospital records of the Germans showed that 127,870 wounded of their army were admitted, but only 10,710 died, say 8J per cent. Deaths from disease included 6965 of typhoid fever. The minimum force in the field was 781,000 in August 1870, the maximum 937,000 in February 1871. The death-rate during the whole cam- paign in the diCferent arms was : — Per Per Engineers . Cavalry Artillery Infantry The Germans fired off 30 million musket cartridges and 363,000 rounds of artillery, with which they killed or mortally wounded 77,000 French, being 400 shots to kill, as compared with 740 in the Crimean war (q.v.). See Battles. Russian Wars. — The campaigns of the last sixty years cost 335 millions sterling and 664,000 men, viz. : — 1000 1000 17.6 Staff. . 105.0 27.1 Captains . 87.0 27.2 All officers 76.0 52.8 Officers and men • 45-9 Date Reign Locality Expenditure, Million £ Loss in Men 1828 . 1854-56 1876-77 1878-80 Nicholas . . Nicholas , . Alexander II. Alexander II. Balkans . Crimea . Turkey . Khiva,&o. IS 142 133 45 86,000 447.000 110,000 21,000 52 years 335 664,000 American Wars. — ^According to Stedman, an officer under Lord Comwallis, the strei^th of the British and American armies in the War of Independence was : — Year British Americans 1776 .... 27,700 3,300 1777 .... 30,000 8,000 1781 .... 7,000 32,600 The British army consisted largely of Hessian and other soldiers bought in Germany by George III., and for whom the British Government paid the following sums to the German princes : — Men Sum, ;f £ per Man Perished in the War Hesse . • . Brunswick . , Anspach, &c. . 16,992 5.723 6.4SI 2,600,000 780,000 1,747,000 153 137 27s 6,500 3.015 2,328 Total . . 29,166 5,127,000 175 11.843 Durii^ the five Americans fought represented by the Massachusetts Connecticut Pennsylvania Virginia . , New York . Maryland . years that the war lasted 288,200 for their country, the States being following numbers : — Men Men . 83,000 New Jersey . . . 17,000 . 40,000 New Hampshire , . 15,000 . 33,000 Rhode Island . . . 10,000 . 32,000 North Carolina . . 7,300 . 21,000 South Carolina . . 6,400 . 18,000 Georgia, &c. . . . 5,500 WATER S88 WATER The American army, after the surrender of Lord Com- wallis, was found to number thus : — 49 regiments of foot .... 28,224 4 „ horse .... 1,536 4 „ artillery . . . 2,340 I „ pioneers , . . 4S0 Total . 32,580 The total expenses of the war were 135 million dollars, say 28 millions sterling. In the second war with England (1812-15), the American army at one time counted 32,000 men under the colours. In the war with Mexico (1845), the Americans had 90,100 men, of whom 7780 died, including 6060 of disease, and the rest killed in action or who died of wounds received. An official statement of the war for the Union in 1863-65 was as follows : — Northern Army ■ Officers Took field , . Killed . . . Died of wounds ,, sickness Missing . . Returned home 84,000' 2,073,000 3.930 2,070 1.720 1,600 74,680 White Men 38,790 30,890 121,110 60,910 1,821,300 Coloured 179,000 1,520 1,046 26,200 4,614 145,620 Total Ratio 2,336,000 44,240 34,006 149,030 67,124 2,041,600 1.9 i-S 6.4 2.9 87.3 Kolb gives the following summary : — Killed Wounded Prisoners Northerns . Southerns 43.573 26,720 132,265 87,481 101,843 1 78.731 Total 70,293 234,108 1 166,212 According to another account the Northern army lost : — Killed Died of Sickness Total OfBcers. Men .... 5.221 90,868 2,321 182,329 7.542 273.197 Total 96,089 184,650 280,739 The Ordnance department served out 7892 cannon, 4,022,000 rifles, 2,360,000 equipments for infantry and cavalry, 12,000 tons powder, 42,000 tons lead, and 1022 million rounds of cartridge. WATER The weight of alluvial deposits to 1000 gallons of water is as follows : — Loch Katrine Windermere . Severn . . . Avon . . . Tunbridge . Spree . . . Geneva . . Lbs. Danube . Garonne . Rhine . . Mersey , Thames . Mississippi Spa . . . Lhs. 3 4 6 14 Wear . . , Ganges . . Cheltenham Harrogate . Oxus . . , Seidlitz . . Atlantic . . Uis. 16 22 134 157 250 321 448 A ton of water contains 224 gallons or 36 cubic feet, but sea- water is 2 per cent, heavier. An inch of rainfall gives 14,500,000 gallons of water to the square mile, or 22,500 gallons to the acre. Snow requires 8 cubic feet to produce one cubic foot of water. Current requires a minimum fall of one inch in 10 miles. The water-power of Niagara is 10,000,000 cubic feet per minute, equal to 3,000,000 horse-power. In 1880 the United States had 51,000 water-wheels with an aggregate of 1,500,000 horse-power. Water supply has always been a matter of the highest importance. Rome, in the time of the Csesars, had nine aqueducts, measuring 249 miles in the aggregate : they poured into the city 330 million gallons daily, or 160 gallons per inhabitant. The great aqueduct of Peru, built by the Incas, was 360 miles long. Among modern works the most famous are : — Name Miles Million Gallons Daily Cost of Work, Croton (New York) . Madrid Marseilles . Glasgow . . , Washington , . 41 47 SI 34- 16 88 40 60 50 90 1,800,000 2,300,000 450,000 1,550,000 The supply of various cities is shown as follows : — Gallons Daily Gallons per Inhatitani Ancient Rome . , . 330,000,000 160 Modern Rome . . 200,000,000 670 London . . . 145,000,000 38 Paris . . , 88,000,000 39 New York , 88,000,000 70 Chicago , a • 60,000,000 120 Sydney . . , 50,000,000 120 Glasgow . . . 26,000,000 48 St. Louis . 25,000,000 70 Marseilles . . 18,000,000 50 Buffalo . 17,000,000 120 Manchester , 11,000,000 20 Liverpool . 11,000,000 20 Boston . . , 10,000,000 27 San Francisco . . 10,000,000 42 Newark . . . 10,000,000 80 Edinburgh . . 10,000,000 33 Dublin . , , . 7,000,000 22 Melbourne 7,000,000 25 Hamburg . 5,000,000 12 Artesian wells are of great antiquity ; they were known at Thebes 2000 years before the Christian era. In modem times that of Crenelle, near Paris, is the most famous, having taken eight years in boring, 1833-41 ; it gives 700,000 gallons daily, the water rising 32 feet above the surface, with a temperature of 8iJ° Fahr. Well Grenelle . . Passy . . . Kissingen . . St. Louis, U.S. Chicago . . Calais . , , Donchery . . Trafalgar Square Lille . . , Algeria . . , Elbeuf . . , St. Denis . , Depth, Feet 1,798 1.923 1,880 2,200 700 1,138 1,215 393 592 177 492 262 Diameter, Inches 3-74 27.60 4.00 2.95 2.28 Gallons Water per Minute 484 1,980 600 820 500 1.130 66 28 Cost of Well, £ 14,550 40,000 7,000 2,000 3.560 3.045 320 There are 78 of these wells in England, varying from 100 to 1000 feet. Several have been sunk in China more than 1000 feet, at a cost of only seven shillings per foot. The water companies of London in iSSo showed: capital, ;£■ 1 2, 463,000; receipts, ;^l,46o,ooo; expenses, ;f 740,000 ; net profit, ;£'720,ooo. The water-supply of Paris in 1884 was as follows, daily : — Aqueduct 55,000,000 Seine and wells .... 33,000,000 Total 88,000,000 X w E- < ►J WEALTH 589 WEALTH WEALTH Various estimates have been made from time to time, by economists and others, as to the wealth of the principal countries and the ratio per inhabitant. Thus in a paper read at Bath in 1888, before the British Association, by the author of this Dictionary, the wealth of the United States was estimated at ;^2I2 per inhabitant, the census of 1890 afterwards showing that the real average was ;^2l6 per inhabitant, a difference of less than 2 per cent. The wealth of nations in 1888 was approximately thus : — 1 Millions £ Sterling inhab. : Farms i Railw-ays Buildings Furniture Merchandise Bullion Sundries Total United Kingdom . | 2,287 | 86s 2,42a 1,210 690 120 3,208 10,800 300 France . i 3,230 S70 1,700 850 310 330 1,910 8,900 240 Germany . , 2,500 49S 1.560 780 360 170 1.63s 7,500 160 Russia 2,400 314 900 450 120 SO 1,566 5.800 60 Austria • 1 1,730 307 640 320 100 30 1.073 4.200 i°S Italy . . i 1,400 138 400 200 ■ 90 30 642 2,900 95 Spain . . i 1,200 94 340 170 60 40 596 2,500 150 Portugal . ' 160 19 70 35 20 10 86 400 90 Sweden 200 28 100 5° 30 4 138 550 140 Norway 80 7 30 IS 16 2 5° 200 100 Denmark 250 10 60 30 26 2 92 47° 230 Holland 380 35 160 80 200 20 105 980 240 Belgium 44S 71 160 80 no 20 124 1, 010 170 Switzerland 150 37 80 40 60 6 87 460 150 Greece 133 6 30 IS 7 3 46 240 90 Roumania 240 29 50 25 25 6 13s 510 95 Servia 105 6 20 10 4 3 32 180 85 Europe . 1 16,890 3.031 8,720 4,360 2,228 846 11.525 47,600 180 United Sta tes . .1 3,600 I.9SO 3,200 1,600 320 233 1.915 12,820 210 Canada . . . 1 360 150 120 60 40 4 196 980 200 Australia . 1 630 94 240 120 70 24 192 1.370 370 Argentina . i 190 45 100 SO 42 I 92 530 140 T Dtal . . 21,670 5.270 12,380 6,190 2,700 1,110 13,920 63,300 United Kingdom The following table shows the estimates made at various dates : — Date Millions/ Comprising Authority 1660 250 England and Wales Petty 1703 1774 490 1,100 ,, Davenant Young iSoo 1.740 Great Britain Beeke. Eden 1812 2,190 United Kingdom Colquhoun 1822 2,600 ,, Lord Liverpool 1833 1840 1865 3.750 4,100 6,113 I, fi Pablo Pebrer Porter GiSen 1875 8,548 ,, ■■ ■ ■ 1885 10.037 .. •• Regarding Petty's valuation, we only know that land constTtuted 57 per cent, of the total, the selling price being then under ;^s an acre. At the time of Davenant it had risen to £g, and of Young to ;^l8. Towards the close of the 1 8th century Beeke, Pitt, and Eden made valuations of Great Britain, all previous ones being of England without Scotland. Dr. Beeke valued the real estate at 920 millions, viz. : — Land in England . . . 600,000,000 Land in Scotland . . . 120,000,000 Houses in Great Britain . . 200,000.000 Real estate . . 920.000,000 The most elaborate work of this kind was Colquhonn's in 1812, the first valuation of the United Kingdom : he made the total 2745 millions in the currency of the period, equal in gold to 2190 millions sterling. His table of values evidently formed the basis on which Lord Liverpool and Pablo Pebrer afterwards constructed theirs. Pebrer's estimate of the value of- the United Kingdom in 1833 was as follows : — MiUion £ Sterlin T England Scotland Ireland United Kingdom Lands . 1,000 200 400 1,600 Cattle . 150 26 66 242 Grain . 40 7 13 60 Houses . 400 40 93 533 Furniture 173 20 S3 246 Public buildings . 42 4 II 57 Mines and canals . 151 10 5 166 Merchandise . 21 32 186 Jewellery and clothes 66 7 13 86 Sundries 316 38 64 418 Total 2.471 373 7SO 3.594 He furthermore estimated the earnings and capital of the United Kingdom and Colonies thus : — Earnings, £ S c <3g Population ::: U Inhab. U. Kingdom Canada . . West Indies Mauritius . South Africa Australia . Total . 514,800,000 17,600,000 22,500,000 1,200,000 1,100,000 500,000 3.594 62 89 13 3 24,300,000 910,000 730,000 100,000 SS.000 40,000 149 68 121 130 109 75 21.0 19.4 31.0 12.0 20.0 12.5 SS7.700.000 3.767 '26,135,000 144 ai.5 WEALTH 59° WEALTH Porter's estimate in 1840 in a manner confirmed all those previously made, showing a progressive increase of wealth, and relied, moreover, on the legacy and succes- sion returns. Dr. Giffen's tables for 1865-75-85 are sui generis, laying down a new method of valuation, namely, capitalising the various sources of income in the income- tax returns. His table for 1885 may be condensed thus : — Capital Years- Purchase Income, £ Value.Mill. A] Lands 65,090,000 1,691 28 Houses 128,500,000 1,927 15 Farmers' profits 65,223,000 522 8 Foreign loans . 21,096,000 527 25 British railways . 33,270,000 932 28 Foreign railways 3,808,000 75 20 Trades and professions 38,096,000 541 IS Furniture, &c. . 960 Various companies . 34,789,000 696 20 Mines and quarries . 8,536,000 34 4 Gasworks . 5,026,000 126 25 Waterworks 3,260,000 6S 20 Ironworks . 2,265,000 9 4 Canals 3,546,000 71 20 Investments abroad . 50,000,000 500 10 Public property . 500 Sundries . 91,517,000 860 Total 554,022,000 10,037 If there be a weak point in Dr. Giffen's method, it is the capitalising of farmers' profits and income arising from trades and professions, together 1063 millions ster- ling; many people will question whether these items should be counted at all. The following table shows approximately the principal items of national wealth at various dates : — Million £ 1812 1810 1860 1888 Lands 1,380 1,680 1,748 1,873 Cattle, &e. 240 280 350 414 Houses . 255 740 1,100 2,424 Railways . . 21 348 865 Shipping . 15 23 44 134 Merchandise , 70 no 370 690 Furniture . 130 370 55° 1,212 Bullion . 23 61 105 124 Foreign loans, &c. . 105 330 420 1,660 Public properties 266 485 92s 1,404 Total ♦. . 2.190 4,100 S.960 10,800 Land is still one of the great features of wealth. For the sake of comparison, we may capitalise the rental at thirty years' purchase since the middle of the 18th century. As regards 1888, it is admitted that the rental valuation is 20 per cent, more than the landlords actually receive, and hence in the following table the value for 1888 is doubtless too high : — Value of Land, Million £ Sterling England Scotland Ireland Total 1750 . . . 381 24 93 498 1780 . . . 507 36 159 702 I8I4 . . . 1,112 145 213 1.470 1843 . . . 1,264 167 246 1,677 1850 . . . 1,286 167 252 1,704 i860 . . . 1,289 189 270 1,748 1868 . . . 1.433 216 276 1.925 1877 . . . 1,548 231 298 2,077 1888 . . . 1.36S 207 301 1,873 The value of land in the three kingdoms rose 40 per cent during the wars in Canada and United States, but the wars against Bonaparte caused a still greater rise owing to the enormous prices paid for grain. The upward movement continued until 1877, from which date there has been a steady, continuous decline. Houses in the early part of the present century were little over 10 per cent, of the wealth of the nation ; at present they exceed 25 per cent, of the total. I have capitalised the rental at 18 years, while Dr. Giffen thinks 1 5 years sufficient. ■The increase of house property in the United Kingdom in a single lifetime, say 67 years, has been over 2000 millions sterling, viz. : — Number of Houses Rental, £ Value, Million £ Annual Increase Year Houses Value, Million ;f 1B21 1841 1861 1887 3,572,000 4,775,000 5,131,000 7,100,000 20,300,000 41,500,000 61,200,000 134,700,000 366 747 1,102 2,424 60,000 18,000 77,000 19 18 S6 It must not, however, be supposed that 2000 millions sterling have been expended on new houses since 1821 : the value of sites has risen very remarkably, which is included in the above table. The actual house property of the United Kingdom may be distinguished approxi- mately thus : — Number Value, Million £ ^per House Built before 1840 . . „ since 1840 . . 4,400,000 2,700,000 I.S70 854 357 316 Total . . . 7,100,000 2,434 341 There is no country in the world in which the value of house property to population is so high as in England, nor any (except Russia) where it is lower than in Ireland. The houses and values in the three kingdoms stand thus :— Houses Value, £ ^ per House England . . Scotland . . Ireland . . . 5,206,000 980,000 914,000 2,131,000,000 230,000,000 63,000,000 408 235 69 U. Kingdom . 7,100,000 2,424,000,000 341 The growth of house property in each of the three kmgdoms has been already set forth in detail under the title Houses. Railways constitute an entirely new element of wealth that has sprung up in the last fifty years ; they represent at present a value far in excess of the National Debt. Year Miles Cost. £ Cost per Mile 1840 i860 1888 650 10,430 19,810 21,000,000 348,100,000 864,700,000 32,000 33.400 43.700 The increase of railway capital in twenty years, down to i860, was ;£'i6,4CXJ,ooo per annum, and ;^i8,400,ocx) in the years from i860 to 1888. Shipping has grown about nine-fold in value since Colquhoun's estimate in 1812, and at present represents a sum equal to the col- lective values of all the other merchant navies of the world ; for this item, be it understood, does not include war-vessels, the latter being counted with dockyards, arsenals, smd other public property. WEALTH 59' WEALTH The ^pping of our merchant navy, including machinery \ad fittings, represents the following amovmt :- Tons Value, £ ;f per Ton Sailing . Steam . 3,115,000 4,350,000 24,920,000 108,750,000 8 2S Total . 7,465,000 133.670,000 Merchandise in the above summary is put down at a sum equal to 12 months' imports and exports at the several dates. Furniture is, at auctioneers' estimates, taken at 50 per cent of the value of house property. Bullion and foreign loans have been estimated at various dates more or less at the figures stated. Foreign investments in 1888 were approximately as follows : — Colonial loans and railways . . 430,000,000 Australian mortgages . . . 330.000,000 Foreign loans and railways , . 900,000,000 Total , . . 1,660,000,000 Public properties in the United Kingdom were approxi- mately thus :- 180,000 miles of roads 6000 miles of streets . Canals, docks, and royal navy . Drains, waterworks, telegraphs Public buildings Parks, crown forests, arsenals, &c. Total £ 90,000,000 60,000,000 115,000,000 178,000,000 400,000,000 561,000,000 , 1,404,000,000 The total wealth of the three kingdoms in iS excluding public properties, thus : — > was, Millions £ Sterling England Scotland Ireland Total Lands Houses . CatUe, &C. Railways . Furniture . Other items* . 1365 2,131 267 714 1,066 2,271 207 230 S3 114 "5 229 301 63 94 3; 31 112 1.873 2.424 414 865 1,212 2,612 Total . 7.814 948 638 9,400 The distribution of wealth in the United Kingdom may be approximately arrived at if we multiply the number of estates that paid l^acy-duty by fifty, wluch corresponds more or less to the number of inhabitants. TTie ofiBcial returns showing the amount of property c h a nging hands under probate or legacy in the years 1885-89 give the averages thus per annum : — Estates Number Amotmt, £ Average. ;f Over ;^SOO,ooo . . /ioo,ooo-if 500,000 7[l0,000-;^00,000 . Xiooo-/io,ooo . . Under ^looo . . II 147 2,279 ".153 30,660 9,400,000 27,800,000 60,400,000 35,500,000 10,100,000 855,000 190,000 26,500 3.200 330 Total . . 44.250 143,200,000 3.250 The above is exclusive of estates paying succession- dnty, which amounted in the same years to an average of ;£'44,8oo,ooo, equal to 31 per cent of the former. In Older, therefore, to estimate the total value of property • As the amount under this heading that would corre- spond to each country cannot be ascertained, the sum is distributed fro rata according to the income-tax assessments of the three kingdoms. changing hands, we may be permitted to add 31 per cent, to the number of each class as given above, and like- wise to the amoimt The accoimt will then stand thus : — Estates Amount, £ Average, £ Over jf 500,000 . /l00,000-/'500,000 . /[io.ooo-;4ioo,ooo . jfciooo-/io,ooo Under ^looo . 12,000,000 36,700,000 78,500,000 46,800,000 14,000,000 855,000 190,000 26,500 3,200 340 Total 188,000,000 3.250 If we follow Porter's method, and multiply the above number of estates by fifty, as the number of living persons is about fifty times the annual number of deaths, we find the wealth of the kingdom is held as in the subjoined table. Moreover, as each estate proved may be taken to stand for a household averaging 54 persons, we must distribute the amoimt in households, and not per indi- vidual : — Class Households Average, £ Aggregate, Millions £ Millionaire; Very rich Rich. . Middle . Struggling Poor . • ■ 700 9.650 148,250 730,500 2,008,000 3,916,900 855,000 190.000 26,500 3,200 340 1.834 3.928 2.336 680 Tota 1 . . 6,814,000 9.377 The above total is almost equal to the amount given in the conspectus as the wealth of the kingdom, if we deduct 1400 millions for public works, &c It is, how- ever, apparent that a portion (probably 10 per cent.) of the wealth on which probate duty is paid consists of fiduciary documents which cannot be considered in a nation's wealth, such as bills of exchange and stocks of the National Debt This last, 700 millions sterling, is held in the United Kingdom, and consequently figures among testamentary estates, while adding nothing to the nation's wealth. France Numerous estimates have been made : those of La- voisier, 1789, and Chaptal, in 1815, were as follows : — Millions £ 1789 1815 Rural property . Urban property Personal property 840 280 400 1.040 320 440 Total 1,520 1 1,800 Those of Foumier de Flaix and Yves Guyot, &om 1826 to date, are as follows : — Fiaix Guyot Million £ Year MilUon £ 1 Real Personal Total Real Personal| Total 1826 1,560 1,020 2,580 1826 1,720 1,120 ; 2,840 1833 1,674 1,152 2,826 i8,^3 1,840 1,280 1 3,120 1841 1,881 1.359 3.240 1841 2,080 1,520 3.600 1849 2,115 1.530 3.64s 1855 2,280 1,560 3.840 1857 2,322 1.971 4.293 i860 2.480 i,88o 4.360 1865 j 2,934 2.646 S.S80 1865 ' 2,640 2,200 4.840 1873 ! 3.510 3.312 6,822 1875 ' 3,560 3,240 b,8oo i88a 1 4.835 4.275 9,110 1885 4,480 4,080 8.560 WEALTH 592 WEALTH The following is a summary of the most notable estimates : — Million ^ 1,52° Year 1789 181S 1853 187 1 1872 1879 1879 1879 1880 1881 1882 1885 1,800 5,000 7,000 7,600 8,000 7.520 9,600 9,200 8,640 9,110 8,560 Author Lavoisier Chaptal Girardin Wolowski Ayen Foville Leroy Beaulieu Amelin Vacher Mouey Flaix Guyot The following table shows approximately the compo- nents of the wealth of France at various dates : — Value in Million £, 1789 1826 1810 1873 1885 Land . . . 740 1.293 1.473 3.000 2,688 Cattle, &c. . loS 202 270 588 541 Houses . . 280 Sio 720 1,150 1,704 Furniture . 140 2SS 360 675 852 Railways 10 270 532 Shipping . 4 7 7 12 IS Bullion . . 88 no lis 180 300 Merchandise II 19 33 120 15s Public works 40 170 300 450 630 Sundries 112 274 312 377 1,143 Total . 1,520 2,840 3,600 6,822 8,s6o De Flaix and Vacher make the total 500 or 600 millions more than the above estimate for 1885, but perhaps they have not sufficiently allowed for the depre- ciation of land since 1S80. The above total is that given by Yves Guyot for 1885. The increase of wealth since 1873 appears to have averaged 116 millions sterling per annum. Belgium Massalski, in his Richesse de Belgique (18S0), sums up the national wealth at 294 milliards of francs, or 1 180 millions sterling, which is 17 per cent, over my estimate. It is to be observed that properties subject to legacy and succession duties from 1880 to 1885 averaged only 18 millions sterling, which at the current death-rate of 20 per thousand would give a total wealth of 900 millions sterling, exclusive of royal palaces, public workb, &c. . these latter would hardly exceed 1 10 millions sterling. Germany It is remarkable that whereas the earnings of the German people, as set forth under the head of Iticome, are only i per cent. less than those of France, the wealth of Germany appears to be one-sixth less. This is, how- ever, in great measure explained by the great difference in the value of land, Germany averaging £,2\, France £yi per cultivated acre. The imperial assessment for taxation is in the following ratio, and if we suppose wealth to be distributed in like manner, it will be as in the subjoined table : — Ratio Millions £ Prussia .... 60.3 4,520 Bavaria . 11.7 880 Saxony 6.6 500 Wurtemburg . 4-3 320 Baden 3-4 250 Alsace 3-4 250 Hesse . 2.1 150 Other States . 8.2 630 Total lOO.O 7.S00 Soetbeer shows that the earnings of the Prussian people advanced 25 per cent, from 1872 to 1885, and if we suppose that wealth increased in like degree, this makes the accumulation of thirteen years amount to 1 136 mil- lions, or 88 millions sterling per annum — say 40s. pei inhabitant, against 72s. in the United Kingdom. Austria In 1880 Beer estimated the total wealth of the monarchy at 40,000 million florins, or about 3800 millions sterling, being only 10 per cent, under my estimate. We have no means to arrive at the increase of wealth, but Rosch- mann in 1883 estimated the national earnings at 610 millions sterling, against 550 millions in 1874, an increase of II per cent. If wealth increased in the same ratio the accumulation must have been 380 millions sterling, or 42 millions per annum, say 23s. per inhabitant, against 40s. in Germany. Italy Nevraiann Spallart valued the total wealth of the country thus : — Million ^ Sterling Lands ..,.,., 1,160 Houses 360 Furniture, railways, &c. . . . 404 Total 1,924 This was too low a valuation, an Italian writer in 1868 having arrived at a total of 1934 millions. Pantaleoni, following Porter's method, based on legacy returns, shows that (exclusive of public property) the wealth of the people exceeds 2100 millions ; he multiplies the amount of property subjected to legacy or succession by forty. The amount of such property in 1884 was »S3>SO°>°o°> and hence the national wealth was 2140 millions sterling. This is exclusive of roads, public buildings, royal navy, arsenals, harbours &c., worth at least 300 millions, bringing up the total to 2440 millions sterling. This is 16 per cent, less than my estimate. Possibly some of the property subjected to legacy-duty was undervalued, in order to enable the heirs to evade a part of the duties. According to the Archivio, the value of lands and houses in 1880 was 1562 millions sterling ; in my table they stand for 1576 millions, a difference of less than 1 per cent. Spain The figures of the Junta de Medios in 1832 compare with mine for 1888 as follows : — Million jf Sterling 1832 1888 Increase Lands .... Houses .... Railways Sundries 686 237 186 984 340 94 1,098 298 103 94 912 Total 1,109 2,516 1,407 It is manifest that the item of sundries in 1S32, which included everything in the kingdom except land and houses, was very much understated. Personal property- alone would have been at least 25 per cent, of total. A proper valuation in 1832 would perhaps have showii a total of 1400 millions. In that case the accumulation of the 56 years down to 1888 would average 20 millions steriing per annum, or 27s. per inhabitant, as compared with 40s. in Germany, and 72s. in United Kino-dom. WEALTH 593 WEALTH Denmark In 1885 Falbe estimated the total wealth at 372 •"'■'ions sterling, or 20 per cent, less than my total for 1888. His figures were : — Million £ Houses and lands 257 Personal property 115 Total 372 He estimated that real estate had risen from 65 millions sterling in 1848, being an increase of 192 millions sterling in 37 years, say ;f 5,200,000 per annum. This (irrespec- tive of chattels or personal property) was equivalent to an accumulation of 60s. yearly per inhabitant It was the direct result of breaking up the estates of the nobles, and facilitating their purchase by the peasantry. Holland The value of testamentary and succession property which changed hands in the years 1879-83, latest that the Risumi publishes, averaged as follows : — Houses and lands .... 9,100,000 Dutch National Debt .... 1,200,000 Other personal assets .... 13,000,000 Total 23,300,000 Excluding the National Debt for reasons already given, we find a sum of ;f 22, 100,000, which, multiplied by 44 (as the living were in those years 44 times the number of deaths), gives approximately the wealth of Holland, say 972 millions sterling; the figure in the conspectus is 980 millions. United States The first Census of wealth was taken in 1790, which showed as follows : — % £ Lands . . . 479,000,000 = 99,800,000 Houses, &c. . , 141,000,000 29,400,000 Total 620,000,000 129,200,000 The following table shows the results in English gold at each Census, and an estimate for 1888 as already given :* — * The New York Jourjtal of Commerce in 1887 estimated the wealth of the Union at 61,000 millions of dollars, or 12,700 millions sterling, showing, moreover, that the amount of insured property had risen as follows : — Year £ 1870 735,000,000 1880 1,495,000,000 1885 2,184,000,000 Year 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 i860 1870 1880 1888 Wealth, Million £ £ Sterling per Inhabi- tant 129 222 312 392 SS2 782 1,484 3.361 5,413 9.077 12,824 33 42 43 41 43 46 64 107 140 180 210 Yearly Increase Of Wealth, Perlnhabi- £ tant 9,300,000 9,000,000 8,000,000 16,000,000 23,000,000 70,200,000 187,700,000 205,200,000 366,400,000 468,400,000 £ .. d. 210 190 19 o 190 1 II o 3 lo o 6 16 o 5 17 o 840 8 10 o The following table shows approximately the chief components of American wealth since 1850 : — Millions of Dollars, Gold 1860 1860 1870 1880 1888 Land . . . Cattle . . . Railways . . Factories . . Houses . . . Furniture . . Sundries . . 3.310 550 290 520 1,000 500 966 6,910 1,080 1,140 1,010 2,600 1.300 2,120 8,320 1.415 2,047 1,902 5.460 2,730 4,108 10,197 1,630 4,897 2,790 10,800 5,400 7.928 12,300 2.40s 9.340 3.500 14,000 7,000 13.OSS Total . 7.136 16,160 25,982 43.642 61,600 Comparing the Census returns of 1880 with those of 1850, it appears that the accumulations of thirty years amounted in the State of New York alone to 1360 millions sterling, and that the six States of New York, Pennsyl- vania, Illinois, Ohio, Massachusetts, and California stood for 60 per cent of the total accumulations of the Union. If we suppose that each inhabitant contributed equally to the public wealth, and take the mean number of each nationality for the 30 years in question, we find the ac- cumulations of 30 years ending 1880 were made up thus : — Increase of Wealth , MiUion/ Sterling, by State Ameri- Irish Ger- Others Total mans New York . 1,027 156 87 90 1.360 Pennsylvania 831 63 41 37 972 Illinois 494 27 47 43 611 Ohio . ■;o6 17 38 20 S8i Massachusetts 355 66 4 37 462 California . 19s 23 14 61 293 Other States 2,822 119 143 228 3.312 Total 6,230 471 374 S16 7.S9I The several Census returns from 1850 to i88o show the wealth of each State in values reduced to English gold (allowing 14 per cent discount for paper values in 1870) as follows : — Million £ Sterling Increase of 30 Years £ Sterling per Inhabitant 1850 ' 1860 ' 1870 1 1880 1850 1860 1870 1880 Maine New Hampshire ...... Vermont Rhode Island Connecticut Massachusetts 26 22 19 17 32 119 39 63 32 46 25 42 28 53 92 140 169 384 104 68 60 87 177 581 46 41 70 145 462 44 70 60 112 85 120 60 96 77 160 201 13s 102 i^ 240 256 257 160 196 180 320 283 320 New England .... 235 ' 38s 728 ; 1.077 842 86 122 208 270 2 P WEALTH 594 WEALTH Million £ Sterling Increase of 30 Years ] £ Sterling per Inhabitant 1860 1860 1870 1880 860 1860 1870 1880 New York 224 384 1,170 1.585 1.361 73 99 261 322 New Jersey. ..... 42 98 169 298 256 87 147 186 260 Pennsylvania ..... ISO 29s 686 1,122 972 6S lOI 196 262 Delaware ...... 4 9 17 29 25 44 80 136 200 Maryland 46 79 116 181 13s 80 115 ISO 195 Middle States .... 466 86S 2,158 3.2IS 2.749 70 105 220 257 Virginia 89 166 108 208 119 63 105 61 98 North Carolina 47 75 47 92 45 55 75 44 66 South Carolina 60 114 38 61 I 90 54 61 Georgia 70 134 48 "S 4S 77 126 32 77 Florida 5 IS 8 20 IS 105 43 74 Alabama ...... 48 103 36 79 31 63 107 40 64 Mississippi 48 127 38 67 19 79 44 60 Louisiana 49 I2S 58 88 39 9S 180 78 93 Texas II 76 29 151 140 52 126 35 94 Arkansas 8 46 28 51 43 38 104 58 64 Kentucky 63 138 109 183 120 64 120 84 III Tennessee 42 103 90 138 76 4a 92 72 90 The South S40 1,222 637 1.253 713 66 119 57 82 Ohio los 249 402 686 581 53 107 150 21S Illinois ...... 32 181 382 643 611 38 105 151 210 Missouri 28 104 231 318 290 42 88 138 147 Indiana 42 no 229 312 270 42 82 138 156 Iowa 5 SI 130 294 289 26 77 108 180 Michigan 12 S3 130 285 273 30 70 108 177 Wisconsin 9 57 126 202 193 30 71 120 ISO Minnesota II 41 133 133 66 91 170 Kansas ■ •■ 6 34 120 120 55 93 120 Nebraska • .. 2 13 60 60 70 104 132 Colorado 4 31 31 100 160 California 5 43 "5 300 29s 55 "3 206 350 Oregon I 6 9 26 25 75 120 100 ISO Nevada 6 14 14 145 230 Territories '"6 21 38 108 102 The West 24s 894 1,890 3.532 3.287 43 92 136 187 The Union 1,486 3.366 S.413 9.077 7.591 64 107 140 180 also Tasmania and New Zealand. It is, however, incom- ;f 205 sterling, or nearly £1 per annum, viz. : — plete, because it excludes public works, crown-lands, and other public properties. Increase Annual The total wealth, as shown in the conspectus, appears States Million Annual Average, £ Mean Population Accumu- lation per Head to reach the sum of 1373 millions sterling, and to have grown in eighteen years as follows : — 842 28,070,000 3,400,000 £ s. d. 840 Million £ Sterling New England . 1870 1888 Middle . . . 2.749 713 91,630,000 23,800,000 9,500,000 11,700,000 9 13 210 South . . . Lands . , , - 89 47 27 60 30 29 38 533 West . . . 3.287 109,600,000 12,200,000 90c 5. Cattle Railways . . , Houses Furniture . Merchandise Union . . . 7.591 233,100,000 36,800,000 6 17 c 94 239 120 65 255 and without parallel in the history of the human race. Sundries . Australia. Total . 320 1.373 approximately as follows : — IS 1 At a meeting of one of the Australian banks in London in 1888, it was stated thatthe wealth of the seven Colonies was as follows : — Millions ' Population Per Heac Million £ Private wealth 1.015 1838 .... i. 200,000 £ 130 Public works 175 Banks 148 1863. . . . i8B8 .... 181 1. 135 1,264,000 3,680,000 144 307 Total . . . 1,338 This includes the fiv{ ; Colonies ( 3f the mail iland, an d 1 valu e of whi( h could > • not b e ea sily state d. iiua, iiic WEALTH 595 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Mr. Coghlan's distribution of the wealth of the several Colonies differs from my estimates as follows (1888) : — Millions Sterling Coghlan Mulhall New South Wales . Victoria .... Queensland South Australia . Tasmania .... New Zealand . Western Australia 410 386 106 ^l 26 14s 483 370 132 131 3f 208 13 Total 1. 136 1.373 Mr. Coghlan's figures, as already stated, exclude rail- ways, crown-lands, &c. The principal components of wealth in 1888 may be estimated to have stood thus in 'million £ sterling : — I) •0 ■0 Ji 1 « s ", c S ■c S 3 1 1 •0 d 3 ^- N. S. Wales 181 2^, 27 Q2 46 23 89 483 440 Victoria. . . 107 12 28 91 46 18 68 370 337 Queensland . ,S8 12 13 12 6 6 25 132 330 S. Australia . 64 s 10 13 7 7 2.'! 131 413 Tasmania . 16 I 2 S 3 2 7 3b 240 New Zealand 100 II 13 a-; 12 8 39 208 34S W. Australia 7 I I I ... I 2 13 310 Total . S33 67 94 239 120 6S 2SS 1.373 377 The increase of wealth in Australia would therefore seem to have been as follows ! — Annual Date Wealth, Annual Mean Accumula- Million £ Increase,;^ Population tion per Inhabitant £ s. d. 1838 . . 26 1863 . . 181 6,200,000 700,000 8 16 1870 . . 320 19,900,000 1,600,000 12 9 1888 . . 1.373 58,500,000 2,800,000 20 18 The average annual accumulation per inhabitant has been more than double that in the United States, where it has never exceeded £% los. Respecting the Colony of New South Wales, Mr. Coghlan states that if public works, railways &c, were included, the total would reach 521 millions sterling, that is, 8 per cent, over my estimate. And as regards Victoria, one of the Melbourne papers (apparently quoting Uie ofiScial statistics of Mr. Hayter) says :— " In the statistics of the Colony for 1886, an estimate is made of the wealth of the population on the basis of the property left by deceased persons, it being supposed that the average amount left by each person dying is equivalent to the average amount possessed by each person living. On this basis the national wealth amounted to nearly 144 millions sterling, or ;^l8s per head in the five years 1872 to 1876; to nearly 187 milUons sterhng, or £27.7, per head in the five years 1877 to 1881 ; and to nearly 286- mUUons sterling, or ;^30S per head in the five years 1882 to 1886." . , ., „■ , e. The above is exclusive of railways, pubhc works &c., which would doubUess bring up the total to my figure of 370 milUons sterling in 1888. With respect to New Zealand, the ofiScial returns for 1886, exclusive of public works, and crown-lands, amounted to 1 52 millions sterling, which was apparently equivalent to 200 millions, includ- ing the items omitted. It is right to observe that the public debt, which was 175 millions sterling in December 1889, is held almost wholly in England, and ought there- fore to be deducted from the wealth. This would leave a balance of 1200 millions sterling, or ;f 330 per inhabitant, against ;^247 in the United Kingdom, £210 in the United States, ;f 230 in Denmark, ^224 in France. Canada The following table shows approximately the total wealth in 1861 and 1888 :— Million £ Sterling 1861 1888 Increase Lands .... 102 282 180 Cattle, &C. . . . 38 80 42 Railways 23 151 128 Houses .... 80 127 47 Furniture 40 64 24 Merchandise 21 41 20 Sundries 88 235 147 Total 392 980 588 This shows an annual accumulation of 22 millions sterling, with a mean population of 4,000,000 souls, say £^ IDS. per head, against £?i los. in the United States, and £11 los. during the same period in Australia. Cape Colony In 1883 the value of lands and houses was assessed as follows : — £ Cape Town 4,979,000 Port Elizabeth .... 1,950,000 Kiraberley 1,711,000 Rural districts .... 29,160,000 Total 37,800,000 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES The following is a general table of weights and mea- sures : — Name Locality Equivalent Acre .... England 4,840 square yards Almud . Turkey Portugal 7=8 gallons 4=IS .. Amphora Rome 7 .. At France 100=247 acres Ardeb . Egypt 300 lbs. Arpent . France 12=10 acres Arroba . Spain 25 lbs. Aum Germany 31 gallons Bag, cocoa England 112 lbs. ,, coffee Braza 160 „ ,, rice India 168 ,, ,, sugar Bale . United States Brazil Egypt India 168 „ 48S .. 156 ,. 600 „ 376 .. Barrel, ale England 36 gallons ,, apple s United States 150 lbs. „ flour ,, 200 „ „ fish Norway 1,000 in number Berkovetz Russia 400 lbs. Bonnier France 3 acres WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 596 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Name Bushel, barley 11 beans 11 hempseed ,1 maize ,1 malt „ oats ,, peas >• rye „ salt „ wheat Bunder . Butt . Cable . Cantar . Cask, rice ,, tallow ,, wine Catty . Centner ,, metric Chain . Chaldron, coal Chest, tea Chetvert Chittack Cord, wood Cuartillo Cubit . Dessiatine Drachm Eimer . Ell Fanega . Fanegado Fathom Feddan Fcrrado Firkin . Flask, quicksilvi Furlong Gallon . Gill Grain . Gramme Hank . Hectare Hectolitre Hide' . Hogshead Hundred, great, eggs Inch Jar, oil . Joch Ju( hart . Kanna . Kilderkin Kilogram Kilometre Klafter, wood Knot . Last ',', salt League . Lino Litre Load, bricks ,, corn II hay ,, straw , , wood Mark . Locality Equivalent Name Locality Equivalent England 54 lbs. Mark . . . . France gold=^2S ,, 63 ,1 Maund India 8olbs. ^, 44 II Motre France 100=328 feet ,, 59 1. Mancus England 2 ounces II 38 II Metzen Germany 24=1 ton ■1 40 ,1 Mile England 1,760 yards ,, 64 II ,, Ireland 2,240 , , ,, 59 1. ,, Germany 8,140 ,, 11 56 .. ,, Turkey 1,870 1, ,j 61 „ ,, Sweden 11,770 II Holland 2=1 acre ,, Geographical 2|02S , , England 108 gallons 120 fathoms Millimetre Minute . France 25=1 inch 60=1 hour Egypt 100 lbs. Morgen Germany 5=3 acres United States 672 ,1 Mudden Holland 14=1 ton England 1,008 ,, . Muid . France 50 bushels ,, 108 gallons Oke . Greece 4=11 lbs. China 3=4 lbs. Ounce . England 16=1 lb. Germany no lbs. >i Avoirdupois 12=1 lb. ,, 220 ,, Pack, wool England 240 lbs. England 65 feet Palm . ,, 4 inches ,, 3=8 tons Parasang Persia 34 miles China 82 lbs. Peck . England 14 lbs. Russia 310 ,, Pennyweight ,, 20=1 ounce India 2 ounces Perch . j^ 54 yards Germany 2 J tons Picul . China 133 lbs. Spain 9=1 gallon Piece, calico England 24 yards ^sia Tlussia 18 inches Pint ,, 8 = 1 gallon 3=8 acres Pipe ,, 126 gallons England 16=1 ounce Poinfon France 25 gallons Austria 12 gallons Pocket, hops England 168 lbs. England 36 inches Pole . ,, 164 feel Spain 4 bushels Pond . Denmark 100=110 lbs. ,, 10=16 acres Pood . Russia 36 lbs. England 6 feet Pott Norway 100=21 gallons Egypt 20=21 acres Pound . England 16 ounces Portugal 8=1 acre 1, Rome 12 ,, England If 68 lbs. 76 11 Puncheon Quarter England 120 gallons 8 bushels t> 220 yards Queue, wine . France 54 gallons „ 4 quarts Quintal . Spain no lbs. (1 4=1 pint ,, metri< -ai ; Austria 220 „ 480=1 ounce Rittergut Germany 600 acres ,, 453—1 lb. Rood . England 4=1 acre ,, 840 yards Sack, coal ■* 224 lbs. France 100=247 acres , 1 flour . 280 ,, ,, 22 gallons Sagene . Russia 7 tons wood ,, 150 lbs. Second . ,, 60=1 minute England 100 acres Salma . Spain 44 acres ,, 63 gallons Scheffel Germany 100=145 bushels ,, 10 dozen Schekel . Asia 2=1 ounce ,, 12=1 foot Septier . • France 4=17 bushels Italy 25 gallons Sextarius Rome 6=1 gallon Hungary 100= 143 acres Skalpund Sweden 106=100 lbs. Switzerland 5=4 acres Span England 9 inches Sweden 100=58 gallons Strema . Greece 4=1 acre Germany 100=44 1. Stadium 120 yards England 18 ,1 St^re, wood . France 35 cubic feet France 1,000=1 ton 100=62 miles Stone, fish . ,, meat . England 14 lbs. 8 ,, Austria 2 tons Stoup . 2=1 gallon England 2,000 yards Talent, gold . Asia' 4 lbs. 40=1 acre Norway 3^ tons Tavola . Italy Germany 2 ,1 Tierce, pork . England 320 lbs. England 18 barrels Toise . France 64 feet 2,240 lbs. Holland 6,380 yards Ton England Spain 6,160 „ II • . United States 2,000 ,, Portugal 6,760 ,, Tub . England 84 lbs. France 4.860 „ Truss, straw . 36 II 56 „ Marine 6,075 1. II bay . Paraguay 50=1 acre Tun, wine , 252 gallons France 100=22 gallons Tunna . Sweden 4 bushels 4=5 acres England 500 Tunnland . ,, 40 bushels Vara . Spain 34.1 inches » I ton Vedro . Russia 10=27 gallons ,, 4 ton Verst . ,j 100=60 miles ,, 50 cubic feet Yard . England 36 inches France 8 oz. silver WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 597 WINE G?'ain Is 1 S a s 1 a Si > 3 V m ffi- OT s .a Cubic metre as-s 27.60 3.4s 10.00 19.30 16.50 S.00 Bushel . . 1-3 I.OO 0.12 0.36 0.70 0.60 0.18 Quarter . . 10.4 8.00 I.OO 2,90 5.60 4.80 1.44 Ton . . . ,S2.0 40.00 5-00 14.50 28.00 24.00 7.20 Hectolitre . %', 2.76 0.3^ I.OO 1-93 I.6S 0.50 Schefifel . . 1.9 1-45 0.18 O.S3 I.OO 0.86 0.26 Metzen . . 2.2 1.66 0.21 0.60 1. 16 I.OO 0.30 Chetvert . 1 7.0 S-S5 0.70 2.00 390 3-3° I.OO Length Mile . . . 0.88 Knot . . . 1.00 Kilometre . o-SS Verst. . . 0.58 Knot Mile I.OO 1. 14 0.62 0.66 Kilometre 1. 61 1.83 I.OO 1.07 Verst 1.50 1.71 0.93 I.OO Liquids Lbs. |S Litre Hecto- litre Eimer Barrel Hogs- head Gallon . Litre . . Hectolitre Eimer . . Barrel. . Hogshead 10.0 a.2 220.0 124.0 360.0 630.0 0.14 0.03 3.10 I-7S ■5.00 8.80 4-S I.O 100.0 56.0 160.0 284.0 0.045 O.OIO I.OOO 0.560 1.600 2-835 0.080 0.018 1.760 I.OOO 2.880 5.000 0.027 0.006 0.600 0.340 1.000 1.710 0.016 0.004 0.3S0 0.200 0.576 I.OOO Sundries 3" •8c 1 1 1 < a English ton 2,240 20.00 I.0I8 1. 120 1,018 62.20 16.80 Cwt. . . 112 I.OO 0.051 0.056 51 3-" 0.84 Quintal . . no 0.98 0.050 0.055 50| 3'05 0.82 French ton 2,204 19.64 I.OOO I.IOO 1,000 61.00 16.50 American 1 ton . j 2,000 17.86 0.910 I.OOO 910 56.40 15.00 Kilogram . 2.20' 00.02 O.OOI 0.001 1.0 0.06 0.016 Pood . . 36: 0.32 i 0.017 0.018 10.3 I.OO 0.27 Picul . . 133 1.20 1 0.061 0,067 60.0 3.67 I.OO Supeificial ■S a a, s „£ >< u < 1. 1 1 a o-o 3-S >s K I "^5 OT Acre . . . 4,840 1.00 1-56 0.405 0.367 0.0040 0.0016 Morgen . . 3,122 0.65 1.000.26010.235 0.0026 0.0010 och . . . 6,914 1-43 2.230.5760.520 0.0057 0.0022 hectare . . 12,000 2.47 3-84 I.OOO 0.910 O.OIOO 0.0039 Dessiatine . 13,100 2.70 4.20 1.093 I.OOO 0.0091:0.0035 Sq. kilom. . 1,190,000 250 390 ICO 91 1.00000.3900 Sq. mile 3,097,600 640 1,000 260 23s 2.601.0 Old English Measures Name S. Wine Gallon, Cub. In. Beer Gallon, Cub. In. Corn Gallon, Cub. In. •si 03 (J Magna Charta Edward III. Henry VII. . Henry VIII. 1225 I3S3 1496 1531 217 219 224 231 266 268 280 282 266 268 280 282 2,130 2,148 2,240 2,256 WHEAT It cannot be grown farther than 60° N. lat. The greatest elevation at which it is found is as follows : — Feet Feet Alps. . 3,600 Sierra Nevada . . 8,200 Brazil ■ Siooo Abyssinia . . 10,000 Caucasus . . 8,000 Andes . 11,000 The yield in various countries for icx) lbs. of seed is : — Lbs. Lbs. Russia , . 500 France ■ 750 Sweden . 500 Poland . 800 Denmart . . . 600 Great Britain . 900 Prussia . 600 Holland . 900 Spain . . 600 United States . 900 Austria . 700 ! Italy . . 1,000 The cultivation in the United Kingdom was • — Annual Average Period Acres Million 1 Con- Bushels 1 sumption Deficit 1849-54. • ■ 1855-66 . . . 1867-72 . . . 1873-78. . . 1881-89 . . . 4,270,000 3,740,000 3,560,000 3,310,000 2,750,000 118 107 98 80 80 152 161 176 184 224 34 54 78 104 144 The average value of wheat crop per acre in United States was as follows in British money : — Period 1871-74 1875-79 Shillings 58 52 Period 1880-83 1884-87 See full statistics at page 8, Agriculture. Shillings ■ 49 • 34 WINDMILLS Holland has 10,100 windmills, representing a value of 20 millions sterling, with an aggregate force of 52,200 horse-power. Cost of drainage, lod. per acre, with a lift of 3 feet ; 2od. at 6 feet, and so on. The average area drained by each mill in Holland is 310 acres, each lifting 150,000 tons or 33 million gallons water daily. WINE Vineyards, Area, and Production* Millions of Gallons S Country (1889) ^ Si B 3 iH "* "^W > France . . 4,550,000 810 670 520 112 44 Italy . . 7,640,000 486 665 580 78 48 Spain . . 4,200,000 450 630 .5.50 130 46 Austria . . 1,580,000 198 225 180 "5 15 Portugal . 510,000 88 125 90 175 9 Germany . 335,000 45 75 70 210 6 Russia . . 300,000 40 75 40 130 4 Turkey . . 200,000 20 59 20 100 2 Greece . . 310,000 30 32 34 no 3 Servia . . 300,000 13 46 45 150 3 Rouniania . 200,000 22 35 30 150 2 Switzerland 70,000 13 15 15 210 I Europe . . 20,195,000 2.215 2,652 2,174 108 183 U. States . 130,000 18 19 18 140 2 Chili . . . 200,000 20 20 20 100 2 Argentina 66,000 6 6 6 100 I Cape Colony 18,000 4 4 4 220 Australia . 15,000 2 2 2 140 ... Algeria . . 132,000 15 18 40 300 3 Total . 20,756,000 2,280 2,731 2,264 ; 109 191 • For consumptinn o*'wine see Alcohol, p. 58. WINE 598 WINE The figures for 1876-85 are by Newmann Spallart, those of 1880-88 from the Momieur PYnico/e {nTppaxently too high), and the latest estimates are from numerous sources. An acre of vineyard has ordinarily 2400 vine plants. Retrospect of Production Millions of Gallons 1810-20 1840-SO 1880-88 France .... 45S 820 670 Italy . . . . 310 360 665 Spain .... 170 250 630 Austria. 590 500 225 Portugal 75 100 125 Germany 30 40 7S Other countries , 120 230 321 Total 1,75° 2,300 J 2,711 The vine flourishes between 35 and 50 degrees of N. lat., and z8 and 46 S. The largest vine in the world is said to be one growing at Oys, Portugal, which has been in bearing since 1802. Its maximum yield was in 1864, in which year it pro- duced a sufiScient quantity of grapes to make 165 gallons of virine. In Portugal it is customary to plant 2500 vines to the acre, and the yield is often 240 gallons per acre, or a gallon from 10 vines. In South Africa a bushel of grapes gives a gallon of wine. United Kingdom The consumption has been as follows :— Year Gallons Duty, Shillings per Gallon Gallons per Inhabitant 1801 . 6,877,000 10 0-4S 1811 5,630,000 14 0.32 1821 . 4,702,000 14 0.23 1831 . 6,220,000 6 0.26 184T . 6,185,000 6 0.22 1851 . 6,282,000 6 0.23 1861 . 10,693,000 I 0.36 1871 16,145,000 I O.S3 1881 . 15,550,000 I 0.44 1888 13,500,000 I 0.36 Germany The area and vintage in 1 884 were as follows : — Acres Gallons Value, £, Alsace Bavaria .... Wurtemburg . . Baden Prussia .... Other States . . . 80,000 60,000 60,000 SS.ooo 50,000 30,000 21,000,000 9,000,000 9,000,000 8,000,000 8,000,000 9,000,000 4,200,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 1,600,000 1,600,000 1,800,000 Total . . 33S.OOO 64,000,000 12,800,000 Italy The vintage in the years 1883-85 averaged as follows :- Gallons Value, £, Island of Sardinia , . . Piedmont and Liguria . . Lombardy and Venetia . Tuscany States of the Church . . Naples Sicily 9,000,000 57,000,000 46,000,000 44,000,000 81,000,000 138,000,000 106,000,000 700,000 4,600,000 3,700,000 3,600,000 6,500,000 11,000,000 8,500,000 Total , . 481,000,000 38,600,000 The area under vines increased rapidly in late years, from 4,800,000 acres in 1880 to 7,640,000 in 1888. France A table of French vintages since 1810 is given at page 19 {Agriculture). The following statistics of Champagne are published at Rheims : — Millions of Bottles Year Stock Export 1850 20 S i860 36 8 1870 39 14 1880 68 17 1886 83 IS The stock in 1886 was considered equal to four years' consumption, which comprises 3,000,000 bottles yearly in France, and 1 7,000,000 in other countries. United States Official returns of the vintages since 1840 show thus : — Year 1840 . 1850 i860 , Gallons 120,000 220,000 1,860,000 Year 1870. 1880. 1885. The Census of 18S0 showed the vineyards thus :- Gallons 3,060,000 23,300,00c 17,400,000 Acres j Gallons Wine Value, ;,fStg. California . . New York . . Ohio .... Other States . 32,000 13,000 10,000 127,000 13,600,000 600,000 1,600,000 7,700,000 850,000 80,000 330,000 1,540,000 Total . . 182,000 23,500,000 2,800,000 Greece The area and vintE^e of grapes and currants were as follows : — Year Acres Gallons i860 . 162,000 15,000,000 187s • . 260,000 25,000,000 ^SZ9 • . 310,000 30,000,000 1887 . 50,000,000 Algeria Area and vintage have increased rapidly of late years, viz. ; — Year Acres Gallons 1880 . . . 55,000 9,000,000 1885 . . . 132,000 22,000,000 1888 . . . 238,000 40,000,000 In 1889 Algeria exported 34 million gallons to France. WlNE-ExPORT[NG COUNTRIES The exportation was approximately (mill, galls.) : — Year France Italy Spain Portugal Greece Total 1830 . . . 18 2 10 3 33 1840 . 24 3 IS 4 46 1850 . 38 4 20 4 66 i860 . 48 5 24 I 83 1870 . 70 S 33 6 2 116 1880 . .■i.S 48 134 7 3 247 1887 . . . S3 S2 167 lO 4 286 Rudesheimer is worth ;if 20 a gallon. Prince Woronzoff sells his Tokay, 220 years old, at £^ a bottle. Cham- pagne vintage averages 20 million bottles, of which Prance exports 1 7 millions. The Xeres vineyards, 1 5,000 acres, produce 4 million gallons yearly of sherry. Wine lOses strength after 200 years. WOOL 599 WOOL WOOL The production has been (unwashed) approximately i follows : — Millions of Lbs. 1820 1840 1860 1880 1887 United Kingdom France Germany . Russia . Austria Italy . Spain . Portugal Scandinavia Various IOC ii6 64 102 60 18 40 4 IS 7 121 144 85 126 72 23 42 S 20 8 ISS ISO 125 I'=4 81 23 23 8 176 117 120 203 80 30 70 26 17 160 126 i^S 240 70 32 70 10 26 16 Europe United States River Plate . Cape Colony Australia Various S=6 20 4 3 3 6 646 6S IS 10 14 36 79S 7S ^t 28 70 84 849 233 S2 390 184 8SS 320 360 82 420 181 Tota 1 S6o 786 1,108 1,988 2,218 Europe in 1820 produced 94 per cent, of the wool of the world, whereas now it does not produce 40 per cent. The principal features of the woollen industry in 1887-88 were approximately as follows : — Million Lbs. a Woollen Manufac- Wool Million Lbs. Yar Spun tures, ;^ Pro- duced Con- sumed Produced Consumed U. Kingdom 160 436 22s 43.900,000 29,700,000 France . . 126 420 i6a 30,800,000 19,000,000 Germany . loS 340 133 25,100,000 15,700,000 Russia . . 240 IS4 100 17,700,000 18,000,000 Austria . . 70 100 6S 11,400,000 11,100,000 Italy . . . 32 49 31 4,700,000 7,poo,ooo Spain . . 70 50 as 6,000,600 7,400,000 Portugal . 10 14 10 1,600,000 1,900,000 Scandinavia 2S 2S 14 2,500,000 5,500,000 Belgium 2 lOI 3S 6,000,000 3,000,000 Various . . 20 20 12 2,000,000 4,000,000 Europe . . 860 I.7IS 822 151,700,000 122,300,000 U. States . 320 434 213 34,400,000 42,400,000 Canada , , IS 14 8 1,500,000 4,000,000 River Plate . 360 10 500,000 2,000,000 Australia . 420 IS 1,500,000 4,000,000 S. Africa . 82 5 100,000 400,000 India . . . ,s,s so 12 2,000,000 3,700,000 Various . . 106 S 100,000 13,000,000 Total . 2,218 2,218 LOSS 191,800^000 191,800^000 The ag^egate production of wool for sixty-seven years was approximately as follows : — Tons Unwashed Period Europe U. States River Plate Cape Australia Various 1 Total iSar-go . . . . 2,420,000 100,000 60,000 20,000 20,000 60,000 1 2,680,000 1831-40 . 2,650,000 150,000 100,000 30,000 60,000 80,000 1 3,070,000 1841-50 . 2,970,000 300,000 120,000 60,000 120,000 230,000 I 3,800,000 1851-60 . 3,275,000 320,000 190,000 100,000 250,000 320,000 j 4,455,000 1861-70 . 3,480,000 520,000 510,000 130,000 6T0.000 530,000 ; 5,780,000 1871-80 . 3,490,000 880,000 1,020,000 185,000 1,330,000 990,000 j 7,895,000 1881-87 • 2,440,000 850,000 980,000 125,000 1,240,000 635,000 6,270,000 67 years . • 20,725,000 3,120,000 2,980,000 650,000 3.630,000 2,845,000 ■ 33.950.000 Equivalent in Washed, Tons 1821-30 . . . . 1,820,000 60,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 40,000 1,960,000 1831-40 . 1,990,000 90,000 30,000 20,000 30,000 50,000 2,210,000 1841-50 . 2,230,000 180,000 40,000 40,000 60,000 140,000 2,690,000 1851-60 . 2,460,000 190,000 60,000 70,000 140,000 190,000 3,110,000 1861-70 . 2,610,000 310,000 170,000 90,000 330,000 320,000 3,830,000 1871-80 . 2,620,000 530,000 340,000 130,000 730,000 590,000 4,940,000 1881-87 • 1,830,000 510,000 330,000 90,000 680,000 380,000 3,820,000 67 years . • 15,560,000 1,870,000 990,000 450,000 1,980,000 1,710,000 22,560,000 Value, Millions £ 1821-30 .... 280 10 4 2 4 6 306 1831-40 . 307 IS 6 3 10 8 349 1841-50 . 313 26 7 7 23 20 396 1851-60 . 348 28 10 12 4S 30 473 1861-70 . 334 42 26 17 102 43 564 1871-80 . 297 64 46 25 184 ^l 663 1881-8- . 17s S5 39 13 124 28 434 67 years . 2.054 240 138 79 492 182 3.18S WOOL 600 WOOL The movement of wool was approximately as follows : — Net Import, Tons Period U. Kingdor n France Germany Austria Belgium Various U. States Total 1821-30 . . 100,000 50,000 20,000 20,000 10,000 200,000 1831-40 . . 170,000 60,000 30,000 30,000 20,000 20,000 330,000 1841-S0 . . 240,000 200,000 50,000 60,000 30,000 40,000 620,000 1851-60 . . 380,000 300,000 70,000 90,000 40,000 100,000 980,000 1861-70 . . 580,000 650,000 150,000 300,000 80,000 170,000 1,930,000 1871-80 . . 820,000 1,010,000 420,000 60,000 490,000 130,000 370,000 3,300,000 1881-87 . . 680,000 880,000 600,000 90,000 310,000 120,000 360,000 3,040,000 67 years . . 2,970,000 3,150,000 1,340,000 150,000 1,300,000 43°.ooo 1,060,000 10,400,000 Net Export, Tons Period Russia Spain River Plate Cape Australia Various Total 1821-30 . 30,000 10,000 60,000 20,000 20,000 60,000 200,000 1831-40 . 50,000 10,000 100,000 30,000 60,000 80,000 330,000 1841-50 . 70,x in value : of the whole number, only 103 are steamers. Lord Brasse/s Sunbeam circumnavigated the globe in eleven months, from July 1876 to May 1877, making 14,465 miles by steam and 20,312 under sail, in all 34,777 miles, averaging 105 miles a day, including time in port. She was 157 feet long, 531 tons, 70 horse-power, and consumed 4 tons of coal daily, steaming lo knots an hour. Mr Lambert's Wanderer -n^ 23 months making the tour of the globe (1880-82), but only 280 days actually at sea, having made 48,490 miles between steam and sail. YARN Exports of British yam were as foUovirs : Million Lbs. Year Cotton Woollen Linen and Jute Total Value, £ 1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 1889 22 64 119 144 178 194 255 252 3 4 14 28 44 30 45 I 18 19 28 3o 48 22 67 141 177 234 298 321 345 2,306,000 4,270,000 8,362,000 9,071,000 14,468,000 23,641,000 17,693,000 17,300,000 YARN 606 ZINC The prices of yam at various dates were in pence per pound : — Year ; Cotton Woollen Linen 1831 , 22 26 19 1841 14 29 12 I85I 12 25 12 I86I 13 30 14 1871 19 34 IS I88I 13 26 14 1889 II 23 15 The consumption of imported yarn in various countries 1 1888 was as follows : — Millions of Lbs. Cotton Woollen Linen, &c. Total France . 20 20 Germany 34 27 61 Russia . 9 ... ... 9 Austria , 22 9 ... 31 Italy . 8 9 17 Spain . I ... 8 9 Sweden . 3 3 • •• 6 Holland 20 I ••• 21 Roumania 9 .■• 9 Egypt . 3 ... ... 3 China . 90 ■ ■• 90 Japan . 64 ... 64 Tola 1 283 40 »7 340 Belgium and Switzerland produce more yam than they require, the former exporting about 30 million lbs., the latter 16 million lbs. yearly. z. ZINC The production of zinc was as follows : — Tons 1880 1888 Great Britain . Belgium .... Prussia .... United States . Spain, &c 22,000 99,000 64,000 21,000 22,000 27,000 133.000 83,000 50,000 24,000 Total 228,000 317,000 The zinc industry of Great Britain is shown thus : Tons Value Year Produc- tion Im- ported Total Ex- ported Home Use Ton, 1831 1851 1871 1881 1889 700 3.900 4,960 15.950 9,400 3,800 18,600 20,930 46,100 56,400 4.500 22,500 25,890 62,050 65,800 3,100 4.500 8,060 10,700 7,700 1,400 18,000 17.830 51.350 58,100 14 21 18 IS IS In the previous table Great Britain is credited with a production of 27,000 tons, but this includes 18,000 tons extracted from foreign ores imported. Not all the zinc imported is metallic, a large portion being mineral ore. Belgian ore gives 18 per cent, of metal, German 16, British 28 per cent. The production of zinc in the world faas trebled since 1870. See Mining. DICTIONARY OF STATISTICS. PART II. AGES AND SEXES The ages ot some nations have been seriously affected in the last half-century by wars, emigration, and other causes ; some have grown younger, others have lost severely in the age of 20 to 50, others show a lower percentage of children, as will appear in comparison further on. The census returns of all countries for 1890-91 (Spain 1887) show the relative proportions of age as follows : — Age •a a lib •0 g 8 ■g S 1 1 (4 ■fi < 239 1 1 e Oh .2 •5 to 1 =3 ■a 1 1 ' — . •I 1 10 B D 1 Under 10 . . . 239 243 208 175 242 262 217 230 239 24,S 224 305 228 265 243 238 10-20 213 216 234 174 207 197 191 iq8 186 I9S 202 202 192 204 208 217 202 20-30 172 168 162 ib3 162 162 IS6 161 160 146 156 165 116 153 197 1B3 161 30-40 131 126 108 I3« 127 131 137 12.S 132 124 121 126 122 135 132 135 129 40-50 . <)Q 9b q8 123 104 log 108 114 114 lOI IQI 103 108 "5 83 94 104 50-60 71 72 as IQI 78 «3 78 91 8b 84 83 83 6,S 78 64 64 79 60-70 47 48 60 76 52 52 46 64 OS 68 59 60 45 57 33 39 54 Over 70 . 28 31 45 50 l.ooo 28 1,000 27 1,000 22 1,000 3° 1,000 27 1,000 43 33 37 47 30 16 1,000 25 33 Tots il . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The ratio of children, under 10, is so low in France and Ireland as to show that either the moral or the economic condition of those countries is unsatisfactory. The average of old persons, over 60, is highest in France and Scandinavia. The age of greatest physical strength being from 20 to 60, it is important to compare the ratios of this age in various countries as follows : — Per 1000 Inhabitants France . , Spain . . Switzerland . Austria . Japan . . 525 492 491 48s 481 Australia 478 Scotland 462 Belgium . 477 Holland . 461 U. States 476 Scandinavia . 4'i'; England 473 Ireland . . 453 Germany 471 Bulgaria . . 411 With the exception of Bulgaria there is no country where the able-bodied population .stands so low as in Ireland, which in some manner accounts for the unfor- tunate condition of the island, and shows the direct result of emigration. The relative smallness of the able-bodied population in Bulgaria seems to indicate that the country has not yet recovered from the effects of the massacres committed there by the Turks in 1876. The very high ratio in France is partly due to the fact that 400,000 Belgian, and 250,000 Italian, operatives have settled there. As regard sexes, the number of females compared with males of corresponding age in the various countries is shown as follows ; — Number of Females to 1000 Males Age 1 ■a 1 •a 1 8 1 r s 1 <; 1 5 ■a 1 OT B 'I 1 u 1 S Id 1 1 978 ■■a 1 i 971 8. > < Under 10. 1,008 972 970 996 995 1,002 995 998 975 973 988 992 958 972 984 10-20 1,007 977 958 996 1,001 1,026 1,032 i,oo6|i,025 982 997 988 974 977 990 992 99b 20-30 • 1I.119 1,119 1,03s 1,023 1,027 1,046 1,044 1,087 1,1401,125 1,033 969 1,118 966 880 V 1,044 30-40 . 1,067 1,0901,090 983 1,041 1,048 991 1,073 1,09s 1,128 1,025 1,005 1,047 947 740 887 1,016 40-50 . 1,078 1,1321,151 1,010 1,076 1,061 990 1,096 1,057*1,127 1,023 1,012 82s 932 747 926 1,01s 50-60 1,123 1,208 1,064 1,025 1,117 1,103 1,009 1,122 I,072]1,I23 1,049 1,025 862 9S0 693 922 1,031 60-70 1,180 1,3131,061 1,055 1,182 1,150 1,062 1,152 i,034'i,i52 1,1081,072 922 1,068 662 922 1,068 Over 70 1,308 1,6531,077 1,137 1,223 1,094 1,042 1,1371,1281,31111,2391,194 973 i,3io| 700 932 :i,i53 General . 1,064 1,072 1,029 r, 014'!, 040'!, 044 1,015 1,058 1,040 1,068 1,024 1,005 965 980 866 1 953 1,015 607 AGES AND SEXES 608 AGES AND SEXES There is a dearth of females in Bulgaria, Japan, and Australia, but a large surplus in England, Scotland, Switzerland, and Scandinavia. If we take the usual marrying age for women, say from 20 to 40, we find as follows : — Marrying Age Females to 1000 Males Scandinavia 1,127 Switzerland 1,080 Hungary , 1,017 Spain . , 1,118 Ireland . 1,063 France . . 1,003 Scotland . i>i05 Austria . 1,047 Belgium . 987 England . 1,083 Germany 1,034 U. States . 92B Bulgaria . 1,083 Holland . 1,029 Australia . 810 It is worthy of notice that although Bulgaria has a deficit of females there is nevertheless in that country a surplus of women of marrying age, exceeding 8 per cent. It is also remarkable that, except in France and Germany, the excess of women of marrying age is greater in all countries than the average surplus of females of all ages. As regards changes in the ratios of sex in the last decade * we find : — Number of Females to 1000 Males 1881 1891 1881 1891 England . . I.OS3 1,064 Scandinavia . 1,051 1,068 Scotland . . 1,079 1,072 Holland . . 1,023 1,024 Ireland . . 1,041 1,029 Belgium . . 1,002 1,005 U. Kingdom . 1. 053 1,062 Switzerland . 1,040 1,058 France . . . 1,005 1,014 Greece . . 901 921 Germany . . 1,038 1,040 United States 966 953 Austria . . . 1,046 1,044 ' Canada . . 968 05 Hungary . . 1,031 1,015 1 Australia . . 849 866 Spain . . . 1,044 1,040 ! Average . . 1,013 1,016 It appears, therefore, that the surplus of females in general averages 3 per thousand more than was the case in 1881. And if we take only the 14 European countries we find the mean for i8gi was 1035, as against 1032 in 1881, showing in like manner an increase of 3 per thou- sand. Considering only the sexes of persons between 20 and 40 years of age^ the surplus of females in European countries is as follows : — England . . . 403,000 Austria . . 160,000 Scotland . . . 60,000 Hungary . 50,000 Ireland .... 3S.000 Spain . . 196,000 United Kingdom 498,000 Scandinavia 144,000 France .... 28,000 Holland . , 19,000 Germany . . 235,000 Bulgaria . 30,000 Switzerland . . 32,000 Total . . , 1,392,000 On the other hand there is a deficit of women of that age {20-40) of 14,000 in Belgium, 127,000 in Australia, 49,000 in Canada, and 690,000 in the United States, in all 880,000. If this number were to emigrate from Europe it would reduce the surplus to 512,000. England and Wales Age Under 10 10-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 . Over 70 Total pop. Number (000 omitted) Ratio Males Females Total 3.461 3.488 6,949 239 3,076 3.098 6,174 213 2,358 2,638 4.996 172 1,843 1,966 3.809 131 1,388 1,496 2,884 99 963 1,082 2,045 71 617 72S 1.345 47 347 454 801 28 14.053 14,950 29,003 1,000 Females to 1000 Males 1,008 1,007 1,119 1,067 1,078 1,123 1,180 1,308 1,064 * In 1881 the ratio in Italy was 995 females to 1000 males: in Russia the new census gives 1028 females to 1000 males. Scotland Under 10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 Over 70 Total pop. Number (000 omitted) Ratio Males Females Total 497 483 980 243 440 430. 870 216 319 357 676 168 243 265 50-8 126 182 206 388 96 130 157 287 72 83 . 110 193 48 49 75 124 31 1.943 2,083 4,026 1,000 Ireland Under 10 10-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 Over 70 497 482 979 208 557 543 1,100 234 375 388 763 162 243 265 508 108 215 248 463 98 193 205 398 85 136 144 2S0 60 103 111 214 45 >op. 2,319 2,386 4.705 1,000 United Kingdom Under 10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 . Over 70 10 4,455 4,453 8,908 236 4,073 4,071 8,144 216 3,052 3.383 6.435 170 2,329 2,496 4.825 128 1,785 1.9SO 3.735 100 1,286 1.444 2,730 72 836 982 1,818 48 499 640 1.139 30 alp op 18,315 19.419 37,734 1,000 United States Under 10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 Over 70 Total pop. 7,715 6,824 5.803 4,476 3,°73 2,oSi 1,28s 8ii 32,068 7,494 6,768 5,621 3.968 2,84s 1,918 1,184 756 30,554 15.209 13.592 11,424 8,444 5,918 3.999 2,469 1,567 62,622 243 217 183 135 94 64 39 25 Whites Under 10 10-20 , 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 . Over 70 6,628 6,42s 13.053 237 5,863 5,805 11,668 212 5. 148 4.947 10,09s 184 4.032 3.552 7.584 139 2,767 2.548 5.315 96 1,877 1.746 3,623 65 1,167 1.083 2,250 41 724 671 1,395 26 30p 28,206 26,777 54.983 1,000 Coloured Under 10 10-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 Over 70 1,087 1.069 2,156 283 961 963 1,924 252 655 674 1,329 174 444 416 860 112 306 297 603 79 204 172 376 49 Ii8 lOI 219 29 87 85 172 22 )op. 3,862 3.777 7.639 1,000 AGES AND SEXES 609 AGES AND SEXES France Age Number {000 omitted) Ratio Females Males Females Total Males Under 10 . . 3. 345 3.331 6,676 175 996 10-20 . 3.339 3.325 6,664 174 996 20-30 . 3.064 3.136 6,200 163 1.023 30-40 . 2,652 2,608 5,260 138 983 40-SO • 2.337 2,361 4.698 123 1,010 50-60 . 1,899 1.947 3.846 lOI 1.025 60-70 . 1,401 1.478 2,879 76 1.055 Over 70 89s 1.015 1.910 5° 1.137 Total pop. 18,932 19,201 38.133 1,000 1,014 Germany Under 10 . . 5.994 5.966 11,960 242 99S 10-20 . 5.105 5.110 10,215 207 1,001 20-30 . 3.947 4.05s 8,002 162 1.027 30-40 . 3.090 3.217 6.307 127 1.041 40-50 . 2.472 2,660 5.132 104 1,076 50-60 . 1,827 2,041 3,868 78 1.117 60-70 . 1,177 1.391 2,568 52 1,182 Over 70 619 757 1.376 28 1,223 Total E op. 24.231 25.197 49,428 1,000 1,040 Austria Hungary Italy (1881) Under 10 . . 2849 2,856 5.705 239 1,002 10-20 . 2.332 2.393 4.725 197 1,026 20-30 . 1,896 1.983 3.879 162 1,046 30-40 . 1.531 1,604 3.135 131 1,048 40-50 • 1.258 I.33S 2.593 109 1,061 50-60 . 939 1,036 1.975 83 1.103 60-70 . 580 667 1.247 52 1.150 Over 70 304 333 637 27 1,094 Total F op 11,689 12,207 23,896 1,000 1.044 Under 10 . . 2,293 2,289 4.582 262 995 10-20 . 1,641 1.694 3.335 191 1,032 20-30 . 1.328 1,388 2,716 156 1.044 30-40 . 1. 197 1,187 2.384 137 991 40-50 . 943 933 1,876 108 990 50-60 . 6S2 688 1.370 78 1.009 60-70 . 389 413 802 46 1,062 Over 70 195 204 399 22 1,042 Total f op 8,668 8,796 17.464 1,000 1,015 Austria-Hungary Under 10 . . S.142 5.145 10,287 248 1,001 10-20 . 3.973 4.087 8,060 19s 1,029 20-30 . 3.224 3.371 6.595 160 1.04s 30-40 . 2,728 2,791 S.519 '^i 1,023 40-50 . 2,201 2,268 4.469 108 1.031 1,621 1,724 3.345 81 1,064 60-70 969 1,080 2,049 49 1,112 Over 70 499 537 1,036 25 1,076 Total p op 20,357 21,003 41.360 1,000 1,032 Under 20 . . 20-30 . . . 30-40 . . . 40-60 . . . Over 60 . . S.967 2,263 1,901 2,847 1,288 S.827 2,312 1,932 2,861 1,262 11,794 4.575 3.833 S.708 2,55° 416 162 135 201 86 976 1,022 1,016 i.oos 980 Total pop. 14,266 14,194 28,460 1,000 99S Switzerland Age Nmnber (000 omitted) Ratio Females Males Females Total Males Under 10 . . 317 316 633 217 998 10-20 . 288 1 290 578 198 1,006 20-30 . 225 244 469 l6i 1,087 30-40 . 176 189 365 12s 1.073 40-50 . 159 174 333 114 1.096 50-60 . 125 ' 140 265 91 1,122 60-70 . 86 , 100 186 64 1.152 Over 70 41 47 88 , 30 1.137 Total pop. 1. 417 1.500 2,917 1,000 1.058 Spain Under 10 . . 2,040 1,987 4.027 230 975 10-20 . 1.613 1.654 3.267 186 1.025 20-30 . 1.364 1.455 2,819 160 1,140 30-40 . 1,108 1. 213 2.321 132 1.095 40-50 . 974 1,030 2,004 114 1. 057 50-60 . 72s 777 1,502 86 1,072 60-70 . 562 581 1.143 65 1.034 Over 70 227 256 483 27 1,128 Total pop. 8,613 8.953 17.566 1,000 1,040 Denmark Under 10 . . 269 264 533 243 981 10-20 . 214 210 424 194 984 20-30 . 153 173 326 149 1,129 30-40 . 135 146 281 129 1,085 40-SO . 106 114 220 lOI 1,068 50-60 . 85 92 177 81 1.077 60-70 . 64 71 13s 62 1,114 Over 70 39 50 89 41 1,282 Total F op 1,065 1,120 2,185 1,000 1,051 Sweden Under 10 . . 560 546 1,106 231 973 10-20 . 466 454 920 192 976 20-30 . 336 360 696 146 1,071 30-40 . 281 314 595 124 1,121 40-50 • 232 263 495 104 1.134 50-to . 198 227 425 89 1,146 60-70 . 156 185 341 71 1,186 Over 70 88 119 207 43 1.340 Total F op 2,317 2,46s 4.785 1,000 1,065 Norway Under 10 10-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 - 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 . Over 70 2S3 243 496 249 200 200 400 201 126 -159 285 143 108 131 239 120 88 103 191 96 73 81 154 78 63 70 133 67 41 51 92 46 30p. 952 1,038 1,990 1,000 Scandinavia 960 1,000 1.260 1.220 i,i6d 1,120 1,120 1.244 1,090 Under 10 . . 1,082 1.053 2.13s 239 973 10-20 . 880 864 1.744 195 982 20-30 . 615 692 1.307 146 1,125 30-40 . 524 591 1.115 124 1,128 40-50 . 426 480 go6 101 1,127 356 400 756 84 1.123 60-70 . 283 326 609 68 1.152 Over 70 168 220 388 43 1.3" Total I )op. 4.334 4.626 8,960 1,000 1,06? AGES AND SEXES 6io AGES AND SEXES Holland Number (000 omitted) Ratio Females Age Males Females Total Males Undei lo 555 548 1,103 245 988 I0-20 , . 456 4SS 911 202 997 20-30 . 347 359 706 15c 1,033 30-40 ■ 270 277 547 121 1,025 40-50 . 225 230 455 lOI 1,023 50-60 . 182 191 373 83 . 1,049 60-70 . 126 139 26s 59 1,108 Over 70 67 84 151 33 1,239 Total pop. 2,228 2,283 4.5" 1,000 1,024 Belgium Under 10 10-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 . Over 70 683 678 1. 361 224 617 609 1,226 202 510 494 1,004 165 380 382 762 126 310 314 624 103 249 255 504 83 175 187 362 60 103 123 226 37 op. 3,027 3.042 6,069 1,000 992 988 969 1,005 1,012 1,025 1,072 1,194 1,005 Finland Under 10 10-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 . Over 70 302 299 601 253 240 238 478 201 179 179 358 150 IS4 157 3" 131 125 133 258 108 86 96 182 77 59 71 130 54 26 36 62 26 op. 1,171 1,209 2,380 1,000 987 989 1,000 1,018 1,062 1,116 1,214 1,406 1,032 ROUMANIA The official estimate of ages and populatioop. 2,038 1.765 3,803 1,000 972 990 880 740 747 693 662 700 866 Cape Colony Under 10 10-20 . 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 . Over 70 Whites Coloured Total Ratio 114 342 456 299 83 280 363 237 68 192 260 170 48 129 177 116 30 92 122 80 18 58 76 5° II 33 44 29 5 25 30 19 op. 377 1,151 1,528 1,000 Whites, per cent. 25.0 22.8 26.2 27.1 24-5 23-7 25.0 17.0 24.7 Canada The census of 189 1 compares with Si as follows : — Age Under 5 5-15 • 15-20 . 20-30 . 30-50 ■ Over 50 Total pop. Number (000 omitted) 1881 579 1,061 476 761 86s 583 4,325 1891 604 1,136 512 860 1,018 703 4.833 Ratio 1881 I 1891 . 134 24s no 176 200 135 125 23s io5 178 211 145 United Kingdom The census of 1 89 1 shows that the proportions of age and sex in the three kingdoms have undergone the fol- lowing changes since 1881 : — England and Wales Age 1881 1891 Males Females Total Males Females Total Under 15 . 15-45 • • 45-55 ■ • Over 55. . 182 216 40 49 183 230 44 56 446 84 105 175 221 41 47 176 238 46 56 351 103 Total . 487 513 1,000 484 St6 1,000 AGES AND SEXES 6ii AGES AND SEXES Scotland Age 1881 1891 Males Females! Total Males Females Total Under 15 . 15-45 • • Overss. . 185 213 181 230 45 63 366 443 82 109 180 217 39 47 176 232 41 68 356 449 80 "5 Total . 481 : 519 ji.ooo 483 S17 1,000 Ireland Under IS . 178 172 350 165 160 32s iS-45 • ■ 206 224 430 216 227 443 45-55 • • 41 45 86 46 51 97 Overss- • 65 69 134 66 69 135 Total . 490 510 1,000 493 507 1,000 United Kingdom Under 15 . 15-45 • . 45-55 • • Overss- - 182 214 40 SI 181 229 44 59 363 443 84 no 174 220 42 49 174 236 46 59 348 456 88 108 Total . 487 513 1,000 48s 515 1,000 Comparing the last census with the preceding, we find that the ratio of young people under 15 has fallen very notably in the three kingdoms, especially in Ireland. As a necessary consequence the proportion of persons be- tween 15 and 45 has risen : the ratio of this class has risen 3 per cent, in Ireland, the same in England, and l\ per cent, in Scotland. Persons between 45 and SS have risen in ratio both in England and Ireland, but fallen in Scotland. Finally, those over SS show a relative decline in England, but a rise in the sister kingdoms. This last class is much greater in Ireland than in Great Britain. When we consider sexes we find the preponderance of females has increased in England, while it has declined in Scotland and Ireland. Taking the United Kingdom as a whole, the excess of the female population is now 62 per thousand, as compared with S3 per thousand in 1881. This cannot be the result of emigration, seeing that in Ireland the sexes are less unequal. If we limit our observation to persons between 1 5 and 45, we find the preponderance of females is 77 per thousand in Eng- land, 69 in Scotland, and 50 per thousand in Ireland. Altogether, the proportion of women between 15 and 45 in the United Kingdom is 3 per cent higher now than in 1 88 1, and yet the birth-rate has fallen remarkably. France The ratios of population by four censuses were :- Age 1841 1861 1881 1891 Under 10 i8s 186 183 175 10-20 176 169 170 174 20-30 . 163 164 158 163 30-40 . 148 144 137 138 40-50 . 125 125 123 123 50-60 . 102 lOI 103 lOI Over 60 . lOI III 126 126 Total 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The ratio of persons between 30 and 40 is 4 per cent, less than it was in 186 1, probably the result of the Franco-German war. The ratio of persons over 60 has risen 25 per cent. Germany The census of 1S91 compares with that of 1871 as follows : — Age Number (000 omitted) | Ratio 1871 1891 Increasel 1871 1891 Under 20 . . 20-40 .... 40-60 .... Over 60 . . . 17.850 12,220 7.790 3.160 22,17s 14,309 9,000 3,944 4,325 2,089 1,210 784 435 449 298 289 190 182 77 80 Total pop. 41,020 49,428 8,408 j 1,000 \ 1,000 The class which shows the greatest increase is that of persons under 20, which grew 24 per cent, in 20 years, while the rest of the population rose only 17 per cent. At present Germany has 449, France only 349, per thou- sand of her population under 20 years of age. The German census of 1891 compares with that of 1885 as follows : — Number (000 omitted) Age Males Females 1885 1 1891 18SS 1891 Under 20 ... . 20-40 40-60 Over 60 10,490 6,585 4,100 1,760 11,099 7,037 4.299 1,796 10,510 6,880 4.46s 2.065 11,076 7,272 4.701 2,148 Total pop. . 22.935 24.231 23,920 25,197 The changes which took place in the composition of the nation as regards sex were as follows : — Age Number of Females to 1000 Males 1885 1891 Under 20 ... . 20-40 40-60 Over 60 General 1,002 1,045 1,089 1,173 1.044 998 1,033 1,093 1,196 1,040 The surplus of females under 40 years of s^e has diminished, but over 40 it has increased, and on the whole it is 4 per thousand less than it was in i88s. Austria The census of Austria (without Hungary) in 1890 compares with that of 1880 as follows : — Number (000 omitted) Age Males Females 1880 i 1890 1880 1890 Under 20 ... . 20-40 40-60 Over 60 4.770 3.190 2,045 815 S,i8i 3.427 2.197 884 4,84s 5,249 3,365 3.587 2,245 , 2,371 870 1,000 Total pop. . 10,820 11.689 11,325 t 12,207 AGES AND SEXES 612 AGES AND SEXES The changes as regards sex are shown as follows : — Age Number of Females to 1000 Males 1880 1890 Under 20 .... 20-40 40-60 Over 60 General 1,016 i.oSS 1,098 1,067 1,046 1.047 1,079 1,131 1,044 'I he surplus of females declined 2 per thousand in 10 years. Switzerland The composition of the Swiss population was as follows : — Age Males 1880 1888 Females Total Males Females Total Under 30 . 30 60 . . Over 60 . 281 167 42 285 179 46 566 346 88 284 158 44 291 172 SI S7S 330 95 Total . 490 Sio 1,000 486 514 1,000 The surplus of females has gone up from 40 to 58 per thousand, and it is to be observed that the ratio of persons between 30 and 60 years has declined very seriously, while that of old people, over 60, shows a rise of 8 per cent. Spain The census of 1887 compares with previous ones thus : — Age Under 20 20-40 40-60 Over 60 . Total pop. 1816 442 322 179 57 1860 420 343 179 58 1887 416. 292 200 92 The classes under 40 show a startling decline, which may be the result of emigration or of civil wars, and is unfortunate. Scandinavia The three northern kingdoms have undergone the following changes in 20 years ; — Age Sweden Norway Denmark 1870 1890 1870 1890 1870 1890 Under 20 . . 20-40 . . . 40-60 . , , Over 60 . . . 431 312 179 78 423 270 193 "4 434 310 i66 90 263 174 "3 422 ^10 is, 84 437 278 182 103 Total pop. 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 These kingdoms show a marked decline in the ratio of persons between 20 and 60 years of age, and a corre- sponding increase in that of old ])eople. Holland The census of 1889 compares with previous ones thus : Age Under 20 20-40 40-60 Over 60 . Total pop. 1849 1869 425 308 188 79 427 309 187 77 1889 447 277 184 92 Here, as in most countries, the ratio of old people ha risen remarkably. Australia The census of 1891 gave the following result : — Age Under 10 10-20 , 20-30 . 30-40 . 40-50 . 50-60 . 60-70 . Over 70 Total pop. Number (000 omitted) 2; 230 218 99 64 32 17 278 1 169 232 1 146 243 104 146 87 81 51 O" 107 74 85 58 36 23 1,124 1. 140 627 '394 '320 147 50 3 1,004 790 747 506 325 242 128 60 Rntio Under 20 142 13s 83 48 41 19 5 473- 20-40 . . . 98 102 47 .37 27 13 % 329' 40-60 . . . 43 44 27 16 12 ■^ 2 149- Over 60 . . 12 19 8 3 4 2 I 49 Total . 295 300 165 104 84 39 13 1,000 The distribution of sexes in the colonies was as follows : — Males Females Females to. 1000 Malea New South Wales Victoria .... New Zealand . . Queensland . . . South Australia . Tasmania . . . West Australia . 608,000 598,000 333.000 224,000 167,000 78,000 30,000 516,000 542,000 294,000 170,000 154.000 69,000 20,000 849 907 883 760 922 885 667 Total . . 2,038,000 1,765,000 866 Belgium The census of 1890 compares with previous ones thus:- Age 1846 1856 1880 1890 Under 10. • 225 206 235 224 10-20 188 191 192 202 20-30 166 165 154 165 30-40 135 140 127 126 40-50 118 116 107 103 50-60 78 94 86 83 60-70 55 55 59 60 Over 70 . 35 33 40 37 Tota 1 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Persons between 20 and 40 stand in much lower ratio than they did 40 years ago, but this class has improved! AGRICULTURE 613 AGRICULTURE since 1880. It is probably affected by the large number of Belgian operatives who go into France, to avoid mili- tary service. United States The census of 1890 compares with the preceding one thus : — Number (000 omitted) Ratio Age 1880 1890 1880 1890 Under 10. . . 13.394 15.209 267 243 10-20 10,727 13.592 214 217 ao-30 . . 9,168 11,424 183 183 30-40 . . 6.309 8.444 126 135 40-50 . . 4.558 S.918 91 94 50-60 . . 3.111 3.999 62 64 60-70 . . 1,830 2,469 36 39 Over 70 . . . 1.059 1.567 21 25 Total pop 50.156 62,622 1,000 1,000 The class of children under 10 shows a relative decline of 9 per cent., while all classes over 30 years of age show a. notable rise. AGRICULTURE The productive area in 1895 was approximately as follows : — Millions of Acres Acres per 100 In- Crops Pasture Total habitants Great Britain 16 17 33 91 Ireland . 4 II 15 330 France . 67 23 90 230 Germany 65 22 87 170 Russia . 255 335 590 S6o Austria. 52 33 85 20s Italy , 38 IS S3 175 Spain & Portugal . 36 29 6S 290 Other States. .. 47 42 89 240 Europe 580 527 1,107 290 United States 226 397 623 890 As a general rule two productive acres are required for the support of each inhabitant, and where this ratio does not exist food must be imported. It appears, thus, that Great Britain, Germany, and Italy are over-populated, while Russia, Spain, and Ireland have not sufficient inhabitants. The production of food in various countries may be compared by reducing all to a common denomi- nator, that is considering 100 gallons of wine or 3 tons of potatoes as equal to a ton of grain, and one of meat equal to 8 of grain. In 1894-96 the production, on the said basis, averaged as follows : — Tons Yearly of Food Ik. Grain Sundries Total S.a U. Kingdom 7,500,000 10,900,000 18,400,000 7.2 France . . 18,100,000 22,700,000 40,800,000 5-7 Germany . 18,600,000 23,500,000 42,100,000 S-3 Russia . . 53,000,000 23,700,000 76,700,000 2.2 Austria . . 19,500,000 14, 100,000 33,600,000 2.7 Italy . . . 6,700,000 10,600,000 17,300,000 2.2 Spain . . 5,800,000 9,900,000 15,700,000 3-8 Denmark 2,100,000 1,200,000 3,300,000 8.2 Holland . . 1,100,000 1,700,000 2,800,000 6.1 Europe . . 145,200,000 132,000,000 277,200,000 3-2 U. States . 89,400,000 41,400,000 130,800,000 14- 5 Considering merely the weight of food produced, it appears that one farming hand in the United States raises as much as two in the United Kingdom, three in Germany, five in Austria, or seven in Russia. There is, in fact, a prodigious waste of labour in most countries of Europe. The number of farmers and farm-labourers in Europe is just nine times that of the United States, while the weight of food raised is only double ; that is to say, it takes 4J Europeans to raise as much food as an American. The production of grain in 1892-95 averaged as follows : — Millions of Bushels Bushels Wheat Oats Various Total per acre U. Kingdom . 49 167 85 301 34 France . . . 303 216 205 724 20 Germany . . . 122 176 384 682 18 Russia. . . . 322 590 I,20S 2,120 12 Austria . . . 196 170 414 780 19 Italy .... 122 i3 93 233 II Spain & Port. . 96 13 153 262 II Danub. States . lOI 18 159 278 IS Other States. . 40 145 168 353 25 Europe . . . 1.351 1.513 2,869 5.733 16 United States . 467 824 2,284 3.S7S 24 Canada . . . 48 104 49 201 20 Australia . . . 38 17 II 66 12 Argentina . . 77 48 125 13 Total . 1,981 2.458 5.261 9,700 18 If the grain crops of India, Asia Minor, &c., were added to the above (say 600 million bushels), the total would be a little over 10 milliards of bushels or 250 million tons ; nearly double the quantity raised 40 years ago. This is, of course, exclusive of rice. The following table shows the approximate weight : — Millions of Bushels yearly 1851-60 1892-95 Increase Europe United States .... Colonies 4.150 1.050 60 5.733 3.575 392 1.583 2.525 332 Total . . 5,260 j 9,700 4.440 Levasseur's table of wheat production in Europe shows : — Millions of Bushels yearly 1831-40 1876-82 1885-90 United Kingdom . . 119 91 77 France .... 188 279 304 Germany . 50 102 108 Russia . . no 276 268 Austria . . 64 138 171 Italy. . . 36 141 121 Spain . . 58 168 86 Portugal . 4 10 6 Scandinavia 4 8 10 Holland. . 6 6 Belgium . 8 22 19 Switzerland I 2 4 Roumania . IS 34 39 Turkey, &c. 4 61 81 Europe . . 661 1.338 1.300 AGRICULTURE 614 AGRICULTURE The Bulletin des Halles stated the wheat crop and consumption in 1894 thus : — Million Bush. Million Bush. c. 0. a S c a 6 ^ r- U §" CJ u U. Kingdom. ss 230 Europe. . . 1,360 1,520 France . . , 340 360 U. States . . 4S4 294 Germany . . 117 150 ^Canada . . 33 27 Russia . . . 300 200 S. America . 10 1 66 Austria . . . 180 170 Asia. . . . 301 299 Italy . . . "7 143 Australia . . 40 , 29 Spam & Port. 100 no 'Algeria . . . 37 29 Various . . 148 IS7 Egypt, &c. . The World . 14 16 Europe . . 1,360 1,520 2.34° 2,280 The area under wheat, and the crops, have increased in 20 years as follows w- Acres (000 omitted) " Million Bushels 1876 1896 1876 1896 U. Kingdom , 3,100 1,700 80 58 France . . . 17,100 17,100 280 310 Germany . . , 4,400 4,800 100 120 Russia. . . . 28,800 31,900 190 330 Austria . . . 8,800 10,900 120 2GO Italy .... 11,700 11,300 140 120 Spain & Portugal 10,500 8,500 120 lOO Scandinavia . . 300 300 8 9 Holland . . . 200 200 5 5 Belgium . . . 700 700 18 20 Switzerland . . 100 100 2 2 Roumania, &c. . 6,300 7.500 17 146 Europe . . . 92,000 9S,ooo 1,170 1,420 United States . 27,600 34,600 290 430 Canada . . . 2,200 2,700 30 50 Australia . , . 1,800 4.500 24 30 Argentina . , 300 S,20O 6 SO India . . • , 20,000 21,800 200 220 Various . . . 10,100 14,200 160 200 The World . . 154,000 178,000 1,880 2,400 The average product per acre at the two periods was as follows : — Bushels per Acre 1876 1896 United Kingdom European Continent United States .... Other countries The World .... 26 12 II 12 12 33 II I3i The average wheat crop of the world for \e, years (1880-93) was in millions of bushels as follows : — Europe, 1270; United .States, 440; India, 260; other countries, 210; total, 2180. See report of United States Agricultural Department. Wheat constitutes one-fourth of the grain crop of Europe, one-fifth of that of the world. Taking the average yield of all grain per acre, the heaviest ratio falls to Ireland, The various countries show as follows : — Ireland . . Great Britain Belgium . , Holland . . Denmark . . Bushels of Graifi per Acre Sweden U. States. Canada . France Austria . 27 24 20 20 19 Germany . Roumania Russia . . Italy . . Spain . . i9 IS 13 II II The percentage of area under grain in the various countries has a wide range, being influenced by climate, soil, population, and other circumstances, viz. : — Acres -under Grain in 100 of Area Ireland . . 7 Spain . . ■ 17 Germany . • 29 U. States . . 8 Holland . . 18 Italy . . : 29 Great Britain 11 France . 28 Denmark . ■ 32 Russia . . . 13 Austria . . 28 Belgium . • 33 The production of grain compared with population is as follows : — Bushels per Inhabitant Great Britain 7 Italy ... 7 Holland . . 9 Ireland . . 12 The area devoted to pasture in various parts of the world is : — Belgium . . 12 France . . . i<> Germany . ■ 13 Russia . . . 20 Spain . . ■ 13 Denmark . • 42 Austria . • 19 U. States . ■ 54 Millions of Acres Cattle,* Millions Acres per Head Europe United States .... Australia .... Argentina .... 527 397 802 238 172 76 35 41 3-1 5-2 23.0 5-8 Total 1,701 324 5-2 One hundred acres of pasture land will carry about 200 sheep or 33 horned cattle. An acre of artificial grasses or turnips will maintain 6 sheep or one head of cattle. In Australia, however, the pasture is usually sa poor that 100 acres will carry only 100 sheep or 16 big cattle ; in Argentina, on the other hand, the average is 300 sheep or 50 cattle per 100 acres. The annual production of meat exceeds 15 million tons, and of this amount Europe stands for more than. 60 per cent., viz. : — U. Kingdom France . . Germany . Russia . . Austria . . Other States Europe . . U. States . Colonies Total . Tons Beef 590,000 700,000 880,000 1,380,000 710,000 1,045,000 5,305,000 2,410,000 500,000 8,215,000 Mutton 320,000 210,000 150,000 480,000 140,000 608,000 1,908,000 370,000 295,000 2,573.000 Pork Total 190,000 290,000 490,000 430,000 360,000 407,000 2,167,000 2,050,000 85,000 1,100,000 1,200,000 1,520,000 2,290,000 1,210,000 2,060,000 9,380,000 4,830,000 880,000 4,302,000 15,090,000 The live stock of Europe in 1896 compares with Moreau's tables for 1838 as follows : — Year Millions Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs 1838 ! 26 1896 39 71 105 185 176 43 53 * The unit is a horse or a cow, and sheep are counted as six for one. AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE The live stock of the United States showed as fol- lows : — Year 1840 1870 1897 Millions Horses Cattle Sheep 4 8 17 IS 24 47 19 29 37 Pigs 26 25 41 The value of all farm products in the years 18 averaged as follows : — )i-9S Millions £ Shillings per Tillage Pasture Total Acre United Kingdom . 126 104 230 96 France 284 132 416 92 Germany .... 262 I.SS 417 96 Russia 370 170 540 18 Austria 215 109 324 76 Other States . . . 417 226 643 61 Europe 1.674 896 2,570 47 United States . . . 486 327 813 45 The value of farm products at four different periods in the nineteenth century is shown approximately in the following table : — 1891 Before 1840 1850-63 1874-84 1895 s •& Year ^^ Year 13^ Year 3S? I^S, S s S § Great Britain . 1836 i.;8 i8ss 221 1878 196 17=; Ireland . . . 1836 1836 69 227 185s i8,SS 72 1878 1878 65 55 United Kingdom 293 261 230 France . . . 1825 2i;3 1862 440 1882 504 416 Germany . . . 1830 120 1856 231 1880 46b 417 Russia . . . 1834 248 1850 29s 1882 426 S40 Austria . . . 1838 20 ■; 1863 281 i88o 340 324 Italy . . . . 1838 114 i860 15s 1874 180 204 Spain .... 1826 77 1852 112 1880 140 13s Portugal . . . 1826 13 1852 20 1880 31 26 Sweden and Nor. 1837 20 I8S7 30 1882 49 46 Denmark . . . 1827 7 1852 22 1882 35 35 Holland . . . 1830 21 1852 27 1882 39 .36 Belgium . . . 1830 26 1852 38 1884 55 44 Switzerland . . 1830 12 i860 16 1884 22 20 Roumania, &c. . 1830 27 i86o SO 1884 108 97 Europe . . . 1,370 2,010 2,656 2,570 United States . 1830 140 i860 430 1880 703 772 Canada . . . 1836 Q i860 21 1880 46 57 Australia . . . 1836 3 i860 20 1880 .S6 70 Argentina . . . 1836 .S i860 IS 1880 31 45 South Africa . . 183b I 1860 2 1880 7 8 Uruguay . . . 1836 2 i860 s 1880 7 8 Total . . 1.530 2,503 3.506 '3,530 In Europe there was a steady rise of agricultural values from 1820 till 1874-5, '^"' ^ decline set in about 1878, since which year there has been a fall of about 200 millions, or 8 per cent. On the other hand the United States have had a rise of 10 per cent, since 1880. The amount of agricultural capital in 1891-96 was approximately as follows : — I Value, Millions £ Sterling ! Land Cattle Sundries Total Great Britain . 1.390 143 153 1,686 Ireland . 295 59 36 391 France 2,580 232 281 3.093 Germany . 1,977 303 228 2,508 Russia 2,113 350 247 2,710 Austria . 1.473 161 163 1.797 Italy 1,180 92 127 1.399 Spain 1:056 46 no 1,212 Portugal . 138 II IS 164 Sweden and Norway 212 41 25 278 Denmark . 205 26 23 254 Holland . 240 28 27 29s Belgium . 300 22 32 354 Switzerland 138 18 16 172 Danubian States 420 42 46 508 Greece 94 S 10 109 Europe . 13,812 I.S79 1.539 16.930 United States . 3.314 4SI 377 4,142 Canada . 245 43 23 311 Australia . 236 120 36 392 Argentina • 129 51 18 198 Total 17.736 2.24s 1,992 21.973 Agricultural capital almost reaches 22 milliards ster- ling, and as the aggregate wealth of nations is a little over 70 milliards, the former may be said to represent one-third of the total. If we would compare the gross value of farm products yearly with the amount of capital, the result will be as follows : — U. Kingdom 11. i France . . 13.4 Germany . 16.6 Russia . . 19.9 Austria . . 17.7 Percentage on Capital Italy . Spain . Denmark Holland Belgium 14-5 11.2 13-8 12.4 12-5 Switzerland U. States . Canada . . Australia . Argentina . II.5 19.6 18.4 17. 1 23.2 Agricultural capital divided among population gives the ratios per inhabitant thus T — £fer Head Italy ... 45 Spain ... 68 Portugal . . 35 Denmark . . 115 Holland . . 61 The relative importance of agriculture in the several countries is shown by the proportions of wealth, earnings, and population corresponding to this pursuit, viz. : — U. Kingdom . France . . . Germany . . Russia . . . Austria . . Belgium . U. States . Canada . Australia . Argentina. 56 58 60 92 50 Percentage of Agricultural, in total Population Wealth Earnings Great Britain . 10 15 8 Ireland 45 60 35 France 42 32 21 Germany . 39 31 20 Russia 70 43 32 Austria 63 39 27 Italy . 52 4S 28 Holland . 22 33 18 Belgium . 25 36 14 United States 35 25 16 Canada 43 31 18 Australia . 25 36 20 Average . 40 31 1 20 Viewed simply as a money-making occupation, agri- culture is by no means so profitable as other pursuits, for while it represents broadly about 40 per cent, of the population and 31 per cent, of the wealth, it stands for only 20 per cent, of the earnings of nations. Agricultural interests stand highest in Russia and Ireland, lowest in Great Britain and Holland. AGRICULTURE 6i6 AGRICULTURE United Kingdom The returns of 1897 show the productive area to be nearly 48 million acres or 62 per cent, of the total, viz. : — Acres (000 omitted) England Scotland Ireland U. King. Wheat . . . Oats .... Barley, &c. 1,840 2,090 2,280 50 970 250 50 1,170 190 1,940 4.230 2,720 All grain . . . Potatoes . . . Turnips . . . Sundries . . . 6,2IO 390 1,360 4.650 1,270 120 480 1,630 1,410 680 310 1,440 8,890 1,190 2.150 7,720 All crops . . . Pasture . . . 12,610 15.150 3.S00 1.390 3.840 11,380 19.950 27,920 Total . . 27,760 4.890 15,220 47,870 The crops of the United Kingdom in the last 3 years were ; — 1895 1896 1897 Wheat, tons . Oats, „ . Barley, &o., „ . 960,000 4,360,000 2,120,000 1,460,000 4,070,000 2,220,000 1,410,000 4,090,000 2,110,000 All grain, „ , Potatoes, ,, . Turnips, &c„ ,, . Hay, ,, . 7,440,000 7,060,000 35,600,000 12,200,000 7,750,000 6,250,000 33,000,000 11,400,000 7,610,000 4,110,000 37,200,000 14,100,000 Total . . 62,300,000 59,300,000 63,020,000 The crops of 1897 were 6 per cent, less in weight ths... those of 1894. The average yield per acre for the last three years was as follows : — Great Britain Ireland United Kingdom Wheat, bushel . 30 30 30 Oats, ,, . . . 37 41 38 Barley, ,, , . , 33 37 34 Potatoes 240 146 187 Turnips, cwt. 262 2B8 266 Hay 24 43 28 Irish crops are, as a rule, much heavier than those of Great Britain, the only exception being potatoes, which in Ireland rarely give 4 tons per acre, whereas in Great Britain the average is 6 tons. The most remarkable difference is as regards hay, the yield per acre in Ireland being alway.s double what it is in Great Britain. The crops of the last 10 years gave the following yield per acre for the United Kingdom. Bushels per Acre Year Wheat Barley Oats All Grain 1887 32 31 34 33 1888 28 33 38 34 1S89 30 32 40 35 1890 31 35 42 37 1891 31 35 40 3fi 1892 26 35 40 35 1893 26 29 38 32 T894 31 35 42 38 1895 26 32 39 34 1896 34 34 38 36 1897 30 33 39 35 A comparison of the value of farm products at present with M'CuUoch's estimates in 1846 and Caird's in 1878 results as follows :- — 1846 £ 1878 £ 189S £ Grain .... Hay and straw . Potatoes, &c. Meat .... Dairy .... Sundries . . . 77,000,000 19,000,000 41,600,000 46,500,000 19,400,000 14,500,000 87,000,000 22,000,000 16,700,000 87,000,000 39,500,000 8,500,000 38,200,000 44,000,000 43,800,000 55,200,000 33,000,000 15,800,000 Total . . 218,000,000 260,700,000 230,000,000 M'CuUoch's valuation for 1846 was made up for the three kingdoms as follows : — Millions £ Sterling England Scotland Ireland U. King. Grain Hay and straw Green crops . , Meat Dairy Sundries .... S1.8 13.0 28.7 26.0 13-4 9-1 9-7 2.4 6-3 2.4 1-9 IS- 5 3-6 7.6 14.2 3-6 35 77.0 19.0 41.6 46.5 19.4 14.5 Total . . 142.0 28.0 48.0 218.0 The value of all farm products is now about the same as 60 years ago, viz. : — Year Millions £ Sterling England Scotland Ireland U. King. 1836 1846 189s 136. 1 142.0 147.0 23.2 28.0 28.0 69-3 48.0 55-0 228.6 218.0 230.0 The estimate for 1836 was made by Moreau, that for 1846 by M'CuUoch. The mean value in the years 1893-95 ^'^s as follows : — Millions £ Sterling England Scotland Ireland U. King. Grain Straw Potatoes .... Hay Sundries .... 26.6 9-1 8.8 20.3 18.2 5-2 1-5 2.4 2.1 3-8 6.4 1.6 7.0 9-4 3-6 38.2 12.2 18.2 31-8 25-6 Tillage .... Meat Dairy Sundries .... 83.0 33-2 21.0 9.8 iS.o 7-4 3-6 2.0 28.0 14.5 8.4 4.0 126.0 55-2 330 15.8 Total . . 147.0 28.0 55- 230.0 The value of products compared with the number of hands, according to last census, shows as follows : Hands £ ;^per Hand England Scotland ..... Ireland 1.337.000 249,000 941,000 147,000,000 28,000,000 55,000,000 110 112 58 United Kingdom . . 2,527,000 230,000,000 91 AGRICULTURE 617 AGRICULTURE There seems to be a great waste of labour in Ireland, since it takes two hands in that island to produce as much value as one in Great Britain. Moreover the value of yield per acre of productive area is compara- tively low in Ireland, viz. : — Acres £ Shillings per Acre England . . . . - Scotland Ireland 27,800,000 4,900,000 15,200,000 147,000,000 28,000,000 55,000,000 106 114 72 United Kingdom . . 47,900,000 230,000,000 96 Although the weight of crops per acre is heavier in Ireland, the gross value of product is less than in Great Britain, because the great markets of consumption are in the latter island. The gross product per acre of pro- ductive area in the United Kingdom is 4 shillings more than in France. Agricultural capital in the United Kingdom has declined about 450 millions sterling in 15 years, say 30 millions per sinnum, viz. : — Year Millions £ Land Cattle Sundries Total 1880 . . 2,086 1895. 1 1,686 209 202 230 189 2.525 2,077 Agricultural capital in the three kingdoms stands approximately as follo«-s : — Millions £ Land Cattle Sundries Total England . Scotland . Ireland 1,202 188 296 118 25 59 132 21 36 1.452 234 391 United Kingdom 1,686 202 189 2,077 The value of agricultural product after deducting rent and taxes in the three kingdoms is as follows : — England, £ Scotland, £ Ireland, £ Product . . . 147,000,000 28,000,000 55,000,000 Rent .... Taxes .... 40,100,000 16,200,000 6,300,000 1,900,000 10,800,000 2,700,000 Balance . . 90,700.000 19,800,000 41,500,000 The balance gives the following averages as to pro- ductive area and hands : Shillings per Acre £ per Bani England Scotland Ireland . United Kingdom . . 65 81 54 . 64 68 80 44 60 Pastoral industry has increased as follows : — Great Britain Ireland 1855 1897 1855 1897 Horses . . Cattle . . Sheep . Pigs . . . 1,490,000 4,390,000 24,370,000 2,510,000 1,540,000 6,540,000 26,410,000 2,350,000 550,000 3,560.000 3,600,000 1,180,000 530,000 4.460,000 4,160,000 1,330,000 Total. 32,760,000 36,840,000 8,890,000 10,480,000 Thus the total live stock of the United Kingdom has risen from 41^ to 47 millions, an increase of 14 per cent, in 41 years, whereas population increased 40 per cent, in the same interval. Agricultural matters are also treated under the items of Food Supply and Land. France There has been little variation of agricultural area in the last 16 years, except as regards vineyards, which have suffered severely from phylloxera : — 1880 1896 Wheat, acres . Oats Rye. &c 16,990,000 8,580,000 11,440,000 16,970,000 9,670,000 9,320,000 All grain Vineyards ,, . Beetroot Potatoes 37,010,000 5,450,000 1,110.000 3,220,000 35,960,000 4,360,000 1,630,000 3,810,000 While the area under grain is not much larger than it was 40 years ago, the system of agriculture has so much improved that the weight of crop is one-fourth heavier, Crop, Tons Bushels per Acre 1855 1S9S 1855 1896 Wheat . . Oats, &C. . 5,300,000 9,800,000 8,200,000 10,800,000 13.0 19.6 16.8 19.4 22.8 All grain . 15,100,000 19,000,000 21.1 The area and crops of the last five years (1892-96) gave the following averages : — Acres Bushels Bush, per Ac. Wheat .... Oats .... Rye Barley .... Various . . . 17,200,000 9,600,000 3,800,000 2,200,000 3,6oo,aBO 313,000,000 234,000,000 67,000,000 44,000,000 66,000,000 18.2 24-4 17.6 20.0 18.0 All grain . . . 36,400,000 723,000,000 19.9 The devastation caused by phylloxera resulted in the loss of 1,900,000 acres of vineyard : — Year Acres, Vines Million j Galls. Wine Gallons per Acre 1871 .... 6,040,000 1,300 215 1891 .... 4,410,000 660 150 189s .... 4,150.000 590 142 1891-9^ ■ • . 4,370,000 770 176 The average vintage during 40 years before the phyl- loxera was 140 gallons per acre, so that it may be said the present area of vineyards gives a fair crop (176 gallons per acre). Most of the destroyed vineyards have been laid down under potatoes or beetroot, the area ot which has increased by one-fourth, viz. : — 1880 1895 Increase, Ac. Potatoes . . . Beetroot . . . 3,220,000 1,110,000 3,810,000 1,630,000 590,000 520,000 4,330,000 5,440,000 1.110,000 AGRICULTURE 6r8 AGRICULTURE Pastoral industry is stationary, as official returns show : — Year Cattle Sheep Pigs 1885 .... 1890 .... 1896 .... 13,100,000 13,560,000 13,330,000 24,100,000 23,200 000 2T, 200,000 5,880,000 6,020,000 6,400,000 The value of agricultural products has fallen heavily in recent years, notwithstanding protective tariffs and other futile measures, viz. ; — Millions £ Sterling 1895 1886 1890 Grain .... Wine .... Other crops . , Meat .... Dairy .... Sundries . , 129 49 104 60 59 59 120 106 65 46 56 114 33 120 56 46 47 Total . 460 438 416 De Foville would include dung among agricultural products, and estimates the annual quantity at 100 million tons, worth about 40 millions sterling ; it is, however, excluded by all statisticians. The loss of agri- cultural capital since 1880 has been even greater than in the United Kingdom, averaging 32 millions sterling per annum, viz. : — Year Millions £ Land Cattle Sundries Total 1880 . . . 189s . . . 2,986 2,580 231 232 357 281 3.574 3,093 Although agriculture occupies 44 per cent, of the population, France has to import both grain and meat. See Fooii Supply, GbrmSny The cultivated area has almost doubled in 40 years, viz. : — Year Cultivated Uncultivated Total, Acres 1856. . . . 1896. . . . 35,330,000 65,200,000 93,710,000 68,300,000 129,040,000 133.500.000 The progress of agriculture in the last 15 years is shown thus : — Acres (000 omitted) Crop, Tons (000 omitted) 1880-82 ( 1894-96 1880-82 1894-96 Wheat . . Rye . . . Oats, &c. . 4.49° 14,620 14.830 4,910 14,800 18,240 2,280 S.500 7,020 2,900 6,950 8,750 All grain . Potatoes . Beetroot . . Hay . . . Various . . 33.940 6,830 1.250 14,600 1,280 37.95° 7.500 2,120 14,600 2,980 14,800 2r,ioo 12,600 l8,200 3,100 18,600 31,000 20,300 17,200 9.500 Total . 57.900 65.150 69,800 96,600 The area under crops has risen 12 per cent, since 1882. The average weight of crop per acre (excluding hay) was 31 cwt. (1.55 ton)- in the last 3 years, as compared with 24 cwt. in 1880-82 ; that is to say, an improvement of 30 per cent. Nevertheless agriculture is baclcward : only 48 per cent, of the empire is under cultivation, although as many hands are employed as in the United States. The production of food is equivalent to 5 tons for each farming-hand, against 15 tons in the United States. Germany has to subsist on imported grain for two months every year. Notwithstanding the density of population, live stock (excepting sheep) is increasing in numbers : — Year Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs 1873 1893 3,350,000 3,840,000 15,780,000 17,560,000 25,200,000 16,700,000 7,120,000 12,170,000 The value of farm products has almost doubled since the valuation by Block and Viebahn in 1856, and now reaches 417 millions sterling, viz. : — Millions;^* Prussia Bavaria Other States Germany Grain . . Potatoes . Hay . . . Roots, &c. . Meat . . . Dairy . . Sundries 65.0 41.8 20.4 38.0 37-8 35-9 19.1 12.4 8.6 3-S 83 8.9 4.9 318 13.2 4.1 14.9 IS- 8 IS-2 8.0 109.2 63.6 28.0 61.2 63.0 60.0 32.0 Total . 258.0 56.0 103.0 417.0 Prussia is less productive than some of the other German states, and stands for only 60 per cent, of the value of farm products, while she has 65 per cent, of the pro- ductive area of the empire. The agricultural capital of Germany is nearly 600 millions sterling less than that of France, and is made up thus : — Millions £ Prussia Bavaria Other States Germany Land . . . Cattle . . Sundries 1.252 187 144 264 46 31 461 70 S3 1.977 303 228 Total . ^.583 341 584 2,508 Dividing the amount among the number of farms, we find a ratio of ;.£'840 to each farm in Germany, as com- pared with ;^88o in France, £^200 in England, and ;^76o in Ireland. The agricultural capital and products of Germany, France, and the United Kingdom may be compared thus : — Millions £ Sterling £ per Inhabitant Capital Product Capital Product Germany . . . France .... United Kingdom . 2,508 3.093 2,077 417 416 230 48 80 S3 8 II 6 The quota of agricultural product to each farming hand is only ;^44 in Germany, against ;^58 in France and £<)\ in the United Kingdom. * The table is read thus: 65.0 means ;£6s, 000, 000, and 12.4 means ;^i2. 400,000. AGRICULTURE 619 AGRICULTURE Russia Official returns for 1892 show that the emancipation of the serfs has caused the farming area to be almost doubled in twenty years, viz. : — Millions of Acres 1872 1892 Farming area .... Forests, &c 30s 939 589 752 Total 1.244 1.341 In the above table Poland is included, as also in the following statement of grain. The averages for 1893- 1895 were : — Millions of Bushels Crop Export Consumption Wheat . Rye ... . Oats .... Various . 330 780 650 4SO 13s 125 19s 736 594 335 Total . 2,210 3SO 1,860 The value of grain exported in the said three years averaged 34 millions sterling. The crops of Russia proper and Poland averaged separately as follows : — Millions of Bushels Russia Poland Total Wheat .... Rye ... . Oats .... Barley, &c. . 314 728 60s 427 16 52 4S 23 330 780 650 45° Total . 2,074 136 2,210 Later years show a great decline in Russian crops. The following table refers to Russia proper, exclusive of Poland :— Millions of Bushels 1895 1896 1897 Average Wheat . Rye .... Oats Barley, &c. 232 658 545 250 218 622 506 262 180 506 405 233 210 595 485 248 Total . 1.685 1.608 1.324 I.S4I Consumption is accounted for in this way : 360 million bushels kept for seed, 440 million given to cattle, and goo million used for human food, an average of 8J bushels per inhabitant : this last includes not only what is used for bread but also what is made into Vodka brandy and beer. The production of wine has increased so rapidly that the vintage reaches 55 million gallons, being 120 gallons to the acre. The production of meat is approximately 2,300,000 tons yearly, including 250,000 tons in Poland. The census of 18S8 compared with that of 1S77 showed a decline of 10 per cent, in cattle and 15 per cent, both in sheep and in pigs, which was perhaps owing to the rapid increase of population and conse- quently greater consumption of meat. 1888 showed as follows : — The census ol Russia Poland Total Horses Cattle . Sheep . Pigs . . . 19,700,000 24,600,000 44,500,000 9,200,000 1,200,000 3,000,000 3,700.000 1,500,000 20,900,000 27,600,000 48,200,000 10,700,000 Total . 98,000,000 9,400,000 107,400,000 The area covered by the principal crops in 1895 "'^ approximately : — Acres Russia Poland Total Grain Potatoes . Flax and hemp . Hay.&c. . 161,300,000 5,820,000 4,680,000 116,200,000 9,vjo,ooo 1,750,000 2,250,000 170,900,000 7,570,000 4,680,000 118,450,000 Total . 288,000,000 13,600,000 301,600,000 The value of agricultural products in 1S94 was approxi" mately : — Millions £ Sterling Russia Poland Total Grain 242 16 258 Potatoes 16 5 21 Flax, &C. 14 14 Hay 46 2 48 Sundries 26 6 32 Meat 77 10 87 Dairy, &c. 74 9 83 Tota . 495 48 543 The above gives an average gross product per acre of 34 shillings in Russia and 70 in Poland. This, however, is exclusive of 290 million acres used for permanent pas- ture, and if these were brought into account the average yield on the whole farming area of Russia and Poland would be only 18 shillings per acre. The agricultural capital of the empire has more than doubled since the emancipation of the serfs, showing approximately as follows : — Year Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total 1870 189s 798 2,113 320 360 112 247 1,230 2,720 The capital in 1895 stood more or less as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundriesl Total Russia Poland . 1.957 156 32s 35 228 2,510 19 210 Total . 2,113 360 247 2,720 See Food, Land, AGRICULTURE 620 AGRICULTURE Austria-Hungary The area under crops in the whole monarchy showed the following averages : — Acres 1881-83 1893-95 Grain .... Potatoes .... Beetroot .... Vines .... Sundries .... 35,400,000 3,450,000 710,000 1,440,000 2,200,000 41,200,000 4,020,000 1,600,000 1,300,000 4,180,000 Total 43,200,000 53,300,000 The only branch of agriculture which shows a de- cline is vineyards, while the area of grain has increased at the rate of half a million acres yearly since 1883. The two portions of the monarchy stood in 1893-95 as follows : — Acres Austria Hungary Monarchy Grain Vines Roots, &c. 17,140,000 620,000 6,740,000 24,060,000 680,000 4,060,000 41,200,000 1,300,000 10,800,000 Total . 24,500,000 28,800,000 53,300,000 The average crops in the same three years were as follows : — Tons Austria Hungary Total Wheat Oats Rye, &c. . 1,070,000 2,520,000 4,110,000 3,830,000 1,780,000 6,090,000 4,900,000 4,300,000 10,200,000 All grain . Potatoes . Beetroot . Hay . 7,700,000 9,100,000 7,500,000 10,800,000 11,700,000 3,300,000 4,500,000 8,200,000 19,400,000 12,400,000 12,000,000 19,000,000 Total . 35,100,000 27,700,000 62,800,000 Nearly one-third of the monarchy is still under forest, viz., 24 million acres in Austria and 23 millions in Hungary. Austria does not raise enough food for her population, the deficit being met by the surplus in Hungary. Pastoral industry seems to make no progress ; the latest returns give a total of 40 million head of live stock, as compared with 45 millions in 1870. At present the returns show as follows : — Austria Hungary Total Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs . 1,580,000 8,640,000 4,230,000 3,550,000 1,750,000 4,880,000 10,870,000 4,800,000 3,330,000 13,520,000 15,100,000 8,350,000 Total . 18,000,000 22,300,000 40,300,000 The gross value of farming products is approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Austria Hungary Total Grain .... Green crops Meat .... Dairy, &c. . 48 59 26 37 72 36 25 21 120 95 ^8 Total 170 154 324 The productive area of the whole monarchy, including 32 million acres of permanent pasture, is 85,400,000 acres, and the value of products averages 76 shillings per acre, as compared with 92 shillings in France. In half a centuiy the agricultural capital has almost trebled, mainly owing to the emancipation of the serfs, viz. : — Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle j Sundries 1 Total 1840 1894 543 1.473 5° 161 59 163 652 1.797 In 1894 the two kingdoms stood approximately as follows : — 1 Austria Hungary Total Land . Cattle . Sundries 796 88 88 677 73 75 1.473 161 163 Total 972 825 1.797 In 1885 the whole monarchy contained 6,150,000 farms. Each farm, therefore, represents a capital of £2^, and a gross annual product of ^^52, the bulk of the peasants being poor, while the princely land-owners of Hungary and Bohemia possess enormous wealth. Italy A great portion of the kingdom consists of mountains, forests, or waste lands, but so indefatigable is the Italian peasantry that in 15 years nearly 5 million acres have been reclaimed, the arable and the uncultivated areas showing as follows : — Acres 1880 1895 Increase Grain Vines Olives Sundries .... 20,300,000 4,800,000 2,200,000 12,200,000 20,500,000 8,500,000 2,600,000 12,6oo,coo 200,000 3,700,000 400,000 400,000 Tillage .... Pasture, &c. . . 39,500,000 31,300,000 44,200,000 26,600,000 4,700,000 Total . . 70,800,000 70,800,000 Grain crops are light, seldom exceeding 13 bushels per acre, the average for 3 years ending 1895 having been as follows : — Acres Tons Bushels per Acre Wheat Maize Oats, &c 11,300,000 4,750,000 4,380,000 3,030,000 1,720,000 1,050,000 10.7 14- S 9-5 All grain .... 20,430,000 5,800,000 "•3 AGRICULTURE 621 AGRICULTURE The production of wine in the last 3 years has averaged 580 million gallons, or about 70 gallons per acre, against 176 in France, the Italian vintage rarely givir^ a higher average than 90 gallons per acre. Rice cultivation shows a remarkable falling off, the crop ranging from 350,000 to 400,000 tons, which is barely two-thirds of what it was 15 years ago, and this circumstance causes much satisfaction, as the growth of rice is a most unhealthy occupation. In order to convey a correct idea of the agricultural industry, it may be well to give here the old territorial divisions as they now stand in tillage area, approximately, thus : — Venice . . Lombardy - Piedmont . Duchies . . Papal States Naples . . Sicily . . . Sardinia Island Total Acres (000 omitted) Grain Wine Sundries Total 2,050 1,820 2,400 3,600 S.800 2,200 S30 r.050 500 750 1.650 2,050 1,600 720 180 1.350 1,420 1.830 2,150 2.550 3.900 1,580 240 20,500 8,500 15,000 44,000 4,480 3.970 4,400 6,200 8,200 11,300 4.500 950 The acreage under grain is made up as follows (000 omitted) : — Wheat Maize Oats,&c. Total Venice . . Lombardy . Piedmont , Duchies . . Papal States Naples . . SicUy . . . Sardinia Island 750 730 770 1,480 2,180 3.340 1.650 400 1,030 830 480 530 930 960 20 20 320 490 570 390 490 1,500 530 no 2,100 2.050 1,820 2,400 3,600 5.800 2,200 530 Total . . 11,300 4.800 4,400 20,500 Sundries include hay, green crops, olive groves, &c, as follows, in acres (000 omitted) : — Venice . . Lombardy ■ Piedmont , Duchies . . Papal States Naples . . Sicily . . . Sardinia Island Total Hay 01i-« i g^ ; Total 670 990 890 870 1,190 Sio 670 no 150 300 330 1.++0 330 50 660 430 790 980 1,030 1.950 580 80 1.330 1,420 1,830 2,150 2.550 3.900 1.580 240 5,900 I 2,600 6,500 ■ 15,000 The official valuation of farm products is only 176 millions sterling, but this is exclusive of hay. The total value appeals to be 208 millions sterling, viz. : — ; Official.;^ Real, £ Grain i 53.400,000 Wine 33,500,000 Hay Fruit, &C. .... 9,600,090 Meat, dairy, &c . . . 79.000.000 53,400,000 33,500,000 26,700,000 15,200,000 79,200,000 Total . . 175.500,000 208,000,000 The productive area, including 9 million acres of per- manent pasture, covers 53 million acres ; the value of products therefore averages 77 shillings per acre, against 92 in France. The number of hands engaged in farming is 7,800,000, which leaves the average product for each hand only £27, as compared with ;^58 in France. Agricultural capital has trebled since 1840, viz. : — Year 1840 1890 Millions £ Land Cattle Sundries Total 377 :,i8o 30 92 41 127 448 1.399 The agricultural resources of Italy are so insufficient for her population that the average importation of grain reaches 700,000 tons yearly. See iwrf. Land. Spain Official returns for 1888 show 41 million acres under grain, equivalent to a crop of at least 10 million tons, which would leave a surplus of 3 million tons for expor- tation. We find, however, that so far from any surplus there is an average deficit of 330,000 tons, which is covered by importation. This shows that the official return is a gross exaggeration. The Uebcrsichten of 1893 estimates the aggregate crop at 5 million tons, Spallart's estimate having been 8 millions, and the actual produc- tion appears to be under 6 million tons. Hence it will be evident that the statement of Spanish agriculture in Part I. of this volume is altogether too high. The area of the kingdom is 125,300,000 acres, of which 72,100,000 consist of mountain and forests, the rest being apparently as shown in the following table :— Area, Acres Product, £ Grain . . . Vineyards . . Other crops . Pasture . . 20,800,000 4,20O,OCO 7,200,000 21,000,000 Grain . . . Wine . . . Sundries . . Meat,dairy,&c. Total . . 39,200,000 33,600,000 21,200,000 41,200,000 Total . . 53,200,000 135,200,000 This gives an average of 51 shillings per acre, against 77 shillings in Italy, but the product per hand is greater in Spain, namely A33, against ;^27 in Italy. As regards the production of wine, Spain holds third rank among nations, the vintage being usually one-fifth less than that of Italy, or about one-half that of France : in 1895 and 1896 the average was 420 million gallons. The growth of agricultural capital has been retarded by civil wars, the increase having been less than 50 per cent, in 60 years, viz. : — Year Millions £ Sterling Land Gittle Sundries Total 1832 . . . 1892 . . . 724 1,056 34 46 76 no 834 1,212 Dividing the above capital among the number of farms, it gives an average of £/\/\t\ each, as compared with jf 880 in France. See Callle, Food, Land. Portugal The total area under crops is less than 4 million acres, or one-fifth of the kingdom, viz. : — Area, Acres Product, £ Grain Vineyards Other crops Pasture Waste 2,600,000 500,000 800,000 7,700,000 9,200,000 5,500,000 6,700,000 5,700,000 8, 100,000 Total . . . 20,800,000 26,000,000 AGRICULTURE 622 AGRICULTURE Official returns give a total product estimated at ;f 23, 200,000, but this seems to omit dairy products. The productive area, tillage and pasture, being 1 1,600,000 acres, the average product is 45 shillings per acre, against 51 in Spain. Portuguese writers assert that the area under crops could be trebled but for the system of land tenure, which forces the people to emigrate. The vint- age ranges from 50 to 80 million gallons, of which about one-fourth is exported. Agricultural capital reaches 164 millions sterling, of which 138 millions are represented by land. Peasant farms show an average value of;^2io each. See Cattle, Food, Land. Sweden and Norway. The climate of these countries is so adverse that agri- culture has made little progress in recent years, the area under crops hardly reaching 9 million acres, or 5 per cent, of the total extent. Latest returns show : — Area Sweden Norway Total Grain, acres . . Sundries, acres . Pasture, ,, . Forest, &c. „ . 4,150,000 4,250,000 3,900,000 98,400,000 450,000 150,000 2,200,000 76,900,000 4,600,000 4,400,000 6,100,000 175,300,000 Total ,, . Grain, tons . . Potatoes, tons . 110,700,000 2,800,000 1,300,000 79,700,000 400,000 500,000 190,400,000 3,200,000 1,800,000 The hay crop of Sweden averages z\ million tons, that of Norway may be estimated at i million. Live stock in Sweden shows an increase of 500,000 in 20 years, but in Norway has been stationary, latest returns being as follows : — Sweden Norway Total Horses . . . Cattle .... Sheep .... Pigs .... 500,000 2,520,000 1,400,000 770,000 150,000 1,010,000 1,700,000 120,000 650,000 2,530,000 3,100,000 890,000 Total . . 5,190,000 2,980,000 7,170,000 Farmers are not wholly dependent on agricultural products ; many of them devote themselves also to fishing or wood-cutting. The approximate value of agricultural industry is as follows : — Grain .... Hay & sundries . Meat .... Dairy, &c. . . Total . . Sweden, £ 13,000,000 6,800,000 8,000,000 9,200,000 37,000,000 Norway, £ 2,000,000 1,300,000 2,800,000 2,900,000 9,000,000 Total, £ 15,000,000 8,100,000 10,800,000 12,100,000 46,000,000 Agricultural capital has quadrupled in 60 years, being now approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total Sweden . . . Norway . . . 154 S8 29 12 18 7 201 77 Total . . 212 41 25 278 The average of capital to each farm is ;^730. See Cattle, Food, Latid. Denmark. This prosperous little kingdom shows an increase in the last 15 years of 400,000 acres under cultivation, 300,000 tons in average grain crop, and of 6 millions sterling in the value of exports of farm products. The average crops showed thus : — 1879-82 189&-96 Oats, tons .... Barley, tons .... Rye, &c. tons .... 750,000 550,000 650,000 950,000 520,000 800,000 Total grain, tons . Potatoes, tons .... Roots, tons 1,950,000 240,000 440,000 2,270,000 520,000 3,520,000 Total, tons . 2,630,000 6,310,000 Besides the above there are large crops of hay and clover, averaging together 1,400,000 tons yearly. Although the production of grain exceeds one ton per head of the population, there is none for export, a large quantity being kept for cattle. Pastoral industry thrives apace, the returns showing an increase of 10 per cent, in live stock since 1881. If we reduce all live stock to a com- mon denominator equivalent to homed cattle, it will be found that Denmark carries a very high proportion to its area under grass, viz. : — Denmark . Holland . . Great Britain Ireland . . Pasture, Acres 2,600,000 2,800,000 16,600,000 11,200,000 Cattle Do. per 100 Acres 2,400,000 2,100,000 12,300,000 5,700,000 92 75 75 51 The productive area of Denmark, between tillage and pasture, is only 7, 100,000 acres, yet the value of products reaches 35 millions sterling, equal to 99 shillings per acre, as compared with 92 shillings in France, and 73 in Ireland, which shows that in spite of an ungenial climate the Danes contrive to carry on agriculture with great success. They export meat, butter, and eggs to the value of 10 millions sterling per annum. The official value of crops is 15 millions sterling, apparently exclusive of market-garden products. The total value is approxi- mately as follows : grain 12, other crops 7, meat 6, dairy 8, sundries 2 ; total 35 millions. The aggregate value of farms being 254 millions sterling, the product is equal to 14 per cent, on capital, against 13 J per cent, in France. The latest and best agricultural machinery is more used in Denmark than elsewhere. Agricultural exports are equal to £^ per head of the population, as compared with £2 in Canada, £2 in the United States, £-^ in Ireland, and ;^8 in Australia. See Cattle, Food, Land. Holland This little kingdom is so well irrigated that it has 420 yards of canal per acre of superficial extent. Hence we find that the yield of grain per acre is 7 per cent, higher even than in Denmark, and averages 30 bushels. Although the area under grain is 10 per cent, less than it was 15 years ago, the crops are heavier, the averages at two periods showing thus : — Tons Bushels per Acre 1880-82 1893-95 1880 82 1893-96 Oats .... Rye .... Wheat, &c. . . 310,000 230,000 390,000 370,000 270,000 370,000 42 19 22 26 138 360 45 23 27 Total grain . Potatoes . . . Beetroot . . . 930,000 1,200,000 410,000 1,010,000 1,830,000 830,000 30 200 430 AGRICULTURE 623 AGRICULTURE The yield per acre is heavier not only in grain but also in potatoes and beetroot. At the same time homed cattle have increased 2 per cent., pigs 92 per cent., and the export of dairy products risen to more than 100,000 tons yearly. Pastures are so rich that cattle for the market often weigh over a ton, and milch cows give an average product of 250 pounds of cheese and butter, a result unequalled in any part of the world. The follow- ing table shows the value of all products, and of what is exported : — Grain . , Green crops Meat . . Dairy . . Sundries . Total . Product, £ 6,aoo,ooo 11,700,000 6,'ioo,ooo 9,800,000 2,200,000 36,000,000 Butter . . Cheese . . Flax . . Meat . . Vegetables Total . Export. £ 1,150,000 950,000 300,000 600,000 2,200,000 5,200,000 Agricultural capital has declined in the last 10 years, as shown thus : — Year Millions £ Land Cattle Sundries Total 1886 1896 314 240 28 28 38 27 380 295 The value of products per acre is 142 shillings, against 92 in France and 96 in the United Kingdom. Dutch fanners are apparently the richest and most prosperous in the world, each farm representing a capital of ;^iSoo and a gross output of ;f 220, although the average area is no more than 34 acres. See Cattle, Food,' Land. Belgium This is a country of kitchen gardens and spade cul- tivation, yielding a prodigious amount of agricultural products in ratio to extent, the average output showing 160 shillings per acre. The crops of 1893-96 compare with those of 1880 thus : — Tons Bushels per Acre 1880 1893-96 1880 1893-96 Wheat . . . Oats .... Rye .... Barley, &c . . 440,000 660,000 430,000 330,000 440,000 650,000 500,000 310,000 24 43 25 33 31 "5 480 26 43 27 33 Total . . Potatoes . . . Beetroot . . . 1,860,000 2,820,000 1,750,000 1,900,000 3,650,000 2,150,000 32 520 Notwithstanding the industry of the people, the country does not produce food for more than 60 per cent, of the population, whereas the waste of labour is so great that the number of hands engaged in agriculture ought to be sufficient, with proper machinery, to raise food for 11,000,000 persons, or nearly double the actual popula- tion of Belgium, if the area of the kingdom were larger. Thus it comes to pass that the maximum product of farming per acre, so far from being advantageous, must be regarded as deplorable in an economic sense. The old adage which says " the plough is silver but the spade is golden " contains as much nonsense as can be conveyed in so few words. Far better would it be if 500,000 Belgian farmers were located beyond the Mississippi. The following table shows the value of agricultural pro- ducts, and of similar imports : — Grain . . Green crops Meat . . Dairy, &c. , Total . Products, £ 12,100,000 16,800,000 5,000,000 10,100,000 44,000,000 Grain . Meat Butter . Sundries Total Imports, £ 7,800,000 1,500,000 400,000 300,000 10,000,000 Agricultural capital has fallen heavily in 15 years, viz. :-;- Year Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total 1880 1895 377 300 24 22 44 32 445 3S4 The value of product compared with capital is the same as in Holland, 12 per cent. See Cattle, Food, Land. Switzerland Agriculture is an industry of secondary importance, although it gives occupation to 40 per cent, of the Swiss people. There are 300,000 farms, with an average of 4 acres under tillage and 13 under pasture, the peasants in many cases adding to their income by cutting timber, or by receiving travellers into their houses in the summer season. The country hardly raises food for one-third of its population, the value of products and of imports showing thus : — Products, £ 1 Imports, £ Grain . . . Green crops . Meat . . . Dairy, &c. . . Total . . 2,000,000 7,000,000 4,000,000 7,000,000 Grain . . . Meat . . . Vegetables . Sundries . . Total . . 3,300,000 2,200,000 400,000 300,000 20,000,000 6,200,000 Dairy-farming is carried on with great success in various cantons, the export of cheese and condensed milk ex- ceeding 40,000 tons yearly, worth 3 millions sterling. The total farming capital is 172 millions, of which land stands for 138 millions sterling, the average value of each farm being A49°> against £?So in France. The Danubian States Although agriculture is the chief occupation, it is very backward in these countries, the number of hands engaged in farming being out of all proportion to the results obtained. Acres (000 omitted) Roumania Servia Bulgaria Total Gr^n Green crops . . . Pasture .... Forest, &c . . . 10,600 2,600 9,600 9,600 2,400 2,500 5.600 1,700 4,900 1,600 5.700 11,400 17,900 6,700 20,900 22,700 Total . . 32,400 12,200 23,600 68,200 Crofi, Milium Bushels Wheat . . Maize . . Barley, &c . 57 : % 12 14 10 32 22 20 lOI 101 76 Total .168 [36 74 278 AGRICULTURE 6c4 AGRICULTURE The aggregate area under vineyards in the three States is 1,100,000 acres, the vintage showing as follows : — Millions of Gallons 1895 1896 Average Roumania Servia Bulgaria 68 26 164 30 116 21 28 Total . . III 2r9 165 Fruit is largely cultivated in Servia, orchards covering 180,000 acres, and producing the famous Slivovitz'plum, of which 20,000 tons are exported yearly for making brandy. Cattle-farming is much attended to in all three States, live stock being approximately as follows : — Number (000 omitted) Roumania Servia Bulgaria Total Horses . . . Cattle . . . Sheep .... Pigs . . . 600 2,500 5,200 900 150 800 3.500 900 250 300 8,500 500 900 3,600 17,200 2,300 Total . . 9,200 5.300 9.500 24,000 These States export agricultural products to the value of 15 millions sterling yearly, for the most part grain ; not more than two-thirds of the crops are kept for con- sumption, the surplus for export usually exceeding two million tons of grain. The value of farm products is approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Roumania Servia Bulgaria Total Grain .... Green crops . . Meat .... Sundries . . . 23 9 8 6 5 4 4 2 10 6 4 2 38 19 16 10 Total . . 46 IS 22 83 The total product gives only 38 shillings per acre, against 75 shillings in Austria- Hungary. The average coming to each hand employed in agriculture is no more than £2,\, as compared with jf 58 in France and the same in Ireland. Agiicultural capital is shown approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Roumania Servia Bulgaria Total Land .... Cattle. . . . Sundries . . . 200 22 22 90 10 10 130 10 14 420 42 46 Total . . 244 no 154 S08 There are altogether 1,300,000 farms ; average value ;^384, average product £jo'^. See Food, Land. Greece The progress of agriculture has been slow, viz. : — Acres 1860 1889 1893 Cultivated . . . Uncultivated . , 810,000 10,590,000 2,090,000 13,810,000 2,340,000 13,560,000 Total . . 11,400,000 15,900,000 15,900,000 The difference of area in the above table arises from the annexation of Thessaly in 1881. According to Greek writers, one-half of the uncultivated land could be brought under tillage, but agriculture is so backward that Greece has to import both grain and meat. Latest official returns showed 1,210,000 acres under grain, pro- ducing 200,000 tons of wheat and 200,000 of maize, barley, and rye ; this was equivalent to an average crop of 13 bushels to the acre. Currant-growing was for some years most profitable, this fruit being worth £20 a ton in the decade ending 1890, but of late years it has fallen to £11, causing widespread agricultural depression. Cur- rants have been grown chiefly for exportation, being much used in the manufacture of claret and other wines in France. Greece exported on an average 60,000 tons yearly before the phylloxera made great ravages (1876), and subsequently the demand for currants was such that the export reached 120,000 tons in 1893. The area under vineyards is 340,000 acres, and official returns put down the vintage at 66 million gallons, but this appears an exaggeration, the average for the last two years having been only 41 millions, that is, 120 gal- lons of wine per acre, as compared with 150 in the Danubian States. The value of agricultural products and the amount of capital are shown approximately as follows : — Products, £ Capital, £ Grain . . . Other crops . Meat, &c. . . 2,400,000 6,600,000 5,000,000 Land . . , Cattle . . . Sundries . , Total . . 94,000,000 5,000,000 10,000,000 Total . . 14,000,000 109,000,000 The total productive area, between tillage and pas- ture, being 8,200,000 acres, the product is equal to 34 shillings per acre : it gives, moreover, £21 for each hand engaged in farming, being the same as in the Danubian States. The progress made in Greek agriculture is seen by comparing Bickford's tables for 1889 with those of Bike- las for i860, viz. :— 1860 1889 Wheat acres Other grain Vines and currants, ,, Sundries , 230,000 330,000 160,000 90,000 620,000 590,000 440,000 440,000 Under crops Fallow Forest Mountains, &c. . „ 810,000 630,000 1,350,000 8,610,000 2,090,000 1,010,000 1,500,000 11,300,000 Total . . 11,400,000 15,900,000 There are 60,000 acres under currant plantations, which give an ordinary yield of 3 tons per acre, the crop having quadrupled in 40 years, viz. : — Year 1851 i86i i866 Tons 41,000 43,000 56,000 Year 1871 1881 1891 Tons 81,000 125,000 167,000 United States The position of agriculture may be taken in at a glance by considering the occupied and the un- occupied areas in the great divisions of the Union AGRICULTURE 625 AGRICULTURE (exclusive of Alaska) according to the census of 1890, viz. : — Millions of Acres Division Im- proved Unim- proved Unoccu- pied Total New England . . . Middle South Prairie Pacific II 36 104 184 23 9 I4i 73 24 24 24 272 271 708 44 73 522 528 7SS Total . . 358 265 1,299 1,922 The total area occupied by farms was 623 million acres, or nearly one-third of the Union. An official report for 1S95 showed the area under other crops than hay to be 183 million acres, from which it would appear that 440 million acres are devoted to pasture. As a natural result of the Homestead Law of 1862, and of the new railways constructed in the West, we find that farming has made prodigious strides in the Prairie and the Pacific States. The improved area at the successive census dates was as follows : — Divisions Millions of Acres 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 New England . . . II 12 12 13 II Middle 26 30 33 37 36 South 49 65 .S8 82 104 Prairie 27 52 78 137 184 Pacific 4 8 16 23 Union "3 163 189 285 358 If we compare the number of hands with the extent of farms at the above dates we find that, doubtless owing to improved machinery, each hand now cultivates 16 acres more than down to the year 1870, being an im- provement of 50 per cent, in 20 years, viz. : — Year Hands Acres Acres per Hand 1850 i860 1870 1880 1890 3,120,000 4,890,000 5,668,000 7,217,000 8,323,000 113,100,000 163,100,000 188,800,000 284,600,000 357,600,000 36 33 33 40 49 Western and Southern farms are steadily growing larger, while those of New England and the Middle States become smaller, the latter being apparently the result of a great development of dairy-farming in recent years, viz. : — Divisions Hands Acres per Hand 1870 1890 1870 1890 New England Middle South Prairie . . Pacific . . 263,000 620,000 2,640,000 1,950,000 195,000 273,000 827,000 3,850,000 3,060,000 313,000 46 S3 22 40 42 33 39 43 27 60 73 Union . . • 5,668,000 8,323,000 49 The grain crops are on a colossal scale, summing up in the last 25 years almost 1600 million tons, being an average of 64 millions tons yearly, viz. : — Period 1872-76 . 1877-81 . 1882-86 . 1887-91 . 1892-96 . 25 years . Yearly Average, Tons (000 omitted) Maize Wheat Oats,&c. Total 27,200 36,400 40,500 43,600 43.400 38,200 7,100 10,100 10,900 11,100 12,300 10,400 8,900 11,500 15,600 18,700 20,300 15,000 43,2co 58,000 67,000 73,4°° 76,000 63,600 Less than one-twelfth of the grain produced has been exported, viz. : — Period Yearly Average, Tons Crop Export Consumption 1872-76 . . . 1877-81 . . . 1882-86 . 1887-91 . . . 1892-96 . 25 years 43,200,000 58,000,000 67,000,000 73,400,000 76,000,000 63,600,000 2,700,000 5,800,000 4,500,000 4,400,000 6,500,000 4,700,000 40,500,000 52,200,000 62,500,000 69,000,000 69,500,000 58,900,000 The weight of grain exported in 25 years was 118 million tons, of which 75 millions were wheat, 37 millions maize, and the rest oats and barley. The agri- cultural returns for the years 1893-95 give the following averages : — Acres | Tons Crop Value, £ Sterling Maize .... Wheat .... Oats . . . Rye, &c. . . . 72,200,000 34,500,000 27,400,000 6,000,000 41,500,000 11,000,000 17,800,000 2,700,000 119,000,000 47,000,000 39,400,000 10,100,000 All grain . . 140,100,000 73,000,000 215,500,000 The following table shows for the same three years the average yield in bushels per acre, the value of crop per bushel, and the yield per acre of grain in money, Ameri- can and English : — Bushels per Acre Cents per Bushel Produce per Acre s Shillings Maize .... Wheat . . . Oats .... Rye, &c. . . General . . . 23 13 26 19 21 36 SI 27 43 36 8.00 6.60 6.90 8.10 7.40 33-3 27- S 28.7 33-7 30.8 The crops of 1897, owing to the rise in wheat, gave a much better result, official returns showing as follows : — Tons Value jC Cents per Bushel Maize Wheat .... Oats Rye, &c 47,600,000 13,300,000 17,500,000 2,700,000 104,000,000 89,000,000 31,000,000 9,000,000 26 80 21 40 Total . . 81,100,000 233,000,000 34 AGRICULTURE 626 AGRICULTURE An official return in 1894 estimated the cost of pro- ducing grain, per acre, as follows, in American dollars and cents : — New England 55 Middle S South s Prairie Rent Manure . Tillage . Harvesting Sundries . 4.14 4-55 3-77 3-52 8.14 4.09 5-58 2.87 2.05 S-26 2.90 r.99 1.62 0.87 4.00 2.80 1-74 1.70 1.27 3-47 Total . 24.12 19-85 11.38 10.98 The cost of the two crops, wheat and maize, in 1894 was officially stated thus : — Wheat Maize Total $ Rent .... Manure . . . Tillage . . Harvesting. . Sundries . . 98,300,000 75,600,000 65,400,000 41,600,000 128,100,000 189,700.000 116,400,000 101,400,000 76,400,000 249,100,000 288,000,000 192,000,000 166,800,000 118,000,000 377,200,000 Total . . 409,000,000 733,000,000 1,142,000,000 In the same year the value of the crops was, wheat 226 millions, maize 555 million dollars, showing a loss of 183 million dollars on wheat and 178 millions on maize. Such losses, however, are not in hard cash, as the farmer often holds his land free of rent, and not less frequently has manure and tillage free of actual outlay. Cotton-growing during the last 30 years is shown as follows : — Tons Yearly Value, Millions $ Period Crop Exported Crop j Export 1867-71 . . . 600,000 400,000 26^ 175 1872-76 . . . 810,000 550,000 275 188 1S77-81 . . . 1,140,000 770,000 238 161 1882-86 . . . 1,310,000 880,000 268 179 1887-91 . . . 1,600,000 1,080,000 300 203 1892-96 . . . 1,810,000 1,200,000 275 183 The difference between the weight of crop and what was exported represents the home consumption in American factories. Cotton is grown solely in the Southern States. Hay represents nearly double the value of the cotton crop, the average for the last three years being 478 million lollars, viz. : — Divisions Hay, Acres Tons Value, $ N. England . . Middle. . . . South .... Prairie .... Pacific .... 3,700,000 8,600,000 3,400,000 23,900,000 4,600,000 4,100,000 10,000,000 4,500,000 27,300,000 10,100,000 51,000,000 119,000,000 48,000,000 185,000,000 75,000,000 Union . . 44,200,000 j 56,000,000 478,000,000 Potatoes show the following average returns for the same three years, 1893-95 • — Acres Tons Value, $ N. England . . Middle. . . . South .... Prairie .... Pacific .... 180,000 710,000 240,000 1,710,000 110,000 550,000 1,440,000 420,000 2,710,000 290,000 10,600,000 23,800,000 9,700,000 44,200,000 4,800,000 Union . . 2,950,000 5,410,000 93,100,000 The Pacific States appear to give the heaviest hay crop in the world (except Ireland), their average being almost 2j tons per acre. New England gives a heavier yield of potatoes per acre than the rest of the Union, the average for the United States being under 3 tons per acre, as compared with 6 tons in Great Britain and 4 in Ireland. The area, product, and value of crops in 1896 were : — Maize . . Wheat . Oats . . Barley Rye, &c. . All grain . Hay . . Cotton . Potatoes . Tobacco . Sugar, &c. Total . Acres 81,030,000 34,620,000 27,570,000 2,950,000 2,580,000 148,750,000 43.260,000 23,450,000 2,770,000 590,000 3,580,000 Tons Value, £ 57,100,000 102,100,000 10,700,000' 64,700,000 17,700,000 27,400,000 1,750,000, 4,600,000 950,000 3,300,000 88,200,000 202,100,000 59,300,000' 79,900,000 1,840,000^ 59,200,000 6,300,000 15,100,000 180,000' 5,100,000 290,000' 19,700,000 Shill. per Acre 222,400,000 156, 110,000381, 100,000 25 37 31 26 27 37 51 108 173 110 34 The average value of farm products in the last three years was approximately as follows, reduced to English money : — Millions £ Sterling c >, S >> in -s 6 ffi 3 a ■a c eg H° N. England . 2.1 10.5 2.2 .3.1 6,7 .5-4 30.0 Middle . . ig.c) 24.8 4.8 12.0 2b. 8 17.7 106.0 South . . . 0.2 10.0 Si.o 2.0 44.0 19-4 26.4 209.0 Prairie . . 127.0 38.8 q.o 73-6 .56-3 60.3 .365.0 Pacific . . 10.8 IS- 9 I.O 23-3 0.8 10.2 62.0 Total . . 216.0 100.0 Si-o 19.0 II56.0 IIO.O 120.0 772.0 Cattle-farms, as already shown, cover an area of 400 million acres, with the following amount of stock in 1896 :— Live Stock ( Doo omitted) Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs N. England . Middle . South West . . 400 1,600 4,500 10,900 1,300 4,100 14,500 28,300 700 2,600 7,600 27,400 300 2,100 16,400 24,000 Union . 17.400 48,200 38,300 ; 42,800 In the United States (as in Australia and Argentina) the flocks and herds are subject to great fluctuations. See Cattle, page 654. The gross product per acre, counting only the improved area, comes out as follows in the various sections : — States Acres £ Sterling Shill. per Acre N. England , Middle . South Prairie Pacific . 10,750,000 35,750,000 103,800,000 184,300,000 23,000,000 30,000,000 106,000,000 209,000,000 365,000,000 62,000,000 56 59 40 40 S4 Union . 357,600,000 772,000,000 43 AGRICULTURE 627 AGRICULTURE Comparing product with the number of hands engaged, we find as follows : — States Hands £ Sterling £ per Hand Eastern . . . South .... Prairie .... Pacific. . . . 1,100,000 3,850,000 3,060,000 310,000 1.36,000,000 209,000,000 365,000,000 62,000,000 124 54 120 200 Union . . 8,320,000 772,000,000 93 The United States consume about five-sixths, and export one-sixth, of their farm products, as measured by value, viz. : — Millions £ Sterling Year Consump- tion Exported Total i860 .... 1880 .... 1886 .... 1893 .... 367 556 674 . 685 53 143 lOI 128 420 699 775 813 The value of farm products consumed in 1893 was jg'io.s per inhabitant, against £11.1 in 1880, the price level having fallen so much, that although the quantity was increased the value was less. The following table shows the official value of farms at the census of 1890, and the real approximate value in 189s, compared with the number of agricultural hands : — States Millions £ Sterling £v^ 1890 1895 Hand N. England .... Middle South West 122 548 610 2,050 - 142 646 713 2,641 523 780 784 Total . . . 3.330 4,142 497 Comoaring the above amount of agricultural capital with the improved area, it gives an average of barely ;^12 per acre, which is lower than in most countries, £ Capital £ Capital Per Acre Per Hand Per Acre Per Hand U. States . . ■G. Britain. . Oermany . . 12 51 29 497 1,060 270 France . . Ireland . . Italy . . . 34 16 26 430 415 17s The contrast between the United States and Great Britain in the above table is very striking, and explains why agriculture progresses in the former, and languishes in the latter, country. Canada The area under crops, by latest returns, was 20 million acres, equal to 4 acres per inhabitant, as compared with 3i in the United States. In some respects Canada is tnore agricultural than the great Republic : the propor- tion of people living on farms is much higher, and the value of farm products is ;^il.S per head of the whole population, whereas it is not quite ;^II in the United States. The cultivated area stands thus : — Acres (000 omitted) Grain Hay Sundries Total Ontario . Quebec . Manitoba Acadia, &c. 5,040 1,220 I.S90 1,900 2.530 2,460 250 970 540 I, coo 990 910 8,110 5, 180 2,830 3,780 Total . 9.750 6,210 3,940 19,900 The latest estimates of grain crops was approximately as follows : — Tons Tons Ontario . . . Quebec . . . Manitoba . . Acadia, &c . . 3,200,000 800,000 800,000 400,000 Wheat . . . Oats .... Barley . . . Maize, &c. . . Total . . 1,300,000 2,600,000 400,000 900,000 Total . . 5,200,000 5,200,000 The production of grain averages 41 bushels per in- habitant, against 49 in the United States ; this is the reverse of what we might expect, in view of the heavier crops obtained in Upper Canada, viz. : — Bushels per Acre Wheat Barley Oats Ontario U. States . 18 13 26 ! 35 21 25 Tillage has not progressed so much as pastoral industry in late years. Dairy farms have multiplied, as well as grazing farms, and the value of exported food reaches 10 millions sterling per annum. In 1894 the value of all farm products was approximately : — Millions £ Sterling Consump- ^ \ ^otal tion. ^ \ Grain .... Meat .... Dairy .... Sundries 17 9 16 4 21 2 II 4 9 16 Total . 47 10 57 The improved or productive area increased 70 per cent. in a period of 10 years, down to 1891, viz. :— Acres under 1881 1891 Tillage .... Pasture .... 15,100,000 6,400,000 19,900,000 15,300,000 Total . 21,500,000 35,200,000 The total farming capital of the Dominion is ap- proximately 311 millions sterling (which is equal to AGRICULTURE 628 AGRICULTURE ^60 per inhabitant, against £S9 'ii 'l^s United States), as follows: — Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total Ontario . Quebec . Acadia . West IS5 ■'3 17 21 II 6 5 10 6 3 4 i85 67 32 26 Total . 24s 43 23 311 Dividing the total among the number of farms, it gives an average of ;^5I7 to each, against ;^73° in the United States and ;if 880 in France. Australia Official returns show that the area under tillage has increased 400,000 acres per annum since 1891, viz.: — 1891 1896 Victoria . , , . S. Australia New S. Wales . New Zealand . Queensland, &c. 2,120,000 1,930,000 850,000 1,420,000 470,000 2,660,000 2,140,000 1,660,000 1,600,000 670,000 Total . 6,790,000 8,730,000 The above returns, however, exclude 9,100,000 acres of sown grasses in New Zealand, which would bring up the total cultivated area to 17,800,000 acres, or two million acres less than in Canada. Compared with population the area is about equal, being 4 acres per inhabitant in both cases. The area under grain is almost six million acres, viz. : — Acres Crop, Wheat Oats, &c. All Grain Tons Victoria . . 1,580,000 490,000 2,070,000 380,000 S. Australia 1,690,000 6o,oco 1,750,000 230,000 N. S. Wales 870,000 260,000 1,130,000 300,000 New Zealand 260,000 420,000 680,000 400,000 Queensland 3S.OOO 115,000 150,000 70,000 Tasmania . 75,000 45,000 120,000 50,000 W. Australia 30,000 30,000 10,000 Total . 4,540,000 1,390,000 5,930,000 1,440,000 The aggregate grain crops of the seven colonies in the last three years were : — Tons 1894 1895 1896 Average Wheat . . Oats . . . Maize, &c. . 790,000 450,000 300,000 630,000 410,000 270,000 670,000 500,000 300,000 700,000 450,000 290,000 Total . 1,540,000 1,310,000 1,470,000 1,440,000 -Thus the average yield sums up only 58 million bushels yearly, which is less than 10 bushels per acre, against 21 in the United States. About 300,000 tons, or one-fifth of the crop, are annually exported, home consumptior» (after deduction for seed) averaging 10 bushels per in- habitant. Vineyards cover an area of 60,000 acres, as compared with 22,000 acres in 1886 : the average vintage is over 4 million gallons, giving a yield of 72 gallons per acre, or about half the average in Europe. The average for five years shows : — Acres Gallons Gallons per Acre Victoria N. S. Wales .... S. Australia .... W. Australia, &c. . . 30,000 8,000 17,000 4,000 1,800,000 800,000 1,400,000 300,000 60 100 85 75 Total . . 59,000 4,300,000 72 Potatoes are cultivated successfully in all seven colonies, sugar only in Queensland and New South Wales : the crops of last three years were : — Tons Tons per Acre Potatoes Sugar-cane Potatoes Cane 1894 . . 189s .... 1896 .... 580,000 450,000 510,000 1,150,000 3-9 3-S 3-5 10. 1 Pastoral interests greatly surpass those of tillage, wool alone standing for more than the total value of the crops. Millions £ Sterling it Crops Wool Sundries Total N. S. Wales . . . 4.0 9.6 7.2 20.8 Victoria . . 6.7 2.9 6.4 16.0 New Zealand . 4.8 4.8 4-5 14. 1 Queensland . 1.4 3-3 S-o 9-7 S. Australia . 3-3 1-3 1.8 6.4 Tasmania . . I.O 0.3 0.8 2.1 W. Australia . 0-3 0-3 0-3 0.9 Total 21.5 22.5 26.0 70.0 Here, as well as in the United States and Argentina, the flocks are subject to violent fluctuations, viz. : — 1881 1891 1896 Sheep .... Cattle .... Horses . . . 78,100,000 8,700,000 1,200,000 124,500,000 11,900,000 1,800,000 110,500,000 12,700,000 1,900,000 Total . . 88,000,000 138,200,000 125,100,000 The aggregate number of live stock rose 5 millions- yearly between 1881 and 1891, but since the latter year we find an average fall of 24 millions yearly. The wool- clip averages 320,000 tons, of which 300,000 are exported. The value of all farm products, as shown above, is 70 millions sterling per annum, equal to ;^I7 per head of the population, against ;£ 1 1 in the United States and in Canada, the ratio in Denmark being the same as in. * This table is to be read thus : N. S. Wales 4.0 means ;^4, 000,000. J AGRICULTURE 629 AGRICULTURE Australia. Agricultural wealth stands approximately as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Land Cattle Sundries Total TSr. S. Wales . . . 85 34 12 1 131 "Victoria 49 21 7 77 New Zealand . . . 43 20 6 69 ■Queensland . , . 18 34 5 57 S. Australia . . . 28 7 3 38 Tasmania .... 9 2 I 12 W. Australia . . 4 2 I 7 Total . . 236 120 35 391 Australian pasture lands are generally poor ; they larely carry more than 300 sheep to the square mile, whereas in the Pampas of Argentina it is usual to have from 1000 to 1500. South Africa Cape Colony and Natal are devoted rather to pasture than tillage. In 1893 the total area under crops between the two colonies was 1,540,000 acres, nine-tenths under grain. As population increases, the deficit of grain- supply diminishes, the importation having fallen from 50,000 tons in 1885 to 42,000 in 1895. The grain crop of Cape Colony in 1896 reached 200,000 tons, besides which the colonists raise 2000 tons of tobacco and 25,000 pipes of wine, including the well-known Con- stantia. The vineyards cover 30,000 acres, and contain 87 million vine-stocks, the average yield being i gallon of wine from 15 vine-stocks. Natal has 600,000 acres under tillage, a small portion of which is used for sugar- lowing. How much sugar is produced cannot be ascertained, but the exportation has fallen 30 per cent. since 1885, and does not now exceed 7000 tons. The ■value of all farm products is approximately as follows : — Cape, £ Natal, £ Total, £ Wool .... Grain .... Sundries 1,600,000 1,100,000 3,300,000 500,000 400,000 1,100,000 2,100,000 1,500,000 4,400,000 Total 6,000,000 j 2,000,000 8,000,000 The breed of sheep has been nmch improved, the average fleece being now 5 lbs., or 40 per cent, heavier than in 1865. Nevertheless the exportation of wool Suctuates exceedingly, viz. : — Tons Shifped Yearly 1881-83 24,000 1891-93 42,000 1894-95 34.°oo Angora hair and ostrich feathers likewise form valu- ■able items of rural industry, the exportation showing as follows : — Year Lbs. Weight Value, £ Sterling Hair Feathers Hair Feathers J88s . J895 • 5,700,000 11,500,000 250,000 590,000 220,000 730,000 350,000 530,000 Thus the aggregate value of these two items rose in ten years from ;^S70,ooo to ;^i,26o,ooo, an increase of 120 per cent. The live stock of the two colonies stands thus approximately : — Cape Natal Total 1897 1889 Sheep . Cattle . Goats . Horses . 14,100,000 2,230,000 5,030,000 400,000 800,000 740,000 370,000 50,000 14,900,000^ 14,900,000 2,970,000 2,120,000 5,400,000 5,450,000 450,000^ 350.000 Cape Colony has, moreover, 220,000 ostriches, and the average yield is nearly 3 pounds of feathers, worth 50 shillings, yearly per bird. The agricultural wealth of the two colonies is about 65 millions, of which 51 millions pertain to Cape Colony. Argentina Tillage has made great strides in the last twenty years, owing to the enormous influx of Italians, the cultivated area showing as follows : — Acres 1874 1897 Wheat .... Maize .... Alfa, &a . 270,000 250,000 300,000 5,200,000 2,700,000 7,300,000 Total 820,000 15,200,000 The country, however, is less suited to tillage than grazing, the crops being light and, moreover, constantly exposed to drought and locusts. The wheat crop of the last four years showed as follows : — Tons Year Crop. Consumption Export 1892-93 . 1,400,000 550,000 850,000 1893-94 . 2,080,000 550,000 1,530,000 1894-95 . 1,550,000 560,000 990,000 1895-96 . 1,130,000 580,000 550,000 1896-97 . 750,000 600,000 150,000 Average . 1,380,000 570,000 Sio,ooo The average for five years gave a mean crop of 9 bushels to the acre, as compared with 10 in Australia and 13 in the United States. The crop for (December) 1897 was expected to produce nearly the same as that for 1893, which would leave 1,400,000 tons for exportation. Maize covers one-third of the area under grain, and averages 30 bushels to the acre, but is a most uncertain crop, the surplus for exportation in 1896 having been only 180,000 tons, whereas in the preceding year il reached 800,000 tons. Alfa is an artificial grass, like clover, used for fattening sheep or cattle, within closed fences, called Jnvemadas ; this crop covers about 3 million acres, chiefly in Buenos Ayres and Cordoba. Sugar-planting was begun on an enlarged scale in 1880, the production reaching 60,000 tons in 1892, and 120,000 in 1896 : two- thirds are used for home consumption, and 40,000 tons exported, the Government paying a bounty of £?, per ton on the latter. The production of wine has likewise pro- gressed, under the favour of oppressive duties on foreign wines. Vineyards cover about 100,000 acres, and yield a vintage of 35 million gallons : an equal amount of arti- AGRICULTURE bxo AGRICULTURE ficial wines is manufactured at Buenos Ayres and Rosario from all manner of vegetable, and certain deleterious, ingredients, which (as physicians assert) increases the death-rate of those cities. The area under linseed varies exceedingly, the crop fluctuating between 100,000 and 300,000 tons, all of which is exported. Pastoral farming has always constituted the real wealth of the republic, the Pampas offering plenty of room for countless ilocks and herds : nevertheless this branch of industry shows little increase in the number of live stock, viz. : — 1888 1895 Sheep .... Cattle .... Horses .... 70,450,000 22,870,000 4,400,000 74,400,000 21,700,000 4,450,000 Total 97,720,000 100,550,000 Although the number shows an increase of only 3 per cent, in seven years, the farmers have done much for improving breeds, by importing blood-stock of every kind from England and elsewhere. In this manner the aver- age fleece has risen in twenty years from 3 lbs. to 5 lbs., and the weight of sheep in equal ratio. Many of the best sheep-farms belong to Irish or Scotch settlers, the area, stock, and gross income of which may be classed thus : — Class . Acres Sheep Income, ;f Sterling Small .... Medium , , Large .... 3,000 15,000 50,000 6,000 30,000 100,000 600 3,000 10,000 Consul Cowper {1872) stated that the progress of Buenos Ayres was mainly due to the Irish sheep-farmers ; they constitute three-fourths of all foreign settlers devoted to pastoral occupations. Cattle-farming is mostly in the hands of natives, an estancia being more or less as follows : — Class Acres Cattle Horses Income, £ Small . Medium Large . 30,000 100,000 400,000 5,000 12,000 50,000 1,000 2,000 6,000 3,000 7,000 25,000 The annual value of all farm products is about millions sterling, viz. : — Product, £ Consump- tion, £ Export, £ Grain . Wool . Meat . Hides, &c. . Sundries . 15,000,000 8,000,000 8,400,000 6,700,000 9,900,000 9,200,000 100,000 5,000,000 2,500,000 7,900,000 5,800,000 7,900,000 3,400,000 4,200,090 2,000,000 Total . 48,000,000 24,700,000 23,300,000 The farming product is equal to £12. per inhabitant, against £\\ in the United States and ^^17 in Australia. The estimated value of lands, stock, &c., in 1890 was 198 millions sterling : the gross product, therefore, is about 25 per cent, on capital, against 18 per cent, in Australia and 19 in the United States. The average weight and value of exports in three years ending 1896 were : — Quantity Value, £ Wool, tons . 184,000 7,900,000 Sheepskins, tons 36,000 800,000 Hides, tons . 60,000 r, 200, 000 Meat, ,, . 92,000 1,800,000 Cattle, number 320,000 1,200,000 Sheep, 350,000 200,000 Horses, ,, 40,000 100,000 Tallow, &c. . 2,000,000 Wheat, tons . 1,100,000 4,300,000 Maize, ,, . 800,000 1,600,000 Linseed, „ . 210,000 1,300,000 Hay, „ . 80,000 100,000 Total 22,500,000 Tillage estimates for 1897 were as follows : — Acres Wheat Maize Sundries Total B. Ayres . . Santa F« . . Entre Rios . . Cordoba, &c. . 1,020,000 3,200,000 600,000 1,100,000 1,860,000 300,000 100,000 400,00c 860,000 900,000 200,000 4,660,000 3,740,000 4,400,000 900,000' 6,160,000 Total . . 5,920,000 2,660,000 6,620,000 15,200,000 Uruguay The area under tillage is supposed to reach 1,200,000 acres, of which two-thirds are under graiif, the crops averaging 120,000 tons of wheat and 80,000 of maize, and leaving a small surplus for exportation. Pastoral interests are of superior importance, but the number of live stock does not increase (owing to civil wars), viz. : — 1887 1895 Sheep .... Caitle .... Horses .... 15,900,000 6,120,000 410,000 14,300,000 5,250,000 400,000 Total Value, £ . . . . 22,430,000 16,800,000 19,950,000 15,400,000 The total value of farm products yearly is about 10 millions sterling, viz. : — Product, £ Consump- tion, £ Export, £ Wool .... Meat .... Hides, &c. . . Grain, &c. . . 2,200,000 3,800,000 1,800,000 2,200,000 1,200,000 300,000 1,500,000 2,200,000 2,600,000 1,500,000 700,000 Total . . 10,000,000 3,000,000 7,000,000 The official value of land and stock is ^^38, 500,00a and allowing for sundries this gives a total farming capital of 42 millions sterling : the gross product, there- fore, is about 24 per cent, on capital, as compared witli 25 in Argentina and 19 in the Uniteil P'ates. AGRICULTURE 631 AGRICULTURE India The productive area is much too small for the actual population, viz. : — 000 omitted Acres Population Area.Acres Cultivated Inhab. Bengal . . . 71,300 97.300 54.700 0.8 Bombay . . 18,900 80,100 30,100 1.6 Madras . . . 35.600 90,500 29,900 0.8 Assam . . . 5.500 31,400 2,900 0.5 Punjaub . . 20,900 70,400 27,000 1-3 Oude . . . 12,700 15.300 9,400 0.7 Burmah . . 7,600 106, ICO 11,100 1-5 N.W. Prov. . 34,300 50.500 27,400 0.8 Central, &c. . 14,400 76,400 34.500 2-4 Total . . 221,200 618,000 227,000 1.0 The cultivated area is only as one acre per inhabitant, but might be increased 60 per cent., there being, as shown in survey, 137 million acres available for cultiva- tion, viz. : — Uncultivated Available Bengal .... Madras .... Punjaub .... Burmah .... Assam, &c., &c. 42,600,000 60,600,000 43,400,000 95,000,000 149,400,000 37,500,000 6,700,000 22,300,000 33,000,000 37,300,000 Total 391,000,000 136,800,000 The principal areas of crops in 1895 were as follows: — Acres (000 omitted) Rice Grain Cotton i Tea Bengal . Bombay . Madras . Punjaub . N.W. Provinces Burmah . Central, &c. . 39,000 1,800 6,600 900 5,100 6,400 9.500 13,100 18,400 14,900 19,700 21,100 1,100 24,000 200 ' 4,200 2,700 1 1,800 1,500 : 1,700 1,000 J, 100 1,200 ; 900 200 1 400 2,900 i 3,800 Total 69,300 IT2,300 9,700 13,900 The total farming products are apparently of the annual value of nearly 400 millions sterling, of which one-seventh is exported, viz. : — Tons (000 omitted) Value, Millions £ Crop Export Crop Export Grain . 32.400 400 130 2.2 Rice . 22,000 1,700 88 9.2 Cotton . 800 240 20 7-5 Jute 1,100 650 10 7-1 Oil-seeds 1,000 900 9 8.2 Opium . 60 50 7 6.1 Tea . 70 60 6 5-5 Coffee . 40 IS 4 i-S Sugar . 120 60 I 0.6 Sundries "5 8.1 Total 390 56.0 According to the census of 1891 the agricultural popu- lation amounted to 172 millions, from which it would appear that the farm products average 40 rupees or 46 shillings per head, say £10 a year for each adult male peasant. Ceylon One-eighth of the island is under crops, the whole area showing thus : — Rice . Tea, coffee, &c. Pasture Unproductive Total Acres 730,000 1,290,000 910,000 13,270,000 16,200,000 Coffee-growing and chinchona have declined, and other products show a great increase, the exports having been as follows : — Coffee, tons Tea, Oil, Cocoa, ,, Chinchona, £ 1873 49,000 6,000 1887 9,000 6,000 16,000 800 170,000 1895 3.000 44,000 21,000 1,400 4,000 The aggregate value of the above exports was ;^4,400,ooo in 1873, falling to ;f 1,900,000 in 1887, and amounting to ;^3, 500,000 in 1895. No less than 80 per cent, of the population is agricultural, the number of male adults so employed being 850,000. Java The Slatesman's Year-book has the following oflBcial returns : — • 1890 1894 Rice, acres . Maize, Sundries 4,390,000 1,880,000 2,070,000 5,060,000 1,930,000 2,380,000 Total, acres . 8,340,009 9,370,000 The principal crops were as follows : Sugar, to Coffee, Chinchona, Tea, Tobacco, 1891 420,000 51,000 3,100 3.300 8,200 1891 480,000 58,000 3,200 4,100 10,300 Agricultural exports of Java average 12 millions ster- ling, and are mostly sold in Holland, the Dutch Govern- ment having a profit of about 25 per cent. Japan The area under crops is one-seventh of the total, viz.:^ 1891 1895 Rice, acres . Grain, ,, . . . Pasture Waste 6,730,000 4,170,000 33,600,000 34,900,000 7,020,000 4,340,000 33,600,000 34,440,000 Total 79,400,000 79,400,000 The principal crops were :- Rice, Wheat, Bai-ley, rye, Sugar, 1891 5,300,000 300,000 1,020,000 50,000 1895 5,000,000 500,000 1,900,000 52,000 AGRICULTURE 632 AGRICULTURE The value of tillage products sums up 45 millions sterling, or nearly £^ per acre. Live stock comprises 1,500,000 horses and 1,100,000 cattle. The production of raw silk averages 16 million lbs. yearly, worth 8 millions sterling. Brazil Although this country has the same area as the United States, the total. extent of productive land does not exceed the area covered by the farms of the single State of Ohio, or about l8 million acres. The chief product is coffee, which has not declined since the emancipation of negroes (1888), as was expected, the crop showing thus : — Year Tons Year Tons 1880 . 333.000 1892 . 444,000 1885 . . 389,000 1897 . . 590,000 The value of the coffee-crop is about 36 millions ster- ling, most of it being exported to the United States. Sugar, cotton, tobacco, and Paraguayan tea are also largely exported, as well as maize and mandioca ; these items making up about 14 millions sterling. Cattle-farming is almost confined to the southernmost State, Rio Grande do Sul, the saladeros of Pelotas killing 3000 head daily in the season. The sum total of tillage and pastoral industry in Brazil does not exceed 60 millions sterling, that is, about the same as Canada. West Indies, British Sugar and bananas are the principal products, the cultivated area showing thus : — Acres Sugar Sundries Total Jamaica . , . Trinidad Barbadoes . Guiana .... Antigua, &c. 30,000 60,000 30,000 70,000 50,000 150,000 140,000 70,000 10,000 150,000 180,000 200,000 100,000 80,000 200,000 West Indies . 240,000 520,000 760,000 The export of sugar has notably declined in quantity in the last fifteen years, and still more in value, viz. : — Average Tons Value, £ £ per Ton 1881-85 1891-95 . 290,000 4,730,000 265,000 3,430,000 16.3 130 The quantities shipped gave the following yearly averages : — 1881-83 1887-89 1893-96 Guiana, . tons Trinidad, Barbadoes, ,, Jamaica, Antigua, &c., ,, 111,000 51,000 47,000 27,000 49.000 120,000 57,000 59,000 21,000 51,000 104,000 49,000 49,000 20,000 37,000 West Indies . 285,000 308,000 259,000 The cultivation of fruit for the seaboard cities of the United States has increased very rapidly, the values ex- ported from the single island of Jamaica showing :- 1885-86 1895-96 Bananas, . ■ ■ £ sterling . Oranges and nuts, , , 148,000 56,000 CO » Total, £ 204,000 520,000 Not far from the West Indies are the Bermuda Islands, where small farms are very productive. The ofiScial report for 1897 shows that one farmer gets ;^ioo an acre by growing lilies. Farms range from 5 to 25 acres, the gross product averaging £/^o per acre. Febjee Islands In this little group there are 3000 white settlers, who have 40,000 acres under cultivation, one-half under sugar, of which they export 25,000 tons yearly, the exportation having doubled since 18S6. Live stock comprises 20,000 cattle, sheep, and Angora goats. Chili This is essentially an agricultural country, with 7 million acres under crops, the production of grain ranging firom 800,000 to 900,000 tons, of which one-fourth is exported. Live stock is insufficient, the deficit of meat- supply being met by the importation of cattle and sheep across the Andes from Argentina. Algeria Notwithstanding the great efforts and liberality of the French Government this colony makes slow progress in agriculture: the production of grain in 1895 compares with 1886 as follows : — Acres Tons 1886 1896 1886 1896 Wheat . . Barley . . Oats, &c. . 3,120,000 3,600,000 240,000 3,170,000 3,470,000 290,000 630,000 950,000 80,000 840,000 1,070,000 110,000 Total . . French , , Native . . 6,960,000 1,060,000 5,900,000 6,930,000 1,090,000 5,840,000 1,660,000 290,000 1,370,000 2,020,000 430,000 1,590,000 Total . . 6,960,000 6,930,000 1,660,000 2,020,000 Although the area is less, the weight of crop has in- creased more than 20 per cent., probably owing to im- proved mode of agriculture. The average yield per acre shows as follows : — Bushels per Acre 1886 1895 Wheat Barley All grain . ... French farms .... Arab 8.0 10. 5 9-S 11.0 9-3 10.6 12.3 11.6 15-8 10.8 Vine-growing has progressed very satisfactorily, there being at present 30,000 vineyards, three-fifths belonging to French or other European settlers. The figures of this branch of industry in 1895 compare with 1886 as follows : — Acres Gallons Do. per Acre 1886 . 1895 . 190,000 300,000 36,000,000 79,000,000 189 263 On the other hand farm stock shows a decline, viz. : — Number {000 omitted) Cattle Sheep Horses Goats 1886 1895 1,190 1,130 9.360 7,700 310 350 4,670 3.370 Europeans own hardly 10, Arabs 90, per cent, of the live stock, which includes also 250,000 camels. AGRICULTURE 633 ALCOHOL Tunis The territory covers nearly 29 million acres, of which only one-fourth is under cultivation, viz. : — Acres Grain ,..,,, 2,300,000 Olives, &c 4,500,000 Pasture, &c. Total 22,000,000 28,800,000 Products average about 400,000 tons of grain, 4,000,000 gallons of wine, and 2,000,000 gallons of olive oil. The value of tillage and pastoral products exported (mostly to France) amounts to ;£^i, 300,000 per annum. Live stock is comparatively trifling, 1,200,000 sheep, 680,000 goats, 230,000 cattle, 120,000 camels ; the pasture lands could carry much more. Central America The little republics of Guatemala, Costa Rica, Nicar- agua, Salvador, and Honduras, have an aggregate of about 900,000 acres under crops, mostly maize and other grain. There are 200,000 acres under coffee, average crop 50,000 tons, Guatemala standing for two-thirds of the total. The sugar crop of these republics is about 60,000 tons. See Part I. Cuba Before the revolution of 1896 there were 91,000 estates, covering altogether 2,800,000 acres, being an average of 30 acres each. The production of sugar, until the present revolution, was usually a million tons yearly, of which three-fourths went to the United States. The weight of tobacco and cigars exported averaged 120,000 tons. The total value of farm products ranged from 20 to 24 millions sterling, nine-tenths of the island being unpopulated and uncultivated, owing to the wretched system of govern- ment. The adjacent island of Porto Rico has about 600,000 acres under cultivation, and exports coffee, sugar, and tobacco to the value of 3 millions sterling yearly. Canary Islands Free trade was introduced in 1890, and the result has been a marvellous improvement in the condition of these islands, which were previously subject to constant misery and periodical famines. The total cultivated area hardly exceeds 500,000 acres, but the climate and soil are so fevourable for early fruits and vegetables that the African steamers which touch weekly at Teneriffe and Las Palmas convey cargoes of same to the London and other English markets. Farming is now so prosperous that land fetches high rents, and cannot be bought under ;^50 an acre. Egypt The cultivated area shows a slight increase since the country was taken by the British forces in 1883. It was 4,960,000 acres in 1880, and the returns for 1891 show 5,170,000, that is, an increase of 4 per cent. There are 1,140,000 acres under double cultivation, which explains why the acreage of crops in the foUov?ing table exceeds the total cultivated area, viz. : — 1888 1891 Wheat Other grain Cotton Clover, &c 1,^:90,000 3,205,000 900,000 980,000 1,250,000 2,960,000 890,000 1,230,000 Total . 6,375,000 6,330,00c The value of crops was estimated in 1 884 at 30 millions sterling, but at present hardly reaches 25 millions. See Land, and Part I., page 39. Agricultural Colleges So nmch attention has been given of late years to agricultural science, that most nations have a number of institutions for the purpose. France. — The Agronomic Institute of Paris, and 167 Agricultural Schools, receive from Government yearly grants amounting to ;^i82,0OO sterling. Germany. — There are 31 Agricultural Colleges main- tained by the State; one of these Is Hohenheim, near Stuttgart, which receives ;f6ooo a year. There are Agricultural Schools in every district of Bavaria, the State defraying 50 per cent, of their cost. In other parts of Germany there are similar institutions, which receive on an average ^^300 a year each per annum. Austria (proper). — There were 65 Agricultural Schools in 18S0, and the number has now risen to 118, of which Bohemia has 45. The annual expenditure is ;if 105,000, the State contributing ;^45,ooa, the local authorities ;^30,ooo, and students the rest. The State also gives ;^SOoo a year to travelling lecturers. Hungary. — At Magyar-Ovar is the great Academy of Agriculture. There are also 4 Agricultural Colleges and 35 Schools, of which 20 are maintained by the Hungarian Treasury at an annual cost of ;f43,ooo. These schools turn out lioo agricultural graduates or licentiates yearly. Switzerland. — There are 16 Agricultural Schools, maintained at a cost of ;^ 12, 600, the Cantons giving two- thirds, the Federal Treasury one-third. United States. — There are 65 Agricultural Colleges, with 1280 professors and 17,600 students. About 3000 graduate yearly, the course being one of four years. Income ;4840,ooo sterling, of which Congress gives ;f 300,000, the local authorities ;^240,ooo. The buildings represent an outlay of ^^3,700,000 sterling, including ;^750,ooo for the libraries and apparatus. ALCOHOL The average production of liquors in five years ending 1895-96, and the equivalent of all in alcohol, were as follows : — Millions of Gallons All Red. Wine Beer Spirits Alcohol United Kingdom . 1,180 47 78 France 840 194 99 143 Germany . 70 1,230 136 130 Russia . 40 90 154 8S Austria . "5 376 lOZ 80 Italy 605 2 8 6S Spain 460 2r 47 Portugal . 70 7 Scandinavia 86 16 12 HoUand . 50 15 10 Belgium . 260 13 18 Switzerland 30 34 2 6 Various . 1 190 2 2 20 Europe . 2,420 3.S2S S94 701 United States . 20 865 72 77 Total 2.440 4.390 666 778 ALCOHOL 634 ALCOHOL Consumption during the same five years was approxi- mately thus : — Million Gallons Yearly All Red. Wine Beer Spirits Alcohol United Kingdom . IS 1,160 39 73 France 99° 196 71 143 Germany . 60 1,230 99 III Russia 45 90 125 71 Austria . 130 376 97 78 Italy 570 3 8 61 Spain 330 21 34 Scandinavia 2 86 17 13 Portugal . 55 6 Holland . 2 5° 9 7 Belgium . 6 260 13 19 Switzerland 45 34 4 8 Various . 150 4 S 18 Europe 2,400 3.510 487 6|2 United States 20 870 73 78 Total 2,420 4.360 560 720 Consumption per inhabitant has been as follows : — Gallons per Head All Red. Wine Beer Spirits Alcohol United Kingdom . 0.4 30.0 I.O 1.90 France 26.0 5-0 1.9 3.80 Germany . 1.2 24.0 1-9 2.20 Russia 0.4 0,9 I.I 0.65 Austria 31 9.0 2-3 1.80 Italy 20.5 0.1 0-3 2.10 Spain 18.0 1-4 1.86 Scandinavia 0.2 9-5 2.0 1.50 Holland . 0.4 10.5 2.0 1.50 Belgium . 0.9 41-5 2.1 3.10 Switzerland iS-o II. 5 1-3 2.60 United States . 0-3 l '^"-^ ' '"i.i i-iS The above is exclusive of Temperance drinks, which according to Bannister, Government analyst, contain from 3 to 13 per cent, of alcohol. Beer Consumption in the principal countries has been ap- proximately as follows : — Million Gallons Gallons oer Head 1885 1893 1885 1895 United Kingdom 976 1,160 27.1 29.6 Germany . 908 1,216 19.8 23-5 Belgiimi . 209 271 35-6 42.2 Austria . 279 410 7.1 9-5 France . 183 197 4.6 5-1 Scandinavia 60 90 8.5 9-7 Russia, &c. 148 196 1.0 7-S I.I Europe . 2,763 3.540 9.0 United States . 497 870 8.8 7.8 12.7 Total . 3,260 4,410 9.8 A bushel of barley yields 15 gallons of beer in Great Britain, 25 in Germany. Five bushels of barley give 4 of malt, Spirits Consumption in the principal countries was approxi- mately thus : — Million Gallons Gallons per Head 1885 1895 1885 1895 United Kingdom . 35 39 0.96 1. 00 Germany . 70 98 1.58 1.90 France 64 68 1.69 1.78 Austria . 84 105 a. 20 2.60 Russia 137 132 1.46 1.03 Scandinavia 17 17 2.10 1.90 Belgium . 12 14 2.02 2.20 Holland . 9 9 2.02 1.91 Italy, &c. 16 18 0.25 1.22 0.25 Europe 444 500 1.30 United States . 59 65 1-05 1,20 0.93 Total . 503 56s 1.25 Wine Production and consumption were approximately as follows : — Millions of Gallons Production Consumption 1885 1895 1885 1895 France 690 590 810 940 Italy 550 530 500 460 Spain 510 470 330 350 Portugal . 110 70 60 55 Austria 180 140 160 150 Germany . 82 44 80 80 Russia, &o. 238 276 270 305 Europe . • 2,360 2,120 2,210 2,34° The Moniteur VinicoU gives the production of wine since 1885 as follows : — Millions of Gallons Yearly 1885-94 1895-97 Difference France 700 762 -H 62 Italy . 61S 527 - 88 Spain . Austria 564 143 420 94 -144 - 49 Roumania 41 101 4- 60 Portugal 79 62 - 17 Germany 83 65 - 18 Turkey 44 53 + 9 Bulgaria 56 26 - 30 Russia . 71 64 - 7 Servia . 61 21 - 40 Greece 30 36 4- 6 Switzerland 27 29 + 2 Europe 2.S14 2,260 -254 Algeria 70 90 + 20 Argentina 20 33 + 13 Chile . 30 44 + 14 South Africa 3 3 Brazil . 4 9 4- 5 Australia 2 3 4- I United States 20 20 T otal 2,663 2,462 — 201 ALCOHOL 63s ALCOHOL The world produces at present 8 per cent, less wine than it did in the decade ending 1894. A vineyard has usually from 3000 to 5000 vine-stalks per acre, 20 vines producing as a rule one gallon of wine. In 1890 it was stated that 10,000 vines produced yearly the following quantity of wine : — In Australia . . United States France . . Galls. • 320 . 320 . 400 In Germany . . Switzerland . Cape Colony GcUls. ■ 53° • 930 . 2800 Cape Colony has 20,000 acres of vineyards containing 60 million stalks. See IVine, p. 597. United Kingdom The quantity and value of liquor consumed in the United Kingdom in 1896 were : — Millions of Gallons Beer Spirits Wines Cider, &c. England .... Scotland. . . . Ireland .... 1,044 63 99 27 8 S 13-4 1-4 i.o 14 o-S O.S United Kingdom . 1,206 40 15-8 iS-o Reducing all to alcohol, and taking the wholes.nle value (free of duty), the shares that correspond to the three kingdoms are as follows : — Gallons Alcohol Value, £ Per Inhabitant Gallons Shillings England . Scotland Ireland . . U. Kingdom 62,500,000 7,100,000 7,200,000 67,000,000 6,700,000 7,300,000 2.0 1-7 1.6 1-9 43 32 32 76,800,000 81,000,000 41 The quantities of alcohol and the money value of each kind of liquor were : — Gallons Alcohol Value, £ Beer Spirits . . . • Wines, &c. . . . 54,300,000 19,800,000 2,700,000 60,300,000 14,800,000 5,900,000 Total . 76,800,000 81,000,000 The consumption of liquor in the United Kingdom has been as follows : — Millions of Gallons 1866 1876 1886 1896 Beer Spirits .... Wines .... 890 30 13 990 42 18 977 34 13 1,206 40 16 Gallons per Head Beer . Spirits Wine . Equivalent alcohol 29.7 1.0 ! 0.4 I X.9I 30.0 1.3 o-S 2.1 26.9 I 30.9 0.9 1.0 0.4 0.4 1.7 1.9 Reducing all to alcohol, the consumption per head is Ihe same as it was 30 years ago. Germany In 1895 were produced 66 million gallons of alcohol, from 2,100,000 tons of potatoes and 350,000 tons of grain ; 54 million gallons were used for liquor, the rest for manufactures. United States The production of spirits and beer, and the amount paid for Inland Revenue (which includes both liquor and tobacco dues) in 1897 were : — Spirits, Gallons Beer, Barrels In. Rev. £ Sterling Illinois . . New York . Kentucky . Ohio . . Pennsylvania Indiana . Other States 22,700,000 3,800,000 6,800,000 7,500,000 1,200,000 8,700,000 13,600,000 3,300,000 9,500,000 400.000 2,600,000 3,900,000 600,000 14,200,000 6,600,000 3,800,000 3,300,000 2,600,000 2,400,000 1,800,000 10,000,000 Union .... 64,300,000 34,500,000 30,500,000 The amount levied on spirits and beer was ;^24,ooo,ooo sterling, equal to a liquor tax of 80 pence per inhabitant. Taxes on Alcohol In the United Kingdom these taxes have risen as follows : — ■ 1866 1876 1885 1896 Beer, £ 6,790,000 8,590,000 8,550,000 10,900,000 Wine, Spirits, £ 15.350.000 23,040,000 19,530,000 21,630,000 Total, £ 22,140,000 31,630,000 28,080,000 32,530,000 The duties on British spirits and on beer in the three kingdoms were in 1897 as follows : — Spirits, £ \ Beer, £ England Scotland Ireland . 6,450,000 6,130,000 4,230,000 9,790,000 600,000 930,000 Total / Shillings ^otal, £ p.inhab. 16,240,000 6,730,000 5,160,000 U. Kingdom 16,810,000 11,320,000 28,130,000 32 23 14 The above is exclusive of duties on wines and imported spirits, which if included would bring up the liquor duties of the United Kingdom to 16 shillings per inhabi- tant. In France they were as follows : — Year Beer,;^ Wine, £ Spirits, £ Total, £ 1885 1896 980,000 1,000,000 6,600,000 8,800,000 9,720,000 10,700,000 17,300,000 20,500,000 In Holland they were : — Year Beer,;^ Wine, £ Spirits, £ Total, £ 1886 1896 100,000 100,000 150,000 150,000 1,950,000 ! 2,200,000 2,250,000 '• 2,500,000 In Belgium they were : — Year Beer, £ ^^•ine, £ Spirits, £ Total, £ 1885 1896 600,000 200,000 800,000 300,000 1,400,000 1,740,000 2,200,000 2,840,000 ANIMALS 636 ARMY In the United States in 1897 the tax on spirits was ;^I7, 000,000 or 66 pence per gallon, that on beer was ;^7,ooo,ooo or 48 pence per barrel. The taxes on liquor were : — Year Beer, £ Wine, £ Spirits, £ Total, £ 1888 1896 S,ooo,ooo 7,200,000 800,000 700,000 15,000,000 16,100,000 20,800,000 24,000,000 In Switzerland the tax on spirits produced : — Year Gallons Tax,/ 1891 189s 1,500,000 1,200,000 240,000 200,000 In Germany the liquor taxes in 1895 amounted to ;^ 1 1,900,000. ANIMALS Two dogs can draw a sleigh carrying 250 lbs. a dis- tance of 20 miles in 5 hours ; eight will draw a sleigh of 3 persons at the rate of 5 miles an hour, and travel 60 miles a day. A reindeer will draw a sleigh 5 feet long and 2 feet wide, carrying one passenger, no miles in a day. The highest recorded price for a dog is ^^1500, paid by Mr. Reick of New York for a dog called Sir Belvidere. The highest price for a horse has been ^^25,000, paid by the Czar for an Irish horse called Galtee More. See Animals, page 161, and Dogs, page 691. AQUEDUCTS Since 1890 five great aqueducts have been constructed or enlarged, viz. ; — New York Bombay Liverpool Manchester Glasgow Miles i Cost, £ 40 65 68 100 35 5,200,000 2,500,000 4,500,000 3,000,000 Gallons Daily 100,000,000 50,000,000 See Water, page 588, and page 818. ARMY United Kingdom The position of the British army in 1896, compared with 1 888, showed thus : — England . Scotland . Ireland . United Kingdom India Egypt . Colonies . Total 1888 1S9S 83,000 5,000 30,000 76,000 4,000 26,,ooo 118,000 72,000 6,000 25,000 106,000 78,000 4,000 34,000 221,000 22i:,000 The whole military force of the British empire shows thus : — 188S 1896 Regular army .... 221,000 222,000 Militia and reserves . 174,000 210,000 Volunteers .... 222,000 232,000 Indian troops .... 145,000 145,000 Colonial troops 15,000 15,000 Total . 777,000 824,000 The different arms in 1896 stood as follows ; — Regulars Indians Volun- teers, &c. Total Infantry . . Cavalry . . Artillery . . Engineers, &c. 126,000 18,000 31,000 47,000 113,000 23,000 5,000 4,000 341,000 19,000 70,000 27,000 580,000 60,000 106,000 78,000 Total . 222,000 145,000 457,000 824,000 There are 12,000 officers in the regular army : nationality of the men, including petty officers, is :— the Number in 1896 Percentage 1883 1896 English . Scotch . Irish Colonial . 163,000 16,000 25,000 5,000 70 8 20 2 78 8 12 2 Total . 209,000 100 100 Compared with population we find that England pro- duces 5 soldiers per thousand inhabitants, Scotland 4, and Ireland 6. Between regulars and irregulars the British army amounts to 679,000 men, equal to 17 per thousand, or nearly 2 per cent, of the population. The cost of the army in 1897 was :■ — £ Effective service .... 15,000,000 Sundries and extras . . . 6,000,000 Total 21,000,000 The effective army re]iresents an annual cost of /70 per man, a higher ratio than in other European countries. The age of the regular infantry is now much younger than before, viz. : — Years 1846 1870 1897 Under 20 . . 20-30 .... 30-40 .... Over 40 . . . 17.7 62.0 18.2 2.1 16.0 52- S 30.4 i.i 23.1 71.0 5-6 03 Total . 100. lOO.O lOO.O France The peace footing in 1S97 stood as follows : — France Colonies Total Infantry Cavalry Artillery Engineers, &c. . 342,000 70,000 8r,ooo 42,000 36,000 7,000 7,000 2,000 378,000 77,000 88,000 44,000 Total . 535.000 52,000 587,000 ARMY 637 ARMY If the gendarmerie were included, the total would reach 610,000 men. The first line of reserve counts 1,740,000 men, available in case of war. The second and third reserves, suitable for garrison duty, number two millions. Between the army and first reserve France is able to put nearly 2J millions of men under arms, equal to 62 per thousand inhabitants, as compared with 17 per thousand in the United Kingdom. The cost of the War Office is ;^28,ooo,ooo, equal to £^8 a man, against ^^'70 for the British army. Germany _ There are 21 army-corps, of which 12 bear Prussian titles. The peace footing in 1897 showed thus :— Infantry . Cavalry . Artillery . Engineers, &c. Total Officers and Men 396,000 69,000 86,000 34,000 585,000 Horses 64,000 29,000 4,000 97,000 Between the men under colours and the first line of reserve Germany can at any moment call out 3,000,000 effective combatants. The War Office expenditure in 1897 was ;f24,ooo,ooo, equal to £^1 per man, against £4% in France. Russia Peace footing stands thus :— Officers and Men Number of Horses Europe Siberia Total Infantry , . Cavalry . . . Artillery . . Engineers, &c. 521,000 115,000 105,000 51,000 61,000 9,000 4,000 3,000 582,000 124,000 109,000 54,000 9,000 106,000 28,000 12,000 Total . 792,000 77,000 869,000 155.000 War footing is shown as follows :- Regulars Reserve Total Horses Infantry . . Cavalry . . Artillery . . Engineers, &c. 890,000 115,000 150,000 105,000 520,000 165,000 110,000 475,000 1,410,000 280,000 260,000 580,000 85,000 255,000 210,000 30,000 Total . 1,260,000 1,270,000 2,530,000 580,000 The artillery has 1 800 field-guns on peace footing, and 5260 in time of war. It may be doubted whether the actual number of men under the colours is the same as above given. At the siege of Plevna the difficulties of the Russian army were apparent. Probably the effective army numbers 600,000 men, and this could be doubled in the event of war. Army expenditure in 1897 reached ;^28,5oo,ooo, equal to ;^33 per man, peace footing, as compared with ^41 in Germany, Austria-Hungary The army on peace and on war thus :— footing is shown Officers Men Horses Guns Peace . • . War . 25,000 4S.OOO 33S.OOO 1,830,000 47,000 280,000 1,050 1,860 Peace footing in 1896 stood as follows :- Officers and Men Horses Infantry .... Cavalry .... Artillery .... Engineers, &c. . 234,000 S4.000 38,000 34,000 1,000 43,000 2,000 1,000 Total . 360,000 47,000 Army expenditure amounts to ;^i5,ooo,ooo, equal to £41 per man, the same as in Germany. The War Office of Vienna spends ;,f 12,000,000 for the common defence of the monarchy, besides which the Austrian Diet spends ;^2,ooo,ooo, the Hungarian ;^i ,000,000, for war purposes. Italy There are 12 army-corps, in all 840,000 men ; but the number under the colours rarely exceeds 240,000. Regulars Reserve Militia Total Infantry . . . Cavalry . . , Artillery . . . Engineers, &c. . 160,000 25,000 32,000 23,000 450,000 20,000 93,000 37,000 340,000 S5.000 5S.OOO 40,000 950,000 100,000 180,000 100,000 Total . . 240,000 600,000 490,000 1,330,000 This total is equal to 43 per thousand of the popula- tion. Army expenditure amounts to ;£'io,8oo,ooo, equal to £i\S per man, against ;^4I in Germany. Spain In normal times the peace and war footing are as follows : — Infantry , Cavalry , Artillery . Engineers, &c. Total Peace 80,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 110,000 War 140,000 20,000 12,000 12,000 184,000 In 1897 Spain was said to have 150,000 men fighting the Cuban insurgents, besides 15,000 in the Philippine Islands, and a garrison in the Canaries, The expendi- ture on the army is usually ;^5,6oo,ooo, equal to £^i per man, against ;^4I in Germany. Portugal The army consists of 35,000 men, including officers, besides 9000 colonials, mostly natives. It is supposed that in case of war the force could be raised to 150,000 men, 23,000 horses, and 260 guns. This would be equal to 32 men per thousand inhabitants. The army costs £1, 100,000 per annum, or ;^32 per man. Sweden and Norway The army of these kingdoms stands as follows : — Sweden Norway Total Infantry Cavalry Artillery Engineers, &c. 28,000 5,000 4,000 2,000 15,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 43,000 6,000 5,000 3,000 Regulars Reserve 39,000 100,000 18,000 12,000 57.000 112,000 War footing 139,000 30,000 169,000 ARMY 638 ATHLETICS Expenditure in 1897 was ;^i, 500,000 for Sweden and ;^500,ooo for Norway ; that is, £3g per man in the former, and £2y in the latter kingdom. For other countries see Part I., page 72. Military Expenditure. — The sums animally spent for military purposes compare with population and national earnings as follows : — Shillings Army Navy Total per Inhab. £ £ £ U. Kingdom . 18,500,000 22,700,000 41,200,000 21 France . . . 25,200,000 11,400,000 36,600,000 19 Germany . . 29,100,000 6,100,000 35,200,000 14 Russia . . . 30,600,000 8,000,000 38,600,000 7 Austria . . . 14,200,000 2,100,000 16,300,000 7 Italy .... 9,400,000 4,100,000 13,500,000 9 Spain . . 5,700,000 1,100,000 6,800,000 8 Portugal . . 1,300,000 500,000 1,800,000 8 Sweden . . . 1,500,000 400,000 1,900,000 8 Norway . . . 600,000 200,000 800,000 3 Denmark . . 600,000 300,000 900,000 8 Holland . 1,900,000 1,300,000 3,200,000 13 Belgium . . . 2,000,000 2,000,000 6 Switzerland. 1,000,000 1,000,000 7 Roumania . . 1,800,000 1,800,000 6 Servia . . . 600,000 600,000 5 Bulgaria , , . 900,000 900,000 S Turkey . . . 7,300,000 700,000 8,000,000 27 Greece . . . 600,000 300,000 900,000 8 Europe . . , 152,800,000 59,200,000 212,000,000 II U. States . . 10,200,000 7,300,000 17,500,000 S Japan . . . 5,000,000 1,600,000 6,600,000 3 Brazil . . . 1,300,000 700,000 2,000,000 3 Argentina . . 1,300,000 800,000 2,100,000 10 Chile. . . . 900,000 600,000 1,500,000 II Mexico . . . 1,000,000 100,000 1,100,000 2 Total . . 172,500,000 70,300,000 242,800,000 10 ARTESIAN WELLS Besides those given at page 588 are those made in the United States to December 1892. No. of Wells Average Cost , &c. Depth, feet rster- hng Gallons per Minute California Utah Texas, &c. 3.240 2.524 2,333 248 146 250 210 88 16 SI 164 26 34 Total . 8,097 54 A well giving 50 gallons a minute suffices to irrigate 5 acres of land. The deepest wells known are, according to Chambers : — Buda-Pesth . .- . . 3,180 feet St. Louis, U.S. . . . 3,840 ,, The well at Buda gives water of the temperature of 165° Fahr., or 2 degrees less than Carlsbad (see p. 567). ATHLETICS There was a bicycle race at St. Albans, 16 entries, on October 13, 1894, which resulted as follows : — Rider Miles Min. Sec. Rider Miles Min. Sec. Wright . • 5 13 32 King . . 30 84 30 .1 . 20 55 26 I> • SO 150 S6 A race of 12 hours was won by Hunt, with the follow- ing results : — /fours Miles 2 47 4 91 Hours Miles 6 134 8 176 Hours Miles 10 12 217 260 He made 150 miles in 6 hours 44 minutes, and 200 miles in 9 hours 8 minutes. All the foregoing were the quickest runs on record, except King's run of 50 miles, this distance having been done by Knapp, in 1888, in 149 minutes 41 seconds. On June i, 1896, Stocks, at Hull, beat all previous records for short runs when he made the following : — Miles Min. Sec. I I 55 3 5 44 Miles Min. Sec, 5 9 39 10 19 30 At Catford, England, on August 30, 1897, Walters rode 100 miles in 206 minutes, or 5 minutes less than the best run then on record. In the last 10 years the record of jumps has been broken by the following : — High running jump, 77. 1 inches— M. Sweeny, New York, 1895- High pole jump, 11 feet 9 inches — R. Dickenson, Kidder- minster, 1891. Standing broad jump, 12 feet 2 inches — J. Darby, Ashton, 1889. The 20-mile foot race also has a new record, G. Cross- land having done it in I hour 52 minutes, at London, 1894. Cricket records show that the highest innings in Eng- land in 1896 fell to Dr. Grace, 301 runs. In the same year's record Prince Ranjitsinhgi had an average score of 53, which was the highest, the average for 10 best batters during the year having been 45. The 10 highest bowlers averaged 17. See Athletics, p. 74. BANKS 639 BANKS B BANKS In August 1896 the banks of the world stood as follows ; — Bank of £ Sterling {000 omitted) Issue Bullion Deposits Discounts England .... 27,400 45,700 61.900 44,000 France . . 153,600 125,700 22,600 42,000 Germany . . 62,900 40,200 22,200 39,600 Russia . . 115,000 97,600 24,700 16,500 Austria Hungar V • 55.400 36,000 900 18,000 Italy (3) . . 42,400 20,600 12,600 13,800 Spain . . . 41,400 18,700 16,100 8,700 Portugal . . 13,000 3,000 500 3.900 Sweden . . 7,000 2,400 22,000 11,200 Norway . . 2,900 1,400 400 1,800 Denmark 5,000 3.700 6co 1,200 Holland . . 17,600 9,600 400 5.700 Belgium . . 18,900 4,000 2,200 i7,roo Switzerland . 7,900 4,000 31.500 6,700 Roumania . 5,800 2,600 600 1,800 Servia. . . 1,000 500 100 300 Greece . . 4.500 100 3,800 600 Ottoman . . 600 1,600 5.700 700 Europe . , 582,300 417.400 228,800 233,600 New York . 4,000 15.300 106,200 98,400 Total • 586,300 432,700 335.000 332,000 currency of Europe and the bullion reserves of banks will show as follows for seven years : — The following table shows the issue of European banks, their bullion reserves, and the ratio of latter to former in March 1898 :— £ Sterling ( 300 omitted) Ratio of BuUn. Issue Gold Silver Total England . . 27,600 32,600 32,600 118 Scotland . . 7,700 S,ooo 800 5,800 76 Ireland . . . 6,500 2,600 400 3,000 47 U. Kingdom . 41,800 40,200 1,200 41,400 99 France . . . 153.300 74.500 48,700 123,200 82 Germany 60,800 36,500 16,400 52,900 «7 Russia . 91,800 120,900 4,600 125,500 136 Austria . 51,200 30,800 10,500 41-300 80 Italy. . 41,600 16,000 2,500 18,500 44 Spain . 50,200 9,600 10,900 20,500 41 Portugal 14.300 1,100 1,900 3,000 21 Sweden . 7.300 2,100 800 2,900 40 Norway 3.100 1,800 1,800 58 Denmark 4,400 3,000 3,000 68 Holland 16,700 2,800 7.000 9,800 5« Belgium 19,000 3,600 600 4,200 22 Switzerlanc 8,000 3.700 300 4,000 5° Greece . S.400 100 100 2 Roumania S.700 2,200 200 2,400 4a Servia . 900 200 300 500 56 Bulgaria 100 200 zoo 400 400 Total • 575.600 349.300 ic6,ioo 455.400 79 In 1896 the nominal value of the Russian currencjr was leduced from 38 pence per rouble to 25 pence ; but if we suppose the rouble to have been always 25 pence, the £ Sterling ( Doo omitted) Ratio of Issue Gold Silver Total Bullion 1892 . . . 533-0 248.3 99.8 348-1 65.2 1893 551-0 244.6 99-7 344-3 ^2-5 1894 . 561.0 278,0 104-1 382.1 68.1 189s . 583-0 314-5 100.2 414-7 71.1 1896 . 596.0 314-4 100. 5 414.9 69-7 1897 . 563-1 327-9 106.4 434-3 77.1 1898 . . 575-6 349-3 106.1 455- 4 79-1 The amount of paper money in Europe in December of the last three years was : — Millions £ Sterling Shillings per In- 1895 1896 1897 habitant England . 26.3 26.7 28.3 18 Scotland . 7-3 7-8 8.0 36 Ireland . 6-S 6.8 6.8 30 United Kingdom . 40.1 41-3 43-1 22 France 145-9 IS3-6 152-5 80 Germany . 69-7 68.9 76.0 30 Russia 115.0 112.0 107.0 20 Austria . 52.0 55-4 58.8 28 Italy 43-4 42.8 43-4 27 Spain 39-6 41.1 48.2 54 Portugal . 12- 5 13.2 14.6 60 Sweden . 6.6 7.2 7-9 32 Norway . 2.8 2-9 3-3 31 Finland . 2.2 2.6 2-9 25 Denmark . 3-9 5- 1 5-1 46 HoUand . 17-3 16.9 17.8 75 Belgium . 18.0 18.8 19-5 62 Switzerland 7-6 7-9 8-7 58 Roumania 5-2 5-8 5-8 20 Servia I.O 1.0 1.0 9 Greece 4-5 4-5 5.4 48 Total 587-3 601.0 621.0 33 The buUion reserves of European banks at the close of the last four years were : — Millions £ Sterling Ratio to Gold Silver Total Currency 1894 . 1895 . . . 1896 . 1897 . 279 304 314 350 104 89 100 102 383 393 414 452 68 per cent. 67 ., ,. 69 ,. .. 73 .. . Gold reserve has risen 25 per cent, in three years, while silver reserve has declined 2 per cent. This shows that the world's supply of gold has been over-abundant. The Bank of Russia has the largest issue in the world, and the largest bullion reserve except that of France. The latter holds 30 per cent, of the total amount of bullion or hard money held by the banks of Europe. If the reserves of the Banks of Germany and Austria BANKS 640 BANKS were added to that of the Bank of England, the aggregate would still be less than the bullion held by the Bank of France. The only banks whose bullion reserve exceeds their issue are the Bank of England, the Ottoman, and the New York Associated Banks. The average of bullion reserve to issue, taken for all banks collectively, is as 67 to 100, but there are several where the reserve is less than 50 per cent, of issue, viz. Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, Roumania, and Greece. The position of European banks in 1 896 compares with the same in 1889 as follows : — Issue . . Bullion . Discounts 1889 1896 466,200,000 263,300,000 229,100,000 641,300,000 417,400,000 233,600,000 Increase 37 per cent. 59 .. .. 2 » ,. Discounts remained almost stationary, while the stock of bullion rose 59 per cent. Bullion reserves of European and New York banks in 1S97 reached 450 millions ster- ling, that is 350 millions gold and 100 silver. The fol- lowing table, comprising only seven of the European State banks (to the exclusion of those of Italy, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Roumania, Servia, Greece, and Turkey), besides the New York Associated Banks and the United States Treasury, shows the reserves of gold in December of the last three years : — Gold Reserve, £ 1895 1896 1897 England . . . 45,000,000 34,600,000 31,800,000 France .... 78,000,000 76,600,000 78,500,000 Germany . . . 42,600,000 40,200,000 43,500,000 Russia . . 92,200,000 113,500,000 122,200,000 Austria . . . 24,500,000 28,700,000 31,400,000 Belgium . . . 4,100,000 4,200,000 4,200,000 Holland . . . 3,500,000 2,600,000 2,600,000 New York . . . 13,800,000 15,300,000 20,800,000 Banks .... 303,700,000 315,700,000 ' 335,000,000 U.S. Treasury . 19,900,000 35,000,000 i 38,800,000 Total . . 323,600,000 350,700,000 373,800,000 This shows that in two years the gold reserves rose 50 millions sterling, or 15 per cent. Rates of interest in the last twelve years were as follows : — Fi ^ Year 1 _UJ a .a d 1 I d c i M I Bh « (S s < > « ^ 1886 . . . rl-O .3.0 3-3 2.7 2.5 4.0 31 1887 . . ?,■^ 30 .3-4 .31 2-5 5-1 4.1 5-5 3-7 1888 . . 3-2 3-1 .3.3 .3-3 2-5 5-3 4.2 5-5 3-« 1889 . . . .3-5 3-1 .3.7 3-5 2.5 5-» 4.2 5-2 3-9 1890 . . 4-S .3-0 4-4 3-2 2.8 5-9 4-5 b.o 4-3 1891 . . . ?.■?< 3-0 .3-« 3.0 3-1 4-9 4-4 5.*i 3-y 1892 . . . 2.5 2.7 .3.2 2.7 2.7 4-9 4.0 5-2 3-5 1893 . . . .3-0 2.5 4.1 2.8 3- a 4-7 4.2 5-2 3-S 1894 . . . 2.1 2-5 .3-1 3-0 2.6 4-5 4.1 5-7 3-5 189s ■ . • 2.0 2.2 3-2 2.6 2.5 CO 4-3 5-0 3-4 1896 . . . 2-5 2.0 1 3.7 2.9 3-0 6.1 4.1 50 3-7 1897 . . . 2.8 2.0 1 3.8 3-0 .3-1 5-9 4.0 5-0 3-7 Average . . 3-0 2.7 1 3.6 3.0 2.8 5-3 4.2 5-4 3-7 During the last three years the average rates were — at Madrid 4.8, at Lisbon 5.9, at Berne 3.7, and at Bucha- rest 5.1. Exchange. — The rates of exchange were : — London on N.York Silver Year on Pence Paris Hamburg Calcutta London per oz. 1890 . . 25-47 20.66 18.6 4.82 47.7 1891 . . 25.48 20.60 17-4 4-83 45-1 1892 . . 25-34 20.51 15-5 4-85 39-7 1893 . . 25-39 20.60 15- 1 4.84 35-6 1894 25-34 20.55 13-8 4.86 28.9 1895 . ■ 25-35 20.58 13.2 4.88 29.8 1896 . . 25.27 20.59 14.6 4.85 30-7 1897 . . 25-31 20.57 IS-2 4-84 27.0 Average . 25-37 20.58 iS-4 4-85 35-6 The lowest price recorded for silver was on August 31, 1897, namely, 24 pence per ounce, being as I to 35 compared with the value of gold, or 60 per cent, below par. United Kingdom The statistics for 1897 compare with those of 1890 as follows : — Millions ;^ Sterling* England Scotland 1890 1897 1830 1897 Capital paid . 53-8 59-3 9-1 9-3 Market value 165- 5 181.4 22.9 30-3 Reserve fund 27.8 32-5 5-6 7.2 Note issue 26.7 29.4 6-4 7-4 Deposits . 387-7 565-0 88.3 95-8 Discounts 289.8 376.2 58-0 64.8 Assets 517-1 707.9 113-4 124.9 Ireland U. Kingdom 1890 1897 1890 1897 Capital paid . 7.0 7-1 69-9 75-7 Market value 17.7 21.1 206.1 232.8 Reserve fund 3-1 3-7 36-5 43-4 Note issue 6-7 5-8 39-8 42.6 Deposits . 37-8 45-6 513-8 706.4 Discounts 27.6 35-0 375-4 476.0 Assets 54-8 62.7 685-3 895-5 Colonial Grand Total 1890 1897 1890 1897 Capital paid . Reserve fund . Deposits . Discounts Assets 43-0 19.1 240.7 303-1 387.0 33-8 9.1 156-3 164.4 238- S 112.9 55- 6 678- S 1,072.3 109-5. 52. S 862.7 640.4 1.134-0 If we take discounts as the gauge of banking business, England will stand for 78^ per cent., Scotland 14 per cent., Ireland 74 per cent, of the total for the United Kingdom. The paid-up capital (excluding Colonial)- rose 8 per cent, in 7 years, market value of stock 1 3 per cent., deposits 37 per cent., discounts 26 percent., and • Note. — This table reads thus: capital 53.8 signifies- ;f 53, 800,000. BANKS 641 BANKS assets 30 per cent. The deposits in banks of the United Kingdom increased 108 millions in 7 years, being an average of 1 5 J millions yearly. The note issue has been as follows : — Year £ Sterling (000 omitted) England I Scotland 1890 1892 1894 1896 27,000 27,500 27,100 27,600 7, TOO 6,700 6,900 7.500 Ireland U. Kingdom 7.300 6,300 6,500 6,400 41,400 40,500 40,500 4'.Soo Bank of England returns at the close of each year showed as follows : — Year Issue, £ Bullion, £ Deposits, £ 1890 . 24,700,000 2i,8oo,coo 35,400,000 iSgr . 25,500,000 23,200,000 34,800,000 1892 . 26,000,000 25,000,000 34,400,000 1893 25,800,000 25,900,000 34,200,000 1894 25,500,000 35,300,000 41,600,000 189s 26,100,000 42,500,000 56,400,000 1890 . 26,700,000 35,900,000 50,600,000 1897 . 27,400,000 28,400,000 49,600,000 France The progress of the Bank of France since 1880 is shown thus : — Millions £ Sterling 1880 1889 1897 Discount . . . - Issue Gold reserve .... Silver reserve .... 348 92 27 S4 340 "5 S3 SI 41S 151 80 48 The head-office at Paris does half the business of the bank, which has branches all over France (see page 179). The discounts at Paris in 1897 comprised 5,700,000 bills, of which 1,870,000 were for sums less than £4 sterling. The maximum of bills in portfolio was ^^42,400,000 in January, the minimum ;^2 1, 400,000 in August. Expenses in 1897 amounted to ^^640,000. The bank is the pro- perty of 28,200 shareholders, who hold between them 182,500 shares of £40 each, the market value of each share being at present ^£'142 sterling. Thus the paid-up capital is ^f 7, 300,000, and the value of the shares ;f26,ooo,ooo, the average of stock held by each share- holder being ^920. Australia The collective figures for the banks of the seven colonies sum up as follows : — Year £ Sterling (000 omitted) Issue Bullion Deposits Assets 1890 . . . 1893 . . . 1895 . . . 1897 . . . 1890-97, av. . S.Soo 4,500 3.700 4,100 4,400 20,200 22,100 25,200 24,600 22,600 III, TOO ior,30o 99,200 101,600 104,700 168,500 158,700 146,500 144,100 157,000 The returns for June 1897 showed as follows (000 omitted) : — Issue Bullion Deposits Assets N. S. Wales Victoria . . N. Zealand . Queensland . S. Australia. W. Australia Tasmania . 1,200 1,000 1,000 400 400 100 6,500 7,400 3,100 2,100 2,300 2,400 800 30,300 30,600 14,600 ir,8oo 7,200 4,100 3.000 4S.S0O 45.700 17,300 18,500 7,800 6,100 3,200 Total 4,100 24,600 101,600 144,100 Canada Aggregate returns for the several provinces show follows : — Year £ Sterling (000 omitted) Issue Bullion Deposits Assets 1890 . . . 1893 • • • 1896 . . . 6,600 6,900 6,400 1,300 1,300 1,600 28,100 36,500 39,200 52,400 62,600 65,400 The returns for 1896, distinguishing Old Canada (Quebec and Ontario) from the provinces added to the Dominion, show as follow (000 omitted) : — Issue Bullion Deposits Assets Old Canada . . Nova Scotia . . Other Provinces . 5,100 800 Soo 1,300 200 100 33.100 4,400 1,700 55.100 7,400 2,900 Dominion . . . 6,400 1,600 39,200 65.400 Canadian banks have a paid-up capital of j^l3,ooo,ooo. Banking power is about 52 millions sterling, or ;f 10 per inhabitant. South Africa Collectively, the returns for Cape Colony and Natal showed thus : — 1890 .... 1893 .... 1895 .... Average, '90-95 £ Sterling (000 omitted). Issue Bullion Deposits Assets 700 800 700 3,000 2,000 3,800 2,700 7,900 7,100 10,600 8,100 9.300 9.500 10,700 9.500 Banking power is about 12 millions sterling, equal to ;^5 per inhabitant. India The amount of paper money in circulation, and its value in sterling, were : — Year Millions Rupees £ Sterling Year Millions Rupees £ Sterling 1891 1892 1893 257 241 264 19,300,000 16,100,000 17,600,000 1894 1895 1896 304 307 259 20,300,000 20,500,000 17,300,000 West Indies There are banks in Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbadoes whose aggregate issue is about .^800,000, and assets about 8 millions. 2 S BANKS 642 BANKS United States ■ ■ In October 1890 there were 3540 National Banks, and in October 1896 there were 3676. The principal features are shown as follows : — Millions $ Millions £ 189 D 1896 1890 1896 Issue Capital Deposits .... Sundries .... 123 650 1.759 610 210 648 1.799 607 25.6 135-2 366.0 126.8 43-6 134-8 374 4 126.0 Liabilities , . . . 3.142 3.264 653-6 678.8 Bullion U. S. notes . . . Discounts .... Sundries .... 196 87 1,970 889 201 142 1.893 1,028 40.8 18.0 410.0 184.8 41.8 29.6 394-0 213-4 Assets 3.142 3.264 653-6 678.8 The capital and dividends of the above banks showed thus :— Year Millions $ Capital Dividend * Rate 1891 1894 .... 1896 .... Average 660 673 653 668 50.8 45-3 45-5 48.0 7-7 6.7 70 7-2 The National Banks of New York city showed as follows : — Millions $ Millions £, 1890 1896 1890 1896 Discounts .... Deposits .... Bullion 297 333 79 314 373 SO 62.0 69.2 16.4 65.2 77-6 10.4 The returns for all National Banks 0: States were : — the United Millions $ Discounts Deposits Bullion, res. 1891 .... 1894 .... 1896 .... Average . . . 1,989 2,007 1.893 1.953 1.7S9 2,019 1,799 1,860 184 237 201 209 National Bank discounts in the principal States in ()i L(i'"'r 1896 were as follows : — Millions $ City Rural Total New York .... Massachusetts e iiLsylvania .... i iiois Oilier States .... 314 141 |7 82 176 112 104 156 44 677 426 245 243 126 853 Total 800 1.093 1.893 In the above table "city" counts only for the capital, such as New Yorkj Boston, or Philadelphia, the banks of minor cities being classed under heading " rural." • A'!)/?.— Dividends 50.8 signifies $50,800,000. Clearing-houses. — The monthly returns iti the United States for the principal cities during the years 1890-91 were as follows : — Millions £, Sterling Millions £ Sterling New York . . Boston . . . Chicago . . . 621 85 72 Phihidelphia . St. Louis . . S. Francisco . 62 19 IS New York clearing-house returns since 1S54 showed thus, in monthly averages' : — Year Millions £ Sterling Year Millions £ Sterling 1854 .... 1864 .... 1874 .... 100 416 395 1884 .... 1894 .... 1897 .... S88 420 545 London clearing-house showed monthly averages thus : — Year | Millions;^ Year Millions ;f 1839 .... 1869 .... 1875 .... 82 302 474 1884 .... 1894 . . . 189b . . . 483 528 631 Provincial clearing-houses showed for iS as follows : — and 1897 Manchester Liverpool Newcastle Birmingham Bristol . Millions £ Monthly 1896 16. 1 12.0 4.6 4-2 2.0 1897 16.1 12.0 51 4-8 2.1 The monthly average of the clearing-house of Paris rose from 88 millions sterling in 1876 to 157 millions in 1886, and 294 millions in 1896. Savings-Banks Those of the United Kingdom show as follows : — Year Amount held, £ (000 omitted) England Scotland Ireland U. Kingdom 1890 . . . 1892 . . . 1894 . . . 1897 - . . 94.500 100,200 112,100 136,600 11,100 ii,Soo , 13,700 i8,Soo 5.800 6,200 7,000 9,000 111,400 118,200 132,800 164,400 Number of Depositors (000 omitted) 1890 . . . 1892 . . . 1894 . . . 1897 . . . S.570 6,090 6,650 7.640 540 590 620 760 250 270 310 370 6,360 6,950 7.580 8,770 The average sum held by each depositor is ;^i8 in England, £2i, in Scotland, and £2^ in Ireland. The number of depositors compares with population as loUows: — In England, 246; in Scotland, 180, and in Iteland, 80 per thousand inhabitants. BANKS 643 B.\NKS The earliest statement of savings-banks on the Euro- pean continent is that of Malchus", in 1837, viz. : — ' France . . Prussia . . Austria . . Bavaria, &c. Banks 250 80 Deposits 4,900,000 950,000 3,030,000 2,390,000 Belgium Holland . Switzerland Italy . . . Banks S 5° 58 Deposits 650,000 280,000 790,000 150,000 Making ^ total of 654 banks, with deposits amounting to ;fi3,220,ooo. Returns from 1840 to 1889 will be found at page 86. The latest returns compare with those of 1889 as follows : — Amount, Millions £ Depositors Do. per m 1896 100 18S9 1896 Inhab. U. Kingdom . 107.3 154.8 8,350,000 21 France . III. 8 165.8 9,120,000 24 Germany . . 144.6 212.5 7,222,000 14 Russia . . . 7.2 37-7 1,890,000 2 Austria . . . 122.6 178.4 4,670,000 II Italy . . . S6-5 72.2 4,520,000 IS Spain . . . 2.0 3-2 70,000 Portugal . o-S 10,000 Scandmavia . 44.1 64.9 2,980,000 32 Finland . . 1-9 Holland . 6.0 95 840,000 18 Belgium . . 10.4 181 1,150,000 19 Switzerland . 237 35.8 1,190,000 40 Europe, , . 636.2 9SS-3 42,010,000 13 V. States . . 284.0 446.0 5,065.000 7 Canada . . 10.7 12.2 240,000 5 Australia . . IS- 5 26.1 890,000 22 India . . . 6.0 7.0 680,000 W. Indies, &c. 2.6 4.2 175,000 5 Japan . . . 30 1,220,000 3 Brazil . . . 4.2 ... The World . 95SO 1.458.0 50,280,000 From the above figures it would appear that people who use savings-banks, mostly the working classes, have added 503 millions sterling to their accumulations in 7 years, or about 72 millions per annum. Australia. — During the last six years the number of depositors has risen 30 per cent., the amount of deposits 49 per cent., viz. : — Depositors Amount, £ 1891 1897 1891 1 1897 New S. Wales . Victoria . New Zealand . South Australia . ■Queensland . . West Australia . Tasmania , . . 158,000 301,000 127,000 79,000 46,000 4,000 27,000 2r4,ooo 34S.OOO 175,000 105,000 63,000 26,000 33,000 5,340,000 5,720,000 3,410,000 2,220,000 1,660,000 50,000 550,000 8,520,000 7,520,000 5,070,000 3,020,000 2,570,000 860,000 700,000 Total . . 742,000 962,000 18,950,000 '28,260,000 No less than 22 per cent, of the population are de- positors in Savings-Banks, the ratio in Victoria rising to 30 per cent., and falling in Queensland to 13 per cent. The average amount held by each depositor is ;^30, the ratio being as much as ;^40 in N.S. Wales, and only ;f2i in Tasmania. Canada.— In 1894 there were 673 Post-Office savings- banks, with 115,000 depositors, who held ;^4,8oo,ooo sterling. United States. — The returns for 1896 show 988 savings- banks, against 638 in 1 886 : — Millions S Millions £ 1S86 1896 1886 1896 Deposits . Capital, &c. . 1,142 119 1,907 236 237 25 397 49 Liabilities 1,261 2,143 262 446 Loans Mortgages U.S. bonds . Railway ,, State ,, Sundries . 128 418 197 64 241 213 1,261 255 800 149 135 578 226 27 87 41 13 5° 44 l8 120 47 Assets . 2.143 262 446 The various sections of the Union in 1896 showed as follows : — States Depositors Millions $ per In- habitant New England . Middle . Southern . Prairie , . . Pacific . 2,210,000 2,294,000 52,000 322,000 187,000 803 855 9 104 136 150 53 4 31 Union . 5,065,000 1,907 27 The average amount held by each depositor was S380, equal to ;^79 sterling. The principal states stood thus: — Depositors S per In- habitant New York . Massachusetts Connecticut California . Pennsylvania Other states Union The increase in seven years is shown as follows : — Year Depcsitors Millions $ per In- habitant 1889 .... 1896 .... Increase . 4,022,000 5,065,000 1,043,000 1.363 1.907 544 22 27 5 India. — The progress of savings-banks down to 1894 (latest returns) is shown thus : — Year _ . ! Rupees, Depositors 1 ^£^^^ Equivalent. 1881 .... 1890 .... 1896 .... 115,000 1 32.7 475,000 80.6 717,000 III. 2 2,720,000 6,040,000 7, 400,000 BANKRUPTCY 644 BANKRUPTCY The average amount of each deposit has declined from ;f 24 to ;<;iO. Ceylon shows deposits amounting to 3,200,000 rupees, or ;^2oo,ooo. Mauritius. — There has been an increase of depositors in the past ten years, but the amount is stationary, viz. : — Depositors Amount, £ 1885 18,500 315,000 1895 23,300 318,000 The average deposit has fallen from £11 to £\\. South Africa. — The progress made in ten years shown as follows : — Depositors Amount, £ 1885 1895 1885 1895 Cape Colony . . Natal .... 17,600 3,100 50,200 7,000 520,000 50,000 1,700,000 170,000 Total . . 20,700 57,200 570,000 1 1,870,000 The average amount to each depositor is ^vj, as com- pared with ;^3o in Australia. Various British Colonies. Depositors Amount, £ 1885 1895 1885 1895 Malta .... Gibraltar . . . Newfoundland . British Guiana . W. India Islands 4,800 1,100 4.300 13,000 28,300 6,100 3,600 6,400 19,900 56,600 340,000 20,000 360,000 190,000 570,000 470,000 180,000 560,000 260,000 960,000 Total . . 51.500 92,600 1,480,000 2,430,000 The collective average for these colonies is £2(1 to each depositor, against £2<) in 1885. BANKRUPTCY The returns for England and Wales show thus : Year 1885 . 1890 . 1897 . Number 4,354 4,044 4,098 Liabilities, ^f Average, ;^ 9,060,000 6,180,000 5,770,000 2,100 1,500 1,400 Assets, £ 3,100,000 2,240,000 2,800,000 The number of bankruptcies gazetted in England in ten years, 1885-94, was as follows : — Trades Number Ratio Grocers 3,202 7.0 Publicans 3,063 6.7 Farmers . 2,519 5.4 Builders . 2,449 5.3 Shoemakers . 1,476 3.2 Bakers . 1,146 2-5 2.5 Butchers . 1,132 Various . 30.845 67.4 Total 45.832 100. United States In 1897 the number and amount of failures were : — States Number Liabilities, Assets, £ Ratio of Assets New England . Middle . . . Southern . . . , Prairie . . . Pacific . . . 1,722 3.723 1^425 5,600,000 10,500,000 5,000,000 9,200,000 1,700,000 3,700,000 5,800,000 3,500,000 7,900,000 900,000 66 p. c. ss .. 70 .. 86 „ 53 .- Union .... 13.351 32,000,000 21,800,000 68 „ The failures of recent years compare as follows :- Year Number 1893 • • ■ 15,242 1894 . . . 13,885 1895 • • • 13,197 1896 . . . 15,088 1897 . . . 13.351 Average. . 1-),I52 Liabilities, 72,200,000 36,000,000 36,000,000 47,000,000 32,000,000 44,600,000 Assets, £ 57,000,000 25,200,000 25,200,000 32,500,000 21,800,000 32,200,000 Ratio of Assets 80 p.c. 70 ,, 70 >» 69 ., 68 „ 72 M The figures for liabilities and assets in 1895 were the same as in the preceding year. France - The number of failures and amount of liabilities were : — ■ Year Number Liabilities, £K^e,r2.^Q,£ 1870 .... 3.987 5,550,000 1,400 1875 .... 5.361 9,840,000 1,810 1880 .... 6,29s 9,500,000 1,510 1885 .... 8,024 14,200,000 1,770 1890 .... 14,004 26,900,000 1,920 1894 .... 12,794 21,900,000 1,710 In 1893 and 1894 the ratios of assets to liabilities showed thus : — , Year Liabilities, £ Assets, £ Ratio 1893 .... 1894 .... 17,800,000 6,300,000 35 p.c. 21,900,000 11,900,000 54 ,, In the liquidation of 1894 there were 95 estates wound up whose assets sufficed to pay all creditors in full. Austria Official returns from 1880 to 1893 show as follows : Year Bank- ruptcies Liabilities, £ Average, £ 1880 . 1885 . . 1890 1892 972 1,083 1,089 1,073 2,630,000 1,550,000 2,150,000 1,540,000 2,710 1,430 1,980 1,440 Germany Nothing is published further than the number of failures, viz. : — Year 1881 i88s Number • S.252 4,627 Year 1890 1894 Number ■ 5,936 ■ 7,4" BARLEY 64s BIRTHS Australia The returns of bankruptcy for 1894 show thus : Number Liabilities, jQ Assets, £ New South Wales . 1.465 1,850,000 995,000 Victoria 1,067 5,240,000 2,100,000 New Zealand . . . 626 500,000 400,000 Queensland . . . 254 190,000 40,000 South Australia . . 80 120,000 100,000 Tasmania .... 168 50,000 25,000 West Australia . . 32 20,000 40,ocx) Total . . 3.692 7,970,000 3,700,000 Assets were estimated at 46 per cent, of liabilities, as compared with 72 per cent, in the United States. Canada Liabilities of bankrupts in 1896 reached ;£'3,250,ooo against ;^2,25o,ooo in ib86. The estimates for 1896 Number Liabilities, £ Assets, £ Ontario Quebec Other Provinces . . 1,072 718 328 1,200,000 1,720,000 510,000 860,000 1,250,000 420,000 Total . . 2,118 3,430,000 2,530,000 BARLEY The area and production of this grain are shown thus : — Acres Tons Bushels i Per In- per Acre habitant United Kingdom 2,200,000 1,800,000 33 1.8 France . . . 2,200,000 1,100,000 20 1.2 Germany . . 4,200,000 2,600,000 25 2.0 Russia . , . 16,800,000 5,900,000 14 2.2 Austria . . . 5,700,000 2,800,000 19 2-5 Spain .... 4,000,000 1,500,000 IS 3 3 Danub. States . 3,200,000 1,200,000 15 4 4 Scandinavia . . 1,400,000 950,000 28 4.0 Italy, &c. . . 2,000,000 600,000 12 18 Europe . . . 41,700,000 18,450,000 2.0 United States . 3,000,000 2,200,000 29 1.2 Canada . . . goo, 000 450,000 20 19 3-6 Total . . 45,600,000 21,100,000 1-9 BATTLES Besides the list at page 89 there were the follow- ing:— Date Place Won by . Force Lost by Force B.C. 334 31 A.D. 1513 1704 I74S 1800 Arbela . . Actium . , Flodden . Blenheim . Fontenoy . Hohenlinden Alexander Augustus English Fiench 3S.OOO 92,000 32,000 52,000 60,000 70,000 Persians Anthony Scotch . French . English Austrians 950,000 112,000 30,000 56,000 60,000 60,000 BEER See Akohel, page 533, also page 89. BEES Maraldi says that an ordinary hive has 18,000 bees, but forest hives in Russia range from 60,000 to I lo,oco. In France 1600 bees weigh a poimd, but the wild bees of Russia are so light that 5000 go to a pound. Hives in Europe produce from 20 to 50 lb. of honey yearly. A bee sucks 219,000 flowers for every ounce of honey. See Part I,, page 90. BIRTHS The following table shows the number of births in each country in 1896, the birth-rate to population, the ratio of illegitimate births in 1000, and the number of births to women of I $ to 50 years of age. », 8 m « c C H ^ « S £ e— S £ 8 ■a M d a ° f(£ iS§- Z (§" *"" H England .... 917,000 29.9 42 121 Scotland. . . . 129,000 30.8 72 121 Ireland .... 108,000 23-7 29.2 26 44 92 U. Kingdom . . 1,154,000 117 France .... 866,000 22.7 88 89 Germany . . . 1,942,000 37.3 91 157 Russia . . . 4,916,000 47-1 31 Austria .... 975,000 390 14s 161 Hungary . . . 761,000 41.1 85 176 it^iy 1,096,000 35-1 64 154 Sweden .... 135,000 275 107 117 Norway .... 63,000 30.0 71 131 Denmark . . . 70,000 30-4 101 131 Holland .... 160,000 3-2.0 29 148 Belgium .... 189,000 29.0 87 128 Switzerland . . . 92,000 30.7 45 123 Portugal .... 158,000 31.2 123 Roumania . . . 232,000 40.0 14 ... Servia 97,000 42.2 ... Bulgaria. . . . 128,000 38.4 35-2 55 ... Europe .... 13,034,000 U. States (1S80) . 1,577,000 31S* 128 Canada . . . 125,000 25.0 IS 101 Australia. . . . 124,000 29.4 51 130 The birth-rates of Russia, Servia, and Hungary are the highest in Europe, those of France and Ireland the lowest The ratio of illegitimacy is highest in Austria and Portugal, lowest in Roumania, Ireland, and Holland. The number of legitimate births, compared with the number of marriages, gives the following results : — Births to 10 Marriages France . . England Belgium Switzerland Denmark . Scotland • 27 - 36 . 36 • 37 • 38 . 40 Sweden • 42 Portugal • 42 Europe 43 Germany ■ 43 Holland • 43 Austria • 44 Norway . 44 Italy . . . 46 Ireland . . 46 Hungary ■ 47 Roumania ■ 49 Russia . .65 It may be that the early age of marrying in Russia accounts for such large families, although Dr. Ogle asserts * The census report was evidently incomplete, as Dr, Billings shows : the birth-rate was really 35.0. BIRTHS 646 BIRTHS that a woman marrying at 25 is likely to have more children than one who marries at 20. The number of illegitimate births in 1896, compared with that of women of 15 to 50 years of age in the various countries, is shown thus : — Women Illeg. Births Per 10,000 Women England . 7,622,000 38,700 50 Scotland . i,o58,ooo 9.300 87 Ireland 1,174,000 2,800 24 U. Kingdom . 9,864,000 50,800 52 France 9,701,000 76,300 79 Germany . 12,380,000 93,400 75 Austria 6,071,000 141,600 239 Hungary . 4,321,000 65,400 151 Italy .... 7,160,000 70,300 98 Switzerland 746,000 4,000 53 Sweden . 1,155,000 14,400 i25 Norway . 489,000 4.S°o 92 Denmark . S34.000 7,100 133 Holland . 1,084,000 4,600 42 Belgium . 1,483,000 16,500 III The highest ratios are in Austria and Hungary, the lowest in Ireland. The following table shows the numbers and ratios of still births : — Still Births Per 1000 Births 1885 1895 1885 1895 France 44,000 41,600 5° 50 Germany 68,700 64,400 41 33 Austria 24,500 27,300 29 30 Hungary 13,100 17,700 18 24 Italy 39.300 45.900 36 43 Sweden 4,010 3.460 31 26 Norway 1,840 1,720 28 29 Denmark 2,050 1.730 31 26 Holland 7,790 7,610 52 49 Belgium 8,520 8,630 50 45 Switzerland 3.230 3,210 40 40 Roumania 2,200 2,640 Japan 53,400 117,200 S5 95 The above shows an ascending ratio in 5 countries, and a descending in 5 others, the former being especially noticeable in Japan. The number and ratio of illegitimate births in 1890 and 1 896 are shown thus ; — Illegitimate Births Per 1000 Births 1890 { 1896 1890 1896 U. Kingdom . 50,400 50,800 46 44 France 71,100 76,300 85 88 Germany . 165,700 ; 176,300 94 91 Austria 128,700 141,600 148 145 Hungary . 60,000 65,400 86 85 Italy 78,800 70,300 73 64 Scandinavia 24,700 26,000 95 97 Switzerland 4,100 4,000 52 45 Holland . 4,760 4,600 32 29 Belgium . 15.250 16,500 86 87 There is a decline of illegitimacy in all countries except France, Belgium, and Scandinavia. Illegitimate births are more numerous in cities than in rural districts ; returns for the following cities in 1888-89 showed : — Illentimates in 1000 Births Rotterdam 70 Naples . . 86 Hague . . 99 Palermo . 101 Cologne . 124 Antwerp . 129 Frankfort . 132 Turin . . 132 Hamburg . 138 Ghent . . 144' Berlin . 154 Leipzig . . 211 Christiania 162 St. Petersburg 236 Liege . . ■ 174 Paris . . . 268 Bucharest 175 Copenhagen . 279 Breblau . . 1S6 Buda-Pesth . 299 Venice . . 189 Moscow . . 300 Rome. . . 194 Stockholm . 396 Milan . . 204 Prague . . . 439 Dresden . 208 Munich . . 439 Trieste . 211 Vienna. . . 449. The following table shows the rates of births and deaths per thousand inhabitants in the last 12 years as compared with 20 years down to 1880, in various countries : — Births Deaths Nat. Increase I °? CI " ^ 10 rH 10 00 00 pH iH '* iH "^ England . . . 35-4 3I-I 22.0 18.7 13-4 12.7 France . , 2.;.8 22.8 24.0 22.0 1.8 0.8 Prussia . . . 39-1 37-4 27.1 23.6 12.0 i3-» Scandinavia . . 31-4 29.4 19.0 17-3 12.4 12. 1 Austria . . 38.9 37-7 30.S 28.3 8.1 9-4 Hungary . . 42.6 42.7 39-4 31.8 3-2 10,9 Italy .... 37-2 37- 29.9 26.4 7-3 10.6 Holland . . . 36-3 33-3 24.6 19.9 11.7 13-4 Belgium . . . 31-9 29.4 22.7 20.3 9.2 9-1 Mean .... 35-4 33-1 26.6 22.9 8.8 10.2 The mean birth-rate of Europe has declined 6 per cent, from what it was 30 years ago, but at the same time the death-rate has declined 14 per cent., so that it comes to pass that population is now increasing more rapidly. Thus the surplus of births over deaths 30 years ago was 8.8 per thousand inhabitants, and at present it is 10.2, equal to an improvement of 16 per cent. This decline of birth-rate and death-rate is progressive, as will be.seen if we divide the last period into two of 6 years each, viz. : — Births Deaths Nat. Increase CD to > si "ba u Mother's Age g ja J _g 1 \ ^; French . . . German . . Spanish . , Austrian . . Russian . . Brazilian . . Argentine . . Canadian . . Australian . . United States. Turkish . . Indian . . . Italian . . . Egyptian . . Mexican . . Various . . 44 25 17 8 14 8 3 14 "16 20 4 161 24 8 29 10 30 81 123 140 230 341 26 103 20 20 26 402 4 183 79 S 9 94 15 h I'ei 37 15 25 24 31 12 37 2 4 40 '85 4 5 5 39 69 8 3 10 128 7 .'° ■98 10 9 12 IS 4 5 7 2 9 4 ■36 30 "s 2 "s "6 4 75 42 "9 298 230 119 193 160 230 577 78 103 163 46 34 937 Total . . 334 1,613 591 312 386 143 25 3.404 Public loans . Companies . "3 221 1.248 2r4 377 "4 198 112 274 33 no 13 12 964 2,440 Great Britain stands for nearly half the total, and as our investments abroad appear to exceed 1700 millions sterling, it may be roughly estimated that the above stocks represent altogether 3400 millions which the creditor countries have lent outside their own frontiers for in- vestment. CATTLE The following table shows the number of live stock and value :- Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs Goats Value, Millions £ United Kingdom . 2,070,000 11,000,000 30,570,000 3,680,000 600,000 202 France 3,030,000 13,300,000 21,200,000 6,400,000 1,500,000 232 Germany .... 3,8oo,oco 17,600,000 13,600,000 12,200,000 3,100,000 303 Russia 21,700,000 27,600,000 48,200,000 10,700,000 1,300,000 350 Austria 3,too,ooo 14,200,000 ^4, 400,000 9,100,000 1,400,000 161 Italy 1,200,000 5,000,000 6,900,000 1,800,000 1,800,000 92 Spain 900,000 2,100,000 16,500,000 1,900,000 2,800,000 46 Portugal .... rso.ooo 600,000 3,000,000 1,000,000 900,000 11 Sweden and Norway 650,000 3,500,000 2,700,000 800,000 400,000 41 Denmark .... 400,000 1,700,000 1,330,000 800,000 26 Holland 300,000 1,500,000 700,000 1,100,000 200,000 28 Belgium 300,000 1,400,000 400,000 700,000 200,000 22 Switzerland .... 100,000 1,200,000 300,000 420,000 400,000 18 Danubian States . 900,000 3,600,000 13,000,000 2,300,000 4,200,000 42 Greece 100,000 400,000 2,900,000 2,500,000 5 Europe 39,200,000 10^,700,000 175.700,000 52,900,000 21,300,000 1.579 United States 16,600,000 46,500,000 36,800,000 40,600,000 344 Canada 1,400,000 4,200,000 3,500,000 1,800,000 ... 43 Australia . , . . 1,900,000 12,700,000 110,500,000 1,000,000 120 Argentina . . . • 4,400,000 22,900,000 80,200,000 300,000 51 South Africa .... 400,000 2,700,000 17,800,000 300,000 6,200,000 23 Algeria Uruguay .... 400,000 1,100,000 7,900,000 3,500,000 21 400,000 5,200,000 14,300,000 100,000 IS Total . 64,700,000 200,000,000 446,700,000 97,000,000 31,000,000 2,196 CATTLE 654 CATTLE The value of live stock in the United States fell from 451 millions sterling in 1894 to 344 millions in 1S97, the number of head in the same interval (big and little) having declined from 162 millions to 140 millions, a fall of 13J per cent, in 3 years. The iive stock of each country compared with popu- lation shows as follows : — Per 100 Inhabitants Value, Horses Cows Sheep Pigs Inhab. U. Kingdom 5 27 78 10 5-1 France . . 8 33 55 IS 6.0 Germany . 7 34 34 23 5-7 Russia , . 20 27 48 10 3-0 Austria . . 9 34 38 22 3-8 Italy . . . 4 16 28 6 30 Spain . . 5 12 105 II 2.7 Denmark . 20 85 65 40 "■5 Sweden . . 10 50 28 15 6.0 Holland. . 6 32 18 23 6.0 Belgium . . S 24 10 II 3-4 Switzerland . 3 40 22 12 6.0 Europe . . 10 28 52 15 4.2 U. States . 23 65 51 56 4.8 Canada . . 28 84 70 34 8.6 Australia 45 320 2,900 25 27.0 Argentina . no S70 4.050 7 13.0 In the above table horses include mules, and goats are counted with sheep. United States The live stock suffers frequent changes, being now less numerous than 10 years ago, viz. : — Year Number (000 omitted) Horses Cattle Sheep j Pigs 1875 1880 1886 1890 1897 11,100 12,900 14,100 16,500 16,600 27,900 33,200 45.500 52,800 46,500 35,900 25,700 40,800 34,ioo 48,300 46,100 44,300 51,600 36,800 40,600 If we reduce all live stock to a common denomi- nator as cattle (six sheep or pigs counting as one), the number compares with population at the above dates ihus : — 1876 . 1880 . 1886 . 1890 . 1897 . Cattle 49,300,000 58,600,000 75,300.000 85,300,000 75,900,000 Population Cattle per 100 Inhabit. 43,100,000 50,200,000 57,400,000 62,600,000 72,800,000 114 117 131 136 104 The ratio of cattle to population has fallen nearly 23 -per cent, smce 1890, but is not much below the level .of 20 years ago, when population was 40 per cent, less than at present. The area devoted to pasture could easily carry 150 million head of cattle, that is double the actual amount of stock, and as we have already seen an increase of 30 per cent, in 6 years, from 1880 to 1886, it IS quite possible that the number may rise to 100 million head in the early years of the 20th century. richest States in live stock were : — In 1894 the Number (000 omitted) Cattle Horses Sheep Pigs Te.icas 7.400 I 440 3,810 2,560 Iowa 4.010 1 ..^Tl 780 6,000 Missouri . 2,630 1,200 1,000 3.710 Kansas . 2,650 1,050 320 2,250 Illinois . 2,590 1,410 1.030 3.420 Nebraska 2,150 760 2B0 2,090 New York 2,280 710 1.390 660 Ohio 1.580 880 3.770 2,350 Indiana . 1,570 820 970 1,820 Pennsylvania 1,680 690 1.470 1.030 Ten States 28,540 10,430 14,820 25,890 These ten States possessed 55 per cent, of the cattle, 56 of the horses, 33 of the sheep, and 60 per cent, of the pigs, of the Union ; that is to say, more than half the total live stock. Their farm area, tillage, and pasture covered 280 million acres, or 15 per cent, of the total area of the Union (excluding Alaska). The following table shows the number of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs to every thousand acres of farm area : — Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs New England . 20 65 35 IS Middle . 33 84 53 43 South 18 58 30 66 West 36 93 90 80 Union . , 28 78 62 69 In the foregoing tables no account is taken of the unoccupied area. Supposing that one-half of such area consists of mountains, deserts, or swamps, there is still a residue of 650 million acres available for pasture. Re- ducing all stock to horned cattle, and allowing 3 acres per head, the United States could carry as follows, on actual farms and unoccupied lands : — On Farms Unoccupied Total New England . Middle South West . 5,400,000 11,300,000 62,700,000 67,600,000 4,000,000 4,000,000 46,000,000 163,000,000 9,400,000 15,300,000 108,700,000 230,600,000 Total 147,000,000 217,000,000 364,000,000 It may, therefore, be reasonably anticipated that the United Stales will at no distant day possess three times the present amount of live stock, equivalent altogether to 228 million head of large cattle, and distributed approxi- mately thus : — Number (000 omitted) Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs New England . Middle . South West 1,100 1 3,700 1,700 6,300 12,200 43,000 27,000 95,000 2,800 4,600 33.000 69,600 3.000 5.100 ■ 37.400 74,500 Union 42,000 ' 148,000 110,000 120,000 CEMETERIES 6S5 CHEESE Australia Live stock has been as follows : — 1861 1871 1881 1891 £895 Horses 460,000 780,000 1,250,000 1,790.000 1,920,000 Cattle 4,040,000 4,710,000 8,710,000 11,860.000 12,700,000 Sheep 23,700,000 49,800,000 78,100,000 124,500,000 110,500,060 In 1896 the several colonies stood thus : — Horses Cattle Sheep New South Wales 510,000 2,230,000 48,300,000 Queensland . . 450,000 6,510,000 19,600,000 New Zealand . . 250,000 1,140,000 19.100.000 Victoria . . . 430,000 1,830,000 13,200,000 South Australia . 190,000 640,000 6,400,000 West Australia . 60.000 '200,000 2,300,000 Tasmania . . , 30.000 160,000 1,600,000 Total . . 1,920,000 i2;7io,ooo 110,500,000 For other countries see Agriculture. CEMETERIES The area of cemeteries attached to the principal cities of Europe compared with population gives the following results : — Square Yards per 100 Inhabitants London . ■ 71 Dresden . • 15s Turin . , . 75 Paris . . . 140 Bordeaux . 125 1 Genoa . . • 90 Vienna . 108 Brussels . . 270 i Florence . ■ 90 Buda-Pesth 360 Rome. . . 155 Venice. . . 130 Hamburg . 206 Naples . . 47 1 Bologna . . 285 Leipzig . . 136 Milan . . . 95 i Palermo . . 14b This gives an average of 150 sq. yards to 100 inhabi- tants, say I J yards each. London, Vienna, and some Italian cities are much below the average. See Ceme- teries in Part I., p. 100. CHARITIES The number of charitable institutions in London rose from 1024 in 1889 to 1153 in 1897, expenditure showing as follows : — 1889 1897 Increase, ;f Hospitals, . £ Bible Missions, „ Asylums, . „ 650,000 1,980,000 2,050,000 830,000 2,490,000 2,320,000 180,000 510,000 270,000 Total „ 4,680,000 5,640,000 960,000 The sum for Bible missions in 1 897 included ;f 1,450,000 for converting infidels, and ;fl, 060,000 spent in the United Kingdom. ChariUble bequests in the United Kingdom in 1894 amounted to ;f3,ooo,ooo, or three limes as much as in 1889. Italy There are 21,866 charitable institutions, holding en- dowments to the value of ;^7S,900,ooo, with a gross income of ;^5,400,ooo, of which more than 50 per cent, goes in administration, the balance spent on the poor amounting to .^^2,660,000. thus : — Italian consols Landed estates . House property . Simdries . , Total The endowments are held £ , . . 18,300.000 . 24,900.000 , , , 10.700,000 , , , 22,000,000 75,900,000 For mode of distribution of charities see page 113. The legacies left for charitable purposes were : — V „ No. of ' Amount Average Yearly Legacies £ Sterling 1 Legacies £ 1881-85 • 1886-90 . 1891-97 . 4,817 1 3,600,000 5.900 ! 3,400,000 9,444 i 4,100,000 963 1,180 1.350 1,190 720,000 680,000 580,000 17 years . 20,251 , 11,100,000 660,000 France The amount of charitable donations by legacy in France to religious institutions, hospitals, schools, &c, was as follows : — Years Religious Hospitals Schools, &c Total £ 1836-55 1856-65 1871-80 1881-90 1891-93 880,000 1,720,000 3,560,000 2,200,000 800,000 3,320,000 2.920,000 4,640,000 6,400,000 2,040,000 1,360,000 1,120,000 2,4+0,000 3,560,000 1,240,000 5,560,000 5.760,000 10,640,000 12,160,000 4,080,000 ssyrs. 9,160,000 19,320,000 9,720,000 38,200,000 The records from 1866-70 have been lost. The average number of donors and the amounts given yearly were :— Years Annual Average Pence Donors Amount, £ Average,.^ per Inhab. 1856-65 . 1871-80 . 1881-90 . 1891-93 . 3.309 1 576.000 4,oc6 1,064,000 3,315 1,216,000 3,708 1,360,000 174 266 366 367 3.8 6.9 7-7 8.6 Donations were made in the following form :- 1871-80 £ 1881-90 £ 20 Years Average £ £ Real estate. Money . . Stocks . . Shares . . 3,560,000 5,640,000 1,080,000 360,000 2,560,000 7,400,000 1,440,000 760,000 6,120,000 13,040,000 2,520,000 1,120,000 306,000 652,000 126,000 56,000 Total . 10,640,000 12,160,000 22,800,000 1 1,140,000 Belgium The amount of charitable legacies was : — Year £ Sterling 1887 105,000 1894 126,000 For particulars respecting other countries, see page 1 14. CHEESE See Dairy, page 683, also page 114. Pence per Inhab. 4 5 CHURCHES 656 COAL CHURCHES United States The census of 1890 gave the following ; — s b •s 1 S ^ S B 6 £ R. Catholics . . 8,816 3,375,000 9,196 6,258,000 Methodists . . 46,138 12,863,000 30,000 4,590,000 Baptists . . . 36,671 11,568,000 25,646 3,712,000 Presbyterians . 12,469 4,040,000 10,448 1,278,000 Lutherans . . 6,701 2,206,000 4,591 1,231,000 Christ-Disciples 5,324 1,610,000 3,773 641,000 Episcopalians . 5,103 1,360,000 4,244 540,000 Congregationals. 4,736 1,553,000 5,°58 512,000 Evangelicals 2,737 760,000 ',960 357,000 Jews .... 301 139,000 200 130,000 Quakers . . . 995 302,000 1,277 107,000 Various . . . 12,529 3,789,000 14,647 1,257,000 Total . . 142,520 43,565,000 111,040 20,613,000 The value of church property increased in 20 years as follows : — £ Sterling 1870 1890 Increase Methodists . . 14,100,000 27,400,000 13,300,000 R. Catholics . . 12,200,000 24,600,000 12,400,000 Presbyterians 10,600,000 19,700,000 9,100,000 Episcopalians . 7,200,000 17,200,000 10,000,000 Baptists . . . 8,400,000 17,100,000 8,700,000 Congregationalists 5, 100,000 9,000,000 3,900,000 Lutherans . . . 1,200,000 7,300,000 6,100,000 Christ-Disciples . 1,200,000 2,500,000 1,300,000 Evangelicals, &c. 10,800,000 16,600,000 5,800,000 Total . . 70,800,000 141,400,000 70,600,000 The value of church property compared with popula- tion thus : — States Amount, £ Population | £ per Head N. England . . Middle. . . . South .... West .... 18,200,000 58,300,000 18,100,000 46,800,000 4,690,000 14,110,000 18,280,000 25,540,000 3-9 4.2 1.0 1.8 Union .... 141,400,000 62,620,000 2.3 In 1870 the average to the whole population was only ;^i.8 (or 36 shillings) per inhabitant, the ratio in 1890 being 46 shillings. Canada The number of churches and laity is shown thus : — Laity Churches 1831 1891 1881 1891 R. Catholics. . Methodists . . Presbyterians . Ch. of England . Baptists . . . Various . . . 1,790,000 740,000 675,000 575,000 295,000 145,000 1,990,000 850,000 755,000 645,000 305,000 195,000 1,492 3,038 1,356 1,259 936 571 1,793 3,360 1,767 1,674 1,260 626 Total . . 4,220,000 4,740,000 8,652 10,480 The laity are found to be distributed thus ; — Quebec Ontario Other Provs. Total R. Catholics. . Methodists . . Presbyterians . Ch. of England. Baptists . . . Various . . . 1,292,000 40,000 52,000 75,000 8,000 14,000 358,000 655,000 453,000 385,000 106,000 io4,oco 340,000 155,000 250,000 185,000 191,000 77,000 1,990,000 850,000 755,000 645,000 305,000 195,000 Total . . 1,481,000 2,061,000 1,198,000 4,740,000 Australia The census of 1891 showed the increase of congrega- tions since 1871 thus : — 1871 1891 Increase Church of England . Roman Catholics . Presbyterians . . . Methodists . . . Baptists .... 752,000 444,000 263,000 203,000 38,000 45,000 137,000 1,485,000 801,000 493,000 434,000 87,000 79,000 341,000 733.000 357.000 230,000 231.000 49,000 34.000 204,000 Congregationalists . Lutherans, &c. . . Total . 1,882,000 3,720,000 1,838,000 See Religion, page 799, and page 5 1 3. CITIES See Population, page 788, 3.vA Local Finance, page 764. COAL Production has increased 70 per cent, since 1880, viz. : — Millions of Tons 1880 1889 1897 Great Britain . United States . Germany Austria . France . Belgium . Various . 147 70 16 19 17 11 177 142 85 24 25 20 13 202 175 120 34 29 22 27 Total 340 1 485 6 to The chief countries importing coal were as follows : — France Holland . Italy . Scandinavia Canada . Russia Spain and Portugal Switzerland The East . Total Tons 1886 9,900,000 3,600,000 3,000,000 2,900,000 2,100,000 1,800,000 1,700,000 800,000 1,200,000 27,000,000 1895 10,200,000 4,400,000 4,300,000 4,200,000 3,400,000 2,200,000 2,300,000 1,400,000 2,600.000 35.000,000 Factory engines usually consume 2 lbs. of coal per horse-power per hour ; that is, a lo-horse engine 30 tons yearly. Coke is produced from coal, three tons of the latter giving two of the former. COAL 6S7 COAL In 1897 Great Britain produced 202 millions tons, and exported 37 millions. Exports o( coal from Great Britain were as follows : — Year 1870 1880 1890 1896 Tons 1 Value, jQ Shillings pt-r Ton 11.700,000 5,600,000 18,700,000 8,400,000 30,100,000 19,000,000 j 34,300,000 15,200,000 According to a statement published in 1895, the output and number of miners during the previous year were as follows : — Tons Coal Miners Tons per Man Great Britain 188,000,000 666,000 282 United States . 152,000,000 363,000 420 Germany . , , 77,000,000 300,000 257 France .... 27,000,000 132,000 205 Belgium . . . 21,000,000 117,000 180 Austria. . . . 10,000,000 50,000 200 Canada . . . 4,000,000 10,000 400 India . . . . 4,000,000 43.000 90 Japan .... 4,000,000 30,000 130 Total . . 487,000,000 1,711,000 283 It will be observed that this table omits Russia, Spain, and Australia, the aggregate of whose production would be 16 million tons, bringing up the total production in 1894 to 501 million tons. The above table takes no account of "brown coal," or lignite, in Germany and Austria, although it is usually counted as coal. The annual consumption of coal is as follows : — Cwts. per Inhabitant United Kingdom 165,000,000 82 United States . 177,000,000 48 Germany .... 104,000,000 40 Belgium .... 17,000,000 54 France .... 39,ooo,coo 20 Holland .... 4,700,000 20 Canada ... * 5,200,000 20 Australia . . . • 4,200,000 19 Italy .... 4,600,000 3 Scandinavia 4,400,000 10 Austria .... 30,300,000 14 Russia .... 11,100,000 2 Spain and Portugal . 4,100,000 4 Switzerland 1,400,000 9 Other nations . 38,000,000 Total . 610,000,000 Consumption in Europe in 1897 averaged 22 cwts. per inhabitant, against 18 in 1888 (see page 120). Great Britain Production and export have been as follows : — 1886 . 1890 . 1896 . Tons Raised 157,500,000 181,600,000 195.400,00b Value, £ 38,200,000 74,900,000 57,200,000 Tons Exported 23.300,000 30,100,000 34,300,000 Value, ;£ 9,800,000 19,000,000 15,200,000 The average output per coal-miner in 1896 was 282 tons, being equal to 22 cwt. daily for each working day {256 days). The value at pit's mouth was 86 pence per ton, or 20 per cent, less than at port of shipment. England pro- duces 76 per cent., Wales 13, Scotland 11 per cent, of the total. For Royalties, &c., see Mining, page 774. United States Production has progressed as follows : — Tons Raised 1880 1890 1896 Pennsylvania . 46,700,000 79,300,000 92,800,000 Illinois . . . 6,100,000 13,700,000 17,700,000 Virginia . . . 1,800,000 7,300,000 12,600,000 Ohio .... 5,900,000 10,300,000 11,500,000 Alabama . . . 300,000 3,700,000 5,100,000 Maryland . . 2,200,000 3,000,000 3,700,000 Iowa .... 1,400,000 3,600,000 3,500,000 Indiana . . . 1,400,000 3,000,000 3,500.000 Kentucky . . 900,000 2,400,000 3,000,000 Other states . . 3,800,000 14,600,000 18,000,000 Total . . 70,500,000 140,900,000 171,400,000 Anthracite . . 28,600,000 41,500,000 48,600,000 Bituminous . . 41,900,000 99,400,000 122,800,000 Anthracite is found only in Pennsylvania. The value of the two kinds of coal is shown thus for 1896 : — Tons £ Sterling Shillings per Ton Anthracite . . Bituminous . . 48,600,000 122,800,000 17,000,000 23,900,000 7.0 3-9 Total . . 171,400,000 40,900,000 4.8 The increase in coal production has been much more rapid than in Great Britain, viz. : — Year Tons Raised Value, £ G. Britain U. States G. Britain 1 U. States 1870 . 1896 . 110,000,000 195,400,000 33,000,000 j 27,600,000 20,600,000 171,400,000 1 57,200,000 40,800,000 Thus in 26 years British coal has increased 78 per cent., American 420 per cent. Moreover in 1870 American coal was 2j times as dear as British, whereas now the latter is dearer than American, viz. : — Value, Pence per Ton 1870 1896 British American . , . • 60 i 70 150 57 In 26 years British coal has risen 1 7 per cent, in price, American fallen 62 per cent. The following table shows the production and value, as also the consumption per inhabitant, at various dates : — Year 1870 1880 1890 1897 Tons Raised Value, £ 32,900,000 ' 20,600,000 70,500,000 I 19.700,000 140,900,000 i 30,200,000 176,000,000 41,200,000 Pence per , Cwts. per Ton Inl ab. 150 17- S 67 28.0 51 45-0 57 48.0 Improved machinery enables mine-owners to sell coal now at 38 per cent, of the price that ruled in 1870, and as a consequence the consumption per inhabitant has nearly trebled. The value of the coal (at pit's mouth) which is now consumed per inhabitant is 137 pence, as compared with 131 pence in 1870 for one-third of the quantity. 2 T COAL 658 COAL Germany The production of coal and lignite, and the imports and exports, are shown as follows : — Tons 1876 1886 1896 Coal raised . . Lignite raised . Coal imported , 38,500,000 11,100,000 2,100,000 58,100,000 15,600,000 2,600,000 85,700,000 26,800,000 5,500,000 Total .... Exported . . . 51,700,000 5,300,000 76,300,000 8,700,000 118,000,000 13,800,000 Consumption 46,400,000 67,600,000 104,200,000 Germany consumes two tons per inhabitant. There are 341,000 coal-miners, who average 330 tons each. The value of coal and lignite raised was as follows : — Year Coal, £ Lignite, £ Total, £ 1876 . 1886 . 1896 . 13,200,000 15,000,000 29,600,000 1,900,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 15,100,000 17,000,000 32,600,000 The production in 1895 was equal to ;^88 per miner France The product of the collieries was as follows : — Year Tons Value, £ Pence per Ton 1880 . 1890 . 1896 . 19,400,000 26,100,000 29,200,000 9,860,000 12,460,000 12,600,000 122 114 103 France imports 10 milhon tons, bringing up consump- tion to 38 millions, or a ton per inhabitant. Russia The consumption of coal has been as follows : — Year Tons Native Imported Total 1876 . 1887 . 1896 . 2,050,000 4,450,000 9, 100,000 1,450,000 1,550,000 2,300,000 3,500,000 6,000,000 11,400,000 The output of coal in Russia averages 140 tons yearly per miner. Austria The production and consumption of coal and lignite in 1895 were as follows : — Tons Value, £ Austria Hungary Total Coal. . . Lignite . . Coal imptd. 9,700,000 18,300,000 5,000,000 1,100,000 4,000,000 10,800,000 22,300,000 5,000,000 3,300,000 3,800,000 2,800,000 Total . . Exported . 33,000,000 7,800,000 5,100,000 5,100,000 38,100,000 7,800,000 9,900,000 2,400,000 Consumption 25,200,000 30,300,000 7,500,000 Production and consumption in the Austrian Empire have been as follows : — Year Production Tons Consumption Tons Cwts. per Inhab. 1880 . 1889 . 1895 . 16,100,000 24,000,000 33,100,000 14,500,000 22,000,000 30,300,000 7.6 10.6 14.1 Austria-Hungary stands sixth among European nations in the consumption of coal per inhabitant. Italy There are 28 coal-mines, employing 2360 miners, who raise 300,000 tons yearly, being an average of 127 tons each. Consumption has been as follows : — Year Tons Cwts. per Native Imported Total Inhab. 1875 • • • 1885 . . . 189s . • ■ 120,000 190,000 300,000 1,060,000 3,000,000 4,300,000 1,180,000 3,190,000 4,600,000 0.9 2.2 30 The consumption per head is lower than in other countries, except Russia. Spain The coalfields are estimated by Zehden to contain 13,000 millions of tons, which is equal to 65 years' out- put of the coalfields of Great Britain ; they are, however, little worked, employing only 16,200 miners. Consump- tion has been as follows : — Tons Cwts. per Native Imported Total Inhabitant 1886 . . . 1892 . . . 1896 . . . 800,000 1,460,000 1,900,000 1,410,000 1,870,000 1,900,000 2,210,000 3,330,000 3,800,000 2.6 3-6 4.0 The output of the mines gives an average of 110,000 tons per miner, Scandinavia The only coalfield is in Sweden, which gives usually 200,000 tons a year. Consumption in the three kingdoms is as follows : — Tons Cwts. per Inhab. 1885 1895 1885 1895 Sweden . . . Norway . . . Denmark . . . 1,650,000 600,000 850,000 2,200,000 1,050,000 1,150,000 I 8 7 9 10 11 Total . . 3,100,000 4,400,000 10 Holland There is but one coalfield, which belongs to the State, producing 100,000 tons yearly, worth ;if 30,000 sterling. Consumption depends chiefly on imports, viz. : — 1875. 1885. 1896. Tons Imported 2,150,000 3,560,000 4,700,000 Cwts. per Inhabitant II 16 20 The consumption per inhabitant is almost the same as in France. COAL 659 COLONIES Belgium A repott published in 1894 showed that in the pre- ceding year the production was 19,400,000 tons, raised at a cost of ;^7,26o,ooo, and sold for ;^7,5SO,ooo, which left a profit of ;£'290,coo, or 3^6. per ton. The weight and value were as follows : — Year Tons Value, £ Pence per Ton 1880 . i8-,o . 1896 . 16,900,000 20.400,000 21,300,000 6,800,000 10,800,000 8,itoo,ooo 96 127 90 There are 119,000 coal-miners, who averaged 172 tons each in 1895, being a product of ;^64 per miner. Canada The production has quadrupled in twenty years, viz.: — Tons Year Nova Scotia^"'- C^"!"-"- Total 1876 . . , '■ 710,000 120,000 1886 . . . ! 1,490,000 370,000 1896 . . . i 2,230,000 1,100,000 830,000 1,860,000 3,330,000 Imports and exports were as follows : — Year Tons Imported Exported Net Import 1876 . 1886 . 1896 . 710,000 1,720,000 2,770,000 250,000 430,000 910,000 460,000 1,290,000 1,860,000 Consumption compared vrith population gave as follows : — Year Tons Cwts. per Inhab. 1876 .... 1886 .... 1896 .... 1,290,000 3,150,000 5,190,000 6.5 13-5 20.0 The consumption per head is higher than in Australia. Australia The monopoly was abolished in 1847, and the product from that time to December 1894 was as follows : — Tons Raised Value, £ Pence per Ton N. S. Wales . . New Zealand Queensland . . Tasmania . . . Victoria, &c 64,600,000 9,200,000 3,700,000 500,000 400,000 29,600,000 4,900,000 1,700,000 300,000 200,000 no 128 no 144 120 Total . . 78,400,000 36,700,000 "3 Production in 1888 and 1896 compares as follows : — Tons Value, £ 1888 1896 1888 1896 N. S. Wales . New Zealand . Queensland, &C. 3,200,000 610,000 360,000 3,910,000 800,000 490,000 1,460,000 340,000 140,000 1,120,000 430,000 230,000 Total . . 4,170,000 5,200,000 1,940,000 1,780,000 Australia exports one million tons yearly ; consumption does not reach a ton per inhabitant. COFFEE Production has been as follows : — 1880 . 1892 . 1897 . Tons Brazil 330,000 440,000 590,000 Other Countries 280,000 260,000 250,000 Total 610,000 700,000 840,000 Consumption has been as follows, " native " signifying what is used in the countries where coffee is grown : — Tons Europe U. States Native Total 1893 . • • 1897 . . . 270,000 310,000 250,000 320,000 180,000 210,000 700,000 840,000 Consumption in Europe is as follows :- Tons Lbs. per Inhab. United Kingdom . . 12,000 0.7 France . 77.000 4-S Germany . • . 136,000 S-8 Belgium . 25,000 8.8 Austria . 40,000 2.0 Italy . . 13,000 0.9 In the United States the average is 10 lbs. per inhabi- tant, a ratio which is surpassed only in Brazil. The consumption in Great Britain is now 25 per cent, less per head than it was in 1885. COLOinES Pebrer's estimate of the British Colonies in 1830 was as follows : — Population Products, £ Commerce, Wealth, £ Canada . W. Indies S. Africa. Australia. 910,000 730,000 154,000 81,000 17,600,000 22,500,000 1,100,000 500,000 3,200,000 14,600,000 1,400,000 200,000 62,000,000 131,000,000 6,000,000 3,000,000 Total . 1.875.000 41,700,000 19,400,000 202,000,000 The same Colonies in 1896 showed as follows : — Population Millions £ Sterling Products, £ Commerce, Wealth, j6> Canada . . W. Indies . S. Africa . Australia 5,200,000 1,470,000 2,350,000 4,280,000 181 21 17 174 48 14 29 76 1,009 no 1,076 Total . 13,300,000 393 167 2.339 It would appear that Pebrer's estimate of the wealth ot the West Indies in 1830 was too high. See Colonies of all nations, p. 123. COMMERCE 660 COMMERCE COMMERCE The actual trade of the world compares with Juras- cliek's table of averages for five years ending 1890 thus:— Millions £ Sterling Imports Exports Total " CD CO to CO s s s in n i?. Q.O KS "(3 eS w H s* (3 H Great Britain , 21.0 34-2 SS-2 19.4 45-4 64.8 Belgium . . . 16.8 17.9 34-7 "S 20.5 32.0 Spain . . . IS- 9 b.q 22.8 9-9 4.0 13-9 United States . U.7 "•3 23.0 17-5 9-7 27.2 Germany . . 134 11.9 25-3 12.4 15.2 27.6 Switzerland 4-3 8.4 12.7 3-2 7.6 10.8 Italy .... 12.4 7-7 20.1 S-2 6.1 "■3 India .... 7-7 0-3 8.0 •^■6 0.6 6.2 Argentina . . 9.1 4.4 13- S 8.4 2,0 10.4 Algeria . . . 5-2 «■•! 13-5 10.6 9.6 20.2 Russia , . . 6.8 0.4 7.2 9-4 I.O 10.4 Various . . . 44.0 18.3 62.3 45. 1 22.2 67-3 Total . . 168.3 130.0 298.3 158.2 143-9 302.1 * iVbfe. — This table reads thus : Imports from Great Britain 21.0, that is, ;^2i, 000,000. While the trade of the world is rapidly increasing that of France is stationary, having risen only i per cent, in II years, as shown in the above table. Imports have declined 10 millions; while exports have risen 14 millions in the said interval. The following table compares French trade in 1897 with the average for 5 years ending December 1892 : — Millions ;^Sterling Ratio Trade with 1883-92 1897 1888-92 1897 Great Britain . , . Belgium .... Germany .... United States . . . Spain Other countries . . 62 39 28 26 21 140 65 28 27 X3t 19.6 12.3 8.7 8.2 6.6 44.6 21- S 10.6 9.2 9.0 4.6 45- 1 Total . . 316 302 100. 100. There is a visible increase of ratio in dealings with Great Britain and Germany, while trade with Belgium and Spain is declining. Germany Trade has increased very notably in recent years, viz. : — Value , Millions £ Weight, Tons, Millions Year ^ i ■3 i n a. 0, B p3 H s u H 1887 .... 159 160 319 19.4 19- S 38.9 1891 .... 220 167 3a7 29.0 20.1 49.1 1897 .... 232 i«3 4IS 40.2 28.0 68.2 The princ pal items of German trade (exclusive of Hamburg) for 1886 anc 1897 were as follows :- - Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1897 1886 1897 Grain .... 10,300,000 21,100,000 Hardware . 10,500,000 23,000,000 Wool . 10,900,000 10,700,000 Cottons 5,900,000 8,900,000 Cotton . 8,800,000 9,700,000 Sugar . 7,100,000 11,600,000 Coffee . 6,900,000 6,4tX',ooo Woollens . 10,900,000 10,500,000 Cattle . 8,200,000 6,100,000 Coal . 4,400,000 8,700,000 Yarns . 8,100,000 6,400,000 Leather goods 7,600,000 8,100,000 Timber. 3,700,000 I0,200,0C0 Silks . 9,000,000 5,800,000 Hides . 4,600,000 7,400,000 Clothmg . 4,800,000 4,900,000 Silk 7,500,000 4,800,000 Paper . 2,500,000 4,800,000 Tobacco 3,200,000 3,900,000 Cattle . 5,000,000 1,100,000 Sundries 72,200,000 145,500,000 Sundries 81,600,000 95,700,000 To tal . 144,400,000 232,200,000 Total 149,300,000 183,100,000 The countries with which Germany traded were :— Millions £ Sterling 1886 1896 h as Total s h. Total Bi 1— 1 pS Great Britain . 22.6 22.1 44-7 27.6 3^6 63.2 Austria . . . 20.2 143 34-5 27-3 20.0 47-3 United States . S-3 10,6 IS- 9 26.4 19.2 45-6 Russia . . . 13.2 6.9 20.1 31-4 II. 6 43- France . . . ii.i I2-S 23.6 "-S 10. 1 21.6 Holland . . . 10.6 "•S 22.1 8.0 13 I 21.1 British colonies 1.6 I.I 2.7 1.^.6 6.6 22.2 Switzerland . . 7.8 7.6 iS-4 7-0 11.9 18.9 Belgium . . . 139 7-7 21.6 8.7 8-4 17. 1 Italy .... 4-S 4.2 8-7 6.6 4-2 10.8 Other countries 33-6 SO- 8 84.4 45- 3 35-6 80.9 Total . . 144.4 149-3 293-7 215-4 176.3 391-7 The following table compares German trade in 1896 with the average of five years ending December 1892 : — Trade with Millions £ Stg. Ratio 1888-92 1896 1888-92 1896 Great Britain . Austria . United States . Russia Holland . France . Belgium . Other countries 60 tl 11 23 22 114 63 47 46 43 21 22 17 133 16.9 12. 1 10.0 8-9 7-3 6.6 6-3 31-9 16.0 12.0 11.7 II.O 5-4 5-6 4-3 34-0 Total . 3S6 392 100.0 100. Trade relations with Belgium, France, and Holland have declined remarkably, while they have increased with Russia and United States. In 10 years trade has increased 30 per cent, in value, and 75 per cent, in weight. COMMERCE 663 COMMERCE Russia Returns of imports and exports of Russia, including Poland, for 1886 and 1896 compare thus :— Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Cotton . Tea . Hardware Yams . Metals . Chemicals Coal . Textiles Sundries 7,300,000 6,500,000 4,100,000 3,300,000 2,500,000 1,300,000 1,300,000 1,100,000 16,400,000 7,600,000 4,200,000 8,300,000 2,100,000 4,800,000 1,400,000 1,700,000 1,400,000 27,500,000 Grain . Flax . Timber Wool . Seeds . Sugar . Petroleum l^egf .■ Sundries 23,300,000 5,400,000 2,400,000 2,200,000 1,900,000 1,300,000 1,300,000 500,000 10,100,000 32,200,000 7,900,000 4,700,000 800,000 4,200,000 2,900,000 2,900,000 2,200,000 11,200,000 To tal 43,800,000 59,000,000 Total 48,400,000 69,000,000 The countries with which Russia traded in 1886 and i8q6 were : — Millions £ Sterling 1886 1896 m u I?, Total D.O as Total J* X J* ^ Great Britain . 11.0 14.4 2S-4 11.2 16.1 27-3 Germany . . 13-5 11.9 2S-4 19.0 18.6 37-6 France . . . 1.2 30 4.2 2-3 .s-« 8.1 Austria . . . 1-7 2-5 4.2 2-3 30 S-3 Holland . . . 0.4 3-7 4.1 0.6 7-1 7-7 United States . 2.7 0.0 2.7 6.6 0.2 6.8 China. . . 3-0 0.2 3-2 4.2 o-S 4-7 Italy .... 0.8 2.2 3-0 1.0 3-6 4.6 Other countries 9-S 10.5 20.0 11.8 14.1 25-9 Total . . 43-8 48.4 92.2 59-0 69.0 128.0 The trade of 1896 compares with that of five years ending 1892 as follows : — Trade with Millions j^ Stg. Ratio 1888-92 1896 1888-92 1896 Great Britain . Germany . France Other countries 29 29 6 32 27 30.2 30.2 6.2 33-4 21.3 29-5 6.4 42.8 Total . 96 128 100. 100.0 There has been a relative diminution of trade with Germany and Great Britain, which is accounted for by the rapid increase of dealings with China, Austria, and Italy. In the interval between 1886 and 1896 we find an increase of 34 per cent, in imports and 42 per cent, in exports. The shipments of eggs, petroleum, and sugar have increased prodigiously. Austria-Hungary Imports and exports of the whole empire for 1886 and 1897 compare thus : Cotton . Wool . Yams . Textiles Coffee . Coal . Hardware Tobacco Hides . Flax . Simdries Total Imports, £ 1886 3,800,000 2,600,000 2,400,000 2,700,000 2,600,000 1,100,000 900,000 2,700,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 22,800,000 45,000,000 1897 4,200,000 3,200,000 2,500,000 2,200,000 2,200,000 3,100,000 2,600,000 2,200,000 1,900,000 800,000 38,100,000 63,000,000 Sugar . Cattle . Timber Grain . Eggs . Leather goods Coal . Glass . Malt . Wool . Sundries Total Exports, £ 1886 4,000,000 3,900,000 4,500,000 3,500,000 900,000 1,800,000 1,400,000 1,600,000 1,200,000 2,000,000 33,400,000 58,200,000 1897 5,100,000 3,800,000 7,000,000 3,500,000 3,700,000 2,200,000 2,900,000 1,900,000 2,000,000 900,000 31,000,000 64,000,000 Austria including Hungary has usually 500,000 tons of grain for exportation, but in 1897, on the contrary, she had to import 100,000 tons. Her exports of sugar and eggs have increased remarkably in ten years, viz. ; — 1887 1897 Sugar, Tons 220,000 480,000 Eggs, Millions 880 The trade of 1896 compares with the average for 4 years ending 1894 thus : — Trade with Million! £Sig. Ratio 1891-94 1896 1891-94 1896 Germany . Great Britain , Italy Other countries SS 10 8 46 SS 12 9 47 46.3 8.4 6.7 38.6 44.8 9-7 7-3 38.2 Total . 119 123 100. 100. Trade with Germany is stationary, while it increases with Great Britain and Italy. COMMERCE 664 COMMERCE The countries trading with Austria were as follows : — Millions £ Sterling 1886 1896 in in ul KB ia Total ai 8,S Total ££ 1* X W Germany . . iS-7 19.2 34-9 21-5 33-5 5S-0 Great Britain . i-S i-S 30 6.1 6.1 12.2 Italy .... 4.1 8.S 12.6 3-9 S-o 8.9 Russia . . . 2.8 1.6 4.4 3-7 2-3 6.0 United States . 4-4 1-3 S-7 3-S 1.4 4.9 Switzerland . . 1.6 3-S S-i 1.8 2.9 4-7 France . . . 0.6 4.1 4-7 2.1 2-5 4.6 India .... 2.2 0.6 2.8 ^6 0.6 4.2 Other countries 12. 1 17.9 30.0 12.6 10.2 22.8 Total . . 4S-0 58.2 103.2 58.8 64.5 I23'3 The trade of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy shows an increase of 30 per cent, in imports, and 11 per cent, in exports between 18S6 and 1896. There has been a great development of manufacturing industry, the value of imported coal having risen 135 per cent., and that of raw material (fibre) imported 25 per cent. At the same time certain exports show enormous increase, viz., eggs 260 per cent., sugar 60 per cent., leather goods 50 per cent Italy Imports and exports have been as follows : — Millions £ Sterling .^per Year Imports Exports Total Inhab. 1885 1890 1897 . . . 58-4 52. 8 48.1 38.0 35-8 44.6 96.4 88.6 92.7 3-3 2.9 2.9 The principal items of the trade of Italy for 1886 and 1896 compare as follows : — Imports, j^ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Cotton .... 3,000,000 4,500,000 Silk . 12,600,000 11,500,000 Grain . , 7,600,000 4,400,000 Wine . 3, 500,000 2,lOD,0OO Coal . 2,700,000 3,600,000 Oil . 3,200,000 2,200,000 Silk . 2,600,000 2,100,000 Fruit . 1,500,000 2,100,000 Hardware 1,700,000 1,900,000 Flax . 1,000,000 1,500,000 Timber 2,400,000 1,300,000 Eggs . 1,200,000 1,200,000 Wool . 1,300,000 1,300,000 Coral . 900,000 1,100,000 Hides . 1,400,000 1,500,000 Sulphur 1,000,000 1,100,000 Fish . 1,300,000 1,200,000 Meat . 1,200,000 1,200,000 Coffee . 700,000 1,100,000 Ores . 200,000 400,000 Sundries 33,600,000 24,000,000 Sundries 14,800,000 17,700,000 Total 58,300,000 46,900,000 To tal 41,100,000 42,100,000 As regards imports, there has been on the whole a fall of 20 per cent. Nevertheless some items show a re- markable increase, for example, raw cotton 50 per cent., and coal 33 per cent., from which it is evident that textile and other manufactures have been developed considerably in the last ten years. As for exports, if we except wine and oil, the quantities show a marked increase, but this is somewhat counteracted as regards vahie by the fall in prices. Trade on the whole shows an upward tendency. The quantities of principal exports were as follows : — Year Gallons Millions Eggs Tons Wine Oil Fruit 1887 . . . 1897 . . . 80,000,000 52,000,000 14,000,000 12,000,000 388 592 240,000 290,000 The decline in wine and oil has been very serious. The trade of 1896 compares with the average of 5 years •ending 1892 thus : — Trade with Millions £ Stg. Ratio 1888-92 1896 1888-92 1S96 Great Britain . France Germany . Other countries 16 16 11 48 14 12 12 SI 17.6 17.6 12.0 S2.8 16.2 I3-S 13 s 56.8 Total . 91 89 100.0 1 100.0 The countries trading with Italy in 1886 and 18 were ; — Millie ms;^ 1896 1886 ?e n n 13 SB t: "d Q,2 Q.O a2 B* ^ H B^ ■H Great Britain . 11.0 2.8 13.8 9.2 4-4 13.6 Germany . . S-2 4-3 9-5 .^-8 6.6 12.4 France . . . 12.4 17.8 30.2 S-S 6.3 11.8 Austria . . . 8.0 3-7 12.6 S-4 S-o 10.4 Switzerland 3-2 3-S 6.7 1.8 6.P 8.7 United States . 2.2 2.1 4-3 4-8 3-4 8.2 Russia . . . 3.8 0.7 4-5 4-7 o-S S-2 Other countries II.6 6.2 17.8 9-7 9-0 18.7 Total . . 58.3 41. 1 99-4 46.9 42.1 89.0 Trade with Germany is increasing, and with France is declining. To be read thus : Imports ;^I5, 700,000. COMMERCE 66s COMMERCE Spain The foreign trade has risen 70 per cent, in 20 years, viz. : — Year Millions £ Sterling £ per Imports Exports Total Inhab, »877 1887 1897 19.6 324 31-7 20.5 28.9 37-0 40.1 61.3 68.7 2.4 3-S 3-9 The trade of 1896 compares with the average for S years, down to 1892, thus : — Trade with Millions £ Stg. Ratio 1888-92 1896 1888-92 1896 France Great Britain . Cuba Other countries 2r II 4 21 20 IS 14 28 36.8 19.4 7.0 36.8 z6.o 19-5 18.2 36.3 Total . 57 77 100. 100. The principal imports and exports of Spain in 1886 and 1896 were as follows ; Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Cotton .... 2,400,000 2,800,000 Wine .... 13,400,000 5,800,000 Hardware . 2,300,000 2,600,000 Fruit . 2,100,000 3,200,000 Coal . 1,000,000 2,000,000 Minerals 2,500,000 4,100,000 Timber 1,500,000 1,500,000 Metals 2,200,000 3,100,000 Tobacco 1,700,000 1,300,000 Cottons 500,000 2,100,000 Textiles 2,200,000 1,100,000 Cattle . 900,000 1,100,000 Grain . 1,200,000 1,400,000 Cork . 700,000 1,300,000 Fish . 1,100,000 1,000,000 Oil . 600,000 1,000,000 Hides . 1,000,000 900,000 Wool. 600,000 700,000 Sugar . 1,300,000 700,000 Quicksilver 100,000 300,000 Sundries 16,000,000 21,100,000 Sundries 5,400,000 18,200,000 To tal . 31,700,000 36,400,000 To tal • 29,000,000 40,900,000 Spanish trade in the above interval of ten years showed a rise of 15 per cent, in imports, and 40 per cent, in exports. Wine has, indeed, fallen nearly 60 per cent., but minerals, metals, fruit, cotton manufactures, &c., have increased very remarkably. The countries with which Spain traded were as follows : — Millions £ Sterling 1886 1896 I-* S.2 •a 1 |i i as 1 Fiance . . , Great Britain . Cuba. . . . United States . Portugal . . Other countries 9.8 4-S 1.6 .3-8 0-3 11.7 13- S 6.2 2.8 0.8 1-3 4-4 23-3 10.7 4.4 1.6 16.1 6.2 3-3 2.9 1.6 137 "•3 9.0 10.2 0.4 1-7 8.3 20.0 15-2 13- S 3-3 3-3 22.0 Total . . 31-7 29.0 60.7 36-4 40.9 77. 3 Portugal The countries trading with Portugal in 1886 and 1896 were : — 1886 1896 Imports, £ Exports, £ Imports, £ Exports, £ Gt. Britain. France . . Brazil . . Various . . 2,700,000 1,100,000 400,000 4,200,000 1,500,000 2,100,000 1,000,000 1,300,000 2,700,000 900,000 400,000 4,900,000 1,600,000 150,000 1,450,000 2,700,000 Total . . 8,400,000 5,900,000 8,900,000 5,900,000 Trade with France has declined very much, while it has increased with Brazil. Trade returns for the kingdom of Portugal in 1S86 and 1896 compare as follows : — Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1896 ■ 1886 1896 Grain .... Textiles Cotton .... Sugar .... Fish .... Sundries 990,000 1,320,000 290,000 380,000 400,000 5,020,000 890,000 980,000 250,000 440,000 510,000 5,830,000 Wine .... Cork .... Cattle. Copper Sardines Sundries Total . 3,800,000 550,006 180,000 160,000 220,000 990,000 2,500,000 800,000 550,000 250,000 220,000 1,580,000 Total . 8,400,000 8,900,000 5,900,000 5,900,000 * To be read thus : Imports from France ^^g, 800, 000. COMMERCE 666 COMMERCE Sweden In the decade ending December 1896 imports rose 20 per cent., exports Jo per cent., viz. : — Imports, ^ ^ Exports, £, 1886 1896 1886 1896 Coal .... Textiles Coffee .... Hardware . Grain .... Sundries 900,000 1,900,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 9,800,000 1,800,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 1,800,000 1,300,000 12,000,000 Timber Iron . . . , Butter Fish .... Matches Sundries Total . 4,200,000 1,900,000 1,100,000 200,000 600,000 4,700,000 7,300,000 2,800,000 2,500,000 400,000 300,000 5,600,000 Total . 16,400,000 19,900,000 12,700,000 18,900,000 The countries trading with Sweden were : — ■ Millions ^ 1886 1896 li 1 (3 1 H ap ^ Great Britain . Germany . . Denmark . . Various . . . 4-3 5-1 2.4 4.6 6.1 I.I 1-4 4.1 10.4 6.2 3.8 8.7 2.5 S-4 8.0 24 z-3 6.2 4.8 II. 6 Total . . 16.4 12.7 29.1 19.9 18.9 38.8 Norway It is probably in a great measure due to her merchant fleet that the trade of Norway has grown so much in ten years, viz. : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1886 1896 7,500,000 13,300,000 5,700,000 8,200,000 13,200,000 21,500,000 The principal Swedish exports which have risen (in value) are : timber 75 P^r cent., iron 48 per cent., butter 130 per cent., fish 100 per cent., over 1886. We see, moreover, that trade with Great Britain has risen 30 per cent. The principal items of Norwegian trade in 1886 and 1896 were:- The countries trading with Norway were :— Imports from, £ Exports to, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 G. Britain . Germany . Sweden . , Various . . 1,900,000 2,100,000 900,000 2,600,000 3,500,000 3,500,000 2,100,000 4,200,000 1,900,000 700,000 800,000 2,300,000 3,100,000 1,000,000 1,300,000 2,800,000 Total . 7,500,000 13,300,000 5,700,000 8,200,000 Imports, £ Exports I 1886 1896 1886 1896 Grain .... Textiles Sundries 1,400,000 800,000 5,300,000 2,000,000 1,400,000 9,900,000 Fish .... Timber Sundries Total . 1,700,000 1,600,000 2,400,000 1,900,000 1,900,000 4,400,000 Total . 7,500,000 13,300,000 5,700,000 8,200,000 Denmark The principal imports and exports of the trade of Denmark in 1886 and 1896 were ; — Imports ,£ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Hardware . , Grain .... Textiles Coal .... Sundries 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,600,000 800,000 7,400,000 2,400,000 1,900,000 1,800,000 1,200,000 14,000,000 Butter Meat .... Cattle Eggs .... Sundries . . Total . 1,800,000 600,000 2,200,000 200,000 4,300,000 5,200,000 2,500,000 1,300,000 600,000 6,200,000 Total . '. 11,800,000 21,300,000 9,100,000 15,800,000 • This table to read thus : Imports from Great Britain ;^4,300,ooo. COMMERCE 667 COMMERCE Trade has increased 80 per cent, in ten years, viz. Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total. £ 1886 . 1896 . 11,800,000 21,300,000 9,100,000 15,800,000 20,900,000 37,100,000 The principal trade is with Great Britain and Germany, viz. : — Imports from, Millions £ Exports to. Millions £ Total 1886 1896 1886 1896 1886 1896 Great Britain . Germany . . Sweden . . . Various . . . 2.7 4.2 1-7 3-2 4-3 7.0 3-1 6.9 2.8 1.2 1-3 9-5 3-2 1.7 1.4 6.5 ' 13-8 7.0 10,2 2.9 4.8 4-S 1 8.3 Total . . 11.8 21.3 9-1 15.8 20.9 37.1 Trade with Great Britain has more than doubled, while that with Germany has risen only 45 per cent. Thus in 1886 Germany stood ahead of Great Britain in the trade of Denmark, whereas now Great Britain is 36 per cent, ahead of Germany. Holland Exclusive of trade in transit the commerce of Holland has advanced by leaps and bounds, viz. : — 1876 1886 1896 Imports, £ Exports, £ 58,000,000 91,900,000 136,300,000 44,100,000 79,100,000 111,700,000 Total, £ 102,100,000 171,000,000 248,000,000 As Holland is the only free-trade country of Continen- tal Europe, the growth of its trade offers an important lesson. In twenty years the imports have risen 135 per cent., exports 154 per cent. The increased importation of coal and metals, as well as of timber, points to a development of home manufactures, while the increase of exports shows a great activity in the colonial trade and in Dutch products generally. The principal items of Dutch imports and exports in 1886 and 1896 were : — Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Grain Hardwa Metals Cotton Rice Coal Coffee Timber Sundries re 12,400,000 8,800,000 7,100,000 3,800,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 3,100,000 1,400,000 49,300,000 26,500,000 8,100,000 12,800,000 3,900,000 3,300,000 3,900,000 3,500,000 3,000,000 71,300,000 Drugs. Butter Sugar . Textiles Paper . Fish . Hides . Cheese Sundries 9,800,000 4,700,000 2,500,000 2,400,000 900,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 900,000 55,900,000 16,300,000 4,600,000 2,500,000 3,400,000 2,300,000 1,200,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 79,100,000 To tal . ■ 91,900,000 136,300,000 To tal 79,100,000 111,700,000 The countries trading with Holland were as follow :- Imports from, Millions £ Exports to, Millions £ Total 1886 1896 1886 1896 1886 1896 Germany . . Great Britain . Belgium . . . Java .... Various . . . 26.3 21.8 13-2 7-5 20.6 25.0 21.3 14. S 20.0 sss 34-S 21.3 "■5 3-8 7-9 S8.3 24.2 13-7 4-4 11. 1 60.8 43-1 24.7 28.5 83-3 45- S 28.2 24.4 66.6 Total . . 89.4 136.3 79.0 111.7 168.4 248.0 The following table compares Dutch trade in 1896 with the average for five years ending December 1S92 :— Trade with Millions £ Ratio 1888-92 1898 1888 92 1896 Germany . Great Britain . Belgium . Java Various, . 66 49 27 19 39 83 46 28 24 67 330 24- S 13s 9-5 19s 33- S 18. 5 11.3 9-7 27.0 Total . 200 248 100.0 100. There is a decline in trade with Great Britain. r Belgium Reviewing the trade of the last two decades we find it was stationary in the first, but has greatly expanded in the second, viz. : — Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1876 . 1886 . 1896 . 57,900,000 53,400,000 71,100,000 42,600,000 47,300,000 58,700,000 100,500,000 100,700,000 129,800,000 The countries trading with Belgium were as follow :- Millions £ Sterling 1886 1896 in at tn S.S Total g,o as Total ,1 w u France . . . 10. 1 13.2 23-3 12.4 "■5 23-9 Germany . . 6.1 7.8 139 8.6 131 21.7 Great Britain . 6.9 9-4 16.3 8.2 11.7 19.9 Holland . . . 8.0 7.0 iS-o 71 6.9 14.0 United States . 6.4 1.6 8.0 6.9 2.0 8.9 Various . . . iS-9 83 24.2 27.9 I3-S 41.4 Total . . S3-4 47-3 100.7 71.1 S8.7 129.8 COMMERCE 668 COMMERCE The above is exclusive of transit trade, which exceeds 50 millions sterling, exports were : — The chief items of imports and Imports, £ 1 Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Grain . Fibre . Minerals Chemicals Timber Cattle . Coffee . Sundries 8,200,000 6,400,000 2,800,000 2,700,000 1,700,000 2,900,000 1,300,000 27,400,000 11,600,000 6,600,000 5,700,000 4,400,000 3,600,000 2,200,000 2,100,000 34,900,000 Yarn . Coal . Hardware Textiles Glass . Machinery Sugar . Sundries 5,200,000 2,800,000 2,500,000 2,600,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 1,200,000 29,000,000 4,100,000 3,500,000 5,200,000 3,200,000 3,100,000 2,600,000 2,200,000 34,800,000 To tal 53,400,000 71,100,000 Total 47,300,000 58,700,000 Comparing the trade of Belgium in 1896 with the average of 5 years ending December 1892, we find as follows : — Trade with Millions ;^Stg. Ratio 1888-92 1896 1888-92 1896 ""ranee Germany . jreat Britain . Holland . Various . 26 18 18 16 43 24 22 20 14 SO 21-5 14.8 14 8 13-2 3S-7 '?-5 16.9 15-4 10.8 38.4 Total . 121 130 100. IOO.O Germany and Great Britain are gaining ground, while France and Holland are receding. Switzerland Comparing the trade of 1896 with the average of 5 years ending 1892 shows as follows : — Millions ;^Stg. Ratio Trade with 1888-92 1896 1888-92 1896 Germany . France Great Britain . Italy Various . 18 15 6 7 20 20 14 8 7 23 27-3 22.7 10.6 30-3 27.S 19-5 "•3 9-7 32.0 Total 66 72 IOO.O IOO.O Great Britain and Germany are gaining ground, while France has lost heavily in the ratio of Swiss trade. The principal items of imports and exports of Switzerland were as follow : Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Silk . Grain . Cattle . Hardware Coal . Cotton . Sundries 5,300,000 3,400,000 2,100,000 1,200,000 700,000 1,400,000 16,900,000 4,300,000 4,400,000 2,100,000 3,200,000 2,900,000 1,400,000 24,200,000 Textiles Watches Cheese Yarn . Machinery Milk . Sundries I Oj 200, 000 3,200,000 1,500,000 1,200,000 700,000 500,000 9,500,000 10,200,000 3,900,000 1,500,000 1,100,000 1,200,000 800,000 10,900,000 Tota 1 31,000,000 42,500,000 Tota 1 26,800,000 29,600,000 Trade increased 25 per cent, in 10 years, viz. : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1886 . 1896 . 31,000,000 42,500,000 26,800,000 29,600,000 57,800,000 72,100,000 The principal countries trading with Switzerland were : Millions £ Sterling 1886 1896 is "rt 1 1 2 g* i2 as Germany , . France . . . Great Britain . Italy .... Austria . . . Various . . . 10.4 7-5 1.8 4.8 3-7 2.8 6.4 S-6 4.2 2-3 1.4 6.9 16.8 13- 1 6.0 7-1 5- 1 9-7 12.3 9.2 2.1 ' 5-7 3-1 10. 1 7.2 4-7 5-9 1.6 1-7 8.5 I9-S 13.9 8.0 7-3 4.8 18.6 Total . . 31.0 26.8 S7.8 42. 5 29.6 72.1 ROUMANIA The nations trading with Roumania were as follow ; Millions £ Sterling 1886 1896 h Exports to Total 1* i 1 Great Britain . Austria . . . Belgium . . . Germany , . Various . . . 2.1 4.8 0.2 1-7 1-9 2.5 1 4.6 2.8 , 7.6 0.1 0.3 0.3 2.0 4,2 6.1 2.9 3-7 0.4 3-8 2.7 45 1-3 4.6 0.7 1-9 7-4 5.0 5° 4-5 4.6 Total . . 10.7 9.9 20.6 13 s 13-0 26.S The only country with which dealings have fallen off is Austria. It is to be observed that Great Britain, instead of second as in 1886, now holds the foremost place in Roumanian trade, beyond all competitors. To be read thus : Imports from Germany ^^10,400,000. COMMERCE 669 COMMERCE The country was impoverished in 1876, and hence exports exceeded imports. Since 1886 things are better, and imports are over exports. The principal items of trade were as follow : — Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 Textiles Hardware . Simdries 3,200,000 600,000 6.900,000 6,000,000 2,500,000 5,000,000 Grain. Cattle. Sundries Total 6,200,000 3,700,000 11,100,000 400,000 1,500,000 Total 10,700,000 13,500,000 9,900,000 13,000,000 The trade of Roumania has risen 60 per cent, since 1876, viz. : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1876 1886 . 1B96 . 6,600,000 10,700,000 13,500,000 9,400,000 9,900,000 13,000,000 16,000,000 20,600,000 26,500,000 Servia The trade of this kingdom has been as follows : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ 1 Total, £ 1876 . 1886 . 1896 900,000 2,200,000 1,300,000 1,100,000 1 2,000,000 1,900,000 4,100,000 2,100,000 3,400,00c The trade of 1 896 was as follows : Imports £ Exports £ Textiles . . . Hardware . . Sundries . . . 400,000 100,000 800,000 Grain . . . Cattle . . . Sundries . . Total . . 900,000 900,000 300,000 Total . . 1,300,000 2,100,000 The countries trading with Servia are shown thus : — Imports from Exports to Total, £ Ratio Austria . . . Other countries . 780,000 520,000 1,900,000 200,000 2,680,000 720,000 78.8 21.2 Total . . 1,300,000 j 2,100,000 3,400,000 100.0 Bulgaria The countries trading with Bulgaria in 1886 and 1896 showed thus : — Imports, £ Exports, £ 1886 1896 1836 1896 G. Britain . Austria . . Turkey . . Various . . 740,000 680,000 450,000 730,000 720,000 900,000 400,000 1,080,000 200,000 100,000 1,200,000 500,000 1,300,000 100,000 900,000 2,000,000 Total . 2,600,000 3,100,000 2,000,000 4,300,000 Trade with Great Britain has more than doubled in ten years, while it has notably declined with Turkey. The principal imports and exports in 1887 and iS were : — Imports, £ 1887 1896 Textiles . Hardware . Sundries . 800,000 200,000 1,600,000 800,000 200,000 2, 100 ,.000 Total . 2,600,000 3,100,000 Exports, £ 1887 1896 Grain. Cattle Sundries . 900,000 200,000 700,000 3,800,000 150,000 350,000 Total . 1,800,000 4,300,000 The trade of the principality has grown thus in ten years : — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1886 1896 2,600,000 3,100,000 2,000,000 4,300,000 4,600,000 7,400,000 Greece OfiScial returns for 1888 and 1896 compare as follows : Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1888 1896 4,400,000 4,700,000 3,800,000 2,900,000 8,200,000 7,600,000 The countries trading with Greece were : — Imports, £ Exports, £ 1888 1896 1888 1896 G. Britain . Russia . . Turkey . . Various . . 1,200,000 1,000,000 500,000 1,700,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 600,000 1,900,000 1,600,000 200,000 1,600,000 700,000 300,000 300,000 1,600,000 Total . 4,400,000 4,700,000 3,800,000 2,900,000 The fall in the price of currants, from ;if27 a ton in 1888 to ;^IS in 1896, has injuriously affected Greek commerce. COMMERCE 670 COMMERCE The principal items of imports and exports of Greece were : — Imports, £ Exports £ 1888 1896 1888 1896 Grain .... Textiles Sundries 1,400,000 800,000 2,200,000 1,200,000 900,000 2,600,000 Fruit .... Oil ... . Sundries Total . 1,900,000 100,000 1,800,000 1,100,000 100,000 1,700,000 Total . 4,400,000 4,700,000 3,800,000 2,900,000 Turkey The chief items of Turkish imports and exports were the following : Imports, £ Exports, £ 1889 1891 1889 1891 Coal . Sugar . Linens . Quilts . Coffee . Woollens Sundries 200,000 1,400,000 1,600,000 1,100,000 700,000 700,000 13,200,000 2,300,000 1,600,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 800,060 700,000 13,700,000 Fruit . Grain . Silk . Mohair Opium . Oil . Sundries 2,200,000 2,000,000 1,400,000 600,000 600,000 600,000 6,300,000 2,300,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 600,000 500,000 300,000 5,300,000 To tal 18,900,000 21,700,000 Total • 13,700,000 12,000,000 The returns for 1896 compare with 1882 as follows: — Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1882 1895 17,500,000 15,400,000 10,200,000 16,600,000 27,700,000 32,000,000 The countries tradin g with Turkey were as follow : — Millions £ Sterling 1889 1891 in Is ■3 OhS 3 ti£ w H W H G. Britain . . 8.2 .S.2 13-4 8.2 5-1 13.3 Austria . , , 3-7 1.2 4.9 4-7 1.2 5-9 France . . , 2-3 3-9 6.2 2.5 3-2 5-7 Russia . . . 1.6 0.3 1-9 1-3 0.3 1.6 Bulgaria . . . 1.0 03 1-3 i.i 0-3 1.4 Various . . . 2.1 2.8 4.9 3-9 1-9 S-8 Total . . 18.9 13-7 32.6 21.7 12.0 33-7 The only country that shows any remarkable increase its dealings with Turkey is Austria. United States The trade of 1897 compares with that of thirty years preceding as follows : — Period Annual Average, £ Sterling £ Imports Exports Total per Inhab. 1867-71 . 1872-81 , 1882-91 . 1892-96 . 1897 . . 88,400,000 114,000,000 148,000,000 160,600,000 159,000,000 70,700,000 132,000,000 158,600,000 185,600,000 214,800,000 159,100,000 246,000,000 306,600,000 346,200,000 373,800,000 4.2 5-4 S-3 5-1 S-i It appears that since 1872 trade has not kept pace with population. Textile goods form a great part of imports, and show as follows :^ Annual Average, £ Sterling 1867-76 1877-86 1887-96 1897 Cottons . . Woollens . Silks . . . Linens, &c. 4,800,000 8,500,000 5,200,000 3,700,000 5,800,000 7,100,000 6,300,000 4,200,000 5,900,000 8,900,000 6,900,000 5,200,000 7,200,000 10,200,000 5,200,000 6,800,000 Total . 22,200,000 23,400,000 26,900,000 29,400,000 The importation of fibre is best understood by com- paring its weight with that of native fibre, since 1867, thus : — Tons of Fibre Yearly Period Imported Native Consumption 1867-71 60,000 280,000 340,000 1872-81 102,000 403,000 305,000 1882-91 220,000 600,000 820,000 1892-96 280,000 740,000 1,020,000 1897 . 345,000 790,000 1,135,000 The value of imported fibres was as follows : Annual Average £ Sterling 1867-81 1882-96 1837 Wool . . . Silk . Flax, &c. . 2,300,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 3,400,000 4,200,000 3,200,000 11,000,000 4,000,000 2,500,000 Total . 4,500,000 10,800,000 17.500,000 • Noie. — To be read thus : Imports from Great Britain, j^8,2oo,cioo. COMMERCE 071 COMMERCE As regards exports the increase has been much greater than that of imports, viz. : — Annual Average, £ Sterling 1867-76 1877-86 1887-96 1 1897 Food . Cotton . Sundries 29,400,000 40,800,000 19,400,000 64,600,000 42,200,000 48,800,000 63,400,000! 84,100,000 47,200,000 48,000,000 63,000,000 82,700,000 Exports 89,600,000 135,600,000 173,600,000 1 214,800,000 The increase in weight of exports has been even greater than in value, taking for example four items, viz. : — Tons Yearly 1872-76 1892-96 1897 Meat . Grain. Cotton Petroleum . 190,000 2,66o,ocfc 560,000 910,000 590,000 6,220,000 1,210,000 3,850,000 650,000 9,700,000 1,410,000 4,410,000 Total . 4,320,000 11,870,000 16,170,000 The trade of the United States with the several quarters of the globe was as follows : — Millions £ Sterling 1887 1897 tn n tn 0-2 as ■3 li P.P. •3 1— 1 f3 H 6* M H Europe . . . 81 117 198 89 167 256 Asia .... 17 s 22 23 9 32 Australia . . I 2 3 I 4 5 Africa . . . I I 2 2 3 5 America . . . 44 22 66 44 32 76 Total . . 144 147 291 IS9 215 374 Comparing the returns for 1897 with the average of 5 years to June 1894 we find the currents of trade, im- ports and exports together, as follows : — Trade with Millions £ Stg. Ratio 1890-94 1897 1890-94 1897 Great Britain . 128 134 36.2 3S-8 Germany . 37 49 10.4 131 France . . 27 26 7.6 7.0 Cuba 18 6 S-i 1.6 Canada . . 18 22 S-i 5-9 Various . 126 137 35-6 36.6 Total 354 374 100.0 100.0 There is a marked increase of trade with Germany and Canada, while the ratios of other countries are declining. Since 1894 transactions with Germany have risen 33, with Canada 22, per cent. The trade of the United States with South America in the years 1892-96 as com- pared with 1882-86 showed an advance of 48 per cent., while British trade with that part of the world increased 20 per cent, in the same interval. In regard to the British West Indies, their trade with the United States rose 50 per cent, in 10 years, while their dealings with Great Britain fell off 15 per cent. Trade since 1881 may average : — Canada be summed up thus, in yearly Period Imports, £ Exports, £ Total, £ 1881-90 . . . 1891-95 . . . 1897 .... 23,100,000 24,200,000 23,000,000 20,100,000 23,800,000 25,800,000 43,200,000 48.000,000 48,800,000 The importation of fibre has multiplied five-fold in twenty years, viz. : — Tons 1876 1886 1896 Cotton .... Hemp .... Wool .... 3,000 2, '"'d * half-groat of Edward III., £23. Besides the 35 auto- graphs recorded with their prices at page 172, the follow- ing have since been sold : — The Pretender . ;£8 | Q. Elizabeth . £6 1 Henry VII. . £1$ Henry VIII. . 8 I Wesley ... 3 I Paul Veronese 19 In March 1898 the bugle used for the Balaklava charge (1855) was sold in London for £jS°- CURRENTS The Times of December 8, 1896, mentions that on October 9, 1894, the s.s. Hunter threw overboard a box containing a letter in S. lat. 45° 19' 32" : E. long. 63° 59' 15", which was picked up in July 1896 in S. lat. 44° o' o" ; W. long. 176° 30' o", having drifted in a straight line 4791 miles in 20 months 26 days, being at the rate of 7i miles per day. In June 1881 was picked up in the Feejee Islands a bottle containing a letter which had been thrown over- board in March 1880 in 4° S. lat. and 119° W. long., having been carried 6700 miles in 455 days, that is, 15 miles a day. CUSTOMS See Taxes, page 811, and page 172. DAIRY 683 DEATHS D DAIRY The following table shows the production and con- sumption of butter and cheese, and the approximate number of milch cows : — Produc- Consumption Milch Cows tion, Tons Tons Lbs. per Inhab. U. Kingdom 200,000 51O;O00 28 3,950,000 France . . 200,000 270,000 16 5,020,000 Germany 300,000 440,000 17 8,950,000 Russia . . 350,000 34S.OOO 7 10,000,000 Austria . . 170,000 170,000 9 6,000,000 Italy . . . 145,000 85,000 6 2,400,000 Spain & Port. 50,000 50,000 6 1,200,000 Swed. &Nor. 80,000 SS.ooo 18 2,300,000 Denmark . 60,000' 20,000 20 1,050,000 Holland . . 120,000 20,000 10 900,000 Belgium . . 60,000 65,000 23 800,000 Switzerland 70,000 30,000 22 13 500,000 Europe . . 1,805,000 2,060,000 43,070,000 U. States . 610,000 580,000 18 15,940,000 Canada . . 130,000 50,000 22 1,990,000 Australia . 55.000 50,000 24 IS 1,100,000 Total . 2,600,000 2,740,000 62,100,000 The consumption in Holland is probably double what it appears to be, as margarine is largely mixed with what is exported as butter. For the same reason it appears in the above table that the consumption of butter and cheese in the world is 140,000 tons more than production, the difference being evidently ascribable to margarine. Great Britain consumes more butter and cheese for population than any other country ; the consumption (exclusive of Ireland) being over 30 pounds per inhabi- tant, or nearly twice as much as in France or Germany. See Food, page 715. DEATHS The death-rate of the principal countries, and the saving of life yearly by the reduction of mortality since 1880, owing to improved sanitation and other causes, are shown briefly thus : — Deaths per 1000 Pop. Yearly Lives Saved 1861-80 1885-90 1891-96 Yearly England. , , , 22.0 18.9 18.5 103,000 Scotland. . 18.9 18.7 Ireland . . 18.0 18.1 United Kingdc m . 18.8 18.4 France . . 24.0 21.9 22.1 73.000 Prussia . . 27.1 24.3 22.9 124,00c Scandinavia 19.0 17.2 17-3 16,000 Austria . . 30.8 29.0 27.6 79,000 Hungary 39-4 32.2 31-4 145.000 Italy . . . 29.9 27-3 25- S 131,000 Holland . . 24.6 20.6 19.2 26,000 Belgium . . 22.7 20.7 19.9 18,000 Bavaria . . 27.8 26.0 Wurtemburg 24.9 25.0 Saxony . . ... 27.7 25.2 ... Baden . . 23- S 23.0 ... Switzerland . 20.6 20.0 Bulgaria . . 18.5 28.7 Japan . . 21.1 21.1 Australia . 15-6 14.0 12.7 11,000 Thus in ten countries, of which we can compare death-rates in the last thirty-six years, the diminution of mortality yearly amounts to 726,000 lives; that is to say, the number of deaths in those countries is now 4,712,000, whereas at the rates prevalent down to 1880 they would have been 5,438,000. In other words, taking the ten countries collectively, the span of life has been lengthened 15 per cent. — say 6 years. Bodio's tables for five years ending December 1891 give the annual average death-rate of various countries as follows : — Deaths Yearly per 100,000 Population 1 i. (3 a. il u 1 1 ■a 5 s iS s .•2 d 1 ^ 0. s m 60 ft in § 1 I England .... 382 76 229 101 29 47 20 23 1 44 954 1,906 Scotland . 363 71 252 108 42 47 23 20 64 930 1,920 Ireland 296 44 268 59 24 20 31 12 29 1,022 1,805 France 420 215 397 67 52 53 31 23 18 1.273 2.549 Prussia 109 290 103 142 32 23 25 SO 1.552 2,326 Austria 303 1.39 372 67 132 54 54 .S6 44 98 1.S13 2,832 Switzerland - "3 211 86 35 IS IS 12 1 20 1.838 2,346 Belgium . 444 125 199 ,S8 62 .3« 16 15 61 989 2,007 Holland . 282 42 192 79 37 39 2S 4 31 1,298 2,029 Sweden . 38 52 23 22 37 17 1,447 1,636 Italy . .W 334 196 107 71 62 78 30 39 35 1,214 2,67s Average . 37S 119 261 89 f3 41 35 24 11 42 1,12!; 2,185 The statistics for France refer to the urban population. In the above table Bronchitis includes Pneumonia and similar complaints. Consumption comprises all tubercular diseases, and Diarrhoea includes Cholera and Dysentery, while Diphtheria includes Croup. DEATHS 684 DEATHS The following table shows the number of deaths from certain diseases in 10,000 deaths from all causes : — England Scotland Ireland France Austria Belgium Holland Italy Average Bronchitis 2,001 1,888 1.643 1.714 1,070 2,220 1.390 1.905 1.730 Diarrhoea , 398 370 244 843 495 623 207 1,248 554 Consumption , 1,200 1,310 1.487 1.558 1.315 980 945 732 1,190 Diphtheria 152 218 133 26s 464 290 180 26s 246 Measles . 247 247 III 204 190 310 190 232 216 Typhoid . loS 120 172 208 190 190 123 291 175 Scarlatina 120 104 67 122 198 80 20 "3 103 Whooping-cough . 230 332 160 70 345 303 153 132 216 Other diseases . S.S47 5.4" S.983. 5.015 5.733 S.004 6,792 5,082 S.570 Total . 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 The annual death-rate per million inhabitants from certain diseases in ten years, 1882-91, in various cities averaged as follows : — London Paris . Berlin Vienna Rome Buda-Pesth Hamburg . Leipzig Dresden . Breslau . Naples Milan Turin Genoa Florence • Palermo . Venice Bologna . Trieste Brussels . Average Per Million Inhabitants E 60 no 4 270 400 600 5 3 10 220 480 240 45° 250 40 :,ogo 300 800 320 282 610 SSO 3x0 370 690 280 290 160 210 260 610 530 500 390 270 900 530 290 310 320 419 290 90 260 200 60 440 300 220 260 210 320 ISO 130 40 120 ISO SO 240 140 70 187 280 1.050 1.270 540 500 1,170 850 850 1,380 1,100 380 720 710 3SO 470 640 280 540 1,260 470 741 a a o 3 o o r •a '0 o, 710 180 310 130 100 130 350 160 260 210 120 160 230 no 130 150 no 150 130 280 205 180 600 160 100 430 430 400 130 120 190 460 750 580 460 880 1,170 560 590 190 260 432 80 100 100 120 SO 70 100 80 no 50 30 70 80 50 60 40 30 60 50 180 76 2,940 4.510 3,080 5.340 3.490 6,330 3,000 2,580 3.240 3.270 2,500 3.530 3.110 2,520 3,880 2,I20 3.450 3,220 5.280 3.450 3.542 5.150 7,190 5.494 7.070 S.72O 9.450 5.295 4.183 S.S80 S.300 4,640 6,390 S.S80 4.370 6,060 5.210 6,100 5.390 8,160 S.350 5.884 The following table shows the proportions which the above eight infectious diseases had in the total mortality during the said ten years : — Number of Deaths Yearly Per 10,000 Inhabitants Ratio of Infectious Infectious Other Total Infectious Other Total London 20,800 61,500 82,300 52 152 204 25-5 Paris . 16,800 38,700 55.500 72 166 238 30.2 Berlm . 7,700 24,800 32.500 55 176 231 23.8 Vienna . 7.300 14,900 22,200 71 144 215 33-0 Rome . 2,500 6,900 9,400 57 199 256 22.4 Buda-Pesth 4,200 9.500 13,700 95 214 309 30.6 Hamburg 2,600 9,800 12,400 S3 19s 248 21.4 Leipzig 1,000 3.400 4.400 42 130 172 24.4 Dresden 1,500 4.300 S.800 56 163 219 25-5 Breslau 1,600 7.500 9,100 53 239 292 18.2 Naples . 2,400 12,800 15,200 46 255 301 15-3 Milan . 2,400 8,IOD 10,500 64 217 281 22.7 Turin . 1,600 S.700 7,300 56 206 262 21.3 Genoa . 800 4,200 5,000 44 212 256 17.2 Florence 1,100 3.800 4.900 61 204 265 23.0 Palermo 1,400 S.ioo 6,500 52 201 253 20.6 Venice . 900 3.300 4,200 61 248 309 19.7 Bologna 700 3,000 3.700 54 226 2S0 19.^ Trieste . 1,300 3,400 4,700 82 230 312 26.2 Brussels . 900 3.200 4,100 52 Av.59 192 198 244 257 21.3 Total 79.500 233,900 313.400 23.0 It appears tha dur mg t he s ai d ten years [^eipzie, Lon don, and Vi ;nna were the cities of lowest death-rate while Trieste, Venice, Buda-Pesth, and Naples were the most unhealthy. DEATHS 68s DEATHS Friendly Societies Bertillon's table of death-rates among Friendly Societies published in 1892 shows as follows : — Deaths Yearly per 1,000 Age: England France Italy Average 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-4S 45-50 50-55 S5-60 60-65 65-70 General 7-4 7.3 8.9 10.9 12.8 16.6 20.5 29.7 38.0 58.4 12. 1 130 5-4 6.4 6.4 10.2 11.8 20.2 19-5 40.7 67.0 23s 6.3 5-9 6.2 7.8 11.6 14.9 22.2 32. 5 S°-4 11.7 8.9 6.2 7.2 8.4 10.7 13-3 18.5 23.8 37-1 58.6 15.8 The table was compiled from observations by Neison, Bertillon, and Bodio, between 1871 and 1889. Infant Mortality The Statistical Journal of Paris gives a table of infant mortality in 1895, which compares with one for 1876-80 as follows : — Percentage of Infants who Die -under Twelve Months. 1876-80 1896 1876-80 1895 Ireland . 10. Switzerland 18.9 19.0 Sweden . 12.6 10. Roumania . 20.0 Denmark 15-0 14.0 Holland . 21. 1 20.0 Greece . 15-0 Prussia . . 20.5 21.0 G. Britain 14-5 15-0 Wurtemburg 30.2 25.0 France . 16.3 17.0 Austria . . 24.9 25.0 Belgium . 17.4 17.0 Bavaria . . 29.8 27.0 Italy . . 22.3 19.0 Russia . . 31.2 30.0 There is an increase of infant mortality in Great Britain, France, and Prussia, but a decline in most other countries. In Great Britain the death-rate of infants is 50 per cent, higher than in Ireland. Official returns in Prussia, for twelve years ending December 1888, show that infant mortality increases as we descend in the social scale ; thus of 1000 children born in various classes we find : — Class Die First Year Survive Affluent .... Labourers Servants .... Paupers .... 211 251 332 422 789 749 668 578 Drysdale (see page 178) gives the rates in England as no per thousand in the West-End of London, and 380 among the "slum" population. The principal causes of death among infants showed the following averages in England and Wales during ten years to December 31, if Deaths Yearly Ratio Inanition .... 19,490 15.6 Convulsions 18,140 14-5 Bronchitis 16,160 13.0 Diarrhcea . 11,930 9-S Pneumonia 5.95° 4-7 Whooping-cough 5.340 4-3 Suffocation 1,490 1.2 Infanticide 103 0.1 Various . . • 46.417 37-1 Total 125,020 100. As a rule the death-rate of infants under twelve months is eight times as much as that of the general public, in England, viz. : — Deaths Yearly per 1000 Living. All Ages Infants Brighton .... 17 149 Hull . 19 165 London . 20 158 Birmingham 20 176 Bristol . 20 149 Leeds 21 172 Sheffield . 22 177 Liverpool . 24 186 Newcastle 25 174 Manchester 29 191 Average . 22 170 England The following table shows the death-rate for males and females in England and Wales at various ages in 1891-95 as compared with 1881-85. Deaths Yearly per 1000 Living Ages Males Females 1881-85 1891-95 1881-85 1891-95 Under 5 61.3 62.1 51-9 52.0 S-io . S-8 4S 5-7 4-5 10-15 3-2 =•5 3-3 2.7 15-20 4-5 4.0 4-7 4.0 20-25 6.0 5-3 5-9 4.8 25-35 8.2 7.2 7-9 6.7 35-45 12.8 12.2 II.O . 10.3 45-55 19-3 19.8 152 15-3 55-^5 34-2 36.3 28.1 29.8 65-75 68.7 71.9 S9-0 62.8 75-85 145.0 150.0 129.0 136.0 All ages 20.5 19.8 18.3 17.7 As regards infants under 5 years there is not much change. The rates for ages between 5 and 45 show a notable decline, which accounts for the increased death- rates between 55 and 85. A woman's life is much better than a man's at all ages, except from 10 to 15. The death-rate both for males and females in 1891-95 was 3 per cent, less than in 1881-85. Death-rates for age in English cities during 10 years ending December 1890, gave the following averages per 1000 living : — London Liverpool Bristol Age Males Females Males Females Males Females Under 5 . 68.5 59-0 84.3 74-9 .S9.7 48.3 S-15 ■ ■ 4-3 4.2 6.1 5.8 3-9 3-8 15-25 • 4.6 3-9 6.0 5-2 4.8 4-3 25-35 . 8.2 6.5 10.9 5-f 7-7 6.2 35-45 ■ 14.0 10.8 17.9 15-8 12.4 10.3 45-55 • 22.2 16.3 28.5 24.0 19.6 15- 1 55-65 • 391 29.4 50.8 42.5 34-7 26.9 65-75 ■ 1 74-4 60.7 94.3 80.0 72.3 57.6 Birm mgham Leeds Sheffield Under 5 . 68.2 58.7 78.0 65.2 78.6 67.2 S-15 • • 3-7 3-7 5-3 5-S 5-3 5-3 15-25 . 4.2 4.0 5-8 I-'' 5-3 S.I 25-35 • 7-7 7.0 7-7 8.1 8.4 7.7 35-45 ■ 137 11.4 13.2 'o^ 14.7 11.7 45-55 • 21.7 17-4 23-3 18.5 25.0 17.4 55-65 • 40.9 32.0 45-5 37-0 46.8 34-8 65-75 • 81.6 67.2 94.0 77- 94-9 74.1 DEATHS 686 DEATHS The following table for England and, Wales shows death-rate of males according to professi6ns : — Deaths Yearly per 1,000 Living Age 25-45 Age 16-65 1860-71 1880-82 1860-71 1880-82 Clergyman 6.0 4.6 17-3 15-9 Farmer 7-7 6.1 17-3 16. 5 Grocer 9-5 8.0 17.2 19.2 Fisherman "■3 8.3 IS- 8 19.7 Schoolmaster 9.8 6.4 23.6 19.8 Bookseller 10.8 8-5 21.4 20.6 Carpenter 9.4 7.8 21.4 21.7 Watchmaker 10.8 9-3 24.9 22.6 Lawyer . 9-9 7-5 23.0 23.1 Shoemaker 10.4 9-3 22.3 23-4 Slater 10.7 9.0 30.8 24.9 Druggist . 13-9 10.6 23.6 25.2 Tanner . 10.4 8.0 26.6 25-4 Mason ri.4 9-3 27.2 25.6 Blacksmith 10. 1 9-3 239 2S-7 Gasfitter . II. 9.2 27.9 zS-7 Baker 10.7 8.7 26.4 26.1 Chandler . >ii.8 7-7 27.2 26.2 Tailor 12.9 10.7 24.8 26.5 Coal-miner "•3 7.8 30.5 26.5 Deaths Yearly per 1,000 Living Age 25-45 Age 15-65 1860-71 1880-82 1860-71 1880-82 Printer . 13.0 II. I 29.4 26.6 Dyer 11.2 9-S 26.0 27.1 Wool-spinner 9-4 9-7 23-3 27- S Physician . 13-8 11.6 24.6 2S.0 Cooper 11.8 10.6 26.1 28.5 Butcher . 13.2 12.2 28.4 29.1 Cotton-spinner 10.7 10. 27.9 29.4 Stone-cutter 10.9 10. 28.7 31.0 Glass-blower 13.2 II. 2 29-3 31-7 Musician . 18.9 13-8 34-8 32-4 Painter . 12. s ii.i 34-7 32- S Hairdresser IS- 1 13-6 30.1 33-3 Publican , 18.0 18.0 34-1 33-7 Cutler 11.9 11.7 32-7 34-4 Cab-driver iS-9 iS-4 3S-3 36.8 Chimney-sweep 17- S 13-7 42.9 41.S File-maker 16.3 IS- 3 42.3 4S-I Costermonger 20.1 20.3 37-8 4S-3 Potter 12.6 13-7 41.8 51-4 General average II-3 10.2 24.0 25- 3 The tables of mortality of England and Wales for 20 years are summed up as follows :- Average Number of Deaths per Million Deaths Yearly, Deaths Yearly Inhabitants 1891-95 1876-80 1891-95 1876-80 1891-95 Male Female 1S.789 16,765 630 562 11,772 4,993 810 823 32 28 632 191 469 672 19 23 426 246 13.780 17.052 55° 574 7,822 9,230 2,564 2,605 102 88 1.430 1,175 1,620 2,150 65 72 1,910 240 18,414 13.710 736 462 6,664 7,046 4.714 7,656 i88 258 4.134 3,522 59.632 61,645 2,378 2,076 30,508 31,137 12,383 21,194 494 712 7,891 13,303 1,998 2,700 79 90 2,700 24,322 20,475 972 688 11.558 8,917 3.864 2,073 154 70 1,118 955 4.479 4,141 179 139 2,276 1,865 1,016 2,065 40 70 1,164 901 20,890 18,797 832 630 9,866 8,931 3.°49 7,545 122 253 3.644 3,9°i 2.553 220 102 7 86 134 2. 758 7,202 no 241 3.780 3.422 2,876 2,811 "5 95 1,442 1.369 2,022 1.422 81 48 741 681 637 6og 25 20 482 127 1,119 1.295 45 43 626 669 351 313 14 10 164 149 630 335 25 II 182 I S3 208 12,320 8 416 6,102 6,218 1,052 2,018 42 68 1,248 770 1,061 1.444 42 48 782 662 9.977 7,498 398 252 3.942 3.556 9.659 12,117 38s 408 6,232 5.885 8,112 6,738 324 226 3.692 3.046 8,288 7,091 330 237 3,736 3.3SS 1,017 1,907 40 64 1,088 819 26,874 27.636 1,075 926 11.750 15,886 2,017 2,346 80 79 1,092 1,254 51,092 43,520 2,043 1,458 23,538 19,982 1. 254 1,712 5° 57 1,022 690 25,058 37,226 1,002 i.=47 21,520 15.706 3.481 3,544 139 119 1,718 1,826 17,042 S.424 682 182 2,684 2,740 Accidents Aneurism Angina . Apoplexy , Asthma Bladder Brain * , Bright's Bronchitis Cancer * Child-birth . Convulsions . Croup . Dentition Diabetes Diarrhoea Diphtheria . Dropsy * Enteritis * . Epilepsy Erysipelas* . Gout . Hernia . Homicide Hunger* Influenza Intemperance Laryngitis Liver * . Measles Meningitis , M^esenterica , Nephritis Old age Peritonitis . Phthisis Pleurisy Pneumonia . Rheumatism Scarlatina . * Those marked thus have undergone new classification since 1880. DEATHS 687 DEATHS Average Number of Deaths per Million Deaths Yearly, Deaths Yearly Inhabitants 1891-95 1876-80 1891-95 1876-80 1891-95 Male Female Smallpox 1,946 S96 78 20 352 1 244 Spinal * 69s 2,112 28 T<- 1,234 878 Suicide 1,850 2,636 74 88 1,966 670 Syncope 2.032 1,910 81 64 1,002 908 Syphilis 2,120 2,036 84 68 i,io6 930 Thrush 1,201 436 48 15 232 204 Tumour* 310 133 12 4 54 79 Typhoid 6,930 5.164 277 173 2,796 2,368 Typhus* 848 106 34 4 56 50 Whooping-cough 13,220 11,830 528 397 5.278 6,552 Various 121,029 141.303 4,818 4.777 70,894 70,409 Total • 521,112 557.078 20,791 18,738 285,434 271,644 * Those marked thus have undergone new classification since 1880. The following table shows the annual number of cleaths per million inhabitants from various diseases : — 1886-89 1890-92 1893-95 1886-95 Zymotic . Constitutional . Local . Violent . Sundry . 2,492 3.243 9.736 630 2,631 2,677 3.294 10,324 658 2,629 2.748 3.131 9,132 664 2,489 2,625 3,225 9.731 649 2.587 Total 18,732 19.582 18,164 18,817 Accidental Deaths In England and Wales there are 16,800 persons killed by accident yearly, 70 per cent, being males, 30 females. Considering only males between 25 and 65 years of age, we find : — Accidental Deaths of xooo Men who Die Shoemakers • 17 Tailors . . 18 Bakers . 21 Printers . • 24 Gardeners • 24 Potters . ■ 24 Farmers • 30 Cotton-spinrs 30 Blacksmiths . 49 Ploughmen . 33 Costermongers 53 Butchers . . 3S Brewers . . 64 C. travellers . 36 Painters . . 73 Carpenters . 38 Cab-drivers . 84 Publicans . . 41 Fishermen 152 Bricklayers . 45 Miners . . . 190 The general average for all males between 25 and 65 is 67 per thousand, from which it appears that miners, fishermen, and cab-drivers have extra hazardous occupa- tions. Accidental deaths in 1891-95 averaged yearly as follows (England and Wales) :— By Males Females Total Per Million Drowning Fire. . . . Suffocation Vehicles . Mines Sundry . 2,282 1,078 1,160 2,122 1,023 4,107 414 1.324 1.034 312 I 1,908 2,696 2,402 2,194 2,434 1,024 6,015 91 81 74 82 34 202 Total . 11,772 4.993 16,765 564 Accidental deaths in Italy during ten years to end of 1896 averaged 10,140 per annum, or 13 per thousand. As regards Germany and Austria see Insurance, page 755. For other countries see page 180. Ireland and Scotland Some of the causes of death in Ireland during ten years ending 1895, and in Scotland for the year 1893, were : — Per 100,000 Inhabitants Yearly Ireland Scotland Diphtheria 8 24 Influenza .... 25 30 Typhoid .... 17 37 Whooping-cough 27 SO Diarrhcea .... 32 65 Violent .... 40 68 Cancer .... 46 69 Measles .... 19 90 Phthisis .... 213 170 Bronchitis 314 309 Under the last title is also included Pneumonia. Workmen's Dwellings In 1891 was published a table comparing the death- rates of London with those of the Peabody and the Metropolitan Dwellings for Workmen, averaging two years previous, viz. : — Disease Deaths Yearly per 100,000 Persons London j Peabody Metropolitan Scarlatina 23 34 22 Measles . 55 104 59 Whooping-cough . 55 86 48 Diarrhoea 57 56 56 Diphtheria 34 54 37 Typhoid . 14 7 7 Tubercular 254 263 236 Various . 1,304 ' 1,168 1,109 Total . 1,796 1,772 1,574 Infant mortality under twelve months was 153 per 1000 births in London, 136 in Peabody Buildings, and 121 in the Metropolitan Dwellings, during five years to December 1890. France In the years 1890-93 the mortality in France was 40,000 more than in preceding years, apparently due to influenza. The returns were as follows : — Period Deaths Yearly Per 1000 Pop. 1885-89 1890-93 . 835.000 875,000 21.7 22.8 DEATHS 688 DEATHS In 1890 there were recorded 38,000 deaths from influenza. The death-rate of the French army is as follows : — France . Algeria . Per 1000 Men Senegal . . 74 I Tonkin . . 77 Madagascar . 75 | Cayenne . . 237 Bertillon's table of male mortality (1892) is as follows for the city of Paris : — Deaths Yearly for looo Living 20-30 30-10 40-60 50-60 Grocers . 6.6 7.0 8.7 11.4 Druggists 7.8 9.2 II.I 15-7 Schoolmasters 7.0 8-5 5-8 17.0 Dairymen S-7 9-9 H.8 17-4 Physicians 9.9 "•3 9.8 21.9 Lawyers . 9.8 11.6 II.I 22.8 Watchmakers 9-7 14.0 14.9 24.7 Tanners . 9.1 10. s IS- 9 26.4 Butchers . 10.6 14.0 22.2 27 s Waggoners 176 21-5 26.7 30-4 Clergymen S-o 8.2 9.0 30-S Carpenters 10. s 18.8 24-3 30-7 Masons . 9-S 16.0 23-7 31-4 Hairdressers 14.8 14.2 18. 1 33-2 Shoemakers 134 19.2 20.4 35-3 Bakers . 12.4 16.2 24.4 39- Tailors . 9-1 "•3 23-4 39-8 Printers . 17.8 23-7 26.7 40.6 Painters . 14.8 23.0 28.8 42.0 Cab-drivers 16.4 20. s 32.0 58-0 Average . ii.i 14.9 21.2 31-2 The heaviest death-rate falls to cab-drivers, painters, printers, tailors, and bakers, and of these classes only cab-drivers and painters are in the same position in the death-rate of England. Switzerland Tables for four years ending December 1882 show male death-rates thus : — Deaths Yearly per 1,000 Living 20-30 30-40 40-50 60-60 Farmers . S-7 7-9 12. 1 21.7 Clergymen 7.2 8.2 13- 1 23.0 Schoolmasters 6.4 8.7 14.8 24-3 Cotton-spinners 8.0 9-3 13-3 24,9 Printers 10.2 14-3 16.2 27.0 Bakers . 6.8 11.4 IS- 9 28.9 Merchants II.I 14.1 18.7 29.2 Butchers . S-3 17.9 21- S 29.9 Tailors . 10.6 II. 9 17.9 30.0 Shoemakers 7-7 10. 14.2 30.0 Physicians 10.9 12.3 20.7 30-4 Carpenters 6.5 10. 1 16.8 3°-7 Blacksmiths 6.S "•3 16.6 32-5 Innkeepers 7.8 16,9 24.2 32.8 Masons . 9-5 131 18.9 34-9 Cab-drivers 10.8 18.3 26.0 51.0 General average 7-9 10.7 iS-3 26.3 The most unhealthy occupations were cab-drivers, masons, innkeepers, and blacksmiths, and of these only cab-drivers stand in the same position in Bertillon's tables for Paris and in the official death-rates for England and Wales. The foUovring table shows the annual rate of mortality of males from phthisis only, in Switzerland, according to occupation : — Deaths Yeariy per 1,000 Living 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 Farmers . i-S 2.0 2.0 2.4 Physicians 4.8 4-7 S-3 3-2 Clergymen 3-9 .3-7 3-7 3-3 Schoolmasters 3-4 3-8 4-6 3-3 Cotton-spinners 4.0 3-4 2.7 3-9 Innkeepers 4.4 6.9 6.1 4.0 Bakers 2-9 4.1 3-8 4.2 Merchants S-8 6.6 4.8 4-4 Cab-drivers 2.7 4-8 S-8 4-S Carpenters 1-9 3-8 3-4 4.8 Shoemakers 3-0 4-4 3-7 S-o Blacksmiths 2-3 4-1 S-6 S-3 Tailors . 4-9 5-6 S-S S-S Masons . 2.8 3-S 4-1 S-6 Butchers . S-6 6.8 S-9 6-3 Printers . 6.S 7.9 6.6 6.7 General average 3-1 4.0 3-S 3-7 The worst trades are printers, butchers, and masons, whose rates of death from phthisis are double those of farmers, clergymen, and schoolmasters. Italy Public health has improved in the last ten years, as shown by the diminished death-rate, viz. : — Cities All Italy Deaths Yearly per 1,000 Population 1887 1896 28.9 28.1 23-7 24-3 In 1896 the urban death-rate was lower than that of the nation. The causes of death in the kingdom were : — Per 100,000 Inhabitants 1887 1896 Bronchitis Diarrhcea Consumption . Diphtheria Measles . Malaria . Various . 217 316 212 84 81 71 1,829 233 346 192 21 37 4S I.SS6 Total 2,810 2.430 In the northern provinces the death-rate is 30 per cent, less than in the southern, viz. : — 240 252 256 288 Per 10,000 Yearly Venetia . 198 Umbria Piedmont . . 202 Sicily . Tuscany . 229 Romagna Lombardy . - 236 Naples Deaths from malaria and phthisis are as follows : Per 100,000 Inhabitants Mataria Phthisis Romagna . . 66 Lombardy , Sicily . • 99 Tuscany Sardinia • 171 Liguria Basilicata . ■ 199 Romagna . 224 236 267 283 DEATHS 689 DEATHS United States The census of 1890 showed the death-rate of certain cities thus : — Per looc Persons White Coloured New York 28. 5 37-4 Chicago . 21.0 23.3 Philadelphia 22.3 32- 4 St. Louis . 18.2 34-6 Boston 24.6 33-3 Baltimore . 22.6 36.4 San Francisco 23.6 24.1 Cincinnati . 21.9 33.0 New Orleans 25-4 36.6 Washington 19.8 38.2 Average .... 22.8 32-9 The death-rate of the Union being, as Dr. Billings shows, 15.0 per thousand, it appears that the whites in the above 10 cities collectively have a death-rate which is relatively 52 per cent, higher. Moreover, in the same cities the death-rate of coloured persons is 44 per cent, higher than that of whites. The total number of deaths recorded in 1890 was : — No. Ratio Per 100,000 Pop. Consumption Pneumonia . Diarrhcea Diphtheria . Typhoid Cancer . Various 102,199 76,496 74.711 41.677 27,058 20,984 S32.39S II. 6 8.8 8.6 4-7 3-1 2.4 60.8 164 122 '^ 43 33 852 Total • 875,520 100. 1,400 The above would show an annual death-rate of 14 per 1000, but the returns are supposed to be incomplete, and Dr. Billings considers the real death-rate to be 15.1 per thousand. In his report already mentioned (1886) he states the death-rates, urban and rural, from certain dis- eases as follows : — Deaths Yearly No . in per 100,000 Pop. 1000 Deaths Rural Cities Rural Cities Consumption . 163 286 124 138 Nervous affections . 146 257 III 124 Diarrhoea . 114 199 87 97 Pneumonia 123 143 93 69 Heart disease 79 96 60 46 .'Vccidents . 6S 85 5° 41 Diphtheria 75 80 57 39 Apoplexy . 45 51 34 25 Bronchitis 16 56 12 28 Croup 35 41 26 20 Cancer 23 40 17 20 Typhoid . 48 35 36 17 Malarial fever 43 25 32 12 Scarlatina 28 55 21 27 Whooping-cough 22 20 16 10 Measles . 16 IS 12 7 Various diseases 279 576 212 280 Total 1,320 2,060 1,000 1,000 Australia The death-rates of the several colonies have been : — Per 1000 of Population Yearly. 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 1891-96 New South Wales . Victoria . 16.4 16.9 13-0 19.4 15-4 14.7 16.3 16.2 iS-3 IS- 5 12.2 173 15-4 16. 1 IS- 2 14.9 14.7 IS- 3 10.4 17.0 13.6 iS-6 16.6 14.4 12.8 14. 1 10.2 12.5 12.2 13-2 16. 1 12.7 New Zealand . Queensland South Australia Tasmania . . West Australia General . In 1895 the ratio of sexes as to deaths showed as follows : — Deaths Male Deaths -V- Males Females 1000 Female New South Wales . Victoria New Zealand . . . Queensland . . . South Australia . . Tasmania .... West Australia . . . 8,671 8,891 3.966 3.237 2,203 1.047 1,201 6.243 6.758 2,897 1.91S 1,760 764 403 1.383 1.314 1.370 1,690 1,252 1.373 2,980 Total . . 29,216 20,740 1,408 The census of 1891 showed the number of males to 1000 females was 1 150, that is to say, the male surplus was 1 5 per cent. ; as the above table shows the mortality of males to be almost 41 per cent, over that of females, it is evident that the death-rate of males is excessive. If it were in the same ratio as that of females, the deaths of males in 1895 would have reached only 23,850. For Canada see Vital Statistics, page 815. DEATH-DUTIES The total amount of property assessed for death-duties in the United Kingdom has been as follows : — Annual Averages, £ 1883-87 1888-92 1895-97 England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . 150,020,000 18,010,000 12,100,000 178,600,000 19,400,000 11,900,000 184,900,000 21,300,000 11,600,000 United Kingdom 180,130,000 209,900,000 217,800,000 Dividing the above amounts among the number of deaths, it would appear that the average fortune of each in the said periods was as follows : — £ per Decease 1883-87 1888-92 1893-97 England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . United Kingdom 285 240 261 330 255 138 298 340 280 140 310 2 X DEATH-DUTIES 690 DIVORCES The ratios of property assessed to death-dues were as follows : — No. of Estates Value of Estates 1887 1897 1887 1897 Over ;^ioo,ooo . . /io,ooo to /lOO.OOO 2l,ooo to ;^0,000 . Under ;^i, 000. . . 3 256 688 5 59 246 690 221 446 261 72 273 423 227 77 Total . . . 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 The value of estates in 1897 was as follows :- (000 omitted) England Scotland Ireland & U. King. Over ;^ioo,ooo . . /lo.ooo to /ioo,ooo Xi,ooo to ^lO.OOO . Under ;^i, 000. . . 53.C00 78,700 41,800 13,400 S.ioo 8,800 5,600 1,700 2,200 5.200 3,200 1,600 60,300 92,700 50,600 16,700 Total . . . 186,900 21,200 12,200 220,300 The deaths among the wealthy classes in the three kingdoms in 1896-97 were as follows : — Number Amount, £ Average, £ England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . 2,886 348 219 131,800,000 13,900,000 7,400,000 47,700 40,000 33,600 Total . . 3,453 153,100,000 44,400 Those among the middle classes were as follows : — Number Amount, £ Average, £ England . , . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . 10,916 i,SS4 955 41,800,000 5,600,000 3,200,000 3.830 3,600 3,360 Total , . 13,425 50,600,000 3,770 Those among the artisan and tradesmen classes were as follows : — Number Amount, £ Average, £ England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland , . . 11,463 1,530 1,440 8,900,000 1,100,000 900,000 77 72 63 United Kingdom 14,433 10,900,000 75 The rest of the wealth divided among the rest of the deaths of adults shows : — Number Amount, £ Average, £ England . . , Scotland . . . Ireland . . , 270,415 38,928 53,406 4,500,000 610,000 720,000 17 15 14 United Kingdom 362,749 5,830,000 16 The total property which changed owners at death, divided among the number of adults who died in 1896, showed as follows : — Number Amount, £ Average, £ England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . 295,680 42,360 56,020 186,900,000 .21,200,000 12,200,000 633 218 U. Kingdom 394,060 220,300,000 558 The distribution of wealth in the three kingdoms shows the following ratios : — Class Population to Wealth England Scotland Ireland [U. Kingdom No. I ,, 2 ,. 3 ,, 4 Total Pop.=Wth. 1.0 70.5 3-7 22.4 3-9 4-7 91.4 2.4 100. IGO.O Pop.=Wth. 0.8 65.6 3.7 26.4 3-6 5-2 91.9 2.8 loo.o 100. Pop. = Wth. |Pop. = Wth. 0.4 60.S 0.9 69.4 1.7 26.2: 3.4 23.0 2.5 7.4' 3.6 5.0 95.4 5-9; 92.1 2.6 1 lOO.O lOO.OIOO.O lOO.O The first and second classes in the United Kingdom combined form 4J per cent, of the population, and possess 92J per cent, of the wealth ; the third and fourth classes combined represent gsJ per cent, of population and 7J per cent, of wealth. The distribution of wealth is much more uneven in Ireland than in Great Britain ; the second and third classes combined compare as follows : — Percentage England Scotland Ireland In population In wealth 7.6 27.1 7-3 316 4.2 33-6 At the same time the percentage of people of the poorest class is much greater in Ireland than in the sister kingdoms. DIEl See pages 190-192. DISEASES See pages 193-216. DIVORCES The average of divorces to 10,000 marriages shows increasing ratios, viz. : — England France . Germany Austria Italy . Belgium Holland Sweden Switzerland Roumania Per 10,000 Marriages 1877-86 1890-95 Increase 19 IZI 152 10 24 69 91 73 468 106 16 229 170 48 28 no 120 106 400 200 108 18 38 4 41 29 33 94 In Germany the ratio is by no means even : it is 100 in Wurtemberg, 140 in Bavaria, and 180 in Prussia to DOCKS AND HARBOURS 691 DRUNKENNESS Io,030 marriages. In Russia the rates are : among Roman Catholics 2, Greeks 17, Protestants 67, to 10,000 marriages. In Switzerland, 7 among Catholic, 27 among Protestant, and 40 among mixed marriages, per 10,000. The following table shows the number of divorced persons in various countries, and their ratio to adult population : — Men Women Total Per 100,000 France 16,680 19,920 36,600 isi Germany . 25,270 49,600 74.870 234 Austria . 7.59° 9.730 17,320 no Hungary . 4,870 7,620 12,490 "3 Switzerland 4,010 7,600 11,610 586 Sweden . 1,300 2.S90 3.890 122 Norway . 310 440 7SO 57 Denmark . 2,380 3.500 5,880 412 Holland . 2,130 3.400 S.S30 188 Belgium . I.S50 2,140 90 Bulgaria . i,igo 1,320 2,510 130 II countries , 67,280 107,860 17s. 140 ... France The number of divorces since 1887 compares with marriages thus : — Period Annual Divorces Average Marriages Divorces in 10,000 Marriages 1887-90 1891-93 1894-96 4.647 S.903 6,740 274,000 287,000 286,500 170 205 23s The ratio of divorces has increased 40 per cent, in ten years. See Divorce, pages 217-225. DOCKS AND HARBOUES See page 226. DOGS The number of dog-licences issued in 1897 was: — England Scotland 1,270,000 110,000 Sheep-dogs go free of tax, as also those belonging to blind persons. The number of dogs which paid tax in France in 1895 -was 3,005,000. For dogs in other countries see Animals, page 61, also page 35. DRAINAGE The length of sewers in the principal cities is : — jj j5 a „ St* A in S « 1r M.2 Sja J "k ►J "London . . 1,420 20 Buda-Pesth . 140 16 Paris . . . 570 16 Brussels . . 78 10 Vienna . . 490 24 Bordeaux . 46 II Berlin . . . 395 IS Leipzig . , 60 10 Hamburg 190 20 Rome . . . .SI 7 Sreslau . , i.;6 26 Genoa . . 51 15 Dresden . . 100 19 Palermo . . 53 12 The above fourteen cities have an average of 16 inches oi sewers per inhabitant Rome, Brussels, and Leipzig ^ave the lowest ratios. DRUGS The following table shows the weight and value of all drugs, chemicals, and spices imported into the United Kingdom at certain dates : — Tons Weight Value £ (000 omitted) 1876 1883 1896 1876 1886 1896 Bones . . . 96,000 67,000 74,000 620' 370 280 Caoutchouc . 7,900 9,700 21,600 1,540 2,220 4,990 Chinchona . 1,300 7,300 1,800 270 800 60 Cochineal . 1,500 700 300 340; 100 40 Cutch . . . 26,000 28,000 27,000 610' 650 550 Dye-woods . 89,000 78,000 91,000 590 420 590 Esparto . . 148,000 ig=;,ooo 187,000 1,210 1,000 Guano . . 199,000 69,000 20,000 2,300' 540 100 Gum . . . 13,000 16,000 24,000 1,030 1,050 1,590 Guttapercha . 1,100 2,000 2,200 160 270 400 Indigo . . 4,400 4,300 4,5°o 2,130 1,910 1,530 Nitre . . . 165,000 75,000 106,000 1,890 750 840 Opium . . 180 230 220 390, 310 250 Paints . . 730; 780 990 Pepper . . 12,000 12,000 12,000 460, 870 300 Rosin . . . 49,000 58,000 83,000 310 290 420 Saltpetre . . 13,000 14,000 17,000 24O; 240 280 Sumach , . 13,000 13,000 15,000 220 180 150 Sulphur . . 44,000 32,000 23,000 280 160 90 Turpentine . 12,000 15,000 25,000 270 390 490 Valonia . . 3S,ooo 34,000 33,000 630 480 330 Wood-pulp . 80,000 330,000 Sio 1,680 Yeast . . . 8,000 15,000 9,000 410 820 430 Sundries . . 65,000 127,000 74,000 1,690 1,780 1,570 Total . . 1,003,380 952,230 1,180,620 18,320 16,890 18,750 The average value of imported drugs and chemicals was ;^l8.3 per ton in 1876, and ;^I5.8 in 1896. Exports of drugs and chemicals were as follow : — Tons Weight Value £ (000 omitted) 1876 1886 1896 1876 1886 1896 Alkali . . . 270,000'3IO,000 240,000 2,220 1,790 1,240 Bleaching 47,000 78,000 59,000 330; 500 410 Caoutchouc 3,500 5,500 12,000 640 1,300 2,640 Chinchona 1,700 5,900 1,300 390 550 30 Cochineal 850 550 200 190 80 20 Cutch . 6,700 10.200 6,500 160 260 160 Guano . 53.000 7,400 1,700 650 so 10 Gum . . 6,300 9,600 10,700 480 630 750 Gunpowder 6,500 5,000 3,600 360 290 190 Indigo . 2,900 2,700 2,500 1,490 1,170 910 Manure . I CO, 000 300,000 350,000 890 1,610 1,810 Medicine 640 810 1,120 Opium . 100 160 no 220 220 120 Paints . 1,070 1,270 1,660 Pepper . 7,700 9,000 5,200 320 640 140 Sundries . 2,330 2,490 3,670 Total . . 556,250 744,610 692,810 13,030 13,710 14,880 DRUNKENNESS The number of persons tried for drunkenness in Eng- land from 1874 to 1894 was as follows : — Period No. Yearly Per 100,000 Inhabitants 1874-78 .... 1879-83 .... 1884 88 ... . 1889-04 .... 21 years .... 196,500 181,800 174,900 176,400 182,100 812 698 636 604 683 DUELS 692 EARTHQUAKES In Scotland the Royal Commission of 1896 found that 72 per cent, of crime proceeded from drink. Deaths from alcoholism of men between 25 and 65 years average 10 per thousand, or I per cent, of the total, in England and Wales, but vary exceedingly according to profession, viz. : — Deaths from Drink of 1000 Men who Die Ploughman . I Miner ... 4 Baker . . ii^ Gardener 2 Stonecutter . s Costermonger . iq Printer . . 3 Farmer . . 6 Butcher . . . 23 Cotton-spinner 3 Blacksmith . 8 Com. traveller 23 Cutler . . ,-1 Draper . . 8 Brewer . . . SS Carpenter . 4 Grocer. . 10 Cab-driver . . 33 Shoemaker . 4 Tailor . . . u Publican . . SS Fisherman . 4 Painter . . 12 Australia Average . . . 10 The following table shows the arrests for drunkenrress and the average consumption of alcohol in the several colonies : — ^ Arrests for Drunkenness Per 10,000 Pop. Alcohol, Galls, per Head New South Wales . Victoria . New Zealand . Queensland South Australia Tasmania . 20,670 15.893 5.350 4,915 2,715 920 170 140 80 120 75 60 125 2.7 3-2 1.8 2.5 2.5 2.0 Total . 50,460 2.6 Canada Convictions for drunkenness in ten years ending 1894 averaged 12,026 yearly. In 1895 they were 11,558, that is 468 below the average, viz. : — Convictions Per 10,000 Pop. Quebec Ontario Acadia North-West 4,307 3.132 2,934 1,185 28 14 33 34 Total . ",558 24 From 1884 to 1890 the convictions for drunkenness rose 40 per cent, by a steady increase, but since 1890 there has been a continuous fall, and 189S shows 17 per cent, less than 1890. DUELS A return of Italiari^uels for ten years down to 1890 shows^that there were 2760, which resulted in 50 men killed, 1066 wounded, and 1644 unhurt. The percentage of combatants showed 30 military, 29 editors, 12 lawyers^ and 29 per cent, various. The duels were influenced by the seasons in the following ratio :— Par being 230 Warm Months Cold Months May . June , . • July . . . August September October Total . • 273 ■ 319 • 330 . 326 . 271 121 . 1,640 November . December . .fanuary . ^i^ebruary . , March April . Total . 92 . 67 220 . 263 291 . 187 . 1,12a E EARTH Ravenstein estimates the fertile and the unproductive areas as follows : — Square Miles Fertile Unpro- ductive Total Europe . . . Asia .... Africa .... Australia . . . North America . South America . 2,888,000 9,280,000 5,760,000 1,167,000 4,946,000 4,228,000 667,000 5,430 000 5,754,000 2,121,000 1,500,000 2,609,000 3,555,000 14,710,000 11,514,000 3,288,000 6,446,000 6,837,000 Total . . 28,269,000 18,081,000 46,350,000 The actual population is 1420 millions, equal to 50 persons per square mile of fertile area, or one-fourth of the number that can conveniently be supported, allowing 15 acres to each family. EARTHQUAKES Careful records are kept at Tokio, Japan, of the occurrence of earthquakes. In eleven years ending December 1886 there were 658, and the ratios, accord- ing to months, to barometer and thermometer showed thus : — Months Barometer Fahrenheit January . , 96 29.9 13 0-32 88 February . . 94 30.0 21 32-37 129 March . . 128 30.1 23 37-42 124 April . . . 75 30.2 91 42-47 112 May . . , 94 30.3 144 47-52 8S June . . . 76 30.4 146 52-57 78 July . . . 53 30.5 155 57-62 114 August . . 5« 30.6 i8r 62-67 53 September . 42 30.7 91 67-72 82 October . . 84 30.8 85 72-77 63 November . 79 30.9 40 77-82 42 December . 121 31.0 Total . 10 Over 82 Total . 30 Total . 1,000 1,000 1,000 The above shows that in Japan earthquakes are most frequent from December to March inclusive, that they occur mostly when the barometer stands between 30.2 and 30.7, and the thermometer between 32 and 47 Fahrenheit, the ordinary temperature at Toiao (Jeddo). being 58. EDUCATION 693 EDUCATION EDUCATION The educational condition of nations in 1896 was approximately as follows : Percentage Pence per Inhab. Percentage Schools, No. Pupils, No. of Pop. Expenditure, £ Adults can Write England 19.850 4,420,000 14.4 10,500,000 82 96 Scotland . 3,080 590,000 14.1 2,400,000 134 97 Ireland . 8,610 540,000 11.7 14.0 1,300,000 70 86 85 United Kingdom . 31. 54° 5,550,000 14,200,000 94 France . 89,110 6,250,000 16.0 8,000,000 50 95 Germany 56,560 7,930,000 15-5 12,100,000 54 99 Russia . 66,040 3,130,000 3-0 5,000,000 11 22 Austria . 37,510 5,910,000 14-5 3,000,000 17 69 Italy 64,200 2,720,000 8.8 4,900,000 36 56 Spain 30,100 1,840,000 10. 5 1,200,000. 16 42 Portugal . 5.340 240,000 5-0 400,000 20 30 Holland . 4,220 650,000 13.6 1,600,000 80 90 Scandinavia . 22,060 1,270,000 14.0 1,600,000 42 99 Belgium . 5,670 620,000 10.0 1,100,000 42 83 Switzerland 9,620 530,000 17-5 1,500,000 120 99 Danubian States 7,620 660,000 6.0 1,600,000 34 24 ■Greece . 3.040 140,000 6.5 9-S 200,000 22 34 30 Europe . 432.630 37,440,000 56,400,000 60 "United States . 252,000 9,750,000 13-7 38,500,000 130 83 Canada . 17,270 630,000 12.5 2,100,000 98 90 Australia . 8,040 540,000 13.0 2,300,000 132 90 India 152,600 4,300,000 1-5 2,200,000 2 6 South Africa . 2,810 100,000 4-5 300,000 33 ..> Ceylon . 3,870 180,000 5-5 100,000 13 ... Algeria . 1,220 120,000 2.7 200,000 11 .*• Argentina 3.750 260,000 6.5 700,000 42 ... ■Chile 1.660 100,000 3-6 400,000 35 ... Venezuela 1,570 100,000 4-4 100,000 11 Brazil 7,500 300,000 2.2 200,000 4 24 Egypt . . 9,000 190,000 2.0 100,000 2 7 Japan 28, 170 3,770,000 9.0 7-5 300,000 2 30 ... Total 922,090 57,780,000 103,900,000 ... United Kingdom The progress of instruction in the three kingdoms is very satisfactory : — Schools Pupils 1888 1897 1888 1897 England . Scotland . Ireland . . 19,221 3,105 8,196 19.958 3.086 8,631 3,615,000 496,000 494,000 4,489,000 605,000 521,000 Total . 30,522 31.67s 4,605,000 5,615,000 The number of school-children on the registers is much :greater than what is shown above, namely the average attendance, which is 82 per cent, of enrolled pupils in England, 84 per cent, in Scotland, and 66 per cent, in Ireland. The following table shows the percentage of :School-children to population, and the percentage of adults who can write : — England . , Scotland . . Ireland . . U. Kingdom Pupils per 100 Pop. 1888 12.7 12.3 10.4 12.3 1896 14.4 14.1 11.7 14.0 Adults can Write 1888 1896 91 94 77 90 96 97 85 94 In England and Scotland the proportion of male adults •who can write, as shown by signatures to the marriage register, is greater than that of females : in Ireland the reverse takes place, women being 2 per cent, better instructed than men. School expenditure compared with population in the above years shows as follows : — £ Sterling Pence per Inhab. 1888 1896 1888 1896 England . Scotland . Ireland . . 7,440,000 1,160,000 1,090,000 10,450,000 2,350,000 1,330,000 64 70 54 63 82 134 70 Total . 9,690,000 14,130,000 86 In Great Britain, without Ireland, the schools can accommodate 6,900,00x3 pupils, or 38 per cent, more than the average attendance. Statistics for England and Wales in 1896 and 1890 compare thus : — Average Attendance 1890 1896 Increase Board schools . , Anglican .... Roman Catholic . Wesleyan . . . Various . , . . 1,457,000 1,681,000 193,000 132,000 255,000 1,957,000 1,872,000 236,000 126,000 233,000 500,000 191,000 43.000 Total . . 3,718,000 4,424,000 706,000 EDUCATION 694 ELECTIONS United States The returns for 1896 as regards average attendance at the schools compare with 1885 thus : — School-children Per 100 Pop. 188S 1896 1885 1896 New England . Middle States . Southern , , Western ,, 564,000 1,505,000 1,852,000 3,099,000 645,000 1,930,000 2,865,000 4,310,000 131 11.7 II.O 139 12-5 12.4 12.3 14.0 14- S The Union . , 7,020,000 9,750,000 137 The number of children on the rolls in the above years was as follows : — On Rolls 1 Per 100 Pop. 1885 189S 1886 1896 New England . Middle States . Southern , , Western ,, 800,000 2,460,000 2,980,000 4,930,000 890,000 2,860,000 4,390,000 6,240,000 18.6 19. 1 17.7 22.1 19.8 17. 1 18.2 21.4 21.0 The Union . . 11,170,000 14,380,000 20.2 Of the numbers on the rolls in 1896 the average atten- dance was 73 per cent, in New England, 68 in the Middle States, 65 in the Southern, and 69 per cent, in the Western States. The average for the whole Union was 68 per cent., against 63 in 1885. The expenditure, com- pared with population and the number of children on the rolls, was : — £ Sterling Shillings per Inhabitant Shillings per Child New England . Middle States . Southern , , Western ,, 4,100,000 10,700,000 4,300,000 19,300,000 16 14 4 13 II 91 75 20 62 The Union . . 38,400,000 S3 The United States spend the same amount yearly on education as all the nations of the European Continent collectively. The contribution for schools is equal to II shillings per inhabitant, against 7 shillings in the United Kingdom and a little over 2 shillings on the European Continent in the aggregate. France The expenditure on public schools is shown thus : — state, £ Local, £ Total, £ Pence per Inhab. IS60 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1892 . . . 200,000 440,000 800,000 5,000,000 1,200,000 2,060,000 2,500,000 2,400,000 1,400,000 2,500,000 3,300,000 7,400,000 9 16 21 46 Italy The ratio of persons able to sign the marriage register in Italy in 1891 was as follows per 100 : — Rome . . . 81.8 Turin . . ■ 94-4 Bologna . • 82.3 Naples . • 63.9 Genoa • 89.5 Venice . 70.8 Milan . . • 93-6 Florence . . 88.1 Palermo . • 63-4 The amount spent yearly on schools is ;^4,900,ooo, of which ;^i,7oo,ooo is expended by the State, and ;^3,20o,ooo by local authorities. India In 1893 the sum expended for education was as follows : — Amount, £ Grants Fees, &o. Total University . . High Schools . Primary .. . . Staff, &c. . . . 100,000 280,000 360,000 320,000 100,000 520,000 340,000 100,000 200,000 800,000 700,000 420,000 Total . . 1,060,000 1,060,000 2,120,000 See Education, in Part I., pages 231-243. EGGS Production and consumption yearly in some countries are approximately as follows : — Millions Consump- Production Consumption Inhab. United Kingdom . France . Germany United States Z,I20 3.500 3,000 9,810 3,810 3,220 4,400 9,820 95 84 84 140 Importing and exporting countries show approximately a.s follows : — Importers Millions Exporters Millions Great Britain . . Germany. . . . Switzerland . . . United States . . Other countries . 1,690 1,400 120 10 450 Russia .... Austria .... Italy France .... Denmark . , . Canada .... Total . . 1,480 1. 150 520 280 160 80 Total . . 3.670 3.670 The value of eggs exported in the above table is about 7 millions sterling, say 10 million eggs daily, worth ;£'20,000. ELECTIONS There have been sixteen in the United Kingdom since the Reform Law of 1832, which resulted as follows (Home-Rulers being counted as Liberals since 1886) :— Year Won by Maj. Year Won by Maj. 1832 Liberals 370 1865 Liberals 78 i«35 ,,■ 112 1868 ,, 116 1837 ,, i8 1874 Conservatives 98 1841 Conservatives 76 1880 Liberals "5 86' 1847 Liberals 18 1885 1852 Conservatives 20 1886 Conservatives 114 1857 Liberals 80 1892 Liberals 40 1859 ,, 50 189s Conservatives 152 ELECTIONS 695 EMIGRATION The election of 1895 resulted as follovifs ; — Conserva- tives Liberals Total England Wales .... Scotland Ire'.and. 349 8 33 21 116 22 39 82 46s 30 72 103 Total 411 259 670 Boroughs . Counties Universities . 200 202 9 84 175 284 377 9 Total . 411 259 670 The number of electors and that of voters, and the ratios to population at the election of iSgS, were as follows (England including also Wales) : — , Electors, Number Voters, Number Per 100 Inhab. Electors Voters England . Scotland . Ireland 4,956,000 638,000 737,000 3,726,000 466,000 395,000 16 16 16 16 12 II 9 United Kingdom 6,331,000 4,587,000 II Of the total number of electors on the roll only 72 per cent, voted. The franchise in 1895 was held as follows : — Counties Boroughs Total England Scotland Ireland .... 2,820,000 352,000 623,000 2,136,000 286,000 114,000 4,956,000 638,000 737,000 United Kingdom . 3,795,000 2,534,000 6,331,000 Of 1000 voters, in Scotland 9 were unable to write their names, in England 12, in Ireland 214, the ratio for the whole United Kingdom being 29 per 1000. France The number of names on the lists of franchise, and that of persons who voted at five general elections, were : — Date On Lists Voted Ratio 1877 .... 1881 .... 1885 . . . . 1889 .... 1893 . 9,948,000 10,125,000 io,i8t,ooo 10,387,000 10,446,000 8,013,000 6,945,000 7,896,000 7.9S3.000 7,427,000 80.S 68.8 77.4 76-5 71.0 Germany The growth of the Socialist party is shown by the number of votes it polled, viz. : — 1881 55°.oo° 1891 1,342.000 1893 1,734.000 Thus in twelve years this party trebled its strength. United States The election of 1896 resulted thus : — States Voters Electors M'Kinley Bryan M'Kinley Bryan New England Middle . . . South . . . West . . . 613,000 1,901,000 1,127,000 3,482,000 235,000 1,233,000 1,740,000 3,291,000 39 89 18 126 "3 62 Union . . . 7,123,000 6,499,000 272 175 See Electors, page 243. EMIGRATION The following table shows the emigration that ha.' taken place from 1890 to the end of 1896 : * — Destination From U. States S. America Various Total U. Kingdom 938,000 1,082,000 2,020,000 France . . 12,000 25,000 166,000 203,000 Germany . 491,000 35.000 7,000 . S33.000 Austria . . 409,000 16,000 31,000 .456,000 Russia . . 407,000 407,000 Italy . . . 308,000 737.000 762,000 1,807,000 Portugal . 10,000 163,000 14,000 187,000 Holland. . 17,000 ... 17,000 Denmark . 46,000 ... 5,000 51,000 Sweden . . 169,000 ... 26,000 195,000 Norway . . 78,000 78,000 Switzerland 39,000 2,000 41,000 Total . 2,924,000 978,000 2,093,000 5,995,000 There were also about 60,000 yearly from Spain (mostly to South America), that is 420,000 in the above period, which would bring up the total to 6,400,000, that is, an average of 910,000 yearly. Italian emigra- tion to South America appears in the above table to have averaged 105,000 yearly, but in reality it reached double the figure given above, as the majority of those marked "various" proceeded to French or other ports to embark for Brazil, &c. In the above 7 years South America absorbed about 1,400,000 Italians, 400,000 Spaniards, and 350,000 Portuguese, Germans, &c. Emigrants, as a rule, are of the age when their labour is likely to be most productive. Thus the returns of United States records during 31 years show that 53 per cent, of those who arrived were between 20 arid 40, whereas the proportions of persons of that age in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Austria, averaged only 29i per cent. Emigration, in a word, drew nearly double its proportion of persons in the prime of life. Comparing the foreign element in each country with the whole population, we find the ratio stands thus :— England Scotland Ireland . France . Foreigne . . 8 . . 4 . . 3 . • 30 rs per TJujusand In) Germany . . 9 Austria . . 5 Switzerland . 77 Holland . . 10 alUants Belgium . . 24 Italy .... 2 Russia ... I Scandinavia . 3 * At pages 245-254 there are tables of European emi- gration during 70 years. EMIGRATION 696 EMIGRATION The following table shows the numbers of foreign settlers in various countries of Europe (Irish being included with British) :— U. King- dom British . . , French . . Germans . . Russians . . Austrians . . Italians . . . Swiss. . . . Spaniards . . Scandinavians . Belgians , . Greeks . , , Various . . , Total 23,000 54,000 48,000 6,000 19,000 7,000 17,000 4,000 97,000 275,000 France 40,000 114,000 14,000 12,000 296,000 83,000 78,000 466,000 Ger- many 16,000 32,000 53,000 206,000 15,000 41,000 38,000 37,000 123,000 1,140,000 ] 524,000 201,000 Austria 2,000 3,000 103,000 18,000 S3.000 7,000 15,000 Italy 7,000 11,000 5,000 1,000 16,000 12,000 1,000 1,000 6,000 60,000 Switzer- land 3,000 54,000 112,000 1,000 14,000 42,000 4,000 230,000 Holland 1,000 1,000 29,000 14,000 3,000 48,000 Belgium 4,000 51,000 34,000 54,000 Various 13,000 8,000 97,000 5,000 47,000 46,000 4,000 2,000 7,000 105,000 135,000 Total 86,000 183,000 548,000 14O3O00 301,000 471,000 154,000 81,000 62,000 484,000 106,000 474,000 143,000 469,000 I 3,090,000 The following table shows approximately the number of persons living abroad in 1897 : — From United Kingdom France .... Germany . . . Russia .... Au-tria .... Italy .... Spain .... Portugal . . . Scandinavia . . Holland . . . Belgium . . . Switzerland . . Greece .... Various . . , Europe .... United States . Canada. . . . Total Resident in Europe 86,000 183,000 548,000 140,000 301,000 471,000 81,000 10,000 62,000 73,000 484,000 154,000 106,000 181,000 2,880,000 72,000 2,000 2,954,000 United States 3.530.000 140,000 3,110,000 640,000 560,000 460,000 10,000 20,000 1,130,000 90,000 30,000 110,000 10,000 50,000 9,890,000 980,000 10,870,000 S. America Brit. Possess. 45,000 220,000 35,000 32,000 81,000 1,770,000 730,000 240,000 17,000 3,000 7,000 53.000 12,000 95,000 3,340,000 12,000 1,000 3- 353. 000 1,750,000 26,000 87,000 16,000 7,000 31,000 2,000 32,000 38,000 111,000 2,100,000 115,000 5.000 2,220,000 Various 39,000 341,000 10,000 12,000 6,000 18,000 57,000 20,000 4,000 14,000 4,000 13,000 44,000 28,000 610,000 11,000 2,000 623,000 Total 5,450,000 910,000 3,790,000 840,000 955.000 2,750,000 880,000 290,000 1,245,000 180,000 525,000 330,000 210,000 465,000 18,820,000 210,000 990,000 20,020,000 The total number of foreign settlers in the various countries of Europe, as shown in the first table, is 3,090,000, of whom 2,880,000 are Europeans ; the rest are Americans, Asiatics, &c. It appears from the above table that there are (exclusive of Asiatics) no fewer than 20 million persons living out of their native country, made up thus : — From Number Ratio United Kingdom . 5,450,000 27.2 Germany 3,790,000 19.0 Italy . 2,750,000 13-7 Scandinavia . 1,245,000 6.2 France . 910,000 4-S Spain . 880,000 4,4 Various countries . 4,995,000 25.0 Total 20,020,000 100. The foreign-born (including British) in the British possessions are : — Born in Canada Australia Egypt India, &c. Total U. Kingdom 480,000 1,040,000 20,000 210,000 1,750,000 France . . S.ooo S.ooo 14,000 2,000 26,000 Germany , 28,000 50,000 1,000 8,000 87,000 Russia . . 10,000 3,000 3,000 16,000 Austria . . 7,000 7,000 Italy . . . 1,000 4,000 25,000 1,000 31,000 Scandinavia 8,000 21,000 3,000 32,000 Greece . . 38,000 38,000 U. States . 81,000 10,000 24,000 115,000 Canada . . 4,000 1,000 5,000 Various . . 27,000 73,000 1 s,ooo 8,000 113,000 Total . . 640,000 r,2io,ooo 113,000 257,000 2,220,000 The purport of the foregoing tables may be summed up by saying that there are at present i6 million European settlers living beyond the seas, of whom the United States possess lo millions, due in great measure to liberal land laws, especially the Homestead Law of 1862 (see page 347). On the other hand, the total number of emigrants from the European Continent now resident in British Colonies is barely 160,000, or if we include Egypt, 250,000. The failure of our colonies to attract European settlers is chiefly the result of Crown lands having been leased for long terms of years at nominal rents (one penny per acre) to squatters and other men of large fortunes. In Australia 2 per cent, of the population is made up of Germans and Scandinavians. In Canada only 1 per cent, of the inhabitants are natives of Continental Europe. EMIGRATION 697 EMIGRATION If we take each nationality, adding together those at home and abroad, we shall find the proportion that live abroad as in the following table : — At Home Abroad Total Ratio Abroad British . . 35,050,000 2,890,000 37,940,000 7-S Irish . . . 4,540,000 2,560,000 7,100,000 36.0 Brit. Islands 39,590,000 5,450,000 45,040,000 12.0 French . . 37,400,000 910,000 38,310,000 2.4 Germans . . 51,970,000 3,790,000 55,760,000 6.8 Russians . . 106,000,000 810,000 106,810,000 0.8 Austrians 41,400,000 9SS.0OO 42,355,000 2-3 Italians . . 31,200,000 2,750,000 33,950,000 8.0 Spaniards , 17,900,000 880,000 18,780,000 4.6 Portuguese . 5,000,000 290,000 5,290,000 S-S Scandinavians 9,300,000 1,245,000 10,545,000 11.8 Hollanders . 4,880,000 180,000 5,060,000 3-6 Belgians . . 6,300,000 525,000 6,825,000 7.8 Swiss . . . 2,800,000 330,000 3,130,000 10.5 Various . . 13,460,000 705,000 14,165,000 5-0 Europe . . 367,200,000 18,820,000 386,020,000 4-7 United States 61,000,000 210,000 61,210,000 0-3 Canadians . 3,600,000 990,000 4,590,000 21-5 Total . . 431,800,000 20,020,000 451,820,000 4-3 The Canadians can hardly be considered living out of their own country, as they are mostly in the New England States, just over the border. The nations which have the largest proportion of their people abroad are the Irish, Scandinavians, and Swiss. The returns for 1897 of emigrants sailing from the United Kingdom were : — To British Irish Foreign Total United States . Canada . Cape Colony . Australia . Other parts 52,000 15,000 20,000 11,000 13,000 33,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 47,000 7,000 8,000 5,000 132,000 23,000 29,000 12,000 18,000 Total . 111,000 36,000 67,000 214,000 The aggregate returns for ten years (1888-97) show as follows : — Total Emi- gration British and Irish English . . , Scotch . . . Irish .... Foreign . . . 1,290,000 216,000 S34.000 937,000 To United States „ Canada . . ., Australia. . „ Cape, &c. . Total . . 1,388,000 321,000 172,000 259,000 Total . . 2,977,000 2,040,000 For emigration from 1815-88 see page 248. South America The Argentine Republic shows as follows : — Immigrants Per Annum 1873-82 1883-92 1893-97 493,000 1,116,000 343.000 49.300 111,600 68,600 25 years . . 1,952,000 - 78,000 About one-third of the above returned to Europe. The last five years showed : immigrants, 343,000 ; returned to Europe, 117,000 ; net immigration, 226,000 — say 4S,ooo per annum. United States In the last seven years the arrivals of immigrants Number Annual Average Ratio British .... 344,000 49,100 11.8 Irish .... 270,000 38,600 9.4 Germans 491,000 70,100 17.4 Russians 407,000 58,200 14-3 Italians 419,000 59,800 14-7 Austrians 382,000 54,600 13-4 Scandinavians 305,000 43,600 10.7 Various 237,000 33,800 8.3 . Total 2,855,000 407,800 100. The increase of foreign population during the decade ending 1890 was equal to 60 per cent, of the number of immigrants ; as the current decade promises 4,000,000 immigrants, we may expect an increase of 2,400,000 in the number of foreign residents over last census, where- fore that of 1900 ought to show 11,650,000 foreigners in a population of 77,000,000 souls. This would give a ratio of 15 per cent, for the foreign population, the same as it was in 1890. Italy An unofficial statement (1898) gives the number of Italian emigrants in 22 years, from 1875, as 625,000 to North America, and 1,350,000 to South America. The Jornal do Commercio of Rio Janeiro estimates the number of Italian settlers in Brazil at 1,374,000. The Argentine census of 1895 shows 610,000 Italians in Argentina; there are also 70,000 in Uruguay, and 20,000 in Paraguay. Algeria The European population (including children bom in the colony) has increased 80 per cent, in 10 years, viz. : — 1886 1896 Increase French .... Spaniards, &c. 220,000 206,000 318,000 446,000 98,000 240,000 Total 426,000 764,000 338,000 Canada. The census of 1891 compares the number of foreign settlers with the same in 1881 thus : — Number Ratio 1881 1891 1881 1891 English . . Scotch . . Irish . . . Germans . Russians . Scands . . Various . . 170,000 115,000 186,000 25,000 6,000 8,000 99,000 220,000 108,000 149,000 28,000 10,000 8,000 124,000 3.9 2.7 4.3 0.6 O.I 0.2 2.3 4.6 2.2 3-1 0.6 0.2 0.2 2-5 Foreigners . Natives . . 609,000 3,716,000 647,000 4,186,000 14. 1 85.9 13-4 86.6 Total pop. 4,325,000 4,833,000 100.0 lOO.O Except English, all foreign-bom settlers have relatively lost ground : the foreign population is only 13^ per cent. ENERGY 698 ENERGY of the total, whereas it is 15 per cent, in the United States, and 29 per cent, in Australia. The foreign settlers in the several provinces showed as follows : — 1881 1891 Increase Quebec . Ontario Acadia . . North-West Total . 77,000 82.000 1.30,000 406,000 69,000 SS.ooo 33.0SO 104,000 5,000 7r,ooo 609,000 j 647,000 j 38,000 Taking the old provinces collectively, the foreign popu- lation has diminished by 33,000, but the new North-West, including Manitoba, British Columbia, &c., shows an in- crease of 71,000, so that, on the whole, the decade shows a gain of 38,000, or 6 per cent, on the foreign population of 1881. Australia. In 25 years, ending December 1895, the net immigra- tion into the colonies was as follows : — Number Per Annum Ratio New S. Wales . . Victoria .... New Zealand . . Queensland . . . South Australia West Australia . . Tasmania . . . 309,000 49,000 157,000 197,000 23,000 60,000 S.ooo 12,300 2,000 6,300 7,900 900 2,400 200 38.4 6.2 19.8 24.7 2.8 7-S 0.6 Total . . . 800,000 32,000 100.0 _ The following table shows the number of foreign settlers (including British) according to census returns for i88i and 189 1, and an estimate of the existing number in 1896:— 1881 1891 1896 New S. Wales . Victoria . . . New Zealand Queensland . . S. Australia . . Tasmania . . . W. Australia. . 240,000 323,000 311,000 133,000 83,000 32,000 6,000 315,000 350,000 244,000 189,000 92,000 32,000 19,000 325,000 275,000 240,000 196,000 90,000 31,000 68,000 Total . . . 1,128,000 1,241,000 1,225,000 Between 1891 and 1896 there was a net immigration of 77,000 persons, but a mean death-rate of 15 per 1000 in the same period would amount to 93,000, so that the foreign population in 1896 would not exceed 1,225,000. Comparing native and foreign born we find as follows : — Number Ratio 1881 1896 1881 1896 Australian . Foreign . . 1,688,000 1,128,000 3,015,000 1,225,000 60.0 40.0 71.0 29.0 Total pop. 2,816,000 4,240,000 100.0 100. The foreign element is diminishing rapidly, whereas in most new countries it is on the increase. The colony of Victoria lost 50,000 by emigration between 1891 and 1896. ENERGY The energy or working-power of a nation consists of: (l) human, which is computed at 300 foot-tons daily for a man between 15 and 60 years of age, 200 foot-tons for a woman, and 100 foot-tons for a child of 10 to 15 years ; (2) the force of animals, that of a full-grown horse being 5000 foot-tons daily ; (3) steam-power of three kinds, Rxed, railway, and steamboats ; (4) water-power ; (5) the force represented by wind-mills ; (6) the amount of power now exercised by electricity. The following table shows the first three powers, subject to these reserva- tions : the power of women and children is not taken into account ; that of horses is estimated at 3000 foot- tons, because statistics of same include horses of all ages ; mules are counted as horses, but no account is taken of asses, oxen, or other animals. Water-power is added to steam whenever it can be ascertained; wind-mills and electricity are omitted. Millions of Foot-Tons Daily Hand Horse Steam Total United Kingdom 3,200 6,330 54, 800 64,330 France . . , 3.S00 9.3°o 23,680 36,480 Germany . 4,200 11,500 32,320 48,020 Russia 9,100 62,700 12,400 84,200 Austria 3.530 10,700 10,080 24,310 Italy. 2,940 3,800 7,080 13,820 Spain I.S90 2,640 4.720 8,950 Portugal . 350 420 680 1,450 Sweden . 420 1,500 2,040 3,960 Norway . 180 45° 1,640 2,270 Denmark . 2CO 1,240 1,020 2,460 Holland . 420 810 2,400 3.630 Belgium . , , 560 810 4,720 6,09a Switzerland 270 300 2,320 2,890 Roumania, &c. 1,620 3,500 2,280 7,400 Europe 32,080 n6,ooo 162,180 310,260 United States . 6,400 54,600 72,240 133,240 Canada . 420 4,200 5.560 10,180 Australia . 340 5.700 3.360 9,400 Total , 39,240 180,500 243,340 463,080 Energy may be classified as productive and distribu- tive, the first including all that is human, all the power of fixed engines, and half that of horses. The account will then stand thus for 1896 : — Millions of Foot-Tons Daily Foot- Pro- Tons per ductive butive Total Inhab. United Kingdom 15.570 48,760 64.330 1,620 France 12,670 23,810 36,480 950 Germany , 19,550 28,470 48,020 920 Russia 42,170 42.030 84,200 750 Austria io,8oo 13,510 24,310 560 Italy . 5,560 8,260 13,820 440 Spain 3."o 5.840 8,950 520 Portugal . 600 850 1,450 310 Sweden . 1,290 2,670 3,960 800 Norway . 450 1,820 2,270 1,130 Denmark . 860 1,600 2,460 1,100 Holland . 1.150 2,480 3.630 760 Belgium . 2.530 3,560 6,090 950 Switzerland 780 2,110 2,890 960 Roumania, &c. 4.170 3,230 7.400 450 Europe 121,260 189,000 310,260 810 United States 49,460 83,780 133.240 1,880 Canada . 3.800 6,380 10,180 1,990 Australia . 4,230 5.170 9.400 2,240 Total • 178,750 284,330 463,080 1,020 Productive energy stands for 38 per cent. , distributive ENGINEERING 699 FINANCES 62 per cent, of the total. The latter has increased much more rapidly than the former, viz. : — Millions of Foot-Tons Daily Rate of Increase per Cent. 1840 1896 Increase Productive Distributive 73.700 50.300 178,750 284,330 105,050 234,030 r42 46s Total . 124,000 463,080 339.080 273 See Steam, page 807. ENGINEERING Blackwall tunnel under the Thames, at London, was completed in May 1897, having occupied 800 men during S years : length 2100 yards, diameter 27 feet, with central road and foot-walk on each side. It is ventilated by 4 shafts of 48 feet diameter, and lit with 700 electric lights of 32-candle power. It comprises 3 sections : — North side, 900 yards, incline i in 34. Central, 400 yards, level. South side, 800 yards, incline i in 36. In mid-river the worlcs are 5 feet below water ; the men were protected by a steel shield and progressed 4 feet daily. They excavated 500,000 tons, and the materials for the tunnel comprised 7,000,000 bricks, 1,000,000 tiles, 110,000 tons concrete, 20,000 tons cement, and 17,000 tons cast iron. Total cost £fi^\,oao, equal to ;^4io per lineal yard, whereas Brunei's tunnel cost ;^I300 per yard. In ?Iolland the pumping-out of Lake Haarlem, area 45,000 acres, depth 15 feet, was completed in 1852, after II years of labour : the land was sold at ;^I7 per acre, and the work cost ;^l,o8o,ooo, that is ;if300,ooo over the price of the land. In 1894 a project was laid before the Dutch Parliament to pump out the Zuyder Zee, area 480,000 acres, depth 12 feet, at an estimated cost of ;^26,ooo,ooo, or ;^54 for each acre of land reclaimed, the woric to be finished in 33 years. The principal work would be a wall 25 miles long, 200 feet thick, and 18 feet over sea-level, to take 9 years in construction. EXPLORATION Nansen returned to Norway, after 3 years' absence, in August 1896, having reached 86.15 N. Lat., in 102 E. Long., in 1895, only 260 English miles from the North Pole. The furthest previous expedition was the United States schooner Jeannette, in September 1893, which reached Sanrikofif, 458 English miles from the Pole. F FAMINES Besides those mentioned at page 256, an Indian blue- book states that in the famines of 1866-68-78 no fewer than 11,300,000 persons perished, viz. : — Orissa . . 1,300,000 I Madras . . 4.085.000 Punjaub . 1,450,000 | Oude, &c. . 4,486,000 No returns are yet published as to the famine of 1896. FINANCES The finances of European States at four periods in the 19th century are shown as follows : — Revenue, Millions ;^| Debt, Millions £ 1816 1830 63 1869 1898 1816 1830 1869 1898 U. Kingdom 61.3 72 116 902 838 803 638 France . , 35-2 41 84 134 140 lyi 504 1,244 Germany . 18. 1 20 41 187 39 5« 128 620 Russia . . 14. 1 17 70 I3« 145 56 342 692 Austria . . 12.7 !■; 43 lOI 99 60 340 5i,S Italy . . . 7-2 q 33 67 25 50 333 S16 Spain . . . 7-7 6 22 31 117 167 285 283 Portugal . . 1-9 2 4 II 7 14 59 16 Sweden . . 1.2 }^ 2 b 3 6 4 Norway . . o-S I 4 I 9 Denmark . I.I 2 3 4 4 '? Holland. . 6.4 7 9 II no 157 76 92 Belgium . . 7 16 28 93 Switzerland . 0.4 I 2 4 ... 13 Turkey . . 2-3 4 14 19 3 8 92 Roumauia . ... 2 y 16 Servia - . ... 3 Bulgaria . . ... 3 ... 'i'8 7 Greece . . I 4 •■• 37 Total . 170. 1 190 410 868 1,595 1,618 3.029 S.188 In many of the above States a considerable portion of revenue arises from Government railways, and these also represent a great share of national debt. Deduct- ing railways from both accounts, we find in 1898 as follows : — Revenue, Millions Debt, Millions ;^per Inhab. £ £ Revenue Debt United Kingdom 116 638 2.9 16.0 France. . . . 134 1,214 3-5 31-8 Germany . . . 124 "5 2.4 2.3 Russia .... 109 326 I.O 30 Austria . . . 83 324 1-9 8.0 Italy .... 64 386 2.1 12. 5 Spain .... 31 283 1.8 IS- 5 Portugal . . . II 120 2.3 28,0 Sweden & Norway 9 ... 1-3 Denmark . . . 4 ... 1.8 Holland . . . II 70 2-3 14- S Belgium . . . 9 36 i-S 5-7 Switzerland . . 4 13 2.3 4-3 Roumania . . 9 24 1-5 4.2 Servia .... 3 8 1.2 3-5 Bulgaria . . . 3 S 1.0 1-5 Greece .... 4 37 1.8 16.5 Turkey . . . 18 162 1.0 2.0 8-5 Total . . 746 3.775 10. 1 See Taxes, page 810. In the subjoined table are shown the amount raised by taxes, the income of State Railways, and the item of Sundries, which include postal service, crown lands, and the receipts from all Government properties or services, except lotteries and monopolies, which are put under taxes. It is to be observed that Germany and most countries count the gross receipts of State railways, while Holland and some others count only the net income FINANCES 700 FINANCES from same. As regards France, there are 1700 miles of recently made State railvcays, but they seem to produce nothing. Revenue, £ (000 omitted) Taxes Railways Sundries Total United Kingdom . 98,000 18,000 116,000 France . . . 117,800 16,700 134.500 Germany 84,500 63,400 39.500 187,400 Russia . . 99,000 29,300 9,700 138,000 Austria . . 68,000 18,400 14,600 101,000 Italy . . . 59.700 3,100 4,200 67,000 Spam . . . 29,900 1,100 31,000 Portugal . . 9,600 400 1,400 11,400 Sweden . , 4,800 800 600 6,200 Norway . . 2,500 500 800 3,800 Denmark 2,800 300 700 3,800 Holland . . 9.500 300 1,400 11,200 Belgium . . 7,800 6,200 1,500 15.500 Switzerland . 2,100 1,500 3,600 Greece . . 3.300 ... 500 3,800 Roumania . 6,900 1,700 8,600 Servia -. . . 2,300 200 2,500 Bulgaria . . 3,100 200 3.300 Turkey . . 18,400 18,400 Europe . . 630,000 122,700 114,300 867,000 United States 71,800 17,600 89,400 Canada . . 6,400 600 800 7,800 Australia . . 11,700 10,600 8,400 30,700 India . . . 42,800 I2,goo 4,200 59.500 Cape Colony 2,400 4,100 300 6,800 Egypt. . . . 8,400 1,800 300 10,500 Total . 773.500 152,700 145,900 1,072,100 Debt. Considering only national debt, that is, excluding communal, county, and municipal, and deducting the value of State railways, we can compare the same with the wealth of nations thus : — United Kingdom France . Germany Russia . Austria . Italy . . Spain Portugal Sweden . Norway . Denmark Holland . Belgium . , Switzerland Roumania , Servia . , Bulgaria Greece . , Europe . . United States Canada . . Australia Argentina . Total Millions;^ Sterling Wealth Debt 806 690 052 425 S12 160 380 411 570 220 506 492 519 211 296 222 51.340 16,350 1,003 1,076 616 70,385 638 1,214 "5 326 324 386 283 120 70 36 13 24 8 5 37 3.613 378 57 96 4.232 Ratio of Debt 5-3 12. 5 1-4 S-o 7.2 12.2 11.9 29.0 8.0 3-6 2.6 4.6 3-8 1-7 16.S 7.0 2-3 5.7 8.9 14-3 6.0 ^Debt per Inhab. 16.0 31-5 2.2 3-0 7.S 12.2 16. 1 24.0 14.0 5-7 4-3 4-2 3-0 i-S 17.0 10.0 5-3 "■5 23.0 22.0 9-5 United Kingdom The revenue of the United Kingdom for the year ending March 31, 1898, and the estimates for 1899, compare with the revenue of 1897 as follows : — Customs Excise . Income-tax Stamps Duties . All taxes Post-Office Sundries Total £ Sterling 1897 21,460,000 32,370,000 16,650,000 7,350,000 16,390,000 94,220,000 14,770,000 3,210,000 112,200,000 1898 1899 22,010,000 33,270,000 17,250,000 7,650,000 17,780,000 97,960,000 15,180,000 2,880,000 21,290,000 33,810,000 17,700,000 7,600,000 16,310,000 96,710,000 15,740,000 2,880,000 116,020,000 115,330,000 A portion of the above was given in aid of Local Taxation accounts, viz. : — 1897 1898 Local subsidies Imperial Treasury . 8,250,000 103,950,000 9,400,000 106,620,000 Total . 112,200,000 116,020,000 The average revenue and expenditure for five years ending March 1896 were : — Revenue £ Expenditure £ Customs . . Excise . . . Income-tax , Duties, &c. . Post-Office . Sundries . . 20,200,000 29,300,000 14,800,000 17,300,000 13,200,000 6,400,000 National Debt Civil Service . Local grants . Army & Navy Post-Office . Sundries . . Total . . 25,100,000 20,000,000 7,400,090 34,800,000 10,000,000 4,300,000 Total . . 101,200,000 101,600,000 Expenditure for 1896 and 1897 was as follows :- £ Sterling 1896 1897 Increase National Debt . Civil Service . . Local grants . . Army and Navy Post-Office . . Sundries . . . 25,000,000 21,250,000 7,400,000 38,330,000 10,480,000 4,790,000 25,000,000 21,470,000 8,200,000 41,460,000 10,830,009 4,540,000 220,000 800,000 3,130,000 350,000 Total . . . 107,250,000 111,500,000 4,250,000 While other nations, with few exceptions, have in- creased their debt in the last fifty years, ours has been reduced, viz. : — Per Inhabitant Year Debt, £ Interest, £ Debt, £ Interest 1848 . . . 773,000,000 27,700,000 28.4 21s. 1857 . . . 808,100,000 28,500,000 28.8 20s. 1870 . . . 798,000,000 27,100,000 25-5 i8s. 1889 . . . 694,400,000 24,800,000 18.2 13s. 1898 . . . 615,000,000 23,500,000 15.5 12s. The nominal amount of debt on March 31st, 1898, was ;£'638,3oo,ooo, from which deducting the value of Suez FINANCES 701 FINANCES Canal shares, the actual debt was as stated above. National debt is at present equal to 5J per cent, of the estimated wealth of the nation, whereas in the year of Queen Victoria's accession (1837) it was over 20 per cent, of wealth. An official return of the imperial revenue, showing the portions furnished by Great Britain and Ireland, is as follows : — Year Millions £ Sterling G. Britain Ireland U. Kingdom 1840 . 46.3* S-4 Si-7 i860 . 6r.4 7-7 69.1 1S80 . 69.8 7.3 77.1 1890 . 84.9 7.9 92.8 1897 . 101.9 8.2 no. I The above, compared with population, shows per head as follows : — Shillings per Head Year G. Britain Ireland jU. Kmgdom 1840 . SO 13 39 i860 . S3 27 48 1880 . 48 28 44 1890 . SI 3* 49 1897 . S7 36 SS Comparing 1897 with 1840, we find that revenue in Great Britain has increased 7 shillings, in Ireland 23 shillings per head. The ratio of increase has been 14 per cent, in Great Britain, 177 per cent, in Ireland. The receipts from the three kingdoms in 1897 were as follows : — £ Sterling (000 omitted) England Scotland Ireland U. King. Customs . Excise . . Taxes . . Post-Office . Simdries 17.030 24.830 34.690 12.540 1. 150 2,110 4.330 1)450 no 2.330 3.140 1,700 810 170 21,470 32,300 40,080 14,800 1.430 Total . . 90,240 11,690 8,150 iio.oSo See Taxation, page 810. France Revenue and expenditure accounts show as follows :— Millions £ Sterling Revenue 1880 1890 1894 1898 Direct tax Customs . Stamp-duties . Post-Office Excise Sundries . IS- 2 14.7 27.9 5-5 43-1 30.8 19.2 iS-o 28.S 8.1 47.8 34-7 20.6 19.2 28.4 8.8 48.0 13-4 19-3 16. S 29.9 9.2 432 16.4 Total 137.2 IS3-3 138.4 134- S 1 Millions £ Sterling 1880 1890 1894 1898 Debt 49-7 50-7 49-4 50.0 Army 22.4 23.2 25-9 25.2 Navy 7-8 8.0 14.2 10.3 Public works 26.2 14.4 130 7.8 Commerce 1.7 9.6 8.1 8.2 Instruction 4-4 7.6 8.2 8.S Local grants I.I 8.6 1.6 1.6 Sundries . 37-1 27.7 18.8 22.1 Total . 150.4 149.8 139.2 133-7 In 1890 the amount of revenue refunded to Communes was 7 millions sterling more than at present, which accounts in some measure for the reduction of expen- diture. The ratio of revenue per head of population at various dates shows thus : — Year £ £ per Inhab. i860 .... 1880 .... 1898 .... 68,500,000 135,700,000 134,500,000 1.8 3-S 3-4 National debt has more than doubled since the year preceding the Franco-German war, as the following table shows : — Year Millions £ /per Funded Floating Total Inhabitant 1869 . . . 1887 . . . 1896 . . . 468 828 1,040 3^ 118 204 504 946 1,244 13-2 24.8 32-4 * To read thus: 46.3 signifies ^46,300,000. The floating debt properly so called is only 46 millions, but the " annuity " and other unfunded debts being added make a total of 204 millions. Interest on funded debt amounts to ^32, 500,000, being 3 J percent, on principal, and the other expenses, especially those of floating debt, bring up the annual burthen of this department to a total of 50 millions, equal to 26 shillings per inhabitant, against 12 shillings in the United Kingdom. Germany The revenue of the States composing the Empire has grown as follows : — 1867 £ 1890 £ 1897 £ Prussia . . . Bavaria . . . Saxony . . . Wurtemberg . . Small States . . Imperial tax . . 25,300,000 5,900,000 2,200,000 1,300,000 5,800,000 79,300,000 12,200,000 3,900,000 2,800,000 9,500,000 47,000,000 97,000,000 17,200,000 7,500,000 3,700,000 18,000,000 44,000,000 Total . . 40,500,000 154,700,000 187,400,000 The imperial revenue is in reality ^'65,000,000, but this includes /■2i,ooo,ooo contributed by the various States as "matriculas" and already included in the revenues raised by those States. If we exclude railway FINANCES 702 FINANCES receipts, and apportion imperial taxes according to population, the revenue shows thus : — £ \£ per Inhab. Prussia Bavaria Saxony . . . , . Wurtemberg .... Other States .... 74,400,000 16,100,000 8,500,000 4,800,000 20,200,000 2.4 2.7 2-3 2-3 2-3 Total 124,000,000 2.4 The average budget for the empire in five years ending 1897 showed thus : — Revenue , *^"^°"= Expenses Millions Customs Excise . Matriculas Stamps . Sundries . i 17.6 • 1 13-6 . i 19-1 • 1 2.3 . 1 9-8 Debt . Army . Navy . Civil Service Sundries Total . 3-5 29.0 42 18.8 7-9 Total . j 62.4 63-4 Matriculas in the above table represent the contribu- tions of the several States to defray imperial expenses, that of Prussia amounting to jf 12,800,000, of Bavaria to ;^2,6oo,ooo, and the other States making up between them £2> 700,000 sterling. National debt has grown as follows : — Millions £ 1867 1890 1897 Prussia. Bavaria Other States . 49 30 49 230 68 loS 32s 71 T18 Total Imperial 128 403 62 514 106 Grand total 128 46s 620 The increase of debt since 1867 has been caused by the purchase or construction of railways for the State, which have at present a length of 26,440 miles, repre- senting a cost of 505 millions sterling. Deducting this from the above sum it will be seen that the real debt of Germany is only 115 millions sterling, or a fraction over £2 per inhabitant, against ;^i6 in the United Kingdom and £^2 in France. Russia The growth of revenue and debt in late years has been as follows : — Millions £ Shillings per Inhab. Revenue Debt 1 Revenue Debt 1875 . 1889 . 1898 . 74 90 138 370 610 692 18 19 27 90 r28 133 Excluding State railways, the revenue and debt in 1S96 were : — Revenue . . 112,000,000 21 Debt . . . 326,000,000 61 Revenue and expenditure during five years to Decem- ber 1896 averaged as follows : — Revenue Millions £ Expenses Millions £ Customs . . Excise . . Railways Land-tax . Stamps. . . Post Office . Sundries . . IS- 8* 38.0 IS- 2 14.0 7-1 3-7 21.2 Debt .... Army .... Navy .... Public works . . Civil Service . . Schools .... Sundries , . . Total . . 26.4 27.0 5.4 II. 8.3 2.2 4S-7 Total . 115.0 126.0 Excess of expenditure from 1892 to 1897 was caused by the purchase or construction of 9000 miles of railway for the State, at a cost of 135 millions sterling, which amount was obtained by loans : thus the national debt rose from 540 millions in 1885 to 700 millions sterling in 1895, an average increase of 16 millions per annum. The Government has expended 366 millions sterling on railways, of which 284 millions are represented by 17,000 miles of Slate Railways, and 82 millions by shares on lines built by companies. Deducting this from the imperial debt, the latter is reduced to 326 millions, say 61 shillings per inhabitant. Finland The finances of this duchy are kept distinct from those of Russia ; the budget for 1896 was as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs, &c. . Land-tax . . . Sundries . . . 1,200,000 300,000 1,700,000 Debt .... Army . . . Government . Total . . 240,000 400,000 2,560,000 Total . . 3,200,000 3,200,000 Public debt amounts to ;f4,40o,ooo sterling. Austria-Hungary The total revenue of the monarchy is shown as follows : — Millions £ Sterling - 1893 1897 Average, 5 Years Imperial customs . Austrian budget , Hungarian budget 4.6 5S-0 38.8 4-3 S7.S 39-2 4-3 S4-4 39-3 Total 98.4 lOI.O 98.0 From the budgets of Austria and Hungary an annual quota is drawn, to defray the expenses common to the monarchy, the dual revenue showing thus : — Millions £ Sterling 1893 1897 Average, S Years Imperial customs . Austrian quota Hungarian quota . 4.6 S-4 2-5 2.8 4-3 S-7 2.6 Total 12.5 13-2 12.6 To read thus: Customs, ;/^i5, 800,000. FINANCES 703 FINANCES Joint expenditure for 1898 is estimated at ;^i3,400,ooo, of which £11,700,000 for the army, ;^i, 200,000 for the navy, and ;^400,o6o for diplomatic agents. The Austrian budgets for five years ending 1895 averaged as follows : — Revenue Millions Expenses Millions £ Customs Excise . Income-tax . Stamps . Railways Post-Office . Sundries 3-7 18. s 9-3 S-o 6.7 3.0 6.3 Imperial quota Debt . Public works Agriculture . Militia Worship Sundries S-7 12.8 9.4 i-S 1.6 2.0 18.6 Total Sa-S Total SI.6 Hungarian budgets for five years averaged as follows :- Revenue Millions £ Expenses Millions £ Excise . Income-tax . Stamps . Railways Post-Office . Sundries 12.2 8.2 2.8 6.7 a1 Imperial quota . Debt . Public works Agriculture . Militia Sundries Total . 2.6 10.9 6.3 r.2 r.i 15-3 Total . 37.7 37.4 If we exclude railways, Post-OfEce, and other public services, in order to arrive at the precise amount of taxa- tion, we find, for the whole monarchy : — £ Excise ..... 30,700,000 Customs .... 8,500,000 Income-tax .... 17,500,000 Stamps, &c. .... 11,300,000 Total . National debt is as follows : — 68,000,000 Millions of Florins Millions , £ Sterling Gold Silver Paper General . Austrian . Hungarian 500 710 400 r.ooo 1,200 2,170 270 170 264 106 185 Total 1,210 2,600 2,oSo S5S In apportioning the general debt Austria took 70, Hungary 30, per cent., which makes the total debt of the former 291, that of the latter 264 millions sterling. But if the value of State railways be deducted the net debt of Austria will be 184, that of Hungary 140, millions sterling. The total service of debt costs 24 millions sterling, or nearly 4J per cent, on the capital sum : it averages not quite 12 shillings per inhabitant, against 26 shillings in France, and 12 in the United Kingdom. Italy The revenue and debt of the kingdom are shown as follows : — Millions £ £ per Head Revenue' Debt Revenue Debt 1880 I89I 1898 SS 64 67 393 489 S16 2.0 2. J 2.2 r4.o 16.3 16.6 The budgets of revenue and expenditure for five years ending 1896 give the following averages : — Revenue Millions £ Customs . . Excise . . Income-tax . Stamps . . Railways Post-Office . Sundries . . 11.9 10.3 17.9 7.4 2.8 2.6 12.3 Total . . 65.2 Expenses Debt . . Army . . Navy . . Schools . . Public worlds Civil service Sundries . Total , Millions £ 23.6 II. I 4.2 1-7 4.2 10.6 18. 1 73- S There was a nominal deficit of 41 millions in the above five years, which was covered by 25 millions increase of debt, and 16 millions from sale of properties, &c. If we deduct the cost of State railways (130 millions sterling), the national debt will amount to 386 millions sterling, equal to 12 per cent, of national wealth, being the same ratio as in France. Spain Revenue and national debt have been as follows : — Year Millions £ 1 £ per Inhabitant Revenue Debt 1 Revenue Debt 1878 .... 1888 .... 1898 .... 30 35 31 260 283 1.8 2.0 1.8 32.0 15.0 16.2 The debt was repudiated in 1882, when bondholders were compelled to take new bonds of ;^40, for 2^ioo old. Revenue and expenditure in the last five years averaged: — Revenue ^^29,200,000 Expenditure .... 31,200,000 The average deficit in the past ten years has been ;^2, 300,000. The budget for 1898 shows as follows :— Revenue Millions „ r Expenses Millions £ Excise, &c. . . . Property tax . . Monopolies, &c. . 12.3 ' Debt .... II. 9 ! Army .... 6.8 Sundries . . . 13.0 9.6 12.4 Total . . 31.0 1 Total . . 35.0 In 1840 the debt was repudiated, bondholders receiv- ing 30 per cent, in new scrip : this operation was repeated in 1882, bondholders being forced to accept 40 per cent. Thus the holder of a bond of ;^ioooin 1840 received new scrip for ;£'300, and in 1882 this was again exchanged for ;^I20 of newer scrip, so that 88 per cent, of the money due by Spain was thus wiped out, the actual debt repre- senting only 12 per cent, of what should be the capital sum. This is exclusive of Cuban debt, amounting to 80 millions sterling, secured by revenues of that island. Portugal Revenue and national debt were as follows : — Year Millions £ £ per Inhabitant Revenue Debt Revenue Debt 1878 .... 1888 .... 1898 .... S-7 8.4 94.0 113-0 134.0 1-3 1.8 2.4 22.5 25.0 27.2 FINANCES 704 FINANCES The budgets of five years ending 1896 gave the follow- ing average : — Revenue ;^io, 100,000 Expenditure .... 11,200,000 The average deficit from 1888 to 1897 was 2 millions sterling per annum, and consequently the debt, as shown above, rose 21 millions in that interval. The budget for 1898 showed as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Income-tax . . Stamps . . . Railways . . . Post-Office . . Sundries . . . 5,500,000 2,600,000 1,100,000 400,000 300,000 1,600,000 Debt .... Army . . . Public works . Civil Service . Colonies . . . Sundries . . Total . . 4,000,000 1,300,000 1,300,000 1,400,000 900,000 3,500,000 Total . . 11,500,000 12,400,000 The amount raised by taxation is ;^9,6oo,ooo, equal to 40 shillings per inhabitant or 15 per cent, of national earnings. In 1893 the finances were so distracted that the Government compelled bondholders to accept a new arrangement whereby the interest on internal bonds was reduced to 70 per cent., that on the foreign or external debt to 33 per cent, of the interest previously paid. State railways stand for one-tenth of the national debt. Sweden Revenue and debt are shown as follows : — Year Revenue £ Debt £ £ per Head Revenue Debt 1878 . . . 1888 . . . 1897 . . . 4,100,000 4,800,000 6,200,000 9,800,000 13,700,000 16,100,000 • 1.0 I.I 1.2 2.4 3-2 Budgets for the last five years give the following averages : — Revenue Customs . Excise . . Income-tax Railways . Post-Office Sundries . Total 2,100,000 1,200,000 600,000 800,000 600,000 1,200,000 6,500,000 Expenses Debt . . . Army . . . Navy . . . Schools . . Civil Service Sundries . . Total . 600,000 1,600,000 600,000 800,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 6,200,000 The amount raised by taxation is ;^4,8oo,ooo. The national debt is represented by State railways, which give a net profit of ^500,000, or 3 per cent, on their cost of construction. Norway Revenue and debt have been as follows : — Year 1 Revenue ! ^ Debt £ £ per Head Revenue Debt 1878 . . . 1888 . . . 1898 . . . 2,400,000 2,400,000 I 3,800,000 4,000,000 5,900,000 8,800,000 1.3 1.2 1.8 2.2 3-0 4.2 Budgets of the last five years give the following averages : Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Excise. . . . Taxes .... Railways . . . Post-Office . . Sundries . 1,300,000 400,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 300,000 Debt .... Army. . . . Navy .... Public works . Schools . . . Sundries . . . Total . . 300,000 500,000 200,000 600,000 300,000 1,400,000 Total . . 3,200,000 3,300,000 The amount of revenue raised by taxation is ;f 2,500,000. National debt is represented by a complete network of more than 1000 miles of railway, but the earnings do not suffice to pay the interest on the debt. Denmark Notwithstanding the loss of Sleswig-Holstein in 1864, the Danish finances have improved in the last thirty years, viz. : — Year Revenue £ Debt £ £ per Head Revenue Debt 1866 . . . 1889 . . 1898 . . . 2,000,000 3,000,000 3,800,000 14,800,000 10,400,000 10,900,000 1.2 1-4 1-7 8.4 4.8 4-9 Budgets of the last five years give the following averages : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Excise. . . . Income-tax . . Stamps . . . Sundries . . . 1,400,000 300,000 500,000 400,000 700,000 Debt .... Army .... Navy .... Public works . Sundries . . . Total . . 400,000 800,000 400,000 300,000 1,700,000 Total . . 3,300,000 3,600,000 The debt is fully represented by the State railways, besides which the Treasury has always a reserve of 3^ millions sterling to provide against sudden em.ergency. Holland Revenue and debt have progressed as follows : — Year Revenue £ Debt £ £ per Head Revenue Debt 1879 . . . 1888 . . . 1898 . . . 9,400,000 10,000,000 11,200,000 80,500,000 89,200,000 92,200,000 2.4 2.2 2-3 20.1 19.8 18.4 The budgets of the last five years gave the following averages : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . Excise , . . Direct tax . . Sundries . . 500,000 3,700,000 2,800,000 4,000,000 Debt . . . Army . . . Public works Sundries . . Total . 3,200,000 3,100,000 900,000 4,100,000 Total . 11,000,000 11,300,000 The revenue raised by taxation was ;^9,5oo,ooo. National debt is 92 millions, of which 22 millions stand for State railways, leaving a real debt of 70 millions sterling. FINANCES 70s FINANCES Belgium Revenue and debt have grown as follows : — Millions £ £ per Head Revenue Debt Revenue Debt 1878 . . . 1890 . . . 1898 . , . 10.2 12.9 'S-S 42.0 77-4 931 2.0 2.1 2.4 8.0 12.8 14.4 The budgets of five years ending December 1895 gave the following averages : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Taxes . . . Railways . . Post-Office . Sundries . . 6,900,000 6,600,000 560,000 20O,0CO Debt . . . Army . . . Railways . . Sundries . . Total . 4,200,000 2,100,000 4,200,000 5,6co,ooo Total . 14,200,000 16,100,000 Surplus expenditure since 1890 has averaged two millions sterling per annum, caused by the construction of railways, which give a net profit of 4 per cent, on their cost. The State possesses 2050 miles of railway, which have cost 57 millions sterling, and if this be de- ducted the national debt will be reduced to 36 millions sterling. Switzerland The Federal Government has an annual revenue of ;,^3,400,ooo, and a public debt of ;^3,200,coo, but if the finances of the 22 Cantons be taken into account the figures will stand thus — Revenue £ Debt, £ Federal Cantonal . 3,600,000 3,200,000 3,200,000 10,400,000 Total 6,800,000 13,600,000 The federal budget for 1898 is made up thus : Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . Post-OfEce . Simdries . . 1,800,000 1,500,000 300,000 Army . . . Post-Office . Sundries . . Total . 1,000,000 1,500,000 1,100,000 Total . 3,600,000 3,600,000 Between federal and local taxes the total is about 6 millions sterling, or 40 shillings per inhabitant, or 9 per cent, of national earnings. The total of federal and cantonal debts is hardly 3 per cent, of national wealth. Danubian States. The finances of these States may be briefly summed up thus : — Customs Taxes . Sundries Total Revenue, £ (000 omitted). Roumania Servia 1 Bulgaria 2,500 1,500 4,600 8.600 200 1,100 1,200 900 1,700 1,000 2,500 3,600 Expenditure, £ (000 omitted). Roumania Servia Bulgaria Debt .... Army .... Sundries 3,200 1,800 3,600 700 600 1,200 800 900 1,600 Total . 8,600 2,500 1 3,300 The following shows public debt and how much of it is accounted for by State railways : — Roumania Servia . Bulgaria Total Millions £ Debt SO 16 73 Railways 26 8 2 36 Real Debt 24 8 5 37 Greece Revenue and debt have grown as follows : — Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ £peT Head Revenue Debt 1879 . . . 1889 . . . 1898 . . . 1,600,000 3,400,000 3,800,000 19,400,000 22,700,000 37,000,000 I.O I- 5 1.6 12.0 10.3 ISO Expenditure exceeded revenue, the aggregate for the past ten years showing as follows : — Revenues, 1888-97 • • ■ j^34,8oo,ooo Expenses, ,, . . . 43,600,000 The annual deficit has been close on a million sterling, and the debt now reaches 37 millions, this sum including the indemnity of 4 millions sterling payable to Turkey. Debt is equal to 17 per cent, of national wealth. Turkey The financial position of the Ottoman empire is shown thus : — Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1878 .... 1887 .... 1898 .... 15,000,000 16,200,000 18,500,000 245,000,000 180,000,000 162,000,000 The budget of 1898 is made up as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses , £ Customs . . . Excise. . . . Rural taxes . . Sundries . . . 2,000,000 2,600,000 8,600,000 5,300,000 Debt .... Army . . . Sultan . . . Sundries . . Total . . 6,500,000 6,000,000 900,000 5,100,000 Total . . 18,500,000 18,500,000 In five years down to 1896 the expenditure averaged one million sterling over revenue. No fewer than 26 loans have been issued since 1 854, amounting as follows : — Period No, of Loans Millions £ 1854-64 .... 6 31 1865-80 .... 10 207 1881-96 .... 10 40 Total . . 26 278 Fifteen of the above loans were converted by new 2 Y FINANCES 706 FINANCES issues in 1881-90-91-94. On the 8th December 1881, the empire was declared bankrupt, when loans and arrears of interest, amounting to 240 millions sterling, were reduced by 90 millions by an issue of new stock to foreign bondholders, leaving also an internal debt of 40 millions, besides 32 millions of war indemnity due to Russia, which made a total of 162 millions. Since then there have been loans and lottery bonds to the amount of 50 millions, and the funded debt in July 1897 amounted to ;^ 1 30, 500,000, to which must be added ;^3l,500,ooo for Russian indemnity, making a total of 1 62 millions sterling. Egypt The finances were rearranged in 1885 ; debt are shown thus : — revenue and Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1878 .... 1889 .... 1897 .... 7,400,000 9,700,000 10,500,000 85,000,000 103,400,000 104,600,000 The revenue of 1897 compares with that of 1889 as follows : — 1889 1897 Customs . Land tax . Railways . Sundries . 1,000,000 4,900,000 1,300,000 2,500,000 800,000 5,000,000 1,800,000 2,900,000 Total 9,700,000 10,500,000 The expenditure of the same years compares thus : 1889 1897 Debt .... Police Government 4,100,000 700,000 4,600,000 4,200,000 800,000 4,900,000 Total 9,400,000 9,900,000 The railways are State property, and give a net profit of ;^ 1, 030,000 a year, equal to 64 per cent, on their cost. The actual debt of ;^l04,6oo,ooo is accounted for thus : canals, ;,f 19,400,000 ; railways, ;^l6,2OO,O0O ; mills, har- bours, &c., ;^ 1 3, 500,000 ; discount on loans, ;f 26,400,000 ; ballet-dancers, palaces, &c., ;/j47,30o,ooo. The actual sum realised by the loans was 78 millions sterling, and the service of the debt is nearly 5J per cent, on same. It is impossible to say what were the profits of Messrs. Goschen, Oppenheim, Bischoffsheim, and Rothschild in the loans. United States Finances compared with population at various dates show thus : — Year Millions £ £ per Inhabitant Revenue Debt Revenue Debt 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1890 . . . 1897 . . . 71.5 69.2 96. 5 89.4 490 441 323 378 1.9 1-4 1-5 1.2 12.6 8.8 5-1 S-4 The budgets of the last eight years give the following averages of revenue : — 1890-93 Millions £ 1894-97 Millions £ 1890-97 Millions £ Customs Excise .... Post-Office . Sundries 43-2 31.2 14. 1 5-5 32.2 30.2 16. 5 4-3 37-7 30-7 IS- 3 4-9 Total . 94.0 83.2 88.6 Expenditure averaged as follows : — 1890-93 1894-97 1890-97 Debt .... Army .... Navy .... Post-Office . Interior Sundries 6.4 10.4 iS-8 31.2 16.6 6.8 II. 6.4 19.0 33-2 15.0 6.6 10.7 6.0 17.4 32.2 IS. 8 Total 86.0 91.4 88.7 The first four years showed an average surplus of 8 millions sterling of revenue over expenditure, but the second four years showed the reverse, so that revenue and expenditure for the whole eight years were even. The budget of 1897 was as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . Excise . . . Post-Office . Sundries . . 36,700,000 30,500,000 17,200,000 S,ooo,ooo Debt . . . Army . . . Navy . . . Government . Total . . 7,900,000 10,600,000 7,300,000 67,500,000 Total . . 89,400,000 93.300,000 The national debt has varied between 1880 and 1897 as follows : — Debt Millions £ Sterling 1880 1890 1897 Bearing interest No interest .... 3S8 82 ISO 172 176 202 Total Cash in Treasury . 440 41 322 137 378 172 Net debt . 399 18S 206 Local taxation exceeds national : the former almost doubled between 1870 and 1890. See Local Finance. Canada Revenue and debt have grown as follows : — Millions £ £ per Head Revenue Debt Revenue Debt 1880 . . . 1889 . . . 1897 . . . S-i* 7.8 7.8 32-1 49.2 69.0 i.i 1.6 1-5 7.0 10.2 13.8 * To read thus : Revenue, ;^5, 100,000. FINANCES 707 FINANCES The budget for 1897 was as follows : — Revenue £ 1 Expenses £ Customs . . . Excise .... Post-Office . . Sundries . . . 4,000,000 1,900,000 700,000 1,200,000 Debt .... Subsidies . . Militia . . . Government Total . . 2,600,000 900,000 400,000 4,000,000 Total . . 7,800,000 7,900,000 The subsidies are grants to the several Provinces for local affairs, averaging 3 shillings per inhabitant. Each Province has also its own budget. See Local Finance. Debt amounts to 69 millions, of which 59 have been •expended on public works. The Intercolonial railway, belonging to Government, cost 12 millions sterling, ■deducting which the debt would be reduced to 57 millions. The Treasury is said to possess assets altogether worth 15 millions, and the real debt is ofiScially put down at 54 millions sterling. Australia Revenue has trebled since 1871, viz. : — £, Sterling (000 omitted) 1871 1881 1891 1897 N. S. Wales Victoria . 2,240 3.730 1,340 800 no 780 270 6,710 5. 190 3.760 1,970 210 2,170 Sio 10,040 8.340 4,190 3.350 500 2,730 760 9.310 6,630 New Zealand Queensland W. Australia S. AustraUa Tasmania . • • 4,800 3,610 2,840 2,700 800 Total • ■ 9,270 20,520 29,910 30,690 Expenditure in 1897 was made up as follows : — The above revenues gave the following averages per inhabitant : — ShilUngs per Head 1871 1881 1891 1897 N. S. Wales . . . 88 175 182 144 Victoria lOI 119 147 "3 New Zealand . . . 104 153 13s 13s Queensland . . . 133 174 171 153 W. Austrsdia . . . 84 140 215 412 S. AustraUa . . . 84 157 171 150 Tasmania .... S4 87 105 98 Oeneral 96 148 159 142 The revenue of 1897 was made up as follows :— ;f Sterling (000 omitted) Taxes Railways Sundries' Total N. S. Wales 2,460 2,630 2,520 1.500 1,160 940 470 3.370 2,600 1,290 1,140 94° 1,040 160 3.480 1,400 990 970 740 720 170 9.310 6,630 New Zealand <2ueensland W. Australia S. Australia Tasmania . 4,800 3,610 2,840 2,700 800 Total • • 11,680 10,540 8,470 30.690 Debt Railways Sundries Total N. S. Wales . . . 2,310 1,830 S.180 9.320 Victoria . . . 1,890 1.510 3.180 6.580 New Zealand . 1,710 780 2,020 4.510 Queensland . 1,260 680 1,660 3,600 W. Australia . 250 580 2,010 2,840 S. Australia . 970 640 1,150 2,760 Tasmania . . 310 120 320 750 Total . 8,700 6.140 15.520 30,360 The following table shows the sources of revenue in 1897 compared with population : — Shillings per Head I g. ■s iS .Sj ■s ^ 05 9 ei; 1 CO I N. S. Wales . 38 52 30 II 13 144 Victoria . . . 45 44 7 9 8 "3 N. Zealand . . 71 36 8 12 8 13s Queensland . . 64 48 22 10 9 153 W. Australia . I6q 136 27 30 50 412 S. Australia 52 S8 10 14 16 150 Tasmania . . 57 20 7 9 5 98 Australasia . . 54 49 17 II II 142 Expenditure in 1897, compared with population, resulted as follows : — Shillings per Head m I 1 I 9 3 "3 f2 OS fe (0 N. S. Wales . 36 28 II II 58 144 Victoria . . . 32 26 10 10 34 112 New Zealand . 48 22 13 10 34 127 Queensland . . 54 29 10 13 47 153 W. Australia . 36 84 6 45 241 412 S. Australia . 54 35 9 II 44 153 Tasmania . . 38 15 5 8 26 92 Australasia . . 40 28 10 12 51 141 The following table shows the growth of public debt since 1871 : — £ Sterling (000 omitted) 1871 1881 1891 1897 N. S. Wales Victoria . . New Zealand Queensland W. Australia S. Australia Tasmania . 10,600 12,000 8,900 4,000 2,200 1.300 16,900 22,400 29,700 13.300 500 11,200 2,000 S3.000 43,600 38,800 29,500 1,600 20,400 7,100 61,000 47.500 44,400 34.500 7.300 24,400 8,300 Total 39,000 96,000 194,000 227,500 Public works represent 94 per cent, of the actual debt, namely, 213 millions sterling, including 156 millions spent on railways, telegraphs, water-supply, &c., which bring in a gross annual income of 12 millions sterling, or 40 per cent, of the total revenue. The remaining 57 millions were expended on roads, bridges, parks, public FINANCES 708 FINANCES buildings, &c., which produce no income, though of equal utility. The expenditure has been as follows : — £ Sterling (000 omitted) Railways Water- works, &c. Koads, &c. Total N. S. Wales . Victoria . . New Zealand Queensland . W. Australia S. Australia . Tasmania 40,300 35.700 15,300 19.500 4,500 12,800 3.700 8,700 8,100 1,400 1,200 300 4.900 100 9.500 2,600 24,900 9,200 1,800 4,700 3,800 58,500 46,400 41,600 29,900 6,600 22,400 7,600 Total . 131,800 24,700 56,500 213,000 The following table shows the net profit yearly on railways, the net burthen of public debt after deducting the railway profits, and the ratio of the latter to popu- lation : — Railway Net Debt Shills. per Head Profits, £ Charge, £ of Interest N. S. Wales . . 1,540,000 770,000 12 Victoria . . 1,090,000 800,000 14 New Zealand 510,000 1,200,000 33 Queensland . 460,000 800,000 34 W. Australia 360,000 S. Australia . 400,000 570,000 32 Tasmania . 40,000 270,000 32 Total 4,400,000 4,300,000 20 This shows that the annual charge for public debt, after deducting the net profits of railways, is exactly 20 shillings per inhabitant; if we deduct from this the revenue received from public lands {17 shillings), it appears that the debt of Australasia imposes a burthen of only 3 shillings per inhabitant out of ordinary revenue. South Africa The revenue and debt of Cape Colony and Natal have been as follows : — Revenue, £ Debt, £ 1887 1896 1887 1896 Cape Colony . Natal .... 3,160,000 820,000 6,800,000 1,460,000 22,500,000 4,000,000 27,400,000 8,100,000 Total . . 3,980,000 8,260,000 26,500,000 35,500,000 The finances of Cape Colony in 1896 were as follows :- Revenue I Expenses £ Taxes. . . . Railways . . . Sundries . . . 2,420,000 4,080,000 300,000 Debt .... Railways Government . Total .. . 1,240,000 1,920,000 3,200,000 Total . . 6,800,000 6,360,000 The finances of Natal in 1896 showed thus :- Revenue £ Expenses £ Railways . . . Customs, &c. . 750,000 710,000 Railways . . Government . Total . . 400,000 880,000 Total . . 1,460,000 1,280,000 The aggregate debt of the two colonies is 35J millions sterling, the whole expended on railways and other public works. The State railways cost 24^ millions, leaving the net debt only 1 1 millions sterling ; the railways give a net profit of ;^2,5CX3,000 per annum, or 10 per cent, ott capital. India Revenue and debt have progressed as follows : — Year Millions of Rupees Millions £ Sterling Revenue Debt Revenue Debt 1880 . . . 1890 . . , 1897 . . . 684 857 957 1.530 2.185 2,323 57-0 64-3 59-9 127-5 163.8 1450 Rupees were worth 20 pence in 1880, 18 pence in 1890, and 15 pence in 1897. The budgets of 1890 and 1897, reduced to English money, compared tnus : — • Revenue, £ 1890 1897 Land tax . Railways . Opium Salt tax . Post-Office Irrigation . Sundries . 17,600,000 12,600,000 6,200,000 6,000,000 i,700,oco 1,400,000 18,800,000 16,000,000 12,900,000 3,600,000 5,500,000 1,900,000 2,000,000 18,000,000 Total 64,300,000 59,900,000 Expenditure, £ 1899 1897 Debt .... Ai'my Railways . c Roads Canals Sundries . 4,400,000 16,600,000 14,100,000 4,100,000 1,900,000 21,000,000 3,600,000 15,200,000 14,700,000 3,600,000 2,000,000 22,300,000 Total 62,100,000 61,400,000 Expenditure, counted in rupees, has risen 26 per cent, in ten years, viz. : — Expended Millions of Rupees 1886 1891 1896 In India In Great Britain . 558 184 614 206 694 275 Total 772 820 969 West Indies, British Revenue and debt have progressed as follows :- Year £ Sterling Shillings per Inhab. Revenue Debt Revenue Debt 1881 . . . 1890 . . . 1896 . . . 1,850,000 2,340,000 2,440,000 2,020,000 3,600,000 4,900,000 24 28 30 27 43 58 FINANCES 709 FINANCES The various islands and British Guiana showed in 1896 as follows : — Revenue, £ Debt, £ Shillings 3er Head Revenue Debt Jamaica . . . Trinidad . . . Barbados . . . Small Islands . British Guiana . 780,000 580,000 180,000 350,000 550,000 2,200,000 600,000 400,000 800,000 900,000 22 50 19 23 40 30 63 52 42 52 66 "West Indies . . 2,440,000 4,900,000 58 Although debt has risen 150 per cent, in fifteen years it is still light, being under £1 per inhabitant, against j^i2 in Canada. Algeria Revenue rose from ;^i,7cx3,ooo in 1885 to ;^2, 100,000 in 1897, the budget for last year showing as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ ■Customs . . . Land tax . , . Stamps . . . Sundries . . . 520,000 480,000 550,000 550,000 Public works . Gov. farms . . Schools . . . Sundries . . Total . . 1,250,000 620,000 300,000 630,000 Total . . 2,100,000 2,800,000 Interest on debt, as well as army and navy expenses, are charged to the Colonial Department of the budget of France. Spanish West Indies In 1894 the revenue of these islands showed : — , Shillings fer *> Head Cuba .... 4,900,000 60 Porto Rico . . . 800,000 20 Total . . 5,700,000 The Cuban budget was made up thus : — 47 Revenue 1 £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Sundries . . . 2,300,000 2,600,000 Debt .... Army, &c. . . Total . . 2,500,000 2,700,000 Total . . 4,900,000 5,200,000 That of Porto Rico was as follows : — Revenue 1 £ Expenses £ Customs . . . i 460,000 Sundries . . . | 340,000 Garrison . . Sundries . . Total . . 200,000 600,000 Total . . ; 800,000 800,000 The debt of Cuba rose from 25 millions sterling in 1889 to 40 millions in 1894. Since the present revolution Jjegan Spain has piled up debt on Cuba, the amount in December 1897 reaching 91 millions sterling. Java Revenue and expenditure have been as follows : — Year Revenue, £ 1870 . 1880 . 1890 . 1896 . 10,300,000 12,200,000 11,500,000 11,000,000 Expenditure, £ 9,600,000 12,200,000 10,600,000 12,000,000 The following table shows the annual average revenues for six years : — £ Sterling 1892-93 1894^96 1896-97 Taxes .... Products . . . Sundries . . . 4,100,000 5,500,000 1,500,000 3,900,000 5,200,000 1,700,000 4, ICO, 000 5,100,000 1,900,000 Total . . 11,100,000 10,800,000 11,100,000 The revenue from products includes monopolies on opium and salt, as well as the profits from Government coffee-farms, &c. Ceylon Revenue and debt have progressed as follows : — Revenue, ;£ Debt, £ Shillings per Head Year Revenue Debt 1881 . . . 1890 . . . 1896 . . . 1,140,000 1,220,000 1,300,000 1,940,000 2,520,000 3,700,000 8 8 8 14 17 23 The budget for 1896 was made up as follows : — Revenues Customs . Railway , Excise . . Sundries . Total 300,000 400,000 250,000 350,000 1, 300, OOP Expenses Debt . . . Public works Garrison Government Total . 180,000 150,000 100,000 870,000 1,300,000 The debt, amounting to ;;f 3, 700,000, is represented by productive works, including piers, waterworks, and a railway of 300 miles, Argentina Revenue and debt have grown as follows :— Year Millions £ £ per Head Revenue Debt Revenue Debt 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1890 . . . 1897 . . . 3-0 3-9 5-4 9-4 10.1 23.0 46-5 88.0 1-3 i-S 2-3 5-0 8.0 13.0 22.0 The returns for five years, ending December 1896, the following averages : — Revenue ^£^7,700, 000 Expenditure The budget for 1898 showed as follows :- gave 10,200,000 Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Excise. . . . Sundries . . . 6,400,000 1,200,000 1,800,000 Debt. . . . Army and navy Sundries . . Total . . 4,600,000 2,000,000 4,200,000 Total . . 9,400,000 10,800,000 Each of the 14 provinces has also its budget, the aggregate revenue amounting to ;^2, 300,000. The total taxation amounts to ;^II, 500,000, or £1 per inhabitant, as compared with £2. in Canada and £i\ in the United States. Debt rose more than 40 millions between 1890 and FINANCES 710 FINANCES 1897, because the Federal Government took over the debts of the provinces, amounting to 37 millions, besides redeeming the guarantees given to certain railway com- panies. There are still municipal debts to the sum of S millions sterling, bringing up the total to 93 millions sterling, or 15 per cent, of the wealth of the nation. Uruguay Revenue and debt have grown as follows : — Year Revenue, £ Debt, £ £ per Inhabitant Revenue Debt 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1890 . . . 1897 . . . 900,000 1,600,000 2,400,000 3,400,000 8,000,000 11,000,000 15,000,000 25,300,000 2.2 3-S 3-2 4.0 20.0 24.0 20.0 30.0 The budget of 1897 showed as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . , Sundries . . . 1,900,000 1,500,000 Debt .... Sundries . . . Total . . 1,100,000 2,300,000 Total . . 3,400,000 3,400,000 Taxation, national and local, including ;f200,ooo for the city of Monte Video, is about 4 millions sterling, or nearly £s per inhabitant, against £:i in Argentina. Debt is equal to 21 per cent, of national wealth, against IS per cent, in Argentina. Chile The budgets of five years to December 1896 give the following a,verages : — Revenue ^f 5, 800, 000 Expenditure .... 5,500,000 The budget for 1897 was as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Nitrate dues . . Sundries . . . 1,700,000 2,900,000 1,300,000 Debt .... Army and Navy Government . Total . . 900,000 1,500,000 3,500,000 Total . . 5,900,000 5,900,000 The debt of Chile amounts to ;^i9,8oo,ooo, or £7 per inhabitant, against £13 in Argentina. The annual service of debt costs 7 shillings per inhabitant in Chile. Peru Revenue and expenditure during five years to end of 1896 averaged thus : — Revenue ;£'8oo,ooo Expenditure 800,000 The budget for 1897 was as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Taxes .... Sundries . . . 630,000 250,000 190,000 Army . . . Interior . . . Sundries . . Total . . 300,000 260,000 570,000 Total . . 1,070,000 1,130,000 Peru borrowed 32 millions sterling in England in 1870-72, and soon after became bankrupt; in 1890 she handed over the State railways and mines to the bond- holders, who agreed to cancel the debt. There is still an internal debt of 4 millions sterling. Venezuela The budget of 1896 shows as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Sundries . . . 1,100,000 1,000,000 Debt .... Government . Total . . 400,000 2,200,000 Total . . 2,100,000 2,600,000 Debt amounts to 8 millions sterling, or £3^ per in- habitant. Mexico Budgets of the last five years give the following averages : — Revenue ^^5, 200, 000 Expenditure .... 4,900,000 The budget for 1898 was made up thus : Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Excise. . . . Sundries . . . 2,500,000 2,200,000 500,000 Debt .... Army . . . Government . Total . . I, goo, 000 1,200,000- 2,100,000 Total . . 5,200,000 5,200,000 Public debt amounts to 30 millions sterling. There is local taxation, between States and municipalities, which sums up .^3,000,000 per annum. Thus the total taxatioo is about 8 millions sterling, or 14 shillings per inhabitant. Brazil The^udgets of five years to end of 1897 gave the following averages : — Revenue ;^i2,6oo,ooo Expenditure .... 13,800,000 The budget for 1898 showed as follows : — Revenue £ Expenses £ Customs . . . Railways . . . Sundries . . . 6,800,000 900,000 1,800,000 Debt .... Army and Navy Sundries . . . Total . . 3,500,000 2,200,000 3,200,000 Total . . 9,500,000 8,900,000 The budget is unreliable as regards expenditure, which always exceeds revenue. The foreign debt amounts to 39 millions sterlings the internal tp 1600 millions of milreis, nominally worth 176 millions sterling, but at the present rate of exchange, only 44 millions sterling. This includes 700 million milreis of paper-money, which bears no interest. The national debt, excluding this paper- money, may be set down at 63 millions sterling, besides local debts amounting to ;if 2, 500,000 sterling. The revenues of iS China I and 1893 showed as follows 1 £ SterUng 1889 1893 Land tax . Customs . Salt tax . Sundries . 4,800,000 5,500,000 2,300,000 6,400,000 7,500,000 3,500,000 2,200,000 T, 800,000 Total 19,000,000 15,000,000 Foreign debt amounts to 55, internal to 5 millions, making altogether 60 millions sterling, the whole ori^ nating out of the war with Japan. FIRES 711 FISH Japan Budgets of the last five years give the following aver- ages :— Revenue ^^16,200,000 Expenditure .... 15,600,000 Estimates for 1898 are as follows : — Revenue | £, Expenses £ Land Tax . . Excise .... Customs . . . Post-Office . . Sundries . . . 5,800,000 6,300,000 1,000,000 1,800,000 3,300,000 Debt . . . Army. . . . Navy. . . . Public works . Sundries . . . Total . . 4,400,000 4,400,000 1,500,000 1,800,000 5,000,000 Total . . 18,200,000 17,100,000 The above does not include an extraordinary expendi- ture of 20 millions sterling, probably a result of the late war. There are provincial taxes for local purposes, aver- aging 8 millions sterling per annum. Public debt 62 millions sterling. Transvaal Revenue has quadrupled in five years, viz. : — I Sterling 1892 1897 Revenue .... Expenditure 1,260,000 1,190,000 4,900,000 4,700,000 Public debt is ;^2,70o,ooo, which is fully covered by the value of public lands. In 18 lows : — FIRES )i the fires and fire-brigades showed as fol- Pence Fires Firemen Cost, £, per Inhab. London 2,427 820 123,000 7.0 Paris. . . 2,708 1.750 104,000 10.0 Berlin . . 3.290 780 70,000 "-S Vienna . . 540 270 12,000 2-5 Hamburg . 840 180 40,000 16.0 Dresden 330 130 11,000 8.0 Leipzig . . 290 130 15,000 10. Buda-Pesth 406 150 12,000 55 Breslau . . 140 190 15,000 95 Brussels r2o r70 11,000 S-2 Bordeaux . 640 100 8,500 8.0 Rome . . 345 300 9,000 4.8 Naples . . 90 200 12,000 50 Milan . . 260 160 7,000 4.0 Genoa . . 120 120 6,000 6.6 Florence . 150 130 3.000 4.0 The average cost of the fire-brigade in the above 16 cities is 7 pence per inhabitant yearly. Hamburg, Berlin, and Paris are much higher. Fires in London since 1870 show thus : — 1870-80 1881-89 1893-97 Annual Average I.79S 2,160 3.444 Inhab. to a Fire 2,150 1,780 1.320 The number of lives endangered, rescued, and lost, is shown as follows : — Lives Yearly Average 1888-92 1893-97 Endangered Rescued .... Lost .... 202 146 56 232 142 90 Loss of life in the second period shows an increase of 60 per cent, over the quinquennium 1888-92, although the number of fires had risen only 15 per cent. The following table shows the nature of the premises for an average of four years ending December 1897, ^^'^ the causes as far as ascertained in the year 1897 : — Premises No. Causes No. Private houses . . 926 Lamps .... 758 Lodgings . . . 712 Gas 268 Liquor shops . . 82 Candles . . . 253 Drug stores . . . 44 Children . . . 190 Shoemakers 41 Ovens .... 88 Cabinetmakers . 30 Hot ashes . . . 87 Bakers .... 27 Airing linen , , 72 Various .... 1.590 Various. . . . Total . . 1.784 Total . . 3.452 3.500 The London fire brigade has 999 men, 67 engines, 115 hose-carts, 36 miles of hose, 235 fire-escapes, 159 horses, 8 steam-tugs, and 592 fire-alarm call points. France Fires in the city of Paris in 1890 destroyed property to the value of ;^36o,ooo, being most numerous in Decem- ber and January. FISH The fisheries of the world may be set down approxi- mately as follows : — Fishermen Tons Fish Tons per Man Great Britain Ireland . . . 93.000 27,000 670,000 30,000 7.2 I.I United Kingdom . France .... Germany Russia .... Italy .... Spain and Portugal Scandinavia . Holland 120,000 85,000 20,000 75.000 70,000 50,000 165,000 18,000 700,000 150,000 60,000 220,000 100,000 90,000 510,000 120,000 5-i 1.8 30 30 i-S 1.8 3-1 6.6 Europe United States Canada 603,000 192,000 71,000 1,950,000 880,000 240,000 3-3 4.6 3-4 Total 866,000 3,070,000 3-S France France produced 1 170 millions of oysters in 1890, of which 350 millions were exported and 820 millions re- tained for home consumption — that is, 43 per inhabitant FISH 712 FLAX Production multiplied twenty-fold in sixteen years, Year 1874 . 1876 . 1890 . Million Oysters Value, £ 64 74,000 2S9 1,170 Russia 440,000 Caviare is produced in large quantities, the export shov/ing tlius : — Year Tons Value, £ £ per Ton 1874 • 1884 . 1894 . 1,800 S,ioo 2,400 180,000 340,000 180,000 100 67 A sturgeon weighing 200 lbs. will give 40 lbs. of caviare. United Kingdom Since 1888 the weight of fish taken has increased 25 per cent., the value 27 per cent., viz. : — Tons Value, £ 1888 1896 1888 1896 Herrings . . Haddock . . . Various . , . Total . . 230,000 120,000 230,000 280,000 180,000 270,000 1,090,000 940,000 3,490,000 1, 090,000 1, 660,000 4,250,000 580,000 730,000 5,520,000 7,000,000 The above is exclusive of salmon and shell-fish worth ;^I, 300,000, making a total value of ^^8,300,000. In 1890 London consumed 50,000 tons of oysters. United States The figures for 1892 compare with those of 1880 thus: — Fishermen Fish, value £ 1880 131,000 8,600,000 1892 192,000 9,400,000 Increase 45 per cent. 10 The average value of fish taken per man was £(>(> in 1880, and only £^i^ in 1892. Canada The fisheries of 1895 show a value of ;^50O,ooo more than in 1885, viz. : — Value. £ 1885 1895 Nova Scotia New Brunswick British Columbia, &c. 1,660,000 Soo.ooo 1,080,000 1,240,000 880,000 1,920,000 Total . 3,540,000 4,040,000 The principal fish taken in 1895 were :- - Tons Value, £ Herring . Salmon Sardines . Various . • 60,000 10,000 12,000 156,000 560,000 740,000 80,000 2,660,000 Total 238,000 4,040,000 FLAX AND LINEN The production of flax has been approximately as follows : — Acres Tons Flax 1886 1895 1885 1895 U. Kingdom France . Germany . Russia . . Austria . Italy . . Belgium . Other States 111,000 109,000 270,000 3,250,000 240,000 170,000 98,000 102,000 97,000 83,000 270,000 5,480,000 250,000 130,000 100,000 120,000 21, coo 28,000 44,000 330,000 47,000 20,000 21, 000 15,000 13,000 22,000 44,000 670,000 48,000 20,000 24,000 19,000 Europe . . . United States . 4,350,000 400,000 6,530,000 1,320,000 526,000 40,000 860,000 80,000 Total • 4,750,000 7,850,000 566,000 940,000 In the above interval of ten years the price of flax declined 15 per cent., that of linen 20 per cent. : the fall in price has naturally led to a great increase of consump- tion. The flax factories of Europe now consume nearly 3000 tons daily, or 50 per cent, more than they did ten years ago. The production and consumption of linen goods show approximately thus : — Produc- tion, Millions Consumption Millions Shillings £ £ per Head United King dom . . 13,0 7.0 3-S France . 10.5 10. 5.2 Germany 9.0 9.0 3-5 Russia . 20.0 20.0 3.5 Austria . 8.0 7.0 3-3 Italy . 5.0 S-o 3.2 Belgium i-i 2.0 6.0 Other States 4.0 8.0 3-0 Europe . 75.0 680 3.5 United State 3 . . 15.0 20.0 5-S Tola 1 . . 90.0 88.0 4.0 This industry has declined as follows in the United Kingdom : — Year Spindles Power-Looms Operatives 1870 . . 1895 • • 1,550,000 1,200,000 35,000 49,000 125,000 108,000 The consumption of flax is about 100,000 tons, against 120,000 in 1870. Exports of linen goods from United Kingdom have been as follows : — Year Linen Ex- ports, Millions of Yards Value £ Exported Linen Yarns, &c. Total i860 . . . 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1890 . . . 1897 . . . 144 226 184 i6S 4,800,000 7,300,000 5,800,000 5,700,000 4,800,000 1,800,000 2,200,000 1,000,000 900,000 1,000,000 6,600,000 9,500,000 6,800,000 6,600,000 5,800,000 Flax-mills in Ireland consume 46,000 tons of flax, and turn out 200 million yards of linen; that is, half the output of the United Kingdom. FOOD 713 FOOD FOOD The principal items of food are grain, potatoes, and meat, which may be reduced to a common denominator if we consider one ton of meat equal to eight tons of grain, and three of potatoes to one of grain. Year Production, Millions Tons Equiva- Grain Meat Potatoes lent in Grain 1880 . . . 189s • . . 204 232 13-3 80 96 337 386 In order to estimate the total food production of countries, we may adopt the following scale for arriving at a common denominator : — Equivalents to a Ton of Grain Meat, 280 lbs. Butter, 224 lbs. Sugar, J ton Fish, j ton Wine, 100 galls. Potatoes, 3 tons All kinds of food being reduced as above to a common denominator of grain, we find the production compared with population gives the following averages : — Tons of Food produced fer 100 Inhabitants Great Brit ain 45 Ireland. . 126 France . • "5 Germany • 90 Russia . . 80 Austria . 86 Italy . • 58 Spain . . Portugal . Sweden . Norway . Denmark Holland . Belgium . 83 54 112 99 180 94 81 Switzerland . 75 Dannb. States no Greece. U. States . Canada . Australia . Argentina . 60 172 190 178 170 Denmark, Ireland, and France, among European nations, produce the highest ratios of food to population, while Great Britain, Portugal, Italy, and Switzerland occupy the lowest places in the above scale. The average for Europe is considerably less than one ton per inhabitant, whereas in the United States and the colonies above cited it is nearly two. The production and consumption of grain average as follows : — Wheat, All Errain, Millions Bushels Millions Bushels Produc. Consump. Produc. Consump. Great Britain . Ireland . . . 57 I 220 20 245 55 530 120 France . . . 304 340 725 760 Germany . . . 120 180 680 820 Russia. . . . 330 210 2,210 1,880 Austria . . . 190 185 780 760 Italy .... 120 150 260 290 Spain .... 90 104 230 24s Portugal . . . 8 13 30 35 Sweden & Nor. 4 14 130 140 Denmark . . . 4 9 85 100 HoUand . . . 5 27 40 70 Belgium . . . 18 30 75 140 Switzerland . . 2 18 10 30 Danub. States . 100 5° 280 190 Greece . . . 7 10 15 20 Europe . . . 1,360 1,580 5.850 6,150 U. States. . . 470 330 3.050 2,850 Canada . . . 60 45 210 180 Australia . . . 30 20 60 50 Argentina . . SO 25 100 70 Total . . 1,970 2,000 9,270 9.300 There is a deficit of 30 million bushels in the above table, which is covered by imports from India, Chile, and other countries. The following table shows the weight of each kind of food produced, and the equivalent of all in grain (butter and cheese are under the head of butter) : — Tons (000 omitted) Wine, Equivalent in Tons of Grain Grain Potatoes Meat Sugar Butter Fish Millions Gallons Great Britain .... 6,200 3.400 760 140 670 16,150,000 Ireland 1,400 2,700 340 60 30 5,680,000 France 18,100 12,800 1,200 700 200 150 840 44,070,000 Germany 17,100 31.800 1,520 1,800 300 60 70 47,280,000 Russia . 55. 100 20,700 2,290 800 350 220 40 86,260,000 Austria 19.500 12,400 1,210 900 170 30 "5 38,020,000 Italy . 6,400 yoo 390 145 100 605 17.450.000 Spain . S.800 1,600 430 40 50 460 14,870,000 Portugal 800 300 IQO 10 40 70 2,580,000 Sweden 2,800 1.500 160 60 200 5,580,000 Norway 500 600 70 20 260 1,980,000 Denmark 2,100 400 130 60 50 3,970,000 Holland . 1,000 2,200 130 200 120 120 4,610,000 Belgium 1,900 3.400 no 300 60 5,110,000 Switzerland . 200 1,200 80 70 30 2,240,000 Danubian States 6,700 300 400 50 170 12,200,000 Greece 400 60 10 10 40 1,400,000 Europe 146,000 96,000 9.380 4,700 1,865 1,990 2,440 309,450,000 United States 74.000 6,300 4,500 400 610 880 25 121,010,000 Canada S.ooo 1,200 300 130 240 9,580,000 Australia 1,500 500 600 80 55 20 3 7,260,000 Argentina 2,500 100 420 120 20 20 32 6,700,000 Total . 229,000 104, 100 15,200 5,300 2,680 3.150 2,500 454,000,000 It appears that the United States produce one-fourth of the food of Christendom. The total weight of food (for human beings) consumed yearly is 370 million tons, containing nutriment equal to 454 million tons of grain. FOOD 714 FOOD The grain crops of the world have increased 18 per cent, in 20 years, viz. : — Annual Average, Tons 1871-80 1883-88 1890-96 Wheat .... Maize . . . Rve Oats .... Barley .... 48,600,000 38,400,000 31,400,000 46,400,000 19,400,000 54,500,000 50,200,000 34,500,000 52,000,000 20,500,000 56,400,000 52,500,000 32,900,000 56,900,000 19,500,000 Tots! . . 184,400,000 211,700,000 218,200,000 Beerbohm's return of the world's wheat crop in the last four years was as follows : — Tons Produced Year In Europe Out of Europe Total 1894 .... 1895 . ■ ■ 1896 .... 1897 .... 38,200,000 37,300,000 37,800,000 30,000,000 25,800,000 25,300,000 22,200,000 26,000,000 64,000,000 62,600,000 60,000,000 56,000,000 The wheat crop of 1898 was the largest on record, reaching 62,800,000 tons. Exports of wheat from various countries in twenty years, ending 1895, were : — From Annual Export, Millions of Bushels 1876-80 1881-90 1891-95 Average United States Russia . . India . . Roumania . Austria . . Argentina . Canada'. . Uruguay , 1x6 72 7 17 15 I 4 124 90 34 21 IS 5 S I 179 80 32 38 9 4 136 83 27 22 13 12 6 I Total • • 232 295 377 300 It appears from the foregoing that in the last period of five years, 1891-95, the annual weight of wheat carried from one to another country was gj million tons, to which adding maize, oats, &c., the total international grain trade will be found to exceed 12 million tons, or about 5 per cent, of the grain crops of the world. Thus, however enormous the grain trade between nations may seem, it is evident that 95 per cent, of grain is consumed in the country of its production. The wheat crop of Europe in the last two years showed as follows : — United Kingdom . France Germany .... Russia Austria Italy Spain and Portugal . Scandinavia . . Belgium .... Danubian States . . Holland, Greece, &c. Europe Millions Bushels 1896 S8 344 104 348 178 132 92 8 20 132 56 1,472 1897 r:6 288 100 29S 144 100 100 8 20 SO 44 1,248 Average 57 316 102 323 161 116 96 8 20 III SO 1,360 The following table shows the world's " visible supply ' of wheat on 1st December of each year, and the average price in England during the year : — Year Supply, Tons Shillings per Ton 1894 .... 189s .... 1896 .... 1897 .... Average . 5,000,000 4,500,000 3,800,000 3,050,000 4,100,000 103 126 167 168 141 The production of meat is shown as follows :- Great Britain . . Ireland .... France .... Germany , . . Russia .... Austria .... Italy Spain Portugal. . . . Sweden & Norway Denmark . . . Holland. . . . Belgium .... Switzerland . . . Danubian States . Greece .... Europe .... United States . . Canada .... Australia . . . Argentina . . , Total . . Product, Tons (000 omitted) Beef 350 240 700 880 1,380 710 250 100 30 170 8S 80 7S 60 175 20 5.305 2,410 200 300 205 8,420 Mutton 280 40 210 ISO 480 140 70 260 30 28 10 S 5 ISO 40 1,908 380 35 280 207 2,810 Pork 130 60 290 490 430 360 70 70 40 32 3S 40 30 IS 75 2,167 1,7x0 65 20 8 3.970 Total 760 340 1,200 1,520 2,290 1,2x0 390 430 100 230 130 130 IIO 80 400 60 9.380- 4,500 300- 600 420 15,200 The value of food consumed for human support is approximately as follows :— Millions £ Sterling •i l-> 1 3 1 ■o e 5 3 s2 u ■d i a l-H Great Britain. 53 86 74 54 98 365 209 IS& Ireland . , S 4 7 3 6 25 20 s U. KingdoTXi . 58 90 81 57 104 390 229 i6r France . . . 77 62 46 45 Q5 325 309 16 Germany . . 80 68 55 62 X22 387 340 47 Russia , . . 151 86 23 43 91 394 387 7 Austria . , . 58 45 35 36 66 240 234 6 Italy . . . 45 18 35 20 35 153 145 it Spam . . . 27 20 25 12 23 107 xox & Portugal . . 6 4 5 2 6 23 21 z Swed. & Nor. 13 II 5 7 5 41 35 5 Denmark . . 6 3 2 3 2 i6 14 2 Holland . . 12 5 4 6 IX 38 23 15 Belgium . . 14 7 P 8 14 52 38 14 Switzerland . ^ 2 4 4 20 12 a Danub. States 18 16 6 6 7 S3 52 I Greece . . . 3 3 I I 3 II 9 2 Europe . . . 573 443 334 312 588 2,250 1.949 ^01 United States 90 132 72 85 141 520 466 54 Canada . . 8 8 3 4 4 27 24 3 Australia . . 5 5 3 4 4 21 17 4 Argentina . . *^ 5 3 4 4 22 x8 4 Total . 682 593 415 409 741 2,840 2.474 366 FOOD 715 FOOD The above, countries contain a population of 455 mil- lions, and the value of food consumed by them averages a little over £(> per head yearly, or fourpence a day. The ratio yearly per inhabitant is as follows : — Shillings per Inhahitant Great Britain 206 I Ireland . . no France . 166 Germany . . 148 Russia . . • 74 Austria . 114 Italy . . • 99 Spain . . Portugal . Sweden . Norway . Denmark Holland . Belgium , 120 96 120 no 144 160 160 Switzerland . 132 Danub. States 90 Greece . . . 100 United States 150 Canada . . 105 Australia . . 96 Argentina. . no Frankland says that a man requires any one of the following items to support life, daily : — 12 lbs. cabbage 10 lbs. carrots 6 lbs. fish 3i lbs. beef 2 lbs. bread 2 lbs. eggs ij lbs. rice I lb. cheese 7 bottles stout This subject is set forth at great length under Diet, p. 191. The consumption of food is approximately as fol- lows : — Tons (000 omitted) Wine, Equivalent in Grain Meat Potatoes Sugar Butter, &c. Fish Gallons Tons of Grain United Kingdom 16,100 1,880 6,200 1,500 Sio 700 16 42,900,000 France 19,300 1,250 12, 800 500 270 150 970 47,300,000 Germany 20,600 1,720 31,700 650 440 200 100 52,000,000 Russia . 47,000 2,270 20,100 700 220 350 80 77,000,000 Austria 19,000 1,160 10,000 350 240 30 100 35,700,000 Italy . 7,200 370 800 100 90 150 560 17,400,000 Spdn . 6,100 430 1,500 60 40 100 450 15,300,000 Portugal 900 100 300 2S 10 40 60 2,600,000 Sweden 2,800 160 1,500 40 50 100 2 5,400,000 Norway 700 70 600 20 20 120 I 1,950,000 Denmark . 2,500 80 400 SO 20 30 I 3,600,000 HoUand . 1,800 100 2,200 100 40 SO 2 4,050,000 Belgium 3.S00 160 3,600 130 70 SO 6 7,100,000 Switzerland . 800 120 1,200 50 20 10 40 2,900,000 Danubian States 4.500 380 100 40 50 10 190 10,100,000 Greece 500 70 200 15 10 10 32 1,600,000 Europe 153.300 10,320 93,200 4.330 2,100 2,100 2,6lO 326,900,000 United States 71,200 3.9SO 7,000 2,140 5S0 840 33 117,200,000 Canada 4,500 250 1,200 190 50 120 I 8,050,000 Australia 1,200 400 600 140 50 20 5 5,450,000 Argentina . 1,800 280 100 20 20 31 4,800,000 T< nal 232,000 15,200 102,000 6,900 2,800 3,100 2,680 462,400,000 United Kingdom Production and consumption of wheat and of all grain, in terms of two years averaged as follows, in millions of bushels : — Wheat All Grain Produc. Consum. Produc. Consum. 1887-88 . 1889-90 . 1891-92 . 1893-94 . . . 1895-96 . 68 S6 48 235 238 253 247 2SS 302 322 308 293 591 628 627 653 668 The production of grain has not declined much in the last ten years, viz. : — Year Millions Bushels Wheat Barley Oats Total 1887 76 70 151 297 1883 74 75 158 307 1889 76 75 164 31s 1890 76 81 171 328 1891 75 80 166 321 1892 6i 77 168 306 1893 51 66 169 236 1894 61 79 191 331 1895 38 75 174 287 1896 58 78 163 299 1897 56 73 164 293 The quantitj es imported in he same period were : — Millions Bushels Year Wheat Barley Oats,&c. Total 1887 160 29 93 282 1888 161 43 91 295 1889 158 35 106 299 1890 165 34 114 313 1891 179 35 88 302 1892 191 29 103 323 1893 188 46 96 330 1894 194 63 103 360 1895 215 47 103 365 1896 199 45 141 385 1897 177 38 142 357 The importation of wheat from different parts of the world has been as follows : — Year Millions of Bushels from U. States Russia India Various Total 1887 . . . 101 n 17 31 160 1S88 64 44 16 37 161 1889 62 43 18 35 158 1890 68 40 18 39 16s 1891 86 30 26 37 179 1892 122 9 25 35 191 1893 "4 20 12 42 i88 1894 94 34 11 55 194 1895 90 40 17 62 215 1896 106 34 4 a 199 1897 108 30 I 38 177 FOOD The importation of all grain was as follows, in millions of bushels, from the following countries : — Year U. States Russia Rou- mania Various Total 1887 . . 124 56 28 74 282 1888 . 84 108 24 79 295 1889 . 108 93 22 76 299 1B90 . 120 78 30 85 313 1891 . 104 74 30 94 302 1892 . 164 37 20 102 323 1S93 • 138 70 34 88 330 1894 . 116 116 35 93 360 1895 . 123 107 17 118 365 1896 . 177 76 24 108 385 1897 . . 211 59 19 68 357 716 FOOD The actual cost has been only 438 millions, which shows a saving of 41 millions in the said period of ten years. The total weight of grain consumed and value were as follows : — If wheat had remained at the same price as in 1887, the cost to the nation would have been 479 millions sterling in the decade, viz. : — Tons Cost, £ sterling British Imported , . . , 16,300,000 45,200,000 133,000,000 346,000,000 Total . . . 61,500,000 479,000,000 Tons (000 omitted) Value, Millions £ Year British Im- ported Total British Im- ported Total 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 Avera ge 7,400 7,700 7,900 8,200 8,050 7.650 7.150 8,300 7,200 7.500 7,700 7.050 7,400 7.500 7,800 7.SSO 8,100 8,250 9,000 9,100 9,600 8,150 14.450 15,100 15.400 16,000 15,600 15.750 15.400 17,300 16,300 17,100 15.850 41.8 44.4 44-5 49.6 52-3 44-9 38-9 41.1 31-7 35-9 42.5 48.3 51-3 51-2 53-5 62.0 58.7 51-2 48.2 49-7 52.8 52.7 90.1 95-7 95-7 103. 1 114-3 103.6 90.1 89-3 81.4 88.7 95-2 The following table shows the weight and value of wheat consumed in the United Kingdom in ten years : — Tons (000 omitted) Value, Millions £ Price, Shillings per Ton British Imported Total British Imported Total British Imported General 1887 1.900 4,000 5.900 15-5 30.6 46.1 163 153 '^1 1888 1.850 4.030 5,880 14-7 311 45-8 159 154 156 1889 1,900 3.950 5.850 14.2 30-5 44-7 149 154 153 IS90 1,900 4.130 6,030 15-2 32.2 47-4 160 156 157 I89I 1,870 4.470 6,340 17-3 39-8 57-1 185 178 180 1892 1.530 4.780 6,310 11.6 36.5 48.1 151 153 152 189^ 1,270 4,700 5.970 8.4 30.3 38.7 132 129 130 1894 1.530 4.850 6,380 8.7 26.0 34-7 114 107 109 1895 950 5.380 6,330 5-5 29.6 35-1 115 no 111 1896 1.450 4.970 6,420 9-5 30.8 40.3 ^^l 124 126 Average . . . 1,630 4.520 6,150 12. 1 31-7 43-8 148 140 142 The weight and value of other grain than wheat consumed were ; Year Tons (000 omitted) Barley British Imported Total Oats, &c. British Imported I Total Collective Value, Millions £ British Imported Total 1887 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 Average 1.750 1.850 1.850 2,050 2,000 1,900 1,650 1.950 1,900 1.950 1.890 710 1,060 870 830 870 710 1.140 1,560 1,180 1,120 r.oio 2,460 2,910 2,720 2,880 2,870 2,610 2,790 3.510 3,080 3.070 2,900 3.750 4,000 4,150 4.250 4.180 4.220 4.230 4,820 4.350 4,100 4,210 2.340 2,310 2,680 2,840 2,2IO 2,610 2,410 2.590 2.540 3.510 2,600 6,090 6,310 6,830 7,090 6,390 6,830 6,640 7.410 6,890 7,610 6,810 26.3 29.7 30.3 34-4 35-0 33-3 30-5 32.4 26.2 26.4 30.S 17.7 20.2 20.7 21.3 22.2 22.2 20.9 22.2 20.1 22.0 20.9 44.0 49-9 510 55-7 57-2 55-5 51-4 54-6 46.3 48.4 51-4 The total weight of grain consumed in the United Kingdom in ten years was 158^ million tons, which cost 952 millions sterling. Tons (000 omitted) Cost, Millions £ Wheat Barley, &c. Total Wheat Barley, &c. Total British . Imported 16,300 45.200 61,000 36,100 77.300 81.300 121 317 305 209 426 526 Total . 61,500 97,100 158,600 438 514 952 Not quite 60 per cent, of the above grain was used for human food, the rest being given to animals, the account standing approximately thus : — Tons (000 omitted) Value, Millions £ Used for British Im- ported Total British Im- ported Total Mankind . Animals . 35,200 42,100 55.300 26,000 90,500 68,100 242 184 373 153 615 337 Total . 77,300 81,300 158,600 426 526 952 FOOD 717 FOOD The total grain imports of thirty-six years were : — Tons (000 omitted) Wheat Barley Oats Maize, Total 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-90 . . 1891-96 . . 18,000 28,500 38,500 29,000 3.500 S.700 7.800 6,600 3.800 6,200 7.000 4,700 7.500 16,500 18,200 12,700 32,800 56.900 71.500 53.000 36 years . . 114,000 23,600 21,700 54.900 214,20<5 The production and consumption of grain and meat since 1861 was as follows : — Tons Yearly (000 omitted) Grain Meat Produced Consumed Produced Consumed 1861-70 . . 1871-80 . . 1881-90 . . 1891-96 . . 9,700 8,500 7,820 7.650 13,000 14,200 14.970 16,500 1,040 1.050 1,080 1,100 1,170 1.340 1.650 1,800 The production of meat has risen 6 per cent, con- sumption 54 per cent., since 1861, the former showing as follows : — Tons Yearly 1861-70 England Scotland 1 Ireland Total Beef . . . Mutton . . Pork. . . 230,000 265,000 120,000 50,000 65,000 10,000 200,000 40,000 60,000 480,000 370,000 190,000 Total . 615,000 125,000 1 300,000 1,040,000 1891-96 Beef . . . Mutton . . Pork. . . 285,000 200,000 125,000 65,000 80,000 5,000 240,000 40,000 60,000 590,000 320,000 190,000 Total . 610,000 150,000 340,000 1,100,000 Production has increased 60,000 tons in 30 years, while imports of foreign meat rose from 100,000 tons in 1865 to 780,000 tons in 1895. The consumption of meat in the United Kingdom, native and imported, showed as follows : — 1875 1885 1895 Native Imported Total Native Imported Total Native Imported Total Beef Mutton .... Pork 490,000 370,000 190,000 100,000 5S.O0O 145,000 590,000 425,000 335,000 570,000 320,000 190,000 180,000 90,000 220,000 750,000 410,000 410,000 590,000 320,000 190,000 260,000 230,000 290,000 850,000 550,000 480,000 Total . . 1,050,000 300,000 1,350.000 1,080,000 490,000 1,570,000 1,100,000 780,000 1,880,000 The average consumption of meat was 108 pounds per inhabitant in 1895, as compared with 93 pounds in 1875. Meantime the average is much higher in Great Britain, considered apart from Ireland, the consumption in 1895 showing approximately as follows : — Tons (000 omitted Beef Mutton Pork Total Native Irish Imported . 350 220 260 280 30 210 130 30 290 760 280 760 Total 830 520 450 i,8oo This gives an avers^e of 115 pounds per inhabitant, the above figures showing that Great Britain is fed during five months on native meat, two months on Irish, and five months on what is imported from foreign_ countries. As regards Ireland, the consumption is approximately 80,000 tons (one-fourth imported), being equal to no more than 40 pounds per inhabitant, the lowest ratio of all countries in Europe except Italy. Importations of Irish and foreign live stock into Great Britain in 1896 were as follows : — Irish Foreign Total Horses Cows . Sheep . Pigs . 40,000 690,000 750,000 610,000 40,000 560,000 770,000 80,000 1,250,000 1,520,000 610,000 The imports of food for human use, retained for con- sumption, were as follows, per annum : — 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 1891-96 Wheat, tons 1,800,000 2,850,000 3,850,000 4,830,000 Meat 130,000 290,000 570,000 700,000 Potatoes, „ 60,000 330,000 150.000 150,000 Rice, „ 90,000 170,000 180,000 140,000 Sugar, ,, 520,000 860,000 1,150,000 1,420,000 Butter, ,, 60,000 80,000 130,000 190,000 Cheese, ,, 45,000 75.000 90,000 105,000 Tea, 45.000 65,000 80,000 95,000 Coffee, 15,000 15,000 14,000 I2,O0C Cocoa , , 2,000 4,000 7,000 10,000 Eggs, milL . 360 ^90 910 1,420 Wine, gals. 12,500,000 16,500,000 14,200,000 14,600,000 Spirits, gals. 6,500,000 10,200,000 8,300,000 8,000,000 Compared with population, the imports were as follows, per inhabitant : — 1861-70 1871-80 1881-9D 1891-96 Wheat, lbs. . 13s 192 240 282 Meat, 10 19 36 40 Potatoes, „ 4 22 9 9 Rice, „ 6 II 11 8 Sugar, ,, 39 58 72 82 Butter, „ 4 5 8 II Cheese, 3 5 6 6 Tea, ozs. 53 70 78 88 Coffee, „ 18 16 14 II Cocoa, ,, 3 5 7 10 Eggs, No. 12 21 28 37 Wine, gals. 0.42 0.51 0-39 0.38 Spirits, „ 0.23 0.31 0.23 0.21 FOOD 718 FOOD Among the items of food consumed in 1896 were the following : — Native Imported Total Butter, tons . 90,000 200,000 290,000 Cheese, ,, . 110,000 110,000 220,000 Rice, 120,000 120,000 Potatoes, ,, 6,260,000 110,000 6,370,000 Sugar, ,, 1,510,000 1,510,000 Tea, „ . 100,000 100,000 CoEfee, ,, 12,000 12,000 Cocoa, ,, 11,000 11,000 Eggs, millions . 2,100 1,600 3.700 Food imports into the United Kingdom for the last three years (exclusive of wines, tea, &c.) were of the following value : — Wheat . Maize Barley . Oats, &c. All grain Butter . Cheese . Lard . . Milk . . Meat, dead Cattle . Vegetables Total j^ (000 omitted) 1896 30,200 7,800 S.Soo S.Soo 49,000 16,800 4,700 2,900 1,100 24,400 9,000 4,100 1896 30,900 9,400 S.700 S.900 51.900 17,800 4,900 2,300 1,200 25,400 10,400 4.500 118,400 1897 Average 32,900 9,200 4,700 5,600 52.400 18,400 S.900 2,000 1,400 28,100 11,400 4,600 124,200 31.300 8,800 S.300 S.700 51,100 17,700 5,200 2,400 1,200 26,000 10,300 4,400 118,300 Distinguishing what food was received from the British Colonies and from foreign countries (including sugar, tea, wines, &c.) the values in 1896 were : — £ Sterling Colonies Foreign Countries Total Grain .... Meat .... Butter, &c. . . Sugar Vegetables, &c. . 3,600,000 7,500,000 4,000,000 1,700,000 2,200,000 48,300,000 28,300,000 21,700,000 17,500,000 41,600,000 51,900,000 35,800,000 25,700,000 19,200,000 43,800,000 Total . . 19,000,000 157,400,000 176,400,000 Imports of butter, margarine, and cheese in the last five years were : — Year Tons Butter Marg. Cheese Total 1893 1894 1895 I8g6 . . . 1897 Average , 117,000 129,000 141,000 152,000 161,090 140,000 64,000 SS.ooo 47,000 46,000 47,000 52,000 104,000 114,000 107,000 112,000 130,000 113,000 285,000 298,000 295,000 310,000 338,000 305,000 Excluding margarine the importation of butter and cheese was together as follows : — Tons from 1891 1895 1896 189T Canada . 58,000 60,000 66,000 81,000 Denmark . 55.000 58,000 61,000 67,000 United States 3S.0OO 29,000 36,000 40,000 Holland . 23,000 25,000 27,000 29,000 France . 24,000 26,000 25,000 24,000 Australia . 18,000 21,000 14,000 17,000 Various . 30,000 29,000 3S.OOO 33,000 Total 243,000 248,000 264,000 291,000 The importation of cattle from Ireland into Great Britain has been as follows : — Year Number Cattle Sheep Pigs 1893 .... 689,000 1,108,000 457,000 1894 .... 827,000 957,000 585,000 1895 .... 781,000 650,000 550,000 1896 .... 689,000 750,000 613,000 1897 .... 745,000 811,000 684,000 Average 746,000 855,000 580,000 The importation of poultry and eggs in 1896 was as Hows : — follows Poultry, Tons Eggs, Millions Total Value, £ France. Denmark Canada Other countries . 6,000 3,000 14,000 394 188 63 945 1,600,000 500,000 300,000 2,900,000 Total . 23,000 1.590 5,300,000 Importations of meat in 1896 were as follows (the equivalent being taken for live stock) : — From Tons Value, £ Dead Live Total United States . British Colonies Denmark . . . Argentina . . Various . . . 340,000 170,000 70,000 50,000 50,000 130,000 40,000 20,000 470,000 210,000 70,000 70,000 50,000 19,500,000 7,300,000 3,000,000 2,700,000 2,300,000 Total . . 680,000 190,000 870,000 34,800,000 The above is exclusive of 120,000 tons of lard and poultry, worth;£'3,400,ooo. Imports of sugar in 1896 were as follows :— From Tons Value, £ £ per Ton Germany .... W. Indies .... France Holland Various 760,000 160,000 140,000 110,000 480,000 9,300,000 1,700,000 1,800,000 1,500,000 4,900,000 12.2 10.6 12.8 13.6 10.2 Total . . . 1,650,000 19,200,000 11.6 Imports of dairy products, &c., including butter. FOOD margarine, cheese, condensed milk, eggs, and poultry, in the same year were : — 719 FOOD From ; Tons Value, £ ;^ per Ton ff^<=« 80,000 Holland 83,000 Denmark .... 76,000 Canada 86,000 United States . . . 36,000 Germany .... ssiooo Vanous 116,000 4,900,000 4,700,000 6,800,000 3,700,000 1,800,000 1,400,000 6,000,000 61 57 90 42 50 40 52 Total . . . 505,000 29,300,000 59 Food imports of all kinds from the principal countries in 1896 were: — From £ Ratio United States Russia . France . Germany Canada . Denmark Holland . Various . 35,600,000 25,000,000 15,400,000 12,300,000 10,600,000 10,300,000 8,600,000 58,600,000 20.2 14.4 8.7 7.0 6.0 ^i 4.8 331 Total 176,400,000 100. This includes grain used for cattle. The annual consumption of food per inhabitant has been approximately as follows : — 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 1891-96 Grain, lbs. . . . 358 380 385 390 Meat, Potatoes, ,, Butter, 88 530 10 91 460 II 103 38s 14 '2^ 360 16 Cheese, „ ; 10 12 13 12 Eggs, No. . Beer, gallons Spirits, „ Wine, „ 80 31 0.9 0.4 85 32 1.2 o-S 83 29 I.O 0.4 91 30 1.0 0.4 The above table shows that the people are now much better fed than they were 30 years ago, consumption per inhabitant having risen 20 per cent, for meat, 60 per cent, for butter, 20 per cent, for cheese, 14 per cent for eggs. But this is not true of Ireland, and hence the increase of consumption, per head, in Great Britain b even higher than stated. The quantity of each article consumed was approxi- mately as follows, yearly : — 1861-70 1871-80 1 1881-90 1891-96 Grain, tons 4,800,000 5,600,000 6,200,000 6,700,000 Meat, 1,170,000 1,340,000 1,650,000 1,800,000 Potatoes, „ 7,100,000 6,800,000 6,200,000 6,200,000 Butter, ., 140,000 160,000 220,000 280,000 Cheese, „ 140,000 180,000 200,000 215,000 Eggs, mill. 2,400 2,800 3,010 3,520 Beer, barrels 25,500,000 29,500,000 28,600,000 32,000,000 Wine, gall. 28,000,000 39,600,000 36,000,000 38,800,000 Spirits, „ 12,600,000 16,800,000 14,100,000 14,600,000 As r^ards tea, coffee, sugar, rice, cocoa, and wine, see page 717. In the above table the item of grain does not include what is used in breweries and distilleries, nor of course what is consumed by animals. The value of food consumed (including the grain for breweries and distilleries, but excluding what was used by animals) during 1896 was approximately as follows : — Native, £ Imported, £ Total, £ Grain .... 21,700,000 36,400,000 58,100,000 Meat .... 55,000,000 35,400,000 90,400,000 Dairy .... 33,000,000 23,800,000 56,800,000 Potatoes . . . 25,100,000 900,000 26,000,000 Poultry and eggs 9,700,000 5,300,000 1^,000,000 Veget and fruit . 8,000,000 10,300,000 18,300,000 Sugar .... 19,000,000 19,200,000 Tea, coffee, &c. . 11,400,000 11,400,000 Fish 7,500,000 3,200,000 10,700,000 Sundries . . 7,000,000 6,800,000 13,800,000 Total . . 167,000,000 153,000,000 320,000,000 The above is exclusive of liquor, which stands approxi- mately as follows : — 1 Native, £ Imported, £ Total, £ Beer .... Spirits .... Wine .... Cider .... 72,000,000 7,300,000 600,000 2,100,000 6,000,000 72,000,000 9,400,000 6,000,000 600,000 Total . . 79,900,000 8,100,000 88,000,000 Adding tc^ether food and liquor would give a total of 408 millions sterling, but the grain used for liquor having been counted in the first table there is a repetition, and if allowance be made accordingly, the total cost of food and liquor will be found to reach 390 millions sterling, £ Population Shillings per Head Great Britain . . Ireland. . . . 365,000,000 34,900,000 25,000,000 4,550,000 2ro no United Kingdom 390,000,000 39,450,000 198 There is no country in the world where the sum spent on food, per head of the population, is so high as in Great Britain, but on the other hand Ireland is among the lowest in the scale of nations in this respect. Besides food imported for human use Great Britain receives large quantities of grain to feed cattle and horses, which causes the item of food to figure for a much larger sum in our imports than is shown above. The following table shows the total amount paid to foreign nations for food in recent years, exclusive of wines : — Millions £ 1892 I 1894 ; 1896 | 1897 Grain Meat Dairy Sundries . Total S8.7 48.2 : 52.8 32.1 323 35-9 22.0 23.1 23-9 55-8 53-2 54-8 53-6 39-5 25-7 55-3 168.6 156.8 167.4 ; 174. 1 FOOD 720 FOOD The value of imported food, compared with population, has been as follows : — Millions £ Shillings Grain Meat, &c. Total per Head 1854 . . . 23 25 . 48 35 i860 33 34 67 46 1870 37 53 90 58 1880 70 90 160 92 1889 54 91 145 78 1892 59 no 169 89 1894 48 109 157 81 1896 S3 114 167 84 1897 . . . 54 120 174 87 If wines were included the total for 1897 would be 182 millions, that is, 91 shillings per inhabitant, equal to threepence a day per head, and as the earnings of the nation [vttie "Wealth and Industries of Nations," p. 95) averaged ^36 per head, it appears that one-eighth of the earnings of the people is expended on imported food which cannot be produced at so low a cost in Great Britain. In case it were ever deemed expedient to produce within the British Isles all the grain required for con- sumption, it would be necessary to double the area under corn of all kinds. The following table shows the actual and the required areas : — Acres Required G. Britain Ireland Total Wheat . . Barley . . Oats, &o. . 1,690,000 2,160,000 3,590,000 40,000 iSo,ooo 1,200,000 1,730,000 2,340,000 4,790,000 8,200,000 3,400,000 7,500,000 Total . 7,440,000 1,420,000 8,860,000 19,100,000 The actual yearly deficit of grain is 9,000,000 tons in Great Britain, 500,000 tons in Ireland, in all 9J million tons, to produce which would need 10,200,000 acres, an area equal to tlie aggregate of Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and Devonshire. The production and consumption of the principal items of food in Great Britain and Ireland, reduced to a grain denominator, show as follows : — I'roduciwn Quantity, Tons Grain Equivalent Great Britain Ireland U. Kingdom Great Britain Ireland U. Kingdom Grain .... Meat .... Potatoes .... Butter and cheese . Fish .... 6, zoo, 000 760,000 3,500,000 140,000 670,000 1,400,000 340,000 2,700,000 60,000 30,000 7,600,000 1,100,000 6,200,000 200,000 700,000 6,200,000 6,100,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 2,000,000 1,400,000 2,700,000 900,000 600,000 100,000 7,600,000 8,800,000 2,100,000 2,000,000 2,100,000 Total . 11,070,000 4,530,000 15,600,000 16,900,000 5,700,000 22,600,000 Consumption Grain .... Meat .... Potatoes .... Butter and cheese . Fish 15,200,000 1,800,000 3,600,000 480,000 670,000 1, 900,000 80,000 2,700,000 30,000 40,000 17,100,000 1,880,000 6,300,000 510,000 710,000 15,200,000 14,400,000 1,200,000 4,800,000 2,000,000 1,900,000 600,000 900,000 300,000 100,000 17,100,000 15,000,000 2,100,000 5,100,000 2,100,000 Total . 21,750,000 4,750,000 26,500,000 37,600,000 3,800,000 41,400,000 Reducing all to a grain denominator, we find that Great Britain raises food for 45 per cent, of her population, while Ireland consumes only two-thirds of her production. Taking the whole United Kingdom collectively, the home production is equal to 55 per cent., imported food 45 per cent., of the total consumption. France The production and consumption of grain in four years ending 1895 were : — Year Tons Production Consumption Deficit 1892 . . . 1893 ■ . . 1894 . . . 1895 . . . 1896 . . . 17,700,000 14,900,000 19,400,000 19,300,000 19,000,000 19,300,000 16,800,000 20,600,000 19,700,000 19,100,000 1,600,000 1,900,000 1,200,000 400,000 100,000 Although the production averages almost half a tot* per inhabitant, France has to import about 100,000 tons monthly. The crops of 1896 compared with those of four preceding years thus : — 1892-93 1894-95 1896 Wheat, tons . Oats, ,, . Rye, „ . Barley, ,, . Maize, &c. ,, . 7,100,000 5,000,000 1,600,000 1,000,000 1,600,000 8,300,000 6,400,000 1,800,000 1,200,000 1,650,000 8,200,000 6.300,000 1,700,000 1,100,000 1,700,000 Total . 16,300,000 19,350,000 19,000,000 FOOD 721 FOOD The production and consumption of wheat in the last thirty-six years has been as follows : — Tons Yearly Bushels Production Consumption per Inhab. 1861-64 1865-68 1869-72 1873-76 1877-80 1881-84 1885-88 1889-92 1893-96 Average 6,900,000 6,6oo,oco 6,400,000 7,250,000 6,500,000 7,600,000 7,350,000 7,100,000 7,900,000 7,100,000 7,200,000 6,700,000 6,700,000 7,500,000 7,900,000 9,100,000 8,100,000 8,500,000 8,700,000 7,800,000 7-7 7-1 7-3 8.0 9.6 c-5 8.9 9.0 8.3 In the last eight years the net imports of wheat averaged i,loo,cxx3 tons yearly, from which it appears that (after deducting what is necessary for seed) the consumption in the form of food is 7,900,000 tons, equal to 8J bushels per inhabitant, and that France subsists on imported wheat almost two months in the year. Although France is still the greatest wine-produdng country in the world, she has had in this respect a constant deficit since 1S80, the heaviest losses from Phylloxera having been felt in the preceding year. Production and consumption are shown as follows : — Millions of Gallons Yearly Year Vintage Imports Exports ^°;!?;;"'> 1861-64 . 930 3 45 888 1865-68 . . 1,230 4 64 1,170 1869-72 . 1,320 7 70 1.257 1873-76 . 1,250 13 78 1.18s 1877-80 . 910 68 63 915 1881-84 . 880 178 56 1,002 1885-88 . 650 240 54 836 1889-92 . 610 235 45 800 1893-96 . 890 120 40 970 Average . 963 97 57 1,003 The consumption of meat is less than in the United Kingdom, amounting to no more than 1,300,000 tons, Tons Pounds per Head Beef Mutton . Pork Imported meat Total 700,000 40 210,000 12 290,000 17 100,000 6 1,300,000 75 France imports cheese, and exports butter. Net exports of dairy products compare with those of ten years ago thus : — Tons ' Value, £ 1885 1896 1886 1896 Butter .... Eggs .... 32,000 22,000 25.000 j 3.400,000 17.500 1,200,000 1,800,000 goo^ooo Total . . 54.a» 42,500 4,600,000 2,700,000 The value of food imports in last three years was : — £ Sterling 1895 1896 1897 Grain .... Meat .... Cheese. , . ■ Fruit .... CofiTefe .... 3,100,000 5,800,000 600,000 1,000,000 7,100,000 1,500,000 3,200,000 600,000 1,000,000 7,000,000 9.900,000 4,000,000 600,000 1,400.000 4,200,000 Total . . 17,600,000 13,300,000 20,100,000 The value of food consumed may be summed up approximately as follows : — Grain . Potatoes Meat Dairy . Poultry . Vegetables Millions £ Sterling Coffee . Sugar Fish 77.0 36.0 62.0 44-5 14.0 12.0 Wine, &c. Sundries . Total 7-1 6-5 4.8 46.1 15.0 325.0 The value of imported food is only 5 per cent, of the total, whereas in the United Kingdom it is 45 per cent. The production and consumption of sugar have been as follows : — „ Production, Consump- "^^ Tons j tion. Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant 1885 .... 1895 .... 460,000 390,000 700,000 480,000 23 28 The annual expenditure on food averages 166 shillings per inhabitant The production of food, reduced to a grain denominator, shows as follows : — Quantity Equivalent in Tons Grain Grain, tons . . . 17,800,000 17,800,000 Potatoes 12,600.000 4,200,000 Meat, 1,200,000 9,600,000 Sugar, 700,000 1,400,000 Butter, &c 200,000 2,000,000 Fish, „ . . . . 150,000 300,000 Wine, gallons .... 890,000 8,900,000 Total 44,200,000 This is equal to 23 cwt. per inhabitant, or 6 tons to each hand engaged in agriculture. Germany The weight of grain produced is far short of the requirements for the empire : the average crops for four years ending 1896 showed : — Wheat Rye . Tons 3,090,000 6,870,000 Barley Oats . Tons 2,550,000 4,620,000 making a total of 17,130,000 tons. Two-thirds of the population live on rye. If we deduct the grain used for seed or given to cattle, the balance left for human food is about 1 1 million tons, to which we must add 4 million tons imported, making a total of 15 millions. This in- cludes about 3 million tons converted into liquor, leaving 12 million tons used in the form of bread. From this it would appear that Germany subsists during eight 2 Z FOOD 722 FOOD months of the year on native, during four months on im- ported, grain. The consumption of grain for bread has been approximately as follows : — Year Tons per Annum Bushels Native Imported Total Per Head 1885-87 . . 1890-92 . . 1894-96 . . Co Co Co III 1,800,000 10,200,000 3,400,ocx3 11,400,000 4,300,000 12,500,000 8.S 9.1 9-S The deficit of grain increases rapidly with the growth of population, the weight imported having more than doubled in ten years. Germany has 250 inhabitants to the square mile, France only 188, and we find that one- third of the German population (as compared with one- sixth of the French) subsists on imported grain. There would be a greater deficit of grain in Germany but for the production of potatoes on a great scale, the crop rarely falling below 30 million tons, equivalent in sus- tenance to 10 million tons of grain. Germany grows one-third of all the potatoes produced in the world, the crop averaging 24 bushels per inhabitant, not all being used as food, but a large portion made into cheap brandy. Meat production has increased, but not so fast as popu- lation : — 1883 1895 Beef, tons Mutton Pork 790,000 200,000 370,000 880,000 150,000 490,000 Total 1,360,000 1,520,000 Down to the year 1888 no meat was imported, but the imports have grown so rapidly of late that they now exceed 200,000 tons yearly (mostly in the form of live cattle), the consumption reaching 74 lbs. per inhabitant, against 66 lbs. in 1883. There is likewise a deficit as regards poultry and eggs : the imports of the latter show thus : — Year Eggs Yearly Per Inhabitant 1885-86 .... 1890-91 .... 1894-96 .... 510,000,000 1,110,000,000 1,630,000,000 11 22 32 Reducing grain, potatoes, and meat to a common de- nominator as grain, we find an increase of 6,900,000 tons, say 21 per cent., since 1882, viz. : — Tons Grain Equivalent.Tons 1880-82 1893-96 1880-82 1893-96 Grain . . Potatoes . Meat . . 14,800,000 21,100,000 1,360,000 17,100, CXX3 3r,ooo,ooo 1,520,000 14,800,000 7,000,000 10,900,000 i7,icx),ooo 10,300,000 12,200,000 Total . 37,260,000 49,620,000 1 32,700,000 39,600,000 The grain equivalent is now 15 cwt. per inhabitant, against 14 cwt in 1880-82. The number of milch cows is 500,000 less than that requisite (one to five inhabitants) in view of population. Nevertheless, about 8000 tons of butter are exported yearly, but there is, on the other hand, a considerable importation of margarine. The production at present is as follows, in tons : — Grain Potatoes Meat Prussia. . . . Bavaria . . . Other States . . 9,700,000 2,100,000 5,300,000 20,000,000 4,300,000 6,700,000 920,000 220,000 380,000 Total . . 17,100,000 31,000,000 1,520,000 More than half of the fish consumed is imported ; the annual take by German fishermen is about 100,000 tons : imports show as follows : — Year Barrels Yearly Value, £ 1885-86 . 1894-96 . 1,070,000 1,330,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 The consumption of coffee per inhabitant has declined, which is explained by the rise in price, viz. : — Year Tons Yearly Value, £ Lbs. per Inhab. 1S85-86 . 1894 -95 . 121,000 122,000 6,200,000 10,100,000 6.0 5--2 Sugar is the only article of food of which there is a surplus, about 60 per cent, of the annual output being exported, viz. : — Tons Lbs. per Inhab. 1886 1896 1886 1896 Production . . Consumption . Export . . . 810,000 1,620,CX)0 240,000 720,000 570,000 ; 900,000 39 12 27 70 31 39 Germany does ments, the annua not grow enough wine for her require- consumption showing thus : — Gallons Native Imported Total 1885-86 . . . 1894-96 . . . 60,000,000 65,000,000 12,000,000 15,000,000 72,000,000 80,000,000 Consumption averages ij gallon per inhabitant, wine being little in use, and beer the principal beverage of the people. If we reduce food of all kinds to a grain denominator, the production will be found as follows : — Quantity Equivalent in Grain Tons Grain, tc Potatoes, Meat, Sugar, Butter and cheese. Fish, Wine, gallons . . ns 17,100,000 31,800,000 1,520,000 1,800,000 300,000 60,000 70,000,000 17,100,000 10,600,000 12,160,000 3,600,000 3,000,000 120,000 700,000 Total . • 47,280,000 This gives an average of 18 cwt. per inhabitant, or S tons to each hand engaged in agriculture. FOOD The value of imported food shows as follows :— 723 FOOD £ Sterling 1885 1 1890 1897 Grain . . Coffee . . Meat . . Eggs . . Wine . . Fish . . . Sundries . 12,800,000 5,600,000 1, 100,000 1,900,000 1,500,000 1,900,000 19,800,000 11,000,000 6,100,000 2,800,000 2,200,000 1,700,000 4,100,000 26,400,000 8,100,000 7,600,000 3,400,000 2,100,000 2,900,000 5,500,000 Total 24,800,000 47,700,000 j 56,000,000 The value of food consumed for human use is approxi- mately as follows : — Millions £^ Sterling Grain . Meat . Potatoes, &c. Dairy and eggs , Wine and beer Sugar, coffee, &c. Sundries Total Native Imported Total 61 19 80 63 S 68 73 73 74 4 78 53 2 55 10 II 21 6 6 12 340 47 387 The value of imported food is 12 per cent, of the total, against 5 per cent, in France. The average food ex- penditure is 148 shillings per inhabitant, against 166 in France. Russia Although Russia has to feed a population of 103 millions, she has usually a large excess of grain for ex- portation, besides eggs and a varying quantity of butter, fish, and meat. Deducting the amount of grain required for seed, the home consumption and exportation during three years averaged : — Tons Consumption Export Total Wheat . . . Rye .... Oats .... Various . . 3,400,000 15,100,000 12,300,000 6,400,000 3,400,000 1,100,000 1,200,000 3,100,000 6,800,000 16,200,000 13,500,000 9,500,000 Total . 37,200,000 8,800,000 46,000,000 There is great fluctuation in the crops ; the wheat surplus for exportation in 1897 hardly reached 2,600,000 tons. The bulk of the population subsists on rye, and about 20 per cent, on wheat, the total weight of grain used as bread being about 20 million tons, equal to 8 bushels per head, exclusive of what is made into brandy. Potatoes were long viewed with such aversion that they are still little used, the crop averaging 20 million tons, or S bushels per inhabitant, against 24 bushels in Germany. The production of meat is approximately as follows : — Beef . Mutton Pork . Total . Russia Poland '\ Total, Tons 1,230,000 440,000 370,000 150,000 40,000 60, coo 1,380,000 480,000 430,000 2,040,000 250,000 2,290,000 The above gives an average of 50 lbs. of meat pei inhabitant in Russia Proper and 62 lbs. in Poland, and the consumption is about the same, the export of cattle being equivalent to no more than 10,000 tons of dead meat. The production of butter and cheese is not known, but cannot exceed 350,000 tons, of which 5000 tons are exported, leaving for home consumption nearly 8 lbs. per inhabitant, as compared with 14 lbs. in Germany. The export of eggs has increased prodigiously in 11 years. Year Millions Value, £ 1885 1891 1896 ■ ■ ^35 830 . 1,480 340,000 1,290,000 2,200,000 Russia is now one of the largest exporters of eggs in the world, sending out 4 millions daily, for the most part to Germany. She also exports 10 million poultry per annum, and 3000 tons of caviare. Down to 1884 the production of sugar was hardly sufficient for the require- ments of home consumption, but now there is a large surplus exported, viz. : — Tons 1886 1896 Production Consumption . Exported .... 350,000 290,000 60,000 780,000 680,000 100,000 The consumption of sugar has risen in the above interval from 6 lbs. to 15 lbs. per inhabitant, but is still very low (as compared with 28 lbs. per head in Germany), owing to the extreme poverty of the rural population of Russia. Vodka brandy is the chief drink, of which 160 million gallons are consumed, according to official returns, but it is believed that the real consumption is double, illicit distilling being very common. The vintage varies from 40 to 70 million gallons, besides which 3 million gallons of wine are imported, the total consumption being less than three-quarters of a gallon per inhabitant Fisheries yield 220,000 tons, besides which 150,000 tons of dried fish are imported, making a total of 370,000 tons, equal to 8 lbs. per inhabitant About 70,000 tons of fruit are imported yearly, and 40,000 tons of rice. The consumption of coffee is declining, that of tea increas- ing, viz. :— Year Tons Value, £ Coffee Tea Total 1885 . 1890 . 1896 . 8,000 6,500 6,400 29,000 32,000 41,000 37,000 38.500 47.400 6,300,000 3,800,000 4,500,000 Taking tea and coffee in the aggregate the consumption is now 17 oz. per inhabitant, against 14 oz. in 1885, the increase being the result of fall in price, the expenditure on these items being now 11 pence per inhabitant, as compared with 16 pence in 1885. The total imports and exports of food in the following years stood thus :— Year Imports, £ Exports, £ Surplus, £ 1893 .... 1894 .... 1895 . . . 1896 .... 6,100,000 6,900,000 6,900,000 6,600,000 32,200,000 44, 100,000 40,100,000 38,800,000 26,100,000 37,200,000 33,200,000 32,200,000 The value of food consumed yearly for human use is approximately 394 millions sterling, or about ten times FOOD 724 FOOD as much as that of food exported. Reducing all food to a grain denominator, we find the production as follows : — Quantity Equivalent in Tons Grain Grain, tons. . Potatoes Meat, ,, . . Sugar, ,, . . Butter, &c Fish, „ . . Wine, gallons 55,100,000 20,700,000 2,290,000 800,000 350,000 220,000 60,000,000 55,100,000 6,900,000 18,320,000 1,600,000 3,500,000 440,000 600,000 Total 86,460,000 This is an average of only 16 cwt. per inhabitant, a very poor return, when we consider that two-thirds of the population are engaged in agriculture. Austria-Hungary The dual monarchy, like Russia, has always a surplus of food, which is not surprising, since 63 per cent, of the population is agricultural. The production is as follows : — Grain, tons Potatoes, ,, Meat, ,, Wine, gallons Austria 7,900,000 9,500,000 600,000 90,000,000 Hungary 11,600,000 3,500,000 610,000 40,000,000 Total 19,500,000 13,000,000 1,210,000 130,000,000 Hungary has usually a surplus of three million tons of grain, Austria a deficit of nearly 2J million tons, whereby it comes to pass that the whole monarchy has a normal surplus of 550,000 tons for exportation. Hungary has, moreover, a surplus of 150,000 tons of meat, one-third of which goes to cover the deficit in Austria, leaving 100,000 tons for exportation in the form of live cattle. The ordi- nary grain crops are as follows : — Tons Austria Hungary Total Wheat .... Rye . ... Oats .... Barley .... Maize, &o. . . 1,200,000 1,850,000 2,700,000 1,450,000 700,000 3,800,000 1,450,000 1,800,000 1,450,000 3,100,000 5,000,000 3,300,000 4,500,000 2,900,000 3,800,000 Total . . 7,900,000 11,600,000 19,500,000 The production of grain compared with population is equal to 13 bushels per inhabitant in Austria, 26 bushels in Hungary. The quantity used for bread in the whole monarchy is about 9 million tons, equal to 8 bushels per head, one half of the population subsisting on wheat, the other half on rye, maize, &c. The consumption of potatoes is equal to 16 bushels per head in Austria, 8 bushels in Hungary. The production of meat is as follows : — Tons Austria Hungary Total Beef .... Mutton . . . Pork .... 430,000 30,000 140,000 280,000 110,000 220,000 710,000 140,000 360,000 Total . . 600,000 6x0,000 I 210,000- More than half of the sugar produced is exported, viz. : — Production, tons , Consumption, ,, . Exported, ,, . 1886 430,000 190,000 240,000 1896 830,000 320,000 510,000 Consumption averages 17 lbs. sugar per inhabitant, against 1 1 lbs. in 1886. On the other hand coffee is declining, due to the rise in price, viz. : — Year Tons Value, £ Oz. pel Inhab. 1885 .... 1895 .... 37,000 38,000 2,200,000 3,100,000 32 30 The value of food imported is 6 millions sterling, of exported 20 millions, leaving a surplus of food exports worth 14 millions. Among the chief exports are eggs. Year Millions Value, £ 1885 .... i8go .... 1896 .... 760 1,220 1,780 730,000 1,350,000 3,300,000 About 140,000 tons of malt, valued at ;^i, 500,000, are exported yearly. Reducing all to a grain denominator, we find the pro- duction as follows : — Quantity Equivalent in Grain Tons Grain, tons . Potatoes Meat, ,, . Sugar, ,, . Butter, &c Wine, gallons 19,500,000 13,000,000 1,210,000 900,000 170,000 130,000,000 19,500,000 4,300,000 9,700,000 1,800,000 1,700,000 1,300,000 Total . 38,300,000 This is equivalent to 18 cwt. per inhabitant, or 3 tons for each hand engaged in agriculture, the ratio of the latter being 6 tons in France. The value of food consumed in Austria-Hungary for human use is approximately as follows : — £ £ Grain . . . 58,000,000 Liquor . . . 35,000,000 Meat . . . 45,000,000 Sugar . . 4,000,000 Potatoes, &c. . 36,000,000 Sundries . . 15,000,000 Dairy, &o. . 47,000,000 Total . . 240,000,000 This gives an average of 114 shillings yearly per in- habitant, against l66 in France and 148 in Germany. Itat.y Although 60 per cent, of the population are engaged in agriculture, the production of food falls very much short. Reducing all to a grain denominator, we find : — Quantity Equivalent in Tons Grain Grain, tons Rice, Potatoes, Meat, Butter, &o., ,, Chestnuts, „ Fish, Oil, gallons Wine, „ . 5,800,000 480,000 700,000 390,000 145,000 200,000 100,000 50,000,000 605,000,000 5,800,000 650,000 230,000 3,120,000 1,450,000 200,000 200,000 500,000 6,050,000 Total 18,200,000 FOOD 725 FOOD This gives an average of 12 cwt. per inhabitant, or 2 tons to each hand engaged in farming, the ratio of the latter in France being 6 tons. The ordinary grain crops are as follows : — Provinces Tons Wheat Maize Oats, &c. Total Northern . Middle . . Southern . 600,000 1,000,000 1,400,000 850,000 550,000 350,000 300,000 200,000 550,000 1,750,000 1,750,000 2,300,000 Total . 3,000,000 1,750,000 1,050,000 5,800,000 Northern Italy comprises Venice, Lombardy, and Pied- mont ; Southern includes Naples and Sicily ; all the rest is grouped under the Middle provinces. Deducting grain used for seed and cattle, the annual consumption averages 4,500,000 tons home-growrn and 700,000 im- ported, to which adding rice the total will reach 5,700,000 tons, equal to 7 bushels per inhabitant. Italy is so very poor as regards live stock that the supply of meat is the lowest in Europe, and yet the poverty of the people compels them to export some, Tons Supply Export Consumption Beef .... Mutton . . . Pork .... 250,000 70,000 70,000 20,000 2,000 3,000 230,000 68,000 67,000 Total . . 390,000 25,000 365,000 A portion of what is exported is in the form of live animals. The consumption of meat is only 27 lbs. per inhabitant. In compensation for meat exported Italy imports 50,000 tons of dried fish. The consumption of wine is about 570 million gallons, which gives an average of 18 gallons per inhabitant, the same as in Spain. Here, as in some other countries, the rise in the price of coffee has been attended with diminished consump- tion, viz. : — Year Tons, Coffee Price, £ per Tpn 1885-87 .... 1893-95 . . . • 16,000 12,000 68 100 Ten years ago the consumption of coffee averaged 20 ounces per inhabitant, whereas at present it does iiot exceed 14 ounces. The imports of sugar have likevirise declined very notably, viz. : — Year Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant 1885-87 .... 1893-95 .... 116,000 76,000 t Dairy farming has progressed so favourably that whereas down to i8S8 the imports of butter and cheese exceeded the exports, Italy now sends out yearly about 6000 tons more than she imports. In 1895 the output of the dairies was 29,000 tons of butter and 116,000 of cheese, together 145,000 tons, an average of 140 pounds per cow. The value of food imported and exported may be summed up thus : — Imports £ 1 Exports £ Grain . . . Fish . . . CoBee . . . Sugar . . . Sundries . . 4,000,000 1,300,000 1,200,000 900,000 600,000 Wine . . . Oil. . . . Meat . . . Eggs . . . Fruit . . . Sundries . . Total . . 2,100,000 2,000,000 1,400,000 1,400,000 1,900,000 1,800,000 Total . . 8,000,000 10,600,000 The above shows that although Italy does not produce enough food for her population she is still an exporter rather than an importer. Exports of fruit have increased 50 per cent, in ten years, viz. : — Year Tons Value, £ £ per Ton 1885-86 . . . 1894-95 • • ■ 141,000 228,000 1,600,000 1,900,000 8.3 The fall in price has indirectly stimulated production, by extending the markets and increasing the demand in foreign countries for Italian fruit. Eggs are nearly stationary, exports showing as follows :— Year Millions Value, £ Pence per Doz 1885-87 . . . 1893-95. . . 480 520 1,200,000 1,360,000 6.2 6-5 The value of food consumed yearly is approximately as follows : — £ Grain . . . 45,000,000 Meat . . , 18,000,000 Wine . . . 35,000,000 Fish, &C. . 6,000,000 Fruit, &c. , Dairy, &c. . Sundries Total . £ 13,000,000 28,000,000 8,000,000 153,000,000 This is an average of only 99 shillings per inhabitant, which is even lower than in Ireland. Spain Putting aside the unreliable official statements, the production and consumption of grain, meat, wine, &c, appear to be approximately as follows : — Production Consumption Grain, tons 5,800,000 6,100,000 Meat 430,000 430,000 Potatoes 1,500,000 1,500,000 Fish, 50,000 100,000 Wine, gallons 420,000 310,000,000 Deducting what is used for seed and cattle, the con- sumption of grain by the inhabitants is about 3,600,000 tons, one-tenth imported, the average consumption being 8 bushels per head. Before the year 18S0 there was always a surplus of grain for exportation,* and it is worthy of note that Neiraiann Spallart's estimate in 1876 of the grain crops was 60 per cent, higher than Juras- check's in 1893. The following table compares what * /foie. — In fifteen years, down to 1878, Spain exported 1,350,000 tons of wheat, being an average of 90,000 tons per annum. FOOD 726 FOOD maj be considered the actual production with Spallart's estimate in 1876 : — 1876 1897 Wheat, tons Barley, Maize, &c., ,, 4,100,000 1,900,000 2,000,000 2,200,000 1,500,000 2,100,000 Total . 8,100,000 5,800,000 Jurascheck's estimate (1893) is no higher than 5 million tons, but is perhaps too low. Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the produc- tion is approximately as follows : — Quantity Grain, t Potatoes, Meat, Fish. Butter and ch. , Wine, gallons . 5,800,000 1,500,000 430,000 50,000 40,000 420,000,000 Equivalent in Grain Tons 5,800,000 500,000 3,400,000 100,000 400,000 4,200,000 Total I 14,400,000 The importation of wheat has almost doubled in ten years, viz. : — 1885-86 1890-91 1893-96 Tons Yearly 130,000 160,000 300,000 Lbs. per Inhab. 16 19 36 Two-thirds of the population subsist on wheat, the remainder on maize, lye, &c. The decline in the pro- duction of grain has been perhaps partly due to civil wars, but still more to the fact that Spanish peasants find it more profitable to devote their attention to fruit than to cereals. Exports of fruit show thus ; — Tons Yearly Value, £ ;^ per Ton 1885-86 . . . 1890-91 . . . 1894-96 . . . 136,000 160,000 280,000 1,950,000 2,350,000 3,200,000 14.4 14.7 11.7 Fall of price has greatly stimulated production, by increased demand, the same as observed in Italy in the al)0ve period. At the same time there has been a decline in exports of wine, viz. : — 1885-86 1890 91 1894-96 Gallons Yearly 160,000,000 230,000,000 120,000,000 Value, £ 13,000,000 12,800,000 4,700,000 Pence per Gallon 13 9 In this case the fall of price (55 per cent.) has been tremendous, without any extension of markets or increase of demand. Hence vineyards are neglected, and the vintage, which had risen a few years ago to more than 600 million gallons, has now fallen to 420 millions. Home consumption is 310 millions, being an average of 18 gallons per inhabitant. Imports and exports of food may be summed up thus : Imports £ Exports £ Wheat . . . Fish .... Sugar .... Sundries . . . 2,400,000 1,100,000 800,000 1,200,000 i Wine. . . Fruit .... Oil ... . Sundries . . Total . . 4,100,000 3,100,000 600,000 400,000 Total . . 5,500,000 8,200,000 The value of food consumed for human use is approxi- mately as follows :- Grain . , Meat . , Wine . , Fish, &c. , This gives an average of 120 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 99 in Italy and 166 in France. As regards colonial articles of food imports have not much varied, except sugar, viz. : — £ 27,000,000 20,000,000 25,000,000 Fruit, &c. . Dairy, &c. . Sundries . „ £ 8,000,000 . 17,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 Total . . 107,000,000 Tons Yearly Coffee Cocoa Sugar Fish 1885-86 . 1890-91 . 1894-95 • 5,100 5,600 S.500 7,000 6,300 6,600 55.o°o 63,000 45,000 46,000 45,000 45,000 The value of all imports and exports of food at various dates is shown thus : — 1885-86 1890-91 1894-95 Average Yearly Average Imports, £ 4,200,000 5,200,000 5,500,000 5,000,000 Exports, £ 16,500,000 16,200,000 8,200,000 13,600,000 Surplus Exports, £ 12,300,000 11,000,000 2,700,000 8,600,000 Portugal This kingdom, which is a little larger than Ireland, is for the most part fertile, and yet unable to produce enough food for its scanty population, having only 142 souls to the square mile. This miserable state of things is due to the nobles, who possess vast estates uncultivated, com- pelling the peasants to emigrate to Brazil. The production of food is declining, viz. : — Grain, tons Wine, gallons 1876 1836 930,000 110,000,000 750,003 70,000,000 The grain crop comprises 350,000 Ions of maize, 200,000 of wheat, and 200,000 of rye, barley, &c. Deducting what is used for seed and cattle, the consumption of grain is about 700,000 tons, or 7 bushels per inhabitant. Only 40 per cent, of the population subsist on wheat, the rest on maize and other grain. Small as is the consumption of wheat, no less than one-third of it is imported, the native crop being hardly equal to the requirements of eight months in the year. The items of imported food are : — Tons Yearly Grain Coffee Sugar Fish 1885-88 . 1892-95 . 140,000 140,000 2,500 2,000 24,060 25.000 22,000 22,000 FOOD Exports of food show as follows ; — 727 FOOD Annual Averages Quantity Value. £, 1885-87 1893-96 1885-87 1893-96 Wine, galls. Fruit, tons Sardines, ,, Sundries . . 37,000,000 27,000 14,000 15,000,000 30,000 19,000 3,100,000 200,000 . 200,000 100,000 2,400,000 230,000 270,000 100,000 Total 3,500,000 3,000,000 Home consumption of wine averages 55 million gallons, or 12 gallons per inhabitant, as compared with 18 gallons in Italy and in Spain. The total production of food, re- duced to a grain denominator, is as follows : — Quantity Equivalent in Grain Tons Grain, tons . Potatoes, „ . Meat, „ . Fish. „ . Butter and cheese, tons Wine, gallons . 750,000 300,000 100,000 40,000 10,000 70,000,000 750,000 100,000 800,000 100,000 100,000 700,000 Total . 2,550.000 This is only 1 1 cwt. per inhabitant, a very low average for a nation essentially agricultural : the average in Spain is 16 cwt, Sweden and Norway These kingdoms do not raise sufEcient grain for their requirements. It is true that Sweden had a large surplus down to 1882, exporting usually 300,000 tons, but at present she has a yearly deficit of 200,000 tons, covered by importation. Norway has always been short of grain. The position stands thus : — Sweden Norway Total Production, tons . . . Imports, ,, . . . 2.750,000 200,000 450,000 370,000 3,200,000 570,000 Deducting what is used for seed and cattle, the con- sumption in the two kingdoms is about 2 million tons, or II bushels per inhabitant, including what is used for making liquor. The grain used for bread is approxi- mately as follows : — Tons Lbs. per Inhabitant Wheat .... Rye, &c 300,000 1.200.000 96 384 Total 1,500,000 480 It appears that only one-fifth of the population subsist on wheat, the rest mostly on rye : Iwo-thirds of the wheat is imported, and one-third of the rye. Net imports of grain have averaged as follows, yearly : — Years Tons Value, Sweden Norway Total £, Sterling 1885-87 . . 1890-92 . . 1894-96 . . 10,000 100,000 200,000 250,000 280,000 370,000 260,000 380,000 570,000 1,600,000 3,100,000 2,900,000 The production of meat is as follows : — Sweden Norway Total Beef, tons Mutton, ,, . Pork, 120,000 15,000 25,000 50,000 15.000 S.ooo 170,000 30,000 30,000 Total 160,000 70,000 230,000 Sweden exports live cattle equivalent to 6000 tons of meat yearly, but imports a corresponding quantity of pork : the consumption of meat therefore averages 74 lbs. per inhabitant, and the same in Norway. There is a slight deficit of butter in the latter country, which im- ports yearly about 18 oz. per inhabitant, but Sweden has a surplus, exporting 25,000 tons, which is equal to 1 1 lbs. per inhabitant. Taking the two kingdoms collectively, the net imports and exports of food show as follows : — Imports I Exports £ Grain . . . Coffee . . . Wine, &C. 2.900,000 2,300,000 800,000 Fish . . . Butter . . Sundries . . Total . . 3.300,000 2,300,000 400,000 Total . . 6,000,000 6.000.000 Exports of fish have increased prodigiously. Ten years ago Sweden imported more than she exported, whereas now her net exports offish average from 80,000 to 90,000 tons yearly. Net exports of both countriesshow : — Tons Fish Yearly Value, I 1885-87 1894-96 1885-87 1894-96 Sweden . . Norway . . 140.000 80.000 160,000 1,800,000 1,100,000 2,100,000 Total . 140.000 240,000 1,800,000 3,200,000 Exports of Swedish butter have exactly doubled since 1886. Reducing all kinds of food to grain equivalent, the production is approximately : — Tons Quantity Equiv. in Sweden Norway Total Grain Tons Grain . . Potatoes . Meat . . Butter, &a Fish . . . 2,750,000 1,500,000 160,000 60,000 200,000 450,000 600,000 70.000 20.0C0 260,000 3,200,000 2,100,000 230,000 80,000 460,000 3.200,000 700,000 1,840,000 800,000 920,000 Total. . 4,670,000 1,400,000 6,070.000 7,460,000 This gives an average of more than one ton (22 cwt.) per inhabitant, being one of the highest ratios of food production in Europe, notwithstanding the disadvantages of climate and soil under which these northern kingdoms labour. The value of food consumed is approximately : — Sweden, £ Norway, £^ Total Grain .... Meat .... Dairy .... Sundries . . . lo.coo.ooo 8,000.000 S.000,000 7,000,000 3,000,000 3,oco,ooo 2,000,000 3.000,000 13,000,000 11,000,000 7,000,000 10,000,000 Total . . 30,000,000 11,000,000 41.000,000 This gives an average of £(i per inhabitant in Sweden, no shillings in Norway, and 116 shil/ings for the two kingdoms collectively. FOOD 728 FOOD Denmark There is no country in Europe that produces so much food as Denmark in reference to population or to area. Reducing all to a grain denominator, we find : — Quantity Equivalent in Grain Tons Grain, tons . Potatoes, ,, Meat, ,, Butter and cheese, „ Fish 2,300,000 450,000 130,000 60,000 50,000 2,300,000 150,000 1,040,000 600.000 100,000 Total 4,190,000 - This is equal to 2 tons per inhabitant, or 10 per cent, more than the ratio in the United States, and more than double the general European ratio. Down to 1884 Denmark used to export about 200,000 tons of grain, but so large is now the consumption in the fattening of cattle that there is a constant importation of grain, net imports showing ; — Tons 1893 1894 1895 1896 Wheat . . Rye . . . Barley . . Maize . . Oats . . . 32,000 49,000 S.ooo 84,000 17,000 56,000 115,000 155,000 60,000. 19,000 64,000 140,000 160,000 50,000 26,000 48,000 96,000 6,000 220,000 25,000 Total . 190,000 405,000 440,000 39S.OOO Deducting what is used for seed, the consumption of grain is as follows : — Home-grown Imported Total Wheat, tons . Rye, „ . Barley, „ . Oats, &c., „ . 100,000 400,000 500,000 1,050,000 50,000 100,000 50,000 150,000 150,000 500,000 550,000 1,200,000 Total . . 2,050,000 350,000 2,400,000 About one-fourth of the population subsists on wheat, the rest on rye. The value of imported grain is two millions sterling. Exports of a pastoral character are shown thus : — Years Tons Yearly Millions of Eggs Total Meat Butter Value, £ 1886-88 . . 1890 92 , . 1894-96 . . 50,000 70,000 80,000 20,000 35,000 40,000 102 14s 166 4,500,000 7,100,000 7,900,000 Home consumption averages 65 lbs. of meat and 20 lbs. of butter and cheese per inhabitant. Imports of colonial merchandise are as follows : — Years Sugar, Tons Coffee, Tons 1886-88 .... 1894-96 .... 15,000 20,000 5,000 9,000 This gives an average yearly consumption of 20 lbs. of sugar and 9 lbs. of coffee per inhabitant. The value of food consumed for human use is approxi- mately : — Grain . . Meat . . Dairy, &c. £ 5,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 Coffee, &c. . Liquor, &c. Total . £ 1,500,000 3,500,000 16,000,000 This gives an average of 144 shillings per inhabitant, against 120 in Sweden. Holland Although Holland surpasses Denmark in productive area and has twice the population, the production of food, reduced to a grain denominator, is equal in the two countries. The ordinary production in Holland is : — Tons Equivalent in Grain Tons Grain .... Potatoes .... Meat .... Butter and cheese . Sugar .... Fish 1,000,000 2,100,000 130,000 120,000 200,000 120,000 1,000,000 700,000 1,040,000 1,200,000 400,000 240,000 Total . . 4,580,000 This gives an average of : ton per inhabitant, against 2 tons in Denmark. The consumption of grain, after deducting for seed and exportation, averages as follows : — Home-grown Imported Total Wheat, tons . Rye, „ . Barley, „ . Oats, &c. , „ . 120,000 230,000 100,000 250,000 430,000 220,000 350,000 550,000 450,000 450,000 250,000 Total . . 700,000 1,000,000 1,700,000 There is an ordinary exportation of 200,000 tons of oats, and if this be taken into account it may be said that Holland consumes 900,000 tons of native, and 800,000 of imported, grain. Rather more than half the population subsists on wheat, the rest on rye. The net value of grain imports was as follows : — Year Wheat, £ Rye, &o., ^ Total, £ 1893 .... 1894 .... 1895 .... 1896 .... 5,400,000 6,700,000 6,500,000 7,000,000 4,600,000 5,800,000 5,200,000 6,200,000 10,000,000 12,500,000 11,700,000 13,200,000 As regards colonial products, the net annual imports show as follows : — Years Tons Rice Margarine Coffee ■ Tea 1885-87 . . 1893-96 . . 7S.O0O 90,000 30,000 27,000 36,000 2,300 2,900 At present, consumption averages 40 lbs. rice, 15 lbs. coffee, and 2i oz. tea per inhabitant. Exports of food show as follows : — Years Tons Yearly Meat Butter Fish Vegetables 1885-87 . . 1893-96. . 25,000 20,000 103,000 98,000 70,000 90,000 68,000 83,000 FOOD 729 FOOD In the above table, Butter includes also cheese and margarine. The rapid increase of population in Holland checks the exportation of meat and of dairy products. Home consumption averages 55 lbs. meat, 15 lbs. butter and cheese, 25 lbs. fish. The value of food imports and exports is as follows : — Imports £ 1 Exports £ Grain . . . Rice . . . Coffee . . . Tea, &c. . . 12,000,000 2,200,000 2,200,000 1,600.000 1 Butter, &c. . Vegetables . Fish . . . Meat, &c. . 5,300,000 2.200,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 Total . . 18,000,000 Total . . 10,000,000 Holland is debtor to foreign countries for food to the amount of 8 millions sterling, say 36 shillings per inhabi- tant, against 73 shillings in the United Kingdom and 18 in Germany. The value of food consumed for human use is approximately : — £ £ Grain . . . . 11,500,000 Sundries . . , 2,500,000 Meat . , . . 5,500,000 Rice, &c. . . 6,000,000 Dairy . . . . 6,000,000 Potatoes . . . 2,500,000 Liquor . . . 4,000,000 Total . . 38,000,000 This gives an average of 1 60 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 148 in Germany. Belgium The production and consumption of the principal articles of food are : — Grain, Meat. Butter and cheese. Production 1,800,000 110,000 60,000 Consumption 3,200,000 140,000 70.000 The population is so dense that there is a deficit in the above items. Deducting what is used for seed, the con- sumption is approximately as follows : — Home-grown Imported Total Wheat, tons . Rye, &c., „ . 400,000 1,200,000 400.000 1.000,000 800,000 2,200,000 Total . . 1,600,000 1.400,000 3,000,000 About one-half of the grain is used in breweries and by cattle, the remainder giving an average of 9 bushels per inhabitant. Belgium may be said to depend on imported grain for six months in the year, and on foreign meat and butter for two months. The net value of imported food is shown thus : — £ Sterling 1894 1895 1896 Grain .... Meat .... Butter .... Fish .... Coffee .... Wine .... 7,600,000 1,000,000 600,000 900,000 2,200,000 1,100,000 8,ioo,coo 800,000 400,000 900.000 2.200,000 1,300,000 9,000,000 l.OOO.OOO 300.000 900.000 2,100,000 1,200,000 Total . . 13,400,000 13,700,000 14.500,000 The people of Belgium pay 42 shillings per head for imported food, against which there is a set-off of 2 millions sterling yearly for exports of sugar, which brings down the net cost of imported food to 12 J millions sterling, or 40 shillings per inhabitant The pi eduction of beef sugar has doubled in ten years, and now reaches 240,000 tons, of which 180,000 are exported, the balance sufficing to give each inhabitant 25 lbs. per annum. Re- ducing all food to a grain denominator, the production is as follows : — Tons Equivalent in Tons Grain Grain .... Potatoes .... Meat .... Butter .... Sugar .... 1,800,000 3,600,000 1IO,COO 60,000 240,000 1,800,000 1,200,000 900,000 600,000 500,000 Total .... 5,000,000 This is no more than 16 cwt. per inhabitant, which is not surprising, as the agricultural population is only one- fourth of the total. The value of food consumed for human use is approximately as follows : — Grain . . Meat . . Liquor . Dairy, &c. This gives an average of 160 shillings per inhabitant, the same as in France and Holland. Switzerland The productive area is so small that Switzerland subsists on imported grain during eight months, imported meat four months, of the year. Deducting what is used for seed, the consumption of grain is as follows : — £ £ 14,000,000 Coffee. &c . . 5.000.000 7,000,000 Potatoes . . . 7, 000. coo 9,000,000 Sundries . , . 2,000.000 8.000.000 Total . . 52,000,000 » Home-grown Imported Total Wheat, tons . Oats, ,, . Barley, „ . Rye, &c., ,, . 50,000 60,000 50,000 60,000 390,000 70.000 20.000 30,000 440,000 130.000 70,000 90,000 Total . . 220,000 510,000 730,000 The amount used for human food is about 600,000 tons, equal to 8 bushels per inhabitant. Reducing all kinds of food to a grain equivalent, the production is as follows : — Quantity Equivalent in Grain Tons Grain, tons . Potatoes, ,, Meat, „ . Suiter and cheese, „ Wine, gallons . 250,000 1,200,000 80,000 70,000 30,000,000 250,000 400,000 640,000 700,000 300,000 Total . 2,290,000 This is only 14 cwt. per inhabitant. The principal articles of imported food show as follows : — Quantity Yearly Value, £ 1886-88 1893-96 1886-88 1893-96 Grain, tons Meat, ,, Sugar, ,, Coffee, ,, Wine, galls. Sundries . 370,000 25,000 3S.OOO 8,000 15,000,000 540,000 30,000 50,000 9,000 20,000,000 3.400.000 1,000.000 600,000 600,000 1,000,000 800,000 3.700,000 1,400,000 700,000 700,000 1. 100.000 1.100,000 Total 7,400,000 8,700.000 FOOD 730 FOOD The average consumption per inhabitant is : meat, 75 lbs. ; sugar, 35 lbs. ; butter and cheese, 20 lbs. ; coffee, 6 lbs. ; wine, 13 gallons. There is a deficit of poultry, the importation of eggs averaging 120 millions yearly, or 40 per inhabitant. Exports of food are limited to cheese and condensed milk, viz. : — Tons Yearly Value, £ 1886-88 1893-96 1886-88 1893-96 Cheese . . . Milk .... 27,000 1 22,000 13,000 ! 18,000 1,500,000 500,000 1,500,000 700,000 Total . . 40,000 j 40,000 2,000,000 ' 2,200,000 The net sum paid yearly for imported food, therefore, is ;^6, 500,000, equal to 42 shillings per inhabitant, against 18 shillings in Germany and 40 in Belgium. The value of food consumed yearly is approximately as follows : — ■ £ Sterling Home-grown Imported Total Grain .... Meat .... Wine .... Dairy produce . Sundries . . . T,aoo,ooo 4,000,000 1,000,000 •4,000,000 2,400,000 3,700,000 1,400,000 1,100,000 2,500,000 4,900,000 5,400,000 2, roo.ooo 4,000,000 4,900,000 Total . . 12,600,000 8,700,000 21,300,000 This gives an average of 140 shillings per inhabitant, against 160 in France. The Danubian Statks These countries produce food much in excess of their requirements, and have always a considerable surplus for exportation. The production of grain, meat, and wine is approximately as follows : — ■ Grain, Tons Meat, Tons Wine, Gallons Roumania . . Servia .... Bulgaria . . . 4,200,000 900,000 1,800,000 200,000 100,000 100,000 100,000,000 35,000,000 35,000,000 Total . . 6,900,000 400,000 170,000,000 Wheat constitutes 40 per cent, of the total grain crop, maize 40 per cent., the remainder being made up of barley, rye, &c. The ordinary consumption and export are shown thus : — Tons Crop Consumption Export Wheat .... Maize .... Barley .... Rye, &c. . . . 2,500,000 2,500,000 1,200,000 700,000 1,300,000 1,700,000 800,000 500,000 1,200,000 800,000 400,000 200,000 Total . . 6,900,000 4,300,000 2,600,000 Roumania . . Bulgaria . . . Servia .... 4,200,000 1,800,000 900,000 2,200,000 1,200,000 900,000 2,000,000 600,000 Total . . 6,900,000 4,300,000 2,600,000 Deducting what is used for seed and cattle, the con- sumption of grain is about 3 million tons, or 10 bushels per inhabitant. The average consumption of wine is 12 gallons per inhabitant, the surplus for exportation seldom reaching 25 million gallons. The production of meat may be stated thus : beef, 170,000; mutton, 150,000; pork, 80,000; total, 400,000 tons. Consumption aver- ages 75 lbs. per inhabitant, leaving a small surplus for exportation, in the form of live cattle. Items of food imported average yearly as follows : — Value, £ Coffee, tons Sugar, Olive oil, gallons 3,200 32,000 1,400,000 280,000 420,000 300,000 Total 1,000,000 On the other hand the value of exported food is very great, viz. : — 1893 1891 1896 £. £ £ Grain .... Meat .... 15,400,000 200,000 12,200,000 200,000 10,000,000 200,000 Total . . . 15,600,000 12,400,000 10,200,000 The value of food consumed for human use is approxi- mately as follows : — £ Sterling Roumania Servia Bulgaria Total Grain . . Meat . . . Wine, &c. . Dairy . . Sundries 9,000,000 8,ooo,oco 3,500,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 3,500,000 4,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 5,500,000 4,000,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 18,000,000 16,000,000 6,000,000 5,500,000 7,500,000 Total . 27,500,000 11,000,000 14,500,000 53,000,000 This gives an average of 90 shillings per head, against 114 in Austria. Greece Even before the recent war the production of grain hardly sufficed for two-thirds of the population. De- ducting what was used for seed, the normal consumption was as follows : — Home-grown Imported Total Wheat, tons . . Maize, &c 150,000 250,000 100,000 100,000 250,000 350,000 Total . . . 400,000 200,000 600,000 The production of meat is close on 60,000 tons, and about 3000 tons are imported yearly, the consumption averaging 64 lbs. per inhabitant. The ordinary vintage is 36 million gallons, of wliich quantity one-tenth is exported, home consumption aver- aging 1 5 gallons per inhabitant. Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the production is approximately : — Quantity Equiv. in Grain Tons Grain, tons Meat Butter Fish Wine, gallons . 450,000 60,000 10,000 10,000 36,000,000 450,000 480,000 100,000 20,000 360,000 Total 1,410,000 FOOD 731 FOOD This gives an average of only 12 cwt. per inhabitant, being even less than in Switzerland. Imports and ex- ports of food show as follows : — Imports ^ Exports I Grain .... Fish .... Sundries . . . 1,100,000 200,000 400,000 Currants . . Wine . . . Sundries . . Total . . 900,000 200,000 400,000 Total. . 1,700,000 1,500,000 The net sum which Greece has to pay in ordinary years for imported food is, therefore, no more than ,t200,0CX), equal to two shillings per inhabitant. The value of food consumed for human use is approximately ;f 11,000,000, equal to ;^5 per inhabitant. United States This country produces food for more than 100 millions of people, or about 50 per cent, over its population. The normal production of the principal items, reduced to grain equivalent, is as follows : — Quantity Equiv. in Grain Grain, to Potatoes, Meat, Sugar, Butter, &c. Fish, Wine, galloi ns IS 74,000,000 6,300,000 4,500,000 400,000 610,000 900,000 25,000,000 74,000,000 2,100,000 36,000,000 800,000 6,100,000 1,800,000 250,000 Total 121,050,000 This is equal to 35 cwt. per inhabitant. The average crops of the last six years, 1892-97, were as follows : — - Tons Value, I Shillings per Ton Maize Wheat .... Oats Rye, &c 41,200,000 12,500,000 17,600,000 2,700,000 117,000,000 54,000,000 38,000,000 10,000,000 57 86 43 74 Total . . 74,000,000 219,000,000 59 About 8 per cent, of the total grain crop is exported, the average of consumption and exports in five years ending December 1896 showing as follows : — Tons Value Export. Millions ;f Produc. Consump. Export Wheat . . Maize . . Oats, &c. : 12,300,000 43,400,000 20,300,000 7,800,000 41,800,000 19,900,000 4,500,000 1,600,000 400,000 30.2 6.2 1.6 Total . . 76,000,000 69,500,000 6,500,000 38.0 Production and consumption in the various sections of the Union show thus : — Tons Surplus -l- States Production Consumption Deficit- New England . Middle. . . . South .... Prairie .... Pacific .... 500,000 5,500,000 i5,ooo,coo 52,000,000 3,000,000 2,400,000 8,200,000 19,700,000 31,400,000 7,800,000 - 1,900,000 - 2,700,000 - 4,700,000 + 20,600,000 - 4,800,000 Total 76,000,000 69,500,000 + 6,500,000 Consumption is accounted for approximately as follows : — States Tons For People Cattle & Seed Total New England . Middle. . . . South .... Prairie. . . . Pacific .... 1,300,000 4,000,000 5,000,000 6,500,000 1,100,000 1,100,000 4,200,000 14,700,000 24,800,000 6,700,000 2,400,000 8,200,000 19,700,000 31,400,000 7,800,000 Total . . 18,000,000 51,500,000 69,500,000 The Prairie States have a surplus of about 20 million tons, of which two-thirds go to meet the deficits in the rest of the Union, and one-third is exported. Potatoes do not enter largely into American diet, the average consumption in the United States being only 3J bushels per inhabitant, against 7 in the United Kingdom, 13 in France, and 24 in Germany. The crop compares with population as follows : — States Tons Bushels per Inhab. Eastern .... Southern .... Western .... 2,400,000 400,000 3,500,000 4-5 I.O 4-7 Union .... 6,300,000 3-5 The annual production of meat at various dates was approximately as follows : — Year Tons (000 omitted) Beef Mutton Pork Total 1876 1886 1890 1896 1.340 2,310 2,690 2,410 360 480 440 380 1,030 1,840 2,060 1,710 2,730 4.630 5. 190 4.500 This gives an average at present of 142 pounds per inhabitant, against 180 pounds in 1886. The production is short in the Eastern States, but the South and West have a large surplus, viz. : — States Tons (00c omitted] Beef j Mutton Pork Total New England . Middle . South West 60 170 760 1.420 10 30 260 10 80 650 970 80 280 1,490 2,650 Union 2,410 380 1,710 4.SOO Consumption and production in the above divisions are approximately thus : — States Tons Production Consumption New England . Middle . South West. 80,000 280,000 1,490,000 2,650,000 280,000 1,010,000 880,000 1,780,000* Total 4,500,000 3,950,000 * Note. — Foremost in the production of food is the State of Iowa, which raises 500 pounds of meat and 5 tons of grain per inhabitant, being nearly five times as much grain and three times as much meat as the average for the whole Union. FOOD 732 FOOD There is usually a surplus of 550,000 tons for exporta- tion, of which Great Britain takes 450,000 tons. The available pasture lands are of sufficient extent (as already shown under Cattle, page 634) to carry almost three times the present number of live stock, and the production of meat may hereafter, without difficulty, be raised to the following quantity : — States Tons Beef Mutton Pork Total N. England Middle . . South . . West. . . 100,000 230,000 1,250,000 4,320,000 20,000 40,000 140,000 700,000 20,000 100,000 1,050,000 3,030,000 140,000 370,000 2,440,000 8,050,000 Total . 5,900,000 900,000 4,200,000 11,000,000 If this should come to pass the Eastern States (New England and Middle States) would have still only one- third of the meat necessary for their own population, while the South and West would have a surplus of 8 million tons over their present consumption. Dairy-farming is so unevenly distributed that most parts of the Union have a deficit of butter and cheese. The following table shows the actual number of milch cows, and also the proper number required for the popu- lation : — States Milch Cows Required Number Surplus -h Deficit- New England . Middle. . . . Southern . . . Western . . . 820,000 2,880,000 4,000,000 8,500,000 1,040,000 3,200,000 4,100,000 6,060,000 -220,000 — 320,000 - 100,000 -f-2, 440,000 Total . . 16,200,000 14,400,000 + 1,800,000 According to latest estimates the total output of butter and cheese reaches 610,000 tons yearly, of which 40,000 are exported. Home consumption therefore averages 18 lbs. per inhabitant, as compared with 22 lbs. in the United Kingdom. The production of butter, honey, and eggs, according to census reports, was : — Year Butter, Tons Honey, Tons Eggs, Millions 1870 . 1880 . 1890 . 230,000 345,000 455.000 „ 7,000 12,000 28,000 5.484 9,804 Poultry increased 130 per cent, in 10 years, viz. : from 126 millions in 1880 to 285 millions in 1890, the average production of eggs being 44 to each bird in the former and 35 in the latter year. There is a deficit of poultry in some parts of the Union, the following table showing the yearly production of eggs in 1890 compared with population : — States Millions of Eggs Eggs per Inhabitant Eastern ..... Southern ..... Western . , . ■ . 2,804 2,090 4,910 148 114 195 Union 9,804 157 In the year of the above census, and for many years preceding, the United States imported annually 180 million eggs ; this would bring uj) the consumption to 160 per inhabitant. On this basis the Eastern States would appear to show a deficit of 220 millions, the South 840 millions, while the Western States had a surplus of 880 millions. In other "words, the South and West balanced one another, and all the imported eggs were used in the Eastern States. But in 1891 a duty was imposed on foreign eggs, and since then the importation has rapidly declined, not exceeding 11 million eggs in 1896. The consumption of sugar is five times greater than the production, as the following table shows : — Year Tons Consumed Lbs. per Native Imported Total Inhabitant 1875 . . . 1885 . . . i8go . . . 1897 . . . 60,000 130,000 170,000 330,000 820,000 1,170,000 1,310,000 1,760,000 880,000 1,300,000 1,480,000 2,090,000 44 52 S3 65 The increase of duties on foreign sugar in 1894 was followed by greater production in Louisiana and other States ; nevertheless, the quantity imported is double what it was in 1875. Americans consume more sugar per head than any other nation except Great Britain. United States fisheries stand for almost one-third of all the fish caught in the world, the latest returns showing 880,000 tons yearly. Imports and exports balance, being each about 50,000 tons. Consumption, therefore, averages 28 lbs. per inhabitant, whereas the average in Europe is only II lbs., but in the United Kingdom it is 40 lbs. The consumption of wines and liquors of all descrip- tions may be set down as follows : — Gallons, Millions Gals, per Inhab. Native Im- ported Total Beer Spirits . . . Wine 865 72 25 5 I 3 870 73 28 12.0 1.0 0.4 Total 962 i 9 971 13-4 Reducing the above to alcohol, the amount stands thus :— Gallons, Millions Gallons Quantity In Alcohol per Head Beer .... Spirits .... Wine .... 870 73 28 44 1 • 0.6 0-5 0.1 Total 971 86 1.2 The following table shows the consumption per head of various articles : — 1870 issa 1890 1896 Wheat, bushels . . 5-4 5-4 6.1 4.8 Sugar, lbs. . . . 330 43-0 S3-0 63.0 Coffee, „ ... 6.0 8.8 7.8 8.0 Tea 1.1 1.4 1-3 1-3 Beer, gallons . . 5-3 8.3 137 IS- 2 Spirits 2.1 1-3 1.4 1.0 Wine 0.3 0.6 o-S °-3 FOOD 733 FOOD The value of exported food is shown as follows : I £ Sterling Yearly 1887-90 i 1891-96 1896 1897 Cattle . . Grain . . Meat . . Butttr, &c. Sundries 3,800,000 ; 6,800,000 29,800,000 37,400,000 18,900,000 25,000,000 3,300,000 4,000,000 3,800,000 4,000,000 7,900,000 9,000,000 29,400,000 41,200,000 24,400,000 25,000,000 3,100,000 3,200,000 3,700,000 3,600,000 Total . 59,600,000 77,200,000 68,500,000 82,000,000 The value of food imports in the same period was as follows : — £ Sterling Yearly 1887-90 1891-95 1896 1897 Coffee . . Sugar . . Fruit . . . Tea . . . Wines . . Sundries . 14,000,000 18,600,000 4,200,000 2,900,000 2,300,000 7,300,000 20,400,000 j 17,700,000 22,500,000 18,700,000 4,500,000 4,000,000 2,900,000 2,600,000 2,500,000 1 2,300,000 6,200,000 5,300,000 17,000,000 20,700,000 3,500,000 3,100,000 2,300,000 5,400,000 Total . 49,300,000 59,000,000 50,600,000 52,000,000 The surplus value of exported food over imported during the last 10 years averaged 16 millions sterling, or less than 5 shillings per inhabitant. The value of food consumed for human use is approxi- mately as follows : — £ Grain . . , 90,000,000 Meat. . . , 132,000,000 Liquor . . . .72,000,000 Imports . 54,000,000 Dairy and eggs 106,000,000 Fruit, &c. . . 40,000,000 Sundries . . 26, coo, 000 Total . . 520,000,000 This gives an average of 1 50 shillings per inhabitant, as compared with 166 in France and 206 in Great Britain. Canada There is always a large surplus of grain, meat, cheese, and eggs, which items are exported chiefly to Great Britain. The ordinary production and net shipments of grain are : — Production Consumption Export Wheat,* tons Oats, Maize, ,, Parley, &C., ,, 1,200,000 2,600,000 600,000 700,000 1,000,000 2,600,000 500,000 700,000 200,000 100,000 Total . 5,100,000 4,800.000 300,000 The production and consumption of meat are approxi- mately as follows : — Production Consumption Export Beef, tons . . Mutton, ,, . . Pork „ . . 210,000 3S.OOO 65,000 180,000 25,000 4S.OOO 30,000 10,000 20,000 Total . . 310,000 250,000 60,000 * The crops of 1896-97-98 averaged 1,320,000 tons : see WAeat, p. 820. The net annual value of food exports, and their weight, have been as follows : — Tons Yearly Value, £ 1884-86 1897 1884 86 1897 Grain Meat Fish . Butter, &c. Eggs, &c. . 300,000 50,000 80,000 40,000 560,000 90,000 80,000 80,000 1,800,000 1 2,600,000 1,500,000 j 3,100,000 1,200,000 1 2,100,000 1,900,000 ' 3,400,000 500,000 300,000 Total .... 6,900,000 j 11,500,000 Shipments of eggs have declined 40 per cent., namely, from 150 millions in 1886 to 90 millions at present. Potatoes have also fallen, exports being now 2O,0CX) tons per annum. Items of imported food show as follows : — Quantity Yearly Value, £ 1884^86 1894-97 1884-86 1 1894-97 Sugar, tons . . Tea Wine, gallons . 110,000 8,000 650,000 190,000 9,000 700,000 1,200,000 ! 1,900,000 700,000 1 600,000 200,000 1 150,000 Total 2,I0O,0CO 2,650,000 Consumption averages 80 lbs. sugar, 4 lbs. tea, per inhabitant. Reducing all food to a grain equivalent, the production is as follows : — Tons Equivalent in Grain Grain .... Potatoes . . . , Meat .... Fish Butter and cheese . 5,100,000 1,200,000 310,000 200,000 130,000 5,100,000 400,000 2,500,000 600,000 1,300,000 Total 9,900,000 This is equivalent to almost 2 tons per inhabitant, the ratio being 5 per cent, higher than in the United States. The value of food consumed for human use is approxi- mately : — Grain . Meat . , £ . 8,000,000 . 8,000,000 Imports Sundries £ . 2,700,000 . 4,300,000 Dairy . . 4,000,000 Total . 27,000,000 This is about 105 shillings per inhabitant. Australia The production and consumption of grain in ordinary years are as follows : — Production Consumption' Export Wheat, tons . Oats, &c 700,000 740,000 400,000 740,000 300,000 Total . . 1,440,000 1,140,000 ] 300,000 South Australia, Victoria, and New Zealand have col- lectively a surplus of 450,000 tons of grain yearly, but New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia have an aggregate deficit of 150,000, so that the surplus FOOD 734 FOOD left for exportation to Europe is only 300,000 tons. As regards meat, the production is only one-third of what might be expected from the numbers of live stock, which is partly explained by the fact that sheep are bred not for the market but for growing wool : home consumption is estimated at 400,000 tons, equal to 208 lbs. per inhabi- tant, and the shipments of all kinds sum up 200,000 tons yearly. The lime may come when Australian meat will be more in request. With the present numbers of stock the pos-iible output of meat yearly would be ; — Tons Beef Mutton Porjc Total N. S. Wales . . Queensland . . New Zealand . Victoria . . . S. Australia, &c. 90,000 270,000 40,000 70,000 40,000 470,000 200,000 200,000 135.000 105,000 10,000 10,000 15,000 S,ooo 570,000 470,000 250,000 220,000 150,000 Seven Colonies . 510,000 1,110,000 40,000 1,660,000 Reducing all food to a grain denominator, the pro- duction at present is : — Quantity Equivalent in Grain Grain, tons . Potatoes, ,, Meat, Sugar, Butter and cheese, „ Wine, fish, &c. 1,500,000 600,000 600,000 80,000 5S.0OO 1,500,000 200,000 4,800,000 160,000 550,000 70,000 Total 7,280,000 This gives an average of 35 cwt. per inhabitant, the Game as in the United States. The value of food imported and exported is shown as follows : — Imports £ Exports £ Liquors . . . Tea .... Sundries . . . 1,600,000 1,200,000 1,200,000 Meat .... Grain. . . . Butter, &c. . . Total . . 3,800,000 1,500,000 1,700,000 Total . . 4,000,000 7,000,000 The value of food consumed for human use is approxi- mately as follows : — Grain Meat Pairy £ . 5,000,000 . 5,000,000 . 4,000,000 Imports . Sundries . Total £ 4,000,000 3,000,000 21,000,000 This is equal to 96 shillings per inhabitant, as com- pared with 105 in Canada. Argentina This country ought to have a large surplus of grain, meat, and dairy products for the European markets, seeing the vastness of its fertile Pampas, the millions of its sheep and cattle, and the mildness and salubrity of its climate. Tillage is, nevertheless, at a considerable dis- advantage owing to the constant danger of drought and locusts. The area under grain is about 9 million acres, yielding in good years 4J million tons, but in bad years the crop hardly reaches one-third of that quantity. Thus the surplus available for exportation varies as follows : — Tons Average 1895 1896 1893-96 Wheat .... Maize .... 990,000 770,000 550,000 180,000 1,050,000 270,000 Total . . 1,760,000 730,000 1,320,000 The production of meat (including cattle exported) is about 450,000 tons yearly, of which 2eo,ooo are exported, the home consumption averaging 140 lbs. per inhabitant. The possible production would be as follows, if sheep- farmers were to grow less for wool than for meat : — Provinces Tons Beef Mutton Total Buenos Ayres . Entre Rios . . Santa F6 . . . Cordoba . . . Corrientes, &c. . 380,000 160,000 90,000 80,000 210,000 640,000 50,000 30,000 30,000 50,000 1,020,000 210,000 120,000 110,000 260,000 Total . . 920,000 800,000 1,720,000 Reducing all kinds of food to a grain denominator, the production is as follows : — Quantity Equivalent in Grain Grain, tons Meat Sugar, ,, . • • Butter, ,, Wine, gallons . 3,000,000 450,000 130,000 20,000 35,000,000 3,000,000 3,600,000 400,000 200,000 350,000 Total . . 7,550,000 This is almost the same quantity of food as produced in Australia, and the average per inhabitant is 35 cwt., the same ratio as in the United States or Australia. The value of food produced, consumed, and exported, may be set down approximately thus : — Production £ Consumption Export Grain . . . Meat . . . Wine . . . Dairy, &c. . . 15,000,000 8,400,000 2,500,000 5,500,000 9,000,000 5,000,000 2,500,000 4,700,000 6,000,000 3,406,000 800,000 Total . . 31,400,000 21,200,000 10,200,000 The value of imported food is 4 millions sterling : hence the sum total of food consumed reaches ;^25,ooo,ooo, but we must deduct 3 millions for grain used for cattle and seed, leaving a balance of 22 millions, equal to no shil- lings per inhabitant. Uruguay Production and consumption of grain and meat are shown as follows : — Tons Production Consumption Export Grain . . . Meat . . . 200,000 200,000 160,000 60,000 40,000 140,000 FOREST 7SS FOREST The actual amount of live stock is capable of pro- ducing from 300,000 to 350,000 tons of meat yearly. Climate and soil are, moreover, favourable to tillage, and as soon as a settled government be established, so as to admit a million of industrious European settlers, the Republic of Uruguay may easily produce five or six million tons of grain yearly. FOEEST The Foreign Office Report of 1893 was as follows :- Acres of Forest P.c. of Area Public Private Total U. Kingdon 2,700,000 2,700,000 4.0 France . 7,400,000 16,000,000 23,400,000 17.9 Germany 17,900,000 16,500,000 34,400,000 2.?-7 Russia . 299,000,000 199,200,000 498,200,000 37-2 Austria Pr. 5,900,000 18,300,000 24,200,000 32.6 Hungary 9,400,000 9,400,000 18,800,000 23-5 Italy . . 400,000 9,700,000 10,100,000 14-3 Spain . . 16,400,000 16,400,000 13.0 Portugal. 100,000 1,100,000 1,200,000 5-2 Sweden . 14,300,000 30,200,000 44,500,000 40.7 Norway . 2,900,000 16,400,000 19,300,000 24- S Denmark 500,000 500,000 4.8 Holland . 600,000 600,000 6.q Belgium . 500,000 700,000 1,200,000 17.1 Switzerland 1,500,000 600,000 2,100,000 20.1 Roumania 2,300,000 2,600,000 4,900,000 IS- 2 Servia . 5,800,000 5,800,000 48.0 Bulgaria . 1.100,000 1,100,000 4.6 Bosnia . 6,700,000 6,700,000 45° Greece . 1,600,000 400,000 2,000,000 12.6 Turkey . 3,500,000 3,500,000 8.9 Europe . 386,500,000 335,100,000 721,600,000 30.3 U. States 450,000,000 450,000,000 23-3 India . . 70,000,000 70,000,000 140,000,000 25.0 Algeria . 5,100,000 700,000 5,800,000 5-5 N.S. Wales 5,400,000 13,800,000 19,200,000 10.0 Total 467,000,000 869,600,000 1,336,600,000 For Forests of Brazil, Canada, &c., see page 298. The cutting of lumber is computed either by cubic foot or board measure, 8 feet of the latter being equal to I cubic foot, and 50 cubic feet to I ton. Germany Nearly half of the public forests belong to local authorities. The State forests in 1894 gave the following result : — Acres Product £ Net do. £ Pence per Acre Prussia . . Bavaria . . Baden, &c. 6,000,003 2,300,000 1,120,000 2,900,000 1,230,000 1,270,000 1,250,000 570,000 760,000 SO 60 163 Germany . 9,420,000 ! 5,400,000 2,580,000 66 In 14 years, from 1880, the felling of timber averaged 55 cubic feet per acre, including 15 cubic feet of lumber, the rest being firewood, &c. The cost of felling and conveying to the road is 17 pence per ton. In 1894 the Prussian Government paid ;^4io,ooo for the delivery of 6 million tons of lumber cut in Crown forests. There are 34i million acres of forest in Germany, in which 380,000 wood-cutters earn a living, that is, one wood- cutter for 90 acres. The ordinary prices of timber per ton and the stipend paid by the State to its wood-cutters are shown as follows : — Shills. Woodman's per Ton. Fee. Oak. Beech Pine. Firewood . • 25-29 • 1S-17 . 12-13 2 1850 . i860 . 1870-80 1890-95 . 80 pence, ton . 90 .. .. . 110 ,, ,, • no ,, ,, In the Harz Mountains timber fetches 25 shillings, poles, &c., 6 to 8 shillings a ton. Austria Export of timber exceeds 2 million tons yearly, value 5 millions sterling. United States In 1894 the forest area was defined thus : — State Acres Per Cent, of Area Forest Acres per Inhab. New England . Middle. . . . South .... Prairie .... Pacific .... 20,700,000 20,000,000 212,300,000 89,500,000 116,000,000 52.0 28.0 42.0 18.0 16.0 25.0 4.0 1-4 II. 3-S 4.0 Union .... 458,500,000 6.6 Four States have nearly a quarter of all the forest area, viz. : — State Acres Forest Do. per Inhab. Texas .... Washington Arkansas .... Florida .... 38,700,000 23,500,000 20,400,000 20,300,000 17.0 60.0 18.0 52.0 On the other hand the Prairie States have less than 4 acres of forest per inhabitant, and the cutting is so excessive that Congress must take measures in the matter. The Prairie States, as shown in a previous table, have only 89J million acres of forest, that is, one- fifth of the forest area of the Union, and yet the census of 1890 showed that they stood for 51 per cent, of the sawn timber produced in the United States. The States in which the forest area is relatively largest are : — State Acres Area Acres Forest Percentage Maine .... 19.100,000 12,300,000 64 New Hampshire 5,800,000 3,600,000 62 Arkansas . 33,500,000 20,400,000 60 Florida. . . . 34,700,000 20,300,000 S8 North Carolina . 31,100,000 16,800,000 54 Tennessee . . 26,700,000 14,700,000 SS Washington . . 42,800,000 23,500,000 SS Alabama . . . 32,700,000 17,400,000 S3 The census report estimates the consumption yearly at 475 million tons, and the value of output at 215 millions sterling, which is about 9 shillings per acre of forest. This would be, however, more than a ton of timber per forest acre, which appears too high. The figures show : — Lumber . Firewood,&c. Sundries Total . Census Tons Value, £ Better Estimate Tons 93,600,000 72,800,000 84,000,000 360,000,000' 93,600,000 240,000,000 21,400,000' 48,600,000 16,000,000 Value, £ 66,000,000 62,400,000 1 1,600,000 475,000,000 215,000,000 340,000,000 140,000,000 FREIGHT 736 FREIGHT FREIGHT The earnings of nations under this heading consist of: ist, goods traffic by rail ; and, by canal or river ; 3rd, by highroad ; 4th, by shipping : the first three taken collectively may be estimated at 6 per cent, on all products in countries not exceeding 100,000 sq. miles, and 10 per cent, in those of greater area. The following table also includes passenger traffic by rail, so as to give the total transport earnings. Shipping is supposed to earn £,2. a year per ton of carrying power. Millions £, Sterling Internal Goods Traffic Passenger Shipping Total Rail River Road 1 Total Traffic Earnings Great Britain .... 44.6 3-1 18.3 66.0 37-2 54-5 157-7 Ireland • 1.6 2 3-8 S-6 1-9 1-3 8.8 United Kingdom . 46.2 3-3 22.1 71.6 39-1 55-8 166.5 France . 28.0 3-9 71.7 103.6 22.5 4-8 130.9 Germany 54- 9 4.S 5S-0 114.4 20.3 8^3 143° Russia . 33-0 14.4 49.1 96-5 8.4 3-0 107.9 Austria . 22.2 2.2 42-5 66.9 7.0 1-4 75-3 Italy . 6.3 0-3 33-6 40.2 4.0 2.9 47-1 Spain . 4-5 O.I 21.6 26.2 3-9 4.5 34-7 Portugal . 0.7 2.7 3-4 0.6 0.4 4-4 Sweden 2.2 41 6.3 I.I 2.1 9-5 Norway 0.2 1-9 2.1 0-3 S-o 7-4 Denmark 0-5 2.8 3-3 06 1-5 5-4 Holland I- 5 I.O 2.7 S-2 i-S 1-7 8.4 Belgium 5-2 1.6 3.6 10.4 2.6 0.7 13-7 Switzerland . 2.4 O.I 1.2 3-7 2.0 5.7 Danubian States . 1.4 0.3 7.2 8.9 1.2 10. 1 Greece . 0.3 1.2 1-5 0-3 1.2 3-0 Europe 209.5 31.7 - 323-0 564.2 "5-4 93-4 773-0 United States 179.0 16.6 103-4 299.0 SS-o 3-2 357-2 Canada 7.0 1.2 9-9 18. 1 3-S 3-4 25.0 Australia 5-4 12.1 17- S s-s 1.8 24.8 Total • 400.9 49- S 448.4 898.8 179-4 101.8 1,180.0 United Kingdom The number of persons employed in transport in 1891 was : — Rail Highroad Water Total England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . 187,000 26,000 10,000 367,000 42,000 27,000 430,000 54,000 29,000 984,000 122,000 66,000 U. Kingdom . 223,000 j 436,000 513,000 1,172,000 The product of their labour, according to the pre- ceding table, was 166J millions sterling, equal to ^I40 per man ; of this sum wages would take about ^80, while coal, fodder, and other raw material would stand for ;£'20, leaving a balance of ;f 40 per man or ;£'47,ooo,ooo for profit and dividends, on railways, shipping, express companies, and all other carrying enterprises. Secretary Morton, Minister of Agriculture in the United States, estimates charges in England for carts to or from shipping at 30 pence per ton, but this is too high : the estimate above given of ;f 22, 100,000 for the United Kingdom is only 10 pence a ton for cartage of 360 million tons carried by rail, and 1 50 millions to and from seaports. United States In 1896 the railways had 874,000 employees, and the census of 1890 showed 488,000 waggoners, and 78,000 boatmen, in all 1,440,000. The product of their labour according to the preceding table would be equal to ;^247 per man. The railways average a net annual profit of 70 million pounds sterling, and the total transport service yields probably 100 millions sterling net profit, that is £^o per man employed. The census of 1880 showed 419,000 railway employees, whose wages footed up ;64i,ooo,ooo, equal to ;^98 per man. See Canals, p. 640, and Railways, p. 795. Rates of freight from Chicago for provisions per ton, to various European ports, by all rail to seaboard and thence by steamers, were as follows : — Shillings per ton 1888 1 1891 1894 1897 Liverpool . Glasgow . London . Antwerp . Hamburg. Copenhagen Bordeaux . Average . 35 43 42 42 SI 52 51 55 55 49 52 60 70 56 41 43 42 38 47 52 46 42 49 4S 48 48 60 49 Rates on wheat per ton from St. Louis down tlie Mississippi to New Orleans, and to Liverpool via New Orleans ; also from St. Louis by rail to New York and thence to Liverpool by steamer, were at various dates as follows : — St. Louis to Shillings per ton 1E82 1890 1894 1897 New Orleans .... Liverpoof via New Orleans . Liverpool via New York 10.8 37-4 39-3 II.O 9.9 24-0 19.5 36.0 31.2 8.1 21.4 33-8 FRICTION 737 FRUIT The distance from St. Louis to New Orleans is 1130 miles ; freight therefore per ton of grain 100 miles is less than 9 pence (8.55), which is about the same as the charge for water-carriage of wheat from Chicago to New York (haulage nearly 1000 miles) : — Shillings per ton i860 . . . 41 1880 ... 20 1894 . . 7 1870 . . 28 1890 ... 10 1897 . . 7 On 13 lines which stood for one- third of the goods traffic of the United States, the charge for carrying a ton 100 miles averaged as follows : — Year Pence Year Pence Year Pence 1870 . ■ ■ IS4 1880 . ■ SI 1890 . ■ • 39 1875 • . . 66 1885 . . . 42 189s . . . 36 FRICTION Rennie's table is as follows : — Steel on ice . Ice on ice Brass on iron Steel on steel 014 028 135 146 'Marble on marble . Leather on iron Granite on granite Iron on oak . . , 160 230 300 620 FRIENDLY SOCIETIES There are three kinds of societies — co-operative, building, and friendly societies — and the aggregate mem- bership and funds in the United Kingdom show thus : — No. of Soc. Members Funds, £ 1886 22,000 7,000,000 79,000,000 1896 30,104 11,511,000 107,470,000 Societies Co-operative Friendly Building, &c. Funds, £ 20,040,000 26,100,000 61,330,000 Excluding Co-operative and Building Societies, and considering only the Mutual Aid Societies of the work- ing classes, their progress has been as follows : — Year Members Funds, £ 1873 1880 1897 1,787,000 4,802,000 8,320,000 8,630,000 13,003,000 26,100,000 There are 1333 of these societies, averaging 6300 members each, but 9 of the principal societies average 250,000 each, having increased 32 per cent, in 10 years, 000 omitted Societies Members Income, £ Funds, £ 1886 1895 1885 1 1893 1886 1896 Oddfellows . Foresters . . Hearts of Oak Shepherds . S others . . 676 582 109 67 238 906 6SS 2o5 no 333 1,060 860 250 90 280 1,320 1,090 460 160 51° 5.780 3.390 770 180 900 8,500 4,820 1,610 470 1.310 9 Societies . 1,672 2,210 2,S40 3,54° 11,020 16,710 See Trade Unions, page 570, and page 813. See also Co-operation, page 677, and Societies, page 542. For Building Societies, see Co-operation. Canada Friendly and Building Societies showed as follows ; — 1874 1884 I 1894 Capital, paid . . Reserve . . . Deposits . . . Debentures, &c. . 1,600,000 270.000 920,000 450,000 6,150,000 1,360,000 2,780,000 7,270,000 7,830,000 2,290,000 4,160,000 14,020,000 Liabilities . . . 3,240,000 17,560,000 28,300,000 Mortgages . . Cash, &c. . . . 3,100.000 140,000 14,800,000 2,720,000 23,400,000 5,100,000 Assets .... 3,240,000 17,520,000 28,500,000 In 1894 the Provinces showed as follows :— Capital, £ Deposits, £ Mortgages,;^ Ontario . . . Quebec . . . Nova Scotia, &c. 6,900,000 470,000 460,000 4,050,000 80,000 30,000 21,300,000 1,840,000 260,000 Total . . . 7,830,000 4,160,000 23,400,000 Adstralia In January 1895 there were 149 Friendly Societies with 242,000 members, and funds approaching 3 millions sterling, viz. : — Branches Members Funds, £ N. S. Wales . . 818 68,400 400,000 Victoria . . . 1.075 79,200 1,080,000 New Zealand . 367 30,000 550,000 Queensland . . 243 17,100 i5J,ooo South Australia . 422 35.900 420,000 Tasmania . . . III 9,800 80,000 West Australia . 26 1,800 30,000 Total . . . 3.062 242,200 2,800,000 FRUIT The apple crop of the United States averages 5,500,000 tons, valued at 20 millions sterling. One ton of apples yields 1 50 gallons of cider. See Cider. Imports of fruit into the United Kingdom in 1896 were : Almonds . Apples . Currants . Raisins, &c. Oranges, &c. Total Tons Value, £ 7,400 150,000 49,000 80,000 260,000 430,000 1,580,000 750,000 2,340,000 4,200,000 546,400 9,300,000 Consumption averages 30 lbs., worth 65 pence, per inhabitant. The countries which exported fruit were as follows : — Italy . . Spain Portugal Greece . Tons 1887 240,000 160,000 17,000 107,000 1895 230,000 300,000 20,000 140,000 Value, £ 1887 2,200,000 2,200,000 140,000 1,900,000 1895 1,900,000 3,300,000 130,000 1,100,000 The fruit crop of France in 1896 was valued at ;^7iSoO)Ooo sterling. 3A GAS 738 GOLD G GAS See Light, page 762, also page 304. GLASS The annual output of glass in certain countries is re- presented approximately by the following values : — £ United Kingdom 4,400,000 France . . 7,200,000 Austria . . 4,500,000 Belgium Russia United States £ 3,800,000 1,200,000 9,800,000 The United States census showed the growth of this industry thus : — Year Capital, £ Operatives Output, £ 1880 . 1890 . 4,400,000 9,100,000 26,000 49.500 4,900,000 9,800,000 See Glass in Part II., page 305. GOATS See Cattle, page 635, also page 305. GOLD The production of gold in forty-seven years has been as follows : — Year 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 1861 1S62 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 187D 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 l885 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1693 1894 1895 1896 1897 Average Value, £ Sterling (000 omitted) ir,6oo 12,700 13,700 12,700 11,600 11,600 11,500 10,600 10,500 9,800 9,000 8,200 8,400 9,700 11,200 11,200 10,900 10,100 10,400 10,400 9,700 8,200 8,200 7,700 7,700 8,400 9,900 10,700 8,200 7,600 7.300 6,900 6,300 6,500 6,700 7,400 7,000 7,000 6,900 6,900 6,600 6,400 7,100 8,200 9,700 10,600 11,100 9,200 1,400 12,200 13,000 9,600 12,000 13,200 11,600 12,100 12,200 11,200 11,000 11,300 11,400 10,000 10,300 10,400 9,900 10,400 9,700 8,500 9,900 9,000 8,400 7,200 6, goo 6,900 6,300 6,100 6,100 6,300 6,400 6,200 5,600 6,000 5.800 5, 600 5,800 6,000 7,000 6,400 6,600 7,200 7.500 8,700 8,800 8,800 10,200 8,600 3,600 3,600 3,400 3.400 3.500 3.500 3.900 3.900 3,600 3,600 3.500 3.500 3.300 3.400 3.400 4,100 4,100 4,200 4.300 4.300 4.400 4,700 4,800 4,800 4,800 4,700 5.700 5.900 5.900 5.700 4,700 4,600 4,600 4,600 4,200 4,200 4,200 4,500 4,900 4,700 4,700 4,800 4,800 S.700 S.400 6,200 6,500 4,400 2,200 2,200 2,200 2.200 2,200 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,500 2,600 2,700 2,800 3,000 3,200 3,200 3.300 3,200 3.300 4,000 3,800 4.300 4,700 5.100 5, 200 5,100 S.500 5,800 6,800 7.500 9,200 11,900 15,100 16,600 16,800 20,500 4,700 j8,8oo 30,700 32,300 27,900 29,300 30,600 29,300 28,900 28,600 26,900 25,900 25,400 25,500 25,500 27,300 28,000 27,200 27,000 26,700 25,500 26,500 24,500 24,100 22,500 22,400 23,200 25,100 26.000 23,400 22,900 22,400 21,500 20, 800 21,800 21,800 22,400 22,100 23,000 24,600 24,800 25,400 27,600 31,300 37,700 40,500 42,400 48,300 26,900 Weight, Tons iS ri VI in s i D 1 0! > H 8,3 10 26 15 134 91 87 26 15 219 98 93 25 IS 231. 91 69 25 15 200 «3 86 25 15 209 83 94 25 16 218 82 83 28 16 209 76 86 28 16 206 75 87 26 16 204 70 80 26 16 192 64 79 2."; 17 185 59 81 25 17 182 60 82 23 17 182 69 71 25 17 182 80 73 25 17 19s 80 74 .30 16 200 78 70 30 16 194 72 74 30 16 192 74 69 31 16 190 74 61 31 16 182 69 70 31 18 188 59 64 33 19 175 59 60 34 19 172 55 52 34 20 161 55 49 34 22 160 60 49 33 23 i6S 70 45 41 23 179 77 43 42 24 186 59 43 42 23 167 54 45 41 24 164 52 46 33 29 160 49 44 32 28 153 45 40 32 3^ 148 47 43 32 33 155 48 41 30 36 155 53 40 30 37 160 50 41 30 36 157 50 43 32 39 164 49 50 35 41 17S 49 40 34 48 177 47 47 34 54 182 46 52 34 65 197 51 54 34 85 224 59 62 41 108 270 69 63 39 119 290 76 63 44 120 303 79 73 4b 1 ''^^ 345 65 61 32 ! 34 19a GOLD 739 GOLD The value and weight of gold produced are summed up thus : — Years Millions £ Tons U. States Australia Russia 1 Various Total U. States Australia Russsia Various Total 1831-60 . . . 1861-70 . . . 1871-80 . . . 1881 90 . . . 1891-97 116 100 86 69 60 109 103 73 61 S8 36 38 52 45 38 22 23 30 50 97 283 264 241 22s 253 834 710 617 492 427 775 734 520 434 414 260 275 365 320 272 16s 215 358 698 2,024 1,884 1. 717 1,604 1,811 47 years . . 431 404 209 222 1,266 3,080 2,877 1,492 1.591 9,040 The production of gold during the last two years was : — £ Sterling (000 omitted) Weight 1896 1897 Average Tons United States . . . 10,580 11,100 10,840 77 Transvaal .... 8.370 11,090 9.730 70 AiKtralia .... 8,740 10,180 9,460 68 Russia 6.200 6,500 6,350 46 India 1,160 1.430 1.300 9 China 1.33° 1.330 1.330 9 Mexico 1,220 1,360 1,290 9 Canada 560 1,200 880 6 Colombia . . . 620 780 700 5 Guiana 510 520 520 4 Brazil 500 500 500 4 Various 2,640 42.43° 2,290 2,470 18 Total . . 48,280 45.370 325 In Australia the yield of gold averages as follows per ton of quartz : Victoria, J oz. ; New South Wales, i oz. ; New Zealand, i.l oz. ; Queensland and Tasmania, 1.7 oz. The Transvaal goldfields began working in 1888, and their yield has been as follows : — £ , 8,500,000 . 8,400,000 . 8,400,000 II,IOO,OOo . 52,100,000 Year Year 1894. 1895. 1896 . 1897. 1888-97 £ 1889 , . . 1,300,000 1890 . . . 1,750,000 1891 . . . 2,500,000 1892 . . . 4,200,000 1893 . . . 5,200,000 These mines have averaged less than half-an-oz (0.4) of gold per ton of quartz : yield, 32 shillings ; expenses, 25 ; . profit, 7 shillings per ton of quartz. Klondyke, in Arctic America, produced ;£'2,ooo,ooo of gold in 1898, the world's production for this year reaching ;^58, 100,000. The stock of precious metals at various dates was : — Year Tons To [is of Silver I of Gold Gold Silver l8^8 3.575 113,000 314 i860 i 5.299 118,250 22^ 1870 6.583 126,360 '5^ 1880 7,400 142,960 i9i 1890 8,054 168,650 21 1897 9.165 _ _ 194,000 21 The world would require an increase of 97,000 tons in the present stock of silver, or exactly 50 per cent., in order to place it on the same footing as in 1848, with regard to the quantity of gold. If the relative stocks of the two metals determined the price of silver it would be now go pence per ounce ; it has, on the contrary, fallen 55 per cent, from the normal price of 1851-60, which shows that it simply follows the cost of production. The following table shows the amount (see Money, page 777) of gold and silver used for coinage from 1851-1897, tons gross representing the actual weight of metal issued by the mints of all nations, tons net the supposed weight of new metal after deducting what was reminted :- Tons Gold Tons Silver Period Gross Net Gross 1 Net 1851-S0 . 1881-96 . 7.500 3.500 3.900 1,500 65,000 1 33,000 39,000 ] 19.000 Total . 11,000 5.400 104,000 52,000 Coined and uncoined metals stood approximately :- Date Gold, Tons Ratio Coined Uncoined Total Coined 1848 . . . 1880 . . . 1897 . . 1.125 5.025 6.525 2.450 2.375 2.640 3.575 7.400 9.165 31-5 68.0 71-3 Silver, Tons 1848 . . . 1880 . . . 1897 . . . 45.200 78,200 97.200 67,800 64,760 96,800 113,000 142,960 194,000 40.0 54-7 SO. I In 1885 Newmann Spallart estimated the weight of coined money in the world thus : Year i Tons Gold 1 Tons Silver Silver Ratio 1848 . 1885 . 1,125 5.925 45.200 88,100 40 to I 15 .. I The total production of precious metals in 1894 was :^ Weight, Tons U. States Australia S. Africa Mexico Russia Bolivia China Germany Guiana India . Colombia Austria France BrazU , Peru . Chile . Japan. Canada Spain . Argentina Various . Gold Silver 59 63 61 7 42 9 3 6 6 4 4 5i Value, £ Gold Silver I Total, £ 1.540 560 1,460 10 680 190 50, 60 100 ... 1 100 90i 60 I 7 60! 40 I 153 8,200,000 8,700,000 8,5oo,ooo| 1,000,000' c,8oo,ooo, ... 1 1,200,000! 400,000 800,000^ 800,000' 600,000' 300,000 400,000 100,000 200,000 6,400,000 14,600,000 2,300,000 11,000,000 I 8,500,000 6,100,000 7,100,000 50,000 5,850,000 2,Soo,ooo 2,800,000 I 1,200,000 800,000 1,200,000 I 800,000 800,000 800,000 550,000 400,000 400,000 400,000 350,000 350,000 230,000 250,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 400,000 ... I 400,000 350,000' 250,000' 3o,ooo| 250,000, 150,000! 700,000 670,000 1,370,000 The World . | 273 -5,160 37,700,00021,400,00059,100,000 GOLD 740 GOLD The production of silver has been as follows •■— Years Tons Value, U. States Various Total Millions;^ 1851-60 . 1861-70 . 1871-80 . 1881-90 . 1891-94 . IIU: : 70 2,370 7.720 13.330 6,790 1,640 1.730 8,880 9,840 14,380 18,360 12,030 3.500 3.360 8.950 12,210 22,100 31,690 18,820 5.140 S.090 81.4 110.4 182.7 223.3 104.8 21.8 21.6 46 years . 33.650 70.350 104,000 746.0 Spanish America has produced 47,000 tons of silver since 1850, that is, almost half the total supply of the world, Mexico taking the lead : — Tons Value, Millions;^ Years Mexico Peru, &c. Spanish America 1851-70 . . 1871-90. . 1891-96 . . 9.530 14,780 8,290 4,140 7,540 2,520 13.670 22,320 io,8io 123.8 169.4 58.8 46 years . . 32,600 j 14,200 46,800 3520 The price of silver per ounce, and its ratio to gold in thirty years, have been as follows : — Year Pence Ratio Year Pence Ratio 1868 . . 60.5 iS-6 1883 . . 50.6 18.6 1869 . . 60.5 1S.6 1884 50.6 18.6 1870 . . 60.5 156 1885 48.6 19.4 1871 . . 60.5 15-6 1886 45-4 20.8 1872 60.5 IS.6 1887 44.6 21.1 1873 59-2 iS-9 1888 42.9 22.0 1874 58.3 16.2 1889 417 22.1 i87> 56.9 16.6 1890 47-7 19.8 ^876 52.7 17.9 1891 45-1 20.9 1877 54-8 17.2 39-7 23.7 1878 52.6 17.9 1893 35-6 26.5 1879 51-2 18.4 1S94 28.9 32.6 1880 52.2 18.1 1895 29.8 31.7 1881 52.0 18.2 189b 30.7 30.7 1882 . . 52.0 18.2 1897 . . 27.0 35.0 In 1897 the silver money in use was 154 times the weight of gold money. According to the best authorities, the consumption yearly of gold and silver for manufactures has trebled since 1850, when Spallart estimated it at 25 tons of gold and 250 of silver. In recent years the estimates have been : — Tons of Gold Value, £ Soetbeer Kimball Molinari 1871-89 1887 1896 189S U. States . . G. Britain . . France . . . Germany . . Switzerland . Italy, &c. . . 13-5 17.0 16.9 11.8 11.3 18 16 12 II 9 14 iS-7 17.0 12.0 To 9.8 2,200,000 2,400,000 1,700,000 2,100,000 850,000 1,350,000 Total . . 83.8 80 75-5 10,600,000 Tons of Silver Value, £ Soetbeer Kimball Molinari 1871-80 1887 1895 1895 U. States . . 102 "5 185 770,000 G. Britain , . 72 72 80 330,000 France . . . 75 75 120 500,000 Germany . , 75 82 100 420,000 Switzerland . 24 24 50 210,000 Russia . . . 32 32 32 130,000 Austria . . , 32 32 30 120,000 Italy, &c. . . 59 83 66 280,000 Total . . 471 S15 663 2,760,000 Moreover, the loss of money from wear-and-tear and shipwreck is 2 tons of gold, 100 of silver yearly. The following table, allowing for these deductions, shows the net increase of the world's stock of precious metals : — Years Gold, Tons Production Consumption Net Increase 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 i88i-go 1891-97 . 2,024 1,884 1.717 1,604 1,811 900 950 700 1.724 1,284 817 654 1,111 47 years . 9.040 3.450 5.590 Silver, Tons 1851-60 1861-70 1871- 80 1881-90 1S91-96 8,950 12,210 22,100 31,690 29,050 3.700 4,100 5.500 6,000 3,700 5.250 8,110 16,600 25,690 25.350 46 years 104,000 23,000 81,000 The current of bullion to and from India, Straits, and Ceylon in thirty-six years was as follows : — Years Millions £ Sterling Imported Exported Retained 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 1891-96 I9S no 171 104 26 44 39 49 169 66 132 55 36 years 580 158 422 The bullion current may be summed up thus : Gold Imported, Millions £ 1861-80 1881-88 1889-96 36 Years Great Britain . France United States . Various . 351 340 73 252 96 64 187 205 107 49 373 652 5'o 186 812 Total 1,016 410 734 2,160 Exported Great Britain . France . United States . Various . 284 209 187 336 f 67 35 212 155 69 118 392 S35 345 340 666 Total 1,016 410 734 2,160 GOLD 741 GOLD Silver Imported, Millions £, 1861-80 1881-88 1889-96 36 Years Great Britain . France United States . Various . 225 203 30 443 66 62 23 209 88 49 28 224 379 81 876 Total 901 360 389 1.650 Exported Great Britain . France United States . Various . 210 126 95 470 68 49 41 202 46 65 179 377 221 20I 851 Total 901 360 389 1,650 Total Bullion Imports, Millions £, 1861-80 1881-88 1889-96 36 Years Great Britain . France United States . Various . 576 543 103 69s 162 125 396 293 156 77 597 1,031 824 267 1,688 Total 1.917 770 1,123 3,810 Exports Great Britain . France . United States . Various . 494 335 282 806 164 116 76 414 254 "5 183 571 912 566 S4I 1.791 Total 1.917 770 1,123 3.810 In the whole period of 36 years we find that Great Britain has had a net influx of precious metals averaging ; •a u N O" ^ 6 < Agriculture Mining . . Manufact. Building . Trade . . Transport . Professions Domestics . 101,000 31,000 71,000 38,000 111,000 31,000 24,000 58,000 101,000 25,000 96,000 34,000 133.000 32,000 23,000 58,000 69,000 17,000 43,000 13,000 S7,ooo 16,000 13,000 25,000 54,000 12,000 22,000 11,000 41,000 13,000 7,000 20,000 18,000 4,000 7,000 5,000 14,000 3,000 3,000 7,000 7,000 1,000 4,000 1,000 S,ooo 3,000 1,000 3,000 Total . . 465,000 502,000 253,000 180,000 61,000 25,000 The population of South Australia being one-twelfth of the total, we may allow a corresponding percentage for that colony in the several occupations : the total for Australasia will stand as follows : — Number Ratio Agriculture Mining .... Manufactures . Building .... Trade and transport Professions, &c. 382,000 98,000 265,000 111,000 501,000 263,000 23.6 6.1 16.4 6.9 30.8 16.2 Total 1,620,000 100.0 OIL The production of petroleum in 1896 was as follows, in barrels of 42 gallons : — Raised United States Russia Austria 61,000,000 36,000,000 4,700,000 Exported 23,000,000 5,500,000 Home Use 38,000,000 30,500,000 4,700,000 The consumption of petroleum in the United Kingdom in 1885-87 averaged 74 million gallons yearly,. and in 1895-97 10 Ifiss than 184 million gallons, or 4J per inhabitant yearly. For further particulars see Mining, page 776. With respect to olive-oil, big trees give 2 bushels of olives, which is equivalent to 3 gallons of oil. An ordi- nary olive-grove gives 25 gallons of oil per acre. France has 270,000 acres under olives, producing 105,000 tons of fruit, equal to 7 million gallons of oil, besides 150,000 acres under colza, producing 5 million gallons of oil. Italy in 1896 had 2,500,000 acres under olives, which produced 44 million gallons of oil, or 18 gallons per acre. See Oil, page 434. ORDERS Chambers^ s Encyclopedia states that 124,000 Franciscan friars perished in attending the sick during the great plague of 1346 (see Plagues, page 201). Helyot says that in 1710 there were 7000 Franciscan convents with 120,000 friars, and 900 nunneries of the same Order, with 30,000 nuns. See Orders, page 434. 3D PAPER 786 PAUPERS PAPER The latest estimates of paper manufacture are : — Mills Tons Paper United Kingdom 300 400,000 France 490 350,000 Germany . 1,080 180,000 Russia SO 110,000 Austria 740 80,000 Italy 230 50,000 Spain 100 20,000 Portugal . 16 8,000 Scandinavia 144 120,000 Holland . 65 10,000 Belgium . 40 25,000 Switzerland 3S 12,000 Europe . 3,290 1,365,000 United States . 1,005 1,200,000 Spanish America 8S 55.000 Total . 4,380 2,620,000 In 1850 the total production was estimated at 220,000 tons, or one-twelfth of what it is at present. In that year the mills of the United Kingdom produced 62,000 tons. _ The output in the United States rose from 200,000 tons in 1872 to 1,200,000 tons in i8go, and is now pro- bably 1,500,000 tons. Esparto grass is much used for making paper, the mills of Europe in 1889 consuming 300,000 tons, of which two-thirds were grown in Barbary, one-third in Spain. Wood pulp is also in great demand for this industry, the exports of same from Sweden and Norway showing as follows : — From Tons Exported 1886 1895 Sweden .... Norway .... 16,000 97,000 152,000 248,000 Total . 113,000 400,000 The value of paper turned out yearly by the mills of the world is about 80 millions sterling ; the mills employ about 200,000 men and 400,000 women. In 1897 Great Britain exported 46,000 tons of paper, valued.at ^1,350,000, against 38,000 tons in 1887, valued at ^l, 330,000. PARKS In the following table the paries of London include those of the suburbs, such as Richmond, Hampton Court, Epping Forest, &c. : — London . Birmingham Liverpool . Leeds Sheffield Hull Brighton . Nottingham York Cheltenham Park, Acres 19,000 350 1,060 600 290 130 340 290 800 1,590 Inhab, to an Acre of Park 230 1,380 580 610 I.IZO 1.550 300 710 90 30 For parks of Continental capitals, see page 438. PASSENGERS In 1897 there were 283,000 passengers from Eurof landed at New York, of whom 91,000 were cabin, 192,000 steerage, by ten lines of transatlantic steamers. The largest number was carried by the North German Lloyd, namely, 55,600 ; the next on the list being the Cunard, with 32,400. The passenger traffic of London by omnibus, rail, &c., rose from 82 million persons in 1864 to 407 millions in 1890. The tramways of the United Kingdom in 1898 carried 858 million passengers, or almost 2j millions daily. The steam ferry-boats on the Seine at Paris carried last year 25,400,000 persons, say 70,000 daily. The railways of the world carry yearly about 3380 million passengers, equal to 9 millions daily. See Passengers, page 438 ; Railways, page 795 ; Tramways, page 814 ; and Travellers, page 573. PAUPERS The following table shows approximately the amount spent in various countries to relieve the indigent : — ^Yearly Pence per Inhabitant United Kingdom France .... Austria Proper . Italy Holland .... United States . Australia .... 11,800,000 7,400,000 710,000 2,600,000 500,000 500,000 800,000 73 46 8 20 25 2 48 United Kingdom The numbers and ratios of paupers in the three king- doms have been as follows ; — Numbers Per 1000 Pop. 1877 1E87 1897 1877 1897 England . . Scotland . . Ireland . . . 728,000 96,000 78,000 817,000 100,000 113,000 824,000 101,000 99,000 30 27 IS 27 27 24 22 U. Kingdom. 902,000 1,030,000 1,024,000 26 Expenditure for relief of paupers has been as follows:— Amount, £, /per Pauper Pence per Inhabitant 1881 1891 1881 1891 1884 1891 England . Scotland . Ireland 8,400,000 ^70,000 1,220,000 9,700,000 960,000 1,130,000 10.8 9.0 11.2 10.7 11.8 10. 1 10.9 H.7 75 SS 59 70 78 56 61 U. King. . 10,490,000 11,790,000 73 Booth shows that 38 per cent, of all persons over 65 years of age in England are paupers : his scheme of State pensions of ;^I3 a year for all persons over 65 would cost the Treasury ;^i7,ooo,ooo for England, or ;?23,5oo,ooo for the United Kingdom, per annum. PINS 787 POPULATION France Levasseur shows that pauperism is declining in Paris, viz. : — Paupers per 1000 InhaHtants 1813 . . . i6s I 1847 . . . 79 I 1872 ... 54 1829 ... 79 I i86i . . . S3 I 1887 ... 41 The annual cost of maintenance of paupers in France, and the sources from which the necessary funds are de- rived, appear as follows : — For £ From £ Ordinary poor . Insane . . . Orphans . . . Asylums . . . 5.350.000 ' 620,000 680,000 710,000 Endowments . The State . . City of Paris . Local boards . Total . . 3,020,000 300,000 1,700,000 2,340,000 Total . . 7,360,000 7,360,000 PINS The manufacture is said to be declining, viz. Millions Weekly 1887 1897 Great Britain .... France Germany, &c 280 120 180 310 iBo 72 Total . 580 562 In 1897 Birmingham produced 220 millions weekly, against 180 millions in 1887. POLICE The police force in certain cities is as follows (1891): — London . . Berlin . . Hamburg . Bordeaux . Number 16,000 3.700 1,300 400 Per 10,000 Pop. 30 28 15 Rome . Naples Turin . Genoa . Number 520 670 600 420 Pop. 12 13 17 19 The above eight cities show an average of 20 policemen per 10,000 inhabitants, or 2 per thousand. The police force of the United Kingdom was as follows : — Number Per 10,000 Inhab. 1876 1886 1896 1876 1886 1896 England. Scotland. Ireland . 29,720 3.170 12,370 36.450 3,820 13,960 41.56° 4,600 13.140 12 9 23 14 13 10 28 15 14 II 29 U. King. 45-260 54.23° 59.300 IS The ratio of police to population is now much higher than twenty years ago, having risen 17 per cent, in Eng- land, 22 per cent in Scotland, 27 per cent, in Ireland. For Police expenditure in European capitals see POPULATION The population of Europe has increased a little more than 10 per cent, in ten years, viz. : — 1887 1897 Increase Pop. per Sq. Mile U. Kingdom . 36,600,000 39,830,000 3,230,000 330 France . . . 38,220,000 38,520,000 300,000 192 Germany 47,060,000 52,480,000 5,420,000 247 Russia . 88,350,060 106,190,000 17,840,000 47 Austria . 39,900,000 43,460,000 3,560,000 162 Italy. . 29,940,000 31,290,000 1,350,000 274 Spain . 17,560,000 17,970,000 410,000 98 Portugal 4,710,000^ 5,050,000 340,000 136 Sweden. 4,720,000 4,960,000 240,000 29 Norway 1,910,000 2,050,000 140,000 17 Denmark 2,090,000 2,310,000 220,000 154 Holland 4,390,000 4,930,000 540,000 234 Belgium 5,910,000 6,500,000 590,000 590 Switzerland . 2,920,000 3,040,000 120,000 190 Greece . 2,190,000 2,430,000 240,000 97 Roumania 5,380,000 5,570,000 190,000 116 Servia . 1,970,000 2,350,000 380,000 III Bulgaria 3,150,000 3,310,000 160,000 8S Turkey . 6,100,000 7,650,000 1,550,000 "5 Europe . 343,070,000 379,890,000 36,820,000 96 The population of Europe may be considered under two classes; urban, including all cities and towns over 10,000 souls ; and rural, comprising all the rest, viz. : — Urban Urban Rural Total Ratio per Cent. U. Kingdom . 20.600,000 17,200,000 37,800,000 54 France . . . 9,200,000 29,200,000 38,400,000 24 Germany . . 15,600,000 36,600,000 52,200,000 30 Russia . . . 10,900,000 94,900,000 105,800,000 10 Austria . . . 5,600,000 35,800,000 41,400,000 13 Italy . . . 5,300,000 25,400,000 30,700,000 17 Spain . . . 2,900,000 14,700,000 17,600,000 17 Portugal . . 400,000 4,300,000 4,700,000 9 Scandinavia . 1,500,000 7,500,000 9,000,000 17 Holland . . 1,800,000 2,900,000 4,700,000 38 Belgium . . 1,700,000 4,600,000 6,300,000 27 Switzerland . 500,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 17 Danub. States 900,000 10,500,000 11,400,000 8 Greece . . . 300,000 1,900,000 2,200,000 14 Europe . . . 77,200,000 288,000,000 365,200,000 21 In 1861 Europe had 148 cities of more than 50,000 souls, and in 1891 the number had risen to 255. These cities had grown much more rapidly than the rest of the population, viz. : — page 441- 1861 1891 Increase per Cent. Cities over 50,000 . Towns and rural . 22,600,000 200,200,000 44,800,000 308,600,000 99 54 Total pop. . 222,800,000 353,400,000 58 In i860 the United States had 16 cities of more than 50,000 souls, and in 1890 they had 56, the increase of population having been as follows : — 1863 1890 Increase per Cent. Cities over 50,000 . Towns and rural . 3,100,000 28,300,000 11,700,009 50,900,000 280 80 Total pop. . 31,400,000 62,600,000 99 POPULATION 788 POPULATION The population of the principal cities of the world (except China) is as follows :— Aberdeen Adelaide Agra . Aix-la-Chapelle Aleppo . Alexandria Allahabad Altona . Amsterdam Antwerp Astrakhan Athens . Bagdad Bahia . Baltimore Bangalore Bangkok Barcelona Bareilly Barmen Baroda . Baku , Belfast . Benares Berlin . Birmingham . Blackburn Bologna Bolton . Bombay Bordeaux Boston . Bradford Bremen Breslau . Brighton Bristol . Brunswick Brussels Bucharest Buda-Pesth Buenos Ayres Buffalo . Cairo . Calcutta Cardiff . Catania Cawnpore Chemnitz Chicago 140,000 140,000 170,000 110,000 120,000 210,000 180,000 150,000 460,000 260,000 110,000 110,000 180,000 200,000 , 440,000 180,000 . 200,000 . 270,000 120,000 , 130,000 , 120,000 , 110,000 260,000 220,000 1,680,000 510,000 130,000 150,000 . 120,000 , 820,000 , 260,000 . 450,000 . 230,000 . 140,000 . 370,000 , 120,000 . 230,000 . 110,000 . 520,000 . 230,000 . 590,000 . 810,000 . 260,000 . 370,000 . 980,000 . 160,000 . 120,000 . 190,000 . 160,000 1,090,000 Christiania , . 150,000 Cincinnati . . 300,000 Cleveland . . 260,000 Cologne . 320,000 Colombo . 130,000 Constantinop e . 870,000 Copenhagen . 310,000 Crefeld . . 110,000 Damascus . . 200,000 Danzig . . 130,000 Delhi . . 190,000 Denver . . 110,000 Detroit . . 210,000 Dresden , 330,000 Dublin . . 360,000 Dundee . 160,000 Dusseldorf . 180,000 Edinburgh . 280,000 Elberfeld . 140,000 Fez . 140,000 Florence . 200,000 Frankfort . 230,000 Genoa . . 220,000 Ghent . . 160,000 Glasgow , 710,000 Gothenberg . 110,000 Gratz . . 110,000 Hague . . 190,000 Halle . . 120,000 Hamburg . 630,000 Hanover . 210,000 Havana , , 200,000 Havre . . 120,000 Huir . . 220,000 Hyderabad . . 420,000 Karkoff . 200,000 Kazan . . 140,000 Kichineff . . 120,000 Kieff . . 190,000 Kioto . , , 330,000 Kob4 . . 160,000 Konigsberg .- 170,000 Lahore . . 180,900 Leeds . • , 410,000 Leghorn . 110,000 Leicester . . 200,000 Leipzig . • . 400,000 Lemberg . 130,000 Li^ge . . 160,000 Lima . . 110,000 Lille . Lisbon . Liverpool London Louisville Lucknow Lyons . Madras . Madrid . Magdeburg Malaga . Manchester Mandalay Manilla Marseilles Meerut . Melbourne Messina Mexico . Milan . Milwaukee Minneapolis Montevideo Montreal Moscow Munich . Nagpore Nantes . Naples . Newark Newcastle New Orleans New York Norwich Nottingham , Nuremberg , Odessa . Oldham Omaha . Oporto , Osaka . Palermo Paris Patna . Pernambuco Philadelphia Pittsburg Poona . Portsmouth Prague . , 220,000 , 310,000 , 740,000 4,460,000- . 160,000 , 270,000 . 470.000 450,000 . 470,000 . 210,000 . 130,000 . 740,000 190,000 . 150,000 440,000 120,000 . 450,000 . 150,000 . 350,000 , 440,000 . 200,000 160,000 , 250,000 . 250,000 , 830,000 . 410,000 , 120,000 , 120,000 . 530.000 . 180,000 , 210,000 240,000 2,530,000 . 110,000 , 230,000 , 160,000 , 330,000 , 140,000 . 140,000 . 140,000 , 490,000 . 280,000 2,540,000 . 170,000 , 190,000 1,050,000 , 240,000 , 160,000 . 180,000 , 180,000 Preston Providence Rangoon Rheims . Riga . Rio de Janeiro Rochester Rome . Rosario . Rotterdam Roubaix Rouen . St. Etienne St. Louis St. Paul St. Petersburg Salon ica San Francisco San Paulo Santiago (Chili Saratoff Seville . Sheffield Smyrna Stettin . Stockholm Strasburg Stuttgart Sunderland Surat . Sydney , Tabriz . Tashkend Teheran Tiflis . Tokio . Toronto Toulouse Trieste . Tunis , Turin . Valencia Valparaiso Venice . Vienna . Warsaw Washington Wilna . Yokohama Zurich . e) . 110,000 , 130,000 . 180,000 . 110,000 , 180,000 . 520,000 . 130,000 460,000 110,000 . 280,000 . 120,000 , 110,000 , 140,000 • 450,000 . 130,000 1,040,000 , 150,000 . 300,000 . 110,000 . 250,000 . 120,000 . 140,000 . 350,000 . 200,000 . 140,000 . 270,000 . 140,000 . 160,000 . 140,000 , 110,000 . 410,000 . 180,000 . 120,000 . 210,006 . 150,000 1,240,000 . 180,000 , 150,000 . 160,000 . 150,000 . 350,000 . 170,000 , 150,000 150,000 1,360,000 . 530,000 , 230,000 , 110,000 . 180,000 . 130,000 In the preceding table Liverpool includes Birkenhead, Manchester Salford, and the city of New York includes Brooklyn and suburbs. There are 28 of the above cities in the United Kingdom, 24 in India, 8 in the Colonies, making in all 60 for the British Empire ; there are 26 in Germany, 26 in the United States, 16 in Russia, 12 in France, 12 in Italy, and 58 in various countries. The population of the British Colonies, exclusive of India, is shown as follows : — 1881 1895 Increase Canada . . . Australia . . . South Africa . . West Indies . . Ceylon .... Various . . . 4,500,000 2,740,000 1,120,000 1,470,000 2,760,000 1,440,000 5,300,000 4,240,000 2,350,000 1,750,000 3,240,000 1,710,000 800,000 1,500,000 1,230,000 280,000 480,000 270,000 Total . . . 14,030,000 18,590,000 4,560,000 In this table Canada includes Newfoundland, and the West Indies Guiana. The gross increase of the Colonies in 14 years has been equal to 32 per cent. The popula- tion of India in 1 89 1 was 221, 200, 000, showing an increase from 1881 of 23 millions, or 1 1 J per cent. The population of Spanish America and Brazil was by latest dates as follows : — Per Per Pop. Sq. Pop. Sq. Mile Mile- Mexico . . 12,570,000 16 ' Chile . . 2,960,000 10 Cent. Amer. 3,150,000 22 Bolivia . . 2,020,000 4 Colombia 3,880,000 8 Paraguay . 430,000 4- Venezuela . 2,320,000 4 Uruguay . 790,000 11 Ecuador . . 1,270,000 10 Argentina . 3,950,000 2- Peru . . , 2,620,000 6 Brazil . , 16,330,000 5 The continent of South America has 36,600,000 in- habitants, being at the rate of 5 to the square mile. Urban population increased as follows between 188 1 and 1891 : the column of Natural Increase shows ther POPULATION 789 POPULATION surplus of births over deaths, that of Immigration the net influx from rural districts or from abroad :— Natural Immi- Total Percent. Increase gration Increase on Pop. of 1881 London . 517.000 395,000 10.3 Paris 62,000 123,000 185,000 8.3 Berlin 139,000 318,000 457,000 40.8 Vienna Kome 67,000 45,000 112,000 16.0 28,000 108,000 136,000 45.^ Buda-Pesth i8,ooo 117,000 135,000 Zl Hamburg 50.000 108,000 158,000 38.7 Leipzig 19,000 123,000 142,000 95-2 Dresden 25.000 31,000 56,000 25-5 Breslau 18,000 44,000 62,000 22.7 Naples 14,000 10,000 24,000 4.8 Milan 13,000 85,000 98,000 30.7 Turin 16,000 62,000 78,000 31-0 Genoa 6,000 26,000 32,000 17.7 Florence 15.000 14,000 29,000 17.2 Palermo 26,000 1,000 27,000 II.O While all other cities showed an influx of strangers during the decade ending 1891, London actually showed a loss of 122,000 persons by emigration. The density of population of some principal cities is : — Acres Per Acre Acres Per Acre Berlin . . 15,800 94 Manchester 18,000 41 Brussels . . 2,200 240 Moscow 26,000 32 Dresden . . 7,100 47 Naples . . 5.200 102 Dublin . . 5,100 70 New York . 46,400 55 Florence . . 6,800 30 Paris. . . 19.500 130 -Genoa . , 2,200 100 Philadelphia 84,000 12 Glasgow . . 7,700 Q2 Rome . , 3.900 117 Hamburg . 7,200 87 Turin . . 2,400 145 London . . 78,000 W Vienna . . 13,800 99 Madrid . . 4,200 III Washington 6,100 38 The above 20 cities show an average of 85 inhabitants per acre. United Kingdom The progress of population since 187 1 has been thus : — Number Per Sq. Mile 1871 1898 1871 1898 England . . . Scotland . . . Ireland . . . 22,857,000 3,360,000 5,412,000 31,400,000 4,250,000 4,540,000 391 536 166 139 U. Kingdom 31,629,000 40,190,000 261 332 The population of the island of Great Britain has in- creased since 1871 at the rate of 350,000 yearly, or almost 1000 daily. In the same interval Ireland has lost 32,000 yearly, or go persons daily. The increase in <3reat Britain has been chiefly in urban population : — Urban Population Year England Scotland G. Britain 1871 1881 1891 Increase from '71 12,911,000 15,445,000 17,826,000 4,915,000 1,952,000 2,307,000 2,631,000 679,000 14,863,000 17,752,000 20,457,000 5,594,000 Rural Population 1871 1881 1891 Increase from '71 9,946,000 10,664,000 11,175,000 1,229,000 1,408,000 1,429,000 1.395.000 11,354,000 12,093,000 12,570,000 1,216,000 Tlie population of Ireland at census of 1891 comprised 3,860,000 rural and 845,000 urban, the latter being as 18 per cent, of the population. The several provinces showed thus : — 1871 1891 Loss Leinster .... Ulster Connaught . . . Munster .... 1,336,000 1,840,000 846,000 1,390,000 1,188,000 1,620,000 725.000 1.172,000 148,000 220,000 121,000 218,000 Total . . 5,412,000 4,705,000 707,000 United States Dividing the population into four great classes, we find as follows : — 1860 1890 Increase per Cent. White Americans . Coloured persons . Foreigners . , , Children of do. . . 17,727,000 4,486,000 4,139,000 5,091,000 34,476,000 7,470,000 9,250,000 11,426,000 95 66 123 124 Total . . 31,443,000 62,622,000 99 In the United States it is customary to count as urban population all towns that have more than 8000 souls, and the increase of such towns has been as follows : — Year Total Pop. Urban Urban Ratio i860 31,440,000 1870 38,560,000 1880 50,155,000 1890 ! 62,620,000 5,070,000 8,070,000 11,320,000 18,235,000 16.1 20.9 22.6 29.1 The increase of population in towns since i860 has been 13,165,000, that is 260 per cent., while rural popu- lation has risen only 18,015,000, or 68 per cent. Persons of working age, 15 to 60, according to the census of 1890 summed up nearly 36 millions, distributed thus: — Number (000 omitted) States Americans Ditto Coloured Foreigners Total N. England Middle . . South . . West. . . 1,887 5.755 6,205 10,790 21 265 3.125 223 952 2,396 336 4.036 2,860 8,416 9,666 15.049 Union . . 24.637 3.634 7,720 35.991 The increase of population in the last ten years was 14,020,000, viz. : — 1887 1897 58,680,000 72,700,000 The increase was apparently made up of 10,740,000 surplus of births over deaths, being 18 per cent, on the population in 1887, and 3,280,000 net ir migration, the total number of immigrants in the interval having been 4,390,000, of whom one-fourth are supposed to have gone away or died. POST-OFFICE 790 POST-OFFICE POSTOFFICE The business has increased 60 per cent, in eight years, the following table showing the total number of letters, papers, &c., handled in the several countries : — Millions Per Inhab. 1888 1896 1888 1896 United Kingdom 2.363 3.142 63 80 France . 1,523 2,094 39 54 Germany . 2,488 4.025 53 76 Russia 326 S46 4 5 Austria . 960 1,220 24 28 Italy 476 499 16 16 Spain 124 173 7 10 Portugal . 40 SS 9 II Sweden . 106 170 22 34 Norway . 38 87 19 44 Denmark . SO 144 25 6^ Holland . 180 268 40 55 Belgium . 290 369 49 58 Switzerland 221 257 74 86 Danubian States 40 84 4 8 Greece 12 17 S 2,S 7 Europe . 9.237 13.150 36 United States . 7,028 11,688 110 170 Canada . 199 237 40 47 Spanish America 230 455 s 8 India 274 424 I 2 [apan 137 S06 4 12 Egypt . 17 24 2 2 Cape Colony . 12 28 II IS Australia . 294 414 82 99 Various , 42 71 ... The World . 17.470 27,010 The postal service of the United Kingdom has 145,000 employees, of whom 30,000 are women : there are zi,ooo post-ofBces and 29,000 pillar-boxes in the U. Kingdom. The business may be summed up thus, post-cards counting as letters: — Millions Letters Papers, &c. Total England 1.894 753 2,647 Scotland 203 99 302 Ireland 133 60 193 United Kingdom . 2,230 912 3.142 France . . . . 1,006 1,088 2.094 Germany 1.90S 2,120 4.02s Russia . . . . 3" 23s 546 Austria. 902 318 1,220 Italy . . . . 247 252 499 Spain . . . . 104 69 173 Portugal 27 28 55 Sweden and Norway . 130 127 257 Denmark 75 69 144 Holland 128 140 268 Belgium 176 193 369 Switzerland . 124 133 257 Danubian States . 40 44 84 Greece .... 9 8 17 Turkey II 3 14 Europe 7.425 5.739 13.164 United States 3.044 8,644 11,688 Canada 141 96 237 Spanish America . 180 27s 4SS India .... 374 SO 424 Japan .... 404 102 506 Egypt .... IS 9 24 Cape Colony 18 10 28 Australia 241 173 414 Various 52 11,894 19 71 The World . 15,116 27,010 In 1896 there were 753 million money orders, &c., amounting in all to 3280 millions sterling. Telegraphs. — The length of land-lines and number of messages sent yearly are : — Miles Messages Messages Per of Line Millions Per Pop. Mile United Kingdom . 41,400 79-4 198 1.913 France 58.300 44.8 118 790 Germany . 84,400 38.4 74 455 Russia 82,400 14.5 14 ^7i Austria . 46,100 20.7 48 450 Italy 24.700 9-1 29 370 Spain 23,600 6.0 , 34 255 Portugal . 4,000 1.4 30 350 Sweden . 8,300 2.2 45 2bS Norway . 6,300 1-9 95 302 Denmark . 3.400 1-9 85 Sbo Holland . 3.600 4.6 95 1,280 Belgium . 4,000 8.7 140 2.17s Switzerland 4.400 3-7 120 840 Danubian States 9.500 4-5 40 470 Greece 5,100 I- 5 63 295 Turkey . 21,800 64 Europe . 431.300 243-3 570 United States . 210,000 58.8 84 280 Canada . 31,700 4.0 80 125 West Indies . c,400 I.O 24 18.; Spanish America 114,000 12.0 22 105 India 46,400 4-7 2 lOI Japan 11,700 11. 27 940 Egypt . 2,300 2.4 25 1,050 Algeria 7,100 2.1 26 29s Cape Colony . 6,400 2.2 140 344 Australia . 50,900 10.8 270 210 Various . 15,800 1.7 30 108 The World . 933,000 3S4-0 c,8o Cables . 168,000 Total 1,101,000 ... There are 1480 submarine cables, in all 168,000 miles long, of which 18,000 are State property, the rest belonging to Companies. The average tost of land-lines was, ac- cording to Mr. Charles Bright, pf 94 a mile, and of ocean cables ;^300 a mile : the construction of existing lines and cables represents an outlay of ;^l38,ooo,ooo, of which cables stand for ;f 50,000,000. In 1897 the num- ber of messages was just a million daily, of which 20,000 were by cable. There are at present 12 cables working between Europe and America, besides 3 that are dead ; the charge between London and New York was ;^i a word in 1866, and it is now only a shilling. The progress of telegraphy in eight years is shown thus : — Miles of Line Messages Millions 1888 1896 1888 1896 Europe America . Asia Africa Australia . 368,000 292,000 50,200 . 18,600 39.200 431.300 361,100 68,900 20,800 50,900 170 72 8 5 II 243 76 17 7 11 The World . 768,000 933,000 266 354 The Central Bureau at Berne controls the telegraphs of 47 countries, and reports the number of messages as almost 400 millions yearly. POTATOES 7fi PRESS The postal revenue of the principal States has been as follows : — £ Sterling Pence per Inhab. 1888 1896 1888 1896 United Kingdom . H,2Q0,000 14,800,000 72 90 France . 6,500,000 9,000,000 42 57 Germany . 11,400,000 17,000,000 54 78 Russia 2,600,000 3,900,000 6 8 Austria . 4,000,000 6,100,000 23 34 Italy 2,300,000 2,700,000 18 21 Scandinavia 900,000 1,200,000 24 32 Holland . 600,000 900,000 30 43 Belgium . 700,000 800,000 28 30 United States . 11,700,000 17,200,000 46 60 Canada . 600,000 800,000 30 38 Australia . 1,200,000 2,400,000 80 132 India 1,200,000 2,000,000 I 2 Japan 400,000 1,800,000 2 11 Total 55,300,000 80,600,000 ... In 1892 various governments paid the following sub- sidies for carrying mails : — Miles Run £ Sterling Pence per Mile Great Britain . 4,700,000 1,000,000 5= France 3,400,000 1,040,000 74 United States 1,500,000 620,000 100 Italy . 1,600,000 360,000 54 Spain 1,100,000 390,000 85 Germany . 1,100,000 240,000 52 Austria 1,500,000 230,000 37 Holland . 1,100,000 210,000 46 Total 16,000,000 4,090,000 62 POTATOES The area and production of this crop in i897j com- pared with Spallart's average for 1880-84, are shown as follows : — 1897 1880-84 Tons Bush, per Head Acres Tons 1880- 84 1897 G. Britain . . 505,000 3,400,000 3,300,000 4-4 4.0 Ireland . . 675,000 2,700,000' 3,600,000 28.0 8.0 24.0 U. Kingdom . 1,180,000 6,100,000! 6,900,000 6.0 France . . . 3,900,000 12,900,000 11,300,000 12.0 13-5 Germany . . 7,500,000 31,800,00021,900,000 19.0 24.0 Russia . . . 7,600,000 20,700,000 12,100,000 S-o 7.0 Austria . . 4,100,000 12,400,000 9,600,000 10. "S Italy . . . 500,000 700,000 700,000 I.O 1.0 Spain & Port. 900,000 1,900,000, 1,900,000 4.0 3-« Scandinavia . 600,000 2,500,000 2,600,000 13.0 II.O Holland . . 400,000 2,200,000 1,500,000 14.0 18.0 Belgium . . 500,000 3,400,000 2,500,000 iB.o 22.0 Switzerland . 400,000 1,200,000; 1,300,000 17.0 16.0 Roumania, &c. 120,000 300,0001 300,000 1.0 9.0 1.0 Europe . . 27,700,000 96,ioo,oooj72,6oo,ooo 10. 5 U. States . . 2,800,000 6,300,000 4,600,000 3-7 3-S Canada . . 400.000 1,200,000 1,200,000 10. 5 5-5 Australia . . 150,000 500,000 400,000 S-S 4.8 The World . 31,050,000 104,100,000 78,800,000 ... Since 1884 the production of potatoes in Europe has increased 33 per cent, and almost every country on the Continent shows a greater consumption per inhabitant than fifteen years ago. On the other hand, the con- sumption in the United Kingdom is one-fourth less per head than it was in 1880-84, and a decline is likewise to be observed in the United States, as well as in Canada and Australia. The United Kingdom pays more than a million ster- ling yearly for imported potatoes : in five years ending 1897 the average importation was 156,000 tons, value ;f 1,040,000. PRESS United Kingdom The average number of new books in the years 1896-97 compares with the same in 1888-89 ^^ follows : — Yearly Average Increase 1888-89 1896-97 Economy and trade 111 389 278 History and travels SS7 774 217 Theology 687 549 Medicine 134 13s I Poetry .... 148 291 143 Fiction. 985 1,807 822 Sundries 2,205 1.794 ... New books . 4,827 5.739 912 Works on economy and trade have trebled in eight years, those of poetry and fiction have doubled, while theology has declined, and medicine is stationary. This is exclusive of 1503 reprints yearly in the first period, and 1510 in the second. The aggregate of new books and reprints in the second period shows an increase of 919 works, equal to 19 per cent., which indicates great activity in literary labours. Among the largest sales of books are noted : Webster's Spelling-book, 55 million copies ; " Uncle Tom's Cabin," 1,500,000; Longfellow's Poems, 520,000; "Pickwick Papers," 900,000. Moore's Almanac, down to 1820, had a yearly sale of 500,000 copies. Cassel says that Messrs. Routledge sell 6 million books yearly. The printing- houses of London and Edinburgh turn out more than 50 million volumes per annum, of which one-fifth are ex- ported. Between 1842 and 1888 Messrs. Mudie bought 6 million books for their lending libraries. In 1893 Professor Strahan estimated the issue of news- papers in the United Kingdom at 170 million copies monthly, as compared with 10 millions in 1854 (when Gladstone abolished the tax on newspapers), and at present the circulation may be estimated thus : — Papers Monthly England 155,000,000 Scotland 17,000,000 Ireland 14,000,000 United Kingdom . . . 186,000,000 The newspapers have a gross income of ;^i 6,000,000, of which about 9 millions go in wages to printers, 3 millions for paper, and the rest in salaries to editors, writers, reporters, &c., and dividends. The number of writers and reporters at various dates shows thus : — Year Editors, &c. Reporters Total Per Million Pop. 1861 . . . 1881 . . . 1891 . . . 1,528 3.434 5.1" 636 2,677 2.374 2,164 6,111 7,48s 74 175 199 PRICES 792 PRICES According to Sell's Dictionary of Publications, London papers receive ^^4,000,000 a year from advertisements. Some of the London papers issue over 200,000 copies daily. As regards the American Press there wrere 17,760 papers in the United States and Canada in 1890, with an ordinary impression of 41,524,000 copies, some daily, others weekly, the aggregate issue making up about 240 million copies monthly ; of which, according to Bromley, the press of New York stood for 57 millions. There were 132 newspapers whose daily issue exceeded, each, 50,000 copies. See Press, in Part I., pages 464-467. FBIOES United Kingdom The prices of imported articles for the period from 1861 to 1897 have been as follows : Bacon, ton, £, Barley, ,, Beef, Brandy, gallon, . Butter, ton, £ Cheese, ,, Chinchona, ,, Cigars, lb., s. Cochineal, cwt.. Cocoa, ton, £, Coffee, Copper ore, ,, Cotton, Eggs (lOo doz.). Fish, ton, £, Flax, „ Flour, ,, Glass, „ Guano, ,, Hams, ,, Hemp, ,, Hides, „ Indigo, cwt., £ Jute, ton, £ Lard, ,, Leather, ,, Linseed, ,, Maize, „ Molasses, , , Nitre, „ Oats, ,, Oil, olive, gallon, ,, palm, ton, /■ Opium, cwt., £ . Oranges, ton, £ Pepper, , , Petroleum, gallon. Pork, ton, £ Potatoes, ton, j. Rags, ton, £ Raisins, ,, Rice, , , Rum, gallon, d. Saltpetre, ton, £ Seed clover, ,, Sheep, each, s. Sheepskins, each, Silk, lb., J. . Sugar, raw, ton, ,, refined, ,, Sulphur, ton, s. Tallow, ton, £ Tea, ,, Tobacco, , , Wheat, ,, Wine, gallon, d. Wood, load, s. ,, staves, s. Wool, ton, £ Yeast, ,, d. 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 1891 50.S 8.7 38.0 6.5 loi.o 55- S IO-5 13-3 16.2 12.6 54- 71-5 03.5 88.0 iS-o 12-5 138.0 66.S 61.6 80.0 21-5 28.3 54-3 49- S 14-7 17.3 15-3 iS-7 12.0 I0.5 Si-S 53-5 35-3 33-5 6a. 68.0 33-6 26.6 ig.o I6.,S 56.5 47.0 166.0 14.0 13-4 7-4 7.0 "•5 9-3 13-7 14.0 8.0 7.8 5S-0 43.0 38.0 33-6 105.0 2r.7 17.0 36-7 46.7 22.0 12.0 46.0 40.2 91.0 IIO.O 19.0 16.3 30.0 35- 2 12.2 10.0 28.0 24.0 26.7 22.4 56.S 48.S 39-5 44-5 14.0 32.0 26.7 18.7 26.3 22.7 33-0 31.7 140.0 123.0 45-2 40. S 176.0 147-5 105.0 72.7 "■5 ii-S 67.0 89.0 63..S .■i';.6 167.0 136-5 165.0 132- 5 41-5 50.5 44-5 8.3 44.0 7.9 IIO.O SS-5 44.8 6.4 46.5 9-1 105.0 49.6 156.0 11.7 7-4 73-1 75-2 8-5 54.8 68.9 27.9 38.5 13-1 13-3 8-4 52- 7 31-5 58-0 22.8 13-3 42.0 153-0 10.3 S-5 7-4 10.6 6.1 36.0 26.0 74-5 13-5 63.2 6.8 36.3 133-5 12.7 33-9 8.1 21.0 18.6 42.9 40.8 28.6 14-7 16.0 21. 1 lOI.O 31-1 109.0 69.8 8.6 85.0 36.2 86.8 102.0 54-3 1892 37.9 6.8 42.1 9.0 109.0 47.0 47.0 10.2 6.0 71.4 94-6 8.2 52.0 66.0 25-9 35- o 12.2 "-5 5-9 46.3 30-9 48.0 20.5 12.2 32.7 137.0 10.4 6.3 6.3 8.6 6.6 38.5 23-3 61.0 12.3 43-8 4-9 33-8 150.0 9-7 33-8 9.0 22.6 18.0 43-1 38-5 26.0 13-5 13.0 17-4 121.0 25-9 100. o 79-8 8.9 85.0 30.0 90.6 87.4 53-4 40.9 6.0 42.4 9.0 IIO.O 49.0 43-0 9.2 6.2 72.0 93-0 6.4 48.0 68.2 239 34-3 II. I 11.4 6.8 47-3 27.0 46.0 19.0 IS-2 35-9 132.0 9-8 5-3 5.9 8.5 6.4 35-3 22.1 52.0 12. 1 33-9 4-5 34-2 126.0 9-3 30.2 8.9 20.8 17.4 42.7 31.8 27.1 13-1 13-1 18.0 113.0 25-4 94-0 76.0 7.7 84.0 30.0 87.2 8r.5 52.0 1393 S3-0 5-1 42.4 8.8 IIO.O 50.0 39-0 6.8 1891 43-8 4-5 40.1 8.5 105.0 48.0 37- o 6.2 6.1 5-9 73-7 71.8 96.4 96.4 6.0 6.0 49.0 41.0 70.0 63-7 243 23.2 37-3 37.1 9.6 8.4 10.7 10.3 5-2 5-1 58-5 49.1 25-9 22.5 46.0 430 20.7 19.2 13-2 13-6 50.2 39-4 130.0 124.0 10.2 9-5 4-8 4-5 6.0 5-3 9-3 9-3 6.2 S-2 36.0 32.8 24-9 21.8 56.2 56.0 12.0 11.2 30-9 25-5 3-9 3-7 40.4 38.1 128.0 152.0 9.0 9-2 27.0 24.8 7.9 7.6 17.3 16.8 17.6 18.4 47-5 47.8 28.3 33-2 25-4 24,2 12.9 13-1 14-3 11.7 19.4 17.0 97.0 88; 27-7 25.5 91.0 89.0 69.7 64.4 6.4 5-4 87.0 84.0 28.0 26.8 77.8 82.0 81.4 79-3 52.0 51-4 1895 39-0 4-7 39-0 9-2 loi.o 44.0 37-0 8.0 6.6 67.9 97.6 5-8 39-0 63.0 24-3 34-1 8.4 10.3 7-9 45- o 21.0 440 16.8 II. I 33-8 127.0 8.5 4.6 4-7 8.1 4.8 33-4 20.9 56-6 11.2 25-0 4.6 36.8 125.0 9.2 25.0 7-3 iS-7 18.7 43-2 33-5 22.4 12.6 9-7 14-5 80.0 23.7 90.0 64.4 5-5 82.0 27.2 82.2 75-6 5I.O 1896 34-5 5-1 37-8 9.2 lOI.O 44.0 3S-0 10. 1 6.4 61.7 99.8 6.5 46.0 63.2 25-3 36-5 8.7 lO.O 5-2 43-0 21.0 46.0 17- 1 12.2 26.1 122.0 7.8 3-6 4-4 7.9 4.8 30-9 21.0 57- 1 10.7 26.0 4.7 35-3 162.0 9-8 28.0 7-5 IS- 5 16.4 38.9 29-5 22.0 12. 5 10.6 14.8 83.0 21.3 88.5 64-5 6.2 85.0 28.4 94.8 78.4 49-6 1897 35-4 4-9 38.4 8-9 99-0 450 43- o 10. o 6.2 60.2 94.8 5-8 41.8 62.1 26.6 35-6 10.3 9-9 S-4 42-7 19.6 46.0 17.8 11.7 22.9 120 o 7-8 3-4 4-2 7-7 5-0 31.8 20.6 53-2 10.4 32.0 4-3 34-8 122.0 9.9 30.0 8.2 16.0 15.0 38.6 30.1 21.6 12.3 9-3 13.4 91.0 19.2 87-4 65.0 7-5 88.0 28.8 89,8 74-4 48.4 PRICES 793 PRICES The prices of British exports from 1871 to 1897 were as follows :- Alkali, ton, j. . Bags, gross, s. . Beer, barrel, s. . Books, ton, £ . Boots, doz. pairs, j. Brass, ton, £ . Butter, ,, Carpet, doz. yards, Cement, ton, s. . Cheese, ton, £ . Cloth, doz. yards, 1. Coal, ton, d. Copper bar, ton, £ Cordage, ,, Cottons, 100 yards, d. printed, 100 Firearms, each, s. Flannel, doz. yards, c Flour, ton, s. Glass flint, ton, £ ,, bottles, ton, s. Gunpowder, ton, £ Hats, doz. , s. . Herrings, barrel, s. Horses, each, £ Iron bar, ton ,, cast, ,, galvanised, ,, hoop, „ old, , , plates, .. P'S. II rail, I, wirci Jute, 100 yards, d. Lead, ton, s. Leather, ton, £ Linen, 100 yards, x. ,, printed, 100 Oil-seed, ton, s. Paper, ton, £ . Sailcloth, 100 yards. Salt, ton, d. Silks, doz. yards, j. Soap, ton, s. Spirits, gallon, d. Steel bars, ton, s. Sugar, ton, i. . Thread, doz. lbs., s. Tin, ton, £ Tin plates, ton, s. Wheat, Wool, ton, £ , Yam, cotton, ton, £ II jute, ,, linen, ,, ,, woollen, ,, Zinc, ton, .>. yard; s, d. yards. 1871-80 1881-90 I7S 84 83 211 62 100 124 34 52 83 37 144 80 54 304 446 27 220 324 54 310 57 26 29 64 I8S 324 442 206 98 274 74 185 346 348 4ro 164 61 64 518 S7 "3 156 39 25 49 662 54° 40 100 487 237 175 140 35 148 313 410 118 57 78 183 58 86 124 26 43 81 38 112 58 47 237 334 30 151 234 46 190 57 20 26 60 128 243 280 140 64 188 49 no 28s 239 284 179 52 57 423 38 94 162 41 22 77 420 353 37 100 308 176 108 108 25 131 224 298 1891 150 54 73 160 54 91 116 25 40 78 40 146 56 46 218 288 29 102 242 44 188 55 19 26 47 135 251 282 146 64 168 53 roi 339 214 283 183 45 SI 416 34 89 ai3 28 22 80 321 288 43 95 320 188 94 98 23 136 2r2 421 1892 144 54 73 155 52 84 117 24 37 78 39 132 49 42 199 275 35 loi 218 48 191 57 19 22 50 132 263 264 144 62 203 52 88 335 231 244 190 44 5° 393 33 92 198 26 22 84 327 3°3 43 96 270 167 85 88 25 129 203 36s 1893 127 54 73 154 49 80 117 25 34 81 40 119 48 42 198 277 30 100 181 52 191 56 19 22 40 125 262 245 138 56 194 47 83 350 213 226 189 45 43 435 31 89 190 25 21 84 283 322 42 90 263 139 88 95 23 138 203 326 1894 109 49 71 145 48 75 "5, 24 33 78 39 126 44 39 186 263 31 98 157 47 190 54 18 21 27 128 252 230 134 S3 183 46 79 358 2ir 220 181 43 45 419 31 90 188 24 22 86 272 281 41 74 245 139 85 85 24 136 199 276 1895 1896 100 48 70 136 47 78 no 25 32 73 36 112 46 37 177 253 37 93 154 46 191 50 18 23 26 "9 252 221 127 52 171 48 77 337 204 237 179 39 39 403 31 86 177 24 21 90 274 238 32 68 232 151 88 79 23 127 197 264 103 48 69 133 48 82 no 25 33 72 36 106 49 38 191 258 49 93 165 46 189 53 19 19 23 123 249 233 132 53 149 48 89 322 212 254 185 42 44 373 30 84 171 23 21 92 250 240 30 64 227 165 23 126 204 284 1897 103 5° 69 128 49 87 104 25 33 74 30 108 SI 37 185 260 45 96 198 47 188 SI 20 24 24 130 250 225 138 54 165 48 92 337 216 267 176 41 42 340 30 86 168 23 21 95 250 218 30 65 165 86 84 23 119 190 314 Italy The prices of food were as follows : Period Per Ton, Shillings Per Ton,^ Per Gallon Pence Wheat Maize Rice Beef Wine Oil 1866-7S . . 275 148 275 .S2 17 45 1876-85 . . 244 159 280 55 21 46 1886-90 . . 187 125 254 .57 21 44 1891 . 208 139 295 60 23 44 1S92 . . . 202 132 '6S 60 16 45 1893 . . . 176 112 229 60 14 4S 1894 . . . 158 104 219 60 15 44 1895 ■ • • 170 143 226 64 17 44 1896 . . . 18S i2r 238 68 19 3C United States Prices have been as follows : — 1874 1884 to to 1894 1895 1896 1897 1883 1893 Bacon, ton, £ . 44 39 44 41 39 35 Barley, ton, s. . "S 86 74 56 54 Beef, ton, £ . 36 28 27 27 26 24 Buckwht.,ton,J. 118 9b 92 75 65 Butter, ton, ;f . 93 77 8r 76 71 67 Cheese, ,, . 53 43 45 42 39 42 Coal, ton, d. . 178 128 112 100 114 90 Coffee, ton, £ . 73 6q 77 73 57 46 Cotton, ,, . S'' 45 36 27 38 34 Cows, each, s. . no 103 91 92 94 98 PRICE-LEVEL 794 RAILWAYS 1874 1884 to to 1894 1895 1896 1897 1883 1893 Eggs (120), A . 105 90 84 84 74 6g Flax, ton, £ . 60 57 64 59 48 43 Flour, barrel, j. 25 20 17 14 15 16 Glass, ton, s. . 290 230 187 187 187 196 Hemp, ton, £ . 29 31 31 26 26 26 Horses, each, s. 25.; 291 200 151 138 131 Ind.-rub.,ton,;f 270 2ir 207 210 211 228 Iron bar, ton, s. 231 181 125 134 131 122 „ nails, ,, 256 192 102 137 217 137 .. pig, „ 100 75 52 54 54 SO ,, rails, ,, iS^ 129 100 101 116 8r Lard, ton, £ . 49 37 42 36 31 24 Leather, „ 107 82 70 72 84 80 Maize, ton, s. . 74 63 76 44 36 43 Mules, each, s. no 103 90 91 94 96 Oats, ton, J. . 61 50 54 33 31 Petrol., brL,rf. =73 160 88 103 143 132 Pigs, each, s. , 22 20 25 21 IS 17 Pork, ton, £ . 39 33 37 33 27 23 Rye, ton, s. . . 116 91 83 73 68 Sheep, each, d. 120 "3 99 79 8,S 91 Silk, lb., d. . . 222 190 i-;8 138 164 14a Steel, ton, s. . 239 129 100 lOI 116 81 Sugar,ref.,ton,;^ 47 29 21 22 23 22 Tallow, ,, . 34 23 22 20 16 16 Tea, 117 81 71 64 64 62 Tin, „ . 93 98 73 66 63 60 Tobacco, ,, . 42 42 40 41 40 37 Wheat, ton, s. . 164 121 81 84 121 129 Wine, gallon, d. 30 35 35 35 34 47 Wool, ton, ;^ . 126 109 121 93 103 103 The price-level of the United States has been as follows : — 1874-83 1,000 1884-93 796 1894-95 650 1896-97 638 This shows a fall of 36 per cent, since the decade ending 1883. PRICE-LEVEL Sauerbeck's Index-numbers convey an accurate idea of the rise or fall of level of prices in England, viz. : — Period Food Minerals Textiles Sundries Gen. No. 1867-77 . . 100 100 100 roo 100 1878-88 83 73 71 80 79 1889 . 75 75 70 68 72 1890 73 80 66 69 72 1891 77 76 59 69 72 1892 73 71 57 67 68 1893 72 68 59 68 68 1894 66 64 53 64 63 189 s 64 62 52 65 62 1896 62 63 54 63 61 1897 . . . 65 66 SI 62 62 The above may be inverted by taking 1897 as par, thus: — Period Food Minerals Textiles Sundries Gen. No. 1897 . . . 100 100 100 100 100 1896 . 95 95 106 102 98 189s . 98 94 102 105 100 1894 . 102 97 104 103 102 1893 . III 103 116 no no 1892 . 112 108 112 108 no 1891 . 118 "S 116 in ii5 1890 . 112 121 130 in 116 1889 . "5 114 138 no 116 1878-88 128 no 140 129 127 1867-77 154 151 196 i6i 161 It appears from the above that ;^ioo now will buy as much merchandise as ;^I27 in the period of eleven years ending 1888, or ;^i6l in that ending 1877. PUBLIC WOEKS The amount outstanding of loans by the Treasury for public works in the United Kingdom in 1897 was ^38,400,000, against ;^37,200,ooo in 1887. See page 494. R RAILWAYS •» The mileage and cost of construction of existing lines (1897) are as follows : — S S? Miles of a s •^ a s Rally, to t S R ^ t^S §d. .3 a S3 SJ m" «^ England . . . 14,710 843 57,300 27.2 253 47 Scotland . . . 3.390 147 43.300 34-2 "3 80 Ireland . . . 3.180 40 12,600 48,400 27,600 8.8 25.8 17.2 99 177 130 71 U. Kingdom . 21,280 1,030 S3 France . . . 26,020 661 67 Germany. . . 28,880 574 19,900 II.O 13s 55 Russia . . . 27,270 403 14,800 ,3.6 12 25 Austria . . . 19,100 367 19,200 8.5 71 44 Italy .... 9,580 201 20,800 6.4 84 .32 Spam .... 7.630 122 16,000 7.0 42 42 Portugal . . . I.4SO =3 16,000 4.8 40 .30 Sweden . . . 6,150 35 5.700 7.2 3b 124 Norway . . . 1,090 8 7,000 4.0 9 50 Denmark . , 1.430 IS 10,500 7.0 95 6S Holland . . . 1,700 38 22,500 7.7 80 34 Belgium . . . 2,840 76 26,700 12.2 260 45 u s? Miles of s 1 S a Raily. to 1 a s, m w SJ § ri. QJ 8 s? a. S? 1'^ M B^ Switzerland . . 2,350 45 19.200 15-0 IIJO 80 Roumania . . 1.830 30 16,000 S-2 38 33 Servia. . . . 350 4 12,500 1.6 16 16 Bulgaria . . . 600 7 12,000 2.2 IS 18 Greece . . . 590 10 16,500 4-2 30 27 Turkey . . . 1,060 18 17,000 22,800 12,900 3-2 9-7 33.6 15 40 61 22 Europe . . . 161,200 3,667 44 United States . 182,600 2.355 250 Canada . . . 16,960 186 11,000 37- 5 340 Mexico . . . 7.380 92 12,000 7.6 10 60 W. Indies . . 1.470 IS 10,000 3.8 13 36 Cent. America . 600 6 10,000 2.4 4 20 Venezuela, &c. . 860 9 10,000 1.4 7 n Peru .... 920 37 40,000 13.0 2 31 Chile .... 2,500 23 9,200 8-5 10 83 Argentina . . 9,000 102 11,300 25- S 8 22s Brazil .... 8,090 72 8,900 6.0 3 50 Uruguay, &c. . 1,680 17 10,000 12,500 4.0 24.0 3 18 55 America , . . 232,060 2,914 180 RAILWAYS 795 RAILWAYS 1 1 1 i ♦J- 8 £ per Inhab. Miles of Rally, to § d 8£ H E. Indies. . . Japan .... Asia Minor . . 22,170 2,500 1,480 223 30 22 io,ioo 12,000 15,000 10,500 IS.700 13,400 10,000 10,200 12,100 10,200 16,100 7.0 7-5 2.2 o-S 2.0 6.0 28.0 II.O 2.0 36-0 6.0 22 l6 7 2 2 10 6 1 S 10 6 15 Asia .... 26,150 27s 4 Egypt. . . . Algeria, &c. . . Transvaal . . Cape Col.,. &c.. 1,220 3.290 720 3.3SO i3 44 7 34 12 5S 144 Africa. . . . 8,580 103 7 Australia . . . 14,210 I4S 3SS The World . . 442,200 7.104 10 32 In 1891, says the Eiseniahnwesen, 117,000 locomo- tives in the various countries ran 2325 millions of miles, or 25 times the distance of the earth from the sun, being an average of 6,600,000 miles daily. The trafHc, earnings, and expenses may be summed up thus : — Millions Millions ^fSterling Passengers Goods Tons Receipts Expenses England , , . 860 300 76.6 43.2 Scotland . • . 94 52 10. 1 S-i Ireland , . . 26 S 3-S 1-9 U. Kingdom 980 3S7 90.2 50.2 France. . . . 349 101 SO. 5 27.4 Germany . . . S92 248 7S-^ 42.8 Russia. . . . 52 91 41.4 26.2 Austria . . . 202 118 29.2 16.7 Italy .... 49 17 10.3 7.2 Scandinavia . . 40 22 S-i 3-3 Holland . . . 25 10 3-0 2.5 Belgium . . . 100 SS 7-9 4.4 Switzerland . . 43 12 4-S 2.6 Various . . . 28 12 10.7 S-7 Europe . . . 2,460 1.043 328.0 189.0 United States . S3S 774 234.2 165.0 Canada . . . IS 24 10.4 7-1 Argentina . . IS 8 6.2 3-2 Brazil, &c. . . 4S 14 10.2 6.7 America . . . 610 820 261.0 182.0 India .... 161 32 16.9 8.1 Japan, &c. . . 6S 6 S-i 2.9 Asia .... 226 38 22.0 11. Egypt .... 10 3 1.8 0.8 Cape Colony . 9 2 4.1 1-9 Algeria, &c. . . S 2 3-4 Africa .... 24 7 9-3 4-7 Australia . . , 60 12 10.7 6-3 The World . . 3.380 1,920 631.0 393-0 Averages Per Mile Receipts Expen. Profit P. Cent £ £ £ on Cap. England . S.210 2,930 2,280 3-96 Scotland . 2,960 1. 510 1.450 3-36 Ireland . 1,090 600 490 3-90 United Kingdom . 4.230 2,360 1,870 3.87 France 2,24s 1,215 1,030 3.50 Germany . 2,600 1,480 1,120 5-64 Russia 1.520 960 560 3-72 Austria . I.S70 900 670 3-42 Italy 1,240 870 370 1.80 Sweden . 530 320 210 3.70 Norway . 550 370 180 2.50 Denmark . 840 630 210 2.00 Holland . 1,760 1.470 290 1.30 Belgium . 2,780 1.550 1,230 4.60 Switzerland 1,920 1,110 810 4.22 Europe . 2,040 1,170 870 3.80 United States . 1,280 904 376 2.91 Canada . 620 430 190 1.72 Argentina 690 360 330 2-95 India 830 400 430 4-30 Japan . 1,480 640 840 7.00 Egypt . 1.575 700 875 5-50 Cape Colony . 760 840 9.20 Australia . 750 440 310 2.9s The World . 1.430 890 540 3-35 Juraschek's summary of the railways of the world is as follows : — Miles Cost Millions £ £ Per Mile 1880 1 1892 1880 1892 1880 1892 Europe . . America . Asia . . . Africa . . Australia . 104,800 ! 145,200 107,000 220,800 9,900 24,000 2,900 7,300 4,700 12,800 2,58s I.3SO 154 44 58 3.634 2,815 290 79 128 24,700 12,600 15.500 15,200 12,300 18,200 25,000 12,800 12,100 10,800 10,000 The World 229,300 410,100 4,191 6.936 16,900 The rolling- stock and trafHc in 1892 were as follows : — Number of Millions of t ^1 u.g E^ a „ 11 •3 s* 5e2 U. Kingdom 17.440 40,100 602,800 864 315 France . . . 10,070 24,700 267,800 305 106 Germany . . 15.-740 29,600 313,800 501 237 Russia . . . 7,160 8,200 151,200 50 72 Austria . . S.750 11,700 133.700 130 110 Italy . . . 2,760 8,200 48,100 SI 17 Spain . . . 1,660 4,700 32,000 25 11 Portugal . . 390 1,100 7.500 53 17 Scandinavia . I.3SO 3.300 29,500 29 14 Holland . . 780 2,000 10,100 22 8 Belgium . . 2,650 4,400 57.500 88 37 Switzerland . 870 2,300 10,600 37 10 Roumania, &c. 2,960 6,100 73.300 91 41 Europe . . 69,580 146,400 1,737.900 2,246 995 U. States . . 35,280 24,900 1,177,000 576 761 Canada . . 1.950 1,800 SS.Soo 14 22 Argentina . . 880 1,300 24,900 10 2 Brazil . . . 230 300 2,700 11 I Chile, &c. . 5.190 3,800 170,400 «3 106 America . . 43.530 32,100 1.430,500 694 892 RAILWAYS 796 RAILWAYS Number of Millions of c "5b ^1 1 11 India . . . Japan . . . Java . . . Various . . 3.760 320 180 910 10,600 1,400 500 2,700 71,900 4,600 2,100 16,800 127 27 10 25 27 4 I 5 Asia . . . S.170 15,200 95.400 189 37 Egypt . . . Algeria . . S. Africa, &c. 250 8^ 500 700 1,800 4.300 6,300 15,800 ■5 3 12 2 2 5 Africa . . . 1,380 3,000 26,400 20 9 Australia . . 2,010 3.700 41,800 97 12 The World . 121,670 200,400 3,332,000 3.246 1,945 The following table shows the State lines, distinct from those held by Companies, in 1898 : — Miles State Companies Total United Kingdom . 21,280 21,280 France .... 1,700 24,320 26,020 Germany 26,240 2,640 28,880 Russia .... 19,180 8,090 27,270 Austria. 12,830 6,270 19,100 Italy* .... 9.580 9.580 Spain .... 7.630 7.630 Portugal 910 540 1.450 Sweden 2,280 3.870 6.150 Norway 1,020 70 1,090 Denmark 1,070 360 1.430 Holland 900 800 1,700 Belgium 2,040 800 2,840 Switzerland . 2.350 2.350 Danubian States . 2,780 2.780 Greece .... 590 590 Turkey. 1,060 1,060 Europe 73.300 87,900 161,200 United States 182,600 182,600 Canada 1.350 15,610 16,960 Spanish America . 1,400 31,100 32,500 America 2.750 229,310 232,060 India* .... 6,150 14,240 20,390 .fapan .... 630 1,870 2,500 Egypt .... 1. 150 70 l;220 Cape Colony 2,250 250 2,500 Natal .... 400 400 Australia 13.570 640 14,210 Various 1. 150 6.570 7,720 The World . 101,350 340,850 442,200 Working expenses compared with earnings show the following percentages : — England . .56.2 Scotland . . 51.0 Ireland . .55.0 France , .54.1 Germany. . 56.9 Russia . . 63.2 Austria . .57.3 Italy . . . 70.0 Sweden . Norway . Denmark Holland . 60.4 67-3 75- o 83.5 * There are in Italy 5400 miles of railways built by the State, but leased to joint-stock companies for 60 years: also 11,130 miles of State lines in India leased to similar companies. Belgium . .55.8 Switzerland . S7-8 Europe . .57-3 UnitedStates 70.6 Canada . Argentina India . . Japan . . 69.4 52.2 48.2 43-2 Egypt . .44-4 Cape Colony 47.5 Australia. . 58.7 The World . 62.0 The following table shows the proportion of passengers in each class, and the average number of miles to each traveller (in 1892). In 1000 Passengers Miles per 1st Class 2ndClass 3rd Class 1 Traveller Great Britain . 35 72 893 France . 68 273 659 21 Germany . 5 102 893 15 Russia 12 62 926 6S Austria . 16 135 849 20 Italy 42 249 709 28 Holland . 52 207 741 16 Belgium . 35 125 840 13 Switzerland 15 182 803 12 Roumania 39 156 80s 42 Average . 32 156 812 2S The fare by ordinary train for a run of 10 miles is as follows : — Great Britain France . . Germany . Russia . . Austria . , Hungary . Italy . . . Switzerland Holland. . Belgium Average . . Pence per 10 Miles ist Class 2nd Class 3rd Class 14.7 17.0 15-2 8.7 15-7 18.2 17. 1 15-8 16.1 11.6 15.0 12.3 11.6 11.4 4-1 11.7 13-7 12.0 II. o 12.9 8.7 11.0 10.0 7-5 7-6 2.7 7-9 9-1 7-7 7-9 8.0 5-8 7-5 Freight charge for carrying a ton 100 miles is as follows (189s): — Pence per 100 Miles Great Britain 174 France . . 72 Belgium . . 63 Ireland . . 232 Germany . 64 Holland . . 80 United States 41 Switzerland 140 Italy . . . 160 The Engineer of January 1896 gives the maximum speed of trains as follows : — United States Great Britain Germany . . Miles per Hour France . , Belgium , Holland , 49 Italy . . . 42 45 Austria • 41 44 The following are the quickest trains in Great Britain and United States : — Run Perth to Forfar Grantham to York .... Swindon to London . . . Carlisle to Aberdeen . . . Philadelphia to Atlantic City Syracuse to Rochester . . New York to Buffalo . . . Miles 32 83 77 56 80 440 Hrs. Min. Miles per Hour 32 28 27 58 48 20 IS 60 S6 54 48 69 60 52 RAILWAYS 797 RAILWAYS sh?wn1hu's?i?" ^'' ''"'" ■""" '""' ^"^ "''P^"^^^' ^^« Pence per Mile Run Receipts Expenses Profit United Kingdom . . France Germany Russia Austria Italy Belgium Canada Australia 67 52 43 56 62 S2 34 57 77 37 28 25 35 36 36 19 40 45 30 24 18 21 26 16 15 17 32 United Kingdom TrafEc of passengers and merchandise increased in 10 years as follows : — Passengers, Mills. Tons, Millions 1886 1896 1886 1896 England Scotland .... Ireland 642 65 19 860 94 27 216 35 4 300 52 5 United Kingdom . . 726 981 255 357 Passenger traffic does not include season-ticket holders. Passengers showed an increase of 35 per cent., goods 40 per cent., in 10 years. Receipts, expenses, and profit in 1896 were as follows : — Receipts, Expenses, Profit, £ Interest on Cost England . . Scotland . . Ireland . . . 76,600,000 10,050,000 3,470,000 43,150,000 5,120,000 1,920,000 33,450,000 4,930,000 1,550,000 3-97 3-35 392 387 U. Kingdom . 90,120,000 50,190,000 39,930,000 Earnings and expenses per mile showed as follows : — Earnings, £ Expenses, £ 1886 1896 1886 1896 England .... Scotland .... Ireland United Kingdom . 4.137 2,407 1,046 3.446 4.909 2,853 1,074 4.009 2,280 1,248 s8o 1,888 2.935 1,510 605 2.358 In the above table miscellaneous receipts are not in- cluded in earnings, which comprise only passenger and goods traffic ; gross receipts would be 5 J per cent, higher than the above traffic earnings per mile. Accidents on railways in the United Kingdom show the number of victims thus : — Killed 1876 1886 1896 Passengers . Employees . 673 8 425 SO 447 Total 711 433 497 Injured 1876 1886 1896 Passengers . Employees . 1,279 2,600 615 2,010 388 3.986 Total 3.879 2,625 4.374 Total Passengers . Employees . 1.317 3.273 623 2,435 438 4.433 Total 4.590 3.058 4.871 The number of killed and wounded, as compared with 1886, has increased by 1813, or about 60 per cent., whereas passenger traffic has risen only 21, and goods traffic 40, per cent. In fact 13 persons are killed or wounded on the railways of the United Kidgdom against 8 persons in 1886. At Clapham Junction 700 trains pass daily. France A statement published in 1895 showed passenger traffic thus : — Class Million Passengers 1866 1882 1894 First .... Second. Third .... 8 26 52 15 60 106 19 104 197 Total . 86 i8r 320 First-class passengers show a falling ratio, being now only 6 per cent, of the total. United States Mileage and capital have been as follows : — Miles Millions £ £ per Mile 1876 . 1886 . 1896 . 76, 8 TO 133.560 178,550 929 r,682 2,297 12,100 12,600 12,700 The length and cost of railways in the several parts of the Union in 1896 were as follows : — States Miles Miles per 10,000 Pop. Capital Mills. £ Z'per Mile New England . Middle . South Prairie Pacific 7.130 21,500 45.650 81,230 23,040 14 14 22 31 S3 25 97 545 403 1,015 237 13,600 25,300 8,830 12,500 10,300 Union 178,550 2,297 12,700 The number of passengers carried, and the equivalent carried 100 miles, were : — Year Passengers Millions Miles Millions Average Miles Passengers Millions Carried 100 Miles 1882 . 1890 . 1896 . 375 520 535 10,484 12,522 13.05s 28 24 2S 105 125 131 RAILWAYS 798 RAILWAYS With increase of population the average distance travelled by each passenger diminishes, being now 25 miles, against 28 miles in the year 1882. Goods traffic shows as follows : — Year Million Tons Miles Millions Average Miles Mill. Tons Carried 100 Miles 1882 . 1890 . 1896 . 360 691 774 39.302 79.193 93,885 109 "S 121 393 792 939 The opening up of the Western States by new rail- ways causes the average haulage of goods to increase, each ton being now carried 121 miles, against 109 miles in 1882. The average distance that merchandise was carried in 1882 was four times that of a passenger, and at present it is five times. The total mileage of pas- senger traffic rose 25 per cent, in 14 years, that of goods traffic 140 per cent. The latter is stimulated by the reduction of freight charges, viz. : — 1882 1890 1896 1$ 24 cents per ton 100 miles. 93 ., 82 „ This charge is less than one-fourth of the charge in Great Britain, and little more than half what is customary on the Continent of Europe. It seems that American engines are heavier than British, going up to 400 tons : thus the Pennsylvanian lines carry 1600 tons coal in one train, whereas the Midland coal train of England rarely exceeds 400 tons. Each passenger-engine draws 66,000 passengers, and each freight-engine 40,000 tons of goods, yearly. In 1893 there were 1890 different railway companies, employing 874,000 persons, of whom 2730 were killed and 31,730 injured, that is, 3 per thousand killed. Forty companies own half the railways of the Union. The railways in 1896 compared with area and popu- lation thus : — Miles of Railway to States 1000 Square Miles 100,000 In- habitants New England . Middle .... Souih .... Prairie .... Pacific .... The Union los 190 108 19 61 145 I4S 230 325 540 250 Canada The progress of Canadian lines is briefly shown thus :- Year Length Miles Miles Run No. of Passengers Tons of Goods 1876 . 1886 . 1896 . 5,160 10,700 16,270 18,100,000 30,500,000 44,500,000 5,500,000 9,900,000 14,800,000 6,300,000 15,700,000 24,300,000 In twenty years passengers have almost trebled, goods quadrupled. The gross receipts and expenses were : — Year Receipts 1 Expenses £ 1 £ Profit £ Interest on Cost 1876 . . . 1886 . . . 1896 . . . 4,040,000 6,950,000 10,510,000 3,280,000 5,040,000 7,280,000 760,000 1,910,000 3,230,000 1.27 I-S4 1-73 This shows a steady improvement in traffic, the average earnings and expenses per mile of rail showing thus : — Year Receipts Expenses Profit £ Pence Profit per Mile Run 1875 • ■ • 1886 . . . 1896 . . . 839 646 646 680 470 448 IS9 176 198 10 I.? 17 The length and cost of the principal lines are shown thus : — Miles Cost, £ £ per Mile Canadian Pacific . Grand Trunk Intercolonial Other lines . 6,220 3,160 1,360 j;.65o 66,600,000 69,600,000 12,300,000 38,700,000 10,700 22,100 9,050 6,850 Total . 16,390 1 187,200,000 11,400 The increase of railway capital in five years is shown thus : — 1891 £ Sterling 1896 £ Sterling Increase, £ Shares .... Debentures . . Subsidies . . . 71,100,000 60,800,000 38,100,000 77,000,000 70,000,000 40,200,000 5,900,000 9,200,000 2,100,000 Total . . 170,000,000 187,200,000 17,200,000 The subsidy by the Dominion Government amounts to ;^3i,ooo,ooo, and those from local legislatures to ;£'9,20O,OOO. The traffic on the principal lines in 1896 was as follows : — Passengers Number Tons Goods Per Mile Passen- gers Tons Grand Trunk . Can. Pacific . Intercolonial . Other lines S,o8o,ooo 3,040,000 1,590,000 S,ioo,ooo 7,590,000 4,580,000 1,430,000 10,670,000 1,610 488 1,170 903 910 2,410 73S 1,050 1, 880 Total . . 14,810,000 24,270,000 1,490 The goods traffic in 1896 compared with previous years as follows : — Tons Carried 1876 1886 1896 Grain . Timber Manufactures Sundries . 1,120,000 840,000 150,000 4,220,000 3,640,000 2,800,000 2,260,000 6,970,000 5,040,000 4,680,000 3,420,000 11,130,000 Total . 6,330,000 15,670,000 24,270,000 The Grand Trunk has 30 per cent., the Canadian Pacific 20 per cent, of the goods traffic. RAINFALL 799 RELIGION RAINFALL The rainfall of London in 1897, and the average for eighty-two years, as well as the average rainfall of Dublin tor twenty-two years to 1896, are shown as follows :— January February . March 1st Quarter . April . May . June . 2nd Quarter July . . August September - 3rd Quarter October November - December . 4th Quarter Year . London, Inches 1897 1.6 2.4 3-4 7-4 1.6 1-3 1.9 4.8 0.7 2.9 2.7 6.3 0-5 I.I 2.1 3-7 1816-97 1.9 1-5 1.6 5-0 1-7 2.0 1.9 5-6 2.6 2.4 2.3 7.3 2.8 2-3 7-1 25.0 Dublin 1875-96 2.1 2.1 1-9 6.1 2.1 2.2 2.0 6.3 2.6 30 1-9 7-5 30 2.7 2.4 8.1 28.0 Tables of rainfall yearly at 350 cities of the world will be found at pages 391, 392. BEFOBMATOBIES The number of children in reformatories and industrial schools is shown thus : — G. Britain Ireland Total I8S9 1866 1888 1897 3.276 7.364 18,810 24,380 140 163 8,914 8,220 3.416 7.527 27,724 32,600 There are 144 industrial schools and reformatories in England, 42 in Scotland, and 76 in Ireland, in all 262, of which 138 are for boys, 124 for girls ; 160 are for Protestant, 102 for Catholic, children. Since the estab- lishment of these institutions the criminal records of England and Scotland show a great diminution of juve- nile offenders (under sixteen years of age), viz. : — England Scotland G. Britain I86I 1870 1880 1893 8,801 9.998 S.579 4.036 1,212 1,204 1,188 741 10,013 11,202 6,766 4.777 The following table shows how many juveniles were in 1000 criminals : — 1861 1870 1880 1S93 England 79 63 34 25 Scotland 6S 42 23 14 The sexes were distinguished in 1897 thus : — Reformatories Males Females Total England Scotland Ireland 4,090 780 500 SSo 130 60 4,670 910 560 U. Kingdom S.370 770 6,140 Industrial Schools England Scotland . Ireland • 10,770 3.480 3.440 3,180 1.370 4.220 13.950 4.850 7,660 U. Kingdom 17,690 8,770 26,460 Total England Scotland , . Ireland . , 14,860 4.260 3.940 3.760 1,500 4,280 18,620 S.760 8,220 U. Kingdom • . 23,060 9,540 1 32,600 The number of children in reformatories per 100,000 inhabitants is 15 in England, 22 in Scotland, and 12 in Ireland. For cost of maintenance, &c., see page 233. RELIGION Latest estimates and official returns show as follows :— Christians Non- Christians Total Europe . . . America . . . Australia . . . Asia and Africa . 340,320,000 124,740,000 3,800,000 7,240,000 12,480,000 170,000 641,550,000 352,800,000 124,910,000 3,800,000 648,790,000 The World . . 476,100,000 654,200,000 1,130,300,000 The creeds of Europe, America, and Australia sum up 48l,5oo,cxx3 souls, of which 468,800,000 are Christians, 6,300,000 Jews, and 6,400,000 Mahometans. The Chris- tian population is made up as follows : — Number (000 omitted) Roman Catholics Protes- tants Greeks Total United Kingdom . 5.410 34.430 39.840 France 37.740 6go 38.430 Germany .... 17.670 31.150 48,820 Russia 8,300 2.950 73.000 84,250 Austria .... 32,240 3.890 3,180 39.31° Italy 28,400 60 28,460 Spain and Portugal 22,690 10 22,700 Scandinavia . . . 10 9,280 9,290 Belg. and Holland. 7.990 2,710 10,700 Finland and Luxem. 210 2,390 SO 2,650 Switzerland . . . 1,180 1,720 2,goo Danubian States . 180 20 9.73° 9.930 Turkey and Greece 290 50 2,700 3.040 Europe .... 162,310 89.350 88,660 340,320 United States . . 9.850 61.030 70,880 Canada .... 1,990 2,640 4,630 Spanish America . 45.610 120 45.730 West Indies . . . 2,480 1,030 .3.510 Australia .... 850 2,880 3.730 Total . . 223,090 157.050 88,660 468,800 RELIGION 800 ROADS The American Statistical Society (1893) publishes the following : — Numljer (000 omitted) Europe America Asia Africa Oceania Total Roman Catholics .... Protestants Greeks Mahometans , ews fagans 160,200 80,800 89,200 . 6,600 6,500 58,400 57.300 1,300 3,010 660 8,830 109,500 200 667,800 2,660 1,740 36,000 400 91,000 6,570 2,720 24,700 4,400 230,840 143,220 98,030 176,800 7,100 764,500 Total .... 343,300 117,000 790,000 131,800 38,390 1,420,490 America Number {000 omitted) United States Canada Spanish America Total Roman Catholics . Protestants . . . Idolaters .... 8,800 50,300 280 1,800 3,000 47.800 4,000 1,020 58,400 57,300 1,300 Total . . S9,o8o 1 4,800 52,620 1.17,000 Asia Number (000 omitted) India China Japan Siberia, &c. Total Christians . . Mahometans . Buddhists . . Hindoos . . . Confucians, &c. 1,730 51,600 5,400 120,000 46,000 1,200 21,000 84,000 256,000 30 24,900 14,070 9,540 36,900 33,600 84,030 12,500 109,500 147,900 120,000 400,100 Total . . '224,730 362,200 39,000 164,070 790,000 Oceania Number (000 omitted) Aus- tralia Philip- pines Java, &c. Total Roman Catholics . Protestants . . . Mahometans . . . Pagans 850 2,500 5.500 220 220 24,700 4,400 6.570 2,720 24,700 4,400 Total . . . 3,350 5.500 29.540 1 38.390 See Missions, page 777, and Churches, page 656. _ Roman Catholic authorities give the following par- ticulars respecting English-speaking countries (1898) : — Bishops Clergy Churches Souls Ireland England . Scotland . Canada . Australia . India, &c. . 28 17 7 31 16 42 3.440 2,700 420 1,500 400 1,790 2,760 1,480 350 1,050 780 240 3,550,000 1,500,000 360,000 2,600,000 900,000 2,590,000 British Empire . United States . 141 91 10,250 10,910 6,660 10,500 11,500,000 9,850,000 Total . 232 21,160 17,160 21,350,000 In the United Kingdom there are 19 Privy Coun- cillors, 31 Peers, and 73 Members of Parliament who are Roman Catholics. In the United States there are 927 Catholic colleges, besides a large number of schools, attended by 828,000 children. England, Ireland, Canada, United States, and Australia, have each a cardinal. In India there are 745 European and 655 native priests, the Roman Catholic laity numbering 1,870,000 souls. As regards Protestants in the British Empire and the United States, they sum up 103 millions of all denomi- nations ; they have various missionary societies, with an aggregate income of ;^2,6oo,ooo, maintaining 11,660 male and female missionaries, say ;f225 for each mis- sionary, including the cost of schools, &c. For further details see Church, p. 115 ; and Religion, p. 512. According to the Statesman' s Year-Book there are one million Roman Catholics in China and 50,000 Protestants, the former having 25 bishops and a numerous clergy. The United States Catholic Register gives the numbers of Roman Catholics thus : — Diocese Number Diocese Number New York . 825,000 Baltimore 240,000 Chicago 650,000 San Francisco . 225,000 Boston 600,000 St. Louis. 220,000 Philadelphia . 450,000 St. Paul . 212,000 New Orleans 325,000 Various . 5,860,000 Milwaukee . 250,000 Total 9,857,000 See Religion, page 513; also Churches, pages 115 and 656; and Missions, page 777. ROADS The value of existing streets, highways, railways, tram- ways, and Canals in Europe is approximately : — Millions £ Sterling ;^per Inhab. Streets Roads Rails Canals Total U. Kingdom . France Germany . Russia Austria Italy. Spain and Port. Scandinavia Holland . Belgium . Switzerland, &c. 31 14 23 16 8 8 4 2 3 3 3 125 240 210 19 73 30 12 10 7 6 II 1,044 670 580 405 370 205 145 60 40 78 "5 35 31 23 10 17 7 1 2 20 7 I 1,235 955 836 % 74 70 94 130 31 25 16 4 11 8 S 8. IS 15 6 Europe . "S 743 3.712 154 4.724 13 \ See Roads, in Part I., pages SiS~S'7- RYE 80 1 SHIPPING RYE The area and product of this crop are shown as follows : — France . Germany Russia . Austria . Spain Scandinavia Acres 3,8oo,ocx3 14,800,000 67,100,000 7,500,000 2,000,000 1,700,000 Tons 1,800,000 7,100,000 19,500,000 3,300,000 900,000 1,100,000 Bushels Per per Acre 'Inhab. 19 2.0 19 5-5 12 7.0 18 3-1 18 2.0 27 4.6 Acres Tons Bushels per Acre Per Inhab. Holland Belgium Italy Roiimania United States Canada . 500,000 700,000 350,000 500,000 1,850,000 300,000 300,000 500,000 100,000 200,000 600,000 100,000 24 28 13 16 13 13 14 2.4 3-2 Total . 101,100,000 35,500,000 3-2 See Agriculture, page 8, and Food, page 714. s SALT The production in various countries is as follows :- Tons Lbs. per Inhab. United Kingdom 1,950,000 no Germany , 2,540,000 109 France 870,000 52 Russia 1,500,000 30 Austria 500,000 25 Italy 480,000 35 Spain 350,000 45 United States 1,720,000 53 One-third of the salt produced in the United Kingdom is exported, but the exportation is declining, s\z. : — Tons Yearly Value, £ 1883-87 . 1893-97 . 890,000 690,000 610,000 520,000 Consumption in the United Kingdom averages 72 lbs, per hea'l, including what is used for manufactures. For further particulars see page 517. SHIPPING ' The merchant shipping of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was as follows: — Tons Ratio Flag 1675 1774 1676 1774 Dutch 900,000 650,000 45.0 28.3 British 500,000 650,000 25.0 28.3 Scandinavian . 150,000 250,000 7-5 10.9 French 120,000 240,000 6.0 10.4 Spanish 110,000 180,000 5-5 7.8 German . 100,000 120,000 5-0 S-2 Italian, &c. 120,000 210,000 6.0 91 Total . 2,000,000 2,300,000 100.0 100 Shipping increased sevenfold between 1774 and 1S60, amounting in the latter year to 16,600,000 tons. Since 1S60 the increase has been 50 per cent., the total now exceeding 24,000,000 tons, viz. : — Tonnage, Nominal Hag Steam Sail Total United Kingdom . 6,280,000 2,740,000 9,020,000 United States 2,360,000 2,410,000 4,770,000 Scandinavia . 650,000 1,770,000 2,420,000 German 88o,oco 020,000 1,500,000 Canadian 250,000 68o,coo 930,000 French . 500,000 390,000 890,000 Russian and Finnish 230,000 560,000 790,000 Italian . 220,000 560,000 780,000 Spanish 530,000 190,000 720,000 Australian 180,000 190,000 370,000 Greek . 90,000 230,000 320,000 Japanese 210,000 90,000 300,000 Dutch . 190,000 100,000 290,000 Austrian 150,000 120,000 270,000 Turkish 40,000 150,000 190,000 Brazilian 75,000 65,000 140,000 Chilian 30,000 So, 000 110,000 Belgian 90,000 90,000 Portuguese 40,000 50,000 90,000 Chinese 30,000 20,000 50,000 Argentine 20,000 30,000 50,000 The World • 13,045,000 11,045,000 24,090,000 In i860 the United States merchant navy surpassed that of Great Britain both in nominal tonnage and carrying power, but in 1896 the positions were reversed, viz. : — Tonnage Carrying Power 1860 1896 1860 1896 G. Britain . 4,660,000 9,020,000 6,030,000 27,860,000 Colonies . . 1,050,000 1,380,000 1,190,000 2,740,000 British . . 5,710,000 10,400,000 7,220,000 30,600,000 U. States . 5,350,000 4,770,000 7,960,000 11,850,000 Scandinavian 970,000 2,420,000 1,050,000 4,370,000 German . . 700,000 1,500,000 850,000 4,140,000 French . . 1,010,000 890,000 1,270,000 2,390,000 Spanish . . 470,000 720,000 510,000 2,310,000 Russian . . 400,000 790,000 520,000 1,480,000 Italian , . 550,000 780,000 610,000 1,440,000 Dutch . . 300,000 290,000 400,000 860,000 Austrian 250,000 270,000 340,000 720,000 Greek . . 200,000 320,000 220,000 590,000 Turkish . . 180,000 190,000 200,000 310,000 Various . . 510,000 760,000 650,000 2,140,000 The World. 16,600,000 24,100,000 21,800,000 163,200,000 3E SHIPPING 802 SHIPPING The proportions of the tonnage and carrying power of various flags is shown at the above dates thus : — Ton nage Carryin g Power Flag 1860 1896 1860 1896 United Kingdom . 28.0 37.5 27.7 44.1 Colonial . 6.3 S-7 5-5 4.4 British . 34-3 43-2 33-2 48-5 United States . 32.2 19.8 36.5 18.7 Scandinavian . 5-8 10. 1 4.8 6.9 German . 4.2 6-3 3-9 6.6 French . 6.1 3-7 S-8 3-8 Spanish . 2.8 30 2-3 3-7 Russian . 2.4 3-3 2-4 2-3 Italian 3-3 3-3 2.8 2-3 Dutch 1.8 1.2 1.8 1.4 Various 7-1 6.1 6.5 5-8 Total roo.o 100. 100. roo.o The following table shows the average nominal tonnage of each steamer and sailing vessel of the various flags, is also the total number of merchant vessels, and the average cair)ing power in tons to each vessel, in 1896 : — Tons, Average Number Average - of Carrying Steam Sail Vessels Power United Kingdom 740 220 20,800 1.340 United States . 360 ISO 22,630 520 Scandinavian 320 150 13,620 320 German . 820 240 3.S90 1.150 French . 410 28 15,600 ISO Spanish . 1,010 ISO 1,780 1,280 Canadian 140 120 7,260 230 Russian . 290 ISO S.360 280 Italian 630 90 6,510 220 Japanese . 2_[0 60 I.S30 600 Dutch 1,160 250 S70 1.510 Austrian 1,030 420 300 2,400 Greek Sio 40 6,160 90 The relative proportion of trade done by steamers is increasing so rapidly that it seems as if sailing ships must ultimately disappear, carrying power being shown as follows : — Steam Sail 1888 i 1896 1888 1896 U. Kingdom 17,400,000 [25,120,000 3,120,000 2,740,000 Colonial . . 1,060,000 1,720,000 1,320,000 870,000 British . . 18,460,000 26,840,000 4,440,000 3,610,000 U. States . 7,080,000 9,440,000 2,540,000 2,410,000 Scandinavian 1,420,000 2,600,000 1,950,000 T, 770, 000 German . . 2,000,000 3,520,000 730,000 620,000 French . . 2,040,000 2.000,000 450,000 390,000 Spanish . . 1,580,000 2, 120,000 200,000 rgo.ooo Russian . . 560,000 920,000 6ro,ooo 560,000 Italian . . 700,000 880,000 680,000 560,000 Various . . 2,360,000 3,880,000 1,000,000 940,000 The World. 36,200,000 52,200,000 12,600,000 11,050,000 In 1888 sailing vessels stood for one-fourth of the maritime carrying power ; at present they are only one- sixth. The increasing preponderance of the British flag {including Colonial) is also remarkable ; in 1888 it was under 47, and in 1896 it was over 48, per cent, of the world's total. The relative increase of carrying power in the above interval of eight years was : — Per Cent. Per Cent. British . ■ 33 Russian . . 27 United States • 23 Italian . ■ S Scandinavian . • 30 Japanese . 166 German . • S2 Dutch . • S4 Spanish . • 30 The World • 29 French carrying power declined 100,000 tons or 4 per cent, in the same interval, a proof of the absurdity of Navigation Bounties. France pays 150 francs or £6 per 100 tons for every French vessel per thousand miles' run during the year, if built in France, or half that premium if built abroad. These premiums averaged ;^300,00Q per annum from 1881 to 1S90. Shipbuilding The tonnage of vessels built in ten years in all coun- tries has been as follows : — Year U. King. U. States Various Total 1888 . 570,000 220,000 180,000 970,000 1889 . . . 850,000 230,000 180,000 1,260,000 1890 . . . 810,000 290,000 190,000 1,290,000 1891 . 810,000 370,000 190,000 1,370,000 1892 . . . 800,000 200,000 200, coo 1,200,000 1893 . . . 590,000 210,000 200,000 1,000,000 1894 . . . 660,000 130,000 210,000 1,000,000 1895 . 650,000 110,000 210,000 970,000 1896 . . . 740,000 230,000 220,000 1,190,000 1897 . . . 700,000 230,000 290,000 1,220,000 Average . . 720,000 220,000 2X0,000 1,150,000 The total of vessels built in the United Kingdom (ex- clusive of British war vessels) in ten years was : — Tons i Tons Steam . , . Sail ... . 5,950,000 1,250,000 British . . Foreign . . 5,930,000 1,270,000 Total . . 7,200,000 Total . . 7,200,000 Vessels built in ten years in the United States were as follows : — Tons Tons Steam . . . Sail .... 1,260,000 940,000 Sea-going" . Lakes . . . Total . . I,220,0C0 980, r 00 Total . . 2,200,000 2,200,000 The tonnage of vessels built in ten years (1881-90), including those built in British yards for foreigners, carried the following flags : — Flag Tons , Ratio British 5,610,000 49.2 19.3 United States .... 2,200,000 German 1,110,000 9-7 Scandinavian .... 1,300,000 French 640,000 5.6 Italian 370,000 3-2 Dutch . . . . 190,000 1.6 Total 11,420,000 100.0 Notwithstanding the great activity in shipbuilding the nominal tonnage shows but a slow increase, owing to the SHIPPING 803 SHIPPING number of sailing vessels and old steamers broken up or lost, as the following table shows : — Vessels afloat in 1880 . New built, 1881-96 22,540,000 18,160,000 To be accounted for Afloat in 1896 40,700,000 24,100,000 It appears, therefore, that in 16 years the tonnage of vessels broken up or lost was 16,600,000, that is, over one million tons yearly. The loss by maritime disaster and wreck averages 3 per cent., say 700,000 tons, and hence the vessels broken up must have been 300,000 tons yearly. The difference between the tonnage of vessels afloat in 1888 and 1896 is shown as follows: — 1888 1896 Steamer, tons .... Sailing 9,050,000 12,600,000 13,045,000 11,045,000 Total 21,650,000 24,090,000 Thus steamers have had an increase of 4 million tons (equal to 16 million tons carrying power), while sailing vessels have declined more than ij million tons, in eight years. The unofEcial statement published yearly as to ship- building in various countries differs materially from that on preceding pages, which is net tonnage. The unofficial statement is as follows : — Years In United Kingdom Other Countries Total 1891 . 1,130,000 470,000 1,600,000 1892 . 1,110,000 SS7,ooo 1,667,000 1893 . 870,000 340,000 1,210,000 1894 . 1,050,000 274,000 1,324,000 189s . r, 100,000 370,000 1,470,000 1895 . 1,450,000 450,000 1,900,000 1897 . 1,050,000 520,000 1,570,000 1898 . 1,370,000 520,000 1,890,000 The shipbuilding of the world in 1897 was: Built in Steam Sail j Total Tons U. Kingdom. . U. States . . . Germany . France, &c. . . 1,022,000 106,000 140,000 105,000 28,000 126,000 43.000 1,050,000 232,000 140,000 148,000 Total . . 1,373.000 197,000 1,570,000 In 1898 it was as follows : — British Various Total, Tons Steam Sail . 1,366.000 4,000 410,000 110,000 1,776,000 114,000 Total . 1,370,000 520,000 1,890,000 In 1897 the French built three large sailingrships, ranging from 3000 to 35°° tons. The largest vessels launched in 1897 were : — In U. Kingdom Tons In Germany Tons Briton . Brazilian Cymric . 10,200 ' Kaiser Fritz 11,100 1 Pretoria 12,300 1 Kaiser Wilhelm . 12,500 14,000 14.300 Of the steamers built in the year, as regards tonnage, 99 per cent, were of steel, i per cent, built of iron ; of the sailing vessels, 96 per cent, were of steel, and 4 per cent, were built of wood. British and Irish shipyards in 1897 turned out 45 war vessels, 545 steamers, and 45 sailing vessels : — Owners Tons Owners Tons British. . . . Japanese . . . German . . . Colonial . . . Scandinavian . 848,000 60,000 30,000 23,000 27,000 Dutch . . . Russian . . . French . . . Spanish . . . Total , . 19,000 16,000 14,000 13,000 1,050,000 Vessels built in our dockyards for foreign owners usually form 20 or 25 per cent, of the total. The increase of shipping in 1897 in the world was : — Steam Tons Sail Tons Total Carrying Power Built . . . Lost, &C. . . 1,373,000 316,000 197,000 396,000 1,570,000 712,000 5,690,000 1,660,000 This shows an increase of 860,000 tons nominal, but of 4,030,000 tons of carrying power, equal to 6 J per cent. of the carrying power of the world's shipping in 1896. The largest merchant steamers under the British, German, and French flags are : — Steamer Feet Long Tons Horse- power Speed Knots Oceanic . ■ . Kaiser Wilhelm Touraine . . . 70s 645 17,000 14,000 9,000 4S.OOO 30.000 12,000 25 22 The Oceanic, launched at Belfast in January 1899, is the largest vessel ever built. The quickest trips by steamers in 1897 were : — Steamer Route Days Hrs. Lucania . . . Liverpool to New York . 5 7 Paris .... 5 13 Kaiser Wilhelm . Southampton ,, 5 23 Lucania . . . New York to Liverpool . 5 9 Kaiser Wilhelm . Southampton S 15 Scot Southampton to Cape . 16 Dunottar . . . ,. 15 20 Norman . . . Cape to Southampton . 15 6 Dunottar . . . „ 14 23 The Lucania and Kaiser Wilhelm averaged 22 knots an hour, the City of Paris 20, the Dunottar and Norman 17. 'I'he increased size and speed of vessels is shown thus : — Year Steamer Horse Power Knots perHr. 1850 1856 1879 1883 1889. . . 1893 .Asia. . . Persia , . Gallia . . Alaska . . Paris . . Campania . 1.500 3,600 5.000 10,500 17.300 30,000 II 13 IS 18 20 21 In 1898 the Britannic had completed 500 ocean voyages in 23 years, in all 1,750,000 miles, carrying 222,000 passengers, and consuming 5 10,000 tons of coal in 114,000 hours of steaming, being 44 tons per hour. SHIPPING 804 SHIPPING Port Entries Tiie tonnage of shipping from the high seas entered into the ports of various countries was : — In 1886 1895 Increase United Kingdom 31,860,000 40,000,000 8,140,000 France .... 12,790,000 13,780,000 990,000 Germany . . . 8,260,000 11,920,000 3,660,000 Russia .... 5,400,000 8,100,000 2,700,000 Austria .... 5,940,000 9,490,000 3,550,000 Italy 5,900,000 8,260,000 2,360,000 Spain .... 7,470,000 13,000,000 5,530,000 Portugal . . . 3,550,000 5,950,000 2,400,000 Scandinavia 10,000,000 r2, 950,000 2,950,000 Holland . . . 4,140,000 6,770,000 2,630,000 Belgium . . . 4,070,000 6,860,000 2,790,000 Europe .... 99,380,000 137,080,000 37,700,000 United States . 12,290,000 16,730,000 4,440,000 Canada. . . . 8,240,000 11,760,000 3,520,000 Australia . 12,570,000 18,170,000 5,600,000 West Indies 6,300,000 8,670,000 2,370,000 East Indies . . 26,100,000 37,200,000 11,100,000 Chma and Japan 3,060,000 7,160,000 4,100,000 Africa .... 3,800,000 8,400,000 4,600,000 South America . 7,860,000 12,130,000 4,270,000 The World . . 179 6oo,coo 257.300,000 77,700,000 Port entries in 1895, distinguished between native and foreign flags, were as follows : — In Native Foreign Total United Kingdom 29,200,000 10,800,000 40,000,000 France . . . 4,xio,ooo 0,670,000 13,780,000 Germany , . . 5,010,000 6,910,000 11,920,000 Russia .... 610,000 7,490,000 8,100,000 Austria .... 8,440,000 1,050,000 9,490,000 Italy 1,990,000 6,270,000 8,260,000 Spain . . . 6,200,000 6,800,000 13,000,000 Portugal . . . 490,000 5,460,000 5,950,000 Scandinavia . . 6,070,000 6,880,000 12,950,000 Holland . . . 1,810,000 4,960,000 6,770,000 Belgium . . . 1,300,000 5,560,000 6,860,000 Europe .... 65,230,000 71,850,000 137,080,000 United States . 3,680,000 13,050,000 16,730,000 Total . . 68,910,000 84,900,000 153,810,000 The percentage of native and foreign entries was as follows: — in port 1886 1896 In i Native Foreign Native Foreign United Kingdom . 72 28 73 27 France . 35 65 3° 70 Germany , 42 58 42 58 Russia 8 92 8 92 Italy 25 75 24 76 Spain 38 62 48 52 Portugal . 6 94 8 92 Scandmavia 48 52 47 S3 Holland . 3t 69 27 73 Belgium . 16 84 19 81 Continent 29 71 29 71 United States . 22 78 22 78 The proportion of trade done by the flag of the coun- try has fallen considerably in France and Holland, while it has risen in Spain and Belgium, other countries showing but little change, and the ratio for the European con- tinent collectively being the same now as in 1885, whil? the same is true of the United States. The increase of trade, as measured by port entries, has been much greater than that of tonnage of vessels afloat, viz. : — Vessels afloat, tons Port entries, ,, 1885 1896 21,100,000 23,700,000 180,000,000 257,000,000 Increase 8 per cent. 43 .. .. In 1885 each vessel made 9 voyages, in 1895 it made II, which is explained by the substitution of steamers for sailing vessels, as appears when we compare carrying power, viz. : — Years Tons 1885 . 1895 44,500,000 62,400,000 The increase of carrying power in ten years was 40 per cent, which is nearly the same as the increase of port entries shown above. United Kingdom Port entries from the high seas and coastwise (the latter with cargoes only) were : — Millions of Tons High Seas Coastwise Total 1870 .... 18 18 36 1880 .... 29 26 55 1890 .... 37 29 66 1896 .... 42 32 74 From this it appears that in 26 years the entries from the high seas rose 133 per cent., and coasting trade nearly 80 per cent., the whole trade of our ports having more than doubled. Port entries for the United Kingdom in 1896 compare with 1886 thus :— Flag Tons 1886 1896 Increase British Foreign Coasting . 22,740,000 8,300,000 27,140,000 30,290,000 12,190,000 31,980,000 7,550,000 3,890,000 4,840,000 Total . 58,180,000 74,460,000 16,280,000 Tonnage of entries into British and Irish ports rose 20 per cent, in 10 years, the ratio of increase with foreign vessels being 47 per cent., with British 25 per cent. Entries from the high seas, exclusive of coasting trade, were as follows : — 1886 1896 Increase London 6,810,000 8,990,000 2,180,000 Liverpool . 5,020,000 5,640,000 620,000 Carditr 2,390,000 3,960,000 1,570,000 Hull . 1,670,000 2,260,000 590,000 Shields . 890,000 1,790,000 900,000 Newcastle . 1,870,000 1,720,000 Southampton . 840,000 1,560,000 720,000 Glasgow . 910,000 1,290,000 380,000 Middlesbro' 560,000 1,010,000 450,000 Various 10,080,000 14,260,000 4,180,000 Total . 31,040,000 42,480,000 11,440,000 SHIPPING 80s SICKNESS Clearances from British ports, excluding coast trade, were as follows : — Date British Foreign Total Tons 1773 1803 1853 1873 1896 770,000 1,440,000 5,210,000 15,110,000 31,200,000 55.000 570,000 4,240,000 7,470,000 11,800,000 825,000 2,010,000 9,450,000 22,580,000 43,000,000 British vessels constituted 55 per cent, in 1853, and 72 per cent, in 1896, of the total. United States Tonnage entries in American ports were as follows : Year American British Various Total 1870 . . . 1880 . . . 1890 . . . 1897 . . . 2,450,000 3,140,000 3,400,000 3,610,000 2,790.000 7,930,000 8,110,000 11,290,000 1,030,000 6,270,000 4,i8o,oo(» 15,250,000 3,850,000 115,360,000 5,100,000 120,000,000 The proportions of American trade done by American and foreign flags were : — Flag 1870 1880 : 1890 1897 British . American. Various . 44.4 390 16.6 52.0 20.6 27.4 S3-0 22.2 24.8 18.0 25- S Total 100. 100.0 ] 100. 100.0 The relative decline of the share corresponding to the American flag is very remarkable, while the British stands for more than half the total. The growth of the principal ports in the last ten years is shown thus : — 1887 1897 Increase New York. . . 6,090,000 7,270,000 1,180,000 Boston .... 1,080,000 1,640,000 560,000 Philadelphia . . 1,290,000 1,530,000 240,000 New Orleans . . 720,000 1,400,000 680,000 San Francisco . 970,000 1,260,000 290,000 Baltimore . . . 690,000 1,250,000 560,000 Other Ports . . 2,690,000 5,630,000 2,960,000 Union .... 13,530,000 20,000,000 6,470,000 Entries from the various countries were as follows : — From 1887 . 1897 Increase Great Britain . . 4,050,000 6,530,000 2,480,000 British Colonies 2,230,000 3,330,000 1,100,000 Germany . . 1,060,000 1,670,000 610,000 Cuba . . 1,020,000 1,040,000 20,000 Brazil . . 400,000 910,000 510,000 Belgium . 480,000 660,000 180,000 Italy . . 440.000 510,000 70,000 Fiance . . 590,000 490,000 Various 3,260,000 4,860,000 1,600,000 Total 13,530,000 20,000,000 6,470,000 SHIPWRECKS The tonnage of vessels and number of lives lost by shipwreck or disaster to vessels of the United Kingdom showed yearly averages thus : — Years 1881-83 • 1884-86 . 1887-89 . 1890-92 . 1893-9S • General average Tons 273,000 220,000 187,000 197,000 180,000 212,000 Lives 2,600 1,470 1,620 1,600 1,890 1,836 The loss of life in the last six years has been 15 per cent, less than in the years 1881-86, that of tonnage 23 per cent, less, although the merchant shipping of the United Kingdom has grown much in the interval. SICKNESS According to a report published at the Turin Exhibi- tion in 1898, the ratios of sick and invalided men, as also the death-rate, in the principal armies and navies were as follows during twelve months : — Per 1000 Men on Rolls Army Navy Sick Inva- „. , lided ^'^"^ Sick Inva- lided Died British . . . 922 30-4 8.5 1,056 37-5 9-9 French . .S9b 16.9 9.0 1,050 9-9 German . 825 28.0 6.5 1,010 28. s 5-2 Russian . 8S7 10.0 8.2 1,076 9.0 11.7 Austrian . 1,130 16.5 10.4 1,100 24- S 10.2 Italian . 902 15.8 9.2 525 7.2 7.2 Average . 872 19.6 8.6 970 21.4 9.0 This shows that, as a rule, 87 per cent, of soldiers and 97 per cent, of sailors are inscribed yearly on sick-list ; but, of course, this includes repetitions, where one man may be entered two or three times. About 2 per cent, of soldiers and sailors are invalided yearly. Death-rate is less than i per cent, in all but the Austrian armies, and in all navies except Russian and Austrian. In 1892 Bertillon compiled tables of sickness among certain Mutual Aid Societies, including the labours of Bodio, Hubbard, Neison, Ratcliffe, Finlayson, Ansell, Oliphant, Behm, &c., viz. : — Number of Days of Sickness Yearly for Men Age •0 c rt "Si c a •a V) 1 < 20-25 • . . ■ 5-7 4.0 3-1 5.8 5.0 4-7 25-30 • 6.0 4.2 3-4 ,S-i ,5-4 4.8 30-35- 6.8 4.6 3-4 5-6 51 1' 35-40 . 8.1 S-o 4-3 6.3 6.0 6.0 40-45 • 9.6 6.0 5-3 7-8 6.2 7.0 45-50 . 12.0 8.3 5-9 7-7 6.8 8.1 50-55- 15-9 11.4 8.0 8.5 7-9 10.3 55-60. 22.5 14.9 8.4 lb. 3 9.2 14-3 60-65. 32.1 23.0 11.2 12. S 11.2 18.0 65-70. .S.S8 55-6 16.7 18.9 134 32.1 All ages 9.5 ... 7.8 ... 6.6 8.0 SICKNESS 806 SILK Bertillon's tables of sickness among operatives at Angers for thirty years down to 1894 show the proportions as regards age thus : — Age Cases Days Sick, Ratio No. of Days 1880-94 1864:-79 1880-94 1864-79 1880-94 17-24 . . 25-34 • • 35-44 ■ • Over 44 . . 122 393 383 I02 30 330 365 275 167 305 390 138 42 278 320 360 3-6 4.2 9-4 Total . . 1,000 1,000 1, 000 1,000 4-4 Sickness prevails more among female than male opera- tives, viz. — Days of Sickness to each Person Yearly Age France Italy Male Female Male Female 20-30 3-2 6.9 S-2 7.9 30-40 3-8 7.6 1-5 8.3 40-50 5-6 7-9 6-5 8.8 50-60 8.2 10.3 8.6 9-S 60-70 139 i6-S 11.8 9-1 General . 7.8 9.4 6.6 8.S In 1895 the Friendly Societies of France, comprising 1,584,000 members, published returns of sickness for ten years to December 1894, showing the averages as follows : — Sick Days Yearly Days to Each on No. of Hands Sick Person Men .... Women General average . 5-1 3-8 5-0 17.3 12-5 16.6 Death-rate for all collectively averaged 16.4 per thousand yearly. Sutton's report for Friendly Societies (England, 1896) is as follows : — Men Yearly Average Period Number Days Sick Per Man 1856-60 . 1861-70 . 1876-80 . . ' . 722,000 1,790,000 1,663,000 8,160,000 22,400,000 22,030,000 "■3 12.4 13.2 Women 1856-75 . 139,000 2,280,000 16.4 The following table shows death-rate per thousand yearly, and also average days of sickness in the year, to each worker according to age : — Age Death-rate Sick Days 40 60 70 10.7 34- 72.3 9.6 30.2 85-7 The above shows that each worker of 40 lost 9J days through sickness, and a worker of 60 lost 30 days : the mean for all persons from 15 to 65 is supposed to be 13 days of sickness yearly. In 1897 the sickness of the British navy averaged 2,838 men daily, or 4 per cent, of the force. Days, of sickness during the year were 1,040,000, or 14 days to each man. The number invalided was 1987, or 27 per thousand. Bodio's table as regards Italy (1881-85) is as fol- lows : — Days Df Sickness Yearly According to Age 15-30 30-45 45-60 Booksellers . 3'2 4.0 4-5 Clergy . 2.9 3-6 50 Tailors . 3-1 4.1 7.0 Butchers 3-6 4-9 7-3 Shoemakers . 5-7 5-6 7-4 Carpenters . 5-6 5-8 8.0 Painters 8.1 5-S 8.0 Bakers . 5-3 6.3 8.1 Blacksmiths . 6.1 6.2 8.2 Gardeners 5-9 6.1 8.3 Servants 5- 1 5-6 8.5 Cab-drivers . 4.0 6.1 8.6 Chimney-sweeps 6.6 7.8 8.7 Masons 4.8 6.2 8.9 MiUers 4.1 4-5 9.2 Street porters 6.9 9-4 9-3 General average • 5-1 5-8 7.8 SILK China and Japan produce about 28 million pounds, say 12,500 tons, yearly, but no less than 60 per cent, is re- tained for native manufacture, and hence it is usual in estimating the world's crop to count in the case of China and Japan only the surplus available for exportation. An estimate of silk production published in 1890 was as follows : — Year Crop, Tons Crop of 1890 Tons 1886 .... 1887 .... 1888 .... 18S9 .... 1890 .... "..554 11,888 11,588 11,382 11,440 China . . . Japan . . . Italy .... Various . . . Total . . 3.963 2,018 3.443 2,016 11,440 An ounce of eggs produced 39,000 silkworms, which consume yearly one ton of mulberry leaves, and give 132 pounds of cocoons or 13 pounds of silk, worth ;^8 sterling. The countries which export silk manufactures are as follows : — Tons Value, £ 1836 1895 1885 1895 France . . . Germany . . . Switzerland . . Italy .... 6,000 4,900 2,800 200 7,000 4.900 3.350 45° 8,900,000 7,400,000 4,400,000 600,000 10,800,000 6,400,000 5,300,000 1,200,000 Total . . . 13,900 15.700 21,300,000 23,700,000 SLAVES 807 STEAM _ The production and consumption of silk manufactures in various countries is : — Output Millions;^ Consumption Millions ^^ Shillings per Head United Kingdom France .... Germany Switzerland . Italy .... Austria. Russia, &c. . 6.0 28.2 6.4 4.2 4-S 5-2 19.0 20.0 10.2 1.3 3.0 4.0 7-S 10. 4.0 8.5 2.0 2.0 I.O Europe. United States 71.0 ig.o 65.0 23.0 11 Total . 90.0 1 88.0 4.0 For further details see Part I., page 536. Silk manufacture has declined in Great Britain since 1870, viz. : — Spindles Power-Looms Operatives 1870 . . 1890 . . 1,130,000 1,030,000 12,400 11,400 48,100 41.300 There is a fall of 9 per cent, in spindles and 14 per cent, in the number of hands. SLAVES Women slaves were sold at Cairo in September 1894 at prices averaging ,f 18 per head. For Slave-trade in various countries see page 540. SOUND The following instances of sound travelling great dis- tances are recorded : — Cannon at Heard at Miles Date Waterloo . . . Cepeda . . . Spithead . . . Dover . . . Buenos Ayres . Bridgwater . . 180 160 100 181S 1859 1897 Mr. Glaisher in a balloon two miles from the earth heard a musket-shot and a dog's bark, and at four miles a railway train. SQUATTERS There are 19,000 in Australia, who hold 690 million acres of Crown lands at one penny per acre, and 10,800 in South Africa, who hold 60 million acres : the former are sheep-farmers, whose average run is 36,000 acres, rent ;^ISO. African squatters' runs average 5500 acres. STATUES Those of Babylon were valued at ^£'21,000,000 sterling, that of Belus being worth ;^3, 500,000. STEAM The increase of steam-power * since 1870 has been * The economic value of steam-power was thus set forth by the Quarterly Review in 1826 : ' ' Steam-power now enables a man to do as much work as 120 could fifty years ago. One bushel of coal, value threepence, will raise 20,000 gallons of water from a depth of 350 feet in a few minutes, which would take 20 men 10 hours to raise with a pump, at a cost of 40 shillings. Steam does for £1. what would cost jfi6oby hand." more than 250 per cent., the various nations showing approximately as follows : — Horse-Power 1870 1880 1895 U. Kingdom. , 4,040,000 7,600,000 13,700.000 France .... 1,850,000 3,340,000 5.920,000 Germany 2,480,000 5.120,000 8.080.000 Russia . 920,000 - 1,740.000 3.100.000 Austria . 800,000 1.560,000 2.520,000 Italy . 330,000 500,000 1,520,000 Spain . 210,000 470.000 1,180,000 Portugal 30,000 60.000 170,000 Sweden 100,000 220,000 510,000 Norway 40,000 90,000 410,000 Denmark 30,000 90,000 260,000 Holland 130,000 250,000 600,000 Belgium 350,000 610,000 1,180,000 Switzerland . . 140,00c 230,000 580,000 Roumania, &c. . 120,000 320,000 570,000 Europe. . . . 11,570,000 22,200.000 40,300.000 United States . 5,590.000 9,110,000 i8,c6o.ooo Colonies, &c. . . 1,300,000 3,040,000 7,740.000 The World 18,460,000 34,350,000 66,100,000 The respective shares of fixed, of railway, and of steam- boat engines were : — 1870 1880 1896 Fixed .... Locomotive . . Steamer . . . 4,100,000 11.740.000 2.620,000 7.670.000 21.440,000 5.240,000 12.470.000 40.420,000 13,210.000 Total . . 18,460.000 34,350,000 66, 100,000 The steam-power of war-vessels is omitted as regards all nations. It will be found at page 782. The total in 1896 was made up approximately as follows : — Horse-Power Total Fixed Locom. Steamer U. Kingdom 2,300,000 5.100,000 6,300,000 13,700,000 France . . 1,130,000 4.200.000 590,000 5,920.000 Germany . 2,400,000 4,800.000 880.000 8,080.000 Russia , . 430,000 2,440,000 230,000 3.100,000 Austria . . 480.000 1,890,000 150,000 2,520.000 Italy . . . 180,000 1,100,000 240,000 1.520.000 Spain . . 50,000 600,000 530,000 1.180,000 Portugal 10,000 120,000 40.000 170.000 Sweden . . 30,000 300,000 180.000 510.000 Norway . . 10,000 80,000 320.000 410.000 Denmark . 10,000 100.000 150,000 260.000 Holland . . 80,000 330.000 190,000 600.000 Belgium . . 390,000 700,000 90,000 I. 180.000 Switzerland 90,000 480.000 10.000 580.000 Rouma., &c. 20,000 400,000 150,000 570,000 Europe . . 7,610,000 22,640,000 10,050.000 40.300,000 U. States . 3,940.000 11,760,000 2,360,000 i3.o6o.ooo Canada . . 320,000 820,000 250,000 1,390,000 Australia . 260.000 400.000 180,000 840.000 Various . . 340,000 4,800,000 370.000 5.510,000 1 he World . 12,470,000 40,420,000 13,210,000 66.100,000 See S/eam, page 545. STREETS 808 STRIKES STREETS The annual sum spent on maintenance and cleaning of streets in European cities is as follows ; — Paris . . Berlin Rome Vienna . Hamburg 3SJ 800,000 123,000 60,000 85,000 86,000 9.2 1-7 3-4 2.2 2.2 Dresden . Buda-Pesth Naples . . Brussels . Milan . . 3S? 48,000 46,000 46,000 24,000 30,000 O LmSi oj a. ,4, 2.0 1.6 4.8 I.I 3.4 The mean expenditure for the ten cities was about 3i pence (3.6) per square yard. Some of them, however, include only cleaning and watering expenses. The street area, compared with population, is as follows : — •a ■a ■o.a ■oS ^o-ti •oS > S > = >- S !XQ . CT'n cn 5 D-t. ^ r, cri.. "'a. m 8 ("S, ' — — ' London . . 52,000 12.0 Brussels . S,200 10. Paris . . . 20,300 8.0 Breslau 5.900 16.0 Berlin . . 17,300 10.5 Rome . . 4,200 9.2 Vienna . . 9,300 7.0 Naples . . 2,300 4-4 Hamburg . 9.500 15.0 Milan . . 2,200 5-0 Dresden . . 5,800 17-5 Genoa . . 900 4.0 Leipzig . . 3,000 7-5 Florence . 2,000 10. Bordeaux . 3.500 13-5 Turin . . 3.000 8.6 The above sixteen cities give an average of 10 yards of street per inhabitant. Paris has 4600 acres under streets and squares, or one-fourth of its area. STRIKES United Kingdom The number of days lost in strikes and lock-outs has been : — Year No. of Days Year No. of Days 1893 . . . 1894 . . . 1895 . . . 30,800,000 9,100,000 5,500,000 1896 . . . 1897 . . . Average , . 3,700,000 io,4c»,ooo 11,900,000 Thus the average for five years is the same as 119,000 men idle for 100 days. From 1890 to 1895 "le number of strikes yearly averaged 878, with 392,000 hands on strike. In 1897 there were 864 strikes in the United Kingdom, by 230,000 operatives, viz. : — Cause Numbers Wages . . . Shorter hours . Various . . . 106,300 52,800 71,200 Men .... Women . . . Children . . Total. . . . 189,800 24,400 16, 100 Total . . 230,300 230,300 The loss of labour amounted to 10,000,000 days, averaging 43 days per striker ; whereas in 1893 the loss was 31,200,000 days, by 690,000 strikers, an average of 45 days each. The engineers' strike in 1897-98, by 47,500 men, caused a loss of 6,850,000 days, an average of 144 days each. United States In fourteen years, ending 1894, there were 14,390 strikes, involving 3,714,000 operatives, and causing a loss of ;^59, 300,000 sterling. In 44 per cent, of strikes the operatives succeeded, at a loss of ;^39,500,ooo : the masters' loss was ;^i9,8oo,ooo. The loss to each work- man on strike averaged ^\o, 5s. : each strike cost ;^l,400 to masters. In an interval of seven and a half years, ending June 1894, the aggregate of strikes and lock-outs in four prin- cipal cities was as follows : — Hands {000 omitted) Loss, £, (000 omitted) 1 !i Total ^1 s Total N. York . . . Chicago . . . Pittsburg . . Philadelphia . 248 283 lOt 60 22 49 12 9 270 j 1,840 332 !3.o3o 113 , 2,810 69 1 560 910 3.580 720 300 2,750 6,660 3.530 860 4 Cities . . . 692' 92 784 [ 8,290 ' 5,510 13,800 The annual average for the four cities collectively was 104,000 hands on strike, and a loss of ;^I, 840,000 sterling. France The number of strikes and of operatives engaged in them were : — Year Strikes Hands Average 1874. 1884 .... 1890 .... 1893- 1894 .... 22 91 313 634 391 2,730 23,700 118,900 170, 100 54.600 124 260 380 270 140 The strikes of 1893 showed as follows : — At Number Days Lost Mines Factories .... 22 612 1,510,000 i,664,cxx3 Total. 634 3,174,000 Each hand on strike (170,000) lost 18 days of work. The workmen gained their purpose in 57 per cent, of the strikes. Austria Dr. Juraschek's tables contain the following : — Year Strikes Hands Days lost 1891 .... 1894. 104 159 14.030 44,o3o 247,000 566,000 The average for four years was 134 strikes, with 25,000 hands on strike, and a loss of 370,000 days, equal to 15 days per hand. Italy OflScial returns are as follows : — Years Annual Average 1896 Strikes Men Men 1881-85. . ■ 18S6-90. . , 1891-95. . . 1896. . . . 67 104 124 210 17,100 26,400 28,600 96, 100 Hatters . . Miners . . Various . . Total . . 41,600 31,000 23.500 96,100 SUBSIDIES 809 SUICIDE The loss of days was as follows : — 1881-85 1886-90 Annual Average 124,000 I i8gi-9S. 170,000 I 1896 . . 230,000 1,150,000 See TraJe Unions, p. 570. SUBSIDIES Annual subsidies are given yearly in various countries for agriculture and technical schools, viz. : Agricul. Technical Total Pence £ £ £ per Inhab. France. . . . 1,870,000 1,070,000 2,940,000 19 Prussia. . 680,000 560,000 1,240,000 9 Bavaria . 90,000 50,000 140,000 6 Wurtemberg 70,000 60,000 130,000 15 Denmark . 110,000 zo,ooo 130,000 14 Holland . 60,000 50,000 110,000 6 Belgium . 110,000 40,000 150,000 6 Switzerland 150,000 1,570,000 1,720,000 13s Austria . 950,000 600,000 1,550,000 16 Hungary . 1,700,000 1,800,000 3,500,000 46 Italy . . 320,000 280,000 600,000 s United States 2,200,000 SUGAR The world's crop of sugar has doubled since 1880, Year 1880. 1894. 1S95. 1896. 1897. 1898. Cane Tons Beet Tons 1,860,000 3,260,000 3,140,000 2,560,000 2,430,000 2,850,000 1,810,000 3,790,000 4,690,000 4,330,000 4,780,000 4,650,000 Total j Beet 1 Ratio per cent. 3,670,000 7,050,000 7,830,000 6,890,000 7,210,000 7,500,000 49 54 60 63 66 62 There are five principal countries that produce beet- sugar, viz. : — Tons 1876 1886 1897 Germany . . . Austria. . . . France .... Russia .... Belgium . . . Various . . . 360,000 200,000 400,000 160,000 70,000 40,000 810,000 430,000 300,000 350,000 70,000 80,000 1,840,000 930,000 700,000 700,000 280,000 330,000 Total . . 1,230,000 2,040,000 4,780,000 Official returns for Germany show that a ton of roots gave the following percentage of beet-sugar at various dates : — Year 1850 i860 1870 Per cent. . . 7.2 . . 8.6 . . 8.6 Year 1880 1890 1896 Per cent. . 8.6 . 12.8 . 12.2 The average yield in Russia was 8 per cent, of sugar in 1885, and 11 per cent, in 1890-95. The production. consumption, and export of beet-sugar in 1896 were estimated as follows : — Production Germany Austria . Russia . France . Belgium Holland, &c, Total Tons 1,620,000 790,000 780,000 690,000 230,000 220,000 4,330,000 Consump- tion 720,000 350,000 680,000 480,000 80,000 220,000 2,530,000 Export 900,000 440,000 100,000 210,000 150,000 1,800,000 The consumption of sugar of all kinds in various countries per inhabitant is : — Pounds U. Kingdom . 88 France ... 28 Germany . . 31 Pounds ■ • 17 . • IS Austria . Russia . Denmark Consumption has increased very notably in the United Kingdom and the United States, viz : — . 20 Belgium Canada . U. States Pounds ■ ■ 27 80 63 Tons Pounds per head Year United Kingdom United States United Kingdom United States 1875 . . . 1885 . . . 1895 . . . 940,000 1,200,000 1,540,000 880,000 1,300.000 1,950,000 63 75 88 44 63 The exports of sugar from the British Colonies averaged ; Tons Yearly 1881-85 1886-90 1891-94 1895 Mauritius . . . 115,000 110,000 175,000 20,000 70,000 120,000 115,000 165,000 40,000 70,000 110,000 110,000 160,000 S5.000 55.000 115,000 100,000 135.000 75.000 S5.000 W. Indian Islands Australia . India, &c. . . . Total . . 490,000 510,000 490,000 480,000 See Sugar, page 549. SUICIDE Mayr's tables show an alarming increase of suicide in most countries during the last twenty years, viz. Suicides Yearly per Million Inhabitants 1871-77 1881-85 1886-93 Increase England 67 74 82 IS Scotland 40 S3 S8 18 Ireland . 17 22 "S 8 France . IS7 19s 224 67 Germany 143 209 205 62 Russia . 30 31 29 Austria . 122 162 161 39 Hungary 88 lis 27 Italy . 37 49 32 It Spain . 14 25 20 6 Sweden . 8i 97 125 44 Norway . 73 69 65 Denmark 258 249 256 Holland 36 S3 S8 22 Belgium. 67 107 124 S7 Finland . 39 43 4 Servia . 38 37 Switzerland . 202 234 220 18 Australia 86 109 no 24 SUICIDE 8io TAXES In all countries suicide is much more frequent among men than women, viz. : — Female Suicides among lOO. Holland . . i6 Belgium . . 15 Switzerland . 12 United States 28 Average . . 21 Bodio's tables for 1887-91 give the number of suicides yearly per million inhabitants for various countries as follows : — England . 26 Italy . . 20 France 21 Spain . . ■ 29 Germany . 20 Sweden . • 23 Russia . 21 Norway . . 24 Austria . 18 Denmark. • 23 England . . 80 Scotland . . 56 Ireland . . 24 France . . 218 Germany . . 246 Prussia. . . 197 Austria. . . 158 Italy ... 52 Switzerland . 216 Belgium . . 122 Holland . . 58 Sweden . .119 The above rate for Germany is for urban population. In a period of ten years down to 1897, in Prussia, 407 children (under 15 years of age) committed suicide, 331 being boys and 76 girls. United Kingdom The rates of suicide in various professions of persons aged between 25 and 65 years are : — Suicides Yearly of 1000 Males who Die Miner . . Draper Printer Ploughman Gardener . Blacksmith Stonecutter Fisherman Mason . . Cabdriver Tailor . . Farmer Grocer . . Shoemaker Carpenter . 17 Painter . . 21 Butcher . . 23 Baker ... 26 Publican . . 26 Com. traveller 31 Costermonger 44 The average is 14 ; that is to say, of 1000 males who die between 25 and 65 years of age in England 14 commit suicide ; but the rate is two or three times as heavy as regards publicans, commercial travellers, and costermongers. Italy In the years 1894-96 the average was 1870 suicides, equal to 60 per million inhabitants. In the old kingdom of Naples the ratio is only 31, in Sicily 41, in Venetia 58, per million, whereas in Genoa it is loi, and in Rome 108. The total number of suicides in 1896 gives the following ratios : — Males Females Total Single .... Married Widowed 380 325 92 78 95 30 458 420 122 Total . 797 203 r.ooo Under 20 years . 20-40 .... 40-60 .... 60-80 .... Over 80 . . . S3 313 270 152 9 18 . 87 63 31 4 71 400 333 183 13 Total . 797 203 1,000 The seasons had the following ratios : spring 28, summer 31, autumn 20, and winter 21, per cent, of the total. United States The ratios of age in suicides were : — Under 15 66 iS-30 1,995 31-50 3.740 51-60 1,984 Over 60 2,215 Total . ■ 10,000 T TALLOW In 1897 Great Britain imported 100,000 tons, value ;fi, 900,000. See Tallow, Part I., page 550. TAXES In the section of Finances it will be seen (page 700) that 71 per cent, of the revenue of nations is raised by taxes, 14 per cent, is produced by State railways, and 15 per cent, arises from post-office, crown lands, and other public properties. Local taxation has also to be con- sidered, and the subjoined table shows both approxi- mately, and the ratio per head : — National £ Local £ Total £ .^per Head U. Kingdom , France . . . Germany . . Russia . . . 98,000,000 117,800,000 84,500,000 98,000,000 61,300,000 42,300,000 48,000,000 16,400,000 159,300,000 160,100,000 132,500,000 114,400,000 4.0 4.2 2-5 I.O National £ Local £ Total £ i^l Austria . . . Italy . . . Spain . . . Portugal . . Sweden. . . Norway . . Denmark . . Holland . . Belgium . . Switzerland . Greece . . . Roumania,&c. 68,000,000 59,700,000 29,900,000 9,600,000 4,800,000 2,500,000 2,800,000 9,500,000 7,800,000 2,100,000 3,300,000 31,700,000 16,500,000 29,000,000 9,600,000 3,200,000 4,200,000 1,300,000 2,100,000 10,300,000 5,400,000 4,000,000 700,000 5,70o,coo 84,500,000 88,700,000 39,500,000 12,800,000 9,000,000 3,800,000 4,900,000 19,800,000 13,200,000 6,100,000 4,000,000 37,400,000 2.0 2.9 2.2 2.5 1.8 1-9 2.2 4.0 2.1 2.0 1.6 2.0 Europe . . . United States Canada . . Australia . . 630,000,000 71,800,000 6,500,000 11,700,000 260,000,000 98,000,000 2,900,000 4,100,000 890,000,000 169,800,000 9,400,000 15,800,000 2.3 2-3 1-9 3.6 Total . . 720,000,000 365,000,000 1,085,000,000 2-3 See also Taxes, in Part I., pages "J^? to c,St,. TAXES 8ii TAXES National taxes are made up approximately as follows : £ (000 omitted) i S 1 1 a. e 1 CO 1 U. King. . 22,100 33,300 17,300 18,500 6,800 98,000 France . . 17,200 43,200 19,200 30,100 8,ioo 117,800 Germany . 17,800 29,500 22,600 5, 100 9,500 84,500 Russia . . 16,900 37,200 19,100 7,100 17,700 98,000 Austria 8,300 30,700 17,500 7,800 3,700 68,000 Italy . . ii,goo 14,800 20,800 7,400 4,800 59,700 Spain . . 6,goo 7,200 11,900 2,800 1,100 29,900 Portugal . 4,000 1,500 2,600 1,100 400 9,600 Sweden 2,100 1,200 600 200 700 4,800 Norway 1,300 400 200 600 2,500 Denmark . 1,400 300 500 400 200 2,800 Holland . 600 3,700 2,800 1,700 700 9,500 Belgium . 1,300 1,700 2,600 1,500 700 7,800 Switzerland 1,700 100 100 200 2,100 Turkey,&c. 6,500 6,300 ■ 13,400 4,000 4,800 3S,ooo Europe 120,000 211,000 151,000 88,000 60,000 630,000 U. States . 36,700 30,500 4,600 71,800 Canada . 4,000 1,900 ..• 600 6,500 Australia . 8,300 2,600 800 11,700 Total . 169,000 246,000 151,000 88,000 66,000 720,000 In the above table Property-tax includes taxes on pro- perties or individuals, whether in the form of income-tax, poll-tax, trade-licenses, or death-duties. See Finances, page 700, and 'I axes on Alcohol, page 635. The incidence of taxation compared with the earnings of nations gives the following result : — Millions £ Sterling Tax per Earnings Taxation Cent United Kingdom . 1,421 159 11.2 France .... 1,205 160 13-3 Germany . . . 1,285 133 10.4 Russia .... 1,004 114 11.4 Austria. 707 85 12.0 Italy .... 436 89 20.4 Spain . . • . 277 40 14.4 Portugal . 61 13 21.0 Sweden . . 102 9 9.8 Norway 40 4 9-5 Denmark 58 5 8-3 Holland 109 20 18.0 Belgium 169 13 7-7 Switzerland . 66 6 9-1 Roumania . 75 9 "•5 Servia . . . • 28 2 8.5 Bulgaria 37 4 10.4 Greece . . . • 28 4 I4-S Europe 7,108 869 12. 1 United States 3,178 170 5-4 Canada 186 9 5-0 Australia 213 16 7-4 Total . 10,685 1,062 lO.O It appears from the above that 10 per cent, of the earnings of mankind are necessary for taxation, but this ratio is" surpassed in most European countries, especially in Portugal and Italy, where it is over 20 per cent. The average of taxation on 455 million inhabitants of the above countries is 44 shillings per head, as compared with 125 shillings for food (see Food, page 715) : every inhabitant of Europe, big or little, pays on an average li pence daily in taxes, but the ratio in the United Kingdom is almost 3 pence daily. It is shown by M. Yves Guyot that indirect taxation presses more heavily on the poor than on the rich, and that, nevertheless, the tendency of the age is to augment this kind of taxation. The table of M. Block for 1872 com- pares with later dates as follows : — Percentage of Indirect Taxation 1872 1889 189ii United Kingdom . 85 79 83 France . 75 82 84 Germany 66 81 73 Russia . 80 87 81 Austria . 54 76 74 Italy . 49 70 66 Spain . 56 61 60 Portugal 70 85 73 Sweden 76 83 87 Denmark 72 80 82 Holland 67 73 70 Belgium 69 69 67 The excuse that is made by financiers for the increase of indirect taxation is that it is levied much more easily than direct. It is, nevertheless, most unequal in its incidence, because falling mostly on articles of consump- tion viz. : — Ratios of Indirect Taxation Articles of Consum. Sundries Total United Kingdom France . 68.5 61.0 31-5 39- 100. 100. Germany Russia . Austria. Italy . Spain . 76.3 68.0 67-5 62.0 78.0 23-7 32.0 32-5 38.0 22.0 100. 100. 100. 100.0 100.0 Portugal Sweden 77.0 78.0 23 22.0 100.0 100. In order to have the burthen fairly adjusted between rich and poor, taxation should be 50 per cent, direct, 50 per cent, indirect. United Kingdom The amount of Government taxes levied in the United Kingdom, as already shown, is £(j?i,ooo,qoo, but of this amount about 10 millions is handed over to the local authorities. The total burthen of national and local taxes stands approximately thus : — National, £ Local, £ Total, £ England . Scotland . Ireland 72,000,000 9,000,000 7,000,000 58,500,000 8,400,000 4,400,000 130,500,000 17,400,000 11,400,000 United Kingdom 88,000,000 71,300,000 159,300,000 Comparing taxation with earnings, we find as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Ratio of Taxes Income Taxes England Scotland Ireland .... 1,144 187 90 130.5 17-4 11.4 11.4 p.c. 9-3 „ 12.7 .. United Kingdom . 1,421 159-3 11.2 „ TEA Sl2 TENACITY This shows that the incidence of taxation is 36 per cent, heavier in Ireland than in Scotland, and 12 per cent heavier than in England. If we compare taxation with wealth, the account stands thus : — Millions £ Sterling Taxes on £^°°° of Wealth Wealth Taxation England Scotland Ireland. 10,062 1,094 650 130. S 17.4 11.4 26 shillings 32 .. 3S .. United Kingdom . 11,806 IS9-3 27 .. According to this basis the tax incidence in Ireland is 35 per cent, more than in England, 9 per cent, more than in Scotland. United States The total of taxes, national and local, is 170 millions sterling, equal to 5i per cent, of the earnings of the nation, the incidence being heaviest in the south, viz. Millions £ Tax Ratio Earnings Taxation New England Middle South .... West .... 363 976 454 1.385 17 4S 34 74 4-7 4.6 7-5 S-3 The Union . 3.178 170 S-4 TEA The consumption in various countries was as follows : Million Lbs. Lbs. per Yearly Inhabitant 1880-84 1890-92 1880-84 1890-92 United Kingdom 171 201 4-7 5-3 Unued States . 71 85 1.4 1.3 Russia 62 71 0.7 0.7 Australia . 23 28 8.0 7.0 Canada . 17 20 3-7 3-9 Holland . 5 6 1.2 1.3 Germany . 3 s 0.7 1.0 Other Countries 8 9 Total 360 425 British Indian . 53 171 Chinese . 307 254 TELEPHONES The growth of telephones between 1883 and 1888 was as follows : — Towns Telephones 1883 1888 1883 1888 Europe . America . Australia . Asia, &c. . 161 iz6 5 II 804 739 23 lOI 30,100 47,200 900 700 119,000 3.300 2,000 The World . 303 1,667 78,900 In 1895 the United States had 397,000 miles of tele- phones, worked by 1 1,000 officials, and counting 244,000 Berlin . . 15.300 Rome . . 2,800 Paris . . 6,200 Leipzig . . 2,100 Hamburg . 5,000 Brussels . 2,000 Vienna . . 3.700 Dresden . 2,000 subscribers. The number in use in Europe in 1891 was as follows : — Buda-Pesth 1,900! Breslau . . 1,400 Naples . . 1,000 Genoa . . 1,000 The number in London is not known : the public generally make use of telephone stations belonging to companies, which charge threepence. In the Continental cities the annual charge for a telephone in a house ranges from £6 to £8 sterling. Continent In 189s the use of telephones was as follows : — Towns Miles Telephones Messages France . . Germany . Italy . . . Switzerland 41S 397 56 225 26,000 97,000 5,100 63,400 184,400 11,600 20,600 75,600,000 425,000,000 14,800,000 Receipts in France averaged one penny, and in Switzer- land twopence, per message. United Kingdom In 1895 "*^ National Telephone Company served the following number of towns and subscribers : — Towns Subscribers England Scotland Ireland .... 537 17 S 57,400 12,700 3.300 United Kingdom . 559 73.400 The number of messages conveyed was 280 millions, or about 9 millions daily (excluding Sundays) at an average cost of a halfpenny per dozen words. Average subscrip- tion, £g a year. TEMPLES The following table shows the dimensions of the greatest Pagan temples of antiquity, and the number of persons they could hold : — Dedicated to At Length Feet Width Feet Capacity Persons Diana . . . Ephesus . . 425 220 27,000 Jupiter . . . Girgenti . . 369 182 20,000 Juno . . . Samos . . 346 189 ig,ooo Selinus . . 330 160 16,000 Apollo . . . Miletus . . 303 164 15,000 Sun ... . Baalbec . . 290 160 14,000 Venus . . . Rome . . . 350 116 12,000 Jupiter . . . Athens . . 259 96 7.500 Parthenon . . Athens . . 228 100 7,000 Jupiter . . . Olympia . . 230 95 7,000 Neptune . . Paestum . . 195 79 4,600 Sun .... Palmyra . . 180 95 5,000 The temple of Diana at Ephesus could hold 1000 persons more than St. Paul's of London, and covered exactly half the superficial area of St. Peter's at Rome. The temple of Jupiter at Girgenti had the same capacity as Notre Dame at Paris, and the Madeleine in the latter city has precisely the capacity of the great temple of the Sun at Baalbec. TENACITY The tenacity of materials in pounds on square inch is : 30,000 36,000 50,000 100,000 Pine Ash . . . Oak . . . Cast iron 13,000 17,000 18,000 17,000 Sheet copper . Bronze . Boiler plates . Steel . See also Part I. page 335 THEATRES 813 TRADE UNIONS THEATRES The number of inhabitants to each theatre in principal cities of Europe is as follows :*— the London Paris . Berlin . Vienna Rome . , Buda-Pesth . 115,000 32,000 81,000 138,000 31,000 86,000 Dresden Hamburg Bordeaux Naples Genoa . Florence 74,000 115,000 84,000 37,000 26,000 15,000 This gives an average of one theatre for 70,000 in-, habitants, from which it appears that London, Vienna, and Hamburg, are ill supplied. London, in 1890, had 25 theatres, with 28,600 seats, that is, one seat for 150 inhabitants, the receipts nightly averaging ;^6ooo, that is, ;f 1,860,000 a year, or 8 shillings per inhabitant. The receipts of the theatres in Paris were : — Year £ Sterling Pence p. Inhab. 1850 . 330,000 80 i860. 580,000 80 1866. 680,000 95 1876. 860,000 105 T886. 1,000,000 103 1896. 1,200,000 "5 The receipts of 1896 were as follows : — Opera . Franfais £ 130,000 80,000 Opera Comique Various 60,000 930,000 The average expenditure in Paris per inhabitant, on theatres, is 20 per cent, more than in London. TIN The production of this metal has been approximately as follows : — i860 1870 Xons 10,000 16,000 1882 189a Tons 3S.O0O 40,000 The production in 1882 and 1892 was as follows: — Tons 1882 1892 Great Britain . Australia .... Java . . Various . . . • 9,200 14.500 9,000 2,300 9,000 9,000 11,000 11,000 Total . 35.000 40,000 Great Britain imports 25,000 tons yearly. TITHES The value of tithe rent-charge is shown thus : — 1836 1892 f. £> £ 100. 1894 . ■ 74-2 1898 . . 68.7 75-9 1896 . . 71-5 1899 . . 68.1 Showing a fall of loi per cent, since 1892. TOBACCO Production in 1884 and 1894 was estimated thus : — U. States India Russia . Austria . Java Brazil . Germany France . Japan . Various . The World Tons 1884 240,000 150,000 75,000 65,000 46,000 38,000 32,000 15,000 40,000 69,000 770,000 1894 180,000 280,000 50 000 60,000 28,000 40,000 40,000 20,000 20,000 62,000 780,000 United States The crops during ten years averaged as follows : — Million Lbs. Acres Lbs. Per Acre Kentucky , , , Virginia . . . N. Carolina . . Tennessee . . . Maryland . . . Other States . . 180 100 45 33 20 102 250,000 120,000 80,000 50,000 30,000 140,000 720 830 560 660 670 730 Union .... 480 670,000 720 Consumption is as follows (1896) : Tons Oz. Per Head U. Kingdom . France .... Germany Russia . . , . Austria .... 30,500 40,000 85,000 90,000 5S.OOO 28 32 45 Neumann Spallart estimated consumption (1885) in other countries thus : Italy 24, Scandinavia 45, Switzer- land 80, Belgium 88, Holland 98, United States 106, ounces yearly per inhabitant. TEACTION The same force that moves i ton on a smooth high- road will move 8 tons on a railway or 32 tons on a canal. The force that moves I ton on a canal at the speed of 8 miles an hour will move : — 2J tons at 5 miles per hour, S .. .. 3* See Resistance and Gradients (under Railways), at page 499. TRADE UNIONS The progress of Trade Unions in the United Kingdom in thirty years may be seen by comparing the number of members whose deputies assisted at successive Trade Union Congresses, viz. : — 1868 . . . 118,000 I 1888. . . 675,000 1873 . . . 256,000 I 1897. . . 1,093,000 TRAMWAYS 814 TRAMWAYS The principal guilds are the following : — Members Members Miners .... Engineers . . . Weavers . . . Railwaymen . . Shipbuilders . . 250,000 94,000 81,000 66,000 57,000 Carpenters . . Shoemakers . Ironfounders . Printers . . . Tailors . . . 52,000 41,000 32,000 25,000 22,000 The numbers for 1887 will be found at page 570. The ratios of hands employed and unemployed were : — Per Cent. Employed Unemployed 1893 .... 1894 .... 189s .... 1896 92. S 93-1 94.2 96.6 5-8 3-4 France The law permitting Trade Unions was passed in 1884 ; the associations increased as follows : — Unions of 1834 1888 1891 Employers . Workmen . Farmers lOI 69 S 859 803 461 1,127 1.376 75° Total I7S 2,123 3.253 See also Trade Unions, in Part I., page 570, TRAMWAYS In 1896 the length of lines in traffic was as follows : Miles Horse Steam Electric Total United Kingdom . 710 230 70 1,010 France 750 560 no 1,420 Germany 940 240 410 1.590 Russia . 270 20 20 310 Austria . 260 no 90 460 Italy . . 240 1.830 30 2,100 Spain 170 40 10 220 Portugal 80 10 10 100 Holland. 45° 330 10 790 Belgium 100 740 30 870 Switzerland , . . 20 160 30 210 Scandinavia . . . 80 10 90 Roumania, &c. . . 90 10 100 Europe 4,160 4,270 840 9,270 United States . . . 2,650 1,120 12,130 15.900 Total . 6,810 S.390 12,970 25,170 United Kingdom Mileage and traffic have advanced in ten years : Miles Passengers Millions 1886 1896 1886 1896 England .... Scotland .... Ireland 706 73 86 792 96 Z22 303 60 22 '46 United Kingdom 863 1,010 38s 759 At present the traffic averages yearly 800,000 pas- sengers per mile, against 445,000 in 1880. Earnings and expenses in 1896 showed as follows : — Receipts Expenses Profit, £ Interest on Cost England . . Scotland . . Ireland . . . 3,320,000 S45.000 285,000 2,490,000 400,000 215,000 830,000 145,000 70,000 7-4 9 4.S U, Kingdom . 4,150,000 3,105,000 1,045,000 7-4 The average receipts for every 100 passengers carried were : 102 pence in Scotland, 136 in England, and 149 in Ireland. In 1898 the tramways of the United Kingdom had 1064 miles in length (450 miles municipal property), representing a capital cost of ;^i5,9oo,ooo, or ;^i5,ooo per mile. They had 590 locomotives, 39,000 horses, 5300 cars, and carried 859 million passengers in the year. Receipts, ;f4,56o,ooo; expenses, £3,510,000; net profit, ;f 1,050,000, or 7 per cent, on capital. France The returns of French tramways in 1895 were : — Miles Cost, £, . Receipts, £ Expenses, £ Profit, £ . Pjiris 210 3,270,000 1,020,000 940,000 80,000 Provinces j Total 1,100 7,010,000 1,064,000 826,000 238,000 1.310 10,280,000 2,084,000 1.766,000 318,000 The tramway traffic of five cities in 1895 was as follows : — Million Passengers Trips per Inhabitant Paris Marseilles .... Lyons Bordeaux .... Lille 160 27 24 15 10 66 67 It 50 Total 236 60 Holland In 1896 the trams carried 44 million passengers for ;^440,ooo, being at the rate of 24 pence each. Argentina Buenos Ayres trams carried 45 million passengers in 1898. United States The following table shows the cost of construction : — £ Miles ^M^S Horse .... Cable .... Electric .... 18,300,000 81,800,000 186,100,000 1,220 1,120 12,130 15.000 73,000 15.300 Total 286,000,000 14.470 19,800 VITAL STATISTICS 8iS VITAL STATISTICS The rolling stock, cost of working, and average fare per passenger in 1896 were: — -& r Horse Cable Electric No. of Cars 5.380 7,820 35.000 Working Expenses Cts. p. Mile 18.2 14. 1 13.2 Fare, Cents per Passenger 3-7 3-2 3-8 The cost of working is highest on horse lines, but the average fare is highest on electric lines. The census of 1890 showed that the tramway traffic in that year for the Union was equivalent to 350,000 passengers per mile yearly, or about 1000 daily. At this rate the traffic in 1896 must have been 14J million pas- sengers daily, or Ico millions a week, against 15 millions a week in the United Kingdom. Thus each inhabitant of the United States makes 70 trips yearly, and of the United Kingdom only 17 trips yearly. VITAL STATISTICS Mayr shows that the general rates for Europe were : — Period 1821-40 1841-60 1861-80 1881-90 70 years Per 10,000 Inhabitants Yearly Births 351 334 341 330 340 Deaths 307 304 297 277 299 Surplus Births 44 30 44 53 4' The following table shows the average number of births, marriages, and deaths in the last five recorded years, and the rate per 1000 inhabitants : — England . . Scotland . . Ireland . . U. Kingdom France . Germany Russia* . Austria . Hungary Italy . . Spain . . Portugal . Sweden . Norway . Denmark Finland . Holland . Belgium . Switzerland Greece . Roumania Servia Bulgaria . Europe . Australia Canada . Japan Num. (000 omitted) go8 126 106 228 28 23 Per 1000 Pop. « 545 30.3 76 i 30.5 83 : 23.0 1,140 279 704 8W 286 858 1 1,844 404 1,184 4.079 70s 3,022 910 192 678 743 160 568 1,11^ 229 787 6.34 146 SS9 164 35 112 1.33 28 82 61 13 34 68 16 42 77 X6 SO' 155 181 84 64 226 97 118 34 47 i 22 ■■ 16 , 45 ; 23 27 ! 92 126 60 44 171 65 82 12,748 126 I2S 1,186 2.723 26 31 3SO 9.320 SI 64 874 29.4 22.4 36.2 55-9 37-7 41.6 36.2 35-4 32.8 27-5 30-3 30.3 32.0 33-0 29.2 28.2 34- S 39- o 44.1 ; 36-4 ! 38.2 j 31-4 1 25-0 I 28.6 I 7.6 6.8 4-9 7.2 7-4 7-9 9-7 7-9 9.0 7-S 8.1 7.0 5.8 6-5 6.9 6.7 7.2 7.6 7-4 9.0 7.8 10.4 8.2 8.1 6.5 6.2 8.4 18.2 18.4 18.0 18. r 22.1 23.2 41.4 27.6 314 25-5 31.2 22.4 17.0 16.8 18. 5 20.8 19.2 19.9 20.2 25.0 29-5 29- S 25.2 2S.0 12.7 12.8 21. 1 In the preceding table it will be seen that the rates for * Returns for the Greek Church only, comprising 73 million inhabitants, or 70 per cent of the population, m- cluding Poland, but not Finland and the Caucasus. Russia are much higher than for other countries. If Russia be excluded, the rates for the rest of Europe are : Number Per 1000 Pop. Births Marriages .... Deaths 8,669,000 2,018,000 6,298,000 32.1 7-4 233 The surplus of births over deaths yearly in Europe, exclusive of Russia, is 2,371,000, equal to 8.8 per 1000 of the population, but if Russia be included it is 3,428,000, or 10.2 per 1000 yearly. Australia Returns for five years ending December 1895 give : — Births Mar- riages Deaths Surplus Births New South Wales Victoria . . . New Zealand . . Queensland . . S. Australia . . Tasmania . . . W. Australia . . 39,600 36,200 18,300 14,600 10,600 4,900 2,IOO 8,000 7.520 4,040 2,700 2,140 900 470 15.400 16,400 6,700 5.300 4,100 2,000 1,100 24,200 19,800 11,600 9.300 6,500 2,900 1,000 Total . . . 126,300 25.770 51,000 75.300 Births and deaths compared with population jave : — Per 1000 Population Births Deaths Natural Increase New South Wales . 32.8 12.8 20.0 Victoria 31.0 14.1 16.9 New Zealand . 27.7 10.2 17s Queensland . 34-1 12-5 21.6 South AustraUa 315 12.2 19-3 Tasmania 32.2 13.2 19.0 West Australia 31.2 16. 1 151 Average . 31-3 12.7 18.6 Canada The census of 1891 gave the following rates : Per 1000 Population Births Deaths Surplus Births Ontario 24-5 "•3 13.2 Quebec . 36.9 18.9 18.0 Nova Scotia . 25.4 14.6 10.8 Prince Edward Island 24-5 12.3 12.2 New Brunswick 27.7 134 14-3 Manitoba 325 194 131 British Columbia . 23.2 13-9 9.3 All Canada . 28.S 14-5 14.0 VITAL STATISTICS 8i6 VITAL STATISTICS Natural Increase The following table shows the natural increase, i.e. the surplus of births over deaths in various countries, and the number of years in which this would suffice to double a population if there were no emigration : — Natural Rate Per Years Increase 1000 Pop. to Double England 363,000 12.1 58 Scotland 50.000 12. 1 58 Ireland . 23,000 S-° 140 United Kingdom 436,000 "■3 62 France . Germany 660,000 13.0 H Russia . 1,057,000 I4-S 48 Austria " 232,000 9-7 72 Hungary 175,000 9-7 72 Italy . 326,000 10.6 66 Spain . 7S.O0O 4.2 167 Portugal 52,000 10.4 67 Sweden 51,000 10. 5 67 Norway 27,000 13-5 52 Denmark 26,000 11.8 59 Finland 27,000 11.2 62 Holland 63,000 13-4 52 Belgium 5S.OOO 8.9 7? Switzerland . 24,000 8.0 88 Greece . 20,000 9-5 73 Roumania . SS.ooo 9-S 73 Servia . 32,000 14.6 48 Bulgaria 36,000 11.2 62 Japan . 312,000 7-S 93 Australia 75,000 18. 5 38 United States 1,440,000 20.0 35 Canada 61,000 12.2 57 The natural increase is highest in Servia and Russia. There is no increase in France, the deaths of the last five years having equalled the births. The following table shows the average rates of birth and death, and the natural increase, in various cities for ten years ending December 1891 : — Per 1000 Inhabitants Yearly Births Deaths Nat. Incr. London 33- 20.4 9.6 Paris . 26.3 23.8 2.5 Berlm . 33.4 23.1 10.3 Vienna . 28.6 21. s 7-1 Rome . 29-5 25 6 3-9 Buda-Pesth 36.0 30-9 5-1 Brussels 31.0 24.4 6.6 Hamburg 35-1 24.8 10,3 Leipzig 27.0 17.2 9.8 Dresden 3I-I 21.9 9.2 Breslau 35-2 29.2 6.0 Bordeaux 22.8 24.0 Naples . 33.6 30.1 3-5 Milan . 327 28.1 4.6 Turin . 295 26.2 3-3 Genoa . 28.2 25.6 2.6 Florence 26.1 26.5 Palermo 35-2 25-3 9-9 Venice . 30.1 30-9 Trieste . 34-1 31.2 2.9 Average 30-9 255 5.4 United States Deaths recorded in the census year 1890 were 875,520, being 14 per thousand inhabitants. Birth-rate is shown by Dr. Billings (1886), on the basis of the previous census, to be 34 per thousand, so that the natural increase on a population of 72 millions is 1,440,000 yearly. Mortality The following table (1881-90) shows the number of deaths yearly among 10,000 inhabitants : < •o 1 H-t g 1 1 1 1 a ■Sb ■3 i 1 < o-S • 69 79 104 127 53 60 82 74 68 80 5-15 • 9 II 13 17 12 13 10 9 9 II 15-25 • 8 12 10 12 9 10 10 10 10 10 25-35 ■ 10 13 12 II 9 10 10 II 12 II 35-45' • 13 12 13 II 9 10 II 12 13 12 45-55 ■ 17 15 17 14 II 12 13 14 16 14 55-65 ■ 25 23 27 24 18 20 21 22 28 23 65-75 • 31 .30 33 32 22 25 27 28 35 29 Over 75 . 28 26 31 34 25 23 27 29 32 28 Total . 210 221 260 282 168 183 211 209 223 218 Infant mortality, during ten years ending 1S93, showed the number of deaths yearly per thousand of each age : — 0-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 England . 146 54 22 14 Scotland 122 S3 24 15 Ireland 96 36 19 12 France 168 48 25 17 Prussia 20S 62 31 21 Russia 269 98 59 40 Austria 247 76 41 28 Hungary 256 94 61 46 Italy 190 96 47 29 Spain 192 127 89 44 Sweden 107 32 20 15 Norway 96 33 20 IS Holland 175 54 23 15 Belgium 163 51 25 16 Roumania 198 83 55 40 Japan 132 45 29 20 Deaths from alcohol, in seven years ending 1893, averaged yearly per million inhabitants as follows : — England . . 63 Prussia . . -23 Scotland . . 54 Belgium. . . 53 Ireland . . .30 Sweden . . .21 See Births, page 645, and Deaths, page 683. Longevity. — The number of persons over 70 years of age in various countries is as follows : — Number (000 omitted) Per 1000 Males Females Total Pop. England . 347 454 801 28 Scotland . 49 75 124 31 Ireland . 103 III 214 45 France 895 1,01s 1,910 50 Germany , 619 757 1,376 28 Austria . 304 333 637 27 Hungary . 195 204 399 22 Switzerland 1 41 47 88 3° Spain ! 227 256 483 27 Scandinavia 1 168 220 388 43 Holland . i 67 84 151 33 Belgium . : 103 123 226 37 United States . 811 756 1.567 25 Australia , 36 2S 61 16 Longevity is most frequent in countries of low birth- rate, such as France and Ireland. The Journal ties Dehats (November i8g8) published the following statement of centenarians living in Europe : — Ireland . . S78 I France . . 243 I Germany . . 75 Spain . ^ . 401 I England . . 146 | Scotland . . 46 "ee tables of Longevity, pages 355-357. WAGES 817 WAGES w WAGES Tables of wages in various countries from 1836 to 1886 will be found in Part I., pages 579-586. The Board of Trade returns (by Giffen) in 1891 gave the summary for Great Britain thus : — Working in Wages, Shillings Weekly Men Women Boys Girls Collieries . 22.9 8.2 10.7 S-6 Iron mines 16.S 5-8 7.0 4-7 Slate quarries 22.1 8.0 Cotton mills . 25-3 IS- 3 9-3 6.8 Woollen ,, 23.2 133 S.S 7-4 Linen „ 19.7 8.9 6-3 4-9 Hemp ,, 235 9-7 6.0 5- 1 Silk 22.3 10. 1 7.2 S-7 Carpet „ 26.6 II. I 8.3 6.9 Hosiery ,, 24.4 II- S 9-S 8.3 Hair 25.0 9.8 7-4 S-9 Average . 21.0 9-4 7-3 S-S In 1895 Mr. Bowley published a comparative table of wages since i860 thus : — Employed in 1860 1874 1880 1883 1886 1891 Agriculture . . 100 130 122 117 III 118 Building . . . 100 126 I2S 125 126 128 Cotton mills 100 148 134 146 ISS 176 Woollen „ . . 100 121 126 izo IIS IIS Jute ,, . . 100 140 120 142 120 140 Ironworks . . 100 143 112 no 100 124 Engineering 100 124 120 127 126 126 Gasworks 100 125 128 130 130 149 Seamen . . . 100 129 102 n8 no 143 Mining . . . 100 i.So 100 IIS 100 ISO Gea average . 100 134 119 125 119 137 United States Mr. Carroll Wright, Director of Statistical Department, shows that wages rose 67 per cent, between i860 and 1891, viz. : — Employment 1860 1880 1891 Brewery 100 176 22s Carpenter 100 143 173 Leather 100 131 138 Lumber 100 173 178 Metals . 100 134 149 Paper . 100 159 182 Printer. 100 141 149 Railroad 100 144 146 Stone . 100 129 i6S Textiles 100 140 i6S To tal • 1,000 1,470 1,670 The census of 1890, compared with previous showed wages thus : — ones, Year Wages, £ Hands £ per Hand i1lo° : : 1870 1880 . 1890 49.200,000 78,800,000 129,000,000 197,200,000 474,800,000 9S7.000 1,311.000 2,054,000 2,733,000 4,713,000 SI 60 63 72 lOI Comparing 1890 with i860, we find the average earn- ings rose 67 per cent., precisely as Carroll Wright stated above. In 1897 he published a report on Wages, from which the following figures are taken : — IVeeily Earnings, ShilliTigs Man Woman Man Woman Book-keeper 84 42 Salesman . 46 42 Carder . . 30 23 Shirtmaker 42 38 Cigar-maker 46 41 Shoemaker 30 21 Cook. . . 2S 23 Spinner 32 25 Paper-maker ■;6 21 Tailor . . 86 81 Printer . . 63 60 Weaver , 29 2S Italy Bodio's table, reduced to English money, is as fol- lows : — Pence Daily Employment 1871 1881 1886 1891 1897 Dyer .... 17 21 21 20 20 Engineer . 33 42 32 28 30 Mason 33 43 38 36 38 Miner .... 24 29 24 23 26 Papermaker 13 17 19 24 2S ,, woman 9 II II 18 18 Spinner ,, 8 9 10 12 12 Waggoner . 19 21 24 24 20 Weaver 27 47 47 40 40 woman . 14 16 17 IS IS Average 20 26 24 24 24 The mean wages in seven branches of industry for a working day of loj hours, and the number of days' labour equal to a ton of wheat, were as follows : — Year Wage, Pence Wheat. ShilL Day's Wage Daily per Ton to a Ton 1871 . 17 250 IS 1876 . 20 236 12 1881 . 22 218 10 1886 . 24 176 7 1S91 . 2S 202 8 1896 . 2S 180 7 It appears that in 1896 an operative could earn the price of a ton of wheat in half the time necessary in 1871. 3^ WAR 8i8 WEALTH WAB The campaigns against Bonaparte, 1793-1815, showed an annual death-rate in the British army of 57 per thou- sand, of whom only 7 per thousand were killed in action. Subsequent campaigns, being of shorter duration, show necessarily a higher annual death-rate, viz. : — Date War in Army Per 1000 Yearly 1855 • • 1859 '. '. n • ■ 1864 . . 1865 .' '. 1870-71 . Crimea . Itaiy '. Schleswig . Germany . France . British . French . Austrian French . Italian . Prussian Austrian Prussian Austrian Bavarian German . 120 103 47 56 55 33 40 ^ SO In the Franco-German war the German army had a medium strength of 888,000 men in the field, of whom 44,750 died, including 26,900 killed in action ; the mor- tality among officers was much higher than among men, viz. ; — Killed Died Total per Thousand Officers Men .... 8i 31 8 14 89 45 The British loss in the Crimea was very severe, the mortality in two years reaching one-fourth of the army in the field. For details see page 587. WATER According to latest information the daily supply of water to the principal cities and the average charge per gallon are as follows : — Gallons Gall, per Inhab. Pence Yearly London 183,000,000 40 2-5 Paris . Vienna . Buda-Pesth Rome . 123,000,000 120,000,000 176,000,000 52,000,000 48 90 300 128 S-o 3-6 2.0 2.0 Genoa . Hamburg 23,000,000 26,000,000 105 42 2.0 =■5 Berlin . Bordeaux Palermo Naples . Brussels 21,500,000 12,300,000 9,500,000 6,400,000 6,000,000 13 48 33 12 12 2-S 2.4 1.8 1.8 1.2 The volume of water discharged at Niagara is now computed at 1,500,000 tons, or 340 million gallons per minute, representing a force of 16 million horse power, which is equal to the energy contained in all the coal produced daily in the world, say 1,600,000 tons. The water supply of London is provided by companies, whose shares and debentures sum up ;^22, 300,000, but the market value in 1897 was ;£'48,35o,ooo, equal to a premium of 1 17 per cent. There is a project to bring a supply of 215 million gallons daily from Wales (162 miles) at a cost of ;£'32,8oo,ooo. See Aqueducts, page 636, and Water, page 58S. WEALTH The methods for estimating the wealth of nations are laid down at length in my book on Industries and Wealth of Nations (Longmans, London, 1896), from which the following tables are taken : — Millions £ Sterling in s 1 in 1 Si § 1 Vt 1 ^ England . . . 1,452 812 2,196 629 4,973 10,062 Scotland. . . 234 134 232 114 380 1,094 Ireland . . . 391 39 64 62 94 650 U. Kingdom . 2,077 q8s 2,492 805 5,447 11,806 France . . . 3,093 663 2,159 601 3,174 9,690 Germany . . 2,508 555 1,755 677 2,557 8,052 Russia . . . 2,710 349 1,019 515 1,832 6,425 Austria . . . 1,797 371 719 367 1,258 4,512 Italy .... 1,399 184 503 223 851 3,160 Spain. . . . 1,212 108 280 148 632 2,380 Portugal . . . 164 23 77 32 "S 411 Scandinavia . 532 54 221 117 372 1,296 Holland. . . 295 46 178 104 257 880 Belgium . . . 354 75 175 118 266 988 Switzerland . . 172 44 91 49 1,6 492 Danub. States . 508 36 13b «3 263 1,026 Greece . . . 109 6 31 15 6i 222 Europe . . 16,930 3.499 9,834 3.854 17,223 51,340 U. States . . 4,142 2,260 4,446 1.563 3.939 16,350 Canada . . . 3" 186 14s 103 264 1,009 Australia . . 392 139 174 88 283 1,076 Argentina . . 198 88 107 53 170 616 Total . . 21,973 6,172 14,706 5,661 21,879 70,391 The following table shows the distribution of wealth among the whole population of each country ; rural wealth, for example, is the ratio of same which would correspond not to the rural population but to all the inhabitants, and urban in like manner, viz. : — £ Sterling per Inhabitant oi IH ? fS 1 (8 C 1 United Kingdom S3 249 302 106 196 France 80 172 252 123 129 Germany . 48 108 1^6 72 84 Russia 26 35 61 30 31 Austria 41 63 104 51 S3 Italy . . . 45 Sb lOI S3 48 Spam .... 69 66 13s 76 S9 Portugal 35 52 87 46 41 Sweden and Norway . 40 74 114 S3 61 Denmark . lis 115 230 124 106 Holland . 61 122 183 87 96 Belgium ■;6 P8 1 54 75 79 Switzerland . 57 107 164 76 RR Danubian States . 44 46 90 49 41 Greece 50 SI 101 57 44 Europe 45 94 139 64 7S United States 59 175 234 111 123 Canada 60 136 196 73 123 Australia . 93 163 256 97 159 Argentina . 49 105 154 S8 q6 General average . 48 107 15s 71 84 WEALTH 819 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Germany The wealth of the principal States stands thus : — Millions £, Sterling ■t >. iff i i I 1 1 |. > ^ Farms . . . 1.S83 341 72 130 382 2,508 Railways . . 348 6^ 36 20 86 555 Houses . . . 1,048 179 132 77 319 1.755 Merchandise . 403 76 55 28 115 677 Sundries . . 1.SS8 288 161 "S 435 2.557 Total . . 4.940 949 456 ! 370 1.337 8,052 In two years (1896-98) ««/ estate in Prussia increased 88 millions sterling. Molinari estimates that the wealth ■of Germany (real and personal) increased 600 millions sterling between 1893 and 1897, or 150 millions yearly. Austria The shares that correspond to the two nations of the monarchy are as follows : — Millions £, Sterling Austria Hungary Total Farms .... Railways Houses Merchandise Sundries 972 217 520 198 799 82s 154 199 169 459 ■ 1.797 371 719 367 1.258 Total 2,706 1,806 4.512 Scandinavia The wealth of the three northern kingdoms shows as follows : — Millions £ Sterling Sweden Norway Den. Total Farms Railways . Houses . Merchandise . Sundries . 201 33 III 58 167 77 7 4^ 22 73 254 14 69 37 132 532 54 221 117 372 Total . 570 220 S06 1,296 Danubian States The wealth of these States stands thus : — Millions £, Steriing Roumania Servia i Bulgaria Total Farms . Railways Houses . Merchandise Sundries 244 26 46 134 no 4 28 15 54 39 22 75 508 136 263 Total . 519 211 296 1,026 United States The various parts of the Union are represented ap- proximately as regards wealth in the manner shown m the following table (houses including also public buildings) : — Millions £, Sterling States i^ 1 IB 5; '-5 S •c ■0 Si 13 New England . Middle . . . Southern . . Western. . . 142 646 713 2,641 90 310 556 1.304 s?5 1.967 591 2,182 187 480 214 681 273 994 396 1,388 1,287 4,397 2,470 8,196 Union . . . 4.142 2;26o 1 5,335 1.562 3.051 16,350 Australia The several colonies stand as regards wealth (public works including railways, waterworks, telegraphs, &c.) thus : — Millions £ Sterling « 3 S 3 Is 1 ■% £ ^> ffi S'6 S eg H N. S. Wales . 131 71 68 31 6q 370 Victoria . . . 77 76 53 31 46 283 New Zealand . 6q 29 25 18 25 166 Queensland 57 22 8 II 16 114 S. Australia . 39 19 12 7 18 95 Tasmania . . 12 5 6 3 6 32 W. Australia . 7 3 2 2 2 16 Total . . 392 225 174 103 182 1,076 Canada The distribution of wealth is approximately as fol- lows : — Millions £ Sterling 1 0: ffi ll •c s, •a 1 Ontario . . . 186 75 75 SI 135 522 Quebec . . . 67 36 41 28 66 238 Acadia . . . 32 29 16 13 31 121 North-West . 26 46 13 II I 32 128 Total . . 3" 186 145 103 ; 264 1,009 Acadia includes Nova Scotia and the other Atlantic provinces. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES See pages 595-597- WHEAT 820 WOOL WHEAT Canadian wheat crops were in tons as follows : — 1896 1897 1898 Ontario Manitoba North-West . Quebec. 460,000 360,000 40,000 100,000 720,000 460,000 40,000 130,000 800,000 640,000 60,000 150,000 Total 960,000 i 1,350,000 1,650,000 In 1898 Argentina had 5,800,000 acres under wheat, probable crop 1,200,000 tons, one-half for export. Buenos Ayres had 1, 100,000 acres, Santa F^ 2,650,000, Cordoba 1,240,000, Entre Rios 600,000, other provinces 210,000. See Agriculture, page 613; Food, page 7'3> Wheat, page 597. WOOL Production in 1894 was estimated as follows: — Mil. Lbs. Australia . 670 River Plate . 380 United States 298 Russia . . 262 Mil Lis. U. Kingdom 144 France . . 104 South Africa 90 Spain ... 66 Mil. Lis. Germany . 55 Austria . . 52 India ... 72 Various . . 197 Making a total of 2390 million pounds, or 1,070,000 tons. Consumption in the factories of the United States was as follows : — Year 1840 1850 i860 1870 18S0 1890 1897 Million Pounds Native Imported Total 36 S3 60 162 233 276 259 10 18 25 47 124 102 342 46 71 85 209 357 378 601 Consumption in the United Kingdom has been as follows : — Year Million Potmds British Foreign Total 1873 .... 1883 .... 1896 .... 158 109 125 19s 219 385 353 328 510 Sir J. Behrens, Bradford, summed up the consumption during twenty years thus : — Year Million Pounds Yearly British Imported Total 1860-64 1865-74 1875-84 1884 .... 135 144 132 X14 126 181 23s 280 261 3=5 367 394 He estimated the yearly output (1884) of woollen and worsted goods at ;^6o,400,ooo, of which home consump- tion took ;f33,ooo,ooo, and exports were ;f27,400,ooo. The clip of British flocks averages 150 million lbs., of which one-fourth is exported. The following table shows the average yearly produc- tion of wool from 1887 to 1894, and the equivalent in. washed wool : — Million Pounds Yield Unwashed Washed Per Cent. Europe. Australia River Plate . United States South Africa . Various 735 570 345 290 95 215 440 310 I20 220 70 130 60 55 35 75 75 60 The World . 1,960 1,290 66 The countries which export woollen (and worsted^ manufactures are : — Millions £ Sterling 1885 1890 1895 Great Britain .... France Germany .... 24.4 14.6 9-7 25-7 15-8 11.0 26.9 14.2 10.S Total 48.7 52.5 51.6 Production and consumption of woollen goods are as follows : — Output Millions Consumption Millions Shillings £ £ Per Head United Kingdom . 61.7 45- 23 France . 44-7 36.0 19 Germany 42.2 39-8 15 Russia . 29.0 29.4 6 Austria . 14-5 14. 1 7 Italy . 5-8 7-1 Spain . 6.5 6.9 g. Scandinavia 4.2 6.2 14 Belgium 5-3 5-5 17 Other Countries . 9.0 12.0 8 Europe . 223.0 202.0 II Woollen manufacture in the United Kingdom has in- creased as follows : — Spindles Power-looms Operatives 1870 . 1890 . 4,950,000 6,580,000 "S.ooo 132,000 240,000 302,000 See Wool, page 701. YACHTS 821 ZINC YACHTS According to Lloyd's List there are nearly 7000 yachts, of which 60 per cent, are owned in Great Britain, 40 per cent, abroad, viz. : — No. Tons Average Tons British .... Foreign .... 4,104 2.643 1S5.000 110,000 38 42 Total 6,747 265,000 40 Steam .... Sail 1.436 5,3" 172,000 93,000 120 18 Built in Great Britain Built abroad 4.603 2,144 214,000 51,000 4S as The yachts owned in the United Kingd follows : — Dm are as No. Tons 1 Average Steam. Sail . 898 3,206 94,000 61,000 i°5 19 Total . 4,104 15S.OOO 38 YAEN Exports of British yarn were as follows ; Millions Lbs. Yam Year Cotton Woollen Linen, &c. Total Value, £, 1889 . . 1893 • . 1897 . . 252 207 253 4S SO il 48 46 70 34S 303 380 17,300,000 15,300,000 16,600,000 The prices of yarn were : — Pence Per Pound Cotton Woollen Linen Jute 1889 1893 1897 . . . 11 10 9 23 22 20 IS IS 13 3-0 2-S 2.4 The consumption of imported yam in various coun- tries in 1888 and 1895 was as follows : — Millions Lbs. 18SS 1896 R g % 1. t S^ Total 'i^ Total u ^ U ^ China . . . 92 92 151 151 Germany . . 35 27 62 34 35 69 Austria , . . 22 12 34 31 18 49 India .... S2 S2 45 45 Holland . . . 30 2 32 37 6 43 Japan . . . 64 64 20 I 21 Russia . . . 10 16 26 5 14 19 , France . . . 26 26 15 IS Italy .... 8 II 19 3 12 15 Sweden . . . 4 3 7 7 6 13 Spain and Port. 2 12 14 2 11 13 Roumania, &c. 13 13 17 17 Total . . 3S8 83 441 367 103 470 Austria exports iS million lbs. of linen yarn, Belgium 62 million lbs. of linen and woollen yams, Switzerland 20 million lbs. of all kinds. ZINC Production of ewes and of metal show approximately : Ore. Tons Zinc, Tons 1888 189S 1888 1896 Germany . 670,000 710,000 130,000 150,000 Belgium . . 20,000 20,000 90,000 110,000 Great Britain 40,000 30,000 30,000 70,000 United States Sweden . . 200,000 50,000 280,000 30,000') 50,000 70,000 •Spain . . 40,000 50,000! 20,000 40,000 Austria . . 30,000 30,000 r Italy, &c. . 130,000 180,000 J France . . 20,000 70,000 10,000 20,000 Total . . 1,200,000 1,400,000 330,000 460,000 The production of metallic zinc has doubled since 1880. 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INDEX Aarlberg railway, joo, 573 Abadieh farms, 40 Abbeys confiscated, 435 Abderahman's army, 73 Aberdeen — Death-rate, 182 Hospital, IIS Houses, 744 Population, 7S8 Rainfall, 390, 393 Shipping, 523 Snow, 392 University, 233 Aberdeen's ministry, 438 Able-bodied population, 443 Aboukir, plague, 201 Absentee landlords, 342 Abyssinia — Expedition, 198 Snow-line, 392 Wheat limit, 597 Acacia, v. Forests, 298 Acadia, v. Canada Accidental deaths, 179, 686 Accidents, insurance, 755 ,, on railways, 797 Actium, battle of, 645 Actors, earnings of, 567 Actress (slave), price of, 540 Adam's brickmaker, 315 Addington's ministry, 430 Adelaide — Heat, 397 Population, 788 Rainfall, 393 Aden — Popijaiion, &c., 126 Sea routes, 216 Adige river, 104 Admiralty report, 782 Adriatic — ^Area, &c. , 230 Passenger trade, 573 Adultery, 220 Advertisement tax, 561 Aerolites, i Africa — ^Area, &c. , 229 Missions, 777 Religion, 800 Slave-trade, 540] Age of army, 636 ,, birds, 91 ,, criminals, 165 ,, emigrants, 252, 695 ,, marrying, 608 ,, peoples, 2 ,, sailors, 782 ,, suicides, 810 Ages and sexes, 607 Ages for sickness, 805 ,, at death, 816 Agen, rainfall, 393 Agincourt, battle of, 8g Agra — Population, 788 Rainfall, 393 Agram university, 236 Agricultural capital, 615 ,, hands, 424, 625 „ colleges, 633 ,, subsidies, 809 ,, wages, 817 Agriculture, 6, 613 Ague, deaths from, 194 ,, U. States, 215 Aguillon, mussel-beds, 277 Air, V. Meteorology, 388 Airolo tunnel, 573 Aix-la-Chapelle, pop. , 788 Ajaccio, temperature, 393 Alabama — Coal, 657 Cotton crop, 42 Divorces, 225 Forests, 735 Mining, 776 Phthisis, zoo Population, 454 Schools, 240 Slavery, 541 Temperature, 396 Alaska, mining, 776 Albany, temperature, 393 Albumen in blood, 60 ,, food, 19Z Alcantara, knights of, 435 Alcohol, consumption, 634 ,, deaths, 180, 197, 816 ,, gravity of, 311 ,, in wines, 58 ,, taxes on, 635 Alder, v. Forests, 298 Ale as food, 191 ,, strength of, 58, 90 Aleppo— Cholera, 195 Earthquake, 230 Population, 788 Alexander the Great, 73, 306 Alexanders, Czars, 266 Wars, 587 Alexandria — Birth-rate, 9a Death-rate. 174 Harbour, 226 Population, 444, 788 Port entries, 53* Rainfall, 393 Sea routes, 216 Alfa grass, 629 Alfonso XII., revenue, 268 Alfonso, V. Money, 408 Alford, temperature, 773 Algarroba crop, 40, 99 Algeria — Agriculture, 40 Area, &c., 126, 414 Arabs, 127 Artesian wells, 588 Birth-rates, 98 Commerce, 136 Conquest, 265, 586 Crime, 171 Death-rates, 180, 688 Forests, 298 Garrison, 127 Immigration, 246 Irrigation, 337 Land grants, 347 Money, 407 Revenue, 709 Schools, 234, 693 Tobacco, 569 Vineyards, 598, 632 Algiers — Diseases, 196, 205 Death-rate, 175 Earthquake, 230 Infant mortality, 177 Rainfall, 393 Sickness, 535 Alicante, rainfall, 393 Alice, use of name, 414 Ali Pacha's fleet, 416 Alkali, exports, 691 „ price, 478, 793 Allahabad — Population, 788 Rainfall, 393 Alleghany coalfield, 123 Alligator, v. Animals, 61 Alloy in coins, 408 Alma, battle of, 89 Almaden mines, 495 Almonds, v. Fruit, 302, 737 „ oil from, 433 ,, in 4tb cent., 468 Alpine passes, 413 ,, railways, 500 Alps — Snow-line, 392 Wheat limit, 597 Alsace — Cotton-mills, 160 Divorces, 221 Grain crop, 22 Paupers, 440 Tobacco, 569 Vineyards, 598 Wheat, 9 Alsatians in Algeria, 127 Altmann's reaper, 365 Altmuhl canal, 104 Altona, population, 788 Amazon — Outflow, &c. , 515 Rubber, 228 America — Area, &c. , 229 V, United States American, v. Anatomy, 62 ,, rations, 192 war, S3S. S86 Ammonia in rain, 392 Amoor river — Length, 315 Sea routes, 216 Amoy, diseases at, 202, 204 Amphitheatres, 59 Amputation, v. Surgery, 555 Amsterdam — Birth-rate, 92 Colonial sales, 57 Commerce, 531 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 194, 205 Docks, 226 Exchange, 77 Expenditure, 765 Interest, 76, 640 Population, 788 Shipping, 523 Temperature, 393 Tramways, 572 Anatolia, farms, 39 Anatomy, tables of, 60 Anchors and cables, 523 Anchovy fishery, 277 Ancona, rainfall, 393 Andes — Atmosphere, 388, 390 Peaks, 413 Railways, 500 Snow-line, 392 Wheat limit, S97 Aneurism, 209, 686 Angers, sick-rates, 806 Angina, deaths from, 686 Anglican church, 115, 513 ,, clergy abroad, 116 ,, schools, 693 Anglo-Indian army, 68 826 Anglo-Saxon race, 61, 64 Angola, area, &c. , 127 Angora goats, 305, 629 Animal food in diet, 192 Animals, characteristics of, 61 Ankaratra, Mt. , height, 413 Annam, area, &c. , 126 Anne, use of name, 414 Anne, Queen — Coinage, 408 Revenue, 131 Shipping, 524 Taxes, 561 Annesley on dysentery, 197 Annuities, terminable, 262 „ foreign, 330 „ for old age, 755 Anson's fleet, scurvy, 203 Anstie on neuralgia, 200 Anthracile coal, 123, 657 Anthropometry, tables of, 62 Antietam, battle of, 89 Antisana, barometer, 388 Antuco pass, Andes, 413 Antwerp — Diseases, 195, 205 Divorces, 218 Docks, 226 Expenditure, 361 Freights, 301, 736 Illegitimacy, 646 Police, 441 Population, 788 Port entries, 531 Shipping, 523 Apache Indians, 323 Apartments in Paris, 316 Apes, V. Animals, 61 Apollo, temple, 812 Apoplexy, 194, 683 ,, U. Kingdom, 636 Apothecaries, death-rate, 181 Apples, V. Fruit, 301 As food, 192 Crop in England, 301 ,, France, 21 ,, U. States, 737 Price in 4th century, 468 ,, Mid. Ages, 482 ,, France, 483 U. States, 488 April— Births in, 92 Deaths in, 176 Diseases in, 194, 2x5 Duels in, 692 Earthquakes in, 692 Marriages in, 382, 386 Rainfall in, 392, 799 Suicides, 551 Temperature, 393 Wind, 398 Apulia, rainfall, 390 Aqueducts, ancient, 254 ,, modern, 636 ,, V. Water, 588 Arab, v. Anthropometry, 62 Arabian coffee, 123 ,, land-owners, 40, 127 ,, schools, 234 Aral lake, area, &c., 340 Ararat — Height of, 413 Snow-line, 392 Araucans, v. Anthropom., 6a INDEX 827 Arbela, battle of, 643 Arcachon, oyster-beds, 279 Archangel— Phthisis at, 200 Temperature, 393 Archbishops, 115 Archduke Albert's estate, 345 Archer's pay, M. Ages, 580 Arches and domes, 412 Arctic Ocean, area, &c. , 230 Ardennes — Canal, 103 Slate quarries, 402 Ardrishaig, rain, 390 Argand lamp, 357 Argentina — Area, &c., 414 Army, 71 Banking, 84 Births, 98 Cattle, 49, 653 Commerce, 149, 672 Crops, 49, 629 Education, 243, 693 Finances, 275, 709 Food, 297, 734 Houses, 319 Immigration, 253, 697 Lands, 331 Mining, 407 Money, 412 Mortgages, 413 Navy, 418, 782 Population, 456, 788 Post-ofiBce, 463 Press, 467 Railways, 510, 794 Shipping, 534, 801 Sugar crop, 550 Wealth, 818 Wool, 50, 630 Arica — Earthquake, 230 Temperature, 393 Aristotle on births, 93 ,, marriage, 381 Arizona — Indians of, 323 Mining, 776 Population, 454 Arkansas — Cattle-fanning, 45 Divorces, 225 Forests, 735 Population, 454 River, 105 Schools, 240 Temperatiure, 396 Arkwright's spin, jenny, 365 Aries, rainfall, 390 Arm, strength of, 63 ,, amputation, 555 Armada, Spanisli, 415 Armagh, rainfall, 390 Armies, ancient, 73 ,, modern, 66 ,, death-rate, 67, 180,80s Arms, artillery, &c., 65 Armstrong guns, 66, 767 ,, on armaments, 416 Army, 68, 636 ,, expenditure, 559, 638 „ doctors' death-rate, 388 ,, sickness, 805 ,, transport, 73 Amo River, length, 104 Amoldi on sciatica, 202 Aragon Canal, 104 Arrowroot as food, 191 Arsenic, use of, 227 Arteries, v. Surgery, 555 Artesian wells, 588, 638 Artichokes as food, 191 , , in 4th cent. , 468 Artificial manure, 15 Artillery, 65, 637 ,, death-rate, 70, 180 deaths in war, 587 ,, naval, 415, 782 ,, suicide, 552 Artisans' buildings, 745 Artisans, cost of living, 359 ,, height, weight, 63 ,, wages of, 580 Artists' span of life, 355 Arts, V. Occupation, 421 Ascension Id., sea routes, 216 Ash tree, v. Forests, 298 Ashbourne Act, Ireland, 342 Ashes, fires caused by, 711 Ashford Hospital, 555 Asia, area, &c, 229 Asia Minor — Agriculture, 39 Population, 450 Railways, 512 Asparagus as food, 191 Aspen, w. Forest, 298 Asphalt pavement, 549 Ass, V, Animals, 61 Ass-driver's wages, 579 Ass's milk, 398 Assam — Agriculture, 55, 631 Religion, 514 Vital statistics, S7S Assaults, v. Crime, 165, 170 Asses in Algeria, 40 ,, France, 20 ,, Spain, 30 Assessments, v. Income, 321 Assets of banks, 77, 640 ,, in bankruptcy, 88, 644 Assignats, French, 410 Assisted emigration, 253 Assouan, breakwater, 759 Asthma, deaths, 194, 686 Astor Library, 355, 413 Astrakhan — Diseases, 205 Population, 788 Temperature, 393 Astronomy, telescopes, &c., 73 Asuncion — Rainfall, 390 Temperature, 393 Asylums, ». Charities, 112,655 Atacama nitre beds, 228 Athens — Diseases, 194, 205 Population, 788 Port entries, 523 Temperatiu-e, 393 Temples, 812 Winds, 398 Athletes, height, weight, 64 Athletics, cyding, &c., 74 Atkinson on cotton-mills, 162 ,, gold, 742, 778 wages, 584 Atlantic Ocean — Area, &c.,230 Tributary waters, 515 Water of, 517, 588 Atmosphere, 389 Attica, ancient, 449 Attorneys' death-rate, i8i Auckland — Population, 455 Rainfall, 390 Sea routes, 216 Temperature, 393 Auctions of land, 759 Augsburg — Divorces, 218 Phthisis, 200 Rainfall, 390 August — Births in, 94, 97 Deaths, 175 Duels, 692 Diseases, 194, 215 Earthquakes, 692 Marriages, 382, 386 Rainfall, 392, 799 Suicides, 551 Temperature, 392 Winds, 398 Augustus, bullion, 306 Augustinians, order, 434 AuSagas, silver mines, 406 Aunts, marriage of, 383 Auray oyster beds, 279 Aurillac, rciinfall, 390 Austerlitz, battle of, 89 Australia — ^Age, sex, 183, 607 Agriculture, 51, 628 Area, &c., 229 Banking, 82, 641 Births, 98, 648, 815 Cattle, 110, 65s Church, 117, 656 Coal, 122, 659 Coinage, 309 Commerce, 150, 675 Crime, 171, 679 Customs dues, 172 Deaths, 183, 578, 689 Diseases, 204 Divorces, 226 Education, 242, 693 Finances, 273, 707 Food, 297, 733 Forests, 300, 735 Freights, 301, 736 Gold, 306, 738, 777 Houses, 318, 746 Immigration, 253, 698 Income, 322, 747 Lands, 349 Manufactures, 380 Marriages, 578, 772 Mining, 406, 777 Money, 777 Mortgages, 413 Occupations, 433, 785 Population, 454, 788 Post-office, 462, 790 Press, 467 Railways, 511, 794 Rainfall, 390 Religion, 514, 800 Shipping, 534, 801 Sugar, 809 Suicide, 555, 809 Taxes, 566, 810 Vital statistics, 815 Wealth, 594, 819 Wool, 599, 820 Austria-Hungary — Age, 611 Agriculture, 26, 620 Area, &c., 414 Army, 71, 637 Banking, So, 639 Births, 97, 648 ,815 Canals, 104, 651 Cattle, 108, 653 Charities, 114 Church, 117 Coal, 658 Commerce, 138, 663 Crime, 169, 680 Customs, 172, 702 Deaths, 189, 683, 815 Diseases, 212 Divorces, 222, 690, 770 Education, 236, 693 Emigration, 249, 695 Finances, 267, 702 Food, 291, 724 Forests, 299, 735 Freights, 736 Houses, 317, 743 Income, 322, 747 Insurance, 756 Iron, 757 Lands, 345 Manufactures, 375, 766 Marriages, 386, 577, 770 Mining, 403, 775 Money, 410, 779 Mortgages, 413, 781 Navy, 417, 782 Occupations, 429, 783 Population, 447, 787 Post-office, 460, 790 Press, 466 Austria-Hungary — Prices, 484 Railways, 504, 795 Religion, 512, 799 Shipping, 529, 801 Steam-power, 548, 807 Sugar, 809 Suicide, 554, 809 Taxes, 563, 810 Tramways, 814 Vital statistics, 813 Wealth, 592, 819 Austrian, v. Anthropom. , (a ,, Lloyd steamers, 529 ,, settlers abroad, 247 ,, soldier'srations,i92 Authors, dramatic, 567 Autographs, 172 Autumn — Births in, 94, 97 Deaths, 175 Diseases, 197, 215 Rainfall, 390, 392 Season of, 520 Suicides, 552 Temperature, 396 Wind, 398 Auxerre, rainfall, 390 Ava, temperature, 393 Avignon — Madder, 228 Plague, 201 Ay en on wealth, 592 Azores— Area, &c., 127 Orange crop, 302 Rainfall, 390 Sea routes, 216 Temperature, 393 Azote in guano, 227 Baalbec, temple, 812 Babel, tower, 255 Babylon — Statues, 807 Bachelors, marriage, 382 ,, suicide, 810 Bacon — As food, 190, 192 Duties on, 173, 559 Imports, 559 Price in Middle Ages, 483 ,, Europe, 470 G. Brit., 475, 792 , , N. York, 490, 793 Bacteria, v. Microbes, 389 Baden, v. Germany, 3 Bagdad — Deaths, 175 Infant mortality, 177 Plague at, 201 Population, 450, 788 Temperature, 394 Bags, price of, 478, 793 Bahamas, trade, &c., 126 Bahia — Population, 788 Sea routes, 216 Baikal lake, 340 Baines on cotton mills, 156 Bakers— Accid. deaths, 687 Death-rate, 686 Diseases, 200 In bankruptcy, 644 Intemperance, 692 Sickness, 806 Smcide among, 552, 810 Wages in 4th century, 540 ,, Mid. Ages, 581 ,, Europe, 579 Bakeries, fires in, 711 Baku — Oil springs, 434 Population, 788 Rainfall. 390 Balbi on population, 441 Bale — Diseases at, 195, 20a University, 239 Balkan campaign, 587 Ballarat nuggets, 406 Ballast entries, 523 Balloon ascents, 75, 773 Baltic Sea — 230 828 INDEX Baltie Sea — Fleet in, 417 Trade, 529 Tributaries to, 515 Water of, 517 Baltimore, deaths, 174, 689 Diseases, 193, 203 Divorces, 221 Fire-brigade, 277 Houses, 746 Oyster-packing, 277 Population, 454, 788 Port entries, 805 Rainfall, 390 Span of life, 761 Tunnel, 573 Bananas, v. Fruit, 302 ,, as food, 191 , , of West Indies, 632 Banda Oriental, v, Uruguay Bangalore — Elevation, 230 Population, 788 Bangkok, population, 788 Bank notes, 409 Banks, 75, 639 Bankruptcy, 87, 644 Bannockburn, battle, 89 Banquet, Carnot's, 89 Banting on corpulency, 61 Bantry Bay, tide, 568 Baobab tree, v. Forests, 298 Baptists, 116, 513, 656 Barbadoes — Area, &c., 126 Exports from, 152 Rainfall, 390 Revenue, 709 Slavery, 541 Barcelona — Birth-rates, 92, 94 Population, 448, 788 Press, 466 Rainfall, 390 Shipping, 523 Temperature, 394 Bareilly, population, 788 Bariloche Pass, Andes, 413 Bark, Jesuits', z/. Chinchona Barley — As food, 191 Crop, 8, 645 For Beer, 89 Imports, 715 Price, 470, 792 Seed per acre, 99 Yield per acre, 9, 310 Barmen, population, 788 Barnaul, barometer, 773 Baroda — Area, &c. , 55 Population, 788 Barometer, 389, 773 Barons, v. Nobles, 419 Baron's pay. Middle Ages, 580 Barracks, cost of, 313 ,, reform, 69 Barrenness, v. Sterility Barrister's death-rate, 181 Bass's ale, 90 Bassorah, sunstroke, 204 Bat, 7>. Animals, 61 Batata, as food, 191 , , yield per acre, 99 Batavia — Rainfall, 390 Sea routes, 216 Temperature, 394 Bath — Churchattendance,5i3 Rainfall, 390 Window-tax, 561 Baths, xi. Thermal Springs, 567 for working classes, 89 ,, Moorish, Cordoba, 413 Baton Rouge, rainfall, 390 Battles, desisive, 89, 645 Battle-ships, 782 Baumhauer's life-table, 357 Bautzen, battle of, 89 Bavaria, v. Germany Baxter on income, 747 Bayonne, rainfall, 390 Beagles, v. Dogs, 61 Beans — As food, 191 As fodder, 282 Crop, 14 Price in 4th century, 468 U. States, 488 Bears, v. Animals, 61 ,, V. Hunting, 319 Beaulieu, v. Leroy Beauvais, rainfall, 390 Beavers, v. Hunting, 319 Becher on agriculture, 26, 28 , , manufactures, 375 Bedouins in Egypt, 450 Beds in hospitals, in Beech, v. Forest, 298 Beech-mast oil, 433 Beef — As food, 190, 192 Price in Mid. Ages, 470 ,, 4th century, 468 „ 19th ,, 792 Production, 89 Weight per carcase, 15 Beeke on wealth, 589 Beer, Dr., on wealth, 592 Beer — As food, 191 Consumption, 59,286,719 Price in 4th century, 468 ,, Mid. Ages, 471 ,, G. Britain, 793 Production, 89 Strength of, 58, 90 Taxes, 63s Beer-sellers, death-rate, 182 , , suicide of, 552 Beerbohm on wheat, 714 Bees, honey, &c., 90 Beet-root as food, 191 ,, cultivation, 19, 35 ,, sugar-crop, 809 ,, yield of sugar, 550 Beet-sugar, v. Sugar crop, 549 "Beggars lots," 85, S42 Behra on population, 441 Behring's Sea, 230 ,, Straits, 216 Belfast — Death-rate, 174 Debt, 764 Houses, 744 Population, 443, 788 Port entries, 525 Rainfall, 390 Tide, 568 Belgian, v. Anthropometry, 62 , , settlers abroad, 247 Belgium — Age, sex, 4, 612 Agriculture, 35, 623 Area, &c., 414 Army, 72 Banking, 81, 639 Births, 97, 64s, 815 Canals, 105 Cattle, 109, 653 Charities, 114, 653 Church, 117 Coal, 659 Commerce, 143, 66^ Crime, 170, 680 Customs, 172 Deaths, i88, 683, 815 Diseases, 214 Divorces, 223,' 690, 772 Education, 238, 693 Emigration, 251, 696 Finances, 270, 705 P'ood, 294, 729 Forests, 300, 735 Freight, 736 Houses, 317, 743 Income, 322, 747 Iron, 757 Lands, 347 Belgium — -Manufac. , 377, 766 Marriages, 386, 578, 772 Mining, 405, 773 Money, 411, 777 Mortgages, 413 Occupations, 431, 784 Population, 449, 787 Post-office, 461, 790 Press, 466 Prices, 488 Railways, 506, 794 Religion, 513 Shipping, 531, 801 Steam-power, 548, 807 Sugar, 809 Suicide, 555, 809 Taxes, 565, 810 Tramways, 814 Vital statistics, 815 Wealth, 592, 818 Bellour on insurance, 756 Bells, 91 Beloch on Greece, 444, 449 Belus, statue of, 807 Bemiss on consanguinity, 383 Benares — Population, 788 Rainfall, 390 Temperature, 394 Bencoolen, area, &c., 128 Benedictines, order of, 434 Bengal — Agriculture, 55, 631 Canal, loi, 106 Diseases, 194, 204 Floods, 282 Military death-rate, 180 Population, 631 Rainfall, 390 Religion, 514 Temperature, 394 Vital statistics, 575 Ben Lomond, atmosphere, 388 Ben Nevis — Height, 413 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Bequests, charitable, in Berar, India, agriculture, 55 Berber, v. Anthropometry, 62 ,, camels, 61, 301 Berg's life-table, 357 Berg-Louaon population, 441 Bergen — Rainfall, 390 Shipping, 523 Temperature, 394 Tide, 568 Trade, 530 Berghus on linens, 281 Berlin — Bank-rates, 76, 640 Birth-rate, 92, 816 Cabs, 649 Death-rate, 174, 816 Diseases, 193, 211, 684 Divorces, 218 Exchange, 77 Expenditure, 361, 765 Fire-brigade, 277, 711 Foreigners, 443 Garrison, 70 Hospital, III Houses, 312, 746 Illegitimacy, 95, 646 Joint-stock cos. , 107 Library, 355 Lighting, 245, 304, 762 Marriages, 382 Meat, 285 Mortgages, 780 Overcrowding, 186 Paupers, 439 Pohce, 441, 787 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 390 Servants, 520 Sewers, 691 Streets, 549, 808 Berlin — Suicide, SSI Telephones, 567, 8i2 Temperature, 394 Tramways, 571 University, 235 Water-supply, 818 Bermudas — Area, &c. , 126 Death-rate, 184 ,, military, 69 Rainfall, 390 Sea routes, 216 Temperature, 394 Berne — Diseases, 194, 215 Elevation, 230 Prices, 486 Rainfall, 390 R^tes of interest, 640 Telegraph bureau, 790 Temperature, 394 University, 239 Berry, canal, 103 Bertherand on life, 356 Bertillon on births, 93, 647 ,, death-rates, (^85 ,, divorces, 220 ,, marriages, 383 ,, sickness, 805 ,, span of life, 357 Besan9on, rainfall, 390 Besso on insurance, 330 Betel-nut palms, 436 Beziers, rainfall, 390 Bianco on infants, 178 Bibles, V. Press, 465 Bible societies, 112 Bickford on Greece, 624 Bicyclists' records, 74 Big Black River, U.S., 105 Big Horn Mt., U.S., 413 Bigorre, mineral springs, 567 ,, rainfall, 390 Bikelas on Greece, 624 Bill-stamps, 560 Billiards, record games, 304 Billings on births, 645, 816 ,, deaths, 689 ,, life, 761 Birch, V. Forest, 298 Birds, 91 Birkenberg silver mine, 400 Birkenhead, ferry-boats, 438 Birmingham — Births, 92, 647 Clearing-house, 642 Death-rates, 174, 186, 685 Expenditure, 363, 764 Hospital, 112 Houses, 313, 744 Killed by cabs, loi Manufactures, 335, 767 Park, 437, 786 Population, 445, 788 Typhoid fever, 205 Wages, 584 Window-tax, 561 Births, gi, 574, 645 In countries, 815 In months, 92 In seasons, 94, 97 Illegitimate, 92, 645 Multiple, 93, 647 Rich and poor, 93, 647 Sexes of, 92, 647 Still, 92, 646 To marriages, 645 Urban and rural, 94 Bischoffsheim, loans, 272 Bishops, 115 Biscuit as food, 191 Bislcra, temperatur<", 394 Bismarck Archipelago, 128 Bison, V. Hunting, 319 Bituminous coal, 123, 657 Black Death, plague, 201 Black Sea— -Area, &c. , 230 INDEX 829 Black Sea— Canal, 102 Fleet, 417 Rainfall, 390 Salt in, 517 Trade of, 329 Tributaries, 515 Blackadder, temperature, 773 Blackbird, v. Birds, 91 Blackburn — Population. 788 Sewage, 519 Blackfeet Indians, 323 Blackfriars Bridge, 100 Blacking for shoes, 227 Blacksmiths, accidents, 687 Death-rate, 686 Intemperance, 692 Sickness, 806 Suicide, 810 Wages, 4th century, 540 „ Middle Ages, 581 in England, 580 Blackwall tunnel, 699 Bladder diseases, 686 Blanc, Mont, height, 413 Blast-furnaces, 333, 757 Blasting, v. Engineering, 254 Bleaching exports, 691 Blenheim, battle of, 645 Blind, 324, 750 Block system on railways, 501 Block, M., on agriculture, 13 ,, food, 285 ,, taxes, 557, 811 Blois, rainfall, 390 Blood analysis, 60 Blue Mountains, Sydney, 347 Board schools, 232, 693, 764 Boars, wild, v. Hunting, 318 Boat race, Oxford, 75 Boatmen's wages, B.C., 540 Bochk on excise, 557 ,, sugar, 290 ,, tobacco, 569 Bodio on crime, 162 ,, death, 683 ,, houses, 746 ,, lands, 29 ,, prices, 469 ,, rates, 765 ,, sickness, 806 ,, suicide, 810 ,, wages, 583, 817 Boesig's locomotives, 498 Bogota, barometer at, 389 ,, elevation, 230 Bogs, Irish, 303 Bohemia — Emigration, 250 Forests, 299 Land tenure, 345 Mining, 403 Population, 446 Press, 466 Schools, 236 Boilermakers' union, 570 wages, 579 Bois de Boulogne, 438 Bolivia — Agriculture, 48 Area, &c., 414 Army, 73 Chinchona, 48 Commerce, 149 Gold and silver, 307, 739 Mines, 406 Population, 788 Bologna — Diseases, 194, 684 ■Education, 694 Population, 448, 788 Rainfall, 390 Temperature, 394 Bolton, population, 788 Bombay— Agriculture, 55,631 Birth-rate, 92 City, 788 Death-rate, 174 Bombay — Diseases, 196, 202 Freight, 301 Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 390 Religion, 514 Sea routes, 216 Temperature, 394 Vital statistics, 575 Bonaparte — Armies of, 67 Beet culture, 19 Camel-train, 61 Coinage, 409 In Russia, 197, 743 Wars of, 265, 586 Bonapartists in France, 244 Bonde on Sweden, 377 Bondholders in London, 260 Bones and ash, 15, 226, 691 Bonn University, 235 Bonnetard on oysters, 277 Bookbinders' wages, 581, 583 Books, V. Press, 465, 791 ,, curious, 172 ,, duties on, 559 ,, price of, 478, 793 Book-keepers, wages, 817 Booksellers, death-rate, 686 ,, sickness, 806 Booth on occupations, 420 ,, paupers, 786 Bootmakers' wages, 579, 586 Bootmaking at Boston, 365 Boots, price in 4th century, 468 ., G.Brit. ,478,793 U. States, 488 Bordeaux — Alcohol, 544 Barometer, 389 Birth-rate, 816 Cabs, 649 Canal project, 650 Death-rate, 174, 816 Diseases, 194, 204 Docks, 226 Finances, 363, 764 Fire brigade, 711 Freights, 736 Hospital, III Lighting, 762 Meat, 289 Police, 787 Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 390 Sewage, 519, 691 Shipping, 527 Streets, 808 Temperature, 394, 397 Tide, 568 Trade, 523 Tramways, 814 Water-supply, 818 Wine, 58 Bordier on criminals, 164 Bore of artillery, 65 Boring, V. Tunnels, 254, 573 Borislav, mineral oil, 434 Borneo, area, &c. , 128, 759 Borodino, battle of, 89 Borough voters, 695 Bosnia — Agriculture, 28 Land tenure, 39 Rzdlways, 504 Boston — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174, 689 Diseases, 204 Divorces, 225 Expenditure, 363, 764 Fires at, 276 Houses, 312, 318, 746 Ice, 320 Library, 355 Life tables, 761 Meat, 285 Men, weight of, 64 Population, 454, 78S Boston — Port entries, 805 Press, 467 Rainfall, 390 Sea routes, 216 Strikes, 571 Temperature, 394 Trade, 533 Water-supply, 588 Botany, trees, &c, 99 Boudin on marriages, 383 Bouley on hydrophobia, 199 Boulogne — Docks, 226 Passengers, 573 Tide, 568 Bounties, v. Protection, 494 ,, I/. Shipping, 802 Bourbon, Island, v. Reunion Coolie labourers, 246 Railways," 512 Rainfall, 390 Bourbon kings, coinage, 409 ,, revenues, 263 Bom'laki of the Volga, 104 Boutin on houses, 745 Bowditch on children, 62 Bowley on wages, 817 Boyars' estates, 39 Boys' wages in mills, 580 Brachelli on agricult., 26, 34 Bradford — Death-rate, 174 Expenditure, 363 Houses, 313, 744 Park, 437 Population, 445, 788 Bradley on stars, 73 Brain, v. Anatomy, 60 ,, diseases, 686 Brahmaputra riv., length, 515 Brandy, alcohol in, 58 ,, price, 478, 792 Brass, price in Mid Ages, 483 „ G.Brit.,478,793 Brassey on war-vessels, 416 ,, in the Sunbeam, 605 Brazil — Agriculture, 51, 632 Area, &c,, 414 Army, 73 Coffee, 123, 659 Commerce, 149, 673 Death-rate, 190 Education, 243, 693 Finances, 276, 710 Forests, 298 Freight, 301 Gold product, 307, 739 Immigration, 253, 696 Navy, 418 Population, 456, 788 Railways, 510, 794 Shipping, 801 Slavery, 541 Small-pox, 204 Sugar. 550 Temperature, 520 Tobacco, 569, 813 Bread as food, 191 ,, price, 483 Breakwaters, v. Harbrs., 226 ,, Assouan, 759 Bremen — Diseases, 204 Docks, 226 Meat, 290 Paupers, 440 Population, 788 Shipping, 523 Trade, 528 Bremer Pass, Alps, 500 Brescia — Disease, 200 Rainfall, 390 Breslau — Birth-rate, 92, 816 Death-rate, 174, 186, 816 Diseases, 195, 211, 684 Divorces, 218 Expenditure, 361 Breslau — Fire brigade, 711 House-tax, 746 Illegitimacy, 95, 646 Lighting, 762 Meat, 290 Population, 788 Sewers, 691 Streets, 808 Telephones, 812 Brest — Rainfall, 390 Temperature, 394 Tide, 568 Brewers, accid. deaths, 687 ,, diseases, 200 ,, intemperance, 692 ,, wages, 582, 817 Breweries, 89 Brewing grain for, 544 Brianfon, barometer, 389 Briare, canal, 103 Bricks, manufacture, 315 ,, gravity, 311 Bricklayers, 570 accid. deaths, 687 wages, 579, 586 Bridges, 99 ,, of London, 364 Bridgewater, canal, 103 Brie cheese, 114 Bright on telegraphs, 790 Bright's Land Act, 342 ,, disease, 2c6, 686 Brighton — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Expenditure, 363 Houses, 313, 744 Park, 437, 786 Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 390 Window-tax, 561 Brimstone, v. Sulphur Brindley on canals, 103 Brine, salt from, 518 Brisbane— Population, 455 Rainfall, 390 Temperature, 394 Bristol — Birth-rate, 92, 647 Church attendance, 513 Clearing-house, 642 Death-rate, 174, 685 Disease, 205 Docks, 226 Expenditure, 363 Hospital, 112 Houses, 313, 744 Mineral springs, 567 Park, 437 Population, 445, 788 Port entries, 525 Rainfall, 390 Sanitation, 519 Wages, 584 Window-tax, 561 Britannia bridge, 99 British Association, 63 British Columbia, 46 Coal, 122 Fisheries. 278 British Museum, library, 354 ,, ,, visitors, 520 British slave-trade, 540 ,, soldiers' rations, 192 Broch on grain crops, 9 ,, prices, 487 Broken up, shipping, 526, 803 Brokers, suicide among, 552 Bronchitis, 193, 683 „ among infants, 685 Bronze money, 779 Brooklyn — Bridge, 99 Death-rate, 174 Divorces, 225 Expenditure, 363 Houses, 318, 746 830 INDEX Brown coal and lignite, 658 Browne on Irish rents, 17 Bnin on infant mortality, 178 Brunei's tunnels, 573 Brunswick — Mercenaries, 587 Population, 788 V. Germany Brush electric light, 245 Brussels — Bank-rates, 76, 640 Birth-rate, 92, 816 Death-rate, 174, 816 Diseases, 193, 205, 684 Divorces, 218 Expenditure, 363 Fire brigade, 711 House-property, 746 Illegitimacy, 95 Library, 355 Lighting, 762 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 390 Sanitation, 519 Sewers, 691 Snow, 392 Streets, 808 Suicide, 551 Telephones, 812 Temperature, 394 Town-hall, 412 University, 238 Water-supply, 818 Buchanan on Russia, 26 Buchanan on deaths, 519 Bucharest— Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Divorces, 218 Expenditure, 363, 765 Gas-lighting, 304 Illegitimacy, 646 Police, 441 Population, 788 Buckwheat as food, 191 ,, in U. States, 41 ,, in Japan, 57 ,, price of, 793 Buda-Pesth— Births, 92, 816 Bridge, 99 Cabs, 649 Death-rate, 174, 8i5 Diseases, 194, 212, 684 Divorces, 222 Expenditure, 363, 765 Fire-brigade, 711 Foreigners, 443 Hospital, III Illegitimacy, 646 Lighting, 762 Police, 441 Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 390 Sewers, 691 Streets, 808 Telephones, 812 Temperature, 394 University, 236 Water-supply, 818 Buddhists, 514 Suenos AJtes, 49, 630 Banks, 84 Birth-rates, 92, 98 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 198, 205 Finances, 275 Foreigners, 50, 254 Houses, 312, 319 Lands, 351 Marriages, 768 Population, 443, 788 Port entries, 534 Rainfall, 390 Telephones, 567 Temperature, 394 Tramways, 814 Buffalo — Electric power, 245 Buffalo— Population, 788 Water-supply, 588 Buffaloes, v. Animals, 61 ,, in India, 56 Bugnot on surgery, 556 Builders' strikes, 570 ,, in bankruptcy, 644 ,, number, 783 „ wages, sBi, 584, 817 Building Socs. , 107, 543, 737 ,, hands, 420 ,, sites, 313 „ V, Houses Buildings, public, cost, 412 ,, for artisans, 745 Bukowina highway, 516 Bulgaria — Agriculture, 38,623 Area, &c., 414 ' Army, 72 Commerce, 130, 669 Finances, 271, 705 Marriages, 772 Money, 777 Population, 787 Vital statistics, 815 Bulgarin on suicide, 552 Bull-fighting, 304 Bullion, V. Gold, &c., 306, 742 ,, imports, exports, 649 ,, in banks, 78, 639 Bundesrath, German, 244 Burglars, v. Anthropom. , 64 ,, in England, 165 ,, in Germany, 168 Burgundy — Canal, 103 Wine, 58 Burials, cost of, 100 Burlington, temperature, 394 Burmah — Agriculture, 55, 631 Chinchona, 227 Diseases, 198, 202 Population, 631 Religion, 514 Rice, 514 Vital statistics, 575 Burmese, v. Ariatomy, 60, 62 Buschen on forests, 299 ,, houses, 316 ,, linens, 281 ,, manufactures,374 ,, silks, S38 Bushire — Rainfall, 390 Temperature, 394 Bushman, v. Anatomy, 60, 62 Butchers' accid. deaths, 687 death-rate, 182, 686 ,, in bankruptcy, 644 „ intemperance, 692 ,, phthisis, 200 ,, sickness, 806 ,, suicide, 552, 810 Butler, king's, pay of, 581 Butter — Analysis, 100 As food, 190, 192 Consumption, 715 Duties on, 173, 559 Gravity, 311 Imports, 718 Price in 4th century, 486 , , M. Ages, 470, 482 ,, Europe, 470 „ G. Brit. , 475, 792 „ U. S., 488, 793 Production, 173, 713 Buxton, mineral springs, 567 Cabs, London, Paris, 100, 649 ,, killed by, v. Vehicles Cab-driver's deaths, 181, 686 ,, accidents, 687 ,, drink, 692 ,, sickness, 806 ,, suicide, 552, 810 Cabbage as food, 191 Cabbage a£ fodder, 282 ,, value per acre, 45 Cabinetmakers' wages,579,586 „ fires, 711 Cable tramways, 814 Cables, telegraph, 457, 790 ,, for ships, 523 Cadiz, temperature, 394 Cagliari, ,, 394 Caird on agriculture, 14 Cairo — Diseases, 196, 200 Earthquake, 230 Fire, 277 Plague, 201 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 390 Slave-trade, 807 Temperature, 394 Calais — Artesian wells, 588 Colliery, 121 Harbour, 226 Passengers, 573 Rainfall, 390 Tide, 568 Calatrava knights, 435 Calculus disease, 194 ,, in U.States,2i5 Calcutta, apoplexy, 194 Death-rates, 174 Exchange, 77, 79, 640 Population, 443, 788 Ramfall, 390 Sea routes, 216 Temperature, 394 Caledonian Canal, ^03 Calendars, Christian, &c., loi Calico, cost of production, 158 ,, price in M. Ages, 482 ,, ,, G. Britain, 482 „ ,, U. States, 488 California — Agriculture, 42 Artesian wells, 638 Divorces, 225 Fruit-growing, 302 Indians, 323 Land sales, 347 Mining, 776 Phthisis, 200 Population, 454 Quicksilver, 495 Railways, 508 Salmon, 278 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Tobacco, 569 Vineyards, 598 Wages, 586 Callao, sea routes, 217 Calvinists, 116 Camanche Indians, 323 Cambodia, area, &c. , 126 Cambray, rainfall, 390 Cambric, price of, 488 Cambridge — Boat race, 75 Rainfall, 390 University, 233 Camels, v. Animals, 61 ,, in Algeria, 40 Caniembert cheese, 114 Cammell's steel-plates, 335 Campania, steamer, 803 Campbell on blindness, 324 ,, farming, 15 ,, manufact., 602 Canada — Ages, sexes, 610 Agriculture, 46, 627 Area, &c., 414 Banks, 82, 641 Canals, 106, 274, 651 Cattle, 47, 653 Coal, 122, 659 Commerce, 148, 671 Conquest, 262 Canada — Crime, 171, 681 Customs dues, 172, 707 Dairy-farming, 173, 733 Deaths, 69, 180 Diseases, 215 Divorces, 226 Education, 241, 693 Finances, 274, 706 Fisheries, 280, 712 Food, 297, 733 Forests, 300 Gold production, 739 Houses, 318, 746 Immigrants, 252, 697 Indians, 323, 750 Lands, 349, 759 Manufactures, 380 Marriages, 772 Mining, 407, 773 Money, 310, 407, 777 Mortgages, 413 Oyster-packing, 277 Population, 45s, 788 Post-office, 462, 790 Press, 467 Railways, 509, 798 Religion, 514, 656 Shipping, 533, 801 Taxes, 566, 810 Temperature, 520 Vital statistics, 815 Wealth, 595, 819 Wheat-growing, 9, 820 Canadians, v. Anthrop., 62 Canals, 102, 650 ,, Indian, 708 ,, traction on, 813 Canal horses, 546 Canary Isds. — Agriculture, 58 Cochineal, 227 Population, 127 Rainfall, 390 Wine, 58 Canaries, v. Birds, 91 Cancale, oyster-beds, 279 Cancer, 193, 686 ,, cause of, 195 Candia, v. Crete Candles, fires caused by, 711 ,, price in M. Ages, 483 II I) G.Britain,479 ,, ,, U. States, 488 Cane-sugar, crop, 549, 809 Cannae, battle of, 89 Cannes, rainfall, 391 Canning's administration, 438 Cannon, v. Artillery, 65 Canoe, Rob Roy, 106 Canon law on marriage, 381 Canon's salary, M. Ages, 581 Canons, Anglican, 115 Cantagallo, railway, 500 Canterbury — Income, 115 In Middle Ages, 445 Canton — Leprosy, 199 Population, 456 Rainfall, 391 Silk trade, 540 Temperature, 394 Caoutchouc, imports, 691 Cape Colony, ti. South Africa Slavery, 541 Cape of Good Hope, sea routes, 216, 803 Cape Horn, sea routes, 216 Cape Town — Death-rate, 180 Diseases, 194, 204 Freight, 301 Houses, 312, 318 Rainfall, 391 Real estate, 595 Temperature, 394 University, 242 Wines, 58 INDEX 831 Cape Verd Islands, 127 Capital in Agriculture, 11, 615 >, invested abroad, 652 ,, in banking, 640 ■ > in cotton-mills, 160 ,1 floating, 652 , in houses, 745 ■ I in railways, 497, 795 I, in shipping, 526 ,, new, 651 Captain's pay, 580 ,, death-rate, 587 Captures, v. Navy, 416 Caraocas, rainfall, 390 Carbon in blood, 60 ,, coal, 120 ,, "food, igi Carbonic acid, 60 Carboniferous stratum, 305 Carcassonne, rainfall, 390 Cardboy (mill), wages, 580 Carder (mill), wages, 579, 8r7 Cardiff — Docks, 226 Houses, 744 Population, 788 Port entries, S2S1 804 Sanitation, 519 Steel-plates, 758 Cardmender (mill), wages, 582 Caribbean Sea, area, &o. , 230 Carlist war, cost, 586 Carlsruhe — Diseases, 193 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Carmelites, order of, 434 Carob beans, v. Algarroba, 40 Carolina Islands, 127 Carolinas, U. S. — Crops, 42 Levy (1776), 587 Slavery, 541 Temperature, 396 Wealth, S94 Carpathian salt-mines, 518 Carpenters — Accidents, 687 Death-rate, 182, 686 Guild, 814 Intemperance, 692 Number, 421 Phthisis, 200 Sickness, 806 Suicide, 552, 810 Union, 570 Wages in 4th century, 540 Mid. Ages, 581 „ G. Britain, 580 „ U. States, 817 Carpets, price, 479, 793 ,, makers, wages, 817 Carpi on emigration, 250 Carriages, railway, 499, 79S „ in Great Britain, 108 ,, tax on, 562 Carriers in U. Kingdom, 783 Carrier pigeons, v. Birds, 91 Carroll, v. Wright Carrots, as food, 191 as fodder, 282 ,, consumption, 302 Carrying-power of ships, 521 Carters, suicide among, 552 Carthusians, order of, 434 Cartwright on mortgages, 413 Caseine in butter, 100 Cashmere, temperature, 394 Caspian Sea— Fleet, 417 Salt in, 519 Tributaries, 515 Castille, rainfall, 391 Castles in France, 745 Castor-oil, plant, 99 seed, 433 Cats, V. Animals, 61 Catamarca— Agriculture, 49 Catamarca — Cop. mines, 407 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 Catania — Diseases, 196, 205 Population, 788 Ramfall, 391 Cataract, disease, 195, 209 Cathedrals of Europe, 412 Catholics, Roman, 552, 799 V. Church, 116, 656 Missions, 777 School children, 232, 693 Cattle, 108, 653 ,, imports, 717 , , price in M. Ages, 470 ,, value, 61S Caucasus — Population, 447 Snow-line, 392 Wheat limit, 595 Caucasian, v. Anatomy, 62 Cauliflowers in 4th cent , 468 Caupolican chinchona, 227 Cavalry, 66 Death-rate, British, 69 ,, French, 70 ,, Russian, 181 ,, in war, 587 Suicide, 552 Caviar fishery, 360, 712 ,, exports, 723 Cavour, canal, 104, 759 Cawnpore — Population, 788 Temperature, 394 Cayenne — Death-rate, 688 Disease, 209 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Cedar, v. Forests, 298 ,, gravity, 311 Cedulas, South American, 83 Celebes, area, &c. ,128, 759 Celery, in London, Paris, 302 Cement, exports, in price, 479, 793 ,, production, 406 Cemeteries, 100, 655 Cenis, Mont — Height, 413 Railway, 499 Centenarians, 356, 8i6 Centigrade thermometer, 397 Central Africa, cotton, 158 Central America, crops, 48 Army, 73 Coffee, 672 Commerce, 148, 672 Railways, 512, 573 Certificates, Treasury, 7S0 Cette harbour, 226 Ceylon — Agriculture, 53 Area, &c., 123, 759 Chinchona, 227 Cocoa palms, 436 Coffee, 123 Commerce, 153 Crime, 171 Death-rate, 69, 184 Diseases, 197, 201 Education, 243, 693 Finances, 709 Lands, 350 Money, 778 Pearl fishery, 338 Population, 788 Port entries, 534 Railways, 512 Rice, 514 Savings-banks, 644 Tea exports, 566 Chaco forest, 298 Chadwick on funerals, 100 Chalk, gravity, 311 Chalk Farm steel rails, 334 Challenger expedition, 229 Chalonsi rainfall, 391 Chambers on navies, 782 „ on friars, 783 Chambers, French, 438 Chamberlain's pay. Middle Ages, 581 Chamb^ry, rainfall, 391 Chamois hunting, 319 Champagne vineyards, 598 ,, wine, 58 Champlain, canal, 105 Champs Elysfes, birth-rate,93 Chandlers, death-rate, 686 „ wages, 581 Channel fleet, 416 ,, Islands, 18 Chaplain's pay, M. Ages, 581 Chaptal on agriculture, 20 ,, houses, 315 ,, manufac, 371 ,, wealth, 591 Chapters, Anglican, 113 Charcoal, production, 303 ,, in gunpowder, 227 ,, burners, 200 Charity, sisters of, 113, 434 Charities, in, 655 ,, in France, 787 Charleroi, canal, 105 Charles — Use of name, 530 England, coinage, 408 ,, post-o£Sce, 458 ,, revenue, 261 shipping, 524 France, revenue, 236 Spain, revenue, 268 ,, shipping, 530 Charleston — Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Charrua Indians, 62 Chartreuse, liquor, 58 Chaumont, colliery, 400 Cheese — ^Analysis, 114 As food, igo, 192 Duties on, 173, 559 Exports, Canada, 148, 297 ,, Holland, 294 Switz. , 145, 29s ,, U. States, 146 Imports, 717 Price in 4th century, 468 ,, Mid. Ages, 483 , , Europe, 470, 792 ,, U. States, 793 Production, U.S., 42, 295 Chelsea barracks, cost, 68 ,, hospital, rations, 192 Cheltenham, paik, 786 ,, sanitation, 519 „ springs, 567, 388 Chemicals, v. Drugs, 667 ,, in paper-making, 437 ,, operatives, 421 Chemnitz, overcrowding, 316 ,, population, 788 Cheops, pyramid, 253, 412 Cheques, use of, 77, 779 Cherbourg — Harbour,226,25s Tide, 568 Cherokee Indians, 323, 750 Cherrapimgi, rainfall, 390 Cherries, v. Fruit, 301 ,, price in 4th cent. ,468 Chesapeake, canals, 105 Cheshire — Cheese, 114, 174 Farm wages, 580 Chest measurement, 63 Chestnuts — As food, 191 In France, 21 In Italy, 28 Price in 4th cent. , 468 France, 483 Chestnut-tree, v. Forests, 298 Chicago — Deaths, 174, 689 Fire, 277 Chicago — Freights, 300, 736 Houses, 746 Population, 454, 788 Span of life, 761 Strikes, 808 Wages, 579 Water-supply, 588 Chickens, v. Poultry Child-bearing age, 93, 97 , , women, 443 Child-birth, v. Puerperal, 686 Children — As emigrants. 246 Fires caused by, 711 In factories, 256 In France, 94 Of Prostitutes, 494 Suicide by, 552, 554 Under ten years, 607 Weight of, 62 Chile — Agriculture, 48 Area, &c. , 414 Army, 73 Banking, 83 Coal, 407 Commerce, 150, 672 Copper, 156, 677 Education, 243, 693 Finances, 257, 710 Marriages, 382 Mining, 407, 739 Navy, 418 Nitre export, 228 Population, 455, 788 Precious metals, 307 Railways, 310, 794 Shipping, 334, 801 Chimboiazo, height, 413 Chimney, Port Dundas, 256 Chimney-sweeps, deaths, 686 ,, sickness, 806 Chimpanzee, v. Animals, 61 China — Area, &c., 414 Artesian wells, 588 Canal, 106, 255 Coalfield, 120 Commerce, 154, 674 Death-rate, 69 Floods, 282 Freight, 301 Gold production, 739 Land-tax, 332 Missions, 777 Money, 310, 407, 778 Navy, 4x9 Opium imports, 154, 674 Population, 456, 788 Railway, 312 Religion, 800 Silk crop, 806 Sugar crop, 550 Tea exports, 366, 674 Wall of, 25s China Sea, area, &c. , 230 Chinaware, duties on, 565 Chincha Islands, guano, 227 Chinchona, 48, 631 ,, imports, 691 ,, price, 792 Chinese, v. Anatomy, 60, 62 ,, in Java, 37; 128 , , in United States Chippewa Indians, 323 Chisbolm on coal, 121 steel, 334 Choctaw Indians, 323, 750 Cholera, 193 ,, U. Kingdom, 206 ,, U. States, 215 Christiania — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 194, 205 Divorces, 21S Expenditure, 361 Hospital, in 832 INDEX Christiania — Illegitimacy, 646 Police, 441 Population, 443, 788 Temperature, 394 Trade, 530 University, 239 Christian names, 781 Christians, v. Religion, 799 ,, V, Missions, 777 ,, in India, 514 Christmas trees, 570 Chrome steel, 335 Chiurch and clergy, 115, 656 ,, confiscated, 29, 117 ,, property, 656 Church-building, cost of, 313 Churchill's surgery, 556 Cider — Alcohol in, 58 Consumption, 59, 719 Gravity, 311 Price, 4B8, 792 Cigars, price, 474 , 792 ,, makers, wages, 817 Cincinnati — Bridge, 99 Canals, loi, 105 Death-rate, 689 Fire-brigade, 277 Houses, 746 Population, 454, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Wheat, 9 Circulation of money, 409, 779 Circumnavigation, 605 Cities — Ancient, 444 Birth-rate, 92, 118, 646 Deaths, 174, 684 Elevation, 230 Finances, 361 Population, 443 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 393 Civil Service, 118, 783 Clans, Scottish, 118 Clapham Junction, trains, 797 Claret, alcohol in, 58 Clark's index of names, 781 Classes of passengers, 796 Clay, gravity, 311 Clearing bush, cost of, 349 Clearing-houses, 77, 642 Cleopatra's Needle, 412 Clergy, 115 Bequests to, 113, 655 Children of, 96 Death-rate, 177, 686 Sickness, 806 Span of life, 356 Suicide, 552 Clerical schools, France, 234 Clerks, pay of, 582 ,, span of life, 3S5 ,, suicide, 552 Clermont, rainfall, 391 Cleveland, Eng. , wages, 581 Cleveland, Ohio, divorces, 225 ,, population, 788 Clifton, bridge, 99 ,, mineral springs, 567 Clocks, Swiss, export, 145 Clockmakers' wages, 583 Clogs, price in 4th cent., 468 Clot Bey on plagues, 201 Cloth, price in Mid. Ages, 482 G.Brit., 47, 793 Clothing, sea-borne, 572 Clouds, V. Meteorology, 389 Clover as fodder, 282 , , in Great Britain, 13 Clyde shipbuilding, 526 Coachbuilders' wages, 5B1 Coachmen's death-rate, 181 Coal, 119, 398, 656 Carbon, 120 Coal — Consumption, 657 Price in London, 121 ,, G.Brit., 479, 793 ,, U. States, 489,793 Production, 121, 657 Sea-borne, 130, 572 Uses of, 519, 526, 758 Coal-miners, death-rates, 686 Coastguards, British, 416 Coasting trade, 525, 804 Cobden's treaty, 494 Coblenz^Garrison, 70 Meat, 290 Rainfall, 39 Coca, Bolivian drug, 48 Cochin-China — Area, &c. , 126 Railways, 512 Rice, 515 Tiger-killing, 319 Cochineal, 58 Imports, 691 Price, 474, 792 Cockerill's foundry, 337 Cocoa — As food, 191 Duties on, 173, 559 Imports, 717 Price, 474, 792 Cocoa-nut oil, 434 ,, palms, 55, 436 Cocoons, silk, 537, 806 ,, Italy, 539 Cod-fish as food, 191 Cod fisheries, 277, 280 Cod-liver oil, 128, 277 Coffee, 123, 659 As food, 191 Crop, Brazil, 632 Cultivation, 127 Duties on, 173, 559 Imports, 287, 717 Price in Europe, 470 ,, G. Brit. ,471,792 „ U.S., 488, 793 Sea-borne, 130, 572 Coghlan on food, 297 ,, mining, 406 ,, population, 455 ,, railways, 511 Coimbra, rainfall, 391 Coin, wear and tear, 310 ,, V, Money, 779 Coins of all nations, 408 ,, curious, 172 Coinage, gold for, 308, 739 Coke, I20, 656 Col di Tenda, height, 413 Colbert on land, 340 Colchester in Mid. Ages, 445 Cold, maximum, 773 Coleridge on crime, 232 Colleges, agricultural, 633 Colliers, strikes of, 570 ,, wages, 580, 817 Colliery explosions, 121 Cologne — Cathedral, 412 Death-rate, 186 Divorces, 218 Expenditure, 363 Fires, 277 Garrison, 70 Illegitimacy, 95, 646 Meat, 2go Population, 788 Colombia, gold mines, 739 Colombo — Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Colonel's pay, 580 Colonies, British, 124, 659 ,, other, 126 Colonial banks, 77, 640 ,, forces, 68, 72 Colorado — Divorces, 225 Farming, 45 Colorado — Land sales, 347 Mining, 354, 776 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Settlement, 246 Colosseum, Rome, 59 Colour-blind, 324 Coloured men, 608, 789 ,, regiments, 535 Colours, service under, 67 Colquhoun on agriculture, 15 ,, houses, 315 ,, wealth, 589 Columbia — Agriculture, 48 Area, &c. , 414 Army, 73 Commerce, 149, 672 Population, 788 Columbia, British, v. Canada ,, River, length, 515 ,, ,, salmon, 278 Colza crop, 20, 434 ,, lamp, 357 ,, seed, oil, 433, 785 Comber on agriculture, 13 Comets, 74 Commerce, 128, 660 Commercial travellers, accid. deaths, 687 Suicide, 810 Committals, v. Crime, 164 Commons, House of, 438 Communal, v. Local Comorin, Cape, rainfall, 391 Compensation for injuries, 755 Complexions, hair, eyes, 65 Compositors, v. Printers, 579 Comstock silver-mine, 405 Conchifera, fossils, 305 Condensed milk, Swiss, 295 Conductors, v. Lightning Confectioners' wages, 582 Confederate army, 73, 588 Confiscations — England, 435 Ireland, 342 Italy, 117 Spain, 435 Confronti on population, 441 Congo, river, 515 Congregationalists, 116, 656 Congresses, statistical, 155 ,, trade union, 813 Connecticut — Divorces, 225 Education, 240 Insurance, 756 Levy (1776), 587 Manufactures, 380 Population, 450, 454 Savings-banks, 87 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Conrad on births, 177 Consanguin. marriages, 383 Conscience money, 561 Conscripts, 64, 71 ,, rejected, 67 Conservatives, 695 Consols, British, 262, 677 Constabulary, v. Police, Constance, Lake, 340 Constantia, vineyards, 629 Constantina, farms, 40 Constantinople — Deaths, 175 Diseases, 195, 201 Fire, 277 Population, 443, 788 Port entries, 532 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Consumption, deaths, 683 ,, taxes on, 811 Continents, area, &c., 229 Conversion of debts, 262, 269 Convict prisons, 166 Convicts' rations, 192 ,, sickness, 536 Convictions, v. Crime, 162 Convulsions, deaths, 196 ,, in U. King., 206, 686 Cook, Mt. , height, 413 Cooks' wages, 4th century, 540 ,, 19th century, 817 Cooking, loss in, 191 Coolie emigration, 246 Co-operative soc, 542, 677, 737 Cooper on surgery, 556 Coopers, death-rate, 686 ,, wages, 582, 586 Copenhagen — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 194, 205 Divorces, 218 Expenditure, 361, 765 Freight, 736 Hospital, III Illegitimacy, 646 Library, 355 Police, 441 Population, 443, 788 Prices, 487 Rainfall, 391 Shipping, 523 Snow, 392 Suicide, 551 Temperature, 394 University, 239 Copiap6 — Rnilway, Jio Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Copper, 156, 366, 677 Metal production, 773 Mining, 398 Price in Middle Ages, 483 ,, I9thcen.,47i,793 Qualities of, 311, 388, 390 Coptic church, 777 Cordage, price, 479, 793 Cordoba, Argentina, 49 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 Rainfall, 391 Silver mines, 407 Temperature, 394 Cordova, Spain — Bridge, 99 Lead-mines, 354 Corfi — Area, 759 Diseases, 198, 202 Death-rate, 180 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Corinth, canal, 102, 651 Cork, production, 32, 141 ,, gravity, 311 Cork, city — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Houses, 744 Rainfall, 391 Cornish fisheries, 277 Coromandel, rainfall, 391 Corpulency, 61, 200 Corrientes — Farms, 49 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 Rainfall, 391 Corsica, area, 759 Corvfc in Middle Ages, 541 „ Egypt, 542 Cossack cavalry, 70 ,, poll-tax, 563 Costa Rica, agriculture, 48 Costermongers, deaths, 686 ,, accid. deaths, 687 ,, intemperance, 69a ,, suicide, 810 CStes Fonciires, 343 Cotopaxi, height, 413 Cotte on meteorology, 397 Cotton crop, 156, 67S INDEX 833 Cotton — Consumption, 366 Duties on, 173 Of United States, 146,626 Price in Middle Ages, 483 ,, igthcent.. 471,792 Production, 42, 626 Sea-borne, 130, 572 Cotton goods — Exports, 134 Duties, 558, 565 Price, 479. 793 Cotton manufactures, 366, 766 Cotton-mills, wages, 580, 817 Cotton-seed, exports, 155 ,, weight of, 158 Cotton-spinners, 570 Accidental deaths, 687 Death-rate, 685 Intemperance, 692 Wages, 580 Council, German, 244 Counts, V. Nobles, 419 Counts' pay, Mid. Ages, 580 County Council, London, 764 Courtesans, suicide, 555 Courts-martial, 70 Cousins, marriage of, 383 Cows, V. Cattle Fodder for, 282 Gestation of, 6i Milk of, 173, 398 Price, 470, 793 Cowell on stature, 62 Cowper's regenerator, 335 Cowry shells, 408 Coxwell's balloons, 75 Cracow — Rainfall, 391 University, 236 Craigie on meat, 15 Crane, v. Birds, 91 Crawford's railways, 510 Cream as food, 191 Credit Foncier, France, 84 Creek Indians, 323 Crefeld, population, 788 Cremation, 100 Cremona, disease, 200 Cressy, battle of, 89 Cretaceous stratum, 305 Crete — Area, 759 Leprosy, 199 Cretinism, 196 Creuzot, colliery, 121 ,, steel-plates, 66 Cricket, v. Athletics, 74 Crieff, barometer, 389 Crime, 162, 679 ,, from drink, 229 Crimea — Rainfall, 391 Winds, 398 Crimean War, 265, 586 Death-rate, 818 Disease, 197, 204 Horses in, 743 Hospitals, 535, SSS Criminals' height, &c. , 60, 62 Crises, mercantile, 89 Croatia, instruction, 236 Crocodiles in Java, 319 Croesus, money of, 408 Cromwell, brain of, 60 „ coinage, 408 „ in Ireland, 16, 342, 586 Crops, V. Agriculture, 613 Cross-bowmen, 580 Croton, aqueduct, 588 Croup, 196 ,, in U. Kingdom, 206, 686 Crow, V. Birds, 61, 91 Crow Indians, 323 Crown forests, 298 Crown lands — Colonial, 350 German, 3-14 Russian, 345 Swedish, 346 Crown lands in Algeria, 127 Crown livings (church), 115 Croydon — Houses, 744 Sanitation, 519 Cruelty, v. Divorce Cruisers, v. Navy, 782 Crystal Palace, visitors, 312 Cuba — Agriculture, 58 Area, &c., 127, 759 Commerce, 130 Coolies, 246 Garrison, 71 Money, 310, 407 Revenue, 709 Sugar crop, 550 Tobacco, 569 Cuckoo, -v. Birds, 91 Cucumbers in 4th cent. , 468 Culverin, v. Artillery, 65 Ctmard Co. 's fleet, 525 ,, passengers, 786 Curacoa — Area, &c. , 128 Liquor, 58 Rainfall, 391 Curates, Anglican, ii6 Curiosities, 172, 682 Ctirling on tetanus, 204 Currants, v. Fruit, 301, 737 , , in Greece, 37, 624 Currency, v. Money, 407 Currents, 682 Currie on population, 450 Customs dues, 558, 700 Cutch, imports, 691 Cutlers' death-rate, 686 ,, intemperance, 692 ,, wages, 579, 582 Cutlery, exports, 135 Cypress, v. Forests, 298 Cyprus — Agriculture, 40 Area, &c., 124 Carob trees, 99 Education, 243 Irrigation, 338 Leprosy, 199 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Cyrus's booty, 306 Czars, 340, 762 Czech language, 236 Czernig on Austria, 322 Czernowitz, university, 236 Daimios of Japan, 57 Dairy products, 173, 683 ,, imports, 718 Dakota — Cattle, 45 Land sales, 347 Mining, 776 Population, 454 Dalmatia, land tenure, 345 Damascus, population, 788 Dana on American coal, 123 Danson on anthropometry, 63 Dantzig — Death-rate, 176 Diseases, 195, 204 Population, 788 Sanitation, 519 Trade, 528 Danube — Navig., 104, 529, 651 Outflow, &c., 515 Dardanelles, trade of, 532 Darius — Army, 73 Coinage, 408 Money, 400 Darjeeling— Chinchona, 227 Elevation, 230 Railway, 499 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Darwin on cousins, 383 Date palms, 436 „ ,, V. Fruit, 302 Davenant on wealth, 589 De Gamond's bridge, 254 De Renzi on food, 193 Dead Sea water, 311, 517 Deaf mutes, 324, 750 Dean Forest, 299 Deaths, 574, 683 from alcohol, 180, 197, 8r6 from fire, 687, 711 from lightning, 358 from violence, 178 in ages, 175, 816 in classes, 178 in months, 176 of infants, 177, 8i6 Death-duties, 689 Death-rates, 174, 683 of armies, 69, 180 of cities, 174, 684 of hospitals, 112 of societies, 806 Debentures on land, 85 Debts, national, 260, 699 ,, local, 764 Deceased wife's sister, 384 December — Births in, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 194, 215 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 692 Marriages, 382 Rainfall, 392, 799 Suicide, 551 Temperature, 396 Wind, 398 Deeds, stamp-dues on, 560 Deer, v. Hunting, 319 Delaware — Breakwater, 226 Canal, 105 Divorces, 225 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Delhi — Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Demerara, v. Guiana Coolies at, 246 Death-rate, 184 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Denmark — Ages, sexes, i, 609 Agriculture, 34, 622 Area, &c., 414 Army, 72 Banking, 8r, 639 Births, 98, 578, 645 Canals, 105 Cattle, 108, 653 Commerce, 142, 666 Crime, 171, 679 Customs, 172, 704 Deaths, 578 Diseases, 214 Divorces, 223, 691, 771 Education, 239, 693 Emigration, 251, 695 Finances, 270, 704 Food, 294, 728 Forests, 735 Freights, 736 Houses, 317 Income, 748 Lands, 346 Manufactures, 377 Marriages, 578, 771 Money, 410 Navy, 418, 782 Occupations, 431, 784 Population, 449, 787 Post-office, 461, 790 Prices, 487 Railways, 506, 794 Shipping, 530 Denmark — Steam-pr., 541,807 Suicide, 554, 809 Taxes, 564, 810 Vital statistics, 815 Wealth, 593, 819 Density of population, 789 Dentition, deaths from, 686 Denver, U. S., pop., 788 Depaul on births, 93 Depopulation,Ireland,i90,789 Deposits, V. Banking, 76, 639 Derby administration, 438 Derry, houses, 744 Desaguliers on h. -power, 546 Deipine, on menstruation, 388 Destin. of emigrants, 246, 695 Detroit — Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Diabetes, 196 ,, in England, 206, 686 Diamond drill for boring, 254 Diamonds in S. Africa, 151 ,, weight, value, 338 Diana, temple, 812 Diarrhoea, 196, 683 ,, infant, 685 „ - in U. K., 206, 686 Dieppe — Harbour, 226 Passengers, 573 Temperature, 394 Tide, 568 Diet, r90 ,, of armies, 67 ,, of prisons, &c., T92 Digestion of food, 192 Dijon — Barometer, 389 Rainfall, 391 Diocletian's prices, 468 Diphtheria, 197, 683 in U.K., 206, 686 ,, in U. States, 215 Dipsomaniacs, death-rate. 228 Discount tates, v. Interest, 76 Discounts, 11. Banking, 639 Diseases, 193 ,, U. Kingdom, 206 ,, U. States, 215 „ V. Deaths, 683 Dispensaries, 113, 387 Disraeli's administration, 438 Dissenters, v. Religion, 513 Distances, sea and land, 216 Distilling, v. Spirits, 544 Distributive energy, 6g8 Dividends unclaimed, 262 Divorce and remarriage, 219 Divorces, 2T7, 690 Dnieper — Bridge, 99 Outflow, &c., 5r5 Dniester, canal, 102 Dobbs on Irish trade, 135 Docks and dock-dues, 226 Dockyards, British, 416 Doffer (mill), wages, 582 Dogs, 35, 6r, 691 ,, for sleighs, 636 ,, stray, 364 Dog-licences, 560 Domes and arches, 412 Domestics, 4^0, 783 ,, sickness, 806 Dominicans, order of, 434 Don, coalfield, r22 Don river, outflow, &c. , 515 Don John's fleet, 418 Donkeys, v. Animals, 61 Dorpai, university, 235 Dorset, farm wages, 580 Double stars, 73 Doubleday on debt, 262 Douglas on lighthouses, 35S Douro — Bridge, 99 River, 105, 515 Dover — Blasting, 254 3 G 834 INDEX Dover — Passengers, 573 Rainfall, 391 Sanitation, 519 Tide, 568 Doves, price in 4th cent. , 468 Dovrefeld, rainfall, 391 Dragon tree, v. Forests, 298 Drainage, v. Sewage, 519, 691 Drapers, intemperance, 692 ,, suicide, 810 Drawing the bow, 64 Dresden— Births, 92, 94, 816 Death-rate, 174, 816 Diseases, 195, 211, 684 Fire-brigade, 711 House property, 746 Illegitimacy, 646 Library, 355 Lighting, 245, 762 Meat, 285 Paupers, 440 Population, 443, 788 Sewers, 691 Streets, 808 Suicide, 551 Taxes, 765 Dresser (mill), wages, 579, 584 Dressmakers' wages, 582 Drink, deaths from, 180, 816 ,, suicide from, 552 Drontheim — Phthisis, 200 Temperature, 394 Tide, 568 Trade, 530 Dropsy, 197, 206 Drowned, 182, 687 ,, seamen, 181, 524 ,, suicides, 552, 555 Drugs, imports, 691 ,, duties on, 560 Druggists, death-rate, 686 ,, suicide among, 553 Drug-stores, fires in, 711 Drunkenness, 691 ,, and crime, 229, 692 ,, ,, divorce, 224, 229 „ ,, insanity, 228 ,, ,, suicide, 228 ,, in U. Kingdom, 164 Drysdale on births, 93 ,, deaths, 178 ,, infants, 685 Dublin — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Debt, 764 Diseases, 195, 205 Hospitals, 94, III Houses, 744 Money, 779 Museum, 520 Park, 436 Population, 443, 788 Port entries, 525 Rainfall, 391, 799 Sickness, 535 Snow, 392 Temperature, 394 University, 233 Wages, 581 Water-supply, 588 Dubois on menstruation, 388 , , on twins, 93 Ducat, V. Money, 408, 780 Duck as food, 191 Ducks, V. Birds, 61, 91 , , price in 4th cent. , 468 Duckinfield coUiery, 400 Duels, 692 Dugdale on crime, 164 Dukes, V. Nobles, 419 Dumb, V. Deaf mutes, 750 Dumfries, rainfall, 391 Duncan on infants, 62 Dundee — Death-rate, 182 Dundee — Harbour, 226 Houses, 744 Marmalade, 302 Population, 788 Tide, 568 Wages, 581 Dunedin — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Dungeness light, 358 Dunkeld, plantations, 299 Dunkirk — Harbour, 226 Tide, 568 Trade, 527 Durance, current of, 515 Duration of marriage, 383 Durban — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Dusseldorff^Meat, 290 Population, 788 Dutch cheese, analysis, 114 ,, East India Co. , 57, 128 „ settlers abroad, 247,45t ,, soldiers' rations, 192 Dutens on French land, 21 Duval on emigration, 249 Duvillard's life-table, 357 Dwarfs, 229 Dwellings for the poor, 313 Dye, woods, 153 ,, imports, 691 Dyers, death-rate, 211, 686 „ wages, 579, 584, 817 Dykes of Holland, 494 Dynamite, manufacture of,227 Dynamometer, M'Neill's, 516 Dysentery, 197 „ in U. States, 215 Eads's bridge, 99 Eagle, V. Birds, 61, 91 ,, Hunting, 319 Earls, V. Nobles, 419 Earners, v. Occupations, 782 Earnings, v. Income, wages , , of railways, 795 Earth, the planet, 74 ,, area, &c., 229 Earthquakes, 230, 692 Earthworks, cost, 255, 502 Earthworms, 330 Ebro river, 105, 515 Economist, Index Nos., 490 Economy of steam, 807 Economy, works, 465, 791, 8e2 Ecuador — Agriculture, 48 Area, &c., 414 Army, 73 Commerce, 149, 672 Population, 788 Eddystone hghthouse, 358 Eden on leather, 354 ,, prices, 468 Edgeworth on prices, 492 Edicts, Russian, 354 Edinburgh — Ale, 90 Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 193, 205 Hospital, sss Houses, 744 Money, 779 Museum, 520 Park, 437 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 391 Strikes, 570 Temperature, 394 University, 233 Wages, 581 Water-supply, 588 Edison's light, 245 Editors, in duels, 692 ,, U. Kingdom, 791 Educated emigrants, 246 Education, 231, 693 Edward, use of name, 781 Edwards,kings — Coinage, 408 Commerce, 131 Land-tax, 561 Manufactures, 537, 601 Revenues, 261 Eels as food, 191 Eggs — As food, 190, 192 Consumption, 286, 694 Duties on, 173, 559 Exports, 464, 694 Imports, 718 Price in 4th cent. , 468 ,, M. Ages, 470, 483 ,, igthcen., 474,792 Weight of, 464 Egmont, Mt., height, 413 Egypt— Agriculture, 39, 633 Area, &c., 414 Canals, 39, 338 Commerce, 155, 673 Cotton, 156 Date-palms, 302, 436 Finances, 272, 706 Foreigners in, 247, 696 Garrison, 68 Land-taxes, 352, 706 Money, 407 Mortgages, 413, 781 Ostrich feathers, 436 Population, 450 Sugar, 550 Egyptian, v. Anatomy, 60 ,, burials, 100 Eider duck, v. Birds, 91 Eiffel Tower, 99 ,, viaduct, 100 Einsiedlen railway, 499 Ekaterinenberg mines, 402 Elbe — Navigation, 104, 651 Outflow, &c., 515 Elberfeld — Light.s, 245 Population, 788 Elburz, Mt., height, 413 Elcho shield, 66 Elder wine, 58 Elections, 694 Electors, 243, 695 Electric light, 357, 762 ,, power, 24s ,, tramways, 572, 814 Elephants, v. Animals, 62 Elevated railway, 508 Elevation of cities, 230 ,, continents, 229 Elgin, rainfall, 391 Eliza, use of name, 414 Elizabeth, Q. — Coinage, 409 Revenue, 261 Shipping, 524 Elk, V. Aiiimals, 61 Ellen, use of name, 414 Ellison on cotton, 156 ,, wages, 580 Elm tree, v. Forests, 298 Emancipation, v. Serfs Germany, 541 Roumania, 542 Russia, 344 I West Indies, 541 Embroiderers' wages, 582 Emeralds, 311, 338 Emigrants, age, sex, 246, 695 ,, returned, 248 Emigration, 248, 695 Emperors, v. Kings, 762 Empr. Eugenie's lifeboats, 527 Encke's comet, 74 Endowments, charitable, 112 Energy, v. Power, 464, 698 ,, in food, 19X ,, in work, 605 Engel on companies 107 Engel on living, 360 ,, steam, 546 Engines, v. Locomotives, 795 ,, V. Steam, 807 Engineering works, 254, 699 Engineers' union, 570, 814 wages, S79, 817 ,, death-rate, 69, 587 „ strike, 808 England, v. Great Britain English Channel, 230, 254 Water of, 517 English language, 353 Englishman, v. Anat., 60, 62 Ensigns' pay, 579 Ensilage, 15 Enskilda banks, 81 Enteric, v. Typhoid, 683, 686 Entre Rios — Crops, 49 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 Entries, port, v. Shipping, 525 Ephesus, temple, 812 Epilepsy, 197 ,, in G. Britain, 686 ,, in Canada, 216 Epirus, agriculttore, 39 Episcopalians, 116, 656 Equipment of soldiers, (yj Equity cases, 354 Erfurth — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Ericcson's ironclads, 418 Erichsen on surgery, 556 Erie — Canal, loi Lake, 340 Ermine, v. Hunting, 319 Erysipelas, 197 ,, U.King., 206, 686 Erzeroum — Elevation, 230 Temperature, 394 Esparto grass, 691, 786 Esquimaux, v. Anthrop., 62 Essen, Krupp's fac, 336, 767 Essex, Earl, in Ireland, 586 ,, farm wages, 580 Established Church, 115 Estancias, in Argentina, 630 Etna, Mt.— Height, 413 'Temperature, 394 Eton boys, height, &c. , 64 Eulenberg on neuralgia, 200 Euphrates, outflow, &c. , 515 Europe — Area, &c., 229 Crops, 12 Population, 787 Railways, 794 Tramways, 814 Vital statistics, 815 Eutaw Indians, 323 Evangelicals, 656 Evaporation, 390 Everest, Mt., height, 413 Ewe's milk, analysis, 398 Exchange, rates of, 77, 640 Exchequer, v. Finance, 261 Excise, 558, 700, 811 Executions in England, 165 ,, U. States, 172 Exhibitions, international, 255 Expectation, v. Life, 358, 761 Expenditure, v. Finances Expenses of railways, 795 Expilly on population, 441 Exploration, 699 Explosions in collieries, 121 Exports, 128, 660 Express trains, 796 Eyder, canal, 105 Eyes, dark and fair, 60 Factories, 255 ,, coal for, 121 Factory boys, 63 INDEX 83J Factory enginss, 656 Fagots, price in M. Ages, 483 Fahrenheit thermometer, 397 Failures, 88, 644 Fairs at Leipzig, &c., 256 Fairbum on steam, 546 Falbe on Denmark, 593 Falemian wine, 468 Falkland Islands, 126 Seal-fishery, 278 Fallow, U. Kingdom, 13 Families in France, 94 Famines, 256, 699 Fares by railway, 796 Farms in U. King., 341, 759 ,, U. States, 625, 760 Farm-labourers' rations, 192 ,, wages, 579 farmers, v. Anthropom., 63 accidental deaths,687 ,, British, 783 „ death-rate, 182, 186 „ m bankruptcy, 644 ,, intemperance, 692 ,, span of life, 356 „ suicide, 552, 555, 810 ,, trade union, 814 Faroe Islands, 128 Farr on diseases, 206 „ longevity, 356 „ sickness, 535 ,, town-life, 181 , , barracks, 69 Fasting, cases of, 257 Fat in food, 190 ,, persons, v. Obesity, 200 Favre's tunnels, 573 Feathers, ostrich, 151, 436,629 February — Births, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, T94, 215 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 692 Marriages, 382 Rainfall, 392, 799 Suicide, 552 Temperature, 396 Wind, 398 Feejee Isds. — Area, &c., 126 Cocoa-palms, 436 Farming, 632 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Fellahs, Egyptian, 40 Females to males, 607 longevity of, 816 ,, suicide, 810 Ferdinand, revenue, 268 Fernando Po^Area, &c. , 127 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Temperature, 394 Fetzara gum-trees, 299 Fever, 193, 683 U. Kingdom, 206, 687 U. States, 215, 689 In armies, 180, 197 In ships, 246 Temperatvu'e, 60 Fez— Population, 788 University, 241 Fibre for mills, 366, 369 „ cotton, 158 Fiction, works of, 465, 791 Field-marshals' pay, 581 Figs, V. Fruit, 302 ,, as food, 191 ,, price in 4th century, 468 Filemakers, death-rate, 686 ,, phthisis, 200 Finances, 257, 699 Fines in Middle Ages, 276 Finland — Age and sex, i, 610 Agriculture, 26 Finland — Births, 96, 576 Deaths, 176, 188 Diseases, 200, 203 Divorces, 222 Finances, 702 Manufactures, 374 Marriages, 772 Population, 447 Salmon fishing, 278 Suicide, 809 Taxation, 564 Vital statistics, 815 Finlayson on sickness, 535 life, 355 Finns, v. Anthropometry, 62 Fir tree. v. Forests, 298 Fire, deaths by, 182, 687 Fires and brigades, 276, 711 Firearms, price, 479, 793 Fire insurance, 331 Fireman's wages, 582 Firemen, 711 Firewood, production, 298 Fischer on lighf, 337 ,, steamers, 457 Fish — Anatomy, 60 As food, 191 Consumption, 715 Exports, Canada, 148,297 ,, Norway, 142,293 Imports, G. Britain, 287 Price in 4th century, 468 ,, G. Brit. , 476, 792 ,, Europe, 470 U. States, 488 Fish-oil, 434 Fishes, fossil, 303 Fisher on agriculture, 26 ,, currency, 780 Fishermen — Accidents, 687 Drowned, 278 Death-rate, 686 Intemperance, 692 Suicide, 552, 810 Russian, 360 V. Anthropometry, 63 Fisheries, 278, 711 Fitters' wages, 582 Fixed steam power, 546, 807 Flags, V. Shipping Flaix on wealth, 591 Flamsteed on stars, 73 Flanders, phthisis, 200 Flannel, price, 479, 793 Flax — Consumption, 366, 712 Crops, 280, 712 Imports, 134 Manufactures, 366, 766 Price, 471, 792 Fleet, V. Navy, 782 Flemish language, 449 ,, press, 467 Flight of birds, 91 Floating debt, France, 701 Flodden, battle of, 645 Florence — Birth-rate, 816 Cathedral, 412 Cabs, 649 Death-rate, 175, 816 Disease, 684 Expenditure, 361, 765 Fire-brigade, 711 Hospital, III Instruction, 237, 694 Lighting, 304, 762 Manufactures, 375 Plague, 201 Police, 441 Population, 443, 788 Press, 466 Prices, 485 Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Streets, 808 Florence — Suicide, 551 Temperature, 394 Florida — Divorces, 225 Forests, 735 Land sales, 347 Phthisis, 200 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Flour, 23, 310 ,, as food, 191 ,, price, 474, 792 Flower-makers' wages, 582 Flushing, trade, 531 Fluter (mill), wages, 582 Fodder, 282, 311 Folder (mill), wages, 582 Fontenoy, battle of, 645, 743 Foo-Choo, population, 456 Food, 191, 282, 713 ,, imports, 661 ,, and wages 580 Foot, V. Amputation, 556 Footman, Middle Ages, 581 Footmen in Paris, 582 Forceps, use of, 94 Foreign residents, 247, 695 ,, shipping, 525, 804 Forests, 297, 735 Foresters, v. Societies, 737 Forgery, hanged for, 165 Formosa, area, 759 Forster on Ireland, 257 Fort Reliance, cold, 397 Forth Bridge, 99, 254 Fortifications, 300 Forwood on cotton, 159 Foimdling hospitals, 112, 114 Foundlings, death-rt., 178,204 Foundries, v. Iron ,, wages in, 581 Foville on rabbits, 495 „ dung, 618 ,, tobacco, 568 ,, wages, 582 Fowl as food, 191 ,, in 4th century, 46S Fowler on Nile floods, 513 Foxes, 11. Animals, 61 ,, Hunting, 319 Foxhounds, v. Dogs, 61 Fractures, v. Disease, ig8 France, v. Money, 409 France — Ages, sexes, 4, 611 Agriculture, 19, 617 Area, &c. , 414 Army, 69, 636 Banking, 78, 639 Births, 94, 645, 815 Canals, 103, 650 Cattle, 108, 653 Charities, 113, 653 Church, 116 Coal, 658 Colonies, 126 Commerce, 135, 661 Crime, 166, 679 Customs, 172, 701 Deaths, 184, 687, 815 Diseases, 208 Divorces, 220, 691, 770 Education, 234, 694 Emigration, 248, 695 Finances, 263, 701 Fisheries, 279, 711 Food, 288. 720 Forests, 299, 735 Freights, 736 Houses, 315, 745 Income, 321, 747 Insiu^nce, 756 Iron, 7S7 Lands, 343 Manufactures, 371, 766 France — Marr., 385, 575, 770 Mining, 401, 774 Money, 409, 777 Mortgages, 413, 781 Navy, 416, 782 Occupations, 428, 783 Population, 445, 787 Post-oflSce, 459, 790 Press, 465 Prices, 482 Railways, 502, 794 Religion, 512, 799 Shipping, 526, 801 Sickness, 805 Steam-power, 547, 807 Sugar, 809 Suicide, 553, 809 Taxes, 562, 810 Telephones, 812 Tramways, 814 Wealth, S91, 819 Francis, use of name, 781 Francis 1., ransom, 512 Franciscans, order of, 434 Franco-German war, 265, 587 Franco-Italian war, 586 Frankfort — Diseases, 194, 211 Divorces, 218 Expenditure, 361 Hospital, III Illegitimacy, 646 Meat consump., 290 Overcrowding, 316 Paupers, 440 Police, 441 Population, 443, 788 Sanitation, 519 Suicide, 552 Temperature, 394 Frankland on light, 357 ,, on food, 715 Fray Bentos beef, 285 Freight charges, 300 , , , , by railway, 796 ,, earnings, 736 French language, 353 „ press, 467 ,, seasons, 520 ,, settlers abroad,' 247,6<,6 ,, slave-trade, 540 ,, soldiers' rations, 192 ,, tobacco, 569, 813 ,, trade-unions, 814 Frescobaldi, births, 93 Friars, v. Orders, 435, 785 Friburg — Elevation, 230 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Friday, suicide on, 553 Friedrichshal springs, 567 Friendly Societies, 542, 737 ,, sick-rates, E06 Frozen meat, 283 Fruit, 301, 737 Duties on, 565 Imports, 287, 737 Fuegian, v. Anthropom., 6a Fuel, 303 Fundy Bay, tide, 568 Funerals, cost of, 100 Funke on sweat, 61 Furnaces, blast, 333, 757 Furniture, 303 Fuster on meteorology, 397 Fuziyama, Mt., height, 413 Gaebler on emigration, 249 Gaelic tongue, 352 Gaetani on plagues, 201 Gairdner on the poor, 177 Gales in U. Kingdom, 398 Galitzia — Forests, 299 Instruction, 236 Land tenure, 341; 836 INDEX Galitzia — Mineral oil, 434 Mining, 404 Galleys, v. Crime Galveston — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Galway — Sea routes, 217 Tide, 568 Gambia — ^Area, &c., 125 Commerce, 152 Game, v. Hunting, 319 Games, 304 Game licences, 560 Ganges — Irrigation, 338 Outflow, &c., 515 Water of, 588 Garden products, 12 Gardeners, accid. deaths, 687 ,, in 4th cent., 540 ,, in Mid, Ages, 581 ,, intemperance, 692 ,, sickness, 806 ,, suicide, 552, 810 Gardner's electric battery, 254 Garnier on prices, 468 Garonne, river, 515, 588 Garrisons, 68 Gas, V. Light, 762 ,, fires caused by, 711 Gasfitters, death-rate, 586 Gas-lighting, 304, 762 Gas-works, wages, 581, 817 Gasparin on evaporation, 390 Gasteropoda fossils, 305 Gatling guns, 66 Gaul, ancient, 441 Gay Lussac's balloon, 73 Gendarmes, French, 69 Generals' pay, 579 Genettes on plagues, 201 Geneva — Barometer, 389 Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 194, 215 Elevation, 230 Foreigners at, 250 Illegitimacy, 92 Lake, 588 Marriages, 387 Rainfall, 391 Sickness, 535 Snow, 392 Telephones, 567 Temperature, 394 University, 239 Genoa — Birth-rate, 816 Cabs, 649 Death-rate, 189, 684, 816 Diseases, 195, 205, 684 Expenditure, 361, 764 Fire-brigade, 711 Harbour, 226 Hospital, III House-property, 746 Instruction, 237, 694 Lighting, 762 Police, 441, 787 Population, 443, 788 Prices, 485 Rainfall, 391 Sewers, 69 1 Shipping, 523 Streets, 808 Suicide, S51, 8ro Telephones, 812 Trade, 139, 529 Water-supply, 818 Gentleman's family, Paris, 763 Gentry, span of life, 356 Geological surveys, 305 George — Useof name, 414, 781 Kings, coinage, 408 ,, conmierce, 131 ,, post-office, 458 ,, revenue. 261 George — Kings, shipping, 524 ,, taxes, 562 Georgia, U. S. — Cotton, 42 Divorces, 225 Occupations, 433 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Slavery, 541 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 German, v. Anatomy, 60, 62 ,, confederation, 446 „ language, 353 „ settlers, 247, 453 ,, soldiers' rations, 192 Gersenhamer's hot-blast, 337 Germany — Ages, sexes, 3, 611 Agriculture, 21, 618 Area, &c., 414 Army, 70, 637 Banking, 79, 639 Births, 9S, 648, 815 Canals, 104, 650 Cattle, 109, 653 Church, 117 Coal, 122, 656 Colonies, 128 Commerce, 137, 662 Crime, 168, 679 Customs, 172, 702 Deaths, 185, 683, 815 Diseases, 210 Divorces, 221, 690, 769 Education, 235, 693 Emigration, 249, 695 Finances, 265, 701 Fisheries, 711 Food, 290, 721 Forests, 299, 735 Freights, 736 Houses, 316, 743 Income, 322, 748 Insurance, 332, 755 Iron, 336, 757 Lands, 343 Manufactures, 372, 766 Marriages, 385, 575, 769 Mining, 307, 402, 774 Money, 410, 777 Mortgages, 413, 780 Navy, 417, 782 Occupations, 428, 783 Population, 446, 787 Post-office, 459, 790 Press, 465 Prices, 483 Railways, 502, 794 Shipping, 527, 801 Sickness, 805 Steam-power, 547, 807 Sugar, 809 Suicide, 553, 809 Taxes, 563, 810 Telephones, 812 Tramways, 814 Wealth, S92, 819 Gestation of animals, 61 ,, human, 93 Gettysburg, battle of, 89, 743 Ghauts Mts., rainfall, 391 Ghent — Divorces, 218 Illegitimacy, 646 Population, 449, 788 University, 238 Giants, 305 Gibraltar — Death-rate, 69, 180 Diseases, 194, 204 Height, 413 Port entries, 534 Rainfall, 391 Savings-banks, 644 Sea routes, 217 Trade, 126 Giffen on prices, 49a Giffen on wages, 580, 817 ,, wealth, S90 Gilbert's experiments, 14 Gillott's steel pens, 335 Gin, alcohol in, 58 ,, price in U. S. , 488 Ginsburg on Bibles, 463 Girardin on wealth, 592 Girgenti, temples, 812 Girls, assaults on, 167 ,, growth of, 63 ,, wages in mills, 580 Gironde — Rainfall, 391 River, 515 Gladstone Act, 342 „ administration, 438 ,, finances, 262 Glaisher's balloon, 75, 389, 807 Glasgow — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 193, 205 Docks, 226 Fires, 277 Freights, 736 Gas-lights, 304 Hospital, 112, SSS Houses, 313, 744 Park, 437 Population, 443, 788 Port entries, 525, 804 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Shipping, 523 Strikes, 570 Telephones, 567 Tide, 568 University, 233 Wages, 581 Water-supply, 588 Glass — Duties on, 565 Exports, 139 Manufacture, 303, 738 Price, 479, 792 Qualities of, 311, 390 Glassblowers, deaths, 186, 686 ,, phthisis, 200, 2n wages, 583 Glazier's, wages, 582 ,, phthisis, 200 Gloves, manufacture, 305 ,, price, 488 Glow-worm, v. Animals, 61 Glycerine, 227 Goa, population, &c., 127 Goat, V. Animals, 61 Goats, V. Cattle, 109, 653 Goat's milk, 398 Goderich, administration, 438 Goitre, 198 Gold and silver, 306 „ coin, 310 ,, in banks, 639 ,, mining, 399, y<^6 „ production, 398, 738 ,, qualities of, 311, 388 ,, wear and tear, 310 ,, V. Bullion, 649 Gold Coast — Disease, 197 Population, 125 Trade, 152 Gondar — E;ievation, 230 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Goods, traflRc, 496, 795 ,, waggons, 499, 795 Goose, V. Birds, 61, 91 ,, as food, 192 ,, price in 4th. cent, , 468 ,, „ Mid.Ages,47o Gooseberry, v. Fruit, 301 „ wine, 58 Goree, rainfall, 391 Gorilla, V. Animals, 61 Goschen's finances, 26s Goschen's loans, 272 Gothenberg, pop., 448, 788 Gottingen — Library, 355 University, 233 Goulburne's finances, 262 Gould on stars, 73 ,, stature, 62 Gout, 198 ,, in U. King., 206, 686 Gradients, on railways, 499 ,, force, 316, S71 Grahamstown — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Grain — Bounties, 494 Consumption, 713 Crops, 9, 613, 714 Duties on, 560, 563 Exports, V. Commerce Imports, 134, 715 Prices, 792 Sea-borne, 130, 572 Used for liquor, 544 , , for seed, 597 Yield per acre, 42, 310 Gran Chaco forests, 298, 351 Grand Trunk railway, 509, 798 Grandees of Spain, 419 Granite, gravity, 311 Granville — Oyster-beds, 279 Tide, 568 Grapes, v. Fruit, 301 ,, yield of wine, 59S Grass as fodder, 282, 311 Grattan on Belgium, 347 Grattoni's tunnel, 573 Gratz — Elevation, 230 Population, 788 University, 236 Gravelotte, battle of, 89, 743 Gravity, specific, 311 Greaves on plagues, 201 Great Britain — Ages, 2, 608 Agriculture, 13, 616 Area, 739 Army, -68, 636 Banking, 77, 639 Births, 94, 647, 815 Canals, 103, 649 Cattle, IS, 633 Charities, 112, 655 Church, IIS Coal, 121, 657 Colonies, 124, 659 Commerce, 131, 660 Crime, 164, 679 Customs, 172, 700 Deaths, 181, 683, 815 Death-duties, 689 Diseases, 206, 683 Divorces, 219, 690 Education, 232, 693 Emigration, 247, 696 Finances, 260, 700 Fisheries, 277, 712 Food, 286, 71S Forests, 299, 735 Freights, 736 Gold imports, 308, 740 Houses, 313, 744 Income, 320, 747 Income-tax, 360, 749* Insurance, 330, 754 Iron, 335, 757 Lands, 341, 759 Manufactures, 369, 766 ' Marriages, 384, 574, 765 Mining, 400, 774 Money, 408, yyj Mortgages, 413 Navy, 415, 782 Occupations, 420, 783 Police, 787 Population, 444, 789 Post-office, 458, 790 INDEX 837 Great Britain— Press, 46s, 791 Prices, 470, 792 Railways, 5CX3, 797 Religion, 513, 800 Shipping, 524, 801 Sickness, 805 Steam-power, 546, 807 Sugar, 809 Suicide, 552, 809 Taxes, 559 , 8io Telephones, 812 Tramways, 814 Wealth, 589, isi8 Greece — Age, sex, 5, 449 Agriculture, 37, 624 Area, &c., 414 Army, 72 Banking, 639 Births, 578, 815 Cattle, 653 Commerce, 145, 669 Deaths, 578, 815 Diseases, 215 Education, 239, 694 Emigration, 696 Finances, 271, 705 Food, 295, 730 Forests, 735 Freight, 736 Income, 747 Industries, 750 Lands, 347 Marriages, 578 Mining, 405 Money, 777 Navy, 418, 782 Occupations, 431, 784 Popidation, 449, 787 Post-office, 790 Railways, 507, 794 Shipping, S31, 801 Taxes, 565, 810 Wealth, 589, 818 Greek church, divorces 222 ,, coal, I20 ,, religion, sr2, 800 ,, slaves, 540 Green crops, v. Agriculture Greenbacks, v. Money, 780 Greene on mortgages, 413 Green's balloons, 75 Greenland — Codfishery, 128 Snow, 392 Greenock — Death-rate, 182 Port entries, 525 Shipping, 523 Wages, 581 Greenwich — Obser. , 390, 397 Electric boat, 245 Gregorian kalendar, loi Grenada, Moor, buildings, 413 ,, W. Ind., rainfall, 391 Grenoble — Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Temperature, 394 Grenville admfaiistration, 438 ,, canal, 106 Grey administration, 438 Grief, suicide from, 552 Griffith on Ireland, 17 Grimsby, port entries, 525 Grimsel, rainfall, 391 Grinders, phthisis among, 200 Grist tax, Italy, 268 Grocers, death-rate, 182, 686 in bankruptcy, 644 ,, intemperance, 692 ,, suicide, 552, 810 Groningen, land teniu-e, 346 Grooms, death-rate, 181 Groscben, v. Coins, 780 Grouse, price in 4tb cent. , 468 ,, shooting, 319 Gruyire cheese, 114 Guadalquivir, length, 105 Guadeloupe — Area, &c., 126 Disease, 195 Rainfall, 391 Slavery, 541 Sugar, 55° Guadiana, length, 515 Gualeguaychu, trade, 534 Guano, imports, 691 „ price, 474, 792 Gtiatemala — Agriculture, 48 Earthquake, 230 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 V. Central America Guernsey, agriculture, 18 Guerry on suicide, 553 Guiana, British, 126 Agriculture, 57 Death-rate, 180 Gold-mining, 739 Revenue, 709 Savings-banks, 644 Slavery, 540 Sugar, SSO. 809 Guiana, Dutch, 128 ,, French, 126 Guilder, v. Coins, 780 Guinea, ti. Coins, 780 Guinea Coast, disease, 197 Guinea-fowl, v. Animals, 61 .. pigs, „ 61 Guinness'sbldgs., 313, 413,745 ,, porter, 90 Gum imports, 691 Gum-trees in Algeria, 299 Guns, V. Artillery, 65, 782 Gun licences, 560 Gunpowder— Analysis, 227 Price in Middle Ages, 483 G. Brit., 479, 793 Gravity, 3ri Gurlt on fractures, 198 Guthrie on coins, 780 Gutta-percha, imports, 691 Guy's Hospital, ir2, 555 Guyot, Ch. , on wages, 482 Guyot, Yves, on houses, 316 ,, taxes, 264,351, 811 ,, wages, 582 Gypsies, 3it ,, V. Anatomy, 60 Haarlem, lake, 255, 699 Haddock fishery, 278, 712 Hague — Births, 92 Disease, 205 Divorces, 218 Illegitimacy, 646 Population, 449, 788 Temperature, 394 Tramways, 572 Hailstorms, 390 Hair, v. Anatomy, 60, 65 Hairdressers, death-rate, 686 „ phthisis, 200 „ suicide, SS^ ,, wages, 582 Hairworkers, wages, 817 Halifax — Death-rates, 184,216 Sea routes, 217 Sickness, 180 Snow, 392 Hall on surgery, 556 Halle — Maximum bore, 254 Population, 788 University, 235 Haltenhoff on blind, 324 Ham as food, 191 „ price in 4th century, 468 „ ,, G. Britain, 792 „ U. States, 488 Hamburg — Birth-rate, 92, 8i6 Death-rate, r74, 816 Hamburg — Diseases, 211, 684 Divorces, 221 Docks, 226 Exchange, 77, 640 Finances, 266 Fires, 277, 711 Freights, 301, 736 Houses, 3t3 Illegitimacy, 646 Index Nos., 488 Insurance, 332 Lighting, 245, 762 Meat, 290 Overcrowding, 316 Police, 787 Population, 443, 788 Prices, 483 Sanitation, 519, 691 Shipping, 523 Snow, 392 Streets, 808 Telephones, 567, 812 Temperature, 394 Trade, 528 Water-supply, 588, 818 Hamilton, death-rate, 184, 216 Hancock on Ireland, 17 Hand, v. Amputation, 556 Hands, v. Occupations Handkerchiefs, price, 488 Hanging, suicide by, 552, 555 ,, V. Executions Hankow — Opium, 228 Population, 456 Hanover, v, Germany ,, city, 788 Hantute on crime, 165 Harbison on bees, 90 Harbours, 226, 255 „ of U. King.,36r, 763 Hardware, v. Manufactures ,, exports, 134, 758 ,, operatives, 783 Hare, v. Animals, 61 Hares and rabbits, 319 ,, price in 4th cent, , 468 Harley on urine, 61 Harrach's sheet-iron, 334 Harriers, v. Dogs, 61 Harrogate, springs, 567, 588 Harwich, tide, 568 Hats, manufacture, 311 „ price, 479, 793 Hatching, 91 Hatters, phthisis, zoo ,, strikes, 808 „ wages, 582, 584 Haiilage, v. Freight, 736 Hausner on population, 441 Haussmann's work, 313 Havana — Births, 92 Deaths, 174 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Temperature, 394 Tobacco, 569 Trade, 127 Havre — Alcohol, 544 Docks, 226 Emigration, 248 Food, 289 Hospital, III Population, 445, 788 Temperature, 394 Tide, 568 Trade, 323, 527 Hawk, V. Birds, 91 Hay and straw, 311 as fodder, 282 crop, England, 14, 616 ,, U. States, 626 for a cow, 100 price in Mid. Ages, 483 Hayand straw in G. Brit.,482 Haydn on land value, 341 Hayter on Australia, 595 Hayti — Rainfall, 391 Area, 759 Heart disease, 198 ,, U. King., 206 Heat maximum, 773 Hebrew press in Russia, 466 Heidelberg — Students, 36(3 University, 235 Height of buildings, 412 ,, cities, 230 men, 62 ,, mountains, 413 Helder, canal, 105 Helsingfors, temperature, 394 Helyot on friars, 785 Hemileya, ravages of the, 55 Hemp, 311, 742 ,, imports, 742 ,, manufactures, 366 ,, mills, wages, 817 „ price, 471, 792 ,, seed oil, 433 Hen, V. Birds, 61, 91 ,, in Mid. Ages, 470, 483 Henry, kings — Coinage, 408 Commerce, 131 Henry IV., Fr., revenue, 263 Henry VIII. — ^Abbeys, 435 Executions, 165 Henry, use of name, 414, 781 Hepatitis, 198, 213 Hercules, ditcher, U. S., 235 Hermann on fisheries, 279 Hernia, 198, 686 Herodotus on tunnels, 573 Heron, v. Birds, 91 Herring, as food, 191 ,, fisheries, 277, 712 ,, price in M. Ages, 483 ,, ,, 19th cen. ,479,793 Herschel on stars, 73 Hesiod on marriage, 381 Hessian mercenaries, 587 Heiurteloup on tetanus, 204 Heym on sickness, 536 Hides — Consumption Imported Price in Mid. Ages, 483 ,, G.Britain, 474, 792 Higgs on workmen , 763 Highways, v. Roads Hildebrandson on cold, 773 Hill on the poor, 359 ,, her buildings, 745 Himalaya — Rainfall, 391 Sno*v-line, 392 Hindoo, v. Anatomy, 60, 62 ,, armies, 68 ,, population, 514 Hirsch, multiple births, 93 ,, on dysentery, 197 Historical works, 791 Hives, V. Bees, 645 Hoang-Ho. length, 515 Hobart — Rainfall, 391 Population, 453 Temperature, 394 Hock, alcohol, 58 Hoe's press, 467 Hoey on the poor, 313 Hog, V. Animals, 60 Hohenlinden, battle of, 645 Holiday in London, 312 Holland— Ages, sexes, 1, 610 Agricultiu"e, 34, 622 Area, &c., 414 Army, 72 Banking, 81, 639 Births, 95, 645, Bis Canals, 105, 759 Cattle, 109, 653 838 INDEX Holland — Church, 117 Hospitals, z/, Disease Illinois — Occupations, 433 Infantry, v. Army, 66 Colonies, 128 Hot-blast, Gersenhamer's,337 Population, 454 ,, death-rate, 180 Commerce, 142, 667 ,, Neilson's, 335 Railways, 508 ,, ,, in war, 587 Crime, 163, 679 Hfltel Dieu, Paris, 113 Schools, 240 ,, suicide, 552 Customs, 172, 704 Hotels and travellers, 312 Strikes, 570 Infirm, 324, 750 Deaths, 188, 683, 815 Hottentot, v. Anatomy, 61 Taxes, 363, 565 Infirmaries, 112, 743 Diseases, 214, 683 Hours of work, 256, 581 Temperature, 396 Influenza, 208, 686 Divorces, 223, 690, 771 Houses, 312, 743 Wages, 585 Ingolstadt, scurvy, 203 Education, 238, 693 „ U.King., 3x4, 590, 744 Illyria, instruction, 236 Inhabited house-duty, 746 Emigration, 251, 695 „ U. States, 317 Immigration — U. S., 251, 697 Inraan on surgery, 556 Finances, 270, 704 House-tax, 561, 746 Colonies, 126, 253, 697 Innkeepers, deaths, 181, 688 Fislieries, 279, 711 Housemaids in Paris, 582 Imperial canal, China, 106 suicide, 555 Food, 294, 728 wages, 579 Imports, V. Commerce Innspruck — Elevation, 230 Freight, 736 Howard's fleet, 418 Imprisonment, 163 Rainfall, 391 Houses, 317, 743 Howell on trade unions, 570 Inanition, deaths from, 685 Temperature, 395 Income, 320, 747 Huanchaca silver, 406 Incandescent light, 357 University, 236 Lands, 346 Hubbard on newspapers, 465 Incas' aqueduct, 588 Inquests, coroners', 327, 364 Manufactures, 365, 765 Hucksters in U. King. , 783 ,, canals, 338 Insane, 327, 750 Marriages, 578, 771 Huddersfield, wages, 581 Incidence of taxation, 811, 812 ,, anthropometry ol, 64 Money, 411, 777 Hudson Bay, frost, 397 Income of nations, 320, 747 Insanity, among Jews, 329 Mortgages, 413, 781 „ river, bridge, 99 Income-tax, 560, 700, 749 ,, causes of, 327 Navy, 417, 782 ,, ,, ice crop, 320 Independence, war of, 73 ., from drink, 228 Population, 449, 787 „ length, 515 Independents, 116 Insects, 91, 329 Post-office, 461, 790 tunnel, 573 Index-numbers, 490, 794 Institute of France, 185 Prices, 487 Huerta silver-mines, 400 India — Agriculture, 55, 631 Instruction, v. Education Railways, 506, 794 Hull— Birth-rate, 92 Area, &c., 414 Insurance, 330, 593, 754 Religion, 513 Church attendance, 513 Armies, 68 duties, 560 Shipping, S31, 801 Death-rate, 174 Births, 575 Intemperance, deaths, 206,686 Steam-power, 548, dQ7 Docks, 226 Chinchona, 227 Inter-colonial trade, 150 Suicide, 809 Houses, 744 Coal, 122, 657 Interest, rates of, 76, 640 Taxes, 564, 810 Park, 437, 786 Coffee, 123 , , on mortgages, 781 Tramways, 814 Population, 44S, 788 Coinage, 309 Internal revenue, U. S. , 272 Wealth, 593, 818 Shipping, 523, 804 Cotton, 156, 678 Invalided soldiers, 535, 805 Holyhead — Harbour, 226, 255 Trade, 525 Crime, 171, 679 Invernadas, Argentine, 629 Tide, 568 Wages, 581 Date palms, 302, 436 Inverness, tide, 568 Homesteads, U. S., 246, 347 Humahuaca, Andes, 413 Death-rates, 69, 575 Investments, British, 652 Canada, 349 Humboldt in the Andes, 413 Diseases, 197, 202 Iowa — Agriculture, 43 Homicide, v. Crime, 162, 686 ,, on continents, 229 Education, 241, 694 Cattle, 654 Honduras, agriculture, 48 on gold, 742 Emigration, 246 Divorces, 225 British, area,&c. ,126 Humphreys, life-tables, 357 Finances, 274, 708 Food production, 731 Honey and bees, 90, 645, 732 ,, on insanity, 751 Forests, 56, 735 Occupations, 433 ,, price in 4th cent., 468 Hungary, v. Austria Gold production, 739 Population, 454 ,, ,, Belgium, 488 Hunger, deaths from, 185, 686 Irrigation, 338, 758 Railways, 508 ,, gravity, 311 Hunting, 319 Jute, 339, 759 ' Schools, 240 Hong-Kong — Area, 759 Huntsman'spay, M. Ages, 581 Lands, 350 Wages, 585 Death-rate, 184 Huron, Lake, area, &c., 340 Manufactures, 162, 766 Ireland — Ages, sexes, 2, 608 Diseases, 196, 202 Husbands, suicide, 553, 810 Missions, 777 Agriculture, 13, 6t6 Population, &c., 126 Huusmen farmers, 346 Money, 778 Area, 759 Port entries, 534 Hyde Park, London, 438 Opium, 228 Banking, 77, 639 Rainfall, 391 Hyderabad — Dysentery, 197 Population, 631 Births, 94, 647, 815 Schools, 243 Population, 788 Port entries, 534 Canals, 649 Sea routes, 217 Ramfall, 391 Rice, 514 Cadtle, 16, 633, 718 Temperature, 394 Temperature, 394 Routes to, 102 Church, 116 Honolulu — Sea routes, 217 Hydrocephalus, 216 Silver, 309 Commerce, 135 Sugar, 550 Hydrophobia, 198 Sugar, 550 Confiscations, 342 Temperature, 394 , , in U. King. , 206 Tea, 566 Crime, i56, 679 Hooker on animal life, 61 Tobacco, 813 Deaths, 183, 683, 815 Hops, consumption, 8g Ice production, 320 Trade, 152, 674 Death-duties, 689 „ price, 471, 478 „ gravity, 311 Indian Ocean, depth, &c., 230 Diseases, 208, 6S3 ,, production, 312 Iceland — Area, &o., 128, 759 Indians in Canada, 455 Divorces, 220 Horizon at sea, 312 Death-rate, 175 ,, U.S.,273, 323, 750 Education, 233, 693 Horses, v. Animals, 60 Disease, 194, 202 India-rubber, 51, 149, 228 Emigration, 248, 451, 6g6 V. Cattle, 108, 653 Rainfall, 391 ,, price, U.S., 794 Famines, 257 , , fodder for, 282 Snow, 392 Indiana— Agriculture, 43 Finances, 263, 701 ,, loss in war, 743 Temperature, 394 Beer, 635 Fisheries, 278 „ in Mid. Ages, 470, 482 Idaho — Population, 454 Cattle, 654 Food, 286, 715 „ in G. Britain, 793 Mining, 776 Occupations, 433 Freights, 736 „ in U. States, 794 Idiots, V. Insane, 327 Population, 454 Houses, 315, 744 ,, space for, 388 ,, V. Anatomy, 60 Railways, 50S Income, 747 Horse-chestnut oil, 433 Illegitimate births, 92, 646 Schools, 240 Income-tax, 749 Horse-flesh for food, 289 Illimani, height of, 413 Temperature, 396 Lands, 342 Horse-power, 546 Illinois — Agriculture, 43 Wages, 585 Landlords, 17 ,, V. Steam, 807 Banks, 642 Indigo cultivation, 55 Linen, 280, 712 Horse-shoes in Mid. Ages, 483 Beer, 90, 635 ,, imports, 691 Local taxes, 361, 764 Hose, v. Socks Canals, 105 „ price, 471, 792 Marriages, 384, 574, 769 ■ ,, price, U. States, 488 Cattle, 65 1 ,, gravity, 311 Mortgages, 413, 781 Hosiers' wages, 581, 817 Coal, 123, 657 Indirect taxation, 8n Occupations, 427, 783 Hospitals, III, 743 Debt, 364 Indus river, length, 513 Peat, 303 Atmosphere, 388 Divorces, 225 Industrial schools, 799 Police, 787 Bequests to, 113, 655 Houses, 318 Industries of nations, 323 Population, 444, 789 Cost per bed, 313 Insurance, 756 Infants, deaths, 178, 685, 816 Post-office, 458, 790 Death-rate, 112 Land, 348 ,, weight, 62 Prices, 470, 792 Military, 69 Manufactures, 38? Infanticide, England, 165,685 Railways, 500, 797 Rations, 192 Mining, 776 France, 167 Religion, 513, 8oii INDEX 839 Ireland — Steam-power, 546 Suicide, 552, 809 Taxes, 811 Tramways, 814 Wealth, 589, 818 Irish Sea, depth, &c., 230 ... settlers, 247, 451 insttman, v. Anthropom., 63 Iron — Coal in making, 758 Duties on, 565 Exports, 134, 757 Founders' Union, 570,814 Mining, 398 Price in Mid. Ages, 483 , , G, Brit. , 47 r , 793 ,, U. S., 489, 794 Produc., 332, 366, 757, 773 Qualities of, 311, 388 Sea-borne, 572 Ironclads, 415 Ironstone, v. Mining, 398 . . qualities of, 333 Ironworkers, wages, 817 Iroquois, v. Anthropom., 62 Irrawaddy, length, 515 Irrigation, 337, 758 Ischia — Earthquake, 230 Mineral waters, 567 Islands, 759 Isle of Man — Area, &c. , 18, 759 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Tide, 568 Isle of Wight— Butter, 100 Rainfall, 391 Ismail Pacha's agriculture, 39 ,, canals, 338 ,, railways, 512 Issue of banks, 75, 639 Italian, v. Anatomy, 60, 62 „ language, 353 Italy — Ages and sexes, 4, 609 Agriculture, 28, 620 Area, &c,, 414 Army, 71, 637 Banking, 80, 639 Births, S77, 64S. 815 Canals, 104 Cattle, 109, 653 Charities, 113, 655 Church, 117 Commerce, 139, 664 Crime, 170, 680 Customs, 172, 703 Deaths, 189, 683, 815 Diseases, 212, 683 Divorces, 222, 690 Education, 237, 694 Emigration, 250, 697 Finances, 267, 703 Fisheries, 711 Food, 292, 724 Forests, 299, 73S Freights, 736 Houses, 317 Income, 322, 747 Land, 346 Manufactures, 375, 766 Marriages, 386, 577, 770 Mining, 404, 775 Money, 411, 777 Mortgages, 413, 780 Navy, 417, 782 Occupations, 430 Population, 44S, 787 Post-office, 460, 790 Press, 466 Prices, 485, 793 Railways, 504, 794 Religion, 799 Shipping, 529, 801 Sickness, 805 Silk crop, 806 Steam-pover, 548, 807 Italy — Suicide, 554, 809 Taxes, 564, 810 Tramways, 814 Wealth, 592, 818 Ivory, V. Elephants, 62 „ gravity, 311 Ivy, V. Forests, 298 Jackal, v. Animals, 61 Jackdaw, v. Animals, 61 Jacob on Gold, 306, 742 Jamaica — Agriculture, 57, 632 Area, &c., 126, 759 Chinchona, 227 Crime, 171, 682 Death-rate, 69, 184 Diseases, 194, 204 Rainfall, 391 Revenue, 709 Schools, 243 Sea routes, 217 Slavery, 541 Sugar, 550, 677 Temperature, 395, 520 Trade, 152 James, use of name, 414, 781 ,, kings, coinage, 408 ,, ,, commerce, 131 ,, ,, revenue, 261 ,, shipping, 524 Jane, use of name, 414 January — Births, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 194, 215 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 692 Marriages, 382, 386 Rainfall, 392, 799 Suicide, 551 Temperature, 393 Winds, 398 Japan —Ages and sexes, 610 Agriculture, 57, 631 Area, &c. , 414 Army, 73 Banks, 84, 643 Births, 578, 646 Coal, 119, 657 Coinage, 309 Commerce, 155, 675 Crime, 163, 679 Deaths, 190, 578, 683 Diseases, 204, 216 Earthquakes, 692 Education, 243, 693 Finances, 276, 711 Marriages, 578 Missions, 777 Money, 407, 778 Navy, 419, 782 Population, 456 Press, 467 Railways, 510 Religion, 800 Rice, 514 Shipping, 535, 801 Silk production, 539, 806 Tea, 566 Tobacco, 813 Java — ^Agriculture, 57, 631 Area, &c., 128, 414, 759 Diseases, 217 Garrison, 72 Money, 310, 407 Revenue, 709 Rice, 514 Sea routes, 217 Sugar, 550 Tea, 566 Tobacco, 569, 813 ' Trade, 130, 660 Jeannette expedition, 699 Jeans on earnings, 321 ,, railways, 499 Jeddo, V. Tokio Jena, battle, 89 Jenisei, river, length, 515 Jersey — ^Agriculture, 18 Area, 759 Butter, 100 Temperature, 39s TidefseS Jerusalem — Elevation, 230 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Jesuits, order of, 434 ,, in Paraguay, 50 ,, bark, v. Chinchona Jevons on prices, 490 Jews — Birth- rate, 95, 98 Calendar, loi Consanguinity, 383 Death-rate, 185, 189 Divorces, 221 Fanners, 40 Marriages, 385 Population, 338 Religion, 513, 656, 800 Span of life, 357 Students, 236 Jewellers' wages, 579, 583 Jewellery, 136, 338 Job's camels, 60 John, use of name, 414 ,, king, revenue, 261 ,, ,, France, ransom, 512 Joiners' wages, 582 Joint-stock banks, 78 ,, companies, 107 Jonkbping matches, 377 Joseph, use of name, 414 Jujuy, Argentina, 49 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 July — Births, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 194, 215 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 692 Marriages, 382 Rainfall, 392, 799 Suicide, 551 Temperature, 393 Winds, 398 Jimups, V. Athletics, 74 June — Births, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 194, 215 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 69a Marriages, 382 Rainfall, 392, 799 Suicide, 551 Temperature, 393 Winds, 398 Juno, temple, 812 Junta de Medios, 31 Jupiter, temples, 812 Juraschek on commerce, 660 ,, railways, 795 ,, Spain, 726 ,, strikes, 808 Jurassic formation, 305 Jute — Consimiption, 366 Exports, IS3, 631, 759 Factories, G. Britain, 339 Mills, wages, 58r, 817 Price, raw, 474, 792 Production, 56 Sea-borne, 130 Jute goods, exported, 134 ,, ,, price, 479, 793 Juvenile offenders, 679, 799 Kaa Mowna, height, 413 Kabru, Himalayas, ht., 413 Kaffir, V. Anthropometry, 62 „ farmers, 54, 350 Kaluga, factories at, ^74 Kandy — Elevation, 230 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Kangaroo, v. Animals, 62 Kansas — Agriculture, 43 Cattle, 654 Coalfield, 123 Divorces, 225 Houses, 318 Land sales, 347 Population, 454 Railways, 508 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Kapp on emigrants, 246 Karkoff, population, 7!i8 Kaspar on drink, 228 life, 356 Katrine, Loch, water, 588 Kauffmann on Russia, 25 ,, Switzer., 271 Kazan — Population, 447, 78H Temperature, 395 University, 235 Keleti on food, 192, 286 Keller on Mines, 405 Kentucky — Agriculture, 43 Beer, 635 Coal, 657 Divorces, 225 Occupations, 433 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Slavery, 541 Taxes, 363 Temperature, 396 ■Tobacco, 42, 569, 813 Key West, rainfall, 391 Kharkoff — University, 235 Population, 447, 788 Khedive's canal shares, 103 ,, farms, 40 „ salary, 272 Kiaer on shipping, 520 Kiang-Ku river, 515 Kichineff, population, 788 Kidneys as food, 191 Kieff — Population, 447, 788 University, 235 Kiel — Canal, 650 Disease, 195 Kilimanjaro, height, 413 Killed by cabs, loi ,, in battle, 818 ,, on railway, 500, 797 Kimball on gold, 740 Kimberley — Diamonds, 777 Houses, 318 Real estate, 595 King on earnings, 320 ,, farming, 15, 18 ,, houses, 314 „ manufactures, 601 ,, wealth, 320 Kings and emperors, 340, 762 Kioto, Japan, poptilation, 788 Kirghese, v. Anthropom. , 62 Klausenburg, university, 236 Klondyke, gold-fields, 739 Knee, v. Amputation, 555 Knife, suicide by, 552, 555 Knights' pay. Mid. Ages, 580 Knight's, C. , publications, 562 KoIm, Japan, port entries, 535 ,, population, 788 Kohinoor diamond, 338 Kolb on Belgium, 270 ,, cholera, r95 ,, American War, 588 ,, France, 37J ,, quicksilver, 495 ,, Russia, 447 „ population, 446 840 INDEX Kongsberg, silver mines, 400 Konigsberg — Death-rate, i86 Diseases, 195 Garrison, 70 Illegitimacy, 95 Overcrowtiing, 316 Paupers, 440 Population, 788 Prices, 483 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 University, 235 Konigsbninn, peat, 303 Kordsi on life, 356 ,, natality, 647 ,, rates, 765 Kosciuscko, Mt., height, 413 Koumiss brandy, 340 Krai's index numbers, 491 Krause on sweat, 61 Kreuzer, v. Coins, 780 Kronlein's amputations, 556 Krupp's factory, 336, 767 ,, guns, 66 Kummer on divorce, 218 Kwantung, silk, 540 Labour, waste of, 613, 623 Labourer, life-span, 356 „ suicide, 552, 555 wages, 580, 583 ,, ,, B.C., 540 Labuan, colony of, 126 Lace, Swiss, 145, 378 ,, British, 340 Lace-makers' wages, 582 Ladame on infants, 187 Ladoga, Lake, area, &c. , 340 Ladies-maids' life, 181 Lady-clerks, France, 582 Lager beer, 90 Lagos — Population, &c. , 125 Trade, 152 Lahore, population, 788 Lakes, 340 ,, U.S., traffic, 333, 651 Lamb as food, 192 , , price in 4th cent. , 468 Lambert mine, 120, 400 Lamorici^re's colonists, 127 Lamps, V, Light, 762 ,, fires caused by, 711 Lancashire, coal, 120 Lancet on tetanus, 205 Land and Water, 229 Land, price in Mid. Ages, 482 ,, England, 342 , , U. States, 760 taxes, 351, SS9 ,, China, 710 ,, Egyptian, 706 ,, Indian, 708 value, 615, 759 Land-banks, 84 Land Commiss. , Ireland, 760 Landlords, Irish, 342 Landrin on prices, 468 Landwehr, Swiss, 72 Lane-Fox lights, 245 Languages, 352 Languedoc — Canal, 103 Hail-storm, 390 La Plata river, &c, , 515 Laplander, z/. Anthropom., 62 Lapparent on continents, 229 Larch, v. Forests, 298 Larcora on Ireland, 17 Lard as food, 191 in Holland, 143, 294 imports, 718 price in 4th cent. , 468 ,, 19th cent., 470 yield per pig, 44 Lark, v. Birds, 91 Laryngitis, 686 Latin bishops, 115 ,, language, 353 Latitude and longitude, 353 ,, rainfall, 390 Laundresses' wages, 582 Laurium, mines, 405 Lausanne, rainfall, 391 „ temperature, 39s Lavergne on agriculture, 19 ,, food, 20, 289 ,, manufac. , 369 Lavoisier on houses, 315 ,, wealth, 591 Law, John, assignats, 410 Law, costs, 88 Lawes on agriculture, 14 Lavwie's surgery, 556 Lawsuits, 353, 760 Lawyers, 421, 760 ,, death-rate, 686 ,, in duels, 692 ,, span of life, 3SS ,, suicide, 552 Lay schools, France, 234 Laymen holding tithes, 115 Lead, 354, 366, 760 ,, mining, 398 , , price in Mid. Ages, 483 ,, production, 401, 773 ,, qualities of, 311, 388 Learned societies, 520 Leather, duties on, 565 ,, manufactures, 378 ,, operatives, 421 ,, price, 479 ,, production, 354,761 ,, wages, 817 Lebanon, Mount, height, 413 Lebel rifle, 66 , , on twins, 93 Ledger's chinchona, 227 Lee rifle, 66 Leeds — Birth-rate, 92, 647 Death-rate, 174, 685 Expenditure, 361 Hospital, III Houses, 313, 744 Park, 437, 786 Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 391 Strikes, 570 Window-tax, 561 Leemans on taxes, 352 Le Fort, surgery, 556 ,, on puerp. disease, 202 Leg, amputation, 555 Legacy duties, 354, 562 Legal tender, 779 Leghorn — Octroi, 363 Population, 788 Trade, 529 Legoyt on suicide, 551 Leguminous plants, 99 Lehmann on urine, 61 Leicester — Death-rate, 174 Hospital, III Longevity, 356 Park, 437 Population, 445, 788 Sanitation, 519 Wages, 581 Leipzig — Birth-rate, 89, 816 Book fair, 256, 466 Death-rate, 174, 186, 816 Diseases, 20^, 684 Expenditure, 361 Fire-brigade, 711 Hospital, III Illegitimacy, 646 Lighting, 762 Meat, 290 Overcrowding, 186, 316 Paupers, 440 Leipzig — Police, 441 Population, 441, 788 Sewers, 691 Sickness, 536 Streets, 808 Telephones, 812 University, 235 Leith — Shipping, 523 Tide, 568 Lemberg — Population, 788 University, 236 Lemons, o. Fruit, 302 Lemon-tree, v. Forests, 298 Lena river, length, 515 Lendham on Russia, 429 Lent on marriage, 3S3 Lentils as food, 191 „ price in 4th cent. , 468 Lepanto, battle, 418 Leprosy, 199 ,, in Russia, 211 Leroy, B., on finances, 264 ,, income, 748 ,, taxes, 388 ,, wealth, 592 Lesseps' canals, 102 Letters, v. Post-Office, 456 Lettuce in 4th century, 468 Levant, depth of, 230 Levassetir on commerce, 660 ,, agriculture, 613 „ longevity, 357 ,, paupers, 787 ,, population, 441 Levi on earnings, 321 ,, expenditure, 359 ,, servants, 520 ,, workmen, 581 Leyet on stature, 62 Liabilities of bankrupts, 644 Liberals, U. Kingdom, 695 Libraries, 355 Licences, 560 Licht on sugar, 550 Lick's observatory, 413 Liebig's beef extract, 285 Lifege — Diseases, 195, 205 Divorces, 218 Expenditure, 36a Illegitimacy, 646 Police, 441 Population, 449, 788 University, 238 Lieutenant's p.iy, 579 Life annuities, 330 ,, boats, 526, 762 ,, expectation, 185, 761 ,, insurance, 330, 754 ,, tables, 358 Lifting power, girls, 63 Light, 74, 24s, 357, 762 ,, coin, 779 Lighthouses, 358 Lightning, deaths, 1S5, 358 Lignite, 122, 402, 658,-774 Liguria — Insanity, 329 Manufactures, 375 Marriages, 384 Lille — Diseases, 199, 205 Food, 289 Octroi, 764 Population, 445 788 Rainfall, 391 Sewage, 519 Temperature, 395, 397 Tobacco factory, 569 Tramways, 814 Lilies, farms of, 632 Lima — Diseases, 193, 208 Earthquake, 230 Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Lime, 406 ,, in blood, 60 Lime tree, v. Forests, 298 Limerick — Houses, 744 Rainfall, 391 Limoges, rainfall, 391 Linen, 280, 366, 71a Bounties, 494 Duties, 565 Exports, 134 Imports, U. S. , 147 Manufactures, 766 Mills, wages, 580, 817 Price, 479 Linnet, v. Birds, 91 Linseed, Argentine, 49, 630 ,, Russian, 138 oil, 433 Lion, V, Animals, 61 Liquor, v. Alcohol, 58 ,, shops, fires, 711 taxes, 557, 635 Lisbon — Death-rate, 175, 189 Diseases, 194, 202 Earthquake, 230 Mineral springs, 567 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 391 Rates of interest, 640 Sea routes, 217 Snow, 392 Temperature, 395 Wines, 58 Lister's surgery, 555 Lithographers, diseases, 200 Liver complaint, 206, 686 Lives saved from fire, 711 I, ,, sea, 762 ,, lost at sea, 805 Liverpool — Birth-rate, 92, 647 Church attendance, 513 Clearing-house, 642 Death-rate, 174, 685 Diseases, 205 Docks, 226 Expenditure, 361 Freights, 301, 736 Hospital, III Houses, 744 Hurricane, 773 Insurance, 332 Lighting, 245, 304 Park, 437, 786 Population, 445, 78B Port entries, 525, 804 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217, 803 Shipping, 523 Telephones, 567 Tide, 568 Wages, 581 Water-supply, 588 Window-tax, 561 Liverpool Lord, adminis. , 438 ,, on wealth, 589 Living, cost of, 358, 763 Llamas, v. Animals, 62 Lloyd, Insurance Co., 332 ,, lists, 521, 524 ,, on shipping, 526 , , North German Loans, -v. Debt, 262 ,, Egyptian, 272 ,, new, 651 Lobster as food, 190 ,, fishery, 278 Local taxation, 360, 763 Lock-outs and strikes, 570, 808 Locksmiths' wages, 582 Locomotives, cost of, 508 ,, miles run, 498 ,, number, 499, 795 ,, steam, 546, 807 Locusts, 201, 330 Locust beans, 40 „ tree, v. Algarroba, 99 INDEX 841 Lodgings, fires in, 711 .. in Paris, 316 ^di, disease, 200 Lodz, population, 447 Loire, canals, 103 ., river, 392, 515 i^mbard on disease, 180, 199 • . on life, 357 Lombard Street, houses, 313 Lombardy— Agricult., 29, 621 Canals, 104 Consanguinity, 384 Death-rate, 688 Diseases, 200 Insanity. 329 Instruction, 237 Land tenure, 346 Manufactures, 375 Mulberry trees, 99 Sillc industry, ^39 Still-births, 97' Suicide, 554 Wine-growing, 598 Lombroso on criminals, 164 London, 364 Births, 92, 647 Bridges, 100, 649 Cabs, 100 Clearing-house, 642 Deaths, 174, 181, 685 Diseases, 193, 208, 684 Divorces, 218 Docks, 226 Exhibitions, 255 Expenditure, 361, 764 Fires, 276, 711 Fish, 278 Foreigners, 441 Freights, 301, 736 Hospitals] 112, 555, 743 Houses, 312, 744 ice, 320 Lighting. 245, 304, 762 Meat, 285, 288 Money, 779 Omnibusses, 438 Parks. 437, 786 Passengers, 786 Police, 441, 787 Population, 445, 788 Port entries, 525, 804 Prices, 121, 469, 481 Railway, 438, 508 Rainfall, 391, 799 Rate of interest, 640 Sea routes, 217 Sewage, 364, 519, 691 Shipping, 523 "Slum" pop., 314, 440 Streets, 364, 808 Strikes, 570 Suicide, 551 Telephones, 567 Temperature, 395, 397 Theatres, 813 Wages, 581 Water-supply, 588, 818 Winds, 398 Longevity, 356, 8i6 Lords, British, 419 Loiing on mortgages, 413 ,, frtiit, 301 Loss of shipping, 526, 805 ,, by fires, 331 ,, by sickness, 536, 806 ,, by strikes, 808 Lotteries, State, 268, 563 Loua on population, 441 Louis, king, revenues, 263 Louis Philippe, coinage, 409 Louisiana — Cotton, 42 Debt, 364 Diseases, 200 Divorces, 225 I Louisiana — Land sales, 347 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Shipping, 532 Slavery, 541 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Louisville — Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Louvain, university, 238 Lowell, strikes, 571 Lubbock on rates, 764 Lubeck — Disease, 205 Lights, 24s Lucania^ steamer, 803 Lucca — Mineral springs, 567 Rainfall, 391 Lucknow — Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Lumber, v. Forests, 298, 735 Lumbermen, wages, 817 Lunatics, v. Insane ., rations, 192 Lund, university, 239 Lumier on insanity, 328 Lutherans, 116, 656 Luzon, tobacco, 569 ,, V. Manilla Lying-in hospitals, 94,114,202 Lynch-law, 172 Lynn, Mass., foundry, 405 ,, strikes, 571 Lynxes, v. Hunting, 319 Lyons — Alcohol, 544 Birth-rate, 92 Climate, 395 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 200 Expenditure, 765 Fire-brigade, 277 Food, 289 Foundlings, 113 Octroi, 362, 764 Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 391 Silk factories, 538 Tenements, 745 Tramways, 814 M'CULLOCH on farms, 13, 6i6 ,, finances, 262 ,, leather, 354 ,, paper-mills, 437 ,, woollens, 602 M'Donell on lawsuits, 760 M'Gregor on France, 20 ,, Russia, 447 , , occupations, 420 M'Grigor on plagues, 20X M'Neil, dynamometer, 516 M'Pherson on manufac, 369 Macao — Area, &c., 127 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Macedon, population, 449 Machinery, export, 365 ,, United States, 378 Machinists' wages, 581 Mackenzie river, length, 515 Mackerel fishery, 278 , , as food, 191 Macon— Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Macquarie fence, 495 Madagascar — Area, 126, 7S9 Death-rate, 688 Madden's life-tables, 356 Madder, cultivation, 228 imports, 226 Madeira — ^Area, &c., 127, 759 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Temperature, 395 Madeira — Wines, 58 Madeleine Pass, Alps, 413 Madras — Agriculture, 55, 631 Births, 92, 575 City, 788 Cocoa-palms, 436 Deaths, 174, 180 Diseases, 197, 202 Famine, 699 Irrigation, 338 Population, 631 Rainfall, 391 Religion, 514 Sea routes, 217 Temperature, 395 Madrid — Barometer, 389 Births, 92 Deaths, 174 Diseases, 195 Elevation, 230 Meat, 285 Population, 443, 788 Press, 466 Rainfall, 391 Rate of interest, 640 Snow, 392 Temperature, 395 Water-supply, 588 Maestricht, canal, 105 Magdala, gold-mine, 400 Magdalena river, 515 Magdeburg — Garrison, 70 Hospital, 204 Meat, 290 Population, 78S Magellan Str. — Raiiflall, 391 Temperature, 395 Magenta, battle, 89 Magnesia in blood, 60 Magnetic observations, 390 Maggiore, Lake, 340 Magyar — People, 62, 448 Schools, 236 Mahogany, gravity, 311 Mahometan calendar, loi ,, religion, 512 Mahometans in India, 5x4 Mail-coach horses, 546 Mail steamers, 457 ,, subsidies, 790 Maine — Divorces, 225 Forests, 300, 735 Phthisis, 200 Population, 454 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Shipping, 532 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Maintenon's expenses, 359 Maize as food, 191 , , as fodder, 282 ,, crop, 765 ,, limit of cultivation, 99 ,, price, 470 ,, production, 8, 365, 714 ,, yield per acre, 310 Majors' pay, 582 Majorca — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 394 Malabar, rainfall, 391 Malacca — Canal, 102 Trade, 154 Malaga— Diseases, 194, 204 Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Wines, 58 Malays, v. Anthropometry, 62 Malchus on agriculture, 23, 34 ,, onsavings-banks,643 Malgaigne on surgery, 556 Malmsey wine, 58 Malt, duties on, 560 Malt from barley, 310 Malta — Area, 759 Death-rate, 69 Diseases, 194, 204 Port entries, 534 Railway, 512 Rainfall, 391 Savings-banks, 644 Temperature, 395 Malte Brun on population, 441 Maltese in Algeria, 98, 189 Mammalia fossil, 305 Man, V. Anatomy, 60 ,, Isle of, 18, 759 Man-at-arms, pay, 580 Manchester — Births, 92, 647 Canal, 102, 649 Clearing-house, 642 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 205 Expenditiu'e, 361 Fires, 276 Freight, 301 Hospital, 112 Houses, 313, 744 Lighting, 304 Park, 437 Population, 445 , 788 Rainfall, 391 .Sewage, 519 Strikes, 570 Telephones, 567 Wages, 581 Water-supply, 588 Window-tax, 561 Mandalay, popu^tion, 788 Mandioca; 51 Mangel wurzel, 282 Mangolds, Great Britain, 15 Manilla — Earthquake, 230 Hemp, 311 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 391 Rice, 514 Sugar, 550 Temperature, 395 Tobacco, 569 Manitoba, v. Canada Farms, 627 Wheat, 820 Mannheim, rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Mannlicher rifle, 66 Manslaughter, v. Crime, 165 Mantua — Disease, 194 Rainfall, 391 Manufactures, 365, 765 ,, British, 369, 766 Manure, 38t ,, artificial, 15, 691 , , cost per acre, 16 Manuscripts, 172 Maple, V. Forest, 298 ,, gravity, 31X Maraldi on bees, 645 Maranham, rainfall, 391 Maraschino, alcohol, 58 Marble quarries, 381, 404, 775 ,, gravity, 311 March — Births, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases 194, 2x5 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 692 * Marriages, 382 Rainfall, 392, 799 Suicide, 554 Temperature, 393, 397 Wind, 398 Marches, military, 73 Marching rate, 67 Mare, gestation, 61 Marengo, battle, 89 Margarine imports, 718 842 INDEX Mariana Islands, 127 Marine fossils, 305 Marines, 416 Markets, 364, 767 Marlboro's wars, 586 Marmalade, 302 Marmots, v. Hunting, 319 Marquesas Islands, 126 Marquises, v. Nobles, 419 Marriages, 381, 574, 768 Married, death-rate of, 177 ,, ratio of, 383 „ suicide, 553,555, 810 Mars-le-Tour, battle, 587 Marsala, alcohol in, 58 Marseilles — Alcohol, 544 Barometer, 389 Coal, 120 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 193, 203 Food, 289 Harbour, 226 Hospital, III Lighthouse, 245 Octroi, 362, 764 Population, 445, 788 Port entries, 523 Rainfall, 391 Shipping, 527 Temperature, 395, 397 Tramways, 814 Water-supply, 588 Marshall Islands, 128 Martens, v. Hunting, 319 Martin on capital, 653 Martinique, area, &c., 126 Mary, use of name, 414 Mary, Queen, coinage, 408 Maryland — Canals, 105 Coal, 657 Death-rate, 190 Debt, 364 Diseases, 200 Divorces, 225 Levy (1776), 587 Population, 450, 454 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Shipping, 532 Slavery, 541 Temperature, 396 Tobacco, 42, 569, 813 Wages, 585 Masons, diseases, 200, 202 „ death-rate, 686 „ sickness, 806 ,, suicide, 552, 810 ,, wages, 579, 817 Massachusetts — Beer, 90 Banks, 642 Coal, 120 Death-rate, 190 Debt, 364 Diseases, 200, 204 Divorces, 225 Garden crops, 45 Houses, 318 Insurance, 756 Land, 348 Levy (1776). 587 Life-tables, 762 Manufactures, 380 Marriages, 768 ' Occupations, 433 Population, 450, 454 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Shipping, 532 Strikes, 570 Taxes, 363 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Massalski on wealth, 592 Massena in Portugal, 743 Matamoros, rainfall, 391 Matches, Jonkoping, 377 ,, tax on, 387 Mite, Paraguayan tea, 51 Maternity, chances of, 647 Matriculas, German, 266, 702 Matto Grosso, freight, 301 Maui's railway, 510 Mauritius — Agriculture, 54 Area, &c. , 125, 759 Coolies, 246 Crime, 171 Death-rates, €9, 184 Diseases, 194, 205 Port entries, S34 Railway, 512 Rainfall, 391 Savings banks, 644 Schools, 243 Sea routes, 217 Slavery, 541 Sugar, 550, 809 Temperature, 395 Trade, 154 Mauser rifles, 66 May — Births, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 194, 215 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 692 Marriages, 382 Rainfall, 392 Suicide, 554 Temperature, 393, 397 Wind, 398 Mayenctf, garrison, 70 Mayenne coal, 120 Mayhew on oysters, 277 Mayr on insane, 328 ,, on suicide, S09 Mazarin Bible, 172 Meade on births, 93 Meadow, v. Agriculture ,, irrigation of, 758 Measles, 199, 683 „ U. King., 206,686 Measures and weights, 595 Meat, 12, 282, 713 Consump., v. Food, 715 Exports, U.S., 146, 296 Imports, G. Brit. , 134, 717 Loss in cooking, 119 Per carcase, 15, 287 Price, V. Beef, 481 Sea-borne, 130, 572 Mecca, pilgrims, 438 Mechanics' life-span, 356 Medical profession, 421 ,, students, 113, 387 ,, works, 465, 791 Mediterranean Sea— 230, 393 Sponge fishery, 544 Tributaries to, 515 Meejers, land tenure, 346 Meerenberg, prices, 487 Meerut — Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Mehemet Ali, agriculture, 39 Meitzen on mortgages, 413 ,, taxes, 352 Melbourne — Coinage, 408 Diseases, 200, 202 Houses, 312, 318, 746 Population, 455, 788 Port entries, 523, 534 Prices (1852), 470 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 "Temperature, 39s Water-supply, 588 Melbourne, Lord, admin. ,438 Melons in 4th century, 468 Memphis, U. S. — Divorces,225 Rainfall, 391 Menage on births, 93 Menai bridge, 99 Mendoza, Argen. — Crops, 49 Earthquake, 230 Finances, 275 Land, 351 Silver-mines, 407 Meningitis, 199 in G. Britain, 686 Mennonites, 249 Menstruation, 388 Meppen artillery butts, 66 Merchants, life-span, 355 ,, suicide, 554 Mercury, v. Quicksilver, 495 ,, qualities of, 311,390 Mersey tunnel, 573 ,, water, 588 Merthyr, sanitation, 519 Messages, telegraph, 457, 790 Messedaglia on gold, 307 ,, on Mexico, 407 Messina — Instruction, 237 Population, 788 Rainfall, 39J Trade, 529 Metals, 366, 400, 773 ,, gravity, 311 ,, operatives, 421 ,, tenacity of, 388, 812 Metalworkers, wages, 817 Metayer farms — France, 343 Italy, 346 United States, 348, 760 Meteors, 390 Meteorology, 388, 773 Methodists, 116, 513, 656 Metropolitan railway, 438, 508 Metz — Barometer, 389 Diseases, 199, 205 Garrison, 70 Rainfall, 391 Siege, 535 Mexico— Agriculture, 48 Area, &c. , 414 Army, 73 Banks, 83 Commerce, 148, 672 Finances, 276, 710 Mining, 407, 739, 760 Money, 778 Population, 455, 788 Railways, 509 Silver, 306, 739 Sugar, 550 War, 587 Mexico, city — Barometer, 389 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 194, 200 Elevation, 230 Population, 788 Temperature, 395 Mexican Gulf, 230 Trade, 533 Michael, Czar, revenues, 266 Michelot on population, 441 Michigan — Agriculture, 43 Coal-field, 123 Divorces, 225 Indians, 323 Lake, 340 Manufactures, 380 Occupations, 433 Population, 454 Railways, 508 Saltworks, 519 Saw-mills, 300 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Microbes, 389 Middle Ages, artillery, 65 , , army pay, 580 Middleburg, rainfall, 391 Middlesboro", port entries, 804 Middleton on agricult. , 13, 16 Midwives, 96, 388 Miguel on microbes, 389 Milan — Barometer, 389 Birth-rate, 816 Cathedral, 412 Death-rate, 174, 816 Diseases, 194, 205, 684 Education, 694 Elevation, 230 Expenditure, 361, 765 Fire-brigade, 711 Illegitimacy, 646 Lighting, 245, 762 Meat, 285 Octroi, 363, 764 Population, 443, 788 Press, 466 Prices, 485 Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Streets, 808 Suicide, S54 Telephones, 567 Temperature, 395 Milch cows, 44, 683 Miletus, temple, 812 Military, death-rates, 69, 72 ,, expenditure, 638 landgrants, 347, 349 ,, service, 67 Militia, United Kingdom, 68 Milk — ^Analysis, 190, 398 Condensed, 295 Imports, 718 Price, 483, 488 Production, 173 Gravity, 311 Milkmen, suicide, 552 Mill, Stuart, on Ireland, 17 Mills, V. Cotton Millet in Japan, 57 Millers, diseases, 200, 202 ,, sickness, 806 ,, suicide, 552 Milliners' wages, M. Ages, 581 Millionaires, 398 Millwrights' wages, 583 Milroy on plagues, 201 Milwaukee— Divorces, 225 Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Miners, 399, 783 Accidental deaths, 687 Diseases, 200 Guild, 814 Insurance of. Intemperance, 692 Killed, 121, 182, 185, 401 Life-span, 182 Strikes, 808 Suicide, 552, 810 Wages, 817 Mines, deepest, 400 Mineral heat, 390 springs, 567 Minerals, imported, 134 Mining, 400 Minneapolis — Flour-bar., 300 Population, 788 Minnesota — Cattle, 45 Divorces, 225 Land sales, 347 Population, 454 Railways, 508 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Wages, 58s Mint reports, 307, 409, 777 ,, British, 779 Misiones, Paraguay, 351, 434 Missions, Christian, 777, 800 Mississippi — Bridge, 99 INDEX 843 Mississippi— Cotton, 42 Divorces, 225 Population, 454 River, 105, 515 Schools, 240 Slavery, 541 Steamboats, 533, 651 Temperattire, 396 Water, 588 Missouri— Agriculture, 43 Beer, 90 Coalfield, 123 Diseases, 200 Divorces, 225 Lead-mines, 354 Occupations, 433 Population, 454 Revenue, 565 River, 105, 508 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Modena, land-tax, 352 Mogador— Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Mohair, 145 Moheau on population, 441 Moidore, v. Coins, 780 Molasses, price, 474 ,, rations, 193 Molinari on emigrants, 249 ,, gold, 740 ,, Ireland, 342 Molokai, lepers, 199 Molucca Islands, 128 Monday, suicide, 553 Money, 407, 777 ,, orders, 457, 790 Monks, V. Orders, 434 Monkey, v. Animals, 60 Montana — Land sales, 347 Mining, 776 Population, 454 Montenegro, agriculture, 28 Montevideo — Disease,i94,2oo Houses, 319 Immigrants, 250, 443 Population, 788 Port entries, 535 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Seal-fishing, 278 Taxation, 710 Temperature, 395 Telephones, 567 Montferrand's life-tables, 357 Montgolfier's balloon, 75 Months — Births in, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 194, 215 Marriages, 382 Rainfall, 392 Suicides, 554 Temperature, 393, 397 Winds, 398 Montmartre, birth-rate, 93 Montpellier — Barometer - Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Montreal — Deaths, 174, 184 Diseases, 204, 216 Houses, 318 Population, 788 Telhperature, 395 Monts-de-Pi^t^, 440 Monuments, 412 Mooltan — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Moors in Spain, 413 Moravia — Instruction, 236 Land tenure, 345 Moreauon agriculture, ig, „ food, 288 „ houses, 315 7J .389 I,5i6 Mormons, 116 Morocco — Ostr. feathers, 436 Tetanus, 204 University, 232 Morrison, Mt., height, 413 Morrison on crime, 679 Morselli on suicide, 554 Mortgage banks, 85 Mortgages, 413, 780 Morton on freights, 736 Moscow — Barometer, 389 Battle, 89 Coal, 122 Diseases, 201, 204 Elevation, 230 Expenditure, 765 Factories, 374 Fires, 277 Foundlings, 112 Illegitimacy, 646 Population, 447, 788 Press, 466 Snow, 392 Telephones, 567 Temperature, 395, 397 University, 235 Moselle wine, 58 Mosques, 413 Mothers, age of, 95, 98 ,, unmarried, 96 Motive-power, v. Energy Mouey on wealth, 592 Moujiks, Russia, 25, 360 Mountains, 413 Mourzuk, max. heat, 397, 773 Mozambique, area, &c., 127 MiiUemann on prices, 486 Mulberry, v. Fruit, 301 „ silk, 806 „ France, 21, 537 ,, Italy, 99 Mules in France, 20 ,, India, 56 ,, Spain, 30 ,, Venezuela, 48 ,, United States, 44 Mule-minder, vrages, 580 Mulhouse — Barometer, 389 Operatives, 360 Wages, 582 Multiple births, 93 Mumps, 199 Munich — Bank, 79 Barometer, 389 Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174, 184 Diseases, 194, 205 Divorces, 218 Elevation, 230 Expenditure, 361, 765 Fires, 277 Illegitimacy, 646 Library, 35s Lighting, 245, 304 Meat, 290 Park, 438 Population, 443, 788 Temperature, 395 University, 235 Municipal taxation, 765 Munificence, 413 Murabds, Turkey, 39 Murcia, hailstorm, 390 Murder, 414 ,, U. Kingdom, 182 ,, V. Crime, 162 Murphy on menstruation, 388 Murray on oceans, 230 Murray river, 515 Muscat, temperature, 395 Museum, British, 355, 520 Mushrooms as food, 191 Music, 414 Musicians, death-rate, 686 Muslin, price, 488 Mussels, V. Fish, 277 Mussulman, life-span, 357 Mutton, V. Meat, 284 ,, as food, 191 ,, carcase, 15, 287 , , price in 4th cent, , 469 ,, ,, at present, 484 Mutual, y. Friendly Sot , 737 Mysore, population, &c. , 55 Nagasaki — Port entries, 535 Temperature, 395 Nagoya, population, 456 Nagpoor — Rainfall, 391 Population, 788 Temperature, 395 Nailmakers' wages, 583 Names in use, 414 Namur, rainfall, 391 Nancy, rainfall, 391 Nansen's expedition, 699 Nantes — Barometer, 389 Food, 289 Hospital, III Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 391 Tramway, 571 Naptha, 403, 651, 775 Naples — Bank, 80 Births, 92, 97, 816 Cabs, 649 Consanguinity, 384 Death-rate, 174, 189, 816 Diseases, 194, 205, 684 Expenditure, 361, 765 Fires, 277, 711 House-property, 746 Illegitimacy, 646 Insanity, 329 Instruction, 237, 694 Land tenure, 346 Land taxes, 352 Lighting, 762 Meat, 285 Police, 787 Population, 443, 788 Press, 466 Prices, 486 Rainfall, 391 Streets, 808 Suicide, 554, 810 Telephones, 567, 812 Temperature, 395, 397 Trade, 529 University, 237 Water supply, 818 Napoleons, coinage, 409 ,, revenues, 263 Nashville — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Natal — Agriculture, S4 Commerce, 151 Coolies, 246 Diseases, 202 Rainfall, 391 Natality, chances of, 646 Natchez, rainfall, 391 National banks, U.S., 83, 642 „ Debt, V. Finances ,, Gallery, visitors, 520 ,, schools, Ireland, 233 Nations of the world, 414 Natural increase, 816 Navarino, battle, 418 Navigation bounties, 494 Navy, 415, 782 Death-rate, 181, 805 Expenditure, 559 Phthisis in, 201 Physicians, 387 Sickness, 805 Navvies' wages, 582 Neagh, Lough, area, &c., 340 Nebraska— Cattle, 45, 654 Divorces, 225 Land sales, 347 Population, 454 Railways, 508 Schools, 240 Needle-makers, phthisis, 200 Negroes, v. Anatomy, 60 ,, in Breizil, 456 ,, in U. States, 452 ,, birth-rate, 649 ,, regiments, 73 „ insanity, 753 Neilson's hot-blast, 33s Nelson on death-rates, 181 ,, sickness, 535 Nelson's fleet, 416 Nephews, marriage with, 383 Nephritis, 686 Neptune, temple, 812 Neptune's staircase, 103 Nervous system, 60 ,, diseases, 206 Neuifchitel cheese, 114 Neumann, v. Spallart Nevada — Schools, 240 Mining, 776 New Brunswick — Deaths, 184 Fisheries, 712 Rainfall, 391 Schools, 241 Shipping, 523, 534 Temperature, 395 New Caledonia — Palms, 436 Temperature, 395 New Forest, England, 299 New Guinea, area, 128, 759 New Grenada, v. Columbia N. Hampshire — Divorces, 223 Forest, 735 Levy (1776), 587 Population, 450, 454 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 New Jersey — Beer, 90 Canals, 105, 651 Debt, 364 Divorces, 235 Land, 348 Levy (1776), 587 Life-tables, 762 Manufactures, 380 Population, 450, 454 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Wages, 58s New Mexico — Indians, 323 Mining, 776 Population, 454 Temperature, 396 N. Orleans — Deaths, 174, 689 Diseases, 194 Divorces, 235 Freights, 736 Houses, 746 Population, 4-4, 788 Port entries, 805 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Trade, 533 N. S. Wales, v. Australia Coal, 122 Seasons, 520 N. York State — Agricult., 43 Beer, 90, 635 Canals, 105, 651 Cattle, 654 Debt, 364 Divorces, 225 Insurance, 756 Levy {1776), .sSy 844 INDEX N. York State— Land, 348 Nijni, V. Novgorod Norwich — Rainfall, 391 Odessa — Shipping, 523 Manufactures, 380 Nile — Canals, 272, 338, 759 Nossi B6 colony, 126 Snow, 392 Occupations, 433 Railways, 512 Notes, Bank of Eng. , 78, 409 Temperature, 395 Population, 450, 788 River, 515 ,, ,, France, 410 University, 235 Revenue, 565 Valley, 40 „ use of, 779 Offertory, Anglican, 116 Saltworks, 519 Nilgherries — Chinchona, 227 Nottingham— Birth-rate, 92 Oflicers, death-rate, 587, 8i8 Schools, 240 Rainfall, 391 Church attendance, 513 Ogiivy on bridges, 99 Vineyards, 598 Ningpo, population, 456 Death-rate, 174 Ogle on life, 356 Wages, s8s Nismes, rainfall, 391 Houses, 313 ,, births, 645 New York City— Births, 92 Nitrate dues, 710 Lighting, 245 „ suicide, S52 Banks, 640 Nitre, Chilian, 407 Park, 437, 786 Ohio — Agriculture, 43 Clearing-house, 77 ,, imports, 691 Population, 445, 788 Beer, 90, 635 Deaths, 174, 689 „ price, 474 Rainfall, 391 Canals, 105, 651 Diseases, 195, 215 Nitrogen in air, 388 Wages, 581 Cattle, 654 Expenditure, 361, 764 ,, food, 190 Nova Scotia — Coal, 122 Coal, 123, 657 Exchange, 640 Nobel's dynamite, 227 Diseases, 194, 215 Debt, 364 Fires, 276 Nobles, children, 96 Fisheries, 712 Divorces, 225 Freights, 300, 736 ,, funerals, 100 Population, 455 Houses, 316 Hospital, III ,, grandees, &c. , 419 Schools, 241 Insurance, 756 Houses, 312, 318, 746 , , land-owners, 344, 541 Seal-fishery, 278 Land, 348 Ice, 320 sterihty, 383 Shipping, 534 Manufactures, 380 Life-tables, 761 Noirmoutier, charcoal, 303 November — Births, 92 Mining, 776 Lighting, 304 Norfolk, U.S.— Rainfall, 391 Deaths, 176 Occupadons, 433 Passengers, 786 Temperature, 395 Diseases, 194, 215 Population, 454 Population, 454 Normandy, butter, 100 Duels, 692 Railways, 508 Port entries, 80s Norrit on surgery, 556 Earthquakes, 69s Revenue, 565 Prices, 490 Norte, Rio Del, 515 Marriages, 382 River, 105, 515 Railway, 508 North Borneo, area, &c. , 126 Rainfall, 392 Saltworks, 519 Rainfall, 391 North Cape, temperature, 395 Suicide, SS4 Schools, 240 Savings-banks, 87 North Carolina— Debt, 364 Temperature, 393, 397 Strikes, 570 Sea routes, 217, 803 Divorces, 225 Wind, 398 Vineyards, 598 Sewage, 519 Forests, 735 Novgorod — Fair, 256 Wages, 585 Shipping, 523, 532 Population, 454 Trade, 104 Oil — As food, 191 Strikes, 570, 808 Schools, 240 Noy on Ireland, 263 Cod-liver, 128 Suicide, SS4 Tobacco, 813 Nuggets, 406 Olive, 140, 292, 633, 785 Taxes, 363 North German Lloyd, 786 Nuns, V. Orders, 435 Price in 4th century, 468 Telephones, 567 North Pole expeditions, 699 Nuremberg — Disease, 200 ,, Middle Ages, 483 Temperature, 396 North Sea — Canal, 105 Divorces, 218 ,, G. Brit., 471, 792 Trade, 533 Depth, &c,, 230 Population, 78B ,, Italy, 485, 793 Water-supply, 588 Tributaries, 515 Nurses and infants, 178 Imports, G. Britain, 785 New Zealand, -u. Australia Norway — Ages, &c., 5, 609 Nutrition in food, 191 Seal, 278 Coal, 122 Agriculture, 33, 622 Nyanza, Lake, area, &c. , 340 Petroleum, 434 Diseases, 198, 202 Area, &c., 414 Oil-cake as fodder, 282 Farms, 628 Army, 71, 637 Oak, v. Forests, 298 Oil-seed, Indian, 55 Rainfall, 391 Banking, 81, 639 ,, limit of growth, 99 price, 479 Newark.U.S.- Wat.-sup.,588 Births, 96, 64s, 815 ,, gravity, 311 Oiler (mill), wages, 582 Population, 788 Cattle, 109 ,, tenacity, 812 Old age, deaths, 206 Newcastle — Bridge, 99 Charities, 114 Oats— As fodder, 282 Old offenders, v. Crime, 163 Clearing-house, 642 Commerce, 142, 666 Crop, total, 8, 613, 782 Oldham — Birth-rate? 92 Coal, 120 Crime, 171, 679 United Kingdom, 17, 616 Death-rate, 174 Death-rate, 174 Deaihs, 187, 815 United States, 41, 625 Houses, 744 Expenditure, 361 Diseases, 214 Imports, 715 Park, 437 Freight, 301 Divorces, 223, 691 Price in Middle Ages, 482 Population, 445, 78C Houses, 313, 744 Education, 239, 693 , , 19th century, 470 Oleomargarine, analysis, 100 Park, 437 Emigration, 251, 69s Seed per acre, 99 Olive tree, v. Forests, 298 Population, 445, 788 Finances, 269, 704 Value of crop, 10 ,, oil, gravity, 311 Port entries, 525, 804 Fisheries, 280 Yield per acre, 9, 310 ,, ,, production, 785 Shipping, 523 Food, 293, 727 Oatmeal as food, 191 Olives, cultivation, 434 Strikes, 570 Forests, 300, 735 Obelisks; 412 , , yield of oil, 433 Newfoundland — Agricult. , 48 Freights, 736 Obesity, v. Disease, 200 Olympus,' height, 413 Area, 759 Houses, 317 , , V. Banting's table, 61 Omaha, population, 788 Railway, 512 Income, 743 Obi river, outflow, &c., 515 Omnibuses, 572, 649 Rainfall, 391 Lands, 346 Observatories, telescopes, 73 Onega, Lake, area, &c., 340 Savings-banks, 644 Manufactures, 377 Occupations, 419, 783 Onions, consumption, 302 Snow, 392 Marriages, 386, 577, 771 Oceanic, steamer, 803 ,, per acre, 45 Newniarch on prices, 470 Mining, 405 Oceans, area, depth, 230 ,, price in 4th cent. , 468 Newnham on Ireland, 17 Money, 410 O' Conor on silver, 309 ,, ,, Mid. Ages, 483 Newspapers, v. Press, 464, 791 Mortgages, 413 October — Births, 92 Ontario — Agriculture, 47, 627 „ mortality of, 466 Navy, 418 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 216 ,, tax on, 561 Occupations, 431, 784 Diseases, 194, 215 Houses, 746 Neymarck on capital, 652 Population, 448, 787 Duels, 692 Lake, 340 Niagara — Bridge, 99 Post-office, 462, 790 Earthquakes, 692 Saltworks, 519 Horse-power, 245, 546 Prices, 487 Marriages, 382 Schools, 241 Nicaragua, v. Central America Railways, 505, 794 Rainfall, 392 Shipping, 534 Agriculture, 48 Shipping, 520 Suicide, 551 Wealth, 819 Nice — Food, 289 Steam-power, 549, 807 Temperature, 353 Oolitic strata, 305 Rainfall, 391 Suicide, 554, 809 Wind, 398 Opal, V. Jewellery, 338 Temperature, 395, 397 Taxes, 564, 811 Octroi in France, 362 Operatives, v. Occupations Nicholas, Czar, revenue, 266 Wealth, 819 Italy, &c., 564 Opera, Paris, 412, 567 Nicotine, 569 Norwegian, v. Anthrop., 62 Oddy on linens, 281 Ophthalmia, 200 Nieces, marriage with, 383 Norwich— Hailstorm, 390 ,, silks, 538 Opium in China, 154 Niger river, length, 515 Park, 437 ,, woollens, 603 ,, India, 56, 153, 228,631 Night, 419 Plague, 201 Odessa — Flour, 191 ,, revenue, 274, 566,708 Nightingale, u. Birds, 91 Population, 788 Population, 447, 788 ,, gravity, 311 INDEX 845 Oporto — Bridge, 99 Population, 448, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Oppenheim loans, Egypt, 272 Oran, Algeria— Farms, 40 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Orange river, 515 wine, 58 Oranges, v. Fruit, 302 Crops, 29, 51 Price in Mid. Ages, 483 , , G. Britain, 474 Orchards, G. Britain, 302 ,, France, 343 ,, U. States, 737 Orders, military, 435 ,, religious, 434 Ore, V. Mining , , per miner, 400 Oregon — Divorces, 225 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Orenburg, temperature, 395 Organs, 436 Organ Mts., railway, 510 Orinoco river, 515 Orissa famine, 699 Orizaba peak, height, 413 Orleans — Disease,' 199 Rainfall, 391 Orleanists, 244 Oroya railvi^ay, 499, 510 Orphans, v. Charities, 112 V. Insurance, 755 ,, French, 787 Oruro silver-mines, 406 Osaka, population, 456, 788 Ostend — Snow, 392 Passengers, 573 Ostrich farms, 54 ,, feathers, 151,436, 629 Ottawa — Death-rate, 184 Diseases, 216 Otters, V. Hunting, 319 Oude— Agriculture, 55, 631 Famine, 699 Population, 631 Vital statistics, 575 Ourang, v. Animals, 61 Ovariotomy, 556 Overcrowding, deaths, 177 „ in Germany, 316 ,, at Berlin, i85 atB.-Pesth,2i2,356 Overseers' wages, 580, 582 Ox, V. Animals, 61 ,, fodder for, 282 , , price in Mid. Ages, 470 Oxen, V. Cattle Oxford — Boat-race, 75 In Mid. Ages, 445 Library, 355 Rainfall, 391 Register, 781 Snow, 392 University, 233 Oxus river, 515, 588 Oxygen in air, 388 Oysters as food, 190, 192 , , price in 4th. cent. , 468 „ production, 277, 711 Ozokerit, mineral oil, 434 Ozone in the atmosphere, 388 Ozorio on Spain, 30 Pacific Ocean — Depth, 230 Rainfall, 390 Pacific-Canadian railway, 274 Padua — Rainfall, 391 University, 237 Paestum, temples, 812 Pagans, 800 ,, temples, 812 Pagliani on stature, 62 Paints, imports, 691 Painters, accid. deaths, 687 death-rates, 186, 686 ,, suieide, 552, 810 ,, intemperance, 692 ,, sickness, 806 wages, 579, 58S Paisley, death-rate, 182 Palembang,Dutch colony, 128 Palermo — Birth-rate, 92 Death-rate, 174 Diseases, 195, 205, 684 Education, 694 Earthquake, 230 Expenditure, 361, 765 Illegitimacy, 646 Lighting, 304, 762 Police, 441 Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 391 Sewers, 691 Temperature, 39s Trade, 529 Vital statistics, 816 Water supply, 818 Palliser shot, 66 Palm-tree, v. Forests, 298 ,, date-palms, 40, 436 Palm-oil, imports, 434 Palma island, area, &c. , 58 Palmer on Australia, 349 ,, shipbuilding, 525 Palmerston's Fortifica. , 300 ,, administration, 438 Palmyra, temple, 812 Pampas, Argentine, 49, 351 Cattle-farms, 630 Panama — Canal, 102 Sea routes, 217 Pandects, 354 Pantaleoni on wealth, 592 Panther, v. Animals, 61 V. Hunting, '319 Paper, 436, 786 Duties on, 173, 562 Exports, 137 Manufacture, 378, 421 Mills, wages, 579, 817 Price in Mid. Ages, 483 ,, G. Britain, 479 Paper money, 75, 407. 639 ,, V. Banks Pari — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Paraguay — Agriculture, 51 Commerce, 149 Diseases, 204 Missions, 434 Oranges, 302 Population, 788 River, 512 Tea, 566 War, 276, 518, 586 Paralysis, 200 ,, in Paris, 209 ,, in Canada, 216 Parani, rainfall, 391 Parcel post, 459 Paris — Barometer, 389 Birth-rate, 92, 816 Cabs, 100, 572, 649 Clearing-house, 642 Deaths, 174, 184, 816 Diseases, 193, 205, 684 Divorces, 218 Exchange, 77, 640 Exhibitions, 255 Finances, 361, 765 Fires, 276, 711 Food, 289 Foreigners, 249, 443 Paris — Fortifications, 300 Hospitals, 94, 113 Houses, 312, 315, 746 Illegitimacy, 646 Library, 355 Lighting, 304, 762 Markets, 767 Passengers, 438. 786, 814 Paupers, 439, 787 Police, 441 Population, 446, 788 Prices, 469, 483 Rainfall, 391 Rate of interest, 640 Sewage, 519, 691 Sickness, 535 Siege, 587 Snow, 392 Streets, 808 Suicide, 551 Telephones, 567, 812 Temperature, 395, 397 Theatres, 567, 813 University, 234 Vital statistics, 816 Water-supply, 588, 818 Parks, 437, 786 Parkes on alcohol, 58 Parliament, British, 412, 438 Parma — Cheese, 114 Cows, 173 Land-tax, 346, 352 Plague, 201 Rainfall, 391 Parr, centenarian, 356 Parrot, v. Birds, 61, 91 Parry's Arctic voyage, 397 Parsnips as food, 191 Parthenon, temple, 812 Partridge, v. Birds, 91 ,, price in 4th cent., 468 ,, ,, M. Ages, 483 ,, shooting, 319 Passages, quickest, 525 Passengers, 438, 649, 786 by rail, 498, 79S ,, killed, 797 ,, lost at sea, 526 ,, tramway, 814 Passports in Russia, 563 Pasteur's Institute, 199 Pasture, area under, 614 Patagonia — Area, 351 Rainfall, 390 Patagonian, v. Anthrop., 62 Patents, 438 Paternity, chances of, 646 Patna, population, 788 Patos Pass, Andes, 413 Patras, mineral springs, 567 Patronage, church, 116 Pan— Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Paul, Czar, revenue, 266 Paupers, 439, 786 ,, lunatic, 751 ,, pensions, 787 ,, rations, 192 Paving streets, 549 Pawn ofSces, 440 Pawnee, v. Anatomy, 60 ,, Indians, 323 Pay of armies, S79 Payn on food, 191 Peabody Buildings, 313 Births, 647 Deaths, 687 Occupants, 74s Peaches, v. Fruit, 301 , , price in M. Ages, 483 Pearl fisheries, 338 Pears, v. Fruit, 301 price in Mid. Ages, 483 Peas as food, 191 Peas, consumption, 302 ,, price in Mid. Ages, 48? Peat, carbon in, 120 ,, production, 303, 774 Pebrer on wealth, 589 ,, colonies, 659 Pedestrian feats, 75 Peel's administration, 438 Pekin — Earthquake, 230 Population, 456 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Pelham's finances, 262 Pelican, v. Birds, 91 Pellagra, disease, 200 Pembroke, tide, 568 Penal servitude, v. Crime Penguins, slaughter, 434 Peninsular war, 55s Pennsylvania — Agriculture,43 Banks, 642 Beer, go, 635 Canals, 105, 651 Cattle, 654 Coal, 120, 657 Debt, 364 Diseases, 200, 204 Divorces, 225 Houses, 318 Insurance, 756 Iron, 757 Levy (1776), 587 Manufactures, 380 Mining, y^^ Occupations, 433 PoptUation, 450, 454 Railways, 508 Revenue, 565 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Shipping, 532 « Strikes, 570 Taxes, 363 Temperatm-e, 396 Wages, 585 Pens, steel, 335 Pensions, tlnited States, 273 , , for paupers, 787 Penzance — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Tide, 568 Pepper — Imports, 691 Production, 440 Price in Mid. Ages, 483 ,, in G. Britain, 471 Perceval administration, 438 Perigord truffles, 573 Peritonitis, 200, 686 Perm, factories, 374 Pemambuco — Pop., 788 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Perpignan — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 397 Perry, alcohol in, 58 Persia — Army, 73 Commerce, 155 Money, 412 Railways, 512 Persian cat, v. Animals, 61 ,, water-wheels, 338 Perth, Scot., barometer, 773 Perth, W. Aus. — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Population, 455 Peru — Agriculture, 48 Area, &c., 4r4 Army, 73 Chinchona, 227 Coolies, 246 Cotton, 158 Gold and silver, 307, 739 Population, 788 Sugar, 550 B4(> INDEX Peru — Trade, 149 Pins, manufac, 441, 767, 787 Port entries, 522, 804 Potters, 421 Peruvian, v. Anthropom., 62 Pisa — Mineral springs, 567 Port wine, 58 , , accidental deaths, 687 Peshawur— Rainfall, 391 Rainfall, 391 Port Darwin, temperature, 395 death-rate, 686 Temperature, 395 Pitt's administration, 438 Port Elizabeth— Houses, 318 Poucet on marriages, 383 Pesth, V. Buda-Pesth ,, taxes, 560 Rainfall, 391 Poultry, 464 Peter's pence, 117 Pittsburg — Oil, 405, 434 Real estate, 595 ,, imports, 718 Peter the Great, revenue, 266 Population, 438, 788 Port Said, rainfall, 391 „ in U. States, 45 Petermann, IVft., height, 413 Rainfall, 391 Porter, alcohol in, 58 Poverty, suicide from, 55a Petrel, v. Birds, 61 Strikes, 808 as food, 191 Powder for cannon, 65 Petroleum gas, 304 Placards, 441 Porter, G. , on legacies, 354 Power, 464 lamp, 357 Plagues, 201 on population , 45 1 Power-looms, 159, 255 ,, oil-springs, 434 Plaice fishery, 258, 278 , , on wealth, 262, 590 Powerscourt plantations, 299 ,, exports, U. S. , 145 Planchon Pass, Andes, 413 Porters, sickness, 806 Prague — Bridge, 99 ,, ,, Russia, 663 Planets, 74 Portillo Pass, Andes, 413 Death-rate, 189 „ imports, G. Brit. Plants, 99 Porto Rico — Agriculture, 58 Divorces, 218 ,, price, 490 Plasterers' wages, 586 Area, &o., 127 Expenditure, 363, 765 ,, produc, 776, 78s Plate, silver, 310 Revenue, 709 Illegitimacy, 87, 646 ,, sea-borne, 130 Plater on Births, 93 Sugar, 550 Population, 443, 788 Petty on Ireland, 16 Platinum, qualities, 311, 388 Tobacco, 569 Rainfall, 391 ,, shipping, 531 Plato on marriage, 381 Portland'sadministration, 438 Temperature, 395 ,, wealth, 589 Playfair on life, 178 Ports, tonnage, 523 Universities, 236 Pheasant, v. Birds, 91 Plebiscites, 244 Portsmouth— Church att. , 513 Prater, Vienna, 438 , , price in 4th cent. , 468 Pleurisy, 211, 686 Death-rate, 174 Preece on electricity, 358, 458 „ M. Ages, 483 Plevna, siege of, 743 Houses, 744 Premiums, v. Insurance, 754 ,, shooting, 319 PlimsoU on ships, 524 Population, 445, 788 Presbyterians, 116, 513, 656 Pheidon's coins, 408 Pliny on longevity, 356 Sea routes, 217 ,, schl.-children,23a Philadelphia — Birth-rate, 92 Ploughmen, intemp. , 692 Tide, 568 Press, 464, 791 Death-rate, 174, 689 , , accid. deaths, 687 Wages, 581 Preston — Population, 78S Diseases, 197, 216 „ suicide, 810 Portugal — Ages and sexes, 1 Sewage, 519 Divorces, 225 Plums, V. Fruit, 302 Agriculture, 31, 621 Pretender's clans, 118 Exhibition, 255 Plumbers' wages, 579, 582 Area, &c., 414 Prices, early ages, 468 Expenditure, 361 Plunkett's co-oper. socs., 677 Army, 71, 637 ,, in Europe, 470, 792 Fires, 276 Plymouth — Pier, 226, 255 Banking, 80, 639 ,, ,, U. States, 488, 793 Houses, 313, 318, 746 Park, 437 Births, 577, 645, 815 Price-levels, 490, 794 Life-tables, 761 Population, 445 Cattle, 109, 653 Priests, v. Clergy, 116 Meteors, 390 Sea routes, 217 Church, 115 ,, death-rate, i8i Population, 443, 788 Winds, 398 Colonies, 127 Prince Edward Isld. , 46 Port entries, 805 Pneumonia, 202, 686 Commerce, 141, 665 Schools, 241 Rainfall, 391 ,, amonginfants, 685 Customs, 172, 704 Printers, accid. deaths, 687 Strikes, 808 Po — Length, &c., 104, 515 Deaths, S77. 683, S15 ,, death-rate, 200, 686 Trade, 533 Valley irrigation, 337 Diseases, 213 ,, intemperance, 692 Philip II., armada, 415 Poetical works, 465, 791 Education, 237, 693 „ suicide, 552, 810 ,, III., revenue, 268 Poison, deaths from, 182, 187 Emigration, 251, 695 ,, trade-union, 570, 814 Philippe on surgery, 556 „ suicide by, 552, 555 Finances, 268, 703 wages, S79. 817 Philippinelds. — Area,&c. ,127 Poitiers, rainfall, 391 Fisheries, 293 Printing in U. States, 378 Agriculture, 58 Poland— Agriculture, a6, 619 Food, 293, 726 Prison diet, 168 Commerce, 155 Births, 576 Forests, 735 ,, population, 163, 679 Phosphates, mineral, 15, 381 Coal, 122 Freights, 736 Probate retiyns, 354 Phthisis, 200, 684 Divorces, 218 Income, 747 Proctor on stars, 373 ,, among soldiers, 180 Manufactures, 374 Lands, 346 Productive energy, 698 Phylloxera, 19, 617 Population, 447 Marriages, 387, 577 Professions, learned, 421 Physicians, 387 Press, 466 Money, 411, 777 Professors, 232 „ as slaves, 540 Poles in Austria, 448 Navy, 418, 782 Property-taxes, 558, 811 deaths,i8i, 388,686 Police, U. Kingdom, 441, 763 Occupations, 431 Prostitutes, 93, 494 ,, pay, Mid.Ages,58i ,, India, 68 Population, 448, 787 Protection bounties, 494 span of life, 35S of cities, 787 Post-office, 461, 790 Protestants, IIJ, 512, 800 ,, suicide, 552 Policemen, height, &c. , 64 Railways, 505, 794 ,, missions, 777 Piano-makers' wages, 579 ,, suicide, 552 Religion, 513 suicide, 551, 554 Piastre, v. Coins, 780 Policies, -v. Insurance, 754 Shipping, 530, 8oi „ schl. children, 232 Picker (mill), wages, 580 Poll-tax, Russia, 266, 563 Steam-power, 548, 807 Provence, rainfall, 391 Pictures, 441 Polynesians, 62 Suicide, 551 Providence, U. S., pop., 788 Piecer (mill), wages, 580 Pondicherry, French col. , 126 Taxes, 564, 811 Prudhommes, 354 Piedmont — Agriculture, 621 Poole on manufactures, 369 Wealth, 589, 818 Prussia, v. Germany Consanguinity, 384 Poona — Population, 788 Portuguese in Brazil, 436 Public buildings, 313, 745 Death-rate, 688 Rainfall, 391 ,, slave-trade, 540 ,, lands, U.S., 347 Insanity, 329 Poor, V. Paupers, 439 Post-office, 456, 790 , , works, Algeria, 709 Instruction, 237 ,, relief, 361, 763 Postage stamps, 172, 682 ,, ,, Australia, 707 Land, 346 ,, infirmaries, 112, 743 Postal revenue, 260, 791 ,, ,, Austria, 703 Manufactures, 375 Poor's railway manual, 507 Potash, V, Nitre, 6gi ,, „ France, 265,701 Still births, 97 Popes, 117, 762 , , in blood, 60 ,, Italy, 268, 703 Pigs, V. Animals, 61 Poplar, V. Forests, 298 Potsdam — Garrison, 70 ,, Japan, 711 ,, V. Cattle, 109, 657 gravity, 311 Diseases, 195 „ U. King., 794 ,, imports, 717 Poppy-seed oil, 433 Rainfall, 391 Publicans, accid. deaths, 687 ,, price in Mid. Ages, 470 Popular banks, 543, 677 Potatoes as food, 191 ,, death-rate, 686 Pigeons, v. Birds, 61, 91 Population, 441, 787 ,, as fodder, 282 „ in banluruptcy, 644 ,, pricein 4th cent., 468 , , of cities, 443 ,788 ,, crops, 12, 287 ,, intemperance, 692 ,, ,, M. Ages, 470 Porcelain workers' wages, 581 ,, duties on, 173, 562 ,, suicide, 810 Pilchard fishery, 277 Pork, V. Meat, 284 „ imports, 717 Puebla, population, 455 Pilgrims, 438 ,, as food, 190, 192 „ price in Europe, 470 Puech on twins, 93 Pillar-boxes, 790 ,, price in 4th cent. , 468 ,, G.Brit., 476 Puerperal complaints, 202, 684 Pilot boats, 525 ,, ,, Europe, 470 „ U. S., 488 Pulsations, human, 60 Pine, V. Forests, 298 ,, ,, G. Britain, 476 ,, production, 463, 791 Pultowa— Rainfall, 391 ,, limit of growth, 99 U. States, 488 yield per acre, 9 Temperature, 395 ,, tenacity, 812 Porpoise, v. Animals, 60 Potosi mines, ■507, 406 Punjaub — Agriculture, 55, 631 INDEX 847 Punjauh— C-r.als, 106 Religion, 514 Vital statistics, 575 Pupils, V. Schools, 693 Pyramids of Egypt, 255, 412 Pyrenees, show-line, 392 Puy-de-D6me, height, 413 Quadruple births, 93, 647 Quakers, 116, 656 )> life-span, 495 Quartz, gold, 399, 739 ,, Siberia, 775 Quarries, British, 349, 774 U. States, 406 , , other countries, 402 Quarrymen, wages, 817 Quay walls, 226 Quebec— Death-rate, 174, 184 Diseases, 194, 216 Farms, 47, 627 Houses, 746 Population, 455 Schools, 241 Shipping, S34 Snow, 392 Wealth, 819 Queen's Bench, 354 ,, pay, M. Ages, 581 Queensland — Agriculture, 51 Banking, 82 Cattle, no v. Australia Quetelet on deaths, 185 ,, stature, 62 Quetta— Rainfe.ll, 391 Temperature, 395 Quicksilver, 495 ,, In Spain, 404 ,, in California, 405 Quickest passages, 525 ,, trains, 796 Quinine, v. Chinchona, 227 Quintuple births, 647 Quito — Barometer, 389 Earthquake, 230 Elevation, 230 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Rabbit, v. Animals, 61 ,, as food, rgo Rabbits and hares, 319, 495 ,, price in 4th cent., 468 ,, ,, M. Ages, 470 Rafieisen banks, 677 Rags. 437 Rails, steel, 334 , , per mile, 499 ,, price, 479 Railways, 495, 794 Accidents, 500, 797 Capital, 795 Construction, 502 Earnings, 496, 795 Gauge, 499 Killed on, 182, 500 Land grants, 347 Locomotives, 499, 795 Mileage, 495 Passengers, 498, 796 Porters, 570, 814 Season-tickets, 501 Speed, 498, 79(5 State, 796 Suicide on, 553 Tariffs, 498, 796 Traffic, 498, 79S Wages, 817 Rainfall, 390, 799 Raisins, v. Fruit, 303 ,, price, Europe, 470 , , , , G. Britain, 474 Rajpoot— Population, &c., 55 Rajpoot — Reservoir, 338 i Rangoon — Population, 788 ! Rainfall, 391 1 Rann on births, 93 Ransom, 512 Rape, V. Crime, 165, 167 Rapeseed oil, 433 Raspberries, v. Fruit, 302 Rat, V. Animals, 61 Rates, V. Local Taxes, 763 Rations, &j, 192 Raiisbon — Bridge, 99 Divorces, 218 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 Ravenstein on geography, 692 Reaumur's thermometer, 397 Reay on mortgages, 413 Rebellion in Cuba, 58 Receipt stamps, 560 Recidivistes, v. Crime, 166,679 Rectors, Anglican, 115 Red River, length, 105 Red Sea, depth, &c. , 230 Reference books, 822 Refrigerating meat, 283 Reformatories, 233, 799 U. States, 241 Other countries, 167, 170 Diseases in, 209 Regattas, 75 Regent's Park, 438 Registration taxes, 562, 564 Regulus, V. Copper Reid on gestation, 93 Reikjavik, rainfall, 391 Reindeer, v Animals, 62 „ for sleighs, 636 ,, in Norway, 33 Religion, 512, 799 Remarriage after divorce, 219 Rennes, hospital, in Rennie on friction, 737 ,, his bridge, 99 ,, his bre^water, 226 Rent, V. Living, 763 Reporters, 791 Reptiles, fossil, 305 Republicans, French, 244 Repudiation — Austria, 410 France, 264 Russia, 266 Spain, 268, 703 Turkey, 706 Reserve of banks, 77 Reserves, military, 636 Residents, v. Foreigners, 247 Resistance to traction, 515,813 Respiratory system, 60 ,, diseases, 206 Returned emigrants, 248 Reunion — Colony, 126 Leprosy, 199 V. Bourbon Revenue, v. Finance, 699 Rhea, Argentina, 436 Rheims — Rainfall, 391 Sewage, 519 Factories, 602 Population, 788 Rheumatism, 202, £86 Rhine — Floods, 282 Outflow, &c. , 515 Traffic, 104 Water, 588 Wines, 58 Rhode Island— Coal, 120 Dairies, 44 Divorces, 225 Insurance, 756 Levy (1776), 587 Population, 450, 454 Savings-banks, 87 Schools, 240 Rhode Id. — Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Rhone, outflow, &o. , 392, 515 ,, valley, rainfall, 391 Ribbons, manufacture, 514 Rice, 514 ,, as food, 191 ,, consumption, 286 „ crop, India, 631 „ duties on, 173, 559 ,, imports, 717 „ price in Mid. Ages, 482 ,, ,, Europe, 470 ,, ,, G. Britain, 471 ,, ,, U. States, 488 ,, seed per acre, 99 Richard, use of name, 781 Richardson's tunnels, 573 Richter on tetanus, 204 Rickard on mines, 407 Rifles, V. Arms, 65 Riga— Diseases, 194, 204 Population, 447, 788 Righi, railway, 499 Riks-bank, Sweden, 81 Rio Grande, colonies, 253 Rio Janeiro — Births, 92 Deaths, 174, 190 Diseases, 196, 206 Freight, 301 Hospital, in Population, 443, 788 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Suicide, 551 Temperature, 395, 397 Rio Negro, farms, 49 Ritti on suicide, 552 River Plate— Cattle, 108 Settlers, 246 V. Argentina Rivers, 515 ,, freight on, 736 Roads, 516, 800 ,, expenditm-e, 361 ,, freight on, 736 Rob Roy canoe, 106 Robbery, v. Crime, 162 Robert, use of name, 781 Roberts on stature, 64 Robin, V, Birds, 91 Robinson's finances, 262 Rochefort, oyster-beds, 279 Rochelle— Barometer, 389 Rainfall, 391 Rochester, U.S., pop. , 788 Rock-salt, 518 Rocky Mts., railway, 500 Roebling's bridges, 99 Roger, use of name, 781 Rohilcund, rainfall, 391 Rolling-stock, railway, 795 Roman aqueducts, 254 ,, empire, 441 ,, marriage-law, 381 ,, slaves, 540 Roman Catholics, 115,5x2,656 ,, sch. -children, 232 Rome — Barometer, 389 Births, 92, 816 Cabs, 649 Deaths, 174, 816 Diseases, 194, 205, 684 Education, 694 Elevation, 230 Expenditiu-e, 361, 765 Fires, 711 Hospitals, 114 Illegitimacy, 646 Insanity, 329 Lighting, 304, 762 Octroi, 363, 764 Police, 441. 787 Population, 444, 788 Rome — Press, 466 Prices, 469, 48s Rainfall, 391 Rate of interest, 640 Sewers, 691 Sickness, 535 Snow, 392 Streets, 808 Suicide, 551, 810 "Telephones, 567, 813 Temperature, 395 University, 237 Water-supply, 588, 818 Rook, V. Birds, 91 Rosario — Port entries, 534 Population, 788 Roschmann on houses, 317 Rosebridgt, colliery, 120, 400 Rosenberg on cholera, 195 Roses, price in 4th cent. , 468 Rosin, imports, 691 Rosse's telescope, 73 Roswag on prices, 468 Roth on cost of living, 360 Rothschild loans, 272 Rotterdam — Births, 92 Deaths, 174 Diseases, 205 Divorces, 218 Docks, 226 Illegitimacy, 646 Lighting, 245 Population, 444, 788 Rainfall, 391 Trade, 531 Tramways, 572 Roubaix, population, 788 Rouen — Alcohol, 544 Deaths, 174 Food, 289 Octroi, 362, 764 Population, 788 Quays, 226 Rainfall, 391 Roumania — ^Age and sex, 610 Agriculture, 37, 623 Area, &c., 414 Army, 72 Births, 578, 639, 815 Cattle, no Commerce, 145, 668 Deaths, 578, 815 Divorces, 218 Education, 239 Finances, 271, 705 Food, 295, 730 Forests, 37, 735 Freights, 736 Income, 747 Marriages, 578, 815 Population, 44 , 787 Post-office, 45 Railways, 507, 794 Taxes, 811 Wealth, 819 Roumelia, v. Bui aria Round towers, 412 Rowton's buildin s, 74S Royal Society, 64, 761 Royalties, mining, 774 Rudesheimer, wine, 598 Rue Rivoli, Paris, 313, 316 Rufus, King, revenue, 261 Rum, alcohol in, 58 ,, price, 471 Running, v. Aihletics, 74 Riural death-rates, 181 ,, marriage-rates, 385 ,, mortgages, 781 ,, population, 444 ,, sickness, rates, 536 ,, suicide, , 554 Russell administrat on, 438 Russia — Ages and sexes, 1,443 848 INDEX Russia — Agriculture, 24, 619 Area, &c. , 414 Army, 70, 637 Banking, 79, 639 Birtiis, 97, 645, 815 'Canals, 104, 651 Catt:e, 109, 653 Church, 117 Coal, 658 Commerce, 137, 663 Crime, 679 Customs, 172, 702 Deaths, 188, 576, 815 Diseases, 211 Divorces, 222, 691 Education, 235, 693 Emigration, 249, 695 Finances, 266, 702 Fisheries, 279, 711 Fotjd, 290, 723 Forests, 299, 735 Freights, 736 Houses, 316 Income, 747 Iron, 757 Lands, 344 Manufactures, 373, 766 Marriages, 387, 576, 768 Mining, 403, 739, 774 Money, 410, 777 Mortgages, 413, 781 Navy, 417, 782 Occupations, 429 Population, 447, 787 Post-office, 460, 790 Press, 466 Railways, 503, 794 Religion, 799 Serfs, 344, 541 Shipping, 528, 801 Steam-power, 547, 807 Sugar, 809 Suicide, 809 Taxes, 563, 810 Vital statistics, 815 Wealth, 818 Russian anatomy, 62 ,, calendar, loi ,, indemnity, 272, 706 ,, rations, 192 ,, wars, 586 Ruthenians, 448 Ruttell on births, 93 Rye as food, 191 „ crop, 8, Soi ,, price, 470 ,, production, v. Grain „ seed per acre, 99 ,, yield per acre, 9, 310 Sabi.e skins, v. Hunting, 319 Saccharine in beet, 91 Saddle, price in 4th cent., 468 Saddlers' wages, 582 Sadowa, battle 89, 587, 743 , , tetanus at, 204 Sago as food, 192 Sahara, date-palms, 436 Sail-cloth, price, 479 , , price-level, 492 Sailors, v. Seamen, 520 sickness, 805 St. Alban's, bicycling, 638 hospital, 555 St. Andrew's university, 233 St. Barth. hospital. 112, 555 St. Bernard, Mt. — Dogs, 61 Height, 413 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 395 St. Etienne — Colliery, 122 Food, 289 Lighting, 245 Population, 788 St. Etienne— Rainfall, 391 St. Gall — Elevation, 230 Temperature, 395 St. George's hospital, 555 St. Gothard — Barometer, 389 Pass, 413 Railway, 500 Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Tunnel, 255, 573 St. Helena — Area, &c. , 125 Death-rate, 184 Diseases, 194, 198 Elevation, 230 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Temperature, 395 St. John's, rainfall , 391 St. Lawrence — Bridge, 99 Navigation, 651 Outflow, &c. , 515 Trade, 106 St. Louis — Births, 92 Bridge, 99 Deaths, 174, 689 Divorces, 225 Expenditure, 361 Fires, 276 Freights, 736 Houses, 318, 746 Life-tables, 761 Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Temperature, 395 Water-supply, 5S8 St. Malo, tide, 568 St. Maur's life-tables, 357 St. Michael's oranges, 302 St. Nazaire — Docks, 226 Tide, 568 St. Paul, U. S., pop., 788 St. Paul's, London, 91, 412 St. Peter's, Rome, 91, 412,436 St. Petersburg — Births, 92, 96 Deaths, 174 Diseases, 193, 211 Exchange, yy Expenditure, 765 Fire-brigade, 277 Houses, 316 Illegitimacy, 646 Ice, 320 Interest, 640 Library, 355 Paupers, 439 Population, 444, 788 Press, 466 Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Suicide, 551 Telephones, 567 Temperatiu'e, 395, 397 University, 235 St. Thomas, Danish col., 128 Sea routes, 217 Portuguese colony, 127 St. Thomas's hospital, 112 St. Vincent's, sea routes, 217 St. Vin. de Paul, societies, 440 Sak6-beer in Japan, 57 Salamanca university, 237 Salder on births, 94 Salesmen, wages, 817 Saliferous stratum, 305 Salisbury ad ministrations, 438 ,, sanitation, 5x9 Salmon as food, 190 ,, fishery, 278, 712 Salonica, population, 788 Salptoiere, cholera, 196 Salt as food, 190 ,, constimption, 286 ,, price in Mid. Ages, 483 Salt, price in 19th cent., 479 ,, production, 517, 801 „ sea-borne, 130 ,, taxes, 274, 557, 708 Salt Lake — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Water, 517 Saltpetre, imports, 691 in gunpowder, 227 price, 47S Salzburg — Elevation, 230 Temperature, 396 San Francisc. , deaths, 174, 689 Diseases, 200 Divorces, 218, 225 Expenditure, 361 Fires, 276 Freight, 301 Hospital, in Houses, 746 Lighting, 304 Police, 441 Population, 788 Prices (1854), 470 Rainfall, 391 Sea routes, 217 Shipping, 528, 80s Temperature, 396 Trade, 533 Wages, 585 Water-supply, 588 San Jose, light, 245 San Juan — Farms, 50 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 Mmes, 407 San Leopoldo, Brazil, 253 San Luis — Farms, 50 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 Rainfall, 391 San Paulo — Population, 788 Railway, 500 San Salvador, agriculture, 48 Sandwich I. — Disease,i99,202 Railway, 512 Sugar, 550 Sanitation, 188, 519 Sanrikoff, North Pole, 699 Santa Cruz, disease, 200 Santa Ffe — Farms, 50 Colonists, 253 Finances, 275 Lands, 351 Santiago, ChiU — Fire, 277 Population, 455, 78S Ramfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Santo Domingo, rainfall, 391 Santo Spirito, hospital, 114 Saragossa, snow, 392 Sarah, use of name, 414 Saratov — Bridge, 99 Population, 447, 788 Temperature, 396 Sardines, 278, 712, 727 Sardinia — Agriculture, 29 Manufactures, 375, 539 Sardinia Island — Lands, 346 Land-tax, 352 Vineyards, 598 Saturday, suicide, 553 Sauerbeck, price-level, 491,794 Sausages in 4th century, 468 Saussure on horse-power, 546 Savannah — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Savings-banks, 86, 642 Saw-mills, Russia, 374 U. States, 735 Sawyers* wages, 579, 582 Saxony, v. Germany, Sbrojavacca on taxes, 352 ,, mortgages, 781 Scandinavia, coinage, 309 Scandinavians inU.S. ,250,451 Scarboro', tide, 568 Scarlatina, 202, 683 Schede on surgery, 556 Schenck on co-operation, 543 Schnabel on agricult., zo, 25 Schneider on births, 93 Schoeder on births, 93 School lands, 347 School taxes, 765 Schoolmasters, death-rate, 686 ,, suicide, 552 Schools, V. Education, 693 Schoppenhauer, Mt., ht., 413 Schottin on sweat, 60 Schubert on Russia, 160, 374 Schubler on soil, 305 Schultz-DMitsch Cos. , 543,677 Schwegel on births, 93 Sciatica, disease, 202, 213 Science, 520 Scotch coalfields, 121 ,, abroad, 254, 455 Scotchman, v, Anat., 60, 62 ,, V, Anthrop., 64 Scotland — Age and sex, 2, 60S Agriculture, 13, 616 Banking, 77, 640 Births, 94, 574, 647 Crime, 166, 679 Deaths, 182, 574, 683 Diseases, 194, 207 Divorces, 219 Education, 232, 693 Farm wages, 580 Fisheries, 278 Food, 286, 717 V. Great Britain Scott Russell on tramways, 571 Screwmakers' wages, 581 Scrofula, 202 Scudo, V. Coins, 780 Scurvy in navy, 203 ,, Russia, 211 Scutcher (mill), wages, 580 Sea, V. Ocean, 230 ,, drowned at, 524 ,, water, gravity, 311 Sea-borne merchan., 130, 57a Seafield plantations, 299 Seal-fishery, 278, 434 Seamen, 520 Death-rate, i8l Drowned, 524 Life-span, 356 Rations, 192 Rheumatism, 202 Sickness, 805 Wages, 581, 817 Seasons — Births, 94 Deaths, 183, 185 Temperature, 520 Seathwaite, rainfall, 390 Seaweed for charcoal, 303 Sebastopol — Rainfall, 391 Siege, 66 Snow, 392 Temperature, 396 Second marriages, 383 Secretary'spay, Mid. Ages, 581 Sedan, battle, 89, 743 i^eed clover, price, 475 ,, grain for, 296 ,, per acre, 14, 16, 23, 99 Seeds, number per bushel, 99 Seine, outflow, &c. , 392, 515 ,, and Loire canal, 103 Sejonoourt on longevity, 356 Selinus, temple, 812 Sell on journals, 792 Seminole Indians, 323 Semmering, railway, 500 Senegal — Area, &c., 126 INDEX 849 Senegal— Death-rate, 688 Diseases, 197, 209 Railways, 512 River, 515 September — Births, 92 Deaths, 176 Diseases, 194, 215 Duels, 692 Earthquakes, 692 Marriages, 38a Rainfall, 392 Suicide, 551 Temperature, 393 Wind, 398 Septim. bev^rus's army, 73 Sequin, v. Coins, 780 Serfs in Austria, 28 ,, in Bessarabia, 39 ,, in Russia, 267, 542 ,, taxes on, 266, 563 Sergeants' pay, 579 Seringapatam — Elevati'on,23o Temperature, 396 Seringueros of Amazon, 228 Serpent, v. Animals, 61 Serra Cubaton railway, 510 Servants killed, 182 ,, V. Occupations, 421 „ sickness, 806 ,, tax on, 560, 562 Servia — Agriculture, 38, 623 Area, &c. , 414 Army, 72 Banking, 82, 639 Births, 578, 64s, 81S Cattle, 109 Commerce, 130, 669 Crime, 680 Customs, 705 Deaths, 578, 815 Education, 239 Finances, 271, 705 Food, 295, 730 Forests. 38, 735 Income, 747 Marriages, 578, 815 Population, 442, 787 Post-office, 457 Railways, 794 Taxes, 565, 811 Wealth, 819 Service, military, 67 Settlers abroad, 246, 696 Severn — Pumps, 255 River, 515 Tunnel, 573 Water, 588 Seville — Oranges, 302 Population, 448, 788 Rainfall, 391 Silk fectories, 376 Temperature, 396 Sewage systems, 519. ^^ ,, of London, 364 Sewing-machines, 365 Sexes, 443 ,, and ages, 607 ,, of births, 92, 647 ,, of criminals, 163 ,, of suicides, 552 Shanghai — Diseases, 194, 204 Population, 456 Sea routes, 217 Silk exports, 540 Temperature, 396 Shannon, river, 515 Shark, v. Animals, 61 Sheep, v. Cattle, 108 Fodder for, 282 Gestation, &c. , 61 In Australia, 628 Price in Mid. Agjes, 470 ,, G. Britain, 475 Weight of, 15, 287 Sheep-runs, 350 Sheepskins in Mid. Ages, 483 Sheffield — Births, 92, 647 Church attendance, 513 Deaths, 174, 685 Expenditure, 361 Houses, 313, 744 Park, 437, 786 Population, 445, 788 Strikes, 570 Wages, 581 Shepherds' wages, 4th c. , 540 Sherry wine, 58 Shields— Tide, 568 Tonnage, 525, 804 Shipbuilders, 581, 584, 814 Shipbuilding, 526, 802 Ship-fever, 246 Shipping, 520, 801 Bounties on, 494 Earnings, 736 Hands, 520 Loss of, 524, 805 Value of, 590 Shirtmakers, 582 ,, wages, 817 Shoemakers, ac. deaths, 687 „ death-rate, 182, 686 ,, guild, 814 „ intemperance, 692 ,, phthisis, 2CO ,, sickness, 806 ,, suicide, 552, Sio wages, 579, 586, 817 Shoes, price in Mid. Ages, 483 ,, U. States, 488 ,, ,, 4th cent. ,468 Shoe-shops, fires in, 711 Shop-girb' wages, 582 Shop- mens* span of life, 356 Shops, England, 314 Shot, weight of, 65 Shots fired in war, 587 Shoulder, v. Surgery, 556 Siam — Pepper, 440 Rice crops, 514 Trade with, 154 Siberia — Area, &c., 414 Births, 576 Garrison, 71, 637 Goitre, 198 Meteorology, 773 Mines, 307, 403, 774 Population, 447 Prisoners, 169, 679 Religion, 777 Snow-line, 392 Sicily — Agriculture, 29, 621 Area, 759 Bank, 80 Consanguinity, 384 Death-rate, 175, 688 Insanity, 329 Instruction, 237 Land-taxes, 352 Land-tenure, 346 Oranges, 302 Sulphur, 555 Vineyards, 598 Sick rate of convicts, 536 „ operatives, 543, 806 , , soldiers, 69, 72, 805 Sickness, 805 ,, insur. against, 755 Sidewalks, cost of, 549 Siemen's electric light, 245 lamp, 357 steel, 335 Sienna — Plague, 201 Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Sierra Leone — Colony of, 125 Death-rate, 69, »8o Diseases, 201 Sierra Leone — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Trade, 152 Sight, e.\periments, 60 Silesia, mining, 404, 774 Silk, raw, production, 536, 8o5 ,, consumption, 366 ,, import, 134 ,, price, 471 Silk goods, produc. , 537, 766 ,, duties on, 565 , , consumption, 767 price, 479, 793 Silos, V. Ensilage, 15 Silver, v. Gold, 306 ,, in banks, 639 ,, law, U. States, 412 ,, price, 308, 640, 740 ,, production, 398, 776 ,, qualities, 3ir, 388 Simla— Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Simmonds on feathers, 436 ,, forests, 300 gloves, 305 „ ice, 320 ,, newspapers,46s oil, 434 sponges, 544 Simplon — Pass, 41J Rainfall, 391 Simpson's surgery, 556 Sims on horse-power, 546 Sinai, Mt. , height, 413 Singapore, 125, 154, 184 Crime, 171 Freight, 301 Money, 310, 778 Rainfall, 391 Schools, 243 Sea routes, 217 Tonnage, 534 Single persons, death-rate, 177 ,, women, children of Siout, Nile railway, 512 Sioux Indians, 323 Sisters of Charity, 113 Sitka, rainfall, 391 Sizer [mill), wages, 580 Skating, 75 Skilling, V. Coins, 780 Skulls, 60 Skunks, V. Hunting, 319 Skylark, v. Birds, 91 Slate quarries, 402 ,, wages, 817 Slates in Mid. Ages, 483 Slaters, death-rate, 686 ,, wages, 582 Slaves, 456, 540, 807 Slaughter of cattle, 15, 20, 284 Sleep, 60 Sleeping-cars, cost, 508 Sleigh, travelling by, 62, 636 Slivovitz plums, 624 Slovacs in Hungary, 448 Slums of London, 440, 685 Smallpox, 193, 683 ,, U. Kingdom, 687 Smeaton on horse-power, 546 Smith on horses, 743 Smiths, suicide, 552 „ wages, 579 Smithfield, prices, 481 Smugglers, 542 Smyrna— Agriculture, 39 Diseases, 195 Population, 444, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Snails, v. Animals, 61 „ price in 4th cent. , 468 Snake, v. Animals, 61 ,, V. Hunting, 319 Snow, 392 Snowdon, height, 413 Snuff, V. Tobacco, 569 Soap, consumption, 542, 737 ,, duties on, 173, 559 „ price, 479 Socialists, 695 Societies, friendly, 542 ,, learned, 520 Socks, price in 4tb cent. , 468 Soda, V. Alkali ,, in blood, 60 Soetbeer, Index-numbers, 491 ,, on gold, 306, 740 Soil, 305 Soldiers — Death-rate, 181 Invalided, 67, 805 Killed in battle, 818 Pay, 579 Phthisis, 201 Rations, 67, 192 Religion, 68 Sickness, 535, 805 Span of life, 355 Suicide, 552 Sole fishery, 278 ,, as food, 191 Solferino, battle, 89 Solomon Islands, 128 Solway, bridge, 99 Sorata, height of, 413 Sorghum in Japan, 57 Sorter (mill), wages, 580 Sound, 807 Sound dues, 270, 531 Soup kitchens, 113 S. Africa — Agriculture, 54, 629 Ages and sexes, 610 Banking, 82, 64r Cattle, no, 653 Commerce, 151, 676 Crime, 17T, 682 Diamonds, 338 Education, 242, 693 Finances, 275, 708 Forests, 54 Houses, 318 Immigration, 697 Land, 350 Mining, 406, 773 Railways, 512, 795 Shipping, 534 Wealth, 595 S. America — Armies, 73 Commerce, 149, 672 Cotton production, 156 Money, 778 S. Carolina— Divorces, 225 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Wealth, 594 Southampton— Entries, 525 Sea routes, 803 Shipping, 528, 804 Church attendance, 513 Southern Ocean, depth, 230 stars, 73 Southey on cats, 61 Spackmann on agriculture, 16 ,, capital, 107 Spain — Ages and sexes, i, 609 Agriculture, 30, 621 Area, &c., 414 Army, 71, 637 Banking. 80, 639 Births, 577, 815 Cattle, 109, 653 Church, 117 Coal, 658 Colonies. 127 Commerce, 140, 665 Crime, 163, 679 Customs, 172 Deaths, 189, 577, 815 3 H 85° INDEX Spain — Diseases, 213 Stag-hounds, 61 Strasburg — Snow, 392 education, 237, 693 Stamps, V. Postage, 172, 682 Temperature, 396 Emigration, 250, 696 Stamp-duties, 558, 700, 811 Straw as fodder, 282 Finances, 268, 703 Stanley on ivory, 62 „ crop, 16, 616 Food, 292, 725 Starch, in bread, 191 ,, price, 482 Forests, 30, 735 price of, 488 ,, production, 311 Freights, 736 Stars, 73 Strawberries, v. Fruit, 301 Houses, 317 State banks, U. States, 83 in U. State,s4S Income, 747 State railways — America, 509 Strebinski on forests, 299 Lands, 346 Europe, 502, 506, 796 , , Moujiks, 316, 360 Manufactures, 376, 766 India, 511 serfs, 344 Marriages, 577, 768, 815 Statistical Society, 545 Street lamps, 304, 763 Mining, 404, 773 Statues, 807 Streets, 808 Money, 411, 777 Stature, 62 ,, of Berlin, 549 Navy, 417, 782 Statute laws, 354 ,, London, 364 Occupations, 430, 784 Staymakers' wages, 582 Paris, 437, 549 Population, 448, 787 Steam-power, 545, 807 Strength, physical, 63, 549 Post-office, 460, 790 Steamboats, 522, 545 Strickland on Canada, 517 Press, 466 ,, V. Shipping, 801 Strikes, 570, 808 Railways, 504, 794 Stearine candles, 357 Stripper (mill), wages, 580 Religion, 512 Stebbins on agriculture, 41 Stroud, wages at, 581 Shipping, S30, 801 Stedman on Amer. war, 587 Students, university, 232 Steam-power, 548, 807 Steel, 334, 758, 773 Sturgeon fishery, 712 Suicide, 551, 809 „ gravity, 311 Stuttgart — Diseases, 205, 211 Taxes, 564, 810 ,, in Middle Ages, 483 Expenditure, 361 Wealth, 818 „ price, 479 Paupers, 440 Spallart on agriculture, 10, 39 ,, rails, 499 Police, 441 ,, banks, 76 ,, shipping, 335, 526 Population, 444, 788 „ capital, io5 Steel, Dr., on hospitals, 743 Ramfall, 391 coin, 778 Stein's laild reform, 344 Styria — Instruction, 236 „ flax, 280 Stephenson's bridges, 99 Land tenure, 345 „ food, 288, 290 tunnel, £73 Suakim, camel freight, 301 „ gold, 309 Sterility, divorces for, 222 Submarine temperature, 393 houses, 317 ,, in France, 94 ,, cables, 790 „ maize, 365 ,, of cousins, 383 Subsidies in Canada, 707 money, 407, 739 „ of either sex, 384 ,, mail, 791 ,, potatoes, 463, 791 ,, of prostitutes, 93 ,, agricultural, 809 ,, tobacco, 569, 813 Sternegg on Austria, 28 Succession duties, 354 „ wine-growing,597 Stettin — Diseases, 195, 204 Suckled infants, 178 Spaniard, v. Anatomy, 62 Population, 788 Suez — Canal, 102, 650 Span. America, v. S. America Trade, 528 Sea routes, 217 ,, mines,3o6, 777 Stevens invents ironclads, 418 Suffocation of infants, 685 Sparrow, k. Birds, 61, 91 Stevenson on agriculture, 16 Sugar, 549, 809 Sparta, population, 449 „ paper-mills, 437 As food, 191 grass, V. Esparto, 226 „ woollens, 602 Consumption, 286, 290 ,, marriage law, 381 Stewart diamond, 338 Crops, 626, 632 Specie, v. Gold, Bullion Still births, 93, 646 Duties, 173, 554, 562 ,, payments susp., 409 ,, in towns, 96 Imports, 287, 717 reserve, 75 Stiver, v. Coins, 780 In bread, 191 Speed, V. Velocity Stock Exchange, 106 Mills, 272 Spencer on cotton, 158 Stockholm— Births, 92 Price, Mid. Ages, 483 Sperm candles, 357 Deaths, 174 ,, 19th century, 470 Spinal disease, 687 Diseases, 195, 200 Refiners' wages, 581 Spindles, cotton, 157 Divorces, 218, 223 Sea-borne, 572 „ flax, 280 Expenditure, 361, 765 Suicide, 179, 551, 809 ,, woollen, Hospital, III ,, from drink, 229 ,, all kinds, 255 Illegitimacy, 646 ,, in England, 687, 810 Spinners, number, 160 Police, 441 ,, in London, 182, 553 wages, 580, 817 Population, 444, 788 Sulphur — Exports, Italy, 140 Spirits— Consumption, 544 Rainfall, 391 Imports, G. Brit., 555, 691 Duties on, 173, 559 Suicide, 551 In gunpowder, 227 Imports, 717 Telephones, 567 Production, 404, 775 Licences, 560 Temperature, 396 Qualities of, 311, 390 Price, 470 Stockport, viaduct, 99 Sultans, V. Kings, 340, 762 Production, 544 Stockton, railway, 500 ,, household, 705 Proof, 58 Stone, gravity, 311 Sumach, imports, 691 Spithead, review, 782, 807 ,, quarries, 406, 549 Sumatra — Area, 759 Splugen, rainfall, 391 ,, V. Calculus, 194 Pepper, 440 Spoon-fed children, 178 Stone-cutters, death-rate, 686 Rainfall, 391 Sponges, S44 , , intemperance, 692 Temperature, 396 Spring — Deaths, 175 ,, phthisis, 200 Trade, &c., 128 Rainfall, 390 „ suicide, 810 Summer — Deaths, 175 Season, 520 ,, wages, 582, 817 Rainfall, 390 Suicides, 552 Storms, 393, 398 Suicide, 552 Spruce tree, v. Forests, 298 Strahan on papers, 791 Temperature, 520 Squares, 545 Straits, v. Smgapore Sun and planets, 74 Squatters in Australia, 350 Strasburg — Barometer, 389 „ temples, 812 Java, 57 Diseases, 201, 205 Sunbeam, voyage, 605 S. Africa, 807 Fortifications, 300 Sunday, suicides, 553 Squirrel, v. Animals, 61 Garrison, 70 Sunderland — Bridge, 99 ,, Hunting, 319 Lighting, 245 Deaths, 174 Stabbing, v. Crime, 170 Paupers, 440 Park, 437 Stafford colliery, 121 Population, 788 Population, 788 ,, wages at, 581 Rainfall, 391 Shipping, 525, 528 Sunspots, 393 Sunstroke, 204 Superior, Lake, 340 Copper fields, 405 Sural, population, 788 Surgeons, death-rate, 181 ,, pay. Mid. Ages, 581 Surgery, 555 Surinam, temperature, 396 Surrey, farm wages, 580 Surveys, 305 Survival, v. Life, 356 Sussex, farm wages, 580 Sutor's gold discovery, 405 Sutton on sickness, 806 Swallow, V. Birds, 91 Swan, ,, 91 Swan lights, 245 Swank on iron, 337 Swansea coal, 120 Swatow, diseases, 198 Sweat', V. Anatomy, 60 Sweden — Age and sex, 4, ''09 Agriculture, 32, 622 Area, &c., 414 Army, 71, 637 Banking, 81, 639 Births, 95, 645,815 Canals, 105 Cattle, 109 Commerce, 141, 666 Crime,' 679 Customs, 172, 704 Deaths, 187, 577, B15 Diseases, 213 Divorces, 223, 690, 771 Education, 239 Emigration, 251 Finances, 269, 704 Fisheries, 279 Food, 293, 727 Forests, 300, 735 Freights, 736 Houses, 317 Income, 747 Iron, 336, 757 Lands, 346 Manufactiu'es, 377 Marriages, 386, 771, 815 Mining, 405, 773 Money, 410 Mortgages, 780 Navy, 418, 782 Occupations, 430, 784 Population, 448, 787 Post-office, 461, 790 Prices, 487 Railways, 505, 794 Religion, 513 Shipping, 530 Steam-power, 549, 807 Suicide, 554, 809 Taxes, 564 , 810 Wealth, 818 Swedes, v. Anthropometry, 62 Sweeps, V. Chim. -sweeps, 686 Sweeping of streets, 549 Swimming, 75 Switzerland — Ages, &c. , 4,609 Agriculture, 37, 623 Area, 414 Army, 72 Banking, 81, 639 Births, 578, 645, 815 Cattle, 109, 653 Commerce, 141, 668 Crime, 679 Customs, 70s Deaths, 578, 683, 815 Diseases, 215 Divorces, 224, 690, 770 Education, 239, 693 Emigration, 250, 6g6 Finances, 271, 705 INDEX 851 Switzerland — Food, 295, 729 Forests, 37, 735 Freights, 736 Income, 747 Lands, 346 Manufactures, 766 Marriages, 387, 770, 815 Money, 777 Occupations, 431, 784 Population, 449, 787 Post-office, 462, 790 Prices, 486 Railways, 507, 794 Religion, 799 Steam-power, 548, 807 Suicide, ^54, 809 Taxes, 8io, 8n Telephones, 812 Wealth, 818 Sycaanore, v. Forest, 298 Sydney — Coi.iage, 408 Fire-brigade, 245 Freight, 301 Houses, 312, 318, 746 Lighthouse, 245 Population, 455, 788 Port entr'es, 523, 534 Rainfall, 391 Saa routes, 217 Temperature, 396 Valuation, 746 Water-supply, 588 Syncope, deaths from, 687 Syphilis, 204, 687 oyracuse.U. S., saltworks, 519 Syria — Sponge fishery, 544 Tobacco, 569 Tabriz, population, 788 1 acna, railway, 510 Tagus river, 105, 515 Tahiti — Diseases, 202 Populat'ton, 126 Sea routes, 217 Tailors, v. Anatomy, 64 „ accidentaldeaths,687 „ dej th-rate, 686 ,, guild, 814 „ in U. King., 783 „ intemperance, 692 „ sielmess, 806 ,, si icide, 552, 810 wages, 579, 586, 817 Takao, population, 456 Tallow, 556, 810 ,, candles, 357 duties, 173, SS9 per carcase, 287 "^ price, 4th cent., 468 ,, 19th cent., 47S Tank of Dhebar, 338 Tanners, death-rate, 686 phthisis, 200 I, suicide, 552 _, wages, 579-586 Tanneries, Russian, 373 Tariffs, »• Customs Tartary, population, 447 Tartar, camels, 61 Tashkend, population, 788 Tasmania— Area, 759 Coal, 122 Phthisis, 201 V. Australia Taxes, 557. 7°°.. 8'° „ and eammgs, oil ,',' in Paris, 763 local, 360 I, rural, 16 Tay Bridge disaster, 393 ,, salmon, 278 TchiUik, farms, 39 Tchinkiang, population, 456 Tea as food, 191 Tea, consumption, 286, 812 cultivation, India, 631 duties, 175, 559 imports, 134, 287 price, 470 production, 566 Teachers, U. King. , 783 life-span, 355 pay, 583 ,, V. Education Team farming, cost, i6 Teamsters' wages, 583 Technical schools, 236, 809 Teetotallers, hfe-span, 229 Tegebolski on Russia, 336 Teheran, population, 788 Telegraphs, 457, 463, 790 Telegraph girls, 63 Telephones, 566, 812 Telescopes, 73 Telford's bridges, 99 ,, highways, 516 „ tunnel, 573 Temperance, z/. Teetotal., 229 ,, drinks, 634 Temperature, animal, 61 ,, K. Meteorology, 393, 773 Temples, 812 Tenacity, 335, 812 Tenants, ii. Land, 340 Teneriffe — Area, 58, 759 Peak, 413 Sea routes, 217 Temperature, 396 Tennessee — ^Agriculture, 42 Debt, 364 Divorces, 225 Forests, 735 Population, 454 Schools, 240 Slavery, 541 Temperature, 396 Tobacco, 813 Wages, 585 Terminable annuities, 262 Terra del Fuego, area, 759 Tertiary formation, 305 Texas — ^Agriculture, 42 Cattle, 654 Divorces, 225 Forests, 735 Occupations, 433 Population, 454 Railways, 508 Rainfall, 391 River, 105 Schools, 240 Temperature, 396 Wages, 585 Textiles, v. Manufac. , 366, 766 ,, operatives, 783 ,, wages, 817 Textor on surgery, 556 Thames — Embankment, 255 River, 515 Tunnels, 573, 699 Water, 588 Theatres, 567, 813 ,, atmosphere of, 388 ,, tax on, 440 Thebes — Artesian wells, 588 Population, 444 Theological works, 465, 791 Thermal springs, 567 Thermometer, 397, 773 Thessaly, population, 449 Thigh, V. Surgery, 555 Thomas, use of name, 414 Thiasymene, battle, 89 Thread, price in M. Ages, 483 Throstler (mill), wages, 582 Thrush, v. Birds, 91 deaths from, 687 Thunder, 393 Thursday, suicides, 553 Tiber river, 104, 515 Tiberius on marriage, 381 Ticino — Canal, 104 Rainfall, 391 Tickets of leave, 166 Tides, 568 Tientsin, population, 456 Tiflis — Railway, 499 Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Tigers, w. Hunting, 319 Tiles, price in Mid. Ages, 483 Tillo on oceans, 230 Timber, v. Forests, 297, 735 ,, imports, 134 price, 471 ,, sea-borne, 572 ,, trade, Russia, 651 Timbuctoo, camels, 61 Time, 568 Timor, area, &a, 127 Tin, V. Mining, 398, 813 ,, price, 471, 484 „ production, 366, 568, 773 ,, qualities, 311, 388 Tinsmiths, wages, 579, 586 Tisserand on taxes, 351 Tithes, IIS Tobacco crop, 568, 813 duties, 175, 557 ,, Havanna, 58 ,, Manilla, 155 ,, price, 470 ,, U.S., 42, 146, 626 Tobacconists, phthisis, 200 Tobolsk, temperature, 396 Todd on Ireland, 342 Tokay wine, 58, 598 Tokio— Banks, 84 Earthquakes, 692 Population, 456, 788 Toledo swords, 376 Tolls, V. Local Taxes, 763 Tolosan on Manufac. ,281, 371 Tomatoes, v, Fnjit, 302 Tonquin — ^Area, &c., 126 Deaths, 210, 688 Tooke on prices, 471 ,, preciousmetals,307 Toothpicks, American, 300 Topinard on stature, 62 Toronto— Deaths, 184 Diseases, 216 Houses, 313, 318 Population, 788 Torpedo boats, 415, 782 Tortoise-shell, 62 Toulon — Diseases, 195 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Tide, 568 Toulouse — Flood, 282 Hospital, III Population, 445, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 397 Tom-s, rainfall, 391 Toys, 570 Traction, 515, 813 Trade, v. Commerce, 128 ,, works on, 791 Trade unions, 570, 813 Tradesmen'sexpend. , 359, 763 „ wages, 579 Trafalgar gtms, 65, 416 Trains, v. Railways ,, speed of, 796 Tramways, 571, 814 ,, horses on, 312 Transport, 572 Transvaal — Finances, 711 Gold, 406, 739, 777 Transylvania — Forests, 299 Lands, 345 Travancore, religion, 514 Travels, books of, 791 Travellers, 573 ,, commercial, 687 Treasure trove, loi Treasury notes, 410, 780 ,, report, 779 Tredgold on horse-power, 546 Trees, v. Forests, 298 Trekshuits in Holland, 105 Trelat's surgery, 556 Triassic formation, 305 Tribonian's pandects, 354 Tricycling, 74 Trieste — Diseases, 684 Expenditure, 361 Harbour, 226 Illegitimacy, 646 Lighting, 762 Police, 441 Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Shipping, 523 Snow, 392 Temperatiu'e, 396 Vital statistics, 816 Trinidad — ^Agriculture, 57 Area, 759 Commerce, 152 Coolies, 246 Death-rates, 180, 184 Diseases, 201 Land, 350 Rainfall, 391 Revenue, 709 Slaves, 541 Tripe as food, 190 Triplets at birth, 93, 647 Tripoli — ^Area, &c., 450 Ostrich feathers, 436 Trout as food, 192 Troyes, peat, 303 Trucks, railway, 795 Truffles as food, 191 ,, production, 573 Truro, rainfall, 391 Tubingen — Rainfall, 391 University, 235 Tucker on income, 322 ,, ,, population, 450 Tucuman — Farms, 50 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Tuesday, suicides, 553 Tuke on insanity, 751 Tula, hardware, 336, 374 Tulips, 573 Tumour, deaths from, 687 Tunic, price in 4th cent., 468 Tunis — Area, &c., 126 Date-palms, 436 Population, 444, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Tunnels, 573 Tiu-bot as food, 190 ,, fishery, 278 Turcos, death-rate, 180 Turf, V. Peat, 303 Turin— Births, 92, 816 Deaths, 174, 816 . Diseases, 194, 205, 684 Expenditure, 361, 765 Food, 285 Hospital, III Illegitimacy, 646 Instruction, 237, 694 Lighting, 304, 762 Police, 441, 787 Population, 444, 788 Press, 466 Rainfall, 391 852 INDEX Turin— Snow, 392 U. States— Manufac, 378, 766 Vandenbosch, coffee, 57 Vienna — Hotels, 312 Streets, 808 Mining, 405, 775 Vansittart's finances, 262 Houses, 312, 317, 745 Suicide, 554 Money, 411, 780 Vargentin's life-tables, 357 Illegitimacy, 646 Temperature, 396 Navy, 418, 782 Varnishers, deaths, 186, 211 Library, 355 Turkestan, births, &C., 576 Occupations, 432, 784 Veal as food, 191 Lighting, 304, 762 Turkey as food, 191 Population, 450, 789 ,, price, 483, 488 Manufactures, 375 Ttu-key — Agriculture, 38 Post-office, 462, 790 Vegetables, 191, 302 Marriages, 382, 386 Army, 72 Press, 467, 792 Vegetation, limits, 99 Park, 438 Commerce, 145, 670 Prices, 488, 792 Vehicles, v. Cabs, 100 Paupers, 439 Finances, 271, 705 Railways, 507, 797 ,, killedby, ici, 182, 189 Police, 441 Navy, 418 Religion, 313, 799 Velocity of birds, 91 Population, 448, 788 Population, 450 Shipping, 532, 801 light, 3S7 Rainfall, 391 Taxes, 39 Steam-power, 549, 807 ,, railways, 498, 796 Rate of interest, 640 Tobacco, 569 Suicide, 555, 8io shipping,'s2S, 803 Snow, 392 Wars, 70, 267, 586, 70s Taxes, 565, 8io ,, winds, 398 Streets, 808 Turkeys, v. Birds, 61, 91 Wealth, 593, 819 Venereal diseases, 204, 216 Suicide, 551 Turners' wages, 579, 583 Universities, 232 Venezuela — Agriculture, 48 Telephones, 567, 811 Turnips as fodder, 282, 614 Unmarried population, 383 Area, &c., 414 Temperature, 396 „ as food, 191 suicides, 553 Army, 73 University, 236 ,, crops, 14, 616 Unvaccinated, deaths, 203 Commerce, 149, 672 Water supply, 818 ,, in 4th cent. , 468 Unwashed wool, S99 Copper, 156 Vine, largest, 598 Turpentine, gravity, 311 Upsala — Diseases, 202 Population, 788 ,, limit, 99 ,, imports, 691 Rainfall, 390 Railways, 512 Vinegar, price, 488 Turquand on fecundity, 648 Snow, 392 Venice — Births, 92, 816 Vineyards, S97 Turtle, 62 Temperature, 396 Consanguinity, 384 Vintage of France, 721 Twinemakers' wages, 581, 583 University, 239, 389 Deaths, 174, 816 Violent deaths, 178, 206 Twins, 93, 647 Ural mines, 403 Diseases, 200, 205, 684 Violins, 172 Tycho Brahe on stars, 73 Uranus, planet, 74 Expenditure, 361, 765 Virginia— Agriculture, 43 Typhoid fever, 205, 683 Urban — Death-rates, 181 Hospital, III Caneils, 105 ,, in England, 687 Marriages, 385 Illegitimacy, 646 Coal, 122, 657 ,, in war, 587 Mortgages, 781 Insanity, 329 Debt, 364 Typhus, deaths from, 205, 216 Population, 444, 787 Instruction, 237, 694 Divorces, 225 ,, in England, 687 Sick-rates, 536 Lighting, 762 Levy, 587 ,, epidemics, 388 Suicide, 554 Manufactures, 375 Mining, 776 Tyre, population, 444 Urine, nature of, 61, 311 Police, 441 Population, 450, 454 Tyrol — Forests, 299 Uruguay — Agricult., 50, 630 Population, 444, 788 Saltworks, 519 Instruction, 236 Area, &c. , 414 Rainfall, 391 Schools, 240 Land, 345 Births, 578 Temperature, 396 Slavery, 541 Cattle, SI, 6S3 Trade, 529 Temperature, 396 Udine— Prices at, 485 Commerce, 149, 672 Venison as food, 191 Tobacco, 569, 813 Rainfall, 391 Deaths, 578 ,, in 4th century, 468 Wages, 585 Uhlans, stature, 67 Finances, 276, 710 Venus, temple, 812 Viscounts, V. Nobles, 419 Ulea, salmon fishery, 278 Food, 734 Vera Cruz — Deaths, 174 Visiting cards, iron, 334 Ulm— Phthisis, 200 Houses, 319 Rainfall, 391 Vistula, outflow, &c., 5x5 Rainfall, 391 Immigration, 254 Temperature, 396 Vital statistics, 574 Unclaimed dividends, 262 Marriages, 578 Yellow fever, 203 Viviers, rainfall, 391 Uncles, marriage of, 383 Population, 788 Vermont — Dairies, 42 Vladimir, factories, 374 Uncoined bulUon, 310 Railways, %\o Divorces, 225 Volga — Bridge, 99 Uncovered notes, 777 Uses of coal, 121 Land, 348 Navigation, 104 Underground railway,438, 508 „ iron, 33S Population, 450, 454 - River, 515 Unfunded debt, 262 ,, timber, 298 Schools, 240 Vologda — Phthisis, 200 Union Pacific Railway, 500 Useless classes, 421 Temperature, 396 Temperature, 396 Unit of food, 713 Uspallata Pass, Andes, 413 Wages, 585 Volunteers, 68, 636 „ cattle, 614 ,, railway, 300 Verona — Bridge, 99 Von Decken on mines, 402 U. Kingdom, v. G.-Britain Usury law, 76 Prices, 485 Von Pesch, life-tables, 357 U. States — Ages, sexes, 5, 608 Utah— Artesian wells, 638 Rainfall, 391 Vosges, rainfall, 391 Agriculture, 41, 624 Divorces, 225 Vesuvius — Elevation, 413 Voss on phosphates, 15 Area, 414 Mining, 776 Railway, 498 Voters, 243 Army, 73 Population, 454 Vetches, crop, 14 Voyages, v. Ships, 804 Banking, 82, 642 Rainfall, 391 Vetterli rifles, 65 Births, 64s Temperature, 396 Vevay — Elevation, 230 Wade's roads, 516 Canals, 105, 631 Utliberg, railway, 499 Rainfall, 391 Wadlin on strikes, 570 Cattle, 44, 654 Utrecht, rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 wages, 584 Church, 116, 656 Viaducts, 99 Wages, 579, 817 Coal, 122, 657 Vaccination, 204 Vicars, Anglican, 115 ,, strikes for, 808 Coinmerce, 146, 670 Vacher on wealth, 592 Vicenza, rainfall, 391 Waggons, railway, 499 Crime, 171, 681 Vacouf farms, Turkey, 39 Vicksburg, march to, 73 00 1 J ' -wy^ Waggoners, 736 Customs, 172, 706 Valdivia — Rainfall, 391 Victoria, v. Australia „ span of life, 3SS Deaths, 190, 689 Temperature, 396 bridge, 99 ,, wages, 817 Diseases, 215 Valence, rainfall, 391 Victorian coinage, 408 Wagner on population, 441 Divorces, 224 Valencia — Irrigation, 237 ,, commerce, 131 Wagram, battle, 89 Education, 239, 694 Plague, 20I shipping, 524 Wakefield lunatic asylum, 751 Finances, 272, 706 Population, 448, 788 Viebahn on Germany, 24 Wales, farm wages, 580 Fisheries, 280, 712 Valenciennes, colliery, 122 Vienna — Births, 92, 816 ,, water project, 818 Food, 29s, 731 Valets, death-rate, iSi Cabs, 649 Walford on famines, 256 Forests, 300, 735 Valleix on neuralgia, 200 Deaths, 174, 189, 816 Walking, 74 Freights, 736 Valonia, 39, 6gi Diseases, 193, 205, 684 Wall of China, 412 Gold and silver, 306, 739 Valparaiso— Deaths, 174 Divorces, 218, 222 Wallacks, 448 Houses, 317, 745 Diseases, 197, 202 Exchange, 77 Walnut, limit of, 99 Immigration, 251, 697 Population, 445, 788 Exhibition, 255 tree, v. Forests, 298 Income, 748 Rainfall, 391 Expenditure, 361, 763 Walnuts, oil from, 433 Insurance, 756 Sea routes, 217 Fires, 276, 711 ,, pricein4thcent.,4S8 Iron, 758 Temperature, 396 Food, 285 Walpole's finances, 26a Lands, 347 Vancouver, snow, 392 Hospitals, 94, III Walter, name of, 781 INDEX 853 Wappaeus on age, i ., life, 176 Ware on finances, 263 Warehouses at ports, 226 Wars, s86, 8i8 Warper (mill), wages, 580 Warsaw— Expenditure, 765 Population, 444, 788 Snow, 392 Temperature, 396 University, 235 Warwick— Sanitation, siQ Wages, 580 Washed wool, 599 Washington City— Water,s88 Deaths, 689 Divorces, 225 Expenditure, 763 Population, 788 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Wash. State — Indians, 323 Forests, 735 Lands, 347 Mining, 776 Population, 454 Temperature, 396 Waste in cooking, 191 ,, in spinning, 159 , , of labour, 613, 623 Waste lands, 342 Watches, Swiss, 378 Watchmakers, death-rate, 686 ,, phthisis, 200 ,, suicide, 552 Water, 588, 818 ,, evaporation, 303 ,, for locomotives, 498 ,, in food, 191 supply, 364, 588 Waterford— Tide, 568 Houses, 744 Waterloo — Battle, 89, 743 Bridge, 100, 438 Surgery, 555 V. Sound, 807 Waterworks, Australian, 273 Watt on horse-power, 546 Wax, V. Bees, 90 ,, in Middle Ages, 483 Wealth of nations, 580, 818 Wear of coin, 310 Weaver, viaduct, 100 Weavers, cotton, 160 ,, guild, 8r4 ,, phthisis, 200 ,, suicide, 552 ,, wages, 580, 817 Webb, V. Swimming, 75 Wednesday, suicides, 553 Weight of men, 62 Weights and measures, 595 Weimar, divorces, 221 Welland, canal, 106, 651 Wellington, N.Z.— Pop., 455 Rainfall, 391 Wellington's army, 69 ,, monument, 412 ,, wars, 586 Wells on ovariotomy, c,tf> Wells, artesian, 588, 638 ,, oil, 434 Welsh coal, 120 „ colony, 253 Welsh, V. Anthropometry, 64 Wenner, Lake, 340 Wenzel on companies, 107 Werchojansk, temp., 773 Weser, navigation, 104 Wesleyan schools, 693 West Africa, 125 West Australia, v. Australia West Indies — Agriculture, 632 Coffee, 123 Commerce, 152, 659 Death-rate, 69 Finances, 275 Port entries, 534 Rainfall, 390 Railways, 512 Sponge fishery, 544 Wealth, 659 Westminster, bridge, 100 Weston-super-Mare, tide, 568 Westphalia, coal, 120 Westport, tide, 568 Wetter, Lake, 340 Whale fisheries, 278, 434 ,, V. Animals, 61 WhamclifFe, viaduct, 100 Wheat — As food, 191 Consumption, 713 Crops, 8, 283, 613 ,, U. King., 17, 616 ,, U. States, 41, 626 ,, Canada, 820 Exports, Russia, 138, 723 U. States, 731 Imports, G. Britain, 716 Price, B.e., 468 ,, Mid. Ages, 470 ,, 19th century, 481 Seed, per acre, 99 Value of crop, 10 Yield for seed, 597 ,, per acre, 9, 310, 614 Wheelwright, railways, 510 Wheelwrights, wages, 583,586 Whipping in India, 171 Whisky, alcohol, 58 ,, V, Spirits, 544 White on plagues, 205 wrages, 579 Whitehaven, tide, 568 Whitney's cotton gin, 159 Whittaker on debt, 262 Whitworth guns, 66 Whooping cough, 205, 683 Widows, insurance, 755 ,, marriage, 382 ,, number of, 768 ,, suicide, 553, 810 Widowers and widows, 768 Wieliczka, salt-mines, 518 Wiesbaden, min. springs, 567 Wild beasts, v. Hunting, 319 ,, fowl as food, 192 Wildbad, min. springs, 567 Wilde on sickness, 535 William, kings— Coinage, 408 Revenue, 261 Taxes, 561 Trade, 131 Wars, 586 William, name of, 414 Wilmington— Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 Wihia, population, 788 Wind, 397, 773 Winder (mill), wages, 580 Windermere, rainfall, 391 Windmills, 597 Windows, 315 ,, tax on, 561 Windsor Castle, 312 Wine — As food, 191 Consumption, 289 Duties, 173, 559 Exports, 140, 292 Imports, 287, 717 Price, 4th century, 468 ,, 19th century, 470 Production, 597 Qualities, 58, 311 Sea-borne, 130 Wine merchants, deaths, i8i Wings of bees, 91 Winnipeg — Deaths, 184 Diseases, 216 Snow, 392 Winter— Deaths, 175 Rainfall, 390 Suicide, 552 ■Temperature, 520 Wire, price, 479 Wires, v. Telegraphs, 457 Wisconsin — Agriculture, 42 Beer, 90 Diseases, 200 Divorces, 223 Indians, 323 Instruction, 240 Land, 348 Population, 454 Railways, 508 Temperature, 396 Wages, sss Wives, death-rate, ,, suicide, 553, 810 ,, V. Marriage, 381 Woerth, battle, 587 Wolfe's expedition, 586 Wolfshugel on typhoid, 205 Wolovvski on wesilth, 592 Wolverhampton — Park, 437 Wages, 581 Wolves, V. Animals, 61 ,, V. Hunting, 319 Wood, carbon in, 120 ,, gas from, 304 ,, pavement, 549 ,, police, 299 ,, pulp, 691, 786 Woodcock, V. Birds, 61 ,, V. Hunting, 319 Wool, 820 ,, Australian, 150, 628 ,, consumption, 366 ,, duties, 173, S59 ,, imports, 134 „ price. Mid. Ages, 483 ,, ,, 19th century, 471 „ River Plate, 149, 630 ,, sea-borne, 130, 572 Woollens, duties on, 565 „ exports, 134 ,, manufactures, 601,766 ,, mill-wages, 580, 817 Woolspinners, death-rate, 686 Woolwich, infants, 66 Work, 606 Workhouse rations, 192 Working exp. , railways, 499 Workmen, dwellings, 313, 687 ,, food, 358, 763 ,, sickness, 536 „ wages, 321 Worsted goods, price, 479 Wrangel, Mt., elevation, 413 Wreck list, Lloyd's, 524, 805 Wrede on meteorology, 773 Wren, v. Birds, 91 Wright on divorce, 218 ,, wages, 584, 817 Write, able to, 231, 693 Wurtemberg, v. Germany Wurzburg — Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 University, 235 Wuzerabad, bridge, 99 Wyoming, population, 454 XeKes, sherry, 598 Xerxes, army of, 73 Yablochkoff, lights, 245 Yachts, 60s, 821 Yakutsk — Rainfall, 391 Snow, 392 Temperature, 396, 773 Yam as food, 191 Yangtse-Kiang river, 515 Yarkand, temperature, 396 Yarmouth, shipping, 523 Yam, exports, 605, 821 ,, price, 479, 606 „ production, 158 Yeast, imports, 691 Yeddo— Earthquakes,230,69a V, Tokio Yellow fever, 205 Yeomanry, 68 Yerba, Paraguayan, 51 Yokohama — Diseases, 198, 202 Population, 788 Port entries, 535 Rainfall, 391 Temperature, 396 York— Farm wages, 580 Park, 786 Rainfall, 391 Young, A. , on agriculture, 14 ,, Ireland, 342 ,, roads, 516 ,, wages, 579 Young, E. , on wages, 580, 586 Zanzibar — Disease, 197, 20a V. Mozambique, 127 Zeeland, phthisis, 200 Zegedin — Flood, 282 Pumps, 25s Zehden on coalfields, 658 Zinc, V. Mining, 400 ,, manufactures, 606 „ production, 773, 821 Zollverein, trade, 137 Zouaves, death-rate, 70, 180 Zulu, V. Anatomy, 60 Zurich — Deaths, 174 Diseases, 194 Elevation, 230 Population, 788 University, 239 Zuyder Zee, project, 699 Zymotic diseases, 206, 687 ^.JH.II.ffi. Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson &• Co. Edinburgh &* London